REESE LIBRARY 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 s 
 

International $tuitatt<m Series 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A.M., LL.D. 
 
 VOLUME XL 
 
ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS BY JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D. 
 
 r 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 11. 
 
 ART OF 
 
 III. 
 
 SCHOOL MAN- 
 
 
 AGEMENT. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Kirksville. 
 
 V. 
 
 Missouri State 
 
 VI. 
 
 Normal School. 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 VOLUME II. 
 
 
 ELEMENTARY 
 
 II. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 III. 
 
 Vol. VI, Int. * 
 
 IV. 
 
 Ed. Ser. 
 
 V 1 
 
 Huntsville. 
 
 . 
 
 Texas State 
 
 
 Normal School. 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 .VII. 
 
 VOLUME III. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 * 
 
 III. 
 
 APPLIED TO 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE ART OF 
 
 v. 
 
 TEACHING. - 
 
 VI. 
 
 Vol. XIX, Int. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Ed. Ser. 
 
 
 Austin. 
 
 
 University of 
 
 
 Texas. 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 VOLUME IV. 
 
 III. 
 
 SCHOOL MAN- 
 AGEMENT AND 
 SCHOOL 
 METHODS. - 
 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 Vol. XL, 
 Int. Ed. Ser. 
 Austin. 
 University of 
 Texas. 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 Educational Instrumentalities and School 
 Hygiene. 
 
 School Organization and Classification. 
 
 School Government and Educative Punish- 
 ments. 
 
 Courses of Study and Programmes. 
 
 Class Management and Methods of Teaching. 
 
 Examination, Marking, Records, Promotion, 
 and Graduation. 
 
 Professional Education, School Supervision, 
 and Educational Progress. 
 
 Instinct, Sensorium, Sensation, and Atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Sense Perception, Self Perception, and Ne- 
 cessary Perception. 
 
 Memory, Fancy, and Imagination. 
 
 Conception, Judgment, and Reason. 
 
 Egoistic Emotions, Altruistic Emotions, and 
 Cosmic Emotions. 
 
 Will Attention, Choice, and Action. 
 
 Physiological Psychology and Education. 
 
 Education of the Perceptive Activities. 
 
 Education of the Representative Activities. 
 
 Education of the Reflective Activities. 
 
 Education of the Emotional Activities. 
 
 Education of the Will Activities. 
 
 The Art of Teaching and Teaching Methods. 
 
 Application of Psychology to teaching Con- 
 duct Studies, Language-Literature Stud- 
 ies, Science Studies, Mathematics Studies, 
 and Art Studies. 
 
 Pupil Betterment through Better Educa- 
 tional Conditions. 
 
 Pupil Betterment through Better Educa- 
 tional Facilities. 
 
 Pupil Improvement through Educative 
 School Government. 
 
 Pupil Improvement through Educative Cor- 
 relation of Schools and School Work. 
 
 Pupil Betterment through Educative Class 
 Management and Class Methods. 
 
 Pupil Improvement through Efficient Meth- 
 ods of teaching the Conduct Studies, the 
 Language-Literature Studies, the Science 
 Studies, the Mathematics Studies, and the 
 Art Studies. 
 
 Pupil Betterment through Educative School 
 Unification and Supervision. 
 
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 
 
 12mo, cloth, uniform binding. 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES was projected for the pur- 
 pose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings, new and 
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 training for teachers generally. It is edited by WILLIAM T. HARRIS, LL. D., 
 United States Commissioner of Education, who has contributed for the difi'crent 
 volumes in the way of introduction, analysis, and commentary. The volumes are 
 tastefully and substantially bound in uniform style. 
 
 VOLUMES NOW READY. 
 
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 New York : D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 72 Fifth Avenue. 
 
INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION 8 ERIE 8 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 
 AND SCHOOL METHODS 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH BALDWIN, M. A., LL. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OP PEDAGOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 
 
 AUTHOR OF ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY, 
 
 AND PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO THE ART OF TEACHING 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
 1897 
 
33. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1897, 
 BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 
 
 ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED 
 AT THE APPLETON PRESS, U. S. A. 
 
EDITOK'S PEEFACE. 
 
 ACCORDING to the scheme upon which this series 
 of books has been edited, the present work falls under 
 the fourth division under the Art of Education. 
 The first division includes history of education ; the 
 second division, educational criticism, including the 
 writings of the educational reformers ; the third di- 
 vision includes systematic treatises on the theory of 
 education ; the fourth, writings upon the art of edu- 
 cation in two divisions first, works on instruction 
 and discipline and the practical details of the school- 
 room ; second, works on the organization and super- 
 vision of schools. 
 
 The present book discusses : First, the hygienic 
 conditions of the schoolroom and grounds, and the 
 formation of healthful habits on the part of the pu- 
 pils. In the past twenty-five years very much has 
 been done in the way of studying these hygienic 
 conditions. At first there were many investigations, 
 made especially by German observers, upon the ef- 
 fect of the schoolroom and the preparation of lessons 
 upon the eyesight. It was found that a large per- 
 centage of the children in the higher grades of 
 school work had become near-sighted. The most 
 
vi EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 prominent cause of this was found to be the insuffi- 
 ciently lighted schoolroom or the injudicious study of 
 the pupil at home in the twilight of evening or morn- 
 ing, and also with insufficient artificial light. The 
 pupil makes up for the lack of light by holding his 
 book nearer to his eyes than their actual focus re- 
 quires. This after a time leads to a permanent read- 
 justment of that focus, and the disease called myopia 
 has then become permanent. The light should come 
 in sufficient quantity upon the left side of the pupil, 
 for in writing he will form the letters in the shadow 
 of his right hand if the light comes from the right 
 side. It is very important that the light shall not 
 come from windows in front of the pupil, because the 
 bright light occasions a contraction of the pupils of 
 the eyes, while the attempt to discriminate objects, 
 such as the teacher's face, for instance, in the direc- 
 tion of that light, is rendered difficult and painful, 
 and injury through the eyes results to the entire 
 nervous system. Again, the subject of the air of the 
 schoolroom has been carefully investigated and the 
 relative amount of carbonic acid in the air, together 
 with other injurious elements, has been tabulated. It 
 has often happened that nearly as much injury has 
 come to the pupils through injudicious ventilation as 
 through the want of ventilation. The windows, open 
 from the bottom, allow currents of cold air to flow in 
 upon the pupils, occasioning rheumatism and bad 
 colds, even planting the seeds of consumption and 
 heart disease. 
 
 It is not easy to correct these school evils. As 
 already intimated, there has been nearly as much evil 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. vii 
 
 created by the remedies as avoided by them. " The 
 fresh-air fiend " is nearly as great an evil to society as 
 the fiend of neglect ; but this is no apology for the 
 existence of the latter. We must have fresh air, and 
 under proper conditions. In the name of hygiene 
 we have had a system of calisthenic exercises, often 
 introduced in such a way as to abolish the good old- 
 time school recess, wherein the child rests not only his 
 intellect, but his will power, playing or refraining 
 from play according to his caprice. Play differs 
 from work in the fact that it depends entirely upon 
 the spontaneity of the pupil, while work requires the 
 tension of the will, and that, too, in the line of activ- 
 ity prescribed by outside authority. Calisthenics 
 therefore belongs to the working activity, inasmuch 
 as it is a vigorous exercise of the will but entirely in 
 conformity with the will of another person, the direc- 
 tor of the exercises. Looked at from the standpoint 
 of wise physicians who have undertaken the direction 
 of college athletics, one shudders at the hideous viola- 
 tions of the laws of health which were imported into our 
 schools in the past generation under the plea of hygiene. 
 Under the head of better educational facilities 
 Prof. Baldwin calls attention to the school appa- 
 ratus and improved schoolhouses. It is fortunate in 
 our time that so much inventive talent is expended 
 upon devices for facilitating school work. No subject 
 is more practical than school discipline. The profes- 
 sionally educated teacher is a comparative novice in his 
 work until he masters the art of school government. 
 He should govern so as to continually develop a rational 
 self-control on the part of the pupil, and his training 
 
viii EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 should result in the formation of habits of self-help 
 by means of the book, and in skill in the art of orig- 
 inal investigation and verification ; but the novice in 
 teaching finds himself directly opposed by the pupil's 
 self-will at the beginning. The government of the 
 school requires obedience on the part of the pupil, 
 but all pupils who inherit a disposition to strong wills 
 are reluctant to submit to the authority of the teacher. 
 How can this be managed without leaning too far in 
 the direction of anarchy and chaos in the school 
 which would result in tyranny on the part of the 
 older pupils over the younger pupils or, on the other 
 hand, leaning toward despotism and mere blind obedi- 
 ence on the part of the pupil? The art of school 
 management in this important particular has made 
 more progress in the United States during the past 
 thirty years than any other practical phase of school 
 teaching. Our methods of instruction, which have 
 striven to substitute self-activity of the pupil in the 
 way of investigation for mere memorizing or parrot- 
 ing the words of the book or teacher, have certainly 
 made less progress than the art of school discipline. In 
 the past, not many years ago, corporal punishment was 
 very frequent. The schools in the majority of our 
 cities have so far overcome the habit of resorting to 
 corporal punishment that the schoolroom now assumes 
 the atmosphere of a pleasant and urbane assemblage 
 of a well-mannered family in the home. The air of 
 freedom and polite behaviour takes the place of the 
 suppressed and sullen mien of old times. The signifi- 
 cance of this upon the formation of the future citizen 
 in a democracy is obvious. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. i x 
 
 Another rubric almost as important as the last is 
 that of class methods and management. The igno- 
 rance of intelligent people, even those engaged in the 
 work of education, in this matter is astonishing. The 
 advantage of the class recitation over the teaching of 
 the private tutor is not well understood. The class is 
 the most potent of all the instruments in the teacher's 
 hand. He so manages the recitation or class exercises 
 that each pupil learns to see the lesson through the 
 minds of all his fellows, and he learns likewise to 
 criticise the imperfect statements made by them 
 through the more adequate comprehension of the 
 teacher. It must be remembered, too, that the de- 
 fects of view which one pupil shows in the recitation 
 are not the same defects that others have. Each pu- 
 pil therefore, even the humblest, is in some respects 
 able to criticise the work of his fellows, although he 
 in turn may be subject to a more severe criticism in 
 regard to other aspects of the work of the day. The 
 good teacher so manages the recitation that at its 
 close every member of the class commences the prep- 
 aration of another lesson with some new insight into 
 method of study. He is on the alert for phases of 
 the subject which he had neglected the day before. 
 To make the pupil alert in all reasonable directions is 
 the main object. The pupil will become able to con- 
 duct his own investigations by the aid of the printed 
 page and by the original study of the objects of Na- 
 ture or art to which his topic relates. 
 
 The selection of the course of study is a matter of 
 school management of equal importance with that of 
 the method of handling the class lesson. There are 
 
X EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 certain " windows of the soul " which are closed in 
 the mind of the illiterate person, but which are opened 
 by the education of the school. These windows look 
 out upon the five provinces : (a) Inorganic Nature 
 (arithmetic) ; (b) organic Nature (geography) ; (c) the 
 intellect and the logical process of the mind as re- 
 vealed in grammar and similar studies ; (d) the will 
 power of man as manifested in the forming of insti- 
 tutions and in the struggle of nations one against 
 another and with refractory individuals, the study of 
 the greater self of man as found in social wholes (his- 
 tory) ; and (e) the window opened by literature which 
 looks upon the manifestation of human nature in its 
 most intimate aspects ; for literature reveals the 
 human heart, first, as the seat of feeling; then the 
 rise out of this dim unconscious realm of feeling into 
 that of clear conviction and insight into principles ; 
 then, last, the realizing of these ideas in action. Feel- 
 ings, convictions, deeds the three products of human 
 nature are shown to the pupil in the prose and 
 poetry of literature. "No knowledge is so practical as 
 that of human nature, and no study plays so large a 
 part in the forming of the practical contents of the 
 citizen's mind as his study of literature. 
 
 Glimpses are given throughout the following book 
 of the best practical methods of organizing and super- 
 vising schools, and in this respect it is believed by 
 the publishers that it will prove of great service to 
 school superintendents and school boards. 
 
 W. T. HARRIS. 
 WASHINGTON, D. C., January 13, 1896. 
 
AUTHOK'S PEEFACE. 
 
 SCHOOL management and school methods are the 
 twin arts of pupil betterment. Pupil improvement is 
 the central idea. What is the best thing for the pu- 
 pil ? This question determines every school measure. 
 In these chapters we study pupil betterment: 1. 
 Through improved educational conditions. 2. Through 
 better educational facilities. 3. Through rational 
 school government, 4. Through educative class 
 work. 5. Through better organization and correla- 
 tion of schools and school work. 6. Through effi- 
 cient methods of teaching. 7. Through efficient 
 supervision. 
 
 Perpetual progress is the keynote. The sacrifice 
 of a lower to a higher good is an incident in all true 
 progress. The good often stands in the way of the 
 best, and unthinking conservatism is the enemy of 
 progress. The true teacher is ever advancing from 
 the good to the better. As progress comes from ideals 
 in advance of reals, teachers are here incited to form 
 higher and higher ideals, and earnestly strive to real- 
 ize them. We think of the teacher as an educational 
 artist, working out anew the problems of school bet- 
 terment, and skilfully leading pupils to make the 
 
x ii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 most of themselves. The purpose is to assist earnest 
 independent workers by the most helpful facts and 
 the most fruitful suggestions, and by inspiring each 
 teacher to work out grandly his own salvation. 
 
 The isolated school and the isolated teacher be- 
 long to the past. Incomparably the greatest educa- 
 tional reform of our times is the organic grouping of 
 schools and the organization of all teachers into facul- 
 ties. Each group of schools is sui generis, and each 
 faculty is a teaching unit. A faculty devotes itself to 
 its specific problems ; thus a primary faculty devotes 
 itself to child study, primary management, and pri- 
 mary methods. The author seeks to interest all 
 teachers in this vital reform as the best means for 
 promoting all reforms. 
 
 Educative school government is fundamental. 
 School management is eminently the art of rational 
 school government. The modern teacher is the friend 
 of the pupil and governs up to self-government. 
 Teachers are asked to study anew the philosophy of 
 controlling up to self-control, and thus give to their 
 schools the " atmosphere of an urbane assemblage of a 
 well-mannered family." I believe the time has come 
 when we may safely discard extraneous incentives, such 
 as rewards, per-cent marking, formal examinations, and 
 corporal punishment. It seems to me infinitely better 
 to secure good conduct and good study through enno- 
 bling motives. The plan for rational school govern- 
 ment is revolutionary, but it accords with the best in 
 modern school life, and I deem it sound in theory as 
 well as eminently practical. It is with peculiar pleas- 
 ure that I submit the chapters on school government. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xiii 
 
 Conduct culture is the greatest thing in education. 
 In this book the conduct studies take the highest rank, 
 and we study to make conduct teaching as systematic 
 and thorough as the work in mathematics. All teach- 
 ers are first of all character growers, and conduct cul- 
 ture stands first. This is the educational superlative. 
 It is my deepest desire to intensely interest teachers in 
 the art of promoting good conduct. Systematic con- 
 duct teaching will do most for pupil betterment. 
 
 The better organization and correlation of schools 
 and school work interest all men. Germany and 
 France and England have made valuable contributions, 
 but the best work has been done by our Committee of 
 Ten, our Committee of Fifteen, and our Committee of 
 Twelve. It gives me satisfaction to submit this con- 
 tribution, which has cost me years of hard work. I 
 feel safe in commending the scheme for rural school 
 betterment. A plan for intermediate specialization is 
 submitted tentatively. The sporadic experiments in 
 grammar-school departmental teaching, predoomed to 
 failure, and the decided opposition of leading educa- 
 tors, have, as I think, set back for a decade the dial of 
 progress. In another decade or two, I do not doubt, 
 the necessities of progress will naturally lead to the 
 evolution of our wasteful grammar schools into effi- 
 cient specialized intermediate schools, and the objec- 
 tions now so ably urged will disappear in view of the 
 immense gains. But the transformation must be radi- 
 cal, and intermediate specialization must be unique. 
 I appeal to the brotherhood of teachers : let true in- 
 termediate specialization be submitted to the test of 
 scientific experiment. That it will double the value 
 
xiv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 of the grammar school and incalculably benefit the 
 teaching profession, seems to me certain. 
 
 The teaching art is a boundless realm of high 
 endeavour. Efficient methods of teaching the con- 
 duct studies, the language-literature studies, the science 
 studies, the mathematics studies, and the art studies 
 need to be treated by masters and in many volumes. 
 All that can be attempted in a book like this is to 
 outline the work and refer teachers to some of the 
 best manuals of methods. The aim is to help the 
 teachers to gain a comprehensive view of the entire 
 school work, so that they may intelligently do their 
 special work. 
 
 Teachers struggling up alone have our prof oundest 
 sympathies, and these pages have been written in view 
 of aiding this large and deserving class. But in the 
 near future these isolated teachers will get together 
 and will work far more profitably in circles and in 
 faculties. I have studied to make this pre-eminently 
 a suitable text-book for classes of teachers. I have 
 found the following plan of study most satisfactory : 
 
 1. Study an assigned chapter. Each chapter is 
 complete in itself, and is devoted to a vital educational 
 topic. The chapters may be studied consecutively, or 
 may be taken up in any determined order. 
 
 2. Read some similar work. Let each member of 
 the class read a different book and report what is said 
 on the topic under discussion. Such helpful works as 
 White's School Management, Thompson's Philosophy 
 of School Management, Parker's Concentration, and 
 Landon's Teaching and Class Management are sug- 
 gested. The latest Eeport of the Commissioner of 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. XV 
 
 Education and the latest Journal of the National Edu- 
 cational Association are considered indispensable. 
 
 3. Read an educational journal. By arranging 
 to have each teacher read a different journal, the les- 
 son may be enriched by the best current educational 
 thought. Our school journals are becoming our best 
 helps in practical school work and in promoting re- 
 forms. 
 
 4. Give your views. What each teacher thinks is 
 the important matter. Let each member of the circle 
 study to make some original contribution. I venture 
 to hope that these chapters, studied as suggested, will 
 prove intensely interesting and exceedingly valuable. 
 To favour busy teachers, I have given the Study Hints, 
 the full Alphabetical Index, and the Topical Syllabus. 
 
 It gives me special pleasure to acknowledge my 
 indebtedness, first of all, to the editor of the Interna- 
 tional Educational Series for reading the proof and 
 for numerous helpful suggestions. I am especially 
 indebted to my student readers who have generously 
 aided me in these investigations and in widely testing 
 those plans. I wish to thank the faculty of the Uni- 
 versity of Texas and the faculty of the Oswego New 
 York State Normal School for valuable assistance. 
 While claiming for this work some originality in plan 
 and treatment, I desire to express my indebtedness to 
 many educators, educational works, and educational 
 journals that it has been impossible to credit. Once 
 more I warmly thank my fellow-teachers and the press 
 for the generous reception accorded to my humble 
 contributions to our professional literature. 
 
 It is easy to collect and dilute and so compile a 
 
xvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 cheap book about school management ; but to create 
 a helpful text-book for progressive teachers is a pro- 
 digious undertaking. In order to do so, one needs to 
 live in the great school world and work near its throb- 
 bing heart. All educational problems must be studied 
 anew in the light of educational science and human 
 experience. Only what is safe and best must be ad- 
 mitted. The antiquated, the hurtful, and even the 
 doubtful must be rejected. A few vital topics must 
 be selected and so treated as to inspire and guide. 
 Finally, chapters must be condensed into pages and 
 essays into paragraphs. Just here a personal allusion 
 seems to be in place. I have endeavoured to put into 
 these pages the results of four decades of study and 
 teaching. During these years it has been my good 
 fortune to work in rural schools, graded schools, nor- 
 mal schools, and colleges, and to assist in training an 
 army of more than ten thousand teachers. What I 
 have found to be most helpful I submit to the great 
 
 brotherhood of teachers. 
 
 JOSEPH BALDWIN. 
 AUSTIN, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, 
 February 1, 1897. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE vii 
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE . xi 
 
 PART I. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
 EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATIONAL 
 
 IDEALS 3 
 
 II. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY . 12 
 III. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH TEACHER IMPROVE- 
 MENT 26 
 
 IV. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL HY- 
 GIENE 38 
 
 PART II. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. 
 
 V. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL EN- 
 VIRONMENTS 57 
 
 VI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL APPLI- 
 ANCES 63 
 
 VII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL APPA- 
 RATUS 69 
 
 VIII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT- 
 
 I BOOKS 75 
 IX. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SUITABLE SCHOOL LI- 
 BRARIES 81 
 xvii 
 
PART I. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
 EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HIGHER EDUCA- 
 TIONAL IDEALS. .-* 
 II. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL PUPIL 
 
 STUDY. 
 
 III. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH TEACHER IMPROVE- 
 MENT. 
 
 IV. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL 
 HYGIENE. 
 
 1 
 
SCHOOL 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The Pupil. 
 The Teacher. 
 
 c 
 o 
 tc 
 
 81 
 
 SCHOOL 
 HELPS. 
 
 Educative Conditions. 
 
 Educative Facilities and Appliances. 
 
 Educative School Government. 
 
 Educative Class Management and Class 
 
 Methods. 
 Educative School Organization and Correla- 
 
 tion. 
 Educative Methods of Teaching The Five 
 
 Groups of Studies. 
 Educative School Economy. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND 
 SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATIONAL 
 IDEALS. 
 
 Progress conies of Ideals in Advance of Reals. 
 
 School management and teaching are the twin arts of 
 " pupil betterment." In school evolution ideals get 
 to be reals, and we advance as we transform the good 
 into the better. In the realm of educational ideals 
 there is a better and a best which ever beckon us on- 
 ward and upward. 
 
 The School utilizes all Educational Influences. It 
 enables the pupil to make more of himself than he 
 otherwise could. It plans to lead the learner to real- 
 ize all that is best in him. The school stands for civi- 
 lization. Wherever we find a teaching body, as among 
 the ancient Jews, we find an advancing civilization. 
 The school is at once the creator, the conservator, 
 and the elevator of civilization. The school stands 
 for human progress. It leads the pupil to profit by 
 the experience of mankind, and enriches him with the 
 accumulated wisdom of the race. 
 
 3 
 
4 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Pupil Improvement is the Central Idea in the School 
 Organism. We think of all educative agencies, even 
 the teacher, as pupil helps. "Is this the best thing 
 f.r the pupils?" is the vital test of every school 
 measure. School systems are created, schoolhouses 
 are planned, school appliances are supplied, and teach- 
 ers are prepared and sustained to promote pupil im- 
 provement. The school is for the pupils, and school 
 management and teaching are pre-eminently the arts 
 of pupil betterment. Pupils are led to make the 
 most of themselves by habitually doing their best 
 under the best conditions. 
 
 The School Organism is a Unit. The pupil and 
 the teacher are the school essentials ; all other educa- 
 tive conditions and appliances are thought of as school 
 helps. The organism exists for the pupil and grows 
 around the pupil. We think of the teacher as giving 
 vitality, and of school helps as giving efficiency to the 
 organism. The central idea, pupil improvement, in- 
 cludes the law of unity. All things are made to work 
 together for pupil good, and school management be- 
 comes the art of unitizing school work. 
 
 School Evolution is Organic School Growth. It 
 means the realization of the possibilities of the school 
 as an organism. The family is the embryo school, 
 but the school, as we think of it, comes of the needs 
 of progressive peoples. Savages feel no need of 
 schools. The early schools of a people are astonish- 
 ingly rudimentary and inefficient. Schools every- 
 where have been evolved with advancing civilizations, 
 but educational progress has been slow, and the lines 
 of progress have been zigzag. AVhen the schools of 
 
HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. 5 
 
 a people are at their best, we call the period the 
 golden age. Plato taught during the golden age of 
 Athens, and Quiritiliaii instructed during the golden 
 age of Rome. A people may have a golden age, but 
 the golden age of the race will always be in the future, 
 and school evolution will go on as long as civilization 
 continues to advance. 
 
 In School Evolution the Ideal gets to be the Real. 
 All progress comes of ideals which are in advance of 
 reals. Brutes make no progress, for they create no 
 ideals. Individuals and peoples with low ideals, or 
 who look back, retrograde or merely mark time. Sav- 
 age tribes look back, and so " mark time." Unpro- 
 gressive peoples like the Chinese worship their an- 
 cestors, and so fail to make progress. Luther, when 
 he reached the meridian of life, ceased to reform be- 
 cause he began to look back. Peoples and institutions 
 and individuals make progress so long as their out- 
 look is forward and upward. The best is still in the 
 future. The disciples of Jesus look forward and 
 move forward. At eighty, Gladstone still looked 
 forward and still led the armies of progress. The 
 old education looks back and marks time, but the new 
 education looks forward and moves upward. 
 
 The School at its Best is our School Ideal. School 
 evolution comes of the efforts of the people to realize 
 their educational ideals. The educator is not an icon- 
 oclast, but a reformer. Rousseau, the prince of an- 
 archists, was not an educator. He planned to destroy 
 all human institutions and go back to Nature. But 
 Rousseau was a world benefactor, for he broke fetters, 
 cleared away a world of rubbish, and inspired educa- 
 
6 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 tional reform. Bacon gave the golden rule, " Make a 
 stand on the ancient way and look to find the best 
 way." Pestalozzi pursuing the Baconian plan, gave 
 the world How Gertrude Taught her Children, 
 and became the father of the new education. We 
 l>egin educational reforms by elevating the school 
 ideal, and by managing to have the real grow into the 
 ideal. We learn wisdom even from the serpent, for 
 as the serpent sheds the old skin in forming the new, 
 so we seek to have the old education grow into the 
 new. School evolution is perennial. The new edu- 
 cation of to-day becomes the old education of to-mor- 
 row. We shall continue through the centuries to ap- 
 proach our growing ideal, " The school at its best." 
 
 Pupil Study is the Greatest Thing in the New Edu- 
 cation. Higher ideals of pupil possibilities are condi- 
 tions of pupil betterment. What is the pupil now ? 
 What is he capable of becoming ? Our pupil ideal is 
 the pupil with all his possibilities developing into the 
 best manhood. We think of teaching as the process 
 of promoting the growth of the real pupil into the 
 realization of our ideal. As the inventor realizes his 
 ideal in his electric motor, so the teacher realizes his 
 ideal in the lives of his pupils. We see in the pupil 
 all human possibilities. Our educational ideal is man 
 nt his best. Teacher and parents, inspired by high 
 ideals, work earnestly for pupil perfection. 
 
 The Prepared Teacher is the Vital Factor in the 
 New Education. Plato and his peerless pupil consti- 
 tuted the greatest university of antiquity. Garfield's 
 conception of the elemental university was President 
 Hopkins on one end of a log and himself on the 
 
HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. 7 
 
 other. The pupil and the teacher working together 
 to develop power % through mastery constitute the 
 school. The vital contact of pupil mind and teacher 
 mind works the miracle of pupil growth. Pupil effort, 
 stimulated and guided by the teacher, educates. The 
 oneness of the school life comes of the teacher brood- 
 ing over the pupil, and of pupil and teacher strug- 
 gling together for mastery. As iron shapes iron, so 
 the vital contact of pupil mind and teacher mind de- 
 velops power, and leads on to sturdy scholarship. As 
 pupil improvement comes of teacher fitness, school 
 management exalts teacher preparation. 
 
 Higher Teacher Ideals will lead to Teacher Excel- 
 lence. Even at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury the teacher ideal of the masses was low indeed, 
 and the teacher counted for little. But as education 
 has advanced, the teacher ideal has become higher and 
 higher. The elevation of the teacher ideal, and with 
 its growth the demand for better and better teaching, 
 is one of the marvels of the century. It has led the 
 states and the nations to provide professional schools, 
 professional literature, and professional associations 
 for the improvement of teachers. Teacher, what is 
 your teacher ideal ? I know you have been observing 
 and wondering. You have been thinking about the 
 best things in the lives of the teachers you have 
 known. You have been thinking about the eminent 
 teachers that have blessed the race. You have been 
 thinking about the Great Teacher. Somehow your 
 ideal teacher comes to embrace all teacher excellencies. 
 You yearn to become such a teacher. You can in 
 some degree. Your efforts to realize in yourself your 
 
8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 teacher ideal will make of you a better teacher. But 
 keep in mind that the teacher consecrates his life to 
 pupil betterment. You think not of self nor of fame 
 nor of fortune, but rather of how to lead your pupils 
 to make most of themselves. Man lives for man. 
 
 The Best School Helps characterize the New Edu- 
 cation. We marvel at the destitution of the past in 
 school helps. We wonder at the destitution in school 
 helps even in the recent past. Anything was thought 
 to be good enough for children. The wretched make- 
 shifts, still all too common, tell of low ideals and of 
 much lamentable stupidity. Even now, at the dawn 
 of the twentieth century, vastly better provisions are 
 made for the improvement of fine horses than for the 
 improvement of children. We visit a thousand good 
 schools, and fail to find even one having the best 
 facilities for the best school work. But, when the 
 world comes to realize that nothing is too good for 
 children, the people will gladly supply the best school 
 helps. Wiser ideas and more exalted ideals will lead 
 up to better and better realities. Nothing is too good 
 for the child. 
 
 Better School Organization makes for School Im- 
 provement. The old-time school was a mob rather 
 than an army. Schools were isolated and unorgan- 
 ized. The nations had not thought of school sys- 
 tems or of graded schools. School organization is 
 the child of the nineteenth century, the century of 
 greatest educational progress. We classify and grade 
 and specialize. We group schools into organic units. 
 We create school systems. The educational chaos of 
 the centuries left the masses to grope their way in the 
 
HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. 9 
 
 darkness. Our school organizations, crude as they 
 are, must be largely credited with greatly promoting 
 the world's marvellous educational progress. As we 
 advance we study to improve school organization. 
 Each teacher does well to create an ideal school sys- 
 tem, embodying the best things thought out and 
 worked out by mankind. We should spare no effort 
 in promoting the growth of our actual into our ideal 
 school organization. 
 
 School Improvement comes of Educative School Gov- 
 ernment. Froebel and Herbart sounded the keynote 
 of school improvement " Educate the whole man, 
 placing the emphasis on conduct and culture." Char- 
 acter-growing is the educational superlative. We now 
 think of school management as the art of promoting 
 good conduct. The movement in the direction of 
 better school government is almost revolutionary. 
 We are beginning to know the child, and are learn- 
 ing to lead our pupils through right motives to right 
 conduct. We govern up to self-government and con- 
 trol up to self-control. In concrete conduct lessons 
 we lead our pupils to form high conduct ideals. We 
 try to so manage that all school work may foster good 
 conduct. 
 
 School Management is the Art of vitalizing the 
 School Programme. The school works in the living 
 present and its programme is a living thing. Last , 
 year's programme grows into this year's. The school 
 programme keeps abreast of the times. As we gain 
 a deeper insight into pupil nature and as the realm of 
 knowledge increases we modify our school courses. 
 Looking back means death and bars progress. Some 
 
10 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of the old unprogressive universities boast of having 
 adhered for many centuries to the same dead curricu- 
 lum. The Chinese are un progressive, and hence it 
 is fitting that their school courses should be fixed. 
 Among progressive peoples the growth of the school 
 programme must go on forever. 
 
 We create an Ideal School and work to make it 
 Real, Teachers, of all men, you and your fellow- 
 workers alone devote yourselves exclusively to school 
 improvement. I venture to ask you to create as a 
 working model an ideal school having the best school 
 helps. You will visit the best schools ; you will read 
 the best things ; you will consult the best educators ; 
 you will think and imagine and invent and experi- 
 ment. Your ideal grows and grows, and becomes a 
 thing of beauty as well as utility. Your school en- 
 vironments are the universe, for all things on the 
 earth and in the heavens are school helps. Your school 
 grounds abound in educative devices and elevating in- 
 fluences. Your schoolhouse, with its furniture, and 
 its provisions for pure air and heat and light and ex- 
 ercise and school work, is indeed a model. Your ap- 
 paratus, laboratory, and library are the best now avail- 
 able. As you work on through the years to make 
 your ideal school a reality, you will wonder at the 
 continual growth of your ideal. The best yesterday 
 gives place to the better of to-day. Your success edu- 
 cates the people, inspires other teachers, and, above 
 all, doubles your power to help your pupils. 
 
 School Improvement comes of Good Teaching. The 
 old schoolmaster groped his way, for he had not stud- 
 ied effectively either himself or the pupil. He was 
 
HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. H 
 
 profoundly ignorant of the laws of growth, and could 
 not do otherwise than blunder on in the dark. The 
 modern teacher knows himself, knows the pupil, 
 knows the subject. He studies to lead his pupils to 
 so put forth effort as to develop power in gaining 
 mastery. He trains his pupils to investigate and find 
 out for themselves. He manages to create and sus- 
 tain interest, thus securing systematic and effective 
 work. Good teaching is ultimate. In all his teaching 
 the teacher studies to induce good conduct. The art 
 of school management culminates in good teaching. 
 
 Pupils must be led to form High Ideals. We do 
 most for our pupils when we lead them to create and 
 try to realize ennobling ideals. Low and debasing 
 ideals are the bane of mankind. It is the mission of 
 the school to elevate the race by inducing pupils to 
 form higher ideals. The church and the school work 
 together to lift up the pupils through the purest and 
 highest ideals. The story, the biographical history 
 lessons, the school library, school government, and, 
 indeed, all good school work, tend to foster the forma- 
 tion of helpful ideals. 
 
 The People must be induced to form Higher Educa- 
 tional Ideals. Our people are sovereigns, and we can 
 elevate our schools only as we elevate public opinion. 
 This must be done largely through the school. 
 Pupils influence parents. The library, and the best 
 periodicals, and the reading clubs, and the literary 
 societies wonderfully help. Good lectures are invalu- 
 able. The semi-annual educational sermons of all the 
 ministers are powerful for good. The newspaper con- 
 tributes to fostering high school ideals. The teacher 
 
12 SCHOOL MANAGKMKXT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 works through all these agencies to create a healthy 
 public sentiment in favour of sustaining the best 
 schools and of making all schools better. 
 
 The Ideal Teacher who can describe such a One ? 
 Jesus is the perfect teacher. Through the ages 
 great teachers have done what they could to lead the 
 race upward. A host of mighty teachers are now 
 educating the world. Our ideal teacher embodies the 
 best in all. Friend, you earnestly desire to become 
 an efficient teacher. You have a high ideal which 
 you are seeking to realize. You are striving to be 
 what you wish your pupils to become. You are 
 studying to know well yourself, your pupils, and 
 your subjects. You are learning to get close to your 
 pupils and to quicken all their energies. As their 
 friend, you are learning to lead your pupils wisely. 
 More and more you are coming to realize your ideal. 
 Slowly you are struggling up to higher heights, and 
 are becoming a worthy teacher. To you, school man- 
 agement and teaching are becoming the arts of lead- 
 ing pupils up to a grand manhood. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 
 
 School Management is the Art of Pupil Betterment. 
 Improvement of the pupil is the central idea. School 
 systems are created and school courses are planned ; 
 school methods are devised and school facilities are 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 13 
 
 provided ; professional schools are created and teach- 
 ers are sustained to promote pupil well-being. Will 
 this benefit the pupil ? The answer must be the test 
 of every proposed school measure. Is it the best for 
 the pupil ? The answer must determine the continu- 
 ance, the modification, or the disuse of any existing 
 school condition. God drafts the plan of each life. 
 Education is the working out of the divine plan. 
 Teaching is leading the pupil to make the most of 
 himself. 
 
 Pupil Study is Fundamental. The twin arts of 
 school management and teaching are based on insight 
 into pupil nature. Know your pupils, is a pedagog- 
 ical imperative. As the botanist knows the growing 
 plant, so must the teacher know the growing pupil. 
 Since it is guided self-effort that educates, the teacher 
 must know the springs of action and the laws of 
 growth. Since teaching is leading, the teacher must 
 be the pupil's wise friend. Since self-knowledge is 
 the key to pupil insight, the teacher must know him- 
 self and must learn to look at the pupil as just a 
 younger self. Pupil study, now and always, is the 
 greatest thing in education. 
 
 Neglect of Childhood is the Sad Story of our Race. 
 Through many centuries real child study was not 
 thought of. The human animal grew up like other 
 animals. Repression and force were almost universal. 
 Among ancient peoples only the Greeks studied the 
 young, and so developed a race of mighty thinkers ; 
 only the Hebrews taught their children righteousness. 
 Neglect of the young was the world rule. What a 
 change has come ! Now child study and ways of 
 
14 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 promoting child well being are the world's chiefest 
 interests. 
 
 PUPIL STUDY is OF UNTOLD VALUE TO TEACHERS. 
 
 " The chief value of child study seems to lie in two directions : 
 (1) It arouses the teacher to examine and study the mental states 
 of the children before her. This may be called its subjective 
 value. (2) It will in time furnish us with a series of conclusions 
 that will be of practical value in guiding teachers in the arrange- 
 ment of courses of study, methods of instruction, hygienic and 
 sanitary surroundings of school life, etc. This may be called its 
 objective value." [NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER.] 
 
 " Child study brings the teacher into closer rapport with the 
 pupil and establishes that personal bond which brings out the 
 power of the teacher, and especially of a woman teacher. Man 
 may and can run the school as a machine. His voice, physical 
 strength, and character give him the advantage under present 
 methods. When teaching is a work of love to know children 
 measures the lore for them the woman's kingdom will come in 
 the schoolroom." [G. STANLEY HALL.] 
 
 " The chief value of child study, to my mind, is to enable the 
 teacher to diagnose the personality of the child, to know some- 
 thing of the child's body, mind, and soul. The chief value at 
 present of this diagnosis is to find out children who have defects 
 in hearing, seeing, or in their motor activities. In other words, 
 the chief value of child study is to call the teacher's attention 
 away from ' word cram ' to the child himself. It should follow, 
 then, that if the teacher studies the child she should apply the 
 best conditions for the child's growth." [FRANCIS W. PARKER.] 
 
 A PLAN FOR INFANT STUDY. 
 
 "Suffer the Little Ones to come unto Me." This is 
 the keynote of human progress. It remained for 
 Jesus to found the new education on the appreciation 
 of infant possibilities. " Of such is the kingdom of 
 heaven." It remained for Pestalozzi and Froebel 
 and Ilerbart and their successors to take up the cry 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 15 
 
 of Jesus and give the world the kindergarten and the 
 primary school. It still remains for the mighty army 
 of educators to profoundly study pupil nature in its 
 advanced phases, and give the world the ideal inter- 
 mediate school, the ideal high school, and the ideal 
 college. 
 
 Study the Real Child. How may the teacher best 
 study the pupil ? Any plan of child study that gives 
 insight into the nature of the growing pupil will 
 prove helpful. The essential thing is actual study 
 of the pupil. You need to study the real child. You 
 must study the little one while it is happy in its play 
 or work and wholly unconscious of such study. You 
 must study your pupils when absorbed in play and les- 
 Bons. As your aim is pupil knowledge rather than 
 science, you keep the recording angel out of sight. 
 Later on you may make contributions to scientific 
 child study. You investigate for yourself in your 
 own way, but welcome helpful suggestions. The fol- 
 lowing general plan, to be supplemented by your 
 special method of child study, is believed to be safe 
 and efficient : 
 
 What is the Infant ? The budding stage of human 
 growth, from birth to the sixth year, is termed in- 
 fancy. You will make your studies of some baby 
 friend and live close to it during these marvellous 
 years. You will drink at the fountain. Your own 
 sympathies and intuitions are your best guides. In- 
 telligent mothers work nearest to God and are your 
 wisest counsellors. Your fellow-teachers, who like 
 yourself are studying infant nature, will suggest the 
 freshest things. You find the kindergarten circle an 
 
16 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 inspiration. Some good books, revealing the wonders 
 experienced by scientific observers, will prove help- 
 ful.* Current kindergarten literature will prove high- 
 ly suggestive, f 
 
 The Precious Half Hours spent with your Baby Friend 
 help most. You gain the rarest treasures by direct in- 
 sight. No theories or cumbersome methods or trouble- 
 some notes embarrass you. You come into touch with 
 the life of an embryo self. All its buddings intensely 
 interest you. How does the little one learn to walk, 
 to talk, to do things, to know things ? You observe 
 with delight that your little friend grows through self- 
 effort, and that from month to month it perceives bet- 
 ter, remembers better, and does things better. You 
 find surprises and poetry at every step. You never 
 grow weary in comparing your baby friend with other 
 infants. Heredity opens to you a world of marvels. 
 Evolution takes on new meaning as you indulge a lit- 
 tle in comparative psychology. Then you discover, 
 it may be, a striking resemblance between the earliest 
 race development and the development of your infant 
 friend. Thus you come to understand in some degree 
 infancy, and learn to answer reasonably well the ques- 
 tion, " What is the infant ? " 
 
 A PLAN FOR CHILD STUDY. 
 
 What is the Child? The fanciful, trustful stage of 
 pupil growth, from the sixth to the tenth year, is 
 termed childhood. How may you best study the 
 
 * Preyer's Infant Mind : D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 f Symbolic Education, Susan E. Blow : D. Appleton & Co. 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 17 
 
 child ? Consider various plans, and then pursue your 
 own plan. Eecall as best you can your own child- 
 hood experiences. Rely most on your own insight. 
 You will have a special child friend with whom you 
 will spend one or two precious half hours each week. 
 Comparing your infant and your child friends, you 
 gain skill in estimating mental growth. The increase 
 in physical and mental and moral vigour is a constant 
 surprise to you. Then you find delight in comparing 
 the growth of your child friend with the childhood 
 stage of race development..^ Your interviews with 
 your fellow-students engaged in child study are in- 
 spiring and suggestive. Your primary circle secures 
 systematic study. You find child literature wonder- 
 fully helpful. You select as helps one or more of the 
 many good books which treat of the child and child 
 education. 
 
 You study for yourself a Eeal Child. Trusting most 
 to your own insight and your own sympathies, you 
 constantly put yourself in the place of the child and 
 live its life. More and more you come to understand 
 the child. The study of your child friend fits you to 
 enter into the lives of all children. Indeed, each pupil 
 becomes to you a child friend. Every hour spent 
 with your pupils enriches you. Knowing your pupils, 
 knowing their individual wants and ways, you become 
 an intelligent child leader. You get to understand 
 childhood, and become prepared to answer with some 
 satisfaction the question, " What is the child ? " You 
 win the hearts of the little ones, and so make the pri- 
 mary school work a constant joy. 
 
18 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 A PLAN FOR STUDYING THE BOY AND GIRL. 
 
 What is the Boy? The exploring, the imitative, 
 the habit-forming stage of growth, from the tenth to 
 the fourteenth year, is termed boyhood and girlhood. 
 Coming between childhood and youth, this is desig- 
 nated as the intermediate culture period. The burn- 
 ing desire to find out, the restless activity, the aston- 
 ishing imitative tendencies, make this pre-eminently 
 the exploring and habit-forming stage of development. 
 How are we to get to understand the intermediate 
 pupil ? We begin by vividly recalling our own ex- 
 periences during this period. 
 
 You spend Precious Hours with your Boy or Girl 
 Friend. You live close to your young friend study- 
 ing, reading, playing, exploring with him. You lead 
 him to talk with you about the things which most in- 
 terest him. You observe him in his associations with 
 others. You compare his activities with infant activi- 
 ties and with child activities, and marvel at the growth. 
 You compare your friend with other boys and girls, 
 and somehow you come to look upon each pupil as a 
 special friend. You never weary of tracing resem- 
 blances between the growth of your boy friend and 
 the boyhood stage of race growth. You interview 
 teachers who are earnestly studying the intermediate 
 phase of pupil growth. You read the choicest juve- 
 nile literature, and study one or more suggestive books 
 treating of boy and girl growth and culture. You 
 gain inspiration at your intermediate circle for pupil 
 study. Thus you come to know reasonably well your 
 boy or girl friend, and so begin to understand all boys 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 19 
 
 and girls. Thus you become able to answer with con- 
 siderable satisfaction the question, " What is the boy ? " 
 You somehow manage to make each boy and each 
 girl your friend, and so make the school work a con- 
 stant delight. 
 
 A PLAN FOE STUDYING YOUTH. 
 
 What is the Youth? The restless, formative stage 
 of pupil growth from the fourteenth to the eighteenth 
 year is termed youth. About the beginning of this 
 period there is almost a leap in both physical and 
 mental growth. Irrepressible yearnings for great 
 things begin to sway the youth. Egoism begins to 
 give place to altruism. Duty impulses become com- 
 mands. The imitative activities of the boy become 
 the creative activities of the youth. "Will asserts its 
 sovereignty, and the youth must do or die ; action is 
 salvation. During these restless years life ideals are 
 formed, and the trend is given that leads on to excel- 
 lency. How may we with greatest profit study our 
 high-school pupils? The wise teacher will continue 
 to study the individual pupil. You make some youth 
 your special friend and companion and spend with 
 him one or two hours each week. You have learned 
 to put yourself in the place of the infant, the child, 
 the boy. Your youthful days are readily recalled. 
 You find it easy to put yourself in the place of your 
 new friend, and thus you come to understand him. 
 You converse with him, read with him, investigate 
 with him, sympathize with him in his hopes and fears, 
 in his joys and sorrows. You compare him with 
 other youths and with your younger friends. You 
 
20 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 observe him in his daily work and in his association 
 with others. You read the best books treating of 
 youth culture. You spend an hour each week in your 
 high-school circle, consecrated to the study of youth. 
 Thus your high-school pupils become an open book 
 to you, and you can for yourself give an intelligent 
 answer to the question, " What is the youth ? " 
 
 A PLAN FOR STUDYING MANHOOD. 
 
 What is the Young Man? The differentiating, 
 crowning stage of pupil growth is termed young man- 
 hood. We include in this period college and uni- 
 versity life. From eighteen to twenty-five we think 
 of the pupil as a young man or a young woman. 
 Pupil life closes with this period. The college stands 
 for the highest stage of school culture. How may 
 the teacher best study the student ? Self-knowledge 
 is the key. You think of the student as another self, 
 only a little less matured. Your memories of your 
 own student life are fresh, and you find it easy to 
 put yourself in the place of the student. In our 
 times young men and young women act important 
 parts in all measures of reform. You work with 
 them in these endeavours and form close and beautiful 
 friendships. You are one with the students in origi- 
 nal research. You study with them literature, and 
 psychology, and ethics, and sociology, and philosophy. 
 Then you find the meeting of your Student Study 
 Circle invigorating and helpful. You get to under- 
 stand the student, and find yourself prepared to answer 
 with a degree of satisfaction the question, " What is 
 the young man ? " 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 21 
 
 What is the Man ? The working stage of human 
 growth is termed manhood. It extends from the 
 twenty-fifth year to the end of life. The Humboldts 
 and Gladstones have measurably abolished old age. 
 We do not think of the man as a pupil. In the 
 school of life a man no longer needs a guide ; he 
 works out his own salvation. Does the teacher need 
 to study the man ? Yes, you must become acquainted 
 with human life from the cradle to the grave. Biog- 
 raphy and sociology and literature and philosophy 
 and history are manhood studies. You need to study 
 the growing self in all the stages of development, that 
 you may become accustomed to think of a life as a 
 whole. In converse with your bosom friends you 
 gain deeper insight into human nature, and come to 
 understand all men. You mingle with the world's 
 workers, and feel the mighty impulses that affect man- 
 kind. Biography and history and literature and soci- 
 ology and philosophy become living realities, and you 
 realize the past in the present. 
 
 STUDY THE PuPIL AS A PHYSICAL BEING. 
 
 Mental Betterment depends on Physical Betterment. 
 
 The teacher profoundly studies the physical con- 
 ditions of growth. The self lives in and works 
 through a material body with material environments. 
 The teacher must know more than the physician, for 
 to develop a vigorous physical manhood is a greater 
 work than to heal disease. The teacher studies to 
 command the best hygienic conditions, and to lead 
 pupils to form the best hygienic habits. Thus is laid 
 the foundation for a vigorous manhood. 
 
22 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The ability of a Pupil to do School Work is meas- 
 ured by his Physical Strength. This law demands far- 
 reaching reforms in school management and in teach- 
 ing. The teacher must study the physical as well as 
 the mental abilities of the learner, and adapt the 
 work. Most pupils can profitably do the average 
 work ; some can safely do more ; while a few are 
 physically unfit to do the work of the class. Science 
 in the near future will doubtless give us easy rules of 
 measurement to determine, in some degree, classifica- 
 tion and management and methods ; but most must 
 depend on the insight of the teacher. Good common 
 sense must supplement all tests. 
 
 Vision is tested. Defective vision is fearfully 
 prevalent. Probably one fourth of our pupils suffer 
 in some degree from impaired sight. The teacher, 
 trained to test the senses, tests the eyes of each pupil. 
 Those suffering from defective vision are seated with 
 reference to the light. When deemed advisable, parents 
 are requested to consult an oculist, and secure when 
 necessary properly fitted glasses. Great suffering and 
 irreparable loss are thus prevented. The teacher studies 
 to prevent as well as to remedy defective vision. 
 
 Hearing is tested, Probably one pupil in five 
 suffers from defective hearing. The teacher tests the 
 ears of each pupil. Defectives are given favourable 
 positions. Parents are urged to consult a specialist. 
 How many cases of suffering and of stunted lives may 
 be prevented by these simple tests ! The teacher lives 
 close to the pupil, and finds out and seeks to remedy 
 physical defects. Physical culture goes on side by 
 side with mental culture and moral culture. 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 23 
 
 STUDY THE PuPIL AS A SELF. 
 
 What goes on in the Pupil's Mind ? Not to know, 
 is to confess unfitness for teaching. As the botanist 
 studies plants in their properties, so the teacher studies 
 the pupils in their activities. Pupil activities are to 
 the teacher what the scale is to the musician. The 
 study of pupil activities, pupil growth, pupil processes, 
 and pupil motives does most to prepare teachers for 
 their work. All other plans and devices must be 
 made auxiliaries. These studies keep the teacher face 
 to face with mental life. 
 
 Each Self is a Type of all Selves. You are conscious 
 of perceiving, apperceiving, and representing ; of feel- 
 ing self-emotions, social emotions, and emotions of the 
 true, the beautiful, the good ; of attending, determin- 
 ing, and executing. You think of the pupil as an- 
 other self, doing feebly what you do vigorously. 
 What goes on in your mind goes on in the pupil's 
 mind. The elemental soul activities are ever the 
 same ; each self is a type of all selves. Thus it is that 
 you are able to understand and to lead your pupils. 
 
 He who knows himself knows all Men. The only 
 road to pupil knowledge is self-knowledge. Self- 
 knowledge is the key to all knowledge. You experi- 
 ence all soul activities. You look within and actually 
 see yourself thinking and admiring and resolving. 
 With a living teacher you study an easy psychology, 
 and learn to describe and explain the phenomena of 
 mental life. You study experimentally the inter- 
 action between a self and his organism. You study 
 the larger self in history and literature and life, and 
 
24 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 become rich in the race experience. You marvel how 
 the mists begin to clear away, giving you clear insight 
 into what goes on in the minds of your pupils. 
 
 METHODS OF PUPIL STUDY. 
 
 Adopt some Plan for Pupil Study. The essential 
 thing is real child study. Any plan that leads teachers 
 to observe children and to gain insight into pupil na- 
 ture does good. You observe for yourself and also 
 study suggestive books and journals and plans for 
 child study. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, the acknowledged 
 leader, presents extremely valuable as well as practical 
 plans for pupil study. Col. F. W. Parker has done 
 much to make all teachers original investigators in the 
 study of the child. Prof. Earl Barnes has worked 
 out valuable plans of pupil study on the side of morals. 
 His suggestions for methods of studying children are 
 golden. Our educational literature is already rich in 
 plans for pupil study. The presentations at our edu- 
 cational associations and in our summer normals and 
 in our child study circles are fresh, suggestive, in- 
 spiring. The young teacher is in danger from the 
 very abundance of good things. You will do well to 
 ponder long before adopting a plan for systematic 
 pupil study. What will most benefit yourself and 
 your pupils ? Remember that David with his crude 
 sling was far more efficient than David in Saul's elab- 
 orate armour. 
 
 Methods of studying Children.* " Whatever suc- 
 cess has attended educational efforts in the past has 
 
 * Prof. Earl Barnes, Studies in Education. 
 
HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 25 
 
 been due to the direct or the indirect study of human 
 nature. The newness of the movement of the last ten 
 years consists in the fact that this study has become 
 self-conscious ; that it concerns itself with the indi- 
 vidual during the period of childhood and youth ; 
 and that it uses, to some extent, the methods of mod- 
 ern inductive science. Child study is at present 
 largely an applied science ; it has to-day the same re- 
 lation to psychology that horticulture has to botany. 
 
 "Practically, in our real work with children we 
 probably draw more upon our memories for an inter- 
 pretation of their acts than upon any knowledge we 
 have gained through the study of other children. In 
 our own work we have found no method more useful 
 for students and teachers who wish to understand 
 children than that of carefully writing out their own 
 memories along vital and definite lines. 
 
 " All strong advance in science has so far been made 
 through the direct study of reality, and probably one 
 comes nearest to the reality with which education 
 deals when he stands in the immediate presence of a 
 child. Direct studies on individual children must 
 give us whatever of final knowledge we achieve con- 
 cerning children. When we come to apply the same 
 skill and honesty to the study of the natural history 
 of childhood that we now devote to botany and 
 zoology, we shall make great progress in our treatment 
 of children. 
 
 "The seating and lighting of buildings, the ar- 
 rangement of programmes, the making of text-books, 
 the assigning of lessons, all the problems of discipline, 
 and, still more, the determining of each individual's 
 
26 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 personal qualities against tins background of averages 
 all this makes the demand for such studies im- 
 perative. 
 
 " If a man goes about his daily work with his eyes 
 and his heart open ; if he lives over his childhood's 
 life, with an honest desire to see what kind of a child 
 he was and what kind of a man he is, quickening his 
 memory with childish records and autobiography ; if 
 he studies children under carefully arranged condi- 
 tions, bringing the same fair-mindedness and persist- 
 ence to his work that the scientist brings to his labo- 
 ratory ; and if he brings all these scattered studies 
 into their due relations by setting them in the back- 
 ground of general law, based on large quantitative 
 studies, he will accomplish all that he can reasonably 
 hope for in these days of beginnings." 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE PUPIL THROUGH IMPROVEMENT 
 % OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 We think of the Teacher as an Educator. The 
 
 teacher, like the poet, is made as well as born. The 
 most gifted teachers are the hardest workers, and 
 work develops power. The purpose of the school is 
 educative, and the teacher is pre-eminently the edu- 
 cator. Educational conditions and facilities are im- 
 portant, but the teacher is the vital force. All good 
 comes through lawful self-effort, but it is the teacher 
 
IMPROVEMENT OP THE TEACHER. 27 
 
 who leads his pupils to do their best in the best way. 
 We lead our pupils to make most of themselves. The 
 teacher is the pupils' model as he gets closest to them 
 and stands for the best in their young lives. He is 
 the pupils' instructor, and he leads them step by step 
 to master the realms of knowledge. He is the pupil's 
 guide, as he manages to have them so put forth effort 
 as to develop power. He is the leader, for he leads 
 pupils on in their efforts to attain. He is the pupils' 
 friend, for he studies the well-being of learners and 
 awakens in them all ennobling impulses and aspira- 
 tions. Improvement of the teacher is the greatest of 
 all benefactions, for it means the uplifting of all men. 
 
 PROFESSION OF TEACHING. 
 
 Teaching is a Profession. The advancement of the 
 teaching profession will do most to promote teacher 
 improvement. At the extremes, even now, the teach- 
 ing profession stands among the first. Kindergart- 
 ners are professional teachers, as are the faculties of 
 our colleges and universities. But our teachers in 
 our elementary and secondary schools as a class are 
 still semi-professional and non-professional. For the 
 improvement of teachers, the transformation of the 
 great body of instructors into professional teachers is 
 an educational desideratum. To this end, tenure of 
 office, adequate salaries, specialization, teaching as a 
 career, and teacher culture are essential conditions. 
 
 1. Permanency is Fundamental. Competent and 
 tried teachers should hold positions during efficient 
 service. The civil service reform should certainly in- 
 clude teachers. No other economic blunder so tends 
 
28 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 to deprive the teaching ranks of the most gifted teach- 
 ers, or to so discourage thorough preparation for 
 teaching, as the uncertain tenure of office. Extending 
 the civil service reform to teachers will do most of all 
 to make teaching a profession. We can scarcely con- 
 ceive of the wearing anxiety and the eating worry 
 which teachers suffer on account of annual elections. 
 It is simply barbarous. 
 
 2. Adequate Salaries are Essential The fact that 
 the salaries of our teachers have been quadrupled 
 during the closing half of the nineteenth century is 
 highly encouraging. Many educators now get as 
 large salaries as the judiciary, as the ministry, as the 
 State officers. The best positions now pay salaries of 
 $5,000 and $10,000, and even $15,000. But the 
 average pay of our teachers is far below that of our 
 lawyers and doctors and business men. Indeed, the 
 salaries of the great body of our teachers are shame- 
 fully inadequate. Teaching demands the best talent, 
 the most thorough preparation, and the means for 
 constant growth. Generous salaries will work like 
 magic in the promotion of teacher betterment, and in 
 transforming the trade of teaching into the profession 
 of teaching. 
 
 3. Specialization is Cardinal. Concentration is es- 
 sential to the highest efficiency. The crudeness of 
 very much of our school work comes of our failure 
 to utilize specialization in teaching. The kindergart- 
 ner and the college professor are specialists, and 
 hence our kindergartens and our colleges are marvels 
 of efficiency. Our best primary teachers, like our 
 kindergartners, are becoming specialists in child cnl- 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 29 
 
 ture. It is believed that in the near future each high- 
 school teacher and each intermediate teacher will be 
 a specialist, and hence a professional teacher. Even 
 rural teachers will come to be specialists in ungraded 
 school work. Specialization enables the teacher to 
 become an educational artist, thus greatly elevating 
 the teaching profession and wonderfully improving 
 our schools. 
 
 4. Teaching must be made an Inviting Career. 
 Teaching must offer desirable careers in order to en- 
 list the most gifted. As the century closes, it is safe 
 to say that no better field of human achievement is 
 open to our young men and women than the high- 
 er education. In no other profession is promotion 
 speedier or the reward surer. No other career gives 
 higher satisfaction or commands greater respect or 
 develops a grander manhood. College presidents 
 take rank with governors, and college professors and 
 city superintendents take rank with authors and states- 
 men. But to the rank and file of the mighty army 
 of teachers, teaching can not yet be considered an in- 
 viting career. True, a marvellous change has taken 
 place. In the past, history and literature exhibit the 
 pedagogue as the butt of ridicule ; now the teacher 
 stands for the best in his community. No other offi- 
 cer of the State gets so near to the people or does so 
 much for human elevation. But as a life career, the 
 , outlook for the mass of our teachers is not cheering. 
 / Positions are still precarious, and salaries are still 
 I pinchingly small. Worst of all is the hopelessness as 
 \to merited promotion. Teacher betterment demands 
 such measures as will multiply desirable positions 
 
30 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 and make merited promotion reasonably certain. 
 Then we may hope to see large numbers of our gifted 
 youths select teaching as a profession and thoroughly 
 prepare themselves for the work. Then, like lawyers, 
 teachers will be content to begin at the bottom and 
 work up. The certainty of success through merit 
 will inspire heroic effort, and lead the teacher to be- 
 come an educational artist and a power for good. 
 
 5. Teaching must be made a Learned Profession. 
 The prepared teacher is the world's great want. As 
 the nineteenth century closes, it is humiliating to be 
 compelled to say that of our four hundred thousand 
 American teachers scarcely one third are well pre- 
 pared for their work. A majority of our teachers 
 are deficient in culture and in professional education. 
 Many even of our college and university professors 
 do not know how to teach. But the star is shining in 
 the east. Our universities are creating departments 
 of education side by side with the departments of law 
 and medicine. All the States now sustain systems of 
 normal schools. Summer normals with their quick- 
 ening influences now reach all teachers. Teaching is 
 rapidly becoming a profession, and we must make it 
 in truth a learned profession. The teacher must stand 
 
 for culture. 
 
 THE IDEAL TEACHER. 
 
 We think of the ideal teacher as gifted, as skilled, 
 as cultured, as devoted, as progressive. How are we 
 to produce such teachers ? How are we to fill our 
 schools with such artists ? 
 
 1. The World wants Gifted Teachers. Since the 
 teacher is the pupil model, the pupil leader, the pupil 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 31 
 
 inspirer, he must be superior physically, mentally, 
 morally. Only gifted men and women should become 
 teachers. Youths who manifest teaching abilities 
 should be encouraged to choose teaching as a profes- 
 sion. Philip thanked the gods that his son could have 
 Aristotle for his teacher. All parents do well to be 
 supremely thankful that their children may have gift- 
 ed teachers. Surely the world should encourage gifted 
 youths to devote their lives to teaching. Surely the 
 most gifted should elect teaching as a profession. 
 
 2. Culture characterizes our Ideal Teacher. Cul- 
 ture conditions good teaching. Culture means the 
 development of character and of taste as well as the 
 attainment of scholarship. Our schools and colleges 
 stand for culture. At the dawn of the twentieth cen- 
 tury it is safe and reasonable to require that our ele- 
 mentary teachers shall be high-school and normal- 
 school graduates, and that our high-school teachers shall 
 be trained college graduates. This reasonable require- 
 ment will give us cultured teachers. Such teachers 
 will command respect and will be called to leadership. 
 Teaching will be recognised as a learned profession. 
 
 3. Professional Preparation is Essential In the 
 new education the twin arts of school management 
 and teaching are based on the science of education. 
 The prepared teacher works in the light of the edu- 
 cational thought and experience of all the ages. In 
 the old education there was no real basis. The old 
 schoolmaster, ignorant of pupil nature, of educational 
 law, and of educational economy, literally groped his 
 way. His many legitimate successors in our schools 
 and colleges blunder on in well-worn ruts. 
 
32 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The creation of professional schools for the pro- 
 fessional education of teachers emphasizes the essen- 
 tial characteristic of the new education. Scholarship 
 is one thing, and skill in teaching and school manage- 
 ment is quite another thing. Surely the teacher needs 
 to study pupil nature in the light of educational psy- 
 chology, and teaching and school management in the 
 light of the history and science of education. Surely 
 the teacher needs to practise these arts under the 
 guidance of skilled educators before assuming the 
 weighty responsibilities of the educator. As a legal 
 education is made the condition of admission to the 
 bar, so should a pedagogical education be made the 
 condition of admission to the desk. Nor is the time 
 distant when in our own land, as now in other lands, 
 persons without a professional preparation for teach- 
 ing will be debarred from the brotherhood of teachers. 
 
 4. Like all Artists, the Ideal Teacher is Devoted. 
 Teaching demands consecrated lives, and the entire 
 time and energies of the most gifted. Just think of 
 the tremendous work the teacher undertakes ; he as- 
 sumes the fearful responsibility of leading his pupils 
 to make the most of themselves. Other artists think 
 of time ; the teacher thinks of eternity as well as time. 
 His pupils are to shine brighter than the stars for- 
 ever. The teacher spirit is the spirit of devotion and 
 consecration, and this is the crowning preparation for 
 the work of teaching. Your ideals are high, and you 
 feel an irrepressible longing to realize these ideals. 
 You intensely love your pupils, and see in them 
 boundless possibilities. You feel an intense interest 
 in your work, and day by day you strive to do 
 
IMPROVEMENT OP THE TEACHER. 33 
 
 the most possible for your pupils. The teacher is 
 devoted. 
 
 5. The Ideal Teacher is Progressive. Only growing 
 teachers are fit to lead growing pupils. The founder 
 of the Oswego Normal School, the American Pesta- 
 lozzi, Dr. Edward A. Sheldon, has been a leader in 
 educational reform for four decades ; yet he introduces 
 his latest outline of work with these golden words : 
 
 We do not undertake to say, nor do we presume, that the 
 subjects taken up are in all cases the best that might be selected, 
 nor that the order of arrangement is in all cases the best possible. 
 All that we can say is, that at the present time the scheme pre- 
 sented is the one we are following. We have no expectation that 
 it will be the same another year ; in fact, our plan is to change 
 from time to time. We shall come very far short of our privilege 
 and duty if we do not continue to grow in this work, and all 
 growth involves change. 
 
 What an admirable object lesson of the spirit of 
 the new education and of the progressive teacher ! 
 
 SCHOOLS FOR EDUCATING TEACHEKS. 
 
 1. Universities sustain Departments of Education. 
 
 Sir William Petty, in 1647, said, " Education should 
 be seriously studied, and should be the business of the 
 ablest and best persons." Herbart, early in the cen- 
 tury, originated the movement to make pedagogy a 
 university study. As with medicine and law, the 
 movement has slowly gained momentum, and one by 
 one the universities are coming to place the depart- 
 ment of education side by side with the departments 
 of law and medicine. The course requires four years 
 for its completion, but students electing the profession 
 of teaching do the first and second years' work as a 
 4 
 
34: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 part of their junior and senior college courses. Then 
 two years are devoted to strictly professional work. 
 Besides the groundwork, teachers prepare for special 
 lines of professional work. 
 
 2. Colleges sustain Chairs of Pedagogy. Since a 
 large proportion of our college graduates elect teach- 
 ing, our colleges realize the necessity of providing for 
 the professional education of teachers. College grad- 
 uates are not recognised as teachers or doctors or 
 lawyers. During the junior and senior years students 
 electing teaching take pedagogy as a part of the col- 
 lege course. An able educator in this position works 
 wonders for the students and for the college. Each 
 professor comes to give annually a course of lessons 
 on methods of teaching his specialty. Graduates may 
 complete their professional education in the university, 
 or may at once become teachers. 
 
 3. State Normal Schools educate Elementary Teach- 
 ers. Persons who apply for admission are to have 
 strong bodies and active minds, and are to be high- 
 school graduates. The course embraces three years' 
 work. Professional education enters into the warp 
 and woof of all the work, but much of the very best 
 academic work is done during these years. Culture 
 is essential in teacher preparation. It is unfortunate 
 that comparatively few normal graduates ever enter 
 the college or the university. All educational coun- 
 tries now sustain normal schools. These schools give 
 us our trained elementary teachers, and each is a cen- 
 tre of educational life and progress. Of all school 
 agencies, our State normal schools have done most for 
 the elevation of our elementary schools. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OP THE TEACHER. 35 
 
 4. City Training Schools educate City Teachers. 
 Our great cities provide schools for training their 
 own teachers, and limit admission to high-school grad- 
 uates. Our high schools and academies in the smaller 
 towns find it necessary to give some pedagogical train- 
 ing to their graduates who elect teaching. Many 
 high schools now give their pupils practice in teach- 
 ing in addition to pedagogical instruction. The su- 
 perintendent and the high-school principal in our 
 towns often give professional instruction to pupils 
 who purpose teaching. The importance of special 
 preparation for teaching is thus emphasized. 
 
 5. Summer Normal Schools help all Teachers. 
 These are short-term normal schools, continuing from 
 two to eight weeks. The purpose is to assist as much 
 as possible the great body of untrained teachers, and 
 afford professional teachers special opportunities for 
 advancement. These schools supplement but do not 
 take the place of the regular professional schools. 
 They are doing a vast amount of good work, and are 
 wonderfully promoting educational progress. The 
 university summer normals afford rare opportunities 
 for advanced work in special lines. We have in these 
 schools practical university extension. 
 
 6. Thorough Professional Preparation works Teacher 
 as well as Pupil Good. Good positions await prepared 
 teachers. Persons who make teaching a trade will 
 gradually disappear from our schools. All positions 
 will be filled by trained teachers. The preparation 
 for teaching demands even more thorough profes- 
 sional education than preparation for practising law 
 or medicine. For the advanced work in teaching, a 
 
36 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 four years' course is not too long. The teacher thus 
 prepared will work in the light of all the ages. To 
 him teaching will be truly the art of promoting hu- 
 man development. For elementary teaching, the 
 three years' course of our State normal schools is not 
 too much. Only high-school graduates will, in the 
 near future, be admitted to these schools. Three 
 years are devoted to broader culture, to pedagogical 
 instruction, and to practise teaching. During the 
 second and third years the normal pupils are grouped 
 for special lines of school work for rural schools, 
 for kindergarten work, for primary work, for inter- 
 mediate work. Intermediate teachers are prepared 
 to teach special studies. Thus all normal work be- 
 comes fruitful in the highest degree because it be- 
 comes specialized work. 
 
 7. Professional Schools mean Educational Artists. 
 Educational schools produce teachers skilled in the 
 art of producing mental and moral growth, just as 
 medical schools produce physicians skilled in the art 
 of healing. The teaching art is sui generis. Other 
 artists create forms, but the teacher deals with the 
 self -forming. Mind is self-acting. Pupil self-effort 
 educates. The pupil moulds himself, forms himself, 
 learns through his own efforts. Well-directed self- 
 effort works its miracle of growth. Teaching is the 
 art of stimulating and guiding self -activity. The ar- 
 tistic teacher knows how to awaken effort and how to 
 wisely direct effort. The meaning of teachers' schools 
 is that gifted youths, instructed and trained by skilled 
 educators, may through indomitable self-effort become 
 educational artists. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 37 
 
 
 1. f 1. Define 
 
 ' I. 
 
 HIGHER 
 EDUCA- < 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5 
 
 2. School 
 Hygiene. 
 
 TIONAL 
 
 IDEALS. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 , 8. 
 
 3. Home 
 Hygiene. 
 
 
 r L 
 
 4. Play 
 
 II. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Hygiene. 
 
 HELP- 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 
 FUL i 
 
 
 
 PUPIL 
 
 1 
 
 5. Hygienic 
 
 STUDY. 
 
 7. 
 
 Ventila- 
 
 
 . 
 fl 
 
 tion. 
 
 1 16! 
 
 
 
 6. Hygienic 
 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 Heating. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 TEACH- 
 
 5. 
 
 7. Hygienic 
 
 ER bi- -< 
 
 6. 
 
 Light. 
 
 PROVE- 
 
 7. 
 
 
 MENT. 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 9. 
 
 8. Cleanli- 
 
 
 10. 
 
 ness and 
 
 
 11. 
 
 Toilet. 
 
 
 9. Hygienic 
 
 
 School 
 
 
 Desks. 
 
 IV. \ 
 
 
 BETTER 
 
 
 SCHOOL }- - 
 
 
 HYGI- 
 
 10. Hygi- 
 
 ENE. J 
 
 enic Hab- 
 
 
 its. 
 
 11. Intereet 
 in School 
 Hygiene. 
 
 ( (1) Hygiene. 
 
 ] (2) School hygiene. 
 
 ( (1) In the past. 
 \ (2) In the present. 
 
 {(1) Importance. 
 (2) School influence. 
 (3) Mother's society. 
 (4) Lectures and literature, 
 f (1) Play hygienic. 
 ' (2) Play educative. 
 
 (3) Hourly recess. 
 
 (4) Open air best. 
 
 (5) Physical culture. 
 
 (6) Lunch and play. 
 
 (1) Perfect ventilation. 
 
 (2) Poor ventilation. 
 
 (3) Window ventilation. 
 
 (4) Ventilating stove. 
 
 (5) Hourly recess. 
 
 {(1) Desideratum. 
 (2) Defective heating. 
 (3) Systems of heating. 
 (4) Open fireplace. 
 ^ (5) Economy of. 
 
 !(1) Perfect lighting. 
 (2) Window shades. 
 (8) Windows. 
 (4) Favour the eyes. 
 !(1) Untidiness. 
 (2) Importance. 
 (3) School closets. 
 (4) Cloakrooms. 
 {(1) Single desks. 
 (2) Adjustable chair and desk. 
 (3) Study desk. 
 (4) Reasonable adjustment. 
 f(l) Regularity. 
 
 (2) Cleanliness. 
 
 (3) Abundant sleep. 
 
 (4) Rational food habits. 
 
 (5) Good clothing habits. 
 (G) Cheerfulness. 
 
 (7) Law-abiding habits, 
 f (1) Interests all men. 
 
 (2) Personal equation. 
 i (3) Hygienic skill. 
 
 (4) Parental co-operation. 
 [(5) Plygienic literature. 
 
38 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE PUPIL THROUGH THE ADOPTION 
 OF A BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 
 
 School Management is the Art of bettering the 
 Pupil's Physical Condition. Light, heat, fresh air, ex- 
 ercise, furniture, books, school work, school recrea- 
 tion, school government, school programmes, and pupil 
 habits demand the utmost consideration, for they are 
 the conditions of pupil growth. The rational search 
 lights of all the ages are now turned in full blaze upon 
 the schoolroom. u Give us whatever tends to best 
 promote pupil improvement" is now the world's 
 highest note. 
 
 Hygiene is the Art of Health. Health, like all 
 other good things, comes through law-abiding. For- 
 tunately, the laws of health are few and plain. Good 
 parentage, sunshine and fresh air, good food and 
 abundant sleep, cleanliness and exercise, cheerfulness 
 and congenial occupation, hygienic habits these are 
 the conditions of good health. For the teacher not 
 to study hygienic laws, and not by example and pre- 
 cept and training to get pupils to live them, is surely 
 criminal. 
 
 School Hygiene is the Art of promoting the Phys- 
 ical Well-being of Pupils and Teachers. Physical bet- 
 terment conditions spiritual betterment. A self is 
 embodied in a physical organism having physical en- 
 vironments. A self acts best when his body with its 
 environments is in the best condition. As the race 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 39 
 
 lias come to realize the tremendous importance of 
 physical culture, the wisdom and the resources of the 
 world have been taxed more and more in the interests 
 of practical school hygiene. 
 
 The Woeful Neglect of School Hygiene. Some good 
 day, we doubt not, the nations will vie with each other 
 in their efforts to secure the best possible school 
 hygiene. In the past men studied brute hygiene, but 
 seemed to have been strangely oblivious to the de- 
 mands of human hygiene. Their barns were hygienic 
 models, but their schoolhouses were execrable. They 
 produced fine horses, while they left their children to 
 suffer all the evils of unhygienic school life. 
 
 Even now, at the dawn of the twentieth century, 
 stable hygiene seems to be far in advance of school 
 hygiene, and the beneficent lessons of scientific school 
 sanitation still fail to benefit the masses. Excellent 
 sanitation in our schools is still the exception. The 
 rule is such wretched school sanitation as to practically 
 check the rapid increase of population. 
 
 Pupil Good demands Better Home Hygiene. This 
 must come largely through the school. The lessons 
 in physical culture teach the pupils the conditions of 
 vigorous health and lead them to form hygienic 
 habits. Food, sleep, pure air, cleanliness, clothing, 
 are carefully considered. It is marvellous how rapidly 
 home life improves when the school life becomes 
 practically hygienic. The teacher studies to secure 
 home co-operation, carefully guarding against creat- 
 ing antagonisms. So much of the physical well-being 
 of pupils is dependent on home hygiene that educa- 
 tors do well to give special attention to the physical 
 
40 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 improvement of home life. Very much may be ac- 
 complished by the monthly meetings of mothers and 
 teachers, now becoming common. Sensible lectures 
 and reasonable hygienic literature supplement the 
 work of the school. Home hygiene improves as 
 school hygiene grows better. 
 
 PLAY AND GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Play is eminently Hygienic. Recreation makes 
 possible the best work. 
 
 The kindergarten, by utilizing play, has made a 
 large contribution to the well-being of the race. 
 Work fatigues, exhausts the brain cells ; play rests, 
 recuperates exhausted brain cells. Play is recreation, 
 for it is free, spontaneous activity. It breaks the 
 spell of work and care. From infancy to age play is 
 a boon to all workers. A self while taking recrea- 
 tion relaxes effort and roams fancy free. Thus the 
 tired brain is given time to recuperate. A student 
 who takes ten minutes' suitable recreation each hour 
 will come out ahead of the student who without breaks 
 pores over his books hour after hour. The men of 
 thought as well as the men of action doujble their 
 efficiency by taking regularly helpful recreation. 
 
 School Work is Educative when Pupils are Fresh. 
 Drudgery hurts, and does not help. All forced ef- 
 fort made when the pupil is exhausted is injurious. 
 Work, and then play, is the divine plan. We may 
 easily quadruple the educative value of our schools by 
 studying to keep pupils fresh. Strong men find re- 
 creation a necessity ; how much more must immature 
 pupils play as well as work, and thus grow. Suitable 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 41 
 
 school plays recreate but do not exhaust. He who 
 helps to lead the school world to play wisely deserves 
 to be crowned as a benefactor. 
 
 A Eecess at the Close of each Hour is the Perfect 
 Economy. The hygienic and educative benefits of the 
 hourly recess are incalculable. Young children soon 
 become fatigued, and so we make their periods of 
 work very brief. The periods of work are length- 
 ened as the pupils advance. The fatigue limit is a 
 great practical study. Much may be done to keep 
 pupils fresh by having easy work follow difficult 
 work. Change rests. The song and the story rest. 
 But frequent periods of absolute freedom are indis- 
 pensable. In the schools of the future, it is believed, 
 a recess of ten minutes will be given at the close of 
 each hour. 
 
 Play in the Open Air is most Hygienic. Suitable 
 playgrounds with the best play-provoking facilities 
 may safely be counted among the most important 
 hygienic agencies. All real play is essentially free 
 and spontaneous. Yet at no time is wise supervision 
 more important than during play. Hurtful plays 
 must be discouraged and the most helpful plays fos- 
 tered. The teacher feels the play impulses, and so 
 guides by suggestion without abridging freedom and 
 spontaneity. Well-ventilated, well-lighted, and com- 
 modious playrooms for use during inclement weather 
 are helpful when the supervision is judicious. How- 
 ever great the cost, these playrooms pay largely in in- 
 creased pupil vigour. 
 
 Lunch and Play occur together. Teachers and pu- 
 pils, during the half-hour noon recess, eat lunch and 
 
42 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 indulge in light amusements. The playgrounds are 
 used in pleasant weather and the playrooms in in- 
 clement weather. This plan has many advantages, 
 and works well when the teachers enter into it heard, 
 ly. The hygiene of school lunch for teachers and 
 pupils deserves thoughtful study. Probably the least 
 hygienic is the plan of having pupils rush home, bolt 
 a hearty meal, and rush back again. The desideratum 
 is suitable lunch, eaten without haste and followed by 
 gentle play. 
 
 Systematic Physical Culture is indispensable. In 
 our best schools physical culture goes on side by side 
 with mental and moral culture. Graded physical ex- 
 ercises give pleasure, gracefulness, and vigour. Dur- 
 ing the pauses pointed suggestions are given in prac- 
 tical hygiene. The gymnastic exercises, when adapted 
 to the pupils and well managed, are educative as well 
 as hygienic. They develop habits of exact obedience, 
 train pupils to work in harmony with others, and 
 give artistic command of the body. Gymnastics re- 
 quire considerable will effort, and hence do not take 
 the place of the spontaneous plays of the recess. The 
 Germans emphasize systematic gymnastics, but neg- 
 lect play ; the English exalt play, but neglect sys- 
 tematic physical culture ; the Americans and the 
 French, after the fashion of the Greeks, emphasize 
 both play and gymnastics. 
 
 SCHOOLROOM VENTILATION. 
 
 Perfect Ventilation is the Aim. Pupils and teach- 
 ers, in order to do their best, must work in pure air 
 at the proper temperature. Perfect ventilation keeps 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 43 
 
 the air within the schoolroom as pure as the air with- 
 out, and school hygiene seeks to approximate this 
 ideal. Improved systems for ventilating school build- 
 ings have accomplished wonders. Our best buildings 
 are now fairly well ventilated, but even these await 
 immense improvements. 
 
 Most Schoolrooms are Badly Ventilated. The rule 
 is poor ventilation, and good ventilation is the excep- 
 tion. In a vast majority of our schoolrooms the ven- 
 tilation is execrable. A father called at the school- 
 room te see his little daughter. Afterward he said : 
 " It makes me sick to think of that odour now, yet for 
 hours my child had been breathing that poisonous air. 
 The teacher did not know that the air was horrible." 
 The author could say the same thing about a thousand 
 schoolrooms which he has visited. Yet teacher and 
 pupils, even under these conditions, are expected to do 
 the best work ! 
 
 Abundance of Pure Air must be secured. To begin 
 with, all schoolrooms must provide for each pupil at 
 least twenty-five square feet of floor space and three 
 hundred cubic feet, of air space. For forty pupils a 
 schoolroom thirty by forty by ten > feet will meet the 
 conditions, but no schoolroom should be less than thir- 
 teen feet high. Then the ventilating apparatus must 
 provide for regular change of air, so as to afford for 
 each pupil each hour thirty-five hundred cubic feet of 
 pure air. Great advances have been made, but no 
 system of ventilation has proved fully satisfactory. 
 School architecture must manage to make ventilation, 
 heating, and lighting fundamental. In some way the 
 best must be made effective in all schools. In the 
 
44 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 smaller and inexpensive rural schoolhouses the best 
 ventilation and heating is now secured by having in 
 each schoolroom a small open fireplace and also a ven- 
 tilating stove with well-constructed ventilating flues. 
 This arrangement, with judicious window ventilation, 
 and by having a recess of ten minutes each hour, se- 
 cures reasonably satisfactory ventilation. It has the 
 advantages of being automatic. 
 
 HEATING SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 
 
 Proper Temperature conditions Health and Study. 
 School hygiene values the thermometer and requires 
 its constant use in every schoolroom. We study to 
 keep all parts of the schoolroom at a uniform tem- 
 perature of from sixty to seventy degrees ; the stand- 
 ard is sixty-eight degrees. This is accomplished rea- 
 sonably well in small buildings with the ventilating 
 stove, the open fireplace, the ventilating flues, and 
 judicious window ventilation. By all means we must 
 so manage that the pupils do not suffer with cold feet. 
 Steam heating, hot-water heating, and hot-air heating 
 are about equally successful in giving reasonable satis- 
 faction. No system should be tolerated which does 
 not furnish the heat by indirect radiation. It is not 
 pleasant to denounce the hot stove in the middle of 
 the schoolroom, still found in a majority of our school- 
 houses. The arch enemy of school hygiene could not 
 easily have invented a crueler means of torture or a 
 more unhygienic mode of heating. Pupils near the 
 stove burn, while those most distant almost freeze, and 
 nearly all suffer with cold feet. 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 45 
 
 Normal Temperature is Economic as well as Hygi- 
 enic. Teacher and pupils in a well-ventilated, well- 
 heated, well-lighted schoolroom do more work and 
 better work than would otherwise be possible. Gov- 
 ernment becomes comparatively easy. Interest and 
 attention are far more readily secured. Pupils are 
 bright and happy and healthy. Contrast such a school- 
 room with the stupidity and inattention and disorder 
 in a poorly ventilated, poorly heated, poorly lighted 
 schoolroom. Every consideration urges parents, offi- 
 cers, and teachers to spare no effort to secure the 
 necessary conditions for the best school work. 
 
 LIGHT IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 
 
 The Light within the Schoolroom should correspond 
 with the Light without. The alarming increase of de- 
 fective sight among pupils intensifies the importance 
 of having well-lighted schoolrooms. It is wise to 
 study Nature. Ideal ventilation secures as pure air 
 within as without the schoolroom. Ideal lighting 
 equalizes the intensity of light without and within the 
 schoolroom. The nearer the light in all parts of the 
 schoolroom corresponds with the light without, the 
 better for teacher and pupil. Pupils go in and out 
 without the painful feeling experienced when school- 
 rooms are darkened. Window shades and blinds are 
 often made instruments of torture, and should only be 
 used in schoolrooms to prevent the glare of sunlight. 
 For this purpose Venetian blinds with movable slats 
 are the worst device known, and semi-opaque shades 
 are the best. 
 
40 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 All Parts of the Schoolroom should be Well Lighted. 
 Experts tell us that there should be no windows in 
 front of the pupils, and that the best lighting requires 
 windows at the pupils' left side only. But we must 
 think of ventilation as well as lighting, and this may 
 require windows on two sides of the schoolroom, the 
 left side and at the back. At the least, the window 
 surface should equal one tenth of floor surface. No 
 schoolroom should be less than thirteen feet in height, 
 and the tops of the windows should be within a foot 
 of the ceiling and from eight to ten feet in height. 
 As the shades roll from the bottom of the window, 
 the light falls first from above. 
 
 Pupils are trained to favour their Eyes. Straining 
 injures. Prolonged staring hurts. We train our 
 pupils to use their eyes gently and sparingly. The 
 mind does the hard work. The object is observed, 
 and the pupil closes his eyes and pictures it. The 
 pupil reads the paragraph once, and closes his eyes 
 and thinks it many times. The pupil is trained to let 
 his eyes rest gently on the printed page, while the 
 mind does the work. How much the judicious teacher 
 can dp in training pupils to save their eyes, not only 
 in the schoolroom but also at their homes ! 
 
 CLEANLINESS AND CONVENIENCES. 
 
 Schoolrooms must be kept Clean. Some travellers 
 tell us that everywhere they found our school build- 
 ings untidy and overheated. As cleanliness is next 
 to godliness, must we not class untidy schoolhouses as 
 tending to godlessness? Many schoolhouses which 
 have been used for two or three decades, they tell us, 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 47 
 
 have never been scrubbed. Many schoolrooms are 
 simply filthy, and nothing is more unhygienic than 
 dirt and filth. Every consideration demands school- 
 room cleanliness. Surely cleanliness should extend 
 also to the school grounds. 
 
 The Civilized Schoolhouse Toilet is a Hygienic De- 
 sideratum. Nothing in school hygiene demands more 
 thoughtful consideration. Everywhere separate closets 
 are provided for each sex, but, as a rule, the closets are 
 not convenient, are not kept clean, are not hygienic.* 
 
 The revolutionary device of leaving pupils free to 
 visit the closets at will is deemed of incalculable hygi- 
 enic value. Having pupils " ask," a relic of ancient 
 school barbarism, works exceeding harm. 
 
 Hygienic Cloakrooms help, We rarely find these 
 necessities entirely satisfactory. All teachers insist 
 that our cloakrooms should be well ventilated, well 
 lighted, well heated, and convenient. Are they ? 
 Are the arrangements such that pupils can deposit or 
 take their wraps while passing in line? Teachers, 
 you can do more than all the rest of the world to se- 
 cure school cleanliness, civilized toilet, and hygienic 
 cloakrooms. It requires courage even to speak of 
 these things. But the management of these matters 
 is a part of our professional work. It is ours to plan 
 and work for the good of our race. School boards 
 rarely refuse to listen to reasonable suggestions. A 
 lecture occasionally on school hygiene does much to 
 educate the people. 
 
 * The teacher should not fail to read School Closets and Civi- 
 lization, by Superintendent A. P. Marble. 
 
48 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 HYGIENIC SCHOOL DESKS. 
 
 Hygienic school desks and chairs are a school de- 
 sideratum. They promote pupil comfort, and thus 
 promote good order and vigorous study. They fa- 
 vour hygienic positions of the body, and thus pro- 
 mote health. 
 
 1. The Single Desk and Chair are Preferable. The 
 double desk must go. With single desks pupils have 
 more air space, more freedom, and better facilities 
 for study. Control is much less difficult, and the 
 hygienic gains are considerable. In another decade 
 the single desk will, for these and other reasons, be 
 used in most schools. 
 
 2. The Adjustable Desk and Chair are the Best. 
 Others are not now permissible. The desks and chairs 
 are adjusted to the pupil. The desk is just low enough 
 to. allow the bent elbow to touch it when the hand is 
 raised to write without raising the shoulder or tilting 
 the trunk. The chair is low enough to permit easy 
 contact of the whole sole of the shoe with the floor 
 when the pupils sit well back in the seat. A foot 
 rest is always provided. The distance between the 
 back of the chair and the edge of the desk should 
 vary from nine to thirteen inches, according to size 
 of pupils. Such adjustments foster hygienic positions, 
 and should be made with great care. Inventors 
 should study simplicity, so that teachers may be able 
 to easily make the adjustments. 
 
 3. The Desk Lid should be Adjustable for Study. 
 Some inventive genius will give us a simple adjust- 
 able desk lid that on touching a spring will move to 
 
\ 
 
 BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 49 
 
 the proper angle for a book rest. It must be easily 
 adjustable to each pupil. The distance, the angle, 
 and the light are such that the eye rests gratefully on 
 the printed page. The text-book and the dictionary 
 rest on the desk lid ready for use. 
 
 4. Eeasonable Adjustment is of High Value. The 
 old education tried to fit the pupil to the seat and the 
 desk ; the new education seeks to fit the seat and the 
 desk to the pupil. Elaborate measurements and mi- 
 nute adjustments are not thought of. The adjustments 
 recommended are easy, reasonable, and of great hy- 
 gienic and educational value. 
 
 HYGIENIC HABITS. 
 
 Good Habits make for Manhood. They mean health 
 and happiness. Good habits lead to success. Teach- 
 ers co-operate with parents in leading pupils to form 
 good hygienic habits. Example, precept, and training 
 are the effective means. Pupils come to reverence 
 hygienic laws as they reverence moral laws. The 
 habit of law-abiding is a great thing in education. 
 
 1. Regularity is a Fundamental Hygienic Habit. 
 Octogenarians ascribe their long lives largely to the 
 habit of regularity. Regularity in eating, in sleeping, 
 in taking exercise, in studying, in bathing, in recrea- 
 tion, tends to promote physical vigour and success. 
 Regular work promotes physical and mental vigour, 
 but irregularity tends to make invalids. Spurts often 
 kill. We do a good thing for our pupils when we 
 train them to the habit of regularity in attendance 
 and study, but we do most for them when we lead 
 them to form the habit of regularity in all things. 
 5 
 
50 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. Cleanliness is a Humanizing Hygienic Habit 
 
 Savages are filthy. Soap and civilization are insep- 
 arable. Order may be the first, but assuredly cleanli- 
 ness is Heaven's second law. Bathing is scarcely less 
 necessary than food. Regular bathing, winter and 
 summer, greatly increase physical vigour and mental 
 power. A free use of water is the best of all preven- 
 tives of disease. Filthiness characterizes swine and 
 low people. Cleanliness and neatness characterize 
 refined people. Teachers are models. 
 
 3. Sleep is Nature's Sweet Bestorer. Abundant 
 sleep is a primary condition of health and study. 
 Every act of mind or body tends to exhaustion. 
 Sleeping and rest give the system time to repair the 
 waste. He who rises each morning as strong as on 
 the previous day maintains his vigour, and he who 
 rises stronger, increases his vigour. The great stu- 
 dents and great workers have ever been good sleepers. 
 Hard study hurts no one. Dissipation and late hours 
 and spurts kill. The teacher co-operates with parents 
 in encouraging pupils to take regular and abundant 
 sleep. They must grow as well as learn. To keep 
 late hours is a deadly hygienic sin. Sleepiness in 
 the schoolroom counts as stupidity. No pupil or stu- 
 dent who takes abundant sleep is likely to break down 
 from hard study. 
 
 4. Eating Habits are Important. Hygienic food 
 habits condition health and growth. Brutes live to 
 eat, but men eat to live. "What to eat, and how much 
 to eat, and when to eat, and how to eat, are vital con- 
 siderations. Plain living and high thinking go to- 
 gether. Half our pupils fail to do their best because 
 
^ s l^^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 BETTER SCHOOL ^YGIEXE_ 
 
 ^ 
 
 of bad eating habits. The teacher, by sensible sug- 
 gestions, may greatly improve the eating habits of his 
 pupils. Stories from life are often the best hygienic 
 lessons. 
 
 5. Clothing Habits deserve Special Attention. The 
 principal hygienic use of clothing is to protect the 
 body from heat and cold. Health, therefore, de- 
 mands that we should consider the kind of clothing 
 and the necessary changes of clothing. Upon these 
 points the teacher will speak plainly and frequently. 
 Boys as well as girls are injured for life by hurtful 
 clothing habits. Happily, our clothing reforms are 
 changing the worst clothing habits. But much work 
 along this line will always devolve on the true teacher. 
 
 6. Cheerful Habits promote Health, Vigour, and Suc- 
 cess. Cheerfulness is the greatest of all hygienic 
 agencies. Those who are always glad are seldom 
 sick. Of all places, home and school should be made 
 the most cheerful. A grim, cold^ repulsive teacher 
 chills the child to the bones. This grimness is not 
 confined to male teachers ; there are many lady teach- 
 ers who long since forgot how to smile, at least how 
 to smile in a sweet and loving manner. This is dread- 
 ful in a primary school. We have one in mind now. 
 The lady is tall, pale, wears glasses, and never smiles, 
 yet she is one of the noblest of women. Her pupils 
 seem to have copied her. They look anxious and 
 pale ; wrinkles are on their young brows ; life seems 
 scarcely worth living. They become an easy prey to 
 disease and death. This is all wrong. Education 
 comes from voluntary and glad effort. The teacher 
 ought to be happy and glad. She ought to fill the 
 
52 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 schoolroom with an atmosphere of love and a glow 
 of cheerfulness. In such a school disease will be a 
 stranger, and happiness and success will abound. Sun- 
 shine is the emblem of the best school life. 
 
 7. Habits of Law-abiding Self-control condition 
 Achievement. The best work of a school is the de- 
 velopment of such habits. Hurtful habits must not 
 be formed, and if such habits have been formed 
 they must be cured by the formation of helpful habits. 
 The drink habit is destructive. The tobacco habit 
 hurts, and does not help. Teachers can do most to 
 save their pupils from these and other ruinous habits. 
 The great thing is to develop the habit of law-abiding 
 self-control. Unlawful indulgence of appetites and 
 passions is beastly ; lawful self-control is manly. All 
 gratifications that hurt and do not help are unlawful. 
 All good and all happiness comes through law-abiding. 
 Health conditions happiness. 
 
 From the few texts here presented, teachers, it is 
 hoped, will work out many practical lessons. Other 
 topics of vast moment should be studied. First of 
 all, to be efficient, each teacher must solve the per- 
 sonal hygienic equation. Then, we should gain such 
 skill as will enable us to test sight and hearing and 
 promote in every way the physical well-being of our 
 pupils. So much depends on the proper treatment 
 of pupils during the period of puberty that careful 
 study is urged. The breaking up of bad hygienic 
 habits by the ' formation of right habits is of the 
 utmost importance. It is always wise to secure pa- 
 rental co-operation. Not much can be said in a brief 
 chapter, but these suggestions may awaken and deep- 
 
BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 53 
 
 en interest. The literature of school hygiene is abun- 
 dant, but teachers must work out these problems for 
 themselves. Books are merely helps. 
 
 BETTER EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOE DISCUSSION. 
 
 I. Higher Educational Ideals. Illustrate what you mean by 
 reals and ideals. Give an example of how progress comes. What 
 does the school do for the pupil? What is the test of school 
 measures? What is the law of unity? Describe school evolu- 
 tion. Why do brutes and savages fail to make progress ? Show 
 how looking back hurts. Give examples of how better ideals pro- 
 mote progress. What lesson may we learn from the serpent? 
 Give what you consider the chief value of high pupil ideals; 
 teacher ideals; school ideals. Describe your ideal school; your 
 ideal teacher. 
 
 II. Helpful Pupil Study. What do you consider the chief value 
 of pupil study? What does Dr. Butler say? Dr. Hall? Col. 
 Parker? How does it help the teacher? Tell the story of child 
 neglect. Give your plan for infant study ; for child study ; for 
 boy and girl study. Why does the teacher need to study human 
 life in all its stages ? Why should the teacher profoundly study 
 the pupil as a physical being ? as a mental being ? as a moral be- 
 ing? Why must the teacher know himself? Tell what Prof. 
 Barnes says about methods of pupil study. Describe your method. 
 
 III. Teacher Improvement. As an educator, what does the 
 teacher do ? Prove that teaching is a profession. Discuss tenure 
 of office ; salary ; specialization ; teaching as a career ; teaching as 
 a learned profession. Why must your ideal teacher be gifted? 
 prepared? devoted? progressive? Why do all educational peo- 
 ples establish and sustain schools for the professional education 
 of teachers ? Give the work of the department of education ; of 
 the chair of pedagogy ; of the State normal school ; of the city 
 normal school; of the summer normal school. Prove that a 
 teacher needs a professional education even more than the physi- 
 cian or the lawyer. Show that professional schools mean educa- 
 tional artists. 
 
54 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 IV. Better School Hygiene. What is school hygiene? Is its 
 neglect criminal! Tell the story of school sanitation in other 
 times. Give your plan for promoting home hygiene through the 
 school. Show that play is both hygienic and educative. Why 
 should elementary schools have a recess at the close of each school 
 hour? Name some advantages of exercise in the open air; of 
 systematic physical culture. Compare the plans for physical cul- 
 ture in England. Germany, France, and America. Give some ad- 
 vantages of good ventilation. Tell about the ventilation in most 
 schoolrooms. Describe your plan. Describe the ideal heating of 
 the schoolroom. How may rural schoolhouses best be heated! 
 What is the normal temperature? Why should the light within 
 correspond with the light without ? How may teachers favor the 
 eyes of their pupils? Show the relation between cleanliness and 
 health. Give five reasons for schoolroom cleanliness. Tell about 
 the civilized schoolhouse toilet. What is your plan for hygienic 
 cloakrooms! Describe the hygienic school desk and seat. Tell 
 something of the hygienic value of the habit of regularity; of 
 cleanliness ; of sound sleep ; of proper diet ; of suitable clothing ; 
 of law abiding. Why does school hygiene concern all men ? 
 What is the teacher's personal problem ? What is meant by hygi- 
 enic skill ? 
 
PART n. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. 
 
 CHAPTER V. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
 
 ENVIRONMENTS. 
 VI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL 
 
 APPLIANCES. 
 VII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL 
 
 APPARATUS. 
 VIII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH IDEAL SCHOOL 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 IX. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SUITABLE SCHOOL 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 55 
 

 V. 
 
 
 EDUCATIVE 
 
 
 ENVIRON- 
 
 1 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 VI. 
 
 ^q 
 
 EDUCATIVE - 
 
 <1 
 
 APPLIANCES. 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 
 
 
 
 ID 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 pjj 
 
 VII. 
 
 w 
 
 HELPFUL - 
 
 EH 
 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 pa 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 EH 
 
 VIII. 
 
 EH 
 
 IDEAL 
 
 1 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 s 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 SUITABLE 
 
 PH 
 
 SCHOOL 
 
 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 1. Environments and moral growth. 
 
 2. Environments and physical growth. 
 
 3. Environments and mental growth. 
 
 4. Environments and aesthetic growth. 
 
 5. Commodious and educative school grounds. 
 
 6. Educative schoolrooms. 
 
 7. Ideal pupil environments. 
 
 1. The schoolroom more than a workshop. 
 
 2. Hygienic conditions of efficient work. 
 
 3. Electric programme clock and facilities for 
 
 movements. 
 
 4. Physical comfort and effective work. 
 
 5. The teacher's desk and dictionary holder. 
 
 6. Revolving bookcase and working library. 
 
 7. Working apparatus case and map and chart 
 
 cases. 
 
 8. Schoolroom facilities for educative work. 
 
 1. Educative value of schoolroom and school 
 
 grounds. 
 
 2. Value of blackboards and school furniture. 
 
 3. Helps in the conduct studies. 
 
 4. Helps in the language and literature 
 
 studies. 
 
 5. Helps in the science studies. 
 
 6. Helps in the mathematics studies. 
 
 7. Helps in the art studies. 
 
 1. Good text-books supplement oral instruc- 
 
 tion. 
 
 2. Text-books open the treasuries of human 
 
 experience. 
 
 3. An ideal text-book is original, brief, clear, 
 
 teachable, artistic. 
 
 4. Germany carries oral teaching to extremes. 
 
 5. Proper use of the printed page the greatest 
 
 of school arts. 
 
 6. Free text-books supplied by the depart- 
 
 ment libraries. 
 
 1. Each schoolroom should have a working 
 
 library. 
 
 2. Each department rural, primary, interme- 
 
 diate, high school should have its de- 
 partment library. 
 
 3. Each town and city and college should 
 
 have its general library. 
 
 4. The faculties of the several departments 
 
 should manage their respective libraries. 
 
 5. Each teacher should be an assistant li- 
 
 brarian. 
 56 
 
PAET SECOND. 
 
 EDUCATIVE SCHOOL FACILITIES. 
 
 CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
 ENVIRONMENTS. 
 
 Environments condition Growth. Surroundings in- 
 fluence the development of human beings as well as 
 the growth of plants and animals. To some extent 
 all men appreciate the educational effects of environ- 
 ments. Thoughtful parents make homes in healthy 
 districts and in cultured communities. The improve- 
 ment of our hygienic, aesthetic, and social environ- 
 ments engages the best energies of society. Brutes 
 seek the most favourable environments for rearing 
 their young instinctively, but man in an important 
 sense creates his environments. 
 
 School Management is the Art of creating Educative 
 School Environments. Educators study profoundly 
 pupil surroundings and spare no effort to secure the 
 most favourable environments. A true teacher cre- 
 
 57 
 
58 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ates his ideal school location, his ideal school grounds, 
 his ideal schoolhouse, and his ideal school appliances. 
 These ideals are his working models, which he ear- 
 nestly strives to realize. 
 
 FAVOURABLE LOCATION OF THE SCHOOL. 
 
 1. Environments favourable to Moral Growth the 
 Highest Consideration. To secure moral vigour with 
 an environment of saloons, gambling dens, and dance 
 houses, is more difficult than to secure physical vigour 
 amid the deadly miasma of the swamp. It is also im- 
 portant that the surroundings should be friendly to 
 culture and refinement. "We plan to place our schools 
 where the environments now seem most favourable, 
 and we work constantly to make the surroundings 
 more and more desirable. We should look well to 
 locating our schools where the environments are 
 most conducive to ethical culture. The teacher leads 
 the community to unite in the constant endeavour to 
 strengthen the moral influences surrounding the school. 
 
 2. Commodious School Grounds are an Educative Ne- 
 cessity. Pupils have an inalienable right to enough 
 of the earth's surface to make possible their healthy, 
 vigorous, and happy growth. In cities the effort now 
 is to secure the largest possible school grounds, almost 
 regardless of cost. Tillages and rural districts are 
 now consecrating to pupil culture commodious school 
 grounds. Our higher institutions everywhere demand 
 large grounds. 
 
 3. Sanitary Considerations must have Great Weight 
 in the Selection of School Grounds. The nature of the 
 soil, the drainage, remoteness from marshy grounds 
 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS. 
 
 59 
 
 and stagnant waters, the elevation and exposure, are 
 some of the matters to be investigated. School 
 grounds must first of all be healthy. In Ontario, of 
 four thousand sites recently officially examined, only 
 eighty were considered excellent sanitary school sites. 
 Is this proportion the rule ? When hygienic grounds 
 are available, it is surely criminal to select unhealthy 
 school grounds. Think of it : generations of pupils 
 will be helped or hurt by the selection. 
 
 4. JSsthetic Environments educate. School grounds 
 should be object lessons of beauty, in order to foster 
 refinement and make pupils happy. Natural beauty 
 
 The Country Si 
 
 should be considered in selecting school grounds, but 
 grounds naturally unattractive may be made beautiful 
 by art. Beautifying the school grounds is educative. 
 The teacher leads and interests all the pupils in the 
 work. Pupils are trained to help make the grounds 
 beautiful and to help to keep them beautiful. The 
 reflex influence on the homes is of great value. 
 
60 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The utter disregard of beauty in school environ- 
 ments was the rule in the near past. This is repre- 
 sented true to life in the sketch of a country school- 
 house. Such school surroundings, common even a 
 quarter of a century ago, are fortunately now becom- 
 ing comparatively rare. Teacher, contrast with this 
 primitive scene some of the beautiful school grounds 
 you have observed. Create your ideal school grounds 
 and begin to work up to your ideal. 
 
 5. Environments should be Play-inviting. All pu- 
 pils must play as well as study. School grounds 
 should be so well planned as to foster play. Besides 
 the common playgrounds, there are decided advan- 
 tages in having separate playgrounds for the sexes. 
 Girls equally with the boys need regular invigorating 
 exercise in the open air. Playgrounds should be sup- 
 plied with such equipments for systematic exercises 
 as tend to promote gracefulness and vigour. 
 
 6. School Grounds should be made Educative. The 
 geography plot represents divisions of land and water. 
 The botanical plot represents plant growth. The 
 arboretum represents kinds of trees. The small 
 aquarium represents aquatic life. The school grounds 
 are thus made to teach fundamental object lessons. 
 All the environments are made educative. The school- 
 house, in its external appearance, teaches lessons in 
 architecture. 
 
 EDUCATIVE SCHOOLHOUSES. 
 
 1. The Schoolhouse is Central in School Life. The 
 
 environments now literally shut in the child. The 
 pupil spends his hours in the schoolroom and only his 
 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS. 61 
 
 minutes on the school grounds. The schoolroom 
 with its contents deeply impresses the life of the 
 child. ISTo one knows how much these close and con- 
 stant environments influence the lives of pupils. It 
 is safe to do our utmost to make these environments 
 the best possible. 
 
 2. The Evolution of the Schoolhouse is a Fascinating 
 Story. It is full of interest to teacher, pupil, and 
 parent. School architecture fitly represents stages of 
 educational progress. The schoolhouse with its en- 
 vironments may be 
 taken as a symbol 
 of the culture of a 
 community. The 
 old log house with 
 its huge fireplace, 
 its puncheon floor, 
 its clapboard roof, 
 its greased paper 
 windows, and its 
 backless slab seats 
 stands for pioneer 
 education. Mar- 
 
 ,, , , The Old Log Schoolhouse. 
 
 vellous has been 
 
 the transition from these rude structures to our beauti- 
 ful rural schoolhouses and our attractive village 
 school buildings and the educational places of our 
 cities. Not the courthouse, not the city hall, not even 
 the church is so attractive as the schoolhouse. Even 
 the country schoolhouse is becoming a thing of beauty. 
 But, as the immediate environment of our pupils, are 
 our schoolhouses of to-day to be unconditionally com- 
 
62 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 mended ? Do they exert the best silent, unconscious 
 influence for uplifting the pupils ? How may we 
 constantly increase the education value of our school- 
 rooms ? 
 
 3. The Teacher plans the Ideal Pupil Environments. 
 You first create your ideal school and then go to 
 work to realize it. The house is for the school, and 
 not the school for the house. You build the school- 
 house around your ideal school. Ours is the age of 
 specialists. School architects now study to plan 
 school buildings from the standpoint of the schools. 
 The educator contributes the ideal school with its 
 ideal environments ; the architect literally erects the 
 building around the school. He studies to secure at 
 the least cost the best hygienic conditions, the best 
 educational conditions, and, withal, the highest beauty. 
 The teacher and school architect co-operate to actual- 
 ize the ideal schoolhouse. 
 
 4. An Unfit School Building is a Monument of Folly. 
 Most school buildings planned by common carpen- 
 ters, or by common architects, or by school boards 
 are such monuments. They are usually unsightly, un- 
 comfortable, unhygienic, poorly located, poorly lighted, 
 poorly ventilated, poorly heated, and poorly adapted 
 to school work. Business school boards employ the 
 very best educators and the very best school archi- 
 tects to plan and build their schoolhouses. Such 
 buildings are monuments of wisdom, and are the fit 
 environments of our precious pupils. 
 
 5. The School Home of the Young should be elevat- 
 ing. All agree that the schoolroom should be a thing 
 of beauty as well as utility. Tinted walls, classic pic- 
 
BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 63 
 
 tures, flowers, a singing bird, a lifelike cast or two, beau- 
 tiful and fitting furniture, floods of light, delicious 
 warmth, pure air, cleanliness, neatness, cheerfulness, 
 make our pupils glad and awaken their activities. 
 The teacher daily works such transformations as keep 
 the schoolroom fresh and new. Such a schoolroom is 
 indeed ideal, but in every land we now find real school- 
 rooms surpassing this ideal, but, alas ! they are the ex- 
 ceptions. The average schoolroom is a cheerless thing. 
 You have endured it, and you can transform it. 
 
 6. Better School Environments must come. We are 
 hopeful, for great advances have been made ; but our 
 school environments are still largely semibarbarian. 
 The saloon and the school go on side by side. The 
 environments of our fine horses are still vastly better 
 than the environments of a majority of our pupils. 
 "Women as members of our school boards are quietly 
 working beneficent changes. Art in our schools is si- 
 lently transforming school environments, but the great- 
 est of all influences is that of our earnest teachers. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL 
 APPLIANCES. 
 
 The Schoolroom is a Miniature World. It is infi- 
 nitely more than a workshop, for here the young are 
 led to prepare themselves for complete living. Here 
 the pupils develop bodily vigour, mental power, and 
 
64: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 moral worth. We have studied the schoolroom as a 
 hygienic home and as a fitting environment for young 
 immortals. We will now study the schoolroom as a 
 place for educative school work. Progress comes 
 through improved appliances. Even with crude im- 
 plements the master workman can do great things, 
 but with better instrumentalities he can accomplish 
 vastly greater things. 
 
 We must secure the Best Hygienic Conditions. 
 Only thus can we make efficient school work possible. 
 It is well to reiterate again and again these condi- 
 tions. We study to secure perfect ventilation ; pupils 
 have an inalienable right to breathe pure air. We 
 study to secure perfect heating by keeping the tem- 
 perature normal and uniform throughout the room. 
 We study to secure perfect light by having the light 
 in all parts of the schoolroom as nearly as possible 
 uniform and as nearly as possible of the same inten- 
 sity as the light outside. Such conditions are large 
 factors in good school work, as they make pupil im- 
 provement possible. 
 
 We must provide Facilities for Movements. We 
 plan our school buildings to favour the quick and 
 orderly movements of the pupils. Aisles, doors, halls, 
 stairways, cloakrooms, are so planned as to facilitate 
 speedy ingress and egress. We find some buildings 
 so admirably planned that a thousand pupils are as- 
 sembled or dismissed in from two to three minutes. 
 In case of fire there is no panic. The hourly recess 
 occasions no loss of time. Changes of classes are 
 made quietly and quickly. The average schoolhouse 
 must be reconstructed in view of pupil movements. 
 
BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 65 
 
 It impresses us more and more that the practical 
 teacher must plan the schoolhouse in view of the 
 school and the school work. 
 
 The Electric Programme Clock must signal Move- 
 ments.* We thus secure perfect regularity, and at the 
 same time save all our energies for educative work. 
 The clock assembles and dismisses the school and calls 
 and dismisses classes. It signals any number of pro- 
 grammes and regulates an entire school of many de- 
 partments. The programme clock is a beneficent 
 device. The relief of teachers is very great, and it 
 gives larger liberty to the pupils. Pupils soon learn 
 orderly self-control. We find it safe to leave them 
 free during all movements. After a time we may 
 safely discontinue the line formations on the grounds. 
 Pupils are trusted to assemble orderly and to conduct 
 themselves worthily. 
 
 Pupils must be made comfortable. That we may 
 secure interest and attention and effective study, we 
 must manage to secure physical comfort. This very 
 largely is attained by suitable seats and desks. Some 
 of us have watched with intense interest the evolu- 
 tion of the school desk. The transition from the 
 backless slab seats and the barbarous slab desks of 
 the old log schoolhouse to the adjustable desks and 
 
 * The author a third of a century ago devised an electric sig- 
 nalling apparatus which he used for ten years before it was im- 
 proved and patented by a friend. So far as known, this was the 
 first school in which movements were signalled by a clock. Great 
 improvements have been made. Fred Frick, of Waynesborough, 
 Pa., now supplies an excellent electric programme signalling ap- 
 paratus. 
 
66 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 chairs of our times is one of the signs of progress. 
 Our study for decades was to adjust the pupils to 
 crude and uncomfortable seats and desks veritable 
 instruments of torture. The adjustable single desk 
 and adjustable chair mark an epoch in school life. 
 We now adjust the desk and the seat to the pupil. 
 Elsewhere the hygienic gain is discussed. Here we 
 think of the educational advantages. Pupil energy 
 is conserved. Interested attention and efficient study 
 and good conduct are more easily secured. The desk 
 is the pupil's workshop, laboratory, office, library, and 
 studio ; and he is trained to keep it in the best condi- 
 tion for work. 
 
 TEACHER'S SCHOOLROOM OUTFIT. 
 
 1. The Desk symbolizes the Teaching Profession. 
 
 Theology has its pulpit, law its bar, trade its counter, 
 and teaching its desk. The story of the evolution of 
 the teacher's desk deserves a place in literature. We 
 associate the old schoolmaster with a rough table, al- 
 ways rickety. Since his day great improvements 
 have been made, and the teacher's desk is now a 
 thing of beauty and utility. The desk is the teacher's 
 headquarters, and is the first thing considered in fit- 
 ting up a schoolroom. Everything else is arranged 
 in view of the teacher's desk. 
 
 2. The Dictionary Holder is important. The open 
 dictionary is so placed as to be conveniently used by 
 teacher and pupils. The teacher must always be 
 ready to devise helpful things. The common dic- 
 tionary holder with a jointed arm instead of stand, 
 attached to the teacher's desk, is an admirable device. 
 

 BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 67 
 
 By a slight movement it is placed ready for use by 
 teacher or pupils. At the present time "Webster's In- 
 ternational and The Standard are counted the best 
 school dictionaries. A good dictionary, so placed as 
 to invite constant use, is a schoolroom necessity. 
 
 3. The Revolving Bookcase for the Working Library 
 helps. Each teacher should have a working library. 
 A revolving bookcase with one hundred suitable vol- 
 umes is a schoolroom treasure. The revolving book- 
 case should be so placed that the teacher without 
 rising may reach any volume in it. It should also be 
 easy of access to the pupils. After considerable ex- 
 perimenting the plan here suggested is recommended. 
 It seems to be the fitting device. 
 
 4. The Apparatus Case for the Working Apparatus 
 should be convenient. Its place seems to be against 
 the wall, on the end of the teacher's platform. In 
 this are kept the appliances most helpful in teaching. 
 The case need not be large, as it is meant for the 
 working apparatus. Each school must have its ap- 
 propriate case. Some ingenuity is needed to con- 
 struct these cases so as to secure beauty and utility. 
 In schoolrooms thus arranged we find the apparatus 
 is used many times where it is used once when placed 
 in another room. Proximity counts for much in 
 education as well as in love. 
 
 5. The Map and Chart Cases are placed above the 
 Platform. All are hung on spring rollers. The teacher 
 studies to have these cases convenient and so placed 
 that the maps and charts can best be seen by the pupils. 
 Stupid teachers refuse to think and devise, and hence 
 they make their work hard and themselves ridiculous. 
 
68 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 It seems so easy, with our modern school devices, to 
 arrange maps and charts for convenient use, that we 
 are astonished to see such inexcusable neglect even in 
 many otherwise good schools. 
 
 SCHOOLROOM FACILITIES FOR EDUCATIVE WORK. 
 
 We do well to study some devices from various 
 standpoints. The blackboard easily stands first among 
 our teaching facilities. In good teaching blackboards 
 are used continually. It is certainly worth while to 
 study the blackboard problem. 
 
 Pictures in the schoolroom are educative helps. 
 AVhen we visit our beautiful schoolrooms and feast 
 our eyes on the artistic pictures, we never cease to re- 
 gret the blank and dingy walls of the old schoolhouse 
 of other days. Next to objects, pictures are mo&t 
 helpful in school work. Good pictures give delight 
 as well as culture. Portraits of representative men 
 and women aid in conduct studies and in literature. 
 Pictures full of taste and story assist in art and lan- 
 guage studies and history. In Nature studies appro- 
 priate pictures are also valuable. The ideal school- 
 room, from the the kindergarten to the university, is 
 rich in helpful pictures. 
 
 The director of fine arts in Pratt Institute, Brook- 
 lyn, W. S. Perry, well says : "Art education has an- 
 other field of work besides direct instruction in draw- 
 ing ; that is, the building, furnishing, and decorating 
 of schoolhouses. This phase of the art educational 
 movement ought also to be brought much more widely 
 and forcibly to the attention of the public. School 
 buildings, grounds, and furnishings should serve ar- 
 
HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 69 
 
 tistic as well as economic and hygienic ends. They 
 should be constant object lessons in art for the inspi- 
 ration of the children who are to shape the coming 
 civilization. They can and should be made a positive, 
 definite help in refining the manners, cultivating the 
 imagination, and quickening the whole spiritual life. 
 Co-operation in the work of improving school archi- 
 tecture and decoration should be solicited from the 
 public, for whose good the schools themselves exist, but 
 authoritative direction of the movement should be in 
 the hands of experts in art and education." 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 SCHOOL appliances embrace all school instrumen- 
 talities used in illustrating and explaining. Tools are 
 not more important to the mechanic than school appa- 
 ratus to the teacher. The good teacher is skilful in 
 the use of apparatus, and suitable appliances almost 
 double the efficiency of the teacher. We think of all 
 helpful educative devices and materials as in a sense 
 school appliances. We here use the expression in 
 this broad meaning to include school grounds, school 
 buildings, school furniture, school apparatus, and 
 school laboratories, in so far as they are used as edu- 
 cational appliances. 
 
70 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 1. School Grounds have Remarkable Educative 
 Possibilities. First of all, we so plan our school 
 grounds as to promote physical culture, and we se- 
 cure the best hygienic and play-provoking appliances. 
 Next, we so develop our school grounds as to pro- 
 mote aesthetic culture. "Winding walks, flowering 
 shrubs, trees, birds, grass and flower plots, made and 
 kept beautiful by the pupils, do much to cultivate 
 taste. Then we fit up our school grounds to promote 
 intellectual culture. Our mathematics grounds, our 
 geography grounds, our biology grounds, all prepared 
 by the pupils, are helpful. The school grounds have 
 great educative possibilities, and inventive teachers 
 study to render them of the utmost value by making 
 them a miniature world. 
 
 2. The Schoolroom itself is the most Helpful of all 
 Appliances. It is so constructed and furnished as to 
 promote physical and aesthetic culture. Teacher and 
 pupils here find the means and facilities for illustra- 
 ting form, direction, areas, and a thousand other 
 things. Jesus drew most of his illustrations from the 
 immediate environments and from the lives of the 
 people. So will efficient teachers. We learn to look 
 upon our schoolrooms, our school grounds, our neigh- 
 bourhoods, and the home and school life of our pupils 
 as our working educative laboratory. 
 
 3. The Blackboard is used in all Good Teaching. 
 The teacher's board can be seen by all the pupils. 
 For convenience it is arranged in three sections, hung 
 with weights so as to be raised or lowered by a touch 
 of the hand. This device saves much labour. It is 
 good economy to provide abundant blackboard sur- 
 
HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 71 
 
 face. The width and the height of the boards must 
 depend upon the class of pupils. As to material, 
 natural slate is the best and ultimately the cheapest. 
 Liquid slating gives good satisfaction. Slated paper 
 and slated cloth are often convenient. The board 
 surface should be slightly tilted (about six inches) 
 back from the perpendicular, so as to prevent the re- 
 flection of light from the windows striking the pupils' 
 eyes. The wainscoting should extend up to the board. 
 At the bottom of the board should be securely fas- 
 tened a trough three inches wide and one inch deep, 
 and this trough should be covered with wire gauze. 
 This arrangement forms a dust trap, which secures a 
 remarkable relief from crayon dust, and is probably 
 the most satisfactory and convenient device now avail- 
 able. The skilful teacher will make large use of the 
 blackboard with all grades of pupils. Fortunate the 
 pupils whose teacher has his knowledge at the end of 
 his crayon as well as at the end of his tongue ! 
 
 4. Conduct Studies require Helpful Appliances. 
 Portraits of illustrious men and women take the first 
 place. Each school may now have a few plaster busts 
 of great personages. Good books take the highest 
 rank. Historic charts and maps and the slated globe 
 are essential helps in teaching history, the leading con- 
 duct study. In conduct lessons life is the laboratory, 
 and the use of appliances is limited. Society; the 
 knowing, feeling, doing self ; history, and literature 
 are the chief educative appliances in developing char- 
 acter. 
 
 5. Language-Literature Studies require Suitable 
 Helps. The kindergarten leads the little ones to live 
 
72 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 language and literature. The plays and songs and 
 stories and memory gems express the inner lives of 
 the infants. All the environments and appliances are 
 kindergarten helps in teaching language and litera- 
 ture. In the primary the best appliances are needed 
 in training the children to speak and read and write 
 our language and enjoy our child literature. Envi- 
 ronments and all appliances and all the other studies 
 are helps in this work. We need for the beginners 
 pictures and reading charts, and suitable readers and 
 supplementary readers. Dictionaries, encyclopaedias, 
 and the language-literature libraries become the chief 
 appliances as the pupils advance. Charts and maps 
 and portraits are always helpful. 
 
 6. Science Studies call for Extended Facilities. As 
 no text-books are used in Nature studies in our ele- 
 mentary schools, we require abundant illustrative ma- 
 terial and some apparatus. Each school should have 
 small typical collections adapted to its locality. The 
 teacher and the pupils will extend these collections, 
 and each pupil will be led to make his own collections. 
 Charts and pictures and microscopes are invaluable aids. 
 
 Geography must always rank as the central study 
 in the elementary science group. In this study en- 
 vironments are the most helpful. A slated globe, a 
 tellurian globe, relief maps, and outline maps are 
 essentials. The pupils will model the geography 
 grounds under the teacher's directions. Boards for 
 map moulding can be made as needed. Suitable books 
 of travel and adventure from the library assist greatly. 
 Simple apparatus enables the teacher to give profit- 
 ably easy lessons in physics and chemistry. 
 
HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 73 
 
 When our intermediate schools become specialized 
 the science rooms will be fitted up for teaching the 
 sciences. The teacher will be a specialist in science 
 and will greatly extend and enrich the course. Most 
 of our high schools have reached this stage of de- 
 velopment, but our grammar schools still linger in 
 the border land. The science teacher commands the 
 necessary appliances and the pupils do more and more 
 laboratory work. In most of our city high schools 
 we now find biological, geological, physical, and chem- 
 ical laboratories. Modern colleges and universities 
 give great prominence to the laboratories and to labor- 
 atory methods. 
 
 7. Mathematical Studies call for the Best Aids. 
 Through a knowledge of things in space and time the 
 pupil comes to get a knowledge of form and number. 
 Form and number must be taught the children con- 
 cretely. Every step must first be taken objectively. 
 Geometrical forms, bundles of sticks, the numeral 
 frame, weights and measures, are the most helpful. 
 No elementary school should be without a set of the 
 metric as well as the common weights and measures. 
 Since ten is the base of our system of notations, the 
 metric weights and measures can be used with great 
 advantage. The metric system may be taught side by 
 side with our common system, and thus the way may 
 be prepared for its universal use. The aim in concrete 
 geometry and in elementary arithmetic is to find out 
 rather than to prove, and hence the work is objective 
 and practical. Simple instruments for measurement are 
 of great value. In the high school the outfit for teaching 
 and learning mathematics is extended to suit the work. 
 
74: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 8. Art Studies require Good Facilities. Most schools 
 now have music charts and writing charts. All should 
 have materials and models for teaching drawing. We 
 can afford to be liberal in supplying our school grounds 
 and school gymnasiums and schoolrooms with appli- 
 ances for physical culture. For manual training we 
 must at first be content with meagre outfits. As the 
 work goes on and as the interest increases we can 
 readily secure the necessary facilities. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. Teachers and school boards 
 do well to consider carefully the problems of school 
 apparatus. 
 
 1. Purchase only from reliable dealers. Thus you 
 will guard against frauds and secure the best articles 
 on reasonable terms. 
 
 2. Purchase apparatus as needed. This will pre- 
 vent cumbering your schools with useless appliances. 
 The schoolroom is no place for rubbish. 
 
 3. Secure some helps for each of the five study 
 groups. To exhaust the funds for science apparatus 
 is a serious educational blunder. Each study has its 
 claims. Conduct lessons demand portraits, maps, 
 charts, books. Primary reading demands objects, pic- 
 tures, charts, books. Geography demands geography 
 grounds, geography boards, geography cards, globes, 
 maps, books. Arithmetic demands objects, numeral 
 frame, weights, measures. Art demands tools, pic- 
 tures, models. But it is needless to specify. Inven- 
 tion is giving us unlimited helps. The competent 
 teacher will select the most helpful apparatus for 
 each study. 
 
 4. Make some of your apparatus. Many of the 
 
IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 75 
 
 most helpful appliances are often those things made 
 by the teacher and the pupils. As manual training 
 advances this becomes easy. 
 
 CHAPTER YIIL 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT- 
 BOOKS. 
 
 Books are our Best Helps. Treasured knowledge is 
 found in books. He who has mastered the secrets of 
 gaining knowledge from books may be considered in- 
 dependent of the living teacher fit to graduate. To 
 develop this power is the work of the school. By a 
 school text-book is meant a book that forms the basis 
 of regular class work. We have text-books for teach- 
 ers, but ordinarily we think of text-books as books 
 used by pupils in connection with the instruction 
 given by the teacher. Good text-books, next to the 
 living teacher, are the best school helps ; and the 
 student is far more dependent on his books for in- 
 formation than upon his teachers. 
 
 Text-Books open the Treasures of Human Experience. 
 " One great object of the school in our time is to 
 teach the pupil how to use books how to get out for 
 himself what there is for him in the printed page. 
 The man who can not use books in our day has not 
 learned the lesson of self-help, and the wisdom of the 
 race is not likely to become his. He will not find, in 
 this busy age, people who can afford to stop and tell 
 
76 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 him by oral instruction what he ought to be able to 
 find out for himself by the use of the library. 
 
 " Oral instruction, except as an auxiliary to the text- 
 book except as an incitement to the pupil's interest 
 and a guide to his self-activity and independent inves- 
 tigation in the preparation of his next lesson is a 
 great waste of the teacher's energy and an injury to 
 the pupil. The pupil acquires a habit of expecting to 
 be amused rather than a habit of work and a relish for 
 independent investigation. The most important in- 
 vestigation that man ever learns to conduct is the 
 habit of learning by industrious reading what his 
 fellow-men have seen and thought. Secondary to 
 this is the originality that adds something new to the 
 stock of ideas and experiences of the race. The 
 pupil who has not yet learned what the human race 
 has found to be reasonable, is not likely to add any- 
 thing positive to the sum total of human knowledge, 
 although he will certainly be likely to increase the 
 negative knowledge by adding a new example of folly 
 and failure. 
 
 " The first thing in education, therefore, is the 
 acquirement of the experience of the world, in order 
 that the pupil may not start anew at the bottom of 
 the hill, but may begin with the results of the work 
 of his race." [W. T. HARRIS.] 
 
 IDEAL TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 1. Original An ideal text-book is a creation of 
 genius. We think of genius as ability to see into 
 things. The author of a true text-book gains insight 
 into pupil nature and into his subject, and so is able 
 
IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 77 
 
 to create a text-book which unfolds the subject to 
 the pupil. A real text-book is as truly a creation as 
 a play of Shakespeare. It furnishes materials and 
 ideals for generations of compilers. Such text-books 
 do not come at the bidding of publishers. Like the 
 classics, they are original in plan and expression, but 
 embody the wisdom of the race. The author of a 
 true text-book deserves to be crowned side by side 
 with the poet. 
 
 2. Brief. An ideal text-book presents the essential 
 things. It is a text-book, not an encyclopedia. It 
 gives in good form the results of human experience 
 and thought. Principles are concisely presented, 
 clearly illustrated, and aptly applied. The teacher 
 interprets the text-book. Oral instruction and the 
 school library supplement the text-book. Though 
 not large, the true text-book presents the results of 
 human learning. A synopsis is not a text-book, nor 
 is the ponderous volume rich in details; the one 
 starves the pupil while the other confuses and dis- 
 courages him. The golden mean characterizes the 
 ideal text-book. 
 
 3. Clear. An ideal text-book presents the subject 
 with sunlight clearness. The child understands Jesus. 
 Boys and girls understand Dickens. All men appre- 
 ciate the world classics, for the golden truths out- 
 shine the silver settings. The true text-book holds 
 the attention to the thought ; no energy is wasted 
 puzzling over the meaning of obscure and difficult 
 expressions. Our best text-books for school and col- 
 lege, like the lessons of the Great Teacher, are mar- 
 vels of clearness. 
 
Y8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 4. Teachable. An ideal text-book fosters good 
 study and good teaching. Each paragraph is suggest- 
 ive as well as expressive, and becomes a topic for 
 study. The pupil is led to apperceive, for the new 
 thought is approached and mastered in the light of 
 previous acquisitions. One book is a delight and an 
 inspiration to pupils and teacher, while another book 
 of great merit is a disappointment and a discourage- 
 ment. Whence this difference ? Perhaps we can not 
 express it, but we find on trial this difference. A 
 teacher gives up a strong book ; why ? Because with 
 it she could not get the best study or the best class 
 work. The book was not teachable. Before print- 
 ing, some authors send advanced sheets of the lessons 
 to a hundred good teachers, requesting them to use 
 with their classes and return with their suggestions. 
 If all would-be authors should pursue this plan, two 
 thirds of their books would never be printed, but 
 those printed would be treasures. 
 
 5. Artistic. An ideal text-book is a work of art. 
 Ours is the age of admirable text-books. Publishers 
 are giving us books artistic in thought and in lan- 
 guage and mechanically excellent. The binding is 
 artistic and enduring. The type is large and clear 
 and the illustrations are choice. The beautiful open 
 page has always a smile for the pupil. It is taken 
 by common consent that nothing is too good for the 
 child. As we come to know child needs better, 
 many artistic improvements in our text-books will 
 doubtless be suggested, and it will become one of the 
 highest pleasures of the teacher to put into the hands 
 of pupils the lest text-books. How are you to know 
 
IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 79 
 
 such books ? Just as you come to know good litera- 
 ture by tasting and testing. 
 
 THE TEXT-BOOK AND OJRAL TEACHING. 
 
 Eeal Teaching is Oral The teacher leads the pu- 
 pil to find out from Nature and from books. In our 
 times we magnify experimental methods and Nature 
 study. It is well. But in all reforms there is the 
 danger of going to extremes. In the reaction against 
 the slavish, senseless book grinding of the old school- 
 master, we have drifted into a shoreless sea of exclusive 
 oral instruction. It is not well. Book study must 
 go on side by side with Nature study. The text-book 
 must always occupy an important place in school work. 
 
 Germany has carried Oral Teaching to Extremes. 
 " Few text-books are used in the elementary schools 
 of Germany fewer, I believe, than is good for the 
 pupils first, because a knowledge of the use of books 
 and a good habit of using them are most valuable to 
 people of any walk in life ; and, secondly, because a 
 proper use of them prevents too great dependence 
 upon the teacher. The programmes of graded schools 
 are so arranged as to prevent pupils from studying 
 independently and without interruption in school ; 
 and the constant talking of teachers, however stimu- 
 lating it may be to pupils, is not without its bad 
 effects." [John F. Prince, Methods in German 
 Schools.] 
 
 The Proper Use of the Printed Page is the Greatest 
 of all Arts taught in the School. " Every one will ad- 
 mit that what is called the ' slavish use ' of text-books 
 is a great evil. The memorizing of words and sen- 
 
80 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 tences without criticism and reflection on their mean- 
 ing is a mechanical training of the mind and fit only 
 for parrots ; but, on the other hand, the proper use 
 of the printed page is the greatest of all arts taught 
 in the school. How to get out of printed words and 
 sentences the original thought and observation re- 
 corded there how to verify these and critically go 
 over the steps of the author's mind this is the meth- 
 od of discovery and leads to the only real progress ; 
 for real progress comes from availing oneself of the 
 wisdom of the race and using it as an instrument of 
 new discovery. That other method sometimes com- 
 mended, of original investigation without aid from 
 books, forgets that mankind have toiled for long 
 thousands of years to construct a ladder of achieve- 
 ment, and that civilization is on the highest round of 
 this ladder. It has invented school education in order 
 that its youth may climb quickly to the top on the 
 rounds which have been added one by one slowly 
 in the lapse of ages. The youth shall profit vica- 
 riously by the thought and experience of those who 
 have gone before. For the child of the savage tribe 
 there is no such vicarious thinking and living; he 
 begins practically at the bottom of this ladder, and 
 with no rounds on which he may climb." [W. T. 
 HARRIS, Address on Horace Mann.] 
 
 FREE TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 This seems to be the solution of the book question. 
 It is believed that the time is not distant when all our 
 States will adopt the plan of furnishing free text- 
 books now working so well in several States. Each 
 
SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 81 
 
 State will work out the details in its own way. But 
 more and more the vital management will be left to 
 the teachers, and we count as teachers all school su- 
 perintendents and 'educated librarians. When we cre- 
 ate rural, primary, intermediate, and high-school de- 
 partment libraries, and place these libraries under the 
 management of their respective faculties, it will be 
 easy to have the text-books supplied through these 
 libraries and these several school faculties. No one 
 will question the fitness of this method. The teach- 
 ers who use the text-books are surely the ones who 
 should select the books. Many advantages not now 
 dreamed of will certainlv follow. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SUITABLE SCHOOL 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 Books educate. Carlyle has said "that the true 
 university of these days is a collection of books." It 
 is an education to know how to read and what to 
 read. The school does its best work when it develops 
 a taste for the best literature and fosters the reading 
 habit. Men of action as well as men of thought get 
 their inspiration from books. A choice school li- 
 brary wisely used doubles the efficiency of the school. 
 The school library as now conceived includes a work- 
 ing library for each schoolroom, a department library 
 
82 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 for each department, and a general library for each 
 city. 
 
 Rural. 
 
 1. The working libraries, { 3. Intermediate. 
 
 High scl 
 College. 
 
 ft 
 
 2. Primary. 
 I 3. Intermedi 
 4. High school. 
 
 SCHOOL LIBRARIES. { 
 
 ( 1. Rural. 
 
 2. The department libra- J SSShii 
 
 ies> 4. High school. 
 
 3. The general library. [ 5. College. 
 
 We plan to make school libraries accessible, suit- 
 able, choice. As made and managed in other days, 
 the library was practically out of the reach of teach- 
 ers and pupils. The world is now working to put se- 
 lect libraries into the schools, to be managed by the 
 teachers. The twentieth century seems destined to 
 be the school-library age of the world. The coming 
 teachers are studying how to create and how to man- 
 age and how to use ideal school libraries, just as they 
 are studying how to control wisely and teach efficient- 
 ly. Nothing in art is final. Our crude beginnings 
 must give place to better things. The partial failures 
 of most school-library schemes stimulate us to de- 
 vise better things. In faith and hope this sug- 
 gestive scheme is submitted to the brotherhood of 
 teachers. Brethren, the work is intrusted to you. 
 Horace Mann, in 1840, made an earnest plea for the 
 school library : " The idea is modern. In 1835 the 
 State of New York initiated the movement to place 
 a library in each school. I look upon the effort to 
 place within the reach of young and old the best and 
 most suitable books as one of the grandest moral en- 
 
SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 83 
 
 terpriscs of the age. It will extend to all the inesti- 
 mable privileges heretofore enjoyed by the few." 
 New York seems to have led in the school-library 
 movement, as it has in other great forward educa- 
 tional movements. 
 
 THE WORKING LIBRARIES. 
 
 Each schoolroom, in schools above the kinder- 
 garten, should have a working library. For our ele- 
 mentary schools, the ideal working library contains 
 about one hundred volumes, kept in a pretty revolv- 
 ing bookcase. The books are selected to supplement 
 the teaching, and the pupils feel as free to use the 
 books as to breathe the air. They come to think of 
 the library as theirs, and they are led to feel a whole- 
 some respect for the books. " Our library must be 
 handled with care, and must be kept clean and beauti- 
 ful," is the sentiment of the school. The teacher 
 never wearies in teaching the pupils how to read and 
 what to read. No effort is spared to develop the 
 reading habit and to cultivate an appreciation of good 
 books. The pupils are not encouraged to read many 
 books, but to read appreciatively the best books for 
 them. 
 
 1. The Working Rural School Library should be Fos- 
 tered. We find, as a rule, few suitable books for the 
 young in the average rural home. Then, in the coun-. 
 try, culture must necessarily come very largely through 
 the school and through books. Access to a hundred 
 choice books means a new world to the country pu- 
 pil. Nearly all libraries are still urban ; we earnestly 
 plead for a working library in every country school- 
 
84: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 house. Ten dollars invested in a rural school library 
 will do more good than a hundred dollars invested in 
 an urban school library. " If I had a million dollars 
 to invest where it would do most good," said a great 
 philanthropist, " I would put it all into rural school 
 libraries." 
 
 2. Primary Working Libraries enrich. Millions of 
 our pupils do not even reach our grammar schools, 
 and, besides, the reading habit is easiest formed 
 during the primary years. We are now rich in 
 books suitable for children. To get our primary 
 pupils into the habit of reading appreciatively choice 
 books is a great work. This is purifying and en- 
 riching the stream of humanity at the fountain. 
 One hundred suitable books for the children in each 
 primary schoolroom would prove an incalculable 
 blessing. 
 
 3. Intermediate Working Libraries elevate. In the 
 specialized intermediate there will be five special 
 libraries in addition to the department library : con- 
 duct, literature, science, mathematics, art. Each 
 teacher will form a special library to re-enforce his 
 special work. In our unspecialized grammar schools 
 each working library must include books for all the 
 subjects, and books must be selected to suit the grade. 
 These libraries will afford congenial and profitable 
 
 > occupation for restless boys and girls, and pupils will 
 be trained to find out from books. The text-book in 
 geography is supplemented by suitable books of ex- 
 ploration and travel, and by the stories of the States 
 and nations. So in all the studies. Each study is en- 
 riched by the library. 
 
SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 85 
 
 4. High-school Working Libraries are invaluable. 
 The pupil is now a student, and is capable of great 
 things. Probably at no other period of life do choice 
 books count for so much. The youth learns to use 
 wisely the general library, but still needs the help of 
 the teacher. One book in the teacher's working 
 library counts for more than a hundred in the general 
 library. Pupils are led to read at least one excellent 
 book in connection with each study in addition to 
 general reading. Each high-school teacher is a spe- 
 cialist in a group of studies, and his working library 
 is a special library. 
 
 DEPARTMENT LIBRARIES. 
 
 The Isolated Teacher belongs to the Past. Every- 
 where teachers are learning to work in groups. The 
 law of unity requires this. A group of teachers work- 
 ing as a unit constitute a faculty. The primary prin- 
 cipal and her assistants constitute a primary faculty ; 
 the intermediate principal and the assistants constitute 
 an intermediate faculty; the principal of the high 
 school and the assistants constitute a high -school 
 faculty. We are now learning to group our rural 
 schools, making the teacher of the central school prin- 
 cipal, and the teachers of the several schools in the 
 group assistants. The teachers of a group of rural 
 schools work as a unit, and we are coming to think of 
 the district principal and his assistants as a rural school 
 faculty. We are getting to understand the law of 
 unity, and it is surely revolutionizing our school work. 
 
 One function of the department libraries will 
 doubtless be to furnish free text-books. As the prin- 
 
86 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 cipal is librarian and the assistant teachers assistant 
 librarians, the management of text-books will be ad- 
 mirably provided for. Many States now supply text- 
 books to the pupils free, and the time is not distant, it 
 is believed, when all the States will adopt this plan. 
 
 1. The Rural School Department Library is most 
 important. More than half of all our pupils are in 
 our country schools. Think of the beneficent work of 
 getting into the hands, and heads, and hearts of these 
 starving millions the world's best literature ! It is 
 not easy to exaggerate the importance of this move- 
 ment, "the grandest moral enterprise of the age." 
 What greater work can the millionaire do than to 
 endow the rural school libraries of his native State ? 
 This library, as we now think of it, is kept in the 
 library room of the central school building of the 
 rural school group, and the principal is librarian. 
 Each of the assistant teachers is an assistant librarian, 
 and books are returned and taken out at the semi- 
 monthly meetings. The faculty, with the best avail- 
 able helps, and under the general directions of the 
 county and State superintendents, plan, build up, and 
 manage the library. Each teacher gives an annual 
 entertainment for the benefit of the library, and the 
 State and the district contribute annually limited 
 amounts. Donations are always in money. The 
 working library of each school is furnished from the 
 district library, and is kept fresh. 
 
 The rural school library must meet the wants of 
 all, and must be made easily accessible to old and 
 young. In selecting books, we first think of our pu- 
 pils, and then of the people, and then of ourselves as 
 
SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 87 
 
 professional teachers. "We study to get the best helps 
 for all. 
 
 2. The Primary Department Library is of Great 
 Value. Here, too, the principal is librarian and the 
 assistant teachers are assistant librarians. The work- 
 ing libraries are supplied from the department library, 
 and the department libraries are supplied from the 
 general library. The primary faculty, under the di- 
 rection of the superintendent and the general librarian, 
 plan, build up, and manage the primary library. They 
 study to procure the most helpful books, first for the 
 children and then for themselves. There is no ma- 
 chine work, and no two libraries will ever be the 
 same. The faculty study, discuss, select, and thus the 
 library is always unique, is always growing. It is 
 completely adapted to childhood and primary work, 
 for the teachers make and manage it. 
 
 3. The Intermediate Department Library. Until 
 the pupils reach the high school their reading should, 
 as far as practicable, be directed by the teachers. The 
 intermediate principal is librarian, and the assistant 
 teachers are assistant librarians. The -intermediate 
 faculty create a unique intermediate library and man- 
 age it. Books are secured through the general li- 
 brary, and from this library the intermediate working 
 libraries get their supplies. The intermediate teach- 
 ers work as a unit. At their weekly meetings we 
 must find remarkable interest in library measures. It 
 is safe as well as wise to leave the intermediate faculty 
 to plan and manage the intermediate library. Super- 
 intendents and general librarians do well to limit them- 
 selves to suggestions. 
 
88 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 4. High School, Normal School, and College Depart- 
 ment Libraries stand Side by Side with the Labora- 
 tories. Research and investigation go on together. 
 Experts are interested in details, but the educator 
 studies to get the libraries close to the students. Each 
 group of studies now has its department library and 
 each professor has his special working library. This 
 plan, it is claimed, increases a hundredfold the value 
 of the general library. Those who have closely ob- 
 served its workings for decades so testify. General 
 school and college libraries do their most effective 
 work in supplying the department libraries. 
 
 GENERAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE LIBRARIES. 
 
 Our mammoth public-school and college libraries 
 are our pride and delight, but are they doing all they 
 are capable of doing ? The Bank of Scotland through 
 its branches extends its privileges to all the people of 
 Scotland. May not our great libraries, in a similar 
 way, vastly extend their usefulness ? The editor of 
 the Library Journal says : " The trend of opinion 
 and experience points toward the branch school li- 
 brary as the best solution of the library problem. 
 Those libraries that have tried the method are unani- 
 mous in its favour. Now, at best, our great libraries 
 do not reach a large percentage of our pupils, but 
 when they learn to enlist all teachers as active assist- 
 ant librarians, then their beneficence will be extended 
 to every pupil." 
 
 The library department of the National Educa- 
 tional Association, the professional librarians who are 
 so admirably managing our great libraries, and our 
 
SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 89 
 
 various library associations, give promise of great 
 usefulness in the future. At present all plans for 
 library extension must be tentative, but we shall build 
 on the rock when we learn to intrust to our teachers 
 the management of our working and our department 
 school libraries. The general library will thus come 
 into direct touch with all the teachers and all the pu- 
 pils, and will supplement in the most helpful ways all 
 other agencies. 
 
 Our general libraries should be managed by pro- 
 fessional librarians in thorough sympathy with the 
 schools. In the near future only graduates of schools 
 for librarians will be given charge of our libraries. 
 Such librarians will organize and train the teachers 
 for assistant librarians, and will thus extend the bless- 
 ings of the library to every home. 
 
 EDUCATIVE SCHOOL FACILITIES. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 
 
 V. Pupil Environments. Show the relations of environment to 
 growth. Why is the school site so important "? Describe desira- 
 ble and undesirable hygienic environments ; aesthetic environ- 
 ments; culture environments ; moral environments. Sketch your 
 ideal school grounds ; your ideal schoolroom. Why should school 
 grounds be play-inviting? Point out the relations of play and 
 work. What may the teacher do to improve pupil environments'? 
 
 VI. School Appliances. Show that the schoolroom is much 
 more than a workshop. Is the school a miniature world ? Give 
 your plan for securing good hygienic conditions for effective school 
 work. Tell how you would have a schoolhouse constructed and 
 furnished so as to facilitate movements. Describe the automatic 
 movements of a school signalled by an electric programme clock. 
 What are the gains f How does physical comfort help? Picture 
 the evolutions of school seats and desks ; the teacher's desk. How 
 will you fix your dictionary holder f Describe your working-li- 
 
90 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 brary case ; your arrangements for maps, charts, pictures. Give 
 some reasons for the use of the blackboard. How will you abol- 
 ish the dust nuisance ? Tell some of the benefits of pictures in 
 the schoolroom. 
 
 VII. School Apparatus. Tell what you mean by educative ap- 
 paratus. Describe your educative school grounds; your educative 
 schoolroom ; your ideal blackboard. How may the teacher's 
 blackboard be best arranged ? What do you consider the most de- 
 sirable helps in conduct teaching ? in language-literature teach- 
 ing I in science teaching ? in mathematics teaching ? in art teach- 
 ing ? Give some of the advantages in having teacher and pupils 
 make a part of the apparatus ; make their own collections. Sug- 
 gest ways of securing and preserving apparatus. 
 
 VIII. School Text-Books. What is meant by a text-book? a ref- 
 erence-book ? Give your reasons for exalting the art of gaining 
 knowledge from books. Why should a text-book be original ? 
 brief? clear? teachable? artistic? Tell the story of the oral-teach- 
 ing movement. Give your reasons for thinking that the Germans 
 make a mistake in ignoring text-books. Outline Dr. Harris's rea- 
 sons for emphasizing the proper use of the printed page. Give 
 your arguments for and against free text-books. What plan of 
 adopting and supplying text-books do you count best ? Is it safe 
 to intrust this work to the teachers ? 
 
 IX. School Libraries. Give Carlyle's definition of a modern 
 university. How may school libraries be made to reach all pu- 
 pils ? Is it well to make each teacher an assistant librarian ? 
 What State initiated the school-library movement ? When ? Tell 
 what Horace Mann said in 1840. Present seven reasons why each 
 schoolroom should have a working library. Describe the ideal 
 rural school working library ; primary ; intermediate ; high- 
 school. Give reasons for a department library for each depart- 
 ment 01 our school work. Why should the department faculty 
 manage the department library? Describe the ideal rural school 
 department library ; primary school ; intermediate school ; high 
 school. What must become the most beneficent function of the 
 general library ? Illustrate by the Bank of Scotland. Should our 
 general libraries be managed by professional librarians educated 
 and trained for this special work ? What can teachers do to ad- 
 vance the school-library movement ? 
 
PART III. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH 
 EDUCATIVE SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER X. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE GOV- 
 ERNING POWER. 
 
 XI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE MO- 
 TIVES. 
 XII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
 
 REGULATIONS. 
 
 XIII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE LAW- 
 ABIDING. 
 
 XIV. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE PUN- 
 ISHMENTS. 
 
 01 
 

 C 1 - 
 
 
 2. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 EDUCATIVE 
 
 4. 
 
 GOVERNING "* 
 
 . 
 
 POWER. 
 
 . 
 7. 
 
 
 . 
 [9. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 XL 
 EDUCATIVE 
 MOTIVES. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 
 6- 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 XII. 
 
 
 EDUCATIVE 
 
 3. 
 
 SCHOOL - 
 
 
 REGULA- 
 
 
 TIONS. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 .5. 
 
 
 \ 1. 
 
 XIII. 
 EDUCATIVE 
 LAW- * 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 ABIDING. 
 
 6. 
 
 
 .7. 
 
 
 '1. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 EDUCATIVE 
 
 3. 
 
 PUNISH- 
 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 
 .5. 
 
 Character. The teacher the conduct model. 
 Culture. The teacher the ideal. 
 Insight. The teacher the wise guide. 
 Teaching Power. The teacher an artist. 
 Will Power. The teacher a leader. 
 Heart Power. The teacher a helpful friend. 
 System. The teacher an organizer. 
 Tact. The teacher a manager. 
 Bearing. The teacher a governor. 
 
 Through high incentives we lead. 
 Highest Motives. Duty, truth, beauty. 
 Altruistic Motives. Social betterment. 
 Egoistic Motives. Self-betterment. 
 Low Motives. Fear, rivalry, marks, prizes. 
 Debasing Motives. Selfishness, malevolence. 
 
 1. A school an embryo state. ( 1. Educative. 
 
 2. Positive. 
 
 2. School regulations must be -{ 3. General. 
 
 4. Practical. 
 The school makes the laws. [ 5. Popular. 
 
 1. Law of quietness. 
 
 2. Law of regularity. 
 School code. 4 3. Law of promptness. 
 
 4. Law of propriety. 
 
 5. Law of duty. 
 [ 5. Adopting code. 
 
 1. Govern up to law-abiding self-control. 
 
 2. Educate the pupil to work quietly. 
 
 3. Educate to habits of regularity. 
 Educate to habits of promptitude. 
 
 5. Educate pupils to act with propriety. 
 
 6. Educate pupils to do right. 
 
 7. Conditions, example, teaching, training. 
 
 1. Punishment is remedial and works law- 
 
 abiding. 
 
 2. School punishment must 
 
 be 
 
 3. Educa- fl. Disapproval. 
 
 tive J 2. Reproof, 
 punish- I 3. Deprivations, 
 ments. |^4. Suspension. 
 Hurtful school punish- 
 ments. 
 
 1. Educative. 
 
 2. Natural. 
 
 3. Reformatory. 
 
 4. Just. 
 
 5. Mild and rare. 
 
 1. Corporal. 
 
 2. Fear. 
 
 3. Degrading. 
 
 4. Marking. 
 Punishments must be rational. 
 
PAET THIED. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE GOVERNING 
 POWER. 
 
 THE purpose of the school is educative, and the 
 teacher is pre-eminently the educator. Appliances are 
 important, but the teacher is the vital agency. All 
 good comes through lawful self-effort, but it is the 
 teacher who manages to secure educative effort. 
 Governing power is the Divine commission for lead- 
 ership, and is the proof that the teacher is called and 
 sent. The teacher thus commissioned, through en- 
 nobling motives, leads his pupils up to self-control, self- 
 government, and self -efficiency. Teaching is the art 
 of promoting pupil growth physical, mental, moral 
 and we think of the teacher as having the capabil- 
 ity to lead his pupils to make the most of themselves. 
 He somehow manages to get his pupils into habits of 
 doing what is right and best. When one goes wrong, 
 he manages to get him to retrace his steps. The 
 
 93 
 
94 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 power to thus manage is termed educative governing 
 power. Most persons who really desire to be teach- 
 ers are gifted with governing ability, but this power 
 may be incalculably increased by culture. The ora- 
 tor, the musician, the poet, and the educator are 
 such because they have improved their natural 
 gifts. Teacher, this is a personal lesson. In view 
 of human experience, you ask, "What are the ele- 
 ments of educative governing power ? " and " How 
 may I put on the whole armour of educative leader- 
 ship?" 
 
 1. Character. Be what you would have your pu- 
 pils become. Moral character is the first element of 
 educative governing power. No bad person can gov- 
 ern well. Moral character purity of heart and life 
 is the basis of true educative leadership. 
 
 Jesus lived the one perfect life, and so is the fit 
 leader of men. As you approach the perfect life you 
 become fit to lead your pupils up to a higher and bet- 
 ter life. Moral character is the most potent of all 
 forces. We despise and distrust a base, weak, mean 
 man ; but we trust and almost worship a pure, strong, 
 true man. The vile teacher, however brilliant, de- 
 bases his pupils and fosters anarchy. The pure, 
 strong teacher is a living object lesson, and a fit 
 leader of pupils. Such a teacher, above all, will fos- 
 ter the moral virtues and promote the growth of 
 moral character. Conduct and not scholarship is the 
 pre-eminent thing in education. It is easy for a 
 worthy teacher to govern well, for his pupils trust 
 him, love him, reverence him. Moral worth is the 
 uplifting factor in teacher governing power. 
 
EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 95 
 
 IX. BEARING. Assert leadership by your bearing. 
 
 A7TTT , ( Manage to utilize all educative agen- 
 
 Lll. IACT. - 
 
 ( Secure good order and efficient work 
 Vll. SYSTEM. - throuh sstem . 
 
 VI. WILL POWER, 
 
 V. HEART POWER. | Be J^ e he f p u e P irs sympathizing friend 
 
 IV. TEACHING j Lead pupils to do the best work in the 
 
 POWER, j best ways. 
 
 III. PUPIL ' j Study pupil nature that you may pro- 
 
 INSIGHT. ( mote pupil growth. 
 
 ( Cherish the spirit of mastery and 
 II. CULTURE. | broad cultur 
 
 ( Be what you wish your pupils to be- 
 .. L I. CHARACTER. j come< * 
 
 2. Culture. Master the subjects you teach, and 
 seek broad culture. Culture is the second element of 
 educative governing power. All the world follow 
 the man who knows. Broad culture commands. 
 Educational leaders must be cultured men and 
 women. Aristotle and Thomas Arnold, the peerless 
 teachers, were also peerless students. Only earnest 
 learners are fit to lead learners. It is said that Ag- 
 assiz never needed to ask for attention ; he knew, 
 and commanded attention through interest. After 
 half a century of highly successful work a teacher 
 was asked the secret of her success. " Thorough prep- 
 aration," was her modest answer. Many teachers, 
 some say a majority, never investigate, never think, 
 never study, never prepare the lessons. Surely such 
 persons are unfit to lead their pupils to mastery. 
 They are not learners, and hence are not in touch 
 with learners. They can not govern well because 
 they can not create and sustain interest. Only ear- 
 
96 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 nest students can be educational leaders. It is easy 
 for the cultured teacher to govern well, for culture 
 commands respect and confidence. Culture is the 
 commanding factor in teacher governing power. 
 
 3. Pupil Insight. Study pupil nature that you 
 may promote pupil growth. Pupil insight is the 
 third element of educative governing power. The 
 world's great leaders have been profound students of 
 human nature. They knew men as well as affairs. 
 The educator must know his pupils. You study the 
 physical economy that you may command hygienic 
 conditions and promote physical vigour. You study 
 the mental economy that you may adapt the work to 
 each pupil and promote harmonious mental growth. 
 You study the moral economy that you may foster 
 character growth. You work in the light, and com- 
 mand everything that helps and reject everything 
 that hurts. You provide the best work for each and 
 all ; you manage to have each pupil do educative 
 work. Not understanding his pupils, the old school- 
 master groped his way in the dark and ruled through 
 the rod. Many modern schoolkeepers know not 
 their pupils, and hence govern through low incen- 
 tives. It is easy for one who knows his pupils to 
 govern well, for he understands their ways and wants. 
 Pupil insight is the guiding factor in teacher govern- 
 ing power. 
 
 4. Teaching Power. Lead your pupils to do the 
 best work in the best ways. Teaching power is the 
 fourth element of educative governing power. You, 
 in some degree, have mastered the educative art. 
 You laid a solid foundation in the rock of self-study 
 
EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 97 
 
 and pupil study. From the standpoint of the edu- 
 cator you have studied the history and science of edu- 
 cation. You have lingered at the feet of the masters, 
 and learned the art of teaching from Jesus, from 
 Plato, from Froebel. You have read some of the 
 best things and have felt the spell of some of the 
 best living teachers. You have gained some skill in 
 the divine art of teaching. Realizing the precious- 
 ness of each moment, you so plan that your pupils do 
 only the best work and only in the best ways. You 
 manage to keep yourself and your pupils so interested 
 and so busy that there is no time or occasion for dis- 
 cipline or marking. Good teaching insures easy con- 
 trol and promotes everything that is best in school 
 life. But many schoolkeepers can not teach, and so 
 the time and energies of hosts of pupils are squan- 
 dered. Disorder comes of inability to v teach. To 
 keep order takes a large part of the time of the weak 
 teacher. The soul-waste in many schools is appalling. 
 It is easy for the powerful teacher to govern well, for 
 he interests his pupils and leads them on to victory. 
 Teaching power is the vital factor in teacher govern- 
 ing power. 
 
 5. Heart Power. Be the pupil's sympathetic friend 
 and helper. Heart power is the fifth element of edu- 
 cative governing power. Love is the last word in the 
 art of educative leadership. The teacher is warm- 
 hearted as well as pure-hearted. In the old education 
 the teacher was master, and drove ; in the new educa- 
 tion the teacher is the pupil's friend, and leads. The 
 Great Teacher was the loving friend and companion of 
 his disciples. Pestalozzi lived with his pupils, worked 
 8 
 
98 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 with them, shared their joys and sorrows. You love 
 your pupils and are touched by their infirmities ; you 
 sympathize with them in their temptations and diffi- 
 culties, and you rejoice with them in their joys and 
 /successes. You do your best to make each one strong 
 f and good and useful and happy. By friendly looks, 
 kind words, and generous acts you win the esteem and 
 love of your pupils and make them your true friends. 
 In the sunshine of affection all that is lovely in pupil 
 nature buds, blossoms, and bears fruit. Even hateful 
 children become interested and interesting. The tricks 
 and shams and frauds and stupidities and cruelties 
 that blighted the old school life shrink away, for love 
 delights to cast out stupidity and fraud as well as 
 fear. 
 
 Teaching is the altruistic profession. The teacher 
 does not think of self, but feels a burning desire to 
 do most for his pupils. He studies to lead them to 
 find out the best things, feel the most exalting emo- 
 tions, and do the most ennobling acts. His pupils 
 grow altruistic and rival each other in generosity. 
 All help each to know more, do more, be more. It 
 is easy for the sympathetic teacher to govern well, for 
 love makes teacher and pupils coworkers. Heart 
 power is the winning factor in teacher governing 
 power. 
 
 6. Will Power. Control through high and elevat- 
 ing motives. Will power is the sixth element of ed- 
 ucative governing power. Will stands for effort- 
 making. Will power is the Aladdin's lamp that 
 brings about results and achieves the unexpected and 
 the impossible. Men of great will power lead armies, 
 
EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 99 
 
 lead nations, lead the world. Will power gives us 
 manly men and womanly women. Aristotle had 
 greater will power than Alexander, and Paul had 
 greater will power than Caesar. The loving Jesus 
 had supreme will power. 
 
 Will power is the invincible governing force. 
 The teacher plans wisely and executes firmly. You 
 do most for your pupils by leading them through high 
 motives to develop habits of persistency in high en- 
 deavour. You lead them through right incentives to 
 plan well their work and persistently carry out their 
 plans. You train them to do their best in the best 
 ways and so become strong and efficient. You man- 
 age to infuse into them iron determination and in- 
 domitable courage. You cherish self-control by ex- 
 ample, by telling about noble people, by training. 
 Each pupil develops the double art of self-control and 
 self-government. It is easy for the decided teacher 
 to govern well, for he is leader. Will power is the 
 controlling factor in teacher governing power. 
 
 7. System. Secure order through system. Infuse 
 system into all school work. System is the seventh 
 element of educative governing power. System 
 stands for fitness of things. It transforms a mob into 
 an army. System means order in school work, and 
 order means a time for everything, a place for every- 
 thing, and method in doing everything. The skilful 
 teacher manages to get these order elements into the 
 warp and woof of school life. 
 
 (1) Time system is essential to order and effi- 
 ciency. Regularity and promptitude are the basis of 
 school order. The programme provides occupation 
 
100 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 for each pupil during each moment of the school day. 
 The teacher trains the pupils to work to the pro- 
 gramme, and thus prepares them for life. Work 
 and recreation supplement each other, and pupils 
 are happy because they are kept interested and 
 busy. 
 
 (2) Place system helps to produce order. " A place 
 for everything and everything in its place " is as im- 
 portant to the teacher as to the housekeeper or the 
 mechanic. Having places for play, for wrappings, 
 for books, for study, and for recitation enables the 
 teacher to secure good order with much greater readi- 
 ness. 
 
 Training pupils to orderly habits in the school- 
 room prepares them for orderly habits through life. 
 The teacher's desk, the pupil's desk, the schoolroom, 
 and the school grounds should be models of order and 
 neatness. 
 
 (3) Method system works educational marvels. 
 From the opening to the close of school all move- 
 ments are signalled by the programme clock. En- 
 ergy is economized to the utmost. Pupils are trained 
 to efficient methods of study. The most helpful 
 methods of teaching are studied. In all the school 
 work there are definite purposes and right ways of 
 realizing them. He who shortens the road to knowl- 
 edge lengthens life. "Wise methods of work double 
 teacher efficiency and pupil efficiency. Good meth- 
 ods lessen friction and make effort count for most. 
 System is the key to success ; it organizes victory. 
 Systematic working habits are worth more to the 
 pupils than the knowledge gained. System organizes 
 
EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 1Q1 
 
 order, and each pupil learns to move to the rhythm 
 of the school. It is easy for the systematic teacher 
 to govern well, for he makes school life orderly. 
 System is the organizing factor in teacher governing 
 power. 
 
 8. Tact. Manage to utilize all educational agen- 
 cies. Tact is the eighth element of educative govern- 
 ing power. Tact stands for the wisdom of the serpent 
 blended with the innocence of the dove. It means 
 policy in right doing. Paul adapted himself to all 
 classes. Cicero conciliated his auditors. Even Alex- 
 ander and Caesar and Napoleon had to use tact in 
 managing their soldiers. We think of tact as includ- 
 ing common sense, wisdom, shrewdness, and skill in 
 managing. 
 
 (1) As a leader the teacher needs to he tactful. Co- 
 operation must be secured and opposition disarmed. 
 One person can not do much, but many persons work- 
 ing together can build cities, create school systems, 
 and make states. The teacher must manage patrons 
 as well as pupils. He is the natural leader in all 
 educational matters. Success depends on the hearty 
 co-operation of all. At every step tact is demanded, 
 and often the teacher must seem to follow while really 
 leading. 
 
 (2) As a manager the teacher needs a double por- 
 tion of tact horn of wisdom. Evils must be met and 
 conquered one by one. Misconduct must be made 
 the occasion for deepening the love of right. Every 
 incident must be turned to advantage. Even oppo- 
 sition must be made helpful, as contrary winds are 
 made to waft the ship across the sea. The angry 
 
102 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 parent who comes to make trouble must be sent away 
 a friend and helper. The exuberant life of the young 
 must be made educative. Wise management makes 
 the difference between success and failure. 
 
 (3) The educator must exercise the utmost tact. 
 Whom to help and when to help and how to help are 
 momentous considerations. The end in view is to 
 generate in the pupil a deep love of learning and to 
 foster self-effort. The pupil must be educated to 
 work out his own salvation. The work must be 
 adapted to each pupil, and each one must be encour- 
 aged to do his best. Right methods and right habits 
 of study are to be cherished. In a word, the art of 
 teaching requires boundless tact. It is easy for a tact- 
 ful teacher to govern well, for he manages to make 
 everything help. Tact is the managing factor in 
 teacher governing power. 
 
 9. Bearing. Assert leadership by your bearing. 
 Quietness with confidence is the ninth element of edu- 
 cative governing power. There is a dignity of bear- 
 ing and a quietness of manner which we always asso- 
 ciate with conscious strength, as there is a nervous 
 anxiety and ill-temper which we invariably attribute 
 to a lack of confidence in one's position or to a very 
 superficial character. The bearing of the teacher 
 either commands or forfeits the respect and confidence 
 of the pupils and patrons. The loud, fussy teacher 
 offends, and the weak, doubting, wavering teacher 
 awakens contempt. The bearing of Washington was 
 such that he never needed to command ; his request was 
 law. So should it be with the teacher. It is easy for 
 a quiet and confident teacher to govern well, for he 
 
EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 103 
 
 seems born to rule. Bearing is the inspiring factor 
 in teacher governing power. 
 
 CHAPTEE XL 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 
 
 GOVERNMENT is the power of control that pro- 
 duces and sustains order, but school government is 
 much more : it educates pupils to habitual good con- 
 duct and effective study ; it organizes order, and 
 through educative incentives leads pupils into habits 
 of law-abiding self-control. Doing right acts from 
 right motives educates. 
 
 Motives in the Soul Economy are Incentives. Ideas 
 occasion emotions ; emotions occasion purposes ; pur- 
 poses occasion acts. Ideas awaken desires and so be- 
 come incentives to acts. A self is rational as well 
 as free, and hence acts from motives. Ideas become 
 desires and purposes, and so move us to do. Motives 
 are at once our incentives to do and the explanation 
 of our acts. Even the child answers " Because " when 
 asked why it did so. 
 
 Through Motives we lead. Motives are induce- 
 ments to act. Weak motives are slight inducements 
 and strong motives are powerful incentives. From 
 infancy up pupils are led through motives, for they 
 are free and rational. In governing, as in teaching, 
 we study to reach effectively each individual. A 
 large per cent of our pupils want to do the right 
 
104 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 thing, and will make a strong effort to do it under 
 any and all circumstances ; another class will be in- 
 fluenced almost entirely by the good or the vicious 
 environments ; while in most schools will be found a 
 few positively vicious pupils. Well-disposed pupils 
 respond to all right motives ; weak pupils need all 
 helpful influences and effective incentives; vicious 
 pupils must be transformed by teacher kindness and 
 teacher tact. All pupils may be led by right incen- 
 tives, but great wisdom is needed in the choice of 
 motives, and great skill is needed in presenting in- 
 centives. 
 
 The Teacher determines Pupil Motives. It is a so- 
 cial axiom that one person may influence the conduct 
 of another. All reforms as well as all debasements 
 rest on this fact. You stand for the best in the life 
 of the pupil ; you determine his studies and largely his 
 companionship. Through your example and through 
 stories and through all lessons and through books you 
 give direction to his thoughts and impulses, and 
 awaken ennobling desires and high purposes. You, 
 more than all others, lead pupils to cherish high 
 ideals and strive to realize them. You are the pupil's 
 friend, and in a high sense determine the incentives 
 which control in pupil life. Yours is a fearful re- 
 sponsibility, but each pupil rightly led by you will 
 prove a blessing to society and will be a star in your 
 unfading crown. 
 
 Motives help or hurt. Incentives that lead to right 
 acts are educative motives, but allurements to wrong 
 doing are debasing motives. Rulers of pupils as well 
 as the rulers of men need to study the whole gamut 
 
EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 105 
 
 of motives. What motives help, and do not hurt ? 
 What motives hurt, and do not help ? These are in- 
 cisive questions which we must answer. Are we in 
 our school work leading our pupils through the most 
 helpful motives ? Are some of the incentives we use 
 hurtful ? Let us honestly re-examine the very foun- 
 dations of our work. Think what it means to your 
 pupils. Proper incentives to good conduct and help- 
 ful study make for a grand manhood, but improper 
 inducements work ruin. Our school work must be 
 permeated by the very spirit of high motives. We 
 must root out at any cost every hurtful or even 
 doubtful school incentive ; then we can hopefully 
 work to get our pupils to act habitually from right 
 motives. 
 
 SCHOOL INCENTIVES. 
 
 Our pupils, like ourselves, are very human. In 
 most cases they do not mean to do wrong, but all feel 
 good and bad impulses, and often act thoughtlessly, as 
 the brutes do. But soon all learn to consider before 
 doing, and it is these purposed acts that hurt or help. 
 Incentives to helpful acts are educative motives, but 
 incentives to hurtful acts are debasing motives. Our 
 highest mission is to lead our pupils to act from edu- 
 cative motives. For school purposes it seems fitting 
 to group pupil incentives as hurtful, low, high, 
 highest. 
 
 1. Hurtful Motives. Incentives to debasing acts 
 are hurtful, motives. The cravings of the appetites 
 arid tneimperious demands of the passions become 
 debasing incentives when they allure to lawless acts. 
 One who habitually yields to these incentives brutal- 
 
106 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 izes himself. Temptations to violate law hygienic, 
 social, moral are hurtful motives. Yielding to 
 temptation gives us a world full of degraded human 
 beings. The greatest thing in education is to train 
 pupils to habits of law-abiding self-control. Through 
 educative motives we lead our pupils to resist hurtful 
 allurements and overcome temptations. Incentives 
 to .selfish acts are hurtful motives. A selfish man is 
 a base man. One who regards not man nor God is 
 low indeed. Selfishness is the sum of everything de- 
 testable. Yielding habitually to selfish incentives 
 makes one mean, ungenerous, heartless. Through 
 love and all generous and kindly incentives we lead 
 our pupils to root selfishness out of their lives. 
 
 2. Low Motives, Incentives based on low con- 
 siderations are low motives. Their name is legion. 
 Low motives unavoidably tend to become hurtful, and 
 at most, when permissible, are temporary expedients. 
 They are not educative. They do not make for man- 
 hood. Fear is a low motive, but love casts out fear. 
 Prizes, per-cent marks for conduct and scholarship, 
 and all rivalry-fostering distinctions are low incen- 
 tives that tend to become hurtful. Extraneous in- 
 centives to good conduct and effective study must be 
 counted as low and hurtful motives. 
 
 " I have been thirty-five years in the schoolroom as pupil and 
 teacher ; have lived a good part of that time in the atmosphere 
 of prizes and per cents ; have watched their false spur and un- 
 natural colouring of character ; have looked upon noble ambition 
 perverted to things abnormal ; have seen the physical, intellec- 
 tual, and moral wreckage that ensued ; and as the result of per- 
 sonal investigation and personal experience, I do not hesitate to 
 pronounce the whole system of incentives, to which reference has 
 
107 
 
108 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 been made, as abnormal, unprofitable, false, and immoral. Their 
 entire tendency is to temporary results, to stifled interest, to the 
 recognition of an unnatural means as an end, to the development 
 of a selfish spirit, and to dishonest practice, as well as to over- 
 prgs>ure and overnervous and physical strain." R. W. SEARCH. 
 
 3. High Motives. Incentives that make for man- 
 hood are high motives". Habitually acting from high 
 incentives develops a noble manhood.* 
 
 (1) We appeal to self-incentives. These are in- 
 centives to self-betterments. Our loving Father 
 plans each life, and implants in each one burning de- 
 sires to make the most of that life. All right incen- 
 tives to self-betterment tend to ennoble. The pupil 
 desires to stand well, desires esteem, desires approval 
 because he is worthy ; no marks or reports are need- 
 ed ; only approving smiles and encouraging words. 
 The deserving pupil feels that he stands well. The 
 pupil desires knowledge for its own sake ; this is the 
 divine incentive to study. Our pupils are intensely 
 interested, for we lead them to find out. All extrane- 
 ous incentives to study or to duty are hurtful. True 
 teaching commands attention and sustains interest. 
 The pupil desires power, desires efficiency, that he 
 may act well his part. As our model, Jesus lived a 
 perfect life and taught us to work on toward perfec- 
 tion. A noble aim is a high incentive to a noble life. 
 The pupil does his best to-day that he may be able to 
 do better to-morrow. We do well to encourage and 
 give wise direction to the aspirations of our pupils. 
 
 (2) We appeal to altruistic incentives incentives 
 to social betterment. The greatest of these is love. 
 
 * Royal Incentives, E. E. White, p. 153, School Management. 
 
EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 109 
 
 Love and duty are twin sisters, and go hand in hand. 
 Pupil love responds to teacher love. Love makes 
 duty easy. Beautiful friendships elevate. Generos- 
 ity makes real heroes. Kindness is a crown of glory. 
 We think of God as our loving Father, and of all men 
 as our brothers. God is love, and in the ratio that 
 we become Godlike our motives become altruistic. 
 Nothing appeals more strongly to most pupils than 
 the fact that they can help the teacher and help their 
 fellow-pupils. Kindness, generosity, friendship, grati- 
 tude, and reverence grow into life habits. 
 
 4. Highest Motives. Incentives of the true, the 
 beautiful, the good, are the highest motives. We 
 rise above egoistic and altruistic considerations, and 
 act from cosmic motives. We love the higher life. 
 
 (1) Truth is a powerful incentive. The search 
 for truth, the desire to impart truth, and the earnest 
 effort to live truth, are in the highest degree enno- 
 bling. The pursuit of truth dignifies life and gives the 
 highest joy. No one wonders that the mightiest men 
 devote their lives to this pursuit. We lead our pupils 
 to find truth, and so they get to hunger and thirst for 
 truth. No other incentive to study is so strong and 
 so elevating. The ideal school is verity embodied. 
 No shams, no pretenses, no lies, are tolerated. The 
 teacher feels truth, looks truth, speaks truth, acts truth. 
 The pupils become truthful, for they breathe an at- 
 mosphere of truth. 
 
 (2) Beauty is a mighty incentive. No one knows 
 how largely his life is affected by the beautiful, the 
 sublime, and the humorous. The beautiful and sub- 
 lime in Nature and art and literature do much to re- 
 
HO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 fine and elevate. "We lead our pupils to appreciate 
 beauty and to produce beauty. Each one studies to 
 keep himself clean and neat. Each one in song and 
 speech and movement and drawing and moulding cre- 
 ates beauty. Each one feels exaltation as he becomes 
 absorbed in Homer and Dante and Milton. Above 
 all, each one endeavours to live a beautiful life. The 
 sense of honesty and honour is beautiful. 
 
 (3) Duty is the supreme incentive. Acting solely 
 from a sense of duty, doing right because it is right, 
 does most to ennoble. Man is a constitutional sover- 
 eign and reigns through law. The universe is so 
 planned that all good comes through law-obeying. 
 Duty is doing right from right motives. Man is a 
 constitutional sovereign, and reigns by doing right. 
 Above all, education develops the duty habit. 
 
 We begin with the infant. Obey, is the only item 
 in its ethics. Somehow it gets to feel that it ought 
 to obey its parents. This is the budding of conscience, 
 the beginning of a life of duty. To the child, paren- 
 tal will is law, is right. As the loving mother trains 
 the little one to walk, so she trains it to obey. 
 
 We train the child to do right. It gets to feel 
 that it ought to do right ought to obey its parent, 
 its teacher, and its school laws. Parents and teacher 
 manage to get the child to obey willingly, thus edu- 
 cating conscience and will. No theories, no dogmas, 
 no arguments, no rods, are permissible. Lovingly 
 lead the child into habits of law-abiding. 
 
 We lead the older pupils to strengthen law-abid- 
 ing habits. The pupil's ethics widen and widen. 
 God is always the loving Father and the beneficent 
 
EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. ill 
 
 lawgiver. Jesus and the teacher are always the dear- 
 est friends. Law-abiding self-control is always the 
 greatest thing. Duty dignifies and re-enforces all 
 other proper motives. The pupil very much wishes 
 to do something. " Is it right ? " " Yes." " Then 
 thank God and do it." 
 
 WHAT MOTIVES. 
 
 School management is the art of securing good 
 conduct and efficient study through high motives. 
 When seen from the standpoint of duty, all is plain to 
 teacher and pupils. Like instruction, motives must 
 be adapted to individual pupils. It is safe to rely 
 upon the highest incentive which will move the pupil. 
 Duty and justice and generosity and the desire for 
 betterment and the sense of honour, in most cases, will 
 prove all-sufficient to induce good conduct and efficient 
 study. Some pupils, however, must be led for a time 
 through other motives, such as approval, public opin- 
 ion, and consequences. The earnest effort must be to 
 secure right conduct, but when a pupil has gone wrong 
 he must be brought back to the path of duty through 
 educative suffering. 
 
 Incentives conflict. Our appetites and passions 
 and selfish impulses entice us to do debasing acts, 
 while all ennobling incentives move us to do right. 
 This irrepressible conflict goes on in every human 
 heart. 
 
 One victory strengthens, and many victories root 
 right doing into habit. In this momentous battle the 
 teacher deeply sympathizes with the pupil, and does 
 everything possible to strengthen him ; and in case 
 
112 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 he goes wrong he gently leads him through educative 
 motives back to the path of duty. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
 REGULATIONS. 
 
 We think of the School as an Embryo State. The 
 
 pupils are trained to make laws and obey them, and 
 are thus educated for citizenship. The ideal school is 
 an embryo republic, in which the prime object of 
 government is to educate the pupils up to self-gov 
 ernment. The school life thus becomes a training f 
 good citizenship. Pupils develop the habits of r 
 restraint, self-control, and self-mastery, and these 
 the highest products of education. The school be 
 comes an impressive object lesson of the reign of law 
 and of the great truth that all good conies of la^ 
 abiding. 
 
 Wise Laws are Fundamental The old schoolman 
 ter was a despot, and with all his rules and all his rods 
 has passed away. Though often a blundering tyrant, 
 he did what he could. Peace to his ashes! The 
 teacher is not a boss. The goody-goody teacher, 
 with no laws and no punishments, is the opposite j 
 extreme and is a well-meaning failure. The teacher 
 is not a sentimental weakling. The true teacher, 
 through educative regulations leading up to self -con- 
 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL REGULATIONS. H3 
 
 trol and law-abiding habits, is the golden mean. The 
 teacher is the friend and leader. 
 
 PRINCIPLES DETERMINE LAWS. 
 
 Not caprice, but educative principles determine 
 school regulations. What laws will prove most help- 
 ful ? What regulations will best prepare the pupil 
 or life ? The following guiding truths will enable 
 us to answer these questions. 
 
 1. School Regulations must be Educative. School 
 laws are made for the pupil, just as the Sabbath was 
 made for man. Everything to help and nothing to 
 hinder is fundamental. Liberty through law is the 
 aim. Orderly freedom is the ideal. In the school 
 world each pupil is kept in touch with the ideal, and 
 '8 trained to habitually do the things that help and 
 
 void the things that hurt. The school code must be 
 Dative. 
 
 2. School Laws must be Positive. " Do, and therein 
 have well-being." " Shall not " characterized the 
 -ules of the old schoolmaster; but in the new order 
 
 f things doing the right takes the place of forbid- 
 ing the wrong. " Happy are they that do his com- 
 mandments." School regulations are educative, and 
 hence positive. " Be prompt " takes the place of 
 " Must not be tardy." " Be truthful " takes the place 
 of " Must not tell lies." The school code is positive. 
 
 3. School Regulations must be Few, and hence Gen- 
 eral They are to be such as apply to all schools and 
 all pupils. They must require lines of conduct and 
 must cover all the ground. All specific cases come 
 under the general laws, so that it may never become 
 
 9 
 
114 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 necessary to make new regulations. The school code 
 must be general. 
 
 4. School Laws must be Practical School regula- 
 tions are working laws that lead to life habits. They 
 enter into the warp and woof of school life. Teacher 
 and pupils live the regulations, and thus develop into 
 habits the school virtues. Impractical regulations 
 can not be enforced, and laws not obeyed hurt and do 
 not help. The school code must be practical. 
 
 5. School Laws must be Popular. School regula- 
 tions must be sustained by public sentiment. They 
 must have the hearty support of the pupils and the 
 patrons as well as of the teacher. School laws must 
 commend themselves to the common sense of all. 
 Popular school regulations will have the moral sup- 
 port of the patrons, and pupils will readily obey such 
 laws. The school code must be popular. 
 
 A school code harmonizing with these principles 
 embodies the laws of school life. Each law is edu- 
 cative, positive, general, practical, popular. Such 
 regulations give definiteness to school government. 
 
 Educative School Code. 
 
 1. Law of Quietude. 
 
 2. Law of Regularity. 
 
 3. Law of Promptitude. 
 
 4. Law of Propriety. 
 
 5. Law of Duty. 
 
 1. Work quietly. All education begins in silence, 
 and the first school lesson the pupil learns is that of 
 quietude. Above the teacher's desk " Work quietly " 
 should be written large ; but the quietness of pleasant 
 work is meant, and not the breathless stillness pro- 
 duced by fear. Teacher and pupils study to do things 
 so softly as not to disturb others. Quietude must be 
 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL REGULATIONS. H5 
 
 the law of the schoolroom. Teacher and pupils study 
 to avoid whatever disturbs others, such as whispering, 
 noisy studying, noisy moving, fixing fires, and loud 
 talking. Stillness favours study and characterizes the 
 ideal school. 
 
 2. Attend Regularly. Teacher and pupils must be 
 regular in all school work. Persistency is the law of 
 achievement. In school work, as in life work, regu- 
 larity is fundamental. The habit of regularity pro- 
 motes our physical, mental, and moral well-being. 
 Regularity is a cardinal school virtue. 
 
 3. Be Prompt. Teacher and pupils must be prompt. 
 The habit of being on time is invaluable. The school 
 trains pupils to work to a programme, and prompti 
 tude is counted a leading virtue. Promptitude char- 
 acterizes the world's workers. Regularity and prompt- 
 itude are the basis of order. They are the pillars of 
 good school government. 
 
 4. Act properly. Teacher and pupils must act with 
 propriety. We think of good manners as proper 
 conduct. Order is eminently proper. During school 
 hours it is proper that pupils should communicate 
 through the teacher. Kindness is proper, earnest 
 study is proper, decorum is proper. This law covers 
 much of conduct and leads to the formation of many 
 desirable habits. Conduct worthy of a pupil and 
 worthy of a gentlewoman or a gentleman is required 
 by the law of propriety. 
 
 5. Do right. Teacher and pupils must do right. 
 The duty impulses are imperative. 1 may be polite, 
 but I must be truthful. Duty is the corner stone of 
 the art of school management. The habit of doing 
 
116 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 what we believe we ought to do is the essence of 
 character growing. Conscience stands for duty, and 
 doing right stands for law-abiding. 
 
 ENACTING THE LAWS. 
 
 The pupils, the teacher, and the school board 
 make the school regulations. The school is an em- 
 bryo State. The teacher and the pupils enact their 
 own organic laws. Pupils are trained to make, obey, 
 and sustain laws. School life thus prepares for real 
 life. 
 
 1. The Teacher submits the Regulations. The 
 teacher submits and explains the regulations one by 
 one. The teacher is the friend and leader, and it is 
 fitting that he should propose educative laws and 
 make clear their desirability. Explanations and illus- 
 trations are brief and plain. 
 
 2. Teacher and Pupils adopt the Regulations. 
 They unite in enacting laws for the school. The pu- 
 pils are led to favour the regulations and to realize in 
 some degree their fitness. It is important to have 
 even the younger pupils feel that they in a degree 
 make the laws which they are to obey, just as the 
 people make their laws. 
 
 3. The School Board approves the Regulations. It 
 is well in small schools to have the school board pres- 
 ent, but otherwise the action of the board approving 
 the regulations can be reported to the pupils. The 
 school board stands for the State, and regulations thus 
 approved become State laws, as do bills passed by the 
 Legislature and signed by the governor. 
 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 
 
 117 
 
 4. The Regulations are adopted One by One. Some 
 impressive method of adopting the code is helpful. 
 It is the first day of school. The leading classes have 
 been organized and lessons assigned. The afternoon 
 recess is over. Pupils are still fresh and happy. 
 The members of the school board or school commit- 
 tee are present. Attention is called to the pro- 
 gramme. Then in some attractive way the pupils are 
 led to appreciate and adopt the school code. It is an 
 impressive plan to draw on the board a picture of 
 the hand, and to write the laws on the fingers as 
 they are adopted. Close attention is thus secured 
 and held. 
 
 Teacher. Pupils, that we may have good order 
 and good work we must have good regulations. I 
 think we can place on the fingers of one hand all the 
 laws we shall need. I want you to unite with me in 
 
118 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 making our school regulations. Do you think the 
 teacher should work quietly ? (Pupils all raise hands.) 
 Should pupils work quietly ? (All hands are raised.) 
 Will you join with me in making " Work quietly " 
 one of our school regulations ? (All raise hands.) 
 Now I will ask all who will unite with me in adopt- 
 ing " Work quietly " as one of our laws, to stand. I 
 am glad to see you all stand. Now please raise your 
 left hand. Now write on your little finger, as I do 
 on the board, " Work quietly." 
 
 Each of the regulations is considered and adopted 
 in a similar way. Thus in half an hour the school 
 code may be intelligently and impressively adopted. 
 The members of the school board will sign the pre- 
 pared code in the presence of the school, thus giving 
 their sanction and influence to the laws adopted. The 
 code hand is left on the board, and as new pupils come 
 in they are led to assent to the regulations. 
 
 The pupils come to regard the regulations as their 
 laws, and hence learn to cheerfully obey and readily 
 sustain them. The true idea of school government is 
 thus realized. The governing force is from within, 
 and not from without. Pupils develop the power of 
 self-control and the habit of law-abiding. The best 
 possible foundation is laid for educative school gov- 
 ernment and for good citizenship. 
 
EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. H9 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 
 
 The Teacher controls up to Self-control School 
 management is eminently the art of developing habits 
 of law-abiding self-control. The pupils learn to think 
 of the school as a larger self, and of law-abiding as 
 self-obedience. All wise school work is educative, 
 but good conduct in obedience to self-imposed laws is 
 the educational superlative. The practical realization 
 of this vital truth will mark an educational epoch. 
 
 Order is Cheerful Law-abiding. Order is fitness. 
 The school code, written or unwritten, voices the fit- 
 ness of school conduct. The teacher leads the pupils 
 to live the organic laws of the school and thus develop 
 law-abiding habits. This is what is meant by good 
 order. The old schoolmaster enforced his rules, but 
 the true teacher governs up to self-government. 
 
 LAW OF QUIET WORK. 
 
 We will learn to work quietly. Real education 
 begins in silence. To keep still is the first school 
 lesson. Each one learns to so work as not to disturb 
 others. School work is educative in the ratio of ear- 
 nest work done quietly. How may we best develop 
 habits of working quietly ? 
 
 1. The Conditions must favour Quietude. We 
 plan to make quiet work easy. Single adjustable 
 desks are first thought of, as they secure isolation and 
 comfort. Writing tablets as substitutes for slates are 
 
120 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 the next suggestion. Doors made to open and close 
 silently are the third consideration. The hourly re- 
 cess is fourth in the list, as it does so much to make 
 quiet work delightful. Pure air, abundant light, and 
 proper temperature are essentials. Fixing fires, get- 
 ting drinks, sharpening pencils, asking questions, are 
 recess incidents. Teacher, you will do well to make 
 a long pause here. Tact will save you a world of 
 trouble. 
 
 2. JBy .Example the Teacher must impress Quie- 
 tude. By working quietly the teacher best leads the 
 pupils to do quiet work. " Learn to work quietly " 
 is written large above the teacher's desk, and the 
 teacher embodies this law. He speaks and moves and 
 works quietly. His management is energetic and his 
 teaching is full of vigour, but he keeps in mind that 
 it is the lightning, and not the thunder, that kills. 
 He avoids boisterousness, clapping, pounding, stamp- 
 ing, scolding. A loud teacher will likely have a noisy 
 school. Such a teacher is a school nuisance and should 
 be reformed or abated. The quiet, earnest teacher is 
 a treasure. 
 
 3. Utilize Altruistic Incentives to Quiet Work. 
 Each pupil desires the good of all. No one wishes to 
 work injury to another. Working quietly helps and 
 does not hurt. It cultivates generosity and good will. 
 Pupils abstain from whispering because it works in- 
 jury to others, and each one comes to feel the school 
 spirit to help and not hurt. 
 
 4. Training Pupils to Habits of Quietude is essen- 
 tial. Lead the pupil to work quietly until quietude 
 becomes a habit. Each one learns to study quietly, to 
 
EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 121 
 
 move quietly, to speak softly. "When the pupil does 
 anything noisily he is requested to do it again quietly. 
 Soon the pupils become toned down, and come to 
 speak softly and move quietly. They learn to abstain 
 from whispering and other disturbing noises, for these 
 are felt as grating discords. 
 
 5. Breaking up Noisy Habits is necessary. Ex- 
 ample, altruistic incentives, and training will work 
 wonders in transforming noisy children into quiet 
 pupils. In some cases, however, gentle reproof or 
 some deprivation is necessary to work a cure. The 
 pupil must be led to think and try. The desire and 
 determination to have a delightfully quiet school .is 
 felt in every nerve and fibre of the school. Pupils 
 and teacher work together to this end. 
 
 6. Persistent Endeavour develops Quiet Tidbits. 
 The teacher manages to have a cheerful and quiet school. 
 Patiently, kindly, persistently the work goes on day 
 by day and week by week. All learn to work quietly, 
 and each one comes to feel a pleasure in quiet work. 
 Our ideal is a quiet, cheerful, working school, and 
 we all, pupils and teacher, feel proud when we realize 
 our ideal. This is order ; this is real education. 
 
 LAW OF REGULARITY. 
 
 We will strive to be Regular. Regularity char- 
 acterizes the world's successful workers. The octo- 
 genarian, in most cases, ascribes to regular habits his 
 long life. The great leaders of men in all fields of 
 high endeavour are regular workers. Regularity is 
 one of the cardinal school virtues, and to root regu- 
 larity into a life habit is an important educational 
 
122 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 achievement. How may we best lead our pupils into 
 habits of regularity ? 
 
 1. Teacher Example is Most Potent. A teacher is 
 a fit pupil leader when he is a model of regularity. 
 He follows a well-considered plan, duly proportioning 
 work, recreation, and rest. His school work is an ob- 
 ject lesson of regularity. Pupils are bound to make 
 the most of themselves, and so must be trained to 
 regularity. They must cultivate the habit of regu- 
 larity in their studies, in their reading, in their exer- 
 cises, in their amusements, in their eating, and in their 
 sleeping as well as in their school work. By his own 
 example, and by the stories of Washington and Kant 
 and Gladstone, the pupils are stimulated to form 
 habits of regularity. 
 
 2. Interest leads to Regularity. The school work 
 is made so interesting and the lessons are made so 
 helpful that pupils are unwilling to miss a single hour. 
 The habit of regular attendance is formed. The 
 pupils are led to realize that vigorous health depends on 
 regular physical habits, and that mental vigour depends 
 on regular habits of study. Especially are pupils im- 
 pressed with the importance of regular attendance in 
 order to have good school work. But, after all, inter- 
 est is the great incentive. School stupidity works 
 irregularity. 
 
 3. The Irregular must suffer the Consequences. 
 Irregularity hurts the individual and hurts the school. 
 It is a misfortune in any case, and the irregular pupil 
 must suffer the consequences. The habit of irregu- 
 larity must in some way be cured. Self-incentives 
 and altruistic motives and duty may be pressed, but in 
 
EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 123 
 
 rare cases, after all, reproof, deprivation, or even tem- 
 porary suspension, may become judicious. In some 
 way irregularity must be broken up, and the pupil 
 must be led to form the habit of regularity. 
 
 LAW OF PROMPTITUDE. 
 
 We will try to be prompt. As a school virtue, the 
 habit of promptitude deserves to be written in letters 
 of gold. It is a great thing to be habitually on time. 
 Promptitude is counted so important that schools vie 
 with each other in the effort to secure it. How 
 may we best educate our pupils to habits of prompti- 
 tude ? 
 
 1. Teacher Promptitude incites Pupil Prompti- 
 tude. " In seven years I have never been tardy," 
 said an earnest teacher. " During my entire course in 
 college I was never tardy," said Garfield. School is 
 called and dismissed on time. Each exercise is begun 
 and closed promptly. A prompt teacher will usually 
 have a prompt school. The prompt teacher can con- 
 sistently insist on pupil promptitude. Examples of 
 promptitude from the lives of men of action will re- 
 enforce the example of the teacher. 
 
 2. Promptitude helps Others. Promptitude is a 
 social as well as a personal virtue. Washington thus 
 reproved a tardy subordinate : " Sir, you may choose 
 to waste your own time, but you have no right to 
 waste ours." The prompt pupil helps others. In 
 life, promptitude is a charm and tardiness an offense. 
 In the home, meals are served on time. In the church, 
 services begin and close on time and no laggard dis- 
 turbs the worshippers. In the orderly school, teacher 
 
124 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 and pupils are habitually on time, and rarely does a 
 tardy pupil interrupt the work. 
 
 3. Training fixes the Habit of Promptitude. It 
 is easy to be prompt when the habit is formed. You 
 arouse the pupil to overcome all obstacles and be 
 prompt during the first week. It is less difficult to 
 secure promptitude during the second week, and still 
 less during the third week. Soon the pupil becomes 
 prompt from habit. The habit of being prompt has 
 great advantages, as may be illustrated by life in- 
 stances, showing the gains from promptitude and the 
 misfortunes from dilatory habits. The railroad re- 
 enforces the school in training to the habit of prompt- 
 itude. 
 
 4. Tardiness must ~be remedied. The habit of 
 tardiness must be broken up by forming the habit of 
 promptitude. We use all high motives, and still, in 
 rare cases, we find it necessary to use gentle reproof, 
 or some other helpful remedy. The wise teacher 
 makes provision for special cases, so that pupils, 
 though late, are not counted tardy up to a fixed time. 
 One pupil in twenty may require some impressive 
 lesson, but usually the spirit of the school will remedy 
 avoidable tardiness. Teacher and pupils greet with 
 smiles the prompt pupils, and each pupil becomes in- 
 spired with the spirit of promptitude. The sense of 
 honour as well as the sense of duty incites to prompti- 
 tude. Mountains of difficulty will be overcome, and 
 pupils will be on time. Promptitude in all the school 
 work grows into habit, and the pupil is saved from 
 the ruinous habit of tardiness. 
 
EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 125 
 
 LAW OF PROPRIETY. 
 
 We will learn to act properly. Propriety is fitness 
 in conduct. It includes all we mean by gentle man- 
 ners and good deportment and politeness and de- 
 corum. It includes dress and address. Proper 
 school conduct prepares for proper life conduct. Or- 
 der is proper, and all disorder is improper. Cleanli- 
 ness and neatness are proper. Industry, regularity, 
 and respect for authority are proper. Law-abiding is 
 proper, but lawlessness is improper. How can we 
 best develop habits of propriety ? How can we best 
 educate our pupils to be womanly and manly ? 
 
 1. Example impresses Propriety. Pupils imitate 
 others, but most of all the teacher. The ideal teacher 
 is a proper person and a model of propriety. In 
 dress and in manner, in repose and in action, in the 
 school and in society, the teacher is an embodiment 
 of propriety. The teacher is what the pupil is to 
 become. 
 
 2. Altruistic Motives work the Best Results. 
 Politeness is treating others properly. Kindness and 
 generosity and refinement are expressed in good man- 
 ners. A gentleman is gentle and unselfish. It is al- 
 ways proper to give another the preference. Teacher 
 and pupils will think of many illustrative incidents. 
 Opportunities occur at every step to make others 
 happy by treating them properly. Apt stories are the 
 most helpful lessons. 
 
 3. Training fixes Habits of Propriety. Acting 
 properly must be rooted into habit. As we learn to 
 pronounce properly and talk properly, so we learn to 
 
126 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 act properly. Good school manners are carried to 
 the home and become proper table manners and prop- 
 er society manners. Immense patience is needed as 
 well as tireless effort, for bad habits persist. In every 
 way the ideal of proper conduct is elevated, and all 
 influences are used to induce pupils to strive always 
 to realize their ideal. 
 
 4. Educative Remedies break up Habits of Im- 
 propriety. Pupils must unlearn improper habits. 
 Bad manners must grow into good manners. We 
 meet fearful discouragements. Pupils are loud and 
 rough and selfish and cruel. Their manners at home 
 and at school are horrid. How are we to transform 
 these rough, untutored children into accomplished 
 men and women ? We can and will accomplish this. 
 In some way we must lead the most rude to try to act 
 properly, and keep on so trying and so acting. We 
 warmly approve and commend proper conduct, and 
 thoroughly disapprove improper conduct. We lead 
 the pupil to take himself in hand and go to work in 
 earnest. One by one offensive habits are broken up 
 and habits of proper conduct are acquired. But habits 
 are stubborn things. However willing, pupils often 
 need impressive helps. We appeal to all high incen- 
 tives, but at last, in exceptional cases, we find it wise 
 to use proper educative remedies. 
 
 5. Persistency must succeed. Think of the work 
 it takes to secure correct pronunciation ! How al- 
 most infinitely more difficult is it to secure propriety 
 in conduct in all the relations of life ! But, however 
 adverse the pupil's environment, and however un- 
 promising this uncouth specimen, we can not afford 
 
EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 127 
 
 to fail. Wise and persistent effort has succeeded and 
 will succeed. 
 
 LAW OF DUTY. 
 
 We will try to do right. Moral education blended 
 with aesthetic and mental and physical culture is ideal. 
 Right is accord with law. Be law-abiding, is our one 
 imperative impulse. Our inmost self incites us to 
 lind the right, to choose the right, and to do the right. 
 This is conscience, and conscience stands for duty. 
 Acting conscientiously develops conscience just as 
 reasoning educates reason. As intellect, self discerns 
 right, as conscience self feels right, and as will self 
 does right. Moral culture roots the moral virtues into 
 moral habits. Conscience is central. Moral conduct 
 is the educational ultimate. How may we lead our 
 pupils to act from a sense of duty ? 
 
 1. Example is most effective. The Great Teacher 
 lived a perfect life. His is the ideal life. Good men 
 try to live as Jesus lived, and so become moral leaders. 
 " A teacher must have a good moral character," is the 
 race conscience organized into law. We think of a 
 teacher as embodying in a good degree the moral vir- 
 tues, and hence we intrust to him our precious children. 
 In every impulse and word and act the ideal teacher 
 is pure and honest and generous and just and truth- 
 ful. He does right because it is right. By his life 
 the teacher does most to lead his pupils to do right. 
 His own example is re-enforced by examples from the 
 lives of illustrious men and women. 
 
 2. Moral Teaching is Fundamental. Right ideas 
 occasion right impulses and thus become right acts. 
 But moral lessons must be concrete, and duty must be 
 
128 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 taught from life. Hygienic laws are taught in acts. 
 The pupil ought to be temperate as well as truthful. 
 The moral virtues are presented in stories and inci- 
 dents. Biography and history are rich in the best 
 lessons. Eight ideas lead to right impulses and right 
 acts. The pupil must know duty in order to feel 
 duty and to do duty. Duty is taught incidentally 
 in all school work, but special conduct lessons are of 
 the highest possible value. 
 
 3. Duty is Positive. Obedience to parents is duty. 
 Law-abiding is duty. It is right to tell the truth and 
 act honestly. We keep before the pupils the moral 
 virtues, and rarely refer to vices. As in art ideal 
 forms are kept in view, so in morals ; the moral vir- 
 tues are kept before the pupil. Pupils become so in- 
 terested in honesty that dishonesty is not thought of. 
 They learn to so love the moral virtues that vices be- 
 come hateful. Doing right educates conscience. 
 
 4. Training converts Example and Precept into 
 Habits. The teacher leads the pupil to do right and 
 to keep on doing right. Thus moral habits are formed 
 and fixed. Moral teaching and moral acts not carried 
 over into moral habits are wasted. Moral habits, as 
 a fact, are more readily formed than evil habits, for 
 conscience is on the side of right. Moral training 
 makes duty impulses imperative in the life of the pupil. 
 
 5. Educative Punishment is a Moral Necessity. 
 The aim of school punishment is to lead the wayward 
 back to the path of duty and keep them in it. Pun- 
 ishment is meant to impress the fact that the way of 
 the transgressor is hard, and that suffering follows 
 lawlessness. The disobedient pupil learns through 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 129 
 
 suffering that only the pure in heart, the law-abiding, 
 are happy or can be happy. Our loving Father so 
 planned the universe that all violations of law call for 
 punishment. When we violate physical laws we suf- 
 fer and so reform. When a child violates home laws 
 or school laws it is saved through suffering. When 
 we act dishonestly we feel remorse and the disap- 
 proval of loved ones, and so suffer back to duty. God, 
 states, parents, teachers, so plan that transgressors 
 bring on themselves the suffering necessary to reforma- 
 tion. We in love so manage that the offender suffers 
 in order that he may get right and keep right. 
 
 6. Moral Culture must be persistent. Persistent 
 endeavour on the part of the teacher and pupils will 
 surely fix the habit of well doing. This is the great- 
 est thing in education. The pupil learns to place duty 
 above everything else, and comes to feel that it is 
 indeed better to be right than to be president or a 
 millionaire.* 
 
 CHAPTEK XIY. 
 
 PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Punishment stands for Remedial Measures. The 
 physician prescribes medicines as remedies for diseases 
 caused by lawlessness. The Great Physician prescribes 
 spiritual remedies for sin-sick souls. The educator 
 prescribes educative remedies for wayward pupils. In 
 all these cases repentance conditions restoration. The 
 
 * Read Chapter XXVI in connection with Chapter XIII. 
 10 
 
130 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 patient comes to obey law, and so gets well. The 
 sinner ceases to hate and learns to love, and so is 
 saved. The wayward pupil turns and becomes law- 
 abiding, and so is restored. This is repentance. Law- 
 abiding is the condition of health. Remedial school 
 agencies are educative when they induce a change of 
 heart and a change of' conduct. The teacher, next to 
 the parent, is the pupil's truest friend. Kindly he 
 leads his pupils to abandon hurtful ways and walk in 
 the paths of peace. He thinks of punishment as a 
 means of helping pupils to cease doing wrong and be- 
 gin doing right. 
 
 Educative Suffering works Reformation. We marvel 
 much when we grasp the philosophy of punishment. 
 Through weakness we yield to temptation, but through 
 suffering we grow strong to resist temptation. We 
 so manage that the offending pupil so suffers as to 
 quicken conscience. Educative suffering leads him 
 back to duty and so makes him strong to choose and 
 do the right. There is absolutely no other way to 
 work reformation. This is the divine plan. Educa- 
 tive punishments are not pleasant, but they work the 
 peaceful fruits of righteousness. 
 
 PRINCIPLES RELATING TO PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Principles determining School Punishments. "Why 
 do we punish ? When should we punish ? How 
 should we punish ? The wise teacher ponders long 
 over these questions. Even light punishments are in- 
 finite in their consequences. No wonder that the 
 angels pause here. No wonder that our schools, our 
 armies, and even our penitentiaries have abandoned 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 131 
 
 corporal punishments. No wonder that dilettanti 
 shudder at the thought of school punishment of any 
 kind. But offences will come, and remedies must be 
 used. The earnest teacher, like the earnest physician, 
 asks for light and courage. What are the teachings 
 of human nature and experience? Each teacher will 
 glean for himself, but as suggestive, attention is called 
 to some fundamental and guiding truths. School pun- 
 ishments, it must be kept in mind, are always remedial 
 and self-inflicted. We do not punish the wayward, 
 but we so manage that they punish themselves. 
 
 1. Punishments should be Educative. They 
 should tend to quicken conscience and strengthen 
 will. Love casts out fear, and the punishment works 
 in the offender's heart the resolve to cease wayward- 
 ness and become law-abiding. Judicious punishments 
 foster self-control and a love of right. They incite 
 the pupil to pause and change his course. Educative 
 punishments cherish law-abiding. 
 
 2. Punishments should be Reformatory. Will 
 this particular punishment help this particular of- 
 fender ? Arthur swears during recess. I give a les- 
 son to the school on swearing as a bad habit. I re- 
 prove Arthur privately, and he promises to try to 
 break up the swearing habit. The right punishment 
 properly administered helps the pupil to reform. 
 The wise teacher, like the skilful dentist, studies to 
 avoid occasioning unnecessary suffering. Reforma- 
 tory punishments work repentance. 
 
 3. The Punishment should be natural. It should 
 follow as a natural consequence of the offence. God 
 has so planned Nature and man that punishment every- 
 
132 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 where follows transgression. Herbert Spencer insists 
 that parents and teachers should carry out the divine 
 plan. As the teacher gains deeper insight into pupil 
 nature, he more and more discovers the fitness of 
 consequential punishments. Pupils feel the justice 
 of such punishments, and they are educative and re- 
 formatory. The relation of the punishment to the 
 fault needs to be profoundly studied. James during 
 recess abuses the smaller boys. As a natural conse- 
 quence he is deprived for a time of the privilege of 
 playing with the other pupils and is sent out to play 
 alone. This remedy is a natural consequence and 
 works repentance. After two or three days James 
 requests restoration ; he is cured. But even the most 
 capable teachers are sometimes compelled to use other 
 than consequential punishments. 
 
 4. The Punishment should be Just. The degree 
 of severity should bear a just relation to the offence. 
 The sense of justice is very active in pupils, and un- 
 deserved as well as undue punishment is resented as 
 an injury. The boy kept in for putting his hands in 
 his pockets becomes sullen, and is hurt and not helped. 
 In punishment it is always safe to err on the side of 
 mercy. Some one has well said : " We would not ex- 
 clude punishment as a means for establishing good 
 order, for punishment is necessary ; but, to be ade- 
 quate, it must always be just, and the offender must 
 feel the justice, otherwise its force upon him is lost. 
 Let every pupil feel the reasonableness and justice 
 of every punishment. Bring out every manly and 
 womanly attribute, every lofty and unselfish am- 
 bition." 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 133 
 
 5. Punishments should be Mild and Rare. The 
 skilful teacher rarely punishes, and usually finds gen- 
 tle reproof or mild restraint all-sufficient. Sometimes 
 deprivations and even suspensions become necessary. 
 Through royal motives the pupils are led to royal 
 conduct. No one thinks of medicine except in cases 
 of sickness, and no one thinks of punishment except 
 in case of lawlessness. No punishment must become 
 customary. 
 
 HELPFUL SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 These are such as tend to work reformation. Paul 
 was thankful that his erring brethren sorrowed to 
 reformation. The pupil has gone wrong ; the pur- 
 pose of punishment is to lead him to cease wrong- 
 doing and begin rightdoing. Suffering is educative 
 when it works reform. Nature cures, but educative 
 punishments, like suitable medicines, help to produce 
 curative conditions. They work in the pupil's heart 
 a love of law and an aversion to lawlessness. They 
 induce the determination to cease offending and to 
 become law-abiding. Corporal punishment in most 
 cases hurts and does not help, because it awakens hate 
 rather than love. All punishments which tend to an- 
 tagonize must be forever abandoned. Helpful school 
 punishments accord with the above principles and 
 tend to pupil betterment. 
 
 SILENT DISAPPROVAL. 
 
 Teacher and pupils strongly approve law-abiding. 
 The pupil who habitually works quietly, attends regu- 
 larly, executes promptly, acts properly, and does right, 
 
134: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 is a true hero. Teacher and pupils thoroughly disap- 
 prove of lawbreaking. Every nerve and fibre of the 
 school express disapproval of the noisy, tardy, un- 
 mannerly, selfish, cowardly, lying pupil. Kindness 
 and this thorough disapproval tend to work reforma- 
 tion. The wayward pupil suffers, reflects, reforms. 
 In our best schools, as in good society, silent disap- 
 proval is the great remedy. School sentiment wisely 
 directed is a helpful punishment. 
 
 REPROOF. 
 
 This is the one safe, salutary, available, effective 
 school punishment. Pupil faults usually come of 
 thoughtlessness rather than of viciousness. Gentle 
 reproof gives pause, and opens the heart to all good 
 influences. Reproof is like medicine : it does not 
 cure, but it removes interferences and stimulates right 
 effort, and so assists Nature. The kind teacher, as a 
 true friend, takes the penitent pupil by the hand and 
 gently leads him into right ways. Reproof may be 
 general, or private, or public. 
 
 1. General Reproof. The offender is reached 
 through the offence. Mary has been fussy, and has re- 
 peatedly disturbed others by whispering. At the 
 close of class or school the teacher says : " One of you 
 has failed to work quietly, and so has disturbed others 
 as well as myself. "We all agreed to work quietly, 
 and no one can afford to be a lawbreaker and so in- 
 jure himself and others. I earnestly ask you to 
 think." A pupil so considerately dealt with does 
 think, and resolves to reform. Other pupils are 
 strengthened. In my own extended experience I 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 135 
 
 have found silent disapproval and general reproof the 
 only punishments required in the management of nine- 
 teen pupils out of twenty. From its very nature 
 general reproof is the most helpful of all school pun- 
 ishments. There is no limit to the helpful ways in 
 which it may be used. 
 
 2. Private Reproof. This is the punishment com- 
 mended by the Master : " If thy brother offend thee, 
 go and tell him alone." You have failed to reach 
 Andrew. You ask him to take a walk with you. 
 Kindly, as his friend, you tell him of his faults. You 
 greatly desire to have him do right. Will he? 
 Teacher and pupil stand heart to heart. The boy's 
 heart is touched and he is saved. Even with hard- 
 ened offenders private reproof is marvellously effect- 
 ive. In this, as in all educative punishments, love is 
 the curative agency. The warm-hearted teacher 
 through kindness leads wayward pupils back to duty. 
 
 3. Public Reproof. The offence has been public 
 and obtrusive. Again and again William has used 
 profane language during recesses. You have failed 
 to reform him. You give lessons on proper language 
 and on the utter baseness of profanity. You mention 
 William's bad habit, and request the pupils to aid him 
 to overcome it. Public reproof is a powerful but 
 dangerous punishment, and should be used sparingly 
 and with great discretion. Even when offences are 
 public, private reproof may prove most effective. 
 *' Reprove not a child in the presence of another," is 
 a safe and sacred rule. It is a fearful thing to break 
 down the pupil's self-respect and blunt his regard for 
 public opinion. The sense of honour must be cher- 
 
136 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 islied. The pupil in all cases must feel that all are 
 his friends, and that he suffers for his own good. 
 
 4:. But Public Opinion has its Place. If the 
 pupil can not be moved by either general or private 
 reproof, a severer punishment becomes necessary. At 
 a favourable moment the teacher presents the matter 
 to the school. It has become his painful duty to re- 
 prove publicly one of their number. He has laboured 
 earnestly to induce Charles to do right, but has so far 
 failed. He mentions his name, not to wound his feel- 
 ings, but to arouse him, and to give all the pupils an 
 opportunity to aid him to correct his faults. All 
 agree to help. The offender feels that he is in the 
 hands of friends who mean to do him good. He feels 
 ashamed of his conduct, and resolves to reform. The 
 tremendous moral influence of the school strengthens 
 him. In the effort to aid another each pupil is bene- 
 fited. Silently but surely the work goes on. The 
 erring one feels, reflects, resolves, yields to the power 
 of public sentiment and the promptings of his better 
 nature. 
 
 PKIVATION. 
 
 Restraint and deprivation supplements kindness. 
 Lawless pupils must learn to respect law. Abused 
 privileges are forfeited and slighted opportunities 
 are lost, but reformation must work restoration. 
 
 1. Deprive of Recess. Pupils greatly enjoy the 
 common recess, and to be deprived of it is a severe 
 punishment. Hugh would get into fights nearly 
 every recess. For two weeks the teacher sent him 
 out to play alone. He promised reformation and 
 kept his promise. The sense of justice is very strong 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 137 
 
 in pupils, and must be respected. All feel entitled to 
 recess, and no one should be deprived of it except for 
 hurtful conduct during recess, or for some other 
 equally good reason. 
 
 2. Deprive of the Privilege of going Home with 
 the Others. A boy mistreats younger pupils, is quarrel- 
 some, or uses bad language. He is detained and sent 
 home by himself. Keeping after school is often hurt- 
 ful and seldom justifiable. In such instances as the 
 above it is clearly a natural punishment. 
 
 3. Deprive of Position. Irregular pupils and pu- 
 pils who habitually whisper forfeit seats. Negligent 
 and irregular pupils forfeit their class standing and 
 drop into lower and lower classes. A pupil who does 
 not try is deprived of the teacher's approval. In a 
 word, privation of a privilege follows its abuse. The 
 pupil recognises the justice of the punishment, re- 
 flects, reforms. 
 
 SUSPENSION. 
 
 Judicious suspension induces consideration and so 
 tends to work reformation. A pupil without a school 
 is like a man without a country. The pupil suffers, 
 and his lonesomeness is helpful. But the suspension 
 must be evidently just and natural. Insubordination, 
 contaminating influences, gross immorality, general 
 worthlessness, and chronic violations of the school 
 code'may justify suspension. Even in the absence of 
 specific law, the teacher's position gives him the au- 
 thority to suspend. Still, this punishment should be 
 used sparingly, and, as a rule, only with the older 
 pupils. Children under ten years of age should rarely 
 be suspended. Wise discretion must be exercised. 
 
138 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The teacher seeks to save. We give one actual case 
 of suspension. 
 
 James proved insubordinate. The teacher kindly 
 suspended him for an indefinite time. After a week 
 he returned, made a manly apology, and began a 
 course of good conduct. 
 
 Sometimes suspension embitters and so injures; 
 suspension must be managed with great skill. As in 
 all -cases of punishment, there is need of good sense 
 and a good heart. Frequent suspensions indicate a 
 weak and inefficient teacher. One with large gov- 
 erning power seldom needs to suspend a pupil. The 
 period of suspension may be made specific or left in- 
 definite. Experience shows that we get the best re- 
 sults from brief suspensions. "Whenever a suspended 
 pupil desires restoration and complies with the condi- 
 tions, he is to be restored and welcomed back. Expe- 
 rience shows that where corporal punishment is not 
 used more pupils are suspended, but that the good 
 effects are largely in favour of suspension. 
 
 EXPULSION. 
 
 Expulsion severs the connection of the pupil with 
 the school. Suspension looks to the good of the pu- 
 pil as well as the good of the school, but expulsion 
 merely removes the incorrigible. Therefore 
 
 1. Expulsion can not lie classed as a School Pun- 
 ishment. " After all other means have failed, a pupil 
 may be expelled for disobedient, refractory, or incor- 
 rigible bad conduct." Thus decides the Supreme 
 Court of Illinois. Expulsion is not reformatory. It 
 may be a school necessity, but it is not a school pun- 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 139 
 
 isliment. " A pupil may be expelled for gross im- 
 morality or a persistent violation of the school regu- 
 lations." (School law of most States.) This law is 
 sustained by the courts and by public opinion. 
 
 2. Expulsion is the Act of the School Board, 
 never of the Teacher. Principals of graded schools 
 and faculties of higher institutions are usually author- 
 ized to suspend the wayward and expel the incorrigi- 
 ble. The movement in some cities to provide special 
 schools for these incorrigible pupils can not be too 
 strongly commended. 
 
 3. Expulsion is an Expedient to relieve the Schools 
 of the Corrupt and the Unworthy. The State quar- 
 antines against epidemics, and the school quarantines 
 against moral pestilence. Rare, indeed, are the cases 
 that justify this terrible punishment. Ponder long 
 before cutting off opportunity and hope, even from 
 the most unworthy. Act as if the unfortunate one 
 were your own brother or sister or child. 
 
 HURTFUL SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Punishments not Educative are Hurtful. The de- 
 vices of the old schoolmaster for pupil torture were 
 marvellous. Corporal punishment in all its hideous 
 forms the dunce block, the gag, the dark closet, the 
 rod, the strap, the ferule, the cat-o'-nine-tails are but 
 samples. But our civilization has outgrown debasing 
 and cruel punishments, and the school " boss " with 
 his " boss " methods has disappeared. The teacher is 
 no longer the master, but the friend. Suffering that 
 does not tend to work reformation is now condemned 
 
140 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 as monstrous. But punishments not educative still 
 linger in some schools, and hurt and do not help. 
 
 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 
 
 1. Corporal Punishment is not Educative. For 
 this reason it must go. At the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century it was universal and popular, but at 
 the close of the century it has not only become amaz- 
 ingly unpopular, but it has virtually disappeared as a 
 school punishment. It is not now used in our col- 
 leges nor in our high schools, nor in the first and 
 second grades of our primary schools, nor in our 
 kindergartens. It is rarely used in the seventh or 
 eighth grades of our grammar schools. In the four 
 remaining grades, as in our rural schools, its use is 
 becoming rarer and rarer. Some countries, like 
 France, and many cities, have abolished the rod. 
 Public sentiment is setting strongly against the use 
 of the rod, and with the present century corporal 
 punishment, it is believed, will utterly disappear from 
 our schools. 
 
 2. Transition Period. Grant the right but avoid 
 the use. For half a century this expresses the pre- 
 vailing attitude of educators. The author long advo- 
 cated this view as many educators still do. But our 
 advancing civilization will not much longer tolerate 
 the use of the rod in our schools. The widest expe- 
 rience demonstrates that in our times corporal pun- 
 ishment hurts and does not help. The suffering is 
 inflicted, and in most cases does not even tend to work 
 reformation ; it tends to alienate pupil and parent. 
 
 3. Extreme Cases. Some educators insist on the 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 141 
 
 retention of the rod, to be used in extreme cases. 
 This position is admirably presented by Dr. E. E. 
 White : " When a child rebels against the authority 
 of the parent or the teacher, the use of the rod to 
 compel obedience may be justifiable. Rebellion may 
 not only justify, but may make necessary, the use of 
 corporal punishments. When the rod is used at all, 
 it is for the insubordinate or the rebellious. The ex- 
 istence of insubordination or rebellion marks the 
 limits of natural penalties and makes a well-defined 
 place for force." Dr. White's limitations substan- 
 tially abolish the rod. Good management seeks to 
 prevent rebellion. When insubordination actually 
 occurs it must be overcome by wise treatment. The 
 rod, like war, leaves all issues unsettled. Patiently, 
 rationally, as the wise physician treats the diseased 
 patient, so the judicious teacher treats the rebellious 
 pupil. In these extreme cases suspension is every 
 way a better remedy than flogging. 
 
 3. Gradual Disuse. Gradual abolition of the rod 
 is best. The educational world is surely coming to 
 agree with Dr. W. T. Harris : 
 
 " I think that better discipline can be obtained without the use 
 of the rod than with it. 1 should not approve of even permitting 
 corporal punishment in the high school. 
 
 " A word further in explanation of my somewhat conservative 
 ground on the subject of corporal punishment. I have known 
 the absolute and unconditional prohibition of corporal punish- 
 ment to produce evil effects at first. It is better for the teacher 
 to abolish corporal punishment than for the laws of the city to 
 prohibit it unconditionally. There are many pupils who, through 
 bad previous training, have come to order their lives in the fear of 
 punishment. These pupils will demoralize a school if the prac- 
 tice of corporal punishment is prohibited unconditionally. But 
 
142 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 such pupils can be provided for by suspending them from school 
 temporarily, and restoring them only on trial or on probation. 
 Such temporary suspension of ill-behaved pupils has the most 
 salutary effect." 
 
 4. The Extreme Position. Corporal punishment 
 is considered criminal. Col. F. W. Parker for a long 
 time has contended for the immediate and absolute 
 abolition of corporal punishment. He says, " I 
 would place corporal punishment and reward giving 
 as in the highest degree criminal." A rapidly increas- 
 ing army of teachers are coming to agree with Col. 
 Parker, and were " hurtful " substituted for " crim- 
 inal " in his denunciation, many more educators would 
 indorse his extreme position. Strange phenomena ! 
 Rational beings cling to things that hurt and do not 
 help. The gambler clings to his cards, the drunk- 
 ard to his cups, and the old schoolmaster to his hurt- 
 ful practices. But reform and progress characterize 
 civilization ; we somehow outgrow the antiquated, 
 and the old grows into the new. 
 
 FEAR-INSPIRING PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Dread, like a nightmare, depresses pupil effort. 
 Perfect love casts out fear, and peace comes to those 
 who trust. The Christian does not fear, for Jesus is 
 his loving friend. The pupil does not fear, for he 
 loves and trusts his teacher. This is the spirit of the 
 new education. But the old schoolmaster ruled 
 through fear, and unfortunately the boss spirit still lin- 
 gers in many of our schools, and teachers often substi- 
 tute other dread-inspiring devices for the dread of the 
 rod. Who can estimate the torture occasioned by the 
 
EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 143 
 
 dread of low grades, of demerit marks, of failure in 
 examinations ? By constant harping on these cruel 
 devices many teachers make school life a burden. 
 Fear paralyzes effort. Teacher, your dread of non- 
 election wastes much of your own energies, and you 
 feel it as a cruel torture. Let this teach you wisdom. 
 First of all study to make your pupils happy. Inter- 
 est is better than dread, and leading is better than 
 bossing. 
 
 DEGRADING AND CKUEL PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Such punishments are monstrous. A self is great- 
 er than a world. The self ideal must be cherished to 
 the utmost, and the pupil must be led to think highly 
 of himself. Ridiculing and belittling a pupil is as 
 criminal as the old-time dunce block and dunce cap. 
 Pupil betterment is your ideal. You do well to re- 
 ject with abhorrence any punishment that tends to 
 lessen manliness and the sense of honour. 
 
 Cruel punishments are simply barbarous. Suffer- 
 ing in some form may be necessary to work reform, 
 but suffering that hurts and does not help is cruel. 
 Like the dentist, the teacher studies to avoid inflicting 
 unnecessary pain. To place red pepper on the tongue 
 as a punishment for whispering is an outrage. It is 
 cruel to deprive a pupil of his recess, or to keep the 
 weary pupil for an hour after school, or prolong an 
 examination for three hours, or impose impossible 
 tasks. 
 
 UNJUST PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Often innocent pupils are condemned on circum- 
 stantial evidence. More frequently the punishment 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 is unnecessarily severe. Pupils are exceedingly sensi- 
 tive to justice, and unjust punishments generate bit- 
 terness and resentment. Be just, is one of the laws 
 of the school, and must not be violated by the teacher. 
 It can not help even to mention the many hurtful 
 punishments still in current use. " Everything to 
 help and nothing to hurt " is the vital test. The ear- 
 nest teacher, like the able physician, studies to find 
 the remedy that will save. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 In closing the subject of punishments it seems fitting to em- 
 phasize a few items. 
 
 First, no punishment must become customary. Order is the 
 rule, and conduct demanding punishment is the exception. The 
 teacher, as best he can, leads the erring pupil back to law-abiding, 
 adapting the remedy to the case. 
 
 Second, the change from " boss " rule to law must be gradual. 
 A teacher accustomed to govern by the rod and by marking is 
 as helpless as an infant when he lays aside these barbarisms, 
 and tries to control up to self-control. Bossism is better than 
 anarchy. 
 
 Tliird. the teacher must not suffer too much anxiety "because 
 the pupil goes wrong. The management must lead the pupil to 
 worry over his faults, and so reform. Nothing can be worse for 
 the school than for the teacher to worry, and lose sleep and appe- 
 tite and hope. Each case must be met calmly and hopefully. It 
 is the pupil who has sinned and who must suffer. The teacher 
 feels a deep satisfaction in restoring the wayward ones. 
 
 Fourth, corporal punishment must go. It must give place to 
 rational control, for many reasons : 
 
 1. Corporal punishment is not educative. Few teachers suc- 
 ceed in making it work reformation. From its nature it gener- 
 ates bitterness and fear. It is a low incentive and does not tend 
 to ennoble. As a rule, it hurts and does not help. 
 
 2. Better discipline is secured without the use of the rod. So 
 testify the world's educators. The appeal to high incentives 
 
<p*iis*5> 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 EDUCATIVE PAujg|^^H\^X U5 
 
 tends to easy control. The rule of the rod is beset with difficul- 
 ties, and is never satisfactory. 
 
 3. Public sentiment condemns the use of the rod in our 
 schools. Corporal punishment has been abolished in the army, 
 the navy, and the penitentiary. Enlightened public opinion de- 
 mands its discontinuance in our schools. Corporal punishment 
 breeds trouble even when parents consent. 
 
 4. Corporal punishment hurts teacher and pupil. It unfits the 
 teacher for understanding the pupil and for governing through 
 ennobling motives. It unavoidably weakens his influence. One 
 teacher in a hundred may use the rod without injuring the pupil, 
 but to the ninety and nine it is a dangerous experiment. 
 
 5. Worst of all, the use of the rod militates against the study 
 and use of educative motives. Teachers can make the pupils 
 obey, and so are content. They will discuss corporal punish- 
 ment, but will not discuss altruistic and duty motives. 
 
 EDUCATIVE SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 SUGGESTIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 
 
 X. Educative Governing Power. What is meant by govern- 
 ment? by school government 1 ? by governing power? What are 
 the ends in school government? the agencies? the devices? Why 
 should the teacher be qualified ? authorized ? sustained ? Is the 
 teacher born, or made ? Is governing power a natural gift ? May 
 it be developed? What do you mean by elements of governing 
 power? Why should you be what you wish your pupils to be- 
 come? Discuss, as elements of governing power, Character ; Cul- 
 ture ; Pupil Jnsight ; Teaching Power ; Heart Power ; Will Power ; 
 System; Tact; Bearing. Is teacher governing power the true 
 basis of educative school government ? 
 
 XI. Educative Incentives. Explain the function of motives in 
 the soul economy. Why must you lead pupils through motives ? 
 Show that the motive is the explanation of the act. Describe the 
 three classes of pupils. How will you treat each? Prove that 
 a teacher is responsible for the conduct of his pupils. Do you de- 
 termine the motives of your pupils? How? Why is teaching 
 the most responsible of all professions ? What do you mean by 
 educative motives? by debasing motives? Why should school 
 
 11 
 
SCHOOL MAN.UiMMKNT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 motives be helpful ? Why should you root out hurtful incentives t 
 What do you mean by hurtful motives I Show the effects of 
 yielding to the appetites ; to the passions ; to selfishness. What do 
 you mean by low motives! Why do you not use the rod ? per-cent 
 mark- i rewards I prizes? What do you mean by high motives? by 
 the highest motives? Describe the royal egoistic motives; the 
 highest motives. Through what motives do you lead your pupils? 
 Why do you rely most on the sense of duty ? How do you develop 
 the duty habit ? Describe the battles of the motives. 
 
 XII. Educative Regulations. Is your school an embryo repub- 
 lic? Do you govern up to self-government? Compare the boss, 
 the goody-goody teacher, and the true teacher. Why should 
 school regulations be educative ? positive ? general ? practical ? popu- 
 lar ? Explain the law of quietude ; of regularity ; of promptitude ; 
 of propriety; of duty. Describe your method in enacting the 
 school code. Give some of the advantages of getting the pupils 
 to help make the laws. Why do you have the code approved by 
 the school board? 
 
 XIII. Educative Law-abiding. Will the plan of securing good 
 conduct through self-imposed laws mark an educational epoch ? 
 Show that order is cheerful law-abiding. Compare the boss en- 
 forcing his rules and the true teacher leading his pupils up to 
 self-government. Give your method in educating your pupils to 
 work quietly ; to be regular ; to be prompt ; to act properly ; to do 
 right. Why do you look well to securing the most helpful con- 
 ditions ? Show the influence of example ; of precept ; of training. 
 Why do you count moral culture the educational superlative ? 
 
 XI V. Educative Punishments. Show that punishment is a 
 moral necessity ; that it is a remedial agency ; that it works refor- 
 mation. State the philosophy of punishment. Why should school 
 punishments be educative? reformatory? consequential? just? 
 mild? rare? What is meant by helpful school punishments? What 
 cures? Show how wayward pupils are helped by silent disap- 
 proval ; by general reproof ; by private reproof ; by public reproof ; 
 by deprivations ; by suspension. What can you say about expul- 
 sion? What do you mean by hurtful school punishments? W T hy 
 do you oppose corporal punishment? fear- in spiring punishments? 
 degrading punishments? cruel punishments? unjust punishments? 
 State the four items in the summary; discuss the five reasons for 
 discontinuing the use of the rod. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH 
 
 EDUCATIVE CLASS MANAGEMENT AND 
 
 CLASS WORK. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SKILFUL CLASS 
 
 ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL. 
 XVI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE 
 
 CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 
 XVII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL 
 
 AND CLASS TACTICS. 
 XVIII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BLENDING OF 
 
 ORAL AND BOOK CLASS WORK. 
 XIX. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GOOD TEACHING 
 IN LIEU OF EXTRANEOUS INCENTIVES. 
 147 
 
r xv. 
 
 THE CLASS 
 
 AND 
 
 CLASSIFI- 
 CATION. 
 
 XVI. 
 EDUCA- 
 TIVE 
 
 Tl.ASS 
 
 WORK. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 CLASS 
 
 TACTICS. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 ORAL AND 
 
 BOOK 
 
 WORK. 
 
 I. School evo- ( 1. Individualism, 
 lutiou. '( 2. Classification. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 GOOD 
 
 TEACHING. 
 
 II. The class . 
 
 in. Class hygiene. 
 
 IV. Happy class control. 
 
 V. Scheme for classification. 
 
 1. True class. 
 
 2. Fitness the test. 
 
 3. Adapted work. 
 
 4. Size of clans. 
 
 5. The heart, school life. 
 
 6. Advantages. 
 
 1. Unitize the schools. 
 
 2. Rural schools. 
 
 3. Graded schools. 
 
 4. High schools. 
 ( Criteria. 
 
 VI. Classifying. < Tentative. 
 
 ( Promotion and demotion. 
 
 I. The recitation Class work. 
 
 ( 1. Spontaneity. 2. Concealing. 
 
 II. Characteristics of -< 3. Review. 4. Lesson plan. 
 
 ( 5. Drill. 6. Prereview. 
 
 (1. Unity. fl. Teachingquestion. 
 
 2. Individual. 2. Conversation. 
 3.1nvestiga- \ 3. Topic, 
 tion method. 4. Discussion. 
 
 [5. Lecture. 
 
 1. The class. 2. Written work. 3. Lab- 
 oratory work. 4. Diagrams. 5. 
 Reporting. 6. Teaching. 7. Con- 
 cert work. 8. Original devices. 
 
 I. School and class tactics. Objects. 
 
 II. Principles fitness, uniformity, economy. 
 
 III. Electric clock ; signals ; movements. 
 
 IV. Calling and dismissing school. 
 
 V. Calling and dismissing classes. 
 
 VI. Fitness in class tactics. 
 
 VII. Fitness in board tactics. 
 
 VIII. Fitness in concert tactics. 
 
 IX. Gains by sensible tactics. 
 
 I. The old education ; the new education. 
 
 II. Proportion of oral and book work in -, 
 
 fl. Conduct. 
 
 III. Ora ltt nd book 1;^^- 
 
 work in , 4 Mat hematics. 
 [5. Art. 
 fl. Objects. 
 
 IV. Class devices. 
 
 IV. Oral teaching. 
 
 [4. Example. 
 "1. Assigning lesson. 
 
 V. Book teaching. \ ; gS?sdy. 
 
 4. Book class work. 
 
 1. Educative. 
 
 I. Written recitations, in lieu of test 
 
 examinations. 
 
 II. Good teaching in lieu of mark- 
 
 ing. 
 
 in. Educative records and reports. 
 
 1 4. Reports. 
 1. Follows satisfactory work. 
 
 IV. Promotion and 
 graduation. 
 
 2. Occasional. 
 
 3. Helpful. 
 
 4. All-sufficient. 
 
 1. High incentive. 
 
 2. Effective. 
 
 3. Sufficient. 
 
 4. Economic. 
 1. Attendance. 
 
 148 
 
 2. Elementary certificate 
 
 3. High-school diploma. 
 
 4. College diploma. 
 
 5. No marking; no test examinations. 
 
PART FOURTH. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE 
 CLASS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ' CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 
 
 School Evolution. Popular education is modern. 
 True, some beginnings had been made in other times, 
 but at the opening of the nineteenth century the na- 
 tions had not yet entered upon the work of educating 
 the masses. Those of us who have lived in the schools 
 for four or five decades have been a part of our school 
 evolution from its crude beginnings up to its highest 
 stage of development. As pupils we began with the 
 stage of individualism and advanced to the stage of 
 classification ; and as teachers we began with the stage 
 of gradation and are advancing in the stages of spe- 
 cialization and department teaching. 
 
 1. Individualism. This was the first stage in 
 school evolution. The people created the schools. 
 The young were grouped and placed under masters. 
 Each group of pupils with its master was a school. 
 
 149 
 
150 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The master was boss and was infallible. Each pupil 
 was given his task and was called up to say his lesson. 
 That was all. For one or two years the child puzzled 
 over the alphabet and said his A B C's. For two or 
 three more years the child puzzled over the mysteries 
 of the spelling book and said his spelling lessons. 
 This was all ; no reading, no object lesson but the 
 ferule, no music but the rod. The older pupils were 
 given tasks in reading, in writing, and in ciphering, 
 and were sometimes called up one by one to say their 
 lessons. Individualism was the characteristic of the 
 earliest stage of school evolution. 
 
 2. Classification. This was the second stage in 
 our elementary school evolution. Some daring teacher 
 ventured to group his pupils into classes ; he was 
 speedily dismissed. The teachers and the pupils bit- 
 terly opposed the innovation. It was well enough in 
 college, but it would never do in common schools. 
 But the young men who had been to college favoured 
 classification. They showed that classification enabled 
 the teacher to do tenfold more work. Slowly classifi- 
 cation worked its way into all our schools and indi- 
 vidualism disappeared. Occasionally we still hear 
 some belated teacher cry, " Back to individualism ! " 
 But, from the nature of true evolution, all that is 
 good in the old reappears in the new. Individualism 
 as a phase of school work has disappeared forever, 
 but the helpful treatment of the individual pupil per- 
 meates all approved school work. Classification is 
 the characteristic of the second stage of school evo- 
 lution. 
 
THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 151 
 
 THE CM.SS. 
 
 In the school sense, a class is a group of pupils 
 who can work together. In our ideal class the pupils 
 are of equal attainments and of equal ability. At the 
 best, we must be content to approximate our ideal, 
 and in classifying we must substitute similar for equal ; 
 the one safe test is, ability to work together. Can the 
 pupil do with greatest profit the work of the class ? 
 
 1. Pupils are grouped to facilitate Work. Ability 
 to do the work is the test. A true class is a group of 
 pupils prepared to work together. The pupils in a 
 class may differ in attainments, in ability, in age, but 
 they must be able to work together. Pupils who can 
 do well more advanced work are promoted, and pupils 
 who can not do profitably the work of the class are 
 dropped to a lower class. We think of a class as a 
 company of fellow- workers interested in the same sub- 
 jects and capable of moving forward together. To 
 place or keep a pupil in a class too high or too low 
 for him is weakness and not kindness. 
 
 2. The Work of the Class is adapted to the Pupils. 
 We place in a class the pupils best prepared to work 
 together; still we find we have in the class three 
 grades bright, average, and slow pupils. We plan 
 the work of the class with reference to the average 
 pupils, usually two thirds of the class. We give the 
 bright pupils, one sixth of the class, additional work, 
 and promote them as it is found best. The slow pu- 
 pils, about one sixth of the class, interest us. Though 
 dull, they often have good stuff in them. We study 
 each one. We spare no effort to interest and stim- 
 
152 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 nlate these pupils. "We give them the minimum 
 amount of work to do. Most of them are led to do 
 reasonably good work. When it becomes evident 
 that one of these can not profitably work with the 
 class, he is dropped to a lower one. 
 
 3. Medium sized Classes are most desirable. From 
 ten to thirty pupils constitute a satisfactory working 
 class. "When a class in our elementary or high schools 
 exceeds thirty, it should, if possible, be divided. 
 Classes of less than ten pupils may safely be com- 
 bined. We find it true educational economy to keep 
 our classes within efficient working limits. In some 
 subjects much is gained by combined recitations ; in 
 other studies we can accomplish most by dividing a 
 class into sections. In all cases individual teaching 
 characterizes good class work. The teacher must 
 study to keep in vital touch with each pupil. 
 
 4. The Class is the Heart of School Life. In it 
 and through it flow the warm currents of educative 
 life. Here teacher and pupil are at their best. The 
 united effort to master the subject creates enthusiasm 
 and develops power. Each pupil does his best. Like 
 the skilful general in the battle, the teacher encour- 
 ages and manages; but the pupils, like the soldiers, 
 do the work. In the class the pupils learn how to 
 study, how to find out from Nature, how to find out 
 from books, and how to express. 
 
 5. Classification is vastly better than Individual- 
 ism. The greatest thing the race has done or can do 
 is the creation of schools for all. Even in the stage 
 of individualism the school was invaluable, for some- 
 how pupils learned to read and write and cipher. 
 
THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 153 
 
 But classification was an immense improvement. It 
 carried over into the elementary schools what had 
 proved so helpful in the higher education. The class 
 multiplies the teacher by ten or even by twenty. The 
 teacher with the class works with power impossible 
 with one pupil. The pupils gain most by the class. 
 Investigating together utilizes the potent agencies 
 interest, sympathy, generosity, generous emulation. 
 
 HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF EDUCATIVE CLASS WORK. 
 
 The successful teacher looks well to the hygienic 
 conditions of educative class work. (1) Pupils must 
 form good hygienic habits. Perfect health is the basis 
 of achievement. (2) Pupils must breathe pure air of 
 the proper temperature. Vitiated air and abnormal 
 temperature remarkably reduce the efficiency of class 
 work. (3) Pupils must work in the light. Cheer- 
 ful, well-lighted schoolrooms are astonishingly help- 
 ful. (4) Pupils must change positions frequently. 
 Now they stand and now they sit ; now they work at 
 the board and now they do seat work. Young per- 
 sons soon grow restless, and movement is a school 
 necessity. (5) Pupils must be made happy. There 
 is interest and delight, and all are glad when the time 
 comes for class work. Fear and grades and mere me- 
 chanical work are not thought of. (6) Teacher and 
 pupils must be kept fresh by the hourly recess ; no 
 other hygienic device is of equal value in school 
 work. Good hygienic conditions multiply the work- 
 ing power of teacher and pupil and render control 
 comparatively easy. The stupid teacher drudges on 
 
154: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 and does not stop to think of the hygienic conditions 
 of success. 
 
 HAPPY CLASS CONTROL. 
 
 Educative control conditions the best teaching. 
 Attention through interest is fundamental. Intelli- 
 gent and vigorous teaching is the secret of easy con- 
 trol. Not a moment is wasted. Each pupil is en- 
 listed in the lesson, and is led to do his best. Rules 
 are not needed. All look to the teacher as their 
 leader. Desire to ask or answer a question is indi- 
 cated by raising the hand. No one thinks of com- 
 municating except through the teacher. There is no 
 excuse for disorder, nor is there time to reprove dis- 
 order during the recitation. A disorderly pupil is 
 quietly but promptly excused from the class, and the 
 work is not interrupted. Later, the unfortunate dis- 
 turber is kindly disciplined. Each pupil grows into 
 the habit of good conduct and vigorous work. It is 
 a great thing to secure the earnest effort of each 
 member of the class to master the lesson and also 
 help others to master it. Quiet is essential, but 
 mere silence is not good order ; earnest work char- 
 acterizes good class control. The art of happy class 
 control tests to the utmost the skill even of the most 
 gifted teacher. Few preachers can hold the attention 
 of an audience for half an hour ; it is vastly more 
 difficult to hold the interested working attention of a 
 class of restless pupils ; to do this the teacher must be 
 intensely in earnest and must understand his pupils, 
 his subject, and his art. Control is easy and happy 
 when pupils are kept interested and busy. 
 
THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 155 
 
 SCHEME FOR CLASSIFYING SCHOOLS. 
 
 The problems relating to the class are of profound 
 interest. Here, as everywhere, we must build on the 
 experience of the race; but with all the lights of the 
 past and all the helps of the present, each one, from 
 necessity, must work out these problems anew. The 
 teacher is an artist, not merely an artisan. The aim 
 in these chapters is to develop principles rather than 
 rules, and to suggest better ideals rather than to teach 
 specific methods. Our faith in the earnest teacher is 
 simply boundless. 
 
 School classification has been satisfactorily worked 
 out in our times. With no other phase of our school 
 work are we so well pleased. The scheme so ably 
 worked out seems worthy of universal acceptation. 
 The aim is to unify the educational work from the 
 kindergarten to the university. 
 
 1. The Rural School. The typical rural school is 
 ungraded. There is one teacher, and the pupils are 
 of all elementary stages of advancement. The work 
 includes that of our primary and intermediate graded 
 schools. The scheme of classification wisely harmo- 
 nizes the work of ungraded and graded schools. The 
 elementary period is eight years 'from the sixth to 
 the fourteenth year of pupil life. No attempt to 
 shorten the time is likely to prove satisfactory. The 
 pupils in the rural schools are grouped into four 
 classes, each class doing two years' work. Class D in- 
 cludes the pupils from six to eight ; class C, the pupils 
 from eight to ten ; class B, the pupils from ten to 
 twelve ; class A, the pupils from twelve to fourteen. 
 
150 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 In the real school the ages vary, but these are work- 
 ing averages. Each class includes two grades. (See 
 Eural Schools, Chapter XXL) 
 
 2. The Graded School. The pupils are arranged 
 according to advancement into eight groups called 
 grades. In the typical, graded school there is a teach- 
 er for each grade. The pupils in a grade do a year's 
 work, so the grades and the years correspond ; thus 
 Grade I includes the pupils doing the first year's 
 work, and Grade VIII includes the pupils doing the 
 work of the eighth year. Each grade includes two 
 classes, the beginners in the grade (class b) and the 
 advanced pupils (class a). Here and everywhere a 
 class means a group of pupils who work together. 
 (See Graded Schools, Chapter XXIII.) 
 
 3. The High School. The course extends through 
 four years, and the pupils are grouped into four 
 divisions corresponding with the years and designated 
 by the letters D, C, B, and A. These groups are 
 arranged in classes of twenty pupils, more or less, and 
 designated as class D 1 , class D 2 , class D 3 , etc. ; class 
 C 1 , class C 2 , class C 8 , etc. ; class B 1 , class B 2 ; class A. 
 The scheme is so practical that it tends to become 
 general. (See High Schools, Chapter XXV.) 
 
 4. Educators plan Simplicity, Uniformity, Unity. 
 Our schools are the schools of the people, and hence 
 demand that the scheme of classification be simple 
 and the nomenclature easy. "We so plan that our un- 
 graded schools may be readily transformed into graded 
 schools. "We so plan that pupils may, without a 
 break in their work, pass from an ungraded to graded 
 schools, or from one graded school to any other graded 
 
THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 157 
 
 school. We so plan that the pupil, without a break, 
 may pass up from class to class from the kindergarten 
 to the university. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUPILS. 
 
 This problem is ever with us. Of all organic 
 school work, this is the most difficult and the most 
 important. Mistakes here mar lives. We find it easy 
 to master the scheme for classification, but we never 
 find it easy to classify our pupils. Classification is 
 strictly professional work. 
 
 1. Criteria. We study each pupil as the physician 
 studies each patient. Heredity, temperament, phys- 
 ical abilities, mental abilities, moral habits, and attain- 
 ments in the leading studies are carefully considered. 
 The vital question is, Can this pupil work most profit- 
 ably with this class f In view of all the conditions 
 we decide. Like all artists, we find our work ex- 
 tremely perplexing at first ; but as the years go by we 
 gain intuitive insight and acquire skill. 
 
 2. Tentative. After all, class work is the ulti- 
 mate test. It is important to place the new pupil 
 in the right class at first, but it is always the safe 
 course to try him before deciding. Our tentative 
 classifications must necessarily be more or less hasty ; 
 but when we observe the pupil at his work, we de- 
 liberately determine his place. From day to day we 
 promote and demote pupils as we find best, and so 
 reach, in some degree, permanent classification. 
 
 3. Promote and Transfer. The teacher's work is 
 never done. Classification goes on forever. A true 
 class is a group of pupils who can profitably work 
 
158 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 together. Whenever we become satisfied that a pupil 
 can work more profitably with a higher class, we pro- 
 mote him ; or we transfer him, when we find he can 
 do better, to a lower class. We make these changes 
 as quietly as Nature works. Before the time comes 
 for class promotion we shall have made all desirable 
 changes, and the class as a class will become a higher 
 class. This is ideal, but it should be made a reality 
 by every progressive teacher. 
 
 CHAPTEE XYL 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE CLASS 
 METHODS AND DEVICES. 
 
 WE build on the achievements of the race. We 
 study to make our class work exceedingly fruitful. 
 We learn valuable lessons in class work from Jes-us, 
 from Plato, from Pythagoras, from the Rabbi, from 
 the Jesuit, from gifted teachers of all ages and lands. 
 We enrich our own experience in class work by all 
 experience. In all the light, as best we can, we plan 
 and do our class work. 
 
 The Recitation. This expression is a heritage from 
 the old schoolmaster. To him, class work was liter- 
 ally reciting ; the pupil committed the words of the 
 book and recited the lesson. The new education re- 
 tains the expression but gives to it a new meaning. 
 In general, we use class work and the recitation as 
 synonymous expressions ; but specifically, the recita- 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 159 
 
 tion includes class work conducted by the teacher. 
 The teacher directs laboratory work and the studies 
 of the several pupils, but this is individual rather 
 than class work. We speak of the recitation period, 
 the recitation plan, the next recitation, the previous 
 recitation, for we find these expressions most con- 
 venient. 
 
 Class Work. Whatever the class does as an organ- 
 ism is termed class work. In its elements the class is 
 composed of the teacher and the pupils. For work- 
 ing purposes the pupils are grouped into sections, 
 number one in each group being section leader. Roll 
 call is instantaneous as the section leaders report ab- 
 sentees. Like a well-organized army the class is al- 
 ways ready for action. The teacher is the class leader. 
 What do you consider good class work ? What are 
 the characteristics of the efficient recitation ? What 
 do you understand by good class methods ? What do 
 you mean by helpful class devices ? 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT CLASS WORK. 
 
 We study the class work of many successful teach- 
 ers, and gain insight into the nature of the well con- 
 ducted recitation. Some characteristics of fruitful 
 teaching impress us. 
 
 1. Spontaneity. Teacher and pupils study as best 
 they can the lesson topic. The teacher plans the reci- 
 tation as carefully as the general plans the battle. Still 
 the ideal recitation is a marvel of spontaneity. Teacher 
 and pupils enter into the investigation with the fresh- 
 ness and zest of original explorers and real artists. 
 Investigation and creation supplement each other. 
 
160 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The recitation, like the poem, is an original creation. 
 It is this spontaneity that sustains unflagging inter- 
 est and inspires teacher and pupils to surpass them- 
 selves. Arnold spent hours preparing a Latin exer- 
 cise that he had taught annually for thirty years, but 
 he taught the lesson as if it was for the first time. 
 The real teacher, like the orator, is always fresh and 
 inspiring. Spontaneity characterizes good class work 
 as drudgery characterizes machine work. Constant 
 surprises keep the teacher and the pupils alert and 
 happy. 
 
 2. Revealing and Concealing. God reveals a lit- 
 tle and leaves man to find out the rest. Jesus taught 
 a few truths and wisely left us hungering and thirst- 
 ing for more. The great preacher unfolds one or 
 two truths, but awakens a burning desire to know all 
 truth. The discreet teacher conceals from view the 
 boundless continent, that he may lead his pupils to ex- 
 plore the small island. It is a great art to open truth 
 to the learner little by little. The novice tells all he 
 knows, but the wise teacher conceals all but the one 
 thing needful. Agassiz so taught one thing as to in- 
 spire his pupils to find out many things. Revealing 
 is well, but concealing is better. We learn a great 
 lesson from the microscope ; the teacher conceals that 
 he may the better reveal. Concealing the boundless 
 fields of knowledge and revealing truth little by little 
 characterizes good class work. " The art of teaching 
 a little," said Huxley, " depends on knowing a great 
 deal, and that thoroughly." 
 
 3. Review and Recapitulation. Isolated ideas are 
 worthless, but related truths are golden. At each step 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 161 
 
 the learner is led to apperceive as well as perceive. 
 The present lesson builds on previous lessons. Be- 
 fore beginning the new lesson the pupils recall in 
 brief the results heretofore reached, and the new les- 
 son is worked out in view of past lessons. Then, at 
 the close of the recitation, the points made in the les- 
 son are recapitulated, that they may be firmly grasped 
 and readily reproduced. Like the oration, the recita- 
 tion has its exordium and its peroration. Like the 
 essay, the recitation has its introduction and its sum- 
 mary. The review and the recapitulation characterize 
 good class work. 
 
 4. Lesson Plan. As the general plans the battle, 
 so the true teacher plans the recitation. The aim 
 is mastery through concentrated and well-directed 
 effort. All educative work is systematic work. The 
 main points are isolated, mastered in detail, recom- 
 bined. By examples and illustrations and compari- 
 sons and applications the pupils are led to fully grasp 
 the points. Other studies are made contributory, but 
 nothing, even for a moment, is permitted to divert 
 attention from the lesson. The questions and stories 
 and discussions and allusions, from start to finish, are 
 made to contribute to the mastery of the lesson. As 
 defeat awaits the commander who fights without a 
 battle plan, so failure awaits the teacher who meets 
 his class without a lesson plan. Only one teacher in 
 twenty wisely plans the 'lessons, and only one teacher 
 in twenty does masterly class work. As the result of 
 this criminal neglect, the waste of pupil energy is ap- 
 palling. The skilful lesson plan characterizes good 
 
 class work. 
 12 
 
162 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 5. The Drill. u Repeat without ceasing" was 
 Jacotot's golden rule. The dynamic factors of mas- 
 tery are attention, interest, doing. The new is con- 
 stantly assimilated with the old. A little truth gained 
 is applied in many ways. Doing supplements know- 
 ing and telling. The learner repeats and repeats un- 
 til he feels the spirit of mastery ; but repetition is 
 never mechanical memory ; the repetition is ever in 
 new forms. Problem after problem is solved and ex- 
 plained. Example after example is given. The drill 
 is incalculably helpful. It gives the pupil courage 
 and strength and skill to advance. As the teacher 
 gains teaching insight he drills his pupils more and 
 more. This is what is meant by thorough work. 
 The efficient drill characterizes good class work. 
 
 6. The Pre-survey. The lesson assigned is the 
 measure of teaching skill. In nothing is the wise 
 teacher more painstaking than in assigning lessons. 
 The lesson to be assigned has been carefully consid- 
 ered. How much can the pupil do well? The pre- 
 survey prepares pupils for successful study. Two or 
 three minutes are spent in a pre-examination of the 
 lesson topic. An interest in the new lesson is awak- 
 ened and helpful suggestions are given. In all classes 
 below the college the pre-survey is necessary to the 
 best class work. The helpful pre-survey characterizes 
 good class work. 
 
 EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS. 
 
 These are effective ways of doing class work. The 
 aim is culture through mastery. The recitation plan 
 must first of all be grounded in principles. Teaching 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 163 
 
 as an art is rooted in education as science. Educa- 
 tional laws guide the educator. Skilful adaptation 
 is cardinal. A sound plan of class work that thor- 
 oughly enlists the pupils and fully utilizes teacher and 
 pupil effort may be counted a good class method. 
 
 Class methods are systematic plans of class work. 
 The prepared teacher works out well-considered plans. 
 We speak of special class methods, but we always think 
 of class methods as the ways of doing class work. The 
 teacher blends into harmony good methods and help- 
 ful devices. 
 
 1. Unity Method. Unity through law is funda- 
 mental. Amid endless diversity there is marvelous 
 agreement in the essentials. The processes of teach- 
 ing and learning are ever the same. Perceiving and 
 apperceiving, discriminating and assimilating, analyz- 
 ing and synthetizing, induction and deduction, enter 
 into the warp and woof of learning and teaching. 
 Development of power through the acquisition of 
 knowledge is the common purpose. Great princi- 
 ples give unity to class work. Leading pupils to 
 apperceive their acquisitions and thereby unify them 
 is the very essence of good class work. 
 
 2. Individual Method. The teacher studies to 
 understand each pupil. He does his best to bring 
 out the individuality of each member of the class. 
 Everything is made to contribute to the unfolding 
 of the individual pupil. In class work each genuine 
 teacher works in his own ways. In all the world we 
 do not find two true teachers pursuing the same class 
 methods. A true recitation is a new creation. Pupil 
 betterment is the test. Each teacher constantly asks 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 himself, What are the best ways to elicit the best efforts 
 of each pupil ? Class methods which thoroughly en- 
 list each pupil in the class work are highly educative. 
 
 3. Investigation Class Method. The teacher sys- 
 tematically leads pupils to find out. The class, led by 
 the teacher, investigate, search for truth. All re- 
 search, all experimenting, all explaining, all laboratory 
 work, all efforts to find out and understand, are in- 
 cluded in the investigation class method. Good class 
 methods are good ways of investigating. All educa- 
 tional progress, all teaching plans, all helpful class de- 
 vices, and all teaching facilities, are included in this 
 all-comprehending investigation method. Teaching 
 plans are ways of investigating. These plans may be 
 grouped as the teaching-question plan, the topical 
 plan, the discussion plan, the conversational lecture 
 plan, and the lecture plan. The ideal recitation skil- 
 fully combines these ways of investigation. 
 
 4. The Teaching-question Method. By skilful 
 questioning the teacher leads the pupil to find out for 
 himself. Socrates so questioned as to incite and lead 
 the investigator to discover truth. The Socratic ques- 
 tion is the teaching question, and is sometimes called 
 the Socratic method or the teaching-question method. 
 The following incident, adapted to our environments, 
 is a good example : 
 
 Meno. " Socrates, we come to you feeling strong and wise ; we 
 leave you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is this?" 
 
 Socrates. " I will show you." Calling a young Greek, and mak- 
 ing a line in the sand, he proceeded : " Boy, how long is this line f " 
 
 Boy. " It is a foot long, sir." 
 
 Socrates. " How long is this line!" 
 
 Soy. " It is two feet long, sir." 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 165 
 
 Socrates. " How much larger would be the square constructed 
 on the second line than on the first line I " 
 
 Boy. " It would be twice as large, sir." 
 
 Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs the two 
 squares. 
 
 Socrates. "How much larger than the first did you say the 
 second square would be I " 
 
 Boy. " I said it would be twice as large." 
 
 Socrates. " How much larger is it ? " 
 
 Boy. " It is four times as large." 
 
 Socrates. " Thank you, my boy ; you may go. Meno, that boy 
 came to me full of confidence, thinking himself wise. I told him 
 nothing. By a few simple questions I led him to see his error 
 and discover the truth. Though really wiser, he goes away feel- 
 ing humbled." 
 
 The teaching question elicits attention, awakens 
 interest, and guides effort. It gives the learner the 
 pleasure of discovering the truth. The teacher and 
 pupil investigate together, but the pupil finds out for 
 himself. The teaching question, though older than 
 Socrates, is a striking characteristic of the new educa- 
 tion. The true teacher so questions as to lead the 
 pupil to find out what he does not know, but the 
 schoolkeeper so questions as to lead the pupil to re- 
 peat what he already knows. The teaching question 
 is one of the best features of helpful class work, 
 while the old question-and-answer method is one of 
 the worst. 
 
 5. The Conversation Method. Genuine teaching 
 is largely conversational. This form of class work 
 unifies teacher and pupil effort to find out. The 
 best oral teaching is conversational. The story, the 
 conduct lesson, and the oral science lesson are mostly 
 conversational. Pupils are led to contribute all they 
 
166 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AXD SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 know, and to ask about the new lesson. At every 
 step the pupils work with the teacher. The con- 
 versation includes the teaching question, but it also 
 imparts information to prepared pupils. Teacher 
 and pupils investigate, examine, talk over the matter, 
 ask, and answer. The conversation must never de- 
 generate into a monologue. The great art is to get 
 the pupils to enter heartily into the conversational in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 6. The Topic Method. In this method the class 
 . investigate systematically. The lesson topic includes 
 
 several subtopics which are examined one by one. 
 The topic method includes the teaching question, the 
 conversation, and the discussion methods. One or 
 two pupils tell what they know about a subtopic, 
 after which the class examine the topic. When used 
 judiciously the topic method may be made the basis 
 of systematic class work, but its exclusive use is fatal 
 to educative work. Mere topic work excludes in- 
 vestigation, and admirably suits the schoolkeeper, for 
 it excludes teaching. The true topic method involves 
 all the other methods of investigating. 
 
 7. The Discussion Method. This is the method 
 to develop power. The world needs oaks rather than 
 willows. Discussion develops a sturdy manhood. The 
 class investigate together. In brief speeches the 
 pupils present and defend their positions. Nothing 
 arouses greater interest or calls forth more vigorous 
 effort than well-directed discussion. The discussion 
 tends to develop vigorous thought and independent 
 expression. As iron sharpens iron, so discussion sharp- 
 ens mind. The Jesuits used this method in develop- 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 107 
 
 ing an army of mighty men. Educationally, discus- 
 sion stands very high. In these mental conflicts the 
 utmost power of the pupil is put forth. He acquires 
 cogency of thought and vigour of expression. He 
 learns to respect the positions of others, and at the 
 same time to manfully maintain his own. There is 
 no better way to cultivate independence, self-asser- 
 tion, liberality, and the habit of treating an opponent 
 courteously and fairly. The discussion, from the pri- 
 mary to the university, may be made helpful ; it does 
 most to abolish stupidity and indifference in class 
 work. The teacher so manages the discussion as to 
 develop the spirit of investigation rather than the 
 spirit of victory. A weak teacher does well to pro- 
 hibit discussion. The strong teacher uses the discus- 
 sion method judiciously, and finds it a tremendous 
 educative force. 
 
 8. The Lecture Method. The learners think with 
 the lecturer. The living teacher leads the research, 
 giving information and inspiration. The lecture 
 method instructs. Through the centuries the lecture 
 has been a marvellous educative means. We think of 
 Aristotle and Kant and Jesus as teaching by lectures. 
 These masters combined the conversation and lecture 
 methods. Surely the lecture has its place in class 
 work. Where ? Not in the elementary ; not usually 
 in the high school ; not usually in the freshman and 
 junior college classes. Elementary pupils are not 
 prepared to profit by lectures. The true elementary 
 oral work is the conversation, and not the lecture. 
 High-school pupils are trained to think with the lec- 
 turer, and the occasional lecture proves highly bene- 
 
168 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ficial ; but the lecture is not the form of high- 
 school educative class work. As a rule, the freshman 
 and sophomore college students are hurt and not 
 helped by the too frequent lecture. The occasional 
 lecture or course of lectures in some subjects do great 
 good, but thorough teaching during these precious 
 years is imperative. The place for the lecture in class 
 work is in the junior and senior college classes, in the 
 graduate work, and in the professional schools. The 
 advanced students think with the lecturer as he leads 
 them into fields of research and into the realms of 
 philosophical investigation. But even in the advanced 
 work the lecture must be supplemented by good teach- 
 ing. 
 
 HELPFUL CLASS DEVICES. 
 
 These are expedients for improving class work. 
 The careless teacher sometimes speaks of these helps 
 as methods. We think of fundamental and guiding 
 truths as educational principles ; of systematic plans 
 of school work as methods ; and of temporary expe- 
 dients as devices. The ingenious teacher pursues sys- 
 matic methods, but uses countless devices. We think 
 of the topic plan of class work as a class method, but 
 we think of blackboard work as a device. We rejoice 
 in all helpful school devices, but we deprecate mere 
 novelty, and condemn pretentious but uneducative de- 
 vices. A few approved devices will serve as sugges- 
 tions. 
 
 1. The Class. This is a device to economize time 
 and energy, to utilize the group forces, and to foster 
 the habit of working with others. But the class does 
 not sink the individual in the group. Each pupil 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 169 
 
 must be as well cared for as though the instruction 
 was to him alone. This is often overlooked. The 
 superficial teacher addresses the class as a whole ; if 
 there is a fair amount of attention he is satisfied. 
 This is a fatal mistake. The class must not be dealt 
 with as a compound, but as an organism made up of 
 individuals. It must be dealt with as a skilful florist 
 deals with his plants, where each plant has the culture 
 it needs, to the manifest advantage of the whole. 
 
 2. Written Work supplements oral work. In 
 school and college, in our times, about one third of 
 the class work is written work. When at the board, 
 it is board work ; when at the seat, it is tablet work. 
 The writing tablet has supplanted the slate. Study- 
 ing or reciting, the pupil finds constant use for the 
 tablet. The gain by this device is immense. All 
 members of the class work. But there is danger here. 
 Real teaching must always be mainly oral, and must 
 be supplemented by written work. Written work is 
 a leading class device, but must not be carried to ex- 
 tremes. 
 
 3. Laboratory Work. Learners are led to gain 
 knowledge first hand. Laboratory work has become a 
 marvellous educative device, entering as it does in some 
 form into nearly all school work. It is used to include 
 all work in which the pupils individually seek truth 
 through observation, measurement, and experiment. 
 In class laboratory work the teacher directs the investi- 
 gation, and all concentrate on the study of one thing. 
 Each pupil will, when possible, do individual work. 
 One experiment made by the pupil helps more than a 
 score made by the teacher. Laboratory work is i\ 
 
170 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 most helpful class device, and must be used to supple- 
 ment all forms of efficient teaching. 
 
 4. Outline Work. This device systematizes class 
 work. After a subject has been mastered in detail, it 
 is reviewed in outline. The diagram is the last syn- 
 thesis. The outline aids memory and enables the 
 learner to grasp the subject as a whole. It leads to 
 the mastery of essentials and the omission of burden- 
 some details. But the outline is merely a device. 
 Pupils starve when fed on skeletons. We begin with 
 the concrete, and work up to classes, definitions, rules, 
 principles, diagrams. We begin with particulars and 
 work up to outlines. Modern text-books rightly place 
 the outline at the close of the subject. To begin with 
 diagrams, to teach from diagrams, and to depend upon 
 diagrams are fundamental educational errors. The 
 outline wisely used is an excellent class device. The 
 teacher leads the pupil up step by step and then the 
 steps are outlined. The pupils make the outlines. 
 
 5. Reporting Work. This device leads to re- 
 search. In every class we have bright pupils who are 
 able to do extra work; we manage to have these 
 pupils prepare interesting reports bearing on the 
 work of the class. It is a valuable device to appoint 
 a pupil to examine and report on a topic connected 
 with the lesson. These reports are brief, but interest- 
 ing. They are in the line of original research, and 
 help the pupil and the class. 
 
 6. Teaching Work. This device multiplies indi- 
 vidual effort. The topic has been thoroughly investi- 
 gated, but the pupils need the drill. The class is 
 divided into groups of two or more each, and the 
 
EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 171 
 
 pupils in a group in turn act as teacher of the group. 
 For large classes this is a valuable artifice, as it greatly 
 multiplies individual work. In normal work it is 
 found to be an admirable device for practice teaching 
 in advanced work. The wide-awake teacher will use 
 teaching work sparingly, but will never rely upon it. 
 Nothing can take the place of individual teaching. 
 Teaching work breaks up monotony and is admirable 
 for drill. Teaching is remarkably educative; all 
 pupils take delight in teaching. Teaching work often 
 does more to interest pupils than any other device. 
 However, we must keep in mind that this is merely a 
 temporary expedient to be used occasionally. 
 
 7. Concert Work. This device enlivens the reci- 
 tation. Class work sometimes drags. Concert work, 
 used occasionally, arouses the pupils. The members 
 of a section or of the entire class answer together. 
 To overcome timidity, to quicken the interest, or to 
 fix a fact, this device may be used sparingly. We use 
 it most with young pupils ; as the pupils advance 
 we use it less and less. In some subjects concert 
 work affords a valuable drill. It may be advanta- 
 geously used to a limited extent in all classes, but espe- 
 cially in oral work. The exclusive concert method is a 
 sure cure for study and for thorough teaching. Con- 
 cert teaching is showy but shallow, and is favoured by 
 " f uss-and-feather " teachers. The honest teacher will 
 use the concert method sparingly and judiciously. 
 
 8. Original Class Devices. Numerous other de- 
 vices are of great value, but there is danger of perplex- 
 ing the young teacher. The orator, while speaking, 
 never thinks of the principles of elocution or of the 
 
172 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 intonations of his voice. The artist seems inspired, 
 but hard work is the source of the inspiration. While 
 teaching, the educational artist seldom thinks of prin- 
 ciples or methods or devices. Having mastered these 
 in detail, he intuitively pursues the method and uses 
 the device best suited to his purpose at the time. He 
 is the master of some methods and many devices, but 
 the slave of none. From time to time he uses such 
 as he deems most helpful. He often thinks of the 
 story of David and his sling, and relies most on his 
 common sense. He finds that one of his own devices 
 to meet conditions is of more value than many second- 
 hand devices. 
 
 CIIAPTEE XVII. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL AND 
 CLASS TACTICS. 
 
 BY school tactics is meant a system of signals and 
 movements adapted to school work. The object is to 
 promote order and orderly habits and facilitate work. 
 Suitable school and class tactics save time, improve 
 the symmetry and spirit of the school, and train to 
 habits of prompt and exact obedience. The wise 
 teacher uses with judgment sensible school tactics. 
 
 Principles determine Signals and Movements. The 
 fitness should be obvious to the pupils. Everything 
 to help and nothing to hurt is the cardinal princi- 
 ple. All required movements should be necessary. 
 Changes are made with the least expenditure of time 
 
HELPFUL SCHOOL AND CLASS TACTICS. 173 
 
 and energy consistent with fitness. Signals should be 
 few. No time or energy should be wasted on the 
 purely mechanical. Numerous signals confuse and 
 squander the energies of teacher and pupils. Signals 
 should be specific. Words of command are usually 
 best in class work. Gentle bell taps are the best sig- 
 nals for movements. Our school tactics should be 
 uniform,. Much will be gained in school, as in mili- 
 tary tactics, by general uniformity. Variety in teach- 
 ing but uniformity in tactics is a school desideratum. 
 Words of command- should be given in a low, firm 
 tone. Commands given in a thin, faltering tone and 
 with the rising inflection cause the pupils to smile 
 and hesitate. Good elocution commands respect and 
 obedience. Movements must be executed quickly, 
 quietly, and with precision. Noisy, dilatory, slov- 
 enly movements are distressing, and result in bad 
 habits. The greatest freedom consistent with good 
 order should be permitted during movements. Pu- 
 pils are trained to behave properly at all times, but 
 liberty is the very life of the school. The martinet 
 who requires pupils to march with folded arms, closed 
 lips, and solemn looks should be a trainer of monkeys. 
 The Electric Programme Clock is a Serviceable 
 Help. It relieves the teacher of the time strain and 
 secures absolute regularity in school work. The clock 
 taps a bell in each room three minutes before the 
 close of the recitation period and at the close. Time 
 is thus given for closing the lesson and for the pre- 
 survey of the next lesson. The programme clock 
 thus aids in school management. One clock regulates 
 the whole school, however large, ringing any num- 
 
174: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ber of programmes. In many of our best schools 
 the electric programme clock calls and dismisses all 
 classes, and calls and dismisses school. "Books!" 
 the cry of the old schoolmaster, is no longer heard in 
 the land. 
 
 We study Economy in calling and dismissing School. 
 All school buildings should be constructed in view 
 of quick entrance and exit, so that the school can be 
 easily called or dismissed within two minutes. In 
 large schools it seems necessary to have the pupils 
 form in line, but in small schools, and in all schools 
 above the primary, pupils can soon be trained to as- 
 semble orderly without this device. The plans for 
 calling and dismissing school vary with the circuin 
 stances. The one essential is that there shall be good 
 order. The clock taps the bell ; two minutes are 
 given for assembling. At the end of this time all 
 are required to be in places and the clock signals 
 work ; pupils not in places are tardy. This plan 
 works well in all schools from the primary school to 
 the university. 
 
 We study Economy in calling and dismissing Glasses. 
 The clock taps bells ; instantly the pupils rise, turn, 
 and pass to recitation places. In the absence of the sig- 
 nal clock the call bell is used. The teacher so plans that 
 the pupils move without confusion. Much skill in 
 planning the movements is necessary in large schools. 
 The electric bells tap three minutes before the close 
 of the recitation and at its close. At the closing signal 
 the pupils instantly rise, turn, and move to seats in 
 assembly room or to playgrounds. Soon pupils may 
 be trained to move with precision and grace. This is 
 
HELPFUL SCHOOL AND CLASS TACTICS. 175 
 
 the perfection of school tactics. The signal clock for 
 rural schools is inexpensive but invaluable. It rings 
 a bell on the playgrounds and taps a bell in the school- 
 room. 
 
 We study Fitness in Recitation Tactics. A true 
 class is a group of pupils who can work together. 
 The best class tactics waste no time or energy. 
 Teacher and pupils get to understand each other and 
 learn to work together. The teacher leads in the 
 work, and directs by a few easy signals the move- 
 ments of the class. In school tactics signals include 
 words of command as well as mechanical devices. 
 The old schoolmaster called the pupils consecutively. 
 He began at the head of the class and proceeded to 
 the foot. "Next!" was his one signal. The old- 
 time professor arranged the names alphabetically and 
 called on the pupils as the names occurred on the 
 roll. We remember the dear old man and the tricks 
 we used to play on him. The modern teacher treats 
 the class as a unit ; each pupil does all the work. 
 When a problem is given or a question asked, each 
 one thinks and then raises the hand. Some one is 
 called and hands are dropped, but any pupil may be 
 called on at any moment. All are wide awake. Pu- 
 pils raise hands to answer, to criticise, to ask. But 
 no one can specify ; each teacher pursues his own 
 course. You manage your class in your way. 
 
 We study Economy in Blackboard Tactics. When 
 called to the board pupils await signals. At the sig- 
 nal "Board!" each pupil turns to the left. At the 
 signal "Attention,!" each pupil faces to the right. At 
 the signal "Erase ! " the pupils turn to the board and 
 
176 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 erase by moving erasers down. At the signal " Write ! " 
 each pupil takes a crayon and proceeds as directed. 
 These are the sensible signals used in nearly all our 
 schools. Movements are orderly and graceful, and 
 much time is saved. As the crayon troughs are cov- 
 ered with wire gauze, and as the pupils are trained to 
 move the erasers downward, no one is annoyed by 
 crayon dust. 
 
 We study Fitness in Concert Tactics. Pupils re- 
 spond when called on ; otherwise no one speaks. 
 Nearly all class work is individual, but occasional 
 concert responses help. At the signal " Class!" all 
 respond in concert. At the signal " Boys ! " only boys 
 respond, and at the signal " Girls!" only girls respond. 
 Teaching work, to a limited extent, is remarkably 
 helpful. The class is divided into groups of two 
 or more pupils each ; at the signal " Ones ! " the ones 
 act as teachers and the others in the group as pupils ; 
 at the signal " Twos ! " the twos act as teachers and the 
 others as pupils. The signal " Attention ! " closes the 
 exercise. 
 
 Each Teacher studies Well a System of School 
 Tactics. The informal teacher manages to have con- 
 siderable freedom, but it is not the freedom of law. 
 The informal school always impresses us as a dis- 
 orderly school. A few hours of faithful study and a 
 few weeks of careful practice will enable even inex- 
 perienced teachers to master helpful school tactics. 
 Soon you can work easily and vigorously. The tone 
 and appearance of your school will improve, and your 
 efficiency as a teacher will be largely augmented. 
 
EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 177 
 
 CHAPTER XYIIL 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE ORAL AND 
 BOOK WORK. 
 
 We think of the Old Education as Bookwork. So 
 many pages were assigned for a lesson and so many 
 pages were recited. The pupils studied the book and 
 
 r o r r 
 
 the teacher heard them recite the book. "Take the 
 next lesson," was the stereotyped form of assigning 
 work. The college professor interpreted the book 
 or substituted the lecture for the book. Mechanical 
 bookwork very largely characterized the old educa- 
 tion. Learning and not development was made pri- 
 mary. 
 
 We think of the New Education as combining Oral 
 and Book Work. Intelligent bookwork is preceded 
 and accompanied by oral work. The pupil works face 
 to face with things, and gains knowledge first hand. 
 From the kindergarten to the university the labora- 
 tory method predominates. Things are studied and 
 books are used as helps. Pupils are educated to inves- 
 tigate. Experiment and research are made the basis. 
 Judicious oral teaching combined with rational book- 
 work characterizes the new education. Development 
 and not learning is primary. 
 
 Oral and Book Work vary with the Stages of Growth. 
 - Books are our best helps. As pupil experience en- 
 larges books are used more and more. The diagram 
 indicates in some degree the relative amount of oral 
 work as compared with bookwork in our best schools. 
 18 
 
178 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 COLLI 
 
 HIGH /SCHOOL 
 
 fc/A* 
 
 fl?/0? 
 
 Possibly the proportion of college bookwork is ex- 
 aggerated in view of the marvellous increase of the 
 laboratory work, but research and the lectures are 
 
 , . here counted as bookwork. At first 
 
 the pupils depend on the teacher for 
 information, but as they advance 
 they come to depend less and less 
 on the teacher and more and more 
 on books. 
 
 At first the child learns about 
 things by direct inspection ; it gains 
 ideas directly from material objects 
 and from its own conscious activi- 
 ties. As the months multiply the 
 child more and more assimilates im- 
 mediate and remembered experi- 
 ences in forming its notions of 
 things. Little by little the pupil 
 learns to appropriate the experi- 
 ences of others. Teacher experience 
 supplements child experience ; the 
 teacher stimulates and guides the 
 efforts of the child, but its ideas are gained directly 
 through its own experience. This is oral work. When 
 prepared for it the pupil is led to find out from books. 
 Printed words now represent to the pupil ideas of 
 things in new combinations. The learner begins to 
 understand symbols and so gains knowledge from 
 books. This is bookwork. 
 
 Kindergarten Work is Oral; Primary Work is 
 Largely Oral. During the first and second primary 
 years, as during the kindergarten years, nearly all 
 
 KINDERGARTEN 
 
EDUCATIVE OttAL AND BOOK WORK. 179 
 
 eaching is oral work. During the third and fourth 
 years nearly three fourths of the work is still oral. 
 During the intermediate years books become more 
 and more helpful, but oral work still predominates. 
 In the high school oral and book work, at first, are 
 tibout equal. In the college, bookwork predominates 
 as research and the lectures are counted as bookwork. 
 As the learner advances he enters into the heritage of 
 human learning as recorded in books, but at every 
 step he builds on his own experiences. 
 
 ORAL WORK IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 As teachers become skilful it is surprising to ob- 
 serve the preponderance of oral work in our elemen- 
 tary schools. 
 
 1. The Conduct Lessons are Oral. Even in the 
 history of our own country, conduct bearings must be 
 very largely oral work. The study lessons are oral, but 
 the pupils are trained to find out from books as well 
 as from things. The lessons in general history and 
 civics are oral lessons. Only in American history do 
 we have strictly bookwork. 
 
 2. Language- Literature Lessons are partly Oral. 
 Reading wisely combines oral and book work, and so 
 does literature after the second year. The language 
 lessons and composition are very largely oral work. 
 Things, ideas, symbols this is the order. The gram- 
 mar lessons during the seventh and eighth years may 
 be counted as book lessons. 
 
 3. The Mathematics Lessons 'become more and 
 more Bookwork. During the first and second years 
 all the lessons are oral. Concrete geometry is strict- 
 
180 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ly oral throughout the elementary course. After the 
 second year arithmetic combines oral and book work. 
 AVe class the so-called mental arithmetic as oral. The 
 algebra in the seventh and eighth grades may be con- 
 sidered book work. 
 
 4. The Elementary Science Work is nearly all 
 Oral Woi'k. The geography lessons, after the sec- 
 ond year, wisely unite oral and book work, but dur- 
 ing the first and second years the work is strictly oral. 
 The biology lessons are strictly oral, but are supple- 
 mented by the library. The lessons in physics are 
 also oral lessons. Except in geography no text-book 
 is used in the science studies. 
 
 5. During the Primary Years all the Art Instruc- 
 tion is Oral. During the intermediate years oral and 
 book work are combined in drawing and vocal music. 
 The instruction in physical culture and manual train- 
 ing is counted as oral. 
 
 ORAL TEACHING. 
 
 Good book teaching is a great art, but good oral 
 teaching is a greater. Jesus taught orally. Socrates, 
 Plato, Aristotle, and Pestalozzi taught orally. What 
 is meant by oral teaching? Study the parable of the 
 sower ; by means of the most familiar incidents Jesus 
 teaches the people the greatest truths. Oral teaching 
 in its best form exercises, it is estimated, brain areas 
 threefold greater than the mechanical book teaching 
 of the old schoolmasters. 
 
 1. The Teacher leads the Learner to observe, to 
 investigate, to tell. Each pupil is given a leaf to 
 study, to draw, to describe. The teacher leads the 
 
EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 181 
 
 learner to experience and discover and do and tell. 
 Observation lessons are fundamental. Dr. Hall says : 
 " The mechanical learning of the regulation branches 
 was for a long time the chief work of the school, and 
 it affected a slight brain area. When the objective 
 work came in its best form the area awakened, strength- 
 ened, and developed was increased about threefold." 
 
 2. The Teacher educates through the Story. Pu- 
 pils are led to discover relations and duties to others. 
 I place story teaching side by side with object teach- 
 ing. Human nature interests children equally with 
 nature studies. The parable, the anecdote, the fairy 
 tale, the conduct story, the history story, the bio- 
 graphical story, the tale of travel and exploration, 
 are some of the forms of story teaching. As a rule, 
 teacher and pupils should tell the stories rather than 
 read them. The fitting story is a great educative 
 means. 
 
 3. TJie Teacher by apt Illustrations leads Pupils 
 to see clearly. Familiar examples shed a flood of light 
 on the dark places. The abstract is illumined by the 
 concrete. As far as possible real cases should be used. 
 Jesus illustrated his lessons by giving cases of real men 
 and women. Experience with realities is made the 
 basis, and illustrations are drawn from environments. 
 Real things are used in study and class work whenever 
 possible. 
 
 4. The Teacher by Illustrative Apparatus helps 
 Pupils to gain Insight. The many illustrative de- 
 vices now available are invaluable. Pupils are trained 
 to make and use illustrative apparatus ; manual train- 
 ing is remarkably helpful. Maps, charts, diagrams, 
 
182 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 cuts, pictures representing realities, greatly assist, and 
 all schoolrooms should be rich in these helps. 
 
 5. The Teacher by means of Drawing educates. 
 Agassiz as he taught represented on the board the 
 various stages of growth from the egg to the full- 
 grown bird. Nothing is more helpful to teacher and 
 pupil than skilful drawing. Even crude representa- 
 tions illustrate. Ability to draw often doubles the 
 efficiency of the teacher. 
 
 6. The Teacher impresses ly Examples. Even 
 Kant thus makes clear some things in his philoso- 
 phy. Jesus constantly gives examples. At every 
 step the skilful teacher gives illustrative examples, 
 and also leads the pupils to give original examples 
 from their own experience. 
 
 BOOK TEACHING. 
 
 We have a profound respect for good book teach- 
 ing. The old schoolmaster taught thoroughly Latin 
 and Greek and mathematics, and thus educated for 
 centuries the world's leaders. The best things are 
 in books. Oral teaching leads to individual experi- 
 ence ; book teaching re-enforces intuitive knowledge 
 by all learning. Oral teaching leads the learner to lay 
 a foundation in personal experience ; book teaching en- 
 riches personal experience by the experience of the race. 
 
 1. The True Teacher is known oy the Lessons as- 
 signed for Study. A definite subject with a definite 
 book lesson is assigned for study. Efficient teachers 
 assign short book lessons such as pupils can and 
 will prepare. Only stupid teachers assign unreason- 
 able lessons. 
 
EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 183 
 
 The pre-survey is highly important for young pu- 
 pils. In assigning the lesson the teacher leads the 
 pupils to grasp the relation of the new topic to the 
 previous work. He in some way creates interest in 
 the new lesson and gives helpful hints about its study. 
 In all elementary classes the pre-survey is exceedingly 
 helpful. Even our successful high-school teachers sel- 
 dom fail to utilize this device. 
 
 2. The Study of Book Lessons is an Art. The 
 pupil is trained to find out from books. The pre- 
 survey connects the new lesson with the pupil's world 
 and so creates interest. The pre-survey shows the pu- 
 pil how to study the lesson, and so no time is wasted. 
 Occasionally the teacher and the pupils study a les- 
 son together. The work is so managed that pupils ac- 
 quire the habit of diligent and efficient study, and be- 
 come expert in gaining information from the printed 
 page. 
 
 3. The Teaching of Book Lessons taxes the Teacher 
 to the Utmost. The subject is tides. What does the 
 book say ? What do you say ? The pupil gives in 
 his own words information gained from the book. 
 Now the real teaching begins. What do you think ? 
 The pupil is led to present his own notions. Helpful 
 devices are used. Oral information and the library 
 supplement the text-book. The pupil's outlook en- 
 larges, his information grows broader and broader, 
 and his grasp of things becomes greater and greater. 
 
 4. The Right Use of Books is a School Art. No 
 one now favours the slavish use of text-books. Mere 
 memory work is not educative. Repeating is well 
 enough for the phonograph. Good book teaching 
 
184 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 trains pupils to read and reflect, to examine critically, 
 to fully grasp the meaning of the author, to thor- 
 oughly assimilate the thought. The old-time pro- 
 fessors did this in teaching Latin and Greek. We 
 must do this in teaching English and history and 
 science. However excellent our oral teaching, we 
 leave our pupils poor indeed if we fail to lead them 
 to gain the art of mastering the printed page. (Kead 
 Chapter VIII.) 
 
 CHAPTEK XIX. 
 
 GOOD TEACHING IN LIEU OF EXTKANEOUS INCENTIVES. 
 
 THE working plan here outlined accords with sound 
 educational principles and the best in school life. It 
 accords with common sense and the advanced educa- 
 tional thought of the world. It strikes at the root of 
 a group of hurtful devices and vicious practices. 
 Well-meaning teachers have come to use without con- 
 sideration the per-cent system with its train of evils ; 
 it has become the fashion. Many teachers do not 
 now see how they could manage without per-cent 
 marking, nor did the old schoolmaster see how he 
 could get on without the rod. But with good teach- 
 ing we find that schools get on vastly better without 
 than with rods, test examinations, and per-cent mark- 
 ings. Let us calmly re-examine some of the extrane- 
 ous incentives now in fashion and seek for better 
 things. 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 185 
 
 WRITTEN KECITATIONS IN LIEU OF TEST 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Vital teaching is the essential thing. It creates 
 and sustains interest, and interest is central in all 
 school work. The interested pupil feels a burning 
 desire to find out ; he truly hungers and thirsts for 
 knowledge. The dreaded test examination, cruel 
 marking, perverting prizes, and other extraneous in- 
 centives, are not even thought of by pupil or teacher. 
 The real teacher, it is true, even when burdened with 
 these incumbrances, succeeds, but does so by counter- 
 acting in some degree their hurtful tendencies. In 
 the new education, teacher and pupils are freed from 
 hurtful devices, and the written recitation takes the 
 place of the dreaded test examination. Experience 
 has demonstrated that the gain by this substitution is 
 simply incalculable. The periodic examination in our 
 schools as the test of scholarship and as the standard 
 for promotion may be wisely consigned to the limbo 
 of hurtful school devices ; the written recitation is a 
 beneficent substitute. Some reasons for the change 
 are given in outline ; the elaboration is left to teachers. 
 
 1. The Written Recitation is Educative. It trains 
 the pupils to do their best under pressure. During 
 the written recitation each pupil strives to produce a 
 brief but creditable paper. The art of clear thinking 
 and concise expression is cultivated. The written 
 recitation has all the merits of the test examination 
 without its hurtful characteristics and its noneduca- 
 tive effects. The written recitation is equally adapted 
 to primary and university classes. 
 
186 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. The Written Recitation occurs when needed. 
 It comes whenever the teacher deems it helpful. No 
 pupil thinks of it or makes special preparation for it ; 
 it is simply a recitation. The pupils use their writing 
 tablets, and so are always ready for written work. 
 Periodicity is one of the most hurtful features of the 
 test examination, inevitably leading to hurtful cram- 
 ming, spasmodic study, and sly cheating. Stated ex- 
 aminations occasion dread, produce injurious excite- 
 ment, and seriously interfere with the regular work. 
 The written recitation is a panacea for these real 
 evils. 
 
 3. The Written Recitation is in Line with the 
 Daily Work. It helps and does not hurt. There is 
 no break in the work, and hence no loss of time or in- 
 terest. The topics for the written recitation include 
 the new lesson as well as the previous lessons. Like 
 all good class work, the written recitation is ap percep- 
 tive ; the teacher adapts the subject to the pupils, and 
 each pupil writes in view of his previous acquisitions 
 and assimilates into unity the old and the new. On 
 the other hand, the dreaded test examination seriously 
 interrupts the regular class work, occasioning the edu- 
 cational loss of one or more days every month. Pu- 
 pils study in view of the examination and waste their 
 energies thinking about it. The hasty cramming is 
 not helpful study. The incentive is not wholesome. 
 Then, grading these test papers wastes the precious 
 time and squanders the limited energies of the teacher. 
 In a word, the usual test examination injures teacher 
 and pupils and seriously interrupts the regular school 
 work. The written recitation remedies these evils. 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 187 
 
 4. The Written Recitation covers Familiar 
 Ground. The daily review, a feature of all good 
 teaching, keeps the whole subject fresh. The pupils 
 write well because they know thoroughly. The topics 
 and questions are definite and clear and embrace the 
 most helpful points. Conundrums, mere tests of 
 memory, unimportant details, and smart questions are 
 excluded. The aim is to foster thoughtful and help- 
 ful habits of study and expression. The test exami- 
 nation deals largely with unfamiliar topics, and hence 
 the pupils do not write well. Too often it is a mere 
 test of memory. From the fact that it is made a 
 test of scholarship it seems impossible to make it 
 educative. 
 
 5. Written Recitations count as other Recitations. 
 In all class work the appreciative teacher approves 
 good work. The " Well done " and " Try again " 
 come spontaneously. The same is true of the written 
 recitation. At his leisure the teacher reads the papers. 
 The creditable papers are marked S (satisfactory), but 
 some papers are marked U (unsatisfactory). The 
 papers thus marked are returned to the pupils. The 
 written recitation is thought of and valued as the 
 ordinary recitation. The S and the U are taken as the 
 " Well done " and the " Try again " in the daily work. 
 Skillful teachers train their pupils to criticise written 
 work. The dreaded test examination is the educa- 
 tional contrast. The pupils think of little else than 
 the coming examination, for it determines their fate. 
 On it depends class standing, promotion, graduation, 
 prizes, honours. Modify it as we may, the pupils will 
 still take this view of the test examination. As edu- 
 
188 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 cators, we see no way to avoid expunging from our 
 school vocabulary the very expression. 
 
 6. Good Teaching supplements Oral with Written 
 IVork. In the high school, the college, and the pro- 
 fessional school written work supplements the lecture. 
 During the first ten or fifteen minutes of the recita- 
 tion period the students write on topics discussed in the 
 lectures, in the text-books, and in the reference-books. 
 The teacher finds this infinitely better than the ever- 
 lasting lecture and the dreadful note-taking to be fol- 
 lowed by the test examination. We find the professors 
 who know how to teach pursuing this plan to the great 
 advantage of the students. The professor comes to 
 know the work of each student. Occasionally he has 
 a written recitation, but has no use for term test ex- 
 aminations or for final examinations. Good oral teach- 
 ing is constantly supplemented by written work in our 
 elementary schools. 
 
 Y. The Good in the Old is retained in the New. 
 Only the evils of the test examination are discarded. 
 The written recitation embodies the spirit of the new 
 education, just as the test examination embodied the 
 spirit of the old education. It helps and does not 
 hurt. It is safe and all-sufficient. Many of our best 
 teachers and most progressive schools have substituted 
 the written recitation for the test examination with 
 gratifying results. They have exchanged a hurtful for 
 a helpful device. It is reasonable to predict that the 
 test examination early in the twentieth century will 
 disappear as a school device, and will be replaced by 
 the beneficent written recitation. Good teaching and 
 efficient study will become the rule. 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 189 
 
 GOOD TEACHING IN LIEU OF PER-CENT MARKING. 
 
 It is safe to class per-cent marking as a hurtful de- 
 vice. As the rod was the panacea of the old school- 
 master, so marking is the panacea of the modern 
 stationary teacher. He sits with pencil in hand and 
 marks each answer, marks each violation of the rules. 
 Progressive educators substitute vital teaching for 
 marking and all other hurtful devices. Colonel F. "W. 
 Parker regards per-cent marking as criminal as steal- 
 ing. Superintendent Arnold Tompkins considers the 
 percentage device as an outrage on the learning proc- 
 ess. " If 100 per cent/' says Dr. E. E. White, " were 
 a chosen idol, then worship of this percentage god 
 would not be more harmful than it is in many schools." 
 Per-cent marking injures teacher and pupils, nor has it 
 a single redeeming feature ; it hurts and does not help. 
 
 1. Good Teaching appeals to all High Incentives. 
 Study is duty ; study fits pupils to help others ; study 
 is full of interest ; study leads up to knowledge and 
 usefulness. True teaching educates, for it keeps the 
 learner face to face with the beauty world and the 
 truth world and the duty world. Every lesson makes 
 for character as well as for scholarship. But per-cent 
 marking is a low incentive. It magnifies success at 
 the expense of fidelity. It fosters a brood of school 
 vipers, such as honours, prizes, and hurtful emula- 
 tions. It abounds in the exact ratio of poor teaching ; 
 the poorer the teaching the more perfect the mark- 
 ing. Good teaching leaves no time or occasion for 
 marking. Too often per-cent marking proves an 
 antidote to high thinking and moral teaching. 
 
190 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. Good Teaching induces Effective Study. The 
 pupil is deeply interested in the subject, and does his 
 best to find out. The teacher encourages and guides 
 effort, and leads the pupils in their exploring expedi- 
 tions. The pupil comes to count truth more precious 
 than diamonds. Truth is its own reward, but per-cent 
 marking is an extraneous incentive. Marking pro- 
 poses as a reward for mechanical success a high mark, 
 and as a punishment for mechanical failure a low 
 mark. It may make an army of slaves to the per-cent 
 god, but it does not create a thirst for truth. At best 
 it is an artificial and hurtful incentive. It comes like 
 a hideous goblin between the teacher and the pupils, 
 between the learner and the subject, between the 
 learner and the truth. 
 
 3. Good Teaching is All-sufficient. This makes 
 the kindergarten a thing of beauty and the modern 
 primary school a delight. The teacher understands 
 the little ones and adapts the work to them. Each 
 one is kept interested and busy. All come to love 
 the work. Marking is not even dreamed of in kinder- 
 garten and primary classes. Good teaching is all- 
 sufficient at all stages of growth. Per-cent marking 
 nowhere works pupil good. Good teaching, from 
 the kindergarten to the university, excludes marking 
 as not only useless but also vicious: 
 
 4. Good Teaching economizes Time and Energy. 
 Pupil energy and pupil time are precious things. 
 Good teaching makes pupil effort educative and im- 
 proves the golden moments as they fly. The teacher 
 teaches. Per-cent marking squanders time and en- 
 ergy. Per-cent marking with its train of evils 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 191 
 
 prizes, honours, test examinations, per-cent records, 
 per-cent reports wastes, in many schools, full half 
 the energies of teacher and pupils. It is the monster 
 educational robber. It hurts and does not help. The 
 schoolkeeper marks, but the true teacher teaches. 
 
 5. Good Teaching discards all Forms of Co?n- 
 parative Marking. All marking that compels the 
 study of the relative merits of pupils is essentially 
 vicious. The words Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent, are 
 preferable to per-cent marks, for they indicate qual- 
 ity of work rather than quantity. But all the same 
 the fundamental law is violated. Pupil must be com- 
 pared with pupil. As an incentive to good conduct 
 and earnest study, qualitative marking retains many of 
 the evils of per-cent marking. All marking, qualita- 
 tive or quantitative, in which pupil is compared with 
 pupil, is decidedly hurtful. But one question is either 
 necessary or permissible : " Is the pupil doing well ? " 
 This the teacher asks himself, and spares no effort to 
 secure an affirmative answer. Good teaching is the 
 legitimate substitute for all extraneous incentives and 
 the infallible remedy for the deplorable marking habit. 
 
 EDUCATIVE RECORDS AND REPORTS IN LIEU OF 
 PERCENTAGE BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 What will help and not hurt ? Elaborate school 
 bookkeeping is simply inexcusable ; it is one of the 
 numerous evils charged to the account of the percent- 
 age system. It needlessly dissipates teaching energy ; 
 it imposes weary drudgery without giving any help- 
 ful returns. School bookkeeping should be reduced 
 to the minimum. The blank spaces opposite the names 
 
192 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 indicate satisfactory conduct and scholarship ; all the 
 time and energies of the teacher are devoted to teach- 
 ing. 
 
 1. Attendance is indicated l>y a Blank Space. 
 Absence is indicated by a I ; this becomes f in case 
 of A. M. tardiness ; becomes L in case of P. M. tardi- 
 ness ; becomes + when the absence is excused. By 
 dividing the school or class into sections, with leaders 
 to report the absent, the roll call is almost instanta- 
 neous, even in large schools and classes. No time or 
 energy is wasted in keeping the attendance record. 
 The blank is the sign of the clear record. 
 
 2. Conduct, when Satisfactory, is indicated ~by a 
 Blank Space. When unsatisfactory, it is indicated 
 by U. The U is written in pencil, in order that it 
 may be erased as soon as the pupil's conduct becomes 
 satisfactory. A clear record is a blank. It is a de- 
 sideratum to so manage that each pupil will have a 
 clear conduct record. Demerit marks are not even 
 thought of by the progressive teacher or his pupils. 
 The teacher studies most of all to promote good con- 
 duct. When a record or report is to be made, one 
 question, and only one, is asked, " Is the pupil's con- 
 duct, taken as a whole, satisfactory ? " This plan is 
 in the line of conduct culture and wastes no time or 
 energy. 
 
 3. Class Standing is indicated by a Blank, Space 
 when /Satisfactory. When unsatisfactory, it is indi- 
 cated by the letter U. "Is the pupil doing good 
 work ? " " Is the learner keeping with his class ? " 
 The blank indicates the affirmative and the U a nega- 
 tive answer. The U is in pencil. The teacher spares 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 193 
 
 no effort to induce the pupil to so work that the U may 
 be erased. The record is strictly private ; it is for the 
 teacher, not for the pupils. The teacher must know 
 his pupils and must see clearly their limitations. The 
 ideal class will have no U's in the final record. The 
 U indicates that the pupil is not working with the class, 
 and that he must work np or be dropped to a lower 
 class. As long as a pupil works with his class no record 
 is needed ; but when a pupil is failing to keep with his 
 class the matter must receive attention. The utmost 
 skill of the teacher is required in these cases. 
 
 4. Reports indicate the Standing of the Pupil. 
 Conduct and scholarship, when satisfactory, are indi- 
 cated by S, and by U when unsatisfactory. Parents 
 and pupils will readily understand the monthly re- 
 port cards, and school boards will easily understand 
 the monthly reports. The words Poor, Fair, Good, 
 Excellent, now used in the reports of most schools, 
 have many advantages over percentages. The esti- 
 mate of standing is qualitative, not quantitative ; it 
 requires no explanation. But these harmless words oc- 
 casion a world of trouble. Each pupil must be com- 
 pared with his fellows and elaborate records must be 
 kept. The teacher must waste precious hours settling 
 the relative standing of pupils. This is something that 
 ought never to be thought of. Pupils will certainly 
 study in view of these distinctions, and will suiter 
 nearly all the evils of per-cent marking. Clearly 
 such records and reports hurt and do not help. They 
 are not educative. They compare pupil with pupil 
 and thus foster jealousies and rivalries. Parents and 
 school boards do not wish details ; all they desire to 
 
 14 
 
194 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 know is whether the pupil is or is not doing well. 
 The S signifies that the pupil is progressing satisfac- 
 torily ; the U signifies that the pupil is not doing 
 well. Whatever is more than this comes of evil. 
 Such records and reports answer all educative pur- 
 poses. .They require the minimum amount of teacher 
 energy. This plan commends itself to all thoughtful 
 educators ; and is equally suited to all schools from the 
 kindergarten to the university. 
 
 GOOD TEACHING PREPARES FOR PROMOTION AND 
 GRADUATION. 
 
 Interest in study leads to mastery. Day by day 
 the pupil does his best in the best ways. Growth is 
 the result. Good conduct and good scholarship come 
 of good teaching and good management. 
 
 1. Promotion follows Satisfactory Work. It does 
 not depend on per-cent marks or on test examinations. 
 Pupils study to know. They become interested in the 
 work and advance with their classes. As the days go 
 by, pupils found able to work more profitably with 
 higher classes are promoted, and pupils who prove un- 
 able to work with their classes are demoted. As the 
 terms go by, pupils who do satisfactory work go for- 
 ward with the classes. The teacher knows. There 
 can be no possible excuse for per-cent marking or for 
 test examinations as conditions for promotion or gradu- 
 ation ; such devices occasion a world of trouble and 
 do incalculable injury. Good management and good 
 teaching remedy these evils. 
 
 2. Graduation follows the Satisfactory Comple- 
 tion of the Course. The pupil advances, step by 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 195 
 
 step, through the elementary work and receives the 
 elementary-school certificate ; this entitles him to 
 enter the high school. The student advances, year 
 by year, in the high-school work, and on its satis- 
 factory completion receives the high-school diploma; 
 this entitles him to enter the normal school or the 
 college. The college student completes satisfactorily 
 a college course and receives the college diploma ; this 
 entitles him to enter a professional school. The ele- 
 mentary certificate means that the pupil has satisfac- 
 torily completed the elementary-school course and is 
 prepared to do high-school work. The high-school 
 diploma means that the student has satisfactorily com- 
 pleted a high-school course and is prepared for col- 
 lege work. The college diploma means that the stu- 
 dent has satisfactorily completed a college course and 
 is prepared to enter a professional school or begin his 
 life work. 
 
 The plan thus outlined eliminates hurtful drudgery 
 and harmful devices and substitutes good teaching. It 
 makes all school work educative. It substitutes high 
 motives for low incentives. The per-cent marking per- 
 functory drudge will for a time plod on in his ruts, but 
 the true teacher will teach and grow and bless. The 
 teacher must not be fanatical nor even extreme, but 
 must be progressive. What human reason has demon- 
 strated and human experience verified, that is safe. 
 Educational conservatism becomes a crime when it 
 keeps teachers in the ruts. We dare not keep on in 
 ways that work our pupils irreparable injury ; nor do 
 we dare to deprive our pupils of the advantages of 
 new and better ways. 
 
196 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 EDUCATIVE CLASS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 EDUCATIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 
 
 XV. Class Organization and Control. Describe the evolution of 
 classification. Compare individualism and classification. In the 
 school sense, what is a true class ? Discuss objects of classifica- 
 tion ; plan of classification ; size of classes ; inspiration of the 
 class ; advantages of the class. Describe the hygienic conditions 
 of educative class work. How does it help to give a short recess 
 at the close of each school hour? State some of the advantages 
 of happy class control. Why must each teacher work out anew 
 the problems of classification I Describe the scheme for classify- 
 ing the rural school ; the primary ; the intermediate ; the high 
 school; the college. Why do educators plan simplicity 1 ? uni- 
 formity ? unity ? Describe your scheme for classifying your 
 school. 
 
 XVI. Educative Class Work. Make clear the difference between 
 educative and noneducative class work. Give the old and new 
 meaning of recitation. Why do you prefer class workl Name 
 some characteristics of excellent class work. Discuss fully spon- 
 taneity ; revealing and concealing ; review and recapitulation ; 
 lesson plan ; the drill ; the pre-survey. 
 
 Define class methods; efficient class methods; hurtful class 
 methods. Discuss the unity method ; the individual method ; 
 the investigation method ; the Socratic method ; the conversa- 
 tion method ; the topic method ; the discussion method ; the lec- 
 ture method. Give an example of each. 
 
 Define class device. Illustrate the distinction you make be- 
 tween a class method and a class device. State some advantages 
 claimed for the following devices: The class; written work; labo- 
 ratory work; diagrams; reporting; reciprocal teaching; concert 
 work ; original devices. 
 
 XVII. School and Class Tactics. Give the meaning and object 
 of school tactics. What do you mean by helpful tactics? by hurt- 
 ful tactics ? State some underlying principles. Give some reasons 
 why every school should have an electric programme clock. De- 
 scribe the economic plan for calling and dismissing school ; calling 
 and dismissing classes. Describe fitting recitation tactics ; board 
 
GOOD TEACHING. 197 
 
 tactics ; concert tactics. Why do you favour reasonable school and 
 class tactics I 
 
 XVIII, Oral Work and Book Work. Why do we think of the old 
 education as bookwork I W hat does the new education do ? Why 
 must oral work precede and accompany bookwork? Discuss oral 
 work in the kindergarten ; in conduct lessons ; in language-liter- 
 ature lessons ; in science lessons ; in mathematic lessons ; in art 
 lessons. 
 
 What is meant by oral teaching? Give an example of obser- 
 vation oral teaching ; of the story ; of illustration ; of drawing ; 
 of example. Name three advantages claimed for oral teaching. 
 
 What is meant by book teaching? Compare book and oral 
 teaching. Discuss assigning lessons ; studying book lessons ; 
 teaching book lessons. Why does Dr. Harris consider the art of 
 properly using books the greatest of school arts ? See pp. 75, 80. 
 
 XIX. Good Teaching in Lieu of Extraneous Incentives. Com- 
 pare good teaching and perfunctory class work. Contrast the 
 written recitation and the test examination. Discuss the reasons 
 for transforming the examination into the written recitation. De- 
 scribe the marking expert. What does Colonel Parker say about 
 100 per cent? Dr. White? Superintendent Thompson? What 
 have you to say ? Discuss the reasons why good teaching should 
 take the place of per-cent marking. 
 
 What is meant by educative records and reports? Explain 
 your plan of calling roll and recording attendance. State advan- 
 tages. State your plan of keeping the conduct record. Why is 
 it better than the old per-cent record? Explain your plan of 
 keeping the scholarship record. Give your reasons for it. Ex- 
 plain your method of reporting. What are its advantages? Why 
 is qualitative marking better than quantitative? Give your rea- 
 sons for discarding both. Show the great advantages of the ra- 
 tional method of promotion and graduation. Why should we 
 discard the old plan of having per-cent marks and test exami- 
 nations determine promotion and graduation ? Show that good 
 teaching tends to consign all extraneous school incentives to the 
 limbo of hurtful school devices. 
 
PART V. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
 
 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 
 
 AND CORRELATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE COR- 
 RELATION OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL COURSES. 
 XXI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT 
 
 RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 XXII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT KIN- 
 DERGARTEN AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 XXIII. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SPECIALIZED AND 
 
 CORRELATED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 
 XXIV. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SPECIALIZED AND 
 
 CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 XXV. STUDENT IMPROVEMENT THROUGH PROGRESSIVE 
 AND CORRELATED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSI- 
 TIES. 
 
 199 
 
a 
 
 S3 S 
 
 
 
 Physiography an 
 Biology. 
 Physics and Che 
 Astronomy. 
 Special Studies. 
 
 etry. 
 
 tics. 
 
 Higher Algeb 
 Intuitive Geo 
 Trigonometry 
 Applied Math 
 Special Studie 
 
 Physical Culture. 
 Drawing. 
 Music and Poetry. 
 Art Criticism. 
 Special Studies. 
 
 gl 
 
 
 
 %l 
 
 I 
 
 no ^ 
 
 fi' 
 
 Ll I 
 
 Hi 1 
 
 si 
 
 COUR 
 
 ELEM 
 
 11 I 
 
 1111 
 a">;i 
 
 IIII 
 
 S 
 
 E 
 
 w 
 
 g 
 
 
 w 5 
 fl I 
 
 200 
 
PART FIFTH. 
 
 BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 
 AND CORRELATION. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL 
 COURSES. 
 
 Education is the Science of Self-evolution. Growth 
 through lawful self-activity is the central idea in the 
 science of education. Teaching is the art of pro- 
 moting self-evolution. Growth through guided self- 
 effort is the central idea in the teaching art. In the 
 mental economy all the activities of a self supplement 
 and re-enforce each activity ; there is perfect unity in 
 the mental life. In the educational economy the 
 learner assimilates into unity his acquisitions, and all 
 studies supplement and re-enforce each study. The 
 pupil world is a unit. Schools and subjects are corre- 
 lated into organic unity to facilitate the preparation 
 of pupils for complete living. 
 
 The Organic Unity of Schools and Courses forms an 
 Educational Highway. Courses of study present the 
 processes of self -evolution in terms of subject-matter ; 
 
 201 
 
202 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 no one can teach a grade or a subject intelligently 
 without a grasp of its organic relations to the whole. 
 Correlation of the schools, the colleges, and courses of 
 study constitute an educational highway leading up 
 from feeble infancy to strong manhood ; from the 
 nursery to all fields of achievement. The central 
 idea in its construction is pupil improvement. Around 
 this vital principle we seek to correlate into organic 
 unity our schools and our school work. The aim is 
 to make the most of the individual self and the so- 
 cial self and the cosmic self, thus enriching human 
 life. Our ideal is unceasing educational progress. 
 "We study to embody in the educative organism the 
 best thought and the most helpful experience of the 
 race ; we strive to advance from the good to the bet- 
 ter and from the better to the best. 
 
 The Parts are studied in View of the Whole. The 
 physiologist thinks of the human body as a complex 
 unit, and he studies each organ and function in its re- 
 lations to other organs and functions and to the entire 
 organism. The teacher thinks of schools and school 
 work as an organic unit, and he studies each class of 
 schools in its relations to other classes of schools and 
 in its relation to the whole school organism. He 
 studies each subject in its relation to other subjects 
 and to the entire school work. 
 
 The Intelligent Teacher learns to view Human Life 
 as a Whole. He comes to think of the world as a 
 school and of human beings as learners. In the home 
 he studies the budding infant ; in the kindergarten he 
 observes the happy little ones playing and growing ; 
 in the primary he watches the glad children playing, 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 203 
 
 working, growing ; in the intermediate he enjoys the 
 wild activities and the vigorous explorations of boys 
 and girls ; in the high school he becomes deeply in- 
 terested in the hopes and achievements of aspiring 
 youths ; in the college he lives over again with the 
 gifted students the struggles of other years ; in the 
 battle of life he watches with throbbing heart the suc- 
 cesses and failures of his pupils; and as the toilers 
 one by one pass over the river, he seems to hear the 
 " Well done " of the Great Teacher as he welcomes 
 them to the celestial university. 
 
 Each Class of Schools stands for a Stage of Growth. 
 The world's chief est work is the creation and conduct 
 of articulated schools adapted to the well-defined 
 stages of pupil development. We study infancy and 
 create the kindergarten to lead the infants from the 
 home to the school ; we study childhood and create 
 the primary to lead the children from the kindergar- 
 ten to the intermediate ; we study boyhood and girl- 
 hood and create the intermediate to lead boys and 
 girls from the primary to the high school ; we study 
 youth and create the high school to lead the youths 
 from the intermediate to the college ; we study young 
 manhood and young womanhood and create the col- 
 lege to lead young men and women from the high 
 school to the university. Thus the ideal educational 
 highway embodies the world's educational ideal. Our 
 various classes of schools and the school work are cor- 
 related into organic educational unity. 
 
 The Course of Study, in terms of subjects, repre- 
 sents the stages of pupil growth. The educator pro- 
 foundly studies pupil environments.papil nature, and 
 
204: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 pupil growth that he may provide for pupil needs. 
 He thinks of the pupil as a cosmic being, needing to 
 be brought in educative touch with the universe. He 
 selects from boundless fields the best. He adapts the 
 work to the growing pupil. He grades the educa- 
 tional highway to meet the wants of the pupils at all 
 stages of development. The progressive teacher ear- 
 nestly studies the correlation of schools and courses 
 of study. The kindergartner as well as the college 
 professor thinks of the schools and the school work 
 as an organic unit. Each as an intelligent artist does 
 his work in view of the whole ; each phase of a sub- 
 ject is taught in view of all its school phases, in view 
 of the entire school work, in view of life. 
 
 Studies are selected in View of their Educative Values. 
 Education prepares the pupil for complete living. 
 Those subjects which do most to develop power and to 
 fit the pupil for complete living have the highest edu- 
 cative values. Studies rich in incentives and calculated 
 to call forth vigorous and persistent effort have high 
 ed ucati ve values. Branches of study tending to awaken 
 the widest interests, tending to best develop and train 
 the activities of the pupil, tending to best fit the pupil 
 to act well his part in the complex civilization in which 
 he must live, are counted of the highest educative value. 
 Expressed in terms of physiological psychology, a 
 study that awakens, strengthens, and develops the 
 highest brain areas, such as are connected with thought 
 and the higher emotions and the moral will, is of the 
 greatest educative value. From the wide field of 
 human learning studies counted of highest educative 
 values are selected and organized into courses of study. 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OP SCHOOLS. 205 
 
 Co-ordinate Study Groups. The grouping of the 
 school studies is an important educational device made 
 necessary by the startling multiplication of branches 
 claiming a place in the school course. Two schemes 
 for grouping the school studies are here outlined the 
 philosophic grouping by Dr. W. T. Harris and the 
 practical grouping by the author. The educational 
 world accepts the scheme of Dr. Harris as the true 
 basis of all courses of study. 
 
 THE FIVE NECESSARY CO-ORDINATE GROUPS OF STUDIES. 
 
 " The studies of the school fall naturally into five co-ordinate 
 groups, thus permitting a choice within each group as to the 
 arrangement of its several topics. These five co-ordinate groups 
 are : First, mathematics and physics ; second, biology, as includ- 
 ing chiefly the plant and the animal ; third, literature and art, in- 
 cluding chiefly the study of literary works of art ; fourth, gram- 
 mar and the technical and scientific study of language, leading to 
 such branches as logic and psychology; fifth, history and the 
 study of sociological, political, and social institutions. Each one 
 of these groups should be represented in the curriculum at all 
 times by some topic suited to the age and previous training of the 
 pupil. This is demanded by the two kinds of correlation: (1) 
 Symmetrical Whole of Studies in the World of Human Learning, 
 and (2) The Psychological Symmetry, or the Whole Mind. 
 
 " The first stage of school education is education for culture 
 and education for the purpose of gaining command of the con- 
 ventionalities of intelligence. These conventionalities are such 
 arts as reading and writing and the use of figures, technicalities 
 of maps, dictionaries, the art of drawing, and all of those semi- 
 mechanical facilities which enable the child to get access to the 
 intellectual conquests of the race. Later on in the school course, 
 when the pupil passes out of his elementary studies, which par- 
 take more of the nature of art than of science, he arrives in the 
 secondary school and the college to the study of science and the 
 technique necessary for its preservation and communication. All 
 these things belong to the first stage of school instruction whose 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 aim is culture. Post-graduate work and the work of professional 
 schools has not the aim of culture so much as the aim of fitting 
 the person for a special vocation. It is in the first stage, the 
 schools for culture, that these five co-ordinate branches should be 
 represented in a symmetrical manner. It is not to be thought 
 that a professional school or a course of university study should 
 be symmetrical. From the primary school on through the ' 
 academic course of the college there should be symmetry and five 
 co-ordinate groups of studies represented at each part of the 
 course ; at least in each year, although perhaps not throughout 
 each part of the year. 
 
 " I. Inorganic Nature. Commencing with the outlook of the 
 child upon the world of Nature, it has been found that arithmetic, 
 or mathematical study, furnishes the first scientific key to the ex- 
 istence of bodies and their various motions. Mathematics in its 
 pure form, as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and the application 
 of the analytical method, as well as mathematics in its applied 
 form to matter and force, or statics and dynamics, furnishes us 
 the peculiar study that gives to us, whether as children or as men, 
 the command of Nature in this aspect. It is all quantitative. 
 Mathematics furnishes the instrument, the tool of thought, which 
 gives us power in this realm. 
 
 " II. Organic Nature. The second group includes whatever is 
 organic in Nature, especially studies relating to the plant and the 
 animal, the growth of material for food and clothing, and in a large 
 measure the means of transportation and culture. This study of 
 the organic phase of Nature forms a great portion of the branch 
 of study known as geography in the elementary school. These 
 two phases of Nature, the inorganic and the organic, exhaust the 
 entire field. Hence a quantitative study, conducted in pure and 
 applied mathematics, and biology, or the study of life in its 
 manifestations, cover Nature. 
 
 " III. Literature. The first study relating to human nature as 
 contrasted with mere organic and inorganic Nature is literature. 
 Literature, as the fifth highest of the fine arts, reveals human na- 
 ture in its intrinsic form. It may be said in general that a literary 
 work of art, a poem, whether lyric, dramatic, or epic, or a prose 
 work of art, such as a novel or a drama, reveals human nature in 
 its height and depth. It shows the growth of a feeling or senti- 
 ment first into a conviction and then into a deed ; feelings, 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 207 
 
 thoughts, and deeds are thus systematically unfolded by a literary 
 work of art in such a way as to explain a complete genesis of 
 human action. Moreover, in a literary work of art there is a 
 revelation of man as a member of social institutions. 
 
 " IV. Language. Our next co-ordinate branch includes gram- 
 mar and language, and studies allied to it, such as logic and psy- 
 chology. In the elementary school we have simply grammar. 
 Grammar treats of the structure of language. There is a me- 
 chanical side to it in orthography and a technical side to it in 
 each of its phases. But one can not call grammar in any peculiar 
 sense a formal study any more than he can apply the same epithet 
 to natural science of any kind. The method of grammar leads to 
 wonderful insight into the nature of reason itself. It is this 
 insight which it gives us into our methods of thinking and of 
 uttering our thoughts that furnishes the justification for grammar 
 as one of the leading studies in the curriculum. Its use in teach- 
 ing correct speaking and writing is always secondary. 
 
 "V. History. There is a fifth co-ordinate group of studies, 
 namely, that of history. History looks to the formation of the 
 state as the chief of human institutions. The development of 
 states ; the collisions of individuals with the state ; the collisions 
 of the states with one another these form the topics of history. 
 The method of history keeps its gaze fixed upon the development 
 of the social whole and the progress which it makes in realiz- 
 ing within its citizens the freedom of the whole. This method, it 
 is evident enough, is different from the literary ; different from 
 the grammatical ; different also from the biological and the 
 mathematical methods. In history we see how the little selves, or 
 individuals, unite to form the big self, or the nation. 
 
 " The studies of the school fall naturally into these five co-ordi- 
 nate groups. No one of these groups can be taken as a substitute 
 for any other, and no one of these groups can be spared from a 
 symmetrical whole without distorting the pupil's view of the 
 world." W. T. HARRIS. 
 
 THE FIVE PRACTICAL CO-ORDINATE STUDY GROUPS. 
 
 School courses are products of experience. The- 
 ory determines the what, but experience determines 
 
208 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 the how. Theory demonstrates the necessity for 
 the live co-ordinate groups of studies, but experi- 
 ence arranges the studies in five co-ordinate groups 
 for practical school work. First of all, we have the 
 conduct group of studies; second, the language-liter- 
 ature group ; third, the science group ; fourth, the 
 mathematics group ; and fifth, the art group. The 
 school work seems to naturally fall into these groups. 
 The practical grouping aims to embody all the re- 
 quirements of the philosophical grouping, and it is 
 hoped that it will prove to be a reasonable basis for 
 helpful correlation and concentration in school and 
 
 college work. 
 
 " 1. Conduct lessons, elementary ethics, 
 
 I. The Conduct 
 
 Group of Studies. 
 
 [Read Chapter XXVI.] 
 
 ethics. 
 
 2. Biographical history, comparative his- 
 
 tory, philosophic history. 
 
 3. Oral civics, elementary civics, civics. 
 
 4. Mind lessons, elementary psychology, 
 
 philosophy. 
 
 Conduct is the Greatest Thing in Education. School 
 principals and college presidents are specialists in con- 
 duct culture, and hence are charged with the conduct 
 group of studies. In the elementary school, conduct 
 lessons include school conduct, how to study, and spe- 
 cial lessons in proper and right conduct. In the high 
 school, practical ethics is so presented as to make for 
 good conduct. In the college, advanced ethics is so 
 studied as to promote character growth. History, re- 
 enforced by literature, is the great conduct study. 
 Civics helps to prepare for good citizenship. Mind 
 lessons lead pupils to understand themselves, and psy- 
 chology leads on to logic and philosophy. Religion 
 unobtrusively, in the opening exercises and in the life 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 209 
 
 of the teacher, leads pupils up to the ideal conduct as 
 embodied in the life of Jesus. Wisely taught, all the 
 school studies make for character as well as for schol- 
 arship ; but there seems to be special fitness in group- 
 ing the above-named studies as conduct studies. 
 
 11. Reading, expression. 
 2. English language and liter- 
 ature. 
 3. Foreign languages and liter- 
 atures. 
 
 Literature stands for human nature at its best. 
 The language-literature studies are accorded the sec- 
 ond place in the educative scheme, and are given in 
 school and college programmes double the time of 
 the other study groups. Literature and language are 
 inseparable in school work. From the kindergarten 
 to the university, the new education teaches language 
 in teaching literature, and teaches literature in teach- 
 ing language. Literature most of all supplements 
 and re-enforces the conduct studies. Language studies 
 supplement all other studies. 
 
 ( I. Geography, geology. 
 III. The Science Group of Studies. I 2. Biology. 
 
 [Read Chapter XXVIII.] ] 3. Physics, chemistry. 
 
 [ 4. Astronomy. 
 
 The science studies re-enforced by mathematics 
 lead to the mastery of our environments. In the 
 science group of studies are included both organic and 
 inorganic Nature studies. The grounds for this in- 
 clusion are strictly practical. The learner at all stages 
 of work keeps in touch with both organic and inor- 
 ganic Nature. Then, in most schools the science 
 
 15 
 
210 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 teacher is charged with all the science work. Science 
 is now conceded a place side by side with literature 
 and mathematics in our educational work. The im- 
 mense educative and practical value of the science 
 studies is now unquestioned. The tendency is to 
 give undue prominence to this group of studies, but 
 thoughtful educators study proportion and fitness. 
 
 {1. Arithmetic, algebra, calculus. 
 2. Concrete geometry, geometry. 
 3. Oral trigonometry, trigonometry. 
 4. Oral bookkeeping, applied mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 Form and number enter into all thinking. Arith- 
 metic is the first tool of thought, the first step in the 
 conquest of Nature. Geometry stands for form, and 
 is counted the central study in the group. From the 
 kindergarten to the university arithmetic and geome- 
 try permeate school work. "We think of mathematics 
 as including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonome- 
 try, and applied mathematics. Logically, the inor- 
 ganic sciences are grouped with mathematics. So 
 great is the educative and practical value of these 
 studies that mathematics is everywhere placed side by 
 side with literature and science in our school work. 
 
 C 1. Physical culture. 
 
 V. The Art Group of Studies. I 2. Writing, drawing. 
 [Read Chapter XXX.] j 3. Vocal music. 
 
 [ 4. Manual training. 
 
 The art studies stand for the useful and the beau- 
 tiful. The art studies re-enforce the other study 
 groups. Physical culture is the art of developing 
 physical vigour. Drawing is the central school art. 
 At every step, in nearly all subjects, the hand and the 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 211 
 
 eye are made to re-enforce thought. Yocal music in 
 our school work is now ranked with arithmetic and 
 geography. Its educative value is conceded. Man- 
 ual training, in some form, will be given a place in 
 the schools of the future. The arts mentioned are the 
 school arts. The higher aesthetic and practical arts 
 belong in colleges and universities and art schools. 
 
 The Five Practical Study Groups represent Human 
 Learning. From the standpoint of actual school work 
 the grouping seems to be natural, logical, and prac- 
 tical ; it accords substantially with the results of hu- 
 man experience as embodied in the work of our 
 schools and colleges. The five groups include all de- 
 partments of human learning, and seem to furnish a 
 practical basis for the natural and helpful correlation 
 of studies in school work. Moreover, the five prac- 
 tical study groups seem to be the true basis for organ- 
 izing school faculties, for planning concentration in 
 teaching, and for arranging school programmes. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AND COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Elementary schools include all schools between the 
 kindergarten and the high school. The eight years 
 from the sixth to the fourteenth year constitute the 
 elementary school period. We class as elementary 
 schools our public and private rural schools, primary 
 schools, and intermediate schools. We think of the 
 elementary course of study as extending through the 
 eight years of elementary school life. 
 
 Report of the Committee of Fifteen on the Correla- 
 tion of Studies in Elementary Schools.* This is counted 
 
 * Published by American Book Company. 
 
212 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 the most helpful of all our educational classics, and ia 
 adopted and submitted as a part of this chapter. 
 Please read considerately the entire report before tak- 
 ing up the following items. 
 
 Programme Course of Study for Elementary Schools. 
 
 BKANCHES 
 
 1st year 
 
 2d year 
 
 3d year 
 
 4th year 
 
 5th year 
 
 6th year 
 
 7th year 
 
 8th year 
 
 Reading 
 
 10 lessons a week 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 
 Writing 
 
 10 lessons a week 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 
 3 lessons a week 
 
 
 Spelling lists _ 
 
 
 
 
 4 lessons a week 
 
 
 
 English 
 Grammar 
 
 Oral, with composition lessons 
 
 5 lessons a week with 
 text-book 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons 
 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Oral, 60 minutes 
 a week 
 
 5 lessons a week with text-^ook 
 
 
 
 Al bra 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons a week 
 
 
 _ 
 Geography 
 
 Oral, 60 minutes a week *5 lessons a week with text-l>ook 
 
 3 lessons a week 
 
 Natural Science 
 -t- Hygiene 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 U. S. History 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 lessons a 
 week 
 
 U. S. Constitu- 
 tion 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *5 
 
 les. 
 
 General 
 History 
 
 Oral, 60 minutes: a week 
 
 Physical 
 Culture 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 Vocal Music 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 divided into 4 lessons 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Sixty minutes a week 
 
 Manual Train, 
 or Sewing -)- 
 Cookery 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 One-half day each 
 
 No. of Lessons 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+7 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 20+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 24+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+5 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 27+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 exer. 
 
 23+6 
 daily 
 
 Total Hours of 
 Recitations 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 ux 
 
 13 
 
 W 
 
 X 
 
 17* 
 
 m 
 
 Length of 
 Recitations . 
 
 15 min. 
 
 15 min. 
 
 20 min. 
 
 20 min. 
 
 25 min. 
 
 25 min. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 30 min. 
 
 *Begins in second lialf year 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 213 
 
 SOME CONDENSED EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 1. Elementary Period, All schools between the kindergarten 
 and the high school are elementary schools. Pupils are from six 
 to fourteen years of age. The time (eight years) now devoted to 
 elementary-school work should not be reduced. 
 
 2. Eecitation Periods. Recitations are class exercises conducted 
 by the teacher. As far as possible, study periods and recitation 
 periods should alternate. It is recommended that recitation pe- 
 riods be fifteen minutes during the first and second years, twenty 
 minutes during the third and fourth years, twenty-five minutes 
 during the fifth and sixth years, and thirty minutes during the 
 seventh and eighth years. 
 
 3. Eecitation Time. The programme shows twenty-seven week- 
 ly recitation periods during the first and second years, twenty-five 
 during the third year, twenty-nine during the fourth year, twenty- 
 seven during the fifth and sixth years, and twenty-three during 
 the seventh and eighth years. The primary pupils give to recita- 
 tions daily from two and one third to two and two thirds hours ; 
 the intermediate pupils, from three and one fourth to three and 
 three fourths hours. 
 
 4. Promotions. Promotions should be made when the pupils 
 complete the work of the class, and also when a pupil is prepared 
 to work more profitably with a higher class. Keeping pupils 
 marking time produces demoralization. The intervals between 
 the classes must depend on the school. In graded schools it is 
 now half a year or less, but in rural schools the intervals are 
 necessarily much greater. 
 
 5. Few Subjects. The prolonged study of a few subjects is in- 
 comparably better than the brief study of many subjects. Our 
 schools are at their best when they lead the pupils to develop 
 power through the mastery of the best studies. 
 
 6. Correlation of Studies. By this is meant (1) The arrange- 
 ment of topics in proper sequence in the course of study, in such 
 a manner that each branch develops in an order suited to the 
 natural and easy progress of the child, and so that each step is 
 taken at the proper time to help his advance to the next step in 
 the same branch, or to the next steps in other related branches of 
 the course of study. (2) The adjustment of the branches of study 
 
214 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 in such a manner that the whole course at any given time repre- 
 sents all the great divisions of human learning, as far as is possi- 
 ble at the stage of maturity at which the pupil has arrived, and 
 that each allied group of studies is represented by some one of its 
 branches best adapted for the epoch in question. (3) The selec- 
 tion and arrangement of the branches and topics within each 
 branch, considered psychologically, with a view to afford the best 
 exercise of the faculties of the mind, and to secure the unfolding 
 of those faculties in their natural order, so that no one faculty is 
 so overcultivated or so neglected as to produce abnormal or one- 
 sided mental development. (4) The selection and arrangement in 
 orderly sequence of such objects of study as shall give the child 
 an insight into the world that he lives in, and a command over its 
 resources such as is obtained by a helpful co-operation with one's 
 fellows. From Report of Committee of Fifteen. 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 Schools leading from the elementary school up to 
 the college are classed as secondary schools. These 
 include public high schools, academies, seminaries, 
 private high schools, and preparatory schools. The 
 high-school period is four years, the pupils entering 
 at about the age of fourteen and graduating at about 
 the age of eighteen. 
 
 Report of the Committee of Ten.* This report on 
 the work of secondary schools as suggestive and as a 
 working basis is submitted as a part of this chapter. 
 For our larger high schools the committee arranged 
 four parallel courses of study. A few condensed ex- 
 planations seem necessary. 
 
 \. Purpose of High Schools. The main function 
 of secondary schools is to prepare pupils for the duties 
 of life. They do not exist to prepare pupils for col- 
 
 * Published by American Book Company. 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 215 
 
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216 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 lege. The work for the most part is the same for all 
 pupils. 
 
 2. The Pour Parallel Courses. These are sub- 
 stantially the same, except as to language and liter- 
 ature. The classical course necessarily reduces the 
 work in English and in science ; the other courses are 
 nearly identical, with the exception of foreign lan- 
 guages. In our smaller high schools only one course 
 can be sustained, but provisions may be made for 
 some options. 
 
 3. Recitation Periods. Each course is limited to 
 twenty recitation periods each week. These periods 
 are usually forty minutes in length. The plan gives 
 the pupil daily three prepared lessons and two conver- 
 sational or drill lessons. 
 
 4. Laboratory Work and Manual Training. 
 Pupils devote two hours on Saturdays to practical 
 work. This includes laboratory work, manual train- 
 ing, and outdoor instruction in science. 
 
 5. Correlation. The aim is to correlate the work 
 of elementary schools, secondary schools, and col- 
 leges. The plan is to have the elementary certificate 
 pass the pupil into the high school, and to have the 
 high-school diploma pass the pupil into the college. 
 The correlation of subjects was not given specific 
 attention. 
 
 6. Omissions. The committee limited their work 
 to leading subjects. It is supposed that time will be 
 found for drawing, music, physical culture, manual 
 training, elementary psychology, and practical ethics. 
 
EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 217 
 
 COLLEGES AND COLLEGE COURSES. 
 
 The college stands for the highest school culture. 
 The college period, from about the eighteenth to 
 about the twenty-second year, is termed young man- 
 hood and young womanhood. Students are now ca- 
 pable of greater things. The school and college courses 
 are so correlated that the high-school graduate will 
 pass into the college and move on with the work 
 without a break. The studies are the same as in the 
 elementary and secondary schools, but the phases and 
 methods are widely different. In the general course 
 of study on page 300 the outline of the college course 
 is sufficient to indicate the work. Let us now turn 
 back to that outline, and in imagination go with the 
 pupils as they advance in each study. We enjoy the 
 conduct lessons of the elementary school, the practical 
 ethics of the high school, and the ethical philosophy 
 of the college. As we thus go with the pupils in the 
 several studies through the elementary school, through 
 the high school, and through the college, we gain in- 
 sight into the unity of the school and college work, 
 and learn to think of it as a whole. We can now take 
 up each group of schools and intelligently study its 
 work in view of the general course of study. Such 
 study will fit us as nothing else can to do well our re- 
 spective parts in educating the race. 
 
218 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT RURAL 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 MORE than half of our pupils get their entire edu- 
 cation in our country schools. A majority of our 
 leaders in all fields of high endeavour get their start 
 in our rural schools. These facts indicate the tre- 
 mendous importance of making these schools as effi- 
 cient as possible. Inefficiency, as a rule, still char- 
 acterizes the management of our rural schools. 
 
 The Story of the Country School is inexpressibly 
 Pathetic. History is the story of human progress, 
 but hitherto our rural schools can scarcely be said to 
 have made history. Even through the most marvellous 
 decades of educational advancement our rural schools 
 have remained comparatively stationary. As the cen- 
 tury closes, we grieve to say it, our country schools 
 are nowhere satisfactory. Everywhere our rural 
 youths are systematically dwarfed. But light is 
 breaking. County supervision is very helpful. The 
 movements to group our rural schools and give them 
 district supervision promises great things. In densely 
 populated regions, transporting pupils at public ex- 
 pense and thus forming graded central schools is 
 working great improvements. The uplifting of our 
 rural schools is becoming a leading educational move- 
 ment of our times. 
 
 Rural Schools may be made Efficient. The pos- 
 sibility of making our country schools efficient and 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 219 
 
 progressive is no longer doubted. The stupendous 
 difficulties are admitted, but wise organization and 
 skilful management may surmount all hindrances. 
 The statesman and the philanthropist study to im- 
 prove our country schools as the best means of check- 
 ing the alarming tendency to overcrowd our cities. 
 The educator co-operates in all movements to improve 
 our rural schools, because he considers that we thus 
 do most to elevate the race. 
 
 Country Schools are necessarily Sui Generis. Our 
 rural schools to be efficient must be unique in organi- 
 zation, in management, and in methods. The en- 
 vironments demand the creation of a country-school 
 system adapted to the conditions. After long years 
 of study, observation, experiment, and consultation, 
 the following plan is submitted. It is certainly in- 
 tensely practical. It seems to embrace the conditions 
 of constant progress. It is the faith of the author 
 that our rural schools can and will be made efficient. 
 
 We count Rural Schools as Ungraded Schools. The 
 typical country school is ungraded. It has one teach- 
 er, and has pupils at all stages of elementary advance- 
 ment. The ungraded schools are the least economical 
 and the least efficient of all schools, but such schools 
 are a necessity. Our study is to make the most of 
 these schools. Whenever and wherever possible we 
 plan to transform the ungraded into the partly graded 
 school with two or more teachers. These partly grad- 
 ed schools, in small villages and in densely populated 
 neighbourhoods, are a decided educational advance. 
 Wherever possible, we plan to transform the partially 
 graded into the graded school with a teacher for each 
 
220 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 grade. The rural central high school may be counted 
 as a country school. The high school is now a part 
 of the common-school system, and must be made easily 
 accessible to all our youths. The central high school 
 can at the least do well the work of the first and second 
 high-school years, arid can thus do incalculable good. 
 
 COUNTRY SCHOOL GROUNDS AND SCHOOLHOUSES. 
 
 These must be adapted to the conditions. In other 
 chapters we have studied school environments and 
 school grounds and schoolhouses in general. Here 
 we study these things as affecting rural schools. 
 
 1. The Location should be Central, Beautiful, 
 Hygienic. In the country these are important con- 
 siderations. The location should be beautiful, and 
 this requirement may move the school a little from a 
 central position. The location must be healthy, and 
 hygienic environments outrank other considerations. 
 
 2. Rural School Grounds should he Commodious. 
 Each rural school should have from two to five acres 
 consecrated to pupil culture. These grounds must be 
 made educative. The natural beauty must be supple- 
 mented by art, so as to cultivate taste and react on the 
 home. The playgrounds must be so arranged as to 
 encourage vigorous plays. The geography grounds 
 must present the divisions of land and water. The 
 biological grounds must be made helpful in Nature 
 study. The rural school grounds should be the most 
 delightful of all places in the community. 
 
 3. The Ideal Country Schoolhouse is adapted to 
 the Country School. We create our ideal rural school 
 and we build around it our ideal country schoolhouse. 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 221 
 
 It is commodious, for the country pupils must not be 
 crowded. It is seated with single adjustable desks, for 
 country pupils deserve the best. It is heated by a 
 ventilating stove and a small open fireplace situated in 
 opposite corners. Almost perfect ventilation is se- 
 cured by the large flues, by the skilful management 
 of the windows, and by having a recess each hour. 
 The two doors and the convenient cloak rooms make 
 entrance and exit easy. Storm doors open into closed 
 walks leading to the closets, and the pupils visit the 
 closets at will. Our ideal country schoolhouse is a 
 thing of beauty, and it is every way adapted to the 
 ungraded school work. 
 
 COUNTRY SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Each township shall constitute a school district, 
 and the teacher of the central school shall be princi- 
 pal of all the schools in the district. This sentence, 
 enacted into law and embodied in practice, will revo- 
 lutionize our rural school 
 work. It will group all 
 schools, and will give the 
 schools of a district organic 
 unity and skilled manage- 
 ment. 
 
 1. Grouping Rural 
 Schools into Organic Unity 
 is Vital. The angels could 
 not make our country 
 schools efficient on any other plan. In most States 
 the municipal township is wisely made the school dis- 
 trict. The number of schools in a district is imma- 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 5 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 4 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 3 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 6 
 
 School 
 
 d 
 
 No.l 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 2 
 
 School 
 
 P 
 
 No. 7 
 
 School 
 
 No. 8 
 
 School 
 
 D 
 
 No. 9 
 
222 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 terial, but for convenience it is often best to divide a 
 township into two or even three districts, and some- 
 times it is best to put two townships in one district. 
 A school group should be compact, and the central 
 school should be easy of access from all parts of the 
 district. School No. 1 is the central school. The 
 number of schools in a district, within reasonable 
 limits, does not affect the management. 
 
 2. The District School Board must he Perpetual. 
 The legal voters will elect three competent citizens to 
 serve one, two, and three years as members of the 
 school boaVd. One member of the board will retire, 
 and one new member will be elected each year. Thus 
 a perpetual school board is secured. The teacher of 
 the central school will be ex-officio secretary of the 
 board. In school affairs, as in everything else, our 
 people initiate all movements and keep the manage- 
 ment of affairs in their own hands. The Govern- 
 ment helps the people to help themselves. The prin- 
 cipal nominates and the board elects the teachers. 
 With the approval of the county and the State super- 
 intendent, the board may divide the schools of a dis- 
 trict into two or three convenient groups, each group 
 having a central school and a principal. 
 
 3. The Teacher of the Central School is the Prin- 
 cipal of 'all the Schools in the Group. Only trained 
 and experienced teachers are eligible to this position. 
 The principal is the vital element in the rural school 
 organization. The tenure of office for principal and 
 tried assistants is during efficiency. The principal 
 directs the course of study and is the inspiration of 
 the school work of the district. lie works with the 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 223 
 
 county superintendent as city principals work with 
 the city superintendent. He works with the school 
 board to secure and keep a good teacher in each 
 school. On alternate Saturdays the principal arranges 
 to visit such schools as most need his help, and on 
 alternate Saturdays he conducts the meetings of the 
 teachers. 
 
 4. Teachers spend Alternate Saturdays in Profes- 
 sional Work. They meet at the central school and 
 the principal conducts the exercises. One hour is 
 spent in practical school management, and all the 
 teachers plan to help each teacher. One hour is 
 spent on methods. The time is devoted to the best 
 teaching of a single branch ; each teacher contributes 
 something. One hour is devoted to the professional 
 study in hand ; a helpful book is studied and dis- 
 cussed. One hour at alternate meetings is given to 
 helpful work by the county superintendent. On the 
 last Saturday of the school month an hour is spent 
 with the school board. The principal reads the con- 
 solidated report for the month, and each teacher re- 
 ceives his salary in cash, not in promises. The board 
 and the teachers consult about the needs of the schools 
 and the county superintendent makes suggestions. 
 
 5. Each School has its Director. The board ap- 
 points an interested and competent citizen to have 
 charge of the school property, to make the improve- 
 ments ordered, to supply fuel, and to co-operate with 
 the teacher. The director holds his position during 
 the pleasure of the board. 
 
 6. The Central School develops into the District 
 High School. Usually but two years of high-school 
 
224 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 work is advisable. The principal takes charge of the 
 high school, and an assistant teacher takes charge of 
 the elementary work. It is of the utmost importance 
 to have these rural high schools accessible to all youths 
 in the district who complete the elementary course of 
 study. 
 
 7. The Villages are the Natural Centers. Sepa- 
 rate school boards for the village school and for the 
 surrounding rural schools are uneconomic and unedu- 
 cational. In all affairs school, church, and state it 
 is of the utmost importance to get the town and coun- 
 try people to work together. Whenever possible the 
 village should be designated as the central school. No 
 reasonable effort should be spared to break down and 
 keep down antagonism. To this end the union of the 
 schools will help most. 
 
 8. Flexibility must characterize the Rural School 
 Organization. It must be easily adjustable to the con- 
 ditions in all sections of the country. The above plan 
 is in the highest degree flexible. Everywhere the 
 people will group their schools and elect their school 
 boards. Each school board will elect a principal, and 
 the board and the principal will struggle with the local 
 conditions ; working together they will build up and 
 conduct the schools. There may be infinite variations, 
 but the vital conditions of efficiency are secured. 
 
 RURAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES AND SCHOOL APPARATUS. 
 
 Some helps are essential in order to secure the 
 best results. The school library easily comes first. 
 In rural homes the best books are not numerous. 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 225 
 
 The school does most when it develops a taste for the 
 best literature and supplies free the best books. 
 
 1. The Principal is Librarian. Each teacher is 
 an assistant librarian. In the central building a room 
 is fitted up for the district library. The county super- 
 intendent approves the lists of books to be purchased. 
 The library is free to all persons in the district. Juve- 
 nile books predominate, but there are suitable books 
 for all. The library is rich in the best books for 
 teachers. 
 
 2. The School Library continually grows. The 
 State makes a small annual appropriation for sustain- 
 ing each district library. The school board also ap- 
 propriates a small amount annually. A course of lec- 
 tures is given annually at the central school and the 
 proceeds go to the library. Liberal men and women 
 make helpful contributions. 
 
 3. Each School has its Small Working Library. 
 These libraries are reported as a part of the district 
 library and are in charge of the teacher. An un- 
 abridged dictionary, a suitable encyclopaedia, and a 
 few choice books of reference are the essentials. Be- 
 sides these, each teacher has a special working library. 
 On alternate Saturdays, while attending the teachers' 
 meetings, the teacher procures special books for the 
 pupils and for the working library.* 
 
 4. Necessary Apparatus is furnished each School. 
 The most helpful things are procured, but nothing is 
 purchased without the approval of the principal and 
 the county superintendent. Country pupils live close 
 
 * See Chapters VII and IX. 
 
 10 
 
226 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 to Nature and learn to make things, but some articles 
 of apparatus are exceedingly helpful. As with books, 
 so with apparatus : our rural youths are entitled to the 
 advantages of suitable aids. Only the best helps are 
 secured. The teacher is charged with the care of the 
 apparatus. 
 
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. The Country School may claim some Decided 
 Advantages. The pupils live nearer to Nature than 
 city pupils, have greater physical vigour, have gained 
 better working habits, and are less exposed to vicious 
 temptations and to hurtful excitements. The worthy 
 country teacher is a closer friend of his pupils and a 
 more pervading force in pupil life. As a rule, rural 
 pupils are more independent and self-helpful. These 
 advantages count for much. Our rural schools, at 
 their best, do in eight months the work that city 
 schools do in ten months. 
 
 2. The Country School has its Serious Disadvan- 
 tages. Irregular attendance, short terms, low salaries, 
 incompetent teachers, frequent changes of teachers, op- 
 position to improvements, wretched school facilities 
 these are some of the obstacles we must encounter in 
 our efforts to improve rural schools. Then, one teacher 
 is compelled to instruct the eight grades of pupils in 
 all the different branches. As in primitive times the 
 farmer was blacksmith and shoemaker and carpenter 
 as well as farmer, so the country teacher must do all 
 the work divided between the eight teachers of a 
 graded school. But most of the disadvantages may 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 227 
 
 be removed or so modified as to work less and less 
 injury. Our ungraded country schools are a neces- 
 sity. In these schools we instruct fully half of all 
 our pupils. To make our country schools the best 
 possible is our great educational desideratum. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION IN UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. A Class is a Group of Pupils capable of work- 
 ing together. Age, abilities, and attainments are con- 
 sidered in arranging pupils into working groups. The 
 vital test is, " Can this pupil work with most profit in 
 this class ? " Before deciding, the teacher, as best he 
 can, studies the pupil. Very much depends on the 
 decision. Teachers lacking pupil insight, like un- 
 skilful physicians, may make fatal blunders. 
 
 2. The Ungraded /School should be classified in 
 view of the Graded School. Our people are continu- 
 ally moving from country to town and from town to 
 country. We must so organize our schools that these 
 changes may not interrupt the work of the pupil. 
 Then our ungraded schools tend to become partially 
 graded schools, and these gradually grow into fully 
 graded schools. The classification of the rural schools 
 must facilitate these transitions. 
 
 3. The Four-class Grouping seems best. The four- 
 class plan is believed to be the best possible. It makes 
 it easy for the schools as well as for the pupils to pass 
 into graded schools ; its school advantages are mani- 
 fold. 
 
 The pupils are grouped into four classes, desig- 
 nated by the letters A, B, C, D. Each class stands 
 
228 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 for two years of school work. Class D includes the 
 first- and second-grade pupils of the graded school ; 
 class C, the third- and fourth-grade pupils ; class B, 
 the fifth- and sixth-grade pupils ; class A, the seventh- 
 and eighth-grade pupils. As a rule, the country 
 pupils in a class are a few months older than the 
 
 city pupils in corresponding grades, 
 tendency, as rural schools improve, 
 toward correspondence in age. 
 
 4. The Work of the lin- 
 ed School is limited to ^ 
 mentary Studies. The 
 study, the pro- c 
 the plans of work ^ 
 view of this *J$ 
 
 schools are 
 attempt- 
 a rule 
 The ele- 
 the entire 
 cases the teach- 
 
 The 
 
 is 
 
 grad- 
 theEle- 
 course of 
 gramme, and 
 are projected in 
 limitation. Rural 
 often embarrassed by 
 ing advanced work. As 
 this should be discouraged, 
 mentary work should command 
 energies of the teacher. In some 
 er is justified in instructing ad- 
 
 vanced pupils before and after regular school hours. 
 In very small schools such instruction may safely be 
 given during the school hours. It is every way better 
 to promote advanced pupils to the central high school. 
 
 RURAL SCHOOL STUDY GROUPS. 
 
 System is the condition of efficiency. "We select 
 the minimum number of the best studies and arrange 
 them in co-ordinate groups. Continuous lessons in 
 each group are required to prepare the pupils for 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 229 
 
 complete living, and at the same time prepare them 
 for advanced school work. 
 
 fcx 
 
 Q 
 
 b 
 
 H 
 
 ori 
 
 1-303 
 
 mo 
 
 ( Special conduct lessons. 
 CONDUC J Orftl higto oml civicg> 
 
 STUDIES. j Qral mind ^ ssons> 
 
 2. LANGUAGE- ( Reading and spelling, language lessons, 
 
 LITERATURE < grammar, composition. 
 STUDIES. ( Child literature, juvenile literature. 
 
 3. SCIENCE j Geography, oral biology, hygiene. 
 
 STUDIES. ( Oral physics, oral astronomy. 
 
 4. MATHEMATICS j Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
 
 STUDIES. { Introductory algebra, oral bookkeeping. 
 
 5 ART STUDIKS ( Pn 7 sical culture, vocal music. 
 
 * 1 Penmanship, drawing, manual training. 
 
 The grouping is easy, natural, practical. The 
 country teacher studies these groups as a map of his 
 work. He asks, " How can I best weave these sub- 
 jects into my course of study and my programme ? " 
 The course of study expresses in years the combina- 
 tion of the study groups; the programme expresses 
 the same thing in days. Good teaching correlates the 
 various studies and unitizes the work. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. The Prolonged Study of a Few Subjects is the 
 True Plan. The course of study for rural schools 
 must exclude many subjects in order that pupils may 
 master a few subjects. We study the Report of the 
 Fifteen as a mine of educational wealth, and find its 
 matter and its suggestions invaluable. We study the 
 country school in its history, in its environments, and 
 in its possibilities. In the light of the world's thought 
 and experience we study to create a course of study 
 adapted to rural schools. 
 
230 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
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EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 231 
 
 2. The Work is Progressive. It is apparent that 
 each class is kept in touch with the great departments 
 of human learning. The same subjects are studied 
 throughout the eight years, but each class studies a 
 special phase of a subject. The number lessons of 
 the D's become the algebra lessons of the A's, and 
 the historic stories of the D class become the lessons 
 in American and general history of the A class. 
 Continuous and progressive work characterizes well- 
 arranged school courses. 
 
 3. The Recitation Periods. School exercises con- 
 ducted by the teacher are called recitations. The 
 course provides for one daily recitation in each study 
 group. Necessarily the language-literature and the 
 art groups are given two daily recitation periods. 
 Each pupil has seven recitation periods daily. 
 
 4. Length of Recitations. Efficient work requires 
 time. Even in the country school fifteen minutes 
 seems to be minimum time for good work. In prac- 
 tice we find that in the D and C classes we can do 
 reasonably satisfactory work in fifteen minutes; but 
 we find it wise to make the recitation time for the B 
 and A classes twenty-five minutes. 
 
 THE COUNTRY-SCHOOL PROGRAMME. 
 
 1. Efficient Work comes of a Good Programme. The 
 
 difficulties are immense. One teacher must do the 
 work of the eight teachers in the graded school. No 
 wonder that most programmes for ungraded schools 
 are crude ! Few teachers profoundly study the con- 
 ditions, and so fail to form a good working pro- 
 gramme. As a result, the time and the energies of 
 
232 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 teacher and pupils are squandered. The programme 
 here submitted is the result of years of thought and 
 experience. The author has visited several hundred 
 country schools and earnestly studied the rural school 
 work in many of our States. 
 
 2. Combined Recitations are a Necessity. An un- 
 graded school has, we will say, forty pupils. The 
 classification gives us fifteen D's, eleven C's, eight 
 B's, and seven A's. How may one teacher best man- 
 age all this class work ? Experience answers, " Make 
 judicious combinations." (1) Let the art work in- 
 clude as far as possible all the classes. The teacher 
 can have all at work at the same time and still adapt 
 the work to the classes. (2) Combine the A's and 
 B's in most subjects. These classes are always small. 
 The reviews and much advanced work may be made 
 to suit both classes. While the A's are doing written 
 work the B's may have oral work. (3) In the con- 
 duct work combine the D's and C's and the B's and 
 A's. This combination is especially helpful. Such 
 class combinations often more than double the effi- 
 ciency of the rural teacher. 
 
 3. There is Immense Gain in Concentration. The 
 entire school concentrate on one study. While the 
 D's recite arithmetic all the other classes study arith- 
 metic. While the C's recite geography all the other 
 pupils study geography. This device is decidedly help- 
 ful. The teacher who once tries it will always use it. 
 It is the only possible plan that can make it easy for 
 the teacher to manage the study classes as well as the 
 recitation work. In the programme, blackfaced type 
 indicates recitation and common type indicates study. 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 233 
 
 Suggestive Programme for Ungraded Schools. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Closing 
 
 time. 
 
 Class D. 
 
 Clas. C. 
 
 Class B. 
 
 Class A. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 15 
 25 
 
 9.00 
 
 OP 
 
 ENING EX 
 
 ERCISES. 
 
 
 9.15 
 9.30 
 9.55 
 
 Oral arith. or form. 
 Oral arith. or form. 
 Reading lesson. 
 
 Primary arith. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Primary arith. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 Arithmetic. 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 Arithmetic. 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 10 
 
 10.05 
 
 
 RECE 
 
 ss. 
 
 
 15 
 15 
 25 
 
 10.20 
 10.35 
 11.00 
 
 Reading, spelling. 
 Reading, spelling. 
 Seat work. 
 
 Lang. & comp. 
 Lar g.& comp. 
 Lang. & comp. 
 
 Lang. & comp. 
 Lang. & comp. 
 Lang. & comp. 
 
 Gram. & comp. 
 Gram. & comp. 
 Gram. & comp. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 15 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 15 
 
 11.10 
 
 
 RECE 
 
 SS. 
 
 
 11.25 
 11.40 
 12.05 
 
 Geog. or biology. 
 Geog. or biology. 
 Seat work or play. 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 12.35 
 
 
 NOON RE 
 
 CESS. 
 
 
 12.50 
 1.15 
 1.30 
 
 Music. 
 Writing or 
 drawing, 
 Physical culture. 
 
 Musit. 
 Writing or 
 drawing. 
 Phys. culture. 
 
 Music. 
 Writing or 
 drawing. 
 Phys. culture. 
 
 Music. 
 Writing or 
 drawing. 
 Phys. culture. 
 
 10 
 
 1.40 
 
 
 RECE 
 
 SS. 
 
 
 15 
 15 
 25 
 
 1.55 
 2.10 
 2.35 
 
 Reading, spelling. 
 Reading lesson. 
 Seat work. 
 
 Read., spell. 
 Read., spell. 
 Readingf 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Read, or lit. 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Read, or lit. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 25 
 
 2.45 
 
 
 RECE 
 
 SS. 
 
 
 3.00 
 3.25 
 
 Conduct lesson. 
 Dismiss. 
 
 Cond. lesson. 
 Dismiss. 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
234 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 4. The D Glass is divided into Sections One and 
 Two. Except in reading, the two sections are com- 
 bined. In reading, while the teacher instructs one 
 section a pupil from class A instructs the other sec- 
 tion ; but the teacher will have both sections daily, as 
 the D's have two lessons in reading each day. As the 
 language lessons and the science lessons are also read- 
 ing lessons, the D's are well provided for. 
 
 5. The Hourly Recess is exceedingly Helpful It 
 helps to secure good ventilation, keeps the pupils fresh 
 and happy, and makes control much easier. It enables 
 teacher and pupils to accomplish daily at least one 
 third more work. For the country school the hourly 
 recess is of special educational value. 
 
 6. A Pupil Teacher may render Needed Assistance. 
 In large country schools the best of all devices for 
 relieving the overworked teacher is the provision for 
 a pupil assistant. Many young teachers wish practice 
 under skilful guidance, and will gladly take the place 
 of pupil assistant. Many school boards will freely 
 provide some compensation. 
 
 7. Grouping the Studies is an Incalculable Help. 
 The programme articulates the study groups. Such 
 a programme is a work of art and pleases like a poem. 
 It places each pupil in continuous touch with each of 
 the realms of human learning. The practical group- 
 ing of the school studies renders the making of school 
 programmes a real art. 
 
 THE THREE-GROUP PROGRAMME. 
 
 Teacher, study carefully the three-group pro- 
 gramme. It is full of helpful suggestions. It is sim- 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 235 
 
 pie and comprehensive. It is used with good results 
 in various States. Visit good ungraded schools and 
 observe the workings of different programmes. Study 
 earnestly your own school and create your own pro- 
 gramme. The course of study and the programme 
 are fundamental in school work. The following sug- 
 gestions by Dr. E. E. White will prove of great value 
 to you. To prevent confusion, group has been substi- 
 tuted for grade in these paragraphs ; the grade pro- 
 gramme is for a typical ungraded school. 
 
 1. The programme of class exercises and seat work shown on 
 the next page is adapted to a school divided into the three sec- 
 tions or groups. The class exercises are indicated by bold-faced 
 type, and the study or seat work by common type. 
 
 2. The programme divides the day session into periods of 
 twenty, twenty-five, and thirty minutes each, the spelling drills in 
 the two upper grades being considered one period. It also divides 
 the teacher's time equitably among the three groups of pupils. In 
 the forenoon the A group has three exercises; the second or B 
 group, two exercises ; and the primary or C group, two exercises. 
 In the afternoon the A group has three separate exercises (includ- 
 ing spelling) ; the B group, two exercises ; and the C group two. 
 All three groups have two simultaneous exercises, one in writing 
 and language and one in drawing, singing, etc. It is thus seen 
 that the A group of pupils has eight exercises each day, the 
 B group six exercises, and the C group five ; but it is to be ob- 
 served that the A group has two more studies than the B, and the 
 B group has one more than the C. The attention given to the 
 preparation and direction of the seat work of the pupils in the C 
 group (as explained below) will make the time devoted to this 
 group about the same as that devoted to the B group. 
 
 3. A rural school of some thirty pupils would probably have 
 two classes in the A group, two in the B group, and three in the 
 C group, making, in all, seven different classes of pupils. The 
 time allotted by the programme to a class exercise in the A group 
 in arithmetic, for example must be divided between the two 
 classes (if there be two classes in a group), but not equally from 
 
236 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 White's Three- Oroup Programme.} 
 
 CLOSING 
 TIME 
 
 MIN- 
 UTES 
 
 PRIMARY (O 
 
 (GRADES I. i II) 
 
 SECONDARY (B) 
 
 (GRADES III & IV) 
 
 ADVANCED (A) 
 
 (GRADES V, VI, VJI &. VIII) 
 
 9:10 
 
 10 
 
 OPENING EXERCISES 
 
 9:35' 
 
 25 
 
 Beat Work* 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 1D:00 
 
 25 
 
 Number 
 
 ( On slute or with objects) 
 
 .Arithmetic 
 
 Geography 
 
 10:25 
 
 25 
 
 Number 
 
 Geography 
 
 Geography 
 
 10:45 
 
 20 
 
 Form Work 
 
 (Paper foldin^stick laying. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Geography 
 
 10:55 
 
 10 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 
 11:15 
 
 20 
 
 Silent Reading 
 
 Geography 
 
 Grammar 
 
 JL35 
 
 20 
 
 Heading and 
 Spelling 
 
 Form Work 
 (Map drawing, sand molding, 
 etc.) 
 
 Grammar 
 
 12:00 
 
 25 
 
 Excused from School 
 
 Reading 
 
 Grammar 
 
 
 
 NOON INTERMISSION 
 
 1:10 
 
 10 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 130 
 
 20 
 
 Form Work 
 (Clay modeling, paper cutting, 
 etc.) 
 
 Beading 
 
 Reading 
 
 1:50 
 
 20 
 
 Silent Reading 
 
 Seat Work* 
 
 Beading 
 
 2.10 
 
 20 
 
 Beading and 
 Spelling 
 
 Animal or Plant 
 Study 
 
 U. S. History or 
 Physiology 
 
 2:10 
 
 30 
 
 "Writing 2 
 or Language 3 
 
 Writing 2 
 or Language 3 
 
 Writing 2 
 or Language 3 
 
 2:50 
 
 10 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 
 3:10 
 
 20 
 
 Number 
 
 (On slate or with objects) 
 
 Spelling 
 
 TJ. S. History or 
 Physiology 
 
 3:35 
 
 25 
 
 Drawing? Singing? 
 or Moral Instruc- 
 tion. 1 
 
 Drawing? Singing'; 
 or Moral Instruc- 
 tion. 1 
 
 Drawing, 2 Singing 2 
 or Moral Instruc- 
 tion. 1 
 
 3:50 
 
 15 
 
 Excused from School 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling 
 
 4:00 
 
 10 
 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Spelling 
 
 * As may be provided for by the teacher. 
 
 t White's School Management, p. 90, American Book Company. Is in- 
 serted by permission of the author and the publisher. 
 
 NOTES. The small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a 
 week. 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 237 
 
 day to day, as much depends on the nature of the lessons. One 
 day the upper class may have only ten minutes and the lower class 
 fifteen, and the next day this may be reversed. What the pro- 
 gramme requires is that the two exercises do not together exceed 
 the time assigned to the group. 
 
 4. The primary group presents the most difficulties, since it 
 usually contains more classes than the upper groups ; but the 
 classes are small and the lessons are short, and very effective work 
 can be done with three small primary classes in from twenty to 
 twenty-five minutes. The teacher will need to take a few minutes 
 before school to prepare seat work for them, and a minute or two 
 may now and then be taken from the time of the upper grades to 
 start them in such work. Some capable pupil may often be as- 
 signed to assist primary pupils. If neither history nor physiology 
 is a regular branch of study, one more daily period may be as- 
 signed to the primary classes, and the same may be done if neither 
 drawing nor music is regularly taught. 
 
 5. The inexperienced teacher may not see how three groups of 
 pupils may be taught simultaneously in drawing, or writing, or 
 language, each grade having its appropriate lesson, as provided 
 for in the programme, but experience has solved this difficulty. 
 
 THE RURAL SCHOOL FACULTY. 
 
 The isolated school and the isolated teacher be- 
 long in the past. In our time schools are grouped, 
 and teachers are organized into faculties. " Country 
 school faculty ! " Yes, my friend, the colleges must not 
 have all the good things. A group of rural teachers 
 working together as a unit, by extending the meaning 
 of the term a little, may properly be called a rural 
 school faculty. 
 
 1. The principal is a specialist in rural school 
 work. lie is the professional adviser of the school 
 board and the right arm of the county superintendent. 
 He gives unity and intelligent direction to the school 
 work of the district. Above all, he unites the teachers 
 
238 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 into a working faculty, and thus unitizes the school 
 work of the district. 
 
 2. The assistant teachers, with the principal, 
 constitute the rural school faculty. As a working 
 body, they plan and carry on the school work of the 
 district. The course of study and the programme 
 must leave details to be worked out by the faculty. 
 
 3. The faculty meetings occur on alternate Sat- 
 urdays, and are counted a part of the regular school 
 work. All enter heartily into these councils. Each 
 one gains inspiration and also contributes something 
 to help others. These faculty meetings are of the 
 highest value ; they will revolutionize the rural schools. 
 
 PARTIALLY GRADED COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Partially Graded Schools. The ungraded school is 
 the crudest and least economical form of school or- 
 ganization. Whenever and wherever possible the un- 
 graded school must be evolved into the partially 
 graded school. At first we have a principal and one 
 assistant. The principal takes the A and B classes, 
 the four intermediate grades, and the assistant takes 
 the C and D classes, the four primary grades. The 
 schools are now designated as the primary and the in- 
 termediate. Experience demonstrates a large gain by 
 this partial grading. Each teacher added multiplies 
 the gains. The transformations must be so adjusted 
 as to give each teacher as nearly as possible an equal 
 number of pupils. Often the principal must take into 
 his room a lower class in order to equalize the work. 
 
 At best the graded organization is defective, but 
 it is doubtless the highest form admissible in country 
 
EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 239 
 
 schools and primary schools. The most rudimentary 
 form of the graded school is doubly as efficient as the 
 ungraded school. Ultimately some way will be found 
 to largely transform the ungraded into graded schools. 
 Massachusetts for some years, by furnishing free trans- 
 portation, has given the country pupils the same ad- 
 vantages as the city pupils. The children within a 
 radius of four and a half miles are transported in 
 wagons to and from central schools. The result is so 
 satisfactory that comparatively few ungraded schools 
 are now to be found in the State. Other States are 
 moving in the same way, and doubtless each State will 
 devise some plan to make its rural schools better and 
 better. 
 
 THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL. 
 
 The District Central School evolves into the District 
 High School This development comes naturally from 
 conditions, and is the crown and summit of rural school 
 organization ; it brings within the reach of all our 
 youths high-school instruction. Country youths do not 
 mind travelling on bicycle, horse, or mule even six and 
 seven miles to attend a good high school. At present 
 only three pupils out of a hundred enter our high 
 schools. Place the high school within easy reach of 
 every home, and we may safely hope to see within a 
 decade at least twenty-five per cent of our youths enter 
 the high school. The gain every way will be mar- 
 vellous. The district principal becomes also the high- 
 school principal, and his assistant takes the elementary 
 pupils. In these schools two years of high-school 
 work may be done to the immense advantage of rural 
 youths and at the minimum cost. 
 
2iO SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 METHODS OF WORK IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. The Best for Each Pupil must be planned. 
 No pupil, even in ungraded schools, must be kept 
 back or pushed forward to his hurt. As the very 
 best practical device to secure efficiency, the pupils 
 are placed in four classes, and each class is divided 
 into sections one and two. Teachers must keep in 
 mind that section one is a year in advance of section 
 two. In some studies the sections can work together 
 profitably ; in other studies, such as arithmetic, the 
 sections must be given different work. To keep the 
 advanced pupils marking time, or to drive the least 
 advanced pupils to despair, is ruinous. To keep each 
 pupil doing continuously his best is extremely diffi- 
 cult, but it must be done. In some cases a pupil 
 assistant is the best solution. Some teachers get good 
 results through alternate recitations. The most satis- 
 factory device, as a rule, is the combined recitation ; 
 the sections are given alternately oral and written 
 work. 
 
 2. There must be More Study and Less Teaching. 
 This is simply a necessity in ungraded schools. 
 The pupil must be educated to work out his own sal- 
 vation. Sturdy independence and self-helpfulness are 
 peculiar products of the rural school. Pupils are 
 trained to find out for themselves. The conditions 
 are such that the pupils must depend largely on their 
 own efforts, but the teacher continually suggests, 
 guides, inspires, instructs. 
 
 3. There must be More Text-book Work and Less 
 Oral Teaching. The recitation periods are necessarily 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 241 
 
 shorter, and the pupils must do more home study. The 
 one teacher can not possibly do extended oral work 
 in all the subjects ; but the pupils are from one to 
 two years older than in the corresponding classes of 
 the graded school, and the rural industries in which 
 the pupils engage and their closer associations with 
 Nature, help to render more good bookwork possi- 
 ble. The teacher, it is true, supplements the book 
 and shows the pupil how to gain knowledge from 
 Nature and from books, but he is compelled to limit 
 extended oral work to a few subjects. The school 
 library is of the greatest value in the country school. 
 The pupils are trained to find out from books. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXII. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT KINDERGAR- 
 TENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 INTELLIGENT pupil study characterizes the new 
 education. Physiologists, psychologists, and educa- 
 tors have taught us to study the child in the light 
 of science. Each teacher studies the little ones for 
 herself. She lives close to her pupils, and she finds 
 that love of children is the divine key to child nature. 
 She is able to lead her pupils to mastery through glad 
 effort, for she is their wise and loving friend. Her 
 work and her methods are based on a knowledge of 
 the real child. Knowing child activities and child 
 17 
 
24:2 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 needs and the laws of child growth, she wisely adapts 
 the matter and the methods to her pupils. God and 
 the mothers give the precious children into her hands, 
 and lovingly she leads them in the paths of peace. 
 
 THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 
 
 Play characterizes childhood and is the central 
 idea in the kindergarten. Jean Paul thought of play 
 as man's first poetry, and the instrument through 
 which all his higher possibilities are developed. 
 Froebel is counted the great educational reformer 
 because he planned to make play educative. In 1816 
 he created the embryo kindergarten ; by 1916 the 
 kindergarten will have become co-extensive with the 
 primary school. 
 
 1. From the Fourth to the Sixth Year is the 
 Kindergarten Age. The mothers are God's kinder- 
 gartners ; every wise mother studies to make the play 
 of her little ones educative, but the child of four 
 needs the larger life of the kindergarten. In cities it 
 is wise to gather the neglected infants into kinder- 
 gartens as early as the third year. 
 
 2. Kindergarten embodies the Philosophy of Edu- 
 cation. The wise and kind kindergartner works 
 with God and the mothers to make the most of the 
 precious infants. The little ones are kept as free and 
 as happy as the birds. They are gently led to ex- 
 plore, to see, to hear, to taste, to smell, to touch, to 
 do. New and old experiences are assimilated and re- 
 membered. Making new combinations educates child 
 imagination. As flowers bud and blossom, so the 
 kindergarten pupils grow physically, mentally, and 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 243 
 
 morally. All right habits are cherished. All exer- 
 cises increase strength because they are proportioned 
 to the strength of the pupils. The growth is sym- 
 metrical because all the native activities are wisely 
 exercised. 
 
 3. A Warm Motherly Heart is the Kindergart- 
 ners Divine Commission. Culture is essential. 
 Profound child study is a sine qua non. Good schol- 
 arship and at least two years of professional work 
 under the training of skilled kindergartners is indis- 
 pensable. The kindergartner is an artist of the 
 highest rank, and requires even more preparation for 
 her work than the musician or the painter or the 
 sculptor. Her skill awakens all that is lovely in the 
 immortal child. 
 
 4. We are Rich in Kindergarten Literature. 
 Froebel's Education of Man easily heads the list; 
 then Miss Blow's Symbolic Education and her songs 
 and music of Froebel's Mother Plays ; Hailman's 
 Kindergarten Manual and Primary Helps; Froebel's 
 Pedagogics of the Kindergarten, by Miss Jarvis ; and 
 the current kindergarten literature. 
 
 5. Semi-kindergarten Work characterizes the First 
 Primary Grade. The transition from the home or 
 kindergarten to the school is made in this grade. Semi- 
 kindergarten work renders the transition natural and 
 helpful. The child is now six years old and may 
 profitably, after a few weeks, begin to use books, but 
 the kindergarten spirit is dominant. The children 
 are still largely educated through play, and are led to 
 experience everything possible. The teacher is too 
 sensible to use many of the gifts and plays devised 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 for the younger pupils. The infant is now a child 
 and must be given child work. The play impulse is 
 strong, but the plays are different. The pupils feel 
 free and happy, but they learn to work orderly. The 
 semi-kindergarten has been a gradual growth. The 
 most gifted teachers have been selected for this grade 
 at advanced salaries. Thus it has come about that 
 the old first grade primary has been imperceptibly 
 transformed into the semi-kindergarten, to the incal- 
 culable advantage of the pupils. 
 
 THE PRIMARY SCHOOLHOUSE AND PRIMARY HELPS. 
 
 Nothing is too Good for the Child. Froebel taught 
 his embryo kindergarten in a hovel without a floor or 
 a door or a stove. To-day the kindergarten home is 
 a child palace, full of delights. The old schoolhouse 
 was repulsive and bare, and the work corresponded. 
 ~No wonder parents had to force their children to go 
 to school ! In our times the primary school with its 
 surroundings and its furnishings is a thing of beauty, 
 and the primary pupils are the happiest of mortals. 
 
 1. TF0 must build our Ideal Primary School- 
 house around our Ideal Primary School. The typ- 
 ical primary building has four rooms one room for 
 each grade. Some schools have eight primary rooms, 
 and a teacher for each primary class. Large primary 
 schools are not desirable. It is better to have four- 
 room buildings near the homes of the pupils. Mass- 
 ing young children is an educational mistake. 
 
 2. Primary Buildings should be Hygienic. The 
 lighting and heating and ventilating should be as 
 nearly as possible perfect. The physical-culture hall 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 245 
 
 should be ideal ; it should be so placed as to be con- 
 venient for both the primary and intermediate. In 
 detached primary buildings wide halls answer for 
 gymnastic purposes. 
 
 3. A Primary Schoolroom must le fitted up for 
 Primary School Work. The kindergarten realizes 
 our ideal, and so should the primary schoolroom. 
 The single adjustable desks are educative as well as 
 hygienic. The table for moulding and weighing and 
 measuring is indispensable. Suitable apparatus is 
 more needed in the primary than in any other school. 
 The primary room should be a picture gallery. 
 
 4:. The Primary Library should be the Best. In 
 each primary room is a revolving bookcase contain- 
 ing a hundred child books adapted to the grade. The 
 primary faculty select the books and plan for their 
 use. We are becoming so rich in primary literature 
 that we are embarrassed in selecting the best. 
 
 TIIE PRIMARY FACULTY. 
 
 1. The Primary Faculty is an Organic Educa- 
 tional Unit. A primary school is complete in itself. 
 Its principal and her assistants constitute the primary 
 faculty. The principal is the unitizing element. She 
 conducts the faculty lessons in child study and in 
 primary methods. All members of the primary fac- 
 ulty are familiar with the work done by each ; all 
 work as a unit in promoting child growth. The 
 primary tenure of office for tried teachers is during 
 efficient work. 
 
 2. The Primary Principal is a Specialist in 
 Primary Work. For this reason she is made prin- 
 
246 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 cipal. She is charged with the primary control and 
 the primary teaching. Besides teaching the fourth 
 grade, she inspires her assistants and unitizes the en- 
 tire primary work. She keeps the primary school in 
 touch with the kindergarten on the one hand, and 
 with the intermediate on the other. She so manages 
 that the primary work is enriched by the visits of the 
 intermediate specialists. In all cases she works in har- 
 mony with the intermediate principal. 
 
 3. Each Primary Assistant is a Primary /Spe- 
 cialist. Each one is elected because she is a gifted 
 and trained primary teacher. The educational world 
 has come to demand the best ability and the highest 
 skill in the primary school, and salaries have been in- 
 creased to correspond with this demand. Each teacher 
 works in complete harmony with the principal. 
 
 4. The Primary Work is unitized. The princi- 
 pal and her assistants at their weekly meetings study 
 systematically the primary work. Two choice books 
 each year are studied and discussed. The work of 
 each grade is studied and its relations to the work of 
 other grades, and its programme are carefully consid- 
 ered. To teach the best things in the best ways is the 
 ideal. But unity of work is the desideratum. The 
 child mind is a unit, and the child world must be a unit. 
 The great study of the teachers is to lead the children 
 to assimilate their acquisitions into their lives and 
 thus into unity. Number lessons are blended with 
 the language lessons and with the Nature lessons. 
 All lessons supplement and re-enforce each lesson, just 
 as in the mental economy all the native activities of 
 self supplement and re-enforce each activity. The 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 247 
 
 work of each teacher harmonizes with the work of all 
 the teachers. The primary work is an organic unit. 
 The tremendous importance of correlation and con- 
 centration is beginning to be realized. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE PEIMAEY SCHOOL. 
 
 1. The Primary School is Sui Generis. It is the 
 pleasant school home of childhood. The pupils re- 
 quire personal help. School evolution carries up into 
 the graded primary school the best in individualism, 
 the best in classification and gradation, but wisely 
 stops short of specialization. The primary is strictly 
 a graded and classified school, and this is the highest 
 stage of its educative development. Specialization 
 hurts and does not help the primary school. 
 
 2. The Plan of the Primary Softool^ is ex- 
 
 from 
 
 tremely Simple. The pupil is a child 
 its sixth to its tenth year. Natu- 
 ly we group the children in- 
 four grades, correspond- 
 to the four primary 
 The pupils in a 
 divided into two 
 
 years. 
 
 & rade are 
 classes : class 
 
 beginners in 
 an 'd class A includes 
 pupils in 
 
 grade. The pupils in a class 
 vided into sections, and these 
 dicated as B 1 , B 2 , and A 1 , A a . 
 between grades is one school year ; 
 the step between classes is half a school year ; the step 
 between sections is one fourth of a school year. 
 
 B includes 
 the grade, 
 the ad- 
 the 
 are di- 
 are in- 
 The step 
 
248 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Where the school year is divided into four terms the 
 above plan is considered best. Where the school year 
 is divided into three terms it is doubtless better to 
 divide the pupils in each grade into three classes, B, 
 M, and A ; B including the beginners, M the middle 
 class, and A the advanced class. The interval between 
 classes in schools thus organized is one third of the 
 school year. The four-group plan is more flexible, 
 and has decided advantages in combining recitations 
 and in making promotions. 
 
 3. Pupils are Promoted ~by Classes semi-annually 
 or quarterly. Promotion by classes occurs at the 
 close of each half year ; the B's in a grade become 
 the A's, and the A's in a grade become the B's of the 
 next grade. Where classes are divided into sections 
 with reference to advancement, promotion occurs at 
 the close of each quarter. The primary principal, as- 
 sisted by the teachers, places each primary pupil in 
 the proper grade, and the teacher of a grade places 
 her pupils in the proper classes. Fitness to do well- 
 advanced work warrants individual and class promo- 
 tions. Whenever the teacher becomes satisfied that a 
 pupil will be benefited by promotion to a higher class 
 the faculty makes the change. In most cases it is found 
 best to give bright pupils additional work, and thus 
 have them advance with their classes. The teacher of 
 the grade makes all promotions within her grade, but 
 the primary faculty makes all promotions to advanced 
 grades on the recommendation of the teacher. The 
 intermediate principal, on the recommendation of the 
 primary principal, promotes individuals and classes 
 from the primary to the intermediate school. 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 249 
 
 4. Individual Teaching is a Desideratum in 
 Primary Organization. Forty pupils may be con- 
 sidered the limit of efficiency. This limit gives the 
 primary class of twenty and the section of ten pupils. 
 With a group of ten, the teacher is able to treat each 
 pupil as an individual, and combine the best individ- 
 ual with the best class work. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Lines of work are indicated, but details are neces- 
 sarily left to the insight and skill and inspiration of 
 the teachers. Mechanical routine and slavish lesson 
 hearing are utterly out of place in all schools, but 
 more especially in the primary school. At the best 
 and at the worst, detailed courses of study for the pri- 
 mary grades must be taken as suggestive; primary 
 faculties must work out the applications. 
 
 1. The Primary Study Groups outline the Primary 
 "Work. The studies are the same, but the work is 
 limited to the child phase of the studies. 
 
 2 
 
 i ^ *v v M. X^A.- > 'i v I'll,.-. ^ \^jiij.v4. .11 1 ^i HL m \.-j co 111 position* 
 
 M 
 
 
 CONDUCT GROUP OF ( SG ^ government, how to 
 ( Conduct lessons, oral history. 
 
 LANGUAGE-LITERATURE j Reading, language lessons. 
 GROUP OF STUDIES. ( Child literature, compositio 
 
 SCIENCE GROUP OF ( Oral S^graphj, primary geog- 
 
 h T 
 
 ( Oral biology, oral hygiene. 
 
 MATHEMATICS GROUP j Oral arithm etic, primary arith- 
 
 OF STUDIES. 1 ,-, met l c< 
 
 f _ t ( Form lessons. 
 
 ART GROUP OF ( Writing drawing, vocal music 
 
 STUDIES 1 Manual training, physical cul- 
 
 ( ture. 
 
250 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Course of Study for Primary Schools. 
 
 I 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Language- 
 literature. 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Conduct lessons, study habits, historic 
 stories. 
 Reading, language lessons, child literature, 
 composition. 
 Oral geography, oral biology. 
 Oral arithmetic, form lessons. 
 Writing, drawing, vocal music, physical 
 culture, manual training. 
 
 II 
 Grade. 
 
 Conduct. 
 Language- 
 literature. 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Conduct lessons, historic stories. 
 Reading, language lessons, child literature, 
 composition. 
 Oral geography, oral biology, oral hygiene. 
 Oral arithmetic, form lesson. 
 Writing, drawing, vocal music, physical 
 culture, manual training. 
 
 Ill 
 Grade. 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Language- 
 literature. 
 Science. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Conduct lessons, study, oral history, oral 
 civics. 
 Reading, language lessons, composition, 
 child literature. 
 Primary geography, oral biology, oral hy- 
 giene, oral physics. 
 Primary arithmetic, form lessons. 
 Writing, drawing, manual training, music, 
 physical culture. 
 
 IV 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Language- 
 literature. 
 Science. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Conduct lessons, study, oral history, oral 
 civics. 
 Reading, language lessons, composition, 
 child literature. 
 Primary geography, oral biology, oral hy- 
 giene, oral physics. 
 Primary arithmetic, form lessons. 
 Writing, drawing, manual training, music, 
 physical culture. 
 
 These co-ordinate groups give in perspective the 
 primary work, and furnish a basis for the course of 
 study and the programmes. 
 
 2. The Primary Course of Study is Simple and Flex- 
 ible. It must never be stereotyped. Its purpose is 
 suggestive. Its aim is to secure well-planned work 
 
KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 251 
 
 by keeping the pupils in touch with the great depart- 
 ments of human learning. 
 
 It is the true policy to leave each primary faculty 
 free to work out their specific courses of study and con- 
 struct their own programmes. The general course of 
 study leaves unlimited scope for invention and bet- 
 terment. 
 
 3. Primary Programmes must be adapted to the 
 Grades. The ablest educators will scarcely venture to 
 submit even suggestive primary programmes. This 
 work must always be left to the primary faculty. 
 Yariety, brevity, efficiency, are the essentials. Effi- 
 ciency means the mastery of a few things, and health- 
 ful and vigorous growth. Class periods vary from 
 fifteen to twenty minutes. The no-recess experiment 
 proved a signal failure. The policy of having a re- 
 cess of ten minutes each hour for the primary grades 
 is thoroughly sound. Where buildings are properly 
 arranged, hourly recesses help to secure good ventila- 
 tion and wonderfully help to keep the pupils fresh 
 and happy. Frequent recesses make the control much 
 easier. Well-managed recreations increase efficiency. 
 
 4. Primary Programmes must not be fixed. The 
 ideal primary-school programme is exceedingly flex- 
 ible and. so adaptable. The programme is made for 
 the pupils; the principal and her assistants are al- 
 ways ready to make desirable changes. A suggestive 
 programme for a primary grade is submitted more 
 to indicate a plan for creating artistic primary 
 programmes than for actual primary work ; it is 
 safe to leave the making as well as the adjusting of 
 the programmes in the hands of the primary teach- 
 
252 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Suggestive Programme for Primary Schools. 
 
 GRADE IV. 
 
 1 
 
 Closing 
 Urn*. 
 
 CLASS B. 
 
 CLASS A. 
 
 B l . 
 
 B a . 
 
 A 1 . 
 
 A 2 . 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 9.10 
 
 O 
 
 PENING 
 
 EX E R C I 8 E 
 
 S. 
 
 9.25 
 9.40 
 9.55 
 10.10 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Reading. 
 Beading. 
 
 10 
 
 10.20 
 
 
 REC 
 
 ESS. 
 
 
 20 
 15 
 15 
 
 10.40 
 10.55 
 11.10 
 
 Writ, or draw. 
 Phys. culture. 
 Vocal music. 
 
 Writ, or draw. 
 Phys. culture. 
 Vocal music. 
 
 Writ, or draw. 
 Phys. culture. 
 Vocal music. 
 
 Writ, or draw. 
 Phys. culture. 
 Vocal music. 
 
 10 
 
 11.20 
 
 
 REC 
 
 ESS. 
 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 11.40 
 12.00 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 Geog. or biol, 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 Geog. or biol. 
 Geog. or biol. 
 
 12.30 
 
 
 NOON R 
 
 ECESS. 
 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 12.45 
 1.00 
 1.15 
 1.30 
 
 ArithcOrform. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 Arith. or form. 
 
 1.40 
 
 
 REC 
 
 ESS. 
 
 
 2.00 
 2.20 
 
 Lang, or lit. 
 Lang, or lit. 
 
 Lang, or lit. 
 Lang, or lit. 
 
 Lang, or lit. 
 Lang, or lit. 
 
 Lang, or lit. 
 Lang, or lit. 
 
 10 
 
 2.30 
 
 
 REC 
 
 ESS. 
 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 2.50 
 3.10 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
 Cond. or hist. 
 Cond. or hist. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 253 
 
 ers. Superintendents and intermediate principals will 
 do well to confine themselves to general suggestions. 
 The ideal primary school, like the kindergarten, is 
 unique and complete in itself. Its faculty plans and 
 executes. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXIII. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH CORRELATED AND 
 SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 
 
 Pupil Growth is Continuous. There is no break in 
 the educational highway. The child, as /^ well as the 
 man, perceives, thinks, creates ideals, 
 acts. The kindergarten pupil pur- 
 the same subjects as the college 
 dent. The human constitu- 
 the laws of human devel- 
 and human environments 
 to a human life. 
 
 S*^/ "V .df / n '/ 
 
 Periods. The 
 growth are well 
 the race passes 
 phases of development 
 agery to enlightenment, 
 
 1. Educational 
 stages of human 
 defined. As 
 through 
 from sav- 
 so the 
 stages of 
 ties are the 
 
 pupil passes through similar 
 ' growth. The elemental activi- 
 same from infancy to age, but as 
 the years go by the feeble activities of the child be- 
 come the mighty activities of the man. The differ- 
 ence between the child Newton puzzling over his first 
 
254 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 easy problems and the philosopher Newton solving 
 the problems of the universe is a thing of growth. 
 The same subjects, it is true, are studied, but the 
 phases of the subjects, as well as the methods of work, 
 vary as the pupils advance. 
 
 2. Each Group of Schools is Unique. Each stands 
 for a stage of pupil development. The kindergar- 
 ten stands for infancy ; it utilizes play, familiarizes 
 spoken and pictured symbols, and adapts matter and 
 methods to the little ones. The primary stands for 
 childhood ; it makes close connection with the kinder- 
 garten, utilizes written symbols, and adapts the matter 
 and the methods to the children. The intermediate 
 stands for boyhood and girlhood ; it makes close con- 
 nection with the primary, utilizes the restless activities 
 of the intermediate pupils, and adapts the matter and 
 the methods to girls and boys. The high school stands 
 for youth ; it makes close connection with the inter- 
 mediate, utilizes exploration and investigation, and 
 adapts the matter and the methods to youths. The col- 
 lege stands for young manhood and young womanhood ; 
 it makes close connection with the high school, utilizes 
 research, and adapts the matter and the methods to 
 young men and women. 
 
 3. School Evolution has had its Stages of De- 
 velopment. Individualism characterized the crudest 
 form of school work. The ancient schoolmaster in- 
 structed his pupils one by one. This was the first 
 stage of school growth. Classification characterized 
 the second stage of school evolution. The teacher 
 discovered in the class a most helpful device for pu- 
 pil betterment. The new education then wisely com- 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 255 
 
 bined individualism and classification. Grading char- 
 acterized the third stage of school evolution. Teachers 
 discovered the incalculable value of division of labour 
 in school work. Each teacher instructed a grade of 
 pupils in all the subjects. The new education then 
 wisely combined individualism, classification, and grad- 
 ing. Specialization characterizes the fourth stage of 
 school evolution. A teacher devotes himself completely 
 to a single group of school studies, and so he becomes 
 an educational artist. The new education wisely com- 
 bines individualism, classification, grading, and spe- 
 cialization in the ideal intermediate school work. 
 
 THE IDEAL INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL. 
 
 1. The Specialized Intermediate commends itself. 
 Our old grammar schools with all their defects are ac- 
 complishing great things, but they are nowhere satis- 
 factory. We study educational problems in view of 
 future possibilities. What will the intermediate be in 
 a half century ? Viewed from this standpoint, we are 
 more apt to see in its true perspective the specialized 
 intermediate school of the future. The spirit of edu- 
 cational progress will certainly compel the early trans- 
 formation of our grammar schools. The comparative 
 crudeness of their organization and management, and 
 their monstrous waste of pupil and teacher energy, 
 is becoming evident even to the most conservative. 
 The specialized intermediate school, it is believed, 
 will give almost perfect organization and manage- 
 ment, will economize energy to the utmost, and will 
 give the highest efficiency. It will embody the world's 
 best educational thought and experience. 
 
256 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. The Intermediate Stage of Pupil Growth is 
 Unique. We think of pupils from their tenth to 
 their fourteenth year as girls and boys. Marvellous 
 physical activity characterizes this stage of growth. 
 The great activity of sense-perception and the burn- 
 ing desire to find out, inake of each pupil a keen ex- 
 plorer. The ready memory and the astonishing imi- 
 tative power make this peculiarly the habit-forming 
 period. The activity of the social emotions leads to 
 the formation of beautiful friendships, mostly between 
 girls and girls and boys and boys. Happy the teacher 
 who wins the hearts of the boys and girls ! 
 
 3. The Teacher must understand the Girl and the 
 Boy. The self is not now a child nor a youth, but 
 a girl, a boy. This is the intermediate stage of de- 
 velopment coming between childhood and youth. 
 The school for boys and girls is an intermediate school, 
 not a grammar school. We study earnestly this stage 
 of growth that we may promote the physical well- 
 being of the intermediate pupils. We study intently 
 this stage of intellectual growth that we may wisely 
 adapt the matter and the methods to the boys and 
 girls, and foster healthy and vigorous mental growth. 
 We study with absorbing interest girls and boys as 
 emotional beings that we may stimulate all ennobling 
 impulses and repress all hurtful feelings. We care- 
 fully study this stage of will growth that we may lead 
 our pupils to develop self-control and form desirable 
 habits. 
 
 4. The Intermediate must he adapted to Girls and 
 Boys. The intermediate is not an advanced primary 
 or a lower high school ; it is sui generis and unique. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 257 
 
 Everything is planned and executed from the stand- 
 point of the intermediate pupil. We live close to the 
 boys and girls and learn to understand them. What 
 is best for our pupils during this trying stage of 
 growth? The school building, the course of study, 
 the programme, the management and the methods of 
 work, are all planned to promote the best interest of 
 the real girls and boys. 
 
 5. Intermediate Specialization characterizes the 
 Ideal Intermediate. Specialization is the key to effi- 
 ciency as well as progress. In education as in practi- 
 cal life, the best results are secured by carrying division 
 of labour to its legitimate and helpful limits. The 
 kindergarten and the higher education are splendid 
 object lessons, showing the tremendous advantages of 
 wise specialization. The departmental experiment in 
 our grammar-school work was predoomed because it 
 thought of the grammar school as a lower college. 
 Nevertheless, these crude experiments demonstrated 
 the advantages of specialization and of the division 
 of labour in the intermediate school. Intermediate 
 specialization must be unique, for it must be adapted 
 to boys and girls. It must unitize as well as special- 
 ize ; must co-ordinate as well as separate ; must con- 
 centrate as well as correlate. 
 
 BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENTS FOE THE SPECIALIZED 
 INTERMEDIATE. 
 
 1. School Buildings must le planned for School 
 
 Work. The transformation of our grammar schools 
 
 will require a radical change in the construction and 
 
 equipment of our school buildings. Every school 
 
 18 
 
258 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 building should be planned from the standpoint of 
 the school. The school architect literally builds the 
 schoolhouse around the school. When our present 
 school buildings were planned we thought of the 
 grammar school as merely an advanced primary 
 school. The intermediate school of the future will 
 necessitate new intermediate schoolhouses and new 
 equipments. Like all advances, this will work hard- 
 ships ; but the change from the old to the new need 
 not be made hastily. It is a work of time to prepare 
 an army of specialists, and prepare the world for this 
 grand forward movement. Some old buildings may 
 be changed so as to meet the new conditions. As new 
 buildings are needed we can realize in these our ideal 
 intermediate schoolhouses. 
 
 2. The Special School- Building System. Three 
 well-marked stages in modern school architecture 
 interest educators. The union school system, one 
 large study room with small recitation rooms open- 
 ing out of it, was the crude and cruel pioneer. The 
 pupils of all grades were massed in the study hall, 
 and governed by the boss principal. The massing 
 system, though the worst possible, led up to grading. 
 The grade system, initiated by Superintendent J. 
 D. Philbrick, of Boston, in 1848, was one of the 
 greatest of all inventions by the way of school build- 
 ings. The twelve-room school building was consid- 
 ered ideal ; each teacher now governed and taught 
 one grade. This beneficent system soon became gen- 
 eral, and is still the basis of our graded school work. 
 But the world's educational progress during half a 
 century makes it clear (1) that each group of schools 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 259 
 
 must be sui generis; (2) that the faculty of each 
 school must be a teaching unit; (3) that ideal school 
 buildings must be built around ideal schools. The 
 special school-building system is a growth. The high 
 school was the first group of schools to outgrow 
 the grade system. Everywhere we are now build- 
 ing ideal high-school buildings around ideal high 
 schools. In the fitness of things the grade system 
 will persist in our primary schools, but the ideal pri- 
 mary schoolhouse must be built around the ideal pri- 
 mary school. It is becoming evident that our gram- 
 mar schools, like our high schools, are outgrowing 
 the grade system, and must soon be transformed to 
 meet the new conditions. We must create our ideal 
 intermediate school, and construct around it an ideal 
 intermediate-school building. "We may, as yet, not 
 even venture to suggest plans, but the essentials are 
 becoming clear. The ideal intermediate building must 
 be every way adapted for specialized intermediate 
 work. 1. The conduct room must be constructed and 
 fitted up for conduct teaching. 2. The language-lit- 
 erature room must be fitted up for teaching language 
 and literature. 3. The science room must be fitted 
 up for teaching intermediate science. 4. The mathe- 
 matics room must be fitted up for teaching interme- 
 diate mathematics. 5. The art room must be fitted 
 up for teaching the intermediate-school arts. The 
 special school-building system will embody the best 
 in the world's experience and will give us buildings 
 adapted to the graded primary school, to the special- 
 ized intermediate school, to the specialized depart- 
 ment high school, and to the department college. 
 
260 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 INTERMEDIATE FACULTY. 
 
 The meaning of the word faculty is enlarged to 
 include any group of special teachers. Each inter- 
 mediate teacher is a specialist, and all the teachers of 
 an intermediate school, working as a unit, constitute 
 an intermediate faculty. 
 
 1. The Principal is a Conduct Specialist. For 
 this reason he is made principal. The principal, 
 first of all, is a specialist in school management. To 
 him it is a delight to govern up to self-government 
 and control up to self-control. Corporal punishment 
 and percentage marks and prizes are not thought of ; 
 good conduct is secured through ennobling motives. 
 The girls and boys are led through high incentives to 
 conduct themselves properly, to study diligently, and 
 to become womanly and manly. The work of the 
 principal re-enforces the work of the other teachers. 
 He is the unitizing element in the faculty. 
 
 2. Each member of the faculty is an intermediate 
 specialist in one group of studies. Relieved from the 
 incubus of government and from the distraction of 
 trying to teach the entire course, each intermediate 
 teacher devotes his entire energies to teaching a special 
 group of related subjects. As each teacher has the 
 same pupils for four years, he makes them his friends, 
 studies them one by one, and adapts the matter and the 
 methods to each individual. Teaching becomes a de- 
 light, and teachers are transformed from drudges into 
 enthusiastic artists. They grow with the years, become 
 women and men of marked culture, keep fresh and vig- 
 orous and sweet, and at sixty are still counted efficient. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 261 
 
 3. The intermediate faculty is composed of about 
 an equal number of male and female teachers. All 
 positions are open to prepared teachers, regardless of 
 sex. The educational gain is incalculable. It is be- 
 lieved that fitness will give a majority of the interme- 
 diate principalships to female teachers, but the dan- 
 gerous tendency of the old grammar school to practi- 
 cally confine the education of our boys and girls to 
 female teachers, will be obviated. 
 
 THE INTERMEDIATE COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 1. The transformed intermediate school will 
 necessitate a transformed course of study. It is in- 
 finitely important that the matter and the methods 
 should be the best possible, for from the intermediate 
 schools the great body of our pupils go out into life. 
 The old grammar school squanders fully half the en- 
 ergies of teachers and pupils. A wise economy through 
 specialization will enable the new intermediate school 
 to do vastly more work and vastly better work. 
 
 2. Pupil Good is the Ultimatum. All the work 
 must be work adapted to girls and boys. Either pri- 
 mary or high school work during this period produces 
 arrested growth. The intermediate work must be the 
 best possible to prepare the pupils for complete living. 
 The intermediate work must be the best to prepare the 
 pupils for the high-school work and for life. What 
 work is the best for the pupils ? We must begin by 
 sweeping away rubbish work that hurts and does not 
 help. From the rich realms of knowledge we must 
 select the subjects and the phases of the subjects which 
 experience has shown to be most helpful. 
 
262 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 3. The Intermediate Study Groups outline the In- 
 termediate Work. The five co-ordinate groups give 
 us in one view the intermediate work in terms of sub- 
 ject-matter. The outline specializes and unitizes the 
 intermediate work and maps out the specific work of 
 each teacher. 
 
 p -, ( Conduct lessons, how to study, school discipline. 
 
 I Oral biographical history, American history. 
 ( Civics, religion, mind lessons. 
 
 j T Reading, expression. 
 
 j ?. n I Language lessons, grammar, composition. 
 
 | Juvenile literature, what to read, how to read. 
 ies ' [ Latin or German or French begun. 
 
 M th <-v ( Arithmetic, introductory algebra. 
 
 s -j Concrete geometry, oral trigonometry. 
 ies> ( Oral bookkeeping. 
 
 v, oral astronomy. 
 
 Art j Physical culture, manual training. 
 
 Studies. ( Penmanship, drawing, vocal music. 
 
 4. The Programme Course of Study presents the 
 subjects in their time relations. The grading and 
 classification of our grammar schools are eminently 
 satisfactory. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
 grades of our graded schools are the intermediate 
 grades. Each grade embraces two classes, the b's 
 (the beginners) and the a's (the advanced pupils). We 
 designate the classes in a grade by the letters a and b, 
 and the grade by the exponents of these letters. For 
 convenience we here use the small letters. Thus, b 5 
 and a 5 denote respectively the beginners and the ad- 
 vanced pupils of the fifth grade. The step between 
 classes is half a school year. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 263 
 
 The Intermediate Programme Course of Study. 
 
 
 
 
 Recita- 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Study groupi. 
 
 Subject.. 
 
 tion 
 
 
 
 
 period*. 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Oral general history, how to study, conduct 
 lessons, oral civics. 
 
 5 
 
 Grade 
 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Reading, language lessons, composition, 
 literature. 
 
 10 
 
 V, 
 
 Science. 
 
 Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
 
 5 
 
 Classes 
 a*b 5 , 
 V year. 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
 Physical culture, writing, drawing, music, 
 manual training. 
 
 5 
 10 
 
 
 Daily lessons 
 
 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly 
 
 35 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Oral general history, how to study, conduct 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 lessons, oral civics. 
 
 
 Grade 
 
 Language-lit- 
 
 Reading, language lessons, composition, 
 
 10 
 
 VI, 
 
 erature. 
 
 literature. 
 
 
 Classes 
 ab, 
 VI 
 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
 Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
 Physical culture, writing, drawing, music, 
 
 5 
 5 
 10 
 
 year. 
 
 
 manual training. 
 
 
 
 Daily lessons 
 
 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly .... 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Oral general history, American history, con- 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 duct lessons, civics, mind lessons. 
 
 
 Grade 
 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Literature, grammar, composition, Latin 
 begun, or German or French. 
 
 10 
 
 VII, 
 
 Classes 
 
 _7 u-7 
 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
 Arithmetic, introductory algebra, concrete 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 el Q 
 
 1TTT 
 
 
 geometry. 
 
 
 VII 
 
 Art. 
 
 Physical culture, drawing, music, manual 
 
 10 
 
 year. 
 
 
 training. 
 
 
 
 Daily lessons 
 
 , 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly 
 
 35 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Oral general history, American history, con- 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 duct lessons, civics. 
 
 
 
 Language-lit- 
 
 Literature, grammar, composition, Latin, 
 
 10 
 
 
 erature. 
 
 German or French. 
 
 
 Grade 
 VIII, 
 
 Classes 
 a 8 h 8 , 
 
 VTTT 
 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Art. 
 
 Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
 Arithmetic, introductory algebra, oral ge- 
 ometry, oral trigonometry. 
 Physical culture, drawing, music, manna! 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 V 111 
 
 year. 
 
 
 training. 
 
 
 
 Daily lessons 
 
 ,, 4 prepared and 8 oral ; total weekly 
 
 35 
 
264 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 5. Pupils are promoted by classes at the middle 
 and at the close of the school year. Individual pupils 
 are promoted whenever the intermediate school faculty 
 consider promotion desirable. As each teacher has 
 each pupil daily for four years, great pliability is 
 secured and the wants of individuals may be met. 
 The teachers in their weekly meetings determine spe- 
 cial promotions. Fitness is the consideration. As a 
 rule, bright pupils are given additional work and are 
 advanced with their grades, but no pupil is kept back 
 to his hurt. 
 
 GENERAL PROGRAMME FOR SPECIALIZED 
 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. The General Intermediate Programme sched- 
 ules the Recitation and Study Periods. Each teacher 
 works out a specific programme, giving his work in 
 detail.* The faculty agree on the general programme, 
 and the principal approves the special programmes. 
 The recitation periods are uniformly thirty minutes. 
 The programme provides in all ten daily recitation 
 periods ; each pupil studies during three periods and 
 recites during seven. All pupils prepare one or two 
 lessons at home, and all are led to read juvenile liter- 
 ature at home at least one hour daily. 
 
 2. For Four Years each Pupil spends One Daily 
 Recitation Period with each Teacher. This is count- 
 ed as one of the beneficent features of the specialized 
 intermediate, and will, it is believed, double the edu- 
 cative value of the present grammar-school work. One 
 
 * See Part VI. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 265 
 
 of the world's foremost educators says : " One of the 
 most dreadful things I can think of is that a pupil 
 should have the same teacher for four years ; I shud- 
 der to think of it. The pupil gets all that is educa- 
 
 Suggestive Programme for Specialized Intermediate Schools. 
 
 CLOSING 
 TIME 
 
 y 
 I 
 h 
 
 CONDUCT 
 
 LITERATURE 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 MATHE- 
 MATICS 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 ART 
 
 STUDV 
 
 RECITE 
 
 9.00 
 
 9,30 
 10.00 
 
 10 
 30 
 30 
 
 ** 
 
 OPEN 
 
 NO EXERCISES 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 b 8 
 
 7 
 a 
 
 b 7 
 
 a 5 
 b 5 
 
 a 8 
 b 6 
 
 10.10 
 
 10 
 
 RECESS 
 
 .10.40 
 11.20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 *bib' 
 a 5 ,a,a 7 .a 8 
 
 
 a 
 b 6 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 b 5 
 
 a 7 
 b 7 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 b 8 
 
 11.30 
 
 10 
 
 RECESS 
 
 12.00 
 12.30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 
 
 a 7 b 7 
 a 5 b 5 
 
 a 8 
 a 6 
 
 b 8 
 
 b 
 
 5506 
 a.b.a.b 
 
 rj 8.8 
 a,b,a,b 
 
 1.00 
 
 30 
 
 NOON RECESS -LUNCH 
 
 1.30 
 2.00 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 aV 
 
 a 5 b 5 
 a 7 b 7 
 
 aV 
 aV 
 
 b 6 
 b 8 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 
 2.10 
 
 10 
 
 HECESS 
 
 2.40 
 
 at-o 
 
 30 
 
 M 
 
 a 6 b 6 
 a 8 b 8 
 
 a 8 b 8 
 a 6 b' 
 
 a 5 b 5 
 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 a & b 5 
 a 7 b 7 
 
 tive out of a new teacher's personality in less than a 
 year ; gets used to her peculiarities, and gets to know 
 her methods of study and discipline. The pupil re- 
 ceives a sort of impress which, if kept up for four 
 years, will endure for life. The result is arrested 
 development. After six months or a year the im- 
 pression becomes negative to the real growth of the 
 pupil." And we all shudder and quake at the thought 
 
266 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of dooming our children to spend six hours a day for 
 four dreary years under the average overworked grade 
 teacher. But we count the girls and boys fortunate 
 who are privileged, for four precious years, to work 
 a golden half hour daily with each of five earnest, 
 cultured, growing specialists. 
 
 3. An unlimited number of excellent programmes 
 are possible. The hourly recess and the alternations 
 of easy and difficult studies will secure good work 
 during each period. 
 
 4. All Movements occur as signalled by the 
 Programme Clock. The electric bells regulate all 
 movements, and teacher energy is devoted strictly to 
 educative work. The device for having the pro- 
 gramme clock, by means of electric bells, call and dis- 
 miss school and call and dismiss all classes, is proving 
 an immense help in school work. 
 
 THE SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL AT WORK. 
 
 1. The Faculty is an Organic Unit. Division of 
 work and specialization are carried to their helpful 
 limits, but there is also complete unity. The faculty 
 are an organic teaching unit. All the teachers under- 
 stand and keep in touch with the work of each teacher ; 
 each one supplements and re-enforces the work of all. 
 Each lesson is given in view of all lessons. The pupil 
 is led to assimilate into unity all his acquisitions. The 
 pupil world is a growing organic unit. 
 
 2. Each Member of the Faculty is a Friend of 
 each Pupil. For four years each teacher, each day, 
 instructs each pupil. Each pupil is thought of as a 
 friend, and the best individual work is combined with 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 207 
 
 the best class work. Each teacher earnestly works 
 for the good of each pupil. 
 
 3. Interest, Duty : all High Incentives are made 
 Vital. Such antiquated educational blunders as the 
 
 rod terror, the marking terror, the examination ter- 
 ror, the nonpromotion terror, and the reporting ter- 
 ror are not thought of. Each teacher is an educator, 
 and bends all his energies to the promotion of pupil 
 good. The pupil gets in love with the work, and 
 gets to delight in manly conduct and in masterly 
 effort. 
 
 4. The Principal is the Centralizing Force. He 
 is a specialist in conduct culture and in the art of con- 
 trol. He so conducts the opening exercises as to in- 
 terest the pupils and inspire all good impulses. He 
 so manages the school discipline as to develop habits 
 of law-abiding self-control. He so directs the study 
 work as to teach pupils to find out and master things 
 for themselves. The conduct lessons lead to higher 
 ideals and better habits. The oral lessons in general 
 history impress the best things in the lives of individ- 
 uals and nations. History and literature are the great 
 conduct studies. Civics is so presented as to help 
 prepare for good citizenship. Easy mind lessons lead 
 to experimental self-knowledge. 
 
 5. The Language-Literature Teacher is a Special- 
 ist in Language and Literature. This group of stud- 
 ies, next to conduct, is the most important study 
 group. The pupils are taught how to read and what 
 to read. The taste for choice literature is cultivated, 
 and each pupil is led to spend one or two hours daily 
 in reading the best juvenile books. The pupils learn 
 
268 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 to speak and write correctly and well. The room is 
 fitted up with the best helps for teaching language 
 and literature. 
 
 6. The Science Teacher is a Specialist in the In- 
 termediate Sciences. She skilfully leads her pupils 
 to find out for themselves. Geography, the science 
 of man's environments, is the leading subject of this 
 group. Biology blends naturally with geography. 
 Practical lessons in physiology and hygiene are made 
 a part of the work in biology. Easy oral lessons in 
 physics and astronomy complete the work in the inter- 
 mediate science group. The science room is fitted up 
 with the best helps in science teaching. 
 
 7. The Mathematics Teacher is a Specialist in 
 Mathematics. During four years each pupil devotes 
 one study and one recitation period daily to the math- 
 ematics studies. Mental and written arithmetic are 
 so taught as to develop power and become practically 
 helpful. The weekly lesson in concrete geometry is 
 made of great value. Arithmetic almost impercep- 
 tibly becomes algebra. Pupils are led to use arith- 
 metic in easy oral bookkeeping. The teacher studies 
 to make the mathematic lessons a unit with the les- 
 sons in the other study groups. The mathematics 
 room is fitted up with the best helps for teaching these 
 studies. 
 
 8. The Art Teacher is a Specialist in the Interme- 
 diate School Arts. Physical culture, writing, draw- 
 ing, vocal music, and manual training make up the 
 art group. In the kindergarten and the primary 
 school the pupils have made considerable progress in 
 these arts. Boys and girls must be given more ad- 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 269 
 
 vanced work. The art room and the art work em- 
 phasize grace and beauty as well as unity. This room 
 is liberally supplied with helps for teaching the inter- 
 mediate school arts. 
 
 9. The Intermediate Work is ikwoughly Corre- 
 lated and Proportioned. " Grade teachers unduly 
 press their favourite studies. Will not the danger 
 of inequality be still greater in the specialized inter- 
 mediate ? Will not the strong teachers absorb pupil 
 energies ? Will not a " hustler " get the pupils to de- 
 vote nine tenths of their energies to science \ " This 
 is a real danger, but there is safety in the interme- 
 diate faculty for both the unspecialized grammar 
 school and the specialized intermediate. Each inter- 
 mediate specialist is familiar with all the intermediate 
 studies. At the weekly meetings the interrelation of 
 studies is discussed. The psychology of boyhood and 
 girlhood is made a special study. Plans for securing 
 the best work in each group of studies in each of the 
 eight intermediate classes are considered with great 
 care. The vital feature of the new intermediate, how 
 to make the work of all the specialists supplement 
 and re-enforce the work of each, is profoundly consid- 
 ered. At the beginning of each month each special- 
 ist prepares an outline of his work for the month, 
 and furnishes a copy to each of his cospecialists. 
 This enables each member of the faculty to work in 
 the light of the work done by each. Though a spe- 
 cialist, each intermediate teacher becomes broad and 
 liberal. All come to see good in the work of each. 
 No one even desires to unduly press his special work. 
 The entire work is proportioned and unitized. 
 
270 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 SOME OF THE BENEFITS OF SPECIALIZING THE 
 INTERMEDIATE WORK. 
 
 At what stage of pupil growth should specializa- 
 tion begin ? No one even thinks of primary special- 
 ization except in art. High-school specialization is 
 now an accomplished fact, and no educator calls in 
 question the astonishing advantages resulting. Many 
 are now asking, " Is it well to specialize the interme- 
 diate work ? " Naturally, the educational world in our 
 times gives a negative response. The Committee of 
 Fifteen assures us that up to the seventh grade it is 
 better, on the whole, to have each teacher instruct her 
 pupils in all the branches that they study. Col. F. W. 
 Parker insists that concentration is utterly opposed to 
 specialization. These utterances voice the present po- 
 sition of our most progressive educators. Still, the 
 author ventures to plead for the re-examination of the 
 question and for the test of actual trial. Child study 
 has made the kindergarten and the new primary pos- 
 sible and popular. The earnest study of boyhood and 
 girlhood, it is believed, will make the ideal specialized, 
 intermediate, possible, and universal. Let us put the 
 experiment to the test. We can afford to wait a dec- 
 ade or two while the experiment is being tried, and 
 while intermediate specialization is passing through 
 the stages of ridicule and discussion and adoption. 
 
 1. Nothing is lost by Intermediate Specialization. 
 All that is best in the old is retained in the new. The 
 change comes as a growth ; it is the natural evolution 
 of the classified and graded primary school into the 
 classified, graded, and specialized intermediate school. 
 
SPECIALIZED INTBBM 
 
 As progressive educators here and there establish spe- 
 cialized intermediate schools, and as the great advan- 
 tages of specialization come to be realized, the new 
 school buildings will be planned in view of intermedi- 
 ate specialization, gifted teachers will thoroughly pre- 
 pare themselves to teach special groups of closely re- 
 lated subjects, and our old graded grammar schools 
 will gradually be transformed into the new specialized 
 intermediate schools. 
 
 2. Even the Financial Gain will ~be Large. In the 
 graded grammar school forty pupils to the teacher is 
 the limit of efficiency. In the specialized intermedi- 
 ate, division of work enables the teachers to do vastly 
 better work with sixty pupils to the teacher. Even 
 when the salaries shall be so advanced as to com- 
 mand gifted specialists the financial gain will be con- 
 siderable. 
 
 3. Specialization will give us Male as well as Fe- 
 male Intermediate Teachers. The educational gain by 
 having an equal number of male and female teachers in 
 our intermediate work is simply incalculable. At the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century more than ninety 
 per cent of all our teachers were men ; at its close, 
 nearly ninety per cent are women. Our kindergar- 
 ten and primary teachers are women ; it is well. But 
 in all schools above the primary about half the 
 teachers should be men ; all educators so teach ; the 
 specialized intermediate will certainly tend to secure 
 this boon for our intermediate schools. 
 
 4. Specialization looks to Individual Aptitudes. 
 The special teachers are quick to discover the mental 
 trends of the boys and girls. Gifts are wisely cher- 
 
272 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ished, and each pupil is led to do bis best along the 
 lines of bis inherited tendencies. Each teacher has 
 the same pupils for four years, and leads them on 
 without a break during this period. Each pupil is 
 treated as an individual and as a friend. The best in 
 the class plan and the best in the individual plan 
 are combined. The fearful waste occasioned by the 
 annual change from teacher to teacher is avoided. 
 The educational gain is immense. 
 
 5. Specialization will give us Professional Inter- 
 mediate Teachers. Division of work easily quadruples 
 the efficiency of the teacher. Relieved of the incubus 
 of discipline and of the killing drudgery of attempting 
 to prepare and teach all the lessons in all the studies, 
 each teacher becomes a master workman in one group 
 of studies. These specialists become professional 
 teachers and hold their positions during efficient 
 work. Intermediate specialization will triple the 
 army of professional teachers, and will give impetus 
 to our educational work. 
 
 6. The Specialized Intermediate will greatly ad- 
 vance Physical Culture. The art teacher first of all 
 devotes herself to the art of hygienic living. For four 
 years she leads the pupils to root hygienic laws into 
 hygienic habits. In this she has the earnest co-opera- 
 tion of all the other teachers. Physical culture is no 
 longer incidental, but is made a special and leading 
 study. No one now questions the great gain of hav- 
 ing a specialist to teach music, drawing, and manual 
 training. 
 
 7. Specialization will do most to promote Moral 
 Education. The intermediate principal is a specialist 
 
SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 273 
 
 in the art of character growth. His group of studies 
 look to character building. For four years he leads 
 his pupils up to higher ideals and higher realizations. 
 In conduct culture each teacher supplements and re- 
 enforces the work of the principal. Here we have 
 the superlative of the new education. Conduct cul- 
 ture ceases to be merely incidental, and takes its place 
 as the leading work of the school. 
 
 8. Specialization will benefit Intermediate Pu- 
 pils. It is a safe estimate that a day in a specialized 
 intermediate will help the pupil more than two days 
 in the old grammar school. Skilled specialists stimu- 
 late and guide effort, and each room is fitted for the 
 best work in a special group of studies. Pupils be- 
 come vastly better prepared to go out into life as well 
 as for high-school work. The tendency undoubtedly 
 will be to keep the boys as well as the girls in school 
 until they complete the course ; and it is a reasonable 
 estimate that the number who will go up higher will 
 be quadrupled. 
 
 The grade grammar school has worked out satis- 
 factorily the problems of organization and promotion. 
 The specialized intermediate school is a higher evolu- 
 tion, and is destined to solve the problems of efficient 
 intermediate-school work. It is believed that all the 
 objections to this advance that have been urged or can 
 be urged will disappear in view of the immense gains. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SPECIALIZED AND 
 CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 SCHOOLS connecting the elementary schools and the 
 colleges are called secondary schools. These schools 
 are known as high schools, academies, seminaries, and 
 preparatory schools. In this country the high school 
 is the public secondary school. Our fathers were con- 
 tent with elementary education, but in our times the 
 masses find the secondary education a necessity. 
 Trained minds are demanded by our civilization in 
 all fields of human activity. The high school is now 
 an essential part of the common-school system. 
 
 The High School prepares for Life. Youth is emi- 
 nently the seedtime of life. The high school gives 
 the culture, gives the knowledge, and gives the in- 
 spiration that make for complete living. Invincible 
 youth learns the art of mastery. The high school 
 prepares the youth reasonably well for the practical 
 life of our times. We do not, it is true, train high- 
 school pupils for special vocations ; but we do develop 
 the strongest individuality, honesty, truthfulness, jus- 
 tice, generosity, attentive intelligence, thoughtful hub- 
 its of industry, and persevering power of application ; 
 and this training is the best possible preparation for 
 practical life. 
 
 The High School prepares for College, In all arenas 
 of high endeavour, and in all fields of high achieve- 
 ment, a college education conditions the highest sue- 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 275 
 
 cess. More and more, in all the walks of life, our 
 youth realize the importance of preparing themselves 
 for college. The high school is the natural link con- 
 necting the elementary schools and the colleges. It 
 has heretofore been the missing link in our educa- 
 tional systems. In the future the great body of col- 
 lege students will come up from our high schools; 
 hence our colleges must be adjusted to our high 
 schools. We study to make our elementary schools 
 the best possible for the elementary pupils, and adjust 
 the high school to the elementary school ; we study to 
 make the high school the best possible for the high- 
 school pupils, and adjust the college to the high school ; 
 we study to make the college the best possible for the 
 college students, and adjust the university professional 
 schools to the college. Thus we create the educa- 
 tional highway leading from the nursery to the uni- 
 versity. We build on the rock. 
 
 The High School is the Latest to develop. The 
 centuries first of all gave the world the college and 
 much later the elementary school. The present great 
 forward educational movement is to make the special- 
 ized and correlated high school coextensive with the 
 elementary school. The high school is now an ac- 
 complished fact in our towns and cities. By placing 
 well-conducted high schools within the easy reach of 
 all our youths we will do most for the elevation of 
 the race. The central schools in our rural districts 
 under wise management will naturally grow into dis- 
 trict high schools, and thus a high-school education 
 within the reach of all homes will be made possible 
 and inviting. 
 
276 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The High School is Sui generis. To conduct high 
 schools as higher grammar schools or lower colleges 
 is a fundamental mistake, leading to arrested develop- 
 ment and driving our boys prematurely into active 
 life. The elementary school adjusts the world to the 
 pupil, the high-school pupil adjusts himself to the 
 world, but the college student adjusts the world to 
 himself. We use all devices to help the feeble begin- 
 ners to grasp the elements of knowledge; we lead 
 the vigorous youth on to mastery ; we inspire the 
 strong college student to achieve. The high school is 
 for youth. In its facilities, its organization, its work 
 and its methods it must be adapted to youth. The 
 specialized and correlated high school is unique. 
 
 Youth is a Marvellous Stage of Development. The 
 high-school teacher studies with boundless interest 
 this period of human growth. About the fourteenth 
 year there comes the stupendous change from boy- 
 hood and girlhood to youth. There is almost a leap 
 in both the physical and mental life. The emotions 
 become tempestuous, and the youth seems impelled by 
 mighty subjective energies. Lofty aspirations and 
 irrepressible yearnings for noble things begin to sway 
 the young life. Egoism gives place to altruism. Duty 
 impulses become imperative and the religious emo- 
 tions are awakened. "Will asserts its sovereignty, and 
 a youth must do or die. The imitative activity of 
 the boy becomes the creative activity of the youth. 
 Action is salvation ; inaction means physical, mental, 
 and moral death. From the fourteenth to the eight- 
 eenth year is peculiarly the formative period in hu- 
 man life. During these seething, restless, melancholy 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 277 
 
 years the trend is given that leads to eminence. We 
 study to create high schools adapted to youth schools 
 that will utilize the broad sympathies, the generous 
 impulses, the high aspirations, and the boundless en- 
 ergies of youth. 
 
 The Evolution of the High School is a Story that in- 
 terests all the World. The high school having passed 
 through the stages of individualism, classification, and 
 grading, has now reached the stage of specialization. 
 Tutorism, college preparatories, academies, seminaries, 
 were some of the diversified forms of individualism and 
 classification. Grading was hailed as a panacea ; the 
 ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades of our city 
 schools became the high school. Each grade had its 
 teacher, and the high school was merely a higher gram- 
 mar school. Arrested development was the inevitable 
 result. Some belated high schools are still at this stage 
 of evolution. Happily, some educational Edison of 
 our own times suggested high-school specialization. 
 The best in individualism and classification and grad- 
 ing are carried up into specialization. Our ideal high- 
 school teacher is a college graduate, a trained profes- 
 sional educator, and a specialist in a group of high-school 
 studies. Our ideal high-school faculty is a teaching unit. 
 Our ideal high school is specialized and correlated. 
 Partial departmental teaching will come as a growth. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL. 
 
 1. The High-School Building is Unique. We 
 create our ideal high school and construct our ideal 
 high-school building around it. Each special teacher 
 has a room fitted up for his special work. The work- 
 
278 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ing library and the necessary apparatus are essentials. 
 Assistant teachers have their classrooms fitted up for 
 special work. Since laboratory methods must more 
 and more dominate in high-school work, it is impor- 
 tant that our high-school buildings should be planned 
 and equipped with this in view. 
 
 2. High-School Organization is Unique. Grades 
 evolve into groups capable of working together. The 
 specialized intermediate work grows into the special- 
 ized high-school work, and the specialized high-school 
 work grows into the specialized college work. But 
 the high-school work is unique and requires a unique 
 organism. It is a ruinous mistake to think of the 
 high school as a lower college or a higher intermedi- 
 ate. We study youth and create schools adapted to 
 this stage of education. 
 
 3. The High School considers Years. The group- 
 ing is easy. Pupils who are doing the first, second, 
 third, and fourth years' work are grouped as D's, C's, 
 B's, and A's. The sections of these groups are desig- 
 nated as D 1 , D 2 , D 8 ; C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , etc. This is all. 
 However small or however large the high school may 
 be, this simple scheme answers every purpose. Grades 
 are for the elementary schools, and all such epithets 
 as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior are left to 
 
 , the college. The high-school pupil is doing the first 
 year's work, and is a D ; or the second year's work, 
 and is a C ; or the third year's work, and is a B ; or 
 the fourth year's work, and is an A. 
 
 4:. The Larger High Schools have Two Graduating 
 Classes annually. The pupils that become A's at 
 the first of the year graduate at the middle of the year, 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 279 
 
 but pupils that become A's at the middle of the year 
 graduate at the middle of the succeeding year. Our 
 smaller high schools can have but one graduating class 
 annually, and so must give the pupils who complete 
 the intermediate work at the middle of the year a 
 half-year's vacation before admitting them. 
 
 5. High-School Pupils advance with their Classes. 
 When his work is satisfactory a pupil is promoted 
 with his class. Individuals found well prepared for 
 advanced work are promoted at once by the faculty. As 
 a rule, it is best to give bright pupils collateral work 
 and so have them advance with their classes. Here 
 and everywhere preparedness to work with the next 
 group is the condition of promotion. 
 
 6. High-School Work is prescribed. The college 
 student under guidance elects his studies, but the 
 high-school pupil pursues the prescribed studies. This 
 limitation is wise, for immature youths are not prepared 
 to elect judiciously, nor can our smaller high schools 
 afford to sustain elective courses. Our larger high 
 schools offer four courses, but the studies are substan- 
 tially the same in all the groups except in that of lan- 
 guage and literature. Our smaller high schools can 
 sustain but one course. The faculty, however, adapts 
 the work to the pupils. 
 
 HIGH-SCHOOL STUDY GROUPS. 
 
 1. The High School prepares for Life. Prepa- 
 ration for complete living is the ultimate educational 
 end. The immediate purposes in school work are de- 
 velopment of power and acquisition of knowledge. 
 The aims of the high schools are to prepare for life 
 
280 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 and also prepare for college. Studies best calculated 
 to develop power and prepare for life should also best 
 prepare for college. Most of our high-school pupils 
 do not go higher, but pass from the high school di- 
 rectly into active life. Clearly the work must be 
 made the best possible for the many, and at the same 
 time best fit the few for college. 
 
 2. Correlation of High-School Studies is Funda- 
 mental. Grouping the subjects taught is an incal- 
 culable gain, but it is still more important to further 
 co-ordinate the entire work so far as this can be done 
 naturally and logically. Unrelated knowledge hurts 
 and does not help. The legitimate correlation of sub- 
 jects is fundamental. The natural and practical group- 
 ing of school studies and the wise concentration of 
 school work are leading problems of our times. The 
 prolonged study of a few subjects is every way better 
 than the brief study of many subjects. This educational 
 axiom limits selections from each group to the best 
 things. Good teaching enriches and broadens the course. 
 
 C School discipline, investigation, re- 
 Conduct search. 
 Group of Studies. 1 General and special history, civics. 
 
 L Practical ethics, elementary psychology. 
 
 Language- ( Written and oral expression. 
 
 O 
 
 - 
 
 literature < English language and literature. 
 Group of Studies. ( Foreign languages and literatures. 
 
 Mathematics t ^^T ic ' ?JF^[?' 
 
 f 
 
 Bookkeeping. 
 
 Physical geography, oral astronomy. 
 
 Science I Elementary biology, elementary p'hysi- 
 
 Group of Studies, j ology. 
 
 [ Elementary physics, oral chemistry. 
 
 Art ( Physical culture, manual training. 
 
 Group of Studies. ( Drawing, vocal music. 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 2S1 
 
 3. The Group Order is thought to le Reasonable. 
 Educative value is made the test. "What group of 
 studies has the highest educative value ? 
 
 The above group order, it is thought, will bear all 
 reasonable tests. We think of the educative work 
 in each group of studies. We may consider growth 
 from the physical standpoint, and make development 
 of brain areas the test. Each study awakens, strength- 
 ens, develops special brain areas. The study group 
 that exercises the highest and the widest brain areas 
 ranks highest. The above group order, it is thought, 
 conforms to the brain-area test. School work is made 
 the test. The above group order is eminently prac- 
 tical, and seems to be the best for school purposes. 
 Fellow-teacher, please read carefully once more, as sup- 
 plementing this paragraph, Correlation of Studies by 
 the Fifteen, and Secondary School Studies by the Ten. 
 
 THE HIGH-SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 1. The Study Groups are here expressed in Years. 
 The work in each group for each of the four high- 
 school years is outlined. The larger high schools, 
 with six or more teachers, can sustain more than 
 one prescribed course. But, except in foreign lan- 
 guages, our well-organized high schools, small as well 
 as large, do substantially the same work. 
 
 2. Each of the Five Study Groups is counted 
 of Great Educative Value. The language-literature 
 group, however, is given double the recitation time 
 of the other periods. English is considered the natu- 
 
282 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ral equivalent of conduct, of mathematics, of science, 
 of art, and the work in foreign languages and litera- 
 ture may be made equal to the work in English. 
 
 Course of Study for the Smaller High Schools. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Study groups 
 
 Subject*. 
 
 Period*. 
 
 I year, 
 
 Conduct. 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Practical ethics, general history, civics. 
 J Literature, grammar, rhetoric, expression. 
 | Latin or German or French. 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 Classes 
 
 Science. 
 
 Physical geography, biology. 
 
 5 
 
 D, D". 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Arithmetic, algebra, concrete geometry. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Art. 
 
 Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 Conduct. 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Practical ethics, general history, civics. 
 I Literature, grammar, rhetoric, expression. 
 j Latin or German or French. 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 Classes 
 C 1 , C 3 . 
 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 Art. 
 
 Biology, physics, physiology. 
 Algebra, geometry, bookkeeping. 
 Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 
 ual training. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Elementary psychology, English history, 
 
 
 
 
 CIVICS. 
 
 5 
 
 m 
 
 year, 
 Classes 
 B 1 , B. 
 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 
 j Literature, composition, expression. 
 1 Latin or German or French. 
 Biology, physics, physiology. 
 Geometry, bookkeeping. 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 Art. 
 
 Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
 
 
 
 
 ual training. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 Elementary psychology, American history, 
 
 
 
 
 CIVICS. 
 
 5 
 
 IV 
 
 Language-lit- 
 erature. 
 
 j Literature, composition, expression. 
 "f Latin or German or French. 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 Classes 
 A, A 3 . 
 
 Science. 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, 
 oral astronomy. 
 Trigonometry, geometry. 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 Art. 
 
 Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
 
 
 
 
 ual training. 
 
 5 
 
 3. Each Special Teacher Outlines his Work. In 
 the general high-school course for the smaller high 
 schools details are omitted. It is left to each high- 
 school faculty to complete the outline. The require- 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 283 
 
 ments are well defined. The plan of each specialist 
 is discussed and approved by the faculty. No study 
 group must dominate ; there must be proportion and 
 correlation. No study in a group must be made to 
 exclude the other studies. 
 
 4. Partial Departmental Teaching. In the larger 
 high schools each group teacher becomes the head of 
 a department, and with his assistants constitutes a fac- 
 ulty group or a department. In the future the legiti- 
 mate department teaching will greatly improve the 
 high-school work. 
 
 SUGGESTIVE PROGRAMMES FOR THE SMALLER HIGH 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 1. The Conditions determine the Real Programme. 
 The number of teachers in our smaller high schools 
 varies from two to six, and the number of pupils from 
 thirty to two hundred and forty. Schools with more 
 than six teachers and more than two hundred and 
 forty pupils take rank as our larger high schools. 
 Each high school adapts its course of study and its 
 programme to its conditions. The group teachers are 
 the same in all, but in the larger schools each group 
 teacher has one or more assistants. The ideal pro- 
 gramme for the smaller high schools is submitted as 
 suggestive. The building, the number and advance- 
 ment of the pupils, and the number of teachers, must 
 determine the actual programme of the school. The 
 ideal programme is for an established high school 
 having a suitable building, having about two hun- 
 dred pupils, and having five teachers. The language- 
 literature teacher will need an assistant. 
 
284 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. The Ideal Programme must be counted as Sug- 
 gestive. It is a work of art to create a good school 
 programme. Each high-school faculty must necessa- 
 rily construct its own programme. The number of 
 possible good programmes for a specialized high school 
 with five or more teachers is practically unlimited. 
 Each pupil has six daily recitations. The work is so 
 planned that a pupil will recite daily three prepared 
 lessons and have two or three drill recitations. 
 
 3. Each Teacher conducts Seven Recitations daily. 
 As each teacher has eight classes, and as we have but 
 seven recitation periods, each teacher must have one 
 combined recitation, or must manage to have a pupil 
 assistant teach one of his classes. 
 
 4. The Recess of Ten Minutes between Classes is 
 of Great Value. The utmost freedom consistent with 
 good conduct is desirable during the recesses. Com- 
 plete relaxation is encouraged, but each youth studies 
 propriety. Each teacher is given one hour a day to 
 visit the intermediate classes. Thus the high school 
 is kept in close touch with the intermediate work. 
 
 5. Special Programmes are Essential. Each 
 teacher has the pupils in his group of studies for four 
 years; he makes his special programme to suit his 
 work. These special programmes are submitted to 
 the faculty for approval, but each teacher is given 
 almost unlimited freedom. A high school is an edu- 
 cational unit, and each teacher plans his work in view 
 of all the work. 
 
 6. High Schools with Three or Four Teachers make 
 Programmes to suit Conditions. In these schools each 
 teacher is a specialist in one group and is charged with 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 285 
 
 work in other groups. The work and the recitation 
 periods are the same, but the pupils are arranged in 
 four instead of eight groups, and the step between 
 the classes is a year instead of half a year. The class 
 promotions occur at the close and not at the middle 
 of the year. The programme is made accordingly. 
 
 Suggestive Programme for a Specialized High School. 
 
 PERIODS 
 
 CONDUCT 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 ART 
 
 CLOS-TIME 
 
 STUDY 
 
 RECITE 
 
 9.40 
 
 40 
 
 D^ 2 
 
 
 A 1 
 
 B 1 
 
 A 2 
 
 B 2 
 
 C'C 2 
 
 9.50 
 
 10 
 
 RECESS 
 
 10.30 
 
 40 
 
 B 3 
 
 A 1 A 2 
 
 C 1 
 
 C 2 
 
 D 1 
 
 D 2 
 
 Bl 
 
 10.40 
 
 10 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 
 11.20 
 
 40 
 
 A 1 A 2 a 2 ] 
 
 B a B 2 
 
 C 1 
 
 D 2 
 
 D 1 
 
 
 11.30 
 
 10 
 
 RECESS 
 
 12.10 
 
 40 
 
 D 2 
 
 B'B 2 
 
 A 2 
 
 Dl 
 
 C 2 
 
 C 2 
 
 A 1 
 
 12.40 
 
 30 
 
 NOON RECESS 
 
 1.20 
 
 40 
 
 B 1 B 2 
 
 
 D 2 . 
 
 A 1 A 2 
 
 C 2 
 
 C 1 
 
 U 1 
 
 1.30 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 
 
 
 2.10 
 
 40 
 
 D'A 2 
 
 C^C 2 
 
 
 B 2 
 
 A 1 
 
 B 
 
 D 2 
 
 2.20 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 3.00 
 
 40 
 
 AVc'j 
 
 D 1 
 
 D 2 
 
 B 1 B 2 
 
 
 A 2 
 
 3.10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 RECESS 
 
 
 3.50 
 
 40 
 
 B 1 ^ 
 
 D^ 2 
 
 C 2 
 
 
 
 A 1 A 2 
 
 B 2 
 
 Explanations. 1. The school has five special teach- 
 ers and an assistant in literature. Each teacher con- 
 ducts seven recitations, thus meeting all the pupils 
 daily. Each pupil has six recitations daily, three or 
 four prepared lessons and two or three drill lessons. 
 2. Forty-minute recitation periods are found most 
 
286 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 satisfactory in high-school work. The recess of ten 
 minutes between recitations is simply invaluable. 3. 
 All movements of the school are regulated by electric 
 bells. The electric clock literally calls and dismisses 
 all classes. 4. On Saturdays each class spends two 
 hours in laboratory or manual training work. 
 
 THE HIGH-SCHOOL FACULTY. 
 
 1. The High-School Faculty is an Educative 
 Unit. Correlation is vital. The work of each teacher 
 is supplemented and re-enforced by the work of all 
 the other teachers. At the beginning of each month 
 each teacher hands his co workers an outline of his 
 proposed work for the month. These outlines are 
 examined at the faculty meetings ; they enable each 
 teacher to co-ordinate his work with the work of the 
 other teachers. Unity is secured. 
 
 2. The Five Specialists direct the Work. Each 
 teacher is a college graduate and a graduate of a school 
 of pedagogy. Each has made special preparations 
 to teach a special group of studies. Each is elected 
 because of his fitness for special work. Each studies 
 his own work in view of all the work. Each is a stu- 
 dent of pupil nature, and studies to adapt his work to 
 his growing pupils. Unity, harmony, and skill are 
 secured. 
 
 3. The High-School Principal Unitizes the Faculty 
 and the Work. He is always a professional educator 
 and a specialist in the conduct studies. He gives his 
 best energies to training his pupils to habits of self- 
 control, self-reliance, and efficient work. During the 
 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 287 
 
 first and second years he uses practical ethics as the 
 basis of his conduct lessons, and during the third and 
 fourth years these lessons are given in connection 
 with elementary psychology. The pupil is led to 
 study the individual self and the larger social self. 
 History and civics are so studied as to re-enforce the 
 conduct lessons and lead up to a life of duty. These 
 are made pre-eminently conduct studies. The princi- 
 pal plans to co-ordinate the work of all the teachers. 
 In a town of ten thousand inhabitants or less the 
 high-school principal is supervising principal of all 
 the schools. The ideal programme gives him four 
 periods daily for teaching and three for supervision. 
 Through the primary and intermediate principals he 
 directs the work of the primary and intermediate 
 schools, and through the visits of his special teachers 
 he constantly reaches all the grades. He is, indeed, 
 the principal teacher. 
 
 4. The High-School Faculty Meetings are of Vital 
 Interest. Each teacher studies the work of all the 
 teachers and becomes broad and liberal. The faculty 
 discussions and studies are the antidote to the nar- 
 rowness of the mere specialist. Advanced pedagog- 
 ical studies receive large attention. The high-school 
 teacher is a growing educator. 
 
 5. The High-School Work demands Men as well 
 as Women. The sexes should be equally represented 
 in the high-school faculty. The predominance of 
 either sex in high-school faculties is considered a 
 fundamental educational blunder. The teachers must 
 be men as well as women who know life and who can 
 deeply interest the pupils in the living present. 
 
288 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 " High-school education, if the unjust charge were true, that it 
 kept youth away from the interests of life and made him insensi- 
 ble to its pulsations because it locks him up in the world of the 
 past and of scholastic and unreal abstraction, would indeed tend 
 to unfit for life and be a failure. The opposite course is the 
 one which the high school should pursue with the graduate of the 
 elementary school. It should aim at bringing him into the closest 
 touch with the highest interests of current life, and to fill him 
 with a strong desire for activity in the world of reality. 
 
 " During the years that a pupil is in the high school the saying 
 of Terence should apply to him, 'He is a man, anfl nothing that 
 relates to man should be without interest to him.' " Superin- 
 tendent F. Louis Soldan. 
 
 CHAPTEK XXY. 
 
 STUDENT IMPROVEMENT THROUGH COLLEGE 
 IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 The Modern College makes Close Connection with 
 the High School Most college students in the near 
 future will be high-school graduates, and there must 
 be no break in the educational highway. The educa- 
 tional world is giving its best efforts to the improve- 
 ment of elementary and secondary schools so as to best 
 prepare youths for life and for college. 
 
 It is believed that early in the twentieth century 
 the high-school diploma will condition admission to 
 the college, as the elementary-school certificate will 
 condition admission to the high school. This plan 
 exalts the elementary and the high schools and great- 
 ly helps the college. It necessitates the maintenance 
 everywhere of specialized and correlated high schools. 
 
COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 289 
 
 It eliminates the incubus and the burlesque of college 
 admission examinations. It unitizes the school and 
 the college work. 
 
 The Modern College adapts the Instruction to the 
 Students. The professors are well grounded in prac- 
 tical psychology and in the science and art of teaching. 
 They realize that knowledge can not be transferred ; 
 that knowledge can be taught only by occasioning the 
 appropriate activities in the learner's mind. They pro- 
 foundly study the new students. They wisely classify 
 the freshmen, and adapt the work to each student. 
 The antiquated college clings to the old dogma of 
 formal discipline, ignores the doctrine of appercep- 
 tion and interest, and labours to make each student 
 fit its iron bedstead. It hurts as many as it helps, 
 and freezes and crushes out half its students by the 
 end of the second year. The modern college is doing 
 a beneficent work in the sensible management of its 
 students during the first and second college years. 
 
 The Modern College Professor is a Teacher. His pro- 
 fessional preparation for teaching has been as thorough 
 as that of the physician for the practice of medicine. 
 He leads his students in research and investigation. 
 He inspires and guides, as well as instructs. He works 
 with the students, and is their friend and adviser. 
 The antiquated college professor lectures but does not 
 teach. He does not know his students. The close 
 friendship between the modern college professor and 
 his students is revolutionary ; it doubles the value of 
 the college course. 
 
 The Modern College Faculty is a Teaching Unit. 
 The professors are broad and liberal. Each is in a de- 
 20 
 
290 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 gree familiar with work done by the other members 
 of the faculty, and so works in view of all the work. 
 There is proportion and harmony and correlation and 
 concentration. In our belated archaic colleges the 
 professors are as isolated in their work as they could 
 be if working in different planets. A distinguished 
 professor in one of these colleges says : " I have taught 
 in this college for a third of a century ; during all 
 these years not one of my fellow-professors has spent 
 an hour in my class room." The transformation of 
 these antiquated colleges into modern colleges with real 
 faculties of earnest coworkers is certainly one of the 
 most beneficent of all college reforms. 
 
 The Modern College believes in Coeducation. In 
 the college work no distinction is made on account of 
 sex. A due proportion of the professors are women. 
 The students are women and men. The hazing, the 
 rushing, and the dissipation of the old-time male col- 
 leges is unknown. In college, as in good society, young 
 men and young women prove mutually helpful, and 
 the young women become more womanly and the 
 young men become more manly. By the close of 
 the century most male colleges will have opened wide 
 their doors to women ; a decade or two later most 
 female colleges will have opened their doors to men. 
 
 The Modern College deeply interests the Educator. 
 A marvellous transformation is taking place. De- 
 velopment through scholarship takes the place of formal 
 discipline. Laboratory work, original research, inves- 
 tigation, and the best teaching largely take the place 
 of the stupid lecture and the comical quiz. The oc- 
 casional lecture is rich in thought and in suggestive- 
 
COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 291 
 
 ness. The ideal professor studies his students as well 
 as his specialty. His class work is helpful, but he does 
 most in guiding and inspiring the individual students. 
 Like Aristotle and Kant, he is a teacher as well as a 
 student. Like Arnold and Agassiz, large hearted and 
 broad viewed, he is an educator as well as a peerless 
 specialist. 
 
 The Modern College strengthens the High School 
 The high-school graduate without a break enters upon 
 the college work. The great movement of our times 
 is to secure the educative unity of our schools and our 
 colleges. The modern college demands of its students 
 culture and mental power rather than a prescribed 
 amount of knowledge. Four years of good high- 
 school work leads to the college. The high-school 
 specialists are college graduates, and are thoroughly 
 acquainted with the needs of the college as well as the 
 needs of the high school. The high-school faculty 
 and the college faculty are coworkers. These facul- 
 ties study to do most for the pupil and the student. 
 
 Options and Department Work characterize the Mod- 
 ern College. Students, under skilful guidance, select 
 their studies. A course occupies three weekly recita- 
 tion periods through the school year. The aim is to 
 make all courses of great educative value. Educa- 
 tional symmetry requires that each of the five co-ordi- 
 nate groups of studies should be represented in the 
 work of the student through the college years. It is 
 a serious blunder to overlook this requirement ; stu- 
 dents must select their studies under advisement. Mod- 
 ern college faculties work in groups called schools and 
 departments. The isolated professor is a thing of the 
 
292 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 past. Department teaching, the highest stage of 
 school evolution, is the crowning feature of modern 
 college work. Specialization is correlated, and a 
 group of professors become a teaching unit. 
 
 The SmaUer Modern Colleges are Invaluable. They 
 can give fewer options, but they can do as good work 
 as the university. They have some marked advan- 
 tages. Students are individuals rather than masses. 
 The instruction is given by the professor and not by 
 assistants. They create centres of educational life 
 of inestimable value. They have vast advantages in 
 the development of character. Everywhere the well- 
 endowed and efficient smaller college should be fos- 
 tered. 
 
 THE MODERN UNIVERSITY. 
 
 All teachers feel a deep interest in the modern 
 university. It is getting into close touch with the 
 schools and with the people through adaptation and 
 university extension. Graduate work characterizes 
 the university. Its departments of education, of 
 medicine, of law, of engineering, etc., are its glory. 
 "We study with profound interest the revolutionary 
 movements now going on in our great universities. 
 
 1. The Undergraduates have Skilled Advisers. 
 Students are carefully grouped in small sections, and 
 each group has one of the professors as adviser. Our 
 largest universities may thus keep in close touch with 
 each undergraduate. At no time in life do young 
 people more need a wise friend than during the fresh- 
 man and sophomore years in the great universities. 
 During these precious years in the antiquated colleges 
 
COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 293 
 
 and universities a large per cent of the students waste 
 their energies and drift to the bad. 
 
 2. Physical Culture includes all Students. The 
 best gymnasiums are provided, arid skilled specialists 
 direct the exercises and lead the students in the ways 
 of physical vigour. Football and other semibarbar- 
 ous games are left to the experts. The modern uni- 
 versity plans the physical betterment of all students, 
 and not merely the pampering of a team or crew. 
 
 3. The Course Systein makes Adaptation possible. 
 Under the guidance of his adviser each student elects 
 the course best for him. Graduation is conditioned 
 by culture, and the B. A. and the M. A. degrees are 
 conferred on students who satisfactorily complete any 
 of the co-ordinate degree courses. The gain over the 
 antiquated curriculum and the confusing multiplicity 
 of degrees is marvellous. 
 
 4. Early Specialization Helps. During the junior 
 and senior years a student may take one course each year 
 in his chosen specialty, and these courses count for his 
 academic as well as for his professional degree. The 
 gain is incalculable. The stimulus is such as to aug- 
 ment general culture. Then the student learns to en- 
 rich his specialty by all learning. Take the department 
 of education ; the student elects teaching. During the 
 junior and senior years he takes two professional 
 courses. He learns to study and observe and read as 
 an educational artist. Two years of graduate work in 
 the department of education prepares him for the 
 profession of teaching. The same is true of the de- 
 partment of law, the department of medicine, and the 
 other professional departments. 
 
294 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 CO-ORDINATION AND CORRELATION OF EDUCATIONAL 
 INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 As a fitting summary, a few paragraphs from an 
 article in the Popular Science Monthly by Dr. E. H. 
 Magill will interest all teachers : 
 
 " The common consensus of thoughtful minds in 
 these latter days has been gradually tending more and 
 more toward the proper co-ordination and correlation 
 of our educational institutions. In a comparatively 
 new country like ours it may naturally be supposed 
 that, as the need for various grades of these institu- 
 tions has arisen, the want has not always been supplied 
 with a sufficiently careful consideration of the needs 
 of those of other grades, and that, as a result, the gen- 
 eral educational interests of the country require some 
 readjustment and reorganization. It should be ob- 
 served in the beginning that no censure is intended to 
 be applied to any institution or class of institutions 
 for their present status, as this has resulted from the 
 progressive stages of their growth and development, 
 and no sudden or violent change is contemplated or 
 desired. The general outline here to be presented is 
 rather an ideal system for future realization, toward 
 which all may gradually work as their surroundings 
 and circumstances may permit. 
 
 " In the three years from the age of three to six, 
 with competent trained teachers, the little ones receive 
 a training of the hand, the eye, the ear, the voice, and 
 the mind that tells powerfully upon all the subsequent 
 years of their school and college life ; and the social, 
 moral, and unsectarian religious element of their na- 
 
COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 295 
 
 tnres receives in these early years a most profound 
 and lasting impression. 
 
 " We present this co-ordination and correlation of 
 our educational institutions as an ideal scheme toward 
 which we should ever aspire, but which we can not 
 expect to see realized by any sudden or violent 
 changes, or, indeed, in full operation within the next 
 quarter of a century. But that something analogous 
 to that which is here presented will be found feasible 
 and practicable, and to harmonize fully with the in- 
 tuitions of this free country of ours, and enable us to 
 attract students from abroad in great numbers instead 
 of sending them, as now, to complete their education 
 in Germany, France, or England, we are most thor- 
 oughly convinced. 
 
 BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 
 AND CONTROL. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 
 
 XX. Correlation of Schools and Course*. What do you consider 
 the central idea in education as a science? Show the organic 
 unity of wisely planned school work. Why should all teachers 
 learn to view life as a whole ? Describe the stages of pupil growth 
 and the corresponding schools. What studies have the highest 
 educative values ! Name the five necessary co-ordinate groups of 
 studies. Discuss the inorganic and the organic groups ; the litera- 
 ture group ; the language group ; the history group. Name the five 
 practical co-ordinate study groups. Do school conditions demand 
 this grouping ? Discuss the conduct group ; the language-litera- 
 ture group ; the science group ; the mathematics group ; the art 
 group. Give some of the grounds for this grouping. Give the 
 history of the Report of the Fifteen. Describe the course of study 
 for elementary schools planned by the committee. Explain the 
 elementary-school period ; the recitation periods ; recitation time ; 
 
296 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 promotions; few subjects; correlation of studies. Give the his- 
 tory of the Report of the Ten. Describe the parallel courses of 
 study for secondary schools planned by the committee. Discuss 
 the place and work of the college. Give the group place of 
 each of the school studies (page 200), and describe its kinder- 
 garten phase ; its primary phase ; its intermediate phase ; its high- 
 school phase ; its college phase. What do you mean by the cor- 
 relation of schools and colleges ? by the correlation of courses of 
 study ? by co-ordination ? by concentration f 
 
 XXI. Efficient Eural Schools. Why is it so necessary to im- 
 prove rural schools ? Sketch the history of our country schools. 
 What schools are classed as rural schools ? Why must the rural 
 school work be sui generis^ Describe your ideal country school ; 
 country schoolhouse. Why do you consider the organic group- 
 ing of the rural schools an educational necessity ? Is the town- 
 ship grouping the best ? Why should a school group be compact I 
 Why should the school board be perpetual? Why is it vital to 
 make the teacher of the central school principal ? Give some rea- 
 sons for making village schools the central schools. Why should 
 rural-school organization be exceedingly flexible? State your 
 plan for creating and managing rural-school libraries. What 
 school apparatus is necessary in country schools ? Give some of 
 the advantages of rural schools ; some of the disadvantages. De- 
 scribe your plan for classifying rural schools. Give some of the 
 advantages of the four-group plan. Discuss the rural-school 
 study groups ; the rural-school course of study ; the rural-school 
 programme. Compare the three-group and the four-group pro- 
 grammes. May the teachers of a rural district be organized into 
 a faculty ? Describe the faculty meetings. Describe the partial- 
 ly graded rural school ; the rural high school. Explain the rural- 
 school methods. Is it possible to make our rural schools as effi- 
 cient as the urban schools ? 
 
 XXII. Kindergarten and Primary Schools. What is the key to 
 child knowledge? Describe the kindergarten period ; the kinder- 
 garten spirit ; kindergarten literature. Why must the first pri- 
 mary grade be semi-kindergarten? Picture your ideal primary 
 schoolhouse. Describe the primary faculty. Outline primary 
 grading and classification. Give the primary study groups. Give 
 some features of the grouped course of study for primary schools. 
 Why must details be left to primary faculties ? 
 
COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 297 
 
 XXIII. Specialized Intermediate Schools. Describe the educa- 
 tional highway. Discuss stages of pupil growth ; the uniqueness 
 of each school group ; stages of school evolution. Examine inter- 
 mediate specialization; the intermediate stage of pupil growth; 
 the adaptation of intermediate work. Describe the ideal interme- 
 diate-school building. Discuss the intermediate faculty. Why 
 should there be as many male as female teachers ? Discuss the 
 intermediate study groups ; the intermediate course of study ; the 
 suggestive intermediate programme ; individual promotion ; class 
 promotion. Why must details be left to each intermediate facul- 
 ty! Picture the specialized intermediate school at work. De- 
 scribe the work of each special teacher. Give a few of the reasons 
 urged for transforming the old grammar school into the special- 
 ized intermediate school. State some of the objections. Why 
 should we hasten leisurely? 
 
 XXIV. Specialized and Correlated High Schools. What schools 
 compose this group? Why should the high school prepare for 
 life as well" as for college? State the order in which the school 
 groups appeared. Discuss the question, Is the high school sui 
 generis^ Describe youth. Discuss the question, Is youth the 
 real formative stage of growth? Tell the story of high-school 
 evolution. Describe your ideal high-school building ; high-school 
 equipments ; high-school organization ; high-school promotion and 
 graduation. What are the aims of the high school ? What stud- 
 ies are best? Examine the high-school study groups. Discuss 
 the questions, Should conduct studies be made a distinct study 
 group ? Should language and literature be grouped as the lan- 
 guage-literature group of studies ? Has science a higher educa- 
 tive value than mathematics? Should the language-literature 
 group of studies be given double the time of the other groups ? 
 Examine the course of study for the smaller high schools. Why 
 must each specialist arrange the details of his work ? Explain the 
 suggestive programme. Describe the high-school faculty. Why 
 should the principal be the leading teacher? Why should he 
 teach the conduct studies ? Why should he be ever a leader and 
 never a boss ? Discuss the question, Should the sexes be equal in 
 the high-school faculty? 
 
 XXV. College Correlation and Improvement. Point out the dis- 
 tinction between a high school and a college ; between a college 
 and a university. Describe the correlation of high-school and 
 
298 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 college work. Compare the modern and the antiquated college in 
 the treatment of the freshman class ; in artistic teaching ; in co- 
 education; in progress; in giving options; in strengthening the 
 high school. Discuss, Should the smaller colleges be fostered f 
 Why are all men interested in the modern university ! Compare 
 the modern and the antiquated university as to student advisers ; 
 as to physical culture ; as to courses. Discuss, Should special- 
 ization begin with the junior year? Illustrate by the depart- 
 ment of education. Give a brief statement of Dr. Magill's scheme 
 of co-ordination and correlation. 
 
PART VI. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 
 
 XXVII. EFFICIENT METHODS IN LANGUAGE-LITERA- 
 TURE TEACHING. 
 
 XXVIII. EFFICIENT METHODS IN SCIENCE TEACHING. 
 
 XXIX. EFFICIENT METHODS IN MATHEMATICS 
 TEACHING. 
 
 XXX. EFFICIENT METHODS IN ART TEACHING. 
 299 
 
XVI and 
 XVIII. 
 CLASS 
 
 METHODS. 
 
 XXVI. 
 CONDUCT 
 METHODS. 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 LANGUAGE- 
 LITERATURE 
 METHODS. 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 SCIENCE 
 METHODS. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 SCIENCE 
 METHODS. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 ART 
 METHODS. 
 
 1. Characteristics of efficient class methods. 
 
 2. Investigation class method. 
 
 3. Helpful class devices. 
 
 4. Oral teaching and book teaching. 
 
 1. Pre-eminent importance of conduct teach- 
 
 ing. 
 
 2. The conduct group of studies. 
 
 3. Efficient methods in special conduct les- 
 
 sons. 
 
 4. Efficient methods in history. 
 
 5. Efficient methods in mind lessons and prac- 
 
 tical religion. 
 
 1. Language-literature group of studies. 
 
 Educative value. 
 
 2. Efficient methods in reading and expres- 
 
 sion. 
 
 3. Efficient methods in literature. 
 
 4. Efficient methods in language. 
 
 5. Efficient methods in composition. 
 
 1. Science group of studies. Educative value. 
 
 2. Efficient methods in geography. 
 
 3. Efficient methods in biology. 
 
 4. Efficient methods in physics. 
 
 1. Mathematics group of studies. Educative 
 
 value. 
 
 2. Efficient methods in arithmetic. 
 
 3. Efficient methods in concrete geometry. 
 
 4. Efficient methods in oral bookkeeping. 
 
 f 1. Art group of studies. Educative value. 
 
 2. Efficient methods in physical culture. 
 
 3. Efficient methods in drawing and writing. 
 
 4. Efficient methods in vocal music. 
 
 5. Efficient methods in manual training. 
 
 300 
 
PAET SIXTH. 
 
 PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT 
 METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING, 
 
 CONDUCT is the greatest thing in education. The 
 ideal education elevates conduct culture from a fitful 
 incidental training to the highest place in school and 
 college work. All studies are, in a sense, conduct 
 studies, as all studies are language studies ; but in his- 
 tory, rather than in algebra, high ideals and ennobling 
 motives are impressed. The studies which lead to self- 
 knowledge and to rational doing are pre-eminently con- 
 duct studies. All true teachers are, first of all, con- 
 
 The Conduct Group of Studies. 
 
 Elementary Schools. 
 
 Secondary schools. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Special conduct les- 
 sons. 
 Biographical history. 
 Oral civics. 
 Oral mind lessons. 
 Practical religion. 
 
 Practical ethics. 
 
 Comparative history. 
 Elementary civics. 
 Elementary psychology. 
 Practical religion. 
 
 Philosophic ethics. 
 
 Philosophic history. 
 Philosophic civics. 
 Philosophy. 
 Practical religion. 
 
 301 
 
302 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 duct teachers, as all are language teachers ; but the 
 teacher of the conduct studies becomes a specialist in 
 conduct culture. Promoting good conduct is made 
 primary. 
 
 It seems fitting to include in the conduct study 
 group, studies of the individual self, the social self, 
 and the cosmic self. Self-knowledge and rational 
 self-activity characterize the conduct group of studies. 
 Intelligent doing develops character. Educative 
 methods in teaching the conduct studies are such as 
 foster character growth. Education is the develop- 
 ment and training that fit pupils for the highest hap- 
 piness of which they are capable, and happiness comes 
 from loving law-abiding. The conduct studies have 
 the highest educative value, for they do most to pre- 
 pare pupils for complete living. We marvel at the 
 strange neglect of conduct culture in the past, and 
 greatly rejoice in the movement to exalt conduct 
 teaching. In school and college, one recitation period 
 daily must be devoted to the conduct studies. A 
 special programme for conduct work will be planned 
 by each conduct teacher. All principals of schools 
 and presidents of colleges are to be specialists in con- 
 duct culture. Teachers in our primary and ungraded 
 schools, and in our unspecialized grammar schools, are 
 conduct teachers first of all ; they are also language- 
 literature teachers, and science teachers, and mathe- 
 matics teachers, and art teachers. 
 
 METHODS IN TEACHING SPECIAL CONDUCT LESSONS. 
 
 The special conduct lessons in the elementary 
 school become practical ethics in the high school and 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 303 
 
 philosophic ethics in the college. Good conduct 
 teaching fosters the growth into character of right 
 ethical ideas, ennobling emotions, and generous acts. 
 
 1. School Conduct. Educative school government 
 is the best means of practical conduct culture. Law- 
 abiding self-control becomes habitual. Pupils learn 
 to work silently and orderly. Regularity and prompt- 
 itude are school virtues. Gentility and generosity 
 become ingrained. All right habits are cherished. 
 Pupils learn to correct their own faults. Even pun- 
 ishments are made helpful. The teacher thinks of 
 school government as the means of promoting charac- 
 ter growth. Part III, Educative School Government, 
 may be studied as a part of this section. 
 
 2. How to Study. Good school conduct means 
 studious habits and efficient study. Teaching pupils 
 how to study, developing a love of study, and train- 
 ing: to studious habits are cardinal in school work. 
 
 O 
 
 Study is the pupil's business. Self-control becomes 
 self-concentration, and conduct becomes studiousness. 
 To learn how to learn is more important than the 
 knowledge gained. The teacher leads even the little 
 ones to find out for themselves. Pupils are trained 
 to find out from Nature and also to find out from 
 books. It is a great thing to teach pupils what to 
 study and how to study. Studious habits are even 
 more important than learning. As pupils advance 
 they learn to investigate, learn to make independent 
 research. 
 
 Half the energies of our pupils are squandered 
 because we do not teach them how to study. Many 
 of our pupils will fail in life because we fail to edu- 
 
304: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 cate them to succeed. All tilings are possible to 
 pupils who acquire studious habits and learn how to 
 do efficient work. Good teaching trains pupils to do 
 good studying. Occasionally the teacher and the 
 pupils devote the recitation period to studying the 
 new lesson ; but we secure the most satisfactory re- 
 sults when we devote one weekly recitation period to 
 helpful lessons in the art of efficient study. These 
 lessons should be continued till the pupil reaches the 
 seventh grade. These lessons are of great value to 
 teachers as well as pupils. Some wise teacher should 
 prepare a practical manual on Teaching Pupils how 
 to Study. 
 
 3. Lessons in Morals and Manners. These are 
 special conduct lessons. Pupils think of these as con- 
 duct lessons rather than lessons in manners and 
 morals. "When wisely given, these lessons are in- 
 tensely interesting and of the highest practical value. 
 
 How often is Best ? One lesson each week during 
 the first six elementary school years has proved most 
 profitable. All school work supplements these spe- 
 cial lessons, but experience demonstrates the necessity 
 for these specific and systematic lessons. The Com- 
 mittee of Fifteen mentions that " brief series of les- 
 sons in morals and manners should be given each 
 year with a view to build up in the mind a theory of 
 the conventionalities of polite and pure-minded so- 
 ciety." 
 
 What Lessons are most Beneficial ? Such lessons as 
 tend to foster high ideals and good conduct. Inci- 
 dents in the lives of great women and men are always 
 helpful. Historic events involving morals and man- 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 305 
 
 ners are always interesting and uplifting. Here, as 
 everywhere, concentration gives the best results. Pa- 
 tiently and persistently the teacher leads the pupil to 
 grow the cardinal virtues into habits. All lessons are 
 selected and taught to promote this end. 
 
 What Methods are most Efficient ? Oral teaching 
 is every way the best. Oral lessons should never be- 
 come lectures, but more like Socratic dialogues, build- 
 ing up systematic knowledge partly from what is 
 already known and partly by new investigation. 
 Pupils must be led to give incidents from their own 
 experiences and to express their own views. To-day 
 the topic written on the board is, The Generous Pu- 
 pil. The teacher introduces the lesson by telling a 
 striking illustrative story. Pupils tell of generous 
 acts which they have witnessed. Why do you like 
 generous pupils? Pupils give reasons. Why will 
 you try to be generous from habit ? Pupils are led 
 to resolve and tell. Lessons thus taught get into the 
 lives of the pupils. 
 
 How may Conduct Lessons be adapted? We study 
 to adapt the conduct lessons to the stage of growth 
 and to the social environments. We study our pupils 
 as they live at their homes and connect our lessons 
 with their experiences. Reasoning and sermonizing 
 are worse than wasted on the little child. Through 
 kindness and environments we lead the little ones to 
 form good habits. Through firmness and gentle but 
 unvarying restraints we develop a proper respect for 
 authority and prevent the formation of bad habits. 
 During early childhood conduct lessons are largely 
 training lessons. 
 21 
 
306 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 How may Conduct Lessons be correlated? The 
 teacher so plans that the history lesson and the litera- 
 ture lesson re-enforce the special conduct lesson. The 
 science lessons and the art lessons may be made ex- 
 ceedingly helpful in promoting good conduct. Iso- 
 lated stories or lessons, however excellent, are waste 
 labour. Correlation and concentration condition effi- 
 cient teaching. 
 
 What Books will help ? No text-book must ever 
 be used. Stories, as a rule, must be told and not 
 read. Detailed lessons as found in books must be 
 used merely as suggestive ; spontaneity must char- 
 acterize conduct lessons. Yet books are exceedingly 
 helpful in the conduct work, and the working library 
 supplements the lessons. For teachers as well as 
 pupils we are getting many helpful books for conduct 
 teaching. 
 
 METHODS IN TEACHING HISTORY. 
 
 History is the Great Conduct Study. Philosoph- 
 ically considered, the history studies come as the fifth 
 necessary group of studies ; but practical education 
 regards history as the central conduct study. History 
 is the race teaching by experience. We become good 
 citizens because every page of history teaches us that 
 all good comes through law-abiding. History is the 
 story of humane progress. We make progress be- 
 cause we work in the light of all the centuries. His- 
 tory is the world's great character gallery. We make 
 our lives sublime because we live in the presence of 
 the mighty past. History is philosophy teaching by 
 example. We become wise and refined and pure be- 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 3Q7 
 
 cause our race heritage is the true, the beautiful, 
 and the good. History is cosmic. We become worthy 
 of a place among the immortals because we come to 
 think of the Eternal Energy, from whom all things 
 proceed, as our loving Father; because we come to 
 feel that all men all other rational beings are our 
 brothers ; and because we get to realize that the uni- 
 verse is our everlasting patrimony. 
 
 1. Primary History Methods. The historic sense 
 becomes active as early as the seventh year, and chil- 
 dren begin to be interested in history lessons. The 
 primary teacher studies to give the pupil object les- 
 sons in social life. Myths, fairy tales, folklore, bio- 
 graphical stories, historic incidents, are made to lead 
 up to civics and history proper. Child life is made 
 the objective basis of the history lessons. As pupils 
 out of their own experience and the assimilated ex- 
 perience of others create a geography world, so out 
 of their own historic experience and the assimilated 
 historic experience of others they create a history 
 world. The verity of the history story interests the 
 child. The bearing on conduct of adapted history 
 lessons is of paramount value. As the pupil's Nature 
 experiences are fundamental in science teaching, so 
 the learner's social experiences must be made the basis 
 of history teaching. The home, the school, the Church, 
 and the state are the social environments of the child, 
 and all true history teaching must be grounded in the 
 pupil's actual experience. What we teach, and when 
 and how, must come in answer to the child's needs. 
 Basing all teaching on the experience of the learner has 
 completely changed our methods of teaching history. 
 
308 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. Intermediate Methods in History. The history 
 story, now taking a wider range, touches the larger 
 life of the pupil. The intermediate teacher plans a 
 course of lessons in general history running through 
 the intermediate period. Hebrew history, Grecian 
 history, Roman history, and the stories of the nations, 
 furnish abundant materials. What lessons will prove 
 most helpful ? The course you outline will be your 
 answer. You study to co-ordinate your history lessons, 
 your literature lessons, and your special conduct les- 
 sons. The lessons are always conversational, and never 
 degenerate into mere story telling or lectures. The 
 lessons are made especially interesting. Biographical 
 and historical stories and stories of travel enter into 
 the warp and the woof of these lessons. The pu- 
 pils are led to read interesting books in the line 
 of the lessons. These history lessons are the most 
 fruitful conduct lessons. Before the age of twelve 
 history finds its natural expressions in stories, pic- 
 tures, plays, and poems, and is at once aesthetic and 
 didactic. 
 
 History and literature during the early years seem 
 to blend, but about the age of twelve inference begins 
 to play an important part, and historic study gets to 
 be critical. The pupil begins to make an event give 
 an account of itself, begins to ask what occurred ? 
 when ? where ? how ? why ? A text-book in Ameri- 
 can history is studied during the seventh and eighth 
 school years, but oral lessons in general history 
 supplement the bookwork. There is no hurry, no 
 crowding ; the pupils live the historic events over 
 again, for they become to them almost as real as the 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 309 
 
 living present. Imagination is the master builder, nor 
 does history interest the prosy plodder. As we lead 
 each pupil to create his own geography world, so we 
 lead each one to create his own history world. 
 
 By means of historic charts and other devices the 
 pupil is led to realize the unity of history. The 
 blending of the lessons in history and literature and 
 geography is most marked during the intermediate 
 period. The special teachers in these groups plan 
 unity of work. 
 
 3. High- school Methods in History. About the 
 age of fifteen historic study becomes more and more 
 reflective. Pupils now study the lives of peoples and 
 begin the systematic study of comparative history. 
 They study both general and special history and learn 
 in some degree the art of research. 
 
 By giving two weekly recitation periods to his- 
 tory throughout the four high-school years a good 
 foundation in historic study may be laid. No at- 
 tempt is made to cover all the ground, but the rnost 
 helpful things are carefully studied. The best in the 
 lives of the best men and the best peoples somehow 
 gets into the lives of the pupils. 
 
 4. College Methods in teaching History. At eight- 
 een the student begins in earnest to try to master 
 history as a science. Independent research, compara- 
 tive history, monographical special studies, critical 
 interpretations, are some features of collegiate historic 
 work. It is important that the student devote two 
 weekly recitation periods throughout the four college 
 years to historic studies. Thus will be laid the best 
 basis for life work. The philosophy of history, phil- 
 
310 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 osophic history, and original historic investigation 
 come largely as graduate work. 
 
 5. Helps in teaching History. How can we so 
 teach history as to develop character? This is a 
 vital pedagogical question and will elicit more and 
 more attention as the decades go by. Germany and 
 France and Italy are rich in historic teaching helps. 
 England has taught the world how to write history, 
 but to America belongs the honour of producing ideal 
 school histories. Our recent contributions in methods 
 of teaching history are highly valuable. First of all 
 we have How to study and teach History, by B. A. 
 Hinsdale. Next we have Methods of teaching His- 
 tory, by G. Stanley Hall. In his Manual of Methods 
 A. H. Garlick makes excellent suggestions. History 
 in the Common Schools, by Emily J. Rice, and 
 Unity in College Entrance History, by Lucy M. 
 Salmon, in Educational Review, September, 1896, 
 are counted among the helpful recent contributions. 
 The reports of the Committee of Ten and the Com- 
 mittee of Fifteen will prove of great value to teach- 
 ers of history. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING Civics. 
 
 By civics is meant education for citizenship. We 
 here use civics in a broad sense, so as to include gov- 
 ernment, economics, patriotism, international policy 
 lessons that will best prepare pupils for the duties of 
 good citizens. In the lower grades history and civics 
 are blended ; but in the seventh and eighth grades 
 and through the four high-school years one recitation 
 period a week should be devoted to civics. In the 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 3H 
 
 college, civics becomes political economy and soci- 
 ology. 
 
 1. Primary Methods. Our pupils breathe the 
 atmosphere of citizenship. We lead the little ones to 
 experience law and government. We begin with the 
 family ; here the child experiences the elements of all 
 government. The school next enlarges child experi- 
 ence. Then community government, and county, and 
 State, and nation begin to be experienced as the pu- 
 pils advance. These experience lessons in civics are 
 impressed in connection with the history lessons and 
 literature lessons and the geography lessons. Pupils 
 get into their lives the elements of good citizenship 
 and patriotism. Even thus early they are led to 
 realize that liberty and all good come through law- 
 abiding. 
 
 2. Intermediate Methods. With the younger pu- 
 pils the synthetic process is best, but in the seventh 
 and eighth grades the analytic process is used. Pupils 
 may now begin with our national government. It is 
 thought to be safe to use an easy text-book on civil 
 government in the seventh and eighth grades. One 
 lesson a week during these years will do much to pre- 
 pare our pupils for citizenship. 
 
 METHODS IN TEACHING MIND LESSONS. 
 
 1. Primary Mind Lessons. Self-knowledge is 
 most valuable, for it is the basis of rational conduct. 
 It seems fitting that easy mind lessons should be given 
 in all elementary schools. Pupils stand face to face 
 with the mind world just as they do with the matter 
 world. What appears to them in the matter world is 
 
312 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 called physical phenomena, and what appears to them 
 in the mind world is called mental phenomena. We 
 lead pupils to explore the matter world, and we call 
 the work Nature study ; we lead them to explore the 
 self-world, and we call the work self-study. Pupils 
 experience sensations, and out of their sensations 
 make their sense notions ; they experience awareness, 
 and out of their conscious experiences make their self- 
 ideas. " Mind lessons," says Dr. Miinsterberg, " can 
 not come too early." The pupil sees, hears, touches ; 
 attends, desires, acts ; remembers, dreams, imagines ; 
 perceives, conceives, infers ; hopes, loves, enjoys. We 
 lead the pupil through his own conscious acts to be- 
 come acquainted with himself. These lessons are at 
 first given incidentally in connection with the daily 
 work. There must be no definitions, no diagrams, no 
 theories, no hard words, no conscious introspection. 
 Pupils become acquainted with the self-world, just as 
 they become acquainted with the sense world. Self- 
 study goes on side by side with Nature study. The 
 lessons in conduct and history and literature are often 
 the best self-lessons. Mind lessons are as wholesome 
 and helpful as object lessons. 
 
 2. Intermediate Mind Lessons. During the sev- 
 enth and eighth years one mind lesson a week is ex- 
 ceedingly helpful. These lessons are based on pupil 
 experience. Nothing is said about soul, or psychol- 
 ogy, or faculty. Definitions are not yet thought of. 
 Memory is simply a self-remembering, and judgment 
 is a self- judging, and choice is a self-choosing. These 
 lessons fit into the pupil's life and supplement the les- 
 sons in all the other studies. They prepare the pupil 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 313 
 
 as nothing else can to understand man and history and 
 literature. It is a mistake to send our pupils out into 
 life with vague and often hurtful self-notions. Clear, 
 well-defined elementary self-knowledge is the best 
 preparation for life. 
 
 3. Elementary Psychology. During the first and 
 second high-school years the mind lessons are given 
 in connection with the study of practical ethics ; and 
 during the third and fourth years an easy elementary 
 text-book in experimental and descriptive psychology 
 is studied. 
 
 High-school pupils feel an irrepressible longing for 
 deeper insight into the self-world and the social world 
 and the cosmic world. The conduct teacher wisely 
 leads them, and so they become real explorers and not 
 dreamers. Each lesson is based on experience; but 
 the pupil now seeks to enrich his own experiences by 
 the experiences of the race. Each pupil is led to create 
 his own ethics and his own psychology. One lesson 
 a week throughout the four high-school years will 
 ground the pupils in essential self-knowledge, and will 
 work into their lives the best things. In another 
 decade, educators will wonder at the strange neglect 
 of self-study in our nineteenth-century high schools. 
 
 4. Philosophy. Philosophic methods characterize 
 college work. In the conduct group of studies the 
 practical ethics and elementary psychology of the high 
 school become the psychology, the ethics, the logic, and 
 the philosophy of the college. For convenience we call 
 this master group of studies philosophy. The college 
 student learns to make larger and larger syntheses until 
 he is able to think of all the sciences and of all knowl- 
 
314 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 edge as a unit. Led by masters, he finds out what 
 the universe is, and what men have thought and 
 achieved, and slowly creates for himself his own phi- 
 losophy. It must be best to give to philosophy two 
 weekly recitation periods throughout the college years. 
 Conduct ideals may thus become cosmic ; life plans 
 may thus be projected on higher planes ; high en- 
 deavour may thus get to be habitual. 
 
 METHODS IN TEACHING PRACTICAL RELIGION. 
 
 Man is a religious being. The conduct cycle em- 
 braces self, others, God. Complete living is cosmic. 
 All men love Jesus, for he loved all men. The 
 best in all men is found in Jesus. He lived the 
 one perfect life, and taught the one perfect moral 
 code. Because we think of religion as sectarian, as 
 creed, as dogma, we exclude it from our schools ; but 
 practical religion, the life of Jesus, is as broad as the 
 race. Many object to formal religious teaching in our 
 schools, but in all the world is there an enlightened 
 man who does not approve of getting the lessons of 
 the great Teacher into the hearts and lives of our 
 pupils ? May not this be found to be the solution of 
 the problem of religion in our schools ? Practical re- 
 ligion is to live as Jesus lived. The life of Jesus in 
 our schools would almost infinitely elevate the aspira- 
 tions and conduct of our pupils. 
 
 By stories, by opening songs, by verses read, we 
 lead our pupils to think of Jesus as their best friend. 
 Somehow \ve lead them to say from the heart, " Give 
 us this day our daily bread," and to feel grateful for 
 all good things. As the child asks its mother to for- 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 315 
 
 give, so the pupil comes to ask his best Friend to for- 
 give. The past faults pardoned, each morning the 
 pupil begins a new life and tries to live a better life. 
 Herein is law of moral betterment. The teacher tries 
 to live as Jesus lived, and so teaches by example and 
 gentle words and kind acts. In the opening songs the 
 pupils sing practical religion into their hearts. Teacher 
 and pupils repeat or chant the prayer that Jesus taught 
 his pupils to say. There is no formality, no cant, no 
 dogma ; but somehow the pupils come to feel the emo- 
 tions of worship, the highest and most elevating of all 
 emotions. Our public schools are weak in practical 
 religious teaching. Because of the misapprehension 
 that religious teaching is necessarily sectarian, the 
 tendency is to secularize our schools and leave religion 
 to the family and the Church. The larger proportion 
 of our pupils are thus deprived of the most vital ele- 
 ment in conduct culture. In some way the family, 
 the school, and the Church should come to work to- 
 gether to get the best into the lives of the young. 
 The life and the lessons of the great Teacher seem to 
 meet all the conditions. Catholic and Protestant, 
 Jew and gentile, atheist and theist, may build to- 
 gether on the Rock of Ages. 
 
 PRACTICAL CULTURE OF THE MORAL VIRTUES. 
 
 Ethical Culture must be ingrained. Conduct 
 springs from within. Ethics can not be taught from 
 the outside. Ethical training can not be something 
 of extraneous character, but must be an integral part 
 of the every exercise of daily life the atmosphere 
 in which one lives the spirit which one breathes. 
 
316 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 With tins view of the question, the public schools are 
 pre-eminently the place where opportunity is given 
 for character growing ; and if in any respect the out- 
 put has heretofore been unsatisfactory, it behooves 
 the people to be awake to the necessity of providing 
 conditions that will make all the more powerful this 
 fundamental factor of the American republic. 
 
 Ethical Culture comes of doing. There is ethical 
 value in activity ; contrast the lives of the active and 
 the idle. There is ethical value in order ; order is 
 law-abiding, and disorder is law-violating. There is 
 ethical value in habit ; habit makes or damns. There 
 is ethical value in association ; not the monastery, but 
 social life develops the noblest characters ; Lincolns 
 and Gladstones grow amid the white heat of battle. 
 There is ethical value in culture ; the best in litera- 
 ture and science and art is ethical; compare cultured 
 people with uncultured. There is ethical value in 
 rational recreation ; play is sunshine, is divine. 
 
 Virtuous Peoples teach the Possibilities of Moral 
 Culture. As we go to the Spartans to learn the pos- 
 sibilities of physical culture, and to the Athenians to 
 learn the possibilities of aesthetic culture, so we go to 
 the peoples who have exalted the moral virtues to 
 learn the possibilities of ethical culture. History and 
 biography present marvellous object lessons in point. 
 The savage is a savage from habit, for savagery is in 
 the line of least resistance. The unthinking masses 
 move round and round in the treadmill of custom, for 
 this is easier than independent action. 
 
 1. The Jews teach us Fidelity. For centuries it 
 has cost much to be a Jew, and the story of the Wan- 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 317 
 
 dering Jew is a striking object lesson of the virtue of 
 fidelity to enlightened conviction. Fidelity grows 
 into a fixed habit. Through all the centuries the 
 profound belief in Jehovah and in the Hebrew 
 Scriptures has made the Jewish people a perpetual 
 miracle. 
 
 2. The Scotch teach us Integrity. Go to the 
 homes, the schools, and the kirks of Scotland, and 
 you find that integrity in things great and small is 
 every way inculcated. The Scotch are a living ob- 
 ject lesson" in the practical culture of the moral vir- 
 tues ; the Bible is the moral text-book in the schools 
 of Scotland. 
 
 3. The Quaker teaches us Truthfulness. His word 
 stands for more than the oaths of other men. Early 
 and always, the Quaker child and youth learns to 
 love truth, and speak and act truth. 
 
 4. The World's Moral Heroes teach us the Moral 
 Virtues. We study the life of Jesus as the one per- 
 fect life. We study the lives of the best women and 
 men, that we may discover how they grew into moral 
 greatness ; and herein sacred and classic history and 
 literature must be counted at their highest value. 
 
 Ethical Environments favour Ethical Culture. A 
 moral atmosphere conditions the growth of the moral 
 virtues. A sturdy moral manhood is almost impossi- 
 ble in the midst of moral pestilence. Our first care 
 should be to remove alluring temptations and degrad- 
 ing influences. Moral seclusions are very necessary. 
 The second care should be to throw around the child 
 and youth all favouring influences. Helpful environ- 
 ments, helpful literature, helpful society, helpful work, 
 
318 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 are of incalculable value. Our third care should be to 
 incite high purposes and earnest work. The idle 
 classes, rich and poor, are our moral lepers. 
 
 Ethical Habits are of Highest Value. Moral ances- 
 try tends to morality, and practical ethics may gain 
 valuable lessons from the study of heredity. The 
 little child realizes that it ought to obey its parents. 
 This impulse to obey because it ought is conscience. 
 The child thus early gains the intuition of right, and 
 begins to do moral acts. The greatest thing in educa- 
 tion is the development of the habit of doing what we 
 believe we ought to do. This is the education of 
 conscience. 
 
 Duty is the Keynote in Ethical Culture. The 
 millions pitch the tune of human conduct too low. 
 They ask, "Will it give me pleasure?" "Will it 
 pay ? " " Is it good policy ? " The consequent moral 
 degradation is appalling. But duty is the keynote of 
 every grand life. Conscience stands for duty, for it 
 is our capability to feel duty impulses. Find right, 
 choose right, do right, enjoy right, are the mandates 
 of conscience. As the needle points to the pole, so 
 conscience prompts each one to do duty as he under- 
 stands it. Here all vital moral culture has its root. 
 From infancy to age, the greatest thing in education 
 is so to foster the ethical impulses that they shall be- 
 come practically imperative in controlling human con- 
 duct. The noblest work of God is a man who, from 
 principle and from habit, does what he deems is right. 
 The highest work of the educator is the development 
 of such men and women. 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 319 
 
 CHAPTEK XXVII. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING THE LANGUAGE- 
 LITERATURE GROUP OF STUDIES. 
 
 Teaching and Learning Processes are ever the 
 Same. Child and man discriminate and assimilate, 
 perceive and apperceive, analyze and synthetize, in- 
 duct and deduce. But the child thinks as a child and 
 the man as a man. Teaching leads the child to make 
 its feeble efforts in such ways as to gain power through 
 mastery. Teaching leads girls and boys to make more 
 vigorous efforts, and so to gain greater power through 
 greater mastery. The wise teacher adapts his meth- 
 ods to the pupils and to the conditions. 
 
 Languages and Literatures. Modern insight into 
 the essential unity of literature and language has 
 revolutionized our methods in language-literature 
 teaching. We teach language in teaching literature, 
 and literature in teaching language. We study lan- 
 guage and literature rather than languages and lit- 
 eratures. The study of foreign classics re-enforces 
 the study of English classics. The most hurtful 
 mistake of the past was the divorcement of studies 
 organically one. 
 
 Courses in Language-Literature. Schools and col- 
 leges are steadily working up to as satisfactory and 
 connected courses of study in English as in mathe- 
 matics. The work in the elementary school fits into 
 the work of the high school, and the work in the 
 high school fits into the work of the college. 
 
320 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 The Language-Literature Group of Studies. 
 
 Elementary schools. 
 
 Secondary schools. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Eng- 
 lish" 
 
 1. Reading. 
 2. Literature. 
 3. Language. 
 4. Composition. 
 
 Eng- 
 lish' 
 
 1. Expression. 
 2. Literature. 
 3. Language. 
 4. Rhetoric. 
 
 f 1. Expression. 
 Eng-J 2. Literature, 
 lish ] 3. Language. 
 1 4. Rhetoric. 
 
 For- 
 
 Languages 
 and 
 
 For- 
 
 Languages 
 and 
 
 For- (Languages 
 \ and 
 
 eign 
 
 literatures. 
 
 eign 
 
 literatures. 
 
 ^[literatures. 
 
 The language-literature studies are conceded double 
 the recitation time of other study groups ; this con- 
 cession, more than all arguments, emphasizes the be- 
 lief in the value of this group of studies. In a brief 
 chapter it is fitting that attention should be particu- 
 larly directed to methods of teaching English in our 
 elementary schools ; but we must have in view the 
 advanced work, and the fact that, after the sixth school 
 year, the study of other languages goes on side by side 
 with that of our own. 
 
 Special Programme in Language-Literature Studies. 
 The general programmes give to this group of stud- 
 ies, in all schools below the college, two daily recita- 
 tion periods. Well-considered special programmes, 
 however, are most important. Each teacher must con- 
 struct such a programme for herself, but suggestions 
 sometimes help. In the first and second grades the 
 time may be divided about equally between the read- 
 ing lessons and the language lessons. During the 
 third, fourth, fifth, and sixth years the recitations in 
 reading and literature may alternate, as may the les- 
 sons in language and composition. In the seventh 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 321 
 
 and eighth grades and in the high-school classes one 
 daily period may be devoted to English and one to 
 a foreign language ; the work in English during 
 these six years must be judiciously proportioned to 
 teaching expression, literature, language, and compo- 
 sition. Continuity and unity are the important 
 things. The movement to begin Latin or a modern 
 language in the seventh grade tends to become 
 general. 
 
 Organic Unity of the Studies in English. " As to 
 modern methods, the best of all is the teaching of the 
 four related topics of expression, literature, language, 
 and rhetoric as one organic group of studies, wholly 
 interdependent and progressive." From the kinder- 
 garten to the university this is one of the most fruit- 
 ful educational movements of our times. In school 
 and college the learner at every step is led to pursue 
 these studies as essentially one branch, and as inti- 
 mately related to all other studies. Specialization is 
 a great educational device, but it has its helpful limits. 
 It hurts when the specialist is narrow ; it hurts when 
 a strong specialist unduly pushes his specialty ; it 
 hurts when special teachers fail to work together as 
 a teaching unit. In schools in which one compe- 
 tent instructor teaches all the branches the unity of 
 the work is secured ; but in specialized intermediate 
 schools, in high schools, and in colleges there needs 
 to be wise concentration. One mind must direct ; 
 the teacher of expression, the teacher of literature, 
 the teacher of language, and the teacher of rhetoric 
 must work as a teaching unit all supplement the work 
 of each. 
 
322 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Teachers of English. Thorough preparation is in- 
 dispensable. To-day it is easier to find twenty good 
 Latin teachers than one good teacher of English. 
 But the outlook is cheering. In our high schools and 
 colleges, English is now made the equivalent of the 
 classics. The faculty in English of a certain college now 
 numbers twenty-five instructors. No other group of 
 studies requires broader culture or more thorough 
 special preparation for teaching. "With efficient teach- 
 ers of English in our elementary schools, our pupils 
 will be started right and will be led to lay the best of 
 all foundations for life work and advanced work. 
 
 The Library in teaching English. What the labora- 
 tory is in science, the library is in English. Even in 
 the primary the library is remarkably helpful. 
 
 " Each teacher," says Dr. W. T. Harris, " should be furnished 
 with a dozen copies each of three or four volumes of selections 
 from the best of classic authors, the selection being made from 
 what is most attractive to children. These should be loaned for 
 home reading to those pupils who prove that they have time to 
 spare for supplementary reading by learning well the regular les- 
 sons assigned them in school. Such books of good literature and 
 history are likely to be read at home not only by the pupils, but 
 by the parents and older brothers and sisters, and thus accomplish 
 manifold good. When the set of books in one room is pretty well 
 finished by the pupils in that room, exchange may be made with 
 the next room, and different authors obtained." 
 
 The library becomes more and more helpful as the 
 pupils advance. Please read again as a part of this 
 paragraph School Libraries, Chapter IX. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING READING AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 Reading is the key to treasured knowledge, and is 
 the greatest art taught in the schools. We sometimes 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 323 
 
 group the school studies with reference to use as in- 
 formation studies, disciplinary studies, and culture 
 studies ; in each group the good readers greatly sur- 
 pass the poor ones. In its broad sense, reading in- 
 cludes ability to call the words, grasp the meaning, 
 and express the sentiment. 
 
 Beading must be made a Special Study. Teaching reading in- 
 cidentally is like teaching algebra incidentally. " The reform of 
 the reading lesson through 'supplementary reading' is the one 
 that I find most liable to abuse. Many teachers have been in the 
 habit of conducting lessons in reading as a mere test of the pupil's 
 acquired ability to read at sight, and not as a means of instruct- 
 ing the pupil how to read well. They have accordingly given the 
 child no lesson to study and prepare for the recitation, but have 
 kept the reading book away from him until the hour of actual 
 trial. Then the books are suddenly placed in the hands of the 
 pupils, and they are expected to ' read at sight.' They read what 
 they have not studied or seen before. The books, too, are not car- 
 ried home by the pupils to be read in the family, nor are they 
 studied by the pupils at school. Only one step further could be 
 taken in this dire reaction namely, entirely to abolish instruction 
 in reading and expect the pupil to read newspapers and books * at 
 sight ' whenever he has occasion to do so in after life. I think it is 
 clear enough that reading resembles any other branch of instruc- 
 tion, and is to be learned by study, and study too on the part of 
 the pupil. The teacher must teach pupils self-help. Unless some- 
 thing is given for the pupil to prepare in reading, the teacher can 
 not hold him responsible for results, and we have simply what is 
 called a ' pouring-in ' process, or the old-fashioned, long since dis- 
 carded habit of ' reading round,' which was a mere calling of words 
 and a correction of pronunciation." W. T. HARRIS. 
 
 Methods of teaching Primary Reading. How can 
 we best teach the little ones to read ? How can we 
 make learning to read a delight as well as educative ? 
 We study the child. How does the baby learn to 
 talk ? Just as he learns to walk. As the automatic 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 muscular movements grow into willed acts, so the in- 
 stinctive cries develop into intelligent expression. 
 Instinct and imitation and growing intelligence are 
 the factors. As the infant learns to talk so the child 
 learns to read ; it learns to recognise written words as 
 signs of ideas just as it comes to recognise spoken 
 words as symbols of things. 
 
 First Step. We teach the children to find out 
 and to tell about things. The kindergarten does this 
 work admirably. The wise primary teacher keeps 
 the beginner for weeks, and sometimes for months, in 
 this preparatory work. There must be no hurry. To 
 get the children ready to take the next step is a great 
 thing in teaching. 
 
 Second Step. We lead the children to recognise 
 written words as the symbols of ideas. Only words 
 familiar to the ear are introduced at first, and upright 
 script is used, because it is easier, plainer, and more 
 like print. Reading is now the central study, and all 
 other lessons re-enforce the reading lesson. The new 
 word is Mrd ; the science lesson is about birds ; the 
 language lesson gets the pupils to talk about birds ; 
 the literature lesson is a story about birds ; the draw- 
 ing lesson leads the children to make pictures of birds ; 
 the writing lesson teaches the pupils to write the word 
 birds ; the number lesson asks how many birds. The 
 reading lesson is devoted strictly to teaching reading, 
 and the word bird is used with words previously 
 learned in easy sentences. From the first the pupils 
 read as they talk, because the written words are as 
 familiar as the spoken words. When the pupils are 
 ready for it, printed as well as script words are used. 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OP STUDIES. 325 
 
 This is the essential step ; there should be great dis- 
 cretion and sufficient time ; hurry at this stage is inex- 
 cusable. In the language lesson, when prepared for 
 it, the pupils are taught to sound as well as write 
 familiar words. 
 
 Third Step. The pupils are led to read well choice 
 child literature. Our school readers, as a rule, fur- 
 nish suitable reading lessons, but it is best to supple- 
 ment the readers by the library. To teach the pupils 
 how to read and what to read, and to develop a taste 
 for the best literature is, next to conduct, the great- 
 est work of the primary school. 
 
 Helps in teaching Primary Beading. Detailed 
 methods would be out of place here, but we do most 
 for teachers when we place in their hands excellent 
 manuals by great teachers. We are especially rich iii 
 helps for teaching primary reading. For some dec- 
 ades we have been passing through the methods 
 epoch. We began with the A-B-C method ; then we 
 had the phonic and phonetic method ; then we had 
 the word method ; then we had the sentence method ; 
 then we had the look-and-say method ; then we had 
 the but it is needless to enumerate all ; each had its 
 merits, did its work, and passed away. We now have 
 in lieu of all the special methods what is termed the 
 combined method, or the natural method, or the 
 eclectic method, or the rational method. We teach 
 our pupils to read ; whatever has been found helpful 
 is utilized. I have found two classes of books sug- 
 gestive and helpful : first readers and manuals of 
 methods. Our standard first readers with the sug- 
 gestions of authors are very valuable. Dr. Stanley 
 
326 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Hall's How to teach Heading is full of good things ; 
 Dr. Hinsdale's Teaching the Language Arts has sev- 
 eral valuable chapters on teaching reading; Prof. 
 Sinclair's First Years at School and A. H. Garlick's 
 Manual of Method must prove of great value to 
 teachers. Of the many excellent manuals, teachers 
 must select two or three and study them as suggestive 
 helps. The school journals reflect the living present, 
 and give us the freshest and best things in methods 
 and devices. 
 
 Methods in teaching Expression. Reading in the 
 elementary school becomes expression in the high 
 school and the college. We think of expression as 
 the crowning excellence of the course of study in 
 English. That it should be said that conversation 
 and good reading are lost arts is a severe criticism on 
 our methods of teaching English. From the primary 
 to the university the study of literature and the cul- 
 ture of expression should go on together. The reac- 
 tion against a boisterous elocution has worked the 
 neglect of expression and even its omission from the 
 courses of study in English in many of our high 
 schools and colleges ; but the renaissance is begin- 
 ning; expression and language and literature and 
 composition, in the future, will surely be studied as 
 organically one branch. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 Education prepares pupils to be their utmost 
 through character, and to do their utmost through 
 knowledge. History and literature do most to pro- 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OP STUDIES. 327 
 
 mote these ends. When properly taught, they infuse 
 high ideals, refine, and ennoble. They ground pupils 
 in morals and manners, in taste, in religion, in good 
 citizenship. That these studies have not thus been 
 taught must be admitted ; that they may be so taught 
 as to make for good conduct is now being demon- 
 strated in many schools. From the primary to the 
 college efficient methods in teaching literature are 
 demanded. 
 
 English Literature stands Pre-eminent. "When the 
 conceptions of an individual mind are expressed in a 
 permanent form of words, we get literature." In the 
 greatest works we have the best thought with the 
 highest beauty of conception and expression ; we have 
 apples of gold in pictures of silver. English litera- 
 ture is surpassingly rich. It includes the pre-eminent 
 creations of English-speaking authors, and the world's 
 choicest classics transformed into classic English. In 
 a hundred convenient volumes our English-speak- 
 ing youth may have the best literature produced by 
 the race. 
 
 Bad Methods of teaching Literature. Literature 
 was not studied ; in Shaw's Manual and similar text- 
 books the history of literature, rather than literature, 
 was taught. Pursuing the methods of the classical 
 teachers has been even a greater mistake. " Classical 
 teachers tend to lay the stress on the grammatical and 
 philological elements of the classics, to the exclusion 
 of the literary elements. Most unfortunately, the 
 classical teacher has stood as the model of the litera- 
 ture teacher. It has been assumed that English litera- 
 ture should be made to answer the same educational 
 
 
328 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 ends as foreign languages, and methods of teaching 
 literature have been chosen with reference to that 
 ideal. The assumption is false and the methods are 
 vicious." [B. A. Hinsdale.] 
 
 Modern Methods of teaching Literature. Literature 
 is taught. Our best classical teachers now place the 
 stress on the literature. Our best English teachers do 
 not now conceal the literature by their criticisms and 
 comments. The pupil is led to study literature and 
 to get out of it all there is in it for him. In the lan- 
 guage and the composition lessons and the expression 
 lessons, all helpful topics are studied ; but in the liter- 
 ature lessons literature is studied, and is so taught as 
 to accomplish its mission. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE. 
 
 The educator differentiates as well as concentrates. 
 "We teach as an organic unit literature, language, com- 
 position, and expression ; but in teaching one of these 
 studies we subordinate the others. In the language 
 lesson we lead the pupils to form habits of correct 
 oral and written expression, correct spelling and pro- 
 nunciation, correct capitalization, and correct punctu- 
 ation. "We teach in the language lessons phonetics 
 and word analysis, and the pupils are taught to 
 use dictionaries. In these lessons we prepare the 
 pupils for the lessons in reading, in literature, and 
 in composition. "We quarry and polish the stones 
 which are to be built into the temple. The immense 
 importance of these lessons is apparent. As the pu- 
 pils advance, we lead them to discover the elements 
 
THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 329 
 
 in the sentence and to distinguish the parts of speech. 
 During the seventh and eighth school years we use a 
 suitable modern text-book in English grammar. In 
 place of detailed methods, I submit as a part of this 
 paragraph, Teaching the Language Arts, the able 
 work of Dr. B. A. Hinsdale. Teachers are recom- 
 mended to study also one or more of the excellent 
 language-lesson manuals. 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING COMPOSITION. 
 
 The study of English culminates in the composi- 
 tion. The science lessons and the history lessons and 
 the literature lessons furnish information. The lan- 
 guage lessons give the pupil command of the sentence. 
 The composition lessons, oral and written, teach the 
 pupils to tell in good form what they know. The 
 reading lessons prepare pupils to read well their own 
 compositions. 
 
 The Old and the New. In the old education the 
 composition writing was a dread ; in the new educa- 
 tion composition writing is a delight. In the old, 
 pupils were fed on husks, and were required to make 
 bricks without straw ; in the new, the science lessons, 
 the literature lessons, and the history lessons make 
 the pupils rich in subject-matter. In the old, the pu- 
 pil was cramped by rules ; in the new, pupils are free 
 to tell in their own ways, but are led to tell in good 
 form. In the old, the pupils were confined to the 
 text-book ; in the new, the school library supplements 
 the text-book, and does most to cultivate good Eng- 
 lish. 
 
330 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Nature Studies and Composition. During the pri- 
 mary years the science lessons and the composition 
 lessons supplement each other. Children take delight 
 in telling what they find out. Oral composition pre- 
 pares for written composition. While the science les- 
 sons are made the basis of the early composition work, 
 we constantly utilize the history lessons and the liter- 
 ature lessons to the great interest and profit of the 
 pupils. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXVIII. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 
 
 BY the science studies is meant the information 
 studies relating to the physical world. In our ele- 
 mentary schools we designate the science group of 
 studies as Nature studies. The marvellous growth 
 of modern science increases the danger of overcrowd- 
 ing our school courses. Teaching science rather than 
 sciences is thought to be the safe preventive. Teach- 
 ers are coming to consider the Nature studies as 
 organically one branch of school work. The aim is 
 to so teach essentials as to prepare pupils to be- 
 come independent in their efforts to gain a mas- 
 tery over the material universe. There must be no 
 hurry, no crowding ; we must so teach a few things 
 as to educate our pupils to work independently and 
 find out all things. 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 331 
 
 The Committee of Fifteen say : " It is very im- 
 portant to have the science studies cover as fully as 
 possible all the provinces of Nature. There is the 
 inorganic province, containing the two fields of as- 
 tronomy and physics; and there is the organic or 
 biological province, including botany and zoology." 
 In practical school work the three lines of Na- 
 ture study cover these provinces. The educational 
 world of to-day agrees substantially in the following 
 scheme : 
 
 Science Group of Studies. 
 
 Elementary schools. 
 
 Secondary schools. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Geography, oral 
 astronomy. 
 Oral biology, oral 
 hygiene. 
 Oral physics, oral 
 chemistry. 
 
 Physical geography, ele- 
 mentary astronomy. 
 Elementary biology, ele- 
 mentary physiology. 
 Elementary physics, ele- 
 mentary chemistry. 
 
 Physiography, geol- 
 ogy, astronomy. 
 Advanced biology, ad- 
 vanced physiology. 
 Physics, chemistry. 
 
 Each of the three lines of science work is continu- 
 ous ; the geography and oral astronomy of the ele- 
 mentary school become the physical geography and 
 elementary astronomy of the high school, and the 
 physiography, geology, and astronomy of the college. 
 Biology and physics progress side by side with geog- 
 raphy. The fact that the science group of studies has 
 been accorded co-ordinate rank with language and 
 mathematics best expresses the conviction of educators 
 as to its educative value. The scientific method is 
 revolutionary ; good science teaching tends to vitalize 
 all teaching. The practical value of the Nature studies 
 is so great that they are called the bread-and-butter 
 
332 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 studies. As we come to pursue efficient methods in 
 teaching these studies their great culture value be- 
 comes apparent. The culture is different but none 
 the less necessary. We do well to magnify the edu- 
 cational value of the science studies. 
 
 SPECIAL PROGRAMMES FOR NATURE STUDIES. 
 
 In all schools below the college one daily recita- 
 tion period is devoted to the science studies. What 
 to teach, and when to teach it, and how to teach it are 
 the vital considerations. 
 
 Each teacher, after careful study, constructs a 
 special programme for science work. The best things 
 are selected, proportioned, co-ordinated, correlated. 
 Here, as everywhere, the teacher is entitled to the 
 best suggestive helps. The following manuals for 
 teachers will prove especially helpful both in making 
 programmes and in teaching elementary science : 
 
 Nature Study and the Child, by Prof. C. B. Scott. D. C. Heath 
 & Co., Boston. 
 
 Nature Studies, by Prof. W. S. Jackman. Henry Holt & Co., 
 New York. 
 
 Systematic Science Teaching, by Prof. E. G. Howe. D. Ap- 
 pleton & Co., New York. 
 
 These educators have literally worked out ascend- 
 ing spiral programmes covering all the ground. The 
 appropriate work for each month of each of the ele- 
 mentary school years is outlined and illustrated. The 
 Nature studies are skilfully correlated, and the dis- 
 cussion of matter and methods will greatly assist 
 teachers. With these and similar aids it is now pos- 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 333 
 
 sible for a teacher to make a judicious special pro- 
 gramme for the several studies, and, with these 
 aids, she may be able to lead pupils to do the most 
 helpful science work. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The pupil is led to study the earth as the home 
 of man. In the light of experience, personal and 
 appropriated, the child begins to create his world. 
 Imagination is the master builder. 
 
 1. Central. Geography is the central study in 
 the elementary science group. Pupils are led to 
 explore their environments and gain geographical 
 experience. The lessons about plants and animals 
 and rocks and stars and forces are naturally en- 
 twined with the geography lessons. 
 
 2. Correlated. Geography assimilates with all 
 other studies. Biology is its twin sister, mathe- 
 matics is its ally, history and civics are its dy- 
 namics. All other studies are re-enforced by geog- 
 raphy, and geography is enriched by the lessons in 
 the other studies. But in the geography lessons 
 geography is taught ; everything else is made to 
 help. 
 
 3. Manuals. Not many decades ago the teaching 
 of geography in our schools was wretched. A great 
 advance has been made. Teachers are coming to 
 know what to teach and how to teach it. The aids 
 for teaching geography are now abundant and excel- 
 lent. The following manuals for teachers are con- 
 sidered peculiarly helpful : 
 
334: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 How to Study and Teach Geography, by F. W. Parker. D. 
 Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 Methods and Aids in Geography, by C. F. King. Lee & Shep- 
 ard, Boston. 
 
 Manual of Methods in Geography, by A. E. Frye. Ginn & 
 Co., Boston. 
 
 Teachers will avail themselves of the many valuable 
 aids that the years are furnishing us. Our text-books 
 in geography, as well as our geographical apparatus 
 and our manuals for teachers, are approaching our 
 ideals. 
 
 4. Primary Methods. Superintendent H. S. Tar- 
 bell gives us some valuable suggestions : 
 
 " Oral geography comes first ; the subject is the home all that 
 comes within the range of the child's senses. This should come 
 before the book. This home study furnishes the elements for all 
 future study of the world. Whenever anything new is to be 
 taught, begin at home, with what is near and known. When you 
 get beyond the things themselves, then go to pictures and maps, 
 which are nearer the things than are words. Maps should be 
 studied largely, early; read them, picking out natural features 
 first mountains, rivers, divides, valleys, plateaus, are very im- 
 portant ; capes are for the most part of little importance. Every 
 child should have a globe in his hand. He should always think 
 of the world as a globe. Only on a globe can he learn the true 
 direction and relative sizes. Maps can not be put into the geog- 
 raphy all on the same scale ; but every map should have a scale 
 attached, so many miles to the inch. In the oral lessons the 
 teacher should talk about familiar things first. 
 
 " When we come to the book, be careful not to misuse it. It is 
 the first book which the pupil really studies, where he learns how 
 to learn ; above all, he should not memorize the text. The 
 child's first mode of learning is by hearing; the ear takes in 
 thought more directly than does the eye. The child should get 
 the thought from speech before he gets it from print. Geography 
 especially helps to observe, to reflect; it is a complete subject, the 
 essential subject for methods. The most stupid thing is for the 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 335 
 
 teacher to write things on the blackboard, and have the children 
 copy them in notebooks. In giving questions, give such as can 
 be answered after study, but not literally from the book. Each 
 lesson should start with review questions. 
 
 " The new geography is that of forces, of how things have come 
 to be, of movement. This is the first part of the study. Later 
 comes descriptive geography, that of localities." 
 
 METHODS IN BIOLOGY. 
 
 Biology stands for the study of plants and animals. 
 No other studies awaken so much educative interest, 
 or so fully foster pupil growth. As a means for edu- 
 cating pupils to observe and classify, these studies 
 stand pre-eminent. No other studies so naturally and 
 so completely assimilate with all the other study 
 groups. 
 
 1. Evolution. Biology was not thought of by 
 the old schoolmaster. The crude object lessons, an 
 outgrowth of the Pestalozzian movement, heralded 
 the beginning of better things. Nature study came 
 as the fruit of insight into pupil nature and pupil 
 needs. The systematic study of plants and animals is 
 a marked characteristic of the new education. 
 
 In the near past no attempt was made by the 
 great body of our teachers to lead pupils to study 
 Nature. As the century closes, all teachers are try- 
 ing to lead their pupils to explore the beautiful 
 realms of plant and animal life. As a rule, the teach- 
 ing of biology at present is far from satisfactory, 
 but it is a beginning. In our modern high schools 
 the science teaching by specialists is a delight. Early 
 in the twentieth century science in our grammar 
 schools will be admirably taught by intermediate 
 
33G SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 specialists. Soon our primary and our rural teachers 
 will come to teach biology as skilfully as they now 
 teach reading and arithmetic. 
 
 2. Prepared Teachers. For teaching biology, as 
 thorough preparation is required as for teaching Greek. 
 First of all, the teacher must take a boundless inter- 
 est in the realms of organic life. Then, under skil- 
 ful guidance, the teacher must explore the world of 
 plants and animals and gain insight into the economy 
 of organic Nature. Besides, skill in the art of teaching 
 science lessons must be acquired. At present we must 
 be content with some imperfect work, as opportunities 
 for preparation have been wanting. The outlook is 
 cheering. Our future teachers as primary pupils 
 will live close to Nature. Specialists in the inter- 
 mediate and high schools will lead the pupil on 
 to mastery. Able instructors in the normal school 
 will train the pupils to teach efficiently the Nature 
 studies. Our educational journals, our summer nor- 
 mals, and our faculty work will keep our teachers 
 advancing. 
 
 Manuals. We are becoming rich in helpful 
 manuals, and our teachers are entitled to all possible 
 aids. Think of it, most teachers must teach all school 
 branches ! How important it is to economize every 
 energy ! Each teacher must pursue her own plans, 
 but a really excellent manual is so suggestive and so 
 economical that I submit as a part of this paragraph 
 the chapters on plants and animals in Howe's System- 
 atic Science Teaching. The presentation of matter and 
 method in these chapters must prove of inestimable 
 value to the teachers of our elementary schools. The 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 337 
 
 manuals referred to on page 332 are especially com- 
 mended. 
 
 Library. The science teaching in our elementary 
 schools is strictly oral, but pupils are led to learn 
 from books as well as from Nature. The pupils are 
 led to read books of exploration and travel, and books 
 about animals and plants. The library supplements 
 the teaching of the school. 
 
 Correlation. The biology lessons seem to blend 
 naturally with nearly all other lessons. They enrich 
 and re-enforce the conduct lessons ; they enter into 
 the warp and woof of composition and literature; 
 they become an organic part of all other Nature les- 
 sons ; they illustrate and apply mathematics ; they are 
 the soul of art. Nature studies enrich the entire 
 work of teaching and enrich human life. In the art 
 of teaching, correlation is vital, and is the antidote 
 both to waste labour in education and to overcrowding. 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene. As an important part 
 of the biology work, little by little pupils are led to 
 understand their bodies, and are trained to carry hygi- 
 enic laws over into hygienic habits. The few lessons 
 given may be of inestimable value. It is not deemed 
 best to unduly extend these lessons in our elementary 
 schools. In the primary the great thing is to secure 
 hygienic habits. In the intermediate, besides fixing all 
 good hygienic habits, the pupils are led to gain a gen- 
 eral knowledge of their physical organism and of hy- 
 gienic laws. The importance of these lessons impresses 
 us when we consider that a vast majority of the gram- 
 mar-school pupils go directly into life. The wise teacher 
 studies to give them the best things to prepare them 
 23 
 
338 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 to live hygienically. These lessons supplement the 
 physical-culture lessons, and are re-enforced by the 
 conduct lessons. 
 
 METHODS IN PHYSICS. 
 
 The physical sciences treat of energy apart from 
 life, and include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and 
 the physical portions of geography, geology, meteor- 
 ology, and mineralogy. For practical purposes the 
 school world has divided these sciences into two 
 lines of work : the geography line, which includes 
 astronomy and the physical portions of geology, 
 meteorology, and mineralogy ; and the physics line, 
 which includes physics and chemistry. The lessons 
 in physics blend readily with all other science lessons, 
 and hence go on side by side with the geography and 
 biology lessons. In our elementary schools some les- 
 sons in chemistry are given in connection with the 
 lessons in physics, but oral physics is the leading 
 study. 
 
 1. Value. " There should be in the elementary 
 school from the first a course in the elements of sci- 
 ence. Each science possesses some phases that lie 
 very near the child's life. There should be a spiral 
 course in natural science. A first course should be 
 given in botany, zoology, and physics so as to treat 
 of the structure and use of familiar plants and ani- 
 mals and the explanation of physical phenomena as 
 seen in the child's playthings, domestic machinery, 
 etc." Committee of Fifteen. 
 
 " No other subject gives such breadth of develop- 
 ment as physics. The knowledge which a pupil gains 
 
EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 339 
 
 by observation and experiment is a knowledge which 
 may be applied in untold ways." E. R. SHAW. 
 
 2. Helps. The elementary work is strictly oral. 
 The teacher must use great discretion in the selection 
 of topics. I find no special manuals for teachers, but 
 we have excellent books giving the subject-matter and 
 suggesting methods. The following are taken from 
 a list of many good works : 
 
 Physics by Experiment, by E. R. Shaw. Effingham, Maynard 
 & Co., New York. 
 
 Gifford's Elementary Lessons in Physics: Thompson, Brown 
 & Co., Boston. 
 
 Avery's School Physics : Sheldon & Co., New York. 
 
 With the help of such suggestive works the teach- 
 er may plan his course of lessons in physics and do 
 good teaching. The courses in elementary physics in 
 our summer normals are of great value. 
 
 3. Observation and Experiment. The lessons are 
 so taught that pupils learn to observe and test things 
 for themselves. The easy experiments, as far as pos- 
 sible, should be made by the pupils. In the primary 
 course pupils gain experience ; theory and explana- 
 tion will usually hurt and not help. In the interme- 
 diate course pupils begin to understand laws and ex- 
 planations, but the work is limited to essentials. "We 
 prepare our pupils to go out into life interested ob- 
 servers and discriminating experimenters. A good 
 foundation is laid in experience. 
 
 4. Apparatus. Simple and inexpensive apparatus 
 is the best. Grammar-school pupils will readily make 
 most of the apparatus needed. Still, in our times 
 necessary apparatus is good economy. The essential 
 
340 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 thing is the use of the apparatus by the pupils. By 
 all means lead each pupil to perform each experiment. 
 5. Correlation. Arithmetic, concrete geometry, 
 drawing, physics these studies naturally and help- 
 fully supplement each other. Many examples in 
 arithmetic may properly be taken from the lessons 
 in physics. The things learned in the lessons about 
 light, heat, electricity, sound, etc., enter into nearly 
 all other lessons. 
 
 EESULTS OF SYSTEMATIC SCIENCE TEACHING. 
 
 The most astonishing result of good science teach- 
 ing is the increased interest in the other studies. The 
 facts and methods of science are wonderfully invig- 
 orating and inspiring. " Pupils, when science is prop- 
 erly taught, develop remarkable powers of observa- 
 tion, for they learn to think about what they see ; 
 they apperceive as well as perceive. They learn to 
 think facts into system, so that each fact throws light 
 on the other facts, and thus all facts help to explain 
 each." The inborn love of birds and flowers is awak- 
 ened, and a loving interest in all Nature is quickened 
 so that pupils come to find in Nature studies bound- 
 less resources for enjoyment. Just now the educator 
 studies with profound interest the schools in which sci- 
 ence is well taught in comparison with other schools. 
 The marked betterment in the moral, intellectual, and 
 practical lives of the pupils is apparent. The study 
 of science in connection with the other study groups 
 does much to make life worth living. 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 341 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 
 
 SCHOOL and college courses place mathematics side 
 by side with literature and science. " The study of 
 mathematics has an educational value as contributing 
 knowledge, discipline, and culture. Since mathe- 
 matical science is the instrument of measurement or 
 measurement by computation, it has a knowledge value 
 which is illustrated in all the vocations of life. With- 
 out it science and civilization would be impossible and 
 commerce would be a dream. The concepts of num- 
 ber and space, the simplest of all abstract notions, are 
 combined by the simplest logical processes ; hence 
 mathematical studies afford the easiest and most natu- 
 ral introduction to the severe abstract studies." (J. 
 M. Taylor, in School Review.) In no other studies 
 do pupils so readily acquire habits of systematic, per- 
 sistent, and concentrated application. 
 
 Mathematics Group of Studies. 
 
 Elementary schools. 
 
 High schools. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Arithmetic, algebra 
 begun. 
 Concrete geometry, 
 oral trigonometry. 
 
 Algebra, arithmetic. 
 
 Demonstrative geom- 
 etry, trigonometry. 
 
 Higher algebra, cal- 
 culus. 
 Intuitive geometry, 
 trigonometry, etc. 
 
 The two lines of study are continuous and are in- 
 terlaced at every step. The work in the elementary 
 school is largely objective and practical, but in the 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 high school it is demonstrative. The elementary 
 studies prepare the pupils for advanced work as well 
 as for practical life. 
 
 SPECIAL PROGRAMMES FOR THE MATHEMATICS STUDIES. 
 
 Each teacher prepares a specific programme for 
 the lessons in mathematics, designating the time to be 
 given to each subject. Nearly all educators now 
 agree that one daily recitation period, during the ele- 
 mentary and high-school years, should be devoted to 
 mathematics ; but all do not agree as to the time to 
 be given to each line of work. Conditions modify 
 to some extent our plans. The following scheme, 
 it is claimed, has much to commend it : Below the 
 seventh grade, four weekly recitation periods are de- 
 voted to arithmetic and one to concrete geometry. In 
 the seventh grade two periods are devoted to arithme- 
 tic, two to beginning algebra, and one to concrete geom- 
 etry. In the eighth grade three periods are given to 
 introductory algebra, one to arithmetic, and one to 
 concrete geometry. In the seventh and eighth grades 
 some lessons in oral trigonometry are given in con- 
 nection with concrete geometry, and some lessons in 
 bookkeeping are given in connection with arithmetic. 
 During the first year in the high school three periods 
 are devoted to algebra, one to arithmetic, and one to 
 concrete geometry. During the second high-school 
 year four periods are devoted to geometry and one 
 to algebra. During the third high-school year two 
 periods are given to geometry, two to algebra, and 
 one to applied mathematics. During the fourth high- 
 school year three periods are given to trigonometry 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 343 
 
 and two to applied mathematics. Each teacher will 
 study to do most for his pupils and will vary the pro- 
 gramme to suit the conditions. The gains from con- 
 tinuous interlaced work are very great. 
 
 Helps in teaching Mathematics. We gather into 
 helpful books the lessons learned from the masters. 
 Each teacher may now work in the light of human 
 experience. No teacher can afford to disregard these 
 helps. 
 
 Methods in Mathematics, Report of the Committee of Ten. 
 American Book Company, Cincinnati. 
 
 History and Methods of Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, by 
 Superintendent J. M. Greenwood. Sheldon & Co., New York. 
 
 The Teacher's Outfit in Mathematics, by J. M. Taylor. School 
 Review, Chicago. 
 
 Methods in Mathematics is submitted as a part of 
 this chapter. In the second book named, Superintend- 
 ent Greenwood gives us a most interesting history of 
 the mathematics studies and presents practical meth- 
 ods of teaching these branches. From many sources 
 teachers will gain helpful suggestions. 
 
 Preparation for teaching Mathematics. Nearly all 
 teachers must to some extent teach mathematics. 
 Special preparation conditions good teaching. In no 
 other studies is there so much danger from presump- 
 tion. Attention is directed to some items in the 
 work of preparation. 
 
 1. Appreciation. In no other group of studies 
 does so much depend on the appreciation of the sub- 
 ject and the enthusiasm of the teacher. There is a 
 joy in peaceful mathematics. " God geometrizes con- 
 tinually, and to study geometry is to think the thoughts 
 
344 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of God after him," was the conception of Plato. 
 With a high conception of the grandeur of this realm 
 of knowledge and with a high ideal of the art of 
 teaching mathematics one can inspire and lead his 
 pupils. The true teacher feels a delight in the mathe- 
 matics lessons that the machine teacher never dreams 
 of. Appreciation is vital. 
 
 2. Mastery. The elementary teacher must know 
 arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry as 
 sciences in order to teach well arithmetic and con- 
 crete geometry. He must also take a lively interest 
 in the application of mathematics in science and in 
 business life. A mere superficial memory knowledge 
 is utterly inadequate. Mastery is essential. 
 
 3. Psychology. The teacher must know the pupil 
 as well as mathematics. Education is a rational pro- 
 cess, and lawful effort develops power. Teacher sym- 
 pathies encourage the pupils, and teacher intelligence 
 adapts the work to the learner and guides the efforts 
 of the pupils. The prepared teacher understands his 
 pupils and has gained insight into the psychology 
 of mathematics and its applications in teaching this 
 group of studies. Insight is fundamental. 
 
 4. History. The story of the evolution of mathe- 
 matics attracts the teacher. Its growth from a rude 
 beginning to a boundless realm of knowledge is more 
 wonderful than romance. Incidents from this history 
 will enthuse pupils. Teachers gain much by ap- 
 proaching the work from the historic standpoint. 
 Historic knowledge helps. 
 
 5. Teaching. Teaching is the art of leading pu- 
 pils to develop power through mastery. Methods are 
 
METHODS OP TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 345 
 
 based on principles. Each lesson is a new creation. 
 All routine, all nostrum devices, all mechanical meth- 
 ods, and all educational quackery are utterly detested. 
 The teacher is an artist, and so leads the pupil to mas- 
 tery with the minimum expenditure of time and ener- 
 gy. However gifted and however learned, no one un- 
 skilled in teaching is prepared to teach mathematics. 
 Skill in teaching is the crowning preparation. 
 
 Methods of teaching Arithmetic. The arithmetic 
 teaching of the old schoolmaster was bad, yet pupils 
 learned to compute. The waste in time and energy, 
 it is true, was enormous, and the ordinary attainments 
 were meagre. The betterment in arithmetic teaching 
 during the last half of the century has been note- 
 worthy. Many causes have combined to promote this 
 improvement. The multiplication of graded and nor- 
 mal schools, the creation of teachers' associations, in- 
 stitutes, and summer schools of pedagogy ; the publi- 
 cation of improved text-books and manuals, and the 
 circulation of progressive school journals are some of 
 the influences that have worked this result. Arith- 
 metic is now fairly well taught in our schools. Though 
 the teaching is not quite ideal, it is believed that arith- 
 metic is now better taught in our elementary schools 
 than any other branch of study. 
 
 THE ARITHMETIC WORK IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 For six years, four weekly recitation periods are 
 devoted to arithmetic. During the seventh and eighth 
 years four weekly periods are given to arithmetic and 
 introductory algebra. The so - called mental and 
 written arithmetic are united in each recitation. The 
 
346 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 former practice of having two daily recitations one 
 in mental and one in written arithmetic has been 
 abandoned by most teachers. Our modern text-books 
 omit the puzzles, numerical conundrums, and anti- 
 quated topics of the old arithmetics. Those who pro- 
 test against giving so much time to arithmetic will 
 do well to study the educative and practical value of 
 this branch. Arithmetic is the logic of the elementary 
 school and the key to the Nature studies. It is the 
 best means for developing habits of concentration and 
 continuous attention. It is thought that the time 
 now accorded to arithmetic in our best schools is 
 ample, but that further reduction is not permissible. 
 
 HELPS IN TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Work and Methods in Arithmetic, Reports of Committees of 
 Ten and Fifteen. American Book Co., New York. 
 
 Psychology of Number and its Applications to Methods of 
 teaching Arithmetic, by McLellan and Dewey. D. Appleton & 
 Co., New York. 
 
 Manual of Methods in Arithmetic, by A. H. Garlick. Long- 
 mans, Green & Co., New York. 
 
 In the reports named, teachers get the maturest 
 plans in the briefest space. The second book named 
 marks an epoch in the art of teaching all subjects. 
 
 The authors so develop the psychology of number 
 and its applications to methods of teaching arithmetic 
 that a similar treatment of all other school studies is 
 made necessary. The result will be the discarding of 
 unsound empirical methods and the substituting of 
 scientific methods. Nowhere else have I found 
 arithmetic so well taught as in the Kansas City, Mo., 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 347 
 
 schools. Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, in the 
 Eeport of the United States Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion for 1893-'94r, has given a large number of verbatim 
 reports of recitations in arithmetic, in different grades 
 and different schools. I commend these lessons as 
 highly instructive and suggestive. Such admirable 
 works as Dr. E. E. White's Manual of Methods in 
 Arithmetic deserve a place in the outfit of every 
 elementary teacher. 
 
 PRIMARY METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Three distinct metli- ( Method of symbols, 
 
 ods are used in teaching METHODS, -j Method of things. 
 
 .,-,,. ( Method of thought, 
 
 primary arithmetic. 
 
 1. Method of Symbols. The old schoolmaster used 
 the method of symbols. The natural genesis and use 
 of number was not thought of, and so the symbols 
 were treated as entities. This method was mechanical 
 and artificial. Tables and rules were committed to 
 memory ; operations were mechanical applications of 
 rules. The number of routine teachers who are 
 slaves to the method of symbols is still far too large, 
 but the method has practically disappeared from our 
 modern schools. 
 
 2. Method of Things. Transition teachers used 
 the method of things. This was called the object 
 method, as number was thought of as a property of 
 objects. Number was made meaningless. Practically, 
 this method was an immense improvement, but it made 
 mental activity incidental, and so failed to build on 
 the rock. Many of our teachers still use the method 
 
348 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of things, but the transition to better teaching is 
 rapidly going on. 
 
 3. Method of Thought. The wise teacher uses 
 the rational method. Things and measurements oc- 
 casion insight into the world of much and many. A 
 prepared pupil, in dealing with objects, gains the 
 number idea by direct insight. The actual use of 
 certain things in reaching a certain end occasions the 
 rise of the number idea. The pupil experiences things 
 involving number and gets intuitively the number 
 idea. Number is a mode of measuring values, and 
 a prepared mind dealing with objects originates the 
 number notions. Things occasion number ideas and 
 symbols stand for these ideas. Every step in arith- 
 metic is rational, and is easily taken by the prepared 
 pupil. The rational method leads the pupil to create 
 his arithmetic. Myriads of absurd notions and hurt- 
 ful devices, like mist before the rising sun, fade away 
 in the light of the rational method. 
 
 First and Second Years. At six, pupils have 
 gained the number idea, and may now profitably ad- 
 vance by easy steps. The number lessons are the 
 easiest of all lessons. The work is strictly oral, and 
 is skilfully adapted to the pupils. There is no hurry. 
 A few things are well taught. The pupils now live 
 in the world of things. During these beginning 
 years the lessons are about the child world, and are 
 all natural and easy. Correlation of studies is now 
 complete, for the number work seems to naturally 
 enter into all the other work. Pupils continually 
 measure and weigh and group and count. No defi- 
 nitions or rules or logical explanations are yet thought 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 349 
 
 of, but the work is rational and leads on to higher 
 work. Right habits are now formed, and a solid 
 foundation is laid. 
 
 Third and Fourth Tears. An easy progressive 
 primary arithmetic, in which the oral and written 
 work are combined, now supplements the work of the 
 teacher. The correlation of the studies continues to 
 be almost complete. The examples are drawn largely 
 from the other studies. There is no hurry and no 
 crowding ; all lessons are easy and suitable. Pupils 
 readily learn fractions. In connection with decimals, 
 the metric system is learned. Definitions and rules 
 and formal explanations are still deferred ; pupils, 
 however, learn to think, learn accuracy, learn to work 
 rapidly. Measuring and weighing is daily work, and 
 a good foundation is laid for advanced work. 
 
 METHODS IN ADVANCED ARITHMETIC. 
 
 We think of pure j Pure arithmetic, 
 
 arithmetic as the sci- \ Applied arithmetic, 
 
 ence of numbers, and of applied arithmetic as its ap- 
 plications to particular calculations concerning lines, 
 surfaces, solids, times, forces, money values, etc. 
 This distinction will simplify the work and econo- 
 mize time and energy. The advanced arithmetic is 
 begun in the fifth grade and is studied for four years. 
 I. Ideal Text-book. We will have two books in 
 our ideal series a primary arithmetic for the third 
 and fourth grades, and an advanced arithmetic for 
 the four grammar-school grades. Some of the char- 
 acteristics of the advanced arithmetic, it is thought, 
 will be as follows : 
 
350 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 1. It will not be a Large Book. It will include es- 
 sentials presented in good form, but will omit rubbish. 
 Extraneous topics, conundrums, definitions, rules, 
 answers, and tedious details will be left out. It will 
 be an inviting text-book, and will be supplemented by 
 the teacher and the pupils. 
 
 2. It will be Modern. It will be up to date. The 
 examples will represent the living present. The met- 
 ric system will be taught as an application of deci- 
 mals. Our antiquated tables will be consigned to 
 antiquarian research, and the lingering relics of out- 
 grown things will be replaced by things of to-day. 
 
 3. It will combine Oral and Written Arithmetic. 
 This is counted an educational desideratum. Suit- 
 able alternate examples for oral and written work will 
 be skilfully united from the first to the last page. It 
 will displace the old mental and written arithmetics 
 that still linger in some of our schools. 
 
 4. The Equation will be used. Even in the sixth 
 grade equations will be used to some extent. In the 
 seventh and eighth grades the work in arithmetic 
 and introductory algebra will go on together. This 
 feature will have great educational significance. The 
 interlacing of related studies characterizes the new 
 education. 
 
 5. Applied Arithmetic will have its Place. As 
 applications of percentage, we will have interest, com- 
 mission, discount, etc. Easy bookkeeping, metric 
 geometry, and the lessons in physics will be some of 
 the helpful work in applied arithmetic. 
 
 6. It willy above all, foster Thinking. Supple- 
 mented by good teaching, it will lead pupils to make 
 
METHODS OP TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 351 
 
 their own definitions and rules. It will develop the 
 spirit of sturdy self-reliance and pluck. It will en- 
 courage research by starting inquiries and leaving pu- 
 pils to find out. We now have a considerable number 
 of arithmetics that approximate our ideal. Teacher, 
 please refrain from writing another arithmetic ; what 
 we want is good teaching. 
 
 II. Arithmetical Correlations. The applications of 
 arithmetic in other studies largely increases the inter- 
 est and greatly enhances the value of this study. We 
 carefully guard against extremes, but the natural and 
 helpful applications of arithmetic are without limit. 
 Metric geometry affords a wide field for helpful ap- 
 plications of arithmetic. Business gives boundless 
 opportunities for applied arithmetic. The lessons in 
 physics call for helpful applications of arithmetic. 
 The gains from legitimate correlations are so marked 
 that it is surprising to find so many teachers still ad- 
 hering to the " isolation device " of our ancestors. 
 
 III. Objective and Practical Work. Pupils in our 
 elementary schools seek to know rather than to prove. 
 The instruction should be objective and practical, but 
 educative. Intelligent guidance is essential. By trial, 
 by measurement, by constructions, the pupil should 
 be led to discover for himself the simple truths and 
 operations of arithmetic. Pupils should be led to ap- 
 ply the lessons learned in manifold ways. Good 
 teaching helps the pupil to gain insight and to make 
 his own definitions and rules. Original work is fos- 
 tered. Pupils are encouraged to do effective think- 
 ing. The inferences in pure arithmetic are easy, but 
 applied arithmetic demands the most vigorous thought 
 
352 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of the pupil. For extended treatment of methods in 
 arithmetic we must again refer teachers to valuable 
 manuals prepared by able educators. 
 
 METHODS IN INTRODUCTORY ALGEBRA AND CONCRETE 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 We are learning to treat the mathematics group 
 of studies as one branch. Our pupils come to think 
 of arithmetic and algebra and geometry as one study. 
 
 1. Introductory Algebra. Algebra uses the sym- 
 bols of arithmetic, but algebraic statements are gen- 
 eral while arithmetical statements are particular. It 
 is well to get elementary pupils to think of algebra as 
 general arithmetic. The use of letters and the equa- 
 tion will sufficiently illustrate the distinction. To a 
 limited extent it is safe to begin to use the equation 
 in the sixth grade. In the seventh and eighth grades 
 arithmetic and algebra are studied together. The ad- 
 vantages of this plan are apparent. In the high 
 school algebra is pursued as a demonstrative science 
 but in the elementary school the method of arithmetic 
 is used, at least in part. In the eighth year the tran- 
 sition is made. We carefully avoid the danger of 
 pushing algebra too far. 
 
 2. Concrete Geometry. These lessons are of great 
 practical value, but we must keep in view that they 
 are introductory to demonstrative geometry. As 
 in arithmetic, the work is objective and practical. 
 " The whole work in concrete geometry will connect 
 itself on the one side with the work of arithmetic 
 and on the other with elementary instruction in phys- 
 ics. With the study of arithmetic is therefore to 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 353 
 
 be intimately associated the study of algebraic signs 
 and forms, of concrete geometry and physics. This 
 is a striking instance of the interlacing of subjects 
 which seem so desirable." (Committee of Ten.) In 
 concrete geometry, as well as in arithmetic, pupils are 
 led to use linear equations and the literal notation. 
 For full treatment, teachers are referred to the excel- 
 lent manuals for teaching concrete geometry. The 
 aim here is to interest all teachers in the forward 
 movement for interlacing the studies of arithmetic, 
 algebra, and geometry in our elementary schools. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 
 
 TEACHING includes all art, for it is the art of man- 
 hood. The teacher is an artist, and she fosters the art 
 spirit in all school work. She leads her pupils to 
 create as well as to appreciate. 
 
 The School Arts. 
 
 Elementary schools. 
 
 High schools. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Physical culture. 
 Vocal culture. 
 Manu-rnental culture. 
 
 Physical culture. 
 Vocal culture. 
 Manu - mental cul- 
 ture. 
 
 Physical culture. 
 Vocal culture. 
 Manu - mental cul 
 ture. 
 
 The three lines of art study are co-ordinate, continu- 
 ous, and progressive. Each begins in the nursery and 
 24 
 
354 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 goes on through all the school and college years. For 
 practical reasons the language arts are included in the 
 language-literature group of studies. The three lines 
 of art work are organically one branch of study ; each 
 contributes to make the most of the body. The edu- 
 cative value of the art studies is coming to be recog- 
 nised, and these studies are now given a place in all 
 modern school and college programmes. 
 
 SPECIAL ART PROGRAMME FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 In many of our best schools, ungraded and graded, 
 two daily recitation periods are now given to the art 
 work : one to physical and vocal culture and one to 
 manu-mental culture. The lessons in physical and 
 vocal culture are given on alternate days and are 
 supplemented by brief daily exercises. The hourly 
 recesses and the home exercises are counted as a part 
 of the physical-culture work. The manu-mental cul- 
 ture lessons come daily ; besides, in the seventh and 
 eighth grades, on alternate Saturdays, two hours are 
 devoted to manual training. The results are highly 
 satisfactory ; instead of retarding, the art work facili- 
 tates progress in the other studies. Educators are 
 coming to agree that while nothing is lost, the gain 
 from the art studies in our schools is immense. 
 
 SPECIAL PREPARATION FOR TEACHING THE SCHOOL 
 ARTS. 
 
 To teach the school arts well requires as thorough 
 preparation as for teaching the science studies. As a 
 basis, the teacher must understand the physical and 
 mental economies and the stages and laws of physical 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 355 
 
 and mental growth. Then each line of art work must 
 be in some degree mastered. Above all, leadership 
 in the art work requires an absorbing interest in the 
 art studies. Special training in teaching each line of 
 art work is essential. 
 
 In art teaching as in Nature teaching we have at 
 present three classes of teachers. First, we have the 
 untrained teachers, who do the best they can ; next we 
 have the partially trained teachers, who do reasonably 
 good work ; and next we have the skilled art teachers, 
 who inspire a love for the art work and who lead 
 pupils on to success. In another decade, teachers will 
 come up to our normal schools through our special- 
 ized intermediate and high schools, and skilled art 
 teachers will become the rule. Our summer normals 
 are doing a great work in improving art teaching all 
 along the line, and our school journals are admirably 
 supplementing all the other instrumentalities for fos- 
 tering preparation for art teaching. 
 
 ART TEACHING IN SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 The school arts constitute a splendid group of 
 studies for an intermediate specialist. The three 
 lines of work are organically one branch of study. 
 All tend to so develop and train the body as to 
 make it the fittest instrument for the mind to work in 
 and through. The intermediate specialist profound- 
 ly studies the physical economy and the school arts, 
 and she gives her best energies to promoting physical 
 vigour, vocal culture, and manual art. She is able to 
 do vastly more for pupil betterment than a teacher 
 
356 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 who has to teach all the school studies, and who can 
 give but a fraction of her energies to the art work. 
 The intermediate art specialist has each pupil one 
 hour daily for four years. The benefits of four years 
 of systematic and skilful art training are simply in- 
 calculable. The earnest teacher who instructs in all 
 the branches can do much to interest and guide her 
 pupils in the art work, but the specialist can do vastly 
 more for her pupils. (Eead Chapter XXIII.) 
 
 PHYSICAL CULTURE DEMANDS. 
 
 Physical vigour is fundamental in education. In 
 order to achieve, one must be able to do and to en- 
 dure. Physical culture is the art of making most of 
 our bodies. 
 
 Hygienic Conditions. Favourable environments are 
 conditions of health and growth. Let us turn back 
 and reread School Hygiene, Chapter IY. How may 
 we help to secure better hygienic conditions ? Home 
 hygiene is as necessary as school hygiene. Through 
 our pupils, through lectures, and through the press 
 we can do much to promote better home hygiene. 
 We hold ourselves responsible in part for our school 
 environments. The best exercise will not help much 
 in cheerless, filthy, poorly heated, and poorly lighted 
 schoolrooms. 
 
 Hygienic Habits. We do most for the physical 
 well-being of our pupils when we lead them to form 
 good hygienic habits (see page 49). We not only teach 
 our pupils the laws of health, but we also get them to 
 live these laws. The conduct lessons and the science 
 lessons are re-enforced by the physical-culture lessons. 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 357 
 
 Physical training best expresses the art work in 
 physical culture. The little ones in the kindergarten 
 and the primary schools are literally trained into hy- 
 gienic habits, but intelligent self-training characterizes 
 the intermediate and high-school physical culture work. 
 The best hygienic habits formed in the primary and 
 intermediate become fixed in the "high school and the 
 college ; they literally become life habits. 
 
 Physiology of Exercise. We study the nature of 
 exercise and we gain insight into the philosophy of 
 education. Fatigue, rest, growth these processes con- 
 stitute an interesting chapter in the story of human 
 development. Physiology of Bodily Exercise, by Fer- 
 nand Lagrange, International Scientific Series,* is sub- 
 mitted as a part of this topic. 
 
 1. Fatigue. Nerve cells are exhausted by effort. 
 Exertion reduces these cells nearly one half in quality 
 and quantity. The process of exhausting nerve cells 
 is called fatigue, and we use this term to represent ex- 
 ercise as well as its results. Fatigue reduces the bulk 
 and the structure of nerve cells. When normal rest 
 repairs the exhausted nerve cells and restores physical 
 vigour, the fatigue is normal ; when it does not do this, 
 the fatigue is abnormal, Overexertion or underex- 
 ertion tends to produce the tired feeling called morbid 
 fatigue. Not to heed the danger signal of morbid 
 fatigue is a fatal blunder. The workman from neces- 
 sity and the sportsman from excessive ardour carry 
 exertion beyond the normal-fatigue limit and so pro- 
 duce morbid fatigue and disease and death. 
 
 * D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
358 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 2. Rest. Repose restores the broken-down nerve 
 cells. After refreshing sleep we awake rested, rein- 
 vigorated. Rest stands for the process of restoring 
 broken-down nerve cells as well as for the result. 
 Normal rest restores vigour. Insufficient or excessive 
 rest is abnormal. Normal rest balances normal fatigue. 
 Normal rest strengthens, but abnormal rest weakens. 
 Excessive sleeping or waking rest tends to produce 
 abnormal fatigue with its train of maladies. 
 
 3. Growth. Effort exhausts, repose restores, growth 
 results. This sentence is the text for a hundred vol- 
 umes. Teacher, ponder it well, and write your views 
 in an essay to read to your fellow-teachers. Normal 
 fatigue and normal rest condition health and growth. 
 We lead our pupils to do their best when at their best ; 
 we thus promote healthy and vigorous growth. De- 
 velopment through fatigue and rest greatly interests 
 us, for it brings us very near the heart of things. 
 What mighty truths seem about to emerge ! 
 
 4. Drudgery. Effort continued after the normal- 
 fatigue limit has been reached is drudgery. Drudg- 
 ery hurts and does not help. Work, when teacher 
 and pupils are fresh, educates ; work when teacher 
 and pupils are fatigued is drudgery and tends to 
 dwarf. The wearing drudgery of so much of our 
 school work is appalling. Through stupid methods 
 of studying, of teaching, of examining, of reporting, 
 of marking, and of promoting, our teachers and our 
 pupils are often made drudges. Teachers must be 
 quick to perceive when the normal-fatigue limit has 
 been reached. School drudgery must go. 
 
 Teacher, the study of fatigue and rest may save 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 359 
 
 you and your pupils from many hurtful devices. 
 You will carefully plan to have restful recitations 
 follow exhausting studies, and you will arrange to 
 have rest follow work. You will prize the hourly 
 recess as the school safety-valve. You will study to 
 keep your pupils and yourself fresh and happy. 
 
 Objectionable Exercises. School and college exer- 
 cises in physical training must tend to promote phys- 
 ical vigour, must reach the body of learners, and must 
 be free from injurious tendencies. However popular 
 uneducative games may be, the teacher does not hesi- 
 tate in his disapproval. We venture to call attention 
 to some classes of exercises deemed harmful. 
 
 1. Vicarious. Physical culture is a personal mat- 
 ter. It means bodily exercise for the purpose of per- 
 fecting the physical organism by increasing health, 
 strength, and skill. A team, or a crew, or a club may 
 represent, but can not help the student body. Vica- 
 rious athletics can not be classed as school exercises. 
 Modern football, the regatta, and all similar games 
 are strictly vicarious athletics. The lovers of sport 
 think of these games as they do of the turf and the 
 ring, but they do not consider them, in any true sense, 
 school games. They may deepen the interest felt in 
 physical culture and manly sports, but can do nothing 
 more. They do not help the student body. 
 
 2. Brutalizing. The heavy competitive athletics 
 of the Spartans, the gladiatorial contests of the Romans, 
 and the bull fights of the Spaniards, tended to brutal- 
 ize the participants and the spectators. However 
 great their claims for physical culture and the devel- 
 opment of manly courage, the brutalizing tendencies 
 
360 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 of the ring and the gridiron seem to be irredeemable. 
 On this ground, sooner or later, we must reject as 
 school games all brutalizing contests. 
 
 3. Excessive. Games that exhaust are objection- 
 able. A severe game of football makes efficient study 
 impossible for hours, and even days. Suitable school 
 exercises tend to develop and refine the whole person, 
 but do not exhaust. When the tendency of an exer- 
 cise is to abnormal fatigue it should be modified or 
 rejected. Exercises must tend to better fit the stu- 
 dent for efficient study. Games, such as chess, check- 
 ers, cards, and dominoes, that give too little exercise, 
 must be rejected as games for students. They waste 
 precious time and more precious energy and give no 
 invigorating returns. 
 
 4. Military. Military tactics are unobjectionable 
 as to the above counts, and in many respects, are de- 
 sirable as school exercises. However, it is believed 
 that educators will ultimately reject dancing, and 
 military tactics and boxing as school exercises for two 
 reasons : (1) They are not the best available exercises 
 for promoting physical vigour, grace, and skill ; (2) 
 their tendencies are not so wholesome and desirable as 
 graded gymnastic exercises. For sufficient reasons 
 boxing and dancing have been, as a rule, rejected as 
 school exercises. I do not doubt that military tactics 
 will share the fate of dancing and boxing when tested 
 in the light of experience and the spirit of our civili- 
 zation. Civic culture in our times is vastly more im- 
 portant than military culture. We must work to de- 
 velop the grandest manhood. Our pupils are entitled 
 to the best. But we must not antagonize helpful 
 
METHODS OF TEACHINO^TIJp SefiOOL A^TS. 361 
 
 movements by our factious opposition ; we are bound, 
 however, to do what we can to replace hurtful exer- 
 cises by helpful exercises. Our pupils are entitled to 
 the best things. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 Physical vigour is our ideal. The Spartans devel- 
 oped physical prowess, the Athenians physical beauty, 
 and the Romans iron endurance. Our civilization 
 demands the high thinking of the Athenians and 
 the iron endurance of the Romans rather than the 
 physical prowess of the Spartans.^ -In the arts of 
 peace and war, brains and implements are now su- 
 preme. The age of brute force is past. The manly 
 men and the womenly women now are the brave 
 thinkers and the noble doers. Jesus is our ideal of 
 a manly man. Physical training is the art of devel- 
 oping a vigorous physical manhood. Exercise is the 
 means. Well-directed physical effort makes for growth 
 and vigour. The body is so developed and trained as 
 to be the fittest instrument for a self to work in and 
 through. 
 
 1. Adapted Exercises. The physical exercises 
 should be as wisely adapted to the physical condition 
 of the pupil as the mental exercises to his mental con- 
 dition. The light exercises and the invigorating 
 plays of the kindergarten and the primary school are 
 adapted to the little ones. The more vigorous and 
 varied exercises of our grammar schools are adapted 
 to the girls and boys. The invigorating exercises of 
 the high schools are adapted to the youths. The 
 helpful athletics of our colleges are adapted to young 
 
362 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 women and young men. The graded system of exer- 
 cises worked out by Carl Betz, director of physical cul- 
 ture in the Kansas City, Missouri, schools, is admirable 
 in theory and practice. It is based on the principles 
 of the German system, but is completely adapted to 
 the wants of our schools. The Emerson system of 
 physical culture skilfully adapts the exercises to the 
 growing pupils. Other excellent systems now in use 
 give satisfactory results. But most depends on the 
 teacher. Only the wise teacher can adapt the exer- 
 cises to classes of pupils and to individual pupils. 
 
 2. Outdoor School Exercises. The hourly recess 
 in elementary and high schools is a physical-culture 
 imperative. No other device can do so much to keep 
 pupils fresh and happy. Real recreation must follow 
 work. Rest must balance fatigue and drudgery must 
 be made to disappear from the schoolroom. The 
 benefits from systematic exercise are manifold, but 
 the free exercises of the playground and the home 
 must supplement the systematic exercises of the school- 
 room. Outdoor exercises are most helpful, and when 
 conditions justify, it is every way best to have some 
 of the systematic exercises in the open air. We plan 
 to have the free exercises of the recess follow these 
 outdoor systematic exercises. 
 
 3. Spontaneity. It must be so managed that pu- 
 pils will engage with zest in the exercises. The play 
 spirit must in some way be infused into the system- 
 atic exercises. Glad efforts develop power. The 
 kindergarten exercises are ideal. The same is true of 
 the exercises in many of our primary schools. Only 
 in our grammar and high schools do the exercises 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 363 
 
 tend to become mechanical and irksome, and hence 
 comparatively unprofitable. It is believed that 
 adapted and varied exercises, skilfully managed, may 
 be made a delight to advanced pupils and college 
 students ; self-training is educative. 
 
 4. Habitual Home Exercises. Here we get the 
 best. As we do most for our pupils intellectually by 
 fostering studious habits and broad interest, so we do 
 most to promote their physical well-being by lead- 
 ing them to form permanent hygienic habits. Ex- 
 ercise is not a fetish ; self -effort promotes growth and 
 vigour, but exercises must be fitting. Unfitting exer- 
 cises, like wrong medicines, work injury. We inter- 
 est each intermediate- and high-school pupil in his 
 personal problem. Each asks, " How can I make 
 most of myself?" To begin, each one must make 
 most of his body through exercise. Pupils thus in- 
 terested enter with zest into the school exercises. 
 "What is far more important, they develop habits of 
 systematic home exercise. Each, after long trial and 
 much consultation, decides on a life plan for taking 
 regular exercise. 
 
 (1) Home Gymnastics. Pledge : " I will devote 
 fifteen minutes daily to systematic exercises." Some 
 exercise that calls into play the entire body is selected. 
 Prof. R. L. Brown at eighty -three was an efficient 
 college professor. " Since boyhood," he tells us, " I 
 have taken exercise with Indian clubs fifteen minutes 
 daily. To this exercise and my daily walks I attribute 
 my ability to work on." In life, as in school, sys- 
 tematic exercise makes the difference between success 
 and failure. 
 
364: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 (2) Walking. Pledge : " I will walk one mile 
 daily." What have been the exercises of great men? 
 Kant got his gymnastics in his daily lectures, and for 
 fourscore years kept up his vigour by long daily walks. 
 The constitutional walks of Bismarck and other great 
 men are proverbial. Walking is one of the very best 
 of all exercises and should be practised as a fine art. 
 It is a great thing to get this pledge into the lives of 
 our pupils. 
 
 (3) Cycling. Pledge : " I will cycle two miles 
 daily." The bicycle seems to have come to stay. 
 Cycling is claimed by Miss Frances Willard and an 
 innumerable host of experts as an ideal exercise. 
 Bicycles are becoming so cheap that nearly every 
 pupil over ten years of age will be able to own or 
 secure the use of a bicycle. Cycling supplements 
 walking. 
 
 (4) Working. Pledge : " I will work thirty min- 
 utes daily." Home duties supplement but do not 
 take the place of systematic exercises. Every child 
 should be trained to work. In the golden age of Athens 
 each Athenian youth was required to learn a trade. 
 Rural industries have large educative values. The 
 habit of doing regularly real work is highly impor- 
 tant. Work promotes growth and vigour when the 
 laws of fatigue and rest are observed. The teacher by 
 example and by precept should dignify work. Chop- 
 ping was the favourite work of Greeley and Glad- 
 stone. Paul made tents. We may so manage as to 
 lead most of our grammar- and high-school pupils to 
 embody the four pledges in habits which they will 
 keep up through college and through life. In so 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 3G5 
 
 doing we shall certainly enable them almost to double 
 their vigour and their worth. 
 
 (5) Rowing, etc. Many excellent exercises, like 
 rowing and horseback riding, may be considered. 
 Some may profitably substitute rowing for cycling ; 
 horseback riding may be chosen by some instead of 
 cycling ; or these exercises may be taken on alternate 
 days. Such games as croquet and tennis should be 
 encouraged. 
 
 Interest in Physical Culture. Pupil study, phys- 
 iological psychology, and a truer philosophy of 
 education have awakened a lively interest in the phys- 
 ical improvement of the race. That physical better- 
 ment conditions mental and moral betterment is now 
 accepted as an educational axiom. The educational 
 press leads in many helpful suggestions and supple- 
 ments the many valuable manuals on physical culture. 
 The earnest teacher will study to become an artist in 
 promoting physical as well as mental and moral cul- 
 ture. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING YOCAL Music. 
 
 The educative value of vocal music is very great. 
 The culture of the ennobling emotions is as important 
 as the culture of reason. Man is a social being and 
 music and conversation are pre-eminently the social 
 arts. Yocal culture makes us companionable. Song 
 and story are the sunshine of the home and the 
 school. Yocal culture does much to make life worth 
 living. 
 
 1. Course in Music. The little kindergartners 
 sing just as the birds sing. They are happy and ex- 
 
366 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 press their joy in song and play. The children dur- 
 ing the first and second primary years express their 
 joys in song and play and story as in the kindergar- 
 ten ; but when the pupils are ready for it, they are 
 led to read easy music just as they are led to read 
 easy print. Theory and definitions are not thought 
 of. During the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth years, the graded lessons in music are mas- 
 tered side by side with the graded lessons in mathe- 
 matics and science. Throughout the four high-school 
 years and the four college years the students have two 
 lessons each week in vocal culture one in music and 
 one in expression. 
 
 2. Teacher Preparation. No other musical in- 
 strument equals the human voice. Yocal culture is 
 the most desirable of all accomplishments and one of 
 the most essential preparations for teaching. The 
 preparation for teaching vocal music should be as 
 thorough as the preparation for teaching Latin. The 
 culture is its own reward. Each primary teacher 
 must be a lover of song and story and play as well as 
 a lover of children. Teachers in ungraded schools 
 should be able to teach music as skilfully as they 
 teach arithmetic. In another decade teachers of vocal 
 music in our intermediate schools as now in our high 
 schools will be specialists, but vocal culture will be 
 sought by all teachers. 
 
 Class Methods. Here as everywhere the earnest 
 teacher learns from the masters. Teaching vocal 
 music to classes is an advanced art. Each individual 
 pupil must be instructed and trained and each must 
 be enlisted in the study of music. Concert work 
 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 367 
 
 even in music has its limits. Each pupil needs spe- 
 cial attention. Yocal music must be taught as thor- 
 oughly as mathematics. The excellent manuals for 
 teachers of vocal music are certainly of great value, 
 but the teacher needs to get inspiration and methods 
 from living artists. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS IN TEACHING DRAWING AND 
 WRITING. 
 
 Mann-mental culture develops intellect and emo- 
 tion and will through hand training. It includes as 
 school arts drawing, writing, and making. Form 
 study and drawing complement each other. All art 
 involves drawing. Drawing is a universal language, 
 and its applications are manifold. The modern 
 teacher is skilful in blackboard drawing. Agassiz, as 
 he lectured, seemed to make the germ grow from the 
 egg to the fully developed bird. Whatever the sub- 
 ject, drawing re-enforces good teaching. Inability to 
 draw cripples the most gifted of teachers. " Oh, that 
 some wise teacher had taught me to draw ! " is the sad 
 refrain of many a learned professor. 
 
 1. Educative Value. Drawing is the key to the 
 world of manual art. It brings into the lives of our 
 pupils something of painting, sculpture, architecture, 
 landscaping. Literature, music, drawing these are 
 studies that develop taste and imagination. The draw- 
 ing lessons awaken interest, and when well conducted 
 educate aesthetic feeling, develop intellect, and culti- 
 vate will. Drawing aids pupils in all other studies. 
 The practical value of drawing is incalculable. It is 
 
368 SCHOOL MANAGEiMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 not surprising, therefore, that drawing has worked its 
 way to a permanent place in all modern schools. 
 
 2. Preparation for teaching Drawing. The com- 
 ing teacher will be cultured and skilled in drawing. It 
 is not meant that teachers will even attempt high art, 
 but they must be prepared to lead their pupils to ap- 
 preciate art creations ; they must be prepared to con- 
 duct the drawing lesson as intelligently as they con- 
 duct the geography lesson ; they must be prepared to 
 draw rapidly and reasonably well on the blackboard. 
 All teachers in our primary and ungraded schools 
 must be prepared to teach drawing. Drawing in the 
 near future will be taught by specialists in our inter- 
 mediate schools as in our high schools and normal 
 schools. 
 
 3. Drawing Manuals. However skilled teachers 
 may be, they will need to consult constantly the best 
 manuals. These manuals embody the best thought 
 and experience of experts, and are rich in helpful 
 suggestions. Prang's Form Study and Drawing Man- 
 uals are considered excellent. The Prang Educational 
 Company, of Boston, have done much to promote 
 art education. Teachers will get suggestions from 
 manuals and from living teachers, and will then cre- 
 ate their own ideals and pursue their own plans. 
 
 4:. Course in Drawing. Drawing is begun in the 
 kindergarten and is continued in some form through 
 the school and college years. Two drawing lessons a 
 week in elementary schools and one lesson a week in 
 high schools and colleges will suffice for the many. 
 These lessons are supplemented by the applied draw- 
 ing in nearly all subjects. Excluding drawing from 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 369 
 
 higlyschool and college courses is considered a funda- 
 mental educational mistake. The suitable weekly les- 
 son keeps students in touch with the art world. 
 
 5. Writing. The tendency is to the use of the 
 vertical system of writing and to greatly shorten the 
 time usually devoted to teaching writing. During the 
 primary years it is found satisfactory to have the 
 writing and the drawing lessons on alternate days. 
 Later the necessary training in writing is given in 
 connection with drawing. 
 
 Fine penmanship is not a school art ; speed and 
 legibility are the aims. Children learn to write as 
 they learn to read, and writing and reading go on 
 together. Teachers should look well to positions and 
 movements, and manage to get pupils to write plainly 
 and rapidly. 
 
 The vertical writing in some modified form will, 
 it is believed, be the writing of the future. Teachers 
 will learn to so teach writing as to economize energy 
 and make this art of greatest value in all school work 
 and in life. Suggestive manuals will aid in the work. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS IN MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 " Making " best expresses the manual-training 
 idea. Form study, drawing, and manual training are 
 supplementary. To some extent manual training, the 
 newest of all our school studies, is beginning to be 
 continuous through the school and college years. How 
 to make manual training in its most helpful forms 
 general is one of the educational problems of our times. 
 The little kindergartners mould and weave and cut 
 and paste. Our best primary schools continue the 
 25 
 
370 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 manual-training work of the kindergarten and adapt 
 it to the grades. As we transform our graded gram- 
 mar schools into specialized intermediate schools we 
 will make the solution easy for this class of schools. 
 Art specialists will command the necessary facilities 
 and appliances for efficient work in the art studies. 
 In some of our high schools the manual training 
 is becoming excellent. Some of our normal schools 
 include in their art work excellent courses in manual 
 training. Our ungraded schools and our unspecialized 
 grammar schools are still, as a rule, without manual 
 training. Satisfactory plans for efficient manual train- 
 ing in these schools have not yet been devised. Some 
 teachers, however, are succeeding, and that all may 
 succeed is no longer doubted ; but we must not at- 
 tempt too much nor expect too much. "We must 
 study the conditions and gradually introduce the lines 
 of manual training most fitting. 
 
 EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING. 
 
 SUGGESTIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 
 
 Good Teaching in lieu of Extraneous Incentives. Read again 
 pp. 177-195. Why do you contend that vital teaching is the 
 very essence of helpful school work? Discuss the questions: 
 " Should written recitations take the place of formal written ex- 
 aminations f" "Should good teaching banish per-cent mark- 
 ing ? " " Should educative records and reports displace per-cent 
 drudgery?" "Should good teaching lead to promotion and 
 graduation?" "Why should oral and book teaching be made 
 complementary?" Does the investigation method of studying 
 and teaching include all methods ? 
 
 XXVI. Efficient Methods in Conduct Teaching, Discuss, "Is 
 conduct the greatest thing in education f " What are the char- 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 371 
 
 acteristics of the conduct group of studies! Follow the five lines 
 of conduct work through the schools and the college. Discuss, " Is 
 the conduct group of studies of the highest educative value?" 
 Give your method of teaching the special conduct lessons. Why 
 is educative school government considered the best conduct work ? 
 Discuss primary methods in history ; intermediate methods ; high- 
 school methods ; college methods. How will you teach civics in 
 primary classes ? in intermediate classes f in high-school classes ? 
 Discuss, " How should mind lessons be taught in primary classes ? 
 in intermediate classes'? in high-school classes?" How may prac- 
 tical religion be efficiently taught in all our schools ? Why must 
 ethical culture be ingrained ? What lessons do we learn from the 
 Jews ? from the Scotch ? from the Quakers ? from moral heroes f 
 Discuss, "Is duty the keynote to ethical culture?" Mention the 
 three books you consider most helpful in conduct culture. Give 
 some benefits of a good working library in conduct teaching. 
 
 XXVII. Efficient Methods in Language-Literature Teaching. 
 Show that the four lines of language-literature work are organ- 
 ically one. Trace these lines through the schools and the college. 
 Discuss, " Is it best to give this group of studies double the recita- 
 tion time of the other study groups 1 " Describe your ideal spe- 
 cial programme for language-literature work in the primary ; in 
 the intermediate ; in the high school. Give some of the advan- 
 tages of specialization in teaching this group of studies in inter- 
 mediate schools. Discuss the importance of the working library 
 in teaching English. Point out some of the correlations of litera- 
 ture and other studies. Discuss, " Should reading be made a spe- 
 cial study ? " Give your method in teaching primary reading. De- 
 scribe the first step ; second step ; third step. Describe the A-B-C 
 method; phonetic method; word method; sentence method; 
 look-and-say method; rational method. Why should lessons in 
 expression be continuous? Point out the educative value of lit- 
 erature. Why should language and literature be interlaced? 
 State the evils of divorcing these studies. Point out the blunder 
 in teaching the history of literature rather than literature ; in fol- 
 lowing the old classical ideal. Give your plan for teaching litera- 
 ture in the primary ; in the intermediate ; in the high school. 
 What do the language lessons include? Give your method in 
 primary language lessons. How should composition be taught in 
 the primary ? in the intermediate ? in the high school ! 
 
372 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 XXVIII. Efficient Methods in Science Teaching. Discuss, " We 
 should teach science rather than sciences." Are the science 
 studies organically one branch ? Follow the three lines of Nature 
 study through the schools and the college. Describe your special 
 spiral programme for Nature work ; describe Prof. Jack man's ; de- 
 scribe Prof. Howe's. What is meant by making geography central 
 in the elementary science group ? Mention three helpful manuals 
 for geography teaching. Give your method in primary geog- 
 raphy ; in intermediate geography. What is your estimate of the 
 educative value of biology ? Relate the history of biology in our 
 schools. Why should the preparation for teaching biology be 
 thorough I Give some of the correlations of biology and other 
 studies. Outline your method of teaching biology in the primary ; 
 in the intermediate : in the high school. How should we teach 
 physiology and hygiene in elementary schools $ State educative 
 value of physics. Give reasons for teaching physics side by side 
 with the other lines of Nature study. Give your plan for teach- 
 ing physics in the primary ; in the intermediate ; in the high 
 school. Show that good science teaching enables pupils to accom- 
 plish more in their other studies. Visit and contrast schools in 
 which science is and is not well taught. 
 
 XXIX. Efficient Methods in Mathematics. Compare the culture 
 value of mathematics and language; the knowledge value of 
 mathematics and Nature studies. Trace through the schools and 
 the college the two lines of mathematical work. Give some rea- 
 sons why these lines of study should be continuous ; should be in- 
 terlaced. Compare the special programme of the author and your 
 ideal programme for the mathematics studies. Why does the wise 
 teacher welcome excellent manuals of methods? Are working 
 libraries important in mathematics work? Discuss each of the 
 five lines of preparation for teaching mathematics. Tell the 
 story of methods of teaching arithmetic. Give an outline of the 
 arithmetic work in elementary schools. Discuss " Psychology of 
 Number." Prove that psychology determines methods. Examine 
 method of symbols ; method of things ; method of thought. De- 
 scribe methods in arithmetic during the first and second years ; 
 during the third and fourth years; during the fifth and sixth 
 years ; during the seventh and eighth years. Discuss the charac- 
 teristics of the ideal text-book in arithmetic. Show the correla- 
 tions of arithmetic. Give your reasons for placing introductory 
 
METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 373 
 
 algebra in the seventh and eighth grades. Discuss the question, 
 "Should concrete geometry be taught in elementary schools'?" 
 Show the correlations of concrete geometry and other studies. 
 
 XXX. Efficient Methods in the Art Studies. Describe the three 
 lines of art study in our schools and colleges. Show that the 
 school arts are organically one branch of study. State the advan- 
 tages of specialized intermediate and high schools in teaching the 
 school arts. Discuss the preparation of the teacher for teaching 
 the art group of studies. How much time should be given to the 
 art studies in elementary schools ? in high schools ? in colleges ? 
 State some of the hygienic conditions of physical culture. Why 
 are hygienic habits so important? What do you mean by fa- 
 tigue I by rest f by growth I by normal and abnormal fatigue I by 
 drudgery? Why are vicarious, brutalizing, and excessive school 
 exercises objectionable ? Compare the ideals of various peoples as 
 to physical culture. Give reasons for adapted exercises; for free 
 exercises ; for spontaneity. What systematic home exercises can 
 you recommend? Discuss the four pledges. Discuss habitual 
 work as exercise. How do you account for the marvellous inter- 
 est now manifested in physical culture? Give six reasons why 
 vocal music should be taught in our schools and colleges. What 
 can you say about the culture value of music? about preparation 
 for teaching music ? about class methods in teaching music? Dis- 
 cuss the culture value of drawing ; the practical value ; the value 
 to the teacher. Prove that manual training should have a place 
 in all our schools. Review Manual of Manu-mental Culture, by 
 R. K. Priz, American Book Company. 
 
 Manuals of Method. The following are some of the helpful 
 general manuals : 
 
 De Garmo's Essentials of Method. D. C. Heath & Co, Boston. 
 
 McMurry's General Method. Public School Publishing Com- 
 pany, Bloomington, 111. 
 
 Brook's Normal Methods. Sower & Co., Philadelphia. 
 
 Parker's Concentration. E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 
 
 Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching. D. Appleton 
 & Co., New York. 
 
 Greenwood's Principles of Education practically Applied. 
 D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 Garlick's Manual of Method. Longmans & Co., New York. 
 
SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S SCHOOL 
 MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Pages 3 to 54. 
 
 I. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER EDUCATIONAL 
 CONDITIONS. 
 
 1. Discuss " Does progress come of ideals in advance 
 
 of reals ? " 
 
 2. Show that pupil betterment is the central idea in 
 
 school management and school methods. 
 
 3. Describe your ideal school; your ideal teacher; 
 
 your ideal pupil ; your ideal school board. 
 
 4. Discuss "Is pupil study the most important thing 
 
 in the new education ? " 
 
 5. Explain how pupil study helps teachers ; how it 
 
 works pupil good. 
 
 6. Give the author's plan for pupil study; the plan 
 
 of Prof. Earl Barnes; of President Hall; your 
 plan. 
 
 7. What is the infant ? the child ? the boy ? the youth ? 
 
 the young man ? 
 8 Point out the gains from studying the pupil as a 
 
 physical being; as a self; as a moral agent. 
 9. As an educator, what does the teacher do for the 
 
 pupil? Illustrate. 
 
 10. Discuss " Is teaching a learned profession ? " " May 
 
 teaching be made a learned profession ? " 
 
 11. Why must the ideal teacher be gifted? cultured? 
 
 prepared ? devoted ? progressive ? 
 375 
 
3/6 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 
 
 12. Discuss "Should schools for educating teachers be 
 sustained ? " 
 
 13 What is meant by school hygiene? by home hy- 
 giene ? by personal hygiene ? 
 
 14. Discuss " Is the hourly recess a hygienic desidera- 
 
 tum ? Is it an educational imperative ? " 
 
 15. Show that free exercise as well as systematic exer- 
 
 cise is indispensable. 
 
 16. Explain the sanitary value of pure air; of normal 
 
 temperature; of proper light; of play. 
 
 17. Describe the civilized toilet; the sanitary cloak- 
 
 room; the hygienic lunch. 
 
 1 8. Show the value of regularity; of cleanliness; of 
 
 abundant sleep ; of hygienic diet ; of suitable 
 clothing ; of cheerfulness ; of self-control ; of 
 physical vigor. 
 
 Pages 55 to 90. 
 
 II. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER EDUCATIONAL 
 FACILITIES. 
 
 1. What do you mean by educative environments? 
 
 by school management ? 
 
 2. Describe your ideal school location; school grounds; 
 
 schoolhouse. 
 
 3. Tell the story of the evolution of the schoolhouse; 
 
 describe what you have seen. 
 
 4. How can we make the best school work possible? 
 
 how secure physical comfort? 
 
 5. Describe the teacher's ideal schoolroom outfit; 
 
 describe desirable schoolroom decorations. 
 
 6. Give the meaning of school apparatus; the value 
 
 of; the use of; the care of. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 377 
 
 7. Describe your ideal educative school grounds; 
 
 schoolroom ; blackboard. 
 
 8. What apparatus is needed in conduct teaching ? in 
 
 language-literature teaching ? in science teach- 
 ing? in mathematics teaching ? in art teaching? 
 
 9. Give your views about making, buying, and taking 
 
 care of apparatus. 
 
 10. Discuss "Are books the best helps in teaching and 
 
 in learning? " 
 
 11. Review the six characteristics of the ideal text- 
 
 book. Describe your ideal text-book. 
 
 12. Discuss "Should text-books be free in our public 
 
 schools?" 
 
 13. Outline the history of school libraries; give your 
 
 estimate of their value. 
 
 14. Discuss " Should every schoolroom have a work- 
 
 ing library ?" 
 
 15. Describe the working library of a rural school; 
 
 of a primary school ; of an intermediate school ; 
 of a high school. 
 
 16. How would you manage department libraries in 
 
 rural schools ? in primary schools ? in interme- 
 diate schools ? 
 
 17. In what way may general libraries be made most 
 
 beneficial ? 
 
 18. Discuss " Should school faculties manage the work- 
 
 ing libraries ? " 
 
 Pages 91 to 146. 
 
 III. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 i. What is meant by teacher-governing power? by 
 the teacher as the vital factor in the school ? 
 
378 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 
 
 2. Discuss " Is moral worth primary in school govern- 
 
 ment ? " 
 
 3. In governing power show the value of character; 
 
 of culture; of pupil insight; of teaching power; 
 of heart power ; of will power ; of system ; of 
 tact ; of bearing. 
 
 4. What do you mean by government? by school 
 
 government? by motives? by incentives? 
 
 5. Discuss " May the teacher determine pupil motives ? " 
 
 " Is the teacher responsible for pupil conduct ? " 
 
 6. What is meant by hurtful incentives? by low in- 
 
 centives? by high motives? Illustrate. 
 
 7. Explain the three classes of high motives; the 
 
 three classes of highest motives. 
 
 8. Discuss "Is an ideal school an embryo state?" 
 
 " Are wise laws fundamental ? " 
 
 9. State the educational principles that determine 
 
 school regulations; illustrate each. 
 
 10. Expound the educative school code ; illustrate its 
 
 enactment; explain its educative value. 
 
 11. What do you mean by order? by law-abiding? by 
 
 self-government ? Why is self-government best ? 
 
 12. How will you develop the habit of working quiet- 
 
 ly ? of regularity ? of promptitude ? 
 
 13. How will you educate your pupils to act properly ? 
 
 to do right ? 
 
 14. Discuss " Does educative suffering tend to work 
 
 reformation ? " " Is educative punishment reme- 
 dial ? " 
 
 15. Examine the principles relating to school punish- 
 
 ments; illustrate each. 
 
 1 6. What are helpful school punishments? Discuss 
 
 disapproval; reproof; privations; suspension. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 379 
 
 17. What are hurtful punishments? Discuss corporal 
 
 punishment; fear; cruel punishments; unjust 
 punishments; low marks. 
 
 1 8. Discuss "May rational control be safely substi- 
 
 tuted for the rod in our schools?" 
 
 Pages 147 to 197. 
 
 IV. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE CLASS 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. Tell the story of school evolution ; of individual- 
 
 ism ; of classification. 
 
 2. Describe the class ; its object; its adaptation ; size 
 
 of classes; value of the class. 
 
 3. Explain the art of happy class control. Discuss 
 
 "Is attention through interest fundamental?" 
 
 4. Give your plan for classifying ; for promoting. 
 
 5. What do you mean by class work? by the reci- 
 
 tation ; by good class work ? by poor class 
 work ? 
 
 6. Review the six characteristics of educative class 
 
 work. Name some other characteristics. 
 
 7. Explain class methods ; the unity method ; the in- 
 
 vestigation method ; the teaching question meth- 
 od ; the conversation method; the discussion 
 method; the lecture method. 
 
 8. Describe class devices ; the class ; written work ; 
 
 laboratory work ; outline work ; reporting; teach- 
 ing; original devices. 
 
 9. What do you mean by school tactics ? state the 
 
 object; the value. 
 
 10. Give some determining principles. How does a 
 signal-clock help ? 
 
380 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 
 
 11. Illustrate fitness in calling and dismissing school; 
 
 in calling and dismissing classes; in recitation 
 tactics ; in blackboard tactics ; in concert tactics. 
 
 12. Contrast the old education and the new as to oral 
 
 and book work. 
 
 13. Compare oral and book teaching in the kinder- 
 
 garten ; in the primary ; in the intermediate ; in 
 the high school ; in the college. 
 
 14. Describe the oral teaching and the book teaching 
 
 in our best schools. 
 
 15. Discuss " Should the written recitation be substi- 
 
 tuted for the formal examination ? " 
 
 1 6. Give seven reasons why good teaching should take 
 
 the place of all forms of comparative marking. 
 
 17. Describe educative records and reports. Why 
 
 should per-cent records and reports disappear 
 from our schools ? 
 
 18. Discuss " Should good teaching by fostering effi- 
 
 cient study determine promotion and gradua- 
 tion ?" 
 
 19. Why should teachers so manage that the old edu- 
 
 cation will imperceptibly grow into the new, just 
 as the serpent sheds its old skin in growing the 
 new ? 
 
 Pages 198 to 298. 
 
 V. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE 
 ORGANIZATION AND CORRELATION. 
 
 1. Look over the educational highway. What is the 
 
 central idea in its construction ? Why is each 
 line of study progressive and continuous ? 
 
 2. What does each class of schools stand for ? What 
 
 studies should constitute the school courses? 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMEMT. 381 
 
 3. Discuss the five necessary co-ordinate groups of 
 
 studies; the five practical groups. 
 
 4. Give the history of the Report of the Committee 
 
 of Fifteen ; of the Committee of Ten. 
 
 5. Describe the programme for elementary schools in 
 
 the Report of the Committee of Fifteen. 
 
 6. Tell the story of the rural schools. Is it true that 
 
 most of our leaders come from these schools ? 
 
 7. Discuss " May the rural schools be made as efficient 
 
 as the city schools ?" 
 
 8. Explain why country schools must be sui generis ; 
 
 why are ungraded schools least economical ? 
 
 9. Picture your ideal rural school site ; grounds ; 
 
 schoolhouse ; cloakroom ; civilized toilet. 
 
 10. Why must our rural schools be arranged in or- 
 
 ganic groups ? Is the township system best ? 
 
 11. Discuss the rural district; school board; district 
 
 principal ; district faculty ; district library. 
 
 12. Explain the rural-school course of study ; the four- 
 
 group programme; the three-group programme. 
 
 13. Discuss " Should the central rural school gradually 
 
 evolve into the district high school ? " 
 
 14. How must the method of work in rural schools 
 
 differ from that in the graded schools ? 
 
 15. Describe the place and work of the kindergarten; 
 
 the ideal kindergarten; the ideal kindergartner. 
 
 16. Give your views of the ideal primary-school house ; 
 
 ideal faculty ; ideal library. 
 
 17. Examine primary organization; course of study; 
 
 programme ; methods. Why must the first pri- 
 mary grade be made a semi-kindergarten ? 
 
 18. Explain educational periods; the work of each 
 
 school group ; the stages of school evolution. 
 
382 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 
 
 19. Discuss "Will the spirit of progress compel the 
 
 transformation of our graded grammar schools 
 into specialized intermediate schools?" 
 
 20. Describe the special school-building system; de- 
 
 scribe your ideal school building for the special- 
 ized intermediate school of the future. 
 
 21. Examine the intermediate study groups; the in- 
 
 termediate course of study ; the specialized in- 
 termediate programme. 
 
 22. Describe the specialized intermediate school at 
 
 work. 
 
 23. When should specialization begin ? Give the view 
 
 of leading educators. 
 
 24. Discuss " Will the benefits of intermediate speciali- 
 
 zation far outweigh its objections ? " 
 
 25. Give the history of the high school; its place; its 
 
 functions; its characteristics. 
 
 26. Discuss high-school study groups; high-school 
 
 courses ; high-school programmes. 
 
 27. Describe the high-school faculty; organization; 
 
 promotion ; graduation. 
 
 28. Discuss college correlation ; adaptation ; methods; 
 
 early specialization. 
 
 Pages 299 to 373. 
 
 VI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT METHODS OF 
 TEACHING. 
 
 1. Discuss " Should the conduct group of studies take 
 
 highest rank?" "Should conduct teaching be 
 systematic ? " 
 
 2. Trace through the schools and the college the five 
 
 lines of conduct work. Give your special pro- 
 gramme for the conduct studies. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 383 
 
 3. Give your method in school conduct; in how to 
 
 study ; in manners ; in morals. 
 
 4. Explain your method in primary history ; in inter- 
 
 mediate history ; in high-school history ; in civ- 
 ics; in mind-lessons; in practical religion. 
 
 5. Why do you consider history and biography sup- 
 
 plemented by literature the great conduct stud- 
 ies? 
 
 6. Discuss " Is duty the keynote in the practical cul- 
 
 ture of the moral virtues ? " 
 
 7. Trace the four lines of language-literature work ; 
 
 show their organic unity. 
 
 8. Investigate the special programme for language- 
 
 literature studies. Discuss " Is too much time 
 given to language-literature studies?" 
 
 9. Give your method in primary reading; in primary 
 
 literature; in primary language lessons; in pri- 
 mary composition ; in intermediate teaching of 
 these studies in high school. 
 
 10. Why do we call the science group of studies Nature 
 
 studies ? Give your estimate of their educative 
 value. 
 
 11. Trace through the schools and the college the 
 
 three lines of Nature study; show the organic 
 unity of the science studies. 
 
 12. Discuss special programmes for science work. Is 
 
 one daily recitation period sufficient ? 
 
 13. Give your method in primary geography; in inter- 
 
 mediate geography ; in correlating geography 
 and history. 
 
 14. Tell the story of the growth of the study of biol- 
 
 ogy. Why must teachers make special prepara- 
 tion for teaching biology ? 
 
384 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 
 
 15. Give your method in primary biology; in inter- 
 
 mediate biology ; in correlation of biology and 
 other studies. 
 
 16. Review Nature Studies, by Prof. Jackman ; Sys- 
 
 tematic Science Teaching, by Prof. Howe. 
 
 17. Why should the study of physics be continuous? 
 
 Estimate its educative value. 
 
 18. Give your method in primary physics; in interme- 
 
 diate physics ; in high-school physics. 
 
 19. Show the natural and helpful correlations of phys- 
 
 ics and other studies. 
 
 20. Discuss " Does good science teaching lessen inter- 
 
 est and efficiency in the other study groups ? " 
 
 21. Trace through the schools and the college the two 
 
 lines of mathematics work. Tell the educative 
 value of these studies. 
 
 22. Criticise the special programme for mathematics 
 
 studies. Is the time adequate ? 
 
 23. Give the five items of preparation for teaching 
 
 mathematics; point out the danger from pre- 
 sumption. 
 
 24. What distinction do you make between pure and 
 
 applied arithmetic ? Give six characteristics of 
 the ideal text-book in arithmetic. 
 
 25. In primary arithmetic illustrate the method of 
 
 symbols; the method of things; the method of 
 thought. 
 
 26. Give your method in primary arithmetic; in ad- 
 
 vanced arithmetic. 
 
 27. How should we teach introductory algebra in sev- 
 
 enth and eighth grades ? 
 
 28. Give your methods in concrete geometry ; point 
 
 out its correlations. 
 
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 385 
 
 29. Trace through the schools and the college the 
 
 three lines of art study ; show their organic unity. 
 
 30. Study the special programme for art work. What 
 
 changes would you make ? 
 
 31. What special preparations are necessary for teach- 
 
 ing the school arts ? 
 
 32. What is our ideal in physical culture? Why do 
 
 you object to exercises that are vicarious, brutal- 
 izing, violent, inferior ? 
 
 33. Show that school exercises should be adapted ; 
 
 systematic; interesting; educative. 
 
 34. Explain the four pledges for home exercises. Why 
 
 should exercise be habitual ? 
 
 35. Estimate the educational value of music. Explain 
 
 your method in primary music; in intermediate 
 music. 
 
 36. Give your method in primary drawing; in inter- 
 
 mediate drawing ; in primary writing. Do you 
 prefer vertical writing ? 
 
 37. Estimate the value of drawing to the teacher; to 
 
 the pupil ; in life. 
 
 38. Discuss " Should manual training be continuous 
 
 through the schools ? " 
 
 39. Describe manual training in the kindergarten ; in 
 
 the primary; in the intermediate; in the high 
 school. 
 
 40. What is your plan for getting manual training into 
 
 all our schools? 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abnormal fatigue, 41, 357, 358, 360. 
 
 Adapted school exercises, 42, 361, 
 363. 
 
 Adopting regulations, 116. 
 
 ^Esthetic culture, 59, 68, 360. 
 
 Aids in geography, 72, 334. 
 
 Alertness, ix, 160. 
 
 Algebra, 200, 268, 280, 352. 
 
 Alphabetical method, 325. 
 
 Apparatus, Chap. VII ; importance 
 of, 69 ; school grounds, 70 ; school- 
 room, 70 ; blackboard, 71 ; in con- 
 duct, 71 ; in language-literature, 
 72 ; in science, 339 ; in mathe- 
 matics, 73, 351 ; in art, 74, 361, 367, 
 369 ; laboratory, 169, 339. 
 
 Appliances, betterment of, Chap. 
 VI; hygienic, 64; movements, 
 64 ; electric programme clock, 65 ; 
 physical comfort, 65 ; schoolroom 
 outfit, 65 ; school apparatus, 69 ; 
 library, 81. 
 
 Architecture, educative, 61, 69 ; 
 union school system, 258 ; special 
 system, 259 ; hygienic, vii, ix. 
 
 Arithmetical correlations, 851. 
 
 Arithmetic, methods in, 345. 
 
 Art of teaching, xi, xv, 10, 26, 36, 
 163, 819, 858, 368. 
 
 Art programme, 854. 
 
 Art studies, good facilities, 74 ; 
 courses in, 352 ; useful and beau- 
 
 tiful, 210; special teacher, 268; 
 
 art methods, Chap. XXX ; course 
 
 in, 353. 
 Artistic teaching, xi, 36, 154, 164, 
 
 172, 181, 368. 
 Attention, 154, 160, 185. 
 
 Bacon, 6. 
 
 Barnes, Earl, methods of studying 
 children, 24. 
 
 Benefits of specialization, 259, 270, 
 277. 
 
 Betz, Carl, Graded Gymnastics, 362. 
 
 Biography, 207, 208, 306. 
 
 Biology methods, 335. 
 
 Blackboard, construction, 70 ; use, 
 71 ; tactics, 175. 
 
 Books, best help, 75 ; educate, 81 ; 
 educative, Chap. VIII ; new edu- 
 cation, 177 ; manuals, 306, 334, 343. 
 
 Brooks, Edward, Normal Methods, 
 373. 
 
 Brutalizing exercises, 359. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, pupil 
 study, 14. 
 
 Calisthenics, vii, 40, 42, 868. 
 Career of teaching inviting, 29. 
 Carlyle, 81. 
 
 Central idea, xi, 4, 12, 202. 
 Central school, 228, 239. 
 Chair of pedagogy, 84, 298. 
 
 887 
 
388 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Cheerfulness, 51, 97. 
 
 Child study, value, 14 ; childhood, 
 16 ; child friend, 17. 
 
 Circles for pupil study, child, 17 ; 
 boy and girl, 20 ; youth, 20. 
 
 Civics, ix, 310. 
 
 Class advantages, ix, 152. 
 
 Class management, class, 151 ; con- 
 trol, 154 ; classification, 157 : class 
 work, 159 ; efficient, ix; methods, 
 162 ; class devices, 168 ; class tac- 
 tics, 172. 
 
 Class methods, Chap. XVI ; recita- 
 tion, 158 ; criticism, ix. 
 
 Class work, hygienic conditions, 
 153; control, 154; characteristics, 
 159; methods, ix, 162; devices, 
 168. 
 
 Classification, evolution, 150 ; the 
 class, 151 ; criteria, 157 ; advan- 
 tages of, 153 ; of ungraded schools, 
 227 ; four-group plan, 227 ; three- 
 group plan, 234. 
 
 Classifying, rural schools, 153, and 
 Chap. XXXI : primary schools, 
 156, and Chap. XXII ; interme- 
 diate schools, 156, and Chap. 
 XXIII ; high school, 156, and 
 Chap. XXIV. 
 
 Cleanliness, schoolroom, 46 ; closets, 
 47 ; personal, 50. 
 
 Code, school, 114, 117, Chap. XIII. 
 
 Coeducation, 290. 
 
 College methods, 287, 309. 
 
 Colleges, courses of study, 200, 217 ; 
 options, 219 ; small colleges, 292 ; 
 connection with high school, 288 ; 
 trained professors, 289 ; faculty a 
 teaching unit, 290. 
 
 Composition, 320, 329. 
 
 Concentration, xv, 257, 333. 
 
 Concrete geometry, 78, 352. 
 
 Conduct culture, Chap. XXVI ; con- 
 duct studies, 301 ; school conduct, 
 
 303 ; history and conduct, 306 ; 
 civics, 310 ; mind lessons and 
 conduct, 311 ; religion and con- 
 duct, 314 ; greatest, xiv, 208. 
 
 Conduct programme, 302. 
 
 Conduct specialists, 208, 260, 301. 
 
 Conduct studies, helpful appliances, 
 71 ; courses in, 200 ; greatest tiling, 
 208 ; rural schools, 229 ; conduct 
 methods, Chap. XXVI. 
 
 Conscience, 127. 
 
 Conversation method, 165. 
 
 Co-ordinate study groups, neces- 
 sary, 205 ; practical, 207 ; in school 
 and college, 200. 
 
 Co-ordination and correlation of 
 educational institutions, Dr. Ma- 
 gill, 294 ; educational highway, 
 200, 253. 
 
 Corporal punishment, viii, xii, 133, 
 140, 144. 
 
 Correlation of schools and courses, 
 xiv, Chap. XX ; Report of Fifteen, 
 211, 213 ; of studies, 200, 213 ; of 
 intermediate work, 269 ; of con- 
 duct studies, 306 ; of literature, 
 321, 329 ; of arithmetic, 351 ; geog- 
 raphy, 333 ; of biology, 337 ; of 
 physics, 340 ; of mathematics, 341 ; 
 of art, 351. 
 
 Courses of study, general, 200 ; ele- 
 mentary schools, 212 ; high 
 school, 215, 288 ; college, 217, 288 ; 
 rural schools, 230. 
 
 Criticism, ix. 
 
 Culture, conduct, Chap. XXVI ; 
 physical, Chap. XXX; ethical, 
 315 ; eesthetical, 365, 367. 
 
 Cycling, 364. 
 
 De Garmo, C., Essentials of Method, 
 
 373. 
 
 Departments of education, 83. 
 Desks, single and adjustable, 48. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 389 
 
 Devices, the class, 168 ; laboratory 
 work, 169 ; outline work, 170 ; re- 
 porting work, 170 ; original, 171 ; 
 hurtful, 359. 
 
 Dewey, John, Psychology of Num- 
 ber, 346. 
 
 Diagrams, the school, 2 ; educative 
 conditions, 37 ; educative facili- 
 ties, 56 ; school government, 92 ; 
 educative incentives, 107 ; govern- 
 ing power, 95 ; educative class 
 management, 148 ; oral and book 
 work, 178 ; correlation of schools 
 and courses, 200 ; methods of 
 teaching, 300. 
 
 Discussion method, 166. 
 
 District school board, 222. 
 
 Divine commission, 93. 
 
 Drawing, 182, 367. 
 
 Drill, 162. 
 
 Drudgery, 358. 
 
 Duty, 127, 130, 318. 
 
 Early specialization, 293. 
 
 Education, definition of, 201. 
 
 Educational highway, 202, 253. 
 
 Educational periods, 253. 
 
 Educational press, xv, 355, 365. 
 
 Educative class work, 153. 
 
 Educative motives, 103, 107. 
 
 Educative school government, viii, 
 xiii, 93, 103, 112, 119, 232. 
 
 Efficient methods, conduct teach- 
 ing, 301 ; language-literature 
 teaching, 319 ; science teaching, 
 330 ; mathematics teaching, 341 ; 
 art teaching, 353. 
 
 Elementary schools, place, 211 ; 
 course of study, 212, 230. 
 
 Embryo republic, the school, 112. 
 
 Enforcement of regulations, 119, 121, 
 122,124,126, 128. 
 
 Environments, 57, 58, 63. 
 
 Ethical culture, 315 ; historic, 316 ; 
 
 ethical environments, 58, 317 ; 
 ethical habits, 318 ; ethical con- 
 science, 127, 130, 318. 
 
 Evolution of school, 149 ; of class, 
 150 ; of intermediate school, 254 ; 
 of high school, 277. 
 
 Examinations, hurtful, 185 ; peri- 
 odic, 186 ; wasteful, 186 ; unedu- 
 cative, 187 ; replaced by written 
 recitation, 188. 
 
 Excessive exercises, 360. 
 
 Exercise, 40, 356, 361, 363. 
 
 Faculty, rural school, 237 ; primary, 
 245 ; intermediate, 260 ; high- 
 school, 286 ; college, 289. 
 
 Faculty work, 238, 246, 266, 269, 287. 
 
 Fatigue, 357. 
 
 Four-group programme, 227, 234. 
 
 Free exercises, 362. 
 
 Frye, F. A., Methods and Aids in 
 Geography, 334. 
 
 Garlick, A. H., Manual of Methods, 
 310. 
 
 General libraries, 88. 
 
 Geography, apparatus, 72 ; methods, 
 333 ; how to teach, 334. 
 
 Geometry, 73, 352. 
 
 Germany, oral teaching, 79. 
 
 Good teaching, best incentive, 
 Chap. XIX ; written examina- 
 tions, 185 ; per-cent marking, 189 : 
 educative records, 191 ; promotion, 
 194; high incentives, 189; all- 
 sufficient, 190 ; ultimate, 191 ; 
 comparative marking, 191. 
 
 Governing power, elements of, 93 ; 
 character, 94 ; culture, 95 ; pupil 
 insight, 96 ; teaching power, 96 ; 
 heart power, 97 ; will power, 98 ; 
 system, 99; tact, 101 ; hearing, 102. 
 
 Government, educative, vii, viii, xiii, 
 9, 103, 112, 119, 129. 
 
390 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Grading, 255, 264. 
 
 Graduation, 194. 
 
 Greenwood, J. M., history of mathe- 
 matics, 343 ; arithmetic, 347 ; prac- 
 tical methods, 362. 
 
 Grounds, school, sanitary, 58 ; aes- 
 thetic, 59 ; educative, 70. 
 
 Grouping rural schools, 227, 234. 
 
 Groups of schools, unique, 254. 
 
 Groups of studies, map of, 200, 280 ; 
 conduct group, 300 ; language-lit- 
 erature group, 320 ; science group, 
 331 ; mathematics group, 341 ; art 
 group, 353. 
 
 Growth, 7, 9, 10, 36, 57, 93, 358. 
 
 Gymnastics, systematic, vii, 42, 293, 
 352, 363. 
 
 Habits, regularity, 49 ; cleanliness, 
 50 ; sleep, 50 ; clothing, 51 ; cheer- 
 fulness, 51 ; law-abiding, 52, 128. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley, pupil study, 14; 
 Methods of Teaching History, 310. 
 
 Happy class control, 154. 
 
 Harris, W. T., editor's preface, v, 
 text-books, 75 ; use of, 80 ; the rod, 
 141 ; study groups, 204 ; reading, 
 323.. 
 
 Health, condition of, 38 ; through 
 law-abiding, 38 ; conditions hap- 
 piness, 52 ; culture of, 356. 
 
 Heart power, 97, 134. 
 
 Heating, normal temperature, 45. 
 
 Helps, school, 8, 57, 69, 75, 81. 
 
 Heredity, evolution of, 16. 
 
 High educational ideals, Chap. I. 
 
 High motives, self-betterment, 108 ; 
 altruistic, 108 ; incentives of the 
 true, beautiful, and good, 109. 
 
 High-school education, Supt. Sol- 
 dan, 288 ; study groups, 280. 
 
 High school, improvement of, Chap. 
 XXIV ; place, 214, 274 ; function, 
 214; course of study, 215, 282; 
 
 report of the Committee of Ten, 
 214; prepares for life, 274; pre- 
 pares for college, 275 ; history of, 
 275; building, 277; programme, 
 285 ; faculty, 286. 
 
 High-school libraries, 85, 88. 
 
 High-school methods, in history, 
 309 ; in psychology, 313 ; in liter- 
 ature, 324. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and 
 Teach History, 310 ; bad methods 
 in literature, 327; Teaching the 
 Language Arts, 329. 
 
 History, 207, 208, 306. 
 
 History of the country school, 218. 
 
 Home exercises, 363. 
 
 Home hygiene, parental co-opera- 
 tion, 39, 364. 
 
 Howe, E. G., Systematic Science 
 Teaching, 332. 
 
 How to train pupils to study, ix, 162, 
 303. 
 
 Hurtful devices, 168, 359. 
 
 Hurtful motives, 105, 189. 
 
 Hygiene, school, Chap. IV ; health, 
 38; neglect of, 39; home hy- 
 giene, 39 ; play, 40 ; gymnastics, 
 42 ; hourly recess, 41 ; lunch, 42; 
 ventilation, 42; heating, 44; 
 lighting, 45 ; cleanliness, 46 ; 
 toilet, 47 ; desk, 48 ; habits, 49. 
 
 Hygienic conditions, of class work, 
 153 ; of physical culture, vi, 356. 
 
 Hygienic habits, 49, 356. 
 
 Ideals, in advance of reals, xii, 3 ; 
 realization, 5, 10 ; school ideals, 6 ; 
 higher teacher ideals, 7 ; popular, 
 ii ; ideal scheme, 295 ; ideal text- 
 book, 75, 349. 
 
 Incentives, educative, Chap. IX; 
 extraneous, Chap. XIX. 
 
 Individual method, 163. 
 
 Individualism, ix, 149, 254. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 391 
 
 Infant study, Jesus, 14 ; real child, 
 15; infancy, 15; baby friend, 16. 
 
 Injudicious punishments, unjust, 
 143; degrading, 143; fear, 142; 
 corporal, 140, 144. 
 
 Inorganic nature, x, 206, 331. 
 
 Interest, 154, 185, 190. 
 
 Intermediate libraries, 84, 87. 
 
 Intermediate methods in history, 
 308 ; in civics, 311 ; in mind les- 
 sons, 312; in language, 328. 
 
 Intermediate schools, improvement, 
 Chap. XXIV; ideal, 255; boy- 
 and-girl stage of growth, 256; 
 specialization, 257; faculty, 260; 
 ideal buildings, 258 ; course of 
 study, 263 ; programme, 265 ; 
 benefits of specialization, xv, 270, 
 355. 
 
 Interrelation of studies, 269. 
 
 Introductory algebra, 352. 
 
 Investigation, 164. 
 
 Johonnot, James, Principles and 
 Practice of Teaching, 373. 
 
 Journals, school, xv, 355, 365. 
 
 Journal of the N. E. A., xv. 
 
 Judicious punishments, 129, 133, 
 137, 141. 
 
 Kindergarten, place, 242; charac- 
 teristics, 242 ; kindergartners, 
 243 ; literature. 243 ; training the 
 senses, 294. 
 
 King, E. F., methods in geography, 
 334. 
 
 Laboratory work, 26, 169, 216. 
 Lagrange, Fernand, Physiology of 
 
 Bodily Exercise, 357. 
 Landon, Joseph, Class Management, 
 
 xxvi. 
 Language-literature methods, Chap. 
 
 XXVII; group of studies, 320; 
 
 special programme, 320; organic 
 unity, 321 ; methods in reading, 
 322 ; in literature, 327 ; in com- 
 position, 329 ; programme, 320. 
 
 Language - literature studies, suit- 
 able helps, 71 ; courses in, 200 ; 
 second place, 209 ; special teacher, 
 267 ; four lines, 320. 
 
 Law-abiding, self-control, Chap. 
 XIII ; educate to work quietly, 
 119; educate to regularity, 121; 
 educate to promptitude, 123 ; edu- 
 cate to proper conduct, 125 ; edu- 
 cate to right conduct, 127 ; meth- 
 ods, Chap. XXVI. 
 
 Laws, school regulations, 112 ; edu- 
 cative, 113 ; positive, 113 ; few, 
 113 ; practical, 114 ; popular, 114. 
 
 Length of recitation, 213, 231. 
 
 Lesson, plan, 161 ; oral, 180; book, 
 182. 
 
 Libraries, school, Chap. IX ; classi- 
 fications, 82; management, 82; 
 working, 83; rural, 83; primary, 
 84 ; intermediate, 84 ; high-school, 
 86 ; department, general, 88. 
 
 Lighting, perfect, 45 ; windows, 46 ; 
 injury to eyes, vi, 46, 64. 
 
 Literature, x, 206, 327. 
 
 Location, school, moral environ- 
 ments, 58; commodious grounds, 
 58; sanitary, 58; aesthetic, 59; 
 educative, 60. 
 
 McLellan, J. A., Psychology of 
 Number, teaching arithmetic, 
 346. 
 
 McMurry's General Method, 373. 
 
 Magill, E. H., co-ordination and 
 correlation of educational institu- 
 tions, 294. 
 
 Management, vitalizes, 9 ; defini- 
 tion, 12, 38, 57, 119. 
 
 Manhood study, young manhood, 
 
392 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 20 ; student study circle, 20 ; biog- 
 raphy and sociology, 21. 
 
 Manual training, 216, 371. 
 
 Manuals, in conduct, 306 ; in lan- 
 guage-literature, 322 ; in science, 
 332 ; in mathematics, 343 ; in art, 
 362, 366, 368, 370 ; of method, 373. 
 
 Manu-mental culture, 353, 367, 369. 
 
 Mathematics studies, best aids, 73 ; 
 courses in, 200: form and num- 
 ber, 210; special teacher, 268; 
 methods in, Chap. XXIX; pro- 
 gramme, 342. 
 
 Men as well as women teachers, 
 271, 287. 
 
 Methods, in rural schools, 240; in 
 conduct teaching, 301 ; in teach- 
 ing history, 306; in teaching 
 mind lessons, 311 ; in teaching 
 practical religion, 314 ; in culture 
 of moral virtues, 315; in lan- 
 guage, Chap. XXVII ; in science, 
 Chap. XXVIII ; in mathematics, 
 Chap. XXIX; in art, Chap. 
 XXX. 
 
 Military exercises, 360. 
 
 Mind lessons, 311. 
 
 Moral character, 94, 127, 273, 315. 
 
 Morbid fatigue, 359, 360. 
 
 Motives, educative, Chap. XI; in- 
 centives, 103 ; teacher determines, 
 104; help or hurt, 104; school 
 incentives, 105 ; hurtful, 115 ; 
 law, 106 ; high, 108 ; what mo- 
 tives, 111. 
 
 Music, 365. 
 
 Nature studies, 332. 
 
 Necessary study groups, x, 205; 
 inorganic nature, 206 ; organic, 
 206; literature, 206; language, 
 207 ; history, 207. 
 
 New education, 8, 98, 159, 241. 
 
 Normal fatigue and rest, 358, 360. 
 
 Objectionable exercises, 359. 
 
 Objective work, 181, 351. 
 
 Observation, 180, 339. 
 
 Old education, 96, 142, 150, 177. 
 
 Oral teaching, oral instruction, 76 ; 
 oral and book teaching, 79. 
 
 Oral work. Chap. XVHI ; oral and 
 book work, 178; oral teaching, 
 180 ; oral methods, 305. 
 
 Order, fitness, 119. 
 
 Organic nature, x, 206. 
 
 Organic unity of schools and 
 courses, 201 ; part and whole, 
 202 ; stages of growth, 203 ; or- 
 ganic unity of faculties, xiii, 266. 
 
 Organization, school improvement, 
 8 ; rural school, 221 ; school dis- 
 trict, 221; school board, 222; 
 principal, 222 ; of primary 
 schools, 247 ; of intermediate, 
 261 ; of high school, 277. 
 
 Our ideal manhood, 361. 
 
 Outdoor school exercises, 40, 362. 
 
 Parker, Francis W., value of child 
 study, 14 ; per - cent marking, 
 189; How to Study and Teach 
 Geography, 334 ; concentration, 
 xv. 
 
 Per-cent marking, criminal, Park- 
 er, 189; outrage, Tompkins, 189; 
 an idol, "White, 189; low motive, 
 189; extraneous incentive, 192; 
 vicious, 190; monster robber, 191; 
 comparative marking vicious, 191. 
 
 Physical culture, vii, 293, 353, 356, 
 359, 361, 365. 
 
 Physics, methods in, 268, 338. 
 
 Physiology of exercise, 357. 
 
 Plato, 243. 
 
 Play, vii, 40, 242. 
 
 Pledges, 363. 
 
 Practical suggestions, apparatus, 
 74; punishments, 144. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 Practical work, 351, 353. 
 
 Prang's Form Study and Drawing, 
 368. 
 
 Prepared teachers, 7, 12, 26, 93, 176, 
 336, 343. 
 
 Preparation for teaching, 30, 35, 289, 
 301, 322, 336, 343, 354. 
 
 Primary, ideal schoolhouse, 244; 
 faculty, 245; organization, 247; 
 course of study, 259 ; programme, 
 252 ; methods, 243. 
 
 Primary libraries, 83, 87, 245. 
 
 Primary methods in history, 307; 
 in reading, 323 ; in mathematics, 
 347 ; in geography, 333. 
 
 Prince, J. F., German methods, 79. 
 
 Principal, primary, 245; interme- 
 diate, 260 ; high-school, 286. 
 
 Privation, 121, 123, 128, 136. 
 
 Professional schools, departments 
 of education, 33 ; chairs of peda- 
 gogy, 34; normal schools, 34; 
 summer normals, 35 ; circles, xv. 
 
 Profession of teaching, advance- 
 ment, 27, 36. 
 
 Programme clock, 65, 173. 
 
 Programme, for ungraded schools, 
 233, 236; primary, 252; interme- 
 diate, 265 ; high-school, 285. 
 
 Programme, in conduct, 302 ; in lan- 
 guage-literature, 320; in science, 
 331 ; in mathematics, 341 ; in art, 
 354. 
 
 Progress, through ideals, 3, 161; 
 pupil alertness, ix. 
 
 Promotion, 157, 194, 213, 248, 261. 
 
 Promptitude, importance, 115 ; law, 
 123 ; example, 123 ; incentives, 
 124. 
 
 Proper conduct, importance, 115; 
 law, 125 ; example, 125; motives, 
 125; training, 125; remedies, 126. 
 
 Provinces of study, XII, 205, 331. 
 
 Psychology, 13, 23, 96, 311, 313. 
 
 Punishment, educative, viii, Chap. 
 XI V ; moral necessity, 128 ; reme- 
 dial, 129; use of guttering, 130; 
 principles determining, 130 ; edu- 
 cative, 131 ; reformatory, 131 ; 
 natural, 132 ; just, 132 ; helpful, 
 133 ; disapproval, 133 ; reproof, 
 134 ; privation, 136 ; suspension, 
 137 ; corporal, 140 ; fear, 142 ; de- 
 grading, 143; unjust, 144. 
 
 Pupil betterment central idea, 4; 
 through educative management, 
 14. 
 
 Pupil study, greatest thing, 6 ; Chap. 
 II ; neglect of, 13 ; value to teach- 
 er, 14 ; physical economy, 21 ; 
 mental economy, 23 ; self-knowl- 
 edge, 23 ; methods of, 24 ; Barnes, 
 Parker, Hall, 24 ; insight, 96. 
 
 Quiet work, important, 114 ; condi- 
 tions of, 119; example, 120; altru- 
 istic incentives, 120 ; training, 120. 
 
 Recesses, vii. 
 
 Recitation, class work, 158 ; charac- 
 teristics, 159 ; methods, 162 ; de- 
 vices, 168; tactics, 172; periods, 
 213 ; time, 213 ; management, ix. 
 
 Recitation periods, elementary 
 schools, 213 ; rural schools, 231 ; 
 primary schools, 244. 
 
 Record and reports, educative, 191 ; 
 attendance, conduct, class stand- 
 ing, 192; reports, 193. 
 
 Recreation, 40, 362. 
 
 Reform, Bacon's rule, 6; peren- 
 nial, 6. 
 
 Regularity, importance, 122; incen- 
 tives, 122 ; enforcement, 123. 
 
 Regulations, educative, Chap. XII ; 
 guiding principles, 113 ; school 
 code, 114; adoption of, 116; en- 
 forcement of, Chap. XIII. 
 
394 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
 
 Religion, methods of teaching, 314. 
 
 Keport of the Committee of Fifteen, 
 correlation, 211. 
 
 Keport of the Committee of Ten, 
 secondary schools, 214. 
 
 Keproof, 134. 
 
 Rest, 358, 362. 
 
 Review, 160. 
 
 Right conduct, importance, 115; 
 law, 127; example, 127; moral 
 teaching, 127 ; training, 128 ; pun- 
 ishment, 128. 
 
 Rowing, 365. 
 
 Rural libraries, 83, 86, 224. 
 
 Rural schools, efficient, Chap. XXI ; 
 story of, 218 ; sui generis, 219 ; 
 ungraded, 219 ; school grounds, 
 220; schoolhouse, 220; organiza- 
 tion, 221'; library, 224; advan- 
 tages. 226 ; disadvantages, 226 ; 
 course of study, 230 ; programme, 
 233 ; faculty, 237 ; methods, 240. 
 
 Salaries, generous, 28. 
 
 School arts, 353. 
 
 School district, 221. 
 
 School essentials and school helps 
 (diagrams), 2. 
 
 School evolution, 5, 254. 
 
 School government, Part III ; prac- 
 tical, vii, viii ; rational, xi. 
 
 School grounds, 60, 220. 
 
 Schoolhouse, central, 60 ; evolution 
 of, 61; ideal, 62, 220; primary, 
 244 ; intermediate, 255 ; high- 
 school, 277. 
 
 School hygiene, Chap. IV ; in class 
 control, 154; in school work, 8; 
 in school government, 119. 
 
 School organism, a unit, 4 ; organic 
 growth, 4 ; evolution, 5 ; ideal, 6. 
 
 School tactics, 172. 
 
 Science studies, teaching, Chap. 
 XXVIil; science apparatus, 72; 
 
 courses in, 200; inorganic and 
 organic Nature, 209 ; special 
 teacher, 268 ; lines of work, 331 ; 
 programme, 332 ; methods in, 330. 
 
 Scott, C. B., Nature Study, 332. 
 
 Secondary schools, place, 214 ; 
 course of study, 215, 282; report 
 of the Committee of Ten, 214. 
 
 Shaw,E. R., Physics by Experiment, 
 33d. 
 
 Signals, 65, 172, 173. 
 
 Sheldon, E. A., ceaseless progress,33. 
 
 Size, of classes, 152. 
 
 Special conduct lessons, 302. 
 
 Special programme for conduct, 
 302 ; for language-literature, 320 ; 
 for science, 332 ; for mathematics, 
 342 ; for art, 352. 
 
 Special teacher, 265. 
 
 Specialization, xiv, 253, 257 ; Chap. 
 XXIII, 293. 
 
 Specialization, cardinal, 28. 
 
 Spontaneity, in recitation, 159; in 
 gymnastics, 362. 
 
 Study groups of the rural schools, 
 229 ; primary schools, 249 ; inter- 
 mediate, 262; high school, 280; 
 college, 200. 
 
 Study hints, educational conditions; 
 53 ; school facilities, 89 ; school 
 government, 145; class manage- 
 ment, 196 ; school and college 
 correlation, 295 ; methods of 
 teaching, 370. 
 
 Suspension, 137, 141. 
 
 System, 99 ; element, 100. 
 
 Systematic Science Teaching, E. G. 
 Howe, 332. 
 
 Systematical Physical Culture, 42, 
 293, 361. 
 
 Tact, governing element, 101. 
 Tactics, school and class, Chap. 
 XVII. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 395 
 
 Tnrbell, II. S., primary geography, 
 334. 
 
 Tardiness, 115, 124. 
 
 Teacher circles, xv, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. 
 
 Teacher betterment through pro- 
 fessional preparation, Chap. III. 
 
 Teacher, vital factor, 6 ; the ideal, 
 12; improvement of, Chap. Ill; 
 gifted, 30 ; culture, 31 ; prepared, 
 31 ; devoted, 32 ; progressive, 33. 
 
 Teaching, a profession, 27 ; perma- 
 nency, 27 ; salaries, 28 ; speciali- 
 zation, 28 ; career, 29 ; learned 
 profession, 30 ; defined, 201 ; art 
 of, 353 ; skill, 368. 
 
 Teaching mathematics, 343. 
 
 Teaching power, 96, 103, 154, 180, 
 185. 
 
 Teaching question, 164. 
 
 Testing the senses, 22. 
 
 Text- book, ideal, Chap. VIII; best 
 help, 75 ; use, 75 ; characteristics, 
 76; book teaching, 76, 79; free, 
 80 ; arithmetic, 369. 
 
 Thompson, school management, 
 xiv; Tompkins, Arnold, 189. 
 
 Topics for discussion, educational 
 conditions, 53 ; school facilities, 
 89 ; school government, 145 ; class 
 management, 196; school and 
 college correlation, 295 ; methods 
 of teaching, 370. 
 
 Training, 120, 124, 125, 128, 357. 
 
 Ungraded schools, Chap. XXI ; un- 
 economical, 338. 
 
 Unity, method, 163. 
 
 University, characteristics, 292 ; un- 
 dergraduates, 292 ; course system, 
 293 ; early specialization, 293. 
 
 Unrelated knowledge, 280. 
 
 Ventilation, injudicious, vii; per- 
 fect, 42 ; neglect of, 43 ; pure air, 
 43. 
 
 Vicarious exercise, 359. 
 
 Vocal music, 365. 
 
 Walking, 364. 
 
 White, E. E., per-cent marking, 1 89 ; 
 three-group programme, 236 ; 
 school management, xv ; manual 
 of primary arithmetic, 347. 
 
 Will power, 98. 
 
 Windows of the soul, x. 
 
 Working, 304. 
 
 Working libraries, rural, 83, 225; 
 primary, 84 ; intermediate, 84 ; 
 high-school, 85. 
 
 Writing, 370. 
 
 Written recitations in lieu of ex- 
 aminations, 185 ; educative, 
 185. 
 
 Youth, 276. 
 
 Youth study, what is the youth, 19 ; 
 literature, 25. 
 
 THE END. 
 
D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 BEGINNERS OF A NATION. A History 
 of the Source and Rise of the Earliest English Settlements in 
 America, with Special Reference to the Life and Character of 
 the People. The first volume in A History of Life in the 
 United States. By EDWARD EGGLESTON. Small 8vo. Cloth, 
 gilt top, uncut, with Maps, $1.50. 
 
 " Few works on the period which it covers can compare with this in point of mere 
 literary attractiveness, and we fancy that many to whom its scholarly value will not ap- 
 peal will read the volume with interest and delight." New York Evening Post. 
 
 " Written with a firm grasp of the theme, inspired by ample knowledge, and made 
 attractive by a vigorous and resonant style, the book will receive much attention. It 
 is a great theme the author has taken up, and he grasps it with the confidence of a 
 master." New York Times. 
 
 " Mr. Eggleston's ' Beginners ' is unique. No similar historical study has, to our 
 knowledge, ever been done in the same way. Mr. Eggleston is a reliable reporter of 
 facts; but he is also an exceedingly keen critic. He writes history without the effort 
 to merge the critic in the historian. His sense of humor is never dormant. He renders 
 some of the dullest passages in colonial annals actually amusing by his witty treatment 
 of them. He finds a laugh for his readers where most of his predecessors have found 
 yawns. And with all this he does not sacrifice the dignity of history for an instant" 
 Boston Saturday Evening Gazette. 
 
 " The delightful style, the clear flow of the narrative, the philosophical tone, and 
 the able analysis of men and events will commend Mr. Eggleston's work to earnest 
 students." Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 " The work is worthy of careful reading, not only because of the author's ability as a 
 literary artist, but because of his conspicuous proficiency in interpreting the causes of 
 and changes in American life and character." Boston Journal. 
 
 "It is noticeable that Mr. Eggleston has followed no beaten track, but has drawn 
 his own conclusions as to the early period, and they differ from the generally received 
 version not a little. The book is stimulating and will prove of great value to the stu- 
 dent of history." Minneapolis Journal. 
 
 " A very interesting as well as a valuable book. ... A distinct advance upon most 
 that has been written, particularly of the settlement of New England." Newark 
 Advertiser. 
 
 " One of the most important books of the year. It is a work of art as well as ot 
 historical science, and its distinctive purpose is to give an insight into the real life and 
 character of people. . . . The author's style is charming, and the history is fully as inter- 
 esting as a novel." Brooklyn Standard-Union. 
 
 " The value of Mr. Eggleston's work is in that it is really a history of 'life,' not 
 merely a record of events. . . . The comprehensive purpose of his volume has been 
 excellently performed. The book is eminently readable." Philadelphia Times. 
 
 New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. 
 
D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 ITH THE FATHERS. Studies in the History 
 of the United States. By JOHN BACH McMASTER, Professor 
 of American History in the University of Pennsylvania, au- 
 thor of " The History of the People of the United States," 
 etc. 8vo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 "The book is of great practical value, as many of the essays throw a 
 broad light over living questions of the day. Prof. McMaster has a clear, 
 simple style, that is delightful. His facts are gathered with great care, and 
 admirably interwoven to impress the subject under discussion upon the mind 
 of the reader." Chicago Inter-Ocean. 
 
 " Prof. McMaster's essays possess in their diversity a breadth which covers 
 most of the topics which are current as well as historical, and each is so 
 scholarly in treatment and profound in judgment that the importance of 
 their place in the library of political history can not be gainsaid." Wash- 
 ington Times. 
 
 " Such works as this serve to elucidate history and make more attractive 
 a study which an abstruse writer only makes perplexing. All through the 
 studies there is a note of intense patriotism and a conviction of the sound 
 sense of th$ American people which directs the government to a bright 
 goal." Chicago Record. 
 
 " A wide field is here covered, and it is covered in Prof. McMaster's own 
 inimitable and fascinating style. . . . Can not but have a marked value as a 
 work of reference upon several most important subjects." Boston Daily 
 Advertiser. 
 
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 chunks of political information." Buffalo Commercial. 
 
 " Clear, penetrating, dispassionate, convincing. His language is what one 
 should expect from the Professor of American History in the University of 
 Pennsylvania. Prof. McMaster has proved before now that he can write 
 history with the breath of life in it, and the present volume is new proof." 
 Chicago Tribune. 
 
 "Of great practical value. . . . Charming and instructive history." 
 New Haven Leader. 
 
 " An interesting and most instructive volume." Detroit Journal. 
 
 "At once commends itself to the taste and judgment of all historical 
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 its courageous form of statement, its sparkling, crisp narrative and descrip- 
 tion, and its close and penetrating analysis of characters and events." 
 Boston Courier. 
 
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D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 THE STORY OF THE WEST SERIES. 
 Edited by Bipley Hitchcock. 
 
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 coast which has barely been skimmed over so far. That the conditions of life therein 
 are undergoing changes little short of marvelous will be understood when one recalls 
 the fact that the first white male child born in Kansas is still living there; and Kansas 
 is by no means one of the newer States. Revolutionary indeed has been the upturning 
 of the old condition of affairs, and little remains thereof, and less will remain as each 
 year goes by, until presently there will be only tradition of the Sioux and Comanches, 
 the cowboy life, the wild horse, and the antelope. Histories, many of them, have been 
 written about the Western country alluded to, but most if not practically all by outsiders 
 who knew not personally that life of kaleidoscopic allurement. But ere it shall have 
 vanished forever we are likely to have truthful, complete, and c 
 
 it produced by men who actually knew the life and have the power to describe it." 
 Hen 
 
 :harming portrayals of 
 
 i nave me po '- 
 
 enry Edward Rood, in the Mail and Express. 
 
 NOW READY. 
 
 STORY OF THE INDIAN. By GEORGE 
 
 BIRD GRINNELL, author of " Pawnee Hero Stories," " Black- 
 foot Lodge Tales," etc. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
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 is second to none. A book full of color, abounding in observation, and remarkable in 
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 to be looked for in such a work, and which adds not a little to the charm of it." 
 London Daily Chronicle. 
 
 " Only an author qualified by personal experience could offer us a profitable study 
 of a race so alien from our own as is the Indian in thought, feeling, and culture. Only 
 long association with Indians can enable a white man measurably to comprehend their 
 thoughts and enter into their feelings. Such association has been Mr. Grinnell's." 
 New York Sun. 
 
 *7^HE STORY OF THE MINE. By CHARLES 
 
 * HOWARD SHINN. Illustrated. I2mo. Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 "The author has written a book, not alone full of information, but replete with the 
 true romance of the American mine." New York Times. 
 
 " Few chapters of recent history are more fascinating than that which Mr. Shinn 
 has told in ' The Story of the Mine.' "The Outlook. 
 
 "Both a history and a romance. . . . Highly interesting, new, and thrilling." 
 Philadelphia Inquirer. 
 
 IN PREPARATION. 
 
 The Story of the Trapper. By GILBERT PARKER. 
 
 The Story of the Cowboy. By E. HOUGH. 
 
 The Story of the Soldier. By Capt. J. McB. STEMBEL, U. S. A. 
 
 The Story of the Explorer. 
 
 The Story of the Railroad. 
 
 New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. 
 
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 D. APPLETON & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 HE NATURAL HISTORY OF SELBORNE, 
 AND OBSERVATIONS ON NATURE. By GILBERT 
 WHITE. With an Introduction by John Burroughs, 80 Illus- 
 trations by Clifton Johnson, and the Text and New Letters of 
 the Buckland edition. In two volumes. I2mo. Cloth, $4.00. 
 
 " White himself, were he alive to-day, would join all his loving readers in thanking 
 the American publishers for a thoroughly excellent presentation of his famous book. 
 . . . This latest edition of White's book must go into all of pur libraries; our young 
 people must have it at hand, and our trained lovers of select literature must take it into 
 their homes. By such reading we keep knowledge in proper perspective and are able 
 to grasp the proportions of discovery." Maurice Thompson, in the Independent. 
 
 " White's ' Selborne ' belongs in the same category as Walton's ' Complete Angler ' ; 
 . . . here they are, the ' Complete Angler ' well along in its third century, and the other 
 just started in its second century, both of them as highly esteemed as they were when 
 first published, both bound to live forever, if we may trust the predictions of their re- 
 spective admirers. John Burroughs, in his charming introduction, tells us why White's 
 book has lasted and why this new and beautiful edition has been printed. . . . This new 
 edition of his work comes to us beautifully illustrated by Clifton Johnson." New York 
 Times. 
 
 " White's ' Selborne ' has been reprinted many times, in many forms, but never be- 
 fore, so far as we can remember, in so creditable a form as it assumes in these two 
 volumes, nor with drawings comparable to those which Mr. Clifton Johnson has made 
 for them." New York Mail and Express. 
 
 " We are loath to put down the two handsome volumes in which the source of such 
 a gift as this has been republished. The type is so clear, the paper is so pleasant to 
 the touch, the weight of each volume is so nicely adapted to the hand, and one turns 
 page after page with exactly that quiet sense of ever new and ever old endeared de- 
 light which comes through a window looking on the English countryside the rooks 
 cawing in a neighboring copse, the little village nestling sleepily amid the trees, trees 
 so green that sometimes they seem to hover on the edge of black, and then again so 
 green that they seem vivid with the flaunting bravery of spring." New York 
 Tribune. 
 
 "Not only for the significance they lend to one of the masterpieces of English 
 literature, but as a revelation of English rural life and scenes, are these pictures de- 
 lightfully welcome. The edition is in every way creditable to the publishers." 
 Boston Beacon. 
 
 " Rural England has many attractions for the lover of Nature, and no work, per- 
 haps, has done its charms greater justice than Gilbert White's ' Natural History of 
 Selborne.' " Boston Journal. 
 
 "This charming edition leaves really nothing to be desired." Westminster 
 Gazette. 
 
 " This edition is beautifully illustrated and bound, and deserves to be welcomed by 
 all naturalists and Nature lovers." London Daily Chronicle. 
 
 " Handsome and desirable in every respect. . . . Welcome to old and young." 
 New York Herald. 
 
 " The charm of White's ' Selborne ' is not definable. But there is no other book of 
 the past generations that will ever take the place with the field naturalists. "Balti- 
 more Sun. 
 
 New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 72 Fifth Avenue. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
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 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
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