. / ARTS K SCIENCES upwards of ISOdeg-am I'll i CAIIKI.P1IIA . , ACOUSTICS' ATO.M 1 , Artnift .*.-. ,\ .v AT D.M V, /"//, // /'/./A- IV. <^S *W\ . .1 ' h./ . : Ji AHATDD1Y, *** ,* .?7-iin I .M. \.M.M. \ //./ / \nli-|<>|t<- ..//./../'.>/-,.>. .////*. .1 ,i>it. /,//. //,/ .' .\ /;,./ v In.li.n, till. /, /, /'/./ '.'. II lilt. .////,/. f> /i. [I \ i. mi //,/ i //, i-/;>f.irtt fft/.ii.l/,/'/f///ftt. s / . _/v/#,,//. I'l.l ri ii .-....--.- -.-.-.' --;- ; .- ..I.- - .-.-.-'- -..- - -. . . 'Sff /// //< . '/* /////// // , / /// _ ^ -//// Ore \\ m m m m rn rn ;-R rn jn M3 n 1 JKJJOUMUJBUiUW ; t \ h mi i n ] 1 1 ^ jt'At^'AWA'A'j&r AJLJIJIJIJI U Ul ill Ul Ui ni m m m HI m m in AMERICAN EDITION OF THE BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA, OR DICTIONARY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. COMPRISING AN ACCURATE AND POPULAR VIEW OF THE PRESENT IMPROVED STATE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. BY WILLIJLM JVICH0LS0JV, Author and Proprietor of the Philosophical Journal, ind various other Chemical, Philosophical, ai' Mathematical Works. ILLUSTRATED WITH UPWARDS OF 180 ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. VOL.1. A... .ARE. PHILADELPHIA : PUBLISHED BY MITCHELL, AMES, AND WHITE W Brown, Printer, Prune Street. 1818. PREPACK. J. HE experience of more than a century has eminently proved the advantages of such works as exhibit, under an alphabetical arrangement, the complete circle of human knowledge. Dictionaries of language, of general terms. and of particular branches of science and art, have been multiplied by the labours of men fully qualified to display the subjects they have undertaken to discuss ; and the iirst characters in the various nations of Europe have been proud to rank their names and unite their exertions in the production of immense works, containing every subject which can engage the intellectual research or ac- tive occupation of man. The order of the alphabet has been so skilfully combined with that order which is in- dicated by the natural relations of the materials, that works of this description have been received with the most striking approbation ; and, notwithstanding the i;ivat labour and expense required to keep pace with the rapid improvements and discoveries of modem times. the number of Dictionaries of all descriptions have been so great, that it would be difficult, and perhaps useless. even to name them, and point out their respective merits. From the great Encyclopedia*, each of which may be said to constitute an entire library , to those smaller com- positions intended for mere reference : from the hurried compilations of book-makers to those elaborate and lu- minous works iu which men of the highest reputation ft PREFACE. have recorded their comprehensive views, and their most striking discoveries, it is not difficult to observe and de- duce the distinct and separate utilities of each, and the duties to be expected from the editors and proprietors of such undertakings. Among the most obvious of these it is indispensable that a new work should be called for, by circumstances which point out advantages of size, plan, and materials, not before adopted, and that the means to be employed, in the actual performance, should be such as must determine its worth and authority with every description of readers. We are already in possession of the large Cyclopedia of Dr. REES, which has advanced to its twelfth volume, by a progress that insures its regular completion, and in a style of execution which is truly honourable to the skill and diligence of those who have undertaken it ; to the activity and enterprize of the proprietors, and to a nation which has ever taken the lead in science and the arts. On the smaller Dictionaries it is needless to en- large. After various deliberate consultations between the Proprietors, the Editor, and the principal gentle- men engaged in the different departments, it was con- cluded, that a new Dictionary, appropriated exclusively to the Arts and Sciences, and containing a dense, ac- curate, and ample exhibition of our whole knowledge respecting them, might with the greatest advantage be comprehended in the limits of six large octavo volumes. It was accordingly decided, that the undertaking should be entered upon with vigour and activity, at the same time that the utmost attention should be paid to the means by which alone it was possible to insure the value of the intended work. The year preceding its appear- PREFACE. V ance was employed in digesting the plan, establishing correspondences, investigating the various sources of information, and settling the order and disposition of the materials ; and it was not until after those materials were in considerable forwardness, and the whole ar- rangement was before the Editor, that the Proprietors thought themselves enabled to disclose their views, and express their confidence in the public support. If the value of a composition of the magnitude and extent of the British Encyclopedia could be seen at once by a cursory or even by a diligent examination ; or if the variety of subjects it comprehends would admit of the supposition, that a decision on its merits could be made, in a reasonable time, by general readers, it might then be consistent with the becoming reserve of men, speak- ing of their own labours, to submit them wholly to the ultimate voice of a discerning public. But when, by compilation from the works of authors, standing high in celebrity for knowledge and for talents ; by the occa- sional abridgment and elucidation of the products of these researches : and by the insertion, in almost every sheet, of treatises or disquisitions composed expressly for the purpose, the whole composition of a Dictionary of Science shall bear the marks of originality, it be- comes a duty in the Editor, with regard to himself and the other writers, that he should, to a certain extent, point out what has been done in this respect. It would be truly gratifying to the Editor if he might attempt in this place to express his sentiments of the treatises which have passed under his \ie\v in the con- duct and disposition of the present work, and declare his obligations individually to each of the writers who VI PREFACE. have honoured him with their assistance iii the com- pletion of the undertaking ; but he fears that the lan- guage of approbation which he would in justice feel him- self compelled to use, might be misconstrued into an unbecoming endeavour to enhance, beyond its merits, the value of the publication. Some of the authors of the British Encyclopedia have chosen to reserve their names. The Editor has written and composed upwards of two hundred articles on Chemistry, Natural Philo- sophy, and Mechanics, and practical subjects relating to them, besides several of the lives of great men. The Mathematical Articles, including the mixed subjects of Astronomy, Optics, Phonics, Statics, and many others, were drawn up by a popular author, who is well known for his writings on those subjects. The article Conic Sections was written by JAMES IVORY, Esq. of the Royal Military College of Mai-low. To the Rev. Dr. CAR- PENTER, of Exeter, our readers are indebted for the ar- ticles Grammar, Language, Mental and Moral Philo- sophy, Understanding, the Origin of Writing, and many others connected with the philosophy of the mind. For the articles Criticism, History, Poetry, and Rhetoric, our obligations are due to the Rev. WM. SHEPHERD, author of the life of Poggio Bracciolini. To J. J. GREL- LIER, Esq. of the Royal Exchange Insurance Company, are to be ascribed many valuable articles on Political Economy, the Doctrine of Annuities, Reversions, Assur- ance, &c. In our Medical Department, the articles Dietetics, Diseases and Treatment of Infancy, Materia Medica, Medicine, Midwifery, and Pharmacy, were written by J. M. GOOD, Esq. the learned translator of " Lucretius, 7 -' PREFACE. Vii and author of many works in medicine, and the sciences connected with it. Those on Anatomy, Comparative. Anatomy, the Natural History of Man, Physiology, Surgery, &c. were drawn up by W. LAWRENCE, Esq. of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. To a very ingenious pupil of Dr. SMITH, the celebra- ted President of the Linnean Society, we are indebted for the introductory treatise on Botany. Dynamics, Hy- draulics, Music, Fortification, Perspective, and many other articles in Mathematics and Experimental Philo- sophy; and also those on Farriery and Gardening, were composed by Capt. WILLIAMSON, a gentleman well known to the literary and philosophical world. The ar- ticles Distillery and Galvanism were written by Mr. SYLVESTER of Derby, whose discoveries in the latter new and promising department of experimental research are well known to philosophers. To W. Y. OTTLEY, Esq. we acknowledge ourselves indebted for the article Painting. And to Mr. J. P. MALCOLM, author of" The Antiquities of London," are to be ascribed those on Heraldry, Topography, and other articles connected with the Arts. JAMES PARKINSON, Esq. author of an elaborate and extensive work on the " Organic Remains of a former World," composed the articles Geology, Oryctology, Rocks, and Shells, which appear in this Dictionary. Those on Dyeing, and on the Manufacture of Cotton, deduced from actual observation, with several oilier* relating to practical Mechanics, and subjects of a mixed nature, were furnished by W. BOSWELL, Esq. ; and those on Weaving and Short-hand by Mr. NIGHTIN- GALE. Mr. PETER NICHOLSON is the author of the Vlll PREFACE. treatises on Architecture and Building ; and the pro- cesses of particular Arts and Manufactures were either communicated by professional men, or in various in- stances drawn up under their inspection. When the reader shall have directed his attention to the ample quantity of original and excellent matter con- tained in the articles here pointed out, besides others more concise, and interspersed through the work, he will be enabled to form some judgment of its utility and comparative cheapness. It is now a year since the Proprietors and Conduc- tors of this work solicited the public encouragement, with a full determination to spare no exertions in per- forming the duties required in their arduous undertak- ing. The event, they trust, has gratified their expecta- tion. The British Encyclopedia was commenced, has been regularly continued, and is now completed in six handsome volumes, agreeably to the Prospectus. In the typographical execution of this Dictionary, and in the engravings with which it is illustrated, they feel confi- dent they may claim a superiority over every other work of the same kind. An extensive sale has already given proof of the approbation they have laboured to deserve ; and they trust, that as the British Encyclopedia conti- nues to increase in circulation, it will maintain the repu- tation it has already acquired. THE BRITISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ABA 4 The first letter of the alphabet, and * * one of the five vowels, is pronounc- ed variously ; sometimes open, as in the words talk, ~i\il!c ; and at others close, as in talci; -icatci' A is also used, on many occasions, as a ftharncter, mark, or abbreviation. Thus, in tin- calendar it is the first of the domi- nical letters ; among logicians, it denotes an universal affirmative proposition ; as a numeral, A signified 1 among- the Greeks; but among the Romans, it denoted 500, and with a dash over it, thus A, 5000. A, , or aa, among- physicians, denote ana, or an equal weight, or quantity, of several Ingredients. \ \M, <>r HUM, a liquid measure used by the Dutch, equal to 288 pints English measure. ABACK, in sea language, signifies the situation of the sails when their surfaces are flatted against the mast. They may be brought aback, either by a sudden change of wind, or an alteration in tin- ship's course. They are laid aback, to ofh'-ct an immediate retreat, without turn- ing either to the right or left, to avoid some immediate danger in a narrow channel, or when she baa advanced be- yond her station in the line of battle. ABACUS, in architecture, the upper- most member of the capital of a column. In tlie (Jrcck Doric, it is a plane square fillet. In the Ionic, and Corinthian, moulded and enriched. A n AC is, among ancient mathemati- cians, was a table strewed over u ith.dust, r sand, on which they drew ihcir figures er schemes. ABACI'S, in arithmetic, a-i instrument for facilitating operations by means of counters. Its t'orm i-; v.irioio*: but that VOL fc ABA chiefly used in Europe is made by dva\\ ing parallel lines, distant from each other at least twice the diameter of a counter; which, placed on the Io.wermost line, sig- nifies 1 ; on the second, 10; on the third, 100 ; on the fourth, 1000; and so on. A- gain, a counter, placed in the spaces be- tween the lines, signifies only tiie half of what it would do on the ncxtsuperior line. ABACTS, pythoforicv, a multiplication - table, or a table of number* ready cast up. to faciii'.aV- operations in Arithmetic. AH AITS, I'i'fiitticiiXi is a)so a kind of mul- tiplication-table, in forai of a right-angled triangle. An AC t,8, harmanicns, among musicians, denotes the arrangement of the keys of a musical instrument. AB.UTS, Grecian, an oblong frame, over which arestretchedscver.il brass \\ins, strung with little ivory halls. ons arrangements of which all kinds of computations are easily m.. Ami , or Schwan pan, consists l.f S' Acl-al S' >i|o- ( , n |)ra is wires, stretched from the- '.op to the bot- tom of the instrument, and divided in the middle by a cross piece from si.k- to side. In the upper space every string has two beads, which a i-r each co-intcd for five; and in the lowest space every .it ring h:v> five beads, of ditti-ren' the first being counted as 1, the second as 10, the third as loO, and so on. ABAFT, in tge, a term appli- ed to any thing situated towards the stern of a vessel : thus a thing is said to be abaft the fore-mast, or main-must, when , between the fore-mast, or main-mast, and the stem. AiiM-f> h-tt.ji, denotes the relative situation of any object wah the ship, when the object is placed in any part of that \ ABE ABU arch of the horizon, which is contained between a line at right angles with the keel and that point of the compass which is directly opposite the ship's course. ABAS, a weight used in Persia for weighing pearls, being one eighth part lighter than the European carat. ABASED, in heraldry, is said of the wings of eagles, ike. when the tip looks downwards to the point of the shield, or when the wings are shut; the natural way of bearing them being spread. ABATE, in law, signifiesto breakdown or.destroy, as to abate a nuisance, and to abate a castle. It means to defeat and overthrow, on account of some error or exception. ABATEMENT, inheraldry, something added to a coat of arms, in order to lessen its true dignity, and point out some imper- fection or stain in the character of the person who bears it. A it \TF.MENT, in law, signifies the re- jecting a suit, on account of some fault either in the matter orproceeding. Hence, plea in abatement is some exception al- leged, and proved, against the plaintiff's writ, declaration, &c. and praying that the plaint may abate or cease ; which being granted, all writs in the process mast be- gin de vf>\'u, ABATOR,inlaw, one who enters into a house or lands, void by the death of the last possessor, before the true heir; and there- fore keeps him out, till he brings the writ mtrusione. ABDOMEN, in anatomy, the lower pail of tire trunk of the body, reaching from the thorax to the bottom of the pelvis. See ANATOMY. ABDOMINALES, in natural hi story, an order of fishes, having ventral fins placed behind the pectoral in the abdomen, and the branchia ossiculated. This order comprehends sixteen genera, viz. Amia Cobitis Atherina Clupea Esox Cyprimis Elops Loricaria Exocoetus Fistularia Salmo Mugil Polynemas Teuthis Silurus Argentina ABDUCTOR, or ABDUCENT, in anato- my, a name given to several muscles, on account of their servingto withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to which they are affixed. See ANATOMY. ABERRATION, in astronomy, an ap- parent motion of the heavenly bodies, pro- duced by the progressive motion of light and the earth's annual motion in her orbit. Since light proceeds always in right lines, when its motion is perfectly undisturbed, if a fine tube were placed so as to receive a ray of light passing exactly through its axis when at rest, and then, remaining in the same direction, were moved trans- versely with great velocity, it is evident that the side of the tube would strike against the ray of light in its passage, anil that, in order to retain it in the axis, the tube must be inclined, in the same man- ner as if the light, instead of cominginits actual direction, had also a transverse motion, in a direction contrary to that of the tube. The axis of a telescope, or even of the eye, may be considered as resem- bling such a tube, the passage of the light through the refracting substances not al- tering the necessary inclination of the axis. In various parts of the earth's orbit, the aberration of any one star must be differ- ent in quantity and in direction; it never exceeds 20" each way, and therefore in- sensible in common observations. If AB and AC ( Plate Acoustics, &c. fig. 1,) re- present the comparative velocity of light and of the earth, in their respective direc- tions, a telescope must be placed in the direction BC in order to see the star D, and the star will appear at E. This dis- covery was made by Dr. Bradley, in his observations to determine the annual pa- rallax of the fixed stars, or that which arises from the motion of the earth in its orbit round the sun. ABERRATION of the planets, is equal to the geocentric motion of the planet, the space which it appears to move, as seen from the earth, during the time that light employs in passingfrom the planet to the earth. Thus, with regard to the sun, the aberration in longitude is constantly 20", which is the space moved by the earth in the time 8' 7", which is the time that light takes to pass from the sun to the earth. Uence, the distance of the planet from the earth being -known, it will be, as the dis- tance of the sun is to the distance of the: planet, so is 8' 7" to the time of light pass- ing from the planet to the earth ; then computingthc planet's geocentric motion in this time, will give the aberration of the planet, whether it be in longitude, lati- tude, right ascension, or declination. The aberration will be greatest in longitude, and but very smallin latitude, because the planets deviate very little from the plane of the ecliptic. In Mercury it is only 4 1 ' and much less in the other planets. The aberration in declination and right ascen- sion depends on the situation of the pla- net in the zodiac. The aberration in lon- gitude, being equal to the geocentric mo- tion, will be more or le'ss, according a* ABO ABU that motion may be. It will he Iciist when the- planet is st:ition:iry; and greatest in the superior planets, \\hi-n they are in opposition; hut in the interior planets, the aberration is greatest at the time of their superior con junction. Aiu HitvnoN, in optics, a deviation of the rays of light, when reflected, whereby they art- prevented from meeting 1 in the same point. Aberrations are of two kinds; mie arising from the figure of the reflect- ing body, the other from the different re- frangibility of the rays themselves: this last is called the Newtonian aberration, from the name of the discoverer. ABETTOK, or ABIJETTOI:, in law, the pei-son who promotes or procures a eri me to be committed : thus, an abettor of mur- der is one who commands or counsels an- other to commit it.. An abettor, accord- ing as lie is present or absent at the time of committing the fact, is punishable as a principal or accessary. See ACTKSSAHT. An abettor is the same with one who is deemed <.';/<;Nr//>r/,bv the law of Scotland. ABEYANCE, in law, is that which is in expectation, remembrance, and intend- ment of. law. By a principle of law, in every land there is a fee simple in some- body, or it is in abeyance ; that is, though at present it be in no man, yet it is in ex- pectancy, belonging to him that is next to enjoy the land. Where no person is seen or known, in whom the inheritance can vest, it may be in abeyance, as in limita- tion to several persons, and the survivor, and the heirs of such survivor, because it is uncertain who will be the survivor, yet tlie freehold cannot, because there must In- a tenant to the prxcipe always. ABJUKATION, in law, is us'ed for re- nouncing, disclaiming, and denving the Pretender to have any manner of right to the throne of these kingdoms: and that upon oath, which is required to be taki n upon divers pains and penalties !>v many statutes, particularly 1 W. and M*. lo V\ . 111. 1 Anne, 1 (ieo. I. ABOLITION, in law, denotes the re- pealing any law or statute, and prohibit - i< custom, ceremony, &c. Some- times also it signifies leave granted by the king, or a judge, to a criminal accuser, to forbear any farther prosecution. Abolition is also used by ancient civi- 'i:ms and lawj ers, for desisting from, or annulling, a legal prosecution ; for remit- ting the punishment of a crime ; and for ancelling or discharging a public debt. ABOMA8U8| ABOMASI v, or ABOMASI- rs, in comparative anatomy, names used !br the fourth stomach of ruminating beasts, or such as chew the cud. These have four stomachs, the first of which is railed tp;i.'tr/ the second, rcticiilum , the third, omunus ; and the -fourth, ubomamta. This last is th. piai-e where the chyle is formed, and from which the food descends immediately into the intestines. ABORTION, in medicine, an untimely or premature birth of a foetus, otherwise called a miscarriage ; but if this happen before the second month of pregnancy, it is only called a false conception. Sec MKIIK IXK, MIMWIKKUV, &.c. ABORTION, in law, if caused by giving a potion to, or Striking, a pregnant wo- man, was murder, but now is said to be a great misprision only, and not murder, un- less the child be born alive, and die there- of. ABOUT, in military affairs, a word to express the movement, by which a body of troops changes its front, by facing ac- cording to any given word of command. ABRA, a silver coin of Poland, nearly equivalent to the English shilling. Sec Coix. ABREAST, a sea term, expressing the situation of two or more ships, that lie with their sides parallel to each other, and their heads advanced. When the line of battle at sea is formed abreast, the whole squadron advances uniformly, slbreust \oithin the *(/>, denotes on a line with the beam, orby the side of any objectaboard. ABRIDGEMENT, in law, the shorten- ing a count, or declaration: thus, in as- size, a man is said to abridge his plaint, and a woman her demand in action of dower, if any land is put therein, which Is not in the tenure of the defendant; for. <;n a plea of non-tenure, in abatement of the writ, the plaintiff may leave out those lands, and pray that the tenant max an- s\\er to the remainder. The reason is, thai these writs run in general, and there- fore shall he good for the rest. ABKOMA, in botany, a \\ord signifying not Jit for fno(f, is used in opposition to Theobroma, as a genus of plants belong- ing to the natural order of Columnifera-, and the cij;-h;ernih ela.ss of l'ol\ adelphia Dodecandria. There are two spec' the maple-leaved abroma, which is a tree withastraighttrunk,yieldingag.m; u lien cut, and filled \\iih a white pith like the elder; it flowers from .lime to October, and its fruit ripens in September and Oc- tober; it is a native of New South \\ airs and the Philippine islands, was introduced into Kew gardens about 1770, and is a hoi-house plant, requiring great heat, and inufb. water: -and Whirr's Abroma. so ABS ACA called by Koenig 1 , in compliment td Ed- ward Wheler, Esq. of the Supreme Coun- cil in Bengal ; this is a shrub with a brown bark, a native of the East Indies, and is not known in Europe. There is but one of the species known in Europe, which is propagated with us by cuttings. The plant requires a strong heat, and abun- dance of water. The seeds rarely arrive at a state fit for propagation. ABRUS, in botany, from a Greek word signifying soft or delicate, so called from the extreme tenderness of the leaves, is a genus of the natural order of Legumino- sx, and the seventeenth class of Diadel- phia Decandria. There is one species, viz. the Abrus precatorius. It grows na- turally in both Indies, Guinea, and Egypt. It is a perennial plant, rising to the height of eight or ten feet. Its leaflets have the taste of liquorice, whence it is called, in the West indies, Jamaica -.oild liquorice, and used for the same purpose. There are two varieties, one with a white, and the other with a yellow seed. The seeds are commonly strung, and worn as orna- ments in the countries where the plant grows wild; and they are frequently brought to Europe from Guinea, and the East and West Indies, and wrought into various forms with other hard seeds and shells. They are also used for weighing precious commodities, and strung as beads for rosaries, whence the epithet precato- rius. They arc frequently thrown, with other West India seeds, on the coast of Scotland. This plant was cultivated by Bishop Compton, at Fulham,beforel680. It is propagated by seeds, sown on a good hot-bed in spring, and previously soaked for twelve or fourteen hours in water. When the plants are two inches, each of them should be transplanted into a sepa- rate pot of light earth, and plunged into hot-beds of tanner's bark, and shaded from the sun. They mil flower the se- cond year, and sometimes ripen their seeds in England. ABSCESS, in medicine and surgery, an inflammatory tumour, containing pu- rulent matter. See SURGEBY. ABSCISSE, in conic sections, the part of the diameter of a curve line intercept- ed between the vertex of that diameter and the point where any ordinate, or semi-ordinate, to that diameter falls. From this definition it is evident, that there are an infinite number of variable abscisses in the same curve, as well as an infinite number of ordinates. In the parabola, one ordinate has but one abscisse ; in an ellipsis.it has two; in an hyperbola, consisting of two parts, u has also two; and incurves of the second and third order, it may have three and four. Sec Cnvrc SKCTIOXS. ABSCISSION, in rhetoric, a figure of speech, whereby the speaker stops short in the middle of his discourse : c. g. one of her age and beauty, to be seen alone, at such an hour, with a man of his cha- racter. I need say no more. ABSINTHIUM. See ARTEMISIA. ABSORBENTS, in the materiamedica, such medicines as have the power.of dry- ing up redundant humours, whether ap- plied to ulcers, or taken inwardly. Sec MATERIA MEDICA and PHARMACY. ABSORBENT vessels, in anatomy, arc- those which take up any fluid from the surface of the body, or of any cavity in it, and carry it into the blood. They are de- nominated according to the liquids which they convey, as Lacteals, or Lymphatics f the former conveying chyle, a milky fluid, from the intestines ; the latter a lymph, a thin pellucid liquor, from the places whence they take their origin. The lymphatics also take up any fluids that arc extravasated, and likewise sub- stances rubbed on the skin, as niercury. and convey them into the circulation. ABSTRACT idea, among logicians, the idea of some general quality or property, considered simply in itself, without any respect to a particular subject : thus, mag- nitude, equity, &c. are abstract ideas, when we consider them as detached from any particular body or person. Various controversies have been maintained re- specting the existence of abstract ideas ; but all these disputes seem to be merely verbal. It is certainly impossible to pos- sess an idea of an animal, which shall have no precise colour, figure, magnitude, or the like ; but it is an useful artifice of the understanding, to leave these out in our general reasonings. 11ms it is that the a, b, c, &.c. of the algebraists are usefully applied to denote numbers, though un- doubtedly they are only general signs. ABUCCO, ABOCCO, or ABOCCHI, a weight used in the kingdom of Pegu. ABUNDANT numbers, those whose parts added together make more than the whole number : thus, the aliquot parts of 20, viz. 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, make 22. ACACIA, in botany, a species of mi- mosa. See MIMOSA. ACACIA, in the materia medica of the ancients, a gum made from the Egyptian acacia-tree, and thought to be the same with our gum-arabic. ACADEMICS, a sect of philosophers, ACA ACA who followed the doctrine of Socrates and Plato, us to the uncertainty of knowledge, and the incomprehensibility of truth. Academic, in this sense, amounts to much the same with Platonlst ; the differ- ence between them being- only in point of time. They who embraced the system of Plato, among the ancients, were called Academici ; whereas those \vhohave done the same, since the restoration of learn- ing 1 , have assumed the denomination of Platonists. We usually reckon three sects of Academics ; though some make five. The ancient Academy was that which was founded by Plato ; and consisted of those followers of this eminent philosopher, who taught the doctrine of their master with- out mixture or corruption. The first of these was Speusippus ; he was succeeded I >y X e nocrates. After his death the direc- tion of the academy devolved upon Pole- ino, and then upon Crates, and terminated with Grantor. After the death of Crates, :i new tribe of philosophers arose, who, on account of certain innovations in their manner of philosophising-, which in some measure receded from the Platonic sys- tem, without entirely deserting it, have been distinguished by the appellation of the Second, or Middle Academy. The first preceptor who appears in this class, and who, in consequence of the innova- tions which he introduced into the Pla- tonic school, has been commonly consi- dered as the founder of this noadcniy, is Arccsilaus. Hcfore the time of Arcesi- latis, it war, never denied, that useful opi- nions may be deduced from the Two sects arose about this time, which threatened the destruction of the Platonic system; one. was founded by Pyrrho, which held the doctrine of universal scep- ticism, and the other by /eno, which main- tained the certainty of human knowledge, and taught with great confidence a doc- trine essentially different from that of Plato. In this situation, Arcesilaus thought ii iieeessan to exercise ft cautious roe ire with regard to the doctrine of his master, and to conceal his opinions from the vul- gar, under the appearance of doubt and uncertainty. Professing to derhe his doc- trine COnceroingthe uncertainty of know- ledge from Socrates, Plato, and other philosophers, he maintained, that though there is a ival certainty in the nature of things, every thing is uncertain to the hu- man understanding, and conseipiently that all confident assertions an unreasonable. He thought it disgraceful to assent to anv proposition, the truth of which is not fully established, and maintained, tfcat in aH questions, opposite opinions may be sup- ported by arguments of equal v. lie disputed against the. testimony of \he senses, ami the authority of reason ; ac- knowledging, at the same time, that they furnish probable opinions sufh'cientfor the conduct of life. However, his secret de- sign seems to have been to establish the doctrine of Plato, that 1 he knowledge de- rived from sensible objects is uncertain, and that the onl\ t rue science is that which is employed upon the immutable of intelligence, op ideas. After the death of Arcesilaus, the Pla- tonic school was successively under the care of Lacydc s, who is said to have found- ed a new school, merely because he changed the place of instruction, and held it in the garden of Attains, within the li- mits of the Academic grove, and of I'.van- derand Egesinus. Arcesilaus, however, had opposed the Stoics, and other dogma- tical philosopher*, with such violence, and extended his doctrine of uncertainty so far, as to alarm not only the general body of philosophers, who treated him as a com- mon enemy to philosophy, but even the governors of the state, who apprehended that his opinions would dissolve all the bonds of social virtue and of religion. Iis successors, therefore, found it difficult to support the credit of the academy ; and Curneades, one of the disciples of this school, relinquished, at least in words, some of the more obnoxious tenets of Ai- ccsilaus. From this period the Platonic school assumed the appellation of the New Aca- demy, which mat be reckoned the third in order from its first establishment. It was the doctrine of this academy, thatthe senses, the understanding, and the imagi- nation, frequent 1\ deceive us-, and there- fore cannot be infallible judge) of truth ; but that, from the impressions pn on the mind, by means of the senses, call- ed by Carneades phantasies, or images.we infer appearances oft rut h,or probabilities. These images do not always correspond to ihe real natmv of things, and then 1 is no infallible method of determining when thcv are tnie or false ; and consequently they afford no cert-tin criterion Of truth. Hut, with respect to the conduct of life, and the pursuit of happiness, probable appearances are a sufficient guide, be- cause it is unreasonable no 1 to allow some degree of credit to those witue.ws \\lu> commonly ;;':\e a true report. \C.\DF.MY, i" Grecian antiquity, a large villa in one of the suburbs of Athens, whcrr th<' vf of nhilosoplvers called Aca- AC A ACA demies held their assemblies. It took its nume from one Academus, or Ecademus, A citizen of Athens ; as our modern acade- mies takes theirs from it. This term was also used metaphorically, to denote the sect of Academic philosophers. See ACA- UKMICS. AC.AHF.MY, in a modern sense, signifies a society of learned men, established for the improvement of arts or sciences. See SOCIETY. ACJENA, in botany, a genus of the Te- trandria Monogynia class and order of plants. There is but a single species, which is a Mexican plant. ACALYPHA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Monoecia Mono- delphia class, and the natural order of Tricoccae, called the Tick-fruit. There are fourteen species : the A. virginicai grows naturally in Virginia, and in Cey- lon : the A. virgata is a native of the warm- est countries, and grows plentifully in Ja- maica ; its leaves resemble those of the annual nettle, and sting as much. Most of the other species are natives of the West Indies. The plants have no beauty to recommend them, and are preserved in some botanic gardens merely on ac- count of variety. ACANTHA, among botanists, a name given to the prickles of thorny plants. ACANTIIA is also used by zoologists for the spines of certain fishes, as those of the echinus marinus, &c. ACANTHACEOUS, among botanists, an epithet given to all the plants of the thistle kind, on account of the prickles with which they are beset. ACANTHONOTUS, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Abdomina- les : the generic character is, body elon- gated, without dorsal fin : spines several, on the back and abdomen. There is but one species, the nasus, about 30 inches long, a native of the East Indies. The eyes are large, and the nostrils conspicu- ous : the body, which is of a moderate width for about the third of its length, gradually decreases or tapers towards the extremity : both head and body are cover- ed with small scales, and are of a bluish tinge, with a silvery cast on the abdomen : the pectoral fins are brown, and of a mo- derate size : the ventral rather small, and of a similar colour: the lateral line is straight, and situated nearer to the back than to the abdomen : along the lower part of the back are ten strong but short spines, and In inaththe abdomen twelve or thir- teen others, which are followed by a small anal fin. (See plate I. Ichthyology, fig. 1 . ) ACANTHURUS, in natural history, a genus of fishes, of the order Thoraeici, of which tlie gen. character is, teeth small, in most species lobated : tail aculcated on each side : general habit and appearance like the genus Chaetodon, which see. This genus consists of such species of theLin- naean genus Chactodon, as, in contradiction to the principal character of that genus, have moderately broad and strong teeth, rather than slender and setaceous ones : they are also furnished on each side the lail with a strong spine. There are twelve species, of which the principal is A. uni- cornis; this is the largest of the genus, growjngtothe lengthofthree feet or more, it is a native of the Indian and Arabian seas, in the hitter of which it is generally seen in large shoals of two or three hun- dred each, swimming with great strength, and feeding principally on different kinds of sea-weed. This fish was described by Grew, in his Museum of the Royal Socie- ty, under the name of the Lesser Unicorn fish. Fine specimens are to be found in the British and Leverian museums. ACANTHUS, BBAH'S BREECH, or BuANK-UnsiJfE, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class, and be- longing to the natural order of Personatae. There are ten species : 1. The smooth acanthus, with white flowers, proceeding from about the middle to the top of the stalk, is the species used in medicine un- der the name of Branca ursina, or Brank* ursine. It is a native of Italy, about Na- ples, of Sicily, Provence, and the islands of the Archipelago, and is cultivated in our gardens, and flowers in June and July. Turner (in his Herbal in Hort. Kew.) in- forms us, that it was cultivated in Sion gardens so long ago as the year 1551. The leaves, and particularly the roots, abound with a soft, insipid mucilage, which may be readily extracted, either by boiling or by infusion. Rectified spirit digested on the leaves, extracts from them a fine deep green tincture, which is more durable than that which is communicated to spirit by other herbs. Brank-ursine is seldom or ever used medicinally in this country. But where it is common, it is employed for the same purposes to which the Althaea, or marsh-mallow, and other mucilaginous vegetables, are applied among us. In fo- reign countries the cow-parsnip is said to be substituted for it, though it possesses very different properties. The leaves of this speciesof acanthus accidentally grow- ing round a basket covered with a tile, gave occasion to Callimachus to invent the Corinthian capital in architecture. 2. The ACA ACA thistle-leaved acanthus was found by Sp:irnu:in at the C;ip<- of (lood Hr.pe. and has many leave.;, proceeding 1 immediately from the rout, n-s-mbling those of the thistle, .v The prickly u -ws wild in Italy :tnd l'ro\ence, and flowers from .li.lv to September. I f s k-a\cs are divided into segments, terminated with ;i sharp spine, which renders this plant t roii - blesonie to those xvho handle it. 4. The acanthus of Dioscoridi-s, as Linnaeus sup- poses it to be, grows naturally in the Ea>'. on Lehanon, &c. 5. The holly-leaved acanthus is an evergreen shrub, about bar feet high, MM! separating into many branches, with leaves resembling those of the common holly, and bearing white flowers, similar to those of the common acanthus, but smaller. 6, 7, 8, 9. These species, vi/c. the entire -leaved, procum- bent, forked, and Cape acanthi, are na- tives of the Cape of Good Hope. 10. The ,-as acanthus is a native of the East Indies. The smooth and prickly acanthi are pe- rennial plants, and may be propagated ei- ther by seeds, which should be sown in a lig-ht dry soil towards the end of March, and left to grow, about six inches asunder, till autumn, when they should be trans- planted where they are to remain : or by roots, which may be planted either in spring or autumn for the third sort; but the others must only be removed in the spring, because, if they are transplanted in au- tumn, they may be in danger of being de- stroyed by a cold winter. These plants take deep root, and when they are once established in a garden, they cannot be easily eradicated. The 5th and 10th spe- cies are too tender to thrive out of a stove in England, and cannot be propagated, except by seeds, which do not ripen in Europe. The other sorts must he treat- ed in the same manner with Cape plants. A i \\THI-S, in architecture, an orna- ment representing the leaves of the herb acanthus, and used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders. See \HCIIITKCTI 'UK. ACAKNA, in botany, a genus belong- ing to the Syngenesia /Kqualis class and order : receptacle chafl'y, down feath calyx imbricate, limited with scales, en- rol, floscular. There are seven species. AC AW US, the tick or mite, in n histon, so called, because it is deemed M> small that it cannot be ci:t, Is a i^i mis of insects belonging to the order ot Aptcra, in tlie Ijmucan system, (imelin, in the last edition of Linnxus's s\ stein, has eighty -two species ; of which, some are inhabitants of the earth, others of water ; some live on tries and p!. among stones, and others on the ruler thf ir skn>. The generic, char::- -eigh', ey-s t\. on each side the heud feelers two, jointed; egg-shaped. The most familiar species are, 1. the A. siro, or common cheese-mite, which is a fa- vourite subject for microscopic o ; tions. This insect is covered with hair* or bristles, which resemble in their struc- ture the awns of barley, being barbed on each side with numerous sharp-pointed processes. The mite is oviparous : from the eggs proceed the young animals, re- sembling the parents in all respects, ex- cept in the number of legs, which at firs'. amount only to six, the pair from the head not making their appearance till after casting their first skin. The eggs in warn i weather hatch in about a week, and thr young animal may sometimes be seen for a day together struggling to get rid of its egg-shell. The mite is a very voracious animal, feasting equally upon animal and vegetable substances. It is also extremely tenacious of life ; for, upon the ; \,thorit\ of Leewenhoek, though highly discredi- table to his sense of humanity, we are as- sured that a mite lived eleven weeks glued to a pin, in order for him to make observe tions on. 2. The A. exculcerans, or itch mite, is a species of considerable curiosity, on account of the structure of its limbs : it is slightly rounded, and of a flattened shape, with the thighs of the two upper pair of legs extremely thick and short the two Tower pair of legs have thick thighs, proceeding from a very slender .rid are extended into along, stout, curved, and sharp-pointed bristle. Dr. Bononio, an Italian physician, was the first who contended that the itch was oc- casioned by this 'iisect, an account of which maybe found in the Philosophical -283. Dr. Baker is in- clined to think that it constitutes the pso- ra, a species of itch distinct from others confounded with it. 3. A. autumn !nu;\ of a bvight red colour, with the abdonu numerous white b to the skin, and is with difficult} gaged. On the part whrre it fixes, i; causes a tumour, about the size of a- small bead, accompanied by a severe itching. The tick\sof this species, which is to be found on dogs and other animals. Mam oftheacari attach themselves to insects of a larger kind, and hence they take their names, as A. coleopterous, found on the ACC ACC black beclJc. (See plate I. Entomology, %. Land 2.) These insects, which are often very troublesome on plants, and in hot-houses, may be effectually destroyed by the fol- lowing mixture. Take t\vo ounces of soft screen soap, one ounce of common turpen- tine, and one ounce of flour of sulphur; pour upon these ingredients a gallon of boiling water, work the whole together with a whisk, and let the mixture be used warm. This mixture may also be of use for preventing the mildew on the peach and apricot ; but it should never be used on fruit-trees near the time when their fruits are ripening. A strong ley made of wood-ashes will likewise destroy the aca- ri ; but plants are greatly injured by this, and by briny and spirituous compositions. ACAULOSE, or ACAULOUS, among bo- tanists, a term used for such plants as have no caulia or stem. See CAULTS. ACCEDAS ad cunam, in law, a writ ly- ing where a man hath received, or fears false judgment, in a hundred-court, or court baron. It is issued out of the Chan- cery, and directed to the sheriff', but re- turnable in the King's-bench or Common- pleas. It lies also for justice delayed, and is said to be a species of the writ Recar- dare. ACCELERATION, in mechanics, de- notes the augmentation or increase of mo- tion in accelerated bodies. The term acceleration is chiefly used in speaking of falling bodies, or the tenden- cy of heavy bodies towards the centre of the earth produced by the power of gravi- ty ; which, acting constantly and uniform- ly upon them, they must necessarily ac- quire every instant a new increase of mo- tion. See GRAVITATION. ACCELERATOR. See ANATOMY. ACCENT, among grammarians, is the raising or lowering of the voice in pro- nouncing certain syllables of words. We have three kinds of accents, viz. the acute, the grave, and circumflex. The acute accent, marked thus ('), shews that the voice is to be raised in pronouncing the syllables over which it is placed. The grave accent is marked thus ("), and points out when the voice ought to be lowered. The circumflex accent is com- pounded of the other two, and marked thus (~ or ") ; it denotes a quavering of the voice between high and low. Some call the long and short quantities of sylla- bles accents ; but erroneously. ACCENT, in music, a term applicable to every modulation of the voice, both in speaking 1 and in singing. Jt is to the stu- dy of this that the composer and perform- er should unceasingly apply ; since, with- out accent, there can be no music, because there can be no expression. ACCEPTANCE, in common law, the tacitly agreeing to some act before done by another, which might have been de- feated without such acceptance. Thus, if a husband and wife, seized of land in right of the wife, make a joint lease or feofT- ment, reserving rent, and the husband dies ; after which the widow receives, or accepts the rent ; such receipt is deemed an acceptance, confirms the lease ofieofT- ment, and bars her from bringing the writ citi in vita. ACCEPTANCE, among merchants, is the signing or subscribing a bill of exchange, by which the acceptor obliges himself to pay the contents of the bill. Bills payable at sight are not accepted, because they must either be paid on being presented, or else protested for want of payment. The acceptance of bills payable at a fixed day, at usance, or double usance, &c. need not be dated : because the time is reckoned from the date of the bill ; but it is necessary to date the acceptance of bills payable at a certain number of days after sight, because the time does not be- gin to run till the next day after that ac- ceptance : this kind of acceptance is made thus, Accepted such a day and year, and signed. See EXCHANGE. ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY, in com- mon law, is chiefly used for a person guilty of a felonious offence, not princi- pally, but by participation ; as, by advice, command, or concealment. There are two kinds of accessaries; before the fact, and after it. The first is he who commands, or procures, another to commit felony, and is not present himself; for if he be pre- sent, he is a principal. The second is he who receives, assists, or comforts any man that has done mur- der, or felony, whereof he has knowledge. A man may also be accessary to an acces- sary, by aiding, receiving, &c. an accessa- ry in felony. An accessary in felony shall have judgment of life and member, as well as the principal, who did the felony : but not till the principal be first attainted, and convicted, or outlawed thereon. Where the principal is pardoned without attainder, the accessary cannot be arraign- ed; it being a maxim in law, Ubi non est principalis, non potest esse accessorius. But if the principal be pardoned, or have: his clergy after attainder, the accessary shall be arraigned. 4 and 5 W. and M ACC ACE rap. 4; and by stat. 1 Anne, cap. 9, it is nactcd. that where the principal is con- vict i-d of felony, or stands mute, or chal- !i ih'i -s :i!)ovc twenty of the jury, it sliall be lawful to proceed against the accessa- ry in the same manner as if the principal had been attainted ; and notwithstanding such principal shall be admitted to his clergy, pardoned, or delivered, before attainder. In some cases, also, if the prin- cipal cannot he taken, then the accessary may lie prosecuted for a misdemeanor, .UK! punished by fine, imprisonment, &c. stat. il). see stat. 5 Anne, cap. 31. In the lowest and highest offences there are no accessaries, but all are principals; as in riots, routs, forcible entries, and other trespasses, which are the lowest offences. So also in the highest offence, which is, according to our law, high treason, there are no accessaries. Cok. Littlet 71. ACCIDENT. See Lgoic. ACCIP1TRES, or rapacious birds, in the Linnaen system of ornithology, tin- first order of birds; the characters of which are, that the bill bends downwards, that the upper mandible is dilated a little on both sides towards the point, or armed with a tooth-like process, and that the nostrils are wide ; the legs are short and strong ; the feet are of the perching kind, having three toes forwards arid one back- wards ; the toes are warty under the joints, with claws hooked, and sharp at the points. The body, head, and neck, are muscnlons, and the skin very tough. The birds of this order subsist by preying on other animals, and on dead carcases, and '.hc\ are unfit for food. They live in pairs, and are monogamous; and build their nests in lofty situations. 'The female is generally larger and stronger than the male, and usually lays four eggs at a time. This order corresponds to thajt of Ferae, and comprehends four generas, vi/.. \ ri - n it, r\L>, STIIIX, and I.A.MCS, which ACCOMPANIMENT, in heraldry, do- r.otes any thing added to a shield by way of ornament, as the belt, mantling, sup- porters, kc. Accompaniment is also used for se\ eral hearings about a principal one, as a saltier, :>end, fess, \c. ACCOMPLICE, in law, a person who was pri\y to, or aiding in, the perpetra- tion of some crime. Sec An issuir. ACCOH1), in lav, a verbal agreemeiv 'u'twccn t\\ o or more, where any one is injured by a tre^pa^s, or other oflcncr- ommitted, to make satisfaction to the m- uivd part\- ; v. ho. atV'-ih- a,-/~.. r( l is per- VOL. 1 formed, will be barred in law from bring- ing any new action against the aggressor for the same tresspass. It is safest, how- ever, in pleading, to allege satisfaction, and not accord alone ; because, in this last case, a precise execution in every part tluereof must be alleged; \\hereas, in the former, the defendant needs only say, that he paid the plaintiff such a sum in full satisfaction of the accord, which he received. ACCOUNTANT-^wimi/ in the court, of Chancery, an officer appointed by act of parliament to receive all monies lodged in court, and convey the same to the bank of England for better security. 'The sa- lary of this officer and his clerks is to be paid out of the interest made of pai-t of the money, it not being allowable to ;ake fees in this office. Counterfeiting the hand of the accountant-general is felon v, with- out clergy, by 12 Geo. I. c. 32. ACCOUTREMENTS, in a military sense, signify the furniture of a soldier, such as puff's, belts, pouches, cartridge- boxes, &c. ACCROCHE', in heraldry, denotes a thing's being hooked into another. ACEIl, maple, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia order and Polygamia class of plants, and belonging to the natural order ofTrihilata. There are 25 species. See M U'l.K. ACETATES, in chemistry, a genus of salts formed by the acetic acid. They may be distinguished by the following properties: they are decomposed by heat; the acid being partly driven off, partly destroyed: they are very soluble in wa- ter: when mixed with sulphuric acid, and distilled in a moderate heat, acetic acid is disengaged : when they are dis- solved in water, and exposed to the open air, their acid is gradually decomposed. ACETIC (iritl, in chemistry. 'This acid is employed in different stales, which have been distinguished from each other b\ pe- culiar names. \\ hen lirst prepared, it is called T;n>'.'!- ill hydrogen :>5.87 carbon ACH ACU A r F . TIT E s, a genus of salts formed by the acetous acid. ACETOUS uciJ. See ACETIC Ann. ACHANIA, in botany, a genus of the Monadclphia Polyandria class, and the natural order of Columnifcrae. There are three species, viz. the A. malvaviscus, scarlet achania, or bastard hibiscus, which is a native of Mexico and Jamaica; culti- vated here in 1714 by the Dutch*, ss of Beaufort, and flowering through the great - est part of the year: the mollis, or v.oolly achania, a native of Sovith America and the \Vest India islands, found in Jamaica by Iloustoun, in 1730, and introduced in 1780 by B. Bewick, Esq. and flowering- in Au- gust and September: and the pilosa, or hairy achania, a native of Jamaica; intro- duced in 1780 by Mr. G. Alexander, and flowering in November. Achania is gene- rally propagated by cuttings, which are planted in pots of light earth, plunged in- to a gentle hot-bed, and kept from the air till they take root, when they should be gradually inured to the open air. They must be preserved in winter in a moderate stove ; and, kept warm in summer, they will flower, and sometimes ripen fruit. ACHEKNEU, in astronomy, a star of the first magnitude in the southern extre- mity of the constellation Eridanus. See the article Eniji.v>rs. ACHILLEA, milfoil, in botany, so call- ed from Achilles, who is supposed to have acquired some knowledge of botany from his master Chiron, and to have used this plant for the cure of wounds and ulcers ; a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Su- perflua class of plants, and of the natural orderof Composite D'.scoideae. There are 27 species, of which the most remarkable are the ptarmica, or sneezewort, M. grow- ing wild in all the temperate parts of Eu- rope, found in Britain, not uncommonly in meadows, by the sides of ditches, on the balks of corn fields, in moist woods and shady places. The shoots are put into salads, andtlie roots, being hot and biting, are used for the tooth-ache, whence the plant has been called bastard pellitory, and, on account of the form of the leaf, goose-tongue : the powder of the dried leaves, used as snufl', provokes sneezing, whence the name : in Siberia, a decoction of the whole herb is said to be successfully used in internal hemorrhages: of this plant there is a variety with double flowers, call- ed bat chelor's buttons ; it flowers in July and August, and makes a tolerable ap- pearance ; and the millefolium, common M. or yarrow; abundant in pastures and by the sides of roads, floweringfrom June to September : mixed instead of hops by the inhabitants of Dalecarlia in their ale, in order to give it an inebriating quality : recommended by Anderson, in his Essays on Agriculture, for cultivation, though thought to be a noxious weed in pastures : the bruised herb, fresh, is recommended by Linnxusasan excellent vulnerary and styptic, and by foreign physicians in he- morrhages, and thought by Dr. Hill to be excellent in dysenteries, when adminis- tered in the form of a strong decoction. An ointment is made of it for the piles, and for the scab in sheep ; and an essen- tial oil is extracted from the flowers; but it is not used in the present practice. ACHRAS, or SAPOTA-PLVM, in botany, a genus of the Hcxandria Monogynia class, and of the natural order of Dumo- sx. There are four species, viz. The mammosa, or mamme sapota, otherwise called nippled S. or American marme- lade ; growing in America to the height of thirty or forty feet, with leaves a foot long, and three inches broad in the mid- dle, cream-coloured flowers, and large oval fruit, containing a thick, luscious pulp, called natural marmelade. This tree is planted for the fruit in Jamaica, Barba- docs, Cuba, and most of the West India is- lands, and was cultivated here by Mr. Mil- ler in 1739. Of this there is a variety call- ed the bully, or nisberry bully-tree, be- cause it is the tallest of all the trees in the woods : it is esteemed one of the best timber trees in Jamaica. 2. The sapota, which grows to the height of sixty or se- venty feet, without knots or branches, and bears around, yellow fruit, bigger than a quince,, which smells well, and is of an a- greeable taste. It is common at Panama, and some other places in the Spanish ^Vest Indies, but not to be found in many of the English settlements. It was culti- vated here by Mr. Miller in 1739. 3. The dissecta, or cloven-flowered S. cultivated in Malabar for the fruit, which is of the form and size of an olive, having a pulp of a sweetish acid flavour. Its leaves are used for cataplasms to tumours, bruised and boiled with the root of curcuma and the leaves of ginger; supposed to be a native of the Philippine islands, and pro- bably growing in China, and found by Forster flowering in September, in the island of Tongatabu. 4. The salicifolia, or white willow S. called in Jamaica the white-bully-tree, or galimeta wood, which supplies good timber. The bark of the sapota and mammosa is very astringent, and is called corte.r Janiaicm.iis. This was once supposed to be the true Jesuits bark^ AGO hut its effects on the negroes has been pernicious. These trees cannot he pre- served in England but with great care and much In at. ACMKOM \ TIC, an epithet expressing :i want of colour, introduced into astro- nonu by I)e la I.ande. ArmniM ITU' t'-tdtciftes, are telescopes contrived to remedy the aberrations in colours. Tiny were invented by Mr. .John Holland, optician. See OPTICS, TK- l.l.st OI'K. \< in I, 1 \\TIIES, in botany, a genus of the Pcntandria Monogynia < plants, belonging to tin- natural order of Miscellanc.c. '1 here arc eleven species, but they have but little beauty, :tnd are onlv preserved in botanic g-.irdens. Acm i:o\r i, in botany, a genes of the Diadclphia Decandria class and order, ca- lyx five-toothed; tn? lower tooth elonga- ted and cloven : legume compressed, ma- .k-d; one species, viz. A. villosa, a .shrub fo\md in New Holland, with long silky h^rs : leaves lanceolate, acu'e, en- tire, with s?lk\ hair round the margin. \('1A, in hominy, a genus of the \lono- Hclphia J)odec;,ndria rbss and order: ca- lx \ ti\e-])ar'ed, five pita's, drupe dry, co- riaceous, fibrous, one-seeded. Two spe- rics. lives si\i\ fi-ct high, found in Guiana. ACICARPH V, in botany, a genus of the- Polygamhi Neccssarir.elassand order: re- ceptacle chaffy, the chaff uniting with the seeds after flowerings seeds naked; flo- rets tubular; calyx five-parted. One spe- cies, found in Muenos \ ACID, in chemistry, a tenn originally synonymous with nonr, and applied only to bodies distinguished by that taste ; but it now comprehends under it all subslau- Ces possessed of the following properties. Acids, When-applied to the tongue, excite the sensation of sour, they change the blue colours of vegetables to a red; the\ unite with water in almost any proportion; they combine with all the alkalies, and most of the metallic oxides and earths, and form with them those compounds called in chemistry salts. Even acid does not ;tll thi-se pit per'ies, but tllCV all - a sufficient number to distinguish them from other substances. Set X1STHY. ACIDJFIAHI.K Art.vf, or R.xnir.u., any substance capable of uniting, without de- composition, with such a quantity of oxy- gen as to become possessed of acid pro- perties. Almost all the acids agree \\itli each other in containing ox\ gen, l>ut they differ in their bases, which determine the species of the acid. Sulphur combined with certain portions of oxygen Forms sul- phurous or sulphuric acid, according 1 to the quantity of oxygen absorbed. ACIDOT ON, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia I'oh andria eltuss and order ; it has mali- and female flowers on the same, or a different in e. Then- isbut one spe cies, \\/.. A. ureiis. a nativ- of Jamaica, which grows to the height of eight or nine feei. ACII'ENSER, a genus of fislies of the order (lartilagenei : the characters are, that the head is obtuse, the mouth is un- der the head, retractile, and withoin that the four cerri are below the front, and before the mouth; the aperture of the gills is at the side, the body is elonga- ted, and angulated with many series of scuta, or scaly protuberances. These may be ranked among the larger fish ; are in- habitants of the s,-a, but ascend rivers an- nually ; the flesh of all of them isdelicious, from the roe is made caviar, and from the sounds and muscular parts is made isin- glass; they feed on woims, and other larger than (he There a; 9: A. sturio, or common sturgeon, inhabits European, Mediterranean, lied, Black, and Caspian .ill annual!} rivers in the spring. (See plate I. Ichthyology, fig; 2.) A. scliypa, inhabits the Caspian sea, and large lakes of Siberia. A. ruthem A. stellatus, both inhabit the Caspian sea A. hufo, inhabits the Danube, \Volga, and other Russian rivers, and also the Caspian. The skin of this s;> - i-- so hard and tough, as to be used for carnage traces. See STrntiKo\. ACNIDA, \ irginia hemp, in botany, a genus of the I'entandria IVntagynia class andorfler. There isbut a single species, viz. A. cannabina, which is :inati\c of Vir- ginia, and somi.- other parts of America ; idom cultivated in Europe. ACOMITM, a.-onite, wolf's-bane, or monk's-hood, in bo' any, a genus of plants of the Trigyuia order and 1'olyandria id pertaining to the natural onh-r of Muhisiliquic. In the last edition of l,inna-us, by (Inielin. this genus compre- hends fourteen species; most of the spe- ned poison- lie ancient- irprised at tb..t they were afraid to touch the jilant-. ; anti hence sprung man; -iuii-i precautions ubout the n . them. Theophrastus relatr, tint there was a mode oi prep unite in his da\ s, s<> that it should only des'roy at the end of one or two years. But some have ACO ACO questioned whether the aconite of Theo- phrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and other ancient writers, be the same with ours, or should be referred to the genus of Ranun- culus. It is confidently affirmed that the huntsmen on the Alps, who hunt the wolves and other wild animals, dip their arrows into the juice of these plants, which renders the wounds occasioned by them mortal. A decoction of the roots has been used to kill bugs ; and the powder, dis- guised in bread, or some other palatable vchic'f, has been employed to destroy rats and mice. The A. napellus, or common monk's-hood, has been long known as one of the most virulent of all vegetable poi- sons. Li imams says that it is fatal to swine and goats, but does no injury to horses, \\ ho eat it dry. He also informs us, from the Stockholm Acts, that an ig- norant surgvon died in consequence of taking the fresh leaves, which he pre- scribed to a patient. The effluvia of the herb in full flower have produced swoon- ing fits, and a temporary loss of sight. The leaves and shoots of this plant, used as salad, instead of celery, have proved fatal in several instances. But the most powerful part of the plant is the root. Matthiolus relates, that it was given by way of experiment tofour condemned cri- minals, two at Rome, in 1524, and two at Prague, in 1561, two of whom soon died, and the other two, with great difficulty, were recovered. The juice applied to the wound of a finger, not only produced pain in the arm and hand, butcardialgia, anxi- ety, sense of suffocation, syncope, &c. and the wounded part Sphacelated before it came to suppuration. Dodonaeus says that five persons at Antwerp died in con- sequence of eating it by mistake. The effects of this plant are, convulsions, gid- diness, insanity, violent evacuations, both upwards and downwards, faintings, cold sweat, and even death itself. Neverthe- less it has been used for medical purpo- ses. The Indians are said to use aconite, corrected in cow's urine, with good suc- cess against fevers. There is one species of it which has been deemed an antidote to those that are poisonous, called antho- ra, and those that are poisonous are called thora. The taste of the root of the species denominated anthora is sweet, with a mix- ture of bitterness and acrimony, and the tm ell is pleasant. It purges violently when fresh, but loses its qualities when dried. This is poisonous as well as the others, though in a slighter degree, and is disused in the present practice. The first perbon wko ventured to introduce tbe cdminon monk's-hood into medicine was Dr. Stoerck. Stoerck recommends two grains of the extract to be nibbed into a powder, with two drams of sugar, and to begin with ten grains of this powder two or three times a-day. The extract is often given from one grain to ten for a dose ; and some have considerably increased the quantity. Instead of the extract, a tinc- ture has been made of the dried leaves, macerated in six times their weight of spirits of wine, and forty drops given for a dose. ACORN, an ornamental piece of wood, in the shape of a cone, fixed to the top of the spindle of a mast-head, above the vane, to keep it from comingoff the spin- dle. ACORUS, in botany, the sweet flag, or sweet rush, a genus of die Monogynia or- der, and Hexandria -class of plants, and belongingtothe natural order of Piperitx. There are two species, viz. the A. cala- mus, or common sweet rush, of which there are two varieties, the vulgaris, or European sweet rush, or calamus aroma- ticus, and the Asiaticus or Indian calamus aromaticus. The common calamus aro- maticus grows naturally on the banks of the rivers, and in shallow standing waters ; and is found in many parts of England, but is much more plentiful in the stand- ing waters of Holland, and is common in many other parts of Europe. The Indian calamus, which grows not only in marsh ditches, but in more elevated and dry pla- ces, in Malabar, Ceylon, Ambojna, and other parts of the East Indies, differs but little from the European, except that it is more tender and narrow, and of a more hot and pungent taste ; and A. gramineus, or Chinese sweet-grass, has the roots in tufts, with a few thready fibres. The whole herb has an aromatic smell when bruised, resembling the English sweet- flag, from which it is distinguished by the shortness of that portion of its stalk which is above the spadix, as well as by all its parts, except the florets, being five times smaller than in that plant. It is probably a native of China, and cultivated, for the sake of its smell, in pots near the habita- tions of the Chinese. The sweet flag\\ ill succeed very well in moist garden ground, but never produce* its spikes, unless it grows in water. The dried roots of the calamus aromaticus are commonly import- ed from the Levant, though those grown in England are equally good. They have a strong aromatic smell, and a warm pun- gent taste; the flavour is much improved by drying. The powdered root might ACOUSTICS perhaps supply the place of foreign spices ; .UK! indeed it is the only native aromatic plant of northern climates It is carmina- tive and stomachic, and often used as an ingredient in bitter infusions. ACOTYLEDONE8, in botany, plants st> railed. because their seedsare notfurnish- fd wii ; . I of course put forth no iemiii..l leaves. All mos-.es are of this kind. See ( ' n-i , \( , which explains the properties of those sounds that conic distinctly from the so- norous body to the ear; and catacoustics, which treats of reflected sounds; but this distinction is not necessary. Intheinfan- c\ of philosophy, sound \v as held to be a separate existence : it \vasconceived to he wafted through the air to our origins of hearing, vvhichit \vassupposcd to affect in a manner resembling tliut in which our nostrils arc- uifec.ted when they give us the sensation of smell. Vet, even in those early years of science, there \verc some, and, in particular, the c.-lehrat'.-d founder of the Stoic school, who held that sound, that is, the cans.- of sound, was only tht particular motion of external gross matter, propagated to the ear, and there produc- ingthat agitation of the organ, by which :1 is immediately affected with the '. n\ of sound, /eno says, " Hearing is jrroduccd by the air which intervenes between the thing sounding and the ear. The air is agitated in aspherical form, and moves oll'in \\a\es, and falls on the ear, in the same manner as water undulates in rircles when a stone has been thrown into it." The ancients were not remarkable for precision, either of conception or ar- gument, in their dis< unions and they \\crc contented with a general and vague view of things. Some followed the opinion nf /eno, without any farther attempts to give a distinct conception of the explana- tion, or to c-ompare it with experiment. But, in latter times, during the ardent re- searches into the phenomena of nature, this became an interesting subject of in- quiry. The invention of the air-pump the first opportunity of deciding, by experiment, whether the elastic undula- tions of air were the CUMMS of sound ; and the trial fully established the point ; for a bell rung in vacuogavc no sound, and one rung in condensed a';- \ loud one. It WAS therefore received as a. doc- trine in general physics, that air \\ as the . manner precisely similar to a pendulum vibrating in .1 cycloid. It must therefore agitate the air contiguous to it in the same manner: and thus there is a particular kind of agitation that the air can receive and maintain, which is very interesting. Sir Issac Newton took up this question as worthy of his notice ; and endeavoured to ascertain with mathematical precision the mechanism of this particular < undulations, and gave us the principal theorems concerning the undulations ot' elastic fluids, which make the 47, &c. Fro positions of Book II. of his Principles oi Natural Philosophy. They have been considered as giving the doctrines con- cerning the propagation of sound. M sounds, we ajl know, are conveyed to us I)\ means of the air. In whatever manner th'-y either float upon it, or an- propwlli o) forward in it, certain it is, that, without the vehicle of this or some other fluid, we should have no sounds at all. Let the air be exhausted from a receiver, and a bell will emit no sound ; for, as the air conti nues to grow less dcn.se, the sound dies' in proportion, so that at last its strongest vibrations arc almost totally si lent. Thus air is a vehicle for sound However, \\e must not, with some philo gophers, assert, that it is the only vehicle. that, if there were no air, weshoii' tor it is found, by experiment, that sounds are c<.- through water with the same facility with which they move through air. A bell rung in water returns atone as distin rung in air. 'lirsuas observed bv l)i Derham, \\ ho also remarked, that the tone, came a qnartert l-e applied tothe < erof a piece f timber, be it cversolong, the beating of the watch will be distinctly heard ; whereas, in the usual wa\ scarcely be heard at the distance of 15 or IS feet. The same effect will take place ifh* stops both his ears with hi and restshis teeth, his temple, or thccar- i-t of one of his . : rs. against the siiek |i,-- , | ,,f ., a gentle scratch may be made at on-- end of a pole or rod, and the person \\hokeeps the ear in close contact with the other end of the pole will hear it very plainly Thus, persons who are dull of 1> may, by applying their 1 me part of an harpsichord, or ot ! i r body, hear the sound much better than other- Ifapcrsontie a poker or any ntherpiecc of metal on to the middle of nel about a yard long, V thumbs or fingers the i into his cars, wh;' against any obstacle, as an iron or stct 1 fender, he will hear a sound vcn like that of a lar: into it \\ill be there more audible other part, even that at ih>- whence it proceeded. On (I i a whispering i^alh r\ <(! The fonu of a whispering ! must be that of :i > \lir, . ics. tig. 2. -, andifalov, sound or hisper be uttered at A. orations expanding themseh will impinge on the points 1), 1), D, &.c. and (Vom thence be reflected to E, E, K, and from thence to the points Kami G, till at l:ist they all meet in < ', \\ b will be the most dist-i ' The ntation of 90lind, by meansofspt :i! . ing-trumpets, is usually illustrated following' ma vnr.fig. .> be the tube, HI) the a\is, and 1{ tin- mouth-piece forconveyingthe voice to the tube. Then idem, when a person speak ' the trumpet, the whole force of i. is spent upon the . which will 1 i whole length, and, by various reflect :ionsfroi!i tin- side ofthe tulte to the M\is, the air along the middle part of the tube will he great 1\ condensed, and its momentum propo;- tionabh ihcreased. so that wlun it comes -.itethe air.it tile orifice of' he ti AC, its fon-e will be as much greaterthaii what it would ha\ e been \\ itho'it tlu t .ill-face of a sphere, \\hose radius is equal tothe leiit;tli of tlu ;i th<- surface ofthe si-gment of such spin-re, whose base is the orifice of the lube. Fora pei-son speak iiu;.,t I?, with- out the tube, u'ill n-.r. . of his I > I I I - S etube Tthan \ \ ACOUSTICS. those superficies or pulses of air are dif- fused as far as D every way, it is plain the force of the voice will there be diffused through the whole superficies of a sphere whose radius is BD; but in the trumpet it will be so confined, that at its exit it will be diffused through so much of that spherical surface of air as corresponds to tne orifice of the tube. But since the force is given, its intensity will be always inversely as the number of particles it has to move ; and therefore in the tube it will be to that without, as the superficies of such a sphere to the are a of the large end of the tube nearly. But it is obvious, Dr. M. Young observes, that the confinement of the voice can have little effect in in- creasing the strength of the sound, as this strength depends on the velocity with which the particles move. Were this rea- soning conclusive, the voice should issue through the smallest possible orifice ; cy- lindrical tubes would be preferable to any that increased in diameter; and the less the diameter, the greater would be the effect of the instrument ; because the plate or mass of air to be moved would, in that case, be less, and consequently the effect of the voice the greater; all which is con- tradicted by experience. The cause of the increase of sound in these tubes must therefore be derived from some other principles : and among these we shall pro- bably find, that what the ingenious Kircher has suggested is the most deserving of our attention. He tells us, that " the augmen- tation of the sound depends on its reflec- tion from the tremulous sides of the tube ; which reflections, conspiring in propa- gating the pulses in the same direction, must increase its intensity." Newton also seems to have considered this as the prin- cipal cause, in the scholium of Prop. 50, B. II. Princip. when he says, " We hence see why sounds are so much increased in stentorophonic tubes, for every reciprocal motion is, in each return, increased by the generating cause." Farther, when we speak in the open air, the effect on the tympanum of a distant auditor is produced merely by a single pulse. But when we use a tube, all the pulses propagated from ihe mouth, except those in the direction of the axis, strike against the sides of the tube, and every point of impulse becoming a new centre, from whence the pulses are propagated in all directions, a pulse will arrive at the ear from each of those points. Thus, by the use of a tube, a greater num- ber of pulses are propagated to the ear, and consequently the sound increased. The confinement too of the voice may have a little effect, though not such as is ascrib- ed to it by some ; for the condensed pul- ses produced by the naked voice freely expand every way; but in tubes, the late- ral expansion being diminished, the direct expansion will be increased, and conse- quently the velocity of the particles, and the intensity of the sound. The substance also of the tube has its effect; for it is found, by experiment, that the more elas- tic the substance of the tube, and conse- quently the more susceptible it is of these tremulous motions, the stronger is the sound. If the tube be laid on any non- elastic substance, it deadens the sound, because it prevents the vibratory motion of the parts. The sound is increased in speaking-trumpets, if the tube be suspend- ed in the air ; because the agitations are then carried on without interruption. These tubes should increase in diameter from the mouth-piece, because the parts vibrating in directions perpendicular to the surface will conspire in impelling for- ward the particles of air, and consequent- ly, by increasing their velocity, will in- crease the intensity of the sound : and the surface also increasing, the number of points of impulse and of new propaga- tion will increase proportionably. The se- veral causes, therefore, ofthe increase of sound in these tubes, Dr. Young concludes to be, 1. The diminution of the lateral, and consequently the increase of the di- rect expansion and velocity ofthe included air. 2. The increase of the number of pulses by increasing the points of new propagation. 3. The reflections of the pulses from the tremulous sides of the tube, which impel the particles of air for- ward, and thus increase their velocity. An umbrella, held in a proper position over the head, may serve to collect the force of a distant sound by reflection, in the manner of a hearing-trumpet ; but its substance is too slight to reflect any sound perfectly, unless the sound fall on it in a very oblique direction. The exhibition ofthe Invisible Girl is said to depend on the reflection of sound ; but the deception is really performedby convey ing the sound through pipes artfully concealed, and opening opposite to the mouth of the trumpet, from which it seems to proceed. When a portion of a pulse of a sound is separated by any means from the rest ofthe spherical or hemispherical surface to which it belongs, and proceeds through a wide space, without being supported on either side, there is a certain degree of divergence, by means of which it some- times becomes audible in every part ofthe ACOUSTICS. m transmuting it : hi. t the sound ihus diverging is co:np;r Hence, in onler that a speaking-trumpet may produce its full effect, it must be di- rected in u r and the sound col.ci tc.l into the focus of a concave mirror lhu;i :>t u little distance from it, which could not happen, it' sound, in al: tended to spread equally in all directions . It is said tlr.il the report of a cannon ap- pears many times louder to a per-on '<>- u horn it is tired, than to on.- plared in a contrary direction. It must, says Dr. Young, have occurred to (very one's oh. -ervation, that a sound, such as that of a mill, or a tall of water, has appeared much louder after turning 1 a corner, when the house or other obstacle no longer inter- vened. Indeed, the whole theory of the sp< -ik ing-trumpet would fall to the ground, if it wen- demons! rablc that sound spreads equally in all directions. Jn windy wea- ther, it may he often observed, that the .sound of a distant hell varies almost in- stantaneously in its strength, so as to ap- pear twice us remote at one time as an- other. Now, if sound diverged equally in all directions, the variation produced by the wind would not exceed one-tenth of the apparent distance ; but on the suppo- sition of a motion nearly rectilinear, it may asii\ happen that a slight change in the direction of the wind shall convey u sound, either directly or after reflection, in very different degrees, to the same spot. The decay of sound is the natural con- sequence of its distribution throng-horn a larger ud larger quantity of matter, as it dsto diverge every wa\ from its centre. The actual velocity of the parti- . i< -s of the medium transmitting 1 it, appears to diminish,. simply, in t h'- sanir proportion as the distance from the centre inc; consequently, their energy, which is to be considered as the measure ofthe strength i>f sound, must \ar\ as the square of the : so that, at the distance- of ten tcet from the sounding lx>d\, the \elocity ofthe particles of the medium becomes one-tenth as great as at the distance of one loot. Muhlieir energy, or the strength of the sound, only one-hundredth as great. An echo is a reflection of sound strik- ing against some object, as :>.n imagi i-> rilected in a ghiss : but it has been dis- puted, what are the proper qualitic-, in a 'iody for thus reflecting sounds. It is in g'-neral known, that caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, return this reflection of sound. \Ve have heard of a very extraordinary eho, at a ruined VOL. I. fortress near Louvuin, in. Flanders. If a pei-son sung, he only heard his own \nicj-. without any repetition ; on the contrary, .ho slood at some distance heard the echo, but not the void.- ; but then they heard it with surprising variations, times louder, som. -times softer, now more near, then more distant. There is an ac- count, in the .fthe French aca- demy, of a sim.lar echo near Rouen. It observed, that every point against which the pulses of sound strike becomes the centre of a new series of pulses, and sound describes equal dis- 'ii equal times; therefor--, \\hc!i any sound is propagated from a centre, and its pulses strike against a variety of obstacles, if the sum of the right lines di-.iwn from that point to each oi' the ob- stacles, and from each obstacle to a second point, be equal, then will the latter be a point in which an echo will be heard. Thus, let A, fig. 4, bethe point from which the sound is propagated in all directions, anil let the pulses strike against the ob- stacles C, D, E, F, G, H, 1, &c. each of these points becomes a ne\v centre of pul- ses by the first principles, and therefore from each of them one series of pulses will pass through the point B. Now, if the several sums of the right lines A C 4- C B, A n + D~BT A~E -f E B, A G + G B, A H f H B, A 1 -f- 1 B, &c. be all equal to euch other, it is obvious that the pulses propagated from A to these point-., and again from these points to B, will all ar- n\e at H at the same instant, accordingto the second principle ; and, therefore, if the hearer hf in that point, his ear will at the same instant be struck by all these pulses. Now it ap pears, from experiment, that the ear of an exercised musician can alone distinguish such sounds as follow one another at the ru'.e of 9 or 10 in a se- cond, or any slower rate ; and therefore, for a distinct perception of the direct and reflected sound, there should intervene the interval of 1 of a second; but in this time sound describes g- or 127 feet nearly. And therefore, unless i|n- sum of the lines drawn from each of the obi to tlie points A and I! exceeds the interval AH b) KT feet, no echo will be heard at, II. Sun e tin several sums of the I'nes drawn from the obstacles to the points \ and B are of the same magnitude, it ap- pears that the curve passing- thro 1 the points. ( \ l ), K, F, G, II, l,,Vc. will be an ellipse. Hence all the points of the obstacles which produce an echo ACOUSTICS. lie in the surface of the oblong spheroid, generated by the revolution of this ellipse round its major axis. See Coxic SEC- TIONS. As there may be several sphe- roids of different magnitudes, so there may be several different echoes of the same original sound. And as there may happen to be agreaternumberofreflecting points in the surface of an exterior sphe- roid than in that of an interior, a second or a third echo may be much more powerful than the first, provided that the superior number of reflecting points, that is, the superior number of reflecting pulses pro- pagated to the ear, be more than sufficient to compensate for the decay of sound which arises from its being propagated through a greater space. This is finely illustrated in the celebrated echoes at the lake of Killarney, in Kerry, where the first return of the sound is much inferior in strength to those which immediately suc- ceed it. From what has been laid down it appears, that, for the most powerful echo, the sounding body should be in one focus of the ellipse, which is the section of the echoing spheroid, and the hearer in the other. However, an echo may be heard in o.her situations, though not so favourably ; as such a number of reflect- ed pulses may arrive at the same time at the ear, as may be sufficient to excite a distinct perception. 1 hus a person often hears the echo of his own voice ; but for this purpose he should stand at least 63 or 64 feeL from the reflecting- obstacle, according to what has been said before. if a beU, a, fig. 5, be struck, and the undulations of the air strike the wal! c d in a perpendicular direction, they will be reflected back in the same line ; and if a person be situated between a and r, as at j; he would hear the sound of :he bell by means of the undulations as they went to the wall, and he would hear it again as they came back, after the reflection, which would be the echo of the sound. So a person standing at x might, in speaking in the direction of the wall c d, hear the echo of his own voice. But in both cases the distance c x must be 63 or 64 feet. If the undulations strike against the wall oblique- ly, they will be reflected off obliquely on the other side ; if, for instance, a person stand at m, and there be any obstacle be- tween that place and the bell, so as to pre- vent him hearing the direct sound, he may nevertheless hear the echo from the wall c d, provided the direct sound fall in that sort of oblique direction, so as to force the reflected undulations along the lime c m. At the common rate of speaking, we do not pronounce above three syllables and a half, that is, seven half syllables in a se- cond ; therefore,that the echo may return just as soon as three syllables are ex- pressed, twice the distance of the speaker from the reflecting object must be equal to 1000 feet; for as sound describes 1142 feet in a second, 6-7ths of that space, thai is, lOOu feet nearly ,will be described while six half, or three whole, syllables are pro- nounced ; that is, the speaker must stand near 500 feet from the obstacle. And, in general, the distance of the speaker from the echoing surface, for any number of syllables, must be equal to the seventh part of the product of 1142feet multiplied by that number. In churches we never hear a distinct echo of the voice, but a confused sound, when the speaker utters his words too rapidly ; because the great- est difference of distance between the di- rect and reflected courses of such a num- ber of pulses as would produce a distinct sound is never in any church equal to 127 feet, the limit of echoes. But though the first reflected pulses may produce no echo, both on account of their being too few in number, and too rapid in their return to the ear, yet it is evident, that the reflect- ing surface may be so formed, as that the pulses wliich come to the ear, after two reflections or more, may, after having de- scribed 127 feet or more, arrive at the ear in sufficient numbers, and also so nearly at the same instant, as to produce an echo, though the distance of the reflecting sur- face from the ear be less than the limit of echoes. This is confirmed by a singular echo in a grotto on the banks of the little brook called the Dinan, about two miles from Castlecomber, in the county of Kil- kenny. As you enter the cave, and con- tinue speaking loud, no return of the voice is perceived; but on your arriving at a certain point, which is not above 14 or 15 feet from the reflecting surface, a very distinct echo is heard. Now this echo cannot arise from the. first course of pul- ses that are reflected to the ear, because the breadth of the cave is so small, that they would return too quickly to produce a distinct sensation from that of the origi- nal sound: it therefore is produced by those pulses, which, after having been re- flected several times from one side, of the grotto to the other, and having run over a greater space than 127 feet, arrived at the ear in considerable numbers, and not more distant from each other in point of time than the ninth part of a second. M, De la Grange demonstrated, that all im- pressions are reflected by an obstacle ter- ACOUSTICS. jiiinatingftn clastic fluid, with the same ve- locity with which thev arrived at that ol). When the walls of a passage, or of an unfurnished room, arc smooth, and pc -rtecth parallel, any explosion, or a stamping 1 with the foot, coniinunir-. impression to the air, which is reflected from one wall to the other, and from the second again towards the ear, nearly in the same direction with the primitive im- pulse : this takes place as frequently in a second, as double the breadth of the pas- sage is contained in 1130 feet; and the ear receives a perception of a musical sound, thus determining its pitch by the breadth of the passage. On making the experiment, the- result will be found accurately to agree with this explanation. If the sound is predetermined, and the fre- quency of vibrations such, as that each pulse, when doubly reflected, may coin- cide with the subsequent impulse, pro- pceding directly from the sounding body, the intensity of the sound will be much m< Teased by the reflection; and also, in H less degree, if the reflected pulse coin- cides with the next but one, the next but two, or more of the direct pulses. The ap- propriate notes of a room may readily be discovered by singing the scale in it; and they will be found to depend on the pro- portion ofitslengthorbreadth to 1130feet. B\ altering our situation in a room, and expressing a sound, or hearing the sound of another person, in different situations, or when different objects are alternate'/ placed in the room, that sound may be heard louder or weaker, and more ->r less distinct. Hence it is, that blind persons, who are under the necessity- of paying great attention to the perceptions of their seiiM- of hearing, acquire i he habit of dis- tinguishing, from the .sound even of their own voices, whether a room is empty or furnished ; whether the windows are open er shut : and sometimes they can even dis- tinguish whether ar.\ pel-sou be in the room or not A great deal of furniture in a room checks, in a great measure, the sounds that are produced in it, for they hinder the free communication of the \ i- brations of the air from one part of the room to the other. The fittest rooms for declamation, or tor m" nch as contain few ornaments that obstruct the sound, and at the same time have the least echo possible. A strong and continued sound fatigues the ear. The strokes of heavy hammers, *f artillen, &c. are apt to make people deaf for a time : and it has been known that persons who have been long exposed to the continued and confused noise of cef- tain manufactories, or of water-falls <>; other noisy places, can hear what >s spo- ken to them much beMer in the midst of that noise than elsewhere. We shall conclude this article with an experiment or two, for the amusement of the younger part of our readers. Experiment 1. Place a concave mir. ror, AB, fig. 6, of two feet in diameter, in a perpendicular direction, and at the dis- tance of about five or six feet from a par- tition EF, in which there is an opening equal in size to the mirror ; against this opening must be placed a picture, painted in water-colours, on a thin cloth, that the sound may easily pass through it. Be- hind the partition, at the distance of a few feet, place another mirror (ill, of the same. si/.e as the former, and directly opposite to it. At the point C is to be placed the figure of a man, seated on a pedestal, u ith his ear exactly in the focus of the first mirror; his lower jaw must be made to open by a wire, and shut by a spring. The wire must pass through the figure, and under the floor, to come up behind the partition. Let a person, properly in- structed, be placed behind the partition, nearthe mim>r; any OIK- ma\ now wh'.sjie-,- into the ear of the image, with the assur- ance of beinganswered. The deception Is managed by giving a signal to the person behind the partition, who, by placing his ear to the focus I of the mirror Gil, will hear distinctly what the other said, and moving 1 the jaw of the statue by the concealed wire, will return the answer directly, which will be heard distinctly by thefirst speaker. Ex.2. Let two heads of plaster f Pa- ris be placed on pedestals, on opposite sides of a room. A tin tube of an inch in diameter must pass from the car of one headthrough the pedestal underthe floor, and gx> up to the mouth of the other. When a person speaks low into the ear of one bust, the sound is reverberated- through the length of the tube, and will In- distinctly heard by any one who shall place his ear to the mouth of the other. The end of the tube \\ hicli is next the ear of the one head should be considerably larger tlian that end which comes to the mouth of the other. If there be two tubes, one going to the ear, and the other to the mouth of each head, two persons may converse together, by appKing their mouth and ear reciprocally to the month and ear of the busts, while other people, standing in the middle of the room, l>c- t\\ ecu the heads, will not hew any part of ACR ACIl Ex. ;5. Fig. 7 is a representation of the Eolian harp, which was probably invented by Kircher This instrument ma}' be made by almost any carpenter; it con- sists ofa long narrow box of very thin deal, about five or six inches broad, and two incites deep, witli a circle in the middle of the upper side, of an inch and a half in diameter, in which is drilled small holes. On this side seven, ten, or more strings of very fine gut are stretched over bridg- es at each end, 'ike the bridge of a fiddle, and screwed up or relaxed with screw- pins. The strings are all tuned to one and the same note ; and the instrument is placed in some current of air, where the wind can pass over its strings with free- dom. A window, of which the width is exactly equal to the length of the harp, with the sash just raised to give the air admission, is a proper situation. \Vhen the air blows upon these strings with dif- ferent degrees of force, it will excite dif- ferent tones of sound ; sometimes the blast brings out all the tones in full con- cert, and sometimes it sinks them to the softest murmurs. There are different kinds of these in- struments; one, invented by the Rev. W. Jones, has the strings fixed to a sounding- board, or belly, within a wooden case, and the wind is admitted to them through an horizontal aperture. In this form the instrument is portable, and may be used any where in the open air. The tension of the strings must not be great, as the air, if gentle, has not sufficient power to make them vibrate, and if it blows fresh, the instrument does not sing, but scream. See HAHMOXICS. ACQUITTAL, in law, is a deliverance or settingfree from the suspicion of guilt ; as one who is discharged of a felony is said to be acquitted thereof. Acquittal is either in fact, or in law ; in fact, it is where a person, on a verdict of the jury, is found not guilty ; in law, it is when two persons are indicted, one as a principal, &c. the other as accessary : here, if the former be discharged, the latter of consequence is acquitted. ACQUITTANCE, a discharge in wri- ting for a sum of money, witnessing that the party is paid the same. A man is obliged to give an acquittance on receiving money : and a servant's ac- quittance for money received for the use of his muster shall bind him, provided the servant used to receive his master's rents. An acquittance is a full discharge, and bars all actions, &c. ACRID^E, in entomology, the name by which Linnteus has distinguished the first family of the gryilus, or the cricket, pro- perly so called : the characters of which are, that the head is conical and longer than the thorax, and the antenna: ensiform, or sword-shaped. Of this family there art eight species, none of which are found i Britain. The insects of this family feed on other insects. See GKYLLVS. ACROCHOHDUS, in natural history, a. genus of the class Amphibia, and of the order Serpents. There are but three spe- cies, viz. A. javanicus, waited snake, brown, beneath paler ; the sides obscurely variegated with whitish. It inhabit s .1 tv\ a. chiefly among the pepper plantations ; grows sometimes to seven feet long. The warts, by means of a magnifying glass, appear to be convex carinate scales, and the smaller ones are furnished with two smaller prominence's, one each side tht- larger. Head somewhat flattened, hardly wider than the neck, body gradually thicker towards the middle, and suddenly contracting near the tail, which is short. and slightly acuminate. A. dubius. which very nearly resembles the javani- cus, except that me head is covered with very minute, rough and warted scales, differing in size alone from those on the other part of the animal. The dubius measures only about three feel in length. A specimen is to be seen in the British Museum. Its native place is not ascer- tained. A. fasciatus, resembles the du- DMU so much, that some naturalists sup- pose them both to be of the same species, and differing only in age and cast of co- lour*. The spec'imc-ii in the British Mu- seum is about eighteen inches long. Set- plate Serpentes, fig. 1. ACRONICHAL, or ACHRONYCAL, in as- tronomy, an appellation given to the ris- ing ofa star above the horizon, at sunset ; or to its setting when thu sun rises. A- cronichal is one of the three poetical ris- ings of a star : the other two being called cosmiciil and helical. This term is also applied to the superi- or planets, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, when they are come to the meridian of" midnight. AcilOSTERMUM, in botany, a genus of the Cryptogamia Fungi class and or- der; fungus quite simple, nearly erect, emitting the seeds exteriorly from the. top. There are four species. ACROSTIC L'M, ntstii-btickt miff-rue, or forked-fern , in botany, a genus of the Cr\ p- togamia Filices ; the character of which is, that the fructifications COM r the whok inferior surface of the leaf. There an ACT ACT 4J species, distributed into different class- s. Few ot'tli<- sp.-ries have been intro- duced into gardens Those of Europe may be preserved in pots, filled with gra- vel and lime-rubbish, or planted on walls rind artificial rocks; but most of them, being- natives of i t ry hot < limaies, must be phmted in pots, and plunged into the bark pit. U;T.i:.\, in botany, a genus of plants of the Poly and ria Monogynia class and order. (Jen character : calyx perianth, four-leaved; leaflets roundish, obtuse, concave, caducous; cor. petals four, acu- minate at both ends, larger than tin ca- lyx ; filaments about JO ; germ superi- or ovate ; no style ; stigma thickish, ob- liquel) depressed ; pericarp a hern, oval- globose, snuKith, one-furrow ed, one cell- ed ; seeds very i"unv, semi-orbicular, lying u\, [ each other in two rows. There arc four species, viz. the spicata ; raccmosa ; japoniea ; and aspera. Of the first there are varieties, of the black-berried herb Christopher, or bane-hem, found in the northern parts of England; the Christo- pher, \\ ith white berries, a native of Ame- rica; and that with red berries. The nteemosa, or black snake-root, found also in America, of which the root is much used in many disorders, and is supposed to be an antidote against the bite of the rattle-snake, Tliis species is now more properly referred to the genus Cimifii^n, and is called by Pursh Cimifuga Serpen- taria. See Ci.MiFro.t. The leaves of the A. aspera, beingextremely i-ough,tle Chi- nese use them in polishing their tin ware. ACTINIA, in natural history, a genus of tlu- Mollusca order of worms ; the cha- racters of which are, body oblong, cylin- drical, fleshy, contractile, fixed by the base; mouth terminal, expansile, sur- rounded with numerous cirri, and without any aperture. There are 36 species. These marine animals are viviparous, and ha\e no aperture but the mouth. Tin on s!iell-fish and other marine animals, which they draw in with their feelers, in a short time rejecting through the Mine aperture the shells and indigestible parts. They assume various forms, and where the tentacula or feelers are all expanded, have the appearance of full-blown flow- ers. Mum of them are eatable, and some of them i cry sapid. ACTLNOI.ITK, in mineralogy, a family, comprehending six species, vi/. the acti- nolilc,smanu;ditc, tremol'.te, cyan lite, and schalstonc. Tin- aetinolite oc- curs chiefly in beds in primitive moun- tains and is divided into three siib-sm- cic-s. viz. the asbestos, common and The asbestos colours greenish grey, moun- tain grc en, smelt biac, olive given, \ei- i'uvish, and liver-brown ' and in capillary crystals. Soft ; brittle ; specific gravity 2.5 to 2.y. Melts before the blow- pipe. The usual colour of the common is leek green, but its specific gravity is between 3.0 *nd 3.3. The principal co- lour of the glassy is mountain green, pass- ing to the emerald green. Spec. fie gra vity J.9 to o.9. ACTION, in mecluvnics and phv the influence of one body upon another, in gnu-rating or destroying its motion. It is one of the laws of nature, that ac- tion and reaction are equal, that is, the resistance of the body moved is always equal to the force communicatcdto it : or, which is tile same thing, the moving body loses as much of its force as it commu- - to the body moved. If a body be urged by equal and con- trary actions or pressures, it will remain at rest. But if one of these pressures be greater than its opposite, motion will en- sue toward the parts least pressed. It is to be observed, that the i.ctions of bodies on each other, in a space that is carried uniformly forward, are the same as if the space were at rest; and any powers or motions that act upon all bodies, so as to produce equal velocities in them in the same, or in parallel right lines, have no effect on their mutual actions, or rela- tive motions. Thus the motion of bodies aboard a ship, that is carried steadily and uniformly forward, are performed in the same manner as if the ship was at rest. The motion of the earth round K has no eflect on the actions of bodies and agents at its surface, but so fur as it is not uniform and rectilineal. In general, the actions of bodies upon each other depend not on theiraA*o/T/f, but relatit-g motion. ACTION, in law, denotes either the right of demanding, in a legal manner, what is any man's due, or the process brought for the recovering the same. Actions are either criminal or civil Criminal actions are to have judgment ii, asappcals of death, robbery, Xe. or only judgment for damage to the in- jured party, fine to the king, and impri- sonment. I nderthe head of criminal actio: likewise be ranked penal actions, which lie for some penalty orpunishment on the -ued, whether it be corporal or pe- cuniary. Also actions upon the statute, brought on breach of any %i>ite. o- act of parlin- ACT ADA nient, by which an action is given that did not lie before ; as where a person com- mits perjury to the prejudice of another, the injured party shall have an action up- on the statute. And lastly, popular ac- tions, so called, because any person may bring 1 them on behalf of himself and the crown, by information, &c. for the breach of M>me penal statute. Civil actions are divided into real, per- sonal, and mixed. Real action, is that whereby a man claims a title, lands, tenements, &c. in fee, orfor life, and this action is either posses- sory, or ancestral; possessory, where the lands are a person's own possession or seisin; ancestral, when they were of the possession or seisin of his ance store. Personal action, is one brought by one man against another, upon any contract for money or goods, or on account of tres- pass, or other offence committed ; and thereby the debt, goods, chattels, &.c. claimed. Mixt action, one lying as well for the thingdemanded as against the person who has it ; and on which the thing is recover- ed, with damages forthe wrong sustained; such'is an action of waste, sued against a tenant for life, the place wasted being re- coverable, with treble damages for the wrong done. ACTS of parliament, statutes, acts, edicts, made by the king, with the advice and consent of the lords spiritual and tem- poral, and commons, in parliament ass> m- bled. An act of parliament is the highest possible authority, and hath powertobind not only every subject, but the king him- self, if particularly named therein, and cannot be altered or repealed but by the same authority. Where the common law and the statute law differ, the common law gives place to the statute, and an old statute gives pkce to a new one. Penal statutes must be construed strictly ; thus a statute of Edw. I. having enacted, that those convicted of stealing horses should not have the benefit of clergy, the judges conceived that this did not extend to him that should steal but one horse, and a new act for that purpose was passed in the fol- lowing year. Statutes against frauds are tobe liberally and beneficially expounded. One part of a statute must be construed by another, that the whole may, if possi- ble, stand ; a saving clause totally rcprg- nantto the body of the act. If a statute that repeals another is itself repealed af- terwards, the first statute is hereby re- vived. Acts of parliament derogatory from the powerof subsequent parliaments bind not. Acts of parliament, that are impossible to be performed, are of no va- lidity. ACULEATE, or ACULEATED, an ap- pellation given to any thing that has acu- lei, or prickles : thus fishes are divided into those with aculeated and not aculea- ted fins. Tht same term is applied, in botany, to the stems and branches of those plants that are furnished with prickles, as the rose, the raspberry, and barberry trees. The prickle differs from the thorn, which is another species of armature, or defence, against animals, in being only a prolonga- tion of the cortex or outer bark of the plant, and not connected with nor protru- ded from the wood. This is apparent, from the ease with which such prickles are detached from the stem with the bark, while the other and more rigid species of weapon, being an expansion of the ligne- ous body, cannot be detached, without ren- dering and tearing the substance of the wood. Prickles are either straight, as in the solanum indicum ; or bent inwards, as inthe mimosacineraria; orbentoutwards; or downy, that is, covered with a sort of wool. See TonEN-mr. , ACUMINATE, in natural history, a term applied to fishes whose tails end in a sharp point. AD, a Latin preposition, expressing the relation of one thing to another. It is frequently prefixed to other words : thus, A n hominem, among logicians, an argu- ment drawn from the professed belief or principles of those with whom we argue. AD valorem, among the officers of the king's revenue, a term used for such du- ties, or customs, as are paid according to the value of the goods sworn to by the Owner ADAGIO, in music, signifiesthe second degree of music from slow to quick. It is applied to music not only meant to be performed in slowtime, but also with grace and embellishment. ADAMANTINE spar, in mineralogy-, one of the species of the ruby family, found only in China. Colour dark, hair brown. Massive, crystallized in six-sided prisms, and six-sided pyramids, having their apex truncated. Specific gravity 3.98. SeeRrBT. ADAMBEA, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Monogynia class and order, of which there is but a single species, which grows on the coast of Malabar, in sandy and stony places ; rises to about sevenfeet, andsends forth branches, whick ADD ADH i^rc terminated by panicles of fine purple Howcr-. large, and resembling r> \D\N-II\I\. in botany, a genosofthe Konadelphia order, and Holyandri < named at'.cr Michael Adanson, an inde- fatigable French naturalist. The A. digi- tat.i, F/.h-opean sour-gourd, or monkies' bread, calli-d also abavo, is tin- 01. tviiown of this genus. \DDKi{. Bee Cou nr.n. ADDITION, in arithmetic, the- first of the tour fundamental rules of that art, \\hcivhy we find a sum equal to - smaller ones. Sec A LK KB HA and AIMTII- AntPiTioNs, in law, denote all manner of designations given to a man, over and above his proper name and surname, to shew of \v hat estate, degree, mystcn , plaee of abode, fee. I. Additions of degree are the same with i it 1,-s of honour or dignity, as knight, lord, carl, duke, &c. Additions (if estate are yeoman, gentle- man, esquire, and the like. Additions of mystery, or trade, are, car- penter, mason, painter, engraver, and the like. Additions of place, or residence, are, London, Edinburgh, Brwtol, York, Glas- gow, Aberdeen, These additions \\t_re ordained, to pre- vent one man's being grieved, or molest- ed, for another: and that even person might be certainly known, so as to b-arhis own bnr.i It'.! man is of different degrees, as duke, . he shall have the most worth); and the title of knigli', or baronet, is part of the par'\\ name, and th- rcfore ought to be righ'.K used; whereas that of es- quire, or gentleman, being as people- please to rail them, may he used, or not, or varied a' A Peer of Ire-land is no addition of ho- nour here- ; nay, the law-addition to tin- children of Hritish noblemen is only that ruire, commonlj culled lord. Wnts without the pi-. ons, if cxccpted to, shall aba'e ; onh , wlier- the - of outlawry do-h iitions are no: necessary. The a Idliuin nt'u pa- rish, not in any c';i\,m,isi mention the county, otherwise i' is not good. AiinrrniN, in hcraldrv, sometliing added to a coat of arms, as :i mark of ho- nour; and therefore directly oppc abatement. ADDITTOK, in anatomy, a general name for all such muscles as sen e to draw one part of the body towards ajio(Ju ADELTA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Gynandria caly\ lh ininii i "nale : calx X five-parted ; no Co ' liree. I ADKNANTHKHA, in bo'. am, a genus of the Decandra MonogA'nia c: plants,tbec.il\ xofwhi' : perianthium, very small, and cm into five > of live lan- d bell-shaped petals ; the fr'lir is n long merobranaceons compressed pod, containing several w.nd seeds, are three speeii-s: A. paronina, which is one oftlie 1 .. Indies. Its duration is _' j() \ eai-s, and its timber is much used on account of its solidity : the powder of the. lea'- -'i their reli- gious ceremonies ; the a-i:l also valued as \veiu'' ; . acli of them fo-.ii- ji-iMMi--,. Tiii.s species must be on a hot-bed from seeds. It has never flowered in Kngland : it is of very slow growth. The other species, vi/. the A. falcata, and A. srandens, have not been cultivated in this co,mtr\. Vhl'.MA, in botain, a genus of the fle\andr'>:i Monogynia c.lass and order, that grows in Anii)ia. There is but one spi cies, which is mentioned by Forska!. in his Flor. .-l-'.gypt. Me says, that the pov. der of the young branches mi vd in an\ k'nul of lipli rding to an experiment of Dcsagulieis, adhere to each other with a ton e equal to 19 ounces on a surface of contact one-tenth of an inch in diameter; or between solids and fluids, as the sus- ADH ADI pension of water in capillary tubes ; r, lastly, between two fluids, as oil and wa- ter. About the same time Mr. Hauksbee proved, experimentally, the error which Bernoulli had fallen into, in attributing 1 tin- ;idbes : r,n of surfaces :ind capillary at- traction to the pressure of the atmo- sphere. Nevertheless, in 1772, M. M. La Grange and Cigna, takingforgranteda natural repulsion between water and oily substanrcs. imagined, if there was an ad- hesion between water and o : l, or tallow, that it must be occasioned by a cause dif- ferent from attraction : and having ascer- tained the reality of the ndhesion, they concluded that it was occasioned by the pressure of the air, and that l>r. Taylor's method was not well founded. Such was the state of opinions on the subject, when, in 1773, Guyton Morveau made his celebrated experiments on ad- hesion, in presence of the Dijon Acadenn, demonstrating-, as indeed Hauksbee had done before him, not only that water as- rends between two parallel plates of tal- iow, separated from each other 1.8 of a line, but also that the a+mospheric pres- sure is not in the least degree the cause of the phenomenon, which is solely attribut- able to attraction ; in proof of this, a po- lished disk of glass, 30 lines in diameter, was suspended to the arm of a balance, and brought into contact with the surface of mercury: the counterpoise required to separate it was equivalent to 9 gros and a few grains, and upon moving the apparatus imo the receiver of an air- pump, and forming as perfect a vacuum as possible, precisely the same counter- poise was required as before. In the prosecution of his inquiries on this subject, he observed, that the same disk of glass, which, when in contact with pure water, adhered to it with a force equal to 258 grains, required a counter- poise of only 210, in order to separate it from a solution of potash, not withstanding the superior density of this last. This inequality of effects on equal diameters, and in an inverse order to that of the respective specific gravities of the two fluids, appeared not only to be decisive in favour of Dr. Taylor's method, but to en- courage the hope of applying it to the calculation of chemical affinities. In order to verify this proposition, plates of the different metals in their highest state of purity were procured, perfectly round, an inch in diameter, of the same thickness, well polished, and furnished with a small ring in the centre of each, so as to keep them suspended precisely parallel to the plane of the hori- zon. Each of these plates was in turn suspended to the arm of an assay balance, and exactly counterpoised by weights placed in the scale attached to the oppo- site arm ; the plate, thus balanced, was applied to the surface of some mercury in a cup, about two lines beneath it, by sliding the plate over the mercury, as in the silvering of mirrors, so as to exclude every bubble of air; weights were then successively added, till the adhesion be- tween the plntc uud the mercury was broken. {':-. s'l ui'-miry w:is used lor each experiment. The following is the table of results : Gold adheres to mercury \\ith a force equal to . . . 446giain8. Silver .... . . 429 Tin 418 Lead 397 Bismuth . ?,7'2 Zinc 204 Copper 142 Antimony (regains) . . .. 126 Iron 115 Cobalt. . 8 The striking differences in the above table shew that the pressure of the at- mosphere has no share in them, since in this respect the circumstances of each were precisely similar; nor do they de- pend on the respective specific gravities ; for if so, silver should rank after lead, cobalt before zinc, and iron before tin. The only order which agrees with the abovt is that of the chemical affinity of these metals, or the respective degrees of their solubility in mercury. It is highly probable, therefore, that at least the prin- cipal part of the adhesive force thus found by experiment is owing to chemical affi- nity ; and that the above numerical series, 446, 429, 418, 397, Sec. is an approxima- tion towards the ratio of the relative af- finities of gold, silver, tin, lead, &c. for mercury. AD1ANTHUM, Maidenhair, in botany,, the name of a genus of plants of the Cryptogamia Filices class and order, the characters of which are, that the fructifi- cations are collected in oval spots at the ends of the leaves, which are folded back. There are forty -'our species, of which one only belongs to Great Britain, \r/.. the A. capillus veneris, which is found rarely in Scotland and Wales, on rocks and moist walls, and which is a native of the south of Europe and the Levant. From this the syrup ofcapil'.aire is made. Another species, the Adianthum pedatum, was formerly esteemed as a valuable article ADIPOCIRE. of the M:iti-riu Medica. It has, however, fallen into disrepute. M)ll'0( I UK, isaterrnformedofadeps, fat, and cent, wax, :ind denotes a sub- stance, the nature and origin of which are thus explained. The changes which ani- mal matter undergoes in its progress to- <>t:i| decomposition have been, for many obvious reasons, but little attended to. But an opportunity of this kind was offered at Paris in 1786 and 1787, when the old burial ground of the Innocens \v:is laid out for building' \ipon, in conse- quence of which, the surface soil, and the animal remains contained therein, were removed. This cemctry having been for ages appropriated to the reception of the dead, in one of the most populous districts of 1'aris, was eminently well calculated to exhibit the various process- es of animal decomposition ; another fa- vourable circumstance was, that it con- tained several of those large pits (fosses communes) in which the bodies of the poor are deposited by hundreds. These pits are cavities 30 feet deep, with an area of 20 feet square, in which the shells con- taining- the bodies are closely packed in rows over each other, without any inter- mediate earth, and with only a slight su- perficial covering of soil, not more than a foot thick : each pit contained from 1200 to 1500 bodies, and maybe considered as .1 mass of animal matter of the dimensions above mentioned. M. M. Fourcroy and Thou ret were present at the opening of several of these receptacles; and it is from a memoir by the. former of these, that the principal part of this article is composed. The first pit that was exam- ined had been filled and closed up fifteen years before ; on opening some of the coffins (forthe wood was still quite sound, only tinged of a yellow colour) the bodies were found within shrunk, so as to leave * considerable vacant space in the upper part of the coffin, and flattened, as if they had been subject to a strong compression ; the linen which covered them adhered flrmly, and upon being removed, present- ed to view only irregular masses of a soft, ductile, greyish-\\ bite matter, appa- rently intermediate between fat and \\ a\ ; the bones were enveloped in this, and were found to he very brittle. The bo- dies, thus changed, being but little offen- sive to the smell, a great numbt r were dug up and minutely examined : in some this alteration had, u jet, only partiallv taken place, the remains of muscular fi- bres being still visible ; hut where the VOL ! conversion had been complete, the bones throughout the whole body were found co- vered with this grey substance, generally soft and ductile, sometimes dry, but always readily separating into porous cavernous* fragments, without the slightest trace of -., membranes, vessels, tendons, or the ligaments of the articulations had been in like manner changed; the connexion between the bones was destroy- ed, and these last had become so yielding, that the grave-diggers, in order to remove the bodies more conve.nieinly, rolled each upon itself from head to heels, without any difficulty. According to the testi- mony of these men, to whom the facts just mentioned had been long familiar, this conversion of animal matter is never observed in those bodies that are interred singly, but always takes place in the foss- es communes: to effect this change, nearly three years are required. The soapy matter of latest formation is soft, very ductile, light, and spongy, and con- tains water ; in 30 or 40 years it becomes much drier, more brittle, and assumes the appearance of dense laminx, and where the surrounding earth has been drier than usual, it is sometimes semi- transparent, of a gramdated texture, brittle, and bears a considerable resem- blance to wax. Animal matter, having once passed into this stage of decompo/i- tion, appears to resist fora longtime any further alteration: some of these pit* that had been closed above 40 ye are were, upon examination, found to be little else than a solid mass of soapy matter; nor is it yet ascertained, how long in common circumstances it would contin ue unchang- ed, the burial ground of the Innocens be- ing so small, in comparison to the popula- tion of the district, as to requiiv each pit in 30 or 40 years to be emptied of its contents, in order to receive anew suc- cession of bodies : it appears, however, that the ulterior changes depend in a great measure on the quantity of moisture draining through the mass. From the history of this singular substai: proceed to an examination of its chemical properties. It was first, however, puri- fied by gently heating in an sel, till it became of a pasty consistence, and then rubbed through a fine hah; sieve, by which means the hair. bones, and remains of the muscular fibre, paraied with tolerable exactness, lit this state, being exposed in an earthen vessel to the naked fire, it readily became soft, but did not liquify without consider- r> ADI ADJ able difficulty, rather frying as a piece of soap would do, and disengaging at the same time ammoniacal vapours. Four pounds being 1 put into a glass retort, and submitted to slow distillation in a water bath, afforded in the space of three weeks eight ounces of a clear watery fluid, with a fetid odour, turning syrup of violets green, and manifestly containing ammonia in solution ; the soapy matter remaining in the retort had acquired a greater con- sistence, was become less fusible, of a deeper brown colour, and, upon cooling, was evidently drier than before, though not admitting of being broken. Eight ounces of soapy matter, white and puri- fied, were mixed with an equal weight of powdered quick lime ; on the addition of a little water, the mass heated, swelled, and disengaged a very strongly ammoni- acal vapour, accompanied by a peculiar putrescent smell ; a sufficiency of water being then added, to bring the whole to the state of an emulsion, it was heated to ebullition, much ammoniacal vapour es- caping at the same time ; the liquor being thrown on a filter, passed perfectly clear and colourless, and appeared to be only lime-water, with a very small quantity of oap in solution : the matter remaining on the filter, being well washed, was beat- en up with water, but shewed no tenden- cy to unite with it, subsiding after a time in the form of a white mass; this, by dry- ing for a few days in the open air, became grey, and much reduced in volume : it w:m then mixed with diluted muriatic acid, which immediately decomposed it, and a number of white clots rose to the surface of the liquor. This last being obtained clear by fihration,yielded crystals of muriat of lime, and a slight trace of phosphoric salt; the white clots being washed and dried, and afterwards melted in a water bath, cooled into a dry, com- bustible, oily matter, brittle, waxy, crys- tallizable, and perfectly insoluble in wa- ter, to which the name of adipocire has been appropriated. From this series of experiments with lime, it appears that the soapy matter is a true ammoniacal soap, with a base of adipocire, to which lime has a stronger affinity than ammo- nia; but which last composition is again in its turn decomposed by all the acids, leavingthe adipocire in a state of purity. Potash and soda produce effects perfectly analogous to these of lime. To the fore- going experiments of Fourcroy, a few facts have since been added by Dr. Gib- hes. The receptacle at Oxford for those bodies, which have been used by the ana- tomical professor there for his demonstra- tions, is a hole dug in the ground to the depth of thirteen or fourteen feet, and a little stream is turned through it, in or- der to remove all offensive smell : the flesh contained in this was found, on ex- amination, to be quite white, and for the most part changed into the soapy matter above mentioned. From this hint, pieces of lean beef were enclosed in a perforated box, and placed in running water, and at the end of a month were found converted into a mass of fatty matter; this change was observed to take place much sooner, and more completely, in running than in stagnant water: in order to get rid of the foetid smell, nitrous acid was had recourse to, which immediately had the desired effect; a waxy smell was perceived, and by melting the matter it was obtained nearly pure; the yellow colour, which had been given to it by the nitrous acid, was wholly discharged by the oxymuriatic acid. A similar conversion of muscular fibre takes place by maceration in very diluted nitrous acid. Dr. Gibbes has not mentioned whether the fatty matter pro- duced by running water is pure adipocire ^ or ammoniacal soap : it appears proba- ble, however, that it is in the former state; where nitrous acid is the men- struum employed, it is obviously impossi- ble that the adipocire should be combined with an alkali. ADIT of a Mine, the hole or aperture whereby it is entered and dug, and by which the water and ores are carried away; it is distinguished from the air- shaft. The adit is usually made on the- side of a hill, towards the bottom, about four or six feet high, and eight wide, in form of an arch ; sometimes cut into the rock, and sometimes supported with tim- ber, so conducted, as that the sole or bottom of the adit may answer to the bot- tom of the shaft, only somewhat lower, that the water may have a sufficient cur- rent to pass away without the use of the pump. ADJUTAGE, or AJUTAGE, in hydrau- lics, the tube fitted to the mouth of a pipe through which a fountain plays. See HrniiAULics. ADJUTANT, in the military art, an officer whose business is to assist the major, and therefore sometimes called the aid-major. \TavtATFT-fenerait an officer of dis- tinction, who assists the general in his la- borious duty : he forms the several dc ADM ADO toils of the duty of the army \vitli the- bri- gade majors, :uul - :countof the slate of each brigade and regiment. In i In- day of battle lie sets the infantry draw 11 tip, aft<-r which he places himself by the- side ' ;:!, to receive or- '!! SeVCl'.'l !i urdi rs, and lias .eh brigade to carry any v iiich lie ir.ay hv, < to send. ADMI. AM K'l.MKNT, in law, a writ for adjusting the shares of something to be divided. Thus, admeasurement of dower . when tin- widow of the ;ise, and their apex reflex and prominent. There are six species, vi/. the A. xsthalis, or tall, which is a native of the southern countries of Kurope, where it grows among corn : the A. autumnalis, or com- mon, which are found in Kent, near the Medway, in fields sown with wheat: the flowers are brought in great quantities to London, where they are sold under the name of lied Morocco: this is an- nual, and flowers from Ma\ to October: A. vernulit;, or spring adonis, is found in Swit/erland, Prussia, and some parts of (ierinany : A. apcnnina is found wild in Siberia: A. vescatoria, or blister adonis. ADV and the A. capensis, are used by the Af- ricans for raising blisters. To these have been added two other species, viz. the miniata and the flammea. ADOXA, in botany, a genus of the Oc- tandria Tetragynia class of plants, the corolla of which is plain, and consists of a single petal, divided into four oval acute segments, longer than the cup ; the fruit is a globose berry, situated between the calyx and corolla ; the calyx adheres to its under part; the berry is umbilicated, and contains four cells ; the seeds are single and compressed. There is but a single species, viz. the A. moschatellina, bulbous fumitory, which grows naturally in shady places and woods, as . in Hamp- stead and Charlton woods ; it is peren- nial; flowers in April and May. The leaves soon after decay, and the flowers smell like musk, on which account it has sometimes been called musk-crowfoot. AD QUOD D AMIS' UM, in law, a writ which ought to be issued before the king 1 grants en-tain liberties, as a fair, market, or the like ; ordering the sheriff to in- quire by the country what damage such a grant is like to be attended with. ADRIFT, in naval affairs, the state of a vessel broken loose from her moorings, and driven to and fro by the winds or waves. ADVERB, adverbium, in grammar, a word joined to verbs, expressing the man- ner, time, &c. of an action; thus, in the phrase, it is conducive to health to rise early, the word early is an adverb ; and so of others. ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, was a book of accounts, not unlike our journals or day books. ADVERSARIA is more particularly used, among men of letters, for a kind of com- mon-place book, whereinthey enter what- ever occurs to them worthy of notice, whether in reading or conversation, in the order in which it ocelli's : a method which Morbof prefers to that of digesting them under certain heads. ADVOCATE, Lord, one of the officers of state in Scotland, who pleads in all causes of the crown, or wherein the king is concerned. The lord advocate sometimes happens to be one of the lords of session ; in which case, lie only pleads in the king's causes. AD VOW SON. in law, is the right of patronage, or presenting to a vacant be- nefice. Advowaons are either appendant, or in gross. Appendant advowsons ur those which depend on a manor, or lands, and pass as appurtenances of the same : whereas advowson in gross is a right of presentation subsisting by itself, belong- ing to a person, and not to lands. In either case, advowsons arc no less the property of the patrons than their landed estate : accordingly, they may be granted away by deed or will, and are assets in the hands of executors. How- ever, Papists and Jews, seized of any ad- vowsons, are disabled from presenting ; the right of presentation being in this case transferred to the chancellors of the universities, or the bishop of the diocese. Advowsons are also presentative, colla- tive, or donative. Presentative, where the patron hatha right of presentation to the bishop or ordinary; collative, where the bishop is patron; and donative, where the king, or any subject. This license founds a church or chapel, and ordains that it shall be merely in the gift of the patron. ADZE, a cutting tool, of the axe kind, having its blade thin and arching, and its edge at right angle to the handle ; chiefly used for taking thin chips off timber, &c. It is used by carpenters, but more fre- quently by coopers. -SSCIDIUM, in botany, a genus of the Criptogamia Fungi class and order. Its characters are, that it has a membranace- ous sheath, smooth on both sides, and full of naked separate sides. There are 18 species, of which several are found on the leaves of other plants, and one of them is known to agriculturalists by the name of red glim. , This species usually grows upon the inside of the glumes of the calyx, and of the exterior valvule of the corolla, under their epidermes, which, when the plant is ripe, bursts, and emits a powder of a bright orange colour. Other species grow on decaying wood and mosses, and in the leaves of tussilago, farfara, See. vGICERAS,agenus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order : calyx five- cleft ; petals five ; capsule curved ; one- celled ; one-valved ; one-seeded ; two species found in the Moluccas. JEGILOPS, goafs face, in botany, a ge- nus of the Triandria Digynia class and order, and of the natural order of grasses : the characters are, that the hermaphro- dite calyx is a large bivalvular glume, sustaining three flowers ; the valves are ovate, and streaked with various awns : the nectary two-leaved, with very smaJJ jEGO AKR leaflets: the stamina have three capillary filaments with oblong anthers ; tlic pistil- lnni is a turbinate germcn; no pericardi- um ; the seeds are oblong, convex on one side, grooved on the other, with the in- ner valve of the corolla adhering to it, and not opening 1 . There are si \ species. -/EGINKTA, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermiaclassand order: calyx one-leafed, spathaeeous; corolla campanulate, two-lipped; capsule many eelh-d: one species, viz. the IE. Indica, found at Malabar. JEGIPHII.A, frnitt's-frit'iiil, a genus of the Tftrandria Monogynia class and or- der, and the natural order of Vitices: the calyx is aone-leafedpcrmanentpcrianthi- uni; the corolla is one-petalled, and long- er than the calyx ; the stamina are capil- lary filaments, inserted into the mouth of the tube; the pistillum is a roundish su- perior germ, style capillan , de<. ply bifid, and stigmas simple ; the pericarpium is a roundish two-celled hem, surrounded with a permanent calyx; and the seed is cither in pairs or solitary. There are se- ven species, natives of the \V. Indies, i-hieflv of Jamaica. botany, a gcmisof the Poly, andria Monogynia class and order: cal\ \. h've-lobed; petals five; lurry globular, many celled, with numerous seeds in each. One species, vi/. the marmclos, a tree with thorny branches; fruit delicious to the taste, and exquisitely fragrant . imbedded in an extremely tenaceous transparent gluten. JEGOPODTM, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class of plants ; the general corolla whereof is iniiform ; the single flowers consist each of five, oval, concave, and nearly equal petals ; the fruit is naked, ovato-oblong, striated, and separable into two parts; the seeds are two, ovato-oblong, and striated, con- vex on one .side, and plain on the other. There is but one spe< : . poda- graria, gout-weed, which is a perennial, creeping- weed, with white flowers, that appear in May or June. It has been used in eases of spoilt, whence it derives its name. It is noilcd tor greens, : ""' eaten in Sweden; cows, sheep, and goals, eat it. It is found amongrubbish in shady places, and in heiL EGOPRICON, in botany, a genus of (li<- Monandria Trigynia class and order : the male flowers are small, in an ovate ftment; their calyx one-leafed; no corol- la, the stamina of one filament longer than the calyx, with an ovate anther; the fe- male flowers are on the same plant, and solitary; the calyx and corolla are the same as the male; the pistillum ha- ovate superior germ, three divarir styles, with simple permanent .stigmas; the pericardium is a globular berry; the -. arc solitary, and angular on one side. There is but one species, \i^. JE. betulinum, which is a tree very much branched, with wrinkled bark and alter* nate leaves resembling 1 those of the m\ r- tlc. JEOLIPILK, a hollow metalline ball, in which is inserted a slender neck or pipe; from whence, after the vessel has been filled with water, and heated, issues a blast of wind with great vehemence. Great care shoidd be taken, that the aperture of the pipe be. not stopped when the instrument is put on the fire, other- wise the xolipile will burst with a vast explosion, and may occasion no little mis- chief. Dr. Plot gives an instance, where the aolipile is actually used to blow the fire ; the lord of the manor of Eflinglon is bound, by his tenure, to drive a goose every New-year's day three times round the hall of the lord of Hilton, while Jack of Hilton (a bra/en figure having the structure, of an xolipilc) blows the fire. In Italy, it is said, that the xlopileis com- monly made use of to cure smoky chim?. neys; for being- hung over the fire, the blast arising from it carries up the loiter- ing smoke along with it. An aeolipile of great antiquity, made of brass, was lately dug 1 up in the sh" of the Basingstoke canal, and presented to the Antiquarian Society in London. It is not g-lobular, with a bent tube, but in the form of a grotesque human figure, and the blast proceeds from the mouth. JEOLUS'S //>/>, or EOLIAIV harp, a mu- sical instrument, so named from its pro- ducing an agreeable harmony merely by t'ie action of the wind, s ics. .2ERA, a fixedpoint of time, from which any number of years is begun to be rec- / koned. See CIIROMILUKT. V I .KOSTATIOX, in the modern appli- cation of the term, signifies the art of na- vigation through the air, both in its prin- ciples and practice. Hence also the ma- chines which arc employed for this pur- pose- are called . or aerostatic machines; and on account of their round figure, air balloons. Tin fundamental principles of this art ha\e been long and generally known; al- though the application of them to prac- tice seems to be altogether a modern dis- covery. It will be sufficient, therefore, to observe, in this place, that any body, AEROSTATION. v,hicU is specifically, or bulk for bulk, lighter than the atmospheric air encom- passing tlu- earth, will be buoyed up by it, and ascend; but as the density of the atmosphere decreases, on account of the diminished pressure of the superincum- bent air, and the elastic property which it possesses at different elevations above the earth, this body can rise only to a height, in which the surrounding' air will be of the same specific gravity with itself. In this situation it will either float, or be driven in the direction of the windorcur- rentof air,t whiclv-it is exposed. An air- balloon is a body of this kind, the whole mass of which, including its covering and contents, and the several weights annexed to it, is of less specific gravity than that of the air in which it rises. Heat is well known to rarefy and expand, and conse- quently to lessen the specific gravity of the air to which it is applied; and the di- minution of its weight is proportional to the heat. One degree of heat, according to the scale of Fahrenheit's thermometer, seems to expand the air about one four- hundredth part ; and about 400, or rather 435, degrees of heat will just double the bulk of a < (iiantity of air. If, therefore, the air inclosed in any kind of covering be heated, and consequently dilated to such a degree, as that the excess of the weight of an equal bulk of common air, above the weight of the heated air, is greater than the weight of the covering and its appendages, this whole mass will ascend in the atmosphere, till, by the cool- ing and condensation of the included air, or the diminished density of the surround- ing 1 air, it becomes of the same specific gravity with the air in which it floats; and without renewed heat it will gradually descend. If, instead of heating common air inclosed in any covering, and thus di- minishing its weight, the covering be filled with an elastic fluid, lighter than atmo- spheric air, so that the excess of the weight of an equal bulk of the latter, above that of the inclosed elastic fluid, be greater than the weight of the covering and its appendages, the whole mass will, in this case, ascend in the atmosphere, and con- tinue to rise, till it attains aheight at which the surround'ngair is of the same specific gravity with itself. Inflammable air, or, as it is called, hydrogen gas, is a fluid of this kind. For the knowledge of many of its properties we arc indebted to Mr. lien- < ndish, who discovered, that if common air is eight hundred times lighter than water, inflammable air is seven times lighter than common air ; but if common air is eight hundred and fifty times light . f-rthanv /ater, then inflammable air is 10.8 times lighter !h:ui common air. The con- struction of air-h:i!loons depends upon the principles above stated ; and they are of two kinds, as one or the other of the pre- ceding methods of preparing them is adopted. In the various schemes that have been proposed for navigating through the air, some have had recourse to artificial wings, which, being constructed like those of birds, and annexed to the human body, might bear it up, and by their motion, pro- duced either by mechanical springs, or muscular exertion, effect its progress in any direction at pleasure. This is one of the methods of artificial flying suggested by Bishop \Vilkins, in the seventh chapter of his " Dedal us, or Treatise on Mecha- nical Motions;" but the success of it is doubtfid, and experiments made in this way have been few and unsatisfactory. Borelli, havingcomparedthe powerofthe muscles which act on the wings of a bird with that of the muscles of the breast and arms of a man, finds the latter altogether insufficient to produce, by means of any wings, that motion against the air, which is necessary to raise a man in the atmo- sphere. Soon after Mr. Cavendish's dis- covery of the specific gravity of inflam- mable air, itoccurred to the ingenious Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, that if a bladder, sufficiently lightand thin, were filled with this air, it would form a mass lighter than the same bulk of atmospheric air, andrise in it. This thought was suggested in his lectiu'es in 1767 or 1768; and h$ propos- ed, by means of the alantois of a calf, to try the experiment. Overemployments, however, prevented the execution of his design. The possibility of constmcting a vessel, which, when filled with inflam- mable air, would ascend in the atmo- sphere, had occurred also to ^!r. Cavallo, about the same time ; and to him belongs the honour of having first made experi- ments on this subject, in the beginning of the year 1782, of which an account was read to the Royal Society, on the 20th of June in that year. He tried bladders r but the tlu'nnest of these, however, scrap- ed and cleaned, were too heavy. In using China paper, he found that the inflamma- ble air passed through its pores, like wa- ter through a sieve ; and having failed of success by blowing this air into a thick solution of gum, thick varnishes and oil- paint, he was under a necessity of being satisfied with soap-bubbles, which being inflated with inflammable air, by dipping 1 AEROSTATION. the end of a small glass tube, connected with :i bladder containing air, into a thick solution ofso:i|>, and gently compi-- the bladder, ascended rapidly in the at- mosplie]-. ; ami ti. of inflammable air-balloons that were ever made. For balloons formed on a larger scale, and on the principle of rare - fied air, w i tion to France, where the two brothers, Stephen and.lo.seph Montgolfier, paper-manufa< tu- Vnnonay, about 06 miles from Ly- ons, distinguished themselves, by exhibit- ing the first of those aerostatic machines, which have since eviu-d so much atten- tion and astonishment. The first idea of such a machine was suggested to them by the natural ascent of the smoke and clouds in the atmosphere; and the first lent was made- at Avignon, by Ste- phen, the eldest of the two brothers, to- wards th.- middle of November 1782. Having prepared a bag of fine silk, in the shape of a parallelopipedon, and in capa- city about 40 cubic feet, he applied to its aperture burning paper, which rarefied the air, and thus formed a kind of cloud in the bag, and when it became sufficiently expanded, it ascended rapidly to the ceii- ^oonafterwardsthe experiment was repeated by the two brothers at Annonay in the open air, when the machine ascend- ed to the height of about seventy feet. Encouraged by their success, they con- structed a machine, the capacity of which was about 650 cubic feet, which, in the experiment, broke the ropes that confined it, and, after ascending rapidly to the height of about 600 feet, fell on the adjoin- ing ground. With another machine, 35 feet in diameter, they repeated the expe- riment in April 1783, when, breaking loose from its confinement, it rose to the height of above 1000 feet, and being carried by the wind, it fell at tin distance of about juartcrs of a mile from the place where it ascended. The capacity of this machine was equal to about 2.5,430 cubic feet: and when inrtated.it measured 117 English feet in circumference. The co- vering of it was formed of linen lined with paper, its shape was ncarh spherical, and its aperture \\asfixcd to a wooden .tSout 16 feet in surface. When fill"d with vapour, which wasconjectured ,'ioiit half as heavy as common air, capable of lifting up about 4 l ./0 pounds, Ix sides its own weight, which, 1 of the v. o'ideii : was equal to 500 pounds. With tl. chine the next experiment \\ as per:- at Annonay, on the 5th of June 17 fore a great multitude of spectators. The Mace" - nd- d on ;i pole 35 and chopped wnul were burnt under the opening at the bottom; tin vapour, or rather smoke, soon inflated the bag, so as to distend it in allitMta and this immense mass ascended in the air with such a velocity, that in less than ten minutes it reachedthe height of about 6000 feet. A breeze carried it in an hori- zontal direction to the distance of 7668 fc<-t ; and it then fell gen? ly on the ground. M. Montgolfier attributed the ascent of the machine, not to the rarefaction of the heatedair, which is .lie true cause, but to a certain gas or acr", form fluid, specifically lighter than common air, which was sup- posed to be disengaged from burning substances, and which has been commonly called Montgolfier's gas, as balloons of tins kind have been denominated Mont- golfiers. As soon as the news of this ex- periment reached Paris, the philosophers of die city, conceiving that a new sort of gas, half as heavy as common air, had been discovered by Messrs. Montgolfier; and know ing that the weight of inflam- mable air was not more than the eighth or tenth part of the weight of common air, justly concluded, thatynnammable air would answer the purpose of this experi- ment better than the gas of Montgolfier, and resolved to make trial of it. A sub- scription was opened by M. Faujas de St. Fond towards defraying the expense of the experiment. A sufficient sum of mo- ney having been soon raised, Messrs. Ro- berts were appointed toconstructthc ma- chine; and M. diaries, professor of expe- rimental philosophy, to superintend the work. After surmounting many difficul- ties in obtaining a sufficient quantity of inflammable air, and finding a substance light enough for the covering, they at length constructed a globe of lutestring, w Inch was rendered impt rvioi.s to the in- closed air by a varnish of elastic gum, or caoutchouc,jdissolved in some kind of * spirit or essential oil. The diameter of this globe, which, from its shape, was de- nominated a balloon, was about thirteen feet, and it hadonK one aperture, like a bladder, to which a stop-cock was adapt- ed : its weight, * hen empty, together with that of the stop-cock, uas 25 pounds. On the J.><1 of August 1?* j;an to till tile globe with inflammable air; but this being their first attempt, was attend- ed with man;, hindrances and disappoint- ments. At l;u;t, however, it MILS prepared for exhibition; and on the J7th it was carried to the Champ de Mar.-, where. AEROSTATION. beingdisengagedfromthe cords thathekl it down, it rose before a prodigious con- course of people in less than two minutes to the height of'312o feet. It then enter- ed a cloud, but soon appeared again ; and at last it was lost among other clouds. This balloon, after having floated about three quarters of an hour, fell in a field about 15 miles distant from the place of ascent; where, as we may naturally ima- gine, it occasioned much astonislunent to the peasants. Its fall was owing to a rent, occasionedby the expansion of the inflam- mable air in that part of the atmosphere to which it ascended. When the balloon wentup, its specific gravity was 35 pounds less than that of common air. In conse- quence of this brilliant experiment, many balloons were made on a small scale ; gold-beaters skin was used forthe cover- ing; and their size was from 9 to 18 inches iu diameter. Mr. Montgolfier repeated an experi- ment with a machine of his construction before the commissaries of the Academy of Sciences, on the llth andl2th of Sep- tember. This machine was 74 feet high, and about 43 feetindiameter. When dis- tended, it appeared spheroidical. It was made of canvass, covered with paper both within and without, and it weighed 1000 pounds. The operation of filling it with rarefied wr, produced by means of the combustion of 50 pounds of dry straw, and 12 pounds of chopped wool, was per- formed in about nine minutes; and its force of ascension, when inflated, was so great, that it raised eight men who held it some feet from the ground. This ma- chine was so much damaged by the rain, that it was found necessary to prepare another for exhibitionbeforethe king and royal family on the 19th. This new ma- ehine consisted of cloth, made of h'nen and cotton thread, and was painted with watercolours bothwithinand without. Its height was near 60 feet, and its diameter about 43 feet. Having made the necessary preparations for inflating it, the operation was begun about one o'clock, on the 19th f September, before the kingand queen, the court, and all the Parisians who could procure a conveyance to Versailles. In eleven minutes it wassufficiently distend- ed, and the ropes being cut, it ascended, bearing up with it a wicker cage, in which were a sheep, a cock, and a duck. Its power of ascension, or the weight by '.vhich it was lighter than an equal bulk f common air, allowing for the cage and animals, was 696 pounds. This balloon rose to the beijfht of about 1440 feet : and being driven by the wind, it descended gradually, and fell gently into a wood, at the distance of 10,200 feet from Versailles. After remaining in the atmosphere eight minutes, the animals in the cage were safely landed. The sheep was found feeding 1 ; the cock had received some hurt on one of his wings, probably from a kick of the sheep ; the duck was perfectly well. The success of this experiment in- duced M. Pilatre de Rozier, with, a philo- sophical intrepidity which will be record- ed with applause in the history of aeros- tation, to offer himself as the first adven- turer in this aerial navigation. Mr. Mont- golfier constructed a new machine for this purpose, in agardeninthe Fauxbourg St. Antoine. Its shape was oval ; its diameter being about 48 feet, and its height about 74 feet. To the aperture at the bottom was annexed a wicker gallery, about three feet broad, with aballustrade about three feet high. From the middle of the aperture was suspended by chains, which came down from the sides of the machine, an iron grate, or brazier, in which a fire was lighted for inflating the machine ; and port-holes were opened in the gallery, towards the aperture, through which any person, who should venture to ascend, might feed the fire on the grate with fuel, and regulate the dilatation of the inclosed air of the machine at plea- sure. The weight of the aerostat was upwards of sixteen hundred pounds. On the fifteenth of October, the fire being lighted, and the macliine inflated, M. P. dc Rozier placed himself in the gallery, and ascended, to the astonishment of a multitude of spectators, to the height of 84 feet from the ground, and there kept the machine afloat during 4' 25", by re- peatedly throw ing straw and wool upon the fire : the machine then descended gradually and gently, through a medium of increasing density, to the ground : and the intrepid adventurer assured the spectators that he had not experienced the least inconvenience in this aerial ex- cursion. This experiment was repeated on the 17th and on the 19th, when M. P. de Rozier, in his descent, and in order to avoid danger by re-ascending, evinced, to a multitude of observers, that the ma- chine may be made to ascend and de- scend, at the pleasure of the aeronaut, by merely increasing or diminishing the fire in the grate. The balloon having been hauled down, M.Girande de Villiettr placed himself in the gallery opposite tw M. Rozier: and being suffered to ascend, it hoverd for about nine minutes over AEROSTATION. Paris, in the sight of all its inhabitants, at The height of about 330 feet. In another experiment the Marquis of Arlandes as- < ended \\ith M. Rozier much in the same manner. In consequence of the report of the preceding experiment, signed by the commissaries of the Academy of Sciences, it was ordered that the annual prize of 600 livres should be given to Messrs. Montgolficr for the year 1783. fn the experiments above recited the ma- chine was secured by ropes ; but they oon succeeded by unconfined aerial 11:11 igation. Accordingly, the balloon of i in height, above mentioned, was removed to a royal palace in the Bois de Boulogne ; and all things being ready, on the 21st of November, M. P. de Ro- sier ;md the Marquis d'Arlandes took their respective posts in the gallery, and at 54 minutes after one the machine was absolutely abandoned to the element, and ascended calmly and majestically in the atmosphere. The aeronauts.havingreach- d the height of about 280 feet, waved their hats to the astonished multitude ; but they soon rose too high to be distin- guished, and are thought to have soared to an elevation of above 3000 feet. They were at first driven by a north-west wind hori/ontally over the river Seine and over Paris, taking care to clear the steeples and high buildings by increasing the fire; and in rising met with a current of air, which carried them southward. Having passed the Boulevard, and desisting from supplying the fire with fuel, they descend- ed very gently in a field beyond the New Roulevard, about 9000 yards distant from the palace, having been in the air about 25 minutes. The weight of the whole apparatus, including that of the travel- lers, \v:is between 1600 and 1700 pounds. Notwithstanding the rapid progress of Aerostation in France, we have no authen- tic account of the aerostatic experiments performed in other countries till about the close of the year 1783. The first experiment of tin's kind, publicly exhibi- ted in our country, was performed in Lon- don, on the 25th of November, by Count y.ambeccari, an ingenious Italian, with a balloon of oil silk, 10 feet in diameter, and weighing 11 pounds. It was gilt, in order to render it more beautiful, and more impermeable to the gas. This bal- loon, three-fourths of which were filled with inflammable air, was launched from the Artillery-Ground, in presence of a vast concourse of spectators, at one o'clock in the afternoon, and :it half past three was taken up near Petworth, in VOL. I. Sussex, 48 miles distant from London : so that it travelled at the rate of nearly 20 miles an hour. Its descent was occa- sioned by a rent, which must have been the effect of the rarefaction of the inflam- mable air, when the balloon ascended to the lighter parts of the atmosphere. Aerostatic experiments and aerial voy- ages became so frequent in the course of th<- \ear 1784, that the limits of this arti- cle will not allow our particularly record- ing them. AVe shall, therefore, mention those which were attended with any pe- culiar circumstances. Messrs, de Mo: veaii and Bert rand ascended from Dijon, in April, to the height of about 13,000 feet, with an inflammable air balloon : the thermometer was observed to stand at 25 degrees. They were in the air during an hour and 25 minutes, and went to tin- distance of about eighteen miles. The clouds floated beneath them, and seclud- ed them from the earth ; and they jointh repeated the motto inscribed on their aerostat : " Surgit mine gallus ad aethc- ra." In May, four ladies and two gentle- men ascended with a Montgolfier at Paris above the highest buildings : the machine was confined by ropes. It was 74 feet high, and 72 in diameter. In a second \ < performed by Mr. Blanchard from Rouen in May, it was observed, that his wings and oars could not carry him in any other direction than that of the wind. Tht: mercury in the barometer descended as low as 20.57 inches ; but on the earth, be- fore he ascended, it stood at 30.16 inches. On the 23d of June, a large aerostat, on the principle of rarefied air, 91^ feet high, and 79 feetin diameter, was elevated by Mont- golfier at Versailles, in the presence of the royal family and the King of Sweden. M. Pilatre de Rozier, and M. Prou- cended with it, and continued for 28 mi- nutes at the height of 11,732 feet, and observed the clouds below them, that re- flected to the region which they occupied the rays of the sun ; the temperature of the air being 5 below the freezing point; and in three quarters of an hour they travelled to the distance of 36 miles. In consequence of this experiment, tlu granted to M iin/ier a pension of 2000 Uvres. On the 15th of July the Duke of Chatres, the two brothers Roberts, and another person, ascended with an inflam- mable air balloon, of an oblong form, 55) feet long, and 34 feet in diameter, from the I'ark of St. Cloud: the machine re- mained in the atmosphere about 45 mi- nutes. This machine contained an inte- rior small balloon, filled with commou air, i; AEROSTATION. by which means it was proposed to make it ascend or descend without any loss of inflammable air or ballast. The boat was furnished with a helm and oars, intended for guiding it. At the place of departure the barometer stood at 30.12 inches. Three minutes after ascending, the bal- loon was lost in the clouds, and involved in a dense vapour. An agitation of the air, resembling a whirlwind, alarmed the aerial voyagers, and occasioned several shocks, which prevented their using any of the instruments and contrivances pre- pared for the direction of the balloon. Other circumstances concurred to in- crease their danger; and when the mer- cury, standing in the barometer at 24.36 inches, indicated their height to be about 5100 feet, they foundit neceasary to make holes in the bottom for discharging the inflammable air : and having made a rent of between seven and eight feet, they de- scended very rapidly, and at last came safely to the ground. The first aerial voyage in England was performed in Lon- don, on the 15th of September, by Vin- cent Lunardi, a native of Italy. His bal- loon was made of oiled silk, painted in alternate stripes of blue and red. Its di- ameter was 33 feet. From a net which went over about two-thirds of the bal- loon, descended 45 cords to a hoop hang- ing beloxv the balloon, and to which the gallery was attached. The balloon had no valve ; and its neck, which terminated in the form of a pear, was the aperture through which the inflammable air was introduced, and through which it might be let out. The air for filling the balloon was produced from zinc, by means of di- luted vitriolic acid. M. Lunardi depart- ed from the Artillery Ground at two o'clock ; and with him were a dog, a cat, and a pigeon. After throwing out some sand to clear the houses, he ascended to a great height. The direction of his mo- tion was at first north-west by west ; but as the balloon rose higher, it fell into another current of air, which carried it nearly north. About half after three he de- scended very near the ground, and landed the cat, which was almost 'dead with cold : then rising, he prosecuted his voyage. He ascribes his descent to the action of an oar ; but as he was under the necessi- ty of throwing out ballast in order to re- a'scend, his descent was probably occa- sioned by the loss of inflammable air. At ten minutes past four he descended on a meadow, near Ware, in Hertfoixl- shire. The only philosophical instrument which he carried with him was a ther- mometer, which in the course of hi vo\ - age stood as low as 29, and he observed that the drops of water which collected round the balloon were frozen. The longest and the most interesting voyage, which was performed about this time, was that of Messrs. Roberts and M. Collin. Hullin, ;it Paris, on the 19th of September. Their aerostat was filled with inflammable air. Its diameter was 27$ feet, and its length 46^ feet, and it was made to float with its longest part pa- rallel to the horizon, with a boat nearly 17 feet long, attached to a net that went over it as far as its middle. To the boat were annexed wings, or oars, in the form of an umbrella. At 12 o'clock they as- cended with 450 pounds of ballast, and, after various manoeuvres, descended at 40 minutes past six o'clock near Arras, in Artois, having still 200 pounds of their ballast remaining in the boat Havingrisen about 1400 feet, they perceived stormy clouds, which they endeavoured to avoid ; but the current of air was uniform from the height of 600 to 4200 feet. The ba- rometer on the coast of the sea was 29.61 inches, and sunk to 23.94 inches. They found that, by working with their oars, they accelerated their course. In the prosecution of their voyage, which was 150 miles, they heard two claps of thunder ; and the cold occasioned by the approach of stormy clouds made the thermometer fall from 77 to 59, and condensed the inflammable ah 1 in the bal- loon, so as to make it descend very low. From some experiments they concluded, that they were able by the use of two oars to deviate from the direction of the w ind about 22. But this experiment re- quires repetition, in order to ascertain with accuracy the effect here ascribed to oars. The second aerial voyage in Eng- land was performed by Mr. Blanchard and Mr. Sheldon, professor of anatomy to the Royal Academy, the first English- man who ascended with an aerostatic ma- chine. This experiment was performed at Chelsea, on the 16th of October. The wings used on this occasion seemed to have produced no deviation in the ma- chine's track from the direction of the wind. Mr. Blanchard, having landed his friend about the distance of 14 miles from Chelsea, proceeded alone, with different currents, and ascended so high as to expe- rience great difficulty of breathing ; a pi- geon, also, which flew away from the boat, laboured some time with its wings, in order to sustain itself in the rarified air, and after wandering for a good while- AEROSTATION. return . d on our sMe of the bolt. Mr Itlaiii-li:nil, pcrcciung the s< (1 near Kuni<' \ , about 75 miles from London, Ir.iving 1 tra- icllcd :it tin- rate of nearly 'JO miles an hour. On tin- 1 ?th of October, Mr. Sadler, of Oxford, inn. of 11 mil that place in 17 minutes, with -an inflam- mable :iir balloon of his own contrivance and construction. The- lute- of M. P. de Ho/icr, tlie first aerial navigator, and of his companion, M. Hoinain, hasbeen much lamented. Thc\ ascended xt Boulogne on the 1.5th of June, \vitli an intention of crossing the channel to England. Their machine consisted of a spherical balloon, >7 feet in diameter, tilled with inflam- mable air, andimderthis halloon was sus- pended a small Montgolfier, or fire bal- loon, ten feet in diameter. This Mont- golfier was designed for rarefying 1 the atmospheric air, and thus diminishing the specific gravity of the whole apparatus. For the first twenty minutes tin. \ seemed to pursue their proper course ; but the balloon seemed much inflated, and the aeronauts appeared anxious to de>end. Soon, however, when they were at the height of about three quarters of a mile, the. \\hole apparatus was in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers fell to the ground, and were killed on the spot On the 19th of July, Mr. Crosbie as- cended at Dublin, with a view of crossing the channel to England. To a wicker basket of a circular form, which he had substituted for the boat, he had affixed a number of bladders for the purpose of rendering his gallery buoyant, incase of a disaster at sea. The height to which he ascended at one time was such, that !i\ tlie intense cold his ink was frozen, and the mercury sunk into the ball of the thermometer. He himself was sick, and he felt a strong impression on the tympa- num of his ears. At his utmost eleva- tion he thought himself stationary ; but on discharging some gas, he descended to a ver\ rough current of air blowing to the north. He then entered a dense cloud, and experienced strong blasjs of winds, with thunder and lightning, which brought him with rapidity towards the surface of the water. The water soon entered his car; the force of the wind phmgej him into the ocean, and it was with difficulty that lie put on h>~ jacket. The bladders which lie had pre- pared were now found of great use. The . added to his own weight. AS ballast ; and the balloon, maintaining its red the purpose of a sail, 1>% of which, and a snatch-block to his car, he moved before the wind xs re- gularly as a sailing-boat. He length pvertaken by some vessels that were crowding sail after him, and con- '.o Dunleary with the balloon On .1 of July, Major Money, who :.>- ccndcd at Norwich, was driven out to 1 at'tcrbeingblown about for about two hours, he dropped into the water. Af- ter much exertion for preserving i and when he was almost despairing of re- lief, he was taken up by a revenue in a state of extreme weakness; having been struggling to keep himself above water for about seven h> The longest voyage, that had been hi- therto made, was performed ! Hlunchard, towards the end of A He ascended at Lisle, accompanied by the Chevalierde L'Epinard, andtn. a distance of 300 miles before he d< ed. On this, as well as on other occa- sions, Mr. Blanchard made trial of a pa- rachute, in the form of a large umbrella, which he contrived for breaking his fall, in case of any accident. With this ma- chine he let down a dog, which came to the ground gently, and unhurt. On the 8th of September, Mr. Baldwin ascended from the city of Chester, and performed an aerial voyage of 25 miles in two hours and a quarter. His greatest elevation was about a mile and a naif, and he supposes that the velocity of his motion was some- times at the rate of 20 miles an hour. He has published a circumstantial account of his voyage, described the appearances of the clouds as he passed through them, and annexed a variety of observations re- lating to aerostation. It would be tedious to recount the aerial expecb'tions that w ere peformcd in various parts of our own country, as on the continent, in the whole course of the vear 1785: more especially as tin y have afforded us no experiment or disco- very of any peculiar importance. The most persevering aerial navigator has been Mr. Hlanchard. In August, 1788, he ascended ut Brunswick for the thirU - second time. Vl'ithin two yeai-s from the first discovery of this art of navigating the atmosphere, more than forty different I pi rformed the experiment with- out any material injury; audit ma\ be- justly questioned, sa\ s Mr. Cavallo, whe- ther the first forty persons who trusted theBttelves to the sea in boats CM . safely. The catastrophe that befel I. and the unpleasant circum-Jtances that AEROSTATION. have happened to some of the aeronauts in our own country, have been owing, not so much to the principle of the art, as to want of judgment, or imprudent manage- ment in the conduct of it. Omitting the various uninteresting, though not very numerous, aerial voyages undertaken in various parts of the world, during the 17 years subsequent to the above-mentioned dreadful accident of Pi- latre de Rozier and Mr. Remain, we shall only add the account of two aerostatic ex- periments lately performed in England by Mr. Garnerin, a French aeronaut. The first of these is remarkable for the very great velocity of its motion ; the second for the exhibition of a mode of leaving the balloon, and of descending with safe- ty to the ground. On the 30th of June, 1802, the wind being strong, though not impetuous, Mr. Garnerin and another gentleman ascended with an inflammable air, or hydrogen gas, balloon, from Rane- lagh gardens, on the south-west of Lon- don, between four and five o'clock in the afternoon ; and in exactly three quarters of an hour they descended near the sea, at the distance of four miles from Col- chester. The distance of that place from Ranelagh is 60 miles; therefore they tra- velled at the astonishing rate of 80 miles per hour. It seems that the balloon had power enough to keep them up four or five hours longer, in which time they might have gone safely to the continent; but prudence induced them to descend when they discovered the sea not far off. The. singular experiment of ascending into the atmosphere with a balloon, and of descending with a machine called a parachute, was performed by Mr. Garne- rin on the 21st of September, 1802. He ascended from St. George's parade, North Audley street, and descended safe into a field near the small-pox hospital, at Pancras. The balloon was of the usual sort, viz. of oiled silk, with a net, from which ropes proceeded, which terminated in, or were joined to a single rope at afew feet below the balloon. To this rope the parachute was fastened in the following manner. The reader may easily form to himself an idea of this parachute, by ima- gining a large umbrella of canvas, about 30 feet in diameter, but destitute of the ribs and handle. Several ropes of about 30 feet in length, which proceeded from the edge of the parachute, terminated in a common joining, from which shorter ropes proceeded, to the extremities of which a circular basket was fastened, and in this busket Mr. Garnerin placed him- self. The single rope passed through a hole in the centre of the parachute, also through certain tin tubes, which were placed one after the other, inthe place of the handle or stick of an umbrella, and was lastly fastened to the basket ; so that, when the balloon was in the air, by cut- ting the end of the rope next to the bas- ket, the parachute with the basket would be separated from the balloon, and in falling downwards would be naturally opened by the resistance of the air. The use of the tin tubes was, to let the rope slip off with greater certainty, and to pre- vent its being entangled with any of the other ropes, as also to keep the parachute at a distance from the basket. The bal- loon began to be filled about two o'clock. There w r ere 36 casks filled with iron filings, and diluted sulphuric acid, for the pro- duction of the hydrogen gas. These communicated with three other casks, or general receivers, to each of which was fixed a tube, that emptied itself into the main tube attached to the balloon. At six, the balloon being quite full of gas, and the parachute, &.c. being attached to it, Mr. Garnerin placed himself in the basket, andascended majestically, amidst the acclamations of innumerable specta- tors. The weather was the clearest and pleasantest imaginable; the wind [was gentle, and about west by south ; in con- sequence of which Mr. Garnerin went in the direction of nearly east by north. In about eight minutes the balloon and para- chute hadascended to an immense height, and Mr. Garnerin, in the basket, could scarcely be perceived. While every spectator was contemplating the grand sight before them, Mr. Garnerin cut the rope, and in an instant he was separated from the balloon, trusting his safety to the parachute. At first, viz. before the parachute opened, he fell with great ve- locity ; but as soon as the parachute was expanded, which took place a few mo- ments after, the descent became very gentle and gradual. A remarkable cir- cumstance was observed; namely, that the parachute, with the appendage of cords and basket, soon began to vibrate like the pendulum of a clock, and the vi- brations were so great, that more than once the parachute, and the basket with Mr. Garnerin, seemed to be on the same level, or quite horizontal : however, the extent of the vibrations diminished as he descended. On coming to the earth, Mr. Garnerin experienced some pretty strong shocks ; but he soon recovered his spirits, and remained without any material hurt- AEROSTATION. \s MH.II us tin- parachute was scp:ir:iti-l from the balloon, the- latter ascended with great rapiditv, and, being of an oval form, tunicd itsi-lf with a longer axis into an horizontal position. \\ i now come to the practice of the art. I'ln- shape of the balloon is one of the first objects of consideration. As a sphere ad- mi'ts tin greatest capacity under the least surface, the spherical figure, or that which approaches nearest to it, has been gene- rally preferred. However, since bodies of this form oppose a greater surface to the air, and consequently a greater ob- struction to the action of the oar or wings nan those of some other form, and there- fore cannot be so well guided in a calm, or in a covirse different from the direction of the wind, it has been proposed to con- struct balloons of a conical or oblong figure, and to make them proceed with their narrow end forward. Next to the shape, it is necessary to consider the stuff that is most proper for forming 1 the enve- lope of the inflammable or rarefied air. Silk stuff, especially that which is called lutestring, properly varnished, has been most commonly used for hydrogen gas balloons ; and common linen, lined within and without with paper, varnished, for those of rarefied air. Varnished paper, or gold-beaters' skin, will answer the purpose for making small hydrogen gas balloons ; and the small rarefied air bal- loons may be made of paper, without any varnish or other preparation. The stuff for large balloons of both kinds requires some previous preparation. The best mode of preparingthe cloth for amachine, upon Montgolfier's principle, is, first to soak it in a solution of sal-ammoniac and si/e, vising one pound of each' to every gallon of water; and when ttie cloth is quite dry, to paint it over with some earthy colour, and strong size or glue. It may be also varnished over, when per- fectly dry, with some stiff, oily varnish, or simple drying linseed oil, which w ould dry before it penetrates quite through the cloth. The pieces of which an hydrogen gas balloon is to be formed must be cut of aproper size, according to the proposed dimensions of it, when the varnish is suf- ficiently dry. The pieces that compose 'he surface of the balloon are like those gores that form the superficies of a globe ; and the best method of cutting them is. to describe a pattern of wood or stiff card- paper, and to cut the silk or stuff upon it. To the upper part of the balloon there must be adapted a valve, opening inward, to which is annexed a string passing through a hole made in a small round piece of wood, which is fastened to the .art of tlie balloon, opposite to the valve, to the boat below it ; so that the aeronaut may open it as occasion requires, and let the hydrogen gas out of the bal- loon. To the lower part of the balloon are fixed two pipes of the same stuff with the covering, six inches in diameter tor a balloon of 30 feet, and much larger for balloons of greater size, and long enough to reach the boat. These pipes are the apertures through which the hydrogen gas is introduced into the balloon. Tin- boat may be made of wicker work, and covered with leather, well painted or var- nished over. The best method of sus- pending it is by means of ropes, proceed- ing from the net which goes over the bal- loon. This net should be formed to the shape of the balloon, and fall down to the middle of it, and have various cords pro- ceeding from it to the circumference of a circle, about two feet below the balloon ; and from that circle other ropes should go to the edge of the boat. This circle may be made of wood, or of several pieces of slen- der cane bound together. The meshes of the net may be small at top, against which part of the balloon the hydrogen gas ex- erts the greatest force, and increase in size as they recede from the top. A hoop has been sometimes put round the middle of the balloon for fastening the net. This is not absolutely necessary; but when used, it is best made of pieces of cam- bound together, and covered with leather. When the balloon and its appendages are constructed, the next object of import nnci is to procure proper materials for filling it. Hydrogen gas for balloons may be obtain- ed in several ways ; but the best methods are by applying acids to certain metals ; by exposing animal, vegetable, and some mineral substances, in a close vessel, to a strong fire; or by transmitting the va- pour of certain fluids through red hot tubes. In the first of these methods, iron, zinc, and sulphuric acid, are the materials most commonly used. The acid must be diluted with five or six parts of Iron may be expected to yield in the common way about 1700 times , bulk of gas, or 4! ounces of iron ; the like weight of sulphuric acid, and 22$ ounces of water, will produce one cubic font of hydrogen gas; 6 ounces of zinc, an equal weight of acid, and 30 ounces of water, are-nect ssary for producing' the same quantity. It is more proper to use the turnings or chippings of great picc< s of iron, as of cannon, &c. than the filings AER AES of that metal, because the heat attending the effervescence will be diminished, and the diluted acid will pass more readily through the interstices of the turnings, when they are heaped together, than through the filings, which stick closer to one another. The weight of the hydro- gen gas thus obtained by means of sul- phuric acid is, in the common way of procuring it, generally one-seventh part of ]the weight of common air , and with the necessary precautions for philosophical experiments, less than one -tenth of the weight of common air. We shall con- clude this article with a description of some figures explanatory of the subject. Figure 1 (plate Aerostation) represents a balloon, DF, suspended by means of the poles G and H, and the cord, for the pur- pose of being filled with gas. It is kept steady and held clown whilst filling by ropes, which are readily disengaged. A, A, are two tubs, about three feet in diam- eter, and two feet deep, inverted in larger tubs, B, B, full of water. At the bottom ofeach of the invertedtubes there isahole, in which is inserted a tin tube ; to these the silken tubes of the balloon are tied. Each of the tubs, B, is surrounded by se- veral strong casks, so regulated in num- ber and capacity, as to be less than half full when the materials are equally distri- buted. In the top of these casks there-J are two holes ; to one of which is adapted "* a tin tube, formed so as to pass over the edge of the tub B, and through the water, and to terminate with its aperture under the inverted tub A. The other hole, which serves for supplying the cask with materials, is stopped with a wooden plug. When the balloon is to be filled, the com- mon air is first to be expelled, then the silken tubes are fastened round the tin ones ; the iron filings are to be put into the casks, then the water, and lastly the sulphuric acid. The balloon will speedi- ly be inflated by the gas, and support it- self without the aid of the rope GH. As the filling advances, a net is adjusted about it, the cords proceeding from the net are fastened to the hoop MN ; the boat IK is suspended from the hoop, and whatever is wanted for the voyage is de- posited in the boat. When the balloon is sufficiently full, the silken tubes are sepa- rated from the tin tubes, their extremities are tied, and they are placed in the boat. When the aeronauts are seated in the boat, the ropes that held the balloon down are slipped off, and the machine ascends in the air, as in figure 2. Hi fig. 3, is a representation of apart of Mr. Garnerio's balloon in its ascent, to which is attached a parachute, in its contracted state, and below is the car. Figure 4 shews the manner in which Mr. Garnerin descended in the car by means of the expanded para- chute, after he had detached it from the balloon. In figure 5 is represented an ap- paratus, as described by Mr. Cavallo, for filling balloons of the size of two or three feet in diameter with hydrogen gas, after passing it through water. A is a bottle, with the ingredients ; BCD a tube fasten- ed in the neck at B, and passing through C, the cork of the other bottle, in which there is a hole made to receive the tube, and to this the balloon is tied. Thus the hydrogen gas, coming out of the tube D, will pass first through the water of the bottle E, and then into the balloon. Two small casks may be used instead of the bottles A and E. jERVA, in botany, a genus of the Mo- nadelphia Decandria class and order. The flowers are polygamous ; the calyx five-leaved and patent .- the stamina are five ; the pistillum is a globulous ovary, having a filiform style, terminated by a bifid stigma : the fruit is an oblong, sin- gle-seeded capsule, encompassed by a ca- lyx : there is but one species, viz. IE. segyptiaca, or tomentosa, which grows on the sandy calcareous soil of Arabia. JESCHYNOMENE, a word from the Greek, signifying to be ashamed, because it retreats from the touch : bastard sensi- tive plant, in botany, a genus of the Dia- delphia Decandria class and order, and of the natural order of Papilio Nacese, of which there are 12 species, found native in the East Indies, and cultivated in other hot countries. One of the species may be treated as hemp, and is used for the same purposes. AESCULUS, in botany, a genus of the Heptandria Monogynia class and order, of the natural order of Trihilatse. There arc three species : the first, or common horse-chestnut, was brought from the northern parts of Asia into Europe about the year 1550, and sent to Vienna about the year 1558. From Vienna it was con- veyed to France and Italy ; but it came to us from the Levant. It is distinguished by the beautiful parabolic form of its branches, the disposition and structure of its digitate leaves, and by the pyramidal bunches of its white flowers, variegated near the centre with yellow or red. Al- though this tree is now less in esteem for avenues and walks than it formerly was, on account of the early decay of its leaves, it affords an excellent shade ; und the AES JETN ttH Are flowers which appear in May, \\ith the intermixture of large leaves, ex- hibit a noblr appearance. The most eli- gible situation for these trees is in lawns and parks, where, they m:iy be planted singly, and where their fruit will be ser- \ircable. to the deer, who are fond of it. This tree is of quick growth; and in a .irs it will afford a good shade in summer, and yield plenty of flowers. Trees, r.tise-d from nuts, have in 12 or 14 years become large enough to shade two or three chairs with their branches, which in the season are covered with flowers. Rut the trees are of short duration, and the wood is of little value. It serves, IT, for water-pipes, turners' ware, and fuel : and for these uses it is worth the charge of planting, and should be felled in November or December. The horse-chestnut has been employed in France and Switzerland for the purpose of bleaching yarn ; and it is recommend- ed in the Memoirs of the Society of Berne, \ol.ll. part 2, as capable of extensive use in whitening not only flax and hemp, but silk and wool. H contain! an astrin- .;ionaceoiis juice, whichis obtained by peeling the nuts, and grinding or rasp- ing them. They are then mixed with hot rain or running water, in the proportion of 20 nuts to 10 or 12 quarts of water. Wove caps and stockings were milled in ihis water, and took the die extremely- well ; and successful trials were made of it in fulling stuffs and cloths. Linen washed in this water takes a pleasing ky-blue colour; and the filaments of hemp, steeped in it some davx asih separated. The author of the me- moir, above referred to, imagines that if the meal of the chestnut could be made iito cakes or balls, it would answer the purposes of soap, in washing and fulling. 'Urneiit, after infusion, loses itsbit- , and becomes good food for fowls when mixed with bran. The Edinburgh College have admitted the horse-chestnut into their Pharmacopoeia of ITtv!, on the recommendation of Dr. Gardiner, who says that three or four grains of the pow- der, snuffed up the nostrils in the evening, operate next morning as an excellent ster- nutatory, and thereby proves very benefi- cial in obstinate inflammations of the eyes. A patent was granted in 1796, to Lord N . Murray, for his discovery of a method <>t extracting starch from horse-chestnuts. The second species, oryellow-flov horse-chestnut, is a native of North Caro- lina, was cultivated with us in 1764, and flou The third species, or scarlet horse- chestnut, rises to the height of t\\ent) ithout much extending its branch- es ; its bark is smooth, and the i which are opposite, on long, red petioles, are of a light green. The common horse-chestnut is propa- gated by sowing the nuts, after preserv- ingthem in sand during the winter : but the scarlet is propagated by grafting it up- on stocks of the common horse-chestnut. The American species are : JE. paria ; JE. flava; JE. macrostachya; and JE. achi- nata. Of the last there are two varieties, .?. the glabra, and B. the pallida. .SETHI'S A, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class and order, and belonging 1 to the natural order of Umbel- latse or Umbellifera- : the calyx is an uni- versal spreading umbel, and the partial is also spreading, but small; having no universal involucre, and the partial one placed on the outside, and consisting only of three very long, linear, pendulous leaf- lets, and the proper perianthium scarcely observable : the universal corolla is nearly uniform, with all the floscules fertile, and the partial has the petals bent in, heart- shaped, and unequal : the stamina are simple filaments, with roundish anthers ; the pistillum is an inferior germ, and the stylos are reflex, with obtuse stigmas: it has no pcricarpium, and the fruit is roundish, streaked, and bipartite : the seeds are two, roundish, streaked, except on a third part of the surface, which is plain. There are four species, the prin- cipal is JE. cynapium, common fool's pars- ley, or lesser hemlock, which isacommon weed in fields and kitchen-gardens, and in a slight degree poisonous. It is distinguished when in flower, in July and August, from true parsley and chenil. by the three narrow pendent leaflets of the involucre, placed on the outer part only of the umbel, and by its being a much humbler plant than either of the others The leaves also, in an i arlier state, areol a different form and a dsrker hue, and, when bruised, emit in a slight degree a disagreeable venomous smell. Th way to avoid doubt or danger is to culti- vate the curled p. it, but it is said to be noxious to geese. JETIOLOGY, that branch of pliyslr which . this sense we say the aetiology of the small pox, dropsy, &c. JErinLon\, in rhetoric, is dee figure of speech, whereby, in relating an event, we, at th-> same time, unfold the of it. JETN AFF JETNA, a famous volcanic or burning mountain in Sicily, situated on the eastern coast, not fur from Catania. The height of this mountain is above 10,000 feet above the surface of the sea, and its circumfe- rence at the base is 180 miles. Over its skk-s are 77 cities, towns, and villages, the number of inhabitants of which is about 115,000. From Catania to the sum- mit is the distance of 30 miles, and the traveller must pass through three distinct climates, which may be denominated the torrid, the temperate, and the frigid. Ac- cordingly, the whole mountain is divided into three distinct regions, called the fer- tile, the wood\, and the barren. The first, or lowest region, extends through an interval of ascent from 12 to 18 miles. The city of Catania and several villages are situated in this first zone, and it abounds in pastures, orchards, and vari- ous kinds of fruit trees. Its great fertili- ty is ascribed to the decomposition of la- va, and of those vegetables, which have been introducedby the arts of agriculture, and the exertions of human industry. The figs, and fruit in general, in this re- gion, are reckoned the finest in Sicily. The lava in this region flows from a num- ber of small mountains, which are dis- persed over the immense declivity of JEt- na. The woody region, or temperate zone, extends from 8 to 10 miles in a di- rect line, towards the top of the mountain ; it comprehends a surface of about 40 or 45 square leagues. It forms a zone of the brightest green all round the moun- tain, which exhibits a pleasing contrast to the white and hoary head of the moun- tain. It is called the woody region, be- cause it abounds with oaks, beeches, and tirs. The soil is similar to that of the lower region. The air here is cool and refreshing, and every breeze is loaded with a thousand perfumes, the whole ground being covered over with the rich- est aromatic plants. Many parts of this region are the most heavenly spots upon earth ; and if ./Etna resemble hell within, it may with equal justice be said to re- semble paradise without. The upper re- gion, called the frigidzone, is marked out by a circle of snow and ice. The surface of this zone is for the most part flat and even, and the approach to it is indicated by the decline of vegetation, by uncover, cd rocks of lava and heaps of sand, by near views of an expanse of snow and ice, and of torrents of smoke issuing from the crater of the mountain, and by the diffi- culty and danger of advancing, amidst streams of melted snow, sheets of ice, and gusts of chilling wind. The curious tra- veller, however, thinks himself amply re- compensed, upon gaining the summit, for the peril which he has encountered. At night the number of stars seem increased, and their light appears brighter than usu- al. The lustre of the milky way is like a pure flame that shoots across the hea- vens, and with the naked eye we may ob- serve clusters of stars totally invisible in the lower regions. The scorise of which the mountain is composed have the same kind of base, containing shorls and felt- spars. AFFIDAVIT signifies an oath in writ- ing, sworn before some person who is au- thorised to take the same. In an affidavit, the time, place of habi- tation, and addition, of the person who makes it are to be inserted. Affidavits are chiefly used to certify the serving of processesor other matters con- cerning the proceedings in a court ; and therefore should set forth the matter of fact to be proved, without taking any no- tice of the merits of the cause. They are read in court upon motions, but are not admitted in evidence at trials. By statute, the judges of the courts at Westminster may commission persons, in the several counties in England, to take affidavits relating to any tiling depending in their several courts. AFFINITY, among civilians, denotes the relation of each of the parties mar- ried to the kindred of the other. Affinity is distinguished into three kinds. 1. Direct affinity, or that subsisting be- tween the husband and his wife's rela- tions, by blood ; or between the wife and her husband's relations, by blood. 2. Se- condary affinity, or that which subsists between the husband and his wife's rela- tions, by marriage. 3. Collateral affinity, or that which subsists between the hus- band and the relations of his wife's rela"- tions. The degrees of affinity are always the same with those of consanguinity. Hence, in whatever degree of consangui- nity the kindred of one of the parties mar- ried are, they are in the same degree of affinity to the other. By the canon law, direct affinity ren- ders marriage unlawful to the fourth ge- neration, inclusive; but the case is other- wise, with respect to the secondary and collateral kinds. It is likewise to be ob- served, that the affinity contracted by a criminal commerce is an impediment to marriage so far as the second generation: thus, a man is not allowed to marry the sister of a woman he has lain with. Nay, with regard to contracting marriage, affi nity is not dissolved by death ; for, though AGA AUA a woman may be admitted a witness for flic brother of h. : husboncl, she is not allowed to marry him. : y, tlie attraction nian'.f, M the parts of bodies in chcni'cal r;>inl)iiiati(-ii is, by many authors, il by this name. See CHK- MISTRY. AFFIi:\l \Tlo.V, an indulgence allow- ed by law to the people called Quakers, who, in c:i-,cs w Mere an oath is required from others, may make a solemn affirma- tion that what they say is true. But their affirmation is confined to civil cases, and is not allowed in any criminal cause, nor with regard to places of profit or trust under tin- government. AFFKAY, or AFFHATMEJTT, in law, for- merly signified tile crime of affrighting other persons, by appearing in unusual ar- mour, brandishing a weapon, &c. But, at present, arlray denotes a skirmish or tight ;ig between two or more ; and there must be a stroke given, otherwise it is no arlray. AFFRONTKK, in heraldry, an appella- tion given to animals facing one another on an escutcheon, a kind of bearing, which is otherwise called confroutee, and stands opposed to luhsttee. AFT, in the sea language, the same with abaft. See ABAFT. AF/KLIA, in botany, a genus of the Oidyuamia Angiospernna class and order: the calyx is quinquepartite, the corolla campanulated, and the capsule rotundated with hemispheric receptacles. There is but one species, found in Africa, near the equinoctial. IGAPANTHU8, in botany, a genus of the Hexaiulrix Monogynia class and or- der, of tin natural order of Liliacx : the ralyx is a spathe ; the corolla is one pe- Ulledi the stamina are six filaments, in- serted into the throat, shorter tlian the (.orolla; the anthers kidney-shaped and incumbent ; the pistillum is a superior germ; the style filiform, of the length of ituvc stamens; the stigma simple or tri- iid; tlu- pericarpium is an oblong capsule; Is numerous, oblong, compi and enlarged with a membrane. There is one species, viz. A. umlu -Hatus, or African blue lily. This is the Af'ncan tube-rose hyacinth, with a blue umbellutcd ttow- rr. The root of this plant is compos- ed of thick fleshy fibres ; fjjpm the same bead arises a cluster OV rtavea, which are thick and succulent, and of a dark green colour. Between thest the flower stalk, supporting an umbel of blue flowers in a sheath, and each flower VOL. I. standing on a pedicle, about an inch long. The umbel being large, the flowers nu- merous, and of a light blue colour, make a fine appearance. They come out at the end of August, or beginning of Septem- ber, and frequently continue in beaut \ ;ill spring. It is a native of the Cape of (iood Hope, from whence it was brought to Holland, and in 1692 it was cultivated at Hampton court. This plant is propagated by offsets, ta- ken at the latter end of June, planted in separate pots, with light kitchen -garden earth, and placed in a shady situation. In five weeks the offsets will put off new roots, and the pots should then be re- moved to a more sunny situation, and have more water. In September they will put out their flower-stalks, and toward the end of the month the flowers will begin to open, and should be removed under shelter in bad weather, but in good wea- ther exposed to the free air. Toward the end of October they should be removed to the green-house, and have the benefit of free air, and be occasionally watered during winter, in mild weather, but in frost they should be kept dry. AGAKIC, in botany, a genus of the or- der of Fungi, and class of Cryptogamia: the pileus or cap has gills underneath, and the giils differ in substance from the rest of the plant, being composed of two lamina, and the seeds are in the gills. There art nearly 400 species. Dr. *,\ i thering distribute* them into three gene- ral classes, comprehending those which have central stems, those with latx-r.il stems, and those which have no stems ; and he again subdivides the two former classes into such as have solid, a> as have hollow stems, with decurrent, fixed, and loose gills, respective 1\ . l"n- der these heads, lie arranges the species by the colour of the gills, into gills are white, brown, red, buff, yellow, grey, green, and purple. As this ingeni- ous author has formed a .system, tlm' si-r\esto facilitate the investigation and description of the several species < rics, we shall lure give a brief sketch of the principles upon which it is founded. Agarics are composed of a cap or pileus, with gills underneath, and are either with or without stems. The sU-ms are either central or lateral. They luue also a root, \\ Inch is more or less apparent, and some of them, in their unfolded state, u holly (1 in a niembranaccous or leather- like ca.se, called a wrapper. Some of them have also a curtain, or thin mem- brane, expending from the *tem to th AGA AGA edge of the pileus, which is rent as the pilcus expands, and soon vanishes ; but the part attached to the stem often re- mains, and forms round it a ring, which ismoreorless permanent, as its substance is more or less tender. Of all the species of Agaric, one only has been selected for cultivation in our gardens, viz. the A. campestris, or common mushroom, or champignon. The gills of this species are loose, pinky red, changing to a liver colour, in contact with the stem, but not united to it ; very thick set, irregularly disposed, some forked next the stem, some next the edge of the pileus, some at both ends, and in that case generally ex- cluding the intermediate smaller gills. The pileus Is white, changing to brown when old, and becoming scurfy j regular- ly convex, fleshy, natter with age, from two to four inches, and sometimes nine inches, in diameter, and liquefying in de- cay; the flesh white. The stem is so- lid, white, cylindrical, from two to three inches high, ha!t':m inch in diameter; the curta ;. white and delicate. When this m shroom first makes its appearance, it is smooth and almost globular ; and in this state it is called a button. This species is esteemed the best and most savoury of the genus, and is much in request for the table in England. It is eaten fresh, either stewed or boiled, and preserved, either as a pickle or in powder; and it furnishes the sauce called Catchup. The field plants are better for eating than those raised on artificial beds, their flesh being more tender; and those who are accus- tomed to them can distinguish them by their smell. But the cultivated ones are more sightly, may be more easily collect- ed in the proper state for eating, and are firmer and better for pickling. The wild mushrooms are found in parks and other pastures, where the turf has not been ploughed up for many years, and the best time for gathering them is August and September. AGATE, a fossil compounded of vari- ous substances, as chalcedony, cornelian, jasper, hornstone, quartz, &c. These different fossils do not all occur in eveiy agate, commonly only two or three. There are different kinds of agate, as the Fortification, the landscape, the ribbon, the moss, the tube, the clouded, the zoned, the star, the fragment, the punctuated, the petrefaction, the coral, and the jasper agate. No country affords finer agate, or in greater abundance, than Germany : it is found in great quantity at Oberstein, >vhere several thousand persons are em- ployed in quarrying, sorting, cutting, anfl polishing it It is also found in France, England, Scotland, and Ireland, and very beautiful in the East Indies, where, how- ever, it is confounded with onyx. It is cut into vases, mortars, snuff-boxes, and some- times into plates for inlaying in tables. Very handsome specimens are made into seals, and the smaller pieces are used for gun flints. It was highly valued by the ancients, who executed many fine works in it: these, however, are only to be found in the cabinets of the rich. The collec- tions of Brunswick and Drcsdenar are re- markable for beautiful specimens of this kind. AGATHOPHYLLUM, a genus of the Dodecandria Monogynia class and order : calyx very minute, truncate ; petals six, inserted into the calyx ; drupe somewhat globular ; nut half five-celled, one-seed- ed ; kernel five-lobed. One species, viz. A. aromaticum, a tree in Madagascar, with an aromatic rufous bark. AGAVE, in botany, a genus of the Hex- andria Monogynia class and order, of the natural order of Coronarix: it has no calyx; the corolla is one-petalled and funnel-shaped ; the stamina are filiform ; the anthers linear ; the pistillum is an ob- long germen; the style filiform; the stig- ma headed and three cornered ; the pcri- carpium is oblong, and the seeds are nu- merous. There are seven species, of which we shall notice the A. Americana, or great American aloe, whose stems, when vigorous, rise upwards of twenty feet high, (one in the king of Prussia's garden rose to forty feet,) and branch out on every side, so as to form a kind of pyramid, composed of greenish yel- low flowers, which stand erect, and come out in thick clusters at ever}- joint. The seeds do not come to maturity in England. When this plant flowers, it makes a beautiful appearance ; and it it be protected from the cold in autumn, a succession of new flowers will be pro- duced for nearly three months in favour- able seasons. R has been a common er- ror, that this plant does not flower till it is one hundred years old : the truth is, that the flowering depends on its growth ; so that in hot countries it will flower in a few years ; but in colder climates the growth is slower, and it will be much longer be- fore it shoots up a stem. The first that flowered in England is said to have been Mr. CowelPs at Hoxton, in 1729; but they have occurred so often since that time, that they are now scarcely considered as rarities. Few of the variety with yellow- AGE AGE edged leaves have yet blossomed. There arc hedges of the common agave in Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Calabria; it flourish- es also about Naples, and in other parts of Italy. Tin- juice of the leaves, strain- ed, and reduced to a thick consistence, by being 1 exposed to the sun, may be marie up into bulls by means of lye-ashes. H will lather with suit water as well as fresh. The leaves, instead of passing 1 between the rollers of a mill, may be pounded in a wooden mortar, and the juice broug-ht to a consistence by the sun, or by boiling. A gallon of juice will yield about a pound of soft extract The leaves .w also used for scouring pewter, or other kitchen utensils, an-', floors. In Al- garvia, where pasture is scarce, they are 'Alt in thin transverse slices, and given to cattle. The inward substance of the de- cayed stalk will serve for tinder. The fibres of the leaves, separated by bruising and steeping in water, and afterwards beating them, will make a thread for com- mon uses. Varieties of the common American agave, with gold and silver striped leaves, are not now uncommon in the English gardens. The Karatto agave is a varietv brought from St. Christo- pher's, and the name is given to other >pecics of this genus, and has leaves from 2 to 3 feet long, and about 3 inches broad, ending in a black spine, and more erect Mian those of the others. This sort has not flowered in England. Linnxus has separated this genus from the aloe, be- cause the stamina and style are extended much longer than the corolla, and the corolla rests upon the germ. Besides, nil the agaves have their central leaves closely folding over each other, and em- bracing the flower-stem in the centre ; so that these never flower till all the leaves are expanded, and when the flower is past, the plants die. Whereas the flower-stem "t the aloe is produced on one side of the centre, annually, from the same plant, and the leaves are more expanded than in this genus. AGE, in horsemanship, makes a consi- derable point of knowledgej the horse being an animal that remarkably shews th<- progress of bis \ears by correspon- dent alterations in his body. We have the chief characteristics from his teeth. I'be first \ car he has onlv small grinders and gatherers, of a brinhtish colour, which are called foul's teeth. The second > ear tie changes his four foremost teeih, \\/.. two above and two below, and t'i pear browner and bigger than th The third year he changes the t<"cth next these, leavingno apparent foal's teeth !>& fore, but two above, and two belt each side, which are all bright and small. The fourth ycarhe changes the teeth next these, and leaves no more foal's teeth be- fore, but one above and below, on each side. The fifth year his foremost teeth are all changed, and the tushes on each side are complete ; and those which suc- ceed the last foal's teeth are hollow, with a small bJack speck in the middle, which is called the mark in the horse's mouth, and continues till he is eight years old. The sixth year there appear new tushes, near which is visible some young flesh, at the bottom of the tush, the tushes being white, small, short, and sharp. The se- venth year his teeth are at their full growth, and the mark in his mouth ap- pears very plain. At eight all his teeth are full, plain, and smooth, and the black mark but just discernible, the tushes looking more yellow than ordinary. The ninth, his foremost teeth shew longer, broader, yellower, and fouler, than before, the mark quite disappearing, and the tushes bluntish. At ten no holes are felt on the inside of the upper tushes, which, till then, are easily felt. At eleven his teeth are very long, yellow, black, and foul, and stand directly opposite each other. At twelve the teeth of his uppef jaw hang over those of his under. At thirteen his tushes are worn almost close to his chaps, if he has been much ridden; otherwise they will be long, black, and foul. AGE likewise denotes certain periods of the duration of the world. Thus, among Christian chronologers, we meet with the age of the law of nature, which comprehends the whole time between Adam and Moses; the age of the Jew ish law, which takes in all the time from Mo- ses to Christ; and lastly, the age of grace, or the number of years elapsed since the birth of Christ. Among ancient historians, the duration of the world is also subdivided into cer- tain periods, called ages; of which they reckon three .- the first, reaehingfromthe creation to the deluge, which happened in Greece, during the reign of called the obscure or uncertain age ; the history of mankind, during that period, bcingaltogether uncertain The second, called the fabulous or heroic, terminates at the first ojympiad; where the third, or historical, age commei The ancient poets ulso divided the du- ration of the- world in'o four ages, or pe- riods; the. first of whi'-li tVy ealj' AGG AGI golden age, the second the sih-erag - e,the third the brazen age, the fourth the iron age. Not unlike these are the four ages of the world, as computed by the East In- dians, who extend them to a monstrous length. AGE, in law, signifies certain periods of life, when persons of both sexes are enabled to do certain acts, which, for want of years and discretion, they were incapa- ble of before. Thus, a man at twelve years of age ought to take the oath of al- legiance to the king, inaleet: at four- teen, which is his age of discretion, he may consent to marriage, choose his guar- dian, and claim his lands held in socage. Twenty-one is called full age, a man or woman being then capable of acting for themselves, of managing their affairs, making contracts, disposing of their es- tates, and the like ; which before that age they could not do. A woman is dowable at nine years of age, may consent to mar- ry at twelve, and at fourteen choose her guardian, and at twenty-one may alienate her lands. AGE, in military affairs. A young man must be fourteen years of age, before he csn become an officer in the line, or be entered as a cadet at Woolwich. Persons may be enlisted as soldiers from sixteen to forty -five ; after the latter age, every inhabitant isexemptedfromservmgin the militia. AGENT, in law, a person appointed to transact the business of another. It is a principle of law, that whenever aman has a power, as owner, to do a thing, he may, as consistent with his right, do it by de- puty, either as agent, factor, or servant. If a person be appointed a general agent, Ihe principal is bound by all his acts. But an agent, specially appointed, cannot bind his principal by an act whereby he exceeds his authority. AGEUATUM, maudlin, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia JK- qiialis class of plants, with a monopetalous personated flower, and an oblong mem- bramiceous fruit, divided into two cells, which contain a number of minute seeds, affixed to a placenta. There are two species. AGGREGATE, in botany, is a term used to express those flowers which are composed of parts or florets, so united or incorporated by means either of the recep- tacle or calyx, that no one of them can be taken away without destroying the form of the whole. They are opposed to sim- ple flowers that have no such common part, which is either the receptacle or the calyx, and are usually divided into sever* kinds, viz. the aggregate, proper!' so call- ed, whose receptacle is dilated, an-! whose florets are supported by foot- stalks; such are the blue daisy, thrift, or sea-pink, &c.: the compound, which consist of several florets, that are placed, without partial peduncles, on ;i common dilated recepta- cle, and within a common perianthhun; and where each floret hath its proper ca- lyx; it is also a perianthium : umbellate, when the flower consists of many florets placed on fasti gate peduncles, proceeding from the same stem or receptacle ; and which, though of different lengths, rise to such a height as to form a regular head or umbel, flat, y i convex, or concave : cy- mous, when several fastigate peduncles proceed from the same centre, like the umbel, and rise to nearly an even he'ght; but, unlike the umbel, the secondary or partial peduncles proceed without any regular order, as in sambucus, viburnum, . &c. : amentaceous, which have a long common receptacle; along these are dis- posed squamse or scales, which form that sort of calyx called the Amentum : glu- mose, which proceed from a common husky calyx belonging to grasses, called Gluma, many of which flowers are placed on a common receptacle, called Rachis, collecting the florets into the spikes, as triticum, hordeum, bolium, &c. : and spa- diceous, which have a common recepta- cle, protruded from within ;i common ca- lyx, called S path a, along which are dis- posed several florets. Such a receptacle is called a Spadix, and is cither branched, as in phoenix; or simple, as in narcissus, &.c. In this last case, the florets mi^y be disposed all around it, as in calla, draco- nitum, &c. ; on the lower part of it, as in arum, &c.; or on one side, as in zostera, &c. These flowers have generally no partial calyx. AGGREGATE, in the Linnacan system of botany, is one of the natural methods of classing plants, and comprehending those which have aggregate flowers. AGGREGATION, in chemistry, de- notes the adhesion of parts of the same kind. Thus, pieces of sulphur united by fusion form an aggregate. AGIO, in commerce, a term chiefly- used in Holland and at Venice, where it denotesthe difference between the value of bank stock and the current coin. Mo- ney in bank is commonly worth more than specie: thus, at Amsterdam, they give 103 or 104 florins for every 100 florins in bank. At Venice, the :ir,-io is fixfd at 20 per cent. See EXCHANGE. Agio is AGR AGR aho used for the profit arising from the discounting a note, bill, &c. Agio of as- surance, is tin- same with \vli:it \\e cull polirv of assurance. > .NCE. \(;i!KKMK\T, in U\ . signifies the consent of several persons to any thing loin-, or to IK- done. There are three kinds of agreement. First, an agreement already executed at the beginning, as \vhcn money is paid, or other satisfaction made for the thing agreed to. Secondly, an agreement after ;mart done by another, to which a person agrees : this is also executed. Thirdly, an agreement executory, ortobe execut- ed in time to come. An agreement put in writing does not change its nature ; but if it be sealed and rleli\ < red, it becomes still stronger; nay, any writing under hand and seal, or a proviso amounting to an agreement, is equivalent to a covenant. AGRICULTURE, is the science which explains the means of making the earth produce, in plenty and perfection, those M-gcahles, which are necessary to the subsistence or convenience of man. Its practice demands a considerable know- ledge of the relations subsisting between the most important objects of nature. It is eminently conducive to the advantage of those actively engaged in it, by its tendency to promote their health, and to cherish in them a manly and ingenuous character ; and every improvement made in the art must be considered as of high utility, as it facilitates the subsistence oca greater proportion of rational and moral : or, if we suppose the number to I" iimncrcusrd, furnishes them with greater opportunities than could be pos- 'icfnre, of obtaining that intellcc- tn-il und inord enjoyment, which is the most honourable characteristic of their The strength of nations is in proportion to their skilful cultivation of the soil; and their independence is se- cured, and the'r patrotism animated, In 1 obtaining fram their native spot all the r easy and vigorous subsist- ence. Not only to raise vegetables for the use of man, but those animals also which d for food, is obviously therefore part of the occupation of the husband- him in his operations, other animals are to be reared and fed by him, to relieve lys labours by their strength awl endnr.'.nce of exertion. In rold and comparatively infertile climates, 'e par- ticularly important, if not absolutely in- dispensable, and their health and multi- plication become, consequently, objects of great ami uuremitted attention. The period of the introduction of agriculture into Britain is unknown. Pliny observes that, at the time of the Roman invasion, the inhabitants were ac- quainted with certain manures, p larly marl. During the possession of 'he island by the Romans, great quantities of grain were exported from it, and it can- not be doubted that, as in various other respects, the rude inhabitants derived ad- vantage from their enlightened conquer- ors; they were eminently benefited by their agricultural experience. Amidst the series of contests and confusions which fol- lowed the final abandonment of Britain by the Romans, the art and practice of hus- bandry must be presumed to have become retrograde. From the Norman conquest, however, it derived fresh vigour, as a con- siderable number of Flemish farmers, by this revolution, became proprietors of British estates, and introduced that know- ledge of the means of cultivation, for which their own country had been long distinguished. Before the sixteenth century few data are afforded, with respect to the details of agricultural practice in this island. At this period it derived a valuable impulse from the exertions of Fitzherbert, n _ judge of the common pleas, whose trea';- the subject were read with avidity, and, while they abounded in instruction, ex- cited a taste and emulation for the pur- suits of husbandry. Sir H':gh I 1 ' lowed this path of genuine patriotism with great assiduity, modrs'y, and public advantage, treating particularly on the subject of manuring. (Jabriel Plattes held out to his countrymen nt and obstinate occupier-- of die common property in iu Glares. In connection with HI-; deredthe practice v.-Ircii is the next step them productive. The su- \vati-r is no less injuri- solute want > 'u-the- arising from rain surface-, or from springs in or <>f the .-arth, it is OIK- of c s of the farmer s permcio is consequences. l-'oiMhis purpose, open or visible drains are :IIP,:MIV i-rivs adopted ; while mothers, hollow ones, so called from their being concealed in covered trenches, are pre- The width and depth of open drains must lv regulated by the variety of soil and s>- lation to which they are applied. To prevent, however, the sides from falling in they must at top be three times the width they have at bottom ; while their dip ction must obviouslv, and of necessity, be descending, it suo ild, at the same tijne, not be steep, as this would form inequalities, and bear down their sides by the r^pid rush of the water. All open drains should be cleared, at least, once in every year; which regular re- pairs may, in some cases, render them in the end more expensive than those de- nominated hollow, which will soinetmv s last for several generations unimpaired, but demand originally a far greater sum for their completion. The practice of hollow draining was known by the Roman writers on agricul- ture, and is particularly mentioned by them. In stiff clays it is of little service, and it is practised with desired effect only where the soil is of that porous sub- stance, which easily admits the passage of the water through it Opinions dirtier with regard to the season for carrying these works into execution ; some, with, plausible reason, preferring the summer, and others, having nearly as much to state in recommendation of winter for the purpose. The depth of the drain, from the surface of the land, should generally be from twenty-six inches to thirty-two; and the principal rule for their depth is, that they should be secured from receiv- ing injury from the feet of horses or cat- tle ploughing on the spot under which they are made. It is desirable to consti- tute the drain in such a manner that the stones may lean towards each other, so as to form a triangle, of which the bottom of the drain forms the base : in which case, the width of a foot may be regarded as sufficient for them. The ditches con- structed for these drains must be execut- ed with great neatness and care ; ami with respect to filling them up, which they should be about ten inches deep, if stones are plentifully at hand, they should be applied tor this purpose But in manv places, faggot-wood, horns, bones. - fern, and even turf, laid in like a wedge, are all used in different situations ; and drains constructed of these ma' thirty years ago, are found in - places effectually to answer their purpose still. By many persons, straw, ' into a very large rope, has been Ml fully laid in the bottom of the ditch : an< : by others, after twenty years experience, the white thorn luis been recommended as answering better than all other rials. Injurious moistutr in land arises often from springs in the bowels of tin- earth. The pel-son who iirst published tiir me- thod of draining land, in these circuni- . \\ as Dr. John Anderson, of Aber- deen, while Mr. filkington was actually AGRICULTURE. practising upon the same principle, in va- rious parts of England, with complete success ; am! ut length obtained from the British parliament a thousand pounds, as -cove rer of so valuable an improve- ment. In Italy and Germany, however, il Is stated, upon respectable authority, that the art has been long known ami practised. Some of the strata of which the earth is composed will admit the free pas- sage of water through them, while others ettectually resist it. Gravel is obviously characterised by the former quality, and clay by the latter. The upper part of mountains is frequently composed of gra- vel, which extends far into their depth, and conveys with it the water received upon their surface from the clouds. Meeting with layers of clay or rock, how- ever, the water is unable to permeate them, and flows upon the upper part of them obliquely, according to that general direction of the layers or laminae, which form the earth towards the plain or val- ley. After descending for some way, the layer of gravel along which the water had passed, and from which it could not penetrate the clay, flowing only on its surface, often passes, in consequence of the obliquity just mentioned, under new strata of materials, consisting of clay, or some substance equally difficult to be pe- netrated by moisture. The water is thus confined between impervious beds. If the layer of gravel suddenly stops, in such circumstances, as it often does, the water which it had conveyed between these two beds, deriving fresh accumulation perpe- tually from its original source, will at length permeate the superior layer, as- cending through its weaker parts, and arriving at last at the surface, will there stagnate. The art of draining lands in this situation (the principle of which, in whatever research or casualty its disco- very originated, is of such happy applica- tion) consists merely of digging or boring with an auger into the earth, so as to reach the layer of gravel ; the water in which, finding an easy and rapid access upwards by this vent,nolongerpressesin its former diffused manner, to the injury of the su- perior clay, which will consequently cease to nourish moss and weeds through re- dundant moisture, and be fitted for the purposes of useful cultivation. The ap- plication of this principle to the purposes of improved husbandry may be consider- ed at present as in its infancy. It may be presumed that, in future periods, it may be carried to an extent of incalculable utility, and be connected with the supply of navigable canals, and the movement of machinery adapted to various objects of art and commerce. The manner in which the various strata are intermingled with each other must, it is obvious, as nearly as possible, be ascertained, before this practice can be applied with certainty of success ; and the surest way of discover- ing their direction consists in examining tlie beds of the nearest rivers, and (he ap- pearance of their steep and broken banks. The examination of pits, wells, and quar- ries, in the vicinity, will also contribute information on the subject. Rushes and other plants, which grow only in moisture injurious to other vegetables, will likewise often indicate where a collection of water is impeded in its course below, and con- sequently presses upward, to the destruc- tion of useful vegetation. In draining a large bog, it will be generally proper to dig a trench from one end of it to the other, with cross trenches at considerable distances, to allow the water a free dis- charge, by frequently piercingthe bottom, at which the springs are to be found, with an auger. A single perforation will fre- quently, indeed, complete the object. In- stances have occurred, in which water thus raised has been made to ascend, by erect- ing round the perforation a building of brick, lined both sides with clay, above the level of the bog, applicable to a va- riety of purposes, and conveyed by pipes, or otherwise, to a considerable distance. Detailed regulations for the application of this important principle, so productive a source of improved cultivation, are pre- cluded by the assigned limits of this ar- ticle. On Fences. Without firm and close fences, the hus- bandman might as well cultivate open fields as inclosures, which in these cir- cumstances, indeed, are only nominally such. He is under perpetual and well- founded apprehensions, lest cattle of his own or his neighbours should break into his corn or hay -fields. To prevent these painful apprehensions and irreparable mischiefs, every attention must be be- stowed on the fences of a farm. Large and rich pastures may most easily be di- vided into fields of ten acres each, by which the land is less liable to be injured through the restlessness, and wild and perpetual movements of cattle, which oc- cur in extensive grounds, where they are collected in considerable numbers. Di- viding banks being raised, they may be AGRICULTURE. connected with the system of draining by :i ditch on each ride, aboulthree feet wide ul top :ni two and a half deep, and six inches wide at bottom ; and in all vcrv muist VOL. r. ones should be at least four feet by three, and one at bottom. The earth removed from the ditch should be thrown upon the hank, after which the repair of the 1 commences, and those ofthe stems above mentioned, left in cutting the old hedge, which grow in the dircctionin which the new hedge is to run, are cut off, to serve as hedge stakesfor it, which being chosen as much as possible of sallow' and willow readily grow, and effectually preserve the .rt from falling or leaning. The remainder of the wood left standing is then plashed down. One stroke is given to the stick near the ground, and another about ten or twelve inches higher, just deep enough to slit out a part of the wood between the two, leaving the stem sup- ported by about a quarter of its original size ; it is then laid along the top of tin- hank, and weaved among the hedge- stakes. Dead thorns are sometime* woven among them, where there happens to be a scarcity of living wood. After this operation the hedge is edderedin the usual manner. The greatest part of the; hedge thus consists of living materials, and the importance of this circumstance cannot be too strongly insisted upon, as a compact and lasting fence is thusformed, while those hedges which are constructed of dead materials speedily decay, and crumble into the ditch. Itwouldbe end- less to detail all the varieties offence which peculiar circumstances may have render- ed expedient, or human ingenuity may have invented. The most usual and most generally applicable are those which have been mentioned. . i lion. Watering of meadows was used in Eng- land even in the days of Queen Elizabeth, and was carried on upon a large scale by Rowland Vaughan, in the golden valley of Herefordshire. He likewise published a treatise on the subject After this pe- riod, and about a century since, it was introduced by Mr. Wclludvise into Glou- cestershire, with abundant proofs Of its efficacy and importance. So slow, how ever, is the progress of improvement, tha'.. it is only of laii flowing of grounds iu nearly all other situations as well as in level or been brought considerably into n is a practice by which, in mild > grass is produced in extreme abundance, even so early as in March: ;.;T > particularly nutritious as well :LS plen- tiful, on which cattle which have win- AGRICULTURE. ic red hardly thrive with great rapidity, and on which young lambs feed with sur- prising advantage. Between March and May, the feed of meadows, in consequence of this practice, is estimated ut worth one guinea per acre ; after which an acre will yield two tons of hay in June, while the after-math may be valued at twenty shil- lings. In consequence of this manage- ment, moreover, the land is continually improving in quality, its herbage advan- cing in fineness, the soil becoming more firm and sound, and the depth of its mould being augmented. It may be esti- mated that in each county in England and Wales two thousand acres may be increas- ed in value one pound per acre, by means of irrigation; a national advantage of seri- ous moment, and drawing after it the great improvement of other lands, and the em- ploymentof many honest and industrious poor. The principles on which the prac- tice depends have no portion of difficulty and complexity whatever. Water will al- \vaj s rise to the level of the receptacle from which it is derived. All streams de- scending in a greater or less degree, which is indicated by their smooth and slow or their agitated and noisy progress, it is obvious that a main or trench may be Uiken from a river which will convey wa- ter over the land by the side of that river 1 o a considerable distance below the head of the main, where the river from which it is taken flows greatly below it. As water, however, if left to stagnate upon land, does it very considerable injury, instead of benefiting it, by cherishing flags, rushes, and other weeds, it is requi- site to ascertain, before it be introduced upon any spot, that it can be easily and effectually drained off. The muddiness of the water applied is stated by some to be of little consequence, and several writers have even laid it down as a maxim, that the purer or clearer the wateris, the more beneficial are its effects. These opinions, however, appear to be directly contradicted by experience ; and it may be affirmed, that the mud of water, particularly in some situations, is nearly of as much consequence in winter water- ing, as dung is in the improvement of a poor upland field. Every meadow will be found productive, proportionally to the quantity of mud collected from the water. Those meadows which lie next below any village or town, are uniformly most rapid and plentiful in their growth. So well known is this truth, that disputes are per- petually arisingconcerningthe first appli- cation of water to lands ; and when mud is supposed to be collected at the bottom of a river, or in ditches, many persons will employ labourers with rakes, for several days together, to disturb it, that it may be carried down by the water, and spread upon the meadows. The more turbid and feculent the water, the more beneficially it acts. Hasty and violent rains, produ- cing floods, dissolve the salts of the cir- cumjacent lands, and wash from them con- siderable portions of the manure, which naturally or factitiously had been depo- sited on them. Water from a spring de- pends in no small degree for the quantity of nutriment it affords to vegetables, on the nature of the strata over which it passes. If these be metallic, or consisting of earth partaking of the sulphuric acid, it may be really injurious. But that which passes over fossil chalks, or any tiling of a calcareous nature, will highly promote the process of vegetation. That which has run along way is, almost always, pre- ferable to what flows over land immedi- ately from the spring. In mid-winter great attention should b^ appliedtokeepingwateredlandsheltered by the waterfrom the rigour of nightfrosts: but during the whole winter it should be withdrawn once in every twelve days, to prevent its rotting and destroying tit- roots of the grass. Every meadow should also be attentively inspected, to preservc- the equal distribution of the water over it, and to remove obstacles arising from the influx of weeds and sticks, and other similar causes. In the month of Febru- ary particular caution is requisite. If the water be suffered to remain many days together upon the land, a white scum, ex- tremely pernicious, is the consequence ; and if the land be exposed, without dry- ing during the course of the day, to one severe night frost, the herbage will often be completely cut off. Both these causes of injury must be carefully avoided. A- bout the middle of February half the quantity of water previously used will be- better than more, all that is requisite now beingto keep the ground moist and warm, and to hasten the progress of vegetation : and in proportion as the weather become? wanner the quantity introduced should proportionally be diminished. An import- ant maxim in the application of water is, to bring it on as plentifully as possible, but to let it pass off by a brisk and nim- ble course, as not only its stagnation is injurious, but by indolently creeping over the land, it is of much less advantage than when passing off quickly. The spring feeding ought never to be done by heavier AGRICULTURE. cattle titan sheep or calves, as others would do extreme injury, by poaching the ground with their fort, and spoiling the trenches. The barer the meadows are fed towards the close of April, the At'ier clearing, they should ha\ i: a week's watering 1 , with a careful atten- tion to every sluice or drain. With respect to the application of floods, a general rule, of no slight importance, is, that the fanner should avail himself of them whenever the grass cannot be used, us the sand and mud brought down by them increase and enrich the soil; but that lie should avoid them when the grass is long, or soon to be cut, as in flat countries it is frequently spoiled by them, and much of the matter which they bring down, sticking to the grass, renders it peculiar- ly unpleasant to cattle, which have been known in some instances rather to starve than use it. So great is the importance of irrigation, hat governments would be fully justified in giving facility to undertakings for con- hiding it on an extensive plan. The fer- ility, or, in other words, the national wealth, capable of being derived from the application of cold water, which is at present allowed to flow uselessly away, to the purposes of agriculture, is well wor- thy the attention of the enlightened and benevolent statesman. In the neighbour- howl of the cities of Milan and Lodi, Mr. Young observes, that the exertions in ir- rigation are truly great and even astonish- ing. " Canals are not only numerous and uninterrupted, but conducted with great .skill and expense. Along the public roads, almost every where, there is one canal on the side of the road, and some- times there are two. Crossones are thrown over these on arches, and pass in trunks of brick or stone under the road. A very considerable one, after passing for seve- .il miles by the side of the highway, sinks under it, and also under two other canals, carried in stone troughs a foot wide. The v .irii-ty of directions in which the water is carried, the ease with which it is made to flow in opposite directions, and the ob- stacles which are overcome, are objects of admiration. The expense thus em- ployed in the twenty miks from Milan to Lodi is immense ; and meritorious as ma- ny undertakings in England are, they sink to nothing in comparison with these truly great ami noble works. So well under- stood is the value of water in this country, that it is brought by the farmer (who has the power of conducting it through his neighbour's ground, for a stipulated sum. and under certain regulations, to any dis- tance that m:t\ suit him; from a canal of a certain si/.e, at so much an hour per u eck, and even from an hourdown to a quarter, The usual price for an hour per v. perpetuity is fifteen hundred livres." .Manure, fjc. Ingenious theories have too often, in agricultural treatises, usurped the place of recitals of attentive and patient expe- rience. To the latter, the judicious rea- der will ever bend his attention with plea- sure and advantage, rejoicing that, while the systems of men are seen to vanish, one after another, in rapid succession, like the waves of the ocean, the course of na- ture is constant, and may be depended upon through all generations and ages. Of all the expenses incurred by the hus- bandman, none so rarely disappoints its object as that which he employs in ma- nures. The use of lime in this connec- tion has been long decidedly established. It reduces to mould all the dead roots of vegetables, with which the soil abounds. Its useful operation depends upon its in- timate mixture with the land; and the proper time therefore to apply it is, when both are in that pulverized state in which this union can be best completed. If left to be slaked by humid air, or casual rain, it is seldom perfectly reduced to powder. The proper method is, to place it in heaps on the ground on which it is intended to be spread, to slake it there with a due quantity of water, and after- wards to cover it with sod, to preserve it from the rain. If long slaked, however, before it is spread, it runs into clots, and becomes less operative for its purpose j besides which, it loses in such circumstan- ces its caustic quality, on which account it should be brought home as short a time as possible before its intended application. Lime should not be permitted to lie all winter on the surface of the ground after being spread, for a similar reason, as also because it is washed down into the fur- rows ; and on the sides of hills the whole is apt to be carried off' by the winter tor- rents. It should be spread, and mixed with the soil immediately before sowing. The quantity to be laid on depends upon the nature of the lands, which, if strong, will easily bear a hundred bolls per acre, \\ hile thin and gravelly ones will require only thirty or forty, and upon meadow ones fifty or si.\t\ will he found sufficient. Marl is valuable as a manure in propor- tion to the quantity of calcareous earth which it contains, which in some instan- AGRICULTURE. ccs amount to one hall'. When of this quality, it may be regarded as the most substantial of all manures, converting the weakest ground nearly into the most pro- ductive. It is the best of manure for clay soils, in which all agricultural writers are perfectly agreed. Before its application, the land should be cleared of weeds, and smoothed, that it may be evenly spread ; after which it should remain all winter on the surface. Its usefulness depends on its pulveri/ation and close union with the soil to which it is applied. Frost, and a fre- quent alternation of dryness and humidity, contribute greatly to reduce it to pow- der, on which account it should, as much and as long 1 as possible, be exposed to their influence. The proper season for marling' land is summer. The best grain for the first crop after marl is oats. But, whatever be the crop, the furrow should be always ebbed, as otherwise the marl, which is a heavy body, sinks to the bot- tom of it. Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is com- monly used in Switzerland and North America as a manure, and has been tried in this country with stated results of a very different description. Experiments, however, respecting its efficacy and ad- vantages, do not appear yet to have been made with sufficient accuracy to justify a final opinion respecting it. In Cornwall and other counties, sea sand is laid upon the land in considerable quantities, and found extremely useful in softening stiff clays, and rendering them pervious to the roots of plants. Chalk, or powdered lime- stone, will also answer this important end; and sand, together with lime perfectly extinguished, will, more effectually than any tiling else, open its texture, and pre- pare it for whatever is intended to be sown on it The true nourishment of vegetables consists of water, coal, salts, and differ- ent kinds of earths, which are ascertained to be the only substances common to ve- getables, and the soils in which they grow. In favourable weather, grasses and corn absorb and perspire nearly half their weight of water every day. The great problem with respect to manuring or fer- tilizing a soil appears to be, how to ren- der coal soluble in water for the purpo- ses of vegetation, and to discover that composition of the different earths, which is best adapted to detain the due pro- portion of moisture. With respect to the former, the fermentation of dung appears to be the best method hitherto discover- ed ; and as to the different kinds of earths to be applied for the improvement of particular soils, the experiments of Mr. Kirwan, to whom the world is indebted for much elaborate and ingenious analy- sis on the subject, have led him to seve- ral conclusions, which will be briefly no- ticed. Clay soils, being defective in con- stitution and texture, want the calcare- ous ingredient, and coarse sand. The former is supplied by calcareous marl, and both are furnished by limestone gra- vi-1. Marl and dung are still more bene- ficial, as dung supplies the carbonaceous principle. Sand, chalk, or powdered lime- stone, will either of them answer this pur- pose, though less advantageously. Coal ashes, chips of wood, burnt clay, brick- dust, and even pebbles, may be applied with this view. For clayey loam, if defi- cient in the calcareous ingredient, chalk is an excellent manure ; if in the sandy ingredient, sand is the obvious and easy remedy ; a deficiency in both will be best supplied by siliceous marl, limestone gra- vel, or effete lime with sand. The most effectual application for the chalky soils, which want both the argillaceous and the sandy ingredients, is clayey or sandy loams. For chalky loam, the best ma- nure is clay, because this soil is chiefly defective in the argillaceous ingredient. Calcareous marl is the best manure for sandy soils. For sandy loams, chalk should be followed by clay ; and for vi- triolic soils, lime, or limestone gravel, or calcareous clay, is peculiarly applicable. Not only sea-sand, but sea-weeds also, maybe employed to considerable advan- tage as manure. For lands on the coast it may be procured, not only in any quan- tities, but at a trifling expense. The weeds of rivers are also extremely use- ful for the same purpose. The refuse of slaughter-houses and oil cakes are well adapted to fertilize the soil, but in most situations not easily to be obtained at a reasonable rate. In almost all circumstances, the indus- try and ingenuity of the occupier must be depended onforraisingonthe spot an ade- quate quantity of dung for its manure ; and for this purpose it is expedient that, in such circumstances, as little as possi- ble of the hay and straw raised upon the premises should be sold from them. This tenaciousness on the part of the farmer will prove the constant source of improve- ment. With a view to turn his means of manure most advantageously to account, he should draw into his farm yard, at the most leisurely season of the year, before the time of confining his cattle to fodder, AGRICULTURE. as much marl, turf, dry mud, loam, and other applicable articles, us will cover its to tin- depth of Uvchc; inches. be- many hog-houses, stables, and ,sed into the yard, on such spots these materials should be s-pread more thickly. .Bog- peats, if near nt hand, should never be neglected. - may be regarded as vegeta- ble dunghills, and tlieir easy accessibility in this connection will be regarded as of i- utility and consequence. Before ng is begun, the whole yard be well littered, for which stuh- ble, fern, and leaves, are well adapted. No money laid out by the farmer is more and successfully expended, than that which he employs in procuring, at a reasonable rate, great quantities of litter, by which his cattle are enabled to lie dry and warm, and the mass of manure which he raises is much larger and cheaper than he could procure in any other mode. Fern abounds in alkaline salts, and must therefore obviously produce very valua- ble dung: it requires, however, to be rotted well, and is more difficult to be so ihan straw. In woodlands, leaves may be collected at slight expcnce, and will make admirable litter and dung. In the neigh- bourhood of marshes, rushes, flags, and grass, may all be easily procured, and will be exceedingly serviceable. After these exertions and preparations, ihe farmer must strictly confine his cattle during the winter, not by tying them, as some have done, but, so as completely to prevent their roaming in the adjoining postures. By thus confining all the cat- tle upon straw, ami turnips, and hay, as may be requisite, the necessary quantity of animal manure will be obtained to ;he compost of the several ingredi- ents ferment, rot, and turn to rich ma- nure, while without these animal materi- ils, the heap might be large, but would be of little value, '['he draining from the yard should never run to v. aMe, and, un- less in cMraordinaiy cases, sucl tremely violent rains, this may be easily ited. An excellent method for this purpose is the sinking a \\ell in the low- er part of the \ard to fix a pump in ; by which the water ma\ hi conveyed along trough to a large hi-ap of marl, turf, i h:\lk, and oth-r appropriate materials, \\hich, by a daily application of this li- quor, will he of little less value eventu- ally than a heap of dung of the same si/.e. If the dung remains under water, pu- trefaction is stopped ; this, therefore, .should be carefully guarded against. Stirringthe dung should also be :i\ as t!ie oils and alkaline salts are tin: ried off into the atmosphere, and '.- is not rottenness that is wanted, and particularly that dry rottenness thus pro- duced, but such as exhibits afat, oily, mu- cilaginous appearance. It will be advisa- ble, if practicable, to let it remain in the yard unmoved, till the ground it is destin- ed for is completely ready for its recep- tion. If, for want of room in the yard, it must be carted off' into the field, le* the litter and the marl be well mixed in filling the cart, and let the whole form, under the shade of trees, if an opportu- nity be afforded for it, a heap of about four feet in thickness. The dung raised even by a few sheep in a standing fold, under a shed construct- ed expressly for the purpose, (for the trouble and expence of one comp< hurdles will overbalance its profits, un- less upon a very large scale) is a consider- able object, while the sheep under it arc at the same time warm and comfortable, instead of being exposed to driving rains and snow. Animal substances are very far prefer- able as manures to fossil or vegetable ones. Woollen rags, hog's hair, horn shavings, the offal of butcher's and fish- monger's stalls, may be obtained in large cities, and, whenevcrreasonably tobe pro- cured, should be eagerly caught at. With regard to the dung of animals, that of sheep is unquestionably the best. That of horses fed upon corn and hay is justU preferred to that of fatting cattle, which. however, is greatly superior to that of lean cattle, and particularly of cows, though they may feed upon turnips. The practice of paring and burning is pronounced by men of great philosophi- cal sagacity and research, and \\1. justh referred more to pnn than to theoretical reasonings, to be ot the most decided advantage in the pre- paration of land. It maybe as .1 praruec safe tin- ditch serves at once for dividing and defending the land, and for clearing off the redundant moisture. Irrigation also, which, as well indeed as the last- mentioned topics, has been already ad- verted to, from its obvious and admirable utility to pasture, will derive every atten- tion in this connection. In spring a heavy \\<><>,li n roller should be applied, when tlie weather is moist, as it will then make the greater impression. The roots of the plunts will thus be fixed in the soil. The mould will be crushed, and the worm- \elledby this practice; and the ground is prepared by it for the applica- tion of the scythe, which will, in conse- quence of this operation, cut deeper, and with more facility. The stocking of poor pastures with sheep, rather than black cattle, is of parti- cular consequence to their improvement, and the perseverance in this practice for lie sheep being folded upon the. spot, has been more recruiting to poor soils, than any other practice. A habit of matting its roots is given to the grass by the close bite of these animals, and a growth of delicate herbage is promoted. . are likewise cleared by sheep, as every thing young^ and tender (even heath and broom) is readily eaten by them. By means also of the dung, neces- sarily arising, an amelioration of the soil as well as produce takes place, of extreme and surprising importance. The sweet- ness of the feed on the downs of Wilt- shire arises, not so much from any natu- ral and characteristic excellence of the grass grown on them, as from its being kept close, and eaten as rapidly as it vege- tates. It has been remarked, that, on cer- tain poor soils, it requires much more time to produce the second inch of vege- tation than the first, making allowance for the fuller developement and size ac- companying the second ; a circumstance indicating that the preference should in such cases be given to the feeding by sheep rather than by cattle. The for- mer remarks, however, on this subject, concerning the inapplicability of land thus depastured, for rearing crops of hay, must never be forgotten. Quicklime, spread in powder over the surface of pasture lands, will scarcely fail to improve, not only the poor, but the more valuable ones. The moss plants, which are so particularly pernicious, arc thus destroyed, and converted into valua- ble manure. Upon impoverished and worn-out lands, about 270 bushels per acre, on the sward, in the summer, will be found of great and durable eflir cleaning and improving them. Mixing lime with earth taken from ditches or ponds is superior to using it alone, and, as a general rule, double the quantity ot earth should be mixed with that of lime. The requisite proportions vary, however, with the nature of the soils ; but are easily ascertained by attentive workmen. Paring and burning may be applied to pasture with great success in a partial manner, by grubbingup rushes and bush- es with which it may be encumbered, burning them after they are dried, and before the autumnal rains come on spread- ing their ashes on the surface. In some instances this husbandry may !u- .acre- fully exercised on pasture over the whole surface, as particularly on a poor worn out ley; whicli, by such aprocess, attend- ed with the harrowing in of white clover, and several other grass seeds, at the time of spreading the aslios, has heen improved into a very fine meadow. When hie, such a practice may be regarded as one of the cheapest of all improvement*. AGRICULTURE. From whatever cause land may be overrun with moos plants, or covered \vith fern, rushes, and ant-hills, it should be subjected for some time to the plough, as no other method is equally useful to prepare for permanently ameliorating- its pasture. To prepare arable land for grass, it must be cleaned from weeds, and well manured, Justin the same manner as that which is required for :i crop of grain. Excepting upon stiff' clays, the most eli- gible preparation for grass is a crop of turnips, consumed by cattle in the field ; the ground being thus at once manured and cleaned. Where lands are broken up expressly for ,the purpose of improv- ing the pasture, the turnips scarcely fail to succeed, through the manure afforded so abundantly by the fresh turf; and the cattle deriving, from the abundant crop consequent on this circumstance, a plen- tiful food, are thus enabled, the more extensively, to improve the soil by dung. On the clay land, the soil should be very liberally manured in spring or autumn, it ought to be ploughed once in autumn, and three or four times more in summer, pre- viously to the period of sowing the seeds, which should take place in August. As to the much agitated question of sowing grass seeds with or without a crop of corn, it may be observed, that it is impos- sible for lands intended for grass crops, or meadow, to possess too high a state of richness, and that, after the soil is im- proved with a view to its permanent fer- tility in grass, to weaken it by a crop of corn appears little better than blind or infatuated counteraction. If, however, ihe practice be persevered in, which has so generally been followed in this respect, barley should be the grain preferred, as springing up with a slight stalk, and not overshadowing and smothering the grass plants, and also as being the incum- brance to those plants more speedily re- moved than any other. Whether the grass seeds be sown in August after a fallow, or with corn in spring, all trampling by horses or cattle should be effectually prevented. Every thing, therefore, should be kept out from it, both during autumn and winter. Not only is the tender soil, which is extremely susceptible of injury, thus secured from it, but the pasturage in the spring is of pro- portionally more value for not having been eaten off in autumn, and affords a most valuable early bite for the ewes -and lambs. The proper treatment of leys during the first year is, to feed them with sheep, unless, after a crop of hay be taken from them, vast quantities of manure be spread over their surface. The chief food of cattle consisting of grasses, their importance is as obvious as it is great, and the distinguishing- and se- lecting them cannot be too fully attended to. By this care the best grasses, and in the greatest abundance that the land ad- mits of, are secured; while, for want of this attention, pastures are either filled M'ith weeds, or bad and inappropriate grasses. The number of grasses fit, or at least necessary, for the purposes of cul- ture, is but small, scarcely exceeding half a score, and by the careful separation and sowing of the seeds of these, the hus- bandman would soon be enabled to ac- commodate the varieties of his soil, each with the herbage best adapted to it, the advantage of which would infinitely ex- ceed the trouble necessary for its accom- plishment. Were a great variety of grain to be sown in the same inclosure, the ab- surdity would be universally ridiculed ; and scarcely less absurd and ridiculous is the common practice of indiscrimi- nately sowing grass seeds from the foul hay rack, including a mixture of almost every species of grass seed and rubbish. The species of grass appropriated to any particular soil or application being determined upon, its seedscannot be sown too plentifully, and no economy less de- serving the name can possibly exist, than the being sparing of grass seeds. The seeds of grain may easily be sown too thickly ; but with respect to those of grass, it is scarcely capable of occurring. The smaller the stem, the more accepta- ble it is to cattle ; and when the seeds, particularly of some grasses, are thinly scattered, their stems tend, as it is called, to wood. The most valuable grass to be cut green, for summer's food, is red clover, which also is an admirable preparation for wheat. To have it in perfection, the weeds must be cleared, and the land har- rowed as finely as possible. The surface should also be smoothed with alight roll- er. The seeds should likewise be well covered with earth, as should all small seeds, notwithstanding the common opi- nion to the contrary. From the middle of April to that of May is the proper sea- son for sowing it. Although it will last three years, if cut down green, the safest course is to let it stand but one. It is luxuriant upon a rich soil, whether of clay, loam, or gravel, and will grow even upon a moor. For a wet soil it is totally unfit. AGRICULTURE. It may be sown with grain with less im- propriety than perhaps any other grass, and particularly with flax. \Vheii a land, left unploughed, spontaneously produces this plant, the soil may decidedly be pro- nounced good. Those who lay down land permanently to grass may In-st depend on white, or Dutch, clover, for all rich and dry loams and sands, and for rich clays that have hei-n properly drained. I,';, c grass \\-ill flourish on anv land but stiff clays. It is well adapted for perma- nent pasture, and, if properly managed, is one of the best spring grasses. There are few so early, or more palatable and utritive to cattle. It is less subject to injury in critical hay seasons than any other, and the seeds of none are collected with greater facility. It should be cut for hay some time previously to its being ripe, as the stalks will otherwise he con- \ert<:d into a species of straw, audks nu- tritive qualities be proportionably weak- ened. Sainfoin is preferred by many agricul- to clover, as less likely to injure cattle when they eat it green, producing larger crops, making betterha\ , and con- tinuing four times longer in the ground. It is several years in arriving at its full strength. The quantity of milk yielded fiv means of it from cows is nearly double of what is produced by any other green food, and the quality also of the milk is proportionally better. It is much culti- vated on chalky soils, and succeeds best where its roots run deep. Cold and wet Hay is extremely ill adapted for it, and the dry ness of land is of more conse- quence to its growth than even the rich- ness of it. It is best cultivated by the drill husbandry, after repeated ploughing, harrowing, and rolling; and while care is taken not to leave the seeds uncovered, they must also not be buried deeper than about an inch. They should be sowed in the latter end of March. An acre of ver> ordinary land will maintain four cows for tight months, and afford the greatest part of their food in hay for the rest of the year. Lucerne remains at least above twelve years producing very large crops, and yielding the most excellent hay, to the amount of about seven tons per acre. It has obtained the highest praises from all agricultural u riters. With a view to its -till cultivation, the soil must be kept open and free from weeds, which is most effectually done by horse-hoeing. It is transplanted with extreme Advantage. VOL. I if the tap root be cut off, by which it v fitted for a sliallow soil, and its roots shoot out laterally and near the surface. The culture of this plant is a principal dis- tinction of French husbandry, and is in that country a source of almost uniform profit. The best preparation for it is a turnip or cabbage crop. No manure should be allowed afterthe sowing till tin- crop is two years old. Its improving ef- fect upon the soil is particularly i. . Burnet is a grass peculiarly adapted to poor land, and is so hardy as to flourish when all other vegetation fails. Its cul- tivation is not hazardous or expensive. It is best sown in the beginning of July. It affords rich pleasant milk, and in great plenty. For moist loams and clays there cannot be a better grass than the meadow fox-tail, which is not only early, but re- mains for nine or ten years, and is little injured by frost. To these remarks oti a few of the grass- es it may be added, that, in connection with soils, the principal grass plants have been thus arranged by one of the most distinguished agriculturists of the day. Clay. Loam. Sand. Cow grass White clover White clover Cock's-foot Bye R\ e Dog's-tail York white York white Fescue Fescue Yarrow Fox-tail Fox-tail Burnet Oat grass Trefoil Dog's-tail Pot Trefoil Rib York white Timothy Timothy Yarrow Lucerne Chulk. feat. Yarrow White clover Hut-net Dog's tail Trefoil Cock's-foot White clover Rib Sainfoin York white Rye Fox-tail Fescue Timothy. Instruments and Operations of Smbandry. Tin- instruments used in husbandry arc so numerous, and, under the same deno- mination, ot> ently constructed, with a view to varieties of the same ope- ration, that it would be impossible, in a sketch like the present, to detail their structure and application. In the process for which they are respectively intend- ry agriculturist < . avail H AGRICULTURE. bimself of those, the utility of which is best deckled by experience. In almost all lands there is a fixed depth for ;hf nl:>ughtoj*o to, -which is the strat'.pn !u-i -, ceil the fertile and unfertile moulds. :V> soil should be ploughed be- yond this bottom, or sole, which is the preservative on which the top layershould rest, and by which the manure laid up- on the ground is prevented from losing its effect. In fallowing 1 land, therefore, the plough may go as deep as the fertile soil will allow, as also in breaking up land without paring and burning. When land is p.i-vd and burnt, it ought to be plough- ed in small furrows, and not so deep, as this depth of furrow would hazard the loss of the ashes for the immediate, and indeed for, the subsequent, crops. Where the so. is are burnt in small heaps, and by slow tires, and the land ploughed shallow for the first time, and successively deep- er ;>:ul deeper, pool-land will be more ef- fectually benefited from itself than by any other mode ; and in proportion as land can be made to maintain or improve itself, the benefit to the farmer is obvious. Instead of ploughing stubble into the land, it is far better to move the stubble, and even to harrow the land before it is fallowed. In soil of a poor quality, a cer- t^in proportion should be observed be- tween the depth of ploughing and the quantity of manure usually spread, which on better soils might be safely disregard- ed. There are few, which it is not requi- site to plough to the depth of six inches ; and for many, the depth of ten is by no means too great. Once in twelve or eighteen months it is highly desirable to plough to the full depth, while in the in- terval shallower tillage will be preferable to deep working, for wheat particularly, which is best promoted by a firm bottom. A ploughing before harvest is of extreme consequence in fallowing, with respect to which seasonableness is of more conse- quence than the number of earths given. When fallows are called for, they should be attended with an observanteye, andbe kept clean, whatever other business may press upon the husbandman's attentioii. On a well-managed farm, servants and cat- tle w''l be kept sufficient for every neces- sary operation. The practice of fallows, however, is now abandoned in a variety of cases in which they were formerly deemed absolutely indispensable, and the weil-informed agriculturist will seldom have recourse to them after his first year. Harrowing is not only necessary for crt veringthe seed, but also for preparing the land for its reception. The same instru- ments, whatever be their form, cannot an- swer the different purposes of this opera- tion upon all soils, whether firm or loose, and rough or smooth. For everypurpose, however, andofwbateversize,they should be so constructed, that no tooth can fol- low the track of another, and that every one should be constantly kept acting. The practice is best performed by har- rowing a square piece of land at once, so that the instrument may be lifted at the corner, and the refuse stuff left there. The following harrows will thus have an opportunity of passing over every part of the land, and it will be completely cleaned from couch grass and all noxious weeds. Till of late years the practice of rolling was but little used, or even known, and it is in many places exercised so slightly, as to be of little service. Its utility, when it is exercised as it ought to be, consists in rendering a loose soil more compact and solid, which, by making the earth adhere to the roots of plants, cherishes their growth. No roller that can be drawn by two, or even by four, horses, will carry this effect too far. By rolling, moreover, the moisture of the earth is kept more in, and, in a dry season, this circumstance may reasonably be pre- sumed sometimes to constitute the differ- ence between a good and a bad crop. The common practice of breaking clods by means of mallets may judiciously be superseded by the roller, preceded for a day or two by harrowing. When firm and tough clay clods are to be broken, a large and heavy roller will be required for this purpose, with circles of iron of the depth of six or seven inches, which will completely reduce the most stubborn clods, and, from its decided usefulness, must by no means be regarded as a refine- ment in husbandry, productive of expense, without ample corresponding advantage. With respect to grass lands, the mowing for hay is extremely facilitated by the practice of rolling. The practice of scarifying grass lands is used by a variety of persons, and is di- rectly opposite to that of rolling them in its principle and effect. For this purpose a plough, consisting only of four coulters, or narrow teeth, is employed ; and it is as- serted that the crops of hay are consider- ably increased by the loosening of the earth occasioned by this process, the roots acquiring the power of fresh vegetation, while rolling is stated to increase the te AGRICULTURE. -.:i. in nl .,..,.,_-, :> -'Mr-, . , \. !i'-!i i' ought r.ither to he diniin'..shi:d. l'iw i.-i-islv to the manuring of grau land i' particularly beneficial, a.-. vi- r it In- that is -,] ; :ul mcr the ground finds, in consequence of this im-tliod, more rapid access to the roots, and a smaller quantity is remarked to answer the end proposed than a considerably larger one without this practice. The in may undoubtedly be beneficial s and soils, and expe- . . c evinced that it is so. The use of the roller, however, upon 'iids of a certain description, will be admitted to be preferable ; and with :.o arable land, this new process by no means interferes with the application of the roller, for all the purposes which have been mentioned. Drill Husbandry. The system of drill husbandry has been long known to be extremely prefera- ble on sandy soils and dry loams, and in Norfolk particularly it made a rapid an. I :-ogress upon such land-*. It has latterly been introduced on the strong- soils of Suffolk. The objects of this hus- bandry are, the promotion of the growth of plants by hoeing, and the saving of objects, it will be universally ad- milted, of great importance. It was well knoun, that in gardens the hoeing and transplantation of vegetables often dou- bled their vigour: analogv therefore natu- rally led to the conclusion, that a similar would occur from the same ma- nagement of arable lands, and experience he practicability and the advantage of it. I .and sowed with wheat, howe\cr well prepared and finished it may be in the u.iuimii, sinks in winter, so that in the spring it possesses too great the tree extension of the roots for the collection of nourish- b) in extreme need of .teract these inter, there- hoc ing inex- pressibly more than what is sown in the spring; the land in the latter c. bin ing had the fame time to harden, nor io produce many weeds b\ exposure to the winter .snow and rain. As the \i^o,irof the plan's upon the drill s\Vicm i- \cry considerably increas- ed, the. land must be sowed much thin- ner than in the old practice ; a circum- . which, in unreflecting minds, has -. considerable objection, it appearing at the first view, which on such is not 01 ,!y im- e, that tli. ttnmon M: most pro- ductive lands, the seeds, though very tliickly sown, produce each but one or two ears, whereas two or three are uni\ produced by each in the latter mode, and sometimes a single one will produce 18 In the old method, there being by far more plants ihan nourishment. most perish without attaining maturity, and many of the remainder < ly in a languid and drooping state ; where- as in the other method all have as much nutriment as they require, and though comparatively few, being far mor. rous in their vegetation, tl. larger produce than the numero;.-. but sickly plants cultivated in the ordinary method. For the application of this new mode, howerer it is ex; have been brought into good liKh !>y 'he old method, which being d;-i be so thinly sown as to leave sufficient room for the plants to extend themvh -s. It must be divided for this purpose into rows, 30 inches distant from each which will give an interval >f two feet between the rows, even' plant there- by having ample room to extend Hs roots and collect its food. In such con- siderable intervals, also, the. ear^h may be hoed roiuid the plants w'hi. hazard of injury to them. The first hoe- ing should be applied w hen the " in leaf, before winter, and id designed to draw off' the wet, and to be mellowed, by frost The Sl after the hard frosts are p:-.s- latedfor making the plant* 1\ . The ttrrd maybe very slight, and should be given when the cars b appear. The last should be given when the wheat is in bloom, and is est importance, as it i: at the extremities, and of the grain. In the middle of UK- inter- vals a deep furrow must be traced, and the catfh be thrown to the r'ght ai on the foot of the plants. R application of the earth in this manner the plants are supported, and pr. from being laid, and the ground is pre- pared for the ni v sowing, in which the - to be put in the middle of the ground that formed the inte. The practice of hoeing ma\ ta'.e p'aco at almost anytime in light and dr; Uut on strong and clay ones, in AGRICULTURE. the extremes of wet and dry are particu- larly inimical to vegetation, the seasons for its exercise are often short and critical. As vigorous plants, such as are produ- ced by this system, require a longer pe- riod for attaining maturity, the corn thus cultivated must be sown earlier than in the usual mode. The intervals are usu- ally prepared for sowing again, by pla- cing some well-rotted dung in the deep furrows made in the middle of them, and this dung must be covered by the earth before thrown towards the rows of wheat. This should be performed immediately after harvest, that, before the rows are sowed, there may be time for slightly stirring the land. The intervals of the second year occupy the place taken up by the stubble of the preceding. The banishment of the plough in spring, to as great a degree as possible, has taken place, in consequence of this most useful and happy innovation. All peas and beans, barley and oats, not only may be put in on an autumnal ploughing, but actually are so in many parts of the country (especially in Suffolk,) the stich- es in this ploughing being carefully thrown to the precise breadth, suited to the intention of the farmer, whether to use only one movement of the drill, or what is usually denominated a. bout of it ; on which subject opinions differ. By the winter frosts a friability is given to the surface of the soil, so great, that very early in the spring, after one scarifying and harrowing, the corn may be drilled, and without a horse-foot treading any where but in the stich furrows, where it can do no injury. Instead of losing this admirable gift of the atmosphere (which cannot be renewed,) as was done by the former practice of at least two spring ploughings, it is thus completely preser- ved, and the delay, expense, and vexa- tion, occasioned to the farmer, by the suc- cession of rains and north-easterly winds, giving the dreadful alternative of mire and clods, are wholly avoided. From a comparative estimate of the profits attending the different modes of husbandry, that of the new is stated, after various experiments, to be very nearly in the proportion of three to two : and making the utmost allowance for the influence, by which the sanguine tempe- rament of the partizan will interfere with the dispassionate calculations of philoso- phy, the advantage on the side of profit iputably and greatly with the mo- dern system. It is also to be observed, that most of the accidents attending 1 crops of wheat originate in their being late sown, which, on the old plan, is una- voidable ; whereas, in the new method, the farmer may plough the furrows for the next crop as soon as ever the first is removed. The ground may be ploughed dry, and may be drilled wet. The seed, moreover, is not planted under the fur- rows, but at the preciselv proper depth. The seed has all the advantage of early sowing, therefore, and the crop is more certain than by any other'mode. The land, also, is much less exhausted by this method, the weeds being completely de- stroyed by the hoe, and none of the plants, existing to draw nutriment from the ground but what attain their full matu- rity ; whereas in the usual practice seeds are permitted inevitably to impoverish, and three-fourths of the plants them- selves, after having derived a certain and a considerable portion of vegetable food from the soil, perish abortively. The state of the land, therefore, must neces- sarily and obviously be left far better by the new mode than by the old. The practice of drill-husbandry has been justly remarked to be the manage- ment of the garden brought into the field ; and the grand question relating to it is, whether the extraordinary expense of this finer cultivation be compensated by the superior quality or abundance of its crop ? which the most sagacious and experience^! judges have determined in the affirmative. Even admitting, for a moment, after all, that the practice is not, on the whole, su- perior, or equal, to the old mode, its in- troduction has at least been highly ser- viceable in correcting and refining the old method of cultivation, and some of the reputation of the new one may un- doubtedly be allowed to have arisen from a comparison with slovenly and defective methods upon the old plan. With regard to white crops, there are many practitioners of liberality and sense who reject this practice, although, with respect to potatoes, cabbages, beans, and often turnips also, it is admitted by them to be unexceptionable. On a soil, how- ever, in which the drill machine can move with freedom, there appears no reason, and it may be almost said no excuse, for the rejection of the modem system, which, indeed, however recently it may have been introduced into this country, is practised in every part of China, and is used also by the inhabitants of the Carna- tic, and, from the decided aversion of these nations to innovation, may naturally AGRICULTURE. be supposed to have been their practice i cotton, and tin- ca-tor-oil plant, tire culti- vated by it, Thi> Ciiltttm of Grain nrul Hoots. < )f tlie various plants raised for the nou- rishment of man, wheat is of the chief importance. To prevent the dis< . called the smut, steeping it* seed from twelve to twenty- four hours in a lev of wood tushes, in linn water, and in a solution of arsenic, is Uieacious, even although it sh'iutd havi- hern extremely affected 1>\ A less time u insufficient. On eohl. \\et, and backward soils, the tor putting this grain into the earth is September, particularly if the weather be rainy, as wheat should never be sown in a dry season. On dry and warm soils the so \\inir ina\ be best post- poned tiU October. In proportion to the eariiness of the sowing, a less quantity of preparation for it is by beans. Clover forms also an excellent preparation for it : and on a farm dry enough for turnips, and rich enough for wheat, the Norfolk practice of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, is perhaps the most eligible that can be adopted. Hy the dibbling of wheat, for a fort- night before which the land must be ploughed, and rolled down with a heavy roller, the seed is deposited in the centre of the flag, and the regular treading which the land receives presses down the furrows, and gives it a most valuable de- gree of firmness. The chief attention required in dibbling is, to make the holes dee]) enough, and to see that the children drop the seed equally, without scattering. After this dropping is completed, bush- harrowing follows. The quantity ofVed should be about six pecks in two rows in a flag. If the drill-machine be used, the preparation of the land by ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, must be extn na - irate, \\ hether tor one stroke of the machine, or for a bout of it, and the quantity of seed should be the sunn- :is that used in dibbling. In February, slight dressings are with great advantage spread over the green crop of this grain ; and if the fanner has his choice for this purpose, he can never hesitate about tak- ing them from dung; tisdungj. of all sorts are excellent, and no other manures, like these, are univi-rsallv applies the (h-ill-huslrandry, the practice of hoeing is of the first importance, and has been already mentioned. If horse-hoeing be not employed, the haml-hoe may b : i advantage, and should be per- formed, first, early in March, and the se- cond time in the beginning ot April. A scarifier is by many employed instead of the hoe, with the same object and effect \Vhatc\vr the operation, employed with this view, ma\ be, the bottom should, with respect to wheat, be left firm and untouched. This is of particular import- ance. A mild and open winter i far from being favourable to this grain, pushing it forward with too rapid vegetation, and also cherishing those weeds which be- come its most injurious enemies. No weather is so injurious to wheat in the ground as wet. If, however, it have a good blooming time, though the rest of the summer, both before and after this period, may be unkindly, little apprehen- sion for the crop need be entertained from any state of the weather. If wheat be attacked by mildew, which is most likely to occur in the month of July, the only effectual application is the sickle, which ought not to be delayed for a moment, though the ear be perfectly green. Barley requires a mellow soil, and when sown upon clay, therefore, extraor- dinary care is required to stirthe land im- mediately after the removal of the previ- ous crop ; and, with this view, the prac- tice of rib-ploughing, which exposes the greatest possible quantity of surface to the air and frost, has been employed by many. This object should, at all e\ents, be gained, whichever method be adopted for it, of the many which have been sug- , and are indeed practised. Scari- fication, with Mr. Cooke's machine for this purpose, instead of ploughing, is found to be an excellent method. In pro- portion to the tenaciousness of the soil must be. the extent of this operation, which is easily dispatched, even win n rcp ated, leaving the lands, or stiches, in excellent order for the drill-machine te advance and perfect its work- Tin- proper season for getting barley into the ground is March. The moo usi-ful preparation for it is by turnips. To have the land dry for sowing is of more consequence for this grain, than it is for almost any other. It should always fol- low either tin ameliorating crop or a fal- low, and in main cases it should be fol- >v clov'-r The quantity of seed AGRICULTURE. liarley should be increased as the season advances, as early sown crops have more time to tiller than later ones ; and in the same proportion, the importance of the drill husbandry with regard to this arti- cle increases ; as, if sown in the latter end of February, in the broadcast me- thod, it would get the start of weeds, which, if it be sown early in April, would extremely annoy it, according to the old mode, but by the hoeing practice may be easily removed. Oats should never be sown after other corn crops (as the land is by this practice too much exhausted,) and should receive the same preparation as barley : a circum- stance often not sufficiently attended to. "Warm, forward sands yield as great a quantity of barley as of oats, and should, therefore, t>e applied to the culture of the former, as generally yielding a better price. Upon various other soils, however, the produce of oats will be in considerably greater pi-oportion than that of barley, and by superior quantity more than com- pensate for beingsoldatthe smaller price. To relieve the business of the succeed- ing months, oats may sometimes be sown in January ; without this view, however, February is preferable. The land should have been ploughed in October. Six bushels per acre may be sown in broad- cast, and on poor soils even eight, to great advantage : the crop being, by thick sow- ing, several days sooner ripe, and the idea of saving seed with respect to this grain not being an object worth any particular attention. In the drill husbandry five bushels per acre are sufficient, and they should be horse-hoed early in the month of May. Peas are extremely ameliorating to the soil, and may, therefore, with very grc at advantage, be substituted in tillage for "white corn, a succession of which is pe- culiarly impoverishing. They should, however, not be sown on lands negligent- ly prepared, as is too commonly done ; and indeed the maxim 'cannot be too much attended to, with respect to grain, that none should be sown but on lands in reaU ly good order, with respect to heart, cleanness from weeds, and well-finished tilth. The uncertainty generally ascribed to this crop is to be attributed in a great degree to a neglect of these circumstan- ces. At the same time, however, it is not meant to be asserted, that for all grain the preparation should be equally high and finished. The earlier peas are sown, the better they will thrive, and the more easily they will be moved off the ground in due time for turnips, a circumstance of particular importance. February is the proper month for their being sown. Kar- ly peas will seldom prove beneficial upon wet soils, and should be cultivated only on dry ones, upon sands, dry sandy loams, gravels, and chalks. The broadcast me- thod should be most clearly rejected in relation to them. The only question is between drilling and dibbling them. On a ley, the latter practice cannot be too de- cidedly adopted. Put in on a layer, they do not want manure, which will often make them run to long' straw, j*. circum- stance unfavourable to podding, and like- wise encourages weeds, which, in the in- fant stage of the growth of peas, cannot be extirpated without danger. If the land be in good heart, therefore, as it ought to be, dung may be applied with much more advantage to other crops ; and being an article for which the farmer has, perhaps in all cases, a greater de- mand than lie can supply, should be used with economy, and only where it is sure to answer best. The proper quantity of seeds tobe applied inthe drill-husbandry, in equally distant rows, about one foot asunder, is seven pecks per acre, [t is a judicious and valuable observation, the result of long experience, that peas should 7iot be sown above once in about ten years, being not found to succeed, if sown oftener. Beans, where the land is proper for them, deserve from the farmer every at- tention, constituting one of the surest funds of profit. He is enabled by them to lessen, if not absolutely explode, the practice of fallowing. When cultivated, however, with a view of substituting them in the room of fallow, drilling or dibbling must be uniformly employed, so as to ad- mit the plough between their rows, as no hand-work will sufficiently pulverize the lands for the purpose, without extreme expence. Dibbling', when well perform- ed, with respect to beans, is an admirable method. The difficulty, however, of pro- curing it to be well done, roust be consi- dered as no trifling objection to it. Hcans are too often imperfectly delivered by the various drill-machines employed. On the other hand, however, the practice is less expensive than dibbling, and the seed is more surely put in to the desired depth, so that, on the whole, the drilling me- thod seems preferable to that by dibbling. It is a point on which different circum- stances will safely and judiciously lead to different conclusions ; and soil, season, dependanceupon servants, together with AGRICULTURE. tother considerations, will be resorted tf elt :mness. Tin.- quantity of seed dif- ''nl : ng to the variety of the grain. About two bushels of the horse-beans pel- acre, in rows equi-distant, at eighteen is a proper allowance, and J-Vbru- ; iie month in which they should be put in. Huck-wheatis known to a vast majority of the farmers of this kingdom only by- name. It has, however, numerous excel- lencies, is of an enriching nature, and pre- pares well for wheat or any other crop. One bushel of seed is sufficient to sow an acre, which is only about the fourth part of the expense of seed barley. It is sold at the same price as barley, and is equal to it for the fatting of hogs and poultry. The md of May is the proper season for its being sown, and grass seeds may be sown with it, if the practice should be thought in any instance eligible, with more advantage than with any other grain, un- 'icy mayhec\e.-;>t. d. Muck-wheat may be sown even so late as the first w< ck in July, a circumstance by which the. period of tillage is considerably protract- ed, and an a meliorating crop may thus be produced, after tin- usual period has, from any unavoidable or casual occur- rence, been neglected. Potatoes form a most important article of food, both for the human species and '.e, and are an inestimable substi- tute for bread formed of grain, the best resource in periods of scarcity of wheat; and, happily, when the crops of grain fail, hrough redundant moisture, the potato? is far from being equally injured, and sometimes is even benefited by the w. f The choice of soil forthe< of this mot is of prime importance. Po- tatoes never make palatable nourishment for man, if grown in a clay soil, or in rank, black loam, although in these circum- stances they are well fitted for cattle, and ri-lished by them, and also produced in great abundance. They grow to perfec- tion for human food in gravelly and sandy soils. The drill should be universally preferred for their cultivation. In Sep- tember, or October, the field intended for 1 liem should have successively a rousing; furrow, a cross braking, and the opera- tion of the cleaning harrow; and being formed into three-feet ridges, should re- main in that state till April, which is the proper season for planting this root. Af- ter cross braking them, to raise in a small degree the furrows, well-rotted horse- dung should be laidalongthem, on which the roots should be laid at eight inches dis- tance. The plough should then pass once round every row, to cover them. As soon as they appear above ground, the plough should be passed round them a second time, laying on the plants about an inch, or somewhat more, of mould, in addition. M hen they have attained the height of six inches, the plough should go twice along the middle of each interval, in opposite directions, laying earth first to one row, and then to another; and, to apply it more closely to the roots, a spade'should after- wards be used to cover four inches of the plants, and bury all the weeds. The weeds which arise afterwards must be ex- tirpatedby the hand, as the hoes would go too dee]>, and damage the rootsof the plants. From ten to fifteen bushels will be sufficient to plant an acre, the produce of which may probably be three hundred bushels. Sets should be cut for some few In i"ii]-,- tiny are planted, with at least one . and not in very small p and tin 'His of the grub upon them may be effectually prevented by : ng on t be. surface of thcland about two bushel* p'-r :cre of lime, fresh slak- ed. The mostcertain method of taking them up is, to plough once round row, at the distance of four which they m.v easily lie rai^-d, by ;1 thrcc-clavxedfork, rather than by a and scarcely a single one will by this e be left in the ground. They may with care be preserved till the. ensuing 'he remain AGRICULTURE. of the year is buried in a dry cave, mixed with the husks of dneu oats, sand, or leaves, especially if a nay or corn-stack is erected over it. Potatoes are subject to a disease called the curl, which lias drawn the attention ot sagacious and experienced men, and suggested, in consequence, a great varie- ty of opinions on its cause anu remedy. Some kinds ot'this root, however, it is al- most unanimously agreed, are less sus- ceptible of tne disease than others, and the old red, the golden dun, and the long dun, are the least 01 all so. One or more of the following circumstances may be most proDaoly considered as causing it ; frost, insects, the planting from sets ol un- ripe and large potatoes, the planting in old and exhausted grounds, and too near the surface, or the small shoots of the sets being broken oft" before planting. Where certainty on any interesting subject can- not be obtained, the hints of the judicious are always desirable. The methods most successfully exercised for the prevention of the curl are, to cut the sets from smooth ripe potatoes, of the middle size, which have been kept particularly dry, to guard against the rubbing off the first shoots, and to plant them rather deeply in fresh earth, with a mixture of quick lime. No plant thrives better even in the cold- est part of tills island than the turnip, and none are more advantageous to the soil. Its introduction was an improve- ment of the most valuable nature. There is no soil which will not produce it, when previously prepared for it by art ; but the gravelly one is best of all adapted to it. No root requires a finer mould than the turnip, and with a view to this object, the land intended for it should be exposed to frost by ribbing it after the harvest. The season for sowing must be regulated by the time intended for feeding, the later from the first of June to the end of July, in proportion to the designed protraction of this feeding. The field should be first ploughed by a shallow furrow. Lime, if necessary, should be then harrowed into it. Single furrows, at the interval of three feet, should be drawn, and dung laid in them, which should be then covered by going round it with the plough, and form- ing the three feet spaces into ridges. Wider rows answer no profitable object, and with straiter ones a horse lias not room to walk. Thick sowing 1 is far better than thin, bearing better the depredations of the fly, and forming also a protection against drought. The weeds may, in many cases, be most effectually cxtirpa- ted by women, without injuring the crop ; and the standing turnips should be left at twelve inches distance from each other. On average seasons, with good prepara- tion, the produce from this number per acre may be considered as amounting to 46 tons of valuable nourishment. For pre- servation they may be stacked with su-uw ; and 42 tons may be thus secured by one load oi straw, or of stubble and old haulm. A method preferred by many is that of sowing laie crops, even in August, by which a succession of them remains on the field to be consumed on the spot, even so iate as the ensuing May, and the ad- vanuige of having turnips good till the spring grasses are ready for food, has greatly encouraged this practice. To pre- vent the devastations of the fly, the most destructive enemy to a crop of turnips, the most effectual method, as little de- pendance can be placed on steepings, or on fumigations, is to sow the seed at such a season, that they may be well grown before the appearance of the insect; and by well dunging and manuring the ground, to hasten their attainment of the rough leaf, in which the fly does not at. all affect them. New seed, it may also be observed, vegetates more rapidly and vigorously than old ; and the more healthy and vigorous the plants are, the more likely they are to escape depredation. The sowing of turnips with grain is by many recommended in this connection, and stated to be highly efficacious. The culture of cabbages for cattle is a subject well meriting the attention of the agriculturist. The cabbage is subject to few diseases, and resists frost more easily than the turnip. It is palatable to cattle, and sooner fills them than carrots or potatoes ; and, in every respect but one, cabbages are superior to turnips. On all soils they require manure ; where- as, on good land, turnips may be raised without it. Fifty-four tons have been raised upon an acre of ground not worth more than twelve shillings per annum. Some lands have produce-d sixty-eight. The time of setting them depends on their intended use. If for feeding in November, plants, procured from seed sown in the end of July in the former year, must be set in March or April : if for feeding in March, April, and May, they must be set in the beginning of the preceding July, from seed sown in the previous February. Repeated trans- plantation may be applied to them with singidar advantage. When they are of tUe large species, four feet by two and a AGRICULTURE. half are a full distance for them. The rotection for them from the cater- pillar, by which these and greens in gene- ral arc apt particularly to be injured, is '<> pull oil tlic large und'T-lcuvi s, (which m:iy be given to eows with great benefit) on which the eggs of those iiib. usually deposited. Sowing 1 beans among In- cabbages is also considered a most effectual preventive of the nuisance. Carrots require a deeper soil than any other root, and when the soil does not na- turally extend to the depth of twelve inches, equally good throughout, it must be artificially made so for their culture, which may be easily effected by trench- ploughing. Loams and sandy soils are the only ones in which they will flourish, and no dung- can be used for them in the year they are sown, as it will inevitably rot them. The ground must be prepared for them by the deepest possible furrows, and, when they are sown, about the be- ginning 1 of April, it must be smoothed by a brake. In large plots of ground, where horse-hoeiiigis requisite, three feet should be the distance between the drills. Where an acre or little more only is employed, the interval should not be greater than a foot, and hand-hoeing will be found more convenient, and scarcely attended with greater expense. From six to nine hun- dred bushels have been produced per acre of this root, where the land has been carefully prepared and attended to. As food for horses, its culture is rapidly spreading. For oxen, milch cows, and pigs, carrots are admirably applicable and nourishing, and, when boned, turkeys and other poultry air fed on them with" great success. The ease with which parsnips are cul- tivated, and the great quantity of saccha- rine and nutritious matter which they contain, in which they are scarcely ex- ceeded by any vegetable whatever, ren- der them'wcll worthy of the attention of the husbandman. Though little used in Britain, thc\ aiv highly esteemed in many ^ o\ France, in some part* being thought little inferior to wheat as food tor man. Cows which are fed with them are stated to give as much milk asthe\ do 111 the months of summer. All animals *' ;i t them \\ith aviditv, ami in preference to potatoes, and fatten more quickly upon *hem. In the cultivation of them the seed should be sown in the autumn, immcdi- iu ly after it is reaped. When tin is put in at this s. ;,.,on, the plants will an- ticipate the !,TO\U!) of weeds in the fol- lowing spring-. Frost never does t-ln-m \0l. 1 any material injury. The be$t soil fpr them is a deep, rich loam. Sauu is next suitable to them ; and in a black, gritty soil they will flourish, but not in gravel or cla\. In the deepest earth the) are al- ways largest. In an appro;., manure is necessary for them, and j. \ cry good crop has been obtained for three years in succession, without using any. The seed should he sown in drills, at the distance of eighteen inches, for the great- er convenience of hoeing ; and by a se- cond hoeing and a cautious earthing, by which the leaves may not be covered, the crop will be luxuriant. In Jersey, the root has been known and cultivated for seve- raj centuries, and is highly valued. It is considered as an excellent preparation for wheat, which, after parsnips, yields a.n abundant crop without any manure. The profit of cultivating hemp-seed is by no means small. It requires, how- ever, the best hud that can be found on a farm, or which js made such by manuring. A rich, deep, putrid, and friable loam is what it particularly delights in ; and in addition to natural richness, forty cubical yards of dun per acre should be suppli- ed. Besides this original cost of land in natural richness and preparation, it is to be considered that hemp returns m.thing. to the farm yard, while corn will give straw, and the dung hill i.s improved by green crops. The question concerning the propriety of its cultivation by any in- dividual is not to be determined, there- fore, only from the circumstance of any price in the market, but is to be inferred from a view of all its bearings and con- nections. For many crops, tillage should be given with caution. With hemp such> caution is unnecessary, as its rank and luxuriant growth proves fatal to all those weeds, by which corn would not only be injured, but destroyed. From the au- tumn preceding to the time of sowing hemp, the land should be three or four times ploughed, and be well harrowed to a fine surface. The quantity of dung should be proportioned to the deficiency of the soil; and when the culture is con- tinued from yearto year, a plentiful dress- ing must be every time applied. About twelve pecks shoidd be sown per acre : and as the destruction of weeds in the till- age is here no object, the broadcast me- thod is universally preferable to the drill. It will be ready for pulling in August, or about thirteen weeks after it Is sou n. Flax, with due attention, will repay its cultivation; but, generally speaking, in this country the sane land and manure I AGRICULTURE. may be more conveniently and profitably applied. Two bushels an acre is the re- quisite quantity of seed, and the land, if it be not particularly rich by nature, must be rendered so by art, must be worked to a fine surface, and be kept perfectly free from weeds. The preparation for rape-seed is the same which is necessary for that of tur- nips. It is a crop subject to great injury, and extremely uncertain. In the con- quered countries in the north of France, the practice is to sow it in a seed bed for transplantation, which is begun in Octo- ber, and if there be no frost in November, is continued through that month, when the plants are about two feet long. Were this operation to take place earlier, they would be more secure from the frost. Dibbling is employed for the purpose, and the plants are set at about the distance of eighteen inches by ten. In a favourable year the profit is considerable, as indeed it ought to be, to compensate for the fre- quentand inevitable failure attending this cultivation. An indispensable point, in regard to this article, is to catch at oppor- tunities of fine weather, for the purpose of reaping and threshing, which must be done in immediate succession. In reaping, extreme care is requisite, to prevent the shedding of the seed. Both in lifting it from the ground and conveying it to the barn floor, the utmost attention must be applied. As rain, at this critical period, may be considered nearly fatal to this produce, celerity of operation is of the first consequence, and as many assistants as possible should be procured, and not a moment of fine weather should be suft'er- ed to pass unimproved. The cultivation of hops demands a greater capital than that of any other plant. The cost of the first year's prepa- ration and planting will amount to about eighty pounds per acre, and the subse- quent annual expense will be little less thin half that sum, and after all the ex- pense, preparation, and attention, which may be employed, no crop is more preca- rious. The serious consideration of a farmer is demanded, before he resolves to introduce this plant where it has not been usually cultivated. And not only the cir- cumstances already mentioned, but that of the accessibility or distance of manure, (for which the largest quantities are call- ed for by hops,) and the fact, that a small solitary hop ground seldom thrives like those which cover a large extent of coun- try, from whatever cause this may pro- ceed, should be fully weighed. Ruin may easily follow the want of adverting to these and other considerations, and they cannot therefore be too strongly impress- ed on the sanguine adventurer. A flat deep bog, in a sheltered situation, makes an excellent hop soil, constituting, indeed, a natural dung-hill. For the application of such land to hops, the chances are fa- vourable. The best preparation for this plant, when such a spot as this does not occur, is made by two successive crops of turnips or cabbages, fed off by sheep, early enough for the ploughing and plant- ing in March. The plants should be in- serted in rows, at eight feet distance from each other, and about six feet from hill to hill. Four fresh cuttings should be planted in each spot which is to form a hill. In April they should be poled, an operation requiring that critical accuracy, which, depending on changeable and ca- sual circumstances, can be derived only from experience. The binds must next be tied to the poles. The superfluous vines must be pruned about midsummer, and are useful food for cows. Septem- ber is the month for pulling them. But the management of hops is a subject most operose and delicate, requiring extreme experience, attention, and dexterity ; and the details of which would, if extended only equally to its importance, occupy bulky volumes. Course of Crops. No subject of greater importance has been treated by modern writers on hus- bandry, than the succession of crops. Be- fore the present reign, although a consi- derable number of writers on agriculture existed, this topic was little treated, and by many scarcely adverted to. It has at length obtained something approaching to that attention which it merits. The main principles upon which all practices on this subject proceed are, that some crops are more exhausting than others ; that some, although of a very impoverish- ing character, yet, by being consumed on the farm, return to it as much as they de- ducted originally from it, and, perhaps, even more, that some admit profitable till- age and accurate cleaning, during their growth; while by others the land is almost unavoidably rendered foul by weeds, is exhausted without return, and, when they are applied in succession, will be extreme- ly and fatally impoverished. By experi- ence, much is found to depend on a cer- tain arrangement of crops of these differ- ent and opposite characters ,- and in n AGRICULTURE. ircamatance is the theory or prac- husbandiy, in the present materially advanced as in relation to this subject. Unless this department be- well understood, the efforts of the farmer in others: ')Ortivc or injurious. An important dirlerem, ' 'ile be- tween culmiferous and leguminous plants, or those which are cultivated for their seed, and such as are raised for their roots. The former bind the soil, whilc '.lie latter uniformly give it openness and (ret (loin. The former also are decidedly more exhausting, though unquestionably in themselves the most profitable. No soil can bear them in long and uninter- rupted succession. And, on the other hand, without the interposition of them among leguminous crops, the soil in which the latter grow would by their loos- eningquality become deficient in the tena- city which is necessary for vegetation. .Some crops are rendered valuable chiefly from their preparation for others, that are more valuable, of a different kind. The husbandmen of a former age sowed frequently in succession that species of grain which they wished to possess abun- dantly ; whereas, by this practice their object was often, at length, completely defeated. And if wheat, oats, or barley, were for a certain period sown in the same field, the land would eventually, and that in no long time, scarcely return the seed which was put into it. That rotation is admitted to be best, which enriches the land with abundant manure, preserves it best from weeds, pul- verizes the soil most effectually when it is too tenacious, and binds it most com- pletely, where it is naturally too open. As a general rule, those who are engaged in agriculture cannot, with a view to these purposes, have the importance of provid- ing food for large quantities of cattle too repeatedly and emphatically recom- mended to them. Indeed, by attending <(> this circim. stance, larger quantities of grain are produced than by any other mode, white that produce "of the land, which consists of milk, butter, rht-rse, butcher's meat, and other articles con- nected with cuttle, is nearly so much clear gain. Grass prepares a turf, which, *hen broken up, constitutes the most va- luable of all known manures. Turnips, cabbages, beans, peas, and a variet\ of other similar food for cattle, supply admir- able opportunities for cleaning and pul- verizing the soil by repeated hoeings ; the close covering "which they bestow on '.he land smothers those weeds which thf hoe does not destroy, and they It-nc the land, besides, in a state of increased and great fertility. Certain exceptions to the necessity of rearing cattle may undoubt- edly occur, as, near towns and citii-s, tli<- easy accessibility of dung will supersede very considerable preparation of it on the premises. Lands also may possibly be so rich as to require neither cattle nor sheep, and like some which are said to lie near the river Garonne, in France, might produce even hemp or wheat in perpetui- ty. Certain crops, moreover, may hap- pen to be in such particular demand, as to make it desirable to cultivate them by fallow, and not for cattle or sheep. These exceptions can never interfere with the general rule, as such, that that farm will be most productive and profitable, in re- spect to grain, on wliich is kept the great- est quantity of sheep and cattle. Two crops of white corn ought never to be produced from a field in immediate suc- cession. In reference to several varieties of soil, it may be useful to give a suc- cession of crops, which has been recom- mended by a gentleman of considerable judgment and experience. It should be observed, that on this plan the crops must be all particularly well hoed, and kept properly clean ; and that the turnips, peas, and beans, must be put in double rows, on three feet ridges ; the cabbages in single rows of three feet ridges. Clay. Clayey loains. Turnips or cabbages Turnips or cabbages Oats Oats Beans and clover Clover Wheat Wheat Turnips or cabbages Turnips or cabbages Oats Barley Beans and vetches Beans Wheat Wheat Rich loams ami sandy loams. Peat earth. Turnips &. po- Means Turnips Turnips tatoes Barley Barley Barley- Barley Peas Clnxer CN Clover Whrat Wheat Wh.-at Wheat .M.i'j/rn. Potatoes I'otaUx s Beans Barle\ Barley Barley Peas Wheat Wheat Wheat Chalky tub- stratum. Turnips Turnips Turnips Barley Barley Barley Clover Clover Clover and rye-grass Wheat Wheat Clover ajid rye -grass AGRICULTURE. Potatoes Potatoes Clover and rye-grass Barley Burley Peas Peas Peas Wheat orrye Wheat Wheat Reajrinff and Storing. In converting artificial grasses into hay, the method should be different from that. used with natural ones. They should for a day or two lie in swath, after which, be- ing carefully turned, they should remain for a day or two longer; by which easy and simple process the hay is, in good "weather, sufficiently made. After re- maining two days in cocks, these should be carted to the stack. With regard to the mowing of grass, in general, for hay, the workmen should be made to cut as low as possible, by which the crop is increased, and the re- mainder thrives better than it would do otherwise. Many hands should be ready to assist, and five makers are not too ma- ny for every mower. The grass should be shaken out immediately after the scythe. By the evening it should be ra- ked into rows. The next morning it should be again shaken and spread, and in the e\ening it should be put up into cocks. These being opened on the fol- lowing morning, after a similar process, may in fine weather be safely collected into the great hay-cock at night. If suc- cessive rains come on to damage it, as it is stacked, a peck of salt should be strew- ed in layers on every load, which will sweeten it, and render it palatable for cattle, which would not taste it without this preparation. The stack should be covered within a week after it is finished ; and atrench should be dug near it, to car- ry off any wet, if it be placed in a situation subject to damp. The hard hay of a poor soil is litttle subject to firing, which often occurs with respect to that made of suc- culent herbage. The latter, therefore, requires longer time for its making. To preserve as much of the sap of grass as possible, without incurring the danger of firing, is the grand practical problem of hay -making. When the stems of culmiferous plants are totally divested of green, they are per- fectly ripe. Some farmers recommend that wheat should be cut before this ma- Uire stage, not only to prevent any of the grain fram shaking out, but as being found to make more excellent flour from being cut before perfect ripeness, than after having attained it. The latter ob- servation may very safely be controverted. But as it is admitted that every moment it remains standing, after complete matu- rity, is critical, it may often be judicious to commence the reaping of it before the period of full ripeness. Wheat has been immemorially reaped instead of being mowed, ami this method ought always to be adopted, as from its high growth it be- comes untractable to the scythe. W T hen barley ground is purposely smoothed by rolling, that crop may be cut down with the scythe, which not only, from the greater rapidity of its operation, removes that grain more effectually from the dan- ger of being shaken by winds, but brings with it a much greater proportion of the straw, for manure, than any other mode, a circumstance well deserving attention. Cuttingof corn in wet weather ought ever to be avoided, if possible ; and, however obvious this caution, it cannot be regarded as superfluous, as it is unfortunately very often neglected. Barley is particularly sub- ject to injury by wet, having no protecting husk; and has a strong tendency, when cut in this state, to run to malting ; it should not only be cut dry, but immedi- ately, if possible, be bound up, to prevent its being discoloured, which will other- wise easily occur. Peas grow so irregu- larly as to make the sickle necessary. For removing the produce from the field, long carts, moveable upon the axle, by which the Whole load is moved at once upon the ground, and lifted to the stack by per- sons appointed for the purpose, are pre- ferable to other modes. Dispatch is thus obtained, when particularly required, a circumstance always worthy of regard. Instead of housing corn, stacking it is a far superior practice, as it not only, by the consequent exposure to the air, car- ries what is called a finer countenance, but as it is more completely preserved from vermin, than by being deposited in a barn. Every sheaf should be made to in- cline downward from its top to its bot- tom. Where they are laid horizontally, rain will be taken in both above and be- low. The. best form for a stack is that of a cone, (the top of which should be formed with three sheaves united in a point) placed upon a cylinder. The mo- ment a stack is finished, the covering of it should, if possible, commence ; mate- rials should therefore be previously col- lected. If much rain should fall before this operation is performed, it will be dif- ficult, and perhaps impossible, to render the stack dry while it stands ; and, in or AGRICULTURE. der to prevent putrefaction, it will be of- >en requisite to pull it clown, and, after fulh. exposing every sheaf to the air, to istnict it. Tin method of preserving potatoes has already been suggested, MM to go far- ther into detail on this subject would ex- ceed our limit s. Threshing. The usual mode of threshing is attend- r-d with the inconvenience of the straw being very often not thoroughly cleared, by which much grain is lost ; and with that of affording the workmen great and perpetual incentives to depredation, which, perhaps, are rarely resisted, or at least are certainly often yielded to. A fixed threshing- mill will give compara- tive security against these evils; and one \\orkcd by two or three horses maybe purchased for from sixty to a lAmdred guineas, and which, in eight hours, will thresh fifteen quarters of wheat. The granary should be over this mill, and the corn may then, immediately after thresh- ing, be drawn up into it, and deposited safe under the key of the farmer. rivsh threshed straw is better than old for feeding cattle, and is best managed for tin-in by being cut into chaff. fruit trees. The culture of trees, for the purpose of deriving a fermented liquor from their juice, employs a great proportion of the land of this, and of other countries, and is, therefore, an important branch of agricul- tural attention. The preparation of the juice of apples is more particularly at- tended to in the Itritish empire, than that of any other fruit ; and the few remarks on the general subject which our limits will permit will be confined to that fruit. The varieties of apples arc entirely artifi- cial, nature having produced only one species, which is the common crab. But different culture produces very great dif- ferences, which are preserved l>\ artifi- cial propagation. The seeds of the finest flavoured apples among the native spe- cies should be sown in seed beds, in an extremely rich soil ; and the assistance of a frame, or even a stove, may be applied. In tin- first or second winter tin- plants ^hould be removed to the nursery ; while 'hey remain there, the intervals In them may be occupied with garden stuff', which should not, however, crowd or -m ; and weeds, whenever they appear, should be extirpated. In pruning, particular attention mubt be gi- ven to the leader ; and, where there are two, the weakest of them must be cut oflT. The undermost boughs should be gradually removed, and not all in-.: son. The height of the stem should be seven feet, or seven and a half, as the crops on a tree of this elevation are less exposed, and, indeed, the tree H less susceptible of injury. When they have attained five inches in girt, which they will do in seven or eight years, tluv may be safely planted out. Tillage is fa- vourable, as the ground is thus stirred about them ; and, where cattle are per- mitted to feed among them, they are apt to injure them, and, indeed, also to injure themselves after the trees begin to bear, by the fruit sticking in their throats ; on which account apple grounds, not in til- lage, should be eaten bare before the sea- son of gathering. Apple trees should be carefully cleared of a redundance of wood, which intercepts the five circulation of the air. They should be kept clear also of the mUletoe, which is often extremely injurious. Moss likewise should never hi- permitted to incumber them. The failure of crops, in particular years, is often ascribed to what is called blight; but, to adopt more intelligible language, is probably imputable to the gn haustion of the trees by recent bear- ings; to prevent or mitigate which ex- haustion, the best Application is that of care, to bestow upon them all the natu- ral means of healthy and vigorous vege- tation. Excess of bearing, however, will inevitably impair strength. Grafting in the boughs, and when they are fully grown thinning the branches, will prevent excessive produce, and may IK- consider- ed as a very probable method of procu- ring fruit in moderate quantities e\er\ year. As general management, with re- spect to orchard grounds, it is a judici- ous rule to plant, for such, a broken up worn out sward, keeping it under arable till the tre< s have attained tolerable growth, when it may with advantage be laid down to grass, and be pcrmitu d '<> remain in that state tiljthc trees are final- ly removed. After one set of graft -stocks on the stem have become effete, a second has been successfully applied : and thus, though the ett'er- ill at length prove fata!, th- bearing of trees h: often very long protracted. Tl tree is of much longer dur.it ion than the apple. Both should be extirpated with- out reluctance,, whvn their produce no AGRICULTURE. longer compensates for the ground occu- pied by them. Timber trees and coppices. The planting of timber trees is an im- portant aid to general cultivation, parti- cularly in mountainous and moorish situ- ations, whore they afford shelter both for corn crops and cattle. Wherever planta- tions are formed in such situations, the aspect of the surrounding land is always improved, and exhibits a richer verdure. When sudden]}' removed, the contrary effect takes place ; the efforts of human industry are then impaired ; the warmth of the soil is dissipated; vegetation is pierced and chilled by the unresisted blasts which sweep along its surface ; and the cattle are benumbed and stunted, for want of protection from its fury. In a fiat and rich country, plantations often operate injuriously ; and lofty hedge vow*, containing- stately trees, check the free passage of the air and light, pi-event the seasonable drying of the ground, and, in a changeful and critical climate, the corn is consequently delayed in its pro- gress to maturity, often cannot fee gather- ed in proper condition, and, sometimes, is completely ruined. These considera- tions will generally be sufficient to de- ride the question of planting timber trees in particular situations. Where the prac- tice is thought judicious, with a view to the melioration of the soil, the larch, which is the quickest grower, and the most valuable of all the resinous trees, will be entitled to a preference. 'The most barren ground will answer all its demands for nourishment. For oak, bet- 1 er lands are indispensable. Beech trees under the protection of Scotch firs, pre- viously planted for their shelter, will lay hold, eventually, even of a soil which pessesses neither clay nor loam, and thrives so rapidly as to require, in a short period, that the firs should be cut down, to afford freer air and ramification. The use of small plantations of timber on large estates is very considerable. A vast quantity of posts, spars, and rafters, for buildings of every description on the farm, is perpetually called for in such circumstances, and will thus be fully sup- plied on the spot ; whereas the want of it is attended with extreme expense and in- convenience. Planting should commence in October, and may be continued till April, excepting during frost. Injuries from cattle must be effectually guarded against in plantations, in their infant stage, which are as easily ruined as fields of corn. The fences, therefore, should be kept in the best possible repair. With respect to coppices, the caution about cattle is equally necessary. When coppices have attained the age of four- teen years, they may, generally speaking, be cut down more profitably than at any other age ; and the most advantageous method, after this, is to sort out the wood for appropriate purposes, whether for fu- el, hoops, or hop poles ; which arrange- ment will, in almost all cases furnishing such varieties, abundantly compensate for the time taken up in making it. In some situations, as in Surry for stakes and edders,in Gloucestershire for cord wood, in Yorkshire for railing, these articles yield a considerable advantage ; and as they are sure of a market within a small distance, which, with respect to the car- riage of so bulky a commodity, is a point of the first consequence, an annual fall of wood applicable to these purposes may be desirable. The ground appropriated for its growth should be divided into that number of sowings or plantations, which will equal the number of years intended for their growth before cutting. The ma- nagement will thus be easy as well as profitable, and fall naturally, without agi- tation and embarrassment^ into the regu* lar business of the year.* These planta- tions may be sown either in October or March. The land being in good order, it should be sown with corn or pulse, appropriate to the season and soil, after which the tree seeds should be put across the land :-n drills. Acorns and nuts must be dibbled, and the key berries scattered in trenches, drawn by the hoe, at four feet distance. Osiers may often be culti- vated to great advantage, yielding a profit in the second, or at least in the third year ; while a coppice requires 15 or 20, and an oak 100 years, to attain to its maturity. Cattle. A considerable part of the stock of a farmer must always consist of cattle ; and the maintenance and management of these, therefore, must ever be an object of great consequence ; and in proportion to the number of them which he keeps for sale, in addition to those which he employs on account of their immediate service and labour, the importance of the subject is inci-eased to him. Whether, in the latter point of view, oxen or horses are the more advantageous, has been a long agitated question. In situations in whicfh AGRICULTURE. there is a breed of cattle particularly adapted to work, and such situations do occur, the employment of the ox may probably be most beneficial. And when ufkrmis of so gre:it extent, that a con- siderable number of beasts may be annu- ally bought at a small expense, and no inconvenience may !)<- incurredbytunuMf tint tho:;c to fatten \\hidi are ill qualified for labour, the same preference maybe '.. i^'-h made. Hulls are on some accounts to be prefcned to-ozen, being pwmvd at a cheapi r rate, and more active and riii;;- in labour. In other cases than tho--e just mentioned, the question will be decided differently. The activity of the horse is extremely superior to that of oxen, and it is more applicable to differ- ent species of employment. Its hoof is -.ceptible of injury; and, with re- spect to well managed farms, in which dispatch is more required than absolute strength in the operation of ploughing, the quickness with which the horse com- pletes the business, in comparison with t he ox, will, it may be presumed, at length generally (Utilise that preference of the one to the other, which is obviously in- creasing every day. Yorkshire is the most distinguished part of England for the breed of horses, particularly for the sad- dle, and the black cart horse of the mid- dle counties has been long celebrated. In the north of England, a very valuable breed from Lanarkshire in Scotland has lately been encouraged, of extreme acti- vity, though not fit for particularly heavy draught, passing over a vast surface of land m a short time, and highly useful, Hie tv fore, not only in ploughing, but in the general work of a farm. The Nor- folk management of horses, as instru- ments of agriculture, is considered by many as the cheapest that can be practis- ed. In the \\inter months their sole rack meat is barley straw. In the most HUM season a bushel of corn is thought an ample allowance, and the chaff of oats, which is far preferable to that of barley, is universally mixed with it. They are in summer kept out all night, and their feed is generally clover only. A great saving in the maintenance of horses has been obtained by the substitution of roots for grain. Turnips and potatoes have been given them in a raw state, in which case, if hard labour is required of them, some corn in addition may be ex- pedient. 14' these roots are boiled, how- ever, the corn may without injury be dis- pensed with. Carrots are beUert'or horses than potatoes, and both are thought ex- tremely serviceable in preventing various disorders to which they are subject, par- ticularly the grease. Carrotsaredeeim-i! an effectual cure for what is denomi- nated thick wind in horses; and to broken winded ones, are of admirable use in pal- liutinj;- the complaint. The prac.tice oi' soiling horses, instead of turning them to grass in summer, is by many experienced men thought by far the superior method. The produce thus managed goes three times as far as if consumed in the field. The injury done by feeding pastures with horses in- stead of sheep or oxen, an injury very material and obvious, is avoided; and the dunghill, which, in all situations at a distance from towns and cities, is an in- valuable object, especially if plentiful littering be allowed, is sufficiently bene- fited to compensate for this expense of their keeping. Black cattle, intendedforfeeding, should be chosen for their being short-legged, which quality is almost uniformly con- nected with a general good make. Straightness of back is another import- ant recommendation, and the more per- fectly straight they are, while at the same 1 time they are very broad and flat on the loins, the more readily experienced judg- es will decide on their worth. Smallne'ss of dewlap, and the barrel form of carcase, both in the tore and hind quarters, are. also justly insisted upon as points of ex- cellence. A curled hide is indicative of a thriving beast, and worthy of observa- tion in the choice of these animals. A still more favourable symptom is a soft- ness or sleekness of skin. Indeed, the nice touch of the hand is requisite in the judge of cattle, perhaps nearly as much as the keen observation of the eye. Oxeit that have been worked are more valuable to graziers than others, as not only fat- tening with greater rapidity, but furnish- ing more excellent beef. After working till the age of fourteen years, which is within two of the usual extent of their natural life, they have often supplied most tender and admirable meat. It is a consideration of great importance to the grazier, that he should always secure such a stock of winter t'ood for his cattle as will maintain them during that season, reserving them for the spring- market, which is always superior to that of autumn. From the beginning of March to that of June, the change of prices will be completely in his t':i\our , and in order to avail himself of this, he- must so arrange his affairs, av to pro- AGRICULTURE. cure an adequate stock, of winter main- tenance. Wbatevec food is used for th is purpose besides hay, the latter is always to be implied, and from seven to fourteen pounds a day should always be allowed to each beast. For hastening the process of fattening an ox, linseed cake has been found superior to every other article. Its price, however, of late years has been more than proportional to this advantage. Carrots complete their fattening 1 with a nearly equal degree of celerity ; and an ox \\ ill eat a sixth part of his weight of this root every day; at which rate an ox of sixty stone may be supported by the produce of an acre of these roots for up- wards of five months. Two beasts, of the weight just mentioned, if half fat when put to carrots, might become com- pletely so by consuming the produce of an acre. Cabbages are but little inferior for the purpose to carrots and oil cake. An ox will eat of them nearly one fifth of his weight. Turnips are the most common description of winter food, but possess not the same fattening quality with the substances enumerated; and, being a crop susceptible of various injuries, are much less to be relied on than mam- others. Of these the consumption of twenty-five ton is deemed necessary to fatten a beast of about sixty stone. In consequence of eating succulent plants, and particularly clover, beasts are apt to swell greatly and very dangerous- ly, in which case driving them about with great rapidity is often practised with success, though a still more effectual method is to stab them between the ribs and hip bone, to the depth of about four inches. A flexible tube has also been frequently passed through the mouth into the gullet, by which the air, which causes this disease, is easily discharged. The practice of stall-feeding, or keep- ing the cattle in the house at every season of the year, and feeding them, when prac- ticable, with green food, where there is abundant litter, is considered by excel- lent judges as the best method of turning to account the produce of the soil. Dou- ble the usual quantity of manure also is thus produced; and the annoyance of the cattle in any great degree by flies and insects is effectually precluded. This plan lias been long and extensively prac- tised in Germany, and is making its way in England, under the encouragement of many judicious agriculturists. Not only may grass be thus employed for food more profitably than in any other way, but boiled roots may be used with ex- treme advantage; with a view either to maintain or to fatten cattle ; and, ridicu- lous as the idea of this management for m vast number of cattle and horses might at lirst appear, it is found capable of being performed, with the aid of asteam engine, by one superannuated attendant. The roots may be permitted to retain their original form, or may be mashedand con- verted into thick soup, as is deemed most eligible. Cleanness and temperate warmth in the process of fattening beasts for human food are of the utmost importance ; and it has been philosophically remarked, that analogy will lead us to conclude, what ob- servation justifiesfrom fact, that whatever tends to form in beasts a state of feeling, unirritatedby fear, vexation, or pain, must tend to shorten the period necessary for advancing them to their maturity of size and excellence. Sheep. Towards the end of August, the annual purchase of wether lambs, for an estate on which regular flocks are not kept, gene- rally takes place. These are justly pre- ferred for stock to all others. The new Leicester have the advantage in competi- tion with all the long-woolled breeds, and the South Down with all those of short or middling wools. For severe and moun- tainous moors, the black-faced and coarse- wooled Scotch sheep are by far to be pre- ferred, being able to sustain the most ri- gorous weather, and to live on the most scanty food. Instead of putting sheep, after the above-mentioned purchases, to the highest feed, and pushing them to perfect fattening, the better way is to keep them tolerably well till March, and to be- gin then to fatten them, by which method they will be fit for sale at a season of more advanced price ; and upon this plan the purchase money is, with good manage- ment, generally doubled, and the fleece- found an additional clear advantage Whatever be the nature of the stock, to- wards the middle of May they should be turned into their summer-grass, and, in an inclosed farm, the division of the fields into different parcels intended to be fed is an object of great importance. It is justly thought, that in large parcels they do not thrive equally well as in small ones, and the waste of food is considera- bly greater. It will be found, that in flocks of from ten to twenty the same farm will keep considerably more than in one flock. Th^ number should be appropri- AGRICULTURE. ated to each field, according 1 to what it is enabled to cam", and sufVered to remain, without any other change than what de- pend- upon the- stall- of individuals from accident or season. They will thus inevi- tably flourish. Hy adhering to the- prac- tice of folding 1 , which, however, in certain cases may !>< necessary, much loss is of- ten sustained ; much food is spoiled ; and injury arises from numbers being so close- ly crowded together : and although the practice may be highly beneficial, as pre- parative for corn, this advantage is often too dearly paid for. Another point of very considerable consequence with respect to sheep is the practice of close feeding. Kven in pasturage shorn completely to the ground, the herbage is found rapidly to spring up ; and when drought is observed nearly to destroy the produce of fields treated in a different manner, by being permitted to run to bent, such as are ma- naged in this close way are in comparison at least highly productive. In all plants cul- tivated for pasture, the moment the seed stem runs, the grand effort of the system is directed to the formation of the seed ; and the way to produce the greatest abun- dance of leaves, therefore, is to prevent the rising of these stems, which, by close feed- ing, is of course effectually accomplished. In the whole range of husbandry, per- haps, the most perplexing point of ma- nagement is the providing for flocks of sheep in the months of March and April. Turnips and hay are generally depended upon; but being frequently inadequate, r\ e is sonu-1 lines sown on purpose, and crops of wheat arc also sometimes eaten down by them. All, how ever, is too fre- quently found insufficient, and they are permitted to run over the clover and pas- tures of the farm, committing great waste and damage. To prevent these evils, burnct should be cultivated by the farm- er. It is a most liardy plant, and pre- its green leaves through the win- ter, and under deep snows vegetates with singular luxuriance. This will be an ad- mirable feed for sheep in April, when turnips ought no longer to remain upon the ground. But kept grass on dry mea- dow and pasture, or what is railed rouen, is preferable to every other depcndance, and though consisting as it were of hay and grass in the .same mouthful, being the autumnal growth at top, sheltering the more recent vegetation hem at h, t he sheep rat both together without the slightest hesitation, and are found to thrive upon it extremely. Ten ewes, with their lambs, VOL. I " may be supported throughout April on one acre of this rouen, and no cheaper mode of keeping a full stock in April can possibly be adopted. In June tin- v, ashing of the sheep should generally take place previously to the shearing. The washing may be best per- formed by a stream of water; and those who are engaged in it, instead of standing in the water, in which their uncomforta- ble situation leads them to hum" negli- gently over the business, should, by means of a cask or tub, be freed from such un- pleasant and dangerous exposure. The shearing, which speedily follows this ope- ration, should be as close as possible, and the circular is by far preferable to the lon- gitudinal method with a view to thisohject. Sheep that are kept in inclosures, and particularly in a woodland country, should be examined twice every day, to guard against injury to them from the fly, which, in twenty-four hours after having struck, sometimes produces incurable disease. The most efficacious treatment on this subject is, after partingthe wool wherever the maggots are found, and picking them out with a knife, to scrape a small quan- tity of white lead among the wool, so that it may be carried evenly down to the wound. Regular and minute inspection will prevent such a circumstance as a broken coat in any of these animals, from a cause so dangerous and fatal, where they are neglected. When ewes are about to lamb, their keep should be of the most nourishing kind, consisting of plenty of turnips or cabbage. Till this period they may do without them. But all cattle that have young require as good keeping as those which are fatting. The turnips or cabba- ges should be drawn for them, and given them on dry ground. A standing rack of hay should be left for them on the field, which will be of great ad%antage to them Swine. The quick multiplication and growth oi swine render them a species of stock high- ly profitable, and it' reared s\ stcniaticalh , and upon a large scale, none will be found to answer the purpose ot'tlu i better. Though supposed to be filthier than any other animals, they enjoy a clean and comfortable place for laying down in, and their thriving and feeding are at least as much improved by cleanly manage- ment as those of any other stock. Their styes should therefore be constructed K AGRICULTURE. sloping, to carry off all moisture. The different sorts of swine should be kept separate in them, and many should never be put together, and particularly if they be of different size. Too much attention oannot easily be paid to the rearing of these animals. The large Chinese breed is generally and justly preferred. When swine are rearedon acomprehensiveplan, crops must be sown purposely for their support, and the dairy cannot be consider- ed as that resource which it is naturally regarded in small farms. From October till May, potatoes, carrots, cabbages, and the Swedish turnip, which is a most use- ful vegetable for this particular purpose, must be provided for the swine, and stores from October till the end of May, when they may be received into lucerne, chico- ry, or clover, on which they will be main- tained till the clearing of the stubble ; and thus, with the offal of the barn and the oorn fields, and the plants and roots just mentioned, the whole year will be amply provided for. In summer, meal must be mixed with water for the sows as they pig, and in winter boiled roots, peas, and oats, should be given to the young ones. Dairy wash is a capital addition to this mixture. The sows should be permitted to pig but twice a year, in April and Au- gust. WhcMi great with pig, fchey must be carefully secluded from the boars, and shut up about a fortnight beforehand in the stye ; and while pigging, it is of ex- treme consequence that no one approach- es them, or is even seen looking at them, as in this case they will often devour their farrow. After a week from this period, they should for a few hours in the day have the freedom of the yard, which will be a great relief from total confinement. Winter pigs, if not kept with great atten- tion, are found less profitable than others. Milk and whey may so usefully be applied 10 them, that perhaps no other mode of their application is equally advantageous ; Hnd the best process for weaning them is by giving these articles to them mixed up with peas-soup, though the latter alone will answer well. When three or four months old, nothing is better for them than clover : turnips alone will not be proper, but corn should be added to them. Carrots and potatoes will keep them well till their full growth. Malt grains, if easi- ly and cheaply to be procured, are high- ly to be recommended. With a view to fattening hogs, the corn employed should be ground into meal, and in the proportion of five bushels to 100 gallons of water should be mixed in large cisterns: the mixture should for three weeks be well stirred every day, and at the end of that period will have fermented and become acid, before which it should not be given. A succession of vessels should be filled with this ferment- ed food, that some may be always ready ; and, before it is applied, it should be al- ways stirred. Peas-soup is perhaps equal- ly wholesome food with the above, and especially if made with warm milk. The preparation, however, is more expensive. Fatting hogs should be constantly well littered, and be kept perfectly clean. Poultry. With respect to poultry, constituting as they generally do part of the stock, how- ever small, upon farms, a few observations on them may not be thought superfluous. If kept merely for domestic supply, parti- cular attention is needless. When rear- ed with a view to profit, however, and on a somewhat large scale, they will repay, as they indeed require, considerable at- tention. A house should be erected for them, containing divisions appropriately for roosting, sitting, fatting, and food. The building should be constructed near the farm-yard, having clear water conti- guous to it. Warmth and smoke are great cherishers of poultry. All, of every species, must have access to gravel and grass. Their cheapest food consists of boiled potatoes, on which it appears thai they can be supported and fattened with- out the aid of any corn. Where numbers of them are kept upon afarm, if permitted to go at large, they will often do consi- derable injury both in the fields and barn- yard ; besides which they will be extreme- ly exposed to the attacks of vermin, and will lose a considerable number of their eggs. A full-grown hen continues in her prime for three years, and may be sup- posed in that time to lay 200 eggs, which number, however, by warmth and nour- ishment, might be greatly exceeded. The quality and size of the Norfolk turkeys are superior to those of any other, part of the kingdom. They are fed almost entirely with buck-wheat, which, perhaps, may account for their excellence, and are bred by almost every little farmer in the county. When young, they demand per- petual attention, and must be fed with alum curds and chopped onions, and the expense attending their management and food can be compensated only where broods are tolerably successful, and the prices high. AGRICULTURE. Ttie Dairy. In the conduct of a (lain', which, in all hut the most productive corn countries, is an object of particular consequence to the farmer, it is obviously of the first im- portance to select cows of the best sort, and in judging- of the value of this ani- mal, the best method of deciding it is by the quantity of cream produced in a given time, rather than of milk. The richest milk known is produced by cows of the Alderney breed; but, in all countries, cows yielding a very superior quantity of milk to the generality are to be found, and should be sought for by those per- sons to whom their produce is a particular object of attention ; and the breed of such should be particularly cultivated. Rough waste lands, when the soil is wet, will do better for cows than sheep, and should "be always appropriated to them, not in- deed because the}' are the best for cows, but because no stock will so well pay up- on them. The grand object of keeping cows be- luj;' the production of abundance and ex- cellence of milk, they must, for this pur- pose, be supplied with food of the same description. About a month before they ralve they should be taken from the straw- yard, and have green food given them twice a day, with the roots, whatever they may happen to be, which have been rais- ed for their winter food. Having calved, they should be kept perfectly separate from the lean stock, whether in the house or in another yard, and their food should be continued as before. Winter feeding rows with hay, even though none be given them before they calve, breaks in greatly upon the profits of the dairy Cabbages will maintain them in the cheapest man- ner, and not give any unpleasant flavour to the milk and butter. The heart alone of the cabbage, however, should be given to them, and the refuse leaves be left to be picked up by the lean cattle. In the month of May they should be kept in par- ticular good feed, "for which purpose they should be turned into the fields of clo- ver, which hud been early eaten off by -Oieep. Lucerne is, however, perhaps preferable to clover, as it is equally nour- ishing, and gives no ill flavour. \Vlu-u mown, and given in racks or cribs, it will g-o farther than in any other way, and yield an increased quantity of the most va- uumire, a eircums"t:ince \vhichhas been often insisted upon, and r.mnot be too frequently suggested. The feeding -hould be kept extremely well lit- tered. The profit of cows, in these cir- cumstances, will be greater than turning them into luxuriant fields of these artifi- cial grasses, although the quantity of their produce might, by the latter me- thod, probably be increased; but by trampling upon and spoiling considerably more than they would eat, the little su- perior milk in richness or quantity, which might be produced, would be purchased at a most heavy expense, and one acre so managed would be requisite for every cow, while, by soiling, it would be amply sufficient for three. The clear profit in the comparison of any two modes of management is the grand point of the far- mer's consideration, and whatever the farmer finds most profitable, will eventu- ally, it must be remembered, most benefit the public. Whatever green meat be thus used in soiling should be fresh mown every two days, the quantity being, as nearly as may be, adapted to the number so fed, not only of cows, but of other stock. Lucerne, if well managed, will bear four mowings for this purpose. Cows should be milked three times a day, if fully fed, throughout the sum- mer; and great caution should be ex- ercised by the persons employed to draw the milk from them completely, not only to increase the quantity of pro- duce, but to preserve its quality. Any portion which may be left in the udder seems gradually to be absorbed into the system, and no more is formed than enough to supply the loss of what is taken away ; and by the continuance of the same mode, a yet farther diminution of the se- cretion takes place, until at length scarce- ly any is produced. This mode of milk- ing is always practised, when it is intend- ed that a cow should be rendered dry. The apartments appropriated to dairy purposes should, if possible, possess a moderate temperature throughout the year, and should be kept perfectly clean and dry. The temperature of about fifty five degrees is most favourable for the se- paration of the cream from the milk. The utensils of the dairy are best made of wood; lead and copper are soluble in acid, and highly pernicious ; and though iron is not injurious, the taste of it might render the produce of the dairy unpala- table. Objects of attention, -with a view to the settle- ment utid success of a young. Itfricuttttrist. It is an object of extreme importance und difficulty to awaken due attention, AGRICULTURE. without exciting useless anxiety. In se- lecting a situation in which to exercise the occupation of a farmer, various cir- cumstances are minutely and deliberately to be regarded, and great consideration is required to form an accurate compari- son of advantages and disadvantages. After these have been fully ascertained, a balance is to be drawn, and a decision to be made. More attention than time is requisite for this purpose, and hesita- ting, broken application will often occu- py a longer period in arriving at an injudi- cious determination, than, with persever- ing and dispassionate examination, is ne- cessary to obtain a correct one. Headlong temerity, which diminishes, or even anni- hilates to the mind, substantial evils, and minute, apprehensive prudence, by which even" ant-hill of difficulty is made to swell into a mountain, are both to be carefully avoided ; and a firm confidence in human exertion should unite, on this critical oc- casion, with keen and comprehensive ob- servation. The soil is an object of parti- cular consideration, in reference to a vast variety of circumstances ; as to its stiff- ness and moisture; levelness or slope ; its exposure or its stoniness ; the manuring, draining, and fencing that may be requir- ed ; the state of the roads ; the accessibi- bility of markets; the prices of manufac- tures, of produce, and labour; the cus- tom of tythes ; the amount of poor-rates ; the compactness of the land, and the covenants concerning crops ; are only a f'.-w of the points which demand, in such circumstances, to be duly ascertained and estimated. To fix on good land is a prudential general direction. For such it is not easy, with ordinary discretion, to pay too much, while for poor soils a small ivnt very frequently exceeds their worth. The most advantageous of all soils are, the mellow, putrid, crumbling, sandy loams; those which will admit tillage, soon after rain, and, though finely har- rowed, will not harden, as if baked, in consequence of the hottest sunshine, after violent rains. The stiff loam, which is very nearly approaching to proper brick earth, is, without plenty of manure, an unfavourable soil. On walking over it, it is found extremely adhesive in wet wea- ther, and it requires a long time to dry. Tt may be considered as forming a medi- um between the clods of clay and the crumblings of loam. In stubble, a small green moss is frequently seen to cover it. By farmers, poverty and hunger are me- taphorically and most expressively ap- plied to this land, which has a great num- ber of varieties. It requires a large quan- tity of manure, and is wonderfully im- proved by hollow ditching. The expense of these operations must never be forgot- ten, in connection with an estimate of their result. Warm, dry, gravelly loams are, in win- ter, easily distinguishable. Unless in a particularly wet winter, they may be ploughed during almost any part of it, and will break up in a state of ci-umbling, running mould. A very bad soil is con- stantly formed by wet, cold gravel, which, in winter, is always indicated by its wet- ness, and in spring is known by the bind- ing effects produced upon it by short and violent showers. It can be fertilized only by very extraordinary quantities of ma- nure : and drains, fully and neatly com- pleted in it, will considerably improve it. Some gravels are of so particularly sharp and burning a nature, that, unless the summer be particularly wet, they will pro- duce absolutely nothing. At any season this soil is obviously distinguishable. With respect to sands, the rich, red sand possesses always a dry soundness, and a temperate moisture, and will, in the driest summer, secure a crop. Its excellence and profitableness can scarcely be ex- ceeded. Another admirable soil is form- ed of the light, sandy loam. It may be ploughed during the whole winter. The degree of its adhesion is precisely that of its perfection. It may be usefully ob- served, that when stiff "land is dry and crumbling, it is a sure indication of its goodness, as the adhesive quality of a sandy soil is, with respect to that species of land, an equally decisive symptom in its favour. That which falls flat in powder is a mere barren sand. The chalk marie runs exceedingly to mortar from vio- lent showers, after being pulverized, and is a cold and unprofitable soil. Clay land of great tenacity is usually let for more than it is worth ; and though it will yield abundance of wheat, is attended, in its management and preparation, with so great expence, that its profit is often trifling, and fortunes are far more fre- quently made by lands of a directly op- poste description, consisting of light and dry sand. The common fault of stiff clays is wetness. Where fields are level, and, even though the furrows are well ploughed, the water stands in the land, the extreme tenacity of the soil is obvi- ous. It is also broken up by the plough only by a very powerful draught of cattle, and in pieces of vast size and extreme hardness. In winter, soils approaching to AGRICULTURE. tins character are most to be distinguish- i-il. Thc\ will yield large crops ofbeans and wheat, but the sight of these should 'DC blended with the consideration of the immense expense al which they are necessarily raised. There are many variations of peat, bog, and fen, and all may be found exceedingly profitable ; and if marl or lime be in the neighbourhood, that circumstance is a most important inducement to undertake the manage- ment of them. With regard to grass lands, they are to be best examined at several seasons, in order to ascertain their character. If they be. too wet, this is shewn by walking over them in winter, and by rushes, flags, and moisture, which, in a greater or less degree, are always observable upon them. The grass is generally blue at the points, and always coarse. Draining may correct stiff' loams, but the stift' tenacious clay is scarcely susceptibleofcure. Grass, on gra- velley soils, will inevitably burn in hot sum- mers, but will extremely abound on loams in wet ones. On the banks ofbrooks and rivers, meadow of almost any soil may be considered good, but the circum- stance of their liability to summer inun- dations ought never to be forgotten. The herbage on many fields is some- times composed of weeds and the coar- sest and worst of grasses, which are at all times discernible, and indeed glaring. I'ndera prohibition of arable, which is sometimes and notunfrequently the case, lii Ids of this description are worth little or nothing. A river, well restrained with- in its banks, running through a farm, is a circumstance decidedly favourable. The ' uuls ma\ thus be presumed to have water for the accommodation of cattle- The quantity as well as the nature of I, is likewise to be considered, ami no larger quantity should be occupied than can conveniently be stocked. The bad management, and the perpetual em- --inent occurring in the contrary situation, are often ruinous to the health and to the fortunes of those who arein- :init. The disjoined situation of the various IK Ids (jf a farm is a circumsu.: I with great vexation and expense. Compactm - - will aluax.snn- der them tar more valuable; and oppor- tunities of producing this comp.. by purchasing at. a fair valuation, will never be neglected by vigilant an thy landlo- To estimate the rent correctly, it has y recommended to con- nect it with tithes and poor rates. What- ever sum be intended to be invested in the farm, its interest may be fairly calcu- lated at not less than ten per cent. A \ a Ination of the expense and the produce should, for the next step, be carefully made : and, after the former is deducted from the latter, what remains will be the sum which can be allowed for the de- mand of rent, in the three different forms above mentioned. If the amount of tithes and rates be deducted from this, what re- mains will be the sum which the occupier can afford to pay the landlord. The nature of the covenants required, which are sometimes only absurd, and therefore admissible without difficulty, but sometimes equally absurd and mis- el levious, ought ever to be considered in connection not only with general but lo- cal and peculiar circumstances. The un- iLa.sonableness of the conditions propos- sed will sometimes be a valid objection to that occupancy, which rent and situa- tion, and all other circumstances, might render highly eligible, and compensation in diminished rent will be necessary to indemnify for tyingdownthe farmer from modes of cultivation uninjurious to the land, and inexpressibly the most benefi- cial to the occupier. From three to five pounds per acre was, about forty years since, considered adequate to the stocking of any farm, partly grass and partly tillage, of the average fertility. The increase of rents and of rates, the liigher composition for tithes, the advance upon all implements of husbandry, and upon every species of sheep and cattle, may be justly consi- dered as having raised the sum necessa- ry for the above purpose to seven or eight pounds. To form calculations up- on this subject as accurately as possible, and ascertain that the requisite capital i- possessed, for the due management ot the land to be occupied, cannot be too emphatically insisted upon. The profit attending an increased expense in stock ing will, in some cases, more than double thcratioofprofit before that incn > if the farmer be incapable of availing him self of striking opportunities for improve- ment, by the purchase of litter or of ma- nure, and indeed by a variety of circum- stances which may easily !'. for want of capital, his situation must be highly disadvantageous. The choii a point re quiring extreme attention. AN here th< ice of a bailiff is required, as in all farms of very considerable ex- AGRICULTURE. should be of a somewhat superior de- scription to those whom he must be au- thorized to command. The making of contracts, and receiving money, which af- ford agents great temptation to dishonesty and to excess, should, whenever practi- cable, be performed by the principal. Of the inferior servants, the ploughmen are of most consequence, and skill and do- cility are their grand reccommendations. It is desirable, that all the servants should be under the master's eye. His constant superintendance will have great effect in promoting their sobriety and regularity, and not only will their permanent happ'i- ness be improved by this plan, a circum- stance to a man of" humanity of no light consideration, but their greater tractabi- lity and obedience will render the prac- tice of this domesticating method, in a selfish point of view, more useful to him, than that, according to which, on many extended estates, the men and boys are all committed to the boarding and ma- mgcmeitt of the bailiff. It may be con- sidered as in general preferable to keep many servants and few day-labourers in the present times. The certainty of com- manding hands at all seasons is an object of prime importance, and the difficulty of procuring additional ones, when they are most wanted, is often upon the other plan insuperable. It will be always eligible and expedient to pursue a system of management, com- prehending every department of business and expenses. The carelessness of pro- fusion and the sordidiiess of penury, must both be avoided with equal caution. A fixed sum, formed upon calculations, re- sulting from actual experiment, should be allotted forthe expenses of the house, for personal expenses, for family dress, and other necessary demands, to be by no means exceeded, and as casual de- mands will always occur, a reserve should always be provided for contingencies. This methodical arrangement cannot be too strongly enforced on the young prac- titioner, who, without it, is in danger of inextricable confusion and ruin Ifthe investment on a farm be eight thousand pounds, after clearing all expenses arising from regular or contingent demands, and maintaining the establishment in liberal but accurate economy, if a hundred a year be not annually added to the occu- pier's capital, the concern must decided- ly be a bad one. The addition ofone hundred and fifty is very far from unrea- sonable. Whatever it be, in general, it cannot be better employed than in prose- cuting ascertained modes of improvement upon the farm, if it be the property of tin- occupier, or if he is in possession of a long lease. Attendance at markets and fairs is an indispensable part of the farmer's occupa- tion, but in a young man is attended with various temptations such as sanguine and social temperaments find it difficult to resist. Caution therefore to such is per- petually requisite. Moreover, the society of persons in a superior style or rank in life, which, inconsequence of establish- ments for agricultural improvement is ea- sily accessible to the young man of viva- city and spirit, cannot be cherished with- out danger. His mind is thus alienated from his regular, and comparatively very laborious, and as it may weakly be deem- ed, humble occupation, and fastidious- ness, discontent, and neglect, will usurp the place of tranquil and active industry. Such intercourses are completely be- set with temptation, and have often indu- ced imitation and profusion, neglected business, and eventual, and indeed spee- dy destruction. Impediments to agricultural improvements. The want of wise laws on this subject has ever been a serious obstacle. The produce of land, and the various manures which are necessary for fertilising it, can be easily and cheaply conveyed only along good roads and navigable canals, and in proportion as a country is destitute of these, it is deficient in a grand source of national and agricultural prosperity. Ar- rangements on these topics cannot easily occupy too much of the attention, or at least meet with too much of the encou- ragement, of the wise statesman. And as indefinite advantages might be derived from positive reg-ulation on these and other details, in behalf of husbandry, much might also be done in many countries by the removal as well as by the enaction of laws. Where the husbandman is preclu- ded from the best markets, the art of cul- tivation cannot possibly be pushed up to that point of maturity which it would otherwise acquire j the attainable perfec- tion of this, as well as every other art, depending on the encouragement it finds or, in no less accurate, though perhaps more harsh and grating language, on the profit it produces. The most effectual mode of procuring the growth of an}' ar- ticle in abundance is to insure it a reason- able price, and a rapid sale. Freedom of exportation from one country to another AGRICULTURE. affords considerable facility for these, and promotes, therefore, the object which the blindness of former times supposed to be counteracted by it. Abundance is ascer- tained to be secured by the very means which the contracted policy of departed legislators imagined necessarily to defeat views are, however, in general exploded. And though in coun- ts in Great Britain, the sub- (ftlie population is inadequately provided for by the natural produce, even in the best of seasons, there is less reason on this subject for complaint, than would operate in other circumstances, it is still an invariable and invaluable maxim, that no lands can be cultivated to their high- est point of perfectibility, where restraints are permitted to operate on the disposal of their produce. The operation of the tythe system must be considered as one of the most serious impediments on the subject under consi- deration. Thisodiousand oppressive mode of providing for a class of persons, whose peculiar duty it is to polish the uncouth- ness of savage man, to inculcate on the world the principles of conciliation and kindness, furnishes a most singular dis- sonancy between the means and the end of those who instituted it ; and its unmitiga- ted continuance to the present day is a reflection on the sagacity, the energy, or the patriotism of the British legislature. Regulations, by which those who have no share whatever in the expense of im- provement should participate in its advan- tages, are not mere topics of theoretical absurdity, but attended with serious de- triment in their operation throughout this country, in a moral, a religious, and what is most of all to the present purpose, an agricultural point of view. With all the respect due to the representatives of u mighty empire, and with the most deci- ded detachment from all points of vague and general innovation, this important subject cannot be too frequently present- ed to parliamentary attention. Human wisdom and human virtue will, it is hoped, be at length found equal to the correction of an absurdity at once so gla- ring and so prejudicial. The want of due estimation of the oc- cupation of husbandry-, is in many coun- tries a grand impediment to its progress. Where the cultivation of the soil is re- garded with contempt, or as beneath the attention of men of rank and education, it will be entrusted to the management of persons of narrow capitals, and still nar- rower minds. Such prejudices operate in various places. They till lately exist- ed to a great extent in France, and are yet deplorably prevalent in Spain. In England, fortunately, they are everyday rapidly dissipating. Agriculture is ascer- tained to be the road to wealth aad re spectability ; and men of high connections and distinguished fortunes think 'hem- selves honoured, instead of being degra- ded, by a regular and assiduous applica- tion to it, and by establishing their sons in situations, in which they may look to it as the means of maintaining families, ac- cumulating property, and doing service and honour to their country- . Agriculture is very injuriously checked by the occupier of land not possesang in it a requisite interest. Even in this coun- try-, large portions of land are held by communities of persons, the individuals of which have no right to any particular spot of it, and are not only thus precluded from personal and active cultivation, but, by the scanty right and profit which they possess in the general property, possess no sufficient motive to enforce correct management and improving cultivation on those persons by whom it is actually oc- cupied. Family entails and short leases are likewise eminently hostile to full cul- tivation, upon the obvious principle, that men will ever apply their capital and ex- ertions only in proportion to their expecta- tion of advantage. Even when leases are granted of a reasonable number of years, restrictive clauses are too frequently in- troduced, by which the progress of im- provement is arrested, and a mode of cul- tivation insisted upon contrary to the views and the interest of the occupier, aid not by any means more beneficial to the own- er, than what was designed to be adopt- ed, often inexpressibly less so. Preju- dice and caprice inthe proprietorare often substituted for the judgment of experi- ence ; and a routine of practice compelled upon the cultivator, in consequence of which, curious research and attentive ex- periment are rendered nearly superfluous. Superior knowledge, which would in these circumstances be almost useless, ceases to be sought for, and stupid ac- quiescence is substituted for lively obser- vation. It is however of importance, that, towards the close of a term, the series of croppingshouldbe regulated by covenant, as the inducement to exhaust land, to the extreme injury oftheownerand the pub- lic, would otherwise be seldom resisted- Beyond this object, it is unwise to enforce restriction or to yield to it, and whatever discoveries are made by the personal ex- AGRICULTURE. perience of the farmer himself, or are de- rived from the experience and practice of others, it is desirable that he should ever be free to avail himself of them. The liberal ideas on this, subject, which have been suggested by the best writers, and adopted by enlightened landlords, will unquestionably, in time, and it is hop- ed rapidly, prevail, to the almost total ex- clusion of those narrow and pernicious notiors which have hitherto existed. It is desirable that the farmer should occupy a sufficient tract of land to en- gage lis time, not irregularly and occa- sionally, but fully and completely, by which means his attention is not distract- ed from this important employment to others which would interfere with it, and necessarily prevent its correct and profit- able management ; and those idle habits, connected with public injury and individ- ual ruin, are effectually precluded. A large farm, therefore, generally speaking, is far preferable to a small one, in this as in eve- ry other point of view. Some persons, not having employment for themselves in the superintendance of the different depart- ments of husbandry on their land, have recourse to personal exertion, and sub- stitute themselves for labourers, a plan which is extremely unwise. The true ait of fanning consists, not in driving the plough, or engaging in other menial of- fices, but in allotting and superintend- ing latour, in recording its results, and contrring how and where to dispose of it to the most perfect advantage. To read, uid think, and attend the public markets, and regulate accounts, and ob- serve .vhat others in the same occupation in the neighbourhood, or even at some distance, are engaged in, is of far more importance to the advance of agriculture, and the profit of the individual cultivator, than for him to engage in those manual operations, which,in consequence of more practice, are generally performed with more rapidity and success by common labourers. On urgency of business, or as an example to his men, and to give their employment that estimation and dignity, the idea of which will ever render them at once more happy and more dexterous in it, it will be extremely proper for him to engage occasionally even in these, and iiis education ought always to have been such, as to enable him to practise them with some degree of skill and neatness, by which he will of course be better ena- bled to judge when they are well perform- ed by others. But let him consider him- self as the manager of a grand manufac- turing establishment, requiring peculiar and incessant vigilance; of a concern, in which occurring contingencies, often re- quire a change of plan, in which the ex- ercise of judgment is perpetually demand- ed ; and through the want of a sagacious and presiding mind, the manual labour of many, convertible to extreme advantage, may easily become productive only of mischief, or may have substituted for it negligence, indolence and dishonest}'. This situation of continued superinten- dance is the proper situation of the far- mer ; and in proportion as he does not occupy land sufficient to require it, he engages in the profession with incorrect views, and misemploys his time. But whatever this quantity of land may be thought to be, differing certainly in re- lation to different individuals, the im- portance of adequately stocking and pre- paring what is actually occupied is ex- treme. To unite the portion of land ne- cessary to occupy the time of the experi- enced farmer, with the complete means of its fertility and improvement, affords the most suspicious foundation for the hope of success. For frequent and fine tillage, and abundant manure, which are essential to the perfection of husbandry, consider- able expense is demanded. The most skilful servants, the most correct imple- ments, the most robust cattle, are neces- sary to produce that improved tilth, which is the most productive cultivation, and will amply repay the extraordinary ex- pense incurred in obtaining them. The procuring of manure in abundance, to re- pair the exhaustion of the soil, and not only keep it in heart, but cany it towards that point of fertility, beyond which ad- ditional expense will be incapable of re- turning proportional produce, is also a matter often of extreme difficult}' and cost. The importance indeed of adequate means is so obvious, that it might perhaps by some be scarcely thought excusable to insist upon the subject. But the frequent and ruinous neglect of this consideration will, by others, be regarded as an ample justification of enforcing most emphatical- ly and repeatedly the idea, that the per- fection of agriculture can never be attain- ed without an unembarrassed and abun- dant capital. With an inadequate capital, on a large extent of land, the same conse- quences will take place, which formed the moststrikingand decided objection to those little farms, which, however strange it may now appear, were formerly thought the grand foundation for national plenty and perfect husbandry. The produce AGRICULTURE. must be carried to market, not at the sea- son most advantageous, but almost im- mediately after the harvest, in order to enable the farmer to extricate himself from immediate embarrassment, and pre- pare the soil, inadequately as it must be done in these circumstances, for fresh cultivation. Commercial monopoly is con- siderably favoured by tliis compulsion upon the farmer for selling 1 at whatever price is offered, and artificial scarcity, though now not much to be dreaded in this country, is more likely to originate from this circumstance than any other. Those grand operations of spreading marl over large districts, at the rate of one hun- dred and fifty tons per acre, of conveying immense quantities of dung from towns at the distance of twenty miles, of floating meadows at the cost of five pounds per acre, of draining lands at the expense of three, of paying persons to reside in dis- tant shires, or even countries, to acquire superior practical information, or of im- proving tile breeds of sheep and cattle, by giving for the use of a single animal, for a season, a price at which our ances- tors would have been absolutely astonish- tvl and confounded ; practices, which, happily, have been far from uncommon in tile British empire, and are daily adding, perhaps more than any other cause, to its stability and prosperity, have depend- ed entirely upon abundant capital. Such proccssesfor improvement might as easily be expected in the management of those small farms, former!} so highly extolled, and now so justly in theory exploded, as in the conduct of large tracts occupied 'inl\ 1>\ men of embarrassed means. The supply of present exigencies preclude t hose comprehensive and remote views, on v. hich the success of the art most materi- ally depends, and unthrifty savings and corroding cares are substituted for the li- !n nil expenses and ill-lighted hopes, which must attend the skilful application of comparative opulence. Finally, as UK.- art of husbandry is par- ticularly intricate -and comprehensive, and m rally personsof slight education, set lu Jed in a great de- nn mutual intercoiUM and compa- rative observation, ignorance may very justly be considered ai an obstacle to its improvement, perhaps th-j most op of all. lust (.ad of bcir.g collected, like ar- i cities, and posM-.Wm^ opportuni- ties for animating curiosity, ana benefiting by communication, thc\ arc scattered n\ er the surface of the country, and ha\ e cultivated generallv the same lands, aitd VOL. I. the same prejudices, as their ancestor, for a series of generations. Unless ther* be among the number of those cngagi-d in this art, a certain proportion of person* of intelligent and educated minds, capable of turning the experience of themselves and others to advantage, and deriving as- sistance to agriculture, from the discove- ries of other sciences or arts, it would be vain in any country to expect its rapid ap- proach towards that perfect standard, to which every human effort should be re- ferred. That the proportion of such cha- racters has considerably increased of late years in this country, is an observation no less true than pleasing; and in the class of pel-sons engaged in agricultural pur- suits, it may be safely affirmed there ex- ists much less tenacity of prejudice, a far greater disposition to research, and openness to conviction, than were to be found in any former age. Even though, in some instances, old and absurd rou- tines of practice may have been maintain- ed with more constancy, through the has- ty projects and absurd expenses of some innovatcrs, whose failure has checked the spirit of improvement, and unjustly invol- ved in one common ridicule all deviations from ancient custom ; these effects, how- ever much to be regretted, are only par- tial, and information is still making it way into the most remote recesses, and" the most stubborn minds. With a view to lessen the darkness and intricacy yet connected with the subject, to prevent random speculations and ruinous pro- jects, with their ill consequences of every kind, it may be observed, that it is of the very iirst importance, that persons enga- ged, particularly on a large scale, in the profession of agriculture, should keep correct accounts of all their transactions, and of all their profits and losses. The advantages of clear accounts are obvious in every other occupation of life. Per- sons who are engaged in speculations of merchandize, to any extent, and who are known not to attend to this department, arc always supposed to be in dangerous circumstances. Agriculturc-seemsby ma- ny to be considered an exception to all other species of business ; that it may bo engaged in without preliminary study, :.:>d is capable of being properly con- ducted, even to a largi- i-Ment, with- out any regular account-;, neet-- .uv admitted to be in other filia- tions. >\ ith respect to experim-ntal agriculture, no correct conclusion-, are to be drawn but from correct and minute, details. Suppositions drawn from gene- AGRICULTURE. ral observation are of no utility, or de- ceive rather than inform. The difficulty of keeping accounts, which, however commonly neglected, it is allowed never ought to be so, is certainly not inconsi- derable. The mode must often be regu- lated by the nature of the farm. The possessor of open fields, where scraps of land belonging to others are intermingled with his own, can, with extreme difficul- ty only, keep an account of every part, which, however, it is justly thought of the first importance to do in general, as the knowledge of what every field has paid, in certain circumstances, is the only basis for correct decision on its applica- tion. Small fields are from this, as well as from other causes, extremely inconve- nient. They are not only inconvenient in preparation, and attended with much loss in borders and ditches, but they de- range the accuracy of accounts, if they are not fully noticed, and occupy a great portion of the time of the farmer, if they are. When all the produce of several fields is thrown together, which is far from an uncommon case, some objects, very interesting to be ascertained, must be left entirely to conjecture ; and when a comparison is made by guesses, the con- clusion formed must be totally invalidated as authority. The separation of crops is therefore an important object, with a view to accounts, and is essential, indeed, to their beingkeptwith accuracy. For the rent, tithes, and parochial rates, three se- parate accounts thould be kept, but the amount of all should be divided on every field, for which an account should be kept according to the real contents of it. A distinction must be drawn between the gross and net contents of the field; as, otherwise, in the comparison of husban- dry, that field might be concluded the most advantageous, which had the least border, and merely for that reason, the cultivation practised in the other being, in fact, more profitable. But detail on this subject is here impracticable, and we must be satisfied with observing that, without correctness of data for a compa- rison, the conclusions formed will consti- tute only a catalogue of errors. The ar- ticle of sundry expenses must universally have place in a well regulated account, and should include whatever payments concern the farm in general, (and are not included in any distinct article) and not any object or field in particular. With respect to the article of wear and tear, the arable lands will swallow up by far thejreater proportion of these expenses As they principal!}' attach to the team, the proper mode of setting them down is, after ascertaining them at so much per pound on the team account, to charge thus proportionally per acre. The land appropriated for feeding grass will have very little concern in them, and that for mowing by no means much. To settle the expense of the team work, the green food for the teams in summer, the hay and oats consumed, the shoeing and farrier- ing, their real decline in value, the pay for attendance, are each to be itemed down separately ; and to apportion the whole expense to the work executed by them, a day-book must contain an account of this work every day in the year, with a specification of the field or business they were engaged in. At the end of the year a clear result may be obtained, by pro- portionally divid.ng the amount of the expense among the work. The article manure should be arranged under the head farm-yard, and is one of the most complex and difficult. This account should be charged with the price of the straw used in the yard, at what it could be sold for, deducting the carriage, and it should be credited with the price per week of keeping the cattle. All the labour employed in turning over the dung and cleaning the yard is charged to this account. The total expense of the dung, when carted to the land, is divided by the number of loads, giving so much per load : it should be charged the following year on the lands on which it is spread, although the benefit of it is not confined to that single year: but keeping open the account for a longertime would expose to great and inextricable confusion. One of the most complex of all accounts is that of grass lands fed. To reduce the difficulty, one account should be opened for mow- ing ground, to which all expenses of rent, tithe, taxes, &c. should be carried for every field mown ; while its credit con- sists of the value, at the market price of all the mown produce, as delivered to the cattle of any description . The after grass on these fields must be estimated at a certain sum per acre, and charged to the account of feeding ground. To this ac- count must be carried all the debits of the fields fed, while the credit should consist of all the food of the team, at a certain weekly estimate ; and of any cattle taken to joist. The account for sheep, dairy, and fatting beasts, is each to be charged its peculiar expenses ; wages, hurdles, shepherd, &c. for the first ; fuel and straw, &c. for tie second; and the purchase AGR AGR money of lean stock for fatting b- Amidst all this min> of accmint, order must be produced. MI! shi-opjiave turnips, wit'. i which the estimate of tin in m\;- . not at what they cost, but at what : sell for eaten olV the field, as v.iey cost more than the latter price, and wore intended to repay in the crops for whirl) the\ prepare. The book* should be even year balanced, about the season at which the farm was entered up- on; and, to avoid arbitrary valuation, the old year's accounts must be continued open considerably after the new ones have commenced, till the fatting 1 beasts the corn are sold, and those poin's decided, on which the profit or loss of the former year depended. By these means conjectures may be, in a great degree, pre- cluded, but not altogether, as these must extend to the estimate of the live stock bought and sold within die \ car, and to the implements of husbandry. The stock mus< be estimated r: and in settlingthis estinn!-.-, their worth at the verv tin, ; g made, that is, the price they would then sell for, must be set down. \\ ith respect to fatting beasts, cows, and sheep, this proceeding must '.dlv take place. KM r\ vi :ir, also, im- plements should be valued, and the ba- lance must be carried, where alone it is I e, to the general head of wear and The minuteness awl accuracy necessa- ry for^his or any other efficient mode of >unt may deter many from its adop- tion, and undoubtedly has this effect on thousands. Tlu- want of attention, how- ever, to this subject has, unquestionably, been the cause to which many individuals may justly ascribe their failure in this art, and lias o remdy to check the progress of h, in general. The hints sug- ient to evince its ge- ner.il and particular importance, anil in- duce sonic, perhaps, to fallow up, with care and correct ness, a practice, which ran alone enable tlum to give the fail-results of ir.tere-.'in;C e\p< riim-ms, or qualifv tlle'ii t'> a-ri "lain the particular raii>csof ess or failure in genend management. The obscurity and perplexity of coi< ture can In s'ich means alone be changed for the clearness of fact and the beauty of order; and, in short, they can thus only vie with truth, and "act with confi- A(.UIMOM \, (lyrimoiiti, in hot: genus of Dodocamlri i I)' and order: t l s one-leafed, perma- nent, perianthium fenced with an outer calyx; the corolla has five petals-, th<- stamina are capillary filaments, shorter than the corolla; the anthers arc small; the pistillum is a germ inferior; t!> simple; the stigmas obtuse; no pericar- diuii! ; there are two roundish seeds. Of .ire five species : the A. paiViHora grows in the borders of corn- fields, shady places ar. i i Great liritain, and most parts of Europe, also in similar places in the United perennial, and flowers in June and July. The root is sweet-scented; an infusion of it is used by the Canadians with success in burning fevers. Dr. Hill says, that an infusion of six ounces of the crown of the root in a quart of boiling water, sweeten- ed with honey, and drank to the quantity of half a pint, thrice a day , is a cure for the jaundice. When the plant comes into flower, it will dye wool of a bright full nankeen colour; if gathered in Septem- ber, it yields a darker yellow. In Prussia it is used for dressing of leather. The American species are three in number: 1. A. cupatoria, of which there are two va- rieties, the hirsuta and the glabra; 2. A. parviflora; 3. A. pumila. AGROSTEMA, the garland of the Jidd, in botany, a genus of the Dccandria Pen- tagynia class and order: the calyx is one- Ieafe Basses, viz. oxygen uixl variety (if other substances, suspended or dissolved there- in. The mechanical and chemical cH'ects Ot' this e\ti'lisi\c fl'lid Hi: riissed under various heads of science. See \i- .MOSI-HKUK, CHKMISTHY, and the articles thence referred to. AIR, in music, generally speaking, is an\ melody, the passages of which are so constructed as to lie uithin the province of \ocal expression, or which, when sung or played, forms that connected chain of sounds which we call tune. The strict import of the word is confined to vocal music, and signifies a composition writ- ten tor a single voice, and applied to words. AIR-^MM, a machine for exploding balls by means of condensed air. Authors describe two kinds of this ma- clu'ne, viz. the common one, and what is called the magazine air-gun. See PNEU- MATICS. ''ijiffi, a contrivance invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, for clear- ing the holds of ships, and other close places of their foul air. The principle upon which this contrivance is founded is veil known. It is no other than the rare- fying power of heat, which, by causing a diminution of the density of the air in one place, allows that which is incontact with it to rush in, and to be succeeded by a constant supply from remoter parts, till tin- air becomes every where equal!) elas- tic. If a tube, then, be laid in the well- hold, or any other part of a ship, and the upperparl ofthistube be sufficiently heat- ed to rarefy the impending column of air, tJu- equilibrium will be- maintained by the putrid air from the bottom of the tube, \\ Inch, being thus drawn out, will be suc- ceeded by a supply of fresh air from the other parts of the ship ; and by continuing the operation, the air will be changed in all parts of tin-ship. Upon this principle, Mr. Siit ton proposed to purify the bad air of a ship by means of the fire used for the cuppers, or boiling places, with which every ship is provided. Under every such copper or boiler there are two holes, sc- parated by a grate, one for the fire and the Other for the ashes ; and there is :tlso :i flue, communicating with the fire place, *"! the discharge of the smoke. The tire, alter it is lighted, is preserved by the con- stant draught of air through these t\\o holes and the flue ; and if the two holes arc cjosed, the fire is extinguished. But when these are closed, if another hole, coinmiinicatingwith any other airy place, ' and also with the lire, be op'-ned, the fire will of course continue to burn. In order to clear the holds of the ships of the bad air, Mr. Sutton proposed to close the two holes above mentioned, vi/.. the fire-place and ash-place, with substantial iron doors, and to lay a copper or leaden pipe, of suf- ficient si/.e, from the hold into the ash- place, and thus to supply a draught of air for feetling the fire ; a constant discharge of air from the hold will be thus obtained, and fresh air will be supplied down the hatches, and by such other communica- tions as are open into the hold. If other pipes are connected with this principal pipe, communicating either with the wells or lower decks, the air that serves to feed the fire will be drawn from such places. A.in-shafts, among miners, are holes made from the open air to meet the adits, and supply them with fresh air. These, when the adits are long, or ex- ceeding thirty or forty fathoms, become highly necessary, as well to give vent to the damps and noxious vapours, as to let in fresh air. AIR-/M/; and MINMI M.OCT. AL.fc, in anatomy, is sometimes used for Ihe lobes of the fiver, the nymphz of the female pudendum, the two cartilages which form the nostril, the arm-pits, young stems or branches, &c. \ I. A Mil t M, in botany, a genus of the Decandria Monogynia class and order : tin- Huiracters of which are, that it has from 6 to 10 linear petals, from 10 to 12 stamina; the cah \ dentatrd ; the fmit a spherical berry, single-celled, containing from one to three seeds : there is only one species, vi/. A. punir< us. ALATF.1), in botany, an epithet applied to the seed, stem, or leaf-stalk ; a seed is alated, when it has an ala or membrane affixed to it, which, by its Hying, serves to disperse it. The foot stalk of a leaf is alated, when it spreads out tin Mated leaves are those made up of seve- ral pinnated ones. .M.AI'DA, fark, in ornithology, a genus f birds of the order of Passeres ; the characters of which are, that the beak is cylindrical, subulate, and s.raight, bend- ing towards the point, the mandiln of equal size, and opening downv. their base ; the tongue is bifid ; and the hinder claw is straighter and long the toe. Pennant adds, that the i are covered with feathers or bristles and the toes divided to their origin. There are 33 species, bi notice only tu o of them 1. A. arvrnsis, <>r sky-lark, cine characters of which are, that the t\vo outermost quills of its tail are white lengthwise exti rnally, and the in- termediate ones arc ferruginous on the inside : the length is about s- The males of this species are somew h U browner than the females ; tin \ i black collar, and more white on tb their si/.e is larger, and their aspect bold- er; and they exclusively possess the fa- cility of singing. When the femai prcgnated, she forms her lit si two clods of earth, and lines it wi'.h herbs and dry roots, being no less the concealment than to the structure of it. It sometimes build* its nest among corn and in high grass. Each female lays four or five eggs, which are greyish, with brown spots; and the period of herincu- bation is about 15 days. The young may- be taken out of the nest when they are a fortnight old, and they are so hardy, that they may be easily brought up. The pa- rent is very tender of her young; and though she does not always cover them with her wings, she directs their motions, supplies their wants, and guards them from danger. The common food of the young sky -larks is worms, caterpillars, ant's eggs, and even grasshoppe.rs ; and in maturity they live chiefly on seeds, herbage, and all vegetable substances. Those birds, it is said, that are destined for singing, should be caught in October or November ; the males should, as much as possible, be selected : and when they are untractable, they should be pinioned, lest they injure themselves by their vio- lence against the roof of the cage. As they cannot ding by the toes, it is need- le ss to place bars across their cage ; but they should have clean sand at the bottom of it, that they may welter in it, and be relieved from the vermin which torment them. In Flanders, the young ones arc fed with moistened popp nlsoak- ed crumbs of bread ; and, when they be- ginto sing, with sheep'sand calves' hearts, hashed with bard eggs; to which an added, wheat, spilt-oats, millet, linseed, and the seeds of poppy and iu-mr. cd in milk. Their capacity of learning to sing is well known ; and so apt tat eoi-k larks, that, after hearing a tune whistled with the pipe, they have caught the whole, and repeal it mo- than any linnet or mer the' lark ALAUDA. situations ; but in winter they descend to the ph> ns, and assemble in numerous Hocks. In the former season they are very lean, and in the latter very fat, as they are always on the ground, and con- stantly feeding. In mounting the air, they ascend almost perpendicularly, by suc- cessive springs, and hover at a great height ; but in descending, they make an oblique sweep, unless they are pursuedby a ravenous bird, or attracted by a mate, in either of which cases they fall like a stone. These small birds, at the height to which they soar, are liable to be waft- ed by the wind ; and they have been ob- served at sea, clinging to the masts and cordage of ships. Sir Hans Sloane ob- served some of them 40 miles from the coast, and Count MarsigH met with them on the Mediterranean. It is conjectured that those which are found in America have been driven thither by the wind. Some have supposed, that they are birds of passage, at least in the more southern and milder climates of Europe ; but they are occasionally concealed under some rock or sheltered cave. The lark is found iji all the inhabited parts of both conti- nents, as far as the Cape of Good Hope ; this bird, and the wood-lark, are the only birds which sing whilst they fly. The high- er it soars, the more it strains its voice, and lowers it till it quite dies away in de- scending. When it ascends beyond our sight, its music is distinctly heard; and its song, which is full of swells and falls, and thus delightful for its variety, commences before the earliest dawn. In a state of freedom, the lark begins its song early in the spring, which is its season of love and pairing, and continues to warble during the whole of the summer. The- honourable Daincs Harrington reckons this among the best of the singing larks ; and as it copies the warble of every other bird, he terms it a mocking-bird. These birds, which are esteemed a deli- cacy for the table, though Linnaeus thinks the food improperfor gravelly complaints, are taken with us, in the greatest num- bers, in the neighbourhood of Dunstable. The season begins about the 14th of September, and ends the 25th of Febru- ary ; and during this time, about 4000 dozen are caught, for supplying the Lon- don markets. Those caught in the day are taken in clap-nets, till the 14th of November. But when the weather be- comes gloomy, and also in the night, the larker makes use of a trammel-net, 27 or 28 feet long, and five broad, which is put on two poJes 18 feet long, and carried by men under each arm, Vho pass over the fields, and quarter the grounds, as a setting dog. When they see or feel a lark strike the net, they drop it down, and thus the birds are taken. The dark- est nights are the most proper for their sport ; and the net will not only take larks, but all other birds that roost on the ground ; among which are wood- cocks, snipes, partridges, quails, field- fares, and several others. In the depth of winter, people sometimes take great numbers of larks by nooses of horse-hair. The method is this : take 100 or 200 yards of packthread; fasten at every six inches a noose made of double horse-hair ; at ever}' 20 yards the line is to be peg- ged down to the ground, and so left rea- dy to take them. The time to use this is when the ground is covered with snow, and the larks are to be allured to it by some white oats, scattered among the nooses. They will soon fly to them, and, in eating, will be hung by the nooees. They must be taken away as soon as three or four are hung, otherwise the rest will be frightened ; but though the others are scared away just where the sportsman comes, some will be feeding at the other end of the line, and the sport may be thus continued for a long time. As the sky-lark is a kind of mocking-bird, and apt to catch the note of any other which hangs near it, even after its own note is fixed, the bird-fanciers often place, it next to one which has not been long caught, in order to keep the caged sky- lark honest. Plate II. Aves, fig. 1. 2. A. arborea, wood-lark of English wri- ters, is specifically characterised by a white annular belt, encircling its head. This bird is smaller than the sky-lark, and of a shorter thicker form ; the co- lours of the plumage are paler ; the first feather of the wing is shorter than the second ; the hind claw is very long and somewhat bent ; it perches on trees; it haunts the uncultivated tracts near copses, without penetrating the woods, whence its name ; its song resembles more the warble of the nightingale, or the whist- ling of the black-bird, than that of the sky-lark, its note being less sonorous and less varied, though not less sweet ; and it is heard not only in the day, but in the night, both when it flies and when it sits on a bough. This bird builds on the ground, and forms its nest on the outside with moss, and on the inside with dried bents, lined with a few hairs, and conceals it with a turf; and the situation it selects is ground where the grass is. ALA ALB me brown. It lays four or lich arc dusky and blotched with deep brown; its fecund', t\ i.> ',nf< r'or of the sky-l.-trk, and its numbers are not so great: it breeds earlier, since -mo-times flown in the middle of March, an. I then-fore they pair in February, at which time, and not be- fore, they part with their last \ car's brood; whereas the common lark does not hatch before the month of May. This \ te ruler and delicate bird; so that it is impossible to rear the young taken out of the nest: but this is the case only in England and such cold climates, for in ltly they are removed from the nest, and reared at first like the nightingale, and afterwards ted upon panic and millet. The wood-lark feeds on beetles, caterpil- lars, and seeds: its tongue is forked; its stomach muscular and fleshy; and it has no craw, but a moderate dilatation of the lower part of the oesophagus, and its cocca are very small. It lives ten or t\\el\e years. Tin- males are distinguished from the females by their larger si/e ; the rrown of the head is also of a darker co- lour, ajid the hind nail longer; its breast is more spotted, and its great wing-quills edged with olive, which in the female is grey. The wood-lark mounts high, war- bling its notes, and hovering in the air; it flies in flocks during the winter colds; it is found in Sweden and Italy, and is probably dispersed through the interve- ning countries, and consequently over the greatest part of Europe. It is also found in Siberia, as far as Kamtsrhatka, and likewise in the island of Madeira. The best time for taking this bird for the cage is July, or the preceding or follow- ing month. Those that are put into the cage at this time sing presently; but their song-time is not lasting, for they soon fall to moulting, in which state many die; but if they get over it, they com- monly prove very healthful afterwards, in-come very tame and familiar, and sing Mveetly. Those which are taken in the Litter end of September are generally \v- ig and sprightly ; but they do not sing till sitter Christmas. Those taken in i-iiary finally prove the : all ; they generally begin singing in two or three days, or at the utmost in !. after they are taken. The cock- bird of this kind is knou n from the ln-n 1 iv the loudness and length of li by his tidiness as he walks ahoi:' tli ajid by his doublinghis notes in the veii- '.ug, as if he were going witli lys mate to roost. A better rule than all othcj?;, h-iwever, is his singing - th<- hen wood-lark sings bin weakly'. Roth the rock and hen of this kind an- tender, and subject to many disorders; the principal of these are, rramps, giddiness of the head, and breed- ing lice. Cleanliness is the best cure for the first and the last of these complaints; but we know of no cure for the other. .\ good strong bird will last very well for five or six years, and frequently improve during the whole of this time. The lark is not only a very agreeable bird for the cage, but it will also live upon almost any food, so that it have once a week a fresh tuft of three-leaved grass put into the cage with it. The wood-lark is one of the sweetest of our singing-birds, aud is indeed very little interior to the nightin- gale, when in good health; but we are not to judge by such as are made feeble by improper food, or want of cleanliness in their cages. ALBINOS, in zoology, a denomination given to the white negroes of Africa, who have light hair, blue eyes, and a white body, resembling that of the Europeans, when viewed at a distance ; but upon a nearer approach, the whiteness is pale and livid, like that of leprous persons, or of a dead body. Their eyes are so weak that they can hardly see any object in the day, or bear the rays of the sun, ami yet, when the moon shines, they see as well, and nin through the deepest shades of their forests with as much ease and ac- tivity, as other men do in the brightest day-light. Their complexion is delicate ; they are lese robust and vigorous than other men; they generally sleep in the day, and go abroad in the night. The negroes regard them as mongers, and w ill not allow them to propagate their kind. In Africa this variety of the human spe- cies very frequently occurs. \\ afer in- forms us, that there are white Indians of the same general character among the yellow or Copper-Coloured Indians of the isthmus of Durien. It has been a subject of inquiry, whether these men form a pe- culiar and distinct race, ami a permanent variety of the him. an species, or are merely individuals who have accidcnth degeiier.it'-d from their original BufToo iiiclin'-s to the latter opinion, and he alleges in proof of it, that in tl inns ! ; u husband and wife, both of a copper colour, produced one of these \vhhc children ;.so tlia< the singu- lar colour and constitutionoftlie.se hite H ALB ALC Indians must be a species of disease which they derive from their parents; and the production of whites by negro parents, which sometimes happens, con- firms the same theory. According to this author, white appears to be the pri- mitive colour of nature, which may be varied by climate, food, and manners, to yellow, brown, and black; and which, in certain circumstances, returns, but so much altered, that it has no resemblance to the original whiteness, because it has been adulterated by the causes that are assigned. Nature, he says, in her most perfect exertions, made men white ; and the same nature, after suffering every possible change, still renders them white : but the natural or specific whiteness is very difFerentfrom the individualor acci- dental. Of this we have examples in vegetables, as well as in men and other animals. A white rose is very different, even in the quality of whiteness, from a red rose, which has been rendered white by the autumnal frosts. He deduces a farther proof that these white men are merely degenerated individuals, from the comparative weakness of their constitu- tion, and from the extreme feebleness of their eyes. This last fact, he says, will appear to be less singular, when it is considered that in Europe very fair men have generally weak eyes ; andhe has re- marked that their organs of hearing are often dull: and it has been alleged by others, that dogs of a perfectly white co- lour are deaf. This is a subject which demands farther investigation. Buffon's Natural History. ALBUCA, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order : corolla six-petalled ; the inner ernes con- nivent; outer ones spreading; style tri- angular: this genus is distinguished in- to those species, three of whose stamina are fertile ; and into others, in which all the stamina and fertile : of the former there are six species ; of the latter eight. They are all found at the Cape. ALBUMEN, in chemistry, a term to denote the white of egg, and all glary, tasteless substances, which, like it, have the property of coagulating into a white, opaque, tough, solid substance, when heated a little under the boiling point. This substance forms a constituent of many of the fluids of animal bodies, and when coagulated, it constitutes also an important part of their solids. Substan- ces analogous to it have been noticed in the vegetable kingdom. The essential characters of albumen are the following : 1. In its natural state it is soluble in wa- ter, and forms a glary, limpid liquid, ha- ving- very little taste : in this state it may be employed as a paste and a varnish. 2. The solution is coagulated by acids, in the same way us milk is acted upon ; and also by heat of the temperature of 170, and by alcohol. 3. Dissolved in water, it is precipitated by the infusion of tan ; and also in the form of white powder by the salts of most of the white metals, as silver, mercury, lead and tin. 4. AVhen burnt it emits ammonia, and when treated with nitric acid, yields azotic gas. The juice of the papaw tree yields albumen; so also does the juice of the fruit of the hibiscus esculentis: that obtained from the latter has been used in the West In- dies as a substitute for white of eggs in clarifying sugar. ALBURNUM, denotes the white, soft substance that lies between the inner bark and the wood of trees, composed of lay- ers of the former, wliich have not at- tained the solidity of the latter. Plants, after they have germinated, do not re- main stationary, but are continually in- creasing in size. A tree, for instance, every season adds considerably to its bulk. The roots send forth new shoots, and the old ones become longer and thicker. The same increment takes place in the branches and the trunk. A new layer of wood, or rather of alburnum, is added annually to the tree in every part, just under the bark; and the former lay- er of alburnum assumes the appearance of perfect wood. The alburnum is found in largest quantities in trees that are vi- gorous ; though in such as languish and are sickly there is a great number of beds. In an oak six inches in diameter the alburnum is said to be nearly equal in bulk to the wood. ALCA, auk, in ornithology, a genus of theorder of Anseres, in the Linnaean sys- tem, the characters of which are, that the bill is without teeth, short, compressed, convex, frequently furrowed transversely; the inferior mandible is gibbous before the base; the nostrils are behind the bill; and the feet have generally three toes. This genus comprehends 12 species, of which we shall notice the following: A. torda, with four furrows on the bill, and a white line on each side, running from the bill to the eyes. This is the alca of Clu- sius and Brisson ; the pinguin of Buffon ; and the razor-bill, auk, or murre, of Pen- nant, Ray, Willoughby, Albinus, Edwards, and Latham. This species weighs about 22 ounces; its length js about 18 inches. ALCA. anef breadth 27. These birds, in compa- ny with the guillemot, appear in our seas in the beginning of February, l>ut do not settle in their breeding-places till they begin to lay, about the beginning of May When they take possession of the ! of the highest rocks that hang over tin- sea, they sit close together, und in rows one above another, and form a very gro- tesque appea::u . They lay only one a time, which is of a large size, in proportion to that of the bird, being-three inches long, either white or of a pale sea- Jfreen, irregularly spotted with black : if this egg be destroyed, both the auk and the guillemot will lay another, and if this be taken, a third; as they make no nest, they deposit the egg on the bare rock, poising it in such a manner as no human art can effect, and fixing it by means of the viscous moisture that bedews its sur- face on its exclusion ; and though such multitudes of eggs are contiguous to each other, each bird distinguishes its own. These eggs serve as food to the inhabi- tants of the coasts which the birds fre- quent; and are procured with great ha- zard by persons let down with ropes, held by their companions, and who, for want of stable footing, are sometimes precipitated down the rocks, and perish together. They arc found in the northern parts of America, Europe, and Asia They come to breed on the Ferroe islands, along the west of England, and on the Isle of Wight, where they add to the multitude of sea-fowl that inhabit the grtat rocks called the Needles. Their winter resi- dence is not positively ascertained. As they cannot remain on the sea in that sea- son, and never appear on shore, nor retire to southern climates, Edwards supposes that they pass the winter in the caverns of rocks, which open under water, but rise internally as much above the level of the flood as to admit a recess, and here, as he apprehends, they remain torpid, and live upon their abundant fat. The pace of this bird is heavy and sluggish; and its ordinary posture is that of swimming or floating on the water, or lying stretch- ed on the rocks, or on the ice. A. impennis, A. major of Brisaon, pen- guin of Uay. M irtin, Edwards. &c. and great auk of Pennant and Latham, has its bill compressed and furrowed on both sick's, and has an oval spot on ea> before the eyes. Its length to the end of its toes is three feet ; the bill to the cor- ner of the mouth is 41 inches : the wings are so small as to be useless for flight ; their length, from the tip of tfeu longest quill-feuthers to the first joint, being only 4.| inches: and these birds are theiefonc observed by seamen never to wander be- yond soundings, and by the sight of them thev are able to ascertain the nearness of the land. They can scarcely even walk, and of course continue on the \vaer, ex- cept in the time of breeding. According to Mr. Martin, they breed on the isle of St. Kilda, appearing there in the begin- ning of May, and retiring in the middle of June. They lay one egg, six inches long, of a wlu'te colour : and if the egg be taken away, no other i.s laid in the same season. Mr. Macaulay, in his his- tory of St. Hilda, observes, that this hied does not visit that island annually, but sometimes keeps away for several years together, and that it lays its eggs close to the sea-mark, and is incapable, by the shortness of its wings, of mounting high- er. Hirds of this species are said not to be numerous ; they seldom appear on the coasts of Norway. They are met with near Newfoundland and Iceland. They do not resort annually to the Ferroe Isl- ands, and they rarely descend more to the south in the European seas. They feed on the cyf.opterus and such fish, and on the rose-root and other plants. The skins are used by the Esquimaux for garment? These birds live in flocks at sea, and ne- ver approach the land, except in very se- vere cold; arid in this case they are s~o numerous, that they cover the wa er like a thick dark fog. The Grecnhmders drive them on the coast, and catcli them with the hand, as they can neither run nor fly. At the mouth of the Hall river they afford subsistence to the inhabitants in the months of Febma:y and -March, and their down serves to line winter gar- ments. Plate If. A\es. iig. 2. A. psittaculu, or nerroquet auk of Pen- nant and Latham, is f>i-nd in the sea that lies between the northern part* < and Amerca, sometimes by day in flocks swimming on the water, though not very far from land, unless driven out by storms, and in the night harbouring in ti< ces of rocks. About the middle of June they lay upon the rocks or band a single egg, about the size of thkt of a hen, and of a dirty white or \ellowish colour, spot- ted with brown, which is estecmedgood. These birds, like others of the same class, are stupid, and are mostly taken by the natives, who place themselves in the evening among the rocks, dressed < an 1 luxuriance- of the colours of its plumage. It has, says BuflTon, all the shades of the rainbow, the brilliancy of enamel, and the glossy softness of silk ; and (iesner compares the glowing yellow red, which colours the breast, to the red glare of a burning coal ; and yet the kingsfisher has strayed from those climates, where its re- splendent and glowing colours would ap- pear to the greatest advantage. There is a species that is common in all the islands of the South Sea; and Foreter, in his observations on Captain Cook's se- cond \oyage, has remarked, that its plu- mage is much more brilliant between the tropics than in the regions situated be- yond the temperate zone, in New Zea- land. In the language of the Society Islands, the kingsfisher is called Erooro, and at Otaheite it is accounted sacred, and not allowed to be taken or killed. Kingfishers were found, not only at Ota- heite, but in Huaheinc and I'lietea, and iu the islands that are scattered over the South Sea, though they are more than 1500 leagues distant from any continent. Thvse kini^slisliers are of a doll green, with a collar of the same about their neck. The islanders entertain a super- stitious veneration for them. The chief intreated Capt. Cook's com- f.auions, in a very serious tone, to -.pare the kingsnshera and hen. us of his island, giving permission to kill all the other birds. There are 20 species in Africa -vijd Asia, and eight more that are known in the warm parts of America, The Eu- ropean kingsfish( r is scattered through Asia and Africa : many of from China and Egypt are found to be the same with ours, and Ik-Ion has met with them in Greece and in Thrace. This brid, though it derives its origin from the hottest climates, bears the rigour of our seasons. It is seen in the winter along the brooks, diving under the ice, and emerging with its prey. The Ger.n.ins \ ogel, or ice-bird ; and it has been found even among the Tar- tars and Siberians. The Tartars andOs- tiacs use the feathers of these birds for many superstitious purposes. The for- mer use them as love unmlets; pretend- ing that those which float on water will induce a woman who is touched with them to fall in love with the person who thus applies it. The Ostiacs take the skin, the bill, and the claws of this bird, and enclose them in a purse ; ami whi! preserve this amulet, they think they have no ill to fear. Credulity has admitted and reported many other similar tales con- cerning the extraordinary powers and virtues of this bird; but it is > recite them. Its flesh has die odotir of musk, and is unpalatable. Plate II. AveSj fig. 4. ALCHEMY, that branch of chemistry, which had for its principal objects' the transmutation of all the metal* into gold ; the panacea, or universal remedy for all diseases ; and the alkahest, or universal menstruum. Those who pursued these delusive projects gradually assumed the- form of a sect, under the name of Alche- mists, a term made up of the word che- mist, and the Arabian article al as a pre- fix. The alchemists laid it down as a first principle, that all metals are compost d of the same ingredients, or that the sub- stances at least which compose gold ex- ist in all metals, and arc capable of being obtained from them. The great of. their researches was, to convert the baser metals into gold. The substance which produced tins property they called Infiix philosofthorum, " the philosopher's stone;" and many of them boasted that the\ were in possession of that grand instrument The alchemists were established in the west of Europe as early as the ninth ceiu tury ; but between the eleventh and fif- teenth alchemy was in its most flourishing state. The princin bcrtus Magnus, Hf his oppo- uents thought it the effect of witchcraft and enchantment, as he himself complains. so nuniero'i* are |he commentaries on ALD ALE the Alcoran, that a catalogue of their bare titles would make a volume ; we "have a Tery elegant translation of it into English by Mr. Sale ; who .has added a preliminary discourse, with other occa- sional notes, which the curious may con- sult on this head. Among Mahometans this book is held in the greatest reverence and esteem. The Mussulmen dare not touch it without being first washed, or legally purified ; to prevent which, an inscription is put on the cover or label : " Let none touch it but they who are clean." It is read with great care and respect They swear by it, take omens from it on all weighty oc- casions, carry it with them to war, write sentences of it on their banners, adorn it with gold and precious stones, and do not suffer it to be in the possession of any who hold a different religion. ALCYON, in natural history, a name given to the kingsfisher. See ALCEDO. ALC YONIUM, in natural history, a ge- nus of Zoophytes, the characters of which are, that the animal grows in the form of a plant ; the stem or root is fixed, fleshy, gelatinous, spongy, or coriaceous, with a cellular epidermis, penetrated with stel- lated pores, and shooting out tentaculated oviparous hydra. There are 28 species. From some experiments made by Mr. Hatchett, and related by him in the Phil. Trans, on several of the species of alcy- onium, he was led to conclude, that they were all composed of a soft, flexible, membranaceous substance, slightly har- dened by carbonate, mixed witli a small portion of phosphate of lime. ALDEBARAN, in astronomy, a star of the first magnitude, called in English the Bull's eye, as making the e)'e of the con- stellation Taurus. ALDER-fr-ee, the English name of a ge- nus of trees, called by botanists alnus. Sec ALXUS. ALDERMAN, in the British policy, a magistrate subordinate to the mayor of a city or town corporate. The number of these magistrates is not limited, but is more or less, according to the magnitude of the place. In Lon- don they are twenty-six; each having one of the wards of the city committed 10 his care. Their office is for life ; so that when one of them dies, or resigns, a ward- mote is called, who return two persons, one of whom the lord mayor and alder- men choose, to supply the vacancy. ALDROVANDA, in botany, a-enus of the Pentandria Pentaginiaclassand order, of which there is only one species, \\z. the A. vesiculosa, found in marshes in Italy and India, with bladders like utricu- laria, but in bunches. ALE-twiMfr, an officer in London, who inspects the measures of public houses. They are four in number, and chosen by the common-hall of the city Air.-/imincs, no licence to he granted to any person, unless he produce a certifi- cate of his good character, under the hands of the clergyman, churchwardens, &c. Penalties for selling without a licence, unless at fairs, 40s. for the first offence, 51. for the second ; no person can sell wine to be drank at his own house, who has not an ale~ licence. Ait-sUver, a tax paid yearly to the lord mayor pf London, by all who sell ale within the city. ALECTRA, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiosperma class and order, of which there is a single species only, viz. A. capensis, a nati\'e of the Cape of Good Hope ; found in grassy places near rivers ; flowering in November and De- cember. ALEMBERT (Jonx LE ROXD D') an eminent French mathematician and philo- sopher, and one of the brightest orna- ments of the 18th century. He was per- petual secretary to the French Academy of Sciences, and a member of most of the philosophical academies and societies of Europe. D'Alembert was born at Paris, the 16th of November, 1717, and derived the name of John le Rond, from that of the church, near which, after his birth, he was exposed as a foundling. But his fa- ther, Destouches Canon, informed of this circumstance, listening to the voice of nature and duty, took measures for the proper education of his child, and for his future subsistence in a state of ease and independence. His mother, it is said, was a lady of rank, the celebrated Ma- demoiselle Tencin, sister to cardinal Ten- cin, archbishop of Lyons. He received his first education among the Jansenists, in the College of the Four Nations, where he gave early signs of genius and capacity. Jn the first year of his philosophical studies, he composed a Commentary on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans. The Jansenists considered this production as an omen, that portend- ed to the party of Port-Royal a restora- tion to some part of their former splen- dour,andhoped to find one day,in D'Alem- bert, a second Pascal. To render the resemblance more complete, they enga- ged their pupil in the study of the ma- ALEMBERT. thrinatics; hut they soon perceived that < fmient to this science v. aslikelv to disappoint tke hopes they badfonned witli respect to his future des- ired to divi-rt liim from tlie pursuit; hut thc-ir emit avours were fruitless. On his quitting' the college, find ; ng himself alone, and unconnected in the world, he sought an asylum in the house of his nurse, who was the wife of a gla- zier. He hoped that his fortune, though not ample, would enlarge the sub* - and better the condition of her family, v.'hich was the only one that he could consider as his own. It was here, there- fore, that he fixed his residence, resolving to apply himself entirely to the study of geometry. And here he lived, during the space of" 30 years, with the greatest sim- plicity, discovering the augmentation of his means only by increasing displays ( >f his beneficence, concealing his growing 1 reputation and celebrity from these ho- nest people, and making their plain and uncouth manners the subject of good- . ;itur.(l pleasantry and philosophical ob- -'ii. His good nurse perceived his ardent activity ; heard him mentioned :'.s the writer of many books; and beheld him with a kind of compassion : "Von will never," said she to him one day, "be any tiling but a philosopher and what is a philosopher ' a fool, who toils and plagues himself all his life, that peo- ple may talk of him when he is dead." mbert's fortune did not far d the demands of necessity, his friends advised him to think of some pro- fession that might enable him 10 increase it. He accordingly turned his views to he luw, and took his degrees in that fa- eulty, which lie soon at'ur abandoned, and applied himself in the study of me- dicine. Geomet" always drawing him !>CK so tha- to resist its at t net ions, he renounced all views of a lucrative [> himself up entirely to math poverty. In the year 1741 he was ad- mined a member of the Academy of Sci- ences ; for which distinguished literary promotion, at so early an age (24,) he had prepared the way, by correcting the errors of t!, Heyneau, which was highly esteemed in Trance in the line of analyt wards set himself to examine, wi tiou and assiduity, what miiht be the mo- tion and path of a body, which passes from one fluid into another densr fluid, VOl. J in a direction obl'que to the surface be- tween the two fl - after ion to a place in the academy, he published h on Dynrr The new prinr.Snle d lit\ . a' :-gone, and the forces or powers which h:n employed to produce them; or, to ex- press the same thing otherv ' rating into two parts the action of the ,d c'Hisid'-'-iii;; the one as producing alone the motion of the bo- dy in the second instant, and the other as employed to destroy that which it hud in the first. So early as the ; n'Alembeft had applied this principle to K the equilibrium, and the motion of fluids ; and all the problems before resolved in physics became in corol- laries. The discovery of this new prin- ciple was followed by that of a new calcu- lus, the first essays of which were pub- lished in a " Discourse on the General of the Wind 1 '':" to this the prize- medal was adjudged by the Academy of Berlin, in tli "-, which proved a new and bi-illi;m; addition to the fain.- of D'Alembert. This new calculus of "Par- tial Differences" he applied, the year fol- lowing, to the problem of vibrating; chords, the resolution of which, as well as the theory of the oscillations of the air, and the propagation of sound, had been butims ven by the mathemati- cians who preceded him ; and these w ere his masters or his rivals. In the year 1749 he furnished a method of apply, ing his principle to the motion of any body of a given figure. He also re- solved the probk>m of the precession of the equinoxes: determining its quantity, and explaining the phenomenon of the nutation of the terrestrial axis discovered by Dr. Bra. In 1752, D'Alembert published a trea- the " Resistance of Flu which he gave the modest title of an ** Essay," though it contains a multitude Jial idea.-, and new observations. About the same time he published, in the M -moire of the Academy of Merlin. "He- sea^ches concerning the Integral Calcu- lus," which is greatly indebted to him for the rapid progress it has made in the pre- sent century While the studies of D'Alembert were confined to mere mathematics, he was little known orcelebrated in his native country. His connections were limited to a s N ALEMBERT. society of select friends. But his cheer- ful conversation, his smart and lively sal- lies, a happy method at telling a story, a singular mixture of malice of speech with goodness of heart, and of delicacy of \vit with simplicity of manners, rendering 1 him a pleasing and interesting companion, his company began to be much sought after in the fashionable circles. His reputation at length made its way to the throne, and rendered him the object of royal attention and beneficence. The consequence was, a pension from government, which he owed to the friendship of count D'Argen- son. But the tranquillity of D'Alembert was abated when his fame grew more exten- sive, and when it was known, beyond the circle of his friends, that a fine and en- lightened taste for literature and philoso- phy accompanied his mathematical geni- us. Our author's eulogist ascribes to envy, detraction, &c. all the opposition and cen- sure that D'Alembertmet with on account of the famous Encyclopedic, or Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, in conjunction with Diderot. None surely will refuse the well deserved tribute of applause to the eminent displays of genius, judgment, and time literary taste, with which D'Alem- bert has enriched that great work. Among others, the Preliminary Discourse he has prefixed to it, concerning the rise, pro- gress, connections, and affinities, of all the branches of human knowledge, is perhaps one of the most capital produc- tions the philosophy of the age can boast of. Some time after this, D'Alembert pub- lished his "Philosophical, Historical, and Philological Miscellanies." These were followed by the "Memoirs of Christiana, Queen of Sweden;" in which D'Alembert shewed that he was acquainted with the natural rights of mankind, and was bold enough to assert them. His " Essay on the Intercourse of Men of Letters with Persons high in Rank and Office" wound- ed the former to the quick, as it exposed to the eyes of the public the ignominy of those servile chains which they feared to shake off, or were proud to wear. A lady of the court, hearing one day the author accused of having exaggerated the des- potism of the great, and the submission they require, answered slyly, "If lie had consulted me, I would have told him still more of the matter." D'Alembert gave elegant specimens of his literary abilities in his translations of some select pieces of Tacitus. But these occupations did n.ot divert him from his mathematical studies ; for about the same time he enriched the Encyclopedic \yitharnultitudeofexcellentarticlesinthat line, and composed his " Researches on several Important Points of the System of the World," in which he carried to a high- er degree of perfection the solution of the problem concerning the perturbations of the planets, that had several years before been presented to the Academy, In 1759 he published his " Elements of Philoso- phy ;" a work much extolled, as remark- able for its precision and perspicuity. The resentment that was kindled (and the disputes that followed it) by the article GENEVA, inserted in the Encyclopedic, are well known. D'Alembert did not leave this field of controversy with flying colours. Voltaire was an auxiliary in the contest ; but as he had no reputation to lose, in point of candour and decency, and as he weakened the blows of his enemies by throwing both them and the spectators into fits of laughter, the issue of the war gave him little uneasiness. It fell more heavily on D'Alembert; and ex- posed him, even at home, to much con- tradiction and opposition. It was on this occasion that the late King of Prussia of- fered him an honourable asylum at his court, and the office of president of his academy : and the king was not offended at D'Alembert's refusal of these distinc- tions, but cultivated an intimate friend- ship with him during the rest of his life. He had refused, some time before this, a proposal made by the Empress of Rus- sia, to entrust him with the education of the Grand Duke ; a proposal accompa- nied with all the flattering offers that could tempt a man, ambitious of titles, or desirous of making an ample fortune ; but the oh jcctsof his ambition were tranquilli- ty andstud) . In the year 1765, he publish- ed his " Dissertation on the Destruction of the Jesuits." This piece drew upon him a swarm of adversaries, who only confirmed the merit and crdit of his work by their manner of attacking" it. Beside the works already mentioned, he published nine volumes of memoir? and treatises, under the title of " Opus- cules;" in which he has resolved a mul- titude of problems relating to astronomy, mathematics, and natural philosophy; of which his panegyrist, Condorcet, gives a particular account, more especially of those which exhibit new subjects, or new methods of investigation. lie published also "Elements of Music;" and render- ed, at length, the system of Rarr.eau in- telligible; but he did not think the mathe- ALE ALE matical theory of the sonorous body suffi- cient to account for the rules of that art. In tin- year 177Jlu \v:is chosen Secretary to the French Academy of Sciences. He formed, soon after this preferment, the design of writing the Ihesof all the de- ceased academicians, from 1700 to 1772 ; and in the space of three years he exe- nted this design, hy composing seventy eulogies. The correspondence which D'Alembert held with eminent literary characters, and his constant intercourse withlearned men of all nations, together with his great in- fluence in the academy, concurred to give him a distinguished importance above most of his countrymen. By some, who xvere jealous of his reputation, he was denominated the Mazarin of literature ; but there seems now no doubt, but that his influence was obtained by his great talents and learning, rather than by art- ful management and supple address. He was a decided and open enemy to super- stition and priestcraft. Without inquiring into tlie merits of Christianity, he conclu- ded, that the religion taught in France was that which believers in general re- garded as the true doctrine, and which he rejected as a fable unworthy the atten- tion of the philosopher. There is no rea- son to think that he ever studied the foundations on which natural and revealed religion were built; and it is certain that he adopted a system of deified nature, which bereaves the world of a designing cause and prcsidingintelligeiice. He was /ealous even in propagating the opinions which he adopted, and might be regarded as an apostle of atheism. The eccentri- city of his opinions did not destroy the moral virtues of lus heart, A love of truth, and a zeal for the progress of real science and liberty, formed the basis of Ills character : strict probity, a noble dis- interestedness, and an habitual desire of being useful, were its distinguishing fea- tures. To the young, who possessed ta- lents and genius, he \v:s a patron and in- strucior : to the poor nnd oppressed he be- came a firm and generous friend: to those who had shown him kindness, lie ne\cr ceased to be grateful ; a sure evidence of a great mind. To two ministers who had befriended him in their prosperity, lie de- dicated works when they were in disgrace with the court. An instance of a kind, a iriiut'ul disposition, was displayed by D'Mcmbert in early life. His mother, who had infamously disowned and aban- doned him, hearing of the greatness of bis talents, and of the promise which be gave of future celebrity, obtained an in.- terview, and laid claim to the character of a parent. "What do I hear," said the indignant youth, " you are the mother-in- law, the glazier's wi.c is my true mother:" forjier, indeed he never ceased to entity tin: aiVection and gratitude of a child : and under herroof he resided, as we hav e seen, many years, till an alarming illness made it necessary for him to remove to a more airy lodging. D* Alembert main- tained his higli rank and reputation among ma.hematicians and philosophers till his death, in October 1783. His loss was deplored b\ survivors of every country ; but his particular friends and associates exhibited, on the occasion, every mark of grief, which real and unaffected sorrow can alone supply for undissemhled worth. ALEMBIC, in chemistry, a vessel usu- ally made of glass or copper, formerly used for distillation. The bottom, in which the substance tobe distilled is put, is called the cucurbit,- the upper partis called the head, the beak of which is fitted into the neck of the receiver. Retorts and the common worm-still are now more generally employed. See CnnsTiir, DISTILLATION, &c. ALKTRIS, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order, of the natural order of Liliae or I.iliacezc, of which there are nine species ; A. fari- nosa, or American aletris,used by the na- tives in coughs, and in the pleurisy. Some of the species are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, others are found natural in Ceylon and Guinea. The A. zclanica, or Ceylon aloe, is common in gardens when.' exotic plants are preserved. A. guianen- sis, or Guinea aloe, when in Hower, sel- dom continues in beauty more than two or three days, and never produces seeds in England. The Ceylon, Guinea, and sweet-scented species, are too tender to live through the winter in Kngland, unless ina warm stove; and they w ill not pro- duce Howcrs if the plants are not plunged into a tan-bed. The creeping roots of the Ceylon and Guinea sorts send up many heads, which should lie cut off in June, and after having been laid in the - fortnight, thai the \umnded part may heal, tluy should be planted in small potsofligh; sandy earth, plunged into a moderate hot bed, and treated like other tender succulent plants, and he m--- abroad in summer. Ai.Ki'UiTKs, in botany, ft gemM of the Moiutcia Monadclphia class and order, of the natural order of Tricoccac. The flowers are mule and female ; the calyx ALG ALG of the male is a perianthium ; the corol- las five petals ; the nectary hus five-cor- nered scales; the stamens are numerous filaments; 'he anthers roundish. The fe- male flowtrs ar.' fe\v, the calyx, corolla, and nectarium, as in the mule, but larger. There are two seeds with a double bark. Only one species, a tree in the islands of the South Seas. ALEXANDRIAN Copy of tl-e JV Testament, preserved in the British Mu- seum, is referred to as an object of curi- osity, as well as of considerable import- ance, to pei-sons who study the scrip- tures critically. It consists of four large quarto, or rather folio volumes, c ing the whole bible in Greek, inrlud-ng the Old and New Testament, with the Apociypha, and some smaller pieces, but not quite complete. It was placed in the ; Museum in 1758; und had been a ^present to Charles I. from Cyrillus Luca- TJS, a native of Crete, and patriarch of Constantinople, by s;r Thomas Rowe, am- bassador from England to the Grand Seignior in the year 1628. Cyrillus brovght it with him from Alexandria, where it was probably written. It is said to have been written by Thecla, a nobie Egyptian lady, about thirteen hundred yeurs ago. In the New Testament there is \vam ing the beginning, as tar as Matt. xxv 6 ; likewise from John vi. 50, to viii. 52 ; and from 2 Cor. iv. 19, to xii. ~. it has neitheraccents nor marks of aspira- tion it is written with capita!, or, as they are called, uncial letters, and there aiv no intervals between the wort Is, but th of a passage is sometimes terminated by a point, and sometimes by a vacant space. Dr. Woride pubiis ed this valuable work in 1786, with types cast for the purpose, line for line, precisely like the origiiial MS : the copy has been examined with the greatest care, and it is found to be so perfect a resemblance of the original, that it may supply its place. The authentici- ty, aiu iquity, &c. of this MS. is briefly, but ably, discussed in llees's New Cyclo- pedia, Vol I. p. ii. ALG.E, in botany, an order or division of the Cry ptogamia class of plants. It is one of the seven families or natural tribes into which the vegetable kingdom is dis- tributed, in the PhiloBophia Botanica of Linnxus ; the 57th order of his fragments of a natural method. The plants belonging to this order are described as having their root, leaf, and stem, entire, or all one. The whole of the sea-weeds, and various other aquatic plants, are comprehended under this di- vision. From their admitting of little dis- tinction of root, leaf, or stem, and the parts of their flowers Being equally inca- pable of description ; the genera are dis- tinguished by the situation of what is sup- posed to be Howers or seeds, or by the resemblance which the whole plant bears to-' some other substance. The parts of 'fructification are either found in saucers and tubercles, asinlichens ; in hol- low bladders, as in the fuci ; or dispersed through tine whole substance of the plants, as in the ulvse. The substance of the plants has much variety ; it is flesh-like or lea- ther-like, membranaceousornbrous, jelly- like or horn-like, or it has the resem- blance of a calcareous earthy matter. Lamarck distributes the alga: into three sections : the iirst comprehends all those plants, whose fructification is not appa* rent, or seems doubtful. These common- ly live in water, orupon moist bodies, and are membranous, gelatinous, or filamen- tous. To this section he refers the byssi, conferva, ulva, tremella, and varec. The plants of the second section are distin- guished by their apparent fructification, though it be little known, and they are formed of parts which have no particu- lar and sensible opening or explosion, at am determined period ; their substance is ordinarily crustaceous or coriaceous. They include the tassella, ceratosperma, and lichen. The third section compre- hends plants \vhich have their fructifica- t on very apparent, and distinguished by constituent parts, which open at a certain penod of maturity, for the escape of the fecundating dust or seeds. These plants are more herbaceous, as to both their substance and their colour, than those of the other two sections, and are more near- ly related to the mosses, from which they do not essentially differ. Their flowers are often contained in articulated and ve- ry elastic filaments. To this section are referred the riccia, blasia, anthoceros, targioria, hepatica, and junger-manna. In the Lmnxan system the algae are divided into two classes, viz. the terrestres and aquaticae. The former include the an- thoceros, blacia, riccia, lichen, and bys- sus ; and the latter are the ulva i'ucus, and conferva. The fructification of the algx, and particularly of those called aquaticse,is denominated, by a judicious botanist, the opprobrium botanicorum. ALGAROTH. See ANTIMOST. ALGEBRA, a general method of re- solving mathematical problems by means of equations ; or, it is a method of computation by symbols, which have been ALGEBRA. el for expressing- the quantities iliut are the objects of this science, and :ilso their mutual relation and depni- Thcsc quantities might, proba- bly, in the infaney of the science, be de- notrd hy their names at full length; :id inconvenient, were succeeded b\ abbreviations, or by their Jin-re initials; and, at length, certain Ict- i'the alphabet were adopted as ge- neral representations of all quantities; other symbols or signs were introduced, to prevent circumlocution, and to facili- tate the comparison of various quantities with one another; and, in consequence of the use of letters or species, and other general symbols, or indeterminate quan- tities, algebra obtained the appellation of specious, literal, and universal arithmetic. The origin of Algebra, like that of other sciences of ancient date and gradual pro- is not easily ascertained. The most ancient treatise on that part of ana- Is tics, which is properly called algebra, now extant, is that of Diophantus, a author of Alexandria, who flou- rished about the \car of our Lord o50, and \\lio \\n;te ].! books, though only- six of them are preserved, which \\ en- printed, together with a single imperfect book on multangular numbers, in a Latin translation by \\lander, in 1575, and ;rds in divek and Latin, with a comment, in Kw?l and lf>7<), b\ < Hachct, and .M. Fennat, Tolosac, fol. I books do not contain a treatise on llu- elementary parts of algebra, but merely collections of some difficult ques- tions relating to square and cube num- .iiul other curious properties of numbers, with their solutions. Algebra, houever, seems not to have been wholly unknown to the ancient mathematicians, long before the age of Diophantus. \\ e observe the traces and effects of it in many places, though it seems as if they hadintcntionalh concealed it. Something of it appears in Kuclid, or at least in Theon upon Kuclid, who obsi rves that I'lato had begun to teach it. And there are oilu-r instances of it in Pappus, and more in Archimedes and Appollonius. Hut it should be observed, that the ana- Is sis used by these authors is rather ge- ometrical than algebraical ; this appears from the examples that occur in their works; and, therefore, Diophantus is the first and only author among the Creeks v, hohas treated professcdh of algebra. Our knowledge of the science was deri- ved, not from Diophantus, but from the Moor* or Arabians* but whether the re the in 1 of it has been a suhj--,-t of dispute. It is probable, howe\er, t'i I > more ancient than DiophauUisJu < ;m>< iii^trea- mi to iv fv. r to works similar and prior to his own. Algebra is a peculiar kind of arithme- tic, which takes the quantity sought, whether it be a number, or a line, or an\ other quantity, as if it were granted , and by means of one or more quantities given, proceeds by a train of deductions, till the quantity at first only supposed (> be known, or at least some power of it, is found to be equal to some quantity o: quantities which are known, and queutly itself is known. Algebra is of two kinds, numeral and literal. A'.nf:nn.4, innnniil or viilyar, is (ha* which is chiefly concerned in t'.ie res-ih;- tion of arithmetical questions. In this, the quantity sought is represented by some letter or character ; but all the given quantities are expressed by numbers/ Such is the algebra of the more ancient authors, as Diophantus, Pacioltis, Stifeli- us, &c. This is thought by some to have been an introduction to the art of keep- ing merchants' accounts by double entry. ALKKHIIA, sficciwiit or literal, or the new algebra, is that in which nil the quanti- ties, known and unknown, are express- ed or represented by their species, orlet- u r^ i.i'the alphab. . are instan- ces of this method from Cardan, and others about his time ; but it was more generally introduced and used by Vieta. Dr. Wallis apprehends that the name of specious arithmetic, applied to algebra, is given to it with a reference to the .- which the Civilians use the word species. Thus, they use the name* Titus, Sempro- nius, Caius, and the lik- . ent in- definitely any pel-son in such propounded, t!i speci' s. Yieta, ac -iisiomed to the lan- guage of the civil la\v , . \Vallis supposes, the name <>i ters, A, 15, (', 8tc. v. b to re- present indefinitely any number or quan- tit\ so < iivumstauccd, as i : required. This mode of expression fre.-s the memory and imagination from that OP cflbrt, w hieh is required severul mat'. i i he truth ii ', present to the mind; for which ivi-.>u 0. s be properly (h-noin'm geometry. Specious algebra is not, like the numeral, c-iutinvd U> <-. -tain kimls of ALGEBRA. problems ; but serves universally for the investigation or invention of theorems, as well as the solution and demonstration of all kinds of problems, both arithmetical and geometrical. The letters used in algebra do each of them, separately, re- present either lines or numbers, sis the problem is either arithmetical or geome- trical ; and, together, they represent planes, solids, and powers, more or less high, as the letters are in a greater or less number. For instance, if there be two letters, a I), they represent a rectangle, whose two sides are expressed, one by the letter a, and the other by b ,- so that by their mutual multiplication they pro- duce the plane a b. Where the same let- ter is repeated twice, as a a, they denote a square. Three letters, a b c, represent a solid, or a rectangular parallelepiped, whose three dimensions are expressed by the three letters a b c ; the length by a, the breadth by 6, and the depth by c ; so that by their mutual multiplication they produce the solid a b c. As the multipli- cation of dimensions is expressed by the multiplication of letters, and as the num- ber of these may be so great as to become incommodious, the method is only to write down the root, and on the right hand to write the index of the power, that is, the number of letters of which the quantity to be expressed consists; as a-, a-, a-*, &c. the last of which signifies as much as a multiplied four times into itself; and so of the rest. But as it is necessary, before any progress can be made hi the science of algebra, to under- stand the method of notation, we shall here give a general view of it. In alge- bra, as we have already stated, every quantity, whether it be known or given, or unknown or required, is usually repre- sented by some letter of the alphabet ; and the given quantities are commonly denoted by the initial letters, , b, c, d, &c. and the unknown ones by the final letters, u, w, x, y, z. These quantities are connected together by certain signs or symbols, which serve to shew their mu- tual relation, and at the same time to simplify the science, and to reduce its operations into a less compass. Accord- ingly the sign -f-, plus, or more, signi- fies that the quantity to which it is prefix- ed is to be added, and it is called a posi- tive or affirmative quantity. Tims, a-\-b, expresses the sum of the two quantities and b, so that if a were 5, and b 3, ti-\-b would be 5+3, or 8. If a quantity have no sign, -J-, plus, is understood, and the quantity is affirmative or positive. The sign , minus, or less, denotes that the quantity which it precedes is to be subtracted, and it is called a negative quantity. Thus a b expresses the dif- ference of o and b; so that a being 5, and b 3, a b, or 5 3, would be equal to 2. If more quantities than two were con- nected by these signs, the sum of those with the sign must be subtracted from the sum of those with the sign -)-. Thus a -f- b c d represents the quantity which would remain, when c and d are taken from a and b. So that if a were 7, b 6, c 5, and d 3, a -f- b c d, or 7 -f- 6 5 3, or 13 8, would be equal to 5. If two quantities are connected by the sign 03, as a as b, this mode of expres- sion represents the difference of a and b, when it is not known which of them is the greatest. The sign X signifies that the quantities between which it stands are to be multiplied together, or it repre- sents their product. Thus, a X b ex- presses the product of a and b,- a y b X c denotes the product of a, b, and c; (a-\-b) X c denotes the product of the compound quantity -f- b by the simple quantity c , and(+6-j-c) X (ab + c} X (a+b) represents the product of the three com- pound quantities, multiplied continually into one another ; so that if a were 5, b 4, and c 3, then would (a -f- b + c) X (a b + c) X (a-f-c) be 12 X 4 X 8, or 384. The parenthesis used in the forego- ing expressions indicate that the whole compound quantities are affected by the sign, and not simply the single terms be- tween which it is placed. Quantities that are joined together without any interme- diote sign form a product; thus a b is the same with a X b, and a b c the same with a X b X c. When a quantity is multi- plied into itself, or raised to any power, the usual mode of expression is to draw a line over the quantity, and to place the number denoting the power at the end of it, which number is called the index or exponent. Thus, ( -)- 6) J denotes the same as (a -f- 6) X (u -f- b) or second power, or square, of a -j- 6 considered as one quantity ; and (a -f- 6)3 denotes the swrne as ( '-f b) X (a -f A) X (a + 6), or the third power, or cube, of a+b. In expressing the powers of quantities re- presented by single letters, the line over the top is usually omitted : thus, a- is the same as a a or a X > and b> the same as bbborbxbxb, and a 1 63, the same as aa X b bb or a X a X b X b X b. The full point . and the word into, are sometimes used instead of X as the sign of multiplication. Thus, (a-f-6) . (fl-f-c), ALGERBA. and a + b into a -f- c, signify the same thing as (a + A) X (a -f c), or the pro- duct of -f A by a + c . The sign -=- is the sign of division, as it denotes that the quantity preceding it is to be divided by the succeeding quantity. Thus, c-r-A signifies that r is to be divided by A ; and (a + 6) -T- (a -f- r), that a -f- A'is to be divided by a + c. The mark ) is some- used as a note of division; thus -f- A) a A denotes that a A is to be divi- ded by ti -f A. But the division of alge- braic quantities is most commonly ex- it by placing the divisor under the dividend, with a line between them, like a vulgar fraction. Thus, - represents the quantity arising by dividing c by A, or the quotient, and - represents the quotient of n+A divided by o-f c. Quan- tities thus expressed are called algebraic fractions. The sign ^/ expresses the sqviare root of any quantity to which it is prefixed; thus x/ 25 signifies the square root of 25, or 5, because 5x5 is 25 ; and ^/ (u A) denotes the square root of n A; and denotes thesquare root of , or of the quantity arising from d the division of a A -f A c by d; but , which has the separating u line drawn under v/, signifies that the square root of a A+A c is to be first ta- ken, and afterwards divided by e consisting of several terms or num- bers i asv' (a j A J ) and -^ (a 4 A+Ar) are denominated compound surds. ther commodious method of c-xpr> radical quantities is that which d the root by a vulgar fraction, placed at the end of a line drawn over the quantity gi\en In this notation, the square root is expressed by $, the cube root by i the biquadratic root by i, &c. TI expresses the same quantity with ^/ a, i. e. the square root of a, and ( J +a A) JL the same as -^ (a-+a A), i. e. the eubt: root of n'+rt A ; and denotes the cube root of the square of a, or the square of the cube root of a ; and (a-j-z)i the seventh power of the biquadratic root of a+z; and so of others; (a 1 ) ^ is a, a?) i is o, &c. Quantities that have no ra- dical sign (v/) or index annexed to them, are called rational quantities. The sign =, called the sign of equality, signifies that the quantities between which it oc- curs are equal. Thus 2+3 = 5, shews that '2 plus 3 is equal to 5; and .r= A shews that x is equal to the difference of n and A. The mark : : signifies that the quantities between which it stands arc proportional. As a : A :: c : >< 2 <; are called its teVms or mem- bers. If a compound quuntity consist of two terms, it is called ;i binomial; of tliree terms, a trinomial ; of four terms, a quadrinomial, and of many terms, a multinomial. If one of the terms of a binomial be negative, the quantity is call- ed a residual quantity. The reciprocal of any quantity is that quantity inverted, or unity divided by it ; thus - is the reci- procal of ,and is the reciprocal of a a a. The letters by which any simple quantity is expressed may be ranged at pleasure, and yet retain the same signification ; thus a b and b a are the same quantity, the product of a and b being the same with that of b by a. The several terms of which any compound quantity consists may be disposed in any order at pleasure, provided they retain their proper signs. Thus a 2 a b + 5 a- b may be written a -f- 5 a" A 2 a b, or 2 a 6-f--(-5 a 1 b, for all these repre- sent the same thing or the quantity which remains, when from the sum of a and 5 a- b, the quantity 2 a b is deducted. AXIOMS. 1. If equal quantities be add- ed to equal quantities, the sums will be equal. 2. if equal quantities be taken from equal quantities, the remainders will be equal. 3. If equal quantities be multiplied by the same, or equal quantities, the pro- ducts will be equal. 4. If equal quantitiesbe dividedby the same, or equal quantities, the quotients will be equal. 5. If the same quantity be added to and subtracted from another, the value of the latter will not be altered. 6. If a quantity be both multiplied and divided by another, its value will not be altered. ADDITION OF ALGEBRAICAL Q.CAXTI- TIES. The addition of algebraical quantities is performed by contiecting those that are un- like with their profter signs, and collecting those that are similar into one sum. Add together the following 1 unlike quantities : Ex. 1 ax bu +3*' a+b -j- 3 z .r Ans. a 3c a- 4?/-f-3 : It is immaterialin what orderthe quan- tities are set down, if we take care to prefix to each its proper sign. When any terms are similar, they may be incorporated, and the general expres- sion for the sum shortened. 1. When similar quantities have the same sign, their sum is found by taking the sum of the co-efficients with that sign, and annexing the common letters. Ex.3. 4 a 5b 2a6b 9 a 3 b Ans. 15 a 14 b Ex.4. 4a*c Wbde 6' C 9bde llrt'c 3bde Ans. 21 a 1 c - 22bde The reason is evident ; 4 a to be add- ed, together with 2 a and 9 a to be add- ed, makes 15 a to be added ; and 5 b to be subtracted, together with 6 b and 3 a to be subtracted, is 14 b to be subtract- ed. 2. If similar quantities have different signs, their sum is found by taking the difference of the co-efficients with the sign of the greater, and annexing the common letters as before. Ex.5. 7a+3A 5 a 96 Ans. 2 a 6 b Ex. 6. 9c 6c +12 a 7^20 e Ans. 9 a 5c __ _ Ana. ax * u + 3 z 2 y In the first part of the operation we have 7 times a to add, and 5 times a to take away; therefore, upon the whole, we have 2 a to add. In the latter part, we have 3 times b to add, and 9 times b to take away; i. e. we have, upon the whole, 6 times b to take away : and thus the sum of all the quantities is 2o 6b. If several similar quantities are to be added together, some with positive and some with negative signs, take the differ- ence between the sum of the positive ALGEBRA. and the sum of the negative co-efficients, prefix the sign of the greater sum, and annex the common letters. Ex. 7. 3 a + 4 b c r* + 10 x 25 5a'-f6Ac+2e' 15x+ 44 4 a' 9 b c 10<-> +21 .r 90 Ex. 6. From 4 a 3 A-f 6 c 11 take 10x4- a 15 2y Ans. 3 a 3 A-j-6 c 10x Ex. 7. From a x~s b x*-\-x take p x* q x*+r x Ans. 'be 9 e> 4- 16 x - 71 An3 - /.x3 A g ..rH-l r-J E\.S. 4ac 15 b d 4- x ax 11 ac+ 7 A' 19 -r c y is the sum of 2 b x uiul c y. Ex. 2. Again, from 2 b x take cy, and the difference is 2 A x-\-c y ; because 2 b x =2 A x -|-c y cy, take ;iu :iy c y from these equal quantities, and the differences \\ill beeqmtl) /. e. the difference between 2 A x and r y is 2 b r-\-c y, the quantity which arises from adding HJ-cy to 2 A x. Ex. 3. From a -f b take a A Ans.* + 2 A Ex. 4. From 6 a 12 A take 5 H 10 A Ans. ll a 2 A Ex. 5. From 5 >-f-4 a I, 6 x y take ll fl '-j-6a b 4xy Ans. _ 6 rt 2 ab 2 x ~ VOL.1. -- - - In this example the co-efficients are united; a p . ri is equal to A x 1 9 x' ; A ? . x* is equal to A x q r 1 ; and i r . x=.v r x. JCt'LTiritCATlOlt. The multiplication of simple algebrai- cal quantities must be represented ac- cording to the notation already pointed out. Thus, a X b, or a A, represents the pro- duct a multiplied by A ; a b c, the pro- duct of the three quantities, a, A, and c . It is also indifferent in what order they are placed, a X b and A X a being equal. To determine the tign of the product, observe the following rule. If the tmtltipb'rr and multiplicand have the same sign, the product is positive; if they Aave different signs, it is negative. 1. _j_'a x 4- A = a A ; because in this case a is to be taken positively A times ; therefore the product a b must be posi- tive. 2. a X 4- A = a A ; because a is to be taken A times ; that is, we must take ab. 3. 4aX A = ab; for a quantity is said to be multiplied by a negative num- ber A, if it be subtracted A times ; and a subtracted b ti.nes is ab. 4. ox A=4oA. Here a is to be subtracted A times; that is, a A is to be subtracted ; but subtracting a b IB the same as adding 4~ ^ ! therefore we have to add + a ^- The 2" 1 and 4 th cases may be thus prov- t .,l . a it=o, multiply both sides l>y A, and tOjfetherwith aXAmtut be equal , -, or nothing ; therefore, a mul- : by b mus : . which when added to ab makes the sum notiiing. Again, a n=o ; multiply both side* by b, tlvn a f together with oX A must be =o ; therefore a X * . If the quantities to be multiplied hare co-efficients, these must be multiplied to- O ALGEBRA. gether, as in common arithmetic; the sign and the literal product being determined by the preceding rules. Thus, Sax 5 b= I5ab ; because 3 XaX 5x6=3x5xax=15a6; 4a- X lly = 44-ry; 9x 5c=-f45Ac ; 6d x 4m= 24 met. The powers' of the same quantity are multiplied together by adding the indices; thus o> x a> =a* ; for aa X aaa = aaaaa. In the same manner, a m X a n =a m ' f '* ; and So 1 .r3y5a a- y l = 153 a* y. If the multiplier or multiplicand con- sist of several terms, each term of the lat- ter must be multiplied by every term of the former, and the sum of all the pro- ducts taken, for the whole product of the two quantities. Ex. 1. Ans. a c-\-b c-\-or c-\-a d-\-b d-\-x d Here a + b -f- x is to be added to itself c+d times, i. e. c times and d times. Ex. 2. Mult, a + b x by c d Ans. a c-\-bc x c a d b d-\-x d Here a-f b is to be taken c d times, that is, c times wanting d times ; or c times positively and d times negatively. Ex. 3. Mult, a+6 by a+b a b+b* Ans. Ex. 4. Mult, x-f y by .r- y Ans. a- 1 * Ex. 5. Mult. 3 a 1 5 b d by 5 a-f 4 6 by x + a px*-\-qx -\- ax 1 a p x-\-a g Ans. x? p Ans. a* Here the co-efficients of x 1 and x are collected ; p a . x 1 = p x 1 a x? and q a p. x=q x apx. To divide one quantity by another, is to de- termine hone of ten the latter is contained in the former, or -what quantity multiplied by the latter will produce the former. Thus, to divide a b by a is to determine how often a must be taken to make up a k ; that is, what quantity multiplied by a will give a b ; which we know is b. From this consideration are derived all the rules for the division of algebraical quantities. If the divisor and dividend be affected with like signs, the sign of the quotient is + : but if their signs be unlike, the sign of the quotient is . If abe divided by a, the quo- tient is -f b ; because a X + * gives a b ; and a similar proof may be given in the other cases. In the division of simple quantities, if the co-efficient and literal product of the divisor be found in the dividend, the other part of the dividend, with the sign deter- mined by the last rule, is the quotient, Thus, a , C =c ; because a Amultipli- a o ed by c gives a b c. If" we first divide by a, and then by b, the result will be same ; for = b c, and =sc, as before. Hence, any power of a quantity is divi- ded by any other power of the same quan- tity, by subtracting the index of the divi- sor from the index of the dividend. a* a' 1 fl Thus, =o 1 ;- = -=a- 3;= aW-*. as a' ai a. n If only a part of the product which forms the divisor be contained in the divi- ALGEBRA. dend, the quantities contained both in the divisor and dividend must be expunged. Thus, 15 a' A c divided by 3 a 1 Ax, 15 . a x* When the divisor also consists of seve- ral terms, arrange both the divisor and di- vidend according to the powers of some one letter contained in them ; then find how often the first term of the divisor is contained in the first term of the dividend, and write down this quantity for the first term in the quotient : multiply the whole divisor by it, subtract the product from the dividend, and bring down to the re- mainder as many other terms of the divi- dend as the case may require, and repeat the operation till all the terms are brought down. Ex 1. If o> 2 ab+b* be divided by b, the operation will be as follows : a bja* 2 a b+b*(a b a 1 a b a A+A The reason of this, and the foregoing rule, is, that as the whole dividend is made up of all its parts, the divisor is contained in the whole, as often as it is contained in all the parts. In the preceding operation we inquire, first, how often a is contained in a 1 , which gives a for the first term of the quotient, then multiplying the whole divisor by it, we have o 1 a A to be sub- tracted from the dividend, and the re- mainder is a A-f A 1 , with which we are to proceed as before. The whole quantity a 1 2 a A+A* is in reality divided into two parts by the pro- cess, each of which is divided by a A ,- therefore the true quotient is obtained Ex. 2 a-f-A)fl r-f-a d+b c-ro a(c+d oc-j-Ac alt+bd ad->rbd Ex. 1 .r * -hr x Remainder Ex. 5. _ x a 1x3 x>+ qx r( o-f a p pa+qr* ax 1 apjc 1 a 4 p -f-a j ?!z2 Remainder a ftaM-ya r 0!T THE TRANSFORMATION OF PRACTIOKS TO OTHERS OF EQ.I AL VALUK. If the signs of all the terms both in the numerator and denominator of a fraction be changed, its value will not be altered. For aA -4-a A ,ab = 4- A=- ; and = A = a -r-<* o a A. a If the numerator and denominator of a fraction be both multiplied, or both divi- ded, by the same quantity, its value is not altered. For ac a .. =T ; and ; be o abcz T ; ^ . o abcz t>c Hence, a fraction is reduced to its low- est terms, by dividing both the numerR- ALGEBRA. tor and denominator by the greatest quantity that measures them both. The greatest common measure of two quantities is found by arranging them ac- cording' to the powers of some letter, and then dividing the greater by the less, and tiie preceding divisor always by the last re- mainder, till the remainder is notliine- ; the last divisor is the greatest common measure required. Let a and b be the two 6) a (/> quantities, and let b be contained in a, p times, with c) b {q a remainder c ; again, let c be contained in b, q times, x alx a 1 x 1 ar3 -f- x* leaving out 2 x 1 , which is found in each term of the remainder, the next divisor is a 1 x 1 . a 1 x- is therefore the greatest common measure of the two quantities, and if they be respectively divided by it, the frac- tion is reduced to its lowest terms. The quantity 2 x-, found in every term of one of the divisors, 2 a 1 x 1 2 x*, but not in every term of the dividend, a? a 3 x ax*-^-xi, must be left out; other- wise the quotient will be fractional, which is contrary to the supposition made in the proof of the rule ; and by omitting this part, 2x l , no common measure of the divisor and dividend is left out ; because, by the supposition, no part of 2 x 1 is found in all the terms of the dividend. To find the greatest common measure of three quantities, a b c ; take d the great- est common measure of a and b, and the greatest measure of d and c is the great- est common measure, required. In the same manner, the greatest common mea- sure of four or more quantities may be found. If one number be divided by another, and the preceding divisor by the remain- der, according to what has been said, the remainder will at length be less than any quantity that can be assigned. Fractions are changed to others of equal value with a common denominator, by multi- plying each numerator by every denominator except its own, for the new numerator , and all the denominators togetlier for the common denominator. ace Let T, 3,7 be the proposed fractions ; adf cbf edb then '* are fractlons of the same value with the former, having the common denominator b d f. For adf a cbf c *edb e numerator and denominator of each frac- tion having been multiplied by the same quantity, viz. the product of the denomi- nators of all the other fractions. When the denominators of the propo- sed fractions are not prime to each other, find their greatest common measure -, multiply both the numerator and deno- ALGEBRA. ttiinator of each fraction by the denomi- uators of all the rest, divided respec- tively by their greatest common measure ; and the tractions will be reduced to a common denominator, in lower terms than they would have been by proceeding 1 ac- cording to the former rule. Thus, , , , reduced to a com- m x m y in z ay: b x x uion de nominator, are E n _ ' b d bd bd cxtf mxyz mxyz ON T!U ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FBACTION5. If the fractions to be added have a com- mon denominator, their sum is found by add- ing the numerators together, and retaining the common denominator. Thus, a c q-j-c b + h ~ : b ' If the fractions have not a common de- nominator, they must be transformed to others of the same value, which have a common denominator, and then the addi- tion may take place as before. a c ad be a d-\-b c b d b d b d b d Ex 3 \ _ / j __ ' + b~a l b i ' T ' A> a H--f-^ -'" Ex.4.a+=-f=. Here a is considered as a fraction whose deno- niinator is unity. If txo f:-a, n nmmon tlenimi- nator, their difference it found by taking!' the difference of the numeratorg f and retaining the common denominator. Thu.-, If they have not a common dcnomina* tor, they must be transformed to others of the same value which have a common denominator, and then the subtraction may lake place its abve. Ex. 3. a c d ab c d a f> c d c-\-d a i ad l> c-\-b d *' b c d b c b d b c ii d a c a d b c b d bcbd ' The sign of b d is negative, because every part of the latter traction is to be taken from the former. ON THE MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF FBACTION8. To multiply a fraction by any quantity, multiply the numerator by that quantity, and retain the denominator. * >T -Xc=* ^--. For if the quantity o b to be divided be r times as great as be- fore, and the divisor the same, the quo- tient must be c times as great. The product of two fractions is found by mu/tipfyinif tlir numerators together for a new numerator, and t/ie denominators for a new denominator. Let and be the two fractions; then 6 d multiplying the equal quantities and a-, by b, o=A a- ; in the same manner, r -/y; therefore a c = b dxy\ dividing these equal quantities, a c and b d x y, by b d, To divide a fraction by any quantity, multiply the di-nnn,inator by that quantity, and retain the numerator. The fraction 7- divided by r, is. Bc- b be a a e , c ., . . a cause -:-= , and act h partot tins is r~5 b b c * ' the quantity to be divided, beinga r h part i>f what it was before, and the divisor the une. Tlc result is the same, whetliert 'ede- nominator is multiplied by tin- quantity, or the- numerator divided by it. l.-t tbe fraction be ; if the dcn< mi- 9 m ALGEBRA. nator be multiplied by c, it becomes- Me or ; the quantity which arises from the division of the numerator by c. To divide one fraction by another, invert the numerator and denominator of the divi- sor, and proceed as in multiplication. Let r-and -7 be the two fractions, then a _ c _ jfl rf _ o_d 7~*~d~ b X ~ c ~b~c' For if r=x, nd c - = y, then a =c b x, and c = dy, also, a d = b d x , and b c= ad b d x x n c *d#; therefore T- = r-, - -=- r -7-3. PC o dy y rf The rule for multiplying the powers of the same quantity will hold, when one or both of the indices are negative. Thus, m x a.* = a"" n -, for a"* X """"" 1 am = a X = a* -, m the same an a 1 * X3 1 manner, *3 X x * = =; = x 2 . *5 x 1 Again, a X <*~ n = a 1 "*" ; b< cause 111 _ rt n x a = X = x -=a- m+n a m a n amT If m=n, <.w X a" 1 =amm =<>; a l SO) cm x a"" 1 = = 1 ; therefore n*= 1 ; utn according to the notation adopted. The rule for dividing any power of a quantity by any other power of the same quantity holds, whether those powers are positive or negative. Thus, am-T-o =a m -: -- =am X a* an Again, a n>-d = -- f -- = 1 ro 1 an a am Hence itappears, that a quantitymay be transferred from the numerator of a frac- tion to the denominator, and the contrary, by changing the sign of its index. Thus, am x a"> > a X n~" Tip bp un' aflbp~ 6p out nrroLurioir AXD ETOLCTIOW. If a quantity be conti- nually multiplied by itself, it is said to be involved or raised; and the power to which it is raised is expressed by the number of times the quantity has been employed in the multiplication. Thus, axa, or a 1 , is called the second power of a ; ax c*. Also, am raised to the 71* power is is a>, the 8 th root of a"" must be a m ; i. e. to ex- tract any root of a single quantity, we must divide the index of that quantity by the index of the root required. When the index of the quantity is not exactly divisible by the number which ex- presses the root to be extracted, that root must be represented according to the no- tation already pointed out. Thus the square, cube, fourth, n lh root of a 1 -r-x, are respectively represented by o*+2 a a 1 (a* -|- x l )n ; the same roots of t . or (a'+x 1 ) i ,arerepresentedby (a'-t-x 1 )- J (a>-f-x>)~'3, (a>+x>)~}> (a'-f *)"* If the root to be extracted be express- ed by an odd number, the sign of the root will be the same with the sign of the pro- posed quantity. If the root to be extracted be expressed by an even number, and the quantity pro- posed be positive, the root may be either positive or negative. Because either a positive or negative quantity, raised to such a power, is positive. If the root proposed to be extracted be expressed by an even number, and the sign of the proposed quantity be negative, the root cannot be extracted ; because no quantity, raised to an even power, can produce a negative result. Such roots are called impossible. Any root of a product may be found by taking that root of each factor, and mul- tiplying the roots, so taken, together. Thus, (a A) = a X b n ; because each of these quantities, raised to the ;i tb pow- er, is a b. 113 In a=fr, then an x a" = an"; and in the r * r+ n n n same manner a x a =a . Any root of a fraction may be found by taking that root both of the numerator and denominator. Thus, the cube root of -^- i s or bn To ertract the square root of a compound quantity. 2 0+6)2 H b+ b'- Since the square root of a*+2 a -,- is u-f b, whatever be the values of a and t, we may obtain a general rule for tho extraction of the square root, by observ- ing in what manner a and b may be deriv- ed from a' -f 2 a b-}- b\ Having arranged the terms according to the dimensions of one letter, a, the square root of the first term a- is a, the first factor in the root; subtract its square from the whole quantity, and bring down the remainder 2 a 6-4-A 1 ; divide 2 a b by 2 a, and the result is b, the other factor in the root; then multiply the sum of twice the first factor and the second (2a+A), by the second (A;, and subtract this pro- duct (2 a b+l>>) from the remainder. If there be no more terms, consider 0+6 as a new value of a ; and the square, that is a H-2 a +** having, by the first part of the process, been subtracted from the proposed quantity, divide the remainder by the double of this new value of a, for a new factor in the root; and for a new subtrahend, multiply this factor by twice the sum of the former factors increased by this factor. The process must be re- peated till the root, or the necessary ap- proximation to the root, is obtained. Ex. 1. To extract the square root of a*-f-2 u b-\-b*-\-2 a c-f-2 b c-f-c a . a+2 a 6+'+2 a c _j_2 b c-f c ( 2 a -f- 2 a c-f 2 b c-f-c 5 2ac-f 2 b c+cz Ez. 2. To extract the square root of a> Er. 3. To Extract the square root f I +*. ALGEBRA. i) -+T- X2 4 X 2 x? I* 4 4~~ "JT f 64 X3 x* "8" 64 It appears from the second example, that a trinomial a* a x -f- > in which 4 four times the product of the first and last terms is equal to the square of the middle term, and a complete square, or a X X4=a 2 x2. 4 The method of extracting the cube root is discovered in the same manner. 034.3 2 H-3 a 2+63 (a+b j~ 5=2.3 l>y trans]> or 4o-=2S , ,. . . 28 _ by division -r= =7- J Let J-f f |=4r 17. 2x Mult, by 2, and 2 .r + x =8x 34 Si Mult by 3, and 6 .r-f 3.r 2.i;=24a- iu2 ".p. 6 .1 -f 3 J- 2 x 24 x= 102 or 17 j- = 10-2 17x=102 102 .. ,= =6. - + -=r. a x ,6 a '+ = cr ' .r-j-A =r a-i' .r c t of a quantity may be either positive or nega- Tlir sign of .1- may also be nega- ilf .r will be eitli tive ; but stil -}- 3 or 3 Ex. 2. Let a x*=b cd ; to ! bed If both the first and second powers of the unknown quantity be found in an equation : Arrange the terms according to the dimensions of the unknown quanti- ty, beginning with the highest, and trans- pose the known quantities to the other side ; then, if the square of the unknown quantity be affected with a co-efficient, divide all the terms by this co-efficient, and if its sign be negative, change the signs of all the terms, that the equation may be reduced to this form, x 1 /> x= q. Then add to both sides the square of half the co-efficient of the first power of the unknown quantity, by which means the first side of the equation is made a complete square, and the other consists of known quantities; and by extracting the square root on both sides, a simple equation is obtained, from which the value of the unknown quantity may be found. Ex. 1. Let a -f p x=q ; now, we / know that x 1 -|- p a- -j- is the square 4 of x -f'-, add therefore/!? to both sides, 2 4 and we iL = gr -j. t ; 4 4 then by extracting the square root on both sides, .v + -= J (q +f J nd by trans. In the same manner, if j p r=q t x is found to be^i J Iq + ^ \ Ex. 2. Let xa 12 x + 35=0; to find x. My transposition, x* 12 a- = adding the square of 6 to both sides of the equation, x _ 12 x + 36 = 36 35 = 1 ; then extracting the square root on both sides, ALGEBRA. J 6 ! 7 or 5 . either of which, Ex - 6 Lct V*+ T substituted for .< in the original equation, answers the condition, that is, makes the y 6 +r whole equal to nothing. Ex. 3. Let x + ^/ (5 x + 10) = 8 ; to lind x. Jiv transposition, ^/ (5 x -\- 10) = 8 a- squar. both sides 5 x -\- 10 = 64 16x z _ 21 x = 10 64 = 54 441-216 . 01 , 441 225 = 'A , or ^21x4-- = - 4 44 21 . 15 extracting the sq. root, x = _ , = H1 5 = 3 or 18. By this, process two values of x are found, but on trial it appears, that 18 does not answer the condition of the equation, if we suppose that ^/ (5 x 4- 10) repre- sents the positive square root of 5 x 4- 10. The reason is, that 5 x 4- 10 is the square of ^/ (5 x +- 10) as well as of 4- v^ (5 x 4- 10); thus by squaring both sides of the equation ^/ (.5 x -f- 10) = 8 x, a new condition is introduced, and a new value of the unknown quanti- ty corresponding to it, which had no place before. Here, 18 is the value which corresponds to the supposition that x ^/ (5 x + 10) = 8. Every equation, where the unknown quantity is found in two terms, and its in- dex in one is twice as great as in the other, may be resolved in the same manner. Ex. 4. Let z+4 z*=21 z+4 2^4-4=214-4 = 25 z*4-2=5 $=5 2 = 3, or 7 therefore z=9, or 49. Ex. 5. Let y* 6y* 27=0. y* 6y>=27 y* 6i,'+9=27-f 9 = 36 .21 27 When there are more equations and unknown quantities than one, a single equation, involving only one of the un- known quantities, may sometimes be ob- tained by the rules laid down for the so- lution of simple equations ; and one of the unknown quantities being discovered, the others may be obtained by substituting its value in the preceding equations. Ex.7. Let $**+** = 65 { Tofindx andy. c x y *>** j From the second equation, 2 x /=56 sub. it from the same, a-2 2.rt/4-j/2=9 by extracting the sq. roots, x-\-y=. 11 and x y = 3 therefore, 2 x= 14 x=7, or 7 and /=4, or- 4 PROBLEMS PRODUCING Q.AUDBATIC EQ.UATrOIfS. Prob. 1. To divide a line of 20 inches into two such parts, that the rectangle under the whole and one part may be equal to the square of the other. Let x be the greater part, then will 20 - _j- \)Q the less and j 2 = (20 x) . 20 = 400 20 x by the question. a-2 4-20 x=400 *z 4-20 x4-100=4004-100=500 * 3 6=9, or 3 3. ^=4^/500 10, or v/ 500 10. Prob. 2. To find two numbers, whose sum, product, and the sum of whose squares, are equal to each other. Let x-\-y and x y be the numbers ; their sum is 2 x their product r2 y% the sum of their sqs. 2 or 1 =2 y* and by the question 2 o-=2 x 1 +2 y 1 or j"=x j 4- y^ also, 2x=.r i y* therefore, 3x=2*z ALGEBRA. =.r- y 9 12_ 3 s ~~4~~ 4 B . 2 3-fy/ 3 *+!/ 2 j- 3 v/ - 3 2 Since the square of every quantity is jiosithe.:' negative quantity has no square- root; the conclusion therefore shews that there are no such numbers as the ques- tion supposes. See Hivovriti. TIIF.O- RKM; EU.I ATIONS, niiture of; SKUIES, Si mis, &c. &c. A MI K BRA, nf>/>/ica!ion of to geometry. The first and principal applications of al- gebra were to arithmetical questions and computations, as being the first and most useful science in all the concerns of hu- man life. Afterwards algebra was applied to geometry, and all the other sciences in their turn. The application of algebra to geometry is of two kinds; that which regards the plane or common geometry, and i hat which respects the higher geo- metry, or the nature of curve lines. The first of these, or the application of algebra to common geometry, is concern- eel in the algebraical solution of geome- trical problems, and finding out theorems in geometrical figures, by means of alge- braical investigations or demonstrations. Tiiis kind of application has been made from the time ofthc most early writers on algebra, as Diophantus, Cardan, &.c. &c. down to the present times. Some of t he- best precepts and exercises of this kind of application are to be met with in Sir I. Newton's ' I'nivcrsal Arithmetic," and in Thomas Simpson's" Algebra and Select Exercises." lieomctrical problems are commonly resolved more directly and ea- sily by algebra, than by the geometrical analysis, (specially by young beginners ; but then the synthesis, or construction and demonstration, is most elegant as de- duced from the latter method. Now it commonly happens, that the algebraical solution succeeds best in such problems as respect the sieles and other lines in ge- ometrical figures; and, on the contrary, those problems in which angles are con- cerned are best eflected by the geometri- cal analysis. Sir Isaac 'Newton gives .among many otherrcmarks on this branch. Having any problem proposed, compare toi;c' l.erthc quantities concern- ed in it; and making no difference be- u\ . en 1 he kiiownaiid in, known quan consider how they depend, or are related to, one another; that we may perceive what quantities, if tin \ an- assumed, will, by proceeding synthetically, give the rest, aiul that in the simplest manner. And in this comparison, the geometrical figure is to be feigned and constructed at random, as if all the parts were actually known or given, and any other linesdrawn, that maj appear to conduce to the easier and sim- pler solution of the problem. Having considered the method of computation, and drawn out the scheme, nam. then to be given to the quantities enter- ing into the computation, that is, to some few of them, both known and unknown, from which the ivsi ma\ most naturally and simply be derived or expressed, bv means of the geometrical properties of figures, till an equation be obtained, by which the value of the unknown quantity may be derived by the ordinary methods of reduction of equations, when only one unknown quantity is in the notation ; or till as many equations are obtained as there are unknown letters in the notation. Forexample suppose it were required to inscribe a square in a given triangle. Let ABC, (Plate Miscellanies, fig. 1.) be the given triangle : and feign DEFGtobe the required square : also draw the per- pendicular BP of the triangle, which will be given, as well as all the sides of it Then, considering that the triangles BAC, BKFare similar, it will be proper to make the notation as follows, vi/. making the base AC=6, the perpendicular HP -_/>, and the side of the square DE or EF=x, Hence then BQ=BP En=/> x, consequently ,by the proportionalityof the parts of those two similar triangles, vi/ BP : AC ::BQ : EF, it is/.: A ::p x : x, then, multiply extremes and means, &c there arises px=bf> b x t or bx-\-px =-t> p, andx= ~- ,t.he sideofthcsquan sought; that is, a fourth proportional u> the base and perpendicular, and the sum of the two, taking this sum for the firs; term, or AC -(-HI 1 : \\\> -.-. AC : EF. The other branch of the application <>t algebra to geometry \\ as introduced by .tes, in his (ieometry, which is t| u - IK- w, or higher.geoniet ry, and respects the nature and properties of curve lines. In this branch, the nature of the curve isex- pressed or denoted by an algebraic equa- tion, which is thus derived : A line is ALli ALG conceived to be drawn, as the diameter or some other principal line about the curve ; and upon any indefinite points of this line other lines are erected perpendi- cularly, which are called ordinates, whilst the parts of the first line cut off by them are called abscisses. Then, calling 1 any absciss x, and its corresponding- ordinate y, by means of the known nature, or rela- tions, of the other lines in the curve, an equation is derived, involving 1 x and y, with other given quantities in it. Hence, as x and y are common to every point in the primary line, that equation,so derived will belong to every position or value of the absciss and ordinate, and so is proper- ly considered as expressing the nature of the curve in all points of it; and is com- monly called the equation of the curve. In this way it is found, that any curve line has a peculiar form of equation be- longing 1 to it, and which is different from that of every other curve, either asto the number of the terms, the powers of the unknown letters x and y, or the signs or co-efficients of the terms of the equation. Thus, if the curve line HK, (fig. 2.) be a circle, of which HI is part of the diame- ter, and ]K a perpendicular ordinate; then put Hl=x, 1K=?/, and p= the diameter of the circle, the equation of the circle will be p x x2=yz. But if HK be an ellipse, an hyperbola, or parabola, the equation of the curve will be differ- ent, and for all the four curves will be respectively as follows: viz. For the circle . For the ellipse. . p x #2=^ . p x x2= For the hyperbola /> x-f- *2 =^8, For the parabola . . p x . . =y% where t is the transverse axis, and p its parameter. And in like manner for other curves. This way of expressing the nature of curve lines, by algebraic equations, has given occasion to the greatest improve- ment and extension of the geometry of curve lines ; for thus all the properties of algebraic equations, and their roots, are transferred and added to the curve lines, whose abscisses and ordinates have similar properties. Indeed the benefit of this sort of application is mutual and re- ciprocal, the known properties of equa- tions being transferred to the curves they represent; and, on the contrary, the known properties of curves transferred to their representative equations. Besides the use and application of the higher geometry, namely of curve lines, to detecting the nature and roots of equa- tions, and to the finding the values of those roots by the geometrical construc- tion of curve lines, even common geome- try made be made subservient to the pur- poses of algebra. Thus, to take a very plain and simple instance, if it were re- quired to square the binomial a + b (fig. 3.) by forming a square, as in the figure, whose side is equal to u-\*b, or the two lines or parts added together de- noted by the letters o and b : and then drawing two lines parallel to the sides, from the points where the two parts join, it will be immediately evident that the whole square of the compound quantity ft-f-6 2 is equal to the squares of both the parts, together with two rectangles under the two parts, or 2 an d 62 and 2 a b, that is, the square of a-\-b is equal to 2 +* 2 +2 a ft, as derived from a geo- metrical figure or construction. And in this very manner it was, that the Arabi- ans, and the early European writers on algebra, derived and demonstrated the common rule for resolving compound quadratic equations. And thus also, in a similar way, it was, that Tartalea and Cardan derived and demonstrated all the rules for the resolution of cubic equa- tions, using cubes and parallelopipedons instead of squares and rectangles. Many other instances might be given of the use and application of geometry in algebra. ALGOL, the name of a fixed star of the third magnitude in the constellation Perseus, otherwise called Medusa's Head. This star has been subject to singular va- riations, appearing at different times of different magnitudes, from the fourth to the second, which is its usual appear- ance. These variations have been noticed with great accuracy, and the period of their return is determined to be 2 d 20 k 48' 56". The cause of this variation, Mr. Goodricke, who has attended closely to the subject, conjectures, may be either owing to the interposition of a large body revolving round Algol, or to some motion of its own, in consequence of which, part of its body, covered with spots or some such like matter, is periodically turned towards the earth. ALGORITHM, an Arabic term, not unfrequently used to denote the practical rules of algebra, and sometimes for the practice of common arithmetic ; in which last sense it coincides with logistica nwne- ALI ALK -atis, of tlie art of numbering truly and readily, M IKN, in law, a person born in a strung- country, not within the king's al- tegimnce, in c mtradistinction from a deni- zen or natural subject. An alien is incapable of inheriting i England, till naturalized by an act of parliament. No alien is entitled to vote in the choice of members of parlia- ment, has a right to enjoy offices, or can be returned on any jury, unless where an alien is party in a cause ; and then the in- quest of jurors shall be one half denizens and the other aliens. alien neglecting the king's pro- clamation, directing him to depart from the realm within a limited time, shall, on conviction, for the first offence, be impri- soned for any time not exceeding one month, and not exceeding twelve months for the second ; at the expiration of which, he shall depart within a time to he limit- ed : and it' such alien be found therein limited, he or she shall he transported tor life. \UMKNTAi;\ duct, a name which Minn- call the intestines, on account of the food's passing through them. Se TI'MV. ALIMONY, alimiiniti, in law, denotes the maintenance sued for by a wife, in rase of a separation from her husband, wherein she is neither chargeable with elopement nor adultery. ALIQUANT part*, in arithmetic, those which will not divide or measure the whole number exactly. Thus, 7 is an aliquant part of 16, for twice 7 wants 2 of l(i, and three times 7 exceeds 16 by 5. ALIQUOT part, is such part of a num- ber as will divide and measure it exactly, without any remainder. For instance, 2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and 4 of 16. To find all the aliquot parts of a num- ber, divide it by its least divisor, and the quotient by its least divisor, until \ou pel a quotient not farther divisible, a: will have all the prime divisors or "ali- quot parts of that number. Thus, 60, divided by 2, gives the quotient 30, which divided by J gives 15, and l.i divided by .1 gives the indivisible quotient 5. Hence, the prime aliquot parts are 1, 2, 2, 3, 5 ; and by multiplying any two or three of these together, you will find the com- pound aliquot parts, viz. 4, 6, 10, 20, 30. Aliquot parts must not be confounded with commensurable ones; for though the former be all commensurable, \et these are not always aliquot parts : thus 4 is commensurable with 6, but is not an aliquot part of it. A I .ISMA, srrent teate r plantain, in bota- ny, a jfenus of the Hexandria Polyginia plants, the calyx of \\ hich is a perianthmm composed of three oval, hollow, permanent leaves ; the corolla consists of three large, roundish, plane, and very patent petals; the fruit i of capsules, arranged together in a round- ish or trigonal fo'rm : the seeds are single and small. There are nine species. ALKAHEST, or ALCAHKST, among chemists, denotes a universal menstruum, capable of resolving all bodies into their ens primim, or first matter ; and that without suffering any change, or diminu- tion of force, by so doing. See Ai.cn KM Y. ALKALI, in chemistry, a word applied to all bodies that possess the following properties: they change vegetable blue colours, as that of an infusion of violets, to green : they have an acrid and peculiar taste : they serve as intermedia between oils and water-: they are capable of com- bining with acids, and of destroying their acidity : they corrode woollen cloth, and, if the solution be sufficiently strong, re- duce it to jelly; and they are soluble in water. The alkalies at present known are three ; \nz. ammonia, potash, and so- da : the two last are called fixed alkalies, because they require a red heat to vola- tilize them ; the other is denominated volatile alkali, because it readily assumes a gaseous form, and is dissipated by a very moderate degree of heat. Barytes, strontian, lime, and magnesia, have been denominated alkalies by Fourcroy ; but as they possess the striking character of earths in their fixity, this innovation does not seem entitled to general adoption. Since writing the above, some discove- ries of great importance, on the subject oi alkalies, have been made known to the philosophical world by Mr. Davy, Pro- fessor of Chemistry at the Royal institu- tion. We shall in this place give a sketch of the two papers which he has just laid before the Koyal Society, referring to some subsequent articles for further par- ticulars. In a former discourse, read be- fore this learned body, Mr. Davy, in speaking of the agencies of electricity, suggested the probability, that other bo- dies not then enumerated might be de- composed by the electric fluid. In the course ofthe last summer, this celebra- ted philosopher was employed in making a number of experiments with this par- ticular view, and by means of very pow- erful galvanic troughs, consisting of a ALK ALL hundred pair of plates, six inches square, and one hundred and fifty pair, four inch- es square, he has succeeded in decompo- sing- potash and soda. A more brilliant discovery has not been made since those which have immortalized the names of ley and Cavendish. This was ef- fected by placing moistened potash, or soda, on a plate of platina, and exposing it to the galvanic circle. Oxygen was disengaged, and the alkalies reduced to their primitive base, which is found to be a peculiar and highly inflammable mat- ter, and which assumes the form and ap- pearance of small globules of mercury. These globules are, however, lighter than water, and when potash is used, they are in the proportion of 6 to 10. At the freezing point they are hard and brittle ; and when broken and examined by a mi- croscope, they present a number of fa- cettes with the appearance of crystalliza- tion : at 40 Fahrenheit they are soft, and can scarcely be discriminated but by their gravity from globules of mercury ; at 60 they are fluid, and at the small heat of 100 volatile. When exposed to the atmosphere, they rapidly imbibe oxy- gen, and reassume the alkaline charac- ter. In distilled naptha they may be pre- served four or five days, but if exposed to the atmosphere, they almost instantly become incrusted with a coat of alkali : the incrustation may be removed, and the reduced globule will remain, either in naptha, or otherwise separated from all contact with oxygen. See BITCMEX. One part of the base of alkali and two of mercury, estimated by bulk, form an amalgam, which when applied in the cir- cle of a galvanic battery, producing an intense heat to iron, silver, gold, or pla- tina, immediately dissolved them, and converted them into oxides, in which pro- cess alkali was regenerated. Glass, as well as all other metallic bodies, was also dissolved by the application of this sub- stance : the base of the alkali seizing the oxygen of the manganese and of the mi- nium, potash was regenerated. One of these globules placed on a piece of ice dissolved it, and burnt with a bright flame, giving out an intense heat. Potash was found in the product of the dissolved ice. Nearly the same effects followed, when a globule was thrown into water : in both cases a great quantity of hydro- gen was rapidly liberated. When laid en a piece of moistened turmeric paper, the globule seemed instantly to acquire an in- tense heat ; but so rapid was its move- ment in quest of the moisture, that no pan of the paper was burnt, only an in- tense deep red stain marked the course it followed, and showed a reproduction of alkali. The specific gravity of the base of soda is as seven to ten of water : it is fixed in a temperature of about 150, and fluid at 180. Mr Davy next tried its effects on the phosphates, phosphurets, and many other salts of the first and se- cond degree of oxydix.ement, all of which it decomposed, seizing their oxygen, and reassuming its alkaline qualities. From many experiments it appears, that 1UO parts of potash contain 15 of oxygen, and 85 of an inflammable base, and that the same quantity of soda contains 20 of oxy- gen, and 80 base This ingenious chemist, after a great number of complex experi- ments, in which he was assisted by Messrs. Pepys and Allen, ascertained that oxygen is also an essential ingredient in ammo- nia ; of which 100 grains appeared to yield 20 of oxygen. Mr. Davy has also found that oxygen is one of the constituent prin- ciples of the earths barytes and stron- tites. See CHKMISTBT, POTASH, and SODA. ALLAMANDA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and or- der : corolla twisted ; capsule lens-form, erect, echinate, one-celled, two-vahed, many-seeded. One species, viz. catharti- ca, a climbing plant, found in Guiana, near rivers. The infusion of its leaves is used in the cholic. ALLANTOIS, or AI.LANTOJDES, in comparative anatomv, a vesicle investing the fetus of several animals, as cows, sheep, goats, &c. and filled with aurinous liquor conveyed thither from the urachus. ALLEGIANCE, is the lawful duty from the subject to the sovereign ; and is either natural, as every subject born ought to pay ; acquired, where a man is naturaliz- ed ; local, wliich a man ought to pay who comes under the dominion of the king. ALLEGORY, in matters of literature, a mode or species of writing, wherein something else is signified than the words in their literal meaning express. An al- legory may be considered as a series or chain of metaphors, continued through a whole discourse For example, when the prophets represent the Jews under the allegory of a vine planted, cultivated, and watered, by the hand of God, wliich, in- stead of producing good fruit, brings forth verjuice and sour grapes. ALLEGRO, in music, an Italian word, denoting that the part is to be played in a sprightly, brisk, lively, and gay manner. Allegros move swifter in triple than in ALL ALL common time. Sometimes in conjunction with another word, placed at the begin- ning of compositions, it is intended to rouse and stimulate the more violent pas- sions. ALLKMANDK, in music, a slow air or melody in common time, of four crotchets in a bar. A species of composition, sup- posed from its name to be of German ori- gin. It is found in Handel's harpsichord ij and other works of about that ut as u sonata movement it is now obsolete. The dance known by this name is still used in Germany ana Switzerland, and is written in common time of t\vo crotchets in a bar. ALLEN, (THOMAS,) a celebrated ma- thematician of the 16th century. He was born at Uttoxeterin Staffordshire, in 1542; was admitted a scholar of TriniU Col- lege, Oxford, in 1561 ; where he took his degree of master of arts in 1567. In 1570 he quitted his college and fellowship, and retired to Gloucester Hall, where he stu- died very closely, and became famous for his knowledge in antiquities, philosophy, and mathematics. He received an invita- tion from Henry, Earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of the mathe- maticians, and he spent some time at the Earl's house, where he became acquaint- ed with those celebrated mathematicians, Thomas Harriot, John Dee, Walter War- ner, and Nathaniel Torporley. Robert, Earl of Leicester, too, had a great i for Allen, and would have conferred a bishopric upon him ; but his love for soli- tude and retirement made him decline the offer. His great skill in the mathematics, gave occasion to the ignorant and vulgar to look upon him as a magician or conju- rer. Allen was very curious and indefati- gable in collecting scattered manuscripts relating to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy, and mathematics ; which col- lections have been quoted by several learned authors, and mentioned" as in the Hibliotheca AlleniaiKi. He publish' ,1 in Latin the second and third books of Pto- leim, " Concerning the Judgment of the "or, as it is usually called, of the quadripartite construction, with ai> sition. He wrote also notes on many -if Lilly's books, and some on John Male's work, "l)e Seriptoribns Mag Mrittan- lle died at Gloucester Hall ars of age . Hurton, the author of his funeral oration, calls him " the very soul and sun of all the mathematicians of hi.- And Selden mentions him as a person of the most e\u-iis;\i- learning and consum- mate judgment, the brightest ornament of VOL. I. the University of Oxford. Also C says, he was skilled in most of th arts and sciences. A. Wood has also transcribed part of his character from a manuscript in the library of Trinity Col- D these words : " He studied polite literature with great application ; : strictly tenacious of academic discipline, always highly esteemed both by foreign- ers and those of the uni : by all of the highest .stations of the church or England, and the University of Oxford. He was a sagacious observer, an agreea- ble companion," &c. ALLIGATION, in arithmetic, is the rule of mixture, which teaches to com- pound several species of ingredients or commodities together, according to any intent or design proposed; and is either medial or alternate. ALLIGATIOX, medial, shews the rate or price of any mixtures, when the - quantities of the mixture, and their rates, are known. Kule : multiply each quantity given by the price ; and then, by direct proportion, say, as the sum of the quantities given to the sum of the products ; so is any part of the mixture to the value of that part. Example : a goldsmith melts 3 ounces of gold, at4/. 6*. 8d. per ounce, with twelve ounces at 41. per ounce ; and 8 ounces at 4 5s. per ounce : when they are all melted together, one ounce will be found to be worth 4/. 2s. ^d. Thus, oz. I. s. d. I. 23 Sum 34 Sum 95 oz. /. s. d. Then as 23 : 95 : : 1 : 4 2 7^ Ans. ALLIGATIOV, alternate, teaches to mix goods, of different prices, in such propor- tion, that the mixture may be sold for any price proposed. Rule: letdown the names of the things to lie mixed, togeiln-r wi'h their : then, finding the difference 1> of these, and the prop "f the mixture, place tli' -\ an al- ternate order, and they will show the pro- portion of the in; IONIA, in botany, so called in lio- notir of Charles Allioni, professorofbota- andria Monop .md order, of the natural ordej of Aggregatz ; the calyx is a peri- ant hium common to three flowers ; and the perianthium proper is obsolete supe- Q ALL riw; the corolla proper, one-petallcd, funnel-shaped, and erect; the stamina have setaceous filaments ; anthers round- ish ; the pistillum has a germ interior, ob- long, style setaceous, longer than the sta- mens, stigma multifid and linear, no peri- carpium ; seeds soh'tary, the receptacle naked. There are two foreign species, described by Willdenow, viz. the A. vio- lacea, and A. incurnata. The American species described by Pursh are three in number, viz. A. nyctaginea, A. albida, and A. ovata.' The first is found on the banks of the river Tenessee ; the second in lower Carolina; the third found by Meri- \vether Lewis on the plains of the Mis- souri. ALLIOTH, a star in the tail of the Greater Bear, much used for finding the latitude at sea. ALLITERATION, in rhetoric, is a fi- gure, or decoration in language, chiefly used in poetry, and consisting in the re- petition of the same letter or letters at certain intervals, whence the name is de- rived. ALLIUM, garlic, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Myhogynia class and or- der ; the calyx is a common sheath, and many-flowered; the corolla consists of six oblong petals; the stamina have six fila- ments, general!}' of the length of the co- rolla ; the anthers are oblong and upright ; ibe pistillum has a germ, superior, short, bluntly three-cornered; the pericarpium is a capsule, short, broad, three- celled and three-valved; the seeds are many and round. There are 53 species, according to Willdenow, distributed into several divisions. The common garlic has a large round white bulbous root, of an irregular 1'orm, with numerous fibres at the bottom, composed of many smaller bulbs denomi- nated cloves, which are included in a common membranous covering, each of which being planted, grows, and in one season attains the size and structure of the parent bulb ; the leaves are cauline, or form a kind of stalk, which seldom spindles, except when the same roots re- main in the ground two or three years, when they run up and bear a flower and small bulbs at the top. It deserves to be cultivated in the garden for the sake of its root, which is in great estimation for culinary and other domestic purposes, fndeed, the roots, as well as all the other parts of the plant, have a very acrid taste, with an highly offensive smell, which has rendered its cultivation in gardens less desirable. It is a hardy plant, capable of growing in most sorts of soils and situa- tions, and readily propagated either by roots or seeds. Rocambole has very small compound bulbs, which grow in clusters; the stalk gent- rally spi ndli ng two or three fe et li igh , with many bulbs at its summit, which, as well as the root bulbs, are useful for the same purposes as garlic, though much in- ferior. The latter, or the flowery kinds, have the flower-stems rising immediately from the root, growing erect, and attain- ing different heights, from twelve to thir- ty inches; in some the leaves are radical, in others cauline, or elevated with the stalk ; some are broad tike those of a tu- lip, others long and narrow like a daffo- dil, and some taper and rush-like ; but in all the sorts the stems are terminated by a sort of sheath, from which is protruded an aggregate of many small flowers, form- ing a kind of umbel. The flowers singly are composed each of six petals, which, though separately small, from many be- ing collected into large heads, arc very conspicuous. Of the second division, or the onion kind, the characters, &c. of which are the same as those of g'arlic, the species are these: 1. Cepa, or com- mon onion; the best garden varieties of which are, the Strasburgh or common round onion, the oval or long-keeping common onion, the Spanish large flat onion, the Spanish silken-skinned onion, the Spanish red-skinned onion, and the Portugal great roundish oval onion. 2. Fistulosum, or the ciboule or Welsh on- ion. 3. Schaenoprasum, cives or chives. 4. Ascalonicum, eschalot or schallot. 5. Canadense, or Canada-tree onion. AH the first species and varieties have large bul- bous roots, and the plants are biennial, or, being sown in the spring, arrive at per- fection in the root the same year, and next year shoot up into stalk, flower, and ripen seed, when the stalks quickly die, and the individuals are annihilated. But the second and third species never form any bulbs at bottom ; they are, how- ever, hardy and perennial, and may be. continued many years. And the fourth and fifth species are bulbous rooted pe- rennials, multiplying greatly by off-sets, as is evident from their culture. Ciboule or Welsh onion. This is a pe- rennial plant, which never forms any bulb at bottom ; therefore deserves to be cul- tivated only to be drawn as young green onions for salads, &c. in spring ; but, on account of its strong taste, it is great!} inferior to those of the common onion From the plants being so extremely har- dy as to survive the severest winter, iv ALL ALL which, though their blades be cut oil', the .oots remain sound, and shoot-forth with great vigour early in spring 1 , furnishing le supplies till .May, when they illy run to seed. From this singu- lar hardness ihev niav he cultivated more 'r less us a winter standing' crop, with 'age, for spring- use. Cives, or chives. This is the smallest of all the onion kind, rising but a few inches high; but its roots are perennial, and increase considerably into clusters, . hich large tufts of slender awl- sliaped leaves issue, which are the prin- cipal part used, the roots never forming any bull), at least not bigger than small This is a hardy plant, which me- iace in every garden. Its clusters of leaves rise early in sprint;', and arc use- ful both in salads and for culinary pur- : tult of onions. The method ring it is, to cut the leaves off near the ground, by which a fresh supply is -oon produced from the bottom ; or oc- <'ly the plants in clusters may be Clipped quite to the root in separate lit- :le plants, resembling young onions, and used as substitutes for them. It is easily d by dividing the roots in spring, and planting eight or ten of them toge- iher in holes, at six inches distance ; in this way, by autumn, they will multiply into bunches of a large size. Eschalot, orscnallot. This is a species of onion which is bulbous-rooted, and which s greatly by ofl'-set.s, the largest of which are the proper parts of the plant for use. The bulbs are oblong, irregu- lar, and seldom grow large ; as they gene- rally increase into clusters, they do not swell like roots that grow singly. From the roots are produced many long, nar- H>W, infirm leaves in the spring, and which wither in July or August, when the roots are full grown : they are then taken Mp, madedr\, ami housed, when they keep in good perfection till the follow ing- spring. Canada or tree-onion. This dt to be cultivated, both as a curiosity in producing- the onion at the top of the stalk, and for the use of the onions, es- ;.eriail\ for pickling, in which t hi \ ellent, and superior in flavour to the common Onion. It is perennial, and propa- gated by planting the bulbs in spring or :iutumn. Either the. root-bulbs. <>r those produced on the top of the stalk, being /.anted in abed or beds of am in rows a foot asunder, six indies distance ii each roWjUiultv. Moot un leaves and strdks in the spring and summer, and produce thr bulbs for use in July or August ; and thr root-imlbs remaining furnish a produc- tion of top-bulbs, annually,!!! that season ; the root-bulb increasing by ofl'-si hi: taken up occasionally at the time the stem decays in autumn ; or once in two or three years, in order to separate the off-sets, and replant them when necessary. The leek is the third division of the ge- nus, the general characters of which are the same as those before described, and the species and varieties are, the pornim, or common leek, which may be said to be an annual-biennial plant ; for although the roots often survive after perfecting seeds, yet the plants always attain perfec- tion the same year they are sown, and the year afterwards run up to stalk, and be- come unfit for use. The seed-stalk of this plant does not belly like that of the onion. The best of the varieties of this plant for general culture is the broad- leaved or London leek, which attains a large growth, the neck acquiring a thick substance, in length from six to nine or ten inches, dividing upwards into many large, long, thick leaves, arranging selves in somewhat of a fan-shape. There are seven species indigenous in America, and described by Pursh, viz: 1. A. vi- m-ale, common in old fields. 2. A. fra- grans, (which is A. inodorum of Botani- cal Magazine 1129, and A. mutabile of Michaux'sfl. Ame. 1 p. 195) found on the mountains of Virginia and Carolina. 3. A. striatum (which is A. ornithogaloides of Halt's fl. Car. 121, and ornithogalum bivalve of Lin.) native in Virgin Carolina. 4. A. angulosum,found on the banks of the Missouri by Lewis ar.d Nut- tall. 5. A. triflorum, found on shady woods arid high mountains of Pet. nia. 6. A. canadense, found in fields and woods from Canada to Carolina, tricoccon, found in shady woods, Penn- sylvania to \ irginia. ALLODIAL, an epithet given to an in- hcritai. >:' any acknowledg- ment to a lord or superior, in opposition !al. A1.I.MD1UM, or A tiF.rr, denotes lands which are the absolute prop their owner, wit bout being obliged to pay any service or acknowledgment w ! to a superior lord ; in which sense they stand opposed to feudal lands, which pay a fee to some superior. AI.I.OI'llYI.l S, in botany, a genus of the Octandria Monogyu'ia clas ..\ ot' whi'-:. {' four le avcs of an orbicular figure. ALL ALM and t\vo opposite ones smaller than the others; the corolla consists of four petals, less than the cup, of an orbicular figure, and equal one to another, with large un- gues of the same length with the smaller leaves of the cup. There are three spe- cies : A. zeylanicus is a tree having the appearance of persea, and anative of Cey- lon. A. cominia rises 30 feet in height, \vith a stem as thick as a man's thigh, with numerous flowers, to which succeed berries the size of a pin's head, with shell and kernel : grows plentifully in Jamaica. A. ternatus is a native of Cochin China. ALLOY, or ALLAT, a proportion of a baser metal mixed with a finer one. Thus, all go'd coin has an alloy of silver and copper, as silver coin has of copper alone ; the proportion in the former case, for Standard gold, being two carats of alloy in a pound troy of gold ; and in the latter, 18 penny -weights of alloy for a pound troy of silver. According as gold or silver has more or less alloy than that mentioned above, it is said -to be coarser or finer than the standard. However, it ought to be re- marked, that the coin of different nations varies greatly in this respect ; some using a larger, and others a less proportion of alloy, the original intention of which was to give the coin a due degree of hardness. ALLOY, in a chemical sense, may be defined a combination of two or more metals into one homogeneous mass, not separable from each other by mere heat. The most valuable and useful of these are, brass, type-metal, tutenag, bronze, spe- culum metal, for which see the different articles. If two metals being fused toge- ther produce a mass, whose specific gravi- ty is either greater or less than the mean specific gravity of its elements, the result is an alloy, or proper chemical combina- tion. One of the most striking proofs of actual combination between the parts of an alloy is, a remarkable increase of fusi- bility. This, in almost all cases, is much greater than could be inferred from the mean fftsibility of its component parts. Thus, equal parts of tin and iron will melt at the same temperature as is required for equal parts of tin and copper, notwith- standing the great difference between the fusing heat of copper and iron, when they are each of them pure. So also an alloy of tin, bismuth, and lead, in the propor- tion of 3, 8, and 5, will melt in boiling water, vhich is a less heat than is neces- sary for the liquefaction of bismuth, the most fusible of the three. The oxyda- bility of an alloy is generally either great- er or less than that of the unmixed me- tals. Tin and lead mixed will, at a low red heat, take fire, and oxydate immediately. ALLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which something is applied to, or under- stood of another, on account of some si- militude between them. ALLUVIAL, by alluvial depositions is meant the soil which has been formed by the destruction of mountains, and the washing down of their particles by tor- rents of water. The alluvial formations constitute the great mass of the earth's surface. They have been formed by the gradual action of rain or river water up- on the other formations. They may be divided into two kinds, viz. those depo- sited in the vallies and mountainous dis- tricts, or upon elevated plains, which of- ten occur in mountains ; and those depo- sited upon flat land. The first kind con- sists of sand^gravel, &c. which constitut- ed the more solid parts of the neighbour- ing mountains, and which remained when the less solid parts have been washed away. They sometimes contain ores, particularly gold and tin, which existed in the neighbouring mountains. The se- cond kind consists of loam, clay, sand, turf, and calctuff. Here are also earth and brown coal, in which amber is found, wood coal, bituminous wood, and bog-iron ore. The sand contains some metals. The calctuff contains plants, roots, moss, bones, &c. which it has incrusted. The clay and sand often contain petrified wood, and skeletons of quadrupeds. ALLUVION, among civilians, denotes the gradual increase of land along the sea-shore, or on the banks of rivers. This, when slow and imperceptible, is deemed a lawful means of acquisition : but when a considerable portion of land is torn a- way at once by the violence of the current, and joined to a neighbouring estate,it may be claimed again by the former owner. ALMAGEST, the name of a celebrated book composed by Ptolemy ; being a col- lection of a great number of the observa- tions and problems of the ancients, relat- ing to geometry and astronomy, but espe- cially the latter; and being the first work of this kind which has come down to us, and containing a catalogue of the fixed stars, with their places, besides numerous records and observations of eclipses, the motions of the planets, &c. it will ever be held dear and valuable to the cultiva- tors of astronomy. See PTOLEMY. In the original Greek it is called C-J;VT!/S /twy/$j}, the " great composi- tion" or " collection." And to the word ALMAMON. ju.f/(s>; the Arabians joined the particle "al," and thence called it " Almaghesti," call it from them, the Aim: &LMAMON, Caliph of Bagdat, a phi- losopher and astronomer in the beginning' '>f the ninth eentury, lie having ascended tin- tliroiu- in the year 814. He was son of Harnn Al-llaschid, and grandson of Minansor. Having been educated with are, and with a love for the liberal applied himself to cultivate and encourage them in his own country. For this purpose lie requested, the ( Ireek emperors to supply him with such hooks of philosophy as they had among- them ; and he collected skilful interpreters to translate them into the Arabic language. He also encouraged his subjects to study them ; frequenting the meetings of the learned, and assisting at their exercises and deliberation*. He formed a college at Khorasan, and selected to preside over it Mesul of Damascus, a famous Christian physician. \\ hen his father, who was still living, remonstrated against the ap- pointment, on account of the president's religion, he replied, that he had chosen him, not as a teacher of theology, but for the instruction of his subjects in science and the useful arts, and 'that his father well knew, that the most learned men and skilful artists in his dominions were .Iv-u sand Christians. He caused Ptolemy's Almagest to be translated in 827, by Isaac Hi n-honain, and Thabet Ben-korah, ac- cording to Herbelot, but according to others, by Sergius, and Alha/.en, the son of Joseph. In his reign, and doubtless by his encouragement, an astronomer of Uagdat, named Habash, composed three t astronomical tables. Almamon himself made many astrono- mical observations, and determined the obliquity of the ecliptic to be then 23 '!.">', or 23 33' in some manuscripts, but - 23 51', or 23 34'. He also -aused skilful observers to procure pro- per instruments to be made, and to exer- cise themselves in astronomical observa- tions ; which they did accordingly at She- masi in the province of Hagdat, and upon Mount Casius, near Damas. I ndi r the auspices of Mamon, also, a degree of the meridian was measured on the plains of Sinjar, or Sindgiar, upon the borders of the lied Sea ; by which the degree was found to contain 56 2-3 miles, of 4000 coudees each, the coudee being a foot and a half: but it is not known what foot is here meant, whether the Roman, the Alexandrian, or some other. Albufeda says that this cubit con- tained 27 inches, each inch i mined by six grains of barley plac< <; ways; but Thevenot says, that 144 of barley, placed in this manner, would give a length equal to 1 ' four cubits would be equal to one toise and nine inches, and then fore 4 1 ' bits, that is, 56 2-3 miles, \voul 63,730 toises. But if the ordinary cubit of 24 inches was the measure to which the calculation is to be referred, the de- gree', in this estimate of it, would con- tain 56,666 toises. According to another valuation of a cubit, 1'i's measure would consist of 53,123 French to-- Almamon was a liberal and zealous en- courager of science, in consequence of which the Saracens began to acquire a of civilization and refinement, to which they had formerly been strangers. The liberality of his mind obtained for Almamon the reputation of infidelity. But, whatever opinions he might hold re- specting the Koran, he seems'to have had a confidence and tnist in the Supreme Being. In this work we shall not follow 'iph into the field of battle, nor re- cord his victories, which were brilliant and important. We must look to him in the character of a philosopher and man of science, and, in addition to what has already been noticed, we may remark, that he built a new nilometer, for mea- suring the increase of the Nile, and re- paired one that was gone to decay. In the year 833, as he was returning from one of his expeditions, he unwariK quenched his thirst, while very much heated by exercise, with cold water, which brought on a disorder that termi- nated his life. During his last il!> settled the affairs of the state, and then exclaiming, in the spirit of piety, "O thou who never diest, have merev on me, a dying man." He expired at tli,- 49, after a reign of 20 yi an, II. was in- terred at Tarsus. To the principles of science, and not to those of the Moham- medan religion, have been ascribed the liberality and benignity of temper, which he displayed in certain trying circum- stances. When his uncle and rival Ibra- him w:us taken, brought to trial, and con- demned, the caliph, ii .iiction- ing the sentence, tenderly embraced hi- relation, .saying, I ' he of good cheer, 1 will do you no injury :'' and he not only pardoned him, but granted him a rank and fortune suitable to his birth Being complimented on account of this generous deed, he exclaimed, "Did but men know the pleasure that I feel in par ALO doniug, all who have offended me Would come and confess their faults." Alma- mon, in the course of his reign, employed the most skilful astronomers that he could find, to compose a body of astrono- mical science, which still subsists among oriental MSS. entitled " Astronomia ela- borata a compluribus D. D. jussu regis Maimon." ALMANAC, in matters of literature, a table containing the calendar of days and months, the rising and setting of the sun, the age of the moon, Sec. Authors are neither agreed about the inventor of almanacs, nor the etymology of the word; some deriving it from the Arabic particle al, and manah, to count ; whilst others think it comes from almanah, i. c. handsels, or new year's gifts, because the astrologers of Arabia used, at the beginning of the year, to make presents of their ephemeridesforthe year ensuing. As to the antiquity of Almanacs, Du- cange informs us, that the Egyptian as- trologers, long before the Arabians, used the term almunurh, and o.lmenacldca des- criptio, for their monthly predictions. Be this as it will, Kegiomontanus is allowed to have been the first who reduced alma- nacs to their present form. ALMAKACS, construction of. The first ihing to be done is, to compute the sun's and moon's place for each day in the year, or it may be taken from some epheme- rides and entered in the almanac ; next, find the dominical letter, and, by means thereof, distribute the calendar into weeks : then, having computed the time of Easter, by it fix the other moveable feasts ; adding the immoveable ones, with the names of the martyrs, the rising and setting of each luminary, the length of day and night, the aspects of the pla- nets, the phases of the moon, and the sun's entrance into the cardinal points of the elliptic, z'. e. the two equinoxes and solstices. These are the principal contents of al- manacs ; besides which there are others of a political nature, and consequently different in different countries, as the birth-days and coronation of princes, ta- bles of interest, Stc. On ih; v.liole, there appears to be no mystery, or even difficulty, in almanac making, provide'd tables of the heavenly motions be not w anting. For the duties upon almanacs, see STAMP-DUTIES. ALMANAC, nautical anil astronomical efthemeris, is a kind of national almanac, published annually by anticipation, under lirection of the commissioners of lon- gitude. Besides every tiling essential to general use that is to be found in other almanacs, it contains, among other par- ticulars, the distances of the moon from the sun and fixed stars for every three hours of apparent time, adapted to the meridian of Greenwich, by comparing which with the distances carefully ob- served at sea, the mariner may readily in- fer his longitude, to a degree of exactness that may be thought sufficient for most nautical purposes. The publication of it is chiefly designed to facilitate the use of Mayer's lunar tables, by superseding the necessity of intricate calculations in deter- mining the longitude at sea. .ALMAJTAC, is part of the law of Eng- land, of which the courts must take notice in the returning of writs ; but the almanac to go by is that annexed to the Book of Common Prayer. An almanac, in which the father had written the day of the na- tivity of his son, -was allowed as evidence to prove the nonage of his son. ALMOND-*ra, in botany. See AMTG- DALTTS. ALMUCANTARS, in astronomy, an Arabic word denoting circles of the sphere passing through the centre of the sun, or a star, parallel to the horizon, being the same as parallels of altitude. Almucantars are the same, with respect to the azimuths and horizon, that the pa- rallels of latitude are, with regard to the meridians and equator. They serve to shew the height of the sun and stars, and are described on many quadrants, &c. ALNAGE, or AULNAGE, in the Eng- lish polity, the measuring of woollen ma- nufactures with an ell, and the other func- tions of the alnager. See the next arti- cle. Alnage was at first intended as a proof of the goodness of the commodity, and therefore a seal was invented, as a signal that the commodity was made ac- cording to the statute. ALNAGEIl, in the English polity, a public sworn officer, whose business is to examine into the assize of all woollen cloth made throughout the kingdom, and to fix seals upon them. Another branch of his office is, to collect an alnage duty to the king. See the -last article. There are now three officers relating to the alnage, namely, a searcher, measurer, and alnager; all which were formerly comprized in the alnager, until, by his own neglect, it was thought proper to separate these offices. ALNUS, tiie alder-tree, in botany. See 1'ETl'LA. ALOE, in botany, a genus of the Hex- ALO ALO . class of plants, with a ofouh one leaf, divided into six dt , Miclit". ; C-bloilg , divided intoth: :,d con- umber of angulated seeds. . ,:ic plant arc v.nlens of the curious, v pleasing variety, e odd shape of their leaves, he different spots with which they ariegated. ^ are arborescent, or divided into a number of branches, like trees ; 'nail, growing close to the ground. The two most considerable are the aloe of America, and that L ; the' former on account of its beautiful flowers, and the latter for the drug prepared from it. All the aloes are natives ofhot climates; and the place of growth of most of 1 hem is the Cape of Good Hope. The Hotten- tots hollow out the trunk of the first spe- cies, or A. dichotoma, to make quivers for their arrows ; and several of them are used for hedges. Among- the Mahomet- ans, and particularly in Kgypt, the aloe is a kind of symbolic plant, and dedicated to the offices of religion : for pilgrims, on their return from Mecca, suspend it over tlic-ir doors as an evidence of their having '.edthat holy journey. The super- stitious Egyptians imagine, that it has the virtue of keeping off apparition* and evil spirits from their houses, and it is hung over the doors of Christians and .lews in Cairo for this purpose. They also distil from it a water, which is sold in the shops, and recommended in coughs, nsth hysterics. HassclqMist mentions a per- son wli ! of the jaundice in four v taking about half a pint of it. The Arabians ca!i . The negroes, ire informed by Adanson, in his v good ropes of the K-a\'- which apt to rot in water. M. Fabroni, U-arn from the Annalcs de Chiinie, procured from the lea\es of the aloe suc- i angustifolia, a violet dye, which 'lit- action of oxygen, acids, and al- kalies. This juice, he says, produces a superb transparent colour, which is high- K proper for works in miniature, and which, when dissolved in watt'. M-r\ e. either cold or warm, for dyingsilk from the lightest to the darkest shade : and he reckons it one of the most durable colours known in nature. Alo. .mongthc ancients in embalming, from putrefaction. Of ,-vative to ship's bottonib . the worms, to which those that t: Indies are particularly subject. One ounce of aloes is sufficient for two superficial feet of plank ; about 121b. for a vessel of 50 tons burthen, and 300 Ib. for a first rate man of war. It maybe incorporated with six pounds of pitch, one of Spanish brown, or whiting, and a quart of oil; or with the same pro- portion of turpentine, Spanish brown and tallow. Such a coat, it has been said, will preserve a ship's bottom eight months, and the expense for a first rate ship will be about 18/. The same composition may be used in hot countries for preserving rafters, &c. from the wood-ant. 'I ficacy of aloes, asa defence against worms, has been controverted. ALOE, or ALOES, in pharmacy, the in- spissated juice of the aloe perfoliata, asi- atic aloe, prepared in the following man- ner: from the leaves, fresh pulled, is pressed a juice, the thinner and purer part of which is poured off, and set in the sun to evaporate to a hard yellowish sub- stance, which is called siiccotriiie aloe, as being chiefly made at Succotra. - The thicker part, being put intoanoth sel, hardens into a substance of aliver- colour, and thence called aloe hepatica. The thickest part, or sediment, hardens into a coarse substance, called aloeca- balina, or the horse-aloe, as being chiefly used as a purge for horses. Fabroni has discovered that the recent juice of the leaves of the aloe has the pro- if absorbing oxygen, of assuminga fine reddish purple, ana of yielding ment which he strongly ree the artist. AL,OPECURUS,/ox-/aj7-jra*, in bo- tany, a genus of the Triandria Digynki. class of plants, and of the n of Grasses, the calyx of which is a i> glume, containing a single flower; tin- valves are hollow, of an ovate lam figure, equal in si/.e, and comp- : .ilia is univalve ; the i,l of the length of the cup, ami ,-ry long 'ted into its back r, .. Then- is no peri- carpium : the corolla itself rema>! contaii . which is single and of a roundish figure. Th. The A.pratcnsis, meadow foxtail, i ALP ALP live of most pails of Europe, and is found with us very common in pastures and meadows. It is perennial, and flowers in May. This is the best grass to be sown in low meadow grounds, or in boggy places which have been drained. It is grateful to cattle, and possesses the three great requisities of quantity, quality, and eaiiiness, in a degree superior to any other, and is therefore highly deserving of cultivation in lands that are proper for it. The seed may be easily collected, as it docs not quit the chaff', and the spikes are very prolific ; but the larva of a spe- cies of muses, which are themselves the prey of the cimex campestris, devour the seeds so much, that in many spikes scarce- ly one is found perfect. A. agrestis is a very troublesome weed in cultivated ground, and among wheat it is execrated by fanners, under the name of blackbent; it is also common by way sides, as well as in corn fields, and "in pastures in the Isle of Wight. It has acquired the name of mouse-tail grass in English, from the greatlength and slenderness of the spike, which resembles the tail of a mouse. It is annual, and flowers in July, continues flowering till autumn, and comes into bloom very soon after being sown. ALPHABET, in matters of literature, the natural or accustomed series of the .several letters of a language. As alphabets were not contrived with design, or according to the just rules of analogy and reason, but have been suc- cessively framed and altered, as occasion required, it is not surprising that many grievous complaints have been heard of their deficiencies, and divers attempts made to establish new andmore adequate ones in their place All tlie alphabets extant are charged by Bishop Wilkins with great irregularities, with respect both to order, number, pow- er, figure, See. As to the order, it appears (says he) inartificial, precarious, and confused, as the vowels and consonants are not redu- ced into classes, with such order of pre- cedence and subsequence as their natures will beta-. Of this imperfection, the Greek alphabet, which is one of the least defective, is far from being free: for in- stance, the Greeks should have separated the consonants from the vowels ; after the vowels they should have placed the diphthongs, and then the consonants ; whereas, in fact the order is so perverted that wefind the o^j^ov, the fifteenthletter in order of the alphabet, and the ufieltt or long o, the twenty fourth and last, the f the fifth, and the sjthe seventh. With respect to the number, they are both redundant and deficient ; redundant by allotting the same sound to several letters, as in the Latin c and k,f and ph ,- or by reckoning double letters among the simple elements of speech, as in the Greek | and <],. the Latin 701' cu, xoreor, and the j consonant ; deficient in many respects, particularly with regard to vow- els, of which seven or eight kinds are commonly used, though the Latin alpha- bet takes notice only of five. Add to this, that the difference among them, with re- gard to long and short, is not sufficiently provided against. The powers, again, are not more ex- empt from confusion ; the vowels, for in- stance, are generally acknowledged to have each of them several different sounds ; and among the consonants we need only bring, as evidence of their dif- ferent pronunciation, the letter c in the word circa, andjj- in the word negligence. Hence it happens, that some words are differently written, though pronounced in the same manner, as cessio and sessio ; and others are different in pronunciation, which are the same in writing, as give, dare, tand,gvve, ninciih/m. Finally, the figures are but ill-concert- ed, there being nothing in the characters of the vowels answerable to the different manner of pronunciation ; nor in the con- sonants analagous to their agreements or disagreements. Alphabets of different nations vary in the number of their constituent letters. The English alphabet contains twenty- four letters, to which if; and v consonants are added, the sum will be twenty-six ; the French twenty -three ; the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan, twenty- two each ; the Arabic, twenty eight ; the Persian, thirty-one ; the Turkish, thirty- three ; the Georgian thirty-six; the Cop- tic thirty -two; the Muscovite, forty- three ; the Greek, twenty -four ; the La- tin, twenty-two; the Sclavonic, twenty- seven ; the Dutch, twenty-six ; the Span- ish, twenty seven ; the Italian, twenty; the Ethiopic, as well as Tartarian, two hundred and two ; the Indians of Ben- gal, twenty-one ; the Baramos, nineteen ; the Chinese, properly speaking, have no alphabet, except we call their whole language their alphabet; their letters are words, or rather hieroglyphics, and amount to about 80,000. If alphabets had been constructed by ALP raons, after a fiiil examination of tin- subject, they would not have been filled willi such cii.Tradictlons between the man m r ot' writing and rending', as we liown above, nor with those imper- fections thai C\'.,!.IH|\ appear in In- a!- phabei ii.-iiKiu. Mr. Lodowick, bowever, and liishop V. ilkin*, have cn- d> avourcd lo obviate all these, in th. ir universal alphabets or characters. See ( 'H H\I TI 11. It is no wonder that the number of let- ters in Ilio-^t |an;nia; ; vs should be SO small, and that of v. ords so threat, since it ap- pears, that, allowing onl\ '-M letters to :m alphabet, the different words or combina- tions that may be made out of them, ta- king them first one by one, then two by two, &c. &.c. would amount to the follow- ing number: 1391, 724288, 887252, 999425, 128493, 4022000. See COMBI- NATKIN. It must be admitted, neverthe- less, that the condition, that every sv lia- ble must contain, at least, one vowel, would modify this number in the way of denomination; but on the other hand, the combinations in pollysy liable words would operate the contrary \vay. Many learned authors have composed inquiries into the origin of alphabetic writing-, and not a few have referred the invention to the immediate inspiration of God. Nevertheless, it appears to be a very simple and direct improvement of the hieroglyphic art. Sensible objects are depicted in outlines by children, and most rude nations ; and, as in the con- struction of languages, so in this writing by figures, substantives will come to be used adjective ly, to denote relations or qualities. As words becoqie more com. plex and less perfect by the use of ab- stractions, so likewise must the hiero- glypie picturesbecome combined and im- perfect, and at length must have denoted things very d, tie rent from any object ca- pable of being delineated ; and, among other confluences, there is one very striking; namely, thut the pictun d< -gi -iterating intoasign or character, will dated by memory with the oral character, or name, or correspondent word. An immediate step after this must be, that < Larac'crs associated with mono- syllabic words will be frequently put to- gether to form pollyiyllabic words, in which the picture is left out of the consi- deration, and the sound alone forms the subject of the record, as if the charac- ters for man and eye were united lo form th. word many, or multitudinous. ) And lastly, habit must in fact have given a VOL. I. preference, in the composition of these polysyllabic \\o, are emar- ginated, and the base is vcntricose ; the fruit is a rlcsln capsule, of an o\ated figure, composed of three valtes, and containing three cells ; the seeds are nu- merous, of an ovated figure, with a pro. R ALS ALT minent but truncated apex, and a cauda- ted base. There are seven species. ALSINE, c/iick'-ivfi'tl, in botany, a ge- nus of the Pentandria Trigynia class and order, and the natural order of Caryo- phyllci : its characters are, tliat tbe calyx is a five-leaved perianlliium, leaflets con- cave, oblong and acuminate : the corolla has five equal petals, longer than the calyx ; the stamina consist of capillary filaments, the anthers roundish ; the pis- tillum has asubovate germ, styles filiform, and stigmas obtuse ; the pericarpium is an ovate, one-celled, three-valved, cap- sule, covered with the calyx ; the seeds are very many and roundish. There are five species, of which the following is the principal. A. media, common chick- weed, with petals bipartite, and leaves ovate cordate. The number of stamens in the flower of the common chick-weed is uncertain, from three to ten. This spe- cies in different soils and situations as- sumes different appearances; but it is distinguished from the cerastiums, which it most resembles, by the number of pis- tils, and by having the petals shorter than the leaves of the calyx, and from all the plants related to it, and particularly the stellaria nemorum, by having the stalk alternately hairy on one side only. Dr. Withering refers it to the stellaria, with which genus it agrees in various respects, and especially in the capsules opening with six valves. He observes, that it grows almost in all situations, from damp and almost boggy woods, to the driest -gravel walks in gardens; but in these various states its appearances are very different, so that those who have only ta- ken notice of it as garden chick-weed would hardly know it in woods, where it sometimes exceeds half a yard in height, and has leaves near two inches long, and more than one inch broad. In its truly wild state, he says, in damp woods, and hedge bottoms, with a north- ern aspect, it has almost always ten sta- mens; but in drier soils and more sunny exposures, the stamens are usually five or three. When the flowers first open, the peduncles are upright ; as the flowers go off, they hang down; and when the seeds ripen, they again become upright. Dr. \\ itbering observes, that the flowers arc- upright, and open from nine in the morn- ing till noon; but if it rains, they do not open. After rain they become pendent; but in the course of a few days rise again. In gardens or dunghills, chick-weed sheds abundance of seeds, which are round, cqmpressed, yellow 3 and rough, with lit- tle tubercles ; and thus becomes a trou- blesome weed ; but if it be not suffered to seed, it may be destroyed, as it is annual, without much trouble. This species is a remarkable instance of the sleep of plants; for ever}' night the leaves approach in pairs, including with their upper surfaces the tender rudiments of the new shoots; and the uppermost pair but one, at the end of the stalk, is furnished with longer leaf-stalks than the others, so that they can close upon the terminating pair, and protect the end of the branch. The young shoots and leaves, when boiled, can scarcely be distinguished from spring spinach, and are equally wholesome. Swine are very fond of it ; cows and hor- ses eat it; sheep are indifferent to it-, and goats refuse it. This plant is found wild in most parts of the world. It is annual, and flowers almost through the whole year. ALSTONIA, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Monogynia class and order. Essen, char, corol. one-petalled, eight or ten cleft: clefts alternated. There isbut one species, a shrub found in South Ame- rica. It is very smooth, aod has the air of the bohea-tea, in the leaves, calyxes, and situations of the flowers. The dried leaves taste like those of Chinese tea. ALSTROEMER1A, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order : cor. six-petalled, somewhat two- lipped; the lower petals tubular at the base : stamina declined. There are six species, all found in South America. ALT, in music, a term applied to that part of the great scale of sounds, which lies between F above the treble-cleft note and G in altissimo. ALTAR, a place upon which sacrifices were anciently offered to some deity. The heathens at first made their altars only of turf; in following times they were made of stone, of marble, of wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos. Altars differed in figure as well as in ma- terials. Some w r ere round, others square, and others oval. All of them were turn- ed towards the east, and stood lower than the statues of the gods, and were gene- rally adorned with sculpture, inscriptions, and the leaves and flowers of the particu- lar tree consecrated to the deity. Thus, the altars of Jupiter were decked with oak, those of Apollo with laurel, those of Venus with myrtle, and those of Minerva with olive. The height of altars also differed ac- cording to the different gods to whom they sacrificed. Tbose of Jhe celestial ALT gods were raised to a great height above the {pound; those appointed for the ter- restrial were almost on a level with the surface of the earth ; and on the contra- ry, they dug a hole for the altars of the infernal gods. According to Servius, the first were called alturia, the second ars, and the last crobicult; but this distinction is not t-v cry where observed, for we find in the best authors, the wordara, as a ge- neral word, including the altars of celes- tial, infernal, and terrestrial gods. Hefore temples were in use, altars were erected sometimes in groves, sometimes in the high ways, and sometimes on the tops of mountains; and it was a custom to engrave upon them the name, proper ensign, or character of the deity to whom they were consecrated. Thus, St. Paul observed an altar at Athens, with an in- scription To the unknown God. In the great temples of ancient Rome, there were ordinarily three altars; the first was placed in the sanctuary, at the f oo t of the statue of the divinity, upon which incense was burnt, and libations offered : the second was before the gate of the temple, and upon it they sacrificed the victims: and the third was a portable al- tar, upon which were placed the offer- ings and the sacred vessels. llcsides these uses of the altars, the an- cients swore upon them, and swore by them, in making alliances, confirming treaties of peace, and on other solemn occasions. Altars also served as a place of refuge and sanctuary to all those who Hcd to them, whatever crime they had committed. ALTAR is also used, among Christians, for the communion-table. Al.TKHNATK, in heraldry, is said in cespect of the situation of the quarters. Tims the first and fourth quarters, and the second and third, are usually of the same nature, and are called alternate quart i ALTERNATION is used for the dif- ferent ways which any number of quanti- ties may be changed, or combined COM HIXAT1O3T. ALTHJEA, marsh-mallow, in botany, a genus of plants, with a double calyx, the exterior one being divided into nine seg- ments; the fruit consists of numerous capsules, each containing a singh h belongs to the Monodelphia I'olyan- dria class and order. There are nine spe- cies. The A. officinalis is perennial, and flowers from .Inly to September. It grows plentifully in salt marches, and on the banks of rivers and ditches, in many parts ALU of England, Holland, France, Italy, Sibe- ria, &c. It has been in great request in every country where medicine has been regularly cultivated. All its parts abound with a glutinous juice, with scarcely any smell or peculiar tas'.e. ALTiMKTKY, denotes the art of mea- suring altitudes or heights, bee MK.NSI- lULTION. ALTITUDE, in geometry, one of the three dimensions of body ; being the same w ith what is otherwise called height. Altitude of a figure is the distance of its vertex from its base, or the length of a perpendicular let fall from, the vertex to the base. Thales is supposed to have been the first person who applied the principles of geometry to the mensuration of altitude : y means of the staff he measured the height of the pyramids of Egypt, making the altitude of the staff and pyramid pro- portional to the length of the shadows. ALTITCUE, in optics, is the height of an object above a line, drawn parallel to the horizon from the e\e of the ob.server. ALTITUDE of the eye, in perspective, is its perpendicular height above the geo- metrical plane. ALTITUDE of a star, f^c. in astronomy, is an arch of a vertical circle, intercepted between the stars and the horizon. This altitude is eithertrue or apparent, according as it is reckoned from the ra- tional or sensible horizon, and the diffe- rence between these is what is called by astronomers the parallax of altitudt. Near the horizon, this altitude is always increased by means of refraction. AxTrnmv qf*the mercury, in the baro- meter and thermometer, is marked bv de- grees, or equal divisions, placed by the side of the tube of those instruments. The altitude of the mercury in the baro- meter, in and about the metropolis, is usually comprised between 28.4 and o0.6 inches : in the course of the last years it has not varied from these limits more than twice. During the same pe- piod, the thermometer in the shade has been rarely higher than 82 or 80, anil this seldom more than three or four times in a whole summer, nor often lower titan about 8 or 10 below the freezing point. This decree of cold is not commmi. \LTO-Ur.l.lK\0. See UKI.IKV... ALUM, in chemistry and the arts, is denominated the sulphate of alumina, though it is not merely a combination of alumina with the sulphuric acid. It pos- tlic following characters : 1. It has sh astringent tasK'. C. It is aolu: ALUM. hie in warm water, and the solution red- dens vegetable colours, which proves the arid to bo in excess. 3. When mixed wi'h a solution of carbonate of potash, an effervescence is produced by the un- combined acid, which prevents the first portions of alkali that are added to the solution of sulphate of alumina from occa- sioning any precipitate. 4. When sulphate of alumina is heated, it swells up, loses its regular form, and becomes a dry spongy mass ; but, according to the experiments of Vauquelin, the whole of its acid cannot be thus expelled. 5. The combination of sulphuric acid with alumina is incapable of crystallizing without an addition of potash, which makes a constituent part of all the alum of commerce. 6. It is de- composed by charcoal, which combines with the oxygen of the acid, and leaves the sulphur attached to the alumina. Dr. Thomson says there are four varie- ties of alum, allot' which are triple salts; two neutral, and two he calls super-salts. These are thus denominated : 1. Sulphate of alumina and potash. 2. Sulphate of alumina and ammonia. 3. Super-sulphate of alumina and potash. 4. Super-sulphate of alumina and am- monia. The discovery of alum was made in Asia, from whence it continued to be im- ported till the end of the fifteenth centu- ry, when a number of alum works were established in Italy. In the sixteenth century it was manufactured in Germany and Spain; and during Queen Elizabeth's reign an alum manufactory was establish- ed in England. The alum of commerce is usually obtained from native mixtures of pyrites and clay, or sulphuric acid and clay. Bergman has published a very com- plete dissertation on the process usually followed. The earth from which it is pro- cured is usually called aluminous shistus, because it is slaty. Its colour is blackish, because it contains some bitumen. In most cases it is necessary to burn it be- fore it can be employed: this is done by means of a slow smothered fire. Some- times long exposure to the weather is sufficient to produce an efflorescence of alum on the surface. It is then lixiviated, and the water concentrated by evapora- tion, and mixed with putrid urine, or mu- riate of potash; crystals of alum and of sulphate of iron usually form together. The composition of alum has been but hitely understood with accuracy. It has been long known, indeed, that one of its ingredients is sulphuric acid ; and the ex- periments of Pott and Margraff proved in contestibly that alumina is another ingre- dient But sulphuric acid and alumina are incapable of forming alum. Manu- facturers knew that the addition of a quan- tity of potash or of ammonia, or of some substance containing these alkalies,, is al- most always necessary, and it was proved, that in every case in which such additions are unnecessary, the earth from which the alum is obtained contains already a quan- tity of potash. Various conjectures were made about the part which potash acts in this case ; but Vauquelin and Chaptal ap- pear to have been the first chemists that ascertained, by decisive experiments, that alum is a triple salt, composed of sulphu- ric acid, alumina, and potash or ammonia united together. Alum crystallizes in re- gular octahedrons, consisting of two four- sided pyramids applied base to base. The sides are equilateral triangles. The form of its integrant particles, according to Hauy, is the regular tetrahedron. Its taste is, as we have observed, astringent. It always reddens vegetable blues. Its specific gravity is 1.7109. At the tempe- rature of 60 it is soluble in from 15 to 20 parts of water, and in fths of its weight of boiling water. When exposed to the air it effloresces slightly. When exposed to a gentle heat it undergoes the watery fusion A strong heat causes it to swell and foam, and to lose about 44 per cent, of its weight, consisting chiefly of water of crystallization. What remains is call- ed calcined or burnt alum, and is some- times used as a corrosive. By a violent heat, the greater part of the acid may be driven off. Though the properties of alum are in all cases pretty nearly the same, it has been demonstrated by Vau- quelin that three varieties of it occur in commerce. The first is, super-sulphate of alumina and potash ; the second, super- sulphate of alumina and ammonia; the third, is a mixture or combination of these two, and contains both potash and ammo- nia. It is the most common of all ; doubt- less, because the alum-makers use both urine and the muriate of potash to crys- tallize their alum. Vauquelin has lately analysed a number of specimens of alum manufactured in different countries. The result was, that they all contain very near- ly the same proportion of ingredients The mean of all his trials was as follows Acid 30.52 Alumina 10.50 Potash 10.40 Water 48.58 100.00 ALU ALU M'hrn an unusual quantity of potash is :ed to Jum liquor, tli' s its ,.il form, and crystallizes in cubes. This constitutes a fourth him, usual!) .> species; but ac- cording Marty n only 17. All the spe- cies may be propagated by seed, and most of them by slips and cuttings. In rich ground they seldom live through the win- ter in England; but in dry, poor, rub- bishy soil, or on old walls, they will abide the cold, and last much longer. AM VI. (. VM, in the arts. The metals in general unite very readily with one another, and form compounds; thus pew- ter is a compound of lead and tin, brass is a compound of copper and xinc, &c. These are all called alloys, except when one of the combining metals is mercury ; in that case the compound is called an amalgam : thus mercury and gold form a compound called tin- amalgam of gold. The amalgam of gold is formed very readily, because there is a very strong af- finity between the two metals. If a bit of gold be dipped into mercury, its surface, by combining with mercury, becomes as white as silver. The easiest wax of form- ing this amalgam is, to throw small pieces of red hot gold into mercury heated till it begins to smoke. The proportions of the ingredients are not determinable, be- cause they combine in any proportion. This amalgam is of a silverv whin ness. By squeezing it through leather, the cx- t mercury may be .separated, and a .-.oft white amalgam obtained, which gra- dually be.coi.ies solid, and con- about one part of mercury to two of gold. It melts at a moderate temperature ; and in a heat below redness the mercury eva- porates, ami leaves the gold in a state of purity. It is much used in gilding amalgam is spread upon the metal which is to be gilt; and then, by the applica- tion of a gentle ami equal heat, the mer- cury is driven ott', and the gold left adhe- ring to the metallic surface : this surface is then rubbed whb a brass wire brush under waier, and afterwards burnished The amalgam of silver is made in the same manner as that of gold, and with equal ease. It forms dentrical crystal:-. which contain eight parts of mercury and one of silver. It is of a white colour, and is alu ays of a soft consistence. Its spe- cific gravity is greater than the mean of the two metals. Gillert has even re- marked, that when thrown into pure mer- cury, it sinks to the bottom of that liquid. AVhen heated sufficiently, the mercury is volatili/ed, and the silver remains behind pure. This amalgam is sometini'- ployed, like that of gold, to cover the sur- [' tin- inferior metals with a thin coat of silver. The amalgam of tin and mercury is much used in electricity. Sec GOLMM. AMAUANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia Pentandria CUM and or- der, of the TriandriaTryginiaof Gmelin's Linnaeus; its characters are, that those species which have male flowers on the same plants with the females have a ca- lyx, which is a five or three-leaved peri anthium, upright, coloured, and pcrma nent ; the leaflets lanceolate and acute , no corolla ; the stamina have five or three; capillary filaments, from upright, patu lous, of the length of the calyx, the an- thers oblong and versatile : of those which have female flowers in the same with the males, the calyx is a pcrianthi- um the same with the former ; no corol- la ; the pistillum has an ovate germ, styles three, short and subulate. ; stigiii pie and permanent ; the pericarpium is an ovate capsule, somewhat comp: as is also the calyx on which it is placed, coloured, and of the same size, three beaked, one-celled, cut open trail 1\ ; the .seed is single, globular, com- 1, and large. There are 22 spe- cies, of which we notice A. melancolicus, two-coloured A. with glomerules, axilla- ry, peduncled, roundish, and leat es ovate- lanceolate, and coloured. This species \ ai ies in the colour of the lea\ is ; being 1 in the open air of a dingy puqiK on their upper surface, and the younger ones green ; in a stove the whole plant is pur- ple-coloured ; but it is easily distinguish- ed in all states by its colour, lea\ the U^'ness of its flowering, after all the AMA AMA others are past : it is joined by I.a Marck with a tri-colour; a native of Guiana and the East-Indies, and cultivated in 1731 by Miller. The obscure purple and bright crimson of the leaves are so blend- ed as to set ofl' each other, and, in the vigorous state of the plants, make a fine appearance. A. tri-color, three-colour- ed A. with glomerules sessile, roundish ; stem clasping", and leaves lanceolate-ovate, coloured. This has been long cultivated, being in the garden of Gerard in 1596, for the beauty of its variegated loaves, in which the colours are elegantly mixed ; these, when the plants arc vigorous, are large and closely set from the bottom to the top of the stalks, and the branches form a kind of pyramid, and therefore there is not a more handsome plant when in full lustre : a native of Guiana, Persia, Ceylon, China, Japan, the Society Isles, &c. A. lividus, livid A. These are the most worthy of a place in the pleasure- garden ; but they are tender, and require attention. They are usually disposed in pots, with cocks-combs and other showy plants, for adorning court-yards, and the cnvii-ons of the house. The seedsof these should be sown m a moderate hot-bed, about the end of March ; and when the plants come up, they should have much air in miid weal her. 'When they are fit for transplanting, they should be removed to another moderate hot-bed, and placed at six inches distance, watering and sha- ding them till they have taken new root ; afterwards the} should have free air, and frequent but gentle waterings. In the be- ginning of June they should be taken up, with large balls of earth to their roots, and planted either in pots or the borders of the pleasure -garden, shaded till they have taken root, and afterwards frequent- ly watered in diy weather. The tree amaranth must be planted in a rich light soil, and if it be allowed room, and well watered in dry weather, it will grow to a large size, and make a fine appearance. The other sorts are sufficiently hardy to bear the open air, and may be sown on a bed of light earth, in the spring, and when the plants are fit to remove, transplanted into any part of the garden, where they will thrive, and produce plenty of seedy. AMARILLIS, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and or- der, of the natural order of Liliae or Lilia- ceae ; its characters arc, that the calyx is a spathe, oblong, obtuse, compressed, emarginate, gaping on the flat side, and withering; the corolla has six petals, lanceolate, the nectary has six very short scales without the base of the filaments -, the stamina have six awl-shaped filaments, with oblong, incumbent, rising anthers ; the pistillum has a roundish, furrowed, inferior germ, the style filiform, almost of the length and in the situation of the sta- mens, the stigma trifid and slender; the pericarpium is a subovate, three-celled, three-valved capsule ; and the seeds are several. The inflection of the petals, stamens, and pistil, is very various in the different species of this genus ; and the corolla in most of the species is rather hexapetaloid than six-petalled. Gmelin reckons 27 species. A lutea, yellow, A. or autumnal narcissus, with an undivided obtuse spathe, sessile ; flower bell sha- ped ; corolla erect, shortly tubular at the base, and erect stamens, alternately shorter; the flowers seldom rise above three or four inches high ; the green leaves come up at the same time, and when the flowers are past, the leaves in- crease through the winter. This species recedes a little from the genus. It is a native of the south of France, Spain, Italy, and Thrace : was cultivated by Gerard, in 1596, and flowers in September. A. formosissima, jacobea lily, so called, because some imagined that they disco- vered in it a likeness to the badge of the order of the knights of the order of St. James, in Spain, the lilio-narcissus and narcissus of others, with a spathe undi- vided, flower pedicelled, corolla two-lip- ped, nodding, deeply six-parted stamens, and pistil bent down. The flowers are produced from the sides of the bulbs, are large, of a deep red, and make a beauti- ful appearance : it is a native of America, first known in Europe in 1593, some roots of it having been found on board a ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Jovar, a physician at Seville, who sent a description of the flowers to Clusius, who published a drawing of it in 1601, called, by Parkinson, who figured it in 1629, the Indian daffodil, with a red flower : cultivated in the Oxford Garden in 1658. A. regime, Mexican lily, with spathe, having about two flowers, pedicels divaricating, corollas bell-shaped, shortly tubular, nodding, throat of the tube hir- sute, and leaves lanceolate, patulous ; the bulb is green, corolla scarlet, and at the bottom whitish green, the style red, the flowers large, of a bright copper colour, inclined to red : it flowered in Fairchild's garden, at Hoxton, in 1728 ; and Dr. Douglas wrote a folio pamphlet upon it, givingit the title of lilium reginx, because it was in full beauty on the first of March, AMA AMU the queen's birth-day: ihc roots were brought from Mexico. and there-tore Mr. Fain liild called ii Mexican lily, the name which it has retained. It flowers in the spring in :i very warm stove ; is in beauty .ii:iry ; and in a n :ipera- ture of air will flower in Maivh or April. A. s:triii<-sis, liliuni sarnie use of Douglas, wlio published a description of it i is of others; (iuenise\ lily, so called by Mr. Ray in 1665; with petals linear, flat, stamens and ])istil straight ish, longer than ihc corolla, >tigma.s, parted tod revolnte. The bulb is an oblong spheroid ; the leaves are dark willow 1 In- number of flowers is common- ly from eight to twehe, and circumfer- ence of each about seven inches; the co- rolla, in its prime, has the colour of a fine gold tissue, wrought on a rose-coloured ground, and when it begins to fade, it is u pink : in full sunsnine, it seems to be studded with diamonds, but by candle- light the specks or spangles appear more like fine gold dust ; when the petals be- gin to wither, they assume a deep crim- son colour. The flowers begin to come out ai the end of August, and the head is ks in gradually expand- ing. This beautiful plant is a native of Japan, and has been long naUirali/.cd in (i'vrnsey. it is said to have been brought :5. The plants I to owe their origin in Guernsey to the shipwreck of a vessel re- turning from Japan, probably before the middle of the scvcntcctrh cei,r,ir\. The bulbs, it is said, h n shore, took ha: sandv soil, and produced beau- tiful flowers, which i- imaged the attention of Mr. llatton, the governor's son, who sent roois to several of his friends ricu of this, found at : M.ood !Io])e, i.-, described b\ .lac ni'.nwiih a ma- MV-ilowered spathe, coni'las very |i;itent and reflex at tlu- ap-x. ,| p'siil s.iiue\\ hat straight, longer tlnu ihe corol- la, and leaves ensitorm-lincar. -;>e<-ii s ha\ <:ful flowers, and merit the Attention of the botanist and The first, or yellow autumnal A. is \er\ hardv, and increases by offsets. 'I'he season for transplanting these roots .s from May to the end of .Inly, when the ;ire decayed They will grow in .my soil or situation ; but they will thrive best in a fresh, light, drv soil, and open VOL. I situation, and will keep flowering from the beginn'-ug of September to the middle of \o\i iii'u r. provided that 'h. ;. escape id a succession of flowers will spring from the same root. The Guernsey lily has been cultivated for ma- n\ years in the gardens of (iuernsey and Jerse\ , v hence the roo s arc sent to most parts of Kurope. The bulbs art common- ly brought over in June and July, and the\ should then be planted in pots filled with fresh, light, sandy earth, mixed with a small quantity of very rotten dung, placed in a warm situation, and occasion- ally refreshed with water. About the middle of September the stronger roots will shew their red-coloured flower-stem ; and then the pots should be removed into a situat : on where they may have the full benefit of the sun, and be sheltered from strong winds; but not placed under glasses, or too near a wall, which would draw them up, and render them less beau- tiful. When the flowers begin to open, the pots should be put under shelter, so as to be secure from too much wet, but not kept too close or too warm. The flowers will cont.nue in beauty fora month; and, though w : thout scent, their rich co- lour entitles them to the first rank in the flowery tribe. AMASONIA, in botany, a genius of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order: calyx five cleft : corolla tubular with a small five-cleft border : berry four-seeded, are two species. AMATKl'K, in the arts, denotes a per- son understanding, loving, or practising the fine arts, wi< bout any regard to pecu- niary advantage. AMH \ss \l )OI?, a person appointed by one sovereign power to another, to super- intend his atl'airs at some foreign court, and supposed toreprescnt the power from which he is sent. 'I'he pel-son of an am- .',T is inviolable. _ \ AMIH'.H, in mineralogy, a resinous sub- \ stance-, called by the ancients electmm, found in different countries; but n abundant]) in Prussia, either on the sea- shore, or under ground, at the depth of 100 feet, reposing on wood coal. It is ob- tained in lumps of different sj/.cs. There are the white and the yellow amber. 1. The white amber is in colour straw -\ el- low . inclining to yellowish white ; but 2. The \ellow amber is a wax-yellow ] ing to a honey-yellow, yellouish brown, and hyacinth-red. It is found in blunt .'ha rough surface. It is rather brittle, and its specific gravity is from 1.07 to 1.08. Amber burns with a yeUow-co- a AMU AM1J loured flume, and, if the heat he- enough, melts, and emits a pec' ilu. p able ixlour, and leaves little aslu s. When rubbed, k acquires a strong nep-athc e!< <- tricul virtue. From this property is de- rived the word electricity. It is com- posed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Amber is often found in the alluvial de- posit (usually called Marie) of New-Jer- sey. According to Sir .1. Hill, it is said that amber has been found in digging in- to the alluvial land in the vicinity of Lon- don. It is found sometimes on the sea- shores of several parts of England. Being susceptible of a fine polish, it is cut into necklaces, bracelets, snuff-boxes, and other articles of dress. Before the discove- ry of the diamond and other pi- stones of India, it v :as considered tube the most precious of jewels, and was employ- ed in all kinds of ornamental dress : altars were likewise ornamented with it. The greatest quantity at present consumed in commerce is purchased by Armenian and Grecian merchants, for the use, it is con- jectured, of pilgrims, previously to their journey to Mecca, and that on their ar- rival there it is burnt in honour of the pro- phet Mahomet. The acid and oil obtain- ed from it are used as medicines. If often contains insects of various spe- cies, in a state of complete preservation, also leaves, and other parts of vegetables. Various conjectures have been made re- sp< ct'.ng its origin and formation. By some it is, as we have already seen, con- sidered as a vegetable gum or resin ; others regard it as a mineral oil, thicken- ed by the absorption of oxygen; and Mr. Parkinson is of opinion, that it is in ted mineral oil. There was lately found in Prussia a massof amber which weighed upwards of 13 pounds, the contents of which amounted to 318? cubic inches. Five thousand dollars are said to have been offered for it ; and the Armenian merchants assert, that in Constantinople it would sell for six times that price at least. Pitch-coal is sometimes found with amber, and is called black, and is sold to the ignorant at a great price. Spe- cimens inclosing insects, &c. are highly valued, and the amber-dealers are said to be possessed of means of softening it, in order to introduce insects and other fo- reign bodies into it. Two parts of the cmpyreumatic oil obtained by distilling mineral pitch boiled several times, with three parts of turpentine, form a com- pound, which b.-arsa great resemblance to amber, and which is often cut into necklaces and other ornaments, and sold as true amber. AMMKRtiK'IS, in chemistry, is a sub- stance found floating on the sea, near the, coasts of India, Africa, and Brazil, usual- ly in small pieces, but sometimes in mass- es of 50 or 100 pounds in weight. Vari- ous opinions have been entertained con- cerning its origin. Some affirmed that it was the concrete juice t>f a tree ; others thought it a bitumen ; but it is now esta- blished, that it is a concretion, formed in tlie stomach or intestines of the physeter maci-ocephulus, or spermaceti whale. Am- bergris, when pure, is a light soft sub- stance which swims on water. Its speci- fic gravity varies from 0.78 to 0.844. Its colour is ash-grey, with brownish yellow and white streaks. It has an agreeable smell, which improves by keeping. Its taste is insipid. When heated to 122, it melts without frothing ; if the heat be in- creased to 212, it is volatilized completely in a white smoke, leaving only a trace of charcoal. Whendistilled, we obtain a whi- tish acid liquid and a light volatile oil ; a bulky charcoal remains behind. It is in- soluble in water. Acids have little action on it Weak sulphuric acid occasions no change ; but, when concentrated, it de- velopes a little charcoal. Nitric acid dis- solves it, giving out at the same time ni- trous gas, carbonic acid, and azotic gas. Afbrownish liquid is formed, which leaves, when evaporated to dry ness, a brittle brown substance, possessing the proper- ties of a resin. The alkalies dissolve it by the assistance of heat, and form a soap soluble in water. Both the fixed and vola- tile oils dissolve ambergris. It is soluble also in ether and alcohol. It possesses the properties of the salty matter into which the muscles are converted by nitric acid, and which makes its appearance when dead bodies are allowed to putrefy in great numbers together. This substance has been distinguished by the name of adipo- cire, from its resemblance both to fat and wax. The quantity of it in ambergris, amounts to 52.8 parts. According to the analysis of ambergris made by Bouillon La Grange, it is composed of 52.7 adipocire 30.8 resin 11.1 benzoic acid 5.4 charcoal 1.000 AMBIDEXTER, a peson who can use both hands with the same facility, and for the same purposes, that the generality of people do their rght hands. Were it not for education, some think AME AMK that all mankind would be ambidexters ; and, in fact, we frequently find nurses obliged to be at a good deal of pains be- fore they can bring cliildrcn to forego the use of their left hands. It is to he regret- ted, that any ot'tlic gifts of nature should he thus rendered in a great measure tise- isions in life which require the equal use of both hands: such :is the operations of ble-d- ing in tin- h-fr arm, left ancle, &c. AMHKOSIA, in botany, the name of a dJNiinct genus of plants, with flosculous flowers, composed of several small infun- dibnliform flosruh s, divided into fr nients; these, however, are barren ; the fruit, which in some measure resembles a club, Bowing on other parts of the plant. This genus belong to the Monoecia Pentandria class and order. There aie five species. AMHUOSIMA, in botany, a genus of 'lu- Monoecia Monadelphia class and or- der : of which there is a species found in the island of Sicily : spathc one-leaf panited hy a memhranaccous partition, containing the stamina in the him: and upper part of the partition, pisiil- i:i the outer cell, and lower part of the par- tition : the root is tube radi- .d shining. AMUrsr AI)F., or A Mil! K AH \ husbandry, d to impro\e the lands on \\hioli they an cultivated. ' those plants which have a large >tem and shady leaf are thought to ren- ders the soils on which they grow more f.Ttile. by producing a confined or stag- nant state of the air. The improvement of lands, by what are called ameliorating crops, probably depends upon the culture which the ground receives while 1 1. growing,and the returns which the\ make to it in the way of manure, after*. 1 Consumed by animals. v.MFA, in the scripture language, a -olemn formula, or conclusion toai. 'r, signifying, */> /v it. The term.; nvw, being de- i-ived from the verb, iimaii, i. r. to be true, faithful, &c. so that, strictly speaking, ii signifies truth ; and, useil advcrbiallv , as is frequently done in th verily. Sometimes it is repeated twice together, and then it stands for the super- lative, as .mm, iinit-n, ilic'i --iibif. The word, in music, forms the conclusion of anthems, hvmns, and other sacred compositions ; and has so long been one of the principal themes of choral harmony, as to have given birth to a dis- tinct appellation for music adapted to its -..on: as when, u.->iiigthe word ad- . Mich an oratorio or an- them concludes with an .iinni chorus. A \IF.M), OI-AMKMIK, in the French customs, a pecuniary punishment imposed by a judge for :,ny crime, false prosecu- tion, or groundless app-:d. AHENKF h'in'ti-ali'.e, an infamous kind ofpunishment inflicted in France upon traitors, parricides, or - a per- sons, in the follow ingmnmer:tfte offender being delivered into the hands of the hang- man, his shirt is stripped oH', and a rojje p.it ai)out his n<-ek, and a taper in his hand; then he is led into court, where he must be pardon of God, the King, the Court, and his Country. Sometimes the punishment ends here, but some*:: is only a prelude to death, or banishment to the gaiT- Amende honorable is a term also used for making recantation in open court, or person injured. AMI. \ DM l..\ I', in law, the correction :-ror committed in a process, which .led after judgment, the error lies in giving judgment, for in that eas.- it is not amendable, but the par- ty must bring a writ of error. Abii '.tended on the file at any time before the plea is pleaded; but not aft' :ii(jtion and leave of the court. AMKIJCF.MF.NT, or A- in law, a pecuniary punishment in: upon offenders at the mercN of the court. Amercements ditl'er from fines, the latter ,its growii prcs-,1*, from some sta'.i ..s the former are imposed arbitrarily, in propor- tion to the fault. . the court, hut amercement* b> the eountn'. . othi.T.s can onlv an. Sheriffs ar their otlice:--;, an.; tlie peaci; may be amerced in the King's-bench for : mils in in I d to urt. A town is :;t for .ipe of a murderer in the day-time, :.nd if til'- t'lwnis AME AME 1 amercement, whether the escape hap- pens by day or night. The statute of Magna Charta ordains, that a free-man is not to be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the of- fence by ti : s peers and equals. AMKimiXl.M. or AMF.UMIM.V, in botu!is a geir is of the DiadelphiaDecan- dria rhss and order; of the natural order of 1'apilionacez orLeguminosse ; the cha- racters of which are, that the calyx is acnc'-leafi-d perianthium; tube bell shap- ed, five toothed, the teeth sharp ; the co- rolhi papilionaceous standard with an ob- IOMLT claw, roundish, heart-shaped, ex- panding and convex, wings lanceolate, shorter than the standard, and keel short; the stamina have ten filaments conjoined, anthers roundish ;the pistillum has a srum pedicelled, oblong, compressed, leafy, va- ricose, with lateral veins, within woody, no 1 gaping; cells disposed longitudinally within : the seeds solitary, kidney-shaped, thicker at the base, appendicted at the top. There are two species, viz. 1. A. Brownei : this shrub rises commonly to the height of ten feet, and supports itself on ether shrubs. It is a native of Cartha- grna. Jamaica, and Domingo. 2. A. ebe- iris. Jamaica ebony, which is common in Jamaica and several other parts of the ~\V< st ln and its fruit is a small round ish and stri- ated capsule, containing two striated seeds, convex on one side, and plane on tin- other. There are four species. AMMODYTES, in natural history, the launci; a genus of fishes, of the order Apodes : head compressed, narrower than the body : upper lip doubled: lower jaw narrow, pointed: teeth small and sharp. Gill-membrane seven-rayed: body long, roundish, with very small scales : tail dis- tinct. A. tobianus, or sand launce, so named from its shape. It inhabits the northern seas; and is from 9 to 12 inches long. It buries itself on the recess of the tides a foot deep in the sand, and in fine weather rolls itself up and lifts its nose just above the sand; it is the prey of other rapacious fish ; the flesh is tolerably good, but it is used in most cases as baits. The launce lives on worms, water-insects, and small fishes, and even occasionally on those of its own species. The mackarel is very partial to this fish as its own food. The launce spawns in May, depo- siting its eggs in the mud, near the edges of the r A M MOM A, in chemistry. Volatile al- kali, in its purest form, subsists in a state of gas, and was thought, till the late expe- riments of Mr. Davy, to be composed of a/.ote and hydrogen. It may be obtained inthefollowingmanner: put into a retort a mixture of three parts of quick-lime and one part of sal ammoniac in powder. Plunge the beak of the retort below the mouth of a glass jar filled with mercury, and standing inverted in a busin of mer- cury. Ap|il\ the heat of a lamp to the retort : a gas comes over, which d^ the mercury and nils the jar. This gas is ammonia. It was known by the name of volatile alkali; it was also called harts- horn, because it was often obtained b\ distilling the horn of the hart ; spirit 01' urine, because it maybe obtained by the same process from urine ; and spirit ot sal ammoniac, because it may be obtained from that salt. Dr. ISlack first pointed ou the difference between ammonia and car- bonate of ammonia, orammonia combined with carbonic acid; and Dr. I'riestlcy dis covered the method of obtaining it, in : state of purity, by the process already described. Ammonia, in the s'atc of gas, is transparent and co!o'irles> like air; it> - acrid and caustic like that of tin- fixed alkalies but not nenrlv so strong, not- AMM AMM docs it like them corrode those animal bodies to which it is applied ; its smell is remarkably pungent, though not unplea- sant when sufficiently diluted. Its use as :i stimulant to prevent fain ing- is well known. Animals cannot breathe it with- out death. When a lighted candle is let down into this gus, it goes out three or four times successively; but at each time the flame is considerably enlarged by the addition of another flame of a pale yel- low colour, and at last this flame descends from the top of the vessel to the bottom. Its specific gravity, according to the ex- periments of'Kirwan, is 0.60, that of air being 1.00; while Mr. Davy, whose gas was probably purer, found it 0.55. At the temperature of 60, a hundred cubic inches of this gas weigh, according to Kirwan, 18.16 grains, according to Davy, 17.068. Hence it is to common air nearly as 3 to 5. When exposed to a cold of 4 5 it is condensed into a liquid, which again assumes the gaseous form, when the temperature is raised. When passed through a red hot tube of porcelain or glass, it is totally decomposed, and con- verted into hydrogen and azotic gas. It combines very rapidly with water. When a bit of ice is brought into contact with this gas, it melts, and absorbs the ammo- nia, while at the same time its tempera- ture is diminished. Cold water absorbs this gas almost instantaneously, and at the same time heat is evolved, and the specific gravity of the water is diminish- ed. Water is capable of absorbing and condensing more than athird of its weight of ammoniacal gas. It is in this state that ammonia is usually employed by chemists. The term ammonia almost always means this liquid solution of am- monia in water. When heated to the temperature of about 130, the ammo- nia separates under the form of gas. When exposed to the temperature of 46, it crystallizes; and when sud- denly cooled down to 68, it assumes the appearance of a thick jelly, and has scarcely any smell. It follows, from the experiments of Mr. Davy, that a satura- sed solution of ammonia is composed of 74.6.3 water. 25.37 ammonia. 100.00 Charcoal absorbs ammoniacal gas, but does not alter its properties wliilc cold. But when the gas is made to pass through red hot charcoal, part of the charcoal combines with it, and forms a substance known by the name of prussic acid. Am- monia is not acted on by azote ; but it combines rapidly with muriatic acid ; the two gases concreting into the solid salt called muriate of ammonia. Ammonia does not combine with the metals ; but it changes some of them into oxydes, and then dissolves them. Liquid ammonia is capable of dissolving the oxydes of sil- ver, copper, iron, tin, nickel, zinc, bis- muth, and cobalt. When digested upon the oxydes of mercury, lead, or mangan- ese, it is decomposed, water is formed by the union of the hydrogen of the ammo- nia with the oxygen of the oxydes, and azotic gas is emitted. If a considerable heat be applied, nitric acid is formed at the same time with water. Several other oxydes are also partly deoxidized, when ammonia is poured into their solutions in acids. See ALKALI, CHKMISTKY, &c. AMMONIAC, in chemistry, a gum re- sin brought from the East Indies. It is supposed to be a species of the Ferula. It is in small pieces agglutinated together, and has a yellowish white colour. Its smell is like that of the galbanum, but more pleasant. Its taste is a nauseous sweet mixed with bitter. It does not melt. Water dissolves a portion of it ; the so- lution is milky, but gradually lets fall a resinous portion. One-half is soluble in alcohol. Its specific gravity is 1.2. Nei- ther alcohol nor water, distilled off it, brings over any thing. AMMONITRUM. See GLASS. AMMOPHILA, in natural history, the .'and--a-f:sp,SL genus of insects of the order Hymenoptera : gen. char, snout conic, in- flected, concealing a bifid retractile tubu- lar tongue : jaws forcipated, three-tooth- ed at the tip ; antennae filiform in each sex, with about 14 articulations : eyes oval : wings plain : sting pungent, concealed in the abdomen. This genus is separated from that of the sphex, on the authority of the Rev. Mr. Kirby : in their manners and economy they resemble each other; and it is probable that many more of the spheges might with propriety be removed into this genus. There are four species : A. vulgaris inhabits Europe, in sandy, sunny banks, where it digs a hole with its fore-feet, and buries the carcase of the larva of a moth or half dead spider, in the body of which it has deposited its eggs, anil then covers up the orifice. AMMUNITION, a general term for all warlike provisions, but more especially powder, ball, Sec. Ammunition, arms, utensils of war, A.MN AMO without i ' ' ar< , 1>\ t!ic!:iv. sol land. forfeited, and tripK tin- \alue. And again, sin tuinrd, cx- eeptfbr furnishin ])iihlic ul, and the (mender to incur a prrcmtmire, and to he disabled U> hold any office f >\\ n. A M\ K> l'\ , in ;.::ii:crs of policy, an act, by which two part us at \;ir<:mc<.: promise to pardon and hury in oblivion all that is past. AnmcsU is cither general and unlimit- fd, or particular and restrained, though most commonly universal, without con- dition-, or i-vtvptions; such as that which passed in del-many at the peace of Osna- burg in the \ ear 1648. Amnesty, in a more limited sense, dc- parclon .^ranted by a prince to his rebellious subjects, usually with some ex- ceptions : such was that granted by t'ha:-les II at his restoration. A M \ I os. in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane, which surrounds the foetus. The fu-tus in the ulerusis enveloped in ;liar mcmbranaceous covering 1 , to which anatomists have given the name of amnios. Within this there is a liquid, 1 liy the name of the liquor of the amnios, which surrounds the fcrtuson evcr\ part. This liquid, as might have heen expected, is very different indif- ferent animals; at least the liquor amnii in women and in cows, which alone have hitherto been analysed, have not tin- smallest resemblance to i arh other. The li(|iior of the amnios of women is a fluid of a slightly milky colour, a weak plea- sant OOOur, and a saltish taste. The white colour is owing to a curdy matter suspended in it, for it may he obtained quite transparent by filtration. Its .spe- cific gravity is 1.005. It gives a green colour to the tincture of viole's. and \et it reddens very decidedly the tincture of turnsole. These two properties would in- dicate at once the presence ofan acid and of an alkali. It froths considerably when agitated. On the application of heat it becomes opaque, and has then a great re- semblance to milk diluted \\itha large quantity of water. At the same- time it exhales the odour of boiled while ol Acids render it more transparent. Alka- lies precipitate an animal matter in small flakes. Alcohol likewise prod*,. flaky precipitate, which, win n co! and dried, becomes transparent an like glue. The infusion of nut galls pro- ;i very copious brow n ool precipitate. Nitrate of M!V< r occasion* -t jiitatc, \\h ; ch ; > insoluble jit i.urntc of silver. The liquor of the amnios ot" idity similar to iniicil- -Mini arab'u-, a '.rownish red 1 a peculiar odour, not unlike that stable extracts. Its kpecitic graviu - It reddens the tincture of turnsole, and therefore contains an acid. Muriate of baryti - ..'mndant precipi- tate, which renders it probable that it contains sulphuric acid. Alcohol sepa- rates from it a great quantity of a reddish coloured matter. The animal matter M-S the following properties : It. h:;s ;i reddish brown colour and a peculi- ar taste; it is very soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, which has the pro- perly of separating it from water. When exposed to a strong heat, it swells, ex- hales first the odour of burning gum, then of cmpyreumatic oil, and of ammonia, and at last the peculiar odour of prussic acid becomes verv conspicuous. It dif- fers from gelatine in the \ iscidity w hich it communicates to water, in not forming a jelly when concentrated, and in not br- ing precipitated by tannin. It must be therefore ranked among the very unde- fined and inaccurate class of animal muci- lages. When burnt, it leaves a large por- tion of coal, which is readily incin. and leaves a little white p.shes, composed of phosphate of magnesia, and a small proportion of phosphate of lime. AMOMUM, in botany, a genus of th" Monandria Mon<};\nia class and the characters of which are, that thr calyx is a perianthium, one-loafed, c\ lin- di-accous, and unequally trih'd ; the co- rolla is monopetalous and funnel-shaped, tube c\ lindraccous, bo; :irted, >long and spreading: the nectary two-leaved or two-lipped. \O\\-T lip in- serted under the upper segment of the corolla, spreading almost erect, entire or three-lobcd ; the stamina have no fila- ment, except the upper lip of the ry smaller than the lower, and opposite to it, accumulate or three-lolied at the tip ; along the middle or at the end of which grows longitudinally a lar. long anther, germinate, or dividi >.l by a longitudinal furrow into two. w'.i. inn --\alved ; the pistillum has an inferior, oblonggerm, sty le filiform, drawn through the suture of the anther, stigma turbi- tusc and ciliate ; the pcricarpi- um a Hcslu capsule, o\ate. t! ed, three-celled, and U>rce-\ alved ; the . overed \\ iill a sort of AMO AMO berried aril. Gmelin, in his edition of LiniK'Ms, enumerates twenty species. A. zinziber, narrow-leaved ginger, cultiva- ted by Miller, and flowering' in Septem- ber, is a native of the East Indies, and other countries of Asia, and is much used there and in the West Indies. The dried roots furnish a considerable article of commerce from our West India islands ; they are of great use in the kitchen and in medicine, and when preserved green as a sweet-meat are preferable to every other sort. A. zerumbet, cultivated at Hampton-court, in 1690, and flowering with as from September to November, when the stalks perish like those of the true ginger ; a native of the East Indies, Cochinchina, &c. and also in Otaheite, and the other Society Isles. This is used externally in the East, in cataplasms and fomentations; but not internally, as spice or medicine ; though Garcias says, that it makes a better preserve with sugar than the other. As to tire propagation and culture of these plants, it may be ob- served, that they are tender, and require a warm stove to preserve them in this country. They are easily propagated by parting their roots, which should be done in the spring, before they put out new shoots, in parting the roots, they must not be divided into small pieces, espe- cially if they are designed to have flow- ers ; nor should they be planted in very large pots. They thrive best in a light rich earth, such as that of the kitchen garden ; and with this the pots should be filled within two inches of the top, and the roots should be placed in the middle of the pots, with their crowns upwards, and the pots should then be filled with the same earth ; they should be plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's bark, and spa- ringly watered, till their stalks appear above ground, when they will admit of more moisture, especially in the summer months ; but in autumn, the waterings must n ot be frequent nor plentiful, and during winter very sparing. The pots must constantly remain plunged in the tan-bed; for if they are taken out and placed on shelves in the stove, their fibres often shrink, and thus their roots decay. By this management these plants have greatly multiplied, and the common gin- ger has produced roots, weighing five or six ounces; but the others have been nearly a pound weight. In the West In- dies the ginger thrives best in a rich cool soil ; in a more clayey soil the root shrinks less in scalding. The land laid out for the culture of it is first well cleared and hoed, and then slightly trenched, and planted in March or April ; it flowers about September ; and when the stalks are wholly withered, the roots are fit to be taken up, which is generally done in January and February. AMONTONS (WILLIAM), in biogra- phy, an ingenious French experimental philosopher, was born in Normandy the 31st of August, 1663. While at the grammar school, he by sickness contract- ed a deafness that almost excluded him from the conversation of mankind. In this situation he applied himself to the study of geometry and mechanics, with which he was so delighted, that it is said he refused to try any remedy for his dis- order, either because he deemed it incu- rable, or because it increased his atten- tion to his studies. Among other objects of his study were, the arts of drawing, of land-surveying, and of building ; and shortly after he acquired some knowledge of those more sublime laws by which the universe is regidated He studied with great care the nature of barometers and thermometers ; and wrote his treatise of " Observations and experiments concern- ing a new Hour-glass, and concerning Barometers, Thermometers, and Hygros- copes;" as also some pieces in the Jour- nal des Savans. In 1687, he presented a new hygroscope to the Academy of Sci- ences, which was much approved. He found out a method of conveying intelli- gence to a great distance in a short space of time ; this was by making signals from one person to another, placed at as great distances from each other as they could see the signals by means of telescopes : this was unquestionably done upon the principle of modern telegraphs, which were brought into general use in 1794, almost a century after the death ot'Amon- tons. Amontons was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1699, as an elevc under the third astronomer ; and he read there his " New Theory of Fric- tion," in which he happily cleared up an important object in mechanics. He had a particular genius for making experi- ments; his notions were just and delicate: he knew how to prevent the inconve- niences of his new inventions, and had a wonderful skill in executing them. He died of an inflammation in his bowels, the llth of October, 1705, being only 42 years of age. His pieces are contained in the different volumes of the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences ; these are numerous, and upon various subjects, as the air, action of fire, barometers, AMI' .iiometers, hygrometers, fi-ietion, rhines, heat, cold, rarefactions, pun , ma- pumps, &c. I'll' -a 'in- \ olmnes 1696, 1699, 1702, 1703, 1704, and 1705. The diameter of Arnon- tons for integrity, modesty, and candour, no Irs* distinguished than his talents and genius in philosophical pursuits. , ins death in 1705, M. Fontenclle delivered an eleg-mt and impressive culo- i on his ment>. See MtMiURS of the 1 1 iy for tliat year. \\1<>U1'I( \, in botany, battard imlign, IMS of plants belonging to the Dia- delphia Decandria class of Linnaeus ; the flower of which consists of one petal, vertically ovated, hollow, and erect ; and the fruit is a hmulated pod, of a com- pressed form, and covered with tuber- cles, in which are contained two seeds, of an oblong kidney -like shape. There are two species. This shrub grows naturally in Carolina, where formerly the inhabitants math :i coarse sort of indigo, which occasioned its name of the bastard indigo. It rises with many irregular stems to the height of twelve or fourteen feei, with very long winged leaves. It was observed by Tlmn- bcrg in the island of Niphon, belonging to Japan, but is now become very com- mon in the gardens and nurseries near London, where it is propagated as a flowering shrub, it is propagated by from America. AMI'ELIS, in natural history, the chat- terer, a genus of birds of the order I'asseres, bill straight, convex, subincur- ved, each mandible notched : nostrils covered with bristles : tongue sharp, car- tilaginous, bifid: middle toe connected at the. base to the outside. There are, ac- cording to Gmclin, fourteen species . we shall notice the following: A. garrulus, or waxen chatterer; a beautiful bird about eight inches long. Its bill is black, and has a small notch at the end ; its eyes are placed in a band of black, which -in the bas< of the bill to the liinder part of the. head. Its throat is black; its featlu r.- on the head are long, forming I the upper parts of the bod) are of a reddish ash colour ; the breast and belly inclining to purple ; the tail feathers are black, tipped with pale jello\v ; tin- quills are black, the third and fourth tipped on their outer edges with white : the five following with straw colour, but in some bright yellow; the secondaries are tipped with white, 'i being pointed with a flat horny sub- ice of a bright \crmilion colour. VOL. I. AMP i appendages vary in different sub- Tliis rare bird mil .nd only at uncertain inU-rv.ils. Their sum- mer rcsi iiaps be considered as not ab-ohitely unexceptionable, the power of living with equal fac'diu both in land and vater be- ing not granted to all the animals which ..pose it ; \et.since it is certain that the major part are found to possess that faculty in a considerable decree, the title may be allowed to continue. The Am- T AMI' AMP phibia, from the peculiar structure of their organs, and the power which they possess of suspending respiration at sure, can not only support a change of element uninjured, but can also occa- Monally endure an abstinence, which would infallibly prove fatal to the higher order of animals. It has been a general doctrine among anatomists, that the hearts of the Amphibia were, in the technical phrase, unilocular, or furnished witli only one ventricle or cavity ; a doctrine main- tained by many eminent anatomists, and, in general, assented to by the greatest physiologists] as Boerhaave, Haller, &c. &c. and only occasionally called in ques- tion, on viewing in some animals of this tribe a seemingly different structure. Thus the French academicians of the seventeenth century pronounce the heart of an Indian land tortoise, which they examined, to have in reality three ventri- cles instead of one. Linnaeus, in his Sys- tcma Naturae, acquiesces in the general doctrine, and accordingly makes it a cha- racter of this class of animals. Among later physiologists, however, there are not wanting some who think it more correct to say, that the hearts of the Amphibia are in reality double, or furnished with two ventricles, with a free or immediate communication between them. The lungs of the Amphibia differ widely in their ap- peai-ance from those of other animals; consisting, in general, of a pair of large bladders or membranaceous receptacles, parted, in the different species, into more or fewer cancelli, or subdivisions, among which are beautifully distributed the pul- monary blood-vessels, which bear but a small proportion to the vesicular part through which they ramify ; whereas, in the lungs of the Mammalia, so great is the proportion of the blood-vessels, and so very small are the vesicles, or air-cells, that the lungs have a fleshy rather than a membranaceous appearance. In the Amphibia, therefore, the vesicular sys- tem may be said greatly to prevail over the vascular; and in the Mammalia, or warm-blooded animals, the vascular system to prevail over the vesicular. Many of the Amphibia are possessed of a high degree of reproductive power, and will be furnished with new feet, tails, &c. when those parts have by any accident been destroyed. Many are highly beautiful in their colours, as well as elegant in their forms ; while others, on the contrary, are, in the common ac- ceptation of the words, extremely deform- ed, and of unpleasing colours. Their bo- dies are sometimes defended by a hard, horney shield, or covering; sometimes rather by a coriaceous integument ; some- times by scales; and sometimes have no particular defence or coating, the skin be- ing merely marked by soft, pustular warts, or protuberances, more or less visible in the different species. The bones of the Amphibia, except in a very few instances, are of a more cartilaginous nature than in either the Mammalia or Birds : many spe- cies are destitute of ribs, while others have those parts very numerous : some are furnished with formidable teeth ; others are toothless : some are fierce and pre- dacious ; others inoffensive. Few, ex- cept among the serpent tribe, are of a poisonous nature, the general prejudice against them having arisen rather on ac- count of their form, than from any real poisonous quality ; but among the ser- pents, we meet with some species pos- sessed of the most dreadful poison, as well as with the power of applying it with fatal force to the animals which they at- tack. The number of poisonous serpents is, however, not so great as was formerly imagined ; perhaps not more than a sixth part of the whole number of known spe- cies being of that character. Among no animals do we meet with beings of a more singular form than the Amphibia; some of which present appearances so unusual, so grotesqtJfe, and so formidable, that even the imagination of the poet or painter can hardly be supposed to exceed the reali- ties of nature. The amphibia in general are extremely tenacious of life, and will continue to move, and exert many of their animal functions, even when deprived of the head itself. The experiments which have been occasionally made on these subjects can hardly be recited without horror. The natural life of some of the Amphibia, more particularly of the tor- toise tribe, is extremely long ; and even to the smaller tribes of frogs and lizards, a considerable space seems allotted. The same is also highly probable with respect to the serpent tribe. By far the major part of the Amphibia are oviparous, some excluding eggs covered with a hard or calcareous shell, like those of birds; others, such as are covered only with a tough skin, resembling parchment; and in many, they are perfectly gelatinous, without any kind of external covering, a? it the spawn of the common frog. Some few are viviparous ; the eggs first hatch- jng internally, and the young being after- wards excluded in their perfect form, as in the viper, &c. &c. In cold and tempe- AMP AMP rate climates, most of the Amphibia pass the winter in a torpid state; and that sometimes in a degree of cold which would seem hut ill calculated for the pre- servation of animal life. The common large water-newt, in particular, is said to have been occasionally found completely embedded in large masses of ice, in which it must have remained inclosedfor a very considerable period; and yet, on the dis- solution of the ice, has been restored to life. The Amphibia may be divided into four distributions, vi/. Testudines, ]{an!>rrU-s, plan: unloom early in the spring. It is, ho 'inportant in tin- i'urnuT than tlic hitter point of vi<_-\\, i', nil is often li:ibk- to miscarry in this climate. All the species and varie- Millions, and of a , ihming 1 well in most com- 'I hose of the tree kiiul ,.:1\ rise to iifti'i n or i\s enty feet in . dividing into mam spi- branches, which ultimately form ; fill heads, th;it arc gvncrall) u ell adorned in (lie beginning- of March with innume- lahle flowers, which continue in full bloom for u fortnight or three week*, :iiul owed bv the leaves, which are long- and narrow, and the fruit takes its growth. This is downy, rather i;u|;c,and of an oval form; consisting of a thick, . h.it embraces an oblong nut or stone, in which the ker- nel or almond is inclosed, which is tin.' only pai-t of the fruit that is capable of ,;'. The dwarf, shrubby .-, in gc- c or four feel in . bich send forth a and in the single-fi. suckers are frequently sent up 1 . Ami in both the double and allihi- j oung- branches are thickly beset with flowers in t!u' spring 1 , which, from their having- a fine pale red colour, anil continuing- some time in blov. , are highh ornamental. The < coming 1 out about the end of March, and the double kind in the beginning' of April, each re- maining- abc- . '.t in blow. Tin- sorts chiefly cultivated for use in this countrv are, according 1 to Mr. }' \ almond, ; mond, the common or bitter almond, the Jordan almond, and the hard-shell- id almond. Tin - ted only for ornament are, the.;\\art and the double- rlowering almond- or peach-tree. Its nati\e country is not known. It came to the Konui , - I .at in name, ; indicates : and it has been cultivated from lime immemorial in most parts of Asia; .1 has been adopt tion of F.urope, anil now flourishes ubnn- !:.ntl\ MI America, where i: has been in- .-oduced by the I. W i have only 01:1 iiccieS ; but there n produc they may be almost indefinitely inf Hut though they an- capable of beint,- g-reavly augmented in this manner, it is probable that but very few pos- ii-y qualities, us nurserv .].,, dom cultivate otore than tw at\ < sorts. As in the cultivation of tl. of tree much expense is constairly ix - quired iu walls or other suitable buildings, none but such as produce fine fruit should ailed to. This sort of tr< g-row to a consider..]. le height as stan- dards ; but, in order to produce and ripen fruit, requires the shelter of warm walls. Tin \ flower early in the spring in com- mon, the flowers appearing- before the leaves, mostly on the shoots of the pre- ceding year, ami either singly or in pairs along- their sides. They are formed each of five small petals, with many stamina ia the middle, and a small round s. that becomes tin peach. The fruit is dis- tinguished into tsvo sorts, the peach and :Vom the circumstance of the flesh or pulp quitting 1 or adhering to tin as in the former it easily separates, whili in the latter it adheres firmly. Tluiv are various sons of peaches that may In- cultivated ; but for small gardens Mr. Fors\ th recommends the foil' most suitable : the c.i;-!y avant, small iiiignomie, the Anne peach, royal George, ro\al Kensington, uobK Hand, early purple, chancellor, n:- vette, the Catharine, ti. lalus nucipcrsica, or the nectariii; This is now generally considered as a variety of the peach ; but the two tret s cannot by any circumstances i growth, wood, leaves or flowers, be dis- tinguished from each other with . gree of certainty. The ih. '.' readily discriminated in al different stages of growth, that of the nectarine having a smooth, firm . or rind, while in the peach it is < with a soft, downy sn the pulp or flesh of the former i more firm than that of the la' are main varieties of ; ma\ be cultivated ; but those that chicfl\ di si r\ e attention arc, the 1'airchil. \iolet, the clrougc, tl.' m. tL Kiiin:ui, the temple, and the M-nnasL The white nectarine ma\ ;dso be cullivn ted, both for the goodness of its f. as being- a curious varietx . AN!\ KIS, a genus uV \' and order ; its e, that the calyx is u pcria cue-leafed, four-toot!, small, and permanent ; the corolla coi.- AMY ANA sists of four oblong 1 , concave, and spread- ing petals ; the stamina have awl-shaped, erect filaments; anthers oblong, erect, of the length of the corolla ; the pistillum has a germ, superior, ovate, style thick- ish, of the length of the stamens, and stig- ma four-cornered ; the pericarpium is a drupaceous and roundish berry ; and the seed is a round, shining nut. There are thirteen species, of which we shall notice A. sylvatica, with leaves ternate, crinate, and acute. This is an erect, leafy shrub, from two to fifteen feet high, according to the soil and situation, abounding with a turpentine of a strong disagreeable smell ; it is found plentifully about Carthagena, in woods near the sea, and flowers in Au- gust. A. maritima, small, shrubby, sweet wood, with leaves ternate, crenulated and obtuse. This is a dwarf shrub, yielding a juice like that of the former, but more agreeable, and smelling like rue : the ber- ry is of the size of black pepper, black when ripe, inclosing a globular, brittle nut, in which is a white kernel. Swartz doubts whether the preceding be a dis- tinct species from this. It grows in very barren coppices, in a calcareous rocky soil, both near the sea, and on the interi- or mountains of Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Cuba, and flowers from June to Septem- ber. A. gileadensis, balsam of Gilead tree, with leaves ternate, quite entire, and peduncles one-flowered and lateral. This species is a shrub with purplish branches, having protuberant buds loaded with bal- samic rosin: the flowers proceed from the same buds by threes ; the bracte minute, and slightly bifid. It has been doubted whether this be a distinct species in itself. A. ambrosiaca, with leaves pinnate and E etiolate, and panicles crowded and axil- iry. This is a tree, with a trunk thirty feet high, branching at the top, with branchlets leafy and flowery : leaves al- ternate, with two or three opposite, ovate leaflets on each side, endingin long points, smooth, entire, on short petioles, gibbous at the base ; flowers yellowish white, axillary, and corymbed; perianth very small and four-toothed ; petals lanceolate, spreading at the tip ; filaments filiform, half as long as the calyx, inserted into the tube ; germ superior, subglobose, style cylindrical ; stigma capitated, depressed, and four-cornered ; fruit oyate, oblique, four-celled, resembling that of the laurel, the nucleus involved in a brittle covering, four-celled, with four stones wrapped up in a viscid red pulp, having H balsamic smell and taste, hardening into a grey rosin, and used for burning as a perfume The whole tree is sweet-scented, and yields a very odoriferous balsam from the wounded trunk or branches, which is used in the dysentery ; the dose is one dram in red wine ; it is also used in hou- ses and churches for burning as a per- fume. It grows in the woods of Guiana, and by the sea-shore ; flowering and fruit- ing in September A. balsamifera, sweet amyris, white candle-wood, or rose-wood, with leaves two-paired. This grows to a considerable size, and is one of the most valuable trees in the island of Jamaica; the wood is white, and of a curled grain when young, but grows of a dirty cloud- ed ash colour with age, bearing a fine polish, and having a pleasant smell ; it is heavy, and much esteemed among cabi- net-makers. All the parts of thus tree are full of warm aromatic particles, and may be used in baths and fomentations : the berries are oblong, and have the taste of the balsam copaiba. An infusion of the leaves has a pleasant flavour, is highly ce- phalic, strengthens the nerves, and is par- ticularly restorative to weak eyes. In Jamaica there are several species of amy- ris, the leaves and bark of which yield a fine balsamic juice ; and if the body were tapped at the proper season, a thick liquor would transude, resembling that of the Gilead balsam, to which the taste of the bark and wood of the smaller branch- es bears a very exact relation. Dr. Wright apprehends that this wood, by distillation, would yield a perfume equal to the oleum rhodii. ANA, among physicians, denotes an equal quantity of the ingredients which immediately precede it in prescriptions : it is written by abbreviation a or a a ; thus, I)j thur. myrth. alum, a a, 9 j : that is, take frankincense, myrrh, and alum, each a scruple. AXA, in matters of literature, a Latin termination added to the titles of several books in other languages. They are collections of the conversa- tion and memorable sayings of men of wit and learning; the Scaligeriana was the first book that appeared with a title in ana, and was afterwards followed by the Perroniana, Thuana, Nudaeana, Menagi- ana, and even by Arlequiniana, in ridicule of all books in ana. The Menagiana are accounted the best. ANA, among occult philosophers; a term used to denote the human mind ; from whence some will have unasapta, a daemon invoked by sick persons, to be derived. ANA ANA ANABASIS, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class and order: es- sen. char.; cah.\, three-leaved; cor. five- pi tailed : vberry, one-seeded, surrounded by a calyx : tlicre are four species. "ANACARDIUM, in botany, acajou, a genus of the KnneandriaMonogynia class and order; its characters are, that it has hermaphrodite flowers, and male flowers, either mixed with the hermaphrodites, or on a distinct tree. The calyx of the former isaperianthium, five-leaved, leaf- lets ovate, concave, coloured, erect, and deciduous ; the corolla has five petals, lanceolate, acute, three times as long as the calyx, upright at bottom, reflex at the end; the stamina have ten filaments, united at the base and upright, nine of them capillary, shorter than the calyx ; the pistiUum. has a germ, kidney-shaped, obliquely emarginate in front, style subu- late, bent in, the length of the corolla ; stigma small, roundish, depressed and concave : no pericarpium ; receptacle fleshy, very large and obovate ; the seed a nut, kidney-shaped, large at the top of the receptacle, with a thick shell, cellular within, and abounding in oil. The calyx, corolla, and stamina, of the male flowers, as in the hermaphrodites; the pistillum her no germ, or one that is abor- tive. There is one species, viz. A. occi- dentale, cashew-nut, cassu or acajou. The cashew is an elegant tree, 12 or 16 feet high, spreading much as it rises, and beginning to branch at the height of five feet, according to Browne ; but Long af- firms that in good soil it spreads to the size of a walnut tree, which it resembles in the shape and smell of the leaves ; the trunk seldom exceeds half a foot in diameter; the leaves are coriaceous, sub- ovate, shining, entire, petioled, and scat- tered alternately ; and terminating, con- taining many small, sweet-smelling flow- ers, on oblong receptacles, scarcely dis- !iaile from the peduncle; the co- rolla red, with commonly 10 stamens, one of which has no anther, but it has fre- quently eight, or only seven, all fertile ; and there are sometimes female flowers, entirely destitute of stamens. The fruit has an agreeable subacid flavour, in some degree restringent; in some of a yellow, and in others of a red colour, which differ- ence may be probably owing to the soil or culture. The juice of the fruit, fer- mented, aHords a pleasant wine; and distilled, yields a spirit exceeding arrack or rum, and serves to make punch, and also to promote urine. The ripe fruit is sometimes roasted and sliced, and thus used for giving an agreeable flavour to punch. The restringency of the juice has recommended it as a remedy in drop- sical habits. From one end of the apple proceeds the nut, which is kidney- shaped, inclosed in two sheUs, the outer of an ash colour, and smooth, and the inner covers the kernel. Between these shells is lodged a thick, inflammable, and very caustic oil, which, incautiously ap- plied to the lips and mouth, inflames and excoriates them. This oil has been suc- cessfully used for eating oft' ring-worms, cancerous ulcers, and corns; but it should be very cautiously applied. Some females have used it as a cosmetic, in or- der to remove the freckles and tan occa- sioned by the scorching rays of the sun, but it proves so corrosive as to peel oil the skin, and cause the face to inflame and swell ; but after enduring the pain of this operation for about a fortnight, thin new skin, as it may be called, ap- pears, fair like that of a new born infant. This oil also tinges linen of a rusty iron colour, that can hardly be got out ; and when smeared on wood it prevents decay, and might, therefore, serve for preserv- ing house timber and ships' bottoms. The fresh kernel has a delicious taste, and abounds with a sweet milky juice ; it is an ingredient in puddings, &c. and is eaten raw, roasted, and pickled. The negroes of Brazil, who are compelled by their masters, the Portuguese, to eat this nut, for want of other sustenance, obtain relief from this involuntary use of it in various disorders of the stomach. When the kernel is ground with cacao, it im- proves the chocolate ; but if it be kept too long, it becomes shrivelled, and loses its flavour and best qualities. The milk} juice of the tree, obtained by tapping or incision, will stain linen of a deep black, which cannot be washed out; but whe- ther this has the same property with that of the eastern anacardium, has not yet been ascertained ; for the inspissated juice of that tree is the best sort of lac which is usedforstainingblack in Chinaor Japan. ANACHIJOMSM, in matters of litera- ture, an error with respect to chronology, whereby an event is placed earlier than i* really happened, inwhichscnse it stands opposite to parachronism. A N A< ' K KONTir rt-rse, in ancient poe- try, a kind of verse so called from its being much used by the poet Aim p, coaMts of three feet and a half, usually spondees and iambics, and son auapests ; such is that of Horace, ANA ANA J,yiiia die per onmes. '\ he word anacreontic is sometimes li.tred at tlu- beginning of convivial ;;-lees, &.r. denotes a guy hilarity of ..ent, and a free and easy style of performance. AN \('\ C.LUS, in botany, a genus of plains of the Syngcnesia 1'olygamia Su- perflua. Essen, char, receptacle chaH'y, row ned with an emarginutc mar- gin, those at the ray membranaceous at the s'.iK-s. There are five species: of which the creticus and orientals grow naturally in the islands of the Archipela- go. They are low plants, whose branch- es trail on the ground. The first sort has fine cut leaves, like those of chamo- mile ; the Mowers are small, white, and grow single, with their heads declining; these are like those of common may-weed. The second has leaves like those of the ox-eye ; the flowers are white, and like those of chamomile. ANAGAl.LIS, in botany, a genus of plants, belonging to the Pentondria Mo- nogynia class of Linnaeus ; the flower of \\ Inch is monopetalous, multifid, and or- bicular ; the fruit is a globose capsule, containing only one cell, and dividing ho- rizontally into two hemispheres ; the M cx\gi-n and hydrogen: so that, in truth, there are only azote, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, that enter into the combination of nitrate of ammonia; but in their simple state, they cannot be made to form the salt ; it is requisite that the acid, the al- kali, and the water, should be first form- ed, in order toget the neutral suit. The business of chemical analysis is to resolve a body into its constituent parts; but the first question is, to determine, in every instance of analysis, whether ilic resolution should proceed to entire sepa- ration into real elements, or only i-ito i hose compounds which act as leiiK'ts ; as in the cose referred to, whether the nitrite of ammonia should b* ri into a/.ote. hydrogen, and oxygen ; or whether it should not first be reduced in- VOL.1 to nitric acid, ammonia, and water. The former mode is best calculated for re- search, the latter for utility ; but a mix- ture of the two methods is commonly adopted, where the proportion and nature of the compound produced has already been fully ascertained by previous experi- ment. The most rigid proof of the accu- racy of analysis is, to be able to produce the same compound, by uniting the identi- cal parts which we have given as its con- stituents. This can rarely be performed in a manner perfectly satisfactory; but it frequently happens that a substance may be produced that resembles the one ana- lysed, by employing similar constituents, if not the identical substances. This proof even is almost totally wanting in the analysis of organised bodies, whether vegetable or animal, especially when re- duced to their ultimate elements, and generally when only separated into their immediate constituents. The agents made use of in analysis are, heat, the electric and galvanic fluids, if they are two fluids, and the application of re-agents or sub- stances, which indicate the parts of the body to be examined. ANALYSIS, among logicians, is a me- thod of tracing things backward to their source, and of resolving knowledge into its original principles. It is also called the method of resolution, and stands op- posed to the synthetic method, or method of composition. The art of this method consists chiefly in combining our percep- tions, and classingthem together with ad- dress ; and in contriving 9 proper expres- sion of our thoughts, av as to represent their several divisions classes, and rela- tions. This is clearl* seen in the manner of computing by figres in arithmetic, but more particularly ition is a nece^ :uence ; and from tin nee establish the truth or impos- sibility of that proposition. The anal\ sis of the ancient geometri- cians consisted in the application of the propositions of Euclid, Apollonius, &c.till they arrived, proceeding step by step, at the truth required. That of the mode rns, though not so elegant, must however, be allowed more ready and general. By this ANA ANA last, geometrical demonstrations are won- derfully abridged, a number of truths are frequently expressed by a single line, and whole sciences may sometimes be learn- ed in a few minutes, which otherwise would be scarcely attained in many years. Analysis is divided, with regard to its object, into that of finites and infinites. Analysis of infinite quantities, that which is called specious arithmetic. Analysis of infinites, the same with fluxions. See FLUXIONS. ANALYSIS, in mineralogy, includes the examination of metallic ores, and of the other products of the mineral kingdom. See MIVERALS, analysis of. ANALYSIS of soils, the means of ascer- taining the nature, properties, and pro- portions of the different materials of which they are composed. The proper execu- tion of this business enables the fanner to form a just estimate of the value of the different parts of his lands, to make the application of ameliorating substances with propriety, and to understand the ef- fects that may be produced by the combi- nations of different matters. The appa- ratus necessary for this business are, scales and weights of different sizes; some por- celain, glass, or stone-ware vessels, un- glazed; some muriatic and sulphuric acid, alkali, galls, and pure distilled water. ANAMORPHOSIS, in perspective and painting, a monstrous projection, or re- presentation of an image, on a plane or curve surface, which, beheld at a proper distance, shallappear regular and in pro- portion. To delineate in anamorphosis upon a plane : 1. Draw the square A B C D, (Plate I. Miscel. fig. 4,) of a bigness at pleasure, and subdivide into a number of little squares. 2. In this square, called the craticula prototype, let the image to be represented deformed, btdrawn. 3. Then draw the line a b (ibid. fig. 5.) equal to A B, and divide it into the san> number of equal parts as the side of tht prototype A B. 4. Erect the perpendic\l a r E V, in the middle of ab, so much tlt>. longer as the deformity of the image is to be greater. 5. Draw V S perpendicu'nr to E V, so much the shorter as you woald have the image appear more deformed. From each point of division draw straight lines to V, and join the points a and S by the right line a S. 6. Through the points d efg draw right lines parallel to a b, then will a b cdbe the space in which the monstrous projection is to be deline- ated; this space is called the craticular ectype. Lastly, in every areola, or small trapezium of the space a, b, c, d, draw what appears delineated in the correspon- dent areola of the square A B C D ; and thus you will obtain a deformed image, which will appear in just proportion to an eye distant from it the length of F V, and raised above its height V S. An image may be deformed mechani- cally, if you place it, having little holes made here and there in it with a needle, against a candle, and observe where the rays going through these holes fall on a plane or curve surface ; for they will give the corresponding points of the image to be deformed. The practical methods of drawing these images is described in the Leipsic Act, for the year 1712, where we have an account of two machines, one for image* viewed with a cylindrical, and the other with a conical mirror. The person who has this instrument may take any point at pleasure, and while he goes over the outlines of it with one pen, another traces the anamorphosis. In the cloister of the Minims at Paris, there are two anamorphoses traced upon two of the sides of the cloister, one repre- senting a Magdalen, and the other St John writing his gospel. They are so managed, that when viewed directly the\ appear like a kind of landscape, but from a particular point of sight they appear very distinctly like human figures. ANANAS." See BHOMELIA. A NAP JEST, in ancient poetry, a foot consisting of two short syllables and one long : such is the word scopulos. It is just the reverse of the dactyl. ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, a verbal figure, whereby one or more words are repeated in the begining of several sen- tences. This is alivelyandelegantfigurc, and serves very much to engage the at- tention; for, by the frequent return of the same word, the mind of the hearer is held in an agreeable suspense till the whole is finished. Such is that in the Psalms : " The voice of the Lord is pow- erful : the voice of the Lord is full of majesty : the voice of the Lord shaketh in the wilderness." Another from Cicero's fine oration against Cataline : "You do nothing, you attempt nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only hpar, but also ee and plainly perceive." \NARHICHAS, in natural history, tvolf- fah, a genus of fishes of the order of Apodes : head rounded, blunt ; fore -teeth in each ji\f conic, large, divergent, six or more ; grinders in the lower jaw and pa- late rounded , gill-membrane seven-ray- ANA ANA >>!; body roundish, caudal-fin distinct. There arc three speck's. A. lupus, or ravenous wolf-fish, inhabits the- northern grows to 15 feet long ; it is a most fierce :uid ravenous fisl), and \vill fasten on any tiling within its reach. It feeds on shell-fish, which it grinds to pieces with its teeth, ami swallows shells and all: moves slowly with something of a scrpen- I'HK- motion; the grinders are often found fossile, and are called toad-stones; the flesh is good, hut not often eaten. The fossile teeth were formerly much esteem- ed for imaginary virtues, and were set in gold and worn as rings. Notwithstanding tlie ferocity of this fish, which is as dread- ful to the small inhabitants of the wa- in-, us ilie wolf is to those on land, it is sometime* attacked and destroyed by an enemy of far inferior size and strength,viz. the ryclopterus, or lump-fish, which, fas- i'-niii;, r itself on its neck, adheres immove- ably, tormenting, it in such a manner as 1<> cause its death. The wolf-fish fre- quents the deep part of the sea, and in the spring approaches the coast, in order to deposit itsspawn among marine plants: the ova are about the. size of peas; and the young are of a greenish cast, like that of sea-wrack, among which they reside for sometime after their birth. See Plate I. Pisces, fig. 3. A. minor is found in the Greenland seas; and the A. pantherinus inhabits the Northern and Frozen Ocean. ANARRHINUM, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order: calyx five-leaved; corol with a nectariferous prominence atits base point- ing downwards ; the upper-lip flat, with- out palate, and the orifice pervious; cap- sule two-celled, many-valved. There are five species. ANAS, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Anseres. The bill in this genus is strong, broad, flat or depressed, and commonly furnished at the end with an additional piece termed a nail, the edges of the mandibles marked with sharp teeth ; nostrils small, oval ; tongue broad, edges near the base fring- ed; toes four, three before and one In-- hind, the middle one the longest. Ac- cording to Latham, there are 98 species, iM-sides varieties , but Umelin gives about 120 Spr From the swan downward to the teal, they are all a dcaii-plumaged beautiful race of birds, and some of them exquisite- ly so. Those which have been reclaimed from a state of nature, and li\e depen- dant on man, are extremely useful to him : under his protection they breed in great abundance, and, without requiring much of his time and care, lead their young to the pool, almost as soon as hatched, where they instantly, with in- stinctive perception, begin to search for their food, which at first consists chiefly of weeds, worms, and insects ; those they sift, as it were from the mud, and for that purpose their bills are admirably adapt- ed. When they are farther advanced in life, they pick up the sodden scattered grain of the farm-yard, which, but for their assiduous searchings, would be lost. To them also are allotted the larger quantities of corn which are shaken by the winds from the,>yer-ripened ears in the fields. On this clean and simple food. they soon become fat, and their fh sh/s accounted delicious and nourish!' a wild state, birds of various kinds prq- serve their original plumage; but whca tamed, they soon begin to vary, and^ shew the effects of domestication : this is the case with the tame goose and the duck, which differ as much from the wild of their respective kinds, as they do from each other. We shall notice the follow- ing, as among the most interesting of the species .- Anas Cygnus, the wild swan, measures five feet in length, and above seven in breadth, and weighs from thirteen to six- teen pounds. The bill is three inches long, of a yellowish white ; from the base to the middle, and thence to the tip, black ; the bare space from the bill over the eye and eye-lids is yellow : the whole plumage in adidt birds is of a pure white, and next to the skin they are clothed with a thick fine down : the legs are black. This species generally keeps to- gether in small flocks, or families, except in the pairing season, and at the setting in of winter. At the latter period they assemble in immense multitudes, parti- cularly on the large rivers and lakes of the thinly-inliabited northern p:. Europe, Asia, and America : but when the extremity of the weather threatens to become insupportable, in order to shun the gathering storm, they shape their course liifjh in the air, in divided and di- minished numbers, in search of milder climate*. In such seasons they are most commonly seen in various parts of the British isies, and in other more southern countries of Kurope. The same is ob- served of them i.i ' American states. They do not, however, remain longer than till the approach of the- H hen they again r 'ire northward A'tic regions to breed. A ANAS. indeed, drop short, and perform that of- fice by the way, for they are known to breed in some of the Hebrides, the Ork- ney, Shetland, and other solitary isles ; but these are hardly worth notice -. the great bodies of them are met with in the large rivers and lakes near Hudson's Bay, and those of Kampschatka, Lapland, and Ice- land. They are said to return to the lat- ter place in flocks of about a hundred at a "time in the spring, and also to pour in upon that island from the north, in nearly tiie same manner, on their way southward, in the autumn. The young which are bred there remain throughout the first year; and in August, when they are in moult, and unable to fly, the na- tives, taking advantage of this, kill them with clubs, shoot, and hunt them down with dogs, by which they are easily caught. The flesh is highly esteemed by them as a delicious food, as are also the eggs, which are gathered in the spring. The Icelanders, Kamschatclales, and other natives of the northern world, dress their skins with the down on, sew them toge- ther, and make them into garments of various kinds : the northern American In- dians do the same, and sometimes weave the down as barbers weave the cauls for wigs, and then manufacture it into orna- menuil dresses for the women of rank, while the larger feathers are formed into caps and plumes, to decorate the heads of their chicfsand warriors. They also gather the feathers and down in large quantities, and barter or sell them to the inhabitants of more civilized nations. Much has been said of the singing- of the swan, in ancient times, and many beautiful and poetical de- scriptions have been given of its dying song. No fiction of natural history, no fable of antiquity, was ever more celebrat- ed, often repeated, or better received; it occupiedthe soft and lively imagination of the Greeks ; poets, orators, and even philosophers, adopted it as a truth too pleasing to be doubted. The dull insipid truth, however, is very different from such amiable and affecting fables ; forthe voice of the swan, singly, is shrill, piercing, and harsh, not unlike the sound of a clarionet when blown by a novice in music. It is, nevertheless, asserted by those who have heard the united and varied voices of a numerous assemblage of them, that they produce a more harmonious effect, parti- cularly when softened by the murmur of the waters. At the setting in of frosty weather, the wild swans are said to asso- ciate in prodigious multitudes, and, thus united, to use ever}' effort to prevent the waterfrom free/ing: this they accomplish by the continual stir kept up amongst them ; and by constantly dashing it with their extended wings, they are enabled to remain as long as it suits their conveni- ence, in some favourite part of a lake or river which abounds with their food. The swan is very properly entitled the peace- ful monarch of the lake : conscious of his superior strength, he fears no enemy, nor suffers any bird, however powerful, to mo- lest him ; neither does he prey upon any one. His vigorous wingis as ashield against the attacks even of the eagle,and the blows from it are said to be so powerful as to stun or kill the fiercest of his foes. The wolf or the fox may surprise him in the dark, but their efforts are vain in the day. His food consists of the grasses and weeds, and the seeds and roots of plants which grow on the margins of the water, and of the myriads of insects which skim over, or float on its surface ; also occasionally of the slimy inhabitants within its bosom . The female makes her nest of the wither- ed leaves and stalks of reeds and rushes, and lays commonly six or seven thick- shelled white eggs : she is said to sit upon them six weeks before they are hatched. Both male and female are very attentive to their young, and will suffer no enemy to approach them. Anas olor, or mute swan. The plu- mage of this species is of the same snowy whiteness as that of the wild swan, and the bird is covered next the body with the same kind of fine close down ; but it greatly exceeds the wild swan in size, weighing about twenty-five pounds, and measuringmore in the length of the body and extent of the wings. This also dif- fers, in being furnished with a projecting, callous, black, tubercle, or knob, on the base of the upper mandible, and in the colour of the bill, which in this is red, with black edges and tip ; the naked skin between the bill and the eyes is also of the latter colour : in the wild swan this bare space is yellow. The swan, although possessed of the power to rule, yet mo- lests none of the other water-birds, and is singularly social and attentive to those of his own family, which he protects from every insult. While they are employed with the cares of the young brood, it is not safe to approach near them, for they will fly upon any stranger, whom they often beat to the ground by repeated blows ; and they have been known by a stroke of the wing to break a man's leg. But,however powerful they are withtheii wings, yet a slight blow on the head will ANAS. kill them. The swan, for ages past, has hern protected on the river Thrones, Eng- land, as royal property ; and it continues :it tliis day to be accounted felony to steal their etfgs. Uy this means their in- crease is secured, and they prove a de- lightful ornament to that noble river." I .:.;!i; mi s;i\s, "l.'i the reign of Edward IV. the estimation they were held in was such, that no one who possessed a free- hold of less than the clear yearly value of five marks was permitted even to keep any." In those times, hardly a piece ay, < >. S., and fly northward to nestle in security. They prefer islands to the con- tinents, as further from the haunts of men. Thus, Marble Island was found, in Au- gust, to swarm with swans, gee*. ducks ; the old ones moulting, and tlu- young at that time incapable of flying." " The English send out their servants, as well as Indians, to shoot these birds on their passage. It is in vain to pursue them ; they therefore form a row of huts made of bows, at musket-shot distance from each other, and place them in a line across the vast marshes of the country. Eacli hovel, or, as they are called, stand, is oc- cupied by only a single person. These attend the flight of the birds, and, on their approach, mimic their cackle so well, that the geese will answer, and wheel and come nearer the stand. The sportsmai keeps motionless, and on his knees, will* his gun cocked, the whole time, and ne- ver fires till he has seen the eyes of the geese. He fires as they are going from him, then picks up another gun that lie- by him, and discharges that. The geese which he has killed he sets up on as if alive, to decoy others ; he also artificial birds for the same purpose. In a good day (for they fly in very uncertain and unequal numbers) a single Indian will kill two hundred. Notwithstanding species of goose has a different < the Indians are admirable in their imita- tion of every one." " The vernal flight of the geese lasts from the middle of April until the middle of May. Their first ap- pearance coincides with the tha\. the swamps, when th The autumnal, or the season of their rr turn with their young, is from the middle of August to the middle of October Those which are taken in this la; son, when the frosts usually be-in, an -ed in their feathers, and leftto be frozen, for tin- fresh provisions of tin- win ter stock. The feathers const!: article of commerce, and arc sent into England." is the common wild goose of the United States; cinereous: head and neck black ; cheeks and chin ANAS white, also the vent and tail-coverts : it is often tamed, and will breed with the common goose, producing a larger off- spring Anas Anser, or tame goose. To de- scribe the varied plumage and the econo- my of this well known and valuable do- mestic fowl, may seem to many a need- less task ; but to others, unacquainted with rural affairs, it may be interesting. Their predominant colours are white and grey, with shades of ash, blue, and brown : -some of them are yellowish, others dusky, and many arc found to differ very little in appearance from the wild kind last de- scribed the original stock, whence, in early times, they were all derived. The only permanent mark, which all the grey ones still retain, like those of the wild kind, is the white ring which surrounds the root of the tail. They are generally furnished with a small tuft on the head, and the most usual colour of the males (.gander or stig) is pure white : the bills and feet in both males and females are of an orange red. By studied attention in the breeding, two sorts of these geese have been obtained : the less are by many esteemed as being more delicate eating : the larger are by others preferred, on ac- count of the bountiful appearance they make upon the festive board. The ave- rage weight of the latter kind is between nine and fifteen pounds; but instances are not wanting, where they have been fed to upwards of twenty pounds ; this is, however, to sacrifice the flavour of the food to the size and appearance of the bird, for they become disgustingly fat and surfeiting, and the methods used to cram them up are unnatural and cruel. It is not, however, altogether on account of their use as food that they are valuable ; their feathers, their down, and their quills, have long been considered as articles of more importance, and from which their owners reap more advantages. In this respect the poor creatures have not been spared : urged by avarice, their inhuman masters appear to have ascertained the ex- act quantity of plumage of which they can bearto be robbed, withoutbeingdeprived of life. Mr. Pennant, in describing the methods used in Lincolnshire, in breeding, rearing, and plucking geese, says, "they are plucked five times in the year; first at Lady-day for the feathers and quills : this business is renewed, for the feathers only, four times more between that and Michaelmas-" he adds, that he saw the operation performed even upon goslings of six weeks old, from which the feathers of the tails were plucked ; and that num- bers of the geese die when the season af- terwards proves cold. But this unfeeling greedy business is not peculiar to one country, for much the same is practised in others. The care and attention bestow- ed upon the brood geese, while they are engaged in the business of incubation, in the month of April, is nearly the same every where ; wicker pens are provided for them, placed in rows, and tier above tier, not uncommonly under the same roof as their owner. Some place water and corn near the nests ; others drive them to the water twice a day, and replace each female upon her own nest as soon as she returns. This business requires the attendance of the gozzard (goose-herd) a month at least, in which time the young are brought forth : as soon afterwards as the brood are able to waddle along, they are, together with their dams, driven to the contiguous loughs and fens, or marsh- es, on whose grassy margined pools they feed and thrive, without requiring any further attendance until the autumn. To these marshes, which otherwise would be unoccupied, (except by wild birds,) and be only useless watery wastes, we are principally indebted for so great a supply of the goose ; for in almost every country, where lakes and marshes abound, the neighbouring inhabitants keep as many as suit their convenience ; and in this way immense numbers annually attain to full growth and perfection ; but in no part of the world are such numbers reared, as in the fens of Lincolnshire, where it is said to be no uncommon thing for a single per- son to keep a thousand old geese, each of which, on an average, will bring up seven young ones. So far those only are no- ticed which may properly be called the larger flocks, by which particular watery districts are peopled ; and, although their aggregate numbers are great, yet they form only a part of the large family : those of the farm-yard, taken separately, appear as small specks on a great map ; but when they are gathered together, and added to those kept by almost every cot- tager throughout the kingdom, the im- mense whole will appear multiplied in a ratio almost incalculable. A great part of those whicli are left to provide for them- serves during the summer, in the solitary distant waters, as well as those which en- liven the village green, are put into the stubble fields after harvest, to fatten upon the scattered g-rain : and some are penned up for this purpose, by which they attain to greater bulk ; and it is hardly necessa- ANAS. ry to observe, that they are then poured in weekly upon the tables of the luxurious citi/ens of every town in the kingdom. But these distant and divided supplies seem trifling, when compared with the multitudes, which, in the season, are driv- en in all directions, into the metropolis; the former appear only like the scanty waterings of the petty streamlet ; the lat- ter like tlie copious overflowing torrent <>!' :t large river. To the country market towns tliey are carried in bags and pan- niers ; to the great centre of trade they are sent in droves of many thousands. To a stranger it is u most curious spectacle to view these hissing, cackling, gabbling, but ;;il armies, with grave deportment, waddling along, (like other armies) to cer- tain destruction. The drivers are each pro- vided with along stick, at one end of which a red rag is tied as a lash, and a hook is fixed at the other: with the former, of which the geese seem much afraid, they are excited forward ; and with the latter, such as attempt to stray are caught by the neck and kept in order; or if lame, they are put into an hospital-cart, which usually follows each large drove. In this manner they perform their journies from distant parts, and are said to get forward at the rate of eight or ten miles in a day, from three in the morning till nine at night : those which become fatigued are fed with oats, and the rest with barley. The tame goose lays from seven to twelve eggs, and sometimes more : these the care- ful housewife divides equally among her brood geese, when they begin to sit. Those of her geese which lay a second time in the course of the summer, are sel- dom, if ever, permitted to have a second hatching; but the eggs are used for house- hold purposes. In some countries the do- mestic geese require much less care and attendance than those ofthis country. The goose has for many ages been celebrated on account of its vigilance. The story of the saving 1 Koine by the alarm thev gave, when the dauls were attempting the Capitol, is well known, and was probably the first time ofthe.ii- watchfulness being recorded, am 1, on that account, they were aftens ards held in the highest estimation by the Ro- man people. It is certain that notlung can stir in the night, nor the least or most distant noise be made, but the geese are roused, and immediately begin to hold their cackling converse ; and on the near- er approach of apprehended danger, they set up their more shrill and clamorous cries. It is on account of this property '.hut they are esteemed by many persons as the most vigilant of all sentinels, whcu placed in particular situations. Anas Erythropus, or barnacle of Eu- rope. The barnacle weighs about five pounds, and measures more than two feet in length, and nearly four and a half in breadth. The bill, from the tip to the corners of the mouth, is scarcely an inch and a half long, black, and crossed with a pale reddish streak on each side : a nar- row black line passes from the bill to the eyes, the irides of which are brown : the head is small, and as far as the crown, together with the cheeks and throat, white : the rest of the head and neck, to the breast and shoulders, is black. The upper part of the plumage is prettily mar- bled or barred with blue-grey, black, and white ; the feathers of the back are black, edged with white, and those of the wing- coverts and scapulars blue-grey, border- ed with black near their margins, and edged with white : the quills black, edged a little way from the tips with blue-grey: the under parts and tail coverts white : the thighs are marked with dusky lines or spots, and are black near the knees; the tail is black, and five inches and a half long: the legs and feet dusky, very thick and short, and have a stumpy appearance. In severe winters, these birds are not un- common in England, particularly in the northern and western parts, where, how- ever, they remain only a short time, but depart early in the spnngtotheirnorthern wilds, to breed and spend the summer. Anas Bernicla, Brent Goose. Brown ; head, breast and neck black, the latter with a lateral white spot : tail-coverts and vent white : plentiful on the sea coast of North America in autumn. It is consi- dered by Mr. Wilson as the same with the Barnacle Goose (A. Erythropus.) Anas molissima, or cider duck. Thi> wild, but valuable, species is of a size be- tween the goose and the domestic duck, and appears to be one of the graduated links of the chain which connects the two kinds. The full-grown old males gene- rally measure about two feet two inlength,andtwofeeteighteeninbreadth, and weigh from six to above seven pounds The female is nearly of the same shape. though less than the male, weighing only between five and six pounds; but her plumage is quite different, the ground co- lour being of a reddish brown, prettily crossed with waved black lines; and in some specimens the neck, breast, and belly, are tinged with ash : the wings are crossed v.'ith two bars of white : quills ANA dark : the neck is marked with longitudi- nal dusky streaks, and the belly is deep brown, spotted obsciu-ely with black. The eider duck lays from three to five large, smooth, pale, olive-coloured eggs ; these she deposits and conceals in a nest, or bed, made of a great quantity of the soft, warm, elastic down, plucked from her own breast, and sometimes from that of her mate. The ground-work or founda- tion of the nest is formed of bent-grass, sea-weeds, or such like coarse materials, and it is placed in as sheltered a spot as the bleak and solitary place can afford. In Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Lap- land, and some parts of the coast of Nor- way, the eiders flock together, in particu- lar breeding places, in such numbers, and their nests are so close together, that a person in walking along can hardly avoid treading upon them. The natives of these cold climates eagerly watch the time when the first hatchings of the eggs are laid : of these they rob the nest, and also of the more important article, the down with which it is lined, which they carefully gather andcarry off. These birds will af- terwards strip themselves of their remain- ing down, and lay a second hatching, of which also they are sometimes robbed : but it is said, that when this cruel treat- ment is too often repeated, they leave the place, and return to it no more. The quantity of this valuable commodity, which is thus annually collected in various parts, is uncertain. Buffbn mentions one par- ticular year, in which the Icelandic com- pany sold as much as amounted to upwards of eight hundred and fifty pounds sterling. This, however, must be only a small por- tion of the produce, which is all sold by the hardy natives, to stuff' the couches of the pampered citizens of more polished nations. The great body of these birds constantly resides in the remote northern, frozen climates, the rigours of which their thick clothing well enables them to bear. They are said to keep together in flocks in the open parts of the sea, fishing and diving very deep in quest of shell-fish and other food, with which the bottom is co- vered ; and when they have satisfiedthem- selves, they retire to the shore, whither they at all times repair for shelter, on the approach of a storm. Other less numerous flocks of the eiders branch out, colonize, and breed further southward, in both Eu- rope and America : they are found on the promontories and numerous isles of the coast of Norway, and on those of the nor- thern, and the Hebrides or western isles of Scotland, and also on the Fern isles, on ANA the Northumberland coast, which latter is the only place where they are known to breed in England, and may be said to be their utmost southern limit in that quarter, although a few solitary instances of single birds being shot further southward along the coast have sometimes happened. Anas Marilla, scaup duck, or Blue-bill. This species measures, when stretched out, nearly twenty inches in length, and thirty-two in breadth. The bill is broad and flat, more than two inches long, from the corners of the mouth to the tip, and of a fine pale blue or lead colour, with the nail black : irides bright deep yellow : the head andupper half of the neck are black, glossed with green : the lower part of the latter, and the breast, are of a sleek plain black : the throat, rump, upper and under coverts of the tail, and part of the thighs, are of the same colour, but dull and more inclining to brown. The tail, when spread out, is fan-shaped, and consists of fourteen short, brown feathers. The legs are short, toes long, and as well as the outer or la- teral webs of the inner toes, are of a dirty pale blue colour ; all the joints and the rest of the webs are dusky. These birds are said to vary greatly in their plumage, as well as size ; but those which have come under the author's observation were all nearly alike. The scaup duck, like others of the same genus, quits the rigours of the dreary north in the winter months, and in that season only is met with on various parts of the American shores. It is well known in England. Anas Clangula, the golden-eye. The weight of this species varies from twenty- six ounces to two pounds. The length is nineteen inches, and the breadth thirty- one. These birds do not congregate in large flocks, they are varied with black and white ; head tumid, violet ; at each corner of the mouth a white spot. They are frequent in the waters of the United States during the winter, and take their departure northward in the spring. In their flight they make the air whistle witli the vigorous quick strokes of their wings ; they are excellent divers, and seldom set foot on the shore, upon which, it is said, they walk with great apparent difficulty, and, except in the breeding season, only repairto it for the purpose of taking their repose. The attempts which were made by M. Baillon to domesticate these birds, he informs the Count de Buffbn, quite failed of success. See Plate III. Aves, fig. 1 to 5. ANASARCA, in medicine, a species oi" dropsy, wherein the skin appeal's pufted ANA ANA up and swelled, and yields to the impres- sion of the fingers, like dough Sec Mt- \\ \STATICA, the rote of Jericho, in botany, a genus of the Tctradynamia Sili- culosa class of plan:*, tin- caK x of which is a deciduous pcrianthium, consisting of four oval, oblong, concave, erect, and de- ciduous leaves; its flowers consist of four roundish petals, disposed in the form of a cross; and its fruit is a short bilocular pod, containing in each cell a single roundish seed. There are Uvo species; one is found growing naturally on the coast of the Red sea, in Palestine, and near Cairo, in sandy places. The stalks are ligneous, though the plant is annual. It is preser- ved iu botanic gardens for the variety, and in some curious gardens for the odd- ness of the plant, which, if taken up before it is withered, and kept entire in a dry room, may he long preserved, and uftcr being many years in this situation, if the root is placed in a glass of water a few- hours, the buds of the flowers will swell, open, and appear as if newly taken out of the ground. The second species, called the A. syriaca, is a native of Austria, Ste- ria, Carniola, Syria, and Sumatra. These plants, being annual, can be propagated only by seeds, which rarely ripen in Eng- land. AN ATOMY is the art of examining ani- mal bodies by dissection. It teaches the structure and functions of these bodies, and shews nearly on what life and health depend. When these are well Understood, a great step is made towards the know- ledge and cureofdisi It is derived from the Greek verb, ctiatTiu.\u, I cut up : yet we. do not com- hend under it tile mere cutting of dead bixlics ; but ever}' operation, by which we endeavour to discover the structure and use of any part of the bodv. As every animal body is the subject of anatomy, we divide it into the Imiimn and nmfturativ?. The first of these, which is confined to the human body, forms the subject of the present article ; tin- last, which is extended to the whole animal creation, will be considered under the head of OMIMH vi u I ANVI.IVV. The offices or functions of vlie various parts of the body are the objects of die se.ence of 'i.m.y : to which article the reader -,s referred for those subjects. The limits to which we are confined, by the nature of the present work, will prevent usfrom entering much into the de- tails of the structure and composition of the human bodv. We shall present the VOL. I. reader with a general sketch of the sub- ject, as being more suited to the space which this article is allowed to occupy. After a cursory view of the origin and progress of anatomical science, we shall give a general description of the compo- nent parts of the human body, and their functions ; and proceed in the last place to the inore particular enumeration and description of the various organs. HISTOHT OF ANATI'.xr. The want of records leaves us in the dark, with regard to the origin of this art.; yet it isrcasonable'to conclude, that, Dke most other arts, it had no precise begin- ning. The nature of the thing would not admit of its lying for a time altogether concealed, and of being suddenly brought to light, either by chance, or genius, or industry. All the studies and arts which are ne- cessary in human life arc so interesting and obvious, that man in every situation has always b} instinct and common sense turned his thoughts to them and made some progress in the cultivation of them. To talk seriously of the invention of agri- culture, architecture, astronomy, naviga- tion, mechanics, physic, surgery, or ana- tomy, by some particular man, or in one particular country, or at a time subsequent to some prior sera, would be to discover great ignorance of human nature. We might just as well suppose, that, till a cer- tain period of time, man was without in- stinctive appetites, and without observa- tion and reflection, and that in a happy hour he found out the art of supporting life by taking food. All such arts, in a less or more cultivated state, were, from the beginning-, and ever will be, found in all parts of the inhabited world. The first men who lived inns' soon h:ne acquired some notions of the structure of their own bodies, particular!} of the ex- ternal parts, and of .some < \en of the in- ternal, si,.:h as bones, joints, and .sinew s . which aiv exposed to the examination on anatomy. After -ration of Greek learning 1 , in the tin, it was so fashionable for two hundred \ ears together, to extol the knou ledge of the ancients in anatomy, as in other things, that anatomists seem to '.ule it a point of emulation, wlio should he most lavish in their praise ; some from a diffidence in themselves ; others thro! I <.,-h the love of detracting- from tin- merit of contempOFBries; many from having laboriously studied ancient learn- ing, and having- become enthusiasts in Greek literature : but more, perha; canst; it was the fashionable turn of the ind was held up as the mark of pood education and fine taste. If. how- vver, we read the \\orksof Hip;,- with impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to what we now know of the human body, we mus; allow his descrip- tions tobe imperfect, incorrect, sometimes . and often unintelligible, that of the bone* onl\ From Hippocrates to Galen, who flou- rished towards the end of the second cen- tury, in the decline of the Itoman empire, that is, in tl; i\ hundred years, anatoiir- [ ; tl;e phi- losophers still consideriM.;- it rioiw and in brunch of knowledge, and the ph .> prin- cipal foundation of thei: in tliat interval of time, contributed daily to the commons' curate and extended observations, and by tiic lights of improving philosophy Aristotle, a disciple of Plato, and pre- ceptor of Alexander the Gre.. entitled to immortality for his immense labours in natural history and comparative ana'omy. 'lianas the founder of th patetic philosophy, which for two thou- ar.she.ld undisputed sw:i\ over the whole learned wo formed the mo->i en .;gii which perhaps was uceived by any man ; no less than that of a gem ral and detailed history of all nature, a plan by far too vast for the short life of an individual. The love of science which, distinguished Alexander no less than his ambition Mid thirst for glory, led him to encourage and assist the plans of Aristotle in a manner worthy of so great a prince, of so exalted a genius, and of such magnificent designs. The sum of money which he was thereby enabled to devote to his works on natural history woidd be almost incredible, did we nofe consider the traits of great ness which mark every action of Alexander, and were not the circumstance slated l.y writers of uu- cxccptionable authority. Athenrcus, Pli- ny, and .Klian, concur in representing it at between one and two hundred thoif- sand pounds. Shortly after the foundation of Alexan- dria, a Celebrated school was established there, to which the Greeks and other for- eigners resorted for instruction, and wherr physic and every branch of natural know- ledge were taught in the greatest perfec- tion. Herophilus and Erasi strut us, two anatomists of this school, are particular- ly celebrated in the history of anato- my. They seem to be the fii-st who dis- sected the human body. At least in thr time of Asistotle, who preceded these ana- tomists by a very short interval, brutes only had been anatomised. It might hav been expected that the practice of em- balming would afford favourable opportu- nities of anatomical investigation, but the rude manner in which the body wax prepa- red, and the dread of pollution, prevented all instructive examination. The p- of the science required that ana' should have subjects, on which careful and 'ii might hi- prosecuted wiihcvi 4 fearof interruption. This benefit was obtained through the taste which the i' for the arts lomies inherited, ir share of the empire of . \lex- . which shone so }'tolt-my .! the .se ex- : e foundation of the magntfi* ANATOMY. cent Alexandrian library. This king and his predecessor seem to have overcome the religious scruples which forbade the touch of the dead body, and gave up to the physicians the bodies of those who had forfeited their lives to the law. Nay, if the testimony of several authors may be believed, Herophilusand Erasistratus dis- sected several unfortunate criminals alive. There is, however, something in this prac- tice so repugnant to every feeling of huma- nity, that we ought probably to consider it only as an exaggerated report of the novel practice of dissecting the human subject. The writings of these anatomists have not descended to us: ourknoweledge of their progress in anatomy is derived only from a few extracts and noticeswhich occur in the works of Galen ; but these prove them to have made great advances in the know- ledge of the structure of the human body. The Romans, in prosecuting their schemes of universal conquest and domi- nion, soon became acquainted with the Greeks, and the intercourse of the two nations was constantly increasing. Thus the arts, the philosophy, and the manners of the Greeks were introduced into Italy. Military glory and patriotism,, which had formerly been the ruling passion of the Roman people, now gave way in some de- gree to the soft arts of peace. The lead- ing men of the Roman republic sought the company and conversation of the learned Greeks; thus literature and philosophy were transported from the Greeks to the Romans, and gave rise to the taste and ele- gance of the Augustan age. In this way- did conquered Greece triumph over the unpolishedroughness of her conquerors. Grtecia captafcrum victorem cepit, et artes IitiuUt atrretti Latio. Although Rome produced orators, poets, philosophers, and historians which maybe brought into competition with those of the Greeks, to the eternal disgrace of their empire it must be allowed that their his- tory is hardly embellished with the name of a single Roman who was great in science or art, in painting or sculpture, in physic, or in any branch of natural knowledge. We cannot therefore introduce one Roman into the history of anatomy. Pliny and Celsus were mere compilers from the Greeks. We may account for this appa- rent neglect of anatomy among the Ro- mans, as well indeed as for its slow pro- gress among the Greeks, from some of their religious tenets, as well asfromthe notion already mentioned, of pollution be- ing communicated byjtouching adead. bo- dy. It was believed, that the souls of the unburied were not admitted into the a- bodes of the dead, or, at least, that they wandered for a hundred years along the river Styx, before they were allowed to cross it. Whoever saw a dead body was obliged to throw some earth upon it, and if he neglected to do so, he was obliged to expiate his crime by sacrificing to Ceres. It was unlawful for the pontifex maximus not only to touch a dead body, but even to look at it ; and the flamen of Jupiter might not even go where there was a grave. Persons who had attended a fu- neral were purified by a sprinkling of wa- ter from the hands of the priest, and the house was purified in the same manner. If any one (says Euripides, in Iphigenia) pollutes his hands by a murder, by touch- ing a corpse, or a woman who has lain in, the altars of God are interdicted to him. There was no anatomist orphysiologist, of sufficient reputation to attract our no- tice, from the times of Herophilus and Erasistratus to the age of Galen. This il- lustrious character was born at Pergamus, in- Asia Minor, about the 130th yearof the Christian acra. No expense was spared in his education ; after the completion of which, he visited all the most famous schools of philosophy which then existed; and afterwards resided chiefly at Rome, in the service ofthe emperors of that time, To all the knowledge which could be derived from the writings of Hippocrates, and the philosophical schools ofthe time, Galen added the results of his own labours and observations, and compiled from these sources a voluminous system of medicine. It is generally considered that the subjects of his anatomical labours were chiefly brutes ; and it is manifest from several passages, that his descriptions are drawn from monkeys. Indeed, he never express- ly states that he has dissected the human subject, although he says he has seen hu- man skeletons. He must be accounted the first who placed anatomical science on a respectable footing ; and deserves our gratitude for this, that he was the only source of anatomical knowledge for about ten centuries. The science declined with Galen; his successors were contented with copying him ; and there is no proof of a dissection of any human body from Galen to the emperor Frederick Q. We may observe, that when uny man arrives at the reputation of having carried his art far be- yond all others, it seems to throw the rest of the world into a kind of despair. Hope- less of being able to improve theirart still further, they do nothing. The great man, who was at first only respectable, grows ANATOMY. rvi-ry day into higher credit, till at length he is deified, and e\< r\ |ugv ofhisv. ri- tings becomes sacml ;uul infallible. This ually the fortune of Aristotle in philosophy, und of Galen in anatoim, tor Tnany ages; and such respect shewn to any man in any age must always be a mark of declining science. Anatomy experienced the same fate as learning in general on the decline And fall of the Roman empire. The moral and intellectual character of the Romans had hi en much debassd in the later ages of the empire. Philosophy and science- u ere manifestly degenerating, and their place was supplied by a debased and corrupted theology. The successive irruptions of the northern barbarians accelerated the approaching ruin. The great inundation of the Goths into Italy, in the fifth centu- ry, extinguished, with the Roman empire, its laws, manners, and learning, and plun- ged the world intothe depths ojfignorance and superstition. The succeeding ten centuries, which tare received the appel- lation of the dark ages of the world, pre- sent a melancholy picture to the philoso- phic observer of human nature ; a barren and dreary waste, not enlivened by a sin- gle trace of cultivation. The followers of the Arabian prophet dissipated the little remains of learning that were left in Asia and Kgypt. A con- tempt of all human knowledge, and the religious obligation of extending the Ma- hometan faith by meansof the sword, made th-se ignorantbarbarians the most danger- ous and destructive foes to science and the arts. The city of Alexandria, the school of which had been the resort of the learn- ed for centuries, was taken in ill. 640,by Amrou, the general of the Caliph Omar; the celebrated library was buint, with the exception of those hooks which : to medicine, which tin- love of life "induced the Ar.ibians to spare. \\ hen the Saracens wen- established in their new conquests they began to dis- cern the utility of learning in the arts and sciences and particularly in ph\sic. Ma- homet had made it death for am Mussul- man to learn the liberal arts : this prohi- bition was gradually neglected, and many of tin 1 caliphs distinguished themselves bj their love- of letters, and the immitin n; institutions which they founded for the j ition oflearning. The Greek au- thors were collected, translated, ft! mentedon; but there was no improve- ment nor extension of science nude. In anatomy, the Arabians went no further than Galen, the perusal of whose works supplied the place of dissection. Theywere preventedfromtouchingthe dead by their is and pollu- tion, which they bad derived from tl The Arabian empire in the en overturned by tin- 'I inks, v. ho, still more barbarous and illiterate than th> ci us, carried ignorance and oppression \\hercver they directed their too They soon destroyed all the institutions which the Saracens had formed for the propagation of science, and 'Im .ntinople itself, which still r the faint and almost dying embers of Greek knowledge. This city was taken and sacked in the middle of the fifteenth century ; and the learned (ireeks fled for safety to the western nations of Eu- rope, bringing with them the Grecian au- thors on medicine,-and translating them ; which works, the invention of printing, that happened about the same time, greedy contributed to disperse through out Europe. People had now an opportunity lining acquainted with the writings of Galen and the ancients, and, lr iu ans, of arriving at the source of that knowledge which they had hitherto ob- tained only through the chui.nel of the Arabian physicians. The superiority of the former was soon discovered, and the opinions of the Grecian writerswere consi- dered, even in anatomy, as unimpeachable For the restoration of anatomy, as well as that of science in general, \v e are in- debted to the Italians. But the first men who signalized themselves in this path partook of that blind reverence for the words of Galen, which had reigned uni- versally in medicine since his death, and which concurred with the universally pre- vailing prejudices of those times, con- cerning the violation of the dead, to ob- struct all advancement of the science. As an instance of the latter circumstance, we may mention a decree of 1'ope Honifacc \ I i I. prohibit ing the boiling and preparing of bones, which put a stop to thr r< Mundinus. Among the circumstances which contri- buted to the restoration of anatomy is to .oncd, the assistance which veil from the great paii. ,ilploi>. of this age. A ki, of the \ is es- to the ]n i.t these arts. .-! men .. which lie undcrthf skin mical drawings made bj Leonardo da Vioci at this peiv ', and, with subjoin ,'ions, are found in the ig. Dr. Hunter bears - to the minute and accurate know- ANATOMY. Irdgc which these sketches discover, and does not hesitate in considering' Leonardo as \he best anatomist of that time. About tin- middle of the sixteenth cen- tury the great Vesalius appeared. He was h;)rn at Brussels, and studied successive- ly at the different universities of France And Italy. Thus he acquired all the know- ledge of antiquity. Not contented with this, he took every opportunity of examin- ing the human body, and followed the army of the emperor Charles V. into France for that purpose. Vesalius was the first who maintained that dissection was the proper way of learning anatomy, in opposition to the study of the works of Galen. His extensive researches into the structure of man and animals led him to detect the errors of Galen, which he freely exposed, shewing from many parts of his works, that this great man had described the human body from the dissection of brutes. This conduct, which should have excited the admiration and esteem of his contemporaries, served only to rouse in their minds the base and sordid passions of jealousy and envy. Galen had held an. undisputed sway over the minds of men for many centuries. His works were re- garded as the only source of anatomical knowledge, and his opinion on medical subjects, like that of Aristotle in philoso- phv, was resorted to in all disputes as final and decisive proof. The first' man who penetrated this intellectual mist, and erected the standard of reason and truth, in opposition to that of prejudice and au- thority, might naturally expect to encoun- ter the opposition of those who had been contented to go on in the beaten track. The anatomists, who had always held up Galen in their lectures as the source of all information, were indignant that his faults should be discovered and laid open by so young a man as Vesalius. The con- troversies which arose from this cause were favourable to the progress of anato- my, as the several disputants were obliged to confirm their own opinions, or invali- date those of their opponents, by argu- ments drawn from dissection. Vesalius published, at the age of 25, liis grand work on the structure of the human body, with numerous elegant figures, sup- posed to have been drawn by the celebra- ted Titian. This work contains such a mass of new information, that it may just ]y be considered as forming an xra in the history of anatomy We cannot help being surprised that so young a man could have investigated the subject so deeply, at a lime when dissection was esteemed sacri- .-. and wus therefore carried on se- cretly, with great danger and difficulty. The great reputation of Vesalius procured for him the esteem and confidence of Charles V. who made him his physician, and kept him about his person in all his expeditions. His zeal for science proved the cause of his death : for having opene-d a person too soon, the heart \vas seen to palpitate. He was condemned to perform a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and as he was returning to take the place of anatomical professor at Venice, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zante, and perished of hunger. It would be unjust to pass over unnoticed the names of Fallopius and of Eustachius, who were contemporary with Vesalius, and contributed greatly to the advancement of anatomy. The anatomical plates drawn and engraved by the latter are executed with an accuracy which can- not fail to excite surprise, even in an ana- tomist of the present day. From the time of Vesalius, the study of anatomy gradually diffused itself over Eu- rope ; insomuch, that for the last hundred and fifty years it hasbeen daily: improving by the labour of many professed anatomists in almost every country of Europe. In the year 1628, our immortal country- man, Harvey, published his discovery of the circulation of the blood. It was by far the most important step that has been made in the knowledge of animal bodies in any age. It not only reflected useful lights upon what had been already found out in anatomy, but also pointed out the means of further investigation; and accord- ingly we see that, from Harvey to the pre- sent time, anatomy has been so much im- proved, that we may reasonably question- if the ancients have been further outdone by the moderns in any other branch of knowledge. From one day to another there has been a constant succession of discoveries, relating either to the structure or functions of our body ; and new anato- mical processes, both of investigation and demonstration, have been daily in- Many parts of the body, which were not known in Harvey's time, have sinr< been broughtto light ; and of those which were known, the internal composition and functions remained unexplained ; and in- deed must have remained inexplicable, without the knowledge of the circulation. The principal facts relating to this sub- ject were known before the time of Har- vey : it remained for him to reject thepe- cious conjectures then maintained con- cerningthe blood's motion, and to examine the truth of those facts which were then known, and by experiments to discover those which remained to be detected ANATOMY. uc did, and thereby rendered his immortal. opcr in this place to review tin.- scvcr.il steps which were made in the investigation of ihis important subject. Hippocrates believed that all the vessels Communicated with each other, and that the blood underwent :i kind ot'lhix and re- flux from and to the heart, like the ebbing 1 and flowing- of the sea. The anatomists at Alexandria adopted a \\ rong- but ingenious opinion; as they to nul the artencs empty , and the veins containing blood, in their ns, they imagined that the former ibesfor the distribution of air, and gfave them that name, which they have re- tained ever since ; and that tiie veins \vcre tJie only channels for the blood. Galen ascertained that the blood flowed both by tile arteries and veins,though he knew not then its natural course. On the revival of anatomy in Europc,thc pulmonary circula- tion was known to muny eminent men. This wascerUiinly the case with Sen LUIS, who fell a sacrifice, on account of his reli- gious opinions, to the savage bigotry and intolerance of Calvin. Fabriciusai. pendente, the preceptor of our famous Harvey, particularly described the valves of the veins, the mechanism of which would absolutely prevent the blood from flowing in those vessels towards the ex- tremities. M hen Harvey returned from his studies in Italy, his attention being ex- cited to the subject, he began those expe- riments, by which he learned and demon- strated the fact of the circulation. H.ir- ;.st proposition of the subject im- - conviction so strongly on the mind that we arc left in perfect astonishment, how a circumstance so luminously evident should have remained so lung unobserved. It must be granted, that tin- heart projects about tw o ounces of blood into the arte- ries at every pulse; wh.it then, it may be asked, becomes uf this large quantity of blood, It must he- granted that the heart receives that quan- tity prior to every pulse. From whence is it received, unless the blood cin Harvey tied an artery, and the correspond- ing vein received no blood; he tied and all its branches, and those of the cor- responding . :e choakcd with blood, even to the entire obstruction of circulation and motion. Hu: not acquainted with the direct communi- cation that exists between these \ He imagined that the blood transuded from tlie arteries into the veins through a spongy substance. Much yet remained to be ascertwfted b;. . .d observit- and i. As opportunities of <'. i came more numerous, t ' id \vri- teri iii :i!..i'nmv v. ous men, having goni- through their edu- cation. I to consul' thcih-l h i s. |\ is n.-i' 1n be WOIKK that errors and deficiencies in a; \\ei-i- found in every page of the works of Calcn.tosay nothingof Hippocnues, since the human bodv, in Irs time, could not be consulted for information. The an . writers on : quickly demolished, and anatomy began to be taught from the subject itself. \\ e must not omit the influence, which the writings of our immortal countryman, Ma. con, had on the prosecution of natural knowledge, and in evcv soiling-. The philosophy of Arisf driven from the pre-eminent station which it had so long occupied, to make room for the onh solid and secure method of obser- vation, experiment, and induction. At this time the Academy del Cimcntoa' Italy, the Hoy al Society in London, and the Hoyal Academy in Pans. From this peri- od, the important doctrine of rejecting all hypothesis, i,r gi nei-tl knowledge, till a sufficient number of facts shall hav lid observation and ju- dicious e\p. rin, en's, lias been every day growinjr into move credit The anatomists and phisiologists of tii listin- guished themselves by a pa'i tion of nature itself, and an count of the phenomena \\hieh they ob- ser\ cd. Afti-rthe discovery and know! the circulation of the blood, th tion would naturally be about the , and route of the nut rit ions part of t ',, or chyle, from the bo The name of Aselli, an physician, is rendered illustrious by the IV of the \e- .',c.ls \v li; chyle fi-om the inH ^ti;, tin m full of a white liquor 01 tery of living animals, and from tl. cumstance calleil tin m milk in all p living: 1'ecquet, in I VLT the thoracic due;. tainkof:dlthc lacte.ds, which con-- chyle into the subclav lan vein And now the lacteaJs having been traced from thi intestines 1o the thoracic duct, and that ANATOMY. duct having been traced to its termination in a blood-vessel, the passage of the chyle was completely made out. The discovery of the absorbent vessels in other parts of tlie body, where they are known by the name of lymphatics, from the transparent colour of their contents, very soon follow- ed that of ,he lacteal and thoracic duct. Rudbeck,a Swede, isgenerally allowed to have been the first who discovered these vessels; but this honour was disputed with him by Burtholi n, a learned Dane. By these vessels the old particles of our bodies, which are no longer fit to remain in it, are removed and conveyed into the blood, to be elimina ed by the excretory organs Leeuenhoeck took up the subject of anatomical inquiry, where others had left it. He investigated the minute structure of the body by the help of magnifying glasses ; and was thereby enabled to de- monstrate the circulation of the blood in the pellucid parts of living animals ; the red globules of the blood, and the animal- cula of the semen were first observed by this anatomist. Malpighi also directed his attention chiefly to the developement of minute structure; as that of the glands or secretory organs of the body. About this time anatomy made two jreat steps, by the invention of injections, andthe method of making anatomical pre- parations. For these we are indebted to the Dutch, particularly Swammerdam and Ruysch. The anatomists of former ages had no other knowledge of the blood-ves- sels, than what they could collect from la- borious dissections, and from examining the smaller branches of them upon some lucky occasion, when they were found more than commonly loaded with red blood. But filling the vascular system with a bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large vessels with great ease, renders the smaller much more conspicuous, and makes thousands of the very minute ones visible, which, from theirdelicacy,andthe transparency of their natural contents,are otherwise imperceptible. The modern art of corroding the fleshy pails with a menstruum, and of leaving the moulded wax entire, is so exceedingly useful, and at the- sametime so ornamental, that it does great honour to the ingenious inventor, Dr.Nichols. The method of castingfigures in wax, plaister, or lead, is also a great ac- quisition to anatomy, as it enables us to preserve a very perfect likeness of such subjects as we but seldom meet with, or cannot well preserve in a natural state. The modern improved methods of pre- serving animal bodies, or parts of them, in spirits, tiasbeen of the greatest service to anatomy; especially in saving the time and labour of the anatomist, in the nicer dissections of the small paitsof the body. For now, whatever he has prepared with care, he can preserve,. and the object is ready to be seen at any time. And, in the same manner, he can preserve anatomical curiosities and rarities of every kind; such as parts that are uncommonly form- ed ; parts that are diseased ; the parts of the pregnant uterus, and its contents. Large collections of such curiosities, which modern anatomists are striving every where to procure, are of infinite service to the art; especially in the hands of teachers. They give students clear ideas about many things, which it is very essential to know, and yet, which it is im- possible that a teacher should be able to shew otherwise, were he ever so well supplied with fresh subjects. When anatomy had thus become a clear and distinct science, it was inculcated and taught, in the different nations of Europe, by numerous professors, with a zeal and industry highly honourable to themselves, and useful to mankind. As the prejudices of mankind respecting dissection have in a great measure subsided, the difficulties, which formerly obstructed anatomical re- searches, have mostly disappeared, and a sufficient quantity of subjects for anato- mical purposescan generally be procured. In most, perhaps in all, the countries of the continent of Europe, the government has provided for the want of anatomists in this particular. In England, however, it still remains a matter of considerable difficulty and expense to procure the means of instruction in practical anatomy ; and, accordingly, while foreigners have been enriching science with many splen- did works, the name of one Englishman cannot for many years past be recorded in the annals of anatomy. We wish we could announce to our readers any pros- pect of a change in this respect; but here literature and science are left to themselves, and must advance unaided by the patronage of government, or not advance at all. It would occupy us too long to detail the labours and discoveries of all the emi- nent men, who have immortalized them- selves in anatomy during the last century. We may state,, generally, that every part of the human body has been most thoroughly and minutely examined and described ; and accurate and elegant engravings have appeared of every part. So that a student, in these days, possesses every facility for the prosecution of his anatomical labours The bones and muscles have been most ANATOMY. elegantly represented and described by Albums, Cheselden, Sue, and Cowper. The vascular system has been illustrated by a splendid work of the immortal Haller. Walker And Meckel of Berlin, and Scarpa at Pavia, have bestowed equal, or even superior, diligence in tracing the distribu- tion of the most important nerves, and re- presenting 1 them in faithful engravings. Mr. Cruikshank distinguislied himself by an excellent book on the absorbing sys- tem; and Mascagni has lately given to the public a most elaborate account of the ab- sorbing vessels, with very splendid plates. Dr. Hunter, to whom anatomy owes more in this country than to any individual, has published a complete history, with beauti- ful explanatory engravings, of the growth f the human ovum, and of the clianges which the uterus undergoes after the ovum has been received into its cavity. His brother, Mr. John Hunter, also de- mands mention \n this place, as an accu- rate and minute dissector, and a patient experimentalist He surveyed, in his re- searches, the whole field of animated na- ture, and greatly promoted the science of phisiology. He formed also the grand- est and most beautiful anatomical cabinet in Europe ; and this precious treasure has now passed into the hands of the Itoyol College of Surgeons in London. The structure of the brain has been represent- ed with unrivalled elegance by Vicq D'Azyr, a French anatomist, in a folio volume of coloured plates, which we hesi- tate not to applaud as a chef d'otuvre of anatomical science, and a most splendid monument of the arts. Some parts of this most important organ have also been illustrated by the labours of Soemmering, who still prosecutes the study of anatomy with unwearied industry. We have late- ly, from his hands, two most finished pro- ductions, in every respect, on the anatomy of the eye and car. It would be unjust not to enumerate, with a due tribute of applause, the labours of Zinn, Casscbohm, and Scarpa, on the same subjects. Morgagni, vho taught anatomy in Pa- dua, published a work of great utility on morbid anatomy. Dr. Baillie has of late in this country prosecuted the satin.- subject, though in a different manner. He has published a book on the morbid anatomy of the body, and has illustrated his descrip- tions by a collection of the most elegant, expressive, and accurate pi. ^Vinslow, Sabatier, and BicUat, are the authors of the most approved anatomical system* in France, and Soemmering and llildebrant in Germany. \Ve, regret thai it is not in our power to mention any cor- VOL. F rect and complete system by an English writer. The imperfect and contemptible, ephemeral productions, published under the auspices of booksellers, cannot have a place in this enumeration. VTI1ITT OF AVAT03CT. Astronomy and anatomy, as Fontenelle observes, are the studies which present us with the most striking view of the two greatest attribute^ of the Supreme Being. The first of these fills the mind with the idea of his immensity, in the largeness, distances, and number of the heavenly bodies ; the last astonishes, with his intel- ligence and art in the variety and delicacy of animal mechanism. The human body has been commonly enough known by the namje of microcos- mus ; as if it did not differ so much fronj the universal system of nature, in the sym- metry and number of its parts, as in their size. Galen's excellent treatise on the use of the parts was composed as a prose hymn to the Creator, and abounds with us irre- sistible proofs of a Supreme Cause, and gorerning Providence, as we find in mo- dern phisico-theology. And Cicero dwells more on the structure and economy of animals, than on all the productions of na- ture besides, when he wants to prove the existence of the Gods, from the order and beauty of the universe. He there takes a survey of the body of man, in a most ele- gant synopsis cf anatomy, and concludes thus ; " Quibus rebus expositis, satis do- cuissevideor.hominisnaturaquantoomnes anteiretanhnales. F.x quo de-bet intelligi, nee figurant situmque membrorum, nee ingenii mcni'sque vim ta?cm efficipotuiwe fortuna," The satisfaction of mind which arises from the study of anatomy, and the influence which it must naturally have on our minds as philosophers, cannot be bet- ter conveyed than by the following pas- sage from the same author; " Quxcontu- ens animus, accepit ab his cognitionom deorum, ex qua oritur pietas : cui con- juncta justitia est, reliquxque virtutcs; ex quibus vita beata exsistit, par et simili> deorum, mdla alia re nisi immortalitate, quac nihil ad benc vivendum pertinet, ccdcns ccelcstibus." It would be endless to quote the ani- mated passages of this sort-, which be found in the physicians, philosopher*, and theologists, who have cc . structure and functions of air. view towards the Creator, that must strike us wih the most awful conviction, \\lio tn know nd consider ANATOMY. the thousand evident proofs of the aston- ishing art of the Creator, in forming and sustaining an animal body such as ours, without feeling the most pleasing enthu- siasm ? Can we seriously reflect upon this awful subject, without being almost lost in adoration ! Without longing for another life after this, in which we may be grati- fied with the highest enjoyment which our faculties and nature seem capable of, the seeing and comprehendingthe wholejplan of the Creator, informing the universe, and directing its operations. In the excellent work of Archdeacon I'uley, on natural theology, this view of the subject is most ably explained and illustrated ; and the subject is pursued through all its details. We strongly re- commend this work, as exhibiting, in a popular form, a very interesting view of the structure and functions of animal bo- dies ; and we subjoin the following ex- tract, as a very successful ^application of the argument. " ft has been said, that a man cannot lift his hand to his head, without finding enough to convince him of the existence of a God. And it is well said ; for he has only to reflect, familiar as this action is, and simple as it seems to be, how many things are requisite for the peiformingof it: how many things which we understand, to say nothing of many more, probably, which we do not; viz. first, a long, hard, strong cylinder, to give to the arm its firm- ness and tension ; but which, being rigid, and, in its substance, inflexible, can only turn upon joints: secondly, therefore, joints for this purpose, one at the shoulder to raise the arm, another at the elbow to bend it ; these joints continually fed with a soft mucilage, to make the parts slide easily upon one another, and holden to- gether by strong braces, to keep them in their position : then, thirdly, strings and wires, i. e. muscles and tendons, artificially inserted, for the purpose of drawing the bones in the directions in which the joints allow them to move. Hitherto, we seem to understand the mechanism pretty well ; and,understandingthis,we possess enough for our conclusion : nevertheless, we have hitherio only a machine standing still ; a dead organization an apparatus. To put tin- system in a state of activity ; to set it at work ; a further provision is necessary, viz. a communication with the brain by means of nerves. We know the existence of tills communication, because we can see the communicating threads, and can trace :<) the brain ; its necessity we also know, because, if the thread be cut, if the communication be intercepted,the muscle becomes paralytic: but beyond know little ; the organization being too minute and subtle for our inspection. " To what has been enumerated, as offi- ciating in the single act of a man's raising his hand to his head, must be added, like- wise, all that is necessary, and all that con- tributes to the growth, nourishment, and sustentation of the limb, the repair of its waste, the preservation of its health ; such as the circulation of the blood through every part of it ; its lymphatics, exhalants., absorbents ; its excretions and integu- ments. All these share in the result ; join in the effect : and how all these, or any ol" them, come together, without a design- ing, disposing intelligence, it is impossi- ble to conceive." But the more immediate purposes of anatomy concern those who are to be the guardians of health, as this study is ne- cessary to lay a foundation for all the branches of medicine. The more we know of our fabric, the more reason we have to believe, that, if our senses were more acute, and our judg- ment more enlarged, we should be able to trace many springs of life, which are now hidden from us ; by the same sagacity we should discover the true causes and na- ture of diseases, and thereby be enabled to restore the health of many, who are now, from our more confined knowledge,, said to labour under incurable disorders. By such an intimate acquaintance with the economy of our bodies, we should disco- ver even the seeds of diseases, and de- troy them, before they had taken root in the constitution. This, indeed, is a pitch of knowledge which we must not expect to attain. But, surely, we may go some way; and, there- fore, let us endeavour to go as far as we can. And if we consider that health and disease are the opposites of each other, there can be no doubt, that the study of the natural state of the body, which con- stitutes the one T must be the directroad to the knowledge of the other. What has been said, of the usefulness of anatomy in physic, will only be called in question by the more illiterate empirics among physi- cians. They would discourage others from the pursuit of knowledge which they have not themselves, and which, there- fore, they cannot know the value of, and tell us that a little of anatomy is enough for a physician. That anatomy is the very basis of sur- gery every body allows. It is dissection alone that can teach us where we may cm the living body with freedom and dis- patch ; where we may venture with greuv ANATOMY. circumspection anil delicacy ; and v In re we must not, upon any account, attempt it. This informs tin- head, giv 'cs dcxtc- rity to tin- li:uid, and familiarizes the In-art with :i sort of neci s->ary inhumanity, the cutting iu.struiiii.-nts upon our fel- low-creatures. Were it possible to doubt of the advan- tages which arise in surgery, from a know- f aiiatomv, we might have ample conviction, by comparing the present practice with that of the ancients : and upon tracing the improvements which have been made in later times,tliey would be found, generally, to have sprung from a more accurate knowledge of the parts concerned. In the hands of a good anato- mist, surgery is a salutary, a divine art; but when practised by men who know not the structure of the human body, it often becomes barbarous and criminal. The comparison of a physician to a ge- neral is both rational and instructive. The human both, under a disease, is the coun- try which labours under a civil war or an invasion. The physician is, or should be, the dictator or general, who is to take the command, and to direct all the necessary operations. To do his duty w ith full ad- vantage, a general, besides other acquire- ments, ust ful in his profession, must make himself master of the anatomy and physi- ology, as we may call it, of the country. lie may be said to be master of the ana- tomy of the country, when lie knows the figure, dimension, situation, and connec- tion, of all the principal const ituent parts ; such as the lakes, rivers, marshes, moun- tains, precipices, plains, woods, roads, , fords, towns, fortifications, &c. By the physiology of the country, which he ought likewise to understand, is meant nil the variety of active influence which is produced by the inhabitants. If the general be well instructed in all these points, he will find a hundred occasions of drawing advantages from them; and without such knowledge, he will be for ever exposed to some fatal blunder. GENERAL ACCOTST OF THK >Mrei . vccn her- self, in the brain, and every oilier | the body, fitted to convev her commands and influence over the whole, l-'or thcM- purposed the nerves arc actually given. ANATOMY. They are chords, which rise from the hrain, the immediate residence of the mind, and disperse themselves in branches through all parts of the body. They are intended to be occasional monitors against all such impressions as might endanger the well-being of the whole, or of any parti- cular part, which vindicates the Creator of all things in having actually subjected us to those many disagreeable and pain- ful sensations, which we are exposed to from a thousand accidents in life. Further, the mind, in this corporeal system, must be endued with the power of moving from place to place, that she may have intercourse with a variety of objects ; that she may fly from such as are disagreeable, dangerous, or hurtful, and pursue such as are pleasant or use- ful to her. And accordingly she is fur- nished with limbs, and with muscles and tendons, the instruments of motion, which we found in ever}' part of the fabric where motion is necessary. But to support, to give firmness and shape to the fabric, to keep the softer parts in their proper places, to give fixed points and the proper direction to its mo- tions, as well as to protect some of the more important and tender organs from external injuries, there must be some firm prop-work interwoven through the whole. And, in fact, for such purposes the bones are given. The prop-work must not be made into one rigid fabric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there are a number of bones. These pieces must all be firmly bound together, to prevent their disloca- tion, and this end is perfectly well an- swered by the ligaments. The extremi- ties of these bony pieces, where they move and rub upon one another, must have smooth and slippery surfaces, for easy motion. This is most happily pro- vided for by the cartilages and mucus of the joints. The interstices of all these parts must be filled up with some soft and ductile matter, which shall keep them in their places, unite them, and at the same time allow them to m6ve a little upon one an- other. This end is accordingly answered by the cellular membrane, or adipous substance. There must be an outward covering over the whole apparatus, both to give it a firm compactness, and to defend it from a thousand injuries, which, in fact, are the very purposes of the skin, and other in- teguments. As she is made for society and inter- course with beings of her own kind, she must be endued with powers of expres- sing and communicating her thoughts b> some sensible marks or signs, which shall be both easy to herself, and admit of great variety. Hence she is provided with the organs and faculty of speech, by which, she can throw out signs with amazing fa- cility, and vary them without end. Thus- we have built up an animal body, which would seem to be pretty complete , but we have not yet made any provision for its duration : and, as it is the nature of matter to be altered and worked upon by matter, so in a very little time such a living creature must be destroyed, if there is no provision for repairing the injuries which she must commit upon herself, and the injuries which she must be exposed to from without. Therefore a treasure ol blood is actually provided in the heart and vascular system, full of nutritious and healing particles, fluid enough to pene- trate into the minutest parts of the animal. Impelled by the heart, and conveyed by the arteries, it washes every part builds up what was broken down, and sweeps away the old and useless materials. Hence we see the necessity or advan- tage of the heart and arterial system : the overplus of this blood, beyond what was required to repair the present damages of the machine, must not be lost, but should be returned again to the heart ; and for this purpose the venal system is actually provided. These requisites in the animal explain, a priori, the circula- tion of the blood. The old materials, which are become useless, and are swept off by the current of blood, must be separated and thrown out of the system. Therefore glands, the organs of secretion, are given, for strain- ing whatever is redundant, vapid, or noxi- ous, from the mass of blood : and, when strained, it is thrown out by excre- tories. Now, as the fabric must be constantly wearing, the reparation must be carried on without intermission, and the strainers must always be employed: therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of the blood, and the secretions are al- ways going on. But even all this provision would not be sufficient ; for that store of blood would soon be consumed, and the fabric would breakdown, if there were not a provision made for fresh supplies. These we ob- serve, in fact, are profusely scattered round her in the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; and she is provided with hands, the finest instruments that could have been contrived for gathering them, and for preparing them in a variety of diffe- rent ways for the mouth. These supplies, ANATOMY. which we call food, must be considerably changed ; they must be converted into blood: therefore she is provided with teeth for cutting and bruising the food, and with a stomach for melting it down ; in short, with all the organs subservient to digestion. The finer parts of the aliments only can be useful in the constitution : these must be taken up, and conveyed in- to the blood, and the dregs must be thrown ofi'. With this view the intestinal canal is constructed. It separates the nutritious part, which we call chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the system of absorbent vessels; and the fee es pass downwards, to be conducted out of the body. Now we have got our animal, not only furnished with what is wanted for its im- mediate existence, but also with the pow- er of spinning out that existence to an in- definite length of time. But its duration, weinay presume.must necessarily be limi- ted : for as it is nourished, grows, and is raised up to its full strength and perfec- tion, so it must, in time, in common with all material things, begin to decay, and then hurry 041 to final ruin. Hence we see the necessity of a scheme for renova- tion. Accordingly, a wise Providence, to perpetuate as well as to preserve his work, besides giving a strong appetite for lite and self-preservation, has made ani- mals male and female, and given them such organs and passions as will secure the propagation of the species to the end of the world. Tims we see, that by the very imper- fect survey wliich human reason is able to take of this subject, the animal man must necessarily be complex in his cor- poreal system, and in its operations. He must have one great and general system, the vascular, branching through the whole for circulation : another, the nervous, with its appendages, the organs of sense, for every kind of feeling: and a third, for the union and connection of all those parts. Besides these primary and general sys- tems, he requires others, which may be more local or confined : one for strength, support, and protection ; the bony corn- pages : another for the requisite motions of the parts among themselves, ns well us for moving from place to place ; the mus- cular part of the body : another to pre- pare nourishment for the daily recruit of the body; the digestive organs: and one for propagating the species ; the organs of generation. In taking this general survey of what would appear, a priori, to be ncce- adapting a.n animal to the situations of humanity, we observe, with great satis- faction, that man is in fact made of such systems, and for such purposes. He has them all, and lie has nothing more, the organs of respiration. P> cannot account for e only know that it is in fact essential to life. Not- withstanding this, when we see all the other parts of the body, and their func- tions, so well accounted for, an adapted to their several purpose-., we can- not doubt that respiration ii so lik We find, in fact, that the blood in if culation becomes altered in its properties, and that these are renewed by r sorption of the oxygenous or pure part of the atmosphere in the lungs; \ve find also, that this function is the means of supporting the temperature of the animal. The use and necessity of all the differ- ent systems in a man's body is not more apparent, than the wisdom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting them all into the most compact and convenient form, and in disposing them so, that they shall mutually receive and give helps to one another, and that all, or many of the parts, shall not only answer their princi- pal end or purpose, but operate success- fully and usefully in many secondary ways. If we understand and consider the whole animal machine in this light, and compare it with any machine, in which hu- man art has done its utmost, suppose the best constructed ship that ever was built, we shall be convinced, beyond the possi- bility of doubt, that there is intelligence and power far surpassing what humanity can boast of. In making such a comparison, there is a peculiarity and superiority in the natu- ral machine, which cannot escape obser- vation. It is this; in machines of human contrivance or art, there is no internal power, no principle in the machin< by which it can alter or accommodate it- self to any injury which it may suii'er, or make up any injury which is reparable. But in the natural machine, the animal body, this is most wonderfully provided for by internal powers in the machine it- self, many of which are not more certain or obvious in their effects, than tl above all human comprehension as to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a wound heals up of itself; a bro- ken bone is made firm again by callus; a dead part is separated and thrown off* nodous juices are driven out by some of the cimmctories ; a redundancy is remo- ved by some spontaneous bleeding; a ANATOMY. bleeding naturally stops of itself; and a great loss of blood, from any cause, is in some measure compensated by a contract- ing power in the vascular system, which accommodates the capacity of the vessels to the quantity contained. The stomach gives information when the supplies have been expended, represents with great ex- actness the quantity and quality of what is wanted in the present state of the ma- chine, and in proportion as she meets with neglect, rises in her demand, urges her petition in a louder voice, and with more forcible arguments. For its protection, an animal body resists heat and cold in a very \vonderful manner, and preserves an equal temperature in a burning and in a free- zing atmosphere. . There is a farther excellence or su- periority in the natural machine, if possi- ble, still more astonishing, more beyond all human comprehension, than what we have been speaking of. Besides those internal powers of self-preservation in each individiiid, when two of them co- operate, or act in concert, they are en- dued with powers of making other ani- mals or machines like themselves, which again are possessed of the same powers of producing others, and so of multiplying the species without end. These are pow- ers which mock all human invention or imitation, they are characteristics of the Divine Architect. As the body is a compound of solids and fluids, anatomy is divided into, 1. The anatomy of the solids, and 2. The anatomy of the fluids. The solids of the human body consist of, 1. Bones, which give support to the other parts of the body; 2. Cartilages, or gristles, which are much softer than the bones, and also flexi- ble and elastic ; 3. Ligaments, which are more flexible still, and connect the ends of the bones to each other; 4. Membranes, or planes of minutely interwoven and condensed cellular sub- stance ; 5. Cellular substance, which is formed of fibres and plates of animal matter more loosely connected, and which forms the general uniting medium of all the struc- tures of the body ; 6. Fat, or adipous substance, an animal oil contained in the cells of the cellular membrane; 7. Muscles, which are bundles of fibres, endued with a power of contraction ; in popular language they form the flesh of an animal ; 8. Tendons, hard inelastic cords, which connect the muscles or moving powers to the bones or instruments of motion ; 9. Viscera, which are various parts, adapted for different purposes in the ani- mal economy, and contained in the cavi- ties of the body, as the head, chest, abdo- men, and pelvis; 10. Glands, organs which secrete or se- parate various fluids from the blood; 1 1 . Vessels, which are membranous ca- nals, dividing into branches, and transmit- ting blood and other fluids ; 12. Cerebral substance, or that which composes the brain and spinal marrow, which is a peculiar soft kind of animal matter : 13. Nerves, which are bundles of white fibrous cords, connected by one end to the brain, or spinal marrow, and thence expanded over every part of the body, in order to receive impressions from exter- nal objects, or to convey the commands of the will, and thereby produce muscular motion. The fluids of the human body are, 1. Blood, which circulates through the Vessels, and nourishes the whole fabric . 2. Persipirable matter, excreted by the vessels of the skin; 3. Sebaceous matter, by the glands ot the skin ; 4. Urine, by the kidneys ; 5 Ceruminous matter, secreted by the glands of the external ear ; 6. Tears, by the lachrymal glands ; 7. Saliva, by the salivary glands; 8. Mucus, by glands in various parts of the body, and by various membranes ; 9. Serous fluid, by membranes lining circumscribed cavities ; 10. Pancreatic juice, by the pancreas ; 11. Bile, by the liver; 12. Gastric juice, by the stomach; 13. Oil, by the vessels of the adipose membrane ; 14. Synovia, by the internal surfaces of the joints, for the purpose of lubricating them; 15. Seminal fluids, by the testes ; 16. Milk, by the mammary glands. The account of these animal fluids will be found chiefly under the article PHISIO- LOCY. The anatomical deecription of the body is technically arranged under the following heads : 1. Osteology, or the. description of the structure, shape, and uses of the bones. 2. Syndcsmology, or a description of the connection of bones by ligaments, and of the structure of the joints. ANATOMY. yology, or doctrine of the moving powers or muscles. 4. Angciology, or description of the ^<\ in nourishingthe body, in absorption, and in the removal of super- fluous parts. 5. Atlenology, or account of the glands, in which various liquors are separated or prepared from the blood. ('}. spliiiichnology, or a description of the different bo\v-ls wliich serve various unrmcinbranr, ti la cellulosa or mucosa of Latin writers, is the medium which connects and sup- ports all the various parts and structures of the body. Any person may gain a gene- ral notion of tips substance, by ob- it in joints of veal, where it isalwavs in- flated 1'V the J'utchcrs. 1 1 consists of an assemblage of fit) res and laminae of animal matter, connected to each other so a* to form innuineraliL.- cells or small cavities from which its name of cellular is derived. It pervades even -part of the animal struc- ture. By joining together the minute fi- brils of muscle, tendon, or nerve, it forms obvious and visible fibres; it collects thoc fibres into large fasciculi ; and by joining such fasciculi or bundles to each other, constitutes an entire muscle, tendon, or nerve. It joins together the individual muscles, and is collected in their intervals. It surrounds each vessel ami nerve in thr body ; often connecting these parts to- gether by a firm kind of capsule, and in a looser form joining tbcm to the neigh- bouring muscles, &c. When condensed into a firm and compact structure, it con- stitutes the various membranes of the bo- dy, which, by long maceration in water, may be resolved into a loose cellular tex- ture. In the bones it forms the basis or ground-work of their fabric, a receptacle, in the interstices of which the earth of bone is deposited. As cellular substance is entirely soluble in boiling water, it is as- cribed by chemists to that peculiar modi- fication of animal matter termed gelatine. In consequence of its solution by the uni- ted agencies of heat and moisture, the muscular fibres separate from each other, and form the other structures of the body. This effect is seen in meat which is sub- jected to long boiling or stewing for the table, or indeed in a joint which is mere- ly over-boiled. Its watery solution assumes, when cold, the appearance of jelly ; and, after a par- ticular mode of preparation, constitutes glue. The interstices ofthe cellular substance are lubricated ami moistened by a serous or watery fluid, poured out l>y the e\ha- lant arteries and again taken in by thr lymphatics. It thus acquires a pliancy and softness, which adapt it particularly to serve asacounecting medium for parts wliich have motion on each other. The importance of this property will be best understood by observing 1 the effects of ANATOMY. ltd loss. Inflammation of abscess often causes an induration or consolidation of the cellular texture, by which the integu- ments are fixed to the muscles, the mus- cles are firmly united to each other, and to the surrounding parts, and the mo- tions of the whole are considerably im- paired. From the universal extent of this cellu- lar texture,twoconclusions may be drawn; 1st, it forms the basis of the whole animal i'abric, in such a way, that if we conceive c very part removed but this, the form of the whole would still be expressed in cel- lular substance ; 2dly, it forms a connec- tion and passage between all parts of the body, however remote in situation, or dis- similar in structure. For the cells of this substance every where communicate ; as we may collect from facts of the most common and familiar Occurrence. In em- physema, where air escapes from the lung 1 wounded by a broken rib into the cellu- lar substance, it spreads rapidly from the chest into the most remote parts of the body ; and has even been known to gain admission into the eye-ball. A similar diffusion of this fluid may be effected by artificial inflation, which is commonly practised by butchers on the carcases of calves. In anasarca, or preternatural ac- cumulation of fluid in the cellular sub- stance, the most depending parts are the most loaded ; and punctures in these drain the water oft" from the whole body. Jldipvus substance, or fat. The cells of the cellular substance, in many parts of the body, are destined for the reception of a fluid, termed fat. This is of an unctuous nature, inflammable, lighter than water, usually inodorous, and, generally speak- ing, similar to the vegetable oils. It is white in young animals, and becomes yel- lower as they advance in age : this differ- ence may be seen in the carcases of a calf and cow. It is always more or less fluid in tl\e living subject ; in carnivorous ani- mals, and in man, it retains much of its oily appearance after death ; but in herbi- vorous animals it constantly assumes a con- crete form. Dr. Hunter called those parts of the cellular substance which contain fat, adipous cellular substance; and distinguish- ed the other by the epithet recticular. As the fat is deposited in cells, it as- sumes in general a kind of granular form. It varies considerably in consistence. That of the orbit is the softest in the body, and forms a well-known epicurean bonne koi/che, in a boiled calf's head. The fat about the kidneys becomes particularly hard after death, and is Called suet. The globules or portions of this are very large, and it contains on the whole less cellular substance than any fat in the body. There is generally a layer of fat under the skin ; whence a membrana adiposa has been sometimes enumerated as one of the com- mon integuments of the body. Some parts of the body never contain fat, even in subjects who have the greatest accumulation of this fluid. This is the case with the scrotum, the integuments of the penis, and the eye-lids : it is obvious that the functions of these parts would be completely destroyed, if they were subject to the enormous accumulations of fat, which occur in other parts of the body. Several of the viscera also nev#r contain any fat, probably for the same reason ; this is the case with the brain afld lungs. The quantity of fat varies^ according 1 to the age, the state of health, and the pecu- liar habit or disposition of the individual. It is not found in the early periods of foetal existence ; and cannot be distinguished with any certainty sooner than the fifth month after conception. In the foetus, and for some time after birth, the fat is confined to the surface of the body, and is only found in a stratum under the skin. It begins, however, gra- dually to be deposited in the intervals of the muscles, and on the surface of some viscera. In old subjects, however thin they may seem on an external view, there is always much fat, penetrating even the substance of the muscles : the bones are greasy throughout ; the heart is more or less loaded, as are also the parts in the ab- domen. There is a considerable difference in the quantity of fat in different individuals : and in some there is a propensity or disposi- tion to its accumulation ; a sedentary life, copious food, and tranquil state of the mind, are particularly favourable to the in- crease of fat, which sometimes proceeds to such a pitch, from the continuance of these causes, that it must be considered as a dis- ease, and is attended with the greatest in- convenience to the individual. General diseases of the frame are commonly at- tended with an absorption of the fat from the cellular substance : acute disorders cause a very rapid emaciation. In no case is the adipous substance more completely removed from the whole body than in anasarca, where its place is supplied by a serous fluid. The uses of the fat seem to be, in part, common to it with the cellular substance: it connects contiguous parts, and at the same time prevents their coalition. It ad ANATOMY. uiir.s /A' their moving on each other with freedom and facility. Its deposition under the integuments gives u roundness and convexity to llie surface, on which the beauty ot the human form principally de- pends. Indeed, its accumulation in par- ticular situations immediately influences tlie outline of the part; as in the orbit, the check, and the buttocks. The ef- fects of its loss is most disagreeably mani- fested in the lank cheek and hollow eye of an emaciated patient. 11 has been supposed that the fat ab- sorbed under certain circumstances is applied to the nutrition of the body ; us in bybenuling animals. Membranes. In the foregoing observa- tions on cellular substance, we have stated that membranes are formed by a conden- sation of that substance. They consist of thin sheets of compacted ami close cellu- lar texture. This is proved by long ma- ceration in water. The fluid gradually penetrates the interstices, and resolves the membrane into a loose and flocculent substance. They are found in every va- riety of density and softness. A grand use of membranes is, to line what anatomists call the circumscribed ca- vities of the body. These are hollow- spaces, containing fae different viscera, and in every instance completely and ac- curately filled by such viscera; so that the term cavity, when used by anato- mists, does not, as in common language, denote a void or empty space. Membrane* have a smooth internal po- lished surface, turned towards the con- tained viscera. This is constantly moist- ened by a lubricating fluid exhaled by the minute arteries of the part, anil bestows on the surface of the membrane the greatest softness and smoothness. Hence liie motions of the viscera are performed with perfect facility, and they are pre- vented from adhering to each other, or to the sides of the containing cavity. The ex- tent of such cavities is bounded and de- fined by the lining membranes, and hence arises the epithet arcunucribcd. To in- crease the facility of motion, the surface of the contained viscera is covered by a continuation of the same membrane, and always therefore possesses the same smoothness and polish with the sides of the cavity. The membrane lining a cir- ct. inscribed ca\'r_ :s a complete and en- tire sac, which is reflected over all the vis- cera containedin the cavity. In the of an animal just slaughtered, the lubrica- ting secretion flies oil fin the form of a fine vapour when the cavitv of the b<-ilv <. \- VOL I. chest is laid open. It is nothing more than an increase of this natural secretion, combined perhaps with a deficient ab- sorption, that gives rise to dropsies of the difierent cavities. The opposite or external surface of the membrane is rough and cellular ; and ad- heres to the various parts which form the sides of tile cavity. Another use of membranes is, to form blood-vessels or tubes for conveying the nutritious fluid to all parts of tile body. The bore or hollow of the tube is per- fectly smooth ami polished, so that the blood experiences no obstruction in its course ; and the external surface is rough, to connect it with the surrounding parts. In a similar manner are formed the stOr niach and intestines, which receive the food; the urinary bladder, which holds the urine, &c. It must be obvious, that for all the pur- poses which we have enumerated, whe- ther for lining circumscribed cavities, for conveying the blood, for receiving the food, or holding any other liquors, it is essentially necessary that membranes should be impermeable to fluids in the living state. OSTEOLOGT. The bones are the most solid parts of the body. They are composed of a \ ;.- cular substance, not differing 1 materially in structure from that of the rest of the body, except that there is deposited in its interstices an earthy matter, which gives to the whole mass rigidity, strength, and a permanent figure. The nutrient vessels of arteries, membranes, and liga- ments, occasionally deposit lime, and cause the ossification of those parts. The account of the original formation of the bones in the foetus, is technically termed osteugeiiy. The parts of the young fa-tus, which are afterwards to become bones, are at first cartilaginous ; and their substance is rendered \\ Kite and firm, in proportion to the quantity of lime depo- sited in it. The quantin at the time of birth is only sufficient to give firnn the whole mass, not to prevent its flexi- bility. The extremities of all the long bones consist of large portion.-, of cartilage, and these b\ degrees become bony. The for- mation of bone begins in the centre of the cartilage, and gradually e\U -i;,N from thence to the remote p;;r . s, so that the separate piece of bone, formed at the ex- tremity, remains till near the lime of pu- berty, "conjoined to the body of the bone Z ANATOMY. ny a crust of cartilage. In this state it is" technically termed an epiphysis. The body, or middle part of the bone, is call- ed the diaphysis. The projecting parts, or processes of bones, are also in many instances originally epiphijses. The time by which these epiphyses are consolidat- ed by a bony union with the diaphysis, va- ries in different bones, but it is not pro- longed in any much beyond the age of puberty. AVe perceive an evident advantage in the bones of the foetus being formed as they are. Their flexibility admits of the form of the limbs becoming adapted to the varying figure of the pelvis, through which they must pass ; and their elastici- ty, which is powerful, restores them af- terwards to their natural shape. The animal substance contained in bones is demonstrated by immersion in weak acids, which dissolve the earth, and leave a kind of cartilage similar to that in which the bone was originally formed. Long boiling in a close vessel removes the gelatinous substance, which is dis- solved in the water. The earth of bones is demonstrated by calcination, which drives off the animal matter, and leaves the earth alone behind. This earth con- sists chiefly of phosphate of lime ; but there is also a small proportion of carbo- nate of lime. In young subjects the ani- mal substance predominates, and the bone appears redder, in consequence of the arteries being larger and more nume- rous. The bones of old persons contain more earth, and are consequently whiter and less vascular. Some recent experiments have shewn the quantity of jelly contained in bones to be much larger than was supposed, and as it forms a very good soup when dis- solved in water, the circumstance is of considerable importance, as furnishing' an article capable of supplying much whole- some nutriment. The quantity of soup furnished from a given bulk of bruised or pounded bones, boiled in a vessel with a closed lid, considerably exceeds that which can be extracted from the same- quantity of meat. Of course the articular heads of bones, and the reticular texture, in general furnish the greatest quantity. It lias been generally taught, that bones are composed of fibres and laminx : the fact is, that they consist of a reticulated texture, very similar to cellular substance in other parts of the body. According to the obvious differences in their forms, bones are divided into the long and flat. Two kinds of structure may be observ- ed in all bones : in the one, the bony substance is condensed, and leaves no in- terstices ; in the other, there is a mere net-work of bony fibres and plates, leav- ing numerous intervals. The latter is termed the cancellous substance of bones. The cylinder of a long bone is com- posed entirely of the firmer substance, and in its centre is hollowed out to con- tain the marrow. In those extremities of the bones, which form the joints, which are greatly expanded, in order to increase the extent of surface, there is a thin layer of the compact substance, but all the in- terior is cancellous. In broad or flat bones, the firmer substance is formed into two plates or tables, and the interval be- tween these is occupied by cancelli. Many advantages arise from this ar- rangement of the earth of bones. The long bones are made slender in the mid- dle, to allow of the convenient collocation of the large muscles around them ; they become expanded at their extremities, to afford an extent of surface for the forma- tion of joints, and the support of the weight of the body. A cavity is left in the middle; for if all the earthy matter had been compacted into the smallest possible space, the bones would have been such slender stems, as to be very unsuitable to their offices ; and if they had been of their present dimensions, and solid throughout, they would have been unnecessarily strong and weighty. The phenomena, which result from feeding an animal with madder; sufficient- ly demonstrate the existence of blood- vessels and absorbents in the bones. There is a strong attraction between the earth of bone and the colouring matter ; by means of which they unite and form a beautiful red substance. The whole of the bones of an animal assume this colour soon after an animal has been taking the madder. If it be left off, the bones in a short time resume their natural white ap- pearance, from the absorption of the red colouring substance. The short time in which growing bones become thoroughly- dyed, and in which again the preternatu- ral tint is lost, prove that even in these, the hardest parts of our frames, there' is a process of removal of old parts, and de- position of new ones constantly going on. That bones possess nerves, as well as arteries, veins, and absorbents, cannot be doubted. Although in the natural state they seem to be insensible, they become extremely painful when diseased; and again, a fungus, which is sensible, some- ANATOMY. times grows out oi' a hone, though it may have no connexion whatever with the sur- rounding soft parts ; of course it must have derived its nerves, by means of which it possesses sensation, from the bone out of which it arose. Bones are covered by a strong and firm membrane, termed periosteum, on which the vessels are first distributed; from this they descend into the substance of the bone. The vessels enter through holes which are evident on the surface, and which are larger and more numerous in the extremities of the long bones than in the middle. OF THE MARROW. This is of an oily nature. It hardens when cold, in herbaceous animals ; but it remains fluid in those which are carni- vorous. It has a reddish and bloody ap- pearance in young animals ; but this soon goes off'. It is contained in fine membra- nous cells, which do not communicate with each other. The marrow occupies the tube left in the middle of the long iones, and al*o fills the cancelli of their . \tivmities. The cellular substance, which contains the marrow, being condensed upon the inside of the walls of the bone, and adhe- ring to them, has been termed the jterios- (rum intfrntim. \\ e observe in the principal bonesarte- rics, much larger than those which nou- rish the bone, penetrating these bodiesob- i.quely, and spreading their brunches upon the medullary cells. \ arious unsatisfactory opinions have " < i) proposed concerning the use of the marrow. The utility of the bones be- ing formed as they arc, small and tubular in the middle, expanded and spongy at 'heir extremities, lias been already ex- plained. If then spaces are necessarily left in their interior parts, those spaces must be filled with something ; fur they rannot be left void, or the immense pres- -ure of the atmosphere would crush their -ides, ar.d destroy the vacuum. Tin re is no matter in the animal body more suit- able tu lill their space's than the marrow ; i' ml it is to be regarded as a part of the adipous system of the animal. From the circumstances which have been detailed in the foregoing account, Wr. the great and general v:.scularity of bones; the quantity of soft substance ex- isting in every part of them ; their growth und mutation of form in disease, Jtc. it is .1 to conclude, that there exist in the composition of every bony fibrc.arte- r its formation, absorbents for its removal, cellular substance for the con- nexion of its parts, and nerves to give ani- mation to the whole. In this view of the subject, we see no essential difference of structure between bones and other parts of the body ; nor do we expect any tial difference in the functions of their nutrient and other vessels. We naturally conclude that bony fibres arc formed and repaired, and that they undergo mutation and removal in the same manner, and from the same causes, that soft parts do. CARTILAGE. Is a semipellucid substance, of a milk- white or pearly colour, entering- into the composition of several parts of the body. It holds a middle rank, in point of firm- ness, between bones, or hard parts, and the softer constituents of the human frame. It appears, on a superficial ex- amination, to be homogeneous in its tex- ture ; for, when cut, the surface is uni- form, and contains no visible cells, cavi- ties, nor pores ; but resembles the section of a piece of glue. It possesses a very high degree of elasticity ; which property distinguishes it from all other parts of the body. Hence it enters into the compo- sition of parts, whose functions require the combination of firmness with pliancy and flexibility : the preservation of a cer- tain external form, with the power of yielding to external force or pressure. Cartilages are covered by a membrane, resembling, in texture and appearance, as well as in its office, the periosteum oi" bones; this is termed the perichondrium. They receive arteries and veins from this membrane: these vessels, however, have never been demonstrated in the cartila- ginous crusts of articular surfaces. Ab- sorbent vessels cannot be actually shewn, but their existence is abundantly proved by many phenomena. The conversion of curtilage into bone is alone sufficient for this purpose. The cartilaginous sub- stance is gradually removed, as the for- mation of the bone advances. In affec- tions of the joints, their cartilaginous co- verings are often both entirely destroyed, or partially removed : which appearances can only be ascribed to the action of ab- sorbent vessels It docs not seem to possess ncn it is entirely destitute of sensibility. The thinner cartilages of the body un- resolved by maceration into a kind ol fibrous substance : e. g. those of the or- ANATOMY. gans of sense. Those of the ribs are found by long maceration to consist of concentric oval laminar. In some there are tendinous fibres intermixed ; as in those of the vertebra: . Anatomists divide cartilages into two kinds : the temporary and the permanent. The former are confined to the earlier stages of existence : the latter common- ly retain their cartilaginous structure throughout every period of life. The temporary cartilages are those in which the bones of the body are formed. They are hence called by the Latin wri- ters ossesccntes. All the bones of the body, except the teeth, are formed in a nidus of cartilage. The form of the bone, with its various processes, is accurately repre- sented in these cartilaginous primorclia ; and it is the substance alone which changes. The permanent cartilages are of vari- ous kinds. We find them composing the external ear, external aperture of the nos- trils, and eye-lids. The larynx is entirely composed of this sub stance; and the tra- chea, with its branches, is furnished with cartilaginous hoops, by which these tubes are kept permanently open, for the ready- passage of air to and from the lungs. The bodies of the vertebrse are joined by large masses of a peculiar substance ; partaking of the properties and appear- ance of cartilage and ligament, which allow of the motions of these parts on each other, without weakening the support that is afforded to the upper parts of the body in general, and to the head in particular, by the vertebral column. These carti- lages impart a great elasticity to the spine ; by which tiic effects of concussion from jumping, from falls, &c. are weakened, and destroyed, before they can be propa- gated to the head. When the body has been long in an erect position, the com- pression of these cartilages, by the supe- rior parts, diminishes the height of the person. They recover their former length, when freed from this pressure : hence a person is taller when he rises in the morn- ing. th:in after sustaining the fatigues of tlic d:iy, ;,ndthe difference has sometimes amounted to an inch. lie-times interposed be- ar surfaces of bones, where they fill up irregularities, that otherwise impede the motions of ihepurt; a-.'1-r.r.. -irityofthe joint, by adapting the articular surfaces !i other. - of bones are, in -e, covered bv a thin crust of cartilage, having its surface most exqui- sitely polished, by which all friction in the motions of the joint is avoided, and the ends of the bones glide over each other with the most perfect facility. J\'nmenchi1ure of bones. The processes or apophyses of bones bear different names, according to their figures. Hence we find them described under the terms of head (roundish ball) ; condyle (a flat- tened head) ; neck ; tuberosity ; spine ; &c. others have particular names from supposed resemblances. The cavities or depressions of bones are called cotyloid, when deep ,- glenoid, when shallow. Again, we have pits, fur- rows, notches, sinuosities, fossae, sinuses, foramina, and canals. Connection of bones. Anatomists have divided these into three classes; Symphy- sis, Rynarthrosis, and Diarthrosis. The term symphysis merely denotes the union of the conjoined bones, without any reference to peculiar form or motion ; hence it is divided, according to the means by which it is effected, into 1. Synchondrosis, where cartilage is the connecting medium : this is exempli- fied in the junction of the ribs and ster- num ; of the bodies of the vertebra ; and of the ossa pubis : 2. Synneurosis or syndesmosis ; where ligaments are the connecting bodies, as in all the moveable articulations : 3. Syssarcosis ; where muscles are stretched from one bone to another. The synarthrosis, or immovable con- junction of bones, consists of, 1. Suture ; where the bones are mutu- ally indented, as if sewn together : 2. Harmonia ; where the conjunction is effected by plane surfaces : 3. Gomphosis; where one bone is fixed in another, as a nail is in a board. The teeth afford the only specimen : 4. Schindylesis; where the edge of one bone is received into i groove in another: as the nasal plate of the ethmoid, in the vomer. Diarthrosis, or moveable conjunction of bones. The conjoined parts of the bones are covered with a smooth cartilage, and connected by one or more ligaments. It lias three subdivisions; >>:. 1. Knarthrosis, or ball and socket ; where a round head of one bone is re- ceived into a cavity of another, and con- sequently is capable of motions in all di- rections ; 2. Arthrodin ; where the cavity is more superficial, and much motion not allowed ; 3. Ginglymus ; where the motions are ANATOMY. restricted to two directions, as in the hinge of a <1< Tin.- skeleton consists of an assemblage. of all the bones in the body, excepting the os hyoides. It is said to be a natural ske- leton when the bones are connected .by means of their own ligaments or curtila- ges ; an artificial one, when wire or other extraneous substances are employ- ed. It is divided into the head, trunk, and extremities. The head consists of the cranium and the tare. The former of these partscon- sists of 1 or 2 ossa frontis ; 2 ossa parieta- lia ; 1 os sphenobasilare ; 2 ossa tempo- rum ; 2 mallei ; 2 incudes; 2orbicularia; 2 stapedes ; and 1 os xthmoidcum : on the whole, of 15 or 16 bones. The face has 2 ossa maxillaria superi- pra ; 2 ossa palati ; 2 ossa nial.v ; 2 ossa nasi ; 2 ossa lacrymalia or uncuis ; 2 ossa tiirhinata inferiora ; 1 os vomer ; 1 max- illa inferior ; 32 teeth ; on tlie whole, 46 bones. The os hyoides consists of a body, 2 la- teral portions called cornua, and 2 surul processes called appendices. The bones of the head arc therefore 61 or 62 ; with the os hyoides 66 or 67. In the neck there are 7 cervical verte- brae; in the chest 12 dorsal vertebrae ; 24 ribs ; 2 or 3 bones of the sternum; in the loins 5 lumbar vertebra:; in the pelvis 1 sacrum, 4 ossa coccygis, 2 ossa innomi- nata. Therefore the whole trunk has 57 or 58 bones. The shoulders have two clavicles, and 2 scapulae; the arms 2 humeri ; the fore- arms 2 ulna: and 2 radii ; the wrists 2 os- vi scaphoidea; 2 ossalunaria; 2 ossa cuneiformiu; 2 ossa pisiformia; 2ossati:i- pe/.ia; 2 ossatrape/.ioidea ; Jossamagna; 2 ossa unciformia; the metacarpi lOmeta- oarpal bones ; the fingers 10 posterior phalanges, 8 middle phalanges, 10 ante- rior phalanges, and 8 scsamoid bones. The bones of the upperextremities arc in the whole 72. The thighs have 2 femora; the legs 2 palellse, and 2 tilnil.v ; the tarsi 2 astr.igali, 2 ossa raleis, 2 ossa na\ icularia, 6 cuneiform bones, 2 ossa cuboidea ; the metatarsi 10 metatarsal bones ; the toes 10 posterior phalanges, 8 middle phalan- ges, 10 anterior phalanges, and 6 scsamoid bones. The bones of the lower extremities are 66. The whole skeleton contains 259 or 261 bones. Of the bones just enumerated, the os frontis, spheno-occipitale, ethmoideum, vomer, inferior maxilla, the crum, and os coccygis, the bones of the sternum, and the os linguale medium, or body of the os hyoides, are single bones ; and being placed in the middle of the !>o- consequently symmetrical. Of all the other bones, there is a pair, consisting of a bone for the right, and another for the left side. The structure of the whole skeleton is therefore symmetrical ; since an imagina- ry perpendicular line drawn through tin- whole would divide even thesingle bones into a right and a left half, exactly resem- bling each other. This observation must however be taken with some allowance ; since the corresponding bones of one side are not always perfectly similar to thos of the opposite ; nor do the two halves <,r' the single bone.s always exactly agree in form, &c. The entire natural skeleton of a man of middle stature, in a dried state, from 150 to 200 ounces ; that of a woman from 100 to 160 ounces. Bones of the liead. The cranium is the oval bony cavity containing the brain ; the face is placed at the anterior and low- er part of this cavity, and holds some of the organs of sense, and the instruments of mastication. The bones of the head are joined by sutures, a mode of union nearlv peculiar to themselves ; hence, when all the soft parts are destroyed by maceration, they still remain most firmly connected to each other, excepting the front teeth and the lower jaw. The sutures are formed by numerous sharp and ramified pi. of the opposed edges of the diiTerent bones, shooting into cm-responding vacui- ties of each other, in some insiances, however, the bones seem to be joined by the opposition of plane surf'icos, and here the union appears externally like a mere line, instead of the irregular zigzag course which it takes in the former case The last mentioned junction is called har- monia. In the fcctal state, the bones of the cra- nium do not touch each other, ;> separated by considerable intcn tl-, of membrane, and have thin extenuated margins, which allow them to rii<-'ccs) ; tluse last bones, bearing considerable resemblance to the vertc-brx, are called sometimes the false vertebra:. Kach vertebra has a body, which i* situated anteriorly, and consists of a c\ - lindrical piece <>t" bone-, a perforation be- hind this, in which the spinal marrow runs ; two superior and two inferior arti- culating processes, by which it is joined to the bone immediately ;i',<>\ e and below it ; tw o trap . .iiid one spi- nous process, which, projecting behind, forms a sharp ridge, from \\ i/.ch the nam- of spine has been applied to the whole column. The vertebra are divided into three rding to tli ;i : the upper one" al : n ANATOMY. these, the first, that immediately supports the head, is called the atlas ; and the second, from a remarkable bony process which it possesses, the vertebra; dentata. The twelve next are called dorsal verte- bra;, and are distinguished by having the ribs articulated to them. The five last are called lumbar. These all differ from each other in some circumstances. The most obvious distinction arises from the size : the upper ones are the smallest, and there is a gradual increase as we descend. The column of the spine, when viewed altogether, is not perpendicular; it stands forward in the neck, recedes in the up- per part, of the back, and projects again in the loins. Holes are left between the hone.-), for the transmission of the nerves which arise from the spinal marrow. The sacrum forms the back of the pel- vis, and is followed out in front. In form it is triangular, and the base is joined to the last vertebra. It is perforated by a canal, in which the termination of the me- dulla spinalis is lodged. Its apex has connected to it the os coccygis. The thorax is formed by the twelve dorsal vertebra, the ribs, and sternum. The ribs are long, curved, flattened, and narrow bones, attached behind to the dorsal vertebra:, both in their bodies and transverse processes, and joined in front tc a piece of cartilage. They are twelve in number, and the seven upper ones, whose cartilages are affixed to the sides of the sternum, are called true ribs ; the live lowerones, the cartilages of which do not reach so far, are called the false ribs. The sternum is a broad and flat bone, placed in the front of the chest. It con- Si.sts of two pieces of bone, and of a carti- . lied the ensiform. The clavicles :uv articulated towards its upper parts, and the cartilages of the ribs are joined to its sides. The pelvis is formed by the two ossa innouiinata, or haunch bones, the sacrum, and os coccygis. The former are very large and Hut bones, expanded into a broad surface above for the support of the abdominal viscera, and the attachment of the abdominal muscles, and furnished : ;nt at the same time most carefully guard- 'd and strengthened. There is a very large rounded head of the thigh r, into a deep cup of the os innominatum. Here it can revolve freelv, and is prevent- ed from escaping 1 by thick and strong rising edges, that guard the brim of the '-.avity. From tin 'here springs a very tough and stout orbicular ligament, which is firmly stretched over the head of the bone, and implanted into a contracted part called the neck. In order to provide still further for the security of so impor- tant a joint as the hip, there is a short, strong ligament arising from the head of MIC ball, and implanted in the bottom of the cup. This affords a very great obsta- cle to any force tending to displace the l)one ; but. at the same time lies in the bottom of the cavity, so us not. to interfere with any of the ordinary motions. Tin knee-joint is formed by three >oncs: the head of the tibia, the condyles of the femur, and the patella. It is a "gin- ^lymus, and its motions are accordingly restrained b\ two strong lateral ligaments, and it is secured still further by two im- mense ligamentous ropes within the ca- \it\ of the joint, called the crucial li^-a- ments. The ankle is a ginglymoid joint, formed by the tibia and fibula, together with the ! us. This joint, which is an im- portant one, as bearing the weight of the whole body, is strengthened at its sides by twohonv processes, called the internal and external malleoli or ankles. The bones of the tarsus, metatarsus, articulated, like those of the Muscles consist of bundles of red fibres; hut the colour is not essential, since it can be removed by repeated \\ ashings and ; it ion. The threads composing a muscle are enveloped by cellular substance, which connects it to the surrounding parts. L'.ach bundle consists of numerous film-, !', that our instruments of research cannot arrive at the ultimate or original fibre: hence, any perceivable fibre, how- i , i r small, is formed by the jn \tu-posHioit of numerous fibrilhc ; anil, as u e employ magnifying instruments of greater power, a fibre, which before seemed simple, re- solves itself into a congeries of still more minute threads. We pass over in sih ncc- the dreams of various investigators, who have busied themselves in looking for tin- ultimate muscular fibre ; these researches do not assist us in explaining the pheno- mena of muscular action. The cohesion of the constituent particles of the moving fibre is maintained by the vital power : hence, a dead muscle will be torn by a weight of a few ounces, which in the living body would have supported many pounds. The muscular fibre reo copious supply of vessels and nerves. Tendons are formed by an assemblage of longitudinal parallel fibres. They are extremely dense and tough, of a splendid white colour, which is beautifully con- with the florid red of a healthy muscle. The muscular fibres terminate in these bodies, and they are connected to the bones. They possess no apparent . and very few and small blood- vessels. There is always an exact relation be- tween the joint and the muscles that move it. Whatever mot'" the joint, by its me- chanical constriction, i* capable of per- forming, tbt motion the annexed muscles, by the : i position, are capable of produc- ing:. For example, if there be, as at the knee and elbow, a hinge joint, capable of motion only in the same plane, the muscles and tendons are placed in directions pa- rallel to the bone, so as by their construc- tion to produce that motion, and no other. If these joints were capable of freer motion, there are no muscles to produce it. Whereas, at the shoulder and the hip, where the ball and socket joint allows by its construction a rotatory or sweeping motion, tendons are placed in such a posi- tion, and pull in such a direction, as topro- ducethe motion of which the joint admits. In the head and hand, there is a specific mechanism in the bones for rotaton mo- tion ; and there is accordingly, in the obli- que direction of the muscles belonging to them, a specific provisionfor putting this mechanism of the bones into action. The oblique muscles would luivc been ineffi- cient without that particular articulation, and that particular.: n would have been useless without the mi - As the muscles act only by contraction, dent that the reciprocal energetic ANATOMY. motion of the limbs, or their motion with force in opposite directions, can only be produced by the instrumentality of oppo- site or antagonist muscles, of flexors and extensors answering to each other. For instance, the biceps and brachialis inter- ims, placed in the front of the arm, by their contraction, bend the elbow, and with such degree offeree as the case re- quires, or the strength admits of. The relaxation of these muscles after the effort would merely let the fore-arm drop down: for the back stroke, therefore, and that the arm may not only bend at the elbow, but also extend and straigthen itself with force, other muscles, as the triceps and anconeus, placed on the hinder part of the arm, fetch back the fore -arm into a straight line with the humerus, with no less force than that with which it was bent out of it. It is evident, therefore, that the animal functions require that particular disposi- tion of the muscles which we call anta- gonist muscles. It often happens that the action of mus- clesis wanted, where their situation would be inconvenient. In which case, the bo- dy of the muscle is placed in some com- modious position at a distance, and it com- municates with the point of action by slender tendo^. if the muscles which move the fingers Viad been placed in the palm or back of the \> an d, they would have swelled that part to an awkward and clumsy thickness. The l^autv, the proportions of the part, would liav c " been destroyed. They are therefore disposal in the arm, and even up to the elbow, and act by long tendons strapped down at the wrist, and passing under the ligament to the fingers, and to the joints of the fin- gers, which they are severally to move. In the same manner the muscles, which move the toes and many of the joints of the foot, are gracefully disposed in the calf of the leg, instead of forming an un- wieldy tumefaction in the foot itself. The great mechanical variety in the figure of the muscles may be thus stated. It appears to be a fixed law, that the con- traction of a muscle shall be towards its centre. Therefore the subject for me- chanism on each occasion is, so to modify the figure, and adjust the position of the muscle, as to produce the motion requir- ed, agreeably with this law. This can only be done by giving to different mus- r !( s a diversity of configuration, suited fo their several offices, and to their situa- tion with respect to the work which they have to perform. On which account we rind them under a multiplicity of forms . and attitudes; sometimes with double, sometimes with treble tendons, some- times with none ; sometimes one tendon to several muscles, at other times one muscle to several tendons. The shape of the organ is susceptible of an incalcula- ble variety, whilst the original property of the muscle, the law and line of its contraction, remains the same, and is simple. Herein the muscular system may be said to bear a perfect resemblance to our works of art. An artist does not alter the native quality of his materials, or their laws of action. He takes these as he finds them. His skill and ingenuity are employed in turning them, such as they are, to his account, by giving to the parts of his machine a form and relation, in which these unalterable properties may operate to the production of the effects intended. The muscular system would afford us numerous examples of what may be call- ed mechanical structure : i. e. of such contrivances, employed to attain certain objects, as a human artist would adopt on similar occasions. One of the muscles of the eye-ball presents us with a very per- fect pulley ; by means of which the globe of the eye is moved in a direction exactly contrary to the original application of the force. This muscle, which is called the trochlearis, arises from the very back part of the orbit it has a long and slen- der tendon, running through a pulley in the inner part of the front margin of the orbit, and then going back to be fixed in the hind portion of the eye-ball. Thus it draws the globe obliquely upwards and forwards, although the line of'the con- traction of the muscle is directly back- ward. In the toes and fingers, the long ten- don, which bends the. first joint, pusses through the short tendon, which bends the second joint The foot is placed at a considerable angle with the leg. It is manifest, there- fore, that flexible strings, passing along the interior of the angle, if left to them- selves, would, when stretched, start from it. The obvious preventive is to tie them down, and this is done in fact. Across the instep, or rather just above it, the anatomist finds a strong ligament, under which the tendons pass to the foot. The effect of the ligament, as a bandage, can be made evident to the senses; for if it be cut, the tendons start up. The sim- plicity, yet the clearness of this contri- vance, its exact resemblance to establish- ed resources of art, place it among the ANATOMY. most indubitable manifestations of design \vitli which wr :irc acquainted. 'I lie number of the muscles of the human body is so great, and the circum- which demand attention in every nutsric art- likewise so numerous, that a particular description of each would ex- tend this article beyond its prescribed U -,hall therefore merely give a r.-iuilo^tic of the muscles: which, toge- ther with the references to the annexed will give the reader a sufficiently notion of the subject. >es of the scalp. 1. Fronto-occipita- . picranius. >cs oftlie ear. 1. Attollens auricu- lam ; 2. anterior auris; 3, 4. retrahentes aurtculani; 5. major helicis; 6. minor he- licis ; 7. tragicus ; 8. antitragicus ; '.'. transvorsus auriculae; 10. laxator tym- pani major; 11. laxator tympani minor; 12. tensor tympani ; 13. stapedeu.s. .!/ -rift of the eye. 1. Orbicularis pal- pebrarum ; 2. corrugator supercilii; 3. Icvator palpebrae superioris; 4. attollens oculi ; 5. abductor oculi ; 6. depressor oculi; 7. adductor oculi : these are also called rccti: inz. rectus superior, exter- nus, inferior, and internus; 8. obliquus superior oculi, or trochlearis ; 9. obliquus inferior oculi. . '/ ,-fe." of the nose. 1. Compressor na- rium ; 2. levator labii superioris et alae na- si ; 3. nasalis labii superioris ; 4. depres- sor alx- naai. 'cs of the lips. 1. Levator labii su- perioris; 2. zygomaticus major ; 3. zygo- maticus minor ; 4. levator anguli oris; 5. depressor anguli oris ; 6. depressor labii inferioris; 7. buccinator; 8. orbicularis oris ; 9. anomalus maxillae superioris ; 10. levator menti. Lo-u-erjcno. 1. Biventer maxillae, ordi- gastricus ; 2. masseter ; 3. temporalis; 4. . -'ideus externus; 5. ptengoideus internus. Minus colli, or platysma myoides; 2. sterno-cleido-mastoideus. Tongue and thyroid cartilage. 1. Omo- \uidi-us; 2. sternohyoideus ; 3. sterno- ihyreoideus; 4. hyothyreoideus ; 5. mus- culus glandulae thyrcoideae; 6. stylohv- oidi us ; 7. styloglossus ; 8. mylohyoidrus ; iohyoideus; 10. hyoglossus"; 11. ge- i.)ssus; 12. lingualis. '.',5 of the pharynx anil f>(il. depressor urethr.v. The whole number of muscles of the trunk 105. >? nf the upper e.rtrcmiti'. Shoul- der. 1. Fectoralis major; J. pi-ctoralis minor; 3. subcla. nus; 5. trepa/ius ; 6. latissimus doi rhomboideus minor; 8. rbomboideus major; 9. levatov amruli scupu! ANATOMY. delloides; 11. supraspinatus ; 12. iufra- spinatus ; 13. teres major ; 14. teres mi- nor; 15. subscapu; Ann. 1. Biceps flexor cubiti ; 2. bra- chialis internus; 3. coracobrachialis; 4. triceps extensor cubiti ; 5. anconeus. Fore-arm. 1. supinator radii longus ; 2, 3. extensor carpi radialis longior et brevior; 4. extensor carpi ulnaris ; 5. ex- tensor' communis digit >rum mamis; 6. extensor proprius auricularis; 7. abduc- tor longus pollicis maims ; 8. extensor major pollicis manus ; 9. extensor minor pollicis; 10. indicator; 11. flexor carpi ulnaris; 12. palmaris longus; 13. flexor carpi radialis ; 14. pronator radii teres ; 4 j. flexor digitomm sublimis, or perfora- tus ; 16. flexor profundus, or pertbrans ; 17 to 20. musculi lumbricales ; 21. flexor longus pollicis manus ; 22. supinator ra- tlii b re vis ; 23. pronator radii quadratus. Jlfugcles of the hand. 1. abductor bre- vis pollicis manus ; 2. opponens pollicis manns; 3. flexor brevis pollicis; 4. ab- ductor pollicis ; 5. palmaris brevis ; 6. abductor digiti minimi ; 7. flexor propri- us digiti minimi ; 8. abductor ossis meta- rarpi digiti minimi; 9 to 11. interossei interni manus ; 12 to 15. interossei exter- ni manus. The muscles of the upper extremity are 58. JHttMJM of the thiqh, 1. Tensor fasciae latae ; 2. glutens maximus; 3. glutens medius; 4. gluteus minimus ; 5. pyrifor- mis; 6, 7. geminus superior and inferior; 8. obturator internus; 9. quadratus femo- ris; 10. biceps flexor cruris; 11. semi- tendinosus ; 12. semimembranosus ; 13. psoas minor; 14. psoas major; 15. ilia- cus internus ; 16. sartorius ; 17. gracilis ; 18. rectus extensor cruris ; 19. vastus externus ; 20. vastus internus; 21. cni- ralis; 22. pectineus ; 23. triceps adductor femoris; 24. obturator externus. Muscles of lite leq. 1. (iastrocnemius or gemellus; 2. soleus ; 3. plantaris; 4. popliteus ; 5. flexor longus digitoruni j>e- dis ; 6 to 9. lumbricales pedis ; 10. flexor longus hallucis ; 11. tibialis posticus; 12. peroneus longus ; 13. peroneus bre- vis; 14. tibialis anticus ; 15. extensor long'is digitorum pcdis ; 16. peroneus tertius. 'en of the foot. 1. Extensor pro- prius hallucis ; 2. extensor brevis digito- rum pedis ; 3. flexor brevis digitoruni pedis; 4. abductor hallucis; 5. transver- sus pedis ; 6. abductor digiti minimi pe- dis ; 7. flexor brevis digiti minimi pedis ; 8 to 10. interossei interni pedis ; 11 to 14, externi pedi-. The muscles of the lower extremity are 54 ; and the whole number of the body 289. But as they are the same OH both sides, this must be doubled, which will give 578 ; an enumeration which is pretty nearly correct. .OIICANS CONCERNED IN THE REDUCTION AND ASSIMILATIO-X OF THE FOOD. Organs of mastication and (leglutitivn. The two jaws, with their teeth, and the tongue, are the principal agents in the business of mastication. The articulation of the condyle of the lower jaw with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone admits of the former part being moved in various directions. Its depression and elevation cause the open- ing and shutting of the mouth. It can be brought forward*, and carried backwards ; and admits also of being moved to one side or the other. It is by a combination of these various motions that the food is masticated, or reduced into a soft and pulpy form. The different teeth which are placed in various parts of the cavity of the mouth are adapted, by their form and situation, for various parts of the pro- cess of mastication. The anterior ones, which have a thin cutting edge, and in which the superior overlap the inferior, act like the blades of a pair of scissors, These cut the food into smaller morsels ; and serve us also in biting off a portion from any mass of food which we may be eating. The back teeth have broad bases, furnished with obtuse prominences ; and they shut perpendicularly on each other. These are therefore well adapted for the grinding and trituration of the food. As their office requires a greater muscular force, they are placed in the back of the mouth, near to the centre of motion, and where, consequently, the action of the muscles is felt with the greatest effect. The cutting teeth are placed in front, at a greater distance from the attachment of the muscles, because their office does not require so great a muscular exer- tion. The tongue is of considerable utility in contributing to mastication, as it serves to move the food about in the cavity of the mouth, and to subject it again to the ac- tion of the grinding teeth, when it has escaped from between their surfaces. The muscles of this organ, which we have enumerated in the myological division of the article, give it a power of motion in every direction. But the simple act of mastication would ANATOMY wnly reduce the food into ft powder, or at nil events into a dry mass, that could not -llowed withoutgreatdiffici;!t\. To tliis inconvenience, it is plentifuJ- ly moistened with a watery fluid called saliva, and is thereby converted int .. iiicli can In com eyed into the stoma'-h u it li perfect facility. The source of this fluid is, in several glandular bodies, situated near the mouth, and sending ex- -, which cenvey the secret- ed fluid into that cavity. As t!:- move, the muscles compress these glands, and squec/e tlie secreted fluid into the mouth. The tongue is constantly cm- ployed in bringing again under the action of the teeth those portions of the food which escape from between theffl ; and the closure of the lips prevents it from falling out of the mouth. The true salivary glands are tliree in number, on each side of the head. The ud in the space left between the ear and the lower-jaw-bone ; and is called, from its situation, the parotid. Its duct pierces the middle of the cheek. The two others are placed under the tongue, and are called the submaxilltry and suhlingual. Their ducts join to open ty a common orifice, at the side of the membrane called the frenum of the tongue, which ties the under surface of that organ to the inside of the lower jaw. Hesides these large salivary glands, there are other small granular bodies, which pour a mucous fluid into the mouth ; .re named, according totheir situa- tion, glaudulx labiales, huccales, Sic. The cavity oi'the mouth in which the process of mastication goes on is not a very extensive one. There is a small space left between the cheeks and the Ui tli i \u rnally ; but \vithin the teeth the tongue occupies nearly the whole room. The upper boundary is formed by the pa- late or roof of the mouth, and the lower by the surface of" the tongue. The mouth opens behind, by a toll Table free commu- nication, into a membianous bag, called ihe pharynx. The surface of the mouth -y where covered by a soft and smooth membrane. This is of course kept constantly in a moist - glands alMAeenumeratcdcontimially pour moii- or less of their secretion into the ca\ it\ . The membrane of the mouth is continuous with the external surface of the bod\ ; but UK- skin assumes a more delicate organi/ution, as must be appa- rent to e\ ery bod\, from the change of colour at the lips. #173- of the pkarytus. The masticated aliment is collected on the back of the tongue, which is then carried upwards, k wards, to discharge it in- pharynx. This bag : ./.fi- lar fibres I'forming the nut. constrictores pharyngis) which contract, -ively, in order to propel the food towards the stomach. But as there are several organs communicating with the pharynx, the food might pass in a wrong direction, if the parts were not so con- trived as to prevent such occurrences. In the upper and anterior part of the \, the nostrils open by two large and free apertures. Between thi the entrance from the mouth is found a fleshy and moveable curtain, called the soft palate, or velum pendulum palati. There is a small body, of a pointed figure, projecting from the middle of this organ, and known by the name of the uvula. This curtain and the uvula can be easily seen in the throat of a living person. It admits of being elexated so as to shut the opening of the nostrils ; and its ac- tion is exemplified in the act of vomiting: the food is forcibly thrown into the pha- rynx, and would pass mostly into the nose, were it not prevented by the soft palate. From the uvula the membrane is continued on either side, in an arched form, towards the root of the tongue, and it contains a glandular body, called the tonsil, which secretes a mucous fluid, to lubricate the parts, and facilitate the pas- sage of the aliment. The larynx open-: into the pharynx, jiutatthe root of th<- tongue; over tliis part, which is '. the glottis, every morsel of the foe yet, so exquisitely ten- der is Uie membrane of the wind pipe, that the contact of the smallest extrane- ous body excites a convulsive pa of coughing, that does not cca-e ur.til the offending matter be removed H< are two objects to be effected ; the func- tion of respiration requires that the pipe should have a free commun with the external air, while the irritable nature of its membrane demands that no extraneous body should find ad points an* : -icily mechanic :d contrivance; In ture which prod eficct, independently of the will of the animal, and merely in consequence of those motions whirli the organ- , in the office of deglutition. At t'n of the tongue, and just in front of the . is a cartilaginous valve, called the epiglottis. \\ hen the parts are Rt rest, tliis valve stands perpendicular, and cm> AN ATOM!. 'equently does not interfere with the pas- sage of the air into the wind-pipe. In the act of swallowing-, the tongue is carried backwards, and the wind-pipe is drawn up : hence the epiglottis becomes me- chanically applied over the opening, and at this moment the food enters the pha- rynx over it, and by its pressure closes the aperture still more completely. As soon as the food has passed, the tongue and wind-pipe resume their former position, the elasticity of the cartilage restores it to the erect state, and the glottis is again free for the continuance of respiration. So completely does this simple mechan- ism answer the proposed end, that, al- though even r morsel of food passes over the glottis, the accident of any portion going the wrong way, as it is termed, is comparatively "rare, and can only arise from our being imprudent enough to laugh or talk while we are swallowing. In either of these cases air must pass out of the trachea, and, by so doing, it lifts up the epiglottis. The pharynx opens below in the oeso- phagus, a muscular tube, which conveys the food into the stomach. The aliment, in its farther progress, goes through dif- ferent viscera contained in the abdomen ; and we shall therefore proceed with a de- scription of that cavity. * The term abdomen includes a large portion of the body. It is bounded above by the cartilages of the ribs, and by the diaphragm, which separates it from the chest, at the back part, by the bodies of the lumbar vertebra ; in front and at the sides, by the abdominal muscles ; and be- low, by the bones of the pelvis. It is every where lined by a membrane called the peritoneum. The surface of this is perfectly smooth and polished, and moistened by a serous exhalation produ- red by the minute arteries of the part. This membrane not only lines the cavity of the abdomen, but also covers all the viscera contained in that cavity, so that the exterior surface of each part consists of what anatomists call its peritoneal coat. Hence the motions of these parts upon each other, and upon the surface of the cavity, are performed with perfect facility. The productions of the membrane, which gives these exterior investments to the viscera, serve also to confine them in their relative positions. The cavity is subdivided into three re- gions, the epigastric, which includes all the space above an imaginary line drawn across the belly,from the greatest convexi- tieq of the cartilages of tne seventh true rib; the umbilical, which is the division between this line and another drawn from the anterior superior spines of the ilia ; and the hypogastric, which is the space left below the last line. The sides of the epigastric region, which are the spaces covered by the car- tilages of the ribs, are called hypochon- dria : the sides of the umbilical region are named the loins : and those of the hypo- gastric the groins. The stomach is a large membraneous reservoir, receiving the food from the oeso- phagus, and retaining it until a certain change, called digestion, is produced. Its figure is conical, as it is largest at the left end, and gradually decreases in size to- wards the right: these are called the great- er and smaller extremities of the stomach. It is also bent in its course, so that we describe a greater and smaller curvature or arch. It has two openings, one close to the diaphragm, called the cardiac, su- perior, or oesophageal ; the other, just at the smaller end, is called the pylori c, or lower orifice. The capacity of the sto- mach varies from about 5 to 11 pints. Its structure is muscular ; and this is necessary in order to propel the food when digested. Under the muscular coat is found the internal, or villous, tunic ; the arteries of which pour out the gastric juice, the chief agent in the digestion of the food. The pylorus, which word is derived from two Greek terms, signifying the keeper of the gate, is a contracted ring, by which the stomach communicates with the small intestiqe. It prevents the food from passing out of the stomach before it has been sufficiently acted on by the gastric juice, The stomach receives a portion of peri- toneum as the oesophagus passes the dia- phragm. There is also a process coming from the liver, called the lesser omentum, or mesogaster. This is attached to the lesser arch of the stomach. The great omentum, or the caul, is affixed to the greater arch of the stomach, and hangs from thence over the surface of the intes- tines, being interposed between them and the parietes. It is also attached to a part of the colon : its use is unknown. The small intestine is divided into three parts; the duodenum, jejunum, andileum; but this distinction is an arbitrary one, and not founded on any difference in struc- ture. It consists of a membranous tube, about an inch, or an inch and a half in di- ameter, and four times the length of the subject. Notwithstandingthis great length, it is collected, by means of numerous turn- ANATOMY. ings and convolutions, into a comparative- ly small space. These convolutions of the small intestine occupy the chief part of the umbilical and hypogastric regions of the abflomen. They are connected in their situation by means of a broad folded membrane, called the mesentery. This production of the peritoneum is about six inches broad at its commencement, but it expands gradually, something after the manner of a fan, so that it becomes broad enough, ultimately, to cover the whole lengtn of the small intestine. It serves to keep the different convolutions of the ca- nal in a certain relative position, and al- ]<>\\s, at the same time, a considerable freedom of motion, without any danger of intangling. In tracing the course of the small intestine, we follow the duodenum from the lesser extremity of the stomach, in the right hypochondrium, making three turns close on the backbone, and then coming out just over the left kidney. The general direction of the canal from this point, independently of its various turn- ings and windings, is towards the right groin, where the ilium terminates by en- tering the caecum. The small intestine possesses three coats similar to those of the stomach, TI:. an external or peritoneal ; a middle or muscular ; and an internal, or villous, tu- nic. The latter forms a great many trans- verse, loose, and flouting processes, call- ed valvulz conniventes ; by means of which the extent of surface of the villous oat is very much augmented. Numerous glandular bodies are found in parts of the canal, collected into small parcels, and kenre tailed glandulae agminatae. The food which is reduced by the ac- tion of the stomach into an homogeneous mass, called chyme, enters the small in- testine, where it undergoes a further change, and becomes chyle. It w pro- pelled along the canal by the muscular oat of the intestine, and the villous tu- Jiic absorbs from it the nutritions parti- cles. It passes along every turn and wind- ing of this long canal, continually subject- ed to the action of the absorbing vessels. The residue of the alimentary matter is sent into the large intestine, from which it is expelled in the form of faeces. The large intestine is a canal of about twoorthrec inches in diameter, and seven feet in length. It is divided into the cae- cum, colon, and reetum. The ccccnm is a bag situated in the right groin, and i ing the termination of the ilium. The latter interstice enters in such a manner, that the passage of the aliment is allowed VOL. I from it into the ccecum, but prevented from returning. The part which effects this is called the valvuja coli. A small process, about equal in size to an earth- worm, is connected to the caecum. It is called appendix cocci vermiformis, and its use is unknown. From the right groin the intestine ascends on the right side of the abdomen over the kidney, under the name of co- lon: itturns completely over the abdomen at the upper part, and descends along the left side to the left groin ; here it make* a large turn over the brim of the pelvis, and enters that cavity, where it takes the name of rectum, which terminates at the anus. We distinguish in the colon 'he right or ascending portion; the middle or trans- verse arch ; the left or descending ; and the sigmoid flexure. The right and ieft portions of this gut are closely bound down in their situations by two portion* of peritoneum, called 1 i gain enti coli. The transverse arch has a broad process con- nected to it, by which it is loosely attach- ed : this is called the mesocolon. The large intestines have a peritoneal, a muscular, and a villous coat ; but they have no valvulx conniventes. The longi- tudinal muscular fibres are collected into three bands, \\hich, being shorterthantlie rest of the intestine, occasion the other coats to be gathered up in folds between them, smd thereby give the intestine asac- culated appearance. The residue of the alimentary matter, which the large ipcestine receives from the small, in c<> mincer. In the adult it is contained within the cartilages of the ribs; but in the t'a-tus it extends to the navel, and fills half the belly. Its upper surface is con- vex, and in close contact with the concave under surface ofthe diaphragm. Its under or concave surfar- < fly on the stomach. It is divided into a right and left lobe, andlobulus spigelii. It has a Bh ANATOMY. posterior ani thick, an anterior and, thin, margin. Its colour, in the most healthy N of'a reddish brown; but it often deviates from this. Its weight, in an adult man of middling 1 stature, is about 3 pounds. It is connected to the. diaphragm by four ligaments, viz. 1. ligamentum latum, or suspcnsorium. which divides the light and left lobes from each other. The front edge of this part contains the fibrous re- mains of the umbilical cord of the fetus, which, assmningthe appearance of around rope, is called the round ligament. 2, 3. Ligamenta lateralia, or dextrum, et sinis- trum. 4. Ligamentum coronarium. The liver is covered exteriorly by peri- toneum, and there are certain fissures and excavations on its surface. 1. Fossa, for the gall-bladder, in the under surface of the right lobe. 2. Fissure on the anterior thin margin, for the entrance of the umbi- lical vein. 3. Portz, or large transverse notch, at which the blood-vessels enter, andfrom which the hepatic duct proceeds. 4. Notch for the inferior vena cava. 5. Excavation fqr the bodies of the vertebra. The liver is composed of a tolerably firm and close substance, consisting of a closely united congeries of different ves- sels. These vessels are the vena porta- rum,the hepatic artery, the hepatic veins, and the biliary ducts. The former vessel carries to the liver the blood which has circulated through the different abdomi- nal viscera. It ramifies in the liver like an artery, and the secretion of the bile is supposed to take pHce from the blood which it conveys to the liver. The blood of th : s vein, as well as that brought by the hepatic artery, for the nourishment of the liver, is returned l>y the large Ijfpatic veins to the inferior vena cava. The small branches of the hepatic duct, which conveys the secreted bile from the liver, appear like small yellow pores, when a section of the liver is made, and hence they are called pori biliarii. The mesogaster, or little omentum, is attached to the ports of the liver. The vena portarum, the biliary ducts, the he- patic artery, and the hepatic plexus of nerves, pass along the right side of this process; and the part in which they are situated is called the capsula Glissoni. he edge of this part is an opening, leading to the bag of the great omentum, and called the foramen epiploicum. GALl-BLAPIlKR ANI) BILIARY DUCTS. The gaU-bladtlcr is a membranous bag, sen-ing as a reservoir for the bile. Its shape is that of a pear, being broader at one end, and diminishing conically to- wards the opposite extremity. The broad ed is called the fundus ; and the small- er pail of the neck the viscus. Its ave- rage capacity may be about one ounce. It is firmly bound to the surface of the liver by peritoneum. Its inner surface is elegantly reticulated, and furnishes a viscid mucus that mingles with the bile. The hepatic duct is continued in a straight course from the liver to the duo- denum, in which it opens. It passes, how- ever, in an oblique manner, between the coats of the intestine, before opening into its cavity. Hence the contents of the in- testine cannot enter the duct ; and the more fully the intestine is distended, the more completely is this prevented by the compression of the duct between the in- testinal tunics. The neck of the gall- bladder is gradually contracted into a small tube, called the cystic duct, which joins the hepatic at an acute angle, after first running parallel with it. The re- mainder of the hepatic duct, after thc junction with the cystic, is often called the ductus communis choledochus. The surface of the cystic duct, as well as that of the neck of the gall-bladder, has nu- merous small folds of the internal mem- brane, which must retard and obstruct the course of the bile. Pancreas. Is a gland of the conglome- rate kind ; that is, composed of numerous minute portions, united by cellular sub- stance. It is connected by one end to the commencement of the duodenum, and ex- tends across the vertebrae,behindthe less- er arch of the stomach, to the spleen. Its length is about six inches; its breadtli one and a half; and its thickness half an inch. Each of the small molecules which com- pose this gland has an excretory duct; those unite together into larger and larger trunks, and the main tube of all runs along tht centre of the gland, and joins the ductus conununis choledochus just before that duct opens into the duodenum Spleen. This part, which in common language is called the milt, is a soft and livid mass, interposed between the great end of the stomach and the diaphragm. It weighs about six or seven ounces. It consists of a congeries of cells filled with blood, as the arteries and veins of the organ communicate with them. It is closely connected to the great end of the stomach by vascular ramifications, which the splenic vessels send to the stomach. It has a concave and convex surface ; an anterior and posterior extremity ; and an external peritoneal covering. ANATOMY. onr; iy of HESPIHITIOV As these are contained in the cavity of the. thorax, \vc shall consider the subject in the form of a description of that cavity and its eon' The ravity of the thorax is the space included by the dorsal vertebrae behind, by the ribs with their cartilages, tl myn, and intercostal muscles, at the sides and fore part; and by the diaphragm be- - Tins cavity is lined by a membrane ;d the pleura, which has a smooth in- surface, constantly moistened by a serous exhalation. cavity of the chest contains two Ntmct membranous bags, called the right and left bags of the pleura; each of tlu-se holds the lung of its own side, and is entirely separated from the oppo. site one. The pleura not only forms a Mch holds the lung, but is also re- the surface of the viscus, be- , on it a smooth exterior invest- ment. This is called the pleura pulmo- :ilis, to distinguish it from the other, 'i is named pleura costalis. I/' the cartilages of the ribs be divided on one side of the chest, the correspond- ing bag of the pleura will be opened ; and it will then appear, that this is separated from the opposite one by a partition, which, extends from the sternum in front to the vertebra behind, and is known by the name of mediastinum. The pleura may be compared to two bladders placed late"- rally with respect to each other, but adher- ing only partially, and separated by vari- ous intervening bodies. Thus, the" heart and adjoining large blood-vessels, the oesophagus, and the division of the trachea into the two bronchi, are placed between the two pleurz. The mediastinum then is the space included between the opposed surfaces of the two bags of the pleunc, and containing the parts above mentioned. ;;()! mediastinum is ap- plied to a small interval left between the two pleune, just behind the sternum, and occupi . loose cellular tt The posterior mediastinum a front of the bodies of the verte- brae; it containsthe descending aorta, the vena axygos, thoracic duct, oesophagus, and the par vagum. The capacity of the chest taken altoge- ther varies, according as we estimate it in a state of inspiration or expiration; being largest in the former, and smallest in the tate. The right bag of the pleura is considerably larger than the left, as i also the rightJungv In ^the living state, the lung is in close contact with the surface of the IMUU, and follows all the motions of the sidi s of the chest, [t is distended by the inH when the chest is enlarged ; and the air is expelled from tile lung, when 'die chest is diminished. As soon as tile thorax is opened in the dead subject, the lung falls down from the sides of the chest, or, in technical language, collapses, and then a large empty space is seen between it and the ribs. From this representation it should appear, that the iungs are quite passive in the business of respiration. The lungs axe two in number: one be- ing contained in each bag of the pleura. They are loose and unconnected in these bags, excejtat one point, towards the up- per and posterior portion of each where the great vessels enter them, and where the bag of the pleura is continu- ous with the reflected portion of the mem- brane. These are called the ligaments of the lungs. Their colour varies considerably. It is always verging more to a red, in propor- tionasthe subject isyonnger: in the adult, it has more of a spotted and livid cast. Towards the back of the lungs it '. . always much deeper,from the gravitation of blood in the vessels in consequence of the posi- tion of the subject. It is lighter, when the lungs contain much air. The lungs are subdivided into lobea ; of which the rightcontains three, and the left two. Their substance is composed of a congeries of minute membranous cells, about equal in size to a pin's head, and as these are more or less filled with air, they give the lung a peculiar spongy feel. These ceils communicate with the ulti- mate ramifactions of the air vessels, and air from that source. The pul- monary vessels ramify minutely in them, expose the blood" to the ef- fects of the contained air ; and in this ex- posure the object of respiration is eilectcd. The -windpipe. The tube, which con- veys the external air into the lungs, n.ay be divided into three pans ; the i. hea, and the bronchi. The larynx is a hollow cartilaginous or- gan, place'd at the top of the trachea. The air which passes through this from the :i expiration, produces the voice. The cavity of the larynx opens above at the root of the tongue, and below into the trachea. The organ is composed of five : \i/.. tlie thyroid and cricoid cartilages and epiglottis, and two arytenoid cartilages. The thyroid cartilage is the largest, and ANATOMY. consists of two Irregularly quadrangular pieces, united in front at an obtuse angle. This part projects in the front of the neck, and much more conspicuously in the male than in the female sex : it is called po- nuim Adumi. The cricoid cartilage may be compared to a ring with a seal, of which the broad or seal part is placed behind, and the nar- rower portion in front. It is directly un- der the thyroid cartilage. The arytenoid are two pyramidal por- tions of cartilage, connected by regular moveable articulations to the back of the cricoi<".. The epiglottis is the softest cartilage of the larynx. It has a basis firmly tied to the thyroid cartilage, while its opposite extremity, which is very thin, is of a rounded figure, and stands directly up- wards, except during deglutition, when it descends so as to cover the opening of the larynx. The thyroid cartilage is tied by three ligaments to the os hyoides above, and by as many to the cricoid cartilage below ; but the most important ligaments of these parts are the iigamenta glottidis ; which arise from the front of 'the arytenoid car- tilages, and are attached to the posterior surface of the front portion of the thyroid: A longitudinal slit, called the rima glotti- dis, is left between these, and it is by the passage of the air through that slit that the voice is formed. Hence, from the great share which these ligaments have in forming the voice, the name of chords vocales has been given tothem. The larynx is lined by a vascular and very sensible membrane, copiously mois- tf-.i L-cl with mucus, in order to defend it from the external air. It admits of free motion in the neck, and its parts are also moved on each other ; particularly the arytenoid cartilages, whose movements, by Altering the size of the ruina glottidis, . and the: state of tension of the chordae vo- cales, contribute most immediately to the variations in the tone of the voice. The trachea is that portion of the aerial tube, which is placed between the cricoid cartilages and the origin of the bronchi. It isa cylindrical membranoustube, of from 5 to7-8thsofan inch in diameter. It runs along the middle of the fore-part of the neck, having the large blood-vessels of the head on each side, and being con- nected behind to the oesophagus. Soon after it has entered the chest, it divides into the two bronchi. The tube of the trachea is furnished with hoops of cartilage, by which it is kept permanently open for the passage of the air; these are not, however, complete circles, being deficient behind. The lin- ing of the tube is highly vascular and sensible, and covered with a copious mu- cous secretion, which is rendered neces- sary by the constant current of air to which it is exposed. The bronchi are merely the two bran- ches into which the trachea divides for the two lungs ; and of these the right is the largest and shortest. They ramify through the lunges dividing into smaller and smaller branches ; and the ultimate ramifications communicate with the air- cells. ORGANS OF CIRCrLATIOX. The heart is the centre of the circulat- ing- system ; being the source of the ar- teries, and the termination of the veins. The younger the subject, the larger is the heart in proportion to the body. It is often smaller in tall and strong men, than under different circumstances. It is connected at its posterior part, be- hind the sternum, by the large bloodves- sels, being unattached every where else, and merely confined in its situation by the pericardium. The pericardium is placed in the cavity of the chest, behind the second, third, fourth, and fifth ribs of the left side. It is covered to the right and left by the bags of the pleura, which adhere by a loose cellular membrane It is not actual- ly connected by any part of its surface to the sternum. Below, it rests on the diaphragm, and adheres very firmly to the superior surface of the tendon of that muscle. The cavity of the pericardium is larger f han the heart, so that this viscus can move freely in it. The bag of the pericardium in shape resembles the figure of the heart itself, being conical. Its substance is thick and compact, and it is much more dense and strong than the peritoneum or pleura. Where the great vessels are connected to the heart, this membrane becomes re- flected over its surface ; and hence the substance of the heart has a close invest- ment from this membrane, besides being contained loosely in the bag-like portion. A small portion of the large blood-ves. sels is included within the cavity of the pericardium ; particularly of the aorta and pulmonary artery; which are conse- quently covered by the reflected por- tions. The internal surface of ANATOMY. is moistened by a serous secretion from the exhalant arteries ; which is col- lected utter death into a few drops of a clear light yellow liquor. It is an un- natural increase of this that constitutes dropsy of the pericardium. This fluid in tliL- living state lubricates the opposed surfaces of the heart and pericardium, and thereby facilitates their motion on each other, and. prevents their accretion- The heart, which is contained almost entirely in the left side of the chest, re- sembles a half cone ; hence we distin- guish in it a basis or broad part; and an apex or narrower portion ; a convex and a flat surface. The basis is placed to- wards the right, and backwards; the apex points obliquely to the left, forwards and downwards. The basis is opposite to the seventh or eighth vertebra of the back, and the apex points to the cartilage of the fifth or sixth left rib. The position however varies by the motion of the dia- phragm in respiration, as it is drawn down in a strong inspiration, and again rises in expiration. Its position also seems to vary slightly, according to the situation of the body in lying. A small portion of the left lung seems, as it were, removed just at the apex of the heart ; so that that part of the viscus is not covered by the lung like the rest, but touches the front of the chest. Those cavities of the heart which are called the right are placed in front ; and the left cavities are towards the back part ; so that the epithets anterior and posterior would correspond more nearly with the true position of these parts, than those of right and left. The flat surface of the heart looks di- rectly downwards, and rests on the ten- don of the diaphragm ; this, therefore, in point of position, is inferior; the convex surface is turned upwards, forwards, and obliquely towards the left, so that it may- be called the superior surface. The weight of the human heart, when removed from the body, with its pericar- dium, is from 10 to 15 ounces. Like the heart of all warm-blooded animals, this organ consists of two hearts, closely and intimately connected. One of these is concerned with the cir- culation through the body, or the greater circulation ; the other with the circula- tion through the lungs, or the minor cir- culation. These might perform their of- fices, if separate and even distant from each other. Each of these hearts con- sists of two cavities; an auricle, or mem- branous bay, placed at the mouths of the veins; a ventricle, or stfttng muscular organ, placed at the orifice of the artery, and constructed for the purpose of driv- ing the blood into that vessel und its branches. The two auricles are placed at the ba- sis or broadest part of the heart ; and the two ventricles, composing the chief bulk of the organ, are found in front of the former cavities. In the following description of the structure of the heart, we shall trace the parts in the same order in which the blood passes through them. This fluid, then, after circulating through the blood- vessels of the body, after serving the various purposes of nutrition, secretion, &c. is returned into the right auricle of the heart by three large veins, viz. the superior and inferior vena cava, and the great coronary vein. The properties of this blood have been so altered in its course, that it is necessary for it to be subjected to the action of the atmosphere in the lungs, before it is again fit to be sent into the arteries of the body. The right auricle derives, its name of auricle from a small fringed process, which is found at its anterior part ; the rest of the cavity is called the sinus of the venae cavae. The lining of this bag, as indeed that of all the other parts of the heart, consists of a smooth and polished surface. The muscular fibres of the auricle are not nu- merous nor large ; they are arranged in parallel fasciculi, which have been com- pared to the teeth of a comb ; and hence the epithet of musculs pectinati has been given to them. The right auricle transmits the blood into the right, anterior, or pulmonary ventricle, through a large circular orifice, called the annulus venosus, or the auri- cular orifice of the ventricle. When thi.s latter cavity contracts, the blood would be driven back towards the auricle, were not this prevented by a valve, called the tricuspidal or triglochine. This valve is formed by a production of the lining of the heart, divided into three point- ed portions. These are tied by tendinous strings to certain projecting pack the muscular fibres, called the He shy co- lumns of the ventricle. The structure of the ventricle is very different from that of the auricle. It is a strong mus- cular cavity, adapted to the office of for- cibly projecting the blood through the arterial ramifications ; whereas t!, cle is a mere reservoir, holding the blood until the ventrical has emptir J *->c\f by its contraction ANATOMY. The pulmonary artery, which arises from the upper and anterior part of this ventricle, -conveys the blood into the lungs. The opening of this artery, which is called the arterial orifice of the ventri- cle, is furnished with three valves, called sigmoid or semilunar, which prevent any retrograde motion of the blood from the artery towards the he.irt. The venous blood, by being exposed to the atmospheric air in the lungs, is alter- ed in its properties, and becomes arterial blood, in which state it is returned to the left auricle of the heart by four pulmo- nary veins, two of which belong to each lung. This left or posterior auricle con- and highly elastic. The internal surface of this coat is perfectly smooth, so that the blood glides along it without impedi- ment ; the external surface is connected to that coat which surrounds it. The middle, or, as it is called, the muscular coat, is composed of a congeries of cir- dular fibres, separable into numerous strata, but not much resembling muscu- lar fibres as found in other situations. The external coat of the artery is made of condensed cellular substance, which unites these vessels to the neighbouring parts. It appears that the larger vessels have the greatest elastic power, with the small- sists of a large cavity, called the sinus of" est muscular force; while these pi-operties the pulmonary veins ; and of a smaller process or auricula. It is situated quite at the upper and back part of the heart, and transmits the blood through the au- ricular orifice of the left ventricle into that cavity. This opening is perfectly si- milar in all essential circumstances to the Corresponding part on the right side of the heart But its valve, being divided into two portions only, is called mitralis, from a comparison with a bishop's mitre. The left ventricle is much thicker and stronger than the right. It feels exter- nally almost like a solid mass of flesh ; while the right is comparatively thin and flabby. The reason of this difference is bvious. The left ventricle has to drive the blood to the most remote parts of the body, whereas the right only sends it through the lungs. The aorta arises from the left ventricle, and its mouth is guarded by three semilunar valves. This is the trunk from which the arteries of the whole body arise. STBCCTUHE OF THE ARTEIIIES. Those vessels, through which the blood flows from the heart into every part of the body, are called arteries. The term, which is derived from ""if, air, and rvpea, I hold, was first adopted by the anato- mists of the Alexandrian school, in con- sequence of the erroneous opinion which they entertained, that these vessels were designed for the distribution of air throughout the body. The larger arteries have thick and elastic sides, so that they remain open when divided, and present a regularly circular aperture. The sides may be se- parated into three strata of dissimilar substances, which are technically called coats. The innermost, which is generally termed the cuticular coat, is thin, strong, exist in reversed proportions in the small- er vessels. In the large arteries muscular power is unnecessary, for the force of the heart is fully adequate to the propulsion of the blood; but in the smaller arteries, where the effect of the heart's action de- clines, a proportionate muscular power is allotted to the vessels, to urge on the cir- culating fluids. The arteries have their nutrient arte- ries and veins, their absorbents, and their nerves. All the arteries proceed from one great vessel, as the branches spring from the trunk of a tree ; and we proceed to notice certain circumstances observable in their ramifications. 1. When an artery gives off a branch, the conjoined areas of the two vessels make a greater space for the blood to move in, than the area of the original ves- sel. The increase of dimensions in the branches of a large artery is slight; but in those of a small one it is so considerable, that Haller has estimated it as surpassing by one third that of the trunk from which they sprung. The conjoined areas of all the small arteries so greatly exceed that of the aorta, that the same anatomist, in opposition to former opinions, affirms that these vessels are conical, the basis of the cone being in the extreme arteries, and the apex in the heart. 2. When a large artery sends off a branch, its course does not, in general, de- viate further from that of the trunk than an angle of 45 degrees. Sometimes a branch, which has gone off at an acute an- gle, returns, and proceeds in a contrary direction to that of the trunk. Sometimes indeed a large artery does proceed from the trunk at nearly a right angle, as the renal arteries. Though the large arteries generally ramify at acute angles, there is great diversity in the branching of the smaller ones. ANATOMY. 3. Arteries in general do not pursue a straight, but 'his is as in the spermatics, thpWS of tin- fare and occiput, and in most of the smaller arte- ries. 4. Though the ramification of arteries maybe compared to the branching 1 of ct it differs materially in this par- ticular, that the different branches fre- qtieiith conjoin. This conjunction is tech- nically tcrmedjif we borrow the term from nguagc, their anastomosis ; if from tile Latin, their iwixculuti-ni. This union of arteries rarely happens among the larger ones, but frequently amongthe smaller ; and increases in number in pro- portion to the minuteness of the vessels. The utility of the inosculations of arteries is evident; were it not for this circum- stance, if any arterial trunk were acci- dentally compressed, so that the current of blood in it should be for some time obstructed, the parts which it supplied must perish. But in consequence of the frequent communications of these tubes with each other, the blood can pass from the adjacent arteries into all the branches .v one accidentally obstructed. When arteries inosculate, two currents of blood, moving in opposite directions, must come together, and retard each other's motion. This probably is the rea- son, why larger arteries, in which the blood flows with rapidity, so seldom con- join ; whilst the smaller ones, in which the blood's motion is more tardy, commu- nicate in surprising numbers, and with a frequency proportionate to their minute- ness. The very frequent communications of the minute arteries prevent the preju- dicial consequences of obstruction of t he- trunks almost as effectually, as if those ar- teries themselves communicated by more direct and larger char .: All these minute arterial tubes are capa- ble of enlargement ; and it is an ascertain- ed fact, that even the aorta itself may be s^radually obstructed at some distance from the heart, without the parts which it sup- plies being deprived of nourishment. From an attentive consideration of all these circumstances, it lias been conclud- ed, that the mode nit e increase of tin- , the branches oflarp- arteries; tin- acute angles at which they divide ; their early rectilinear course ; and the rare oc- currence of inosculation between them; are designed to facilitate the rapid motion of the blood in them, so that it may arrive unchanged, and in the same state that it was in when projected from the heart, at that part of the body, for the nourishment of which it was intended : whilst, on the contrary, the K^ at increase of the . .the varii'\ ofi. rtuous course, and their fre- quent communications, were designed to cheek the velocity of the blood's motion, when it has arrived at that part, where ti is to be performed, and nutrition is to take place. Contrary opinions have indeed been maintained; and for the fur- ther discussion of this subject, we must. refer the reader to the remarks on the circtiliitioH in the article PHTSIOI.DGT. Termination of the arteries. When these vessels have become very minute, they terminate in two ways: they either turn bark again, and become veins, and return the blood to the heart, or they send oft' fine vessels, which abstract something from the circulating blood, and are there- tor., called secerning arteries. Though none but minute arteries are ever reflect- ed to become veins, yet many of them arc of sufficient magnitude to admit common waxen injection ; and when this experi- ment succeeds, the continuity of the arte* ries and veins is very manifest It seems therefore to follow from this facility .t communication, that the mass of the blood is constantly and freely circulating, in or- der to undergo that change which is ef- fected in the lungs, whilst but a small part of it proceeds into the very minute arte- ries, for the purpose of having secretions made from it. For these arteries, In minute, must be considered large, in com- parison with the exility of others, which cannot be injected with wax, ;u reject the- red globules of the blood, or admit them in such small proportion, that they do not impart the red colour to the fluid which moves in those \ \ve may venture to affirm that th< bules do not much exceed in diameter the 150,000th part of an inch, which cir- cumstance sufhVii-ntly shows the minute- lesser arteries. The se'-ernin^ arteries are in general too minute to admit . : ration; they are hov, in the kidney, for -nay be seen cont'm Subtile injections, wh. nto the larger arterial trunks, ooze out on t s, and int' sul;st:ii ''are generally supposed to be |> orifices reforc, rathe; ' nstru'.ion, . to belicv <.', that the secerning arteries ab- stract the particles of nutrition, or thcma- terials which compose the fabric of the body, from the circulating fluids, and de- ANATOMY. posit them from their open mduths, so as r>y this means to build up and keep in re- pair the structure of the body. nitfrHiittion of the arteries. The great artery, whose branches supply the whole of the body, is named the aorta. It arises from the upper part of the left ventricle ; and emerges from the heart, between the pulmonary artery and the right auricle. It first ascends in the chest ; opposite the upper edge of the second rib it bends backwards till it reaches the left side of the spine, in which situation it descends from the fourth or fifth dorsal to the last lumbar vertebra. By the arch of the aorta is meant that part of the vessel which arises from the heart, and bends across the chest. It sends oft' the following branches : the two first arising at right angles close to the heart ; the three following from the con- vexity of the arch : 1. Right coronary artery of the heart. 2. Left coronary artery of the heart. 3. Arteria innominata, a common trunk, dividing into 1. Right subclavian. 2. Right common carotid. 3. } Left common carotid. 4. 3 Left subclavian. The common carotid artery is destined for the supply of the head. It emerges from the chest by the side of the trachea : mounts upwards in front of the vertebra, and parallel with the trachea, till it reach- es the upper margin of the thyroid carti- lage, without sending off' a single branch. At this part it divides into the external and internal carotid arteries, the former of which is distributed to the outside of the head ; the latter to the brain. The external carotid continues its course upwards between the jaw and the ear, being imbedded in the substance of the parotid gland. Branches of the external carotid artery. 1. Superior thyroideal. u. Laryngeal branch. 2. Lingual artery. a. Hyoideal branch. b. Artery to the back of the tongue. c. Raminal artery. 3. Facial or labial, or external maxil- lary. a. Ascending palatine branch. b. Arteries to the surrounding glands. c. Inferior labial artery. d. Coronary artery of the lower lip. e Coronary artery oft.be upper lip. f. Nasal arteries, 4. Ascending pharyngeal artery. 5. Occipital artery. 6. Posterior artery of the ear. 7 Superficial temporal artery. a. Branches to the parotid gland. b. Anterior auricular arteries. c. Transverse artery of the face. d. Middle temporal artery. e. Anterior temporal branch. f. Posterior temporal branch. 8. Internal maxillary artery. a. Middle artery of the dura ma- ter, or spinous artery. b. Inferior maxillary artery. c. Pterygoid branches. d. Deep temporal branches. e. Artery of the cheek. f. Alveolar artery of the upper jaw. _. Infra-orbital artery. h. Superior palatine branch. i. Nasal branch. The internal carotid artery enters into the skull, through the canal formed in the substance of the temporal bone. And its brandies ramify through the substance of the brain. All the arteries of the brai have thinner coats than these vessels pos- sess in any other part of the body. Branches of the internal carotid artery. 1. Ophthalmic artery, supplying all the parts contained in the orbit a. Lacrymal branch. b. Ethmoidal arteries. c. Superior and inferior muscular branches. d. Central artery of the retina. e. C iliary arteries. /. Superior and inferior palpebral branches. g. Nasal artery. h. Frontal artery. 2. Communicating branch. 3. Anterior artery of the brain. 4. Middle artery of the brain. The subclavian artery passes over the first rib, and behind the clavicle, into the cavity of the axilla. There it takes the name of axillary, and is covered by the pectoral muscles. Emerging from the armpit, its name is again changed for that of bracMal. This part of the trunk runs along the inside of the arm, close to the edge of the biceps muscle, until it reach- es the elbow joint, where it divides int the branches that belong to the fore arm Branches of the subclavian artery. 1. Internal mammarv, ANATOMY. 1 Int.-M.ir ihsroideal. "'hyroid lir.uicli. b. Ascending tin n>'.d art' TV. c. Transverse artery of the neck. it. Tranv. of the shoulder, or supra scapn r'.chrai, :i large trunk passing mis in the trans sea of the cervical vertebrae, and through the foramen magnum of lie skull to tli.- brain, where it unites with its fel- low of the opposite side, to form the ba- silar ui a. Interior artery of the cerebellum. b. ArUries to tlic s])inal marrow. c. Superior artery of the cerebel- lum. (I. Posterior or deep seated artery of the brain. N. 15. The i.rterial circle of \Villis is a 'lustomosis ; by which the two ca- rotids are joined together, and united al- so to the basilar :u- 4. Superior intercostal. .5 Deep-si ated cervical artery. 6. Superficial cervical artery. idif* of the lu-iliary artery. \ v uperior or short thoracic. 2. Inferior or long thoracic. .!. Thoracic alters of the shoulder. 4. Deep thoracic inters . 5. Infra-scapular arti rs . 6. Posterior circiunfl 7. Anterior circunii: Bmnclieit of the bnicltialai-tt-ry. \. Various muscular branches. 2. 1'rofunda liuineri major, or' greater deep-seated artery of the arm. 3. Medullars artery of the hunn-rus. 4. Lesserdtep-scatedarten oftliearm, "lastoimzing bn. 6. Radial arters . 7. I Inar artery. '1'he tsvo last branci.. into which the trunk of the brachia! dividi's at the elbow. '1'liey run along- ti. ann to the wrist. Branches oftlte radia! \ 1. Kccurrent branch. 2. Superficial arter\ of the palm. 3. llrunch to the back of tl'.e \\rist. 4. Branches to the back of the thumb and forc-fi' The i enters the palm, and forms the deep-seated arterial arch of the palm. VOL. T Branches of the nlmir arttry. This vessel, when it has armed at Uie forwards into he palm of the bund, more superficially than the ra- dial, and forms the superficial arch of the palm. J. Recurrent artery. i oua artery. ti. I'ostenor branch. . laterosseous recurrent. b. Anterior branch. It h to I ii- back of tlie hand. 4. Deep (Ku.u.ir branch. 5. Thive larfj-e digital arteries. Brunches of the descending- portion of tlie aorta in tfie chest. 1. Common bronchial art 2. Right and left bronchial arteries. 3. Esophapcal arteries. 1. Lower intercostal arteries. Tiie aorta passes through the dia- phragm at the lower part of thechest, and takes the name of abdominal aorta. It i> s'.ill situated on the left side of the bo- dies of the vertebrze, and at the founh lumbar vertebra it terminates by dividing iiito the tsvo common iliac trunks. Branches of the ubdominal uin-tu. 1. Right and left phrenic arteries. 2. Caeliac artery. u. Coronary artery of the stomach. />. Hepatic artery. a. Duodeno-gastric,or gastro- epiploic artery. ^ Superior pyloric artery *, Cystic arters . f. Splenic artery. (4 Pancreatic arteries. ft Short arteries to the sto- mach. y. I.i-ftgastro-c piploic artcn". .pc-rior n.esciiter'r ar <7. From 12 to 20 large branch: the small intestine. b. Middle colic artery. c. lleocolic art' 4. Renal or emulgcnt arteries. 5. Spermatic f\ Inferior mcsenteric art. a. Left colic branch. b. Internal hemorrhoidal branch. 7. Five paii-s of lumbar art' H. Tsvo common iliac arteries. '.>. Mi. Idle sacral ar The common iliac quickly divides into the external and internal iliac b;. of \shich the former goo to the thigh, the latter enters the cavity of the pelvis. C c ANATOMY. Branches of the internal iliac artery. 1. Ileo-lumbar artery. 2. Lateral sacral arteries. 3. Vesical arteries. 4. Middle hemoirrhoidal. 5. Uterine branch. 6. Obturator artery. 7. Gluteal artery. 8. Ischiatic artery. 9. Pudendal artery. a. External hemorrhoirlal branches. b. Artery of the perineum. e. Dorsal artery of the penis. d. Deep artery of the penis. The external iliac artery having chang- ed its name for that of femoral, runs along the front of the thigh, and then bends in- wards to the ham, where it takes tiie name of popliteal. It passes through the latter space to the leg, when it terminates by dividing into two, of which one runs along the front, and the other the back of the leg. Branches of the external iliac artery. 1. Epigastric artery. 2. Circumflex artery of the ilium. Branches of the femoral arteiy. 1. Branches to the lymphatic glands, and integuments. 2. External pudic arteries. 3. Deep-seated artery of the thigh. a. External circumflex artery. b. Internal circumflex artery. c. First and second perforating branches. 4. Branches to the neighbouring mus- cles. 5. Great anastomosing branch. branches of 'the popliteal artery. 1. Superior internal articular artery. 2. Superior external articular artery. 3. Middle articular artery. 4. Inferior internal articular artery. 5. Inferior external articular artery. 6. Anterior tibial artery. 7. Posterior tibial artery. Branches of the anterior tibial artery. 1. Recurrent branch. 2. Various small muscular branches. 3. External and internal malleolar arte- ries. 4. Tarsal and metatarsal arteries. 5. Dorsalis hallicis. Branches of the posterior tibial artery. 1. Large muscular branches to the so- lens. 2. Medullary artery of the tibia. 3. Peroneal or fibiilar artery. a. Anterior branch. b. Posterior branch. 4. External plantar artery. a. Four digital arteries. 5. Internal plantar artery. There is another large arterial trunk in the body, besides the aorta, called the pulmonary artery ; this rises from the right ventricle, and conveys the venous blood to the lungs, for the purposes of respiration. OF THE VETXS. The blood is constantly moving in the arteries from the trunksintothe branches; in the veins it follows a directly opposite course, and flows from the branches to the trunks. There are seven large venous trunks in the body, to which all the blood is return- ed; three of these, viz. the superior and inferior vena cava, and the coronary vein of the heart, return the blood, which has circulated through the body into the right auricle of the heart ; the other four are the pulmonary veins, and bring the blood back from the lungs to the left auricle. The coats of the veins are thin when compared with those of the arteries ; hence the blood can generally be plainly seen through them ; and hence when di- vided they collapse, instead of presenting a circular section, as arteries do. It is difficult to separate them into coats, yet they are said to consist of two ; TI'=. a smooth and highly polished internal one, which lines the canal ; and a rough, cellu- lar external tunic, in which no muscular power resides. Hence the circulation proceeds through these vesselsmerely by the impulse of the arterial blood, and is not aided by any action of the containing tubes. The veins are .much more numerous, and also larger than the arteries. In most parts of the body each artery has two veins lying by its side ; and in many in- stances there is another numerous set of veins besides these. Hence the venous system is much more capacious than the arterial; and this difference is so great, that the veins are supposed to contain nine parts out of thirteen of the whole mass of blood. This great capacity of the venous system obviates the effects of any ANATOMY. casual obstruction to the ready transmis- sion of blood through the lungs ; for the whole of the veins are not distended in a natural state, bvit serve as an occasional reservoir, in which the blood, constantly urged forwards by the heart, may be held till the cause of obstruction has ceased. Hut us such retardation in the course of the venous blood would tend to drive back the whole mass on the minute veins, which art- tin- least able to bear it, such r:i\ valves, which exist, in great numbers in the ve- iioii-, system. These are thin membranes, having- a semilunur edge attached to the side of the vein, and a straight edge float- ing in the cavity of the vessel : they are placed in pairs. When the blood is going on in its natural direction, thev He close to the sides of the tube ; but, when it at- tempts to return, the blood raises the Igv. and that meets in the centre of the vessel with the corresponding part of the opposite valve, andthus closes tin- fan..!. Thus, when an obstruction takes place, each portion of a vein has to sup- port that column of blood only which is contained bet wren its own valves. Still, as these vessels possess no powersof their own, and are too far removed from the heart to feel its influence on the passage of blood through them, we find thai tne circulation is affected in them by external causes, as position, &<. Hence the legs swell after long- standing; and hence also ;s of thcsr parts are apttobecome enlarged and varicose. TUxtrihiition nf thrvi-ins. Thisisfor the most pait similar to thnt of the arteries, as each of the latter vessclshave generally two accompanying veins, (\vhieh bear the same names as the concomitant arteries) named venae sodales arteriarum. I'ut in some situations there is a class of veins not corresponding to the arteries, but running under the skin, and termed cutaneous or superficial veins. These are found par- ticularly in the cx'reinities, and van-much in si/e at different tin The vena cava superior is Conned by three large trunks. 1. Vena a/ygos, which returns the blood from the sides of the chest, and runs along- the middle of the spine. 2. Right subclavian, which is also made up by three venous trunks, viz. the inter- nal jugular, the external jugular, and tin; axill. 3. Left subclavian, formed in the same manner as the rig-lit. The external jugular vein returns the blood from the outside of the head, and runs along the neck, just under the skin. We sometimes bleed from this in affec- tions of the head. The internal jugular is a very large ves- sel, lying- deeper in the neck, and close to the carotid artery. It brings back tlic blood from the brain. The dangvr in at- tempts at suicide consists in dividing this vessel or the carotid artery, and not the external jugular vein. The :^ .I 1 >ry vein is made up of the vesselswhich bring the blood back from the arm. 1U sides the veins, we have here a large superficial vessel, running along the out- side of the fore-arm and arm, and called the cephalic vein; another on the inside, named the basilic. Hctwecn these in the fore-arm are found some veins called the ;!. At the bend '. these last, make up Uvo large trunks, of which one opens into the basilic, and the other into the cephalic vein. These are called vena mediana basilica, and vena medians cephulica. It is the latter veins that we generally bleed, when that operation is performed in the arm ; and as they run directly over the artery, the latter is endangered by the lancet'. The inferior vena cava is a very large trunk, running along the spine at the right the aorta. It returns the blood from all the lower parts of the body. It is mack- up by the junction of the two common iliac veins ; and as it ascends through the abdomen, it receives the fol- lowing venous trunks; the lumbar, sper- matic, renal, and the immense venae cavK hepaticx. The common iliac vein is formed by the junction of the externa' and internal iliacs. The latter brings back the blood from the cavity of the pelvis ; the former returns itfrom the lower extremity. \Vc have two large cutaneous veins to notice in the leg and thigh; viz. the sa- phena major, which runs up along '.lie in- ner side both of the leg and thigh, and can be distinctly seen in the living when in the ercc iphena minor, which runs over the calf of the leg- The Cornier terminates in the femoral vein near the abdomen, th_- la'tcr in the popliteal vein. The vena portarum is a large \ formed by the union of those veins which belniig- to the stomach and intestines, th a jrs the blood, \\ iiirh : -dtiiroiig-li ' to ihe liver, an i it l>r.me!i, s out in that gland as arteries do in other par' blood is returned fi\>m the liver by the. hrp.iiic veins, which have been already noticed. ANATOMY. OROAXS 0V The absorbents are a minute kind of vessels found in aninr.il bod'u-s, which at- tract and imbibe any fluid that is brought near their mouths. They are so minute and transparent, as not to be discovered in ordinary dissection ; but by great la- bour they have at length been detected in great numbers in every tribe of animals. As these vessels are transparent, their contents are visible, which circumstance occasioned them to receive the different denominations of lactealsand lymphatics. The former were so called, because they imbibed 'he chyle, a mi Iky fluid, from the bowels; whilst the latter, containing much lymph, which they had taken up from all the interstices of the body,were therefore named lymphatics. The discovery ofthis M of vessels is referred to the seven- teenth century. But at first their number did not appear sufficient to perform the whole function of absorption ; neither had they been discovered in birds or fishes, whence anatomists still retained the idea that the veins participated in this impor- tant office. The merit of first demonstra- ting 1 the absorbing vessels in those animals belongs to Mr Hewson, who assisted in the labours of the first eminent anatomical school in London, where anatomy was most ably taught by Dr. Hunter. And it is to the immortal Hunter that we arc in- debted for fully proving the important doctrine, that the whole business of ab- sorption isperformedby the vessels which we are now considering. They have of late been injected in such great abun- dance, that they appear fully adequate to perform their office. If. as we firmly believe, these vessels be the only ones which perform the office of absorption, they must exist in even' part of the body. For there is no spot on the surface of the skin from which ointment may not be taken up, nor any internal part from which blood, when accidentally effused, may not be absorbed; nay, the very matter composingthe texture of our bodies is undergoing continual removal and renovation. These vessels must there- fore be supposed tobeginby open orifices generally throughout the body, although the fact can be demonstrated in the intes- tines only. On the inner surfaces of these organs they appear to the unaided eye tine and pointed tubes : but by the mi- croscope theirmouths are discerned to be patulous, and like a cup. The beginning absorbents soon join together, and after some time form minute vessels, capable of being injected by anatomists : these again conjoin, and form larger vessels, which are still discoverable with great diffi- culty. In *' ructure and arrangements these ves- sels have great similitude to veins : they have in consequence been namedby some anatomists the lymphatic veins. Like the veins, their sides are thin and transparent, thoxigh of considerable strength : like the veins, they frequently communicate toge- ther, or, as it is technically termed, anas- tomose. The advantage derived from these communications is obvious : for by these means, the dissimilar matters which they take up from various parts are mix- ed together, and blended with the lymph, which they imbibe from the intersticesof the body, and which serves as the vehi- cle for such heterogeneous particles ; . they also prevent accidental pressure made on a few vessels from obstructing the progress of the absorbed fluids, which are in that case convoyed forwards by collateral channels. Like the veins also, these tubes, by conjoining, form a tube of smaller area than the united areas of the vessels before their junction. The effect of this construction is the same as in the veins ; that is, an acceleration in the cur- rent of the lymph, in proportion as it conies nearer to the trunk of the absorb- ing vessels. The diameter of the thoracic duct bears but a small proportion to the united diameters of all the minute ab- sorbents in the body, and when this duet has been opened, the lymph has flowed from it with a force and jet like that with which the blood issues from a large vein. Like the veins, the absorbents are furnish- ed with numerous valves, which prevent any retrograde motion of their fluids, and also prevent any portion of the vessel from sustaining the weight of more fluid than is contained between its valves. The absorbents, however, differ from the veins in one very material circumstance, TIZ. that thev have a power of contraction, and are able of themselves to propel their contents. Whoever reflects on the phe- nomena of absorption can scarcely doubt that these vessels have a contractile pow- er, by which they refuse admission to noxious substances, whilst they readily imbibe those that are salutary. If these vessels are observed in the mesentery, when turgid with absorbed chyle, their contents will disappear in a certain tract, and again become visible ; a phenomenon that can only be explained by supposing the vessel to contract at that part, and urge forwards its contents. Haller found that the thoracic duct contracted when stimulated, so that there can be little ANATOMY. doubt of these vessels being muscular tlirou ',-nt. ; and in coiisider- rs undi rthe skin of tJi. inities; and when and armpit, they priis through little bodies :s, which arc ly in|)!iatic glands. The absorbent mi'i-e principal absorbing vessels The absorbents, \\Jiich enter the gland, are usually denominal 'ui, and iiicli go out of it, vii.- . If quicksilver be poured into the former s, und a great deal of quicksilver appears to he deposited in ai'terw:irds, 'f the power j^Ppel- ling the injection he continued, it is seen coining out of t lie gland by the vasa effer- entia. follow, that the progn ->s of the absorbed fluid is I alitile in these glands, and it is is t iVecte^in its pr;i" ''ig like 1 lo t'.u absorbents of the head and extrcmi' approach to the large veins of the tnink. The absorb- ents of the inlestiiu-s, which contain the chyle, a scarcely aniniali/.cd fluid, some- times pass through three or four sets of >efore they arrive at the thoracic sels pH li, tcrtii, or qnarti gcne- u here t!,- unjoin, and meet with the lymphatics from the lower parts of the body, to form tlie tho- racic duct, appears in animals like a re- servoir, and has been named the r culum chyli. Th -us torme.UlT ORGANS. The urine is secreted in two large glands, called the kidnies. Th. situated behind the peritoneum, in that part of the abdomen termed the lumbar region, where they are surrounded by a quantity of loose cellular ami adipons Their form resembles pn. tty exactly that of the kiiv]>iit.iuni, which resemble, ou a small !K: purls oft lie same- name in the male. llclow the clitoris are two small folds, culled the- nvmphrc. These arc connected o the |>ivpiitiiiin clitoridis ; they diverge from each other, as they extend below. They vary much in size; in a natural state- they ma\ measure about halt' an inch at the broadest part They arc of a much greater magnitude in the Hottentot female, and have given rise to the reports of travellers, that the sinus pudoris is covered in those pel-sons by a curtain, or apron of skin. About three quarters of an inch below the clitoris, we meet with a round aperture, which is the termination of the female urethra: and just below this is the opening of the vagina; which opening is technically called os externum uteri. This has a very different appearance in a young girl, and in a married woman. In the latter it is a large and free aperture, fully ade- quate in size to the admission of the pe- nis ; in the former it is shut up in a great measure b\ a thin membrane, called the hymen. This closes the lower portion of the os (-xuTiium, to various extents in different subjects; and is torn and de- stroyed by the consummation of mar- riage. Some little excrescences, suppos- ed to be the remains of the ruptured hy- men, are called carmieukt myrtifornies. Tile anus is found about one inch behind the commencement of the vagina. The vagina, or canalis uteri, is a mem- branous canal, about five inches in length, extending almost directly backwards from the os cxternuin. Its sides are dense and tonsil ; and the surface is covered with numerous wrinklesand prominences, which are less conspicuous in women who have had children than in virgins. The uterus is a hollow organ ; but its cavity is so small in the impregnated state, and Us .sides are so thick and dense, that it feels like a solid fleshy mass. Its broadest and largest part, which is called the fundus, is situated directly upwards. The smaller and narrower portion, term- ed the neck, is downwards. The length of the organ, from the fundus to the end of the neck, is about three inches; its breadth at *he fundus about one inch, and at the cervix considerablx less. It is si- tuated \v ithin the cavity included by the hones of the pelvis. The peritoneum from the bladder to the anterior surface of the uterus, and completely co- vcss the organ. It is extended from the two sides of the uterus to the bones of the pelvis, forming two broad di, plica- lures, called the broad ligann nts of the uterus; each of which includes three parts, named the appendages of the ute- rus : T/r. the ovarium, fallopian tube, and round ligament. The cavity of the uterus opens into the posterior part of the vagina by an orifice, named the os tincx or os internum uteri. The round ligament of the uterus is a fibrous chord, passing from the fundus uteri through the abdominal ring, and serving to confine this organ in its pro- per situation. The ovarium is an oval fleshy body, si- tuated towards the posterior surface of the broad ligament. It contains some small watery vesicles, called ovula graafi- ana, which are supposed to be the germs of the future beings, that are to be called into action by the stimulus of the male semen. The fallopian tube is a convoluted ca- nal, commencing by a very minute orifice from the corner of the uterus, running along the upper margin of the broad liga- ments, and gradually increasing in sixe, till it ends near the ovarium by a broad trumpet-shaped mouth, open to the ca- vity of the abdomen, and having an ele- gant arrangement of plaits and fringes surrounding the aperture, whence it is often called the fimbriated extremity of the tube. .)/fo ore-ans of generation. The testes, or glands, which produce the semen, are contained in the scrotum, a bag formed of common integuments, and hanging trom the front of the pelvis between the thighs. A prominent line, called the raphe. runs along the middle of this, and divides it into tw'o equal portions. The te- surrounded and connected in their si. na- tion by a loose cellular substance. They are of an oval shape, and about equal in size to a pigeon's egg. The\ hang from the abdomen by the spermatic chords, which consist of the arteries, \cin-.. t\ m- phatics, andcxeretorv tubes of thi united by a cellular substance, and cm er- ed by a muscle, called ilu eremaster, by the action of which the testis is occasion- ally drawn up towards the belly. The substance of the testis is o by two membranous tunics, one, which immediately invests it, and is called tu- nica alnuginc-i ; anoiher, which surrounds this mo.v closely, and forms a bag, in which the testis hangs, the tunica vagi- nafia ANATOMY. There is a small body partly distinct from the testis, and placed behind it, called the epuluhnns. The substance of the testis is found by dissection to be soft ; and it is composed of a congeries of very minute tunes, named tubuli seminiferi, which may be unravelled and separated by macerating in water, although tney were previously connected into the appearance of a fleshy mass. The diameter of these tubes is estimated at l-2Utfth of an inch; and the number of them at about 6U,OOU. If they were joined together, they would form a tube of about 5UOO feet long. These tubes terminate ultimately in a single small canal, which, by its innumerable turns and windings, makes up the whole epiciidymis. If tiiis could be completely drawn out, it woidd be about 3U feet long. It increases rather in size towards the end of the epididymis, and leaves that body in the form of a simple and unconvoluted tube, assuming the name ofvas dcferens, and ascending along the back of the spermatic chord to the abdo- men. It can be readily distinguished in that situation hi the living person : it feels like a hard chord, about the size of a crow quill. When the spermatic chord has entered the abdomen, the vas deferens leaves it, runs along the back of the bladder, and opens into the commencement of the ure- thra. VesicuLe aeminales. Before the vas dc- ferens terminates in the urethra, it is joined at an acute angle by the canal of the vesicula seminalis. These vesicles are two soft bodies, ly- ing in contact with the under-surface of the bladder, and formed, each of them, J>y the convolutions of a single membran- ous tube. An injected liquor thrown into the vas deferens will pass into the vesi- cula seminalis, rather than into the ure- thra ; for the opening into that canal is extremely small, while the communica- tion with the vesicula is large and free. Hence it hus been supposed that these vesicles are reservoirs for retaining the fluid formed in the testicles until it is wanted. Mr. John Hunter has however pretty clearly demonstrated that the vesiculae ate not intended to contain semen, but that they secrete a peculiar fluid, to sub- serve the purpose of generation. See his " Observations on certain parts of the Animal Economy." Prostate gUind. The origin of the ure- thra is surrounded by the substance of this gland, which in size and form mucU resembles the chesnut. Numerous open- ings are found in the commencement of the urethra, which discharge on pressure a whitish viscid fluid, secreted in the sub- substance of the prostate. A portion of the gland projects into the lower part of the commencement of the urethra, and has received the name of caput gailinagi- nis: it is on this that the openings of the canals, formed by the junction of the vasa deferentia and vesiculae seminales are found. The urethra is subservient to two pur- poses; the expulsion of the semen in the act of copulation, and the conveyance of the urine from the bladder. Its surface is perfectly smooth, and is covered and pro- tected by a mucous secretion. The dia- meter of this canal varies slightly at dif- ferent parts, but may be stated generally at about one-eighth of an inch. At its first departure from the bladder, it is surrounded for one inch by the prostate ; it is then continued as a simple membran- ous tube, but surrounded by muscula r fibres for another inch ; this is called the membranous portion of the urethra, in the rest of its passage it is surrounded by a vascular substance, called corpus spon- giosum ; tins is accumulated in a consi- derable mass at its commencement, where indeed the urethra is broader than in any- other situation, and this is called the bulb. The seminal and prostatic liquors are poured into the bulb of the urethra, and are forcibly expelled from thence by a sort of convulsive contraction of a muscle, whose fibres surround this part of the canal; the ejaculator seminis. The glans penis is nothing more than a portion of the same vascular mass, which surrounds the rest of the urethra, cover- ed by a very delicate, sensible, and finely organized integument. The bulb, corpus spongiosum, and glans, are susceptible of the same erec- tion as the body of the penis; which is indeed essential to the performance of their functions, in conveying the fecun- dating liquor into the body of the female. The penis consists of two bodies, call- ed crura, or corpora cavenosa, which arise separately from the bones of the pelvis ; but join so as to form afterwards a single organ. Each cms consists of a very strong and dense ligamentous tube, filled internally with cellular substance, into the cells of which the arteries open, and from which the veins commence. The arteries pour the blood into these organs with great energy, in obedience ANATOMY. to the passions of the mind, and thereby distend the lig-amentous tubes until they feel perfectly hard and rigid, in which state the whole organ is fitted for the function which it has to perform in the act of copulation. The urethra, sur- rounded by its spongy substance, runs along the under surface of the corpora cavernosa, and the glans penis is situated at the anterior extremity of these parts. The body of the penis is covered by c-ommon integuments, which, being adapt- ed to cover the organ in its extended state, fall into wrinkles when it is col- lapsed. These are continued beyond the end of the glands, and are inflected, so as to form a hood or covering to the glans, called the prepuce. The latter part is connected to the mouth of the urethra by a snnill fold named the frenum. The surface of the glans, and the lining of the prepuce, are smeared with an unctu- ous matter of peculiar odour, furnished by some small glands. OF THE BRAIX AX1) NERVES. The brain is a soft and somewhat white substance, situated in the cavity of the skull, and corresponding in form to that cavity. Its parts are supported by a firm membrane, called the dura mater, and its substance is more immediately invested by a delicate membrane, called the pia mater. The structure of the brain is remark- ably constant and uniform ; very seldom deviating from the accustomed standard. Varieties of formation occur, not unfre- quently, in most other parts of the body ; but the parts of the brain preserve an al- most invariable relation of form, position, magnitude, and connection; which seems to prove, that the right performance of the functions of this organ requires an exactness in the structure of individual parts. According to Soemmerring, the weight of the brain varies from "2lb. 5oz. to 3/A. 3|or. Of two hundred brains, which this anatomist examined, none weighed four pounds, whereas Haller states its weight as amounting in general to five pounds. The weight of the brain, compared to that of the body, is an inverse ratio to the age of the subject In young foetuses it is soft and almost fluid : it becomes of a more solid consistence in increasing age, and is firmest in old persons. The dura mater is a very firm and compact membrane, adhering closely by vessels and fibres to the internal surface VOL I of the cranium. It is therefore to be re- garded as the periosteum of the i table of the cranium, as well as u innii- brane for supporting and investing t he- brain. It is described by anatonn consisting of two layers, intimately con- nected in general, but separated from each other at particular parts, so as to leave vacancies between th:.-in, called si- nuses, into which the veins of the brain pour their blood. The chief of these ure, the superior longitudinal, the two lateral, and the torcular herophili. There are besides some smaller ones, as the infe- rior longitudinal, the cavernous, the cir- cular, the superior, and the anterior pe- trosal. They all terminate ultimatelv in the lateral sinus, which, quitting the cra- nium, takes the name of internal jugular vein. On the upper part of the dura mater some small eminences are observed, aris- ing from clusters of white granular bo- dies, situated between this membrane and the pia mater; they are the glandulac Pacchioni, and fill the pits which may be observed in the skull-cap. The ramifica- tions of the'spinous artery, which is the cliief nutrient vessel of the dura mater, are very conspicuous on each side of the head. The inner surface of the dura mater is smooth and shining, and has no connection with the pia mater, except where veins pass from the latter mem- brane to the sinuses. The processes which the dura mater forms, for separating and supporting the different parts of the brain, are, 1. the falx cerebri ; 2. tentorium cerebelli ; 3. falx cerebelli. The two membranes which immedi- ately invest the brain were considered as one, and called the pia mater, until a more minute investigation had shewn that it could be divided into two layers. The outer one is called tunica arachnoi- dea. This is spread over the visible sur- face of the brain, is of a pale white co- lour, yet in in some degree transparent, very thin, and devoid of evident vessels. It is seen most evidently, where it passes betweenthe two lobes of the cerebellum, and about the middle of the basis cere- bri : in other parts it adheres so inti- mately to the pia mater, that the distinc- tion can scarcely be demonstrated. The pia mater every where covers the external surface of the brain, and there- fore sends processes into all the convolu- t tins organ. It is extreiiu K \.i^. cular, and a great portion of the blood, which the brain receives, is spread out Ud ANATOMY. upon its suri'ace in minute vessels. The outer surface is tolerably smooth ; the inner universally villous, from the torn orifices of innumerable vessels, which entered the substance of the brain. The surface of the bi-ain appears con- \oluted, so as to resemble the windings of the small intestines. These convolu- tions do not in general penetrate more than one inch, or an inch and a half, into the substance. The contents of the cranium are divid- ed into cerebrum, cerebellum, and me- dulla oblongata. The cerebrum is the upper, and by far the largest, portion : it occupies all the superior part of the vaulted cavity of the skull, and rests below on the tentorium, the petrous portions of the temporal bones, the sphenoid, alx, and the orbits. Its upper surface presents a regularly convex oval, narrower in front than be- hind. It is divided into a right and left hemisphere by a deep longitudinal fis- sure, into which the falxcerebri descends. Each hemisphere is divided into two lobes by means of the fissura magna Syl- vii. This fissure commences 'at the basis of the brain, opposite to the lesser ala of the sphenoid bone ; the anterior lobe is that portion of the hemisphere simated in front of the fissure ; and the posterior lobe is the division placed behind. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are united together at about two inches and a half from the surface of the brain, by means of a medullary body, called corpus callosum. This is about three inches in length, and three quarters of an inch in breadth. As there are no distinguishable parts in the upper portions of the hemispheres of the cerebrum, it is customary to pare all these away in dissection, nearly to the level of the corpus callosum, in order that we may be able more easily to open, and more particularly to examine, certain cavities, which are situated at the sides of that body, and are called the lateral ventricles. On making a section of the brain, we perceive that it is composed of two sub- stances ; an exterior one, which is of a grey colour, and an interior one, which is white. These are simply termed the ci- neritious and white substances, or sub- stantia cinerea et alba ; or, from the for- mer surrounding the latter, as the bark does the wood of a tree, they are named, in contradistinction, the cortical and me- dullary substances of the brain. The two lateral ventricles are situated in the substance of the brain, by the side of the corpus callosum, (one in either he- misphere). The cavity begins in the front lobe of the brain, as far forwards as the commencement of the corpus callosum ; it runs from before backwards, in a direc- tion parallel to that body, and at its poste- rior endbends downwards, and returns ob- liquely from behind forwards, to terminate almost under its superior extremity. At the place where the ventricle bends, in order to run downwards, there is a parti, cular elongation passing into the posterior lobe, forming a triangular-pointed cavity, and terminating in a cul de sac. This is the digital cavity, or cornu posterius, of the lateral ventricle. These and the other ventricles of the brain contain a small quantity of a watery fluid. The disease of hydrocephalus is a morbid increase of quantity in this fluid, which accumulates sometimes to the amount of some pounds, distending and dilating the ventricles enormously The learned Soemmerring. who may justly be esteemed the first of modern anatomists, places the censorium commune in this fluid. He has traced all the nerves of the brain to the sides of the ventricles; and concludes, that impres- sions made on these nerves will be trans- mitted to the water of the ventricles, which he considers as the organ of the soul- The two lateral ventricles are separated by a perpendicular partition, called the septum lucidum, which passes from the corpus callosum to the fornix. It contains a small triangular cavity, called by some the fifth ventricle of the brain. It has no communication with the other cavities of the brain. The fomix is a roundish medullary bo- dy, lying between the two ventricles at the lower part. It arises by two anterior cru- rafrom the front of the brain ; these unite, to form the body or pillar of the fornix, which separates behind into two posterior crura, that run into the reflected portion of the ventricles. Under the anterior part of the fornix is a small slit-like opening, by which the two lateral ventricles com- municate. The choroid plexus is a production of the pia mater, containing a vast number of arterial and venous ramifications, float- ing almost loosely in the cavity of the ven- tricles. It is first observed in the reflect- ed portion of the ventricle, where it is the broadest and largest : it diminishes in size as it ascends, and terminates just at the opening of communication between the two cavities. The choroid plexuses of the two ventricles are united bv a middle ex- ANATOMY. under the fbrnix, and < ailed tin: v e lat'-ral ventricle contains certain eminences, which form its sides ; tin- cor- pus striutiiin is the anterior and superior eminence, grey on > ts external surface, int< rnally. Tlii 1 posterioremi- nenre in each ventricle is called the thala- HIIIS nervi optici ; it is hemispherical, and white, and joined to its opposite one by HII union of substance, culled the softcom- The hippocampus major is a large elongated eminence, lying in the de- scending portion of the later.il ventricle: and the hippoeampus minor is a smaller one, in the digital cavity. The pineal gland, orconarium, is found behind the opt if thalanii. Its si/e is about that of a small horse-bean ; its colour irn-y. and ligure conical. Two small me- dullary chords connect it to the optic tha- lanii. In the substance oi' this body is found a small quantity of a gritty mutter, :i- -arl\ resembling sand. It consists of a number of semi-transparent and light \vl- lo\v grains. Soeinmcrring, \vho first dis- covered that this belonged to the healthy structure of the brain, calls it thear.ervulus of the pineal gland. This little body has hceii more intended to and noticed than it would otherwise ha\ e been, inconse- quence of the chimerical dream of Des- cartes, who represented it as the seat of the soul. Bcluw the pineal gland is a square por- tion of the brain, divided into four super- ficial eminences called corpora quadrige- mina, and from these a thin production extends to the cerebellum, under the name of valvula cerebri. Hy drawing asunder the optic thalami, and separating their soft commissure, we expose the third ventricle of the brain. This appears as an oblong cavity, about an inch and a quarter in length. A round medullary rope is seen in front of it, and a similar one behind; the.v -are i. tiled the anterior and posterior commissures. A round aperture is observed under the an- terior commissure, beyond which tin ven- tricle terminates by a pointed and conical extremity, from which a short pn continued to the pituitary gland, under the name of infundibulum. Tin- foramen commune anterius is an opcningo" n the optic thalarni before they are disturbed, and leading from the aperture of communication, which connects the two lateral ventricles under the fornix, into the third ventricle. Just be! terior commissure a round opening is found, leading through a short canal, in front of the tubcrcula quadrigemina, to the fourth ventricle. It is named canalis mr- dius, iter ad quartum ventriciilum, or aqujeductus Sylvii. Thus the for ventricles of the brain have afree commu- nication with each other. Under the posterior lobes of the cere- brum there is found a transverse produc- tion of dura mater, failed te HI ori um, which is attached tothe internal tran-.. of the occiput behind, and to the petrous portions of the temporal bone in front . Under this membrane lie the two lobes >(' the cerebellum, separated by a small per- pendicular production, called the falx ce- rehclli. The fourth ventricle is a cavity, leftbe- t\\ een the upper and posterior surface of the medulla oblongata, and the fi-ont of the cerebellum. It extends laterally to a con- siderable distance in the cruva cerebelli: a groove nms along the middle of the me- dulla oblongata, which constitutes tho front of the ventricle, and terminates at the end of the cavity in a point. From the lateral productions, and the pointed termination of the cavity, it has been named the calamus scriptorius. The pituitary gland is a firm substance, differing in texture from the brain, and lodged in the sella turcica. Its name is derived from a supposition that it se the mucus of the nose, which in ancient times was supposed to flow from the head. It is connected by the infundibulum to the basis of the brain. Behind the last men- tioned part, at the basis cei-'-bri. are seen two small rounded eminences, called cor- pora subrotunda. The crura cerebri are two large medullary processes going from the cerebrum to the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is situated in the lower fossae of the occipital bone, under i torium. It consists of an int. cortical and medullary substance, arrang- ed differently from the order the cerebrum. A perpendicular section of this part discovers a very dlcgant structure in this respect. A thick tnnk of medul- lary matter sends off ;> .every direction; from thesv oilier branches pro- ceed, all of which art' surrounded ! te.V This is called the arbor vita.-. The arbor \. ites the crus cerebelli on each side, and these processes join the medulla ii The medulla oblongata is a large me- dullary protubera onthebasi- lar process of the occiput. Its connection with the crura cerchri and ci re'.u-Ili have hecnahvaih \ medullary chord is continued from > rend, under the name of medni .'/ ' -Ha ftfiinati*. This is a roundish ANATOMY. medullary chord, about the size of the fore -finger, arising within the cranium from the medulla oblongata ; leaving that cavity at the foramen magnum occipitale, and continued along the canal left in the spine to the upper lumbar vertebrae, where it terminates by forming the cauda equina. It sends offa pair of nerves at each in- terval between two vertebrae. It is co- vered immediately by pia mater and tuni- ca arachnoidea, and more loosely by a sheath of dura mater, which lines the whole spinal canal. It is plentifully sup- plied with blood vessels. The nerves come oft' from this body in numerous threads, quite separate from each other at first, but uni (ing afterwards. The cauda equina consists of the medulla spinalis, entirely resolved into a bundle of such threads. Structure of the Nerves. The nerves are soft, white, and fibrous chords, nearly of a cylindrical shape, arising from the brain, or medulla spinalis. When they leave the brain, the pia mater collects the fibres into larger or smaller fasciculi. The medullary filaments of the nerves are covered by a vascular membrane, call- ed by Reil neurilema, which detachespro- cesses from its inner surface, to surround and invest the smaller divisions and fibres of the medullary substance. By immers- ing a nerve in alkali, its medulla is dissolv- ed, and the containing membranous tubes, formed of neurilema, are left. Acids dis- solve the neurilema, and leave the medul- lary fibres. These organs receive a con- siderable supply of blood from vessels ramifying on their neurilema. By maceration in water, and careful dis- section, a nervous trunk may be separated i nto numerous threads ; and each of these, when examined in a microscope, seems to be an assemblage of proportionably small- er fibres. Greater magnifying powers shew those fibres, which before appeared simple, to be composed of still smaller threads ; and it is doubtful, whether the ultimate nervous fibre can be discovered. All that is said, therefore, of the form, course, &c. of these ultimate fibres is wholly conjectural. The fibresdo not pro- ceed in a straight uninterrupted course, but join frequently with each other. A nerve divided in the living subject retracts : the medulla is expressed from its extremities, by the contraction of its membranes, in the form of globules. If the animal be killed at some distance of time from the operation of dividing a nerve, the divided extremities are rather swoln, and are connected by a newly formed matter. Anatomists have disput- ed greatly, whether or not this be a real nerve. As this question can hardly be decided by merely anatomical testimony, it appears most philosophical to inquire, whether the new matter will perform the functions of a nerve ; and this has been completely proved by the experiments of Dr. Haighton, in the first part of the Phi- losophical Transactions for the year 1795. In some parts of the nervous system, little tubercles, or knots, called ganglia, are found in the course of the nerve, and are usually formed by the concurrence of several branches. These bodies are of various figures, but generally flattened. They partake more of the red colour than the trunks of the nerves on which they are formed, as they possess more nume- rous blood-vessels. They contain nervous fibres, surrounded by a firm vascular sub- stance. By the term, origin of a nerve, we un- derstand its connection with the brain or spinal marrow. This end is called its sensorial extremity, being considered as the point to which it conveys the impres- sions made on it by external objects, and from which it receives the commands of the will, to be transmitted to the organs which it supplies. There is considerable difference in form, structure, and consistence, between the individual nerves. The nerves are arranged in pairs, as they are exactly similar on both sides of the body. Hence any pair of nerves con- sists of the right and left nerve. They are sometimes divided into those of the brain; and those of the medulla spi- nalis ; or into the nerves of the organs of sense, the nerves of motion, and the mixed nerves; or, according to the nature of the parts which they supply, into voluntary and involuntary nerves. The quantity of nerves distributed to the different structures in the body varies greatly. The organs of sense receive the most copious supply viz. the eye, the nose, labyrinth of the ear, ends of the fingers, glans penis et clitoridis, and the rest of the skin. Muscles have also a large share of nerves : the blood-vessels are much more sparingly furnished. The nerves of the viscera are very small in proportion to the size of the organs. Bones, cartilages, tendons, ligaments, membranes, marrow, fat, have no dis- cernible nerves. Nerves ramify through the body some- thing like arteries : thus, a nervous trunk ANATOMY. sr nils oil' branches : these, again divided, form ramifications: and in their further ->s form twigs, filaments, &c. and this di vision gt)es on, until the nerve, from its smallness, can be no longer traced. Set we can manifestly discern the nervi-s in some instances, as in the organs of -miniating in a pulpy expansion. I. ike the arteries, nerves communicate with cadi other ; and it is conjectured that these communications, like those, of the blood-vessels, are designed to obviate the effects of the injury of compression of am particular nervous trunk. In some parts these communications are very nu- merous, so as to constitute a minute net- work of nervous filaments, calledaplexus. Description of tlie particular nerves. There are in the whole body thirty-nine pairs of nerves ; of which nine arise from the brain, and thirty from the spinal mar- row. There is another pair, called the great sympathetic, which can hardly be ascribed to cither of these ch. Nerves ofttte brain. 1st. pair. Olfactory nerves; arise from liie corpora striata, and go through the cribriform lamella of the ethmoid bone to the pituitary membrane of the nose. 2d pair. Optic nerves ; arise from the thalami nervonim opticorum,and proceed to the eye-ball, where they are expanded to form the retinae. 3d pair. Nervi motores oculorum ; arise from the crura cerebri, and are dis- tributed to some of the muscles of the eye-ball. 4th pair. Nervi trochlcares; come from tin- \alve of the brain, and supply the trochlearis muscle of the eye. 5th pair. Nervi trigemini ; arise from the side of the medulla oblongata. This nerve divides into three branches, of \vhichthefirst, or ophthalmic, goes into the orbit, and after giving a few branches there passes out on the forehead. The second, or superior maxillary, supplies the parts about the upper jaw; a remark- able branch of it is the infra-orbital, which comes through the large hole under the orbit to the face. The third, or inferior maxillary, is distributed to the lower jaw and adjacent parts. 6th pair. Nervi motores externi ; from the medulla oblongata to the external s-traight muscle of the eye. 7th pair. Nervi auditorii. Tim pair consists of two nerves lying in contact, but completely distinct from each other, both in their origin, course, and distribu- tion. The portio mollis of this nerve is distributed to the labyrinth of the ear. The portio dura goes through the tempo- ral bone, and is very widely spread over the face. These nerves are me: rectly termed nervus auditorius, and ner- vus facialis. The chorda tympani is branch of communication between the fa- cial nerve and the lingual branch of the inferior maxillary. 8th pair. Par vagum ; arises from the medulla spinalis, before it quits the cra- nium. It receives an accessory branch, that originates from the upper portion of the medulla spinalis, contained in the cer- vical vertebrae. The par vagum passes along the neck, in company with the ca- rotid artery and the internal jugular vein. It sends oH' in the upper part of the neck, 1. the glossopharyngeal nerve ; 2. supe- rior laryngeal ; and 3. the accessory branch. The trunk that enters the chest, and gives rise to the inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerve. It afterwards becomes connected to the oesophagus, and passes the diaphragm in conjunction with that tube, to be distributed finally to the sto- mach ; sending ' in its passage several branches which supply the lungs. 9th pair. Nervi linguales ; arise near the former, go through the foramen con- dyloideum, and supply the muscles of the tongue. Nerves of the medulla nfunulis. The cer- vical nerves, soon after they come out from between the vertebrae, communicate with each other. They supply all the muscles which are situated about the ver- tebrae of the neck. The second sends * large branch, which ramifies extensive!} over the occiput. The nerve of the diaphragm, called the phrenic or diaphragmatic, arises princi- pally from the fourth cervical nerve. It lies close on the anterior scalenus muscle, then goes over the pericardium to the diaphragm. The tour lower cervical nerves, and the first dorsal, concur in forming the axillarv plexus, from which the upper extremity its supply. These are large ner- vous trunks, coming out at the side of the neck, and variously united to each other. The\ go behind the clavicle with the axil- lary artery. This plexus sends off the following branches : 1 Ni rvi thorucici, accompanying the thoracic arU 2. Nervus supra-scapularis, distributed with the artery of t lie iedfromthe pinna, and more interiorly it consists of a canal in the substance of the bone. This bony part does not exist in the foetus, where the meatus is wholly cartilaginous. The common integuments-continued from the pinna line the meatus externus, and the cuticle is produced over the membra- na tympani. The surface of the meatus, at its com- mencement, is furnished with numerous fine hairs, and the canal is moistened by a secretion of an oily and inflammable na- ture, called cerumen. Tliis is produced by numerous small glands, visible on the external surface of .he- meatus, and dis- tinguishable by tlii-'r vi-llowish colour. The cerumen concretes, and is collected DQC8 in such (juan'iiy :ts to induce a light degree of d< uch is easily removed by s\ ringing nitli warm v. The membrana tympani, which is a cir- cular membrane ihove a quarter ofan inch in diameter, is stretched across the inner extremity of the meatus, and deri- name from acomparison with adrum head, to which U Ix-.ars some analogy in its use. In the flatus i, is ^ttvtdinl on a distinct bony ring, i-:i!K d the annulus auditorius. This ring is deficient at its upper part, and has no bony union to the rest of the tem- poral bone, but it becomes united soon after birth. VOL. I This membrane is concave on its exte- rior surface, and convex towards the tim- panuin. Its position is inclined, the upper margin being more towards the outside of the head, and the under part farther in- wards ; so that the superior part of the meatus forms an obtuse angle, and the in- ferior part an acute angle, with the mem- brane. The internal ear consists of two divi- sions, vis. the tympanum and the laby- rinth. The tympanum is an irregular bony ca- vity, which will about admit the end of a finger, hollowed out of the temporal bone, just within the membrana tympani. It has several communications with the neigh- bouring parts. Opposite to the membrana tympani are two openings, which lead to the labyrinth of the ear. The upper one is named the fenestra ovalis, the lower one the fenestra. rotunda, and the projection between them is called the promontory. The fenestra ovalis is filled, as we shall presently see, by one oftlie little bones of the tympa- num, and the fenestra rotunda is closed by a membrane. The eustachian tube, or iter a palato ad aurem, opens in front of the tympanum. It commences by an expanded cartilagi- nous orifice at the back of the nostrils, passes through the substance of the tem- poral bone, and terminates by a contract- ed orifice in the tympanum. Its office is to convey air into the cavity of the tympa- num. The membrana tympani is thrown into vibrations by the impulse of the sono- rous undulations of the air, and that vibra- tion could not Uikc place unless there was air in the inside as well as on the outside of the membrane. AVater, or any other fluid, would not have answered the pur- pose. Hence an obstruction of this tube causes deafness, which surgeons have at- tempted to remedy by puncturing tlu.- membrana tympani. An opening in the latter membrane ofasmall extent doesby no means injure hearing ; for many per- sons have the powerof impelling tobacco smoke, or agitating the flame of a candle, through the ear, and yet seem to lur. i :i perfect use of the organ. In the -so cases the air or smoke enters the eustachian tube from the throat, and passes through the unnatural aperture- in the membrane. The mastoid process of the temporal bone is composed internally of numerous cells, communicating with each other, and finally opening into the back part of the tympanum. Thfe do not exist in the foetus. Ee ANATOMY. The cavity of the tympanum contains a chain of small bones called ossicula audi- tus, connected by one end to the membra- na tympani, and by Uie other to the fe- nestra ovalis. Of these the first, which is compared to a hammer, is called the mal- leus; the second is named the incus, the third the orbiculare, and the fourth the stapes. The malleus possesses amanubrium or handle, a long and short process, and a head which forms an articular surface. The incus resembles a grinding tooth, with its two fangs diverging. We remark in it a body, the surface of which is hol- lowed out to receive the head of the mal- leus : a long and a short leg. The orbiculare is of the size of a small grain of sand. It is attached to the ex- tremity of the long crus of the incus and the stapes. The stapes has an exact resemblance to the iron part of a stirrup ; it has a head, two crura,and a basis. The handle of the malleus is firmly con- nected to the membrana tympani ; and hence arises the external concavity and internal convexity ofthe membrane. The head of that bone is joined to the body of the incus, whose long leg is articulated to the head of the stapes T,he basis of the stapes fills up the fenestra ovalis. The ends of the bones forming these articula- tions are covered with cartilage, and fur- nished with capsules like other joints. The bones ofthe tympanum have some small muscles connected to them by whirh they are moved outwards, or towards the membrana tympani, and inwards, or to- wards the fenestra ovalis. The first of these motions relaxes, the latter stretches the membrane. The names ofthese mus- cles are, tensor tympani, laxator tympani, and stapedeus. The nerve called chorda tympani passes across the tympanum between the handle of the malleus and the long leg of the incus. The use of the ossicula auditus seems to be that of transmitting the vibrations of the air from the membrana tympani to the labyrinth. The final use of the muscles which moves these bones is unknown. The labyrinth of the ear consists of three parts 1. A spiral bony canal, twisted like a snail-shell, and thence call- ed the cochlea. 2. Three semicircular bony canals : and 3. A small cavity, call- ed the vestibulum, into which the cochlea and the semicircular canals open. These parts are formed ofthe hardest bone in the body, almost equal in solidity to ivory, and the petrous portion ofthe temporal bone, which incloses them, is of a similar structure. In the fcrtus the labyrinth is surrounded by a softer and looser kind of bone, so that it can be most easily dissect- ed at that age. The vestibulum is about equal in size to a large pea, and the fenestra ovalis opens into the middle ofthe cavity. It has also five openings from the semicir- cular canals ; the superior and exterior joining by one of their extremities, and opening by a common hole. The cochlea has two turns and a half. Its canal turns round a bony centre, called the modiolus, to which is attached a thin plate of bone, projecting into the cavity ofthe cochlea, and named lamina spiralis. This projecting plate divides the canal of the cochlea into two parts : one opening into the vestibulum, the other at the fe- nestra rotunda. The latter is called the scala tympani, the former scala vestibuli. The vestibulum, cochlea, and semicir- cular canals, are lined by a delicate vascu- larmembrane, on which the portio mollis of the seventh pair of nerves is distribu- ted. This membrane contains a clear water. The filaments of the auditory nerve pass from the meatus auclitorius mternus through a number of very small apertures which lead to the labyrinth, and they ter- minate on the vascular membrane ofthe labyrinth, so that the nervous pulp is ex- posed almost bare to the contained fluid. The distribution ofthe nerve on the coch- lea is particularly beautiful. The aque- ducts of the ear are two very fine tubes, passing from the vestibulum and cochlea to open on the surface of the dura mater. ORGAN OF 8MELLLIXG. The nose is a cavity of very irregular figure, formed chiefly by the bones of the face, and communicating with the various sinuses or bony cells formed in the head. It is separated by the brain above by the cribriform lamella of the ethmoid bone. This separation is a perfect one, and the two cavities of the cranium and nose are wholly di stinct from each other, although the_y are supposed, by the unin- formed in anatomy, to communicate to- gether. The bottom of the cavity is formed by the upper surface of the pallet. The general cavity is divided into two equal halves, called nostrils, by the sep- tum narium, a thin and flat bony parti- tion, descending from the cribriform la- ANATOMY. mell to the palate. The flat surface of the septum may therefore be said to form the inner side of the nobtril ; and its outer side presents tiir-e hony eminences, call- ed the conch* nariuin, or turbinated bones. Moreover, the following- excavations or sinuses open into the cavity at various p.irts. Two frontal sinuses ; numerous I of the ethmoid bom: ; two sphenol- dal sinuses ; and two great hollows in the upper jaw-bone, called the antra, orma\- illarv sinu- The front openings of the nostrils are well known. This aperture is heart-sha- ped in the skeleton, the broadest part be- ing towards the mouth ; but it is much al- tered in the recent subject by the apposi- tion of pieces of cartilage, the broadest of which are the lateral portions, termed alae nasi. Behind, the nostrils open by large apertures into the upper and anterior part 'of the pharynx, above the velum pendu- lum palati. The sides of the bony cavity just de- scribed arc covered by a thick, soft, and very vascular membrane, called nicm- brana schneidcriana, or piluitaria. Its surface is constantly moistened by a se- cretion of mucus from the arteries, with which it is very copiously supplied. This prevents the effects which the current of air in respiration would otherwise pro- duce, of drying the membrane. It is only an increased quantity of this secretion, altered too somewhat in its quality, that is discharged from the nose in colds, and wluch is popularly supposed to come from the brain. This membrane extends into the cells which communicate with the nose, but is thinner and less vascular there. The ethmoidal cells open into the cavi- ty of the nose, parti)" above, and partly under, the loose edge of t tic superior tur- binated bone. The frontal sinuses open into the front of these cells; and the sphcnoidal s'muv s into tli<- back part of them. The antrum maxillare has a round opening between the two turbinated bones. The n;is:ddiict opens under the inferior of these, bones : and the expand- ed orifice of the eustaehiaa tube is just at the communication between the back of the nose and the phann.v. The filaments of the olfactory nerves, having penetrated the cribriform lamella, are distributed to the pituitary membrane that covers the septum nasi and superior turbinated bone. .d small branches from the fifth pair are also distributed on the nose, at different parts. oni, \ \ OF i It would be a waste of words to de- scribe the situation and form of the tongue. This organ presents a most int. subject to the phisiologist, from the con- cern which it has in the functions of mas- tication, deglutition, and articulation, be- sides that it constitutes the organ of the sense of t Its bulk is made up of numerous mus- cles, which are distinct at their origin, but become mixed and confused at their in- si-rtionintotho tongue. The union of these fibres with each other, and with the fatty substance which connects them, consti- tutes the peculiar substance of the tongue. It is covered externally by a continuation of the common membrane of the mouth. This membrane, however, on the edges, tip, and upper surface of the org-an, is covered with small projecting processes, called papillz, in which the sense of taste resides. Towards the back of the tongue seve- ral mucous glands are found, with open- ings that would admit a bristle. These secrete a fluid, to facilitate the passage of the food through the isthmus faucium. Next to these openings, and still at the posterior part of the organ, are found eight or ten large papillae, arranged in the form of the letter V, with the pointed part towards the throat. These are the pipillae magnx or capitatse. They consist of a round body, surrounded by a circu- lar fold of membrane. These also are mucous glands. The most numerous class of papillae are those which occupy the sides and tip of the tongue. These are the smallest in size, so as to have been compared to the villi of the skin ; and conical in shape. The\ arc called papillz coniczorvillosz. Among these a few larger ones are scat- tered, the papillae semilenticula- The tongue receives three ! on each side ; 1st, the glossopharj branch of thw eighth pair, distributed to the back of the tongue and upper part of the pharynx : 2udly. the lingual nerve, or nerve of the 9th pair, which supplies the muscles: and .mlly, the lingual branch of the inferior . which gx>es to the papillz chiefly. OHGAX OF THE SEXSE OF TOITH. This sense may be considered, in the most c; i. ptation of the term, as residing in the surface of the body in ge- neral : w a more limited view, we regard ANATOMY. the ends of the fingers as more particu- larly adapted, by then- organization, for exploring the tangible properties of bo- dies. The skin, or exterior covering of thebo- dy, is divided into three layers, i. Flexors of the knee-joint. 14. d.i-trn-i iirniius. 15. Soleus. 16. Tcndo achillis. Fig. 2. Jl view of the surface of the brain, exposed by removing the skull-cap. On the right side the brain is covered by its dura mater: that membrane is cut through, and turned aside, so as to ex- pose the left hemisphere. Fig. 3. The shiill and brain cut through horizontally in about the middle. It shews the difference of the cortical and medullary substances, und the union of the two hemispheres by the corpus caUofum. (I. The dura mater, which covered the brain, and formed the falx, thrown back. /. e. Cineritious substance. g. Medullary substance. h. Corpus callosum. Fig. 4. The basis of the brain, with tfie origin of the nerves. a. a. Anterior lobes of the brain. b. b. Middle lobes. c c. Posterior lobes. I. d. Two lobes of the cerebellum. /. Pons varioli, or medulla oblongata. e. Medulla spinalis. PLATE V. Fig. 1. Superficial view of the contents of the abdomen d. d. Omentum. c. r. Liver. f-f-f-f- Various convolutions of small intestine. a. a. a. Transverse arch of the colon covered by the omentum. Fig. 2. is a scheme to represent the whul,- tract of the intestinal canal, as the sto- mach and sf>:iii' othrr parts ilu not come into r/Vvc in the prwdinff .//.',(.."<. The arrn-.e? represent tiie course oft.',,' aliment. . Knd of the trsopl: B. The stomach. //. Pylorus. g. i. Ic. I. Various convolutions of small intestine. e. Caput coli. m. Appendix vermiformis. f. Ascending colon. ii.n. a. Transverse arch of the colon. l>. Bigmoid flexure of the colon. r. Rectum. PLATE VI. Fig. 1. .? rino of the heart and lungs, with i}ac>-!it large blooil-txissels of the tho<- ra.c and abdomen. A. Right ventricle of the heart. e. Right auricle. I. 2. :5. The three lobes of the right lung. 4. 5. Two lobes of the left lung. a. Origin of the pulmonary artery b. Arch of the aorta. .T. Arteria innominata. y. y. Right and left carotid arteries. II. it. Jugular veins. E. E. Left subclavian vein. c. Superior vena cava. If. Descending aorta, sending off differ- ent branches to the abdominal viscera; as, /, the cscliac ; m. superior mesenteric ; n. inferior mesenteric; o. p. renal arte- ries. h. Trunk of the inferior vena cava. r. q. Renal veins. v. Trunk of the absorbing system, called the thoracic duct. d. Termination of that duct in the an- gle formed by the junction of the left subclavian and jugular veins. Fig. 2. Jl view of the thorax and abdomen, representing some parts not seen in Plate y. and now exposed l-y lifting up the liver. 1. Thyroid gland. 2. Trachea. Tin- large blood vessels correspond to those of the preceding figure. 3. The heart. 4. Left lung. 5. Right lung. 6. Under surface of the left lobe of the li\( T. 7. Under surface of the right lobe. 8. The stomach. y. I ire at omentum. 10. Sinai! 11. 11. The coverings of the abdomen cut through and tun I'.'. Madder of urine ANA ANA lo. Lesser omentum. 14. Gall-bladder. Fig. 2. Gall-bladder and biUary ducts, 0nd pancreas. K. Hepatic duct, formed by various branches coming from the liver. L. Cystic duct. I. Gall-bladder. N. Ductus communis. P. Pancreas with its duct. Q. A portion of the intestines, with a longitudinal slit, the opening of the united ducts. A \\XAGOR AS, in biography, a cele- brated philosopher among the ancients. He was born in Ionia about the 70th olym- piad, became the disciple of Anaximenes, and was afterwards a lecturer himself at Athens. In this city he was cruelly per- secuted, and at length banished. He went to Lampsacus, where he was greatly honoured duringhis life, andstill more re- spected after his death. Statues have been erected to his memory. Anaxagoras was a mathematician, and wrote, during his imprisonment at Athens, upon the quadrature of the circle. As a philosopher, he introduced some impor- tant innovations, as they were then called, but which redound much to his honour : he maintained, in opposition to the com- mon systems of a plurality of Gods, that an infinite mind is the author of all motion and life. Plato asserts, that Anaxagoras taught that "mind was the cause of the world, and of all order," and that, "while all things else are compounded, this alone is pure and unmixed:" he ascribes to this principle two powers, -viz. to know, and to move. Testimonies to this purpose in fa- vour of Anaxagoras are numerous ; Plu- tarch, speaking of the Ionian philosophers who flourished before this great man, says, that they made fortune, or blind ne- cessity, the first principle in nature ; but Anaxagoras affirmed, that a pure mind go- verns the universe. By Diogenes Laerti- us he is represented as the first person, " who superadded mind to matter." He died in the year 428 before Christ, and throughout his life he supported the cha- racter of a true philosopher. Superior to the motives of avarice and ambition, he resigned in early life a patrimony, that would have secured him distinction and independence, in order that he might give himself up wholly to the pursuits of science, and in the midst of the vicissi- tudes of fortune preserved an equal mind. Being asked, just before his death, whe- ther he wished to be carried for interment to his native city, he replied, "it is unne- cessary: the way to there gionsbelow isev- ery where alike open :" and in answerto a message sent him at the same time by the senate of Lampsacus, requesting to be in- formedin what manner they might honour his memory after his decease, he said, "By ordaining the day of my death to be annually kept as a holiday in all the schools of Lampsacus." This request was com- plied with, and a festival called Anaxago- ria was instituted on the occasion. ANAXIMANDER, in biography, a very celebrated Greek philosopher, was born at Miletus on the 42d olympiad; for, ac cording to Apollodorus, he was 64 years of age in the second year of the 58th olym- piad. He was one of the first who pub- licly taught philosophy, and wrote upon philosophical subjects. He was the kins- man, companion, and disciple of Thales. He wrote also upon the sphere and geo- metry, and framed a connected series of geometrical truths : he also wrote a sum- mary of his doctrine, and carried his re- searches into nature very far, for the time in which he lived. It is said that he dis- covered the obliquity of the zodiac ; that he first published a geographical table ; that he invented the gnomon, and set up the first sun-dial in an open place at Lace- daemon. He is said to have been tho first who delineated the surface of the earth, and marked the divisions of land and water upon an artificial globe. He taught, that an infinity of things was the principal and universal element; that this infinite always preserved its unity, but that its paits underwent changes; that all things came from it ; and that all were about to return to it. He held that the worlds are infinite ; that the stars are composed of air and fire, which are car- ried about in their spheres, and that these spheres are gods ; that the sun has the highest place in the heavens, the moon the next, and the planets and fixed stars the lowest; that the earth is a globe, placed in the middle of the universe, and remains in its place, and that the sun is 28 times larger than the earth. ANCHOR, in maritime affairs, an ex- tremely useful instrument, serving to re- tain a ship or boat in its place. It is a very large and heavy iron instru- ment, with a double hook at one end, and a ring at the other, by which it is fastened to a cable. It is cast into the bottom of the sea, or rivers, where, taking its hold, it keeps ships from being drawn awaybytlie wind, tide, or currents. The parts of an anchor are : 1. The ANC AND r.ng to which the cable is fastened: 2. the beam, or shrink, which is the longest port of the anchor : 3. the arm, which is that which runs into the ground: 4. the flouke. or fluke, by sonic culled the palm, the broad ;nul p akcd j)art, with its barbs, like tin head of an arrow, which fastens into the ground .- 5. the stock, a piece of wood fastened to the beam near the ring, serving- to guide the fluke, so that it may fall right, and fix in the ground. The. following are the dimensions of the several parts of an anchor, as given by M. Hougier. The two arms generally form tin- arch of a circle, the centre of which is 3-8ths of the shank from the vertex, or point where it is fixed to the shank ; each arm is equal to the same length or radius, so that the two arms together make an arch of 120 degrees : the flukes an half the length of the arms, and their br .tdths two fifths of the said length. U ii respect to the thickness, the cir- cumference of the throat or vertex of the shank is generally made about l-5th part of its length, and the small end two thirds of tiie throat : the small end of the arms of tin- (hikes throe fourths of the circum- ii'ihc shank of the throat. Cast iron anchors have been proposed, and indeed, from the improvements in this metal, it is probable they would be cheap and scniceable But when we rounder the great importance of anchors to the lives and property intrusted in shipping, it would not be an act of pru- dence to make an anchor of any material but the very best. It appears reasonable, that a cast iron anchor, made broad in the flukes, and strong in the shank, and forti- fied with a kind of edge-bar, knee, or bracket, in each angle, between the arm and the shank, might prove as trust-wor- thy as a forged anchor, and be more- than t (jiial to the strain of any cable which is made. There arc several kinds of anchors : 1. the sheet anchor, which is the largest, and is never used but in violent storms, to hinder the ship from being driven ashore: 2. the two bowers, which are used for ships to ride in a harbour: 4 the stream anchor : 5. the grapnel. The iron of which anchors are made ought ne.tlur to be too soft nor too brittle ; for, if tin- iron be brittle, the- anchor is apt to break, and if it be too soft, the anchor will bend. In order to give them a proper temper, it is the practice to join brittle with soft iron, and for this reason the Spanish and Swedish iron ought to be preferred. The shank of an anchor is to be three times the length of one of its flukes. ;uid VOL. I. a ship of 500 tons hath her sheet anchor of 2000 weight; and so propOrtionably for others smaller or greater, although Aubin observes, that the anchors of a large veasel are made smaller in propor- tion than those df a small one. The anchor is said to be a-peak, when the cable is perpendicular between the hawse and the anchor. An anchor is said to come home, when it cannot hold the ship. An anchor is foul, when, by the turning of the ship, the cable is hitched about the fluke. To shoe an anchor, is to fit boards \ipon the flukes, that it may hold the better in soft ground. When the anchor hangs right up and down by the ship's side, it is said to be a cock bell, upon the ship's coming to an anchor. The inhabitants of Ceylon use large stones instead of anchors; and in some other places of the Indies, the anchors are a kind of wooden machines loaded with stones. ANC1IOUAGK, in law, is a duty taken of ships for the use of the port or harbour where they cast anchor : for the ground there belonging to the king, no man can let fall anchor thereon, without paying the king's officers for so doing. ANCHUSA, in botany, the alkanet, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class of plants, the calyx of which is an oblong, cylindric, acute perianthium, divided into five segments, and permanent ; the corolla consists of a single petal ; the tube is cylindric, and of the length of the cup ; the limb is lightly divided into five seg- ments, erecto-patent and obtuse ; the opening is closed by five oblong, convex, prominent, and connivcnt squumulx: there i* no pericarpium : the cup becomes larger, and serves as a fruit, containing in its cavity four oblong, obtuse, and gib- bous seeds. There are thirteen species: though according to Martyn only ten. They are mostly hie.mial, -\cept when they grow in rubbish, or out of a wall. They may all be easily propagated by seeds, sown in the autumn. AMTSTRUM, in botany, a genus of the Uiandria Monogynia class and order: calyx tour leaved: no corolla: stigma many-parted : drupe dry, hispid, one cell- ed. There are three species. A. de- cumbens resembles burnet in the herb and mau icr of flowering : it is remarka- ble for the yellow awns to the cah semb'.ing fox's nails. A native i : i. A. lucidumis a native of the Falk- land islands, introduced here in 1777 by in Ma\ and June. AN UAH. SI I 'K.,or/i<;n/., / Vr,'in minera- h<- r< Ispnr family, dis- AND AND covered by Bournon in a primitive grani- tic mountain in Forez. Colour flesh red, sometimes approaching 1 to rose red. Mas- sive, and crystallized in rectangular four- sided prisms. Specific gravity 3.16. In- fusible by the blow-pipe without addition. It is distinguished from felspar by its great hardness, and higher specific gravity, and from corundum, by its inferior specific gravity and its form. It is now found in Sie primitive mountains in Spain and France, with quartz and mica, and some- times in a mica state at Braunsdorf, near Freyberg in Saxony. ANDRACHNE, in botany, a genus of the Monoccia Gynandria class of plants ; the corolla of the male flower is formed of five emarginated slender petals, shorter than the cup ; the female flower has no corolla ; the fruit is a capsule containing three cells, with two obtuse trigonal seeds, roundish on one side, and angular on the other. There are three species. ANDHJEA, in botany, a genus of the Cryptogamia Musci class and order. Es- sen, char, capsule very short, turbinate : fringe simple, of four incurved concave teeth, united at their tips, and bearing the lid and veil. There are two species. ANDROIDES, in mechanics, an auto- maton, in the figure of a man, which, by virtue of certain springs, &c. duly con- trived, walks and performs other external functions of a man. Albertus Magnus is recorded as having made a famous an- droides, which is said not only to have moved, but to have spoken. Thomas Aquinas is said to have been so frightened when he saw this head, that he broke it to pieces ; upon which Albert exclaimed, " Periit opus triginta annorum." Artificial puppets, which, by internal springs, run upon a table, and, as they advance, move their heads, eyes, or hands, were common among the Greeks, and from thence they were brought to the Romans. Figures, *^ puppets, which appear to move of themselves, were formerly employed to work miracles ; but this use is now super- seded, and they serve only to display in- genuity, and to answer the purposes of amusement. One of the most celebrated figures of this kind was constructed and exhibited at Paris, in 1738; and a particu- lar account of it was published in the Me- moirs ol the Academy for that year. This figure represents a flute-player, which was capable of performing various pieces of music, by wind issuing from its mouth into a German flute, the holes of which it opened and shut with hs fingers : it was about 5 feet high, placed upon a square pedestal 4^ feet high, and 34 broad. The air entered the body by three separate pipes, into which it was conveyed by nine pairs of bellows, that expanded and con- tracted, in regular succession, by means* of an axis of steel turned by clock-work. These bellows performed their functions without any noise, which might have dis- covered the manner by which the air was conveyed to the machine. The three tubes which received the air from the bellows passed into three small reservoirs in the trunk of the figure. Here they united, and ascending towards the throat, formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in two small lips, adapt- ed in some measure to perform their pro- per functions. Within this cavity was a small moveable tongue, which, by its mo- tion at proper intervals, admitted the air, or intercepted it in its passage to the flute. The fingers, lips, and tongue, derived their proper movements from a steel cy- linder, turned by clock-work. This was divided into fifteen equal parts, which, by means of pegs pressing upon the ends o'f fifteen different levers, caused the other extremities to ascend. Seven of these levers directed the fingers, having wires and chains fixed to their ascending extre- mities, which, being attached to the fin- gers, made them to ascend, in proportion as the other extremity was pressed down by the motion of the cylinder, and vice versa; then the ascent or descent of one end of a lever produced a similar ascent or descent in the corresponding fingers, by which one of the holes of the flute was occasionally opened or stopped, as it might have been by a living performer Three of the levers served to regulate the ingress of the air, being so contrived as to open and shut, by means of valves, the three reservoirs above mentioned, so that more or less strength might be given, and a higher or lower note produced, as oc- casion required. The lips were, by a si- milar mechanism, directed by four levers, one of which opened them to give the air a f Veerpassage, the other contracted them, the tliird drew them backward, and the fourth pushed them forward. The lips were projected upon that part of the flute which receives the air, and, by the differ- ent motions already mentioned, modified the tune in a proper manner. The re- maining lever was employed in the direc- tion of tlie tongue, which it easily moves, so as to shut or open the mouth of the flute. The just succession of the several motions, performed by the various parts of this machine, was regulated by the fol- lowing simple contrivance. The extremi- ty of the axis of the cylinder terminated ANDROIDES. on the right side by an endless screw, consisting 1 of twelve threads, each placed at the distance of a line and an half from the other. Above this screw was fixed a piece of copper, and in it a steel pivot, which, tailing 1 in between the threads of the SCPCW, obliged the cylinder to follow the threads, and, instead of turning directly round, it was continually pushed to one side. Hejice, if a levur was moved, by a peg placed on the cylinder, in any one revolu- tion, it could not be moved by the same peg in the succeeding revolution, because the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it by the lateral motion of the c\ linder. Thus, by an artificial disposition of these pegs in different parts of the cylinder, the statin- was made, by the successive ele- vation of the proper levers, to exhibit all tlie different motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of every one who saw it. Another figure, constructed by the same artist, Vaucanson, played on the Pro- vencal shepherd's pipe, held in its left hand, and with the right beat upon a drum. The performances of Vaucanson were imitated, and even exceeded, by M. de Kempelin, of Presburg-, in Hungary. The androides constructed by this gentleman, in 1760, was capable of playing chess. It was brought over to England in 1783, and remained here for more than a year. It is thus described : The figure is as large aslife, in a Turkish dress, seated behind a table, with doors 3$ feet long, 2 deep, and 2$ high. The chair on which it sits is fixed to the table, which is made to run on four wheels. It leans its right arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe ; with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A chess-board of 18 inches is fixed before it The table, or rather chest, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, and other pieces of mechanism, all of which are publicly displayed. The vestments of the figure were then lifted over its head, and the body seen full of similar \\ In-els and levers. There is a little door in its thigh, which is likewise opened: and with tliis, and the table also open.and the figure uncovered, the whole is wheeled about the room. The doors are then shut, and the automaton is ready to play ; and it al- ways takes the first move. At even- mo- tion the wheels are heard, the image moves its head, and looks over every part of the chess-board. When it checks the queen it shakes its head twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It likewise shakes its head when afalse move ismade, replaces the piece, and makes its own move, by which means the adversary loses one. M. de Kempelin exhibited his auto, maton at Petersburg-, Vienna, Paris, and London, before thousands, many of whom were mathematicians, and chess-players, and yet the secret by which he governed the motion of its arm was never discover- ed. He valued himself upon the construe tion of a mechanism, by wluch the arm eould perform ten or twelve moves. Il then needed to be wound up like a watch, after which it was capable of continuing the same number of motions. This auto- maton could not play unless M. de Kem- pelin, or his assistant, was near it, to di- rect its movements. A small square box was frequently consulted by the exhibitor during the game, and in this consisted the secret, which the inventor declared he could communicate in a moment Any person who could beat M. de Kempelin at chess, was sure of conquering the au- tomaton. Remark by the British Editor. \\licn this piece of mechanism was exhibited in London, it played a great number of moves without requiring to be wound up, and it was worked by a M. Anthon, who walked about the room, without any apparent com- munication, during the performance. The chess-board was part of the top of the square counter, or table, to which the figure was attached in a leaning posture. When the back of the figure was opened, an upright iron axis was seen, with two strong springs, which apparently were in- tended to restore the quiescent position after any move ; and when the doors of the counter were opened, two compart- ments were seen, formed by an upright partition in the interior space. In one of them was seen a brass barrel, resembling that of a barrel organ, having sixteen ver- ticle bars or levers, so placed as if to be tripped by the barrel ; and there was also some wheel-work : and in the other com- partment there was little, except a brass horizontal arc, or quadrant, with a brass radius, most probably capable of being set to different angular situations. The hand of the figure lay upon a cushion, and every approaching move w.is announced by the discharge ol a click, and the buzzing noize of u fly was beard until the move was com- pleted. The fore-arm was first raised about two inches by a vi-rtical motion at the elbow : it was then carried horizon- tally, until the hand was immediately over the piece to be taken up, at which time the fingers suddenly opened, the hand dropped, seized the piece, rose again, made the move, and dropped the piece on the square to which it had arrived- But in case the adversary's piece were to be AND ANE taken.it wasfirst seized in the mannerhere described, and earned clear ofl'the board and dropped, and the subsequent move then made into the empty square. After the game was played, the Baron Kempe- lin gave the figure a knight, and it moved the piece in succession, without any pause, by the proper course, till it had passed every square in the board, as was shewn by an assistant placing a counter on each square, as the knight quitted it. What can be deduced from so slight and transient a public view of this apparatus ? very little. It seems as if the greatest skill bad been exerted in producing the mechanical effects, andthatthe communi- cation of the player (Anthon) with the ap- paratus may be a riddle of no great depth. The sixteen pulls from the barrel may bear some relation to the eight rows of squares, twice taken for the two sides, the white and the black ; and as the moves are all reducible to those of the castle of the bishop, from which they differ in ex- tent of shift only, (except that of the knight, which is an immediate combination of both) we may guess that the pull might determine the line to be played in, and the quadrant the distance from the back row. But it is useless to extend our con- jectures, with such scanty means. The same Baron Kempelin exhibited, in his private parlour, a small speaking in- strument or organ, which he said was not then in a finished state. It was a kind of box, which he brought out and placed upon a table. Speaking without notes from the recollection of four and twenty years now elapsed, I judge its dimensions were about two feet in length, one foot wide, and eight or nine inches deep. It was open ; but we were prevented from seeing the inside by a cloth put over it. The Baron put his hands under the cloth, so that his right arm was disposed longitu- dinally in the box, and seemed to press a pair of bellows: the other hand was put in crosswise at the end, near the place of the right hand, and seemed to be employ- ed with keys, or some apparatus, or per- haps both hands may have been so em- ployed. When he made the instrument speak, he raised his right elbow, and gra- dually pressing it down, the sound was heard. It was monotonous, as if from a single pipe, about the pitch of D, above the middle C, concert pitch; and the words papa and mama were uttered very distinctly, in a slow drawlingmanner; that is to say, there was a want of the usual inflectionsof tone, and the sound fell off in intensity towards the end. After several other words had been spoken, a lady asked in French, if it could not speak sentences, and the Baron asked what it should say. She answered " Qne je mis me chante" and the instrument said " J'ous etes mechante, muis vans eti-s anssi bonne." Kratzenstein has given some account of the principles of an engine of this kind, in a work extracted in the Journal de Physique : and Dr. Young has cursorily mentioned this subject in his lectures, with some diagrams. ANDROMEDA, in astronomy, a small northern constellation, consisting of twen- ty-seven stars, visible to the naked eye, behind Pegasus, Cassiopiea, and Perseus. The number of stars placed in this con- stellation by Ptolemy is 27; by Tycho Brahe 23 ; by Hevelius 47 ; and by Flam- stead 66. The constellation has been thought to resemble a woman almost na- ked, with her feet at a distance from each other, andherarms extended and chained. , in botany, a genus of the Decandria Monogynia class of plants ; the calyx of which is a very small acute coloured and permanent periantliium, cut into five segments ; the corolla consists of a single petal, of an oval form, inflated and quinquefid ; the fruit is a roundish capsule, containing five cells, in which are several roundish shining seeds. There are 25 species. ANDROPOGON, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class of plants, the calyx of which is a bivalve, oblong, obtuse glume ; the corolla is also a bi- valve glume, smaller and thinner than the cup ; there is no pericarpium ; the seed, which is single, oblong, covered and arm- ed with the arista of the flower, is includ- ed in the glumes of the calyx and corol- la. There are 32 species. ANEMOMETER, among mechanical philosophers, an instrument contrived for measuring the strength of the wind. There are various kinds of anemometers ; that of which Wolfius gives the structure is moved by sails like those of a wind- mill. He experienced, he says, the good- ness of it, and affirms that the inward structure may be preserved to measure even the force of running water, or that of men and horses when they draw. In the memoirs of the academy of sciences is described a new anemometer, which expresses on paper, not only the several winds that have blown during the space of the last 24 hours, but also the strength and velocity of each. In the philosophi- cal Transactions for the year 1766, Mr. Brice has described a method of measur- ing the velocity of the wind, by means of ANE AM-; that of the shadow of clouds passing over the surface of the earth. This, however, in general exceeds that near the ground. M. d'Ons en Bray invented an anemome- ter, which of itself expresses on paper, not only the several winds that have- blown during the space of twenty-four hours, and at what hour each began and t-nded, hut also the strength and velocity of each. See Memoirs Acad. Scien. Anno 1734. ANEMONE, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Polygynia dads and order. Its characters arc, that it has no calyx ; that the corolla has petals in two or three rows, three in a row, somewhat oblong ; the stamina have numerous filaments, ca- pillary, half the length of the corolla : anthers, twin and erect: the pistillum has numerous germs on a head, styles acuminate, and stigmas obtuse : no peri- carpium ; receptacle globular or oblong ; seeds very many, acuminate, retaining the style : there are about 30 species. The garden anemones are natives of the cast, from whence their roots were origi- nally brought ; but culture has so impro- ved them, that they are become the chief ornaments to our gardens in the spring. To prepare the soil for these plants, take a quantity of fresh, light, sandy loam, or hazel-earth, from a common or dry pas- ture, not dug above ten inches deep ; mix this with a third part of its quantity of rotten cow-dung, and lay it up in a heap; turn this over at least once a month, for eight or ten months, and every time pick out the stones and break the clods. After this mixture has been tw d\ < months made, it will be fit for use. The beds of this earth must be prepared in September, and should be made six or eight inches deep, in a wet soil : but in a dry one, three inches will be sufficient; lay this compost at least 24 feet thick, with about four or five inches of rotten neat's dung, or the rotten dung- of an old melon or cucumber bed, at the bottom; in a wet soil let the beds be rounded, so that the water may run oh*': but in a dry soil let them be nearer to a level : thiv- wet-R- after the compost has been laid in, stir it about six indies de

t the bed, at six inches distance, so that tin- whole may be in squares ; then make a hole three indies deep in the centre of each square, and plant a root in each ; and when all arc planted, rake the earth of the whole bed smooth, so as to cover the wots two inches thick. The season of planting these roots tor forward flo>v- iic latter end of September j and for those of a middle season is Or this is best done at a time when tin-re are gentle rains. Some roots should also he- saved, to be planted after Chrisii: fear of accidents to the former from very hard weather. These usually Howerthrce weeks after those planted in autumn. They are propagated tw o ways, cither by dividing the- roots or by sowing. The roots are to be divided as soon asili taken up out of the ground; they will suc- ceed, if broken into as nuuiy parts as there are eyes or buds in them ; but they flow - er most strongly, if not parted too small. The way by sowing is this ; choose iirst some good kinds of single anemones, call- ed the gardeners poppy anemones; plant these early, and they will prodm seeds three weeks after the flower first blows. This must be carefully gathered, and in August it should be sowed in pots or tubs, or a well prepared bed of light earth, rubbingit between the Inn Is with a little dry sand, to prevent several of the seeds from clinging together, and spread- ing them as even as possible all over the. bed; after this a light hair brush should be drawn many times over the surface of the bed, to pull asunder am hmip- that may yet have fallen together; obser- ving not to brush off the seed, and ;is much as possible not to brush it into lumps. When this is done, some light rurth, about a quarter of an inch deep, should be sifted over the bed. If the weather In- hot, the bed must be at times cuvi red with mats laid hollow, and gently watered. In about ten weeks after sow- ing the plants will appear, if tin- has been favourable, and they are to be carefulix defended from the hart! frosts by proper covering, and from the heat of the sun afterwa.ds. !-\ .1 n. fence. As the spring advances, if the weather be dry, they nir.s' be gu. tered, and when their green K-avo there must be a quarter of an in> earth sifted over : at Michaelmas: and the bed kept clear from weeds, and the following spring they will flower. T'. poppy anemones will flower the winter and spring, when the I are favourable, and in a warm si 1 and they require little culture, for it wil! be sufficient to take up the root- other year ; and when they are taken up, they should be planted again very early in the autumn, or else they will not flow- er till the spring. There are some fine blue colours among thc*c single ane- ANE ANG mones, which, with the scarlets and reds, form a beautiful mixture of colours ; and as these begin to flower in January or February, when the weather is cold, they will continue for a long time in beauty, provided that the frost is not too severe. The seeds of these are ripe by the middle or end of May, and must be gathered daily as they ripen, because they will soon be blown away by the winds. The annual, and has been cultivated here more than 200 years. The seeds are directed for use by the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias. Common fennel, another species of ancthum, is much used for culi- nary purposes, and likewise in medicine. ANEURISM, or AXEURYSM, in surgery, a throbbing tumour, distended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rupture of artery. roots of wood anemone may be taken up ANGEL, in commerce, the name of an when the leaves decay, and transplanted into wildernesses, where they will thrive, and in the spring have a good effect in covering the ground with their leaves and flowers. The blue anemone flowers at the same time with the foregoing, and in- termixed with it, makes a fine variety. Double flowers of both these sorts have been obtained from seeds. This, and most of the other wild anemones, may be pro- pagated by offsets from the root, which they put out plentifully ; and they will grow in most soils and situations. Vir- ginian anemone, and some others, produce plenty of seeds, and may be readily in- creased also that way. ANEMOSCOPE, a machine invented to tell the changes of the wind. It should consist of an index moving about a circu- lar plate, like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points of the compass are drawn, instead of hours. The index, pointing to the divisions in the dial, is turned by an horizontal axis, having an handle-head at its outward extremity. This handle-head is moved by a cog- wheel on a perpendicular axis, on the top of which is fixed a vane, that moves with the course of the wind, and gives motion to the whole machine. The contrivance is simple, the number of cogs in the wheel and rounds in the trundle-head must be equal, because it is necessary, that when the vane moves entirely round, the index of the dial should also make a complete revolution. A different anemoscope is described in the Phil. Trans, vol. xliii. part ii. and one is described in Martin's Phil. Brit.vol.ii. ANETHUM, in botany, dill, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Essen, char, fruit ovate, somewhat com- pressed, striate : petals involute, entire. There are three species. The common dill differs from fennel, in having an an- nual root, a smaller and lower stem ; the leaves more glaucous, and of a less plea- sant smell ; the seeds broader and flatter. This plant grows wild among the corn in Spain and Portu gal, and also near the coast in Italy, and near Constantinople : it is an ancient gold coin in England, of which some are still to be seen in the cabinets of the curious. It had its name from the figure of an angel represented upon it. It was 233 carats fine, and weighed four pen- ny-weights. Its value differed in different reigns. ANGELIC A, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Digynia class of plants, the ge- neral umbel of which is roundish and mul- tiple ; the partial umbel, while in flower, is perfectly globose ; the general involu- crum is composed of either three or five leaves; the partial involucrum is small, and composed of eight leaves; the proper perianthium is small and quinquedentate; the general corolla is uniform ; the single flowers consist each of five deciduous, lanceolated, and slightly crooked petals ; the fruit is naked, roundish, angular, and separable into two parts : the seeds are two, of an oval figure, plain on one side, and convex or striated on the other. All the sorts may be increased by seeds. The common angelica delights in a moist soil, in which the seeds should be sown soon after they are ripe ; and when the plants are about six inches high, they should be transplanted ata large distance, about three feet asunder, on the sides of ditches or pools of water. In the second year they will flower, and their steins may be cut down in May, and heads will be put out from the sides of the roots, and thus they may be continued for three or four years ; but if they have been permit- ted to seed, their roots would perish soon after. The stalks of garden angelica were formerly blanched, and eaten as celery. The young shoots are in great esteem among the Laplanders. In Norway, bread is sometimes made of the roots. The gar- deners near London, who have ditches of of water in their gardens, propagate great quantities of this plant, which they sell to the confectioners, who make a sweet- meat with the tender stalks cut in May. Bohemia and Spain are supposed to pro- duce the best : the College of London, formerly directed the roots brought from Spain only to be kept in the shops, lin- ANG ANG however, assures us, that the plant provesmost vigorous on its native north- ern mountains, and gives a decided pre- ference to the root dug here, either early in the spring or late in the autumn. The roots of angelica are one of the principal aromatics of European growth, though not much regarded in the present practice. They have a fragrant agreeable smell, and a bitterish pungent taste ; on being chew- ed they are first sweetish, afterwards acrid, and leave a glowing heat in the mouth and fauces, which continue for some time. The stalk, leaves, ami seeds, appear to possess the same qualities, though in an inferior degree. Dr. Lewis says, that on wounding the fresh root early in thespring, it yields, from the inner part of the bark, an unctuous, yellowish, odorous juice, which, gently exsiccated, retains its fra- grance, and proves an elegant, aromatic, gummy, resin. Rectified spirit extracts the whole of the virtues of the root ; wa- ter but very little ; and, in distillation with the latter, a small portion of very pungent essential oil may be obtained. The Lap- landers extol the utility of angelica, not only as food but as medicine. For coughs, hoarseness, and other disorders of the breast, they eat the stalks, roasted in hot ashes ; they also boil the tender flowers in dairy milk, till it attains the consistence of an extract; and they use this to pro- mote perspiration in catarrhal fevers, and to strengthen the stomach in diarrhza, &c. According to the explanations of Sir John Pringle, the herb is antiseptic, but the efficacy of the leaves is soon lost by drying them. The seeds also, which come near- est to the roots, can scarce be kept till the spring after they are gathered, without the loss of their vegetative power, as well as a diminution of their medicinal virtue. These are the only parts of the plant which are ordered by the London College, and that only in compound spirit of aniseed. The aromatic quality of the root is more considerable than that of any other part ; but many other simples surpass angelica in aromatic and carminative powers; it is >cl- dom employed in the present practice. All the parts of the wild angelica are simi- lar in quality to those of the former spe- cies, but rather weaker, and the former may be more easily procured. Cows, goats,and swine, eat it, but horses refuse it. ANGIOPTERIS, in botany, a g, the Cryptogamia Fili< ; , char. I oval, sessile, in a lii: the margin of the fi-ond, approximate in a double row, one celled. "'OSl'KKMA, in botany, a torn, , by Linnaeus, to express the second order of the Didynamix plants, wh:< h have seeds not lodged naked within the cup, :is in Gymnospermia, but inclosed in a capsule, and adhering to a receptacle in the middle of a pericarp. The class of Didynamia contains the labial ed and per- sonated plants. The Angiospennia are the personated; the others the labiated kind. In this order many of the corollas are personate, or labiate, with lips closed; some, however, have bell-shaped, shaped, or triangular corollas. To h:iv<- seeds inclosed in a pericarp is common to all ; and hence the name of the order An giospermia. This order contains 87 genera. ANGLE, in geometry, the inclination of two lines meeting one another in a point, and called the legs of the angle See GEOMETRT. ANGLING, may be defined the art of catching fish by a rod and line, furnished with a hook and bait, or artificial fly. It is divided into two species principally,fly fishingandbaitfishing: the first is perform- ed by the use of artificial flies, which arc. made to imitate natural flies so exactly, that fish take them with equal eagerness. The second species of angling is effected by the application to the hook of a variety of worms, grubs, small fish, parts of fish. and anumberof other matters, which shal I be detailed more particularly. Fly fishing requires more skill and ad- dress than bait fishing; and the formation of the artificial flies, for it is an art in itselt of so much nicety, that to give any just idc:i of it, we must devote an article to it par- ticularly. See FISHING FLIKS. To constitute a good angler, a know- ledge of the natural history of the fish li>- desires to take is essentially necessary : withoutthis,he cannot perfectly know the bait most suitable to them at different sea- sons, and in different situations; which i- so far from being obvious, that there are many small rive IN which are considered as totally exhausted of their fish, by the ge- nerality of anglers, where, lio\vever,afew of e..\traordin;ir\ skill will find good sport, and Uikc ivam fisli of the best kinds. The tish caught by angling in this par? ofthe world are, the salmon, salmon-trout, cod, bull-head, flounder, \v> basse, h!ack-i.-y taking three or four balls of the stifiest clay that can be procured, making holes in them, putting one end of a lob-worm into each hole, and closing the clay fast on them. These balls should then be thrown into the water, about a yard from each other, when the worms, being alive in die balls, will move and twist about, which tempts the fish to feed upon them. But liy angling with \vormsofasuperiorkind, the fish will on sight of them leave those in the clay, and seize the others with the greatest avidity. The tackle necessary for angling con- sists of fishing rods, lines, links of hair, and of other materials usual ; hooks, floats, .^pair-caps, split shot, bait of different sorts, including ground bait, shoemakers' wax, twine, silk, a clearing ring, which being passed over the rod, when the hook is entangled, and drawn down the liru- \>\ * strong twine attached to it for the pur- pose, to the hook or below it, if the ob- struction is caused by weeds, \\ill either free the hook or break the line near it, and prevent its being strained in any other place, by pulling the twine with sufficient force. A landing net is also useful to land large fish : and a gafi', when fishing for salmon, to be used for the same pur- > DL. I. pose ; which instrument consists of a large hook attached to the end of a pliuhlf stick ; by passing the hook into th or gills of the fish, it may be out of the water, for which purpose a landing net is too small. A disg<> also necessary, to p'.it down the throat of a fish, when he has gorged the hook, till you touch it, when on pulling the line it will be free. The disgorger is formed by a piece of flat wood, about six inches long, and half an inch wide, forked at the ends. To these articles a fish-basket should be added, to carry the fish in. Fishing rods are made of various lengths, according to the sort of fish they are intended for ; those for salmon are about 18 feet long, those for trout 14 or 15 feet, those for pike the same as for salmon; and for other fish, either the trout or the salmon, rods may be used ac- cording to their size and strength. All rods should be made to taper evenly from the buts ; and when not formed of pieces of the natural growth, which should al- ways consist of ground shoots, they should be made of cleft timber, as sawed pieces can never be depended on. Ash, or hickory are best for the lower joints, yew for the next, and the extremity of the top should always consist of whalebone ; the fewer joints used in the rod the more equal will be its elasticity in every part ; some have the joints formed with screw ferules, and some with sliding connections retained by plain ferules ; but none are better for the elasticity of the rod, and for security, than simple splice** joints, secured by well waxed twine , some re- commend those latter joint? to be previ- ously glued together, before the waxed twine is applied, with gfue prepared with strong lime water : but it is obvious that the wet to which rods are exposed must render glue of little nse : thick white paint, or some of the varnish hereafter mentioned, would probably cement the pieces togctherinore dumbly. Whatever may be t&c number of permanent joints, the IwS r or crabs, are mostly used in it for bait. The s>ame fish may be caught at the heads of piers and the mouths of rivers, and by the same bait as at sea, therefore fishing in such places is classed with sea angling. Lastly, trimmer angling is a species of ANG ANG float angling. The float consists of a round piece ot cork, six inches in diameter, with a groove cut at iUedge, hi which the line is coiled, except so much next the hook as to allow it to hang in mid-water, and so much at the other end as will reach to the bank. When a fish takes the bait, and runs with it, the line unwinds off the trim- iiKi- \\ithout giving any check ; but it will be prudent to give a slight jerk, to secure tlic fish when you come to take up the line. This method is very successful in canals, large ponds, or other still water. Before concluding this article it will be proper to notice, that the weather has much influence on fish. When the wind is in some points few fish will bite ; the most unfavourable is the eastern quarter. A warm lowering day, with flying show- ers, and a slight ripple on the water, is the .vourable. Water slightly disturbed prevents fish from seeing the tackle, and in it they take the bait most readily. Hence, whatever tends to disturb it so as to hide the line, without totally obscuring the bait, is of advantage. In waters aft'ect- cd by the tide, the flood is the best time for angling ; but the ebb should not be negicc ed. Whirlpools, eddies, mill-tails, sides of bridges, and beneath their arches, are places where fish more readily bite, chiefly for the above reason j and in gene- ral a certain degree of darkness in the wa- ter, whether occasioned by the shade of buildings, rocks, or Other bodies, orcaiw- ed by the agitation of its surface, or by muddy streams flowing into it, isfa'oura- ble to angling. The proper season for fishing 1 is in ge- neral from the beginning of spring to the end ot autumn; but this depends much on the nature of tlie tish angled for : some may be caught at all tunes ; others, as those of passage, arc only to be met with at particular season* ; and others, though al \\avs confined to one piece of water, are nearly torpid during the winter, and are found onh in deep places. See Tay- lor's Angling. ANGL'hS, in natural history, the #fow- worw, a genus of serpents : the generic character is, scales both on the abdomen and beneath the tail. Then are, accord- ing to Gmelin, 26 species. This genus is easily distinguished, by having the abdo- men and under part of the tail covered with scales of a similar appearance to those on the rest of the animal, except that in some few instances they are ra- ther larger. The body is of a shorter and more uniformly cylindric form than in the genus Coluber : the eyes arc in general small, and the tail rather obtuse. No poi- sonous species of anguis has yet been din- covered. Afragilis,orcommon slow-worm, is found in almost all parts of Europe, in similar situations with the common snake, and is a perfectly innoxious animal, living on worms and insects. It is about 10 or 12 inches long : the toil measures more than half the length of the animal, and termi- nates pretty suddenly in a slightly acumi- nated tip. The slow-worm is a viviparous animal.and produces occasionally a numer- ous offspring: like otherserpcnts, it varies in intensity of colours at different periods, and the young are commonly of a deeper cast than the parent animal. The general motions of the slow -worm are tardy, ex- cept when endeavouring to make its es- cape : it can, however, occas-onalh a considerable degree of swiftness, and can readily penetrate the loose soil in or- der to conceal itself from pursuit. They are often found in considerable numbers during winter, at some depth beneath the surf-ice, andlvinjr in a *ate of torpidity, and again emerging from their conceal- ments on the approach of spring, when they rust their sk. : n, and recover their for- mer liveliness. If struck with violence, the body of this animal will break into piece*. A. corallina, or coral slow-worm, is a very elegant species, about 18 inches long, and of a considerable thickness : the scales are moderately large, and the head and hi'I are remark nbly obtuse. It is a native of South- America, where it is found in woods, and to prey on the larger insects, as the scolopennrx, tic.: in colour it sometimes varies, a mixture of black being blended with the red on the sides. (See Plate I. Serpentes, fig. 3.) A. ven- tralis, or glass slow-worm, is a handsome species, about two feet long: it is a native of North-America ; body ashy-green, stri- ate ; lateral band black ; belly short, ap- parently joined by a hollow suture ; tail verticil.'ate, three times as long as the bo- dy ; it takes its name from the circum- stance of breaking to pieces in two or three places with a small blow of a st.ck, the muscles being articulated quite through the vertebrx. A. Jamaicens s. or Jamaica slow-worm, found in Jamaica about the roots of decayed trees, near ants' nests, &c. and though it has general- ly been deemed poisonous, vet it is i, ally innocuous ; its colour is an unifonn pale brown, with a kind of silvery gloss on the si-aK-s \\ hih are very smooth. . I LAR moft'w/, in mechanics and astronomy, is a motion of a body which describes an angle, or which m;ivi s cir- cularly round a point. Thus a pendulum has aii augular motion about its centre of ANI AM motion, and the planets have an angular motion about the sun. The angular mo- tions of revolving bodies, as of the pla- nets about the sun, are reciprocally pro- portional to their periodic times ; and they are also as their real or absolute mo- tions directly, and as their radii of motion inversely. Angular motion is also composed of a right-lined and circular motion, or in which the moveable body slides and re- volves at the same time : such is the mo- tion of a coach-wheel. ANGURIA, in botany, a genus of the Monoecia Diandria class and order ; calyx five-cleft ; corolla five-petalled ; pome in- ferior, two-celled, many-seeded. ANHYDRILE, in mineralogy, one of e sulphate family, found at Sak on the Neckar, in Wirtemberg. Colour smalt blue, which passes into a milk white. Massive : not very brittle. Specific gra- vity 2.94. It differs from cube spar in co- lour, fracture, shape of fragments, and in having a higher specific gravity. ANIGOZANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and or- der : corolla six parted, with unequal in- curved segments : staminainserted in the throat of the corolla: capsule three-celled, many -seeded. There is only a single spe- cies; a native of New Holland. The stem is leafy, covered at the top with reddish hairs, leaves linear: flowers umbelled : corolla clothed with reddish hairs. ANIMAL, in natural history, an orga- nised and living body, endowed with the powers of sensation, and of spontane- ous loco-motion. Some have defined ani- mals, from their loco-motion, as being capable of shifting from place to place, whereas plants adhere to the same sub- ject. This property they assume, as the great characteristic by which animals may be distinguished from the other orders of beings. On this principle, however, oys- ters, barnacles, and many zoophytes, would be almost excluded from the class of animals, inasmuch as they usually ad- here or grow to rocks, &c. and yet it is certain that these creatures are real ani- mals. But loco-motion alone is not suffi- cient to constitute the generic difference of animals ; nor, indeed, does it sufficient- ly distinguish an animal from a plant. Many instances are produced in which plants manifest loco-motive power. This is the case with those denominated sensi- tive plants, many of which, upon the slightest touch, shrink back and fold up their leaves ; as the snail in the slightest touch retires into its shell. There are some, on which if a fly perches, instantly close and crush the insect to death Plants also change their position and form in different circumstances and seasons -. they take advantage of good weather, and guard themselves against bad weather ; they open their leaves and flowers in the day, and close them at night ; some close before sun-set, and some after; some open to receive rain, and some close to avoid it ; some follow the sun, and some turn from it; the leaves of some plants are in constant motion during the day, and at night they sink to a kind of rest or sleep. It has also been observed, that a plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food ; and that it has a fa- culty of recovering its natural position after it has been forced from it. A hop- plant, for instance, in twisting round a pole, directs its course from south to west, as the sun does; if it be tied in the opposite direction it dies ; but if it be left loose in this direction, it will regain its natural course in a single night A ho- neysuckle proceeds in a certain direc- tion, till it be too long to sustain itself; it then acquires strength by shooting into a spiral form ; and if it meet with ano- ther plant of the same kind, both these coalesce for mutual support, one twisting to the right and the other to the left. There are other instances in which plants manifest a faculty of loco-motion; and, perhaps, in almost as eminent a degree as some animals. Oysters, e. g. are fixed to one place as much as plants, nor have they any power of motion, besides that of opening xnd shutting their shells; nor do they seem, in this respect, to have any superiority, with regard to the powers of motion, to the sensitive plant, and others of a similar kind. In order, therefore, to form a complete and satisfactory distinc- tion between animals and vegetables, as well as minerals, it is necessary to com- bine with spontaneous loco-motion, which they unquestionably possess in a more perfect degree than plants, the powers of sensation. These seem to be unexcep- tionably distinguishing and characteristic. However, M. BufFon, after allowing that, although progressive motion constitute a perceptible difference between an animal and a vegetable, this distinction is neither general nor essential, proceeds to state, that se nsation more essentially distingu ish - es animals from vegetables. But he adds, that this distinction is neither sufficiently general nor decided. If sensation, he says, implied no more than motion consequent upon a stroke or impulse, the sensitive ANIMAL. plant enjoys this power ; whereas, if by sensation we mean the faculty of perceiv- ing', and of comparing ideas, it is uncer- tain whether brute animals are endowed with this faculty. If it should be allowed to dogs, elephants, &c. whose actions seem to proceed from motives similar to those by which men are actuated, it must be denied to many species of animals, particularly to those that appear not to possess the faculty of progressive motion. If the sensation of an oyster, e. y. differ in degree only from that of a dog, why do we not ascribe the same sensation to ve- getables, though in a degree still infe- rior ? In examining the distinction which arises from the manner of feeding, he ob- serves, that animals have organs of ap- prehension, by which they lay hold of their food: they search for pasture, and ha\ e a choice in their aliment. Hut, it is alleged, that plants are under the neces- sity of receiving such nourishment as the soil affords them, without exerting any choice in the species of their food, or in the manner of acquiring it. However, if we attend to the organization and action of the roots and leaves, we shall soon be convinced that these are the external or- gans, by which vegetables arc enabled to extract their food ; that the roots turn aside from a vein of bad earth, or from any obstacle which they meet with in search of a better soil; and that they split and separate their fibres in different directions, and even change their form, in order to procure nourishment to the plant. From this investigation, he con- cludes thatthere is no absolute and es- sential distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; but that nature pro- ceeds by imperceptible degrees, from the most perfect to the most imperfect ani- mal, and from that to the vegetable ; and that the fresh water polypus may be re- garded us the last of animals, and the first of plants. After examining the distinc- tions, this author proceeds to state the rcsci.-iblances which take place between animals and vegetables. The power of reproduction, he says, is common to the two kingdoms, and is an analogy both universal and essential. A second resem- blance may be derived from the expan- sion of their parts, which is likewise a common property, for vegetables grow as well as animals; and though some differ- ence in the manner of expansion may be remarked, it is neither general nor essen- tial. A third resemblance results from the manner of their propagation. Some ani- mals, he says, are propagated in the same manner, and by the same means, as vegeta- bles. The multiplication of the sacceroft or vine-fritter, (see Aphis) which is, he observes, effected without copulation, is similar to that of plants by seed ; and th* multiplication of the polypus by cuttings resembles that of plants by slips. Hence it is inferred that animals and vegetables are beings of the same order, and that na- ture passes from the one to the other by imperceptible degrees ; since the proper- ties in which they resemble one another are universal and essential ; while those by which they are distinguished are limit- ed and partial. Dr. Watson, Bishop of Landaff, has examined, with his usual judgment, the distinguishing marks be- tween animals and vegetables. He re- jects, as insufficient, both figure and spontaneous motion ; and if perception be substituted in their stead, it will be found to be a criterion that is, in many respects, liable to exceptions. However, the ingenious and learned prelate pro- duces many chemical, physical, and me- taphysical reasons, which serve to ren- der the supposition not altogether in- defensible, that vegetables are endowed with the faculty of perception. Dr. Per- cival, likewise, in a paper read before the Literary and Philosophical Socieu of Manchester, produces several arguments to evince the perceptive powerof vegeta- bles. From the reasoning adduced by both these ingenious writers, of which a more particular account will be given in the sequel of this work (see PLAJTTS and VKCKTABI.KS) ; those who duly advert to it will, we conceive, incline to the opi- nion, that plants are not altoi tute of perception. Hut on a question that has perplexed and divided the most ingenious and inquisitive naturalists, it is very difficult to decide. If we extend to the vegetable kingdom that kind of vita- lity with which sensation and e;ijo\ment are connected, there "ill remain no dis- cernible boundary between this and thr animal kingdom ; and that which has IK-CM considered as the distinctive charac- teristic of animals, and by which t! separated from vegetables, will be abolish- ed. A\ e shall now add, that the princi- ple of self-preservation belongs to all ani- mals ; and it has been argued, that this principle is the true characteristic of ani- mal life, and that it is unquestionably a consequence of sensation. There is no animal, when apprehensive of danger, that does not put itself into a posture of defence. A muscle, when it is touched, immediately shuts its shell ; and as this ANIMAL. action puts it into a state of defence, it is ascribed to a principle of self-preserva- tion. Those who adopt this reasoning allege that vegetables do not manifest this principle. When the sensitive plant, for instance, contracts from a touch, it is no more in a state of defence than be- fore, for whatever would have destroyed it in its expanded state, will also destroy it in its contracted state. They add, that the motion of the sensitive plant proceeds only from a certain property called irrita- bility; and which, though possessed by our bodies in an eminent decree, isa cha- racteris ic neither of animal or vegetable life, but belongs to us in common with brute matter. The sensitive plant, after it has contracted, will suffer itself to be cut in pieces, without making the least effort to escape. This is not the case with the meanest animal An hedge- hog, when alarmed, draws its body toge- ther, and expands its prickles, thus put- ting itself in a posture of defence .- when thrown into the water, the same principle of self-preservation prompts it to expand its body and swim. A snail, when touch- ed, withdraws itself into its shell ; but if a little quick-lime be sprinkled upon it so that its shell is no longer a place of safety, it is thrown into agonies, and en- deavours to avail itself of its loco-motive power, in order to escape that danger. Muscles and oysters, also, though they have not the power of progressive motion, constantly use the means which nature has given them for self-preservation. We, ourselves, possess both the animal and vegetable life, and ought to know whether there be any connection between vegetation and sensation, or not. We are conscious that we exist, that we hear, see, &c. but of our vegetation we are abso- lutely unconscious. We feel a pleasure in gratifying the demands of hunger and thirst ; but we are totally ignorant of the process by which our aliment is formed into chyle, the chyle mixed with the blood, the circulation of that fluid, and the se- paration of all the humours from it. If we, then, who are more perfect than other vegetables, are utterly insensible of our own vegetable life, why should we ima- gine that the less perfect vegetables are sensible of it ? We have within ourselves a demonstration, that vegetable life acts without knowing what it does ; and if ve- getables are ignorant of their most saga- cious actions, why should we suppose that they have any sensation of their inferior ones ; such as contracting from a touch, turning towards the sun, or advancing' to a pole ? As to that power of irritability which is observed in some plants, our so- lids have it, when deprived both of animal and vegetable life ; for a muscle, cut out of a living body, will continue to contract, if it be irritated by pricking, after it has neither sensation nor vegetation. En- cycl. Brit. On the other hand, those who are of opinion that plants possess powers of perception, allege that their hypothe- sis recommends itself by its consonance to those higher analogies of nature, 'which lead us to conclude that the greatest pos- sible sum of happiness exists in tne uni- verse. The bottom of the ocean is over- spread with plants of the most luxuriant magnitude ; and immense regions of the earth are overspread with perennial fo- rests. Nor are the Alps or the Andes de- stitute of herbage, though buried in depths of snow ; and can it bo imagined that such profusion of life subsists \nth- out the least sensation or enjoyment? Let us rather, with humble reverence, suppose that vegetables participate, in some low degree, of the common allot- ment of vitality ; and that one great Crea- tor hath appointed good to ali living tilings, in number, weight, and measure. ANIMAL Jloiuer, a name given to a va- riety of creatures of the Vermes tribe, that bear some resemblance to a flower. These, for the most part, belong to the order Molluscs ; the name is, however, frequently given to a different order, viz. the Zoophytes. ANIMAL manures, in agriculture, are all substances that are formed from the decomposition of animal substances of any kind ; as the muscles, blood, hair, wool, bones, fat, &c. These are generally esteemed as more powerful, in promoting vegetation, than such as are derived from vegetable matters. On account, however, of their being but seldom procured in large quantities, they are generaliy made use of in the state of mixture or combi- nation with other materials. By the ac- tion of ammonia, which is constantly formed during the decomposition of ani- mal substances, the mould is made more suitable for plants. ANIMAL, parts of, substances which compose the bodies of animals may be arranged under the following heads : 1. Bones and Shells 2. Horns and Nails 3. Muscles 4. Skin 5. Membranes 6. Tendons and ligaments ANI ANT 7. Glands . Brain and nerves 9. Hair anil fcatlirr* 10. Silk and similar bodies. Besides these substances, which con- stitute the solid part of the bodies of ani- mals, there are a number of fluids, the most important of which is the blood, which pervades every part of the system in all the larger animals: the rest are known by the name of secretions, because they are formed, or secreted, as the ana- tomists term it, from the blood. The principal animal secretions arc the fol- lowing : 1. Milk 2. Eggs 3. Saliva 4. Pancreatic juice 5. Bile 6. Cerumen 7. Tears 8. Liquor of the pericardium 9. Humours of the eye 10. Mucus of the nose, &c. 11. Sinovia 12. Semen 13. Liquor of the amnios 14. Poisonous secretions. Various substances are separated either from the blood or the food, on purpose to be afterwards thrown out of the body as useless or hurtful. These are called ex- cretions. The most important of them are, 1. Urine 2. Faeces. Besides the liquids which are secreted for the different purposes of healthy ani- mals, there are others which make their apaurunce only during disease, and which may therefore be called morbid se- cretions. The most important of these are the following : 1. 1'1!S 2. The liquor of dropsy 3. The liquor of blisters. To these we must add several solid bo- dies, which are occasionally formed in different cavities, in consequence of the diseased action of the parts. They may he c:ill( (1 morbid concretions. The most remarkable of them are the following: 1. Salivary calculi 2. Concretions in the lungs, liver, brain, &c. 3. Intestinal calculi 4. Biliary calculi 5. Urinary calculi 6. Gouty calculi. AMMAL substances, or those which have hitherto been detected in the animal kingdom, and of which the different part* of animals, as far as these have been ana- lysed, are found to be composed, may be arranged under the following heads : 1. Gelatine 2. Albumen 3. Mucus 4. Fibrin 5. Urea 6. Saccharine matter 7. Oils 8. Resins 9. Sulphur 10. Phosphorus 11. Acids 12. Alkalies 13. Earths 14. Metals. See the several articles in their alphabeti- cal order. AITOTAL, functions of. See ASSIMILA- TION, DIGESTION, PERSPIHATIOS, RESPI- RATION, &c. ANIMALS, generation of. See the arti- cle GF.XEBATIOK. ANIMALS, in heraldry, are much used, both as bearings and supporters. It is to be observed, that in blazoning, animals must be interpreted in the best sense, and so as to redound to the greatest ho- nour of the bearers. For example, the fox being renowned for wit, and likewise giv- en to niching for his prey ; if this be the charge of an escutcheon, we must con- ceive the quality represented to be liN wit, and not his theft. All beasts must be figured in their most noble action ; as a lion rampant, a leopard or wolf passant, a horse running or vaulting, a greyhound coursing, a deer tripping, :md a lamb go- ing with a smooth pace. In like manner, every animal must be moving and looking to the right side of the shield, the right foot being placed foremost These are the precepts given by (iuillim.and yet wi: find that there are lions passant, couchant, and dormant, as well as rampant. AMM M.ri'l.K. an animal so minuU in its size, as not to bi- the immediate ob- ject of our senses; Animalcules are usually divided into two distinct sections, visible, and micro- scopical. The first, thoupli visible, can- not be accurately discerned without the brlp of glasses : the second arc discover- ANIMALCULE. able only by the microscope. Some have supposed Uiere are others invisible. The existence of these cannot well be disputed, though it cannot be asserted, unless we conclude that the microscope has not yet arrived at its highest degree of perfection. Reason and analogy give some support to the conjectures of naturalists in this re- spect : animalcules are discerned of various sizes, from those which are visible to the naked eye, to such as appear only like moving points under the microscopic len- ses of the greatest powers ; and it is not unreasonable to imagine, therefore, that there are others, which may still resist the action of the microscope, as the fixed stars do that of the telescope, with the greatest powers hitherto invented. Animalcules, visible , amongst these are included an amazing variety of creatures, by no means of analogous natures. Those numerous creatures which crowd the wa- ter in the summer months, changing it sometimes of a deep or pale red colour, green, yellow, &c. are of this description. The large kinds are chiefly of the insect, or vermes tribes, and of which the mono- culus pulex is particularly remarkable, being round sometimes in such abundance, as to change the water apparently to a deep red. A similar appearance is like- wise occasioned by the circaria mutabilis, when it varies in colour from green to red ; vorticella fasciculata also changes it to green ; and rotatoria to yellow. To this section we must also refer many of the acarus and hjdrachna genera, and a multitude of other creatures that will be noticed hereafter. Animalcules, microscopical The micro- scope discovers legions of animalcules in most liquors, as water, vinegar, beer, dew, &c. They are also found in rain and several chalybeate waters, and in infu- sions of both animal and vegetable sub- stances, as the seminal fluids of animals, pepper, oats, wheat, and other grain, tea, &c. &c. The contemplation of animal- cules has made the ideas of infinitely small bodies extremely familiar to us. A naite was anciently thought the limit of littleness; but we are not now surprised to be told of animals twenty-seven mil- lions of times smaller than a mite. Mi- nute animals are found proportionably much stronger, more active and vivacious, than large ones. The spring of a flea in its leap, how vastly does it outstrip any thing greater animals are capable of! A mite, how vastly faster does it run than a race-horse ! M. de I'IsIr has given the computation of the velocity of a little creature, scarcely visible by its smallncss. which he found to run three inches in half a second : supposing now its feet to be the fifteenth part of a line, it must make five hundred steps in the space of three inches ; that is, it must shift its legs five hundred times in a second, or in the ordi- nary pulsation of an artery. The exces- sive minuteness of microscopical animal- cules conceals them from the human eye. One of the wonders of modern philosophy is, to have invented means for bringing creatures, to us so imperceptible, under our cognizance and inspection : an object a thousand times too little to be able to affect our sense should seem to have been very safe. Yet we have extended our views over animals, to whom these would be mountains. In reality, most of our mi- croscopical animalcules are of so small a magnitude, that through a lens, whose focal distance is the tenth part of an inch, they only appear as so many points ; that is, their parts cannot be distinguished, so that they appear from the vertex of that lens under an angle not exceeding a mi- nute. If we investigate the magnitude of such an object, it will be found nearly equal to T ~3 ^ of an inch long Sup- posing, therefore, these animalcules of a cubic figure, that is, of the same length, breadth, and thickness, their magnitude would be expressed by the cube of the fraction __3 , that is, by the number ' ' that is > so P arts of a cubic inch is each animalcule equal to. Leeuwenhoeck calculates, that athousand millions of aru'malcula, which are disco- vered in common water, are not altoge- ther so large as a grain of sand. This author, upon examining the male sperm of various animals, discovered in many infinite numbers of animalcula not larger than those above mentioned In the milt of a single codfish there are more animals than there are, visible to the naked eye, upon the whole earth ; for a grain of sand is bigger than four millions of them. The white matter that sticks to the teeth also abounds with animalcules of var;ous figures, to which vinegar is fatal ; and it is known that vinegar contains animal- cules in the shape of eels. In short, ac- cording to this author, there is scarcely any thing which corrupts without produc- ing food to myriads of animalcules. Ani- malcules are said to be the cause of various disorders. The itch is known to be a disorder arising from the irritation of a species of acarus, or tick, found in the pustules of that ailment: when the com ANI ANN munication of it by contact from one to another is easily conceived, as also the reason oft lie cure being effected by cuta- neous Applications. In the Philosophical irtions, vol. lix., is a curious account of the animalcules produced from an in- fusion of potatoes, and another of liemp- sccd, by the late Mr. Kills. "On the 2.5th of Ma\, irfiK, Fahrenheit's thermometer 70, 1 boiled a potatoe in the New River till it was reduced to a mealy con- sistence. 1 put part of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling- liquor, into a cy- lindricnl glass vessel, that held something less than half a wine-pint, and covered it close immediately with a glass cover. At the same time I sliced an unboiled pota- toe, and, as near as I could judge, put the same quantity into a glass vessel of the same kitnl. wi'h the same proportion of New Klver water not boiled, and co- vered with a glass cover, and placed both vessels close to each other." " On the 26th of May, 24 hours afterwards, [ e\a- mined a small drop of each by the first magnifier of Wilson's microscope, whose focal distance is reckoned at l-50th part of an inch ; and, to my amazement, they were both full of animalcula, of a linear shape, very distinguishable, moving to and fro with great celerity, so that there appeared to be more particles of animal thn vegetable life in each drop." " This experiment I have repeatedly tried, and always found it to succeed in proportion to the heat of the circumambient air ; so that even in winter, if the liquors are kept properly warm, at least in two or three days the experiment will succeed." "I procured hemp-seed from different seeds- men in different parts of the town. Some of it I put into the New River water, some into distilled water, and some into very hard pump-water. The result was, that in ^Abortion to the heat of the weather, or warmth in which they were kept, there was an appearance of millions 01 minute animalcula in all the infusions; and, some time after, oval ones made their appear- ance. These were much larger than the first, which still continued : these wrig- gled to and fro in an undulatory motion, turning themselves round very quick all the time thc\ moved forwards. AN1ME, a resin obtained from the Iiy- menjca courbaril, or locust tree, which "is a uathc of North-America. It re -. eopal very much in its appearance, but is readily soluble in alcohol, which copal is not. It is used as a varnish. Alcohol dis- solves it completely; and di-;iillcii VOI !. it acquires both the smell and taste of anime. A\\ \l />, in mailers of literature, a species of history, \\hich relates events in the chronological order wherein ilu-\ hap- pened. They differ from perfect history in this, that annals are a bare relation of what passes every year, as a journal is of what passes every 'day; whereas history relates not only the transactions them- selves, hut also the causes, motives, and springs of actions. Annals require no- thing but brevity, history demands orna- ment. Cicero informs us of the origin of annals : to preserve the memory of events, the pontifex maximus, says he, wrote what passed each year, and exposed it on tab- lets in his own house, where every one was at liberty to read: this they called annales maxinri ,- and hence the writers who imitated this simple method of narra- ting facts were called annalists. ANNATES, among ecclesiastical wri- ters, a year's income of a spiritual living. These were, in ancient times, given to the pope throughout all Christendom, upon the decease of any bishop, abbot, or pa- rish-clerk, and were paid by his successor. In England, the pope claimed them first of such foreigners as he conferred bene- fices upon, by way of provision ; but after- wards they were demanded of all other clerks, on their admission to benefices. At the reformation they were taken from the pope, and vested in the king; and. finally, queen Anne restored them to the church, by appropriating them to the augmenta- tion of poor livings. ANNEALING, or NEALIV(;, the burn- ing or baking glass, earthen-ware, &c. in an oven or furnace. See GLASS. ANNOTATION, in matters of litera- ture, a brief commentary, or remark upon a book or writing, in order to clear up some passage, or draw some conclusion from it : thus the critics of the last age have made learned annotations upon all the classics. ANNOTTO, in commerce, a kind of red dye, brought from the West-Indies. This is otherwise denominated arnatto. It is procured from the pulp of the seed capsules of a shrub called uchiotte and unicu ; the bixa orellana of Linnxus, which grows seven oreight feet high, and produces oblong hairy pods, some what re- sembling those of a chesnut. Within <. -ach of these are thirty or forty irregularly figured seeds, which are enveloped in a pulp of a bright red colour and unpleasant smell. soi;ie\vh.it rescinding tlu; paint II h ANN ANN called red lead when mixed up with oil ; and it was used as paint by some of the Indians, in the same manner as \voad was used by the ancient Britons. The seeds, together with the red tough matter that surrounds them, are softened in a wooden trough with water, until, by a kind offer- mentation, which spreads a very nauseous smell, and by diligent stirring and pound- ing, the kernels are separated from the pulp. This mass is then strained through a sc-ive, and boiled ; and upon which a thick reddish scum, which is the pigment, separates. When skimmed off, it is care- fully inspissated in another kettle ; and after being repeatedly cool, is moulded in roundish lumps, wrapt round with leaves of trees, and packed for sale. It seems to partake of the nature of vegeta- ble albuminous matter. The method of extracting the pulp, and preparing it for market, is simply by boiling the seeds in clear water, till they are perfectly extri- cated ; after which the seeds are taken out, and the water left undisturbed for the pulp to subside. It is then drained off, and the sediment distributed into shallow vessels, and dried generally in the shade. The annotto is now only prepared by the Spaniards. The English had formerly a manufacture at St. Angelo, now ruined. This drug is preferred by the dyers to indigo, and sold one-fourth dearer. The double Gloucester cheese is coloured with this dye, not with man golds. Some of the Dutch farmers use it to give a rich colour to their butter, and great quantities are said to be applied to the same purpose in the English dairies. The poor people use it instead of saffron ; and it is some- times mixed as an ingredient in chocolate, during the grinding of the cocoa, in the quantity of about two drams to the pound, in order to give it a reddish colour; but the opinion of its being an earth has brought it into disrepute, and this use of it has been discontinued. To water it gives on- ly a pale brownish yellow colour, and is not soluble in that liquid, nor in spirit of wine ; but, in order to be fit for dyeing, it requires an alkaline menstruum,to which it gives a bright orange colour; and hence it is useful as an ingredient in varnishes and lacquers, and in dying wax of a ver- million colour. Wool and silk, boiled in a solution of it by alkaline salts in water, acquire a deep, but not a durable orange dye ; for though it is not changed by alum or acids, it is discharged by soaps, and de- stroyed by exposure to the air. It is said to be an antidote to the poisonous juice of manihot, or cassada. The liquid, sold un- der tlie name of " Scott's nankeen dye," seems to be nothing but annotto dissolved in alkaline ley. ANNOYANCE, in law, any injury done to a public place, as a high-way, bridge, or common river ; or to a private way, as laying any thing that may breed infection, by encroaching, &c. ANNUAL plants, generally called an- nuals, in gardeiihig, signify such plants as are of one year's duration, or which con- tinue for a few months only. Plants that rise from seed sown in the spring arrive at maturity in the summer or autumn fol- lowing, producing flowers and ripe seed, and which afterwards perish in their tops and roots, are commonly regarded as an- nuals. The plants of this tribe are very numerous, as most of those of the herba- ceous kinds, consisting of uncultivated plants, weeds, &c. and also a great number of cultivated garden and field plants, both of the esculent and flowery ornamental kinds, are ofthisdescription. Thelastsort are often termed simply annuals. These are divided into the hardy and tender kinds; the former are sown in places where they are designed to remain without trans- planting, but the latter are usually sown in hot-beds, in order to be transplanted in the spring, either into pots or borders. ANNUITIES, any income of a certain yearly amount, payable at particular peri- ods, \\liich may be either yearly, half- yearly, quarterly, monthly, weekly, or at any other intervals. They are usually dis- tinguished into annuities certain, and con- tingent annuities, or such as are for an un- certain period, being determinable by some future event, such as the failure of a life or lives. The present value of an annuity is that sum, which, if improved at compound in- terest, would be sufficient to pay the an- nuity ; the present value of an annuity certain, payable yearly, and of which the first payment is to be made at the end of a year, may therefore be calculated in the following manner. Suppose a person has 1001. due to him a twelve month hence, and he wishes to have the value of the same advanced im- mediately, the sum which ought to be giv- en as an equivalentthereto, allowing 5 per cent, interest, is95 4*. 9^d.for this is the sum, which, put out to interest, at the rate of 5 per cent will, at the end of the year, amount to 100Z. So also, if a person has 100/. due to him at the end of two years, and he wishes to have the value of the same advanced immediately, the sum which ought to be given as an equivalent ANNUITIES. thereto is 90/. 14*. 0|r/. for this is the sum, which, put out at the same rate of in; will, at the end of two years, amount to 100/. In like manner, if a person lias 100/. due to him at the end of three years, and lit- wishes to have the same advance < I im- mediately, the sum which ought to be given as an equivalent thereto is 861. 7s. Sil. for tliis is the sum which, at the same rate of interest, will at the end of three years amount to 100A And if these three values are added together, they will make 272/. 6. 6d. being the sum which ought to be paid down for an annuity of 1001. for three years ; as this sum improved at the given rate of interest is just sufficient to make the three yearly payments. As the amount or present worth of II. tor am given term is usually adopted as the foundation of calculations relating to annuities, let r represent the amount of II. in one year; that is, one pound in- creased by ayear's interest; then /", on- raised to the power whose exponent is any given number of years, will be the amount of 11. in those years; its increase in the same time is m 1 ; now the interest for a single year, or the annui- ty corresponding with the increase, is > 1 ; therefore as r 1 is to r" 1, so is u (any given annuity) to a its amount : hence we have _ EXAMPLE. To what sum will an an- nuity of 50/. amount in 6 years, at 5 per cent, per annum, compound interest? 50 xTU5l' ? ~ 1 = 340/. 19*. 1,1. .05 In this manner the amount of an annuity for any number of years, at any given rate of interest, may be" found. But when the term of years is considerable, it will be more convenient to work by logarithms, h\ which the labour of all calculations re- lating to compound interest is greatly abridged. There is, however, little occa- sion in general to calculate the amount or present worth of annuities, except for par- ticular rates of interest, as the following tables, and others of a similar nature, for different rates of interest, which are given in most books on compound interest, save much time and labour in common prac- tice, and are therefore in general use. TABLE I. Chewing the amount of an annuity of I/, in any number of years not exceed- ing 100, at 5 per cent, per annum com- pound int : Vrs Amo. Yrs. \mount. ifrs Amount. 1 1,001)0 35 90,3203 69 559,5510 o m 2,0500 36 95,8363 70 588,5285 3 3,1525 37 !01,62ol 71 61.-..9549 4 4,3101 38 107,7095 72 650,9027 5 5,5256 39 114,0950 73 684,4478 6 6,8019 40 120,7998 74 719,6702 7 8,1420 41 127,8398 75 756,6537 8 9,5491 42 135,2317 76 795,4864 9 11,0266 43 142,9933 77 836/2607 10 12,5779 44 151,1430 78 879,0738 11 14,2068 45 159,7002 79 924,0274 12 15,9171 46 168,6852 80 971,2288 13 17,7130 47 178,1194 81 1020,7903 14 19,5986 48 188,0254 .-;-> 1072,8298 15 21,5786 49 198,4267 83 11 :7,4713 16 23,6575 50 209,3480 84 1184,8448. 17 25,8404 51 220,8154 85 1^45,0871 18 28,1328 51 232,8562 86 1308,3414 19 30,53 JO 53 245,499'J 87 1374,7585 20 33,0659 54 258,7739 !,4964 21 35,7192 55 272,7126 *-' 1517,7212 32 38,5052 56 287,3482 yu 1594,6073 23 41,4305 57 302,7157 '! 1675.3377 24 25 44,5020 47,7271 58 59 318,851* 1335.7940 93 93 1760,1045 1849,1098 26 51,113; 60 1353,5837 94 1942,5653 27 54,t>691 61 372,2629 95 2040,6935 28 58,4036 62 391,876' 96 2143,7282 29 62,3227 63 412,469 97 2251,9146 30 66,4388 64 434,093 9t 2365,5103 31 32 33 70,7608 75,2988 80,0638 65 66 67 456,798 480,637 505,669 9 10t 2484,7859 2610,0250 34 85,0670 68 531,953 EXAMPLE 1. To what sum will an an- niiiu of 105/. amount in 19 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest .' The number in the table opposite to 19 years is 30,5390, which multiplied by 105 o-iv.-s the answer 3206/. 11*. IQd. EXAMPLE 2. In what time will an an- nuity of 25/. amount to 3575/. at 5 per cent, compound interest ? Divide3575/. by 25/.the quotient is 143 ; the number nearest to this in the table is 142,9933, and the number of years cor- responding, or 43 years, is the answer. The- present worth of an anuuity, or the sum to be given in one present paymrni as an equivalent for an annuity for any given number of yours is found on similar prim-iples; for as I/, is the present value of r* (its amount in n years, and as the prosrnt value of any other amount, and consequently of'* must bear the same propor- tion to that amount, ,wc hvc ANNUITIES. r=rr=^ EXAMPLE. What is the present value of 50/. per annum for 6 years, at 5 per cent, compound interest ? i= 2531. 15 S . 8J. But such questions are much more readi- ly answered by the following table. TABLE II. Shewing the present value of an annuity of 11. for any number of years not ex- ceeding 100, at 5 per cent, per annum, compound interest. V. Value. V. Value. Y. Value. 1 ,952381 16,374194 69 19,309810 2 1,859410 36 .6,546852 70 19,342677 3 2,723248 .7 16,711287 71 19.373978 4 3,545950 18 16,867893 72 19,403788 5 4,329477 t9 17,017041 73 19,432179 (3 5,075692 V, 17,159086 74 19,459218 7 5,786373 41 17,294368 75 19,484970 a 6,463213 42 17,423208 76 19,509495 9 7,lu7b2: ; . 17,545912 77 19,532853 10 7,721735 14 17,662773 78 19,5.55098 11 8,306414 45 17,774070 79 19,576284 i. 8,863252 16 17,880066 80 19,599460 1. 9,393573 47 17,981016 81 19,615677 u 9,898641 48 18,077158 82 19,633978 :: il- 18,168722 83 19,6.51407 It 10,837770 5l 18,255925 84 19,668007 17 11.274066 >! 18,338977 85 19,683816 18 11.6S'j.58/ .) .r 18,418073 86 19,698873 I! 12,085321 53 18,493403 87 19,713212 : 12,4622 1( 54 18,565146 88 19,726869 21 12,821153 ,/) 18,633472 89 19,739875 J. 13,1630Jo >< 18,698545 90 19,752262 2 13,488574 5i 18,760519 91 19,764059 24 13,797642 58 18,819542 92 19,775294 ".- 14,093945 5< 18,875754 93 19,785994 ':( 14,375185 & 18.929290 94 19,796185 27 14,643034 61 18,8027b 95 19,805821 28 14,898127 '>2 19,028834 96 19,815834 29 15,141074 63 19,075080 97 19,823937 34 15,372451 54 19,119124 98 19,832321 31 15,592810 65 19,161070 99 19,840406 52 15.8J2677 6< 19.201019100 19,837910 :,. 16,002.549 57 19,239066 ' 16,192904 58 19,275301) EXAMPLE 1. What is the present va- ue of an annuity of 63/. to continue for 21 years ? The value in the table against 21 years is 12,821153, which multiplied by 63 gives the answer 807/. 14s. 7d. EXAMPLE 2 --What present sum is equivalent to a nett rent of 201. per an- num for 69 years ? The value in the table against 69 years is 19,309,:iO, which multiplied by 20 gives the answer 36Z. 3s. lid. If any of the annuities in the above ta- ble, instead of being for an absolute term of years, had been subject to cease, if a given life should fail during the term, it is evident that the value would have been lessened in proportion to the probability of the life failing ; and that if. instead of being for a certain number of years, the annuity depended wholly on the uncer- tain continuance of a given life or lives, its value must be ascertained by the pro- bable duration of such life or lives. In order to compute the value of LIFE AN- NUITIES, therefore, it is necessary to have recourse to tables that exhibit the number of persons, which, out of a cer- tain number born, are found to be living at the end of every subsequent year of human life, which thus shew what are termed the probabilities of life. Various tables of this kind have been formed by the different writers on this subject, as Dr. Halley, Mr. Thomas Simp- son, M. Kersseboom, M. de Parcieux, Dr. Price, Dr Haygarth, Mr. W'argentin, M. Susmilch, and others; and the true method of computing the value of life annuities,according to the probabilities of any table of mortality, is laid down by Mr. Wilh'am Morgan as follows : " Was it certain that a person of a given age would live to the end of a year, the value of an annuity of 11. on such a life would be the present sum that would in- crease in a year to the value of a life one year older, together with the value of the single payment of 11. to be made at the end of a year ; that is, it would be 11. to- gether with the value of a life aged one year older than the given life, multiplied by the value of 11. payable at the end of a year. Call the value of a life of one year older than the given life N, and the value of 11. payable at the end of a year ; then will the value of an annuity on r the given life, on the supposition of a cer- tainty, be i -f -X N = - X 1+N. But the fact is, that it is uncertain whether the given life will exist to the end of the year or not ; this last value, therefore, must be diminished in the proportion of this un- ANNUITIES. certainty, thai is, it must be. multipl'ii d f>y the probability that the given life will sun-ive one year, or supposing -to ex- press this probability, it will be X lUx" The values of annuities on the joint conti- nuance of two lives are found by reason- ing in a similar manner; and such values, both for single and joint lives, are given in the following tables. TABLK DI. Shewing the value of an annuity of 11. on a single life, at every age, acconing to the probabilities of the duration of life ut Northampton, reckoning intertst at 5 per cent, per annum. Age. 'alue. Age. Value. Age. Value. Birth. 8,863 33 12,740 66 7,034 lyear 1,563 34 12,623! 67 6,787 2 3,420 35 12,502 68 6,536 3 4,135 36 12,377 69 6,281 4 4,613 37 12,249 70 6,023 5 4,827 38 12,116 71 5,764 6 15,041 39 11,979 72 5,504 7 15,166 40 11,837 73 5,245 8 15,226 41 11,695 74 4,990 9 15,210 42 11,551 75 4,744 10 15,139 43 11,407 76 j 4,511 11 15,043 44 11,258 77 4,277 12 14,93: 45 11,105 78 4,035 13 14,826 46 10,947 79 3,776 14 14,710 47 10,784 HO 3,515 15 14,588 48 10,616 81 3,263 16 14,460 49 10,443 82 3,020 17 14,334 50 10,269 83 ; 2,797 IB 14,217 51 10,097 ! 84 2,627 19 14,108 52 9,925 i 85 2,471 20 14,007 53 9,748 86 2,328 21 13,917 54 9,567 87 2,193 22 13,833 55 9,382 88 2,080 23 13,746 56 9,193 89 1,924 24 13,658 57 8,999 90 1,723 -'5 13,567 58 8,801 91 1,447 26 13,473 59 8,599 92 1,153 13,377 60 8,392 93 0,816 28 13,278 61 8,181 ! 94 0,524 39 13,177 62 7,966 95 0,238 30 13,072 63 7,742 96 0,000 31 12,965 64 7,514 12,854 65 7,276 The values in this and the following- tables suppose the payments to be math: yearly, and to begin at the end of a year ; but if all the payments are to be lull yearly payments, and to be made at the end of every half year from the time of purchase, the value will be increased about one-fifth of a year's purchase. The above table is formed from the pro- babilities of life, as deduced from the re- gister of mortality at Northampton for 46 years, from 1735 to 1780 ; and as it gives the mean values of lives between the highest and lowest, it is better adapted for general use than any other extant. It has of late years been generally adopted for calculating the rates of assurance on lives, and is well suited to this purpose ; but it is by no means a proper table for individuals or societies to grant life annui- ties from ; for having been formed from a register comprehending persons of all ages and conditions, it cannot give a cor- rect representation of the duration and value of such lives as usually form a body of annuitants, such persons being gene- rally a selection of the best lives from the common mass, the interest of every per- son who purchases an annuity on any life requiring that he should take care that it is a good life. The best table for regula- ting the grant of life annuities is that formed from the table of mortality pub- lished by Mr. D. Parcieux, from the lists of the French tontines, but even this ta- ble gives the values of the advanced ages considerably too low. ANNUITIES. TABLE IV. Shewingthe value of an annuity of 11. on a single life, atevery age, according to the pro- babilities of life, in Mr. DeParcieux's table of the mortality. Interest at 5 per cent. Age. Value. Age./ Value. Age Value. Age. \ alue. Age. Value. 11,083 18 15,631 36 14,065 54 10,418 72 5,540 1 14,620 19 15,550 37 13,930 55 10,168 73 5,232 2 15,135 20 15,474 38 13,786 56 9,930 74 4,942 3 15,509 21 15,401 39 13,632 57 9,682 75 4,674 4 15,750 ! 22 15,328 40 13,466 58 9,431 76 4,429 5 15,924 23 15,256 41 13,296 59 9,177 77 4,190 6 16,041 24 15,184 42 13,116 60 8,923 78 3,953 7 16,118 25 15,112 43 12,93] 61 8,669 79 3,719 8 16,169 26 15,040 44 12,738 62 8,413 80 3,501 9 16,204 27 14,969 , 45 12,53 23 8,155 81 3,283 10 16,210 28 14,893 46 12,332 64 7,893 82 3,072 11 16,194 29 14,810 ; 47 12,115 65 7,626 83 2,868 12 16,145 30 14,722 1 48 11,89" 66 7,351 84 2,668 13 16,077 31 14,627 49 11,666 67 7,069 85 2,461 14 15,994 32 14,527 50 11,4^5 68 6,778 86 2,237 15 15,901 33 14,421 51 11,1 8 69 6,479 87 1,976 16 15,807 34 14,306 52 10,926 70 6,171 88 1,688 17 15,716 35 14,189 53 10,673 71 5,856 89 1,409 90 1,164 The calculation of the values of joint lives from any given table of mortality, for every combination of age, is so labo- rious a task, that no such table has yet been published. Mr. Simpson, in his se- lect exercises, gave a table of the values of two joint lives, agreeable to the proba- bilities of life in London ; but the tables founded on the London bills, representing the rate of mortality among the inhabi- TABLE V. Shewing the value of an annuity of 11. on the joint continuance of two lives, according to the probabilities of life at Northampton. Interest at 5 per cent. tints, taken in the gross, give the values of lives much too low for the middling and superior classes of the people in London itself, and are wholly improper for gene- ral use. A much more comprehensive table of the value of joint lives has since been calculated by Dr. Price from the. Northampton table of mortality, from which the following table is taken. Ages. Value. Ages. Value. ]Agcs. Value. Ages. I Value. Ages. \ alue. Ages. Value. 5-5 11,984 10-45 9,900 2U-25 10,989 25-801 3,308 40-45 8,643 55-55 6,735 5-10 12,315 0-50 9,260 20-30 10,707 30-30 10,255 40-50 8,177 55-60 6,272 5-15 11,954 10-55 8,560 20-35 10,363 130-35 9,954 40-55 7,651 55-65 5,671 5-20 11,561 10-60 7,750 20-40 9,937 30-40 9,576 40-6U 7,015 55-70 4,893 5-25 11,281 10-65 6,803 20-45 9,448 30-45 1 9,135 40-65 6,240 55-75 4,006 5-30 10,959 10-70 5,700 20-50 8,861 30-50 8,596 40-70 5,298 55-80 3,076 5-35 10,572 10-75 4,522 120-55 8,216 30-55' 7,999 40-75 4,272 60-60 5,888 5-40 10,102 10-80 3,395 120-60 7,463 30-60 7,292 40-80 3,236 60-65 5,372 5-45 9,571 15-15 11,960 '20-65 6,576 30-65 6,447 45-45 8,312 60-70 4,680 5-5^ 8,941 15-20 11,585 '20-70 5,532 30-70 5,442 45-50 7,891 60-75 3,866 5-5L 8,256 15-25 11,324 '20-75 4,424 30-75 4,365 45-55 7,411i 60-80 2,992 5-6t 7,466 15-30 11,021 i20-80 3,325 30-80, 3,290 45-60 6,822 65-65 4,960 5-65 6,546 15-35 10,655. '25-25 10,764 35-35 9,680 45-65 6,09* 65-70 4,378 5-70 5,472 15-40 10,205 25-30 10,499 35-40 9,331 45-70 5,195 65-75 3,665 5-75 4,362 15-45 9,690 '25-35 10,175 35-45 8,921 45-75 4,205 65-80 2,873 5-80 3,238 15-50 9,076 25-40 9,771 35-50 8,415 45-80 3,197 70-70 3,930 10-10 12,665 15-55 8,403 25-45 9,304 35-55 7,849 50-50 7,522 70-75 3,347 10-15 12,302 15-60 7,622 ! 25-50 8,739 35-60 7,174 50-55 7,098 70-80 2,675 10-20 11,906 15-65 6,705 ; 25-55 8,116 35-65 6,360 50-60 6,568 75-75 2,917 10-25 11,627 15-70 5,631 25-60 7,383 35-70 5,382 50-65 5,897 75-80 2,381 10-30 11,304 15-75 4,495 25-65 6,515 35-75 4,327 50-70 5,054 80-80 2,018 10-55 10,916 15-80 3,372! 25-70 5,489 35-80 3,268 50-75 5,112 85-85 1,256 10-40 10,442 20-20 11,2321:25-75 4.396 40-40 9,016 50-80 3,140 90-90 0909 ANNUITIES. To find the value of any annuity during the continuance of a hie of any given age, or during the joint continuance of I wo lives, it is only necessary to multiply the value in the table, against the given age, by the annuity ; or to find the annui- ty equivalent to any certain sum, divide the sum by the value in the table against tin- given age. EXAMPLES. What is the difference in value between an annuity of 501. during tin- lit'.- of a person aged ;>5, and an annui- ty of 60/. during two lives of 30 and .",5, to cease when either of the two lives shall fail > The value in Table III. against the age of 35 is 12,502, which multiplied by 50 gives 625. 11. the value in table V. against the ages of 30 and 35 is 9.954, which mul- tiplied by 60 gives 597.241. the value of the fonnor annuity therefore exceeds the latter by 2~^ 17s. 2tl. What annuity during his life, ought a person aged 45 to receive in lieu of an annuity of 20/. certain for the term of 18 years ? The value of an annuity certain for 18 years, is by Table II. 11.689587, which multiplied by 20 gives 233.7917/. this sum divided by 11.105, the value of an annuity during a life of 45, by Table III. gives the answer of 21/. Is. U'hat annuity during his life, ought a person aged 40 to receive for 500/. The value of an annuity during a life of 40 years of age, is by Table III. 11.837, and 500f. divided by "this sum gives 42/. 4s. 9d. per annum ; but if the value of the life is taken, as in Table IV. (or 13.466), the sum to be received will be 37/. 2s. 7tl. For the values of annuities which are not to commence till after a certain peri- od, or after a given life or lives. See RE- \ I Us 1 0X8. Annuities are frequently granted by parishes, trusts, and public societies, for the purpose of raising money for the erec- tion or repair of churches, chapels, work- houses, bridges, or other expensive build- ings, it being often found practicable to obtain money in this way, when it could not be procured at the ordinary rate of interest; it has like\\ ise the recommenda- tion of gradually extinguishing the debt, which might otherwise often remain a permanent burthen. Life annuities are also frequently granted, for money bor- rowed l>\ persons possessing life estates, and who, there fore, cannot give the lender a permanent security. As such annuities depend on the life" of the grantor, few persons are disposed to purchase them, unless they can be obtained on such term-, as, after allowing for the cxpcns< suringthe grantor's life, K-a\. -s an in< me somewhat greater than the common nte of interest. It also frequently happ is that the annuities are not very punctuily paid, which, with other risks attcndiig them, causes annuities of this description always to sell considerably under tl.ir real value; and in some instances the tt- cessities of the borrowers have led il e n to make grants of this kind on the most exorbitant terms. To throw, however, some check upon improvident transac- tions of this kind, which are usually :ar- ried on with great privacy, the statute 17 Geo. III. c. 26, usually called the Ann ihy Act, has directed, that upon the sal- of any life annuity of more than the valu t" 101. (unless on a sufficient pledge of ls.nds in fee simple, w- stock in the public funds) the true consideration, which shall b- in money only, and the names of the parties, shall be set forth and described in the se- curity itself, in words at length; and a memorial of the date, the names of the parties, and of all the witnesses, and of the consideration money, shall, within twenty days after its execution, be enrol- led in the Court of Chancery, else the se- curity shall be null and void. All con- tracts for the purchase of annuities from persons under 21 years of age are utterly void, and incapable of confirmation after the party becomes of age. Procuring or soliciting a minor to grant any life annuity, or to promise or engage to ratify it whe':i he becomes of age, is an indictable mis- demeanor, and punishable by fine and im- prisonment ; as is likewise the taking more than ten shillings percent for procuring money to be advanced for any life annui- ty. This act does not extend to annuities granted by any body corporate, or under any authority or trust created by act of parliament. Notwithstanding these regulations, per- sons having occasion to raise monc\ by tin- grant of life annuities \\ere obliged to submit to the most disadvant:.. as it seldom happened that individn chasers would give tor such annuities more than eight years purchase, on lives above 30 years of age ; or 7 years pur- chase on lives above 40; while, on tin- other hand, persons desirous of investing money in an annuity on their own life nerally under tl: . of ac- cepting private security, or of waiting till an opportunity ottered of obtaining tin- security of some local toll or rat. these inconveniences, an act was A1SO ANS fussed in 179", authorising the Royal Ex- diange Assurance Company to grant and (iirrhuse annuities on lives, either imme- date or in i % eversion : the rates according to which transactions of tlu's kind are re- gulated necessarily vary, in proportion to tie current rate of interest at which mo- rt-v can be improved : a short specimen tkerefore of the present (1808) rates, at vi:idi the Royal Exchange Assurance grant life annuities, will be sufficient. percent. II *_, percent, per ann. I per ami. 5l.l&t.Qd.\\ 50 71. 16s. Od. 6 ! 55 8 6 6 2 > 60 9 4 6 6 65.. . 10 4 6 10 70. . . 11 8 16 75.. . 12 1S 7 6 80.. . 14 8 10 Age. 15. 30 . 25. 30. 35. 40. AS . Several other societies, as the Globe Insurance, the Albion, the Rock, and the Eagle Insurance Companies, have lately granted life annuities, but it is presumed they vary their grants according to cir- cumstances, as they none issue a printed table of their rates. ANOMALIES, in music, are those false scales or intervals, which exist necessari- ly in all keyed instruments, from their in- capacity of a true and perfect tempera- ment. ANOMALISTIC ALf/ear, in astronomy, the time that the earth takes to pass through her orbit : it is also called a peri- odical year. The space of time belonging to this year is greater than the tropical year, on account of the precession of the equinoxes. ANOMALOUS verbs, in grammar, such us are not conjugated conformably to the paradigm of their conjugation : they are found in all languages ; in Latin, the verb lego is the paradigm of the third conjuga- tion, and runs thus. /._<.<>, leg-is, legit; by the f-ame rule it should be, fero,feris,ferit,b\it we say,fero,fei-s t ft'rt fffr.-j then is an ano- malous verb. In English, the irregularity relates often to the preter tense and pas- sive participle ; for example, give, were it formed according to rule, would make giverl in the preter tense and passive par- ticiple ; whereas in the former, it makes gun', and in the latter ^mv/. ANOMALY, in grammar, that quality in words which renders them anomalous. See the preceding article. ANOMA..I-, in astronomy, an irregula- rity in the motion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the aphelion or apogee : which inequality is either mean, eccen- tric, or coequate and true. ANOMIA, in natural history, a genus of worms, of the order Testacea. Animal an einarginate ciliate strap-shaped body, with bristles affixed to the upper-valve ; two arms, linear, longer than the body, connivent, projecting, alternate on the valve, and ciliate each side, the fringe affixed to each valve ; shell bivalve, in- cquivalve ; one of the valves flattish, the other gibbous at the base, with a produc- ed beak, generally curved over the hinge ; one of 'the valves often perforated near the base ; hinge with a linear prominent cica- trix and a lateral tooth placed within, but in the flat valve on the very margin ; two bony rays for the base of the animal. There are nearly fifty species enumerated by Gmelin, found in different parts of the world. A ephippium has a shell, round- ish, pellucid, with wrinkled plaits ; the flat valve perforated. It inhabits European and American seas, and is frequently found sticking to the common oyster. About two inches long, 2$ broad; the outside rugged and filmy, the inside smooth and pearly : varies in colour, but generally with a silvery hue. ANONA, in botany, a genus of plants' belonging to the Polyandria Polygynia class of Linnaeus. The perianthium is composed of three cordated, hollowed, and acuminated leaves ; the corolla con- sists of six cordated sessile petals, three alternately interior and smaller; the sta- mina are scarce visible, but the anthers are numerous ; the fruit is a large berry, of an oval figure ; covered with a squa- mose punctuated bark ; the seeds are numerous, hard, of an oblong figure, and are placed circularly. ANSERES, in natural history, the third order of birds, according to the Linnaean system: they are distinguished by a smooth bill, covered with a soft skin and broader at the point; feet formed for swimming ; toes palmate, connected by a membrane ; shanks short, and compress- ed; body fat and downy; flesh mostly tough ; their food is fish, frogs, aquatic plants, worms, &c. They make their nests generally on the ground; the mo- ther takes but little care in providing for the young. They are frequently poly- gamous. They are divided into those genera having bills with, and those with- out, teeth : of the former are the Anas, Mergus, Phaeton, and Plotus. ANT ANT Of the latter are the Alea, Aptenodytes, Colymbus, Diomedea, Lams, Pelecanus, Procellaria, Prynchops, and Sterna. This order comprehends all kinds of wa- ter-fowl whose feet are palmated. The webbed feet of these birds are admirably adapted to aid them in swimming; and the greater quantity of oil secreted by the glands near the tail, and rubbed by means of their bills over all the feathers of their body, enables them to live on the water, without ever being wet. They live most- ly on fish, and some of them have been occasionally tamed to the catching offish for the use of their masters. In some of the lakes of China, where the water-fowl abound, the natives have the following in- genious mode of catching them : For se- veral days before they attempt to take them, many empty gourd-shells are set afloat on the water,, to habituate the birds to their appearance ; and when they are observed to take no notice of these shells, but to swim among them, a man, with one of the same kind upon his head, goes into the lake, and wades or swims among the birds with nothing but his head above the water. He now begins his sport, and taking the birds by their legs, draws them under water, breaks their necks, and fas- tens them to his girdle, one after another, till he is sufficiently loaded, and then re- turns to the shore. ANSWER, in law: On an indictment for perjury, in an answer in Chancery, it is a sufficient proof of identity, if the name subscribed be proved to be the hand-writ- ing of the defendant; and that the same was subscribed by the master, on being sworn before him. ANT. See FORMICA. ANTECEDENCE, in astronomy, an ap- parent motion of a planet towards the west, or contrary to the order of the signs, vis. from Taurus towards Aries, 8cc. ANTECEDENT, in grammar, the word to which a relative refers: thus, God whom we adore, the word God is the an- tecedent to the relative whom. ANTECEDENT term, in mathematics, the first one of any ratio : thus, if the ratio be a . b, a is the antecedent term. ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a spuri- ous or false date, prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the like. ANTELOPE, in natural history, of the Mammalia class of animals, of the order Glires. The generic character is, horns VOL. I hollow, seated on a bony core, growing upwards, annulated or wreathing, per- manent Front teeth in the lower jaw eight, and no canine teeth. Antelopes constitute a very numerous race : they were formerly, even by Linnaeus, ranged under tli,e genus Capra, but now have ob- tained a rank for themselves : their habits and manners are thus described. Their inhabit, two or three species excepted, the hottest parts of the globe ; or, at least, those parts of the temperate zone that lie so near the tropics as to form a doubtful climate. None, therefore, ex- cept the Saiga and the Chamois, are to be met with in Europe ; and notwithstanding the warmth of South America is suited to their nature, but one or two species has yet been discovered in the new world. Their proper climates seem, therefore, to be those of Asia and Africa, where the species are very numerous. " As there appears a general agreement in the nature of the species that form this great genus, it will prevent needless repetition to ob- serve, that the antelopes are animals ge- nerally of a most elegant and active make ; of a restless and timid disposition ; ex- tremely watchful, of great vivacity, re- markably swift and agile, and most of their bounding* so light and elastic, as to strike the spectator with astonishment. "What is very singular is, that they will stop in the midst of their course, gaze for a moment at their pursuers, and then re- sume their flight. As the chase of these animals is a favourite amusement with the eastern nations, from that may be collect- ed proofs of the rapid speed of the ante- lope tribe. The greyhound, the fleetest of dogs, is usually unequal in the course, and the sportsman is obliged to call in the aid of the falcon, trained for the pur- pose, to seize on the animal, and impede its motions, in order to give the dogs an opportunity of overtaking it. In India and Persia a species of leopard is made use of in the chase : this is an animal that takes its prey, not by swiftness of foot, but by the greatness of its springs, by motions similar to those of the antelope ; but, should the leopard fail in its first essay, the game escapes. The fleetness of the antelope was proverbial in the country it inhabited, even in the earliest times : the speed of Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 18.) is beauti- fully compared to that of the Tzebi ; and the Gadites were said to be as swift as the ante lopes upon the mountains. The sacred writers took their similies from such ob- jects as were before the eyes of the peo- ple to whom they addressed themselves. I i ANTELOPE. There is another instance drawn from the same subject : the disciple raised to life at Joppa was supposed to have been call- ed Tabitha, i. e. Dorcas, or the antelope, from the beauty of her eyes; and to this day one of the highest compliments that can be paid to female beauty, in the eastern regions, is JKne el Czazel, ' You have the eyes of an antelope.' Some species of an- telopes form herds of two or three thou- sands, while others keep in troops of five or six. They generally reside in hilly countries, though some inhabit plains : they often brouse like the goat, and feed on the tender shoots of trees, which gives their flesh an excellent flavour. This is to be understood of those which are taken in the chace ; for those which are fatten- ed in houses are far less delicious. The flesh of some species are said to taste of musk, which perhaps depends on the qualities of the plants they feed upon." This preface (says Mr. Pennant) was thought necessary, to point out the dif- ference in nature between this and the goat kind, with which most systematic writers have classed the antelopes : but the antelope forms an intermediate ge- nus, a link between the goat and the deer ; agreeing with the former in the texture of the horns, which have a core in them, and are never cast ; and with the latter in elegance of form and swiftness. The Common Antelope. The Ante- lope, properly so called, abounds in Bar- bary, and in all the northern parts of Afri- ca. It is somewhat less than the fallow- deer: its horns are about sixteen inches long, surrounded with prominent rings al- most to the top, where they are twelve inches distant from point to point. The horns of the antelope are remarkable for a beautiful double flexion, which gives them the appearance of the lyre of the ancients. The colour of the hair on the back is brown, mixed with red; the belly and inside of the thighs white ; and the tail short The Striped Antelope, is a beautiful, tall gazelle, inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope ; has long, slender shanks : its horns are smooth, twisted spirally, with a pro- minent edge or rib following the wreaths; they are three feet nine inches long, of a pale-brown colour, close at the base, and at the points round and sharp. The colour of this animal is a rusty brown ; along the ridge of the back there is a white stripe mixed with brown ; from this are eight or nine white stripes pointing down- wards ; the forehead and the fore part of the nose are brown ; a white stripe runs from the corner of each eye, and meets just above the nose; upon each cheek-bone there are two small white spots ; the in- ner edges t)f the ears are covered with white hair, and the upper part of the neck is adorned with a brown mane, an inch long ; beneath the neck, from the throat to the breast, are some long hairs hang- ing down ; the breast and belly are grey ; the tail is two feet long, brown above, white beneath, and black at the end. The Gnu, the Hottentot name for a sin- gular animal, which, with respect to its form, is between the horse and the ox. It is about the size of a common galloway, the length of it being somewhat above five feet, and the height rather more than four. This animal is of a dark brown co- lour : the tail and mane of a light grey ; the shag on the chin and breast, and the stiff hairs which stand erect on the fore- head and upper part of the face, are black; the curvature of the horns is singular ; and the animal is represented in the figure in the attitude of butting, to give an idea of their form and position. The legs of the gnu are small ; its hair is very fine ; and it has a cavity beneath each eye, like most of the antelope kind. The Chevrotain and Meminna. - The Chevrotain, or little Guinea Deer, is the smallest of all the antelope kind, the least of all cloven-footed quadrupeds, and, we may add, the most beautiful. Its legs at the smallest part are not much thicker than a tobacco-pipe ; it is not more than seven inches in height, and about twelve from the point of the nose to the insertion of the tail ; its ears are broad, and its horns, which are straight, and scarcely two inches long, are black and shining as jet ; the colour of the hair is a reddish brown ; in some a beautiful yellow, Very short and glossy. These elegant little creatures are natives of Senegal and the hottest parts of Africa ,- they are likewise found in India, and in many of the islands belonging to that vast continent. In Ceylon, there is an animal of this kind, called Meminna, which is not larger than a hare, but per- fectly resembling a fallow-deer. It is of a grey colour; the sides and haunches are spotted and barred with white ; its ears are long and open ; and its tail short. None of these small animals can subsist but in a warm climate. They are so ex- tremely delicate, that it is with the utmost difficulty they can be brought alive into Europe, where they soon perish. They are gentle, familiar, most beautifully form- ed, and their agility is such, that they will ANTELOPE. bound over a wall twelve feet high. In Guinea, they are called Guevei. The fe- male has no horns. The Springer Antelope, is an elegant species, weighs about fifty pounds, and is rather less than a roe-buck ; inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; called there the Spring bock, from the prodigious leaps it takes on the sjght of any body. When alarmed, it has the power of expanding the white space about the tail into the form of a circle, which returns to its li- near form when the animal is tranquil. They migrate annually from the interior parts in small herds, and continue in the neighbourhood of the Cape for two or three months ; then join companies and go off in troops, consisting of many thou- sands, covering the great plains for seve- ral hours in their passage : are attended in their migrations by numbers of lions, hyaenas and other wild beasts, which make great destruction among them : are excel- lent eating, and, with other antelopes are the venison of the Cape. Mr. Masson in- forms us, that they also make periodical migrations, in seven or eight years, in herds of many hundred thousands, from the north, as he supposes from the interi- or parts of Terra de Natal. They are com- pelled to it by the excessive drought which happens in that region, when sometimes there does not fall a drop of rain for two or three years. These animals, in their course, desolate Caffraria, spread- ing over the whole country, and not leav- ing a blade of grass. Lions attend them : where one of these beasts of prey are, the place is known by the vast void visible in the midst of the timorous herd. On its ap- proach to the Cape, it is observed that the avant guard is very fat, the centre less so, and the rear guard almost starved, being reduced to live on the roots of the plants devoured by those which went before ; but on their return they become the avant guard, and thrive in their turn on the re- newed vegetation ; while the former, now changed into the rear guard, are famish- ed, by being compelled to take up with the leavings of the others. These animals are quite fearless, when assembled in such mighty armies, nor can a man pass through, unless he compels them to give way with a whip or stick. When taken young, they are easily domesticated ; the males are very wanton, and are apt to butt at strangers with their horns. The expan- sile white part on the end of the back of this animal is a highly singular circum- stance. It is formed by a duplicature of the skin in that part, the inside and edges being milk-white ; when the animal is at rest, the edges alone appear, resembling a white stripe, but when alarmed, or in motion, the cavity, or white intermediate space, appears in form of a large oval patch of that colour. The Scythian Antelope, or Saiga,- which is the only one of the species ihat is to be found in Europe. The tonii of its body resembles the domestic goat, but its horns are those of an antelope, be- ing marked by very prominent rings, with furrows between ; they are a foot long, the ends smooth, of a pale yellow colour, almost transparent. The male is covered with rough hair, like the he-goat, and has a strong scent; the female is smoother, hornless, and timid. The gene- ral colour is a dirty white. When they are attacked by wolves or dogs, the males stand round the females, forming a circle, with their heads towards the enemy, in which posture they defend their charge. Their common pace is a trot ; when they go faster, it is by leaps ; and are swifter than roe-bucks. When they feed, they are obliged to go backward, owing to the length of the upper lip, which they lift up. Their skin is soft and excellent for gloves, belts, &c. They are found in flocks from six to ten thousand, on the banks of the Tanaisand Boristhenes. The young are easily tamed, and will readily return to their master when turned out on the desert. The Nilgau, or W r hite -footed Antelope, is a large and beautiful species, known only within the space of a few years past. Its height is four feet one inch to the top of the shoulders, and its length, from the bottom of the neck to the base of the tail* four feet. The colour of the nilgau is a fine dark grey, or slate-colour, with a large spot of white beneath the throat, and two white bands or marks above each foot : the ears are large, white within, and edged with the same colour, and marked int^r- nally by two black stripes ; along the top of the neck runs a slight mane of black hair, which is continued to some distance down the back, and on the breast is a much longer mane or hangHig tuft, of a similar colour; the tail is moderately long, and terminated by a tuft ofblnck hair : the horns are short, pointed, smooth, triangu- lar at their base, distant from each other, bent very slightly forwards, and of a blackish colour. The female resembles the male in general appearance, but is considerably smaller, of a pale brown co- lour, and is destitute of horns : the mane, pectoral tuft, and 1 ears, resemble those of the male, and the feet are marked above the hoofs by three transverse bars of black ANT ANT and two of white. The nilgau is a native of the interior parts of India. According' to Mr. Pennant, it abounded in the days of Aurengzebe between Belli and Lahor, on the way to Cashmire, and was called nylgau, or the blue or grey bull. It was one of the objects of the chace with that mighty monarch during his journey: they were inclosed by his army of hunters with- in nets, which, being drawn closer and closer, at length formed a small precinct, into which the king and his omrahs and hunters entered, and killed the nilgaus with arrows, spears, and muskets ; and that sometimes in such numbers, that Au- rengzebe used to send quarters as pre- sents to all his great people. The nylgau has of late years been often imported into Europe, and has bred in England. In confinement it is generally pretty gentle, but is sometimes seized with fits of sudden caprice, when it will attack with great violence the objects of its displeasure. When the males fight, they drop on their knees at some distance from each other, and gradually advance in that attitude, and at length make a spring at each other with their heads bent low. This action, however, is not peculiar to the nilgau, but is observed in many other of the antelope tribe. The nilgau is said to go with young about nine months, and to produce sometimes two at a birth : the young is of the colour of a fawn. Antelope Leucoryx, or White Antelope, is entirely milk-white, except the mark- ings on the face and limbs. It is an inha- bitant of an island in the Gulf of Bassora. See Plate Mammalia, fig. 1 6. ANTHEM, a church song performed in cathedral service by choristers, who sing alternately. It was formerly used to de- note both psalms and hymns, when sung in this manner. But at present, anthem is used in a more confined sense, being ap- plied to certain passages taken out of the scriptures, and adapted to a particular so- lemnity. ANTHEMIS, in botany, chamomile, a genus of the Syngenesia Superflua class and order. Receptacle chaffy ; seeds generally crowned with a slight border ; calyx hemispherical, nearly equal; florets of the ray more than five, oblong. There are two divisions of this genus, namely, A. with a differently colon red or white ray ; and B. ray the colour of the disk, or yel- low : there are about forty species. ANTHERS, among botanists, denote the little roundish or oblong bodies, on the tops of the stamina of plants. The anthers is the principal part of the male organ of generation in plants, an- swering the glans penis in animals. It is tumid and hollow, containing a fine pow- der, called farina foecundans. ANTHER1CUM, in botany, a genus of plants of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order. Cor. six-petalled, spreading, permanent ; filaments uniform ; capsule superior, seeds angular. There are three divisions. A. leaves channelled; filaments mostly beardless : B. leaves fleshy ; fila- ments bearded : C. stamina dilated in the middle ; root bulbous. There are be- tween 50 and 60 species. ANTHERYLIUM, a genus of the Ico- sandria Monogynia class and order. Ca- lyx inferior, four-parted; petals four; capsule one-celled, three-valved, many- seeded. There is but a single species, a tree. found at St. Thomas's Island. ANTHISTERIA, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class and order. Hermaphrodite ; florets sessile, male flo- rets pedicelled ; calyx four-valved, three or four flowered, coriaceous; corol. glume two-valved, awnless ; filaments three ; styles two; stigmata clavate ; seed one. There is but a single species. ANTHOCEROS, a genus of the Cryp- togamia Hepaticae. Male ; six parted or entire ; antherae three to eight, obovate, in the bottom of the calyx. Female ; ca- lyx sessile, cylindrical and entire. There are four species. ANTHOLOMA, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Monogynia class and or- der. Calyx two to four-leaved ; cor. cup- shaped; many seeded. There is but a sin- gle species, a shrub found in Caledonia. ANTHOLYZA, in botany, a genus of the Triandria Monogynia class and order. Corol. tubular, six-cleft, unequal, recurv- ed ; capsule inferior. There are six spe- cies, all found at the Cape. ANTHOSPERMUM, in botany, the amber-tree, a genus of plants belonging to the Tetrandnaclass and order. It is male and female, in different plants, and some are hermaphrodites. The androgynous flower is of one leaf, with two pistils and four stamina, with the germen below the flower. The male flowers are the same with these, wanting only the pistils and germen. The female flowers have the pistils and germen, but want the stamina. There are three species. ANTHOXANTHUM, in botany, a ge- nus of the Dyandria Digynia class and or- der. Gen. char, calyx, glume two-valved, one flowered ; corol. glume two-valved, pointed, awned; seed one. There are four species. ANTHRfiNUS, in natural history, a ANT AM genus of insects of the order Coleoptcra. Essen, char, antennx clavate, the club so- lid ; feelers unequal, filiform ; jaws niem- faranaceous, linear, bifid ; lip entire ; head hidden under the thorax. There are 13 species, of which the muscoreum is very destructive to collections of preserved animals, insects, &c. ANTHROPOMORPHA, in the Linnac- an system of zoology, a class of animals, resembling in some degree the human form ; the distinguishing characteristic of which is, that all the animals comprehend- ed in it have four fore teeth in each jaw, and the teats are situated on the breast. Besides the human species, which stands at the head of this class, it likewise com- prehends the monkey and sloth kinds. ANTHYLLIS, the bladder lotus, in bo- tany, a genus of the Diadelphia Decan- dria class of plants, the corolla whereof is papilionaceous ; the fruit is a small roundish legume, composed of two valves, and containing one or two seeds. This genus is separated into the A. herbace- ous, and B. shrubby ; there are of the for- mer 12 species, of the latter nine. ANTICHORUS, in botany, a genus of the Octandria Monogynia class and order. Calyx four-leaved ; petals four ; capsule superior, subulate, four-celled, four-valv- ed; seeds numerous. There is only one species, found in Arabia. ANTIDESMA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Pentandria class of plants, the calyx of which is a perianthium, consist- ing of five oblong, concave leaves ; there is no corolla ; the fruit is a cylindric ber- ry, containing one cell, in which is lodg- ed a single seed. There are three spe- cies, found in the East Indies and China. ANTIMONY, in mineralogy, one of the metals that is brittle and easily fused. No metal has attracted so much of the atten- tion of physicians as antimony. One par- ty has extolled it as an infallible specific for every disease : while another decried it as a most virulent poison, which ought to be expunged from the list of medicines. Antimony, as it occurs under that name in the shops, is a natural compound of the metal with sulphur. To obtain it in a metallic state, the native sulphuret is to be mixed with two-thirds its weight of acidulous tartrite of potash, (in the state of crude tartar,) and one-third of nitrate of potash deprived of its water of crystal- lization. The mixture must be projected, by spoonfuls, into a red-hot crucible ; and the detonated mass poured into an iron mould greased with a little fat. The anti- mony, on account of its specific gravity, will be found at the bottom, adhering to the scoriz, from which it may be separated by the hammer. Or three parts of the sulphuret may be fused in a covered cru- cible, with one of iron filings. The sul- phur quits the antimony, and combines with the iron. Antimony in its metallic etate .(sometimes called reguhis of anti- mony) is of a silvery white colour, very brittle, and of a plated or scaly texture. It is fused by a moderate heat ; and crys- tallizes, on cooling, in the form of pyra- mids. In close vessels it may be vola- tilized, and collected unchanged. It un- dergoes little change when exposed to the atmosphere at its ordinary temperature j but when fused, with the access of air, it emits white fumes, consisting of an oxide of the metal. This oxide had for- merly the name of flowers of antimony. Antimony combines with phosphorus and sulphur. With the latter, an artificial sulphuret is formed, exactly resembling the native compound, which last may be employed, on account of its cheapness, for exhibiting the properties of this com- bination of antimony. Antimony is dis- solved by most of the acids. Sulphuric acid is decomposed, sulphurous acid be- ing disengaged, and an oxide formed, of which a small proportion only is dis- solved by the remaining acid. Nitric acid dissolves this metal with great vehe- mence ; muriatic acid acts on it by long digestion ; but the most convenient sol- vent is the nitro-muriatic acid, which, with the aid of heat, dissolves it from the native sulphuret. With oxygenized, muriatic acid, it forms a compound of a thick consistence, formerly called butter of antimony. This may be formed by exposing black sulphuret of antimony to the fumes of oxygenized muriatic acid, and subsequent distillation ; or by distill- ing the powdered rcgulus with twice its weight of corrosive muriate of mercury. The metal becomes highly oxydized, and unites with muriatic acid in its simple state. On pouring this compound into water, a white oxide falls down, called powder of algaroth. Antimony is sus- ceptible of various states of oxydizement. The first oxide may be obtained by wash- ing algaroth powder with a little caustic potash. It is composed of 1SJ oxygen, and 81$ metal. That formed by tin- ac- tion of nitric acid on antimony contains 77 metal, and 23 oxygen. See ORES, anatvsis of. ANTIXOMIANS, in church history, a sect of Christians, who reject the moral law as a mJe of conduct to believers, ANT ANT disown personal and progressive sancti- fication, and hold it to be inconsistent for a believer to pray for the forgiveness of sins. Although these principles will, by some, be thought to lead to mischievous consequences and practice, yet there are, unquestionably, worthy men and virtuous Christians, who avow Antinomian tenets. To the young, the giddy, and the thought- less, such sentiments might, if acted upon, be the source of much evil ; but these, like the doctrine of necessity, are rarely believed, but by persons who have alrea- dy attained to virtuous habits. ANTIPATHES, in natural history, a genus of worms of the order Zoophyta. An animal growing in the form of a plant : stem expanded at the base, internally horny, beset with small spines, externally covered with a gelatinous flesh, beset with numerous polype-bearing tubercles. There are 13 species. A. spiralis inha- bits the Indian, Mediterranean, and North seas ; of a hard, horny, black substance, exceeedingly brittle, very long, and va- riously twisted, about the size of a writ- ing pen A alopecuroides, with spinous setaceous closely panicled branches ; in- habits South Carolina ; about two feet high, and rises from a broad spread base, dividing into several large branches, flat on one side, with a groove along the mid- dle; it then subdivides into smaller branches, forming close panicles, not un- like the fox-tail grass : the outside grey- ish, the inside black, and very brittle. ANTIPODES, in geography, a. name given to those inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically opposite to one another. They lie under opposite parallels, and opposite meridians. They have the same elevation of their different poles. It is mid-night with the one, when it is noon- day with the other; the longest day with one is the shortest with the other; and the length of the day with the one is equal to the night of the other. See GLOBES, nse of. ANTIQUARY, a person who studies and searches after monuments and re- mains of antiquity. There were formerly, in the chief cities of Greece and Italy, persons of distinc- tion, called antiquaries, who made it their business to explain the ancient inscrip- tions, and give every other assistance in their power to strangers, who were lovers of that kind of learning. Foundations of this kind have existed in England. Sir H. Spelman speaks of a society of anti- quaries in his time, which had been insti- tuted in 1572, by Archbishop Parker, Camden, Sir Robert Cotton, Stowe, and others. Application was made in 1589 to Queen Elizabeth for a charter, and house, in which they might hold their meetings, erect a library, &c. But the death of the sovereign put an end to the design. In 17 17, this society was revived again, and has continued without inter- ruption ; and at present, it is in a very flourishing state, consiting of learned men in every rank of life. The society was incorporated in 1751, and began to publish an account of its discoveries in 1770, under the title of " Archxologia :" fifteen volumes in quarto are already pub- lished. ANTIQUITIES, a term implying all testimonies, or authentic accounts, that have come down to us of ancient nations. According to Lord Bacon, antiquities may be considered as the wrecks of history, or such particulars as industrious and learn- ed persons have collected from genealo- gies, inscriptions, monuments, coins, names, etymologies, archives, instru- ments, fragments of history, &c. : in this sense the study of antiquities leads us to inquire into the origin and early epochas of every nation and people, whether an- cient or modern. Hence the study of an- tiquities, as a science, has become, in al- most every civilized country, an interest- ing pursuit to men of leisure and curiosi- ty. By many persons it has been sufficient to investigate the ancient remains of Greece and Rome ; but others, who have taken a more enlarged, and, what we deem, a more proper view of the subject, include in the science the antiquities of the Jews, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Cartha- ginians, and, in short, all those principal nations mentioned in ancient history. Our view of the subject must necessarily be contracted, and the most we can aim at is, to excite a laudable curiosity in the young, and to direct them to objects that may engage their attention, and to the authors most likely to furnish information under the several heads of inquiry and research. This study has for its chief objects the ceremonies, customs, and usages, which obtained in ancient times, either with re- gard to persons, places, or things. Writ- ers have accordingly divided antiquities into civil and ecclesiastisal ; including under the former head whatever relates to political, military, literary, and domes- tic concerns; and under the latter, the subjects connected with religion, as the worship, discipline, and faith of ancient times andj>eople. Christians have usually ANTIQUITIES. separated their antiquities into those which relate to the ancient state of the Christian church; and into whatever be- longs to the ancient laws, ceremonies, events, &c. that occur in the scriptures. These, indeed, form a branch of ecclesi- astical antiquities, and bear a near rela- tion to the Jewish antiquities, concerning 1 which we have many respectable authori- ties. There are persons who would de- duce most of the heathen antiquities from the manners and customs described in the Bible ; while others, as Spencer, take the opposite course, and deduce the antiqui- ties of the Bible from those of heathenism. Perhaps a middle course would be nearer the truth, as it is absolutely necessary, in interpreting scripture, to attend to the heathen antiquities alluded to in them ; and these not only such as are directly aimed at or approved, but also such as are purposely opposed. National antiquities are those employed in tracing the origin, ancient actions, usages, monuments, re- mains, &c. of some nation or people : and it may be observed, that almost every na- tion lays claim to a greater degree of an- tiquity than the rest of its neighbours. The Scythians, the Phrygians, the Chal- deans, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, &c. pretend each to have the honour of being the first inhabitants of the earth : several of these nations, lest they should be sur- passed in their pretensions by any of the rest, have traced up their origin to ages long before the received account of the creation. Hence the appellations, ''abori- gines," " indigena," " temtgenar," " ante- lunares," &c. The history and antiquities of nations and societies have been objects of inquiry: inasmuch as they enable the mind to se- parate truth from falsehood, and tradition from evidence ; to establish what had pro- bability for its basis, or to explode what rested only on the vanity of the inventors and propagators : of this we have a strik- ing instance in the Chaldeans, who pre- tend to astronomical observations of nearly 500,000 years. They mention the king who reigned over them at the time of the deluge, and attribute to him several things which we ascribe to Noah. The Chaldaic antiquities of Berosus are, however, lost, except a few fragments, which have been collected by Joseph Scaliger and Fabri- cius. To supply the chasm. A'miiis Viter- bo, a Dominican monk, towards the close of the 15th century, forgo d the work of Berosus, which he puhl'.shi'd at Rome in 14'.'8. He went further, and produced a supplement to Berosus; supposed to have been written by Manetho, containing de- tails of what happened from the time of JEgyptus, king bf Egypt, to the origin of the Roman state. Unfortunately for the credit of the industrious monk, Manotho lived before Berosus, by which the fraud was detected. The first traces of every history were rude and imperfect, which renders the office of the antiquarian of the utmost im- portance to the faithful and diligent histo- rian. Better methods of preserving facts succeeded. The unchsiseled stone, or the rudest hieroglyphic, accompanied the songs of the bards, to perpetuate the achievements of a whole nation, or a few individuals ; till the use of letters, and the complicated transactions, claims, and in- terests of men, taught them to multiply memorials, and draw them up with more skill and accuracy. The history contained in the Old Tes- tament is unquestionably the most ancient well-authenticated collection of facts, that has come down to the present times. These records go much beyond the flood, the boundary to the annals of every other nation that Jays a just claim to credit. The Jews, who are closely connected with this part of history, trace back their an- cestry to the common parents of the hu- man race. The antiquities of this won- derful nation have been treated of by nu- merous writers, whose works are monu ments of great learning and indefatigable industry; and it will be admitted, that the fate of a people scattered over the globe, who have been subject to persecu- tions, more or less severe, for so many centuries, who have never amalgamated, if we may so speak, with any other nation underheaven, but have remained distinct, for wise and important ends, cannot but interest the curious inquirer. The history of their origin, ordinances, and vicissi- tudes, previously to the Christian atra, is to be had in the Old Testament .- their subsequent ruin and dispersion are pre- dicted by Christ in the New Testament, and treated of at large by Josephus, who flourished at Rome under Vespasian, Ti- tus, and Domitian, and who published his great work on the Jewish Antiquities during the life and reign of the latter. On the same subject we have a multitude of more modern writers, from Ugolinus* Thesaurus, consisting of more than thir- ty volumes folio, and comprising all the best works written previously to the mid- dle of the last century, to the octavos Dr. Jennings evidently intended as a mere in- troduction to the subject. The antiquities ANTIQUITIES. of the Jews are supposed to be connected with those of Egypt, since Moses, their great lawgiver, was educated in the schools of Egyptian learning, and was deeply conversant in all their sciences. Many of the metaphors and other allu- sions, found in the first five books of the Bible, are supposed to have some refer- ence to the symbols of the Egyptian priests. If we were, therefore, able to come at a faithful account of the antiqui- ties of Egypt, we might hope to attain an illustration of many things which are still obscure and dark, b elonging to the Jewish economy, both civil and sacred. Of Egypt, alas ! once renowned for its laws, the commerce of her cities, the grandeur of her buildings, and the fertility of territo- ry, little is left to gratify the laudable curiosity of moderns. Those who have spent much time and labour, in appreci- atingthe worth and merits of the ancients, admit that the earliest nations of the world were fed with the produce of Egyp- tian soil, and enriched with the wealth and wisdom obtained in that portion of Africa. Upper Egypt furnished the mate- rials of marble and porphyry, with which the most supendous works of art were reared : and to Hermes Trismegistus, or, as he is sometimes called, Thoth, are ascribed, among the Egyptians, the inven- tions of chief use in human life. Their priests maintained, that from their hiero- glyphic characters upon the pillars which he erected, and the sacred books, all the philosophy and learning of the world has been derived. Egypt seems itself to have been indebt- ed for its original population to the northern parts of Arabia and Syria, the Egyptians and Abyssinians having been always wholly distinct from the native na- tions of Africa. The Copts, or original inhabitants, it has been observed by tra- vellers, have no resemblance whatever of the negro features or form ; but a strong likeness may be traced between the make of the visage in the modern Copts, and that presented in the ancient mummies, paintings, and statues. Their complexion, like that of the Arabs, is of a dusky brown. It is represented of the same co- lour in the paintings which may be seen in the tombs of Thebes. The chief anti- quities are, the pyramids, and the tombs near Thebes, recently disclosed, with ma- ny ruins of temples, and other remains of ancient cities. Dr. White, in the " Egyp- tiaca," a work which contains much valu- able information on the subject, says, the celebrated column ascribed to Pompey ornamented a space opposite the temple of Serapis, in which was a great public library. Besides the ancient remains al- ready noticed, we may mention the co- lossal sphynx ; Cleopatra's needle ; the marble' Sarcophagus, reputed to be Alex- ander's tomb ; and the triple inscription from Rosetta, in the hieroglyphic, the ver- nacular Egyptian, and the Greek charac- ters. The writers on Egyptian antiquities are very numerous. Among the ancients may be noted, Herodotus, Pausanias, Stra- bo, Diodorus Siculus, and Plutarch. He- rodotus, Thales, and Pythagoras, were initiated into all the mysteries of the Egyptian priests. The mythology of the country is fully explained in Joblonski's " Pantheon Egyptiacum." On the Egypt of modern times we hare the works of Pocock, Niebuhr, Sonnini, and Denon, which may be consulted with advantage. Greaves and Nordon have written on tn^ pyramids, and the mummies are described by the celebrated Kircher. The illustration of the antiquities of In- dia is more difficult, but discoveries are still making in that vast extent of coun- try. To that great patriot, philosopher, and legislator, Sir William Jones, we are greatly indebted for much valuable infor- mation on this subject. Mr. Halhed, in- deed, in 1776, gave the first specimen which appeared of the early wisdom of the Indians, and their extensive skill in jurisprudence. In the year 1785, the Bhagvat Geeta was edited by Mr. Wilkins, The theological and metaphysical doc- trines of this work were represented to be of the profbundest kind, and it was said to contain all the grand mysteries of the Hindoo religion, and laid claim to the an- tiquity of 4000 years. Other works of high reputation have succeeded ; among these are the " Indian Antiquities," by Maurice, which have, in a great measure, cleared the ground for the student, and given him a sort of clue for farther inves- tigations. By his labours, the ancient ge- ographical divisions of India, according 1 to the classical writers of Greece and Rome, and of Hindostan, according to the Hin- doos themselves, are reconciled ; the ana- logies of the Brahmanic with other sys. terns of theology considered, and the grand code of civil laws, the original form of government, and the literature of Hin- dostan, are compared with the laws, go- vernment, and literature of Persia, Egypt, and Greece. From Sir William Jones's papers, published in the several volumes of the " Asiatic Researches," much solid information on Indian antiquities may be ANTIQUITIES. had in a short compass. By that great man, whose loss cannot be sufficiently lamented, a society was formed for in- quiring into the history, antiquities, arts, sciences, and literature of Asia. Having founded the institution, he gave it celebri- ty by his own admirable discourses ; of these the first was on the orthography of Asiatic words in Roman letters, a want of attention to which had occasioned much confusion in history and geography. Not contented with pointing out radical de- fects, he proposed a system, which was useful to the learned, and essential to the progress of the student. His other dis- sertations, to which the reader may be referred, were all, in a greater or less de- gree, connected with the antiquities of India. By India is meant the whole ex- tent of country in which the primitive re- ligion and language of the Hindoos pre- vail at this day, and in which the Naeguri letters are still used, with more or less deviation from their original form. Its inhabitants have no resemblance, either in their figure or manners, to any of the na- tions contiguous to them. Their sources of wealth are still abundant. In their ma- nufactures of cotton they surpass the other nations of the world ; and though now degenerate and abased,therc remains enough to show, that in some early age they were well versed in arts and arms, happy in government, wise in legisla- tion, and eminent in various branches of knowledge. In this place we may briefly notice the Sanscrit language, which, whatever may be its antiquity, is of a very singular struc- ture ; more perfectthan the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more refined than either, yet bearing to both a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs, and in the forms of grammar, than could possi- bly have been produced by accident Of their philosophy it has been observed, that in the more retired scenes, in groves, and in seminaries of learning, we may perceive the Brahman sand the Sarmanas of Clemans disputing in the forms of lo- gic, or discoursing on the vanity of human enjoyments, on the immortality of the soul, her'cmanation from the eternal mind, her debasement, wanderings, and final union with her source. The ancient monuments of Hindost:m are very numerous, and of various descrip- tions, exclusive of the tombs and other edifices of the Mahometan conquerors. Some of the most remarkable are, excava- ted temples, statues, relievos, &c. in an island near Bombay ; but the most mag- VOL. I nificentand extensive are near the town of" Ellora, about two hundred miles east of Bombay. The latter are minutely describ- ed, and illustrated wkh plates, in the sixth volume of the Asiatic Researches. The idols represented seem clearly to belong to the present mythology- of Hindostan : but at what period these edifices were modelled,whetherthree hundred or three thousand years ago, cannot be easily as- certained. Several ancient grants of land, some coins, and seals, have also been found, which, however, do not greatly correspond with the exaggerated ideas entertained concerning the early civiliza- tion of this renowned country; while the Egyptain pyramids, temples, and obelisks, strongly confirm the accounts preserved by ancient historians. 1'hough the my- thology of the Hindoos may pretend to great antiquity, yet their present form of religion is supposed to vary considerably from the ancient. It is inferred, that while the religion of Boodha, still retained by the Birmans and other adjacent na- tions, was the real ancient system of Hin- dostan, the religion of the Hindoos is art- fully interwoven with the common offices of life ; and the different casts are sup- posed to originate from Brahma, the im- mediate agent of creation, under the Su- preme Power. The remains of architecture and sculp- ture seem to prove an early connection between India and Africa. Of the ancient arts and manufactures little is known, excepting the labours of the Indian loom and needle. The Hindoos are said to have boasted of three inventions, viz the method of instruction by " apologues," " the decimal scale," and " the game of chess " Of the antiquities of Greece and Rome much has been written that merits the attention of the student in literature : these are subjects, in which every well educated youth is made conversant at an early period. They are taught in all our classical schools, as necessary to the elu- cidation of those works that are read in the attainment of the ancient languages. Potter on the Greek antiquities, and Ken- nct and Adams on those of Roman, are familiar to every ear; in their kind they are truly respectable, though they may be regarded only as elementary treatises.cal- culatrd nitlicr to excite a taste for the study, than to satisfy the inquirer in pur. suit of knowledge. The first accounts of Greece are derived from ages long before the common use of letters in the countrv. so that it is difficult Kk ANTIQUITIES. to distinguish where table concludes, and real history begins. From the Phoenician and Egyptian colonies, the Greeks first received the culture of humanity. By the Phoenicians, they were instructed in trade, navigation, and the use of letters ; and by the Egyptians in civil wisdom, the politer sciences, and religious mysteries. The antiquities of such a country, which became in after ages so illustrious in the annals of mankind, cannot fail to have ex- cited a considerable degree of interest in every age : they have accordingly been carefully and minutely investigated, by writers celebrated alike fortheirerudition and industry. Ofthese we can enumerate but a small portion, in comparison of the many that have treated on the subject. Bishop Potter, to whom we have already referred, Bos, and others, have drawn up systems or abridgments of the whole, or at least of whateverrelates to the religion, the gods, the vows, and the temples of Greece : on the public weal and magis- tracy, Stephanus and Van Dale are well worthy of notice : on the laws and punish- ments of Greece, we have Meursiusand Petit : on military concerns, Arrian and .Titian are well known : on their gymnas- tic art, and exercises, Joubert and Faber may be mentioned on the theatres and scenic exhibitions, Scaliger and the abbe Barthelemy have written : besides these, we have many writers on their entertain- ments, on their marriages, the education of their children, and their funeral cere- monies. The best relics, which display the former splendour oftheGrecian states, have been preserved by Stuart in his Athens : in the Ionian Antiquities, and in the Voyage Pittoresque de la Greece. The finest specimens of its sculpture, in this country, are to be found among the Townly marbles : and of its coinage, in the cabinet of Dr. Hunter. It may be worthy of notice, in connec- tion with the antiquities of Greece, that the ancient monuments of European Tur- key now exceed in number and impor- tance those of any other country. The remains of ancient Athens, in particular, formerly the chosen seat of the arts, have attracted the attention of many travellers, and have accordingly been frequently de- scribed with accuracy and taste. The church dedicated to the Divine Wisdom, usually denominated in the page of histo- ry Sancta Sophia, is a venerable monu- ment of antiquity, and has been preserved from the sixth century, when it was built by Justinian,' to the present period. The architecture is very inferior to that of the classical period, yet, by those who have witnessed it, we are told the effect is> grand and impressive, and the cupola is admired as a bold and skilful effort ot the art, while the seeming weight is di- minished by the lightness of the materials, being bricks formed of a particular clay that will float in the water. The interior is adorned with columns of various and very beautiful descriptions, viz. the Phry- gian purple, the Spartan green, the red and white Canan, and many others. To this may be added, that the French have recently discovered the remains of an ancient sea-port belonging to Sparta, near a promontory which projects from the south of the Morea, and we are informed that the antiquities of that part, now styl- ed Albania, still present an extensive field of research to the student in this depart- ment of science. " Nothing," says Dr. Adams, in thejpre- face to his Roman Antiquities, " has more engaged the attentionof literary men,than to trace from ancient monuments the in- stitutions and laws, the religion, the man- ners and customs of the Romans, under the general name of Roman Antiquities. This branch of knowledge," continues he, " is not only curious in itself, but abso- lutelynecessaryforthe understanding the classics, and for reading with advantage the history of that celebrated people. It is particularly necessary for such as prose- cute the study of the civil law. Scarcely on any subject havemore books been writ- ten, and many of them by persons of dis- tinguished abilities." We may, as a guide to the student, enumerate the writersfrom whom Dr. Adams chiefly compiled his own work, as these will be the best au- thorities for those persons who would en- ter deeply into the study. To Manutius, Brissonius, and Middleton, he was indebt- ed for his facts relating to the business of the senate : to Pignorius, on slaves : to Lidonius and Grucchius, Manutius, Huber, Gravina, Murula, Heineccius, for what re- lates to the assemblies of the people, the rights of citizens, the laws and judicial proceedings : with respect to the duties and privileges of magistrates, the art of war, the shows of the circus, and the feats of gladiators, he had recourse toLipsius: to ShefFer he applied for information on naval affairs, and carriages : to Ker- mannus, on funerals : to Arbuthnot, on coins : to Donatus, on the city : to Tur- nebus, Salmasius, Graevius, Gronovius, Montfaucon, Gesner, and others, upon different subjects scattered through his work. To these maybe added one of the ANTIQUITIES. oldest authors on the subject, vis. Diony- >ius Halicarnassus, who traced the origin of the Romans, with great fidelity, back to the remotest ages. His accounts are generally preferred to those of Livy, be- cause they are more ample, and his facts are described with more particulars; and on the ceremonies, worship, sacrifices, manners, customs, discipline, policy, courts, laws, &c. he is perhaps the most authentic writer. These, and other authors that might be cited, have chiefly confined their account to Rome, properly so called ; we might di- gress, and notice the antiquities of those states, both in Europe and other parts of the globe, which were held under the do- minion of the Roman power ; but this would lead us into a very wide field: we shall, however, in the connection, notice those belonging to Spain, which was 500 years under the Roman power. Spain was originally peopled by the Africans and German Gauls : it then be- came the prey of the Carthagenians : to these succeeded the Romans. It was af- terwards held successively in subjection by the Vandals, the Visigoths, and the Arabs or Moors. Of the first of these epochs few remains exist, excepting some tumuli, and other rude monuments. Nor are there any cer- tain relics of the Carthagenians in Spain but coins, which have been found in con- siderable numbers. The Roman antiqui- ties are numerous, of which, however, we shall notice but few. The aqueduct at Se- govia is a noble edifice, consisting of 159 arches, extending about 740 yards, and is rather more than 94 feet in height where it crosses the valley. Morviedo, the an- cient Saguntum, and Tarragona, the an- cient Tarraco, afford many curious re- mains of antiquity. The theatre is capa- ble of receiving 10,000 people, and is hewn out of a solid rock, the labour of which was less than might at first be ex- pected, as the Spanish rocks are general- ly calcareous, or of gypsum. The Visi- goth kings have left few relics except their coins, which are struck in gold, a metal at that period unknown to the other European mints. Numerous and splendid are the monuments of the Moors in Spain. The mosque at Cordova is one of the chief; this surprizes travellers with the multitude of its columns, which are said to be 800." The Christian antiquities here, as in other places, are, churches, castles, and monasteries. The antiquities of Portugal consist also chiefly of Roman monuments, with some Moorish remains. In the north is an ex- tensive series of arches, formerly a Roman aqueduct. At Evora are well-preserved ruins of a temple of Diana, and an aque- duct ascribed to Quintus Sertorius, whose life was written by Plutarch. Among the antiquities of the middle ages may be no- ted the monastery of Batalha, in Kstrema- dura, 60 miles north of Lisbon, which is allowed on all hands to be one of the no- blest monuments of what is called the Gothic style of architecture. English antiquities fall into the follow- ing divisions, viz. those belonging to the primitive Celtic inhabitants ; those of the Belgic colonies ; those of the Romans ; those of the Saxons ; reliques of the Danes; and, lastly, Norman monuments. Few of these remains are thoughtto throw much light upon the history of the coun- try ; but, being interesting and curious in, themselves, they may, in this article, which is intended as a guide to the study, be briefly noticed. A radical mistake, ac- cording to Mr. Pinkerton, in the study of English antiquities, has arisen from the confusion of the Celtic and Belgic lan- guages and monuments. The Druids have deservedly attracted much curiosity and research ; but it would be erroneous to impute to them, as is usual, the whole of our earliest remains. Caesar speaks of Druidism as a recent institution; and if that be the case, it is not improbable that it originated from the Phoenician factories, established in wooden fortresses, the usual practice of commercial nations when tra- ding with savage or barbarous people. The tenets correspond with what little exists of Phoenician mythology, and the missionaries of that refined people might have some zeal in their diffusion. Ancient authors, who give us all our information concerning the Druids, minutely describe their religious rights, but are totally silent concerning any monuments of stone being used among them. On the contrary, they mention gloomy groves and spreading oaks as the only scenes of the Druuliccerc- monies ; nevertheless, antiquaries have in- ferred that Stonehenge is a Drui die monu- ment, though it be situated in an exten- sive plain, where not a vestige of wood appears, and where the very soil is re- puted to be adverse to its vegetation. It would be a vain effort to attempt to dis- criminate the remains of the earliest in- habitants from those of the Druidic pe- riod, and if the opinion of the last-men- tioned author is to be regarded as binding, there is no foundation for any sound or real knowledge on the subject The fol- lowing have been.erteemed as the numu- ANTIQUITIES. merits of the Druids : 1. Single stones erect 2. Hock idols and pierced stones. 3. Rocking-stones, used as ordeals. 4. Sepulchres of two, three, or more stones. 5. Circular temples, or rather circles of erect stones. 6 Barrows, or tumuli. 7. Cromlechs, or heaps of stones. 8. Rock- basins, imagined to have been used in Dnu'dic expiations. 9. Qaves, used as places of retreat in time of war. But as most of these relics may also be found in Germany and Scandinavia, it is difficult to say whether they are Gothic or Celtic ; and as the Germans had no Druids, we cannot, with any degree of certainty, be- stow the name of Druidic upon such monuments. It is highly probable, that the earliest inhabitants, as is ever the prac- tice in the infancy of society, made use of vood, not of stone, in their religious as well as in their domestic erections. If we survey the various savage regions of the globe, we shall seldom, if ever, perceive the use of stone ; and it is certainly just to infer, that the savages of the west were not more skilful than those of the east, nor those of the old continents and islands than those of the new. But as many of these monuments are found in Germany, Scandinavia and Iceland, and as the Ice- landic writers in particular often indicate their origin and use, which are unknown in the Celtic records, there is every rea- son to attribute them to a more advanced stage of society, when the Belgic colonies introduced agriculture, and a little further progress in the rude arts of barbarism. The nature of this work will not admit a formal investigation of such topics, but a few remarks may be offered on Stone- henge, a stupendous monument of barba- ric industry'. Inigo Jones, in attempting to prove that it is Roman, only evinces that no talents can avail when science is wanting, and that antiquities require a se- vere and peculiar train ofstudy. Doctor Stukely, a visionary writer, assigns Stone- henge to the Druids ; while Dr. Charlton, perceiving that such monuments are found in Denmark, ascribed it to the Danes. If the latter had considered, that the Belgae were a Gothic nation, of similar language and institutions, he might with more jus- tice have extended his antiquity. From the Icelandic writers we learn, that such circles were called domh-riner, that is lite- rally doom-ring, or circle of judgment,be- ing the solemn places where courts were held, of all kinds and dignities, from the national council down to the baronial court, or that of a common proprietor of land, for adjusting disputes between his viilani and slaves. The magnificence of Stonehenge loudly pronounces that it was the supreme court of the nation, equiva- lent to the Champs de Mars et de Mai of the Franks, where the king and chiefs as- sembled in the circle, and the men capa- ble of arms in the open plain ; nor is it improbable that the chiefs ascended the transverse stones, and declared their re- solves to the surrounding crowd, who, in the description of Tacitus, dissented by loud murmurs, or applauded by clashing their shields. This idea receives confir- mation from the circumstance, that the Belgac, peculiarly so called, as being the chief and ruling colony of that people, were seated in the surrounding province, and Sorbiodunum, now Old Sarum, was their capital city. Similar circles of stone, but far inferior in size, are found in many parts of Great Britain and Ireland, and several undoubtedly as late as the Danish inroads and usurpations, the practice being continued by that people at least till their conversion to Christianity, in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Some of the smallest, as we learn from the northern antiquaries, were merely places of family sepulture. At a later period, the circles of judgment, which had been polluted with human sa- crifices and other Pagan rites, were aban- doned, and the great courts were held on what were called moot-hills, or hills of meeting, many of which still exist in the British dominions and in the Netherlands. They commonly consist of a central emi- nence, on which sat the judge and his assistants ; beneath was an elevated plat- form fqr the parties, their friends and con- purgators, who sometimes amounted to a hundred or moi'e ; and this platform was surrounded with a trench, to secure it from the access of the mere spectators. Of the other monuments of this period a more brief consideration must suffice. When a monarch or. distinguished general was buried, a barrow or hillock was erect- ed, to preserve his name and memory to future ages ; the size depending on the reputation of the person, which attracted a smaller or larger number of operators. Such monuments are very ancient, and even to this day denote the sepulchres of some of the heroes of the Trojan war. In later times, a large single stone erected was esteemed a sufficientmemorial : such single stones also sometimes appear as monuments of remarkable battles, or merely as boundaries. The caves are familiar to most nations in an early state of society. The Belgic reliques are follow- ed by those of the Romans, which are mostly objects of mere curiosity, and rare- ly throw the smallest light on the page ANTIQUITIES. of history. Amphitheatres are said to be still visible at Silchester, in Hampshire, and some other places. The Roman cas- tle at Richborough, the ancient Rutupiae, in Kent, presents considerable remains of a massy wall cemented with surprising firmness. The Roman ruins in this coun- try are commonly composed of stone or Hint, v. ith strata of flat bricks at consider- able intervals. The Mosaic pavements, hypocausts, &c. are generally the remains of the villas of opulent Romans, scattered over the country. The greatest number of Roman inscriptions, altars, &c. has been found in the north, along the great frontier wall, which extended from the western sea to the estuary of the Tyne. This vast wall is justly esteemed the most important remain of the Roman power in England,as that of Antoninus is in Scot- land. The extent was about 70 miles, and its construction, forts, &c. have been illustrated by the labour of several an- tiquaries. Numerous are the more minute relics of the Romans in England, as coins, gems, weapons, ornaments, and the like ; among which, however, the silver dish belonging to the Duke of Northumber- land deserves especial mention. One of the grand causes of the civilization intro- duced by that ruling people into the con- quered states was the highways, which form, indeed, the first germ of national industry, and without which neither com- merce nor society can make any consider- able progress. Conscious of this truth, the Romans seem to have lent particular attention to the construction of roads in the distant provinces ; and those of Eng- land, which may still be traced in various ramifications, present a lasting monument of the justice of their conceptions, the extent of their views, and the utility of their power. A grand trunk, as it may be called, passed from the south to the north, and another to the west, with branches, in almost every direction that general convenience and expedition could require. What is called the Watling- street, led from Richborough, in Kmt, the ancient Rutupiae, N. W. through Lon- don to Chester. The Ermin-street passed from London to Lincoln, 1 hence to Car- lisle, and into Scotland, the name being supposed to be corrupted from Herman, which means warrior, as the chief wars lay in the north. The Fosse Way is sup- posed to have led from Bath and the western regions, N. E. till it joined the Ermin-street. The last celebrated road was the Ikenild, or Ikneld, supposed to have extended from near Norwich, S. W. into Dorsetshire. The Saxon antiquities in England are chiefly edifices, sacred or secular ; many churches remain, which were altogether, or for the most part, constructed in the Saxon period, and some are extant of the tenth, or per- haps the ninth century. The vaults erect- ed by Grimbald, at Oxford, in the reign of Alfred, are justly esteemed curious relics of Saxon architecture. Mr. King has ably illustrated the remains of the Saxon castles. The oldest seem to con- sist of one solitary tower, square or hexagonal : one of the rudest specimens is Coningsburg Castle, in Yorkshire; but as that region was subject to the Danes till the middle of the tenth century, it is probably Danish. Among the smaller re- mains of Saxon art may be mentioned, the shrines for preserving relics, which some suppose to present the diminutive rudi- ments of what is styled the Gothic archi- tecture; and.the illuminated manuscripts, which often' afford curious memorials of the state of manners and knowledge. The Danish power in England, though of con- siderable duration in the north, was in the south brief and transitory. The camps of that nation were circular, like those of the Belgae and Saxons, while those of Roman armies arc known by the square form : and it is believed that the only distinct relics of the Danes are some cas- tles to the north of the Humber, and a. few stones with Runic inscriptions. The monuments styled Norman, rather to dis- tinguish their epoch than from any infor- mation that Norman architects were employed, are reputed to commence after the conquest, and to extend to the four- teenth century, when what is called the rich Gothic began to appear, which in tiu- sixteenth century was supplanted by the mixed, and this in its turn yielded to the Grecian. In general, the Norman style- far exceeds the Saxon in the size of die edifices, and the decor.ition of the parts The churches become more extensive and lofty, and though the windows retain the circular arch, they are larger and more diversified ; the circular doors an- festooned with more freedom and ele- gance ; and uncouth animals begin to yield to wreaths of leaves and fl<> The solitary keep, or tower, of the Saxon castle is surrounded .with a double wall, inclosing courts and dwellings of largo extent, defended by turrets and double ditches, with a separate watch-towi i- called the Barbican. Among others, th<- cathedrals of Durham and Wiiu-hcstrr may be mentioned as venerable monu- ANTIQUITIES. nienls of Anglo-Norman architecture; rind the castles are numerous and well known. What is called the Gothic, or pointed arch, is generally supposed to liave first appeared in the thirteenth cen- tury, and in the next it became universal In religious edifices. The windows dif- fused to great breadth and loftiness, and divided into branching interstices, enrich- ed with painted glass ; the clustering pillars, of excessive height, spreading in- to various fret-work on the roof, consti- tute, with decorations of smaller note, what is called the rich Gothic style, visi- ble in the chapel of King's college at Cambridge, and many other grand speci- mens in this kingdom. The spire cor- responds with the interior, and begins about the thirteenth century to rise bold- ly from the ancient tower, and diminish from the sight in a gradation of pinnacles and ornaments. We now proceed to Scotland, the origi- nal population of which is supposed upon good authority to consist of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Chersonese. About two cen- turies before the Christian sera, the Cim- bri seem to have been driven to the south of Scotland by the Caledonians, or Picti, a Gothic colonyfrom Norway. The Cimbri, a congenerous people with the Welch, continued to hold the country south of the two firths of Forth and Clyde ; but from the former region they were soon expelled by the Picti, who, in this corner, became subject for a time to the Anglo- Saxon kings of Bernicia. On the West, the Cumraig kingdom of Strath Clyde continued till the tenth century, when it became subject to the kings of North Britain ; who at the same time extended their authority, by the permission of the English monarch, over the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, which, abounding with hills and fortresses on the south and east, were little accessible to the English power, and, while the Danes pos- sessed the country to the north of Hum- ber, could yield little revenue or support to the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. From the Picti originates the population of the Low- lands of Scotland, the Lowlanders having been in all ages a distinct people from those of the western Highlands, though the Irish clergy endeavoured to render their language.which was the most smooth and cultivated of the two, the polite dia- logue of the court and superior classes. About the year of Christ 258, the Dalri- ads of Bede, the Attacotti of the Roman writers, passed from Ireland to Argyle- shire, and became the germ of the Scot- tish Highlanders, who speak the Irish or Celtic language, while the Lowlanders have always used the Scandinavian or Go- thic. In reference to the antiquities of the country-, Mr. Pinkerton divides the early history into seven distinct periods, viz. 1. The original population of Scot- land by the Cimbri, and by the Picti. 2. The entrance of Agricola into Scotland, and the subsequent conflicts with the Ro- mans, till the latter abandoned Britain. 3. The Settlement of the Dalriads or At- tacotti, in Argyleshire, about the year 258, and their repulsion to Ireland about the middle of the fifth century. 4. The commencement of what may be called a regular history of Scotland, from the reign of Drust, A. D. 414. 5. The return of the Dalraids, A. D. 503, and the sub- sequent events of Dalriadic story. 6. The introduction of Christianity among the Caledonians, in the reign of Brudi II. A. D. 565. 7. The union of the Picti and Attacotti, under Kenneth, A. D. 843, after which greater civilization began to take place, and the history becomes more au- thentic. The monuments of antiquity belonging to these epochs may be consi- dered in the following order. Of the first epoch, no monuments can exist except those of the tumular kind ; and it is im- possible to ascertain the period of their formation. The remains of the Roman period in North Britain chiefly appear in the celebrated wall built in the reign of Antoninus Pius, between the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the ruins of which many curious inscriptions have been found. Another striking object of this epoch was a small edifice, vulgarly called Arthur's oven, which seems rightly to have been regarded by some antiquaries as a small temple dedicated to the god Terminus, probably after the erection of the wall of Antoninus, for we are not to conceive these walls were the absolute lines beyond which the Romans possessed no territory ; while, on the contrary, in the pacific intervals, the garrisons along the wall may have claimed the forage of the exterior fields; and the stream of Carron, beyond which this chapel stood, may have been considered as a necessary supply of water. The remains of the wall and forts, and other Roman antiquities, in Scotland, particularly their camps and stations, many of which are remarkably entire, are ably illustrated in a late publi- cation of General Roy; but the ingenious author has perhaps too implicitly followed a common antiquarian error, in ascribing all these camps, stations, &c. to Agricola, ANTIQUITIES. while they may be more justly assigned to Lo'lius Urbicus, A. 1). 140, or to the Em- peror Sevens, A. D. 207, especially in- deed to the latter; for the Emperor's ap- p< irunce, in person, to conduct two cam- paigns, probably as far as Inverness, must have occasioned the erection of works more eminent and durable than usual, the soldiers being excited by the animating controul of a military monarch. Con- stantius Chlorus also, A. D. 306, made a long progress into Scotland, if we trust the panegyrists. Nay, in the reign of Domitian, Hokums, as we learn from Sta- tins the poet, erected several works in Britain, probably in the north ; so that it is idle to impute these remains to any one author ; but to a judicious eye, the claims of Lollius Urbicus, and of Severus, seem preferable. The most northerly Roman camp, yet discovered, is that near the source of the river Ythan, Aberdeenshire; periphery about two English miles. A smaller station has also been observed at Old Meldrum, a few miles to the S. E. Roman roadshave been traceda consider- ble way in the east of Scotland, as far as the county of Angus, affording some evi- dence of the existence of the province of Vespasiana; but the chief remains are within the wall. A hypocaust was also discovered near Perth, and another near Musselburg, so that there was probably some Roman station near the Scotish ca- pital. The smaller remains of Roman an- tiquity found in Scotland, as coins, uten- sils, &c. are numerous. With the fourth epoch may be said to commence the Pik- ish monuments of antiquity. The tombs it would be difficult to discriminate from those of the first epoch ; but as the Cale- donian kings, when converted to Christi- anity, held their chief residence atlnver- ncss, the singular hill in its vicinity, pre- senting the form of a boat re versed, may, perhaps, be a monument of regal sepul- ture. The places of judgment among the Gothic nations, or what are now styled Druidic temples, are numerous; and there is a remarkable one in the Isle of Lewis, where, probably, the monarchs resided in the most early times ; but this, perhaps, rather belongs to the Norwegian settle- ment in the ninth century. Some of these monuments are of small circuit; and such are sometimes found at no great distance from each other ; as they were not only sometimes erected merely as temples to Odin, Thor, Freyga, and other Gothic deities, but every chief, or lord of a ma- nor, having jurisdiction over many ser- vants and slaves, such small courts be- came placesof necessary awe. The houses seem to have been entirely of wood or turf} but in some spots singular excavations are found, rudely lined with stone ; these are called weems, and it is likely that , they were always adjacent to the wooden residence of some chief) and were intend- ed as depositories of stores, &c. the roofs being too low for comfortable places of refuge. The stations and camps of the natives are distinguished by their round form, while those of the Romans belong to the square. Under the next epoch it would be difficult to discover any genu- ine remains of the Dalriads. The houses, and even the churches were constructed in wattlework; and the funeralmonuments were cairns or heaps of stones. It is pro- bable that Christianity did not immedi- ately dissolve ancient prejudices, and that even the Atticottic kings were buried in this rude manner ; for the genuine chro- nicles do not affirm that they were con- veyed to Hyona or Ilcolmkill ; and the sepulchres there shewn, of Irish and Nor- wegian kings, must be equally fabulous. To the sixth epoch may probably belong a chapel or two, still remaining in Scotland, for Bede informs us that Nethan III. A. D. 715, obtained architects from Ceolfrid, abbot of Jarrow and Weremouth, to build a church in his dominions, probably at Abernethy ; but the round tower there remaining seems of more recent origin. About the year 830, Ungust II. rounded the church of St. An- drew ; and the chapel called that of St. Regulus, (who seems unknown in the Roman calendar) may, perhaps, claim even this antiquity. It is probable, that these sacred edifices in stone were soon" followed by the erection of those rude round piles, without any cement; called Piks-houses; yet they may more properly belong to the seventh epoch, when the Danes may share in the honour of the erection, for such edifices have been tra- ced in Scandinavia. They seem to have consisted of a vast hall, open to the sky in the centre, while the cavities in the wall present incommodious recesses for beds, &c. These buildings are remarka- ble, as displaying the first elements of the Gothic castle ; and the castle of Conings- burg in Yorkshire forms an easy transi- tion. The engraved obelisks found in Forres, and in other parts of Scotland, have been ascribed to the Danish rava- gers, who had not time for such erections. They are, probably, monuments of sig- nal events, raised by the king or chiefs ; and as some are found in Scandinavia, as ANTIQUITIES. recent as the fifteenth century, it is pro- bable that many of the Scottish obelisks are far more modern than is generally imagined. We are next to consider the antiquities of Ireland. The original population of this country passed from Gaul, and was afterwards increased by their brethrenthe Guydil from England. About the time that the Belgae seized on the south of England, it appears that kindred Gothic tribes passed to the south of Ireland. These are the Firbolg of the Irish tradi- tions, and appear to have been the same people whom the Romans denominated Scoti, after they had emerged to their no- tice, by not only extending their conquest to the north and east in Ireland, but had begun to make maritime excursions against the Roman provinces in Britain. But Ireland had been so much crowded with Celtic tribes, expelled from the con- tinent and Britain, by the progress of the German Goths, that the Belgae almost lost their native speech and distinct character; and from intermarriages, &c. became lit- tle distinguishable from the original po- pulation, except by superior ferocity, for which the Scoti, or those who affected a descent from the Gothic colonies, were re- markable, while the original Gael seem to have been an innocent and harmlesspeo- ple. The epochs in Ireland, to which its an- tiquities are referrable,are the following: 1. The first historical epoch of Ireland is its original population by the Celtic Gauls, and the subsequent colonization by the Belgae. 2. The maritime excursions of the Scoti against the Roman provinces in Britain. 3. The conversion of Ireland to Christianity in the fifth century which was followedby a singular effect; for while the mass of the people retained all the ferocity of savage manners, the monastaries pro- duced many men of such piety and learn- ing, that Scotia or Ireland became celebra- ed all over Christendom. 4. This lustre was diminished by the ravages ofthe Scandi- navians, which began with the ninth cen- tury, and can hardly be said to have ceas- ed when the English settlement commen- ced. The island had been split into nume- rous principalities, or kingdoms, as they were styled ; and though a chief monarch was acknowledged, yet his power was sel- dom efficient, and the constant dissensions of so many small tribes rendered the is- land an easy prey. 5. In the year 1170 Henry II. permitted Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, to effect a settlement in Ireland, which laid the foundation of the English possessions in that country. There are however coins of Canute, king of England, struck at Dublin, perhaps in acknowledgement of his power, by the Danish settlers. After this period Ireland became, in some measure, a commercial country, and her history is to be looked for in that of England, with which it is interwoven. Upon a review ofthe more ancient of these historical epochs, and of the monuments which may be considered as belonging to each, it must be consider- ed,that the edifices having been construct- ed of wood till the eleventh or twelfth century, it cannot be expected that any remains of them should exist. Stone was chiefly employed in the construction of funeral erections of various kinds ; nor are barrows wanting in Ireland, being hil- locks of earth thrown up in commemora- tion of the illustrious dead. Other mo- numents, commonly styled Druidic, may also be found in Ireland ; such as single stones erect, circular temples, or rather places of judgment, and the like, which may more properly be ascribed to the Belgic colony. The conversion of Ire- land to Christianity was followed by the erection of a vast number of churches and monasteries, the latter being comput- ed to exceed one thousand in number ; but all these edifices were originally small, and constructed of interwoven withs, or hewn wood ; for St. Bernard, in the twelfth century, mentions a stone church as a singular novelty in Ireland. But the Scandinavian chiefs must before this pe- riod have introduced the use of stone into the castles, necessary for their own de- fence against a nation whom they op- pressed ; and sometimes even subterra- neous retreats were deemed expedient, of which Ware and others have engrave*} specimens. To the Scandinavian period also belong what are called the Danes Raths, or circular intrenchments ; and some chapels, such as those of Glenda- loch, Portaferry, Killaloe, Saul Abbey, St. Doulach, and Cashel, if we may judge from the singularity of the ornaments, which, however, only afford vague conjec- ture. But ofthe round castles, called Duns in Scotland, and ofthe obelisks engraven with figures or ornaments, few or none exist in Ireland. Under the Scandinavi- ans the Irish coinage first dawns. Of the eleventh and twelfth centuries many mo- numents castellated or religious, may probably exist in Ireland. Brian Boro, king of Munster, having been declared sovereign of Ireland in the year 1 002, he distinguished himself by his virtues and courage ; and Dermid III. A. D. 1041 ANTIQUITIES. 1073, was also an excellent and powerful prince. Under these monarchs, :uul their .successors, Tcrdalvac and Moricrtac, the power of the Scandinavians was consult r- ably weakened. The native chiefs had been taught the necessity of fortresses, and were generally devoutly attached to religion ; it is therefore to be inferred, that many castles, churches, and monaste- ries, now began to be partly constructed in stone, by architects invited from France and England; but perhaps the round towers were erected by native builders. Among smaller relics of antiquity, the golden trinkets found in a bog near Cul- len, in the south, deserve mention : as gold was found in Gaul, they are perhaps ornaments of the ancient chiefs, brought from that region. It remains now to mention the names of some df those authors who have written on the antiquities of our own country. Tacitus was an eye-witness to the ceremo- m'es of Druidism in England, as the Ro- mans were in Wales. To him, to Caesar already referred to, and to Dio Cassius, we refer, as the chief authorities in regard tt) British history. To these may be add- ed .Elian, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and I'liny. Cluverius, Pezron, and Pelloutier, are more modern, but respectable, writers on the same subject. Of the structures erected by the Britons, Abury and Stone- henge may be deemed the principal. Relics ofasmaller kind are continually dis- covered a few feet beneath the surface of the earth. On these Stukely and Row- land are the best authorities: the former has written a volume on Abury, a temple of the Druids, in which is a particular ac- count of the first and patriarchal religion, and of the peopling of the British islands: besides his larger work, entitled " Itine- rarium Curiosum," being an account of the antiquities, &c. observed in travels through tiro at Britain, published in 1724. For the history of the Britons under the Roman Government, Morsley's Brit. Rom. is a work th depended upon. \\ith rev-eft to the antiquities of the Sax- ons, the illuminated manuscripts are the best records of their manners in the differ- ent centuries, and the most interesting in- formation respecting them has been col- lected by Turner and Stnitt. The best collection of Saxon coins is in the British Me. '-uin, and of manuscripts in tin -ami- place, and in the Bodleian Library Mr. KiiiiT has treated of their military antiqui- ties in his History of I'astles; and, inde- pendently of our works on topography, vhieh are numerous, and man} of them of the first respectability, and \vhirh throw VOL I considerable light on the antiquities of the country, we mas refer to Henry's History of England, where the subject is discussed systematically and in chronological order; and to the works of Camdcn, S'rutt, and Gough, to which may be added the whole series of the Gentleman's Magazine, and J'inkerton's Geography, to which we have been indebted for a par* of this article. As the antiquities of the united king- dom arc in some respects connected with those of the Danes and other northern na- tions, we may suggest to the reader what are the principal remains of those people, as a clue to his future inquiries. The ancient monuments of Denmark and Norway are chiefly Runic, though it is far from certain at what period the use of Runic characters extended so far north. Circles of upright stones are common in all the Danish dominions, the islands, Nor- way, and Iceland, in which latter country their origin is perfectly ascertained, as some were erected even in recent times of the Icelandic republic, being called domh-ring, or circles of judgment. Some also appear to have been the cemeteries of superior families. Monuments also occur of two upright stones with one across ; and of the other forms supposed to be Druidic. The residences of the chiefs appear to have been generally constructed of wood, as there are very few ancient castles ex- isting in Denmark or Norway. Of Sweden the ancient monuments con- sist chiefly of judicial circles and other erections of unhewn stone, together with remains inscribed with Runic characters, none of which are imagined to have exist- ed longer than the eleventh century In Russia the ancient monuments are neither numerous, nor afford much variety. There are to be met with the tombs of their pagan ancestors, containing weapons and ornaments. From the writings of Herodotus we learn tha* the Scythians re- garded t lie cemeteries oft heir princes \v ith singular veneration: the Sartnatians or Slavons seem to have imbibed the same ideas. The catacombs of Kiow, it is be- lie\ed, were formed in the pagan period, though they are now replete with marks of Christianity. They are labyrinths of considerable extent, dug, as it should seem, through amass of hardened clay, but they do not appear to contain the bo- the SOM reigns. The idols of Pa- gan Russia are sometimes found hron/.c ; and Dr. Guthrie has given a good account of the Slavonic mythology, to whose "Dissertations sur les Antiqnites de Russie" we refi r the readei \\ , mav however observe, that the pagan LI ANTIQUITIES. Russians worshipped one god, supposed to be the author of thunder; another, that resembled the Pan of the undents; others, answering to the Sun, Hercules, Mars, Venus, and Cupid. They had also god- desses, corresponding with Ceres, Diana, and Pomona,and their nymphs of the woods and waters. They worshipped Znitch or Vesta in the form of fire, and venerated waters, the Bog being as highly regarded by the ancient Russians as the Ganges among the Indians : the Don and the Da- nube were also considered as holy streams; and there was a sacred lake, environed with a thick forest, in the isle of Rugen, which was adored by the Slavonic tribes. Antiquities in the Valley of t fie Mississi{>l>i. " Considerable curiosity has been ex- cited by appearances on the Mississippi and its tributary waters, supposed to prove a more ancient population, than the state of the country, or the character of the tribes inhabiting it, when first visited by Europeans, would seem to indicate. " The American bottom is a tract of rich alluvian land, extending on the Mississippi, from the Kaskaskia to the Cahokia river, about eighty miles in length and five in breadth ; several handsome streams mean- der through it ; the soil of the richest kind, and but little subject to the effects of the Mississippi floods. If any vestige of an- cient population were to be found, this would be the place to look for it. Ac- cordingly, this tract, as also the bank of the river on the western side, exhibit proofs of an immense population. If the city of Philadelphia* and its environs were deserted, there would not be more numerous traces of human existence. The great number of mounds, and the astonishingqur.ntity of human bones, every day dug up, or found on the surface of the ground, with a thousand other appear- ances, announce that this valley was at one period filled with habitations and vil- lages. The whole face of the bluff, or hill, which abounds to the east, appears to have been a continued burial ground. "But the most remarkable appearances are, two groups of mounds or pyramids, the one about ten miles above Cahokia, the other nearly the same distance below it, which, in all, exceed one hundred and fifty, of various sizes. A more minute de- scription of those above Cahokia will give a tolerable idea of them all. They are mostly of a circular shape, and at a dis- tance resemble enormous haystacks scat- tered through a meadow. One of the largest is about two hundred paces in cir- cumference at the bottom, the form near- ly square. The top level, with an area sufficient to contain several hundred men. " At the distance of three miles along the bank of the Cahokial here isthe largest assemblage the principal one of which is a stupendous pile of a mass of earth, that must have required years, and the labour of thousands, to accomplish. Were it not for the regularity and design which it manifests, the circumstances of its being on alluvia! ground, and the other mounds scattered around, it could scarcely be be- lieved to be the work of human hands. The shape is that of a parallelogram, standing from north to south ; on the south side there is a broad apron, or step, about half way down, and from this, another projection into the plain, about fifteen feet wide, which was probably intended as an ascent to the mound. The circum- ference at the base is at least eight hun- dred yards, and the height of the pyramid about ninety feet. " Several of these mounds are almost conical, and at regular distances from each other; about which are scattered pieces of flint, and fragments of earthen vessels. "A curious discovery, made a few years ago in the state of Tennessee, proves, be- yond a doubt, that at some remote period the valley of the Mississippi had been in- habited by a much more civilized people than when first known to us. Two hu- man bodies were found in a copperas cave, in a surprizing state of preservation. They were first wrapped up in a kind of blanket, supposed to have been manufac- tured of the lint of nettles, afterwards with dressed skins, and then a mat of nearly sixty yards in length. They were clad in a beautiful cloth, interwoven with fea- thers, such as was manufactured by the Mexicans. They had been here, perhaps, for centuries, and certainly were of a dif- ferent race from the modern Indians. They might have belonged to the Olmec, who overran Mexico about the seventh century ; to the Toultec, who came centu- ries afterwards ; or to the Aztecs, who founded the great city of Mexico about the thirteenth century. " In tracing the origin of institutions or inventions amongst men, we are apt to forget, that nations, however diversified * "The Saline, below St. Genevieve, cleared out sometime po, and deepened, was found to contain waggon loads of earthen-ware, some fragments bespeaking veeh at large as a barrel, and proving tha (he Salines bad been worked before they were known to the whites." ANT AOR by manners and languages, are yet of the same species, and that the same institu- tions m:ty originate amongst twenty differ- ent people. The wonder would be, that ilic\ should not shew a resemblance. We find these mounds in every p:trt of the globe ; in the north of Europe, and in (ircat-Ilritain, they ure numerous, and much resemble ours, but less considerable. The pyramids of Egypt are perhaps the oldest moniiii ents of human labour in that countr ruble to the production of a numerous population. The- Pyramids of Mexico, which arc but little known, and yet scarcely less considerable, like those of Egypt, have their origin hid in the night of oblivion. " Who will assign, as the age of Ame- rica, a period of years different from that allowed to, what has been denominated, the old world ? The multiplicity of proofs contradict the recency of her origin ; deeply imbedded stories of carbonated wood, the traces of ancient volcanoes! We could appeal to her time-worn cataracts, and channels of mighty rivers, and to her venerable mountains. Grant, then, that America may have existed a few thousand the same causes prevailing, like i-ilt-cts will be produced; the same revo- lutions as have been known in the old \\ orld may have taken place here."* See I ln t. APE APH AORTA, in anatomy, called also arte- ria magna, a large artery, arising with a single trunk from the left ventricle of the heart above its valves, called semilu- nares, and serves to convey the mass of blood to all parts of the body. After ascending a little upwards, its trunk is bent, in manner of an arch, and from this part it sends, in human subjects, usually three ascending branches. This is called the aorta ascendens. The descendens is that part of the trunk, which,after the arch-like inflection, descends through the thorax and the ab- domen down to the os sacrum, and is usually larger in women than in men. The aorta hath four tunics, a nervous, a glamlulous, a muscular, and a membra- nous one. See AJTATOMY. APACTIS, in botany, a genus of the Dodecandria Monogynia class and order. No calyx; petals four, crenate, unequal; germ superior; fruit. There is but a sin- gle species, viz. the Japonica, atreefound, as its name imports, in Japan. APALUS, in natural history, a genus of insects of the order Coleoptera. Gen. char, antennae filiform ; feelers equal, fili- form ; jaw horny, one-toothed; lip mem- branaceous, truncate, entire. There are two species : quadrimaculatus ; rufous ; head, and two spots on the shells, black ; inhabits North America : bimaculatus, of northern Europe. APARGIA, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia JEqualis class and order. Re- ceptacle naked ; calyx imbricate ; down feathery, sessile. There are 17 species. APATITE, in mineralogy, one of the species of the phosphates, occurs in tin veins, and is found in Cornwall and Ger- many. Colours white, green, blue, and red, of various shades. The primitive form of its crystals is a regular six-sided prism. Specific gravity between 2.8 and 3.2. When laid on ignited coals it emits a green light, and is almost entirely solu- ble in nitric acid. By rubbing it shews signs of electricity. It was formerly con- sidered as a species of schorl ; afterwards, on account of its colour and crystalliza- tion, it was arranged with beryll ; others described it as fluor, but Werner soon found that it was a new species. Its fal- lacious resemblance to other minerals in- duced Werner to give it this name, which is derived from a-7, " to deceive." APE. See SIMIA. APETALOSE, or APETALOUS, among botanists, an appellation given to such plants as have no flower leaves. APEX, in antiquity, the crest of a hel- met, but more especially a kind of cap worn by the flamens. APHJERESIS, in grammar, a figure by which a letter or syllable is cut oft' from the beginning of a word. APHJBRESIS, that part of surgery which teaches to take away superfluities. APHELIUM, or APHELION, in astro- nomy, is that point in any planet's orbit, in which it is farthest distant from the sun ; being, in the new astronomy, that end of the greater axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet, most remote from the focus wherein the sun is. The times of the aphelia of the primary planets may be known by their apparent diameters ap- pearing least ; as also by their moving slowest in a given time. They may like- wise be found by calculation, the method of doing which is delivered in most astro- nomical writers. Sir Isaac Newton and Dr. Gregory have proved that the aphelia of the primary planets are at rest. See Princip. prop. 14. lib. 3. And in the scholium to the above proposition they say, that the planets nearest to the sun, viz. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, from the actions of Jupiter and Saturn upon them, move a small matter in consequentia with regard to the fixed stars, and that in the sesqui- plicate ratio of their respective distances from the sun. APHIS, in entomology, a genus of the Hemiptera order, which has engaged the attention of naturalists for various rea- sons : their generation exhibits a singular and surprising phenomenon, and their in- stinctive economy differs, in some res- pects, from that of most other animals. Linnaeus defines the generic character of the aphis thus; beak inflected, sheath of five articulations, with a single bristle a antennae setaceous, and longer than the thorax ; either four erect wings or none ; feet formed for walking ; posterior part of the abdomen usually furnished with two little horns. Geoffroy says, the aphides have two beaks, one of which is seated in the breast, the other in the head ; this last extends to and is laid upon the base of the pectoral one, and serves, as that writer imagines, to convey to the head a part of that nourishment which the insect takes, or sucks in, by means of the pecto- ral beak. Gmelin enumerates about 70 species, all of which, and doubtless many others, are found in different parts of Eu- rope and America. They infest an end- less variety of plants ; and it is believed each species is particularly attached to one kind of vegetable only ; hence each APHIS. sort has been hitherto uniformly named after the individual species or genus of plants on which it feeds ; or if that could not be ascertained, that on which it had been found ; for some species are rather uncommon and little known,though others are infinitely too numerous. The aphi- des are sufficiently known by the indiscri- minate term of plant-lice ; they abound with a sweet and grateful moisture, and are therefore eagerly sought after by ants, and are devoured by the larva of coccinel- lac, and many other creatures, or they would become, very probably, more de- structive to the whole vegetable creation than any other race of insects known. If Bonnet was not the first naturalist (as is generally acknowledged) who discovered the mysterious course of generation in the aphides, or, as he calls them, pucerons, his experiments, together with those of his countryman Trembly, tended at least to confirm, in a most satisfactory manner, the almost incredible circumstances re- specting it, that an aphis or puceron, brought up in the most perfect solitude from the moment of its birth, in a few days will be found in the midst of a nu- merous family ; and that if the experi- ment be again repeated on one ot the individuals of this family, a second gene- ration will multiply like its parent; and the like experiment may be many times re- ' peatedwitli the same effect, until at last the progeny becomes barren, unless again impregnated by the male; after which se- venl generations may be again produced without further aid of the male, as before. The history of aphides has also been very copiously treated upon by Dr. Kirli- ardson, in a paper printed in the 41st vol. of the Philosophical Transactions ; and by the late ingenious Mr. Curtis, in the. sixth volume of ih Tr.ui -u-pons of the Linnaran Society. The tenor of Dr. Rich- ardson's remarks is briefly this : the great variety of species which occur in the in- seeis now under consideration may make an inquiry into their particular natures M-i-m not a little perplexing, but by re du- ring them under their proper genus, the difficulty is considerably diminished. \Ve may reasonably suppose all the insects, comprehended under any distinct genus, to partake of one general nature ; and by diligently examining am particular spe- i-ies, may thence gain some insi^lu into tlii nature of all the rest. Withthi Dr. Kichardson chose out of the various sorts of aphides the largest of those found on the rose-tree ; not only as its size makes it more conspicuous, but there are few of so long duration. This sort appears ear- ly in the spring, and continues late in au- tumn, while several are limited to a much shorter term, in conformity to the diffe- rent trees and plants whence they draw their nourishment. If, at the beginning of February, the weather happens to be so warm as to make the buds of the rose- tree swell and appear green, small aphides are frequently to be found on them.though not larger than the young ones in summer when first produced. It will be found, that those aphides which appear only in springproceedfrom small black oval eggs, which were deposited on the last year's shoot; though when it happens that the insects make too early an appearance, the greater part suffer from the sharp wea- ther that usually succeeds, by which means the rose-trees are some years in a manner freed from them. The same kind of animal is then at one time of the year viviparous, and at another oviparous. These aphides, which withstand the se- verity of the weather, seldom come to their full growth before the month of April, at which time they usually begin to breed, after twice casting ofi' their ex- uvia, or outward covering. It appears that they are all females, which produce each of them a numerous progeny, and that without having intercourse with any male insect : they are viviparous, and, what is equally singular, they all come into the world backwards. "When they first come from the parent, they are inveloped in a thin membrane, having in this situation the appearance of an oval egg ; these egg- like appearances adhere by one extremity to the mother, while the young ones con- tained in them extend to the other, -uul by that means gradually drag the ruptured membrane over the head and body to the hind feet. During this operation, and for some time after, the fore part of the head adheres, by means of something that is glutinous, to the vent of the parent. Be- ing thus suspended in the air, it soon frees itself from the membrane in which it \\as confined; and after its limbs are a little strengthened, is set down on some tender shoots, and is left to provide for itself In the spring months, there appear on the rose-trees but two generations of aphides, including those which proceed immediately from the last years eggs ; the warmth of the summer adds so much to their fertility, that no less than five generations succeed one another in the in- terval. One is produced in May, which CUM > oh" its covering ; while the months of June and July each supply two more, APHIS. which cast oft' their coverings three or four times, according to the different warmth of the season. This frequent change of their outward coat is the more extraordinary, because it is repeated more often when the insects come the soonest to their growth, which sometimes hap- pens in ten days, when they have had plenty of warmth and nourishment. arly in the month of June, some of the third generation, which were produced about the middle of May, after casting off the last covering, discover four erect wings,much longer than their bodies; and the same is observable in all the succeeding genera- tions which are produced during the sum- mer months, but still without any diversi- fy <-i' sex ; for some time before the aphides come to their full growth, it is easy to distinguish which will have wings, by a remarkable fulness of the breast, which in the others is hardly to be dis- tinguished from the body. When the last covering is rejected, the wings which were before folded up in a very narrow compass, are gradually extended in a sur- prising manner, till their dimensions are at last very considerable. The increase of these insects in the summer-time is so very great, that by wounding and exhaust- ing the tender shoots, they would fre- quently suppress all vegetation, had they not many enemies to restrain them. Not- withstanding these insects have a numer- ous tribe of enemies, they are not without their friends, if those may be considered as such, who are officious in their atten- dance for the good things they expect to reap thereby. The ant and bee are of this kind, collecting the honey in which the aphides abound, but with this differ- ence, that the ants are constant visitors, the bee only when flowers are scarce ; the ants will suck in the honey, while the aphides are in the act of discharging it; the bees only collect it from the leaves on which it has fallen. The aphides are often carried home by the ant, carefully attend- ed, and regularly supplied with food. See Formica. In the autumn three more ge- nerations of aph : des are produced, two of which generally make their appearance in the month of August, and the third be- fort the middle of September. The two first differ in no respect from those which are found in summer, but the third differs greatly from all the rest. Though all the aphides which have hitherto appeared were female, in this generation several male insects are found, but not by any means so numerous as the females. The females have, at first, the same appearance as those of the former generations, but in a few days their colour changes from a green to a yellow, which is gradually con- verted into an orange before they come to their full growth ; they differ, also, in another respect, from those which occur in summer, for all these yellow females are without wings. The male insects are, however,still more remarkable, their out- ward appearance readily distinguishing them from this and all other generations. When first produced they are not of a green colour like the rest, but of a red- dish brown, and have afterwards a dark line along the back : they come to their full growth in about three weeks, and then cast off their last covering r the whole insect being, after this, of a bright yellow colour, the wings only excepted ; but af- ter this change they become of a deeper yellow, and in a very few hours of a dark brown, if we except the body, which is something lighter coloured and has a red- dish cast. The males no sooner come to maturity than they copulate with the fe- males, who, in a day or two after their in- tercourse with the males, lay their eggs, generally near the buds. Where there are a number crowded together, they, of course, interfere with each other, in which case they will frequently deposit their eggs on other parts of the branches. It is highly probable that the aphides de- rive considerable advantages by living in society ; the reiterated punctures of a great number of them may attract a larger quantity of nutricious juices to that part of the tree or plant where they have taken up their abode. The observations of Mr. Curtis on the aphides are chiefly intended to shew that they are the principal cause of blights in plants, and the sole cause of the honey-dew. He therefore calls them the aphis, or blighter ; and after ob- serving, that, in point of numbers, the in- dividuals of the several species composing it surpass those of any other genus in the country, speaks thus, in general terms, of the whole tribe. These insects live en- tirely on vegetables. The loftiest tree-is no less liable to their attacks than the most humble plant. They prefer the young shoots on account of their tenderness, and on this principle often insinuate them- selves into the very heart of the plant, and do irreparable mischief before they are discovered. But, for the most part, they beset the foliage, and are mostly found on the underside of the leaf, which they prefer, not only on account of its be- ing the most tender, but as it affords them protection from the weather, and various injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed. Sometimes the root is the APHIS. object of their choice, which, from the na- tureof thcs i'.c would n.t, a pri ori, expect ; yet 1 havr seen t IK- roots ! with them, and the v hole crop rendered sickly and of lit- tie \alue; but such instances arc ran-. They seldom attach themst Ivcs to the hark of trees, like the aphis salicis, which, bcingone of our largest species, and hence ng superior (trength,u enabled to penetrate a substance harder than the leaves themselves. In the quality of the excrement voided by these insects, there is something wonderfully extraordinary. \Vrre a person accidentally to take up a book, in which it was gravel}- asserted, that in some countries there were certain animals which voided* liquid sugar, he would lay it down, regarding it as a fabu- lous tale, calculated to impose on the cre- dulity of the ignorant ; and yet such is literally the truth. Mr. Curtis collected some on a piece of writing-paper, from a brood of the aphis salicis, and found it to be sweet as sugar ; and observes, that, were it not for the wasps, ants, flies, and other insects, that devour it as quickly as it is produced, it might, no doubt, be col- lected in considerable quantities, and by the processes used with other saccharine juices, might be converted into the choic- est sugar or sugar-candy. Tin- sweetness of tins cxcrcnu ntitious substance, the giossv appearance it gave the leaves it fell upon, and the swarm of insects this matter attract.-,, led him to imagine that the ho. ney-dew of plants was no other than this secretion, which further observation has since fully confirmed ; and no^, as its name implies, a sweet substance falling from the atmosphere. On this opinion it is further remarked, thai it neither fails from the atmosphere, nor issues from the plant it- I is easily demonstrated. If it fell from theatn would cover every tiling it fell upon indiscriminately, whcre- .levertind it but on certain living plants and trees. \Ve iiiui it also on plants in stoves and green-hoi. . d with glass. If it exuded from the })!:tn;, it would appear on all the leaves generally and u- nifonnly ; when treineh irregular, not alike on any two .\e tree or plant, some having none of it, and others feing cover- ed \\ ith it but partially. It is probable that ill \ists ;m\ hoiiev -dew but whevi aphides : though such often pass unnoticed, being hidden on the underside of the leaf: and wherever ho- ney-dew is observable upon a leaf, aphides will be found on the undi r side of the leaf or leaves immediately above it, and under no other circumstance whatever. If by ac- ckleot Anything should intefvi n. !>. the aphides and the leaf next hem nth Uiem, i here well he nohonev-dew on that leaf: and thus he conceives It is incontro- vertibly proved, that iphides are the trur and only source of honey-dew. Of the British species of aphides, one of the larg- est and most remarkable is the aphis sali- cis, \\ Inch is found on the different kinds of wil;ri\\ s. When bruised, these insects stain the fingers with red. Towards the end of September multitudes of the full-grown insects of this species, both with and with - out wings, desert the willows on which they feed, and ramble over every neigh- bouring object in such numbers,*that we can handle nothing in their vicinity with- out crushing some of them, while those in a younger or less advanced state still re- main in large masses upon the trees. Aphis rosx is very frequent, during the summer months, on the young shoots and buds of roses : it is of a bright green colour : the males are furnished with large transpa- rent wings. A. vitis is most destructive to vines; as A. ulmi is to the elm-tree. Plate I. Entomology, fig. 3. It is found, that where the saccharine substance has dropped from aphides for a length of time, as from the aphis salicis in particular, it gives to the surface of the bark, foliage, &c. that sooty kind of ap- pearance, which arises from the explosion of gunpowder : it looks like, and is some- times taken for, a kind of black mildew In most seasons the natural enemies of the aphides are sufficient to keep them in check, and to prevent them from doing essential injury to plants in the open air . but there are times, once perhaps in four, five, or six years, in which they are mul- tiplied to such an excess, that th mesms of diminution fail in preventing them from doing irreparable injury to certain crops. To prevent the calamities which would infallibly result from an accumulated multiplication of the more prolific animals. it has been ordained by the Author of nature, that such should be diminished in KTVing M t'-oil for others. On this principle, most animals of this kind ha\v one or more natural enemies. The lulp- :iis, which is the scourjre <,f the , >le kingdom, has to contend with many: of these, the principal are, tho> coccinella, the ichneumon aphidum, and the musca aphidcvora. The gr< :/ s'nnerof the aphides is the coccinella, or common lady-bird. During the winter this insect secures itself under the bark of APH API trees and elsewhere. When the spring- expands the foliage of plants, the female deposits its egg's on them in great num- bers, from whence, in a short time, pro- ceeds the larva, a small grub, of a dark lead-colour spotted with orange. These may be observed in the summer season running pretty briskly over all kinds of plants, and, if narrowly watched, they willbe found to devour the aphides wher- ever they find them. The same may be observed of the lady -bird, in its perfect state. Another most formidable enemy to the aphis is a very minute, black, and slender ichneumon fly, which eats its way out of the aphis, leaving the dry inflated skin of the insect adhering to the leaf like a small pearl : such may always be found where aphides are in plenty. Different species of aphides are infested with dif- ferent ichneumons. There is scarcely a division of nature, in which the musca or fly is not found : of these, one division, the aphidivora, feeds entirely on aphides. Of the different species of aphidivorous flies, which are numerous, having mostly bodies variegated with transverse stripes, their females may be seen hovering over plants infested with aphides, among which they deposit their eggs on the surface of the leaf. The larva, or maggot, produced from such eggs, feeds, as soon as hatched, on the younger kinds of aphis, and as it inrreases in size, attacks and devours those which are larger. The larva of the hemerobius feeds also on the aphides, and deposits its eggs on the leaves of such plants as are beset with them. The earwig is likewise an enemy to them, especially such as reside in the curled leaves of fruit-trees, and the purses formed by cer- tain aphides on the poplars and other trees. To these may be added the small- er soft-billed birds that feed on insects. APHORISM, a maxim or principle of a science ; or a sentence which compre- hends a great deal in a few words. The term is seldom used but in medicine and law. We say, the aphorisms of Hippo- crates, the aphorisms of the civil law, po- litical aphorisms, &c. APHROD1TA, in natural history, a ge- nus of worms, of the order Molusca. Bo- dy creeping, oblong, covered with scales, and furnished with numerous bristly fas- ciculate feet on each side ; mouth termi- nal, cylindrical, retractile ; feelers two, setaceous, annulate ; and four eyes. There are nine species. A. aculeata has an oval body, brown, beneath flesh colour, with long silky changeable hair on each side the body : it inhabits the European seas, is found in the belly of the cod-fish, and feeds on testaceous animals ; is from four to seven inches long. APHYLLANTHES, the blue MontpeUer pink, in botany, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class of plants, the calyx of which is composed of a number of imbri- cated, lanceolated spathae ; the corolla consists of six petals, of an obversely oval figure, terminating at the base in very narrow ungues, and patent at the limb, forming a kind of tube below it : the fruit is a turbinated capsule of a triangular figure, and contains three cells ; the seeds are oval. There is but a single species. APHYTEIA, in botany, a genus of the Monadelphia Triandria. Calyx large, funnel-form, three-cleft ; three petals in- serted into and shorter than the calyx ; germ inferior; berry one-celled, many- seeded; seeds imbedded. APIAN, (PKTEH), in biography, an eminent astronomer and mathematician, called in German Bienewitz, was born at Loisnich, in Misnia, and became professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt, in 1534. He wrote several treatises on astronomy and the mathematics, und enriched these sciences with many instruments and ob- servations. His first work was a "Trea- tise on Cosmography, or Geographical Instructor ;" this was published in 1530, and in three years after he constructed at Nuremberg a curious instrument, which shewed the hour of the day, by means of the sun's rays, in all parts of the earth. In the year 1540, he published his princi- pal work, entitled " Astronomicon Cxsa- raeum," containing many interesting ob- servations, with the descriptions and divi- sions of instruments, calculations of eclip- ses, and the construction of them in piano. In a second part of the work is a descrip- tion of the construction and use of an astronomical quadrant, to which is annex- ed observations on five different comets : in these he shews that the tails of comets are always projected in a direction oppo- site to the sun. Our limits do not allow us to enumerate all the treatises of Apian : they were as respectable as numerous, and the author was treated with the kind- est attention by the emperor Charles V., who published several of his works at his own expense, conferred upon him the honour of nobility, and presented him with oUOO crowns. Apian died at ingolstadt in 15j2, leaving behind him a high repu- tation for learning, and a son Philip, vi ho was also an eminent astronomer, and taught the sciences both at Tubingen und Ingolstadt. Philip died in 1589, and APIS. left a treatise on " Solar-dials." He gave an account of the new star that appeared in Cassiopeia in 1572, which is preserved. APIARY, a garden or other conveni- ent place where bees are kept. A sou- thern aspect is reckoned the most proper, and the bee-hives should be exposed as little as possible to the wind, and should enjoy as much of the influence of the sun as possible, as wind retards the bees in their work, while the beams of the sun invite them to it. In the vicinity of the apiary there should be plenty of flowers, wild thyme, and the like. The hives should be free from the droppings of trees, the annoyance of dunghills, long grass and weeds ; as from these insects are bred, which are not only destructive to bees, but greatly retard them in the preparation of honey. See APIS. APIS, in natural history, a genus of insects of the order of Hymenoptera. Gen. char, mouth furnished with jaws, and an inflected proboscis, with two bi- valve sheaths : feelers 4, unequal, filiform : antenna; short, filiform, those of the female subclavate ; wings flat or without plaits; sting in the feinule and neutral insects concealed. This genus is distributed by Linnaeus into two assortments, viz. those in which the body of the animal is but slightly co- vered with fine hair or down, and those in which it is remarkably villose or hairy : the insects of the latter division are com- monly distinguished by the title of hum- ble-bees. In the first division, the princi- pal or most important species is the apis mellifica, or common honey-bee, so long and justly celebrated for its wonderful polity, the neatness and precision with which it constructs its cells, and the dili- gence with which it provides, during the warmth of summer, a supply of food, for the support of the hive during the rigours of the succeeding winter. The general history of this interesting insect has been amply detailed by various authors, as Swammcrdam, Keaumur, &c. &c. Among the most elaborate accounts of later times may be mentioned that of Mr. John Hun- ter, which made its appearance in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1792, of which the followingis an abstract. There are three periods at which the his- tory of the bee may commence : first, in the spring, when the queen begins to lay her eggs ; in the summer, at the com- mencement of a new colon)' ; or in the autumn, when they go into winter quar- ters. We shall begin the particular his- tory of the bee with the new rolony, when VOL. I. nothing is formed. When a hive sends off a colony, it is commonly in the month of June ; but that will vary according to the season, for in a mild spring bees some- times swarm in the middle of Mav, and very often at the latter end of it. iicfore they come off", they commonly hang about the mouth of the hole or door of the hive, for some days, as if they had not sufficient room within for such hot weather, which we believe is very much the case ; for if cold or wet weather come on, they stow themselves very well, and wait for fine weather. But swarming appears to be rather an operation arising from necessity, for they would seem not n ilurally to swarm, because if they have an empty space to fill they do not swarm ; there- fore by increasing the size of the hive the swarming is prevented. This period is much longer in some than in others. For some evenings before they come off is often heard a singular noise, a kind of ring, or sound of a small trumpet; by comparing it with the notes of a piano forte, it seemed to be the same sound with the lower A of the treble. The swarm commonly consists of three classes; a fe- male, or females, mules, and those com- monly called mules, which are supposed to be of no sex, and are the labourers; the whole, about two quarts in bulk, making about six or seven thousand. It is a question that rannot easily be deter- mined, whether this old stock sends off entirely young of the same season, and whether the whole of their young ones, or only part. As the males are entirely bred in the same season, part go off; but part must stay, and most probably it is so with the others. They commonly come off in the heat of the day, often immediately after a shower. When one goes off, they all immediately follow, and fly about seemingly in great confusion, although there is one principle actuating the whole. They soon appear to be directed to some fixed place ; such as the branch of a tree or bush, the cavities of old trees, holes of houses leading into some hollow place; and whciu ver the stand is made, they im- mediately repair to it till they are all col- lected. But it would seem, in some cases, that they had not fixed upon any resting place before they come off, or, if they had, that they were cither disturbed, if it was near, or that it was at a great distance ; for, after hovering some time, as if undetermined, they fly away, mount up into the air, and go off with jfreal ve- locity. When they have fixed upon their future habitation, they immediately begin M in APIS. to make their combs, for they have the materials within themselves. " I have reason," says Mr. Hunter, "to believe that they fill their crops with honey when they come away, probably from the stock in the hive- 1 killed several of those that came away, ami found their crops full, while those that remained in the hive had their crops not near so full : some of them came away with farina on their It- gs, which I conceive to be rather accidental. I may just observe here, that a hive commonly sends offtwo, sometimes three, swarms in a summer, but that the second is common- ly less than the first, and the third less than the second ; and this last has seldom time to provide for the winter. "The materials of their dwelling or comb, which is the wax, is the next con- sideration, with the mode of forming, pre- paring, or disposing 1 , of it. In giving a totally new account of the wax, I shall first shew it can hardly be what it has be' n supposed to be First, I shall ob- serve that ihe materials, as they are found composing the comb, are not to be found in , same state (as a composition) in any vegetable, wlierethey have been supposed to be got. The substance brought in on the legs which is the farina of the flow- ers of plants, is, in common, I believe, imagined to be the materials of which the wax is made, for it is called by most the wax : but it is the farina, for it is al- ways of the same colour as the farina of the flower where they are gathering ; and indeed, we see them gathering it, and we also see them covered almost all over with it like a dust ; nevertheless, it has been supposed to be the wax, or that the wax was extracted from it. Reaumur is of this opinion. I made several experiments, to see if there WHS such a quantity of oil in it as would account for the quantity of wax to be formed, and to learn if it was composed of oil. I held it near the can- dle, it burnt, but it did not smell like wax, and had the same smell, when burn- ing, as farina when it was burnt. I ob- served that this substance was of different colours on different bees, but always of the same colour on both legs of the same bee ; whereas a new made comb was all of one colour. I observed that it was gathered with more aridity for old hives, where the comb is complete, than for those hives where it only begun, which we could hardly conceive, if it was the ma- terials of wax : also we may observe, that, at the very beginning of a hive, the bees seldom bring in any substance on their legs for two or three days, and after that the farina gatherers begin to increase ; for now some cells are formed to hold it as a store, and some eggs are laid, which, when hatched, will require this substance as food, and which will be ready when the weather is wet. " The wax is formed by the bees them- selves ; it may be called an external se- cretion of oil, and I have found that it is formed between each scale of the under side of the belly. When I first observed this substance, in my examination of the working bee, I was at a loss to say what it was : I asked myself if it was new scales forming, and whether they cast the old, as the lobster, &c. does ? but it was to be found only between the scales on the lower side of the belly. On examining the bees through glass hives, while they were climbing up the glass, I could see that most of 'hem had this substance, for it looked as if the lower or posterior edge of the scale was double, or that there were double scales : but I perceived it was loose, not attached. Finding that the substance brought in on their legs was farina, intended, as appeared from every circumstance, to be the food of the mag- got, and not to make wax, and not hav- ing yet perceived any thing that could give me the least idea of wax, I conceived these scales might be it, at least I thought it necessary to investigate them. I there- fore took several on the point of a needle, and held them to a candle, where they melted, and immediately formed them- selves into round globules ; upon which I no longer doubted but this was the wax, which opinion was confirmed to me by not finding those scales but in the building season. " The cells, or rather the congeries of cells, which compose the comb, may be said to form perpendicular plates, or partitions, which extend from top to bottom of the cavity in which they build them, and from side to side. They always begin at the top or roof of the vault in which they build, and work downwards : but if the upper part of this vault to which their combs are fixed is removed, and a dome is put over, they begin at the upper edge of the old comb, and work up into the new cavity at the top. They generally may be guided, as to the direc- tion of their new plates of comb, by forming ridges at top, to which they be- gin to attach their comb. In a long hive, if these ridges are longitudinal, their plates of comb will be longitudinal: if placed transverse, so will be the plates,- and if oblique, the plates of comb will be APIS. vblique. Each plate consists of a double set of cells, whose bottoms form the par- tition between each set. The plates themselves are not very regularly ar- ranged, not forming a regular plane where the\ might have done so; but are often adapted to the situation or shape of the cavity in which they are built. The bees do not endeavour to shape their cavity to their work, as the wasps do, nor are the cells of equal depths, also fitting them to their situation ; but as the breeding cells must all be of a given depth, they reserve a sufficient number for breeding in, and they put the honey into the others, as also into the shallow ones. The attachment of the comb round the cavity is not con- tinued, but interrupted so as to form pas- sages ; there are also passages in the mid- dle of the plates, especially if there be a cross stick to support the comb ; these allow of bees to go across from plate to plate. The substance which they use for attaching their combs to surrounding parts is not the same as the common wax ; it is softer and tougher, a good deal like the substance with which they cover in their crysalis, or the humble-bee sur- rounds her eggs. It is probably a mix- ture of wax with farina. The cells are K laced nearly horizontally, but not exacl- J so; the mouth raised a little, which probably may be to retain the honey the better ; however, this rule is not strictly observed, for often they are horizontal, and towards the lower edge of a plane of comb they are often declining. The first combs that a hive forms are the smallest, and much neater than the Ifcst or lower- most. Their sides or partitions, between cell and cell, are much thinner, and the hexagon is much more perfect. The wax is purer, being probably little else but wax, and it is more brittle. The lower combs are considerably larger, and con- tain much more wax, or perhaps, more pro- perly, more materials ; and the cells are at such distances as to allow them to be of a round figure : the wax is softer, and there is something mixed with it. I have observ- ed that the cells are not all of equal size, some being a degree larger than the others; and that the small are the first formed, and of course at the upper part, where the bees begin, and the larger are nearer the lower part of the comb, or last made : however, in hives of particu- lar construction, where the bees may be- gin to work at one end, and can work both down and towards the other end, we of- ten find the larger cells both on the lower part of the combs, and also at the oppo- site end. These are formed for the males to be bred in ; and in tin- hornets and wasps combs there are larger cells, for the queens to be bred in : these are also formed in the lower tier, and the last formed. ' The first comb made in a hive is all of one colour, viz. almost white ; but is not so white towards the end of the season, having then more of a yellow cast. " There is a cell which is called the royal cell, of.en three or four of them, sometimes more ; I have seen eleven, and even thirteen, in the same hive ; commonly they are placed on the edge of one or more of the combs, but often on the side of a comb ; however, not in the centre along with the other cells, like a large one placed among the others, but often against the mouths of the cells, and pro- jecting out beyond the common surface of the comb ; but most of them are form- ed from the edge of the comb, which ter- minates in one of these cells. The royal cell is much wider than the others, but seldom so deep : its mouth is round, and appears to be the largest half of an oval in depth, and is declining downwards, instead of being horizontal or lateral. The materials of which it is composed are softer than common wax, rather like the last mentioned, or those of which the low er edge of the plate of comb is made, or with which ti.^ bees cover the crysalis : they have very hill*; wax in their compo- sition, not one third, the rest I conceive to be farina. " The comb s-en,s at first to be formed for propagation, and the reception of ho- ney to be only a secondary use ; for if the bees lose their queen, they make no combs; and the wasp, hornet, &.<:. make combs, although they collect no honey ; and the humble-bee collects the honey, and deposits it in cells she never made. " I shall not consider the bee as an ex- cellent mathematician, capable of making exact forms, and having reasoned upon the best shape of the cell for capacity, so that the greatest number might be put into the smallest space (tWr the hornet and the wasp are much more correct, although not seemingly under the same necessity, as they collect nothing to occupy their cells) ; because, although the bee is pretty perfect in these respects, yet it is very incorrect in others, in the formation of the comb ; nor shall I consider these ani- mals us forming combs of certain shape and size, from mere mechanical necessity, as from working round themselves ; for such a mould would not form cells of dif- APIS. ferent sizes, much less could wasps be guided by the same principle, as their cells are of very different sizes, and the first by much too small for the queen wasp to have worked round herself: but 1 shall consider the whole as an instinctive principle, in which the animal lias no pow- er of variation or choice, but such as arises from what may be called external necessity. The cell has in common -six sides, but this is most correct in those first formed ; and the bottom is commonly composed of those sides or planes, two of the sides making one ; and they generally fall in between the bottoms of three cells of the opposite side ; but this is not regu- lar, it is only to be found where there is no external interruption. " As soon as a few combs are formed, the female bee begins laying of eggs. As far as I have been able to observe, the queen is the only bee that propagates, al- though it is asserted that the labourers do. Her first eggs in the season are those which produce labourers ; then the males, and probably the queen ; this is the pro- gress in the wasp, hornet, humble-bee, &c. However, it is asserted by Riem, that when a hive is deprived of a queen, la- bourers lay eggs ; also, that at this time some honey and farina are brought in, as store for a wet day. The eggs are laid at the bottom of the cell, and we find them there before the cells are half completed, so that propagation begins early, and goes on along with the formation of the other cells. The egg is attached at one end to the bottom of the cell, sometimes stand- ing perpendicularly, often obliquely ; it has a glutinous, or slimy covering, which makes it stick to any thing it touches. It would appear that there was a period or periods for laying eggs ; for 1 have ob- served in a new swarm, that the great bu- siness of laying eggs did not last above a fortnight ; although the hive was not half filled with comb, it began to slacken. In those new formed combs, as also in many not half finished, we find the substance called bee-bread, and some of it is cover- s ed over with wax, which will be consider- ed further. By the time they have work- ed above half way down the hive with the comb, they are beginning to form for the larger cells, and by this time the first broods were hatched, which were small, or labourers ; and now they begin to breed males, and probably a queen, for a new swarm : because the males are now bred to impregnate the young queen for the present summer, as also for the next year. This progress in breeding is the same with that of the wasp, hornet, and humble-bee. Although this account is commonly allowed, yet writers on this subject have supposed another mode of producing a queen, when the hive is in possession ot maggots, and deprived of their queen. "What may be called the complete process of the egg, namely, from the time of laying to the birth of the bee, (that is, the time of hatching) the life of the maggot, and the life of the crysalis, is, I believe, shorter than in most insects. It is not easy to fix the tfme when the eggs hatch : I have been led to imagine it was in five days. When they hatch, we find the young maggot lying coiled up in the bottom of the cell, in some degree surrounded with a transparent fluid. In many of the cells, where the eggs have just hatched, we find the skin standing in its place, either not yet removed, or not pressed down by the maggot. There is now an additional employment for the la- bourers, namely, the feeding and nursing the young maggots. We may suppose the queen has nothing to do with this, as there are at all times labourers enough in the hive for such purposes, especially, too, as she never does bring the materials, as every other of the tribe is obliged to do at first ; therefore she seems to be a queen by hereditary, or rather by natural, right, while the humble-bee, wasp, hor- net, &c. seem rather to work themselves into royalty, or mistresses of the commu- nity. The bees are readily detected feed- ing the young maggot ; and, indeed, a young maggot might easily be brought up by any person who would be attentive to it. They open their two lateral pincers to receive the food and swallow it. As they grow, they cast their coats or cuti- cles ; but how often they throw their coats, while in the maggot state, I do not know. The maggots grow larger and larger till they nearly fill the cell ; and by this time they require no more food, and are ready to be inclosed for the crysalis state ; when ready for the crysalis state, the bees cover over the mouth of the cell with a substance of a light brown colour, much in the same manner that they cover the honey, excepting that, in the present instance, the covering is convex exter- nally, and appears not to be entirely wax, but a mixture of wax and farina. The maggot is now perfectly inclosed, and it begins to line the cell and covering of the mouth above-mentioned with a silk it spins out, similar to the silk-worm, and which makes a kind of pod for the chrysalis. APIS. Having completed this lining, they cast off, or rather shove off, from the head backwards, the last maggot coat, which is deposited at the bottom of the cell, und then they become chrysalises. " In this state they are forming them- selves for a new life : they are either en- tirely new built, or wonderfully changed, tor there is not the smallest vestige of the old form remaining; yet it must be the same materials,for now nothing is taken in. How far this change is only the old parts new modelled, or gradually altering their form, is not easily determined. To bring about the change, many parts must be re- moved, out of which the new ones are probably formed. As bees are not dif- ferent in this state from the common fly- ing insects in general, 1 shall not pursue the subject of their changes further, al- though it makes a very material part in the natural history of insects. " When the crysalis is formed into the complete bee, it then destroys the cover- ing of its cell and comes forth. They are of a greyish colour, but soon turn brown. " When the swarm of which I have hitherto been giving the history has come off early, and is a large one, more espe- cially if it was put into too small a hive, it often breeds too many for the hive to keep through the winter ; and in such case a new swarm .is thrown off, which, however, is commonly not a large one, and generally has too little time to com- plete its comb, and store it with honey sufficient to preserve them through the winter. This is similar to the second or third swarm of the old hives. " 1 have already observed, that the new colony immediately sets about the increase of their numbers, and every thing rela- ting to it. They had their apartments to build, both for the purpose of breeding, and as a store-house for provisions for the winter. When the season for laying eggs is over, then is the season for collecting honey ; therefore, when the last chrysalis for tlie season comes forth, its cell is im- mediately filled with honey ; and as soon as the cell is full, it is covered over with pure wax, as it is to be considered as store for the winter. This covering answers two very essential purposes: one is to keep it from spilling, or daubing the bees ; the other to prevent its evaporation, by which means it is kept fluid in such a warmth. They are also employed in lay- ing up a store of bee-bread for the young maggots in the spring, for they begin to bring forth much earlier than probably any other insect, because they retain a summer heat, and store up food for the young. " In the month of August we may sup- pose the queen, or queens, are impregna- ted by the males ; and as the mules do not provide for themselves, they become bur- densome to the workers, and are therefore teased to death much sooner than they otherwise would die ; and when the bees set about this business of providing their winter store, every operation is over, ex- cept the collecting of honey and bee- bread. At this time it would seem as it* the males were conscious of their danger, for they do not rest in the mouth of the hive, in either going out or coming in, but hurry either in or out : however, they are commonly attacked by one, two, or three at a time : they seem to make no resist- ance, only getting away as fast as possible. The labourers do not sting them, only pinch them, and pull them about as if to wear them out ; but I suspect it may- be called as much a natural as a violent death. " When the young are wholly come forth, and either the cells entirely filled, or no more honey to be collected, then is the time or season for remaining in their hives for the winter. "Although I have now completed a hive, and no operations are going on in the winter months, yet the history of this hive is imperfect till it sends forth a new swarm. " As the common bee is very suscepti- ble of cold, we find, as soon as the cold weather sets in, they become very quiet or still, and remain so throughout the winter, living on the produce of the sum- mer und autumn ; and, indeed, a cold day in the summer is sufficient to keep them at home, more so than a shower in a warm day : ami if the hive is thin and much ex- posed, they will hardly move in it, but get as close together as the comb will let them, into a cluster. In this manner they appear to live through the winter : how- ever, in a fine day they become very lively and active, going abroad, and appearing to enjoy it, at which time they get rid of their excrement : for I fancy they sel- dom throw out their excrement when in the hive. " Their life at this season of the year is more uniform, and may be termed simple existence, till the warm weather arrives again. As they now subsist on their sum- mer's industry, they would seem to feed in proportion to the coldness of the sea- son; for, from experiment, I found the hive grow lighter in a cold week than it did in APIS. a wanner, which led to further experi- ments. " Although an indolent state is very much the condition of bees through the winter, jet progress is making in the queen towards a summer's increase. The eggs in the oviducts are beginning to swell, and, I believe, in the month of March, she is ready to lay them, for the young bees are to swarm in June ; which constitutes the queen bee to be the earliest breeder of any insect we know. In con- sequence of this the labourers become sooner employed than any other of this tribe of insects. This, both queen and labourers are enabled to accomplish, from living in society through the winter ; and it becomes necessary in them, as they have their colony to form early in the summer, which is to provide for itself for the win- ter following. All this requires the pro- cess to be carried forward earlier than by any other insect, for these are only to have young, which are to take care of them- sehvs through the summer, not being un- der the necessity of providing for the win- ter. " The queen bee, as she is termed, has excited more curiosity than all the others, although much more belong to the la- bourers. From the number of these, and from their exposing themselves, they have their history much better made out: but as there is only one queen, and she scarce- ly ever seen, it being only the effects of her labour we can come at, an opportuni- ty has been given to the ingenuity of con- jecture, and more has been said than can well be proved. The queen, the mother of all, in whatever way produced, is a true female, and different from both the la- bourers and the male. She is not so large in the trunk as the male, and appears to be rather larger in every part than the la- bourers. The scales on the under surface of the belly of the labourers are not uni- formly of the same colour over the whole scale, that part being lighter which is overlapped by the terminating scale above, and the uncovered part being darker. This light part does not terminate in a straight line, but in two curves, making a peak ; all which gives the belly a lighter colour in the labouring bees, more espe- cially when it is pulled out or elongated. \Ve distinguish a queen from a working bee simply by size, and in some degree by colour, but this last is not so easily ascer- tained, because the difference in the co- lour is not so remarkable in the back, and the only view we can commonly get of her is on this part ; but when a hive is killed, the best way is to collect all the bees, and spread them on white paper, or pat them into water, in a broad, Hat-bottom* d, shal- low, white dish, in which they swim, and by looking a> them singly, she may be dis- covered As the queen breeds the first year she is produced, and the oviducts never entirely subside, an old queen is probably thicker than a new-bred one, un- less indeed the oviducts and the eggs form in the chrysalis state, as in the silk- worm, which I should suppose they did. The queen is perhaps at the smallest size just as she has done breeding ; for as she is to lay eggs by the month of March, she must begin early to fill again ; but I believe her oviducts are never emptied, having at all times eggs in them, although but small. She has fat in her belly, similar to the other bees. " It is most probable that the queen which goes off with the swarm is a young one, for the males go off with the swarm to impregnate her, as she must be impreg- nated the same year, because she breeds the same year. " The queen has a sting similar to the working-bee. " I believe a hive, or swarm, has but one queen, at least 1 have never found more than one in a swarm, or in an old hive in the winter ; and probably this is what con- stitutes a hive ; for when there are two queens, it is likely that a division may be- gin to take place. Supernumerary queens are mentioned by Riem, who asserts he has seen them killed by the labourers as well as the males. " The male bee is considerably larger than the labourers : he is even larger than the queen, although not so long when she is in her full state with eggs : he is con- siderably thicker than either, but not longer in the same proportion : he does not terminate at the anus in so sharp a point ; and the opening between the two last scales of the back and belly is larger, and more under the belly, than in the fe- male. His proboscis is much shorter than that of the labouring bee, which makes me suspect he does not collect his own honey, but takes that which is brought home by the others; especially as we ne- ver find the males abroad on flowers, Stc. only fly ing about the hives in hot weather, as if taking an airing ; and when we find that the male of the humble-bee, which collects its own food, has as long a pro- boscis, or tongue, as the female, I think it is from all these facts reasonable to sup- pose the male of the common bee feeds at home. He has no sting. " The class of labouring bees, for we cannot call it either sex or species, is the APIS. largest in number of the whole communi- ty : there are thousands of them to one queen, and probably some hundreds to eacli male. It is to be supposed they are the only bees which construct the whole hive, and that the queen has no other bu- siness but to lay the eggs : they are the only bees that bring in materials ; the only ones we observe busy abroad ; and indeed the idea of any other is ridiculous, when we consider the disproportion in numbers, as well as the employment of the others, while the working bee has nothing to take off its attention to the business of the family. They are smaller than either the queen or the males : not all of equal size, although the difference is not very great. " The queen and the working bees are so much alike, that the latter would seem to be females on a different scale : how- ever, this difference is not so observable in the beginningof winter as in the spring, when the queen is full of eggs. They are all females in construction ; indeed, one might suppose that they were only young queens, and that they be- ame queens af- ter a certain age ; but this is not the case. They all have stings, which is another thing that makes them similar to the queen. From their being furnished with an instrument of defence and offence, they are endowed with such powers of mind as to use it, their minds being extremely ir- ritable ; so much so, that they make an attack when not meddled with, simply upon suspicion, and when they do attack they always sting ; and yet, from the cir- cumstance of their not being able to dis- engage the sting, one should suppose they would be more cautious in striking with it. When they attack one another, they seldom use it, only their pincers : yet I s:i\v two bees engaged, and one stung the other in the mouth, or thereabouts, and the sting was drawn from the body to which it belonged, and the one who was stung ran very quickly about with it ; but I could not catch that bee, to observe how the sting was situated. " As they are the collectors of honey, much more than what is for their own use either immediately or in future, their tongue is proportionally fitted for that purpose : it is considerably larger than that of either the queen or the male, which fits them to take up the honey from the hollow parts of flowers of consider- able depth. The mechanism is very cu- rious, and will be explained further on. "Bees certainly have the five senses : sight none can doubt : fueling they also have ; and there is every reason for sup- posing they have likewise taste, smell, and hearing. Taste we cannot doubt ; but of smell we may not have such proofs; yet, from observation, I think they give strong signs of smell. When bees are hungry, as a young swarm in wet weather, and are in a glass hive, so that they can be ex- amined, if we put some honey into the bottom, it will immediately breed a com- motion ; they all seem to be upon the scent: even if they are weak, and hardly able to crawl, they will throw out their proboscis as far as possible to get to it, although the light is very faint. This last appears to arise more from smell than see- ing. If some bees are let loose in abee-hive, and do not know from which house they came, they will take their stand upon the outside of some hive, or hives, especially when the evening is coming on : whether this arises from the smell of the hives, or sound, I can hardly judge. " Bees may be said to have a voice. They are certainly capable of forming se- veral sounds. They give a sound, when flying, which they can vary according to circumstances. One accustomed to bees can immediately tell when a bee makes an attack, by the sound. This is probably made by the wings. They may be seen standing at the door of their hive, with the belly rather raised, and moving their wings, making a noise. But they produce a noise independent of their wings ; for if a bee is smeared all over with honey, so as to make the wings stick together, it will be found to make a noise which is shrill and peevish. I have observed that they, or some of them, make a noise the even- ings before they swarm, which is a kind of ring, or sound of a small trumpet : by com- paring it with the notes of the piano-forte, it seemed to be the same with the lower A of the treble. " I have observed, that it is only the queen and the labourers that have stings ; and this provision of a sting is perhaps as curious a circumstance as any attending the bee, and probably is one of the cha- racters of the bee tribe. "The apparatus itself is of a very curious construction, fitted for inflicting a wound, and at the same time conveying a poison into that wound. The apparatus consists of two piercers, conducted in a groove or di- rector, which appears to be itself the sting. All these parts are moved by muscles, which we may suppose are very strong in in them, much stronger than in other ani- mals ; and these muscles give motion in almost all directions, but more particularly outwards. It is wonderful how deep they will pierce solid bodies with the sting. Y have examined the length they havepierc- APIS. ed the palm of the hand, which is covered with a thick cuticle : it has often been about the one-twelfth of an inch. To per- form this by mere force, two things are necessary, power of muscles, and strength of the sting, neither of which they seem to possess in sufficient degree. I own I do not understand this operation. I am apt to conceive there is something in it distinct from simple force applied to one end of a body : for if this was simply the case, the sting of the bee could not be made to pierce by any power applied to its base, as the least pressure bends it in any direction : it is possible the serrated edges may assist, by cutting their way in like a saw. " The apparatus for the poison consists of two small ducts, which are the glands that secrete the poison : these two lie in the abdomen, among the air-cells, &c. ; they both unite into one, which soon en- ters into or forms an oblong bag, like a bladder of urine ; at the opposite end of which passes out a duct, which runs to- wards the angje where the two stings meet, and entermgbetween the two stings, is continued between them in a groove, which forms acanal by the union of the two stings to this point. There is another duct on the right of that described above, which is not so circumscribed, and contains a thicker matter, which, as far as I have been able to judge, enters along witli the other ; but it is the first that contains the poison, which is a thin, clear fluid. From the stings having serrated edges, it is seldom the bees can disengage them ; and they immediately upon stinging endeavour x to make their escape, but are generally prevented, as it were caught in their own trap ; and the force they use commonly drags out the whole of the apparatus for stinging, and also part of the bowels; so that the bee most frequently falls a sacri- fice immediately upon having effected its purpose. Upon a superficial view, one conceives that the first intention of the bee having a sting is evident ; one sees it has property to defend, and that therefore it is fitted for defence ; but why it should naturally fall a sacrifice in its own defence does not so readily appear ; besides, all bees have slings, although all bees have not property to defend, and therefore are not under the same necessity of being so provided. Probably its having a sting to use was sufficient for nature to defend the bee, without using it liberally ; and the loss of a bee or two, when they did sting, was of no consequence, for it is seldom that more die." Some naturalists suppose that the queen is formed from the larvse of the workingbee; by aparticular mode oftreatment,or peculi- arity or quantity of food, the bulk is augmen- ted, and the generative organs developed. We now proceed to notice some of the species. The apis centuncularis, or car- penter-bee, is remarkable for its faculty of forming long, tubular, and slightly flexuose cavities in wood, even of the most solid kind, as oak, &c. Sometimes it performs this- operation in living trees, and some- times in dry wood, posts, &c. When the tube is properly finished, the animal pro- ceeds to line each of the above-mentioned spaces with rose-leaves rolled over each other, the bottom of each being formed by several circular pieces of these leaves, placed immediately over each other to u sufficient thickness. The animal then de- posits an egg at the bottom, and having left in the cell a sufficient quantity of a kind of honey for the nourishment of the young larva, when hatched, proceeds to close the top with circular bits of rose-leaf; and, thus proceeding, finishes the whole series. This is usually done towards the close of summer; and the young, having passed the period of their larva state, change into that of chrysalis, and remain the whole winter, not making their ap- pearance till pretty late in the ensuing season. This bee is about the size of the common, or honey-bee, but shorter and broader bodied in proportion, and is of a dusky colour above, the lower parts he- ing covered with a bright ferruginous down or hair. In seasons when this species happens to be plentiful, it does considera- ble injury to the trees which it attacks, large trunks of apparently healthy oaks having been found very materially injured by the numerous trains of cells distributed through them indifferent parts; thirty,for- ty, or fifty tubes sometimes lying within a very small distance of each other- In defect of rose-leaves, the cavities are sometimes lined with the leaves of elm, &c. A species, very nearly allied to the preceding, pur- sues a similar plan of forming a continued series of cylindrical nests with rose or other leaves, rolling them in such a man- ner as to resemble so many thimbles, the top of each being closed as before. In- stead, however, of being placed in the timber of trees, they are laid in horizontal trains, at a certain distance beneath the surface of the ground. Of the villose, or hairy bees, popularly called humble-bees, one of the largest and most common in England is the apis lapidaria of Linnaeus, so named from the circumstance of its nest being generally situated in strong or gravelly places. This species is entirely API Al'L p black colour, except the end of the abdomen, which is red or onmge -co- loured, more or loss deep in different in- dividuals. Tin- female is of large si/is measuring near an inch in length; the male is considerably smaller; and the neu- ter, or labouring bee, still smaller than the male. The humble-bees in general live in small societies of 40 or 60 together, in an oval or roundish nest, excavated to a small depth beneath the surface of the ground, and formed of branches of moss, compact- ed together, and lined with a kind of coarse wax. In this nest, which measures from four to six inches in diameter, are constructed several ova] cells, which, how- ever, are not the work of the complete in- sects, but are the cases spun by the larvae, and in which they remain during their state of chn salis : the eggs are deposited among heaps of a kind of coarse honey or bee-bread, placed here and there at uncer- tain intervals; on this substance the larvx feed during their growing state : lastly, in every nest are placed a few nearly cylin- dric cells or goblets of coarse wax, and filled with pure honey, on which the com- plete insects feed. Sec Plate I. Entomo- logy, fig. 4 6. For the management of bees, see UKE. AIMUM, in botany, a genus of plants, including parsley, smallage, and celery. Class, Pcntandria Digynia; natural order of Umbellate. Kssen. character, cal. gene- ral umbel of fewer rays than those of the partial; cor. general uniform; floscules almost all fertile ; petals roundish, inflex, equal; stain, filaments simple; anthers, roundish; pist. germ inferior; seeds t\\o, .'riated on one side, plane on the other. A. petrosilinum, or common pars- lc\ , both the varieties are in use ; but it is remarked that the plane-leaved sort is most commonly cultivated, though many prefer the curled kind, because its leaves are most easily distinguished from the rtthusa, or fool's parsley, a sort of hejn- lock, and a poisonous: garden wed, which, while young, has great resemblance to the common plane-leaved parsley. Hesides, the curled paisley, from its having larger and thicker leaves, and being curiously hmbriatcd and curled, so as to shew full and double, makes a better appearance in its growth, and is more esteemed b\ rooks for the purpose of garnishing disl. It may, however, be necc.ssan. to o mark, that this sort, as being only a \ariety, is liable to degenerate to tin- common plane sort, unless particular care be taken to save the seeil always Trum the p.-rl'ect, full curled plants. Hoththc varieties are propagated by seed sown annually in VOL. I. spring, where the plants are to remain . but the plants are biennials, rising from si (I so\\ n in March, April, M-iy, and June. A. latitblium, or broad-leafed pars. ley. The propagation of this species is also by seed sown annually in February, March, April} or May, where the plants p-mani. For this purpose, a spot of liirht rich earth, in an open exposure-, is to be preferred ; the seed being sown broad-cast, and raked in, the plants g.-ne- rally appearing in about a month after -own, and in May or June ti to be. thinned and cleared from i\ hich may be performed cither by hand or hoe ; but the latter is most eligi- : t will stir and loosen the surface of the earth, which may be beneficial to the plants, cutting them out to about MX iistanoe from each other. In the nd of July, the roots will mostly have attained a si/.e proper for use, and may be drawn occasionally; but tin \ sel- dom acquire their full growth till about Michaelmas. This is sometimes called Hamburgh parsley, probably from its be- ing much cultivated about that place. It is chiefly cultivated and esteemed for its large roots, which are white, and carrot- shaped, being 1 long, taper, and of down- right growth, often attaining the size and appearance of small or middling parsnips; they boil exceedingly tender and palata- ble, are very wholesome, and may be used in sou]) or broth, or to eat like carrots and parsnips, or as sauce to flesh meat. A. dulce, or the common celery. The me- thod of propagation in all the varieties of this sort, is by sowing the seed in the sprng, and when the plants have attained si\ oreight inches in height, transplanting them into trenches, in order to be earthed up on each side as t!u-y advance in growth, and have their stalks blanched or whiten- ed, to render them crisp and tender. API. \\ATIC, in optics, a term applied by Dr. Illair, professor of astronomy in Edinburgh, to that kind of refraction d'-.- coveivd by himself, \\hich corrects tin- aberration of the ra\ s of light, and the colour depending upon it, in contradis- tinction to thcvord achromatic, which h is been appropriated to that i\ fraction, in which there is only a partial correction of eolcnir. See Oi-Tics. Dr. lt!air dis- o^eivd a mixture of solutions of aimno- niaeal and niereurinl salts, and al-- otherMibstauccs. \\ liich proi'.uccd disper- sions proportional to that it n spet ! to the different col.. ipound K i ol'u semi-convex one ofcrowngUu X n APO APO its flat side towards the object, and a meniscus of the same materials, with its convex side in the same direction, and its flatter concave next the eye, and the in- terval between these lenses he filled with a solution of antimony in a certain pro- portion of muriatic acid. The lens thus adapted did not manifest the slightest vestige of any extraneous colour. He obtained a patent for the invention in 1791. APLUDA, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class of plants, the common calyx of which is an univalve, bifloral, ovated, concave, loose mucrona- ted glume; the proper glume is bivalve, and placed obliquely; the corolla is a bi- valve glume of the length of the cup; there is no pericnrp'mm ; the seed, which is single, is involved in the glume of the corolla. Male corol. two valved ; female floret sessile ; stamina three. Female corol. two valved; one style; one seed, covered. There are four species. APOCOPE, among grammarians, a fi- gure which cuts oft a letter or syllable from the end of a word, as ingeni for in- genii. APOCRYPHAL, something dubious, is more particularly applied to certain books notadmitted into the canon of scrip- ture. Those arc certain books of the Old Testament extant only in Greek, admitted by the church of Rome as canonical, but rejected by the reformed churches as no part of holy writ; such are the books of Judith, ^Visdom, .Tobit, Baruch, Macca- bees, the third and fourth books of Es- dras. In this sense apocryphal stands distinguished from canonical, though the Romish church disowns the distinction. Authors are divided as 1o the origin of the appellation apocryphal, and the rea- son why it was given to these books. The apocryphal books were not received into the canon, either of the Jews, or an- cient Christians, but were first made ca- nonical by a decree of the council of Trent The apocryphal books, accord- ing to the sixth article of the church of England, are to be read for example of life and instruction of manners ; but it doth not apply them to establish any doc- trine. APOCYNUM, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Dvginia class and order. Corol. ccnnpanulate ; nectareous filaments five, alternating with the stamina. There are 14 species. APODES, the name of one of the or- ders of fishes in the Linnaean distribution of animals. Their character is, that they have no belly fins ; there are 12 genera, viz. Ammodytes, Ophydium, Anarhichas, Sternoptyx, Gymnothorax, Stomateus, Gymnotus, Stylephorus, Leptocephalus, Trichiurus, Mursena, Xiphias, which see under the several heads in the alphabet. APOGEE, in astronomy, that point of the orbit of a planet, or the sun, which is farthest from the earth. Ancient astronomy, which placed the earth in the centre of the system, was much taken up in ascertaining the apogee and perigee ; which the moderns have changed for aphelium and pcrihelium. See the article AniKLifM, 8cc. APOLLONIUS, of Perga, a city in Pamphilia, was a celebrated geometrician, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about 240 years before Christ; being about 60 years after Euclid, and 30 years later than Archimedes. He studied a longtime in Alexandria under the disci- ples of Euclid ; and afterwards he com- posed several curious and ingenious geo- metrical works, of which only his books of Conic Sections are now extant, and even these not perfect. For it appears from the author's dedicatory epistle to Eudemus, a geometrician in Pergamus, that this work consisted of eight books ; only seven of which however has come down to us. From the Collections of Papus, and the Commentaries of Eutocius, it appears that Apollonius was the author of various pieces in geometry, on account of which fie acquired the title of the great geome- trician. His Conies was the principal of them. Some have thought that Apollo- nius appropriated the writings and disco- veries of Archimedes; Heraclius, who wrote the life of Archimedes, affirms it ; though Eutocius endeavours to refute him. Although it should be allowed a groundless supposition, that Archimedes wasthe first who wrote upon conies, not- withstanding his treatise on conies was greatly esteemed, yet it is highly proba- ble that Apollonius would avail himself of the writings of that author, as well as others who had gone before him ; and, upon the whole, he is allowed the honour of explaining a difficult subject better than had been done before, having made several improvements, both in Archime- des's problems, and in Euclid. His work upon conies was doubtless the most per- fect of the kind among the ancients, and APO APO in some respects among the moderns also. Before Apollotiius, it liud been customa- ry, as we arc informed by Kutocius, tor the writers on conies to require three dif- ferent sorts of cones to cut me three difie- rcnt sections from; viz. the parabola from a right-angled cone, the ellipse from an acute, and the hyperbola from an obtuse cone ; because tiiey always supposed the sections made by a plane cutting the cones to be perpendicular to the side of them : but Apollonius cut his sections all from any one cone, by only varying the inclination or position of the cutting plane ; an improvement that has been followed by all other authors since his tune. But that Archimedes was acquainted with the same manner of cutting any cone is suffi- ciently proved, against Eutocius, Pappus, and others, by Guido Ubaldus, in the be- ginning of his Commentary on the second book of Archimcdes's Equiponderantes, published at Pisa in 1588. See CONIC SECTIONS. The first four books of Apollonius's co- nies only have come down to us in their original Greek language ; but the next three, the 5th, 6th, and 7th, in an Arabic version ; and the 8th not at all. These have been commented upon, translated, and published by various authors. Pap- Eus, in his Mathematical Collections, has :ft some account of his various works, with notes and lemmas upon them, and particularly on the Conies. And Eutocius wrote a regular elaborate commentary on the propositions of several of the books of the Conies. A neat edition of the first four books in Latin was published by Dr. Barrow, in 4to. at London, in 1675. A magnificent edition of all ttu- hooks was published in folio, by Dr. Halley, at Oxford, in 1710; together with the Lemmas of Pappus, and the Commentaries of Eutocius. The first four in Greek and Latin, but the lat- ter four in Latin only, the 8th book being restored by himself. APOLOGUE, in matters of literature, an ingenious method of conveying instruc- tion by means of a feigned relation, called a moral fable. The only difference between a parable and an apalogue is, that the former, hi -ing drawn from what passes among mankind, requires probability in the narration : whereas the apalogue, being taken from the supposed actions of brutes, or < things inanimate, is not tied down to the strict rules of probability. .Ksop's fables a iv :i model of this kind of writing. APONOGETON, in botany, a prnus cf the Dodecandria Tetragynia. Ament, composed of sritKs ; no calyx, no corol. ; capsules four; three seeded. There are four sjji APOPHTHEGM, a short, sententious, and instructive remark, pronounced by a person of distinguished character. Such are the apophthegms of Plutarch, and those of the ancients collected by Lycos- APOPHYSIS, in anatomy, an excres- cence from the body of a bone, of which it is a true continuous part, as a branch is of a tree. APOTHECARY, one who practises the art of pharmacy, or that part of physic which consists in the preparation and composition of medicines. A youth intended for this profession- should be ft pretty good scholar, and have such a knowledge in the Latin tongue, as to be able to read the best writers upon the subject of botany, pharmacy, anato- my, and medicine. In London, the apo- thecaries are one of the city companies, and by an act, which was made perpetual in the ninth year of George I. are exempt- ed from serving upon juries, or in ward and parish offices. They are obliged to make up their medicines according to the formulas described in the College Dis- pensatory, and are liable to have their shops visited by the censors of the college, who are empowered to destroy such me- dicines as they think not good. In Penn- sylvania, and we believe the United States generally, no obligation of this kind is imposed. Any person, however ignorant of the qualities and properties of medi- cines, or unskilful in the preparation of them, may nevertheless establish himself as an apothecary ; the consequence is, the occurrence of many accidents; the inju- dicious application of drugs ; and, as he is amenable to no authority, the consequent adulteration of his compounds. The apothecaries have a Hull in Black- friars, London, where there are two fine laboratories, from which all the surgeons* chests are supplied with medicines tor the royal navy. In China, the) have a singu- lar mode of dispensing their medicines. In the public squares of their cities there is a very high stone pillar, on which are engraven the names of all sorts of medi- cines, with the price of each; and when the poor stand in need of any relief from phy.Mc, they go to the treasury, where the price each medicine is rated at. A I'OTHEOSIS, in antiquity, a ceremo- nv. li\ \\ hieh tht ancient Romans compli- APP APP mented their emperors and great men, after their death, with a place among the gods. It is described as follows : after the body of the deceased had been burnt with the usual solemnities, an image of wax, exactly resembling him, was placed on an ivory couch, where it lay for seven days, attended by the senate and ladies of the highest quality in mourning; and then the young senators and knights bore the bed of state through the Via sacra to the old Forum, and from thence to the Campus Martius, where it was deposited upon an edifice built in form of a pyra- mid. The bed being thus placed, amidst a quantity of spices and other combusti- bles, and the knights having made a pro- cession in solemn measure round the pile, the new emperor, with a torch in his hand, set fire to it, while an eagle, let fly from the top of the building, and mounting in the air with a firebrand, was supposed to convey the soul of the deceased to hea- ven, and thenceforward he was ranked among the gods. APOTOME, in geometry, the differ- ence between two incommensurable lines : thus, E C, (Plate Miscel. fig. 6.) is the apotome of A C and A B. If we suppose A C = a, and A B = b. then will their apotome be a ^/ b ; or, in numbers, 2 ^/ 3. Hence also the difference between the side A C = 2 (fig. 7.) of an equilateral triangle ABC, and the perpendicular B D = ^/ 3 is an apotome, Wr. =2 ^/ 3. And uni- versally, if A C (fig. 8.) be a semi-parabo- la, whose axis is A B, and its lattis rec- tum = 1, and if A D be a tangent to the vertex at A, and this be divided into the parts A a = 2, A b = 3, A r = 5, A d= 6, &c. and perpendiculars a 1, b 2, r 3, d 4, &c. be drawn, these will be, from the na- ture of the curve, ^/ 2, ^/ 3, ^/ 5, v/ 6, &c. respectively : and so ^ A a (== 1) a 1, will be 1 v/ 2 : A a b 2 will be 2 \/3, &c. by which means you will have an infinite series of different apo- tome s. APOTOMK, in music, the difference be- tween a greater and lesser semi-tone, ex- pressed by the ratio 128 : 125. APPARATUS, a term used to denote a romplete set of instruments, orotheruten- .sils, belonging to any artist or machine : thus we say, a surgeons' apparatus, a che- mist's apparatus, the apparatus of the air-pump, microscope, &c. APPARENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, denotes things as they appear to us, in contradistinction from real or true : thus we say, the apparent diameter, distance, magnitude, place, fig* ure, &.c. of bodies. APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term to comprehend all attend- ants of judges and magistates appointed to receive and execute their orders. Ap- paritor, with us, is a messenger, that serves the process of a spiritual court, or a beadle in an university, who carries the mace. APPAUMEE, in heraldry, denotes one hand extended with the full palm appear- ing, and the thumb and fingers at full length. APPEAL, in law, the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court or judge, when a person thinks himself aggrieved by the sentence of the inferior judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of justice to the House of Lords. In ecclesiastical causes, if an appeal is brought before a bishop, it may be remov- ed to the archbishop ; if before an arch- deacon, to the Court of Arches, and thence to the archbishop ; and from the archbishop's court to the king in chancery Appeal, in common law, is taken for the accusation of a murderer by a person who had interest in the party killed ; or of a felon by an accomplice. It is prosecu- ted either by writ or by bill : by writ, when a writ is purchased out of the Chancery by one person against another, command- ing him to appeal some third person of felony, and to find pledges for doing it ef- fectually ; by bill, when the person him- self gives in his accusation in writing, of- fering to undergo the burden of appeal- ing the person therein named. In military affairs, an appeal might for- merly be made by the prosecutor, or pri- soner, from the sentence or jurisdiction of a regimental to a general court-martial. At present no soldier has a right to ap- peal, except in cases where his immedi- ate subsistence is concerned. APPEARANCE, in law, signifies a de- fendant's filing a common or special bail on any process issued out of a court of judicature. In actions by original, ap- pearances arc entered with the philazer of the county ; and by bill, with the protho- notary. Defendants may appear in per- son, where the party stands in contempt, for the court will not permit him to ap- pear by attorney : also in capital and cri- minal cases : where an act of parliament requires that the party should appear in person, and likewise in appeal, or on at- tachment : by attorney, in all actions, real, personal, and mixed, and for any crime whatever under the degree of capital, by APP APP ir of the court: by guardian and next friend, when underage. APPELLATFV K, in grammar, a noun, >r name, which is applicable to a whole species or kind, as man, horse ; in contra- distinction to a proper name. AIM'KI. [.()/{, or Ai-HKLi-Avr, in law, he who has committed some felony or other crime, which lie confesses and ap- peals, that is, accuses his accomplices. AI'I'KMlA.NT, in ht\ v , any thing that is inheritable, belonging to some more worthy inheritance, as an advowson, com- mon, or court, may be appendant to a manor, land to an office, &c. but land cannot be appendant to land, for both are corporeal inheritances, and one thing cor- poreal cannot be appendant to another. APPLE, a well-known fruit, consisting of a rind, pill, or skin; the pulp, or paren- chyma; the branchery, or seed-vessels; and the core. See Prnus. APPLICATION, the act of applying one thing to another-/, by causing them to approach, or bringing them nearer toge- ther. Thus a longer line or space is measured by the application of a less, as a foot or yard by an inch, &c. ; and mo- tion is determined by successive applica- tion of any thing to different parts of space. Application is sometimes also used both in arithmetic and geometry, for the operation of division, or for that which corresponds to it in geometry. Thus 20 applied to, or divided by 4, '. e. 20 ^j-, gives 5. And a rectangle a b applied to a line, c, gives the fourth proportional , or another line, as rf, which, with the c given line c, will contain a rectangle c d = ub. APPLICATION, in geometry, denotes the act of placing one figure upon another, in order to determine their equality or inequality. In this way Euclid, and other geometricians, have demonstrated some of the primary and fundamental proposi- tions in elementary geometry. Thus it is proved, that two triangles, having two sides of the one equal respectively to two sides of the other, and the two included suigles equal, are equal in all respects ; ami two triangles, having one side and the adjacent angles of the one respectively equal to one side, and the adjacent angles of the other, are also in the same mode of application shewn to be equal. Thus also it is demonstrated that a diameter di- vides the circle into two equal parts; and that the diagonal divides u square or pa- rallelogram into two equal parts. The term is also used to signify the adapta- tion of one quantity to another, in order to their being compared, the are. is oi~ which are the same, but their figures dif fereat Thus Kuclid shews how, on a right. line given, to apply a parallelogram that. shall be equal to a right-lined figure given. APPLICATION of one science to another, signifies the use that is made of the prin- ciples of the one for augmenting and per- fecting the other. As there is a connec- tion between all the arts and sciences, one of them may be made subservient to the illustration and improvement of the other; and to this purpose algebra has been ap- plied to geometry, and geometry to alge- bra, and both to mechanics, astronomy, geography, navigation, &c. See ALGE- H in, application of. APPLICATION- of algebra and geometry to mechanics is founded on the same princi- ples as the application of algebra to geo- metry. It consists principally in repre- senting, by equations, the curves describ- ed by bodies in motion, by determining the equation between the spaces which the bodies describe when actuated by any forces, and the times employed in describ- ing them. As a familiar instance, we may refer to the article ACCELERATION, where the perpendiculars of triangles represent the times, the bases, the velocities, and the areas the spaces described by bodies in motion, a method first invented by Ga- lileo. As lines and figures may be treat- ed of algebraically, it is evident in what way the principles of geometry and al- gebra may be applied to mechanics, and indeed to every branch of mixt mathe- matics. APPLICATION of mechanics to geometry consists in the use that is made of the centre of gravity of figures, for determin- ing the contents of solid bodies described by those figures. APPLICATION of geometry and attronomy to geography consists in determining the figure and magnitude of the earth ; in de- termining the positions of places by ob- servations of latitudes and longitudes , and in determining, bv geometrical opera- tions, the positions of such places as are not far distant from one another. APPLICATION of geometry and alg-ffmi ta na! itm/ philosophy was invented chicfh by Sir Isaac Newton, and upon this applica- tion are founded all the mixed sciences of mathematical and natural philosophy Here a single obesrvation or experiment will frequently produce a whole science, or branch of science. Thus when it i* proved by- experiment that the rays of APP APP light in reflecting, make the angle of in- cidence equal to the angle of reflection, we deduce the whole science of catop- trics ; for, this fact being established, ca- toptrics becomes a science purely geome- trical, since it is reduced to the compari- son of angles and lines given in position. C APPOINTEE, in heraldry, the same as aguisee: thus we say, a cross appointee, to signify that which has two angles at the end cut oft', so as to terminate in points. APPORTIONMENT, in law, the divi- sion of a rent into parts, in the same man- ner as the land out of which it issues is divided : for example, if a person leases three acres of land for a certain rent, and afterwards grants away one acre thereof to another, the rent shall be apportioned between them. APPOSITION, in grammar, the placing two or more substantives together, in the same case, without any copulative con- junction between them ; as, ardebat JLkx- im deticias domini. APPRAISING, the valuing or setting a price on goods. This is usually done by a sworn appraiser, who, if he values the goods too high, is obliged to take them at the price appraised. APPREHENSION, in logic, the first or most simple act of the mind, whereby it perceives, or is conscious of some idea : it is more usually called perception. APPRENTICE, a young person bound by indenture to some tradesman, in order to be instructed in the mystery or trade. By the laws of England, a master may be indicted for not providing for, or for turn- ing 1 away, his apprentice : and upon com- plaint from a master, that he neglects his duty, an apprentice may be committed to Bridewell, or be bound over to the ses- sions. Apprentices maybe bound to hus- bandmen, or even to gentlemen of fortune and clergymen, who, as well as trades- men, are compellableto take the children of the poor, under a penalty of 10/. And the church-wardens and overseers, with the consent of two justices, may bind them till the age of 21 years. Justices may compel certain persons under age to be bound apprentices, and on refufal may commit them. Apprentices may be dis- charged on reasonable cause, either at their own request, or that of their masters. If any, whose premium has been less than ten pounds, run away from their masters, they are compellable to serve out the time of absence, or give satisfaction for it, any period within seven years after the expi- ration of the original contract. Indentures are to be stamped, and are chargeable with several duties by act of parliament APPRENTICESHIP, denotes the ser- vitude of an apprentice, or the duration of his indenture. The competition in seve- ral employments is restrained to a smaller number than would otherwise be disposed to enter into them, partly by the limitation of the number of apprentices, which at- tends the exclusive privilege of incorpo- rated trades ; and partly by the long term of apprenticeship, which increases the ex- pense of education. Seven years seem for- merly to have been, all over Europe, the usual term established for the duration of apprenticeships in the greater number of incorporated trades. Such incorporations were anciently called universities, which is the proper Latin name for any incorpora- tion whatever. The university of smiths, the university of tailors, &.c. are expres- sions commonly occurring in the old char- tersof ancient towns. When those particu- lar incorporations, which are now peculiar- ly called universities, were first establish- ed, the term of years during which it was necessary to study, in order to obtain the degree of Master of Arts, appears evi- dently to have been copied from the term of apprenticeship in common trades, of which the incorporations were much more ancient. As to have wrought seven years under a master, properly qualified, was necessary to entitle any person to become a master, and to have himself apprentices, in a common trade, so to have studied seven years under a master properly qua- lified, was necessary to entitle him to be- come a master, teacher, or doctor, (words anciently synonymous,) to study under him. By the 5th of Elizabeth, commonly called the statute of apprenticeship, it was enacted, that no person should, for the fu- ture, exercise any trade, craft, or mystery, at that time exercised in England, unless he had previously served to it an appren- ticeship of seven years at least ; and thus, what before had been the bye-law of ma- ny particular corporations, became in England the general and public law of all trades carried on in market-towns. To country villages the term of seven years apprenticeship doth not extend; but the limitation of this statute to trades exercised before it was passed has given occasion to several distinctions, which, considered as rules of police, appear as foolish as can well be imagined. A coach- maker, for instance, has no right to make, or employ journeymen for making, coach- wheels : but he must buy them of a mas- ter wheel-right, this latter trade having APPRENTICESHIP. been exercised in England before the 5th of Klizabeth. But a wneel-wright, though he has never served an apprenticeship to a coachmaker, may, by himself or jour- neyman, make coaches, because this trade, being of a later origin, is not within the statute. Thus also the manufactures of Manchester, Birmingham, and Wolver- hampton, are, many of them, upon this account, not within the statute, not having 1 been exercised in England before the 5th of Elizabeth. The regulations of apprenticeship in Ireland are upon a different footing, and somewhat less illiberal than in England. Prohibitions, similar to those of the statute of the 5th of Elizabeth, obtain in all cor- porate towns, by authority of bye-laws of the several corporations : but these pro- hibitions extend only to natives of Ireland ; for, by a regulation made by the lord lieu- tenant and privy -council, having in this in- stance, by 17 and 18 Car. IF. the force of a law, all foreigners and aliens, as well per- sons of other religious persuasions as Protestants, who are merchants, traders, artificers, &c. shall, upon coming to reside in a city, walled town, or corporation, and paying twenty shillings, by way of fine, to the chief magistrate and common- council, or other persons authorised to admit freemen, be admitted to the free- dom of that city, Jtc. and to the freedom of guilds of their respective trades, with the full enjoyment of all privileges of buy- ing, selling, working, &c. ; and any ma- gistrate refusing to admit foreigners, so applying, shall be disfranchised. In Scotland, there is no general law which regulates universally the duration of apprenticeships. The term is different in different corporations; where it is long, a part of it may generally be redeemed by paying a small fine. In most towns, too, a very small fine is sufficient to pur- chase the freedom of any corporation. The weavers of linen and hempen cloth, the principal manufactures of the country, as well as all other artificers subservient to them, wheel-makers, reel-mak may exercise their trades in any town cor- porate, without paying any fine. In all towns corporate, all persons are free to sell butchers' meat upon any lawful day of the week. Three years are, in Scot- land, a common term of apprenticeship, in some very nice trades ; and, in general, there is no country in Europe, in which corporation laws are so little oppressive. In France the duration of apprenticeships is different in different towns, and in dif- ferent trades. In Paris, 5 years are the term required in a great number ; and before any person can be qualified to ex- the trade as a muster, he must, in many of them, serve 5 years more as a journeyman. During this latter time, he is railed the companion of his master, and the term itself is called his companionship. The institution of long apprentic says Dr. Smith, can give no security that in- sufficient workmanship shall not frequent- ly be exposed to sale ; nor has it am t> n- dency to form young people to industry. Apprenticeships were altogether un- known to the ancients : the Roman law is perfectly silent with regard to them. There is no Greek or Laun word, which expresses the idea we now annex to the word apprentice. Long apprenticeslu'ps are altogether un- necessary. The arts, which are much su- perior to common trades, such as those, ot making clocks and watches, contain no such mystery as to require a long course of instmction. In the common mechanic trades, the lessons of a few days might certainly be sufficient. The dexterity of hand, indeed, even in common trad not be acquired without much practice and experience. But a young man would practise with much more diligence and at- tention, if, from the beginning, he wrought as a journeyman, being paid in proportion to the little work which he could execute, and paying, in his turn, for the materials which he might sometimes spoil through awkwardness and inexperience. H cation would generally in this way be more effectual, and always less tedious and ex- pensive. The master, indeed, would be a loser; he would lose all the wages of tlu* apprentice, which he now s:r years together. In the end, perhaps, the apprentice himself would be a loser; in a trade so easily learnt he would have more competitors ; and his wages, when he came to be a complete workman, would be much less than at pit-sent. Tli increase of competition would reduce tin* profits of the masters, as well asth-- of the workmen: the trades, th. the mysteries, would all !>e losers; Imt the public would hi- a ga-ini-r. th* of all artificers coming in this way much cheaper to market. nnot conclude this article than by insert ing an admirable paper on iect of apprentice laws, drawn up, and printed for private circulation, by :i gentleman of high legal authoir member of parliament, entitled M Opinions of some great an -|-6 to be anon-qua- drate number, and oH"6 to be a non- cubic one ; then will ^/ a 1 + b = a -f- Oo APT APT A nearly. There is a general method of investi- gating 1 the value of such series, for which Se SKHIKS. APPULSE,in astronomy, the approach of a planet towards a conjunction with the sun, or any of the fixed stars. The ap- pulsesof the planets to the fixed starshave always been of great use to astronomers, in order to fix the places of the former. The ancients, wanting an easy method of comparing the planets with the ecliptic, which is not visible, had scarce any Qther way of fixing their situations, but by ob- serving their tract among the fixed stars, and remarking their appulses to some of those visible points. Dr. Halley has pub- lished a method of determining the places of the planets, by observing their near appulses to the fixed stars. APPURTENANCES, in common law, signify things corporeal and incorporeal, that appertain to another thing as princi- pal ; as hamlets to a manor, and common of pasture and fishery. Things must agree in nature and quality to be appurtenent, as a turbary, or a seat in a church, to a house. APRICOT, in botany, a species of pru- nus, with rosaceous flowers, and a deli- cious fleshy fruit, of aroundish figure. See Pncxcs. APRON, in gunnery, the piece of lead which covers the touch-hole of a cannon. The dimensions of aprons are as follows : viz. for 42, 32, and 24 pounders, 15 inches by 13 ; for 18, 12, and 9 pounders, 12 in- ches by 10 ; and for cannon of less calibre, 10 inches by 8. They are tied by two strings of white marline. APSIS, ia astronomy, a term used indif- ferently for either of the two points of a planet's orbit, where it is at the greatest or least distance from the sun or earth. Hence the line connecting these points is called the line of the apsides. APTENODYTES, in ornithology, pen- guin, a genus of the order Anseres. The bill is 'straight, rather compressed, and sharp along the edges ; th,e upper mandi- ble is obliquely sulcated, lengthwise ; feet palmated, shackled ; wings fin-shaped, and without quill-feathers ; feet fettered, four-toed. Tnis genus resembles the alca in colour, food, stupidity, eggs, nest, posi- tions of legs behind the equilibrium, and consequent erect posture. They are to- tally unfit for flight, but swim dexte rously ; nostrils linear, hid in the groove of the bill, palate as well as the tongue beset with a few rows of conic, retroflected, stiff papillae ; wings covered with a strong broad membrane ; tail short, wedged, the feathers very rigid. There are nine species according to Latham, but Gmelin enume- rates eleven. This genus of birds seems to hold the same place in the southern parts of the world as the awks do in the northern, and are by no means to be confounded the one with the other, however authors may differ in opinion in respect to this matter. The penguin is seen only in the temperate and frigid zones, on that side of the equator which it frequents ; and the same is observed of the awk in the oppo- site latitudes ; and neither of the genera has yet been observed within the tropics. The awk lias true wings and quills, though small; the penguin mere fins only, instead of wings. This last has four toes on each foot ; but the former only three. The penguin, while swimming, sinks quite above the breast ; the head and neck only appearing out of the water, rowing itself along with its finny wings, as with oars ; while the awk, in common with most other birds, swims on the surface. Several other circumstances peculiar to each might be mentioned ; but we trust the above will prove fully sufficient to characterize this genus. The bodies of the penguin tribe are commonly so well and closely covered with feathers, that no wet can penetrate ; and as they are in general excessively fat, these circumstances united secure them from the cold. They have often been found above seven hundred leagues from land ; and frequently on the mountains of ice, on which they seem to ascend without difficulty, as the soles of their feet are very rough, and suited to the pur- pose. Aptenodytes antarctica, is full 25 inches long, and weighs eleven or twelvepounds : it inhabits the south sea from 48 to the antarctic circle, and is frequently found on the ice mountains and islands on which it ascends. It is a numerous tribe ; and they were found in great plenty in the Isle of Desolation. The black-footed penguin is found in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, but particularly in Robbean or Pen- guin Isles, near Saldanic Bay. Like all the genus, this is an excellent swimmer and diver ; but hops and flutters in a strange and aukward manner on the land, and, if hurried, stumbles perpetually; and fre- quently runs for some distance like a qua- APTENODYTES. ilniped, making use of the wings instead of legs, till it can recover its upright posture ; crying outatthe same time like a goose, but in a much hoarser voice. It is said to clamber some way up the rocks in order to make a nest, in doing which it has been observed to be assisted with the bill. The eggs are 1 wo, and esteemed at the Cape very delicious. Aptenodyteschrysocome. This beauti- ful species measures twenty-three inches in length. The bill is three inches long ; the colour of it red, with a dark furrow running along on each side to the tip ; the upper mandible is curved at the end, the under obtuse ; irides of a dull red ; the head, neck, back, and sides are black; over each eye a stripe of pale yellow fea- thers, which lengthens into a crest be- hind, of near four inches in length : the feathers on each side of the head, above this stripe, are longer than the rest, and stand upward, while those of the crest are decumbent, but can be erected on each side at will ; the wings, or rather fins, are black on the outside, edged with white ; on the inside white ; the breast, and all the under parts, white ; the legs are orange : claws dusky. The female has a streak of pale yellow over the eye, but it is not prolonged into a crest behind as in the male. Inhabits Falkland's Islands, and was likewise met with in Kirguelin's Land or Isle of Desolation, as well as at Van Dicmen's Land, and New Holland, particularly in Adventure Bay. Are call- ed Hopping Penguinsand Jumping Jacks, from their action of leaping quite: out of the water, on meeting with the least ob- stacle, for three or four feet at least ; and indeed, withoutany seeming cause, do the same frequently, appearing, chiefly to ad- vance by that means. This species seems to have a greater air of liveliness in its countenance than others, yet is in fact a very stupid bird, so much so, as to suffer itself to be knocked on the head with a stick, when on land. When angered, it erects its crest in a beautiful manner. These birds make their nests among those of the pelican tribe, living in tolerable harmony with them ; and lay seldom more than one egg, which is white, and hu^-er than that of a duck. They are mostly seen by themselves, seldom mixing with other penguins, and often nv.-t with in great numbers on the outer shores, where they have been bred. Arc frequently so regardless as to suffer themselves to be taken by the hand. The females of this species lay their eggs in burrows, which they easily form ot themselves with their bills, throwing 1 out the dirt with their feet. In these holes the eggs are deposited on the bare earth. The general time of sitting is in October ; but some of the species, especially in the colder parts, do not sit till December, or even January. How long they sit is not known. Aptcnodytes magellanica, inhabits the Straits of Magellan, Staaten Land, Terra del Fuego, and the Falkland isles ; is a very numerous species, and is often seen, by thousands, retiring by night to the highest parts of the islands, its voice is not much unlike the braying of an ass. It is not a timid bird, for it will scarcely get out of the way of any one ; but will rather attack and bite aperson by the legs. They were killed by hundreds by the crews of Captain Cooke's expedition, and were found not unpalatable food. They often mix with the sea-wolves, among the rushes, burrowing in holes like a fox. When they swim, only the neck and shoulders appear out of the water, and they advance with such agility, that no fish seems able to follow them ; if they meet with any obstacle, they leap four or five feet out of the water ; and dipping into it again continue their rout. It is suppos- ed by Latham that Penrose alludes to this species, of which, he says the chief curi- osity is the laying their eggs ; this they do in collective bodies, resorting in in- credible numbers to certain spots, which their long residence has freed from grass, and to which were given the name of towns. The eggs arc rather larger tlwn those of a goose, and are laid in pairs. They lay some time in November, driving away the albatrosses, which have hatched their young in turn before them. Aptenodytes patachonica. This is the largest of the genusyet known, beingfour feet three inches in length ; and stands erect at least three feet ; the weight forty pounds. This species was first met with in Falkland Islands, and has also been seen in Kerguelcn's Land, New Georgia, and New Guinea. M. Bougainville caught one which soon became so tame as to follow and know the person who had care of it; it fed on flesh, fish, and bread, but after a time grew lean, pined away, and died. The chief food, when at large, is thought to be fish; the remains of which, as well as crabs, shell-fish, and molluscx, were found in the stomach. This species is the fattest of the tribe ; most so in January, when they moult. Supposed to lay and sit in October. Are met with in the most deserted places. Their flesh is black, though not very unpalatable. This has been considered as a solitary species, but has now and then been met with in conr- APT sulerable flocks. They are found in the same places as the papuan penguins, and not unfrequently mixed with them ; but in general show a disposition of associating with their own species. See Plate III. Aves. fig. 6. APTERA, in the Linnsean system of zoology, the seventh and last order of In- sects, the distinguishing characteristic of which is, that the insects comprehended in it have no wings. Of this order there are three divisions. In A. the insects are distinguished by having six legs ; head district from the thorax : there are five genera ; viz. the Lepisma, Pediculus, Podura, Pulex, Termes. In the division B, the insects have from 8 to 14 legs ; head and thorax united : of these there are eight genera ; viz. the Acarus, Monoculus, Aranea, Oniscus, Cancer, Phalangium, Hydrachna, Scorpio. In the division C, the legs are nume- rous ; head distinct from the thorax ; of which there are two species ; viz the Julus, and Scolopendra. This order comprehends all kinds of spiders, the lice of different animals, scor- pions and crabs. Upon these we may make a few general observations. The nets spread out by spiders, to catch their prey, are composed of similar materials to the silk of the silk-worm, and are also spun from the animal's body. The cob- webs of the gossamer are frequently seen floating in the air in a sunny day, snd are sometimes so abundant as to fall in show- ers. Each of these has been compared to a balloon transporting the little aeronaut that formed it, by means of its specific lightness. This species of spider attach- ing its first formed thread to the leaf or branch of a tree, by dropping to a certain distance lengthens it, then climbs up the thread, and dropping again, draws out another, and so on, till a sufficient quan- tity of this silk is formed to buoy the spi- der up in the air. He then separates the whole from the leaf, and running down to his seat at the bottom, trusts himself and his balloon to the mercy of the wind. Ma- ny species of spiders effect the same thing APU by attaching themselves to an eminence by their claws, and after ejecting a suffi- cient quantity of web, which is wafted on- wards by the wind, they suddenly relax their hold and appear to spring into the air. By this method these animals are transported from tree to tree, and from wood to wood in search of food. The cobwebs that are spread over the surface of the grass, and that offer so beautiful an object to the eye early in the summer's morning, through the brilliancy of the dew-drops formed and suspended on their silken threads, and the reflexion of the sun's rays from each, are the work of another species of spiders. The different kinds of lice are exceed- ingly numerous, almost every kind of ani- mal having its particular sort of vermin. They are all carnivorous, or perhaps ra- ther sanguivorous insects, living on the blood of other animals. Their eggs are all nits. The Scorpio ^enus abound in hot climates, and are troublesome in ne- glected places, and where cleanliness is not attended to. The crab tribes cast their shells every year, and are then in a soft, helpless state, unable to make resistance, and therefore at that time become the. prey of many kinds of fish, when not pro- vided with a guardian. It is a remarkable fact, that the edible crab of the United States, when in this state of imbecility, places itself, for security, under the pro- tection of one of its own species whose shell is hard and firm. This confidence is never misplaced ; his protector defends him against every assault at the risk of his own life or limbs ; and even when taken in the net, and thrown on shore, is still firmly held by his faithful companion. Their shells, but more especially those of the class testacea, afford a principal con- stituent in the formation of chalk-beds, and beds of marl, which are formed at the bottom of the. sea. Specimens of entire shells are frequently met with in chalk- pits which are now many miles inland ; and there is little doubt, that in a commi- nuted state they form a principal ingredi- ent in most calcareous earth. Under each genus will be found an account of a few of the more remarkable species. See ACARCS, ARAXEA, CANCER, SCORPIO, &c. APUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the southern hemisphere, placed near the pole, between the Triangulum Australe and the Chameleon, supposed to repre- sent the bird of paradise. There are four stars of the sixth, three of the fifth, and four of the fourth magnitude, in the con- stellation Apus. Dr. Halley, in 1677, ob- AQU served the longitude and latitude of the Mars in Apus, which Hevelius in his pro- Iromus reduced with some alteration to the year 1700. P. Noel has also given the places of these stars, with their right ascensions and declinations for the year 1687, but his observations differ widely from those of Dr. Halley. Hevelius has represented the figure of Apus, and its stars, in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum, According to Halley's account; Noel has 'lone the like, according to his own ac- count. Wolfius, with what justice we will not pretend to say, gives the preference to this last. AQUA fortit. Another name for NI- TRIC ACID, which see. This name is applied to denote the common nitric acid used by workmen, which often contains a slight portion of muriatic acid. See CHE- MISTBT. Aai'A regia, another name for the nitro muriatic acid. See MCBIATIC ACID. AQUJEDUCT, a tonthdt of water, in architecture and hydraulics, is a construc- tion of stone or timber, built on an uneven ground, to preserve the level of water, and convey it, by a canal, from one place to another. Some of these aquxducts are visible, and others subterraneous. Those of the former sort are constructed at a great height, across vallies and marshes, and supported by piers and ranges of arches. The latter are formed by pierc- ing the mountains, and constructing them below the surface of the earth. They are built of stone, brick, &c. and covered above with vaulted roofs or flat stones, serving to shelter the water from the sun :md rain. Of these aquxducts, some are double, and others triple ; that is, sup- ported on two or three ranges of arches. Of the latter kind are the Pout-du-gard, i n Languedoc, supposed to have been built by the Romans to carry water to the city of Nismes ; that of Constantinople, and that which, according to Procopius, was constructed by Cosroes, King of Persia, near Petra, in Mingrclia, and which had three conduits in the same direction, each elevated above the other. Some of these aquxducts were paved, and others con- veyed the water through a natural chan- nel of clay : and it was frequently con- ducted by pipes of lead into reservoirs of the same metal, or into troughs of hewn stone. Aquxducts of every kind were reckoned among the wonders of ancient Rome ; their great number, and the im- mense expense of bringing water 30, 40, or 60, and even 100 miles, either upon continued arches, or by means of other AQU works, when it was necessary topenetratc mountains and rocks, may well ; us. If we consider the incredible quan- tity of water brought to Rome for the uses of the public, for fountains, baths, fish- ponds, private houses, gardens and coun- try-seats; if we represent to ourselves the arches constructed at a great expense, and carried on through a long distance, mountains levelled, rocks cut through, and vallies filled up, it must be acknow- ledged that there is nothing in the whole world more wonderful. For 440 years, the Romans contented themselves with the waters of the Tiber, and of the wells andfountains in the city audits neighbour- hood. But when the number of houses and inhabitants was considerably augment- ed, they were obliged to bring water from remote places by means of aquxducts. Even Tiberius, Claudius, Caligula, and Caraccalla, though in other respects not of the best character, took care of the city in this useful article. There are still to be seen in the country about Rome wonderful remains of the ancient aqux- ducts, some elevated above the ground by arches continued and raised one above the other, and others subterraneous, pass- ing through rocks ; such is that seen at Vicovaro, beyond Tivoli, in which a ca- nal pierces a rock to the extent of more than a mile, and about five feet deep and four broad. At certain distances vents were provided, so that the water which was accidentally obstructed in its passage, might be discharged till its ordinary pas- sage was cleared ; and in the canal of the aquxduct itself there were cavities, into which the water was precipitated, and where it remained till its mud was depo- sited; and ponds, in which it might purify itself. In the construction of these aqux- ducts, there was a considerable variety that called the Aqua Martia had an arch of sixteen feet in diameter; it was construct - edof three kinds of stone, and was formed with two canals, one above the other. The most elevated was supplied by the wa- ters of the Tivcrone, and Anionovus; the lowest by the Claudian water. The entire edifice was 70 Roman feet high. The arch of the aquxduct, which brought to Rome the Claudian water, was constructed of beautiful hewn stone. This is represent- ed t>y Pliny as the most beautiful of all that had been built for the use of Hume. It conveyed the water through a vaulted canal, through the distance of 40 miles, and was so nigh, that it supplied all tin- hills oft lie city. According to him, and the computation of Bud xus, the charge of this work amounted to 1,385,500 crowns. AQU AQU This aquaeduct was begun by Caligula, and finished by Claudius, who brought its waters from two springs, calted Caeru- leus and Curtius. Vespasian, Titus, Mar- cus Aurelius,and Antoninus Pius,repaired and extended it : it is now called Aqua Felice. The three chief aquaeducts now in being are those of the Aqua Virginea, Aqua Felice, and Aqua Paulina. The first was repaired by Pope Paul IV. The se- cond was constructed by Pope Sixtus V. and is called from the name which he as- sumed before he was exalted to the Papal throne. It proceeds from Palaestrina at the distance of twenty-two miles, and discharges itself at the Fontana di Ter- mini, which was also built at his expense, and consists of three arches, supported by four Corinthian pillars, and the water gushes out through three large apertures. Over the middle arch stands a beautiful statue of Moses striking the rock with his rod ; over another arch is a basso-re- lievo of Aaron leading the people to the miraculous springs in the wilderness , and the third exhibits Gideon trying his sol- diers by their drinking water. Round it are four lions, two of marble, and the other two of oriental granite, said to be brought thither from a temple of Serapis. All the four lions eject water; and on the front is an inscription, importing that this aquaeduct was begun in the first and com- pleted in the third year of the pontificate of Sixtus V. 1588. The third was repair- ed by Pope Paul V. in the year 1612. This divides itself into two principal chan- nels, one of which supplies Mount Jani- culus, and the other the Vatican and its neighbourhood. It is conveyed through the distance of thirty miles, from the dis- trict of Braccianro, and three of its five streams are not inferior to small rivers, and sufficientto tm-n a mill. The famous aquaeducts of Constantinople, about six miles from the village of Belgrade, were built by Valentinian the First, Clearchus being praefect, and afterwards repaired by Solyman the Magnificent, who exempted twelve adjacent Greek villages from the customary tribute of the empire, in con- sideration of their keeping these aquae- ducts in repair. Of these the most re- markable are three large and lofty fabrics, built over so many vallies betwixt the ad- joining hills, of which the longest has many but less arches, and may possibly be the entire work of Solyman. The other two have the appearance of a more an- cient and regular architecture, consisting of two rows of arches one over the other ; and those of the second were enclosed by pillars cut through the middle, so as to render the fabric both passable like a bridge, and useful for the conveyance of water. The more considerable of these two consists of only four large arches, each twenty yards long, and somewhat above twenty high, supported by octan- gular pillars of about 56 yards in circum- ference towards the bottom. For an in- quiry into the nature and construction of the aquaeducts of the Romans, see Go- vernor Pownal's Notices and Descriptions of Antiquities of the Provincia Romana of Gaul, 4to. 1788. The aquaeduct built by Lewis XIV. near Maintinon, for carry- ing the River Bure to Versailles, is per- haps the greatest now in the world. It is 7000 fathoms long, and its elevation 2560 fathoms ; containing 242 arcades. AQUARIUS, in astronomy, a constel- lation which makes the eleventh sign in the zodiac, marked thus, ***. It consists of 45 stars in Ptolemy's catalogue, of 41 in Tycho's, and in the Britannic catalogue of 108. It was called Aquarius, or the Wa- ter-bearer, as some say, because, during the sun's motion through this sign, it is generally rainy weather. AQUARTIA, in botany, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. Calyx campanulate; corol. wheel-shaped, with linear segments; berry many -seeded. There are two species. AQUATIC, in natural history, an ap- pellation given to such things as live or grow in the water : thus we say, aquatic animals, aquatic plants, &c. AQUEOUS humour, or the watery hu- mour of the eye; it is the first and outer- most, and that which is less dense than either the vitreous or crystalline. It is transparent and colourless like water, and fills up the space that lies between the cornea and the crystalline humour. See OPTICS. AQUILA, the eagle, in ornithology. See FALCO. AH.UILA, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, consisting of 15 stare in Ptolemy's catalogue, 19 in Tycho Brahe's, 42 in that ofHevelius, and 71 in Flamstead's; the principal star being Lucida Aquila, and is between the first and second magnitude. AQU1LARIA, in botany, a large tree, affecting a lofty situation. Class Decan- dria Monogynia; cal. perianth one-leafed, permanent ; tube bell-shaped; limb five- cleft ; clefts ovate, acute, flat, spreading ; cor. none : nectary one-leafed, pitcher- shaped, of the length of the tube of the calyx, half five-cleft; clefts bifid, obtuse ; AQU slam, filaments ten, alternating with the clefts of the nectary ; anthers oblong 1 , ver- satile; pist. germ ovate, superior; style, none ; stiginu, simple ; per. capsule on a very short pedicle, obovate, woody, two- celled, two valved, with the partition con- trary, and bipartite ; seeds solitary, ob- long 1 . There is but one species. Aquilaria ovata ; leaves alternate, ovate mucronate. This is a large tree covered with greyish bark. Its leaves are entire, smooth, vein- ed, about eight inches long, and stand on short hairy foot-stalks. The flowers terminate the branches, on many-flower- ed peduncles. A native of the mountains of Malacca and Cochin-China. The wood of this tree has been long used as a per- fume ; and was formerly an article of the materia mcdica under the name of agal- lochum, lignum aloes, or aloes wood. This wood in its natural state is white and inodorous. That which possesses the peculiar aroma, for which it is valued, is supposed to be the consequence of a diseased process in the tree, causing the oleaginous particles to stagnate and con- crete into a resin in the inner parts of the trunk and branches, by which the natural appearance of the wood is altered, so as to become of a darker colour and of a fra- grant smell. At length the tree dies, and, when splitten, the resinous part is taken out. The perfumes which this wood af- fords are highly esteemed by the oriental nations ; and from the bark of the tree is made the common paper which the Co- chin-Chinese use for writing ; in the same manner the Japanese make use of the bark of a species of mulberry (morus pa- pyrifera). This perfume is said to be useful in vertigo and pulsy : given in the' form of powder, it is recommended to restrain vomitings and alvine fluxes. To us, however, it seemsto contain little else than that camphoraceous matter common to many other vegetable substances. I-'rom its bitter taste it has the name of aloes, although no otherwise allied to it AQU1LEGIA, columbine, in botany, a genus of the Polyandria Pentagynia class of plants, having no calyx; the corolla consists of five plane, patent, equal petals, of a lanceolate, ovate figure; the nectaria are five in number; they are equal, and stand alternately with the petals ; the fruit consists of five straight, parallel, cy- lindric, accuminated capsules, each of which consists of a single valve. The seeds are numerous, oval, carinated, and adhere to the suturf. There, sir-.-* five specie*. ARA ARA, in astronomy, a southern con- stellation, consisting of eight stars. ARABIS, in botany, ioall-c>v*, a genus of the Tetradinamia Siliquosa class of plants, the calyx of which is a deciduous perianthium, consisting of four ovato-ob- long, acute, gibbous, concave leaves ; the corolla consists of four oval, patent, cruci- form petals ; the fruit is a very long com- pressed pod, containing several roundish compressed seeds. There are twenty-one species. ARACHIS, in botany, trrmwd-nut, age- nus of the Diadelphia Decandria class of plants, the flower of which is papilionace- ous, and consists of three petals ; and its fruit is an oblong unilocular pod, contract- ed in the middle, and containing two ob- long, obtuse, and gibbous seeds. There is but one species, found in the Indies, a tree, stem herbaceous.hairj , procumbent. The branches trail on the ground, and the i germ, after flowering, thrusts itself under ground, where the food is formed and ripened. ARACHNOIDES, in zoology, a name given to those echini marini,or sea-hedge- hogs, which are of a circular form, but variously indented at the edges. See t CHINUB. ARALIA, berry -bearing' angelica, in bo- tany, a genus of the Pentandria Pentagy- nia class of plants, the flowers of which are collected into an umbel, of a globose figure, with a very small involucrum ; the perianthium is very small, divided into five parts, and placed on the germen ; the corolla consists of five, ovato-acute, ses- sile, reflex petals, the fruit is a roundish, coronated, striated berry; having five cells : the seeds are single, hard, and ob- lo/ig. There are four divisions, ri:. A. leaves entire ; B. leaves lobed ; C. leaves in finger-like divisions ; D. leaves decom- pound, and more than decompound. In the first there are three species; in the second one ; in the third two ; and in the fourth four. ARANEA, in natural history, the tpidtr, a genus of insects of the order Aptera. Gen. char, legs eight ; eves eight, some- times six; mouth furnished with two hooks, or holders ; feelers two, jointed. the tips of which in the male distinguish the sex; abdomen terminated by papillar, or teats, through which the insect draws the thread. One of the largest of the European spi- ders is the Aranea diadema of Linnaeus, which is extremely common in England, and is chiefly seen during the autumnal ARANEA. season in gardens, cc. The body of this species, when full grown, is not much in- ferior in size to a small hazel nut : the abdomen is beautifully marked by a lon- g-itudinal series of round, or drop-shaped milk-white spots, crossed by others of similar appearance so as to represent, in some degree, the pattern of a small dia- dem. This spider, in the months of Sep- tember and October, forms, in some con- venient spot or shelter, a large, rtfund, close, or thick web of yellow silk, in which it deposits its eggs, guarding the round web with a secondary one of a looser tex- ture. The young are hatched in the en- suing May, the parent insects dying to- wards the close of autumn. The Aranea diadema, being one of the largest of the common spiders,serves to exemplify some of the principal characters of the genusin a clearer manner than most others. At the tip of the abdomen are placed five papillae or teats, through which the insect draws its thread ; and as each of these papillae is furnished with a vast number of foramina or outlets, disposed over its whole surface, it follows, that what we commonly term a spider's thread, is in reality formed of a collection of a great many distinct ones, the animal possessing the power of drawing out more or fewer at pleasure ; and if it should draw from ull the foramina at once, the thread might consist of many hundred distinct filaments. The eyes, which are situated on the upper part or front of the thorax, are eight in number, placed at a small distance from each other, and having the appearance of the stemmata in the generality of insects. The fangs, or piercers, with which the animal wounds its prey, are strong, curv- ed, sharp-pointed, and each furnished on the inside, near the tip, with a small ob- long hole or slit, througli which is eva- cuated a poisonous fluid into the wound made by the point itself, these organs ope- rating in miniature on the same princi- ple with the fangs in poisonous serpents. The feet are of a highly curious structure ; the two claws with which each is ter- minated being furnished on its under side with several parallel processes,resembling the teeth of a comb, and enabling the ani- mal to dispose and manage with the ut- most facility the disposition of the threads in its web, &c. Aranea tarantula, or Tarantula spider, of which so many idle recitals have been detailed in the works of the learned, and which, even to this day, continues in some countries to exercise the faith and igno- rance of the vulgar, is a native of the warmer parts of Italy, and other warm European regions, and is generally found in dry and sunny plains. It is the largest of all the European spiders, but the ex- traordinary symptoms supposed to ensue from the bite of this insect, as well as their supposed cure by the power of mu- sic alone, are entirely fabulous, and arc now sufficiently exploded among all ra- tional philosophers. The gigantic Aranea avicularia, or Bird-catching spider, is not uncommon in many parts of the East In- dies and South America, where it resides among trees, frequently seizing on small birds, which it destroys by wounding with its fangs, and afterwards sucking their blood. During the early part of the last century, a project was entertained by a French gentleman, Monsieur Bon, of Montpelier, of instituting a manufacture of spiders' silk, and the royal Academy, to which the scheme was proposed, ap- pointed the ingenious Reaumur to repeat the experiments of Monsieur Bon, in or- der to ascertain how far the proposed plan might be carried ; but, after making the proper trials, Mr. Reaumur found it to be impracticable, on account of the natural disposition of these animals, which is such as will by no means admit of their living peaceably together in large num- bers. Mr. Reaumur also computed that 663,522 spiders would scarcely furnish a single pound of silk. Monsieur Bon, how- ever, the first projector, carried his expe- riments so far as to obtain two or three pair of stockings and gloves of this silk ; which were of an elegant grey colour, and were presented as samples, to the Royal Academy. It must be observed, that in this manufacture it is the silk of the egg- bags alone that can be used, being far stronger than that of the webs. Monsieur Bon collected twelve or thirteen ounces of these, and having caused them to be well cleared of dust, by properly beating with sticks, he washed them perfectly clean in warm water. After this they were laid to steep, in a large vessel, with soap, saltpetre, and gum arabic. The whole was left to boil over a gentle fire for three hours, and were afterwards again washed to get out the soap ; then laid to dry for some days, after which they were carded, but with much smaller cards than ordinary. The silk is easily spun into a fine and strong thread : the difficulty being only to collect the silk- bags in sufficient quantity. There re- mains one more particularity in the histo- ry of spiders, viz. the power of flight. It is principally in the autumnal season that ARB ARC these dimir.i iturors ascend the air, and contribute to fill it with that infi- nity of iloatin:;- cobwebs which ar- i:uliai ' it that 1 of the U hen inclined to make these aerial eminence, us the toj) of a wall, or tin: branch of a tree ; and turning itsrlf with ..ards the wind, ejaculates and rising from its sta- tion, commits itself to the gale, and is irried far beyond the height of the loftiest towers, and enjoys the pleasure. f a clearer atmosphere. Durin, flight it is probable that spiders employ Ivesin catching such minute wing- ed ins: happen to occur in their progress ; and when satisfied with their tourney and their prey, they suffer thcni- tofall, by contracting their limbs, and gradually disengaging then. from the thread which supports them. 'late I. F.ntomology, fig. 7 and 8. \UArCARIA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Monadelphia class and order. Male, calyx scales of an ament, terminated by a leaflet ; no corol. ; anthers 10 to 12, \\ ithout filaments. Female, calyx, an ament with many germs ; no corol. ; stig- ma two-valved, unequal ; seeds numer- ous, in a roundish cone. AHJJITEK, in civil law, a judge nomi- nated by tin- magistrate, or chosen volun- tarily h\ two parties, in order to decide their differences according to law. The civilians make this difference be- tween arbiter and arbitrator ; though both ground their power on the compro- Mieir liberty is dif- . tor an arbiter is to judge accord- ing to the usages of the law, but the arbi- >wn discre- tion, and accommodate the cl .:mer that appears to him most just and equitable. MM! I TKATI ON, a power given by two r more contendn ic per- son or persons to determine t!ie dispute hetwei-u them ; if the two do not ag is usual to add, that another person be railed as umpire, to whose sole judgment it is then referred. The submission to arbitration is the authority given by the ' in controversy to the arb>' to determine and end ti.eir and this hein inent, must not be strictly taken, according to the intent of I!K- parties submitted. Thei ,rident to an arbitration : 1. M -rovei- sy 2. Submission mission. 4. A.rbit. up tj;c VOl. 1 arbitration. \Jat; hold, debts due on bond, aii : not to be a AKIUTK ATOIJ, ;, ,..-. -rdiiu- ry judge, chosen by the 11111' of pan .-iuinecon'.i what is equal between both the performance must : sible. An action of debt ma 1 . for money adjudged to be paid by arbitra- tors. ARROR Dim: 'ay. Am. ee THTJA. AKBIIR, in mechanics, the principal part of a machine wh'n rt ; aJso the axis or spindle on which a machine turns, as the arbor of a crane, windinill, I ARUl II - in bo- tany, a genus uf t:^ class of plants, the calyx of \vhi< very small, obtuse, permanent perianthi- um, divided into t corol- la consists of a sil :vided also into five segments; tl .round- ish berry, containing i:\ : small - seOrls. There are ti . is that \ hic'n has the same centre v, ith another arc. A uc tlii-niti!, that part of a ciri scribed by a heavenly body between its rising and setting; as the nocturnal arc i.> that described between its setting and both these together are always equal eqtuil, those which contain the same number of e.ik-> r margin entire, be.ika inflected; c. margin n:ite, beaks inflected: of the I \ found t it is wh Jar, \\ i'h \ .'.epression behind the beak, heurt- ()f the division C. b the A. antiquata, ;ucntly on the coast of ARC ARC the United Suites, and is in many places called liloocly Clam ; when opened the in- cluded liquid has a dirty red appearance; shell obliquely heart-shaped, with numer- ous unarmed grooves; it is white, but cov- ered with a brownish hairy skin : the an- terior slope with a compressed prominent angle. AllCH, or Anc, in geometry, any part ofthe circumference of acircle.or curved line, lying from one point to another, by which the quantity of the whole circle or line, or some other thing sought after, may he gathered. All angles are measured by arcs. For this purpose an arc is described having its centre in the point or vertex ofthe angle: and as every circle is supposed to be di- vided into 360, an arc is estimated ac- cording to the number of degrees which it contains. Thus an arc is said to be of 30, 50, or 100 degrees, &.c. AHC-H, in architecture, a concave build- ing, with a mould bent in the form of a curve, erected to support some structure. Arches are either circular, elliptical, or straight, as they are improperly called by workmen. Circular arches are also of three kinds : 1. Semicircular, which have their centre in the middle of a line drawn betwixt the feet ofthe arch. 2. Scheme or skene, which are less than a semicircle, containing some 90 and some 70 degrees. 3. Arches of the third and fourth point, consisting of two arches of a circle meet- ing in an angle at the top, being drawn from the division of a chord into three or more parts at pleasure. Elliptical arches consist of a semi-ellip- sis, and have commonly a key-stone and imposts: they are usually described by workmen on three centres. Straight arches are those used over doors and windows, having plain straight edges, both upper and under, which are parallel, but both the ends and joints point towards a centre. The term arch is peculiarly usedfor the space between two piers of a bridge, in- tended for the passage of water, vessels, kc. A urn of equilibration, is that which is in equilibrium in all its parts, having no u-ndcncy to break in any one part more than in another; and which is, therefore, safer ami stronger than any other figure. N'o other arch than this can admit of a horizontal line at top : it is of a form both graceful and convenient, as it may be made higher or lower at pleasure, with the same span. All other arches require extrados that are curved, more or less, either upwards or downwards ; of these, the elliptical arch approaches the nearest to that of equilibration for strength and convenience, and it is the best form for most bridges, as it can be made of any height to the same span, its haunches be- ing at the same time sufficiently elevated above the water, even when it is very flat at top. Elliptical arches also appear bold- er and lighter, are more uniformly strong, and are cheaper than most others, as they require less materials and labour. Ofthe other curves, the cycloidal arch is next in quality to the elliptical one, and lastly the circle. ARCHANGEL, in botany. See LA- MI UM. ARCHES, or Court of ARCHES, the supreme court belonging to the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, to which appeals lie from all the inferior courts within his province. ARCHETYPE, the first model of a work which is copied after, to make ano- ther like it. Among minters it is used for the standard weight by which the others are adjusted. The archetypal world, among Platorrists, means the world as it existed in the idea of God, before the vi- sible creation. ARCHIL. See LICHEN. ARCHIMEDES, in biography, one of the most celebrated mathematicians among the ancients, who flourished about 250 years before Christ, being about 50 years later than Euclid. He was born at Syracuse in Sicily, and was related to Hiero, who was then king of that city The mathematical genius of Arcliimedes set him with such distinguished excel- lence in the view ofthe world, as render- ed him both the honour of his own age, and the admiration of posterity. He was indeed the prince of the ancient mathe- maticians, being to them what Newton is to the moderns, to whom in his genius and character he bears a very near re- semblance. He was frequently lost in a kind of reverie, so as to appear hardly sensible ; he would study for days and nights together, neglecting his food ; and Plutarch tells us that he used to be car- ried to the baths by force. Many parti- culars of his life, and works, mathemati- cal and mechanical, are recorded by se- veral of the ancients, as Polybius, Livy, Plutarch, Pappus, &c. He was equally skilled in all the sciences, astronomy, geometry, mechanics, hydrostatics, op- tics, &c. in all of which he excelled, and made many and great inventions. Archimedes, it is said, made a sphere of glass, of a most surprising contrivance ARCUIMEDES. and workmanship, exhibiting the motions >ft he heavenly bodies in a very pleasing manner. Many wonderful stories arc told of his discoveries, and of his very powerful and curious niachir.es, &e. Iliero once ad- miring them, Arriiiiiu -d<-s replied, these, effects arc nothing, "but give me," said lie, " sonic other place to fix a machine on, and I will move the earth." He fell upon a curious device for discovering the deceit which had been practised by a workman, employed by the said king Hiero to make a golden crown. Iliero, having- a mind to make an offering to the gods of a golden crown, agreed for one of great value, and weighed out the gold to the artificer. After some time he brought the crown home, of the full weight ; but it was afterwards discovered ;>ectedthat apart of the gold had been stolen, &nd the like weight of silver substituted in its stead. Hiero, being angry at this imposition, desired Archi- medes to take it into consideration, how such a fraud might be certainly discover- ed. While engaged in the solution of this difficulty, he happened to go into the bath ; where observing that a quantity of water overflowed, equal to the bulk of his body, it presently occurred to him, that ] Hero's question might be answered by a like method ; upon which he leap- ed out, and ran homeward, crying out ivgtx.0,1 ivr,x.*\ 1 have found it out ! I have found it out! He then made two masses, each of the same weight as the crown, one of gold and the other of silvcs this being done, he filled a vessel to 'Jlie brim with watcr.and put the silver mnss in- to it, upon which a quantity of water over- flowed equal to the bulk of the mass; then taking the mass of silver out he fill- ed up the vessel again, measuring the water exactly \\hich he put in; this shewed him what measure of water an- swered to a Certain quantity of silver. Then lie tried the fcold in like manner, ., for then- lie contrived to set fire to them with the rays of the sun reflected from burning gl:i However, notwithstanding all ' Syracuse was at length laken by storm, and Archimedes was s-> \ery intent upon some geometrical problem. that he neither heard the noise, nor regarded any thing else, till a soldier that found him tracing lines asked his name, and upon' quest to begone, and not disorder his figures, slew him. " AVhat ; lus the greatest concern, savs Plutarch, was the unhappy fate of Archimedes, who was at that time in his museum ; and his mind, as well as his , \ es, so fixed and in- tent upon some geometrical figures, that fie neither heard the noise and burn of the Romans, nor perceived the city to b*> taken. In the depth of study and cmitem- plation.a soldier came suddenly upon him, and commanded him to follow him to Marcel lus ; which he refusing to do, till he had finished his problem, the soldier in a rage drew his sword, and ran him through." l,ivysa\i 1 n by a soldier, not knowing who he w is while he was drawing schemes in the dus' , that Marccllns w as grieved at Kl8 death, and took care of his funeral ; and in: name a protection and who could claim a relationship to him. His death it seem-, happen, d u'.out the HJd or 14.>d Olympiad. .irs be- fore the birth of Christ. U'hen Cicero was qu.rs'or for - he discovered the tomb of Archimedes, all overgrown with Irishes and brambles; which he caused to be cleared, and the plan- set in order. There were asjihcie and cylindercut upon it, with an it tion. but the latter part of the verses were quite worn out. Many of the works of this great man ARCHIMEDES. ore still extant, though the greatest parts of them arc lost. The pieces remaining are as follow: 1. Two books on the Sphere and Cylinder. 2. The Dimension of the Circle, or Proportion between the Diame- ter and the Circumference. 3. Of Spiral lines. 4. Of Conoids and Spheroids. 5. Of Equiponderants, or Centres of Gravity. 6. The Quadrature of the Parabola. 7. Of Bodies floating- on Fluids. 8. Lem- mata. 9. Of the Number of the Sand. Among the works of Archimedes which ;ire lost may be reckoned the descriptions of the following inventions, which may be gathered from himself and other ancient authors. 1. His account of the Method which, he employed to discover the Mix- ture of Gold and Silver in the crown men- tioned by Vitruvius. 2. His Description of the, Cochleon, or engine to draw water out of places where itis stagnated, still in use under the name of Archimcdes's Screw. Athenxus, speaking of (he pro- digious ship buiK by the order of lliero, says, that Archimedes invented the coch- leon, by means of whiuh the hold, notwith- standing its depth, could be drained by one man. And Diodorus Siculus says, that he contrived thismachine ty drain Egypt, and that, by a wonderful mechanism, it would exhaust the water from aary depth. 3. The Helix, by means of which, Athe- naeus informs us,he launch edlliero's great ship. 4.; The Trispaston, which, accord- ing to Tzet/es and Oribasius, coidd diviw the most stupendous weights. 5. Tint. Machines, which, according to Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, he used in the defence of Syracuse against Marcellus, consisting of Tormenta, Balistse, Catapults, Sagitta- rii, Scorpions, Cranes, &c. 6. His Burn- ing Glasses, with which he set fire to the Roman gallies. 7. His Pneumatic and Hydrostatic Engines, concerning which subjects he wrote some books, according to Tzetzes, Pappus, and Turtul'.ian. 8. His Sphere, which exhibited the celestial motions. And probably many others. A considerable volume might be writ- ten upon the curious methods and inven- tion of Archimedes, that appear in his mathematical writings now extant only. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space; unless Hipocrates be excepted on accovmt of his lunes. In his time the conic sections were admitted into geometry, and he applied himself closely to the measu- ring of them, as well as other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cy- linders and cones; and the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes,whosequad- Tatures had long before been determined by Euclid. He has left us also his attempts upon the circle : he proved that a circle is equal to aright-angled triangle wlif curvrd h- n MraiwhJ, pa?lJttc&UMfi*ftiM relations, lie- dues not increase the num- ber, and diminish tlie magnitude, of the; r ides of the polygon ud infinitnm but from this plain fundamental principle, al- lowed in Euclid's Klrnu-nts, (r/'z. that any quantity may he so often multiplied, or added to itself, us that the result shall i any proposed finite quantity of the same kind,'* he proves, that to deny his figures to have the proposed relations would involve an absurdity. And when he demonstrated many geometrical pro- perties, partieularly in the parabola, by means of certain progressions of numbers, \vhose terms are similar to the inscribed figures ; this was still dono without con- sidering such series as continued ml infi- nitnm, and then collecting or summing up lhe,t< mis of such infinite series. Th CM: hai edit ions of the existing writii the most comple- tion, in f.. edition was prepared r by the learned Joseph I and in that si sity of Oxford. The I. a new one. Torelli also \vro' a commentary on some of tin : notes on the whole. An account of the life and writings of Torelli i-.pr< ;, Clemens Sibiliati. And at tin- large appendix is added, in two parts ; the first being a Commentary on Archi- 's paper upon Bodies that float on Fluids, by the Kev. Adam Robertson, of Christ Church College ; and tin is a large collection of various readings in the manuscript works of Arch:; 1 found in the library of the late King of France, and of another at Florence, as collated with tin- l.as',1 edition above mentioned. ARCHITECTURE. '.:(/ a nd prac- tice of Civil Jlrclutecture. All the variety of edifices appropriated to the purposes of civil life is denominat- ed Civil Architecture. It is a very difficult matter for us at this day to trace the earliest stage of this art, so indispensible to onr comfort and pro- tection in a natural or civilized state, un- til we find its permanence of construc- tion fixed on the basis of science and pro- portion. The subterraneous cavern was without doubt the first habitation of man. Who cannot but contemplate with astonish- ment the variety of massy shapes, sup- porting arched roofs, decorated with in- numerable surfaces of i-rystalli/ed forms, excelling in splendour of design and ar- rangement the most magnificent produc- tions of human art. All our impressions of wisdom, strength and beauty, are derived from the exami- nation of the works of the _, of an octagonal sliupe are sometimes mounted on the backs of elephants, hor- ses and tygers, supporting a cornice de- corated with human figures sitting cross- legged. A gallery extends from pillar to pillar, profusely sculptured with men in acts of devotion to serpents, tygers, and other animals. The base of the co- lumns being an elephant (their favourite beast) sometimes displays a man astride of the trunk, \vhich gives the general mass the effect of being put in motion by these mighty animals. The whole may be considered original, and peculiar to the habits of an unciviliz- ed people, intuitively representing natu- ral objects of their religious devotion, in crude, disproportioned sculpture From the magnificent ruins of Perse- polis in Pers'a, which, according to Le Tlrun, originally consisted of 205 columns, 70 feet in height, we are alone enabled to give an)- account of the ancient style of architecture in that country ; for the cha- racter and remains of this interesting pa- lace, the world is indebted to the able re- search of this gentleman, who has left no stone unturned that could elucidate, or bring to light, a knowledge of the science at that early day. The arrangement, construction, and proportions of Persepolis differ very ma- terially from the Indian or Egyptian style of building, yet we find Egyptian door- ways at its entrance, and Indian sculptur- ed excavation in the tomb of Darius. The Persians held Egyptian mythology in detestation, and it appears were not devoted to the erection of sacred edifices, as no remnant of a religious symbol, or hieroglyphic, is to be found in their ruins; but, on the contrary, they appear to have been wholly absorbed in the erection of gorgeous palaces and tombs. Their sculptures are very numerous, and consist of triumphal processions, of- ferings of horses to the sun, and oxen to the moon ; figures bearing the parasol, and armed with the lance, in conflict with the lion. The number of men and ani- mals found on their tombs are nearly thirteen hundred. Their columns have no diminish, being uniform from top to bottom, and thirteen diameters in height, having a capital one-fourth their height, Carved in imitation of feathers tied or banded with silk; being the materials with which eastern monarchs formed their most splendid decorations. From the slen- der make of these columns, and no frag- ments of a cornice or roof being; found O "^11 that Persepolis was a summer residence, and that they supported a temporary cov- ering, slight!}- constructed of wood, and lined with silken drapery. These ruins bear incontrovertible evi- dence of antiquity, with features distinct- ly marked to characterise a separate school of architecture. The devastation which followed the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, whose jealousy of the perfec- tion of the Egyptians in art and science caused him to prostrate their palaces and temples, carrying off the artists as well as the spoils to grace this palace, accounts very satisfactorily for the mixture of Egyptian with Persepolitan rubjs. The whole of Upper Egypt furnishes prodigies in science and art. Their py- ramids, palaces, temples, and excavated sepulchres. Their system of hierogly- ph! cal sculpture is calculated to impress us with a very elevated idea of that once learned and powerful people; who, not- withstanding the inroads of frequent con- querors, jealous of their acquirements, and laying waste their works of art, rose, Phcenix like, from her ashes, invigorated by persecution. The pyramids of Cheops, Cephren,and Mycerines, are alone sufficient to call forth the attention of mankind, as stupen- dous monuments of industry and impe- rishability. Although history can give us no satisfactory date of their construction, many learned men have discussed their antiquity, and concluded that Cheops, which is the largest, (being 448 feet in height and 728 feet square at the base) was ejected 490 years before the first Olympiad, or about 3000 years ago. The researches of Denon, and the French commission of arts, are the best authorities that can be quoted on the sub- ject of Egyptian architecture .- they have examined with zeal and accuracy each well collected fragment, under the pro- tection of an armed force : we will there- from proceed in giving a general outline of its particular character in Upper Egypt. On approaching the edifices of Karnac and Luxor, the first grand masses of build- ings are the moles, of an oblong plan, with battering or tapering sides, from 50 to 60 feet in height, decorated on their facade profusely with hieroglyphics, in the front of which stand the obelisks, on each side of the principal entrance, also crowded with symbols of mythology, ARCHITECTURE. , history and agriculture. 'I'he tapering m(,|,. s arc crowned by a ca\ etto ( >r flat sr-jru u .,it of ;i circle, richly fluted turns that e4 feet in height is to be seen, and supposed to have been tin-own down by Can,' Their edifices and statuary is princi- pally composed of granite and sand stone ((Harried upon the Nile, with aqueducts I. -ad ing from them into the river, through whu h ine-ans, and its annual rise, the huge - of stone used in obelisks and co- lumns \\<.r- floated to their respective situations; but how these immense slabs and blocks were raised upon terraces and columns, of great height, is an exertion of the mechanic powers {vitally c. at the present ructible re- - ', thul \vc are enabled to form any distil of the progress of science with this learn ed people ; who are said to have invented geometry, and applied its principles to the motion of the heavenly bodies. At Ternyra, the great circle of the sphere i described upon the ceiling of the temple, containing the twelve signs of the zodiac, with many other agronomical figures in the surrounding spaces. Their knowledge of geometry, and the application of its principles to mechanics, was astonishing, from the size and weight of their materials, and principles of con- struction, by which they have ensured du- rability ; and transmitted to posterity 5 palaces and 34 temples, as monuments of their science and industry 3000 years ago. Upon an examination of the principles and practice of the architecture of the three countries, India, Persia, and Kg} pt. it will appear, upon investigation, that the edifices of Hindustan consist principally of excavation, where the column and hu- man figure are rudely carved, without re- ference to proportion or the nature of the subject, and although we cannot fail to be disgusted with the effect of the perform- ance, we are compelled to admire their industry. The resemblance of many leading features, of Hindoo architecture to that of Egypt and Persia, particularly those of Elephanta and Vellore, has in- duced Sir William Joins and Dr. Hobcrt- son to conclude that the eastern quarter of the world has a preferable claim to originality ; and that all rudiments of knowledge in the science was furnished by India to both the other countries: this is a mere matter of opinion, and can only amount to evidence of an i-arly inter- course or communication of architectural knowledge, as there is unquestionably sufficient distinction in the charac: proportions of the whole or parts to form separate schools. That of India may be characteri/.cd 1>\ circular outline.' resembling the pagoda of the Chines.-. The ancient Persian, consisting princi- pally of edifices above ground with slender columns of small diameter, lightly and delicately decorated with feather* and silk, ornamental pannels in basso r resembling ihe sumptuous corinthian of the |{stirdii\ to anothcrmorc gross, their original purity became almost ex- tinct. The orders, which had already become overloaded with ornament, were scarcely able to support the unmeaning trappings with which they were disguis- ed, and their ingcnuit \ , being almost with- out bounds, discovered and added traits to their character not much unlike the Gothic. This anarchy in the state of architecture was happily relieved by an interregnum of the Gothic style, which branched forth its delicate limbs and beautiful tracery. A short time previous to the incursions of the Goths and Huns, a decidedly new character appeared in the art. The basilica: of all the great cities of the empire were converted into Christian churches, keeping up the same form of rectangular parallelograms, di- viding the cell into aisles by two rows of columns, with arches springing from their capitals to support the roof; wings were added to the flanks of these buildings, forming on the ground plan the Latin cross, which has continued to be the mo- del of mostchristian churches to this day. It is very certain that the declension of Roman architecture began to make its appearance in the reign of Constanstine, shortly after his conversion to Christianity ; but it does not appear that he favoured or promoted this style in the foundation of his city of Constantinople. During this period, until the sixteenth century, Gothic architecture continued to supplant all other styles, and during a few centuries was practised throughout Eu- rope. Charlemagne introduced it into France, when many magnificent churches were erected, which continue to be the ablest specimens of the style to this day. The Roman style again revived, when the term Gothic was applied, in derision, by the Italian school of Palladio. The variety offeatures it underwent, in its application to church architecture, has given rise to many speculations of men of science and learning, as to its rise and progress. One of the theories, and not an improbable one, is, that, during the crusade, worship was conducted in the groves, and in order to procure shelter ami shade, they bent the limbs of opposite limbs together at the top, and bound them at the intersection, thereby produc- ing the pointed arch, a continuation of \\liifh met IKK! from tree to tree would furnish a complete Gothic, irade. Thr Savin and Norman Gothic, was the first practised, and seems to have been con- structed with considerable rcti-n -m e to the Roman style of its time. The pillar. massy, and consisting of several shafts, cylindrical, and octagonal, supporting a heavy decorated cornice, ornamented with diamond net-work. The capitals composed of leaves and flowers. One of the finest features of this style, and which in many instances form tho most striking ornaments of a city, is the tall tapering spire ; they were first built of wood by the Normans, and since with as much dexterity, by their descendants in stone, as in Salisbury Tower and spire, being 400 feet in height. The most remarkable properly bo- longing to the Gothic is magnitude ; as it never succeeds in producing its charac- teristic beauties when projected on a small scale, and should always be con- structed of stone or wood. Buildings of a public nature ought to express, in the design, the uses and pur- poses to which they are erected and ap- propriated, so that strangers, when they behold a church, bank, court-house, prison, &c. may understand them to be so, from some external characters, with- out the aid of a painted sign or inscribed tablet. Allegorical representations, applied to architecture, is a source through which we always derive pleasure and informa- tion, by calling forth the taste, judgment, and literary acquirements, to the inter- pretation of objects in the fine and dig- nified arts. In a young country like ours, where its inhabitants are scattered over an immense tract of territory, a great por- tion of which is unsettled and uncultivat- ed ; and where its only resources rc drawn from agriculture and commerce, distributing and equaJi/.in-^ we.tlth , it cannot be reasonably expected that archi- tectural works of great magnificeiv ; duration should be constructed, any kind of comparison with tho cuted under the controul of a despotic power, where materials, labour, and funds, are directed by sovereignty and an independent priesthood. The associations of men of wealth for the construction of edifices of a public nature, and in the establishment < t-.itions for the promotion of the line art* a:ul sciences, are highly honourable t f > tho taste and libcraliu of ' racter : and it is cntin o such objects and exertions, that we can trace ARCHITECTURE. the advancement of them in this country to the summit of their present perfec- tion. The native enterprize and perseverance of the country at large, in the advance- ment of science and art, has fully evinced itself in the many flourishing and popu- lous cities spread over an immense con- tinent, that two centuries ago was the abode of man in a state of nature. The splendid and extensive edifices at Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New-York, exhibit great taste in the science of architecture. The capitol at Washington is perhaps the greatest effort of our republic, in point of extent and workmanship, and reflects great credit on the talents of Mr. Latrobe,Jthe archi- tect. The next in point of magnitude is the city hall in New-York, and a number of beautiful churches built of stone. The Pennsylvania bank in Philadelphia, also from the designs of Mr. Latrobe, is the most beautiful building on the conti- nent, and is a perfect model of a Grecian hexastyle temple ; it has never failed to be universally admired, for its symmetry and proportion. " The value attached to works of this nature may be judged of, from the city of Ephesus refusing to suf- fer the temple of Diana to be inscribed with the name of Alexander the Great, although that prince offered to purchase that honour by defraying the whole ex- pense attending its erection ; from the Athenians rejecting a like offer from Pe- ricles, with regard to the splendid and extensive edifices with which he had or- namented Athens; and from the city of Gnidia refusing to part with one statue, the Venus of Praxiteles, although king Nicomcdes proposed to free them from tribute, if they complied with the re- quest." [WM. STRICKLAND, Architect.] In the vast structures of Asia and Africa, greatness of design, ponderosity of parts, and stones of immense magnitude, seem to have been more regarded than ele- gance or utility : in all those great works there is no trace of an arch, but what is excavated out of the solid rock, or may be made of a single stone. The Greeks profess to have derived the knowledge of architecture from the Egyptians, but the art of building has been so much im- proved by transplanting, that scarcely any trace of the original remains : their edi- fices were at first constructed of wood and clay, but they soon began to imitate the wooden posts and beams of the origi- nal hut in stone and marble : from this imitation arose the first order in architec- ture, which also gave birth to two others. This ingenious people, favoured by na- ture with marble and other building ma- terials, and, like the Egyptians, being anxious to make their works durable, employed very weighty stones in the construction, which, although laid with- out cement, as was the practice of all an- cient nations, yet they were jointed with the utmost accuracy, which is the reason of the perfect state of their edifices at this day. There is little doubt but that the Greeks were the inventors of the arch, though they never considered it as an ornament: it is only to be found in the theatres and gymnasia, the aperturesx)f walls and intercolumns being linteled. Greece, though a mild climate, is some- times liable to rain : the architects of this country, therefore, found it necessary to raise the roofs of their edifices to a ridge in the middle, the section being that of a rectilineal isosceles triangle: the base being the span or distance between the opposite walls. This form of roof, called a pediment roof, was frequently covered with marble tiles. The Grecians surpassed all contempo- rary nations in the arts of design ; the re- mains of their ancient structures are mo- dels of imitation, and confessed standards of excellence. They were the inventors of three orders of architecture, of which we have already hinted, and which we shall detail in a subsequent part of this article. The remains of their sculptures far exceed that of any other people, and are, even at this day, most perfect models. Modern artists have no means so certain, in attaining a just knowledge of their pro- fession, as in the study of those exquisite master-pieces. The progress of Grecian architecture appears to have occupied a period of about three centuries, from the age of Solon to the death of Alexander ; and in this period it advanced rapidly, particu- larly from the defeat of Xerxes to the death of Pericles, at which time it attain- ed its utmost degree of excellence, and continued to flourish till the time it be- came a Roman province. Prior to the Macedonian conquest, all the temples of Greece, and its colonies in Sicily and Italy, appear to have been of the Doric order : and of one general form, though slightly varied in particular parts, asoccasionalcircumstancesmightrequire: their plan was an oblong, having one co- lumn more on the flank than double the number of those in front. The ancient Etrurians have left many excellent monuments of taste, and to them ARCHITECTURE. is generally ascribed the method of build- ing with small stone and mortar, made of calcareous stone ; and this seems proba- ble, as tin- most ancient vestiges of ce- mentittoua building! are to be found in the country which the present T inhabit. were employed by the Romans in many public works ; the walls of the city of Koine were made of hewn stone, the capitol and the cloaca maxima are of their construction ; the last of these is esteemed a very extraordinary piece of architecture, as is sufficiently proved by its remains. To these people is attribu- ted the invention of one of the orders of architecture, called after them the Tus- can. We are told by Vitnivius, that the in- tercolumns of their temples were wide, and that they were linteled with wooden architr The Romans appear to have had their first knowledge of archirecturc from the Ktniriuns : but it was not till after the conquest of Greece, that they acquired a just relish for its beauties. It seems to have attained to its highest degree of ex- cellence in the reign of Augustus, and continued to flourish till the seat of em- pire was removed to Bizantium. The works of the Romans were much more numerous than those of any other people. The remains of their palaces, theatres, amphitheatres, baths, mausoleums, and other works, excite at this day the admi- ration and astonishment of every judicious beholder. Their first temples were round and vaulted, and hence they are account- ed the inventors of the dome. The plans of their buildings were more varied than those of the Greeks, who, excepting but in a few instances of small, but beautiful, specimens, such as the Tower of the Winds, and the monument of Lycicrates, erected their principal edifices upon rec- tangular plans. The Romans constructed circular temples crowned with domes, amphitheatres upon elliptic plans, and their theatres, and many other buildings, upon mixt-lined plans. Hy this variety they formed a style that was both elegant and magnificent. Hut let it be remem- bered, that, notwithstandingthe grandeur, the magnitude, and number of their works, their style was never so pure as in tin- flourishing ages of Greece. Among the Romans, entablatures were frequent- ly omitted : columns \\cic made to sup- port arches and groined vaults ; arcades \\en- substituted for colonades, and vaults for ceilings. In several of their most magnificent public buildings, we find sto- ries of arcades upon each other, or in thr same front with the solid parts of the ma- sonry, decorated with tin- orders, which, < if forming an essential part in the construction, are degraded to idle and ostentatious ornaments. This is very con- spicuous in the tli. , ocellus, and in the Coliseum. It is probable that the arch was invent- ed in Greece, but was almost constantly employed 1\ the Romans, who not only considered it necessary in the cm tion, but as an ornament, which ii vishly employed in the apertures of walls, and in the ceilings over passages and apartments of their buildings. Particu- larly in the decline of the empire, from ,^n of Constantine, and upon the establishment of Christianity, external magnificence was every where sacrificed to internal decoration. The purity of taste in the arts of design declined rapid, ly, and finally perished with the extinc- tion of the empire. The most beautiful edifices, erected in the preceding reigns, were divested of their ornaments, to de- corate the churches. In this age of spo- liation, architects, deficient in the know- ledge of their professions, adopted the most ready modes of construction : to ac- complish this, many beautiful structures were deprived of their columns, and placed at wide intervals in the new build mgs ; and over the capitals were thrown arches for the support of the superstruc- ture : most of the ornamental parts wen* taken from other buildings, which were spoiled for the purpose. The edifices of Italy now assumed the same general fea- tures as those which characterised the middle ages. This disposition is the plan of the Roman basilicas, but is more near- ly allied, in the elevation, to the opposite sides of the Egyptian oeri, which ! the same plan as the basilica, and which was of similar construction to the churches in after times, excepting in the want <>t arches : both had a nave, with an aisle upon each flank, separated from the nave by a range of columns, which supported a wall, pierced \\ illi windows for lighting the nave : against this wall, and over tin- columns, were placed other attached co- lumns. This, \vh .ner with a groined sealing, such as that of the Tem- ple of Peace, will form the interior of a building similar to that of the Saxon churches The Corinthian order was the favourite order among the Romans, and, as far as 5 e \amplesenLJ> only order well understood, and Ii .'cd. ARCHITECTURE. What we now call the Composite order is of Roman extraction : it was employed in many of their buildings, but chiefly in the triumphal arches : from what we find in Vitruvius, it was never accounted a dis- tinct order, but as a species of the Co- rinthian only. The only existing exam- ple that Rome affords, of the Doric order, is that executed in the theatre of Marseilles, and, though in the age of Augustus, is but a vitiated composition : the columns are meagre and plain, divested of that sublime grandeur and elegance which are so conspicuous in the solidity and flutings of the Grecian Doric. The dentils in the cornice are too effeminate a substitute for the masculine mutules, which are so cha- racteristic of the origin of this order. The Ionic in the same building is ill executed. The channels of the volutes, of the capitals, of the Ionic columns on the Coliseum, and the dentil band of the cor- 7iice, are not cut. The Ionic order of the Temple of Fortune, though it has been held out as a model, is ill proportioned, and the spirals of the volutes are un- gracefully formed. The Ionic of the Temple of Concord is out of character, the volutes are insignificantly small, and mutules supply the place of dentils in the cornice. The Romans placed one order upon another, on the exterior, in the se- veral stories of some of their buildings ; but the Greeks only employed them around the cells of their temples, forming a peristyle. The Romans carried the method of ce- rfientitioHS buildings x to the utmost degree of perfection. Their most considerable edifices had the facings of their walls, and the arches and angles of brick, or small rubble stones squared; the cores built with pebble and rubble stones, grouted or run with liquid mortar ; and at regular intervals were strengthened with courses of bond stones. This construction of walls was frequently stuccoed, or incrust- ed with marble. It is much more expe- ditious and economical than that built of wrought stone, which occasions a greater waste of materials and loss of time. The durability and solidity of the Roman ce- mentitious buildings is such, that mortar has acquired a hardness superior to the stones which are connected by it. This, when compared with the fragility and crumbling nature of the mortar used by modern builders, had led some to suppose that the ancients possessed processes in the making of cements, which have, from the lapse of time, been lost to the present day. But the information and experi- ments of ingenious men have exploded this opinion ; and there is no doubt, tiiat, if proper attention be paid to the choice of limestone and sand, to the burning of the lime, and above all, that care be taken in the mixing and tempering these mate- rials, workmen will be enabled to rival those of Rome. This has been tried in some instances, though the lapse of ages maybe necessary to make the comparison complete ; however, it will appear, from the following account of Vitruvius, that the method of making lime by the Ro- mans was not very different from what it is at the present day. " Lime should be burnt from white stone, or flint, of which the thick and hard sort are more proper for building walls, as those which are po- rous are for plastering. When the lime is burnt, the ingredients are thus to be mixed : with three parts of pit sand, one part of lime is to be mingled; but if river or sea sand is used, two parts of sand and one of lime must be united; for in these proportions the mortar will have a proper consistence; if bricks, or tiles, pounded, and sifted, be joined with river or pit sand, to the quantity of a third part, it will make the mortar stronger and fitter for use." The works of wrought stone of the Ro- mans, as well as those of the Greeks, were constructed without cement ; but cramps and ligatures of iron and bronze were used in great abundance. The use of metal was not confined to cramps and bolts, for they even constructed roofs of bronze, which was also used in magnifi- cent profusion in the decorations of build- ings. It excites regret, to reflect that the means employed by the ancients to increase the beauty, and ensure the du- ration of their edifices, have only, in ma- ny instances, served to accelerate their destruction. These valuable materials have caused much dilapidation, and more buildings have been ruined by rapine, than by the injuries of time. In the works of the Greeks and the Romans, of hewn stone, they appear to have wrought only the beds of the stones, before they were placed in the building, leaving the faces to be worked after the completion of the edifice. By this means, the arisses and the mouldings were preserved from in- jury, and the faces made exactly in the same plane, or surface, which is not gene- rally the case in the facings of our mo- dem works. Our workmen pass them over in the most slovenly manner, with the greatest indifference, by rounding the stones which happen to project at the joints, which gives them a false and irre- ARCHITECTURE. pillar appearance in sunshine. Uy this means, alsc), the ancients diminished and fluted their columns, which could not hi: done with the same accuracy any other way. After the fall of the Roman empire, the Goths, having 1 now the dominion of those places formerly the seat of the arts, and having soon become converts to Christi- anity, but having- no established rules of their own in the principles of architec- ture, either built their churches in the form of the Roman basilica, or converted the basilica into churches. Architecture continued during their government with little alteration, in the general forms, from that which had been practised at the de- cline of the Koman empire ; but igno- rance in proportion, and a depraved taste in the ornamental department, at last de- prived their edifices of that symmetry and beauty, which were so conspicuous in the works of the ancients. However, the knowledge of architectural elements was still preserved among them, and of the various forms of vaulting used by the Greeks and Romans, they adopted that of groins or cross-arching. From what has been said, it will be easy to shew, that the Goths had no share in the invention of that style of building which still bears their name The archi- tecture of Italy, at the time they ceased to be a nation, was nothing but debased Roman, which was the archetype for the first Saxon churches erected in this coun- try. The term Gothic seems to have ori- ginated, in Italy, with the restorers of the Grecian style, and was applied, by the followers of Palladio and Inigo Jones, to all the structures erected in the interval between the beginning of the twelfth and end of the fifteenth centuries, probably with a view to stigmatize those beautiful edifices, and to recover the ancient man- ner. This term is therefore of modern ap- plication : it was not used in Italy till the pointed style had gained the summit of perfection, nor yet in England, when this species of architecture ceased to be in use, and tin- Grecian restored. This man- ner of building, like most other arts, re- quired a succession of ages to bring it to maturity, and I lie principal cause which seems to have effected this was, that de- sire of novelty so inherent in the mind of man to produce something new, and a to- t-al disregard to the proportions of ancient edifices. Having now traced the Grecian style from the place of its invention to its decline in Italy, we shall follow the steps by which this corrupted ill-proportioned Italian style at last assumed i, cln so dill ere nt from the original, as come in a few centuries a distinct of architecture, which not only e.\! beautiful proportions, and i! rations, but also majestic grandeur and sublimity in its fabrication. To do this it will not be necessary to seek abroad for those successive changes, as the dif- ferent gradations can be distinctly traced at home. The first Saxon churches here were either constructed, with In rude imitation, after models of Roman temples, which we may presume then re- mained in Britain, or by foreigners brought from Rome and France. The manner of building at this time was called Roman, the term Gothic not being applied till the end of several centuries. It has been observed, that a quadran- gular walled enclosure, divided in the breadth into three parts, by two colona- ded arcades, supporting, on the imposts of the arches, two other opposite h : gher walls, through which the light dcsi into the middle part, and upon which the- reof rested, was known to the Romans before the Goths appeared in Italy. Now this construction is the general outline of the Saxon, Norman, and the pointed styles of building churches, and is alvi that form of structure most advantageous for lighting the interior, upon the same plan ; for, though the roof might have been equally well supported by columns, instead of the interior walls, and < ing those of the exterior to the whole height, the intensity of Tight produced from the same number of windows on the sides, thus far removed from the middle of the edifice, would have been :. diminished. It may also be farther ob- served, that no other form of building > favourable for vaulting : for ;t vaulted roof could neither thrown to the whole breadth, nor in the three compartments, without walU m enormous thickness, which would not on- ly have added to the breadth, but would have been attended with prodigious addi- tional expenses. The Saxon style is easily recogni its massi\e columns and semicircular arches, which usually spring from capi- tals without the intervention of t!,- blature. In the first Saxon build mouldings * mely simple, tin ; part consisting of fillets and plat- bands, at right angles to each otl. to the general fa<;ade. The archivolts and imposts were similar to those found in Roman edifices. The general plan and ARCHITECTURE. disposition of the latter Saxon churches were as follow ; the chief entrance was at the west end into the nave, at the upper end of which was a cross, with the arms of it extending north and south ; the east end, containing the choir, terminated in a semicircular form. A tower was erected over the centre of the cross, and to con- tain the bells another was frequently add- ed, and sometimes two. The large churches contained a nave and two side aisles, one on each side of the nave, and were divided into three tiers or stories, the lower consisting of a range of arcades on each side ; the middle, a range of galleries between the roof and the vaulting of the aisles; and the upper- most, a range of windows. The pillars were either square, polygonal, or circular. Such was the thickness of the walls and pillars, that buttresses were not necessa- ry, neither were they in use. The aper- tures are splayed from the mullions on both sides. The dressings are generally placed on the sides of the splayed jambs and heads of the arches, and but seldom against the face of the walls, and when this is the case, the projectures are not very prominent. The dressings of the jambs frequently consist of one, or seve- ral, engaged columns upon each side. The imposts, particularly those of the windows, have frequently the appearance of being a part of the wall itself. The doors in general are formed in deep re- cession, and a series of equidistant en- gaged columns placed upon eacli jamb, and were such, that two horizontal straight lines would pass through the ax- is of each series, and would, if produced, terminate in a point. Each column is at- tached to a recess formed by two planes, constituting an interior right angle. The angle at the meeting of every two of these recesses formed an exterior right angle, which was sometimes obtunded, and fre- quently hollowed. The archivolts rest- ing on the capitals of the columns are formed on the soffit shelving, like the jambs below. The ornaments of columns and mouldings are of very simple forms. The rudely sculptured figures which of- ten occur in door-cases, when the head of the door itself is square, indicate a Ro- man original, and are mostly referable to an zra immediately preceding the con- quest. After the Norman conquest, the gene- ral forms of the parts remained the same, though the extent and dimensions of the churches were greatly enlarged ; the vaultings became much more lofty, the pillars of greater diameter, the ornaments more frequent and elaborately finished ; towers of very large dimensions and great height were placed either in the centre, or at the west end of the cathedral and conventual churches. These were often ornamented with arcades in tiers of small intersecting arches on the outside. About the end of the reign of Henry I. circular arches, thick walls without prominent buttresses, and massive pillars with a kind of regular base and capital, generally pre- vailed ; the capitals of the pillars were often left plain, though there were a few instances of sculptured capitals, foliage, and animals. The shafts of the pillars were usually plain cylinders, or had se- micolumns .attached to them. The first transition of the arch appears to have taken place towards the close of the reign of Stephen, its figure, which had hitherto been circular, becoming slightly pointed, and the heavy single pillar made into a pilastered cluster, which was at first ill formed, but gradually assumed a more elegant figure and graceful proportion, the archivolts still retaining many of the Saxon ornaments. It may here be ob- served, that, antecedent to this period, neither tabernacles nor niches with cano- pies, statues in whole relief, pinnacles, pediments, or spires, nor any tracery in the vaultings, were used ; but at this time, or soon after, these began to obtain. To- wards the close of the 13th century, the pillars, then supporting sharply pointed arches, were much more slender; the ceilings were seemingly sustained by groined ribs, resting on the capitals of the pillars, and the windows were lighted by several openings, in place of one. After the reign of Stephen, the circular and pointed arches were frequently em- ployed in the same building ; but the pointed style, gaining more and more up- on the circular, prevailed ultimately at the close of the reign of Henry III. and prevented all farther confusion of mixture. The architecture of this age now exhibit- ed uniformity of parts, justness of propor- tions, and elegance of decoration ; the ar- cades and pillars became numerous, the single shafts were divided into a multipli- city of equal, slender, distinct shafts, con- structed of purbeck marble, and collected under one capital, luxuriantly decorated with leaves of the palm-tree. The east and west windows began to be widely ex- panded ; these required a number of mul- lions, which, as well as the ribs and tran- sornes of the vaulting, began to ramify, from the springing of the arches, into a ARCHITECTURE. variety of tracery, which was uniformly ornamented \vitli rosettes or polytbil, cus- pidated figures, forming trefoils, quatre- foils, &c. Canopies were introduced over the arches, and in rich work were deco- rated with crockets and creeping- foliage, and terminated in a flower. The but- tresses were made in several dimin. stages towards the top, and mostly ter- minated with purrlcd pinnacles. In the reign of Edward II. detached columns were laid aside, and pillars, near- ly of the same proportion as formerly, with vertical or columnar mouldings wrought out of the solid, were adopted. Tlie t-ast and west windows were so en- larged as to take up nearly the whole breadth of the nave, and carried* up al- most as high as the vaulting, and were beautifully ornamented with hvely colours on stained glass. In the early part of the reign of Edward III. arcades with low arches and sharp points prevailed ; over the arcades was ge- nerally placed a row of open galleries, originally introduced in Saxon churches. About the end of the reign of Richard II., A. D. 1399, the pillars became more tall and slender, forming still more lofty and open arcades ; tlie columns which formed the cluster were of different dia- meters, the capitals more complicated, the vaults at the intersection of die ribs were studded with knots of foliage, the canopies of the arches were universally purfled, and terminated with a rich knot of flowers : the pilastcred buttresses flanking the sides were crowned with ela- borate h'nials, the Hying buttresses were formed on segments of circles, in order to give them lightness, and strength at the same time. From the close of the 14di century no remarkable change appears to have taken place ; the grander members continued their original dimensions and form, and the ornamental parts became distinguish- ed by greater richness and exuberance. Another change took place in the reign ofEduard IV. Its leading features are principally to h( seen in the vaulting*, tlie horizontal sections of which had been generally projecting right :mgles, but wire now arches of cirrles ; the surface of the vaults bring such as might be ge- nerated by a concave curve revolving round a vertical line, as an axis which immediately over the pillars. This spe- cies of groining, unknown in preceding ages, was favourable for a beautiful dis- lay of tracery. F.qui-distant concave ribs in vertical planes were intersected by J VOJ. I horizontal convex circular ribs, and thr included psmu Is w i re beautifully mcnii d v. r.'i ( ,.-,i)s, forming an infinite variety ol the most elegant traciry, which, from its appearance, lias been denominat- ed tin. work. J'luin the commencement of the reign of King Henry V11I. a mixed or debased style began to take place, from our inter- course with the Italians. The ingenious Mr. Britton, in his valuable architectural antiquities of Great Britain, has classed tlie various styles in die following order, which we shall adopt, and shall be happy to find the same appropriate terms adopt- ed also in future publications, \\l. ideas of the objects represented bv them are die subjects of inquiry. He a sible tliis is die only means of facilitating a knowledge of this study, bv removing equivocal words, and thereby making ar- chitectural language intelligible. First N'yle. Anglo Saxon ; diis will em- brace all buildings that were erected be- tween the times of the conversion of die Saxons and the Norman conquest, from A. D. 599 to A. D. 1066. Secmid Style. Anglo Norman, by which will be meant, that sule which prevailed from 1066 to 1189, including die reigns of \\ illiams I. and II., Henry I., Stephen and Henn II Third Style. English, from 1 189 to 1272, embracing the reigns of Richard I., John, and Henn III. fourth Style. Decorated English, from 1272 to 1461, including the reigns of Ed- wards I., II., 111., Richard II., Heiirv - | \ , V., and VI. Fifth Style. Highly decorated florid English, from 1461 to 1509, including die reigns of Edwards 1\ . and V., Richard III'., and Henry \ II. From this aera we lose all sight of con- gruity : and the public buildings erected during the reigns of Henry \lil. beth, and James I., may be characterised li\ 1 1 u- terms of debased English, or An- glo-Italian. Mr Hritton observes, " dit during tlie intermediate time, when one style was growing into repute and the 01 her sinking in favour, then \\ . II >c found a mixture of both in one building, is not referable to cither, and which has constituted die greatest problem in anti- quarian science." Before \vc leave this subject, it will he >:-y to give some account of the iployed in the f.ihricution,and of the principles in the construction of those immense piles, w htch at one- ed grandeur, iiia^i. id awful sub- It r ARCHITECTURE. htnity in their structure. In the erection of these edifices, heavy cornices, entabla- tures, and lintels, were omitted, and there was seldom occasion to use any stones larger than a man might carry on his back, up a ladder, from one scaffold to another, though spoke wheels and pullies were occasionally used. From the adop- tion of such light materials, and the emu- lation of the architects, edifices were raised to an incredible height. Hence the lofty towers, and the still more elevated spires that occasion such awful grandeur, and sublime sensations in the mind of the astonished beholder. The ceilings of the churches were formed by groined vault- ing, a portion of the pressure of which was directed in the length to the ends, and the remaining pressure to the spring- ing points on the sides. In the Roman buildings the walls were most commonly without projections, and of vast thickness, which was necessary in a vaulted building, erected upon a recti- lineal plan, in order to counteract the ef- forts of the resisting arches. Hence, if the building had been groined, the weight of the arches would have been thrown upon the springing points. From this it is evident that a vast quantity of materials must have been employed without effect ; but this is not the case with the pointed style of architecture, for the walls were thickened by buttresses opposed only to the pressing points ; and, to aid the re- sistance with still more powerful effect, the buttresses were surmounted with high pinnacles, and, from their sloping position, their general form was almost one continued prop, in a straight line to the bottom : this straight line was a tan- gent to the arch. Those that under stand the nature of the centre of gravity will easily perceive, that a plain wall will be overturned with much more ease than one. with buttresses, of the same length and height, the same quantity of materials being employed in both. The extremity of the aisles was sustained by strong pi- lastered buttresses on the outside, and the other extremity rested on the imposts or capitals of the pillars. These pillars, with their superincumbent walls, not be- ing assisted as on the outside with but- tresses, were liable to be bent with the pressure of the arches, unless the sides of the nave had been of sufficient thick- ness, which, in many of our churches, ex- perience has proved to be the contrary, by the bending of the walls inwardly, which is a serious defect, and threatens rujn to many of those venerable piles of building. We cannot therefore expect these edifices to rival, in duration, the immortal constructions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. As to the groining of the nave, the arches were equally resisted on both sides by the flying buttresses, which pressed forcibly at the imposts of the arches. It would appear, that the me- thod practised in the erection of these edifices was, to insert the springing stones as the work went on, but to leave the vaulting to be turned after the walls had been carried up to their full height, and the whole roofed in. The roofs of Gothic buildings were very high pitched, a form more from choice than necessity, rather adopted in compliance with the pointed and pyramidal style of architecture, than rendered necessary by the climate, being generally covered with lead. These roofs are therefore faulty, in burdeningthe walls with an unnecessary load of timber and lead; and they are also deficient in the construction, by the omission of tye- beains, to counteract their tendency to spread and thrust out the walls. After having thus discussed the several styles of building, which have been gene- rally and unmeaningly classed under the appellation of Gothic, we must now make a retrogression to Italy, where the Gre- cian style had been revived for a consider able time, and was nourishing in great purity. Let us therefore retrace the steps by which it again rose to its ancient splen- dour and magnificence. Fillipo Brunelleschi, born 1377, maybe looked upon as the restorer of ancient ar- chitecture, and the founder of the modern style. After having prepared his mind by the study of the writings of the ancient au- thors, and the r.uins of Roman edifices, which he carefully measured, he discover- ed the orders, and recognized the simple forms and constructions of the ancients, and having thus formed a system upon un- shaken principles, he was enabled to con- struct works with beauty, solidity and du- rability. He erected the dome of St. Maria da Fiore at Florence, an undertak- ing beyond the abilities of any other builder then living; Arnolfo, the original architect of this vast cathedral, having been two years dead. This dome, rising from an octangular plan, is of great ele- vation, and is only inferior in size to that of St. Peter's. It is constructed by two vaults, with a cavity between them, and was erected without centering. It is the only elevated dome supported by a wall without buttresses. From this, and many ARCHITECTURE. Other buildings erected by Brunellcschi, the learned began to study the works of Vitruvius, and a general taste for the principles of the art begun to warm the breasts of the Italians. Leo Battista Alberta, born A. D. 1398, was the first modern author who publish- ed a learned treat ise on architecture, from which lie lias acquired great reputation, and is justly styled the modern Vitruvius. Following the steps of Brunelleschi, he reformed by his precepts and designs ma- ny of the abuses and barbarous practices wlu'ch then prevailed among his country- men. Bramante had a considerable share in the restoration of ancient art, and built many magnificent edifices. Pope Julius n. having projected the rebuilding of St. Peter's upon a scale of unequalled mag- nificence, entnisted the execution of the design, 1513, to Bramante, who conceived the idea of erecting the lofty cupola upon that immense structure. This vast undertaking was carried on successively by Raphael, San Gallo, and Michael An- gelo,to whom the final design and com- pletion of the work is principally due. Architecture continued to flourish in the 16th century, under the great archi- tects Vignola , Serlio, Palladia, and Sea- mozzi. To the unremitted assiduity of these distinguished artists in the stut I 1 constructed of wood, and sustained by a cone of 18 inch brick-work, which also supports the lantern above. Tin- interior dome is also constructed of Ib inch brick work, which had a the whole thickness for every li'. and the intermediate parts had two bricks in length in the thickness. This dome was turned upon a centre, which support- ed itself without any standard* from be- low. From the inclined position of its supporting walls it had little or no trans- verse pressure, yet, for the great e: rity, it was hooped with iron at the bot- tom. This is accurately represented in Gywn's Section. Though modem architecture is, for the far grcaterpart, indebted to the. construc- tions and decorations of Grecian and Ro- man edifices, yet we still retain consider- able traces of the Gothic style in many of our buddings. Tbe spire is of Gothic invention ; it is invtatcd in our churches and sonic other buildings, by erecting one, or two, or a se- ries of Grecian temples over ea.-h oilier, every superior one being less in its hori- zontal dimensions than that immediately below. Frustrums of pyramids and cones are also the ornaments of our steeples; but whether the component parts be one, two, or aseries oftemples,continually di- minished, or temples supporting trunca- ted pyramids, the general contour of the aggregate is still pyramidal. The plans of Grecian buildings \\ere simple geometrical forms; buttl.. our structures are symmetrical and com- plex figures, more in imitation of those of the Romans. The materials used in our modern buil- dings are stone, brick and timber. In rustic buildings, theston r laid dry or with mortar. In finished edifices, the stones of the facingsare squared and laid in mortar, and the backs uii are most generally made up with brick or rubble. \\alls constructed entirely of squared stones are rare: for, allowing the materials may be easily procured in great abundance, a vast expense will be incurred by enormous additional work- manship. This construction of walling is therefore seldom or never used but in aquatic buildings, where the greatest strength is frequently necessary. The French have notonh shown much ingenuity in the binding and cemcntmr ARCHITECTURE. ot \\alls, but also in the cutting of stones with geometrical exactness, so as to fit vaulted surfaces, of variously formed fi- gures. Iron is used for cramping stones, some- times in binding the face and back of a wall together, when there is little heart. In domes it is frequently used in circular chains, in order to remove lateral pres- sure, and make the weight of the super- structure act perpendicularly upon the supports. It is also used in fastening wood together, and wood to stone work. Timber is used also as ligatures to walls ; in this situation it is called bond timber, which also serves for securing the internal finishings. Timber is fre- quently used in foundations, in floors, in roofing, in internal finishing, &c. Tim- ber, besides being used in bond, flooring, and roofing, in conjunction with stone or brickwork, is sometimes u:ed as the only material, excepting the chraanies, nails, and other iron fastenings. Mouldings. In architectural decora- tions, the materials are formed imo a va- riety of shapes ; which have in any two places sections of equal and similai fi- gures, at right angles to their surface, m these two places ; thin forms of this pro- perty are called mouldings. "When the section is semicircular, or semielliptical, it is called a torus or astra- gal : when large, it is called a torus ; and when small, an astragal. When the section is a concave curve, and when the concavity recedes beyond either of the extremities of the curve, the mouldingis called a scotia or trochims. When the section is concave, one ex- tremity being above the other and the upper extremity projecting out beyond the lower, and when the lower extremity recedes from a vertical line equal to the greatest recess of the concavity, or more, the moulding is called a cavetto. When the section is a convex curve with one extremity below the other* and the upper extremity projecting farther than the lower, without any part of the convexity being lower than the lower ex- tremity of the section, the moulding is called an ovoloor echinus. W T henthe section is a curve of contra- ry flexure, like a flat S, the moulding is called an ogee ; and when the concave part of the ogee projects, and the convex part recedes, the ogee in this position is called a sima recta: but when the parts lie the contrary way, it is called a sima inversa. When the section is straight, and is either perpendicular to the horizon, or nearly so, then the flat member is called a fillet, plat-band, or facia, according to its breadth and comparison with other contiguous mouldings. When it is very narrow, and either crowns an upper moulding, or divides one member from another, it is called a fillet, or listello ; when it is broader, it is called a plat-band or plinth ; and when very broad, it is called a facia or face. Compound Mouldings. When one, two, or a collection of mouldings, with or with- out fillets, crown a broad flat member, this collection is called a cymatium. Other names are particularly applied to the orders, and are explained under that head. ORDERS OF AnCHITECTrRE. An order is a decorated imitation of those primitive huts, which consisted of rows of posts, made of the trunks of trees, disposed in the ground around a quadran- gular plat ; and supporting a covering, which consisted of four lintelling beams, placed on the top of the posts, with other transverse beams, supported again by two of the opposite lintels: and lastly, of three rows of transverse timbers support- ng each other, and the lowermost sup- ported by the ends of the transverse beams on each side, in parallel inclined planes, rising from the ends of the trans- verse be^ms, till each plane of timbers on the one si(\e met its corresponding plane on the other ; the lowermost timbers on each side bein^ disposed in pairs, in the same vertical puins with the transverse beams, forming t'ne sides of a triangle, and projecting beyoi-.d the lintels, and the uppermost inclined planes of timbers, serving to fix the covering of tyle or stone. From this simple construction arose the first order of architecture called Doric Order. The columns were imi- tated from the wooden posts tapering up- wards, as trees do by nature, and placed upon a stone base, to prevent them from sinking : vertical channels, or flutes, were cut in the shafts, to hold the spears, or staves, which the early Greeks carried along with them. The capital was form- ed by circular stones, laid on the tops of the columns, and square ones again upon these, to protect the shafts from rain, and to receive the lintelling beam, which be- came the architrave : the ends of the joists over the architrave were not in ver- tical channels, forming the triglyphs, for preventing the rain from adhering to them. Tile cornice was formed by the ARCHITECTURE. projecting timbers of the roof; the ends of the bottom tier of these timbers form- ing- tin- inutules : the lower ndcsof which* as well as the under side of the band of the triglyphs, were cut into thin cylinders, or conic frustrums, represent ing the drops of rain falling from the edges. These parts, which at first resulted from the primitive habitation, w ere aft envards con- verted into more elegant decorations of simple and natural forms. The general figure of the Attic Doric consists of but few parts, even as practised in the most refined ages of Greece : the fluted shaft, terminating with one, two, or three annu- lar channels ; the capital, consisting of the fillets, and a bold echinus, having the same common axis with the shaft ; and the crowning abacus form the entire column, which therefore consists of a base and shaft. The spacious architrave, resting on the columns, consisting of a crowning band, with the guttere and tenia pending therefrom, under the triglyphs ; the frize, consisting of a capital, or cymatium, and equidistant triglyph, leaving square re- cesses between them, called metopes ; and the cornice, consisting of mutules over the triglyphs and over the metopes ; the corona formed of a band and cyma- tium above; and the sima, or crowning moulding, formed of a large ovolo and fillet, compose the whole entablature ; which therefore consists of a cornice, fri/e, and architrave. This is the general character of the Grecian Doric. It is al- most constantly placed upon three steps, proportioned to the height of the order, and not to the human step ; the shafts of the columns diminish, with a beautiful curve line from the bottom to the cincture below the annulets ; the flutes are with- out fillets, of a circular or elliptic section, and terminate immediately below the an- nulets: the annulets of the capital most commonly follow the contour of tin- ovo- lo ; above them, the band, crowning the top of the architrave, is one continued string without breaks ; tin- guttae under the regula, anil under the mutules, are generally of a cylindrical form, at least tapering upwards in a very small degree. The triglyphs are placed upon tin- ex- tremities of the frize, and not over the axis of the extreme columns; and consist of two whole channels, ami two half ones upon the edges ; the sides of each glyph, or channel, are two vertical planes, meet- ing each other in a right angle at tht: back, and consequently the face of the triglyph at 135 degrees on each the glyph ; the tops of the channels :uv sometimes curved in the front, like a very eccentric semi-ellipsis, placed with il greater axis horizontal, as in of Theseus; and very frequently horizontal line, joined to each vertical line at the side, with a quadrant of a cir- cle, and the tops of tlie two half chamu-U on each edge of the triglyph are semi- circular, not only in front, but in the pro- files also, leaving the angle pendant at the top, as in the temples of Minerva at Athens, and at Suiiium, and the temple of Jupiter Panellenius ; and sometime^ the head of the glyph is horizontal, as in the Doric portico at Athens, and in the temple of Jupiter Nemzus, between Ar- gos and Corinth. In all these examples, the surface form- ing the head of a glyph is perpendicular to the front, or such that a right line, per- pendicular to the face, and touching the top line of the head in any point, will coincide with the surface of the interior of the glyph. The capital of the triglyphs has a small projection on the face, which is not returned on the edges, and de- scends lower than that over the metopes ; though both are on the same level at the top. The mutules are thin parallelepiped--, their lower surface making an acute angle with the upright of the frize, in the same manner as the under ends of the rafters of the primitive hut would; the pendant guttae, hung to them, are in three rows, from front to rear, having 1 six on the front . and also in each of the two back rows The soffit of the corona is parallel to th:r of the mutules, and consequently makes an acute angle with the upright of thr frize also. The lower part of the corona is most frequently wrought into a fillet . its cymatium is differently formed in dif- ferent examples, but most frequent 1\ with a small ovolo and fillet, both of which are channelled upwards, in order to pro- duce a greater variety of light and shade The sima, or crowning moulding, frequently rcii.-!*;- m'a large ovolo, and a fillet over it. The general proportions of the Dorit order are the follow! 'lumn diameter is four-fifths, and the altitudinut dimension of the capita) two-fifths of the inferior diameter, including the annulet-. echinus, and abacus The 1" ><'>' t the capita! ! into two equal parts, giving the upper one to the abacus, and the lower one to the echinus and lets : divide the low er one into five parts, giving one to the annulets, and four tu the ovolo: divide the height of the en- tablature into four parts, giving one to ARCHITECTURE. the cornice, which comprehends the dis- tance between the fillet of the echinus or crowning moulding and the under side of the guttae ; divide the remaining three in- to two equal parts, giving one to the height of the frize, as seen in front, and one to the architrave. The Doric order was the only order known in Greece, or its colonies, anterior to the Macedonian conquest. The Ionic succeeded, and appears to have been the favourite order, not only in Ionia, but all over Asia Minor. The Corinthian (says Mr. Wood) came next in vogue, and most of the buildings of this order seem poste- rior to the time of the conquest of those countries by the Romans. The first Doric building was the temple of Juno, erected by Doras, king of Achaia, and Pelopon- nesus in the ancient city of Argos, from whom this order derives its name. It was also used in other cities of this prince's dominions, but its proportions were not established, till an Athenian colony erect- ed a temple to Apollo Panionos, in Ionia, so called from Ion, their leader, after the form of the temples they had seen in Achaia. In this building the relative di- mensions of the columns were adjusted, from the ratio which the foot of a man bears to his height, making their diame- ter one sixth part of their altitude. Ionic Order. The ambitious desire of novelty soon led the way to the invention of another species ; and, in erecting the temple of Diana, they sought a new or- der from similar traces, imitating the proportion and dress of women. The diameter of the columns was made an eighth part of their height ; the base was made with folds representing the shoe ; the capitals with volutes, in form of the curled hair worn upon the right and left; and the cymatium, for the locks pending on the forehead from the crown. This new order they called Ionic, after the name of the country in which it was in- vented : so far we are informed by Vitru- vius. It is probable, that, in erecting this temple, the triglyphs and mutules, the bold characteristic marks of the original hut, would be omitted, and the more De- licate dentils, representing the ends of the lath to which the tyles were fixed, employed, representing a beautiful row of teeth ; for in all the ancient Ionian fragments of this order we find the cor- nices constantly denticulated, and there- fore the dentils are no less characteristic marks than the capitals: they are gene- rally omitted, however, in the remains of those to be found at Athens. The other parts and proportions of the Ionian order are more arbitrary than in the Dorian The parts of the Ionic order on the tem- ple by the Ilyssus are few, and of a bold character; the height of the volutes is three-fifths, and the whole height of the capital two-thirds, of the diameter of the column. The architrave consists of one broad facia, and its crowning cymatium : the parts of'the cornice as seen in front are, the corona, including its cymatium, and sima. The capital, or cymatium of the frize, is wrought under the cornice, and consists of a sima rcversa, and bead below it. The height of the architrave is about two-fifths of the entablature ; and by divid- ing the upper three-fifths again into five parts, the plain part of the frize will occupy three parts, and the cornice two parts. In the Ionic order of the temple of Erechtheus, and of the temple of Minerva Polias, the architrave consists of three fa- ciae, and cymatium ; the cymatium of the frize is mostly wrought under the corona. If the height of the entablature from the bottom of the lower facia to the top of the cymatium of the corona be divided into nineteen parts, the architrave and the part of the frize that is seen will each be eight parts, and the corona, including the larymer and cymatium, the other three parts. The volutes of the capitals of these orders, both for singularity and beauty, exceed every other remain of an- tiquity. The Asiatic Ionian order differs great- ly from the Attic one. In most of the re- mains of this order, as represented in the Ionian antiquities, the frizes are all want- ing, except in one example ; and conse- quently the whole height of the entabla- ture of those without the frizes cannot be ascertained, though the architraves and cornices belonging to each other have been accurately measured. The one which has the entire entablature belongs to the great theatre at Laodicea : the frize is pulvinated, and is something less in height than one-fifth of that of the en- tablature. The architraves of the temple of Bacchus at Teos, and the temple of Minerva Polias at Prienne, are each divid- ed into three faciae below the cymatium. In all the Asiatic Ionics the crowning moulding is constantly a sima recta of a less projection than it has height : the dentils are never omitted, and their height is nearly a mean proportion be- tween the height of the sima recta and that of the larimer, corona, or drip, being always greater than the height of the co- rona, and less than that of the sima recta. AllCIIITECTt RE. The cymatium of the denticulated band is wrought almost entirely out of the soffit of the corona, or recessed upwards, and consequently its elevation is almost con- cealed. The height of the cornice, from the top of the sinui to tin: lower edge of the dentils, is equal, or very nearly so, to that of the architrave. The altitude of tlie fri/e, without its cymatium, or upper mouldings, may be supposed to be about a fourth part of the whole entablature ; for if higher than this, the entablature would be too great a portion of the co- lumns for any analogy we are acquainted with. In point of beautiful proportions and elegant decorations, the entablatures of these two last examples exceed every other remain ; and though their pro- portions are very different from those remaining at Athens, yet they are still pleasing. In all the Grecian Ionics there seems to be a constant ratio between the upper part of the cornice, from the lower edge of the corona upwards, and the height of the entablature : this is nearly :ts two to nine. If these members were regulated in any other manner, their breadths would be so variable, as sometimes to be so di- minutive that their forms could not be perceived, and at other times so enlarged as to overload the whole, when viewed from a proper station. Indeed the great recess of the mouldings under the coro- na makes this a very distinct division, and on this account we never think the cornice too clumsy, though the whole denticulated band and cymatium of the frize are introduced below the cornice, which seems to be the reason of so groat an apparent diHerencc between the Asia- tic and Attic Ionics. This order, as found in the Ionian territory, is complete; but those at Athens are deficient, from their uant of the dentil band, though beautiful in many other respects. Moderns have added a diameter to the height of the Ionic column, making it nine instead of eight. The shaf' is gene- rally striated into twenty -four flutes, and as many tillrts. The bright of the enta- blature in general may be two diameters; but where grandeur as well as elegance is required, it should not be less than a fourth. The base employed in the Athe- nian Ionics consists of two tori, and a sco- tia or trochilus between them, and two fillets, each separating the scotia from the torus above and below : the fillet above the torus generally projects as far as the extremity of the upper torus, andthelov- (r fillet beyond the upper torus ; the sco- tia is very flat, and its section curve joining 'lie fill-t , , -Totiaui-e in -irl . in the Ionic temple on the \\\ and fillet arc em; torus, joining tlie fillet to the v:.|,i <( ;ht column: the upper torus of the ! the same temple, ami th.it <>f 'tl.r : i the temple of Krcchteus, are both tinted, preserving the lower part, that join?- the upper surface of the fillet al< tia, entire. The upper scotia of tl pie of Minerva Polias is enriched with a beautiful guilloche. The lower torus of the base of the antx of the temple of Erechteus is receded, and that of 1 1 . of the antae of the temple of Minerva Ho- lias is channelled with flutes, separated from each other by two small cylindric mouldings of aquadrantal section, having their convexities joining each other. This form of a base is by Vitruvius very pro- perly called tlie Attic base, being invent- ed and employed by the Athenians in ull their Ionics. It was also adopted by the Romans, and seems to have been their most favourite base ; for it is not only employed in all the examples of this or- der at Rome, but most frequently in the Corinthian and Composite orders also. However, the proportions of the Attic base, as employed by the Roi. ferentfrom that employed by the i . the upper torus of the former being al- ways of a less height than the lower one, both tori plain, and the scotia containing a much deeper cavity. The proportion of the bases of the Ionic and Corinthi-in orders on the Coliseum, the Ionic on the theatre of Marcellus, and that on the temple of Fortuna Vinlis at Rom nearly that assigned by Vitruvius. The Ionic bases, as employed in the temple of Minerva Polias at 1'riene, and in that of Apollo Dedymxus near Miletus, consist of a large torus, three pair of astragals, and two scotix, inverted in each other. The upper pair of astragals is disposed below the torus, and '' til separate each pair curb other. In the ten.ph Polias an astragal is employed a!" panning it from the shaft; the torus itself is formed elliptic-ally, and the under part of it is fiuud : i 1 flute cut in the uppi r part, near to the In the temple ''' 1} m:r- us, the upper to' .rcular section and plain, and each ! pair is separated i base ' ' from that v '. ARCHITECTURE. this order. In the former the scotix are inverted, which gives a greater variety in the profile than when both stand in the same position, as in the Vitruvian base. The lonians, besides the base which they appropriated to this order, sometimes used the Attic base also, as in the temple of Bacchus at Teos. This base seems not only to have been the most favourite one among the ancients, but is likewise so among the moderns. It is not so heavy in the upper part as that denominated Ionic : its contour is pleasirvg, and its ge- neral appearance elegant. In the capitals of the Athenian Ionics, and in that of Mi- nerva Polias at Priene, the lower edge of the canal between the volutes is formed into a graceful curve, bending down ward in the middle, and revolving round the spirals which form the volute upon each side. In the temple of Erect heus and Minerva Polias at Athens each volute has two channels, formed by two spiral bor- ders, and a spiral division between them. The border which forms the exterior of the volute, and that which forms the un- der side of the lower canal, leaves be- tween them a deep recess, or spiral groove, which continually diminishes in its breadth till it is entirely lost on the side of the eye. In the example of the temple of Erectheus, the column is ter- minated with a fillet and astragal a little below the lower edges of the volutes, and that of Minerva Polias in the same man- ner with a single fillet ; and the colorino or neck of each is charged with beautiful honeysuckles, formed alike in alternate succession, but differing from each other in any two adjacent ones. The upper an- nular moulding of the column is of a semicircular section, and embelli shed with a guilloche. The echinus, astragal, and fillet, are common to both Grecian and Roman Ionic capitals, and the echinus is uniformly cut into eggs, surrounded with borders of angular sections, and into tongues between every two borders. The astragal is formed into a TOW of beads, with two small ones between every two large ones. These mouldings arc cut in a similar manner in all the Koman build- ings, except the Coliseum, and what re- lates to tlie taste of the foliage. In the temple of Bacchus tit Tcos, the great theatre at Laodicea, and in all the Roman Ionics, the channel connecting the two vo- lutes is not formed with a border on the lower edge, but is terminated with a ho- rizontal line, which falls a tangi-nt to the second revolution of each voiute at the commencement of this revolution. The reader will find the description of the vo- lute among the descriptions of the plates. When columns are introduced in the flanks of a building as well as in the front, one of the capitals of each angular column is made to face both the conti- guous sides of the building, with two vo- lutes upon each side, projecting the two adjacent volutes, by bending them in a concave curve towards the angle, as in the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Miner- va Polias at Priene, of Erectheus, and that on the Ilyssus at Athens, as also that of the Manly Fortune at Rome. The ca- pitals of all the columns are sometimes made to face the four sides of the abacus alike on each side, as in the temple of Concord at Rome, from which example the Scammozzian capital was formed. The ancients employed this order in tem- ples dedicated to Juno, Bacchus, Diana, and other deities, whose character held a medium between the severe and the effeminate ; and the moderns employ it in churches consecrated to female saints in a matronal state ; also in courts of jus- tice, seminaries, libraries, and other structures which have a relation to the arts. Corintfuan Order. The invention of this order was attributed to one Callimachus, an Athenian sculptor, who, passing by the tomb of a voung lady, observed an acanthus growing up by the sides of a basket, which was covered with a tile and placed upon the tomb, and that the tops of the leaves were bent downwards by the resistance of the tile, took the hint, and executed some columns with foliated capitals, near Corinth, which were made still of a more slender proportion than the Ionic, imitating the figure and delica- cy of virgins. Vitruvius mentions that the shafts of Corinthian columns have the same symmetry as the Ionic, and that the difference of the symmetry between the entire columns arises only from the dif- ference of the heights of their capitals, the Ionic being one third, and the Corin- thian the whole diameter of the shaft, which, therefore, makes the height of the Corinthian two thirds of a diameter more than that of the Ionic ; hence, as he has allowed the Ionic to be eight diameters, the Corinthian will be eight and two thirds. The sides of the abacus of the Corin- thian capital are concave, and moulded on the fronts. The lower part of the capital consists of two rows of leaves, and each row of eight plants ; one of the upper leaves ARCHITECTURE. fronting each side of the abacus, and the stalk of each leaf springing between each two lower leaves. The height of the aba- cus is one seventh, the upper and lower tii rs of leaves each two sevenths, and the branches and volutes, \\hichspring from the stalks between every two leaves in the upper row, the remaining two se- venths of the diameter. The breadth of the capital at the bottom is one, and each diagonal of the abacus two, diam the column. Vitnivins makes no men- tion of obtundingthe corners of the aba- cus, as is general!) practiced by the an- cients as well as tlie moderns ; we are, then-fore, led to suppose, that each pair of the four faces of the abacus wi tinned till they met in an acute angle, at each corner, as in the temple of \ Home, and the Stoa or portico at Athens; the division of the capital is the same :is is frequently used by the moderns, but i lie entire height thereof is gcnerallv made one sixth more than the diain the column, and that of the entire column en diameters. The best undent MU-II-, of the Corinthian order are to be collected from the Stuu, the arch of Adri in, and that most exquisite and singular -pecimen, the monument of Lysic Athens ; also in the I'antheon of Agrippa, ami in the three columns of the Campo \accino at Koine ; these two, and parti- cularly the last, are allowed to be the most complete existing examples that are 'o be foundinall the remains of antiquity. The taste of the foliage of the Attic Co- rinthian differs considerably from that of the Komaii: the small divisions of the LUV mure pointed, approaching nearer to the acanthus ban those at Koine, which are for the most pail olive; how- ever, in other respects, the capitals them- -- ; milar, except in the monument of l.ysicratcs. The Corinthian capital exhibits the ut- most degree ofclcgaiicc, beauty, ri' and delicacy, that hu> ever been attained in architectural composition, thoilgh ma- ny attempts have been made to exceed it. The columns of this order do not appear 10 have had any appropriate entablature in the time of Vitruvius; for, in 11. I\ Hiap. i. lie informs us, that both Doric and Ionic entablatures u ere supported by Corinthian columns, and that it was the columns alone which constituted this or- der, and not the entablatures; ho. in the remains of (Grecian and Koman an- tiquity we h'nd, almost constantly, Corin- iliian columns supporting un entablature ,yith a peculiar species of cornice : a <-om- VOL- I. position which seems to be borrowed from those of the Doric and Ionic orders. In this entablature the figure of the mutules supporting the o form of a console, and i and the denticuh.' cymatium, and also that oft!. introduced below the c this application are called mr,ilil!ion*. This disposition is inverting the or the original hut, and a! ription given In \itru\ius. The only example, .ientilsareplaccdabove moil, is in the second < ;C; ill- ;e entablature itself would, on many o< .ippropriate the Corin'liKin. \\heii the co- lumusarefl - 'if the flutes and fill order. If the entablature fie enriched, the shaft should be nY > composed of va- ble ; for a diversity of co- lours COIlfllV if decorated, the ornament i' Hi t-i :i m::c!i .cgTCe. \Vlu-n the columns are within reach, so as to be liable to be damaged. part of the HuU a, . of the fab: i, ice \\hich lias obtain hers, it will be neces>u; to increase the whole h ^ en- tablature more than two dia> ', undat the same time to preserve a jus: between tlu making tin- the entabla- ture two-niir if the Ionic comic inployed, or the dentils and t : the column will be sulh' ,' too many mem- bers to the cornice will appear, as f columns arc incapable of - ARCHITECTURE. bearing an entablature of the same part of their height as columns of fewer dia- meters are : this absurdity will more rea- dily appear, when the parts of both or- ders are made of the same altitudes. The Corinthian order is appropriate for all buildings, in which magnificence, ele- gance, and gaiety, are requis te ; it was emp'oyed by the ancients in temples de- dicated to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and also to the nymphs of the fountains, be- ing the most splendid of all the orders, and bearing the most affinity to foliages, flowers, and volutes, which suited the de- licacy and elegance of these deities. Its splendor also recommends it in the decorations of palaces, squares, galleries, theatres, banqueting rooms, and other places consecrated to festive mirth, or convivial recreation ; it is likewise em- ployed in churches dedicated to saint Man-, and other virgin saints. T'lfcan order. There are no ancient remains of any entire order of this kind ; the columns of Trajan and Antonine, and one at Constantinople, being defective from the want of their entablatures \\ e have the description of Vitruvius to the following purpose : the column is seven diameters in height, and is diminished at the top a fourth part of a diameter ; their bases have a circular plinth, and are in height half a diameter, which is divided into two parts, giving one to the altitude of the plinth, and one to the torus. The capital has also half a diameter in height, and one in the breadth of its abacus. The height of the capital is divided into three parts, one of which is given to the plinth or abacus, one to the echinus, and the third to the hypotrachelian with the apo- phygis : the architrave is made with its vertical faces over the edge of the co- lumn, at the neck of the capital, in two thicknesses, in its horizontal dimension, with a space of two digits or 1$ inch be- tween, for the admission of air, to prevent the beams from rotting, and joined toge- ther with mortise and tenon. Over the beams and over the walls the mutules are projected a fourth part of the height of the columns, and antepagments are fixed to their fronts. A correct specimen of Tuscan architecture may be seen in St. Paul's, Covent Garden, the work of the most distinguished Inigo Jones. This order is proper for all rustic structures. Roman order. The character of this as an order is indicated by its capital ; the upper part of which being an entire Ionic capital of that species, which fronts the four sides of the column alike, and the lower part consisting of two rows of leaves, as in the Corinthian capital. Vi- truvi'.'s speaks ot various capitals derived from that of the Corinthian ; but does not distinguish columns with such capitals supporting an entablature by the name of an order-, indeed, he expressly says '.hat they do not belong to any species of co- lumns. Serlio was the first who added a fifth order, by compounding columns si- milar to that of the Arch of Titus, with the entablature of the uppermost order of the Coliseum. More recent authors have, for the greater part, either adopted the entablature of the frontispiece of Nero, which was supported by Corinthian co- lumns, or have brought in adventitious parts of other orders, by introducing the denticulated band of the Ionic, with its cymatium between the modillions and the cymatium of the frize. It is something remarkable, that the columns of Roman buildings, with compounded capitals, sup- port, for the greater part, Corinthian en- tablatures: the columns of the arches of Septimius Severus and of the Goldsmiths support Ionic entablatures ; and those of the temple of Bacchus even support an entablature with what we now call a Tuscan cornice. In short, Rome affords no example of a composite order, with a similar cornice to any one found in the works of any distinguished modern au- thor, except Vignola, who crowns his en- tablature with a bold Ionic cornice. The capital of this order is more bold and massive in its parts than that of the Co- rinthian; the proportion of the other mem- bers should be corresponding thereto, and therefore more appropriate cornice than that of the frontispiece of Nero can hardly be applied: the modillions are very characteristic, but the denticulated band, shewn in a modern work, should be omitted : and for this reason also the shaft of the columns should be a medium be- tween those of the Ionic and Corinthian, though the very reverse has been assign- ed to it. The medallions employed in this order differ from the Corinthian ; they are more- massy, being composed of two faces, and a cymatium like an architrave. The Ro- mans decorated their composite capitals with acanthus leaves, and the same prac- tice is followed by the moderns. The pro- portions will be fuljy understood in those of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. It is probable that the Romans employed tht Composite order in their triumphal arch- es, and other buildings, to commemorate their victories, and to shew their domi ARCHITECTURE. ,!imi user those whom they conquered; and for tills purpose also it ma\ l>i- eni- plovcd in modern structures, \ celebrate the ach'n Venn n'.s of conquerors and vir- tues of I'lUM IHLi:S Of Hl'ILIIIN'., Are those parts of geometry, mechanics, mensuration, and chemist r\, which shew how to de-sign and construct tin- parts of a building, so as to be the most durable, tin- destination, situation, and other fixed data of the intended structure, being known. These parts of the sciences are the foundation of the art of construction. ''instruction may in general he divided into two parts, the science of masonry, and that of carpentry : though thnv an- other branches, asslatery, plumber) &.C. sometimes also employed as constituent pans; but these may be considered as ra- ther adventitious. The science of masonry shews how to construct walls and vaults. A wall should be built so ast<> resist a given force, either acting uniformly over the whole, or par- tially upon the suri'ace : such as to resist the pressure of vaults or roofs unrestrain- ed from the want of tie beams, acting along one continued butmeiit, as in plain vaulting; or to resist different forces, act- ing at intermitted points. as in groin vault- ing ; or to resist the force of the wind, acting uniformly over the whole surface. An arch should be so constructed as to balance itself equally on all parts of the in'r.tdos, whether it be of uniform thick- ness, or to support a given load. The science of carpentry comprehends the si/ing, cutting, deposition, and join- ing of timbers. By chcimsm we arc en- abled to judge of the quality of materials, such as slone, mortar, wood, iron, slate, lead, &c. Taste. Taste consists in introducing such forms in the construction and em- bellishments, as appear agreeable to the eye of the beholder The arrangement of the plan, figure of moms, and contour of the whole Building, and character, a* to its destined purpose, depend much on taste. Inr.cntiim. Invention is the art of com- bining or arrang'iig the various apart- ments in the most convenient order. Basements. A basement is the lower story of a building on which an order is pluccd; its height \\illthcrcforc be varia- ble, according as it is the cellar story or the ground story; or. when it is the grouu rre are prin- cipal rooms in both stones, or only in one of them. Hisproper. i make tin next sti"- i more pnneiji.i lion than the bods to be si ppor' lar story is the the height does Hot < feet at the most, it may be plain, .,r with . or formed into a continue. I ; tal; but if t'tc basement is on ttu ground story, the usual manner' -ig it is with rustics supported on a base, and sur- mounted with a crowning string-course the bas' ,,-r be a p':ii w.tb mouldings over it: in like n the string-course ma\ either be a plat- band, or with mouldings under it ; or it may form a corn ce. The rustics are either made of a rectangular or triangul tion, by imagining on - c!,ons to be a 1,1. across the front of the joint, of 'he rustics may be from an eiglitn to a tenth part of their height. The depth of the joint of the triangular mstic i half of its bread' h, that is, making planes by which it is formed a right an- gle, and the depth of the rectangular SfC- tioned rustics from one-fourth of their breadth. The ancients always marked both directions of the j<. the rustics ; whereas the mo. ly employ the ancit nt manner, but the) sometimes make them with horizontal June. Those with hori/ontal joints represent rather a hoarded surface tlup that of as one u all, which must h:. directions of joints. The height ot the string-course s'.ould not exceed the height of a rustic with its joint : the plinth, or xocholo, oMghl n than the IK i_;i>' of t When the basement is per arcades, the imposts of the an lies ma\ be a platband, which ma\ l>e equal ..f u rus ic, ex. lusi\, . \\lu-n the string-coursi e, th<- h:Lse ma\ be moulded, and ti. of the cornice ma\ be tw o he'ght ; SO 8 to i that which fiiii.s!. "'"ig. The height of tli. a!x>iit one- eightcenth part of the h . bane- ment. and that of the base a!- much, divided into six parts, of \i Inch 'he lower five-sixths form tin plinth, and the upper sixth the mouldings. 7VfAv./n/J5. A |iedestal is a part ol buildings, with abase. : with uigiilar prismat . d the die, alld th. corn: orting a colon;* pilastraih-, or sometimes for supporting ARCHITECTURE. the upper part of a building 1 as a base- ment. In the building's of the Greeks pedestals never obtained : the columns of their temples generally stood on the up- permost of three steps ; indeed, there is no existing 1 example with any other num- ber than three, except the temple of Theseus at Athens, which had only two, and was supposed to have been erected to an inferior deity : whatever innovations took place were after Greece lost its in- dependence. The Romans, in many of their temples and other edifices, raised the floors so very high, that they were under the necessity of discontinuing 1 the front stairs, which otherwise would have been found inconvenient, in occupying too much ground around the edifice ; and of adopting- a pedestal, or podium, as a basement ; which was raised as hig-h as the stair, and projected to the front of the steps which profiled on the sides of the pedestal. It is remarkable, thatVitruvius, in treat- ing of the Doric, Corinthian, and Tuscan orders, never mentions a pedestal .- and in Creating of the Ionic, he only speaks of it as a necessary part of the construction, and not as part of the order: several modern writers are also of this opinion. It must be confessed, wherever pedes- tals are introduced, the grandeur of the order is diminished, as all the parts are proportionably less; however, there are some situations, in which they are indis- p^nsably necessary, as in the interior of churches, where, if thev were omitted, the beauty of the columns would be en- tirely lost, as so great a portion of them would be concealed by the pews. The proportions of pedestals in the ancient Ro- man buildings are very variable ; modern authors, however, have thought proper to bring them to a standard ratio, which Vignola makes one-third of the height of the column; but as this proportion ap- peared to make them too hig-h, Sir Wil- liam Chambers reduced it to three-tenths ; these ratios, however, might vary as par- ticular circumstances might require The parts of pedestals may be thus propor- tioned: divide the height into nine equal parts, give one to the cornice, two to the base, and six to the die. The plan of the die isthe same as that of the plinth of the column : the projection of the cornice may be equal to its height : the base may be divided into three parts, giving two to the plinth, and one to the mouldings, which in most cases may project equal to their height. These proportions are com- mon to all pedestals. It is sometimes customary to adorn the dies of pedestals with sunk pannels, surrounded with mouldings .- the pannels are frequently charged %vith has reliefs or inscriptions. Projecting tablets should never be ad- mitted, as they are not only clumsy, but confuse the contour. The dies of the pe- destals of the arches of Septimius Severus and Constantino have straight-headed niches, with statues. Pedestals should never be insulated, though the columns which stand upon them were insulated. In the theatres and amphitheatres of the ancients, pedestals were used in all the superior orders, while the inferior order stood upon steps. They were employed for the purpose of forming a parapet for the spectators to lean over, and for rais- ing the base of the superior order so high, as to be seen upon a near approach to the building. In these situations the pedes- tals were made no higher than to prevent accidents. When pedestals are continued with breaks under the columns, or pilas- ters in ancient buildings, the breaks were called stylobatae; and the recess between every two stylobatx, the podium, which had the same parts disposed at the same levels as the stylobatze. Arcades. An arcade is an aperture in a wall with an arched head ; which term is also sometimes applied in the plural number to a range of apertures with arched heads. When an aperture is so large that it cannot be lintelled, it then becomes necessary to arch it over. Ar- cades are not so magnificent as colonades, but they are stronger, more solid, and less expensive. In arcades the utmost care should be taken of the piers, that they be sufficiently strong to resist the pressure of the arches, particularly those at the extremes. The Romans employed them in their triumphal arches, and many other buildings. Arcades may be used with propriety in the gates of cities, of palaces, of gardens, and of parks ; they are much employed in the piazzas or squares of Italian cities ; and, in general, are of great use, in affording both shade and shelter in hot and rainy climates; but, on the contrary, they are a great nuisance to the inhabitants, ?.* they darken their apartments, and serve to harbour idle and noisy vagabonds. Lofty arcades may be employed with great propriety in the courts of palaces, and noblemen's houses. There are various ways of decorating- the piers of arcades, as with rustics, columns, pilasters, caryatides, persians, or terms surmounted with appropriate entabla- tures ; and sometimes the piers are even so broad, as to admit of niches. The arch is either surrounded with rustic work, or ARCHITECTURE. with an archivolt ; sometimes interrupted a( the summit with a kc\ -stone, in the form of a console, or marsh, or some otlu-r appropriate sculptured ornament. The archivolt rises sonn-iiim. sfrom a plat- hanil, or impost, placed on the top of the piers; and at other times from an enta- blature, supported hy columns on each side of tin- arch. In some instances t In- arches of arcades are supported entirely by single or coupleil columns, without the entablature ; as in the temple of Fan mis at Home. This form is far from being' agreeable to the c\ e ; it wall's sia- hility, as the columns would be incapable of resisting 1 tbe lateral pressure of the arches, were they not placed within an- other walled enclosure, or in a circular colonade. In large arches the key-stones should never be omitted, and should be carried to the sofh't of the architrave, where they will be useful in supporting the middle of the entablature, \\hieh otherwise would have too great a bear- ing. When columns are detached, as in the triumphal arches of Scptimius Severus and Constantine, at Koine, it becomes ne- to break the entablature, making its projection over the Intel-columns the same as if pilasters had been used instead of columns ; or so much as is just suffi- cient to relieve it from the nakedness of the v. nil. This is nerrvviry in all interco- lumns of great width, but should be prac- tised as little as possible, as it d> i uine use of the entablature. A\ ben columns are without pcdestals,thcy should stand upon a plinth, in order to keep the liases dry and clean, and prevent them from being broken. Arcades should never be much more, nor much less, than double their breadth. The breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two-thirds, nor be less than one- third, of that of the arcade ; and the an- g-ular pier should have an addition of a third, or a half, as the nature of the de- sign may require. The impost should not be more than one-seventh, nor less than a ninth, of the breadth of the arch ; and the archivolt not more than one- eighth, nor less than one-tenth, of that breadth. The breadth of the bottom of the key-stone should be equal to that of the archivolt; and its length not less th:ui one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more than double. In groined porticos, the thickness of the piers depends on the width of the portico, and the superincum- bent building; but with respeet to the beauty of the building, it should not be in one quarter, nor third, of the breadth of the anades form blank re( esses, the t which are pierced \\ith t!' windov recesses should be at least M keep the most ';in their r In the upper stories of the theatres and aniphitheatn-s < r'thr !{.>man-. the . stood upon the podia, or inncr-|x . of the columns ; perhaps as much for the purpose of proportioning the apertures, as to form a proper parapet for leaning 0\ - column, is called tcrcolumniation ; and the whole area be- two columns i> called an in- tercolumn. \\hen the intercolunu is one diameter and a half, it is |i\ (Hostile, or columns thick set; when two di i i tw o and a quarter, custyle ; when thn and when four, ara:ostyle,or colun. \ colonade is also named according to the number of columns which support the entablature, or fastigium : when there are four columns, it is called tetrastyle ; when six, hcxastyle ; when eight, octo- st\le; and when ten. The intercolumniations of the Doric or* regulated by the number of triglxphs, placing 1 one over every interim -d lumn : when there is one triglyph o\< r the iuU-nal, it is called monotriglyph; when there are two, it is called ditri- glyph ; and so on, according to the pro- gressive order of the linck numerals. The iutercoliimniation of thi < ric is almost constant!) the monotriglyph : from this practice there are onh two de- viations to be met \\ ith xt Athens, the OM in the Doric Portico, and the other in the Prop\laca; but these internals only be- long to the middle intercolumin which are both ditrighph, and becuBC necessar\ , on account of their being 1 op- o tin principal entrances. As the character of tbe Grecian Doric is more massy and dignified than th:r man, the mouotriglyphic succeeds best; but in the Hom.m it is < for the passage through the intercolunuM woulil be too narriA, particularly ill SflMi tie ditrigl>ph is t!.. . n< r;dl\ adopted. The aneostyte applied to rustic struct! in iutcrcoloaMBations, where UK ARCHITECTURE. columns are lintelled with wooden archi- traves: \\lien the solid part of the masonry of a range of arcades are decorated with the ordi-rs, the intercolumns become neces- sarily wide ; and the intercolumniation is regulated by the breadth of the arcades, and that of the piers. It does not appear that coupled, group- ed, or clustered columns, ever obtained in the works of the ancients ; though, on many occasions, they would have been much more useful : we indeed find, in the temple of Bacchus at Rome, columns standing as it were in pairs ; but as each pair is only placed in the thickness of the wall, and not in the front, they may ra- ther be said to be two rows of columns, one almost immediately behind the other. In the baths of Dioclesian, and in the temple of Peace at Rome, we find groin- ed ceilings, sustained by single Corinthian columns ; a support both meagre and in- adequate. Vignola uses the same inter- eolumniation in all his orders: this prac- tice, though condemned by some, is founded upon a good principle ; it pre- serves a constant ratio between the co- lutrins and the intervals. Of all the kinds of intercolumniation, the custyle was in the most general re- quest among the ancients; and though in modern architecture both the custyle and diastyle are employed, yet the former of these is still preferred in most cases : as to the pycnostyle interval, it is frequently rejected for want of room, and the arxo- style, for want of giving sufficient support to the entablature. The moderns seldom employ more than one row of columns, either in external or internal colonades; for the back range destroys the perspective regularity of the front range : the visual rays, coming from both ranges, produce nothing but confu- sion in the eye of the spectator. This confusion, in a certain degree, also attends pilasters placed behind a row of insulated columns; but in this the relief is strong- er, owing to the rotundity of the column, and the flat surfaces of the pilasters. "When buildings are executed on a small scale, as is frequently the case of temples, and of other inventions used for the orna- ments of gardens, it will be found neces- sary to make the intercolumniations, or at least the central one, broader than usual, in proportion to the diameter of the columns ; for, when the columns are placed nearer each other than three feet, the space becomes too narrow to admit persons of a corpulent habit. Pilasters and Antx. Pilasters are rec- tangular prismatic projections, advancing from the naked part of a wall, with bases and capitals like columns, and with an entablature supported by the columns ; hence they differ from columns in their horizontal sections being rectangles, whereas those of columns are circles, or the segments of circles, equal to, or great- er, than semicircles. It is probable that pilasters are of a Roman invent on, since there are but few instances in Grecian buildings where they are repeated at equal or regular intervals, and these only in the latter ages of Greece, as in the monument of Philopapus, (un- less in that of Thrasyllus) ; but of their application in Roman works there are numberless instances : Vitruvius calls them parastatse. The Greeks used a kind of square pillars only upon the ends of their walls, which they called ant?e, which ants projected sometimes to a consider- able distance from the wall of the princi- pal front, and formed the pronaos or vestibulum. The breadth of the antse on the flanks of the temples was always con- siderably less than on the front: these antae had sometimes columns between them, and when this was the case, the return within the pronaos was of equal breadth to the front. The capitals of the antse never correspond with those of co- lumns, though there are always some characteristic marks, by which the order may be distinguished. Pilasters, or parastatse, when ranged with columns under the same entablature, or placed behind a row of columns, have their bases and capitals like those of the columns, with the corresponding parts at the same heights, Mid when placed upon the angles of buildings, the breadth of the returns is the same as that of the front. The trunks of pilasters have frequently the same diminution as the shafts of the columns, such as in the arches of Septi- mius Severus and Constantine, and in the frontispiece of Nero, and the temple of Mars the Avenger, at Rome ; in this case, the top of the trunks of the pilasters is equal to the breadth of the soffit of the architrave, and the upright face of the architrave resting on the capital, in the same perpendicular as the top of the pi- laster. When the pilasters are undimi- nished, and of the same breadth as the columns at the bottom, the face of the architrv e resting on the capital retreats within the top of the trunk, as m the Pan- theon r.f Agrippa. Pilasters are either plain or fluted. In ARCHITECTURE. ancient edifices this was not ;tlu ays regu- lated by tin- columns, but perhaps de- pended on the taste of the architects, or destination of the edifice. The columns sire plain- on tin- portico of the 1'anthcon, while tin- ])ilasti:rs an- fluted; und the contrary , on lie portico of Se-ptin vcnis. \\ lii-ii pilastt i-s an.- fluted, the angles or quoins an- frequently beaded, sncli as those of the pantheon, in order to strengthen the angles, and the flutes are generally of a semicircular section. The faces of pilastt rs are sometime.s sunk within a margin, andtlu- paimels charged with foliage, arabesque or grotesque or- naments, or instruments of music and war, or somL-timesthese compounded, ac- cording to the destined purpose of the place iu which they are employed. The paimels of the pilasters, in the Arcb of the Goldsmiths at Rome, are chafged with winding 1 foliage and trophies of \var. Pilasters, when placed on the front or outside of a building-, should pro- ject one quarter of their breadth at the bottom; but when placed behind a range of columns, or in the interior of a build- ing, should not project more than the eighth part of the same breadth. Ina large recess, when two or any even number of insulated columns support an entablature, which terminates at each end upon a wall or pier, a pilaster is most commonly placed against each wall or pier, to support the extremities of the architrave. When the entablature over the columns is recessed within the sur- face of the wall or pier at each end, the pilaster projects towards the column, its thickness is shewn on the front, and its breadth faces the void or adjacent co- lumn : in this case the architrave may either profile against the sides of tin- aper- ture or recess, or it mav ivcirn I interior angle, and then a_;-ain at the ev- terior angU-s, and proceed along each wall or pier. If the intermediate columns and ex- treme pilasters are so ranged as to pro- ji el a small distance bevond the ! the wall at each end, the pilasters shew the same breadth towards the front :ts to- wards the void, and the entaMa'.ure may be con inued unbroken, as in the chapels of the I'antheon ; and if it breaks, it must be at the extreme or most distant angles, rs are of great strength to a wall, as well as ornamental to the building ; they are less expensiv e than columns, and in situations where they are either placed behind a r.uige of columns, or support tin- extremes if an entablature acv opening, they are mo: uuuii the walls to \vh,ch th, Clustered plla.si ,, have both exterior and interior angles, planes of th< pendicular to the from, may with good effect, when the order is plain, a.s m the Tuscan : but m the tin cian and Composite orders, this j>, should be avoided as much -the triglyplisand cap.tals" orders always in^et imperfectly in the in- tenor angles. The same i; said of Ionic and Corinthian cap half pilasters, meeting each other in the interior angles of rooms. In the Ionic order it becomes necessary to make a dif- llie capitals of p and those of columns; for n of the cilumns the projection of the o\o- lo is greater than that of' the volutes ; but as the hon/.ontal section of the ovolo is circular, the ovolo itself is bent behind the hem or border of the volutes: now, supposing a vertical section through the : the column to be perpeiuLcularto the face, ami another through the middle of the breadth of the pilaster, and that the corresponding- mouldings are equal and similar in both section; then, be- In- hori/.ontal section, through the ovolo, is rectangular, as in the trunk, the ovolo would, if continued, p:i- the volutes, or must terminate abruptly, and shew the profile of the moulding, which is a palpable defect. This there- fore renders it necessary to give the ovolo so much convexity on the from, make its extremes retire, and p.* hind the back of the bonier of the vo- lutes ; or to make the ovolo of small pro- jee'ioti; or to tuist the volutes from a plain surface, which the ancient Ionic ^ as, and make every part of the spirals pro- ject more and more tov. laU\ , to project the w h the volutes, beyend the projection of thr ovolo. The same thin served vyith regard to the Corinthi Composite capitals, where the up|. of the vase p u- middle ul the abacus, and would, in the ! capitals, pass D\< r the face of the spirals or volutes. J'emuin* und Cunmtitl'-.i Instead of columns, or pilav tomarv to support the entablature by hu- man figures: the males of which a- ed I'ers.ans. I ,|- and the fen The liistorv of ih< follow - lopoiUMMMb ARCHITECTURE. having joined with the Persians against the Grecian states, and the Greeks having put an end to the war, by a glorious vic- tory, with one consent declared war against the Caryatides. They took the city, destroyed it, slew the men, and led the matrons into captivity, not permitting them to wear the habits and ornaments of their sex ; and they were not only led in triumph, but were loaded with scorn, and kept in continual servitude ; thus suf- fering for the crimes of their city. The architects therefore of those davs intro- duced their effigies sustaining weights, in the public buildings, that the remem- brance of the crime of the Carvatides might be transmitted to posteritv. The Lacedaemonians, likewise, under the com- mand of Pausanias, the son of Cleombro- tus, having at the battle of Platea, with a small number, vanquished a numerous ar- my of Persians, to solemnize tlve triumph, erected with the spoils and plunder the Persian Portico, as a trophy, to transmit to posterity the valour and honour of the citizens ; introducing therein the statues of the captives, adorned with habits in the barbarian manner, supporting the roof." There can be little doubt but that hu- man figures, and those of inferior animals, had a very early introduction in architec- ture, and are of more remote antiquity than that assigned by Vitruvius ; for we are informed by Diodorus Siculus, that in the sepulchre of Osymanduas there was a stone hall four hundred feet square, the roof of which was supported by animals instead of pillars : the number of these supports is not mentioned. The roofs of several Indian buildings, supposed of the most remote antiquity, are sustained in the same manner. In Denon's travels in Egypt, amongother fragments, are repre- sented five insulated pilasters or pillars, bearing an entablature : the fronts of the pillars are decorated with priests or di- vinities. The molten sea, recorded in Holy Writ, was supported by twelve bulls. In the Odyssey of Homer, transla- ted by Pope (book vii. ver. 118,) we find the effigies of animals, both rational and irrational, employed as decorations, which appears by the following extract. Two rows of stately dogs, on either hand, In sculptur'd gold and labour'd silver stand. These Vulcan form'd with art divine, to wait, Immortal guardians. vA g-.ito. Alive each animated frame appears, And still to live beyond the power of years. Fair thrones within from space to space were rais'd, Where various carpets with en^broid- ery blaz'd, The work of matrons : these the prin- cess prest, Day following day, a long continued feast, Refulgent pedestals the walls surround, Which days of gold with flaming torches crown'd. However, these representations of ani- mals were not employed as columns to support an entablature, but merely as or- naments. In Stewart's antiquities of Athens, we find a most beautiful specimen of Caryatic figures supporting an entablature, con- sisting of an architrave cornice of a very elegant profile. Among the Roman an- tiquities, there are likewise to be found various fragments of male figures, which may be conjectured, from their attitudes and ornaments, to have been the supports of the entablatures of buildings. Besides Persians and Caryatides, it is sometimes customary to support the en- tablatures with figures, of which the up- per part is the head and breast of the hu- man body, and the lower part an invert- ed frustrum of a square pyramid, with the feet sometimes projecting out below, as if the body had been partly cased : figures of this form are called terms or termini, which owe their origin to the stones used by the ancients in marking out the limits of property belongingto individuals. Nu- ma Pompilius, in order to render these boundaries sacred, converted the Termi- nus into a deity, and built a temple on the Tarpeian Mount, which was dedicated to him, whom he represented by a stone, which, in course of time, was sculptured into the form of a human head and should- ers, and other pails, us has already been defined. He was on particular occasions adorned with garlands, with which he ap- peared of a very pleasant figure. Persian figures are generally charged with a Do- ric entablature ; Caryatic figures with Ionic or Corinthian, or with an Ionic archi- trave cornice ; and the Termini with an entablature of any of the three Grecian orders, according as they themselves are decorated. Male figures may be intro- duced with propriety in arsenals or galle- ries of armour; in guard rooms, and other military places, where they might reprc- ARCHITECTURE. jsent the fig-ares of captives, or else of martial virtues, such as Strength, Valour, Wisdom, Prudence, Fortitude, and the like. As these fig-ares should be of a striking character, they may be of any co- lo^sal size that will agree with the archi- tecture of the other parts of the buildings. In composing Caryatides, the most grace- ful attitudes and pleasant features should be chosen : and, to prevent stiffness, their drapery and features should be varied from each other, in the different figures of the range ; yet a general form of figure should be preserved throughout the whole of them. Caryatides should always be of a mode- rite size, otherwise they might appear hi- deous to the fair sex, and destroy those endearments so fascinating in the sex re- presented by them. They may be em- ployed, as Le Clerc observes, to sustain the covering of a throne, and represented under the figures and symbols of heroic virtues: if to adorn a sacred building, they musthave an affinity to religion; and, when placed in banqueting rooms, ball rooms, or other apartments of recreation, they should be of kinds proper to inspire mirth and promote festivity. As Termini are susceptible of a variety of decorations, they may be employed as embellishments for gardens and fields, representing Jupi- ter as protector of boundaries, or some of the rural deities, as Pan, Flora, Pomo- na, Vertumnus, Ceres, Priapus, Faunus, Sylvanus, Nymphs, and Satyrs. The\ r are also much employed in chim- ney-pieces, and other interior composi- tions. Orders above Orders. When two or more orders are placed one above the other, the laws of solidity require that the strongest should be placed lo we rmost ; and also, that their axes should be in the same vertical lines. When the columns of the orders are of the same diameter, their altitudes increase from the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic, to the Corinthian ; and, consequently, in tlus progression, the Tus- can is stronger than the Doric, the Doric stronger than the Ionic, and the Ionic strongerthan the Corinthian: therefore, it' the Doric be the lowest order, the Ionic is the succeeding order ; and if there be & third order, the Corinthian is in conse- quence the next. But since the dit'ereut stories of a building should rather he of a decreasing progression upwards, than even of an equal altitude to each other, it follows that the superior columns should not onlvbe diminished, in orderto lessen the insisting \veightfromthc inferior, but VOL I also to accommodate the heights of win- dows. The rule given by Vitruvius (b. v. c. 7.) for placing one order above ano* her, ; s, to make the columns of the superior or- der a fourth part less in height than those of the inferior. Scamozzi'srule is, to make the diame- ter at the bottom of the shaft of the supe- rior order equal to the upper diameter of the inferior order. Let us now suppose that the Ionic of nine diameters is to be raised upon the Doric of eight dmmeters, as in the Roman Doric; according to the rule given by Vi- truvius, the bottom diameter of the Ionic will be two-tliirds of that of the Doric, a quantity much less than is to be found in any ancient or modern examples of the diminution of the Doric shaft; which di- minution is the lower diameter of the su- perior order, by Scamozzi's rule. In insulated columns, when the diminu- tion of the superior order is very great, the intercolumn becomes so wide, and the entablature so small, and consequently weaker, that it in in danger of breaking - t and if a third range is added, this defect must be increased. The Vitruvian rule is therefore not so applicable as the Scamoz- zisui, which, for the above reasons, is uni- versally esteemed the best, and is the same as if the several shafts had been cut out from one long tapering tree ; on the other hand, when the diminution of the inferior diameter of the superior order is too little, or nothing, the columns will not only be too high for the windows, but the lower order will be loaded with unneces- sary weight. Let the stronger order be made the superior; for example, let the Doric be placed upon the Ionic, and al- lowing the shaft of it to diminish five- sixths of its bottom diameter, the height of the Doric column will be only 6 2-3d* diameters of the Ionic below : this would not only make a complete Attic of the Doric, but would render the application of the orders in this inverted way useless, us they could not be made to accommodate the stories of the building, nor could the upper ranges support their own entabla- tures, which must be the consequence in insulated columns. When the front of a building is to have two or more orders in the altitudc.the MIC- < ( s much u ithtr id. Vault - but UK greater ARCHITECTURE. through a wall upwards, beginning at one side of a room, and ending at the top of a wall : its use is to warm the room, and give passage to the smoke. That part of the opening which faces the room is the place where the fire is put, and conse- quently is called the fire place : the tube or hollow proceeding from the fire-place upwards, for giving vent to smoke, is call- f d the funnel, or Hue: the stone or mar- ble laid level with the floor immediately before the fire-place is called the hearth or slab ; and the one under the fire-place the back or inside hearth. The project- ing parts of the walls on each side of the fire-place, forming also parts of the sur- face of the room, and standing at the ex- tremities of the hearth, are called jambs : the head of the fire-place in the surface of a room, resting upon the jambs, is called the mantle : the mantle, and that part of the chimney resting upon it, forming a part of the side of the room, and also the whole side of the flue to the top, is called the breast; the side of the flue opposite to the breast is called the back ; and the sides of the fire-place contained between the jambs and the back are called covings. 'When there are two or more chimnies in the same wall, the flues of which approach very near to each other, the thin division which separates one flue from another is either called a partition, or a with ; that part of the opening or horizontal section opposite to the mantle of a fire-place is called the throat ; and that turret above the roof of a house, containing one or more flues, is called the shaft. In stone walls, the most common dimen- sions of the sections of flues are from 12 to 13 inches square, for fire-places about 3 feet wide in front; and those in brick walls 14 inches by 9 inches. The area of the section of the flue should always be proportioned to the area of the fire usual- ly put in the fire-place, that is, nearly equal to the area of the horizontal section of the fire itself, excepting at the throat. The throat should be immediately over the fire, and its horizontal dimensions in the thickness of the wall should not exceed 4$, or a inches at most. The fuel grate, or stove, should be brought as near to the throat as conveniency may require. The coving should be placed bevelling nearer together at the back than at the jambs, making an exterior angle with the front of the jambs, and an interior angle with the back, of 135 degrees each. The back and covings forming the sides of the fire-place should be of white materials, such as white stone, or brick covered with plaster, which are most convenient- ly put up after the house is built. Mo?' metals are unfavourable for this pur- pose. The top of the throat should be quite level, forming an abrupt plane. Some of the principles in the construction of chimnies are very well ascertained, others are not easily discovered till tried. The more the air that goes into the flue is rarefied, with the more force it will ascend, and the higher the flue the great- er also will this force be ; therefore the fire should have as little vacancy on either side as possible, and the flue, when con- venient, should be earned as high as pos- sible, and not have too wide an aperture at the top The situation of doors in a- room, the grate being placed too low, and other things, often occasion smoke ; but whatever be the cause of it, if once dis- covered the evil may easily be remedied. Circular flues are more favourable for venting than those whose sections arc rectangular. Vaults. A vault is an interior roof over an apartment, rising in a concave direc- tion from the walls which support it, either meeting the vertex in a point or line, as when the section of the arch is Gothic ; or one continued arch from the one abutment to the other, as when the section is a semicircle, or a segment less than a semicircle. The vertical sections of the intradoes of vaults may be formed by an infinite va- riety of curves ; but the most elegant forms are either circular or elliptic ; which forms of sections have been generally adopted by the ancients of remote antiqui- ty, by our ancestors throughout the mid- dle ages, and by European nations at the present day. We shall therefore confine ourselves to those vaults which have their extradoes of circular and elliptic sections. A cylindrical vault is a plain vault, the figure of the extradoes of which is a por- tion of a cylindric surface, terminating on the top of the walls which support it in a horizontal plane, parallel to the axis of the cylinder. This is also called a cradle vault. A cylindroidal vault is a plain vault, the figure of the extradoes of which springs from a horizontal plane ; its section per- pendicular to those lines is every where a semi-ellipsis, equal and similar through- out, and its base is that of either axis ; or it is sometimes a segment of an ellipsis, less than a semi-ellipsis, having an ordi- nate parallel to the axis for its base. A dome may be defined to be a vault rising from a circular, elliptical, or po- lygonal plan or base, such that all hori- zontal sections of the intradoes are similar ARCHITECTURE. v having their centres in the same MS, and such that the plans of am two sections may have the -.ides of similar inscribed figures parallel to e;u-h other, or that tlie figures ot'thcse phiiis may he concentric. It' the dome isa portion of :i sphere, that is, if its base he a . in-lt , and its vertical section through the centre of its base- the segment of u circle, then it is also called a cupola. When the portion of a sphere, or cupo- la, springs from a wall on a polygonal plan, ami the vertical axis of the sphere, passes through the middle of the plan, then the spandrels, or triangular spheric portions, comprehended between the springing lines and a hori/ontal plane passing through the different summits of the walls, are called pendentives. When two or more plain vaults pene- r intersect each other, the figure of the intrados formed by the severalbran- ches iscalled a groin, or cross vault. When two opposite equal branches meet other two opposite equal branches in two intersecting vertical planes, pass- ing through the diagonal lines, joining the four exterior angles of the plane, the groin may be called an equal pitched quadrilateral groin. If two opposite branches of an equal pitched groin have cylindrical intradoes, and their plan of less breadth than that of the other two branches, the groin may be called cylindro-cylindroidal, or cylin- droido cylindric groin, according as the cylindric branches or the other two are of the greatest breadth. \Vhen a groin consisting of four bran- ches is made by two equal portions of cylindric surfaces, with the axis of the one cutting that of the other, it is called an equal pitched cylindric groin. \Vlu n two opposite branches of a cylin- ilric groin are of less breadth than the other two, it may be called an unequal pitched cylindric groin. This is called by workmen a Welsh groin. When the branches of a cylindric groin are of equal breadth in the plan, the groin may be called an equilateral cylindric groin. It is not easy to give a geometrical de- finition that will extend to all properties of vaulting, called, by writers of the lirst eminence, groins. The first given is al- most universal. It applies not only to plain vaults intersecting each other, but also to those that are annular, or in the form of semi-cylindric rings, intersected !>y cylindric or cylindroidal plain vaults, the axis of which tends to that of the an- nulus. It does not, however, comprehend that species used in King Henry \ II'-; chapel, Westmi nster, and King's College chapel, Cambridge. This species of groins, instead of tho horizontal sections of the curved v.. presenting exterior right angles, as is ge- nerally the case, present convex arches of circles. There is yet one property that is common to every species of groins, that is, the several branches intersect and form arches upon each inclosing wall, and the perpendicular surface of the wall upon each side is continued till it is inter- cepted by the intradoes of the arches ; consequently the upright of each wall is equal in height to the summit of the arch- i 8. I lence the difference between groins and domes. A groin is a branched vault, and each branch terminates against the enclosing walls; whereas a dom vault without branches, and the curves spring from the wall, or walls, from all points around its bottom circumference, whether the walls stund upon a polygonal, circular, or elliptic plan. The Greeks, it would appear, had few or no arches or vaults much prior to the reign of Augustus, from which time they sometimes employed plain vaults with cylindrical intradoes ; we also find that they used quadrilateral, equal pitched groined vaults, with cylindrical or cylin- droidal intradoes, or mixed of both, over the passages of the theatres and gym- nasia. The Romans, as would appear also, did not empoly vaults more early than the Greeks. The 1'antheon, one of the earli- est remaining structures with arclj probably built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, though some maintain that he only added the portico ; but of this there is no proof, as no mention is made of this celebrated buildingbefore his time. We find from Vitruvius (lib. iii.c. .>,) that the floors of temples were frequently sup- ported by vaults, and (lib. v. c. 1.) that the roofs of basilicas were vaulted of the tortoise form, which he distinguishes by the name of testudo. This fonu of vault- ing is very flat, with four curved sides springing from each of the four walls, and it approaches nearly to that of a flat dome upon a rectangular plan. \\ . also find, from the remains of Ro- man buildings, the ceilings of their apart I he nde apartments, or chapels, of the Temple of Peace, and of the baths of Dioclesian, have vaults with cylindrical intradoes, while the great rec- tangular apartment in each of these edifi- ARC ARC ccs is vaulted in the groined form ; and it is remarkable that the groins are not formed by the intradoes of the vaults in the ch:'.pe!s, for the summits of the vaults in these rise but a small distance above the spring ngs of the middle groins. It may also be remarked, that the piers be- tween the chapels have small arcades, the summits of which arc considerably below the cylindrical intradoes of the side vaults. This circumstance is not peculiar to these buildings, as is to be found in many others. This is to be seen distinctly in the plates of the Temple of Peace, by Desgodetz. The Romans em- ployed annular vaults, as in the temple of Bacchus ; and in this, as in the temple of Peace, and the baths of Dioclesian, the summits of the arcades supporting the cylindric wall and dome of the central apartments do not intersect the annular intradoes, but the convex side of the cy- lindric wall which supports this annular intrados, and consequently do not form groins. The intradoes of the Roman domes are of a semicircular section, as may be seen in the Pantheon, the temple of Bacchus at Rome, the temple of Jupi- ter, and vestibule of the palace of Diocle- sian, at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, while the vertical section of the extradoes through the axis is a much less segment, as the Pantheon at Rome, and the vestibule and palace of Dioclesian, exhibit. We have no instances among the Roman or Grecian buildings of pendentives or spandrels which are supported by four pillars, or by quadrangular or polygonal walls, and which support themselves on a spheric dome or cylindrical wall. Pendentives ri- sing from four pillars, and a dome from the top of the pendentives, were first put in practice, it is said, in the celebrated church of Sancta Sophia at Constantino- ple. In the rectangular buildings of the mid- dle ages, quadrangular, equal pitched groins were generally used ; and in cir- cular buildings we have annular groins, as in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge, and Temple Church, Lon- don. We have also mentioned those cu- rious groins which are exhibited in the ceilings of King's College Chapel, Cam- bridge; St. George's Chapel, Windsor; und King Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, of modern invention. In the present day, every species of vaulting, that were either used by the an- cients or throughout the middle ages, are employed, both for the sake of variety, and for elegance. It does not appear that the ancients were acquainted with cylindrical, unequal pitched groins, at least by way of orna- ment; this form is, however, very beauti- ful, as the arcades above the passage through the front of Somerset-House clearly exhibit. ARCHYTAS, ofTarentum, in biogra- phy, a celebrated mathematician, cosmo- grapher, and Pythagorean philosopher, of whom Horace says, Marie ac terrte, mimeroque caren- ti-f arente Mcnsorem colabeiit, Jlrcltyta, 6fc. He flourished about four hundred years before Christ, and was the master of Pla- to, Eudoxus, and Philolaus. He gave a method of finding two mean proportion- als between two given lines, and thence the duplication of the cube, by means of the conic sections. His skill in mecha- nics was such, that he was said to be the inventor of the crane and the screw ; and he made a wooden pigeon that could fly about, when it was once set off' ; but it could not rise again of itself, after it rested. He wrote sev'erai works, though none of them are now extant, particularly a treatise n e pt TV Ilav?ss, De Universo, cited by Simplicius in Arist. Categ. It is said he invented the ten categories. He acquired great reputation both in his legislative and military capacity ; having commanded an army seven times without ever being defeated. He was at last ship- wrecked, and drowned in the Adriatic sea. Archytas was distinguished through life by modesty and self-command. He maintained, that virtue was to be pursued for its own sake in every condition of life ; that all excess is inconsistent with virtue; that the mind is more injured by prospe- rity than by adversity ; that there is no pestilence so pernicious to human happi- ness as pleasure ; and that the love of it is a disease destructive to the human mind. ARCTIC, in astronomy, an epithet giv- en to the north pole, and likewise to a cir- cle of the sphere parallel to the equator, and 23 degrees 30 minutes distant from the north pole. ARC'HUM, the burdock, in botany, a genus of the Sv ngenesiaPolygamiaEqua- lis class of plants; the common calyx of which is globose and imbricated ; the compound flower is tabulated and uni- form, with equal hermaphrodite corollulse: the proper flower is monopetalous and tubulousj with a slender and very long ARC tube ; there is no pericarpiura ; the cup is ronnivcnt and tin- seed single, vertically pyramidical, and crowned with a simple down, shorter than the seed. There are two species ; viz. the Laffa and Har- AR6TOMY8, the marmot, in natural history, a genus of the Mammalia class of animals, of which the generic charac- ter is, front teeth two in each jaw, strong, sharp, and cuneated ; grinders in the up- per jaw, five on each side, in the lower jaw four; clavicles or collar bones per- fect. This genus differs but little from the Mus tribe, so that naturalists have sometimes doubted whether they should be separated into distinct genera. They :ux- diurnal animals ; feed on roots, grain, and fruits, which they often collect in heaps. They reside in subterraneous holes, and become torpid in the winter. The head is gibbous, or rounded, with short ears, or none ; body thick ; tail short ; hair} r ; fore feet four-toed, with a very short thumb ; hind feet five-toed ; coecum large. There are eleven species, of which we shall notice the following: 1. Arctomys imrmota, or Alpine marmot : ears short, round ; body brown, beneath reddish. It inhabits dry open places, on the summits of the Alps and Pyrenees ; feeds naturally on roots, herbs, and in- sects; when tamed it will eat any thing that is offered; drinks little ; basks in the Min ; lives among small tribes, with a cen- tinel placed, to give notice of danger, which is done with a hiss ; forms a bur- row, with many chambers and entrances, for the summer ; another lined with soft grass, in which it remains torpid during winter ; it eats with its fore paws ; walks on its heels, often erect ; is easily caught when out of its burrow ; in a tame state v ery destructive of food, cloaths, and fur- niture ; hardly kept awake in winter, even in warm chambers ; gravid seven weeks, and brings from two to four at a time. These animals make no provision for the winter, but as soon as the frosts set in they carefully stop up the entrances to their mansions, and gradually fall into a state of torpidity, in which tin tinue till the beginning of spring, when they awake and commence their excur- sions Before they retire to winter quar- ters they grow excessively fat, and appear very emaciated on first emerging from them. If carefully dug up during the winter, they may be conveyed away in their sleeping state, and when brought into a warm chamber gradually av. A. Kmpelra, orQueb' larger than a rabbit, with short ears and a round head. It inhabits Hudson's Hay and Canada. A. monax, or ground-hog, is found in various parts of North America, and in its habits and manners is very like that already noticed. The marmot, when taken young, may be easily domesticated, and taught to perform various gesticula- tions, such as holding a stick, dancing, &c. See Plate II. Mammalia, in which will be seen the hamster and lemming, sometimes called the Lapland marmot ; descriptions of these will be found in the article Mus. A bobac, or grey marmot, is a native of the high, but milder and sunny sides of mountainous countries, which abound with free-stone rocks.where it is found in dry situations. It frequents Poland and Kussia, among the Carpathian hills : it swarms in the Ukraine, about the Boristhenes, and between tin's river and the Don, and along the range of hills which extend to the \Volga. It is found about the Yaik, and inhabits the southern desert in Great Tartary. It is not to be seen in Siberia, on account of its northern situation, and rarely reaches in Kamschat- ka as high as 55. The colour is grey above, with the throat, inside of the limbs, and under parts of die body, fulvous or ferruginous ; the tail is short, rather slen- der, and full of hair. Its manner of life resembles the Alpine marmot. The holes of these animals are lined with the finest, hay, and in such quantities, that, it is said, enough has been found in a single recep- tacle to feed a horse for a night. A. ci- tillus, or variegated marmot, is the most beautiful of all the species : in size it differs very much : some are as large as the Alpine marmot, and others not larger than a common water rat. The variega- ted marmot inhabits Bohemia and other parts of Germany, from the banks of tin Wolga to India and Persia, through Sibe- ria and Great Tartary to Kamschatka, and even the continent of America. It is not certain that these sleep in the winter like others of the Arctomys genus. They breed in the spring, and produce from five to eight at a time. They are said to be irrascible and quarrelsome among themselves, and their bite is very severe. The} feed not only on animal food, but on small birds and other animals, which ill kill. They are easily tamed, and will grow familiar in a few d::ys. They . nu-ly clean, and after feeding ge- nerallv wash their faces, and clea fur. i.ike other donu-s-.io anima'. ,1 of being caressed, and \\ from the hand. Their sleep is profound ARD during the whole night, and in cold and rainy weather through the greater part of the day. See Plate II. Mammalia, flg. 1, 2, and 5. ARCTOPUS, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Dioecia class of plants, the general umbel of which is long and une- qual ; the partial umbel is shorter ; the involucra consists of five leaves ; the co- rolla of five petals ; the fruit is single and bilocular, and stands under the recepta- cle of the floscule ; the seed is single, cordated, and accuminated. There is but one species. ARCTOTHECA, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Necessaria; receptacle cellular and chaffy ; calyx imbricate. There is but one species. ARCTOTIS, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Necessaria class of plants, the common calyx of which is roundish and imbricated ; the compound flower is radiated ; the hermaphrodite corollulae are tubulous and numerous in the disk : the proper hermaphrodite flowers are funnel-shaped ; there is no pericarpium ; the seed is single, roundish and hairy. This genus is separated into the following divisions : A. receptacle villous, 31 spe- cies; B. receptacle chaffy, 11 species; C. doubtful, 18 species. ARCTURUS, a fixed star of the first magnitude, in the skirt of Bootes, so called from the circumstance of its being near the tail of the Bear. It has been thought to be the nearest fixed star to our system visible in the northern hemis- phere, because the variation of its place, in consequence of a proper motion of its own, is more remarkable than that of any other of the stars ; and by comparing a variety of observations respecting the quantity and direction of the motion of this star, he infers, that the obliquity of the ecliptic decreases at the rate of 58" in 100 years, a quantity that nearly cor- responds to the mean of the computations framed by the celebrated Euler and La- lande upon the more unerring principles of attraction. A ROT US, in astronomy, the Greek name for the Ursa Major and Minor. ARDEA, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order of Grallse. The cha- racters of tliis genus are, a long, strong, sharp-pointed bill; nostrils linear; tongue pointed; toes connected by a membrane as far as the first joint; the middle claw of some of the species, of which there are 79, pectinated. This genus is sepa- rated into five divisions, viz. A. crested ; bill hardly longer than the head; B. cranes, bald ; C. storks, orbits naked ; D. herons, middle claw serrate inwardly ; E. bill gaping in the middle. Some ornithologists have separated the herons from the storks and cranes; others, preferring the Linnxan system, class the whole under one genus, which, according to Gmelin, consists of nearly 100 species, though Latham enumerated but 79. They are widely distributed over various parts of the globe, differing in size, figure, and plumage, and with talons adapted to their various places of residence, or their pecu- liar pursuits. But, notwithstanding the variety in their bills and plumage, the manners of all are nearly the same, so also is their character, which is stigmatiz- ed with cowardice and rapacity, indo- lence, and yet insatiable hunger ; and it has been observed, that, from the meagre- looking form of their bodies, one would suppose the greatest abundance almost insufficient for their support. Ardea pavonia. This is as large as the common heron ; the length two feet nine inches ; the bill is two inches and a half long, straight, and of a brownish colour : irides grey ; the crown of the head covered with soft black feathers like velvet ; on the hind part is a tuft composed of hair, or rather bristles, arising near each other at the base, and spreading out on all sides in a globular form; this is four inches in length, and of a reddish brown colour ; the sides of the head are bare of feathers, being cover- ed only by a fleshy membrane of a reddish colour at the lower part, and in shape not unlike a kidney ; on each side of the throat hangs a kind of wattle ; the general colour of the bird bluish-ash ; the feathers on the fore part of the neck are very long, and hang over the breast ; wing coverts white ; the greater onesincline to rufous,and those farthest from the body to black; the greater quills and tail are black, and the seconda- ries chesnuts ; the legs and the bare part above the knee are dusky. The female is black where the male is blue-ash ; and the wattles on the throat are wanting ; the long feathers on the breast are also less conspicuous. This beautiful species is an inhabitant of Africa, particularly the coast of Guinea, as far as Cape Yerd ; at this last place they are said to be wonderfully tame, and will often come into the court- yards to feed with the poultry. Why the name of Balearic crane has been given to this bird is not well ascertained, as it is certainly not met with in the Balearic Islands at this day. These birds are often kept in our menageries, and with shelter at night often live a good while. Their ARDEA. chief food is supposed to be worms, and such other tilings as the herontribe usually feed on ; also vegetables of all kinds. It often sleeps on one leg, runs very fast, and is said not only to Hy well, but to sustain it for a long 'time together. The flesh of this bird is said to be very tough. Ardea virgo, or the Xumidian crane. Size of the crane -, length three feet three inches : the bill straight, two inches and a half long, greenish at the base, then yel- lowish, with the tip red ; irides crimson. The crown of the head is ash-colour; the rest of the head, the upper part of the neck behind, and all the under parts to the breast, black ; on the lust, the feathers are long and hang downwards ; the back, rump, and tail, and :dl the under part from the breast, are of a bluish ash-colour ; behind each eye springs a tuft of long white feathers, which decline downwards, and hang in an elegant manner; the quills and tail are black at the ends ; the legs are black. This species is found in many parts of Africa and Asia. In the first it has been met with on the coast of Guinea ; but is most plentiful about Bildulgerid, (the ancient Numidia), and Tripoli ; from thence along the coasts of the Mediter- ranean Sea, and pretty common in Egypt. They are also at Aleppo, and in the southern plain about the Black and Cas- pian Seas ; and are seen frequently be- yond Lake Baikal, about the rivers Se- lejiga and Argun, but never venture to the northward. In all places they prefer marshes and the neighbourhood of rivers, as their food is fish, like most of the heron genus. It is frequently kept in menage- ries, being endowed with great gentle- ness of manners, added to its being an elegant bird. At various times it puts it- self into strange and uncouth attitudes, and especially those which imitate danc- ing: and Keysler mentions one in the Great Duke's Gallery at Florence, which had been taught to dance to a certain tune when played or sung to it. The name this bird is known by in the east is Kurki, or Querky. See Plate II. Aves, fig. 7. Ardea grus. This is a large bird, not (infrequently weighing ten pounds, and measures more than live feet in length. This species seems tar spread, being met with in great Hocks throughout northern Europe anil Asia, in Sweden, Russia throughout, and Siberia as far a., the river Anadyr, migrating even to the Arctic Cir- cle. In Kamtschatka only seen on the southern promontory ; are migratory, re- turning northward to breed in the spring, and generally choosing the same places which had been occupied by them the season before. In the winter they inhabit the warmer regions, such as Egypt, Alep- po, India, &c. they are also met with at the Cape of Good Hope, changing place with the season. In their migrations fre- quently fly so high as not to be visible, their passage only being known by the noise they make, being louder than that of any other bird. In France they are seen in spring and autumn; but for the most part are mere passengers. We are told that they frequented the marshes of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, in vast flocks, formerly ; but the case is al- tered, as of late none have been met with, except, a few years since, a single bird shot near Cambridge. We are told that they make their nests in marshes, and lay two bluish eggs. The young birds are thought very good food. They feed on reptiles of all kinds, and in turn on green corn ; of which last they are said to make so great havock, as to ruin the farmers wherever the flocks of these de- predators alight. Ardea ciconia, or white stork, is the size of a turkey, inhabits in turns the various parts of the old continent, avoid- ing alike the extremes of heat and cold, being never met with between the tro- pics, nor scarcely ever seen more north than Sweden, or in Russia beyond 50. It never frequents Siberia, though it is sometimes found in Bucharia, where it makes its nest, tending towards the south in autumn, to winter in Egypt. It is rare- ly met with in England, though well known in France and Holland. They every where build on the tops of houses, and the good natured inhabitants provide boxes for them to make their nests in ; they not only do this, but are particularly careful that the birds suffer no injury, re- senting it as done to themselves. A t Hajj - dad they are to be seen on every house, wall, and tree, quite tame. At Fersepolis the remains of the pillars serve them to build on, every pillar having a nest. They are thought to have two broods in the first towards the north, the latter in warmer places; and arc seen in vast flocks during their migrations. The fe- male makes a large nest, and lays from two to four eggs. The young are hatch- ed in a month ; the male and fem.ilc watch them by turns till the\ can provide for themselves. The stork sleeps on one leg-, and snaps with its bill in a singular man- ner. Its fwod consists in snakes and other reptiles; hence the veneration of all per- sons for this bird, which frees them from such pest* ARE ARE Ardea stellaris, or bittern. This is an elegant species, and is somewhat less than the heron; length two feet six inches; the bill brown, beneath inclining to green; irides yellow ; the head feathers are long, and those of the neck loose and waving ; the crown of the head black ; the lower jaw on each side dusky ; the plumage in general is beautifully variegated; the ground a ferruginous yellow, palest be- neath, marked with numerous bars, streaks, and zigzag lines of black ; the legs are pale green ; claws long and slender ; and the inner edge on the middle claw serrated. The female is less, darker co- loured, and the feathers on the head and neck less flowing than in the male. This is a common bird, we believe, in most of the temperate parts of the continent of Europe ; in some of the colder, migrato- ry ; with us it 1'emains the whole year ; frequents marshy places, and especially where reeds grow, among which it makes its nest, in April, which is chiefly com- posed of a bed of rushes, &c. The female lays four or five eggs, of a pale greenish ash colour; the young are hatched in twenty-five days. It is an indolent bird, stirring very little in the day unless dis- turbed ; though if once roused is not dif- ficult to shoot, as it flies heavily. In the evening, after sun-set, it is seen to soar aloft in a spiral ascent, till quite out of sight, and this chiefly in autumn, making a singular kind of noise ; it has also ano- ther noise, like that of a bellowing bull, beginning in February, and ceasing after breeding-tune ; but this is done while on the ground. If attacked by dogs or men, it defends itself well ; and is said to strike at the eyes of the enemy. The food is frogs, mice, and other reptiles, which it swallows whole, as well as fish. Latham remembers to have found two middle- sized trouts in the stomach of one, per- fectly whole. It is reckoned pretty good eating. See Plate III. Aves, fig. 7. and Plate IV. fig. 1. ARDISIA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Calyx five-leaved ; corol. salver-shaped, with the border reflected; antherse large, erect ; stigma simple ; drupe superior ; one-seeded. There are nine species. ARDUINA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Mouogynia class and order. Corol. one-petalled ; stigma bifid ; berry two-celled; seeds solitary; a shrub of the Cape of Good Hope. ARE, in French measure, is a superfi- cial unit, or a square, the side of which is 100 metres in length, or 10,000 square metres; the rectilineal metre being 3.281, feet, the are will be 1076.49 square feet. The tenth of an are, called declare, is a superficies 100 metres long, and 10 broad; or 1000 square metres = 1076.49 ; and the centiare equal to 100 square me - tres, is 1076.49 square feet. See MEA- AREA, in geometry, denotesthe super- ficial content of any figure ; thus, if we suppose a parallelogram six inches long, and four broad, its area will be 6 x 4 = 24 square inches. ARECA, in botany, a genus of plants, the characters of which are not perfectly ascertained; the calyx of the male flower is a bivalve spatha, the spadix is ramose ; the corolla consists of three acuminated petals; the stamina are nine filaments, of which the three exterior ones are the longest ; the female flowers are in the same spadix and spatha ; the corolla is like the male corolla ; the fruit is a sub- oval fibrose drupe, surrounded at the base with an imbricated calyx, and containing an oval seed. There are three species, of which the oryzxtbrmis is the cabbage-tree of the East Indies. The oleracea is found in the West Indies, the green tops of which are cut and eaten as a cabbage. ARENARIA, sand-wort, in botany, a genus of the Decandria Trigynia. Calyx five-leaved, spreading ; petals five, en- tire ; capsule superior, one-celled, many- seeded. There are 36 species. ARENARIUS, the name of a book of Archimedes, in which is demonstrated, that not only the sands of the earth, but even a greater quantity of particles than could be obtained in the immense sphere of the fixed stars, might be expressed by numbers, in a way invented and described by himself AREOMETER, an instrument by which the density and gravity of fluids are mea- sured. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Hypatia, the daughter of Theo, in the fourth century. It is usually made of glass, consisting of a round hol- low ball, which terminates in a long slen- der neck, hermetically sealed at top, there being first as much running mer- cury put into it as will serve to balance, or keep it in an erect position. The neck or stem is divided into degrees, and by the depth of its descent into any liquor the lightness of that liquor is estimated, for the fluid in which it sinks least is the heaviest; and that in which it sinks low- est is lightest. See HYDROMETER. fc r./ University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. Series 9482 A 000809651 3