IC-NRLF o o >- THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID ADVICE TO SHEPHERDS AND OWNERS OF FLOCKS, ON THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEER TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL FRENCH OF M. DAUBENTON, 4 BY A GENTLEMAN OF BOSTON. To which are added, EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES, TABLE OF CONTENTS. BOSTON, PRINTED BT JOSHUA BELCHER. 1811. IZIl PREFACE. TH E translation of the following work was made with no view to publication, but was designed merely for private use, to instruct and direct several persons immediately connected with the translator, in the conduct and management of sheep. The author of the work, M. Daubenton, a philoso- pher, a man of letters, and profound naturalist, did not think the subject unworthy of minute attention, or public notice : nor did the nation to which he be- longed, fail to honour, respect and reward him for this effort of his genius, industry, and patriotism : he was placed at the head of two learned, important establishments ; one in the college of France, for the promotion of natural history in all its branches ; the other, at the veterinary school for teaching of Rural Economy, at Alfort : He was for a long time, the friend, companion, and assistant of the celebrated naturalist, M. Buffon, at his residence on the moun- tain of Montbard, and at Paris, who, in speaking of him, said, that M. Daubenton had the peculiar qualifi- IV PREFACE. cation of possessing neither more nor less understand- ing than the subject on which he thought or wrote, required. Several of the discourses, which M. Daubenton delivered before the royal academy of sciences, the royal society of medicine, the royal society of agricul- ture, and the national institute at Paris, on different subjects, which are directly or indirectly treated of in this work, announced not less the ability of the au- thor, than the success and value of his undertaking. The work has been translated and published in Ger- many, Italy, and Spain, where it passed through sev- eral editions : it was first published in France in the year 1782, and several times republished, until it was ordered to be printed and published^ the public ex- pense by the national convention, in the year 1796.* Few subjects have been more recommended, or are more interesting or useful, than that which refers * The committee of the national convention, which reported the fol- lowing- decree, in speaking 1 of M. Daubenton's treatise on sheep, declar- ed that the methods of improvement therein recommended had stood the test of experience for twenty-five years, and that a great number of persons had successfully practised upon them within that time. " .Du proces-verbal de la seance de la Convention nationale, du 1. er, 'nivose an 3. " La Convention nationale, oui' le rapport de ses comites reunis d'in- " struction publique d'agriculture et des arts. "Decreto que le Traite sur les moutons, par le C. en. Daubenton, sera " imprime et tire a deux mille exemplaires, au profit de Pauteur, et aux " frais de la nation, sur les fonds mis a la disposition de la commission " executive de 1'instruction publique, qui demeure charged de rexecu- ~ f tion du present decret." Ce projet de decret est adopte. PREFACE. V to the rearing, managing and treatment of sheep ; it is intimately connected with the wants, conveniences and enjoyments of life, and as such, is deserving the attention of the philosopher, the naturalist, the in- genious artist, the husbandman and patriot. At a time when the state of foreign commerce and of the world seems to say to the people and government of the United States, husband your resources ! look at home for your enjoyments ! lessen your foreign inter- course and relations ! learn to depend less upon oth- ers, and more upon yourselves ! to esteem, respect, and love one another ! to cultivate and promote your own industry, arts and manufactures, on which your individual as well as national safety and happiness essentially depend ! at such a period, a work of this sort, must be rendered peculiarly interesting : it is practical, founded on experience, and minute obser- vation : written in a plain and intelligent style to suit the objects and pursuits for which it was designed : the humble title under which it appears, and the plain manner in which it is handled, in the form of question and answer, added to the apparent simplicity of some of the subjects on which it treats, may at first excite some prejudice against it ; but a more minute exam- ination of its contents will shew it to be a work of great merit, much information, extensive public util- ity, and admirably calculated for publication at this time. The translator has only to apologize for the short time and little pains he has been able to bestow upon VI PREFACE. the translation : in one instance, he has suppressed a small part of the original, and in others, taken some liberties, in giving a liberal translation to suit the idi- om of his language. It has been executed in haste, and was intended for private and not for public use : he has at the instance of his friends been induced to permit its publication, trusting, that his motives in so doing, will shield him from the censure of severe crit- icism. THE TRANSLATOR. ADVICE TO SHEPHERDS, CHAPTER I. ON THE QUALIFICATIONS OF A SHEPHERD. Question. WHAT should be the age of a shepherd to take the charge of a flock of sheep ? Answer. His age is of no importance, if he is strong enough to cany the hurdles for the pen, and conside- rate enough to mind his business, instead of playing with his comrades. Q. Will the business of a shepherd employ a man his whole time, and enable him to obtain an honest livelihood ? A. A careful and well informed shepherd, who has the care of a large flock, is almost continually employed in conducting it properly during the day, in folding it for the night, in feeding it in bad weath- er, in keeping it clean, in treating its diseases, &c. Shepherds receive good wages and are well paid in countries, where sheep are maintained, that is, when they know their business, and will carefully ',v..Tform it. 8 ON THE QUALIFICATIONS Q. Are many qualifications necessary to become a good shepherd ? A. More things are necessary to be known in the business of a shepherd than in most other agricultu- ral employments. A good shepherd should under- stand the best method of folding, feeding, watering, and pasturing his flock, of treating its diseases, and improving it, as well in the breed, as in the quality and fineness of the wool ; to drive, wash, and shear his flock in the best manner ; to rear and train dogs, and keep them in subjection, and to protect the flock against wolves, and other noxious animals. Q. How can it be known that a young man will make a good shepherd ? A. A good shepherd may be expected from one who understands and retains what is told him as well as other young men in the country ; if he is careful and patient, and has no infirmity, which will hinder him from walking or standing for a length of time together. Q. Is it necessary that a shepherd should know how to read ? A. One, who understands reading, more readily acquires information, but it is not absolutely necessa- ry ; he however, would be the more valuable for knowing how to read, write, and cypher. Q. With what necessaries should a shepherd be provided to manage his flock in the fields ? A. He should be well clothed, so as to continue the. whole day in the field, without suffering much OF A SHEPHERD. V from cold, or from being exposed for a long time in the rain, without being wet to the skin. He should have a crook, a whip, a scratcher, a knife, a lancet, a tin box prepared with a suitable ointment, and a scrip. Q. What ought the shepherd to do, if he has his feet, hands, and some other parts of his body frost bitten ? A. He should take the necessary precautions to prevent mortification in the benumbed parts, as it makes rapid progress : the frozen part grows first pale and then red, attended with great itching, it afterwards becomes purple and black ; when it soon after detaches and falls. To prevent mortification, it is proper to rub the frozen part with snow, or to cover it with rags wet with the coldest water ; it is then rubbed with lin- en to restore the warmth, and at last it may be plunged in warm water, or fomented, but not exposed to the fire. Q. What is a crook, and for what purpose is it used ? A. The crook is a staff about six feet long, termi- nated on the upper end by an iron, which is in the form of a small spade, and on the other end by a hook bent back on the top ; the hook may be put on the side of the flat iron, and then it should be bent in- ward. The flat iron of the crook is intended to throw earth near the sheep, which stray from the flock, so as to make them return. The hook is made for seiz- ing and catching them by one of the hind legs. Q. What is a shepherd's scrip, and for what pur- pose is it used ? 2 10 ON DOGS AND WOLVES. A- A scrip is a pocket or knapsack, attached to a leather string, which the shepherd carries like a shoulder belt. He puts, in his scrip, his provisions for the day, a box of ointment to rub such sheep as he sees scratching themselves in the field ; a scratch- er to remove the scabs of the itch before applying the ointment ; a lancet to bleed such sheep as may require it ; a small knife to skin, and to open such as may die in the field, &c. Q. Is it necessary to have a scratcher, knife, and lancet in separate instruments ? A. A single instrument is sufficient, that is, a small knife, which shuts on its handle, the end of the han- dle being flattened and brought to an edge, makes a scratcher ; the blade, being pointed, and sharp on both sides, near the point, serves as a lancet. CHAPTER II. OF DOGS AND WOLVES. Q. Is it necessary, that shepherds should have dogs for driving their flocks ? A. It is to be wished, that shepherds could dis- pense with them, because they often do much mis- chief; but they are necessary in countries, where the lands are often sown with corn, and exposed to injury: when sheep stray from the flock, the shepherd can restrain those only, which are near him, and at the distance, at which, he can throw lumps of earth before ON SHEPHERDS' DOGS. 11 them with his crook : dogs, therefore, assist the shep- herd in driving his flock, and defend it against wolves, when strong enough. Q. In what countries can a shepherd manage his flock without the aid of dogs ? A . In places, where the land is divided into large enclosures, there is always a great deal of ground in fallow, that is, not sown ; a numerous flock can be there conducted without the aid of dogs. Sheep na- turally go together ; they do not stray from the flock, except they observe a better pasture, than where they are : this allurement is commonly too far from great fallows, to attract them ; but if the flock should be on one end of a fallow, near land liable to injury, the shepherd places himself on the side of such lands, to protect them. Q. What injury can dogs do sheep, and how can they be restrained ? A. Dogs badly disciplined, and too ardent, fly upon the sheep, bite and wound them, and cause abscess- es. They frighten the ewes with young, by hurt- ing them, and making them miscarry. They throw- down the weak, and such as can hardly follow the flock, or fatigue and fret them, by driving them too fast. To prevent these inconveniences, it is prop- er to make use of such dogs only in driving as are mild and good natured, and well trained to shew their teeth to wolves, but not to sheep. A good well-bred dog makes them obey without hurting them. Sheep are accustomed to do of themselves, what the dog would compel them to, by force. They withdraw 12 ON SHEPHERDS' DOGS. when he approaches, and do not advance on the side, where they see him a centinel, on the borders of a prohibited ground. Q. How do dogs serve to direct the course of a flock? A. When a shepherd drives his flock before him, he can greatly hasten its speed, and that of the sheep, which remain behind ; but he cannot prevent it from going too quick, nor the sheep from running forward too fast, or straying to the right or left ; it is neces- sary, he should have the aid of dogs, to place round the flock, to send forward, or to restrain such as go too fast, to bring up those which remain behind, or stray to the right or left. Q. How can a shepherd make his dog perform these different manoeuvres? A. He must train them from their youth, and ac- custom them to obey his voice. The dog goes on all sides ; before the flock to stop it ; behind it, to make it go forward ; on the sides, to prevent it from straying : he remains at his post, or returns to the shepherd, according to signs given him, which he understands. Q. What is necessary to be done to train a shep- herd's dog ? A. He must be learnt to stop, to lie down, to bark, to stop barking, to place himself on the side of the flock, to walk round it, and to seize a sheep by the ear, at the command of the shepherd, when given him by the sound of his voice, or by the motion of his hand, IS Q. How is a dog taught to stop, or lie down, at command ? A. By pronouncing the word stop, a piece of bread or other food should be given him, which makes him stop, or he is stopped by force ; by repeating this ma- noeuvre, he is accustomed to stop, at the sound of the voice. To teach him to lie down, when required, it is necessary to caress him, when he does it of him- self; or after having obliged him to it, by taking him by the legs and pronouncing the words lie down ; if he would rise too soon, he is chastised, to make him remain. When he is quiet, they give him something to eat, and by these means he is made to obey. Q. How do they make a dog bark, or stop bark- ing, at command ? A. The barking of the dog is to be imitated, while he is shown a piece of bread, which is given him, as soon as he has barked, when the word bark is re- peated : he is accustomed also to stop barking, when the world silence is pronounced : he is threatened or chastised, when he does not obey, and rewarded and caressed, when he does. Q. At what age is it proper to train dogs for the use of a shepherd? A. They begin training them when six months old, if they have been well fed, and are strong ; but if they are weak, it is necessary to wait, until they are nine months old. Q. How is a dog made to go round a flock, to pass on its side, to run before, to come back, or to remain in his place ? 14 ON SHEPHERDS' DOGS. A. To learn a dog to go round, a stone must be thrown before him, and then successively from place to place, until he shall have gone round the flock, al- ways repeating the word turn, by throwing a stone before, and then behind him ; he is trained to run on the side of a flock, by pronouncing the words, on the sides ; they say, go, to make him go before ; return, to make him return ; stop, to continue in place ; other words may be substituted, in places where shepherds have another language. Q. How is a dog learnt to seize a sheep by the ear to bring him back when he wanders, or to stop him in the middle of the flock, to wait for the shepherd ? A. A dog is made to go round a single sheep in an enclosure : the ear of the sheep is put to the dog's mouth, to accustom him to seize the sheep thereby : or a piece of bread is tied to the ear of a sheep in the middle of a flock, when the dog is excited to aim thereat, and is thus habituated to seize the ear. In this manner a dog is taught to stop such sheep as the shepherd may shew him in the flock. Dogs may also be taught to stop sheep, by seizing them by the leg, before or behind, or above the fetlock : but this practice has its inconveniencies ; the fetlock is often swelled by it, and the sheep made lame for some time. Q. How does a dog make a flock obey him ? A. He makes the first sheep fly before him, by run- ning at him, and then one after the other, the whole flock takes the same course, if the dog continues to press forward : when a sheep is not ready enough to obey him, he approaches and threatens him by barking. ON SHEPHERDS' DOGS. 15 Q. When a dog is well trained, can he instruct another ? A. It requires less time and trouble to teach a young dog, when he has the example of one, which knows how to drive the flock : the young dog will take the same gait, but he is often deceived; he would, perhaps, be never well taught, if the shepherd did not learn him such things, as the example of the other dog could not make him understand. Q. What kind of dogs, and how many, are proper for the service of flocks ? A. All active docile dogs are good for training to the service ; those are called dogs of the true breed, whose fathers and mothers are well practised in con- ducting flocks ; it is thought, that dogs, thus bred, are more easily trained, than others. In parts of the coun- try, where the lands are rarely exposed to be injured by sheep, a single dog is sufficient for an hundred sheep ; but when they are so exposed, and are near to sheep walks, which the flock often approaches, two, and even three and four dogs are necessary ; because two could not stand for the whole day, or for many successive days, the almost continual run- ning, which they are obligecbto make, to keep the sheep from the prohibited lands ; it would therefore be necessary to have otrJer dogs to relieve, and to give them rest, when much fatigued. In countries where wolves are to be apprehended, it is necessary, that the dogs should be strong enough to resist, and bold enough to hunt them. Dogs well covered with hair, support cold and rain better than others. 16 Q. What breed of dogs is preferred, in countries where wolves are little to be dreaded. A. A breed of dogs called shepherds' dogs, from being commonly used in the service of flocks ; they are naturally active, and easily made docile : dogs of every other breed may be trained for the same pur- pose. Q. What is the best breed of dogs for guarding sheep, where wolves are to be apprehended ? A. The mastiff breed is best : these dogs .are strong and courageous ; but it is necessary to give them collars armed with long iron points ; and to in- cite them against the wolf, the first time they have to fight him, or to put them in company with other dogs trained to the business. Q. What precautions are necessary, when you have a badly disciplined dog, that wounds the sheep ? A. The long canine teeth, which enter deep into the flesh, should be broken off, in case he bites. Q. How ought shepherds' dogs to be fed ? A. It costs but little to feed them, in the neigh- bourhood of large cities, where horse-meat, the scraps of tallow, &c. can be easily procured; for the want thereof, coarse bread naust be made for them : it is improper to give them mutton ; because, if they are accustomed to this food,* they will acquire the habit of biting the sheep, for the sake of the blood. Mastiffs are trained, like other dogs to driving sheep. Q. Have not shepherds some means of driving their flocks when they have no dogs ? A. Shepherds teach some sheep of the flock, to ON SHEPHERDS' DOGS. 17 which they give particular names, to come to them, at their call ; and in order that they may take this habit, they are enticed to follow them by giving them pieces of bread. When the shepherd would make the flock pass a narrow path, or passage-way, on its route, or would collect his flock, he makes the tame sheep come to him ; such as are near accom- pany them, others take the same course, and imme- diately the whole flock becomes disposed to follow the shepherd. Q. What precautions should a shepherd take against wolves ? A. 1st. He should tie small bells to the necks of a certain number of sheep, the sound of which points out where to find the sheep, which have strayed into the woods, and other places out of his sight. When a wolf approaches, the sheep are com- monly the first to discover him ; they are frighten- ed and agitated in a manner, to make their bells heard, which disclose their danger, both to the dogs and shepherd. The little bells also call the shepherd, when something extraordinary happens in the flock, whether by night or by day, which puts the sheep in motion. 2d. The shepherd takes care that his flock be accompanied by dogs strong and courageous enough to face a wolf, to put him to flight, to pursue, and even to kill him. 3d. The shepherd carefully observes his flock, when he drives it near woods, or places frequented by wolves. The same attention should be paid when he is near fields, where the grass or growth is highf enough to conceal them ; they are 3 18 ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. always to be feared in foggy weather, and in the dusk of the evening, and above all, near hedges and bushes, where they keep themselves in ambush. 4th. Shep- herds also make fires, or at least smoke, near their flocks. Q. What ought the shepherd to do, when wolves approach the flock, or have seized upon some of the sheep ? A. When the wolf appears, the shepherd collects his flock, and sends his dogs in pursuit of him ; he remains near the flock, to observe if he can see other wolves ; halloos to the wolf, and encourages his dogs. But if the wolf has already seized his prey, the shep- herd runs after him, without, however, losing sight of the flock, urges the dogs to the battle, and forces him to abandon his prey, which often happens. CHAPTER III. OF THE LODGING, LITTER, AND DUNG OF SHEEP. Q. Is it proper to lodge sheep in enclosed stables? A. Enclosed stables are the worst shelter, which sheep can have. The vapour from their bodies, and from their dung, infects the air, and puts them in a sweat ; they grow weak, and take diseases, in such warm and unhealthy stables ; the wool loses its strength, and the dung dries and burns it : when they go out of stables, the outward air affects them, when it is cold ; suddenly stops their perspiration, and will sometimes give them severe sickness. ON LODGING, LITTER, &X. 19 Q. In what manner should sheep be lodged, to preserve them in health, and to have both good wool and good dung ? A. A great deal of air should be given them ; they are better lodged in open, than in closed stables : and still better, under open sheds ; an open pen, with- out shelter, will serve for lodging them. Q. What is an open stable, and what produces its good or bad effects on sheep ? A. An open stable has many windows, which, as well as the doors, are shut by gratings : it is better than a close stable, because a part of the air, which is in- fected with the vapour from the bodies, and dung of the sheep, goes off through the windows and doors ; whilst the fresh air enters through the same openings. But this change of air is made only at the height of the windows ; the remaining air round the sheep in the lower part of the stable, under the windows, be- ing always unhealthy, although it may be less heated and infected, than that of the close stables. Open stables only diminish the evil, but are not good shel- ters for sheep. Q. What are sheds, and do they make good lodg- ing for sheep ? A. A shed is the flat of a roof, fixed against a wall, and supported before by posts. This lodging is bet- ter than stables, because it is wholly open on the side of the posts, through its whole length ; but it is shut on the side of the wall ; the infected air remains among the sheep, particularly at the bottom of the wall : although these sheds are better for sheep than 20 ON LODGING, LITTER, &LC. the open stables, they are not, however, the best lodg ing. But a shed, or sheep-cot, supported on all sides by posts, makes the best shelter for sheep, the infected air goes off, and the fresh enters on all sides : the sheep can go out, when too warm, and enter for shelter against rain : it certainly makes the best cover, as it is the most healthy and convenient for them ; but they are costly, and the expense may be avoided by a pen in the open air, which may be placed in a yard, or other domestic enclosure, by which only, it is distin- guished from the field pens. Q. What is the least expensive manner of making a covered pen for folding sheep ? A. A covered pen may be made without walls, by posts from six to seven feet high ; place them in a manner, that each may be supported by a brace, and arranged in two lines, at ten feet distance from each other ; connect them with joists and plates of the same length, to support a roof, the top of which should also be ten feet, and the rafters only seven. In the middle of this space is placed a double rack ; and on each side, is built a small shed only two feet broad, with the top placed against the middle of the posts, a foot and a half below the plate ; the joists of this shed are two feet long, and the rafters three feet ; the posts, which support the plate of the little shed, are only three feet ; supports or braces placed at distances, pro- portioned to the length of the building, and connected with the beams and posts, prevent the work from spreading ; a rack is placed against the posts of the small sheds, so that there are four ranges of racks in ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. 21 its breadth, which is fourteen feet. If it is covered with tile, timber four or five French inches square is sufficient ; it may be even smaller, if covered with shingles or straw. Q. Would the breadth of fourteen feet be suffi- cient for lodging of sheep of the largest, or only of the middling size ? A. By allowing each sheep a foot and an half of rack, there will be in the fold, a space of five square feet for each animal, which is so much better for sheep of a small size, as there is no danger of the air being heat- ed ; for it is enclosed only by hurdles, which answer for gates, whilst the racks on each side, which hold the fodder, are so placed, as to prevent the sheep from passing under them. The air is renewed also, every instant, by the openings, which surround the build- ing. If this shed is designed for middling sized sheep, or those of the large size, it would be neces- sary to enlarge the dimensions, or suppress the double rack in the middle. In the last case, there would be a space of ten feet square for each sheep, which would be sufficient for the largest. By in- creasing the breadth of the building three or six feet, this would add two or four feet to the building, or a foot and an half to each of the side sheds ; and by omitting the double rack, each animal would have a space of six feet square, and more, which would be sufficient for sheep of the middling size. As to the length of the building, it should be proportioned to the number of sheep ; it may be constructed on a right line, or square, according to the shape of the ground. 22 ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. Q. Is this building for folding sheep, to be prefer- red to any other ? A. Although the construction of this kind of shed may be less costly than stables, and sheds on the side of walls, it however requires such an expense, as to wish an exemption from it : when the roof is even covered w r ith stubble, it is necessary that the wood work should be strong enough to resist high winds ; and in whatever manner it may be constructed, the charge of its maintenance will be required : all this expense may be avoided, by keeping the sheep, as has been before observed, in a pen in the open air, without shelter. Q. How are sheep able to withstand the injuries of the air, in severe winters, without being under cover ? A. The wool with which these animals are clothed, defends them sufficiently from the air ; it has a sort of grease, that is called by the French and by the English yolk suint, which prevents the rain from penetrating to the flesh for a long time, so that the tufts of wool near the skin become neither cold nor wet, whilst the rest of it is loaded with water or ice, or is covered with frost or snow. When the sheep perceive they have too much water upon their wool, they throw it off by shaking themselves. They can shake off the snow in the same manner ; and even should they be covered with it, or be buried in it for a time, they would not perish. Q. How can the parts of the body upon which there is no wool, resist severe cold without shelter ? A. The wool preserves all parts of the body, which ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. 23 are covered with it, from cold and even frost ; but extreme cold may injure their limbs, feet, muzzles, and ears, if these animals did not know how to keep them warm. Having laid down upon the litter, they gather their limbs under them ; by huddling many of them together, they shelter their head and ears from the cold, in the small intervals, which are be- tween them, and bury their muzzles in the wool. When the weather is attended with moist and cold winds, it is most painful to the sheep exposed in the open air ; the weakest tremble and draw their limbs together ; that is, when standing, to prevent the cold from reaching the groin, and the hollows under the fore shoulders, where there is neither hair nor wool. But as soon as the animal moves himself, or eats, his warmth is renewed, and the trembling ceases. Q. What proofs 'are there, that sheep can live in the open air, the whole winter ? A. They have been kept in the open air without shelter, night and day, through the whole year, near the city of Montbard, in the department of La Cote d'or, for more than thirty years : a flock of about three hundred sheep have had no other cover for that time, than a yard enclosed by walls. The racks are fix- ed to the walls without any cover ; the ewes yean there, the lambs have always remained there, and all the animals are there maintained, in a better state, than they would be in closed stables, although there has been in that time, many very rainy years, and the most extreme winters, particularly that of 1776. It is known, particularly in England, that sheep re- 24 ON LODGING, LITTER, &e. main in the open field for the whole of the winter, There are instances of their being buried many days under the snow, and of their being withdrawn from it safe and well. But at the season, when the ewes lamb, the shepherds watch them during the cold nights, lest the lambs might freeze ; principally such, as come from young, feeble, and ill-fed moth- ers. This accident is little to be feared, where the lambs are put to the ewes in September. Before ex- posing a large flock to the open air, a trial can be made upon a small number, as was done at Mont- bard. Q. When flocks are lodged in the open air, what is done with sick, feeble, and languishing lambs during bad weather ? A. When there are sick animals, and it is seen that the air increases their disease, it is necessary to put them under cover from rain, and to shelter them from bad winds, in some corner of the shed, stable, or other building, until they become stronger, or are cured. Q. What extent should be given to a domestic fold? A. When litter is scarce, the pen should be so constructed, that all parts of it should have littei enough ; but each sheep should be allowed the space of six feet square. When there is plenty of litter, it is proper to enlarge the pen, so as to give each an- imal ten or twelve feet square : the places covered with dung, being more distant from each other, than in the smaller pen, the sheep dirty, and damage their ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. 25 wool less by rubbing against each other ; can move more freely ; and the ewes with young, and the new- ly dropt lambs, are less exposed to injury. Q. What situation is it best to give to a home pen, or fold ? A. The best exposures are to the south, south- west, and south-east ; because the walls of the sheep yard put the flock under shelter from the north, and north-easterly winds, which the sheep resist, if in oth- er positions ; but they are more oppressed with them. Sheep scattered over a field, like wild animals, would find shelter therein ; it is necessary then to place their pen in the most sheltered part of the yard, and on a descent, in order that the rain may run off. Q. What ought to be the height of the enclosure of a home pen, to secure sheep against wolves ? A. Walls seven feet high have prevented wolves from getting into a sheep pen near Montbard, where there have been a great many sheep and dogs, for more than thirty years. These w r alls were built of stones, without mortar, and had necessarily open joints, which would give the wolves a facility in climbing them ; but they are terminated by small stones, heaped up in the shape of an ass's back, to the height of eight inches ; some of these stones would fall, if the wolf should put his foot upon them to get over: no derangement has been perceiv- ed, which might have led to suspect attempts from the wolves to get into the sheep yard, although their tracks had been seen, where they had rambled round the pen. 26 ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. Q. In what manner, must the racks for sheep be made ? A. The bars are two feet long, and are placed at two and a half inches from one another, if intended for the small breed ; they are set wider apart, if the breed is larger, because the muzzle is thicker ; but the wider the bars are removed from each other, the more is the fodder wasted ; for sheep never pick up what they let fall upon the dung, in pulling it from the rack. Simple racks are made to be attached to walls> or to hurdles ; and double ones, in the form of a cra- dle, to be placed in the middle of the sheep yard. Q. How should racks be placed in a sheep pen ? A. If the enclosure, of which it is meant to make a sheep fold, is small, and the flock is large, racks are put against all the walls, and a double rack in the middle : But commonly the sheep pen is in an inner yard, of which it occupies only a part ; and to form it, there is placed a range of hurdles, opposite to the walls, at a convenient distance, and the racks are at- tached to the wall. They can be also attached to the hurdles : in this case, there should be a greater distance between the hurdles and the wall, than if there was but one range of racks, in order that each sheep should have the requisite number of square feet : the racks must be placed, in preference, against the wall, because sheep take refuge there, to find shelter for their feet. Q. Are not troughs necessary in a domestic sheep pen ? ,'/. Troughs are put under the racks to receive ON LODGING, LITTER, &C. 27 the seed, and finer parts of the fodder, which fall from the racks, and which sheep would not eat, if mixed with the litter and dung. These troughs are made with scantling,(voliges,) six inches deep, twelve broad on the top, and six on the bottom. When roots, grain, and other things, which would pass through the rack, are given, they are put into the troughs. Q. Is the dung of a home pen, as valuable as sta- ble dung ? A. Dung, in the open air, is not liable to be heat- ed, to grow white, or lose its strength, like stable dung ; because the fogs, snow and rains keep it moist, and make it a richer manure, than if it remained a long time under cover. Q. Should sheep be always littered in the sheep yard? A. As long as there is dung in the yard, litter is necessary to prevent the sheep from lying in it, and fouling their wool : but if all the litter be used, it will be necessary, first to remove the dung, and afterwards to sweep it every morning. This experiment has been made at Montbard, for many years, upon a flock without the use of litter ; but in this case, sand must be put upon the yard, if the ground is not solid ; and a quick descent should be given, for the water to run oft*. Q. Does the rain water, which washes the dung of a sheep pen, impoverish the dung, when it runs off? A. This washing has been observed to diminish the strength of the dung ; but it has been found to have as much effect upon the land, as stable dung : but in order to lose nothing, it is best to endeavour 28 ON" THE KNOW LEDGE to lead the drain from the yard, to land under culti- vation, or into a ditch, where manure is collected, to be occasionally taken away. CHAPTER IV. ON THE KNOWLEDGE AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. Q. W"HAT are the principal differences to be ob- served in sheep ? A. Sheep differ from each other in sex, age, size, and in the quality of their wool and flesh. Q. How is their age ascertained ? A. By the front teeth of the under jaw ; they have eight, of which all appear the first year, and are called lambs' teeth, and are not broad, but pointed. In the second year, the two middle ones fall, and are replaced by two new ones, which are easily dis- tinguished by their breadth, and which are much longer than the six others : during this second year, the ram, ewe, and wethers, have the name of year- lings. In the third year, two other pointed teeth, one on each side of the middle, are replaced by two large teeth ; so that there are four large teeth in the middle, and two pointed on each side. In the fourth year, there are six large teeth, and there remain only two pointed, one on each side of the range. In the fifth year, there are no more pointed teeth, being all replaced by broad teeth. The age of sheep. AND CHOICE OF S&EEP. .29 then, may be certainly ascertained, the first five years, by the state of the eight teeth ; it is afterwards ascer- tained by the situation of the jaw teeth, which, as they are the more used and worn, the older is the an- imal. In short, the fore teeth fall out, or are broken, when sheep are seven or eight years old : there are sheep, which lose some of the fore teeth, at the age of five or six years. Q. How are the sheep of different countries dis- tinguished, when they differ from one another ? A They are distinguished into different breeds, or branches, according to their height, size, and quality of wool. Q. What difference is there in the size of sheep ; and how is it ascertained ? A. The height of sheep is measured like that of horses, from the ground to the top of the withers. It is said, there is a breed of sheep, which is only one foot high ; this is the smallest breed : others are three feet eight inches, and this is the large breed. The middling sized, of the different species yet known, are about two feet four inches high, according to the measures, which have been given of them. But in France, the Flanders sheep are only two feet four inches in height; therefore, among the other breeds, the small size is from one foot, to one foot seven inch- es ; the middling size from eighteen to twenty-two inches, and the large size from twenty-three to twen- ty-seven inches. There is a custom of measuring sheep from their ears to the root of the tail ; but it is liable to vary, from different situations of the head : one of these 30 ONTHE KNOWLEDGE measures may be judged of by the other ; for the height of a sheep is a third less than his length : for in- stance, a sheep three feet long, is only two feet high. Q. What are the principal distinctions in the wool ? A . The wool is white, or of a bad colour ; Short or long ; Fine or coarse ; Soft or harsh ; Strong or weak ; Nervous or weak. Q. What are bad colours in wool ? A. White wool only will receive lively colours in dying : the yellow, red, brown, blackish or black are used only in coarse manufactures ; or for the cloth- ing of country people, when of inferior quality ; but such wool as is fine, is used for stuffs which retain the natural colour, and is not sent to the dyer. Q. What are locks of wool, and what difference is there in their length ? A. Locks of wool are composed of many filaments, which touch each other at the end. Each lock forms a separate tuft of wool, in the fleece. The shortest wool is only an inch long, the longest is more than fourteen inches ; there is wool of all lengths, from one to fourteen, and even to twenty -two inches. Q. What difference is there, in point of coarseness, in the filaments of wool ? A. There are very fine filaments, in all kinds of wool, even in the coarsest ; but however coarse or fine wool may be, the coarsest filaments will be at the ends of the locks ; by examining these filaments AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 3}? in a great number of the species, different sorts of wool have been distinguished, which may be reduc- ed to the five following, viz. Superfine wool ; Fine wool ; Middling wool ; Coarse wool ; Super-coarse wool. Q. How can these different sorts of wool be known ? A. It is necessary to have samples of each kind of wool, to compare with that, whose quality it is de- signed to ascertain : to make this examination, a lock of wool is to be taken from the withers of the sheep, where the finest wool of the fleece is always to be found ; then separate a little the filaments from one another, at the end of the locks, in order to see them better, and place them on the side of the samples, up- on black stuff, to make them appear clearer, when it will be easily seen which samples they most resemble, Q. Is it necessary to have samples of the different sorts of wool, to ascertain if the wool of one sheep is finer than that of another ? A. To ascertain, whether the wool of a ram is finer than that of the ewes, with which it is proposed to couple him, it is necessary, to cut off the end of a lock of wool, taken from the withers of the ram, and to* place its filament upon some black stuff, whereon are put like filaments from locks of wool, taken from the withers of some ewes, and it will be readily discover- ed, if the wool is finer or not, than that of the ram. 32 Otf THE KNOWLEDGE Q. How is soft wool known from harsh ? A. It is sufficient, to feel of a lock of wool to dis- cover, if it is soft and mellow, or harsh and dry, to the touch : or by drawing it between two of the fingers, and lightly rubbing its filaments, it will be known, if it is soft or harsh. Q. How is it known, whether wool is strong or weak? A. Take some filaments of wool and stretch them, drawing them by the two ends, with both hands : if they break easily, it is a proof, that the wool is weak, and the more they resist, the stronger is the wool. Q. How is it known, whether the wool be elastic, nervous, or smooth ? A. Take a handful of wool and squeeze it : if, on opening the hand, it swells as much as it did before compressing it, it is nervy ; on the contrary, if the wool is weak, it remains pressed down, or swells only a little. Q. What are the good or bad qualities of wool ? A. That wool, which is white, fine, soft, strong, and elastic, is the best ; that, which has a bad colour, and is coarse, harsh, and weak, is of an inferior quality ; but that which is mixed with a great quan- tity of hair (jarre) is the worst. Q. What is this jarre or hair? A. It is a fur or hair mixed with the wool, which is very different from it ; it is stiff and shining ; it has not the softness of wool, and does not take the dye, when manufactured. Wool of this sort is used only for coarse goods : the more it has of this jarre, the AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 33 less valuable it is : some of this jarre may be seen in superfine wool, and it is sometimes found as fine, as the wool itself. Q. What are the signs of bad health in sheep ? A. Parts of the body deprived of its wool, a dull countenance, bad breath, pale gums, and veins, &.c. Q. What are the proportions of body, which de- signate a good ram ? A. It is said, that rams should be selected, which have a thick head, a flat nose, short and narrow nos- trils, a large high and round forehead, large black and lively eyes, large ears, and covered with wool, a broad chest, a lofty, thick, and long body, a broad back, large belly, big testicles, and a long tail. Q. What are the proportions, which distinguish good ewes ? A. Ewes should be selected, which have a great body, broad shoulders, large clear, and lively eyes, a thick and straight neck, a broad back, a great belly, long teats, neat, small, short legs, and a thick tail. Q. By what signs are good wethers known ? A. It is proper to choose such as have no horns ; which are vigorous, hardy and well shaped ; which have big bones ; and a soft, greasy, clean, and well curled wool. Q. What Choice ought to be made, to have good sheep ? A. It is necessary to ctioose such as have the best, and largest quantity of wool, for the greater profit ; the tallest, because they afforc} more wool, and more flesh ; of the most convenient age, to produce much, 34 ON THE KNOWLEDGE and last a long time : in short, such as are most health} and best proportioned, in order to be robust and vig- orous. Q. How is the quality of the wool ascertained, on the body of the animal ? A. It is known by separating the locks of wool, in order to examing it quite to the roots, and by pulling out small tufts of it, better to ascertain the fineness of its filaments. Q. Ought the tallest sheep to be preferred ? A. No ; a sheep of a middling size, and even small, is preferable to a larger, when it has better wool ; but when the quality of the wool is the same, the largest sized animal should be selected, being more profitable in their fleeces, and for sale to the butcher, and also stronger and more robust. Q. Is the largest breed to be preferred in every country ? A. No ; because very fertile pastures are necessary for sheep of the large breed, such as that of Flanders, which would not find nourishment enough, in high, or dry grounds, where the grass is scarce and thin ; such grounds agree best with the small species, which require less nourishment. Sheep of the large size should not be put upon moist grounds, because they are more liable to the rot, than sheep of the small breed, especially as there is less to lose on the small, if attacked with this disease, than upon the large. Q. At what age is it proper, to select sheep to form a flock ? A It is necessary to take rams at two years old, at AND CHOICE OF SHEEP. 35 which age, they begin to have strength enough to pro- duce good lambs : they continue good rams until eight years old ; but older, they cannot be very ser- viceable. Ewes should be taken at two years, and such as have had no lambs are to be preferred : at five years old the ewes are still better for producing good lambs ; that is, if they have never had them, or at least, if they have not had them before 18 months or two years old. At seven or eight years, they grow weak, because they want their fore teeth, with which to browse. Wethers are taken at two or three years, for the sake of their fleeces, until the age of seven years, and then they should be fatted for the butcher. Q. What are the signs of good health in sheep ? A. A lofty head, a lively and very open eye, a lean forehead and muzzle, moist nostrils without mucus, breath without bad smell, a clean red mouth, all the limbs active, the wool strongly adhering to the skin, which ought to be red, soft and supple, a good appe- tite, the flesh reddish, and principally the vein good, and the ham strong. Q. How is it known when the vein is good and the ham strong? A. To know the vein, the shepherd bestrides the sheep, and handles the head with both hands, raises the eye-lid with the thumb of the right hand, from the top of the eye, and with the thumb of the left hand, brings it down from the under part : he then examines the veins of the white of the eye ; if they are very apparent, if he observes them to be of a live- 36 PASTURING OF SHEEP. ly red, and the flesh at the corner of the eye, on the side of the nose, is also of a fine red colour, it is a sign the animal is in good health. To know if the ham is strong, the sheep must be seized by one of his hind legs ; if he makes strong efforts to withdraw it, and you are obliged to employ much force to re- tain it, it is a proof j that the animal is strong and vig- orous. Q. What attention is it necessary to pay, in regard to the soil, when sheep are taken from one country, and carried to another ? A. They should be taken from a dry country ; as it is to be feared, if they are taken from a moist, marshy soil, they may have a disposition to the rot. NOTE. It is generally observed, that sheep, transplanted from a dry to a moist soil, easily take the rot ; whilst, on the contrary, one of the means of preventing or curing it, if it is susceptible of cure, is the migration of animals from moist to dry countries...//wzarrf. CHAPTER V. CONCERNING THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP IN PASTURES. Q. \VHAT are the principal rules which shep- herds should observe, in grazing their flocks ? A. They may be reduced to seven. 1st. To graze them every day, if possible. 2d. Not to stop them too ftften while grazing, ex- cept in closed pastures. 3d. To prevent them from doing damage, when grazing on lands liable to injury. PASTURING OF SHEEP. 37 4th. To avoid moist soils, and grass covered with de\v or white frost. 5th. To put the flock in the shade, during the sun's greatest heat ; and to drive it in the morning as much as possible, on the side lands, exposed to the west, and in the evening, to such as present to the east. 6th. To remove the flock from grasses, which may prove hurtful to them. 7th. And to drive it slowly, particularly when as- cending hills. Q. Why should sheep be made to graze every day ? A. Because it is the most natural, and least costly manner of feeding them ; and which can be but im- perfectly done, by giving them fodder at the rack. In grazing, they have a choice of food, and take it in the best state ; grass is always much better for them, than hay or straw. Even if food could not be found in the field, the exercise they would receive in walk- ing, would give them an appetite for their fodder. Q. Why are sheep allowed to wander, while pas- turing ? A. Because it would disturb, to stop them when grazing : it is their natural disposition, in seeking their food to wander from place to place ; this exer- cise preserves their vigour. Q. Why are not sheep allowed to graze in enclos- ed pastures, as in open fields ? A. Because sheep, when allowed to run over a rich pasture, spoil more grass with their feet than they eat. To preserve the feed, the flock should be allow- 38 PASTURING OF SHEEP. eel every day, only such part of it, as it may consume. The flock should be fenced in, by a pen, or fold, with- in which, there should be grass enough for the num- ber of sheep ; the next day the pen should be shifted, and so successively, until the flock shall have eaten the whole pasture. Q. Why should moist soils be avoided ? it is in these, that grass is most abundant. A. Moisture is injurious to sheep, when there is too much of it in the ground, on which they feed or run over, and in the grass, that it produces. This moisture, when it is cold, as it is when the dew is on it, produces a disease called the rot, the putrid liver, the disease of the liver, &c. Moisture is also the cause of very dangerous colicks in sheep : instinct dis- poses them to wait of themselves, before grazing, till the dew or white frost be dissipated. Q. Why is the dew of the morning more injurious to sheep, than rain, or the dew of the evening ? A. The morning dew is commonly colder than rain or the evening dew : sheep feed with less appetite, when the grass is wet, except at times, when rain hap- pens after a great drought, moistens the grass, and makes it sweeter, and more relishing. Q. Why should sheep be put in the shade, and be made to walk in the morning towards the west, and in the evening towards the east ? A. Because great heat is more detrimental to sheep, than great cold : their wool, which prevents the air from cooling them in winter, hinders it from refresh- ing them in summer, and increases the heat of their PASTURING OF SHEEP. 39 bodies to such a degree, as to stop them from feed- ing : it is, on this account, necessary to put them in the shade, during an ardent sun, which would heat them excessively, under their wool. These animals have the brain peculiarly weak ; the rays of the sun, failing direct upon their heads, give them the vertigo : this disease is called the heat ; it makes them run round, and presently destroys them, if it is not rem- edied by bleeding. It is necessary to put them un- der the shade of a wall or a tree, in the middle of the day. In the morning they should be driven to the westward, and in the evening to the eastward, in or- der that their heads should be shaded by their bodies ; which would be the case, from holding their heads down, while grazing. Q When sheep stand close together, and each of them bends his neck, and places his head under the belly of its neighbour, is it not sufficiently protected from the heat of the sun ? A. It is true, that the head of the sheep is shaded ; but this situation is more dangerous than the heat of the sun ; because the head is inclined, and surround- ed with air, charged with dust, and infected by the vapour from the bodies of the sheep, which heats ahd prevents them from receiving fresh air. Sheep also conceal their heads to put their nostrils out of the way of flies, which endeavour to deposit their eggs in them : in this case, it is necessary to lead the flock to a cool place. Q. In what weather is it, that sheep should not be led out to graze ? 40 PASTURING OF SHEEP. A. Sheep cannot feed, when the earth is covered with snow to such a depth, as to prevent them from uncovering it with their feet. Then they should be driven to the field only to give them drink, and exer- cise. But when the wind is very high, or the rain very abundant, the flock should not be taken out, un- til the storm abates. Q. At what o'clock ought sheep to be led to pas- ture ? A. At sun-rise, when there is no dew or fog ; when there is, it is proper to wait, until both are dissipated. Q. At what o'clock, and how is a flock to be put in the shade ? A. When the heat begins to oppress it in the field ; when the sheep stop feeding, are agitated, or the flies torment them, &c. it is proper to put them in the shade ; in a cool place well exposed to the air, where they may be removed from flies and chew their cud at ease. It would be dangerous to put too great a num- ber of them, into a close stable ; they might die there, suffocated by the heated air, and the vapour from their bodies. Q. What is chewing the cud in sheep ? A. When they feed in the field, or eat at the rack, they chew their food, so only, as to enable them to swallow it, when it falls into the paunch, which is the largest of the stomachs : when the animal lies down, after having eaten its fill, he draws what is in his stom- ach into his mouth, at different times, and chews it, afresh ; this is called chewing the cud : he afterwards PASTURING OF SHEEP. 41 swallows this food, which passes into another stom- ach, instead of falling into the paunch as at first. Q. How is it known, when a sheep is chewing the cud? A. He is seen to chew without receiving any food from without : when he has chewed a short time, it is observed, that something descends under the skin, from the throat along the neck ; it is the grass, which has been chewed, and which forms a ball as large as a walnut : a moment after, the body is seen to con- tract by an effort, and another ball reascends along the neck, quite to the throat ; when the animal re- news his chewing : all this is repeated, until he stops ruminating. Q. At what hour, is it necessary to* lead sheep out to graze, after having kept them in the shade, during the middle of the day ? A. They should be led again to pasture, when the sun begins to fall, and when the strength of the heat has abated. Q. At what hour, is the flock brought back in the evening ? A. The flock may be allowed to graze, until the end of the day, and even during some hours of the night, in grounds where the grass is thick, and plenty enough to be readily seized : but when it is wet by the dew of the evening, the flock must be withdrawn ; although many people believe, that the dew of the evening is not hurtful to sheep, or is less so, than that of the morning : it is however the same cold moisture, 6 42 PASTURING OF SHEEP. which produces nearly the same effect in the evening, as in the morning. Q. Do sheep eat noxious or hurtful herbs ? A. They do not of themselves eat such herbage, which, if put into their rack, they will often remain a whole day near, without touching it, although they may have had no other food : this proof has been many times given, in a sheep fold, near Montbard. But there are herbs, which have good qualities in themselves, and which sheep eat with avidity, but which, in certain circumstances, do them great injury. Q. What good herbage is there, which may be in- jurious to sheep ? A. *Trefoil(l), lucerne (2), wheat (3), rye (4), barley (5), mustard (6), poppy (7), and in general, all such herbage, as sheep eat with the most avidity, or which are too succulent ; such as are too tender and watery, like the after grasses, and such as are found in wet furrows, or under the shade of trees ; or full grown grasses, when full of dew, or water from cold rains. Q. How does such herbage prove injurious to sheep ? A. When herbage of the above description is tak- en, in too large quantities, into the paunch, it inflates it, so as to make the animal fuller than he should be, and gives him the colick of the paunch; called in * (1) Trifolium, L. (2) Medicago saliva, L. (3) Triticum hybern- um, L. (4) Secale cereale hybernum, (5) Hordeum vulgure, L. (6) Si- napis arvensis, L. (7) Papaver Rhreas, L. PASTURING OF SHEEP. 43 France, Ecouffurc, enfleure des vents, 8cc. The sheep then stands erect, without eating, is in pain, and trembles ; is short breathed, and beats at the flanks : if the belly is struck with the hand, it resounds with- out hearing the motion of water : in short, the animals attacked with this disease, fall, and die suffocated, and sometimes in great numbers. Q. How is the disease prevented ? A. Time should be given for the dew, or white frost to be off the ground, before the sheep be turn- ed out to feed : and they should not be put, in the morning when hungry, into rich and succulent pas- tures ; on the contrary, they should be confined to thin pastures, and afterwards led to the richest, and not left there long enough to take too much food ; they should not be allowed to drink, after eating peas, beans, and other farinaceous vegetables. Q. What ought the shepherd to do, when he sees his sheep inflated with the colick of the paunch ? A, He ought to drive his flock, without loss of time, to another place, where the herbage is not hurt- ful, and immediately assist the animals inflated. He should make them trot, until they dung, and the inflation abates : he must not fail to make them go with the wind ; for if they are driven against it, they would^ have greater difficulty in travelling, and the wind would contribute, with the inflation of the paunch, to suffocate them. They may be cured by making them swim in water, if it be near ; as soon as they dung, the disease terminates. 44 PASTURING OF SHEEP. Q. Are there no other remedies for the colick of the paunch ? A. There are many others, but when the shepherd is in the field, with his flock, he has choice only of the following : he presses the belly to make the wind pass off; bleeds them, draws the dung from the fun- dament with his finger, or with a small wooden spoon, to make the wind pass off : he bridles the sheep by putting into their mouths a small branch of willow, or a piece of twine, which is tied behind the head, in such a manner, as to keep the mouth open, and in this state the animal jumps, struggles, and discharges the wind, and dung, which inflate him. Q. Why should a shepherd always drive his flock moderately, especially when ascending hills ? A. Because, in driving his flock too quick, espe- cially on ascending ground, he would run the risk of heating many of the sheep, to the degree of making them sick, and even destroying them. Q. How ought the shepherd to manage his flock, when driving it ? A. He ought to prevent any animal from separat- ing from the flock, by running before, remaining be- hind, or straying to the right or left. Q. How can a shepherd do all that ? A. By the aid of his whip, his crook, and his dogs ; when he makes his flock go before him, he drives the sheep behind, with his whip : the dog is before, and restrains the sheep from going forward too fast : the shepherd menaces those that stray to the right or left, to make them return to the flock, or if he has a PASTURING OF SHEEP. 45 dog behind him, he sends him after the sheep, which stray, to bring them back, or makes them return, by throwing a little dirt at them, so as never to touch their bodies, which is improper. Q. How does he set the flock forward again ? A. He speaks to the dog, which is before, to let them advance, and then drives forward the hinder sheep ; he can make them go forward, or return by speaking to them in different tones, to which he ac- customs them. Q. Can a shepherd conduct his flock by going before ? A. Yes, if he has at least one dog, on which he can depend, to prevent any part of the flock straying behind, or on the sides. The flock follows the shep- herd even better than the dog, but it is necessary he should have regard to the sheep, behind. Q. How does the shepherd make the flock pass a narrow passage, or a bad track ? A. The shepherd causes some animals to follow him, which he has accustomed to come to him at his call : he goes first, and calls them, in order to induce them to follow him ; the first, which pass, are follow- ed by the rest. If there should be no sheep in the flock, acquainted with his call, he should present a piece of bread to such, as are most ready to take it, and in this way, he can make the whole flock to fol- low him. Q. How does a shepherd prevent his flock from doing damage to grounds sown to grain ? A. When the flock is near such grounds, he sends 46 ON THE POOD OF SHEEP. a dog upon the edge of the field sown, to prevent any of the sheep from approaching it : if there is alike field on the other side, he sends another dog, if he has another ; or goes thither himself. Q. How does the shepherd manage when he has no dog, and has two fields to guard ? A. Whilst he guards one of the fields, he speaks to the animals, which go upon the other, to make them quit it ; if they do not obey, he should run after them, and drive them out. But it is necessary that a shep- herd should have, at least, one dog, when he conducts a flock near grounds sown to grain ; but a dog is not so necessary, where there are great fallows. Q. What can the shepherd do, to retain his flock in a place, where the feed is good ? A. He induces his flock to continue, if he stays there himself with his dogs, and plays upon some in- strument, such as the flageolet, the flute, the hautbois, or the bag-pipe, 8cc. Sheep are pleased with the sound of instruments, and feed quietly, while the shepherd is playing thereon. CHAPTER VI. OX THE DIFFERENT THINGS, WHICH MAY BE USED FOR THE FEEDING OF SHEEP. Q. WH A T is the best food for sheep ? A. The best of all food for sheep, is the herbage of browsing pastures ; but all pastures are not equal- ly good. ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 47 Q. On what depends the goodness of pastures ? A. It depends on the situation and quality of the soil, and upon the state and properties of the herbage. Q. What are the best pastures, from situation and quality of soil ? A. The highest, lightest, dryest, and most inclined soils, make the best pastures for sheep. Q. In what state should the herbage be, to make the best pastures ? A. The best grasses are such, as have already ob- tained their growth ; which approach flowering, or have begun to flower : herbage, too young, has not been sufficiently exposed to the sun and air, to make good food ; it is too watery and unripe : such as have had their growth, bear seed, or are too old, are too hard, and not juicy enough. Q. Can pastures be had out of season, and after frost ? A. There are grasses, which resist frost, and which are almost as fresh in the depth of winter, as in sum- mer : such as burnet *(1), and woad (2), of which winter pasture can be made. Q. When pasturing fails, will dry fodder make good food for sheep ? A. The best fodder makes sheep decline, ewes, * (1) Sanguisorba officinalis, L. (2) Isatis tinctoria, L. The culture of this plant will be productive of great benefit to farm- ers, and manufacturers ; for the use of the latter, it will afford an excel- lent blue dye ; and for the former, a valuable winter pasture, both for sheep and cattle, as it stands the frost, and is green all winter ; it may be known by its indented leaves, which issue from the root ; those on the stalk have the form of an iron arrow or dart, with flat extended pods. 48 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. especially with young, and such as give milk, and al- so their lambs : the bad effect of dry food upon sheep arises from their being unaccustomed to live on such herbage during the favourable seasons : dry fodder is not so congenial to their temperament ; it heats them, nourishes them less, hurts their growth, and the good qualities of the wool. Q. How can the bad effects of dry food be pre- vented ? A. When sheep remain days together without go- ing to pasture, it is necessary to give them fresh food once in a day, which is sufficient to prevent the bad effects of dry fodder. Q. What fresh food can be had for sheep in the winter season ? A. * Colewort (1), running cabbage (2), high cab- bage (3), curly cabbage, chou frisees (4). These plants stand the frost, and their leaves being high, and not covered by the snow, may be gathered at times, when it covers woad and burnet. Q. Colewort and cabbages, being gross watery plants, may they not be injurious to sheep ? A. These plants would be injurious in the sum- mer season, when sheep eat fresh grass only ; but in winter, when they have fodder morning and evening, colewort and cabbages given, at mid- day, cannot but be beneficial. Q. What is running cabbage, choux de bouture ? * (1) Brassica campestris, L. (2) Brassica perennis, L. (3) Brassica oleracea silvestris, L. Brassica sempervirens, J. (4) Brassica olera- rea eabellica, L. Brassica fimbriata, B. ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 49 A. It is a variety in the species of cabbage, un- known to botanists ; it was cultivated in small gar- dens, in the commune of Montbard ; it throws out lateral branches, the lowest of which bend quite to the earth, while the rest of the growth is directed up- wards: the part, which touches the earth, takes root, and produces new cabbages, which are perpet- uated from year to year, and which form so gross a mass, that it is necessary to destroy a part of it. It is called choux de bouture, because it is planted in this manner without sowing ; its branches are brok- en off and given to sheep : it does not head, but pro- duces a great many leaves, when it grows in a good soil, well dunged.* Q. Is there not fresh food in winter, better than colewort, or cabbages, for sheep ? A. Carrots,! (1), parsnips (2), salsifis, or goat's beard (3), chervis, or skirret (4), radishes (5), turnips (6), potatoes (7), topinambours, an inferior species of potatoes (8), are more nourishing than the leaves of cabbages, or colewort ; scarcity, or turnip-rooted cabbages (9), may also be given. * This denomination of cabbage, choux de bouture, is uncertain : dif- ferent species of cabbage, even perennial, are perpetuated in the same way. The curly cabbage of the north, Brasslca oleracea sobellica, L. which resists extreme cold, is one of those, which should be preferred for this kind of culture Huzard. f (1) Daucus carrota, L. (6) Brassica napus, L. (2) Fastinaca savita, L. (7) Solatium tuberosura. (3) Tragopogon porrifolium, L. (8) Helianthus tuberosus, 1- (4) Sium sisarum, L. (9) Beta cicla altissima, I. (5) Brassica rapa, L. 7 50 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. Q. Are there not more nourishing things than roots to be given to sheep in winter ? A. Grains, seeds, and vegetables are more nutri- cious than roots. Q. What grains are given to sheep ? A. Oats (1), barley, and wheat bran, are very ben- eficial for them ; a small handful of barley and oats, given every day to each sheep, is sufficient to pre- serve a flock from the bad effects of winter fodder. Q. What seeds do they give sheep ? A. Hay chaff, hemp seed (2), broom seed (3), a- corns, and cakes of hemp, turnip (4), and colewort seed. Q. What is hay chaff? A. It is what collects and remains at the foot of hay stacks, and in hay lofts, after the hay has been taken away. Q. What is there beneficial in hay chaff? A. The seeds of many sorts of plants, which are nourishing, and among them such as strengthen the stomach, and aid digestion. Q. What is the effect of hemp seed ? A. It warms and gives strength to sheep, and ex- cites them to copulation. Q. What is done to procure and prepare broom seed, intended for the use of sheep ? A. When the broom seed is very ripe, to gather it, the branches" are shaken over sheets of cloth, and some handfuls of this seed is given with other (1) Avena saliva, L,. (3) Ulex europoeus, L. (5!) Cannabis saliva, J (4) Napus silvestris, I<. ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 51 food. Small branches of it may also be cut in June or July, and with their pods and seed, dried in the sun, and taken care of for the sheep in winter : sheep are presently accustomed to the bitter taste of this seed : it however may be steeped in water, or boiled for a moment to take off the bitterness. Q. What is the effect of acorns ? A. They are nutritious, but relaxing, and make sheep thirsty, when they eat many of them : it is proper to give them only a small quantity, once in a day. Q. What are cakes of hemp, turnip, rape, nut and flax seeds? A. They are the husks, which remain after having expressed the oil from them, made into cakes, and used for the feeding of cattle. Q. What is the effect of these cakes upon sheep ? A. The hemp seed cakes nourish, warm and ani- mate sheep, but make them thirsty, and scour, if given in too great quantities. The oil cakes of tur- nips and colewort heat but make them less thirsty. The nut and linseed oil-cakes nourish and fatten them more than others. Q. What vegetables are given to sheep ? A. Small beans(l), vetches(2), lentilb(3), peas(4), and haricot beans (5), if there be any to spare. Q. Do sheep eat lupines ? (6) (1) Faba minor sive equina, C. B. (4) Pisum sativum, L. (2) Vicia saliva, L. (5) Phaseolus vulgaris, L, (3) Ervum lens, L, (6) Lupinus albus, L. 52 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. A. Yes, after they have been steeped in water to take off their bitterness. Q. What chaff is given to sheep in the winter season ? A. Bundles of threshed straw, in which some grain is left, make very good food for sheep in winter. Q. What chaff is best for sheep ? A. Oat chaff, because both the grain and the straw are more tender, and of course better, than the chaff of rye, barley, and mixed grain. In some countries the chaff of wheat and meslin, which is a mixture of wheat and rye, would be the best of all : but in gen- eral these grains are too dear, and ought to be reserv- ed for the food of man. Q. Is not chaff made from vegetables ? A. It is made from vetches, lentils, peas and beans, which are gathered before or after being ripe ; but that however is best, which is made from plants gathered before they are ripe. Q. What other kinds of chaff are there ? A. There is a mixture of peas and vetches, of oats and vetches or peas, of oats with peas, vetches, len- tils, lupines or fenugreek (1), and these have charac- teristic names in France. Q. What kind of leaves are given to sheep ? A. Such as are on branches of trees, which are cut in August, when the sap is in them, and before the leaves are dry : they let them wither a little, and then make them into bundles. (1) Trigonella foenum g-roecum, L. ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. 53 Q. What are the best leaves ? A. The leaves of elder (1), birch (2), yoke elm (3), ash (4), poplar (5), willow (6), &c. They may be procured from almost all kinds of shrubs and trees.* Q. What are the best kinds of hay for sheep ? A. Salt marsh, because of the salt it contains : the hay of dry pastures, where the water never stands, is also very good, because it is fine, delicate and agreeable to cattle. Hay made before it is too ripe, and is only a little withered, is the most agreeable to sheep. Q. What is the worst kind of hay ? A. Low marshy meadows produce coarse grass, which is harsh and disagreeable to sheep : the herb- age, which grows on the sides of lakes and rivers, marsh rushes, reeds, &c. are still worse for hay : that, which is got when too ripe, or is too much made, or has lost its sap, affords little nourishment : the hay which has been wet while making, loses its colour and its good qualities ; it does not keep, and is subject to heat and rot in the hay loft. The hay, which re- ceives a bad smell from stables, or which has been wet or is mouldy, disgusts sheep. Such as is musty is very injurious to them, and gives them disorders (1) Betula alnus, L. (4) Fraxinus excelsior. I. (2) Betula alba, L. (5) Populi, L. (3) Carpinus betulus, L. (6) Salices, L. * In countries, which grow wood, and produce but little grain, and of course straw, leaves are carefully collected, as soon as they fall, and are dried rapidly in the sun or behind an oven, and are housed for the win- ter : the straw is thereby saved for the large animals,. .Hazard. 54 ON THE IOOD OF SHEEP. of the lungs ; they never eat it, but when forced to it through hunger. Q. Are there not some meadows better than oth- ers for the making of good hay ? A. The best grasses for making hay for sheep are found in greater proportion in high and dry meadows, than in low and moist ones ; but there is always a mixture of grasses of different qualities, in both situ- ations. Q. Can hay be obtained from good grasses with- out a mixture with bad ? A. That a pasture may produce such grasses only, as are good for sheep, it is necessary, to plough the ground, and to sow such as are wanted : it is by this means artificial grasses are obtained. Q. What are the artificial grasses used for sheep ? A. Artificial meadow may be made with dog, or twitch grass (fromental) (1), sheep grass, or sheep fescue grass (coquiole) (2), ray grass (3), &c. The name of gramineous is given to those grasses, and to all such as have long narrow leaves, long stalks, and ear out : artificial meadows are made with lucern, trefoil, burnet, &.c. ; those grasses are sown alone, or mixed together at pleasure. Q. What are the qualities of dog or twitch grass? A. It rises higher than any other meadow grass ; it grows in all sorts of soils, but produces more in good than in poor soils : it is cut early, and whether for feeding or hay, is excellent for sheep. (1) A vena elatior, L. (2) Festuca ovina, L. (3) Lolium perenne, L- ON THE POOD OF SHEEP. 55 Q. What are the properties of sheep fescue grass (coquiole) ? A. Light land agrees with this grass : it is fine and excellent for sheep, whether green or dry. Q. What are the qualities of ray grass ? A. Ray grass grows in strong and cold grounds : it makes excellent food for sheep ; but its stalks are liable to grow hard when it is not cut early. Q. What are the properties of lucern ? A. Lucern produces abundantly on rich flat grounds : moist soils are not suitable for it : whether as grass or hay, it is very nutritious ; but the grass taken in too large quantities, or when wet, inflates the sheep, and the hay may destroy them by giving them the molten grease, or other disorders : it is therefore necessary to mix it with common hay, saintfoin, or straw. Q. What are the properties of trefoil ? A. Sweet, rich, moist grounds, and such as can be watered, are favourable to trefoil. It is very nour- ishing, but is liable to the same objections, both for hay or grass, as lucern. Q. What are the qualities of saintfoin ? A. Saintfoin grows on plains, hills or mountains, but it produces best in deep good soils : it is very healthy, but too nourishing, if not mixed with straw when given to sheep. Its stalks are hard, if cut late. Q. What are the properties of burnet grass ? A. Burnet grows in all sorts of soils, but it pro- duces best in good fresh grounds : this grass strength- 56 ON THE FOOD OF SHEEP. ens sheep, is always green, makes a good winter pas- ture, and may be cut and given to lambs in troughs. Q. Do not sheep eat the bark of trees ? A. The bark of poplars, pines, and other trees, is pealed, dried and broken to give sheep in the troughs ; but is used only, when there is no other or better food. Q. Cannot sheep be fed with horse chesnuts ?* A. Sheep not only eat them when they are cut into two or three parts, but they eat the outside shell also, although it may have hard sharp points. Q. What other food is there which may be given to sheep ? A. The stalks, leaves and pods of peas, beans, vetches, lentils, and great beans may be given them, after the vines have been threshed. Sheep like this food better, and it is more nourishing, than straw : the stalks of peas have less moisture than those of beans. Q. What is the best kind of straw ? A. Oat straw is the best, because it is the most tender : rye straw is better than wheat, because it is not so hard, and there remains some grain in the ears : the straw of bearded bearley may be hurtful, on account of the beards, which stick to the wool, when they fall on it. Sheep eat only the ear, the ends of the stalk, and the leaves of the straw. This food is not sufficient to maintain a flock in good plight; something more nutritious should be given with it. Q. What use is made of the chaff of grain ? * JEsculus Hippocastanum. MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 57 A. Sheep eat the chaff of oats, wheat, and rye, but do not eat the chaff of barley. Q. What is the chaff of flax ? A. It is what remains after the flax has been peel- ed : sheep eat this kind of straw, but it is the worst of all others. CHAPTER VII. ON THE MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP, AND GIVING THEM WATER AND SALT. Q. AT what seasons is it necessary to fodder sheep ? A. When the sheep do not find feed enough in the pastures and enclosures, or when bad weather prevents them from going out ; it is then necessary to give them fodder at the rack, or in the troughs. Q. In what month do they begin to fodder sheep ? A. In the departments, where the winter is severe, they begin in the month of October or November. Q. At what time of day, is it necessary to fodder them? A. In the morning, when the white frost hinders the flock for some hours from going to pasture ; and in the evening, when they return therefrom, without being sufficiently filled. Q. What should be done, when the snow prevents the flock from going out for the whole day ? A. Dry fodder should be given them, morning and evening : but it is necessary, to have fresh food giv* 8 58 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. en them in the middle of the day, such as cabbage leaves, carrots, parsnips, skirret, radibhes, turnips, potatoes, topinambours, a species of potatoes, beets, horse chesnuts, acorns, &c. Q. What quantity of cabbage leaves should be given to a sheep at one feeding ? A. It is found that a sheep of a middling size eats about five pounds of cabbage leaves in a day ; there- fore it is proper to give him a pound and an half at once, when the leaves are tender, like those of the headed cabbage, brassica oleracea capitata, which he eats clean ; but when they are hard, like the leaves of the running cabbage, chou de bouture, he leaves nearly a third of them in weight : to make up for this loss, you should give him two pounds of such leaves at each feeding. Q. Why is it necessary, to give sheep fresh food at least once a day ? A. It is because fresh grasses and roots are the natural food of sheep : they are accustomed to it dur- ing the whole of the warmer seasons ; and when it is altogether changed by giving them only straw, they are not sufficiently nourished, and they gradually grow thin : the shepherds say they lose tallow, that is, they fall away. Dry food makes them thirsty and drink a great deal of water, and thereby lays the foundation of many diseases, particularly the rot : a feed of fresh food every day, prevents them from fall- ing away, or being too thirsty. Q. When you have no fresh food to give, what other food will prevent sheep from falling away ? MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 59 A. Grain, vegetables, bundles of straw, or a hand- ful of oats or other grain, will prevent the sheep from growing poor. Q- In the month of October and November, when sheep should be fed at the rack, what food is proper to be first given them ? A. It is proper to begin with giving them such things as do not keep, and which would spoil, from not being well saved ; or such as are the least agree- able, as wheat and rye straw, or both mixed ; but if oat straw, which they like best, be first given them, they will revolt afterwards at eating the others. Q. What quantity of straw is it proper to give sheep ? A. The necessary quantity of straw for sheep de- pends upon the size of the animal, and on the quality of the straw ; it is necessary to give middling sized sheep every day two pounds and an half of oat straw, if you are careful to put back into the rack what falls : a sheep eats every day, according to experiments which have been made, a little more than two pounds of this straw, and there is nearly half a pound left, that they will not eat, and which is mixed with the litter. There is still left some of the hardest part of the straw, and from which it may be calculated that a bundle of oat straw, weighing 50 pounds only, is sufficient for twenty sheep of a middling size, if that which falls from the rack is put back after each feed- ing. Q. What quantity of hay should be given to sheep ? 60 MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. A. The quantity of hay necessary for a sheep de- pends, like the quantity of straw, on the size of the an- imal and the quality of the hay. It is proper to give every day to a middling sized sheep two pounds of common hay, taken from a good meadow. This quantity is sufficient, if care is taken to put back what falls from the rack. Each sheep eats every day, according to experiments, which were made near Montbard, two pounds of hay, leaving three ounces : there will remain more or less according as the hay may be finer or coarser, than that which was employ- ed in the experiment. A bundle of hay, therefore, of ten pounds may be considered sufficient for five sheep, if what remains be replaced in the rack. Q. In winters, when there is no snow to prevent sheep from going to pasture in the field, will straw then be sufficient for them ? A. This food will answer until January, in coun- tries where the winter is severe, because there is then rarely good grass in the fields. To make up for it, it will be proper to mix a little hay or other food with the straw, such as the chaff of peas, beans, vetches, and lentils. It has been remarked for a long time, that the chaff of beans is drier than that of peas, and that it must be given to sheep in the evening, in moist and rainy weather. Q. At what season is fodder discontinued ? A. In the spring, when the sheep begin to find a sufficient quantity of herbage in the fields for their support ; and when they are round and well filled, on returning to the fold in the evening : but as long as MANNER OF FEEDING SHEEP. 61 it is found, that they have taken only a part of the food which is necessary for them, what is deficient must be supplied by fodder at the rack. Q. What quantity of grass does a sheep eat in a day? A. A sheep of a middling size will eat every day, according to an experiment which was made of it, eight pounds of grass, which was taken from a good pasture, in the drying of which, it lost three quarter parts of its weight, reducing the eight pounds of grass to two pounds of hay : therefore, a sheep of a mid- dling size will eat eight pounds of grass, or two pounds of hay, in the same space of time. But when they eat grass only, they drink little, or not at all ; and when their food is dry, they drink a great deal. Q. What water is best for sheep ? A. River water, and running streams, are the best ; the water of lakes and ponds runs off in part, and is to be preferred to the stagnant water of marshes. It is improper to allow sheep to drink at such places, except at times, when other water cannot be pro- cured. The worst water is that, which is stagnant in swamps, ponds, ditches, furrows, &c. When it is required to give it from wells or cisterns, it is prop* er to expose it to the air for some time, before giving it : stagnant and putrid water is very hurtful to sheep, and may cause their death. Q. What quantity of water do sheep drink ? A. They drink but little, when in good health : when a sheep is seen running to water with great ea.. gerness, it is a sign that he is diseased, or will 50011 62 MANKER OF FEEDING SHEET. become so. Sheep drink very little, when the grass is most succulent : they drink more in great drought, great heat, or in great cold, or when they are fed on dry food : thus a sheep drinks from one to four pounds of water per day ; but there are days, when he will not drink, though water should be brought to him. It is known by experiments, made near Montbard, that many sheep, fed with a mixture of hay and straw, in mid- winter, have remained in a close stable for thirty days without drinking ; and no inconvenience but thirst has been observed. Q. How often should sheep be allowed to drink ? A. In regard to that, there are different practices : in many places they allow them to drink twice a day ; in others, they are watered once only ; in others, twice, in tvvOj four, six, eight, ten, or fifteen days ; but these practices change according to the season ; and to the difference of food ; but there is no established rule grounded on good proofs. It is however admit- ted from experience, that it is not necessary to water sheep twice "a day, because they drink more water in many times going thereto, than if they drank only once. When water is near, and the flock healthy, lead it gently to water once a day, but do not stop the flock ; the sheep which want to drink, will stop, while the others will pass by, without drinking. The less a sheep drinks, the better is his health. Q. What is proper to be done, if the water is so remote, as to weary the flock by driving them to it ? A. To conduct the flock thither, once in two or three days, is sufficient, according to the food anv ON SHEEP'S WOOL. 105 stands better how to purchase, than the owner to sell, for the reason, that the one sells only once a year, whilst the other purchases every day. Q. How is the fleece washed on the sheep's back ? A. Each sheep is forced into a running stream as high as the middle of his body, and the shepherd also goes into' it, as high at least as his knees, and rubs his hand over, and presses the wool at different times, to clean it properly : this washing may be made in stagnant water, if it be clear. But in places, where there is only spring water, or that of wells or cisterns, it is sufficient to use it with pails. It is poured from a water-pot upon the wool of the sheep, pressing it with the hand ; but if a fall of water of three or four feet could be obtained, it should be received into a tub, in which the sheep should be alternately plunged : two men with their sleeves tucked up, or covered with false sleeves of glazed linen, would, in that case, wash them better, than in any other manner. The experiment of wash- ing with spring water has been for many years tried, without the sheep deriving any inconvenience from the coldness of the water. The sheep, which are kept in the open air for the whole year, are often ex- posed to rains, quite as cold as a bath from spring- water. Q. What precautions should be taken before shearing the sheep which have been washed ? A. It is necessary to wash them several times, in order that the wool may be very clean, and have a quick sale. After the last washing, the sheep should 14 106 be kept in a clean place, until sheared, which should not be undertaken before the fleece is dry, lest the fleece should be liable to damage, from being wet. It is proper, therefore, to omit the last washing, until fair weather.* Q. What are the means of foreseeing fine weather ? A. Country people have a great many signs for fine weather and rain ; but the most of them are ei- ther false or uncertain : they are unacquainted with the barometer, which is the best method of fore- telling it : a well informed shepherd should be ac- quainted with it. Quicksilver is presented in a glass tube, which ascends and descends according to the state of the atmosphere. On the side of the tube, it is marked by inches and lines. When we look at the barometer, we should remark at what inch, or - line, the quicksilver stands ; and return some time after, to ascertain if it rises or falls : if it has ascend- ed, it is a sign of fair weather ; if it has fallen, it is a sign of rain or wind. Q. What is the method of shearing sheep ? A. Some are accustomed to tie the four legs to- gether, to prevent them from struggling ; but it is a bad practice : when they are thus tied, the belly, and * The washing 1 the wool on the sheep's back is not in general use : it does not agree with and cannot be done in France on fine wooled sheep. It is desirable, that the farmers should all be accustomed to wash the wool themselves after shearing: they would thereby ascertain the exact loss, which takes place, and avoid the deceit of brokers and shopmen, to whom they are obliged to sell it, and who avail themselves of the waste not being known, to exaggerate it, and thereby obtain the wool at a lower price... . 107 of course the bladder, are pressed in such a manner, that the dung and urine are discharged, and dirty the fleece. It is better to lay the sheep on a table bored with many holes near the edge, and to pass a cord through these holes in several places, so as to retain the fore legs in one place, and the hind in another ; if it is a horned ram, one of his horns may be lashed to the table : by this means, the animal is less clog- ged, and the shearers work at their ease, and may be seated. This convenience is necessary for a work, which requires care and address ; for the wool should be cut with shears, very near to the skin, but without wounding it. When the sheep is shorn on one side of the body, he is unlaced, turned, and tied on the other.* Q. Is it proper to shear all the lambs ? A. It is best not to shear the weak lambs : in leav- ing them their wool, they are preserved from the accidents, to which they are liable after shearing, and are better clothed for the winter. Their fleece is larger the year following, and recompenses the loss in the first year. Q. What proof is there of this recompense ? A. Six lambs were shorn at the end of June, 1773, only on the side of the head, neck, body, and tail! These half-fleeces were weighed, and the other halves * Mr. Livingston, of New York, in a late essay on sheep, recommends to shearers, the tying- the fore and hind legs to a bar with two cross pieces; the bar to be abcut eighteen inches long, and the cross pieces six. This would leave the sheep in their natural posture, with their legs a little stretched out : a rod of iron, with a curvature at each end, would perhaps be still better, because being smaller, it would be less in the way of the shears. 108 ON SHEEP'S WOOL, were left upon the lambs. The year following the same lambs being wholly shorn, and the half-fleeces weighed separately ; that is, those a year old, and those which were as old as the lamb ; it was found, in estimating the wool of these different shear- ings, that the part of the body of the lambs, which was shorn only once, had produced wool nearly to the value of that of the part, which had been twice shorn ; the difference being only some sous (cents) more or less, upon each of the six lambs. Q. What treatment is proper to be pursued after the sheep are shorn ? A. If some signs of the itch are perceived, it should be rubbed with an ointment made of grease or tallow, and the spirits of turpentine. If the skin has been wounded by the shears, the same ointment is good for such small wounds. Q. How is this ointment made ? A. Melt a pound of tallow in summer, and of grease in winter ; take it from the fire, and mix with the tallow or grease a quarter of a pound of the oil of turpentine, or more, if necessary, to cure the itch. Q. What is to be feared for the sheep after shear- ing? A- Great heat of the sun, and cold rains, for ten or twelve days after shearing : a hot sun hardens the skin on the back like horn, and disposes it to the itch ; while cold rains give them cold, and chill them to the degree of producing death, if not speedily warmed. Q. By what precautions may these dangers be avo i ded ? 109 A. It is necessary to put them in the shade in the middle of the day, when the sun is very scorching. On the contrary, if cold, rain, or hail is to be appre- hended, it is not proper to remove the flock far from the fold, lest it be necessary to bring it back speedily to put it under cover. This more rarely happens to sheep, which are always in the open air, than to oth- ers ; for in a fold, which is situated in the depart- ment of la Cote d'or, near to Montbard, and where there have been no stables for thirty years, they have never been obliged to put sheep under cover after being shorn. Q. How can the flocks be put under cover in folds, where they remain always in the open air, and where, of course, there are no stables ? A. If they are obliged to put flocks under cover after shearing, it is in a season when the barns are empty, which may serve as a retreat to sheep, to shelter or warm them. Q. At what time, and in what manner, are the fleeces washed ? A. They are washed immediately after shearing, in the hottest days of July, because the water, being heated, cleans the wool better : the fleeces may be washed in running, and even stagnant water, if it be clear. They begin with picking off* the straws, and other matters adhering to the fleeces, which are beat- en to get out the dust ; and the flakes are opened, in order that the water may more easily penetrate them. The wool is afterwards put into large wicker baskets, placed in the middle of the water, and stirred in dif~ 110 ferent directions with a stick. It is finally taken out and put to dry on hurdles in the shade, because the heat of the sun would spoil the wool, by drying it too suddenly. Q. Does the washing simply with cold water scour the wool ? A. Cold water produces no effect upon the natural grease of the wool. Q. How is wool to be scoured ? A. A part of it is separated from the filth, or grease, by steeping it in a tub of warm water : they say, that the wool disgorges in this water ; it in fact gives out part of the grease, which ascends and swims on the surface of the water, and is scummed and strained off through linen cloth. The name of cesipe is given to the grease in this state, and it can be used for a lubricating ointment ? Q. How is wool fully scoured ? A. Warm half a bottle of urine with a bottle and an half of water for every pound of wool ; steep the wool for a quarter of an hour, or half as much long- er, keeping the baths, that is, the urine, at the same degree of warmth. It is known, that the bath has had its full effect, when the colour of the wool is the same through all the filaments of its flakes. Take out the wool and allow it to drain on the top of the bath for seven or eight minutes ; afterwards put it in thick flakes of about a sixth of a pound, in an open basket placed in plain water : stir the wool with one or two sticks, placed in opposite directions, for five or six minutes : turn the wool upon a hurdle to dry ON SHEEP'S WOOL. Ill it, without ever touching it by hand, As the liquor of the bath diminishes, it should be replaced by an eighth of urine at the second and every succeeding ad- dition. It is ascertained by the hand, if the bath is too weak or too strong. Q. After the sheep is shorn, what is proper to be done with the fleece ? A. It is proper to put it in the air to dry ; the drier it is, the less it is liable to spoil. It is afterwards - spread in such a manner, that the side next to the body of the animal is found underneath, and all the edges are turned back upon the middle of the other or out side ; it is then made into a bundle, and fasten- ed at each end by some part of the wool being drawn out, by which it is tied together. The fleeces being thus disposed, they are put in heaps in a dry place, until the time for selling them. Q. Is there wool of a different quality in the same fleece ? A. There are only three qualities of wool distin- guished in common fleeces. The mother wool, upon the neck, and shoulders ; the second wool, upon the sides of the body, and upon the thighs ; and the third upon the throat, belly, tail, and legs. The superfine wools deserve more attention : in Spain they divide the fleece into four sorts of wool ; (see plate.) It has been discovered only a short time, that upon the sheep producing superfine wool, near Montbard, the wool of the tail and buttocks only, was of the second qual* ity for fineness ; and the wool on the end of the tail made the third quality. It remains to be known, if 112 ON SHEEP'S WOOL. the wool on the lower part of the sides, upon the chest, belly and legs are of an inferior quality to the wool on the neck, withers, back, and on the upper sides of the body, 8tc. in regard to other properties than its fineness : manufacturers may acquire this in- formation by making experiments on these different wools. Q. What insects are most injurious to wool ? A. They are moths.* This name is given to the little caterpillars produced by butterflies, which are also called moths : to distinguish them from other insects of the same name, they are called common moths : most people take moth caterpillars for worms, although they have legs like other caterpil- lars, whilst the worms have none. The butterfly moths are found in houses, where there is woolen furniture, or in stores of wool. They are nearly three lines long, and have a yellow, shining colour. They are seen fluttering about, from the latter end of April to the beginning of October ; a little sooner or later, according to the warmth of the season. Dur- ing the whole of this time, the winged moth lays his little eggs upon the wool, which can with difficulty be seen : it is from these eggs, the worms, which eat the wool, are produced. Q. At what season do these caterpillars spoil the wool the most ? A. The winged moth hatches in the months of Oc- tober, November, and December. They are very small, and grow but little at this season, and are even * Tinea Phalsena, L. 113 benumbed in great frosts. But in the month of March and the beginning of April, they speedily grow large, and cut a great number of the filaments of wool, to feed and clothe themselves. Q. How are the winged moths known? A. There are seen upon the fleeces of wool, or in other places, little cases, about a line in diameter by four or five lines in length, and rarely six ; they are a little swelled in the middle, and opened at the two ends. There is a moth in each of these cases, which keeps him under shelter, because he is clothed only with a white, thin, transparent, and delicate skin : the winged moth throws out one third of the length of his body from his case, by the one or other end, for it can turn in the middle, at the place where it is the largest : it can also come out almost wholly. There remains only the hinder part of the body and the two hind legs, which are attached to the case, in such a manner, that the caterpillar can draw it after him, while walking by the means of his other legs, It has only one third of its body without the case, when it cuts off the filaments of the wool ; and turns itself round in different directions, to seize a greater number of them. It is fed by the sub- stance of the wool, and uses it to make and en- large his case ; it on this account partakes of the colour of the wool, of which it eats. There is no doubt, there has been, and still are winged moths in the wool, when their excrement is seen, scat- tered underneath. It consists of little dry and angu- 114 ON SHEEP'S WOOL. lar grains, grey when the wool is white, and blackish when the wool is of that colour. Q. How do the winged moths take the form of a butterfly ? */ f . When the winged moths have got their growth, the most of them quit the fleeces to withdraw into little obscure corners of the wool store, and attach themselves thereto by the two ends of the case, or suspend themselves to the ceiling by a single one. Then they shut the two openings of the case, and change both form and name, and take that of chrysa- lis. They remain in this state for three weeks ; af- terwards these insects bore the end of their sheath nearest the head, and come out in the figure of a butterfly. Q. Can wool be preserved from damage by moths? A. To this time, no means of certainly securing wool against damage by moths, have been found, but it may be in part avoided. Let your wool store be ceiled and white washed on the walls and sides, in order that the winged moths, that light upon them, may be more clearly seen : put the wool on hurdles, which may be supported at a foot above the floor, or pavement : have a stick with one end terminated by a covered button, like that of a fenc- ing foil. When you enter the store, you must strike upon the wool and hurdles, in order to make the butterflies fly out, which will light upon the wall and ceiling, where it will be easy to kill them with the stuffed end of the stick. By often repeating this search between the end of April and the beginning of ON SHEEP'S WOOL. 115. October, a great number of winged moths may be destroyed : they are prevented from, or not allowed to complete the laying of their eggs, and of course there are not so many eating moths in the wool. A child is capable of taking care of it in this way. Q. Are there not several methods of preserving wool from moths ? A. It is known, that wool which is kept in its grease is less subject to be spoiled by moths, than that which has been scoured or only washed. If there be placed in a storehouse of uncleansed wool, some poor fleeces which have been cleansed, the moth-flies will lay their eggs in these fleeces, in pre- ference to those which are uncleansed. If these fleeces are burned before the moths leave them to take the form of chrysalis, the caterpillars are destroy- ed, and thus prevented from becoming moth-flies, which would produce a great number of eggs. It is pretended, that the smell of camphire or spirits of turpentine will preserve wool from moths. These smells may remove them, if they can find other wool ; but for the want of it, they will become accustomed to the smell of camphire and turpentine. The vapour of sulphur kills winged moths ; but it is necessary, that it be concentrated within a small space. This cannot be done in a wool store ; particu- larly as it would give it a bad smell. The smell of camphire is also very disagreeable : it is better to beat the wool in the store, and to kill the butterfly moths : this is the method with the furriers, who, to preserve their furs, beat them, and pursue the butterfly- moths, as soon as they observe them. 116. ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. Q. Can wool be so packed, as to give no dread of moths ? A. The winged moths cannot penetrate paper ; so that wool is secure in a well-enclosed roll or sack of paper. But moths pass between the threads of linen, by separating them, and forming a small round hole, without cutting it. CHAPTER XIII. ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP, Q. WHAT is the folding of sheep ? A. It is that period of time, when sheep are put upon different pieces of land, for the purpose of fer- tilizing them with the dung and urine of the flock. Q. How are sheep folded ? A. They are enclosed within a fence, made of hur- dles, which is called a pen, or sheep-fold. This en- closure retains the sheep within a space of ground, that they can fertilize in a given time, and stops wolves. The shepherd lodges near the fold in a cabin to guard it : the dog also goes round it, in order to drive away the wolves. Q. How ought the hurdles of a pen or sheep-fold to be made ? A. They should be made from four feet and an half to five feet high, and seven, eight, nine, or ten feet long, if they should not prove too heavy ; for it is proper that the shepherd should be able to carry them easily : they are made from the small branches of the hazle tree,* or other light, flexible wood, interwoven * Corylus Sylv^ica. ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 117 with uprights, a little thicker than the branches : hurdles are likewise made of bars, put together, or simply nailed upon uprights. In hurdles of hazle wood, three openings of six inches square are made at the height of four feet, one of them being at each end, and one in the middle ; those at the ends are called votes openings. Q. How are these hurdles put up to form a fold ? A. They are put up one at the end of another in four lines, so as to form a square, and they are sup- ported by cross pieces, which are bent at one of the ends. The hurdles lap a little upon each other, in such a manner that the two openings come to- gether, and that the ends of the cross pieces may pass through them. The cross piece is bored with two holes, in which are put two pins, the one behind and the other before the upright : the other end of the cross piece is then brought down to the earth, and is bent and bored with a notch, in which a key is put, and driven into the earth with a mallet. Cross pieces are not necessary at the corners of the pen. It is sufficient to tie the uprights together with a line at the corners, where they touch each other, by passing it through the six inch square holes above mentioned. Q. What ought to be the size of a sheep-pen or fold? A. The size of the pen or fold should be in pro- portion to the number of sheep, which are intended to be put into it ; because it is proper, that a flock should spread dung and urine enough to fertilize the ground enclosed : each sheep can manure ten feet 118 ON THE FOLDING O* SHEJEF. square : of course, if the hurdles are ten feet long, twelve hurdles will be necessary for a fold of 90 sheep, 18 for 200, 22 for 300: if the hurdles are only nine feet long, two hurdles more will be want- ing for each of the pens or folds ; four hurdles more, if only eight feet long ; and six more, if their length is only seven feet : for a fold or pen for fifty sheep, 12 hurdles of seven or eight feet, or ten hurdles if nine or ten feet long are necessary, Sec. These cal- culations cannot be precise ; because, there may be a few sheep more or less for the number of hurdles. When the number cannot be made equal on each of the four sides, there should be upon the two opposite sides, a hurdle more than upon the two others. Q. How long is it proper for a flock to remain in a fold? A. That depends on the length of the nights, and on tjie quality of the grass. When the nights are long, and the grasses, which the sheep eat, are very succulent and produce a great deal of dung and urine, the half or a third of a night is enough to ma- nure the ground of the pen : if it was made larger, the manure would not be equally spread : on this account, the shepherd makes a second pen in the middle of the night, and sometimes a third. Q. When there is but a small number of sheep, can they be folded ? A. There is nothing but the expense of the shep- herd to prevent it. The produce of a small flock would make it unprofitable : but a number of small flocks may be collected, and put under the manage- ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 119 ment of a shepherd to be folded. There are farmers, who for wages will take charge of many small flocks, and put them together, for the sake of folding them upon their lands : others, each of whom having only a small flock, unite them together, and have them folded at a common expense upon the lands, which belong to each, individually. Q. When we have only a small quantity of land, is that a proper reason for not folding ? A. No, because it only requires the hurdles and the shepherd's cabin to be oftener carted. This cart- ing is a small expense, compared with that of carry- ing out the manure, on ground, where sheep are not folded. It requires a number of cart loads of dung for an acre of land ; and a single load is sufficient to transport the hurdles of a pen, and the shepherd's cab- in attached to the tail of the cart. Q. In what manner does a shepherd make a pen ? A. He places himself at one corner of a field, and measures, by paces, the space necessary to place the hurdles on two sides of the fold, at the end, and on the length of the field, and marks the point, where the last hurdle should come, and then measures the other two sides of the pen to form a square, making a mark at the place, where these other two sides meet, and sets the hurdles according to these lines : to carry each hurdle, the shepherd passes the end of his crook through the middle opening in the hurdle, leans his back against it, and raises and carries it, by put- ting the crook on his shoulder, and holding it fast with both hands : the hurdles may be also carried by 120 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. passing the right arm through the middle hole, or under the last piece but one of the hurdle bars. After placing it, he supports it by one of the cross pieces. Q How does a shepherd make a new pen, by the side of another? A. One of the sides of the first pen answers for the second : after measuring and lining out the hurdles on the three other sides of the second pen, he carries thither the hurdles of the first : when he has reached the end of the field, after having precisely followed it through its whole length, he makes a new folding on the side of the last, by returning on a new line quite to the other end of the field ; and proceeds in this manner, until there remains no space, which he has not folded- Q. How can a shepherd make a new pen in a dark night ? A. It is necessary, he should take the precaution to measure the new pen in the day time, and to place a stake at each corner, with white rags tied to the end of it, that he may see them in the night, and be di- 1 rected in the manner of placing the hurdles of the new pen. This difficulty may be avoided, by mak- ing a double sized pen in the day time, and dividing it in two, by a partition of hurdles. The shepherd has only to change the pen in that case, by driving the sheep from the one to the other. Q. In fields having deep furrows, how can the shepherd range the hurdles upon the sides of the pen, which cross the furrows ? A. He cannot, if the precaution has not been taken to level the ground with a plough, by cross furrowing ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 121 at such places, where the sides of the pen should be placed : in this way a great number of pens could be marked out in a single day. Q. In what manner should a shepherd's cabin be made? A. It should be six feet long, and four feet broad, and high, covered with a straw or shingled roof; and be placed on four small wheels, and have a door with a lock on each side: a matrass should be put into the cabin, with sheets and blankets, for the shepherd to lie on, and a shelf, on which to put clothes and provisions. Q. Where ought this cabin to be placed ? A. Near the pen, in order that the shepherd may see it from his bed by opening either the one or the other door. When the new pen is too far off, the shepherd draws his cabin nearer, by rolling it himself, if the ground is smooth, or by having the assistance of another person. Q. During what length of time do they fold sheep every night ? A. They are turned into the fold at the end of the day, or at nine in the evening when the days are long, and there is no evening dew ; and turned out again at nine in the morning, after the air and sun have dried the grass, or at eight when there is no dew. Q. At what hour is it proper to change the pen in the night or morning ? A. In the season, when the sheep discharge a great deal of dung and urine, from eating very succulent grass, each folding should continue only four hours : thus, if the first folding begins at nine in the evening, 16 122 ON THE FOLDING OP SHEET. it should terminate at one in the morning ; the second at five, and the third at nine o'clock : this last folding, being in the day time, the wolves are not so much to be feared ; it is on this account, that the shepherd may dispense with making the enclosure : it is suffi- cient to place the dogs in a manner, that they may de- tain the sheep within the space designed for the third pen ; this is called blank folding. When the nights are long, and the first folding begins at nine in the evening, each folding is made to continue so much longer. In the seasons, when the grasses have less sap, and the sheep discharge less dung and urine, the shepherd shifts the folding only once ; he endeavours to allow as much for the first as the second folding. If they are folded in winter, a single folding can only be made once a day, because at this season, the sheep discharge but little dung and urine, and the cold does not allow the shepherd to change his fold in the night, Q. Can sheep be folded in winter ? A. Sheep may be folded in winter, on dry land, so long as the shepherd is not incommoded with the cold, in sleeping in his cabin : but in winter, when the sheep have dry food only, they discharge but little dung and urine. Q. Can the dogs be sheltered from rain and cold ? A. It is necessary to have a little kennel, that the shepherd can easily carry. The dog lies in it, on hay, It should be placed near the fold, on the side oppo- site to the shepherd's cabin. The door of the kennel should be towards the fold, and to windward, because the door of the shepherd's cabin should be to leeward, ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 123 and sheltered from the wind. To give the dog shel- ter, it is proper to put before the entrance of his ken- nel a piece of board, as high as the body of the dog, when lying down ; in raising his head, he will see over the board, and will jump upon it, in going in and out of his kennel. If you have many dogs, the kennel must be proportionably larger. Q. How are sheep led to pasture, when folded in the fields ? A. They are driven to pasture, morning and even- ing, and put in the shed at mid-day, to keep them from the heat of the sun. Q. How much time is necessary to manure an acre of land, of thirty-four square perches ? A. That depends on the number of sheep, and on the season of folding them. A sheep can manure at one folding the space of ten square feet. Three hundred sheep will manure three thousand square feet in one folding, and thirty thousand i ten; which is nearly the space of an acre : when three foldings are made in one night, three hundred sheep will, in three or four days only, manure an acre of land. Ac- cording to the same calculation, two hundred and seventy sheep will manure an acre of ground in twelve foldings ; two hundred sheep in seventeen foldings, and an hundred sheep in thirty-two, &c. Q. What is the least number of sheep, which can be folded ? A. A very few in number may be folded, but much time would be required to manure a field ; and perhaps it might not be worth the trouble : it is 124 ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. proper to have at least fifty or sixty sheep for fold- ing ; it is, however, when the shepherd is a child of the house, and the folding costs nothing more. Fifty sheep in a fold manure about five hundred square feet ; sixty-five foldings are therefore neces- sary for an acre of land : if three foldings are made every day, twenty-two days will be required ; thirty- two, if only two foldings in a day ; and sixty-five, if only one. Q. In what manner is it proper to cultivate the land for folding ? A. Before the folding takes place, two ploughings should be given, in order that the urine may readily enter the soil : as soon as the field is manured by folding, it should be ploughed, for the purpose of mixing the -dung and urine with the earth, before it dries, or is evaporated. Q. Cannot the folding be done at other times ? A. When a field is sown and the grain is up, it is said, that you can fold in dry days, until the wheat or barley may be an inch high : it is said also, that sheep are beneficial, in treading the dry earth about the roots, and in dispersing the worms by their dung. Q. How long does the manure from folding last ? A. The folding is better for manure than the dung of sheep simply : it in fact produces a very visible effect for two years, in the produce of wheat for the first, and in that of oats for the second year : half a folding made on the same land for a third, which is fallow year, will be a good manure enough for other years, ON THE FOLDING OF SHEEP. 125 Q. How is a half folding done ? A. Double space is given to the pen, that it would have had for whole folding : but many farmers omit the half folding, which should be done two years after the whole folding ; because they would not have sheep enough to twice fold all their land : in this manner, they do not draw all the profit from folding, which it would give. Q. Can these farmers find means for feeding sheep enough to fold a greater extent of land ? A. It would be necessary to sow the lands usually put to fallow, instead of leaving them to be run over with the weeds, which grow on them. Q. Would not lands of a middling quality be ex- hausted, if they were made to produce every year, without giving them rest, after taking off two crops ? A. It is said that the grasses, which grow in fal- lows, and whose roots run near, and over the surface of the ground, hurt the crop of wheat, that is sown in the same land, because it has horizontal roots. But if the land was sown with good plants, whose roots go deep into the soil, such tap rooted plants would not hurt the crop of wheat in the following season : on the contrary, they would prevent the running plants, which come in fallow ground. In this manner, a crop may be had for the feeding of sheep. Q. What are the tap rooted plants, which might be produced on fallows, without hurting the wheat harvest of the year following ? A. Peas, beans, haricot beans, potatoes, turnips, trefoil, &c. 126 ON THZ FOLDING OF SHEEP. Q. Can one become acquainted with the lands, which would produce every year without fallowing, and know how much folding would be necessary sufficiently to manure them ? A. The guide of experience alone is secure : it is proper to make experiments upon a small piece of ground. Each farmer might hope to find, almost without expense, a better method of managing his land, than is practised in the neighbourhood : soils are very different from one another, and each requires a particular culture : this object is of sufficient im- portance to claim the attention of farmers, and men of landed property. Q. Is folding good for pasture land ? A. Excellent ; \ but it would be hurtful to sheep on wet soils : no risk is run on dry pastures, and they render them fruitful. By this means abundant crops of hay may be had on hilly land, when, without folding, there would not be grass enough for mowing. Q. What proof is there of this effect from folding ? A. Artificial 'grasses have been produced in the department of Cote d'or, near the town of Montbard, upon hilly land, where without folding there would not have been grass enough to mow. In fact, there was none in some small places, which had remained without being folded. These pastures have produc- ed as much hay, and sometimes more, than a natural meadow at the bottom of the hilly ground, on the banks of the river Brenne. Q. How should the meadows be folded ? A, They cannot be too much folded : the longer ON REMEDIES. 127 the folding is continued on them, the more they will produce. In dry weather the sheep may be left two or three nights in the same place ; but in wet weather, you must change it every day, because the dung of the evening, not being dried, would dirty the sheep. Q. On what sort of artificial meadows has the folding been tried ? A. It has produced an excellent effect upon mead- ows of lucern, trefoil, quitch grass, ray grass, sheep grass, * burnet and woad ; but in saintfoin meadows this plant has been known to die in places where sheep had been folded : on the contrary, quitch grass and ray grass, on which they had been folded in the month of October or November, became vig- orous enough to preserve their verdure during win- ter ; notwithstanding the plants of the same kind, on which sheep had not been folded, grew yellow from the frost. CHAPTER XIV. ON THE REMEDIES, WHICH ARE MOST NECESSARY FOR SHEEP. Q. /WHAT are the most necessary remedies for them ? A. Bleeding, and an ointment for the itch or scab. Q. On what part of the body are sheep bled ? A. Sheep are bled on the forehead, above and * Festuca ovina, L. 128 ON REMEDIES. under the eyes, in the ear, neck, fore leg, above the ham, and in the feet. Q. Has a better method of bleeding sheep been 'discovered ? A. Another method of bleeding, which appears to be best, has been obtained : it is easier and less liable to inconvenience. Q. On what part of the body is this new method of bleeding performed ? A. This bleeding is made at the under part of the sheep's jaw, at the root of the fourth grinder, which is the thickest of all the teeth, as is also the root : the space, which it occupies, is marked upon the outer surface of the bone of the upper jaw, by a small swelling sufficiently projecting to be very sensibly- felt by the finger, when you touch the skin of the cheek. This tubercle is a very certain index to find the angular vein, which passes under it : this vein extends from the lower edge of the under jaw, near its angle, quite under the tubercle, which is at the root of the fourth grinder; a little further on, the vein is bent back, and continued quite to the hollow of the eye brow. Q. In what manner are sheep bled in the cheek ? A. To bleed in the cheek, the shepherd begins by putting an open lancet between his teeth : he then places^the sheep between his legs, and ties him to restrain him, keeping his left knee a little forward of the right ; and passing the left hand under the head of the animal, while he grasps the under jaw, in such a manner, that his fingers placed upon the right X ON REMEDIES. 129 branch of the under jaw, near its hinder end, com- presses and enlarges the angular vein, which passes in this place ; the shepherd then takes hold of the right cheek of the sheep with the other hand, nearly at an equal distance between the eye and the mouth ; and the tubercle or swelling will be there found to direct him ; and he will perceive the angular vein enlarged under it. He then takes the lancet from his mouth with his right hand, and makes the orifice for bleeding from the bottom upwards, half a finger's breadth under the middle of the swelling, which will serve to guide him : it may be said without exagger- ation, that in this manner, a blind man might be able to bleed a sheep, because he would feel with his fin- gers the tubercle, which would direct him in making the incision. Q. Is the bleeding in the cheek safe and advanta- geous ? Q. The bleeding in the cheek is both easy and safe; as the situation of the vein cannot be mistaken, and it is large enough to afford a sufficient quantity of blood ; because it receives it from several other veins ; and the blood is retained there by the hand of the shepherd, which has the effect of a ligature, at the angle of the jaw. There is no risk of opening the artery ; it is some distance between that and the vein at, the place of bleeding. A man may go through this operation without assistance. A. What is the disease in sheep which requires immediate bleeding. A. It is the disease, which is called the heat, the 17 130 ON REMEDIES. apoplexy, trembling, too much blood, &c. : sheep re- sist ail intemperature of the air in our climate, except the extreme heat of the sun : The sheep, which are the strongest, fullest oi blood, and best fed, are most liable to disease from heat. Q. What are the signs of disease from heat ? A. Such, as are attacked with it, keep their mouth open to breathe ; they foam at the mouth, discharge blood at the nose, rattle in the throat, and beat at the flank ; the ball of the eye becomes red ; the animal keeps his head down, trembles, and presently falls dead. After death, the eyes, the lower part of the cheek, the nether jaw, the throat, the neck, the in- side of the mouth and nose, have a red and blackish colour mixed : on opening the animal, the blood ves- sels are found swollen in all parts, and in the head. Q. What inferences ought to be drawn from these signs ? A. These signs evidently point to bleeding, which causes the evil to subside very readily, if done sea- sonably. This remedy is one of the most necessary for a flock in warm climates, in temperate climates like ours, and even in cold climates, when the sun has great power in summer. Q. What are the symptoms, which should lead to the suspicion, that sheep have the scab or itch ? A. The shepherd should be attentive to discover the first indications of the itch ; should carefully ob- serve his flock, to see if some sheep do not scratch themselves with their feet or teeth, or rub themselves against the racks, trees, or walls, &c. ; or if the wool ON REMEDIES. 131 is not dirted in parts of the body, that the animal can reach with his feet*; or if there are not some flakes of wool deranged by being pulled by the teeth, or rub- bed by the feet : these signs indicate itching from lice, itch, or some other disease. It is proper, that the shepherd should examine the sheep by separating the flakes of wool in suspicious parts, to observe if the symptoms of the itch are real. Q. What are the indications of the itch ? A. They consist in the skin being harder in the itchy than in the other parts : hard kernels are felt, and the skin is covered with white scales, scabs, or small pimples, which are at first red and inflamed, and af- terwards become white or green all these symp- toms cause itching : but there is another species of itch or humours, which does not excite to rubbing : it speedily spreads under the wool, and instead of making it fall off, discolours and felts it, as though it had been fulled. Q. What is the best ointment for the cure of the itch? A. It is that, which is the least costly, and which imparts no bad quality to the wool, or to the flesh of the animal : a mixture of tallow or. grease with oil of turpentine answers these purposes : the grease is to be preferred to tallow in winter, because it spreads easier upon the skin ; but the tallow is best in sum- mer, as it does not melt so soon as grease in the heat. It is very easy to make this compound, the particu- lars of which are given in the twelfth chapter, page 108. This ointment costs but little, produces no bad 132 ON REMEDIES. effect upon the wool, softens the skin when hardened by the itch, and cures it. The application will be made more powerful by increasing the oil of tur- pentine. Q. How is the ointment used for the itch ? A. It is < ;isy to use it without cutting off the wool from the diseased part : it is sufficient to separate the flakes so as to expose the itchy part, when the shepherd rubs the skin with his scratcher, only to remove the scabs, and then applies and spreads the ointment with his finger. Q. Is the scratcher sufficient for rubbing the skin diseased with in the itch ? A. There is a bad custom of rubbing the skin of scabby sheep with a tesson, or a piece of brick, until it bleeds ; a small wound is thereby made, which in- creases the evil : our author furnished his shepherd with a single instrument, which he says is sufficient for all the operations to be performed on sheep : it is a sort of incision knife, made sharp on each side of the point, and answers for a lancet ; while at the end of the handle is placed a blade of bone or ivory, to be used for a scratcher. Q. Under what circumstances, is it proper to use the ointment for the itch ? A. When some signs of the itch appear, it is prop- er to use the ointment, immediately : however, if it is supposed that the disease proceeds from fatigue, or from the heat of stables, from the scarcity or bad qual- ity of food, it is necessary to remove the cause of the evil, because it would be adverse to the effect of the ON REMEDIES. 133 application. If the itch is caused by another disease, both ought to be cured at the same time. When the itch is not inveterate nor ulcerated, it may be cured by external application, without inward medicine.* * The true and almost only causes of itch in sheep are the ignorance, laziness, and want of care in shepherds, and the carelessness and parsi- mony of proprietors. A flock well taken care of, well fed and attended to, is never attacked with this disease : if some animals show symptoms of it, an intelligent shepherd and careful proprietor will promptly apply the remedies, before the disease should spread in the flock. TABLE OF GENERAL CONTENTS. Page Preface, - 3 CHAPTER I. On the >italifi cations of a Shepherd, - 7 CHAPTER II. Of Dogs and Wolves, 10 CHAPTER III. Of the Lodging, Litter, and Dung of Sheep, 18 CHAPTER IV. On the Knowledge and Choice of Sheep, 28 CHAPTER V. Concerning the Management of Sheep in Pastures, 36 CHAPTER VI. On the different things which may be used for the Feed- ing of Sheep, 40 CHAPTER VII. On the Manner of breeding Sheep, and giving them Water and Salt, - 57 1* 2 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. On the Breeding 1 of Sheep , and their Improvement, 65 CHAPTER IX. Concerning Ewes, CHAPTER X. Concerning Lambs, CHAPTER XL Concerning Wethers, 95 CHAPTER XII. On Sheep's Wool, ' 103 CHAPTER XIIL On the Folding of Sheep, - 1 1 6 CHAPTER XIV. On the Remedies which are most necessary for Sheep, 12r EXPLANATION SEVERAL PLATES. PLATE I. TH E annexed plate represents one of the most perfect Merino Rams which has been sent out of Spain. He was supposed to combine all the superior qualities of the Spanish sheep, with the fine square form of the English.* * From the specimens which have been imported into the United States, the Merino breed is rather smaller than that of New-England, not so well shaped, having a larger head, a longer neck and legs, and smaller . body, flat-sided, narrow across the hips, and an unnatural throatiness, descending from the chin to the breast bone, not unlike the loose, flacid dewlap of an ox : the rams have commonly large spiral horns, full 'and lively eyes, and an intelligent countenance ; a soft, loose and thin skin of a bright carnation, or vivid flesh colour, covered with a thick, close pile of wool greatly superior in fineness and flexibility to that of any other sheep. On the outside, and for half an inch within, the wool has a dark greasy appearance, owing to the quantity of yolk or grease it contains, which absorbs the dirt of the soil on which the sheep are kept, whilst on the inside it has a bright white colour slightly tinged with yellow. 18 138 PLATE I. This animal," says Dr. Parry, " seems buried in wool, it 4 crests on the forehead almost as low as the eyes and on the " cheeks, covers their bellies, and envelops their hind legs and " sometimes their fore legs down to their very hoofs." The length of the staple or filament, is from two to somewhat more than three inches, being much alike on the shoulder and on the rump : the wool of the ram is generally esteemed the coarsest and longest, that of the ewe the finest and shortest, and that of the wether in both respects, between the two former. In proof of this fact it appears by Dr. Parry's excellent treatise on Merino sheep, that " this breed has been naturalized in Swe- " den, Denmark, Prussia, Saxony, Silisia, Hungary, Austria, " Hanover, Holland, England, Bayreuth, Anspatch, Wirtem- " burg, Baden, France, Switzerland, Piedmont, the Cape of Good " Hope, and New Holland, comprehending a range of latitude w from 59 20 ' North to *4 South, and includes countries some ; of which are elevated, others low ; some dry, others swampy ; " some open, others inclosed and woody ; some rich, others poor ; u some hqk others temperate, and others intensely cold : In one " country this breed is exposed during the whole year to the ex- < ternal air, and to all the vicissitudes of weather, and exercises " itself at will. In another it is constantly housed during the " night, and sheltered from every storm, and for six or seven " months never uses its limbs or inhales the open air, but during u a part of the middle of every fine day, and even in Spain, many " of the finest of the Merino breed never travel. The food of this race is as various as its climate and exer- 14 cise : here it lives the whole year chiefly on natural and fresh grass ; there it obtains in winter, the addition of hay : in Spain " it feeds not only on the fine herbage of the mountains, but on " the succulent grass of the richest meadows, and occasionally on the leaves of vines and other trees, and all the variety of plants * in the fallow, or stubble fields. In other countries it is vari- < ously fed on clover, Lucern, Sainfoin, Burnet, vetches, succory, V reeds, the leaves of different trees, and the haum of plants, all Fia.tf. J-^f.7. ' * " L^l PLATE II. 139 " sometimes fresh, at others dried ; the fruit and husk of the " horse chesnut, bran, potatoes, carrots, beets, beans, grain of all kinds, and every sort of turnips and cabbages. To these kinds " of food some proprietors of flocks add salt water and other me- " dicaments ; others use them occasionally, and some entirely " omit them. " Under this diversity of climate, soil, and treatment, than which the mind can scarcely picture a greater, the Merino race of sheep has been found by experience to thrive and produce wool, which is, in every respect, fully equal to the very best of the native growth of Spain. These facts prove that it is the " peculiarity of breed, which we are to consider as chiefly pro- " ductive of fine wool, in spite of the operation of other causes ; " and that the Merino breed is capable of bearing its transcend- " ent fleece in this* or any other country, in which it can subsist " in sound and robust health." M. de Lasterie observes, that the fine wools of Spain depend neither on travelling, nor on the soil, nor the climate, nor the pasture, but on other causes, and that it is possible to have in France and elsewhere wool of the same quality, as that of Spain ; that his travels in the north of Europe have offered facts and ob- servations, and prove, that where sheep can be maintained, that wool may be raised, which will make clothes as fine, as silky and supple as those manufactured from Spanish wool. PLATE II. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, exhibits four Iambs in different situations upon the placenta or afterbirths, A, A, A, A, and represent them issuing from the matrix, when the ewes are in labour to cast their lambs. * England. - 140 PLATE II. Figure 1 represents a lamb discharging from the matrix, in re- gular position, having the two fore feet underneath, and a little in advance of the muzzle, and the ombilical or navel cord B, free. The lamb, figure 2, has the two fore legs improperly placed, the left leg B, being improperly raised and stretched out over the head, should be brought down under the muzzle. The right leg C, is stretched out behind, and the shepherd should endeavour to draw it forward, in order that the two fore legs should be placed in the same situation as those of the lamb, figure 1. The lamb, figure 3, presents the crown of the head before, with the muzzle C, turned backward, but the muzzle should be placed before, in the same situation as the muzzle of the lamb in fig. 1. The lamb figure 4, has the right fore leg retained by the ombi- lical or navel cord, C, which passes before the curve of the joint B. The navel string should be broke, and the right leg drawn before, and placed by the side of the left leg E, in order that both legs may be in the same situation as those of the lamb in figure 1 . Figure 5 represents a cheap covered cot, for the purpose of sheltering sheep from rain. The timber work of this sheep cot, is supported by the posts A, B, C, D, E, which are placed upon the stone bases, F,G, H, I, K. The posts, A, B, C, D, E, are attached to the beams, L, M, and to the plates, N, O, which support the roof, P, Q, R, S. A little shed, T, T, placed on each side of the building enlarges its space, without its being necessary to use longer or heavier timber. The braces, U, U, attached to the posts and cross pieces, pre- vent the work from spreading. In the middle of the cot there is a double rack, X, and two single ones, Y, Y, on the sides, next to the posts of the little sheds. The scale, A, B, will serve to shew the length and thickness of the timber, which should be used in the construction of this building. The figures 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, which divide a fathom in- to six equal parts, contain each one foot French, and there is a mark between each which divides each foot. Plate PLATE III. 141 By the means of this scale the size of the cot, and of the timber proper for its construction, may be ascertained. It will be seen in the third chapter, (page 21,) that the above sheep cot is calculated only for sheep of a middling size, and that It must be enlarged, if wanted for larger sized sheep. Figures 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, of plate II, shews the age of sheep, and the manner in which they change their teeth. In the first year, the eight cutting teeth, (fig. 6,) are narrow and sharp, and are called lamb's teeth. In the second year, (fig. 7,) the two middle teeth fall out and are replaced by two new ones, which are broader than the six others. In the third year (fig. 8,) two other sharp teeth, one on each side of the two middle ones, are replaced by two new broad teeth. In the fourth year, (fig. 9,) there will be six broad teeth, and there will; remain but two narrow .eeth,one at each end of the row. In the fifth year, (fig. 10,) all the sharp teeth are replaced by eight broad teeth, when a sheep is said to be full mouthed. In the sixth year the grinders begin to be worn down by rub- bing against each other. In the seventh or eighth year, and often sooner, some teeth will commonly fall out, or become broken, as represented in fig. 11. See the 4th chapter, pages 28, 29. PLATE III. Represents a shepherd A, (fig. 1.) holding a knife, B, and be- ginning the operation of castrating a female lamb, C. This lamb is laid on its right side near the edge of the table D, E, in such a manner that the head of the lamb F, should hang 1 off the table. 142 FLATE HI. A second shepherd G, is placed near the head of the lamb, 1', and holds with his right hand the two fore legs and the right hind legH. A third shepherd, I, holds with both hands the left hind leg of the lamb K, and stretches it behind. The shepherd A, raises the skin of the left flank with the thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and forms the fold L, at an equal distance from the highest part of the haunch bone and navel M. The shepherd G, lengthens the fold L, with the left hand, quite to the place N, of the false ribs. The shepherd A, cuts this fold with the knife B, and makes an incision, which ought not to be more than an inch and an half long. Figure 2 represents the same lamb in the same situation, and retained in the same situation by the shepherds as in figure I. The incision O, which had been made on this lamb seen at A, is placed at an equal distance from the upper part B, of the haunchbone, and from the navel C, and on the same line. Figure 3 represents the hand, A, of a shepherd introducing his finger into the incision B, and searching for the ovaria of the lamb, as soon as he has found them, he gently draws them out with the parts to which they are attatched, the shepherd cuts ofl the ovaria and puts back the other parts into the belly, and in fine sews up th.e incision as mentioned in the llth chapter, pages 96, 97. PLATE 143 PLATE IV. IN plate 4, will be seen the Spanish method of sorting sheep's \vool ; it is taken from M. Delasterie : the parts of the sheep, which furnish the different qualities of wool are included within the corresponding lines, and indicated by the figures 1, 2, 3, and 4. JVbte. Dr. Parry observes, that it was many years supposed that in a pile of Spanish wool the proportion of the three princi- pal parts was rrfina or superfine, 1 5 parts, fmc^ 4, and fcrcerc> or third sort, 1. Even in this case, he says, the fleece must have been sorted more coarsely, than is expressed in the draw- ing. Of late years, he adds, as the wool has risen in price, the quantity of the finer sorts has been increased, and their quality proportionably deteriorated by the admixture of those of a lower value. This, he says, is well known to our (the English) manufacturers and venders of superfine cloths. Part of what 144 PLATE IV. should be fine is mixed with the superfine, and the third sort probably borrows of the fourth. Hence, he states, of the wool imported from Spain into England, in 20 parts of wool, the super- fine now forms from 16 to 17, the fine 2f to 3|, and the third sort from * to 1$. It is even probable, that the weight of the sheep's wool is at this time augmented by the addition of parts of that of the lambs, in spite of the prohibition of that practice by law, in the provinces of Leon and Segovia. Perhaps too, none of the sorts are without a mixture of the wool of those sheep, which have died of disease before the time of shearing. GENERAL AND ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. , by other dams than their mothers, page 86. Jlfter birth, what it is, its use, and how it is to be extracted, 82. Age of Sheep, how known, 28. Mr, much of it required, 19. Sheep resist its injurious effects, 22, 23, 24. When sick should be sheltered from it, 24. Jtor, cold, its bad effects on sheep going out of warm stables, 18. Barometer, a short description of it, and the manner of using it, 106. Bark of Trees given to sheep, and the manner of preparing it, 56. Barley, when green, may prove injurious to sheep, 42. The grain used for their food during winter, 50. Meal or flour disgusting to sheep, 90. Is good for lambs, 87- And is used for stall-feeding, 101. Barley straw, if bearded, may be injurious to sheep, 56, 57. Bella, put on the necks of sheep, of \\hat use, 17. Barrenness of ewes, to what attributed, 78. Beans, small, given to sheep, 51 Bean chaff and straw also given, 52, 56. Beets, (white,) or scarcity root, given, 49. Birch-tree leaves, good for sheep, 53. Box, a tin one, for ointment, 10. Bleeding, good for sheep h^ ing a disease called the heat, or if over- heated, 39. For the colick or inflation of the paunch, 43. When ewes cannot cast their lambs from too much agitation, 79, 80. One of the most necessary remedies, 127 Different methods of, 128. A new method preferable to all others, id. In what diseases it is most necessary, 129, 130. Braces, to support the sheep-fold, 117. Brine, the use made of it for sheep, 64. tf stands the winter, 47, Is an artificial grass, 54. Its qualities, .55. 19 144 GENERAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. C Cabbages, fresh food for sheep in winter, 48. In some cases prove inju- rious to sheep, id. What quantity should be given at a feeding 1 , 58. Good to prevent the ill effect of dry fodder, 48. Make e\res increase their milk, 84. Different and best kinds, 48. Cabbin, for shepherds, its description and situation, 121. Cakes, oil, what are the best for sheep, 51. Camphire, its smell, a preservative against moths, 115. Carrots, preferable to colewort or cabbages, 49, 84. Good for milk, 84. Castration of lambs, at what age, 89, 98. Different methods of doing it, 94. Precautions to be taken, 94, 95. Accidents which some- times happen, 95. Chaff of grain, how used, 56, 57. Of peas, beans, vetches, &c. 52. Of hay, hempseed, broomseed, acorns, Sec 50. Chalk preserves lambs from scouring, 89. Cheese, made from ewes' milk, excellent, 84, 85. Choice of rams, 78. Of sheep, 33, 34. Cold, how shepherds should treat parts benumbed with it, 9. How sheep guard against it, 23, 24 Experiments which have been made to shew that sheep can resist it, 23 When extreme will destroy lambs, 65. Method of restoring lambs benumbed with cold, 88, 89. Cole-wort, fresh food in winter, 48. May prove injurious in some cases, id. Oil cakes made from the seed, and their use, 51. Cotick, produced by wet, 38. Of the paunch, 42. Collar, for shepherds' dogs, how made, 16. Colours, in wool, what are bad, 30. Composition of a topical application preferable to any other for the scab, 108. Consanguinity is not an obstacle to bettering the breed of sheep, 74. Coupling, what is the best time for it, 65. Means of rendering it most effectual, 65. Crook, its form and uses, 9, 44. Cuckolds, why lambs are so called, 89. Culture of land, folding is proper for it, 119. D Defile, how a shepherd makes his flock to pass one, 45. Re of the morning, more injurious to sheep than rain, or the dew of the evening, 33. Why more so than snow, 63. Xtisease, what is done with weak sheep when lodged in the open air, 24. ftisgust, and want of appetite, the causes of it, and salt its remedy, 64. $rink, injurious when taken too often and in too great quantities, 58. Sheep can remain a long time without it, id. At what time it should be given, id. Experiments made thereon ; the less sheep drink the better, }'d(qns SJB s^ooq anp 9)ep bj joud s^ep f apsra oq ieiu ' :X]uo siBAvaua-g -paAisaaj H3iqA\ oj 3iep aq] uo 10 padinEjs 9)Bp JSBI aqj uo 0np sr jjooq siqj, NVOI HDIHA WO3J SSHQ OX MHIUSH asn AVQ n