DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE LIBRARY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO Domestic Architecture BY L. EUGENE ROBINSON, A. A. I. A. B. S. IN ARCHITECTURE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA; LICENSED ARCHITECT OF ILLINOIS; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF RURAL ARCHITECTURE, OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1917 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, 1917 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1917. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED IN LOVE TO MY BABY GIRL WHO I TRUST WILL SOME DAY ASPIRE TO THE NOBLEST CALLING OF WOMANKIND, THAT OF HOME MAKING PREFACE ALTHOUGH to some the word architec- ture may suggest pretentiousness, the contents of this book will be found to relate to simple everyday things pertaining to houses. The work is intended for all who are interested in house problems. It considers both the design and construction of the building itself and also a number of related topics such as the selection and development of the site and to some extent the equipment and decoration of the interior. It is hoped that it will be found useful to all who are so fortunate as to be able to build or remodel their own houses and that it may be of special service to those who, like the author, are interested in the teaching of the house to students in colleges or in schools of home economics. To increase the practical usefulness of the book, chapters on the cost of dwellings and on the relations of the owner to the architect and to the builder have been in- cluded. L. E. R. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART LA TEXT-BOOK PAGE CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF DOMESTIC AR- CHITECTURE. ' i Shelter The ^Esthetic Sense Prehistoric Struc- tures Egyptian Dwellings Western Asiatic Domestic Architecture Greek Domestic Archi- tecture Roman Domestic Architecture Early European Domestic Architecture Renaissance Architecture Conclusion Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER II. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 23 Dwellings of Pioneers Georgian or Colonial Ar- chitecture Colonial Architecture in New Eng- land Colonial Architecture in the Middle Colo- nies Colonial Architecture in the South Spanish Architecture in the South Late De- velopments Future Houses Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER III. BUILDING SITES . 40 General Considerations Public Utilities Con- veniences Natural Advantages City Lots Suburban Lots Sites for Country Places Farm Sites Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER IV. HOUSE DESIGN 51 General Considerations Types of Plans In- dividuality Character of Exteriors The Geom- etry of Plans Composition Arrangement of Rooms Living Apartments Sleeping Apart- ments and Accessories Dining and Cooking Apartments Kitchen for the Very Small Subur- ban House Kitchen for the Large Suburban House Kitchen for a Farmhouse Rooms for Servants or Hired Help Porches and Exterior Features Basements Conclusion Sketch Problems References. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER V. INTERIOR DESIGN AND AR- CHITECTURAL FURNITURE 87 Room Design Doors and Windows Trim Ar- chitectural Furniture The Living Room Bed- rooms Dining Rooms Kitchens Conclusion Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER VI. CHARACTER AND MOULD- INGS 117 Architectural Character Classical Mouldings Orders of Architecture The Tuscan Order The Doric Order The Ionic Order The Corinthian Order The Composite Order The Use of the Orders Eccentric Mouldings and Ornament Character of Colonial Houses Character of Mis- cellaneous Styles Sanitary Mouldings and Treatment Conclusion Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER VII. COMMON BUILDING MA- TERIALS 133 Building Stones Bricks Terra Cotta Tiles Concrete Wood Steel and Iron Sheathing Paper and Deadening Quilts Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER VIII. FINISH BUILDING MATE- RIALS 163 Scope Materials Used to Make Plaster, Mortar and Concrete Finish Woods Finish Hardware Paint, Enamel, Varnish and Stain Tile, Brick and Terra Cotta for Facing Glass Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER IX. HOUSE CONSTRUCTION .... 174 Kinds Methods of Procedure Staking out the Building Excavation and Grading Masonry Wood Framing Exterior Finish Sketch Prob- lems References. CHAPTER X. INTERIOR FINISH 192 Lathe and Plaster Interior Woodwork Put- TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ting on of Hardware Painting, Varnishing and Staining Glazing The Completed House Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XL INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES. ........ 203 Introduction Color Period Decoration Deco- rative Materials Wood Treatments Plaster Treatments Ornamental Glass, Tile, Metal, etc. The Living Rooms of a House Bedrooms Kitchen Treatments Bathroom Treatments Porch Treatments Conclusion Sketch Prob- lems References. CHAPTER XII. HOUSE FURNISHING 218 Arrangement of Furniture Pictures Miscella- neous Articles Flowers Furniture Hangings Floor Coverings Conclusion Sketch Prob- lems References. CHAPTER XIII. APPLIANCES 229 Power House Electric Plants Acetylene Gas Plant Water Supply Hot Water Supply Vac- uum Cleaners Incinerators Refrigerator Plants House Telephones Dumb Elevators or Lifts Laundry Machines Miscellaneous Devices Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XIV. HEATING AND VENTILA- TION 240 Introduction Fireplaces Furnace Heating Steam Heating Hot Water Heating Impor- tance of Heating and Ventilation Sketch Prob- lems References. CHAPTER XV. LIGHTING 251 Light Daylight Artificial Light Gas Elec- tricity Personal Hazard Electric Wiring Switches Circuit Breakers, Cut-outs and Fuses Lamps Method of Calculation Methods of Illumination and Fixtures Sketch Problems References. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XVI. PLUMBING 267 Introduction Water Supply Drainage Sew- ers Septic Tanks Fixtures Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XVII. GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 277 Introduction Intimacy Character Local Materials Utilities Games Children's Pas- times Ornamental Architectural Features Water in the Garden Rock Gardens Japanese Gardens Lawns Trees Shrubs Flowers Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XVIII. GARDEN DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 295 Introduction Survey Topographical Draw- ings Garden Design Grading Planting Trees Shrubs and Hardy Vines Flowers Con- clusion Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XIX. THE ENGLISH IDEA OF SMALL HOUSES 310 Introduction Arrangements of Middle Class Cottages Appliances and Built-in Features Building Materials Appearance Sketch Prob- lems. CHAPTER XX. PRACTICE OF ARCHITEC- TURE 319 The Profession Owner, Architect and Con- tractor Sketch Problems References. CHAPTER XXI. COST OF DWELLINGS 332 Methods of Estimating Controlling Factors Economical Points of Buildings Cost of Ma- sonry Cost of Framing and Exterior Wood Fin- ish Cost of Interior Finish Fixtures and Spe- cial ^Details Addendum Sketch Problems References. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART II. A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR HOUSE DESIGN PAGE DRAFTING ROOM MANUAL . . 343 Instruments Kinds of Drawings Conventional Indications Architectural Terms Dimensions Equipment for Rooms PROBLEMS IN DESIGN 352 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. . . 359 INDEX 367 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE PART ONE A TEXT-BOOK CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE SHELTER. In the beginning man realized that it was necessary to provide for him- self a comfortable protection against hos- tile forces. To accomplish this he used of necessity the materials at hand so that we may assume that hunters and fishermen lived in caves, that tillers of the soil lived in huts of turf or stone and that shepherds and nomads lived in tents. At all times the need of shelter has been the incentive for the construction of dwelling places. The main factors determining the na- ture of these structures are climate, geology, geography, society, industry and even religion and politics. (See Plate i.) The Esthetic Sense. Races of men arrived at the primitive stage of civilization at widely separated periods of time, or having arrived at about the same time some races failed to make progress. With all peoples it is apparent that the aesthetic sense was early developed. Having made clay articles to be used in their domestic life they became dissatisfied with the plainness of them and took it upon themselves to decorate the surfaces with crude paintings. Also, having made rude dwelling places they set about orna- menting the walls, posts, and lintels with carv- ing, sculpture and paintings. From these early attempts in art, decorative details were ever after closely associated with constructive prin- ciples and together they formed the art of architecture. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Prehistoric Structures. Remains of very early structures, not all of which are dwellings, have been discovered in many parts of the world. They are classified as monoliths, dolmens, cromlechs, tumuli, and lake dwellings. Mono- liths, or single upright stones, probably erected as monuments, have been found in Brittany. The one at Carnac is 63 feet high, 14 feet in diameter and weighs 260 tons. Dolmens are large tables of stone supported by upright stones and may have been either monuments or shelters. Examples have been found in England, Ireland, and northern France, also in Italy and India. Cromlechs consist of a series of upright stones set in the form of a circle supporting a line of horizontal slabs. These structures may have been temples as the one at Stonehenge suggests. Tumuli are burial mounds and are probably the prototypes of the beehive huts found especially in Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland. The pyramids of Egypt are similar structures in many respects. (See Plates 2 and 3.) Egyptian Dwellings. Probably as early as 25,000 B. C. there was a civilization in Egypt and the population was housed in mud huts on the banks of he river Nile. In 4,000 B. C. a date of authenticity, the people were living in houses of unburnt brick, plaster, squared tim- bers, and stone. The customs of the Egyptians changed most slowly, and although no remains of dwellings of an early date have been dis- covered it is assumed from later types and from ancient drawings and paintings that the average I* It >'^ I <8 ^ ^ j. s ^^ Plate i PRIMITIVE DWELLINGS DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE rural house consisted of a hall, with a sleeping room on each side, a stairway and a flat roof with a balcony on the stairway to it. Each house had a walled court in front which was really a part of the dwelling for here were the store rooms, oven, poultry houses and the garden. The object of the walled court was to protect the entire establishment from the scorching wind and sand of the desert. These dwellings were invariably placed on the banks of rivers or canals and each was equipped with a pump operated by mules or slaves for supplying water to the household. Gardens were irrigated and made to produce a quantity of fruit and vegetables. Thus we may assume that each family lived within its walls on a narrow street that followed the water course. The cooking was done by means of the oven built in the open and the meals were served perhaps in the shade of palm trees. The sleeping rooms were much like vaults and afforded protection in all kinds of weather. Very small openings provided light and air from the outside. The balcony and roof were used much as is a modern roof garden, for here awnings were stretched to protect the members of the household from wind and sun. Of the occupation of these people who lived within their walls we know but little. Perhaps they were potters and builders except at the time of year when it was necessary for them to tend the rice fields along the Nile. Perhaps again they were all servants of the king and were compelled to do according to the system of labor that then prevailed. (See Plate 4.) Plate 2 MAP SHOWING WESTWARD PROGRESSION OF CIVILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE There are several interesting suppositions relative to the origin of the form of Egyptian structures. The walls of all buildings were very substantially inclined and the roof in its pro- jection beyond the wall formed a peculiar curve. Also the cap of columns resembled an inverted bell corresponding in form to the shape of the eaves just mentioned. One of these supposi- tions is that the primitive structure, which was probably a dwelling, was composed of bundles of reeds stood on end to form walls, being held together by a mass of wet clay. To give solidity to the structure, the bundles of reeds were sloped inward. The roof also consisted of reeds and wet clay the weight of which caused the tops of the upright bundles to bend outward forming the cove in the eaves. This form once established became fixed in the mind of the builders so that later structures although built of different ma- terials had the same form. Another supposi- tion to explain the character and especially the inclined walls of Egyptian buildings is that on account of earthquakes a royal decree forbade the use of any other construction. Probably there is truth in both of these suppositions. At any rate the character of Egyptian archi- tecture is very distinctive. Some houses were two or three stories high and were decorated in colors of which yellow and blue seemed to predominate. Definite forms of ornament grad- ually developed such as the conventionalized lotus plant, palm, and papyrus. Geometric patterns were also developed. The palace of a monarch was far more pre- 6 1 fc* ?> i si 7 uJ O ^" j bJ UH 1 r y y i u UJ > S^ i J V^ 7 \ ll 1 -" <* 7T . Z 1, 1 ( [ x D 4 - V13ACSV - bJ , i ^ < : / j i E.3QUE. r-" < i < n I I- ; -^ ii i -> "T" 4 i / ) __ i c I \ I 1 ) ( C J ^ ^ EGYPTIAN - ^ O ^ ( C 4 3 ^ < I O 5 i < h 4 < 7 V- li <. ^ j -H 1 z ftJ z;!j 4 L_i n J 1 < ^ ^fQ I |J < J, 1 H i C ^ HJ hJE z > t- pq 1 7- ! *.. 5ETLVA H Z y STAPLE .. Plate 8 FRENCH CHATEAU DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE All good examples of Renaissance domestic architecture in Europe are of the elaborate type of palace or chateau, such as the Chateau de Blois, built before the style began to degenerate. The Louvre was commenced in 1540 A. D., and not completed until 1857. Meanwhile the style had started on its decline and again been revived. In England the classic influence made itself felt greatly through the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, until at last, in the Georgian period, the prevailing style was strictly classic. The seven- teenth century development was due largely to two architects, Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren. Throughout the Victorian period both Greek architecture and Gothic were revived. Perhaps at the present time the domestic ar- chitecture of England may be said to be English Gothic, and is quite a true outgrowth of medieval dwellings. Conclusion. Thus through the ages is the his- tory of man chronicled in his architecture, and his private life revealed in the ruins of his dwell- ings. His first great desire was for a home; his second, for a monument; his third, for a shrine; and his fourth, for a place in which to pursue his occupation. Oldest science, noblest art: A roof for man from beast apart; A monument, a shrine, a mart: Our art of architecture. Colossal heaps of hewn stone At cost of centuries' blood and bone; The Pharoahs built for whim alone The pyramids of Egypt. 2Q HISTORY OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Of purest line and classic mould, The conquerors in that nation bold Erected to the gods of old, The temples of the Greeks. Mad with lust of life and power, An Empire raged through its brief hour, But left an architectural flower; The glory of the Romans. Through fitful medieval fires A Gothic race shows its desires In noble arch and lofty spires; Cathedrals of the Christians. A castle for the strong and wild: A villa for the calm and mild: A cottage for the poor man's child: The homes of all God's people. Oldest science, noblest art: A roof for man from beast apart: A monument, a shrine, a mart: Our art of architecture. 21 SKETCH PROBLEMS NOTE: For all drawings use a soft pencil and rough white drawing paper 8^2 "xn", or notebook size. Ob- serve drawings in the text and suggest ideas similarly. Notes on drawings should be lettering rather than script. Whenever possible, drawings should be made free-hand but straight edges, instruments and scales may be used when necessary. (1) Make a sketch of a cave dwelling. (2) Copy the picture of an Egyptian house. (3) Draw from memory a typical feudal castle. REFERENCES Fletcher and Fletcher. A History of Architecture. Hamlin. A History of Architecture. Viollet-le-Duc. The Habitations of Man in all Ages. Gamier and Amman. L'Habitation Humane. Bevier. The House. Thompson. The History of the Dwelling House. Nash. The Mansions of England in the Olden Time. 22 CHAPTER II. DOMESTIC ARCHITEC- TURE IN THE UNITED STATES DWELLINGS of Pioneers. At all times pioneers have been compelled to build their homes of materials at hand. The first settlers in New England, and other places along the Atlantic Coast, erected log cabins and stone huts for tem- porary shelter and protection. In many in- stances these houses were also fortifications against hostile Indians. As the country to the west was gradually settled, the same condition of affairs is evidenced. In some states, such as Kansas, where neither building stones nor logs were available, dugouts and houses of turf were used by the people. However, the dwellings of pioneers are erected with the idea of using them for a short time only, and have no bearing upon the development of domestic architecture. Such houses are interesting only from the standpoint of the resourcefulness of determined men and women. Georgian, or Colonial Architecture. During the Georgian period of England, the colonies in America assumed an importance of their own. The architecture of the mother country was im- itated and our colonial style established. Thus because the colonies were in process of early development at a time when the classic revival of architecture was at its height in Europe, our own architecture was permanently affected, and classic lines and mouldings given to our early homes. So anxious were the colonists to have in their new homes what they had used in the 23 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE mother country, that parts of houses, such as mantel pieces, cupboards and doors were brought over in ships and incorporated bodily in the new dwellings. Colonial Architecture in New England. The first colonial houses were built from 1600 to 1700. Architecturally they were very plain and simple, with the exception of the Old Stone House at Guilford, which is irregular and picturesque. The plans were rectangular, and consisted of a hallway with rooms on either side, and openings placed symmetrically. The roof was of the gambrel type, and the attic story overhung the story below. Dormers were usually placed in the roof at regular intervals. (See Plate 9.) The Old Stone House at Guilford, Connecticut, was a residence, a fortification and a meeting- house combined. It was erected by the Reverend Henry Whitfield, in 1634, and is the oldest house in New England. This house was kept in its original form until 1868, when it was remodeled. It consisted of two stories and an attic. In the attic were several recesses, probably intended for places of concealment. All walls were made of stone, and were about three feet thick, so as to withstand a severe attack. This stone was evidently obtained from a quarry about eighty rods from the building site, and was transported at great cost in time and labor. The partitions, which were movable, could be folded back to allow a large space for the gathering of wor- shipers. The woodwork of the building was of oak. Another example of the military homes is the 24 Plate 9 EARLY NEW ENGLAND FARM HOUSE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Red Horse Inn, at Sudbury, Massachusetts, built in 1680, and made famous by Longfellow's "Tales of a Wayside Inn." The Cradock house is also very interesting. The bricks for this building were burned on the site, and the timber used in it was hewn from the surrounding forest. This house _was a trading post and a home. A number of loopholes were built into the wall from which to fire rifles, and the doorway was guarded with irons, so that the building has a very military aspect. At each end of the struc- ture a large chimney rises to a considerable height. There is no ornament upon the house except a belt course at the second floor level. At an early date a cottage type was developed by extending the roof of the building in a long sweep over a one-story part, usually in the rear. Later a low roof was extended in the front as well. The main feature of the cottage was the classical doorway, which was quite typical of all colonial houses. The Witch House in Salem, the home of Paul Revere in Boston, and the home of John Quincy Adams, are examples of this type. About 1730 prosperity and peace settled upon the colonists. The more prosperous merchants and landowners set about building permanent homes, the log cabin being always in disfavor with these pioneers. Governor Cradock's military home seems to have been a model from which many other houses were evolved. At first the gambrel roof was the common type, but event- ually the mansard roof, the ridge roof and the flat roof were developed from it. Most of the plans of the early colonial houses were sym- 26 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES metrical. The entrance remained the important feature, and was seldom neglected in the working out of details. It usually consisted of pilasters, cornice and pediment or hood of simpler type. These entrances showed marked individuality in design, and are worthy of extensive study. The interiors of the 1730 homes were very in- teresting, and often handsome, the stairways and fireplaces being especially important. The Hancock house in Boston was begun in 1737. It was a stone building, so well con- structed that when torn down it was necessary to blast the stones apart. The Hancock house was erected on a hill overlooking the bay, just outside of the city. The entrance was in the centre of the front, which was fifty-six feet wide, and was protected by a balcony above, which opened from the hallway of the second story. On each side of the entrance were two large windows on both the lower and upper floors. The cornice was refined, and altogether the house was a well designed and dignified build- ing. The Vassal-Craigie-Longfellow house at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, was built in 1759, and was the home of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow after 1837. This house 'was among the first to be designed with a deck on the roof surrounded by a balustrade. It is symmetrical in plan, and has a low porch at each end. The exterior is treated with pilasters, which extend from the ground line to the cornice. In the centre portion two pilasters are planted at the corners of a slight projection which terminates in a pediment in 27 the roof. At each side of this pediment is a dormer window. Elmwood, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, was built early in the eighteenth century. It was the birthplace and home of James Russell Lowell. Elmwood is three stories high, and stands in a grove of trees planted by the father of the poet. This building is a fine example of the later type of colonial house. A balustrade extends on all sides of the roof immediately over the cornice. Colonial Architecture in the Middle Colonies. In New Amsterdam, which later became New York, domestic architecture was influenced from a great many sources. The original col- onists were Dutch, but settlers of many na- tionalities mingled with them. It is said that before the English occupation more than a dozen different languages were spoken in the city of New York, which at that time had less than two thousand inhabitants. Moreover, New York was more liberal and tolerant in regard to religious beliefs than any other colony, so that each man went his way in a more un- restricted manner than would otherwise have been the case. This general spirit is evidenced in the dwellings of the people. The log cabin was necessarily used in the beginning as a shelter and protection, but the Dutch were as intolerant of it as were the New Englanders. Soon houses of stone, brick and frame were erected, influenced again by the classic revival of architecture in Europe. Although the general appearance of these houses was much the same as those in New England, the treatment of parts was more 28 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES liberal and ingenious. The gambrel roof was not much in vogue, and when used was greatly modified, the upper slope being reduced so much in size as to be insignificant. The long slope of roof, as used in New England cottages, was often gracefully curved to extend over a lower story. Many of the gable roofs were also curved at the bottom of the slope. Innovations in the way of dormers, entrances, hoods over doorways, and window details were established. Gradually English influence predominated over Dutch, and the colonial style resembled more closely that of the colonies further north. Owing to fires in the city of New York, not many examples of domestic architecture remain. How- ever, in the vicinity of New York, and in other towns along the Hudson, there are a number of old houses still standing, some of 'which are of historical interest. Among these is the Morris Mansion at i65th street and Ninth avenue, New York City. This building was erected about 1758 by Roger Morris, a British officer, and of course a Tory during the Revolution. Consequently his property was confiscated. Here General Washington made his headquarters during operations near the city. Later the house became the property of Madame Jumel, a French woman who was married to Aaron Burr. This house has slender front porch columns extending to the main cornice, and a balcony at the second floor supported by brackets pro- jecting halfway across the porch floor below. Another house of historical interest is the home of Alexander Hamilton. This house has a small 29 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE cornice and a balustrade surrounding a flat roof. It had on three sides porches which almost enclosed the building. Worthy of mention are the Dutch cottages of New York. These had sweeping roofs and in- teresting windows and porches, varied to quite an extent. The cottage of this style has since developed to a rather prominent type. In Pennsylvania, especially in Philadelphia and Germantown, there is a wealth of examples of colonial architecture. The first settlers of Pennsylvania were an interesting lot of men. William Penn established upon his immense grant of land a refuge for all religious sects, including the Quakers and Dunkards. The general appearance of the houses of this colony was not greatly different from that of others. Many houses were built of stone, with perhaps a stucco surface, and with brick or stone quoins showing at the corners. The earliest stone houses were very crude. Of these, the home of John Bartram in West Philadelphia, built in 173 1, is notable. It has two story, semi-detached columns with Ionic caps. The windows are treated with mouldings cut into the rough stone in imitation of the German classic style of the time. All the stone carving in this building is so crude as to be childish, but it shows the fervor of the builder, and his desire to produce something in a new country which would have the refinement of the old. On Wissahickon Creek there are a large number of old colonial houses, many of which have very interesting de- tails of construction, especially in the interiors. 30 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES Colonial Architecture in the South. Espe- cially in Virginia and South Carolina, a large number of aristocratic Englishmen settled, and later became the original country gentlemen of America. On account of the fertility of the soil and the use of slaves, which were early imported by the Dutch, these men became very wealthy, and because of their natural refinement, they erected houses of taste and durability. Roads in this country were only bridle paths, but the rivers were all-important, since commerce was carried on by means of boats. Thus the homes of the planters were built along the river fronts, especially those of the river James and the Potomac river. Each planter had his own little dock to which the trading vessels from New York and New England would come for the crop of tobacco and other produce. Most of the houses had a front facing the river, and a secondary front facing the plantation of the owner. To this day, along these rivers may be seen the remains of many such houses, which in the early times, and even up to the Civil War, were pros- perous establishments. (See Plate 10.) Since these Southerners were lovers of country life, very few towns came into existence, and still fewer succeeded in becoming permanent cities. Annapolis, in Maryland, was an excep- tion. In this city the streets radiated from two centres, at which were the buildings of the State and the buildings of the Church, the church being the Church of England. The buildings of the city were of the style of the Queen Anne period in England, and included not only res- si DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE idences, but churches, schools, clubhouses, a theatre, and a race course. The prosperity of this town lasted only down to the Revolution, when perhaps many of the inhabitants remained loyal to England. The best houses of the south were of masonry. In the earlier days bricks were imported, but later they were made on the building site. The bond used by bricklayers was usually the Flem- ish, in many cases the alternating bricks being of a darker color. There is a large variety of plans among the examples of southern colonial architecture. Generally they were symmetrical, consisting of a main unit, with the entrance in the centre of it, and perhaps a wing on each side. On account of the smaller estates having less demand for the accommodation of slaves, servants, and also of guests, the plans of the establishments varied to quite an extent. In Maryland, quarters for the dependents were pro- vided by story and a half wings connected with the main building by means of one-story cor- ridors. In Virginia, these quarters were pro- vided by means of separate structures, some- times two stories in height, and usually grouped symmetrically. Among the examples of this style interesting to us are Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, and Mount Vernon, the home of George Washington. Jefferson was a man of diversified capabilities, among his accomplish- ments being that of architectural design. Mon- ticello, near Charlotteville, Virginia, was erected at the cost of bankruptcy to the owner, It is a 32 Plate 10 EARLY SOUTHERN MANSION DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE large symmetrical brick building in which the Italian Renaissance style is imitated. The order of architecture used is Roman Doric. Mount Vernon is especially interesting to Americans. It is located on the Potomac River with a water front and a garden front. The facade on the water front is treated with a series of square columns, two stories in height, crowned with a classical cornice. The whole building is constructed of wood. The grounds are laid out symmetrically, and have, besides the main build- ing with its two wings, more than a dozen out- buildings, all grouped symmetrically. Here George Washington retired to lead a quiet life after the turmoil of his military and political career. Spanish Architecture in the South. Florida was settled between 1500 and 1600 by the Span- ish, Juan Ponce de Leon having explored the peninsula in 1513. About the same time many French and English colonists also made their homes upon this coast. The main towns were St. Augustine, Savannah, and Pensacola, which places were first under the control of one Eu- ropean nation, and then of another. However, Spanish influence predominated, so that the buildings were essentially Spanish. The houses were of light colored stone, or of brick with gray, pink, yellow or blue stucco. Most of them were two stories in height, the lower floor, in many cases, being a high basement, while the upper was occupied by the family as living apartments. Many of the windows were treated with wrought iron balconies on brackets. The doorways were 34 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES entered from courts. The eaves of the buildings projected, and the roofs were covered with red tile. The type was strictly Spanish, and as the Renaissance affected the architecture of Spain, the colonists made like changes in their dwell- ings. To this day, the Spanish-American style of architecture is used in Florida, and large hotels and residences with plaster walls and red tile roofs have been erected of late. Louisiana has a wonderfully interesting his- tory, the heart of Louisiana being the city of New Orleans. Here mingled people of many races, especially French and Spanish. Sections of the city were named according to the na- tionality of the people living there, and each section was distinguished by its architecture. Many of these old buildings remain standing. Here are courtyards and balconies, doorways and dormer windows of infinite variety. Plas- tered walls of many colors are now scaled and cracked and covered with moss and vines. Re- naissance architecture made its influence felt here as elsewhere, so that the arched doors and windows, iron balconies and wooden eaves were superseded by classic details. California was first peopled by the Franciscan missionaries, who made their way to San Diego and gradually moved northward, establishing mission houses which stand to the present time. Primarily, these missionaries were educators. At each mission house they established or gath- ered around them a colony of native Indians whom they taught to cultivate the soil and to raise live stock for their own use and for exporta- 35 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE tion. In this way the missions became extremely wealthy for their time, and with cheap labor at hand were enabled to build many houses of rather elaborate plan and type. On account of the climate of Southern California, the ten- dency was to make the buildings more open than were the prototypes in Spain. With such interesting historic examples of architecture as an inspiration, the later immi- grants to California, of American birth and an- cestry, immediately adopted the style of these buildings and have since developed it to an elaborate state. In fa 5 9 2 nm J o - 2 < X z if 5 c o t- bl "J ?S S L) ^ Z J , r> O O H Z *, O . *1 y ^ j s i Plate 12 EXAMPLE OF SYMMETRICAL DESIGN First Floor Plan 57 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE is an effective means of gaining balance. A slender tower at one extremity of a building may be set up in opposition to a heavy, low mass at the other extremity. In all designs the exterior should be honest, that is, the units there indicated by groups of windows, bays and gables should mark the location of a compartment within. Ornament, mouldings, and small special details are used to enhance the beauty of the original composition. Scale means the true application of the size of the human figure to architectural composition, with regard to the distance of any part above the ground and the proper relation of parts of the composition to each other. Steps, doorways and balustrades must accommodate people but must also conform to other parts of the struc- ture. A balustrade on the ground may be only one foot high but on top of a high building may be five feet high. In both cases it serves its function and is in scale. The ordinary balustrade is of the proper height to prevent one from fall- ing and to be a convenient hand rail. A ceiling or an arch need be only seven feet high to allow head room but may be many times higher in a monumental structure for the sake of impression. Arrangement of Rooms. In the arrangement of rooms, space economy is essential. Per- haps the main consideration in laying out the rooms is to provide free circulation or means of getting from one part of the house to another with the least possible friction and waste of steps. The hall is the chief means of circulation. From it practically all rooms on the first and 58 < (0 O Plate 13 EXAMPLE OF SYMMETRICAL DESIGN Second Floor Plan 59 second floors should be reached. In many instances it .is convenient to have both a front and a back hall which should be connected. Stairways should almost invariably be direct from halls rather than from rooms. A very useful feature in houses is the grade door which opens at the grade of the yard or garden onto a landing from which place a stairs leads to the basement and a short flight of steps to the main floor. A grade door should usually be close to the kitchen, thereby allowing one basement stair- way in the house to answer all purposes. (See Plate 20.) Beyond this function of circulation, the hall has little use except sometimes as a means of air circulation and as a place for receiving guests. In regard to the former, care must be taken to prevent all of the warm air of the house from escaping to the upper story. In regard to the latter use, the hall must be made large enough to serve as a reception hall. In pretentious houses it is well to have a reception room in immediate proximity to the hall and main en- trance. This room should be, usually, small and formal and of a symmetrical design. In certain types of houses, especially very informal ones, halls are not absolutely essential. The various parts of a house relative to their actual use should be segregated. These parts ordinarily consist of the living apartments, the sleeping apartments, and the dining and cooking apartments. In many cases other apartments such as rooms for servants or hired help will be found necessary. 60 TO > O < o i uJ Plate 14 EXAMPLE OF SYMMETRICAL DESIGN Street Elevation 61 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Living Apartments. Rooms used in only a few houses and of minor importance are parlors, tea rooms, billiard rooms, and sometimes smok- ing rooms. A parlor or a tea room should be near the reception room or hall. A billiard or a smoking room should be near the dining room, or isolated completely from other living apart- ments of the house. The library in many houses is an important room. Since libraries are used more or less individually, this room may be somewhat iso- lated, but still within reach from the main entrance in case the occupant is in the habit of receiving callers in that place. Music rooms, dens, offices, art and other museums are some- what of the nature of libraries, and should be set, perhaps, a little aside from the regular rooms. The main hall may be used as an art gallery, for a few impersonal pieces. In the ordinary house, the living room takes the place of practically all of the above named rooms, so that it should really combine the uses of them all. If in the house there is no library, a certain portion of the living room should be set aside in a cosy fashion containing bookcases where one may read comfortably. If in the house there is no music room, then an inside wall of the living room should be especially de- signed and reserved for a piano, and music cabinet. Since the living room is occupied for a large part of the day by the woman of the house-, it may be well to fit a particular part of that room with the paraphernalia needed in ordinary sewing work, so that the room also becomes a 62 Plate 15 EXAMPLE OF UNSYMMETRICAL DESIGN 63 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. sewing room. Sometimes a writing desk, or secretary, is desirable in a living room. In many small houses, the dining room is left out of the design, so that a living room may even become the dining room as well. Thus, the deduction is that a living room should be a room in which to .live in every sense of the word, the variations in its arrangement depending upon the other rooms of the house, and the habits of the family. The living room should occupy the most desir- able part of the house from the standpoint of ex- posure to sun and view. Sleeping Apartments and Accessories. Bed- rooms should, first of all, be so placed as to be well ventilated. To accomplish this end, it is well to have windows on two sides of the room whenever possible. The ceilings should not be too low, nor the top of the windows too far below the ceiling itself. Casement windows or hinged windows are preferable to double hung or sliding windows, since the full capacity of the window opening may, in the first instance, be utilized for air circulation. A bedroom should always have a closet or a built-in wardrobe. In recent years, the sleeping porch has assumed a new importance in all sections of the country, so that the former bedroom becomes more of a dressing room than a sleeping chamber. A sleeping porch is better placed on the second floor than on the first, because the quality of air is better at a distance above the ground. Moreover, an upper sleeping porch is more private and less exposed to odors, insects and other nuisances. A porch of this kind should be open on three sides if 6 4 Plate 16 AN ADAPTATION FROM EARLY NEW ENGLAND ARCHITECTURE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE possible, but should have windows or other screens which may be adjusted to suit the condi- tion of wind, heat and cold. The floor of the sleeping porch may be treated much as the deck of a boat, to avoid leakage of rain water to parts below. A small dressing room in connection with the bedroom proper is a great convenience, and should be in close proximity to the bathroom. A dressing room, to be of the greatest use, should be fully equipped with a built-in wardrobe, dressing table, chair, mirrors and other fixtures used by the particular individual who is to have the room. A bathroom, when not designed especially for the use of the occupant of a particular bed- room, should be entered from a hall, and the fixtures should be so placed as to avoid nooks and corners, which are difficult of access and consequently hard to keep clean. The bathroom floor and walls should be of waterproof material, as far as possible, tile being the best and of course the most expensive. If the bathtub itself can be built of tile and become a part of the tile construction, the condition is most sanitary and satisfactory. If possible, it is well to provide a floor drain, either in the centre of the floor or by allowing the floor to slope gently in one direction or toward a corner. A bathroom should be provided with a towel closet and medicine case, by all means, and other cases or closets when such fixtures are desired. It is often quite convenient to have the clothes chute in the bathroom wall, since perhaps the most inconvenient handling of soiled clothes is in 66 Plate 17 A PRACTICAL DESIGN 67 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE connection with this room. The supply of bedroom linen should be kept in a special closet within reach of all the bedrooms, and at a point convenient fqr bringing it in from the laundry or sorting room. Usually in a two-story house the linen closet is best placed at the head of the rear stairs. Among the accessories of bedrooms are the store room and trunk room, which, like the linen closet, should be in a convenient place, however small, rather than in a remote corner. A room which can at some time be conven- iently used as a nursery and later as a child's room, may very well be incorporated in the sleeping apartments of a house. It should be in a favored, sunny spot, open to the bath and to a sleeping porch, if possible, for the use of the child. It should never be subject to cold drafts from doors or windows. The room may have miniature fittings and decorations to please the fancy of a small boy or girl. It is often worth while to put this room adjacent to a downstairs bedroom. Dining and Cooking Apartments. The design of the dining room varies almost as much as that of the thoroughly discussed kitchen. This room is considered by some to be used more at night than in the daytime, consequently its loca- tion in the house is important only as a place in which to dine and as a place readily accessible from the living room and from the kitchen and pantry. In all cases the latter consideration is important. This room is considered by others to be very much a room for sunshine, consequently it should have a southerly exposure with large 68 $ y % ir I ? < w - Plate 18 A DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPANISH MISSION 69 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE windows. In such a case a plant conservatory may very readily be affixed, either of large or small dimensions. A kitchen is a workshop, and should be de- signed as such: therefore, such economic con- siderations as saving of steps and other motions, convenience of equipment and personal comfort of the occupant should receive attention. Sun- shine should reach every kitchen, and ventilation or cross draft of fresh air should be provided for. Kitchens may be large or small, depending upon other conditions. A room nineteen feet square for a kitchen in a tiny suburban home would be as grossly out of place as would a room nine feet square for a kitchen in a farmhouse, where the farmer's wife was obliged to serve a large num- ber of hungry men. Nevertheless, each size, one being more than four times as large as the other, is a reasonable size for a kitchen. There is no definite floor area that is proper in every case. A reasonable average size is ten feet by twelve feet. A kitchen is of such importance as to receive probably the second choice of location in the house, the living room having received first. In the design of a kitchen it is well to remember that the life of a house is from twenty to a hun- dred years, or more, and that the actual use of a kitchen by the same person may undergo a radical change in a very few years. Causes for such a change might be increase or decrease in fortune, which would perhaps mean the engaging or releasing of servants, increase in family, which necessitates more work, and often change 70 Plate 19 DESIGN EMPHASIZING THE SIDE ENTRANCE DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of opinion brought about by scientific investiga- tion or popular notion. Moreover, the absence from home of a number of the inmates of the house may cause a radical change in the domestic routine. Sometimes the absence becomes per- manent, and a house designed for many to live in is left for the sole occupation of one or two. The advent of one or more public utilities might change the working scheme of a kitchen. Chang- ing conditions cannot be absolutely counted upon, and preadjusted. Eccentricity of the kitchen plan should be avoided, kitchens being built along somewhat conventional lines, since the eccentric kitchen may cause a house to be unsalable, as well as unsuitable to other workers. Kitchen for the Very Small Suburban House. The kitchen occupied by the housewife for a comparatively short time each day while she performs the light kitchen duties required in a little house may be very small indeed, and usually the smaller the better. In this type of kitchen the economic principles of kitchen design should be applied stringently, so that the range, sink, work table, china cupboard, re- frigerator, and service to the dining room should have the proper economic relation. The saving of steps is especially important when the work of the house is done by the housewife herself. Usually a service pantry is not desirable in a small house, a service cupboard opening from both the dining room and kitchen being a great labor-saving device. The sink should be ad- joining to the service cupboard counter, so that the dishes having been passed through from the 72 Plate 20 MODEL ARRANGEMENT FOR THE FARMHOUSE 73 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE dining room may be washed and replaced in the cupboard ready for the next meal with the minimum amount of handling. The drain should be at the left of the sink, with the china cup- board above and facing it, if possible. All of the kitchen equipment should be compactly ar- ranged, with perhaps a small storage pantry in the rear of the room. The way to the cellar, to the yard and to the fuel supply should be as convenient as possible, avoiding an excessive number of steps. (See Plate 16.) Kitchen for the Large Suburban House. The household work of a large suburban house would probably be done by one or more servants, with perhaps the housewife's assistance and su- perintendence. Here more room should be al- lowed in the kitchen proper, since the cook may occupy this room almost exclusively, while a serving maid or butler occupies the service or butler's pantry at mealtimes. In a kitchen of this type the line of travel between the sink and the range, the supply room and the sink, the work table and the sink, and in fact between all other fixtures used many times each day, should be the shortest distance possible. However, since the room is occupied by a certain individual many hours at a time, it should not be uncom- fortably small, which would necessarily cause the room to be hot and stifling. For this kitchen a convenient size is thirteen feet square. In a house of this type the butler's pantry has a distinct use, although the word "pass pantry" is a better designation for it. Between this small room and the kitchen, a service cupboard 74 J'Sj^S.US *, * 5 o r < o < ^-o=wr~ P- _^OL 4 Plate 21 DESIGN OF HOUSE FOR THE SMALL FARM 75 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE may be conveniently used, so that dishes to be served on the table may be set inside of it from the kitchen, and taken to the dining room by the maid. Ordinarily two double-action or swing- ing doors connecting the pantry with the dining room and with the kitchen are a convenient means of circulation. The pass pantry should have a sink for washing dishes, while the kitchen should have a sink for general purposes. The kitchen should either be amply equipped with storage cupboards, or should have a special stor- age pantry in the rear, as well as a cool closet or refrigerator, and other necessary equipment. (See Plates 22, 23, 24, 25.) Kitchen for a Farmhouse. A kitchen for a farmhouse is more difficult to design than any other kitchen, since it is of more relative im- portance and use. Although any kitchen is a workshop, this room is the seat of practically all the operations of the housewife of the farm. Not only is a great amount of cooking done, but of necessity the laundry work, butter making, canning of fruit and vegetables, and the thou- sand other duties of the woman of the house are carried on in the immediate vicinity of the kitchen itself. Consequently the dining and cooking apartments must include a space for cooking, a space for serving, a cool or milk room, a laundry and wash-up room, a passage from the rear to the dining room, a stairway, a screened porch, a fuel room, and sometimes other lesser spaces such as broom closets, and store rooms. Ordinarily the kitchen should not be too small, on account of the great amount of cooking so 76 Plate 22 KITCHEN SOLUTION No. I 77 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE often necessary. Here, as in all kitchens, the arrangement of fixtures should be economical in order to save steps, but on account of many doors which are necessary to reach the other workrooms, the arrangement of the fixtures is difficult, oftentimes causing the room to be somewhat larger than necessary. However, the kitchen of greater dimensions is more airy than the kitchen of very small dimensions. In the best designs a rear hall is used as a means of getting to the other workrooms rather than many doors in the kitchen itself. A pantry for the storage of food supplies is essential to the farm kitchen, since supplies are usually purchased in quanti- ties, and stored for future use. Here, then, the shelves should extend practically to the ceiling, allowing space below the bottom shelf for setting barrels and large boxes, in which many supplies are shipped. Both store pantries and kitchens are of a better shape square than when long and narrow. The milk room is very important in farmhouses, since the entire establishment must depend upon its own supply of milk and butter. Here should be a miniature milk house as used by a dairy, having preferably a concrete floor and containing perhaps a separator, churn, milk cans and crocks, all conveniently and perma- nently provided for by special space, shelves, and benches. This little room should be reached not only from the outside, but also from the rear hall or the kitchen. It is better to have the inside entrance not opening directly from the kitchen on account of the heat. The laundry and wash-up room for farm hands may be identi- 78 Plate 23 KITCHEN SOLUTION No. ^ 79 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE cal, if well placed. This room should also have a concrete or waterproof floor, and like the milk room should be reached from both the outside and the inside. Here should be placed, in a stationary manner, laundry tubs, washing ma- chine, and basins. In order to avoid the passage of men through the kitchen while cooking opera- tions are being carried on, it is necessary to have a hall from the wash-up room to the table, and sometimes to the living or waiting room. One rear hall should answer for all purposes. The relation of the kitchen and dining room in the farmhouse may vary in a number of ways. Originally, one large room, the old-fashioned farm kitchen, was used for both cooking and dining, which perhaps, after all, is not far from the proper way, providing that the adjacent rooms are properly placed. With this arrange- ment as a basis, a small alcove for cooking purposes has been used which opens directly upon the large room which becomes the dining room. This segregates the men at the table from the women busy serving the meal. Another arrangement is to separate the dining room and the kitchen entirely, as would be done in other houses. It is often well to have a dining porch of considerable size in a farmhouse, thus allow- ing the dining room proper to be much smaller than would otherwise be possible. Commonly the largest number of farm hands are employed in the summer months when this dining porch could be used almost exclusively. This screened porch may be simply a large kitchen porch used for general purposes, rather than a special dining 80 Z < fe y eu Plate 24 KITCHEN SOLUTION No. 3 81 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE porch. The kitchen porch is very important, since much of the preparatory housework may be carried on here during the busiest part of the year. The way to the cellar and also to the second floor should be very near to the kitchen, as is also the case in regard to the fuel supply, since very often each day it is necessary to re- build the fire. (See Plate 20.) Rooms for Servants or Hired Help. In the dwelling of more than ordinary size it is neces- sary to provide comfortable quarters for serv- ants or for hired help. In the south, these quarters usually consist of special outbuildings. In the west they consist of what is known as the bunk house, but in the east and on the Pacific Coast they usually consist of rooms in the house proper. Rooms for help should be somewhat separated from the other rooms of the house, and reached from perhaps the rear entrance and hall. Where a number of persons are employed, it is well to have a special living room as well as bedrooms, as is done in English houses of some pretension. Rooms for servants should not be poorly arranged and poorly furnished, as is too often the case. Common labor is assuming a greater dignity, and every person is entitled to comfort and consideration. Porches and Exterior Features. A porch should not become a part of a building unless it has a distinct use. Porches added to a build- ing for the sole purpose of improving the com- position are a failure. If, after a few years a porch floor has not yet had the paint scratched from it, then the porch may as well be removed, 82 Plate 25 KITCHEN SOLUTION No. 4 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE and something of more importance put in its place. In some climates the porches are almost more important than the rooms, and there may be not only sleeping porches but living and din- ing porches. The small entrance, stoop or hood, should be distinguished from the porch proper, in that it is not a place for chairs and other furniture, but simply a protection for the door itself made architecturally beautiful, to mark the entrance and to give the doorway the im- portance which is its due on account of being the source of circulation in the house. All porches should be attractive and should be de- signed as a part of the house rather than as an afterthought. In high or two-story houses the porch usually has a cornice of its own, but in low or one-story houses it is almost invariably better to allow the main house roof to cover the porch rather than to give it an independent cornice. The floor of an important porch should be ten or twelve feet wide and may be of wood, tile, brick or concrete. Porches, as well as the body of the house, may be made attractive by means of flower boxes, trellises and lattices, the success of these things depending very much upon the good taste of the designer, since an infinite number of variations are possible. Among other things that tend to beautify a house and which should really be a part of it, although isolated, are pergolas, arbors, and gates. These should re- flect the spirit of the house design in form and color. At this point the subject of land- scape architecture and gardening meet that 8 4 HOUSE DESIGN of architecture proper. (See Plates 45 and 46.) Basements. The basement has a number of uses which should not be neglected, or even put off as a last consideration. Not only is it necessary to provide in the basement special rooms for the neater, fuel, vegetables, and some- times other supplies, but it is economically neces- sary to use this space for a number of things which cannot be provided for upon the main floors. By proper lighting, heating and ventila- tion, a part of the basement may be used as a den, a play room, a shop, a servants' sitting room, or a billiard room. The construction of the house should not be such as to destroy the val- uable space in the basement which is acquired with very little expense to the owner of the building. Incidentally, the attic space may be utilized for many purposes, as well as the base- ment. Conclusion. House design is a far-reaching subject, but whether the problem is a cottage or a castle makes little difference in the applica- tion of the principles pertaining to it. First of all, the building must be true to the spirit that prompted its erection and beyond that it must be useful, pleasing and substantial. SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Draw the first floor plan of a modern colonial cot- tage at the scale of l / s " = i' o." (2) Make two sketch plans, one of a kitchen with which you are familiar and another of the same kitchen re- modeled to be most convenient and sanitary. Make sketches at the scale of 1 /4 // = i / o" on two sheets of paper. Letter the drawing. (3) Sketch the first floor plan of a model farmhouse showing especially the arrangement of the kitchen and rooms used in conjunction with it. Make drawing at the scale of Vs"=i' o." REFERENCES Robinson. Architectural Composition. Arnot. Gothic Architecture Applied to Modern Resi- dences. Osborne. The Family House. Saylor. Bungalows. White. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. Embury II. One Hundred Country Houses. Saylor. Distinctive Homes of Moderate Cost. Note: For judging a house, by a score card method see Professor John R. Commons' " Dwelling House Score Card." 86 CHAPTER V. INTERIOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURAL FURNITURE ROOM Design. In the planning of a particular room, the proportion is im- portant. The same principles apply to it as apply to house design in general. The idea of axes should be applied in laying out openings in the walls and architectural furniture. Usually, groups of windows, important doors, fireplaces, and other large or important features, should be placed on an axis, which in most cases would be in the centre of the wall at the side or end of the room. It is found that in the ordinary residence it is impossible and even undesirable to make all parts symmetrical, but the main objects should occupy central positions. Living rooms, dining rooms, and other important rooms es- pecially should be treated architecturally, and although a number of rooms may open one upon another, giving the appearance of much space, still each unit should have a distinct geometrical plan of its own. For instance, if the front part of a house is to be divided into two parts, one of which is to be used as a living room and the other as a dining room, with a large opening between, it is important to give the living room a distinct rectangular shape, while the dining room might be a perfect square, rather than to make the living room a rectangular shape which was not positive, and to make the dining room only a foot or two greater in one dimension than in the other. Rooms should not be of an L-shape, but in cases where an L-shape is unavoidable, it is well to make the smaller part of the L an 87 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE alcove with a beam overhead, separating the two parts. A means of determining the shape of a room is by looking at or imagining the plan of the ceiling, rather than the plan of the floor, since the ceiling plan is never continuous be- tween rooms, while the floor is. Ceiling heights are very important, and should be predeter- mined according to the use and character of the house. The minimum height is eight feet and the maximum twelve. Although it is often inconvenient to have steps leading from one room to another, such an arrangement of from one to five steps is often very effective: the ceiling height of a smaller room may well be less than the ceiling height of a larger adjoining room. Oftentimes looking from a large living room into an average size dining room, a few steps elevating the floor of the latter, and con- sequently the dining room suite, gives a very pleasing effect. Doors and Windows. The walls of a room are pierced with doors and windows. Doors may be common wood or glass panel hinged doors, double-action doors, heavy sliding doors, single or in pairs, colonial glass doors in pairs, French doors or windows, and doors of special design made of battens or having plain veneered sur- faces. Moreover, doors may have transoms and side lights of many shapes and designs. Win- dows are usually double hung, which are the common sliding windows of two sash, or case- ment, which are windows hinged at top, side or bottom, to swing out or in. French windows are casements extending to the floor and ar- ID o I o o o S'r ^ < o W "- ^ u u- Plate 26 WALL TREATMENT SHOWING COLONIAL INFLUENCE 89 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE ranged in pairs. Occasionally windows are hung eccentrically or are set up in a stationary manner. Beyond the sense of utility in placing doors and windows, the treatment of the wall itself should be observed. The same type of window and similar glass panels should be used as far as compatible with convenience. When possible, the heights of all openings in the wall should be the same. A convenient height to use in working out this principle is seven feet, which is a good height for the head jamb of the door, and in low-ceilinged rooms a good height for the head jambs of the windows as well. However, in rooms of more than ordinary ceiling height, it is usually found necessary to make the window head more than seven feet in height in order to get the full benefit of the window as a means of lighting and ventilating the room. 1 In some cases the distance of the head jamb above the finished floor may be eight and one-half feet, while a door with a transom over it may be the same height. If all head jambs cannot be made at the same height, then two heights should be established, with an appreciable difference, so that if the picture mould or other mouldings are carried around the room, they will build into the casings over these openings in a pleasing way, sometimes forming a secondary frieze around the room, as wide as the difference between the two heights. It is never well to pierce the walls of a room with openings without giving thought to the line which these openings 1 For efficiency in ventilation especially, it is important that the window run up nearly to the ceiling. 90 INTERIOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURAL FURNITURE will make. When no two openings are of the same height, architectural treatment is almost impossible. Openings in a wall, as indicated on a plan, should be so placed as to give balance. If a fireplace is in the centre of a wall, with a door- way on one side and a window on the other, these two openings should be placed in symmetry one with the other, and although the nature of the openings is not the same, the treatment of them should be similar. When symmetrical arrangement of openings is not possible or de- sirable, then they should be made to balance by applying other architectural principles of di- vision. It is usually not well to place an open- ing near the centre of a wall without having it exactly in the centre, and it is not well to crowd a door or a window into the angle or corner of a room. Window openings on the outside wall of the room may be balanced by a door opening on the inside wall; also window openings on the outside wall and on the axis of the room, may be balanced by means of a large fixture opposite, or perhaps only an un- broken wall with a small opening at either ex- tremity. A number of windows in the same wall should usually be grouped together rather than distributed. Trim. The interior woodwork of a room, with the exception of fixtures, is called trim, and may be much varied in design and construc- tion. The principal members of interior wood- work, starting at the base of the wall, are the baseboard, with its shoe mould, the chair rail, 91 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE the picture mould, and the cornice. On each side and at the top of a window opening, the trim is called an architrave or a casing, while at the bottom of the opening, the trim consists of a stool and an apron. Around a doorway the trim is called an architrave or casing, the same as around a window. In many cases there would be a great amount of special trim used in the construction of special details. Wainscotings, panels, beams, stiles, and rails are very common members. Stiles are the vertical members, and rails are the horizontal members that frame pan- els; thus a door may consist of two stiles and four rails, framing three panels, the two lower of which may be of wood, while the upper may be of glass. (See Plates 26 and 27.) By using these finishing members in conjunc- tion with the openings in the walls of a room, architectural treatment is brought about. The lines of a room, as suggested before, should be continuous, so that not only the head trim of the openings may be made a line by connecting them with a belt course, but the lower line of windows, formed by the stool and apron, may be made continuous by allowing these two members to run through from window to window, in which case they would become the chair rail. Thus all windows may be tied together, both at the top and at the bottom, but an imaginary line in- stead of a real belt course might answer as well the purpose of design. The wall space from the stool or inside window sill to the floor may be treated with a wainscoting of any appropriate design. The lower part of the wainscoting would 92 r Plate 27 WALL TREATMENT SHOWING ENGLISH GOTHIC INFLUENCE 93 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE be the baseboard of the room. Infinite variety of room treatments is possible, so that each room should be designed individually and care- fully drafted to insure a pleasing treatment. (See Plates 26, 27, 28, 29.) Architectural Furniture. Architectural furni- ture includes all built-in furniture and cabinet- work. Ordinarily built-in fixtures cost less than portable fixtures but perhaps should not be used so extensively in a house as to give the rooms a fixed ready-made appearance. The amount of architectural furniture to be used in a house de- pends more upon the general character of the house than upon any other one thing. The personal taste or preference of the owner should really decide the question of amount. The Living Room. Probably the most im- portant built-in fixture in the living room is the fireplace and consequently it should occupy the most important position in the room. However, a fireplace should always be out of close proxim- ity to doors since doors not only disturb the serenity of the hearth but also cause uncomfort- able drafts. A fireplace in a corner is not very usable and should not be so placed except when necessary. A corner fireplace does save wall space and is sometimes convenient for small rooms and chambers. Fireplaces may be on exterior walls, but are preferable on interior walls. If one is placed on an outside wall, it should probably be on the north in order to save other walls for the admission of light and air through windows. Local conditions determine to a great extent the location of a fireplace. 94 =>= 5ii, sH" J 5 > ^ w Q Z tU 9S DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE In order to insure perfect draft in a fireplace with neither a tendency to draw too hard nor to smoke the room, certain principles of construc- tion must be applied. The depth of the opening should be one-half the width. The height of the opening should be about two feet and six inches, depending somewhat upon the width. The throat or opening into the flue for the escape of smoke should be one-tenth or one-twelfth the area of the front opening of the fireplace. The higher the chimney the smaller the size of the flue may be. House flues are 9" x 9", 9" x 12", 12" x 12" and occasionally 12" x 16" . Usually the fireplace flue should be 9" x 12". A draft of air sweeping down the chimney must be diverted from its course into the room by means of a curved floor in the smoke chamber above the throat. Also a draft of air sweeping across the room floor into a fireplace must be conducted through the throat of the chimney rather than allowed to rebound smoke laden into the room. A fireplace is always lined with fireproof mate- rials. In front of the fireplace a hearth must be provided and well supported, and an ash pit constructed below whenever not impos- sible. To get the greatest heat from a fireplace the ends should be set diagonally, thereby making the back narrower than the front. This sometimes occasions inconvenience in laying long sticks of wood on the floor or the fire-dogs. Diagonal ends to the fireplace reflect heat into the room as does the back. The back should be perpendicular for about one third of its height in order to bring 96 fe Plate 29 WALL TREATMENT OF ART NOUVEAU DESIGN 97 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE about perfect combustion and thereby utilize all of the fuel. (See Plate 30.) The width of the opening in a fireplace and the design of the whole depends upon the character of the room and the house. However, the fuel to be used regulates to some extent the size of the opening. The purpose for which the mantel- piece is to be used suggests a size and form for it. The difference between a small fireplace in a Colonial house where coal is used for fuel and a large fireplace in a rustic house where cord wood is burned is decidedly marked. For cord wood an opening of four and one-half feet is required. Bookcases are often built in nearness to the fireplace in order to have a cosy corner. Built-in seats are used in a great number of ways, and may be window seats or fireplace seats. When the fireplace, bookcases and seats are combined, usually an ingle nook results, which is simply a small alcove separated from the living room by means of a beam overhead. An ingle nook should have a floor, really the hearth of the fireplace, made of brick or tile. The ordinary window seat in a house heated by steam or hot water is placed over a radiator, made especially for the purpose. In this case the wood seat is lined with tin and asbestos to protect it and also to throw the heat into the room, the tin having a curved back, thus acting as a heat reflector. Window seats may also be bookcases, magazine cases, wood lifts or storage boxes. Wainscotings and beamed ceilings are used extensively in the treatment of living rooms, and should conform with the architectural furniture. Originally, 98 INTERIOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURAL FURNITURE beams in a ceiling were used to support the floor above, but now they are of box construction, and are not of structural value. Wainscotings are applied to the plaster similarly to beams, are of thin material, and are usually from one foot to seven feet high. They are useful as a protection to the wall. Billiard tables and piano cases may be made to order to match the other woodwork of the room, and are not usually much more costly than when purchased outright from stock. Special cabinets for collections should not be built in the living room, but may be in a hall or library or other room used less generally. (See Plate 31.) Bedrooms. In bedrooms, but more often in dressing rooms, a quantity of architectural furniture may be used. The bed itself may be built in, but usually the built-in bed is a patent contrivance and is installed by the manufacturer. A piece of furniture which takes the place of the bedroom closet is the wardrobe, a cabinet for the keeping of clothes. Such a cabinet should be about eighteen inches in depth, and perhaps four or five feet wide, inside, and should have a pair or more of doors with mirror linings. The doors may be as much as seven feet in height, if they extend to the floor; however, the better way is to have the doors come to within eighteen inches of the floor, with drawers beneath. Upon open- ing these doors, there should be in immediate reach a low shelf or bench for the keeping of shoes, and a high shelf for the keeping of band boxes and like articles. The distance between the two shelves should be ample for the hanging of suits or gowns on hangers upon an iron pole 99 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE underneath the hat shelf. The inside of such a wardrobe may well be enameled, so that it will not readily collect dust. Doors should be snug, and of light panel construction, possibly one and one-eighth inches thick. The design of a built-in wardrobe for the use of a man may vary ! from that for the use of a woman in the dis- tance between the shoe shelf and the hat shelf, since a dress or gown occupies more space than a man's suit. Sometimes it is desirable to put an additional shelf overhead. The drawers at the base of the wardrobe may be used in a number of ways. It is quite often desirable to have a dressing table with a mirror on one side of the dressing room and a wardrobe with mirror doors on the opposite side. Thereby reflections of great convenience may be arranged. Mirrors may be placed either on the outside or inside of wardrobe doors. When three doors are used, and mirrors placed on the outside, the two end doors are made to hinge from the inside edges, forming a mirrored niche much like the contriv- ance used by tailors. The little compartments of a dressing table should be arranged according to the taste and actual use of the one who is to occupy the apartment. Chiffoniers and dressers may be built against or into the walls of bedrooms or dressing rooms, and may be of practically any design. A chif- fonier should not be made clumsy in proportion, a common fault being that the depth of the fixture is too great. Linen and towel closets should be designed to hold conveniently the linen articles without a great heaping up of the Plate 30 PROPERLY CONSTRUCTED FIREPLACE See Plate 12 101 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE materials. The shelves should not be very far apart, perhaps ten inches, and some of the shelves should be made quite wide to accommo- date bed clothing and blankets. Medicine cases may be built practically inside of the partition, projecting only a few inches. The shelves do not need to be more than four or six inches wide, and should be, if possible, of plate glass and ad- justable, so that they may readily be removed and cleaned. The door of a medicine case may be sixteen inches wide, and twenty-four inches high, and should have a mirror either on the outside or inside. A very special fixture for a bedroom is a com- bination lavatory, towel closet and toilet case built in the wall and shut off from the room by means of a door, with a mirror panel on the inside. The space used may be twenty-four inches wide and eighteen inches deep, in which is incorporated the equipment named. All parts must be made especially sanitary, and ventilation of the little closet is advisable. (See Plate 32.) Dining Rooms. The important feature of the dining room is the buffet or sideboard. The design may vary to a great extent, but the more pleasing designs consist of a lower projecting part containing drawers and lockers, and an upper recessed part which is open. However, in the upper part, small glass doors may be placed at the sides, while the central portion may have mirror back and ends. It is often very desirable to line all china cabinets with mirrors, and to use plate glass shelves supported by nickel brackets. The doors of such cabinets 102 INTERIOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURAL FURNITURE should be of plate or of leaded glass, and not of common glass panels. In designing a buffet, the exact use of the fixture should be considered, and space allowed for certain articles of linen, silver, glass and china. It is not well to display too much of such ware. Other cabinets than the buffet or sideboard may be designed into the room, but should probably not project beyond the face of the wall. Thus the upper part of a pass cupboard may become a china cupboard. Sometimes a square dining room may be archi- tecturally treated by placing in each corner of it a triangular china cupboard with plate glass doors and shelves, and mirror backs. China cupboards may be illuminated by concealing an electric light in the upper part, which is not visible but which lightens in a modest way the interior of the cabinet. A sideboard should never be placed on an outside wall with windows at the sides or above, since the light from the outside is disturbing when the gaze is fixed upon the sideboard itself. The size of buffets and sideboards varies in width from four feet to nine, and in height from two to four feet from the floor to the counter. Dining room fixtures made of wood through- out, including linings and shelves, should be white or a neutral color on the inside, rather than the color of the wood of the room if finished naturally. The edges of wood shelves should be beveled quite thin to avoid a look of heaviness. Quite often the trim or casing of the fixture may be exactly the same as the trim of doors and other openings, and in all cases should match 103 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE other woodwork. In some instances, nooks or alcoves have been made in the walls of dining rooms to exactly accommodate a ready-made fixture of family or historic interest. A niche of this type may be semi-circular, semi-octagonal or other shape. Of the other built-in features of a dining room, perhaps the service table and bay window are most often used. The service table should be by the pantry door, and may be quite small and built part way in the wall itself. Dining rooms on the south side of the house may very often have a special window used as a plant conserva- tory, which would necessarily require a seat or wide stool. Paneled walls and occasionally plate rails are desirable features. (See Plate 33.) Kitchens. As the kitchen itself is a work room, the architectural furniture of the kitchen is designed to be used every day. The small things, then, become important. All counters and tables in a kitchen should be of the same height so that in placing a dish or a utensil on one table or on another the same movement is anticipated and performed. By this simple arrangement, the chance of accident and breakage of dishes is minimized. In order that the hands or elbows of the worker, whether sitting or standing, may be at the same relative height to the counter, a stool of the proper size should be a part of the kitchen equipment. Ad- justable legs on work tables have been found convenient. Counters and tables, when designed for the especial use of one person, should be built to accommodate that one. The conven- 104 Plate 31 COMBINATION OF FEATURES See Plate 12 105 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE ient height for such fixtures is from thirty to thirty-six inches, and it is well to use a dimension approaching the latter figure. The tops of all tables and counters should be of such material as will not readily cause breakage. Of the woods, white pine, red cedar, and perhaps white maple are the best. Oak is too subject to warpage. Tile and slate are serviceable materials for counters but are so hard as to cause breakage of glassware, china and crockery. Perhaps the best material to use for kitchen counters is a patent material consisting of a number of sub- stances which give not only a firm, waterproof surface, but also give elasticity. There are a number of such materials in the market which are put in place similarly to asphalt and allowed to become hard, thereby giving a surface without joints. Cupboards should be designed to accommo- date certain articles. Pantry cupboards are used for staple supplies, and should be roomy. China cupboards may well have adjustable shelves, so that they may be arranged to suit the china on hand. A good width for the shelves of china cupboards is eleven inches. Cupboards used in connection with the main work counter, and sometimes called spice cupboards, should be narrow, with shelves perhaps from four to eight inches wide, but the distance between shelves should be great enough to allow space for bottles and tall cans. One cupboard in a kitchen should be a dry cupboard, which may be built around the hot water tank or against the chimney. Here, sugar and such articles of food may be 106 Plate 32 BUILT-IN FIXTURES FOR THE BEDROOM See Plate 13 107 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE kept with small chance of damage to them from moisture. A special cupboard should be pro- vided for large utensils used in cooking, such as iron kettles, broilers and the like, which have a limited sphere of use in a kitchen. They should be carried only from sink to range and range to sink and stored in immediate proximity to the sink. Ordinarily a locker under the sink counter with either a shelf or pot hooks is provided for the storage of these heavy utensils, but a far better arrangement is to have the locker above the sink counter to the right of the sink, the drain board being on the left. This locker should really be within the kitchen wall rather than projecting over the counter to give the greatest ease in handling the heavy articles. If other cupboards are not behind the face of the plaster they should extend to the ceiling to eliminate the dusty top shelf so common. The extra space thus provided although high above the floor is useful for storage. It may be mentioned here that shelves over six feet high are not usable in everyday kitchen work. The doors of cupboards may be made to slide or to hinge, each kind having advantages. Slid- ing doors, unless very well constructed, are hard to keep clean and if a track is provided at the bottom of the door instead of at the top they are impossible to keep clean. The main objection to hinged doors is the fact that they swing out and interfere with the worker. To minimize this difficulty, hinged doors should never be made more than sixteen inches wide. Cupboard doors may be of wood panel or glass panel con- 108 Plate 33 BUILT-IN FIXTURES FOR THE DINING ROOM See Plate 12 109 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE struction. Probably the glass panel doors are more convenient because the contents of the cupboard may readily be seen. However, wood panel doors have a neater appearance on account of the unavoidable disorder or at least irregular appearance of the contents of some cupboards. Doors in cupboards built inside of the kitchen wall may often be arranged to slide up into the wall itself, which is a very nice arrangement, and sanitary as well. Doors should never sweep over a counter or scrape on the ledge at the bot- tom. In the latter case they may be raised a fraction of an inch on a small rail. The width of counters does not vary to a great extent, it having been found that twenty-two inches is the maximum convenient reach. The higher the counter, the less wide it may be. Counters in pass cupboards or service cupboards, however, may be wider, since they are reached from both sides, but even they should not be more than twenty-eight inches wide, mostly on account of the width of the space above, which could be used only for two sets of shelving, with perhaps doors on both sides. The proper height of detached cupboards above counters, allowing a working space between, is eighteen inches. Drawers should be rather shallow. In built-in kitchen equipment, the work table or work counter should be provided with bread boards and bins. Bread boards should be con- structed to withstand warpage, to maintain a good wearing surface, and to be easily cleaned. Perhaps the best way of constructing such a board is to make it much as a high-class drawing board, Plate 34 COOLING CLOSETS See Plate 12 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE consisting of matched white pine strips held together at the ends with oak bindings. A bread board may be eighteen inches wide, and twenty- four inches long, unless it is to be used for some special purpose. In speaking of bread boards it is often well to provide in a kitchen a marble slab which may be conveniently accessible for certain uses. Bread boards slip into a pocket below the counter, but this pocket should not be ceiled on the floor of it at the back, because invariably it will collect: dust and crumbs which cannot be reached. By leaving a small opening in the floor at the back, the dust may be brushed into the open space below, and from there re- moved. For flour and sugar bins, the hopper bin, properly constructed, is the best. At the base of the counter the baseboard should be set in from the edge of the shelf above a distance of about ten inches to allow ample standing room, and even sitting room, since it is impossible to work at a counter when the toes strike the base, causing the body to pitch forward. Near this base the bins are pivoted, allowing them to tilt forward a reasonable distance, and catch, but in all cases the bin should be so constructed that no matter whether it is full or empty, perfect balance will be maintained. In many cases a bin holding one hundred pounds or more of sugar is almost impossible to open when recently filled. All bins should be lined with a removable zinc or tin lining, which may have a small lid of its own. Thus the entire bin may be lifted from its pivots at the base and set into the room, and the niche which it occupies readily cleaned. 112 Plate 35 SPECIAL KITCHEN COUNTER See Plate 12 113 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Here would have fallen the dust from the pocket of the bread board above. While the bin is in the room, the lining may be removed and all parts thoroughly scoured. This bin is perfectly sanitary and vermin proof if accurately con- structed. (See Plate 35.) The plumbing work connected with sinks should be exposed. The ordinary sink is of enameled iron, and if of good quality is satis- factory. However, a sink should be set up in such a way that water cannot possibly lodge in crevices and cause an unclean condition. Usually a wood strip in front of the sink may carry across the line of the counter, but at the back an enameled flange should protect the woodwork and should form a base for the faucets. No woodwork whatsoever should be in direct contact with the constantly wet parts of the sink. Drain boards are best constructed of white pine and should be cut with a wide, flat wash in the surface of the level counter, to run the water to the sink, rather than with little grooves, which are apt to be unsanitary. The angles of this sloping cut-out surface should be rounded in order that no difficulty would be encountered in scouring the board. Drain boards belong at the left of sinks, if only one is used. However, drain boards on both sides are preferable, except in the case of small dish wash- ing sinks in pass pantrys. A very useful piece of equipment in a kitchen is a hood over the range. The .purpose of this hood is to carry off all steam and gases gener- ated at the time of cooking. This hood should 114 INTERIOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURAL FURNITURE be connected with a small special flue in the kitchen chimney, which, on account of the heat of the main flue, has a tendency to draw off all vapors and odors. This hood may be cons tru died of good sheet iron, and consequently may be cleaned and treated in a way similar to that of the range itself. Kitchens may be provided with a wood lift, and other appliances suggested by local conditions. A cabinet for a hinged ironing board is a great convenience, if properly located. In moderate climates a cool or ventilated cupboard takes the place of the refrigerator. This is made by constructing an air intake at the bottom and an outlet at the top of a cupboard, and putting in shelves jof heavy woven wire, which allow cir- culation of air. The doors of cool cupboards should be very close fitting. If possible, it is well to have three small ventilated cupboards; one for butter, milk and meat, one for vege- tables, and one for cooked foods. (See Plate 34.) Still another kitchen convenience is a small bookcase for cook books. It may include a desk for keeping accounts, a cash drawer, a telephone counter and a clock shelf, to say nothing of the calendar. SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Copy a colonial fireplace at large scale showing mouldings very precisely. (2) Design a fireplace for a cottage or a bungalow at the scale of X" to i' o." (3) Draw an interior view of a double hung window showing architrave, stool, apron, window stops, sash and glass. Letter the name of each part on the drawing including the stiles, rails, meeting-rail and also the mun- tins if used. Do not show hardware. (4) Draw an exterior view of the same window. REFERENCES Bevier. The House. Clark. The Care of a House. White. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. Wells. Modern Cabinet Work, Furniture and Fit- ments. Saylor. Distinctive Homes of Moderate Cost. 116 CHAPTER VI. CHARACTER AND MOULDINGS ARCHITECTURAL Character. Char- acter is given to a building or to an article of furniture by means of mass, line and mouldings. Mass and line are of such importance as to be the pre- dominating elements in design, but mouldings really give to the structure its individual char- acter. Mouldings are difficult of definition, but may be considered to be continuous bands of ornament having in contour a certain shape made by a combination of straight and curved lines. A moulding in the abstract sense is not constructed of a material but stands for a con- tinuous ornamental surface. In actual con- struction this surface may be cut in the rough stone face of a building, or, if of wood, may be nailed in place as a ready-made picture mould. The function of a moulding is primarily to orna- ment; however, mouldings serve various use- ful purposes. A moulding is judged largely by the shades and shadows that it casts. For in- stance, a sharp overhanging moulding with a strong light above it produces a deep shadow or strong band of shade, while a flat band with strong light above it, produces a strong band of light surface or high light in contrast to the dark shade. The study of mouldings is highly interesting and among experts the closest dis- crimination is practiced. Classical Mouldings. The classical mouldings, that is, the mouldings originated and used by the Greeks and Romans in their early architec- 117 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE ture, are of eight kinds with variations. They are called: the band, or fillet; the bead, or as- tragal; the torus, or tore; the mouth, or scotia; the quarter round, or echinus; the cove, or cavetto; the cyma-recta ; and the cy ma-re versa. These units are used to form mouldings in gen- eral, or belt courses, cornices, caps and bases. Each one is indicated by a small, straight line or curved line representing the cross section of the moulding. The parts are combined accord- ing to certain principles, and according to good taste. The use of the fillet, of the astragal, and of the torus is to bind together other mouldings. Some mouldings, as the echinus and cyma- reversa, are strong at the upper part of the curve, and are consequently adapted to support parts above them. Other mouldings, as the cyma- recta and the cavetto, are weak at the upper part of the curve, so are not used to support projecting parts, but to protect the parts below them and thus become crown mouldings. The difference between the astragal and the torus is in size only, the astragal always being very small and the torus very large. The size and even the proportion of all of these mouldings do not by any means remain constant. There is of necessity a dispute in regard to the exact number of mouldings, which, however, is of small import in the study of them. (See Plate 36.) Orders of Architecture. From Roman classic architecture there have been evolved five dis- tinct types of columns, with their entablatures and pedestals. Each has a proportion and a combination of mouldings peculiar to itself. 118 Plate 36 CLASSICAL MOULDINGS AND ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE 119 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE These five styles are called the five orders of architecture, which designation is very often not comprehended. An order comprises a col- umn with its base, shaft and capital, an en- tablature with its architrave, frieze and cor- nice and may or may not have a pedestal with its base, die and cap. Usually the entablature of an order is approximately one-fourth the height of the column and the pedestal is one- third the height of the column. A column has entasis, that is, the neck of the column is smaller than the base and the line of the column shaft is a convex curve starting at one-third the height of the column. The Roman orders of architecture were investigated and set down by a number of famous architects, chief of whom is Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, an Italian, whose work was published in Rome in 1563. The book "Vignola" treats of the established pro- portion and character of the five orders of ar- chitecture: the Tuscan; the Doric; the Ionic; the Corinthian; and the Composite. However, Vignola treats also of other forms and combina- tions of forms employing the orders. The Tuscan Order. This order was origi- nated by the Etruscans who inhabited the cen- tral part of Italy as early as 750 B. C. Possibly this race was of Greek origin and developed the order from an early Greek type. The Tuscan order is the most massive and simple of all. Assuming the diameter of the column as a unit of measurement, the column is seven di- ameters high, and the entablature is one and three-quarters diameters high. The pedestal CHARACTER AND MOULDINGS when used is one-third the height of the col- umn. The Doric Order. The Doric order used by the Romans was developed directly from the Doric order used by the Dorians who occupied Greece proper. As used by the Grecians, the column was only from four to six diameters high and the entablature was two diameters high. Also the column was set upon the stylobate, a platform three steps high, and did not have a base of its own. The channels in the column reached to the floor of the stylobate. The best example of the Greek Doric order is found in the Parthenon, a temple of Athens dedicated to Athena Parthenos, designed by Ictinus and Cal- licrates, and erected in the time of Pericles, 438 B. C. The Romans gave to the column a base, and made the column eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters high. They also modified the minor proportions and changed the mouldings to quite an extent. The main features of the Doric order are the triglyphs and mutules in the entablature. However, there are two types of this order one of which has dentils instead of mutules. The triglyphs are commonly supposed to be derived from the ends of beams and the mutules from the ends of rafters used at a remote time when the order was constructed of wood. Since all columns have entasis it is possible that originally tree trunks were used for posts and columns with a wood superstructure, and that the order was later made of stone, retaining its first form. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE The Ionic Order. Like the Doric, the Ionic order originated in Greece. There the lonians, who occupied the western coast of Asia Minor, were greatly influenced by the Assyrians and Per- sians, so that the characteristic feature of the Ionic order, the scrolls which practically form the capital of the column, is derived from As- syria. Usually the four faces of the capital were made alike, having double scrolls on each corner, but there are many variations in details. Above the scroll was the crowning member of the capital, and below the scroll was the echinus and necking. The proportions of the Greek order varied, but the entablature was about two diam- eters high as in the Doric order. The Roman Ionic order, as established by Vignola from many examples, has a column cap in which the abacus and fillet extend on two sides of the column and are rolled, so to speak, into scrolls which enclose the echinus below. Above the scroll is a cyma reversa and fillet. The necking below the echinus is not present, the column extending on down- ward. The Ionic column is nine diameters high and the entablature is two and one-quarter diameters high. The Corinthian Order. The Romans de- vised an order called the Corinthian, which was very elaborate and delicate in proportion and detail, even more so than the Ionic. The cornice was supported by brackets called modil- lions, and the bed mould of the cornice was en- riched with dentils. The capital of the column was bell-shaped and very ornamental, having for its motif the acanthus leaf. The modillions, as CHARACTER AND MOULDINGS well, were decorated with the acanthus. This order was the favorite of the Romans, being used in the majority of their buildings. The column is ten diameters high and the entabla- ture is two and one-half diameters high. The Composite Order. Still another order was used by the Romans, called the Composite. It is a cross between the Corinthian and Ionic, having the proportions of the former. The cap- ital of the column consists of an acanthus leaf motif combined with the scrolls used in the Ionic order. In the opinion of many this is the most dignified order. The Use of the Orders. In all classical build- ings one or more orders of architecture were employed. Sometimes orders were placed one above another, in which cases the more massive orders were placed below. This arrangement was called superposition. Orders of architecture were used in colonnades, arcades, and as single columns standing alone, such as the Column of Trajan, which is 147 feet high. In fact, orders were used in every conceivable way, in con- nection with all architectural forms, and sculp- ture was everywhere the closely allied art. Although the classic style has at various times been revived and developed only to fall into degeneracy and disuse again, strange to say, it still persists and recurs constantly in the archi- tecture of the world. The original orders are the source of each new inspiration. The present day use of the orders of architecture, commonly reduced to walls and cornices, is in evidence on all sides. The entrance porch of a Colonial 123 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE house comprises an order as does the mantel- piece of the fireplace, if in its construction a column and a cornice is used. In practically every structure the base, the shaft and the cor- nice constitute an order, and in many cases the order either emulates or suggests one of the five Roman orders of architecture. Eccentric Mouldings and Ornament. Each historical style of architecture had mouldings and ornament peculiar to itself in a greater or less degree. The Gothic style may be said to be a distinct departure from the classic style, al- though the former really developed from the latter. Gothic mouldings are usually sharp and deep, casting strong shadows, and are usually coarse or large in scale. The chief forms used are beaks, beads, splays, under-cuts, hollows, three- quarter rounds and beveled edges. New mould- ings and combinations of mouldings are being made every day to meet certain conditions or satisfy certain individual tastes. (See Plate 37.) Architectural ornament is a subject in itself. The Egyptians used the lotus plant and palm in a conventionalized form and occasionally the vulture and lion form. The Assyrians used the animal form more than the plant, so that bulls, horses and lions are found in their sculpture. The Greeks and Romans developed the art of sculpture to a high degree and favored the hu- man figure as a subject, but of course used all other known forms. The authors of Gothic architecture used growing plant forms as a mo- tif, which well suited their progressive style or form of building. They also used grotesque 124 . Plate 37 GOTHIC MOULDINGS AND FORMS 125 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE forms, such as gargoyles, which probably came about through lack of skill in the original sculp- tors themselves, rather than through any humor- ous sense. Later architecture is largely orna- mented with geometrical patterns and designs. In all architecture the frieze has been used for ornament, especially relief work in stone or plaster, but sometimes other decoration, such as mosaics and painting. It may be said that in early times sculpture, painting and like arts were subservient to architecture, and only in com- paratively recent times have they been inde- pendent. The aesthetic sense is always in evi- dence in architecture, even though sometimes almost overwhelmed by the practical. In dire extremity it may show itself in little brackets, rafter ends and sawed or carved edgings, espe- cially in the houses of the masses throughout the world. Character of Colonial Houses. Since Co- lonial architecture is classic by reason of its derivation, the forms and mouldings of the orders of architecture must be employe/!. The main cornice of the building, assuming that the house is of correct proportion, is the most im- portant feature determining its character and marking the building as Colonial. This cornice should be very properly designed almost accord- ing to rule of Vignola, but of necessity adapted to conditions such as material. The wall of the building becomes the shaft or the column of the order relatively and may be treated by actually applying pilasters on its face, especially at the corners. When a two-story porch is added 126 CHARACTER AND MOULDINGS to the house the order is complete in itself and the lines of the order are the same in both the porch and the body of the house. Examples are very plentiful. In the design of small porches for the house it is again necessary to employ an order and use classical mouldings. In the case of a Colonial cottage with the main cornice at the height of the second-floor level the same order should be used for it as for the porches. Dormers, windows and doors may be designed in which one of the orders is used. In such details an order is more often suggested by the lines and mouldings rather than worked out literally. Also certain door and window treat- ments employed by original users of classic ar- chitecture in connection with the orders have come to be used by us and are established in that way as Colonial. A thorough study of the exteriors of historical examples of colonial architecture is the only way to acquire familiar- ity with exterior design, since the style is essen- tially historical, and more than that, historically American. (See Plates 9 and 10.) The interiors of Colonial houses both old and new have been treated in an almost conven- tional manner. A radical departure would not be pleasing, unless, perhaps, precedent were abandoned and the house designed according to other ideas, in which case it would no longer be Colonial. The mantelpiece should be a com- position embodying the principles of classic ar- chitecture, but could be very plain or very elaborate to suit the place. The same is true of all other architectural furniture and fixtures 127 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE which should be strictly Colonial in design. In- terior room cornices, whether of wood or plaster, should have the Colonial character. Wainscot- ings, baseboards, architraves and especially doors and windows must be carefully worked out to conform to other parts. All mouldings in Col- onial work are exceptionally small or fine. The scale is small. The relation between the detail of the entire fireplace and the doorway opposite; between the doorway and window; between the window and the cornice in the room, all must be harmonious and pleasing. A very special detail in the Colonial house is the staircase. Quite often the balustrade forms a spiral around the newel post, which is supported upon winding steps at the base of the flight. The balusters may be delicate spindles, enameled white, while the hand rail may be daintily carved or turned from mahogany. Character of Miscellaneous Styles. The ex- terior of an English house is practically unmis- takable, but the variations in design limitless. In an attempt to imitate any one of the period styles of England, thorough study of examples is essential. However, the chief characteristics of the American English house are a steep roof, half timber construction, brickwork in Flemish bond, English Gothic mouldings and exterior and interior features peculiar to English archi- tecture. (See. Plate 37.) Bungalow and modern mission domestic ar- chitecture are distinguished by the lack of mould- ings, sawed details of construction taking their place both outside and inside. On the outside, 128 Plate 38 DIAGRAMS SHOWING EXTERIOR FORMS 129 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE barge boards, sawed rafter ends, sturdy brackets and outlookers, solid posts and severe trim in general are very much in evidence. On the inside, plain board trim, heavy fireplace mantels, and substantial furniture are characteristic of the style. In regard to design, a bungalow should be kept close to the ground and may spread out in a number of irregular low masses. The materials employed are plaster and stained woodwork for the most part, but other ma- terials may be incorporated. As a matter of fact, Japanese forms and details have been imi- tated in bungalow design, and may be used effectively. They are much finer than the origi- nal forms. (See Plates 18, 21, 28.) It is not necessary in the design of a house to adopt a style of architecture. A building may be given character individually. In fact, no matter how well the characteristics of a style are set forth in a particular house, that building should express character in itself. This is accomplished after much study by a careful combination of forms and mouldings and an infusion of per- sonality and individual usefulness into the de- sign. Sanitary Mouldings and Treatment. In kitchens and bathrooms, and sometimes other rooms, it is desirable to have exceptionally san- itary conditions. Besides having the walls, ceil- ing and floor of the room in question smooth and hard, it is necessary to avoid nooks and crevices in the general arrangement of the equip- ment and especially in the woodwork. As far as possible, mouldings should be avoided and 130 CHARACTER AND MOULDINGS smooth trim used, but where necessary, mould- ings in the form of bands and coves may be used. These mouldings may be so placed as to practi- cally eliminate cracks and sinkages which collect dirt. Coves set flush in the angle made by the baseboard and the floor and in all other angles subject to unsanitary conditions are very ad- vantageous. The trim for doors, windows and fixtures may be perfectly smooth bands or cas- ings. Projecting high ledges and tops of fixtures which collect dust should be eliminated. Conclusion. Character and mouldings is a subject upon which much may be said and little comprehended without actually studying archi- tectural design and doing original work. This means years of application to a specialty and amounts to architecture as a profession. One fact may be repeated, that character is given to a building or an article of furniture by means of mass, line and mouldings. To do this unerr- ingly, all of the principles of design and com- position must be in the mind of the designer. SKETCH PROBLEMS. (1) Draw two columns and an entablature, using the Doric order. Let the sketch represent a small entrance to a Colonial house. The columns may be eight feet high. Use y 2 " scale. (2) Copy a Gothic staircase. (3) Draw a cross-section of a sanitary picture mould, chair rail and baseboard. Show how they are applied to adjacent parts and held in place. REFERENCES Ware. The American Vignola. Robinson. Architectural Composition. Fletcher and Fletcher. A History of Architecture. CHAPTER VII. COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS BUILDING Stones. Stone as a build- ing material has been used extensively in all ages. The common stones now in use are granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, and slate. Granites are massive rocks composed principally of quartz, mica and feldspar in varying proportions. Granites con- taining a large amount of quartz are very hard, but when containing a considerable portion of feldspar are easily cut. Granites vary in color from light to dark gray and from pink to red, the colors determined chiefly by the feldspar. Although granite is quite easily cut into blocks, it is extremely tough for cut stonework. This stone is used especially for columns, steps and bases for large buildings. Stones may be se- cured of practically any size. The chief states in which granite is quarried are Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, North Carolina, Georgia, Mis- souri, Wisconsin, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, Colorado and California. Limestones may differ to a great extent in origin, structure and color. Besides carbonate of lime, they contain carbonate of magnesia, iron, silica, clay, bituminous matter, mica or talc. Most of the stones are originally derived from deposits built up of shells, fossils, and like marine materials. The color is light gray, dark blue, cream or buff, and most stones will take a high polish. This stone is a very practical and 133 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE substantial material for window sills, and other stone trimmings. However, it does not with- stand a great amount of heat. The chief states in which limestone is found are, first of all: Indiana, where Bedford stone is quarried, and Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, Ohio, Pennsyl- vania and Wisconsin. Marble is a limestone in a crystallized state, and therefore capable of taking a better polish than limestone. Marbles are rather scarce, hard to quarry, and subject to staining when used outside, on account of iron oxides in them. They are especially adapted to carving. The common use of marble is as a veneer on inside walls, so it is cut in very thin slabs and applied by means of a cement. Slabs are usually only an inch or two thick, and are set up in such a way as to match in case there is a decided streak or "figure in the slabs. Much of the marble used in the United States is imported from Italy, and from Mexico. Tennessee, Vermont, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, Pennsylvania, California, Alabama, Washington, Arkansas, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, New Mexico, Mis- souri and Alaska produce marble in consider- able quantities. Of these, Vermont is the great- est producer. "Sandstones are composed of rounded and angular grains of sand so cemented and com- pacted together as to form a solid rock. The cementing material may be silica, carbonate of lime and iron oxide or clay matter." Sandstones 134 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS are used more extensively than any other stones as a building material, and are found through- out the country. The quality varies to a great extent, the sand in all cases being of pure quartz, but the cementing material being composed of different substances which may or may not be substantial. The most objectionable cementing material is clay, the stone being liable to de- composition on account of moisture and frost. The colors are drab, blue, buff, gray, brown and pink, and are due largely to the iron in the com- position. Oxides of iron in any building stone are liable to cause stains if used on the exterior of the building. The texture of sandstones varies from very fine to very coarse grain. The fine-grained stones are the best in every re- spect. Slate is used principally for covering the roofs of buildings. However, it is used also for black- boards, table tops and miscellaneous purposes. Ordinary roofing slate is compact, silicious clay. A peculiar characteristic of slate is its tendency to split into very thin sheets, with surfaces so smooth as to be made to fit closely together, which with its strength, toughness and imper- viousness to water cause it to be a valuable ma- terial for shingles. Slate varies in color to a considerable extent, being black, blue, purple, gray and green. In a few localities red slate is found. A fine grain in a slate is a good quality. The cutting of the shingles should be with the grain, so that in case the shingle splits, the piece will probably remain in place. This material is produced in Pennsylvania, Vermont, Maine, us DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Virginia, Maryland, California, New York, Ar- kansas and Georgia. Of the other building stones, tuffs is of some importance, being of volcanic origin and some- times called lava stone. It is very light in weight, on account of its porosity. Blue shale is a variety of sandstone, used slightly. Trap is a hard rock suitable for foundations. Soapstone is a very soft rock used sometimes for sinks. A wall may be of solid stone, or may be of stone facing with a background of brick or concrete. Stone facing is called ashlar. The common types of solid stonework are rubble walls, made of undressed rough stones bonded securely together, and usually laid at random, and field stone walls, made of small round boulders. The methods of joining are many, in some cases the rough stones having a sort of pattern, and in other cases the stones having an arrangement called for by the shape of the stone itself. Solid stonework of these types is used especially in rustic buildings and walls for retaining earth and for fencing purposes. Ashlar is laid as broken ashlar and coursed ashlar. By broken ashlar is meant the use of stones of different shapes and sizes, which are fitted together at random, but which have been especially cut for the purpose. By coursed ashlar is meant the laying of stones according to a certain pattern, which may be regular plumb bound, irregular plumb bound and other com- binations using stones of one size, two sizes, and three sizes, up to six or eight certain sizes. The face of cut stonework may have a number of 136 Plate 39 STONEWORK 137 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE finishes made by the use of different tools. Of these finishes the common ones are rockfaced stonework, in which the face of each stone is left in the rough; pointed stonework with a mar- gin, in which the face is pointed with a tool and the margin left smooth; tool stonework, in which the face of the stone has small vertical ribs; bush hammered stonework in which the surface has been pounded with a bush hammer; vermiculated stonework, in which the surface is treated as though it had been worked upon by worms; and fish scale stonework, in which the surface has been hammered to look like scales. Stones are cut in every conceivable shape and pattern to form architectural features such as arches, quoins, lintels and sills. The joints are pointed with mortar, and may be raked out to a cove or set off as a bead, and sometimes given other shapes for the sake of effect or to turn water. (See Plate 39.) Bricks. Bricks were first used by the Egyp- tians, being made of mud baked in the sun; later they were burned similarly to the present method and employed extensively. The Assyri- ans developed them to a high degree and made ornamental brick friezes on the interior of their palaces as well as walls, pavements and other features. At all times they have been an impor- tant material, but in early times were used more as a solid structural mass upon which to secure costly marble, stone and alabaster, than as a finish material. Since the time of the Roman Empire bricks have gradually assumed a vast importance as a surface material, the greatest 138 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS strides in the improvement of them having been taken in recent years. Bricks are extensively used as a building ma- terial throughout the United States, nearly every locality having a brickyard of its own. The kinds of brick are much varied, depending upon the clay used and the method of burning. Ordinarily bricks are made of a mixture of clay and sand, to which foreign substances have been added to give the product certain char- acteristics. Bricks are moulded, or pressed, from soft or stiff mud, either by hand or by machinery, and after being dried are burnt in a kiln. This process varies chiefly in the draft of the kiln, whether up or down, and in the ar- rangement of the stack of dry bricks which are to be burnt. In the burning process, the bricks farthest from the heat remain rather soft and light in color and shrink less than the others. Common bricks, used for backgrounds and protected walls, are soft, porous and cheap in price. Paving bricks are extra large, hard and strong. They usually have rounded edges and are vitrified or made impervious to water by burning to a vitrified state, this being brought about by the fusion of the silica and other in- gredients of the clay. Fire bricks, used to line furnaces, chimneys and fireplaces, are porous and infusible. They are made of raw flint clay and plastic clay. Face bricks are of many kinds including glazed and enameled bricks, pressed bricks and moulded bricks. Glazed bricks are made by applying to the two finished sides dur- ing manufacture a coat of "slip" made of ball- 139 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE clay, kaolin, flint and feldspar, and a coat of glaze. The substance composing the glaze fuses and becomes transparent, leaving the bricks the color of the "slip" which may vary. Enameled bricks are made by applying a coat of enamel to a burned or unburned brick and fusing the coating by heat. The enamel is opaque and gives to the bricks color. Pressed bricks are made in a dry- press machine and are very even in size with true edges. They may be of any brick color. Moulded bricks are special forms of pressed bricks used for arches, cornices and circular walls. Texture in bricks and brickwork is important. A very pleasing texture for a brick is acquired by splitting the wet clay with a coarse wire, thereby making bricks each with a wire-cut end and side. This is called a wire-cut brick, the surface having a rough, dragged finish in which the particles lean in the direction that the wire passed through. Other textures are ac- quired by the use of acids and peculiar methods known only to the manufacturers. The color of bricks depends largely upon the composition of the clay used in the manufacture of them, and also upon the temperature of the kiln or parts of the kiln. Pure clay produces a white brick. Oxide of iron causes bricks to be from red to purple in color. Iron and lime pro- duce in bricks a cream or drab color. Magnesia brings about a brown, while magnesia and iron together bring about a yellow color. Certain colors are produced purposely by mixing clays, applying mineral pigments to the surfaces before 140 ' Plate 40 BRICKWORK 141 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE burning the bricks and by adding chemicals or mortar colors to the clay in the dry pan. The standard size of common bricks is 8V 4 x 4 x 2 J / 4 inches; of face bricks is 8 3 / 8 x 4 x 2 3 /s inches; of paving bricks is 8 l / 2 x 4 x 2 I / 2 inches; and of Roman bricks, distinguished by this size, 12 x 4 x i T / 2 inches. However, the actual sizes of bricks vary to such an extent that it is nec- essary to measure each kind and lot of bricks to go into a building before establishing the exact dimensions for the parts of the building related to the brickwork. A stretcher should be the same length as two headers and a mortar joint and also the same length as three brick courses laid in place in order that bricks fit well in the wall. A brick is said to be approximately 8x4x2 inches in size and to weigh five pounds. Patterns on the surface of brick walls, called diaper work, are quite common, and beautiful examples may be seen in Italy, England and other places. Surface patterns are made by the arrangement of the bricks and the use of, per- haps, a number of shades or colors. The bond in brickwork is especially important. Bond serves the purpose of holding the bricks substantially together, and also of giving a pleasing effect to the wall. Among the bonds used are the common bond, plumb bond, Flemish bond, English bond, and cross bond. Numerous other bonds are invented and employed in individual cases by architects. Brick joints are like stone joints, and may be struck with a drip for water, may be raked out or may be pointed flush with the wall. (See Plate 40.) 142 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS Terra Cotta. Terra cotta is a building ma- terial made by moulding clay according to a certain given design, and burning it similarly to bricks, but it is a more finished product. A good clay, which when fired will partially vitrify, is required. The surface of terra cotta is treated in a number of ways, chiefly by painting with a substance before firing, which will give it color and the quality of resistance to moisture and gases in the air. Practically any required color or combination of colors may be attained. Terra cotta as a building material has made great advancement in the last few years. It is a material in itself and not an imitation, so that it should be used as such rather than in imitation of stone. Terra cotta is especially good for the facing of down town buildings, on account of its durability, beauty and cheapness, and may be used in conjunction with brick. It has come to be used satisfactorily in residence work as well, especially in the formal type of house. For fire- places, urns and garden features it is very serv- iceable. Tiles. Tiles are a clay product made accord- ing to the ceramic principles employed in the manufacture of bricks and terra cotta. They are made in a number of shapes and for different purposes. Roof tile, although made in many styles, has the characteristics of slate, lapping one over another and made impervious to water. The colors usually employed for roofing tile are red, green and gray. Tiles are also used for conducting water under- ground. These are common drain tiles for 143 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE carrying off seepage water and vitrified sewer tile for carrying off sewage. The latter is always laid in cement mortar to prevent leakage of gas from the drain. A very important building material is terra cotta hollow tile. This is of a number of makes, and consists of hollow tile blocks thick enough to form a wall when laid one above another in a bed of cement mortar. The sizes vary for dif- ferent kinds of walls, since outside walls may be a great height in some buildings, and must nec- essarily be thick. For partitions the tiles are usually only four inches thick. Tiles of similar make are used for floors so that practically a whole building may be constructed of tile which would make it nearly fireproof. In tile or other fireproof construction there are usually some parts that are inflammable, such as finish wood- work. Tile construction requires skilled work- men familiar with the nature of the material and the methods of erecting such a building, so that it will be substantial. Hollow tile walls may be plastered outside and in without much danger of dampness or disfiguration of finished surfaces on account of dampness. Concrete. The use of concrete was known to the Egyptians, Romans and other early builders. They probably used a natural cement with sand, gravel and water to produce it. Not only did the Romans build concrete aqueducts, buildings and roads but they also plastered their walls with a cement plaster much like our own modern product. Many examples are still in evidence, showing the permanence of their work. In fact 144 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS the Romans at one time almost depended upon plaster as a wall finish both inside and out. Concrete is an exceptionally useful material for footings, foundations, walls, floors and walks subject to hard usage. Common concrete is made by mixing Portland cement and sand together dry, which composition is mixed with gravel or crushed rock and water. The whole substance, while still freshly made, and very soft, is poured into plank forms, holding it in place, where it is allowed to remain for several days and set into a hard monolithic mass. The quality of concrete is determined by the proportion and quality of the ingredients. For very strong concrete work one part of cement, two parts of sand and four parts of gravel are mixed together with water and allowed to set. For very weak concrete, one part of cement, three parts of sand and seven parts of gravel may be used. For ordinary foundation walls used in houses, a mixture of 1 13 :5 is perhaps economical and perfectly safe. Wearing sur- faces on floors should be put on separately from the mass of concrete but not after the mass is hard and dry. It should be applied evenly and jointed three-quarters of an inch deep to prevent cracking in other places than the joints since in contraction and settlement of the floor there is necessarily a shrinkage. These joints are the same as regular expansion and contraction joints in larger concrete works. A wearing surface should be composed of one part of cement and one or two of sand. Reinforced concrete work has assumed a vast H5 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE importance in recent years, and is constructed by using steel bars enclosed within the concrete mass to give it tensile strength. Columns, beams, floor slabs and arches are made in this manner. The fundamental principle of rein- forced concrete is based on the fact that concrete and steel expand and contract in the same ratio under various conditions of heat and cold, thereby preventing the breakage of either the one or the other with the shrinkage or expansion of the whole mass. Concrete is ordinarily the .cheapest form of masonry construction when used as common concrete for walls and floors. A handy material but one lacking character is the ready-made concrete block usually manufactured to imitate stone. Wood. Wood is the most common building material, and is used extensively for prac- tically every purpose. Woods may be classified as endogens or inside growers and exogens or outside growers. The former include bamboos and palms growing as a single stem which does not become larger with age but only longer. The latter include all broad-leaved trees and conifers or needle-leaved trees. The exogens grow in the following manner: Wood structure consists of cells. These are pores running the length of the wood and pith rays running at right angles to the trunk of the tree from the bark to the pith in thin sheets. When the tree begins to grow in the spring the new cells formed by the sap are large and thin-walled but late in the summer the new cells formed are much 146 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS denser. Thus spring wood is light in color while summer wood is relatively dark, enabling one to distinguish the ring of growth around the trunk of the tree by which the age of the tree may be ascertained. As the tree grows older the cells toward the centre of the trunk become hard and dark in color and are no longer useful for the growth but for the supporting of the increased weight of the tree. This inner cylinder of wood is called "heartwood." The outer cells continue to convey sap necessary for the growth of the tree and remain for a while soft and light in color. This outer belt of wood is called "sap- wood." Sapwood is, then, immature heart- wood. In tropical woods that grow continu- ously, rings of growth are not discernible and in some trees, such as basswood, heartwood and sapwood are hardly distinguishable. By lumber- men timber is classified into "hard woods" and "soft woods," but some of the hard woods are not really as hard as some of the soft woods. (See Plate 41.) The hard woods are said to be porous woods. When large pores develop early in the season and small pores late in the season, the wood is ring-porous as is the case with hickory, oak and ash. When small even pores develop through- out the season, the wood is diffuse-porous as is the case with maple, walnut and birch. The soft woods are said to be non-porous. The grain of hard woods brought about by annual growths according to the nature of the tree is usually fine and irregular while of soft woods it is coarse and even. The term "grain" refers to the lines 147 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE visible to the naked eye in a piece of finished lumber. In general, hard woods are more dur- able, handsome and costly than are soft woods. In regard to the preparation of lumber for building purposes the first operation consists of selecting and felling trees of the forest which are sent in the form of logs to a mill to be sawed into proper and convenient sizes and shapes. Among the defects in logs may be mentioned shakes, which are cracks in the heartwood, often star-shaped, brought about by contraction of the old wood; large knots which mark the source of growth of limbs of the tree; and decay of the heartwood. Heartwood rots only when exposed to the air by the failure of some other part of the tree. Logs are sawed in two ways : common and quarter-sawed. By common saw- ing is meant the cutting of the entire log into thin slabs. By quarter sawing is meant the quartering of the entire log and cutting each quarter into slabs, taking care to saw in the direction which will cut through the annual rings of wood. All high class logs of hard wood and occasionally of soft wood are sawed in this manner, and unless thus manipulated are not desirable. In common sawing, a large amount of the lumber is necessarily sawed almost hor- izontally to the rings of growth, thus producing a coarse-grained surface in the lumber which is readily discernible. In common sawing, the lumber sawed vertically to the rings of growth is exactly like quartered lumber and is usually selected for flooring and other purposes. It is called "edge-grained" lumber. (See Plate 41.) 148 Plate 41 WOOD 149 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Timber is seasoned by evaporating the mois- ture from the pieces, either naturally or arti- ficially. When seasoned artificially, the lumber is stacked in a kiln and a current of hot air is made to pass through it until the moisture is evaporated. Lumber is tested for moisture by weighing, and since the weights of woods are known, it can readily be determined when all of the moisture has been removed. Dry wood will absorb water very readily, so that it is necessary to protect finishing wood at all times, even when nailed in place in a building. Wood has a great tendency to shrink, the shrinking process continuing in many cases for a year or more, depending upon conditions. Hard woods more than soft woods have a tendency to warp when one side is exposed to moisture or heat. Shrinkage in wood is a trait which must be considered at all times when working with it. To avoid warping and shrinkage, it is necessary to have the wood carefully seasoned before manufacturing articles from it, and to protect the article when finished. Of the hard woods common in the United States and used for structural purposes the following are described in the approximate order of their hardness: Shellbark hickory grows throughout the east central states. The color is reddish brown ex- cept the sapwood which is quite light. The wood is very heavy, very strong, very elastic and very hard. It is used especially for implements that require great toughness of material, but it is also used for household furniture. 150 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS Black hickory grows in the eastern and south- eastern states. It is dark brown to white in color. The grain is straight and close. The wood is very heavy, very strong, very elastic, and very hard. It is used much as shellbark hickory and is confounded with it but is not as good. White oak grows throughout the eastern and east central states. It is light brown in color and crooked in grain. The wood is heavy, strong, elastic and hard. White oak is the most im- portant hard wood and is used for interior finish, furniture, shipbuilding, implements and framing. Western white oak grows in western Wash- ington and Oregon. The color of the wood is light brown and the grain very close and crooked. It is heavy, strong, medium elastic, and hard. Unless carefully seasoned it warps badly. On the Pacific Coast it takes the place to some ex- tent of white oak and is used similarly. Bur oak grows in the Mississippi valley. It is dark brown in color and crooked in grain. The wood is heavy, very strong, elastic, and hard. It is used for shipbuilding, cooperage, and cabinetwork. In commerce it is not especially distinguished from white oak. Red oak, black oak, basket oak, and post oak grow chiefly in the eastern part of the United States, each having distinguishing features but used much as are other oaks. .Black locust, also called locust and yellow locust, grows chiefly in the Allegheny Mountains but is found elsewhere. It is brown in color and crooked in grain. The wood is heavy, very DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE strong, elastic and very hard. It Is used for shipbuilding, general construction, implements and occasionally for interior finish. White ash grows in the eastern and east central states. The wood is light brown in color and very straight in grain. It is heavy, strong, elastic and hard; also it warps but little. White ash is used for interior finish, farm im- plements, carriages, oars and baskets. Oregon ash grows on the north Pacific Coast. The wood is brown and the grain coarse and straight. It is medium heavy, medium strong, medium elastic, and medium hard. It is used for furniture, vehicles and sometimes for interior finish. Black ash grows in the New England states and in the region of the Great Lakes and does best in moist places. The wood is dark brown in color and straight in grain, except a few pieces which have burls, causing them to be valuable as veneers. It is medium heavy, strong, medium elastic, and quite hard. This wood is used for interior finish, cabinetwork, fencing, cooperage, and skis. It is known for its flexibility. Cork elm, also called rock elm, hickory elm, white elm and cliff elm, grows south of the Great Lakes. The wood is light brown or red in color and the grain is interlaced. It is heavy, very strong, elastic, and hard. This wood is probably the best kind of elm and is used for heavy fram- ing and farm implements. American elm, also called white elm, and water elm, grows throughout the central and eastern parts of the United States. The wood is 152 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS light brown in color and the grain is interlaced. It is quite heavy, strong, medium elastic, and medium hard. The wood is used for flooring and cooperage. The tree itself is a favorite ornamental shade tree. Wild black cherry grows throughout the east- ern and central part of the United States. The wood is light brown or red in color and the grain is very close and fine. It is medium heavy, medium strong, medium elastic and medium hard. It is used for cabinetwork and interior finish. Black walnut grows in the east central part of the United States and especially in Tennessee. The wood is chocolate brown in color except the sapwood which is very much lighter. It is medium heavy, strong, elastic and hard. It is used for cabinetwork and interior finish, often being applied as a veneer. Formerly the wood was used in a prodigal manner for furniture and interior trim but has now become so scarce as to be highly valuable, in fact, the most valuable domestic wood of the United States. By many it is considered to be more handsome than mahogany. Butternut or white walnut grows in the east central part of the United States. The wood is light brown in color and fairly straight grained. It is light in weight, quite weak, medium elastic and soft. It is used for cabinetwork and interior finish. Beech grows throughout the eastern states. The wood is reddish in color and quite varia- ble. It is heavy, very strong, elastic and 153 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE hard. It is used for furniture, implements and flooring. Hard maple, also called sugar maple and rock maple, grows in the eastern part of the United States. The wood is light brown to red in color and the grain is crooked and fine. It is heavy, very strong, very elastic, and very hard. It is used for furniture, carved articles, implements, and piano actions. Birds-eye maple and curly maple, once very popular, are accidental vari- eties of hard maple. Soft maple, also called white maple, and silver maple, grows in the eastern part of the United States. The wood is brown in color and the grain is twisted and fine. It is medium heavy, very strong, very elastic and hard. It is used for flooring, furniture and woodenware. Oregon maple grows on the Pacific Coast. It is dark brown and red in color and close in grain. The wood is light in weight, medium strong, medium elastic and medium hard. It is used for interior finish, flooring, furniture and tools. In its native region it is a very valuable wood. Birch grows in the south and the east. There are many varieties not usually distinguished from one another in commerce. The wood is from light brown to dark brown in color, and the grain is close and sometimes satin-like. It is heavy, very strong, very elastic and hard. It is used for woodenware, furniture and ship- building. Chestnut grows especially in the eastern states. It is reddish brown in color and straight in grain. The wood is light in weight, medium 154 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS strong, medium elastic, and medium hard. It is used for interior finish, fence posts and railway ties. Poplar grows especially in eastern states. It is called yellow poplar, white wood, or tulip tree, and does not belong to the poplar family proper. The wood is a greenish or yellowish brown in color and straight in grain. It is light, medium strong, elastic and soft. This wood is used for general framing, furniture, interior finish, vehicles and pumps. Incidentally it is now being substituted for white pine which is very expensive. Willow or black willow grows in wet places throughout the eastern part of the United States. In color it is light reddish brown. The wood is light in weight, weak, very brittle and soft. It is used for weather boarding, water wheels and baskets. It is also used to make charcoal. Basswood or linden grows in the east central states. In color it is very light brown to cream. The wood is light in weight, weak, medium elastic and soft. It is used for picture moulding, paper pulp and woodenware. Of the soft woods common in the United States and used for structural purposes the following are described in the approximate order of their hardness: Red cedar grows in the eastern part of the United States and is best along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This is the fragrant red cedar which is dull red in color except the sapwood which is white. It is especially fine grained and easily worked. This wood is very light in weight, DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE medium strong, brittle and medium hard. It is used for linen chests, pencils and interior finish. Port Orford cedar, also called Lawson cypress and Oregon cedar, grows on the coast of Oregon. It is pinkish brown in color and straight in grain. The wood is light in weight, strong, elastic and soft. It is used for interior finish, shipbuilding and very extensively for matches. Western red cedar grows on the coast of Washington. It is dull brown or red in color, and is coarse and straight in grain. It is very light in weight, medium strong, elastic and soft. This wood is used for interior finish, cabinet- work and shingles. White cedar grows along the Atlantic Coast in swampy ground. It is pink to brown in color and is straight in grain. The wood is very light in weight, weak, brittle and soft. It is used for shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage and boats. Yellow pine grows in various places throughout the country. On the south Atlantic Coast long- leaf pine is common and back from the coast short-leaf pine is very abundant. Pitch pine grows in the eastern states. Loblolly pine grows in the same regions as the Georgia or long-leaf pine. Slash pine grows in Mississippi, Alabama and Florida. Norway pine grows in Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota. Western yellow pine grows in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific Coast. All of these pines are yellow, orange and red in color, and straight in grain. They are rather heavy, strong, elastic and medium hard. They are used for heavy fram- 156 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS ing, shipbuilding, railway ties, interior finish and flooring. Douglas fir, also called Oregon pine, red fir and Douglas spruce, grows in the far western states. It is yellow to light red in color and very straight and coarse in grain. The wood is me- dium in weight, strong, very elastic, and medium hard. It is used for heavy construction and interior finish, being the best general purpose wood on the Pacific Coast. Spruce, like hard pine, is of many varieties. White spruce grows in the northern part of the United States. Red spruce grows in the moun- tainous regions of the East. Black spruce grows in the northeastern states. Engelmann's spruce grows in the Rocky Mountains. Tide-land or Sitka spruce grows on the Pacific coast. The wood is light in color and straight in grain. It is light in weight, medium strong, elastic and soft. The various species of this wood are used for general constructive purposes. Hemlock grows in the northeastern states. The wood is reddish brown in color and crooked in grain. It is light in weight, medium strong, medium elastic and soft. This wood makes a cheap lumber used for joists, rafters and board walks. Western or black hemlock grows on the Pacific Coast, especially in Washington and Oregon. It is light brown in color, and straight in grain. It is light in weight, strong, elastic and rather hard. This wood is used for framing. White pine grows chiefly in the region of the Great Lakes. It is from light brown to cream in 157 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE color and very straight in grain. The wood is very light in weight, medium strong, medium elastic and soft. It is used for doors, window sash, cabinetwork, and other interior finish. This wood is especially valuable on account of its fine qualities, being easy to work and almost devoid of shrinkage tendency. It is becoming very scarce and consequently high in price. Western white pine grows in Washington and Idaho at great elevations. It is light brown or red in color and straight in grain. This wood is very light in weight, medium strong, elastic and soft. It is used for interior finish and fram- ing. Western white pine resembles the eastern white pine but lacks the finer qualities. Sugar pine grows in the Sierra Nevada Moun- tains. It is practically the same as western white pine. Redwood (Sequoia) grows in California and southern Oregon. It is red in color and straight in grain. The wood is light in weight, weak, brittle and soft. It is used for almost everything in California and has the peculiar quality of burning with great difficulty. Also it does not shrink, warp or rot easily. One species of the redwood is the "Big Tree," occurring in ten groves in southern California. Of the imported woods used for finish and furniture the most important are mahogany, Circassian walnut, French burl, satinwood, ebony and rosewood. Mahogany comes from the West Indies, Central America and West Africa. It is red in color and turns dark red with age. The grain 158 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS is crooked. This wood is harder than hickory or oak. Usually mahogany is used as a veneer over a pine core and the pieces are selected with great care to match. There is also a white ma- hogany imported from the west coast of Mexico used for finish and furniture. It is creamy white in color. In the Florida Keys of the United States mahogany is a native tree. A Philip- pine mahogany also is now being brought to our eastern markets. Circassian walnut comes from the region of the Black Sea. It is a rich brown in color and very crooked in grain. In veneered work the pieces are matched similarly to marble slabs, often forming a fantastic design. This is perhaps the most elegant and costly wood in general use for finishing the interiors of expensive rooms. French burl comes from Persia. It is a walnut with a burl or knot that forms on the tree when young. The wood is dark in color and curly in grain. Satinwood comes from the West Indies. It is light in color and satiny in lustre, also finely mottled in grain. The wood is used for veneer- ing small surfaces. Rosewood comes from Brazil, Jamaica and Honduras. It is a dark red wood with black lines through it, used both as a solid material and as a veneer. On account of its resinous nature it is difficult to work. Ebony grows in India and Ceylon, also in the West Indies. In the far east logs are several feet in diameter, while in the Indies the trunks are rarely over four inches. Only the heart- 159 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE wood of the large trees is black. The wood is very hard and will take a high polish. It is used for cabinetwork, inlaying and for various turned and carved articles. Steel and Iron. Steel and iron are used very extensively in building, but very moderately in house construction. Steel is made from iron, and possesses the property of taking a temper. In some steels in which the carbon content is low, tempering is not in evidence. Iron for building materials is either cast or- wrought. By cast iron is meant iron which has been heated to a molten state and poured into moulds, where it is allowed to congeal, thereby forming structural members such as posts. By wrought iron is meant iron that has been hammered or rolled into shape. The chief building materials made of steel and iron are classified under the head of builders' hardware, which may be either common or finish hardware. Articles included under the head of common hardware are cast- iron posts and plates, steel I-beams, angles, channels, etc., and joist hangers, bolts, nails, strap hinges and screws. Hardware used in the finish of rooms (e. g., door knobs, drawer pulls, etc.) is called finishing hardware. Sheet metal is used extensively in construc- tion. However, it is not always of iron or steel, but may be of tin, copper or zinc. Perhaps galvanized iron in sheets is the most serviceable of these materials. Gutters, down-spouts and flashing are made of sheet metal. Sheathing Paper and Deadening Quilts. A very useful building material is paper used to 160 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS protect a frame building from penetrating winds. Building paper is a paper saturated with tar, resin or other waterproof material, and is applied to the sheathing or rough boarding of the house, both on the walls and on the roof, over which shingles or weather boards are nailed. Deaden- ing quilt is made in a number of ways, usually consisting of two layers of paper between which has been stitched a material of straw, hair or seaweed, and is used under floors and in walls to deaden sounds and stop leakage of cold or warm air. Many other materials of various kinds are in the market; some are fire-resisting materials, such as asbestos; some are damp-resisting ma- terials, and some are insulating materials. An exceptionally good insulating material is mineral wool. It is used between joists, studs, and rafters of frame buildings. By filling the space between the rafters with this material attic rooms may be made much warmer in winter and cooler in summer. 161 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Make a sketch of an ashlar wall in which the stones are laid up in regular plumb bond but with two sizes of stones. Indicate that the face of all stones is bushham- mered with margin. (2) Design a simple brick diaper pattern to be used as a frieze below the main cornice of a brick house of modern English type. (3) Make a diagram showing method of quarter sawing a log. REFERENCES Kidder. Building Construction and Superintendence. Parts I and II. Merrill. Stones for Building and Decoration. Benson. Industrial Chemistry for Engineering Stu- dents. Eckel. Building Stones and Clays. Noyes. Wood and Forest. Kellogg. Lumber and its Uses. 162 CHAPTER VIII. FINISH BUILDING MA- TERIALS SCOPE. Many building materials are used not only as common but also as finish materials. Marble is used for wainscot- ings, floors, mantels and other interior features. Brick is used in the interior as is tile and terra cotta. Wood is used extensively in all parts of the building. Plaster is used both on the exterior and interior, more exten- sively on the interior. Paints and stains are used on all parts of the house, as is glass, which actually becomes a part of the wall. Hard- ware is also essential. All these materials are considered to be finish building materials, when used on the inside. In regard to heating, plumbing and lighting fixtures, they are parts of specially installed appliances for certain purposes rather than finish materials. Materials used to make Plaster, Mortar and Concrete. The chief materials used to make lime and cement plaster are common lime, Portland cement, sand, and water. Other ma- terials are also used in practice. Common lime, or so-called quicklime is made by the calcination of limestone. The operation is performed by means of kilns of various types, depending upon the locality where the limestone is quarried. Calcination consists in the decom- position of the calcium carbonate of the lime- stone into calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioxide gas. The latter is expelled along with any moisture which may be present. 163 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE Lime to be of good quality should be free from cinders and other impurities. It should also be in lumps rather than in dust and should slake readily in water. Slaking lime consists of the chemical union of calcium oxide and water to form calcium hydroxide. When the mixture of slaked lime and water is further mixed with sand, mortar is made which when dry becomes very hard. The main chemical process in the hardening of lime mortar is its absorption from the air of carbonic acid, the same material which was driven off in the calcination process by means of heat. Therefore the substance of cement mortar is similar to the original limestone from which the lime was derived. Lime already hy- drated by manufacturers may be purchased, thereby saving the trouble and expense of slaking lime on the building site. Such lime is usually more pure than ordinary unslaked lime. The cement used in ordinary cement plaster and concrete work is Portland cement. Port- land cement is produced by burning a natural or artificial rock mixture containing approxi- mately three parts of lime carbonate and one part of silica, alumina and iron oxide, the clinkers resulting being pulverized into a powder or dust which is the cement. The finished product con- sists of about two parts of lime and one part of silica, alumina and iron oxide. Cement mortar and concrete will set either in the air or under water. Lime mortar will set only when exposed to the air. Sand of the best quality for plastering work must be sharp and clean; that is, each grain 164 FINISH BUILDING MATERIALS must be angular and free from foreign substances such as silt. River sand and sea sand are used in plastering when sharp, excavated sand is not available. The color of sand is of some impor- tance, white being the best. In concrete work, clean gravel, every stone of which will pass through an inch ring, or crushed rock of ap- proximately the same size, is used. In pebble dash plaster work very small pebbles of the re- quired color are used. Finish Woods. Woods are prepared for use in finishing work by selecting pieces and sawing them into stock sizes and shapes. By using this stock material for baseboards, chair rails, picture moulds, and trim in general, quite a saving is accomplished. In the better class of work, where more individuality and character in the design of the interior woodwork is desired, the various pieces of wood used should be made to order according to drawings. However, even in the making of these special pieces, certain stock sizes of material may be used from which to cut the member desired. The wood trim of a room may be of practically any wood, depending upon circumstances, but the hard woods are usually employed. When cheap woods are used, it does not pay to attempt to preserve the finish- ing qualities of the wood, as grain and color, because all surfaces are better covered over with paint, enamel or stain. Perhaps the most important part of interior wood finish is the floor. Flooring is made in strips from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick, one edge having a tongue and the 165 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE other edge a groove, so that the boards may fit together very closely. The best flooring is made of quarter-sawed oak, and should be in narrow, thin strips, on account of the tendency of oak to warp and swell. For dance halls, billiard rooms, and quite often for ordinary rooms in the house, maple flooring is very satis- factory, on account of its durability and its whiteness. Common floors are made of yellow pine, spruce, birch, white pine and fir, which in all cases should be edge-grained or quarter- sawed. Flooring is held in place by means of secret nailing; that is, nails are driven through the tongue of the board and the next strip of flooring fitted on over the tongue so as to con- ceal the nail head. Only high-class, kiln-dried finishing lumber should be used for interior woodwork, including doors, windows, shutters, wainscotings, bases, chair rails, picture mouldings, panels, wooden beams, cornices, columns, stairs, posts, railings and built-in fixtures. Finish Hardware. Finish hardware includes door knobs, escutcheons, locks, butts, hinges, window fasteners, and all such articles of metal used in finishing the interior of a house. In common practice this hardware is selected from stock rather than made to order. A large num- ber of patterns are manufactured, from which an appropriate set of finish hardware may be selected. The mechanism of locks and equally important parts should be constructed of wrought steel, and should be of such quality as will give permanent wear and satisfaction. In buying 166 FINISH BUILDING MATERIALS hardware it is necessary to depend upon the dealer or the manufacturer for the quality of the goods, since it is impossible for the average builder to definitely determine whether or not hardware is of the best material and workmanship. For in- stance, articles of iron, such as andirons, may be of cast steel with small pits upon the surface. The whole may be plated over with a coat of brass, giving the appearance of hand-hammered brass, which would be very expensive. As a matter of truth, such andirons are cheap, but really make a good appearance. Hardware which is heavy may usually be assumed to be of reliable material, so that a very good test of hardware is the weight. Manufacturers have so many secret and patented methods that it is not worth while for the layman to endeavor to learn all of the processes. The metals chiefly used for finish hardware are iron, brass and bronze. Occasionally glass, porcelain and wood are used for certain parts. Metals may be wrought, cast or pressed into shape from sheets. Iron is finished by simply cleaning it with a file or brush, by covering the surface with a black varnish called Japan finish, by heating and dipping it into a composition of oil and an alloy of copper or bronze called lacquer finish, and by electroplating with nickel. Still another finish for iron is called Bower-Barf, in which the surface is changed into magnetic oxide or iron, black in color and proof against rust. This finish is not expensive, and is a very serviceable kind of hardware. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, of a bright 167 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE yellow color, and capable of a very high polish. However, brass tarnishes very easily, and is ordinarily protected by a coat of shellac. Brass may be wrought, cast or plated. Cast brass is the best for general purposes. Bronze is a composition of copper and tin, and is a very useful metal for casting delicate patterns. The finishes for solid or plated bronze hardware vary to a great extent in appearance, and also in cost. The colors may be light, dark or spotted. Glass is used only for door knobs and drawer pulls, usually in connection with white or light colored woodwork. Porcelain and wood are used in the same way. Paint, Enamel, Varnish and Stain. Paint is a prepared liquid applied to materials for the protection or ornamentation of them. Paint commonly consists of linseed oil, either raw or boiled, called a vehicle; a metallic oxide, such as white lead or zinc oxide, called a base; and tur- pentine or alcohol, called a solvent. Thus any ordinary paint contains a vehicle, a base and a solvent with usually some other material to cause the paint to dry readily called a dryer, and coloring matter, called pigment. Paints vary in composition according to the use for which they are made, some paints being for exterior work on wood, some for interior work on wood, and some for covering metal surfaces. For the latter a base of red lead is commonly used. Enamel is a paint in which varnish has been used as a vehicle. It is usually applied over common paint which has been rubbed with 168 FINISH BUILDING MATERIALS sandpaper, or over a flat interior paint which already has a dull surface. Enamel may be either of a dull or glossy finish. It is usually prepared by a manufacturer and sold ready for application. Enamel is made thin by the use of alcohol. Varnish consists either of a resin dissolved in a volatile oil, or of a resin mixed with linseed oil and dissolved by the use of turpentine or benzine. Shellac is a type of the former, while oil var- nish is a type of the latter. The gums used in varnishes are of a great many kinds, includ- ing amber, mastic, and lac. In the application of varnish, the wood is cleaned and a coat of paste rubbed into the grain with a stiff brush, after which the surface is rubbed with burlap and the varnish put on with a brush. Whenever dry, other coats maybe applied, usually, however, not until the previous coat has been rubbed to a dull finish with sandpaper or mineral wool. Flat tones are acquired by rubbing the surface with pumice stone and water. Wood stains consist chiefly of alcohol and coloring matter. Many of them are patented. They are applied to the clean surface of wood, and rubbed dry with burlap or a flannel cloth. On top of wood stain it is necessary only to apply a coat of shellac or a coat of wax. Wood dyes may be obtained in practically any color and shade, most of which are reliable for interior work. However, there is a tendency for some colors to fade in the bright light. Tile, Brick and Terra Cotta for Facing. Tiles are made in a great variety of designs and 169 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE colors for use in floors, hearths, wainscotings, walls and other facings. They are made simi- larly to other clay produces, but almost inva- riably have a glazed surface. Usually dull sur- faces are more pleasing. Quite often the design of a tile is worked out in a number of colors. Perhaps the best tile work is in fireplaces, where tiles of individual character, probably made by hand, are incorporated in the design of the fix- ture. Floor tiles are sometimes a foot square, and sometimes very small indeed. They may be oblong, hexagonal or octagonal in shape or even irregular, but must be laid to fit closely, joints being filled with cement plaster. Wall tile are usually rather small, and require a substantial backing. Brick and terra cotta are of finer texture and design for interior work in order to produce pleasing effects. Bricks employed in fireplace construction may be laid up in practically any pattern, while terra cotta is usually made ac- cording to a certain design to suit the case in hand. In the use of tile, brick and terra cotta for interior work, it is very necessary that the selection be carefully made in order to avoid introducing a character or effect foreign to the environment. It may be mentioned that stone is also used for interior work. Many rustic or bungalow fireplaces are constructed of field stone or rubble. Glass. Glass as used for clear window panes is of two kinds, plate and cylindrical or sheet glass, each having many grades. Plate glass is made by pouring the molten glass on large 170 FINISH BUILDING MATERIALS tables, and rolling the mass to a smooth and even surface, after which it is thoroughly pol- ished. Plate glass is about one-quarter of an inch thick, and may be obtained in very large pieces, either flat or curved. On account of the great amount of breakage in the manufacture of plate glass, and on account of numerous de- fects which cause the glass to be recast, the price is high. Since small pieces of plate glass are more easily obtained than large pieces, the cost of small pieces per square foot of area is very much less than that of large pieces of the same kind of glass. Plate glass, when properly manufactured, is absolutely clear and devoid of defects. It should be used in all buildings which have a general quality sufficient to warrant the expense. Sheet or cylindrical glass is made by blowing the hot mass into cylinders which while still hot are cut and laid out flat. This glass always has defects such as air bubbles, and waves. It is made in a number of qualities, the best being called AA double strength, and the cheapest being called B single strength. Sheet glass set in window sash and doors may be secured at any planing mill. These are called regular stock, and are of only mediocre quality. The design of such a sash or door lacks character, making the article itself unsuited for high-class residence work. Leaded glass is made for the most part by experts who fit together small pieces of glass and secure them at the edges by means of lead strips with flanges. The design of leaded glass 171 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE may be very elaborate in every respect, or may be quite simple. Examples of very wonderful leaded art glass may be seen in the cathedrals of Europe, and, of more recent construction, in some of the residences and churches of America. Most of the art glass is leaded glass, although certain effects using colored glass have been attained by other means. Translucent glass is quite often desirable where transparency is objectionable; thus white glass is used in doors and windows to quite a degree. White glass is called "crystal," "crimped," and other names in the trade. A fireproof glass has been invented which will not break under ex- treme heat, being cast with a network of fine wire throughout its length and breadth. This glass is called wire glass, and is used in places which may at some time be subjected to intense heat caused by a nearby conflagration. Prism glass is a unique kind of glass in which the sur- face has been ground into a large number of prisms of one shape or another, which tend to collect light and distribute it at a certain place in the interior according to the conditions in- volved. Prism glass is made from plate glass, and after being ground is highly polished. It is used in the upper part of store fronts and elsewhere to throw light into remote parts. 172 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Show by a diagram the form of a piece of oak floor- ing and how it is held in place over a common floor. (2) Show by sketches a pattern for a tile floor in a bath, a pattern for a tile wainscot in a reception hall and a pattern for a tile hearth before an open fireplace. (3) Design a leaded glass window to be used as one of a series of five in the dining room of a typical bungalow. The sash is hinged at the side and is 24" x 52" inside the frame. Make drawing at the scale of i,J^"=i'-o". REFERENCES Kidder. Building Construction and Superintendence. Parts I and II. Noyes. Wood and Forest. Kellogg. Lumber and its Uses. 173 CHAPTER IX. HOUSE CONSTRUCTION KINDS. In general terms, buildings are said to be either of masonry or car- pentry construction. However, in prac- tically all cases, both masonry and carpentry construction are employed. To the casual observer, a building that has walls of brick, stone or terra cotta, and sometimes of plaster, is a building of masonry, and the build- ing that has walls of shingles, siding or other wood material is a building of carpentry, or a frame building. Houses constructed of masonry, especially brick and stone, are more durable than frame buildings, but of course cost con- siderably more. The chief condition against which it is well to guard in the erection of a brick building is dampness. To avoid this condition, it is necessary to keep the inside plastered sur- face away from the structural wall of the build- ing by nailing the lathe to furring strips which are securely fastened to the brick wall itself. Furring strips are held to the brick wall by driv- ing nails into the mortar between bricks, or into wooden bricks set into the wall for the purpose. A type of house used to some extent in the more severe regions of the United States is the brick veneer house, which is constructed almost exactly like a frame house, but is enclosed with a four-inch brick wall, giving the appearance of a brick house. This type of building is very com- fortable in all seasons of the year on account of its insulating character. Still another type of masonry building is the one constructed of hollow bricks or hollow tile for outside walls. 174 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION Here, since the hollow materials provide an air space within the wall, it is not necessary to furr out for lathe and plaster, the plaster being applied directly to the inside wall surface. The exterior of many such buildings is also plastered with a cement mixture. Houses of frame construction are erected ac- cording to two chief methods. One is called balloon framing, and the other is called braced or full framing, which is the old-fashioned method. In the latter method, all timbers, includ- ing sills, posts, girders, and plates are made of heavy timbers, and are mortised and pinned together, making a very substantial frame. Some of the old houses built of white oak, following this method, are almost indestruc- tible. At the present time the balloon frame is very common. The parts are spiked together and braced, but no members are mortised and tenoned. A combination of the two types of framing is not only economical but very durable. In it the sills, posts, girders and braces are mortised and pinned, but the common studding is only notched and spiked, as are the rafters. Method of Procedure. In the erection of a building, plans and specifications consisting of accurate drawings of all parts and a descrip- tion thereof are followed in every respect. In most cases drawings and specifications are pre- pared by an architect, but sometimes by a contractor, builder or carpenter. Occasionally a house is erected without preliminary design, or perhaps with only a mental picture of the house as it is to be. Undoubtedly the best 175 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE results are obtained when fully developed draw- ings and specifications are in the hands of the builder. A specification describes the work indicated on the drawings in the order in which the various operations will require attention. First comes the staking out of the building, then excavation, grading and drainage, masonry work, wood framing, outside finish, lathing and plastering, inside finish, painting and glazing, installation of hardware, and house decoration. Meanwhile, after the building has been enclosed the heating and ventilation, lighting and plumb- ing are installed, with the exception of the fix- tures, which are put in at about the same time as the finish hardware. Staking out the Building. After the placing of the building on the lot has been definitely determined, the exact location of each corner is indicated by driving small stakes into the ground with a nail driven into the top of each stake marking the intersection of the building lines. Outside of the stakes, perhaps six feet on each side, batter boards are set up on low stakes, and the actual lines marking the building lines are extended to the board and fastened permanently so that when the stakes at the corners of the building are removed with the excavation of earth, the lines of the building will still be in evidence, from which the founda- tion walls will be accurately constructed. Thus the batter boards are safe out of the way of excavated earth, and the strings or lines fast- ened to them mark the exact location of the building until the foundation is completed. 176 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION From that time the foundation itself is sufficient guide for the superstructure. In order to have the first floor level at the proper and premedi- tated height, it is necessary to establish a bench mark or known grade relative to the street grade. In this way the first floor level may be made the exact number of feet and inches required above the elevation of the sidewalk. Excavation and Grading. In excavation, the earth should be removed only as far down as the under side of the basement floor, and a foot or two outside of the foundation wall. During excavation, usually done with scrapers, it is more economical to distribute the excavated earth upon the site or elsewhere, in such places as it is to occupy permanently; otherwise a re- handling of all excavated earth is necessary, which is an additional expense. Moreover, by this method of handling of excavated earth in one operation, inconvenient mounds of earth around the building are avoided. In excavation, the top of the soil should be preserved to be later distributed over the surface of the yard to provide a fertile soil for the growth of grass, shrubs and plants, at which time the grading, levelling and smoothing down of the soil will also be taken care of. (See Plate 42, Fig. I.) Masonry. At this time it is necessary to ascertain the condition of the soil on which the foundations of the building are to be erected. A solid surface of clay, gravel or rock is essential. Mud, silt, filled-in soil and quicksand are not reliable, so that in case a better building sur- face is required, further excavation, the driving 177 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of wooden piles or the setting of concrete piers may be necessary. Sometimes other remedies for such conditions are employed. Before the foundation wall itself is put in place, a small trench wherever walls are to occur is further excavated below the earth floor of the building, in which will be placed the footing. Footings are of brick, stone or concrete, and for houses are ordinarily sixteen inches wide, eight inches deep and as long as is the wall which rests on top. Assuming that a footing is to be of con- crete, a mixture consisting perhaps of one part cement, three parts sand and five parts gravel, properly prepared, is poured into the excavated trench and allowed to become set and hard. In most excavations the walls of the footing trench will maintain themselves sufficiently well so as to necessitate no further walling of the trench by means of planks. Upon this footing, after a few days, may be erected a wooden form in which a concrete mixture of the same proportions as the footings is to be poured, forming a solid wall perhaps eight inches thick and eight feet high. When this concrete is hard the plank forms are removed by the car- penter who erected them, and the foundation wall is established. Frames for doors and win- dows in foundation walls should have been set in place before the concrete was poured, so that they would be securely imbedded in the monolithic mass. At this stage of the building operations, the rough framing may be com- menced, but before the space outside of the base- ment wall is filled, and quite often even before 178 i i p el i ri i H h * < - {; l> sj < \' 179 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE the wall itself is built, it is important to lay a four-inch drain tile at the bottom of the excava- tion on the outside of the wall to carry off seep- age water. Tile should also be laid where neces- sary inside of the basement wall and connected with the main drain pipe, to prevent the future basement floor from becoming wet. Also before backfilling, it is important to make the concrete wall waterproof either with a coat or two of hot tar put on with a mop, or with a coat or two of waterproof concrete paint, applied with a brush. This water-proofing should be on the outside of the wall, but may also be on the inside. In the better class of work the first three or four feet of backfilling consists of cheap gravel or crushed rock, so that surface water will have a free flow to the drain tile which is to carry it away. The upper part of the backfilling may be the earth removed by excavation, except the top soil. (See Plate 42, Fig. II.) Basement floors are usually constructed of concrete three inches thick, but with a wearing surface three-fourths of an inch thick consisting of one part of cement and two parts of sand. This concrete floor is laid directly upon the earth floor at the upper line of the footings, but in case a fill is necessary before laying this floor, gravel or cinders may be used. Floor drains opening into the tile drains already in place should be provided at convenient places, according to the arrangement of the future basement rooms. No matter what type of building is to be erected, all of the masonry work is constructed as rapidly as possible, including footings, founda- 180 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION tions, walls, chimneys, ash pits, fireplaces, and sometimes porch floors and other floors, and rarely even roofs. Walls of masonry are usually eight, twelve or sixteen inches thick, depending upon the height of the dwelling and the material used. Concrete need not be so thick as brick and stone walls. Quite often a two-story brick house has twelve-inch walls in the basement and first story, and eight-inch walls in the sec- ond story. Frame cottages and often two-story houses may have eight inch concrete basement walls. Small brick houses may have eight-inch walls throughout. Usually only exterior walls are of masonry. In chimney construction a substantial footing should always be provided and the chimney carried from basement floor through attic space in as straight a line as pos- sible. A brick chimney should never be brack- eted from a wall in the first story and carried through the roof, because the weight of the chimney itself invariably cracks plaster and wall paper, and is, moreover, a dangerous structure. Chimneys, and in fact all brickwork laid up subject to outside weather conditions, should have cement mortar. Brickwork protected, that is, on the inside of the building, may have lime plaster. Four-inch brick walls are used to enclose ash pits and to separate flues. Each fireplace, heater and stove in the building should have a flue of its own, combined, perhaps, into one chimney or stack. Flues should be lined either with terra cotta tile or a smooth coat of cement plaster. Brick and tile hearths for fire- places should be supported by masonry from 181 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE beneath whenever possible, rather than sup- ported by wood floor construction. Second- story fireplaces should be supported by ma- sonry carried the full width through the first story. Usually it is not possible to support the hearth of a second-story fireplace except by means of the wood joists. All parts of the build- ing including porch steps should be securely set upon foundations of masonry to avoid settling, and should moreover be scientifically grounded in order to prevent' one part of the building from greater settling than another, be- cause in all cases a building must settle a fraction of an inch. Wood Framing. Assuming the construction of a story and a half dwelling with a foundation of masonry and superstructure of wood, the next operation after a concrete basement wall has been completed is the erection of a wood frame. Incidentally, in all cases the masonry wall should extend to the bottom of the first floor joists rather than to the grade only; other- wise the frame superstructure must start at the grade and the first floor joists be supported by a wood plate. Thus the upper part of the base- ment wall is of frame and, unless plastered on the inside, allows the wind to blow into the cellar making the house difficult to heat. Around the outside edge of the concrete wall enclosing the basement a continuous 2" x 10" timber is set, perfectly level, and 2" x 10" joists are laid from wall to wall, or wall to girder, placed usually sixteen inches apart to receive the rough floor. These joists are held in place 182 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION by spiking through the edge timber into the ends of the joists. A very good method of anchoring this floor frame in place is by pouring grout, a soft mixture of cement, sand and water, on top of the concrete wall between the timbers, thereby firmly imbedding them, and also stop- ping all cracks which would otherwise admit air. This method of framing, although not in common use, probably excels the solid or box sill con- struction. A rough floor having been laid over the entire first floor area, the house as far as constructed is a large platform with such open- ings as will later be required for chimneys, hearths, lifts, vents, dudls and stairways, framed securely. The next operation consists in laying probably a 2" x 4" plate around the entire wall of the building, and also on the line of all inside parti- tions upon which are to be erected studding or upright 2" x 4" pieces. Studding are usually set sixteen inches apart or on centres, spiked at the bottom to the 2" x 4" plate, and receiving on top another continuous plate made of two 2" x 4" timbers lapped at the corners and break jointed at other places, where it is necessary to splice the continuous parts. Studding as well as floor joists should have braces or bridging inserted between them, in order to insure rigid- ity. The height of this double plate varies according to the use of the wall or partition. Its purpose is to provide a bearing for second-floor joists and also rafters. In outside walls, there- fore, the plate must come at the proper height according to the design of the building to prop- 183 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE erly provide a seat for the end of the rafters. In the assumed story and a half house the plate would probably be about four feet above the second-floor joists, depending upon the pitch of the roof and the number and location of rooms in the half story. Usually the space under the low part of the roof is either used for closets and store rooms or is not used at all. In case, then, the double plate or roof plate is a distance above the second-floor joists, a bearing must be pro- vided for the ends of these joists. This is accom- plished by inserting into the studding on the inside of the wall a i" x 6" ribbon or board and nailing it in place, upon which the joists rest. However, it is necessary to nail the joists to the uprights as well as allowing them to bear upon this board. (See Plate 42, Fig. III.) Rafters are usually made of 2" x 6" pieces placed twenty-four inches on centres, unless the rafters are to receive lathe and plaster, in which case they should be sixteen inches on centres in order to give more nailings for the lathe and consequently more stiffness to the plastered wall. The reason that studding and rafters, as well as floor joists are placed either twenty- four inches or sixteen inches on centres is that wood lathe are four feet long, thereby allowing the lathe to cover either two or three spaces between frame timbers. Rafters are, of course, used over the entire roof, including dormers and other projecting parts. All angles in the roof, especially those forming valleys, should have extra strong boards the length of the angle, against which rafters cut with diagonal ends are 184 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION spiked. Hips and ridges need have only light boards against, which to spike the rafter ends because the stress is in compression and the parts are already practically rigid. In framing rafters and all other wood members around chimneys, it is necessary to keep the woodwork two inches at least away from the brick, for two reasons: one is to allow the chimney to settle independently of the woodwork; and the other is to guard against fire, since bricks may become so heated as to inflame dry timbers. Over all exterior walls and the roof surface, a rough boarding is nailed in place. Ordinarily cheap matched material is employed, but com- mon boards four, six or eight inches wide may be used, allowing two inches between each board instead of laying them close together as would be done in case matched lumber was used. This boarding is called sheathing, and should be nailed to the outside walls diagonally rather than horizontally, to stiffen the entire frame of the building against wind pressure. For the same reason rough or under-flooring may also be laid diagonally. Another advantage in using diag- onal rough boarding in all parts of the building is that when finish boarding such as floors and siding are nailed on top, the joints between boards will not run in the same direction, thereby eliminating any chance of cracks between boards coming exactly opposite each other, also pro- viding better nailing facilities. Door and window openings are not sheathed over, the location of all openings having been determined from the working drawings, and 185 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE framed in the studding by using double members on all sides, and in case of wide openings, by trussing members across the top of the opening. In a finished building sheathing is not in ev- idence, so that it is impossible to tell without close inspection how a building is sheathed. For this reason it is quite often omitted, espe- cially in houses erected for speculative purposes. On top of sheathing, especially on the walls of the building, standard building paper should be applied, each strip lapping about halfway over the strip below and held in place by means of large-headed tacks or other contrivances. Building paper costs but very little and for its cost gives more insulation to a building than any other part of the structure, so that in climates at all severe it should never be omitted. The paper should be especially well fitted around all openings, under the eaves, and at the base of the wood structure, where it joins the masonry. The outside walls of a dwelling having been covered with building paper, perhaps only a portion at a time, are ready for the outside finish, which in a brick veneer house would be a four-inch brick wall set an inch or so away from the building paper; or in a frame building of the type assumed, would be shingles laid perhaps with five inches of the shingle to the weather; lap siding, which is the common siding used in the east; rustic of one pattern or another, which is the common siding used in the west; undressed boards lapped in order to prevent leakage; ce- ment plaster on metal lathe, furred out from the building paper; or some other special material. 1 86 HOUSE CONSTRUCTION The roof may be covered with wood shingles laid about four inches to the weather, slate, tile, tin, or patent roofing material. Exterior Finish. Included in exterior finish are the finish wall material, window and outside door frames, sash and doors, casings, water tables, eaves, cornices, barge boards, dormers, porches, etc. Door and window frames should be made especially well according to carefully prepared details, to insure against leakage of air and water. Many types are in use, but in the better class of houses the frames are made to order to suit the conditions. Around the out- side of such frames flashing of tin or copper should be employed to guard against the seepage of rain water between the frame and other parts of the structure. The detail of the window frame depends especially upon the type of win- dow, since casement, pivoted, double hung, sta- tionary and other types may be used. Around all door and window frames a casing is usually applied in various manners, allowing always at the bottom a sill with a wash on the top surface from which water will readily flow. Under the outside edge of the sill a small groove should be cut, called a drip, which is designed to prevent water from flowing back on the under surface of the member. (See Plate 42, Fig. IV.) Water tables are belt courses or bands run- ning horizontally, provided for the purpose of conducting water which flows down the side wall of the building away from the parts beneath, especially away from the foundation wall, at which line a water table is usually placed. Water 187 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE tables may be made by cutting a small timber in a shape which is much like a window sill, or by curving a siding or shingle surface sharply outward, or by some other device. The chief exterior member of a building is the cornice. In general, cornices are of two types. One is the box cornice, which is enclosed with a facing of wood members, usually having a metal lined box gutter. The other is the exposed cornice, in which the rafter ends usually show, and a hanging gutter of metal or wood, us- ually metal, is employed. The variations in both types are almost numberless; practically no two buildings have cornices exactly alike. However, similarity of construction in localities is very much in evidence. Box cornices are constructed by building a rough background for the cornice facing, consist- ing principally of the rafter end and outlook member, and braces to support the gutter and other parts. When this is set in place according to the design of the cornice, the finish members are applied and fastened in place with finishing nails. In box cornices mouldings are invariably used. The typical cornice for a colonial house is of this type. (See Plate 43.) Exposed cornices are usually constructed us- ing the actual rafter ends as a base. Some- times, however, the rafter ends are applied for the purpose of forming the cornice. The space immediately below this type of cornice, includ- ing perhaps the cornice itself, is called the eaves. The gutter is hung at the extreme edge of the cornice. Gable ends and dormers are finished 1 88 Plate 43 THE Two MAIN TYPES OF WOOD CORNICES 189 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE according to the character of the house. In houses of colonial type, moulded cornices, edg- ings or crowns are employed, according to the design. In less formal and English houses, other finishes are used, of which the barge board is the most common. A barge board is a plank set a short distance away from the gable or dormer end and forms a facing terminating the roof of the building. Usually a small mould is employed at the top edge for a finish. Barge boards are supported by means of brackets. Elaborations on the barge board, sometimes called a verge board, are used extensively in other than the most simple houses. Exterior finish is of vital importance in giving style or character to a building. Not only is a good general proportion necessary, but an ac- curate working out of each large and small part is essential to the greatest success. 190 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Draw at the scale of i"=i' o" a concrete founda- tion wall and specify all things that pertain to it. (2) Draw a sectional view of an open cornice. (3) Draw a sectional view of a box cornice. (4) Make a drawing of a window sill, stool and lower rail of sash to show necessary precautions for keeping out driving rain and snow. The detail may be for any one of the several kinds of windows and should be shown in cross section at large scale. REFERENCES Kidder. Building Construction and Superintendence. Parts I and II. Berg. Safe Building. Clark. Building Superintendence. 191 CHAPTER X. INTERIOR FINISH LATHE and Plaster. After a building is enclosed, that is, when the exterior facing and roof are complete, it is ready for plaster. Plaster is applied to a lathe surface by means of a trowel, the lathe surface being made by nailing wood or metal lathe to the furring strips or to the stud- ding or uprights of a building. Plaster is of two kinds in general, one called lime plaster and the other cement plaster. Lime plaster or mortar is made by mixing unslaked lime, water and sand in certain proportions, and for the first coat of plaster by adding cattle hair in order to make the mass hold together when put in place. For other coats of plaster the hair is omitted. After the first coat has been applied, it is scratched with the point of the trowel to give it a rough surface so that the following coat will adhere. The second or third coat may be finished by rubbing the trowel over it, using a circular motion, forming what is called a sand finish. To obtain a hard, smooth finish, a very thin coat of patent plaster may be applied, which when dry becomes white. The chief ingredient of patent plaster is plaster of Paris. Lime plaster is used only for interior work. Cement plaster is made by mixing together Portland cement, sand and water in certain proportions, and is used especially for exterior work. The first coat is worked into or between the lathing with a trowel, and is about one-half of an inch thick. While still wet, the surface is scratched as is the first coat of lime mortar. 192 The second coat of cement plaster is applied with the trowel in a similar manner, and if not considered to be the last coat, receives still a third coat which may either be put on with a trowel or put on by casting very wet plaster against it with the trowel or a paddle. This operation produces what is generally termed rough-cast plaster, or stucco. In case small pebbles are mixed into the plaster used for the final coat, and the whole mixture dashed against the wall with the trowel, the surface produced is called pebble dash. Many different plaster effects may be obtained by the use of various materials. Plaster is applied to either wood lathe or metal lathe. In ordinary construction the inside walls are lathed with small strips of wood four feet long, about one and one-half inches wide and three-eighths of an inch thick, laid up the thick- ness of the lathe apart. For extra good interior plaster work and for all exterior plaster work, a lathe made by expanding sheet metal is used as a background for the plaster. Such lathe is called expanded metal lathe, and is made by many manufacturers in different ways. The furring upon which the lathe is nailed is usually made of thin strips of wood an inch or two thick, securely nailed in place upon the wall of frame or masonry behind. As a means of stopping fire which may get into the walls of a frame building, or as a means of stopping vermin such as rats and mice from running between joists and studding, the spaces between frame timbers may be plastered. This 193 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE is called back plastering. In rigorous climates, back plastering is often done to make the build- ing warmer by keeping out wind. Here all spaces between outside timbers are back plas- tered. In plastering the interior of a house certain precautions should be observed in order to in- sure a satisfactory result. Lathe should never run through a wood partition from one room to another as a continuous lathed surface, but should turn with the corner of each room in order to avoid cracking of the plaster from settlement after it has become hard. All walls should be plastered from the ceiling to the rough under- floor, including all wall surface, even though a wainscoting or fixture is to be built solidly against a part of the wall. In other words, the space behind built-in-fixtures should be plastered as though the fixtures were not to be erected there. Before the plaster of any room is applied, small strips of wood called grounds should be nailed to the lath in such places where wood finish is to be later applied on top of the plaster. Grounds, therefore, become nailing strips for the wood finish, and also mark a perfectly ver- tical surface to which the plaster surface is to be accurately brought. In the plastering of a house, it is well when possible to allow the house to settle for a few weeks or months before taking up the plaster work. After plastering the house, all rooms should be well ventilated in order to allow the plaster to dry. In freezing weather it is absolutely necessary to warm the building artificially while the plaster is being applied and 194 INTERIOR FINISH while it is drying. To avoid breaking of plaster on projecting corners, it is necessary to apply to the lath before plastering, strips of wood or metal called corner beads, which are made for the purpose. In order to prevent window sash, doors and other woodwork from becoming damp on account of the wet plaster, it is advisable to have the building absolutely free from such finishing materials while the plastering is being carried on. However, the window openings should be closed temporarily by means of old sash, boards or muslin. The plastering of a building is very important and should never be neglected. (See Plate 42, Fig. V.) Both interior and exterior plaster may be colored by using pigments. Also, the color of the sand itself determines largely the color of the finished work. White sand is desirable in case colors are to be mixed with the plaster, or in case a natural white effect is wanted. If a wall is to be painted, papered, or otherwise covered, the color of the plaster is not important. Interior Woodwork. When the plaster is thoroughly dry, finish wood material may be hauled and stored in the building ready for use. At this time it is important that the wood be inspected, in order that undesirable pieces as well as unspecified kinds be not set in place. Otherwise the inside material might need to be removed at a later and more inconvenient time. Interior trim, such as members which are applied directly to the grounds which have been pro- vided in the plaster, is matched, fitted and nailed with finish nails, the heads being sunk below the 195 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE surface of the wood and the holes thus made later filled with putty. The method of joinery of plain trim varies, depending upon the general quality of the work. In ordinary work, where common wood is employed, members of wood may be simply butted one against another; in better classes of work, wood members should be mitred, that is, the ends cut diagonally as corners of a picture frame, and fitted together; and in the best class of work, casings used as a frame should be mitred on the face and lapped on the back. This method applies principally to door and window heads where they connect with the side trim. In cabinetwork many methods of joinery are employed by experts in securing one piece of wood to another. The common joints, be- sides butt and mitre joints, are tongue and groove, cupped, housed, dovetail, and others, the exact character of which it is unnecessary to investigate. It is essential, however, that all parts be so fastened together that shrinkage and warping will not damage or disfigure the woodwork. Some special precautions may be mentioned in regard to methods of making parts which are operated by the occupants of the finished house. Doors should be hung in such a manner as to allow them ample space for action. It is not well to have a doorknob in the corner of a room. Outside doors are more convenient in most cases when they open out, and are also more wind and waterproof. Usually, however, they are made to open in to allow for screen doors. Front doors should always open in, on 196 INTERIOR FINISH account of the convenience in answering the door bell. In the hingeing of casement and French windows, it is necessary to bear in mind the kind of hangings which are contemplated, since the windows swinging out must necessarily have the screen on the inside and cannot have sash cur- tains. Casement windows swinging in require that the screen be on the exterior, and that cur- tains be on the window sash itself rather than hung in the ordinary fashion. In the actual construction of cupboards, lockers, doors, bookcases and other fixtures, according to the prepared design, it is necessary to depend to a great extent upon the carpenter or cabinetmaker for satisfactory results. Con- sideration should be given to the use of drawers and consequently to the weight of their contents. Large drawers to contain heavy materials should always be constructed on rollers rather than slides, so that the operation of them will be easy. One drawer pull, except for the largest drawers, is better than two. When nailing a moulding whose function it is to cover a joint or crack, the nails employed should not bite into the trim member, that forms the joint, but into the ground member, because in case of shrinkage of the important piece of wood, splitting at the line of the nails might occur. For instance, a quarter round shoe mould employed at the angle of the floor with the wall to cover the joint between the floor and the baseboard, should be nailed to the floor rather than to the baseboard, in order to give the baseboard a chance to shrink freely. 197 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE In case of shrinkage, this mould will continue to serve its finishing purpose of covering the joint. The same is true of flooring, which by the way is the last wood finish to be put in place. When secret nailed each board should have op- portunity to shrink a fraction of an inch, which would only cause the joint between boards to be a trifle wider and not cause splitting of floor boards. (See Plate 42, Fig. V.) All finish woodwork after it is in place should be scraped, sandpapered and rubbed to a smooth finish by the carpenter who performed the work. Floors especially should be ground down so that no edge of a board projects above the face of the floor. Since floors are the most easily damaged of all woodwork, they should not be put in place until heating, lighting and plumbing fixtures as well as finishing hardware have been installed. During other operations in the house, such as painting, varnishing, staining and more elaborate interior decoration, finished floors should be covered with paper or canvas. Putting on of Hardware. Finish hardware is applied to the woodwork by the carpenter, and is a part of his work. Great care must be ex- ercised in the application in order that doors, windows and other movable parts will act with- out unnecessary friction. Double hung window sash should be properly balanced by the use of weights, which is sometimes a tedious operation. Casement window adjusters should be applied not only to perform properly, but to look espe- cially well. Bolts and locks invariably require a mortise or chiseled out recess in the wood. 198 INTERIOR FINISH Unless this work is done most carefully, wood- work upon which great pains have been ex- pended for a good appearance will be damaged. Convenient heights for window fasteners, door knobs and pulls should be taken into considera- tion before the hardware is put on. In many cases a compromise is necessary on account of the location of the door or window, or the dis- tance of a part of it such as rails and panels, above the floor. Much of the finish hardware, as door knobs and escutcheons, which are usually held in place by means of bolts and screws, should not be put in place until the wood- work has received its final coat of paint, varnish or stain. Painting, Varnishing and Staining. The style of finish for both the exterior and interior in regard to painting, varnishing and staining should be predetermined and specified, and a reliable painter employed to furnish the mate- rials and perform the labor. Quite often it is well for the owner to provide the materials and employ the painters, in order to assure himself that only genuine, reliable materials are used, since there is a great opportunity for unscru- pulous persons to substitute imitation materials for genuine. The exact methods of application of these finish materials depend upon the effect or finish desired. Methods recommended by the manufacturers of paints are more reliable than the methods of local painters, who are accus- tomed to doing things in their own way. The chief precautions in painting are to allow each coat to dry thoroughly before the applica- 199 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE tion of the next, and to protect adjacent sur- faces. Perhaps the most difficult finish for wood in regard to the application is enamel. This mate- rial should be applied only to edge grain or quarter-sawed wood, unless the wood is of white pine or a similar variety, because an absolutely smooth surface is necessary to prevent waves and irregularities from showing in the finished enam- eled surface when subjected to high light. For a reliable finish two or three coats of enamel on top of four coats of interior paint are usually required, each coat up to the final one being rubbed smooth with mineral wool or sandpaper. On account of the tendency of enamel to flow and form beads, all liquid should be applied sparingly and evenly. Glazing. Glazing consists of the operation of putting in place for permanent use glass of all kinds. Originally glazing was a part of the painter's work, but of late it has been taken over by the planing mills, cabinetmakers and car- penters, who, on account of the close association between woodwork and glazing, are more capable of performing the necessary labor. Common window glass is usually held in place by means of triangular pieces of zinc, called glazier's points, and putty which covers the zinc points. In the best work back puttying is done, whereby the edge of the glass is imbedded in putty before the regular method is employed. The putty is placed on the outside of the sash. Doors, French windows and also plate glass windows should always be glazed, using wood stops to 200 INTERIOR FINISH hold the glass in place, and should have a bed of putty or other somewhat elastic material upon which the heavy glass may safely bear. Leaded glass is usually furnished by specialists and set in place by the carpenter with wood stops and sometimes with special metal contrivances. In the inspection of the glass which is to go into a building, it is important to observe by the thickness and reflections the exact kind of glass received, and note whether or not it is the kind specified. Plate glass may quite readily be distinguished, but the quality of sheet glass is hard to determine. It is well to insist that the trade-mark of the manufacturer be left on the glass. In regard to the cleaning of glass at the completion of the building, the painter is usually required to do this, because he is practically the last man on the job, and the one who is most liable to cause the glass to be unclean. The breakage of glass in a house during construction must be paid for by the contractor who in the performance of his labor caused the glass to be broken. The Completed House. The house is said to be completed when all the materials and labor called for in the plans and specifications have been employed and the condition of the building is satisfactory to the owner. It should not only be finished relative to all parts of the structure itself, but should contain as well all appliances necessary for the occupation of the house by the owner. These appliances include heating, light- ing, plumbing and other incidental fixtures and machines. 2OI SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Show by a diagram how a beam for a ceiling is usually constructed and held in place. (2) Show by a sketch how wood lath and plaster are applied and especially how the coats of plaster are bonded. (3) Make a detail of a wood base showing how the shoe mould should be nailed in place. Drawing is to be at the scale of \y 2 "-i-o." (4) Make a scale drawing showing how common glass is held in the sash. Letter on names of all parts and ma- terials. REFERENCES Kidder. Building Construction and Superintendence. Part II. White. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. 202 CHAPTER XL INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES INTRODUCTION. Interior decoration is a profession in itself and is practiced as such. It includes not only plain and elaborate treatment of surfaces, but also interior design. Interior decoration, then, may be said to embody architectural treatment, decoration of all kinds, and complete furnish- ings. The work of the interior decorator over- laps that of the architect:, which has caused friction between the two professions. Regard- less of who performs the professional duties connected with this work, the same principles are involved. Perhaps the architect is better qualified to design all built-in parts of the dwell- ing, and the interior decorator better qualified to treat surfaces and to design or select all fur- nishings including furniture, rugs and hangings. Interior decoration and treatment of surfaces here discussed include color schemes and com- mon treatments in general for the wood and plaster work of all parts of the house. Color. The general color or tone of the inte- rior of the house is of great importance, in that color may create an atmosphere either restful or disturbing. Colors and combinations of colors used in a house should suggest tranquillity, and often create it. In other words, a home should express contentment. The greatest factor in producing tranquillity is the use of neutral tones, which, while they should not be employed in every article of the room, should form the back- ground against which articles of utility or dec- 203 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE oration are revealed. Perhaps the best and safest colors to use are grays, gray greens, browns and buffs. Each may have a large number of variations, textures and surfaces difficult of description. It is important to consider whether or not a surface absorbs light. It is a well- known fact that a dull black absorbs practically all of the light, while a glazed white absorbs very little and consequently reflects light to a large degree. Each finish material will have its tendency one way or the other. All qualities of the materials contemplated for use must be given attention. In the color scheme of the interior of a house, it is well to carry out the same or similar schemes in all rooms, rather than to make radical contrasts, since a house in itself is better considered as a unit rather than as a group of smaller units. Doors standing open often show a number of rooms, at the same time causing a discord of color if rooms are not harmonious. However, there should be a mod- ification of the color scheme in rooms to meet the exact requirements according to the use of each part of the house. Occasionally an isolated part of the house or the rooms on the upper floor may receive a treatment absolutely different in color from the main part. Color has three distinct qualities, called the "constants of color." They are: purity, lu- minosity and hue. Purity means freedom from any other color. The standards of pure color are the colors of the spectrum. Luminosity or brightness depends upon the amount of light reflected to the eye, and varies with the degree 204 INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES of illumination. It follows that the tone of the color is relative to its degree of luminosity. Hue depends upon the refrangibility or wave lengths of colors: Violet has the .shortest wave length and red the longest. Hue may mean color in the simple sense. In combinations of two or more colors, the hue is determined by the pre- dominating color. A shade is produced by add- ing black to a color, and a tint is produced by adding white. In decoration, harmony of color is of first importance. Means of obtaining harmonious color arrangements are: first, by neutralizing or graying the colors; second, by using analogous or like colors; third, by toning the colors with a dominant color. Pleasing effects may be ob- tained by a gradation of a color from dark to light values or vice versa. Solid colors used together in contrast should be separated by a narrow band of black, white, gold or gray, or of black and white. Brilliant colors are difficult to harmonize in pairs, but in case a pair of bright colors is used, one should be used in a much greater proportion either in area or intensity, than the other. No two colors should be used in similar quantities. Any two colors may be brought into closer harmony by the use of a third. No definite rules can be given for the com- bination of colors for decoration on account of the vast number of problems. It has been ob- served that the warm colors are more pleasing in color schemes than the cold ones. The warm colors are reds and yellows. Combinations of three colors may be suggested as follows: Red, 205 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE blue and yellow; coral-red, ultramarine, and orange-amber; scarlet, olive-green and violet; orange, green and violet; purple, yellow and gray-green. These colors were the favorites of old Italian painters and show a predominance of warm colors. Period Decoration. By period decoration is meant the imitation of a certain historic style as used at a certain period and in a certain place. Among the common period styles are Empire, Louis XV, modern Turkish, and others. . Period decoration really necessitates a special archi- tectural, as well as decorative, treatment. Fur- niture, hangings, rugs and all other equipment should then conform. The essential of period dec- oration is absolute fidelity to the type. If imi- tations are not true, then the decoration is a fail- ure. Period decoration should not be attempted except for novel or eccentric effects, and usually in isolated country houses or city apartments. Decorative Materials. Among the materials employed in decoration are wood, plaster, orna- mental glass, metal, tile, Beaver board, oil paint, enamel, varnish, stain, wax, water color, paper, burlap, leather, tapestries, brocades, can- vas, linen, silk and satin. The interior of a house ready for decoration consists almost entirely of wood and plaster surfaces left clean for the purpose. Wood Treatments. In anticipation of deco- ration of a certain character the design of the woodwork is such as to almost call for a definite treatment. A colonial house would have fire- places, doors, windows, wainscotings and other 206 INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES wood details possibly of mahogany, black wal- nut, or other high class hard wood, but more probably of a good soft wood, in anticipation of enamel finish, with perhaps mahogany edgings. Mahogany hand rails, and tops of chair rails, edges of steps and other edgings made of mahog- any, look especially well. Mouldings for all woodwork which is to be enameled should be very small and refined, because when finished smooth and white, each angle and curve and the shadows cast are presented to the eye in un- feigned sincerity, as is a marble statue. Each minute part must be true to the whole concep- tion. Measured drawings of common colonial white enameled or painted woodwork of early days show that extraordinary care was taken in design and execution. Hard woods of unquestioned merit should be finished naturally, or may be simply darkened. Forms and mouldings of oak, ash, walnut, mahogany and maple should also be refined, but not to the same degree as is done in enameled woodwork. The reason for this is that the texture of these woods is fine, and lines made by mouldings show remarkably well. Cheaper woods should really be stained colors to give them character, as the grain is coarse and the natural color quite often poor and inconstant. A very good treatment for common wood which does not contain pitch with a tendency to ooze, is flat paint of light color. Interior paint is not fully appreciated, but is coming into use again after a long period of unpopularity. It is far better than cheap varnish. 207 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE In general, dull finishes in paints, varnishes, stains, and in fact in all treatments of surfaces, are better than gloss finishes. Enamel looks best with a semi-dull or mixed dull and gloss finish. A possible exception to dull finish is flooring, but even a shiny floor will not stay thus for long. Wood floor treatment is a difficult problem, since rugs have happily come into use, but the floor that is most permanently satis- factory is a costly hardwood flooring left its natural color and waxed. Plaster Treatments. The walls and ceilings of most rooms are plastered. Ornamental plaster, which is usually a composition containing plaster of Paris, may be used in room cornices, ceiling coves, ceiling and wall panels and pattern work or staff. All plaster may be left in its natural condition, but is garish and discolored. Sand finish or rough plaster is sometimes colored be- fore being applied, which is a very good process for rustic effects. It is more often painted with water color or calcimined to give it a tint. In the latter process, which is very cheap, the principal objection is that a nick in the finished surface shows white and must be painted over. Sand finish plaster looks well painted exactly the same color as the woodwork of the room, using a flat tone paint. Hard finished or patent plaster, used for walls and ceilings, as well as ornamental plaster, may receive any finish that common plaster receives. Ornamental plaster is invariably decorated by the use of paints or stains applied with a brush, because it is in relief and consequently irregular. 208 INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES Hard finish is used with the idea of covering it with paper or other material rather than with a liquid color. The use of wallpaper is almost universal, and rightfully so, since no other material is so eco- nomical and at the same time so artistic and serviceable. Wallpapers are of a vast number of varieties, designs and qualities, some of which may not be considered to be economical. Al- though papers, like other materials used to treat wall surfaces, should be essentially a back- ground, certain pronounced designs and colors may be employed for what are really temporary effects, such as "Mother Goose" patterns for nurseries, and highly colored floral or bird de- signs for bedrooms and dining rooms. These papers sooner or later become tiresome, and are replaced. Cheap papers almost invariably fade, so that it is not worth while to use them. The cheapest cloth used as a wall cover is burlap. In common work this material may be glued to the plaster, usually as a wainscoting panel, with wood on all sides, and either left in its natural state or painted, varnished or shel- laced. Burlap is serviceable, and in dull shades forms a good background for pictures. Canvas, linen, silk and satin are also glued to plaster to be used as a surface for receiving decorations in oil or water color paints. These are very expen- sive and used only in costly residences. Leather, tapestries and brocades are fastened to plaster walls by means of wood stops. Each piece of material is in itself supposed to be a work of art, consequently is framed by the use of mouldings. 209 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE The walls of a room to receive this sort of deco- ration are divided into panels of such proportions as to produce an architectural treatment and to give each piece of decoration the proper setting. Still another means of decorating walls requiring a special permanent plaster surface is the use of frescoes and mural decorations. These are sim- ply more or less elaborate paintings for which water color paints are generally used. In conclusion it is well to note that walls are either used as a background for the furnish- ings, or as a means of displaying works of art. In dwellings the former use is far more preferable. Even though beautiful works of art do form a cover for a wall, they may still serve modestly as a background. Unpretentiousness in a house is worth far more than vulgar display. Ornamental Glass, Tile, Metal, etc. Some materials are used in interior decoration in a special manner. Art glass may be employed in a feature win- dow, but not in all windows unless a simple leaded glass sash is used throughout. The glass itself in this treatment should be clear white glass. Ornamental glass in residences should be used discreetly, and unless of good color and design should not be used at all. The question of quality, if puzzling to the owner, should be referred to an expert. Tile, an excellent material, and substitutes, also usually reliable, produce an efFecl: of sub- stantiality. In floors and fireplaces, dull tiles of solid, mottled or graded colors look well. Glazed white or even dull white tile should not 2IO INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES be used for interiors except where sanitary con- ditions are paramount. In order to get the best tile texture or effect, the use of tiles which differ in shade or color is advocated. A wall or floor thus made has an added interest over one made of tiles all exactly the same. Metals in the form of ornamental finishing hardware, especially wrought strap hinges, give to a house a unique quality, but other parts, especially the design of the woodwork, must be adapted to the use of it. Board or batten doors call for strap hinges rather than for butt hinges, which are ordinarily used on panel doors. Cabi- network may have iron, brass or bronze hard- ware of special design. Doors equipped with wrought strap hinges and clever latches some- times add a charm, especially in bungalow work. The lighting fixtures should harmonize with the hardware and conform to the character of the room, or be in keeping if an historic period style is followed. The same is true of radiators and all other architectural appliances. There are in the market a number of cheap materials for covering interior walls, of which Beaver board is one. This is a strong, thin ma- terial made of fibre, and is nailed directly to the wood studding of the partition walls. It is nec- essary to cover the joints where pieces of beaver board meet, with wood strips, thereby forming panels about thirty inches wide. Beaver board may be painted or tinted any color. A cheap method of finishing interior walls and ceilings is by boarding them over, stretching cheesecloth or muslin and applying the wallpaper to the 211 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE cloth. The paper usually sags or tears and is thoroughly unsatisfactory after a very short period of use. The Living Rooms of a House. Rooms oc- cupied a great deal should be above all restful. Materials used for treatment are usually deter- mined by cost, but a very humble room may have the quality of restfulness, which an elab- orate room may not. In fact, when cost is not an important consideration, the tendency is to overdo, and thereby destroy effects which might have been pleasing. To secure restfulness other considerations than decoration are involved, chief of which are the design of the room itself, relative to doors, win- dows and architectural features, and style and arrangement of furnishings. Colors used on surfaces should not be vivid, or even bright, but dull and neutral. Old ivory or cream white enamel of semi-dull finish used on the woodwork, oatmeal paper of light brown on the walls, light buff paper on the ceiling, and any good flooring with, perhaps, Oriental rugs, should, with proper furnishings carrying out the color scheme, pro- duce a harmonious and restful interior. Har- mony of color as a study develops good taste in house decoration. In following out color schemes, for decorating and furnishing living rooms, it is not well to slavishly hold to the color and tones of the scheme. If this is done, the effect will be mo- notonous, which is not restful. There should be judicious departures in color, chiefly in the fur- nishings, and especially in certain architectural INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES features such as fireplaces, floors, and orna- mental glass windows. As a rule the gradation of color should be such that the ceiling is light, the frieze less light, the wall and wainscoting darker, and the floor darkest. This principle is worthy of careful notice, but exceptions are pos- sible. A floor may be of very light wood, while the gradation of color starts dark at the base of the wall. In any composition or decorative scheme, a dash of color is a welcome relief in holding the attention for a moment. Bedrooms. Treatments for bedrooms should have the quality of freshness regardless of the color scheme employed. While women usually prefer white, pink, blue or yellow rooms, men generally prefer brown, gray or green. Any color scheme that is not disturbing and that does not take on a dingy air may be satisfactorily developed. Wallpaper as a cover for plaster surfaces is used almost to the exclusion of other materials in bedrooms. Paper is readily re- moved and replaced when no longer bright and clean. In repapering it -is always advisable to take the old paper off, not only because the new fits better, but because it is a more sanitary method. On sanitary grounds the painting of bedroom walls is preferable to papering. Woodwork of bedrooms may well be white or cream in color, firstly because it is neat, fresh and easily washed, and secondly because any bedroom set of furniture will conform to it. A very handsome treatment for a bedroom is to make the woodwork exactly like the bedroom 213 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE set, of maple, walnut, mahogany, or any hard wood. Maple flooring is very satisfactory for bedrooms. For inexpensive treatments, white paint may be used on the wood trim, and gray paint on the floor. Sometimes matting over a com- mon floor proves very satisfactory. In any treatment, the quality of freshness is the es- sential. Kitchen Treatments. Since in a kitchen cleanliness is of first importance, the treatment of materials should suggest it, and decoration need not be neglected. Rather than to use materials and colors that do not show dirt, it is far better to have all surfaces so treated that dust and dirt will show, but will be easy to remove. Here glazed or glossy finishes, or semi- glazed, which is the same as semi-dull, are de- sirable. Plaster may be given a slick, steam- proof varnish or paint, and the wood given an enamel finish. Wallpapers having a glazed sur- face are in common use, and if of good quality are satisfactory. In regard to the woodwork in kitchens, the details should be such as to be most sanitary. There should be no crevices or angles not easily reached with ordinary cleaning apparatus. Severity of design is becoming to the nature of the kitchen. Simple wainscotings are very serviceable and attractive, and may be counter height, thereby forming a continuous line around the room. Incidentally, counters and other surfaces in actual use should not be treated with paint, varnish or any other ma- terial except oil. However, such working sur- 214 INTERIOR DECORATION AND TREATMENT OF SURFACES faces may be covered with a matting of rubber or oilcloth. Tile work in kitchens is highly serviceable, wainscotings, counters, facings for built-in ranges and floors being the chief parts constructed of this material. The main objection to tile floors is their coldness, and the discomfort experienced by some who use them many hours a day. No wood floor or finish for wood floor in the kitchen may be relied upon to give permanent satis- faction, on account of the abuse that the floor is subjected to. Some varnishes will last a while, but will be scraped and scrubbed away, and a new coat be made necessary. Eventual'y the floor will be streaked and spotted, and also worn and uneven where footsteps continually mar it. Perhaps a floor left in its natural condition and oiled is better than a varnished or painted sur- face. Constant scouring is then necessary to keep it in good condition. A hardwood floor of oak or maple is best, if tile cannot be afforded. A cheap wood floor may be made very service- able by laying upon it oilcloth or linoleum. Linoleum is especially good, but will not wear well unless the wood floor below is made per- fectly smooth, either by dressing down or cover- ing over with paper, cloth or other material. A very good material for kitchen floors is a patent substance similar to asphalt, which has the appearance of tile, but is not so hard. Color in a kitchen should be such as to suggest perfect sanitation. The best colors are white and blue, but with white or cream may be used green, brown, gray or other color. Colors may 215 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE appear in tile borders, linoleum, wallpaper, painted surfaces and in simple hangings. The room should be bright and pleasant, but not cluttered. Extra large kitchens in farmhouses and elsewhere should have more color than small ones. Bathroom Treatments. Surface treatments for bathrooms may be much the same as those for kitchens. Waterproof materials are prac- tically essential, where water and steam are so prevalent. Porch Treatments. Porches are really ex- terior features, and should be treated much the same as other parts of the exterior. These decorative treatments depend chiefly upon the materials used. Light-colored paints and stains generally look better than dark. Masonry should not be painted under any circumstances, unless as a preservative measure. Porch floors of wood should receive several coats of exterior floor paint of neutral color, while the ceilings should be painted white or buff. It may be here stated that more than two colors of paint on a frame house should not be used, except perhaps in very limited quantities. The main color should cover the body of the house, while the other should serve only as a trim color. Al- ternate color effects should never be used. 216 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Draw the main wall of a familiar living room and show a scheme of architectural treatment and decoration and -arrangement of pictures. Describe each material and article used. (2) Make a design or scheme of treatment for a nursery wall, assuming doors and windows where desired. (3) Design a pair of unlike strap hinges to be used on the main entrance door of an English cottage. The metal contemplated for use is wrought iron. , REFERENCES Rolfe. Interior Decoration. Clifford. Color Values. Ward. Color Harmony and Contrast. Saylor. Distinctive Homes of Moderate Cost. Eberlein and McClure. House Furnishing and Decora- tion. Parsons. Interior Decoration. Candee. Decorative Styles and Periods. Goodnow and Adams. The Honest House. DeWolfe. The House in Good Taste. 217 CHAPTER XII. HOUSE FURNISHING ARRANGEMENT of Furniture. Closely related to design of rooms and spac- ing of openings and fixtures is ar- rangement of household articles. The principles of composition in general may be applied to these. In all arrangements it is essential to obtain balance, unity and simplicity. It is good practice to study an arrangement of a room by means of a sketch or drawing made to a certain scale. In this way it will readily be seen that only important units or articles employed in furnishing have a place, and that riffraff is not only unnecessary but altogether undesirable. Before buying new household equipment, a drawing is almost essential, in that it plainly shows the number and size of necessary articles. In the arrangement of furniture in a room it often happens that most of the pieces are al- ready on hand, and must be adapted for use. Rooms that are symmetrical in plan, that is, rooms which have the main features in the centre of the various sides, are far more easily arranged than rooms of unsymmetrical design. This accounts for the difficulty in placing furniture in the rooms of a great many houses, it being difficult to obtain balance on account of the lack of that element in the room itself. If built-in parts of the room are not symmetrically placed, then it is of course difficult to locate furniture relative to those room features. Space should be so used that it is not wasted. As much space as possible should be left " in the 218 HOUSE FURNISHING clear," that is, as much floor space as possible should be left unoccupied. It is very important that circulation or means of traversing the room be provided by allowing free passage from door to door. Chairs, tables and other pieces of furniture should be set where most used, so as to be in a state of readiness, without more shift- :'ng than absolutely necessary. Reading table, lamp, magazines, and easy chairs should be placed in the proper relation one with another for instant use rather than distributed here and there to form a pleasing arrangement regardless of actual use. By placing the large pieces of furniture on the main axes of the room, the element of balance is obtained. For instance, in a symmetrical living room a large table may be set in the centre, midway between a fire- place and a large window, thereby being on an axis. Furniture should not be set diagonally, as a rule, but in straight lines with the walls. The same is true of rugs. Pictures on a wall should be hung in straight lines practically level with the eye, rather than staggered up and down or hung in a diagonal row. Furniture itself having straight lines rather than diagonal lines is better. In the arrangement of a room the design, the size and the color of the various articles should be considered and consequently placed so that adjacent articles are in harmony. It is well to cluster Or group like pieces of furni- ture in a certain part of the room. There are two distinct methods of arrange- ment which may be employed in a living room. One may be called a winter arrangement, and 219 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE the other a summer arrangement. In the former, large pieces of furniture may be grouped in the centre of the room, on a large rug, perhaps in front of the fireplace. Here a davenport may face the hearth with a table immediately be- hind it, while three or four easy chairs may be set immediately adjacent to it, forming a group of five large pieces of furniture. The outside edge of the room is then left practically clear, except for the smaller articles. In the summer arrangement the centre part of the. room is left clear, giving the impression of roominess, and consequently coolness. Articles of furni- ture may be grouped around the walls, the large pieces occupying positions where space seems correspondingly large. The davenport may be set under a group of windows or even in front of the fireplace, while the reading table may be removed to a rather inconspicuous position. The winter arrangement has the appearance of being snug, while the summer arrangement has the appearance of being roomy. (See Plate 44.) Pictures. The use of pictures is twofold, one being for the purpose of display, and the other for the covering of wall surface. Assum- ing that only good pictures, and not enlarged photographic portraits and cheap prints are to be hung on a wall, the arrangement should be such that the spacing, regardless of the subject of the picture, is pleasing, and that the pictures themselves be harmonious one with another and pleasing in general. As stated before, the proper height of pictures above the floor is the height of the eye, or a little more. In this last con- Plate 44 DIAGRAMS SHOWING ARRANGEMENTS 221 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE sideration there may be exceptions, but not for the picture of ordinary size. Very large or very small pictures may be arranged especially. To keep a room from having a stiff appearance, it is necessary to make a departure from the symmetrical and formal. This is accomplished by the use of little things which may be on hand and which are probably of peculiar personal interest. There should not be an abundance of such small pictures and knickknacks, no mat- ter how valuable they are from any standpoint. Miscellaneous Articles. The arrangement of articles on the table is important in the matter of the general effect of the room. It may be said that as few articles as possible on any table should be employed, and these should preferably be placed with the lines of the table rather than diagonally or irregularly. The articles employed for table use are so varied that no definite sugr gestions for table arrangements may be given, except for the dining room table. Here a linen centrepiece having the same general form as the table itself may be employed, with a single article such as a candelabrum, lamp or vase of flowers upon it. In the arrangement of other cloths upon the dining table, it is well to keep them as simple as possible, and have them con- form to the lines of the table itself. The entire equipment of the dining room should be simple and the arrangement formal and positive. Mantelpieces, shelves and pedestals should never be cluttered with small articles of decora- tion. It is far better to place perhaps only one large ornament in the centre, with a minor orna- 222 HOUSE FURNISHING merit on each side, and consider the arrangement complete. For pedestals, of course, only one article is possible. Shelves which are to contain books, or kitchen shelves which are to contain jars, cans and other kitchen articles, should be arranged systematically according to use. It is interesting to note that harmony of line is so agreeable with utility that the two go hand in hand, and may be called system. For instance, a pantry shelf which is to accommodate a number of jars will look best and be most convenient when the large jars are placed in a row behind, and the small jars in a row in front. This principle may be applied throughout shelf ar- rangements of the house. Books should not be arranged according to size and color, but ac- cording to subject-matter. However, when possible and compatible with subject-matter, the size and color may be considered. Flowers. Flowers may be so arranged as to accent their own beauty, and form an agree- able spot in an otherwise dull room. A single rose on a long stem set in a tall glass vase, per- haps on a pedestal, gives an unquestionable ver- tical effect which while not remarked by all would be felt by all. This effect would be further emphasized by giving the whole a back- ground of vertical lines, such as upright wood paneling or striped wallpaper. Not only will an American Beauty rose, but also long-stemmed lilies or irises produce a pleasing vertical effect, if properly arranged. Short-stemmed flowers like nasturtiums, growing in a low mass, suggest a like arrangement in vases, consequently a 223 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE bowl should be employed for them, set where the mass is most effective. Vines that grow downward should always be set in such a manner that there is full opportunity for them to hang, while vines that grow upward should be provided with a little trellis or small pole. Some flowers look best when forming a horizontal effect or a series, perhaps high in the centre or high at the ends. Potted geraniums are a sample of this type of flower. The study of the arrangement of flowers is very interesting, and would be of permanent and practical use to all. Perhaps in most people the aesthetic sense really guides in the matter of arrangements of any kind, but the application of known principles is always helpful. (See Plate 44.) Furniture. In the selection of furniture for a house, appropriateness is the chief governing factor. Appropriateness means not only the use to which the article is to be put, but the ap- pearance of it in the place for which it is intended. It is well to avoid pretentious furniture and curios, and to get real rather than imitation things. Imitation furniture -will eventually reveal itself, so that a pine table is better a pine table in the beginning than an imitation mahogany. Practically every material has a worth or a use of some kind, and it is best to have it stand on its own merits from the beginning. Since furniture is used by all, the general characteristics of it are known. Willow, reed, upholstered and other kinds of furniture each have a place. Certain types of furniture which 224 HOUSE FURNISHING may be called period are in vogue in the United States, being originals or copies of models made by English chairmakers. The three best known English chairmakers of the eighteenth century were Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, practicing in the order named. Chippendale followed the French method of making furni- ture, using a French scroll for the foot, a bow at the top of the back, and elaborate carv- ings throughout. The proportion of his chairs was very good. Hepplewhite made chairs much lighter in weight than did Chippendale. He used both carvings and inlaying, and finished the chair backs with paint or Japanned work. Next came Sheraton, who strengthened the light chairs of Hepplewhite and made the back rectan- gular in shape. Models of these and many other types of furniture may be seen in numerous places, and by the use of texts the subject given thorough study. Another type of chair that appeared in this country about 1730 is the Wind- sor chair, which is far more simple than the previous types. The Windsor chairs are made using round turned legs and spindles in the back. Originally Windsor chairs were painted green. The models vary to quite an extent. New types of chairs are being invented and manufactured continually. Quite recently the type of furniture called "Mission" appeared. It is very heavy and square in construction, perhaps too much so for ordinary house use. Any piece of furniture that is of good design and honest construction may be employed where there is a place for it. It is not necessary that a 225 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE certain kind of furniture be used in a certain place. Hangings. Hangings or draperies as a part of the furnishings are more important in decora- tion than is generally conceded. In most cases the hangings should follow the general color scheme, but to avoid monotony floral designs, stripes, and geometrical patterns may be em- ployed. Sometimes sharp contrasts between light curtains and overhangs give good results, especially when the light curtain is similar in color to the wall surface. The function of cur- tains is to soften the architectural lines of the room, and thereby remove the severity of the aspect. Curtains should not cut off light and air to an appreciable extent, and should not be of such material as to catch dust and retain odors. Practically any material that does not fade may be employed in one way or another for curtains of various rooms. However, certain well known kinds of goods are generally em- ployed to meet the requirements. Texture and quality of draperies is important in the selection of them. Floor Coverings. For floor coverings, mat- tings, carpets, rugs and linoleum are employed. Each has its place, but the selection of patterns and colors is important. Bold designs such as large floral patterns in high colors should be avoided. Mellow tones of rather solid color are best. Oriental rugs especially have these char- acteristics, and have also the quality of wear. Other rugs, manufactured in this country, have been found to be very desirable in every respect. 226 HOUSE FURNISHING Throughout the decoration and furnishing of the interior of a house, the great thing to be attained is harmony in the broad sense of the term. Laying aside all rules and conventions we must depend upon the cultivation of the taste and inherent culture for producing an effect pleasing to ourselves and to others. All parts must be reduced to the absolutely simple in the process of home furnishing. 227 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Draw a plan of a familiar living room showing ar- chitectural features and indicate an arrangement for a new and complete set of furniture for that particular room. Scale K"=i'o." (2) Draw a plan of a dining room, show an arrangement of equipment and describe each article or set of articles. (3) Make a sketch of a simple mantlepiece showing an arrangement of articles for decorative and useful purposes. REFERENCES Rolfe. Interior Decoration. Policy. Domestic Architecture, Furniture and Or- nament of England from the Fourteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Weaver. The House and Its Equipment. Clifford. Period Furnishings. Eberlein and McClure. The Practical Book of Period Furniture. Sell. Good Taste in Home Furnishing. 228 CHAPTER XIII. APPLIANCES POWER. Houses, especially isolated es- tablishments, may well be provided with power for operating house and farm ma- chinery. The energy for this purpose may be provided by engines, water wheels, or windmills. The common method of obtaining power is by the use of a gasoline engine, which may be either air or water-cooled, and is an economical machine. Kerosene and hot air engines are also in use. On estates where a good flow of water is available, water wheels may be constructed, forming a very cheap and permanent source of energy. In the past, wind- mills have been very serviceable and of low cost, and may still be used. Dynamo electric machines for supplying elec- trical power require one of the previously named types of power to operate them. These machines are of two general types; one for generating an electrical current, called a generator, and the other for converting electrical energy into me- chanical energy and thereby operating machin- ery, called a motor. Dynamo electric machines are used also for changing the voltage of currents of electricity, converting one voltage into a higher or lower voltage. These are called con- verters and transformers. Still another power, especially for electric current, is obtained by the use of storage batteries, but these are economical only for small consumptions of electric energy. House Electric Plants. For operating house machines, and for illumination, the house elec- tric plant is the most convenient, and although 229 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE the first cost may be considerable, the expense of operating is slight, especially if the source of power is not too costly. House electric plants may be used for operating kitchen ranges, laundry machines, churns, separators, and other machines, and if used for one or two devices may be used for practically every device with- out much additional cost. The economic value of such plants lies in the general utility of them, and unless applied to practically all machines of the establishment, both indoor and out, much of their advantage may be lost. Besides the original power plant, a generator and motor are necessary for performing all of the functions of the electric plant. Small electric light plants will furnish current for perhaps a hundred lights at a low voltage, and in general use need be operated for only a short time each day, because a storage battery is used to collect energy which is given out as required. Both light and power may be supplied from the storage battery or direct from the dynamo at the same time. The entire operation of a house electric plant is automatic, except for the operation of the engine itself. Acetylene Gas Plant. Acetylene gas has been found to be very efficient for lighting isolated dwellings, and can also be made very safe. The installation is placed in the basement of the building, and runs automatically. The machine consists of a gas generator and a gas tank to hold the gas supply. The generator is a steel tank holding water, into which crystals of carbide are slowly dropped, which when coming 230 APPLIANCES into contact with the water, form the gas. The feed of carbide is regulated by a mechanism independent of the pressure of the gas generator. In order that a machine may not generate gas so excessively that an explosion would occur, a safety valve allows the surplus gas to escape outside of the building through a blow-off pipe. The regulation is provided by an apparatus which starts the generating of gas so soon as a jet is lighted. The whole machine is so regulated as to produce the amount of gas consumed by burning. The cost of lighting an average house for an entire year is not more than twenty dollars. The original cost of an acetylene gas plant is also reasonable. Water Supply. The supply of water for a country place is often a serious problem. If a natural supply of water at a considerable eleva- tion above the house is available, it is well to provide a reservoir from which water may be piped to a pressure tank in the attic of the dwell- ing. This condition, however, is not common, so that it is necessary, if a convenient supply of water is desired, to install a special apparatus. Again it is necessary to depend upon an engine water wheel or windmill, to fill the pressure tank with a constant water supply. Sometimes this is done by means of pumping directly into the attic tank. A better method is to install a compression tank or air compresser in the base- ment of the dwelling, or below the grade outside of the building, which forces water throughout the pipes without the use of other pressure. A compression tank is a cylindrical steel tank 231 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE with a hand or power pump attached, drawing water from the source into the air-tight enclosure. By continuous pumping of water, the air at one end of the tank is compressed, which produces a constant pressure throughout the system of piping to the fixtures. By opening a faucet the compressed air is relieved, producing a strong current or flow of water. When the tank is at high pressure the current is of course much stronger than when it is at low. It is necessary occasionally, perhaps daily, to pump the com- pression tank full of water. When water is not drawn from the faucet, the air pressure inside of the compression tank is reduced by reason of the water taking up some of the air. To obviate this difficulty, an air valve is used in connection with the system. Still another method of supplying water to an establishment is by the use of an air compressor. By this machine, air is highly compressed and thereby forced through a pipe to an apparatus in the well, which as long as the air pressure is sufficient injects a supply of water into a large pipe from which all fixtures on the premises may be supplied with a constant flow. Hot Water Supply. The most common de- vice, besides the regular hot water tank and coils, for supplying hot water to a residence, is the gas heater. Gas heaters are of the ordi- nary type, instantaneous or automatic and con- stant. For providing hot water periodically a gas flame may be applied to a small tank of water which is outside of the large supply tank, and by a proper system of piping a ready supply 232 APPLIANCES of hot water may be provided. In instantaneous gas heaters the cold water flows through a coil of pipe of conductive quality against which a blue gas flame is applied. The water passing through this coil becomes hot by the time it reaches the far end, where it may be drawn off through a faucet. For a gas heater it is necessary to provide a pipe for carrying off gases of com- bustion, which may be poisonous. These heaters are supposed to be used for a few minutes at a time only, and not for providing a constant supply of hot water. Automatic gas heaters have been invented which require a small constant flame of gas. They are usually so arranged that the opening of a faucet starts the gas burner and consequently keeps up the supply. The apparatus consists of a coil of pipe for the heating of water under which the gas burners are placed. A hot water faucet being turned on draws water from this coil which when drawn also becomes heated by the automatic turning on of the gas burner. No supply tank is required. To ignite the gas at the heating coil, a pilot light is left constantly burning. The cost of operation is rather high when a large amount of hot water is used, or when the gas rate itself is high. Vacuum Cleaners. Vacuum cleaners are of several types. The common ones are the in- stalled machine, consisting of a vacuum pump in the basement with a set of pipes leading to it and a sweeper to be operated in the rooms of the dwelling; and a small portable machine consisting of a suction pump and sweeper, all 233 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE operated within the room, being connected to an electric outlet. In any vacuum cleaner the mech- anism involved is a vacuum tank which by suction extracts small particles of dust from the articles cleaned. The portable type of machine is perhaps the most practical, and not expensive. Only large houses really need an installed pipe system of vacuum cleaning." Incinerators. An incinerator is a device for burning rubbish of all kinds. They are especially desirable for consuming the dust collected in the tank of a vacuum cleaner, since other dis- posal of it is difficult. A rubbish crematory or incinerator is highly efficient for burning gar- bage, and is perhaps themost sanitary and con- venient method of disposal of all such refuse. These machines may be set up on the floor of the basement, or may be set into the wall of the kitchen or other room. It is, of course, necessary to provide for them a draft and a smoke flue. The necessary heat may be provided by the use of gas or electricity. Refrigerator Plants. For large houses in the country, and also for other dwellings, a house refrigerating system has come to be an economi- cal and most convenient asset. It is especially desirable for houses where ice is not available. A plant of this kind includes a refrigerating machine and a cold storage chamber. The best machines produce cold by the condensation of ammonia forced through coils of pipe, but some machines use brine or ammonia brine for refriger- ation. It is of course necessary in all these machines to provide power from an outer source. 234 APPLIANCES House refrigerators may be so placed in the dwelling as to be highly convenient by setting the compressor and electric motor in the base- ment, and the refrigerator in the pantry above. There may be a number of refrigerating cham- bers, and an ice making compartment in con- nection with the entire apparatus. A refriger- ator may be so small as to be placed under a pantry counter. In all refrigerators it is advisa- ble to have several distinct compartments in order that various kinds of foods may each have a compartment of its own. House Telephones. House telephones may be arranged in a number of systems, including from four to a dozen instruments. The ordinary system provides at each instrument a set of buttons which when one is pressed gives a call to any desired room. All that is required for an installation of this kind are the instruments, wire and batteries. They are usually inter- communicating, with an instrument in practi- cally every room, and perhaps in the garage. Dumb Elevators or Lifts. A large number of architectural appliances, such as the wood lift, dumb waiter, and other lifts, are simply hand operated elevators. They consist of a shaft from the basement to a room above, equipped with slides or runners, ropes and pulleys, and a conveyance of some sort. They have been found especially convenient as dumb waiters for carrying dishes from a basement kitchen to a dining room above, or to some other part of the house. A dumb elevator for general pur- poses, such as carrying furniture, linen and 235 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE packages, may well be installed in any two-story house for general utilitarian purposes. Laundry Machines. A large number of elec- trical machines for the home laundry are in the market. They include washing machines, driers, and ironing machines of various sorts, modelled after the highly efficient machines of laundry establishments, but made in small size. Perhaps the best type of washing machine is one in which a wringer is attached, and which washes the clothes by a violent rocking back and forth. Some machines are not economical on account of the severity of the process on the clothes being washed. Laundry clothes driers may be set up in the basement or in the attic and used the year round. The drier consists of a number of iron compartments containing rods for hanging clothes. The compartments may be removed separately for convenience in handling clothes. Heat for drying may be furnished by a stove or other heat placed beside the drier. A constant current of heated air is made to pass through the machine, carrying off the vapor from the clothes through pipes. Miscellaneous Devices. There are many small devices for household use which require only hand power for operation. One of the most convenient is a small crane which may be hung on a removable bracket outside of a door on a stair landing, probably next to the drive- way. Here trunks and furniture may readily be hoisted from a dray onto the stair landing and taken to any part of the house without undue labor and destruction of finish materials 236 APPLIANCES in the house. Cranes are desirable on the back porch or over a cellarway for lifting heavy boxes and barrels. The crane may consist of only ropes and pulleys suspended from a substantial bracket or beam overhead. For the kitchen a number of devices have been found convenient. A small ventilated cupboard may be set on brackets in the open kitchen window occupying the place of the screen, and when not in use may be stored in a closet. The cupboard should have doors on the inside, through which the contents of the cupboard may be reached, and a dust-proof screen on the out- side. A box set in the wall between the back porch and the kitchen for holding milk bottles is handy. Such a box should be self-locking; that is, milk, when placed in it from the outside should be secure except from the door on the inside. The device is called a self-locking box for milk bottles. Clothes driers built from the kitchen window with a rotary top are conven- ient. They should in alj cases be removable. Garbage cans with lids raised by a lever operated by the foot have been found satisfactory. A very useful appliance and one that should be incorporated in every house is the fuel win- dow to take the place of the ordinary window in the fuel room of the basement. On account of the tendency of the ordinary window frame to become battered and the glass of the sash broken, the fuel window is desirable. It con- sists of a metal frame and a metal hopper which tilts outward, forming a pocket or a slide through which wood or coal may be passed. The slide 237 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE from the window may be continued by the use of a long metal contrivance which carries the fuel well inside of the basement wall. Strong boxes for the storage of silver and jew- elry and even valuable papers may be incor- porated in the masonry walls of a dwelling. The best location for such a secret box or chamber is in the wall of the chimney, inside of the main walls of the building. Here an iron receptacle may be built in with the bricks of the wall, made heat-proof and even fire-proof and supplied with a lock and key or a combination lock. In case of the destruction of a building by fire, the base of the chimney usually remains standing, and the strong box within the masonry should be intact. All iron safes, whether small or large, should be supported by and enclosed within walls of brick, stone or concrete and be in- sulated by means of an air space and also by the use of insulating materials. 238 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Draw a sketch of a convenient device to be used in the house outside of the kitchen. (2) Sketch a device to be used in the kitchen. (3) Show by a drawing an appliance for lifting heavy articles from a truck to a stair landing within the house. This appliance is to be convenient and not unsightly and may be removable in part or in whole. REFERENCES Lynde. Physics of the Household. Kidder. Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book. Harding and Willard. Mechanical Equipment of Build- ings, Vols. II, III. 239 CHAPTER XIV. HEATING AND VENTI- LATION INTRODUCTION. The original form of heating was the camp-fire, laid in the open. For many hundreds of years the open fire continued to be used as a means of heat- ing but was laid inside of the walls of the build- ing, the smoke escaping through the roof. In medieval castles this form of heating was in vogue, up to perhaps the sixteenth century when the open fire was moved to a niche in the wall which eventually developed into the modern fireplace with a chimney. For several hundred years more the open fireplace remained the sole contrivance for heating, but eventually the stove was invented which was not a great departure from the original method. The fire was simply enclosed within a metal box which tended to conserve the heat and distribute it more evenly. Since the origin of the stove, great developments have been made in the way of heating and ventilation but always the fire- place remains in great favor. The best systems of heating are those in which ventilation is a part of the system, that is to say, the actual heating requires a constant supply of fresh air to pass into the room and out again. Of the systems which have this characteristic the first is the fireplace and the last is an elaborate indirect method of steam heating, employed especially in schoolhouses, churches and theatres. Of the other kinds of heating which, by the way, are commonly used in dwellings, the most important are hot air, 240 HEATING AND VENTILATION direct steam and hot water. Each has a place in which it may be used economically. The principles of each kind of heating will be dis- cussed separately. Fireplaces. On account of the cheerful com- fort of fireplaces as well as their ventilating qualities, they not only have always held a high place in the opinion of home builders but will probably continue to do so at all times. The main objections to them are the amount of labor required to operate them and their inadequacy in heating large rooms during cold weather. In combination with other heating apparatus they are invaluable as a means of warming the room in moderately cold weather and in keeping the room constantly in a state of ventilation. Furnace Heating. For the small residence of perhaps six or eight rooms, heating by means of hot air is probably the most economical and best. Here if the furnace and pipes are properly constructed a constant supply of fresh warm air is entering each room and the outgoing air is constantly escaping either through prepared ventilating ducts or by leakage. The first cost of installation is very small, repairs are seldom necessary and operation is most simple. Wood, coal, gas or oil may be used as fuel. Among the common faults of hot air furnaces are over- heating, imperfect distribution of heat and vitiation of the fresh air by gas. These faults may be eliminated by skillful installation of the apparatus. A hot air furnace consists of a stove or heater 241 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE in a brick or iron case, allowing a chamber of air between the two. The supply of fresh air enters the lower part of the chamber and after passing over the heated surface is conducted by means of metal ducts to the various rooms of the building. The mechanism is quite simple. In order to gain the greatest efficiency from any furnace it is necessary that it be properly de- signed. Most of the heaters which have been in the market for a number of years are reliable. Perhaps the heater which has the greatest radiating surface on the stove or firebox relative to the size of the air chamber will give off the most heat for the amount of fuel used. Also the draft of air passing through the firebox to the chimney should have a devious route in order that all the heat possible, carried by the fumes of combustion, may be utilized for heating. As a means of conserving heat the furnace and the hot air ducts should be insulated by the use of asbestos or other material. The supply of fresh air should be taken from the outside of the building and should be screened at the intake in order that dust may not circulate through the air chamber of the furnace and into the rooms of the dwelling. There should be two fresh air intakes from the outside each with a regulator so that either the one or the other or both may be used according to the direction of the wind, otherwise a large amount of cold air may circulate so rapidly that it can- not be heated before escaping from the hot air chamber to the registers. Hot air registers un- like radiators should be on the inside walls of 242 HEATING AND VENTILATION rooms either in the floor or in the base of the wall. Probably the base of the wall is the better position. No hot air duct should extend a great horizontal distance from the furnace lest hot air (carried only by gravity, or its nat- ural tendency to rise) should not be properly conducted to the outlet. This indicates that the furnaces should be in the centre of the base- ment of the dwelling or toward the side of the building against which the cold winds of winter blow. A very satisfactory scheme of heating is the combination of hot air and hot water. This is accomplished by the use of a hot water tank in the upper part of the furnace that supplies radiators in the building with heat and is there- fore an auxiliary to the hot air. Ordinarily these hot water radiators are placed in isolated parts of the building because hot water will more readily reach radiators than will hot air reach registers when the rooms are far removed from the source of heat. Steam Heating. There are two distinct kinds of steam heating. In the one the radiators are placed in the room which is to be warmed. This is called direct radiation. In the other the radiators are placed outside of the room, usually in the basement and are enclosed within a fresh air chamber or plenum, where air from the out- side may pass over them and on through the registers into the room. This is called indirect radiation. The latter, as stated before, is a ventilating as well as a heating system, while the former is simply a means of heating the air 243 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE already in the room. In some respects indirect radiation is like furnace heating, since in both fresh air passes over a heated surface, thereby becoming warm, and enters the room through a register. There is still a third kind of steam heat called the direct-indirect. By this method each room is supplied with one or more radiators but instead of being placed directly in the room are placed just below the floor and the cold or fresh air caused to pass over the radiating surface into the room thereby heating it. The common method is the first or direct radiation and is also the most economical but the least healthful, since no ventilation is provided. It follows, then, that rooms heated with radiators in them should be provided with special means of ventilation either in the form of ducts or fire- places. In the case of indirect radiation an outlet as well as an intake is provided for the circulation of air. Relative to the systems of steam heating, there are two. One is called the gravity or low pressure system and the other is called the non- gravity or high pressure system. In the former the steam is under only a few pounds pressure and the water of condensation from the various radiators returns to the boiler by its own weight. In the latter the steam is under a high pressure at the boiler but is reduced in pressure before entering the radiators. The water is made to return to the boiler by the use of pumps or other special machinery. The boiler and the kind of radiation has nothing to do with the system employed since either system may be 244 HEATING AND VENTILATION used for the same kind of radiation. However, high pressure systems are commonly used only for large plants while low pressure systems are used in general. The apparatus used in steam heating is quite elaborate and requires for its installation an experienced heating engineer. The efficiency of a steam heating plant can be determined only by test so that a specification usually calls for results rather than for particular mechanism. In all installations a guarantee as to efficiency and fuel consumption should be required. The boilers in themselves are of three kinds, called horizontal tubular boilers, firebox boilers and sectional boilers, the latter being made with either vertical sections or horizontal sections. Systems of heating for gravity systems are three in number: complete circuit system in which the main steam pipe leads to the highest part of the building first and then to the various rooms; the ordinary one-pipe system in which the main pipe runs around the basement and the risers are taken from it; and the two-pipe system in which all pipes to radiators lead back to the boiler necessitating two connections in the radiator itself. Perhaps the ordinary one-pipe system is the most economical for residences. Radiators are made in a great many shapes and with any capacity or amount of radiating surface. The principle of radiators is to ex- pose to the air as much heating surface as pos- sible in order that the heat conveyed to them by steam may be utilized in heating the room. The style and shape of a radiator is determined 245 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE by the position which it must occupy. This position should be under or near an outside window since that is the coldest part of the room and usually the source of fresh air. A window with a low sill, to have a radiator im- mediately beneath it, requires that the radiator, be, perhaps, no more than thirteen inches high in which case, however, it may be quite thick. A narrow wall between outside windows to ac- commodate a radiator requires a tall thin form in order that it may not be an obstruction. Curved window-bays may have curved radiators, and window seats may have specially designed radiators to fit underneath them. In regard to the size of radiators, a two-column radiator is about eight inches deep and may be any height. A three-column radiator is about nine inches deep and may be any height and a four-column radiator is about ten or eleven inches deep. All radiators are composed of a number of sections each about two and one-half inches wide, there- fore a radiator is given a certain capacity or a certain number of square feet of radiating sur- face by selecting a form of radiator of a certain height and combining as many sections as is necessary. Ordinary patterns may be selected from the stock of several radiator companies. The main factors that determine the amount of radiation required in a room are the cubic contents of the room, the outside wall areas and the outside glass surface. By certain formulae which take into consideration these factors the size of the radiator may be determined. Windows of course involve a much greater 246 HEATING AND VENTILATION heat loss than does the same area of wall space. Hot Water Heating. Hot water heating is accomplished by the use of exactly the same paraphernalia as is used in steam heating with the exception of the size of the radiators or rather their radiating surface. For hot water heating, radiators must be about one-half as large again because the average temperature of hot water in radiators is 170 Fahr., while the average temperature of steam for heating is 220 Fahr. Therefore hot water will not raise the metal to as high a temperature as steam and consequently the metal will not radiate the same amount of heat. This system of heating con- sists of circulating hot water throughout the pipes and radiators, the flow pipes being at- tached to the top of the boiler and the return pipes to the bottom. The water in the boiler when heated rises and when cooled in the radia- tors descends where it again is heated, thus there is a continual flow. There are two systems of hot water heating. One is called the open tank system in which an open expansion tank is connected to the system to receive the increase in the volume of the heated water and having in it a vent pipe to the outside air. The other system is called the closed tank or pressure system in which a similar tank is used and the vent pipe is closed and a safety valve attached. The first or open system is the more safe. The advantage of hot water heating over steam heating is in the rapidity with which a house may be warmed after the fire is started in the 247 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE boiler, and in the great length of time that radia- tors remain warm after the fire is out. In a hot water system, after starting the fire, hot water begins to circulate at once, but in steam heating, steam must be generated before the radiators become warm. Another advantage of hot water is that a moderate degree of heat is more easily maintained than with steam heating. The cost of installation for hot water heating is a trifle more on account of the increased size of all the radiators, but it requires less attention than hot air or steam heating and the fuel consump- tion is usually less. Importance of Heating and Ventilation. Heat- ing and ventilation is so important that it has become a scientific profession and has been developed to a high degree. The general aim has been to provide systems of heating which were economical in operation, in first cost and in durability. To provide such systems for large buildings where the apparatus is cared for by an expert engineer has not been as difficult as to provide a similar apparatus for the dwelling. Here the labor involved does not warrant the employment of a skilled man to care for the apparatus unless a number of houses in a dis- trict are heated by one heating plant. In all houses where steam and hot water are used, which in themselves provide heat without ven- tilation, it is necessary to rely upon special de- vices for the admission of plenty of fresh air and for the expulsion of all foul air. In connection with heating, the amount of moisture in the air is important. The ratio of the amount contained 248 HEATING AND VENTILATION to that required to saturate the air at the tem- perature considered is called the relative humid- ity. If the relative humidity is low, evaporation will take place rapidly and the skin and mem- brane in the throat and nose will become dry, causing discomfort. Also, on account of this evaporation the body will become cooler. Too much moisture in the air causes the body to feel damp and even clammy. The usual amount of moisture for comfort should be such as to give a relative humidity of about 70 per cent. The amount of pure, heated air of proper relative humidity required per person in a dwell- ing is approximately two thousand cubic feet each hour. The air of living rooms in use should be changed four times per hour, of kitchens and toilet rooms five times per hour, and of bed- rooms, except at night, about once per hour. When no provision is made for ventilation, leak- age of air will cause only about one-half of this change in atmosphere, consequently special pro- vision for fresh air should always be made. 249 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Show by diagram a one-pipe system of steam heat- ing. (2) Show by diagram a system of hot air heating. (3) Draw a radiator and explain how it is known to have a certain number of feet of radiating surface. REFERENCES Greene. Elements of Heating and Ventilation. Carpenter. Heating and Ventilation of Buildings. Kidder. Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book. Lynde. Physics of the Household. Harding and Willard. Mechanical Equipment of Build- ings, Vol. I. 250 CHAPTER XV. LIGHTING LIGHT. Light is a radiation that trav- els through the ether which pervades all space. There are many other forms of radiation in the ether, light being the one with certain wave lengths that affect the retina of the eye and produce the sensation known as "light." These wave lengths are a series, the shortest visible one being violet and the longest being red. White light is a sensation produced by a combination of all colors in the proportion as found in daylight. Daylight. The importance of good daylight in a dwelling can hardly be overestimated. Not only should good daylight reach all parts of a house but actual sunshine should enter each room for a part of the day. Kitchens and bed- rooms especially ought to have sunshine. The importance of daylight lies both in its illuminat- ing and health giving qualities. Where light and sunshine enter many pathogenic bacteria or disease germs cannot thrive. It is worthy of note that sleep is more refreshing and prolonged in the absence of light or in darkness. It follows that the two natural conditions of daylight and darkness should be utilized to the greatest ex- tent possible by human beings in order to pro- duce the maximum soundness of mind and body. Windows are the chief source of light in our dwellings. These should be plentiful, not nec- essarily in the matter of numbers but in actual glass area. Having windows, it is necessary that they be not so screened and curtained as to elimi- nate the possibility of admission of light. Most 251 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of the light enters from the upper part of the window opening which is the reason that school- room windows are placed near the ceiling. Light from the upper part of such a window reaches across the room while light from the lower part reaches only a few feet into the room. The or- dinary window shade while sometimes useful in shutting out streaming sunlight is more often detrimental to the admission of good light. In general it should be kept rolled to the top of the window and not drawn halfway down. Of the types of windows the casement or hinged window is best for lighting and inci- dentally for ventilation since when open the entire area of the wall occupied is available for the circulation of air. Window shades are not often hung over casement and French windows, and in fact it is impossible when the window opens into the room unless the shade is hung on the sash itself. A double hung or sliding window permits of only half the area being used for ventilation and on account of window shades, curtains and overhang the upper part admits but little light. However, double hung windows are otherwise very practical. Ceiling and sky- lights are useful in halls where windows are im- possible and essential in studios where well diffused north light is desired. Skylights are made of translucent rather than transparent glass. To throw light into a dark passage from an end, prism glass may be used as in the upper parts of store fronts. Artificial Light. Artificial light has been used at all times. Probably the first device for light- 252 LIGHTING ing, after the camp-fire, was a torch made with a stick and a wad of pitch or grass. Next came the use of a wick in animal or vegetable oil contained in a vessel. Until almost recently tallow and wax candles were used, the feeble rays of light being harbored and protected from blasts to prevent them from flickering out. Kerosene lamps next came into use and are still of importance in isolated houses. The develop- ment of the kerosene or coal oil lamp was checked by the introduction of gas and, later, electricity as a means of lighting. By the use of the latter, night may be made nearly as light as day. In artificial lighting, illumination is more im- portant than brilliancy. Dazzling lights are of use only for effects. Very bright lights may give the impression of illumination without really lighting the room. If the parts of a room are well illuminated and no brilliant lights are in striking evidence the room is well lighted. The important consideration, then, is diffusion of light or the reduction of the intrinsic bril- liancy of light. To accomplish this, shades and reflectors are used, but care must be exercised to prevent the wasting of light in the diffusion. Shades are made of ground or frosted glass, opal, or prism glass of some special design. Reflectors are of a vast number of makes and kinds all of which are in more or less common use. Indirect lighting is accomplished altogether by reflection. Color of light is important. An imitation of daylight is of course best but difficult. For decorative effects soft yellow or red lights are cheerful. Violet rays have the general char- 253 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE acteristic of destructiveness and are not good in illumination. The arc lamp is violet or blue white in color. The natural predominant color in lights may be changed by the use of colored shades. Wall materials, their color and texture, have an important bearing on the lighting prob- lem so that it is essential to take them into con- sideration. A color is carried by reflection of light to all parts of a room so that a glazed red paper would produce a glow of pink. In general, bright colors and glazed surfaces reflect much light, while sombre colors and dull surfaces re- flect little light. Black velvet reflects practically no light at all, the light being absorbed. The intensity of light is measured by a legal standard called the unit of intensity of light. It is that produced by the British standard candle weighing one-sixth of a pound burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour, and producing thereby one "candle power." A foot candle, or unit of intensity of illumination, is the illumi- nation obtained on a surface one foot away from a source of light of one candle power when the surface is at right angles to the light ray. The amount of light necessary for a room depends upon the nature of the room. It is usually es- timated in foot candles. The height of the ceiling, color an'd surface of the walls and ceil- ings, and other conditions must be taken into consideration. For dwellings the required in- tensity of illumination is from one to three foot candles. In general the characteristics of good lighting are efficiency, appearance, diffusion, uniformity, color value and eye protection. 254 LIGHTING Special light for certain occupations must, how- ever, be provided. Illuminating Gas. There are five kinds of il- luminating gas. They are coal gas, water gas, natural gas, gasoline gas and acetylene gas. Coal gas is made by heating bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. It is the most common variety used for illumination in towns and cities. Water gas is made from anthracite coal and steam. This gas contains less carbon than coal gas and consequently does not give as much light although it is better for heating. When used for lighting purposes carbon is added by vaporizing petroleum and injecting it into the hot gas before it leaves the generator. Natural gas is obtained from drilled wells and furnishes a very economical system of lighting. Gasoline gas is a mixture of vaporized gasoline and air. It always is generated close to the burner rather than piped for a distance. Acetylene gas is de- scribed in the chapter on architectural appliances. In piping a house for gas ordinary wrought iron pipe such as is used for water is satisfactory. All pipe to be used should be tested before being placed in position in order to insure against leakage. At turns, the pipe should not be bent but fittings should be used. To insure an even flow of gas as well as a suf- ficient flow the diameters and lengths of the sections of pipe must be predetermined. Since the friction increases with the quantity of gas that flows through a pipe the size of the pipe must be greatest at the meter. The run of a three-eighths inch pipe may not be more than 255 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE twenty feet; of a one-half inch pipe, thirty feet; of a three-quarter inch pipe, fifty feet; of a one- inch pipe, seventy -feet, and of a one and one- quarter inch pipe, one hundred feet, providing that only one outlet is at the end of the pipe. For more outlets, the length of pipe may not be as great. In a house a three-eighths inch pipe is usually proper for a single outlet, but a riser from which several outlets are to be taken should never be less than a three-quarter inch pipe. A gas range requires a three-quarter inch pipe. The accompanying table shows the correct sizes of house pipes for different lengths of pipes and number of outlets. NUMBER 1 ^ENGTH OF Pll ES IN 1 'EET OF 3 /-in. y^-in. Yi.-in. l-in. \yi-in. lyZ-in. 2-in. 2yz-in. 3-w. OUTLETS Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe Pipe i 20 30 5 70 IOO ISO 200 300 400 2 27 5 70 IOO 15 200 300 400 3 12 5 70 IOO 150 200 300 400 4 SO 70 IOO ISO 200 300 400 5 33 70 IOO 150 2OO 300 400 6 ..24 70 IOO ^50 200 300 400 8 13 50 IOO 150 200 300 400 10 35 IOO ISO 200 300 400 13 . .21 60 200 300 400 IS ..16 45 120 200 300 400 20 . . 27 65 200 300 400 25 . . 17 42 175 300 400 30 . . 12 3 120 300 400 35 . . 22 9 270 400 4 .. 17 70 210 400 45 55 I6 S 400 So 45 135 330 65 .. 27 80 200 75 . . 20 60 150 IOO 33 80 125 . . 22 50 150 IS 35 175 .. 28 200 . . 21 225 .. 17 250 .. 14 256 LIGHTING Electricity. Electricity appears to be either upon the surface of bodies as a charge or to flow through their substance as a current. The former is called static and the latter is called dynamic electricity. The branch of electrical science that treats of the action of electric cur- rents is termed electro dynamics. Electricity is generally referred to as "flowing" through a circuit. For the sake of convenience it may be said that electricity flows from a higher potential to a lower potential. Therefore, when a differ- ence of electrical potential exists between two points of a circuit it causes a flow. This differ- ence of potential is electromotive force. The unit of electromotive force is the volt and the head or pressure that produces the current is the voltage. The quantity of current is measured in amperes. An ampere-hour represents an amount of electricity equal to one ampere flow- ing one hour. The term load refers to the current that is required. Resistance is the property that causes a body to oppose the free flow of electricity. The specific resistance of many ma- terials is known. The unit of resistance is the ohm which is the resistance of a uniform column of mercury 106.3 centimeters long and 14.4521 grams in mass at the temperature of melting ice. The unit of electrical work is the energy ex- pended by one ampere in one second in over- coming the resistance of one ohm. This unit of energy is called the joule. The unit of electri- cal power is the watt being the joule per second. The watt is also called the volt-ampere; 1000 watts equals one kilowatt. The kilowatt-hour 257 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE is the energy expended in one hour when the power is one kilowatt; 746 watts equals one horse-power. Electric Lighting. For supplying electrical en- ergy to lamps several systems are employed. The direct-current, constant-potential system, may be from two-wire to seven-wire systems. The direct-current, constant-current, system, is used largely for municipal lighting. The alternating-current, constant-potential system, may be a single-phase, two-phase or three-phase system. The difference between a direct current and alternating current is that the former is uniform in strength and direction while the latter rapidly rises from zero to a maximum, falls to zero, reverses its direction, attains a maximum in a new direction and again returns to zero. The alternating current allows a greater simplic- ity in dynamos and motors, a facility for trans- forming from one voltage to another and other advantages. Personal Hazard. There is an element of danger in connection with operating electric lights and devices. The chief one is in turning on a lamp or a switch with wet fingers while one hand is in a basin of water. Another is in per- forming the same action from the bath tub. In all cases it is well to avoid handling electrical apparatus with wet hands or while standing on a wet floor, since water is a good conductor, and any fixture may be faulty. Electric Wiring. In brief, current for use in a house is brought from the wires of the lighting company which probably carry 220 volts. This 258 LIGHTING electric current is brought in by means of feed wires which should be in a non-conspicuous place. Just inside of the wall where they enter a main fuse block and switch should be installed. A distribution cabinet is placed near the centre of the building from which necessary circuits are provided for the house, each of which may be controlled by a switch in this cabinet. Each circuit carries 660 watts. In case of more than one story in the building a cabinet is placed on each floor and the circuits for that floor dis- tributed from it. Thus all lights in a building may be controlled by switches in cut-out cab- inets. A circuit usually comprises about 12 outlets and is used for a definite room or suite of rooms for the sake of convenience. In general, electric wiring is installed either as a knob and tube system or a conduit system, all work being concealed. When wires are not confined within conduits or pipes they are simply fastened to the structural parts of the building by means of porcelain, glass, rubber and other insulating materials. All wires exposed to air and moisture must rely for protection upon their own insulation. Conduits are made of wrought iron pipes, flexible iron pipes, brass covered pipes, and woven insulated tubes. The function of the conduit is to carry electric wires and to protect them from mechanical injury and out- side influences, as far as possible. In brick, tile and concrete construction it is customary to use a conduit system of wiring. In all high- class work a conduit system is far better than the common system. The greatest danger in 259 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE connection with electric wiring is the accidental forming of "short circuits." This is most usually caused by wires having the insulation burned off and coming into contact. Unpro- tected wires becoming wet, water being an excellent electrical conductor, a current may pass from one wire to another by sparks, setting fire to any inflammable material which may be near. If the wires themselves are properly insulated and are also in conduits this danger is eliminated. Conduits extend not only the length of every wire in the building but are used in the form of boxes at junctions of wires, outlets and switches. The National Board of Fire Underwriters have prepared a set of rules for the installation of all electric wiring and fixtures which is a recognized standard. To obtain insurance on a building it is necessary that the National electric code has been followed. Moreover, most of the towns and cities of the United States have adopted this code as a part of the building ordinances. Switches. The electric switch is a device for opening and closing a circuit supplying a current to an outlet or series of outlets. For controlling a lamp a switch is connected with a loop from the lamp and with the distributing or circuit wire. For controlling a series of lamps perhaps all in one large room a switch is cut into the circuit that feeds the lamps. The mechanism of switches is varied. For house use or for con- trolling the various lamps in the dwelling a push button switch set flush in the wall of the room is most satisfactory. For controlling a circuit 260 LIGHTING a double pole knife switch is commonly used, being placed in the cut-out cabinet. Switches may be one-way, three-way or four-way switches. A one-way switch is the ordinary appliance used to turn on or off the light from one point only, which point would be conveniently near the entrance door to the room. A three-way switch is an appliance whereby a light may be turned on upon entering one door of a room and turned off upon leaving the room through another door. Two three-way switches and intermediate four- way switches are commonly used on stairways, so that at any floor or landing the lights on the stairs may be controlled. Circuit Breakers, Cut-Outs and Fuses. These are the great safety devices in any system of wiring. Their object is to shut off electrical current from any part of the system when a dangerous amount of current passes through the wire. Circuit breakers are automatic switches used on switch boards in large installations to open circuits instantly and to take the place of fuses when the latter are not convenient or when the latter are subject to frequent renewals. A cut-out is a porcelain appliance with a fuse inserted between the ends of the wires used in the cut-out cabinet to protect a circuit. A fuse is any small piece of fusible material inserted in a wire which when overheated by a current melts away thereby breaking the circuit. Fuses, cut- outs and circuit breakers must necessarily be employed throughout an installation to protect every part and the whole of it. The ordinary fuse plug in common use when burned out by 261 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE accident such as overloading of wire may be readily replaced if a supply of fuses of proper capacity is always on hand. A very common cause of blowing out a fuse is the use of an instrument like an electric iron on an electric light outlet, this instrument consuming more power than the circuit is able to provide. A blow-out necessitates simply the insertion of a new plug which would cost probably five cents. Lamps. Lamps are of two kinds, arc and incandescent. Arc lamps are used mostly for exterior illumination. Incandescent lamps are of a number of varieties the principle of illumina- tion being the heating of the small wire inside of the globe to a state of white heat or incandes- cence. These lamps have been developed re- markably of late and are now very economical of current. The old carbon incandescent lamps were not economical. Electric lamps are rated in watts or power consumption. Incandescent lamps are connected to dis- tribution wires in three ways: in series, in par- allel and in parallel series. When lamps of a circuit are arranged one after another so that the current flows through all of them the lamps are in series. When the lamps of a circuit are arranged with two wires connecting with the wires of a circuit they are lamps in parallel. This is the common method of wiring and prob- ably the best. Any one lamp may be controlled by a switch of its own, or the whole number on the circuit may be turned on or off at one time by the use of a knife switch. When the lamps of a circuit are arranged in sets on a wire between 262 LIGHTING the two wires of a circuit they are lamps in parallel series. This is simply a combination of the other two methods of wiring for lamps. A three-wire system is also in use. Method of Calculation. In electric lighting calculations, for the sake of convenience, the term "lumen" is used. A lumen is the quantity or flux of light necessary to produce one foot- candle average intensity of illumination over an area of one square foot. As an example, cal- culate the lighting for a dining room thirteen feet square and ten feet high. First, assume that the intensity of illumination should be 2 foot- candles for a dining room, the color of the walls and ceiling being dark. The area, 169 sq. ft., times 2 foot-candles equals 338. Assume that 60% of the light is absorbed by the reflector, walls and ceiling, leaving 40% of efficient light. Divide 338 by .40 to get the total light in lumens required. This will be 845 lumens, the quantity of light needed. The lumens of electric lamps are known so that it is comparatively easy to select lamps of certain wattage that will answer the purpose and to locate the fixtures where uniform light will be produced. An element to be taken into consideration in calculation is dust on lamps. Much dust may reduce the efficiency of a lamp 25%. All lamps and fixtures should be cleaned very often. Methods of Illumination and Fixtures. Light- ing or illumination is accomplished by the di- rect method and by the indirect method. The former consists of illuminating the room by means of lamps with the lights diffused or re- 263 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE fleeted directly. The latter consists of conceal- ing all the lamps behind solid or opaque reflectors but allowing light to shine upon the walls and ceilings from where it is reflected onto surfaces to be illuminated. Indirect lighting requires more electricity but produces a more satisfactory light than does direct lighting. The light is better diffused and consequently easier on the eyes. A combination of the two methods in house lighting is pleasing. Sometimes a fixture combines the two either by the use of an opaque bowl reflector or by having lamps" on the under side of a bowl for direct lighting. Portable lamps used on a table must necessarily be for direct lighting but whether on a reading table, dining room table, or writing desk should never have the naked lights exposed to the eye. A shade or reflector is necessary. Reading lamps should of course focus intense but well diffused light. Dining room lamps should either be high over the table so as to throw light in a general manner or should be very low so as not to be an obstruc- tion to the gaze. Lamps which of necessity must be in the line of vision should be en- closed with a globe and may diffuse soft colored light. The materials used for fixtures by manufac- turers is most varied. Every year new designs appear on the market. Selections of lighting fixtures is a matter of taste and discrimination. Only articles that will be of permanent wear should be used. They may be of iron, brass, bronze, glass or other materials. Plated ware is not desirable. The more simple designs are 264 LIGHTING best in that they are not tiresome and are easily kept clean. The lighting fixture should not be considered an ornament but a means of sup- porting lamps. The lamp itself may be either purposely ornamental or simply utilitarian. 265 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Show by diagram how electric lamps may be placed on a circuit. (2) Show by diagram a good arrangement of lamps in a familiar living room. (3) Lay out a scheme of furnishing electric current to a residence for lighting purposes showing feed wires, meter, cut-out cabinet, distribution panels, and circuits. REFERENCES Barrows. Light, Photometry and Illumination. Bell. The Art of Illumination. Lynde. Physics of the Household. 266 CHAPTER XVI. PLUMBING INTRODUCTION. Plumbing includes hot and cold water supply, drainage and sew- age systems, incidental appliances of the same nature and sometimes gas fitting or piping for gas. Good plumbing depends largely upon the mechanic intrusted with the work of in- stallation and upon the quality of materials used. It is necessary in the plumbing work of a resi- dence to depend largely upon the plumber himself. Water Supply. Water is supplied to houses by pressure from a municipal or private water plant. Pipes employed for conveying cold water are usually made of wrought iron. Lead pipes were once used extensively. It has been ascer- tained that as a general average one person in a household consumes about twenty-five gallons of water each day. A horse or cow consumes about seven gallons a day and a carriage or machine requires ten to twenty gallons per day. Under certain conditions much more water will be consumed than here stated. Lawns and gardens may require a vast amount of water. It follows that the size of the pipe supplying the house must be sufficient to produce a strong flow so that when water is being drawn from a number of faucets at a time the flow from any faucet will not be materially diminished. In case of fire an especially strong flow of water may be found to be essential. The pressure and size of the pipe determine the flow of water. In high pressure water systems a one-half inch pipe may be large enough while in a low pres- sure system a one and one-half inch pipe may 267 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE be necessary. Low pressure means a pressure of less than twenty pounds per square inch. When the pressure is very low it may be neces- sary to provide a house tank, that is, a tank in the attic to receive a constant small stream of water and thus form a reservoir from which a large stream may be drawn at any time for a limited period or until the tank is nearly empty. The capacity of a house tank or storage tank should be 200 gallons. It should be constructed of sheet lead, galvanized iron or zinc as lining for a strong wooden tank. When city water pressure is very high, it may be necessary to reduce it before the water enters the house system on account 4 of danger of breaking ap- paratus. Hot water is provided by a gravity system of waterflow in which water from the city supply or from a tank of soft water in the attic flows through the range or heater and is stored in a hot water tank. These systems vary somewhat, but it is important that the loop for circulation of water be so constructed that there is a constant flow from the boiler around the loop and back to the boiler regardless of whether or not hot water is being drawn off. In this method of construction, hot water con- tinues to circulate even when the city water is turned off. Water pipes should not be placed in outside walls where freezing is common unless the pipes are especially well protected. It often happens that plumbing fixtures are more convenient on outside walls so that it is necessary to take precautions against freezing. 268 PLUMBING Drainage. Drainage means the conducting of rain water from the roof, surface water from the grounds and seepage water from the base- ment floor and other floors either above or below grade. Rain water may be conducted from the roof to a cistern and used for the house since in many localities city water is not suitable for washing purposes, being, like much well water, too hard. Water is conducted from a roof by means of a gutter at the eaves and down spouts leading to drain tiles beneath the surface of the ground. Gutters and down spouts are made of tin, copper or galvanized iron. Drain tile below grade are of the ordinary terra cotta tile. Where a cistern is used it is necessary to have a shut-off in order that excessive water may be turned from the cistern into the drain tile. Drain tiles at the foot of the foundation wall should be provided to carry off the water that seeps through the soil thereby preventing the basement walls from absorbing moisture which would cause a damp cellar. At certain places in the basement, outlets for water should be provided to which tiles are joined all leading to the sewer or to the low point and natural drain- age of the property. Laundries and bathrooms especially require floor drainage. Drain tiles leading to the sewer must be constructed with traps like that of the private sewer in order to prevent sewer gas from escaping back into the house. All parts of the grounds should be drained either by means of gradual slopes or by means of tile in order that rain water will quickly flow to its outlet. Depressions of any kind require 269 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE a special drainage treatment. Steep hills where water may flow in a small torrent on the surface very often require concrete boxes or catch basins into which the water may pour but be further conducted by means of tile. Such boxes should have a lid constructed of slats, a perforated board or an iron grating in order that rubbish may not fill the inside. A tile leading from this kind of box is not placed in the bottom because it is necessary that the silt be allowed to deposit there to keep the tile itself clear. This silt should be removed occasionally. Sewers. Ordinarily all liquid waste from a house is conducted to the public sewer by means of pipes. Pipes inside of the house are made of cast or wrought iron and fitted together by means of threads and sleeves in an air-tight manner. The pipes leading from sinks and lavatories are called waste pipes and are usually two inches in diameter. Those from water- closets are called soil pipes and are usually four inches in diameter. Iron pipes lead to a few feet outside of the basement wall where they are connected to vitrified tile laid together with cement mortar forming a continuous pipe lead- ing to the street sewer. Certain precautions are necessary in plumbing installation to insure perfect sanitation and to prevent the entrance of sewer gas into the dwelling. To accomplish this a system of traps and vents has been invented and is required by practically every city building ordinance. A trap is a device which allows liquid to flow through it but prevents the pas- sage of gas in either direction. The ordinary 270 PLUMBING trap consists of a downward crook in the waste or soil pipe which constantly holds water thereby forming what is called a water seal. Pressure of water from above forces the water contained in the trap on through the pipe but other water takes its place. A great pressure of air or gas may blow out a water seal but a trap is or- dinarily not subjected to such pressure. On the under side of the trap a trap screw is in- variably provided for cleaning out the pipe. Since all sewer pipes at times contain gas it is necessary to provide an outlet for it. This is accomplished by erecting a pipe called a vent stack from a point beneath the trap to a point above the roof. Gas then has a natural means of escape. Every plumbing fixture including water-closets, sinks and lavatories must be provided with a trap and a vent stack. Quite often the four-inch soil pipe is extended from the basement through the roof becoming in its upper extremity the vent. Each fixture with its trap is connected to it by means of two pipes, one for drainage and the other for ventilation. Traps are of a great many types all of which answer the same purpose. Waste water from kitchen sinks usually con- tains grease which will eventually clog sewer pipes unless removed. Removal is accomplished by the construction of grease traps consisting of a basin made of lead or tile into which the waste water pours before entering the sewer. The pipe which carries the water from a grease trap is projected into the lower part of it since the grease itself always collects at the top of the pool. 271 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE The depth of the water is held constant at the horizontal line of the outlet pipe and the whole trap is ventilated like any other fixture. Septic Tanks. For an isolated house where a sewer is an impossibility it is necessary to pro- vide a cesspool or septic tank with an absorp- tion system, which should be located perhaps forty feet at least from the house and should accommodate only the sewage rather than the drainage water. A cesspool is simply an under- ground tank or cistern made of brick or plank set together in such a way that water may seep into the surrounding soil. It is essential there- fore that the surrounding soil be porous, gravel being the most serviceable. A cesspool is only a temporary structure. As soon as it becomes full of solid matter it is cleaned out or abandoned and a new one built. It should be sufficiently below the surface to prevent the escape of gas. All gas formed should be conducted by means of a vent pipe to a high point above the roof of the dwelling. A very efficient way of taking care of sewage is by means of a septic tank made of concrete. Certain principles are involved in the destruction of waste matter and the carrying off of the harmless liquid resulting from the proc- ess. The sewage flows through a regular sewer pipe into a part of the septic tank which is air tight, where bacteria that thrive without the presence of free oxygen act upon the contents. From the first compartment the liquid flows into a second part, which is ventilated, where bacteria that thrive in the presence of oxygen act and thereby cause the liquid to be purified. 272 PLUMBING It is necessary that the surface of the water in the septic tank be not disturbed so that the sys- tem of flow of sewage is by means of siphons. For disposing of the liquid from a septic tank a set of tile pipes may carry it to a field where it performs a function of irrigation or with seepage water may be drained off by a tile or an open ditch. Fixtures. The materials employed for plumb- ing fixtures are marble, porcelain, vitreous ware, enameled iron, tile and soapstone. Originally marble was used most extensively but has come into disuse. Perhaps the best plumbing fixtures are now made out of porcelain. It is a hard impervious material, white or cream white in color and is of an attractive appearance in gen- eral. It is made in several grades, the best being very expensive. Vitreous ware resembles porce- lain but is of a bluish white color. It costs about the same as the cheaper qualities of porce- lain. Enameled iron for plumbing fixtures is cast iron enameled on the surface. It is used more extensively than any other material on account of its cheapness and durability. The chief drawback to the use of enameled iron in plumbing fixtures is the tendency of enamel to crack when exposed to undue heat. The best enameled iron is guaranteed to withstand sudden application of hot water. Tile is an elegant material for certain plumbing fixtures but re- quires skillful workmanship to produce satis- factory results. In the use of tile it is essential that the tile be impervious to water and that the cement used in laying the tile be durable. Soap- 273 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE stone is used especially for counters and sinks and is very practical. Perhaps the most important plumbing fixture in a house is the water-closet. These are being improved year by year with the general tendency to obtain a fixture that is perfectly sanitary, convenient and noiseless. The manufacturers show very efficient models. The various parts of a water-closet should be so constructed as to be very plain and easily cleaned. Perhaps no one modern fixture is better in every respect than any other. The siphon type of closet in which the water enters at the rim above the bowl and the contents are siphoned out at the bottom in a noiseless manner is probably the best. Lava- tories are of a large number of patterns, among which are the pedestal lavatory, the bracket lavatory and the built-in lavatory. Each may be of any material and of convenient size and shape to fit the space provided for it. Perhaps the lavatory set away from the wall on brackets with the pipes from the wall rather than from the floor is the most sanitary and the most easily kept clean. Bath tubs are of three types, those with a base, those with four separate feet and those built into the wall or sometimes into an alcove. It is necessary that small spaces behind and be- neath tubs be eliminated since they invariably collect dirt and are difficult of access. A model type of bath tub is one sunk in the floor of the bathroom and enclosed with a brass railing. Steps may lead into it at a convenient place. Such a bath tub may be made of any waterproof 274 PLUMBING material but is best made of glazed white tile. They are not as expensive as would seem at first thought and occupy very little more space than ordinary bath tubs. The main objection to them is the space occupied below the floor level. Foot baths, infant baths, showers and other fixtures of many patterns are in the market from which very suitable bath equipment may be selected. The main considerations in regard to plumbing fixtures are to have them free from crevices, set well away from other materials which absorb moisture, and provided with backs to accommodate faucets. Kitchen sinks and laundry tubs, like other plumbing fixtures, may be had in many designs. Perhaps the most practical kitchen sink is one of enameled iron rather than of a more expensive material. Also a kitchen sink incorporated in the kitchen counter provided with a back of its own is more convenient than the combina- tion sink and drain boards provided by manu- facturers. The question of kitchen sinks resolves itself into one of preference. Certain special sinks for the pantry and also slop sinks for use in general cleaning are found to be very conven- ient if space and money can be provided for them. Laundry tubs are made in convenient series of two or three trays. They also may be of porcelain, vitreous ware, enameled iron, soap- stone or cement. 275 SKETCH PROBLEMS (1) Show by diagram the principle of ventilating any plumbing fixture. (2) Show by sketch how rain water flowing down the side of a gravel walk may be properly taken care of. (3) Design a model concrete septic tank. REFERENCES Clark. The Care of a House. Putnam. Plumbing and Household Sanitation. Starbuck. Standard Practical Plumbing. 276 CHAPTER XVII. GARDENS AND GROUNDS INTRODUCTION. Architecture, landscape architecture and gardening are closely re- lated. The treatment of a home grounds including the three should be harmonious. Although we may not name the style of. our dwelling, certain architectural characteristics al- most invariably suggest either formal or in- formal garden treatment. Ordinarily, in the case of American homes, formal treatment has a leaning to Colonial, French or Italian style, while informal treatment has a leaning to Eng- lish. For the sake of convenience, and on ac- count of common usage, these terms for styles may be employed. Intimacy. The great quality to be acquired in landscape gardening is intimacy. A garden must be not only attractive but compelling. The house should be concealed rather than re- vealed, and should become a part of an inviting landscape. To accomplish this end the garden must commence at the walls of the building with vines and shrubs, and the garden path must lead one from the door to pleasant retreats. It may here be said that environment has a direct influence on the mind and body, and that natural beauty at the threshold is an everlasting inspiration. Character. In the beginning, or when a site is in its natural condition, the prominent char- acteristic of that .site should be emphasized in the final result of house and garden. If this characteristic is purposely destroyed or slighted, 277 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE the product is very apt to be a misfit in the broad landscape, or at least will have the ap- pearance of artificiality. In some cases, es- pecially in suburban properties, the whole topography or lay of the land may be changed by grading, thereby establishing a new condi- tion which may be pleasing. Whole hills have been washed down by hydraulic processes, forming roads and terraces, and buildings have been erected which were not only conveniently accessible, but which were well placed in a sort of artificial formality. Also dull sites have been made over by forming lakes and other features which produced a pleasing but artificial infor- mality. These two landscape treatments are really extreme and costly, and do not compare with natural beauty. Large grounds should be treated broadly and left untouched as far as possible. The treatment would consist chiefly of clearing the ground of undesirable brush and debris, and saving and improving the turf, trees and other natural assets. At proper places on the grounds, the flower garden, vegetable garden, orchard, outbuildings, and the special features should be intensively developed. In almost all cases a formal spot of garden is desirable, the exact nature of it depending upon the personal taste of the owner, the house, the soil and the climate. Climate is a highly important consideration in all landscape gardening, for self-evident reasons. The land of firs may not be treated like the land of palms. Suburban grounds must necessarily be treated 278 GARDENS AND GROUNDS in a smaller and more compaj 5t>op o r^ L z [-2 5 kJ o t ? 2 v> o I a Z ? o D P z ^ ra O 2 2 C 1 k TLOOK . /roiTJJAII.^ ^0 o F ^ J & z E5 1 1 ~~*l WOO-21 WO.VQ / D 11 ) = i I n h j ^ Plate 50 INDICATIONS USED ON PLANS 345 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE so that a layman can tell what they mean to a great extent. Thus a door is indicated by a line which looks like a door ajar. It is necessary to learn these conventional indications which may be accomplished by copying Plate 50. Eleva- tions are made as literally as possible, that is, each part is actually drawn. In large scale drawings many more details or small parts may be shown than in small scale drawings. Architectural Terms. Many terms are so fa- miliar as to need no mention such as door, win- dow, roof, etc. Other terms are so unfamiliar as need never to be mentioned such as finial, intaglia, ichnography, etc. However, there are a number of terms used by architects and build- ers which should be known to a student of do- mestic architecture. A list of these comprises the glossary of architectural terms on page 359. Dimensions. SUGGESTED DIMENSIONS OF ROOMS Minimum Maximum Kitchens 8' x 8' 19' x 19' Pass pantries 5' x 5' 7' x 12' Dining rooms II' x 14' 17' x 25' Living rooms 13' x 17' 21' x 40' Libraries, music rooms, museums. . .Alcoves i$'x-35' Reception rooms 10' x 10' 13' x 20' Bedrooms f x 1 1 ' 17' x 25' Bathrooms 5' x 6' 9' x 15' Laundry 9' x 9' 17' x 17' Nursery 8' x 8' 13' x 17' Billiard rooms 13' x 17' 15' x 20' Halls with double stairway 6' wide 15' wide Passages with single stairway 3' wide 5' wide Front porches 10' wide 20' wide Back porches 4' wide 14' wide 346 DRAFTING ROOM MANUAL USUAL DIMENSIONS OF BUILT-IN PARTS 1. Fireplaces 3' o" to 4' 6", width of open- ing. 2. Kitchen shelves 12" wide to 4" wide. 3. Bookcase shelves 10" wide to 6" wide. 4. Working counters 34" high, 22" wide. 5. Tables same height as counters when used in kitchen. 6. Window seats 16" to 24" high, 20" wide. 7. Doors and windows 7' high, usually. 8. Width of windows 2' to 4'. 9. Casement, or French windows 2' each, in pairs. 10. Large window for special purpose, land- scape window of plate glass 6' to 8' wide. 11. Width of inside doors 2' 6". Closet doors are sometimes narrower. Living and din- ing room doors are sometimes wider, 3' to 4'. 12. Width of outside doors 3' o" to 3' 6". 13. Width of cupboard doors 16". Sliding cup- board doors are often wider. 14. Steps consist of treads and risers. In plan the treads (T) show and in elevation the risers (R) show. Riser Tread Outside steps 4" 14" easy T + R=i8" 5" 13" good 6" 12" average 7" 11" steep Inside steps 5" 12" easy T + R=i7" 6" ii" good 7" 10" average 8" 9" steep 347 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS OF FURNITURE Dining chairs 18" high, 19" deep, 20" wide. Davenports 8' long 30" wide. Dining tables 2' 6" high, 3' 6" to 4' o" wide; also 4', 5', 6' diameter. Reading tables 2' 6" high. Beds single, 3' to 4' wide, 6' 8" long. Three-quarter, 4' to 4' 4" wide. Double, 5' wide. Chiffoniers 3' wide, i' 6" deep, 4' 6" high. Dressers 3' 6" wide, i' 6" deep, 2' 6" high. Pianos Upright 5' long, 2' 4" deep. Baby grands 6' long, 4' 6" deep. Parlor grands 6' 6" long, 5' deep. Concert grands 9' long, 5' deep. Billiard tables 4' to 5' wide, 8' to 10' long. Range 2' 6" x 4' o" '. DIMENSIONS OF PLUMBING FIXTURES Bath tubs 30" wide, 4' to 6' long. Lavatories 16" x 20" or 14" to 16" diameter. Water-closets width 16", depth, 24". Foot baths 22" x 20". Seat baths 32" x 27". Shower baths 4' o" x 4' o", floor space. Kitchen sinks 16" x 24" to 20" x 36". Slop sinks 16" x 16". Pantry sinks 14" x 20". Laundry tubs 16" x 24" each. Range boilers 12" to 20" diameter. Equipment for Rooms. Note: All parts and articles are not essential. 348 DRAFTING ROOM MANUAL I. Kitchen. a. Range. b. Flue. Locate chimney first and plan to have the range directly by the chim- ney. c. Gas or electric range. d. Hot water tank near to range. e. Wood lift, if used, or wood box. f. Sink and drain boards. Drain boards should be as long as possible and on both sides of the sink. If only one, it should be on the left. g. Cupboards, bearing in mind what goes in each. h. Stool and chair. i. Service wagon, j. Cooler, k. Ice-box. 1. Kitchen closet, for brooms, etc. m. Working counter and bins, dresser or cabinet. n. Outside door. o. Cellar door, close to kitchen, p. Windows on two sides. q. Register, if heated by hot air. Radiator, if heated by steam or hot water. Note: One of these is needed if gas or electric range is used. r. Central light from ceiling and wall brackets, s. Power outlets (at least 3) for electric machines. t. Ironing board and cabinet. 349 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 2. Dining room. a. Buffet or sideboard. b. China cupboard. c. Service table at pass pantry door or kitchen door. d. Dining room suite. e. As many windows as possible, a con- servatory. f. Lighting and heating apparatus. 3. Pantries. I. Pass pantry. II. Storage pantry. a. Counters. b. Cupboards. c. Sink. d. Lighting apparatus. 4. Den. a. Fireplace. b. Bookcases. c. Davenport. d. Heating and lighting apparatus. 5. Hall. a. Windows and doors. b. Stairway. c. Vestibule preceding hall. d. Cloak closet with shelves, hooks and lavatory. e. Seat or stand. f. Heating and lighting apparatus. 6. Living room. a. Fireplace. b. Piano, space on inside wall. c. Window seats. 35 DRAFTING ROOM MANUAL d. Other furniture. e. Heating and lighting apparatus. 7. Reception room. a. Formal equipment. b. Heating and lighting apparatus. 8. Libraries. a. Bookcases. b. Table. c. Heating and lighting apparatus. 9. Bedrooms. a. Bed. b. Dressing table. c. Chiffonier, or dresser. d. Night stand. e. Wardrobe or closet. f. Heating and lighting apparatus. 10. Dressing room. a. Hanging space. b. Wardrobe. c. Dressing table. d. Heating and lighting apparatus. 11. Bathroom. a. Plumbing fixtures. b. Heating and lighting apparatus. c. Medicine case. d. Towel case. e. Linen closet in proximity. 351 PROBLEMS IN DESIGN Problem I: Conventional Plan Details. Copy Plate 50 at scale of $4" equals i' o". Use sheet of paper 22" x 16" and allow a border i" wide on all sides. Use HB pencil for all lines and letter- ing. Sign name in lower right hand corner. Problem II: A Kitchen Wing to House of Colonial Type. Assume a symmetrical Colonial house 48' x 30', having on the first floor a parlor, a music room, a living room, a hall 10' wide through the centre and a dining room on the northeast corner. The house faces south and is a frame structure having walls six inches thick. The family to occupy the house will maintain one domestic. Design a kitchen wing on the north side of the main rectangular unit reached from both the front hall and the dining room. The wing or addition to the house is to contain a back hall, a stairway up and down, a porch, a pass pantry and a kitchen fully equipped. The addition may have a breakfast room, a closet and a dining room porch. Drawing is to be presented as a sketch plan at scale of ^2" equals i' o" '. All lines are to be firm pencil lines and walls are to be colored with yellow pencil. See Plates 22, 23, 24 and 25. Size of paper is to be regulation size. Problem III: A Formal Cottage. Assume a lot 100' x loc/ in a small New England town. The lot has two fronts, north and east, on equally important streets and is practically level. The house is to accommodate two people. Design a formal cottage containing a living 352 PROBLEMS IN DESIGN room, a dining room, a kitchen, two bedrooms and all accessories including halls, bathroom, closets, linen closet, chimneys and porches. Only these rooms and no others are to be pro- vided. The house may be one and one-half stories high. Draw plan or plans, if two, at the scale of %" equals i' o" '. Locate in the rooms all equip- ment. Built-in fixtures are to be indicated by light solid lines and movable fixtures and furni- ture by dotted lines. See Plate 16. Problem IV: An Informal Cottage. Assume a small farm in the middle west which is the home of a retired professor. The building site for a new house is on a slight elevation away from the main road and is in the centre of a grove of white oaks. The family to occupy the house or cottage consists of four adult members. No hired help will be employed in the beginning but may be needed at a later time. Design an informal cottage of eight rooms and accessories preferably all on one floor but with a stairway to the attic where may be sleeping porches and store rooms. Draw plan or plans at scale of %" equals i' o". See Plate 21. Problem V: A Typical Bungalow on the Pacific Coast. Assume a lot 50' x 100' facing east in the centre of a block. The village is situated in a valley and contains for the most part cement plaster houses. The building is to accommodate three people at most, who live modestly on a limited income. The building is to be salable and consequently should not be extreme. Design a bungalow conveniently and econom- 353 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE ically arranged. The ground area may not be more than 1,200 square feet. The distance from the basement floor to the centre of the attic space may not be more than 22 feet. The cubic contents, therefore, may be only 26,400 cubic feet. At 9J^> cents per cubic foot the build- ing could cost about $2,500. The interior and exterior finish must be very simple. Make drawings of plan at scale of %" equals i' o" and of elevation at scale of %" equals i' o". See Plates 17 and 19. Problem VI: A House for the Average Family. Assume a typical narrow lot 50' x 100' facing north in a good suburban district of a middle eastern small city. On this lot is to be erected a house to accommodate a family of two adults and three children and also at times one do- mestic. Design an economical but artistic frame struc- ture with two main floor areas having a living room, dining room, small study, kitchen, halls, porches, bath, four bedrooms, sleeping porch and all necessary accessories. It is suggested that the main entrance be at one side rather than in the front of the building. Draw first floor and second floor plans at the scale of ^" equals i' o". Problem VII: A Prairie Farmhouse. Assume a farm of 640 acres in Illinois operated by the owner. Besides the owner and his wife there are four growing children, two hired women and two hired men comprising the household. The chosen site for the structure is a slightly ele- vated tract of land 400 feet square on the public 354 PROBLEMS IN DESIGN highway facing south. The tract is barren of trees. Design a farmhouse of the old New England type providing living room, dining room, kitchen, store pantry, wash room, fuel room, milk room, office, sewing room, two bathrooms, seven bed- rooms, halls and closets, and also a sitting room for hired help. Although the house is to have many rooms they are to be small to reduce cost. All treatments are to be very simple especially exterior porches, cornices, etc. The basement may be used for some rooms. Draw first floor, second floor and basement plans at scale of %" equals i' o". Also make a very small or thumb-nail sketch of exterior. Estimate cost of this structure allowing for ex- penditure to make the house ready for occu- pancy the sum of 9 cents per cubic foot of con- tents. Problem VIII: A Plastered House of English Type. Assume a large building site in a small Oregon town where the climate is moderate but very rainy. A family of five desire to erect a permanent, bright and convenient dwelling at low cost. Consequently a frame house with cement plaster finish is selected as the type. On account of the desire for brightness no wide projecting cornices are wanted and for the same reason many casement windows are to be em- ployed. Design a practical house of unsymmetrical proportions containing a living room, dining room, den, kitchen, pass pantry, bathroom, four bedrooms and all necessary accessories. 3SS Terraces are preferred to covered porches and a sleeping porch is desired in the second story. If possible, a play room in the attic is to be in- corporated since this style of house would have a steep roof and consequently a roomy attic space. Draw first and second floor plans at 1 / 8 ff scale and two elevations at y?." scale. Estimate cost of structure allowing only 8 cents for each cubic foot of contents. The height of this building from basement floor to middle of attic space would be about 32' o". Problem IX: A Colonial House. Assume a building site in a suburban district near a large city. The site is very pleasing, having a gradual slope back from the street in front and being level with the two side streets that bound it on the east and west. An alley is in the rear. The dimensions of the lot are 200' x 200'. It is the intention of the owner to erect a permanent brick dwelling upon the site to be used by a household consisting of two adults, five children and two domestics. Design a Colonial house to cost not more than $10,000. The building is to be especially dignified and at the same time homelike. Draw plans of first and second floors at scale of y 8 " equals i' o", and a very small sketch elevation. See Plates 12, 13 and 14, and also Plates 10, ii and 16. Problem X: A Garden for an Informal House. Assume that the house shown on Plate 15 is to be located on a lot 200' x 200' with the street on the north side of the lot but the outlook 356 PROBLEMS IN DESIGN toward the south. The ground slopes in all directions very gradually. Design the garden showing drives, walks, garden structures and plantings. Make a sketch plan at scale of i" equals 20'. See Plate 47 for indications. Problem XI: The Main Wall of a Bungalow Living Room. Assume an informal cottage or bungalow living room to have a north wall 9' high and 16' long. This wall has in it one or more windows, a fireplace and other features. Design the main wall of a bungalow living room, giving it architectural treatment and balance. Make an elevation at scale i" equals i' o". Show all woodwork especially. See Plates 26, 27, 28 and 29. Problem XII: Kitchen Details. Draw eleva- tion and section through counter and bins of fixtures indicated on north wall of kitchen shown on Plate 22. Make drawings at scale i" equals o". See Plates 34 and 35. Problem XIII: Own House. Assume a build- ing site and design own house of any style to cost not more than $3,500. Make plans at scale of yh" equals i' o". 357 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 1. Abacus: The upper member of the capital of a column. 2. Alcove: A large recess in a room usually separated from it by an arch or beam. 3. Apron: A piece of wood finish below the stool of the window. 4. Arcade: A series of arches. See Plate 38. 5. Arch: The form of an opening or treatment having a curved top. See Plate 38. 6. Architrave: The lower part of an entablature. A door or window casing. 7. Area: An open space below grade in front of a base- ment window. 8. Ashlar: A facing of squared stones. See Plate 39. 9. Astragal: A semicircular moulding. A wood strip , covering the crack between two hinged doors or windows. See Plate 36. 10. Axis (plural, Axes). A straight line, imaginary, through the centre. 11. Backfill: Material thrown into an excavation against a foundation wall. See Plate 42. 12. Backing: A rough surface behind a finish material. 13. Balcony: A projecting floor and balustrade. 14. Baluster: One of the spindles or columns forming a balustrade. See Plate 39. 15. Balustrade: A series of balusters between a base and a rail supported at intervals by pedestals or columns. See Plate 39. 16. Band: A flat moulding or facia. See Plate 36. 17. Barge Board. One of a pair of boards under the verge of a gable usually supported by brackets. See Plate 43. 18. Base: A lower part. 19. Batten: A small strip of wood. 20. Batter: An incline in a wall away from the front. 21. Bay: A division in architectural treatment. 22. Bead: A circular moulding. See Plate 36. 23. Beam: A horizontal support. Beams are often non- supporting or false. 359 DOMESTIC ARCHITECURE 24. Bed Mould: A moulding fitted under a wide project- ing part. 25. Belt: A horizontal band or set of mouldings. 26. Bevel: The surface obtained by cutting off a sharp corner. 27. Bond: A binding or pattern showing method of binding. See Plate 40. 28. Bracket: An ornamental projecting member sup- porting a cornice or a beam. See Plate 37. 29. Bridging: S'tiffeners between joists or studs. 30. Butt Joint: A joint formed by placing the end of one member against another member. 31. Buttress: A mass of masonry projecting beyond a wall to take thrust or pressure. See Plate 38. 32. Cap or Capital: The upper part or member of a column, pier or pilaster. 33. Casement: A hinged window. 34. Chute: A small open shaft, as a linen chute. See Plate 12. 35. Clerestory: The upper part of a high story having a set of windows. See Plate 38. 36. Colonnade: A series of columns. 37. Column: A post or round pillar. See Plate 3 8. 38. Conductor: A metal pipe for conducting water from the roof or eaves. 39. Conduit: A pipe to carry an electric wire. Any pipe or tunnel for conducting. 40. Coping: A continuous capping for a wall. 41. Corbel: A projection in a masonry wall made by setting courses beyond the lower ones. 42. Cornice: The crowning member of a wall. See Plate 43. 43. Counter Shelf: The narrow shelf in front of a cup- board at the counter line. 44. Cove or Coving: A continuous concave surface. See Plate 35. 45. Crown: An uppermost moulding. 46. Curb: A very small, low wall. 47. Curb Roof: See Plate 38. 48. Deck: The flat part of a roof. See Plate 38. 49. Dentil: One of a series of ornamental cogs or teeth. 360 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 50. Dormer: A small projection from a roof containing a window. See Plate 38. 51. Double-action Door: A door swinging both ways. See Plate 50. 52. Dowel: A wood or metal pin used to hold two parts together. 53. Downspout: See conductor. 54. Drip: A groove cut on the under side of a projecting part to cause rain water to drip rather than flow back to the wall. 55. Eaves: That part of a roof which overhangs the wall. 56. Engaged Column: A part of a column attached to a wall or pier. 57. Entasis: The curving in the shaft of a column. 58. Escutcheon: A shield, ground or plate; also the hard- ware on a door to accommodate the knob and keyhole. 59. Facade: An important face of a building. 60. Facing: A finish material to cover. 61. Finish: Any material used for finishing. 62. Flange: A projecting rib or rim. 63. Flashing: Sheet metal used over joints in roofs and walls to keep out water. See Plate 43. 64. Flue : A compartment of a chimney to carry off smoke or foul air. 65. Flush Surface: A continuous surface without an angle. 66. Flute: A concave channel. 67. Footings: The wide courses of masonry at the base of a foundation wall. See Plate 42. 68. Framing: The rough timberwork of a structure. See Plate 42. 69. Fresco: A color decoration on plaster. 70. Frieze: An upper horizontal band of wall. 71. Furring: Wood strips on the inside of a masonry wall to support lath and plaster. See Plate 43. 72. Gable: The upper part of a wall terminating the roof. See Plate 38. 73. Gambrel: A roof with two pitches. See Plate 38. 74. Gargoyle: A grotesque figure used for a waterspout. 361 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 75. Girder: A construcftive member to support joists. 76. Grade: The ground line. See Plate 43. 77. Grade Door: A stair door at the ground line. See Plate 12. 78. Grille: A metal screen. 79. Groove: A square sunk channel to receive a tongue, as tongue and groove flooring. 80. Grounds: Small wood blocks flush with the plaster surface on which to nail finish or trim. An estate or plot of ground. 8 1. Grout: Very thin mortar. 82. Gutter: A channel for carrying off rain water. See Plate 43. 83. Head: The upper jamb on a door or window. 84. Header: The short face of a brick. A timber into which other timbers are butted and spiked. 85. Head-room: Space beneath a stair where any person may comfortably walk. 86. Hearth: The floor in front of a fireplace. See Plate 50. 87. Hip-roof: A roof sloping in all four directions. See Plate 38. 88. Hood: A covering over an entrance. A metal canopy above a range to conduct foul air to a vent. 89. Hopper-bin: A tilting bin shaped as a hopper. 90. Inglenook: An alcove containing usually a fireplace, seats and bookcases. See Plate 27. 91. Jamb: The side and sometimes the top of an interior opening. 92. Joist: One of the timbers to which the flooring is nailed. See Plate 42. 93. Keystone: The central stone of an arch. 94. Landing: A platform in a flight of steps. See Plate 50. 95. Lath: Strips of wood used as a background for plaster. 96. Lattice: Any work made by crossing strips of wood or metal. 97. Lean-to: A shed whose rafters lean against another building or other part of the same building. See Plate 38. 362 GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 98. Lintel: A horizontal struCJ'O *rl>OOlS Furniture of the Olden Time BY FRANCES C. MORSE Illustrated, $3.00 "The book is a very complete presentation of the best old fashions in furniture chests, dressing-tables, bureaus, cup- boards, sideboards, desks, chairs, settees and sofas of all sorts, tables, looking-glasses, musical instruments, fires, and lights." - The Outlook. " The book excels others of its kind through its orderly arrangement, the definiteness and precision of its accounts of the furniture in vogue during successive generations, the care and exactness of its descriptions of typical pieces, and its well-chosen illustrations. 11 Boston Herald. " Miss Morse writes with enthusiasm, but always with clear- ness. She puts in little side lights which show the habits of society in those days, and any one who thinks that her book must, of necessity, be dull and tedious is greatly mistaken. A special word of praise should go to the illustrations, which are printed in admirable style. There are scores of them, too, and they supplement the text in a most helpful way. 1 ' Cleveland Leader. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork CENTRAL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY University of California, San Diego DATE DUE ArK 1U APR I "S 2? hiA: C139 f/CSD Lifer. 000718197 7 '* LIBRy