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 III. 
 
 JOHN RUSK IN 
 
 ECONOMIST 
 
 EDINBURGH : WILLIAM BROWN 
 26 PRINCES STREET 
 
 MDCCCLXXXIV 
 
/'~\F old sang Chaucer of the Flower and Leaf : 
 N-X The mii'thful singer of a golden time ; 
 
 And szveet birds' song throughout his daisied rhyme 
 Rang fearless ; for our cities held no grief 
 
 Dumb in their blackened hearts beneath the grime 
 Of factory and furnace, atid the sheaf 
 
 J J 'as borne in gladness at the harvest-time. 
 So now the Seer would quickeji our belief : 
 
 ' Life the green leaf saith he, ' and Art the flower. 
 Blow winds of heaven about the hearts of men, 
 
 Come love, and hope, and helpfulness, as ivhen 
 On fainting vineyard falls the freshening shozver : 
 
 Fear not that life may blossom yet again, 
 A nobler beauty from a purer power I ' 
 
 434522 
 
J^HN RUSKIN. 
 
 THE surprise, perplexity, and sometimes indeed 
 exasperation with which so many of even the 
 more sympathetic of Mr. Ruskin's earher readers and 
 critics have received his recent works must be 
 frankly admitted, and as far as possible accounted for. 
 To most people, ordinary difficulties, such as are 
 exhibited by other authors, whether of unconvention- 
 ality of thought, profundity of learning, or intricacy 
 of style, are far exceeded by the personal one — -of 
 interpreting what seems an unreasonable and violent 
 change of career. They hear of a veteran art teacher, 
 critic, and man of letters suddenly casting aside his 
 hard-won laurels, resuming the weapons with which 
 in his youth he had hardly slain the small art-critics 
 of the magazines, dashing off into apparently the most 
 remote of all possible fields, that of political economy, 
 casting down his glove in challenge among its sturdy 
 and sober cultivators, loudly proclaiming their patiently- 
 o^athered harvest mere tares and darnel, hurlingf blazine 
 pamphlets into the overflowing granaries of their 
 science, and charging with fiery impetuosity against 
 its massive loo'ic mills. 
 
 It is not, then, to be wondered at, if the bystanders, 
 mostly plain common-sense people, who think that 
 art and political economy are no doubt all very well, 
 
2-^ ; •, ., yo/ni Ruslcin. 
 
 but will get on best, as they themselves have done, by 
 mindin<^ their own business and letting that of other 
 folks alone, sec in this would-be-delivering knight only 
 the latest avatar of the truly immortal hero of Cer- 
 vantes, and so either join merrily in the hooting, or 
 pass by in sorrow, as their own moral temper happens 
 to incline. Even from those who love progress so 
 warmly as not to be deterred by the strange appear- 
 ance of the new reformer, and who seek the out-of- 
 the-way village where costly books are published for 
 poor men, we gather tidings of the establishment for 
 the hundredth time of a new Utopia, — surely at most an 
 ominous sign that the leaven of economic heresy, 
 which is spreading so fast on the Continent and in 
 America, and w^ith such grim results of Socialism and 
 Communism, of Nihilism and Anarchy, is in our quiet 
 industrial community too, and will henceforth work. 
 The student, indeed, who has learned from Bismarck, 
 Hildebrand, or Lassalle, statesman, professor, and 
 radical alike, that our German neighbours are bent 
 upon giving Socialism a trial, and are only delayed by 
 the discussion of comparative details, may read on in 
 hopes of some luminous suggestions ; but what is to 
 be learned or hoped from a man who speaks con- 
 temptuously of all the highest practical achievements 
 of the nineteenth century ? For him is not its science 
 either of mere mechanism or evolutionary nonsense ; 
 its physics and mathematics mere aids to railroad 
 and telegraph making ; its chemistry and biology mere 
 disgusting curiosity about stinks and bones ; — its 
 splendid development of modern commerce and 
 fmance is little better than complex thieving ; the 
 steam engine is a filthy nuisance, never to set wheel 
 on St. George's lands ; our vast and prosperous 
 
yohn Ruskiii. 3 
 
 industrial cities are so many working models of hell ; 
 nay, even our hard -won system of education with its 
 clear practical aims is to make way for schools with a 
 curriculum of Latin, and botany, and the history of 
 Florence ! Here, surely, we have a clue to the right 
 critical estimate. Our would-be economist is but an 
 artist born out of his proper mediaeval time ; his mourn- 
 ful jeremiads, nay, whole books of lamentations, with 
 their wailing retrospects of the good old times, and 
 their bitterly pessimist prophecies, far out-Carlyling 
 Carlyle, are perhaps natural for him, but clearly useless 
 for us ; so let us either take what amuses us in the 
 art books, say the scenery in " Modern Painters," 
 to which considerable merit of style is undeniable, 
 or if we find even that as well done in novels now-a- 
 days, let him alone altogether. 
 
 Such is, probably, a fair statement of the opinions to 
 which a very large number of the reading public have 
 steadily settled down : a minority, however, still dissent 
 more or less completely from this estimate, and appeal 
 for a new reading, apparently in confident hope of 
 ultimately obtaining a less unfavourable judgment. 
 Deceived though the latter class may be by mere 
 rhetorical finish and sentimental glow, we cannot, in 
 the interest of fair play, refuse to give them a new 
 hearing, or to briefly re-examine for ourselves the 
 economic position of Mr. Ruskin, and that of the 
 orthodox English economist, who is the more especial 
 object of his attacks. But let it be clearly understood 
 that the writer is no grateful art-student, if such there 
 be ; still less any enthusiastic Guildsman of St. George, 
 eager to do battle for his master ; but a quiet student 
 of science and economics, one of those scholars of 
 Huxley and Darwin, of Spencer and Comte, of whom 
 
4 y oJui Rusk in. 
 
 Mr. Ruskin has so often spoken other than smooth 
 things. One aim, however, is clearly avowed — an aim 
 characteristic of all the essays of the present series — 
 that of attempting to substitute the scientific for the 
 literary method of criticism. The ordinary journalistic 
 method of criticising a book like Mr. Ruskin's " Fors 
 Clavigera," namely, that of quoting only some web of 
 paradox or burst of passion, is at once dishonest to the 
 author and misleading to the reader. The scientific 
 attitude should be the precise reverse of this. The 
 student, if genuinely trained at all, soon lays aside the 
 slim text-book which incompletely summarizes the 
 facts of his science from one author's own narrow 
 standpoint, and learns to work his way dispassionately 
 through the vast literature which lies behind it ; often 
 wearily wading through shallow seas of verbiage, or 
 toiling patiently through deserts of details, useless and 
 numberless as the sand ; now silently evading some 
 dismal swamp of error, often crushing a whole stony 
 volume for a few grains of genuine gold. Nuggets 
 indeed there are, but never gold-beds nor Aladdin 
 palaces, and even the traveller's own hard-won 
 treasure will need refining and re-refining by his 
 intellectual heirs. So then if we agree to take up the 
 scientific attitude, if, instead of collecting curiosities 
 of apparent or real error leaving the truth behind, we 
 seek to gather out of these masses of new and strange 
 thought whatever we find, on fair analysis, to be true 
 metal, we are ready to begin gold washing. 
 
 But, before making any further analysis of our 
 heretical economist, we must obtain some basis of 
 comparison and ascertain something of the orthodox 
 ones, whom (disregarding of course their many minor 
 differences), we may take as fairly represented in the 
 
Jo Jul Ruskin. 5 
 
 domain of practical life by statesmen like Lord 
 Sherbrooke, John Bright, or the Duke of Argyll ; or 
 again, by the majority of the economic professoriate 
 of Britain, among whom it is hardly necessary to 
 recall such distinguished names as Stanley Jevons or 
 Sidgwick, Bonamy Price or Hodgson, Fawcett or Levi, 
 Here, surely, is a school of thinkers of whom our 
 country may be justly proud, men of high education 
 and honourable aims, who have not only brought to 
 the investigation of their subject an intellectual subtlety 
 and force unsurpassed by the students of any science, 
 and to its exposition a calm logical clearness and 
 precision which their colleagues in university or 
 senate might, for the most part, well envy, but, when 
 opportunity for practical action has been given them, 
 have often seemed to unite the best qualities of indus- 
 trialist and theorician, of statesman and philanthropist. 
 
 This, then, we may surely regard as an ideal 
 scientific school, that may well claim to take rank 
 with those of geology or biology, medicine or en- 
 gineering, which have been doing such splendid work 
 during the last generation. Many fully allow this 
 claim, many perhaps ignore ; yet to its full recognition 
 one difficulty alone arises, which, though seemingly of 
 small importance alike to the economist and to the 
 public, is serious enough from our present scientific 
 standpoint to need brief examination. 
 
 Without going over all the stages by which the 
 place of economics among the sciences has been 
 defined by philosophers, the reader may be reminded I 
 that loo^ic and mathematics, dealingf with the abstract 
 relations of quality and quantity, underlie and precede 
 the physical, natural, and social sciences ; that of these 
 physics and chemistry are antecedent to the strictly 
 
6 JoJni Riiskin. 
 
 biological group (which incUidcs zoology, botany, 
 physiology, etc), while the social sciences, having for 
 their subject the phenomena presented by those 
 organisms, which, like bees and ants, beavers and 
 men, live in communities, are obviously founded upon 
 tlie whole preceding mass of knowledge,- which is 
 accordingly grouped under the convenient title of 
 " Preliminary Sciences." In other words, the success- 
 ful treatment of the social science requires not merely 
 a discipline in mathematics, as some suppose, still less 
 mere training in academic metaphysic and dialectic — 
 which is all that so many bring to the task — but some 
 sound knowledge of living beings and of the physical 
 laws to which they are subject. 
 
 While the details of this classification of the sciences 
 are, among philosophers, the subject of a dispute — 
 happily of no consequence here, — it is accepted for all 
 essential practical purposes, alike in the organisation 
 of learned societies and in the scientific curriculum of 
 universities, that is to say, in the actual teaching and 
 learning of the world. Now the difficulty in fully 
 recoQi'nisinQ:" the British economists as scientific lies in 
 the existence, during the past generation, if not indeed 
 during the entire century, of the most complete state 
 of war between the economists on the one hand, and 
 the cultivators of the preliminary sciences on the 
 other. This is evidenced not merely by the almost 
 complete suspension of relations between the two 
 camps, or by the fact that only here and there a 
 scientific society accepts economic communications, 
 but also by the frequent occurrence of positive battle. 
 A convenient recent instance of this is afforded by the 
 history of what is after all our most representative 
 scientific parliament— the British Association. This 
 
John Ruskin. 7 
 
 body divides its labours broadly in accordance with 
 the classification of the sciences above referred to into 
 sections, respectively entitled — {a) Mathematics and 
 physics ; {b) chemistry ; {c) geology ; {d) biology 
 (including anthropology) ; {c) economics and statistics, 
 together with (/") geography, and {g) mechanical 
 science ; the former being separated from geology for 
 convenience sake, and the latter being exclusively 
 concerned with the practical applications of science. 
 
 The scientific sections of the British Association 
 are well known to be much less sternly scientific than 
 the respective special societies, while the economic 
 section, on the other hand, bears a decidedly more 
 serious and thorough character than kindred bodies, 
 such as the Social Science Congress. Yet so little 
 have the students of the preliminary sciences respected 
 the discussions of their economic brethren, that their 
 dissatisfaction culminated, in 1876, in an active 
 attempt to excommunicate the latter, to cut off the 
 Economic Section, root and branch, as no better than 
 a disgrace to a scientific association. (This almost 
 total failure of the section to accomplish any scientific 
 work was avowed with the most startling frankness by 
 its president, Mr. Grant Duff, in an opening address 
 at the jubilee meeting of the Association in 1881, 
 which is worth reading, as being pretty certainly the 
 least jubilant historical retrospect ever made by any 
 learned body whatever). To avert an expulsion, which 
 would have so grievously discredited political economy 
 in the public eye, the section sought an apologist, and 
 wisely selected Mr. Ingram of Dublin as its president 
 for 1878. Mr. Ingram delivered a masterly address, 
 which, in Mr. Grant Duff's retrospect, is rightly 
 described as " the most elaborate and brilliant to 
 
8 John Riiskin. 
 
 which the section had ever h'stened." In this essay, 
 soon widely circulated throughout Europe, " On the 
 Present Position and Prospects of Political Economy," 
 although appointed to bless his economic brethren, he 
 well-nigh cursed them altogether, at once pleading 
 guilty for them to all the accusations of their scientific 
 assailants, and delivering a destructive criticism of the 
 past and present of British economics — a criticism 
 exceeding anything of that kind ever attempted by 
 Mr. Ruskin, as much in completeness as in calm. By 
 as ably vindicating, however, the claims of sociology 
 to its supreme place among the sciences, as by pro- 
 posing complete reforms, the attack upon the Economic 
 Section was skilfully averted, and it remains yet 
 awhile in hope of better fruit. Finally, three years 
 later, at the mournful jubilee above referred to, Mr. 
 Grant Duff, from the presidential chair, repeated, 
 extended, and enforced, all the criticisms and proposals 
 of Ingram, without a word of protest or even depreca- 
 tion. If, then, we can ascertain precisely what the 
 defects of our orthodox economists, as now exposed 
 and admitted, really are, we shall immediately be able 
 to examine not only Mr. Ruskin's heresies, but all 
 other cases of dissent, from a new stand-point, and by 
 Jt clearer light. 
 
 Political economy has often been popularly nicknamed 
 " the dismal science," but nothing can really be more 
 striking tlian the cheerful optimism of our orthodox 
 economist, who often gives, as Cairnes puts it, "a hand- 
 some ratification of the existing state of society as ap- 
 proximately perfect," for is it not determined by " im- 
 mutable law " ? and has not Adam Smith established 
 the harmony of a community under "enlightened self- 
 interest?" What could be more modern and scientific 
 
yohn Riiskin. 9 
 
 than this conception of harmonious law ? Yet not so ; 
 German economists have clearly shewn how the , 
 " Wealth of Nations " is no pure economic treatise, but / 
 subtly permeated, though the matter-of-fact British 
 reader may not notice it, with all the philosophy of its 
 author's day. This beautiful harmony of interests, in 
 short, has nothing in common with our grim modern 
 doctrine of the "Struggle for Existence;" it is identical 
 with the early teleological view which Darwin has ex- 
 pelled from biology ; it is the modern survival of Leib- 
 nitz's " Pre-established Harmony," and the exponent 
 of this as the "best of all possible worlds" turns out 
 to be the Dr. Pangloss, of " Candide." But the worthy 
 theologian has suffered so sorely at the hands of all his 
 critics that he dares only venture to assert " this is the 
 best of all possible worlds" from the economic rostrum. 
 
 This certainly is not encouraging, but we must not 
 let a trifling criticism of this sort prejudice us against 
 the economist ; we shall surely find him sound and 
 scientific in the main points of his science. What, 
 then, is its fundamental conception ? " Utility," 
 answers Mr. Jevons; "wealth," says Mr. Mill; and 
 these two definitions come to the same thing, for 
 wealth consists of " utilities fixed and embodied in 
 permanent objects." What surely can seem more 
 practical and more scientific than this conception of 
 utility ? What trace of obsolete philosophy can linger 
 here ? Alas ! strange as it may seem, the whole spirit 
 of mediaeval metaphysics. This utility, this central idea 
 of the economic " science," has nothing whatever to do 
 with science, and, whether in the hands of Bentham or 
 Mill, Jevons or Sherbrooke, it matters not, is essen- 
 tially a figment of antique scholasticism for all ! 
 
 For, observe, the conception of utility corresponds 
 
lo John Ruskin. 
 
 exactly to that of vitality in biology ; just as wealth is 
 utility fixed or embodied in permanent objects, so of 
 course oro^anisms were lono^ defined as vitalities fixed 
 and embodied in permanent objects. But the biologist 
 without any more doubting that organisms are alive 
 than that wealth is useful has long utterly scorned, 
 and, what is better, utterly abandoned the attempt to 
 make his science the study of vitality. While his 
 grandfather, the last century physician, commenced 
 with definitions of vitality, and talked much of animal 
 spirits, of humours and the like, he observes each 
 organism in its past and present relations in actual 
 space and time, analyses its structures, and inquires 
 how they work, generalises his observations, and then 
 is done. The old apothecary, too, explained that opium 
 made one sleep in virtue of its inherent dormitiveness 
 {^''virtus donnitiva''), but, thanks to Moliere, the pro- 
 fession has since learned that the fixture and embodi- 
 ment of an entity called dormitiveness into the 
 permanent object opium does not explain anything, 
 much less form the basis of a science of therapeutics : 
 the physician now simply observes and applies the 
 fact, and when asked why application of this curious 
 mixture of alkaloids should have this particular effect 
 frankly avows his ignorance, and sets about experi- 
 mentin£[. 
 
 So, too, the physicist, when he observes that water 
 only rises thirty-two feet in his pump, no longer appeals 
 to the " natural law " by which " nature abhors a 
 vacuum ;" he no longer explains the regular move- 
 ments of a watch by reference to its "horologity" or of 
 a jack by help of "an inherent meat-roasting 
 principle." The physicist and naturalist may well be 
 surprised to learn that the dormitiveness of opium and 
 
yohn Rtiskin. 1 1 
 
 the horologity of clocks, so far from having wholly 
 disappeared from modern thought into the history 
 of its emancipation, have actually been generalised into 
 a new entity — ''titility,'' and thus form the subject of 
 an inquiry, which its cultivators, indeed, describe as a 
 "hypothetical" or as an "abstract science," but which, 
 we see, requires the addition of the prefix " pseudo — ," 
 or the affix " falsely so called," for its more accurate 
 definition. 
 
 If space allowed, it would be easy to show how this 
 vicious tendency to invent abstractions instead of 
 workino- out o-eneralisations, runs throucrh the whole 
 subject. Thus the quantity of anything which happens 
 to be demanded, and the supply which happens to be 
 forthcoming, at a given place and time, are legitimate 
 and profitable objects for statistical and historical 
 research. These, the two real aspects of the subject, 
 however, are generally neglected, and by the simpler 
 process of spelling with capitals, "Supply and Demand " 
 become raised into the mysterious regulators of society 
 by means of "inexorable laws," and are thus, since 
 things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one 
 another, practically identical with the "Fate," "Kismet," 
 and " Providence " of Pagan, Mohammedan, and 
 Christian philosophers. Nor is the logic less quaintly 
 interesting than the metaphysics. The endless initial 
 squabbles about definitions, the old disputes whether 
 the inductive or deductive method alone is to be used, 
 as reasonable as if naturalists were to quarrel at the 
 outset of their studies whether eyes were to be bandaged 
 or hands tied, might all detain us. One favourite 
 practice we may conveniently describe as "generalis- 
 ation of the incongruous." The absurdity of the 
 jumbling of material things ABC, with immaterial 
 
1 2 yohn Riiskm. 
 
 things X y z, — intentional in such well-known lines as 
 " Brimful of wrath and cabbage," " They sought it 
 with forks and hope," — is concealed alike from author 
 and readers, by first uniting them under some vague 
 general term of common language, such as Capital, and 
 then subjecting this to an elaborate analysis, setting up 
 a new series of abstract entities L M N, such as fixed 
 capital, circulating capital, and what not, in which the 
 original realities are all hopelessly confused ; finally 
 treating this by an apparatus of metaphor, which, 
 because far more elaborate and recondite — but, it must 
 be confessed, considerably less imaginative — than that 
 of poetry, requires a deceptive resemblance to scientific 
 comparison in sober prose. The quaint and compara- 
 tively intelligible phrases of the newspapers, such as 
 "tallow is firm," "pig iron lively," are not taken for 
 anything more than the poetry of 'Change : Mr. 
 Fawcett, however, apparently supposes himself to have 
 enunciated a scientific conception, when he explains 
 that "the remuneration of capital is the reward of 
 abstinence." The expression "clotted nonsense " has 
 been thought scarcely admissible in literary criticism, 
 but the definition of capital as " thickly curdled work- 
 ing time," has appeared to some economists profoundly 
 scientific. 
 
 If we now enter upon the actual examination of 
 economic literature, we find our apparently homo- 
 geneous science breaking up into innumerable dis- 
 cordant schools. While the legal and literary econo- 
 mists, like those of the school of Ricardo, imagine that 
 by adroitly spinning and weaving definitions and 
 syllogisms in their logic mills, they manufacture a 
 body of " natural laws " thereafter rigid and universal 
 as those of mathematics, the economist of mathematical 
 
yo/m RiLskm. 13 
 
 turn, like Gabaglio or Jevons, proclaims the potency 
 of the " statistical method," or maintains that algebra 
 and the calculus furnish the true means of economic 
 investigation. To such minds, the theory of exchange 
 seems of course fundamental, but the economist of 
 more practical and physical turn devotes himself 
 especially to the study of " material wealth, its pro- 
 duction, distribution, and consumption," while both 
 classes often stoutly refuse consideration to the nature 
 and wants of the community for and by whom this 
 wealth is produced and consumed. The majority 
 of economists, however, having had their attention 
 drawn to the rate of reproduction in organic beings 
 by Malthus, become in so far biologists. Yet nothing 
 more effectually demonstrates the extraordinary slen- 
 derness of their scientific pretensions than that their 
 physical discussions are heedless of the very existence 
 of the modern doctrine of energy (if indeed they 
 do not involve some contradiction of its fundamental 
 law), or that "competition" and the "laws of popula- 
 tion " are discussed without an apparent suspicion that 
 Malthus' own clue has led, in the hands of Darwin, to 
 the construction of a vast theory which has revolution- 
 ised not only modern biology, and with it our views 
 of the origin, nature, and destiny of man, but shed 
 brilliant light on all the other sciences which concern 
 him. Lawyer and theologian, even poet and romancer, 
 have been carried far by this tidal wave of thought, 
 strong as that of the Revolution or the Renaissance ; 
 the economist alone remains behind, and though here, 
 by exception, provided with some genuine though 
 fragmentary scientific conceptions of evolution and the 
 struggle for existence, he delays to modernise them 
 by the aid of the new learning, supposing, doubtless, 
 
14 John Rusk in. 
 
 that even these — "progress," "competition," "co- 
 operation," and the hke, are sacred metaphysical 
 abstractions too. 
 
 Tt is needless for the economist to reply with Mr. 
 Fawcett, that "these do not come within his province," 
 or with Mr. Bonamy Price, that " he cannot hope to 
 become a specialist." The naturalist has long ago 
 discerned and proclaimed that the phenomena of human 
 society are as dependent upon biology as those of ant 
 or bee society, and the orthodox economist must either 
 straightway follow the example of the students of mind 
 and language, whose (then unreformed) studies not so 
 long ago seemed equally remote from those humble 
 microscopic inquiries to which they likewise supposed 
 the biologist to be confined, and either adopt and apply 
 the conceptions of modern physics and biology, or 
 disappear in the unavailing struggle for existence 
 a^rainst them. For ever since the constitution of 
 sociology upon the preliminary sciences by Comte half 
 a century ago, the result has been certain. Spencer 
 and his school have continued the siege, and signs of 
 all kinds from both sides that the war is well nigh over 
 are not wanting. On the side of the besieged econo- 
 mists, the more far-sighted leaders, like Mr. Ingram 
 and Mr. Grant Duff, are unconditionally surrendering 
 the citadel, and indeed taking arms on the side of the 
 invaders; while among the latter, Huxley or Haeckel 
 or Vogt can hardly write a zoological text-book with- 
 out some jubilant prediction of the speedy conquest of 
 the social sciences. 
 
 Is it attempted to stop the breach by appeal to 
 mental or moral science ? Archaic psychological and 
 ethical conceptions — frequently of course of funda- 
 mental importance — are dragged up from the dusty 
 
John Ruskin. 15 
 
 academic crypts, where they have escaped contact with 
 the ideas of the century, to be hurled at us, for have 
 they not supported the temple of economic orthodoxy 
 ever since Adam Smith (who had of course to work 
 with the crude notions of human nature and conduct 
 current in his day) sought to found economic and 
 moral sciences upon the irreconcilable and mutually 
 destructive assumptions of pure egoism and pure 
 altruism respectively, saying, let us found economics 
 on the notion of unrestrained self-interest, morals on 
 that of universal sympathy. In such "hypothetical 
 sciences," the hypothetical element is more evident 
 than the scientific ; and these illusory simplifications of 
 the problem by denying the unity of nature and of 
 science need not detain us here, save that they are of 
 interest in accounting for those moving appeals against 
 emotion, and contemptuous dismissals of "sentiment"^ — 
 themselves choice examples of emotion and sentiment, 
 of course of the strictly egoistic or economic sort — 
 with which every reader of orthodox economic literature 
 is familiar. Nor, passing to the conceptions which 
 have so long done duty for social science, need even 
 the central myth of " Freedom of Contract," unrelated 
 as it is to anything known in modern sociology, detain 
 us farther than as it enables us to congratulate the pro- 
 jectors of the approaching centenary celebration of the 
 French Revolution, that five years hence some orthodox 
 economist will probably still survive to acknowledge 
 his indebtedness for the all important social assump- 
 tion of his hypothetical science, the " Contrat Social," 
 to its illustrious author, that ingenious metaphysician 
 whom economists have never yet sufficiently honoured, 
 M, Jean Jacques Rousseau, 
 
 Enough, then, has probably been said to shew that 
 
i6 John Ruskin. 
 
 these economists, even in so far as they claim to apply 
 scientific conceptions at all, are unfortunately provided 
 with curiously archaic and erroneous ones, and that their 
 intellectual apparatus consists largely of broken down 
 heirlooms, with which the attempt to work is what 
 anthropologists call a "survival in culture." 
 
 If space allowed, it would be interesting to trace 
 how, along with this preservation of false conceptions 
 destroyed by science, and ignorance of true concep- 
 tions established by science, there is associated a 
 inarked scarcity of scientific observation and classifica- 
 'tion of phenomena, and a presence of that confusion 
 of fact and hypothesis, of opinion and anecdote, of 
 controversial trifling, and practical recipes of doubtful 
 efficacy, which one only finds elsewhere in equal 
 abundance in the scientific library of the middle ages. 
 But the reader can easily go on tracing the close 
 analogy between an orthodox "system of political 
 economy" and a mediseval work on natural history, 
 astrology, or alchemy, into its curious details ; we 
 have given perhaps too much time to this pursuit of 
 intellectual palaeontology. It would appear, then, 
 that Mr. Ruskin (however he has come by it), has 
 really had some considerable insight into this state of 
 things, but unfortunately denounces it with the heat of 
 an eager reformer instead of appreciating its high 
 scientific interest, and describing it with the minute- 
 ness it deserves. For when every year are swarming 
 down these hungry and all-devouring hordes of 
 scientific invaders, whom neither spiritual nor tem- 
 poral resistance can repel, whom neither the flapping 
 of theologian's robes nor the wagging of lawyer's 
 wigs can frighten from beginning to meddle with 
 even their special business, and to whom the medical 
 
yolin Rusk in. 1 7 
 
 profession has deserted in a bod)-, what is to becomo 
 of the poor defenceless handful of metaphysicians who 
 have so long had economics in their keeping ? What 
 is to become of optimism and pre-established harmony ? 
 The new-comers believe in what is a good deal like 
 the reverse. What will become of the sacred enti- 
 ties ? Providence - Supply - and - Demand will be 
 blasphemed ; utility and what not will go the way of 
 virtus dormitiva and vitality ; the " elementary con- 
 ceptions of wealth, capital, labour," will be analysed 
 as ruthlessly as the elements fire, air, earth, and water ; 
 that historic keystone of social order, the " Contrat 
 Social " itself, will be exploded ; every chapter of the 
 hypothetical science wall be punctured, — who — who 
 will save us ? 
 
 An as yet unknown aspect of " inexorable law " 
 providentially interferes, which among the invaders 
 will one day be known as Natural Selection. This 
 goddess, more powerful and more beneficent than 
 Supply-and-Demand, says : — 
 
 Alas, my children, against the theologians you could indeed 
 survive, and among the lawyers, the politicians, and the journalists, 
 you were in the very camp of brethren, but these scientists are too 
 strong for you ; your doctrines and yourselves are doomed to inevi- 
 table extinction ! Yet take courage, I will prolong your days many 
 years : here is the secret I Acquire as fast as you can a deceptive 
 external resemblance to the invaders ; do not name your sacred 
 dogmas as of old, but conceal the old matter under their newer 
 manner ; its aridity and difficulty will at once keep off the public, 
 and impress them with profound reverence, while its superficial 
 resemblance to science will long satisfy even the scientists, who have 
 plenty to do yet awhile among their telescopes and balances, their 
 fossils and their flowers. This do and live ; you and your children 
 shall go in and out under their very noses in safety ; nay, you shall 
 have ' scientific ' societies of your own, even a whole department of 
 the British Association all to yourselves, and though here and there 
 
 B 
 
1 8 yohn Ruskin. 
 
 some impassioned socialist or quick-eyed art-critic may detect your 
 true nature, nobody will believe them, it will be 1878 before you 
 are properly dissected and classified, and I know not how long 
 before you are finally extirpated. Fear not, therefore, this all- 
 devouring march of science, become mimetic organisms in its ranks, 
 and all shall long be well. 
 
 Now, behold, all these things have come to pass ; 
 and should any non-biological reader, or any orthodox 
 economist, hitherto all unconscious of his ancient 
 pedigree and modern family fortunes, desire to learn 
 more of this gentle dispensation by which merciful 
 nature often works such marvellous outward transfor- 
 mations, so softening the swift and stern extermination " 
 of an ancient species into its slow and painless euthan- 
 asia, is it not written by the naturalist Grant Allen, 
 in the article " Mimicry" of the Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica, vol. xvi., Edinburgh, 1883 ? 
 
 But the reader must by this time be objecting, 
 does not the preceding criticism overshoot its aim ? 
 Is it not too destructive and intolerant ? Even if 
 economists be unscientific, surely this comparison of 
 political economy to alchemy is undeserved, else why 
 were so many merits granted at the beginning ? Now, 
 however, our qualifications must be made. It would 
 ill become the student of modern science to forget 
 that to Roger Bacon the alchemist, and Kepler the 
 astrologer, we owe priceless discoveries ; it is only the 
 persistence of alchemy or astrology as modern systems 
 of doctrine that he would deprecate. So the scientific 
 invaders of political economy must never forget in the 
 excitement of victory that, while of its orthodox 
 system hardly one stone can be left upon another, for 
 new foundations have to be laid, the materials of the 
 edifice and the treasures which its multifarious store- 
 
yohn Ruskin. 19 
 
 houses contained are abundant and precious enough 
 to ransom the economists from any risk of disgrace or 
 obHvion. Even in the ranks of the prehminary 
 sciences advance is never simultaneous ; one subject 
 starts forward while another is lagging far behind ; 
 the mineralogist and chemist, the botanist and zoologist 
 can never keep fairly abreast, even the new sociological 
 economists are no whit exempt from the risk of fossil- 
 izing like their predecessors. What has been said, 
 however, will clear the reader's mind of the error still 
 common in Eno^land that our economists of Glasgow 
 and Manchester, Edinburgh and London, have been 
 erecting during the past century a vast scientific system 
 of infallible dogma, around whose impregnable walls 
 only our single " Oxford Graduate " wastes his arrows. 
 
 We have seen how the fortress is being stormed 
 from a quite different side, nay, is already being 
 sacked, for the scientific invaders are not respecters 
 of persons, and' will treat all who are not members 
 of their own army with but scanty reverence, un- 
 ceremoniously looting everything that will serve 
 as materials for their new construction, whether 
 they belonged to skilful financier or subtle logician, 
 popular tribune or patrician senator, nay, will pay as 
 little regard to the professor of political economy, 
 robed in the spotless orthodoxy of the intellectual 
 pharisee, as for his heterodox and despised publican 
 of a colleague, the professor of fine art. The question 
 for all is simply — What ideas have you that will serve 
 as material for our purpose ? 
 
 We saw at the outset how unfavourable a first 
 impression of Mr. Ruskin's economic writings one was 
 apt to acquire. The collapse of our plausible orthodox 
 friends on closer examination, however, may warn us to 
 
20 yohn R 71 skin. 
 
 be cautious In adhering- to a prejudice which they or 
 rather their exponents in the newspapers have done 
 most to diffuse, and which he naturally Incurred by loudly 
 proclaiming, for so many years past, in season and out 
 of season, the hollowness of their pseudo-science ; so 
 that whatever may turn out to be the value of the new 
 doctrines he may offer us, his destructive criticisms, 
 which have so long anticipated any scientific ones, such 
 as that of Mr. Ingram or the present one, must accord- 
 ingly on the whole be straightway transferred from 
 the debit to the credit side of his account. Can an)' 
 similar value be given to his criticisms of society ? An 
 explanation on the one side and a reservation on the 
 other, both important, are first needed. Let us then 
 read a complete typical passage : — 
 
 " What may be the real dignity of mechanical art itself? I cannot 
 express the amazed awe, the crushed humility, with which I some- 
 times watch a locomotive take its breath at a railway station, and 
 think what work there is in its bars and wheels, and what manner of 
 men they must be who dig brown ironstone out of the ground, and 
 forge it into that. What assemblage of accurate and mighty faculties 
 in tliem, more than fleshly power over melting crag and coiling fire, 
 fettered and finessed at last into the precision of watchmaking ; 
 '] itanian hammer-strokes beating out of lava these glittering cylinders 
 and timely respondent valves, and fine ribbed rods, which touch each 
 other as a serpent writhes in noiseless gliding, and omnipotence of 
 grasp; infinitely complex anatomy of active steel, compared with 
 which the skeleton of a living creature would seem, to the careless 
 observer, clumsy and vile. AVhat would the men who thought out 
 this, who beat it out, who touched it with its polished calm of power, 
 who set it to its appointed task, and triumphantly saw it fulfil the 
 task to the utmost of their will, feel or think about this weak hand 
 of mine, timidly leading a little stain of water colour which I cannot 
 manage, into an imperfect shadow of something else — mere failure 
 in every motion and endless disappointment ; what I repeat, would 
 these iron-dominant genii think of me? and what ought I to think 
 of them ? 
 
JoJin Ruskin. 21 
 
 " But as I reach this point of reverence, the unreasonable thing is 
 sure to give a shriek as of a thousand unanimous vultures, which 
 leaves me shuddering in real physical pain for some half minute follow- 
 ing ; and assures me during slow recovery, that a people which can 
 endure such fluting and piping among them is not likely soon to have 
 its modest ear pleased by aught of oaten stop or pastoral song." 
 
 The requisite correction, then, as afforded by the 
 first paragraph of the present passage, is that the 
 popular impression that our author abhors all machinery 
 and recommends its disuse, and that he criticises all 
 the material results and appliances of our modern 
 civilisation in a similar spirit, is simply the reverse of 
 true. For it will not be easy to find any panegyric of 
 machines and their makers, though the aee is rich in 
 such literature, to match this, combining, as it does, the 
 scientific appreciation of Babbage's classic '^ Economy 
 of Machines and Manufactures," with the artistic appre- 
 ciation which we find in the Surfaceman's "Songs of 
 the Rail." In the second half of the passage, however, 
 we find the grounds for the needful reservation ; we 
 discover that our prose poet of Utilitarianism suffers 
 from acute hypersesthesia, is, in other words, a man of 
 excessively nervous organisation and evidently fragile 
 health, upon whom those minor blessings of peculiar 
 sights and sounds and smells, which do undoubtedly 
 accompany and flow from our advanced mechanical 
 civilisation, produce an effect serious in the extreme — 
 he cannot become case-hardened to them like most of us. 
 
 Thus then arises the popular impression of Ruskin, 
 quite analogous to that of the enraged musician in 
 Hogarth's famous engraving. The young schoolboy 
 in the picture naturally thinks " what fun to see the 
 old boy so wild !" the disturbing crowd, offended at 
 such interference, and all following their lawful callings, 
 
22 yohn Ruskiii. 
 
 are equally astonished and naturally reply to all 
 remonstrances with an indignant " what's your busi- 
 ness !" and similarly the able editor, who has of course 
 comfortably grown up in the orthodox economic 
 faith, makes the most of this opportunity to damage 
 its opponent, neatly snips out the proper fragment of 
 a passage, exhibits our author in some attitude more 
 passionate than dignified, and expounds the combined 
 opinions of schoolboy and populace with due accustomed 
 diluteness and detail. 
 
 Without in the least denying a certain justice to 
 these criticisms, on the contrary bearing the personal 
 equation with its results of misunderstanding, im- 
 patience, sometimes even positive ill-nature, henceforth 
 in mind, may we not get beyond them ? When we 
 have had our laugh at the enraged musician, may we 
 not stand quiet for a litde to hear him play ? All these 
 noisy callings are lawful indeed, yet not perhaps 
 expedient : some of them have disappeared since 
 Hogarth's day, and we call it progress; in any case 
 the musician's bitter outcry is not without its pathos 
 and its truth. What worker in our dull towns, whether 
 of country birth and breeding, or only accustomed to 
 rare glimpses of hill and sea, is so completely acclima- 
 tised, so wholly dulled in vision, as never to suffer 
 anything from the noise and darkness, the filth and 
 grime around him ? Surely, too, we must in the same 
 measure feel how this sadness of ours over the eclipse 
 of beauty may rise to literally maddening sorrow in 
 this man, whose pre-eminence in art and literature has 
 been chiefly gained by his expression of that passion 
 for the external aspects of nature, which is one of the 
 most marked movements of our age. 
 
 Whether in rhythmic language like our splendid 
 
yvhn RiisJcin. 23 
 
 succession of naturalistic poets, or in colour like the 
 landscape painters, the fundamental idea is the same, 
 and not in art only but in science — it is not by hazard 
 that Darwin is countryman and contemporary of 
 Wordsworth and Turner, and Lyell of Scott, their 
 differences in product are determined by details of 
 character or circumstances of youth — all naturalism is 
 akin. 
 
 Yet this is more than an age of naturalism, a change 
 is in progress upon this at first almost exclusively 
 dominant purpose. The pre-Raphaelites commence 
 indeed with exquisite delineation of fern and pool, but 
 one soon passes into sacred art, or the next into 
 modern portraiture ; and in the life and works of the 
 poets we find the same transformation. For Scott 
 the historic drama, for Wordsworth the problems of 
 individual life, for Byron or Victor Hugo political 
 aspirations more and more supersede the enthusiasm 
 for nature with which all alike commenced in youth. 
 The scientists have done absolutely the same. 
 Darwin's " Naturalist's Voyage " in youth, his " Origin 
 of Species " in middle life, and his " Descent of Man " 
 in later years, mark the stages of a similar evolution in 
 which his lesser contemporaries, Lyell and Virchow, 
 Huxley and Hseckel, all alike fully share. This, too, 
 explains the passage from natural science to economics, 
 which is the main idea of the present essay ; it is 
 identical too with the passage from biology^ to 
 sociology, proclaimed and investigated by Comte or 
 Spencer; in all cases minds opened and disciplined by 
 contact with this or that aspect of nature are betaking 
 themselves to some kindred aspect of the supreme 
 study of man. And thus the two economic reformers 
 we have been discussing, Mr. Ingram and Mr. Ruskin, 
 
24 yohn Rusk in. 
 
 widely different though they may at first seem to us 
 and to each other, are both closely akin. Both may 
 well be unintelligible and useless to minds like those of 
 the orthodox economist, the average journalist, and the 
 " practical man," a trio wont to suppose themselves in 
 permanent possession of the science. These latter are, 
 as we have seen, provided with metaphysical concep- 
 tions of nature, of man, and of society, inherited from 
 the Revolutionary and earlier periods, and " modern " 
 by mere misadventure ; the two former (the one con- 
 sciously, the other perhaps in many respects uncon- 
 sciously) having rid themselves of these, and possessed 
 themselves of some scientific ones, are in a state to 
 attempt genuine construction. 
 
 In our search for ideas, which will serve towards 
 the construction of scientific economics, we have to 
 ask, and with greater scepticism, what ideas can Mr. 
 Ruskin offer ? Destructive criticisms are not enough ; 
 can this man of art and letters really have any science, 
 any genuine knowledge of fact and nature whereon to 
 build ? However much the quiet evangelical London 
 home, and the antique university where our author 
 spent his early years, may have prepared him for 
 work in literature and art, it is evident that they did 
 not furnish much training in science ; it is indeed not 
 unlikely that poor Thomas Edward in Banff, with 
 many shoes indeed to make and mend, but with a 
 museum to keep and fill, is, so far as pure science is 
 concerned, no more of " a self-made man " than our 
 author ; for even now one sometimes feels tempted to 
 say to an Oxford graduate of much newer brand : 
 " Thou wast altogether born in sin, and dost thou teach 
 us ? " Yet evidencing some mathematical discipline, 
 we have a text-book of perspective ; in geology some 
 
yohn Rjiskiii. 25 
 
 research, and in mineralogy the only English attempt 
 at its popularisation ; in botany and zoology several 
 books, disappointing indeed, yet with exquisite figures 
 and flashes of observation, keen, loving, and reflective 
 as that of the naturalist of Selborne. As concerns the 
 needful preliminary science, then, our author, consider- 
 ing drawbacks, has done wonders ; so much grasp of 
 facts and of their order in nature, such consummate 
 power of observation and description, together with 
 wide knowledge of literature and language, history and 
 art, constitute more preparation alike in preliminary 
 and social sciences than most of us can show. Often, 
 indeed, in some perplexing mixture of commentary 
 with text, the complex sentences come thick and fast 
 like snow-flakes, broken and soiled by the storm- 
 beaten and soot-stained atmosphere where they have 
 had to form, too often only to melt and disappear in 
 turbid rivulets amid the labyrinthine crevices of mind, 
 yet still we need no lens of loving critic, but only open 
 eyes, to find many a thought, clear and perfect as an 
 ice-crystal. 
 
 But to our long-delayed construction. Logic we shall 
 not chop, and definitions we shall not concoct at start- 
 ing ; of mathematics even we need little, for statistics 
 is only a highly-developed counting of fingers, and the 
 " laws of supply and demand," derived as they must be 
 from the observed fact that vi units of the commodity 
 A are, at given place and time, exchanging for 11 units 
 of the commodity B, are expressed only by the scanty 
 changes which can be rung on the very simple equation 
 in A =11 B. These well diluted, the orthodox economist 
 is wont to skip across to what does duty with him for 
 psychology ; to the hypothetical, self-interested, purely 
 egoistic, economic " man," and his simple wants and 
 
26 Jo Jin Rusk in. 
 
 desires — all of "wealth"; prefacing;' this with copious 
 explanations that " there is no such thing as intrinsic 
 value," that "value does not reside in commodities 
 themselves, and is no more to be found in a loaf of 
 bread than in a diamond, in water, or in air," and so 
 on. Mr. Ruskin, on the other hand, claims it as the 
 highest merit of his leadincj treatise that it " o-ives at 
 the outset, and maintains as the foundation of all 
 subsequent reasoning, a definition of Intrinsic Value 
 and intrinsic Contrary-of- Value." 
 
 How are we to reconcile this discrepancy ? As in 
 the world-old dispute of the gold and silver shield 
 both interpretations are partially true. To say that 
 no value exists in loaf or diamond by itself is to 
 state for particular phenomena the idealistic aspect of 
 phenomena in general ; it is a mere commonplace of 
 idealism which neither Mr. Ruskin nor anybody else 
 can dispute. But the economist, continuing to explain 
 that things have no other value, i.e., that phenomena 
 have no other aspect, merely expresses the indisput- 
 able fact that they have no other aspect for him ; that 
 the question of what loaf and diamond may mean to 
 physicist and physiologist has not occurred to him : 
 these studies, being alike extra-academic and extra- 
 commercial, have indeed " not come within his pro- 
 vince ;" and assuredly, without much preparation, "he 
 cannot hope to become a specialist." Let us however 
 leave the inmates of the academic cloister ; walk out' 
 into the world, look about us, try to express loaf and 
 diamond from the objective side in terms of actual 
 fact, and we find that physical and physiological pro- 
 perties or " values" can indeed indefinitely be assigned : 
 the one is so much fuel, its heat-giving power measur- 
 able in calorimeter, or in actual units of work, the 
 
yohn Ruskin. 27 
 
 other a definite sensory stimulus, varying- according to 
 Fechner's law. This is precisely what our author 
 means in such a passage as the following, which 
 however absurd to the orthodox, is now intelligible 
 enough to us : — 
 
 " Intrinsic value is the absolute power of anything to support 
 life. A sheaf of wheat of given quality and weight has in it a 
 measurable power of sustaining the substance of the body ; a cubic 
 foot of pure air, a fixed power of sustaining its warmth ; and a 
 cluster of flowers of given beauty, a fixed power of enlivening or 
 animating the senses. and heart." 
 
 It is among the chief claims to honourable memory 
 of the late Mr. Stanley Jevons, whose intellectual 
 stature, head and shoulders above most of his con- 
 temporaries and survivors, gave him many a glimpse 
 of fact denied to them, that he called attention to the 
 wasting coal supplies of Britain, and demanded their 
 economization, thus gripping the essential fact that 
 our coal is not merely an object of subjective value and 
 therefore exchange, but the fixture and embodiment 
 of a definite quantity of stored energy, within which our 
 modern industrial activities find a stern and calculable 
 limit. The question of coal economy is then not in 
 any wise the maximising of the wealth of individual 
 coal masters and coal percentagers as Mr. Ricardo 
 would have explained ; neither the increasing of 
 miners' wages, as their official economists (not so 
 common certainly in this country) would say ; but in 
 the relation of actual supply to existing and future 
 demand : in detailed criticism of the nature and 
 purposes of such demand, and the taking definite 
 action against that waste (of ninety-nine per cent, or 
 so) in diffused heat, and still better diffused soot, 
 amid which the economist of market-place and academe 
 
28 John Ruskin. 
 
 complacently preaches '^laissez-faire" and Mr. Ruskin 
 the reverse. 
 
 Again, since the activities of a community are the sum 
 of the separate activities of its units, and since produc- 
 tion exists for and is determined by consumption, poli- 
 tical economy is from the present physical point of view, 
 the generalised aspect of domestic economy, a proposi- 
 tion which Mr. Ruskin, following the Greek economists, 
 has traced into valuable detail, but which ordinary 
 writers are wont comparatively to ignore. 
 
 But let us work out our physical economics more 
 closely. From the point of view of matter and energy 
 our society is a vast clock being wound up and running 
 down ; the mechanical equivalent of heat holds every- 
 where ; between machines and the automata who mind 
 them there is no physical difference. The ideal of prac- 
 tice must be expressed not in terms of the process or the 
 automata which take part in it, but in that of the 
 result ; evidently then it is of maximum production 
 per unit time. Thus machines, men, women and 
 children alike arc to be worked to the full : " Wages 
 are what maintain the labourer," says Mr. Ricardo, for 
 once no metaphysician, but a physicist — since they are 
 all mechanisms alike, no fuel is to be wasted upon 
 them. To maximise production we need simply 
 " Bastilles for Labour built by Capital," and of course 
 freedom of contract, so that the worker may be free to 
 contract between work there and starvation anywhere 
 else. As well interfere with a man's machinery as 
 between him and the women and children he employs. 
 Factory acts have no justification here, no ground but 
 "sentiment," and so even Mr. Bright, kindly-hearted, 
 but orthodox and logical, must stoutly oppose them. 
 Vo\- once then the orthodox economist appears to 
 
yohu Ruskin. 29 
 
 have science on his side, but let us pass to the con- 
 sideration not only of the quantity but of the quality 
 of production. What is production for ? Even from 
 our present point of view the only possible answer is 
 for consumption, that is for the maintenance of society. 
 Necessities of life, say the economists, ''are indefin- 
 able." But the maintenance of organisms, like 
 machines, is really under perfectly definable physical 
 conditions ; so much fuel or food, i.e., such and 
 such proteids, amyloids, fats and water : so much 
 non-conductino- coverinQf and shelter from climate, 
 and all is done. These requirements vary only with 
 latitude; why, then, as Mr. Mulhall's " Balance-Sheet 
 of the World " tells us, do Russian, Norseman and 
 Scot, living on the same latitude, consume per head 
 per annum in round numbers to the extent of ^7, 
 ^18, and ^30, respectively.-^ Since the Russian 
 succeeds in living, he evidently gets his necessaries : 
 the balance then of the wealth of three Russians is at 
 the Scotsman's credit; how is this consumed ? In more 
 complex food, in finer raiment, and in costlier dwelling ; 
 not in necessities but in plus-necessities, not in the pri- 
 mary function of mere maintenance, but in the secondary, 
 yet far vaster function of nervous stimulus : it is spent 
 in giving every product around us its costly '' (Esthetic 
 sub-fimction!'' But the reader may object that this is 
 not obvious in the things around us ? Certainly not. 
 He will find that even with an art-critic to help him, 
 little enough is visible : the author, however, prides 
 himself greatly upon the scientific acumen which has 
 enabled him to detect it in the articles of ordinary 
 Edinburgh consumption, such as ashlar housefronts 
 with iron railings, furniture and " decorations," cookery 
 and dress. Of course it is not denied that their £esthetic 
 
30 yohn Ruskifi. 
 
 element is practically latent, but the requisite three- 
 fourths of "productive" toil no less remain. 
 
 In short, then, production, while primarily for 
 maintenance is mainly for ccsthesis, and the vulgar cry 
 for so-called " utility," and the orthodox contempt and 
 popular indifference to things beautiful, alike usually 
 mean either a demand for the gratification of the lower 
 senses in preference to that of the higher, or a mere 
 habitual adherence to routine consumption without any 
 sensory gratification at all. 
 
 Even then on the most strictly physical hypothesis, 
 though man-days are only as horse-power, the consump- 
 tion of "plus-necessaries" is three times more important 
 than that of necessaries ; a penny saved is as good as 
 a penny gained ; criticism of the aesthetic consumption 
 thus becomes the most needful of all conceivable con- 
 tributions to production ; and it is therefore for the 
 economist to become an art-critic, or, failing him, the 
 art-critic must supply his place and become an 
 economist. Art-criticism, in short, is a special pro- 
 vince of the practical economics of production and 
 consumption, — belongs to it, as food-analysis does. 
 
 It is true the orthodox economist says this does not 
 come within his province, but we must remember that 
 he cannot hope to become a specialist. 
 
 This economic character of art-criticism is however 
 everywhere clearly appreciated by our author. Not 
 only must a student of the Oxford School of Art learn 
 by drawing facts from nature or facts from history, 
 copying of South Kensington "ornament" not being 
 allowed, but we are constantly told that the function 
 of art is " either to state a true thing or adorn a 
 serviceable one," and before even attempting so much 
 we must " clean our cities, clothe the poor, organise 
 
John Ruskin. 31 
 
 the idle, paint and fiddle to them afterwards." This, 
 at any rate, is not aesthetes' twaddle of "art for art's 
 sake" but utilitarianism pure and simple; were the solid 
 Bentham, or the stern and inartistic Carlyle, were any 
 soldier or engineer our professor of fine art, he could 
 not say more. And what practical suggestions ? 
 Not disuse of machinery, as the newspaper hearsay 
 goes, but, after an emphatic reiteration of Mill's terrible 
 dictum — that it is doubtful whether the use of 
 machinery has yet lightened the day's toil of a single 
 human being, we have not only proposals for the 
 ordered use of all natural forces, but a veritable Utopia 
 of engineering like that of Lesseps or Da Vinci- — ■ 
 " suggestions for the use of machinery on a colossal 
 scale for accomplishing mighty and useful works hither- 
 to unthought of," proposals for the embankment and 
 irrigation of Northern Italy and the like, which may 
 or may not be practicable of course, but to which in 
 the latter case the exact reverse of the popularly 
 received criticism has to be applied. 
 
 But let us pass to consider what our rival economists 
 have to offer us from the biological standpoint — what 
 they think of the actual population. Is not Mr. Ruskin, 
 like a born romanticist, instead of soberly speaking 
 of the economic units as labourers and capitalists, 
 producers and consumers, ever fain to foist mediaeval 
 notions of rank and nobleness of blood upon us ; 
 instead of recognising " the equality of all men and 
 the equal productiveness of all non-criminal work/' 
 is he not for ever quoting Plato or Xenophon to 
 enforce his horror of what he is pleased to call base 
 industry, and especially of those very mechanical and 
 metallurgical crafts whereby we have our wealth — an 
 outspoken heresy after which loud outcry is little to 
 
32 yohn Riiskin. 
 
 be wondered at. Not only is such work vile and 
 debasing, not only are such Britons no better than 
 perpetual slaves, but that unexampled progress of our 
 modern cities which we owe to these very industries 
 and their prosecutors, only serves to bring his denun- 
 ciations to a climax. Their factories, railways, or 
 dwellings are all alike accursed ; and the revolt against 
 the nineteenth century culminates in some sardonic 
 exhortation to the folk of Glasgow to "burn their city," 
 or some grim desire to " destroy without rebuilding, 
 the new town of Edinburgh, and the city of New 
 York." To indulgent readers this seems merely 
 hypersesthetic fuss, to graver and more practical 
 minds it sounds like the scream of an hysterical 
 petroleuse : both alike will gladly turn to the orthodox 
 economist. Of laws of population — of the " iron law 
 of competition " he has much to tell us — and as space 
 presses he must have full credit for it without scrutiny. 
 But this is all. What has biology to say ? This 
 views the community not as productive automata, but 
 as oro-anisms which have reached ascendency after long 
 struo-gle for existence, through survival of the fittest, 
 and in virtue of peculiarly high evolution of nervous 
 system, and of it alone. This is " man's place in 
 nature," whether Mr. Ruskin like it or no ; and his 
 economic positions, like any others, have now to be 
 judged by this evolutionary standard. 
 
 Our labourers first are not the flying shuttlecocks 
 of a hypothetical abstract science, but the actual con- 
 crete Homo of natural and civil history : and the 
 economic unit is no longer "Plato's" but Darwin's man. 
 To see the result of this mode of study of worker, 
 work, and surroundings. " organism, function, and 
 environment," as it is technically termed, we may first 
 
yohn Ruskin. ^iZ 
 
 briefly quote from a recent " Analysis of the Principles 
 of Economics " "''' from this very biological point of 
 view : — 
 
 " Just as the operations of heredity upon man and other organisms 
 are not merely analogous but identical, so also are those of function. 
 Division of labour has specialised the polymorphic castes of the ant- 
 hill ; so the same specialisation of function develops the same 
 polymorphic changes among men. Every one is more or less 
 conscious of this : it is never difficult to distinguish a soldier from a 
 joiner, or a ploughman from a weaver, while the physician reaches 
 almost incredible skill in reading the finer results of occupation on 
 bodily structures, normal and pathological aUke. . . . Without the 
 slightest postulation of morals, it is a biological fact, that as ' function 
 makes the organ,' it also shapes the organism, and modifies it either 
 for evolution or for degeneration, moreover other things equal, it 
 determines its quantity of health, and limits its length of life. 
 Ploughmen and weavers, joiners or soldiers then are incipient castes ; 
 as surely as Brahmin and Pariah, queen, worker, and drone are 
 formed ones ; and the disadvantages of the division of labour, 
 slowly forced into prominence (as, little to the credit of biologists, 
 they have been) through the sufferings of the many, and the moral 
 enthusiasm of the unscientific few, demand study and classification 
 among the 'Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication.' 
 The influences of the ordinary environment probably exceed those 
 of heredity or function in importance. The importance of food and 
 of the quality of the atmosphere is becoming recognised, so also with 
 light ; the gardener blanches his celery, the zoologist stops the 
 development of the tadpole by withdrawing light, the sphygmograph 
 shows how the pulse bounds at every gleam of sunshine, and the 
 physiologist and physician are not hesitating to generalise and apply 
 these results to the development of human life in towns. 
 
 It has been assumed by past economists that the ' necessities of 
 life ' were simply food, shelter, etc., and that these subtler factors of 
 the environment need not be included. This pre-biological ignor- 
 ance need not be argued with, for the economic problem of the 
 maintenance of men is but one special case of the vast problem of the 
 modification of organism by environment, exactly as the descent of 
 man is a special case of the origin of species." 
 
 * Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. Edin. 18S4. 
 c 
 
34 yohfi Rtiskin. 
 
 The same analysis goes on to the " mode of modifi- 
 cation of organisms by environment " along its two 
 main lines of evolution or degeneration, and discusses 
 the factors of these in some detail. It suffices to note in 
 the second place, that it is pointed out that " while no 
 definition of production is possible from the physical 
 point of view since it involves a knowledge of the 
 organism to which production is adapted, now, how- 
 ever, it is definable as the adaptation of the environ- 
 ment to the functions of the organism, every pro- 
 ductive action thus tendinof towards evolution or the 
 reverse," and that practical economics thus involves a 
 criticism of production and consumption from the 
 present biological standpoint. Practical economics, in 
 short, finds its supreme end and aim in the mainten- 
 ance and evolution of humanity. 
 
 Production and occupation, then, are judged, not 
 by their immediate material result to particular 
 individuals, whether queens or drones of the social 
 hive ; but by the aggregate result in better or worse 
 adapted environment. Again, " not only must the 
 factors of modification of the organism be observed and 
 discussed, but their modifiability must be discussed and 
 acted upon ; thus in the case when any given environ- 
 ment or function, however apparently productive, is 
 really fraught with disastrous influence to the organism, 
 its modification must be attempted, and, failing that, 
 its abandonment faced." 
 
 Without eoinjj: so far as to suo-crest that the writer of 
 this learned analysis might almost be making his 
 elaborate biological paper on the somewhat simple 
 principle of translating Mr. Ruskin into his peculiar 
 dialect of Scientific, the general correspondence in 
 principle and detail between biological principles on 
 
yoJin Ruskin. 
 
 35 
 
 tlie one hand, and Mr. Ruskin s most '' unpractical " 
 teaching on the other, is most remarkable. For it is 
 to be observed if these Darwinians are indeed to draw 
 full consequences from their greatest law — that organism 
 is made by function and environment, then man, if he is 
 to remain healthy and become civilised^ must not only 
 aim at the highest standard of cerebral as well as non- 
 cerebral excellence, and so at function healthy and 
 delightful, but must take especial heed of his environ- 
 ment ; not only at his peril keeping the natural factors 
 of air, water, and light at their purest, but caring only 
 for *' production of wealth " at all, in so far as it shapes 
 the artificial factors, the material surroundings of 
 domestic and civic life, into forms more completely 
 serviceable for the Ascent of Man. 
 
 And since the belly and members are dominated 
 by a brain developed and maintained through the 
 constant and varied stimulus of the senses, the practical 
 ideal changes wholly. Our community, where some 
 are so empty and weary, others so idle and full, yet all 
 alike deo^eneratinof in their dismal cities with their lonq- 
 unlovely streets, their darkened and fetid air, instead 
 of merely furnishing themes for hymns of progress 
 and occasion for laissez-faire, shows clear necessity for 
 criticism more searching, and action more systematic 
 than that of Mr. Ruskin. And, moreover, not only do 
 factory acts and many other "sentimental interferences 
 with competition and freedom of contract " become at 
 once scientific and practical, but our theory of produc- 
 tion culminates in the Rehabilitation of Beauty, and 
 our productive action for count:)- and city in the 
 restoration of nature, and the organisation of art. 
 
 It is interestinof then to note that the shout of 
 •'Sentiment versus Science," with which Mr. Ruskin 
 
36 yoliji Ruskin. 
 
 has been for so many years turned out of court, did 
 after all accurately enough describe the controversy : 
 science and sentiment have assuredly been on opposite 
 sides. In one respect only the public and the orthodox 
 defendants have been generally mistaken; the inductive 
 logic and statistics, the physics and chemistry, the 
 biology and medicine, the psychology and education, 
 were all essentially on the side of Mr. Ruskin ; while 
 on the other were too often sheer blindness to the actual 
 facts of human and social life — organism, function and 
 environment alike — concealed by illusory abstractions, 
 baseless assumptions, and feeble metaphors stuck 
 tOQfether with scholastic loeic ("science" only in the 
 metaphysician's sense, well nigh as technical as the 
 pugilist's), and frozen into dismal and repellent form by 
 a theory of moral sentiments which assumed moral 
 temperature at its absolute zero. 
 
 But our economist was very much excited, was he, 
 good practical friends ? You still think he was 
 incoherent, hyperitsthetic, and even hysterical, that 
 he seemed only to rave and curse ? That indeed was 
 a pity ; our new generation of economists and physio- 
 logists, hygienists and physicians, art-workmen, archi- 
 tects, and engineers are tame and quiet enough, as a 
 generation bred in such subduing environment of 
 light, atmosphere, and civic magnificence, must needs 
 be ; and none of that unbecoming energy of out-door 
 exposition in which prophets of the old dispensation 
 were addicted to indulge, is to be expected from them, 
 — yet assuredly teaching and practice essentially the 
 same, towards ideals wholly identical. 
 
 For the present state of production is by no means 
 good enough. A modern city, however stupendous 
 its wealth — on paper — has after all hardly any ultimate 
 
yohn Rttskin. 37 
 
 products to show save a sorry aggregate of ill-con- 
 structed houses, mean without, and unhealthy within, 
 and containing but little of permanent value ; for the 
 rest, hideous dirt and darkness, smoke and sewage 
 everywhere, as if its inhabitants had absolutely framed 
 an ideal of a short life and a dismal one, with which 
 they are dull enough to rest contented. Men are 
 everywhere awaking to see that this is no longer to be 
 endured, and it is the central merit of our author to 
 have at once inaugurated that criticism of production, 
 and that practical action for its improvement which 
 has been setting in so hopefully of recent years. The 
 so-called "aesthetic revival," with its outcomes like the 
 Kyrle and other "Environment Societies," represent in 
 fact the small beginnings of the Industrial Reformation, 
 of that re-orgamsaiion of production — of products and 
 processes, of environment and function, which is the 
 nearest task of the united art and science of the 
 immediate future. 
 
 Asrain, a demand for commodities is a command of 
 labour ; it determines function, and therefore quality of 
 oro-anism. Hence Mr. Ruskin's continued insistance 
 upon the jDrimary duty of regulating expenditure with 
 studied reference to its effect upon the mind and body 
 of the labourer, so at once seeking the minimum 
 service from the lower occupations, and maximising 
 that from the higher ones ; and his criticism of " the 
 kinds of work which are severally best accomplished 
 by hand or by machine ; together with the effect of 
 machinery in gathering and multiplying population 
 and its effect upon the minds and bodies of such 
 population." Such teaching equals or exceeds at once 
 in clear biological insight and in social wisdom any- 
 thino- else in the entire literature of practical econ- 
 
3S yoJin Rtiskiii. 
 
 omics ; since it clearly indicates the line of evolution 
 towards the future city of healthy and happy artists, 
 surrounded by imperishable treasure, from our modern 
 city of weary and sickly drudges, immersed in dirt for 
 their pains. 
 
 It would be easy to go on gathering such scientific 
 and practical suggestions, to show, for instance, how 
 "pieces of sentimental nonsense" about "purity of 
 race," or that about "bachelors and rosieres" in "Time 
 and Tide," at once analyse the conditions and attack the 
 problem of the evolution of society by heredity and 
 sexual selection. But any reader can follow these out 
 for himself, see how the "sentimental political economy" 
 contained at once the germs of systematic science and 
 of its noblest applications, and find more and more as 
 he reads that our despised and rejected author, howev^er 
 noteworthy and memorable for theoretic work in art, 
 is yet more so for his practical applications of the 
 knowledge to the art of life ; that our disciple of Plato 
 and scholar of Turner has also become the hisfhest 
 practical exponent of Darwin, 
 
 But the St. George's Company ? The writer has no 
 personal knowledge of them (save that they do at least 
 succeed in making sterling cloth, which not only bears 
 scrutiny by experts, but — archaic spinning-wheel and 
 loom notwithstanding — is among the cheapest in the 
 market) ; but so far as he can make out, their main 
 ideas may be simply stated thus, — seeing, they say, 
 that some occupations are pleasanter and healthier 
 than others, and notably agricultural rather than 
 mechanical ones, we intend having these ; you, if you 
 will, "fill your lungs with cotton-fur, your hearts with 
 rage and mutiny, become gnomes of Europe, slaves of 
 the lamp!" We mean to have the best environment 
 
y ohn R lis km. 39 
 
 that is going, and the healthiest functions we can find ; 
 and not sacrificing ourselves to production, but sub- 
 ordinating it to us, we shall produce an increasing store 
 of real wealth, of permanent ultimate products. Finally, 
 paying much attention to the quality of the organism, 
 its good breeding and education, we and our children 
 shall accordingly survive in the struggle for existence, 
 while you mechanical townsfolk and your economists 
 become extinct. Hence, as the latter are nothing if 
 not "practical," the St. George's Guild must be hope- 
 lessly " unpractical," in the technical sense in which we 
 have uniformly been finding the terms employed. 
 
 But the Sheffield museum : who ever heard of such 
 a place ? At the top of a hill, and almost in the 
 country — so that with such trouble, pulse must quicken 
 and breath freshen and brain awaken before one sees 
 the strange new sights — how much better the spacious, 
 easily accessible galleries of Kensington, how much 
 more inviting, how much more suitable — for loafers ! 
 And, after all, only a few objects to compare with the 
 multifarious wealth of the endless cases of a great 
 museum. Merely the teaching by a series of carefully 
 selected types — exactly parallel to the small and 
 compact selections which are now replacing for 
 teaching purposes, the vast museums (henceforth store- 
 houses for reference) in every modern scientific school. 
 No wonder, again, some "common-sense" people 
 cannot cease to deplore the old-fashioned impracti- 
 cability of Mr. Ruskin ! 
 
 But let us pass to education. What is to be said 
 of a teacher who speaks lightly of the three R's, and 
 who threatens to make even the first of them 
 optional ? Here surely is reaction to ignorance with 
 a venofeance. 
 
40 Jo Jin Riiskin. 
 
 Let the reader make what deduction he pleases for 
 personal idiosyncracy, for passion and paradox ; but let 
 him also take some note of existing facts, and consider 
 whether he would not do well also to place his protest 
 — if forceful and stormy, perhaps all the better — against 
 the miserable mixture of pseudo-literary and pseudo- 
 commercial cram, "classical " and "modern" by cour- 
 tesy or irony, miscalled "education:" that jumbled 
 compromise into which academic fossil and commercial 
 Philistine everywhere settle down for the supposed 
 maintenance of their supposed interests, and the actual 
 stupefaction of their children's lives. But what would 
 he give us instead ? Of this twice clerkly lore there 
 would perhaps not be enough ? The craft of parsing 
 would indeed be in danger ; the names of French 
 departments and the tables of obsolete weights and 
 measures might come less pat upon the tongue ; yet 
 for all we should be immeasurably nearer in method and 
 result that noble discipline of complete soul in per- 
 fected body, which the wise men of all ages have had 
 for their noblest ideal, calling it Education. 
 
 For two distinct tendencies are at work in our modern 
 universities and schools, the dominant one deliberately 
 preferring memory of mere words for observation of 
 facts and reasoning therefrom, which should be supplied 
 by discipline in science, and more memory of words for 
 that co-ordination of hand and eye which is supplied 
 by practice in the arts, and substituting verbal test of 
 competitive examination for practical test in life. One 
 is the school of Cram, evolving towards a Chinese, the 
 other th(; school of Culture, evolving towards a Greek 
 ideal, or more accurately towards Tartarean and 
 Olympian ideals respectively. Between the repre- 
 sentatives of the former, portly word -fog -giants, 
 
John Ruskm. 41 
 
 bearing the awful names of Professor, Head-master, 
 Inspector, and what not, swinging the mighty mace of 
 authority, crusted in triple mail of hood and gown, 
 and bearing many a magic amulet of diplomas, and 
 the scattered knight-errants like Comte or Spencer, 
 like Pestalozzi or Ruskin, who now and then attack 
 them, the battle must indeed be long : yet when each 
 colossus of intellectual fat has fallen before the strokes 
 of intellectual muscle, when our orthodox educationists 
 have gone the way of the orthodox economists, and when 
 schools at once really classical and modern have arisen 
 to eive that Qrenuine knowledge of nature and of 
 literature which make alike scientist and scholar, that 
 genuine discipline in arts coarse and fine which makes 
 the worker, and that factual grip of history and society 
 which makes the citizen, we shall after all only be 
 having in more systematic form the essential curri- 
 culum of a St. Georo^e's School. 
 
 Leaving the reader to continue such defensive 
 criticisms, it is time, briefly to summarise. We have 
 found that while on one hand the stronghold of 
 orthodox political economy tu'rns out to be little better 
 than an air-castle of mediaeval metaphysics, collapsing 
 at the slightest breath of scientific criticism, Mr. Ruskin 
 furnishes much solid material to the required new 
 construction. Little attempt can however yet be made 
 at assigning his place in economic literature and 
 history. His destructive criticisms have undoubtedly 
 been of considerable service to many readers in this 
 country, but it must be remembered that these were 
 mainly necessary because of the popular ignorance of 
 Germany. For there the defects of the Manchester 
 school had long ago been exposed by the historical and 
 socialistic schools alike, in France its lingering survivors 
 
42 yohn Ruskin. 
 
 have lately been receiving the coup dc grace from M. de 
 Laveleye, while the criticisms of Cliffe Leslie, Ingram, 
 and even Jevons, were in this country producing the 
 same result. His chief services then are constructive. 
 Exceeding all other economists in clear vision of 
 physical realities, in insight and criticism of the quality 
 of production and of life, he is more than any other 
 writer the legitimate continuator of the Physiocratic 
 school, and the forerunner of its complete re-systema- 
 tisation by the aid of physical and biological science ; 
 while his statement of the aims of practical economics 
 in terms of quality of life, his treatment of criticism of 
 art and other aspects of production from this point of 
 view, and his clear enunciation of the essential unity of 
 economics and morals in opposition to the discord 
 assumed as a deductive artifice, will remain especially 
 and permanently classic. 
 
 His filiation to Carlyle and others might have been 
 traced, while some of the results of his teaching, 
 not only in modern art-criticism, and consequently 
 improved production, but upon more strictly economic 
 studies and practical effort might have been outlined. 
 Yet even if space allowed, this would be premature ; 
 for his influence cannot be measured until the younger 
 generation whom he has educated to active social 
 sympathy, has brought forth its manifold results of 
 economic research and practical application. Every- 
 where, too, organic filaments are spinning ; reform in 
 the production of wealth, and economy in its consump- 
 tion are alike in progress ; more slowly indeed, yet 
 surely, views of its distribution at once more rational 
 and more generous are gaining ground : the health 
 and culture of the worker, the ennoblement of function, 
 the purification of environment have at last won clear 
 
yohn Ritskin. 43 
 
 recognition as truly practical. Nor is the corres- 
 ponding effort far off. 
 
 For as once men's hearts burned within them as 
 they went forth under antique priestly guidance to win 
 back the Holy City, and again, in dim philosophic light, 
 at the Revolution to win their freedom, so once again 
 throughout Europe a new enthusiasm is arising, deeper 
 and wider than of old. Though foreseen with varying 
 clearness, and sought with yet more varying success, 
 the ideal has ever been fundamentally the same ; the 
 kingdom of God upon earth, the achievement of 
 fraternity, the evolution of humanity are but the 
 changing names for the unending struggle after that 
 union of material and moral order which is the task 
 and problem of life. In our day, both task and pro- 
 blem are far vaster than of old ; and though a corre- 
 sponding wealth of material resource has been in our 
 hands, there has been little light to guide its application, 
 and that mainly from dying lamps, llie coming time 
 is more hopeful ; the sorely needed knowledge, both of 
 the natural and the social order, is approaching matu- 
 rity ; the long-delayed renaissance of art has begun, 
 and the prolonged discord of these is changing into 
 harmony : so, with these for guidance, men shall no 
 longer grind on in slavery to a false image of their 
 lowest selves, miscalled Self-interest, but at length, as 
 freemen, live in the Sympathy and labour in the 
 Synergy of the Race. 
 
 And for this, the last Crusade, herald, knight, and 
 preacher are not wanting, yet in our land and day 
 there has been no clearer herald, nobler preacher, nor 
 truer knight than Jolin Ruskin, Economist. 
 
 I'ATRICK GEDDES. 
 
" /^^^IVE to barrows^ trays, a /id pans 
 \^^ Grace and glimmer of romance ; 
 
 Bring the moonlight into noon 
 J lid in gleaming piles of s to tie ; 
 On the city's pavM street 
 Plant gardens lined 7C'ith lilacs sweet ; 
 Let spouting fountains cool the air, 
 Singing in the sun-baked square ; 
 Let statue, picture, park, afid hall. 
 Ballad, flag, and festival, 
 The past restore, the day adorn. 
 And make to-morrow a new ?norn. 
 So shall the drudge in dusty frock 
 Spy behind the city clock 
 Retinues of airy kings. 
 Skirts of angels, starry wings, 
 Li is fathers shining in bright fables. 
 His children fed at heavenly tables. 
 ' Tis the privilege of Art 
 Thus to play its cheerful part, 
 Man on earth to acclimate, 
 And bend the exile to his fate. 
 And moulded of one element 
 With the days and firmament, 
 Teach him on these as stairs to climb. 
 And live on even terms with Time ; 
 Whilst upper life the slender rill 
 Of human sense doth overfill y 
 
 Emerson. 
 
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