MEMOIR ON THE INDIAN SURVEYS; BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM. PRINTED BY ORDER OP HER MAJESTY*S SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIU » » », >», • »«, LONDON: SOLD BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE; EDWARD STANFORD, 6, CHAIUNG CROSS; HENRY S. KING AND CO., 65, CORNHILL. 1871. Printed by Etre & Spottiswoode, Her Majesty's Printers. o in i»J ai 4 on CONTENTS. Page Preface - -.--....y Analytical Table of Contents - - - - - - xi Sections. I. Indian Marine Surveys . . . . . . i II. Major Rennell and the Route Surveys - - - - 39 III. First Period of the Trigonometrical Surveys 44 IV. First Period of the Topographical Surveys - - - 58 V. Second Period of the Tiigonometrical Surveys - - - 68 VI. Second Period of the Topographical Surveys - - - - - 81 VII. Third Period of the Trigonometrical Surveys - - . - - 87 Vni. Third Perioil of the Topographiciil Surveys ... 102 IX. Fourth Period of the Trigonometrical Surveys ..... 109 X. Fourth Period of the Topographical Surveys .... 126 XI. Supply of Instruments for the Indian Surveys . - - 138 cj XII. The Geological Survey of India - - ..... 145 o XIII. The Archasological Survey of India ..... 170 XrV. Meteorological and Tidal Observations in India - - - 204 XV. Astronomical Observations in India ...... 232 XVI. Physical Geography of India ...... 246 XVII. The Geographical Department of the India Office - - - 274 List of the Members of the Great Trigonometrical, Topographical, and Revenue Surveys of India ...... 290 Members of the Geographical Department of the India 0£5ce - - 301 Members of the G^eological Survey of India ... 302 MAPS. I. Index Chart to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India To face page 109 II. Map of India, showing the extent of the Topographical and Revenue Surveys, on a scale of one inch to mile - „ 136 III. Inde.x Map to the Geological Survey of India - - „ 145 IV. Index to the Indiau Atlas ... . „ 281 a 2 357193 PREFACE. The object of the present Memoir is to fumisli a general view of all the surveying and other geographical operations ia India from thcu- first commencement ; in order that, in reading reports of current work, ready means of reference to the previous liistory of each branch of the subject may be at hand. In case it should be desired to follow up an enquiry into the details of any particular operation or series of operations, the references in the foot notes have been made as coj)ious as possible. It has been difficult to l3riag together a complete record of the marine sm'veys, ia consequence of the destruction of dociunents, and it would have been impossible without the aid of several surveying ofl&cers of the Indian Navy, who kindly fm'nished me with the necessary information.* Nothing has been done for many years to continue and complete the admirable work of the surveyors of the Indian NaA'y, but this state of things cannot last, and it is hoped that, before veiy long, the section on Marine Surveys will be useful as a means of reference. The history of the labours of Major Rennell and his fellow route- surveyors is particularly interesting, as the commencement of the vast operations of which they were the precursors. But their work is still extremely valuable in itself. For the decision of important points in physical geography, and of some engineering questions, it is necessaiy to compare surveys of the same place made at long * Namely, Captains Jenkins, Lyncli, Felix Jones, Selby, Constable, Taylor, Ward, Heathcote, Sweny, and Cruttenden, and Lieutenants Collingwood and Barker, Mr. Mai'shall, and Dr. Carter. VI PREFACE. intervals. The work done by Major Ronncll in 1780 enabled Mr. Fergusson in 1863 to argue from data, the absence of which would have left the question he was discussing in doubt ; while the want of early obsei'vations on the Kattywar coast deprives the present tidal measurements of their comparative interest. The narrative of the operations connected with the Trigono- metrical and Topographical Surveys is an attempt to describe work, the immense value and interest of which admits of no dispute. The main objects of these sections of the Memoii* are to enable an enquirer to gain a clear and comprehensive idea of the scope and nature of the surveying operations, to fm-nish hmi with the means of prosecuting liis researches further, and to enable him to refer at once to the previous history of any particidar survey. The account of the surveys is followed by a Section on the arrangements for the supply of instruments, which have been made by Colonel Strange. It contains a brief description of his observatory in Belvidere Road, and some information respecting liis plan of ex- amining and testing instruments, and his system of obtaining them. I have endeavoured, in the section on the Geological Sm-vey, to enumerate the writings of those earlier labourers in this field who did such excellent service before the commencement of the Government Survey ; and to describe veiy briefly the operations of Dr. Oldham and his accomplished colleagues since that period. Besides supplying references to the volumes of the memoii's and records in which the accounts of the surveys are given, a perusal of the Section itself wUl give a general notion of the nature and extent of the Geological Siu-vey, which has now been so ably and energetically directed by Dr. Oldham for upwards of twenty years ; and it ought also to convey some idea of the arduous and perilous character of the service, and of the high qualities necessary for its due performance. The researches of archaeologists are closely connected with the science of physical geography, and therefore natm-ally find a place in this Memoir. A perusal of General Cvmningham's recently published work on the ancient geography of India will show how PllEFACE. VU close is the connection. Moreover, the labours of the archaeologist involve very arduous field work, and he therefore belongs to the brotherhood of surveyors and geographical explorers. In the section on the Archaeological Siu'vey of India I have enumerated the descriptions of ruins and the interpretations of inscriptions by Sir William Jones and liis disciples, and have given a sketch of the interesting labours of James Piinsep and his enthusiastic com- panions in research. These earlier investigators prepared the way for our living antiquaries and students of Indian monuments, among whom General Cunningham, Mr. Fergusson, Sir Walter Elliot, Dr. Wilson, Colonel Meadows Taylor, and Mr. Thomas take the lead. I have ranged their work under eight heads ; and have also given a brief sketch of the recent investigations of General Cim- ningham, Lieut. Cole, and Mr. Boswell. The Government of India are now fully alive to the value of archaeological research ; fiu-ther sm'veys will no doubt be actively prosecuted ; and the foot notes containing references to the various operations mentioned in the lexi of this section may, I hope, prove useful. There is a strong disposition in India to establish a system of meteorological observing and reporting on a really satisfactory basis ; and a review of previous efforts of the kind, and of the laboiu-s of former observers, may be of some ser\4ce in the consideration of fiitm'e arrangements. The meteorological section is merely intended to fui-nish a history of previous operations, and to be useful for piu'poses of reference. It will serve to show how much con- scientious labour is often wasted and lost from want of systematic organization ; but it also records much invaluable work, such as that of General Boileau at Simla, and of Mr. Broim in Ti"avancorc, as well as the earlier most admu-ablc observations and deductions of Colonel Sykes in the Dcccan. Tidal observations have been much neglected in India. The efforts of Dr. Whcwell bore scarcely any fruit, and there is little that is satisfactory to record, except the useful computations of ]Mr. Parkes for the tides at Kurrachee and Bombay. A series of careful observations at other selected points round the coast is urgently needed. TUl PREFACE. Indian astronomy dates back for more than a tliousand years ; and old Aiyabhata was nobly represented in later times by the learned and eneri^etic Rajah Jey Sing, with liis five observatories and colossal instruments. Worthy successors to the famous llajpoot astronomer have been found in the Directors of the Madras and Trivandrum observatories, and a Memoir on scientific operations in India would be very incomplete without a notice of the labours of the astronomers. The section on the physical geography of India is intended to give a comprehensive ■\'iew of the attempts to deduce generalizations from the numerous classes of observations that have been collected by the surveyors, whether geodcsists, geologists, antiquaries, or meteorolo- gists ; and it also contains some additional references to original sources of information, including a sketch of the labom's of botanists and forest conservators. The subject is one which could not be done justice to witbin the limits of even a large volume, and a mere sketch, such as is contained in this section, can only be of use in supplying references, and possibly in fm'nisliing a few suggestions and incen- tives to further inquiry ; for physical geography is the comprehen- sive science which iitUizes and makes fruitful the observations accvunulated by many classes of inquirers. If the triangulations of the geodcsists are the skeletons which the topographical surveyor supplies with flesh and blood, it is the physical geographer who clothes these naked bodies with every description of graceful adorn- ment, and gives them beauty and completeness. The Memoir concludes with some account of the system by which these difficult and expensive operations in India have been reduced to shape, and made serviceable, both to science and to the general public. The work of compilers and map makers forms a nccessaiy supplement to the more ai-duous labours in the field. The Spanish Coimcil of the Indies established an efficient Department for the utilization of the work of explorers, of which I have given some account ; but Hakluyt was the ancestor of our Geographical Depart- ment at the India Office, which also inherits the traditions of RenneU, of Dalrymple, and of Horsburgh. These are great names, and con- PREFACE. IX scicntious efforts to emulate their services cannot fail to ensure satisfactory results. In the wild confusion that still prevails respecting Indian ortho- graphy, it was considered that the oflBcial spelling in Thornton's Gazetteer must be continued, until the authorities have come to a final decision. Meanwhile most of us look forward with some dread to an adoption of the so-called " scientific " system, or to the proso- dial marks of Dr. Hunter ; and pray for the success of the common sense views of Colonel Meadows Taylor and the Revd. J. Barton. CLEMENTS R. MAEKHAM, Geographical Department of the India Office. January 1871. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. Sections. I. — Indian Marine Surveys. Page 1. Early Voyages and the Bomba}/ Marine, A.D. 1601-1830 - - - 1 First voyages of tho East India Company - - - - i Works of Hakluyt and Purchase - - - - - 2 Logs and Journals preserved at the India Office - . . 3 Services of the Bombay Marine - - - - .4 Ritchie's Survey of the Bay of Bengal, 1770-178.5 - - - 4 Huddart's observations on the ^Malabar Coast, 1780-90 ... 5 McCluer and Wedgbrough on the West Coast, 1790-93 - - - 5 Blair's Survey of the Andamans - - - - 5 Michael Topping's Surveys ------ 5 The Red Sea. Operations of Lord Valentia and Captain Court - - 6-7 Captain Court as Marine Surveyor General - - - - 8 Surveys of the China seas by Daniel Ross - - - 7 Maxfield and Knox's Surveys in the Bay of Bengal - - - 8 Blackwood's harbour - - - - - ..g Captain Horsburgh - - - - - . 8 Daniel Ross as Marine Surveyor General. His surveys - - - 9 The Old Persian Gulf Survey, by Guy and Brucks - - - 10 Cogan and Peters, Survey of Bombay - - - - 1 2 2. The Indian Navy, A.D. 1832-1862 - - - - - 13 Sir Charles Malcolm as Commander-in-Chief - - - 13 Moresby's Survey of the Red Sea - - - - - 14 Moresby's Survey of the Maldives and Ch.ngos Ai'chipclago - - - l.i Survey of the Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait, by Powell - - 16 Arabian Coast Survey by Haines - - - - 17 Journey to Sana by Hulton and Cruttenden - - . - is Whitelock's Suryey of the Coiist of Katt}-war - - - 18 Ethersey's Survey of the Gulf of Cambay - - - - 18 Operations of Lieutenant Wood, on the Indus - - - 19 Wood's discovery of the source of the Oxus - - - .19 Survey of the mouths of the Indus by Carless - - - 20 Indus Flotilla under CaptJiin Powell - - - - - 20 Christopher's experimental voyage up the Indus and Sutlej - - 20 Sir Robert Oliver as Commander-in-Chief - - - 21 Office of the Draughtsmeu of the Indian Navy. Colaba Observatory - 2 1 } 24 Xn ANALYTICAL TABLE. Page Arabian Const Sui-vey by Capfniii Sanders - - - 22 iSurvpys of Grievo and Ward on the Arabian coast - - - 22 Dr. Carter's scientific labours ----.... 22 Montriou's operations on the west coast of India - - - 23 Survey of tli(> N. C'oncan coast by Rennie and Constable - - 23 Taylor's Survey of the Gulf of Cutoh 23 Sclby's Survey of the coast from Cape Coinori II to Bey pore - - 23 Sclby's Survey of the Bombay bank of soundin<;s - - - - 23 Operations on the Somali coast Surveys of Carless, Christopher, and Grieve Ca]itain Lloyd as Marine Suryeyor General - - - - 2.5 Lloyd's Survey of the sea face of the Sunderbunds - - - - 2.i Fell's Surveys on the Coroniandel and Marlabiin coasts - - - 26 Ward's Surveys of the Mutlah river, &c. - 26 II<'athcote's Survey of the western entrance of the Ilooghly - - 26 I Icalhcote's chart of the Bay of Bengal - - - - 27 Sweny's Survey of the Coromandel Coast - - - - 27 Mesopotamian Survey under Captain Lynch - - - 27 Operations of Captain Felix Jones in MesopoUimia - - - 28 Captain Selby's Surveys in Mesopotjimia . - - - - 30 Bewsher's Survey in Mesopotamia - - - - 31 Survey of the Malabar coast by Taylor - - - - 31 .Survey of Bombay harbour by Wliish - - - - 32 Marshall's Survey of Port Blair - - - - 32 Survey of the Persian Gulf by Constable and Stiffe - - - - 33 Current charts by Taylor, Heathcote, and Fergusson - - - 34 Cyclones and hurricanes. Piddington's Memoirs - - - 34 Memoirs on Cyclones by Carless, Buist, and Thorn - - - - 35 Colonel Fraser's wreck charts - - -- -- -36 Services of the Indian Navy ... .....35 list of Surveys which remain to be executed - - - 37 Arrangement for Marine Surveys made in 1861 - - - 37 II. Major Rennell and the Route Surveys, 1763-1800. Birth and early career of Major Rennell - ----- 39 Rennell's Survey of Bengal and Behar - - - - 39 Colonel Call as Surveyor General, 1782 - - - - - - 40 Route Sur\ey of Colonel Pcarse from Calcutta to Madras, 1784 - - 40 Route Sur\eys of Kelly and Pringlc in the Carnatic - - - 41 Colonel Call's map of India - - - - - 41 Astronomical observations by Reuben Burrow - - - - 41 Colonel Wood as Sun-eyor General, 1788 42 Route Surveys of Emmitt, Colebrooke, Kyd, Hunter, &c. - - 42 Route Surveys and Map by Colonel Reynolds - - - 43 Liberal encouragement of Surveyors by Government - - - - 43 AXALTTICAL TABLE. XIU III. — First Peuiod of the Trigojjometricai, Surveys, 1800-23. Page a. Introductory - - - - . . 44 Measurcmonts of Arcs of the Meriilian - - - - - - 44 Birth and oarly carwr of Lambton - - - - - 45 Major Lambton's project for a Trigonometrical Survey - - 46 The measurement of an Arc of the Meridian in India - - - 46 Trigonometrical Sun'eying - - - - - - 46 b. Colonel Lambton and the Measurement of an Arc of the Meridian - - 48 • Lambton appointed t« conduct the Trigonometrical Survey - - 48 Instruments supplied to Lambton - - - - 48 The longitude of Madras - - - - - . 49 The use of astronomical observations in the Survey - - - 50 Importance of the Madras longitude - - - - 50 Commencement of the Great Trigonometrical Survey - - - 51 Measurement of the first base line - - - - 51 Measiu-ement of the first Arc of the Meridian - - - - 5 1 Bangalore base line of 1804 - - - - - 51 Measurement of the wdth of the Indian Peninsula - - - - 52 The Tanjore base line - - - - - 52 Accident to the Gary theodolite - . . . . - 52 Tinnevelly base line. Triangles extended to Cape Comorin - - 53 Gooty base Une. Triangidation to Kistna river - - - 53 Bedar base line, 1815 - - - - - 53 Colonel Lambton's devotion to his work - - - - 54 Lambton's difficulties - - - - - 54 The Survey to be called " The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1815" - 54 Appointment of George Everest as Lambton's Assistant - - 54 Everest's account of Colonel Lambton - - - - 55 Everest's operations in Central India ------ 55 Takalkhera base line. Lambton's failing powers - - - 55 Everest's commencement of the Bombay Series - - - - 55 Death of Colonel Lambton - - - - - - 55 List of Lambton's works, and of notices of his services - - - 56 IV. — First Period of the Topographical Surveys, 1800-23, Notice of Colin Mackenzie's services - - - . - 58 Mackenzie in chai-ge of the Mysore Sui-vey ... - 58 Mackenzie's Survey of the Ceded Districts, and other services - - 58 Survey of Goa, Soanda, and Cooig, by Garling and Conner - - 60 Survey of Travancorc by Ward and Conner, 1816-21 - . - 61 Survey of Malabar by Ward and Conner - - . - - 61 Survey of Tinnevelly by Turnbull - - . . - 61 Surveys of Dindigul and Madura by Keyes and Ward - - - 61 Survey of Coimbatore and the Ncilgherries ... q\ Lambton's Peak Range - - . - . . - 62 Survey of Trichinopoly and the Carnatic ... - 62 Xir ANALTTICVL T.VBLE. Page Mountford and Snell in the Circi\rs - - - - - 62 Memoirs of the Madras Surveys - - - - - - 62 Colonel Colebrookc as .Sur\cyor General ... - 63 The position of the source of the Ganges - - - - - 63 Chinese map of the Himalayas of 1717 - - - - - 63 Views of D'Anville, Rennell, and Anquetil . - - - 63 Tietfcnthaler's Survey - - - - - --64 Wood's Survey of the Gauges - - - - - - 64 Webb's Sui'vey and exploration of the Ganges - - - - 64 Cra^vford's measurement of Ilim;Jayan peaks - - - - 64 Colonel Garstin as Sur^•eyor Grcneral - - - - - 65 Colonel Cra-vvford as Surreyor General ... - 65 Survey of Bengal by Dr. Buchanan Hamilton - - - - 65 Colonel Colin JIaekcnzie as Surveyor General - - - - 65 Survey of the mountainous region between the Ganges and Sutlcj by Hodgson and Herbert - - - - - 65 Survey of Kumaon by Webb - - - - - 66 Survey of Gurhwal by Hodgson and Herbert - - - 66 Franklin's Survey of Bundelcund - - - - 66 Johnson's Survey of Bhopal and Baireeah - - - - 66 Survey of the Sunderbunds by the Alorriesons - - - 66 Buxton's Survey of Cuttack - - - - - 66 Surveys by Monier Williams in Guzerat - - - - 67 Dangerfield's Surveys in Malwa - - - - - 67 Plan of Bombay by Dickenson and Tate - - - - 67 V. — Second Pekiod of the Trigonometrical Sorveys. 1823-43. Sir George Everest, and the completion of the measurement of an Arc of the Meridian .........68 Birth and early career of George Everest - - - - 68 Difficulties of Everest on taking charge of the Survey - - - 68 Everest takes the triangulation across the Satpoora hills - - - 69 Measurement of the Sironj base - - - - 69 Everest goes to England on sick leave - - • - 69 The Calcutta Longitudinal Series under Olliver - - - - 69 Return of Everest with new instruments ... .69 Description of Colby's compensation bars - - - - 70 Measurement of the BaiTackporc base - - - - - 71 Extension of the Ai'c Series across the Ganges plain - - - 71 Waugh and Renny join the Survey - - - - - 72 Approximate Series by Olliver and Rossenrode - - - 72 Erection of masts for selection of stations - - - - - 72 Ray tracing ........ ^2 Day and night signals ...... -73 Description of the permanent towers - - - - - 73 Measurement of the Dehra Doon base - - - - - 73 Horizontal angles observed in the plain ... - 74 ANALYTICAL TABLE. XV Page Kaliann Observatory - - - - - - - 74 Astronomical circles adjusted by Everest ami Syiid Mohsiu - - 74 Kalianpoor Observatory - - - - - 75 Ke-ineasuremeiit of the Seronj base - - - - - 75 Waiigb's revision of the Deccan angles - - - - 75 Observations of stars for difiFerence of latitude - - - 75 Re-measnrement of the Bedar base - - - - - 75 Completion of the Great Arc Series of India. - - 75 Colonel Everest, ^lajor Jer\is, and the Royal Society - - - 76 Completion of the Bombay Longitudinal Series - - - - 77 The Gridiron Series. The ten Meridional Series across Bengal, Behar, and the N.W. Provinces - - - - - 78 Retirement of Sir George Everest. His services, and death - - 79 List of works by Sir Gieorge Everest - - - - 80 VI. — Second Period of the Topographical Surveys, 1823-43. The Revenue and Topographical Surveys - - - - - 81 Colonel Blacker as Surveyor General - - - - 81 Commencement of Revenue Surveys - - - - 81 Colonel Hodgson as Surveyor General - - - - 81 Colonel Everest as Surveyor General - - - - 81 May's Survey of the Nuddeii rivers and Hooghly - - - - 82 Revenue Surveys in the N.W. Provinces - - - - 82 Districts surveyed between 1822 and 1842 - - - - 82 New Suney of Bundelcund by Abbot and Stephen - - - 82 Survey of districts round Benares - - - - 82 Wroughtou's Survey of the Saugor and Nerbudda territory - - 82 Survey of Orissa by Smyth and Thuillier - - - - 82 Survey of Berar and Nagpore by Norris and Weston - - - 83 Conference of Surveyors of Allahabatl - - - - 83 Survey by Waugh and Renuy of the sources of the Sone and Nerbudda - 83 The Brahmapootra Surveys by Wilcox and Bedford - - - 83 Pembcrtoii's Survey of Muneepoor - - - - - 84 Richardson and McLcod in Burmah - - - - 84 Forgusson's Sketch Survey of the Lower Ganges - - - 85 Survey of the Nizam's territory - - - - - "85 Revisions of Surveys in the Madras Presidency - - - 85 Surveys in the Deccan by Grafton and Boyd - - - - 85 Survey of the South Concaii by Jervis - - - - 85 Map of Sind, from the Route Survey of Burnes - - - 86 Review of Topographical Surveys under Everest - - - 86 Vn. — Third Period of the Trigonometrical Surveys, 1843-61. Sir Andrew If'artr/h as Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey - 87 Colonel Waugh succcols Sir George Everest - - - - 87 The Gridii-on system - - - - - --87 XVI ANALYTICAL TABLE. Page Complotion of tlio Meridional Series - - . . - 87 Tlio Calcuttn Meridional Serios - - - - - - 89 Tho N.E. Himalayan Series. Difficulties, and seTerity of the service - 89 Riivajjes of fever among the Surveyoi's - - - - - 90 Measurement of the Himalayan peaks - - - - - 90 Measurement of the Sonakhoda base - - - - - 91 South Concan and Khanpisura Series - - - - - 91 Commencement of the Coast Series - - . . - 92 Gndiron of trianjjiilation westward of the Great Arc Series - - 92 North-west Himalayan Series - - - - - 93 Western section of the Great Longitudinal Series - - - 93 Operations of Captain Strange in tli(» Desert - - - - 93 Captain Strange's work in Siiul. Difficulties overcome - - 94 Measurement of the Chueh base - - - - - 95 Measurement of the Kurrachec base - - - - - 96 Colonel Waugh's volume on the Measurement of Bases - - - 96 The Great Indus Series. Major J. T. Walker - - - 97 Levelling operations - - - - - - 97 The Cashmere Survey under Captain Montgomerie - - - 98 The Jogi Tila Series - - - - - - 99 The Coast Series, under Captain Strange - - - - 99 Retirement and services of Sir Andrew Waugh - - - 100 List of documents illustrating Waugh's operations - - - 100 VIIL — Third Period of the Topographical Series, 1843-61. The Revenue and Topographical Surveys - - - - - 102 Sir Andrew Waugh's administration. M.'ijor Thuillier as his Deputy - 102 Thuillier's Official Manual of Surveying in India - - - 102 Boileau's Traverse Tables - - - - - 102 Method of conducting the Revenue Surveys - - - - 102 Sir Andrew Waugh's instructions for Topographical Surveying - - 103 Progress of the Revenue Surveys - - - - - 103 Failure of the first Punjab Surveys .... io3 The Hyderabad Survey - .... io4 Operations of Colonel Meadows Taylor in Berar - - - 104 Robinson's Survey of the Sinde Sagur Doab ... io4 Montgomerie's Cashmere Survey - - - - - 105 Madras Revenue Sui-vey - - . - . . 106 Ouchterlony's Survey of the Ncilgherries - . - .108 IX. — Fourth Period of the Trigonometrical Survets, 1862-70. Colonel Walker and the Great Trigonometrical Survey - - - 109 Colonel Walker succeeds Sir Andi-ew Waugh. His services - - 109 The Rahoon Meridional Scries . - - . . 109 The Gurhagarh Meridional Series ..... 109 Sutlej Series - - - . - 110 ANALYTICAL TABLE. XVll Page Measurement, of tlie Vizajjapatam base ----- 110 Captain Basovi at work on the Coast Series - - - 111 Survey of Jeypoor by Bascvi - - - - - - 111 Completion of the Coast Scries by Captain Branfill - - - 1 11 Ee-mcasurcment of the Bangalore base - - - - -111 Report on Lambton's work, l>y Professors Airy and Stokes - - 112 ileasurement of the Cape Comorin base - - - - - 1 12 East Calcutta Longitudinal series under Lieut. Thuillier - - 113 Brahmapootra vScries - - - - - - - 114 Eastern Frontier Series under Mr. Lane - - - - 114 Captain Haig on the Mangalore Series. Accident to the theodolite - 114 Continuation of the Mangalore Series - - . - 115 Sumljulpore and Jubbulpore Series - - - - - 115 Revision of the old Calcutta Longitudinal Series - - - 115 Beder Longitudinal Series - - - - - -115 Cashmere Survey completed - - - - -115 Kumaon and Gurhwal Surveys - - - - - -116 Exploring expeditions of the Pundits - - - - 117 Kattywiir and Guzerat Surveys - - - - - -118 Levelling operations - - - - - -119 Astronomical observations - - - - - -119 Major Tennant's observations of the ecUpse of the Sun, 1868 - - 120 Pendulum observations by Captain Basevi - . . . 120 Reduction of observations in the computing office - - - 122 Introduction of photo-zincography by Mr. Hennessey - - - 123 Pubhcation of maps at Dclira ----- 123 Verification of the sUindards of length - - - - 123 Concluding remarks ou the Great Trigonometrical Survey. - - 124 Publication of Colonel Walker's History of the Survey. Vol I. - 125 Colonel Walker's Reports .-.-.. 125 X.— Fourth Peuiod of the Topogkaphtcal Surveys. Colonel Thuillier and the Revenue and Topographical Surveys - - 126 Colonel Thuillier's services ----- 126 Revival of the Revenue and Topographical Surveys - . - 126 Method of operations ----- 127 Captain Melville in Central India ... - - 128 Mr. Mylheran in the Upper Godavery district - - - 128 Colonel Saxton in Gaujam and Orissa - ... - 128 Captain Deprce in Cliota Nagpore - - . . 128 Captain Murray in Rewah and Bundelcund . . - - 128 Captain Godwin Austin in the Garrows and N. Cachar - » 128 The Pegu Survey - - - - - - - 128 TopogrJiphical Survey Parties ----- 128 Extent of the Revenue Sm-voy operations - - - . 129 Colonel Johnstone and the Punjab Frontier Survey - - - 129 The Sinde Revenue Survey -...-- 129 XVIU ANALYTICAL TABLD. Page Revenue Survey Piirties in the Lower Provinces - - - 130 Extent and cost of Surveys from 1836 to 1869 - - - - 130 Office of the Surveyor General - - - - 1 30 Publishing, lithographic, and photographic branches - - - 130 Introduction of photo-zincography . - . . 131 Maps published - - - - - - - -131 Re-survey of the N.W. Pro^^nces - - - - 133 The Madras Revenue Survey - - - - - - 133 Maps published at Madras - - - - - 134 The Bombay Revenue Survey - - - - - - 134 Survey of Bombay Island by Colonel Laughton - . . 136 Future operations - - - - - - - 136 List of Colonel Thuillier's Reports - - - - 136 XI. — Supply of Insteoments foe the Indian Survey. Ancient Hindoo instruments - - - - - -138 Instruments supplied to Reuben Burrow - - - - 138 Colonel Lambton's difficulties about instruments - - - - 138 Colonel Hodgson's remarks upon the suiiidy of instruments - - 139 Colonel Everest personally superintended the construction of his instru- ments in England - - - - - - -139 Mathematical Instrument Factory at Calcutta, under Mr. Barrow - 139 Mr. Barrow succeeded by Syud Mohsiu - - - - - 139 Colonel Strange appointed to design and superintend the construction of a new set of instruments for the suiTey ... i4o Description of Colonel Strange's Observatory in Belvidere Road - 141 Examination of gi'aduated circles - - - - 141 Examination and testing of meteorological instruments - - - 142 System adopted by Colonel Strange - - - - 143 The new instruments for the G. T. Survey - . . . 143 Lieut. Herschel's Report on the Zenith Sector ... 144 XII. — The Geological Survey of India. Mr. Voysey, the first geologist. His labours .... 145 Captain Dangerfield on the geology of Malwa - »• - 146 Captain Franklin on the geology of Bundelcund - - - 146 Sleeman, Spilsbury, Waugh, Adam, and Finnis - - - - 146 Mr. Hislop on the Nagpore countiy - - - - 146 Rev. R. Everest - - - - - - - - 146 NicoUs and Keatinge on Nerbudda fossils - - - - 146 M, Jacquemont on the Rewah rocks ..... 146 Early examinations of coal fields - - - - 147 Mr. Calder's geological papers ...... 147 Discovery of the Sewalik fossils, by Captains Cautley, Baker, and Durand 147 Dr. Falconer on the Sewalik fossils .... - 147 Reports on Spiti fossils by Strachey, Grerard, and Huttou - - 149 ANALYTICAL TABLE. XIX Page Sykes and Malcolmson on Deecan geology - - - - 150 Captain Ncwbold's geological labours - - - - 150 Cretaceous fossils discovered by Messrs. Kaye and Cunliffe - - 151 Grant ou the Catch plant bearing formation ... 151 Christie and Aytoun ou 8. Mahratta geology . - . . 152 Meadows Taylor on the geology of Shorapore - - .152 Fleming on the nummulitic limestones of the Sulinian range - - 152 Sir Bartle Frere on the Runn of Cutch - - - - 152 Geology of Bombay Island l)y Thompson, Buist, and Carter - - 152 Nummulitic limestones. Malcolmson, Fulljaracs, and Rogers - - 152 Dr. Carter's geological labours - - - - - .153 Greenough's geological map of India - - - - 153 McClelland's geological Report ...... 154 The Geological Survey, 1851-71 - - - - 154 Arrival of Dr. Oldham. His first operations .... 154 Organization of the Survey by Lord Canning - . - 155 Dr. Oldham's plan of operations - . - . . 155 The Blanfords in Cuttack - - - - . 155 Examinations of coal fields ----.. i5g General conclusions respecting the coal fields - - . 155 Mr. Blanford's investigation of Raueeguuge fields ... 157 Returns of the (luantify of coal raised - - - . 158 The Vindhyan formation ...... 259 Surveys of Medlicott, Oldham, Mallet, and Ilackett - - 159 Mr. Medlicott's Survey of the Scwaliks imd Outer Himalayas - - 160 Messrs. Theobald and Mallet in the Spiti Valley - . . igl Mr. Mallet and Dr. Stoliczka in the Himalayas .... jgj The Geological Survey extended to the Madi-as Presidency - . 161 Examination of cretaceous rocks by Messr.s. King and Foote - . 161 Cuddapah and Kurnool hills surveyed by C. Oldham, King, and Foolo - 162 Survey of British Burmah. Blanford, Theobald, Fedder - . 163 Survey of the Bombay Presidency by Jlessrs. Blanford, Wilkinson, and Wynne - - - - - . . - 163 Mr. Blanford in the Central Provinces - - . . . 164 Mr. Wynne's Sui-vey of Cutch - - - . . 260 Mr. Wynne ou the geology of Mount Tilla .... 265 Discovery of stoue implements in various parts of India - . 265 Dr. Oldham's superintendence. His numerous journeys - - . 165 The Chandii coal fields - - - . . 266 Museum of geologj'. Collection of meteoric stones - - - 167 Publications of the Geological Survey - - - . 268 Arduous nature of the service ...... XIII. — The Akch^ological Sdbvet of India. Importance of an Arcboeological Sm-vey - - . - 170 Descriptions of early travellers -.- . . . -170 Sir William Jones and the foundation of the Asiatic Society - - 171 XX ANALYTICAI. TABLE. Page Formation of Societies at Bombay and ^ladras - - - - 1 7 1 Early labours in the field of Indian Arebasology - - - 171 Deciphering of inscriptions, in the Asiatic Researches - - - 172 Discovery of Sir William Jones, that Chandraguptji was the Sandi-acottus of the Greeks - - - - - - 174 Descriptions of ruins, in the Asiatic Researches - - - - 174 Mr. Erskine's account of Elephanta ... - 175 Mr. Salt's account of the caves of SaLsettc - - . . 175 Colonel Sykes on Beejapore and the Ellora caves ... 175 (ireat value of the Mackenzie MSS. - - - . . 175 Daniell's drawings of Indian monument.-i - - - - 176 Notice of James Prinsep - - - - - -17fi Prinsep's labours in deciphering Bhuddist inscriptions - - 177 Captain Kittoe's discoveries in Cuttack, and excavations at Sarnath - 178 The GiiTiar inscription - - - - - 178 The Manikyala tope. Researches of Vcutuni and Court - - 179 Death of J.imes Prinsep - ... - 179 Prinsep's discovery of dates in Indian history ... igQ Later Indian archaeologists ...... mQ Notice of Mr. James Fergusson - - - - 180 Fergusson's classification of Indian architecture ... 132 Prehistoric remains in India - - - -- - -182 Bnddhist remains - - - - - - -184 Dravidian architecture - ..... jgg Bengalee architecture - - ..... . jqq Chalukya architecture - - - - - -190 Jaina architecture - - - - --191 Saracenic architecture - - - - - -192 Coins and inscriptions ..... ^93 Ruins of Brahminabad - - - - - - 19.5 General Cunningham appointed Archaeological Surveyor - - - 196 Cunningham's operations in 1861-62 ... . jgg Cimuingham's operations in 1862-63 - ... 197 Cunningham's operations in the Punjab in 1863-64 - - - 198 Cunningham's operations in 1864-65 .... . . j9g Examination of temples in Ka-shmere by Lieut. Cole - - . 199 Casting of the Sanchi gateway, by Lieut. Cole - ' - - 1 99 Dr. Forbes Wat.son's report on the means of illustrating the archaic archi- tecture of India .......... oqq Steps taken by Government to conserve ancient structures - - 200 Re-appointraent of General Cunningham in December 1870 - - 201 Work remaining to be don(^ - - - - - 202 Report of Mr. BosweU ....... 202 XIV. — Meteoeologicax and Tidal Observations in India. Importance of Meteorological Observations - - - 204 Series taken at Calcutta by Colonel Pearse, 1785-88 - - - 204 ANALYTICAL TABLE. Xxi Page Series by Mr. Traill, 1784-8.''. 20.5 General Hanhvicke's observations at Dum Dum, 1816-23 - - 205 James Prinsep's Benares Series, 1823 -.-... 205 Sir J. Herschel's circular recomniendiuf^ horary observations - - 205 Horary obs<'rvatious by Mr. Barrow, Colonel Colvin, and Lieuts. Durand and Baker ...... 205 Numerous observations by travellers - - - - 206 Re^sters of Medical Officers. List - - . . . 2O6 Dr. Royle's Series. Series by Cunninghaiu, Strachey, Hooker, &c. - 206 Dr. Lambe's abstract of registers at 126 - - - . 207 Messrs. Schlagintweit's abstracts - - - . 207 The Series taken at the Surveyor Greneral's Office - - . 207 Dr. :McClelland's abstracts for 1843-44 - - . - 208 General Boileau's observations at Simla - - - . . . 2O8 The Series taken at the Madras Observatory - - - - 209 The Dodabetta Observatory ... ... .. 910 The Trivanderum Observatory - . . . -211 The Aghastya MuUa Peak Observatory - - - - . -212 Meteorological labours of Mr. Broun in Travancorc - . - 212 Horary observations in the Madras Presidency - - - 213 Observations in Wynaad and Coorg - - . - -213 Diagram by Dr. Arnold Smith, to illustrate the meteorological condition of Secunderabad - - - - . - . -213 Observations of Colouel Sykes in the Deccan - - . - 214 Discussion of the results of observations by Colonel Sykes - - 214 The Colaba Observatory at Bombay - - - - 215 Observations by Mr. Orlebar - - - - - - - -215 Observations by Dr. Buist ..... . 215 General Sabine on Dr. Buist's observations ... 2I6 Dr. Murray's Series at Sattara and Mahabaleshwur . . - 216 Observations by Mr. Orlebar, Captain Jlontriou, and Lieut. Fergusson, at the Colaba Observatory - - - - . 217 Colonel Sykes on the further.progress of Meteorology in India n[> to I80O 217 Registers of rainfall and temperature by Meilical Officers - - 219 Mr. Glaisher's Report on the Meteorology of India - - - 219 Meteorologicjil Committee at Calcutta to establish warnings and forecasts - 220 Appointment of Meteorological Reporters - - . 220 Dr. A. Neil's Reports on Punjab Meteorology- - - . 220 Dr. Murray Thompson on the Meteorology of the North \N'est Provinci-s - 221 Mr. Blanford on the Meteorology of Bengal - ... 222 Analysis of Mr. Blanford's Reports .... 222 Progress of Meteorology in Madras - - . . 224 Meteorological registers at the Bombay Obser\atory - - 224 Concluding remarks by Mr. Blanford .... 225 Tidal Observations - - - - - . . 22.5 Captain Ivyd's tidal observations in the Hooghly, 1806-27 - . 225 Paper on co-tidal lines by Dr. Whewell - - - . 226 Dr. Whewell's suggeitions for tidal observations in India - . 226 XXll ANALYTICAL TABLE. Mr. Sinclair's tabic of times of high water .it places between Calcutta and Page Point Palmyras - - ..... 227 Madras tides - - - . - - 227 Chittaj;ong tides bj' Limit. Siddons .... 227 Tides at .Singnijore and in the Indian Archipelago ... 227 Prediction of tide tables for the Hooghly 227 Self-l'egistering tide gauge ])ut up at Bombay by Dr. Buist - - 228 Cajitain Montriou'.s Series ..... 228 Captain Ross's Bombay Tide Tables, 1835-40 - - - - 228 Tide Tables by Survej'ors of the Indian Navy ... 228 Tides on the West Coast of India - - - - 229 Captain Taylor's views on the causes of tidal irregularities ... 229 Mr. Parkes's computation of Tide Tables for Kurrachee - * - 230 INIr. Parkes's investigation of diurnal inequality - - - 230 Mr. Parkes's Bombay Tide Tables - - - - 231 XV. — Astronomical Observations in India. Antiquity of the study of Astronomy in India - - - - 232 Aryabhata's knowledge of Astronomy ..... 232 Mr. S[)ottiswoode on Aryal>hata's system .... . . 933 Vahara-mihira, Bnahmegupta, and Bhascara .... 233 The Arab Astronomers ...... 233 Ulugb Beg's Catalogue of Stars - - - - - 234 The Rajahs of Dhoondar - - .... 235 Rajah Jey Sing apjiointed to construct tables ... 236 Descriptions of the ol)servatories of Jey Sing - - - - 236 Tables and computations of Jey Sing - - - - 237 Colonel Hodgson's observations ..... 238 The Lucknow Observatory - - ... 238 The Madras Observatory - - .... 238 Mr. Goldingham's labours ..... .. . 239 Notice of Mr. Taylor. His Catalogue of Stars - - - 239 Notice of C'a])tain Jacob. His revision of Taylor's Catalogue - - 240 Major Worster's Catalogue of Stars - - - - - 241 Death of Captain Jacob - - - - - 241 Major Tennant in charge of the Madras Observatory - - . 241 Ai)pointmcnt of .Mr. Pogson to the charge of the Madras Observatory - 241 Observations for the determination of the sun's parallax - - - 241 Catalogue of new small southern stars - - - - - - 242 Observations of right ascension and polar distance ... 942 Discovery of the planets " Sylvia" and " Camilla " .at M.idras - - 242 Sh.ire of the Madras Observatory in the Survey of the Southern Iinav(.'us - 242 Trivanderum Observatory, Mr. Caldecott .... 243 Trivandcrimi Observatory, Mi". Jolm A. Broun .... 243 Bombay Observatory - - - ... 245 The Madras Observatoi'y now the sole point for astronomical work in India - - - - - - - 245 ANALYTICAL TABLE. XXlll XVI.— PuTsicAL Geography of India. Page Objects of operations described in previous sections - - - 246 Objects of the present section ----- 246 PwHumeration of subjects - . . - . 246 Structuic of the Ilimahiyan mass - - - - - 247 Early travellers in the Ilinmlayas - - - - - 247 Captain Herbert's general view of the Himalaya • - - - 248 Travellers subsequant to Herbert's time (1818) - - - 249 Ctinninghani, on the Physical Features of the W. Himalayas - - 250 Henry and Richard Strachcy on the W. Himalayas - - - 251 Dr. Thomson on the W. Himalayas - - - - 251 Mr. Hodgson on the Nepaul division of the Himalayas - - 252 Dr. Hooker's view of the structme of the Himalayas - - - 252 Humboldt on the mountains of Central Asia - - - 253 Recent examinations of the West Himalayas - - - 254 Ml-. T. Saunders on the structure of the Himalayas - - - 254 Extent of the area still unexplored in the Himalayas - - - 255 River systems of the Indus and Ganges - - - - 255 Cataclysms of the Indus anil Siitlcj - - - - 256 Changes in the Punjab rivers - - - - - 256 Changes in the course of the Indus . - - - 257 Physical features of the Desert and Runn of Cutch - - - 258 Region between the Sutlej and Jumna - - - - 258 Mr. Fergussou on changes in the Delta of the Ganges - - 259 Plateaux of Bundelcund and Mahvn - - - - - 261 Valley of the Nerbudda - - - - - 262 Satpoora hills and valley of the Taptee - - - . 262 The Deccan and Mysoic - - - - - - 262 Valley of the Mahanuddy - - - - - 263 Basins of the Godavery, Kistna, and Cauvery . - - 263 The Western Ghauts - - - - - - 263 Accounts of v.arious sections of the Ghauts - - - - 264 Botanical Geography. Early botanists - - - - 264 The " Hortus Malabaiicus " - - - - - 264 Notice of Dr. Roxburgh. His works - - - - 265 Labours of Dr. Wallieh ... - - 265 Dr. Griffith - - - - - - - 266 Works of Dr. Forbes Royle - - - - - 266 Works of Dr. Wight - - - - - - 268 " Flora Indica " of Drs. Hooker and Thomson - - - 268 Collections of plants made in various districts - - - 268 Preliminary essay in the " Flora Indica" - - - - 269 Effects of human action on the physical condition of the earth's surface - 270 Use of forest.s 270 Forest conservancy ------ - 270 Services of Dr. Cleghorn ------- 270 Value of Chinchona plantations - - - - - -271 Modifications of climate caused by different soUs - - - 27 1 XXIV AN.VLTTTCAL TABLE. Page Cliniifjos taking plaop on the sea coast . . . . . 271 Concluding rcinrirks ..-..-- 272 Maps to illustriite llic physical geography and Btatistics - - 273 Mr. Prinsop's maps of the Sejilkote district - - - - 273 Maps in the Central Provinces. Admini-stration Reports - - - 273 Want of maps illustrating physical features - . . - 273 XVII. — The GEOGitivniicAi, Department op the India Office. Importance of a Geogi'aphical Department ... 274 Cosmographers' Department in the Council of the Indies - - 274 Course of lectures l)y the Spanish cosniographer - - - 274 Kichard Ilakluyt, the founder of the Cieographical Department - 275 Edward AVright, the first compiler of charts - - - - 276 Major Rennell's works and labours .... 276 Kennell's declining years and death - - - - 277 A. Dalrymple appointed Ilydrograjiher to the Company - - 278 Dalrymple's works - - - - - - 278 Notice of Cajjtain liorsburgh ----- 279 Arrowamith's maps of India - - . - . 280 Question of the publication of the Atlas of India - - - 280 Notice of Mr. John Walker - - - - - 281 Mr. Walker appointed to compile and cngravi? t\w Atlas - - 281 Death of Sii' Charles Wilkins and Captain liorsburgh - - - 281 Mr. Widker appointed Geographer . - - - 281 Mr. Walker's puldieations . - . - . 2^2 Arrangements for engraving the sheets of the Atlas iu India - - 283 Colonel ThuUlier returns to India with a staff of engravers - - 284 Opinion of tin," Surveyor General on the importance of a responsible Geographicid Department at the India Office .... 285 Mr. Trelawney Saunders appointed Assistant Gleographer - - 285 Value of the collection of maps and records - - - - 285 Arrangement of the collection - - . - . 285 Publication of a catalogue - . - - - 286 Set of copies of ancient Portuguese plans - - - - 286 Copies of Dutch maps and charts at the Hague - . . 287 Arrangements for exchange of maps with the Russian and Netherlands Gtovernments .--.-- 287 Recoveiy of lost sheets of the Mesopatamian Survey - - - 287 Repair and cleaning of manuscript maps - - ... 288 Memoir on the mountains and river biisins of India by Mr. Saunders - 288 Map of the central part of British Burmah by Mr. Saunders - ~ 288 Completion of the sheets of the Hyderabad Survey - - - 288 Work of the Grtographical Department - - - - 289 ANAXYTIC.\X TABLE. XXV LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL, TOPOGRAPHICAL, REVENUE, AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS OF INDIA; AND OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE INDIA OFFICE. Page SuKVEY Dei-ahtjiknt ------ 290 Great TKiGoxoaiExniCAL Survey ----- 290 ToPOGRAPincAL Survey of Ixdia - - ... 293 Revenue Surveys under the Government of Indlv - - - 294 Surveyor General's Office - - - - - - 297 Office of the Superintendent of Revenue Surveys - - - 298 Madras Revenue Survey ------ 298 Bombay Revenue Survey - - - - - - 299 Inspection of Instruments foe the Indian Surveys - - - 301 MAT'nEMATICs, sjihercs, and other " instruments of his arte, for demonstration in the common " schooles, to the singular pleasure and great contentment of his " auditory." Wliile Hakluyt thus made the maps and journals from the Indies useful to the public, Edward Wright, the excellent mathematician and engineer who accompanied the Earl of Ciunbcrlaud (m his voyage to the Azores, was compiling and systematizing the logs and charts. He was the first person appointed by the Company to perfect their charts, in IGIG, on a salary of 50^. a year,t and was thus the John Walker of the seventeenth ccntiuy. Hakluyt died in 161G, and the journals of the East Indian voyages, no doubt Avith the consent of the Directors, were handed over to the Rev. Samuel Purchas, the quaintest and most enter- taming of old AVTiters, but one who was much too fond of taking liberties Avith liis materials. " Pm'chas his Pilgrimcs " was pub- lished in 1625, and included the journals of the fii'st twenty voyages set forth by the East India Company, but in a sadly abridged and mutilated form. Several of the originals have disappeared, and only two were ever published separately. $ Sir Thomas Smith, the Chair- man, who was the first to aUow the jovirnals to be lent, died on the 4th of September 1625, the year the " Pilgrimes " were pub- lished, and Pm'chas himself died in 1626. The deaths of lender and * Fuller's Worthies, p. 39. f Calendar of State Papers, East Indies, p. 284. J I. "A briefe discourse of the voyage of Sir James Lancaster in 1601." This, the first voyage set forth by the Company, has never been printed since, and awaits an editor. II. '• The voyage of Sir Henry Middleton to Bantam and the IVIaluco Islands, printed for Walter Burre, 1606." A new edition of this voyage was edited and annotated by Bolton Corney, Esq., and printed for the Hakluyt Society in 1855. STJRVIVrNG RECORDS. 3 boiTower, occurring nearly at the same time, possibly account for the loss of some of the earliest journals of the Company's voyages. The rest are still preserved at the India Office, and are numbered in two scries ; the first, consisting of GS volumes, extending from lOOG to 1708 ; and the second, containing the logs of the East India Company's ships, from 1708 to 1832. The jom-nals of Lancaster, Middleton, and Saris are missing. A copy of the latter (being the eighth voyage of the East India Company) was pm'chased some years ago, from Mr. Kerslakc, a bookseller at Bristol, and is now in the Topographical Dep6t of the "War Office. The oldest logs, at the India Office, are those of Captain Keelinge in 1606, and Captain Sharpey in 1607. Among the other jom-nals, of the first series, there is a cvu'ious treatise on map making in Thomas Love's log kept on board the " Peppercorn" in 1610; Downton's memorial of his second voyage in 16] 3; the journal of the junk " Sea Adven- ture," on her voyage from Eirando to Siam, kept by Captain Adams ; Sayer's journal kept from Eirando to Cochin China ; the journal kept in 1621 during a cruize off Manilla on board a sliip in the combined English and Dutch fleets which sailed from Eirando ; and journals of other voyages to Aden, Sm-at, the Persian Gulf, and the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. One only of the Arctic voyages set forth by the East India Company has been preserved, and is about to be printed and edited by Sir Leopold McCHntock. It is that of Captain Knight who sailed in 1606, and, landing on some frozen shore, was never heard of again. The dis- covery of the manuscript of Captain Knight's joiu'nal goes some way to exonerate old Purchas, and to show that he did rctium the joimials he borrowed, for Knight is one of liis " Pilgrimes." But though many of the logs have fortunately escaped destruction,* a thick darlcncss closes over the subject of marine surveying, and continues far into the eighteenth century. Eor in 1860 tons of precious records in the India Office shared the fate of the Alexan- di'ian Library. Among them, the Minutes and Reports of the Committee of Shippmg, containing a rich mine of information relating to all that concerned the marine branch of the Company's affairs, as well as the Indian Navy logs that had been sent home, * The destruction of a log book is little short of sacrilege ; and thanks are due, from all literary men, and especially from all who take an interest in the history of our Indian Empire, to Mr. Clinrlcs Mason of the India Office, to whose remonstrances the preservation of the old log books is owing. A 2 4 BOMBAY MARINE. were consicfiicd to a fate worse than that of warming a true believer's hath. Thus there is little light to he tlirown upon marine affairs in the East Indies, and on the observations and surveys of the gallant seamen belonging to the Company's service for many years ; but during those years tlie Bombay marine was being developed into a ser\'ice which was destined to jiroduce a noble succession of sur- veyors. From very early times armed vessels Avere employed at Bombay to protect the Company's ships from the pu'ates that swarmed along the coast. In 1742, on a reduced establishment, wc find a commodore of the Bombay marine with three 20-guu ships, and several armed gallivats and grabs under his command.* In 1755 Commodore James, with a small force of the Bombay Marine, took the castle of Severndroog, and in the same year Admiral Watson, in taking Gheriah, the stronghold of Angria, with five ships of the British navy and 2,000 soldiers vmder Clivc, had besides nearly a dozen anned vessels of the Bombay marine. Here then was the material for training surveyors ; but it was not until the days of Bcnnell and Dalrymple that real encourage- ment began to be bestowed upon marine surveying, and tliat its great importance was at last appreciated. Captain John Ritchie was Hydrographical Surveyor to the East India Company from about 1770 to 1785, and surveyed the coasts of the Bay of Bengal and the outlets of the Gauges. His work formed part of the material for Hcnnell's map of Ilindostan. Many of his charts were engraved by Dalrymple, the Company's hydi'o- grapher, and a manuscript volume of his remarks is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office.! But his lati- • " Anderson's Western India." " Rise of the army and navy at Bombay." " Bomljay (Quarterly Review, V., p. 265." •f " Remarks upon the coast and b.ay of Bengal, the outlets of tlio Cinges and iuterjacent rivers, according to the surveys of John Ritchie, hydrographei' to the United India Company." Contents. 1. Entrance to the Ilooghlj', and remarks on its pilotage. 2. Rivers eastward to tlie Megna, Coast Islands. 3. Chittagoug and I.-^lands. 4. Tempests to wliich the head of the bay is subject. 5. Coast of Arracan. 6. Coast of Ava to C. Negrais. 7. Andaman Islands. 8. Nicobar Islands. Dalrymple engraved Ritchie's chart of the Coromandel and Orissa coasts (1771), and others. SURVEYOnS FROM 1770 TO 1806. 5 tudcs and lonf^itudes were taken afloat, and his soundings were barely more than sufficient to show the track of his vessel. A Captain Lacam also surveyed the coast at the mouth of the Hooghly in 1770. Captain Iluddart is mentioned by Major Ronnell in his Memoir on the map of Iliiidostan, as having taken' a series of observations for latitude and longitude along the Malabar coast between 1780 and 1790. Captain John McClucr, with Lieut. Wedgbrough, in the ships " Endeavour " and " Panther," was employed in surveying the west coast of India from September 1790 to July 1793. Captain McCluer's work was reported to be very incomplete and unintel- ligible, and there were no astronomical observations in his journal. The resulting chart was drawn by Lieut. Wedgbrough, and many of McCluer's smaller plans were engraved by Dalrj^mple. McCluer also made one of the earliest plans of Bombay harboiu*, assisted by Lieutenant Court, which was afterwards coiTccted by Domi- nicetti, and Wedgborough made a chart of the Laccadivc islands. Betwen 1777 and 1795 Lieutenant Archibald Blair was very actively engaged in making surveys of parts of the Andaman Islands, the Kattywar coast, Salsette, and other patches here and there.* In 1788 Captain Michael Topping submitted a journal kept on board the E. I. C. ship " Walpole," in a voyage to Madi-as, -n-ith a chart of the Bay of Bengal. In 1790 he was sent to make a survey of Coringa and the mouth of the Godavcry river, a service which he performed most creditably, submitting a chart and a valuable memoir as its results. He was then employed during 1792 in taking observations for determinmg the course of the cm-rents in the bay of Bengal ; and he afterwards took a series of levels of the river Kistnah from the sea to Bezwarra, with a view to the construction of in-igation Avorks. These services led to his appointment as chief sm-vcyor at Madras in 1791, Avhen he di'cw up a general plan for tlie improvement of the geography and navigation of India. The bay of Coringa Avas surveyed again in 1805-0 bv Lieutenant "NVaiTcn, who also made a plan of the roadstead of Vizagapatam.f * For an account of Blair's Suney of the Andamans, see " Selections from tho Records of the Government of India (Home. No. 24)." t A manuscript memoir of Lieut. Warren's .Survey is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. Captain Topping's Jlemoir on Corin'^a, with notes by Lieut. Warren and Captain Biden, was published by the Madras Government in l8oo,—'i>clcclioHSy JS'o. xix. 6 BOMBAY JL\IIINE. The expedition to the coast of Egypt led to an examination of the Red Sea in 1799-1800, and Sir Home Popham, who com- manded the fleet, drew up some sailing directions for its navigation. But even thon it was not entirely unknown. On Lord Valcntia's chart the tracks arc given of the cruizcr " Swallow " in 1770, " Venus " in 1787, and in 1795 Lieutenant Court had taken the " Panther " up as far as Suez. A chart of the E-cd Sea was tb'a\vn hy Lieut. Rohcrt T\niitc in 1796, for which he received much praise and his promotion. In 1803 Lord Valentia was travelling in India, and while at Calcutta he declai'cd to Lord Wcllesley, the Governor General, that he felt it to he a national disgrace that the western coast of the Red Sea should he a perfect hlank on our charts; and his lordsliip volunteered to embark on board one of the crvuzers of the Bomhay marine and investigate that shore, with a view to prosecuting fm-thcr inquiries into the state of Ahyssinia. The great Viceroy concurred, and Captain Keys of the cruizcr "Antelope" was ordered to take Lord Valentia on hoard at IMangalorc, and place himself under his lordship's orders. The "Antelope" sailed for Aden on March 13th, 1804, with Captain Keys as Commander, Lieutenants Hall and Maxfield, Mid- shipman Hiu'st, Lord Valentia in the anomalous position of com- manding the commander, and Mi*. Salt as private secretary. The arrangement did not answer. At Mocha Captain Keys hegan to show a disinclination for the work, at Dhalac he accused Lord Valentia of wanting to get the credit of discoveries made by his officers, and at MassoAva they came to an open quarrel, and only conmiunicatcd with each other in writing. They returned to Bomhay in September, and Captain Keys was put under arrest. Yet neither Lord Wellesley nor Lord Valentia were disheartened. Two other vessels were ordered to be fitted out for a second expe- dition under the same arrangement, which tliis time answered admirably. Captain Com-t, who had a high character both as a seaman and a man of science, took command of the " Panther," with Lord Valentia and Mr. Salt on board, and two midshipmen named Hm-st and Crawford, while Lieutenant Maxfield had the tender " Assaye," a small schooner. They sailed from Bombay on December 4th, 1804, sm-veyed part of the Dhalac Islands, the great bay to which Captain Com't gave the name of Annesley, the island which he called Valentia, and the coast for some distance to the north of Massowah. In July 1805 Lord Valentia landed his secretary, Mr. Salt, at Arkccko, accompanied by Captain Rudland LORD VALENTIA AND CAPTAIN COURT. 7 of the Bombay army, a Mr. Carter, and an adventurous blue-jacket named Pearce, to go on a mission to the ruler of Tigre at AntAIo ; his lordship visiting Mocha and other places in the meanwhile. The embassy was a success; but as for geography, !Mr. Carter observed for latitude several times at AntMo, and his result was nearly 40 miles out. In November 1805 the whole party sailed from Massowa, and reached Suez in the end of Januarv 1806. Lord Valentia had agreed perfectly with Court and Maxfield, and had got some useful work done. They parted with regret, and the crew of the " Panther " gave his lordship three cheers when he went over the side. The results of the surveys of Captain Court and his officers are given in a chart of the Ped Sea in two sheets, ia Lord Valentia's travels.* Lieutenant Maxfield also made a chart of Massowa, and part of the Abyssinian coast, assisted by young Crawford and Hiu-st ; for which he received Rs. 600 from the Government as a recognition of his zeal, and his youngsters were granted Rs. 200 each. The hydrography of the Indian seas at the opening of the present centmy was deemed of sufficient importance to warrant the appoint- ment of a Marine Surveyor General at Calcutta, and Captain Coiurt was selected for the post, which he held imtil 1823. Dvuing this period, from 1806 to 1820, Captain Daniel Ross was engaged, with the assistance of Lieutenant Maughanf and others, in sxu^'cying the coast of China. J Ross made siu-veys of a portion of the Gulf of Pechili and of the Canton province, as well as of some of the eastern islands. His charts were published as they were completed, and the whole were incorporated into a general chart by Captain Horsburgh. Adniii-al Collinson, when siun'eying in China, had opportunities of testing several of the charts drawn from surveys by officers of the Bombay Marine, and he bears testimony to the accm'acy of their work. It surprised him to find how much further advanced the Bombay officers were than the marine surveyors of that period in England. • " Voyages and travels to InJia, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Abyssinia, and Egypt, in 1802-6, by George Viscount Valentia," 3 vols. (London, 1809). ■)• In 1804 Lieutenant Maugb.in luul made a survey of the Gulf of Cutch, for which he received Ks. 1,000 from the Government, " as an encouragement to others to emulate his praiseworthy conduct." J "Directions intended to accompany the chart of the South Coast of China, by Daniel Ross and Philip Maughan, Lieuts. of the Bombay Marine. Printed by order of the Directors of the East India Company." (London, 1808.) 8" Bo:^^BAT jrAuiNE. The surveys of the Canton river, and of the coast 100 miles on each side, by Daniel Ross, were found by Admii-al Collinson to he remarkably eon-cct. Captain Court also had two vessels surveying the Bav of Bonsai under Lieutenant Maxfield, and caused searches to be made for various shoals. Captain Knox surveyed a portion of the sea-face of the Suuderbunds in 1803-i ; and Captain ^Max- field's chart of the coast from Saugor point to Lighthouse point at the mouth of the Uooghly, from a survey executed in 181G, was in use until it was superseded by Captain Lloyd's work in 1811. Admiral Sir Ilem-y Blackwood having reported that H. M. S. " Leander " had l)ecn safely at anchor inside the Armagon shoal, north of Madras, for four days durmg the monsoon, Captain jMaxfield was sent to investigate the capabilities of the place, which has since been called Blackwood's Ilarbour. He Avent there in 18^2 on board the "Henry Meriton," accompanied by Captain De Haviland, but the conclusion come to at the time was that its distance from INIadras was an inconvenience which outweighed any advantages it might have as an anchorage.* In 1823, however, the Madras Government hired a schooner called the "Mary Anne" to ride out the monsoon in Blackwood's Har- bour, as an experiment. While Captain Court was Marine Surveyor General at Calcutta, the name of James Horsljurgh became indissolubly connected with the Marine Surveys of India. Beginning life as a cabin boy, this bold and diligent Scotch sailor soon rose to the command of a vessel in the Eastern seas, and his innate love of surveying had excellent opportunities for development. After many years he returned to England, and the publication of a set of his charts, engraved by "Walker, at once placed him in the first rank of hydrographers. Mr. Dalrymple, who was hydrographer to the East India Company, died in 1807, and the post remained vacant for three years. During that interA'al Captain Horsburgh published the first etUtion of his East Indian Directory,! for which the Court of Directors granted him a hundred guineas, and on November 10th, 1810, he was appointed to examine the jom-uals of the Company's ships, and became hydrographer. Prom that time all charts passed under his • Chart of Pulicat and Armagon slioals, by Captain JIaxfield. t The second editiou appealed in 1817; the lirst in 1808. A sixth edition ii iu preparation. CAPTAIN DANIEL ROSS. 9 scrutiny, and were published with the benefit of Lis superintendence until the time of his death in 1836.* On the death of Captain Court in 1823, he was succeeded at Calcutta bv Daniel Ross, " The Father of the Indian Surveys " as he was called. He was indeed the first who introduced a really scientific method. During the Burmese War from 1823 to 1826 the useful operations under his superintendence were interrupted, but he had the " Eesearch " C300 tons) and "Investigator" (ioO tons) at work in the Mergui Archipelago ; and in 1827, Captaia Crawford, the midshipman whose zeal, when with Lord Valentia, had been rewarded by a grant of Es. 200, smweyed part of the coast of Arracan in a hired brig. John Crawfurd, in his embassy to Ava, speaks in the highest terms of Captain Crawford's smweying work. The " Research " was given up to Captain Dillon to go in search of La Perouse, but the little " Freak " was substituted, and siu'veys were made along the !Martaban coast. In 1828 there was a fit of ruinous economy. The " Freak " was sold, the " Investigator " was declared to be imseaworthy on account of the ravages of white ants, and Lord William Bentinck ordered the surveyiQg estitblishment to be broken up. But stout old Daniel Ross wns urgent and importunate in advo- cating a resumption of the good work : and in. 1830 he again had two brigs, the " Flora " and " Sophia," ui the Mergui Ai-chipelago, under his assistant, Lieutenant Lloyd, while he himself examined the coast of Arracan.f Captain Ross did his work Avith great care and regard for scientific accuracy, and it was all on a trigonometrical * Captain Horsburgh's copy of the " Jlinutes of the Commiltee of Shipping" is preserved in the Geographical Department of tlie India Otfice. The fir^t entry is that recordijg his appointment on Nov. 10th, 1810, the last is on June 20ih, 1837, the year after his deatli. B'ourteen charts, actually compiled by Horsburgh himself, were published by the East India Company, viz. : — 1. North Atlantic Ocean. 2. South Atlantic Ocean. 3. Part of the Indian Ocean. 4. East Peninsula of India. 5. West coast of Sumatra. 6. Straits of Rhio and Durian. 7. Straits of Banca and Caspar. 8. Carimata Passage. 9. Strait of Sunda. 10. China Sea (2 sheets). 11. Canton River. 12. East coast of China. 13. Eastern passages to China (3 sheets). 14. Tracks through Pitt Passage and Dampier Strait (1793). t Captain D. Ross's M.S. sailing directions for the Mergui Archipelago arc pre- served in the Geographical Department of the India Office. 10 BOMBAY MARINE. basis. Ho mcasm'cd bases on shore by running a ten-foot rod along a cord stretched tight between the extreme points, and kept in position by stakes, the direction being verified by a telescope. "When work on shore was impracticable, recourse was had to measm-ement by sound. The vessels were anchored when the weather was calm, and the time was taken between the flash and report of a gun, on the assumption that sound travels 1,110 feet per second. All angles were taken with a sextant, and the triangulation was verified by frequent astroiiomical observations. In Ross's time the Government of India used to strike off a few copies of his charts at Calcutta by lithography, and send the originals to the India House for engraving and publication.* Captain Daniel Ross resigned his appointment m November 1833, and was succeeded by his able assistant Lloyd. He retired to Bombay, Avhere he was Master Attendant, and President of the Geographical Society from 1839 until just before his death. t In 1820 the siu'vey of the Persian Gulf was commenced]: under Captain Guy of the " Discovery" (268 tons), with Captain Prucks as his assistant, in the brig " Psyche." Guy retu-ed, after having examined the Arabian side up to the head of the Gulf.§ His suc- cessor, Captain Brucks, was a good sailor, though unfortunately not a scientific surveyor ; but he had under him Lieutenants Haines, Kempthorne, Cogan, Pinching, Etliersey, Whitelock, and Lynch, all men of scientific and literary attainments, while the charts were constructed with great taste and ability by Lieutenant Houghton, a most accomplished di'aughtsman. It must not be forgotten that surveying was but a small part of the work of the Indian Navy. The influence of England m the Persian * "Progress of Maritime Surveys." " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," L, p. 327. t The followiug is .a return of the cost of the Bengal Surveys from 1H21 to 1824 :— 1821-22. Annual expense of survey vessels "Nearchus," " Minto," " Sophia," and " Henry Meriton," Rs. 1,19,055. 1823-24. Annual expense of survey vessels " Research " and " Investigator," Rs. 59,379. 1833-34. Annual expense of survey vessels " Flora" Jind " Sophia," Rs. 25,055. X The Persian Gulf Survey was commenced by Captain Maughan at Cape Mussen- dom, but he had done very little when Guy succeeded him § The memoir of Captain Guy's portion of this survey, drawn up at his request by Lieutenant Houghton, is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office in MS. THE PERSIAN GULF SURVEY. 11 Gulf was exercised to suppress piracy and extend commerce, to maintain the status quo of the chiefs, to exclude foreign influence, and to root out the slave trade. The English may look upon then- coimexion with the Persian Gulf with almost unmixed satisfaction. They have hunted down the atrocious hordes of pu-ates, and have enabled imarmcd merchantmen to pass up and down in safety. The successful invasion of Persia in 1856 is amongst the more recent opei-a- tions of tlie Indian Na\7-. The naval head-quarters were at Bassadore, in the Island of Kishm, where there was a guard ship and hospital, and on shore a bazar, five or six private houses, a billiard room, a fives court, and livery stables for the sailors when on liberty.* The survey occupied ten years, from 1820 to 1830, and Lieutenant Haines also examined the Mekriin coast. The results are sriven in li charts. We also have, as results of the old Persian Gulf Sur- vey, a " Memoii' descriptive of the Navigation of the Persian Gulf," being sailing du-ections by Captain Brucks himself ;t notes made by Lieutenant Kcmpthorne on the identification of places touched at by Nearchus, which woidd have gladdened old Dr. Vincent's heart ; on the ancient commerce of the gulf, and on a visit to the ruins of Tahrie ; % and three papers by Lieutenant Whitelock, one being a description of the islands at the entrance of the gulf, another an account of the Arabs on the pirate coast, and the third a narrative of a jom'ney in Oman.§ Captain Brucks was an old sailor who had been at sea ever since he was 11 years of age, and he had completed 16 years' service in the Bombay Marine. He endeavoured to give his work a trigonome- trical basis, and always observed for latitude and longitude on shore, with an artificial horizon, because the refraction was so great as to make it useless to observe vnih. the natural horizon. But in fact only a portion of the sm-vey was trigonometrical, and the bases were mcasm-ed from ship to ship by soimd. The other portion was merely a running sm-vey, verified to some extent by astronomical observations. There Avas also some confusion in the longitudes. One half of the siu'vey is referred to the meridian of Bassadore, which was fixed by * "Report on Bassadore, with a plan of the roads, by Midshipman Hewett." " Bombay Selections," No. 24, p. 47. f " Bombay Selections," No. 24, pp. 527-634. X " R. G. S. Journal," v. p. 263. " Bombay G. S. Journal," i. p. 294, and xiii. p. 125. § " R. G. S. Journal," viii. p. 1 70. " Bombay G. S. Journal," i. p. 294. 12 BOMBAY MARINE. chi-onomctric measurement from Bombay ; hut, in those days, Bom- hay -was 7 miles too far to the east. The other half of the suney ■nas calculated from Bushirc, the longitude of Avhich had heen cor- rectly fixed hy 'Sir. Eich, a former Political llcsidcnt, of high scientific attainments. Thus the Avork does not come up to the standard of excellence sidjsequently reached by the officers of tlic Indian Xavy, and most of it has since required rcA^ision. At the same time this old sm'vcy of the Persian Gulf r(>fl(>cts credit on those -nho executed it, when the imperfection of their instruments and the difficulties they had to overcome arc taken into consideration. Captain Bracks returned to England in 1842, and resided at Exeter, of which city he was mayor. Ho died in 1850. He Avas for years employed in preparing a history of the Indian Na\y, but the papers collected by him on this subject have never .been published.* After returning from the Persian Gulf, Lieutenants Cogan and Peters made a survey of Bombay liarboiu" and of the coast as far as Bankote in 1832, which was published on a chart of two sheets ;f and in the same year Captain Moresby was engaged in a partial examination of the Laccadive Islands. In 1832 the Bombay Marine was converted into the Indian Navy, by the Avish and command of King "William IV., and an admirable system of suiToying was inaugm'ated under the auspices of its fii-st Commander-in-Chief, Sir Charles Malcolm. • See "Bombay Times," March 16, 1850. t The oldest English plan of the harbour of Bombay is in Fryer's work, published in 1(598. Next there is one by Mr. Nicholson, master of H.]M.S. " Elizabeth," i)ublished in 1787 ; it is stated to be an index to a large one in eight sheets. Then foUoweil that by McClure and Court, corrected by Dominicetti ; and then the survey by Cogan and Peters. (See page 32.) Dahymple published a plan of Mahim and the north end of Bombay Island by Lieut. Edward Harvey, from a survey in 1777. ( 13 ) 2.— THE INDIAN NAVY. A.D. 1832—1862. When Sir Jolin Malcolm came out as Governor of Bombay in 1827, liis brother Sir Charles was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Bombay Marine, which was henceforth to be called the Indian Navj'.* The change dated from 1832. Sir Charles Malcolm instituted several extensive and important sm'vcys : and the Indian Navy, Avhich came into existence imder his auspices, saw its most palmy days dui-ing his administration. He was the first Commander- in-Cliief of that distinguished service. He was also the foimder of the Bombay Geographical Society, an enlightened patron of science and literature, and a AAarm friend to the officers who served imder him.f The first important act of his administration was the forma- tion of the Red Sea Sm-vey. In 1829 the Indian Government resolved to prepare to open the route by Egypt for steam vessels, and coal Avas sent from Bombay to Suez in a collier, escorted by the teu-gim brig " Thetis," as a protection from pirates tliat then swarmed in the Bed Sea. The old tub was lost on the reefs north of the Jafiatine Islands, and on the return of the " Thetis " to Bombay a regular survey was resolved upon. At that time all knowledge of the Red Sea was derived from the chart of 1796 by Lieutenant White, from some sailing directions drawn up by Sir Home Popham dm-ing the expedition of 1800, and from Captain Coiu-t's charts of part of the western coast, when with Lord Valentia. Captain Moresby, an excellent seaman and surveyor, was ajjpointed to the " Palinm'us " to survey the northern half from Suez to Jiddah, while Captain Elwon, in the " Benares," took up the southern half from Jiddah to Bab-el- Mandeb. The officers were picked men ; there * Sir Charles Malcolm, one of three distinguished brothers, was born in September 1782, and entering the n.ivy served in his brother Pulleney's ship at tlie cuttino- out of vessels at Manilla, in 1798. His promotion was rapid, and he saw much service throughout the war. lie was knighted by Lord Wellesley at Dublin in 1826, and became a Kcar- Admiral in 1837. t The Bombay Geographical Society was instituted on April 9th, 1831, and Sir Charles Malcolm was its first President, from its foundation until he left India in 1838, when he was succeeded by Captain D. Koss. 14 THE INDIAN SURVEY. were Carless, the future surveyor of the mouths of the Indus ; James Young ; Pinching ; Powell ; Barker, the Abyssinian traveller ; Chris- topher, the pioneer of the Indus, who fell gloriously at Mooltan ; Wcllsted, the accomplished author; and Felix Jones, then a very young officer, but whose skill as a draughtsman was already appre- ciated. No expense was spared in fitting out the expedition, and all the surveying appliances of the day were provided, besides ample supplies of well-found boats and tenders. The latter were native craft mth iVi-ab crews. The sea was then practically unknown, and great dangers and privations were inseparable from such a service. The first base was measured by a chain at Suez by Captain Moresby in 1830, and the survey was steadily continued, without other interruptions than were necessary to refit the ships and crews, to its completion in 1834, by a system of triangidation down cither shore. The work was verified Ijy frequent bases, by almost daily azimuths, by latitudes by the sun and stars observed on shore with artificial horizons, and by chronomctric differences.* The original charts were di'awni on a scale of an inch to a mile, but in places where the complicated nature of the channels required greater nicety, scales as high as ten inches were employed. The original dra-\vings were mostly by Felix Jones. The noble resolution of all the officers was that the Hed Sea Sur- vey should be as perfect as labom* and skill could make it ; and it has served weU to guide thousands of steamers up and down one of the most important and, at the same time, one of the most intricate routes in the world. The charts were compiled at Bombay from the original di-awings by lieut. Carless, and sent home to be engraved. The northern part of the Bed Sea, by Captain Moresby, was published in two sheets in 1833, and the southern, by Captain Elwon, also in two sheets, in 1834. Two sheets of harboiu-s in the Bed Sea, and the sailing directions by Captains Moresby and Elwon, were published in 1841. In 1848 Captain Barker, I.N., made a re-survey of the anchorage at Suez ;t and Suez Bay, as well as the straits of Jubal, have recently been again examined by Captain Mansell, 11. N. In the contem- plated partial revision of the survey, called for by the opening of • "Letter from Captain Felix Jones to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, July 13th, 1870." I Captain Barker's chart of Suez Bay was accompanied by a memoir. RED SEA AND MALDIVE SURVEYS. 15 the Suez Canal and the great increase of traffic, the original draw- ings on larger scales would have been of the greatest possible value, but it is feared that they have been carelessly thrown aside and lost. The literature of the lied Sea Survey is cliiefly from the pens of Lieuts. Carlcss and Wcllstcd. In the second volume of his " Travels in Arabia,"* Wellsted gives a most interesting account of the pro- ceedings of the survey in the gulfs of Suez and Akaba, and along the coast of Arabia ; and he also wrote several detached papers liearing on the work on Avhich he was engaged in the lied Sea, while Carless furnished a valuable memoir on the gulf of Akaba. f A survey of the coral islands which cross the track of Indian trade had long been considered of the greatest importance to navi- gation, and Captain Horsbuvgh strongly luged its necessity. J As soon, therefore, as Captain Moresby had completed his work in the Red Sea, he was ordered to proceed in the surveyuig ship " Benares," with the " Royal Tiger," commanded by his assistant surveyor, Lieut. Powell, and a large decked boat called the "Maldiva," to survey the Maldive Islands. The surveying staff was composed of Lieuts. Robinson, James Young, Barker, Mac- donald. Riddle, § Christopher, Michael Lynch, and Eelix Jones. The latter officer drew the original charts, and their execution was so beautiful that they were brought home for the Queen's inspection. The Maldive Islands were almost ixnknown, and in order to acquire a knowledge of the language, customs, and resom-ccs of the inha- bitants, Lieuts. Young || and Christopher were landed in June 183-1, * " Travels in Arabia, by Lieut. J. R. Wellsted" (2 vols.), 1838. f "Notes on Bruee's charts of the coast of the Red Sea, compared with the posi- tions of tlie recent survey, by Lieut. Wellsted." — R. G. S. Journal, v. p. 286. " Observations on the coast of Arabia between Ras Mohammed and Jiddah, by Lieut. Wellsted." — B. G. S. Journal, vi. p. 51. " Memoir on the Gulf of Akabuh, from notes during the survey by Moresby in 1833, by Lieut. Carless, I.N."—Boml>ai/ G. S. Journal, vol. i. Lieut. Wellsted died in 1843. He also published a work entitled "The City of the Caliphs," 2 vols., and wrote an elaborate memoir on the Island of Socotra, which ho visited and explored in 1834, in the R. G. S. Journal, v. pp. 129-229, with a map. See also Journal of the Asiatic Societi/ of Bengal, iv. p. 138. X Captain Ilorsburgh luad written a paper in 1832 on the " Navigable Channels separating the atolls of the Maldive Islands." — R. G. S. Journal, ii. p. 72. § Mr. Riddle died from the eflects of the climate of the Maldives. II This distinguished officer was lost in a hun-icane on the Malabai- coast in April 1847, when in command of the " Cleopatra." See a paper on the subject of this hurricane by Captain Carless in the "Bombay G. S. .lournul," viii. p. 93. James Young was engaged at the time of his death in diligently collecting materials for wind and current charts. 16 INDIAN NAVT. and resided for some time at Male, the prineipal island. The results of their obsciTations arc recorded in a very interesting memoir.* It was found that the Maldivans wore a civilized, com- mercial, and seafaring people, who constructed their own quadrants, and translated our nautical tables into their languagc.f Having completed the Maldive Survey, Captain Moresby proceeded to the Chagos Archipelago in Pebruary 1837, and aftevAvards surveyed part of the Saya dc Malha bank, about five degrees S.E. of the Seychelles. He completed this important work, and returned to Bombay in September 183S.J The Gulf of Manaar and Palk Strait, with the Paiimben Channel and Ceylon coast, Avcre then taken up by Lieuts. Powell and Ethersey, assisted by Lieuts. Grieve and Christoj)her, Avith Eelix Jones again as draughtsman. They sm-veyed the Paumben Pass, the west side of Palk Strait, Adam's Bridge, the Avest coast of Ceylon from Galle to Colombo, and a small portion of the Tinnevelly coast. After their recall in April 1838, the Avork Avas continued by Captain Franklin, R..N., the Madi-as Master Attendant. § This officer exe- * " Memoir on the inhabitants of the Malilive Islands, by Lieut. James Young and Lieut. Christopher." — Bombay G. S. Journal, i. p. 54. Vocabulary of the Maldivan language, compiled by Lieutenant Christopher, I. N. — Journal of the lioynl Asiatic Society, vi. p. 42. f See a very interesting account of the nautical instruments used by the Maldive navigators, by James Prinsep, in the "Journal of the AsiaticSociety of Uengai,"v. p. 784. X The charts resulting from these surveys are — 1. !Maldive Islands, by Captain Moresby and Lieut. I'owell. 3 sheets. 1835. 2. Maldive Islands (reduced). 3. Chagos Archipelago, by Moresby and Powell. 1836. 4. Principal groups in the Chagos Archipelago, by Moresby and Powell. 1837. Captain Moresby drew up sailing directions for the Maldive L>ilands and Chagos Archipelago: "Nautical directions fur the Maldive Islands and tlic Ciiagos Archi- " pelago, by Commander Itobert Moresby, I.N., 1839. Printed by order of the " Court of Directors." (London, 1 840.) See a Summary of " Moresby's Report on the Maldives" in the " BomKny G. S. Journal," i. p. 102. § The resulting charts are — 1. Coast of Madura, by Powell, Ethersey, and Franklin (1838). 2. Western side of Palk Strait, by Powell and Ethersey (1838). 3. Paumben Pass, by Powell and Ethersey (1837). 4. Islands of Eameswaram and Manaar, by Powell and Ethersey. 5. AV. coast of Ceylon. Franklin, Powell, and Ethersey. 4 sheets. 6. Palk Strait and Gulf of Manaar. Powell, Ethersey, and Franklin. 2 sheets. (1838 and 1845.) 7. Harbour of Tuticorin. Franklin (1842). 8. Coast of Tinnevelly. Franklin (1842). Lieut. Christopher wrote an account of Adam's Bridge and Rameswaroni, with a plan of the temple. — Bombay G. S. Journal, vol. vii. ARABIAN COAST SURVEY. 17 cuted his sui-vey in a small country craft of 60 tons, between 1840 and 1815. He completed the coast from Cape Comorin to Point Calimere on the Indian side, and made a plan of Tuticorin harbour, and of the pearl banks.* Dalrymple had published a plan of Tuti- corin by Van Keulen, in 1782. While Moresby went to the Maldives on board the " Benares " the old "Palimu'us" was fitted out for the sun'ey of the south coast of Arabia, which was commenced in October 1833. Captain Haines received the command, and his officers were Lieutenants Sanders, Cruttenden, Grieve, Rennie, and Dr. Hulton. The survey was intended to cover 500 miles of coast, but it was discontinued in May 1837, and Captain Haines was employed on political work connected with the occupation of Aden, of whicli acquisi- tion he was the first Political Resident. t He, however, effected the survey of a large portion of the south coast of Arabia, and ia October 1837 Lievit. Carless was despatched to survey the coast of Africa about Cape Guardafui, work which was satisfactorily ac- complished. These sm'veys are utilized by the publication of ten charts, J and arc also described in several very interesting memoii-s. Captain Haines himself has given a graphic accovmt of the Hadra- maut and Yemen coasts in two elaborate papers ;§ and his assistant. Captain Sanders, has supplemented them by a further paper ; || * Captain Franklin's sailing directions were published by the Madras Government. " Instructions for navigating the Gulf of Mauaar and Palk's Bay." (1851). f Correspondence relating to Aden, Parliamentary Paper, 1839. J 1. Entrance to the Red Sea, by Haines. (1835.) 2. S.E. coast of Arabi.a. Haines. 3 sheets. (1836.) 3. Several bays near Cape Aden. Haines. (1836.) 4. N.E. coast of Arabia. Sanders and Grieve. (1849.) 5. Gulf of Aden. Haines, Barker, and Grieve. (1847.) 6. Kooria Mooria Islands. Haines. (1837.) 7. Island of Socotra. Haines. (1834.) 8. Islands west of Socotra. Cirieve. (1848.) 9. N.E. coast of Africa. Carless. 2 sheets. (1838.) 10. GulfofMaseera. Grieve. 2 sheets. (1847.) § " Memoirs to accompany the chart of the south coast of Arabia, by Captain Haines," Parts I. and 11.—//. G. Si. Journal, ix. p. i25, and xv. p. 104. Two copies of the original manuscript of the first part of Captain Haines's Memoir, with pen and ink sketches and copies of Himaritic inscriptions at Sana, by Lieut. Cruttenden, are preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. II "Short memoir of the proceedings of East India Company's brig ' Palinurus' during the examination of the Arabian coast." — R. G. S. Journal, xvi. p. 169. (6409.) B 18 INDIAN NAVr. Avlaile Lieut. Cruttenden has given us a journal of his excursion into Dafar.* Dr. Ilulton, the sm-gcon of the " Palinm-us," fur- nished a very interestmg history of the Kooria Mooria Islands,! and Lieut. Cruttenden has published a still more valuable aecount of his visit to Sana, the capital of Yemen, Avhile the " Palinurus " was siu'veying Mocha roads in 183G.J Sana had not been seen by any Em-opcan since the time of Niebuhr in 1762, § which gives addi- tional importance to Lieut. Cruttenden's account of the town, and of the coffee-pelding highlands which he traversed to reach it. Dr. Hidton, who was Cruttenden's fellow traveller, was taken ill on the road, and died soon after returning to Mocha. In 1833, wliile Moresby went to the Maldives and Haines to Arabia, Lieut. "Wliitelock, a veteran of the Persian Gulf, com- menced a rough sm-vey of the west coast of Kattywar, and had completed it as far as Diu, including the island of Beyt, at the time of his death in 1836. In the following year Lieut. Ethersey zea- lously took up the work where Whitelock left off, and surveyed the coast roimd the head of the Gidf of Cambay, and do^vTi the cast side to Sm'at, as well as the N. Concan coast from St. John's to Bassein. He performed this work in a miserable native pattamar called the " Bhowany," with the water washing up to his ankles imder the cabin table. || Dm-ing this service Ethersey laid down the dan- gerous shoals off Surat called the Malacca banks, on which Captain Sharpey was wi-ccked in 1607, attentively observed the bore or rushing tide at the head of the GuLf of Cambay for two successive seasons, and explored the fossiHferous tertiary formations on the • " Journal of an excursion into Dafar, by Midsliipman Cruttentlen." — Bombay G. S. Journal, vol. i. The MS. of Cruttenden's Journal, dated "Palinurus, March 16th, 1836," is pre- served in the Geographical Department of the India Office. I "Account of the Curia Muria Isles, by the late Dr. Hulton." — R. G. S. Journal, xi. p. 156; Bomhatj G. S. Jotiruul, vol. iii. + " Excursion to Sana, the capital of Yemen, by Lieut. Cruttenden." — Bombay G. S. Journal, vol. ii. and R. G. S. Journal, viii. p. 267. § The Rev. Mr. Stern, who afterwards suffered a long captivity in Abyssinia, was at Sana in 1855. II The charts representing this work of Whitelock and Ethersey are — 1. Coast of Kattiawar from Diu to Dwarka. Whitelock. 1833. 2. Kattiawar from Diu to Perim Isle. 2 sheets. Ethersey. J 836. 3. Diu Harbour. Whitelock. 1833. 4. Gulf of Cambay. Ethersey. 1845. INDUS SURVEYS. 19 island of Pcrim. Besides liis charts, the results of bis survey are recorded iu two valuable memou-s.* We now come to the important work of the ofl&cers of the Indian !N^avy in the Hiver Indus. When Colonel Pottinger went to Sinde in 1833, he was accompanied by Lieut. Del Hoste, who prepared a topographical memoir Avith sketch maps, and Alexander Bumes was also exploring the Indus in those days.f The work of Lieut. John Wood in the Indus commenced in about the year 1835, in command of the first steam vessel that floated on the river, when he examined its com-se from the sea to Hyderabad, and remained in the country to observe its periodical rise and fall. In 1 836 Lieut. Wood accompanied Alexander Burnes in his mission to Kabool, and afterwards performed one of the most remarkable journeys that has ever been vmdertaken in Central Asia. Wood made a surA'ey of the Indus from its mouth to Attock. At Kalabagh, the point where the mighty stream escapes from the Salt Bange, he found it impossible to stem the cvurent. Undaunted by the difficulty. Wood landed and went by forced marches to Attock, thence descending the river and completing his survey amidst the falls and rapids. After reaching Kabool he crossed the mountains to Koondooz, and was eventually the first and only Eiu-opean, except Marco Polo, who has ever reached the " Bam-i-Doonya " or roof of the world. Thus in 1838 Wood discovered the source of the Oxus, and for this splendid achievement he received the gold medal of the Boyal Geographical Society. $ * " On the bore or rushing tide in the Gulf ofCambay." — R. G. S. Journal, viii. p. 196. "Notes on Perini Island, in the Gulf of Cambay." — Bombai/ G. S. Journal, ii. "The I'ore in the Gulf of Cambay." — Bomlxnj Svhctions, No. 25. I In the Gcograj)hical Department of tlie India Office there is a MS. " Route book of the mission to Sind in 1833, with sketch maps," by Lieut.<. Patterson and Del Iloste. (There is a memoir by Lieut. Del Hoste on fSind in the " Bombay G. S. Journal," i. p. 22.) Also MS. map of the Indus and Pnnjiib rivers from the sea to Lahore, by A.liurnes, with a paper regarding the construction cf the map. X " Jlemoranda on the River Indus, by Lieut. John Wood." — Bombay G. S. Journal, vol. i. " Report on the source of the Oxus, by Wood." — //. G. S. Journal, x. p. 520. "Personal narrative of a journey to the source of the River Oxus, by the route of the Indus, Kabool, and Badakslian, by Lieut. John Wood. (1845.)" Selections from the Records of the Bombay Government, No. 17. There arc several manuscript maps by Lieut. Wood in the Geographical Depai't- ment of the Indxa Office. A series of sheets of the Indus and a chart of the Indus B 2 20 IXDTAX NAVY. At about the samo limo Lieut. Wyburd ol' (lie Indian Navy penetrated into Central Asia, and his fate still remains a mystoiy. Meanwhile Lieut. Carless, in the " Palinurus," had carefully surveyed Kurracliee, and the whole coast froin the eastern mouth of the Indus to Soumeanec, in 1837 and 1838.* Tlic Indus mouths were again sm-veyed, in 1816, by Captain Sclby, assisted liy Midshipmeii Taylor and Stroyan, in the Taptee brig-. He drew maps shcwim;; the great swatch- way in which, in a regular line of 9 to 10 fathoms, there is a sudden dip of 10 to 08 fathoms, and so to 120. He concluded this to be tlie vast bed of the Indus before it had brought down the mountains of soil which now divide its stream into so many channels. These maps have never seen the light. Subsequently the operations of the Punjab campaigns led to the formation of an Indus Flotilla, imder the command of Captain Powell, to ascertain the cajjabilities for navigation both of the Indus and of its Punjab tributaries. In 1817 Lieut. Christopher, Avith this view, went up the Sutlej and the Chenab in the steam tender " Meanee," with an iron flat laden Avith merchandise in tow, and made full reports of his observations. t Lieut. Christoplier joined tlic force before Mooltan under Herbert EdAvardes in 1848, and was killed dm"ing the siege. An elaborate sm'vey of Km-rachee Harbour was from Mittun to Attock in 1838; four sheets, on a scale of two inches to the mile, not colon rcil. The original ^IS. maps, showing the routes of Lieut. Wood in Central Asia, are also preserved in tlie Geograjjliical Department of the India Office. They consist of a map of the upper valley of the Oxus i'rom Koondooz to its source, showing the new ground cx])lored by Lieut. Wood, 1837-38; a survey of routes from Peshawur to Bamian, with sketches and sections of the Khyber and Hindoo Koosli passes ; the route of Burues's mission to Kaboul, in three sheets ; and the whole of Burnes's route from Kabool to Bokhara, and thence through Persia to Bushire, in nine sheets, drawn by Lieut. Wood. There are also a set of route surveys in Turkislan (seven sheets), and a reconnoitring survey of the Khawk pass, the most easterly from Kabool to Balkh in Turkislan. * '• ^Memoir to accomiiany the survey of the Delta of the Indus, in 1837, by Lieut. Carless." — li. G. S. Journal, viii. p. 328. Bombay Selections, No. 17. In the Geographical Department of the India Office there are three copies of a MS. map of the Indus, from Hyderabad to the sea, bj- Lieut. Carless. t " Report of an experimental voyage up tlie Indus and Sutlej, by Lieut. Chris- topher." — Bombai/ G. S. Journal, viii. p. 144. " Journal of an ascent of the River Chenab, by Lieut. Christopher." — Bombay G. , submitted a map of the part of Mysore traversed by the army under Lord Coruwallis, with a mcmou', and received Rs. 6,000 for his trouble. In the same year Major Kyd surveyed the route fi'om Seringapatam, through Coorg, to the west coast, and Dr. Hunter, the sui-geon to the Residency at Scindia's Com't, scut in route siu'veys made on marches from Delhi and Agra to Gwalior and Oojein.f A map of Calcutta and^ its cn-vn'ons was made by a j\tr. Upjohn in 1791', who secm'cd liberal j)atronagc from the Government ; and in 1795 Lieut. Hoare received instruc- tions to make a suiTcy of the River Jumna. When Captain Symes went on a mission to the Covu-t of Ava in 1795, he was accompanied by Dr. Buchanan and Lieut. Wood. The latter officer sm'veyed the route, and afterwards submitted a map of the Irrawaddy from Rangoon to Amarapoora, with a paper of astronomical observations. Mr. John Cra^wfurd, when he went over the same ground in 1820, bore "fatness that Wood's sm-vey was still the best extant.J • "Remarks inatle in (he Ganges and Bunainpooter Rirers in 1787, by Reuben IJnrrows," MS. vnlnme ]>rcscrvP(l in the Geo<;ni])hii:il Dep:iitnient of the [nilia Office. See also Iiis tables of latitudes and longitudes deteimiued from astronomical obser- vations, in the " Asiatic Researches," iv. p. 325, t See also Dr. Hunter's Astronomical Observations, taken during a journey from Upper liindoostan to Oujein, in the Asiatic Researches, iv. p. 41. X Syme's Embassy is in Pinherton's Voyages, ix. p. 24() ; and was alao published separately in IbOO. UOUTE SURVEYS. 43 On the Bombay side Captain Moncrioff sun^eyed the district of Canara in 1799, while Colonel Charles Reynolds made a careful route survey of Malwa and part of Bcdnore. Colonel Reynolds was for years engaged in collecting materials for a great map of India, which was at last completed and sent home in 1798, but it was never published.* Reynolds measured one long line of route with great care, checking it at each end by observations for latitude, and established it as a base to which all other diverging routes were referred, the intei-vals being filled in from native information. But such work was of course very inaccurate ; and the maps of that period were only of service while India was an unknown region, to be traversed by armies, and ceased to be tolerable when that vast country became a British imperial possession, requiring to be ad- ministered. At the commencement of the present century the great triau- gulation was begun, which AA^as to furnish a permanent geodetical basis of the highest order of accm-acy, for all future siu-veying operations in India. The process of constructing maps from route surveys and astronomical observations has since been gradually discontinued in the ])roA'inces Avhich arc mider the immediate control of the British Government, though it is still necessarily practised in geographical explorations beyond the fi'ontier, and more particrdarly in the Trans-Himalayan regions. Yet the labours of Rennell and his school were not only useful at the time, but also serA'cd as incitements to encourage then.' succes- sors ; and the names of those fii'st pioneers of the Indian Surveys will ever be held in reverence by geographers. It is particularly pleasant to note the liberal and hearty encom-agement Avhich AAas given to young surveyors by the Government in those days, by granting them a good round sum of money for their services Avhen- cver thoy submitted creditable results of their labours in the field. Tliis Avas done to show them that theu- hard and meritorious Avork was appreciated, and to excite a feeling of emulation and zeal. * Some rough sheets for this map are still preserved, but the great map of India by Reynolds itself, a work of considerable value and interest, appears to have been lost in the deslruetioii of precious records which took idace at the time of the abolition of the East India Company. ( U ) III.— riRST PERIOD OF THE TEIGONOMETRICAL SUIWEYS. 1800-23. (a.) Introductory. It was not until the end of the last century that a trigonometrical survey was f»cnerally allowed to be the only accurate basis for the mapping of a country. The obsonations for ascertaining the shape of the earth by measuring an arc of the meridian were commenced a few years after the death of Sir Isaac Newton, but not by his coimtrymen ; and these observations were the forerimners of the great trigonometrical surveys. The famous French expedition of Condaminc and Bougucr went to South America in 1735, and the admiiablc work of these savans, aided by the Spanish brothers UUoa, consisted in the measiu'eracnt of two bases connected by a series of triangles, one north and the other south of the equator on the meridian of Quito, the arc l^eing 180 miles long. It is to be regretted that while Franco and Spam were thus combining in the interests of science, England was less nobly engaged in burning churches and cutting off supplies from the Peruvian coast. The labours of Condaminc were followed by the measurement of an arc ui Lapland, of another in Fi-ance, and finally the countrymen of Newton took up the work at which they should ha^'o been fore- most.* The idea of a Trigonometrical Survey of Great Britain was first conceived by General Watson, after the Scottish rising of 1745. It was intended to extend over the disaffected parts of the High- • The particulars of the measurements of various arcs are as follows : — Snte. Observers. Country. Latitude of Middle of Arc. Arc measured. Length of Degree, in feet. Length of Depce in Ordnanco Tables.* 1738 Uaupcrtinsrc-cxainined by Sranbcn; Lapland - O ( // 66. 20 lOX. O , II 1. 37. 19 365,782 365,876 StruTO r- Russia 63.17.37., .3.35. 5 365,368 365, H.4 1802 Eoy and Eater England - 62.35.45,, 3. 67. 13 36^1,971 365,097 LacaiUo France 46.52. 2„ 8.20. 364.872 .3r4,730 1790 Dclambrc and Mccliain France - «. 51. 2„ 12. 22. 13 36i,S35 3M,599 1755 Boscovich Rome • 42.59. 0„ 2. 9.47 364,262 364,479 Mason and Dixon United States - 39.12. 0„ 1.28.4S 363,786 3(W,235 1750 AbbtLacaillc Cape of Goo peninsula at one swoop, and the absolute necessity for a Trigonometrical Survey, owing to the hopeless inaccm-acy of other methods, was thus demon- strated. This work was completed in 1806. Having coninH'ted the two sides of the peninsula, Major Lambton devoted much of his futm'e labors to the measurement of an arc of the meridian, and the series of triangles that was measured for this pm-pose is kno^^^l as the " Great Arc Series." He first brought the series down from the Bangalore base line towards Cape Comorin ; and a new base line was measured in Coimbatoor in 1800. But this was very far from rcprcisenting the whole of his work, which included a network of primaiy and secondary triangles, almost covering the peninsula. In 1808 a base line was measured at Tanjore, and on this occasion Major Lambton dispensed with the tripods, and made the measure- ment on tlic ground, di-aAving out the chain by means of two small capstans. In this flat covmtry Major Lambton availed himself of the goperams or lofty towers of the pagodas, on which scafToldings were erected, and thus the triangles Avere formed, connectmg Tanjore Avith Nagorc and Negapatam. But, in hoisting the thi-ee-foot Gary's theodolite to the summit of the Tanjore pagoda, a most serious accident occrn'red. One of the guys caiTied away, and the instru- ment Avas dashed Avith great force against the wall of the pagoda, the bloAV falling upon the tangent scrcAV and clamp, and quite dis- torting the limb. Ordinary men would have been disheartened at such a mishap, but Lambton was endowed Avith indomitable resolu- tion, and was full of resource. He hm-ried back Avith the theodolite to Bangalore, where there was an establishment of ordnance arti- ficers, and shut himscK up in his tent, refusmg admittance to all comers except a few of the workmen who assisted him. He then took the instrument entu-ely to pieces, cut out a cu-cle of the exact size on a flat plank, and gradually di-ew the limb out so as to fit into the circumference by using wedges, screws, and piillics. In six THE GEEAT ARC SERIES. 53 weeks he had brought it back nearly to its original form, and the same instrument was used for all the subsequent observations up to 1 830. A base line at Tinnevelly was measured in 1809, and the primary triangles were extended thence to the sea shore at Punnae, eight miles north-east of Cape Comorin. This terminal station is a square building with two doors and two arched windows, and a solid pillar in the centre, on the top of which is a large circular stone with a hole through it. It is a mile south-east of the village of Pimnae, and about 700 yards from the beach. Major Lambton devoted 28 days to fixing the latitude of the Pimnae Station, during which time he took 23C astronomical observations. In addition to the " Great Arc Series," another series of triangulations was carried across the penin- sula from Negapatam to Ponany and Cahcut, and another romid the coast from Rameswaram, through Travancorc and Cochin, to Calicut. The Arc Series was thus completed from Cape Comorin to Bangalore; and in 1811 Major Lambton and his staff turned their whole attention to its extension northwards, in the direction of the Himalayas. Major Lambton himself, ever hopeful and buoyant, calculated on personally completing it as far as Agra. A base was measured at Gooty, with triangles connecting it with that near Bangalore, and others extending to the river Tumbuddra. The Gooty base is also the foundation of a series of triangles conuectino- Masulipatam with Goa ; and bases of verification were measm-cd near Guntoor, on the beach at Coomta, and at Cape Eamas. Thus an accm'ate basis of triangulation was formed from Cape Comorin to the Kistnah river, enabling the Topographical Surveyors to proceed with the mapping of the country ; and the heights of peaks and table lands Avere carefully measm-cd. Major Lambton then crossed the Tiunbuddra and entered the territory of the Nizam, continuing the Great Arc Series to the neighbom-hood of Bcder, where another base line was measured at a station called Dumargidda in 1815. Astronomical obsorwitions were taken with the zenith sector to determine the celestial arcs of amplitude, and nothing rcmamed to the completion of near 10 degrees of the meridional arc from Cape Comorin to Bedor. In concluding liis fifth report, the enthusiastic surveyor thus wi'ites : " In 20 years devoted to this work I have scarcely experienced a " hea\-y horn*. Such is the case when the himian mind is absorbed *' in pursuits that call its powers into action. A man so cno-ao-cd, " his time passes on insensibly, and if his efforts arc successful his " reward is great, and a retrospect of his labors will afford him an 54 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. " endless gratifieation. If such should he my lot I shall close my " career -mth heartfelt satisfaction, and look hack with unceasing " delight on the years I have passed in India." Yet the difficulties in the field were not the only ohstacles with which Lamhton had to contend. He was called upon, from time to time, to demonstrate the utility of his work ; even Major Rennell came forward to maintain that route surveys on an astronomical basis were equally accurate and more economical, and Major Lamhton's resom-ces wei'e crippled and starved by the Finance Committee at Madi-as.* Nor did he receive any encoui-agement from scientific bodies in Europe during the early years of his survey, when such support was most needed, and would have been most welcome. Professor Playfaii' reviewed his work in the Edinburgh in 1813, and he received one letter from Ncvil Maskelyne at a time when he was surrounded by difficulties, and when he was vainly endeavouring to impress the nature and utility of his operations on the local Government. He used to dwell on this letter from the Astronomer Royal as tlie event Avhich had most cheered him under all his toils. But for many years he never received one word of encouragement, sympathy, or advice, either from the Government or from the E-oyal Society. Indeed it was a foreign nation that was the fij-st to recognize the importance of his services. In 1817 Major Lambton was made a corresponding member of the Prench Institute, but it was not imtil the following year that the Royal Society tardily followed the example, and elected him a FeUow. The Governor General, "not imaware that with minds of a certain " order he might lay himself open to the idle imputation of vainly " seeking to partake the gale of public favour and applause which " the labom's of Lieutenant- Colonel Lambton have recently at- " tracted," at last recognized the great importance of the survey. He transferred it to his immediate control on January 1st, 1818 ; and ordered it to be denominated for the future, " The Gr(\it Trigo- nometrical Survey of India." Captain Everest was appointed as Colonel Lamhton's chief assistant, and Dr. Voysey as medical atten- dant to the surveying parties, and geologist.! In the end of 1818 yovmg Everest joined Colonel Lambton at Hyderabad. The assistant describes his chief, at this time, as an old man with a bald head fringed with a few snow white hairs, * " Calcutta Review," vol. iv., p. 80 (J845.) t For a notice of Dr. Voysey's work, see the section on the Geological Survey, p. 145. COLONEL LAMBTON. 55 about six feet high, erect, well formed, and muscular. His com- plexion was fair and his eyes blue, but dimmed and weakened by time. Yet when he aroused himself to adjust the great theodolite, they shone with the lustre, and his limbs moved with the vigour, of full manhood. " His high and ample forehead gave animation and dignity to a countenance beaming with intellect and manly beauty." But those moments of activity were like the last fiickerings of an expu'ing lamp. The old surveyor was gradually wasting away, and in June 1819 was the last occasion of his ever taking part in the work of triangulation. Central India was then in a most unsettled state ; and instead of attempting to push forward the Great Arc Series, Lambton employed his parties in completing the triangulation between the rivers Kistnah and Godaveiy. In June 1819 Everest was despatched upon this duty, into a wild coimtry, where each village had its mud fort defended by jinjals, and many districts were in rebellion against the Nizam's government. He overcame the difficulties arising from the distm'bed state of the country ; but he and his party, working in a region teeming with malaria under a tropical sun, were at length prostrated by jungle fever, and in 1820 Everest liimsclf went to the Cape of Good Hope for the recovery of his health. Meanwhile the indefatigable but now aged and broken chief of the sm'vey once more began to push forward the Great Ai-c Series. He measm-cd a base line with the steel chain stretched on the gi'ound by capstans, at Takalkh^ra in the valley of Berar, in the •winter of 1822 ; but the standard had got rasty, and was imrcliable. Old Colonel Lambton dm*ing this time, was constantly at work with the zenith sector, exposed to a tropical sun, and imaided, for his assistants were aU sick owing to the reckless exposm-e to which he had subjected them. He himself took no rest at night, but con- tinued to work at the zenith distances of stars. His constitution received its death bloAv, whUo his observations proved wild, and were confusedly registered. " Men cannot last for ever," wrote liis assis- tant, " and the Colonel's infirmities had evidently subdued all but his " spirit, at the time of his last effort." On Everest's return from the Cape, he was detached, in October 1822, to bring up a series of triangles connecting Bombay with the Great Arc Series. Colonel Lambton set out from Hyderabad to Nagpoor, to make arrangements for continuing the Great Arc operations. But he died on the road at Hingimghat, now one of 56 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. the great Borar cotton marts, on the 20tb of January, 1823, aged 70.* llis assistants and sor\'ants wore affcctionatoly attaclied to him and looked upon him as a lather ; and in 1822 he counted three generations of them in his camp. Ilis assistants, Dc Penning and Rossem-odc, attended upon him in his last hours. A tomb was erected over his remains at Hingunghat, by Mr. Jenkins, the then Resident at Nagpoor. Colonel Lambton, the first Superintendent of the Great Trigono- metrical Sm-vey, completed the triangulation of 165,3 i!2 square miles in the peninsula of India, at a cost of 83,537^. lu concluding his last report he says, " I sincerely hope that, after I relinquish " the Avork, somebody •nill be foimd possessing zeal, constitution, " and attainments wherewith to prosecute it ; and it would indeed *' be gratifying to me if I could but entertain a distant hope, " that a work which I began should at some futm-e day be extended " over British India." That hope was fulfilled in the appointment of George Everest as his successor. The labom's of Colonel Lambton are recorded in the following manuscript volumes, deposited in the Geograpliical Department of the India Office. Vol. I. (Parti.) — Trigonometrical Operations, 1802 — 3, with a map. „ (Part 2.) — Trigonometrical Operations, 1803 — 6, with a map. Vol. II.— Operations, 1807—11. Vol. III.— „ 1811—14. Dated at Hyderabad in 1818. Vol. IV. — jMissing from the Geographical Department of tlie India Office. Vol. V. — Operations to Jan. 1823. Signed W. Lambton, and counter-signed in 1832 by Everest. Vol. VI. — End of Lambton's Reports, Tvith an Appendix by Everest, relating to his own operations under Lambton in 1822—23, and to Capt. Garliug's in 1810—17. Signed by Everest in 1832. Abstracts of these accounts will be found in vols. 7, 8, 10, 1 2, and 1 3, of the Asiatic Researches. The fii'st three of these were reviewed in the 21st volume of the Edinburgh Review (1813) by Professor • The Government Gazette of tlic lime gave his age at 75. AVORKS OF COLONEL LAMBTON. 57 Playfaii-. Colonel Lambton published an abstract containing the results of all liis measurements from Punnae to Dumargidda in the Philosophical Transactions of 1818. See also Everest's " Account of the Measui-ement of an Arc of the Meridian (1830)," and his series of letters to the Duke of Sussex (London 1839), for some further interesting particidars respecting Colonel Lambton and his services.* The operations of the sun'cy under Colonel Lambton are also described in the "Account of the operations of the Great Ti-igonometrical Survey of India," vol, i., by Colonel J. T. Walkc'r, RE.,F.R.S. (DehraDoon, 1870.) There is a" Biographical Sketch of the late Colonel Lambton " in " Gleanings in Science," vol. ii., p. 27, (Calcutta, 18.30,) and an article "On the Measurement of the Indian Meridional Arc," in the same work, vol. iii., p. 337. The whole of Colonel Lambton' s operations arc sho^^Ti in a chart of eight sheets engraved by Mr. Walker. * Major .lervis published some extracts from Colonel Lambton's Notices of Malabar (Coimbatorc ?) in tlio Bombay Geographical Societi/'s Journal, vol. iv., (1840). ( 58 ) IV.— FIKST PERIOD OP THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 1800-23. Hitherto, the maps of Indian districts had been based on militaiy route siu-veys. The initiation of detailed topographical surveys, based on triangulation, is due to Colin Mackenzie, one of the most indefatigable surv^eyors and persevering collectors of information that ever served this country. Colonel ^Mackenzie commenced his exploring labours after the close of the war of 1783. In that and the following years he was at work in Coimbatoor and Dindigul. In ITOO-O'l he was engaged in sm-veying Nellore, Guntoor, and the Ceded Districts; and his journal in manuscript is one of the most interesting relics in the Geographical Department of the India Office.* In 1799 he Avas appointed to conduct the topographical sm-vcy of Mysore. It was Jilackenzie who suggested the establishment of the Madras Militaiy Institution, which, under the able superintendence of Captain Troyer, trained most of the surveying officers who, under Mackenzie and others, carefully sm-vcyed the peninsula of India. Mackenzie was engaged on the Mysore Sm-vey dui-ing several years. His system of triangulation was independent of Colonel Lambton's, and the two officers do not appear to have worked harmoniously, Mackenzie measured five bases in the Mysore countiy, in convenient situations, each from three to five miles long, and connected them by triangles. His results were a topograjihical • " Remarks on a journey in the countries of Cummum, Purwathum, and Canoul ; bein^ a continuation of the survey of the frontier and passes between the Pennair and the Krishna in 1794, by Captain Colin Mackenzie." This manuscript volume is in the form of a journal, witli archaeological and other notes, and sketches on the margins. The following manuscript maps, drawn by Colin Mackenzie at this period, arc also preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office : — 1. Nizam's dominions and Mysore, showing acquisitions of territory, 1799. 2. Military chart of the Carnatic, 1802. 3. Roads from Bangalore to Nellore, &c., 1793. 4. Survey of passes leading from the Carnatic to Kurnool, 1792. 5. Passes between the Pennair and and the Krishna, 1 794. Mackenzie's account of the Perwuttun Pagoda is published in the Asiatic Researches, v., p. 303. COLIN ILVCKENZIE. 59 survey comprising 40,000 square miles, a general and seven pro- vincial maps, and a valuable memoir in, seven folio volumes, con- taining, besides a naiTative of the survey, much carefully digested statistical, historical, and antiquarian information. The copies of all these precious records, formerly in the India House, are now missing ! ! In 1809 Mackenzie was removed from the Deccan Surveys, and became Sm-veyor General of Madras. In 1811 he went with the expedition to Java, where he got through much work ^-ith his usual zeal and energy, and resumed his post at Madras on his return in 1815, He superintended the continuance of the survey of the Ceded Districts, commenced in 1809, until he was removed to Calcutta, and took up the appointment of Surveyor General of India. But his sm'veys were only a part, and, indeed, a small part of the stupendous labom-s of Colin Mackenzie. He devoted himself to the study of Indian antiquities, and visited eveiy place of any interest, from the Kistnah to Cape Comorin, accompanied by a native staff of assistants, copying and collecting records. He got together 3,000 sassanums or tenm*es inscribed on stone or copper ; and the Mackenzie collection consists of 1,568 manuscripts in different Indian languages, 8,070 inscriptions, 2,630 di-a'ndngs, 78 plans, 6,218 coins, and 106 images. He sent some beautiful sculptured stone work from the Araravatec tope to the India House before 1820, and published various papers on historical and topographical sub- jects.* Among the results of his labom's were the discovery of the existence of the Jain religion, and of other sects, and the descriptions of tumuli of oarlv tribes. After Colonel Mackenzie's death, Horace Wilson volunteered to examine and report upon his manuscripts, and the result appeared in 1828. t Our knowledge of the literature and early history of Southern India is almost entirely due to the Mackenzie MSS. * In Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory are papers by Mackenzie on routes in Nellore, and on the source of the Pennaar. In the Asiatic Annual Register for 1804 are his Life of Hyder Ally, and his Histories of the Bijayanuggur and Auagoondy Rnjahs ; iind in vol. ix. of the Asiatic Researches he first brought to notice the religion and monu- ments of the Jains. I " JIackenzie Collection of Oriental Manuscripts, by H. H. Wilson, Secretary to the Asiatic Society." 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1828). A further series of Reports on the Mackenzie MSS. was made to the Madras Government by Revd. W. Taylor. They are printed in vols, vii., viii., ix., of the Madras Journal of Literature and Science. See a notice of Colin Mackenzie in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, i., p. 333, and Madras Journal of Literature and Science, ii., p. 262. GO THE TOrOGRAPniCAL STTRVEYS. In 1811 Lieutenant Garling, an cl6vc of the Madras Military Institution, commenced the survey of the Portuguese territory of Goa. A base was measiu'cd at Cape Eamas, and the surv'ey was complotod in 3^12. Besides the maps, Lieutenant Garling wrote a memoir in four yohimcs, containing a general description of the Goa teiTitory, and detailed accounts of the coast, anchorages, rivers, population, and villages, with tables, cultivation, towns, and roads and passes. As soon as the Goa Sm-vey was completed, Lieutenant Garling, with Lieutenant Conner and three sub-assistants, commenced woi-k in Soanda and Bilgy, in North Canara, in 1813. The topographical survey of Soanda is founded on the base measm-ed near Goa, Avhencc a net of triangles was extended over the new country, and united with tlie stations of Lambton's Trigonometrical Survey. The detail Avas taken up by plane tables on a scale of one inch to a mile, and all topographical objects that could be expressed on the scale were embraced in the sm-vey. The field work was completed in March 1815, and the descriptive memoir, in two volumes, contains an account of the general aspect of the region smTcycd, with details respecting the cultivation, water supply, inhabitants, tenm-es, trade, routes, and history. Lieutenant Conner then proceeded to conduct a sui*vey of the little moimtainous principality of Coorg, exactly on the same plan as that of Soanda. Colonel Lambton had earned his primary triangles tlirough Coorg, so that Conner could use them as a basis on which to construct his secondary series. He commenced work in 1815, and completed the survey in October 1817. The memou', in one volume, intended to illustrate the map, contains details respecting the boimdaries and extent of Coorg ; a table of areas of the districts ; accounts of the principal places; descriptions of the moimtains, rivers, forests (with a catalogue of trees), animals, agricultiu-e, implements of husbandry ; a register of viUages ; and tables of triangles, and of bearings and distances. Travancore and Cochin were surveyed by Lieutenants Ward and Conner between 1816 and 1821. Their memoir, in seven volumes, contains a jom-nal; tables of triangulation ; and descrip- tions of the districts, villages, forests, productions, and passes. Extracts from it, describing the hill tribes of Travancore, were published in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, vol. i., pp. 1 and 54-. SURVEYS IN THE M.VDUAS DISTRICTS. Gl IMalahai" was surveyed by Lieutenants Ward and Conner between 1825 and 1829. Their memoir, in one volume, furnishes a special description of each talook, including Wynaad, but Ward refers to the great work of Buchanan for fuller details.* Tinnevelly was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor Thomas TumbuU and others, between 1807 and 1813, and the memoir which accom- panied the map is most valuable, but, unfortunately, it was left unfinished, owing to the death of its author. Tinnevelly Avas a portion of the ancient Pandian kingdom, and the memoir describes inscriptions on granite walls ; the temples and other religious monuments ; the climate, population, products ; and gives details respecting the boundaries, the resources of each talook, and the roads. This was the best account of the people in the extreme south of India that had appeared since the publication of the " Lettres Edifiantes." The Tinnevelly sui'veyors, however, could not be induced to penetrate into the forest covered mountains toAvards the Travancore frontier, from a not altogether erroneous idea that they were imhealthy ; and there is still a large blank space on the atlas in that direction. The provinces of Dindigul and Madura were surveyed between 1815 and 1824 by Assistant Surveyors Thomas Tui-nbull and William Keyes, and afterwards by Lieutenant Ward. Tlieir memoirs are well "m-itten and most valuable, containing full details respecting those provinces, and an accoimt of the wild and little known hUl region bordering on Travancore. The accoimt of the Pulney hills, from Lieutenant Ward's memoir, is published in the Madras Journal of Literatm-e and Science (vol. vi., p. 280.) Ward and Keyes also sm-veyed the Coimbatorc district between 1821 and 1824, and a descriptive memoir accompanied their maps. They were the discoverers and explorers of the Neilgherry lulls ; and Ward completed a map and memoir of that mountain, knot in 1821. An isolated range of hills, with a remarkable peak, sepai-ated • The memoir on Malabar, by Captains Ward and Conner, was communicated by Major Jervis to the Bombiiy Geograpliical Society, and published in their vol. iv. (May 1840). The map of JIulabar was drawn on a scale of one inch to a mile, but there is only one sheet of it in the Geographical Department of the India Office. A beautiful reduction of it was drawn in 1832 at Madras, on a scale of two inches to the mile, by C. Iguatio, (draftsman), a complete copy of which is preserved in the Geo- graphical Department. The portion including Wynaad has been lithographed separately at Madras by Colonel Priestley. (52 TOPOGKAPniCAL SURVEYS. from ilie NeilglieiTles l)y the Bhowauy river, was named after the fouuder of the Great Siu'vcy, and is known as Lamhton's Peak Range. The Carnatic was topographioally surveyed by the officers of the Military Institute, and Trichinopoly hy Lieutenant A¥ard, whose memoii', in two volumes, contains registers of triangles ; tables of bearings and distances ; maps of roads on a scale of one mile to an inch; and accomits of the system of irrigation, trade, and agriculture. The eastern districts of Ellore, llajahmundry, and Guntoor were surveyed between 1815 and 1823 by Lieutenant Mountford and the officers of the Military Institute. The memoir on the Ellore Survey is in three volumes. That of llajahmundry, in two volumes, by Captaui Snell, contains tabulated routes with coloured maps. For this sm'vey a base was roughly measm-ed on the borders of the Colaii" Lake in May 1820, and connected by triangulation with two of Lamb ton's points near the Kistnah. The map was on a scale of one mile to an inch. The survey of the Nizam's territory, eormnenced in Colonel Lambton's time, occupied upwards of 30 years. Thus full materials for a map of the whole peninsula of India south of the Kistnah, based on Lambton's Great Trigonometrical Survey, were furnished. The memou's, Avith a few exceptions, are preserved in the Geograpliical Department of the India Office. Those that are wanting are the memoirs of the Mysore Survey in seven volumes,* those of Madura and Dindigid, that of the Neilgher- ries by Ward, and the two first volumes of the Ti-avancore Memoir, wliich were lent many years ago to some one who never retm-ned them. These manuscripts appear to have been placed in the hands of Mr. Montgomery Martin, for publication, by the Court of Directors. A small portion of the Coorg Memoir appeared in two parts in the Colonial Magazine dm-ing the year 1812, and extracts from the Travancore and Diudigid Memoirs were published in the Matb-as Jom-nal of Literature and Science ; but, with these exceptions, and that of the Malabar Memoir in the Bombay Geograpliical Society's Jommal, the whole of these valuable and interesting memoirs remain in manuscript. * We have, however, a manuscript volume by Colin Mackenzie, entitled, " Report on the State and Results of the Survey of ^lysore, in a geographical, statistical, and historical view, up to July 1st, 1807, with a map explanatory." THE SOrnCE OF THE GANGES. 03 While the topographical sin-veyors of Madras Averc thus energeti- cally miing in and completing Colonel Lambton's work, their bretkren in the north of India were not idle. That indefatigable geographer, Colonel Colebrooke, was Surveyor / General at Calcutta from 1803 until liis death in 1810. He had previously made a series of astronomical observations in the Car- natic in 1791, consisting of latitudes by meridian altitudes of stars, and longitudes by eclipses of Jupiter's satellites ; and in the previous year he had made similar observations dm'ing a voyage to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.* lie also made a survey of the Gauges ; but only one of the original sheets has escaped destruction, and is now in the Geographical Department of the India Office.f Colebrooke's attention was early called to what was, at that time, one of the most interesting problems in Indian geography, — the position of the source of the Ganges. The only knoAvledge then attainable of the Upper Himalayas and Tibet was derived from Chinese som'ces through the Jesuit missionaries. It appears that a map of Tibet was put into the hands of Eather Regis at Pekin, in 1711, and that he reported its defects to the Emperor Kang-hi, who resolved to procm-e one that was more acciu'ate and reliable. Two lamas, who had been instructed by the Jesuits at Pekin, were sent to prepare a map from Sining to Lassa, and the som-ce of the Ganges. The results of their laboiu's Avere given to the missionaries in 1717, by whom they were commimicated to Du Halde, and pub- lished in Paris. Much of this map was fi'om oral information ; but all that was derived from personal observation appears to have been well laid down. Our knowledge of Tibet and of the course of the Sanpoo Avas cutu-ely derived from this som-ce, until the journeys of Captain Montgomerie's pimdits corrected the old lamas' woi'k, within the last few years, while confirming its general accuracy. The map published by Du Halde was re-examined by D'Anville, who moved the source of the Ganges fm-ther north ; and Rcnnoll, in his first map, copied D'Anville almost exactly. ^Uterwards, Anquetn du Perron obtained the results of some observations along the com'se of the Ganges from a Jesuit missionary named Tiefien- thaler, who did not, however, cai-ry his compass smwcy beyond * Asiatic Researches, iv., p. 317, and p. 321. t No. 3, Mouth of the Cossimbazar to Colgong. It is d.itod 1796. There are also three sheets of another incomplete set by Colebrooke, dated 1801. 01. TOPGORAPniCAL SURVEYS. Hui'dwai", the rest being laid down from native information.* E-cnnell, in his second edition, adopted the position of the som'cc of the Ganges from Tieifeiithaler, Avhich was hased on no better authority than that of the lamas, namely, the reports of natives. Thus this important geographical question was left in a state of doubt ; and Colonel Colebrookc considered that, as Surveyor General, and for the honom* of his country, it was his duty to attempt its solution. In 1800, Lieutenant Wood, the former surveyor of the Irrawaddy in 1795, had, " by order of General Sir James Craig, K.B., com- manding the Army in the Field," made an elaborate survey of the Ganges from Hurdwar to Allahabad;! and in 1808, Colonel Cole- brookc resolved to complete the examination of the sacred river from Hvu'dAvar to its source. Captain Guthrie and Mr. Daniell the artist in 1789, and Colonel Hardwicke in 1796, had already pene- trated as far as Srecnuggur, and the observations of these officers had enabled Rennell to correct the error of Tieffenthalcr in placing Srcenu"ijur N.N.W. instead of E.N.E. of llurdwar. But the soui'ce of the Ganges had not yet been reached. Such was the state of knowledge wdien Colonel Colebrooke obtained the sanction of the Government for his exj)edition. But wliih; he was preparing to set out, the Surveyor General was seized with a fatal illness, and the execution of the project devolved upon Captain Webb, who was accompanied l)y Lieutenants Raper and Ilearsey. They surveyed the course of the Granges from Hurdwar to near its source at Gangotri, and fixed the position of Sreenuggiu*, on the Aluknunda, and other points, between April and June 1808. J In 1805, Colonel Crawford, while conducting a sm-vey in Nepal, measm'cd some of the peaks of the Himalayas, and was the first to • There is a copy of this curious map of the Ganges, published by Anquetil, in tlie Geographical Department of the India Office, entitled, " Carte General du eours du Gauge et du Gogre, dressee sur les cartes du Tieflenthaler, INlission.aire. Par M. Anquetil du Perron. Paris, 1794." "f This survey is beautifully drawn and coloured on several sheets. The MS. is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office, and there is also a second set of sheets of Wood's .Survey on a reduced scale. But both are in a disgraceful state from long neglect. J The Manuscript of Webb's Survey of 1808, in 12 sheets, from Hurdwar to Gangotri, is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. Tlie jiarrative of his expedition was written by his companion. Lieutenant Raper, and published in the Asiatic Researches, xi., p. 446-C3. SIJIIVETS BY nODGSON AND HEKBEHT. G5 announce their immense height, but the journal of his siirvey is unfortunately lost. ]\Ir. Colehrooke, the Sanscrit scholar, and kinsman of the Surveyor General, took a great interest in the question of the height of the Himalayan peaks, hereafter to be finally settled by Andrew Waugh, and wi'ote a paper on the subject.* After the untimely death of Colonel Colehrooke, the ofi&ce was held by Colonel Garstin from 1810 to 1814, and Colonel Charles Crawford sviccecded him. During this period many usefid route surveys were made by officers Avho accompanied the armies in Oude and Eohilcund; and in 1807, Dr. Buchanan, who had so ably reported upon Mysore and Malabar, was nominated by Lord Hastings to make a statistical sm-vey of Bengal, with an account of the condition of the people, their religion, agriculture, productions, &c. He had efficient assistants and draftsmen, and liis labour's extended over seven years, from 1807 to 1814. f In 1816, Colonel Colin Mackenzie, who had been working in the Madras Presidency for more than 30 years, became Surveyor General at Calcutta, where he reduced and compiled many useful maps, and set several sm'veys on foot. He eventually (bed there of old age in 1821, and was temporarily succeeded by Colonel Hodgson. After the termination of the Nepaul War, Lord Hastings, in 1815, appointed Captain J. A. Hodgson and Lieutenant Herbert to sm'vey the mountainous regions between the Sutlej and the Ganges, which are bovinded on the north by Chinese Tibet. A base was measured by Lieutenant Herbert with staves made of dcoddra wood, latitudes were fixed by stars' zenith distances, and longitudes by observations of Jupiter's satellites ;$ but, although the scientific basis * lu tlie Asiatic Researches, vol. xii. For interesting particulars respecting early incasurcments of Ilimalayan peaks, sec also " iSIurray's Discoveries in Asia," ii., p. 382, " ISaillie Fraser's Jouiiial," p. 323, " Buchanan llauiilton's Nepal," anil the Quarterly Review, No. 34. The reviewer challenges the accuracy of the observations, and, like a true conservative, declares that the Andes will be found to l>o higher than the Himalayas. t Dr. lUielianan's Survey cost 30,000/. His ]MSS. were sent home in 181G, and in 1838 Mr. Montgomery Martin got leave from the Court of Directors to publish extracts, which accordingly appeared in three thick volumes. There are a series of manuscript maps of the Beniral Districts, drawn for Dr. Buchanan, in the Geographical Department of the India OiBce, but tlioy arc mcrel}' compilations to illustrate his reports, and were engraved by Mr. Walker in 1838 for Mr. Montgomery Martin's book. I The original manuscript map ?howing the base measured by Hodgson and Herbert near Saharunpore, and the triangulation founded on it, to ascertain the heights of peaks, is preserved iu the Geographical Department of tho India Ollicc. (6409.) E no TOPOcnAPniCAL surveys. of the survey is liiglily creditable to the olliecrs employed, the interior filling in was seanty and inaccui'ate.* Captain Webb was employed to continue the survey over the province of Kumaon, from 1815 to 1820, and in 1818 Hodgson and Ilerbcrt were engaged! in Gurhwal. 33etween 1815 and 1821, Captain James Franklin, a very accom- plished officer, surveyed the whole of Bundelcund, and produced a valuable map of that region, and a mcmou- on its geology. A survev based on routes and cross routes was also made in 1821 bv Captain Johnson, of Bhopal and Bairseah, in Central India. J The Sunderbunds were sm-veyed between 1812 and 1818 by two young brothers, Lieutenants Hiigh and W. E, Momeson. They were much annoved bv tigers and alligators, and thev relate how a tiger sprang from a branch just over their theodolite while in the act of obser^'ing, and hoAV the shaking of the ground near them made the instrument vibrate, owing to the tread of huge monsters in the jungle. Hugh died of jungle fever at Jessore in 1818, and his brother was killed in an action with the Goorkhas.§ A rough survey of Cuttaek was commenced in 1818 by Lieutenant Buxton ; a survey of Backergunge was instituted in 1819 ; and those of the Sylhet frontier, and of Azimghiu* and Joimpoor were com- * Interesting accounts oi' these operations will be i'niind in tlic Asiatic Researches, vol. xiii., p. 297, and vol. xiv., p. 60 and p. 187. The operations of Hodgson and Herbert were also published in a work entitled "Astronomical Observations in various parts of Hindustan, and a Survey of the sources of the Ganges and Jumna," by Capt. J. A. Hodgson ; " with operations for " determining the heights of peaks in the Him.alayas, by Captains Hodgson and Her- " bert, 1817." Tt contains an account of their measurement of a base, with drawings of the apparatus. There is a copy of this work in the Geographical Department of the India Office, bound in red morocco and gilt, with a manuscript title page. In 1829, Ilerbcrt commenced a periodical at Calcutta, called " Gleanings in Science," to which James Prinsep was a frequent contributor. Herbert became Astronomer at the Lucknow Observatory in 1831, and Prinsep took his place as editor. In 1832 the " Gleanings " were converted into the " Journ.al of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," and have been published monthly ever since. Herbert died at Luekiiow on Septem- ber 24th, 1833. t The original " Journal of the Survey of Gurhwal," by Lieutenant J. D. Herbert, 8th Regiment N.I., in 1818 ; is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. J The field books of Captains Franklin and Johnson are preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. § Their field books are preserved at Calcutta. See " Calcutta Review," vol. G3 (1859). SUTIVETS IX BOMBAY DISTRICTS. 67 menced in 1818. A line of country was also surveyed by Lieutenant Jackson, from Miduapore to Nagpore in 1818, Avitli a view to ascer- taining the practicability of making a road.* In the Bombay Presidency, diu'ing this period, Colonel Monier "Williams made a careful sm-vey by compass and perambulator of Guzerat, Cutcb, and Kattywar, between 1813 and 1820 ; and some maps were compiled from route surveys in the Deccan, but none were based on triangulation. Captain Dangerfield was engaged on geographical work in Malwa, and between 1812 and 1810 Colonel Dickenson and Captain Tate surveyed the town and islands of Bombay and Salsette, and this map was accompanied by a statistical memoir.f • See a dispatch from Lord Hastings, dated February 15th, 1821. t The map of Bombay, by Dickenson and Tate, was lithographed for Major Jervis in 1843, on a scale of 1 inch to 1,200 yards; but it is very inaccurate. E ( 68 ) v.— SECOND PERIOD OF THE TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEYS. 1823-43. Sir George Everest, and the completion op the Measurement op an Arc of thk Meridl\.n. On the death of Colonel Lamhton in 1823, his assistant George Everest was appointed to succeed him as Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India ; and thus the hope of the veteran surveyor, expressed in his last Report, Avas fulfilled. " A " man Avas found, after he relinquished the work, possessing zeal, " constitution, and attainments wherewith to prosecute it." George Everest, son of Tristram Everest, Esq., of Gwemvale in Brecon, AAas horn on Jidy 4th, 1790. He hegan his education at Marlow, and completed it at Woolwich, where he passed a hrilhant examination, lie sailed for Bengal as an Artillery Cadet in 1800, and executed a reconnaissance survey for Sir Stamford Raffles in Java in 1811— IG,* when he became the friend of Mr. John Crawfurd. In 1817 he was employed in establishing a telegraph system from Calcutta to Benares, and joined the survey in 1818. He had heen Colonel Lambton's chief assistant for upwards of five years. At the time of his chiefs death he was engaged on the Bombay longitudinal series. On taking charge of the survey, he found the most northern work to be a base line measured at Takalkhera in the valley of Berar, but the triangulation had not been extended so far. Here Everest commenced work in Novem- ber 1828. He was suiTOvinded by many difficulties. His colleague. Dr. Voysey, died in December 1823, and Lambton's principal assistant, Mr. De Penning, a half caste from Madras, became weary of the service, and retu-ed in February 1824. The rest of Lambton's staff consisted of Madi-as men, who were unwilling to go so far from their homes, and there were no trained hands to take their places. * The MS. volume containing the original route survey of Java in 1814-16 is preserved in the Geographical Department of the India Office. COLONEL EVEREST. 69 Everest himself was attacked with, a severe fever, and liis limbs were paralyzed. Still he resolutely persevered, lest, if he broke down, the establishment should be scattered, and the trained men be lost, whom it would be impossible to replace. He was lowered into and hoisted out of his seat by two men, when he observed with the zenith sector. lie now had to take the meridional arc series across the Satpoora hills,* which bound the valley of Berar to the north, about 15 miles north of the Takalkhera base. He anticipated that the density and magnitude of these mountains woidd cause a considerable deflection of the plumb line, and made some careful observations with a view to deciding the point. He then carried the triangulation across the Satpoora hills as far as the plain of Sironj, where a base line was measured with the old chain in November 1824. In January 1825 a scries of observations was taken at Kalianpoor near Sironj, and then at last the Superintendent's health completely broke down. He was obliged to go to England on sick leave, but still retaining his appointment, in 1825. During Colonel Everest's absence, a longitudinal series of triangles was extended from the Su'onj base to Calcutta, over nearly 700 miles of difficult and little known countiy. This important work was entrusted to Mr. Joseph OUiver, who had been Everest's pupil from the time he first joined the survey in 1818, and whom he called his " right arm." Colonel Everest was in England from 1825 to 1830 ; and his time was fully employed in studying the newest improvements and superintending the construction of instruments on the most approved jirinciples. When he retm-ned to India in 1830, he was provided with the best instruments that could then be produced. He had a large theodolite with an azimuth cucle 30 inches in diameter, by Troughton ; and two double vertical circles three feet in diameter, by Troughton and Simms. But the most important improvement introduced into the sm'vey by Everest, at this time, was the nicasiu'c- ment of the bases by compensation bars, instead of the old inaccm-ate method by chaiiis. One of the objections to the chain method was the impossibility of determining the temperature of its diffferent parts wMle in actual * He calls them the Mabadeo llill:^. 70 THE GREAT TEIGOXOMETllICAL SURVEY. use. Colonel Colby, of tlic Irish Siu-vey, invented the method of measuring bases by compensation bprs,* foimded on the principle of eliminating the errors arising from changes of temperature by compensation or self correction. Advantage is taken of the unequal expansion of various metals to eliminate the effects of variations of tcmperat lu-e altogether. Two bars, one of brass and one of iron, each about 10 feet long, are firmly clamped together in the middle so that no motion can take place near the centre ; and any expan- sion from change in temperature must be towards the extremities. At a temperatue of 62' the two bars arc precisely the same length. At each end of both bars an aperture is worked out to admit a conical pivot, and the two pivots, one in the brass the other in the iron bai', arc adjusted to a flat iron tongue. TMien the temperature rises, the brass bar will be lengthened more than the ii'on one, and the tongues will incline inwards, and vice versa. Consequently there is a point on the tongues at which theoretically the expansion of the bars is compensated by the inclination of the tongues. This point is marked with a dot on each tongue, and the distance betw(HMi tlu'S(> dots is, as nearly as it can be made, ten feet. TJic bars are supported on brass rollers and enclosed in deal boxes, from which the tongues only project. Before going to India, Colonel Everest tried the compensation bars m Lord's cricket grouiid. T\\ o iron standard bars were made of 10 feet each, called A. and B., and two brass standard scales of six inches, also A. and B, with wliicli the compensating bars and microscopes were frequently compared. All the measurements were refeiTcd to these standards, t Colonel Everest an'ived at Calcutta in the autumn of 1830, with six sets of bars, and Avell supplied ^-ith the most improved instru- ments. He combined the appointments of Surveyor General and Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey in his own per- son. He found that Mr. OUiver had nearly completed the Calcutta longitudinal scries, which originates at Kalianpoor, and terminates at • It is said that a base 100 feet long in Ireland was measured six times with Colby's compensation bars, and that the extreme ditlbrcnce between the measurements did not exceed half the breadth of a sharp steel point on a plate of metal, observed with a microscope. t " Transactions of the Physical Class of the Asiatic Society of Bengal." 1839. This was an interesting lecture by Everest on the compensation bars, the substance of which will be found in the Asiatic Researches, xviii. p. 189. THE BARllACKPORE BASE. 71 Fort William, Calcutta. On Everest's arrival he resolved to measure a base line of verification for this series, which is interesting as the first base line in Intlia that was measured with the compensation Ijars. Mr. Taylor, the Astronomer at the Madras Observatory, Avas deputed to Calcutta to assist Colonel Everest at the measurement of tliis base. It extends for 6^ miles along the road from Government House at Calcutta to Barrackpore. The extremities are marked by two towers 76 feet high, which overtop the trees and houses.* The measm'cment was commenced on November 23rd, 1831, finished on January 21st, 1832, and the triangulation of the Calcutta longitu- dinal series was completed on July 2nd, 1832. f In 1832 Colonel Everest resumed the Avork connected with the meridional arc scries, and in the commencement he had to encounter difficulties Avhich could only liave been surmoimted by a combination of quaUties which are rarely found united in one man. His staff had to be trained to the work, and, in addition to his incessant laboiu-s in the field, he had to transact aU the business connected with his office as Surveyor General. Hitherto the meridional arc series had been conducted OAcr the elevated plateau of the Deccan, where niunerous rocky heights offered excellent sites for stations. But in extendinsr the triancrula- tion beyond the Sironj base, the sm-veyors entered upon a much more difficult coimtry for their work. Here the great plateau of Central India terminates with the high laud roimd GwaUor, and the valley of the Chumbul commences. Erom this point the east flank of the meridional series is on flat land, while the western side rests on low hills as far as Delhi. But from Delhi a wide plain, over- grown with groves of mango and tamarind, iutcrmmgled A^ith lofty peepul and banian trees, and thickly scattered over with villages, extends for 104 miles to the foot of the Sewalik hills, the first out- work of the Himalayas. At a distance of a few miles from the observer on the great Gangetic plain, the trees appear to form a continuous belt of foliage, while clouds of dust often obscm-e the view. * The following officers were engaged in measuring this base. Lieutenants Western and Bvidgman, Mr. Taylor the jNIadras Astronomer, INIessrs. Logan, Ollivcr, Pcvton, Torrick, Roi>senrode, and Lieutenant Wilcox the surveyor of Assam. There is an account of the meaaurement in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, i. p. 71 . See also James Prinsep's determination of the constant of expansion of the standard, i. p. 130. •j" The area suruoycd was 33,442 square miles. Total cost 13,074/. 72 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. In entering upon this difficult country, Colonel Everest was supported by able and zealous youns^ assistants. In 1832, Andrew WauEjh*, his future successor, and Kenny joined the survey, and Olliver and Rosseni'ode had akeady been in training for some years. It is the practice of the sui-vey, before commencing the main triangulation of a series, to execute an approximate series by which the stations for observing the angles of tlie main series are selected, and the positions of the triangles sketched out. Mr. Olliver commenced the new work by exploring the tract north of the Chumbul, while Mr. Rossenrode was deputed to cany on an approximate series along the meridian of the great arc as far as the Chumbul river. It then became necessary to erect permanent towers for stations on the Gangetic plain ; and in order to select their positions, Colonel Everest designed a mast 30 feet high, ivith a circulai* table, 40 inches in diameter at the top, round which a square scaffolding of large bamboo was built. This was intended to obseiTC from ; and 13 other masts, 70 feet high, with cross bamboo staves having an ignited blue light at one end, and a sway rope at the other, were placed on the surroundmg stations. On December 6th, 1833, Colonel Everest anived at Muttra, the station for collecting bamboos for the masts and scaffolding. The instrument used on tlie top of the observing mast was a Trougliton and Simms 12-inch theodolite, constructed in 1830. The signals at the pinnacles of the other masts were blue lights, burnt by sets of foui*, at intervals of 10 minutes. But, owing to the distance between the stations, the signals were scarcely ever visible to the naked eye, and it Avas necessary to lay the telescope in the proper direction, to be calculated beforehand by a series of minor triangles. This system, invented by Colonel Everest, was called "ray tracing." By May 1831 all the 35 stations between the Chumbul and the foot of the Sewahk lulls had been selected. Day and night, at all hom^s, from December to May, Everest was perpetually at work. Colonel Lambton had used masts and flag staves as signals. But, owing to the nature of the atmosphere, objects of this kind cannot be easily bisected in the day time during the healthy season, and are often invisible for days together. So Lambton chose the rainy season, when the atmosphere is very cleai', for field observations. The con- * Nominated July 2n(l, 1832. Everest's arrangements, the dehra base. 73 sequence was a reckless ^v^astc of life and health, besides much suffering and discomfort. But luminous objects were found to succeed best in the dry healthy season. Everest therefore substi- tuted the heliotrope* for day observations at short distances, and re- verbcratory lamps with argand ljurners,t or blue lights, for the night. The position of each station having thus been fixed, 17 permanent towers were erected. They are square at the base, about 50 feet high, Avith walls five feet thick at the bottom and two at the top. The roof or terrace is supported by two large stone beams on Avhich rests a cylindrical well of masonry sm-moimted by a circular slab of sandstone. At right angles to these stone beams, and 3| feet above them, are rafters su])porting the stage for the observer, roimd which is a hand rail with rings for the observmg tent. Thus the instrument is completely isolated from the stage on which the ob- server stands. The instrument is hoisted up by a crane at one angle. J These important but tedious preliminaries having been completed, the great work of measuring tlic most northern base for the great arc scries was commenced in the end of 1834. The region selected for this measurement was the Dehra Doon, a beautiful valley between the Sewalik hills and the Himalayas, 2,000 feet above the sea. The western end of the base line is 1,886 and the eastern 2,073 feet above the level of the sea. The mcasm-cment was commenced on December 1st, 50 comparisons having lu'st been made between each of the six compensation bars and the iron standard, while the standards A and B were compared with each other 101 times. As soon as the base was measured, it was remeasured in reverse order by Waugli and llenny, the error l)eing 2 • 396 inches. The whole dis- tance was 7 • 12 miles. On March 28th, 1835, the work of measming was completed. The luicultivated part of the countiy, over which the base line passes, Avas afterwards piu'chased by Captain Kirko, who called it Arcadia, in compliment to the great arc scries. Colonel Everest's head quarters were at Hatipaon, in the Dehra Doon, Avhcnce * The heliotrope is .a circuhir mirror, 10 to 12 inches in diameter, fitted for vertical and horizontal motion. f The lamps constructed in 1830 consisted of a parabolic reflector 12 inches in diameter, applied to an argand burner, the whole enclosed in a wooden shed with a glass window, which served as a packing case in travelling. X See an article on the detail of the working of the Great Trigonometrical ?>urvey, describing the duties in the field, the rules for selecting stations, the heliotrope and other apparatus, in the "Professional Papers on Indian Engiueuriug," vol. iv. p. 303. 71 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. he commanded a \4cw of the lovely valley. The base was transferred, by triangulation, to the peaks of the Sewalik hills, called Amsot and Banop;, Avliicli arc visible both fromDohra and from the Ganj^etic plain. During this period Colonel Everest's healtli suflercd very severelv, and he was ordered liome, but this was impossible, as none of his staff could then have taken his place. Between October 183i and June 1835, all the horizontal angles across the plain, from the Chumbul to the foot of the Sewalik hills, were taken. The instruments used were two three-foot theodolites, one by Troughton and the other by Mr. Barrow, the instrimient maker whom Colonel Everest had brought out fi-om England, and established as head of a factory at Calcutta. Barrow's theodolit(Mvas partly composed of portions of the old instrument of Colonel Lambton, and the circle was graduated at Calcutta by Barrow. Members of the siu-veying staff were now rapidly gaining knowledge and efficiency. An ol3servatory was formed at Kaliana, near the foot of the Sewalik hills. It consists of a room 20 feet long by 12, termuiated at cither end by a scmicu-cular bow, and two side rooms. Pillars are passed up through the floor, and free from contact with it, and opposite each there are two meridional apertures 21 inches Avide. Here one of the double vertical circles was placed on a column of carved sandstone, surmounted by a capital of brass. The instrument is three feet in diameter, and consists of two cu-cles Avith a telescope between them. These astronomical cu'clcs were found to vibrate BO much as to render accuracy impossible. At first this was attri- buted to the wooden tripods on which they were placed, but the same defect was apparent when they were remoA'cd to the stone columns, and it became evident that they were top heavy. Everest set hunself resolutely to work to devise a remedy. He was ably assisted by Syud Mohsin, a native of Arcot, who came to Calcutta under the patronage of Colonel Blacker, the Surveyor General, and was engaged by Everest in 1830. The task was one of great delicacy, and requiring an intimate knowledge of the subject, as Avcll as much mechanical skill. Finally, however, the great surveyor and his native colleague achieved a complete success. On the 1st of October 1836, Colonel Everest took the field with both the large theodolites, and four 18-incli altitude and azimuth instruments. He divided his staff into two distinct parties, under himself and Andrew Waugh, and by February 1837 they had con- THE STRONJ AND BEDER BASES. 75 nected the Dchra Doon base with that measured on the Sironj plain near Kalianpoor in 1824. At the latter place another observatory was erected, exactly like that at Kaliana. It then became nccessaiy to re-measure the Sironj base with the same instruments that had been used in the Dehra Doon. This work was commenced on December 1st, 1837, and completed on January 18th, 1838. The old base proved to be too short by 2-825 feet, and the error Avas attributed to want of means of kuomng the true length of the chain and the true temperature. In October 1838 Captain Waugh was sent south to revise the angles in the Deccan with Ti-oughton's large theodolite, and he completed a series of triangles over a meridional distance of 260 mUes, returning to Dehra in June 1839. To show the Avondcrful accm-acy of these observations, it may be stated that the difference between the length of the Dehra Doon base as measm-ed, and as computed by triangidation from the Su'onj base, was only 7" 2 inches. The difference of latitude between the Kaliana and Kalianpoor observatories, which are on the same meridian, was fixed by simul- taneous observations of the same stars with the two great astrono- mical circles.* The stars selected for simultaneous observation were 36 in number. On the 25th of November 1839 Captain Waugh reached the Kalianpoor observatory, with the instrument called " Troughton," while Everest and lienny remained at Kahana with " Simms." The scries of observations' was completed on the 23rd of January 1840, and an arc of amplitude was thus determined on this section of the meridian. Waugh then went south to Dumergidda near the old Beder base line, and Everest came down to Kalianpoor. Simultaneous observations of 32 selected stars were then commenced on November 24th, 1840, and completed on January 11th, 1841, and another arc of amplitude was determined. From Kaliana to Ka- lianpoor the arc is 5° 23' 37", and from Kalianpoor to Dumargidda 6° 3' 55-9" In 1841 Waugh proceeded to re-measm-e the old IBeder base Une, after making 57 comparisons between the compensation bars and the standard. The difference between the lenirth as measm-ed, and as computed from the Sironj base, was 4-296 inches. Thus were brought to a close the operations of the great arc of India series, which extends from Cape Comorin to Banog in the * By the simultaneous observation of the same stars, tiie errors in the catalogued places of stars wore eliminated. 76 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAIj SURVEY. Himalayas. The portion from Cape Comorin to Dumargidda and the Beder base is dependent on Lamhton's ehain measurements. That from Dumargidda to Banog depends on the iron standard bars A and B, and the brass standard scales. B was sent to England in 1843-4, and deposited at Southampton. A was at first deposited in the fort at Agra, and now remains with the rest of the apparatus in charge of the officers of the Survey. In these observations Everest deemed symmetry essential to acciu-acy in his triangles (" triangles bien conditionncs), and allowed no angles to be less than 30° or greater than 90°. The total cost of Everest's Great Ai'c Series was 89,833/., and the area covered 50,997 square miles.* In 1835 Colonel Everest had had a serious and almost fatal illness, and at one time his recovery Avas pronounced to l)c beyond all hope. In September 1837 the Court of Directors appointed Major Jcrvis, an engineer oflBcer who had been engaged in some of the surveys in the Bombay Presidency, to succeed Colonel Everest as Sm-veyor General in the event of his death, that the Avork might not be impeded. Major JeiTis had made himself Avell known in England by reading papers and submitting proposals for improved methods of conducting the surveys ;t and eventually the President and several Fellows of the Boyal Society addressed a memorial to the Directors of the East India Company, m-ging them to adojit the views of Major Jervis, without alluding to the gi"eat sendees of Colonel Everest and liis admirable stafi". This proceeding excited great indignatioii in those distinguished officers who had bonic the heat and burden of the day, and gave rise to a series of letters addressed to the Duke of * There was an interesting discussion on the Great Indian Arc and the figure of the earth, between Archdeacon Pratt and Captain Tennant. See the Philosophical Transactions 18.55 (p. 78) ; papers read before the Astronomical Society in January and June 18o7 ; and the Journal of the Asiatic Society of IJengal, xxvin. p. 20. Archdeacon Pratt held that it would be necessary to allow for the effect of mountain refraction on the plumb line, in calculating the curvature of the earth. See further on at page 121. t See his " Address delivered in the Geographical Section of the British Assoeia- " tion at Newcastle on August 26th, 1838, on the state and prospects of the Surveys " in India, with a prefatory sketch of the principles and requirements of Geography, " by Major Jervis, appointed provisionally Surveyor General of India ; with intro- '• ductory remarks. By Sir George Back, Vice-President of the Section." It is published in Vol. J\. of the Bombay Gteographical Society's Journal, pp. 1 57- 89. ( 1840,) luid was printed separately at Torquay. THE BOMBAY LOXGITTTDINAL SERIES. 77 Sussex* as President of the Royal Society, from Colonel Everest, remonstratina: asainst the conduct of that learned bodv. These letters arc WTitten in a vein of humorous sarcasm, and they so com- pletely gained the writer's object that nothing more was ever heard of Major Jervis in connection A\ith the Sm-veyor Genemlship. Useful sei-vice was, however, unintentionally done by arousing the great Sm-- veyor's indignation, for his letters contain many interesting detaUs which would otherwise have been lost. The labours of Colonel Everest, as Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, are by no means comprised in the Great Arc Series. He also completed the Bombay Longitudinal Series, and designed and partly carried out a scheme for covering Bengal and Behar with a gricUron of triangles. The Bombay Longitudinal Series had been commenced by Everest himself, as long ago as 1822, and he had reached as far as the meridian of 76°, when he received the news of Lambton's death. This portion was revised by Lieutenant Jacob in 18l!0-41. Duiing Everest's absence in England, Captain Jopp, the Deputy Surveyor General at Bombay, proposed the continuation of the work in 1827, and Lieutenant Shortredef was appointed to undertake it. But these officers committed the great mistake of commencing from a base of their o^vn, unconnected Avith Lambton's triangulation, and this too, in the teeth of remonstrances fii-om Colonel Hodgson, then Surveyor General at Calcutta. They measured an independent base on the Karlee plain, 40 miles east of Bombay, with a steel chain made by Gary. The rest of their work, as regards observations of angles and celestial azimuths, was considered by Colonel Everest to be slovenly and objectionable, and he set it aside. When Lieutenant Shortrede resigned in 1836, Lieutenant Jacob was appointed to succeed liim, and took the field in October 18374 ^^ labom-s were completed with the revision of Everest's old work by himself and "Waugh, and thus the Bombay Longitudinal Series was fijiished in 1841. It is * Published in a pamphlet by Pickeiing, in 1839. t Author of " Logaiithniic and new Astronomical and GeoJosical Tiililes, by Robert Shortrede, Captain E. I. C. S." (Edinbui-gh 1844.) He afterwards had charge of the Punjab Revenue Survey, from 1849 until 1856. General Shortrede died at Black- heath in 1868. J Between 1845 and 1848 Jacob made a catalogue of double stars from observations at Poena, with a five-foot equatorial by DoUond. {Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, xvii, p. 79.) He afterwards had charge of the Madras Observatory, from 1848 to 1856. See the section on Astronomical Observations in ludia. 78 THE GREAT TRTOOXOifETRICAL SURVEY. 315 miles in k'uglli. Tlic area surveyed is 15,19S square miles. Total cost 13,742/. A comjilcte revision of the famous old survey by Major E-ennell was also designed by Everest. He resolved to oiuginatc several Meridional Scries from tlie Calcutta Loni^-itudinal Series, to terminate at the foot of the Himalayas, and eventually to be connected by another Longitudinal Series along the base of the mountains. This is the gridii'on, in contradistinction to Lambton's network system of triangles. The plan was approved in 1832, and nine stations about GO miles apart, were selected on the Calcutta Series, as origins of as many Meridional Series ; namely, 1. Budaon, passing through Gwalior and the western part of the North-West Provinces to Dehra. 2. Bcnigheer, through the western part of the Xorth-Wcst Pro- vinces. 3. Aimia, going through the central part of the North- West Pro- viuccs and Oude. 4. Karara, do. do. 5. Giincani, do. do. G. Gora, going by Goruckpore, through the eastern part of the North- West Provinces. 7. Kurilaong, through the Lower Provinces. ' 8. Chi nd tear, do. do. 9. FarisHctth, which goes both north and south from the Calcutta Series, through the Lower Provinces. 10. Maluncha, also going north and south, through the Lower Provinces. Thus the North- West Provinces, Rohilkhuud, Oudh, Bahar, and half Bengal would be crossed by lines of primary triangles, sixty miles apart. The first series taken in hand was that of Parisnath, under Lieu- tenant Western. The northern portion was executed between 1832 and 1835, and the southern part, extending to Balasore, imdcr Colonel Boileau, between 1835 and 1840. The Budaon Series was com- menced in 1832 by Lieutenant Roderick Macdonald, who died at his post, and finished by Captain Renny.* The Eangheer Series was begun by Captain Waugh in 1834, and completed in April 1840. The Amua Series was begun in 1834, and iinished in June 1839.t • Vol. ix., pt. i. t Vol. ix., pt. iii. RETIKEMEXT OF GEOKGE EVEREST. <9 The northern connecting series was also proceeded with in Colonel Everest's time. Captain Du Yeniet connected the Great Arc Series with that of Rangheer between 181-1 and 1813, and in November 1812 Captain Waiigh continued the work thence to the head of the Aniua Series, through the Terai north of E-ohilcund, a fever haunted country covered with dense forest and brushwood. Everest designates this piece of work by Andrew Waugh " as complete a specimen of rapidity " combined with accuracy of execution as there is on record in the " volumes."* The Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey finally quitted the scenes of his labom's and triiunphs in 1813, and retired from the service after having been connected with the survevs for twenty-five years. He refused the knighthood which was then offered to him, but accepted it with a C.B. in 18G1. lie had completed one of the most stupendous works in the whole history of science. No scientific man ever had a grander monument to his memoiy than the Great Meridional iii'c of India. Everest's was a creative genius. The whole conception of the sm-vey, as it now exists, was the creation of his brain. He entirely altered and revolutionized the old system of Lambton by substituting the gridiron for the network method. He introduced the compensation bars which have measm-ed eveiy basetin India down to the present day. He invented the plan of obser\'iug by heliotrope flashes, and the system of ray tracing, and designed the plan for the towers. There have been modifications and improvements since liis time ; but nearly everything in the surveys was originated by the great geodesist. Su* George Everest died in 1866. In one of his letters to the Duke of Sussex, he speaks of two of liis assistants as having " attained a degree of " accm-acy and perfection of skill which it would be impossible to " sm-pass." One of these, now Sir Andi-ew Waugh, was his suc- cessor.! Records of the labom's of Sir George Everest arc to be found in the following published and manuscript books : — 1. " Accoimt of the Measurement of an Ai-c of the Meridian.'' — (London, 1830. Ito.) * Budaon Series, cost 17,259/. Area 12,468 sq. miles, Rangbeer Series, cost 11,837/. Area 16,087 sq. miles, Amua Series, cost 10,495/. Area 5,565 sq. miles. t The other was Major Kenny Tailyour. 80 WORKS OF GEORGE EVEREST. 2. " Accoiant of the Measurement of two sections of the Meri- dional Arc of India," by Lieut. -Colonel Everest. — (London, 1847. 4.to.) 3. Account of the Compensation Bars, in the Asiatic Researches, xviii. p. 189. 4. Edinburgh Review. (ISiS.) Vol. 87, p. 372. C. A Series of Letters addressed to II.E.II. the Dulce of Sussex, by Lieut. -Colonel Everest. (London, Pickering. 1839.) G. The operations of the Trigonometrical Suney from January 1823 to 1837. Great Arc Series, Beder to Seronj and Dchra. Vol. 7, parts i. and ii., with Maps and Appendix to part ii., MS. 7. Calcutta Longitudinal Series, with a map. Vol. 8, part L MS. 8. Bombay Longitudinal Series, with a map. Vol. 8, part ii., MS. 9. Budhon Series. Vol. 9, part i., MS. (Skeleton maps.) 10. Eangheer Series. Vol. 9, part ii,, MS. (Maps.) 11. Amua Series, &c., with maps. Vol. 9, part iii., MS. 12. Himalaya Longitudinal Series. Vol. 9, part iv., MS. 13. PUibit Series. Vol. 9, part v., MS. 14. " Remarks respecting the errors Ukely to arise from the false position of the fixed axes of the pendulum," by George Everest. Memoirs of the Boyal Astronomical Society, iv., p. 29. 15. " On Instruments and Observations for Longitude for travel- lers on land," by Colonel G. Everest. Journal of the Moyal Gcogrcq^hical Society, Vol. xxx., p. 315. 16. " Goodesical operations in India," by Sir George Everest. British Association Reports, 1844, p. 3, and 1845, p. 25. The obituary notice of Sii" George Everest, by Sir Roderick Murchison, in his anniversaiy address for 1867, will be found in the Jour7ial of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. xxxvii., p. cxv. There is another obituary notice in the; addi-css of the President of the Astronomical Society, on February 8th, 1867. Rroceedings, vol. xxvii. p. 105. ( 81 ) VI.— SECOND PERIOD OF THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 1823—1843. The Reventte and Topographical Surveys. During the period from 1823 to 1830 there was a Surveyor General at Calcutta, and Deputy Surveyors General at Madras and Bombay. The post at Calcutta, from 1823 to 1827, was held by Colonel Valentine Blacker, whom Sir Andi'cw Waugh speaks of as, with the exception of Everest, the ablest and most scientific man that ever presided over the department.* The revenue suiveys in. the North- West Provinces were commenced under his auspices ; and his thorough appreciation of the importance of the sm'veys on a geodetic basis is shown in his able paper on the subject, which has been reprinted by Su- Andrew Waugh. Colonel Blacker died of fever in 1827, and was succeeded by Colonel Hodgson, who had previously held the ofiicc from 1821 to 1823, and who now held the post imtil 1829, when he retui-ned to England, in the expectation of being employed on the engraving of the Indian Atlas, t Major H. Walpole acted as Surveyor General for a short time in 1829-30. In the same year Colonel Everest assimied the duties both of Super- intendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey and Surveyor General of India ; and about 1834 the posts of Deputy Surveyor General at Bombay and Madras J were abolished. There was convenience in placing the whole department imder one head ; but it must be confessed that, owing no doubt to the absorbing natvu'c of Colonel Everest's duties connected with the great arc, and to the difiiculties which siurroimded him in the organization of his department, the progress of the geographical delineation of * Parliamentary Paper, April 1851. t This is the same offici-r who surveyeil part of the Himalaya witli Captain Herbert. (See page 65.) John Anthony Hodgson was born at Bishop Auckland on July 2nd, 1777, and went to India a.s a cadet in 1799. After his return to England, he lived at Durham. He Ixjcame a M.ajor-General in 1845, received a command in India, and died at Umballa on March 28th, 1848. Hodgson was also an accomplished astronomer. See the section on Astronomical Observations. J Captain D. Montgomerie had been Deputy Surveyor General at Madras since July 1829. A map of the peninsula of Lidia, to be compiled from the surveys, had beeu called for .so long ago as 1819 ; and in 1830 Montgomerie submitted a map of most of the Madras CoUectorates on a scale of four miles to the inch, with a sketch map of southern India, on a scale of 24 miles to the inch, as a key. (6409.) F 82 BEVENTJE AND TOPOGRAPHICAIi SURVEYS. the country had languished in some degree during the period of his incumhency. In 1828, Mr. J. S. May, the Superintendent of the Nuddea rivers, surveyed and made maps of the Hooglily, Bhagruttee, Jellingheo, and Matabhanga ; and J. Prinsep lithographed maps of the Ilooghly and Ganges, from old surveys by Colebrooke, corrected up to his own time from May's work. The revenue surveys in the North-West Provinces were commenced in 1823. They were vmdertaken mainly with a view to forming a settlement for the land revenue, and the correct delineation of boundaries of estates was considered of more importance than accurate topographical detail ; while rapidity of execution, rather than good mapping, was the object of the surveyor. The revenue survey was divided into two parts, scientific and native. The scientific survey laid down, on a scale of four inches to the mile, the village boundaries, and the main geographical features of the country. The native survey consisted of a rough plan of the village and fields, called a shiijreh, and the list of the fields with their mea- sm-ement, or khusrah. Between 1822 and 1812, the districts west of the Jiimna (Hur- reeanah, Paneeput, Bhuttiaua, DcUii, Rolituk, Goorgaon, Muttra, and Agra,) were surveyed in this way by Captains W. Brown, Simmonds, OKver, "Wroughton,* and Pordycc ; the districts of the Dooab by Captaias Eraser, H. LawTence, "Wroughton, W. Brown, Abbott, and Stephen ; and those of Eohilcimd by Captains Birnie, Brown, Bedford, Wroughton, Eraser, and Abbott. Abbott and Stephen, between 1839 and 1812, completed a survey of Buudolcimd in three maps, which superseded the old route survey of Pranklin, and showed great changes in the country. Several villages marked on Franklin's map are not found in the later sm-vey. The districts round Benares were surveyed from 1839 to 1841 by Abbott, Wroughton, Maxwell, Fordyce, and H. Lawrence, whose work superseded the old route sm-veys. A siu-vey of the Saugor and Nerbudda country was completed by Captain Wroughton in 1842, while that of Behar and Bengal was commenced in 1837, and was still progressing at the time of Everest's retii'ement. Lieutenant Thuillier, who entered the service in 1832, and is now Surveyor General of India, was engaged on the survey of Ganjam and * See a statistical return of the Muttra District (Act 1835), by Captain Wroughton. —Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, v., p. 216. THE BRAHMAPOOTRA SURVEYS. 83 Orissa, in conjunction with Lieutenant Smyth,* from 1839 to 1842 ; and afterwards sm-veyed the districts of Silhct and Cachar. A rough suiTcy was also made of Chittagong, for a district map, hetween 1835 to 1841 ; and in 1831 Lieutenants Noms and Weston sm'vcyed the Berar and Nagporc country, and made a map, which contained much detailed geographical information. The topographical details of these Revenue Surveys were tolerahly well executed until 1834, when a conference of surveyors was held at Allahahad, hy order of Lord William Bentinck. The great object was to get the surveys done, in order to commence a new system of revenue settlement. A new plan Avas therefore adopted, introducing economy and rapidity, and sacrificing quaUty for quantity. The maps were only rcqmi-ed to delineate village boundaries and sites, with rough outlines of roads and the courses of rivers, and were mere skeleton sketches. They preceded the Great Trigonometrical Survey : and thus a proper connexion was not in the first instance established between the two operations. Major Bedford was appointed Superintendent of the Revenue SuiTeys of Bengal, under Colonel Everest, in the end of 1838. On the fii'st appointment of Captains Waugh and Renny to the Trigonometrical Sm-vey in 1832, Colonel Everest sent them to ex- plore the wild jungly country between Chunar and the sources of the Sone and Ncrbudda, up to Jubbulpoor. They completed this service, and submitted a topographical and geological report in 1834.t The breaking out of the Burmese War led to the acquisition of much valuable geographical information in the direction of the north- east frontier of Bengal, and of that vast unknown region beyond, which then, as now, was delineated only from the maps of d'Anville. Captain Bedford and Lieutenants Wilcox and Burlton were sent to explore the Brahmapootra towards its source in 1825, under instruc- tions from Colonel Blacker, then Surveyor General. Bm-lton surveyed the Brahmapootra as far as Sudiya, Bedford went up the * Their memoir on the Ganjiim district is preserved in the Geographical Depart- ment of the India Office. It contains an account of the boundaries, area, divisional soil, productions, population, ports, lakes, &c. Their new map is in 15 sheets, (and an index) on a scale of four miles to the inch. I A manuscript volume, containing the journal of the route from Shergotty to Chunar, and thence to Jubhulpoor, by Lieutenants Waugh and Rennj, is preserved in the Geographic.ll Department of the India Office. At the end there is .a " Geological Journal," with coloured sketches of the route. F 2 84 REVEXrE AND TOPOGRAPIITCAL SURVEYS. rivers Dihong (Sanpu ?) and Diboni^ until he was stopped by wild frontier tribes, and "Wilcox made one journey beyond tbc frontier up the Brahmapootra valley, and in another penetrated to the banks of the Irrawaddy.* Captain Boileau Pcmbcrton surveyed the territory of Muneejioor and surroundini? country, and portions of Cachar, between 1825 and 1830; and from 1830 to 1837 Dr. Ilichardsou and Captain McLeod made exploring journeys from Moulmein to Ava and to Kiang Ilung near the Chinese frontier. To this day no explorer has succeeded in adding, in any appreciable desrree, to the knowled2re conveved bv the discoveries of Bedford and Wilcox, as regards the region beyond our north-east frontier, and towards the sources of the head waters of the Brahmapootra and Irrawaddy. Captam Pemberton's exceedingly valuable large map, compiled from the route surveys of all these officers, was lithographed at Calcutta in 1838.t In 1830 a survey was commenced to connect the map from Goalpara, where it tenninated in Captain Wilcox's survey of the Assam valley, wdth the surs^eys of the Ganges. In 1834 Lieutenant Ommanney was engaged in tracing the line of the Brahmapootra from Goalpara, roimd the difficult country at the root of the Cossyah • " The Memoir of the Survey of Assam, 1825-28," with a detailed account of the discoveries, aud a map, by Lieutenant Wilcox, will be found in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xviii., p. 314. f The record of these surveys will be found in the following printed and manuscript books : — Vols. xvi. and xviii. of the Asiatic Researches. No. xxiii. of the selections from the records of the Bengal Government. (1855.) Report on the Eastern Frontier of British India, by Captain Pemberton. (Calcutta, 1835.) Journal (abstract)of an expedition from Moulmein to the Chinese frontier, in December 1836, by Captain McLeod. — Journal of the Asiatic So(i( li/ of Beiig(il,yi., Pt. ll., p. 989. The niiinuscript journals of Captain McLcod's iuid Dr. Hicliardson's expeditions are >/ preserved in the Political Department of the Lulia Oflicc. They were printed by order of the House of Commons in 1870, with a map compiled by Mr. Saimders. Captain McLeod's original map appears to be lost. Original Journal of Captain James Bedford on the Brahmapootra and Dihong. 1824-25. MS. Note book of route from Kusan on the Dihong, towards the source of the Irrawaddy in 1826, by Lieutenant Wdcox. MS. Field booli of the survey of part of the Brahmapootra in 1825. MS. Survey of the Brahmapootra from Goalpara to Bislienath in 1828. MS. These manuscript volumes are preserved in tlie Geographical Department of the India Office. THE HYDERAiJAD AND OTUEll SURVEYS. 85 hills, to witliiii thirty miles of Dacca, when a sudden order of the Government directed the work to be suspended, thus rendering it comparatively useless for want of the connecting link which it would only have taken three months to complete.* In 1835 ;Mr. Fer^usson made a sketch survev of the lower Ganges and Brahmapootra, from Jaffiergunge to the sea, which was com- bined in a small atlas published at Calcutta by Mr. J. B. Tassin ; and a topographical survey of the river Hooghly from Bandel to Garden Reach was compiled and pubKshed in 1841, by Mr. Charles Joseph. t The survey of the Nizam's tenitory was progressing throughout the period of Colonel Everest's incumbency, having been commenced in 1816. The officers engaged upon it were Captains Garling, Young, Macpherson, Du Vernet, Morland, and Crisp. ' The siu-vey, based on the trigonometrical operations of Colonel Lambton, pro- gressed systematically and steadily. It was conducted on the principles of the Madras Military Institution Sui-vey, and the maps are full of topographical detail. They were accompanied by several voliuncs of memou's, which are deposited in the Geographical Department of the India Office. Several districts were re-surveyed, and the sm-veys of others were completed in the Madras Presidency, including Xellore, Vizagapatam, Salem, Ganjam, and the Arcots, betAveen 1833 and 1840, by Cap- tains Snell and JMacpherson. In the Bombay Office some maps were compiled, from compass and perambiUation siurveys not based on triangulation, of Cutch, Kattywar, part of Guzerat, Ahmedabad, and Surat. Captain Grafton and Lieutenant Boyd were surveying in the Deccan in 1829, and a siu-vey of the South Concan was executed in detail by Captain Jervis, between 1824 and 1829, but it was grouuded on imperfect triangulation, and is now obsolete. J This is the officer who was to have succeeded Colonel Everest, and, durin? the time that he was in England in 1837, he obtained a donation of 1,000/. from the Court of Directors, " as a testimonv of their hisrh sense of the value of his labom"S."§ In the same year he wrote a memoir ♦ " James Prinsep. In the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," iv. p. 63. t Sec the " Calcutta Review," iii. p. 428. J "Bombay Quarterly Review," iii. p. 133. § Nov. 10th, 1837. (No. 2,670.) 86 REVENUE AND TOPOGEAPHICAL SURVEYS. on. the sm-veys in India, which is published in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.* In 1841 a map of Sind was compiled from the survey of Alexander Burnes and other soui'ces. The Eevcnue Surveys were imder Major Bedford from 1830 to 1840 ; and in 1814 Major Wroughton succeeded, and was Super- intendent until 1847, when he made over the work to Captain Thuillier, and died in 1849. On the whole, although much was done both as regards explora- tion and the filling in of topographical details, the incumbency of Sii" George Everest ^dll be more memorable for the great scientific results of his labom-s as a geodesist than for the quantity of reliable material that was fm'nished to the map makers. It was said of him that " he would have nothing to do with researches Avhich he " did not think admitted of the accm'acy he cultivated, lest his " assistants, whom he had trained with so much care and labour, " might lose their aptitude for his objects."! * Vol. vii., p. 127. (1837.) It is re-published in the Madras Journal of Literature and Hcieiice, vol. rii., p. 424. Major Jervis retired in 1842. In 1845 he published a translation of" Biiron lliigcl's travels in Cashmere and the Punjab. In ISoo he was appointed the first Director of tlie Topographical Depot of the War Department, and died in 1858. See an Obituary Notice of Major Jervis, by Professor Phillips, in the Transactions of tlic Goological Society. f "Proceedings of the Astronomical Society," xxvii. p. 105. ( 87 ) VII.— THIRD PERIOD OF THE TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEYS. 1843-61. Sir Andrew Waugh as Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, Wlicn Sii' George Everest retired, he recormD ended that his ahle and indefatigable lieutenant, Andrew "Waugh, should suecced liini. In doing so he thus spoke of his successor : " He is beloved and " respected by all the subordinate members of my department, and " held in honoiu' and esteem by all who know him personally. His " talents, acquirements, and habits as a scholar, a matiicmatician, " a gentleman, and a soldier, are of a high order." Colonel "Waugh took charge in 1843,* and, like his predecessor, received the appoint- ments both of Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey and Smweyor General of India. His first work was to complete Sir George Ev^erest's project for the triangulation of the important region between the Great Arc Series and Calcutta, including the North-West Pro\ances and Bengal. Lambton's system had been to throw a network of triangles over the whole face of the countiy. But Everest considered tliis to bo unnecessarily laborious, and that nothing more was required than to execute meridional scries about a degree apart, tied together at then- ends by longitudinal series. This is termed the gridii'on system, and is analogous to the French and Russian methods. Su* George Everest had projected a gridiron of which the Great Arc and a Calcutta Meridional Series formed two sides, the Calcutta Longitudinal Series and a Series along the base of the Himalayas being the other two ; and ten Meridional Series, GO miles apart, origi- nating from the Calcutta Longitudinal, and ending in thcHimalavan Series, forming the grating. It has been seen that three of these, namely, Budaon, Ranghecr, and Amua, had been completed in Everest's time. On assuming the command, Colonel Waugh set himscK steadily to work to finish his old chief's project. The Karara Meridional Series comes next to tlie Amua, emanating from a liiU called Karara on the Calcutta Longitudinal Series, and * Andrew Stott Wiuigli, son of Genenil Gilbert Wsuigli, llic >rilit:iiy Auditor General iit Madras, was Ijorn iii ISIO. Ho entered the corps of Bengal Engiueers in 1827, became garrison engineer at Allahabad in 1830, and joined the survey iu 1832. 88 THE GKEAT TRIGONOMETBICAL SURVEYS. passing through Rewah, AUahahad, and Lueknow, to the Terai. The first part passes through a hilly country covered with pestiferous jungle, and the rest is in the Gangetic valley. The work was com- menced ill Fchruary 1838, under Mr. Scully and Lieutenant Jones ; hut the whole party was prostrated with jungle fever, of which Mr. Scully died. In Febmary 18-12, Lieutenant Shortrede took charge of the Karara Series, but he retii-ed in 1845. It was then arranged that Mr. Ai-mstrong should advance from the south, Avhile Lieutenant Du Vcrnet carried a series of triangles from the Amua Series to the meridian of Karara, and thence turned south until a jimction Avas effected with Ai-mstrong's work. In May 1845 this junction was established. The area surveyed covered 5,819 square miles, at a cost of Rs. 1,34,908.* Next comes the Gurwani Meridional Series, 235 miles long. It was begim in December 1845 by Lieutenant Du Vei-net, and com- pleted on May 24th, 1847, the 18-inch theodolite by Syud Meer Mohsin being used for mcasurmg angles in the fii'st season, and Colonel Waugh's 24-inch in the second. The positions of Jounpoor, Oude, and Fyzabad, were fixed by secondary triangulation. The area of the operations covered 6,298 square miles, and the cost was Rs. 53,019.t The next is the Gora Series, 208 miles long, which was com- menced by Lieutenant Jones in 1844, but he died of jungle fever. Lieutenant Garforth then took charge, and completed the series. Of the stations, sis were on hill tops, and 23 were towers in the valley of the Ganges. The area is 4,416 square mUes, surveyed at a cost of lis. 7C,948.| Then comes the Hurilaong Series, 208 miles long, which was exe- cuted by Mr. Armstrong between 1848 and 1852. Of the 32 stations 7 were placed on hills, and rest were marked by towers. The series crosses the rivers Ganges and Gogra near their junction. Then follows the Chundwar Series, 181 miles long, of which 86 is through hill country, with 11 stations, and the rest in the Gangetic valley, where 19 towers had to be erected. It was commenced by Mr. Logan, in December 1843, and completed in April 1846. The area is 3,565 square miles, surveyed at a cost of Rs. 64,504. § • Vol. X., pts. 1 and 2. t Vol. X., pt. 3. + Vol. X., pt. 4. § Vol. xi.. pt. 2. TUB N. E, UIMALAYA SERIES. 89 The Parisnath North Meridian Scries* was completed by Mr. Nicolson between 1850 and 1852 ; and lastly the Maluncha Meridional Scries was commenced by Captain Renny Tailyour in 1841. But he was called away to serve as Brigade Major of Engineers in the Gwalior campaign, and was present at the battle of Mahi'irajpoor. Lieutenant E,cginald Walker then took up the work, and comjiietcd it in 1846. Tiie length is 157 miles, a large proportion being over very unhealthy ground. The area was 4,765 square miles, and the cost E,s. 52,878. f The eastern side of Everest's gridiron is formed by the Calcutta Meridional Series, originating from his base line in the Barrackpoor road, passing north parallel to the Hooghly and Bhagruttee rivers, and ending at a new base line at Sonakhoda, near the foot of the Darjecling mountains. Tlie preliminary work of selecting stations was begun by Mr. Lane in December 1813, Mr. Peyton took charge in 1844, and the series was completed in 1848. It consists of a simple series of triangles, and all the 56 principal stations necessitated the buikUng of a tower. The area surveyed is 4,136 square miles, at a cost of Rs. 1,10,302. We now come to the North-Eastern Himalaya Series which connects the northern ends of all these meridional series, and the dangers and difficulties in the execution of which were far greater than have been encountered in the majority of Indian campaigns. Military service, plentifully rewarded by the praise of men and by prizes of all kinds, is neither so perilous nor so honom-ablc as that of the Indian Surveyor, ^^ho devotes great talent and abiUty to scientific work in the midst of as deadly peril as is met Avith on the field of battle, and with little or no prospect of reaping the reward that he deserves. His labours, unlike those of a mere soldier, arc of per- manent and lasting value ; but few know who obtained the valuable results, except the gallant sm-veyor's immediate chief and colleagues. The North- Western Himalaya S(>ries was the most desperate of these grand undertakings, and the average slaughter was greater than in many famous battles. This memorable series was commenced in 1845, and completed in 1850, and was the longest series between measured bases m the ' Vol. xi., ]>(. 4. t Vol. xii., pt. 2. J Vol. xii., pt. 4. 90 THE GREAT TKIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. world, being 1G90 miles long from the Dchra Doon base to that of Sonaklioda, in Purneah. It was originally intended to have been carried along the Himalaya Mountams, but the Ncpalesc Govem- rcfuscd to allow the operations to enter their territory. So, after crossing the liills of Gunvhal and Kumaon, the triangles were brought down into the Tcrai near Bareilly, whence they continued to pass tlu-ough the deadly tracts of marsh and jimglc which fringe the Himalayas. The first and second parts were, as has already been stated, performed by Du Vernct and Waugh himself ; and the next section, as far as the head of the Chuudwar Series, Avas completed, amidst great difiiculties, by Mi*. Logan, who did the work admu-ably, observing with Barrow's great theodolite. In one season 40 natives died of jungle fever ; ]\Ii'. Logan was himself prostrated, and in 1817 the whole sm-veying party was conveyed in a helpless condition from fever to Goruckpore. In 1817 Lieutenant Eeginald Walker took charge ; but be also was attacked by the terrible scourge. He hurried towards Darjeeling, and was found dead in his dooly when it arrived, on April 21tli, 1817. Mr. Charles Lane completed the eastern end in 1818, when Colonel Waugh liimself joined the party, to cany on operations for fixing the heights of Himalayan peaks. The com- pletion of the worst part of this series is due to the ability, com'age, and perseverance of INIr. George Logan, who died from the effects of diseases contracted in the Terai, about three years afterwards. Of the five officers who had charge of the scries at different times, two retired, and two fell victims to the climate. The mightiest of the Himalayan peaks are visible from the prin- cipal trigonometrical stations of this series, and were fixed by mea- suremciits A\dth the great theodolite. The primary difficulty of the computer was the identification of nimicrous points, the positions of which had been observed by different persons from different points of view. The series was carefully projected on a scale of fom* miles to an inch, and the rays emanating from the stations of observation exactly drawn. Their intersection defined the j)oints sought for. The area of the largest triangle to a Himalayan peak is about 1,70G square miles, with a side 151 miles long. The heights of 79 peaks were fi:xed, of which 31 have names, and the rest only niunbers. Then- positions are coiTCct withm a quarter of a second as regards latitude, and half a second as to longitude, and the heights arc probably true to within 10 feet, all being too low, if anything, owing to deflection due to mountain refraction. Ko. 15 peak, the highest of all, 29,002 THE SONAKHODA BASE. 91 feet above the sea, was well named by Colonel Waugh, after his old chief, Mount Everest. The N.E. Ilimalayan Series* covered an area of 15,826 square miles, exclusive of the operations of the mountain peaks in Sikkim, which included 73,920, or a total area of 89,716 square miles. The cost of the survey was Rs. 2,14,257. Colonel "Waugh then proceeded to measure a base at the junction of the N.W. Himalaya and Calcutta Meridional Series, to verify both triangulations, and with a view to the futm-e extension of oper- ations eastward into Assam. The site selected Avas an unbroken level plain near Sonakhoda, and the measurement was performed in the season 1817-48. Waugh was assisted by Captain Renny Tailyom-, Mi-. Logan, and ]\Ir. Lane ; but the whole party suffered severely from fever. Colby's compensation apparatus, brought out by Everest in 1830, was used, and the measm-ement was proved by a system of minor triangulation in four sections. The bars were compared with the standard 53 times before measurement, 60 at the middle, and 80 times afterwards. f With the Sonaklioda base Colonel Waugh completed the project of Sir George Everest, for placing a gridiron of trigonometrical series over the North- West and Lower Pro^dnces. Acem-ate data were now supplied for the complete fiUing in and mapping of this important region. Operations were progressing to the south at the same time. In 1842 Captain Jacob had commenced the South Concan Series from a side of the Bombay Longitudinal Series, but was obliged to go home OAVong to iU health. He was succeeded by Lieutenant Ilany Eivers of the Bombay Engineers, who worked with an 18-inch theodolite, made by Dolloiid imdcr instructions from Kater. This series is not, in Colonel Waugh's opinion, in the first rank of geo- detical operations, but it is sufficiently accurate for geographical piu-poscs. The series passes through Mahabuleshwm*, and goes south as far as Goa.J It was completed in 1811, and Bivcrs then took up the Xorth Concan and Khanpisura Series, which extends north as far as Neemuch. • Vol XV., of the Trigonometrical Operations, il.S. "Calcutta Kcview," vol. xxxviii. (1^63). •'Journal Asiatic Society of Ueiigal,"' vol. xxxi. (J»(}2), p. 32. ■)• Vol. xii., pt. iv. J Vol. xiv., pt. i. 92 THE GREAT TlMGONOMETllICAL SURVEY. Sii" Georf^c Everest had also projected the execution of a chain of triangulation along the east coast of India, from the Calcutta base line to the observatory at Madras ; and two of the Meridional Series, namelv, those of Parisnath and Maluncha, were to be extended south fi-om the Calcutta Longitudinal Scries, to join it. The South Parisnath Series was commenced as early as 1832 by Lieutenant Western, assisted by Lieutenant Boileau. The next year Captain ]\Iacdonald was sent to take charge, but fell a sacrifice to the arduous nature of the work, and in 1835 Boileau and the whole party were pi'ostrated l)y sickness. The series was completed in 1839. The work is second rate, but will answer all pm-poses of geography.* The Coast Series was commenced by Captain Thorold Hill, who had ])reviously, from 1815 to 1817, been engaged on the South Maluncha. He was supplied with a new 21-inch theodolite in 1817, and began the coast operations from the Calcutta base line, but found extreme difficulty in crossing the flat swampy country, intersected by creeks, between Calcutta and Balasore. His health suffered so much that he was obliged to go to sea for two years, and thus progress was very sIoav. He A\as replaced by Mr. J. Peyton. After the measurement of the Sonakhoda base, Colonel Waugh was free to undertake a work originated by himself, and the ac- quisition of Sinde and the Punjab offered a vast field for fresli oper- ations, lie conceived a jn-oject for forming a gridu'on of triangu- lation to the westward of the Great Arc Series, to include all the newly acquired territory, which entailed more labom- and was on a grander scale even than Everest's gridii'0)i to the eastward. Colonel lYaugh's plan commcncod with the Great Arc Series, having the Dchra Doon base at the north, and the Sironj base at the south end. From the Dchra base a N.W. Himalaya Series was to be extended to near Attock, where a new base was to be measui-ed ; while from the Sironj base the line of the Calcutta Longitudinal Series was to be extended to Kurrachee, to be called the Great Longitudinal Se ries (Western Section) . At Kurrachee another base was to be mea- sured, and a Great Indus Series was to form the western side of the quach-ilateral. Eiually, a set of interaiediate Meridional Series was to complete the gridiron. This magnificent project was commenced Vol. xiii. pi. i. THE GREAT LOXGTTLTIXAL SERIES. 9.> in 1847-48, with the Longitudinal Series from the two bases at Dehra Doon and Sironj. Lieutenant Du Vcrnet began the North-West Himalaya Series in 1847 from the Dolira Doon base : but in the following year an insur- rectiou in the Jaswan Doon ch-ove the party from their work. The triangulation was proceeded with by Mr. Logan, who reached Attock in 1853. The series consists of 77 principal triangles, in quadri- laterals and polygons, covering an area of 33,000 square miles. The direct length is 416 miles, and there are no towers, as all the stations are on mounds or hill tops. The western section of the Great Longitudinal Series was com- menced from the Sironj base by Captain Renny, assisted by Captain Strange of the Madras Cavalry, in the end of 1848. After the first season E,enny, who had done such excellent service during 16 years, retired from the Survey Department,* and Captain Strange took charge of the series. He was assisted by Lieutenant Tennant, R.E., Mr. C, Lane, Mr. Eossenrode, Mr. Burt, and Mr. McGill. The triangulation had to be taken across the rugged range of Aravidli moimtains, then over the great ThmT or desert to the north of the E-unn of Cutch, and finally across the Indus valley to KmTachee, which place was reached in April 1853, after five seasons of veiy severe work. This series is 668 miles long, consisting of 173 prin- cipal triangles, and covering an area of 20,323 square miles. Of the 117 stations only 22 are towers. A few details respecting the progress of Captain Strange's party will give a general idea of the obstacles to be encountered in work of this kind. The great difficidty, peculiar to this scries, was the crossing of the desert. No geodesical operation of the first order had, at that time, ever been conducted in a desert, and experience was therefore totally at fault as to the probable obstacles to be encountered. Stations had to be selected, in the first instance, by an advanced party. At each station a masonry platform had to be erected in a country entu-ely composed of sand, and destitute of builduig materials. After this had been accomplished, the main party engaged in taking the final observations, numbering 200 men, • On the death of his father in 1849, lie succeeded to the estate of BoiTowfield, in Forfarshire, ami retired from the service, taking the name of Tailyour. lie is uo\v Major Thomas Reiuiy Tailyour, of Borrowfield. Jlis eldest sou is named after his old colleague, Waugh. 94 THE GREAT THIGONOMETRTCAL STJRVET. had to l)c mainlairicd in tlio doscrt durina: a whole season. The desert furnished only three things useful to man or beast, namely, grass, immediately after the rainy season ; limited supplies of milk ; and brackish, or, more correctly, salt water in deep wells, scattered at wide intervals. The approximate series was conducted by Mr. J. Rossenrodo, to avIiosc courage, energy, and sagacity as a pioneer Captain Strange attributed, in no small degree, the success of the undertaking. The information gained by Mr. Rossenrode while conducting the approximate series witli a small party was invaluable in oi-ganizing the arrangements necessary to maintain the main body durmg the succeeding season. These arrangements involved the supply of provisions of every description for 200 men during scA'cral months, and also the distribution of these provisions to the numerous detachments into wliich the party was necessarily divided. For this piirpose, depots had to be established beforehand, throughout the tract to be crossed. Special arrangements were also necessary for supplying the people with water from distant wells. Being favoiu'cd with good weather, and immunity from sickness, the final triaugx,dation of the desert was completed in one season, 1851-52. In November 1852 Captain Strange's party finally marched across the desert from Deesa to the verge of the Indus val- ley, and commenced work in Sinde. These arrangements, requii-ing so much calculation and forethought, remind one of the precautions and minute attention to details which alone enabled McClintock to explore the Arctic Ptcgions in search of Franklin. Like McClintock, the leader of the Great Longitudinal Series had to form dep6ts of food at certain intervals for his people, and to calculate exactly the weight of the food consumed by each man, and the weight Ms camels (the sleighs of the Thurr) could caiTy at each trip. The principal stations in Sinde are from 12 to 20 miles asimder, each defined by masonry pillars four feet in diameter, sm'rounded by a platform for the observer's tent, according to Su- George Everest's pattern. They vary in height from 8 to 35 feet, according to the nature of the coxmtry intervening between two points of observation. When the only practicable view is obstructed by trees or houses, the practice is to remove them, paying the o^\niers fau' compensation, in commvuiication with the viUagc authorities. Captain Strange's party reached the borders of Sinde, and commenced operations on the 8th of December 1852. The first station was Chortlee, where it was necessaiy to observe from a tower 37 feet high, the side being 22 THE CHTJCH BASE. 95 miles long, aud crossed by the Indus. The view was obstructed by a dense hahool jungle, intersected, in many places, by sheets of water. It was a tedious task to clear the line, and then it was long before the signal could be made out at the other station of Helaya, 22 miles away. After a wearisome detention of 25 days, and much painful straining of the eyes, occasional faiat glimpses of Helaya were caught, and at length the angle was satisfactorily observed. At the next station of Kanad there were fresh misfortunes. The tower. 39 feet high, began to emit a crackling sound towards evening, and luckily the great theodoUte had not been placed, when one of the angles fell in. These Sind towers were built of alternate layers of wetted earth and stout branches, but this one had been carelessly tin-own up. In rebuilding it a ramp was raised round the walls for tsvo thirds of their height. At another place the gi-eat theodolite nar- rowly escaped destruction from a hunicane, and was rescued by the desperate efforts of its guardians, amidst the roar of the tempest, in a night of inky darkness. Such are the sort of harassing difficulties and delays which foim the daUy life of the surveyor, but which are ever cheerfully faced and overcome. Captain Strange and his party had their full share ; but at length their work was completed, and the last angle of the series was taken at Muggur Peer Station, on the 22nd of April 1853. At the western termiiiations of these two Longitudinal Series it was necessary to measure bases. Accordingly, Colonel Waugh selected a site for the northern base in 1851-2, in the Chuch Doab, near Attock, and the chief officers of the sm-vey. Walker, Montgomerie, and Strange, were summoned to assist at the measm-ement. George Logan was also there at the conunencement. He adhered to his post, with imdaimted resolution, though the hand of death was on liini. He had been at the mea- surement of every base since 1831, but here he was forced to suc- cumb, and this brave and zealous officer died at Mussom-ee, on the 10th of June 1854., aged 45. The ground at the Chuch base was more level than at any previous one : and as the plain was studded with ancient moimds, the termini were placed on two of them. The stone piers used by Everest in 1831 for bar comparisons, were brought all the way ti-om Dehra Doon in a platform cart, and set up on Dec. 2ud, 1853. On the 6th there was a violent shock of earthquake. Many comparisons were made with the standard, but the length of the compensation bars 96 THE GREAT TRTGOXOMETRTCAT, SFRATiY. was found, as on former occasions, not to be constant during a single hour of the day, owLug to the dissimilar radiating power in the brass and iron. The only aA'ailablo romcdy was to compare them with the standard, under circumstances exactly identical with those prevailing during the measiu*ement. The verification triangles of the Chuch base were executed by Lieutenant Montgomerie, with Barrow's great theodolite. On the completion of this measurement, the apparatus was sent down to Km-rachee, where Mr. llossenrode had already selected the ground. It is a nearly uniform ascent from the south to the north end, with masonry towers at the termini. The verificatory trian- gulation was etfected by Lieutenant Tennant previous to the mea- sm-ement, and the apparatus was delivered over to Captain Strange, who had the principal charge of the KuiTachee base operations, under Colonel Waugli. Syud ^Mohsin, the mathematical instrument maker, came round by sea from Calcutta. The Surveyor General himself had been ovei'worked with his multifarious duties, and had been prostrated by fever ; but he joined the party at Km-rachee, on December Gth, 1854;, Montgomerie, Tennant, and Nasmyth were also present. The measurement was commenced on December 6th, 1854, and completed on January 20th, 1855. Lieutenant Tennant also took 810 observations to fix the latitude of Kurrachee. Colonel Waugh took especial pains in the preparation of the volmne recording the measurement of the Chuch and Kun-achee bases ; and previously drew up instructions for the selection of sites, and a memorandimi to serve as a guide for other base lines that may hereafter be measm-ed. No man li\ang has had so much experience, and he made the volume* as complete as possible, furnishing detailed instrvictions and suggestions for evexy conceivable contingency. His final conclusion was that Colby's compensation system was un- satisfactoiy ; and he recommended that the Survey should be equipped with a new apparatus of the most perfect kind, free fi-om aU its defects. Careftd observation, extending over many years, showed that the relative length of the bars changed according to some law independent of temperatm'e. He would, therefore, discard the compensation principle, and substitute simple iron bars 10 feet • MS. Vol., not numbered. THE GREAT INDUS SERIES. 97 Jong, couplcxl by a pair of microscopes revolving round an axis regulated by a level. It remained to complete the quadrilateral by connecting the two bases at Cliucli and Kurracliee along the Indus valley. This oper- ation is comprised in the Great Indiis Series, which was commenced at both ends, the parties to meet and connect their work half way. The ajiproximatc triangulation of the southern half, commencing from Kurracliee, was effected in a remarkably short time by 'Mr. W. C. Rossenrode.* Major J. T. Walker took charge of the northern section of the Indus Series in October 1856, Tvdth Lieutenant Basevi as liis assistant. One flank was placed in the Sinde Sagur Dooab, and the other in the Derajat, with the Indus between them, as far as Sukkur ; but below, the series is taken along the western bank of the Indus to KxuTachee. At the conclusion of the season of 1857 the mutinies broke out : and Major Walker joined the moveable column imder General Chamberlain at the siege of Delhi, where he was wounded. This threw back the work a year ; but in 1858 it Avas resumed. The Indus Series was completed in 1860. It is 706 miles long, and covers an area of 2,925 principal and 8,157 secondaiy triangles. Of the 148 stations, 122 in the flat valley of the Indus are towers. The heights of niimerous peaks in the SuUman moun- tains were fixed, bvit political considerations prevented the explo- ration of that range, t In 1856 Colonel Waugh determined to institute a series of levelling operations to determine the height of the base lines in the interior. These heights had already been approximately measured by vertical observations between the principal stations. The method of deter- mining heights of stations above the sea l)y taking reciprocal vertical angles, which was the plan which had hitherto been pursued in the Sm'vey, is susceptible of a high degree of accuracy, provided that the observations are taken during the period of minimum refraction, • This series formed the basis for the Sinde and Khelat Boundary Survey, for the conduct of which C.iptain Strange drew u]) a set of instructions. The line begins at Cape Monze, follows the River Ilubb for HO miles, and then approaches close to the sides of the triangles of the Indus Series. The boundary pillars were all connected with the Indus Series. This boundary survey was entrusted to Jlr. J. Kosscnrode. ■{■ Blue Book. Report for three years, ending 1858-59. "Calcutta Review (1863)" vol. 38. Major Walker has contributed an interesting paper on the Suliiuan Range, to the Geographical Society, entitled "On the Highland region adjacent to the Trans-Indus frontier of India." By Major Walker of the Bombay Engineers. — Jourii. H. G. S., xxxii. p. 303. (6409.) G 98 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. which occm's hetwccn 1 and 3 p.m. Eut the scries of triangles is the longest in the world, and it beeame necessary to check the results of the ohsei-vations by vertical angles, by instituting a series of levelling operations. The series was commenced in the Indus valley in 1858, imder the superintendence of Major "Walker, and has connected KiuTachce with the Chuch, Dchra, and Su-onj bases. The spu'it levels used were 21 inches focal length, and had been made for the Punjab Canal Department. The levelling staves were painted, and divided on both faces to feet, tenths, and hundredths, one face being white with black div-isions, and the other black with white. The operations were commenced by tlu-ee observers working over the same ground ; and the results, as regards agreement with heights previously determined trigonometricaUy, were remarkably satisfactory. The distance from the sea to the Chuch base is 706 miles, and the difference between the result by vertical angles and that by spmt levelling was found to be only 3 feet 2 inches. At Dchra the difference was 5 feet 1 inch ; and at Su-onj, in levelling from Delu'a, 1 foot and 8 inches ; and from KiUTachee to Sirouj 2 feet 1 inch.* As soon as the measurement of the KmTachce base was com- pleted, the survey of Cashmere, and the mighty mass of motmtains up to the Tibetan fi'ontier, was commenced, imder the superin- tendence of Captain Montgomerie, who began Avork in the spring of 1855 with the li-inch theodolite by Troughton and Simms. Great difficulties were encountered from the outset, and manfuUy over- come. The Cashmere Series originates from that of the North "West Himalaya between Sealkotc and Goordaspoor, and dm-ing the first season it was taken across the Pii* Panjal range into Cashmere. Two of the stations were 13,000 and 15,000 feet above the sea. Building materials had to be dug out of the snow for the station pillars, and the observers were detained at one station for 22 days, owing to the storms of snow and the foggy Aveather. Afterwards, as the party penetrated into the mountains, the height of the stations averaged 17,000 feet, and Iviminous signals were used from peaks 19,000 and even 20,000 feet above the sea. Between 1855 and 1861 the triangulation was extended over 93,500 square miles. Mr. * Tables of Heights in Sind, the Punjab, N.W. Provinces, and Central India, for May 1862. (Calcutta 1863.) Major Walker communicated a paper on the methods of fixing the heights of Stations, in use in the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, to the Astronomical Society. — Memoirs. Astrononiitul Society, xxxlii,, p. 103. THE COAST SERIES. 99 Johnson, one of the party, took observations from a station which was 20,000 foot above the sea, and marks were erected on peaks as high as 21,480 ; while a peak on the Karakonmi range temporarily- called K. 2. was found to have a height of 28,290 feet, and to be second only to Moimt Everest. This most difficult and laborious sun'ey is remarkable for its accm'acy : and in a circuit of 890 nules, only a discrepancy of ■^^y of a second in latitude and of ^^ in longitude was foimd. In the Cashmere Series the topographical filling in by plane table advanced with the triangulation, both being under Captain Montgomcrie. Of the Meridional Series forming the bars of Colonel "Waugh's gridiron, the Jogi TUa, executed by Captain Walker and Lieutenants Tennant and BroA\Tilow, passes by Jhelum, and is stopped by the Great Desert. The Gurhagarb Series is on the meridians of Amritsir and Fcrozepoor, and extends south, joining the Arumlia Scries by Captain Eivcrs, at Ajmcer. It was commenced by Lieutenant Tennant, but almost entirely executed by Mr. Shelverton. It was designed for the incorporation of the Revenue Survey with the general map of the Pimjab. Captain Nasmytb, after triangiilating Kattywar and Cutch, connected his Avork with the Great Longitudinal Series. In 1855 Captain Strange was appointed to take chai'ge of the Eastern Coast Series, succeeding jMi-. Peyton, who was invalided. Captain Strange left bead quai'ters at Mussom-ee on the 17th of Oc- tober for Cuttack, and visited the fine observatory at Lucknow on his way.* The early reports of this Coast Series record a yearly suc- cession of disasters, disappointments, and faUiu-es ; and it takes rank among the most diOicult of the whole siu"vey. Captain Sti'ange was ably assisted by IMi-. "W. C. Ilossenrodc, who pushed forward the approximate series, and by Mr. Clarkson. The difficidties consisted in an inaccessible country, unhealthy climate, unfavourable state of the atmosphere, and an inefficient native staff. At one station the party was detained for 19 days before they coidd obtain observations. In 1850-57 INIr. Clarkson completed the Sumbulpore Series, Mi'. Shelverton commenced a secondary series from the Clulka lake to Balasore, to fix the coast line, and some progress was made in the main triangulation. But the whole party sulTered from a jungle • This observatory, with its instruineuts and the whole of its valuable series of obscrvatious, was entirely destroyed during the mutiny. G 2 100 THE GKEAT TRTGONOMETllICAL SERIES. fevev, producing the utmost debility and depression both of mental and physical powers, and six men died of cholera. In 1S57-58 further progress was made ; but in August 1860 Captain Strange, in consequence of his promotion, regimentally, to the rank of major, was obliged to retire from charge of the series, and from the Survey Department, after a service in it of thirteen years. In addition to his ability as a sm*A'eyor, bis rare knowledge of the mechanism of mathematical and astronomical instruments, his never failing re- som-ce in an emergency or when any accident hapioened, and his inventive faculty, rendered hun a pre-eminently valuable member of the Siu'vey. He was succeeded in the charge of the Coast Series by Captain Basevi. The Superintendent of the Survey designed and saw the com- mencement of two more important Longitudinal Series, one from Cal- cutta to the eastward, and the other extentbng from the Sonakhoda base into Assam. Sir Andi-ew Waugli became a Major General, and was knighted, in 1861. He rctii'ed in March 1861, after having held the appoint- ment for 17 years. When he returned to England, he took Avith him the appreciative thanks of his Government, and the attachment of a splendid staff of sm*veyors who had been trained under his auspices.* He had pushed forward the great work with such ability and energy that his successor could see his way to its completion in a specified number of years. The results of Sir Andrew Waugh's labours will be found in the following volumes : — (1.) Vol. 10, parts 1, 2, 3, and 4. Accoimts of the Karara, North Longitudinal connecting Amua and Karara, Gm-- wani, and Gora Series. MS. (2.) Vol. 11, parts 2, 3, and 4. Chimdwar, Hm-Uaong, and North Parisnath Series. MS. Part 1 of this volume is wanting. (3.) Vol. 12, parts 2, 4. Malimcha Series. Calcutta Meridian Series. Measm'ement of the Sonakhoda base. MS. Parts 1 and 3 are missing. (4.) Vol. 13. Part 1. Southern Parisnath Series. MS. The remainder is missing. (5.) Vol. 11. Part 1. South Concan Series ui the Bombay Presi- dency. MS. The remainder is missing. * The whole staff, 197 in number, presented Sir Andrew Waugh with a service of plate in 1862. TTORKS OF SIR AKDREW WAUGH. 101 (G.) Vol. 15, and appendix in a separate volume. The North-East Longitudinal Series. MS. (7.) Volume on the Chuch and Kurrachec base lines ; not num- bered. MS. (8.) " Report by Colonel Waugh on the extent and nature of the operations of the Grand Trigonometrical Survey," with Appendices. Called for by Mr. Joseph Hume, and pre- sented to Parliament in April 1851. (9.) Report on the Surveys of India, by Sir Andrew Waugh, for the three years ending 1858-59. (10.) Report on the Siu'vcys of India, by Sir Andrew Waugh, dated January 31st, 1801, being his last. (11.) " Calcutta Review" for 1842, vol. 4, p. G2. On the Great Trigonometrical Survey. (12.) " Calcutta Rc\'iew " for 1863, vol. 38. On the Great Tri- gonometrical Survey. This article is by Colonel Walker. (13.) " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal " for 1862, vol. 31, p. 22. The labours of the survey under Su* Andi'cw Waugh were brought to public notice in several of the annual adth'csses of the Presidents of the Royal Geograpliical Society,* and in 1S5G he was awarded the gold medal. A history of the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey down to the time of Su* Andrew Waugh's resignation, compiled from the reports, by H. Duhan, personal assistant to the Surveyor- General, will be found in five articles in the " Professional Papers on Indian Engineering," edited by Major J. G. Medley, C.E., (Roorkee), vol. ii., p. 285 and p. 398, and vol. iii., pp. 94, 305, and 402. The articles are illustrated by a map showing the direction of the series and by prints of the astronomical circle by Troughton and Simms, of a sketch re- presenting the measurement of a base line, of an observing tower, and maps of the Tso-Morari lake and of the Baltoro glacier in Tibet, as sui-veycd by Captain Godwin Austen. The fifth article describes the operations of the Cashmere Survey. • By Sir R. Murchison in 1844 and 1845, Lord Colchester in 1846, Mr. Hamilton in 1848 and 1849, Admiral .Smyth in 1851, Lord Ellcsmcre in 1855, Admiral Beechey in 1856, and Lord do Grey in 1860. ( 102 ) VIII.— THIRD PERIOD OF THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 1813—61. The Revenue and Topographical Stjiivets. Great progress was made in the Topograpliical and Revenue Surveys during the administration of Sir AntkeAV Waugli, who was admii-ably supported by Major Thuillicr, his Deputy in the Sui'veyor General's Office, from 184.7. In 1851 the Official Manual of Surveying for India, by Captains Smith and Thuillier, was published ;* a thick volume divided into live parts : — 1. Geometry and trigonometry. 2. Surveying instruments. 3. Siu'vcying. 4.. On native field measiu-emcnt (khusrah). 5. Practical astronomy, and its a])plication to surveying. Captain BoUeau prepared a new and complete set of traverse tables, chiefly for the use of officers of the Revenue Survey. It was the first that was calculated to single minutes, or carried out to five places of decimals. f The Revenue Survey is conducted as foUows : — The settlement officers mark the boundaries of the pergunnah, and furnish the surveyor with a rough sketch demarcation map, called thak-hiist. With this map men go round, fixing the stations and clearing the ground for measurements. Tlic surveyor then runs a line from station to station, as near the boundary as possible, entering eveiy measm'ement in a field book, and parties of viUagc boimdary sur- veyors do the same with the villages. The Ichnsrah, or field measure- ment by natives, is checked by the general survey ; and the physical details are filled in by the plane table. The pergimnah maps are * " jNIanual of Surveying for India, detailing the mode of operations in the Revenue Survey of Bengal, compiled by Captains R. Smyth and II. L. Thuillicr." (Calcutta, 1851.) " Calcutta Review," vol. xvi., p. 321, 1851. A second edition of the Manual, with additions, was published in 1860. ■j- " A new and complete set of traverse tables, shewing the differences of latitude and the departures to every minute of the quadrant, and to five places of decimals ; together with a table of the lengths of cacli degree of latitude and corresponding degree of longitude from the equator to the poles, with other tables useful to the Sur- veyor.'' Ky C'a|itain .1. T. Boileau. (2nd ud. Luiulon. 1839.) EEVENUE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 103 (IraAvn on a scalo of ono mile to an inch, and thn zillah or district maps four mUcs to an inch. The plans of cantonments arc drawn on a scale of 12 or 18 inches to a mile. One important ohject of the Eerenue Survey is to fill up the outlines fixed by the Great Trigonometrical Survey, and, as the Cal- cutta Review expresses it, " to put sinews and flesh on the colossal skeleton which that survey constructs," In 18G1 Sir Andrew TVaugh published his Instructions for Topo- graphical Surveying, in which, adopting the rules laid down in ThuiUier's Manual as a basis, he devclopes the system best suited to sm-veys purely topographical in character.* The special province of the Revenue Surveys is to define the boundaries of estates ; while Topographical Surveys are mainly for the measm'ement and de- lineation of natural featm'cs in wild districts or native states. The stations of the Great Trigonometrical SuiTcy give the topogi'apliical surveyor four initial elements required for commencing a survey, namely, a point of dcpartm*e "with latitude and longitude, a base, an azimuth or true direction of the meridian, and the height above the sea. But the great stations are too far from each other for use in filling up topographical details, and the principal triangles have, therefore, to be broken up into smaller ones by the Hay Ti-ace System, introduced by Sir George Everest. Rapid progress was made with Revenue Surveys under Sir Andrew Waugli, by Blagrave in the Julinder Dooab, GastrcU in the Sundcrbunds, O'Donel in AiTacan,f and Van Rencn in Nagpore, The Hyderabad Survey, which had been progressing since 1818, was suspended in 1852, owing to the mismanagement of the ofiicer in charge ; but in 1855 it was resumed by Mr. Mulhcran, an ex- cellent sm-veyor, who made good progress, and successfully carried a branch scries of triangles from the Great Arc to Xagpore, during the rising of Tantia Topee. A survey in Ganjam and the Cuttack Mchals proceeded under Captains Saxton and Depree.J The fii'st khiisrah siurvey of the Punjab proved a failm-e. It was made by plane table to which native-made compasses were attached, * " Instructions for Topofrrapliical Surveying, by Licut.-Coloncl Sir Andrew Waugli, for the use of the Surveying Dep.irtmcnt." (Roorkee, 1861.) t Sec " Notes on the tribes of the Eastern Frontier, by J. H. O'Donel." Nos. 1, 2, 3, in the Journal of the Asiatic Socirfi/ of JJoif/nf, vol. 32 (1863.) % Registers of computations of triangle?, I'cc, i*cc., fV\\' £kp' J^tia (Wi. D i) ( 109 ) IX.— FOURTU PERIOD OF THE TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEYS. 1862—70. Colonel Waxker and the Geeat Trigonometrical Survey. On tlic retirement of Sir Andrew Waugh, the two offices of Surveyor General and Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Sui'vey were once more separated, after having been united in one person since 1830. Colonel Thuillier became Surveyor General; and Colonel Walker was appointed Superintendent of the Survey, on the 12th March 1861. James Thomas "Walker joined the Bombay Engineer Corps on December 9th, 1844, and served in the Punjab campaign at the siege of Mooltan and battle of Gujerat, and in various affairs on the Trans- Indus frontier under Su- Charles Napier, Sir Colin Campbell, and Sir Neville Chamberlain. After the an- nexation of the Punjab in 1849, he was ordered by Lord Melville, who then commanded at Peshawur, to make a military survey within ten miles radius of that station; which was afterwards extended to embrace the whole of the British territory beyond the Indus, as far south as Dera Ismael Khan. On the completion of this important work, he became a member of the Great Trigonometrical Surveying Department, and had latterly been in charge of the Great Indus Series, and of the spirit levelling operations. In 1857 he was wounded at the siege of Delhi. He assumed charge of the Great Survey, with the invigorating prospect, which had been denied to his predecessors, of completing the grandest series of survey operations ever undertaken in the world, during his own incumbency. As Sir i^drew's first work was the completion of some of the Meridional Series in Everest's eastern gridii'on, so Colonel Walker's opening laboiu* was the completion of the great north-western grid- iron, designed by Sir Andrew Waugh. The Rahoon Meridional Series, after six years of work, was finished by Mr. Kcelan in 1863, by being connected with the Great Longitudinal Series (western branch). It is 457 miles long ; its triangles cover an area of 23,020 square miles, and the total cost was Rs. 2,01,609. The Gm-hagarh Series, mider Mr. Shelverton, having occupied live years, was completed in 1S62, by being joined to the Ai-imilia and Khaupism-a series brought up from the Bombay Longitudinal Series to the Great Westem Longitudinal Series and thence from Bombay to Ajmeer llO THE GREAT TIIIGONOMETIITCAL SUIIVEY. by Captain Ptivers. Its length is 587 iiiilcs, covering an area of 19,090 square miles, and the cost was Rs. 1,08,212. An obhque series was also brought up from Mittimkote near the junc- tion of the Indus and Garra, to a side of the Gm-hagtu'h Series, being 300 miles long, A\-ith an area of 8,142 square miles. It was begim by Lieutenant Ilerschel in 18G0, and completed by Mr. Shelverton in 1863, Mr. Eyall working zealously imder him, and clearing 300 miles of trace. This is called the Sutloj Scries, and cost Pis. 80,713. But Colonel Walker's first work was the measm'cment of a base line at Vizagapatam, nearly in the same latitude as Bombay, at which point the Longitudinal Series, from Bombay to the Bedcr base line, was eventually to touch the east coast. The Coast Series in charge of Captain Basevi, had ah'cady been completed from Calcutta to Vizagapatam. Captain Basevi was engaged dm'ing the season of 18G1 in selecting a site, but he met with much difficulty, owing to the numerous ii'rigation tanks with which the district is studded. At length he fovmd a suitable site on an undulating plain near the military station of Vizagapatam, and about 15 miles from the port of Bimlipatam. Trenches Avere dug to cany away the rainfall of the monsoon ; but, notwithstanding this precaution, the line was submerged in the following October, and was not drained off without much trouble and exertion. In the autumn of 18G2 Colonel Walker arrived with Colby's compensation bars and microscopes, the same that had been brought out to India by Sir George Everest, and had measm-ed every base line since that time. Colonel Walker was assisted by Captains Basevi and Branfill, and Lieutenant Campbell. The base line measiu-ement occupied two months, and was finished on the 5th of November 1862. The line is 64 miles long, and was divided into three verificatoiy sections, checked by a double series of triangles, one on each flank of the base. These tests of accm-acy were most satisfactoiy. The difference between the measui-ed length, and the length as computed fi'om the triangles commencing at the Calcutta base, was ^ of an inch. When it is considered that the distance from Calcutta is 480 miles, and that the Coast Series passes through a region of dense jungle, such accm-acy is perfectly marvellous. Colonel Walker, mindful of the maxim that " the ends of a base line should be guarded with religious veneration," gave much atten- tion to the measures for theu* preservation at Vizagapatam, In India such marks are viewed with cupidity not tmmixed T;vith fear. The natives have an idea that money is bmied luider these COMPLETION OF THE COAST SERIES. Ill mysterious monvimcnts erected by the western sti-angcrs, while they feel a dread that they may cast a spell over the district. Ilcnce they are exposed to a doixlde danger, and those at Sironj were actually destroyed. At Vizagapatam substantial domes oi" cut stone masomy -without openings were built over the marks at each end of the base line, and put in charge of the police. After the measui-ement, Captain Basevi was sent to make a re- connaissance in the almost imknown Jeypoor territoiy, with refer- ence to the extension of the Bombay Longitudinal Series to the East Coast, The whole party was attacked by fever, but the result was a good preliminary map of Jeypoor, and a valuable memoir by Captain Basevi.* Meanwhile Captain Branfill connected the Vizagapatam base line with the principal triangles of the Coast Series, and in December 1863 he commenced work near Guntoor, with a view to the exten- sion of the Coast Series to Madras. The Madras Observatory is the only one in India at which systematic observations for longitude haA'c been taken, for a number of years ; and it was very important to connect the Coast Series with it. It will be remembered that this Madras Observatory was the fixed point from which Colonel Lamb- ton started with his triangidation in 1802. It was the pivot on which the whole fabric rested.f Now, after a lapse of 62 years, Cajjtain Branfill was bringing back the triangidation to the old starting point. Unluckily several trees inteiTupted the view between the nearest station and the observatoiy, and extravagant compen- sation was demanded for permission to remove them. One man Avanted Bs. 300 for a single branch of a casuarina tree. Eventually a pillar had to be erected to overlook the intervening obstacles, and a seaffolding was raised at the observatoiy, so that the theodohte could be fixed at a height of 63 feet from the ground. Thus, in 1861, the Coast Series from Calcutta to Madras was completed. In 1865-66, Captain Branfill and lus pai"ty observed a Longitu- dinal Series over Colonel Lanibton's old ground, from the Madi'as Observatory to the Bangalore base line. It is 118 miles long, and consists of 23 principal triangles, covering 2,641 squai-e miles. Secondary triangulations were also completed from Gimtoor to * "Report by Capt. .T. P. Uasevi. R.E., on a reconnaissance of part of the Jeypore Territory," forms an Appendix to Colonel Walker's Report for 1862-63. t See Page 49. 112 THE GREAT TRTGONOMETniCAL SURVEY. Masulipatani, to fix the positions of the lighthouses on the coast. Most of the party were struck down by fever, and Captain BraufiU himself was obliged to go home on sick leave. In the season of 1SGG-G7, Lieutenant Campbell took charge of the party at Bangalore. He extended the triangulation for some distance to the westward, and s6uth for 60 miles in the direction of Cape Comorin. He also successfully re-measured two of the last years' triangles, which had been rejected owing to the grazing of the rays of light against the slope of an intervening hill, which caused an error of ;V'*8. This error was reduced to 0"-7. Colonel Walker now gave orders for the rc-measurcment of the Bangalore base line. In 1861 Professors Airy and Stokes, at the request of the Royal Society, had reported upon Colonel Lambton's Surveys. They were of opinion that, owing to his instrumental appliances having been far less complete than at present, his work, though executed with the greatest care and ability, admitted of being improved in every part ; and they expressed a hope that the whole of his sm'vey Avould be repeated with the best modern ap- pliances. The Superintendent, therefore, resolved to re-measm'c the bases at Bangalore and Cape Comorin, and to revise the inter- vening triangles. In 1867 Lieutenant Campbell selected a site for the new base near Bangalore. Colonel Lambton's terminal marks were still in exis- tence, and in good preservation, but the surface of the countiy was much changed. L'rigation tanks, as well as a lofty railway embank- ment, now cross Colonel Lambton's base line. Hence the necessity for a new site. Colonel Walker was prevejitcd by a severe accident from going south to measui'c the new Bangalore base, and ' he deputed Mr. Hennessey, one of his most trusted assistants, to take his place. The length of the base line is 6"8l miles, and, like that at Vizagapa- tam, it was divided into three verificatory sections, with triangula- tion on both flanks. The difference between the result by measm-e- ment and that by calculation from the Vizagapatam base was again only a quarter of an inch. Lieutenant llogers, a young officer who now commenced his career in the survey, connected the base with the main triangulations, and with Lambton's base and his astrono- mical station at Dadagoontah. Captain Braufill then proceeded to Cape Comorin, to select a base line site at the southern extreme of the Great Arc. He found the EAST CALCUTTA LONGITUDINAL SERIES. 113 country studded with rocky precipitous liills, and large groves of palmyra palms, but at last lie fou.nd a site near Lambton's old station at Punnae, and prepared the groimd. The measurement of the base, dm*ing the season of 1868-69, was entrusted by Colonel Walker to Captain Basevi, with Branfill, Ilerschel, and Rogers to assist htm. This is the last base necessary for the verification of the triangles within the limits of India proper, and the tenth that was measiu'ed with the compensation bars brought out to India by Sir George Everest in 1830. The system adopted was to divide the line into three sections, measure the central one, which is 1"68 miles long, four times over, and determine the length of the other two from the central one by triangulation on both flanks. The latter operation was performed by Lieutenant Rogers, and the result of the measurement was highly satisfactory. While this important revision of Colonel Lambton's work was proceeding, the Superintendent continued to push forward the other sm'vey operations with vigour and judgment. In September 1862 he formed the party under Lieutenant Thiullier for the East Cal- cutta Longitudinal Series, to extend from the Calcutta Meridional Series to the eastern frontier, and form a basis for the siu'vey of the districts of Nuddea, Jessore, and Dacca. Operations were com- menced at Chinsura in November, but the party encoimtered great difficulties. In working through jvmgle it is first necessary to cut a narrow glade in a perfectly straight line in the du'ection requii-ed for a station, for 8 or 10 miles. The ground is then reconnoitred for a suitable site, to wliich a glade is cut from the trial line. Two sides and the included angle thus give the data to ascertaui the direct line between the two stations, which is then cleared to briu"- them in sight. Inunense labour is thus involved, and, in a populous country Like Lower Bengal, the tUfficulty is increased by having to make bends to avoid houses and gardens, and by being exposed to worrying litigation for compensations. The towers of imburnt bricks were found to be unsafe in so moist a climate, and masonrv walls roimd the central pUlar wiU be essential. The country Avhich Avas the scene of Lieutenant Thuilher's opera- tions was perfectly level, covered with malarious swamps, and inter- sected by great rivers, with densely wooded banks. In the seasou of 1864-65, 174) miles of trial lines and 314 of final lines were cleai-ed through the jungle. Cholera and fever were raging in the country, and twenty men of the party fell \ictims. Yet ThuilUer remained (6409.) H 111. THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. steadily at his post, and made satisfactory progress, completing the series as far as the eastern frontier in 18GG-C7, on the parallel of 23°. It is 210 miles long, and consists of 41 triangles, every station necessitating the erection of a tower. Lieutenant Thuillicr then commenced a Meridional Series on the meridian of 90°, called the Brahmapootra Series, to complete the basis for the surveys of Nuddea, Jessore, Dacca, and other parts of Eastern Bengal. Again the ground was level and covered with vast swamps. During 1867-68 upwards of 700 miles of glades were cleared through heavy jungle, and ten towers were built, the season being entirely devoted to preliminary operations. But in 1808-69 the measm-cment of the triangles was commenced with a 24-inch theodoUtc by Troughton and Simms. At the same time Lieutenant Lannmie commenced a chain of secondary triangles to be can-ied tlu'ough the valley of Assam, Avhere the Kcvenue Survey operations are in progress. A series of triangles from Calcutta to Port Canning Avas commenced by Mi". E/yall, but it was permanently interrupted by litigious fellows through whose gardens the line had to be taken. Half Mr. Eyall's time was passed in the com-ts of law ; and Colonel Walker represented the urgent necessity for extending the provi- sions of Act VL of 1857 to the officers of the Survey Department. The Eastern Frontier Series was commenced by Mr. C. Lane in 1861-62, near the western extreme of the Assam valley. He was ably seconded by Mr. Bossem'ode, and in 1862-3 they were in Independent Tipperah, and working down towards Chittagong. The physical difficulties to be overcome were very great.* In 1865-66 Mr. Eossenrode assumed charge, and the series was brought down to the eastern fi-onticr towards Akyiib, and through An-acan. In 1867-68 and the following year the party crossed the difficiilt range of lulls between AiTacan and Prome, and pushed their operations into British Burmah. In the Bombay Presidency a series of triangles was commenced by Captain Haig south of Bombay (on the meridian of Mangalore). He, however, fii'st revised a large portion of the old Bombay Longi- tudinal Series. In the season of 1862-63 good progress was being made, when a tower, on wliich the large theodolite had been placed for observing, gave way on one side, and the iustnunent was so * See Extracts from a " Report on Independent Tipperah, by C. Lane, Esq." in Colonel Walker's Report for 1862-63. (Appendix.) TOPOGRAPHICAL STTRVEYS. 115 severely injured as to be incapable of further use until it had been repaii-cd in England. It was sent out again overland, reached Bombay in November 1864, and work was re-commenced. The design Avas to take the series south to Mangalore, and thence east to the Bangalore base line. In 1866-67 Lieutenant Trotter took charge, when the work was still 180 nules from Mangalore, and on the verge of the dense and deadly jungles of North Canara. The whole party was stmck down with fever, and Lieutenant Trotter himself was obliged to go home. When completed this series will extend from the northern frontier of Cashmere to Mangalore, over 22° of latitude. Lieutenant Hcaviside is now taking astronomical observations upon it. Two additional Meridional Series are designed to pass south from the old Calcutta Longitudinal, called the Sumbulpore and Jubbulporc Series. They were in charge of Mr. Kcelan and Mr. Shelvei-ton, who commenced their operations by a revision of a large portion of the Calcutta Longitudinal Series from the Sironj base to the Gora hill station. ]VIi'. Keelan then worked south, through "nild tracts covered with almost impeneti'able forest, where his party suffered severely from fever, intending to nm into the Coast Series near Madras. Mr, Shelverton's operations were on the meridian of Jubbulpoor. From 1861 to 1866 he worked tlu'ough the Central Provinces, and was prostrated by fever, but satisfactorily completed the series in the latter year. It is intended, hereafter, to extend it down the east coast to the straits of Manaar, and so connect it with the island of Ceylon. As soon as the Jubbulpoor Scries was finished, 'Mr. Shelverton was employed to continue the Bombay Longitudinal Series from the Bcder base line to the Vizagapatam base. In 1868-69 he had com- pleted the portion between the Great Ai-c and the Jubbulpore Series ; receiving much assistance from the Nizam's Government, Avhich was urgently required, as 72 hill tops had to be cleared of forest for observing stations. This series is called the Beder Longitudinal Series. In the Cashmere Survey Sir Andrew Waugh fu-st combined ti'igo- nometrical and topographical work in the duties of one party. Colonel Walker continued this principle in two or three instances, in anticipation of the completion of the trigonometrical siu'vey, foreseeing the importance of having his officers ti-ained to topo- graphical work, that their services might eventually be available in H 2 116 THE CHEAT TUIGONOMETKICVL SITR\'EY. fillinii' in tho miu'lilv ski'lctou, which their accurate ol)scrYati()ns and higli mathematical attainments will have completed. Diiring 18(52-63 £»rcat progress was made with the Cashmere Survey east of Leli. Stations were fixed on the Chinese frontier, and peaks wore determined at a distance of a hundred miles from it. On the 21st of April 18G1 Lieutenant Carter joined the party as second Ti-igonometrical Assistant, and helped Captain Montgomeric in obser\nng for latitude, while Godwin Austen and Johnson turned out much efTective topographical work. At the close of ].8G4 the Caslimere Series was completed. It consists of a siu^eyed area of 70,000 s(piare miles, in every variety of climate and scenery. There is not a valley in these wild regions of perpetual snow that was not visited by the sm'veyors, the triaugulation covering Jamoo, Cash- mere, Khagan, Ladak, and Little Tibet ; and peaks were fixed, some of which (among them that named K 2) being second only to Mount Everest. In 1865 Mr. Johnson crossed the frontier, and visited Ilchy, the capital of Khotan, obtaining two observations for latitude there, and reconnoitring an area of 21,000 square miles.* After ten years of uninterrupted labor in Cashmere, Montgomeric went home on leave, and Lieutenant Carter received charge of the party, Avhich was sent to commence a topographical survey of Kumaon and Gm-hwal, on a scale of one inch to the mile, Anth a svu'vey of the tea plantations, eight inches to the mile, and of the stations of ]Mussouree and Landom-, 12 inches to the mile. Lieutenant Carter pushed the work forward "with much zeal and ability during the time that he was in charge, and on May 1st, 1867, Captain IMontgomerie returned, and resvuned his labors. TVhile he has made good progress vrith the surveys of Kumaon and Gm-whal, Captain Montgomeric has been also busily engaged in superintending the geographical explorations of regions beyond the Ilimalava. The Chinese authorities would not allow English ofiicers to penetrate beyond the frontier, and the use of Asiatics for purposes of exploration was fii-st proposed, and approved by Govern- ment, in 1861. Colonel AValker engaged two pundits from one of the upper valleys of the Himalaya, Avho were trained to the use of the sextant, compass, and In^jsometer. • For an account of the Cashmere Survey see the " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. xxix. p. 20, and vol. xxx. p. 99. THE PUNDITS. 117 The first expedition was undertaken by one Muliamed i Hamed, who went from Ladak to Yarkand by the Karakoram pass, and fixed the latitude of Yarkand, but died soon after his return. The second vas by a pundit who started in January 18G5, and went by Khatman- doo and the valley of the Sanpoo, to Lassa, the capital of Tibet. He was obliged to conceal his object, and profess devotion to Buddhism. In his hand he carried a prayer wheel, which consists of a hollow cylindrical copper box revolving round a spindle, one end of which is the handle. But inside, instead of the usual scroll with a prayer on it, the cunning pundit had slips of paper for entering his bearings and distances. He took 31 obsen-ations for latitude, 30 for boilins: point, and laid down 1,200 miles of route sun'cy. In 1867 a third pundit was sent across the basins of the Sutlej and Indus into Great Tibet as far as the gold field of Thok Jalung; another got as far as Rudok, and a fifth penetrated to the lofty region in the rear of Mount Everest. A Mohammedan named Mirza Sooja, under the same auspices, reached the Pameer Steppe and the distant city of Kashgar. The stupendous character of the glaciers and moimtains, and the geographical interest attaching to the explorations of these pundits, has attracted special attention to Captain Montgomcrie's operations in the Himalaya. So far as the Eoyal Geograpliical Society is concerned, this interest had first been excited, long before, by the valuable papers of the two Stracheys on Tibet and Kvmiaon, in 1851 and 1853, and by Dr. Thomson's in 1849, on the Karakorum Pass ; while, in 1851, Mr. Purdon commimicated some account of the Cashmere Survey.* H. Strachcy and Dr. Thomson received gold medals in 1851 and 1865. Their communications were followed by papers written by the actual surveyors, God^^in Austen and Johnson ; and * R. G. S. Journal, 1851, p. 57. On the physical geography of the proTinces of KumaoD and Gurhwal, by R. .Stnichey. „ „ 1853, p. 1. On the physical geography of Western Tibet, by H. Strachey. „ „ 1 849, p. 25. Successful journey to the Karakorum Pass, by Thomas Thomson, M.D. „ „ 1861, p. 14. On the trigonometrical survey anJ physical con- figuration of the valley of K.ishmir, by William II. Purdou (Ex. Eng. Punjab). 118 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. Montgomeric gave a most interesting account of the explorations of the pundits. The Geographical Society awarded a gold medal to Captain Montgomerie in 1804, and in 1867 presented a gold watch to the pundit who reached Lassa.* Colonel Walker has another topograpliical survey party at work in the Bomhay Presidency. In 1865 it was engaged, in Bombay Island, in forming a basis of triangulation for a detailed cadi'astal survey ; and in 1866 it was transferred to Kattywar, imder Captain Haig, to resume the survey commenced in 1861-, hut suspended in consequence of a famine in 1865. Topographical operations arc also being commenced in Guzerat, where an attempt is being made to utilize the details of the fiscal surveys which have been can'icd over British Guzerat by the Bombay Hcvonuc Sm'voyors, and wliich have been mapped on a scale of from 8 to 12 inches to the mile, by native smTcyors, hut "nith no attempt at delineating the configu- ration of the grovmd. The Kattywar survey has progressed satisfactorily. It differs from all other topographical operations in that the plane table or field sections are drawn on an enlarged scale of two instead of, as is usual in India, one inch to the mile. The maps are prepared on three scales of 2, 1, and ^ inches to the mile. Dr. Oldham, of the Geological Survey, has suggested that points should be selected on the south coast of Kattyn^ar dm'ing the operations, to determine the existing relative level of land and sea by a series of tidal observations (the stations being connected by a line of levels), with reference to the chansres in the relative level of land and sea that are believed to be going on in various parts of the Bombay Presidency. * R. G. S. Journal, 1861, p. 30. Notes on the valley of Kashmeer, by Captain H. Godwin Austen, Topi. Asst. G. T. S. „ „ 1864, p. 19. On the glaeicrs of the Mustukh Ran{:;c, by Captain Godwin Austen. ,, „ 1867. Report on his journey to Ilchi, the capital of Khotan, in Chinese Tartary, by W. H. Johnson, F.R.G.S. „ ,, 1867, p. 343. Notes on the Pangong Lake District of Ladak, from a journal made during a survey in 1863, by Captain H. Godwin Austen, F.R.G.S. „ ,, 1868, p. 129. Route survey by tlie Puntlit, from Nepal to Lhasa, and thence through the upper valley of the Brah- maputra to its source, by Captain Montgomerie, F.R.G.S. See also Notes on the Fangong District of Ladakh, made in 1863, printed in the end of Colonel Walker's Report for 1864-65; and Mr. Johnson's Report on Ilchi in that for 1865-66. LEVELLING OPERATIONS. 119 Colonel Walker has not failed to push forward those important spirit levelling operations which he himself commenced in Sir Andrew Waugh's time. In 1862 Mr. Donnelly had completed 212 miles of levelling np the valley of the Ganges, when he was com- pelled, hy severe illness, to close work near Bhagiilpoor. In 1863 Captain Trotter took charge of the levelling party, and got as far as AUahahad, though he and his party were prostrated hy fever. He found the levels of the railway oflBcials to be very inaccurate. In 1861< Ti'otter brought the scries of levellings up to Agra. Km*- rachee is connected with Calcutta hy a line of levels 2,200 miles long, heing the longest and prohahly the best ever executed, besides 830 nules of branch lines, the origin or datum being the mean sea level of KiuTachee, and the temainus the sill of Kidderpoor Dock, at Calcutta. In 1866-67, branches were taken from the main, line of levels to connect the levels of canals and railways at Delhi, Lahore, Mooltan, and other places. In 1867-68 a line was brought through Rohil- cimd, and in 1868-69 a line was taken from BareUly for 350 miles to Lucknow, Cawnporc, and Fyzabad. A second volume of levels has been published imder Colonel Walker's instructions, recording a portion of these operations ;* and two sheets of a series of maps showing the various levels of trigono- metrical stations, canals and raUroads.f During the last few years there have been parties engaged on purely astronomical observations. In 1861, j\Ir. Nicolson was sent to fix the positions of the Andaman and other islands which were eri'oneoiisly placed on the charts ; but after taking a series of obser- vations at Port Blair, and fixing its position, this work was handed over to the marine siu-vcyors.J In 1863, however, two astronomical parties were organized to fix the latitudes of trigonometrical stations, at moderate distances, all over India. One was to begin at Calcutta, and observe at each of the stations along the Calcutta LongitucUnal Series, wlience the Meridional Series of Sir George Everest's grid- • " Tables of Heights in N.AY. Provinces and Bengal, to May 1865 (Roorkee, 1866)," with ail introduction by Lieutenant Trotter. ■f " Spirit Level and Trigonometrical Heights of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, with canal and railway levels, compiled from various sources." Sheets 1 and 3 photo-zincogr.aphed at Dchra Doon in 1867. These two maps comprise the districts ol^ Urabalhi, Suiiarunpoor, Dclira Doon, and ilozutVurnuggur ; and are accompanied by printed sheets describing the bench marks, and giving other information. X See page 32. 120 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. ii'on started ; while the other was to work north and south at certain stations, ahout a degree apart, on the Great Arc Series. The lati- tudes were to he ohserved from the zenith distances of pairs of north and south stars. Mr. Taylor, Lieutenants Camph(>ll and Ileaviside, and latterly Captain Hcrschel, have heen employed on these operations.* In 1868 the total eclipse of the sun in India gave some additional work to the scientific surveyors. The ohscrvations Avcrc entrusted to Major Tennant, Avhom we last met with at the measurement of the Kurrachee base, and who had since been in charge of the Madras Observatory. He came out from England with instruments supplied by the Eoyal Astronomical Society, and was joined by Cap- tain Branfill. After much careful inquiry, it Avas decid(>d that the most favourable positions for observing the eclipse, as regarded the probable absence of clouds and rain, would be Beejapoor, and Gun- toor on the east coast. Tennant and Branfill observed at Guntoor, llerschel, Campbell, and Ilaig, at Beejapoor, and the conclusions arrived at from their investigations were that the corona, in an eclipse, was but slightly, if at all, self-luminous, while red flames werc.f There is a method, independent of triaugulation, by which the ellipticity of the earth can be determined, and it seemed important that it should be tested over the same ground as was traversed by the Great Arc Scries. Tliis method is by observing the pen- dulum. The force of gravity increases from the equator to the poles : and a pendulum, Avliich makes a certain number of vibrations in a given time at the equator, Avilf make a greater number at all other points, the munber increasing, as a rule, Avith the latitude. The experiment consists in determining the number of vibrations which a given penduliun of invariable length makes in 24 hom-s, at the position selected for the operations. PrcAdous observations had been taken chiefly on islands and near the coast, notably by the veteran observer. General Sabine. It Avas a desideratum to obtain experi- ments in the interior of continents to combine with those taken near the sea. The Bussian Government had caused them to be taken at the principal stations of the Great Bussian Arc, and General Sabine was anxious that a series should be observed in India. * At Isanfur, near the uorthcrn end of the Punjab jihiins, the difi'erence between the observed latitude and that computed from ti-iangulatiou was only 06". ! ! ! t See an article on the eclipse observations for 1868 in the "Professional Papers on Indian EngineerinfT," vol. vi., p. 9.3. See also " Revista de Espafia " Tom. xvii., No. 67. (^Madrid, 1870.) " El eclipse du sol considcrado bajo el puuta de vista fisica." PENDULUM OPERATIONS. 121 The tendency of the plumb line to deviate from its normal direc- tion in consequence of local irregularities of the earth's crust, is a source of error wliich requires tlie most careful investigation. The plummet is supposed to he attracted by moimtains and repelled by oceans ; and even on level plains deflection is said to exist when the rocks below are of imequal densities, on either side of the pliunmet. Archdeacon Pratt, after close examination of the effects of this at- traction on the operations of the Trigonometrical Survey, came to the conclusion that the probable error caused at Kahanpoor, by proximity to the Himalaya, was one fom'th of a mile ; but tliis only affects astronomical observations. In the triangulations the correctness of the relative distances is of course unaffected.* The pendulum observations mU give an independent determina- tion of the ellipticity of the earth, and throw light on its physical constitution, by determining the intensity of the force of gravity. Captain Basevi, wliile he was on leave in 180 1, learnt the use of the apparatus that had been used by General Sabine ui the course of liis pendulum operations at Kew, and in March 1865 the appa- ratus was sent out to India. Captain Basevi then received charge of the penduliun experiments, which have been earned over the Great Arc from Dehra Doon to Cape Comorin, in compliance with a suggestion from General Sabine.f Tlie two penduhims are of Kater's pattern, and slightly longer than a seconds pendidum. (Nos. 4 and 1821.) They are swung in a vacuum, to be free from all disturl)ing cm'rents, and the vacuum ap])aratus, vnth its air-pump, requires incessantly watchful care. The pendulum is set up in fi'ont of tlie pendidum of an astronomical clock, the first being slightly the longest, and vibrating more slowly. The clock pendulum gains on the other, and they diverge more and more up to a certain point, then commence conA'erging, and once more coincide after an interval. It is thus kno^vn that the pendulum has * " A series of papers on mountain and other local attraction in India, and its effect on the caleiiliilions of the Great Trigonometrical Survc)', by John II. Pratt, M.A." (Cal- cutta, 1862.) These papers are reprinted from the Transactions of the Royal Society. ■j- This is not the first series of pendulum observations that has been taken in India. In June 1809, Captain John Warren, Colonel Lambton's able assistant, made experi- ments for determining the length of the seconds pendulum, and IM. le Gentil made similar experiments at rondicherry and Manilla. Warren's result at the Madras Observatory was 39.026273 ins., which ho compared with those of other observers, in a paper in the "Asiatic Researches," vol. ix., p. 293. Subsequently, John Gold- ingham conducted a series at the Madras Observatory in 1821. The apparatus was sent out to him by Captain Kater, and was similar to the one used liy Katcr at the 122 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. made two vibrations less than the clock in a given interval indicated by the clock. With this datum and the rate of the clock, the nimiber of Anbrations in 24 hours is computed.* Captain Bascvi also commenced a scries of mai^nctic observations for variation, dip, and intensity. In 1867 he observed at Mussom-ce, Dehra, Meerut, Agra, and Kalianpoor. In 1868 he had reached Bangalore ; and in 1869 the pendulum observations on the Great Arc were completed to Cape Comoriii. He Avill also observe at certain points on the coast, and on Mcuikoy Island ; while a series of magnetic observations have been taken in Kimiaon and Gurwhal by Captain Montgomerie. One fact of great scientific importance has been ascertained by these experiments, namely, that the density of the strata of the earth's crust under and near the nimalaya is less than that under the plains to the south, f It is also a noticeable feature of Captain Basevi's observations, and one ali'cady observed in comparing pendulum observations made in other parts of the world, that at inland stations gravity appears to be in defect of that observed at coast stations in similar latitudes. The cause of tliis is still uncertain. The superintendence of work in the field only forms a part of Colonel Walker's anxious and absorbing duties. The labors in the computing and dra^-ing oflice also require his close attention, and here he has been ably assisted by Lieutenants Herschcl and Mr. Hen- nessey. One matter for careful thought is the dispersion of ima void- able though minute errors in the observation of latitudes, longitudes, and azimuths, in such a nianner as to obtain the closest approach to accuracy. This is a consideration of great intricacy and difficulty, and the preliminaries for eventual calculations have been carefully elaborated in the computing ofiice. AU the observations are reduced de novo, which involves an enormous amount of calculation. In 1865 Mr. Hennessey, who had studied at Cambridge and Southamp- ton while he was in England, resumed charge of the computing stations of the Trigonometi-ical Survey of England. Goldingbam's result was as follows : — Kater's length of a seconds pendulum in London (temp. 70°), 39.142213 ins. Goldingham's „ at Madras „ 39.026302 „ From this he computes the diminution of gravity from the pole to the equator to be 0052894, and ellipticity Tji^^^y^ PIdlosopliical Tra/isactio7is for 1822, vol. 112, p. 27. • See a paper on the pendulum operations in the " Professional Papers on Indian Engineering," vol. v., p. 30.5. t " See note at page 76. THE COMPUTING AND DRAWING OFFICES. 123 office. He commencccl the printing of the observations of all the principal angles, which, except the Great Arc Series, published by- Sir George Everest, liad hitherto been only in manuscript.* He also introduced photo-zincography, having learnt the process at Southampton, and the sheets of topogi'aphical smweys were rapidly re-produced.f Photographic apparatus had been in use in the drawing office some years before, for copying and reducing. Here tlie Cashmere maps were compiled, and one of Central Asia, by Mr. Scott, in 1860, and many others. In 1866-G7 Colonel Walker was engaged, with IVIr. Hennessey, in the verification of the standards of length. At the mcasm'cment of each base the relative length of the standard bar A and the six com- pensation bars was found to be altering ; and as aU the bars told the same tale, it seemed probable that theu* lengths had remained constant, and that the standard had changed. While Colonel Walker was in England, in 1861, two new standard bars, one of brass and the other of iron, were constnicted for him. They aiTived at Dehra Doon, in 1866 and were compared with A, having first been compared with B at Southampton. The comparison showed that the relative length of A and B was nearly the same as in 1834, when they were last compared together. Then B was 1 • 28 millionths longer than A. Now B is 3 • 08 millionths longer. Thus the old standards have not altered appreciably, and the changes must be due to the compensation bars. J Tlie tables to facilitate the calculations of the Sm'vey Department were also rcAased and extended, under the direction of Colonel Walker, in 1866, by llr. Hennessey. § In 1867 the Cashmere and Ladak maps were completed, together with a series of maps with lines of levels || ; and in 1868 a valuable new map of Central Asia, in fom- sheets, was compiled and pub- lished. Preliminary charts of triangulation for the use of surveyors, and new maps of the Himalaya, arc; also in course of preparation, and many maps have been photo-zincographed. All this uscfid work is done under the immediate supervision of the Superintendent at * Odc copy at the India OflSce and another at Calcutta, t See page 131. f See " Professional Pupcis on Indian Engineering," vol. v., p. 305. § " Auxiliary Tables to fiicilitatc the Calculations of the Survey Department" (Dehra Doon, 1868). II See page 119 {note). 124 THE GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. Lis head quarters, and is independent of the more voluminous labors of the Siureyor General at Calcutta, whose operations A\ill be the subject of the next section. The magnificent work, so ably commenced by Colonel Lambton in the first year of the centiuy, is now nearly completed. The topographical siuTeying of the present day is so much more accurate than it was in Lambton 's, or even in Everest's time, that a smaller amoimt of tviangulation suffices as its basis. When ihe remainder of the Boder Series, that from the west coast to Bangalore, the continuation of tlie Jubbulpoor Scries to the southward, and some revisions of old work, are finished, there will be nothing more left to do in India Proper. In Burmah there will be further triangula- tion, and probably two bases to measure ; and, in some future day, the great arc ^y\\\ doidjtless be carried northward over the mountain banners to the shores of the Arctic ocean. A preliminary approxi- mate series would extend our geograpliical knowledge of Ccnti-al Asia, while it would establish the practicability of a final nieasure- ment. Sir George Evei'est looked forward to an arc of the meridian cxt(^nding from Cape Comorin to the northern shore of Siberia, as the final achievement by which his successors wovdd complete his labours.* Colonel Walker, the fom'th in succession of the gi'cat sm-vcyors who have sujierintended tliis most difficult and important Avork, will, in all human probability, have the high honour and satisfaction of being at his post when it is completed. It is, and has been, a very noble band, that body of sm'A'eyors who have been trained aud have worked under Lambton, Everest, Waugh and Walker. It is no small honour to be at their head. These men must combine the knowledge and liabits of thought of a Cambridge "SATanghn- with the energy, resource, and presence of mind of an explorer or a back- woodsman, and they must add to this the gallantry and devotion which mspire the leader of a forlorn hope. The danger of serA-iee in the jungles and swamps of India, with the attendant anxiety and incessant work, is greater than that encountered on a battle field ; the per-centagc of deaths is larger; while the sort of courage that is required is of a far higher order. The story [of the Great Trigo- nometrical Suney, when fitly told, will form one of the proudest pages in the history of English domination in the east. * See the preface to "An account of the measurement of two sections of the meri- dional arc of India," p. 7. UKPOKTS BY COLONEL WALKEK. 125 Since Sir Andrew Wauj^h's time, the manuscript volumes con- taining the Superintendent's reports and the triangulations for each series have not been forwarded to the India Ollice. Preluuinary charts containing all requisite data for Topographical Sui-veyors and Geographers are published by photo-zincography annually, but the reports arc kept back ruitil the whole of the results can be printed in a final and complete form. A considerable portion of the original obsei'vations is already in the press. Colonel Walker has completed the first volume of this series, being a history of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, Avhich includes an inti-oductoiy account of the early operations of the Sm-vey dm-ing the period 1800-30 ; and sections on the standards of measm-c and on the measm-ement of base lines. The complete work will consist of about tAventy voliimes.* Accounts of Colonel Walker's Avork are to be found in his annual printed Re- ports, and in the abstracts of them which he has from time to time commimicated to the Journal of the Asiatic Society (Bengal.) f The progress of the Survey is noticed in the anniA'ersary addresses of the President of the Royal Geographical Society, and there arc articles on the Survey in the Calcutta Review for 18G3,J and in the Quarterly Journal of Science for October 1870, the latter by F.C. DauA'ers, Esq. The annual repoi"ts by Colonel Walker, in the Geographical Depai't- ment of the India Office, are as folio avs : — 1. Report on the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Sm-vey of India, 1862-63. An abstract of this report is also given in vol. i., p. 180, of the " Professional Papers on Indian Engineering " ( Roorkee) 1863. 2. Report on the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 1863-61. 3. „ „ „ 186i-65. 4. „ „ „ 1865-66. 5. „ „ „ 1866-67. 6. „ „ „ 1867-68. 7. „ ,, „ 1868-69. * " Account of the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India," vol. i. By Colonel J. T. Walker, R.E., F.K.S., Superintendent of the Survey. (Delira Doon, 1870.) t Vol. xxxii., (1863,) p. HI. Vol. xxxi. (1862,) p. 32. X Vol. xxxviii.. No. 75. ( 12G ) X.— FOURTH PERIOD OF THE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 1862-70. Colonel TauiLLiEK, axd the Revenue and Topographical Surveys. Colonel Tbiiillicr succeeded Sir Andrew Waugli as Surveyor General of India, on the 13tli of March 1861. Hemy E. Landor Thuillier entered the Bengal ArtiUery in 1832, and joined the surveying sei*vice in 1836. He had been Sir Andrew's Deputy in charge of the office at Calcutta since 1847, and during those fifteen years the general usefulness of the surveying operations had been increased a hundredfold. Thuillier's energy and talent for organization had been devoted alike to improving the system of surveying in the field, and making its results more readily accessible to the public. In all this he was well supported by his chief. In one of his early reports Colonel Thuillier " records his sense of the " valuable and hearty support always rendered by Su- Andrew " Waugh's method of conducting the great triangulation to meet " the necessities and requirements of the Revenue Survey, and of " his forethought and great consideration for the important objects " of the extension of the geographical knowledge of India." The revival of the Revenue and Topographical Surveys may be dated from the appointment of Colonel Thuillier, at the end of the first Punjab war in 1847. Since that date they have been conducted with ever increasing efficiency, and with annually improving arrangements for extending the sphere of then- usefuluess. The previous history ^of the sui-veys will have sho"VMi that the gi-eat triangu- lation has, as a rule, been prosecuted by a distinct staff, and separate from the operations of filling in details for the maps. Men trained for the strictly scientific work of the great triangulation are not always adapted for the detail sm-veys, or vice versa, wlule the two classes of operations must be conducted on distinct principles.* The revenue and topographical surveys must be undertaken -with reference to the public rcqmrements, while the triangulation is regularly proceeded with on a fixed plan. But it has always been Colonel Thuillier's cai-e to follow in the tmck of the different trigonometrical series, and thus have the advantage of fixed stations on which to base his detail surveys. • See pages 47 and 86. KEVENTJE AND TOPOGRAPniCAL SUHVEYS. 127 The Revenue Branch conducts a capital detail survey of all British revenue paying districts on a scale of foui- inches to the mile, showing the limits of every village community. The opera- tions of this branch are much influenced by local civil require- ments, are under local Governments, and subject to local budgets. The Topographical Surveys, on the other hand, usually on the scale of one inch to the mile, are simply intended for Native States or non-regidation British districts of a vnld rugged character and small value, as regards revenue, Trhere only a military map on a smaller scale is requii-ed. Both are carefuUy connected with the great triangulation ; the revenue by a chain and theodolite system of measurement fixing all boundaries of estates and villages ; the topographical by breaking up the lai'ge triangles into minor triangu- lations with sides sufficiently short to give bases for plane table sketching. The chain is not generally used by the Topographical Smn'eyor because it is pohtically obnoxious to independent ti-iljes, and is looked upon as the sm'e harbinger of loss of territory. The number of points used by the sm'veyor with the plane table in delineating the ground is the criterion of the value of his survey;* and Hnes are run across the ground, either with chain or peram- bulator, to test the acem'acy of the work, by traverse. The Bcvcnue Siu-veyors are at Avork in several districts of the Bengal Presidency, turning out about 15,000 to 20,000 square mUes a year. The Topographical Surveys, when Colonel Thuillicr took charge in 1861, consisted of fom- parties m Central India, the Nizam's Territory, Ganjam, and Chota Kagpore, comprising a total area of 43,316 square miles. "When this was completed, there still remained 319,338 square miles to be done in the Native States, and 21,13Jf in the wild hiUs of Eastern, Bengal. In 1802 a fifth pai-ty was organized to sm-vey Rewah. In 1864, after 18 years of iminterrupted and ai'duous service in charge of the Surveyor General's Office at Calcutta, Colonel Thiiillicr * The work is divided into sections, 15 minutes in latitude and lonpjitude containing 270 square miles. The surveyor fills in the dctail:i round the trigonometrical points ah-eady projected on bis plane table, and at each trigonometrical station he draws a series of rays to neighbouring objects, the positions of which arc determined by intersection. The points of iutersectiou are then visited, and a similar process is gone through. The position of each detail need not be more than jV of an inch in error on the maps, but there is often great difficidty when the points are concealed from each other by jungle. ]28 KEVENTTE ANT) TOPOGKATOICAL SURVEYS. wont home for 20 mouths ou sick leave, Colonel Walker officiating for him as Surveyor General and Superintendent of the Topo- graphical Sm'veys, and Colonel Gastrcll as Superintendent of the He venue Survey. During the two seasons, 18G1-66, Captain Melville was at work in Central India. Mr. Mulheran was at work in the upper Godaveiy district, in the midst of heavy forest and tangled luiderwood. He fell a victim to his own unceasing exertions in the survev of the Kii-mul jungles, a most pestilential tract on the Wvirda and Godavery rivers ; and added one more to the long list of zealous and devoted si.u*veyors who have laid down their lives in the sei-vice of their country. Colonel Saxton continued his severe work in Ganjam and Orissa> regions of a uniformly deadly and malarious nature, where the majo- rity of the officers who were associated with hun had perished. The survey in Chota Nagpore was conducted by Captain Depree, and that in llewah and Eundelcund was ixnder Captain Mm-ray. GodAvin Austen, the topographer of the lofty region of the] Pangoug lake, had accompanied Mr. Eden's Bhotan mission, and had served with the Dooar field force. He now headed a sixth topographical party, to survey the forest covered and pestilential Garrows, the Cossyah and Jynteah hills, Nowgong, and North Cachar. The Pegu Sm'vey is distmct from these, and is on a scale of four miles to the inch. The survey was commenced in about 1854 ; but Avhen Captain Fitzroy took charge, in 18G0, he rejected the work executed by his predecessors, and commenced de novo, which gave rise to considerable delay. In 1805, Captain Edgcome, the Principal of the Madi-as College of Civil Engineering, took charge of the Pegu Sm-vey. He completed tbe field work, constructed ieik or district maps on a one-incb scale, besides the quarter-inch geogra- phical map, and prepared a memoii' containing much valuable statistical information. Colonel Thuillier retm'ned to India, and resumed charge on the 12th of December 1866 ; but be was again in England from the 10th of May 1868 to the 7th of January 18G9, when his duties were shared by Colonel Walker, Colonel Gastrell, and Captain Montgomerie. On the latter occasion Colonel Thuillier was on duty, matiu"ing an'angements for the transfer of the engraving of the sheets of the Indian Atlas from London to his own office at Calcutta. During the two last seasons there have been seven parties of topographical suiTcyors in the field in Rajpootana, the Central PUNJAB FRONTIER SURVEY. 129 Provinces, and the wild region on the N.E. frontier. The country under survey embraces every variety of ground, from the arid and sandy tracts of Beekaneer to the mountains of Cossyah and Jynteah, which are dehigcd with a rainfall of 600 inches in the year. The surveyors penetrate into the wildest and most secluded spots. In the Central Provinces they came upon a tract utterly devastated by a tigress which had killed 50 people, and driven the inhabitants from 13 villages. In many parts they traversed regions hitherto not only unmapped but unknown. Then* system of work is suited to native states ; their operations with the theodolite and plane table, and no chain, excite little jealousy, and they usually succeed in establishing friendly relations with the wildest hill tribes. The last Revenue Survey Report, that of 1808-69, shows an area of 19,369 square miles sm'veyed by 17 parties,* at a total cost of Es. 8,90,314. The revenue smweys are divided into an upper and lower ch'cle ; the former comprising the Xorth-TTest and Central Pro^dnccs, Oude, Punjab, and Sinde, under Colonel Gastrell, and the latter including the Lower Provinces and British Burmah, under Van Renen. Colonel Johnstone, of the Punjab Prontier Survey, accompanied the Huzara Field Force in October 1868 and following months, with his staff of sm-veyors, and completed a sketch map of 400 square mUes of hitherto unexplored and unkno'WTi countiy during the expedition, resuming his regular duties on its retm*n. The work was amongst glaciers and mountains of perpetual snow. Johnstone fixed stations on peaks that had hitherto been pronounced impracti- cable, and made an important geographical discovery respecting the true course of the Indus, between Astor and the Black Mountain. The Sinde Revenue Suney was commenced in 1855-56, and will be completed in 1869-70. Dm-ing 1868-69 about 6,000 square miles were surveyed in the plain of Omercote, and in ThuiT and Parkur. All that remains, to complete this siuwey, is the Shah- bmider district.! • Four in the Central Provinces, one in Oude, two in N.W. Provinces, one in the Punjab, one in Sinde, six in Lower Provinces, one in Burmah, and one in Punjab cantonments. t Work completed: Seonee, commenced 1865, finished 1869. Kheree, „ 1865 „ 1869. Thurr .t Parkur „ 1862 „ 1869. Huzara „ 1865 „ 1869. Camroop „ 1865 „ 1869. East Dooars „ 1867 ,. 1869. Palamow ,, 1863 „ 1869. (6409.) I 130 REVENUE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL STJRVETS. Six parties have been at work, duvini;; 18G8-G9, in the Lower Pro^-inces, cMefly in Cooch Beliar, and in the Cami-oop and Luckim- poor districts of Assam. In Luckimpoor Lieutenant Barron had most severe work, cutting his way through dense jungles with imported labor, and his health has suffered much by it. His services have been specially recognised in a despatch from the Secretary of State. Since Colonel Thuillier took charge of the office at Calcutta ia 1847, down to 1869, the out-tiu'n of work has been as follows : — Square Miles surveyed. Cost. (1836-69) Topographical SuiTcys 97,028 Rs. 35,11,281 (1816-09) Revenue - - 400,162 1,15,14,371 597,190 Rs. 1,50,28,052 A large office establishment is requu-ed for the reduction, compi- lation, and publication of such a mass of geograpliical materials ; and in its efficient management the great talent for organization which tlistinguishes Colonel Tluiillier has perhaps been most conspicuously displayed. Certainly it is in the system by which he year by year extends and increases the general usefulness of the sru^veys, by making their results rapidly and easily accessible, that his services have borne most fruit. In the Sm-veyor General's office at Calcutta there is a di-awdng and compUing, a lithographic, and a photographic branch. The publishing branch may be said to have been completely formed by Colonel Thuillier. Origiaally there was only one small lithographic press, but during the tci*m of Colonel Thuillier's tenm-e of office, the establishment has been gradually increased, imtU now the printing branch has 20 presses continually at work, besides three smaU. type presses for departmental forms. In addition to the map printing, all kinds of work are executed, as the different Govern- ment Departments indent on the Surveyor General's Office to print any diagrams, sketches, or illustrations that they may require to accompany reports. It is worthy of remark that the ffi'st postage stamps ever used in India were lithographed at the Surveyor General's office. Until within the last few years, all the maps of the Indian Siu'vey, (with the exception of the Atlas sheets,) were put on to stone by hand di'awiug on transfer paper, a very laborious PnOTO-ZIXCOGRAPHT. 131 process, and very liable to error, particularly when executed by natives wbo cannot read English, and who simply copy what they do not understand. The climate of Calcutta also niilitates very much against the successful transfer from paper to stone. Latterly natives, who have acquired a small knowledge of English, have been easily attainable, and apprentices have been carefully trained to write on stone, and thus better and more certain results are obtained. The gi-eatest advance of all was the introduction of photo-zinco- graphy into the office. The credit of having fii-st introduced the process into India is due to !Mr. Hennessey of the Great Trigono- metrical Survey,* and the first photo-zincograph was executed by himself in the office of the Superintendent at Dehra Doon. Before Mr. Hennessey's retiu'U to India in 1 8G5, maps had been copied by photography both in the office at Calcutta and in that at Dehra Doon. Colonel Thuillier had two Serjeants employed in his office, who were sent out, after receiving instruction in photo-zincography at the Ordnance Siu-vey office at Southampton, but their attempts were not very satisfactory. Photo-zincography cannot be said to have been fauly introduced into Calcutta untU 1866, when sm^ey officers, who had been trained in the process under Mr. Hennessey, were available to take charge of this branch. Since that year pro- gress has been steadily made, the establishment has been enlarged, and the out-turn of work, already enonnous, is yeai'ly increasing. It must be remembered that the great demand in India is not for highly finished, but for rough accurate maps, published as soon after survey as possible. By means of photo-zincography the results of the siu'veys are immediately made available for general use. Cap- tain MclviEc and Lieutenant Waterhouse have ably supeiintended this department, t and dui-ing the year 1868-69 as many as 44,092 copies of maps were struck off". In the same year 97,647 were lithographed; so that the total oiit-tiu-n amounted to 141,739 maps. The demand, both from official^ and general som-ccs, is in proportion to the supply, and these branches arc not only self- payuig but remunerative. The value of the work turned out by the * See page 123. t See " Report on the Cartogi-nphic Applications of Photography, and notes on the European and Indian Surveys, by Lieutenant J. Waterhouse, R.A.'' (Calcutta, 1870.) X 21,848 maps supplied. I 2 132 RE^'ExrE axd topoghapiitcvi, srnvEYS. litlio and ])lioto-/.iiu-()i;Tapliic branches von" consiik-rably exceeds the cost of the working: expenses, and as most of the initial expenditure has been incurred, the returns will probably increase year by year. Colonel Thuillier has compiled and published many useful general raajis ; among Avhicli may be mention(Hl his small scale maps of India ; his new map of India, on a scale of 32 miles to an inch ; his eight sheet map of the Punjab ; his Punjab and its dependencies, in four sections, on a scale of IG miles to an inch ; and his maps of Sinde and Oud(\ In concluding this very inadequate sketch of the recent operations of the llcA'euue and Topographical Surveyors, it will l)c weU to glance at what remains to be done in India under this head. Since the api)ointment of Colonel Thuillier in 18 17 the work has been thoroughly avcU done, and there ar(> excellent surveys of the Punjab, Oude, Sinde, the Lower Provinces, and of all the districts included in the operations of his parties. But unfortunately the surveys of the North-West Provinces were executed before his time. It will be remembered that, at the conference of sm-veyors held at Allahabad in 1831', it was resolved to sacritice everything to cheap- ness and rapidity of execution.* The consequences of this resolution have been most disastrous. The sm*veys of the North-West Provinces were made at a galloping rate each season, owing to the pressure of the revenue officers, who wanted to complete the settlement. The result was, that the maps were the merest and most inaccm-ate skeletons, while topographical details were altogether omitted. The surveys were confined to the actual de- finition of village boimdaries, and the work on opposite sides of a river Avas never even connected. As geographical material, they are perfectly useless, and there is now no reliable map of the North- West Provinces for engineering or local pui-poses. These were the materials from which the geographical maps on a scale of foiir mUes to the inch were lithographed at Allahabad, after having been reduced by native draftsmen. They have no trigonometrical jJoints, and no basis of any kind ; yet from these maps the sheets of the Indian Atlas have been filled up. Most of the original village plans, bound up in folio volumes, were destroyed in the mutinies ; but those of twelve districts were saved, and deposited in the Surveyor General's ofiice at Calcutta. * See page 83. MADRAS KKVliXUE SURVEY. 133 The time has now arrived for a second settlement of the North- West Provinces, and the local Government proposed to dispense with a proper survey, because they thought that the khunyoh or measiu-e- ment of fields by a native amecn Avas so accurate that nothing more was required ; and that, if anything fm-ther was wanted for geographi- cal purposes, a bare survey like that made in the native states would suffice. Thus we are thi-catened with a repetition of the lamentable and short-sii^hted mistake that was mad(> thirtv vears ago.* In reahty the khnsrah measurements, however carefidly made, having no l)asis or fixed points, must necessarily have an ever accumu- lating en-or. In the Revenue ,Sm"vey the maximum error allowed is half an acre per cent., and that is considered bad work ; while the khusrah cn-or, when vinchecked, is from 3 to 7 per cent. The regidar siuveys check the gross village areas, and furnisli reliable vUlage maps on a scale of 4 inches, and district and pergunnah maps of 1 inch to the mile. It is most surprising that such a proposal as to dispense with acciu'ate surveys should have been made in these days, when it is well known tliat it woukl be ridiculous to attempt to use the old revenue skeleton maps of the North- West Provinces as a basis on which to work for preparing any engiaeering project, or indeed for any usefid pm'pose. A good survey of the North-West Provinces, similar to those of other districts akeady mapped, will have to be executed ; and the khusrah or field measurements ought to be taken out of the hands of the native ameens, and handed over to the professional smveyors, so that the whole operation may proceed on one regular and scientific system. The Madras llevenuc Survey iias been steadily progressing, imder the superintendence of Colonel Priestley, since 185G, and it has the great triangulations as its basis. It consists of an admu-al^le cadas- tral field survey on a scale of IG inches to the mile for every village m British revenue paying districts, and many thousands of square miles are completed. The maps arc well drawn, ard arc litlio- graphed very shortly after survey. But all ti-acts of lands which are held by rent-free tenm-es Avere omitted m\til quite recentlv. Now, however, these gaps have been ordered to be filled in, bv means of a topographical survey on a moderate scale ; so that the materials for compiling geographical maps will be complete. * See page 103 for an accouut ol" the coniequences of adopting a native system of surveying in the Punjab. 134 REVENUE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. The reduction of the results of the ]\Iadras Siu-vey to maps of con- venient size is making some progress. But the truth is that Colonel Priestley and his staff have as much to do as they can possibly get through, and there is no machinery for utilizing then- work for geo- graphical purposes. There can now be no doubt that the abolition of the office of Deputy Surveyor General at Madras, in 1831<, was a great mistake. The beautiful old Military Institute Maps of the early part of the century remain in manuscript. Tliey were used for the sheets of tlie Indian Atlas, but have never been published on their own most useful scale of an inch to a mUe. Since those maps were drawn, geographical interests have somewhat languished in the Matbas Presidency. Yet a good deal has been done at various times. Colonel Scott, the Quartermaster General of the Madras army, compiled an excellent map of tlie Presidency on two sheets, on a scale of 24s miles to the inch, in 1863. Large maps of the Presidency on a scale of 8 miles to the incli, showing aU tlic works of in-igation, finished and in progress, have been compiled for the Secratary of State, from information supplied by the superintending engineers, m 1858, 59, GO, G3,.C1<, and 05. In 1862 a map showing the extent of cotton cultivation, on a scale of 24 miles to the inch, was published to illustrate the oflicial cotton hand-book. Maps of the talooks have also been compiled from the old surveys on a scale of two miles to an inch, and published, but they are meagre, and contain few of the names given on the original maps. A map of the Tanjore irrigation channels, of the Denkanicotta range, showing the Salem forests, some road maps, and a few others, have also been engraved. But much remains to be done. The Revenue Surveys should be reduced, and compiled on a scale of 4 miles to the inch, and results of general utility should thus be secured, from the excellent work of the surveyors. District maps of KiuTiool, S. Arcot, Tinnevelly, and Vizagapatam, 17 talook maps, 8 maps of parts of the toAvn of Madras, 76 plans of "Wynaad coffee estates, and 5,650 village maps Avere on the Avay to the Geographical Department of the India Office, from the Madras Government, in January 1871. A minute revenue suiTcy of the "Bombay coUectorates was com- menced in about 1836 by Major Wingate and Mr. Goldsmid, of the Civil Service, the latter aiding in the revenue jiortion. Major Wingate carefully elaborated the original design of the Survey. It consists of a cadastral measui-ement of fields, by means of the cross BOMBAY REVENUE SURVEY. 135 staff and chain ;* but this operation has not, and, I behove, cannot be generalized and reduced into a convenient scale, on a proper basis. There is no basis to build upon, and when any attempt is made to join the component parts of this field survey together nothing l)ut failure results. There is a quartermaster general's map of the Presidency on a scale of 20 miles to the inch, but this is all that exists of nearly half the entire area of the Presidency, for the rough lithographed maps of districts and collectorates are so badly executed, and so meagre as regards details, that they are of little use. The consequence is, that the Baroda and Ahmedabad Railway, and the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, south of the Taptce, exist on the maps solely by guess work. The triangidation of the Great Trigonometrical Survey is now well extended over the Bombay Presidency as a basis ; and it is, therefore, much to be regretted that, as in Madras, the field surveys were not connected with it, so as merely to require reduction to be made usefid for general gcogra])hical purposes. As it is, sixteen slioets of the Indian Atlas, belonging to the Bombay Presidency, remain unjiublished. I understand that it would noAv be impossible to connect the Bombay field sm-veys with the Great Trigonometrical points. When the lands of a village have been surveyed by cross staff and chain, and mapped, the work is tested by theodolite ; but the points of the Great Trigonometrical Siu'vey form no part either of survey or proof. Another defect is the absence of topographical features, such as hills, in the maps, though the rivers and streams arc partially entered. The Bombay field sm'vey is available for revenue purposes only. The state of the case, as regards Bombay, is at present as follows. Sind has been sm'vcyed by Colonel Thuillier's parties, Kattywar and Guzerat have been taken in hand by Colonel Walker, and the North Concan is fairly well surveyed. There remain al)out 80,000 square miles to be surveyed by future parties, working on the basis of the great triangulation. But the pai'tics do not exist, and the Avork has not yet been commenced. * See a pnjier " On the Principles and Practice of the Bombay Kevenuo Survey," by Lieutenant-Colonel A. Cowper, K.E. (1866), in the " Frofcssional I'apers on Indian Engineering," vol. iii., p. 184. 136 REVENUE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. One excellent and most creditable piece of work, connected with the Bombay Presidency, has just been completed. This is the new survey of the island and city of Bombay by Lieut.;-Colonel Laugh- ton, for the mimicipaUty, some sheets of which have been photo- zincographed. They are to be engraved on scales of 4-0 and 100 feet to an inch.* There may be various desultory Sm'veys in existence, but there is a pressing necessity for a more syst<^matic organization of the Surveys in the Bombay Presidency, first to utilize all existing mate- rials, and to compile a good map of the Presidency from them, and afterwards to superintend the surveying operations of the futm*e. Thus there is a vast field for future work in India, in the North- West ProA-inces, in Madras and in Bombay ; besides that of parties still progressing in Central India and Eastern Bengal. Yet year by year a good out-tiu-n of work is produced ; the system is admirable, and ere many decades have passed the whole structure of accurate triangulation will be clothed with useful and reliable topographical detail. The history of Colonel Thuillier's work is to be found in his own annual reports. Those now in the Geographical Department of the India Office are as foUows : — 1. Report of the Revenue Sm-veys (Lower Provinces), 1854-55. 2. „ „ „ ( „ „ ), 1856-57. 3. „ „ „ [N. W. P., Punjab, Sind), 1856-57. 4!. 5J 5J J) ^ 5J J> )> 1857-58. 5. General Report of the Revenue Surveys, 1858-61. 6. Report of the Revenue Surveys {Lower Provinces), 1861-62. 7. „ „ „ ( TJjjper Produces), 1861-65. 8. General Report of the Revenue Surveys, 1865-66. 9. Report of the Revenue Sm-veys ( Uj)per Circle), 1866-67. 10. „ „ „ * ( M ), 1868-69. 11. „ „ „ {Lower Provinces), 1868-69. 12. General Report on the Topographical SmTeys, 1860-62. 13. „ „ „ „ 1862-63. 14. „ „ Topographical and Revenue Sm-veys, 1863-64. * See the Annual Reports of the Municipal Commissioner of Bombay, 1867, p. 20 5 1868 p. 13 ; 1869 p 13. ^ MAP or INDIA TOPOGRAPHICAL & REVENUE SURVEYS on th.; Sinle of One Inch to a ilUe 1H70 NOTE IJu Paru alrtaify publuhrd iirt tpt^^/i^ in tilt Cmai^gixr ^ Mapt ini»*' /*!.' AJ™ IWrt /, REPORTS BY COLONEL THTJILLIER. 137 15. Topographical Sui-veys (With Colonel Walker's G. T. S. Report), 186i-65. 1865-66. 17. General Report on the Topographical Surveys, 1866-67. 18. „ „ „ „ , 1867-68. 19. „ „ „ „ ,1868-69. See also " Selections from the Records of the Government of India (Home Department)," No. LXXIV. (1869). Por details of the mode of working, see " Report on the Carto- graphic applications of photography, &c.," pi'inted in Calcutta in 1870 ; and prepared hy Lieutenant Waterhouse, under the direction of Colonel Thiiillier. ( 138 ) XI.— SUPPLY OF INSTRUMENTS FOR THE INDIAN SURVEYS. Tlio suporiority of moflorn surveys rests mainly on the perfection to Avliich the maniifactiu'c of instruments has attained. Ohscrvers in the old days AA'^ere as careful and thoughtful, but this availed them little without the needful appliances. What could the most learned Hindoo astronomer achieve with sucli instruments as Sir Rohert Barker found on that terrace at Benares in 1777 ? — Quadrants with a 20-foot radius, and the arc carved on a stone wall, so that to take an angle a Bralmian, how high soever his caste, must have been slung ia a bowline knot, and hoisted up and down with guys. Rough approximations would be aU that an observer -Rith such an instrument could hope for.* When Englishmen became the rulers in India, the instrimients they brought with them were certainly improvements on the wonder- ful structures in the observatories at Delhi and Benares; but at fii'st the difference was not so veiy great. Reuben Burrow, , in starting upon a Govcmmcnt sm-vey, had to l)orrow his tools anyhow, and complained that among them he got a wretched quadrant from Captain Ritchie. It was probably such an instrument as Bruce took Avith him to Abyssinia, wliich it required four men to carry. Colonel Lambton was in constant dilFicultics Avith his instruments, for, though he Avas cA'cntually provided with the best that the artists of that period could produce, he had no means of getting repairs done, and no trusty coadjutor in England to refer to, until Captain Kater went home. It Avill be remembered how, when the guy can-ied away, and the great theodolite was violently bumped against the tower of the pagoda at Tanjorc, Lambton shut liimseLf up in a tent for weeks, and rcpaii-ed the damage Avith his OAvn hands. When, in the evening of his days, difficulties arose respecting the measuring chains,! he felt the Avant of a proper system for the supply and * "An account of the Bramin's Observatory" at Benares, by Sir Robert Barker (May 1777). Pbilosopliical Transactions, vol. 69, pt. 2. See also " Benares, Ancient and Modern," by FitzEdward HiiU. f The first bases were measured witli wooden rods. Colonel Eoy, after a careful series of experiments on the dilatation of various boilics, adopted gl;iss tubes 20 feet long. Then the lOO-foot steul chains came into use ; and finally the compensation bars. MR. BARROW AND SYUD MOHSIX. 139 testing of instruments. In those days it was the custom of the service, until the fii-st Burmese war, for of&cers to supply their own instruments. Colonel Iloclgson, when he was smweying, had instru- ments and books of his own to the value of lis. 13,000, and nothing belonging to Government. As Surveyor General he considered this to be a better system than the supply by contract, and declared that the instruments sent out for the Revenue Survey of 1821, by contract, were not such as a good observer would consent to vise. Everest saw these evils, and provided a remedy. He personally superintended every detail in the construction of his instruments while he was in England, watching their progress day after day, and examining them at eveiy stage. When he returned to India with them in 1830, he took an accomplished maker, Mr. BarroAV, out Avith him, and established a mathematical instriunent manu- factory at Calcutta. Yet even these precautions were insufficient, and when Colonel Everest began to observe with the large astro- nomical circle he found that it was top heaA-y from faults in the construction, and um-cliablc. Again the Superintendent of the Survey A\-as thrown upon his own resom'ces, and, A\ith the aid of Syud Mohsin, invented and appUed the remedy with his own hands.* 'Mr. BaiTOw was established at the head of a useful factory at Calcutta, where instruments of all kinds could be repaired, and much good work done. Indeed the second great theodolite, known as Barrow's theodolite, Avliich has measm-ed the angles of several of the Trigonometrical Series, was made at the mathematical instrument manufactory, under Colonel Everest's du-ection. The graduation of the cu-cle was performed by ]Mr. BaiTOW, and the instrmnent was built out of old musket barrels, and parts of Colonel Lambton's trusty old theodolite that was damaged by a blow against the pagoda at Tanjore. Lambton's old zenith sector is laid up in ordinary at Calcutta. "When Mr. Bari'ow retued he was succeeded bv Svud Mohsin, a native of Arcot, possessed of great mechanical talent. Colonel Everest, like most men of genius, had a sort of intuitive perception in selecting the right man, and at once singled out Syud Mohsin as an able mechanician. He was right. Tliis native of India, though he coidd not read English, would have taken a leading place even among Eiuopcan instriunent makers. Wiien he died * See page 74. 140 SUPPLY OF INSTRUMENTS. bis place was takcu by a mechanician from Mr. Cooke's establish- ment at York, and the factory continues to turn out plenty of useful work. But all important instruments, and all that require nicety and accuracy in their construction, must still be made in Europe ; and, moreover, they must have the benefit of scientific supervision of the hit^hest order if they are to prove efficient in such a service as the Indian Survey. It was obvious that the Su])erintendent of the Survey could only occasionally be in England, at intervals of several years, while the supervision of instruments was a constant requu'cment. In 1802 the supply of a complete new set of instruments was sanctioned for the Great Trigonometrical Survey, and in the following year the importance of having all instruments for Iiulia subjected to special scientific examination became apparent. It would be impossible to find half a dozen men in England who combine the experience of India, knowledge of the highest branches of mechanical science, fertility of resource, and inventive genius, which are required in the oificer to whom the superintendence of the manvifactory of instruments for the Indian Siu-veys can be properly entrusted. Most fortunately tlie services of Colonel Strange were secured, an officer wiio possesses all these qualifications. Colonel Strange was a member of the Great Trigonometrical Survey from 1847 to 18G0. It mil be remembered that he conducted the Western Longitudinal Series, superintended the measurement of the Kurrachee base, and for a short time was in charge of the Coast Series. He thus had had considerable practical experience in trigo- nometrical surveying, while his mechanical genius, and knowledge of mathematical, geodetical, aiul astronomical instruments, is not em-passed by any man in England. In 1862 the Secretary of State for India entrusted Colonel Strange with the task of designing and superintending the construction of a set of geodetical and astronomical mstrnments of the first order, for the Great Trigonometrical Survey ; and in 1863 he was appointed to examine and test all instnmients ordered for India. A set of instnmients was required for the efficient discharge of his duties, and a special observatory for testing was an absolute necessity. The provision of these requisites was sanctioned in 1864 and 1865, and the observatory was erected at the warehouse of the Store Department of the India Office in Belvidere Eoad (Lambeth), where Colonel Strangc's office was established. THE LAMHETTT OBSERVATORY. Ill The site of the observatoiy at Lamljeth is on the banks of the Tlianies, close to a railway, and is exposed to much vibratoiy motion ; wliile it is essential to secure rest and complete isolation for the proper examination of astronomical and geodetical instruments. Colonel Strange foimd it necessary to pierce right through the London clay, and established a basis on the imderlying gravel, in order to ensure stability for his instruments dm-ing the process of testing. For this purpose twelve screw piles were wormed into the gravel, Avhich here lies 24 feet below the surface of the London clay. Broad heads of cast iron were keyed upon the top of the piles ; and stone slabs were laid on tlie pile heads, the space beneath being filled in for a depth of three feet Anth concrete cement. A cu'cular platform of brick work was built on the flag stones. A solid column of masonry was then erected in the centre, and two semi-circular segments of wall were raised roimd the circvunference. In order to secure complete isolation between the observer and the instruments resting on the piled foimdation, the wooden flooring, between the central column and the circular Avail, lie^ upon beams which are supported from beyond the brick work biult over the piles. The observer thus walks on the flooi*, Avithout shaking, or affecting in any A\'ay, the instruments on the Avail or column. The floor is reached by a flight of stairs. This arrangement is on the principle designed by Sir George Everest for the towers of observation in India, a central column for the instrument, with complete isolation for the observer. For the examination of graduated cu'cles for taking horizontal angles, the instrument is placed on the central column. Fom- colli- mators are fixed on different parts of the circular wall. These are horizontal telescopes containing marks for observation. In one there arc diagonally crossing spider threads, in another liorizontally and vertically crossing threads, in a third an artificial star or speck of light. The angular intervals between the collimators arc 30°, 60°, 120°, and 150° ; an arrangement which admits of twelve different angles being taken, by A^arying the sets of coHLmatoi-s. The positions of the collimators themselves also admit of alteration. The angles between them must have exactly the same A^alues, whichever part of the circle is employed. This forms a severe and searching test. There are contrivances in the roof of the observatory for enabling observations of celestial bodies to be taken ; and verticle cii'cles are 142 SUPPLY OF IXSTHTIMENTS. tested, ■when necessary, by observing stars as tbey pass tbe meridian. There are two eloeks, built into the eircular Avail, one for mean, tbe other for sidereal tiuTe, the mean time clock being connected by electric virives with Greenwich. The methods for testing spii'it levels and telescopes to small surveying instruments are equally complete and searching. These operations are performed in the obseiTatory. In another room, in the body of the building, arc the standai'd bai'ometer and thermometer. They have been compared at the observatories at Kew and Greenwich, and it is an important fact that the two comparisons do not exactly agi-ee. So that there is no fixed standard iir England to which observations can be referred, a de- ficiency which Colonel Strange has brought to the notice of the Hoyal Society ; but no steps have yet been taken to remedy this defect in physical science. Colonel Strange, therefore, gives the error on both for every instrument that passes, and is sent out to India. Every kind of meteorological instrument is tested and examined. There is a most ingenious contrivance for comparing the aneroids. They arc placed in a reservoir connected with the receiver of an air pump in such a way that the channel of communication is crossed by a diaphragm of porous porcclam. When the receiver of the au*-pump is exhausted to a certain degree, the exhaustion of the resers^ou' containing the aneroids goes on very gradually through the porcelain. Thus the action of the instrument is exactly the same as it would be in the pocket of a man slowly ascending a moimtain. At every half inch of change the aneroid is compared with an accm'ate mercurial barometer.* As many as 7,000 instruments of more than a hundred different kinds are examined yearly, and the nimiber is largely on the increase. f The system, ably and thoroughly worked out by its talented founder and inventor, is a complete success. • See an arricle by Dr. Mann, in the " Quarterly Journal of Science," entitled *' The Lambeth Observatory," wliich gives an excellent popular account of Colonel Sti-ange's operations. The article is also printed in " Scientific Opinion," in the numbers for July 21st and 28th, and August 4th, 1869. f It is curious to compare the return of instruments in store in the oflSce of the Surveyor General and in use in the surveys, which was drawn up by Colonel Hodgson in 1828, with Colonel Strangc"s Return, showing the number of instruments ordered in 1868 and 1869. COLONEL STRAKGE's SYSTEM. 143 The following system has been adopted by Colonel Strange. All pattern instruments have been abolished, for he considers patterns to be an oljstacle to improvement, and no two l)atches of important instruments have been sent out by him which have been identical in construction. But the abolition of patterns adds enormously to his labour, and keeps the inventive faculty constantly on the stretch. A sufficient amount of competition, both in price and quality, is ensm-ed by employing at least two makers for each separate class of instruments. At the same time competition in price has been abolished. This was formerly the chief, if not the only competition relied on, and the consequence was that the prices became such as no really good conscientious maker could compete with. The supply tlms fell into fifth-rate hands. The selection of makers is made chiefly with reference to two points, character and general manufac- turing power in the fij-st place, and secondly special knowledge of partieidar branches of the profession. Thus makers of meteorolo- gical instruments are seldom distinguished for the excellence of their surveying instruments. Ail instruments are subjected to rigorous inspection, Colonel Strange's decision on them being accepted, in every contract, as final. Colonel Strange's most absorbing work has been the designing and superintendence of the construction of the grand new set of instruments for the Trigonometrical Siu'vey. They consist of a great theodolite with a three-foot horizontal circle, and two zenith sectors, by Troughton and Simms ; two five-foot transit instruments, and two smaller ones by Cooke of York; two 12-inch vertical eii-cles by llepsold of Hambm-gh ; two galvanic chronographs for registering transit observations, by MM. Secretau and Hardy of Paxis; and three astronomical clocks by Frodsham. The five-foot transit instruments have very powerful telescopes of five inches clear apertiu-e, with a hollow axis of aluminium bronze, cast in one piece. They are provided with four levels for rendering the axis horizontal ; and there are peculiar methods for adjusting the axis vertically and azuuuthally, the object sought being to exclude shake, obviate strain, and cause the expansions to take place from the centre outwards. These adjustments are exceedingly delicate in theii' action, and very stable.* • "On a transit instrument and zenitli sector, to be used on the Great Trigono- metrical Surveyor India, for the determination, respectively, of longitude and latitude," by Lieutenant. Colonel A. Strange, V.U.S.— Proceedings of the Royal Societi/, No. 90. 1.S67. 144 SUPPLY OP TXSTRT'MEXTS. The zenith sectors arc (lesiguod by Colonel Strange, on a new plan, liis endeavonr heing to combine niaximnm power with minimum weight. The weight is 595i lbs. One of them is already in India, and Lieutenant llerschel, whose astronomical talent is mherited, was observing with it at the Coimbatore base in March 1870. His report is most satisfactory. He takes about 50 stars at each station, three times each ; and 30 stars observed in six hours will suffice to give a result whose probable error will not be greater than I of a second. When he wrote, Lieutenant Herschel had taken about 1,200 zenith distances with the instrument. He says, "There can " be no better proof of forethought and efficiency of design and " execiition in an instrument than tliat it allows of rapidity and " certainty and comfort m manipulation, and spares the observer " mental and physical distraction and distress. The graduatioii " seems to be almost perfect." Such testimony must be most gratifying to the designer of the instrument, Avhose time had been so long absorbed by the trials and experiments to which it was necessary he should subject it, before its despatch to India. # '"■W"PW Dn>' /ni^u (Win- ( 145 ) XII.— THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. A Geological Survey of India, regularly organized and working systematically, has not reached the fifteenth year of its existence. But ever since cultivated Englishmen have been at work in India, in the sui-vcying, military, clerical, or medical services, there have been keen observers of everything worth observing ; and the Indian rocks and minerals, viewed sometimes from a practical and at others from a pm'ely scientific point of view, have had their due share of attention. Thus there have been many geological reports on various Indian districts in the years preceding the regular esta- bUshment of the Siu'vey ; but it wiU only be possible to enumerate those that arc best known. It will be remembered that when Su* George Everest first joined Colonel Lambton in 1818, he had with him, as a colleague. Dr. Voysey, who was sm-geon and geologist to the Survey. This was probably the first official appointment of a geologist in India*, when the science was in its infancy, and Dr. Voysey's papers refer to the Wemerian. and Huttonian systems. He was sent by Colonel Lambton to reconnoitre the country in advance, as far as Agra. He accompanied Everest in his severe work on the Godavery, and was one of the earliest writers on the rocks of the Deccan. He exploi-ed the Nalla- Malla mountains between Cummimi in Cuddapah and Amrabad north of the Kistnah, and wrote an interesting account of the diamond mines in southern India. He also wrote papers on the building stones of Agra, and on petrified sliells in thcTaptee vaUey.f This able and zealous officer died of fever, on his way to Calcutta, in 1823. * A Mr. Laidlnw was appointed as mineralogist and geologist to the Survey la Kumaon under Captain Webb (see page 64) in June 1817, but his allowances were stopped in 1819 Despatch from Lord IffisfiiigSyYeh. 15th 1821. Laidlaw was a very able man, and is said to have been badly treated. t See "Asiatic Researches," xviii., p. 187, and xv., p. 429 and p. 120. Dr. Voy- sey's Private Journal during 1819 was published in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," xix., p. 201. See also " Gleanings in Science," ii. p. 27 (Calcutta 1H30). Dr. Voysey's 1st and 2nd Reports, on the geology of Hyderabad, are in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. ii., pp. 298 and 392. Dr. J. H. Carter speaks of " the sagacity, ability, and truthfulness which characterize Dr. Voysey's observations." (6409.) K 146 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Dr. Yoyscy was followed by various other observers, who repoi'ted upon the rocks aud minerals in diflerent parts of India. Captain Dangerfield wrote a notice of the geology of ]\Ialwa, the result of careful observation, previous to 1823 ;* and Captain Franklin, while executing the topographical survey of Ikmdelcund in 1828, also reported on its geology. f Colonel Sleeman discovered fossils near Jubbulpoor in 1830,J Dr. Spilsbui'y made fm-thcr collections,§ and the geological investigations of Sir Andi'ew Waugh and Major Rcnny Tailyour have already been mentioned. Lieutenant Finnis wi'ote upon the rocks of the country between Iloshimgabad and Nagpore in 1834, |1 and in 1842 Dr. Adam described the rocks of Bundelcimd, north of Spilsbmy's work.^ The E-ev. S. Hislop also "\\Tote various papers on the geology of the Nagpore countiy,** and in 1831 the Rev. R. Everest recorded his geological observations between Calcutta and Ghazeepoor. He also criticized Captain' Pranklin's work in a jiaper entitled " The Sandstones of India."tt James Prinsep wrote papers, in his journal, on the fossil bones foimd in the Jumna and Nerbudda valleys. J J In 1854 Captain Nicolls made large and valuable collections of fossils from the mtei"- trappean lacustrine limestone deposits at Saugor, and from the Nerbudda valley ; and Lieutenant Keatinge collected fossil ammo- nites and bivalves of what was supposed to be the Cretacean age, at Bagh, near the Nerbudda. There are some geological notices on the rocks of the Rewah table land, and other parts of India, in the valuable work of M. Jacquemont.§§ * Published in 1823 in Sir John IVIalcolm's « Central India," ii. p. 320. t Papers in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," and in the " Transac- tions of the Geological Society." X " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," i. p. 456. § Ibid., ii. p. 549, and xiii. pt. ii. p. 765. II Ibid., iii. p. 71, and xi. p. 20. f Ibid., vol. xi., p. 392. ** There is an account of the inter-trappean freshwater .ind estuarine formations of the peninsula of India, by Mr. Hislop, in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," xtI. p. 154 ; and Professor Owen described the fossil cranium of a labyrintho- dont reptile, obtained by i\Ir. Ilislop from the sandstone of Mangoli, 60 miles south of Nagpore, in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," xi. pt. i. p. 37. tt " Gleanings in Science," iii. p. 129 and 207. J{ " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," iii. p. 396. §§ "Voyage dans les Indes Orieufales." THE SEWALIK FOSSILS. 147 Attention was oavly turned to the coal bearing rocks of Bengal and the Nerl)v;dda valley. Coal Avas known to exist in the Damnioodali valley so long ago as 1774, and was actually worked in 1777- Mr. Jones described the coal fields and opened mines in 1815,* and in 1830 there were several collieries in the Raneegimge country. Mr. Hisloi) wrote a paper on the age of the coal strata in Western Bengal, and a description of the coal fields in the Dammoodah valley by Mr. Homfray was published in 1842. f But the Baneegunge coal field was fii'st carefully examined and reported on by Mr. Williams in 1845, who was appointed Geological Surveyor to the East India Company.! Mr. Williams died of jungle fever at Hazareebagh in 1849. The earliest explorer of the Nerbudda coal region was Colonel Ouseley, who tried a quantity of the coal in 1838. § In 1833 Mr. Calder wrote a general review of the geology of India, which forms a sort of introduction to various geological papers in the 18th volume of " Asiatic Researches," by Franklin, Voysey, Hardie, Jones, and Coulthard. The most interesting geological work in India, before the com- mencement of the Survey, was imdoubtedly the examination of the Sewalik hills by Dr. Falconer and Sir Proby Cautley, and the famous discovery of their wonderful fossil fauna. Dr. Falconer took charge of the government gardens at Sahaiam- pore in 1832, and at once began to investigate the geology of the Sewalik liills. This is a ridge running parallel to the gi'eat chain of the Himalaya, and consisting of rocks of very late formation. In strictness the Sewalik arc the range of hills rising from the plains between the Ganges and Jvmina, but the term is usually applied to the outermost ridge along the whole length of the Himalaya. || Herbert had examined and reported on the Sewab'k rocks when engaged on the Survey ;Y but Captain Webb is said to have been the first to prove the existence of fossil bones. Yet they were * " Description of the N.W. Coal District, stretching along the river Damoodah." — " Asiatic Researches," xviii. p. 163. t "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," voL xi. pt. ii. p. 723. J "A Geological Report on the Damoodah Valley, by D. H. Williams, Esq., late " Geological Surveyor in the Service of the East India Company." (^London 1850.) The work was reprinted in Calcutta. § " Jourual of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," iv. p. 648. II Rennell applied the name to the hills from Ilurdwar to the Sutlej. — " Memoirs," p. 233. % •' Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. xi. (App.) K 2 118 THE GEOLOGICAL STJRTEY. known to Fevozo TTI. as lonu^ ai;o as l.'JGO. ]*'(>risljta tolls us that this monarch, while cutting through a hill willi HO, ()()() workmen, to lead the waters of the Soorsutty into the Scliona, came upon bones of giants throe vards lonir. Dr. Falconer was led to expect the discoveiy from the nature of the rocks, and he had noted the above passage in Perishta. At that time three officers, who have since linked their names indissolubly Avitli the history of Indian irrigation, Sir Proby Cautloy, Sir William ]iakor, and Sir Hoiu-y Durand, Avorc at work on those Jumna canals, the heads of which are close to Dr. Palconer's abode at Suharunporo ; and he had them as fellow labourers in the same field of research. Falconer and Cautley both found fossil bones in 1831, and Cautley (>nergetically followed up the seai'ch by blasting operations in the KalaAvala pass of the SoAvalik. These discoveries were not fortui- tous, but were results led up to by previous special study. In 1834 Baker and Durand discovered the great ossiferous deposit near the valley of the Markunda, below IS'ahun. Two days after they got their first specimens, Paleonor was on the spot, and collected 300 specimens of fossil bones Avithin six hours. Thus Avas a sub-tropical mammalian fossil fauna brought to light, which was unexampled in richness and extent in any other region then knoAvn. The liistory of the discovery is recorded in various papers publislied in Scientific Journals, and the whole was to IiaA'c been embodied by Dr. Falconer in a great Avork entitled " Fauna Antiqua ScAailensis." It was commenced, and 1123 sj)ecimens were figm-ed. but Dr. Falconer Avas not spared to complete it. He died in 18G5, and all his papers bearing on this subject haA'c been ably edited and ])ublished by Dr. Murcbisou.* Dr. Poylc, in bis great Avork on the llimalayas, both figiu'cs and describes the ScAvalik fossils. •)• * "Palteontological Memoirs and Notes, by Hugh Falconer," 2 vols. 1868. His first account of the Sewalik is in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," i. p. 96. (1832). Cautley 's first memoir is in the " Asiatic Researches," vol. xvi. In vol. xix. of the " Asiatic Researches " are seven papers by Falconer, Cautley, and Durand. On the fossil camel at p. 115, fossil tiger, p. 135, fossil Lear, p. 193. See also Baker's papers iu the "Journal of the Asiatic Society," iv. p. 506, 694, 706, V. p. 729. There is also a paper by Cautley in the " Geological Transactions (2nd Series)" v. p. 276 (1836). Cautley's paper on a fossil giraffe in the Sewalik is in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vii. pt. ii. p. 658, and Falconer's on the (luaJrumaiia of the vSewalik, ibid. vi. pt. i. p. 354. t " Illustrations of the botany and ether branches of the natural history of the Himalaya mountains," by J. Forbes Royle. (London, 1839. 2 vols.) THE SETT^VLIK FOSSILS. 149 These important discoveries have throA^Ti light upon the state of India in the most remote ages. On their authority Ave may con- ceive an ancient sea to have occupied the valleys of the Indus and Ganges, washing the bases of the Himalaya on one side, and the Vindhya of the Deccan on the other, and receiving all the silt bearing rivers from both. In com-se of time the sea was filled up, and the alluvial valleys teemed with tlie animals whose bones are now imbedded in the Sewalik. Smiilar remains exist in Sinde. They Avere also foimd l)y Mr. CraAA"fm-d on the banks of the Irrawaddy in 182G,* by Dr. Spilsbmy in the Xcrbudda valley, and by Captain Fulljames on the island of Pcrim in the gulf of Cambay.f These points indicate the vast area over which the Sewalik animals of that remote tertiary age roamed. There were mastodons, elephants, five species of hippopotami, rhinoceroses, gu-aflfes, horses, pigs, camels, stags, antelopes, hyaenas, dogs, and cats, monkeys, ostriches, and huge cranes. There are also the sivatherium, a bull the size of an elephant with foxiv horns and a roman nose ; and the colossachelys atlas, a gigantic tortoise G feet high and 22 feet long. The upheaval of a narrow belt of the plains of India, at the foot of the Himalayas, into hills 3,500 feet high, seems to mark the time when the present epoch commenced in India, as these lulls form the grave and monument of an earlier and distinct fauna. The investigation of the Sewaliks was followed bv Colonel Richard Strachey's examination of the lofty ranges in theii* rear,| and by reports on the fossils of the Spiti Valley by Dr. Gerard§ and Captain Hutton.if Captain Henry Strachcy also explored Western Tibet, including the remarkable alluvial plain of Guge, which the * See the account of the rocks and animal remains collecteil by ilr. Ci-awfurJ in 1826-27, on the banks of the Irrawaddy, by Dr. Buckland, in " Crawfiii-d's Enibtussy," ii., App. p. 143, and in the " Transactions of the Geological Society." The collection consisted of bones of mastodons, rhinoceroses, hippotamuses, tapirs, oxen, deer, and land tortoises. t Baron Ilugel had a large collection of fossils from Perini. Captain Fullj.amcs reported on them in the " IJengal Asiatic Society's Journal," i. p. 233. See also " Notes on the Island of Pcrim, in the Gulf of Cambay, by Lieut. Ethcrsey," "Bombay Geographical Society's Journal," vol. ii. Dr. Falconer described the Perira fossils in the " Quarterly .Journal of the Geological Society," i. p. 356. X " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," vii. p. 292. § "Asiatic Researches," xviii. pt. ii. p. 238. f " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal." (1841,) p. 198. 150 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Sutlej lias excavated to the depth of a full vertical mile ;* and Dr. Thomson, in his journey through Ladak to the Karakorum pass in 1848, made very careful geological notes, t The peninsida of India has been examined and reported upon hy several ardent geologists. Colonel Sykes has wi-itten upon the trap formation of theDeccan,J and Dr. Malcolmson's paper on fossils of the eastern portion of the great basaltic region had for its object an endeavour to arrive at a conclusion respecting the age of the basalt which is spread over 200,000 square miles on the plateau of the Indian peninsula. The fossils were collected in 1832, on the Sichel hills, which extend from the junction of the "Wurdah and Godavery towards Aiu-imgabad.§ But perhaps the most eminent of the Indian geological observers of those days was Captain Newbold, the Assistant Resident at Km-nool, an officer who had entered the army in 1827. He made several careful sections across the peninsula, and reported upon the whole region south of a line drawn from Ganjam to Bombay. No formation has attracted more attention than the laterite, a rock peculiar to India, which was first noticed and named by Dr. Buchanan, in his work on Malabar. Captain Newbold described it very fully as a reddish brown tubular and cellular clay, more or less indurated, and often impregnated with iron. The air-exposed surface of laterite is hard and glazed, but a few inches below the surface it becomes softer, and is cut out in blocks with a spade, hardening after expo- sure to the atmosphere. It is used largely for building and for repairing roads, and, among other edifices, the arcaded Inqviisition at Goa is built of laterite. The laterite formation covers the western coast almost continuously from Bombay to Cape Comorin, and generally from the sea to the foot of the ghauts. It is also foimd in detached beds in many other parts of India. It is of late origin. * " Physical Geography of Western Tibet," in the " R. G. S. Journal," vol. xxiii. p. 1. Henry Strachey is a Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society. •j- "Western Himalaya and Tibet. A journey during the years 1847-48," by Thomas Thomson, M.D. (1852.) J " Colonel Sykes on the Geology of a portion of the Dukhun." (4to, London, 1836.) Re-printed from the " Transactions of the Geological Society," vol. iv. (Second Series.) § " Transactions of the Geological Society," v. p. 537. Dr. Malcolmson, who was Secretary to the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society, died at Dhoolia in the Taptec valley, while engaged in the pursuit of his favourite science, in February 1844. See a notice of him in the "Bombay Times" of April 30th, 1844. CAPTAIX NEWBOLD. 151 Some wi'iters derive it from the weathering of trap rocks, but the lateritc beds are sometimes conglomeritic, cover indiscriminately all kinds of formations, and rest imdistiu'bed alike on the traps and on the cretaceous limestones of Pondicherry, -while they are never invaded by trap dykes.* General Cullen, an officer of high scientific attainments, who was for many years resident in Ti'avancore, foitud beds of lignite in the lateritc near Quilon. The regur or black cotton soil was also carefully studied by Cap- tain Newbold ;t and he formed a theory respecting the origin of those nodules of lime so well knoAvn in India by the name of kimkm*, which are met vnth. as irregular overlying beds, or filling up chinks and fissures of rocks of cveiy age. He referred their origin to the action of springs charged with carbonic acid, bringing up lime in solution, and either depositing it as the temperature lowered, or parting with the carbonic acid. J In 1840 Captain Xewbold A'isited the fossihferous limestones of South Arcot and Trichinopoly, Avhich Avcrc afterwards cai-efuUy ex- amined by Mr. C. Tiu'ton Kaye and Mr. Brooke Cunliffe of the Madras Civil Serv'ice. These gentlemen collected 178 fossUs from the cretaceous formation near Pondicherry, described by Sir Philip Egerton and Professor Edward Porbes.§ Captain John Warren, the assistant of Colonel Lambton, had ex- amined the petrified drift wood at lYeevikera near Pondichcny in 1808,11 which. Captain Newbold tells us, closely resembles the petri- fied Avood in the desert near Cau*o. In the Western Presidency, Captain Grant examined the important * See also a paper on lateritc by Dr. Cole, in the '• Madras Journal of Literature and Science,'" iii. p. 100 ; and another by Dr. Clark, viii. p. 334. t Paper read before the Royal Society, March 22nd, 1838. I Captain Newbold's papers will be found in the " Transactions of the Geological Society," in the " Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. vii., and in " Notes, chiefly Geological," in four parts, in the " Journal of tiie Asiatic Society of Bengal." Tlie papers in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society " are on the Mineral Resources of India, in eight numbers. They contain accounts of the gold tracts, and of the mines of lead, manganese, rubies, garnets, diamonds, &c. See also the " Calcutta Review," ix. p. 314. He also wrote papers on the geology of Egypt, and on the i)etrified forest near Cairo. (" Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," iv. pp. 324—49.) Captain Newbold was an accomplished antiquary and Persian scholar, as well as a geologist. He died at Mahabulashwiu- on June 2nd, 1850. § "Madras Journal of Literature and Science," No. 28, xii. p. 37. " Transactions of tlie Geological Society," vii. p. 97. Mr. Kayo died in October i84o. li " Asiatic Researches," xi. p. i. 152 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. plant bearing formation in Cutch.* Dr. Cln*istio gave an account of the geology in the Southern Maliratta country in ]83C),t and Lieutenant Aytoun reported upon the geology of parts of Bclgaum.| Colonel Meadows Taylor has described the geology of tlie district of Shorapore in the Deccan, where the several formations of that region unite with those of the Carnatic, accompanied by evidence of much local disturbance. Ilis observations connect the work of Captiiin Ncwbold at Kui-nool witli that of Dr. Christie and Lieut. Ayiouu in the Southern Mahratta country. § Dr. Tleming descril)cd the nunimvditic limestone in the Suliman range, above the DcM-ajat.]] In Sinde, Sir Bartle Frere has written upon the geology,^ and also contributed a most admirable paper on the Desert and the llimn of Cutch. The same region was described by Alexander Burnes and Mac Murdo ; and Sir Charles Lyell has given an interesting account of the Allah Bund, and of the effects of the earthquake of 1819, in his "Principles of Geology." Dr. Boliert Thompson,** Dr. Buist,f f and Dr. H. J, Carter, J J have written upon the geology of thclsland of Bombay. The nummulitic limestone formation in Avestern India has attracted much attention, and has been carefully studied. In ISH Dr. Malcolinson, just before his deatli, discovered a nummulitic bed in the Bajpeepla hills, crossing tlie Nerbudda valley ; and ]\Iajor FuUjames, in 1852, reported upon the same formation. More recently, in 1861, Mr. Alexander Ilogcrs, the Collector of Surat, "who is an accomplished and enthusiastic geologist, discoA'cred num- mulitic limestone at Tm"keysur, between Surat and Broach. Tims the existence of the nummulitic formation in the Bajpeepla hills, which form the westernmost termination of the Satpoora range, was fully estabUshed.§§ * " Transactions of the Geological Society (2nd Series)," v. p. 289. f " Madras Journal of Literature and Science," iv. p. 452. J^" Journal of the Bombay Geogra[)liical Society," xi. p. 20. § See the " Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland." II "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," ix. p. 346. f Ibid., ix. p. 349. ** In 1836. "Madras Journal of Literature and Science," v. p. 129. ■ff "Journal of the Bombay Geographical Society," x. p. 167. JJ "Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society," iv. p. 161. Dr. Carter made a final geological examination of Carinja, Elephanta, Trombay, Salsette, and the other islands round Bombay. See "Journal of the Bombay Branch," Nov. I860. §§ A work on the nummulitic fossils of India was published in France in 1853. " Description des animanx fossiles de groupc nummulitique de I'lnde, piecedco d'un " resume geologiquc et d'unc monographic des nummulitcs, par le Vicomtc de Archiac "ct Jules Haine." 4to. 32 plate.-;. Paris, 1853. DR. CARTER AND MR. GREENOUGH. 153 Dr. Carter, then in the Indian Navy, was the most distinguished of the pioneers of Indian geology. While ser^dng with Captain Sanders in the jPalinitriis, he examined the rocks of the Arabian coast,* and ho aftcrAvards reported upon the geology of the Islands of Bombay and Salsette. But his most valuable work consisted in the collection and classification of all the geological labours of his predecessors, to which is added a reprint of his Summary of the Geology of India between the Ganges, Indus, and Cape Comorin. This work was undertaken at the instance of Lord Elphinstone.f The plan is first to introduce the reader to the geology of the great trappean region of Western India, and then to carry him round its outskirts, in order that he may become acquainted with the geological formations of India generallv. His attention is then dnected to the crcolocrv of Cutch, afterwards to that of Sinde, and lastly to that of the Arabian coast. For this purpose almost all the geological papers on India that had then been Avritten were re-printed in extenso. In 1853 Mr. Greeuough caivfuUy compiled his geological map of India, showing the state of our knowledge at that date; J copies of which were transmitted to the Local Governments, and elicited several reports from officers interested in the subject. § Such were the principal labom's in the field of Indian geologists previous to the establishment of the official survey. They were results obtained by independent uiquirers ; and, such as were re- corded when geology was in its infancy, are now to some extent out of date. There was of course a great want of concentration in • See note at page 22. t "Geological Papers on Western India, indiuling Cutcli, Siiid, and the South-cast " Coast of Arabia, to which is appended a Summary of the Geology of India generally ; " edited for the Government l>y Ilcury J. Carter, Assistant Surgeon." (Bombay 1857.") See a Ecview of this valuable work in the " Bombay Quarterly Kcview^ vol. vii. p. 316. ,^ \ " General Sketch of the Physical and Geological Features of British India* by " G. B. Grcenough, Esq., engraved by A. Peterniann." The map is 7 feet long by 5J. It is described by Sir Koderick Murchison in one of his anniversary addresses as President of the Geographical Society. '" K. G. S. Journal," xxiii. p. cviii. *■ § " Correspondence on tho subject of the Geological Map of India, compiled by Professor Grcenough." (Madr.is 1857.) This pamphlet contains remarks by General Cullen on the laterite of Tiavancore ; by Major Dallas and Dr. Cole on tlic geological features of tho Ceded Districts ; and memoranda by Dr. Ranking, Dr. Balfour, Dr. Hunter, and Rev. C. F. Muzzy. Mr. INIuzzy wrote a paper on the geological features of Madras, Triehinopoly, and Tanjore, in the " Madras Journal of Literature and Science," i. N.S., p. 90. 154) THE GKOLOGICAL SURVEY. these laboiu's, and the value of many obsei'vations was lost OAving to the absence of an intelligible nomenclature. Much has requu-ed revision, but at the same time the lal)ours of those Indian geologists who were lii'st in -the licild are valuable and important. Dr. McClelland, who held the office of Geological Surveyor for two years after the death of Mr. Williams,* wrote a Ecport on the Geological Survcv of India for the Session 1818-49, and described the coal slrata of the Rajmehal hills.f lie also mapped the Kur- habaree field. The work of Dr. Oldham, the present Superintendent of the Geo- logical Sm'vey of India, extends over a period of upAvards of 20 years. Before commencing his service in India he had been on the Irish Sui-vey, and Professor of Geology at Trinity College, Dublin. He arrived in India in March 1851, and found that the establishment of the Geological Siu-vey then consisted of one peon and one writer, Avith no Em'opeau assistant, and no preparation of any field Avork. The few existing records were kept in a box in a small room in the Sm'vevor- General's office. Dr. Oldham obtained sanction for the employment of Mr. J. G. Medlicott, who had served A\ith him for several years on the Sun^ey of Ireland, as assistant ; and in 1852 Ml-. St. George Avas added. The only idea tlie Government then had of the duties of a geological surveyor Avas that he shoidd go about from place to place, and report upon real or fancied discoveries of minerals. The difficulty of the position was increased by the small confidence that could be placed in much that bad previously been done. The beds represented by the former Coal Committee to be the very lowest of the carboniferous period are in reality eocene or miocene resting upon niunmulitic limestone ; and the coal mea- sm-es of the Eajmehal hills, Avhich had been stated to be newer than or to rest upon the trap floAvs of that district, are in reality exactly tbc opposite. Dr. Oldham worked steadily on, in the face of many (Ufficidtics at the outset, to obtain a definite geological horizon from Avhich to work up or doAvn, and so obtain a true basis for futm-e operations. This was, hoAvever, impracticable while he Avas expected * See page 147. t Dr. McClelland was secretary to a committee for the iuvcstigation ol the coal resources of India. See the Report printed at Calcutta in 1841. There is also a work on the Geology of the Province of Kumaon, liy John McClelland. (Svo. Cal- cutta, 1835.) DR. 0LDUA3I. 155 to go fii'st to the eastern boundary of Bengal, then to the southern extreme ol' Tenasserim, and next towards Bombay. Lord Canning really took an enlightened interest in geology, and on his arrival Ur. Oldham was able for the first time to commence a regular survey of the country. Lord Canning ordered that, imless under very special circumstances, the geological surveyors were to confine thcnr labours to those parts of the countiy which had already been mapped, and steadily to proceed, as far as the maps existed, over the country from east to west. Before Lord Canning's arrival Dr. Oldham had, in 1851, proceeded to Cherra-Poonjee, with a view to examining the u'on ores in the Khasia hills. He made a collec- tion of fossils, chiefly from the nummulutic limestone of the Khasia hills, establishing the occurrence of rocks of the upper cretaceous age in Eastern Bengal.* In 1852-53 he examined the geological features of the Bajmahal hills ;f and Mr. Theobald, one of his as- sistants, made a detailed report upon the Punjab Salt Bange in 1853. J In 1855 Dr. Oldham accompanied Sir Arthur Phayre's mission to Ava, and wrote a memoh' on the geological features of the banks of the Irrawaddy, and of the coim try north of Amarapoora.§ In 1856 Lord Camiing placed the Geological Sm-vey upon a proper footing. Dr. Oldham's staff was increased, the labours of the Sur- vey were systematized, and the reports were ordered to be published in a uniform series. The operations have . been du-ected to those districts Avhere the Revenue and Topographical Surveyors have com- pleted then- maps, and AA-hcre the most valuable practical or scientific results were to be obtained. But the geologists have been constantly hindered m then- work by the want of maps, and indeed this has been one of their chief difficulties. The supcrmtendent and his staff liave also been frequently detached fi-om then* regular work to report * " On the Geological Structure of part of the Khasi hills, with observations on the " meteorology and ethnology of that district, by Thomas Oldham, A.M.," &c. (4to, Calcutta, 1854, with geological maps). See also the " Quarterly Journal of the Geo- logical Society," xix. p. 524. " Geological Memoirs," i. p. 94. Colonel Ilannay and Captain Dalton reported upon the economic geology of Upper Assam at about the same time. " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vii. p. 625, xxii. p. 511, xxv. p. 230. See also their report on auriferous deposits in Assam " Memoirc," i. p. 90. Dr. Hooker described the structure of the Khasia hills, much as Dr. Oldham did after- wards. This district is the Cossyah hills of other authors. f " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," xxiii. p. 268., and xxv. p. 249. jlbid. Nos. 3, 4, 5, of 1853. In 1848 Dr. A. Fleming, of the 7th N. I., had also written a paper on the Salt Hange. Ibid., xvii. pt. 2, p. 500. § " Yule's Mission to Ava," Api). A., p. 309. 156 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. upon some special point for the Government, Avliieh (though useful service is sometimes performed in the interval) has delayed the prop;ress of the Survey. The hest way to convey a tolerahly clear idea of the geological work that has heen done will perhaps he to take the history of the progress of the surv'ey in each district, instead of revicAving the whole of the operations year hy year ; and, with this ohject, it will he as well to hegin with the coal yielding region. In 1856-7 Cuttack was examined hy three of the staff, Messrs. W. T. and H. P. Blanford and Mr. J. G.' Medlicott, from the Chilka lake to Miduapoor, and Mr. lilanford reported upon the laterite of Orissa.* Tlie Blanfords discovered and named the important Talcheer group of rocks underlying the coal hcds. The separation of theTalcheer from the coal l)caring rocks is applicahle in all districts. During the two following years, Mr. W. T. Blanford was zealously investigating the Haneegunge coal field,f while Mr. Medlicott was engaged in tlie suiTcy of the Kurruckpoor hills and on the examination of the Kurhaliaree coal district. The existence of a large supply of coal west of the river Barakur was estahlished, and Dr. Oldham had himself explored the Cossyah hills in former ycars.J Mr. Blanford completed field maps of the Haneegunge, works which are as useful to the practical worker as the geologist, and he also l)rought togellu^r retiu'us of the coal raised from the several ojjen Avorks and pits. In 1859-GO there were 370,200 tons of coals raised. At the close of 18G1 Mr. Blanford was transferred to Burmah. The examination of the coal country Avas continu(>d in 18G3 hy Mr. Hughes and Mr. Willson, at Jherria§ and Kurhaharee. In tlie folloAving year Mr. Medlicott Avas on detached duty in Assam,|| and came to satisfactory conclusions respecting the value of coal in that district. In 18G5 Mr. Hughes coutinued his Avork in the coal region, * See " Memoirs," vol. i., " On the Coal and Iron of Talcheer in CuUack." " Structure and Kcliitions of the Tiilchir Coul Fields." " Geology of Jlidnapore and Orissa." " Laterite of Orissa." These labours are reviewed in the " (Quarterly Journal of tiio Geoloo-ical Society," xiii., p. cviii. The coal and iron of Talcheer had previously been written upon hy Captain Kittoe. "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," viii. p. 137. + " Memoirs," vol. iii., " On the Raniganj coal field." t "Memoirs," vol. i., " Geology of the Khasi hills." S "Memoirs," vol. v., " On the Jherria coal field," by T. Hughes. II "Memoirs," vol. iv., "On the coal of Assam," liy 11. 1). .Alcdlicolt. IXDIAN COAL FIELDS. 15? oxplorini? the ITazarccbagli and Bokaro * fields ; and m 1806 ]\Ir. Blanford made; his first examination of the Chanda coal field, and indicated the localities where borings should he made. The Palamow coal fields could not he proceeded with for want of maps. In 18C8 Mr. Medlicott traversed a wide tract of country to investi- gate the extent and relations of the several series of sandstones associated with coal in Bengal, as compared with those in Central India ; and proceeded, in the following year, to the Nerhudda valley, to work out th(; coal hearing rocks in that area, which had been first visited 12 years before, when there were no maps.f In 1809 two geologists were sent to revise the maps of Bhagulpoor and Beerbhoom, the earliest coal region examined by the Survey. These Indian coal fields are situated in the drainage basms of the rivers Dammoodah, Sonc, Mahanuddy, Godaveiy, and Nerbudda. The oldest and best known, namely, the Baneegunge, Jhen-ia, Bokaro, llamghur, and Karampoora fields are in the Dammoodah drainage basin. J The Itkurce and Kurhabarec fields are in Chota Nagpoor province, on the Barakm*, the chief effluent of the Dammoodah, from which river it is separated, in the upper part of its course, by the lofty Parasnath hill and the wide plateau of Hazarec- bagh. The whole of these may be considered to have been deposited in one great estuary. In the Sone valley are the Palamow, Sin- growlee, and South Bewah coal fields, the Talchecr and Belaspoor fields are in that of the Mahanuddy, and the Chanda in the Godavery. The conclusions derived from the Siu?vey are, that the rocks associated with coal are separated into several distinct groups. The lowest is the Talchecr group, first established by the brothers Blanford, and not containing coal. The Dammoodah series contains most of the coal beds of Bengal and Central India. It was separated from the overlying rocks by Dr. Oldham. There arc also the Bajmahal group, and the tertiary series of the Cossyah hills. The data for this classification of the coal bearing rocks consist of the remains of plants. • " Memoirs," vol. vi., pt. 2, " On the Bokaro coal field." G. T. W. Hughes. t " On the Jlolipani coal field in the Nerbudda valley," by H. B. Medlicott. " Re- cords," iii. pt. 3, (ISTO.) 'I An atlhient of the Hoogly, rising in the province of Chota Kagpoor, and flowing through the Bancoorali, Burdwan, and lloogly districts of the Lower Provinces of Beniial. 158 THE GEOLOGICAL STTKVEY. Ill tilt" oastern coal lickls there arc five well mavkctl sub- divisions : — 1. The Talelicor l)o(ls, the lowest, in wliicli no coal is known ; so called by the Blanfords, from tlie district in Cuttack wliei'c they Avcrc first examined. 2. The Barakm* beds, formerly called Lower Dammoodah. 3. Ironstone shales. 4. llancegunge beds. 5. Panchct beds, or upper series. First separated as a distinct sub-division, and so named by Mr. Blanford. They are of the triassic epoch, and contain bones of labyrinthodont and dicynodout amphibia. Panchet is the name of a remark- able hill, and the title of a Eajah. To the westward these become three : — 1. Talcheer. 2. Barakiu'. 3. Panchet. Dr. Oldham's general conclusions, respecting these coal series, are that the drainage basins of India Avere marked out and existed at the enormously distant period when the deposition of the great plant bearing formations commenced. All the successive beds represent an enormous lapse of time, and seem to be fresh Avater or estuarine deposits. He also concludes that the present limits of the coal measm-es coincide vnt\i the original limits of deposition, and are not the results of faulting or even mainly of denudation.* The Dammoodali system is believed to represent the Permian period of European geology, together with a portion of the upper carboni- ferous epoch. Dr. Oldham has, from time to time, prepared returns of the amount of coal raised. In June 1859 he fm-nished one of the Raneegunge fields; in 1861 rctiu'ns were given in Mr. Blanford's Ileport;t and in June 1861 the fii'st general statement of the out- torn- of Indian coal was given by Dr. Oldham. In March 1867 he prepared a Report on the coal resovirces of India, for the Secretary of State, with results from 1861 to 1866 ; and in June 1869 he sent in a * See Dr. Oldham's papers " On the geological relations and probable geological age of the several systems of rocks in Central India and Bengal," (Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 299), and " Additional Remarks " in (Memoirs, vol. iii., p. 198). ■j- Memoirs, iii. p. 179. 1868, coal used on railways connected with Calcutta, 66,20,837 luaunds. THK VIXDHYAN FORMATTOX. 159 Return for 1868, with statistics of the methods of working the coal, and statements tabulated for each year from 1858 to 1868. The next investigation is that respecting the alluvial deposits of the Ganges valley, which was commenced in the first year of the Survey. In 1859 the portion from the Bhagruttee northwards to the foot of the hills was examined and mapped. In 1860, Mr. Theobald was fixing the boundaries and extent of recent alluvial deposits from Burdwan to Mongliyr. In 1861 the investigation Avas continued over the plains south of the Ganges to Patna and Shahabad ; and in 1862 the examination was completed. The geological survey of the important formations in Central India was also a great object.* In 1855, Mr. J. G. Medlicott passed from Jubbulporc westward down the Nerbudda valley ; while his brother crossed the Rcwali country and the river Sone to the Singrowlee coal field. Both considered that the sandstone rocks of Rewah and Bundelcund should be entirely separated from the sand- stones associated with coals in Bengal and in the Xerbudda vallcv. Dr. Oldham visited the same country in 1856, and gave the name of ViNDHYAN to the entire group, because it is best seen in the scai-ped mountains of that name on the northern side of the Nerbudda valley, t It includes the diamond yielding rocks of Central India, and is one of the most remarkable and interesting series in the country. Ilitherto (1870), no fossils have been found in it. Its age cannot therefore be determined ; but the Vindhyan rocks are older than the carboniferous series of India. In 1863, Mr. Mallet was engaged in tracing out the divisions and boundaries of this forma- tion in Rewah, while ]\Ir. Ilackett worked ovit the limits of the trappean rocks in Saugor, and jNIr. II. B. Medlicott was closing up the gaps in the geological mapping between Central India and the Sone vaUey. In 1861', Mr. Mallet revised the bovmdarios of the Vindhyan rocks north of the Nerbudda valley, covering 2,200 square * Mr. J. G. Medlicott compiled the " Cotton Hand Book" for Bengal in 1862, for tlio Government. I " Memoirs," vol, ii., p. 1, '' On the Vindhyan rocks and their associates in Bundol- khund." " Geological structure of the central portion of the Nerbudda district," p. 95. " Tertiary and alluvial deposit'? of the Nerbudda valley." p. 279. " The Vindhyan scries," vol. vii., pt. 1. Dr. Oldham proposed the name ViNunrAN in a paper in tho Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," xxv. p. 249. See also his paper on the Geological relations of the rock systems of Central India and Bengal." — " Memoirs," ii. p. 299. There is a useful list of all papers relating to the Nerbudda valley, pub- lished previously to the date of vol. ii. of the " Geological Jlcmoirs," at page 387. " Records," vol. ii., pt. 2, " Sketch of the mctamorphic rocks of Bengal." 100 THE GEOLOGICAL STTRTEY. miles of ground, while INIr. Hackett examined the Gwalior eountiy. During this year Dr. Oldham himself examined the rocks on the south bank of the Ganges, from Gya to near Bliaugulpoor. In 1HG7 Mr. Medlieott undertook the investigation of a wild and diflieult coimtry from llaneegunge and llazareehagli in the Dammoodah basin to the basin of the Mahanuddy. lie came again upon the old Vindhyan rocks, chiefly limestone, which cover 12,000 square miles, abutting against crystalline rocks to the north, and passing under the Deccan traps to the south and west. In 1SG9, Mr. AVillson was at w^ork in Jhansi, to connect with Mr. Hackett in Gwalior,* and Mr. Mallet was in the Sons valley. A complete and connected history of the Vindhyan formations has been chawu up by Mr. ]\Iallct : and still more recently Mr. Blan- ford has re-examined part of the Vindhyan series, but he could find no fossils to determine their age, which therefore still remains unsettled. Mr. H. F. Medlieott, then Professor of Geology in the Roorkee College, commenced the examination of the Sewahks, and upper and outer Himalaya, in 1859, during the intervals of time that his collegiate duties permitted of his taking the field. His stvidies w ere more directed to the orographical relations of these hills than to their fossils. In the folloA^dng years he continued his examination to near Kangra ; and the results of his labours are embodied in a valuable memou". These arc the hills in which Dr. Ealconer dis- covered numerous mammalian remains. They are of miocene and post miocene age. NummuUtic rocks occur north of the Sewaliks, and appear to form a large proportion of the ranges in the Punjab. Kepreseutatives of these tertiary rocks extend to the east, are foimd at the base of the hills in Sikkim, and stretch far up the Assam valley. Dr. Hooker also found the niuumulites in Tibet, noi*th of Sikkim, at 10,000 feet above the sea. One important consequence of Mr. Medlieott' s survey of this region was the discoveiy of a good water supply at UmbaUa. He reported that water bearing beds must exist there, and the trial confii-med his expectations.f Mr. Medlieott also reported upon the reh efiioreseenee which has given rise to so much anxiety, and on the waters of the rivers and canals in the N. W. Provinces. J * " Records," vol. iii., pt. 2, " Geology of Gwalior and vicinity." ■)■ " Memoirs," vol. iii., " On the southern portions of the Himalayan ranges." X " Journal of the Asiatic Society," xx., p. 326. OPERATIONS ON THE HIMALAYAS AND IN MADRAS. IGl In 1862, Messrs. Theobald and Mallet were sent in the footsteps of Colonel Richard Strachey, to collect fossils, and trace out the succossion of sedimentary beds on the northern slopes of the westeni Himalaya and in the Chini and Spiti valleys, up to an elevation of 18,000 feet. They were found to be identical ^vith known species from Em-ope occurring in the same association. Ti-iassic and oolitic beds are especially abundant about Spiti. In 1864 Mr. Mallet, in company with Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka, who was formerly in the Austrian Geological Suney, and a colleague of Dr. Hochstetter, were despatched to the Himalaya to work out their structure, and revise the fossil fauna. Undoubted representatives were proved to occur of the European Silurian, carboniferous, triassic, lias, Jurassic, and cretaceous periods, and, out of 200 varieties collected, only 32 are new.* In 1805, Dr. Stoliczka extended his investigations in the Hi- malaya as far as Leh, but in 1867, he went home with IMr. Oldham. The great mass of the Himalayan ranges consists of metamorphic rocks, in places highly granitoid, in others slatey or schistose. The operations of the Survey were extended to the Mackas Presi- dency in 1857. The party was in charge of Mr. H. F. Blanford, and consisted of Mr. C. Oldham, Mr. King, and !Mr. Geoghegan. The latter gentleman died suddenly of sun stroke early in 1858, and was succeeded by Mr. R. Bnice Foote. They were instructed first to examine the important group of cretaceous rocks in South Arcot and Trichinopoly, the fossils of which had been collected in former years by Kaye and CimliflFe, and thence to work northward. In the fii-st year Mr. Blanford reported upon the geology of the Neilghcrry hills. f The siuwoy of the highly interesting cretaceous formations was completed in 1861;}:, and in the same yeai' King * " Memoirs," vol. v., " Sections across N.W. Himalaya from Sutlej to Indus." " On the gypsum of Spiti." " Summary of Geological Observations in S. Ladak, Western Tibet, &c.," by F. Stoliczka. t " Memoirs," vol. i., p. 211, "The Nilghiri Hills." Dr. Benza wrote papers on the geology of the Neilgherries and Koondahs, on that of the country between the Neilgherries and Madras, and on the geology of the Northern Circars, in the "Madras Journal of Literature and Science," in 1835-36, vols. iii. and v. J " Memoirs," vol. iv., " On the Cretaceous Rocks of the South Arcot and Trichi- nopoly districts, by H. F. Blanford. " On the Structure of the Districts of Trichi- nopoly and Salem." " On the Occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the vicinity of Trichinopoly," by W. King. — Madras Journal, iv. N.S., p. 271. (6409.) L 1G2 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, and Foote examined the iron deposits of Salem. Mr. H. F. Blanford then retired from the Survey.* The other members of the party, in 1862, commenced an exami- nation of the hill ranefc Avhich separates Cuddapah and Kurnool from Nellore, a very difficidt and almost roadless country. In 1&G3 Mr. King traced the boundaries of these Cuddapah rocks, chiefly quartzites and slates, into Bellary and Kurnool. Mr. Foote Avas engaged dming the same year m examining rocks near Madras. f He met with beds of marine fossils intercalated with others holding abmidance of vegetable remains of the same sjiecies as have been found in the Rajmahal hills and in Cutcli. This discovery of the Avide extension of the llajmahal series is a fact of high interest. The Cuddapah formations appear to represent an older portion of the great Vindhyan series. The diamond beds of Southern Incha occm* in these formations, and they show veiy favorable traces of lead, coj)per, and u-on. The main object of the geologists was to work out the true succession and extent of these remarkable and mteresting series of quartzitc, slate, schist, and limestone beds in Cuddapah, Nellore, and Km-nool. In 186G Mr. Foote was working along theu- eastern and Mr. C. Oldham up theii- western boimdaries, Wilde Mr. King was in the centre. They completed the area in Cuddapuh and Km-nool dm'ing 1868, when the superintendent took an opportunity of testing the accm'acy of their mapping, and in 1809 Mr. Foote began to work across the Kaichoor Dooab towards the Bombay Presidency. Mr. King has di-awn up a general report on the entire series. | During the hot weather in each year, the gentlemen of the Madi'as Survey were usefidly employed in ar- ranging and catalognmg the fossils and minerals of the Madras Central Museum, for Captain Mitchell, the cm-ator ; and Mr. C. Old- ham, followed by Messrs. King and Foote, have delivered a series of leetm'es on geology at the Madras Engineering College. Mr. Old- ham went home on leave in 18G8, and died from the eiTccts of disease contracted in India in April 18G9. An able and talented * He wrote papers ou the occurrence of crystalline limestone in Coimbatore, and on the geological age of the sandstones at Trivicary, near Pondicherry, in the "Madras Journal of Literature and Science," iii. N.S., p. 60, and iv. N.S., p. 47. t " Kecords," vol. ill., pt. 1, " Notes of the Geology of the Neighbourhood of Madras." J '• Records," vol. ii., pt. 1, "On the Kuddapah and Kurnool formations." OPERATIONS IN BTJRMAH. 163 geologist, and a painstaking conscientious public servant, was thus lost to his country. Tlie Geological Siu'vey of British Burmah was commenced in 1860, under ^fr. W. T. Blanford, with the llenzada district in Pegu, where there arc petroleum wells and salt springs. This district was selected because it was the only one of wliich there were rehable maps, and the future direction of geological researches had to depend on the publication of the results of the Topographical Survey. Mr. Blan- ford was transferred to Bombay in the follo^nng year, and INIr. Theo- bald took charge in Biu-mah ; indeed he was single handed. He was at Avork in the Yoma range and on the west coast, but was much hampered in his operation by the want of trustworthy maps. The great Yoma range is composed of sKghtly altered sandstones and shales of unknown age, but expected to be in part at least cretaceous. Upon them, in Pegu, rest nummuHtic rocks. Some peculiar ser- pentines are associated with the Yoma rocks. In 1864 Mr. Theo- bald took advantage of the publication of a sheet of the survey by Captain Fitzroy to comjilete the geological examination of the country contained in it, including Eangoon ; and in the two fol- lomng years he and Mr. Peddon Avcre at work in the groimd covered by the second sheet, east of the Ii-rawaddy and north of Prome. In 1864-65 Mr. Pedden accompanied an expedition through the Shan provinces of the kingdom of Bm'mah to the Sal\\'een river, and constructed a map of the route. In 1807 Mr. Theobald went home, after a continuous service of 18 years. But in 1868 he was again at Avork in the Prome district of Pegu, the east part of which he completed ; taking up the western banks of the Irrawaddy, where there is a formation of nummulitic rocks, in 18G9.* Mr. Blanford took charge of the party in the Bombay Presidency, with Mr. Wilkinson and Mr. Wynne as his assistants, in 1863. He commenced at Sm-at, and on the shores of the gulf of Cambay, with the view of connecting his work with that of Mr. Medlicott in the Nerbudda valley, and thus completing a band of geological * " Records," vol. ii. pt. 4, " On the Beds containing Silicified Wood in Eastern Prome." „ vol. iii, pt. 1, "On the Alluvial Deposits of the Irrawaddi." „ vol. iii., pt. 3, " Note on Petroleum in Burmaii." L 2 IGi THE GEOLOGICAL STIRTEY. survey across India from sea to sea, on that parallel. In ilio follow- ing season the line from sea to sea, containiny William Sowerliy, C.E. — Bomhai/ G. S. Jonrnul, xviii., p. 9(5. •]" " Note on the Petroleum Locality near Rewal-PinJec, byA.U. Wynne.'" — "Records," vol. ill., pt. 3, p. 73. " Geology of Mount Tilla," by A. B. Wynne. Ibid., pt. 4, p. 83. 166 THE GEOLOGICAL SIimT:Y. of sinking Ai'tesian wells in particular localities, on the structiu-c of rock to be cut through for engineering puiiioses, on the selection of lines of railroad A\dth reference to the position of coal fields, and on proper sites for barracks. Ho must have travelled over many thousand of miles, sometimes to confmn the importance of us(>ful discoveries, at others to expose mares' nests. A brief sketch of the extent and objects of these jom'neys wUl convey some idea of Dr. Oldham's labom-s. In 18G0, Mr. Oldham went to Kumaon to report upon the iron works, which he considered to be essentially a practical and not a geological question. In 18G2 he went to England to seek for assis- tants, and brought five out with liim. In 1863 he was engaged on the investigation of the modes of deposit of Hguite in the Salt llange, in the northern part of the Pimjab. The Salt Range contains an extensive series of carboniferous, triassic, oolitic, and tertiary rocks. In 1867 he was again in England for a few months. In 1868 he went to ex- amine some alleged coal bearing rocks near the Kistnah, but found that nothing of the kind existed in that region. Later in the year he went to Attock, to examine the rocks on the Indus tlu-ough which the timnel drift is carried. He saw nothing to prevent its being enlarged into a regular road way, so far as the nature of the rock is concerned. Afterwards he examined the Goorgaon and Dhiu-msala districts in the North- West Provmccs, with regard to the possibility of utilizing the kaolin clay ; and in 1869 he visited the scenes of the earthquake in Cachar and Sylhet. He has since prepared a list of earthquakes that have occuiTcd in India.* In this year he was also engaged in important work at the Clianda coal field. The credit of discovering the Chanda coal belongs to Major Lucie Smith, the Deputy Commissioner of the Central Provinces, in 1866. Mr. Blanford was there early iti 1867, and recommended borings, pointing out where they should be put down. He felt some doubt, at first, as to the ultimate value of the discovery, because the beds belong to the series known as Barakm",f which have a tendency to * Colonel Baird Smith had pi'eviously compiled a memoir on Indian Earthquakes, in three parts. — " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vols, xii., p. 257 and 1227, and xiii., p. 964. t See page 157. TIIK MUSEUM OF GEOLOGY. 167 exluljit very great variation both in thickness and quality within short distances. Mr. Mark Fryar, a mining engineer, had joined the Survey at ahout the same time, and was sent to Raneegunge to learn the methods of coal mining in India, and get some practical acquaintance with the nature of the foimations. In 1868 he was removed to Chanda, to explore the beds regularly, hy boring ; and two skilled borers, with the nocessaiy tools, were despatched from England. After some vmsuccessful trials, a point was selected by Dr. Oldham near Telwasa, about 10 miles north of the river Wurdah. Here 41 feet 7 inches of coal were found in a total depth of 138 feet. The investigation is still progressing, with very promising results.* A small museum of economic geology was established at Calcutta in 184)0, under the du-ection of Captain Piddington,t who was curator for some years before his death, and made many useful analyses. Hi s careful experiments to ascertain the quantity of silt in the Hooghly at different seasons were especially valuable. In 1856 the museum was placed in connexion with the Geological Survey, and under the super- intendence of Dr. Oldham. As early as 1859 it contained 1,100 speci- mens of fossils, minerals, rocks, and ores. The various members of the Survey of course contributed ; so that there are good series of creta- ceous fossils from Macb'as, of fossil plants from the Rajmahal hills, of tertiary fossils from the Spiti valley, of minerals obtained by Mr. Blanford on the Bhore Ghaut, of fossils from the Salt Range and the Jurassic beds of Cutch, and from other places. But the great boast of the museum is its collection of meteoric stones. It contains specimens from 217 falls, and in this branch its collection i-anks among the first in the world. A very complete geological library has also been gradually formed. The mviseum is of gi'eat practical use, as its officers are constantly applied to for information, and to supply assays and analyses for companies and private individuals, as well as for the Government In 1862, Mr. Tween, the curator, made 23 analyses of coals, seven of soils, 18 of iron ores, nine of limestones, and seven of water. • " Records," vol. ii., pt. 4, " Coal Field near Chand.a." „ vol. iii., pt. 2, "The Wanllia Kiver Coal Fields." t Piddingtou's Memorandum on the estal)lishnieut of the Geological Museum is printed iu Thuillier's Manual of Surveying. Appendix, p. xxxiii. 1G8 THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Tlie puhlications of the Geological Survey, under the direction of Dr. Oldham, consist of "Memoirs," "Records," and the " Palaeon- tologia Indica." The " Memoh-s," which have now reached to the seventh volume, are the detailed and matured results of the sm-vey of each district, \M-itten hy the geologist who has conducted it. Tlie volumes are fully illustrated with maps, sections, and sketches. The " Palceontologia Indica" is a superb scries, containing figures and descriptions of the organic remains procm-ed during the progress of the Survey. The volumes already issued contain the cephalopoda and gasteropoda of the cretaceous rocks of Southern India, the fossil flora of the llajmahal series, and the vertebrate fossils of tlie Panchct rocks. The Panchet fossils are described by Professor Huxley. They arc bones of fossil reptiles, hitherto only known in South Africa. The " Records " were commenced in 1868, and arc publislicd quar- terly in rather small type and on thin paper, for ready transmission by post. They contain the Superintendent's aimual reports, brief abstracts of the labours of members of the Sui-vey in the field during the quarter, and other papers of general interest.* There is a vast field still spread before the Geological Survey of India ; a great work yet to be achieved, though much certainly has already been done. They must be animated by a n oble devotion to the cause of science^these Indian geologists, for theirs is neither a safe nor an easy task. Out of the two dozen or so that have enter(Hl the Smvey smce it commenced, 34 per cent, have been stnick down by death or incapacitating disease. The rest work on zealously and bravely, reflecting honour on Enghsh administration by the results of their laboiu-s, extending the sum of human knowledge, and doing mvich practically useful work.f In spite all ditficultics of climate, inaccessibility of districts, and slowness of means of travel, they have examined an area about four times as large as Great Britain. * We have ten of Dr. Oldham's Annual Reports, 1858 to 1868 in separ.ate covers, and the two last, for 1868 and 1869, bound up in the " Records," vol. ii., pt. 2, and vol. iii., pt. 1. f There is a short notice of llic operations of the Geological Survey of India, by H. Woodward, Esq., in the " Quarterly Journal of Science," for Oct. 1870, No. xxviii., p. 458. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF INDIA. 169 A year or two more will enable Dr. Oldham to issue a general map of the geology of India, which \yi\\ hold the position which Greenough's map of England, or Griffiths' map of Ireland, do A^-ith reference to general knowledge ; and the map wih, of course, be added to and improved as the coimtry is opened out and examined. ( 170 ) XIIL— THE ARCHiEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. A surrey of tlio arclifeological remains throughout India, which arc as iiuportant as regards art, as th(>y arc indispcnsahlc to the study of history, has only of late years heen considered to be a work which conies within the province of the Government to undertake. This is the more to he regretted because the loss of time is iiTcparablc. All investigations connected with pliysieal science are almost inde- pendent of delay, and can be made as well in one year as in another, but archaiological remains arc liable to deterioration, and delay causes absolute loss. Paintings fade from walls, sculptured edifices are destroj-ed by the A^gorous growth of trees, and by ruthless modern builders in want of material, coins and mscriptions arc mislaid or effaced, and all the works of man suffer more or less under the hand of time. In connection Avith geograj)liy, the study of archaeology forms a most important branch ; for, through the iden- tification of ancient sites, the physical changes that have taken place in a country are determined. Yet it was not possible that a sui-vcy of this nature could have been entered upon with any useful rcsiilt before the English occupa- tion, or even until long after oui" poAver was established. Mere descriptions of ruins and other remains ai-e of little use unless tlic observer has mastered their liistory and true significance, and tliis was impossible until the study of the languages and literature of India Avas well advanced. Thus the earliest accounts of Indian archajological remains were only useful in exciting an interest in the subject, and in stimulating later enquirers to labour at those ' studies which alone could qualify them, and others of later genera- tions who benefited by their Avorks, for the task of investigating the mysteries of Indian chronology and art. Glowing descriptions of the architectural monuments of India are not wanting among the writings of early travellers. The Hindoo capital of Bijayanuggm* is described in the works of Varthema,* Nicolo di Conti, Abder Razzak, Nikitm,t Barbosa,i and * Hakluyt Society's Translation, p. 125. f The narratives of Conti, Abder Kazzak, and Nikitin will be fouud in the Hakluyt Society's volume, entitled " India in the 15th century.'' J Hakluy Society's volume, entitled " The Coasts of East Africa and Malabar," p. 85. THE ASIATIC SOCIETY. 171 Caesar Frederick ;* the beauties of Beejaporc were noticed by Taver- iiicr ;t and Finch, Thevenot, Bernicr, and others, who visited the court of the Mogul, did not fail to recount the wonders of Agra and Dellu. The cave temples of Western India also received attention from early travellers. Thevenot J and Anquctil du Perron explored the caves of Ellora; Linsclioten, Boon,§ Anquetil, and Salt described Salsettc; Salt was at Karli with Lord Valentia, and the famous cave of Elephauta was visited and described by jS'iebulu-, Fryer, Hamilton, Anquetil, Lord Valentia, and others. || The perusal of some of these authors had filled the mind of Sir William Jones with a keen interest in the literatm-e and antiqidtics of the East, and Ms arrival at Calcutta is the epoch from which any attempt at the systematic investigation of Indian antiquities dates. The Asiatic Society at Calcutta was instituted on the 22nd of January 1784, and a centre was thus formed to which individual inquii'crs might forward the results of their labom-s, and from which they might derive assistance and advice. In the absence of an exhaustive survey vmder the direction of the Government, such an institution as the Asiatic Society was invaluable. Warren Hastings was obliged to decline the post of President, which he was so admirably fitted to occupy, from want of leisiu'c to perform the duties, and Sir William Jones presided over the proceedings of the society from its first institution until his death. A branch of the Asiatic Society was formed at Bombay by Sii* James Mackintosh in 1804. The Madras Literary Society, iinder the auspices of Sir John Newbold, the Cliicf Justice, was established in 1818. The residts of the early labom's of English antiquaries in India are recorded in the twenty volumes of the Asiatic Besearehes from 1788 to 1836, in the three volumes of the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, 1819-21 ; and in the opening nimibers of the Jom*nal of the Madras Literary Society, which was commenced in 1827. • Viaggio di M. Cesai-c Fcdrici iiclT India Uiientalc (Vcuctia, 1587), p. 32. I lu Piiikcrton. j Travels, Part III., Chap. 45 (Eng. Trans.) § Governor of Bombay. II See the Archaiologia, vii., p. 323. Linschoteu mentioned the cave of Elephanta in 1579. Dr. Fryer describes the Sal.sette caves in his travels published in 1698; J. Oviugton, 1689 ; Hamilton in his Voyage, I., chap, xx., p. 33S ; Anquetil, Zend Avesta, I., pp. 234, 249, 419, 394. 172 THE ARClIJiOLOGiaVL SURVKY. The earliest laboiu-ers in the fi-uitful and important field of Indian archaeology were Sir Wilham Jones, Charles Wilkins,* Henry Colebrooke,t Francis Gladwin, J William Chambers, and Colin Mackenzie, § followed by Buchanan lIamilton|| and Horace "Wilson. ^[ These learned and accomplished scholars were zealously assisted and furnished with material for their researches by numerous younger cxplorei's who forwarded to them the results of their investigations in all parts of India. The description and delineation of architectural remains were of great unportance, liut the decipliering of inscriptions on pillars, metal plates, or coins was most essential to the student of Indian his- tory, for by that means alone could dates be obtained, without which history would have no coherence. The learning and sagacity and * Charles Wilkins went to Bengal, in the Civil Service, in 1770. After studying Sanscrit for several years, he translated the Bhagavat Gita, to which WaiTen Hastings prefixed a learned dissertation. The Court of Directors published this work in 1785. AVilkins prepared the first types for Bengalee and Persian that were ever used in India. He returned home in 178^5, and in 1795 he published his transla- tion of Sacontala. He became Librarian of the East India House in 1800, in 1808 he published his Sanscrit Grammar, and he took an active part in the promotion of the Oriental Translation Fund. He was knighted by William IV., and died in Baker Street on May 13tb, 1836, aged 86. f Henry T. Colebrooke, son of Sir George Colebrooke, Bart., the Chairman of the East India Company, was horn in Ix)ndon in 1765. He went out to India as a writer in 1782, and in 1794 undertook the translation of a digest of Hindu Law, compiled under the direction of Sir William Jones. In 1803 he was at work on a Sanscrit jrrammar, and published the first volume in 1805, but abandoned the rest, owing to the publication of the grammar by Wilkins. Colebrooke became a member of Council at Calcutta in 1805, returned home in 1815, and died in 1837. His works are the "Digest of Hindoo Law" (4 vols., folio, 1798), the first volume of a Sanscrit grammar (1805), lexicon (1808), Sanscrit algebra (1817), and numerous essays in the "Asiatic Researches," "Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society," &c. J Translator of the Ayeen Akberi. § See page 58. II Dr. Buchanan is well known for his explorations in iS'epaul, Mysore and Malabar, and Burmah, and for his survey of Bengal. % Horace H. Wilson went out to India as assistant surgeon in 1808, and was attached to the Calcutta mint. In 1813 he published Calidasa's " Cloud Messenger ;" and in 1819 the first edition of his Sanscrit dictionary appeared. In 1826 his "Hindu Theatre" was published. In 1812 he became Secretary to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta ; and, after his return to England, he was elected Professor of Sanscrit at Oxford in 1833, and Librarian to the East India Company on the death of Sir Charles Wilkins in 1836. The last years of his life were devoted to the translation of the Rig Veda. He died on May 23rd 1860, and his numerous works on Sanscrit literature and kindred subjects have been re-published since his death. DECTPnERING OF INSCKIPTIONS. 173 the indefatii^able industiy that have been broiii?ht to hear upon the cleciplieriiiy' of inscriptions in India have ncvor lu'cn sui-j)asspd, and have porhaps produced the most valuable results of archieological research in that country. The importance of this branch of the investigation was felt from the very first. Colonel Polier described the famous Boodhist pillar Avith its inscriptions, known as the Foroze Lat,* and a paper was contributed to the Asiatic Researches on the same subject by Colebrooke.f Blunt J and Ewer § described the Kuttub Minar pillar at Delhi, and Harington and Buchanan contri- buted papers describing the remains at Boodh Gya.|| Charles Wilkins ■vvi'oto six papers on' the meaning of various inscriptions that had been forwarded to huu,^ and Colebrooke wi'ote an essay on inscriptions generally, especially on those found on ancient monuments.** Se- veral were also translated by Captain Fell from Hissar and Benares, containing genealogies of Indian dynasties ft; and Lieutenant Price translated a Sanscrit inscription on a stone found in Bundelcund. + t Wilson contributed translations of three copper plates Ibimd in Chuttishgur§§ and of many Sanscrit inscriptions at Abu, which throw much light on the history of the Jain temples from 1189 to 1752. |||| In the last vohmie of the Researches there are translations of various inscriptions found in the niins of Bijayanuggur by Mr. Eavenshaw, with observations hj Wilson. They consist of genealogies of the kings and grants of land.^^ In the total absence of authentic materials for fixuig dates in Indian written histories, very great importance attaches to all genuine monuments and inscrij^tions on stone or metal. Tlie principal * Asiatic Researches, i., p. 379. t » vii., p. 175. j „ iv., p. 313. § rt xiv., p. 480. II „ i., p. 276. " Deseriptiou of tiic Ruins at Buddha Gaya," by Dr. Buchanan Hamilton. — Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, ii., p. 40. ^ On a copper plate found at Monghir, i., |). 123; on u stone pillar near Buddal, i., p. 131 ; on Boodh Gya, i., p. 284 ; on au inscription near Gya, ii., p. 167 ; on Islamabad, ii., p. 383 ; and another on Boodh Gya, i., p. 276. *• ix., p. 398. tt XV., p. 387. XX XV., p. 437. §§ XV., p. 499. nil xvi., p.284. nil XX., p. 1. 174 THE AKCn.EOLOGICAL STOVEY. discovery resulting from researches of tliis nature was made by Sir William Jones, and announced in his anniversary address delivered on the 28th of Febnxary 1793.* It had been a question where the city of Palibothra was situated, which was visited by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. Sir "William discovered in a Sanscrit book that Hirayabalm or " the golden armed," which the Greeks changed into Erannaboas,t was only another name for the river Sone. This discovery led to another of great moment, for King Chandragupta actually fixed the seat of his empire at Pataliputra at the mouth of the Sone (the Palibothra of Strabo) , and was no other than the very Sandracottus who concluded a treaty with Seleucus Nicator. Thus Sir William Jones fixed the first great landmark in the ancient history of India. He reserved his proofs for a future essay, but his interesting labom's were cut short by a prematm'e death. Detailed descriptions of ruins and other architectural remains were also contributed to the Asiatic Researches. William Chambers visited the fomous ruins on the Coromandel coast known as the Seven Pagodas or Mavalipm'am in 1772, and again in 1776, and described them; J and another more detailed account of the Mava- lipuram sciUptiu-es was furnished by Mr. Goldingham, the astronomer at Macb-as,§ who also vncotc an account of the cave of Elephanta. Sir C. Malet contributed a paper on the Ellora caves ia 1791, with tb-aAvings by Lieutenant Manby;|| and Colin Mackenzie described the pagoda of Pcnvuttnm in a wild tract near the south bank of the Ki'ishna,^ and MTote an account of the Jains.** A full description of the gi-and Mohammedan ruins at Beejapore was wi'itten by Captain Sydenham in 1811, who also made a careful survey. ft They had been previously described by Major Moor in 1791,JJ and when Sir James Mackintosh visited them in 1808 he called Beejapore the " Palmyra of the Dcccan." * Asiatic Researches, iv., p. 1 1. I Strabo, XV., c. i. and ii., 1, 9. J Asiatic Researches, i., p. 123. § „ iv., p. 69. II „ vi., p. 389. T „ iv., p. 303. •• „ vii., p. 175. tt „ xiii., p. 433. JJ Major Moor's " Narrative of the Operations of Captain Little's Detachment," p. 310. COLIX MACKENZIE. 175 The antiquaries on the Bombay side of India emulated the ex- ample of their brethren at Calcutta. Mr. Salt, Lord Valentia's se- cretary, wrote an account of the caves in Salsette in 1806, illus- trated by drawings and copies of sculptures.* Mr. Erskine drew up his exhaustive essay on the cave of Elephauta,t the whole con- ception and plan of which he tnily describes as extremely gi'and and mai^nificent. His accoiint, which is correct and minute without being tedious, and is by far the best description of the cave that has been published, is illustrated by plans and copies of sculpture. J It was written in November 1813.§ In 1819 and 1820 Colonel Sykes wrote accounts of the ruined city of Beejapore and of the Ellora caves.|| In Madras the leading antiquary of the earlier period was Colin Mackenzie, whose labom-s have already been noticed.^ Ilis vast collections of s((ss(mH7)is or inscriptions on stone and copper, of manu- scripts and coins, have alone enabled the early history of Southern India and its dynasties to be understood and written.** To Mac- kenzie's researches Ave owe WUson's history of the great Pandyau dynasty of Madm-a,ft and Dowson's paper on the Chcra djTiasty.Jt * Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, i., p. 41. The Rev. J. Steven- son afterwards wrote a paper on the rock inscriptions of the island of Salsette. — Journal of Bombay Branch of Asiatic Societi/, iv., p. 132. I Transactions of tlie Literary Society of Bombay, i., p. 198. \ See also " An Account of the Cave of Elcplianta," by Mr. Goldingham. — Asiatic Researches, iv., p. 407. " On the Three-faced Siva at I-31cphauta," by Colonel Sykes. — Journal of tlie Uoyal Asiatic Societi/, v., p. 81. " The Theory of the Great Elephanta Cave," by Dr. Stevenson. — Journal of Bomhiii/ Branch of Asiatic Society, iv., p. 261. § William Erskine came out to India with Sir James Mackintosh in 1804, and was for many years a magistrate at Bombay. He returned to England in 1823. When the Literary Society of Bombay was instituted in 1804 he became its Secretary. Besides his paper on the Cave of P^lephanta, he wrote an ess.ay on the sacred books of the Parsces in 1819 ; and bis valuable translation of the Memoirs of Baber was published in 1823. II Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, iii., pp. 55, 265. IT See p. 58. •* " Mackenzie Collection of Oriental Manuscripts," by PL H. Wilson. 2 vols. (Calcutta, 1828). " 1st Report on the Mackenzie MSS., by Rev. A\m. Taylor. (Madras Journal ol Literature and Science, vol. vii., p. 1.) 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th Reports in vols. viii. and ix. ft Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, iii., p. 199. XX .. J. viii., p. 1. 17G THE ARCII.EOLOOTCAL SURVEY. A correct estimate of tlie beauty and magnificence of Indian architectural art and of the interest A\liieli attaches to it, Avas fur- nished to our fathers hy Thomas Uaniell, an artist who passed tlie greater part of the last decade of the last century in traversing all parts of India, and executing -waler-colnur draAvings of the highest merit, of all the principal monuments and edifices. His labours were given to the Avorld in six large folio volumes, containing 120 coloured views engraved by himself and his nephew between 1797 and 1809. Here will be found most acc\u*ate drawings of the tem- ples and palaces at Madura and Tanjore and of the ruins at Mava- lipuram, to represent the architecture of Southern India ; the Taj Mahal, Akbar's tomb, and mosques at Juanpore and Delhi, as spe- cimens of Mohammedan art ; and the rock-hewn temples at Salsette and Elephanta. This work also contains an elaborate series of views of the caves at EUora, drawn by jNIr. Wales, but engraved by the Daniells ; as well as numerous general views. They are draAm with such care and accuracy that they bear the test of comparison with recent photographs. Such were the advances that were made in the investigation of Indian antiquities during what may be considered as the first period of the study of the subject. The second period is that in which James Prinsep took the lead, a man whose equal has rarely been found in acute reasoning and unflagging industry, backed by an en- thusiastic love of research. He added to rare gifts of intellect an amiable and generous disposition, giving all credit to his fellow labourers and reserving none for himself, so that men worked as much to please James Prinsep as for the sake of Indian archaeology. The son of an East India agent and nephew of Mr. Auriol, Warren Hastings's secretary, James Prinsep Avas one out of seven brothers who obtained employment in India. He was born in' 1799, and was appointed assistant assay master at the Calcutta mint in 1819, serving under Horace Wilson. In 1820 he became assay master at Benares, where he executed a series of accurate di'awings of streets and buildings which were published by the Asiatic Society ; and in 1825 his " Views and Illustrations of Benares " appeared. In 1830 Prinsep rettu-ned to Calcutta, where he joined heartily wdth Major Herbert in his project of imbUsliing a periodical called " Gleanings in Science," of Avhich he became editor and proprietor in 1831, when Herbert accepted the post of astronomer at Lucknow. JAMES PRIXSEP. 177 He succeeded Wilson as assay master of tlic Calcutta mint in 1832, and became secretary to the Asiatic Society, altering the title of his " Gleanings '' to that of " The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," the first number of which appeared on March 7th, 1832. It has been published monthly ever since. For the remaining 10 years of his life James Prinsep devoted his energies to the solution of a most diflicult problem, and bis marvellous success has thrown new light on ancient Indian history, while it has immortalized his name among oriental scholars. The Buddhist remains were known to be the most important and the most ancient in India, but the numerous inscriptions connected with them were still unreadable puzzles. The inscriptions on the pillars at Delhi and Allahabad had been copied and published, but they had baflied the scholarship of Jones and Colebrooke to decipher. In the years 1835 and 183G, notices of James Prinsep 's success in d(X'ipheriug the inscriptions were published. In 1831 Lieutenant ]?uit had Avritten a description, Avitb di-awings, of tlie Boodliist stone pillar at Allahabad,* which was said by the Hindoos to be the club with which the hero Bhima ground his bhang. There are four inscriptions engraven upon it in different characters. Of these the first is the same as that on the Delhi pillar, and the second is the same as the Gya inscription, the key to which was supplied by Wilkius's translation. t The name of Chaudragupta, the king whose identity with Sandracottus had been established by Sir William Jones, occurs on the second inscription. But the clue was fii-st obtained when, in June 1837, Prinsep received copies made by Captain E. Smith of sentences cut on the pillars round the famous Sanchi tope or mound, near Bhilsa, in Central India. J Each sen- tence ended with the same two letters, and it occuiTcd to Prinsep, by a sort of inspiration, that these two letters represented the A'crb " to give," or " a gift." It was thus that ho finally obtained a clue to the alphabet, and the language turued out to resemble the Pali of Ceylon. He applied this alphabet to the inscriptions on the lals or pillars at Delhi and Allahabad, and the great discovery was com- pleted. They all proved to be the same series of edicts by the famous • Asiatic Researches, iii., p. 106. t „ i., p. 279. { "J. A. S. B.", iii., p. 488 ; vi., pt. i., p. 4Jl. (6409.) M 178 TUE ARCU.EOLOGICAL SURVEY. Buddhist King Asoka.* The name on the pillars was Pryadasi, which Mr. Turnour.f the Pali scholar, identified with that of Asoka. Among the most indefatigable of Prinsep's coadjntors was Lieu- tenant Kittoc, who investigated the ruins in Orissa, and discovered an important series of inscriptions on a rock at Dhauli, in Cuttack. He was also employed by Government to make excavations at Sarnath, near Benarcs.J At about the time that Kitto found the Dhaidi inscription, a copy of the rock inscription at Ghnar, in Guzerat, was made by Captain Lang, and sent to Prinsep in 1837 by Mr. Wathen ; and a thu-d series was discovered at Kapur di Gii'i, near Peshawar, in the far north of India. Prinsep studied the first two of these rock inscriptions with the utmost care.§ Tliosc discovered by Kittoe at Dhauli, in Cuttack, proved to be identical with those received from Girnar, in Guzerat, being a series of inscriptions by King Asoka. The names of Antiochus the Great, || of -:Vntigonus, and of one of the Ptolemiesl" occm" and fix theii- date, * "J. A. S. B." iii., p. 257. Restoration of No. 2 inscription on the Allahabad Lat, by Dr. Mill. „ vi., p. 1. Restoration anil translation of the inscription on the Bhitari Lat in Ghazeepore, by Dr. Mill. „ vi., p. 451. Note on fac-similes of inscriptions from Sauchi, taken by Capt. E. Smith. „ iii., p. 488. Copy of the inscription on the iron pillai" at Delhi. „ vi., pt. 2., p. 566. Interpretation of the inscriptions on the Ferozc Shah and Allahabad Lats. „ vii., p. 219. Edicts on Girnar and Dhauli rocks. „ vii., pt. i., p. 434. Edicts on the Dhauli rock. „ „ p. 4562. More denams, sent from the Sanchi Tope by Capt. Burt, and translated by Prinsep. t See an account of these investigations in the introduction to Tumour's Maha- wauso. X Lieut. Markhara Kittoe wrote many papers in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal: — "Journal of his tour in Orissa" (vii., pt. 2, p. 679); "A journey through the forests of Orissa" (viii., pts. 1 and 2); "On the viharas and chaityas round Gyah" (xvi., pt. 1, p. 272) ; "On sculptured images on the temple of Grames- wara in Cuttack " (xvi., pt. 2, p. 660) ; " On pillars found in the Gauges " (viii., p. 681) ; " Notes on the places visited by F. A. Hian " (xvi., p. 953) ; " Inscriptions at Juanpore " (xix., p. 454) ; " On antiquarian researches" (xvii., p. 536); "The temple of Durga at Badieswar" (vii., p. 828). These contributions range from 1838 to 1850. He was Curator and Librarian to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta until 1838, when he was appointed to survey the road to Bombay. He died soon after returning to England in 1853. ' § '-J. A. S. B.," viii., pt. l,p. 156. 11 „ vii., pt. 1, p. 156. f „ „ p. 334. BrDDHIST INSCRIPTIONS. 170 wMle tlie prohibition of the sacrifice of animals either for food or ceremonies, the order that medical aid shall be supplied for animals as well as men, that for the planting of trees and digging of wells by the roadsides, and the publication of precepts, prove that the royal lawgiver was a follower of the creed of Buddha. Important researches were successfully condvicted in the north of India dming the time of James Prinsep's editorship, which engaged his attention. Generals Ventura and Court, officers in the service of Himjeet Sing, opened a tope at Manikyala, in 1830, and others between Jhelum and the Indus in 1833 and 1834. They found a gold box containing coins and relics ; while Masson, Honig- berger, and Gerard examined some equally interesting topes near Jellalabad.* Captain "William BroMH, of the Revenue Survey, also gave an account of the ancient temple and famous ship model at Hissar, in Prinsep's Journal.t The copy of the Girnar inscription was not quite satisfactory, and through Prinsep's influence, Lieutenant Postans was employed by the Bombay Government to take exact fac-similes. But James Prinsep had worn liimself out by intense and continuous study. He was obliged to return home in a hopeless condition, and died on April 22ud, 1840. J Meanwhile, Lieutenant Postans took infijiite pains to secm-e exactitude in his fac-similes of the Girnar inscription, which were sent to Calcutta. They arrived too late. The guiding spirit of these investigations — the heart and soul of Indian archaeo- logical research — had already passed away. Prinsep sailed for England just before the residts of the labom's of Lieutenant Postans aiTived. The manuscripts and cloth copies were thl•o^^^l carelessly aside, and rotted in a godo^Ti at Calcutta. § * "Asiatic Kesearches," vol. xvii. "J. A. S. B.," iii., p. 313. "Remarks on the Relic in the Mauikyalu tope by Prinsep," iii., p. 436 and p. 556. Masson on Cabul Coins, v., p. 537. t "J. A. S. B.," vol. vii., pt. 1, p. 429. X The seven first volumes of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal were edited by Prinsep, 1832-38. See a notice of him, written by his brother, at the beginning of "Essays on Indian Antiquities, by the late James Prinsep, edited by E. Thomas" (2 vols. Murray, 1858). In this work Prinsep's essays were reprinted, owinjr to :m increased demand for the early copies of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in which they first appeared. § " Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society," i., p. 25". The Girnar inscription was again copied by Lc Grand Jacob and the Danish Zend scholar Westergaard ; and a second copy was sent to Professor Lassen. M 2 180 THE ARCII.EOLOGICAL SURVEY. Prinsep's genius discovered the first positive dates iu early Indian history, and opened to European scholars a mine of knowlede^e Avhich has been ably followed up by his disciples. His conclusions were closelv criticised, and were more fullv established bv the ordeal. Iloracc Wilson* expressed doubts of the correctness of Prinsep's identification of the Pryadarsi of the inscriptions with the great King Asoka ; but lie has been completely answered by General Cunningham,f and the soundness of Prinsep's interpreta- tions are no lonf^-er impuG^ned. The history of these discoveries, and a veiy complete and interesting notice of Asoka, his religion and government, was published by Sir Erskine Perry. J The thii'd and last period of Indian archaeological research, extend- ing from the death of Prinscp in IS 10 to the present year, has been one of great activity, the zeal and scholarship of Prinsep having been inherited by numerous successors. Cunningham and ilaisey in the north, Meadows Taylor and Wilson in Bombay, Walter Elliot in Madras, have taken the lead, and they have had many followers ; while photography has lately increased the means of illustrating and elucidating their researches. Eut it is to Pergusson that luu-opean inquii-ers are most indebted for having brought a knowledge of Indian architecture within their reach, and for having svstcmatized and rendered clear the chronology and history of eastern art, while he has explained and illustrated its rare beauty and excellence. A brief notice of his labours will be a fitting prelude to the enume- ration of the various archceoloc:ical researches of the last thirty years. Mr. James Pergusson, having, as far as he was able, qualified himself for the task of thoroughly investigating the architecture and antiquities of India, left England in 1829, Avith the intention of availing himself of any opportimities of pursuing his inquiries that might be offered him, and which his professional engagements would admit of. During his residence in Jessore, from 1829 to 1833, he repeatedly visited Dacca, llajghur, and the few other places in the Ganges Delta which contain any remains of architectural art. In * "Rock Inscriptions of Kapur di Giri, Dliauli, and Giinar," hy II. II. Wilson. — . Journal of the Roi/al Asiatic Society, xii., p. 236. t " Bhilsa Topes," p. 100. \ .lournal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society, iii., p. 149. Sir Erskine's notice is chiefly based on Lassen's " Indische Alterthumskunde." JAMES FERGUSSON. 181 1831 he went to Benares, and thence visited Agra and Delhi, re- turning hy way of Deeg and Jeypore, Canouge, Lucknow, and Juanpore, and visiting all the cities on the Ganges as far as Gour and Moorshedahad. In 1836 he was present at the festival of Jug- gcrnath at Pooree, and visited all the places of interest in Cuttack. In 1839 he again visited most of the cities in the Gangetic valley, including Agra and Delhi, and went on as far as the Sutlcj. He also passed four months in wandering tlurough Central India, xasiting most of the principal cities of Rajpootana, as far west as Abu, and thence making his Avay to Bombay, by Ajunta, EUora, and Karli. He examined these caves, as well as those of Salsctte and Elephanta, before leaving Bombay on his return to England in 1839. !Mi'. Fer- gusson had occasion to revisit India in 181-2, and he took the oppor- timitv of makini? a coast vova. 29. J " British Association." Reports, ix., p. 28. § General Cullen also published a series of bai-ometrical levellings in the Madras Presidency. — "Reports. British Association," xv., p. 22; xvi., p. 42; and xvii., p. 39. O 2 212 METEOROLOGICAL OBSEKVATIONS. two years consumed in the undertakini^, he ostahhslied a braneh observatory on the summit of the peak of Aghastya-muUa, (>,2(»() feet above the sea. In reaching this h)fty site, paths liad to be cut through jungles infested by wikl elephants, and there were delays, owing to labourers running aAvay, from fear and cold.* The Aghastya-mulla Observatory was at last completed in March 1855 ; and from its platfoi-m the whole south of the Indian penin- sula is seen, from Cape Comorin to Cochin on one side, and to Adam's Bridge on the other ; an almost imcqualled view. Mr. Broun has given a most interesting account of the observatory, and of the difl&- culties overcome in its construction, in liis Beport of 1857. The assistants at this lofty observatory were arranged into three sets of fom' men each, according to their castes, the first set being Syrian Christians, the second Brahmans and Sudras, and the third Roman Catholics, relieving each other every three months. The observations were commenced on July 1st, 1855 ; but during Mr. Broun's absence in England in 1860 the observatory was allowed to fall to pieces. On his return in 1863, he had it rebuilt, and a second scries of obser- vations was taken, which extended over ten months. Mr. Broun also caused a series of hourly observations to be taken in different years, simultaneously with those at Trivandrum and Aghastya, at stations near the latter, and at 5,000 feet lower level, one east and one west. This series had special reference to questions connected with the atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and evapora- tion. In 1859, a similar series of liom-ly observations was taken at five diflFerent stations rising about 1,200 feet one above the other, in connection with the same meteorological questions. In all these series the best instruments were used. Base lines were measured by Mr. Broun, on both sides of the Aghastya-mulla peak, in order to ascertain trigonometrically the exact height of the observatory, and the lower stations. When the Travancore Government decided on abolishing the observatories in 1865, Mr. Broim obtained leave for the continuation of a limited series to be made by the two oldest and best of his native observers ; and a Syrian Christian, his principal assistant, is still in charge, and forwards monthly reports and abstract of meteorological observations to Mr. Broun, in Eu^rope. * Eeport on the " Observatories of his Highness the Rajah of Travancore," by John Allan Broun, F.R.S., Director. ( Trivandrum, 1857.) Reports. British Association" xxiv., p. 25; xxvii., p. 30. OBSERVATIONS IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 213 There is every reason to believe that this series, which is of great importance in reference to many questions of interest, will be con- tinued. The cfrcat mass of results has yet to be reduced and pub- lished. This will be done by Mr. Broun, at the expense of the Travancorc Government. Sir John nerschel's suggestion, that horary observations should be taken for 24 hours together on four fixed days of each year, received due attention from the Madras obsei-vers. Such observa- tions were registered, both at the Madras and Trivandrum obser- vatories, on December 20th and 22nd, 1836, in January 1838 at both places, and also by Dr. Gilchrist at Iloonsoor in June and September 1838, in April 1839, and again in 1840.* Dr. Mouat, also, at Bangalore, took horary observations, in conformity with Sir John Herschel's circular, on the 21st and 22nd of March 1836. His previous meteorological observations extended over the years 1834 and 1835. t Registers of observations have been published, which were taken in the hill regions of Wynaad and Coorg. Captain Mincliin observed at Manantoddy in Wynaad dm'ing the year 1832, and gives the monthly mean temperatui-e at daylight, noon, the mean and greatest heat, and the number of days of rain. J In Coorg the register was kept at Mercara by Dr. Baikie, who published liis notes on the climate, with a table giving the monthly means of the barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer, observed at 6 a.m., 10 a.m., and 5 p.m.§ A diagram showing the meteorological condition of Sccunderabad for the year 1864 was lithographed and published at Madras in 1866. It gives the amoimt of ozone, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, tempe- rature of the air in sun and shade, the amount of humidity, and prevailing winds. The work is valuable, and does great credit to the industry and zeal of its author, Dr. W. Ai*nold Smith. || In the Bombay Presidency a regular register of the thermometer was kept for 26 ycai-s, from about 1816, by Mr. Benjamin and * Madras Journal of Literature and Science, v. p. 214, vii. p. 144., viii. p. 397, ix., p. 454. t J. A. S. B., vol. v., p. 296. I Madras Journal, !., p. 38. § Ibid, iii., p. 338. II Tlicre are several copies of this diagram iu the Geographical Department of the India Otfice. 214 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. Mr, George Noton, of tlie Company's service; but the leading meteorologist of India, who first classified, and drew sound deduc- tions from his work, was Colonel Sykcs. This accomplished observer kept a register in the Deccan and at Bombay from 1825 to 1830, and gave liis results to the world in an elaborate paper which was read before the Royal Society in 1835.* Colonel Sykes points out that the great features in his baro- metrical indications are the diurnal and nocturnal tides, embracing two maxima and two minima hi the 21 hours, the former between 9 and 10 a.m. and 10 and 11 p.m., and the latter between 4 and 5 p.m. and 4 and 5 a.m. In many thousand observations there was not a solitary instance in which the barometer was not higher at 9 to 10 a.m. than at sunrise, and lower at 4 to 5 p.m. than at 9 to 10 a.m. His hygrometric observations, and those for the direction of the wind, were very complete and satisfactory. The great feature as regards wind in the Deccan is its extreme rareness from the north or south. Wliirlwinds arc common in the hot months ; columns of dust in the form of trumjiets, chasing over the treeless plains, and carrying sand, straw, clothes, and baskets to a height of 200 feet in the vortex of heated air. The deductions derived from the observations by Colonel Sykes are important and numerous. In the fii-st place, they removed the doubts, previously entertained by Humboldt, as to the suspension of the atmospheric tides during the monsoon in Western India ; next. Colonel Sykes proved the existence of four atmospheric tides in the 24 hours, two diiu'nal and two nocturnal, and each consisting of a maximum and minimum tide ; as well as the occurrence of the tides within the same limit hom's as in America and Em'ope. He discovered that the greatest mean diurnal oscillations took place in the coldest months, and the smallest tides in the damp months of the monsoon in the Deccan ; that the diurnal and nocturnal occuiTcnce of the tides was regular, without a single case of intervention ; and that the diurnal and annual oscillations were trifling, compared with those of extra-tropical climates. He found that the annual range of the thermometer was less than in Em'ope, but that the diurnal range was much greater. He also described the remarkable cucular and white rainbows in the Deccan, the peculiarities of the winds, * "Philosophical Transactions," No. x (1835), p. 161. "On atmospheric tides and the meteorology of the Deccan, by Lieut. Colonel W. H. Sykes, F.K.S." BOMBAY OBSERVATORY. 215 the frequency of calms, the quantity of electricity in the atmosphere under certain circumstances, and the singxilar opacity of the atmo- sphere in hot weatlier. The tables which accompany this important paper show the oscillations of the barometer, the barometric obser- vations at Poena, Bombay, andiMahabaleshwur, the hygrometric observations, the register of the ombrometer, and the prevailing winds. The Bombay obsci-vatory at Colaba was first established mider Mr. Cumin in 1823, but the records previous to 1840 are scanty and imperfect. In the end of the latter year a set of instruments, originally intended for Aden, were transfen-ed to Bombay, and Mr. Arthur B. Orlebar, who was Elphinstone Professor of Astronomy and Mathematics, took charge of the observatory, at the request of Colonel Sykes. Ilis series extends over the year 1811—42, and on the 15th of July 1842 Dr. George Buist assumed charge of the Colaba observatorv.* The results of Dr. Buist's meteorological observations from 1812 to 1844 are published monthly in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society. He had three native assistants, and horary readings were registered of the baro- meter, thermometer, wet and dry bulb, and direction of the Wind.f Dr. Buist had devoted much attention to meteorological subjects. He collected a vast amount of data, and the ncAvspaper he edited at Bombay is full of information respecting phenomena connected with the weather. Dr. Buist published the results of a comparison of the observations of nine different barometers read every half houi* for 24 successive hom's;+ a catalogue of remarkable hail storms from 1822 to 1850, in India ;§ and a notice of remarkable meteors. || He put thermometers for recording solar and terrestrial radiation * Dr. Buist published an account of " the Observatories of India" in the " Times of India," June loth, 1850. ■f "Meteorological Observations, Bombay, 1842, Dr. George Buist, L.L.D.," 1843. "Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Asiatic Society," i., pp. 49-90, 14o-l?00, 255-354. "Provisional Report on the Meteorologicid Observations at Bombay for 1844." (Cupar, 1845.) "Journal of the Bombay Branch," i., p. 287, and printed separately. " Journal of thu Bombay Gfogra])hical Society, ix., p. 184 and p. 1. J " Journal of the Bombay Branch," i„ p, 207, and printed separately. § "Journal of the Bombay Geographical Society," ix., p. 104, and x.ii., p. 1, and " British Association Reports" xx., p. 31, and xxiv., p. 35. II Ibid, ix., p. 197. 216 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. into use at the Colaba observatory, and constructed a diagram of hourly barometric curves at Bombay, comparing them with those at Madras and Trivandrum. Dr. Buist endeavoured to make the study of meteorology interesting ; and in his very pleasantly Avritten paper on the climate of Western India, he complained that " pictm-osque and descriptive meteorology had almost altogether been buried under minute instrumental details."* Dr. Buist furnished General Sabine with observations taken in 1843, consisting of the mean temperature, mean barometric pressm'c, mean tension of the atmosphere, and mean gaseous pressure at every second hour. These data formed the subject of a paper read before the British Association by General Sabine in 1845, f and assisted in the explanation of the diurnal variation of barometric pressure. General Sabine had already noticed, from observations taken at Toronto, that the aqueous and gaseous constituents of barometric pressm'e, when presented separately, exhibited, in their variations, a striking accordance with variations of temperature. The data supplied by Dr. Buist tended to confirm these deductions, which suggest an extension in height and consequent overflow of the column of air in the higher regions of the atmosphere, over the place of observation in the day time, when the surface of the earth is gaining heat by radiation, and a contraction when the temperature is diminishing. Dr. James Murray was actively engaged in meteorological studies in the Deccan during the time that Dr. Buist was at work in. Bombay. He registered a series of observations at Sattara from 1844 to 1847, consisting of means, maxima, and minima, and daily ranges for each month ; and had previously completed a series at Mahabaleshwur, extending from 1829 to 1843, J Avhich had been commenced by Drs. Walker and Morehead. * " Sketch of the Climate of Western India, Ijy Dr. Buiit." Reports of the British Association, xx., p. 29. \ British Association Reports, xiv., p. 73. Reprinted in tlie " Madras Journal of Literature and Science," xiii., p. 106. J See his " Observations on the climate of the Mahabaleshwur hills." — Journal o/the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay, \. p. 79 (1838) ; and " Notes on the meteo- rology of the Sattara Territory for 1848." — Journal of the Bombay Geographical Society, vol. ix., p. 13 (1850.) See also his paper entitled '• Practical observations on the nature and oftects of the hill climates of India ;" in which he gives the mean temperature at Simla, Ootaca- COLONEL SYKES. 217 Professor Orlebar resumed the charge of the Colaba observatory in 1844, and superintended the registration of hourly readings in 1845.* He prepared a series of hygrometric tables, based on those of Major Boileau.f In 1846 the Colaba observatory was handed over to Captain Montriou,J of the Indian Navy, who had the obser- vations registered evciy two hours. His elements were atmospheric pressure, temperatiu'e of the free air, of the stratum of air in contact with the ground, of the ground six feet below the surface, of the wet and dry bulbs, the force and direction of the wind, rainfall, evaporation, and clouds. He also gives tables of means. Captain Montriou was succeeded by Lieutenant Fergusson, of the Indian Navy, who held the appointment until 1804.§ In his time the instruments were in an open shed-like building at Colaba, fitted with screens to regulate the absence of glare and sunshine. The observations were horary, and he published summaries of results, with diagrams of diurnal changes of the meteorological elements, and of variations of temperature. || Lieutenant Fergusson was succeeded by Mr. Morland, and Mr. Chambers has continued the series down to the present year. In 1850 Colonel Sykes contributed another valuable paper, embodying the results of the further progress that had been made in India up to that date. It is entitled " A discussion of the " meteorological observations taken in India at various heights, " embracing those at Dodabetta on the Neilgherry hills at 8,G40 feet " above the sea."^ The paper contains many important generaliza- tions, and the additional information gives occasion for a further examination of the phenomena of horary oscillations, and the times niuud, Darjeeling, Kotaghcrry, Landoor, Mahabaleshwur, &e. — Transactions of the Medical and Physical Socicti/ of Bombay, vol. vii., p. 3. (1844.) * " Meteorological Observations, Bombay, 18 io." Arthur B. Orlebar." (Bombay 1846. 4to.) "On magnetic and meteorological observations at Bombay, by A. B. Orlcbiu-." Reports. Brit. Ass., xvi., p. 28. •f "Journal of the Bombay Branch," ii., p. 309. J "Observations made at the Bombay observatory for 1847." C. W. Montriou, Commander, I.N." Part ii., meteorological. (Bombay, 1851. 4to.) § "Meteorological Observations." Bombay, 1K.53, Lieut. E. F. T. Fergusson, I.N. Also 1857 (Bombay, folio, 2 vols. 1855,) and 1 859-64. II A Report on the subject of the rainfall in the Deccan, and on the climatic dis- turbance apparent during 1861 and 1862, was published in 1863. See "Bombay Selections," No. 78, N.S. \ "Philosophical Transactions" (1850), pt. ii. xv. 218 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. of ebb and flow of atmospheric tides at an increased number of observing stations, some of them, like Dodabctta, at great elevations above tlic sea. Among other deductions, Colonel Sykcs points out that climate is not absolutely dependent on latitude, but is aflfectcd by numerous local cu'cumstances. Thus the three hill stations of Mahabaleshwur, Mercara, and Uttray Mullay in Travancore arc exactly the same height above the sea,* but widely separated as regards latitude. The mean temperatures of Mahabalesln\ ur and Mercara are almost identical, while Uttray JMullay, which is much nearer the equator, is 3° 35' lower. It is within the influence of both monsoons. Colonel Sykcs points out great anomalies in the liom-s of the occm-rencc of maxima and minima of temperature at Madras, and remarks upon the range of temperature at Calcutta, Sattara, MahabaleshAvur, and Dodabctta. The Dodabctta tempera- tm-e, at 8,642 feet, compared Avith that of Mahabaleshwm*, at 4,500 feet, has a decidedly diminished daily, hoiu-ly, and annual range. The probable som-ces of error in the degree of humidity in the ah, as represented by the wet bulb observations in India, are discussed at some length, and Colonel Sykes recommends caution in gene- ralizations from a limited number of local observations for the determination of the dew pomt.f He then gives a most valuable comparative summary of the amoimt of rainfall in vaiious latitudes, and at different heights above the sea, showing that, on the ghauts, the elevation of greatest fall is 4,500 feet above the sea ; and that there is an extraordinary diflTcrence between points on the western rim of the ghauts and others a fcAV miles fiu-ther cast. At Mahabaleshwur the fall in 1849 was 338 inches, and at Paimchgimny, only 11 miles to the eastward, 58 inches. The phenomena of winds, fogs, and electricity are also discussed. Colonel Sykes's paper is accompanied by tables showing the mean oscillations of the barometer at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madi-as; and the mean horary oscillations at Calcutta from 1845 to 1848, and at Bombay and Madras from 1843 to 1845. Of late years the increased attention that has been paid to sanitaiy measures, to the causes of periodical famines, and to the phenomena * 4,500 feet. f A paper by Dr. Forbes Watson, illustrative of Colonel Sykes's remarks, and showing the small value to be attached to observations of the hygrometric slate of the air in India, as obtained by means of the dry aud wet bulb thermometer, will be published shortly. glaisuer's report. 219 of cyclones, has led to a more systematic study of the laws affecting the changes of the atmosphere in India. It has heen seen how zealously the study of the law of storms was pursued,* on the publication of Colonel Reid's work, by Piddington at Calcutta, Biden at Madras, and Buist and Thorn in the Bombay Presidency. At about the same time the Government of India gave some atten- tion to the more complete registration of meteorological data, with reference to the prospects of the harvests. On the 21st of January 1846 the collectors were ordered to submit reports, and in 1847 they were suppHed with thermometers and rain gauges. For three years these statistics were given in the Annual Revenue Picports, but in 1852 the instruments were made over to the medical officers at the several stations, who were charged with the duty of keeping registers of the rainfall and temperature. It appears, however, that these records were not satisfactorily kept. The hours of obser- vation were nominally at suniise, 10 a.m., 4 p.m., sunset, and 10 p.m. In 1863 IVIr. Glaisher prepared a report upon the meteorology of India from all the data that were then accessible. His most reliable sources of information were the observatories at Madi'as and Bombay, but he also availed himself of a great mass of obser- vations taken at other stations. He found those for himiidity of the air to be far too few, as well as those for solar evaporation. Mr. Glaisher discussed his materials with a view of rendering the results applicable for the pui-poses of the Ai'my Sanitary Commission, and especially endcavom-ed to indicate, at different seasons of the year, the height at which the English climate is most nearly approached. The most valuable and reliable section of his report is that on the fall of rain in India. All the materials that could then be collected were examined and utilized by Mr. Glaisher; but they were far from satisfactory, and he expressed a hope that futiu-c meteorological obsen^ations in India might be carried out imder some general system, and on a uniform plan, both ^ith respect to instruments, their position, and general instructions.! Admiral FitzEoy's introduction of the system of warnings and forecasts in England gave a fresh impetus to similar investigations * See page 34. ■j- Report upon the Meteorology of India in relation to the health of the troops, by James Glaisher, F.R.S. In the Report of the Roy;il Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India. I., pp. 781-943. (London, 1863.) 220 METEOROLOGICAL OBSEIIVATIONS. in the east. The Achiiiral's " weather book " was published in 1SG3, and in March 1865 a Meteorological Committee was appointed at Calcutta, to consider the best means of establishing a system of observations for the protection of that port. The Committee recommended the appointment of observers, generally assistants in the Electric Telegraph Department, to be stationed at a series of points round the coast of the bay of Bengal, and in some other directions, which should be in telegraphic communication Avith Calcutta. They were supplied Avith instriuuents for observing the barometric pressiu-e, humidity of the air and rainfall, and were to observe at 9 30 a.m. and i p.m. Their observations were to be transmitted daily by telegraph, and to be received at the meteoro- logical observatory attached to the Surveyor General's Office at Calcutta, whence, if necessary, they were to be commimicated to the master attendant. The Committee also recommended that the thermometrical observations should be restricted to six first-class stations ; namely, Patna, Monghyr, Hazarcebagh, Berhampore, Shillong, and Goalpara.* Sheds of uniform pattern were ordered to be erected for dry and wet bulb, maxima, and minima thermo- meters. The second-class stations are those still under the Medical Department, where the rainfall only is registered. These measures were followed by the appointment of meteoro- logical reporters to the Governments of the Punjab, the North- West Provinces, and Bengal. Dr. A. Neil was appointed for the Punjab in 1866. The records from the various stations, f comprising regis- trations of atmospheric pressure, humidity, temperature, rainfall, and force and direction of the wind, are forwarded to him monthly, besides daily registers of rainfall at 32 stations, from the Revenue Retm'ns ; and he prepares an annual condensed report on the general barometric phenomena, with barometric and wind charts. J * Jessore, Gaya, Cachar, and Debrooghur have since been added. f The stations are Lahore, Mooltan, Shahpoor, Dera Israael Klian, Peshawur, Eawul Pindee, Sealkote, Sreenaggur, Bahawulpore, Leh, Dalhousie, Rungi, Loodiana, and Iloshiarpur. J There have been three Punjab annual reports. " Annual Keports of the Meteorological Observations registered in the Punjab," by Dr. A. Neil. 1867, 1868, 1869. Dr. Neil also supplied a summary of the weather in the Punjab for 1868, which is printed in the 5th Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India (1868), p. 13. METEOKOLOGICAL r.El'ORTERS. 221 Dr. MiuTay Thomson, the meteorological reporter for the North- West Provinces, assumed charge in February 1865. In the first year he received returns eveiy month from 23 stations, of which three were in the Himalaya, above 5,000 feet, and the rest on the plains at elevations from 1,800 feet at Ajmeer to 250 at Benares. Six of these are first-class stations, where there are complete sets of instrimients; namely. Roorkee, Njmee Tal, Agra, Ajmeer, Jhansi, Benares. The officers in charge are generally the civil surgeons of the stations, and the barometers are read at all the extreme periods of the daily oscillations. Two volunteers also supply valuable meteo- rological data ; namely, Dr. Bow from Chunar, and Mr. Hennessey, of the Great Ti-igonometrical Survey, from Mussourec, and afterwards from Dehra. The second-class stations, where obsei"vations are taken at G and 10 a.m. and 1 and 9 p.m., are the ci\41 and militaiy hospitals. Dr. Miu-ray Thompson, in the fii'st year, delivered lectures on meteorological instruments and their use, at the Agi-a Medical School. His report for 186G contains a general retrospect of the weather, and monthly ta])les of the barometric readings at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. of the dew point ; elastic force of vapour; I'c- lative hvunidity ; the thermometer exposed and in shade, and six inches below the surface of the ground ; the rainfall and winds.* In 1868 the nvimber of stations was 11 ; namely, Chakrata, Dehra, Roorkee, Nynee Tal, Mcorut, Barcilly, Futtehgur, Agra, Lucknow, Ajmeer, Goruckpore, Allahabad, Benares, and Jhansi. Each year, from the materials submitted to him. Dr. Mun*ay Thomson draws up an annual report, giving a retrospect of the weather, remarks on the climate, and tables of means. t • " Report on meteorological observations in the N. W. Provinces," by Dr. Murray Thomson, 1866. It is publishetl as Appendix C. to the third Annual Sanitary Report for Bengal. (Calcutta 1867.) f "Report on the Meteorological Observations in the North- West Provinces for 1868," by Dr. Murray Thomson, Reporter on Meteorology. Printed in the " Selec- tions from the Records of the Government of the N. W. Provinces." Second series, vol. iii., No. 1, (1870). Dr. Murray Thomson supplied a summary of this report to the Sanitary Commis- sioner, and it is printed in the 5th Report, p. 13. The Sanitary Commissioner in the Central Provinces has also taken steps to establish a number of meteorological stations, on the same plan as those in the North- West ; but only the Nagpore observations have yet been receivedi 222 IIETEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. The rainfall is also carefully registered by the canal officers, and a great deal of information on that branch of the subject will be found in the various m-igation reports. On the 1st of April 1867 the otfice of meteorological reporter to the Government of Bengal was established, to carry on the system of storm warnings for the protection of the port of Calcutta, and to perform duties similar to those of the meteorological reporters who had already been apjiointed for the Punjab and the North- West Provinces. He was also to examine existing records, and undertake their supervision, and conversion into a form in which they might prove useful. The reporter's work was thus divided into two branches ; the collection of data, and its iitilization. The appointment was accepted by Mr. H. P. Blanford, who had already done good service in the geological survey in 1857-62, on the Neilgherry hills,* among the crystalline limestones of Coimba- tore and the sandstones of Ti'ivicary, as well as with his brother in Cuttack in 185G. The office work consists of sending daily reports to the newspapers, weekly to the Calcutta Gazette, monthly ab- stracts and rainfall reports from 60 stations to the Board of Revenue, and of preparing storm warnings and special reports. In 18G8 the fii'st and second-class stations were equipped, and in 1869 they were in good working order, while some additional stations were esta- blished. The elements recorded at the first-class stations are the atmospheric pressm-e, mean and extreme temperatures of the air, solar and terrestrial radiation, humidity, rainfall, wind, and propor- tion of clouds ; and the hom's for observation are 1 a.m., 10 a.m., 4 p.m., and 10 p.m.f The stations are at Akyab on the Ai-racan coast, Palse Point Lighthouse near the mouth of the Mahanuddy, Cuttack, Saugor Island at the mouth of the Hooghly, Chittagoug, Calcutta, Jessore, Dacca, Darjeeling, Silchar, ShiUong on the northern slope of the Cossyah hills, Goalpara, Berhampore, Monghu-, Hazaree- bagh, Gya, and Patna. Mr. Blanford also receives reports from Benares, Boorkee, Madras, and Port Blair ; from Mr. Nursingrow's observatory at Vizagapatam, where the register is imiform with those * Seepage 161 (note.) Most of the stations are in eliarge of electric telegraph assistants, and the instruments supplied to each station are two mercurial barometers, dry and wet bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers, a grass minimum I'adiating thermometer, a Robinson's anemometer, rain gauge, and wind vane. METEOROLOGICAL PvEPOllTEKS. 223 of the Bengal stations ; from the manager of the Tea Company's garden in Upper Assam ; and of the rainfall from the Chinchona plantations in Sikkim, and on the Cossyah hills. Mr. Blanford has also set on foot a system of meteorological registration in the Indian seas, on a small scale, and registers are now kept on board six of the British India Steam Navigation Company's vessels. All the barometers, except those at ^Madras, Benares, and Roorkee, have been compared with the Calcutta standard. The third-class stations, of which there are 36, only record the rainfall. In his annual reports, Mr. Blanford digests the information he receives from the nu^mcrous stations, and shows the results in a series of tables. These include the monthly means of atmospheric pressure,* the monthly mean pressure at all the stations reduced to the sea level, the maximum, minimum, and mean monthly temperatm^es, humidity, serenity, comparison of serenity, solar radiation and mean temperature in hot weather months, rainfall, comparison of rainfall with averages, summary of observed -winds, and monthly \nnd resultants. There is also a sketch of the normal character of the monsoons, with notices of the storms on May 1st and 13th, June 5th and 10th, and October 7th and 8th of 1869.t Mr. Blanford sup- plies memoranda on the chief characteristics of the meteorology of each year to the Sanitaiy Commissioner, j " The accvmiulation of " trustworthy and systematic observations," Mr. Blanford reports, " which far exceed anything previously available for Bengal, has " admitted of a more scientific discussion than had previously l^cen " practicable ; and a beginning has been made to educe from the " tabulated and reduced results, some general conclusions." The Sanitaiy Commissioners in the three Presidencies have greatly promoted meteorological science, in the well-founded expectation that systematic observations over wide areas would enable them to form conclusions as to the effects of climate on the diseases of the • Ho communicated a paper on barometric irregularities to the " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," 1870, pt. ii., No. '2. f See also the " Ucport on the Calcutta cyclone of October 5th, 1864," by Colonel Gastrell and Mr. IL F. IJlanford, noticed at page 36. t Mr. Blanford has submitted three annual reports, " Reports of the Meteorological Observer to the Government of Bengal," 1867, 1861, 1869, and an Administration Report for 1869-70. See also the 5th Report of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India (1868), p. 13. 221 METEOROLOGICAL OllSEUVATIOXS. countiy. In 1865 the Madras Sanitary Commissioner, Mr. Ellis, prepared and submitted a scheme for recording meteorological observations at each of the chief, civil, and military stations, which received the sanction of the Supreme Government.* The stations are to be under the superintendence of the senior medical officer, and the registers will all be forwarded to Mr. Pogson, the astro- nomer at Madi'as, for reduction, who will prepare annual reports. He drew up a memorandum on the meteorological character of the year for the Sanitary Eeport of 1868,f but had not had time to prepare the returns for publication which he had received from the stations in the districts. These will appear in future years. The meteorological registers at the Bombay Observatory have always been regularly kept, and yearly abstracts by Mr. Chambers, who has been the Superintendent since 1856, are published with the Reports of the Muiiicipal Commissioner. J These abstracts give the pressure of the air, temperature, dcAv point, humidity, rainfall, and force of the land and sea winds for each month. Ualf yearly Meteo- rological Reports, by Mr. Chambers, are also regularly transmitted to the Astronomer Royal. But no general system for observing at numerous stations and of sending the records to a central reporter for reduction, such as exists under the other Local Governments, appears to have been established at Bombay. The machinery is, however, available for making important scientific deductions from observations taken at points scattered over the greater part of India, all of which are in regular communi- cation with central stations. Mr. Blanford has pointed out that the distribution of relative pressm'es is an important object of inquiry, because the local character of the south-west and probably of the north-west monsoon is greatly aff'ected by its variations in different years. There are other points which require a very wide field of * The stations are Kamptee, Secunderabad, Vizagapatam, Ik'llary, Bangalore, Negapatam, Salem, Masulipatam, Cannanore, Trichinopoly, Rangoon, Jakatalla, Tinnevelly, Madura, Coirabatore, Kurnool, and Cochin. f See the Reports of the Sanitary Commissioner for Madras, 1866 and 1868, p. 114. I Annual Reports of the Municipal Commissioner of Bombay, 1866. App. i., p. 45. Do. for 1867, p. 52. Do. for 1868, at the end of Dr. Lumsdaine's Report, the Health Office, p. 6. Do. for 1869, by Dr. Hewlett. See also " Reports of the Superintendent of the Gtovernment Observatory, Colaba." 1866, 1868, 186S), 1870. "Normal Winds of Bombay," by Charles Chambers, Esq., F.R.S. — [Bombay Builder. June 1869.) Statistics of the rainfall will be found in the " Bombay Times " Directories. TIDAL OBSERVATIOXS. 225 observations for their elucidation ; and thus Bengal, or any one local jjroWnce, cannot usefully he treated independently of the other parts of India. It is to be hoped that, before long, it vnll be pos- sible to include the data of a wide area, and, indeed, of the whole Indian Empire, in one general Meteorological Report. " The busi- " ness of a meteorological department," says Mr. Blanford, " is to " discuss as well as to record facts, to compare and correllate them " imder the guidance of accepted physical laws, and to endeavom* " to trace out the causes which operate in producing the normal " features of our seasons, as well as those of their irregularities, the " important influence of which on the welfare of the country has, " of late years, been too painfully obvious. In order to do this, " however, with any degree of completeness, a uniform system of " registration must be extended much beyond the limits of Bengal." Tidal Observations. The earliest recorded tidal observations in India, which I have met with, were taken at the Kiddcrporc dock-head, on the Ilooghly, by Mr. James Kyd,* for 22 years, from 180G to I827.t Mr. Kyd did not publish his results in tables, but showed them on a seiies of diagrams, which he accomjianied by some suggestive remarks. He observed that in the Ilooghly there were two long imequal tides, eight months of flood and four of ebb. He assumed that the south-west mud in March caused the currents to set up the Bay of Bengal, and raise the sea several feet at its head, and in the Hooghly, long before the freshes from the rivers are felt. Tliis cavtse con- tinues till October. Then the river freshes of August and Sep- tember, and the change of wind, give the ctu'rents a set in the contrary dii'ection. The rise of the Ganges affects the Hooglily early in July, and its level is bodily raised, the low water (neaps) at the time of the freshes being even higher than the high water (also neaps) of the dry season. Mr. Kyd suggests that the Damooda, Ptoopuaraiu, and Hidgelee rivers occasion the height of low water in the season of freshes, by acting as a dam, and preventing the • Mr. Kyd was an East Indian, who set an example of independent enterprise to his countrymen, in forming a hirge docking establishment at Kidderpore, which after- wards became the property of the Government. — Calcutta Ji'erivw, iii. p. 249. ■)■ " Asiatic Researches, xviii. p. 259. (6409.) P 220 1)K. WnE-WELL. ebbing of tbe waters quickly into the sea. Another local phenome- non of the Hooghly tides which he could not satisfactorily explain is, that in the north-east monsoon the night tides arc highest, and in the south-west the day tides. The bores in the Uooghly only occui- on the highest spring tides. Mr. Kyd's observations were continued in 1828 and 1829 at Mud Point, on Saugor Island, and a further series of tidal regis- trations was published by James Prinsep.* While these early tidal observations were being taken in the Ilooghly, the subject was being carefully studied in England by Su- John Lubbockf and Dr. "Whewell. Their papers on co-tidal lines hi the Philosophical Ti-ansaetions excited general interest ; but on the chart which accompanied Dr. WheweU's essay, $ though a nume- rous series of cotidal lines in other parts of the world was given, the coasts of India presented nearly a blank. In the same year in which the essay was published. Dr. WheweU's " suggestions to " persons who have opportunities to make or collect observations of " the tides " appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ; § and the Governor-General, at the same time, requested that the Society would undertake to promote inquiries on the Indian coasts to complete the cotidal Imes for the Bay of Bengal. || It was considered that the most important branch of the investiga- tion Avas that for the determination of the diurnal inequality or ditferencc between day and night tides, which depends on the declination of the moon north or south of the equator ; and the Society sent a cu'cular on the subject to members residing at coast stations.^ Dr. WhcAvell also expressed a hope that tidal obser- • "Gleanings in Science," Nov. l«2f) and Jan. 1830. f "Philosophical Transactions," 1831. f "Phil. Trans., 1833." "Essay towards an approximation to a map of cotidal lines." Dr. Whewell wrote 14 memoirs on tides in the Philosophical Transactions from 1833 to 18.50. " Researches on the tides, and their diurnal ine(iiialities," were published separately. (London, 1848.) See also Professor Aiiy's article on "Tides and Waves," in the Encyclopadia MetropolUanu. § "J. A. S. B., ii., p. 151. II "J. A. S. B., iv., p. 401. ^ "J. A. S. B.," vi., p. 401. James Prinsep expressed his confident belief that " all who had seen Professor WheweU's laborious map of the tidal wave, traced in its " course over the whole surfiice of the globe, would willingly contribute to the per- " fection of so intcrcstiug and useful a problem." TTDAL obst:kvatioxs. 227 vations Tvoiild he made from an extensive range of places in India.* The first result of these measures was the contribution of a table of the times of high water at the principal places between Calcutta and Point Palmyras, which was prepared by Mr. P. G. Sinclair. Then the results of observations made on the tides at Madras in 1821, by means of a tide gauge fixed near the north-east angle of Fort St. George, was published.! In 1837, observations of tides were made by Lieutenant 11. Siddons at Chittagong, in confoi-mity Avith the cu'cular of the Asiatic Society, J and a succinct review of obsei-vations of tides made in the Indian Archipelago in 1839 was also publishcd,§ as well as the registers of the rise and fall of the tide at Prince Edward's Island in ISlO-l^l, and at Singapore in 1831-35.(1 Professor Whcwell also received the Singapore observa- tions which were taken by Mr. Scott, the Master Attendant, and he notices the enormous diiu'nal inequaUty.^ A special series of tidal observations was ordered to be taken in the Hooghly in 18G9, with reference to the effect of a cyclone wave if the river was embanked. Tidal obser\'ations arc also taken at Kidderpore dockyard ; and the Master Attendant at Calcutta prc- tlicts tide tables, giving the anticipated time of high and low water for every day, which are published annually. But the tables, when compared by !Mr. Parkes with the register furnished from the Master Attendant's Office, were fouud to be so erroneous that they can be of no practical use. For the complete investigation of the Hoogldy tides observations should be made near the mouth of the river. The earliest register of tides on the west coast of India will, I think, be found in a table shewing the rise of the spring tides in Bombay harbom-, during night and day, for 1832, which was com- municated by Benjamin Noton Esq.** When the Colaba obseiTa- * "J. A. S. B.," iv., p. 517. " Though wc have some detached observations on the " coast of India, wc have nothing which gives us a con-ect view of the progress of the " tide." Dr. Whewell, in a paper read before the British Association, " On our " ignorance of the tides." (18.31) xx., p. 27. t " Madras Herald, Juno 3rd, 1835. X " J. A. S. 1$., vi., p. 949. § " J. A. S. B.," X., p. 302. II "J. A. S. B." xi., pp. 149 and 263, and xix. ^ " 7th series of researches on the tides. On diurnal inequalitiest a Singapore.'' r/iil. r raits. 1837, p. 75. *• « J. A. S. B." ii., p. 247. And in >* Kushtou's Gazetteer " for 1842. P 2 228 TIDAL OB.SEI^VATIO^'S. tory was fivst ostablislicd, Captain Daniol Ross sui^gostcd a coniri- vancc for registering tides hy means of a large float and pulley in a well 22 feet deep, with a register house over it, just above high- water mark ; but it Avas found impracticablo to couuoct the well with the sea by a cutting. Nothing was, therefore, done until Dr. Buist took charge of the obserA'atory, in July 1812, when the self-registering tide gauge was put into working order, and the well was connected with the sea by a siphon pipe.* The tides liavc since been observed at the Colaba obsen'atory, though ■n'ith much in-egularity. The regis- ters, while Captain Montriou was in charge, have been published for 184G, 1847, and 1848. Serjeant Dunn, of the Sappers and Miners, a veiy active and intelligent man, was the actual observer, and tbe series for 184G is partially reliable ; but those for subsequent years are very doubtful. Captain Montriou remarked that the law of tides had been found to differ materially from that which had been determined relative to the tides in Europe.f Captain Ross, as Master Attendant at Bombay, constructed a set of tables from observations made at the dock head, from May 1835 to December 1840.| In the paper which accompanies Captain Ross's tables. Dr. Buist observed that the amount of information respecting the tides of the west coast of India was then singularly meagi-e in amount and incom- plete in kind. Great tidal iiTcgularities prevail at Mahim, Tannah, Panwell, and Nagotna ; and there are remarkable local cuiTcnts de- pendent upon tides, but none of these phenomena have been carc- fvQly observed. Fvu'ther ii'regularities are said to have been subse- quently caused in the tides by the construction of the Bandora and IMahim causeway. Tide registers were kept by the Surveyors of the Indian Navy, and were always sent in with the field books and jom"nals of the respec- tive ships. These have never been published ; but the tide tables, annually issued at the Admiralty, give the time of high water at the full and change of the moon, and the ranges of tides at springs and neaps, for 98 places on the coast of India. The geographical arrange- ment of the table foUows nearly the same order as the progress of the • " -Journal, Bombay G. S., vi., p. 235. ■f " Observations made at the Bombay Observatory," by Capt. Montriou and Lieut. Fcrgussun. (Bombay 4to.) See those for 1847 and 1862 especially. J " Journal, Bombay G. S., vi., p. 243. TIDES ON THE WEST COAST OF INDIA. 229 great tidal wave from S.W. to N.E.* The tidal wave strikes Western Ilindostaii, from the west, at right angles to the mean du-ection of the shore line, thus causing very little difference in the times of high water along the whole length of coast, except when tlic wave has to rim up indentations of the land, such as the gulfs of Camhay and Cutch. From Mangalore to Jyghur (100 miles south of Bomhay) no tidal stream is ohservcd along the coast, except just off the mouths of rivers ;t hut along the Northern Concan the flood stream sets to the north, and increases until, in the gulf of Camhay, it finishes with the well-known hore which was described hy Lieutenant Ethcrsey. This tidal hore sets in like a sti-aight wall of water with a head 5 or G feet high, each suceeediag wave decreasing more and more, until the Avholc gulf is reduced to the same level ■\vith the sea outsidc.J South of Mangalore the flood stream is from the X-W. Kurrachec and Porbunder receive the tidal wave earlier than any other parts of India ; and thence the flood tide sets eastward along the coast of Sind and Cutch, north above Porbimdor, and south-east along the Kattiwar coast to Diu head. Off Din head there are frequent eddies caused by the ebb stream of the gulf of Camhay running westward, while the flood stream, from Porbunder is running to the east. Captain Taylor has suggested other causes for tidal irregularities. Where evaporation is so great as it is in the Indian seas, there are doubtless local movements of the ocean dependent on that cause. At Cochin the stream, flowing into the backwater, is sometimes con- stant for twenty hom*s, although the regular but inconsiderable rise and fall has been marked on the tide guage.§ It was also observed by Captain Taylor that, in the S.W. monsoon, in the harbours on the west coast of India, more especially in Jy- ghur, Viziadroog, and Carwar, the water in the daytime was on a higher level by 2 or 3 feet than in the dry season. The three ahove- * See " Findlay's Directory for the Navigation of the Indian Seas " (2d cd. 1870) p. 77. Imray's " Seaman's Guide to the Navigation of ihe Indian Ocean ;" and " Horsburgh's Indian Directory." f "The West Coast of II iudostan Pilot," compiled i>y Commander A. D. Taylor, I.N. (1866) p. 8. J " R. G. S. Journal," viii. p. 96 and p., "02. For a notice of Lieut. Kihersey's Survey, see p. 18. § " Taylor's West Coast Pilot," p. 8. A tidiil register was kept :it Cochin so long ago iis when Dr. Ruist wrote his reuiurks in IH'M — Bumbui/ (.!.S, Joiinml, vi. p. 250. 230 TIDAL OBSEUVATIONS. mentioned ports are formed by points of land running out to seaward on their southern sides. Captain Taylor suggests that the great body of water brought down by the rivers, at that season, is stopped by the force of the monsoon blowing upon the shore, and that the observed phenomenon of the water in these harbours being at a higher level in the rain is thus partially accounted for. Mr. William Parkes, the Consulting Engineer of the Kurrachee Harbour Works, has computed very accurate tide tables, both for that port and for Bombay. His data for Kurrachee were sets of observations taken at ]N[anora Pomt from December 1857 to March 1858, and at Keamari from March 1st to August 31st, 1865. His calculations were made with a view to determining the laws which govern the tides of the Indian seas, where the diiu-nal in- equality gives to alternate tides an elevation or depression in height, and an acceleration or retardation in time. The theory of these diurnal inequalities has been elaborately investigated by the Astro- nomer lioyal and others. The desideratum is to bring the art of tidal prediction for Indian ports, where there is a large diurnal inequality, to the same degree of precision as has been arrived at in the case of English tides, Avhere the ii'regularity is unimportant. At Kurrachee the diurnal inequality sometimes affects high water to the extent of two hours and low Avater 40 minutes, and as regards height, as much as 12 inches at high and 30 at low water. These effects are far too great to be neglected in the prediction of tides. Mr. Parkes based his investigation on the fact that the diiu-nal inequality was caused by a diiu-nal tide which alternately raises and depresses, accelerates and retards, the semi-diurnal tides ; and the problem was to find the relation between the movements of the sim and moon, and the varying times and heights of this diurnal tide. The result of the calculations has been very satisfactory ; and the rules for the prediction of tides for the port of KuiTachee have been (bawn up, and the tables computed, by combining the semi-diurnal and diumal tides.* The tidal observations at Kvirrachee, taken at Manora Point by a self-acting register in charge of Mr. Humby, since 1865, are now becoming of great value, at a very small cost ; * "Report on the tides of the Port of Kurrachee," by W. Parkes, Esq., C.E. 1866. See also a paper road before the Royal Society, " On the Tides of Boiiibay and Kurrachee," by William Parkes, M. Inst., C.E.-l'/ii/. Trans. IsfiS^ xxix., p. 685. Mr. Parkes has computed the Tide Tables for Kurrachee and Bombay for tlie years 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, and 1871. T^VBLES BY MR. PARKES. 231 and have served to suggest fm-thcr corrections in the formulae hy which the tables are calculated. The data used hy ]Mr. Parkes for his Bomhay tide tables were the registers taken at the Colaha observatory by the self-acting tide gauge in 1816. From these materials the Bombay Time Tables are computed, and Mr. Parkes, in his report, gives the modifications necessary for making the rules given for the prediction of tides at Kurrachcc applicable to Bombay, as well as a diagram of curves of semi-monthly inequalities of time and height. The Bombay Tables have been compared with tidal observations taken from January 28th to June 4th, 18G7, by Mr. Ormiston, the Government engineer of reclamations, by direct reading from a graduated staff at every ten minutes. Su- William Thomson, using materials fm-nished by Mr. Parkes as part of the basis of his argument, has suggested a new mode of investigating tidal observations, which is being worked out imder the auspices of a Committee of the British Association.* It is very important that the investigation of the laws of the tides of the Indian seas shoidd be extended to other ports than Bombay and Km-rachee, both from a purely scientific and from a practical point of view. But so incredibly long does it take for such measures to pass from the stage of discussion to that of action that the sug- gestions of Dr. "Whewell, made in 1832, and the importance of which were fuUy recognized by the Government of India at the time, have borne little fruit. Mr. Parkes, the value of whose accurate tide tables are fully appreciated at Kurrachcc and Bombay, has recently renewed the attempt of Dr. WhcAvell. He lu-ges that a series of obsen'ations, extending over twelve months, should be taken at several judiciously chosen points round the coast ; and that a competent person should be appointed to the special duty of systematically collating these observations, deducing fi'om them formuhe for the computation of tide tables, and annually issuing the tables. Such an investigation woidd be as valuable to pi-actical seamen as to men of science. • "Reports, British Association," 1868, 1870, 232 XV.— ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS IN INDIA. " A laudable ciu'iosity prompts to inquii'c the sources of knowledge, " and a review of its progress furnislies suggestions tending to pro- " mote the same or some kindred study. We would know the " names at least of the individuals to whom wo owe successive steps " in the advancement of knowledge." Tlie above remark is equally applicable to all the sections of this memoir, but it was made by Mr. Colcbrooke, when he iatroduced the ancient Indian astronomers, and opened his dissertation upon thoir systems. Of all the sciences Avliich have been cultivated in India under the auspices of the Go- vernment, astronomy alone has a history which goes back ages before the English occupation, and which requires, in this enumeration of those to whom, in India, we owe successive steps in the advance- ment of knowledge, a wider range than is included within the last centuiy. Renncll and Voyscy, the fathers of Indian geography and geology, flourished Avithin the memory of living men ; but we must go back to the 5th century for the era of Aryabhata, the sage who stands at the fountain head of the history of Indian astronomy. Aryabhata must have flourished before the sixth centui*}'. He aflBi-med the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, accounting for it by a current of aerial fluid, extending to a height of 114< miles above the earth's surface ; and he calculated the earth's circumfer- ence to be 25,080 miles. He believed the moon and primary pla- nets to be dark, and only illumined by the sun ; and he possessed the true theory of lunar and solar eclipses. He is also the earliest autlior that is known to have treated of algebra.* In his Surya Siddhanta he deduced from observations the values of the mean motions of the sun, moon, and planets, and of tlicir apsides and nodes, and calculated eclipses. Mr. William Spottiswoode at one time had an intention of translating the Surya Siddhanta, and he has actually enabled an * Colebrooke on Indian algebra. EAllLY HINDOO AND ARAB ASTRONOMERS. 233 enquirer to vuiderstancl the ancient astronomer's system, by giving his rules in modern mathematical language and formula).* Vahara-miliira, another astronomer, flourished in the generation after Aiyahhata. Brahmegupta, who wrote in 628. A.D., set himself the task of cor- recting the earlier system, which had ceased to agree with the phe- nomena, and of reconciling computation with observation. His Brahma Siddhanta, in 21 chapters, contains calculations of the mean motions and true places of the planets, of lunar and solar eclip- ses, of the rising and setting of planets, of the position of the moon's cusps, and of observations of altitudes by the gnomon. The princi- ples of his astronomical system are given in a compendious treatise on spherics. He frequently quotes from Aryabhata. Bhaseara, a later astronomer, completed his work on algebra, arith- metic, and mensuration in about 1150 A.D.f The systems of the earlier of the ancient Hindu sages were com- municated to the astronomers of the court of the Abbasside Caliph Almamun at Baghdad ; and the knowledge derived from this source, combined Avitli the learning of Ptolemy, after beuig cultivated by the more enlightened sovereigns of Central Asia, came back again to India, with tlie descendants of Timour. The Arabs began to study astronomy under the Caliph Almamim, and in 827 the iUmagest was translated into Ai-abic. Al Batany, the most celebrated of their astronomers, noticed errors in the posi- tions of stars in Ptolemy's catalogue, in consequence of that astro- nomer's error "oith regard to the precession of the equinoxes ; and in 882 he determined the amount of this precession with greater aecm"acy. Dr. iialley calls Al Batany " Vh- admirandi aceiuninis • " On the Surya Suldhanta, and the Hindu method of calcuhiting eclipses, by " William Spottiswoode." (1863.) Joiirn. I{. A. S.,xx., p. 345. Dr. Bhau Duji wrote "Brief notes on the age and authenticity of the works of Aryabhata." Joiirii. li. A. X i., (N.S.) xiv., p. 322. See also Dr. Kern — " On some fragments of Aryabhata." Joiini. N. A. S., xx., p. 375. Lassen's " Indische Altfrihumskunde,"' ii., p. 113(5. Burgess's translation of Aryabhata, and Fitz Edward llall on the Arya Siddhanta, in the Jnnrnul of the American Oriental Society, vi., pp. 14o-oo9. Bentley's " Histori- cal View of Hindu Astronomy" (London 1825.) Airs. IManning's "Ancient and rae- uireval India," i., 362. f " Algelira, with arithmetic and mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahmegupta " and Bhaseara. Translated by H. T. Colebrooke," (Murray, 4to 1817.) 23d) ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. " ac in administranclis observationibus cxorcitatissimus." Ebn Yoimis observed tbrce eclipses atCairo betwcen977and979, and Aboul Wefa, Avlio died in OSG, composed a catalogue of the fixed stars.* The learning thus fostered on the banks of the Tigris spread to the east and west,t and the Mongol Holagou Khan established an obser- vatory at Maraga in Azerbijan, where Xasr Eddin composed his Eelkhanee tables in the thirteenth centmy. TJlvigh Beg, the grandson of Timoiir, -nas for many years governor of Mawer-ul-nahr during the reign of his virtuous father Shah lloldi, and reigned himself from 14;17 imtil he was assassinated by his own son in ILid. Ulugh Beg attracted to his com*t all the most celebra- ted astronomers, from various parts of the world, lie erected a col- lege and observatory at Samarcand at which a hundred people Avero constantly occupied in the pursuits of science ; and among other instruments he had a quadrant, the radius of which equalled in length the height of the dome of St. Sophia. J Having found that cer- tain stars in Ptolemy's catalogue, reduced to his own epoch, did not coincide with observations made at Samarcand, Ulugh Beg and his learned assistants undertook to re-observe the whole of the stars in Ptolemy's catalogue, and to construct a new set of astronomical tables. This was ultimately accomplished. The tables, called Zig Uliiffh Beg, are divided into four parts, referring to treatises on epochs and eras, on the knOAvlcdge of time, on the coiu'scs of planets, and on the positions of fixed stars. Ulugh Beg re-observcd all Ptolemy's * " Asiatic Miscellany, i., p. 34. ■f Abu Ol)oy(lali Moslonia, a native of Madrid, who bad studied in the east, was the most renowned astronomer of" Mobammcdan Spain. lie was well acquainted wilb the movements of the heavenly bodies. He reformed the kiblali, giving the true bearing of Mecca from Spain, and his work on the manner of constructing and using astrolabes is preserved in the library of the Escurial. He is also said to have translated the Al- magest of Ptolemy, and to have constructed some excellent astronomical tables. See an account of his life in Casiri, ]., p. 378. c. 2., and ii., p. 147. c. 2. and Ga>/aiir/os's Al Makknri, i., pp. 149, 427, 465. Moslema died at Cordova in 1007 A.D. ; so that he was the contemporary of the eastern astronomers Ebn Younis and Aboul Wcfa. % At least so the Turks, who had it from Persians of credit, told Professor Greaves. But Mr. Baily thinks it was more probably a gnomon. The Spanish Ambassador, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo was at Samarcand thirty years or more before Clugh IJeg built his observatory. This is to be regretted, as Clavijo described all he saw at Samarcand very minutely. See "Narrative of the Embassy of Clavijo to the court of Timour," translated and edited, with a life of Timour, by Clements R. Markham, (printed for the Hakluyt Society, 185y.,) p. 169. ULUGH BEG. 235 stars but 27, whicli were too far south to be visil)lc at Samarcand.* One of these was Soheil or Canopus, a star which was first seen by the great Timouricle astronomer's cousin Babcr, when lie crossed the Hindoo Koosh, on his Avay to bring the learning of Aryabhata, increased by that of Ptolemy and Ulugh Beg, back to its native source on the plains of Hindoostan. Thus the Timouride emiicrors at Delhi boasted of a famous astronomer among their collateral ancestors ;f but none of the family had since turned their attention to the subject, and it was from among the Hajpoot princes, Avhose valour was a main support of the Delhi throne, that the greatest Indian astronomer since the days of Aryabhata was to arise. The rajahs of Dhoondar, of the race of Cuchwaha Rajpoots, and descended from Rama the king of Ayodya, were the first among the native rulers who became vassals of Mo- hammedan emperors. Bhagwandas, the Prince of Dhoondar, was the friend of the great Akbar, and his daughter married Akbar's son, the Emperor Jelianghir. Maun Sing, another Dhoondar Prince was the most brilliant coiuticr and the most successful general at the Delhi com"t. Jey Sing, the great astronomer, succeeded as Rajah of Dhoondar in 1699, and was famous as a general and a statesman, but above aU as a man of science. Amber was the ancient capital of his state, but in 1728 he founded another capital, the only one in India which is built on a regular plan, Avith streets bisecting at right angles ; and he called it after himself — Jcyporc. It is six miles from Amber, which is included in the lines of its fortifications. Under Mohammed Shah of DeUii, the Rajah Jey * The tables of Ulugh Beg were first brought to the knowledge of Europeans by the greut orientalist and matheniiiticiun, -John Greaves, Savilian Professor at Oxford, 1642-48. Sou " Life of Greaves, and miscellaneous works," 2 vols. 8vo, 17.37 (London.) Dr. Tliomas Hyde also translated and published the whole catalogue in 1665, with an account of the life of Ulugh Jiog. "TabuUu long, ac hit. Stellarum fixarum ex obscr- vatione Ulugh Beighi, Tamerlanis niagni nepotis," &c., 1 vol. 4to, Oxon. 166o. Tho work was reprinted, with corrections, by Siiarpo. in 1767. M. Sedillot translated tho tables of Ulugh lieg, with the preliminary discourse. In 1S43 was printed in vol. xili. of the Memoirs oftlic Astronomical Sncic/i/ : — " The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulun-h " Beigli, Tycho Brahe, Ilalley and Hcvetius," with a preface to each catalogue by Fran- cis Baily. The Ulugh Beg tables here given arc reprinted from Sliarpe's edition of Hyde; which is from a collation of tiirce Persian MSS. at Oxford. See also, "Asiatic Miscellanies," i., p. 51. Kinneir often (piotes the tables of Ulugh Beg, in determinin"- the latitudes of places in Persia. t Ulugh Beg was a first cousin of Baber's great grandfather. 236 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, Sing served as Subadar of Agra and Malwa, and he was also chosen to construct a new sot of tables to supersede those of TJlugh Beg. They were called Zig Mohammedshahy, in honour of the emperor^ and Avere completed in 1728. The instruments formerly in use appear to have been in brass, but they did not come up to Jey Sing's ideas of accuracy, owing to the smallness of their size, to then* imperfect graduation, to the shaking and shifting of their planes, and to the wearing of the axes, lie therefore, invented enormous instruments of his own, of masonry work ; and to confirm and check the truth of the observations, he formed live observatories, each with a complete set of instruments, at Delhi, Jeypore, Muttra, Benares, and Oojein. Those at Delhi have been minvitcly described by Dr. Hunter,* and Sir Robert Barker! has given an account of the instruments at Benares, with illustrations. The Dellii observatory was outside the walls of the toAvn. The large equatorial dial is of stone, witli edges of Avhite marble for graduation. The gnomon in the centre is 56 feet 9 inches high. A masonry Avall has a graduated semicircle for taking altitudes of bodies east and west, from the eye. Ajiother is in the plane of the meridian, having a double quadrant described in it, with the two upper corners of the wall as centres, for obsen'ing altitudes of bodies passing the meridian north or south of the zenith. One degree on these quadrants is 2f inches long, and the degrees arc divided into minutes. Tlierc are also two buildings of peculiar construction, for takini; simultaneous observations of the altitudes and azimuths of heavenly bodies. At Oojein observatory there was a double mm-al quadi-ant on a wall 27 feet high, and 2G feet long. On the west side of the wall there was a stair to the summit, and the east side was smooth and gradu- ated. At the top, near the comers, were tAVO iron spikes, 25 feet 1 inch from each other ; and with these spikes as centres, and a radius equal to then- distance, tAA'o arcs of 90", intersecting each other, are graduated on the AA^all. The diA"isions are into G", 1", G', and 1'. By this instrument Jey Sing, avIio, as Subadar of Mahva, had a palace at Oojein, made the latitude 23" 10' N. Dr. Hunter, • "Asiatic Researclies," v., p. 177. f " Philosopliical Transactions," vol. 69, pt. 2, p. ii. The BeiiaiTs Observatory is also described, with wood cuts nfthc instruments, in Dr. Hooker's Journal. JEY SING. 237 l)y several careful oLsei'vatious, made it 23" 10' 24" N. Oojein appears to have been the prime meridian of early niiidu geogra- phers.* At Muttra the instruments were on the roof of a room in the fort, and were small and imperfect ; but at Benares they were large, and equal to those at Delhi and Oojein. A drawing of the beautiful balcony of Jey Sing's observatory at Benares is given by James Priiisep, and the masonry equatorial dial at Delhi is aiiioug the di-a wings engraved by Daniell.t Jey Sing, with his instruments at Delhi, determined the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 23" 28' in 1729, within a year of Godin's deter- mination, which only differed 1)y 28". The great Rajpoot astro- nomer also constructed a table of the daily places of stars, and, hearing that other tables had been previously published in Europe, he sent skilful persons to Portugal, with a certain Father Manuel, to procure them. Xavier da Silva was despatched to India with the tables of De la Hire, the first edition of which had been published in 1680 and the second in 1702. Jey Sing also had Euclid and Napier's logarithms translated into Sanscrit. His o\\ti tables, which were completed in 1728, give the mean longitude and motions of the sun and of his apogee for 30 years, equation of time, and the motions of the moon and planets. Down to Colonel Tod's time, all computations were made and almanacks constructed by the tables of Jey Sing. This great and wise prince intended to have completed his career, by getting up the asioameda yuga, or horse sacrifice. After a reign of 43 years he died in 1718, aud three of his wives ascended the funereal pyre, on which Hindu science expu-ed with him. J Dr. Hunter was acquainted with a grandson of Vidhyadhur, a Jain, and one of the chief coadjutoi's of Jey Sing, who inherited his ancestor's learning and traditions. Dr. Hunter himself, as well as Colonel Pearse aud others, towards the end of the last century, took many astronomical observations, but they were made more for the pm-poscs of a survey than in the interests of pm-e astronomy, and • Sec Lieut. ConoUy's paper on Oojein — J. A. S. B. (1837) p. 813. f Plates xix. and xx. ISee also " Life in ancient India," by Mr. Spiers, pp. 422 aud 460. Dr. Hunter gives a complete translation ol' the preface to Jey Sing's tables, with the original text. — Asiatic lit'scarr/ics, v., p. 177. I For a very interesting account of Joy Sing, his family, and his principality, see Toits liajasUiun, ii., p. 345. 238 ASTROXOMTCAL OBSEHVATTOXS. have already been noticed. Colonel Hodgson, the Surveyor General of India from 1821 to 1827, was an astronomer, and a series of transi': observations were made vmder bis su])orintendencc at Cal- cutta.* lie also determined tbe longitudes of Calcutta, Madras, and Futtehgurh, by lunar transits, and eclipses of Jupiter's first sateUite ; tbe diifercnce bet\tcen bis Madras result, and tbat of tbe astronomer Goldingbam, l)eing less than a second of timc.f Tbe King of Oude established an observatory at Lucknow on a considerable scale, and Major Herbert was induced to hand over bis editorial labours at Calcutta to James Prinsep, and take charge of it in 1832, but ho died at Lucknow on September 2 Ith, 1833. This obscrvatoiy was supplied with a mural circle of six feet, an eight feet transit, and an cquatoreal by Troughton and Simms. In about 184il Major Wilcox assumed charge of it, and made a valua- ble series of observations with tbe help of native assistants ; but be died in October 1818, and in 1819 tbe King of Oude abolished the observatory. The records were gradually eaten away by insects, and when the mutinies broke out, the instruments were destroyed.! Thus all tbe work of this once first class obsei*vatory has been lost to the Avorld, and its records have perished without rendering any result to science. The Madras Observatory has been the centre of astronomical work during the British occupation of India. It was founded in the days of Su' Thomas Munro, and has ever since been directed by a succession of able astronomers. Besides the value of tbe work that has been performed at Madras to astronomical science, the observatory is specially important because tbe longitudes of tbe Great Trigonometrical Survey depend on the meridian passing tlu'ougb it. The various determinations of the Madras Longitude, with reference to the Survey, have akeady been discussed in a pre- vious section of this Memoir ; and it is here only proposed to give a brief sketch of the other laboius of tbe astronomers. * "Transactions of the Astronomical Societj, iii., pt. ii., p. 358. f Hodgson's was ."ili. 21in. 8-64s. Goldiugham's oh. 21in. 9'4s. John Anthony Hodgson was born at Bishop Auckhxndou July 2i;d, 1777, and was educated at Durham. He went to India, as a cadet, in 1799, and in 1817 was selected, with Herbert, to survey the sources of the Ganges and Jumna. He was Surveyor General fiom 1821 to 1827. lu 184o he went out to India again as Major General of tlic Rohiicuud Division, and died at Umballa on the 28th of March 1848. I Report by Major Tcnuaut. — Protcc(li/i(/s of the Asirvnomicul Soc'wti/, xvii., p. 63. MADRAS OBSEKVATOUV. 239 The Madras series of observations commenced in 1787, and the observatory building was erected in 171)2, and furnished with a 20-incli transit, and a 12-incli altitude and azimuth instrument by Trouii'hton. Mr. John Goldin^liam was the first astronomer ; and his labom-s have already been noticed, in the discussion on the longitude of Madras,* He was an antiquary and an architect, as well as an astronomer ; and wi'ote papers on the seven pagodas, and on the cave of Elephanta. He also built the banqueting room at Madras. He retu-cd in 1830, and died at Worcester, at an advanced age, in 1819.1 Thomas Glanville Taylor, who succeeded Mr. Goldingham, was born at Ashburton, in Devonshire, on November 22nd, 1801; a year before his father Thomas Taylor was appointed Assistant to Dr. Maskelyne at Greenwich. Young Taylor was brought up as an astronomer, and in 1822 he was placed on the establishment of the Royal Observatory, taking charge of the night transit observations. He also gave Sabine much assistance in bis pendulum operations. In the spring of 1830, at the recommendation of Mr. Pond, then Astronomer Eoyal, he was appointed to the charge of the Macbas obsci-vatory. At the same time a new five-foot transit instriunent was supplied, and Mr. Taylor began his series of observations of moon culniinating stars with it, in 1831-33, whence a new deter- mination of the longitude of Madras was obtained. J * Sco page 49. f His livljours at tho obsprvjitory aie |iiiiittcl in ,'> folio volumes : — " Astronoiniciil Observations," by Jolin (Joldiiigliam, 4 vols. (foL), Madras l,S2o-27. " Madras Observatory Papers," by John Gol