\\\E-UNIVER5//j <>\UIBRARY0/> \\r f ^ 5 i |f ^ Jd f I iJJ J I iV^S i *\K-UNIVER555j "> ? i - J2. a* 4 i ^ j c. o "^ i i/UI? s i /U If i l!=~K ^ /( /^ fe *K3 THE CENTRAL STATE. SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Its History, Progress And Resources. BY DAVID J. GORDON. VARDON AND PRITCHARD, PRINTERS, GRESHAM STREET. 1903. Stack Annex 37V HON. J. G. JENKINS, Premier and Chief Secretary. HON. R. BUTLER, Treasurer and Commissioner of Croirn Lands. SIR G. R. LE HUNTE, K.C.M.G., Governor of South Australia. w HON. L. YON DOUSSA, Attorney -General and Minister of Education. HON. R. W. FOSTER, Commissioner of Public Works and Minister of Industry. 1821151 CONTENTS. COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, THE ... ... ... ... 3 DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA ... ... ... ... ... 5 LAUNCHING A NEW PROVINCE ... ... ... ... ... 8 Proclaiming the Province Early Days The Pioneer as Pathfinder. CLIMATE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 GOVERNMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 PRIMARY PRODUCER'S RECORD ... ... ... ... ... 27 INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 PASTORAL INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... 38 Flocks and Fleeces Stud Flocks of South Australia The Murray Merinos : Rhine Park, Mount Beevor, Mount Crawford, and Cappeedee Studs Bungaree Canowie Wirra Wirra Rockbrook Koonoona and Keyneton Merino Studs Ulooloo Dorset Horn Stud Sweet Home Shropshire Stud. CATTLE RAISING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 69 Mount Crawford Jerseys Angas Shorthorns. LAMB EXPORT TRADE, THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY, THE AIDS TO AGRICULTURE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS ... Hay Oats Bailey Field Peas. FRUITGROWING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112 The Apple Industry Among the Orange Groves Lemon Culture Currants and Raisins. MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES ... ... ... ... ... ... 120 IRRIGATION COLONY, OUR (RENMARK) ... ... ... ... 122 A, second Fruit Colony Coonawarra. DAIRY INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 129 WINE INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 135 The Brandy Industry. LAND LAWS, THE ... ... ... ... ... *.. ... 145 MINING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 148 I'AGK. MANUFACTURES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 60 Leading Engineering Works Salt Refineries Cement Works. FOREST CULTURE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165 SHIPPING TRADE, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 168 Interstate Service Coastal Service - Lighthouse Service Marine Board Ocean Mail Service River Murray Trade Vessels Registered in South Australia Over-Sea Passenger Trade. STATE RAILWAYS, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 180 Trans- Australian Lines 1'laces worth Visiting served by Railways. WATERWORKS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187 Artesian Wells. "NILE" OF AUSTRALIA, THE ... ... ... ... ... 190 FINANCE AND TRADE ... ... ... ... ... ... 192 Pursuits of the People Sixty Years of Progress. ADELAIDE: THE CAPITAL OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA ... ... ... 196 EDUCATION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 201 Primary Education, State Schools University School of Mines Agricultural College Public Library, Ari Gallery, and Museum St Peter's College Prince Alfred College. EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK ... ... ... ... ... 215 NORTHERN TERRITORY, THE ... ... ... ... ... 226 The Commonwealth of Australia fails to supply a parallel to the peaceful occupation of the Australian- Continent. Not one British soldier or sailor has been called upon to sacrifice his life in order to secure or to hold Australia for the Empire. The ' ' Flag of England ' ' has never been challenged from the day in April, 1770, when Captain Cook sailed the "Endeavor" into Botany Bay, or since Captain Matthew Flinders cruised along the Southern Coast from the L,euwin, and cleared decks in order, if necessary, to prevent any display of the tricolour on land by the French explorer Baudin, whom he met in Encounter Bay. Warships of every nation have visited our shores at frequent intervals, but their emblems of nationality have been dipped to the Union Jack flying above the harbours. The bloodless conquest of the ' ' Grea, South I^and ' ' was followed by the- trial of various systems of colonization. That employed in the founding of South Australia was unique because of its ideal principles and the new theory of political economy which they represented. The colonization and expansion of the Australian 1 group represent the most glorious triumphs of the Nineteenth century. A continent had to be explored, rivers bridged, forests cleared, and a never-ending war waged against unknown natural conditions. Fire, flood, and famine confronted the early settler as he sought to make a home in the bush. These and other foes continued to cross the path of the pioneer as he pushed his way into the heart of Australia,, undismayed by the failure of others, confident in his own strength, unconquerable in patience and determination. Progress in other directions has been no less substantial and significant. Irr no other country is there to be found greater political freedom or social equality ; better facilities for education in all its branches more certainty that each ' ' shall reap where he has sown ' ' than in that Commonwealth representing the union of once divided States. At the beginning of the Nineteenth century Australia was- practically unknown. A handful of white people were located on the Eastern shore within sound of the Pacific Ocean. To-day there are few blanks in the map. There is a population of nearly four millions. The flow of trade outwards and inwards in 1902 represented a total annual value of ,138,231,000 ; production in 1901 represented a sterling value of ,112,704,000. The public revenue for 1902 aggregated ,28,000,000. Excluding unsold lands and public works the value of private property in Australasia in 1813 was ,1, 000,000 ; twenty-five years later it was ,26,000,000; in the next quarter of a century it rose to ,181,000,000 ; in 1888 it amounted to ,1,015,000,000; and in 1901 the total was ,1,083,838,000. "Although Australasia," says Mr. Coghlan, the leading statistician in the Com- monwealth, " has but the population of a province of some of the great European powers, in the wealth and earnings of its people it stands before most of the secondary states, and as regards wealth and income per head of population it compares very favourably with any country." The value of land in private hands. THE CENTRAL STATE. in the Commonwealth is ,350,281,000, or 38.54 per cent, of the Value of all property in Australasia. In this total South Australia is credited with ,34, 080,000, or a proportion of 41.73 of all property held privately in the State. The value of land and improvements together in the Commonwealth amounts to ,627,805,000, or 69.08 per cent, of all property. This State's contribution to this result is ^56,060,000, or 68.65 P er cent. "The improvements on the lands of the Common- wealth and New Zealand are," says Coghlan, "valued at ,327,163,000, which sum represents 79.46 per cent, of the value of the land, ranging between 84.45 P er cent, in New South Wales, and 59.16 in Tasmania." The nature and worth of private property held in Australia are as follows: Land, ,350,281,000; houses and permanent improvements, ,277,524,000; live stock, ,85,048,000; furniture, &c., ,29,746,000; personal effects, ,12,066,000 ; machinery (excluding mining), ,29,852,000 ; shipping, ,5,874,000 ; mining properties and plant, ^32,299,000 ; merchandise and produce on hand, ^59,711,000; coin and bullion, ,26,361,000 ; total, ^"908,762,000. The subjoined table gives a bird's eye-view of the substantial progress made, and serves to indicate the high level of prosperity at present enjoyed in the Commonwealth of Australasia : TJ jj J3 S Total to STATES OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. ien Establis Area in Acres. '-S CO .js Og o Value of Produc- tion, 1901. Pro- duction per head. Imports, 1902. Exports, 1902. Trade per head of Popula- tion. Private Wealth per head. "I

f religion. At a meeting held at 19, Bishopsgate Street, London, on October 9, 1835, Mr. G. F. Angas and four other gentlemen approved of the draft prospectus of the "South Australian Company," which provided for: "FIRSTLY The erection upon their town land of wharfs, warehouses, dwelling houses, &c., and letting and leasing the same to the colonists, or otherwise disposing of them. SECONDLY The improvement and cultivation of their country land, and the leasing or sale of part of it, if deemed expedient, and the sub-letting of their pasture land at advanced rates. THIRDLY The laying out of farms, the erection of suitable buildings thereon, and letting the same to industrious tenants on lease, with the right of purchase before the expiration of such lease at a price to be fixed at the time the tenant may enter. FOURTHLY The growth of food for European markets. FIFTHLY The pursuit of the whale, seal, and other fisheries in the gulfs and seas around the colony, and the curing and salting of such fish as may be suitable for exportation. SIXTHLY The salting and curing of beef and pork for the stores of ships and for the purposes of general export. SEVENTHLY The establishment of a bank or banks in or connected with the colony of South Australia, making loans on land or produce in the colony, and the conducting of such banking operations as the directors may think expedient." Mr. George Sutherland, M.A., in his "Study in Colonization" gives in detail the history of this company, which has had so great a hand in shaping the destiny of South Australia. The story of splendid pioneer work need not be repeated here. Suffice it to say that but for the company, the province in its early days could hardly have escaped destruction on financial rocks. The association has been well repaid for the enterprise and patience of its promoters, and well it deserved to be. At a critical stage of the preliminary proceedings this company purchased sufficient land at 1 2S. per acre to enable the Commissioners to comply with the Act of 1834 " to erect South Australia into a British province, and to provide for the colonization and government thereof." Thus was the way made clear for the PROCLAIMING THE PROVINCE. II practical work of colonization. The first ships were soon on the berth, and with their departure the province of South Australia was successfully launched. Here, again, the South Australian Company led the way. "A free country for independent, liberty-loving people." That, in effect, was the alluring promise held out. That in reality was the corner-stone of the foundation of South Australia, upon which a great structure is still in course of building. The new province when it first saw the light was free from any 41 birthstain." It has continued free ever since. The Act of establishment said: " Thac no person or persons convicted in any Court of Justice in Great Britain or Ireland, or elsewhere, shall at any time, or under any circumstances, be transported as a convict to any place within the limits hereinbefore described." The leading principles of the legislation which authorised the settlement were that South Australia should not be a charge upon Great Britain ; that no convicts should be transported, and no state church established. An attempt to violate the latter principle a few years later was warmly and successfully resisted. The province was also favored with trial by jury from the outset, the full right of which privilege it had been found necessary to withhold in neighboring colonies. The first courc of gaol delivery was held as far back as May 13, 1837. The presiding Judge was Sir J. W. Jeffcott, subsequently drowned at the mouth of the Murray. In his address to South Australia's first jury, His Honor congratulated the free inhabitants of the colony in being able to claim as their birthright that most valuable privilege of the British Constitution trial by jury. The judge went on to say : ' ' The only obstacle which seemed at first sight to interpose itself was the presumed difficulty of procuring in so new a colony a sufficient number of intelligent gentlemen to take upon them the highly important duties which you will have to discharge. That difficulty was, however, at once obviated in my mind after I had been a few days amongst you, and I had seen and conversed with the very many respectable colonists whom I had had the pleasure of meeting in private society, and amongst the many interesting and novel features which the formation of the colony presents it is not the least interesting that, within four months of the landing of the Governor and the first colonists on these shores shores hitherto untrodden by the foot of civilised man there were found the means of assembling together a number of gentlemen capable of constituting a grand and petit jury, who, in point of intelligence and respectability are, I will venture to say, not inferior to any similar body seen in the mother country. ' ' That of itself constitutes a remarkable tribute to the character of the early settlers a testimony which the pioneers justified in every particular. Free passages for emigrants ; land sales to cover the outlay, were the underlying principles of the unique experiment tried in the colonization of South Australia. The South Australian Company came to the assistance of the Commissioners, fitted out ships with stock, stores, and practical men. The Company led the way in everything, introducing sheep and cattle ; importing seeds and plants ; establishing a bank and finding money when funds in the public treasury had dwindled until on one occasion only eighteenpence remained. The Treasurer of the day on arriving at his office on that eventful morning found the soldier on guard helplessly drunk. Proclaiming tHe Province. Captain Hindmarsh, R.N., was gazetted Governor of the new province of South Australia on February 4, 1836. A month later the "Cygnet," 239 tons, left London, having on board Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Kingston, Captain Lipson, R.N., Dr. Wright, surgeon; Messrs. Finniss, Neale, Symonds, Hardy, and Cannan, .surveyors ; Mr. T. Gilbert, storekeeper ; Mr. John Morphett, and a number of 12 THE CENTRAI, STATE. An Interior View of the Adelaide Railway Station. A. Vaughan, Survey Dept., pho'o. Entrance to the Adelaide Railway Station. A. Vaughan, Purvey Dept., i koto. PROCLAIMING THE PROVINCE. 13 passengers. The " Rapid," 136 tons, with Colonel Light, left some weeks after the " Cygnet," .but arrived at Kangaroo Island nearly a month before that vessel. Colonel Light, as Surveyor-General, with an energy characteristic of him, at once began his great labors of rinding a suitable site for the capital, fixing the place for the chief seaport, surveying the country, and starting to fill up a blank map. The process is still going on. South Australia has unknown fields to be explored, vast tracts of country to be occupied, so that there are still offered splendid opportunities for courageous enterprising men. The " Buffalo," with His Excellency Captain Hindmarsh on board, dropped anchor in Holdfast Bay on December 28, 1836. The Governor landed the same day, and under the generous shade of gumtrees close to the beach the Union Jack was hoisted, the proclamation read, salutes fired, and South Australia officially started on its course. The following is a facsimile of the proclamation : PROCLAMATION By His Excellency JOHN HINDMARSH, Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. In announcing to the COLONISTS of HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA the establishment of the Government, I hereby call upon them to conduct themselves on all occasions with order and quietness, duly to respect the laws, and by a course of- industry .and sobriety, by the practice of sound morality and a strict observance of the Ordinances of Religion, to prove themselves worthy to he FOUNDERS of a great and free Colony. It is also, at this time especially, my duty to apprise the Colonists of my resolution to take every lawful means for extending the same protection to the NATIVE POPULATION as to the rest of His Majesty's Subjects, and of my firm determination to punish with exemplary severity all acts of violence or injustice which may in any manner be practised or attempted against the NATIVES, who are to be considered as much under the Safeguard of the law as the Colonists themselves, and equally entitled to the privileges of British Subjects. I trust, therefore, with confidence to the exercise of moderation and forbearance by all Classes in their intercourse with the NATIVE INHABITANTS, and that they will omit no opportunity of assisting me to fulfil His Majesty's most gracious and benevolent intentions towards them by promoting their advancement in civilization, and ultimately, under the blessing of Divine Providence, their conversion to the Christian Faith. By His Excellency's Command, ROBERT GOUGER, Colonial Secretary. Glenelg, 28th December, 1836. GOD SAVE THE KING. GLENEI.G : Printed by authority by ROBERT THOMAS AND Co., Government Printers. "The commission was read," wrote an eye-witness of the proceedings, "to the settlers, of whom about 200 were present. . . . The health of ' His Majesty,' 'The Governor,' 'Officers,' and 'Success to South Australia,' were given and drunk with great enthusiasm. Our National Anthem, combined with the circumstances in which it was sung, had more grandeur in its simplicity than those who only hear it at a theatre can conceive." The boundaries of the colony at this time were comprised between the i32nd and 1/j.ist degrees of east longitude, and between the Southern Ocean and 26th 14 THE CENTRAL STATE. degree of south latitude. Her territory amounted to nearly 300,000 square miles, or 192,000,000 acres, including Kangaroo Island, which contains 2,500,000 acres. In 1861 80,000 square miles of land between the western boundary of South Australia and the eastern boundary of Western Australia a tract of country then known as No Man's Land was added, and the western boundary is now the i2gth degree of east longitude. In 1 863 her boundaries were further extended by the addition of what is known as ' ' The Northern Territory, ' ' which consists of the country stretching northward from the 26th degree of south latitude to the Indian Ocean, and lying between the i2gth and i38th degees of east longitude. South Australia, therefore, now extends from the Southern to the Indian Ocean, and contains an area of 903,690 square miles, or 578,361,600 acres. Early Days. It was not to be expected that the heterogeneous company dumped on the shores of an unknown land would work out their destiny without friction. There were naval officers who had fought under Nelson, accustomed to prompt obedience without questions being asked ; soldiers who had been through the Peninsula wars and at Waterloo with Wellington ; men with money, and men without money, each possessing strong individuality and a large supply of human nature. Governor Hindmarsh was a warm-hearted, bluff sailor who had served under Nelson, at whose hands he had the honor to receive a presentation sword, accompanied by high compliments for gallant conduct. He combined all the strength of the average naval officer to give orders with the weakness of the average sailor to administer civil affairs and bear with the failings of an undis- ciplined public. He wanted his own way over the site of the capital, and lost his temper when opposed by a gallant soldier who had won distinction under the Iron Duke. The Governor appealed to the Home authorities, but was informed that "when he applied for the office of Governor he was distinctly informed that the right of selecting the capital would be vested solely in the Surveyor-General. ' ' The little community ranged itself into two hostile camps, and a fierce wordy war took place over the site of the capital. In the preface of his ' ' Journal of Proceedings," published in Adelaide in 1839, Colonel Light wrote: "The reasons that led me to fix Adelaide where it is, I do not expect to be generally understood or calmly judged of at present. My enemies, however, by disputing their validity in every particular, have done me the good service of fixing the whole of the responsibility upon me. I am perfectly willing to bear it ; and I leave to posterity, and not to them, to decide whether I am entitled to praise or blame." When Colonel Light won the day it seemed as if all his fellow-colonists were bent on justifying the theory of the great German philosopher, that as soon as a man does anything remarkable "there is a general conspiracy to prevent him doing it again." Colonel Light was worried into an early grave, and if his wishes as a man of retiring- disposition were that he and his work might be speedily forgotten, those wishes have been singularly respected. Time has vindicated him and the work he did. Efforts have been made at various periods to erect some substantial memorial to perpetuate the memory of the man who fixed the site and laid out the capital of South Australia. Possibly a feeling that no such emblem is needed partly explains why nothing has been done, and even the modest monument at his grave has teen permitted to crumble away. " If you seek his monument, look around you," is after all the most enduring reminder the fortunate dweller in the cleanest and most beautiful city in the Commonwealth is able to convey to the visitor. A number of leading citizens are now endeavoring to remove this reproach of ingrati- tude and a worthy memorial of Col. Light is promised. THE PIONEER AS PATHFINDER. Tne Pioneer as Pathfinder. " What a land is this to which you have sent me ! The loveliness and glory of its plains and woods, its glens and hills ! But of these you will hear from others. I cannot, however, leave it out of my estimate of God's goodness to me, that He has placed me in so fair and sweet a portion of His earth." So wrote the Rev. T. Q. Stow to the Colonial Missionary Society. A keynote of gratitude was struck by many others, who wrote in glowing terms of the beauty of the new land. Some of the chroniclers of the day had lively imaginations. One authority declared that "the atmosphere is not subject to those sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold that we have in England," and that "through- out the summer hardly a week occurs with- out the most refreshing show r ers." The same author wrote in 1839 : " Colds and coughs are almost unknown. Locusts are plentiful, but not injurious. Mosquitoes are of no serious inconvenience." It is also curious to read the following : " Holdfast Bay will always be the place of landing and embarkation for passengers, saving the circuitous voyage to the port of landing." At one time the River Torrens, which trickles its way towards the sea dividing the city proper from North Adelaide, was described as a mighty stream. Some of the early plans showed vessels snugly at anchor behind w r here now stands Government House ! It was origin- ally intended to connect the city with the sea by means of a canal, and surveys were made with that end in view. On the site intended for the waterway now grow tall gum-trees, which afford a breakwind and shade for travellers between Adelaide and Port Adelaide. The ' ' Pilgrim Fathers ' ' were well represented among the early settlers. They were ' ' self-selected ' ' colonists men who felt that they were hampered in the Homeland. Pride of race was a dominant characteristic, but stronger still was their love of liberty. They possessed physical and moral courage to an unusual degree, cool determination in "the face of all difficulties. Of the pioneer it may truly be said that he was One who never turned his back, but marched breast forward, Never doubted clouds would break ; Never dreamed though right were worsted wrong would triumph, Held, we fall to rise ; are baffled to fight better ; sleep to wake. Troubles soon began, but the pioneers emerged triumphant and made substantial progress when once initial difficulties were overcome. For many months, the first settlers had been huddled together on small vessels lacking in everything Waterfall in the, Mount Lofty Range near Adelaide. Ernest Gall, photo, il , i6 THE CENTRAL STATE. I e g c~ 5 THE PIONEER AS PATHFINDER. IJ that helps to modify the discomforts of a long sea voyage. When the landing took place on the shores of Holdfast Bay each family had to shift for itself. Some had tents, others had to imitate the natives and build bough wurlies. When a move was made to the spot where the splendid city of Adelaide now stands, women and children had to walk and carry as much of the household furniture as they could. The men placed the balance on wheelbarrows, which they had to push through five or six miles of scrub. Then came the "reed hut period." Houses of all shapes and sizes were made from reeds growing in the River Torrens, and for some time colonists clustered together, making occasional excursions back to the landing place, or down to where Colonel Light had decided the chief seaport of the new province should be established. The time soon arrived when the practical work of colonization with all its accompanying privations had to be faced. When it came there was ready as fine a band of stalwart men and noble women as ever set out to subdue a wilderness or wrest from Nature her choicest gifts. As the pioneers pushed out into the country they caused the sunlight to break through the dark clouds which by this time hung like a pall over the little city of reed huts clustering together on the banks of the Torrens. The crack of the bullock-driver's whip as he turned his leaders northwards, the music of the axe as roadways were made through the bush, stirred the colonists to fresh activity and filled them with new hopes. The advance guards of civilization moved outwards from the new centre of settlement, and the coloni- zation of South Australia began. The hardships endured, the failures which came in place of success, only served to prove the mettle of the sturdy pioneers who so well and truly laid the corner stone of a great structure, which at the end of sixty-six years typifies national progress and prosperity. The hottest day was not too hot, the longest journey not too long, the bush was not too dense, nor the hill too steep for the men and women who had turned their backs on the newborn city. The pathfinders for posterity moved out towards the unknown, to conquer the bush, bridge the ford, and pave the way for their children and their children's children. By unremitting toil, with primitive appliances, backed by rare patience and endurance, they created the magnificent heritage which is ours to-day. Men the workers, ever reaping something new ; That which they have done but earnest of the things that they will do. The sons and daughters of the pioneers have well maintained the family reputation. Nowhere in the British Dominions is a better stamp of colonists to be found than in South Australia. The work of colonization still goes on, only more vigorously and systematically than in the early days. Growth is sometimes checked, but the movement is ever outward. The stockman, the miner, the farmer, seek fresh victories out in the heart of our great continent, where there is almost unlimited room for expansion. Central Australia possesses a vast treasury of wealth awaiting exploitation by capital and labor. The pathfinders have made the way easy and safe for those who come after them. Roads cross and recross one another, and form a perfect network of communication. From Adelaide to Port Darwin there stretches a telegraph wire the pioneer connecting link between the old world and the new. Railways have been built and rivers bridged. Newcomers have but to enter and take advantage of the splendid self-denying labours of the early settlers. The Climate. climate of South Australia is one of the healthiest in the world. No serious epidemic has ever visited this State, which shares with Tasmania the lowest death-rate in the Commonwealth. The territory of the State, extending south to north from sea to sea over 26 degrees of latitude, wedged in between the States of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland on the east, and Western Australia along the whole length of the western boundary, is, as may easily be imagined, subject to great variations of climate. The temperate zone of the southern portion corresponds very closely to the climate of Italy, while in the northern part tropical conditions prevail. Notwith- standing the extremes of heat and cold, ranging from a thermometer of occasionally over 100 in the shade down to say 40 or 50, the weather is delightful and invigorating. In midsummer, when the heat is greatest, the air is generally clear and dry, and owing to this dryness a temperature of noin the shade in South Australia is not nearly so oppressive as is 90 in a moister climate. The extreme heat of summer seldom extends for more than a week without a cool change setting in. Dwellers in the city and suburbs can at all times within an hour reach localities in the hills or at the seaside, where the temperature is low y er. December, January, and February are the hottest months of the year. November and March are also hot, but the nights are cooler, and the heat is seldom of long duration. "The summer" (says Sir Charles Todd, Government Astronomer for many years) "may l>e regarded as extending from October to March. After that month the temperature falls rapidly. The weather during April and May is simply perfection, and the same applies to most of the winter and till the end of October. ' ' The coldest months are June, July, and August, but so equable is the climate that it is never necessary to house and artificially feed the sheep, cattle, and horses, as is done in cold countries. The mean temperature during June, July, and August over a period ot 43 years was 53*5, 51 '5, and 54^0 respectively. Sir Charles Todd remarks ' ' During these months, and occasionally even in September, there are frosts, especially on the high-lying plains to the north." The mean temperature for the summer months December, January, and February is 71.3, 74.2, and 74.0. The thermometer exceeds 90, on the average, on eleven days in December, ten days in January, and nine days in February. " The extreme dryness of the air," says the Government Astronomer, "renders the heat very bearable and healthy." Fruits and cereals of every kind grow luxuriantly, and live stock are almost entirely free from disease. In the interior, where the heat during the day is greatest, the nights are delicious, and fully compensate for the vigor of the sun. Explorers and travellers have experienced no difficulty in penetrating into the heart of Australia, and station hands and drovers living in the country for years at a time seldom know what an illness is. It is recorded of one exploring expedition that no occasion arose to open the medicine chests with which the party had been supplied. The explorers spent many months in travelling about Central Australia, and although enduring the usual hardships, the general health of all the party was perfect. In the hills, which form so beautiful a background to the City of Adelaide, the weather is delightful in the summer. These districts are connected by railway and excellent roads. The handsome residences of wealthy colonists and the well-kept orchards add to the great natural beauties of the mountains, which are largely resorted to by citizens on holidays and on Saturdays and Sundays. The " National THE CLIMATE. 19 Park," comprising 2,000 acres of beautiful fern glens and wooded hills, is situated in these high lands, and throughout the whole year form a huge playground for the public. So favorable is the climate in the ranges that shrubs from all parts of the world thrive well, and some of the finest landscape gardens in Australia are situated on the slopes of these hills. Nothing could be further from the truth than to assert, as some travellers have done after a flying visit, that the climate of South Australia is " hot and oppressive. ' ' The thermometer readings placed in comparison with the records in other countries afford no guide, because other conditions are not similar. Field sports are freely indulged in a shade heat of over 100, and on account of the clear, dry air, the hottest day in South Australia is not so enervating as is a lower temperature range in a humid climate. Ernest Gall photo. Typical Residences in the Hills View at Mt. Lofty. Government. INCE the proclamation of the province there has been a complete political evolution from a mild form of despotism to a democracy represented by adult suffrage and a secret ballot system. The political constitution of South Australia underwent a remarkable change more than half a century ago, and improvements have taken place at intervals. For several years colonists had no voice in the government of the new settlement. The Act constituting South Australia a British province, passed in 1834 in the reign of King William IV., provided that a Constitution should be granted to the inhabitants "as soon as they numbered 50,000 souls." Under this Act a Board of Colonization Commissioners was appointed in London. This Board controlled land sales and emigration, and for a brief period exercised considerable authority in other directions. Until 1851 executive control was vested in the Governor and a Council appointed by His Excellency, and dominated by him. The Council was nothing more than a convenient buffer. The Governor had all the power of an autocrat, and occasionally he exercised it in a manner which often threatened the peace of the little community of independent, strong-willed settlers. After 15 years' experience of indirect management by a Board 16,000 miles away, in a period w r hen communication was intermittent, and direct government on the spot was vested in one man responsible only to the Imperial authorities, who knew little of colonial affairs, and appeared to care less, the people were ripe for a change. When it came it partook more of a political revolution than a constitutional evolution. In 1851 a measure of self-government was substituted for the yoke of Imperial dictatorship, and so greatly did the people appreciate the freedom that they soon began to ask for more. The population at that time consisted of 66,538 persons 37,321 males and 29,217 females. A good story is told concerning this first Constitution. Mr. George Fife Angas was about to leave London for South Australia, and he applied to the Colonial Office to be allowed the honor of conveying the parchment to Adelaide. This was contrary to precedent, so the important document was sent from the Colonial Office in charge of a clerk, who was instructed to take it on board the "Ascendant" and deliver it into the hands of the captain. The master was ashore, and as the ship was on the point of sailing, the clerk, either through negligence or from not understanding the importance of the papers with which he was entrusted, gave the package to a stew r ard, who being very busy thrust it into the nearest place of safety. The ship sailed, and if the captain gave a thought to the matter at all, he merely supposed that there had been some delay or fresh arrangements had been made. On arrival in Adelaide, the proper authorities went on board to demand their Constitution and receive it \vith due honor, for advices from England had informed them that it would arrive in the "Ascendant." The captain, of course, protested that he had seen nothing of it, and there was a great hue and cry for the lost Constitution, until one day shortly after, in turning out the captain's soiled linen for the laundress, it was found, to the great amusement of everyone, at the bottom of the bag, where the steward had hurriedly placed it for security ! GOVERNMENT. 21 22 THE CENTRAL STATE. The Imperial Act authorised the formation of a Legislative Council not exceeding 24 members, one-third of whom were to be nominated by the Governor, and two-thirds elected by householders and property owners. The qualification for membership in the first legislature was a freehold property of the annual value of ,100, or of the total value of ,2,000. This Council had distinct limitations, having no power to deal with the land, which remained in the hands of the representative of the Imperial Government. During the next few r years political growth was rapid, and in 1853 a Bill constituting a bicameral legislature was passed, but was disallowed. By 1856, however, the pioneers were in possession of a Constitution, the essential principles of which still remain. In that year the bicameral system of government was introduced, for the Act of 1856 created two houses a Legislative Council, con- sisting of 1 8 members, elected on a property qualification franchise, the whole province voting as one electorate ; and a House of Assembly, composed of 36 members, elected on a manhood suffrage basis. The qualification for members of both Houses and electors was the same as it is to-day. A member of the Upper Chamber is required to be thirty years of age, born a British subject, or naturalised, and resident in the State for at least three years. An elector must be 21 years of age, and the possessor of a freehold estate of the value of ^50, or a leasehold of 20 annual value with three years to run, or be the occupier of a dwelling-house of ,25 annual value. Unsuccessful attempts have been made during recent years to modify this franchise. A member of the other Chamber is only required to have the qualification of an elector, viz., he must be a British subject, or naturalised, of the age of 21 years, a resident of five years. The membership of the Council was increased in 1873 to 46, in 1884 to 52, and subsequently to 54; but under a scheme of economy and as an outcome of federation, a reduction was made to 42 in 1901. Manhood suffrage obtained from the outset in respect to elections for the House of Assembly, and the only variation was the political emancipation of women in 1894, which made the franchise for that Chamber adult suffrage. Women vote for both branches of the legislature under the same conditions as men. In 1887 the system of payment of members was introduced, under which legislators are each paid ,200 a year. There are now four Ministers, who receive ,1,000 each a year. The State Parlia- ment is triennial, with annual sessions. The last general elections w r ere held on May 3, 1902, \vhen the voting was as follows : For the LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. On Roll. Voted. Percentage Voted. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1902. 38,419 13,497 29,952 7,921 Males 77-96 Total. Total. Females 51*27 37,873 Totals 7 2 '95 For HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY. On Roll. Voted. Percentage Voted. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1902. 76,899 72,020 . 53,410 36,508 . Men 69-45 Total. Total. Women 50*65 148,919 89,918 Totals 60-38 GOVERNMENT. 23 The power of both Houses is co-ordinate, excepting that Bills for appropriating any part of the revenue, or for imposing, altering, or repealing taxation, must originate in the Assembly. An attempt on the part of the Upper Chamber in 1857 to exercise a supposed authority to amend a Money Bill was strenuously and successfully resisted. A great political battle, which shook the little province to its very foundations, took place in the year named over the "Tonnage Duties Repeal Bill," and in order to avoid the repetition of such a struggle it was eventually arranged that the Council should not claim the right to ' ' amend ' ' Money Bills, but should formulate "suggestions." The compact entered into nearly half a century ago has been honorably observed ever since, and disputes between the two Houses are unknown. The legislative machinery created in 1856, and improved as occasion required* has worked with perfect smoothness. The "will of the people " prevails in the election of members of the legislature, and the power of Parliament is practically absolute. There has never been a serious conflict between the representative of the British Crown and his advisers, and the power of the Imperial authorities to disallow Acts passed by the local legislature is rarely exercised. From the outset South Australia has been fortunate in its Governors, Parliament, and Ministers. Their respective powers have been wisely exercised, and the political freedom enjoyed with the opportunities provided for social and industrial progress leave little to be desired. South Australia has led the way in several important reforms, having been the first State of the Australian group to enjoy elective houses, manhood suffrage for one chamber, voting by ballot, payment of members, and woman's suffrage. It was also the first of the States to adopt the principle of taxation of land values, granting the municipal vote to women, legalising marriage with deceased wife's sister, separating Church from State by abolishing State grants to religion, and passing the Real Property Act. The objects of the Real Property Act the creation of Sir R. R. Torrens at one time Registrar-General are to give security and simplicity to all dealings with land, by providing that the title shall depend upon registration ; that all interests shall be capable of appearing or being protected upon the face of the registry, and that a registered title or interest shall never be affected by any claim or charge which is not registered. By this system every one who acquires any estate or interest in land, upon being registered as owner thereof, obtains a title absolutely secure as against every one whose claim does not appear upon the registry ; and the two elements of simplicity and security as regards the acquisition of land appear to be effectually attained. The Real Property Act of South Australia has been copied by all the Australian States and in other parts of the world. The ballot system was invented by the late Mr. W. R. Boothby, C.M.G., Chief Returning Officer, who for ever 50 years was an esteemed member of the Civil Service of the State. His scheme has since been adopted by all the Australian States, and is largely in use in the United States of America. The method of voting is as follows : Each elector is given a voting paper containing the names of the candidates, with a square set opposite each name. The voter enters a private apartment and puts a cross within the square opposite the name of the favored candidate. The folded paper is handed to the Returning Officer and he, in the presence of the voter, drops it into a sealed box. Secrecy is thus assured, and no matter how high political leeling may run at election time, there is the utmost decorum within the polling booth. No electors need have the slightest appre- hension in approaching a polling place to record his or her vote. / South Australia also led the way in a very fine system of local self-government by means of Municipal Corporations and District Councils. These bodies, in addition THE CENTRAL STATE. GOVERNMENT. to having control over streets and certain roads, are vested with considerable local authority. In addition to fostering the important principles of self-government, the plan has encouraged self-help among people in remote districts, and has had the effect of lightening the labors of the State legislature regarding matters of local concern, whilst relieving the central government of much detail administration. The total amount of the assessment for the thirty-two Municipal Corporations for the year 1902 amounted to ,1,195,990, as against ,1,032,163 in 1893. The ra te declared in the pound varied from is. in the country to is. gd. for the city, producing ,82,996. There are 141 District Councils, with a total assessment of ,1,433,036, as compared with ^1,529,643 in 1893. The rate declared in the pound varies from 5d. to is. 4d., producing in 1902 ,63,950. The last, but by no means least, significant evolution in the methods of government was the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia, on January i, 1901. South Australia was always strongly federal in sentiment, and exercised considerable influence at every stage of federal evolution. At the various conferences and conventions the South Australian representatives stood out prominently for a united Australia. When the Commonwealth Constitution was submitted to the electors of South Australia for approval, 65,990 electors voted for union, and 17,053 against. South Australia enjoys the right to elect six members to the Federal Senate, and at present seven members to the House of Representatives. There is equal representation of all States in the Senate, but membership in the other chamber is regulated by population. The Commonwealth has control over Customs, the Post Office, and immigration. The State retains the right of administering its own land laws and other forms of taxation other than Customs duties. The following shows the divisions of the State for both houses of legislature and the members : Legislative Council. District. Division. CENTRAL Adelaide Port Adelaide Torrens SOUTHERN Victoria and Albert Alexandra Murray NORTH EASTERN Barossa Wooroora Wallaroo NORTHERN Stanley Burra Burra Flinders Northern Territory Members. Hon. George Brookman. Hon. Joseph Vardon. Hon. Henry William Thompson. Hon. Robert Storrie Guthrie. Hon. Andrew Alexander Kirkpatrick. Hon. Hugo Carl Emil Muecke. Hon. Sir John Lancelot Stirling, K.C.M.G., L,L,.B. (President). Hon. George Riddoch. Hon. Alfred von Doussa. Hon. John Hannah Gordon, K.C. (Attorney-General and Minister of Education). Hon. John James Duncan. Hon. Thomas Pascoe. Hon. Edward Lucas. Hon. John Warren. Hon. James Henderson Howe. Hon. Arthur Richman Addison. ^ Hon. John George Bice. Hon. John Lewis. 26 THE CENTRAL STATE. House of Assembly. District. ADELAIDE PORT.ADELAIDE TORRENS VICTORIA AND ALBERT ALEXANDRA MURRAY BAROSSA WOOROORA WALLAROO STANLEY BURRA BURRA FLINDERS NORTHERN TERRITORY Members. Lewis Cohen. William Joseph Denny. Hugh Robert Dixson. Johann Theodor Scherk. Ivor Mc-Gillivray. William Oliver Archibald. Thomas Henry Brooker. John Darling, jun. (Leader of Opposition). Frederick William Coneybeer. Hon. John Greeley Jenkins (Premier and Chief George Klewitz So ward. Secretary). Thomas Price (Leader of Labor Party). John Livingston. Archibald Henry Peake. I Andrew Dods Handyside. f Alexander McDonald. | Charles Tucker. } William James Blacker. [ George Ritchie. I Walter Hughes Duncan. Robert Homburg. ( Fried rich Jacob Pflaum. f Ephraim Henry Coombe. J Hon. Richard Butler (Treasurer, Commissioner of I Crown Lands, and Minister of Mines). [ William Gilbert. ( Hon. Sir Jenkin Coles, K.C.M.G. (Speaker). David James. [ Friedrich Wilhelin Paech. j" John Verran. Peter Allen. [ John Wallace Shannon. (Hon. Alfred Catt (Chairman of Committees). William Patrick Cummins. Frederick William Young, LL.B. [ Hon. Laurence O'Loughlin (Government Whip). William Miller. | Hon. William Benjamin Rounsevell. David McKenzie. Thomas Burgoyne. Hon. Richard Witty Foster (Commissioner of Public Works and Minister of Industry). ( Charles Edward Herbert. ( Samuel James Mitchell. The Primary Producer's Record OUTH AUSTRALIA is a country where the primary producer is King. His sovereignty is undisputed, his reign continuous. Upon the products of the soil the prosperity of the people depends. The flockmaster with his sheep, the herdsman with his cattle, the tiller of the soil with his cereals and fruits, have made South Australia what it is to-day, one of the most self-contained and prosperous States in the Commonwealth of Australia. From the earliest days of the State's history primary products have been the dominating factor of national progress. Were seasons favorable and harvests bountiful ? then the merchant, the trader, the professional man, and the laborer, down through all departments of industry, participated. Did the droughts come and blight the cereal crops, and cause mortality among the flocks and herds ? the evil influence was felt by all. Notwithstanding the initial handicap of a handful of people having to control and develop so vast a territory ; in spite, too, of periods of falling markets the primary producer has a splendid record to his credit. The following is a statement of the declared value of the staple exports of the State during 1901 and 1902, with the aggregate value of each class from the first exportation of the several products and manufactures of the State to 1902, inclusive (arranged under twenty-seven heads): Articles. 1901. 1902. Aggregate. L L L Wool 1,029,063 782,065 59,650,441 Flour 440,226 397,755 27,877,856 Wheat 839,731 744,68o 25,735,509 Copper ore and metal ... ... 491,617 430,712 23,507,082 Hides and skins ... ... ... 233,162 292,093 4,188,180 Livestock ... ... ... ... 130,230 162,642 1,965,403 Hay and chaff ... ... ... 75,798 481,404 1,586,108 Bark 67,601 68,850 1,545,042 Wine ... ... ... ... ... 92,418 124,916 1,340,126 Bran and pollard ... 43,872 62,505 1,198,976 Tallow 4,826 888 1,038,764 Eggs 73,520 107,739 1,016,286 Butter 17,620 23,230 606,568 Fresh fruit 62,662 37, 315 601,068 Gold 16,613 50 545,657 Preserved meat 28,181 27,717 454,380 Other minerals ... ... ... 722 42,735 45> 8 49 Frozen meat ... ... ... ... 58,477 95,028 263,480 Manure 3,ooo 4,478 207,291 Barley and oats 5,223 23,381 ^ 201,792 Honey and beeswax ... ... 2,522 8,m 138,869 Vegetables 8,063 ",278 121,046 28 THE CENTRAL STATE. Articles. 1901. 1902. Aggregate. Bacon and hams ... ... ... 9,329 32,628 103,300 Preserved fruit 2,628 4,455 4^869 Cheese ... ... ... ... 1,258 2,424 12,213 Frozen poultry, game, &c. ... ... i,i44 2,805 7,873 Unenumerated 477, 095 787,063 6,578,138 Total values ... 4., 216,601 4,768,947 160,984,266 Imports re-exported ... 3,799,288 2,929,567 85,020,826 Total exports Total imports Imports retained ... 8,015,889 7,371,587 3,572,299 7,698,514 6,073,781 3,144,214 246,005,092 231,156,790 146,135,964 Combined imports and exports ... 15,387,476 13,772,295 477,161,882 The first staple exports were made in 1838 ; minerals were first exported in 1841, and wheat, flour, and copper in 1843. The total value of staple produce exported to the end of 1902 amounted to ,160,984,266, as outlined above. Breadstuffs are responsible for ,55,014,133 ; minerals for ,24,000,000 ; wine f r l , 34 ,i26 ; wool for ,59,650,441; and dairy produce for ^1,738,467. The production of WHEAT in 1902 was 6,354,000 bushels. Its value was ,1,800,000. The crop now being gathered is expected to yield 14,000,000 bushels. "Owing to favorable conditions of cultivation," says Mr. Coghlan, the Australasian statistician, "a yield of seven bushels per acre is financially as satisfactory as one of 15 bushels in New South Wales or of 20 bushels in New Zealand. South Australian WOOL shipments for the 1902-3 season totalled 96,524 bales. There are now 21,692 acres under VINES, and the "make" in the 1903 vintage was 2,573,422 gallons of wine. Wine shipments now reach a value of over ,90,000 per annum. The PASTORAL wealth of South Australia is officially stated at ,2,086,000; AGRICULTURE ,3,712,000. FLOCKS total 4,880,000 sheep; HERDS, 138,000 cattle, including 75,000 dairy cows. There are in the State 211,901 HORSES; 82,700 PIGS ; 8,700 GOATS ; and 1,281,000 poultry. South Australia claims to possess some of the finest ORANGE groves in Australia. There are 127,762 orange trees in full bearing. South Australian oranges are shipped to London in increasing quantities every year. The APPLE orchards comprise 17,000 acres. The high-water level of apple shipments was in 1901 when 73,000 cases were exported. The export of FROZEN MEAT (mostly lambs) has grown from 963,763 Ibs. in 1898 to 4,859,937 Ibs. in 1902. The quantity of OLIVE OIL made in 1890-1 was 6,838 gallons. In 1902-3 12,422 gallons. In the average of agricultural produce per head of population South Australia leads all the other States in the Commonwealth with a value per head of ,10 45. 6d., as compared with ,8 i2s. od. for Tasmania, ,7 35. 5d. Victoria, 4 175. 6d. New South Wales, ,4 138. 6d. Queensland, ,4 us. lod. Western Australia. Evening Shadows at a South Australian Sheep Station. 7. Dailey photo. View of Sheep Station Outbuildings, showing woolshed at Wellington Lodge, where .*>'. /. Dailey photo. the River Murray enters Lake Alexandrina. Industrial Expansion. The material progress of South Aus- tralia has been continuous and substantial. A total population which at the present time is less than 365,000 has, in a coun- try more than four times the size of France and more than seven times larger than the United Kingdom, subdued the wilderness ; conquered the desert, causing it to blossom and become productive. At the end of sixty-six years there is a popu- lation of 362,000 persons; a public re- venue of .2,646,000 ; a combined annual trade -imports and exports equal to 13,772,000; 1,800 miles of railway have been built; 18,000 miles of telegraph and telephone wires are employed; 3,100,000 acres of land are annually cultivated ; 21,000 are under vines; there are over 5,000,000 sheep, 225,000 cattle, and 165,000 horses in the State, whilst the staple export trade amounts to 4,768,947, and has aggregated in the sixty-six years 160,984,266. Even this record of industrial expansion splendid though it is does not convey an adequate idea of the work accomplished in colonising and developing so vast a terri- tory. When Governor Hindmarsh read the proclamation in 1836 there were 500 colonists present, and they had not be- gun to make history in the new country. Not an acre of land had been disturbed, roads and buildings were unknown, and ex- penditure was the only item entered in the national ledger. The outflow of pub- lic money so exceeded income for a few years that financial chaos resulted. A vice-regal representative was made the scapegoat. At this distance we can afford to regard the perilous period referred to as a "mere incident" in colonization a phase through which nations pass a.nd are all the better for the experience. The fiercer the furnace the finer the quality of the steel. Not since those strenuous days of the early forties have colonists ever had cause to question the security of a Go- vernment promissory notie or doubt the future. In 1841 there was a deficiency in the accounts of nearly 300,000, and bills drawn by Governor Gawler upon the Imperial Government were dishonored. The ettect of this was to stop all public works, dislocate trade, and throw a number of persons out of employment. It is the first recorded unemployed trouble in the State, and the incident gave birth to the "deputation industry" which has flourished ever since. The check was not of long duration, for a few years later discoveries were made of rich copper deposits, and the new settle- ment began to forge ahead on the high road towards prosperity. Within a very little time the public income was more than sufficient to cover all outgoings. In three years the revenue more than doubled itself. The pastoral industry was rapidly expanding, agriculture was extending, mining was in a buoyant condition. A reaction set in early in the fifties, when gold discoveries were made in Victoria. This threatened to produce disastrous re- sults to the province then entering upon its fifteenth year. The male population stampeded to the goldfields. By bullock dray, by pack horses, in traps, on foot, by sailing vessels which sometimes occupied as many days on the voyage aa it now takes the mail steamers hours to cover the same distance there was a steady out> flow of humanity until only women and children remained. There was no labor available to gather the crops as they ripened, and the natives had to be called upon to help the harvesters. Work was ever a stranger to the average Australian aboriginal, and the blacks proved poor sub- stitutes for the pale-faced settlers now turned diggers. "Necessity" had again proved the "mother of invention." With ripe corn wasting in the fields for want of laborers, Mr. Ridley had conceived the idea of the stripper, an implement which has had a remarkable evolution and proved of incalculable benefit to the agri- cultural industry in Australia. South Australian strippers, vastly improved on INDUSTRIAL, EXPANSION. Mr. Ridley's model, are now to be found in all parts of Australia and in the Argen- tine Republic. The critical period through which South Australia passed during the height of the gold fever was forcefully indicated in the second annual report of the Chamber of Commerce dated 1852, in which the fol- lowing remarks occur: "For a time it seemed that the props of our material prosperity were about to give way. The streets of Adelaide were deserted, houses were abandoned by their tenants, rents fell, and property became unmarketable. The shops of our retailers presented their tempting wares in vain. There was a general arrest put on all business ; and this at a time when the stock of merchandise in the market was unprecedentedly heavy, and when the bill engagements of the mer- cantile community were larger probably than they had ever been before. At this juncture, as if to mark with greater em- phasis the signs of the times, a vessel arrived at Port Adelaide from Melbourne with a number of our colonists on board who, after a few weeks successful digging at the goldfields of Victoria, had brought back with them to this colony gold dust to the value of .50,000. This they were desirous of conyerting into money, but such was the straightened condition of the money market that purchasers could not be found for it. A portion of it was eventually sold at 55/ to 56/ per ounce, the price at Melbourne being 60/ at the time, and the remainder was carried back to Victoria. Such a circumstance was quite sufficient to show the critical position into which the colony had been thrown. It was, therefore, desirable by every possible means to attract back again with their gains as many of the absentee colonists as could be induced to come, in order that their wealth might be rendered available for the general good ; but an unexpected difficulty had to be encountered. The successful digger could not sell his gold if he brought it back, there being no money in the colony with whicu to purchase it. At one time the coffers in the Treasury were empty, and the civil servants had not received any pay for three months. "It was at this time, when ruin was staring everyone in the face, and when there had already been unmistakable symptoms of an approaching run on one of the banks, that the Committee of the Chamber of Commerce held a conference with the managers of the three banking institutions with reference to the measures to be adopted to meet the appalling crisis. At this meeting the difficulties of our position were fully discussed. The radical cause of the extreme financial embarrass- ment which existed was acknowledged to be the sudden and uncontrollable eniux of specie, which was gradually contracting the circulation into dimensions totally inadequate to meet the wants of the com- munity. It was considered, if the banks were permitted by law to base their issues for a time on uncoined gold at such a price as would leave a safe margin for the trans- mission of the gold to England and its re- placement in coin, that perfect security would be offered to the public, and a palliation, if not a complete corrective, presented to the disorder which prevailed. It was perceived that such a measure, if devised, would enable the banks to afford the required banking accommodation to their customers, so that every really sol- vent man should have an opportunity of retrieving his position. It was antici- pated that a currency so free, and yet so legitimate, would create a market for the raw gold ; and that thus, which was a much more coveted desideratum, the gold- digger of South Australia would be laid under inducements to return with his auri- ferous treasure to this colony. It was unanimously held that we were shut up to the line of policy here indicated if we would preserve the colony from general bankruptcy and avert a catastrophe which tnreatened to engulf all our colonial in- terests, for a time at least, in overwhelming confusion. To embody these views in some definite shape it was resolved that the Chamber, in conjunction with the banks, should make an urgent application to the Government to establish an Assay Office for the purpose of assaying and con- verting gold into stamped ingots, to be ex- changed with the banks for their notes. Such was the crude form of a scheme which ultimatelv resolved itself into the Bullion Act. "The representatives of the mercantile THE CENTRAL STATE. and banking interests, with the exception of the manager of the Bank of Australasia (the late Mr. Tomkinson), who dissented from this proposal, and would not "agree to take the ingots of gold as a legal tender, immediately petitioned the Lieutenant- Governor, Sir Henry Young, to convene the Legislative Council for the purpose of taking into consideration these proposals for the relief of the colony. At once responding to the general desire, Sir Henry issued a summons for the Council to meet on the 28th of January, 1852. The welfare of the colony was in their hands. It was an anxious time for the members, as they were called upon to make a daring innovation on established rules and principles; but the Council nobly did their duty, and with but few amendments the Government ordinance was passed, and in time became law. "And here it is only an act of justice to the Lieutenant-Governor to acknowledge the obligation under which he has laid the colonists, for having, at considerable responsibility, although at their unani- mous desire, affixed the royal sanction to a measure which, however imperatively called for, and however beneficial in its operation, is apt to be looked upon with suspicion or aversion at a distance, where the peculiar circumstances which rendered it necessary, however forcibly described, can be faintly appreciated. Such an act on his part was a graceful concession to the popular will, as expressed in one of its most intelligent forms, and as such is cal- culated to strengthen the good understand- ing which ought to subsist betwixt the Government and the people." These were exciting and critical times for South Australia, but they soon passed away. As the gold seekers began to re- turn home the wave of depression receded even more rapidly than it had approached. Many of the adventurers came back with considerable quantities of gold to their credit in the banks. Inspector Tolmer had established his famous escort, and the much-needed yellow metal as well as miners flowed back to South Australia. An era of increased activity in all branches of industry began. The land office was once more besieged by applicants wanting broad acres, and sales of land jumped from 32,000 in 1848 to 383,000, and the pub- lic revenue from all sources stood at- 595,000 in 1854. By 1851 imports from Great Britain had aggregated 3,000,000. Two years later they had increased to 5,000,000. It was during the successful regime of Governor Young that the River Murray was opened to navigation. Sir Henry was a firm believer in the Murray as a highway of trade to the interior, and it was largely due to his splendid en- thusiasm that navigation was inaugurated and the possibilities of that noble stream adequately recognised. Captain Cadell had come down stream in a canvas boat, and Captain Wm. Randall, who is still alive, was engaged building a small steamer at Mannum. Captain Randell's boat, the "Mary Ann, ' was actually the first vessel to steam up the Murray, but the "Lady Augusta," brought round from Sydney by Captain Cadell, fulfilled the conditions which accompanied the Parliamentary offer of a bonus. Thus the reward of 4,000 went to Captain Cadell. Governor and Lady Young and party accompanied Captain Cadell on the first voyage of the Lady Augusta. At times the Murray and Darling are navigable tor a distance of 3,000 miles, and, despite the combined efforts of various States to tap by railways the legitimate river trade, the waterway continues to be the cheapest means of transit for a large number of producers. In years of average rainfall the river more than holds its own against land carriage. The forties provided a copper boom ; the fifties were known as the golden decade. The population, having exceeded the prescribed limit fixed by the Imperial Act, the first Constitution Bill was passed and a Parliament consisting of two Chambers- established. About the same time rail- ways connecting Adelaide with Port Ade- laide, also with Gawler and Kapunda, were begun, and the first telegraph line wa erected. The extension. of the telegraph went on apace, and within three years from that time wires were stretched be- tween Adelaide and Melbourne. The ten- year period ending with 1859 was an im- portant one in the history of the province, and progress from 1836 to that time, though spasmodic, was considerable, as is- shown by the following comparisons: INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION. 33- Land under Total Year. Population. Cultivation. Ac- res. Revenue. Total Trade. Shipping. Tons. 1836 546 _ 1840 14,600 2687 30,618 335,436 83,787 184") 21,759 26.218 32,433 333.278 26,558 1850 63,700 64,728 238,983 1,416,389 174000 1855 96,982 140,000 453,641 2.359,153 226,000 1859 122,735 361,884 511,927 3,163,370 216,000 The sixties provide one of the brightest chapters in the history of S.A. It was a period of great activity, of splendid achievements on the part of explorers, and glorious triumphs in the work of developing natural resources. Rich cop- per deposits were again discovered, this time on the northern end of Yorkes Peninsula. These have proved the most valuable mineral deposits yet found in the State. Exploring parties pushed their way north and west. On the third at- tempt John McDouall Stuart, the famous explorer, crossed the continent from south to north and returned over his own tracks, thus solving the problem of the interior and providing a base line from which others could operate in laying bare the mysteries of inland Australia. In 1863 the Northern Territory, a tract of tropical country consisting of 340,097,280 acres, was by Royal Letters Patent annexed io South Australia, and active operations were at once begun to settle the newly- acquired possession. Colonists were fur- ther excited by a visit from His Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, the first member of the Royal Family to cross the seas to Australia, By 1864 exports of staple pro- duce had reached an annual value of 3,000,000, or over 20 per head of the population a splendid achievement for a handful of people to accomplish within a period of twenty-eight years. Shipments of cereal products amounted in that year to 1,464,000 ; wool contributed 775,000 ; metals and minerals 691,000. In an official report dealing with trade in 1864 it was stated: "Agricultural, pastoral, and mineral produce formed, as usual, the great bulk of the year's exports, and wool and copper were shipped in quantities of nearly equal value ; but the breadstuffs exported were worth as much as the pas- toral and mineral produce put together. This was, however, the result of excep- tional circumstances, the value of cereal produce usually averaging from 10 to 15 per cent, higher tnan that of the other two staples. In fact, comparing the average yearly exports of each class during the past five years with the averages for the pre- ceding similar period, it will be found that the shipments by agriculturists bore a less percentage to the value of the total ex- ports during 1860-64 than in the years- 1855-9. For instance, in the two periods, breadstuffs, &c., have decreased from 39.3 per cent, to 38.8 per cent, of the total ex- ports of produce; minerals from 27.1 to 25.7 per cent. ; and, on the other hand, wool has increased from 31.5 to 31.8 per cent." The population increased from 124,112 in 1860 to 181,146 by the end of 1869, and the public revenue rose from 438,827 to 777,351 in the same period. In 1865 the national income exceeded a million sterling. Agricultural expansion was of steady growth. In 1860 the cultivated area was 428,816 acres; by 1869 the acreage tilled had risen to 850,576 acres. At the end of that year the total trade turnover was valued at 5,747,805^ There were 4,436,000 sheep, 119,000 cattle, and 73,000 horses in the colony. Staple pro- duce exported was valued at 2,722,438. This forward movement was well main- tained during the next decade. The in- dustrial expansion, though less sensational in the seventies, was substantial, and in other directions some remarkable work was accomplished. In the face of numerous difficulties, and at great ex- pense, the province then comprising less 34 THE CENTRAL STATE. than 200,000 inhabitants ran a telegraph wire through the heart of the continent, a distance of 2,000 miles. The cost ex- ceeded half a million. The completion of this undertaking provided the first con- necting link between the old worm and the new. Australia has ever since been indebted to South Australia for the enter- prise thus exhibited. A few years later a telegraph line connecting Adelaide and Perth was constructed. The route of this second transcontinental service followed the tracks of the dauntless Eyre, and its completion represented a second triumph for an enterprising people who were bridging the continent and increasing the means of communication. Further ex- plorations were conducted which helped to remove wrong impressions concerning Central Australia. In political circles considerable activity was displayed, and important public works were carried out. During one session alone a loan of 3,000,000 was authorised, and Bills were passed sanctioning the construction of 380 miles of railway. Agriculturists were pushing their way northwards, and, as- sisted by improved transport facilities, production increased at a rapid rate. In 1875 over 500,000 acres were sold, and two years later 638,000 were alienated the largest area dealt with in one year with the exception of 1881, when 640,000 acres were disposed of by auction. Railway construction was pushed for- ward rapidly during the next few years, including the important railway connec- tion between Adelaide and Melbourne. Trade steadily improved until combined exports and imports reached an annual value of 17,000,000. Staple produce worth 4,670,000 was sent away to oversea customers in 1888. Total acreage under cultivation rose to 2,864,000 acres in 1889, in which year 1,610 miles of railway were open to traffic. In 1887 South Australia celebrated its jubilee by holding an Ex- hibition, and a magnificent demonstration was given of the industrial progress made since the proclamation. The Exhibition Building cost 68,000, and was kept open six months, during which time 790,000 persons attended. The aggregate value of imports uad by that time reached a total of 119,644,000, whilst exports had reached a total of 102,000,000. Towards this latter sum shipments of wheat and flour contributed 36,000,000 ; other agri- cultural produce, 1,300,000; wool, 39,000,000; and copper, 19,000,000. At the end of fifty years of colonising efforts 1,950,000 acres were under wheat; 360,000 utilised for hay, and 610,000 acres were devoted to other crops. The sheep in the province mustered 6,700,000; cat- tle, 389,000; and horses, 168,000. The population within the city boundary was 45,000, and in the whole of S.A. there were 308,000 inhabitants. The eighties witnessed one of the most important industrial developments in the history of S.A. Valuable mineral deposits were discovered near the border of the province which led to a remarkable im- provement in trade and exercised far- reaching influence. The great Barrier silver and tin fields including some of the richest silver mines in the world though in New South Wales, belonged, geographi- cally and commercially, to South Aus- tralia. For fifteen years they have been exploited by our capitalists large and small by merchants and producers, and tapped by the railways of the State. Some idea of the magnitude of the business done can be gathered from the fact that In 1900 produce to the value of 2,542,000 came over the border from N.S. Wales, whilst local produce worth 1,108,000 was sent over the border in return. It was South Australian capital that opened up the leading mines, and for many years the largest interests in these great properties were held by our people. South Austra- lian enterprise gave the Barrier silver dis- tricts railway communication to the sea- board, and ever since this State has en- joyed an immense carrying trade too and fro. The prosperous mining town of Bro- ken Hill, with a population of nearly 30,000 persons, has provided South Aus- tralian producers with an excellent market. There was a growth in the general trade of South Australia during the period 1881-'91, which can only be characterised as "marvellous." Mr. Coghlan draws special attention to the "marked impetus," and says that South Australian trade in INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION. 35 1891 represented a trade of 64/3/4 per inhabitant, "being almost without parallel in any important country." By 1890 the population had grown to 314,195 inhabi- tants, the public revenue reached 2,557,722; total land under cultivation stood at 2,649,098 acres; total trade amounted to 17,090,051 ; exports of staple produce had risen to 4,410,062. The last decade of the century proved disastrous in many directions for the whole of Australia, and South Australia suffered in common with her neighbors. Early in the nineties financial troubles began to ap- pear on .the surface, and the year 1893 witnessed the suspension of several banks. The seasons were unfavorable, and for several years the rainfall was below the average. South Australia came through the crisis remarkably well, and, consider- ing the severity of the drought, production was well maintained, whilst thera was no appreciable increase in the list of insol- vencies as a result ol bank failures and bad times. By the consummation cf Federation at the opening of the century the term "State" was substituted for that of "colony or "province" as South Aus- tralians preferred to have their country described and South Australia became a member of the Commonwealth of Aus- tralia by the voluntary act of a substantial majority of electors. The seventh decade in tlie uistory of what is now the Central State of United Australia has opened full of promise. Confidence is gradually being restored in financial and commercial cir- cles, trade is on the up grade, and the out- look for rural producers was never brighter. There is increased activity m all departments of industry. The public revenue is buoyant so much so that deficits are giving way to surpluses and in all directions there is a strong de- mand for land and a growing disposition to encourage private enterprise. The wonderful record of industrial and commercial growth made during the sixty- six years of South Australia's history may be gathered by a glance at the following tables. The increase of population has not been rapid, but a steady growth is shown by the following : Total Inhabitants 1840 ... 14,600 1850 63,700 I860 124,112 1870 183,797 1880 267,573 1890 314,195 1900 357,099- 1902 362,000 Settlers early devoted attention to the making of roads and building railways and telegraphs. The whole of these belong to and are worked by the State. In the con- struction of railways alone over 13,000,000 has been expended, the gradual extension of transit facilities is thus disclosed : 1840 ... Main Roads. Miles 1853 . . 33 1860 .. . ... 175 1870 ... ... 597 1880 . 1 449 1890 . ... 4,485 1900 .. 4.500 Railways. Miles. 56 133 667 1,610 1,736 Telegraphs. Miles. 654 1,718 6,904 12,178 17,543 Production was materially assisted by the improvements made in the means of conveying goods to and from the seaboards. The "area under cultivation" has steadily expanded. Land under Cultivation. Acres. 1840 2,687 1850 64,728 1860 428,816 1870 959,006 1880 2,574,489 1890 2,649,098 1900 3,279,406 1902 3,122,800 Wool and wheat have been the two great staple products from the first. In later years wine has come rapidly to the front. Fluctuation in market prices has reduced the monetary returns in recent years, but a diminution in the coat of production has helped to compensate the grower : THE CENTRAL STATE. Wool. Breadstuff's Wine. cattli X> fJ ~ perio 1840 8,740 1850 ... 131,731 38,312 1860 ... 573,977 499,102 1,430 1840 1870 ... 902,696 470,828 12,097 1850 1880 . 1,716,171 2,469,720 8,481 1860 1890 ... 1,353,762 2,018,719 50,738 1870 1900 ... 1,003,391 863,463 78,153 1880 1902 ... 1,061,809 1,229,212 124,916 1890 1900 In minerals copper has easily led. 1902 Minerals. So Copper. Tolal value of a hi has 1840 "Scoi 1850 . 353,890 365,464 inter 1860 . 420,905 446,537 sagac 1870 568,780 574,090 chan 1880 346,174 347,246 of cc 1890 .... 226,992 284,893 the 1900 394,446 431,289 cord 1902 430,712 498,325 peric and horses in the State at periods named is shown as under : the Animal life thrives in all parts of South Australia. There is no better cli- mate in the world for the rearing of high- class sheep, cattle, and horses. The mild- ness and evenness of the temperature makes the housing of live stock unneces- sary, consequently artificial feeding has never been practised. The growth of flocks and herds has been checked by droughts, but the work of_ restocking is now well in hand. The number of sheep, Sheep. Cattle. Horses. 200,160 15,100 1,060 984,199 60,034 6,488 2,824,811 278,265 49,399 4,400,655 136,832 83,744 6,463,897 307,177 157,915 7,004,642 359,938 187,683 5,235,220 214,761 166,790 5,012,216 225,256 165,303 South Australians have always enjoyed a high reputation as traders. The State has been frequently referred to as the "Scotland of Australia," a title which is intended to convey a compliment to the sagacity, honesty, and prudence of her mer- chants and traders. On a per capita basis of comparison there are few countries in the world that have a better trading re- in South Australia. At one period the decade 1881-'91 South Aus- tralia had an annual turnover equal 10 64/3/4 per head of population a record certainly without parellel in Australasia, and scarcely exceeded by any country. This was partly due to South Australia's geographical position enabling the State to act as carriers for other States, but the produce passed over our railways and wharfs, and the business proved profitable in other ways. The following statement is an instructive comparison one which bears eloquent testimony to the progress and prosperity of the State : Year. VAT.UE OF IMPORTS. VALUE OF EXPORTS. Total. Per Inhabitant. Total. Per Inhabitant. 1840 303,367 20 15 6 32,079 2 5 3 1850 845,572 13 5 o 570 817 8 19 2 I860 1,639,591 13 4 2 1.783 71(5 H I i 1870 2.029.793 12 1 8 2.419 488 13 3 3 1880 5,581,497 20 17 2 5,574,505 20 16 8 1890 8.262,673 26 5 11 8.827,378 28 1 1900 8,034,552 22 9 11 8,029,157 22 9 8 1902 6,073,781 16 15 i 7,698,514 21 5 4 INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION. 37 The expansion of the export trade in articles the produce of the colony is an in- spiring record : Number of Depositors. Amount Deposited. Year. Staple Exports. Average per head of Population 16 10 18 4 1 1 5 6 1 2 1838 ...... 5,040 1839 ...... 9,165 1840 ...... 15,650 1845 ...... 131,800 1850 ...... 545,040 8 11 1 1855 ...... 686,953 7 1 8 1860 ... ... 1,576,326 12 18 6 1865 ...... 2,574,657 17 11 9 1870 ...... 2,123,297 11 11 1875 ...... 4,442,100 21 11 1880 ...... 4,829,577 18 11 1885 ...... 4,385,599 14 6 5 1890 ...... 4,410,062 14 8 1900 ...... 3,610,517 10 2 2 1902 ...... 4,768,947 13 3 5 The value of "total trade per head" stood for South Australia at 35/9/10 in 1881; 64/3/4 the highest for Aus- tralasiain 1891 ; and 42/19/7 in 1901. On a per capita basis of comparison ranks second highest among the States for ex- ports of staple produce and total trading. The growing trade of the State required the services of a large fleet of ships, and in no direction has there been a more remark- able evolution than in the class of vessels trading to our ports. The number and tonnage of vessels entering and leaving South Australian ports is set out below : 1840 ... . Number of Vessels. 425 Tonnage. 83,787 1850 ... . 559 174,455 1860 ... . 662 209,036 1870 ... . 1880 ... . 916 2,156 287,989 1,200,904 1890 ... . 2,122 2,190,442 1900 ... . 2,013 3,552,636 1902 2,038 3,959,352 The claim that South Australians as a people are frugal is supported by this re- cord of the Savings Bank : Average Credit per Depositor. s. d. 1848 ... 214 6,473 24 16 7 1850 ... 672 10,255 17 3 5 1860 ... 2,567 52,293 34 12 6 1870 ... 12,569 203,620 33 13 8 1880 ... 34,287 604,637 30 4 10 1890 ... 69,193 1,054,351 27 15 11 1900 ... 106,122 1,832,369 32 17 6 1902 ... 116,436 1,985,689 34 2 8 The reserve fund of the ''people's bank ' rose from 8 in 1848 to 25,000 in 1870, and 131,000 in 1902. The total funds of the Savings Bank stood at 5,414 in 1848 ; 448,658 in 1870; 3,631,537 in 1900, and 4,147,178 in 1902. In 1870 183,797 persons in S.A. had on deposit in various banks other than the Savings Bank 1,196,678. This repre- sents 6/10/2 per inhabitant. In the periods named the comparison was as fol- lows : Amount of Average per Deposit in Banks. Inhabitant 1880 4,265,274 15 18 9 1890 7,198,636 26 2 6 1900 5,778,325 13 7 9 1902 5,926,114 16 7 6 The public debt of the State now stands at 27,272,545, representing 75/2/5 per inhabitant. It is necessary to bear in mind, however, that the greater portion of this outlay is represented by public works of a reproductive character such as rail- ways 13,000,000, waterworks 4,500,000, telegraphs 1,003,236. Apart from pub- lic works earning interest the debt repre- sents a deficiency to be made good by taxation of only 1/9/2 per head of the population a small amount when com- pared with the services rendered. The growth of the tState educational system may be gathered from the follow- ing multiplication of public schools and the large increase of scholars : 1850 State Schools. 64 Scholars. 1,867 1860 ... 210 9,843 1870 .. 300 15,108 1*880 . . . 370 36,277 1890 .. 551' 44,804 1900 ... 690 62,439 1902 . 716 62,962 THe Pastoral Industry. The rise and progress of the pastoral in- dustry in Australia constitute one of the finest records of expansion to be lound in the history of any country. In less than a century from the introduction of the first sheep and cattle into New South Wales, the flocks of Australia numbered 124,000,000 sheep the herds aggregate-* 12,000,000 cattle, and there were 1,700,000 horses. Exports of wool have represented an annual value of as much as ,24,300,00-. and the total value of pastoral property in seven colonies was estimated in 1901 at 241,554,000. Exports of meat from four States have touched an annual value of 800,000. Towards these colossal totals South Australia has contributed for over sixty years. Since these high-water levels were touched, droughts in nearly all the States, a rapid expansion of the meat ex- port business, shipments of horses for mili- tary purposes in South Africa and India have reduced the number of livestock in the Commonwealth. Even during the period of greatest depression, when every- thing seemed to combine to work destruc- tion, the pastoral industry in South Australia, as in other States, has main- tained an unchallenged position at the head of the export list. During sixty years of chequered history, yet steady ex- pansion, the wool industry has contributed no less an amount than 59,000,000 to the staple exports of South Australia. The history of pastoral expansion in these lands is the political, commercial, and social record of our island continent. They are so closely interwoven that it is difficult to distinguish their respective influences on one another. Australia owes more than it is possible to estimate to her shepherd kings, who were the pioneers of pioneers the first to turn their backs on the coastline and face the unknown. Theirs was a strenuous life from the first. They went out into tne wilderness and did their own exploring work, occupied and proved the country, then moved on to make room for the farmer and other rural producers. But for the flockmasters, the occupation of some portions of South Australia would have been greatly delayed. They carried their lives in their hands, lived hard and worked laboriously. Who shall calculate the influence of their courage and sturdy independence, their patience in the face of difficulties, their self-reliance and hopeful- ness, or attempt to measure the results which have directly sprung from their victories over the natural conditions of an unmapped country? The pastoralist was called upon to solve geographical mysteries, to deal with treacherous natives, and the great warrior who burned his boats was not more determined than were the pioneer woolgrowers and herdsmen who cut themselves adrift from civilization as they pushed their way into the heart of the continent. The blacks were troublesome in the early days, and flocks had to be carefully shepherded during the daytime and yarded and watched at night. One early squatter was so disgusted at the depreciations of the natives and his inability to stop them, that he sold pro- perty for 300 which subsequently was leased for 30 years at an annual rent of 10,000! During a visit to a number of cattle stations in Central Australia and the Northern Territory as recently as 1891 I saw quite a number of cattle which had been speared by the blacks. One cow looked like a porcupine, and we took eleven spears out of the poor beast. Th& natives soon learn to appreciate the dis- tinction between meum et tuum, and be- come very serviceable on outlying stations. To appreciate the significance of the pioneer worK done by the builders of this- important industry is to comprehend at one glance the whole romance of coloniza- tion, as regards the development not only of South Australia, but Australia as a whole. Ever in the van the pastoralists- have been the pathfinders who bridged the THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 39 Station Scene in the North Starting out for the day's work. J . Dailey photo. ford and cleared the road, and made the country safe and pleasant for exploitation by merchant and mechanic and all that army of workers whose daily prosperity may be measured by the fluctuating pros- perity of rural producers. Fortune smiled from the first on those who were early in the field, and who by exchanging cash for lands within easy dis- tance of the seaboard helped the infant province out of pressing financial difficul- ties and laid the foundations of their own fortunes. Sheepfarming within what is termed the "rainfall line" was a profitable business from the outset, and, although these producers have at times suffered from low prices and bad seasons, their lot has been cast in pleasant places compared with that of Crown tenants in remote localities. Whilst the inside man has enjoyed almost uninterrupted prosperity, the "out-back" pioneers have had many lips and downs. Although practically "monarchs" of all they surveyed, living a life of great freedom in one of the healthiest climates in the world, their sur- roundings have often been comfortless and uninviting. They were not a feather- bed race, and attached little or no value to the luxuries of cities. They lived a nomadic life, pitching their tents at sunset, and by sunrise were extending the circle of colonization. The outermost station was always the starting point or the city of refuge for the daring explorer. Neither "baronial" nor any other castles are to be seen on the great sheep and cattle stations 1 of interior South Australia. Two rooms of slab and mud, roofed with broom or ti-tree. An old case for a table, smaller ones in place of chairs. For beds, the floor, with a saddle s a pillow, a rug or blue blanket for covering. Menu for breakfast: mutton and damper. Ditto 4 o THE CENTRAL STATE. for dinner and tea, with a few Johnny cakes aj a rare luxury. Tea is the stand- ing beverage newly-made billy-tea a most refreshing stimulant. A rifle or two and some old-fashioned guns hang on the walls, which are well plastered with car- toons from the comic press, colored pic- tures from Christmas numbers of the weekly papers, and representations of race- horses. A few fly-speckled, broken-edged photographs dispute the ownership of the only mantelpiece with shortrstemmed clay pipes and jars containing tobacco. There is a blackfellows' camp a few hundred yards down the hill from "Government House" (as the head-station hut is called), and close up are the drafting yards. It is from some such centre as this typical of the out-back station-manager's residence that runs carrying vast flocks or herds, as the case may be, are controlled. Very often the owner or the manager and his men are absent from the head station for weeks at a time. Then they live in the open : the earth for a mattress, the blue sky for a roof. This description applies to life out back a life that is free and healthy and has great advantages. In the more settled parts of the State there are many hand- some houses and fine estates, and station life as there represented has countless at- tractions. So mild and healthy is the cli- mate of South Australia that man and beast require practically no protection against the weather. This is a most im portant point for would-be settlers to remember in weighing the advantages of Australia against other countries as a field for their enterprise. T!ie fact that neither sheep nor cattle i.re ever housed, and no artificial feeding of stock is required, enables a great saving to be made in the cost of produc- tion, and partly explains the rapid expan- sion of the pastoral industry. In the early days the pastoralist paved the way. He did more. He tested the country in a variety of ways, sometimes perishing in his attempt to occupy terri- tory which even his pertinacity could not subdue. It was the pioneer stockman who first proved that the climate and soil were admirably adapted for the raising of live- stock, and that certain localities were favorable for growing cereals; while several of our most valuable mineral de- posits were discovered by shepherds and boundary riders. He did all this in face of many dangers and difficulties. Whilst the white settlers at times dealt out justice in a rough and ready manner, the blacks often took vengeance by murdering shep- herds and putting firesticks to grass or huts. The greatest source of anxiety and expense against which the grower of the "golden fleece" has had to contend ex- cepting, of course, the rainless seasons have been wild dogs and rabbits. Vermin have proved an endless source of worry, hundreds of thousands of pounds having been spent in carrying on a relentless war- fare against the dingo and the rodent. From the shepherding in the early days when the flock was guarded by day and yarded at sundown the evolution has been sheep-proof fences of five or six wires, to wire-netting barriers of various types, topped with barbed wire, in order to check the movements of both stock and vermin. The system is a costly one, but experience has shown that it is the only way of pro- fitably occupying our outside country. Main lines of vermin-proof fences are now erected at the expense of the lessee, as- sisted by the Government, in various parts of the State. This tract of country is then divided and subdivided until each lessee is able to cope with nis natural enemies within his own boundaries. It was a long time before fencing was substituted for shepherding. The old squatter was pre- judiced against fencing, but the advantages of it eventually appealed to him. The modern tendency is towards reducing the size of the paddocks, which saves the sheep the necessity of travelling long distances for water and facilitates the preservation of the grass and bushes. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. Shropshire Ewe and Progeny, the property of Sir S. J. Way, Bart., Kadlunga. Flocks and Fleeces. The foundation of sheep-breeding and wool-growing in this State was laid by the South Australian Company importing Merinos from Tasmania and New South Wales ; also rams from Mecklenberg. The first fleet which sailed for South Australia had on board some Leicester and South- down sheep, and purchases were also made at the Cape of Good Hope, where sheep were then selling at 5/ each. From the very beginning of settlement in this State the value of the squatting industry has been recognised, and South Australians have every reason to be proud of the suc- cess achieved in the various enterprises for the rearing of sheep and the production of wool. "The South Australian Company had purchased," says "The Register," in its first number, published in June, 1836, ''a very fine lot of rams and ewes of the finest and purest breed of Merinos, which were selected with great care and at much expense in Saxony, by the son of a great sheepholder of Van Dieman's Land for his own stock. They also sent out in their different vessels a supply of pure Leicesters and Southdowns, and ordered the ship Emma to call at Capetown and procure other sheep for mutton and for crossing purposes." The policy pursued by the Company had the vigorous support of Colonel Torrens, the Chairman of the Board of Commissioners, who, in speaking on the wool staple of Australia, said that "as the population sweeps over the vast regions of America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and as the freetrade in China opens to British enterprise, hundreds of millions of additional consumers, the natural, the necessary conclusion seems to be that for generations to come the still increasing demand for Australian wool THE CENTRAL STATE. will be in advance of the constantly augmenting supply ; and that the value of this important staple will maintain an elevation sufficient to secure to the British nations growing up in New Holland a de- gree of prosperity hitherto unexampled in newly settled countries.'' Heavy losses occurred on the voyage from Tasmania, and the overland journeys from Sydney proved expensive and dangerous: Not- withstanding such drawbacks, however, the South Australian Company and pri- vate individuals continued to make im- portations, so that within two years of the proclamation of the colony the flocks numbered 28,000. By the end of 1841 the Company owned 20,000 sheep, and Messrs. Button and Bagot, Mr. Duncan MacFarlane, and Mr. G. A. Anstey about 10,000 each. In December, 1837, Messrs. Hallett & Duff shipped four bales of wool at Port Adelaide for London by the Orator. This was the first clip from a South Australian flock. A month later a joint stock sheep company was formed in the colony with a capital of 20,000, and in a very short time the shares were all taken up and the company was in pos- session of a flock of 600 maiden ewes and 300 wethers. From this time onwards there was a rapid increase, so that by 1851 there were over 1,000,000 sheep, early in the sixties over 3,000,000, in the seventies over 6,000,000, the eighties 7,000,000, whilst in 1891 the high-water mark was State. South Australia ... New South Wales ... Victoria Queensland New Zealand 1861. 11. 4.69 3.28 4.52 3.40 3.48 This increase in the weight of fleece per sheep is what growers in this State have been consistently aiming at for years, and it is the pride of our stud-breeders that they are able to produce rams and ewes which will give these results. That growers in other States, also in New Zea- land and South Africa, recognise this quality in South Australian stud sheep is proved by the heavy drafts they make on our flocks each year. Our sheep are singularly free from disease, and practi- cally the only trouble is tick, which is reached, when the flocks aggregated 7,745,541. The decline which has since taken place is attributed to large resump- tions of pastoral country by the Govern- ment for the purpose ot cutting it up for agricultural requirements, the recurrence of droughts, and low prices. The follow- ing shows the decennial increase of the flecks since 1841: Five Years No. of Value of Wool ending Sheep Kxporled. 1840 200,160 8,740 1845 480,699 72,235 1850 984,199 131,731 1855 1,768,724 283,419 1860 2,824,811 573,977 1865 3,779,307 821,656 1870 4,400,655 902,696 1875 6,179,395 1,833,519 1880 6,453,222 1,716,171 1885 6,696,406 1,417,245 1890 7,004,642 1,353,762 1896 6,233,993 1,228,991 1900 5,667,283 1,003,391 1902 5,012,216 1,222,403 According to Coghlan ("The Seven Colo- nies of Australasia, 1901-2"), the weight of wool per sheep has been increasing re- gularly in each of the States, and that authority says: "In South Australia the weight of wool per sheep has been consis- tently higher than in the other States," and the following table supports that 1871. Ib 6.41 4.57 6.17 4.73 4.76 1881 Ib. 6.93 4.47 6.87 4.50 5.32 1891. Ib. 6.85 5.74 5.68 4.73 6.42 1901. Ib. 7.9 7.2 6.9 7.1 8.1 kept under by dipping at shearing time. It is quite a mistaken idea that the area adapted for raising sheep in South Aus- tralia is limited, and that we can look for no great expansion in the future. Given a return of fair seasons, the multiplication ol facilities such as water supplies in the interior, additional railways (like those projected, north and west), and there is every reason to expect that the unoccu- pied lands will be gradually taken up and stocked. There is a class of people whose very nature drives them into a pessimistic THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. $'. J. Dailey photo. The Homestead, Mt. Crawford Stud Station. view of everything. Their chief delight is to pick out defects and unduly magnify them. ' Of late there have been .some critics who have declared that Aus- tralia has reached the limit of its wool- producing powers, and that henceforth this industry must decline ; that the quality year by year is becoming weaker, and that the trend of future markets is against the expansion of the wool trade. It was said a few years ago that wool- growers in New South Wales had more cause to deplore than to rejoice in the in- crease in their flocks ; that they must face the unpalatable facts that there are far too many sheep in the country ; that the coun- try itself is sheepsick ; that all the best saline grasses are eaten away; that, although in many districts there is an abundance of feed, io is sour and so poor that it generates worms and produces in- ferior wool ! If this were true of one State it by no means applies to Australia as a whole. As a matter of fact, it is criticism born of ignorance. Surely it is sufficient refutation of the charge that the Australian sheep is deteriorating to point out that the wool clip shows an increas- ingly heavier yield per sheep, thus prov- ing that the flocks per head have become more productive. It is now recognised that the way out of the difficulties which beset the pastoralist is by advancing the industry to a higher level that it must be conducted not merely with greater economy, but with the exercise of more brain power than was formerly, as a rule, required, and that at the disposal of this brain power must be larger capital than was once considered necessary. Economi- cally managed there are millions of acres in South Australia which are capable of profitable occupation. Water conserva- tion and additional transit facilities will one day cause these idle lands to be made highly productive. "Taking all circum- stances into consideration," says Mr. Coghlan, the statistician, "it may be fairly estimated that under the present sy&tem the States are capable of maintaining, in ordinary seasons, stock equivalent to 390,000,000 sheep -- ftiat is, about 180,000,000 sheep, or their equivalent in cattle, more than are now depastured." 44 THE CENTRAL STATE. In the course of an address on "Our Pastoral Interest," delivered in 1896, at the invitation of the Chamber of Com- merce, Mr. A. G. Downer, a gentleman largely interested in pastoral pursuits, aaid : "Let me now dwell on some of the benefits that will flow from development. Of the 318,000 square miles outside of counties there are probably 200,000 that can be profitably used by development. Of this 200,000 miles, 100,000 will admit of an expenditure of 50 a mile, or of 5,000,000, while the remaining 100,000 square miles will probably profitably ad- mit of an outlay of 2,500,000, being the minimum amount which it seems to me is necessary for development. This will probably mean an ultimate increase to our flocks of 20,000,000. Every million of sheep means permanent employment for something like 500 regular hands on a sta- tion. By regular hands bear in mind that I mean merely the hands engaged throughout the year in working the station not the hands employed in de- veloping, not the hands employed in shearing, not the hands employed in the carriage of stores, wool, &c. Quite apart from the regular hands, it will mean ex- penditure in the mere cost of and inci- dental to shearing, wool-pressing, and the carriage of wool to its shipping port, and this will be from 2 to 4 per hundred sheep. Taking, therefore, the mean of 3, this involves the annual expenditure of no less than 600,000 on 20,000,000 of sheep. Let me say that, large as the sum of 4 may seem, it is under the actual cost which is entailed on one station under 300 miles from Port Augusta. In a letter published by Mr. Peter Waite in both our leading papers on March 21 last, Mr. Waite shows an expenditure for the year ending January 31, 1893, of the Beltana Pastoral Company's properties a sum of 63,839/3/8. Of this amount about 15,000 was paid to contractors for well- sinking, dam-sinking, artesian boring, building, &c., which may be called an ex- penditure on capital account. Nearly all the rest of the 63,000 is what may be considered as fair annual expenditure on the run; about 18,000 of this went to the Government for rent and carriage. The run carries about 350,000 sheep and about 26,000 head of cattle equal say to half a million of sheep. It is not too much to say, therefore, that on this basis expenditure every million of sheep will mean an average annual of expenditure of something like 100,000 a year. In this expenditure there will probably be a con- tribution to the revenue of something like 20,000 to 30,000 a year for rents and carriage, to say nothing of the indirect benefits will will flow to the revenue from Customs duties." In a report to Parlia- ment the then Surveyor-General, the late Mr. Goyder, said : "I will submit the following figures, which are (obtained from actual experience) found necessary to develop an area of 1,600 square miles on the Mutooroo Run. As a preliminary ex- penditure borings were sunk to various- depths and in all parts of the run, but salt water only was obtained. The idea of developing the country by means of wells- had, therefore, to be abandoned, and no notice has been taken of the expenditure on account of borings or well-sinkings. The first step taken to secure surface waters was, after careful inspection of the fall of the country and depressions by which flood waters reached the lower levels, sites of small dams or reservoirs were agreed upon and sunk. When these were filled larger reservoirs were sunk from these as a basis, until what appeared to be a sufficient supply had been secured ; but these were found to be too shallow, as in a year of drought they became dry, and all had to be deepencl not only to supply the stock for (say) two years, but also to provide for evaporation, which in the Far North, North-West, and North-East is from six feet to seven feet per annum. The depth of these large reservoirs was calculated not only to supply water to stock depasturing the land within (say) five miles of the reservoir, but also to stand evaporation amounting to a vertical height of from ten feet to fourteen feet of water. This was done at a total cost for dams and drains of nearly 30,000, and, water having been secured,, the run was fenced and other improvements made at a cost of about 18,000, making a total expenditure of 48,000, to which may be added 600 for the destruc- tion of vermin, about 400,000 raBbits being destroyed by means of poisoned twigs of sandalwood scattered about the THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 45 various waters, the bodies being after- wards collected and carted away. This expenditure, without cost of management, comes to 48,600, or over 29 per square mile. The country will carry an average quantity of stock equal to forty sheep pei square mile, and, assuming that these can be placed on the run at 8/ per head, the total cost of improvements and stock cornea to 74,265, which at 5 per cent, per annum comes to 3,713 interest, which must be met before profits can be con- sidered. Now 65,400 sheep will yield in the country referred to 371,325 Ib. of wool, which at 6d. per Ib. net is worth 9,288, or 5,575 over the interest of amount ex- pended on account of improvements and destroying vermin; and allowing 1,500 for management, horses, drays, plant, and contingencies, a balance of 4,075 is left to the lessee, or a profit of 5^ per cent, on his undertaking over the 5 per cent, pre- viously referred to, requiring several years' hard work, the anxiety of bad sea- sons, the death in stock, occ., &c. and this is assuming that Dy his expenditure he has guarded himself against losses contingent upon dry seasons and against the inroad of vermin in other words, he receives on his capital and expenditure a little over 10 per cent. Should the area of the lease be small and the expenditure in proportion - for 1,000 square miles and a capital of 45,226/16/8, he would receive 4,250 per annum ; on 500 square miles, with a capital of 22,610/8/4, he would receive 2,260; on 250 square miles with a capital of 11,305 he would receive 1,130; and with 100 square miles and a capital of 4,522, he would receive 452 net as profit, provideu the country carried an average of 40 sheep per square mile and yielded five pounds of wool per fleece realising a net profit of 6d. per Ib." It is a truism that the misfortunes which at the time seem hardest to bear are often blessings in disguise. So long as the squatter could carry on in a happy- go-lucky way, and yet make an ample in- come, it was not to be expected that he would turn his thoughts to the frozen meat trade, to water conservation on a large scale, to artesian boring, and to many other more or less important matters which now occupy his attention. But we >iave reached the period when, the careless producer must go to the wall. Gradually his place is being taken by the pastoralist always on the look-out for improved methods of conducting his industry, who knows that he can only thrive by using his head as well as by undergoing physical privations. Perhaps there is something; to be regretted in the change. The old time squatter was often a rough diamond, but he was racy of the Australian soil, and not devoid of a certain picturesqueness. The modern pastoralist the change of designation is of itself significant-^has to be a smart man of business. He must be better educated and see further ahead than his predecessors had to look. In short, the pastoral industry is more and more assuming a new character. Principles of the modern counting-house and the banking chamber are driving out the poetry. This was in any case inevitable as the States grew older and were more settled, but the necessity of the present position will give the movement a marked impetus. It cannot be doubted that the new responsibilities devolving upon the pastoral lessee entail new responsibilities upon his landlord. If the day of the squatter has gone, so have the times of bitter antagonism between the pastoral tenant and the selector. After much beating about the bush it has been dis- covered that there is room enough in South Australia for both the pastoralist and the agriculturist, and that there is work enough for both to do without worry- ing each other by a policy of pinpricks. After many years of negotiations land laws have been adopted which the lessee regards with more favor, whilst more elas- ticity has been introduced into the methods of administration. To the capitalist in search of fields of investment, the pastoral industry in South Australia is one which provides scope for capital and opportunity for energy and business acumen. 4 6 THE CENTRAL STATE. Stud Flocks of South Australia. The breeding of stud sheep has proved a profitable business in this State. Cer- tainly it is one of the most interesting occupations engaging the attention of some of the best and brainiest men in South Australia. In this connection such names as Angas, Murray, Browne, and Hawker naturally suggest themselves. These men and their sons have laid tne foundations of an industry, the growth of which is practically unlimited. The first sheep introduced into Australia were im- ported into New South Wales about 1788. although not the first importer of sheep, Captain Macarthur was the pioneer flock- master of Australia, and from his stud sprang most of the great flocks which have made Australia famous throughout the world as the home of the profitable all- round Merino. During recent years various types of mutton breeds have found tavor in South Australia. Shropshire, Lincoln, Southdown, and Dorset Horn btuds now exercise an important influence on the rapidly expanding lamb export trade, and no review of stud sheep breed- ing would be complete that omitted a reference to them. Dealing first with the Merino, it is a singular fact that the stud breeding has been in the hands of exceptional men men who combined stern unbending deter- mination with rare perception and saga- city. According to Darwin, not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. The Merino flockmasters of South Australia possessed these qualifica- tions to a remarkable degree. More than that, they had faith in themselves and a clear intelligent conception of the type of sheep they desired to produce. At dif- ferent periods when leading Australian breeders were blown hither and thither like thistle-down in a breeze by a popular fancy for some new breed, the majority of South Australians paid no heed to the voice of the siren of fashion. They kept steadily onward, some of them, like the late Mr. John Murray, founder of the celebrated Murray Merinos, practising the delicate and intricate art of in-and-in- breeding others building up from with- out, but with the one goat in view. The result is that there is a fairly uniform type of Merino in South Australia a high-class animal remarkable for constitution, carry- ing a heavy fleece, long and strong in staple, and commanding top market prices. A Russian expert who recently inspected many of the leading flocks of Australia spontaneously declares that the "South Australian stud Merino sheep are the best in the Commonwealth." It has been my privilege to inspect most of the stud flocks in this State, and opportunities were afforded me at various times of study- ing the methods of leading breeders and noting the results obtained. The impres- sion has been strongly conveyed to me that our flockmasters work along scientific lines, displaying remarkable consistency and determination. An animal is being produced in South Australia which is eagerly sought after by sheepfarmers and pastoralists throughout Australia and South Africa, whose aim is to increase the average yield of wool of their flocks. Breeders in Argentine have not yet dis- covered the South Australian Merino, or they would hardly have failed to obtain a type of sheep which for constitution and character of wool is just what is required to improve the flocks of South America. Efforts have been made to induce breeders nere to make a trial shipment of ranis to Buenos Ayres, but the demand for regular drafts from all parts of the Common- wealth, New Zealand, and Southern Africa has prevented the experiment being made. A typical South Australian bred Merino is an animal of large symmetrical frame and robust constitution, carrying a hea.vy fleece, of long staple, strong in character, possessing lustre and softness. Artificial feeding is never on any consideration re- sorted to on the Merino stud farms of this State. The law of the "survival of the fittest" is allowed to work in its own re- lentless way. The weaklings are not spared by pampering methods. The stud flockmasters are sometimes envied by agriculturists, who cast covetous eyes upon the beautiful estates devoted to THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 47 photo. Valuing Wool at a Port Adelaide Wool Store. Shearing Sheep by Machinery, compressed air system, at Wellington Lodge Station. z years, Adelaide, September. 1899. Cut 23 Ibs. 6 oz. FIRST PRIZE under 3M years, Adelaide, 1900. and CHAMPION PRIZE. Cut 24 Ibs., March, 1901. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. Bred by and the property of JOHN MURRAY. Rhine Park, S.A. 54 THE CENTRAL STATE. 21 lb. Royal Duke runs back on the darn side to Wool Prince, a celebrated champion ram, and on the sire side to the cham- pion John I., the two last champions bred by the founder of the flocks. A noted stud ram at Rhine Park at the present time is Wellington III., a grandson of the cham- pion Wellington. Wel- lington III. cut 22 lb. of superior wool when 2 years old; a prize fleece of 23 lb. when 3 years old, and this season 27^ lb. of wool of great quality. A son of Portlight's cut 27 lb. in 1902, and 29 lb. at the 1903 shear- ing. A fleece shorn from the Rhine Park cham- pion ewe "The Queen" was sent to London a few years ago, and the following reports were received : " We have examined the prize fleece with the greatest interest and may at once say that, of this class of wool, it is the most beautiful speci- men we have ever seen. The growth is deep and sound, the staple clear at the root and evenly and compactly formed a picture of vigor and strength. The fibre is of strong quality, especially to- wards the skirts, but it is not too coarse con- sidering the great depth of the staple. The condition is light (about 55 per cent, yield) and the appear- ance bright and lus- "THE QUEEN." CHAMPION and FIRST PRIZE EWE. Adelaide, September, 1896. Cut Prize Fleeces. 3 Adelaide, March, 1896-7-8, By CROMWELL ( Prize Earn ), by SIR JOHN ( Prize Ram ), by JOHN I. (Champion Earn). Bred by and the property of JOHN MURRAY, Ehine Park. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. y "MONAECH" CiY, years). r P ,!& e Ra . m) - by CROMWELL (Prize Earn), by SIR JOHN (Prize I (Champion Earn) FIRST under IX years. Adelaide. Septem- Ari ' a Cu } P K Ze Fleec es. 18^ Ibs., March, 1899. FIRST under 2M years. Adelaide, September. 1899. Cut Prize Fleece, 20 Ibs.. March. 1900. SECOND under nat^i 1 !' Adelaid , e - September, 1900. Cut Fleece 20 Ibs. Grazed at large on atmal grasses only. Bred by and property of JOHN MURRAY. Rhine Park? 8. A. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 55 trous. Such wool as this will always command attention, for, of its kind, it is a perfect article. Helmuth Schwartz and Co." "We had the greatest pleasure in viewing this fleece, as w l e have never had such a perfect specimen under our notice before. Our report on same is that it is a marvellous fleece and perfect in its kind, good length, and remarkable even of staple, of good lustre, and of a yield of about 54 per cent, when the skirts and pieces have been removed. The quality though near 56/, the best quality of cross- breds, is all the same a desirable and useful one, and is at all times considered by the trade a favorable quality. The fleece is of immense size, and weighed close upon 18 lb., and it was a pleasure to look at it. It was examined by brokers, spinners, and manufacturers, both English and Continen- tal. -H. Anders, manager Elder, Smith, and Co., Ltd., London." Rhine Park is situated near Eden Val- ley, 50 miles north-east of Adelaide, in a beautiful valley where the ridges run down from the highlands of the Barossa range to the great plain of the River Murray. The country has an attractive appearance, and the climate is favorable to the production of healthy stock. THe Mount Beevor Stud. The Mount Beevor Estate, the property of Mr. T. Hope Murray, is situated in hilly country about 35 miles east of Ade- laide, and seven miles north of the railway station at Nairne. The flock was drawn from the original stud at Mount Crawford, and two years ago a third of the Cappeedee flock was drafted to Mount Beevor. The country is eminently suited to the breeding of a strong type of sheep, which well main- tain all the Murray Merino characteristics. A purchaser of Mount Beevor rams resid- ing in New South Wales recently wrote to the "Stock and Station Journal," Sydney, publicly expressing a highly favorable opinion of the sheep. "The Mount Beevor GROUF OF MOUNT BEEVOR RAMS. THE CENTRAL STATE. rams," he said, "had proved wonder doers, and had cut 16 lb., 18i lb., 2Q3 lb., 21 lb., and 22J lb. of clean, long, bold, bright, strong wool." So pleased had he been with tne results obtained that he had induced two of his neighbors to make pur- chases from Mount Beevor. At the Ade- laide Jubilee International Exhibition Mount Beevor wool was awarded three diplomas and a medal, and in the same year at the Royal Show prizes for three rams' and three ewes' fleeces. Mount Beevor re- presentatives have taken a prominent posi- tion at the Royal Show, particularly in the aged classes, and they are held in high esteem by breeders throughout Australia. 93* A MOUNT BEEVOK STUD RAM. TKe Mount Crawford Stud. Mount Crawford, the property of Mr. Alick J. Murray, is one of the oldest stud- breeding stations in the State. Unques- tionably it has proved itself to be the most successful, for at Mount Crawford the late Mr. John Murray, in 1842, laid the founda- tion of the now famous Murray Merino sheep. It was in this well-favored dis- trict that the flock was gradually built up, and it was from Mount Crawford that the additional estates purchased by the founder for his sons were all stocked. Mount Crawford lies about 35 miles north-east of Adelaide in the high lands of the Barossa Ranges, and the best testimony of the country is that the flocks which have sprung from Mount Crawford are after more than sixty years' close breeding un- THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 57 surpassed in Australia for constitution, size, symmetrical frames, weight of fleece, and uniformity of type. Mt. Crawford Merinos are to be found afl over Australia and New Zealand, and a number of them have gone to South Africa. At the last Christ- church Show in New Zealand, Mr. Andrew Rutherford nearly swept the ring in the 1 and 2-year-old classes both- for rams and ewes, and won both champion prize for ram and for ewe with stock by the famous 500-guinea ram Fame, which he bought from Mr. A. J. Murray. Four hundred of the worst ewe weaners in the Mount Crawford stud were sold to Mr. George Maslin, of North Bundaleer, in 1902, taken home, shorn in 1902, and twelve months after running on Bundaleer when shorn again averaged 14 lb. of clean wool. The cham- pion ewe, Flora van Senden, won 2nd prize in 1902 at Adelaide Royal Show, 1st in 1903, and champion in 1903, and won Dalgety Challenge Cup, not only right out, but for the third year in suc- cession. This picture was taken after rear- ing a lamb, and the ewe then cut 16 lb. of lightrconditioned wool. "FLORA MAcDOXALD," by POT.TSKA. IRST PRIZE under I 1 /, years, 1897. FIRST PRIZE under 2'/ 2 years, and CHAMPION EWE, Royal Show, Adelaide, 1898. Out 18 Ibs. 1 oz. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. Bred by and the property /of ALICK J. Mi'BRAY, Mount Crawford, S.A. "FLORA VAX SBXDEX." Bred by and the property .>f Ai.rci: J. MTKHAY. Mount Crawford. S.A. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. THE CENTRAL STATE. The Cappeedee Stud. The Cappeedee Es- tate, situated near Hal- lett, about 125 miles north of Adelaide, was founded by the late Mr. John Murray in 1879. Drafts from Mount Crawford were gent from time to time, and Cappeedee was worked as a branch of the homestead until 1886. On the death of the founder of the ori- ginal flock, Cappeedee and a fourth of the whole flock was taken over by the youngest of the four sons, the late Mr. W. A. Murray, and for fifteen years the Cappeedee stud was controlled by him with rare skill. He was a born flockmaster, and bred excep- tionally large-framed sheep with deep necks, and carrying a fleece of great density. On the death of Mr. W. A. Murray in 1901, the estate and a portion of the flock, as already ex- plained, came under the control of Mr. John Murray. Cap- peedee is now worked in conjunction with Rhine Park, and is managed by Mr. Wal- ter S. Murray, second son of the owner. The country is treeless, and, lying between two ranges of hills, is cold in winter and hot and dry in summer. There is no shelter of any kind, and sheep bred Twice CHAMPION "CAPPEEDEE" Royal Show Adelaide. Winner Medal, First Prize as 6-tooth. Silver Cup, Silver "MODEL," A Cappeedee Bred Ewe, Twace ft Prize Ewe, winner at the Royal Show, Adelaide. on this open country thrive splendidly in took the championship at the Royal Show practically anv climate to bfl found ,'T, A , 10 - . :_ -tvuydi onow practically any climate to be found in Aus- tralia, The champion ram, Cappeedee, two years in succession, and he sired a large number of prize winners. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 59 "CRONJE." iBred by and the property of Messrs. HAWKER BROS., Dungaree. THe Btingaree Merinos. The Bungaree stud flock was formed by the late Hon. G. C. Hawker very shortly after his settlement in the district. The ori- ginal sheep were high- class ewes and rams from New South Wales. Fresh blood was introduced about 50 years ago, when five Negrette rams were added to the stock. In 1861 Rambouillet rams were used to effect a change in the blood, and in 1865 and 1874 rams bred at Mount Crawford were pur- chased and employed with success. The Ne- grette-Rambouillet al- liance produced highly satisfactory results, the latter strain no doubt giving the prin- cipal Bungaree char- acteristics. The Bun- garee sheep are noted for their sound, robust constitution, great size, symmetry, and weight of fleece. The Bun- garee sheep are in favor in the hot, dry plains of the interior, where they do remark- ably well, and yield a heavy fleece. Rams from this stud have been purchased by < (CFOIL RHODES ." flockowners in all parts Firgt pri/e Combing Merino Ram, Royal Show, 1903. Bred by and the of Australia and South property of Messrs. HAWKER BROS., Bungaree. Africa, and their pro- geny have invariably given the highest for export. The wool from this flock is satisfaction. Owing to their great size well known as a sound, strong, well-grown the ewes are much in favor with lamb combing wool of great length, and has al- breeders for crossing with Shropshires and ways commanded high prices in the London other mutton-producing strains, the lambs market. For several years, and until from such a cross being especially suitable the September show this year, the Bun- 6o THE CENTRAL STATE. garee sheep have not competed at the Ade- laide Show. Years ago, however, the stud was a formidable aspirant for exhibition honors, as the 100 or more prize tickets still preserved in the shearing shed abun- dantly demonstrate. One famous ram. Emperor, was never beaten, and took champion prizes in 1881, 1882, and 1883. At 6 years old his live weight was over 250 lb., and he cut a fleece of 22| lb., which 20 years ago was considered a remarkable weight. In 1883, in Melbourne, a ram, from the station eold for 651. In 1886 Bungaree took 14 prizes for sheep (includ- ing three champions, one special, and two for fat sheep), and right on to 1892 the station was a constant and successful ex- hibitor. Bungaree Station is seven miles north of Clare, and 29 miles from Saddle- worth. TKe Canowie Stud Merinos. Canowie Station, the property of the Canowie Pastoral Co., and managed by Messrs. H. & F. Rymill, of Adelaide, lies 12 miles due west of Hallett. The pro- perty extends to the bounds of Jamestown on the west, Yongala on the north, Cappee- dee on the east, and Booborowie on the south, and takes in some of the finest grazing areas in the State. The present holding is about 67,000 acres, and is carry- ing close upon 60,000 sheep. Canowie sheep are well-known to Australian sheep- breeders for their splendid frames, consti- tutions, and profitable character. The stud was formed in the early fifties with 200 of the finest ewes in the sheepbreeding flock, and with them were used some im- ported Spanish Negrctte rams, which ar- rived in 1857. In 1859 the stud flock of ewes comprised 500, in 1862 it was 780' strong, and in 1864 it totalled over a thou- sand. In 1860 the owners decided upon a change of blood, and introduced it in the shape of five Frenc i Rambouillet rams, and the result was highly satisfactory. The Rambouillets gave the sheep large frame, with a long staple of a bold type of combing wool. It is on record that one of these rams lived until he was 14 years oi age, and his last fleece weighed 13 lb. of unwashed wool. A few sires were after- wards imported from the Mount Crawford stud, but for the last 40 years sires have only been drawn from within the flock. The great merit of the Canowie sheep in the eyes of experts isi the general average of the flock. The sheep flock comprise? 130 stud rams and 1,200 first-class ewes and GROUP OF CAXOWIE STUD RAMS. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 6 1 GEOUP OF OANOWIE FOUR-TOOTH STUD EWES. 500 second-class ones ; 400 station flock rams, and 22,009 station flock ewes. In 1875 the proprietors decided to bring the Canowie sheep under the notice of the Vic- torian and New J^outh Wales pastoralists, and entered their sheep for competition at the Victorian Stud Sheep Show held in Melbourne that year. Accordingly 23 Canowie rams were taken to Melbourne, half way by boat and half way in wagons by road. The rams showed abundant proof of their rough travelling, but not- withstanding this one took second prize, another third, while still another gained an honorable mention. They afterward figured conspicuously at the ram sales, brought the top price, and averaged 150 guineas. The result of such enterprise re- presented a new era for South Australian liockmasters. Victorian and New South Wales breeders became infatuated with the quality of the Canowies, and a steady de- mand sprang up for Canowie rams, and continues to this day In 1876 ramsi to the value of about =1,800 were placed. The sales tnen gradually increased, cul- minating in 1882. In that year 24,000 was received from sales of Canowie rams alone. A glance at the sheep on the run convinces one that they have lost nothing of the size, symmetry, and vigor of constitu- tion which were the chief characteristics of their prize-taking predecessors. They are still noted for carrying fleeces almost unequalled for length of staple, density,, and weight combined. 62 THE CENTRAL STATE. Wirra Wirra Stud Merinos. The Wirra Wirra stud, the property of Mr. Murray Daw- son, was formed in 1892, and a splendid foundation was laid with selected rams and ewes obtained by Mr. Dawson from his uncle, Mr. Alick. J. Murray. The Wirra Wirra pro- perty was at one time part of the Mount Crawford estate. The sheep have been bred in with great care since 1892 with excel- lent results. Mr. Mur- ray Dawson has sent some splendid repre- sentatives of his stud to the Royal Show at Adelaide, and has had the satisfaction of tak- ing a number of prizes in the leading classes for sheep, and also for fleeces. Mr. Dawson aims at producing Merinos of strong mas- culine characteristics, carrying heavy fleeces of high quality wool. In addition to the Wirra Wirra Estate. Mr. Dawson has a pro- perty near Gawler Plains, to where the sheep are taken during tlie winter. WIRRA WIRRA STUD RAM "SULTAN." SECOND PKIZE, 4-tooth, Adelaide, September, 1903. Bred by and the property of MURRAY DAWSON, Wirra Wirra, S.A. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. WIRRA WIRRA STUD EWE. Bred by and the property of MURRAY DAWSON, Wirra Wirra, Mount Crawford. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. RockbrooR Stud Merinos. The Rockbrook Estate is the pro- perty of Mr. W. D. Crozier, and is situated near Ka- punda. Mr. Cro- zier concentrates his efforts towards the production of high- class Merino sheep, of which the above pictures are typical representa/- tions. The Rock- brook stud is built upon a substantial foundation, having sprung from the Horseshoe stud on the River Murray, N.S.W. The Horse- 9 h o e stud was established by sheep from Mooma Station, which for over 30 years has been noted for pro- ducing animals es- pecially suited for inland Australia. The Horseshoe stud was removed to Rockbrook in 1896. Rockbrook sheep have come rapidly to the front, Mr. Crozier having won champion- ship honors at the Royal Show, Ade- laide, in 1898 and 1903. The following are the average weights "CHUNKY." CHAMPION, R. A. & H. Society's Show, Adelaide, 1903. WESTERN PRIDE. nf wnnl of all JL -i 2-tooth Ram. sold to West Australian Buyer. Won FIRST PRIZE 01 wool ot all sneep rh.^-Wri shnw. W.A.. 1903. shorn for 1903 : old R Guild-ford Show, W.A., 1903. Ibs. 27 20 ozs. 5 Highest ram Highest ewe All working rams 3> to 8^ years old 21 3^ All 2-tooth rams .. ... ... 20 3^ 1st Fleece brought 9|d. to 10d., and 1st lambs 8Jd., Adelaide, 1903. Wethers from All 4-tooth rams All grown sheep All lambs .. this flock have brought 40/ each in the local sale yards in month Ibs. ozs. 23 9^ 14 2^ 4 II at auction of May. 64 THE CENTRAL STATE. PRIZE RAM "HECTOR." Bred by and the property of the Trustees of the late Hon. Walter Duffield. The Koonoona Stud Merinos. The Koonoona stud Merino flock dates back to the year 1863, when a selected draft of the original Fisher ewes were mated to a high-class ram from Mount Crawford. From that date onwards the Aiost careful attention has been paid to the preservation and improvement of the stud and flocks, and the aim has been to grow a big mutton sheep carrying a heavy fleece of bold combing wool. The estate com- prises some 32,000 acres of freehold land, besides some leasehold, and about 27,000 sheep and lambs are annually put through the shed. The country is chiefly undulate ing to high range, and the sheep are much exposed in winter, feed making slow growth during the wet months. The ^Koonoona sheep have met with consider- able success in the Adelaide show ground, and stud and flock rams meet with a ready sale, and find their way to many parts of Australia, and have also been purchased" ior Tasmania. Owing to the rigid care over the general flock sheep outside of the -stud, the Koonoona surplus stock always -excite keen competition in the markets. and high prices are obtained. In evidence of the profitableness of the flock, we (?) have obtained permission to quote the fol- lowing figures relating to the averages clipped at the recent 1903 shearing : 20 first stud rams averaged 22 Ib. 8| oz., highest 26 Ib. ; 120 flock rams, 2J to 8| years old, averaged over 19 lb v highest 29 Ib. ; 10 two-tooth stud rams averaged 20 Ib. 4 oz., highest 23| Ib. ; 50 two-tooth stud rams averaged 17 Ib. ; 20 special two-tooth stud ewes averaged 15 Ib. 8 oz., highest 18 Ib. ; 800 six-tooth wethers averaged 16 Ib. 3 oz. ; 18,784 grown sheep, of which over 12,000 were ewes, averaged 11 Ib. 3 oz. ; 6,984 lambs averaged 4 Ib. 4 oz. This wool sold up to lOd. per Ib. at the Adelaide sales. Koonoona is situated seven miles south of _the Burra, and about 90 miles north of Adelaide. It belongs to the estate of the late Hon. Walter Duffield, and Colonel Makin and Mr. D. Walter Duffield are the trustees, and has been under the management of Mr. W. G. Hawkesf for many years. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. W. Gill photo. A View of Keyneton Estate and Homestead. THe Keyneton Merino Stud. The Keyneton Merino flock, the pro- perty of R. R.Keynes, of Keyneton, though not large, is a choice one. It was estab- lished sixty-one years ago by the late Joseph Keynes, the foundation of the flock being formed by the purchase of sheep from early settlers, including the late John Murray. In 1858 two rams were imported from the flock of A. Steiges, Saxony. Sub- sequently Murray rams were again intro- duced. Since 1877 no rams but those bred at Keyneton have been used. The Keyne- ton Merinos are noted for their robust con- stitutions, and do well in any State of the Commonwealth, where they are well known. Prizes for fleece have been won at Adelaide, viz. : First prize 3 rams' fleeces in 1885, International Exhibition, Phila- delphia, bronze medal and certificate of award, 1876, and Colonial and Indian Ex- hibition with Commemorative Medal, 1886. The latter fleeces were from sheep bred by the present owner. Prizes for sheep have also been taken at Angaston, 1858, and Mount Pleasant and Kapund. Shows at later dates. THe Ulooloo Dorset Horn Stud, Mr. John Melrose was the pioneer im- porter of the Dorset Horn breed of sheep to Australia, In 1895 he introduced eight stud ewes and one stud ram from Dorset- shire and one ram from Somersetshire. The sheep were carefully selected in Eng- land, and from the first they established themselves as favorites in Australia. The fleece much resembles the wool of high- class crossbreds, being strong, bold, and soft with good density across the back, and coming well down the sides, arm, and thigh. The Dorset has good carriage and great activity, is set on goodr' legs, and has sound feet. In carcase and shape it is all that a butcher could wish for, having 66 THE CENTRAL STATE. good depth of rib, finely turned buttocks, deep through the heart, broad and straight along the back, with full, prominent briskets. The Dorset matures early, and a cross with the Merino produces a type of lamb suitable in every respect for the ex- port trade. At the Roseworthy Agricul- tural College a series of experiments have been conducted with various crosses for the production of an early-maturing lamb of high quality and the Dorset Merino cross has produced the best results. A pen ol Dorset>Merino progeny took first prize for fat lambs at the Royal Show held in Adelaide last September. The Dorset cross with the Merino is becoming popular among lamb breeders, and they are draw- ing upon the Ulooloo stud for suitable sires. "SOMEiRSET,'' by GLOUCESTER, by PRESTON BOY. Dorset Horn Ram, property of Mr. JOHX MELROSE, Ulooloo. IMPORTED DORSET HORN EWES. Bred by Mr. W. C. GROVES, Wilverton, Dorchester. Property of Mr. JOHN MELROSE, Ulooloo. STUD RAM, "BATH BI&HTON." FIRST PRIZE and CHAMPION, 1897. The property of RICHARD SMITH, Sweet Home, Strathalbyn. "KINDARUAR ROYAL." The property of RICHARD SMITH, Sweet Home, Strathalbyn. 68 THE CENTRAL, STATE. The Sweet Home (Kindaruar) Shropshire Stud, The Kindaruar stud flock of Shropshire sheep was established in 1894. The estate, which was situated near Lake Alexandrina, was recently sold by Mr. Smith, and the flock removed to his Sweet Home Estate a beautiful property near Strath albyn. The flock was founded by the purchase of 25 high-class pedigreed ewes from Mr. Thomas Mason, of Tasmania. In 1896 a further consignment of 10 high-class pedi- greed ewes was received from England from the flocks of Messrs. Peter Everall, Ryton Grove, Shropshire ; Thomas Jones, Cotwell, Shropshire ; and Richard Brom- ley, Felton Butler, Shropshire. These ewes were served by some of the best rams in England. A special stud ram, Bath Bishton (7,822), sire Bath Brick (5,797), sire of dam Bishton Long Lad (3,367), sire of g.dam Blue Patriot (2,400). sire of g.g.dam Treble C. II. (1,7/6), bred by Mr. J. Bowen Jones, of Shropshire, was- brought out with these ewes. In 1897 30 pedigreed ewes were chosen from the flock of Mr. R. Studley Steel, and in 1897 a second importation was made from Eng- land of six ewes and one ram, the best pro- curable in England. The selection of the English stock was entrusted to Mr. Preece, of Shrewsbury, who is one of the most ex- pert judges in England. The ram selected was Corston Royal Victor, sire Corston Victor (8,951), sire of dam Blink Bonny (7,323), sire of g.dam Lord Patriot (4,267), sire of g.g.dam Corston, True Blue (2,550). Up to March, 1903, the following prizes- fell to the Kindaruar Shropshires : Ade- laide -One ten-guinea cup, 4 champions, 10 firsts, 9 seconds, 3 thirds, first prize for three rams' fleeces, first prize for three- ewes' fleeces. Country 1 ten-guinea cup,. 11 champions, 16 firsts, 20 seconds. View at the Undoolya Cattle Station, Central Australia. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 6 9 Mob of Cattle in Central Australia. The water is from an artesian well. Cattle Raising. Tasmania was the chief source of meat supply for a few years after the proclama- tion, but owing to heavy losses during transit, importations were few and far between. But for the splendid daring of the "overlanders who pushed their way over trackless mountains and unknown forests, swam their flocks and herds across the rivers, it would have taken many years to build up the wool and meat industries. As it was the flocks and herds multiplied so rapidly that within seven years boiling down works the common outlet of sur- plus years were established. With the advent of the meat export trade, boiling down works have passed away, never to be re-established. There are other and more profitable outlets for surplus stock. It was on April 3, 1838, that the first herd of cattle and horses arrived in Adelaide overland from Sydney. It comprised 335 head, and was in charge of the owner, Mr. Joseph Hawdon, who, during the journey of ten weeks, lost only four bullocks. To celebrate this important event 90 gentle- men sat down to a public dinner, and an ox chosen from the herd was roasted whole. A snuffbox was presented to Mr. Hawdon in the name of the people of South Australia, and the recipient, in re- turning thanks, announced his intention of settling in Adelaide "with all the force he could gather." Of the arrival of Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney Mr. Anstey, an old colonist, has written : "Never can I forget the impression made on my mind by the arrival in Adelaide of Messrs. Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bon- ney, successfully conducting from New South Wales the first overland herd of cattle and horses from the Sydney side. Their arrival was unexpected by us. In those early days of the colony there were no intercolonial posts save at long inter- vals, and it was the natural desire of the first overland parties organised for Ade- laide to keep their journeys with their herds of cattle and flocks of sheep as secret as possible from the public. The news of their arrival spread like wildfire." Mr. Eyre, who subsequently won renown for his exploring exploits, was the second overlander with cattle, and Capt. Sturt war in charge of the third party. From THE CENTRAL STATE- that time onwards cattle raising became a profitable industry, and the herds gradu- ally increased, as may be gathered from the following : Number of ^ ear - Cattle 1838 2,500 1840 15,000 1850 60,000 1860 278,000 1870 136,000 1880 307,000 1890 359,000 1900 214,000 1902 225,256 The highest point reached was in 1893, when it was estimated there were 423,000 cattle in the country. The fifties wit- nessed a marvellous expansion of the cattle stations, but progress was checked when the pastoralist, forced to make room for the pioneer, had to carry on his operations in less favored localities. Cattle raising on an extensive scale is now restricted to what is termed "outside country" ohat is, the saltbush plains of Central Australia and the Northern Territory, where there are extensive runs. There is a vast tract of splendid cattle country in the north of South Australia, only the fringe of which is occupied. Difficulties of transit have hitherto pre- vented the development of this territory, but with the improvement of stock routes, ranchmen should be attracted to the possi- bilities of establishing themselves in localities where the rent is low, and where climate and natural advantages are eminently suited to cattle raising. Mr. David Lindsay, the explorer, states : "Oodnadatta to Charlotte Waters is in the driest belt in Australia, the average rainfall being about six inches ; yet much of it will stand light stocking, and as it is within the artesian water area the precious fluid can be obtained by boring. In- cluding the wonderful nest of springs known as Dalhousie, it should carry (say) 30,000 cattle, besides being an ideal country for the Angora goat. Proceed- ing northwards the rainfall gradually increases, and we find belts of fair to good pastoral country, with some natural waters and water can be had by sinking whilst there are many places suitable for con- serving water. This should depasture at least 15,000 cattle. The MacDomiell Ranges, extending east and west of the proposed railway, present a large area of excellent pastoral country, good for sheep or cattle ; and magnificent for horses, perhaps unequalled for breeding a hardy type of. horse suitable for military pur- poses. The climate is beautiful. This tract of country should carry (say) 150,000 head of great cattle. The mineral belt the development of which awaits the ad- vent of the railway is, I feel sure, an ex- tensive one of great promise. The dis- trict known as ^rltunga is already proved to contain payable gold mines; but liow can this field be exploited when for over 400 miles the supplies and machinery have to be carried on camels or wagons? Still on northwards, the rainfall increasing at every stage, we pass through pastoral country, capable of carrying (say) 30,000 cattle, to Tennant Creek, which is on the edge of another belt of auriferous country, in which prospectors have found quartz reef carrying gold in sufficient quantities to be payable with rail communication. Just east of Powell Creek we find the edge of a magnificent pastoral country stretch- ing away to the Queensland border, having many natural waters, and promising to have abundant supplies underground. This belt of country should carry (say) 900,000 great cattle. Then away to the westward, right over to the border of Western Australia, is a large tract of magnificent pasture land fit for sheep or cattle, with I believe, another belt of auriferous country. This extensive region, which would be served by the railway, is capable of carrying (say) 300,000 great cattle. Newcastle Waters is on the edge of another large area of good pastoral country. At this station at present there are 7,000 fat cattle, but no means of getting them 'to any market. The whole of the country to the coast would carry stock (say) 200,000 cattle. From the break of the tableland to the coast, a strip of country containing about 100,000 square miles, is not only capable of carry- ing some stock, but is rich in all the minerals, and the soil and climate are ad- mirably adapted for the growth of all pro- ducts indigenous to those latitudes. Mr. Ernest Favenc, a recognised authority on THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 7 1 Central Australia, states that back from the Powell Telegraph btation to the head of the Nicholson River he found "a large quantity of valuable cattle land country, well and permanently watered. The country on the southern slope is of a nature known all over Australia as being of the best description for sheep. The country drained by the coast rivers is of a different character better watered, not so well grassed, and only adapted for cattle, with the exception of the ISuac- arthur and the head of the river I called the Parsons. The territory possessed by South Australia, viz., from the sixteenth to nineteenth parallels of latitude, is of a description calculated to invite settle- ment. The rivers, though rough and not exactly trafficable, are full of large, doep, and permanent lagoons. The country is not suited for sheep, although in these epinifex ridges there is any amount of her- bage and vines, which are very fattening for the cattle. In fact, during my various trips across the Territory I have always found that, in even what is known as the worst spinifex uesert, there are vines and grasses that horses are always eager for, and do well on. With regard to the spinifex country, I should like to bring under your notice tne fact that many people are now recognising the value of these hitherto abused tracts. The spinifex itself is valueless, but the country on which it grows is often rich in different kinds of herbage and vines that alone rerve to fatten." Considerable attention has also been devoted by several breeders to the produc- tion of high-class Ayrshires and Jerseys whilst splendid specimens of the noted milkers, Holstein-Freisans, have been im- ported. A View at Mount Crawford, the property of Mr. A. J. Murray. THE CENTRAL STATE. C f s -ii a. I THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 73 Champion Jersey Cow, "Maitland Charlotte." The property of Alick. J. Murray, V. J. Dailey photo. Mt. Crawford. Mr. Alick. J. Murray, of Mt. Crawford, owns one of the choicest herds of Jersey cattle in Australia. The great "utility" cow took his fancy some years ago, and the more he studied the records of the island butter-producers the more strongly was he persuaded that they fulfilled all the condi- tions required by dairymen with whom the production of butter was the first con- sideration. He laid the foundation of his herd by careful purchases made in Vic- toria from high-class imported stock. He was fortunate in obtaining possession of Progress III., a very superior imported bull, and this animal stamped his high qualities on the Mt. Crawford herds. Mr. Murray also bought several imported cows from the late Mr. Woodmrcm, of Victoria, and at a later date a L ull ai .c! two heifers, imported by the Rev. Ralph Brown, were added to the Mt. Crawford herd. The most important purchases were made on Mr. Murray's behalf in the Island of Jersey. These comprised two bulls and a heifer, Maitland Charlotte, and the latter's qualities may be gathered from the fine illustration given of her above. Messrs. Fowler and De La Perrelle, of England, recognised authorities on Jersey cows, spent some time among the best breeders and farmers of Jersey Island making these purchases for Mr. Murray. They wrote to him: "We are really proud of our selection, for we do not con- sider that there has been a better lot sent out to Australia. The older bull is by far the richest that has passed through our hands. We cannot say too much of Uie younger bull. He is really an almost per- fect animal. The heifer is really a picture, and should be an easy prize winner." This high estimation of the animals has since been abundantly con- firmed at the Royal Shows in Australia, where they have occupied the front rank. The Mt. Crawford Jersays have practically swept the boards at the Royal Shows in Adelaide, and are largely sought after by the stud breeds and dairymen throughout Australia, All the Mt. Crawford Jerseys are descended from cattle in the Island Herd Book. The cow, Maitland Char- lotte, yielded 17 Ib. 5 oz. of butter in one week 8i months after calving when grazing in the paddocks on natural grasses. 74 THE CENTRA!. STATE. Rugia Niblett llth. Lord Waterloo 6th. Rose of Connaught 16th. Champion Shorthorn Cattle, Melbourne, 1898. Bred by and the property of S. G. Spink photo. /. H. Angas. Mr. J. H. Angas has been a breeder of high-class cattle for over sixty years. He founded his now celebrated stud of Shorthorn cattle by purchas- ing twenty picked heifers and an im- ported bull of the Bates breed, and experts are of opinion that the Angas stud is the only one in Australia that has retained the true Bates type. These animals were acquired from the South Australian Company, but as the years went on Mr. Angas introduced new blocd from England, including a ^shipment of 21 head in 1879. No expense was spared in securing the highest class animals, and the Angaa stud of Shorthorn cattle are famed throughout Australia. English experts have declared that Mr. Angas has produced a type superior in many respects to the stock from which they sprang, and efforts were made at one time to ship specimens to England for competition at the leading shows. Quarantine regula- tions proved an insurmountable barrier. Mr. Angas, however, sends a fine string of Shorthorns to Sydney and Melbourne, where on many occasions he has practically carried everything before him. In South Australia his cattle are unapproached by any other stud. The Shorthorn stud, numbering about 400 head, is kept at Point Sturt, on Lake Alexandrina, near Milang. The property is entirely devoted to the purpose. The stock have great wealth of flesh, aaid fatten to very heavy weights, cows frequently dressing over 1,200 Ib. A ready market is obtained for the young bulls, which are generally cleared before they are two years old to breeders in all the Australian States and New Zealand. Sires from the Angas stud have been used in all the principal studs of Shorthorns in Vic- toria and New South Wales, and as much as 500 guineas has been obtained recently for a young bull under one year old to New Zealand. Mr. Angas established his now famous Hereford herd in 1869 by import- ing high-class animals from England. This splendid beef-producing breed is in high favor in Australia, and the Angas represen- tatives find their way to all parts of the Commonwealth. TKe Lamb Export Trade. It was Charles Dickens who once re- marked, at an agricultural dinner, that "the field which paid the farmer best to cultivate was tne one within the ring fence of his own skull." That statement contains a more important truth to-day than it did in the time of the great novelist. Science is conspicuously aiding the tiller of the soil who places himself in a position to be assisted. Improved ocean transit has brought the producer in Australia and the consumer in the centres of population in Europe closer together, and the refrigerating chamber is opening up almost unlimited opportunities for the expansion of trade. The remarkable suc- cess which attended the experiments made in New Zealand in the shipment to Eng- land of frozen meats compelled Australian breeders to look askance at the "boiling down" works which were employed for the purpose of dealing with surplus stock in times of plenty, and relieving the pressure when droughts came. With a threatened scarcity of feed and water before them, pastoralists were sometimes forced to sacrifice their stock in a flooded market. Sheep us'ed to be killed for the sake of the skins and the carcases either left to rot on the ground or sold for a few pence per head to the owner of the nearest boil- ing down works and turned into tallow. The advent of the freezing process and the refrigerating chamber in the ocean steamer altered all this, and the day of the "boil- ing down" works passed away never to re- turn. The results obtained in the land of the Maori suggested to enterprising breeders in South Australia the need of in- troducing types of English mutton breeds of sheep. These were wanted for the pur- pose of crossing with the hardy Australian Merino, which had hitherto been raised chiefly from a wool point of view. Breed- ing lambs for export followed closely on the importation of the Shropshire, Dorset Horn, and the Down breeds. In this con- nection the Chief Justice of the State, Sir S. J. Way, and the manager of his Kad- lunga Estate, Mr. F. H. Weston, are en- titled to the gratitude of stock owners and the community generally, for they were the pioneers in the introduction of the mutton types which made lamb-breeding possible. One of the most gratifying features in connection with this industry was that from the outset farmers rather than pastoralists went into the business. This led to the multiplica- tion of farmers' flocks, and the innovation has had a marked effect, not only on the agricultural industry, but upon the wool trade. The introduction of sheep to the farm was the means of directly increasing the producers' resources of revenue on the one hand whilst improving his methods 01 cultivation to his general advantage. The wool trade benefited to a considerable de- gree ; the steady increase in the number of sheep within hundreds largely com- pensating for decimation caused in the flocks of pastoralists in the outside country. During recent years there has been an increase of 10,000 in the flocks in the Central Division of the State, and 122,000 in the South-Eastern, and this at a time of general decline elsewhere owing to the drought ! The number of sheep within hundreds is the largest for six years, not- withstanding the increasing number of carcases sent away. The local wool sale* are largely assisted by the small lots of wool sent in by farmers who keep sheep mainly for the purpose of breeding lambs for the export trade. Early in the nineties attention was directed to the advantages which would be likely to follow the erection of freezing works. Leading pastoralists were scepti- cal. They gave three main reasons for not joining forces in order to follow the example set by New Zealand. First, that ai continuity of the supply was uncertain under conditions then existing. It waa pointed out that local consumption took all the sheep that were in any degree suit- able for export, and "surplus" supplies would have to be irnported. The second objection was that the right kind of animal required for freezing was not bred ; 7 6 THE CENTRAL STATE. and thirdly, that the bulk of the country was not adapted for the carrying of the large-sized mutton breeds. All three objections have been removed. There is a "continuity of supply" from sources un- dreamt of ten years ago. The "right kind'' of sheep are now bred in various parts of the State, and a large portion of our country has been proved to bs eminently suited for the raising of animals that meet with ready approval in England. It was at one time asserted that sheep for export must be "artificially fed." That theory has been completely exploded, thanks to the wonderful fattening qualities of the pasture grasses of the State. The grass-fed lambs of South Australia mature earlier than do those grown in any other part of the Commonwealth. In every respect the South Australian article is qual to the best that are shipped from any other State. The first practical attempt made in South Australia to establish freezing works was in 1894. It was my privilege to become possessed of information con- cerning what had been done in New Zealand. Valuable facts were tabulated and brought under the notice of sheep owners, merchants, and capitalists. Whilst without exception they were impressed with the wonderful results which had been obtained in New Zealand, the objections already stated were put forward as reasons why South Aus- tralia could not hope to make a success of the business. Eventually I was invited by several gentlemen, who began to realise that something had to be done, to draw up a prospectus for a company. Because cf its historical interest in connection with the frozen meat trade, in view of the developments which have taken place, a c'Ummary of the document which repre- sents the first practical effort to introduce . what is now an important industry is given in response to requests that it should be placed on record. The company was to be called the "South Australian Freezing Co., Ltd.," and the capital was fixed at ,10,000. The "objects" set out were: "1. To establish a butter factory and produce stores in or near Adelaide. 2. To establish freezing works and cold stores at Port Adelaide. 3. To receive and forward to Australian, British, and foreign markets butter, bacon, pork, beef, mutton, poultry, rabbits, eggs, cheese, wine, fruit, and other farm, dairy, and garden produce, frozen or otherwise. 4. To arrange for the sale and distribution of produce in London and other populous centres. 5. To provide local outlets for produce of all kinds and in any quantity. 6. To improve the quality of produce and the methods of placing it before consumers. 7. To assist farmers and others to start creameries, &c. 8. To minimise the pre- sent high charges to which producers are subjected. 9. To bring producer and con- sumer into closer business relations. 10. To act as salesmen and forwarding and commission agents." It was further stated : "It is proposed that the freezing works and cold stores at Port Adelaide shall be placed afloat, and so obviate the heavy lighterage and other incidental charges now paid by producers. The pro- visional directors are in possession 01 special advice as to the construction of these floating freezing works and cold stores, and believe that some of the latest and best machinery is immediately avail- able." The prospectus alsosiid: "The successful development of the colonial pro- duce trade in the future depends upon the ability of producers to compete against keen and well favored rivals in quality and price. The company will seek to make available for producers and shippers the most approved means for enabling them to participate, on a remunerative basis, in this trade to an ever-increasing extent." In the light of experience there are por- tions of the foregoing which would now be modified, but it represented at the time the best scheme that could be devised on the basis of the information then available. The apathy of stockowners, the indiffer- ence of merchants, and the timidity of capitalists proved obstacles too great to be overcome. The promoters were in earnest, and some progress was made, but the com- pany was never formed. A year or two elapsed, and during that period the de- mand for some establishment for dealing with perishable produce on its way from the farm to the refrigerating chambers of the ocean steamer became more and more apparent. An attempt on the part of the Hon. George Riddoch to promote private THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE. 77 flftfPj I m i -vim a I <3 k : t ^B i THE CENTRAL, STATE. freezing works in the South-East met with no better success than did the efforts which had been put forward in the city. With private enterprise holding back exhibit- ing indeed considerable scepticism and producers demanding better facilities, the State stepped in and the Government Freezing Works were erected at Port Ade- laide. These were opened in 1895, and they have been of immense advantage to producers and merchants. But for the establishment of these works the industry, which is now on a profitable basis, would not have been started for several years later. At first the State Freezing Depot at Port Adelaide consisted of four insulated chambers for butter and a 6-ton "ice- making" J. & E. Hall's refrigerating machine. The building has a wharf frontage capable of berthing the largest steamer, and is situated at the end of Ocean Steamers' Wharf, Port Adelaide. The advantage of having such a wharf frontage, where frozen produce is shipped for export, is most apparent, and the con- dition in which cargoes of frozen meat are put on board ship is unequalled in Aus- tralia. In 1896 additional accommoda- tion was provided, and a 12-ton Hall's re- frigerating machine was installed. In December of 1897 Mr. R. W. Skev- ington took over the management. Early in 1898 still further additions were made, and the small 6-ton machine was replaced by an 18 tons Hall refrigerat- ing machine. As will be gathered from the foregoing, the business was increasing, and a new slaughter-house, containing 18 butchers' tackles, was erected on the pre- mises. In 1899, finding that freezing and storage accommodation were too small, fur- ther additions were made, giving a maximum freezing capacity of 1,500 car- cases per day, and the storage room for 20,000 carcases. The business done by the department in 1899 showed the possibili- ties and advantages to this State of the lamb export trade. The local firms in- terested waited on the Government and successfully pointed out the importance of the Government still making large in- creased freezing and storage accommoda- tion, and the following year a "LindeV refrigerating machine was installed, bring- ing our capacity up to freezing 2,500 car- cases per day, and storing upwards of 85,000 carcases. The slaughter-house was removed from the Port works to Dry Creek, and the situation selected is near to the railway- station and on the great Northern track route. The slaughter-house was built for the treatment of sheep and lambs, and is. one of the best of its kind in Australia. It has tackles for 43 butchers, and with first>class tradesmen 4,300 lambs can be put through daily. After being slaughtered and dressed every lamb is- weighed separately, and is then removed to the cooling room at the rear of the slaughter-house, where the carcases are hung oil rails according to their grade marks. The distance between the slaughter- house and the Port Depot is about five miles per rail, and the carcases are carried in specially constructed louvred meat vans. The removal of the slaughter-house from the Port works could not be avoided, as there was no suitable land available ajoin- ing the works. This is the third season the department has killed at Dry Creek during all weather, and not one single carcase has shown de- terioration in transit from the slaughter- house to the freezing works. Besides the handling of lambs and sheep for export from the homestead to the London market, including the receiving, slaughtering, freezing, shipping, and selling: in London and disposal of skins and fat on behalf of clients, the department handles wine, butter, fruit, rabbits, and other perishable products, finding markets in England when persons so desire. The department claim that the plant and facilities for shipping at Port Ade- laide are equal to anything in the States, and at Dry Creek the best provisions are made for drafting and slaughtering, and the utilization of all by-products for making tallow fertilizing manures. In 1900, Mr. G. A. MacDonald, of Syd- ney, at a cost of 3,000, erected a freezing establishment in Adelaide, known as the Adelaide Ice and Cold Storage Company. The refrigeration is sup- plied by a 70-ton Hercules machine, of which Mr. MacDonald is the patentee. The Hercules has an excellent THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE. 79 8o THE CENTRAL STATE. reputation, and the majority of the New Zealand freezing works are fitted up with similar machines, which are recognised as being the most up-to-date obtainable. In the eastern section are situated the boilers, engines, machinery, and ice-making plant. In the western section are the freezing chambers and stores, of a total capacity of 150,000 cubic feet. The intake during the present season is so great that it has been found necessary to make shipments at intervals of about 10 days in order to meet the increasing demands for refrigerat- ing space. The lambs on arrival are re- moved to the top floor of the buildings by means of an electric conveyor at the rate of 800 per hour. They are then placed in the freezing chambers, bagged, and lowered to the store rooms below ready for shipment, from whence, when re- quired, they are loaded out into vans at the rate of 1,500 per hour. Everything on the establishment is done with a mini- mum of handling, and exporters can readily see for themselves that on these works their produce is treated in the most up-to-date fashion. The fact that the pre- sent manager (Mr. H. Newman Reid) has practically spent his life in the study of refrigeration and cold storage, should in- spire confidence in those doing business with this firm that their produce will have the scientific attention and care so neces- sary to the successful handling of perish- able products. In addition to the actual freezing accommodation mentioned above, one of the lower stores is divided into 42 private compartments, which are let at a weekly rental to butchers, produce mer- chants, and others, who have liberty of access to them day and night. In connection with the freezing works there is an ice tank with a capacity of 21 tons of ice per 24 hours. The ice is manu- factured from distilled water. A fish auction mart has also been established, and this has proved a great boon to citizens. A large trade is also done in freezing poultry for export and packing eggs in cold storage for shipment. With these facilities existing and the in- terest shown in the trade by merchants who buy direct from breeders and take the risk of shipping, the export lamb trade has been firmly established. The growth 01 the industry is shown in the following re- cords of shipments of frozen lamb and mutton : Year. Ib 1898 963,763 13,602 1899 2,586,726 36,289 1900 4,267,664 65,085 1901 3,326,085 58,477 1902 4,859,937 80,927 1903 (estd.) 6,000,000 110,000 It is expected that during the present season the export period lasts from, say, August 1 to March 1 about 150,000 car- cases will be sent away. The profitable nature of the business to the grower may be gathered from the fact that lambs are marketable when they are about 16 weeks old. At the present time well-bred lambs are worth 16/ a head in the Adelaide market. Instead of being uncertain as was the case a few years ago, as to what his animals would fetch up to a maximum of 7/ each, the breeder now knows that he" has a sure outlet for well-grown lambs at several shillings per head advance on that as a minimum. To the original objection that breeders would not be able to provide sufficient drafts of stock to war- rant the erection of freezing works, the actual experience is that the guaran- teed demand has created a steadily increasing supply. It is this fact which effectually silences those who at intervals complain that the exportation of lambs makes "dear mutton" for the local con- sumer and delays the restocking of idle country. If it were not for the regular outlet at a payable price the lambs would not be produced. Besides, crossbred ewe lambs now exported would not be suitable for breeding purposes if retained. A favorite cross with farmers for the production of- an early maturing lamb is the Shropshire-Merino. A typical lamb most favored by exporters is one weighing about 35 to 38 Ib., and about four months old. The Tasmanian Shropshire Flock Book has prepared the following "points of excellence" in a typical animal : -Con- sutution and quality 25, indicated by the form of body ; deep and large in breast, and through the heart ; back wide, straight, and well covered with lean meat or muscle; wide and full in the thigh, deep in flank, skin thick but soft, and of a pink color ; prominent brilliant eyes and THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE. 8r THE CENTRAL STATE. healthful countenance. Size, 10; in fair condition ; when fully matured, rams not less than 225 lb., ewes not less than 175 Ib. General appearance and character, 10 ; good carriage ; head well up ; elastic move- ment; showing great symmetry of form and uniformity of character throughout. Body, 15; well proportioned; medium bones ; great scale and length ; well finished hind quarters; thick back and loins ; twist deep and full ; standing with legs well placed outside ; breast wide, and extending well forward. Head, 10 ; short and broad ; wide between the ears, and be- tween the eyes ; short from top of head to tip of nose ; ears short, of medium size ; eyes expressive ; head should be well covered with wool to a point even with the eyes, without any appearance of horns ; color of face, dark brown or soft black. Neck, 5 ; medium length ; good bone and muscular development, and especially with the rams; heavier towards the shoulders; well set up and rising from that point to the back of the head. Legs and feet, 10 ; broad, short, straight ; well set apart ; well shaped ; color, dark brown, and well woolled to the knees. Fleece, 10 ; body, head, belly, and legs to knees well covered with fleece of even length and quality ; scrotum of rams well covered with wool. Quality of wool, 5 ; medium ; such as is known in American markets as "medium delaine," and half combing wool ; strong, fine, lustrous fibre, without tendency to mat or felt together; and at one year's growth, not less than 3| inches in length. Total, 100. Producers have tasted the sweets of a profitable branch of the export produce trade, and it is not likely that further opportunities of promoting it will be neglected. Certainly the same undercur- rent of apathy and in some quarters active opposition which characterised the early days of the lamb trade are not likely to recur when new departures are suggested. Brains more than anything else are re- quired in the development of the natural industries of Australia. The resources exist. In order to tap them a.nd turn on a stream of prosperity into private and na- tional channels, the primary producer and those who fill the gap between him and the consumer in the old world, must work intelligently and exhibit enterprise. Knowledge is power. It is also profit when properly directed in the by-ways of commerce. As a by-product of the farm lambs for export are proving highly re- munerative, and the future of this steadily expanded industry is assured. - A Scene at the Mount Gason Artesian Bore. The Agricultural Industry. For many years South Australia was known as the granary of Australia. That title was legitimately earned, this State having been the first of the Australian group to export breadstuffs on a large scale. At the outset the pioneers hung about the city fearing to break away from the companionship of shipmates doubtful if the land available would repay cultiva- tion. For some time a wrong impression prevailed concerning the quality of the soil on the Adelaide plains. Even Captain Sturt was misled by the parched appear- ance of the country. When delivering a lec- ture to the settlers in 1838, he remarked : "If you attempt to cultivate the land around Adelaide you will be grievously disappointed. You must not expect to get crops of grain or fruit on this side of the ranges." Within three years of the delivery of that address sections on all sides of the city were yielding 30 and 40 bushels of wheat to the acre ! Breadstuffs were imported from Tasmania, and at one time Division. Central ... Lower North Upper North South-Eastern Western Total ... 2,573,904 2,649,098 1881. 1891. 931,783 894,593 822,615 967,627 699,391 665,479 90,313 73,085 29,802 48,314 flour was sold up to <100 per ton in Adelaide. Cereal growing was a pro- nounced success from the start, and in this branch, of industry progress continued by leaps and bounds for many years. The population, exclusive of Northern Terri- tory, shipping, and aborigines, in 1891 was 310,426, and at the census of 1901 had in- creased to 354,001, an addition of 43,575 persons, or 14 per cent. During the same period the area under cultivation had in- creased from 2,649,098 acres to 3,279,406 acres, an addition of 630,308 acres, or 24 per cent., as compared with an increase of 3 per cent, during the preceding decade, 1882-91. There were 9.0 acres of tilled ground per head of the population, as com- parted with 8.4 acres at the date of the census of 1891. The following table shows the area under cultivation in each division in South Australia at the date of the cen- sus of 1881, 1891, and 1901 respectively, and the increase or decrease, respec- tively : INCREASE OR DECREASE 1901. 1891 on 1881. 1901 on 1891. 1,152,340 - 37,190 +257,747 980,536 +145,012 + 12,909 841,036 - 33,912 +175,557 97,784 - 17,228 + 24,699 207,710 + 18,512 +159,396 3,279,406 + 75,194 +630,308 The following statements shows the area of the State, also of the several divisions referred to, of the land wholly or conditionally alienated, of Crown leases, and of the total occupied : OCCUPIED. ' 1. Central Division II. Lower North III. Upper North IV. South-Eastern V. Western Total Counties Remainder of State AREA. Alienated. Crown Leases. Total. Sq. Miles. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. 13,891 8,890,240 3,203,909 3,397,138 6,601,047 12,401 7,936,640 2,453,036 3,902,799 6,355,83 1 4,065 9,001,600 905,806 7,414,709 8.320,515 15,585 9,974,400 1,348,252 4,146,428 5,494,680 24,511 15.687,040 176,773 6,049,756 6,226,529 80453 51,489,920 8,087,776 24,910,830 32,998,606 299,617 191.754,880 1,121 60,666,325 60,667,446 Total South Australia 380,070 243,244,800 8,088,897 85,577, V55 93,666,052 Northern Territory ... 523,620 335,116,800 473,278 112,654, >88 113,127,566 Grand total 903,690 578,361,600 8,562,175 198,231,443 206,793,61g 8 4 THE CENTRAL STATE. Building a Stack of Wheat at a Shipping Port. South Australia, exclusive of the Nor- thern Territory, has an area of 380,070 square miles, or 243,244,800 acres, of which 03,666,052 acres are in occupation, ?3,088,897 acres have been alienated, and 85,577,155 acres are held under lease from the Crown, the remaining 149,578,748 acres being open for settlement. Forty- *ix counties have been proclaimed, includ- ing the more closely-settled portions, re- presenting 80,453 square miles, or 51,489,920 acres. Of the total area 8,087,776 acres have been wholly or condi- tionally alienated, of which 553,773 acres are held by 1,404 selectors on the deferred payment system. Of the remainder, more than half, 24,910,830 acres, is held under direct lease from the Crown for agricul- tural or grazing purposes, or both com- bined. "Showing the extension of the leasing system for purposes of farming and grazing," says the Government Statist, "instead of the State parting with the free- hold, it will be noted that 20,485 leases have been granted, of which the area un- der 8,429 right of purchase leases is 5,580,676 acres, under 5,168 perpetual leases 7,143,283 acres, and under 3,695 mis- cellaneous leases 3,904,960, together 16,677,175 acres, inclusive of 3,913 home- stead blocks and leases, having an area of 48,256 acres. The area occupied for pas- toral purposes only is 68,915,840 acres, un- der 536 leases. The Renmark Irrigation Colony, together with the village settle- ments on the River Murray, cover 76,900 acres. The proportion of land occupied under Crown leases for settlement is nearly three to one held under freehold. The receipts from the sale of Crown lands, which in times past formed, a considerable portion (for many years one-fourth) of the general revenue, only average 40,725 per annum, mainly completions of purchase of land held on the deferred payment system. The receipts from Crown lands form 7 per cent, of the total fevenue in South Aus- tralia, 15 per cent, in Queensland, and 21 per cent, in New South Wales. Beyond the limits of agricultural settle- ment 107,681 square miles, or 77,794,560 acres, are held by 536 Crown lessees as sheep or cattle runs. The rental accruing in 1902 was 35,747, as against 37,068 the year before. When the system of credit selec- tion was introduced in 1870, the sale by auction of land in fee simple was practi- cally suspended. A further radical change was effected by the Crown Lands Act of 1888, which in its turn abolished credit selections on deferred payments, and substituted in lieu thereof a system of leas- ing. Agricultural lands were subsequently leased on a right of purchase system, or, as an alternative, perpetual leases. Parliament has recently passed legislation abolish- ing right of purchase, and substituting a covenant to purchase by means of sixty THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. Hay-Making A Heavy Crop. half-yearly instalments. Land legislation is now on a liberal basis, and the Crown is a good landlord. Small blocks in certain localities, chiefly near centres of popular tion, are also open for leasing by working men in lots not exceeding twenty acres, and upon similar tenure. In these cases personal residence of the lessee or a mem- ber of his family is required. Leases with right of purchase, which is exercisable after six years' tenure, are allotted for a term of twenty-one years, with right of re- newal for a further like period. Land un- der perpetual leases will be re-valued by the land boards every fourteen years. The lands are classified and the rents and prices Year. 1884-5 .. 1889-90 .. 1890-1 .. 1891-2 .. 1892-3 .. 1896-7 .. 1897-8 .. 1898-9 .. 1899-1900 1900-1 .. 1901-2 determined by these boards, but the right of purchase may not be exercised at a less price than 5/ per acre. The system of leasing Crown lands at one time in favor has now been abandoned in favor of a plan whereby the tenant may obtain the freehold. Taking the freeholds and G-overnment leaseholds jointly, the average area occupied by each individual of the population is about seventy acres. This is exclusive of pastoral lands. In 1844, 2,687 acres were under cultivation, 1860, 428,816 acres; and 1880, 2,574,000 acres. The following shows the extent of land in occupation, cultivated and unculti- vated : Land Extent of Land Land Land under Land Enclosed Alienated. held by Freeholders. Enclosed. Cultivation. but not Cultivated. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres Acres. 10,335,572 5,893,632 53,444,411 2,785,490 50,658,921 9,094,918 5,662,741 59,972,020 2,864,887 57,107,143 8,532,823 5,562,542 61,365,069 2,649,098 58,715,971 8,593,894 5,770,040 64,680,362 2,533,291 62,147,071 8,637,947 5,732,615 64,174,971 2,625,741 61,549,230 8,670,530 5,764,054 2,584,395 8,034,803 6,087,495 2,604,122 8,055,069 6,413,267 2,967,370 8,056,890 6,619,684 3,081,8415 8,073,814 6,086,462 - 3,279,406 8,088,897 6,375,820 ;U*^ 3,122,800 a "a THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. With reference to the column headed "land alienated," it should be explained that the figures previously to 1897 included lands granted for educational endowment, dedicated for forest reserves, &c., but now leased. The "cultivated area" the true test of agricultural progress is steadily expanding, and as large estates in favored localities are being purchased by the Go- vernment or private persons and cut up into small holdings suitable for farmers, the area under cultivation will continue to increase. There is room for considerable development, more particularly in the South-Eastern portions of this State, re- garded by competent authorities as "the New Zealand of Australia." "One of the lessons, taught by the late drought," says the Government Statist, "has been to im- press upon farmers that, even in dry sea- sons, careful husbandry and the adoption of modern systems will ensure returns for their labor otherwise unobtainable. Utilising sheep in the stubbles and on the fallows, thereby clearing the land of wild oats and noxious weeds, is very general, as also is early sowing with the aid of the drill, depositing such chemical manures as are required by the soil to produce good and clean crops of superior grain. Ground so husbanded has yielded more than double the return in frequent instances, both of wheat and hay, and conduces to the fuller development of the staple products of the country, and consequently to the additional value of real estate. Not many years ago the use of artificial manures was, except to a few, unknown on farms; at present about 1,000,000 acres, or one-half of the entire crop, is so treated." From 20 acres sown in 1838 the culti- vated area was gradually extended until 15,000 acres were put under wheat in 1842. For the first time South Australia was able to produce sufficient grain to provide for home consumption and begin an export trade in breadstuffs, which was destined to grow into a profitable industry. Coun- tries which had hitherto supplied flour at 100 per ton were now able to purchase the South Australian article at a tenth of that price. From that time onwards breadstuffs were exported, and by degrees valuable business connections were established with other States, South Africa, Java, China, and Eastern ports generally. The steadily growing demand from these customers and the distance have prevented large exportations of flour to the United Kingdom. Consignments have been made from time to time, and the highest praise has been bestowed upon the quality of the South Australian article, Results, however, have seldom been so pro- fitable as to encourage the miller to repeat the experiment. From a few tons in the early forties exports grew until in 1884 the highest point was reached, when bread- stuffs to the value of 2,500,000 were shipped away. An initial error made by the pioneer agriculturist was an attempt to transplant English methods of fanning. Original blocks of 80 acres were surveyed, but it was not long before these "garden plots" were found to be quite inadequate to support a family with wheat as the only product. Then the pendulum swung the other way, and in some instances farm* held by one person became too large in the best interests of the country, and often for the good of the owner. The ambition of the tiller of the soil was to be able to point to large fields of waving corn to carry on his operations on an extensive scale. Quality was often sacrificed for quantity in the desire to cultivate a maximum area in a minimum period. Thus it came about that prosperity in agricultural cen- tres was wont to be measured by the acreage sown. All this, however, belongs to the past, and methods of farming are not now the subject of reproach that they Were twenty years ago. The acreage cul- tivated means far more in South Australia to-day than an equal area did fifteen, or even ten, years ago. In other words, the productive capacity of the farming country has been steadily increased until our peo- ple are able to better understand what "in- tense culture" means. Said Professor Lowrie (till recently head of the State Agricultural College): "If we get a re- turn to one of our normal years the wheat acreage of South Australia, with the atten- tion farmers are giving to manuring, will be raised to a degree that even the most sanguine scarcely expects. In a relatively few years we will find the wheat average in this country somewhere about eleven or twelve bushels to the acre, and it will in- volve very little more work than at pre- sent." 88 THE CENTRAL STATE. H'. S. Smith Harvesting, Stripping, and Winnowing Grain. The old order of farming gradually gave way under the pressure of low prices and dry seasons to systems which are safer and more profitable. At one time when the grain crop failed the farmer starved, took a fresh mortgage if he could obtain it or begged from the Government. The modern tiller of the soil aims at diversity, and is not so dependent upon one source of revenue. There are still a number of producers who are wheatgrowers, and that only, "carrying all their eggs in one basket," but their ranks are rapidly being reduced. The tendency to lean on the Government is not so pronounced as it was a few years ago, and the progressive grain grower owns a small flock of sheep, and is interested in the fluctuations of the wool market and in the export lamb trade. In no direction has the evolution been O marked as in the improvement of agricul- tural machinery. Twenty years ago the farmer trudged behind a single or double- furrowed plough. To-day he rides on a four, five, or six-furrowed implement i The pioneers reaped their first crops with sickles. Then came the Ridley reaper, a wonderful invention. This machine un- derwent frequent changes. Scarcely a year went by without some improvement having been made, until the farmer now has a wide variety of choice the light draught pony stripper ; the damp w'eather machine ; the complete harvester which threshes, cleans, and bags the grain ; or there is the combined mower and binder with the header to complete the process. Another great influence on the progress and prosperity of agriculture in South Australia has been artificial manures. Un- til a few years ago it was not considered necessary to return to the soil any of the properties taken from it. At the present time it would be difficult to find a man sceptical of the advantage of applying science in the direction of artificial fer- tilisers, and this season over a million acres have been manured. Lands which were regarded as worthless are now producing heavy crops of hay or grain. The farmer is often conservative in thought and action. He clings to methods with which he is acquainted on the prin- ciple that it is wise to "hold fast that which is good." After Captain Sturt's opinion of the Adelaide plains had beem falsified, it was confidently asserted that cereals would not grow a few miles further north. This was also proved to be a mistaken notion. The early sheepfarmers clung tena- ciously to the land secured by them, but gradually they had to make way for the THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. 8 9 Harvesting a 10 ft. Maize Crop with Mower and Binder on the Markaranka Irrigation Co.'s Farm near Morgan, River Murray. agriculturist who was lured on until, some think, he has at last gone beyond the line fixed by Nature. It should not be as- sumed, however, that the limit of produc- tion has been reached that there is no more land available that is fit for cultiva- tion. Such is not the case. In addition to the natural process ever at work, by which large estates come into the market automatically, the Government has power to purchase large holdings and subdivide "for purposes of closer settlement." In the South-Eastern divisions of the State drainage works have greatly multiplied the fertility of the soil, and an extension of this system is now making available a large area of Crown lands which, without drainage, would be useless swamps. A few years ago Millicent a typical centre of the drainage area was little bet- ter than a swamp, with here and there a hillock modestly raising its h'ead out of the water, generously offering itself as a perch for the wildfowl to rest upon. The land when not so covered was sour and irresponsive to the persuasive devices of the cultivator. The town was small, and nothing ever happened to disturb the peaceful meditations of a somnolent peo- ple. To-day Millicent hums. There is a whirr and buzz everywhere you go. Out on the lowlands where rank grass used to grow you can get up to your knees in a lucerne patch or a rape crop. Where a mower and binder has been at work for a week an army could be hidden out of sight behind the stocks of hay, which stand close together, and are eloquent of the large yield which the paddock has produced. There are root crops as well as grain crops grown on the farms, lambs are being bred for the export trade, and more attention is now devoted to dairy- ing. The more one sees what has been done the more impressed one becomes with the possibilities of this country. It is no reflection on the settlers to say that they have yet to realise the full extent of the natural resources of the district. Some of them have only begun to discover the capa- .THE CENTRAL, STATE. bilities of their land a few will not live long enough to do that, but those who take their places will find it out. Few pro- blems have so exercised the minds of past and present legislators than the question of draining the lands of the South-East, and yet it seems one of the surest and most profitable investments in which public money can possibly be employed. Drainage applied to the swamp lands adjacent to the River Murray has pro- duced marvellous results. Mr. Allan Mc- Farlane, of East Wellington, spent 10,000 on an embankment to reclaim 700 acres which now carries six sheep to the acre. A neighbour, Mr. H. W. Morphett, of Wood's Point, reclaimed 650 acres at a cost of 6,500. Five acres under onions yielded 30 tons per acre; the barley crop returned 42 bushels per acre ; and the lucerne crop gave five cuttings in one sea- son. Irrigation has become a significant factor in the agricultural industry of South Australia. In addition to the irrigation colony at Renmark, which will be dealt with separately, settlements are steadily multiplying in the valley of the Murray. What within the memory of young men was a wilderness barren, inhospitable land or swamps covered with useless rushes is being made productive. The trans- formation scene has been worked so quietly and quickly that few people realise what the change really signifies. It is materially affecting the producing strength of South Australia. There are also large areas of virgin land in th'e mid- land districts which will one day be avail- able for cultivation, and when that takes place production will progress on a still higher plane. The climate and soil of the southern portion of the State are eminently adapted to agricultural pursuits. Every variety of fruit and vegetable and the highest quality cereals are successfully raised in the vici- nity of Port Augusta, distant 260 miles north of Adelaide. In the South-Eastern districts 300 miles south of the city, are some of the finest gardens in Australia, Potatoes and onions are the chief products of this part of the State, and every variety of grain is successfully grown. There are two oatmeal factories at Mount Gambier which deal with the surplus oats grown in that prolific district. There is at least a stretch of country 500 miles long by an average of 60 miles broad wherein agricul- tural pursuits of every description can be followed. Beyond this limit wheat can be grown, but the experience of the last few years has shown that the farmer who goes too far out takes great risks. The tendency is more towards grazing than grain cultivation in remote parts of the State. The agricultural lands of South Australia hug the coast-line. So pronounced is this that the furthest grain-producing district inland is well within 100 miles of a ship- ping port. The average distance of grain transport by rail is less than 50 miles. The importance of this fact should be apparent to the most casual observer. It means cheapness of transit to the sea- board, thus materially reducing the cost of the grain by the time it is afloat. There afe few countries in the world better situated in the matter of climate, soil, and machinery for the cheap production of grain and proximity of the cultivated terri- tory to the seaboard is a great factor when prices are governed as they always are when there is a surplus available for ex- port by Mark Lane. The agricultural industry is firmly estab- lished. The farmer has become more pro- gressive. Certainly he is more responsive quick to note the demands of the mar- ket, and more amenable than his father was to the requirements of distant cus- tomers. Science is proving a mighty in- dustrial lever opening portals previously closed against the Australian producer. The modern wheat grower knows the strength and weakness of his soil, and he supplies deficiencies by 'employing artificial manures. By the use of the best ma- chinery he seeks to reduce the cost of pro- duction, whilst he takes advantage of by- products that his predecessor kicked on one side or threw on the rubbish heap. Scientific and economical methods char- acterise the management of other branches of agriculture until golden mile posts are being firmly placed along the highway of industrial progress in South Australia. Droughts have been experienced which threatened disaster. Prices at one time fell so low that ruin stared the rural pro- ducer in the face. The future looked fcfc THE CENTRAL STATE. A Crop of Onions, the property of Webster Bros., Mt. Gambler. dark and dismal hopeless. All this has passed away. "Sick" soil is recuperated, falling markets are met by reductions in the cost ot cultivation. There is no despair among the rural producers of our State to-day, and there is no cause for any, for the bulk of our producers were never in a more prosperous condition than they are at the present time. To the man of intelligence, energy, and a little capital there is practically no limit to the exer- cise of his resourcefulness. The capabili- Wheat Hay Barley Oats Fallow Total cereals Potatoes Peas Green forage Garden ... Orchard Vines All other Totals ties of the country are gradually becoming known and appreciated, and the term "farming" means more than it did ten years ago. This fact cannot be better illustrated than by showing the acreage under different cereals and the various agricultural produce raised. The follow- ing table shows the total area of land un- der cultivation in South Australia, the 10-year comparison proving that, in spite of exceptional seasons, producers have had the pluck to go forward : Acres. Ac- es Acres. 1892-3. 1901-2. 1902-3. 1,520,580 1,743,542 1,746,842 434,116 369,796 325,789 13,285 15,517 21,493 15,745 34,660 50,296 567,878 862,738 888,946 2,551,604 3,026,163 3,033,466 6,014 6,248 7,763 4,705 4,938 5,452 27,999 37,205 38,573 5,853 9,005 9,489 9,918 16,315 17,376 15,418 20,860 21,692 4,230 2,066 3,464 2,625,741 3,122,800 3,137,175 THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. 93 Compared with 1901-2 last season's acre- ages showed the following increases : Wheat, 3,390 acres; barley, 5,976 acres; oats, 15,636 acres; peas, 151 acres; pota- toes 1,515 acres; hay (decrease), 44,007 acres. Green Forage. Wheat, oats, or barley (decrease), 37,642 acres; lucerne (decrease), 76 acres; sown grasses, 1,318 acres; other crops, 1,398 acres; fallow, 26,208 acres ; garden, 484 acres ; orchard, 1,061 acres; vines, 832 acres. From tiie area devoted to the various in- dustries it will be interesting to turn to the actual production of the State, and again it will be well to take a 10-year period. The following is the compari- son : Hay, tons ... Barley, bus. Oats, bus. ... Peas, bus. ... Potatoes, tons Almond trees Almonds, cwt. Orange trees Oranges, cases Lemon trees Lemons, cases Olive trees Olive oil, galls. ... Hives of bees Honey, Ib. Vines, bearing Not bearing Grapes sold, cwt. . . . Wine made, galls. Currants dried, cwt. Raisins made, cwt. Butter, Ib. Cheese, Ib. Wattle bark, tons It should be explained that the figures 1892 3. 1902-3. 9,240,108 6,354,912 389,277 308,825 175,468 317,155 166,489 620,823 69,922 89,654 20,057 28,312 111,607 165,255 3,388 5,699 73,365 127,762 43,817 62,814 67,557 27,057 48,252 78,642 2,291 12,422 22,142 18,731 412,886 756,822 4,206,880 10,067,139 4,545,737 1,723,787 72,798 235,948 594,038 2,145,525 4,886 711 11,562 3,110,093 4,521,246 661,314 705,969 3,131 9,212 The First Plough uszd in South. Australia. relating to wine refer to the vintage of the previous year, but do not include the wine made from grapes sold to winemakers who are not also growers. The above compari- son reveals a most gratifying expansion of rural industries. Compared with 1901-2 last season's production underwent the following increase: Wheat, 1,657,850 bushels (decrease); barley, 73,793 bushels; oats, 151,569 bushels; peas, 7,923 bushels (decrease); potatoes, 13,253 tons; hay, 37,642 tons (decrease) ; almonds, 660 cwt. ; oranges, 4,448 cases ; lemons, 12 cases ; olive oil, 1,095 gallons; wattle bark, 646 tons; honey, 446,769 Ib. ; raisins made, 4,222 cwt. ; currants dried, 1,473 cwt. ; but- ter, 433,277 Ib. (decrease); cheese, 347,191 Ib. (decrease). Last season there were 98 silos, with a capacity of 79,080 cubic feet, in the State, compared with 87, of 146,640 cubic feet, in 1901-2. At the time of going to press, the pros- pects of the approaching harvest are ex- tremely bright. Record crops of all descriptions are confidently forecasted, and fears are entertained that there will be a block on the railways owing to the unpre- cedented demands to move grain and other produce to the seaboard. Aids to Agriculture. Before passing on to a review of the various industries which come, naturally, under the head of agriculture, it will be interesting to briefly refer to a few potent "aids" to farming. There is the influence which artificial manures have had in restoring fertility to over-worked soil ; whilst no reference to the agricultural in- dustry would be complete which omitted to direct special attention to the remark- able evolution in farm machinery. South Australia has led the way in both. Tke stripper was invented in this State, and has been perlected here. Similarly, the stump-jumping plough, which has been the means of revolutionising farming in the scrub lands of Australia. Just at a time when it seemed as if the agricul- tural industry had got into a blind alley as if the limit of production had been reached science came upon the scene and provided a key capable of fitting every lock. Unknown portals flew open and showed a cleared passage where apparently insurmountable obstacles had previously blocked all progress. To Mr. Molineux at that time agricultural editor of the Adelaide Observer great credit is due. He was the first man to preach the gospel of hope to the rural producers. He did more than preach; he demonstrated and proved. It was Mr. Molinea.ux who founded the Agricultural Bureau system promoting experiments which lead to the introduction of so many improvements in the growing of cereals, and in fruit cul- ture. One success led on to another, so that from having been a class of sceptics, rural producers took a pride in adopting new methods. Science continues to be a mighty lever in agricultural fields, and, it is only those who are ignorant of the forces at work who doubt the future of the rural producer in these lands. No Australian State has a better agricultural record, while in South Australia the cost of production is lower than elsewhere. Fertilisers have had an important in- fluence on the fortunes of producers. They have helped more than anything else to bring about a revival in agricul- tural pursuits. Constant cropping had exhausted the soil. The farmer in many parts sowed but reaped not, and the average production of the State began to suffer. Fallowing was resorted to in order to check the decline. There was a re- covery, but not sufficient to compensate for the rapid decline which took place about the same time in the price of wheat. The position became critical, but the dawn followed the darkest hour in the agricul- tural history of the State. In 1879 an Experimental Farm and Agricultural Col- lege were established at Roseworthy, dis- tant some 30 miles north of the city. Pro- fessor Custance was the first Principal, and in his first report he stated: "Perhaps the most important result is the beneficial effect of bonedust and guano, 5 cwt. of each, which produced 26 bushels per acre. Should this result be confirmed next sea- son it would indicate the value of phos- phates and nitrogen in increasing the wheat crop. Probably mineral phos- phates and nitrate of soda may be found in the colony. If so, by means of the application of about 1^ cwt. of nitrate of soda and 5 cwt. of phosphates per acre on well cultivated lands, the yield of wheat may be increased considerably, in many districts as much as 50 per cent." In his next report, 1883, Professor Custance wrote: "Wheat may be grown year after year on the same land under certain con- ditions with profit to the farmer, one of the conditions being a cheap supply of suitable manure that is, manure contain- ing the ingredient deficient in the soil and required by the wheat plant, which proves to be phosphoric acid." In 1885 the same authority wrote: "Some impor- tant facts will be noticed, notwithstanding the unfavorable season, such as the yield of 22 bushels per acre from 3 cwt. of super- phosphates. . . . The quantity of superphosphates used, viz., 3 cwt., costing, at 4/ per cwt., 12/ per acre, should induce AIDS TO AGRICULTURE. Golden Grain ready for Shipment Scene on a Wharf at Port Pirie. A. Ball photo. farmers to give this manure a fair trial. After numerous experiments carefully con- ducted during the last four years, I can strongly recommend superphosphates as the cheapest and best manure for the wheat crop." Professor Lowrie, who suc- ceeded Professor Custance at the Agricul- tural College, enthusiastically worked along the same line, and did yeoman ser- vice to the State. In 1894 he put the following opinion on record: "The phos- phatic manures are found specially suitable under our South Australian conditions. The practice of bare fallowing and the absence of under drainage and summer leaching of the nitrates in the soil are the means of maintaining a relatively high proportion oi nitrogen in the soil, and ex- perience is leading us more and more to the use of phosphatic manures in relatively high proportion compared with nitro- genous manure. Speaking generally, it is more from deficiency of phosphates than any other element of plant food that our average wheat yield in the colony is so unfortunately and discreditably low." In a paper read before the Agricultural Bureau Congress in 1896, Professor Lowrie observed: "The phosphatic manures are the most beneficial in the first instance at least. In all districts where the rainfall exceeds 15 or 16 inches, I believe it will be found, if the cost of carriage of the manure be not prohibitive, that manures can be profitably used for wheat, and in all hay-growing districts I have not the slightest hesitation in saying that no prac- tice open to us is more profitable as far as agriculture proper extends than the re- gular judicious use of artificial manures. For grain probably 1J to 2 cwt. will be found a good useful dressing for an acre." Subsequently Professor Lowri in the light of further experiments conducted by himself declared : "We only want a good season to thoroughly establish the confidence our farmers now feel in the use of artificial manures. I am sure that with a fair season the wheat average will be nearly double what it would have been had the practice of farmers been what it was eight or ten years ago." 9 6 THE CENTRAL STATE. Whilst this educational process was at work at the Agricultural College, enter- prising farmers were supplying practical demonstrations. Farmers on Yorke's Peninsula led the way, and in no part of the State have fertilisers worked so won- derful a change. A few years ago land on Yorkes Peninsula which is now firmly held at 5 to 6 per acre, could not be sold at 25/ per acre. Artificial manure, and that alone, was responsible for the change in land values, and a corresponding move- ment has taken place in other parts of the State. In 1894 11 acres were drilled in with wheat and superphosphate to the extent of 90 Ib. per acre. The result was satisfactory, and next year the area was ex- tended to 200 acres. It is estimated that this year (1903) over 1,000,000 acres have been similarly treated! Importations of artificial manures have been as follows : 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 Tons. 600 4,600 13,000 16,000 24,000 31,000 37,000 44,000 In addition to these foregoing, guano and phosphates have been discovered in South Australia. A tempting bonus was offered by the Government to the discoverer of a payable phosphate mine, and this amount has been paid to a prospector on Northern Yorkes Peninsula. Several other phos- phate claims are being worked, and there is every promise that payable mines will be found in South Australia, The intro- duction of fertilisers led to a largely in- creased demand for seed drills. The machinist has ever been a good friend to the agriculturist. Early in the forties there was an agricultural crisis, and so serious did the position become that an official decree went forth prohibiting the exportation of wheat! From 4,000 acres under grain in 1841, the area under cultivation rose to 14,000 in the next year. The problem of harvesting the crop by means of the ancient sickle, and in the absence of a supply of laborers was ap- parently insolvable. Imperial soldiers then doing duty in South Australia were ordered if not to actually turn swords into ploughshares ana spears into pruning hooks to go out into the fields and assist to gather in the harvest. Harvesting charges ranged up to 2 per acre. It was doubtful whether, in view of their experi- ences, landowners would sow wheat the following year. The necessity of some contrivance to aid producers in harvesting having been made so apparent, a body called the "Corn Ex- change Committee" took the matter up with zeal, and announced, through the columns of "The Register," that they would be prepared to give a reward for the best invention to be exhibited to the committee. Thirteen persons presented models and drawings of various machines, but the committee came to the conclusion that there was none which they were justi- fied in recommending for general adoption. In the meantime, Mr. John Ridley, a mil- ler, of Hindmarsh, who did not compete, built a working machine, on the principle of stripping the heads off the straw. He acknowledged his indebtedness for the idea to an article in an encyclopaedia, in which was the cut of a machine used in ancient days on the plains of Gaul. This was at once a complete success. The machine was propelled by a pole from behind, the pole being supported on two wheels. Two horses did the work. Mr. Ridley pre- sented the invention to the public, and got no profit out of it except a margin on the actual implements which he made and sold. Describing the first public trial of this stripper the late Mr. Francis Button said : "One afternoon during the summer of 1843-4, some friends met in Adelaide and asked me to join them in their ride to a neighboring farm where Mr. Ridley's reaping machine, which they said both reaped and threshed the corn at the same time, was successful at work. It was not generally known at that time what the machine was, and, although we were all incredulous, we started to see with our own eyes how far the reports we had heard were correct. Presently we saw from several quarters other horsemen all steering to the same point. By the time we reached the farm a large 'field' had mustered to wit- ness the proceedings, and there, sure enough, was the machine at work, by the agency of two horses and two men one AIDS TO AGRICULTURE. 97 The Ridley Reaper. to guide the horses, and the other the machine ! There was no mistake about it the heads of the corn were threshed per- fectly clean ; and, a winnowing machine being at hand, the corn was transferred out of the reaping into the latter machine, and carts were ready to convey the cleaned wheat to the mill, two miles off, where tne wheat, which an hour before was waving in the fields in all the lustre of golden tints, was by Mr. Ridley's steam-mill ground into flour. Never before was, perhaps, such a revolution in the appliances of agriculture caused as was done by this machine ; success attended the very first trial of it, and during seven days it reaped and threshed the seventy acres of wheat of which the paddock was composed." New hope was given to settlers, and agriculture progressed by leaps and bounds, the "area under wheat" being nearly doubled in one year. The late Capt. Bagot wrote a letter to "The Register" giv- ,ng his experience of the machine in the following harvest, 1844. He said that he reaped a field of 39^ acres of wheat in nine days, and obtained 843 bushels of good clean grain. He figured out the cost thus : Two men with the machine, one to steer, and the other to drive, nine days, at 2/6 each ... 2 5 Use of the machine at 2/6 per acre ... ... 5 Or a little more than 2d. per bushel. Three men were employed for 12 days win- nowing and carting in the corn to the store. Three men, 12 days each, at 2/6 4 10 Use of winnowing machine ... 1 Cost of stripping 843 bushels 750 Cost of winnowing ... ... 5 10 Or less than Hd. per bushel. Thus the Ridley stripper at once reduced the cost of harvesting from 2/ per bushel to 3|d., or for a 20-bushei crop from 2 per acre to 5/10 ! No wonder Captain Bagot spoke of the "extraordinary value of Mr. Ridley's admirable invention !" From the Ridley machine sprang the splendid strippers which are now to be seen all over Australia and the "complete har- vester" at present commanding attention. In the fifties the late Hon. James Martin obtained 150 for the first reaper he made. To-day the greatly improved modern ma- chine can be bought for a third of that price. The principle of propulsion from behind soon gave way to a side application of motive power. Then followed the thimble comb which prevented a loss of grain. A simplification of the machine enabled one man to steer and regulate, whilst a reduction in the draught lessened the number of horses required. The addi- tion of the "damp weather gear" followed. This enables stripping to be done in cold weather when the straw is ^iot so brittle as it is on a hot day. South Australian makers export a large number of strippers every year to neighboring States and Argentina. 9 8 THE CENTRAL STATE. A Modern Stripper Jos. Martin . 1899-1. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1896-7. i&7-8. ; ' 1898-9. '99-1900. 1900-1. 1901-2. 1902-3. For Grain^ ' ; Wheat .. 1.673i573 1,552,423 1,520.580 1,693.045* 1,522,668- 1.788.770 1,821,137 1.913,247* 1,743.452 1,746.842 Barley ' 14,472 11,461 13,285 14,484 13,232 16,962 15,767 15..352 15,517 21,493 Oats .. .. 12.475 12,637 15,745 40,215 31,398 25,823 20,229 27,988 34,660 50.296 Peas . . ' 4s358 4.290 4,705 3,519 2,917 3,491 3,842 4.454 4,938 5,452' For Green, Forage- ! ; Wheat, Oats &c. 2,634 845 1,333 1.322 1,266 1.252 1.104 3,009 2,172 2.096 Lucerne 4.715 5,571 6,456 6.049 7.452 8.899 11,356 10,127 11,523 12,841 Sown Grasses 21,431 17,519 20.210 20,027 20,083 20,946 21,593 22.186 23,510 23,636 Other Crops . 4,615 2,663 4.230 3,936 2,617 2,002 1,520 2.556 2,066 3,464 Hay 345,150 304.171 434.116 339,257 449.167 316,413 311.440 341.330 369,796 325,789 Potatoes 6.626 6,892 6,014 6,417 6,449 6,653 8.406 6,628 6.248 7,763 Orchard 8.736 8.928 9.918 11,746 13054 14,396 15,477 16,001 16,315 17,376 Garden 6,1.26 5,494 5,853 6,669 7.574 7,994 8,524 8,830 9 005 Vineyard 9.535 12,314 15,418 18.333 18.761 19,159 19,438 20,158 20,860 21.692 Fallow Land . 534.152 588,083 567.878 512.561 507.484 734,610 822,013 887,540 862.738 888.946 Total 2,649,098 2,533.291 2,625.741 2,584,395t 2,604.122 2,967.370 3.081,846 3,279.406 3.122.800 3.137,175 * 605,723 acres of wheat were not reaped. t Owing to drought 93,185 acres of wheat sown for grain were cut for hay. which were not included in the total. t Owing to drought 339,230 acres were not reaped. 169,795 acres less wheat sown, 28,466 acres more hay cut. and 299,348 acres not reaped owing to drought. THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS. 107 In the following table is shown the gross produce and average yield of the various crops : Year. Wheat (bushels). Barley (bushels). Oats (bushels). Peas (bushels). Hay (tons). Potatoes (tons). Wattle Bark (tons). Produce. Avg. Pr'duce Avg. Pr'duce Avg. Pr'duce Avg. Pr'duce Avg. Pr'duce Avg. 1889-90 - 14,577,358 7.91 246,841 12 '54 131,449 12'77 57,800 13'55 395,920 1'20 23,853 3 - 74 j 1900-1 - 9,399.389 5 '62 175,583 12'13 116,229 9'32 64,068 14'70 310,125 90 23,963 3 - 62 4.372 1891-2 - 6.436,488 415 107,183 9'35 80,876 6'40 68,655 le'oo 193,317 '64 27,824 4'04 ! 3.904 1892-3 - 9,240,108 6'08 175,468 13'21 166,489 10'57 69,922 14'86 389,277 '90 20,057 3'34 : 3.131 1896-7 - 2,804,493 *1'66 107,798 7 '44 189,716 4'72 30,350 8 '62 170,808 '50 16.139 2'52 5,030 1897-8 - 4,014,85-2 2'64 162,065 1'2'25 204.444 6'51 31,936 10'95 298,184 '66 9,308 1'44 6.830 1898-9 - 8,778.900 4'91 234,135 13'80 304 002 11'77 i 51,151 14'65 258,518 | '82 14.445 2'17 8.217 1899-1900 8,453,135 4'6l 188,917 11 '98 218,331 10'79 52,883 13'76 229,800 '74 19.716 2'35 8,038 1900-1 - 11,253,148 5'88 ; 211.102 13 '75 366,229 13'09 67,415 15'14 353.662 ! 1'03 14,566 2'20 8,330 1901-2 - 8,012,762 4'60 ; 243.362 15'68 469,254 13'54 97,577 19'76 346,467 '94 15.059 2'41 8.566 1902-3 - 6,354,912 3'63 ! 317,155 14'70 620,823 10'35 89,654 16'62 308,825 '95 28,312 3'63 9,212 * Owing to drought 605,723 acres were not reaped. In his annual report for the season 1902-3, the Secretary lor Agriculture, Pro- fessor A. J. Perkins, points out that with a total rainfall in 1902 considerably below the previously-recorded mean, and a distri- bution that in nowise tended to compen- sate this difficulty, it might perhaps have been anticipated that by comparison with average returns such conditions would have been gloomily reflected in the harvest field. A glance at the table below, in which are summarised the returns from our main crops in tne different districts, will show that this is very far from having been the case. AGRICULTURAL RETURNS IN 1902-3, CONTRASTED WITH MEANS OF PRECEDING Six YEARS. Wheat (bushel) Oats Barley Hay (tons) - Potatoes " - CENTRAL, DISTRICT. LOWER NORTH. WEST COAST. > SOUTH-EAST. UPPER NORTH. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Yrs. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Yrs. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Yrs. i 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Yrs. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Yrs. 2.921,152 280,437 189.458 197,100 6.846 2,636,333 154,457 113.894 163,871 5.627 2.351,692 47,649 16.558 87,610 nil 2,443,687 33.075 14,605 70,480 17 448,618 27,495 22,011 6.584 nil 540,381 9.981 12.813 5,008 11 288,090 264.690 i 89,128 18,563 21,466 304.979 94.249 47,598 14,774 9.211 345,360 552 nil 15,932 nil 1,294.163 236 2.320 22.107 6 This table is self-explanatory, and needs but little comment. It will be noted that in the Central District returns in wheat, oats, barley, hay, and potatoes were all in excess of means of the preced- ing six months; in the Lower North, whilst wheat is in slight deficiency, oats, barley, and hay are in excess; on the West Coast results coincide with those in the Lower North ; similar returns come from the South-East, where the potato crop attained remarkable proportions ; the Upper North alone is characterised by heavy deficiencies. Nor does it appear that these satisfactory bulk returns are merely a consequence of an expansion of the area under cultivation, which would perhaps tend to mask a contraction in yields. An examination of the following table, in which are contrasted the yields per acre of wheat and hay during the past season with the means of the previous six seasons, shows that this is not the case : io8 THE CENTRAL STATE. SHOWING YIELDS PER ACRE OF WHEAT AND HAY IN 1902-3 MEANS OF PRECEDING Six SEASONS. CONTRASTED WITH WHEAT. HAY. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Seasons. 1902-3. Mean of Previous Six Seasons. Bushels. Bushels. Tons. Tons. Cential District 5-59 4-91 1-04 086 Lower North 436 462 074 0-68 Western District 2-70 363 0-58 060 South-East 825 807 1-34 1 09 Upper North 071 2-48 060 058 Except in the Central District, the yields oi wheat per acre are generally slightly below the means of the preceding six years, whilst the yields in hay are slightly a,bove the means. The complete failure of the Upper North excludes it from these comments. "We find ourselves faced, therefore," says Professor Perkins, "with a season over which the rainfall was not only consider- ably below normal means, but extremely badly distributed, and during which har- vest returns were nevertheless generally in excess of those of preceding seasons. It seems to me that improved and more ra- tional soil tillage that has latterly come into use, coupled with the general spread of phosphatic manures, are mainly respon- sible for this satisfactory state of things. The complete failure of the Victorian crops north of the Dividing Range, over which reigned weather conditions no worse than those that characterised our Lower North, is, if it were needed, an additional argument in support of this view. Such, then, having been our returns in a rrost unfavorable season, so far as rainfall is concerned, it remains yet to be seen how much in excess of our anticipations will be under the influence of improved methods the returns in the favorable seasons that we have good reason to hope lie hidden in. the immediate future." On the question of how the rainfall affects the grain harvests, Sir Charles Todd (the Government Astronomer) observes "We have to look, not so much at the quantity of rain which falls in any year which may be swelled by summer storms nor even at the mean annual rainfall, but at the general distribution of the rain, or the months in which rain may be looked for in sufficient quantities to adequately reward the labor expended in cultivating the soil." He furthe-- remarks 1 : "We cannot, as a rule, expect a good harvest, without copious rains in the period May to October. The total rainfall for the year may, however, be comparatively small, and yet the harvest good (as in 1864, when it only averaged 18.83 inches, taking the whole of the agricultural dis- tricts), provided the rainall is ample in the six months just specified. On the other hand, the total rainfall may be large, but the yield small, if the winter rainfall is- deficient, or if heavy rains and adverse atmospheric conditions occur late in October, November, and December, as was the case in 1871, when the rainfall averaged 23.25 inches, and the yield was- only 5 bushels 45 Ib." THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS. 109 Patent Seed and Fertiliser Plough Combination, manufactured by Clarence H. Smith, Ardrossan, Yorke's Peninsula. Hay. Hay-growing is a popular and profitable auxiliary to the production of grain. Fields sown for wheat are for various rea- sons mostly because hay promises to pay better cut for hay. During the last few years chaff mills have sprung up all over the State, while several compressed fodder works have been erected. Large exports of chaffed hay have taken place to other States., and South Africa is a large cus- tomer for compressed fodder. The quan- tity of hay cut last season was estimated at 308,000 tons, and prices ranged up to as much as 7 per ton. In many cases farmers were known to have realised as much as 3,000 to 5,000 for their hay alone; and one leading authority declares that fortunes have been made out of hay- growing in South Australia during the last few years. According to the official re- turns the total quantity of hay reaped was 308,825 tons, taken from 325,789 acres. This return was slightly less than the pie- vious year, when 369,796 acres yielded 346,467 tons. In 1900-1 the production was 353,622 tons, but, while this year farmers have been tempted by the price to cut far more hay in the previous sum- mers, they were forced to do so by the prevalence of red rust. The average yield this season was 0.9o ton u> the acre, while at the previous harvest it was 0.94. The central district, which is the largest pro- ducer of hay, contributed 205,546 tons from 197,100 acres, and the Lower North 65,114 tons from 87,610 acres. The South-East is the third producer, having supplied 24,877 tons from 18,563 acres; while the Upper North reaped 9,485 tons from 15,932 acres; and the Western dis- trict 3,803 tons from 6,584 acres. The hundreds producing the biggest returns no THE CENTRAL STATE. were: Adelaide, 62,341 tons from 51,561 acres; and Light, 50,137 tons from 45,893 acres. Grey, in the South-East, had by far the best average, having 16,208 tons from y,016 acres, or 1.180 tons to the acre. The vast proportion of the produce came from between Adelaide and Manoora. Shipments have increased from 9,185 tons, valued at 22,402 in 1900, to 23,981 tons, worth 75,000 in 1901, and 98,000 tons, estimated at 425,000. There are several compressed fodder mills in the State, and large shipments of the compressed article a mixture of chaff and bran are now sent away to the other States and to South Africa. The mean price of hay in the Adelaide market for the six seasons (1896- 1902) was 2/5/2 per ton. In 1902-3 it stood at 3/15/6. Last year's crop on this basis had a monetary value of 1,165,814. The following is the official returns of the hay yields for the seasons stated : Produce Average. Tons Tons 1890-1 310,125 .90 1891-2 193,317 .64 1892-3 389,277 .90 1896-7 170,808 .50 1897-8 298,184 .66 1898-9 258,518 .82 1899-1900 229,800 .74 1900-1 353,662 1.03 1901-2 346,467 .94 1902-3 308,825 .95 There is a Customs duty of 20/ per ton on hay. Oats. The cultivation of oats receives consider- able attention on Yorkes Peninsula, where last season 13,800 acres were sown, from which 108,000 bushels were gathered. The largest producer is the South-East era district, of which Mount Gambier is the centre. The acreage there was 8,472, but so prolific was the harvest that no less than 226,000 bushels were reaped. There are two oatmeal factories at Mount Gain- bier, where the bulk of the oatmeal con- sumed in the State is manufactured. Oats grow luxuriantly in the South-East, where there is great scope for the expansion 01 what appears to be a profitable industry. The total area under oate last harvest was 50,296 acres, which produced 620,823 bushels, as against 469,^54 bushels the previous year. The following is the offi- cial statistics of the production of oats for the seasons stated : Produce. Average. Bushels. Bushels 1890-1 116,229 9.32 1891-2 80,876 6.40 1892-3 166,489 10.57 1896-7 189,716 4.72 1897-8 ... 204,444 6.51 1898-9 304,002 11.77 1899-1900 ... 218,331 10.79 1900-1 ... 366,229 13.09 1901-2 469,254 13.54 1902-3 620,823 12.34 The mean price of oats in the Adelaide market for the six seasons (1896-1902) was 2/7 per bushel. In 1902-3 the price was 3/4. There is a duty of 1/6 per cental. Barley. The acreage under barley last year was 21,493 acres, which yielded 317,155 bushels, as compared with 15,517 acres, producing 243,362 bushels in 1901-2. Bar- ley is chiefly grown in the South-East, where the yield last year was 85,000 bushels from 3,400 acres, and the Lower North and Kangaroo Island. The new duty is 1/6 .per cental. The duty on malt, increased in 1891 to 4/6 per bushel, has not much affected the imported article, of which 26,789 bushels (value 8,052) were introduced in 1901, against 34,378 bushels (value 10,092) tne year previous. The following show the production and average yield of barley: - Produce. Average. Bushels. Bushels 1890-1 ' 175,583 12.13 1891-2 107,183 9.35 1892-3 175,468 13.21 1896-7 107,798 7.44 1897-8 162,065 12.25 1898-9 234,135 13.80 1899-1900 188,917 11.98 1900-1 211,102 13.75 1901-2 243,362 15.68 1902-3 317,155 14.76 THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS. Ill The duty has been reduced from 8/ to 6/ per cental. Field Peas. Field peas, mostly cultivated in the hilly country in the Counties Adelaide and Hindmarsh, where pig-rearing and bacon- curing a,re chiefly carried on, is a crop which, as a rule, gives a, better return than wheat, and is well known for its recupera- tive action on exhausted soils. It appears to have stood the drought well, as the average of 1897-8 was 11 bushels, in 1898-9 it was 15 bushels, in 1899-1900, 13.76 bushels, in 1900-1901, 15.14 bushels, in 1901-2, 19.76 bushels, and last year, 10.62. The area under cultivation was 15,452, as against 4,938 in 1901-2, and 4,454 acres the previous year. The production and average yields of field peas is shown in the following : Produce. Average. Bushels. Bushels. 1890-1 64,068 14.70 1891-2 68,655 16.00 1892-3 69,922 14,86 1896-7 30,350 8.62 1897-8 31,936 10.95 1898-9 51,151 14.65 1899-1900 52,883 13.76 1900-1 67,415 15.14 1901-2 97,577 19.76 1902-3 89,654 16.44 This crop, grown in the midst of our largest dairying districts, seems to be a factor in the future expan- sion of the bacon industry. The imports of bacon and hams, on which there is an impost of 3d. per pound, totalled .166,039 lb., value 5,745, against 213,725 lb., value 6,219, the year before. Carting Grain to the Seaboard A -scene on the wharf at Port Pirie. G. A. Ball photo. Fruitgrowing'. Horticulture has long since passed out of the experimental stage. It is now firmly established upon a profitable commercial basis. There is a suiplus production of many kinds of fruit, and the balance over and above requirements for home con- sumption is exported. Soil and climate are eminently suited to the production on a large scale of all kinds of fruit. The variation in conditions obtainable in dif- ferent districts throughout the State c.iables fruitgrowers to diversify pro- duction and extend the season for each variety. Beginning with a few trees brought out by the pioneers from England and Cape Colony and plants introduced from New South Wales later on, the in- dustry slowly expanded until the freezing chamber and improved transit facilities brought the great consuming centres of the old world nearer to producers. The pos- sibilities of a (profitable export, trade were realised, the horticulturist awoke, and at once began extending his orchards and im- proving his methods of cultivation. A wonderful evolution has been witnessed during the last ten years. From "any sort of tree" the grower now makes a care- ful selection of the best kinds. Science has also entered the garden, and *he successful horticulturist has become a close student of formulae for spraying, also of the latest methods of pruning and manuring. There are colonists who remember the time when seedling peaches were produced in such abundance that the surplus supplies were fed to pigs. The export trade has changed all this and impressed growers with the importance of obtaining quality as well as quantity. The fruit-growing areas of the State may be classified into three sections. The cool semi-humid localities represented by a large tract of country in the elevated districts of the Mount Lofty, Barossa, Stanley, and Wirrabara Ranges and the 'South-East. These districts are the home of the apple, pear, cherry, prune, and all of the berry fruits. The rainfall varies from 25 to 40 inches annually. The second zone includes the low hill country and the plains where the summer tempera- ture is higher and the rainfall from 18 to 22 inches. Within this area the citrus tribe, stone fruits, and grapes, olive and almond grow to great perfection. Summer irrigation is practised by the largest orchardists. The water is either drawn from the State waterworks or from natural springs. The third zone includes the valley of the River Murray, which follows a serpentine course for 600 miles through Soutii Australia to the Southern Ocean. Fruit-growing of a distinctive character on an increasingly large scale is being car- ried on by means of irrigation. The raisin and the currant vine, apricots, figs, oranges, and lemons find here a congenial climate. Sun-dried fruits of excellent flavor are being produced in increasingly large quantities, the clear, dry heat re- taining the natural bloom and aroma of the fruit. Evaporation factories also exist in the fruit-growing districts, and this process of drying is largely favored. Preserving and jam-making establishments also ac- count for a large annual home consump- tion, and South Australian preserved fruits and jams find a ready demand in Australia and abroad. Fruit-growing in South Australia is destined to rank high among the primary industries. That the people are deter- mined to make this an accomplished fact at an early date is evidenced by the man- ner in which they are entering the lists in the competition for the world's markets. Within the last decade the production of dried fruits, such as raisins and apricots, has exceeded the local demand. The growers of currant and sultana vines are making a bold bid to exclude the imported fruits by placing upon the markets of the Commonwealth a locally-grown article of superior excellence. Ten years ago the export of fresh fruit to London comprised a few scattered cases of apples sent in a spasmodic manner by one or two venture- some growers. Now the business has reached large dimensions. FRUITGROWING. G. Quinn photo. Orange, Grove, Salisbury. The success obtained by shippers of apples has encouraged experiments to be made with fresh grapes, oranges, and pears with the most satisfactory results as will be shown. The Victorian commercial re- presentatives in England sent the follow- ing report last season to the Minister for agriculture in Melbourne : "One hundred and fifty cases of grapes from Adelaide, per Victoria, arrived in good order. These grapes were of the white Daria variety. They are pronounced by salesmen here to be identical with t"ie Almeria grape, which is the best variety grown in Spain for the English market. It is a white grape. The flesh is firm, and it stands handling and transportation better perhaps than any other. At the conclusion of the Spanish fruit season, in October, speculators fre- quently buy quantities of Almeria grapes, which are packed in small barrels in cork dust. These are stored in London for periods varying from two to six months, and sold as opportunity offers. Some of these grapes stored in this way came under my notice a fortnight ago. They had been taken out of the cork dust, and the bunches had been cleared of any waste berries. They were then put on trays and sold wholesale at I/ a Ib. The white Daria grapes from Adelaide, which are stated to be identical with the Almeria, carried better than any grapes I have yet seen from Australia. They were packed in cork dust, in shallow cases, containing about 25 Ib. They sold at 22/6 per cass a splendid price." Equally satisfactory reports from independent sources will be quoted later on concerning South Austra- lian apples and oranges. An increased area of country is being planted with fruit trees, the horticulturist having been satisfied that he can easily overcome his natural enemies, and that in- creased transport facilities will help to guarantee to him a regular and profitable outlet for his produce. The following is the official return of the area represented THE CENTRAL STATE. by "gardens" and not included : 1884-5 ... 1889-'90 1890-1 ... 1891-2 ... 1892-3 ... 1896-7 ... 1897-8 ... 1898-9 ... 1899-1900 1900-1 ... 1901-2 ... 1902-3 . "orchards." Vines are Gardens. Acres. 4,942 5,763 6,626 5,494 5,853 6,669 7,574 7,994 8,524 8,830 9,005 9,489 Orchards. Acres. 5,825 7,437 8,736 8,928 9,918 11,746 13,054 14,396 15,477 16,001 16,315 17,376 The following shows the growth of the export trade in fresh fruit and South Aus- tralian jams : Fresh Fruit. Tarns. 1893 21,164 9,671 1894 16,817 15,085 1895 17,299 17,661 1896 19,567 21,548 1897 29,968 20,889 1898 22,211 12,523 1899 32,842 10,063 1900 42,567 16,245 1901 62,662 20,499 1902 37,315 16,783 THe Apple Industry. That South Australia produces apples of prime quality which commend themselves highly to English palates is now admitted on all hands. The growing of what is often called the "king of fruits" is no longer an experiment in this State, nor is the export trade on its trial. The ques- tions which are engaging the attention of producers, merchants, and experts have reference to the best varieties to be culti- vated, methods of shipment, and the cheapest and most effective systems for waging war against pestiferous insects. The industry has had its "ups and downs" partly owing to the cultivation of varieties not suitable for distant markets, whilst planters have had to contend against un- favorable seasons. But they have come through these difficulties triumphantly, and now enjoy the satisfaction of having their produce highly praised and strongly competed for by buyers in Covent Gardens as well as at other centres. Our apples, in fact, have established in England a re- cord price for Australia. The manager of the State Produce Depot in the English capital reported a "very marked improve- ment generally in the selecting, grading, and packing," and this judgment is con- firmed by the Victorian produce represen- tative, who haa declared that the South Australian apples "invariably reach London in better condition" than those from Melbourne and Hobart." Equally favorable comments have been passed on the quali uv of our fruit by colonists resi- dent in England, who have critically sampled shipments and closely watched the improvement in quality and methods of packing. The successful inauguration of the industry and of the export trade, hav- ing been accomplished, it only remains for old growers to extend their operations under improved methods, whilst en- couragement must be extended to those gardeners who have hitherto looked upon the whole business with some amount of scepticism. This is missionary work re- quiring much tact and patience. Quite recently some of the largest cultivators in our hills districts, viewing the depreda- tions of the codlin moth plus the, remedies insisted upon by departmental inspectors, declared that "apple and pear growing are things of the past," and they added, with an emphasis born of conviction, "Certainly no one will plant them while the present regulations remain in force." Mr. Quinn, the State horticultural expert, and other authorities, take a much more hopeful view regarding the suppression of orchard destructive pests. There is ample evi- dence available that new orchards have been extensively planted, and that growers are well satisfied that a profitable outlet can be found for all the fruit of good quality that they can grow. Mr. Quinn says that "improved attention" to the regulations for dealing with diseases "has removed the necessity" in many places for FRUITGROWING. the adoption of extreme measures. In other words, producers have come to realise that cleanliness, like honesty, is, after all, the best policy, and they are more and more systematically applying methods recommended by the experts to check disease. The following is an extract from a letter recently received from Hamburg : "There is a good market here for South Australian apples. They must be yellow or red ; no greenish or brown color. We have imported 2,000 cases of Tasmanian apples for the last three years, but we get higher and better prices for the good South Australian apples, especially when yellow or red, and not too many spots. We got up to 20/ per case for New York Pippins (or Cleopatras) whereas French Crabs, for instance, are scarcely to be sold, and do not fetch over 7/ per case." A large ex- porter of fresh fruit to London has ex- ceived the following interesting informa- tion, showing the best paying varieties of fruit to ship, the average being based on the experience of the past season : Apples Dunn's Seedlings, 13/4 to 16/8; Rome Beauty, ll/ to 13/3; Stone Pippin, ll/ to 16/; Cleopatras, 12/ to 15/ ; Jona- than, 11/6 to 14/6 ; Esopus Spitzenberg, ll/ to 14/; Sturmers, 10/to 14/; Dumelow, 12/ to 16/; London Pippin, 10/to 13/; Adam's Pearmain, 10/ to 12/. Pears Josephine, 12/ to 16/; Broom Park, 12/ to 12/6; L'Inconnue, 12/ to 15/; Vicar of Wink- field, 12/to 14/; Winter Nelis, 14/ to 20/. South Australian apples are being shipped in increasing quantities to Europe, South Africa, Java, and Hongkong. Among the Orange Groves. South Australia possesses some of the finest orange groves in Australia. Those at Renmark are dealt with elsewhere, but orange and lemon culture are not confined to the irrigation colony on the banks of the River Murray. Some of the most productive groves are within a few miles of the city. The gardens in the valley of the Torrens within a radius of ten miles of Adelaide appeal to visitors from over the seas, who never fail to be impressed with the grandeur of the scene and the practical demonstration supplied of the progress of intense culture in South Aus- tralia. Deep, ferruginous soil, absolutely free of extraneous vegetation, and so soft that you sink almost to your boot tops; healthy, vigorous trees, bending beneath their rich load ; clusters of yellow fruit all this tells a tale of scientific attention. Admittedly there is money in orange cul- tivation for those who understand it. There are localities in South Australia which embrace ideal conditions for the in- dustry, and the favored spots are being taken up with avidity. For years plant- ing has been going on apace, and when all the young trees have come into bearing the harvesting of the crop will be a much bigger business than at present. Growers of citrus fruits have been systematically digging up vines and other trees for the purpose of devoting the land to what they believe to be the more profitable undertak- ing of orange growing. South Australian oranges have found great favor with the Australian consumer, and to_the foreign buyer many thousands of miles across the water they are an indescribable delicacy. An English report, dated 21st August, 1903, states: "London's orange supply, which is particularly abundant for the time of the year, has received during this week a welcome addition in the shape of prime samples from Australia and Jamaica. The Australian fruit arrived in excellent order by the mail steamer Orita, and the pick of the oranges from your end of the world were some magnificent 'navels' from South Australia. These created quite a stir in the trade, for the fruit were so large that in some of the cases there were only 72 oranges all told. These sold at about 18/ a case on the average, and 3/ a dozen for oranges whole- sale is quite a phenomenal price. With- out doubt the South Australian navels are the finest oranges ever put on Covent Gar- den market, and though retailers cannot afford to sell them at less-^bhan 4/ or 5/ a dozen, it is very certain that fruit of such quality will always command a high price n6 THE CENTRAL STATE. Orange Tree, 5 years old, bearing 1,400 oranges. here. The market for such prime goods is, of course, very limited at the prices mentioned, and a shipment of, say, 5,000 or 6,000 cases would in all probability meet with a considerably less profitable market. The South Australian navels are not only fine fruit to look at, but splendid eating. The only fault one can find with them is that the dominance of juice in them renders it undesirable to attack one without arming yourself with a bib or some such protection for your clothes." For several years shipments of the golden fruit small, certainly, but FRUITGROWING. typical were made to the London mar- ket, and the fact that buyers there are ever asking for more is unmistakable evidence of satisfaction with the article. In 1897 a few thousand cases were sent to 1 the old country, but in the following year, owing to a short crop, only about 500 cases were dispatched. Then in 1899, when the trees brought forth more fruit, nearly treble that quantity left these shores. The oranges which were shipped to the depot averaged 14/2 a case, but this consignment was by no means a first-class one. Much of the fruit had shrivelled, and the grad- ing was faulty. Since then shipments have been spasmodic, but official reports from the world's metropolis have consis- tently called attention to the spirited de- mand which exists for oranges of the best quality, provided they are landed in Lon- don between August and the end of the year. Imports of oranges to England have grown from 4,593,000 bushels in 1893 to 18,250,000 in 1902. Australian growers tested the English market seven years ago and found it highly favorable to the de- velopment of an export business. A trial shipment of 1,740 cases of oranges was for- warded from Sydney, and the prices realised ranged from 23/ to 13/3, or an average of 13/8 a case. After the pay- ment of expenses the returns showed a net profit of close on 134. As this was an experimental consignment, the charges were heavy. As yet South Australia is not a large contributor to oversea markets, but there is no doubt that in the near future exports will assume important dimensions. If landed in London between the months mentioned above thousands of cases of Australian oranges would be absorbed, because during that period consignments from other countries, such as Jamaica, Florida, and California, are not forthcoming. One authority estimates that even if 5,000 or 6,000 cases were sent from these ports for several months the London market would not be supplied, to say nothing of provincial requirements. The South Australian industry, how- ever, is making splendid progress, and it is not to be doubted that in two or three years' time markets will have to be dis- covered for our surplus fruit. In ISP^ there were only 73,000 orange trees in South Australian soil ; at present there are close on 130,000 trees. When all these have attained maturity thousands of cases of this luscious fruit will be available for foreign consumption. The development of orange cultivation can be gauged from the following figures, which deal with the number of trees planted and the annual yield : Trees. Cases. 1895-6 73,365 43,817 1896-7 99,098 42,705 1897-8 104,612 46,469 1898-9 106,674 27,520 1900-1 109,490 40,073 1901-2 117,452 58,366 1902-3 127,762 62,814 Under the heading of "Giant Colonial Oranges," the "Westminster Gazette," London, writes : "The orange supplies, which are particularly varied and abun- dant for the time of year, have had some welcome additions in the way of prime samples from South Australia and Jamaica, The mammoth Washington Navels have caused excitement in the trade, for the fruit is so large that some of the cases only contain 72 oranges, and they sold at 18/ a package, or 3/ a dozen whole- sale. This is a phenomenal price. Other varieties, with 96, 120, and 150 to the case, sold at 14/. Without doubt these South Australian Na,vels are the finest oranges ever put on Covent Garden Market. The Jamaican arrivals are good, but in no way comparable to the Australian fruit. With 150 and 200 to the case they sold from 10/ to 16/ each. These values are equal to those prevailing for Choice Jaffa oranges, which are now on sale, and are satisfac- tory." Lemon Culture. Lemon trees thrive well in almost any part of the State and considerable atten- tion is devoted to the growing of lemons. The official statistics give the number of trees in 1902 at 67,557, producing 27,057 cases. The manufacture of candied lemon peel is an established industry, and with the prospect of a gro wing - x surplus efforts are being made to cure lemons as is done in Sicily, and also for making citric and oil of lemon. THE CENTRAL STATE. , G. Quinn photo. Orchard at Chwin of JPonds. Currants and Raisins. Another industry closely connected with viticulture and fruit-growing is the cul- tivation of the Zante currant and grapes suitable for raisins. The prac- tice of ringing tjhe currant vine is now largely practised throughout S.A. with gratifying results. Ten years ago some 36 tons was the total production, of raisins, whilst last year 500 tons of the local article were put on the market. In 1888 43 tons of currants were produced, And in 1902-3 244 tons. The business is rapidly expanding, and the quality is superior to the imported article. Profes- sor Perkins, in his last annual report, wrote "Currant-growers have not as yet to look for an outside market; it will, in fact, be many years ere we succeed in supplying even the Commonwealth's requirements. The annual imports of currants into the Commonwealth may be represented; roughly by 5,000 tons ; whilst the local pro- duction of Victoria and South Australia is represented by less than 500 tons. If we admit that the Commonwealth with its rising population is in a posiion to absorb 6,000 tons annually, and assume that the average yield of currants is not ikely to ex- ceed i ton per acre, even an area of 12,000 acres under Zante currants would not un- duly congest the local market. I have been unable to ascertain the area under currants in Victoria; but, from enquiries made locally, I am able to classify c\irrant vine- yards in South Australia as follows : Rey- nella and Maclaren Vale, 244 acres; Clave and Auburn, 220 ; Angaston and Tanunda, 286 ; Gawler River, 5 ; Yorke's Peninsula, 7 ; Renmark, 15 ; Langhorne's Creek, A-c., 20 ; total, 797. We are far yet from the pos- sible 12,000 acres, even admitting that Vic- toria can show 1,000 acres under currants, which I think unlikely. Currant-growing can be confidently recommend to those who have taste for the kind of work it involves. I know of no more profitable method of utilising good land." FRUITGROWING. 119 EXPORTS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN RAISINS AND CURRANTS DURING FIRST NINE MONTHS OF 1903, COMPARED WITH THOSE DURING THE WHOLE OF 1902. RAISINS. First nine months 1903. Ibs. To New South Wales 162,085 Victoria 1,761 Queensland 69,439 Western Australia 48,597 Tasmania 1,358 1902. Ibs. 155,890 97,091 122,194 95,788 CURRANTS. First nine months 1903. Ibs. 19,969 2,209 2,470 56 New Zealand 30,072 United Kingdom Other Countries . . 12,600 1,310 Total outside Commonwealth 30,072 13,910 1902. Ibs. 27,475 23,758 616 Commonwealth 283,240 470,963 24,704 51,849 Total exports 313,312 484,873 24,704 51,849 Harvesting in the South-East Steam Threshing Machine at Minor Rural Industries. The climate and soil of South Australia are so favorable to the production of all kinds of grain, fruit, and vegetables that there is practically no limit to what, in a comparative sense, may be classed as "minor rural industries." The term is employed for convenience of classification. Many of the "minor" industries are growing in importance. Clover, lucerne, peas, beans, plants are grown in various parts of the State for the fattening of live stock. Lucerne growing on the Adelaide plains for "topping" up cattle that have travelled long distances from Central Australian cattle stations is becoming a flourishing industry. With a climate similar to that of coun- tries where the olive flourishes it would, indeed, have been strange if olive cultiva- tion had been neglected in South Aus- tralia. Olive oil manufactured in South Australia was sent to the great exhibition of 1851 and gained "honorable mention" on account of "its clearness, color, and flavor." South Australian oil has since that time taken numerous prizes in dif- ferent parts of the world. It has been officially stated by experts that "no oil that has ever been sent into a market sur- passes in quality, lucidity, and creamy delicateness of most delicious flavor the oil that is produced on the Adelaide plains." Sir Samuel Davenport, a high authority and a pioneer in this, as well as in the wine industry, has made the fol- lowing written statement: "There being many varieties of cultivated olives whose merits for quantity or quality of oil differ, or whose rank is held in degrees of esti- mation relatively to national tastes, South Australia has now become rich in the pos- session of olive stocks of reputation secured to her from Malaga, Gibraltar, and Lis- bon ; from Cannes, Nice, and South of France, via Marseilles ; and from Florence and Ban, via Brindisi. Some skilled French growers of the olive have been in- troduced, whose labors, and the instruction they must impart to others, cannot but prove of great advantage to the future cul- tivation and production of the olive. Had South Australia been colonised by Greek, Italian, or French olive growers, it most probably would, long ere this, have pro- duced large quantities of oil and preserved olives for the various markets of the old world. Nevertheless, in many gardens, and in some special plantations of the tree in and about Adelaide, the silvery hue of the undersurface of the foliage, as inverted by the winds, calls strikingly to mind the scenery of well-known localities of its cul- tivation, as of Cannes or Mentone on the Mediterranean, or of the banks of the Upper Tagus. The calcareous nature of the soil around Adelaide and the warm and dry climate assist in bringing the fruit of the olive, as of the vine, to remarkable perfection ; while for the benefit of the laborers, as well as of the farmers, the olive harvest conveniently follows on the vin- tage as the vintage follows on the harvest time of wheat and other grains." Supplies of olive oil are now drawn from South Australia by the comptroller of navy stores on the Australian station. In 1902 there were 78,000 olive trees, from which 12,000 gallons of oil were made. The wattle is largely cultivated for its bark, which is chiefly used for tanning purposes. Exports in 1902 amounted to 7,702 tons, valued at 68,850. In addi- tion, large quantities were used locally. Production has risen from 4,372 tons in 1891 to 9,212 tons in 1902. Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney, and Con- sulting Botanist to the Forest Department, in a pamphlet published in 1891, said: "The broad-leaved wattle of South Aus- tralia is one of the richest tanning barks in the world. South Australia has practically tne monopoly of this bark, and it is a grand heritage the envy of the Eastern colo- nies." Hops have been cultivated at intervals, and the quality of the produce proved that MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES. 121 soil and climate in favored spots were suit- able to its production. The industry dur- ing recent years, however, has not shown any signs of expansion. The same may be said respecting the cultivation of tobacco. The plant grows well in a few places, but the cost of labor has so far been against growers. Figs thrive luxuriantly, but up to the present very little attention has been paid to the business of drying. Quite recently, however, the Smyrna fig has attracted notice, and the success achieved in Cali- fornia in "caprification'' by the introduc- tion of the fig wasp, which accomplishes this necessary function, is being closely watched with a view of establishing the in- dustry. A few years ago Mr. W. C. G-rasby visited Smyrna as an honorary Commissioner of the South Australian Go- vernment, and studied the fig question on the sipot. Mr. T. B. Robsoii, of Hector- ville, has already a large number of the true varieties, and has arranged for the in- troduction of the fig wasp at once. The drying of various kinds of fruit and the making of jams are important indus- tries, and quite a number of factories exist in South Australia, The sun-drying of raisins and currants is largely resorted to, more particularly at the irrigation colony of Renmark, where "acres" of drying trays may be seen in the season. South Aus- tralian jams have been supplied to the War Office and the navy stations, and large shipments are regularly made to South Africa a,nd various parts of Australia. The quality of South Australian dried fruits and jams is excellent. Bees do well in almost any part of the State. At present there are 20,000 hives producing about 1,000,000 pounds of honey annually. There are three experimental date plan- tations in South Australia under State con- trol. These are making good progress, the dates grown being of good marketable quality. Exception will be taken in some quar- ters to the classification of poultry breed- ing, and the egg trade under "minor" in- dustries. It has outgrown that limita- tion, but without going into details of breeding fowls for egg-production and table purposes, there remains little to be said in a general way. Poultry is one of the leading "by products" of the farm in this State. There are several poultry farms conducted on a large scale, and fanciers are frequently making valuable importa- tions. Both in the matter of egg-produc- tion and the export of frozen poultry the industry promises to grow to considerable importance. Mr. R. W. Skevington, the manager of the Produce Export Depart- ment, in his last annual report, wrote : "The poultry trade is gradually increasing. Paying prices for good young poultry can be secured in London from February to June. In every district of this State in- creased activity is being displayed in the raising of poultry, and it is expected that definite steps will be taken next year to open up a trade that will be profitable to South Australian breeders." The follow- ing shows the value of the eggs exported in the years stated : 1890, 44,204; 1891, 48,554; 1892, 27,771; 1893, 26,575; 1894, 22,679; 1895, 27,275; 1896, 40,353; 1897, 50,034; 1898, 55,719; 1899, 62,493; 1900, 73,679; 1901, 73,520 ; 1902, 107,739. The shipments of frozen poultry has increased from 42 in 1898, to 2,805 in 1902. Within the last few years increased at- tention has been devoted to the breeding and fattening of pigs. Some well-ap- pointed piggeries are to be found in various parts of the State, and there has been a steady increase in the number of bacon factories. The export of South Australian bacon and haotns in 1902 amounted to a value of 32,628. Ship- ments of South Australian preserved meats were worth 27,000. Our Irrigation Colony. And the wilderness shall put on the glory of a fruitful garden ; the desert shall be made to blossom as the rose ; the dry land shall laugh with gladness ; the valley shall be filled with joy ; the husbandman shall reap the increase and enjoy the fruits of his labour under his own vine and fig tree. All this has come to pass at Renmark, the irrigation colony of South Australia, situated on the banks of the River Mur- ray. As you visit one block and then another transformed in the space of a few years from a barren waste into gardens of loveliness you feel that Rabelais in his valley had not more reason to be happy than the men whose lot has been cast in such pleasant places. The lands assessed to the Irrigation Trust which controls the colony comprise about 3,600 acres, and consist of apricots, 842 acres; peaches, 122; citrus, 318; vines, 1,380; lucerne, 616; olives, 35; sundry fruit, 11, and cereal, 479 acres. The blocks are situated to the west of the township spread out in the shape of a fan. To see the fruit- ful orchards great orange groves and long avenues of fruit trees and vines you must get among the ribs of this fan and skirt round the edges of it. At the handle of the fan is No. 1 pump, a fine piece of machinery capable of spouting forth 1,620,000 gallons per hour. The main chan- nel which can be fed from the stream by gravitation during periods of high river level starts out in a northerly direction gradually curving inwards west and south, forming reservoirs for pumping stations en route and ultimately enclosing the whole settlement. There are several main chan- nels and a number of secondary conduits. Every block is connected. An open fur- row within each garden allows the water to gravitate along each row of trees and provide the required moisture at the will of the owner. The country in its natural state consisted of low mallee scrub, with a few blades of grass, fighting for a miserable existence, and sand shifting from place to place at the caprice of every breeze. Cul- tivation and irrigation have worked a mar- vellous change, and the transformation is wonderful to behold. It forcefully illus- trates what can be done in Australia by a combination of water, soil, and sunshine. These elements are always available. At the irrigation colony they are regulated, and the result is that nature yields her fruit in abundance. An area of 3,600 acres is maintaining 1,000 persons, and last year produced a crop worth 35,000. The same land, without irrigation, would not have been able to carry 500 sheep ! The rich, sandy loam to be found in many parts of the settlement is said to be equal to the best Califomian lands where irrigation has been profitably carried on for many years. It is easily cultivated, and retains the moisture for a considerable time. In other parts of the settlement the soil is of a heavier quality, and re- quires more working, but is splendidly adapted for muscatels, which bear very heavy crops. The water used in irrigat- ing is well supplied with organic and in- organic matter, which makes it an excel- lent fertiliser. An ounce of fact is better than many pounds' weight of theory, and statistics of production are, after all, the best test to apply. The figures showing exports of produce from Renmark for the past seven seasons in sterling value are as follows : 1895 6,878 1896 7,398 1897 16,869 1898 11,968 1899 18,167 1900 22,086 1901 28,167 1902 35,000 These figures were from actual returns obtained from apricots, peaches, nec- tarines, currants, sultanas and raisins, OUR IRRIGATION COLONY. 123 124 THE CENTRAL STATE. C. Reiners jt/ioto. Colonel Morant's Apricot Orchard, Renmark. oranges, and lemons. Could facts be more eloquent? They show steady sub- stantial progress, and the outlook gives promise of a further good increase for next season. There is a general disposi- tion to plant further areas, especially with oranges and sultana and muscatel vines. With climate and soil suitable, and an ample supply of good water, cultivation and care are alone required to guarantee a maximum production. As one appre- ciates all that Nature does for the place, and watches the water intended for irri- gation purposes coursing down the chan- nels like small rivers, it is easy to under- stand the remarkable results obtained at Renmark, why the oranges, for instance, are unusually large and of such delicious flavor, and how the dried fruits and olive oil from the irrigation colony have been so successful at tue Royal and other shows. The local government of Renmark is constituted in what is known as the Irriga- tion Trust. The members of that body are charged, by Act of Parliament, with the duty of raising and distributing water in the horticultural areas, its expenditure- being met by a uniform yearly rate of 1 per acre, payable on assessed lands whether watered or not. A gentleman with ex- tensive experience in California, in evi- dence given before a Royal Commission, stated that the water rate and labor were cheaper at Renmark than in California. He added: "Vineyards of three years age in Australia, well watered, are better than three years old in California, and when you get on to six years old it will be just about the same, but there is an advantage in Renmark over California and Florida." The Irrigation Trust has Dis- trict Council powers over the horticultural area ; but up to the present the township area is without organised control. There is, however, a movement proceeding to ob- tain a Town District Council. The Trust Act of 1893 provided for a loan of .3,000, and that of 1900 for a loan of 16,000. This advance of 19,000 was in order to- make good the deficiencies of construction. in plant and works as left by Chaffey Bros., Ltd. This money has been admir- OUR IRRIGATION COLONY. ably expended by the Trust under the super- vision of the Government, and a special rate is about to be struck for the repayment of the first instalment of the loan. The pump- ing plant is in most efficient order, due provision having been made for duplicat- ing or breakdown, and the channelling, where needed, has been well cemented. This cementing has stopped the seepage which was doing a good deal of harm on the lighter land of the 60 ft. level. Experience has proved that the raisin grower got his returns first, and has done well all along. It is not too much to say that the Gordo Blanco raisin has seen Renmark through her troubles. Apricots have grown into a standard market de- mand and value. Peaches and nectarines are in small demand, relatively, as a dried fruit, and the area so occupied is at present limited. Otherwise the same remarks apply to them. The sultanai has of re- cent years come greatly into favor. The capital cost of planting this variety ex- ceeds that of the ordinary raisin vine on account of trellising, which takes the cost up to about 10 per acre. They are more costly to work owing to the trellis, and the need of increased hand labor to keep weeds down. This also applies to cur- rant vines. Their planting has hitherto been limited ; but since the process of cincturing has become established, produc- ing quite wonderful crops, many more acres have been planted. Oranges like Washington Navels, Malta Bloods, and Compudas, and, indeed, ordinary kinds as well, are good property, and the market results have always been good. Growers are not troubled with scale or other tree disease, and, although in the past the cultivation of the lemon has not, owing to market conditions, been com- pletely satisfactory, the future is more hopeful. A fair trade has been done with West Australia and South Africa. The superior claim of Renmark is its climate, added to the fertility of the soil. Abun- dant crops of good fruit are produced, and they can almost invariably be dried with very little hindrance from weather. In proof of this it is important to note that no evaporator of any kind has ever been seen on the settlement. All the fruit is sun-dried. : C Seiners photo. Picking Zante Currants at Renmark. 126 THE CENTRAL STATE. C . Reiners photo. Sulphuring Plant and Drying Pans, Renmark. A Second Fruit Colony. The Coonawarra fruit colony at Penola, in the South-Eastern portion of the State, was founded about ten years ago by the late Mr. John Riddoch, who set aside a portion of the Yallum estate for the ex- periment. Two thousand acres were sur- veyed and cut into small blocks of 10 to 15 acres. Settlers were charged 10 an acre for the land, and were given 10 years in which to pay it, 5 per cent, interest being charged on the balance due. Many of those who took up land have bought straight out through the medium of the State Bank, enjoying the benefits offered by that institution in the shape of lower interest, and the system of paying off the principle and interest together over an ex- tended period. Anybody visiting Coona- warra at the present time cannot fully ap- preciate the uphill struggle which most of the colonists have had to make during the last 10 years. Some of the settlers went into the enterprise with insufficient capital, and the period of waiting for the fruit trees to come into bearing proved too much for them, and the inevitable hap- pened. Those who have been able to re- main and work their land are now begin- ning to reap some reward for their labor and fortitude, and the impression created by a tour of the vineyards and orchards at this time of the year suggests that suc- cess is within measurable distance for the industrious husbandmen. There are about 18 families settled at Coonawarra at the present time, and several instances were supplied of where two brothers have taken up blocks, and the one is out working, earning a little money to keep the pot boiling, while the other brother is bring- ing the orchard into full bearing. One of the largest gardens is that of Mr. Dar- went, consisting of 22 acres under vines, 26 acres under apples, and 15 acres under soft fruits. Mr. Darwent ships his apples to England, Java, and the Continent. OUR IRRIGATION COLONY. I2 7 Among the varieties of apples grown at Coonawarra are Cleopatra, Cox's Orange Pippin, Five Crown (London Pip), Rome Beauty, Nickajack, Scarlet Nonpareil, Jonathan, Newtown Pip, Stone Pip, and Roakewood. The variety of peaches in- cludes Brigg's Red May, Early Silver, Royal George, Merchant Campbell, Dr. Hogg, and Lady Palmerston. The varie- ties of apricots are Oullin's Early, Moor- park, and Hemskirk. The plums include Green Gage, French Prune, Felamburg, Prime Pons Seedlings, and Coe's Golden Drop. The Coonawarra fruit colony is looking well, the trees a,nd vines having a healthy appearance, and promising good crops. The soil at Coonawarra might be described as being of a chocolate loam in some places and a lighter sandy loam in others, with a limestone formation running throughout the colony. The country in the vicinity of Coonawarra is what some bushmen describe as "pockety," and these little depressions in the land generally re- present the richest patches. There is an average rainfall of 27 inches during the year, and water is obtainable anywhere at a depth of irom 12 to 15 feet. Irrigation is not required, owing to the splendid rainfall and the good supply of water so near to the surface ; and this, of course, is a great advantage, and represents a sub- stantial saving. Ever since the fruit colony was founded Mr. Riddoch has given every possible encouragement to the settlers, and to serve as an object-lesson he planted about 250 acres with vines and fruit trees on his own estate. Of this area about i39 acres are under vines. Ail the grapes growing in the settlement are carted to the wine cellar, and the settlers are now receiving very good prices for these, and there is a tendency to increase the acreage of several of the vineyards. The wine cellars at Coonawarra are an adjunct of the fruit colony, and they re- present a profitable outlet for a portion of the produce raised by the settlers. Mr. McBain, who was for some time assistant viticulturist at the Roseworthy College, is manager of the cellars, and his experience has enabled him to bring the accommoda- tion quite up to date and supply it with all necessary appliances. In 1901 53,000 gallons of wine, practically all claret, were G. Seiners photo. Willow Channel, Renmark. THE CENTRAL STATE. 6'. Seiners photo. A River Steamer, River Murray, discharging cargo. made, and this was more than double the vintage of any previous season. The make in 1902 was aoout 80,000 gallons, and in order to provide for this the cellars have been enlarged and the storage capacity in- creased to about 180,000 gallons. The vines throughout the Coonawarra colony are bearing exceedingly well, and the grape crop promises to be the largest yet gathered in the district. The yield was as large as 2 tons of Cabernet Sauvignon and 3 tons ox Shiraz to the acre last season, which speaks well for the climate and other natural conditions of the district. The claret made at Coonawarra has already secured a good reputation, and the con- signment sent to London realised top prices, 3/9 per gallon having been obtained for it. This claret is of good quality, and possesses an agreeable flavor and fine bou- quet. Last year the growers received at the rate of 7/10 per ton for Cabernet Sauvignon, and 4/10 for Shiraz grapes, prices which paid them very well. The Coonawarra vinegrowers have had the ad- vantage of the experience of the older vine-growing districts, and have only planted the most approved kinds for red wine, viz., i/he Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz. Some years ago Messrs. Thomas Hardy and J. H. Foureur, a native of Epernay, paid a visit to the district, and were both of the opinion that the nature of the soil and subsoil and the climate were all in favor of the production ol champagne, and recommended Mr. Rid- doch to plant the Pinot Noir, one of the best champagne grapes. Mr. Riddoch acted on tne advice, and put in 30 acres of that grape ; but the growth was disap- pointing, and they were nearly all up- rooted, and now only a few vines of that variety are to be seen. The orchards and the vineyards are now coming into full bearing, and there ap- pears to be every reason to believe that the Coonawarra colony will prosper, and that those settlers who have "come through the fire" will be all the better for the experience. The results now being obtained at Coonawarra indicate the possi- bilities of a practically new industry for the South-East, and from a vigneron's point of view the country has advantages which are not to be found in less favored parts of the State. The natural resources of the great district of which Penola is the centre are considerable. Some of them have still to be discovered ; others have yet to be fully utilised. The Dairying Industry. While it cannot be denied that the conditions which obtain in South Australia are not wholly favorable to the develop- ment of every branch of dairying, the State is favorably placed in many ways su far as the manufacture of butter and cheese are concerned. A reputation for a choicely-flavored article was long ago won by the producers, and during later years it has been further improved, untu now the monetary value of the industry has assumed important and prosperous dimensions. This happy position must be attributed to the remarkable capabilities of our soils, the strong nutritive herbages and grasses which form a rich natural food for milking stock and the beneficial char- acter of the climate, combined with intelli- gent and painstaking zeal on the part of the modern dairyman. Dairying in South Australia dates back to 1885, when ths factory system was inaugurated. It was expected that the introduction of modern methods would arouse opposition, but the practical sagacity of the dairy farmer and a commendable readiness to adopt scienti- fic principles led to the movement being established on a firm basis. With a vigor and determination worthy of their fathers, the first settlers on the soil, the pioneer dairymen applied themselves to the new work. Rapid development followed. In 1892 that is, within seven years 25 fac- tories were in operation. At present there are 68 up-to-date butter and cheese factories and creameries. A significant feature which promises well for this industry is a splendid record of progress achieved in the northern areas where severe and often erratic climatic conditions prevail. The cow, in fact, has proved the salvation of many farmers in drought-affected localities, and the returns from the dairy have more than compen- sated for general expenditure and losses made in other directions. "Give us enough feed for a few cows and fowls and we can live comfortably. The rest is profit." So said a farmer on a recent occasion. An eminently satisfactory fact is the superior butter-fat quality of the milk supplies, while the attractive aroma in the cream and butter is substantial proof of the im- proved methods adopted by the factories. The milking herds are yearly receiving more attention, and the standard ot quality is being raised. The general suitability of our climate for dairy larming affords scope for a still wider expansion of producing operations. In the south and south-eastern portions oi the State where the rainfall exceeds 30 inches, ana where the soil is above the average, intense culture is being practised and with its extension the milking stock will be comfortably reared at a correspond- ingly smaller cost. In the volcanic coun- try near Mount Gambier the ideal home of the dairyman is to be found, and it is questionable whether more favorable na- tural conditions are to be found in Aus- tralia, It is in this part of the State where the Hon. George Riddoch, M.L.C., one of our most enterprising stock owners, has introduced uie system so successfully practised in the western districts of Vic- toria^ dairying on halves. Mr. Riddoch has set aside a portion of his valuable Koorine Estate, dividing it into handy size farms. He supplies the cows, plant, houses, &c., the dairymen finding the ne- cessary labor. The plan is proving mutually satisfactory and profitable. An important feature of the industry is the wealth of natural herbage which grows with luxuriant vigor in many parts of the State. The rich nutriment contained in the native grasses during the warm months of summer is calculated to astonish the visitor by its rapid fattening properties for milking and other stock. Cows grazing on the plains and undulating lands yield milt of magnificent flavor, producing but- ter of remarkably dry texture, and un- excelled in any part of the world. Mait- land Charlotte, a champioif Jersey cow be- longing to Mr. Alick. Murray, produced over 17 Ib. of butter per week 8| months 130 THE CENTRAL STATE. A Dairy Farm at Koorine, Kalangadoo, the property of the Hon. Geo. Riddoch* after calving, when her supply of food con- sisted solely in what the animal found in the paddocks. Leading dairy farmers do not allow their stock to entirely depend upon natural grass, but supplement with sweetly-flavored nutritious wheaten hay. Bran and meals are liberally fed, and con- siderable quantities of copra or cocoanut cake are also consumed. In the production of fodders great atten- tion has been devoted to the cultivation of lucerne. At present about 13,000 acres are under cultivation, or an increase of 6,000 acres on the figures for 1890. Sown grasses have also commanded the enter- prise of the agriculturist, and 25,000 are under crop. The turning of green crops into ensilage has also received attention. Official statistics of the last two years show a.n increased storage of 1,937 tons. The quantity has exceeded 150,000 cubic feet, and a rapid extension of this branch is bound to take place. Many other crops are cultivated in extent according to the suitability of climate and rainfall. Among these are peas, rape, kale, cabbages, clover, maize, sorghum, and mangolds. In one of the five volcanic districts over 60 tons to the acre of mangolds have been produced without the aid of manure. South Australia is strong in stud cattle, and several breeders have done great ser- vice for the dairying and agricultural in- dustries of the State by producing and im- porting nigh-class animals. Throughout the milk-producing districts the profits of the Shorthorns for milk and beef produc- tion testify to their value for all-round dairying purposes. These splendid cattle lose none of their characteristic features here, and probably a more congenial cli- mate for them could not be found any- where in the world. Jersey stock are also well represented, and the exhibition ot those famous "butter churnsi" at our agri- cultural shows supplies conclusive evidence that neither expense nor attention are wanting in connection with the importa- tion and maintenance of the breed. The Jersey is a popular animal in South Aus- tralia, and few herds are without a sprinkling of the blood. The value of this cow in the advancement of butter produc- tion cannot be accurately assessed, and it has been adequately demonstrated that the breed reaches great perfection in our cli- mate. Dairymen are rendering admirable service by proving the value and impor- tance of the Shorthorn-Jersey cross for dairying purposes. Ayrshire cows are not particularly favored, but representatives of this, as well as the Holstein breed, are to be found in the State. In order to advance the industry the Government has from time to time im- ported specimens of Jersey and Ayrshire THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY. stock, the majority having been selected for the Government by Mr. Alick. Murray. These animals were placed tinder the care of the Agricultural Bureau. This attempt to improve the dairy herds of the State, though not a pronounced success, was not without some good influence. The latest statistics show that there are in South Australia 75,011 milch cows dis- tributed as follows : Central Division, 41,174 ; Lower North, 16,187; Upper North, 15,322; South-Eastern, 10,211; Western, 1,620; outside districts, 463. The quality of the milk supplies in South Australia is declared by experts to be high. Latest factory records for a year show the high percentages of butter fat in two samples : 1. 3-7 3'7 4-1 4-3 4-1 4'1 4-0 4'0 4'0 4'0 3"8 3'7 2. 4-0 4-1 4"2 4-2 4'1 4'1 4"0 3'8 3'8 4'0 4'2 4'4 These figures represent experiments con- ducted at two of the largest factories in the State, and a third factory, with 62 sup- pliers, gives an average for the year of 4.4 per cent, oi butter fat. A number of dairymen were credited with an average exceeding b per cent, at different months in the year. It is not uncommon for a fac- tory to produce a month's yield of butter with an average of less than 20 Ib. of milk for a pound of butter, while it is on record where a dairy farm fell to 17.4 Ib. of milk for a week's supply from a herd of six cows. Instances are to be found of cows yield- ing milk with over eight per cent, of fat, and five per cent, is of common occurrence. The butter made in South Australia is of excellent flavor, a fact largely due to the educational work carried out by the able Government dairy expert, Mr. G. S. Thomson, F.R.S.E., who dis- tributes reports embodying the merits and demerits of the tests conducted at the Produce Depot prior to shipment. Under his guidance valuable experiments have been made, and to-day our dairy farmers are able to market a product em- bracing many attractive features. At our agricultural shows the display of dairy pro- duce commands admiration and the un- biased judging of the Victorian expert at the expositions under the auspices of the Royal Society has strengthened the high position held by our butter makers. The rapid means of transit provided by modern ocean steamers, with their spacious refrigerating chambers, have en- abled our producers to place their article on foreign markets in first-class condition. Unfortunately continuous shipments were interfered with, but the product has won considerable favor with over-sea con- sumers. The following figures, showing exports, illustrate the progress of the dairy industry and its monetary value to the State : Year. Butter. Bacon and Hams. Cwts. Cwts. 1890 ... 3,798 16,100 789 2,891 1891 ... 4,269 21,408 413 1,311 1892 ... I,y01 9,851 172 632 1893 ... 5,757 20,693 105 425 1894 ... 13,774 54,080 296 898 1895 ... 15,477 70,459 1,073 2,869 1896 ... 5,404 26,194 1,597 5,051 1897 ... 1,484 6,879 813 2,942 1898... 6,869 28,007 411 1,745 1899 ... 12,520 61,470 1,950 6,495 1900 ... 10,210 51,173 2,968 9,069 1901 ... 3,118 17,620 2,648 9,329 1902 ... 3,692 23,230 7,789 32,628 In cheddar cheese production the State holds a creditable position, and a wide and profitable expansion must eventually take place. Owing to the demand being in ex- cess of the quantity manufactured, an ex port business with England has not yet begun. The richness of the product and its general characteristics have gained the public confidence, and this, no doubt, is mainly responsible for consumption being confined to our own State. A series of comprehensive experiments conducted by the Dairy Expert two years ago gave ample proof of the successful carriage of cheese from South Aus- tralia to the British market, A consign- ment was despatched to Glasgow, and was tested there when eight months old. The practical and scientific reports received from the highest authorities who made the examination in Scotland were highly com- plimentary to the State, and it will not be out of place to give the fat analysis of four samples. When it is considered that an average British cheese contains about 32 per cent, of fat, the superiority of our 132 THE CENTRAL STATE. A Dairy Farm in tJie South-East, the property of the Hon. Geo. Riddoch. M.L.C. experimental 'shipment is all the more ap- parent, 'i'lie percentages were as fol- lows : 43.95, 39.81, 39.50, 40.74. The following shows the quantity of butter and cheese manufactured since 1896 and the number of milch cows in the State : Year. Milch Cows. Butter. Ibs. 4,616,675 3,900,118 4,559,683 5,581,231 5,525,606 4,954,523 4,521,246 more butter Cheese. Ibs. 907,123 849,845 923,123 946,930 1,030,680 1,053,160 705,969 was made 1896 ... 84,2o5 1897 ... 73,524 1898 ... 76,709 1899 ... 83,527 1900 ... /5,942 1901 ... 74,995 1902 ... V 5,011 Fifty per cent. in 1896 than in 1892. The actual quan- tity specified was 4,616,675 lb., as com- pared with 3,110,093 lb. The cheese made was 907,123 lb., against 661,314 lb., or 37 per cent, additional. In 1898 the quan- tity of butter made was 4,559,683 lb., and of cheese 923,123 lb., showing increases of 659,565 lb. and 73,278 lb. respectively. In 1899 the quantity of butter returned was 5,581,231 lb., the highest recorded, and an increase of 1,021,548 lb., or 22 per cent, on the previous year. Of cheese the output increased to 946,930 lb., or 3 per cent, ad- ditional. In 1900 the quantity of butter made was 5,525,606 lb., in 1901 4,954,523 lb., and in 1902 4,521,246, the seasons being less favorable. The average output for the last five seasons has been 5,028,457. The output of cheese in- creased from 1,030,680 lb. in 1900 to 1,053,160 lb. in 1901. In 1902 the quantity was only 705,969 lb. The average for the last quinquennial period was 960,748 lb. Owing to the drought only 605,301 lb. of butter, value 26,194, were exported in 1896, and in 1897 but 166,213 lb., value 6,879, from the same cause. In 1898, however, 769,393 lb., value 28,007, were shipped. In 1899 the quantity of butter exported was 1,402,261 lb., an increase of 80 per cent., and of the value of 61,473, showing 120 per cent, more. In 1900 shipments were 1,143,473 lb., representing 51,173 in value, in 1901 only 349,178 lb. of 17,670 value, and 1902 413,504 lb. of 23,230 value. The total export of South Australian butter during the last 11 years has amounted to 8,983,305, of 369,709 value. There is no branch of agriculture more dependent upon the assistance of science to promote its success than dairying. The work of the dairy factory and the great advance of technical education during re- cent years have revolutionised the manu- facture of butter and cheese. A know- ledge of bacteriology is of the highest THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY. Portion of Churning Room, A. W. 8 and ford & Co.'s Creamery. Gambler Produce Company's Freezing Works, Mount Gambier A. W. Sandford and * Company, proprietors. THE CENTRAL STATE. value to the youth who enters upon a course of training in order to fit himself for the responsibilities of dairy manage- ment. Indications of earnest endeavors on the part of the State to thoroughly equip him are everywhere apparent. At the Agricultural School, the preparatory institution, the student is first taught the rudiments of dairy science and practice, and at the conclusion of his elementary training he passes into the Agricultural College for the higher courses. Here he is brought into contact with the practical part of his duties, having to assist in the operations of the farm and dairy, and on the more scientific side give his attention to the work of the chemical laboratory. When he has completed his studies the young man has a knowledge which enables him to undertake the difficult work con- nected with factory management. At this stage in his career he is not left unaided, for the Dairy Expert attached to the De- partment of Agriculture visits the leading centres and conducts demonstrations on any branch of work desired by the manager. Matters demanding careful in- vestigation, such as taint in milk, butter, and cheese which involve the farmer and factory in heavy loss, receive attention, and at the conclusion of his enquiries the expert issues printed information dealing with the cause of the trouble, its action in the produce, and methods to obviate it. A fully equipped laboratory is attached, to the department where scientific work in all its branches is carried out, from the testing of factory thermometers to the bacteriological and chemical examination of samples of dairy produce. The practice of dairying is not omitted in the teaching curriculum of the Agricul- tural Department, for meetings are ar- ranged in any district throughout the State, and lectures are delivered to the dairymen on subjects in keeping with the requirements of their particular part of the country. Visits are also paid to the State Schools, wh-sre the expert delivers short, practical addresses to the children, who take a keen interest in what ia said to them. An improved system of judg- ing, too, in connection with the agricul- tural shows has been adopted. The good and bad features of each exhibit are de- tailed in a list of points showing where the defects lie, and how readily they may be noticed in comparative observation. A reference to dairying would be incom- plete that failed to acknowledge the splenr did pioneer services rendered to the indus- try by Messrs. A. W. Sandford & Co. In the seventies this firm started the first bacon-curing works on factory lines at Mount Gambier and Port Adelaide, and al- though supplies were scarce in those days, and importations had to be resorted to from Victoria, the business has made such strides that now quite a number of factories are in full swing, not only at Mount Gambier, but in the hills close to Adelaide, resulting in the State being self-supplying, and also doing a very fair export business with our neighbors in Broken Hill and Western Australia. In dairy machinery this firm, quickly recognising that there was an open- ing for a new branch of industry, started manufacturing dairying appliances. A number of hands are employed by them building and fitting churns, and the many other appliances that are so essential to a dairy and butter factory. The most im- portant development in the line has been the starting of the creamery system, which is evidently much appreciated by the farmers, judging by the large quantity of cream forwarded daily ; and is an especial advantage in a country like this, where the holdings are invariably so widely scat- tered. Throughout the areas dairy farmers have adopted the separator, which enables them, after separation, to secure the wholesome sweet skimmed milk for fat- tening purposes, whilst the cream is for- warded on to the central creamery in the city, where there are extensive freezing rooms for its cooling and churning into buter. The Wine Industry. "Our wines as a class are undoubtedly superior to the bulk of the European wines, and are, therefore, well able to hold their own on the markets of the world." This is the opinion of Professor Perkins, the Government Viticulturist, and it has been confirmed by leading authorities in Europe, as well as experts in Australia. Viscount Des Garets, a champagne maker of Epernay, France, visited a num- ber of South Australian cellars in July, 1903, and when in Western Australia on his way back to France, he publicly made the following statements: "Some of the best wines I have tasted in Australia were those of South Australian production. I am taking several cases of claret, white wines, and brandy to France with me. Before many years the French market will be killed out, and I am quite sure that the export of Australian wine will improve day by day and year by year. Many of the ideas employed by Australian wine- makers came from their own heads. These young countries can teach the older places many things, and I have learnt some ideas which I will put into practice in France. My countrymen do not travel enough ; there is always something to be learned in the changed conditions of younger coun- tries. I intend to tell them that when I get home, and persuade them to come and see what Australasia has to show. Land, land, land everywhere, and out here I see the best means, not to become wealthy, but to live very comfortably and make money. It is a great mistake for the old countries not to send more people out to these places. Land is to be had cheaply, and I think the French farmer comes out on top of the list. I will speak about these things when I get home." The high quality of the South Austrar Han product is commanding increased appreciation in foreign markets. There has been a vast amount of prejudice to overcome, and an uphill fight to secure a footing in conservative trade circles, but these difficulties are gradually passing away. The viticultural expert of the State has affirmed that with due care there will be no difficulty in placing wine- making in the front rank of the revenue- yielding industries of this State. There is no room for doubt concerning the suita- bility of South Australian soil and climate to the growth of the vine. There never was from the time that the first vine cut- tings were imported. "With the wonderful climate of Aus- tralia," wrote Dr. Taylor many years ago, "with its volcanic and other weathered soils full of potash, iron, and other vine food, it would be surprising indeed if Aus- tralia were not supplying the world with 'wine that maketh glad the heart of man' long after the worn-out vineyards of the Old World have succumbed to horticultural starvation and entomological ravages." "Experience has shown," says the State Viticultural expert, "that South Australia is pre-eminently suited to the growth of the vine; and that the manufacture of a good sound wine, capable of holding its own in the world's mar- kets, can readily be obtained from a large portion of our agricultural areas." The vine nourished in South Australia from the first, and wine made with the most primitive appliances was pronounced by connoisseurs to be of excellent quality. Governor MacDonnell, writing to a friend in 1859, said : "I have lately been going through the dozen duplicate samples of wine you sent me from Tanunda, and at least eight of them are excellent. I have been quite surprised at their quality ; but I have no doubt this country will be a good wine-producing country. People are set- ting to work energetically planting vines in all directions, and in four years I have no doubt we shall obtain a tolerable foot- ing in the English market." "With time and care Australia ought to be the vine- yard of the world," said Sir Charles Dilke in his "Greater Britain," written after his visit to these lands in 1867. He con- tinued : "The Colonial wines are excellent,. 136 THE CENTRAL STATE. better indeed than the growths of Cali- fornia, which, however, they resemble in general character. The Albury Her- mitage is a better wine than can be bought in Europe." South Australian wines have improved out of all knowledge since Sir Charles Dilke expressed his views. Mr. P. B. Burgoyne (the London-Aus- tralian wine merchant), after a visit to this State, declared: "The wines of South Australia as a whole are a great improve- ment on those which I tasted in 1893. I find the types exhibit a distinct indivi- duality, and I have tasted wines with an elegance and finish not surpassed by other wine-growing countries. Of this you might indeed be proud." The London "Times," in 1887, stated that Mr. Richard Bannister, in reporting on the subject in connection with the late Colonial Exhibi- tion under the auspices of the Society of Arts, emphasises the fact that soil and climate in many parts of Australia are eminently suited to certain kinds of grapes. "It depends on the choice of the grapes, on the care with which they are grown and tended, and on their subsequent manipula- tion and the storing of the wines, whether colonial wines will find permanent and in- creasing favor among wine drinkers. Recent improvements in South Australia have had such marked beneficial results that there is every hope of a successful future for these wines." During the in- terval of 16 years since those words were penned, South Australian growers have made great strides, and wines of splendid quality are produced in increasing quanti- ties. This fact has received striking confirma- tion from Mr. A. Browne, an expert from the neighboring State of Victoria. Mr. Browne acted as sole judge at the annual Wine Show held in August, 1903, and at the conclusion of his labors he said that "In his experience as a judge he had never met wines so universally good and of such high standard. It showed that the growers, or those interested in the trade, thoroughly understood and appreciated their business when they put forward wines of such quality as they had done. It had generally been his experience in years past to be able to pick out four or five wines from the 10 or 20 samples in a class. because they stood above the others; but in the present instance the exhibits all ran very close. They would see this when he furnished them with a copy of the points. It had been a very difficult and anxious matter to pick out the best wines. Their full red wines were good, honest wines, and approached the Burgundy. They were good export wines. They had got over the difficulty of producing wines. It was now a question of finding a market for them. He had never come across wines equal to the sweet wines he had judged. They could produce Tokay, Madeira, and Verdeilho, which would com- mend themselves anywhere. He had had an interesting conversation with Mr. Fueerhard, the Portuguese seller, who assured him they could produce as good a port wine as any in Oporto. He did not know they wanted anything better than the port wine he had judged." The "Lancet," the well-known medical journal, expressing an opinion on South Australian wines submitted in London, wrote: "Australia at a moderate cost is sending us really good wines of the excellent type of those before us. Each year sees a marked improvement in the tone and quality of the vintage." Concerning the profitable nature of the industry in this State, the case has been officially represented thus: "If we admit that a well-cultivated vineyard will yield an average of two tons of grapes per acre, or about 250 gallons of wine, returning from 1/6 to 2/ a gallon at the cellar door,, we have a gross return of from 19 to 25- per acre ; and if from these figures we de- duct the comparatively large sum of 10' per acre for cultivation, manures, cost of manufacture, interest on land and build- ings, &c., we are left with a net profit vary- ing from <9 to 15 per acre." "Can any other cultivated plant, grown on a fairly large scale," asks the Professor of Viti- culture, "show figures to compare with these?" ''Did our vineyard area," he has remarked, "extend over 100,000 acres, the land under vines would yield annually from two to two and a-half millions sterling, nearly one-half of which would be distributed amongst the community, the rest representing the profits of the growers." Natural characteristics of soil and situa- tion of our vineyards must needs always- fiii +W-&AZT**JL'A- ** f^r.^nm^SiSt ?M. v*5W **' f. ^::t~'X^jjp?4S ^^I'V^vf -%->' w**A.? "Lm? ^'^^i^- ; i?l ^r^ V - ; ' r i-/>^' ^*^&*1 r ^*""^ i 1 ** a ^--'^v ,*;^^^ J 4J> --- V.iJ^^.'-'J--** 138 THE CENTRAL STATE. be a vital point of consideration if growers contemplate the production of high-classed wines. In South Australia, as in other countries, this potent fact is already mak- ing itself felt, and wines of the rarest types are met with in many cellars. The Minister of Agriculture, in a recent public utterance, said : "The possibilities of ex- pansion in connection with the wine indus- try were very great. At present they had 21,000 acres, and the average production could be put down at 200 gallons per acre. At 1/3 per gallon that meant ,12/10 an acre, or a gross return of <250,000. The cost of cultivation, the interest on plant, and the value of the land could be put down at 6/10 an acre, so that meant a profit of 6/10 on every acre cultivated. If they got 100,000 acres planted during the next 50 years their present output would increase fivefold. If they had 500,000 acres under cultivation it would give them 6,000,000 a year." Tiie growth of the wine industry has been remarkable considering the difficul- ties associated with the business. Some vignerons had a lot to forget in the cultiva- tion of the vine in a new land. All of them had much to learn. The process of education was slow and costly, but most of the problems which troubled the early makers are problems no longer. Present day cellarmen have a clear course, and when a few difficulties connected with the marketing of the produce in foreign markets shall have been overcome, as they soon will be, the expansion of the industry will be assured. Early history connected with the introduction of the vine to South Australia was so well reviewed by jbhe late Mr. Crompton at a banquet held at Mc- Laren Vale a few years ago that I cannot do better than summarise the interesting state- ment made by him. It appears that Sir William McArthur, of New South "Wales, to whom Australia was especially indebted for the introduction of thj Merino sheep, also imported vines suitable for wine- making. That was the beginning of the well-known Camden vineyards. There was also a very valuable collection of vines made by Mr. Bushby which was subse- quently entrusted to the Sydney Botanic Garden. There were Mataro, Grenache, and Carignan, and probably nearly all the vines of the South of France, and this col- lection was large in the number of varie- ties. Mr. Bushby spared no pains to make it complete. About Perpignan his tracks were to be found years afterwards. It was probably from Mr. Bushby's collec- tion that South Australians obtained the varieties named, as well as the Shiraz. It was known in South Australia that those vines were to be had from Sydney, and cuttings were sent here before 1850, pro- bably to various applicants, notably to Mr. Davenport at Macclesfield (now Sir Samuel Davenport). In addition to those importations to New South Wales, there were two collections of Spanish vines. From one of these originated the Claren- don Vineyard belonging to Mr. Leigh, after whom Leigh-street in Adelaide was named. The collection went to form a vineyard at Marino. In 1866 Mr. Cromp- ton was introduced to the gentleman at St. Mary's, near Cadiz, who selected these cut- tings for Mr. John Brown, a name well known to all old colonists, from whom they passed to Sir George Kingston. The in- troduction of the Zante currant vine is credited to Mr. Bailey, well known as giv- ing his name to Bailey's Garden at Hackney. Various other vines were brought to the State at different times, as, for instance, the white Sauvignon, by Dr. Kelly, the Sultana vine, for raisin making, which was first grown at the Botanic Garden. To the late Mr. John Reynell, however, is due the credit of having im- ported cuttings of wine grapes from Sir W. McArthur, and of planting the first vine- yard and making the first wine. Reynella d:d not exist as a township for some years afterwards, but there was a vintage there in 1846 probably the first in South Aus- tralia. Cuttings from Mr. Reynell were used in planting Dr. Kelly's vineyard at Trinity, Morphett Vale, and of Mr. Perry ; also of some vineyards in the Tanunda dis- trict. The varieties planted in the first vineyard at Reynella were the Gouais and Verdeilho, white grapes, two kinds of Pineau, Malbec, and Carbenet grapes, red grapes. That was no mean collection as regarded quality, even judged with the ex- perience of half a century. "It might in- terest my younger hearers," concluded Mr. Crompton, "to know when passing through the now large acreage of vines at Reynella, to recollect that it was the first vineyard THE WINE INDUSTRY. 139 for winemaking in South Australia, and the parent of an industry from which much was now being realised, and from which much more might be confidently ex- pected." South Australian wines have gained a large number of prizes at foreign exhibi- tions and Interstate wine shows. In 1891, in Tasmania, the awards to South Austra- lian makers were greater in number and value than the combined prizes which went to other States. The Colonial Surgeon, in one of his recent reports, stated : "Colonial wine still continues to be used (in the hospitals), and the experience veri- fies the remark made in previous reports that, while it costs less, it is superior to the imported article." South Australian wines and brandies are now in general use in the hospitals of Australia, and in many similar institutions in England. The following table shows the quantity of wine made since 1861 in the years given : Year. Gallons. 1861 182,087 1865 798,647 1870 895,795 1875 648,186 1880 500,955 1884 ..." 473,535 1890 1,052,086 1895 1,578,590 1900 1,558,285 1902 2,431,563 1903 2,573,424 The acreage under vines has steadily in- creased. In 1902 there were 12,314 acres, with 4,030,724 vines in bearing and 3,146,564 non-producing. In 1902 the area had increased to 20,860 acres, the number of productive vines to 9,504,880, and 1,396,531 vines not in bearing, aggre- gating over ten million vines. The in- crease in the area has been gradual over that period, as the following table will show : In Not in Year. Acres. Bearing. Bearing. 1892 . .. 12,314 4,030,724 3,146,564 1893 . .. 15,418 4,206,880 4,545,737 1897 . .. 18,333 6,809,737 2,493,928 1898 . .. 18,761 8,021,070 1,803,367 1899 . .. 19,159 8,814,086 1,355,014 1900 .. .. 19,438 9,032,083 1,310,948 1901 . .. 20,158 9,207,935 1,215,908 1902 . .. 20,860 9,504,880 1,396,531 The rapid increase in production during the last ten years has, notwithstanding a substantial advance in exports, compelled winemakers to extend their cellars and carry increasingly heavy stocks. Free- trade between the Australian States as the outcome of Federal Union has given an impetus to the Interstate wine trade, and South Australia has greatly benefited. During the 12 months recently ended 60,517 gallons of bottled wine, valued at 22,665, was sent away, and 786,174 gal- lons in bulk, worth ,102,251, against 40,826 gallons (18,241) in bottle and 555,027 (74,177) in bulk the year before. Victoria required more bottled wine and nearly treble the quantity of bulk, and mostly all the other Commonwealth States imported more than in 1901. The fol- lowing table shows the wine in stock, the quantities exported, and the value thereof since 1892: Year. 1892 . 1893 . Wine in Stock. Gallons .. 2,578,070 .. 2,776,664 Wine Exported. Gallons 325,038 260,251 Value. 64,780 47,300 Number of Stills. Spirits Made. Duty Paid 36 109,239 6,410 1894 . .. 2,908,320 256,216 49,475 39 76,951 5,832 1895 . .. 3,579,605 343,405 58,826 36 98,718 7,096 1896 . .. 3,713,381 391,233 73,316 38 147,093 9,779 1897 . .. 4,371,951 513,714 82,553 38 128,376 12,628 1898 . .. 3,717,008 514,065 78,381 37 149,488 11,346 1899 . .. 3,896,307 496,610 77,773 38 94,045 11,195 1900 . .. 3,521,637 476,646 78,153 40 123,302 12,930 1901 . 1902 . 1QD2 .. 4,915,636 .. 5,027,759 5 MR fi'. ./. Dailey photo. The Land Laws. In the Imperial Act establishing South Australia as a British province the price of land was originally fixed at 1 per acre. Owing to the difficulty experienced in rais- ing the prescribed sum of 35,000 from the sale of lands 20,000 of which was to be invested in Government securities in order that the mother country should bear no financial risk in the founding of the new province the minimum was subsequently reduced to 12/ per acre. Under the modi- fied scheme 437 lots of land, comprising a total of 58,995 acres, were granted under preliminary land orders, which also entitled the holder to a town acre, and these realised 35,397. There were also sold at the same price twenty town lots of eighty acres each, bringing the total territorial revenue up to 36,357. The minimum price of land in South Australia was thereupon raised to 1 per acre. Regulations made at the time provided that every applicant for land, in order to entitle himself to a grant, should pay a certain sum into a fund to be employed in bringing out laborers. Persons paying cash for 4,000 acres had the right to call for the survey of any com- pact district not exceeding in extent 16,000 acres. Under these provisions, up to December 22nd, 1837, in addition to the area already stated, 3,300 acres of country lands at 1 per acre, and 563 town acre lots for 3,594, had been alienated. In 1838 48,000, and in 1839 170,841 acres were disposed of, making a total of sales effected and amount realised up to January 1, 1840, 283,507 acres for 262,240. Land continued to be dealt with under the ori- ginal regulations until 1843, when the first local Act was passed. The land laws have undergone frequent alterations since then, and a large volume would be re- quired to review the process of evolution necessary to meet the changing require- ments. The initial mistake was in seek- ing to transplant English methods of land tenure to a new country where the condi- tions were so dissimilar. Much mischief haa also resulted from the attempt to apply the same laws to lands varying in quality and subject to different climates. The difficulties of colonization were indefinitely multiplied by these and other legislative and administrative errois. It was only after vears of bitter experience and fluc- tuating fortunes that the vast territory which forms the State of South Australia came to be better understood. The flock- master pushed his way back from the sea- board, testing the climate and the produc- tive capacity of the soil as he went. The farmer followed with nis plough, never heeding the warnings uttered by the squat- ter or such an authority as the late Mr. Goyder, for many years Surveyor-General. This officer personally surveyed and in- spected large areas, and, being a man of keen observation, he noted the suddenness with which the country changed from large trees and rich grasses to stunted scrub and bare hills or vast plains of salt bush, blue bush, cotton bush, and other herbage. He fixed what haa since been known as Goy- der's line of rainfall, a theoretical division which has proved to be singularly cor- rect. The ancient theory, however, that "rain follows the plough" waa firmly be- lieved, and the agriculturist set his face northwards with a determination which was admirable. For some time land legis- lation waa dictated by popular clamor for broad acres. The upset price of country lands was fixed at 1 an acre, and as the financial wants of the province increased every effort waa made to push on with the sale of land in order to bring in revenue. It was shortly after the first flush of excite- ment over the Victorian goidfields had sub- sided and the stream of population had be- gun to flow towards South Australia that settlement began to increase. In the year 1853, 213,221 acres were sold for 291,660, and from that time onwards the acreage under cultivation rapidly expanded. In 18"54 it stood at 129,692 acres. Five years later the cultivated area had increased to 361,884 acres, and in 1865 it was 660,569 acres. When power was granted to the local Legislature to pass land laws an at- 146 THE CENTRAL STATE. tempt was at once made to encourage occu- pation. In 1869 an Act was passed pro- viding for free selection after survey in declared areas, the selector being allowed a certain number of years in which to pay his purchase money. He was compelled in the meantime to pay interest at a moderate rate and to comply with condi- tions of residence and improvement. Re- forms followed in quick succession, so rapid indeed that the land legislation of the country was confusing even to those whose duty it was to administer the laws. Every new Parliament made an attempt to im- prove on the land laws, and whole Acts were bodily repealed, or special clauses were amended and patchwork legislation was resorted to. The chaotic condition of the land laws, after so much tinkering, made a consolidating measure imperative, and in 1878 the Crown Lands Consolida- tion Act came into operation. The area alienated from the Crown in fee simple, in- cluding completed purchases, at that time totalled 4,970,940 acres, realising 6,362,059, and the area held on credit after deducting revoked and abandoned selections and completed purchases was 2,509,606 acres, on which the sum of 3,534,576 was agreed to be paid. The population then stood at 236,000, and the area under cultivation at 1,828,000 acres, giving an average area of about 31 acres sold or selected land for each person, of which area 7| acres were under cultivation. Crown lands continued to be alienated for some years until a resolution was carried in Parliament stopping the sale of public lands and adopting exclusively a system of leasing. This method has since been partially abandoned. Up to the latest date available, the transactions in land since the foundation of South Australia have been as follows : Area sold in fee simple- Area granted University, &c. Dedicated to Renmark Settle- ment ... Dedicated to Conservator of Forests .. Agreement to Purchase Credit Selections ... Scrub Leases (instalment pay- ing) Area in Amount Acres. Received. 7,664,787 9,690,551 121,705 16,652 189,844 4,370 172 234,809 230,204 115,485 19.579 Leased Lands Right ot Purchase Leases ... Perpetual Leases .. Miscellaneous Leases Selectors' Leases .. Grazing and Cultivation Leases .. 535,344 Reserve Lands, S. E. Disl rict 5 1 643 Aboriginal Leases and Li- cences ... ... 24,094 Pastoral Lands ... ... 74 917,305 Area in Annual Acres. Rental. 5,556,3" 32,208 8,374,022 41,066 2,206,961 10,935 135,580 1,425 1,462 302 31,383 Total leased ...91,801,260 ,118,794 Area Surveyed Acres. Open to Allotment, Ordinary Lands ... 2,752,311 " " Pastoral Lands .. 16,755,200 " " Miscellaneous ... 662,989 LANDS REPURCHASED FOR CLOSER SETTLEMENT AND HOMESTEAD BLOCKS. 156,481 acres. Original purchase money, 197,389. Repurchased at ^"306,800. Area in Amount Acres. Received. 540 3,794 fOn Land 2,531 Sold for Cash ... ., Agreements to Purchase 59,603 { V"' ""'" *'^ 1 J (Imprvmts. 1,491 Total alienated, &c. 60,143 Right of Purchase Leases (Homestead).... ... 2,541 Perpetual Leases ... 91,877 Miscellaneous Leases ... 274 Total leased, &c. .. 94,692 7,816 Annual Rental. 576 8,276 49 8,901 Total alienated, &c. 8,347,652 9,940,506 Grand total of " Closer Settlement " lands in occupa- tion, 154,835 acres. During the last session (1902) of Parlia- ment a further Crown Lands Consolidation Act was placed upon the Statute Book. This measure provides for Crown lands being let on perpetual lease without re- valuation, or disposed of under agreement with covenant to purchase by sixty half- yearly payments of the purchase money, including interest at not less than two per cent, or more than four per cent, per an- num. The purchasers have the right to complete purchase of their holdings after having held the land for six years. In order to meet the growing demand for land, estates are now repurchased by the Government and disposed of under agree- ment with covenant to purchase, under similar conditions to the covenants under which Crown lands are disposed of, except that the interest charged must not be less than 4 per cent. About 154,000 acres have already been repurchased and dis- THE LAND LAWS. 147 posed of to desirable tenants, most of whom appear to be doing very well on their holdings. During last session Parliament authorised the Pinnaroo Railway Bill. This line, which will start from a point Tailem Bend on the Adelaide to Mel- bourne track, goes in an easterly direction towards the Victorian border. It is ex- pected that about half a million acres of land on either side of this railway will be available for purchase, and will almost all be taken up within the next two or three years. The purchase money will be pay- able in sixty half-yearly instalments with interest at 2 per cent, per annum, the purchaser having the right to pay off the whole of the purchase money at any time during the currency of his agreement. It is estimated that the work will have the effect of opening up about 1,500,000 mil- lion acres of good agricultural country during the course of the next few years. In no direction have greater changes been made in the land laws than in the treatment of pastoral country outside of hundreds. A pastoral lease is now practi- cally identical with a perpetual lease. The country can only be resumed when it can be shown that it is required for purposes of "intense culture" or "closer settlement." Pastoral country likely to be required for closer settlement may be leased for 21 years ; all other pastoral lands may be let for 42 years, subject to revaluation of the rent for the last 21 years. In each case the Pastoral Board fixes the rent, having regard to the carrying capacity of the land for depasturing the stock, the value of land for agricultural or other purposes, the proximity and facilities of approach to rail- way stations, ports, rivers, or markets, and any other circumstances affecting the value of the land to a lessee. In revaluing the rent for the second period of 21 years, the amount fixed shall not be more than 50 per cent, higher or lower than the rent pay- able for the first period of 21 years. The lessees are required to pay the value of the improvements as fixed by the Pastoral Board in 21 or 42 annual instalments (ac- cording to the term of the lease), principal, and interest at 4 per cent, per annum. The lands are advertised open to a given date, and all applications received up to that time are considered by the Board, which allots the leases to the most desirable appli- cants. All such allotments! must be ap- proved by the Commissioner of Crown Lands. In the event of resumption for any purpose, the lessees are entitled to be paid the value of the improvements effected by them, as well as compensation for loss occasioned by resumption. If the land is required for any public purpose, one month's notice of intention to resume is necessary. If for intense culture one year's notice of intended resumption is re- quired. The lessees are entitled to re- ceive payment for improvement/si from the incoming tenant if the lands are let to other tenants at the expiration of the term of the lease. The land laws of the State are on a liberal basis, and elasticity and sympathy characterise their administration. There is a genuine desire to encourage settle- ment, and in no other State in the Com- monwealth is the outlook brighter for the producer possessed of brains and moderate capital. Mining. South Australia's mineral potentialities are immense, but with the exception of copper the amount of wealth which has been won from beneath the surface of the earth does nqt compare favorably with that derived from other sources. The production of minerals does not fairly re- present the amount of labor which has been expended in this direction, or the possibilities which await the prospector and the miner. During 1901 the value of the total productions of the State were valued at 10,314,000, of which mining was responsible for only <614,000. Cop- per accounted for no less than 500,037. So far from these figures affording any ground for pessimism regarding the estab- lishment on a broad basis of a mining in- dustry they should stimulate further pros- pecting and encourage judicious invest- ment of capital. An official report issued in 1859 contained the following refer- ence: "The large extent of mineral country and the valuable deposits of rich copper ore, utc., lately discovered give pro- mise of future wealth to South Australia, the magnitude of which can scarcely be estimated." One of the earliest arrivals at Kangaroo Island was an experienced German geologist and mineralogist Pro- fessor Menge. In 1837 he removed to the mainland and quickly earned for himself the title of "Fatner of Mineralogy." Mr. Menge soon came to the conclusion that copper and gold abounded "the hills are full of them." To him belongs the dis- tinction of having demonstrated that pre- cious stones existed in South Australia, and during his residence he is said to have discovered the following : Amethyst, aquamarine, beryl, chalcedony, chrysolite, chrysoprase, cornelian, diamond, emerald, garnet, jasper, mocha-stone, opal, smar- galdine, tourmaline, and topaz. Speci- mens of these were sent to the Great Ex- hibition of 1851, and attracted consider- able attention. The first indication of the existence of silver-lead ore was made in 1838 on a section of land belonging to Mr. Osmond Gilles, after whom Glen Osmond, at the foot of the Adelaide hills, was named. ^o attempt was made at the time to follow up the discovery. Three years later, however, the South Australian Mining Association was formed to work the Wheal Gawler Silver and Lead mine near Glen Osmond. A few tons of the ore were sent to England in the Cygnet, and an assay made in the State resulted in 12 oz. of silver to the ton, and 75 per cent, of lead. By the end of 1850 there were 49 reputed mines at work, of which 39 were copper shows. Since those days a diligent search for minerals has been prosecuted, and almost all descriptions have been found in various parts of South Australia. In the south and mid-north gold, silver, lead, asbestos, silver, manganese, antimony, nickel, iron, zinc, cobalt, bismuth, native sulphur, and gypsum, in addition to others, have been located. From the far northern part of the State to the Northern Territory pre- cious stones have been found. Of the products which come out of the earth, South Australia has valuable salt deposits, as well as superior marble and slate. Mineral oil is said to exist in several places, but so far the assertions of experts have not been proved. Coal has been struck 370 miles north of Adelaide. It is to copper that South Australia is chiefly indebted for the development of the mineral industry. The bronze metal was first brought to ligut early in the forties, and about the same time the existence of gold became known. The manner in which the first copper mines were dis- covered would form material for the novelist. The lonely boundary rider, the shepherd intent on finding the best pas- ture for his flock, the roving prospector literally stumbled across stores of trea- sure which have yielded enormous wealth to individuals and the State. The export of ores began in 1842-3, when the records show that 100 worth was shipped away. By 1855 exports of mineral produce reached a value of 155,557, while four years later they had MINING. 149 swollen to 411,018. During the five years (1850-1854) copper, &c., constituted no less than 40 per cent, of the exports of produce, against 25 per cent, for wool, and 27 per cent, for breadstuff s. A very rapid increase took place during the next fow years, and in 1864 official statistics reveal that 691,624 represented the value of the mineral industry of the State. In that year the output was four- fold greater than in 1855, while for the ten-year period (1855-1864) exports reached 4,500,000. To date the value of ores and metals sent out of the State has exceeded twenty-five millions sterling. A ten-year comparison of exports, which is the only trustworthy basis for gauging the growth and importance of the mineral industry is as follows : 1842 nil. 1852 374,778 1862 547,619 1872 806,364 1882 462,270 1892 204,4i8 1902 498,325 The export of minerals reached high- water level in 1866, when the recorded value was 824,501. It should be borne in mind, however, that in the sixties and early seventies the production of copper was large and prices were high. It is officially estimated that the number of men at present employed in mining pur- suits in South Australia is about 6,000, as follows: Copper, 4,000; gold, 1,000; salt, 300; silver-lead, 150; coal, 50; other minerals, 550. These figures in- clude employees of smelting works. Copper. Outside of copper comparatively little has been done in mining in South Aus- tralia for years, but in this department of industry the record is one of which any country could be proud. The first discovery was made in 1842 by Messrs. F. S. Dutton and C. S. Bagot, at Kapunda, about 50 miles north-east of Adelaide. Operations were started in the following year, and from the outset they proved pro- fitable. There were many obstacles to be overcome in those early days, but the pioneers of the State were men not to bo. daunted. All the material raised had to be carted to Adelaide by road, while bul- lock drays uad to be requisitioned for the conveyance of stores to the field. The first ore was raised on January 8, 1844, and on the 23rd of the same month a small parcel was sent away. Four lodes were revealed varying from 4 feet to 6 inches in width, the proportion of metal to the ton running about 18^ per cent. In 1879 the mine was sold under liquida- tion, having yielded 70,000 tons of ore. For a number of years afterwards the property was work'jd by tributors, but of recent years operations were suspended owing to a large influx of water. The opinion is held in some quarters that the Kapunda mines should still be regarded as one of South Australia's valuable assets. This year a company was formed to treat the tailings which were left on the surface when work was suspended. A magnetic extraction plant has been erected, and work has been started. Situated about 100 miles north of the city is the celebrated Burra Burra mine, which earned a world-wide reputation. Discovered a couple of years after the Kapunda show, the Burra Burra property, in its palmy days, paid in dividends 800,000, and as the capital invested was only 12,320, it will be seen that the for- tunate shareholders were richly rewarded. For many years the average yield was from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, averaging from 22 to 23 per cent, of cop- per. It is stated that in the 29 years of active working 2,240,000 was disbursed in general expenses, and equal to 51,622 tons of copper was secured, which, at the average price of the metal at that time, yielded close on 4,750,000. In 1859 there were 1,170 men employed. Work was suspended in 1877 owing to the low price of copper, and also because the de- posit of rich metal seemed to have become exhausted. Subsequent boring with the diamond drill, however, pointed to the continuance downwards of the copper- bearing ground. A mine still richer even that either the Kapunda or the Burra Burra was acci- dentally discovered in 1860 on Yorke's Peninsula. This was the famous Wal- laroo mine. For the first five years the average output was under 8,000 tons, but it increased rapidly, and by 1869 had 150 THE CENTRAL STATE. View of the Smelters at Wallaroo. reached 26,000 tons per annum. So great was the interest aroused by this discovery that in a tew months claims were lodged for the lease of no less than 136 sections of supposed mineral laud in the vicinity. There are five lodes on the property vary- ing from a lew inches to twelve or four- teen feet in width. The drives, levels, &c., extend for a distance of 20 miles, and the present yield ranges from half a ton to six tons per fathom. In 1861 a still more valauble discovery was made by a shepherd a little to the south-west of the Wallaroo. This was the celebrated Moonta mine, which from the first proved so rich that within twenty months 80,000 tons of ore were recovered, and 64,000 distributed in dividends. There are five main lodes, but numerous spurs and cross veins bring the total to twenty-seven. The mine has no fewer than 77 shafts, and the levels measure 29 miles. At one time employment was given to 1,600 men. The Moonta ana Wallaroo mines were amalgamated in 1890, and together they have continued to constitute a rich source of wealth to the State. This district has put 12,000,000 into circulation, and has for forty years employed between 2,000 and 3,000 persons, and indirectly sup- ported many more. Since the amalgama- tion of the two companies, 1,780,000 has- been paid in wages,- irrespective of 420,000, for which the smelting works- in connection with the mines have been responsible. Recent borings have been of an encouraging nature, and, quite apart from the reserves of wealth which the company has come upon, it is worth men- tioning that an adjoining property the Yelta haa been taken up and worked by another company. The following notes, furnished by Mr. H. R. Hancock, late manager of the Wal- laroo and Moonta mines to accompany specimens which were exhibited at the Jubilee Exhibition in 1887, will give some idea of the geological occurrence of copper at these famous mines: "Moonta Near the surface recent limestone and clay de- posits are found, but the bed rock in which the lodes occur is a felsite porphyry of a very hard and compact nature. The- secondary aeries of rocks are entirely ab- sent. The richer ores are met with only at comparatively shallow depths, with the exception of bornite rich purple sul- phide which is occasionally found at the deepest parts of the mines yet explored. The bulk of the produce obtained consists- of chalcopyrite, a large proportion of which is found in connection with quartz. MINING. ov other gangue, and which is extracted and brought up to an average of 20 per cent, of copper by means of crushing and jigging machinery." Wallaroo The formation below the alluvial soil is com- posed of recent limestone and clay, under- neath which the bed rock, a non-fossili- ferous talcose schist is met with. The lodes exist in the older formation, and are sometimes discovered by costeening to the depth of the recent overlying deposits. The ores near the cap of the lode axe generally of the oxidised class, and they pass generally into the chalcopyrite as greater depths acre attained. The lodes project above the bed rock into the cal- careous deposits, but do not form an out- crop above the surface of the ground. Another property capable of good things, in enterprising hands, is the Blin- man, situated in the Flinders Range, 270 miles north of Adelaide, at an elevation of 2,000 feet above the Parachilna Plains. Its fortunes have been somewhat varied since 1862, owin- in large measure to drought; but the Government Inspector of Mines says, in a recent report, that the ordinary ore raised to-day averages 8 per cent., and is dressed up to 23 per cent., whilst the ore from the cross-courses and leaders, which can readily be separated by hand-picking, averages from 30 to 40 per cent, of copper. The same gentleman states that there is no falling off in the yield as the mine grows deeper; and he is further of the opinion "that the strata will continue to be ore-bearing to a great depth, and that tne mine is, to all intent and purposes, a permanent one." The water difficulty, which militated against operations in the past, has now been largely overcome, and the capacity at the present time is estimated at 150 tons of 23 per cent, copper per month, in addition to 50 tons of 28 per cent, carbonates. This property has been recently acquired by the Tasmanian Copper Company, and mining is being resumed. The Hamley, which forms one of the Moonta group, is another of the mines producing copper at the present day. Nine shafts have been sunk tne deepest of which is 175 fathoms. There are six lodes, varying in width from 1 foot to 6 feet. Close on ^60,000 has been distri- buted in dividends. A number of other smaller shows add to the annual produc- tion of copper, while many are on the verge of productiveness, and with a rise in price of the metal, or with conditions making it possible for plant to be erected which would save a larger proportion of copper, many other would again be worked. The total number of mines being operated and giving employment to more than twelve men is nineteen. The following table shows the most important producing copper mines of South Austra- lia : Annual Copper Men Production. Employed. Tons. Wallaroo and Moonta 2,100 5,500 Beltana Prince Alfred Lynda Hamley Paramatta .., 50 In course of development. 12 50 16 50 60 150 200 60 Moonta Mines. 152 THE CENTRAL STATE. A View of the Smelting and Refinery Works, Port Pirie. Other Minerals. As previously remarked, not much has been done in mining in South Australia aipart from copper. The following table showing the annual production in ten year periods will illustrate thisi: Silver and Copper. Gold. Silver- Lead . Total. f. f. ' 1843... 23 104 127 1844... 4,009 2,427 6,436 1845... 10,874 871 13,484 1846... 140,794 1,457 142,251 1847... 171,883 2,307 174,190 1848... 310,387 ~ 10,556 320,943 1849... 216,619 2,906 219,547 1850... 353,890 3,334 3(5,464 1851... 297,854 1,592 310,516 1852... 362,148 374,778 1862... 524,854 3,247 547,619 1872... 702,734 2,324 806,226 1882... 455,570 3,080 2,111 461,425 1892... 175,525 26,097 855 204,051 1902... 430,712 24,828 22,303 498,325 To date the detailed return of minerals exported from the State is as follows : Copper, 4,541,957 cwt., 16,798,789; cop- per ore, 683,441 tons, 6,421,385; lead, 101,968 cwt., 92,435; lead ore, 10,711 tons, 169,089; regulus, 3516 tons, 125,545 ; bismuth ore and bismuth, 1,402 cwt., 16,679 ; manganese, 13,362 tons, 46,421; gold, 138,574 oz., 528,881; sil- ver, 4,629 oz., 862 ; tin, 697 cwt., 605 ; spelter, 12,888 cwt, 12,081. It is only fair to state that the exact quantity of cer- tain minerals won from the earth in South Australia cannot easily be ascertained. This is particularly the case with gold, considerable quantities of which are sent to the Melbourne Mint or are purchased by the Banks without ever showing in the offi- cial returns. Smelting works for the treatment of ores were erected about the fifties, the E. & A. Copper Co. smelting first at Burraand later ait Port Adelaide. Works were established at other centres also, but at present operations are being conducted MINING. 153 only at Wallaroo by the Wallaroo and Moonta Co. Consequently about the fifties exports of copper ore began to show a decrease, and of copper metal a corresponding increase. Dur- ing the five years 1855/59, compared with the preceding quinquennial period, the increase in the average shipments of copper was 30 per cent, compared with a gain of only 10 per cent, of ore. The export of copper was not commenced till 1848, but in three years it reached a total of 174,574, and by 1862 was over 400,000. The remarks regarding the wide distri- bution of copper apply in an even greater degree to the gold, though it unfortunately cannot be said that the gold minesi have come within measurable distance of the copper mines as regards the value of the yield. The precious metal was unearthed as early as copper, the Victoria Mine, about ten miles from Adelaide, being opened in 1846. The major portion of the gold- bearing country to the south of Adelaide is on land which was alienated from the Crown in the early days, and consequently no returns are available. Alluvial gold has been worked for rnamy years in the numerous gullies in the Adelaide hills. Amongst other localities in the northern areas, Teetulpa may perhaps be considered the most important alluvial field, it being estimated that over 300,000 worth of gold was quickly obtained there. Valuable reef- ing fields have been discovered in the Echunga district, at Mount Grainger, Barossia, Wadnaminga, Mannahill, Nil- linghoo, atnd other localities, and it is generally agreed that these reefs have not been developed as their undoubted rich- ness warrants. The Echunga diggings became known early in 1852. Prospectors came across some very rich surface shows, and even down to the present day small bodies of men have made a good living as the result of mining operations at this part. No "mines" have, however, been de- veloped. It is estimated that at least some 300 reputed gold mines have at various tjmes been started, but most of them have been abandoned. A year 01} two aigo gold was discovered at Tarcoola, situated about 360 miles north-westerly from Adelaide, and 170 miles from the Coward Springs Railway Station. This field, from the promising, and in many cases ex- ceedingly rich discoveries already made, appeared destined to become the richest goldfield worked in South Australia). Much interest was aroused in the field. Steps were taken to secure an adequate water supply, and a Government battery to treat the stone was erected. It was con- fidently predicted by many of the mining authorities who visited the field that it would rival in richness many of the noted discoveries of Australia. At its first crushing the battery erected by the Tar- coola Blocks Comipany crushed 384 tons for an average of 3^ oz. per ton. Unfortu- nately early expectations have not been realised. The Tarcoola Blocks Company alone remains as a producer, and this pro- perty is being steadily developed. To date 7,847 tons of ore have been crushed for 15,178 oz. of gold, and in addition 850 tons have been treated by cyanide for 171 oz. The average number of men employed is from 65 to 70. The average value of the ore has dropped to rather under an ounce to the ton. Attention was diverted from Tarcoola by reports of phenomenally rich finds at Arltunga, in the MacDonnell Ranges, almost in the centre of the Con- tinent, and within the boundaries of the Northern Territory. Claims were rapidly pegged out, prospecting parties were dis- patched from Adelaide and Melbourne, aa well as from many northern towns. A "boom" took place on the Stock Exchange, but disappointing returns were received, and the excitement died away without the field having been properly tested. For many years individual miners have re- covered payable quantities of gold from, the MacDonnell Ranges, which are re- putedly rich ; but as aj field for extensive operations Arltunga has yet to be proved. Regarding this locality, the Government Geologist has made the following hopeful remarks: "The MacDonnell Ranges ex- tend more or less intermittently into Queensland and westwards towards Wes- tern Australia, and there is a vast area available for prospectors in both direc- tions. At Arltunga the reefs outside the White Range are of small size, but have been, and will continue to be, mined (pro- fitably. With the exception of those ati the White Range, up to the present no gold-bearing deposits has been found sum- 154 THE CENTRAL STATE. ciently large or extensive to be worked on a large scale. This fact need not, however, preclude the future discovery of larger deposits elsewhere, or the finding of these by deeper sinking on some of the present) known auriferous reefs. Winnecke's Gold- field. Although the lodes hitherto dis- covered are small, some of them contain rich ore. After further exploration at depth large and deeper deposits may be found. When facilities have been provid- ed for the extraction of gold from the ore a field for the employment of parties of working miners, and, in some cases, for joint-stock companies, will, I believe, be established." The discovery of silver lead ore at Glen Oamond, about five miles from Adelaide, was the first indication that South Austra- lia possessed mineral resources. In 1838 some blocks of what wag supposed to be limestone cropping out of the side of the hill were found to be pure galena. An, assay gave 75 per cent, of lead and about 18 oz. of silver to the ton. Smelting works were erected in the neighborhood, but the venture did not prove remunerative. Sil- ver and lead are widely disseminated, through the State, and amongst the most noteworthy mines may be mentioned the Talisker, Ediacara, Aclare, Avondale, Al- manda, and Eukaby. The first-named, situated at Cape Jervis, was opened in 1862, and was worked for ten years. The surface ores were very rich in silver, and the mine is still regarded as very valuable. Comparatively little work is being done on our silver-lead mines at present, but if at any future time the ore is raised or the metals extracted at less cost than at pre- sent, the abundance of galena to be found in South Australia, and the salver ore yielding as high as 30 per cent., should prove highly remunerative. South Australia possesses an abundance of iron. Many deposits are in close proximity to railway lines and the sea coast. Large quantities of iron raised in the State are used as flux for smelting pur- poses, and in most localities the ore carries a small percentage of gold. When giving evidence recently before the Federal Royal Committee appointed to enquire into the provisions of a Bill relating to bonuses for the encouragement of the manufacture of iron in the Commonwealth, Mr. H. Y. L. Brown, Government Geologist, stated that South Australia was capable of supplying all the ore required for smelting works for centuries. He was not, however, prepared to say what kind of iron the ore would make, but did not think it advisable to smelt on the spot, but to ship the ore to some place where coal could be easily got. He instanced numerous places where some millions of tons of ore were available. Within thirty miles of Leigh Creek, and three miles of a railway, there is reported to be a hill of the purest iron to be found in the State, and many thousands of tons could be easily broken down. On Beltana sheep run, within twenty-six miles of Leigh Creek, there are outcrops and well defined reefs carrying rich ores, covering large areas, also manganese. Twenty-five miles south of East, near Mount Serle, there are huge outcrops of massive iron ore, some hundreds of thousands of tons being visible. Near this is a very large body of manga- nese. At and near Boolyeroo goldfield, six miles east, outcrops of iron ores are to be seen. The seaport would be Port Augusta, distant 169 miles. The best known deposit at present being worked is the Iron Knob, a veritable hill of iron of high percentage, about fifty miles from the Spencer's Gulf seaboard. The property on which the deposit occurs has been leased by the Broken Hill Proprietary Company, which has constructed a railwajy to the coast to facilitate the transport of the ore to the company's smelting works at Port Pirie. So far as is known there are no coal mea- sures in South Australia of the age of those that are worked in New South Wales. There is a great gap in the series of forma- tions, namely, from the lower palaeozoic (Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian) to the cretaceous; none of the intervening rocks in that series having been observed out- cropping upon the surface. Although this is unfortunately the case, still it is considered possible that beneath the thick deposits of tertiary and cretaceous age, which overlie the greater part of the older rocks, there may exist any of the older for- mations which occur in other parts of Aus- tralia. In 1890 boring for coal was started at Leigh Creek, and not long afterwards the labor of those concerned was crowned with success. The fuel, however, differs MINING. 155 ; J . Joibson photo. Silver-Lead Smelting Works, Port Pirie. from the bituminous coal of Great Britain, New South Wales, or Victoria, and in some respects resembles the dense brown coal of Europe. When lighted, it burns well, but the absence of cinder and the powdery ash produced render it difficult for economical use on ordinary fire bars. Tests made by the locomotive .department of the railways proved that the coad was not as well adapted for use on the railways as that of New South Wales. The large extension of the use of arti- ficial manures by farmers in this State causes great importance to be attached to the existence of rock (phosphates. Partly aa the result of a reward offered by the Government for the discovery of beds of this material a diligent search was institut- ed. Deposits have been unearthed at Clin- ton and Robertstown, both within com- paratively easy distance of Adelade, and these are being worked. Precious stones are known to exist in various parta of the State. At present the gem fields of Kangaroo Island are attract/ ing a good deal of attention. Tourmalines are being mined in considerable quantities, and it is hoped that other precious stones will be found in sufficient numbers to cause this branch of mining to be /profitable. Some of the tourmaline crystals brought from Kangaroo Island are described by the Government Geologist ae the largest which he has seen in Australia. Though not a mineral in the ordinary sense, salt must be regarded as among the wealth-producing agencies of the earth. Twenty years or so ago comparatively little salt was produced in South Australia, but owing to the systematic working of the lakes in different parts, principally, at the south-eastern portion of Yorke's Peninsula, last year the exports amounted to 37,500 tons. An important industry has been established, giving employment to a great many men both directly and indirectly. Though geographically outside of South Australia, mention should be made in this chapter of the Brokn Hill silver-lead mines situated sixteen miles east of the boundary in New South Wales. These wonderful and world-famed deposits were discovered in 1883 by a boundary rider employed on, the Mount Gipps sheep run while muster- ing sheep in the Broken Hill paddock in the neighborhood of the township subse- quently formed a)nd named Silverton, Leases were applied for, and the Broken Hill Mining Company formed. In 1885, as the result of a rearrangement, the cele- brated Broken Hill Proprietary Company, Limited, came into existence. From the start South Australian capitalists and miners were largely responsible for the 156 THE CENTRAL STATF. opening and working of these phenomen- ally rich hills of silver. Afc the outset the mines were worked as silver propositions, but of late years the lead contents of the ore have predominated. A railway was run to the Barrier as an offshoot of the Great Northern system of this State, and all the material required for the mines and the supplies for the city which grew up around them, as well as the ore recovered, had to pass through South Australia. It is little wonder, therefore, that for all practical purposes Broken Hill has come to be regarded as ajn integral part of this State. Despite labor troubles, water famines, and low-grade ore problems, the Broken Hill mines continue to constitute a source of wealth to all concerned. Last year's total exports from the district amounted to 1,327,350, of which concen- trates accounted for 912,500, slimes 30,121, and zinc concentrates 239. The recovery of a larger percentage of the com- ponent metals from the huge heaps of tail- ings at the mines is now occupying a1> tention of the managements of the respec- tive mines. There is good reason to be- lieve that in one or two instances the solu- tion of the problem has been reached. Ex- periments in other directions are still being conducted, and it is hoped that before long the now neglected tailings heaps will yield large profits. A chapter on mining may not be inap- prqpriately closed by a reference to the fact that the South Australian public has for many years been notoriously specula- tive. Even in the early days, when the mines of the Northern Territory were the chief source of attraction a number of kin- dred spirits gathered regularly in the city for the purpose of dealing in shares. Wes- tern Australia as a mining field was brought into prominence principally by "t'othersiders" drawn from South Austra- lia, and for years the Adelaide market in stocks of companies formed to develop leases in the western State was the most ac- tive of any of a similar nature. In 1893 a syndicate was formed in Adelaide for the purpose of sending a prospecting party to "Western Australia. There were ten shares of 15 each. Within five years that 150 had been the means of giving birth to pro- perties valued at 30,000,000 ! Adelaide boasts of a. handsome Stock Exchange building, which is the head- quarters of a body of sharebrokers who for business acumen and enterprise are hot to bo surpassed in the Commonwealth. Aty the same time it should not be omitted that not once the reproach has been cast up to South Australians that they are far more ready to provide capital to develop mineral resources supposed to exist hundreds of miles away than they are to prospect their own country. Critics have also com- plained that too much mining has been done on the "Corner" in Adelaide, and too little in the undoubted mineral-bearing country within the boundaries of the State. What justification exists for these strictures this is scarcely the place to en- quire. It may be said, however, that recent experience suggests that something requires to be done to cause the active deal- ing in shares at certain periods and the too spasmodic scientific development of the country to stand in ai more exact propor- tion to one another. It has been pointed out with some reason that existing legisla- tion, which permits the formation of no liability companies for the working of mineral claims, while possibly providing a very necessary safeguard or the dealer in scrip, does not sufficiently provide for the raising of capital, nor does it recognise other abuses which creep into company formation. THe Mining Laws. Mining in South Australia is regulated by the Mining Act of 1893, which is cha- racterised by extreme liberality and the inducements offered for prospecting an enormous area of practically new country. A miner's right is obtainable at a cost of 5/. This right holds good for one year from the date of issue, and may be renewed at any time during its currency for another term of one year on payment of 5/. The holder of a miner's right is authorised to prospect on any mineral lands for any metal, mineral, coal, or oil, and to peg out (of the prescribed shape and dimensions) gold, mineral, coal, and oil claims, and also leases of a like nature. A fee of 2/6 is MINING. 157 A Double Four-Hutch Plunger Jigger, manufactured by Jas. Martin & Co., Ltd. charged for registration. Gold claims must be registered at once and mineral claims within thirty days of pegging. The miner's right under which, the claim was pegged must be produced to the registrar before registration can be effected, and must be renewed from year to year during its currency, or the claim is liable to for- feiture. Gold claims must be constantly worked one man for e>ach claim and mineral claimholders must employ two men for each claim. Amalgamation of either gold or mineral claims reduces the labor conditions by one-half. Gold, mineral, coal, and oil leases are granted for a term of forty-two years. t'.ie two former at a rental of I/ per acre per annum and a royalty of 6d. in the pound on net profits, the latter at a rental of 6d. per acre per annum until coal or oil is found in payable quantities, when I/ per acre is payable and a royalty of 6d. in the pound on the net profits. Working con- ditions provide in the case of gold leases for one man for every five acres; mineral leases, one man for every ten acres ; coal or oil leases, one man for every forty acres. The Minister may permit the concentra- tion of labor of the amalgamation of from not more than four adjoining gold or mine- r<>l leases. Miscellaneous leases are granted for salt, gypsum, mineral springs, site for smelting works and mining works. Maximum area of leases are Gold, 20 acres; mineral, 40 acres; coal or oil, 640 acres ; salt or gypsum, 640 acres ; mineral springs, 40 acres; mining works, 10 acres; smelting works, 10 acres. Any number of gold, mineral, coal, or oil leases may be held by one person. Under the Mining Act Amendment Act of 1900 licences to search for twelve months for precious stones, mineral phos- phates, oil, rare metals, minerals, and earths are issued on specific mineral lands, not exceeding five square miles in area for one person, a fee of 20/ being charged for each square mile or portion thereof. These licences give a preferential right to a lease over a portion of the area, as prescribed. 1*8 THE CENTRAL STATE. The Phoenix-Weir Vanning Table, manufactured by Jas. Martin r mining ; and diamond drills are loaned under special conditions, and rewards for discoveries are paid out of money appro- priated by Parliament for that purpose. A rebate of one-third of cost of freight if car- ried over the railway line for treatment is allowed to (prospectors on the first 50 tons of ore raised a concession which is largely availed of, and greatly assists prospectors in the initial development of their proper- ties. Assays are made at the School of Mines free of cost for all samples obtained from Crown lands, while special arrange- ments for practical work in the laboratory can be made at very low fees. Kespecting mining on private property the Act 1888, and amending Acts of 1895 and 1899 provide for the resumption of private lands, proclamation of private land as an alluvial goldfield, and compulsory mining leases. In 1882 a Government Geologist was appointed, and results amply justified the wisdom of this step. In Mr. H. Y. L. Brown the State possesses an able, energetic, and withal cautious official, who has done much to help forward the mine- ral industry of the South Australia. His efforts are well supported by the Inspector of Mines, Captain W. H. Matthews, and the other members of the Mines Depart- ment, which comes under the control of the Minister for Mines. No genuine prospector will appeal in vain for advice to the department, while long distances are annually travelled by the officers in report ing upon or inspecting likely properties. Manufactures. Although essentially a country of pri- mary production, the conversion of raw material into commercial articles received early attention. For some time secondary production was mainly in the direction of providing agricultural implements and commodities required by those who were engaged in occupying the country. As conditions became more settled industries increased in number and variety, and now that Federation has given Interstate Free- trade, manufacturers are looking forward to growing markets throughout the Com- monwealth. The discovery of silver in the western districts of New South Wales, and the opening up of some of the richest silver mines in the world, proved a great boon to South Australian manufactures. Engineer- ing firms and boiler makers received large orders, and, by the excellence of their work, have retained valuable connections with Western Australia. Considerable assis- tance has been given to the industry during the past thirty years by a Chamber of Manufactures, an active organization which holds exhibitions, and in other ways pro- motes the interests of manufacturers. The following axe the published returns of manufactories and the hands employed : Total Establish- hands em- Year. merits. Males. Females. ployed. 1885 ... 646 7,952 1,350 9,302 1892 ... 815 9,642 1,847 11,489 1896 ... 767 10,974 1,811 12,785 1899 ... 841 12,941 2,214 15,155 1900 ... 1,036 14,800 2,859 17,659 1902 ... 1,275 15,268 3,512 18,780 As the production of grain increased flour mills were started in the city and at Port Adelaide, and the manufacture of breadstuffs became an established indus- try. At the present time there are 65 flour mills in various parts of the State, and the South Australian article finds a ready demand throughout Australia, South Africa, and Java. Factories devoted to the making of agricultural implements number 31, employing 283 hands; chaff- cutting 53, with 286 employees; boots and shoes 78, 1,239; tanneries 21, 296; brick- making 47, 285 hands; coachbuilding 28, 365 ; aerated waters, 30, 193 ; breweries 23, 348; distilleries 9, 72; clothing 252, 2,771; and sawmills 27, with 370 hands. Extensive locomotive workshops aie estab- lished near Adelaide in connection with the State railways, and the making of cast iron pipes for water reticulation is also carried on by the Government. THe Leading Engineering Works of the State. The premier engineering firm of South Austalia is James Martin & Co., Limited, of Gawler. The history of this company reads like a romance. The foundation of the concern was laid in 1848 by the late Hon. James Martin, M.L.C. After arriv- ing in a dray, which contained all his belongings his wife, furniture, and a few tools, the enterprising young colonist cut down a tree, constructed benches and a lathe from the timber, and started business as a bullock-dray maker! The original site comprised only a few feet; the area now occupied by the firm which has grown out of that humble beginning is 18 acres. Mr. Martin began operations with one man ; to-day about 600 are employed. From the manufacture of bullock drays Mr. Martin took up the construction of reaping machines and other agricultural implements; then he extended his opera- tions to mining machinery, and now the establishment produces locomotives, which are declared to be equal to any made in the world! At first the trade was strictly local ; then the reputation of the firm for Mr. Martin soon took unto him- self partners rapidly spread into other districts, and demands for agricultural machinery flowed in from all parts of the State. Later orders were received from other States, and to-day the business of 162 THE CENTKAI, STATE. James Martin & Co., Limited, has rami- fications in all parts of Australia, and ex- tends even to South Africa, New Cale- donia, and South America. It is estimated that the firm mentioned have constructed more than 16,000 reap ing machines. Latterly they have taken up the manufacture of complete harvesters machines which strip, winnow, and bag grain in the one operation. The enter- prise of building locomotive engines has turned out to be a complete triumph. Two contracts, comprising 144 engines, have been fulfilled for the South Australian. Government, and a third, for ten locomo- tives, is now in hand. Engines have also been made for New South Wales, West Australia, and Tasmania. More mining machinery has been turned out by James Martin & Co., Limited, dur- ing the last twenty years than by any other firm in Australia. It has supplied West Australia with more mining plants crush- ing, winding, pumping, concentrating, cyaniding, and roasting than any other establishment, either colonial, European, or American. It has also assisted in the development of the Broken Hill mines and other mineral properties in the Common- wealth. Specialities are made of copper, tin, gold, and lead concentration and cop- per and lead smelting. Most of the firm's output is for exportabout 90 per cent, on an average. Some time back 39 trucks of machinery, weighing more than 200 tons, and having a value of upwards of 10,000, were dispatched in one day. The late Mr. Martin had very little capital when he started : it now takes 150,000 to run the business. A striking display of the firm's manu- factures was given at the last Exhibition of the South Australian Chamber of Manufac- tures in Adelaide. The floor area covered by Messrs. Martin & Co.'s specialities was 294 ft. in length, with an average width of 46 ft., and the value of their contribution to the exhibition exceeded 8,000. In point of variety and value this display of engineering exhibits has never been equalled by anv other Australian manu- facturers. The collection included a Cross compound engine and a winding en- gine in motion, two filter presses, an air compressor, three geared engines, jiggers, refrigerating, and ice-making machinery, general engineering exhibits and agricul- tural implements oi every kind. Of those who have this great business now in hand, Mr. J. F. Martin is chair- man of directors, Mr. J. F. Pearson, general engineer, and Mr. James Fergusson, mana- ger of the Agricultural Department. In honor of the great services rendered by the late Hon. Janies Martin to the town, industrially and otherwise, a hand- some marble statue was recently erected in Gawler as the result of public subscriptions. The unveiling ceremony was performed by His Honor the Chief Justice (Sir Samuel Way, Bart.). Salt Refineries. There are a number of fine natural salt lakes in South Australia. This State led the way in the Commonwealth in giving a commercial value to the crude article. There wag the usual prejudice to the "colo- nial" product, but well-equipped refineries were established, and gradually imports of salts decreased and shipments of locally re- fined salt increased. The following figures serve to indicate the movement : 1891 1894 1897 1900 1902 Imports. Tons. 1,225 763 136 201 Exports. Tons 7,505 7,624 28,804 33,424 37,570 There are two refinery companies doing business in South Australia the Castle Salt Company, of which the directors are Messrs. S. J. Jacobs, Hon. W. B. Rounse- vell, Messrs. Pearce Delbridge, James H. Philips, and Charles H. Warren, and Sec- retary, Charles Allen; and the Colonial Refining Company, the directors of which are Messrs. R. Strachan (Chairman), James Harvey, and E. J. Green, and Sec- retary, Mr. R. J. Wyllie. The accompany- ing photographs show the Castle Salt fac- tory and views of the extensive lakes and methods of gathering the salt. MANUFACTURES. 163 Portion of the Castle Salt Company's Factory, Edithburg. Scraping Salt on Lake Parawurlie, Southern Yorke's Peninsula, the property of the Castle Salt Company, Limited. Salt bagged ready for carting, Lake Monkawurlie, the property of the Castle W. Riddle & Son photos. Salt Company, Limited. 164 THE CENTRAL STATE. " II. Krischnck jthofo. TForA-s o/^ /;e ..4. Portland Cement Co., Ltd., Brighton. One of the most interesting and also im- portant industries in the State is the manu facture of cement. When deposits of blue cement rocks were discovered within a few miles of the spot where the pioneers hnded and the proclamation was made by Go- vernor Hindmarsh, tests were at once made to prove whether or not high-class cement could be made. The reports of experts were eminently satisfactory, and from small beginnings an industry of increasing importance has resulted. The South Aus- tralian Portland Cement Co., Limited, has only been in existence some eleven years, but the works near Brighton have had to bo enlarged several times, and the output has been greatly multiplied. There was the usual prejudice against the "colonial article" to overcome, but once the cement began to be used in Government works and private undertakings, its quality stood all the tests of engineers and time. Local cement was used in the construction of the tunnels at the Happy Valley Waterworks, the weirs and channels of the Bundaleer waterworks, and most of the large buildings recently erected in the city, including the School of Mines, Art Gallery, Children's Hospital, Conservatorium of Music, Ade- laide Steamship Co.'s offices, Brookman's Building, &c. South Australian cement is largely used in the building of large cement wine vats, and is also favored by the Corporation of the City of Adelaide and large mining companies. The Go vernment has purchased and used large quantities in connection with the building of reservoirs. A considerable trade is also done with neighboring States, where the article is regarded with much favor. The works are situated near Brighton, and only about seven miles to the south of Adelaide. The directors of the company are Messrs. J. H. Angas, S. Newland, and E. H. Bake- well ('managing director), and the mana- ger, Mr. Stanley Fraser. Forest Culture. South Australia, as in so many other movements, was the first State of the Aus- tralian group to establish State forests. Early settlers were permitted to 1 draw upon the supplies of native timber without restriction until it became apparent that the limited extent of natural forests would soon become exhausted. In 1870, Mr. F. E. H. W. Krichauff persuaded the House of Assembly, of which he was then a. mem- ber, to call for reports on the best size of reserves for forest purposes, where they should be made, the best and most economical means of preserving the native timber on them, and of planting and re- planting the reserves as permanent State forests. Three years later the Forest Act became law, and a bonus was offered of 2 per acre of land on which forest trees were planted and maintained for a period of five years. The practical results of this proved disappointing, for little or no effort was made by private landowners to earn the subsidy. The State forest system was inaugurated in 1875, when the Forest Board was appointed, and 195,398 acres were set apart for tree planting and con- servation of the indigenous timber by natural regeneration where desirable. Ultimately this area was increased until the first reserves comprised 239,336 acres. Alienations for perpetual leases have re- duced the territory under the supervision to about 189,834 acres. The late Mr. Goyder, then Surveyor-General, in his ori- ginal report, estimated that the expense of the Forest Department for the first year would be 14,357, and for the second year and following years 10,500 a year, mak- ing a total for the first twelve years of 130,000. No return was expected for the first five years, but for the next four years Mr. Goyder reckoned on receiving a revenue of 35,000 a year, and of 70,000 a year for the next three, making a total income of 350,000 for the next twelve years. How far these figures fell short of expectations will be seen from the fact that the expenditure in those twelve years amounted to 72,355, and the revenue to 81,066. For the whole 26 years of the forests' history the expenditure has been 170,852, and the revenue 138,439. Mr. Goyder remarked in one report: "The above calculations do not take into ac- count failure here and there in the growth of trees, but they are sufficient to show the value of the work, and that there is every probability of ios being self-supporting, in addition to its vast importance." But in .only seven out of the 26 years has the re- venue exceeded the expenditure. The best result was in 1887-8, when the receipts amounted to 12,080, and the expenditure to 7,262. The present Conservator of Forests, Mr. Walter Gill, was appointed in 1890, and he has done excellent work with the limited funds at his command. Peo- ple and Parliament in South Australia have been singularly apathetic in the mat- ter of afforestation, and the pruning knife of economy has more than once been ap- plied to this department. In all the South Australian forests 800 acres of pines have been planted, and nearly half of this area is represented at Wirrabara, where the trees vary in age from one to 25 years. To-day 85 per cent, of the world's timber demand is for pine, and the amount which goes out of South Australia for this- useful class of timber is between 100,000 and 200,000 every year. The world's newspaper press alone devours 11,000,000 tons a year for its pulp paper, and in all countries supplies are rapidly being de- pleted. The Conservator is an 'extremely cautious man, but after many anxious years he has thoroughly satisfied himself that pines which are suitable to local con- ditions can be grown in South Australia without risk and with great profit. At Wirrabara there are only 85 acres of pines which might fairly be regarded as having attained timber maturity, and yet last year ways and means would allow of fresh planting to the extent of only 12 acres. Thanks to the copious summer rains over 5| inches in the forest last December the magnificent result of 9^8 per cent, cf "takes" has to be recorded in resp'ect to that 12 acres. About 400 acres are under pine at Wirrabara altogether, and the trees 1 66 THE CENTRAL STATE. W. Gill photo. Telegraph poles. Forest plantation, Kapunda. are making splendid progress. On the ques- tion of the character of climate and soil for the growing of timber the Conservator of Forest states: "There are thousands of acres in the State suitable for pinegrowing now carrying inferior timber of practically no value, or scrubby vegetation. The cost of clearing, fencing, and planting varies according to circumstances; but, speaking broadly, a plantation of pines may be established under suitable conditions, and maintained till it represents the gross value already indicated of 200 per acre, at a cost varying from 5 under the most favorable conditions to 10 per acre where more work is needed to prepare each acre for planting. The ultimate return to the revenue shown as probable from the esti- mates given is surely in itself a highly satisfactory one ; but there are other aspects of the matter quite as important as the revenue one. The German forests, which are rightly regarded as of incalcul- able vaJue to the State, support directly 1,000,000 people in employment; while another 3,000,000 are maintained by in- dustries connected with them. In these days of scarcity of employment for willing hands is the possibility of ultimately re- taining in the country money at the rate of 100 per acre (estimating 50 per cent. as the workers' share of the amount pro- duced i.e., 200 per acre) to be lightly thrown aside? Extensive tracts in the Ninety-Mile Desert will grow the Maritime pine, which, from careful observations re- garding the behaviour of trees planted there, is evidently more at home in that locality than in other parts generally con- s'dered far better country. Once let pine forests be established there and the pro- blem as to the possibility of its utilization would be far on towards a satisfactory solu- tion. Making and maintaining forests means that men must be employed to do it. It will pay well, given the requisite time and patience for development. It will pay in revenue ; but it will pay better, there and in other districts, in the healthy strong men it rears amidst healthy forest conditions in the increase of the produc- ing power of the country, and in assisting to prevent the congestion of our generation in our cities." In answer to the question, "Can South Australia grow any pine timber?" the Con- servator of Forests reports : a. Some pines, the timber of which for generations has been a main source of supply in the European markets, cannot be grown here because the climatic conditions are un- FOREST CULTURE. I6 7 Date Palm in bearing, carrying 100 Ibs. dates, Government Plantation, W. Grill photo. Hergott Springs, JfiO miles north of Adelaide. suitable anywhere for their proper de velopment. b. Even if in some localities climatic and other conditions are favorable for the growth of some species, the area where these conditions exist is either re- quired for other purposes generally con- sidered more important than timber grow- ing, or it is of too limited an extent to produce timber in sufficient quantities to prove of any appreciable value in provid- ing an efficient supply for the State's de- mand for coniferous timber. c. The experiments made by the Forest Depart- ment during the last 25 years have been carried out, for the most part, in districts in the State where the best all-round con- ditions do not prevail. This circumstance has a specially important bearing on the question under review, as it is in connec- tion with the work of the department that the necessary facts are forthcoming to solve the problem of pin'e production. So far, of course, as some pines are concerned, it is a distinct disadvantage that they can- not be grown here ; but, on the other hand, as an offset against this, it must be remembered that the growth of Some pines here is so rapid that they will attain cer- tain given dimensions in from one-third to even on'e-half less time than in some other countries. Numbers of different pines have been planted in various parts of the State by private owners on their estates ; no expense has been spared in many in- stances, and, as a result, some fine collec- tions of conifers are tc be found, which speak volumes for the arboricultural en- thusiasm of those possessing them. An inspection of such trees as these affords great pleasure to a forester ; it gives ample opportunity to note the general habit and balance of each tree when growing by it- self, with ample room for development as an object of beauty in the landscape." ' In reply to the question, "Can South Australia grow pine timber?" the Conser- vator of Forests gives an emphatic affirma- tive. The pines can be cultivated on a commercial basis, a fact now being demonstrated by the department in the making of fruit boxes. The revenue of the department for the last few years' operations shows an increase of 1,516. The department also controls three date plantations., comprising 3,000 palms. Dates of excellent quality have been produced in varying quantities eleven years in succession. The Shipping' Trade. The shipping trade has always occu- pied and must retain an important posi- tion in the development of South Aus- tralia. It cannot be otherwise with a producing country of extended coastline situated thousands of miles from the chief markets of the world. Notwithstanding a splendid Interstate railway system, the bulk of the produce exchanged with otner parts of the island continent is transported by water. South Australia has 2,000 miles of coastline within her own borders, thus making necessary the employment of a fleet of coasting vessels. The develop- ment in the maritime branch of industry within the short period of the State's exis- tence has been no less marvellous than in other directions, and the achievements are as worthy of being recorded even though they form part of a world-wide movement. Especially is this true of the bringing into existence of a distinctly Australian mer- cantile marine in which South Australian enterprise and capital have played an im- portant part. Tne history of South Aus- tralian shipping is the record of the rise and development of long distance steam communiaction by water. It was a year after the province was proclaimed that Brunei demonstrated that a regular steam service could be maintained between the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Experts at that time con- sidered that steamers would never be able to make the voyage to India, much less to Australia. The first steamer entered Sydney harbor in 1831. Attempts were made soon afterwards to establish regular steam communication with the newly- founded British dominions beyond the seas, but as the Cape route had to be fol- lowed the cost of coal proved prohibitive. For many years South Australia had to depend for intercourse with the old world upon a type of sailing vessel long since obsolete, manned by as intrepid navigators as ever sailed the ocean. Later on came the clipper barque which made such re- markable passages. Then followed the ocean leviathan, cutting off corners, and making the voyage as safe and regular in point of time and indeed more so as the Channel service between England and France was half a century ago. What may be regarded as the first trading ves- sel to touch these shores was the Duke of York, the pioneer ship chartered by the South Australian Company. This barque, of 197 tons, in command of Captain R. G. Morgan, anchored in Nepean Bay, Kan- garoo Island, on July 27, 1836. She brought 36 immigrants, and was lollowed on August 2 by the Rapid, with Colonel Light on board, by the Lady Mary Pel- ham and the John Pelham about the same time, and oy 'the Buffalo, with Governor Hindmarsh, in December of the same year. At that time over 100 days was required to complete the voyage from England to South Australia, Mails are now delivered within the month, and this time could be considerably reduced by the completion of the railway from Adelaide to Pert Darwin. The State in its early years of existence was dependent much more tfcan it is to-day upon the maintenance of com- munication with the outside world. Ma- chinery and implements, and even food supplies, had to be imported, whilst the little community depended from the outset upon securing distant markets. Thus the foundation was laid of an oversea and Interstate trade which annually reaches many millions sterling. The commerce of South Australia was first carried on by means of wooden sailing vessels. The early arrivals included such names as the Africane, Orleana, Platina, Hoogly, Lalla Rookh, and Competitor. In those days a vessel of 500 tons was considered a large craft. These ships with bluff bows have passed out of recollection. About the sixties composite vessels having iron frames and wooden planking began to be- come popular. Among the best known of these were the Glen Osmond, Beltana, THE SHIPPING TRADE. 169 A Bitxy Wharf, Port Adelaide. Collingrove, and Torrens, the last named being still in the trade. In the wake of the composite vessels came those con- structed of iron, and native names were perpetuated in the Barossa, Barunga, and Kadina. Clipper built barques sprang into prominence about this date, and surpris- ingly smart were some of the passages logged by wool laden "wind-jambers" timed to catch the London sales. "Built for freight and yet for speed. A beautiful and gallant craft." The last stage in the evolution of sailing vessels was the substitution of steel as the material of construction. Half a century of progress is shown in the following table of entries and clear- ances at South Australian ports: Inwards. Outwards. No. Tons. No. Tons. 1850 284 86,583 275 87,872 1860 324 100,681 338 108,355 1870 445 140,081 471 147,908 1880 1,045 590,085 1,111 610,819 1890 1,041 1,075,133 1,081 1,115,309 1900 1,010 1,780,383 1,003 1,772,253 The most significant change in the ship- ping industry was the superseding of sail power by steam. The bulk of South Aus- tralia's oversea traffic is now conducted by large steamers ranging up to 10,000 tons, and these almost invariably bring cargo 170 THE CENTRAL STATE. Sail Tons. Steam. Tons. for more than one State. Consequently, their stay in port is not a fraction of the time which used to be spent by the old- style traders which ran direct between Port Adelaide and the United Kingdom. The evolution from sail to steam and the growth of tonnage is illustrated by the fol- lowing table of arrivals in South Aus- tralia : Total. Tons 1848 ... 46.640 1858 ... 98,302 1868 ... f 1 136,051 1878 ... J [ 452,738 1888 ... 225,098 748,381 973,479 1898 ... 156,753 1,565,605 1,722,358 1902 ... 155,014 1,789,598 1,944,612 The first steam communication between England and South Australia was opened in 1852 via the Cape of Good Hope. The service did not last long. The same year, however, a branch line was established by the P. and O. Company between Singapore and Australia. In 1857 the need of an improved connection with the outside world was felt. The Chamber of Com- merce, in a petition to Parliament, ex- pressed the opinion that direct steam com- munication with Great Britain, combined with emigration and a postal service would prove highly advantageous. The opening of the Suez Canal effected a complete re- volution in ocean traffic between Europe and Australia. Branch lines became trunk services, and South Australia occu- pied a more prominent part in the time table of ocean steamers. To-day the steamers of four large mail companies in- clude Port Adelaide in their time-tables, and the flags of three nationalities float over the splendid specimens of marine architecture which regularly convey large numbers of passengers to and from these shores. Increased harbor accommodation is now being provided for these Swift shuttles of an Empire's loom that weave us main to main. The growth of foreign shipping visit> ing South Australian ports has been considerable. The early records of the State do not distinguish between British and foreign-owned tonnage. In those days Britannia "ruled the waves." In 1847, out of 150 ships which arrived in South Australian ports only 7 were from foreign States, and even these were not necessarily owned by foreign powers. In 1859 the number of vessels flying other than the Union Jack on arrival was only 20, representing 20,189 tons, out of a total of 429 vessels of 114,951 tons. Ten years later the proportion was about the same 34 ships of 14,852 tons under foreign re- gister, and 629 ships of 174,361 tons of all nationalities. In 1901, out of 1,072 ves- sels which arrived, no fewer than 910 were British-owned. It is only of comparatively recent years that foreign shipowners have considered it worth while to make an at- tempt to capture a portion of the Austra- lian carrying business. The North Ger- man Lloyd Company extended its service so as to include this State in 1885, the Messageries Maritimes steamers first visited Port Adelaide in 1883, while the German Australian line, which caters en- tirely for cargo, became a factor in 1889. The influence of these liners is easily trace- able in official records. In 1902, for example, total arrivals of shipping were 999 vessels of 1,944,612 tons, of which 864 ships of 1,609,669 tons were British, and 135 ships of 334,943 tons were foreign. It is important to bear these figures in mind in endeavoring to trace the growth of in- ter-Empire trade. Owing to the estab- lishment of direct lines of steamships be- tween European and Australian ports, and to the decline which has taken place in consequence in transhipment at London trade returns do not credit tne United Kingdom with importing as much of tne produce of the State, as formerly when a proportion of that shown as shipped to the motherland went into consumption in foreign countries. From 1886 to 1893 1,163 vessels cleared for the United King- dom, representing 2,188,479 tons. Dur- ing the succeeding eight years the number fell to 995, though the tonnage increased to 2,446,770 tons. To foreign States in the earlier period clearances numbered 463, aggregating 820,923 tons, and from 1894 to 1901, 535, 1,346,822 tons. In 1882 no vessels cleared direct for Ger- many; in 1902 the number was 32, of 131,049 tons, all of which were under foreign flag. THE SHIPPING TRADE. 171 Commercial Road, Port Adelaide. In 1901 vessels were dispatched from all South Australian ports chiefly as follows : To United Kingdom, 140, of 384,033 tons; to New South Wales, 382, aggregat- ing 652,699 tons; Victoria, 227, 469208 tons; Western Australia, 138, 203,227 tons; Tasmania, 43, 6,073 tons; New Zea- land, 15, 10,928 tons; Cape Colony, 39, 39,895 tons; Natal, 19, 30,167 tons; France, 15, 40,854 tons; Germany, 26, equal to 99,514 tons. THe Interstate Service. The Interstate shipping business fur- nishes a picturesque chapter in South Australian history. For many years water carriage was the only means of main- taining relations with the other settled portions of the island continent. The bulk of the goods traffic between the States is still carried on by sea, the pro- portion being over 60 per cent, of the carrying trade of each portion of the main- land. In 1847 no fewer than 115 ships out of 150 arriving in South Australia came from British colonies. The dis- covery of gold in Victoria in the fifties led to a rush for berths on every available craft which could be pressed into service. In 1859 clearances for the adjoining State of Victoria numbered 199 ships, of 30,y67 tons, out of a total of 319 vessels, of 73,789 tons, including river traffic. Gradually trade became established, a tourist move- ment was encouraged by the purchase of modern steamers, and, notwithstanding the construction of railways, the coastal service has steadily expanded. During 1902 arrivals of shipping from Victoria numbered 181 vessels, of 347,813 tons; from New South Wales, 300 vessels, of 549,226 tons; from Western Australia, 144 vessels, of 210,656 tons; from Tas- mania, 51 vessels, of 10,560 tons ; and from Western Australia, 9 vessels, of 76,153 tons. 172 THE CENTRAL STATE. The Coastal Service. The purely coastal trade was carried on in the early days by small sailing crafts, which still constitute the greater number of the vessels engaged. Exclusive of Kiver Murray trade, there are ap- proximately 100 vessels, of 5,600 tons, engaged in maintaining communication chiefly between Port Adelaide and the outports, and of this total 10, representing 1,500 tons, are steamers. South Australia has participated in the benefits arising from the increase in the size of ships during the past fifty years. Of 102 vessels which arrived in 1828 the largest was 600 tons, and for many years the greater number fell beneath 1.000 tons. Of 315 arrivals in 1868, only one exceeded 1,100 tons, while in 1878 the limit was 2,700 tons. Ten years later no fewer than 40 vessels which reported in South Australia were from 3,000 to 3,500 tons register. Now the majority ol merchantmen calling here are of mam- moth proportions. As illustrating this, the following list of the largest steamers to so far enter Port Adelaide harbor stands out prominently : Tons gross. Tons net. S.S. Manhattan 8,004 6,121 S.S. Maplemore 7,803 5,842 S.S. Jason 7,450 4,800 S.S. Star of Australia ... 7,198 4,668 S.S. Kanowna 6,976 4,399 S.S. Machaon 6,737 4,276 S.S. Commonwealth ... 6,611 4,172 S.S. Ophir 6,910 3,223 S.S. Morayshire 5,576 3,597 Increased tonnage and greater draft of water have necessitated a vigorous policy of harbor improvement. In the early days the mariner had to guard against the danger of having his ship left high and dry on the mud banks when the tide re- ceded. At the present time steamers of from 5,000 to 8,000 tons comfortably berth at the wharves. Captain John Jones was the first mariner to enter the Port Ade- laide inlet. In 1836 Colonel Light, in an official report, referred to what was des- tined to become the chief port of South Australia in the following terms: "I have no hesitation in saying that with the entrance buoyed ships drawing 16 ft. of water may go in with ease, and when in there is no safer or more commodious har- bor in the world for merchant ships." On May 25, 1839, Governor Gawler turned the first spadeful of earth in connection with the construction of a road leading from the river to the high ground at the rear of the swamps. This marked the establishment of the city of Port Adelaide at its present site, the "old Port" having been laid out higher up the river. McLaren Wharf was formally declared open to the com- merce of the world on October 14, 1840. Improvements since then have been con- tinuous, it being the boast of the authori- ties that any vessel which can pass through the Suez Canal may with perfect safety proceed to the wharves. During 1902 the longest vessel to enter the harbor was 469 ft. in length, and the most deeply laden steamer on departure drew 27 ft. 2 in. As, however, there was a depth of water of 33 ft. 7 in. at high water on the day of de- parture of the most deeply laden vessel, shipowners have no occasion to fear that the river cannot be expeditiously and safely navigated at almost any time. The con- struction of a first-class harbor at the chief ports of the State has been effected by the outlay of a large sum of money. Total expenditure upon deepening and improv- ing the ports of South Australia to June 30, 1902, exceeds 1,000,000, of which Port Adelaide has absorbed 757,000, and Port Pirie 143,000. The channel leading from the anchorage, where the English mails are loaded and discharged, to the wharves at Port Adelaide, a distance of. about nine miles, is deepened to 23 ft. low water springs, but ordinary high water springs give from 31 to 32 Jt. of water. The width of the channel is nowhere less than 250 ft., and in some places it is as much as 500 ft. The work of deepening and widening certain portions so as to straighten out curves and make the chan- nel still more easily navigable by steamers of great length is still in process. For the convenience of ccean vessels, especially mail boats able to remain here only a few hours, accommodation is now being pro- vided at Light's Passage at the entrance THE SHIPPING TRADE. 173 Port Augusta. to the river at a cost of 437,000. That the oversea trade transacted at the Sema- phore anchorage almost exclusively by mail steamers is of considerable impor- tance will be gathered from the fact that vessels which called during 1901 had on arrival 519,544 tons of general cargo, of which 25,243 tons were discharged. A bout a similar quantity of goods was loaded. It is with respect to passengers, however, that it is desired to provide extra facilities, it being recognised that everything pos- sible should be done to induce travellers to break the journey for a few hours and visit the city. During 1901 visiting steamers which did not make their way to the wharves owing to the shortness of their stay, brought 35,882 passengers, of whom 5,000 landed here and did not re- sume the voyage. It is a tribute to the productiveness of the State that only about 10 per cent, of the ships clearing from South Australia leave in ballast. When the wheat harvest is small the pro- portion is higher, but exports are now be- coming so diversified that over an average of years ballast ships do not amount to more than 10 per cent, of clearances. The fair-way of the river is well defined by beacons, and is lighted at night by a system of leading lights. Port Adelaide has 2^ miles of wharves, mostly privately owned, representing an outlay roughly of a million sterling. Further wharf con- struction is at present contemplated. A swinging berth 600 ft. long, deepened to 23 ft. at low water, meets the convenience of large vessels unable to turn in the har- bor, and a mooring berth 700 ft. long, with a depth of 26 ft. at low water, is available for special occasions, and has been utilised by visiting war boats. Four patent slips privately owned are capable of taking on vessels of from 300 to 1,500 tons, and a company is now being formed to construct a graving dock. There are over 40 pro- claimed ports around the coast line of South Australia. Port Pirie, situated in Spencer's Gulf, ranks next in importance to Port Adelaide. The channel is 150 ft. wide, and is deepened to 15 ft. low water springs from tne entrance to the south end of the harbor, two-thirds of which has a breadth of from 350 to 400 ft. Vessels of from 2,000 tons to upwards of 4,200 tons navigate this waterway during high water, with 20 to 22 ft. of water in the channel. Wharfage frontage extends over 4,500 ft. The greater portion of the Bro- ken Hill traffic passes through Port Pirie. The silver smelting works at Port Pirie are 174 THE CENTRAL STATE. said to be the largest of their kind in the world. At Port Germein, situated ten miles from Port Pirie, is a jetty 5,459 ft. long, is frequented by many large vessels which load wheat drawn from the upper north and middle divisions of the State. Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf, has lost much of its former impor- tance owing to the decline of the pastoral industry in the far North of South Aus- tralia. The fine harbor causes Port Augusta to be specially favorably situated with regard to the great interior country stretching to the Queensland and New South Wales borders, which only requires a reliable rainfall to become wonderfully productive. Port Augusta also commands the trade of Central Australia, and in the event of the construction of the transcon- tinental railway from Oodnadatta to Pine Total Trade. Port Adelaide ... 9,212,509 Port Pirie 1,995,679 Wallaroo 580,685 Port Augusta ... 71,142 Edithburg 37,464 Creek, this outport will be greatly bene- fited. Wallaroo, further south than Port Pirie, assumes importance as a wheat and copper shipping port, and is a regular call- ing place with many Interstate steamers. There are large copper smelting works at Wallaroo. Kingston, on the south-eastern coastline, forms the outlet for most f the wool grown in that part which finds its way direct to London. At present an effort is being put forward to secure a har- bor for the south-east capable of accom- modating deep-sea steamers. Edithburgh, on the south-eastern point of Yorkes Peninsula, has come into prominence of re- cent years owing to the development of a salt industry in the neighborhood. The following table shows the inward and out- ward tonnage at the chief ports of South Australia during 1902 : Inwards. Outwards. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. 785 1,710,501 756 1,713,516 52 82,647 101 159,958 62 97,286 32 45,583 9 13,349 5 7,563 7 5,181 54 54,145 THe Lighthouse Service. The coastline of South Australia is re- markably well lighted, especially consider- ing the comparatively short time that the State has been established. The earliest guiding beacon set up was exhibited from the mast-head of an old vessel moored out- side the entrance to the Port Adelaide River. This light was first shown on July 17, 1840, and it was twelve years later before a permanent mark was erected. Lighthouse construction dates from 1852, when a revolving light on Cape Willoughby, situated on the eastern extremity of Kangaroo Island, was set up. Thence forward as trade increased, and, unfortunately in some instances as disas- trous wrecks demonstrated the necessity, fine lighthouses were constructed around the shores of the State. To-day from 14 towers warm rays of light warn of hidden dangers and guide the way into the desired haven. This number is exclusive of smaller local lights, a light ship on Middle Bank, Spencer's Gulf, and the lighthouse at Point Charles, Northern Territory. The total salaries of light keepers in 1856 amounted to only 1,378, but the aggre- gate expenditure on lighthouses to June 30, 1902, amounted to over 160,000. LIGHT DUES AND PILOTAGE. The cost of lighting the coast is borne by light dues imposed on visiting shipping, the sum raised by this means during 1901 being 18,340. In 1845 the Government of the day considered the state of the finances justified the abolition of port charges on ships of all nations without ex- ception. This condition of affairs did not last long, however, and to-day, in addition to light dues, visiting shipmasters, unless they have been successful in obtaining an exemption certificate, have to submit to compulsory pilotage. The minimum rate of pilotage at Port Adelaide is 2/10, and the maximum 12, and a sliding scale is provided on the basis of l^d. per ton. At THE SHIPPING TRADE. 175 Port Adelaide the pilots are Government servants, the fees going into revenue. Wharfage rates on goods landed and shipped over the various wharves are levied by the various owners. With the exception of an enumerated list of goods, the wharfage rate is uniform at 1/8 per ton weight, or 2/ per ton measurement. The necessity of making South Australian ports as cheap as possible has been re- peatedly urged upon the authorities, and as a step in this direction a concession was made not long ago whereby the payment of light dues was made to cover a definite period, one payment being sufficient for any number of visits during the period. During 1901 over 8,500 was paid to pilots through the Marine Department for pilotage services. In addition, tonnage dues are levied by wharfowners upon ves- sels evading or discharging at the wharves. Facilities for expeditiously handling cargo have greatly increased with the growth of trade. In the fifties the landing of 130 tons of goods at McLaren Wharf, Port Adelaide, in 10 hours was considered a smart piece of work. Nowadays Port Ade- laide stevedores who have won a reputa- tion for despatch, can handle as much as 800 tons of goods in the same time. The Marine Board. Among the early Acts passed in the colony in the first year of the reign of the late Queen Victoria was one entitled "AJO. Act for the better preservation of the ports, harbors, havens, roadsteads, chan- nels, navigable creeks and rivers in Her Majesty's Province of South Australia, and for the better regulation of shipping and entering crews in the same." Originally the marine administration was practically in the hands of Captain Lipson, who was appointed in England as naval officer and harbor master, and who arrived in Ihe Cygnet in September, 1836. It was sub- sequently found necessary to subdivide his duties between four departments Cus- toms, Trinity Board, local Marine Board, and Harbor Trust. The Trinity Board was constituted in 1851, and Captain Lip- son was selected as first master of the body. He held office for only three years. The functions of the board were chiefly to license pilots, fix rates, superintend light- houses, regulate wharves, and supply bal- last to ships. Later on the board was charged with deepening operations. Deepening in the Port Adelaide River was started in 1849, but not vigorously prosecuted till 1854. The Trinity Board, finding itself hampered for want of funds, secured a grant of 100,000, and to ad- minister this the four senior members were appointed to give effect to the Act. Thus the Harbor Trust was brought into exis- tence. A few years later the Commis- sioners passed under the control of the Parliamentary head of Uie Public Works Department, and to-day all harbor im- provements are under the direction of the Engineer-in-Chief. The local Marine Board, of which the late Captain Douglas was first chairman, and Mr. Arthur Searcy is now President, took over and performed for some years the duties discharged by the Harbor Master as shipping master; but in 1860 all earlier enactments were re- pealed, and the Marine Board of South Australia constituted to generally ad- minister marine matters. For years the Government nominated members, but in 1881 that system gave way to semi-elec- tion, and at present three members of the board are appointed by the Government, representation being conceded to seamen and engineers; two are elected by fhip- owners and one each by the Chamber of Commerce and the Marine Underwriters. The Ocean Mail Service. The development of the shipping nidus- by sailing vessels, and the time of arrival try has had a most important bearing being very uncertain, the presence of a upon the conveyance of mails between the boat in the offing caused great excitement. United Kingdom and South Australia. In For many years there was no arrangement the early days the service was maintained with particular lines. Letters were 1 7 6 THE CENTRAL STATE. brought by any outward-bound crafts. Among the best known were the clippers of Captain Angel and Messrs. Elder, Younghusband, and Levi. The bags were landed in whale boats and taken to Ade- laide by road. In 1844 a regular line of sailing packets having been established between London and Sydney, the bulk of the mail matter was forwarded by this route. The average time occupied was 158 days. The first regular steam com- munication was established in 1852 via tiie Cape of Good Hope, the contract time from Plymouth to Adelaide being 68 days. The initial mail, consisting of 1,799 letters and 3,618 papers, arrived by the Austra- lasian on August 29. The service was terminated by the failure of the com- pany, and sailing vessels were again resorted to, until, in 1853, contracts -were entered into with the P. & O. Company for a mail every two months via Singapore. In 1855 the steamers of this line and those of the General Screw S.S. Company, with which an arrangement had also been entered into, were taken off to convey troops to the Crimea, and colonists were again left dependent upon sailing ships. Letters were forwarded to Melbourne twice a month. Even when a few years later the British Government entered into a contract with a steamship company, Mel- bourne was made the distributing centre. In 1860 the P. & 0. Company again ap- peared as a contractor, and maintained a monthly connection between England and the colonies. South Australian letters were delivered at Kangaroo Island. A year later the route was altered. This State was ignored, and it became necessary for the Government to establish a branch service between Albany, in Western Aus tralia, and Adelaide. In 1874 a new sys- tem was inaugurated whereby the .British Government carried the mails as far as Galle, and the Victorian authorities con- nected from Colombo to Melbourne. This State had to pay 5,000 for the steamers to call at Glenelg. Some years later bet- ter facilities were provided with wie P. and O. Company, which, in conjunction with the Orient Company, gave a weekly ser- vice between Europe and Adelaide. This was the first Federal arrangement come to, and the contract still holds good. Owing to the construction of a line of railway be- tween Adelaide and Melbourne, this State is now made the embarking and disem- barking point for the mails for Eastern States. The rail was first utilised in con- junction with the steamers, which after- wards resume the voyage to Melbourne and Sydney, in 1887. The present agree- ment expires in 1905. The contract time is 686 hours from brindisi to Adelaide. The Post and Telegraph Department, hav- ing been taken over by the Federal Go- vernment, the conclusion of mail contracts between South Australia, as a part of the Union, and the United Kingdom has now to be negotiated by the Commonwealth Government. The number of ship letters which passed through South Australian post offices in 1901 was 4,745,070 out of a total of 21,401,518. In 1887 the number of ship letters was 2,237,699 out of an aggregate of 15,181,309. Newspapers brought into South Australia or sent away by sea numbered 1,622,788 out of 7,376,953 in 1887, and 3,144,128 out of 9,827,071 in 1901. River Murray Trade. South Australia has always been deeply interested in the maintenance of a high- way by water into the interior of the Con- tinent, and has taken a leading part in the navigation of the Rivers Murray and Darling. The matter was actively taken up by Sir Henry Young among pioneer Governors, while the names 1 of Captains Cadell, Randell, Johnson, and King will ever be remembered among early navi- gators of the river who did much to ex- plore its tortuous reaches and demonstrate its value as a highway of commerce. With the settlement of the far western dis- tricts of New South Wales and the country on both sides of the Murray an important trade was developed. Large quantities of goods were yearly carried by this means to distant stations, while pastoral produce was brought down to the seaboard. The volume of this interchange amounted in 1882 to no less than 837,704 worth of im- THE SHIPPING TRADE. 177 Murray Bridge. ports from New South Wales, and 23,555 from Victoria. Exports, on the other hand, came to 346,153 to New South Wales, and 564 to Victoria. Of recent years the construction of railways, the adoption of preferential railway rates, droughts, and the conflict of irrigation in- terests have caused this valuable trade to seriously dwindle till, in 1901, river borne imports from New South Wales amounted to only 1 12,536, and from Victoria to 24,768. Exports in the same year were 36,526 to New South Wales, and 8,801 to Victoria. The question of riparian rights has been debated for many years, during which period the neighboring State of Victoria has been extending diversion schemes till at present there is grave fear that the navigation of the river will be destroyed. Hopes are entertained that the establishment of Federation will ulti- mately ensure an amicable and just settle- ment of the river problem. It is pro- vided by the constitution that "the Com- monwealth shall not by any law or regula- tion of trade or commerce abridge the right of a State or of the residents therein to the reasonable use of the waters of rivers for conservation or irrigation." Everything depends upon the construction placed upon the words "reasonable use.'' Early in 1902 an Interstate Conference was held to consider the question of water conservation, and to South Australia and the back blocks of New South Wales the immensely important matter of locking the river and generally disposing of the water. The outcome of this gathering was the appointment by the Common- wealth Government of a Royal Commis- sion, which brought up a report which threatened to create a deadlock. At a Conference of State Premiers in 1903 the scheme of the experts was somewhat amended, and it was agreed to submit this modification to the State Parliaments of South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales for acceptance. This agreement was intended to hold good for five years, but it did not prove acceptable, and has not been ratified. The Government of South Australia proposes to construct a barrage across the mouth of the river to keep out the sea and throw back the fresh water into Lakes Alexandrina and Albert. THE CENTRAL STATE. Vessels Registered in SoutH Australia. The first vessel registered at Port Ade- laide was the Hero, built at the Manning River, New South Wales, in 1837, and transferred to South Australia the follow- ing year. The certificate, which is still preserved at the Custom House, sets out that John Barton Hack, of Adelaide, was the sole owner of a vessel of 36 tons, hav- ing one deck, one mast, and a length from the inner part of the main stem to the sternpost of 40 ft., a beam of 14 ft., and a depth of 7 ft. She was carvel built, and square at the stern. It is not an easy matter to give an idea of the extent to which tonnage is owned in South Aus- tralia, It is impossible to state what amount of South Australian capital is in- vested in the industry, and the tonnage registered in the State does not throw much light upon this question. The fol- lowing is an official statement of the num- ber of vessels belonging 'to Port Ade- laide : Steamers. Sailers. No. Tons. No. Tons 1892 90 15,852 215 23,909 1893 92 15,331 212 23,571 1894 94 16,146 212 22,880 1895 95 17,715 214 22,930 1896 103 29,073 215 22,507 1897 109 30,641 217 22,229 1898 107 28,413 222 22,573 1899 108 28,445 227 22,421 1900 107 26,945 216 19,140 1901 109 29,661 218 18,943 It is estimated that close on 300 seamen whose homes are in South Australia find employment in the Interstate and purely coastal trade. The number would be much greater except for the fact that the steamship companies find it convenient to register their vessels in other States and pay wages and effect repairs there. It is hoped that with the construction of the contemplated graving dock at Port Ade- laide still more seamen may be induced to establish homes there. The substitution of steam for sail has tended to reduce the number of seamen carried on vessels trad- ing to the State, but at the same time the increase in the size of vessels has counter- acted this tendency. This aspect is brought out in the following table com- piled from official records and showing en- tries at South Australian ports : Tons Pear. Entered. 1871 9,152 1881 30,969 1891 52,145 1901 61,752 Average Crews. per ton. 193,830 21 640,885 20 1,287,644 24 1,966,698 31 It will, of course, be understood that these particulars relate to seamen of all nationalities. Especially interesting just now are the rates of wages ruling on the Australian coast, and the following also from official sources shows the average wages per month paid to seamen who en- gaged through the Department of Mercan- tile Marine during 1901: STEAMERS. First mate Second mate A.B O.S Boatswain Carpenter Steward ... Cook First engineer . . Second engineer Fireman ... Trimmer . . Coasting. 15 to 16 11 to 13 6 15/ 2 10/ 8 9 3 to 9 3 to 9 18 to 20 16 8 15/ 6 15/ Interstate. 16 to 17 11 to 13 7 3 8 9 3 to 12 3 to 12 20 to 25 16 to 18 9 7 Oversea Passenger Trade. South Australia's great need as indeed it is of all parts of the Commonwealth is a larger population. In the early days of the province a system of State assisted immigration was in force by means 1886. Naturally, the human flow was all in one direction in the early days, and by 1849 the excess of immigration over emi- gration had reached to close on 14,000. In the following year, when the Victorian * i **,,. ^ iviivwiug year, wnen ine Victorian of which population was attracted to the goldfields had begun to attract attention, lony, but this policy was terminated in the excess had fallen to just over 6,000. THE SHIPPING TRADE. 179 Total immigration during the ten years, 1850 to 1859, amounted to 124,595 per- sons, of whom 67,815 arrived from Great Britain, 49,309 from British colonies, and 7,471 from foreign countries. The num- ber of immigrants introduced at public ex- pense during the ten years was 50,355 29,675 English, 5,913 Scotch, and 14,767 Irish. The total was made up of 23,690 males and 26,665 females. Of the former 17,331 were adults and 6,359 children, and of the females 19,926 were adults and 6,739 children. Total expenditure upon immi- gration during the same period was 1,121,731, the average cost to the State being 22/5/6 per Government immigrant, or 19/15 for each individual who arrived and remained in the colony. By the end of the sixties the number of immigrants brought at public expense had fallen very low, and the year before the repeal of the legislation amounted to only 293. The following shows the gain or loss to popula- tion by this means, it being understood that the figures since 1886 do not include any State assisted immigrants, that system having ceased at that time : Year. 1847 1857 1867 1877 1887 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 Immigra- tion. 5,646 8,138 3,651 15,016 15,468 96,827 94,060 73,557 77,789 73,780 71,896 Emigra- tion. 885 4,909 4,046 9,008 17,667 98,037 92,306 71,966 78,624 82,880 72,810 Excess of Immgtn. Emigtn. 4,761 3,229 6,008 1,754 1,591 900 395 2,199 1.210 475 914 Nunyara Sanatorium for the Open- Air Treatment of Consumption, situated in the Mount Lofty Ranges, Belair, seven- miles from Adelaide. Altitude, 1,050 feet. The State Railways. Paradoxical though it may seem, it is historically, as well as technically, correct to declare that the first railway in South Australia was a tramway ! The earliest rail traction the pioneer scheme for the transit of goods other than by the roadway was witnessed early in the fifties. A private company laid down rails between Goolwa and Port Elliot for the carriage of river-borne goods by means of horsepower to the port of shipment. At a later date the system was extended to Victor Har- bor, and in due course the locomotive superseded the horse. But still more surprising facts remain to be stated concerning the establishment and extension of railways in this State. The honor of building the first State- owned railway in the British Empire be- longs to South Australia! That claim may sound extravagant, but it can be es- tablished beyond doubt.. There is another extraordinary fact in favor of this State. In South Australia there are approximately five miles of railway to each 1,000 inhabi- tants. Compared on that basis, South Australia leads the world as a builder of railways! An influential rail- way journal admits the accuracy of this, and says: "Comparing the railway mileage of the world, South Aus- tralia is first with 52.3 miles for each 10,000 people, this result, of course, being due to the comparative sparseness of the population. In the United States there are twenty-six miles to 10,000 inhabitants." "Sparseness of population" does not take anything away from so creditable an achievement. The "sparse population" pluckily shouldered the responsibility of running a telegraph line through an un- known continent in order to connect Aus- tralia and the world beyond, and boldly adopted a vigorous railway construction policy. In a direct line from south to north there is a clear run by railway unr fortunately with a break of gauge of over 1,000 miles. The total railway mileage open to public traffic is 1,736 miles, and every inch of it is the property of the people. The only privately owned line in South Australia is a short span of thirty- three miles built by the Broken Hill Pro- prietary Company for the carriage of flux from Iron Knob to the sea coast near Port Pirie. Within ten years of the proclamation of the province a few pushful pioneers wanted to know why George Stephenson should be supplying locomotive traction to English- men and South Austalians be left to wield the bullock whip, taxing both their strength and their vocabularies! An agi- tation began late in the forties in favor of linking the city and the chief seaport. A company was formed in. 1848 for that pur- pose, and legislative authority was given twoyears later for the construction of a rail- way from Adelaide to Port Adelaide, "with a branch to the North Arm." The latter was never built. The representative of the company had at least three objections to the terms offered. Maximum tolls of 2d., l|d., and Id. for first, second, and third classes were claimed. The Government reserved the right to purchase the line, and a limitation was placed upon the grant of lands. Negotiations were suspended, and the Legislature came forward with a guar- antee of 5 per cent, for ten years on the estimated cost of construction. The com- pany promoters were not satisfied, and the Government stepped in and did the work, thus laying the foundation for the extensive system of State-owned railways in Austra- lia. It was not until April, 1856, that the seven and a half miles of track connect- ing Adelaide and Port Adelaide was open- ed as the result of an expenditure of 204,000 or over 27,000 per mile! Platelayer and bridge-builder then began work in earnest. They turned their faces northward. The first section was twenty- five miles to Gawler. That line was opened in 1857, and the little province owned at the end of that year 4H miles of railway. The next step was to Kapund*, where copper had been discovered. The north-eastern section was available in 1860, and for many years Kapunda remained n terminus, and was greatly frequented by northern settlers when visiting the city or returning to their homes. For ten years it represented the ultima thule of the rail- way system, but in 1870 the copperopolis of South Australia the Burra then re- THE STATE RAILWAYS. 181 garded as being in the "Far Noi'th" was connected. The opening up of the "Northern Areas" a few years later took the "iron horse" to Crystal Brook and Port Pirit. The northward movement steadily continued until Port Augusta, 260 miles from Adelaide, was connected. The two great engineering feats in connection with railway building in South Australia, were the construction of the Great Northern system, which has its terminus at Oodna- datta the point from which it is (proposed the land-grant transcontinental work F. J. Gillen photo. Simpson Gap, McDonnell Ranges. should begin and the line through the Mount Lofty Ranges, across the River Murray, and the Ninety-Mile Desert, con- necting with the interstate system which now extends to Gladstone in Queensland 2,100 miles from Oodnadatta without a gap ! The mountain ranges between Quorn and Port Augusta, in which is situ- ated the bold and strikingly grand Pichi- Hichi Pass tested the skill of the engi- neers. Greater difficulties confronted them in finding a passage through the Mount Lofty Ranges, but they emerged from the ordeal with infinite credit to themselves; and few railways in the world better de- monstrate the skill of engineer and work- men than the line which winds its way to high altitudes between Adelaide and Mount Lofty. Nine tunnels, aggregating a total length of nearly 2,000 yards, a wrought-iron skeleton-looking viaduct 620 ft. long and 107 ft. high were necessary in the first thirty miles. To cross the "Nile of Australia" a bridge consisting of five 120-ft. main spans each containing 140 tons of ironwork and twenty-three 60-ft. spans across a swamp had to be built. The capital cost of the 1,229 miles of 3 ft. 6 in gauge and the 507 of 5 ft. 3 in. gauge is set down at 13,400,796, equal to 7,718 per mile, and about half the total public debt. The following state- ment has reference to the working of the railway system for the twelve months ended June 30, 1903 : Passenger traffic by ordinary and season tickets 281,666 Coaching do. other than above 60,371 Mineral do. freight 226,728 Grain do. do 29,578 Wool do. do 19,690 Goods do. do. other than the above 355,166 Live stock do. do 72,360 Miscellaneous earnings 31,053 Bevenue (Gross earnings) 1,076,612 Working expensey 624,511 Net revenue (balance after .paying working expenses) .. 452,101 Percentage of working expenses to revenue % 58.01 Do. of net revenue to capital . cost (on average miles open)% 3.37 Number of passenger jour- neys No. 9,061,488 Minerals carried tons 546,701 Grain do tons 101,602 Wool do tons 14,798 Goods do. other than the above tons 647,066 Live stock do tons 39,450 Goods and live stock, gross tonnage, freight paying 1,349,617 Train miles . .... 3,770,351 1 82 THE CENTRAL STATE. Total earnings per train mile d. 68.53 Total working expenses per train mile d. 39.75 Total earnings per average mile open 620 Total working expenses per do 360 Locomotives No. 346 Coaching vehicles No. 435 Goods and live stock vehicles No. 6,021 Departmental wagonS, travel- ling tanks, and cranes. . . No. 273 Population, excluding abori- gines, at close of year, ap- proximately 363,000 Miles of line open for every one thousand of population, approximately 4.78 Population or every mile of line opened No. 209 REVENUE. 1902-1903. Passengers First class 82,776 Second class 198,890 Mails, parcels, &c 60,371 Minerals 226,728 Grain 29,578 Wool 19,690 Goods other than above 355,166 Live stock 72,360 Miscellaneous Wharfage, rents, &c 31,053 1,076,612 EXPENDITURE. 1902-1903. Maintenance 139,297 Locomotive branch 317,217 Traffic, compensation, and general charges 167,997 624,511 The foregoing figures are exclusive of the Palmerston and Pine Creek Railway in the Northern Territory, also a part of the South Australian railway system and controlled from Adelaide. This line is 145 miles in length, and the mileage run last year was 30,422. The revenue was 11,298, and the expenditure 12,812. In his last annual report the Railways Commissioner was able to write: "I re- cord with pleasure the fact that no passen- ger has sustained an injury for which the department could be held responsible, and no better tribute to the general careful- ness and attention to duty of the staff can be necessary." Actuated by the very best intention that of lessening the cost of construction a dominant section of legislators in the seventies introduced what is known as the narrow gauge, viz., 3 ft. 6 in., as against the 5 ft. 3 in. gauge which was first estab- lished. There are three narrow systems in the State separated from one another by the broad gauge. This greatly in- creases the difficulty and cost of manage- ment. There are breaks from the broad to the narrow width at Hamley Bridge and Terowie north of Adelaide and at Wol- seley, in the South, and in bne event of a glut of traffic in the far northern, the wes- tern, or the south-eastern divisions it is- not an easy matter to quickly concentrate hauling power or increase the carrying capacity at a given point, me 5 ft. 3 in. (prevails between Adelaide and Melbourne, and thence as far as Albury, the border of Victoria and New South Wales. In the latter State there is one gauge the English 4 ft. 8 in. The question of uni- formity is one that has 1 frequently been discussed, and as often, put aside because of the divergence of opinion concerning the best width to adopt ana the enormous outlay involved in bringing about one common system. An interesting feature in connection with the South Australian railways was the enterprise of this State in constructing a line to the border of New South Wales to tap the rich Barrier silver fields. The whole of the trade of Broken Hill passes over the South Australian railways. During the last year the tonnage carried amounted to 491,711 tons, giving a re- venue of 339,441. Splendidly equipped workshops exist at various centres, but the main shops are at Islington, about three miles north of the city. From this establishment are turned out locomotives, carriages, and wagon stock. Some of the most powerful engines in Australia ha,ve been designed and manufactured at Isling- ton. The Chief Mechanical Engineer, Mr. T. Roberts, in his last report, stated : "The pattern class 'F' engine, 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, for suburban passenger traffic, which was com- pleted and issued to traffic in March, 1902, has proved to be a most successful and satisfactory engine ; her average cost THE STATE RAILWAYS. 183 being 0.7 Id. less per train mile than the average for the class 'P' engine doing similar duty. The pattern class 'T,' 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, tender engine, built at Isling- ton, was completed and issued to traffic in February last, and is working very satis- factorily, hauling loads 50 per cent, in ex- cess of the maximum load for class 'Y/ the previous standard engine. The Ways and Works Shops, Glanville, under the control of the Engmeer-in-Chief, in addition to railway work, are capable of turning out cast iron piping of various sizes for the reticulation of water. The Engineer-in-Chief, Mr. A. B. Moncrieff, in his last statement, reported that his expenditure for the twelve months ended June 30, 1903, for various works of construction being additions to the existing lines amounted to 96,385. The only railway in course of construction is a line 3^ miles long to con- nect the Outer Harbor, now being built. Parliament has recently sanctioned the making of a railway between Tailem Bend and Pinnaroo, a distance of eighty miles, for the purpose of opening 500,000 acres of agricultural country, and a line between Wandilo and Glencoe, nine miles in length. The former is to be the broad and the latter the narrow gauge. When these axe completed there will be approximately 2,000 miles of State-owned railways in South Australia. Trans-Australian Lines. Two projects are before the public at the present time for bridging the continent with railways northwards from, Oodnadatta to connect with the Pine (Jreek railway, and westward from Port Augusta! to join the Western Australian line at the gold- fields. The construction of the latter is a matter for the Federal Government, sub- ject to the approval of the South Austra- lian Parliament to allow the building of a railway through its territory. The cost is estimated in round figures at 5,000,000, and its advocates assert tnat the work would pay after a few years 1 . It is claimed that the connecting by railway of Perth in the west with Brisbane in the east via Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney would be of immense benefit in the expedition of mails, and, if the occasion should arise, the transport of troops. The proposal which finds most favor in this State is the extension, of the Great Northern system of our railways. The ter- minus of that is at Oodnadatta, 688 miles from Adelaide, and between that point and Pine Creek there is a gap of 1,063 miles. It is claimed that it will be practicable for passengers and mails to reach Port Dar- win by the Siberian railway route in four- teen days from London, or in seventeen days to Adelaide. Tenders are now being invited by the South Australian Government for the con- struction of 1,063 miles of railway on the land-grant system. A bonus is offered to the contractors of a grant of land in fee- simple of 79,725,000 acres! Tenderers must deposit 10,000, and must apply by May 2, 1904. They must be prepared to 1. Construct the railway to the satis- faction of the Engineer-in-Chief, on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge ; the rails to i>e of steel, and of not less weight than 60 Ib. to the yard. 2. Complete the work in eight years; the minimum length of line to be constructed in any one year being 100 miles. 3. Pro- vide and always maintain a train service for goods and passengers once a w?ek at least from each terminus, with a minimum speed of 20 miles per hour. 4. Deposit 50,000, which is to be absolutely for- feited if default is made in any of the con- ditions of the contract. The country through which this line would pass pre- sents no great engineering difficulties. For the most part it is one vast plain, with here and there a sand ridge or a water- course. The worst gradient would be 1 in 80 for about two. miles. The only difficulties between Oodnadatta and Alice Springs are a few milea of sandhills and the spanning of the Finke. From Alice Springs to Woodford Creek, 100 miles, the railway would cross high tableland country about 2,000 ft. above sea level. Then there would be a descent to Teatree Well, 1,490 ft. above sea level. The gradients for the rest of the distance would be exceedingly easy. The climate throughout the country to be tapped is excellent all the year round, and the contractors would meet with no difficulty in the matter of obtaining water and supplies of meat. Full information, concerning the terms of the offer made under the Land Grant Railway Act is ob- tainable from the Government in Adelaide or at the AgentXJeneral's Office, London. 1 84 THE CENTRAL STATE. THE STATE RAILWAYS. PLACES WORTH VISITING SERVED BY THE SOUTH ( AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS. THE HILLS DISTRICT, THE NATIONAL PARK, AND THE SOUTH COAST WATERING PLACES. The line over the Mount Lofty Ranges passes through beautiful scenery. Where nature undisturbed has ceased to hold sway, art and industry have stepped in, and all along the line, picturesquely dotted about on hillside and in valley, and surrounded by fruit and flower gardens, the majority of which are models of horticultural and floricultural skill and artisitic arrangement, are to be found pretty residences, 'charming villas, and neat cottages. A pleasant day's outing in the miidst of lovely surroundings may be enjoyed at any point along the Mne. At BEL AIR, 40 minutes' journey from. Adelaide, is the National Park, a reserve for recreative purposes, some 2,000 acres in ex- tent. Its exceptional natural advantages have been added to by judicious improve- ments, under the diireerbion of a board of man- agement: Miniature lakes have 'been formed, drives and walks laid out, bowers, shelter hoiises, &c., &c., ejected, so that now visitors find here everything necessary for their plea- sure and comfort. After crossing the Ranges the line extends through the districts of STRATHALBYN, BLACK SWAMP, CURRENCY CREEK, and FINNISS, to the charming South Coast wafer ing places of GOOLWA. MIDDLETON, PORT ELLIOT, and VICTOR HARBOR. The first-named is the nearest staitdon to the MURRAY MOUTH and the COORONG (a favorite resort of sportsmen), and especi- ally interesting as the place at which Gap- tain Sturt, the earliest exploiter, after com- iug down the rivers, reached the sea. At MIDDLETON there is a fine stretch! of s'hell beach. PORT ELLIOT stands second to none in natural attractions for visitors. The never ceasing roll of the huge breakers of the Southern Ocean, the lovely spray dashing over the fine old granite boulders, and the charming little bays, providing secluded nooks for picnic parties, bears a striking resem- blance, 'to New Zeadand or New South Wale* coast scenery. VICTOR HARBOR is situated a little further south on the north-west coast of Encounter Bay the bay of islands, com- posed of granite boulders and is a moat 'picturesque place for a summer holiday. Granite Island, the nearest to the mainland, is connected with the town by a long and convenient pier, which forms a delightful pro- menade. The island itself has many plea- sant walks and boulder-shaded nooks, where a summer day may be enjoyably passed. A tram-car runs to the island during the sum- mer months. For geologists this is perhaps the most attractive resort on the continent, signs of glacial action being apparent on the rocks, wliile the country is strewn with ice- carried boulders. At each place there are a number of com- modious hotels, wiell-kept and replete with every comfort for visitors, also numbers of boarding-houses, where rooms or board and lodging can be obtained a.t prices to suit the pockeits of all classes. BOATING and YACHTING may be in- dulged in either OFF THE COAST, on the RrvER MURRAY at GOOLWA, or on thie HIND- MARSH RIVER, near VICTOR HARBOR. Safe fast-sailing little centre-board cutters, manned by capable men who spend their working hours sailing for profit (fishing) and their spare time sculling for pleasure, can be hired for a few hours or a week if re- quired. At Goolwa, there is also a steam launch (The Singapore) and a 10- ton schooner (The WliMe Cloud) always available for visitors. GOOD FISHING is obtainable ALL ROTJND THE COAST, and in the MURRAY AND HIND- MARSH. Schnapper, sweep, whiting, mullet, &e., in tli* sea, and cod, butter-fish, &c., in the river, being often very abundant. The break- ers from the Southern Ocean dashing against the granite rocks are an endless attraction. THE LAKES, CAVES, AND ROCK-BOUND COASTS OF THE SOUTH-EAST. MOUNT GAMBIER AND ENVIRONS. One of the principal pleasure spots in the colony is Mount Gamlbier, with its wonderful crater lakes, many curious caves, and English scenery. The Blue Lake, thie most import- ant of the group, is nearly a mile across from east to wast. It is surrounded by rocky banks, varying from 200 feet to 30 feet in height, and the water .can only be approached at two points by (prepared paths. The lake varies in depth from 180 feet to 330 feeit. The many beauties of the surrounding scen- eiry, the adjoining lakes ajid caves, and the mountain and view therefrom, and the indi- genous flora, cannot be here described; but an extended visit to this district will! give holiday-seekers considerable enjoyment. THE GLENELG RIVER This is one of the most beautiful streams in the southern portion of Australia. Nelson, or "The Punt," about two miles from the mouith of the river, is twenty-Sour miles from Mount Gamlbier,, 1 86 THE CENTRAL STATE. and is reached by a good road the whole length. The banks of the river are in some places rugged and steep, and in others cloithed to thte water's edge in magnificent specimens of trees, ferns, shrubs, and wild flowers, particularly (brilliant in sipring and summer. The river is fuilil of perch, bream, salmon, and trout, and duck and other wild fowl abound in large quantities. BEACHPORT. This excellent watering- place is reached by rail frtom Mount Gammer, a distance of 51 miles. The sea being broken by the bars at the entrance to the bay, th'e water is always comparaitively smooth, and boating can be indulged in at all times. There is plenty of fishing, and also shooting on lakes George and Frome, and smaller sheets of water adjacent. The Barr-Smith steam lifeboat. City of Adelaide, is stationed at Reaohport; and Penguin Island, with its lighthouse, is easily reached by water. ROBE. This is another favorite watering- place in the South-East, and is very pnettily situated on the southern side of Guichen Bay. Its temperature in sumimer is said to be the coolest in the colony. It is reached from Adelaide by rail to Kingston, and thence by coach ; and visitors from the metropolis are numerous during the hot mlonths. PORT MACDONNELL. This watering- place is 18 miles south of Mount Gambier. The sea coast is wild and rocky, but a mile or so inland there are many secluded spots favored by picnic parties. There is a light- house at Gape Northumberland, two miles away, and the port contains public sea baths, under good management. NARACOORTE CAVES. The Rev. Julian Woods, F.G.S., &c., &c., after his visit to the caves, said "in point of magnitude and splendor, and in a scientific view, -they do not yield in importance to such wonderful pheno- mena as the Adelsberg Oaves, the caves in the Peak of Derbyshire, the Guarcharo Caves, and those in New South Wales and Tas- mania." Alighting from the train at Nara- coorte. the caves are reached after an eight- mile drive. No description can convey an adequate idea of their vastness and the natu- ral wonders to be found there, but all tra- vellers should visit these subterranean phe- nomena. A specially interesting cave, which was discovered a few years ago, has recently been opened to the public. It is near the others, and is in a perfect state of preserva- tion, the careful oversight of the Woods and Forests Department, under whose control the caves 'are placed, prteiventing the mutilation of the beautiful stalactites with which it is studded. Application musit be made to the resident forester for permission to visit this cave, a charge of I/ being collected from each visitor. The Government has recently spent some hundreds of pounds in improving the facilities for visiting the caves. As they beconre better known they will rightly take their plaice as one of the show sights of the Australian co'kxnies. THE WORLD-FAMED BARRIER MINING FIELDS, AND SOME PLACES OF INTEREST NORTH OF ADELAIDE. Rail communication between the Barrier Fields, New South Wales, the Seaboard, and Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, is given via the Silverton Tramway (33 miles) and the S.A. Railways (Adelaide 299 miiles, and Port Pirie 219 miles.) There is a daily express (14 hours) in each direction between Adelaide and Broken Hill ; sleeping cars are attached for the night journey berth fee 7/6 ; and ade- quate refreshment-room accommodation is to be found at convenient points. PORT AUGUSTA. This township is within a day's journey of Adelaide, and that portion of the country between Quorn and Port Augusta, through Pichi Riehi Pass, in the Flinders Range, with Mount Brown (H.-'OO ft. high) frequently in view, is ex- tremely picturesque. Port Augusta is at the head of Spencer's Gulf, one of the finest waterways in Australia. The town is health- ily situated, and contains many fine buildings. First-class hotel accommodation is provided, and the port offers a most enjoyable holiday to those fond of yachting and fishing. GAWLER AND ANGASTON. Visitors should certainly see this charming district, the home of the vine. Gawler often termed the "Modern Athlens," is twenty-five miles from Adelaide, and five trains a day run to it. It is an exceedingly pretty town, situ- ated on the banks of the South Para river, and two large iron foundries give the town a busy appearan0e. Eight miles east of Gawler is the Barossa Goldifield, and con- tinuing the journey north-east through Row- land's Flat, Tanunda, and on to Angaston and Schlunke's Creek, a most fertile tract of country is passed through teeming with vine- yards. The wine and brandy cellars of the Adelaide Company, known as "Chateau Tanunda," are the largest in the Australian oolo-niies, and will well repay a visit. To reach Angaston direct passengers alight from the traan at Freeilong, 'thence coaching it. Another well-known place is the Roseworthy Argicultural College, about seven miles -from Gawler. In fact, the whole of this district is interesting, the scenery beautiful, and the roads good. GLARE. A lighting at Saddleworth, Clare is reached by a twenty-two mile drive over to an excellent road and through delightful scenery. After passing Auburn the road thence to Clare follows the windings of the River Wakefield. Commencing thirteen and on'ei-half miles to the westward of Laura Railway Station, tourists may drive or cycle through Wirra- bara Plantation and Forest and the Telowie Gorge, en route to Port Germein, amidst scemery both varied and picturesque. The Telowie Gorge is very fine. Waterworks. The metropolitan district and most of the large country towns are provided with an. abundant supply of excellent water from waterworks constructed and controlled by the State Government. The cost of these works has been 3,668,289. The annual working expenses amount to about 31,250, and the net revenue to 81,150, thus giving a percentage of net revenue to capital cost 2.2 per cent. The chief sources of the water supply are running streams, on which weirs are constructed to divert the water, when free from flood pollution, into large storage reservoirs. Two engineering methods have been adopted in the construction of the larger storage reservoirs. Where the sites were suitable, such as those at Happy Val- ley and Bundaleer, the reservoirs have been constructed by building large earth and clay embankments in natural basins away from the main watercourses. The Happy Valley Reservoir has a capacity of 2,950,000 gallons, and of this, as well as M the Bunda- leer Reservoir, capacity 1,31D;000 gallons, some views are given. " The Adelaide Waterworks, with its headwbrks and 634 miles of reticulation mains, cost 1,645,812. The net revenue from rates and sales of water for the year ending June 30, 1903, was 55,130, being 3.349 per cent, on the capital cost. At the Barossa Waterworks the reservoir wall has been constructed of cement concrete on the curved .principle. The height of the wall is 95 ft., and the capacity of the reservoir 993,340,000 gal- lons. The Beetaloo Waterworks, command- ing Port. Pirie, Moonta, Wallaroo, Kadina, and fifteen other towns, as well as about a million acres of country lands, are unique with regard to the extent of the reticulation with cast iron pipes, of which there are no lesa than 637 miles, the capital cost of the works being 989,950. The aggregate capacity of the reservoirs supplying these town waterworks amounts to 7,365 million gallons, and the length of trunk and reticu- lation mains to 1,738 miles. The separate assessments number 79,105 of the annual value of 1,437,800. Artesian Wells. The State of South Australia and its ''de- pendency, '" the Northern Territory, are blessed with a large share of the "great arte- aian basin of Australia/' The intake bed of this is the western slope of the coast range from Cape York, the noithernmost point iri Queensland, into Uie nortn-eastern corner of New South Wales. Over this range the rainfall is exceedingly heavy, averaging 51 in. at Brisbane, 70 in. at Cooktown, 72 in. at Mackay, and 149 in. at Geraldton, These figures will give an idea of the fall in the territory referred to. On the western slope there is a large sandstone formation so porous that the rain water as it runs off the hilltops is mostly absorbed by the sandstone rocks, and the volume along ther* surface is considerably decreased by this loss. Were it not for this enormous ab- sorption by the porous band no' doubt the Diamentiria River, Cooper's Creek, and other streams which flow southward from Queensland into South Australia would, in- stead of running intermittently, be strong rivers. Thus yearly a very large supply of water flow's through the intaike beds and passes underground to replenish the water- bearing area of the artesian basin. This annual contribution is so large that, accord- ing to a-n eminent authority, the compara- tively small quantity discharged by the bores, however numerous they may be, will probably make no permanent difference to the subterranean storage. This is a region akin to Kubla Khan : In Kubla Khan a river ran, Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless iea. The extent of the artesian basin is 590, 000 'square miles; of which Queensland 1 88 THE CENTRAL STATE. 4?- i. I WATERWORKS. 189 has 380,000, South Australia 120,000, Nor- thern Territory 30,000, and New South Wales 60,000. In addition to the town waterworks, much attention has been given by the Go- vernment to the development of the interior by wells, reservoirs, and borings for arte- sian water. On such works the sum of 660,643 has been expended. The annual revenue is small, but the indirect advan- tages are immense. A large measure of suc- cess has resulted, particularly in the north- eastern portion of the State. There are about twenty flowing artesian wells, many of which are of great depth. The Mount Gason bore, 4,420 ft., is the deepest, and the supply is about half a million gallons per day. The water is invariably thermal, and that from the Mount Gason bore flows over the surface at a temperature of 204 deg. Fahr. It is a curious fact that the temperature increases much more rapidly in the locality of this artesian basin than in most other parts of the earth, the ave- rage mean of temperature being 1 deg. Fahr. for each 27 ft. The Coward bore, 308 ft. deep, gives a flowing 1 million gal- lons per day, and is fairly typical of the other artesian wells in the locality. Kip- ling declares that In the Neolithic age, When the prehistoric springs made the piled Biscayan ice-packs split and shove. Certainly, in South Australia the tapping of the great subterranean sea hag com- pletely changed the future of inland Aus- tralia. Country that was once described as "uninhabitable deserts," is now being utilised because of a plentiful supply of water ; and there is a possibility of develop- ment on the lines followed by the great western districts of the United States. On the Adelaide plains and in other parts of the States sub-artesian supplies have been struck. At Virginia, about thirty miles north of the city, 24,000 gallons per day has been obtained from one bore. The following is a list of the principal Govern- ment artesian bores in South Australia : Feef in Gal. per depth. diem. Mirra Mitta 3,534 400,000 Mungeranie 3,370 600,000 Kopperamanna 3,000 800,000 Dulkaninna 2,226 1,000 000 Lake Crossing 1,700 200,000 Yandama 1,620 430,000 Oodnadatta 1,571 270,000 Storm Creek 1,551 86,000 Hamilton Creek 1,417 200,000 Lake Harry 1,360 120,000 Anacoora 1,250 700,000 Petermorra 1,243 200 000 Strangways 365 1,250,000 Hergott 342 100,000 Coward 308 1,250,000 William Creek 229 20,000 Mount Gason 4,420 500,000 Lake Phillipson (unfi'ed) 2,232 G cyder'sLagoon (unfi'ed) 4,440 Cconanua 2,030 500,000 38,208 8,626.000 The "Nile" of Australia. Do you know the blackened timber, do you know that racing stream, With the raw, right-angled log-jam at the end, And the bar of sun-warmed shingle, where a man may bask and dream, To the click of shod canoe-poles round the bend ? There is no "silent, smoky Indian" to go to no Red-Gods "a-calling" at any point on the Murray our greatest river, not inaptly termed sometimes "The 'Nile' of Australia." But the noble stream has many other attractions to the pleasure-seeker, and sportsman, whilst it represents to the mer- chant a great artery of trade with inland Australia, The Murray is the great natural drainage line of the south-eastern part of Australia. The basin of the river and its tributaries comprises 414,253 square miles, an area equal to double that of France! Altogether there are over 3,000 miles of navigable streams in the Commonwealth. The Murray is navigable for 1,750 miles, and the Darling in, good seasons 1,468. About 500 miles of the navigable portion of the Murray, including the outlet to the sea, is within the borders of South Austra- lia. This State is the natural outlet of the trade of the Darling and the Murray, and it was South Australian enterprise that first proved these streams and inaugurated a service of trading and passenger steamers. It ig not surprising, therefore, that this State should protest against the action of States lip-streams in constructing diversion works which would interfere with naviga- tion. The whole question is now under consideration by State and Federal Go- vernments, and a solution will probably be found in the building of locks and storage basins. It is estimated that a complete system of locks would cost 2,500,000, and this would be a small outlay considering the advantages from navigation and irriga- tion. The Murray was first navigated by Cap- tain Cadell in the Lady Augusta in 1853. but Captain W. R. Randell had the first steamer on the river, and closely followed Captain Cadell. The Lady Augusta- com- pleted the first voyage made on the Murray on October 14, 1853. The announcement of the arrival of the steamer at Goolwa with her cargo of 441 bales of wool, 1,000 sheepskins, and a quantity of tallow was conveyed to the Legislative Council in the following message from the Lieutenant- Governor, who had journeyed up the river with the vessel : "On board the Lady Augusta, steamer, Goolwa, October 14, 1853 Lieutenant-Governor Sir Henry Young has the gratification to announce to the Legislative Council the arrival at the Goolwa of the first river-borne wool, the produce of the vast basin of the Murray. In congratulating the Council on this auspici- ous commencement of the steam naviga- tion and commerce of the great River Mur- ray, the Lieutenant-Governor is happy to state that Casptain CadeH's voyage reached to 150 miles beyond Swanhill, a distance of about 1,450 miles from the sea, and was also extended for 60 miles up the Wakool, an important branch of the Murray. The first cargo comiprises wool of the Murray, the Darling, the Murrumbidgee, and the Wakool Rivers." In reply to this an ad- dress was drafted by the Select Committee of the Council, and formally adopted on October 21, 1853. It contained the follow- ing clause : "The Council requests your Excellency to cause three medals to be engraved, with suitable device and in- scriptions, commemorating the auspicious opening up of the steam navigation and Commerce of the Murray, and the first ar- rival at the Goolwa of river-borne wool ; and the Council requests that, as the Lieu- tenant-Governor of South Australia, whose personal exertions promoted this great en- terprise, and in whose administration it originated, and has been successfully ac- complished, your Excellency would be pleased to receive one of the said medals ; and the Council further requests that your Excellency will be pleased to cause one of the said medals to be conferred on Captain THE "NILE" OF AUSTRALIA. 191 Francis Cadell, who completed the first commercial voyage, as owner and com- mander of the Lady Augusta, steamer, and Eureka, barge, with a cargo of Murray wool ; and that the remaining medal may be deposited with the records of the Legis- lature of South Australia, under whose sanction the necessary pecuniary aid was voted in encouragement of the steam navi- gation of the River Murray." There are many beauty spots in South Australia, numerous seaside and inland pleasure resorts where holiday-makers may obtain all that they require, but there are few better pleasure trips than that obtain- able on Australia's great river. A steamer may be boarded at several points a few hours after leaving the city by train, and a new, ever-changing world is presented to the traveller. The snorting paddle-boat plugs her way up-stream battling pluckily against a sluggish current. The splish, splash, splish of the (paddle wheels and the sharp, clear notes of the whistle, or the flash of the electric head light break into the stillness of slumbering Nature, and disturb the dreams of animals and birds. These are plentiful in the forests, which come down to the water's edge. A cliff towers high over the bows of the steamer, but the boat is skilfully turned round a right- angle bend opening out a fine long reach of shimmering water, at the end of which is another sharp corner. And so you go for- ward, turning, twisting, first one way and then another, as if following the track of a huge snake heading northwards, then face on to the chilling east winds, and back again half round the compass; only there are no compasses on these river steamers. The helmsman wishes there were. It is not a compass that he wants, but clear eyes, double sets of cast iron arms to attend to the steering gear, signal the engine room, and the patience to answer the hundred and one enquiries of the be- wildered but interested passengers. The steamer does a cakewalk going up the Murray. There are some river stories told to illustrate the serpentine character of the channel, and it is necessary to believe them all. A deck hand fell overboard one night, and his absence was not noticed until some hours afterwards, when he hailed the steamer many miles up stream. He had swum ashore, walked across a peninsula, and waited for the boat to come round the bend. It takes your steamer nearly all day to pass a house near Wentworth. Passen- gers can go ashore at the front door in the morning, engage the occupants of the house in a game of cricket, or even start a chess tournament, and join the steamer from the back door during the afternoon. The house stands on one of the many bends of this noble stream. It is in the first flush of the dawn when the thin grey veil of breaking day creeps over the continent that you realise the loveliness of the scenery in the valley of the Murray, and fully appreciate the luxu- rious laziness of life on a river steamer. The scent of the eucalypti enters into every- thing, and flocks of graceful swans fly over- head. Birds of all descriptions abound on the Murray. There is the toothsome teal, the unsavoury shag, and the ungainly ibis. There are cockatoos by thousands, rosellas and grass parrots, pretty little paraquets, the minor and the swallow, the laughing jackasses, with their loud guffaws, as if they recognised you as new chums ; the curlew, whose half-whistle, half-screech has a weirdness all its own in the night ; the shepherd's companion, with his wag- ging tail and chirrupy welcome ; and, of course, the magpie and the crow. The scenery constantly changes; sur- prises meet the visitor at every turn of the river. It is Nature's cinematograph, and one panorama succeeds another, supplying fresh beauty spots So they pass Prom stage to stage along the shining course Of that bright river, broadening like a sea. The oversea visitor who wants to "see Australia" can study inland problems quicker by taking a trip on the Murray, and holiday-makers can find reet and plea- sure as they steam between avenues of eucalypti and boxwood and sheoak, breathe fresh air, and look u,pon Nature in all its ruggedness. The River Murray, with its 1,700 miles of navigable channel, is, from a trading point of view, the "gateway of the interior." South Australia holds the key. Finance and Trade. The public debt of the State amounts to 25,314,440, or 70/7/5 per head of the population. Including the Northern Terri- tory the debt is 27,828,370. The interest chargeable to South Australia in 1903 was 920,768, or 2/11/2 per head per annum, and the proportion of revenue raised by taxation 1,063,000, or 2/19/1 per head. To the European critic Australian obliga- tions appear to be abnormally large. There is an important distinction, how- ever, between the national debts of European countries and those of Aus- tralia. In the one case loans have disappeared in smoke, having been chiefly employed for war purposes. In these lands Government borrowings have been used for the construction of railways, waterworks, telegraphs, harbors, and in other revenue-earning services. If offered for sale the works representing the public debt would bring several times over the amount borrowed for their construction. In his last Budget address in August the Treasurer (Hon. R. Butler) said : "In al- most every instance the figures are an im- provement on those of last year. We have 20,203,792 earning 2.89 per cent, interest, or nearly 3 per cent., out of a total debt of about 27,000,000. Railways earned 3.33 per cent., against 2.98 per cent. last year; waterworks, 1.85 per cent., against 1.77; sewers, 4.11 per cent., against 3.49 ; jetties and lighthouses, 1.33 per cent., against 1.86, a decrease in the shipping accounting for that drop ; im- provements on pastoral leases, 1.31 per cent., against 1.02; and land repurchase and working men's blocks, 4.1 per cent., against 3.37. It works out this way. Out of a total annual interest payment of 913,829, we receive directly from the lines I have quoted 587,870, so that we have to make up from the general revenue 325,959. For what? For roads which we have made, and which are a credit to the State, amounting to nearly 1,500,000; defences, 254,000; drainage, 273,000; and harbor improvements, 1,114,000, which indirectly must be considered one of the most valuable heads of expenditure because they enable shipping to come here and increase the trade of the country. School buildings and other works have also to be reckoned. " Over 20,000,000 of the public debt is represented by revenue- earning public works. Taxation per head of the population in 1902 was : South Aus- tralia, 2/19/1$; New South Wales, 3 6/; Victoria, 2/17/3; Queensland, 3 5/9$; and Western Australia, 7/10/4. The following shows the gross revenue and ex- penditure during the last six years : Revenue. Expenditure 1898 2,566,611 2,598,939 1899 2,665,477 2,632,840 1900 2,780,858 2,779,317 1901 2,824,212 2,846,577 1902 2,428,560 2,650,875 1903 2,483,095 2,482,919 There are seven Banks doing business in the State, not including the Savings and the State Banks. The Bank of Adelaide is the only local financial establishment ; and ever since it opened its doora for business it has had a remarkably successful career. The other institutions are the Union, National, English, Scottish, and Austra- lian, Commercial, New South Wales, and Bank of Australasia. For 1902 the total "notes in circulation" amounted to 361,372; bills in circulation, 12179; and deposits, 5,926,113. The "total ave- rage liabilities" amounted to 6,334,007 ; the "coined gold, silver, and other metals," "bullion," and "Government securities" held totalled 1,652,936; "advances" amounted to 4,262.899 ; "total average assets" stood at 6,481,037. Interest on fixed deposit remainecf unaltered at 3 per cent, per annum. The Savings Bank of South Aus- tralia first opened its doors for busi- ness on March 11, 1848. There are now 155 suburban and country branches. In 1887 eighteen persons in every hundred were depositors, while in 1903 the number had increased to thirty- seven in every hundred. The expenses of management, which were 12/8| per 1,000 of total funds in 1887 have FINANCE AND TRADE. 193 gradually decreased to 6/5 in 1903. The number of depositors in 1902 was 116,436, and the amount deposited 1,985,689, bearing 3 per cent, interest. The reserve fund stood at 131,000, and total funds 4,147,178. The amount on mortgage was 1,397,869, bearing 4 per cent, interest. During last session of Par- liament legislation was passed to facilitate the Bank extending its operations, and to provide for the payment of the trustees. The board now consists of Mr. W. H. Phil- lipps (Chairman), Sir E. T. Smith, Hon. J. V. CXLoghlin, and Messrs. H. Adams, W. G. Coombs, and J. R. Corpe. The manager is Mr. W. B. Poole, and the accountant Mr. H. M. Mudie. The State Bank was established by the State Advances Act of 1895, under which it was authorised to lend to producers to the extent of three-fifths of the value of their properties as determined by the Bank's valuators. Advances were also authorised to be made on Crown lands, and by a subsequent Act power was given, to make advances on, any freehold property irrespective of whether the borrower was a producer or not. Subsequently the legislation regarding loans on Crown lands was liberalised. The Bank is not permit- ted to lend more than 5,000 to any one person, nor must advances current at any one period exceed three million pounds. Money is raised by the issue of mortgage bonds, payment of interest and principal being guaranteed by the Government, and these bonds are redeemable by ballot after five years' currency. The Bank also has power to ipurchase mortgage bonds instead of balloting for their redemption ; and up to the present time bonds to the amount of 232,000 have been so repurchased. The maximum rate of interest allowed to be charged to borrowers is 5 per cent, per annum, and the maximum currency of a loan is forty-two years. All loans are re- paid by equal half-yearly instalments, which include interest at the rate agreed upon, hitherto 4i per cent., and a portion of the principal. Borrowers have the right at any time to make repayment of principal in excess of the amount included in the instalment, or they may repay the whole advance. In cases where excess payments are made a corresponding reduc- tion of interest is allowed by the Bank. The following table will show at a glance the operations of the State Bank from its inception up to the date of the last balance- sheet, March 31, 1903 : ADVANCES AND REPAYMENTS SINCE THE STATE BANK'S INCEPTION IN MARCH, 1896. Period. Advances Repaid Balance. Five months June, 1896 ... 30,425 2 30,423 One year June, 1897 ... 231,595 2007 229,588 Nine months March, 1898 110,500 9,709 100,791 One year March, 1899 91,632 32,137 59,494 One year March, 1900 65,729 31,474 34,255 One year March, 1901 90,824 37,967 52,857 One year March, 1902 92,023 62,525 29,497 One year March, 1903 81,280 56,441 24,840 Total 794,008 232,262 561,745 The reserve fund acquired by premiums on the sale of mortgage bonds amounts to 6,097, added to which the difference be- tween the rate a.t which the Bank has bor- rowed and the rate charged to borrowers, 6,404, gives a total reserve of 12 501. The working expenses on the total funds amount to 10/11 iper cent. During the early history of the Bank, owing to the absence of capital, and some time being required for the institution to get into working order, the cost of management was necessarily in excess of the profit. This deficiency, however, only applies to the first two years, whilst during the last three years the profits have amounted to 1,723 in 1901, 2,011 in 1902, and for the twelve months ending March 31, 1903, 2,730. It is exoected that the current year's opera- tions will produce a profit of not less than 3.000. The Bank is managed by a, paid board of five members appointed by the Government. The present trustees are Messrs. G. Inglis (Chairman 1 ), George Ful- ler, A. M. Simpson, E. W. Krichauff. and H. D. Gell. The chief executive officer of the Bank is the Inspector-General (Mr. 194 THE CENTRAL STATE. G. S. Wright), and the Accountant (Mr. M. F. McNamara). The accounts of the Bank are audited by two auditors appointed by the board, subject to the approval of the Treasurer, whilst the Commissioner of Audit also examines the accounts and makes an annual report on the Bank to Parliament. The Bank prepares all its own mortgages free of cost to the borrower. Trade statistics have already been dealt with in reviewing the expansion of various industries. It is only necessary to re- state some of the leading items and to give a summarised form an idea of the ex- tent and direction of South Australian trade. The value of the wool sent away from this State exceeds a million sterling each year. The following statistics show the im- portance of the wool trade and the growing popularity of the local wool sales : S.A Adelaide Per cent. Exports. Bales. Sales. Bales Sales to Exports. 1894-5 ... 173,189 64,056 37. 1895-6 ... 179,576 80,234 44. 1896-7 ... 153,751 63,804 41. 1897-8 ... 116,592 51,287 43. 1898-9 ... 113,056 61,122 54. 1899-1900 119,766 70,682 58. 1900-1 ... 115,774 42,637 37. 1901-2 ... 111,676 65,239 58. 1902-3 ... 96,524 61,215 63. The declared value of wool shipments from South Australia during the last five years have been : 1898, ,945,589 ; 1899, 1,511,693; 1900, 1,003,391; 1901, 1,029.063; and 1902, 1,222,403. The bulk of our wool is shipped to the United Kingdom. France and Germany are the next largest direct importers. Pursuits of tKe People. The following statement of the number of persons engaged in agricultural, pas- toral, and other productive pursuits in South Australia is taken from the last census 1901. Total population, 362,604; total breadwinners, 153,296 : Percent- Percent- age of age of Classification of Popu- Bread- Occupation. Persons lalion. winners. Primary Producers Agricultural pursuits 34,186 9.43 22.30 Pastoral pursuits 7,061 1.96 4.61 Mining 6,301 1.74 4.11 Other primary producers 1,613 .44 1.05 Total 49,161 13.57 32.07 Industrial Manufacturing Building and construction Indefinite 24,924 6.87 16.26 8.836 2.44 7,473 2.06 5.76 4.88 Total... 41,233 11.37 26.90 TOTAL IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE, AND BALANCE OF TRADE, &c., OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1893-1902. Balance Balance Year. Total Import and Total Export Imports. Trade. retained for Home Consump- Imports Ile- Exported. Total Exports. Exports Produce of the State. S.A. Pro- duce Ex- ported over Imports Imports Consumed over S.A. Produce Consumed. Exported. e e 1393 16398,136 7.934,200 2,765,739 5,168,461 8,463 936 3,295,475 529 736 1S94 13,528,464 6,226.690 2,272 380 3.954,310 7,301,774 3,447.464 1.075,084 1895 12,762,639 5.585,601 1,946,314 3.639.287 7.177,038 3,537.751 1 591.437 1896 14.754,824 7.160.770 2 836,328 4,324.442 7,594 054 3269.612 433 284 1897 14,054,800 7,126,385 2,682.110 4,444.275 6.928 415 2,484 140 197,970 1898 12,980,579 6,184,805 1 876,040 4,308.765 6,795.774 2 487.009 610,969 1899 1 0,272,754 6,884358 2 441,007 4,443,351 8,388,396 3 945,045 1,505,038 1900 16,063,709 8.034.552 3,615 912 ' 4 418.640 8 029 157 3 610 517 5,395 1901 15,387,477 7.371,588 3 572 300 3,799,288 8 015,889 4 216 601 644 301 1902 13,772,296 6,073,782 3,144,215 2.929,567 7,698,514 4.768.947 1,624732 1 1 ! FINANCE AND TRADE. 1 95 VALUE OF IMPORTS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 1893. 1898. 1902. From Other Australian States 5,174,861 3,329,851 2,948,688 United Kingdom 1,925,985 1,974,818 1,901,996 Foreign countries 644,835 667,536 969,245 VALUE OF EXPORTS TO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 1893. 1898. 1902. To Other Australian States 3,555,888 3,308,416 3,967,897 United Kingdom 3,477,579 2,306,202 1,911,116 Foreign countries 411,444 591,819 904,682 Sixty Years of Progress. Few records of progress are more striking 1842-1902. The following figures speak than those that can be put forward to de- volumes for the pluck, endurance, and en- monstrate the substantial expansion which terprise of a people who have had an enor- has taken place in South Australia during mous territory to develop : the sixty years of its industrial history, 1842. 1872 1902. Population 16,000 192,223 362,000 Land in cultivation (acres) 18,940 1,164,846 3,137,175 Sheep ... (number of) 300,000 4,900,687 5,012,216 Cattle (number of) 26,000 151,662 213,343 Horsea (number of) 1,560 82,215 164,625 Revenue ... ., (} 23,404 697,422 2,428,560 Expenditure (J) 68,434 700,255 2,650,875 Imports () 147,349 2,801,571 6,073,782 Exports () 75,248 3,738,623 7,698,514 Staple produce exported () 29,070 3,542,087 4,768,947 Railways open (miles 1 ) 133 1,736^ Telegraphs (miles) 3,731 20,000 Shipping (tonnage) 25,354 347,360 3,959,352 Public schools (number of) 307 716 Adelaide: the Capital of S.A. Viewed from any aspect, Adelaide is a beautiful city. The visitor from over the seas picks up the skyline of the Mount Lofty ranges soon after the steamer enters the quieter waters of St. Vincent's Gulf through Investigator Straits. The dark hills stand out against the background of pale blue sky and present kaleidoscopic changes which hold the attention. Mount Lofty, the highest peak, is 2,400 feet above sea level. It forms a prominent land- mark for the mariner, and proves a source of delightful speculation to the stranger, who cannot fail to be charmed with the panoramic view gradually unfolded. From the highest point a tapering, jagged line of hills take the form of a half crescent curving southwards towards the sea and northwards until lost to view in banks of fleecy clouds. The coastline of Yorke's Peninsula which may be seen on the port bow shortly after entering narrow waters is lost to view as the anchorage on the eastern shore of the gulf is approached. The lowlands between the ranges and the sea the rich and fruitful plains, by which the capital city is bounded, stretching north and south for many miles come un- der observation. The tourist from the deck of his steamer lying in the roadstead cannot fail to be deeply impressed with the magnificent scene spread out before him. The ranges, running nearly north and south, shut off the eastern view and concentrate attention to the plains to which the hills form so im- posing a background. The country be- tween is open and undulating, rising in easy gradients from the sea shore, with here and there a dome-shaped hill em- phasising some feature of interest an out- post of the metropolis, or perhaps a vine- yard a clump of gum-trees or newly- ploughed land providing a mellow brown tint to the landscape. The cultivated fields give the country a chess board appear- ance, vineyards alternating with wheat or lucerne crops; grass lands contrasting with recently turned soil of varying colors. Close at hand is a fine esplanade connect- ing Largs Bay and the Semaphore two leading watering places. The stranger who looks with critical eyes at the dwelling houses near the sea is satisfied, with the taste displayed in the architecture, while the substantial character of the buildings cannot fail to please. Were he able to extend his view a few miles along the coast to the south and note the residential mansions which cluster near the spot where the pioneers of sixty-seven years ago were carried on shore on the backs of sailors, astonishment would be added to his admiration of the beauty of the picture now growing upon him. Substantial facts of the great progress made in this new land, of existing prosperity and present- day activity, rapidly multiply as details of the panorama are noted. Tall chimney stacks belching forth smoke suggest a busy manufacturing centre. The City of Port Adelaide for it is the chief seaport of the State that catches the eye is situated on an inlet of the sea up which any vessel that can pass through the Suez Canal may be safely navigated. The Orient liner, Ophir, on the occasion of the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales, berthed alongside a wharf at Port Adelaide where, sixty years ago, vessels of 200 tons got stuck in the mud and the mangroves. Between the chief seaport and the metro- polis are a number of important manufac- turing industries; but, carrying his vision beyond tall masts of ships in harbor and chimney stacks of silver and copper smelt- ing works and factories, the newcomer picks out the city and feasts his eyes on the many evidences of beauty which even this telescopic inspection of Adelaide pro- vides. He has not yet seen the wide streets, flanked by handsome buildings, which intersect at right angles. Nor can that belt of trees which encircle the four-ter- raced city be fully appreciated from such a distance. The observing tourist notes, however, the elevated position that sup- plies so fine a natural drainage, and he is forced to the conclusion that for beauty ADELAIDE : THE CAPITAL OF S.A. 197 of situation Adelaide is a well-favored city. A close inspection cannot fail to confirm -such an opinion. A fertile plain, bounded to the south and east by a circling range of softly rounded hills, parted by a suc- cession of verdant valleys ; on the west by the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Vincent breaking upon long reaches of sandy beach ; and on the north, stretching away in gentle undulations as far as the eye cau reach such is the site of Adelaide. Beau- tiful for situation, admirably laid out, compact in itself, with ample streets, well- planted squares, and handsome buildings, a forest of spires and towers visible from afar, it rejoices in the possession of noble pleasure grounds. Dr. Parkin, the represen- tative of the trustees of the late Cecil Rhodes, remarked during his speech to the Adelaide University students on a recent occasion that, speaking in all sincerity, and with no desire to natter, he considered Adelaide one of the most beautiful and one of the most highly favored cities he had seen in the course of his travels through America and round the British Empire. He referred to its lovely circle of hills, its broad belt of park lands, its splendid edu- cational institutions, its charming Botani- cal Gardens, to the liberality of its wealthy citizens, and to the native intelligence of its people. Residents of Adelaide, he said, might travel all over the world without finding any reason to lose their admiration 'for their own home. They were "citizens of no mean city," and they could without dif- ficulty, if they proceeded in the future as they had done in the past, make Adelaide "the Athens of Australia." The present necessity of having to board a small launch in order to reach shore will shortly be removed, as a commodious har- bor is in course of construction at a cost of about 500,000, not far from where the mail steamers anchor. A train journey of half an hour through the leading sea-town will then bring the traveller to the capital of the State. The more he becomes acquainted with the chief town of South Australia, its suburbs, and the surround- ing country, the greater will be the ad- miration of the critical visitor. He will find much to appreciate such as wide, clean streets, fine buildings, a perfect system of drainage, and an absence of that seamy side of city life so noticeable in many metropolitan centres. Such ancient means of locomotion as our horse tram- cars will occasion amusement' perhaps pity that such a blot should exist but this is a weak spot which it is hoped will shortly be removed. Negotiations are at present (proceeding for giving Adelaide a modern system of electric tramways. Adelaide has long since been conceded the title of the Queen City of the South. One has only to look around to realise that its municipal guardians are deter- mined to retain that proud distinction for the capital. Antiquity is no> doubt a fine thing from many points of view, but it certainly does not produce the best results when applied to the general modelling and the conveniences of a busy centre. The great majority of the municipal services lo be found within Adelaide's four-mile-long terraces are distinctly on the modern sids, while perhaps no city was ever laid out with greater foresight than that shown by Colonel Light. Much-travelled visitors are never tired of praising the "cleanliness and brightness of the streets," "the pic- ture of simple Arcadian beauty presented by the park lands." It has been said by a recent visitor that Adelaide "presents an aspect of substantial comfort and solid opulence which is not equalled by some English cities counting as many genera- tions of existence as Adelaide does years." The park lands of Adelaide are its glory, and that is the first fact to be recognised by 99 out of every 100 visitors who come from the great builded brickeries of the old world. They are popularly termed the "lungs of the city" and "the people's playground," and the aptness of the ap- pellations may be gathered from the fact that fully 150 athletic clubs of various descriptions hold permits to carry on their games in these reserves. One of the most energetic committees into which members of the Corporation divide themselves is that which directs operations in the parks and squares and plantations. The beautifying of Adelaide is very dear Lo the heart of every member of that com- mittee, and each year sees some- thing accomplished, something done in the arboriculture for which the people, the land, the climate, aiid the conditions of the country generally cry out. There has been misdirection in the long past. 198 THE CENTRAL STATE. Some kinds of trees were planted which are now an eyesore, and cannot be spared by the municipal woodman. Others have not flourished because they have been put down in unfriendly soil. These are handicaps which are being to a large extent overcome. Mr. Peter Barr, the "Daffodil King," said: "I am charmed with your squares and reserves, and am astonished to find that no effort is made to exclude dogs, and that the reserves are not closed at night time. In no other city in Australasia where die public have such free access have they such excellent results to show as are pre- sented by the municipal gardens of Ade- laide." Mr. Barr was then referring solely to the accomplishments of the Corporation, and not to the triumphs in arboriculbural enterprise which are to be seen in the Botanic Gardens and the Botanic Park, which come right within the town bounds. The walk down the city road, with its avenue of even plane trees, its velvety and expansive lawns on either side, its well-tended shrubbery, and its rotunda, the gift of the late Sir Thos. Elder, overlooking the Torrens Lake, the creation of a former Mayor (Sir E. T. Smith), is one of the finest examples of municipally-created scenery to be found in the Southern Hemisphere. The green slopes of the banks forming the Torrens Lake are a favorite resort of citizens dur- ing the summer evenings. They rest on the well-kept lawns and listen to open-air concerts conducted in the Rotunda at the cost of the municipality. Another spot which has helped to make the name of Adelaide fragrant is the approach to the Zoological Gardens on Frome-road, but there are dozens of other specimens of artificial rurality which contribute 1 to ilie general beauty of thb city. They need not be catalogued. They require to 1>e seen. Here and there the outlook is re- lieved by statuary, the gifts of generous citizens. Victoria-square claims two magnificent bronzes representing the late Queen Victoria and the Farnese Hercules, while arrangements have been made for setting up in the same locality a statue of John McDoual) Stuart, the first ex- plorer to cross the Australian continent. A magnificent monument in memory of South Australians who died for King and Country in South Africa will shortly grace the space in front of Government House. Figures of Venus, Robert Burns, and Sir Thomas Elder adorn North-terrace, where national buildings, combined with muni- cipal enterprise and substantial evidences of public-spirited philanthropy, make up one of the most picturesque boulevards in the Commonwealth. The width of the street is another feature of the city which has received com- mendation second only to its high tone generally and that cleanliness for which Adelaide is justly celebrated. The site so wisely chosen by Colonel Light lent itself to the adoption of an admirable deep drainage system, and the capital of South Australia enjoys about the lowest death rate in the world. Turning to the historical side, it is in- teresting to note that Adelaide is the birthplace of municipal Government in Australia. In the latter part of 1839 Mie first municipal law was passed in South Australia, but it was not until October 31, 1840, that the principles of self-Govern- ment were practically adopted by tiie election of a Mayor and Common Coun- cil, consisting of 19 members. The first Chief Magistrate was Mr. J. H. (after- wards Sir Jas. Hurtle) Fisher, and he has had 25 successors. Mr. G. S. (afterwards Sir Geo. Strickland) Kingston filled the post of first Town Surveyor and Collector, and Mr. John Morphett was the first City Treasurer, the last-named receiving the princely salary of 1 a week. The law which called into being this local authority was a partial transcript of the English Statute of 1835, although modified to some extent to meet the new conditions of a people who only four years earlier had landed in an unknown country. Mel- bourne and Sydney followed South Aus- tralia's lead two years later. From a village of dug-outs, tents, and pine and reed huts, Adelaide soon began to put on the outward garb of a progressive city. In the first year the property within its bounds was valued for assessment purposes at 60,000. So rapidly did the price of land rise that within five years of the colonization of South Australia the capital value of the city site was estimated at 300,000. The latest published figures gives the value of the city estate for ADELAIDE: THE CAPITAL OF S.A. 199 assessment purposes as 441,400. The whole of the acres sold in Adelaide, with the exception of the squares and reserves, realised less than 4,000. The popula- tion of the city in 1840 was 8,480, and within the Corporation bounds to-day there are nearly 40,000 people resident, while the whole of the metropolitan area, including the suburbs, claims over 163,000 souls. At the close of 1903 the bonded debt will be 63,900, against which the Corporation has assets in freeholds, build- ings, and plant amounting to 214,164. Even when it had become a full-blown Corporation Adelaide did not always pos- sess the same attractive appearance which its fine broad streets now present. When the Town Council was two years old the roadways were in such a disgraceful con- dition that bullock drays took possession of the footpaths and pedestrians were forced on to the roads. This State of affairs continued for some years, owing largely to the misdirected application of a large proportion of the rates, and many of the roads were repaired with funds pri- vately subscribed. Much money was thrown away in the building and re-build- ing of unsubstantial bridges over the Tor- rens a river which from time im- memorial has been a source of great vexa- tion to the municipal authorities. In spite of many discouragements, the im- provement of the city was systematically undertaken, and to the present day the spirit of progression has actuated the elect of the ratepayers. Bold and expensive but necessary works were taken in hand in the earlier days. The Torrens was at last effectively spanned in three places, the Victoria Bridge, opposite to the end of Morphett- street, costing 11,317; the Adelaide Bridge on King William-road, 11,050, and the Albert Bridge, Frome-road, 8,348. An Act of Parliament authorised the Corporation to borrow 20,000 for the erection of a Town Hall and municipal offices, and in June, 1866, a stately pile of buildings was opened. The first meeting of the Corporation took place in a rented room in Hindley-street. Cattle yards were constructed at a cost of 5,000, and the Torrens Lake was created by the erec- tion of a weir at an expense of 11,766, while nearly 10,000 was spent in fencing in five beautiful squares. Another 7,000 went in the erection of public baths, while expenditure on markets of various descriptions practically knew no limits for a time. The Government un- dertook the yater and drainage services, while the lighting by gas and electricity have always been in the hands of private companies. Few modern cities, indeed, have given more encouragement and scape to private enterprise, and what is the re- sult of this happy combination with muni- cipal effort? A writer in the "Satur- day Review" speaks of Adelaide as "a model city," and adds : "There is in it something wholly impossible to de- fine ; a combination it may be of the sun- shine, the dark trees, the low houses, and an all-pervading look of cleanliness and freshness in which Adelaide stands alone." The present Mayor of Adelaide is the Right Worshipful Lewis Cohen, M.P., who held the same office some years ago. Mr. Cohen is one of the most popular Mayors the city has had, and is holding office at the present time for the third successive year. The Jubilee of the Corporation was cele- brated in 1890, and eight years later Ade- laide lost its veteran Town Clerk, Mr. Thos. Worsnop, who for nearly 30 years held executive sway. His name deserves a high place in Australian municipal hi**- tory. The city has had seven Town Clerks in the past 63 years, the occupants of the office having been: 1840-1843, D. Spence; 1849-1852, E. S. Webber; 1852- 1856, W. T. Sabben; 1856-1869, W. A. Hughes; 1869-1898, T. Worsnop,; 1898- 1899, A. Wright; May, 1899, T. George Ellery. who now holds office. Without doubt the last-named is one of the most able and enterprising Town Clerks in Australasia, an accepted authority on all municipal questions, and an officer possessing the complete con- fidence of his Council and the citizens. Within the confines of the City of Ade- laide there are 90 miles of streets, and 13 miles of roads through the park lands. There are 170 miles of footpaths in the 'city, and 27 miles of promenades in the park lands, which comprise 2,300 acres. The valuation of the city estate amounts to 264,000, but in the course of a few 200 THE CENTRAL STATE. years quite a number of valuable properties will fall into the hands of the Corpora- tion. Few of the present generation stop to enquire the origin of the names which find a place on Adelaide's municipal map, and yet, when one comes to investigate the subject, it is found to be of engrossing interest. The names of the leading pioneers are perpetuated all over the city throughout which the personal element in the nomenclature is specially marked. King William-street was named alter King William IV., the reigning monarch at the time of the proclamation of S.A. ; Rundle-street after John Rundle, one of the Commissioners for South Australia; Hindley-street after C. Hindley, M.P., another Commissioner ; Grenfell-street, after Pascoe Grenfell, M.P., anti-slavery advocate and father of Sir Francis Gren- fell, a general in the British Army; Car- rington-street after Lord Carrington ; Halifax-street after Mr. Hallifax, of Glen and Co., one of the founders of the pro- vince, whose name was wrongly spelt on the original plan; Gilbert-street after Thomas Gilbert, the comptroller of stores ; Gilles-street after Osmond Gilles, first Colonial Treasurer; Gouger-street after Robert Gouger, and Grote-street after George Grote, M.P., both Commissioners of South Australia; Hill-street after Sir Rowland Hill, British Postmaster-Gene- ral ; Morphett>street after Sir John Mor- phett; Pirie-street after Sir John Pirie, Alderman of the City of London ; Pulteney-street after Sir Pulteney Mal- colm, Admiral; Waymouth -street after Henry Waymouth ; and Wakefield-street after Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the dis- tinguished coloniser. Explorers by land and sea are honored in the street nomen- clature Captain Matthew Flinders, Sir John Franklin, and Captain Sturt, who discovered the River Murray. Angas- street is after George Fife Angas, father of the province, to whose memory a silent toast is drunk every Commemoration Day at Glenelg; Currie-street after the Hon. Raikes Currie ; Hanson-street after Sir Richard Davies Hanson, a distinguished member of the Literary Society of London and secretary to the Governor of Canada ; and Hutt>street after Sir William Hutt. In North Adelaide we are reminded of Lord Brougham, Daniel O'Connell, and Sir Fowell Buxton, father of an ex- Governor of South Australia. Jeffcott- street perpetuates the name of Sir J. W. Jeffcott, the State's; first Judge, who was drowned at the mouth of the Murray; Kermode-street after Robert Quayle Ker- mode, whose daughter was engaged to be married to the Judge; and Melbourne- street after Lord Melbourne, a Prime Minister of England. The illustrious in- dividuals after whom the five squares were named were, at the time Princess Vic- toria, heir apparent to the throne, Colonel Light, Governor Hindmarsh, W. Woolyche Whitmore, M.P., Colonization Commissioner, Sir James Hurtle Fisher, and the Duke of Wellington, under whom Colonel Light had served in the Penin- sular War, and by whom the latter was re- commended the first Surveyor-General of South Australia. Education. Whether or not the system of education in South Australia realises Huxley's ideal -"a great educational ladder with one end in the gutter and the other in the Univer- sity" experts agree that it represents a gradation in regular steps towards "practi- cal education" not excelled in any part of the world. A remarkable evolution in educational methods has been witnessed in this State since the passing of the first legislation on the subject in 1847 ; and the movement has been in the direction of a scientific development of mind and body. During the pioneer days there were no pub- lic schools, and little attention was de- voted to the training of the young. To- wards the end of the forties a capitation grant was paid out of State funds to> the few private schools then in existence, but the plan did not work well. "The pilgrim fathers" had no toleration for any- thing that looked like "State aid to religion." Five years later the Govern- ment assumed direct control of primary education, and early in 1852 a Central Board of Education was created (1) To establish schools, or recognise such schools as were already in existence, in which good secular instruction, based on Christian principles, but free from sectarian differ- ence of belief or opinion, should be im- parted. (2) To grant licences to teachers, and to pay them out of State revenues salaries ranging from ,40 to 100 per annum in augmentation of the fees paid by the parents of the children. (3) To appoint inspectors, who should visit the schools and make reports on the character of the instruction given to the Central Board ; and (4) To recommend the Colonial Government to give grants in aid of build- ings erected by local subscriptions, up to an amount not exceeding ,200 per school. The next important step was taken in 1875, when the management of the public schools was given to a Council of Educa- tion under the presidency of a paid officer. A wise choice was made in selecting for this responsible post Mr. John Anderson Hartley, B.A., B.Sc. (Lond.), at that time headmaster of Prince Alfred College. Mr. Hartley is regarded as having been the father of the educational system of South Australia. For over 20 years he controlled the destinies of the department, exercising a noble influence on the child- life of the State. A man of great culture, Mr. Hartley possessed exceptional powers of organization and administration, high ideals, and a splendid enthusiasm that were infectious. It has been well said by one of his colleagues that "it is to the genius of this officer, and the love of their work which he was able to create and sustain in all his subordinates that the colonists of South Australia are mainly indebted for their excellent State schools and school publications to-day." A national loss was sustained in the death of Mr. Hartley, which occurred in 1896 as the result of an accident. The Council of Education was superseded by direct management with Mr. Hartley as Inspector-General, in January, 1878, and on his death the control was vested in a "Board of Inspectors," consisting of Messrs. L. W. Stanton (Chairman), Thomas Bur- gan, and C. L. Whitham. In July, 1902, the Board was abolished, and an Inspector- General again appointed (Mr. L. W. Stanton). He, assisted by an able staff of inspectors and teachers, has charge of no less than 716 State schools, with a roll call of 57,973 children. Prior to 1891 the State system of pri- mary education was known as a secular and compulsory system, but not free. The Act of 1875 was, however, further amended in 1891, and as from January, 1892, this Act provided that "no fee shall be payable by any parent to the minister, or to any teacher of a public school established un- der the provisions of the Education Act, 1875, for the education of any child in any such school." This Act further provided that in the case of children between the age of nine and thirteen years the compulsory distance should i>e increased from two to three miles. To satisfy the compulsory requirements of the Act each child in the 202 THE CENTRA!, STATE. State between the ages of seven and thir- teen years, residing within the compulsory radius, must attend an efficient school for at least thirty-five days each quarter. The curriculum is of an elastic character to permit of some display of individuality on the part of teachers. The regulations fix the course of instruction, but while the main line of subjects is defined in order to secure uniformity of work in all grades of primary schools, variation is permitted under the approval of the district in- spectors. Head teachers also exercise dis- cretion within the limits of the general organization, but greater freedom is allowed in the teaching of such subjects as elementary science, horticulture, agricul- ture, and other various kinds of manual work. The main principles which give tone to the whole system of State education are thus officially defined: "That the child should be led by carefully graded steps, from the known into the region of the unknown ; from the particular to the general ; from the concrete to the abstract, and from the microcosm of the school to the macrocosm of the universe." Considerable attention is devoted to physical culture. Drilling, manual exer- cise, and swimming are part of the curri- culum. To the accompaniment of their own drum and fife bands the State school children can "march past" or engage in military manoeuvring with the accuracy and precision of well trained soldiers. In the larger school girls are taught to cook and sew, whilst the boys are encouraged in the lower branches of manual work. The State primary schools are of two kinds public schools, under certificated teachers, and provisional schools, taught by uncertificated teachers. The latter, however, are required to undergo a special examination, and to serve in an efficient school for a specified time. The public schools are divided into twelve classes, and the salaries of head male teachers range from 90 in a Class XII. school, with an average attendance of twenty to thirty, to 450 per annum in a Class I. school, with an average attendance of 600 or over. The annual increment is 10 in each case for male teachers, the salaries of head female teachers range from 92 to 156. A lady cannot be appointed head teacher to a school in any class above IX. The course of study and the standard of examination is exactly the same in both public and provisional schools. A strict supervision is kept upon the daily working of the schools by means of a staff of in- spectors. Districts are allotted, and the inspectors pay periodical visits, subjecting the classes to a critical examination, and allotting percentage marks which affect the reputation of both teachers and scholars. For the benefit of those desirous of de- voting their lives to teaching, an excellent training college was established in 1876. All students were non-resident. The term of training in this college, after passing successfully through a four years' pupil teacher's course, was for one year, and the student's time was about equally divided between study under the master of the col- lege, and in some cases at the University, and in the practical teaching in a Class I. school under a training master. In 1900 a new scheme of training was introduced. The Council of the University of Adelaide, having received a large bequest under the will of the late Sir Thomas Elder, made a generous offer to the Minister of Educa- tion, by which those in training for teachers would be allowed to have a two, and some a i/nree, years' course of study for the B.A. or B.Sc. degree free of cost. It was, therefore, arranged that candidates are, after showing a capability to teach (as monitors), admitted to the Pupil Teachers' School, where they study for two years to pass the junior and senior public examina- tions (the latter being the matriculation standard of the University). After this they spent two years teaching in the larger public schools, and then enter the Univer- sity Training College for another two, and possibly three years, as stated above. Dur- ing the term of training students receive a maintenance allowance of from 30 to 80, according to circumstances. State "secondary and higher" education is confined to an "advanced school for girls," and the subsidising of such institu- tions as the School of Mines, College of Agriculture, Public Libraries, Art Gal- leries, &c. Higher education for boys is still attended to by private establishments. For the encouragement of secondary edu- cation the following University scholar- ships are offered annually, and are tenable for one year : A. Entrance scholarships EDUCATION. 203 I I 204 THE CENTRAL STATE. for day students one of the value of 35, one of 30, and one of 25. Those scholar- ships are open to all candidates under eighteen years of age, who have resided in the State for one year, but who have not previously attended any part of the day undergraduate course at the University. B. Undergraduate Scholarships. Three scholarships to first year students of the value of 35, 30, and 25 respectively. Three scholarships to second year students of the value of 35, 30, and 25 respec- tively. Scholarships are offered an- nually to evening students in Arts or Science. To enable boys from the pri- mary schools to enter the secondary schools, 6 public exhibitions, tenable for 3 years, are provided by competitive exami- nations each year to boys from any schools in the State. Besides these, 18 exhibi- tions, also tenable for 3 years, are offered each year to boys attending the public (i.e., Government) schools. For Girls. Six public bursaries are offered to girls, tenable for 3 years, from any school in the State, and 18 bursaries, also tenable for 3 years, are offered to girls attending public schools. All the above give free tuition and books, with an allowance not to exceed 25 per annum in cases where the residence of the parent is not within easy reach of Ade- laide. In addition to this, 2 junior scholarships for boys and 2 for girls are offered each year which give free tuition and books and an allowance of 15 for maintenance to allow those who reside in the country to attend a school with a sixth class, and to study for the primary exami- nation of the University in order to give children in the country the same oppor- tunity to compete for the exhibition and bursaries as those who reside in the large centres. The head of the Department id- the Minister of Education, the Hon. L. Von Doussa, Inspector General Mr. L. W. Stanton, Assistant Inspector Mr. C. L. Whitham, and Secretary to the Education- Department is Mr. H. A. Curtis. There were 716 State schools in South Australia, with 57,973 on the roll in 1902, with 1,341 teachers, including 233 moni- tors, and the salary list amounted to 126,507 for the year 1902. The cost of education for the year ending, December, 1902, was (primary) 149,392 ; secondary, 2,069, or a total after deducting profit on the sales of books, fees received oi 151,461. Exclusive of expenditure on buildings, improvements, repairs, &c., the amount spent on buildings, improvements, land, &c., from 1876 to 1902, amounted to 501,000. The cost per child educated, and also per child in average attendance since 1888, are shown thus: 1888 ... . Cost per Child Educated. . ... 2 10 3 Cost per Chile in Average Attendance. 403 1889 2 12 422 1890 ... . 2 11 10 443 1891 2 10 8| 402 *1892 271 3 11 1 1893 ... . 253 3 14 10 1894 2 3 3 5 21 1895 . 2 3 7i 355 1896 23 10 3 4 11 1897 ... . 244? 3 4 lO^ 1898 ... . 24 6| 3 10 04 1899 2 4 9 3 6 l] 1900 2 6 6| 3 7 4i 1901 ... . 27 4| 385 1902 .. 2 7 51 3 9 11 *Free education introduced. The Adelaide University. The higher grades of education are well represented in a splendidly managed Uni- versity, School of Mines, Agricultural and Private Colleges. The University of Ade- laide was established by Act of Par- liament in 1874. In 1881 Royal Let> ters Patent were issued by Her Majesty the Queen declaring that the de- grees granted by it should be recognised as academic distinctions and rewards of merit, and be entitled to rank, precedence,, and consideration throughout the British Empire as if granted by any University in the United Kingdom. The University owes its origin to the munificence and pub- lic spirit of the late Sir Walter Watson Hughes and Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G., each of whom gave 20,000. Parliamentpro- vided for an annual grant from the public revenues of a sum equal to five per cent. EDUCATION. 205 Group of Educational Buildings, North- terrace, showing the Conservatorium of Music, University, Museum, and Art Gallery. on the capital funds then or afterwards to be possessed by the University, but not ex- ceeding in any one year the sum of 10,000. Under the authority of the same Act an endowment in land of 50,000 acres and a grant of five acres in the City of Adelaide as a site for the University buildings were made. The University grants degrees in Arts, Science, Law, Medicine, and Music, and Diplomas in Music and in Mining Engineering and Metallurgy. It was the first University in Australia to provide for the granting of degrees to women, as authorised by Act of Parliament in 1880. At first the professorships founded in the University were four in number, their sub- jects being the following: (1) Classics and Comparative Philology and Litera- ture; (2) English Language and Literature, Mental and Moral Philosophy ; (3) Mathe- matics, and (4) Natural Science. The first and second were established in accordance with the terms of Sir Walter Watson Hughes' donations, and bear his name, the third and fourth carry in the same way the name of Sir Thomas Elder. The aca- demical work of the University was com- menced in March, 1876, the number of matriculated students being 6, and of non- graduating students attending lectures 52. The foundation-stone of the University buildings was laid by His Excellency Major-General Sir W. F. D. Jervois, K.C.M.G., on July 30th, 1879, and the buildings were opened by him in April, 1882. Their total cost, including thai/ of subsequent additions, was about 38,000. In 1883 Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G., made a second gift to the Uni- versity amounting to 10,000, for the foundation of a School of Medicine. The University Council thereupon established a Chair of Anatomy and a Lectureship in Physiology, and made further provision for the first two years of the medical course. In 1886 arrangements were completed for a complete medical curriculum. In 1884 the Hon. J. H. Angas, M.L.C., gave 6,000 for the endowment of a Chair of Chemistry, and in the following year the first Angas Professor of Chemistry was appointed. The Chair of Music was established in 1884 and a Professor of Music appointed. This chair had no special endowment, but through the efforts of His Excellency Sir W. C. F. Robinson, K.C.M.G., it was su,p- ported for the first five years by voluntary subscriptions from the public amounting to 2O6 THE CENTRAL, STATE. 530 per annum, of which sum Sir Thomas Elder contributed 300 yearly. In 1890 the Council established a Professorship of Law in place of the Lectureship in Law which had existed since 1883. In 1878 the Han. J. H. Angas gave 4,000 to pro- vide for scholarships to encourage the training of scientific men, and especially civil engineers, with a view to their settle- ment in South Australia'. In 1892, and again in 1897 and 1899, Mr. Robert Barr Smith presented to the University l,00u for the purposes of the library. During the year 1900 two other donations for 1,000 each, and during 1902, 500, for the further purchase of books, were made by Mr. Barr Smith. The library now, in con- sequence of the large additions rendered possible by these gifts, contains about 14,500 volumes. Sir Thomas Elder be- queathed to the University the sum ol 65,000, his total gifts to the institution amounting from first to last to nearly 100,000. By the terms of his will the bequest was apportioned in the following manner, namely, 20,000 to the School of Medicine and 20,000 to the School of Music, while the residue was left available for the general purposes of the University An Elder Conservatorium of Music was accordingly established in 1898, in which instruction is given in all branches of musi- cal education. The foundation-stone ot the Conservatorium building was laid by Governor Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton on September 26th, 1898. The Conserve torium, which contains a large public hall and an admirable suite of classrooms for instruction in music, was completed in February, and formally declared open by His Excellency the Governor, Lord Tenny- son, on the 26th September, 1900. IP consequence of the large increase in the number of students and the absolute neces- sity for increased accommodation for thr Engineering and Science Schools, a larg suite of rooms has been built during the past year. In 1898 the Council was enabled, by means of Sir Thomas Elder': bequest, to make arrangements for a post- graduate course in Mining Engineering and Metallurgy, and for the granting of a diploma in these subjects. The Univer sity is governed by a Council, which usually consists of twenty members, elected by the Senate, but which consists of twenty-on- members whenever the Chancellor at the time of his election to that office is not a member of the Council. The Senate con- sists of all graduates of the degree of Mas- ter or Doctor, in any of the several facul- ties, and of all other graduates of three years' standing, besides graduates of other Universities who have been admitted ad eundem gradum by the Council. The number of graduates admitted by examina- tion s.nce the establishment of the Uni- versity is 265. The number of under- graduates in the year 1902 was 311, and oi non-graduating students 287, exclusive of those studying at the Elder Conserva- torium, of whom in 1902 there were 286. The teaching staff of the University com- prises 9 Professors and 19 Lecturers, an.i that of the Elder Conservatorium 12 Teachers. Facilities for University ex- aminations have been extended to the coun- try, and local centres with permanent com- mittees have been formed, for examina- tions in Music only at Broken Hill, and for the Primary, Junior Public, Senior Public, Higher Public, and Music Examina- tions at Mount Gambier, Naracoorte, Port Pirie, Clare, Jamestown, and Moonta, and at Albany and Perth in Western Australia. In the interests of education, Extension Lectures have also been given in country centres, as well as at the University. Pub- lic examinations are conducted at country centres and the "extension" of the Univer- sity system to remote parts of the State re- presents one of the most significant evolu- tions in higher education. The Adelaide University nas important relations with Western Australia, and the Technical School at Perth is affiliated, and some of tho lectures are recognised by the Adelaide University. The scope of University teaching nas been widely extended during the past few years. Tne extension of the curricula, and the steady grovvth of students have compelled the Council to provide extra accommodation. A public demand for commercial education has been met by pro- viding an advanced course. The Elemen- tary Commercial Examination was held for the first time in December, 1902, when 20 candidates presented themselves, and 13 received certificates. The success of the experiment induced the Council to establish a Board of Commercial Studies. EDUCATION. 207 To obtain the advanced commercial certifi- cate candidates must attend lectures and pass examinations in the following sub- jects, which need not be all taken in the same time: (1) Business Practice; (2) Accountancy ; (3) Commercial Law ; (4) Economics and Commercial History; (5) Banking and Exchange ; (6) Commercial Geography and Technology. The lecture fees for the full course amount to 12/1/6, which, with examination fees, makes a total outlay of 14/12/6. In connection with the scheme of commercial education, Mr. Joseph Fisher, a very old colonist, has provided an endowment of 1,000 to pro- vide for a lecture on a subject relating to commerce. Other leading commercial men are coming forward and providing scholarships, vo that the success of the edu- cational venture is assured. A popular form of University teaching are the "Extension Lectures" given by the staffs. These are largely attended during the winter. The last series included such subjects as "The Electron and the Radio- activity of Radium, Thorium, and other Substances," "Color in Nature," "Shake- speare's Romantic Plays," "Leaders of the Middle Ages," "The Development of the Violin, Sonata," and "Materialism." The University aims at giving a "complete aca-- demical and professional and special train- ing to all the candidates of the teaching profession in Adelaide free of charge, and without adding a sixpence to the burdens of the taxpayers," and the Chancellor fur- ther said that "there was no event in the history of education in South Australia of far more reaching importance" than the ar- rangement which had been concluded for training school teachers. "It secured to every teacher in South Australia, to every one of that important Public Service, the social status to which they were entitled. It secured to them a professional training of a high-class, and some of the benefits of the. endowments of the University of Ade- laide. He knew of no other University in the world that attempted anything of the kind." The Chancellor went on to say that the teachers get "the advantage of training at the University for two years, which in the aggregate amount of fees woulH total about 1,400. That was to say that the University presented the stu- dents with 1,400. They had the assis- tance of 14 professors and lecturers and four demonstrators. They had the use of a library of 15,000 volumes, and labora- tories which had cost 10,000. They were the pioneers in breaking down the narrow- ness and exclusiveness of class which re- cognised the republic of letters alone, and demanded that the teacher was as much a member of the learned professions as the doctor and the lawyer. They had on a small scale the University pupil continua- tion school in those who were working in the evenings for the completion of the course and to obtain the authorization of the University degree." The University and the School of Mines co-operate in pro- viding courses of instruction and examina- tion in various branches of Applied Science, and this union of forces is both economical and effective. An important development of the University move- ment in South Australia is the train- ing of school teachers. The Chan- cellor of the University, in a recent public utterance, claimed that there was no other country in the world in which the Univer- sity provided for candidates in elementary school teachership a free, a compulsory, and a liberal education. The number of pro- fessors, lecturers, and teachers has increased from 5 in 1882 to 39 in 1902; under- graduates from 12 to 311 ; non-graduating students from 99 to 287, and the number of Conservatorium students from nothing to 286; or a total advance from 111 in 1882 to 884 in 1902. The number of candidates for public examinations in the same period has risen from 141 to 2,799. A large number of valuable scholarships and exhibitions are made available every year. The Right Hon. Sir S. J. Way, Bart., K.C., Lieutenant-Governor and Chief Jus- tice, is Chancellor, Dr. Barlow Vice- Chancellor, and Mr. C. R. Hodge Registrar. THe School of Mines. South Australia is greatly blessed in its "School of Mines and Industries," an insti- tution which in everything but name is a high-grade Technical College. It is the largest and most efficient training establish- ment of its kind in Australia. Yielding to the pressure of strong public sentiment on the question, the Downer Government, in 1886, appointed a board "to enquire into 208 THE CENTRAL STATK. >N " Q 5 *a EDUCATION. 209 :and report upon the best means of develop- ing a general system of technical, including agricultural, education in the province." The Board consisted ol Dr. (now Sir John) Cockburn (then Minister of Education), the late Hon. Dr. Campbell, M.L.C., Professor Rennie, the late Mr. M. P. F. Basedow, Messrs. Rowland Rees, J. T. Scherk, M.P., Mr. (now Representative Sir) J. Langdon Bonython, the late Mr. Adam Adamson, and Mr. J. Fairfax Conigrave. Soon after the appointment the Government also re- mitted for the board's consideration the question of the establishment of a School of Mines. This proposal, having been made a portion of the policy of the Play- ford Government, the consideration of how this object could be best accomplished was relegated by the then Minister of Educa- tion (Mr. J. C. F. Johnson) to the Techni- cal Education Board. After visiting similar institutions in the neighboring States, and collecting much valuable information, this body, in June, 1888, re- commended in a comprehensive report that a School of Mines and Industries should be established. The recommendation was given effect to witn surprising promptness, for on November 30 the Council a thor- oughly representative body was ap- pointed. Six members were nominated by the Government, and the remaining six were elected by the University, the Board of Governors of the Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery, the Chamber of Manufactures, and the Trades and Labor Council. At the beginning of 1889, so the annual report of that year says, active steps were taken to organise the school, and to start work with as little delay as possible. Dr. Cockburn was appointed Chairman, and he threw his heart and soul into the project. It was his untiring zeal and able organization at the outset that gave the movement an impetus that was ever sus- tained. The Government handed over to the Council the eastern annexe of the Ex- bition Building, where class-rooms were provided and exhibits constituting the nucleus of a technological museum were displayed. The actual work of the school began on March 14, 1889. On that day 26 students were enrolled, and the curri- culum contained 11 subjects. Success was immediate, and at the time of the formal opening of the institution by the Governor (Lord Kintore) three months later, the most sanguine expectations of the officials had been more than realised. This is what "The Register" said at that period : "The School of Mines and Industries is ad- mirably devised to secure the particular ends at which it aims. Its constitution and arrangement are elected, the labors of the Council having enabled them to adopt the best points in kindred institutions throughout the world There seems already to have been established be- tween the students and the authorities that oneness of purpose and unity of effort which are essential to the well-being of such an institution." Over 2,000 people attended the opening ceremony, and up to that date 100 students had enrolled. The progress made was indeed remarkable. At the end of 1890 there were 341 ->upils on the roll; at the end of 1891, 468; 1892, 620; 1893, 667; 1894, 688; 1895, 670; 1896, 809 ; 1897, 957 ; 1898, 1,041 ; 1899, 1,266; 1900, 1,603; 1901, 1,756; and 1902, 1,913. In 1892 the Government Assay Department was placed under the control of the Council, and in December of that year Parliament passed an Act to incor- porate the school. The necessity for in- creased accommodation was lelt for many years. It is hardly probable that any alteration from inadequate arrangements would have been possible but for the princely generosity of the Hon. G. Brook- man, M.L.C., who donated 15,000 towards the erection of a new building, the total cost of which was 37,000. This handsome contribution prompted the Government to at once proceed with the erection of up-to- date premises, and the Council can now congratulate itself on the possession of a building which in magnificence is second to none in the Australian States. On the occasion of the opening ceremony of this magnificent structure, the following letter, addressed to the President (Representative Sir Langdon Bonython) by Lord Tennyson, the Governor-General, was read: "Com- monwealth of Australia. Governor-Gene- ral, Marble Hill, Adelaide, February 23, 1903. Dear Sir Langdon I congratulate the Government and you on the opening of the fine building where is'to be housed your excellent School of Mines, of which you have been for so many years the lead- ing spirit. I am glad to learn that you 2IO THE CENTRAL, STATE. are working hand in hand with the Uni- versity of Adelaide, and I have much plea- sure in testifying again to the very valuable service your school performs for Australia. It is certainly one of the best of its kind that I know, and many of the men trained here are to be found in ail parts of the world holding good positions. Yet Australia is, generally speaking, a long way behind in the race of technical handicrafts and industries. For instance, when I have visited agricultural shows throughout this continent, everywhere I have found the stump-jumpers and strip- pers, of which the South Australians are justly proud ; but, be it observed, most of the other implements and agricultural machinery are made in Canada and America. In order to keep pace with the times, Australia will have to bestir herself, to welcome fresh ideas and inventions, to encourage the introduction of new and im- proved methods, to place no artificial re- strictions to the detriment of production and trade on the output of commodities and manufactures; and, above all, she must multiply her technical schools and better her technical education. It is, more than anything else, the training (in the workshop) of those directing scientific industries, as well as of the woncers them- selves, which makes a great industrial community. By adopting such means, with the aid of practical enthusiasts like your Lieutenant-Governor, Mr. Brookman, and yourself, Australia will, I feel sure, be able eventually to develop her wonderful resources, and to attain to her rightful position among the industrial and com- mercial peoples. 'Yours truly (Signed) TENNYSON." The reproach that Aus- tralia is a laggard among nations in tne matter of "technical handicraft and indus- tries" is rapidly being removed by such institutions as the South Australian School of Mines. The President, on the occar sion of the last prize-day of the school, said: "The wool of 250,000 sheep has passed through the hands of our students this year, and wool experts estimate that, by reason of better classing ,the wool has yielded to the producer fully 6,000 more than would otherwise have been received. But the 6,UOO by no means represents the total gain to Soutn Australia. There is the wool dealt with by former students; and by those who have been taught by such students ; and the day is coming when the whole wool clip of the State will be so manipulated as to reach the markets in the best possible condition, and that will mean a clear gain to South Australia of at least 100,000 per annum." The wool instructor (Mr. G-eo. Jeffrey) has nearly 200 students under his charge, and the work done by them at shearing time on the stations is admittedly excellent. The members of the Council at the pre- sent time are : Representative Sir John Langdon Bonython (President), Henry Adams, Esq., J.P., Honorable John George Bice, M.L.C., Professor William Henry Bragg, M.A., David Morley Charleston, Esq., Lawrence Gray son, Esq., A.I.M.E., J.P., Representative Honorable Sir Fre- derick William Holder, K.C.M.G., Joseph Colin Francis Johnson, Esq., F.G.S., A.I.M.E., J.P., Representative Alexander Poynton, Richard Edward Elm ore Rogers, Esq., J.P., Johann Theodor Scherk, Esq., M.P., Edward Willis Van Senden, Esq., Registrar oi the School and Curator of the Museum, Joseph Auburn Haslam, B.Sc. Agricultural College. Technical education on the agricultural side has received considerable attention. In addition to a well-equipped Agricultural College, situated at Roseworthy, 30 miles north of Adelaide, there are Agricultural Bureaux scattered throughout the State, whilst secondary agricultural instruction i& obtainable at many of the public schools. In 1879 the late Hon. F. Basedow carried a resolution in Parliament in favor of the "establishment of an experimental farm and agricultural college." A site about three miles west of Roseworthy was selected, 830 acres of land was purchased at 6/6 per acre, and the college erected at a cost of about 6,000. Some of the land was poor, and for this and other reasons Professor Lowrie several years later char- acterised the selection as an unfortunate one. The area was added to in 1897, when a contiguous block of 187 acres was secured at 4 per acre In 1898 220 acres was purchased at the same figure, in 1899 65 acres at 3/5, in 1900 178 acres at 4, and last year i75 acres at 3/15. The total area at present is, therefore, 1,655 acres. The objects of the institution were declared EDUCATION. 211 to be: (1) To train young men for the practice of agriculture, horticulture, and viticulture ; (2) To conduct experiments with a view to the advancement of the rural industries in South Australia. Pro- fessor Custance, the first principal, was in charge from 1881 until 188b. He was succeeded by Professor Lowrie, M.A., B.Sc., who arrived in February, 1888, and retained the position until September, 1901, 13^ years. During that period a striking change took place in the public estimate of the institution and the methods of agriculture demonstrated at Roseworthy. Professor J. D. Towar, M.Sc., took over the control in May, 1902. When Professor Lowrie arrived in 1888 the teaching staff comprised a science lec- turer and himself. Four years later, Mr. Arthur J. Perkins, fresh from Montpelier, was appointed Government Viticulturist and (Enologist, and has rendered valuable service to the State in that capacity ever since. That gentleman is now the oldest member of the College staff, and alsoi holds the office of Secretary for Agriculture. Professor Perkins was acting principal from the departure of Professor Lowrie until the arrival of Professor Towar. As the College advanced in popularity, and the number of students increased, the staff was gradually added to until to-day it is composed as follows : Principal, Pro- fessor J. D. Towar, M.Sc. ; Viticulturist and (Enologist, Professor A. J. Perkins; Housemaster, Secretary, and Lecturer on Natural Science and Bookkeeping, Mr. F. W. Russack ; Lecturer Chemistry and Physical Science, Mr. W. R. Jamie- son, B.Sc. ; Lecturer on Dairying, Mr. G. S. Thomson, F.R.S.E. ; Lecturer on Horticulture, Mr. G. Quinn ; Lecturer on Wool-classing, Mr. G. Jeffrey ; Superinten- dent of Vineyard, Mr. H. E. Laffer; Teacher of Surveying, Mr. R. L. E. Bosr worth, B.Sc. ; Farm Foreman, Mr. F. L. Faulkner; Teacher of Blacksmithing and Carpentering, Mr. G. L. Williams. Alto- gether 355 youths have been enrolled at the College, and of these 106 have obtained their diploma. In 1890 the system of offering scholarships for competition an- nually, each carrying a free course of in' struction at the College, was adopted. Since that time 29 scholarships have been awarded. Last year's gold medallist entered the institution as a scholarship winner, and the silver medallist of the previous year likewise. Six scholarships are offered annually, the State being divided into so many districts for the pur- pose. For several years the course of in- struction at the College covered two years ; but soon after his arrival Professor Lowrie pointed out that this term was too short, and urged tnat it should be extended to three years. The recommendation was adopted as from the beginning of 1893. The curriculum is as follows : First year. -Mathematics, anatomy, bookkeeping, agriculture, chemistry, meteorology, heat, electricity, and botany. Second year. Mathematics, physiology, chemistry, agri- culture, viticulture, fruit culture, me- chanics, surveying, and wool-classing. Third year. Chemistry, agriculture, veterinary science, viticulture, cenology, surveying, mechanics, physiology, and wool-classing. Students who desire to at- tend only two years are required to pass an entrance examination equivalent to the sessional examination at the end of the first year. The fees were originally fixed at ,50 per annum, but in 1888 they were reduced at 30, at which amount they now stand. It is impossible to estimate in sterling value the beneficial influence exercised by this College on the agricultural industry during the past twenty years. It has led the way in revolutionising farming methods in South Australia., and to Pro- fessor Lowrie more than to any other man is due the rapid expansion of the system of drilling in seed with artificial manures. His staff and enterprising farmers ably seconded his efforts, but Professor Lowrie headed the revolutionary band. The work he began is being carried on with skill and enthusiasm by his successors. Special attention is devoted at the Agri- culture College to "diversified farming, ' and valuable experiments are conducted in live-stock breeding more particularly the production of lambs suitable for export. There is a "Council of Agriculture" ap- pointed by the Government which acts in an advisory as well as executive capacity, and experts are connected with the De- partment of Agriculture. A monthly illustrated journal is issued containing special articles by the staff and reports of proceedings of Country Agricultural Bureaux. 212 THE CENTRAL STATE. Public Library, Art Gallery, and Museum. The Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia was established in 1884. Under the name of the South Australian Institute it was incorporated in 1856. It comprises a free public refer- ence library, a natural history museum, an art gallery, and a school of design, paint- ing, and technical arts. Affiliated with it are the Royal Society of South Aus- tralia, the South Australian Society of Arts, and 166 country Institutes. It is governed by a board of 18 members, of whom 8 are nominated by the Govern- ment, 5 are elected by the country Insti- tutes, 2 by the University of Adelaide, and one each by the Royal Society of South Australia, the S.A. Society of Arts, and the Adelaide Circulating Library. At the laying of the foundation-stone of the Public Library building, Mr. Rowland Rees, referred to the Universitv of Ade- laide as "an institution which will provide that higher education hitherto unattain- able at common or ordinary schools. . . . It remains to supply the middle course of the structure to connect primary with secondary schools by links composed of higher subjects, the secondary education being that acquired after the elementary school days are passed, and composed of teaching bearing on the life work of the people, if need be, where social necessity arises, cultivation in the highest form which the University provides, as well as in the 'elegancies of literature and art and the pursuit of science for its own sake apart from its utility.' .... We are met to-day to witness the laying of the first stone of an institution intended to provide those missing links in the great educational chain to which I have alluded." The ob- jects thus outlined have been strenuously pursued by the Board with much success, although very often under adverse circum- stances. The Public Library was opened in 1884 with a collection of about 21,500 volumes, which had increased in Decem- ber, 1903, to 50,450. A travelling library, containing 6,000 volumes is circulated in boxes among affiliated country Institutes. Each box contains 30 volumes, and each Institute changes its boxes three times a jear. A special library of technical and scientific works is also available for circula- tion among country Institutes. The Museum in 1884 occupied the northern half of the Library building, but in 1895 the present Museum building was handed over to the Board, and even this building, 200 ft. x 45 ft., is now taxed to its utmost to accommodate the specimens, and the director is applying for increased space. The Australian ethnological collection in this Museum is claimed to be the finest in the world. The Art Gallery in 1884 was located in a room at the south end of the Public Library, but was afterwards removed to rooms in the Exhibition Building. Here for some years the collection was housed in a building of a very inflammable character. The Board felt that this was a serious menace, and it was, therefore, a very great relief to them when it became known that Sir Thomas Elder, K.C.M.G., had left a legacy of 25,000 for the purchase of pictures. The Government then recognised the necessity of erecting a suitable Art Gallery building at once, and this was opened to the public on April 7th, 1900. The Elder bequest has made it possible for the Board to add some fine examples of the leading modern artists to the collection, and a large por- tion of the bequest still remains unex- pended. The art school, under the directorship of Mr. H. P. Gill, A.R.C.A., Lond., has grown to large proportions. The students in training under the Educa- tion Department, as well as those in the S.A. School of Mines and Industries, re- ceive their art education in this school. Art examinations are held under the authority of the Board in Adelaide and various country towns* and also in Perth, W.A. In 1904 drawing will be a subject for the University, Primary, Junior, and Senior Public Examinations, and the Board's certificate is to be accepted by the University authorities as proof of efficiency in art subjects. A South Australian Mechanical Draughtsman's Certificate is issued jointly by the Board and the Coun- cil of the S.A. School of Mines and Indus- tries, and another by the Board and the Council of the Moonta School of Mines. About 650 students were taught in the Art School in 1903, and since 1888 20,503 examination papers have been worked by candidates for tne Board's certificates, of EDUCATION. 213 . Peter's College, Adelaide. which 12,500 have been issued. The prospects of the institution have been greatly improved by a magnificent legacy from the late Dr. Morgan Thomas. This estate has not yet been wound up, but it is expected that the Board, who are re- siduary legatees, will receive at least 60,000, and a considerable portion of this has already been paid over. The Public Library and its associated departments is doing excellent educational work. The Royal Society, a branch of the Royal Geo- graphical Society, the Zoological Society, with its magnificent collection of animals, the Botanical Gardens, are all rendering great public service in the same direction. South Australia is also well served by an -excellent metropolitan and country press. St. Peter's College. The Collegiate School of St. Peter, the oldest school in the State, was first opened on July 15, 1847, its purpose being to pro- vide a good sound education on Church of England principles, with a conscience ^clause admitting boys of all denomina- tions. The course of instruction is similar to that of the public schools of England. The school is situated in the eastern suburbs of Adelaide, about 1 miles dis- tant from the city, and is surrounded by 30 acres of playgrounds, with a further 23 acres available if required. The sanitary ar- rangements (on the deep drainage system) are perfect. There are 15 large and well- ventilated class-rooms, an excellent laboratory for practical chemistry and physics, a gymnasium 90 ft. in length, fitted with all the latest and most com- plete appliances, and a very handsome chapel in which services are held daily. Accommodation is provided for about 60 boarders. The boarding arrangements are under the direct supervision of the headmaster, assisted by 7 other resident masters and a matron. Cricket, football, rowing, bat and hand fives, and other out- door sports are organised and encouraged. The ;' liolarshipi and exhibitions given by the school have an annual value of 800, the most valuable of which are six scholar- ships of 50 per annum each, tenable for three years. The institution is managed 214 THE CENTRAL, STATE. Prince Alfred College, Adelaide. by a Council of Governors consisting of 15 members, of which the Lord Bishop oi Adelaide is ex officio chairman. The Headmaster is the Rev. Henry Girdle- stone, M.A., of Magdalen College, Oxford, and he is assisted by a staff of 14 masters. Mr. A. E. H. Evans, King William-street, is secretary and bursar. The average at- tendance is about 300 boys. Prince Alfred College. The foundation-stone of Prince Alfred College was laid in 1867 by the late Duke of Edinburgh, and the institution was named after him by special permission. At first only the central portion was erected, but continued prosperity caused the original design to be completed by the addition of the Waterhouse Wing in 1878 and the Colton Wing in 1882. A further addition was made in 1891, when a separate building was put up for science lecture room and laboratory, thoroughly equipped with the latest appliances. The school was founded by members of the Wesleyan Methodist Church, and the governing board has for its chairman the President of the South Australian Confer- ence, annually appointed. It has always- claimed to be a "modern" school, and has given much attention to mathematics and natural science. Its pupils have been eminently successful in these departments. The headmaster is Mr. F. Chappie, B.A., B.Sc. (Lond.), and he has under him an excellent staff of masters, both resident and visiting. At present the attendance numbers about 350, of whom over 70 are boarders. Explorers and Their Work. There's a legion that never was listed, That carries no colors or crest ; But, still in a thousand detachments, Is breaking a road for the rest, KlPLlNG. Australia owes a heavy debt to the men who filled in the map of the island con- tinent. In that great work South Aus- tralia has been a generous contributor in men and money. The journals in which the leaders of the various expeditions sent out from this State recorded their suffer- ings and achievements are full of thrilling narratives of brave needs. The names of the men who devoted the best years of their lives in making pathways for posterity through a continent will be honored so long as the inhabitants of the Commonwealth preserve the spirit and ideals which inspired our heroic pioneer colonists. South Australians have reason to take a special interest in this branch of Australian history, because several of the most notable and brilliant explorers were intimately associated with this State, and accomplished much of their work within its borders. For many years after the first immigrants landed on these shores some of the shrewdest and most intelligent of them held the opinion that a great lake or inland sea would eventually be found somewhere near the centre of the con- tinent. Not a few of the ablest explorers cherished the hope that they would be for- tunate enough to be the first Europeans to set foot upon the shores of an Australian Mediterranean. Flinders was familiar with the theory, and when his vessel was lying at anchor near the entrance to Spencer's Gulf, he wrote in his journal : "Large rivers, deep inlets, inland seas, and passages into the Gulf of Carpentaria were terms frequently used in our conversation of this evening, and the prospect of mak- ing an interesting discovery seemed to have infused new life and vigor into every man in the ship." Nearly 30 years later, when Captain Sturt landed in Sydney, the belief in the inland sea hypothesis had been greatly strengthened by the results of the exploratory work accomplished during the interval. The greater part of the immense coast line of Australia had been more or less carefully scrutinised, but by a strange coincidence both English and French navigators who visited Encounter Bay in 1802 failed to detect the mouth of the Murray River in the long line of sandhills behind those threatening breakers which dash unceasingly upon the Coorong beach. That omission was responsible for a great deal of the speculation respecting the pro- bable inundation of Central Australia. The simple unadorned story of the methods by which the inland sea theory was ex- ploded, and the actual condition of the interior revealed forms one of the most romantic and inspiring chapters of South Australian history. The honor of having made the first im- portant discovery in South Australia is due to Lieutenant Grant, who on Decem- ber 3rd, 1800, sighted Mount Gambier from the deck of the Lady Nelson colloquially known as "His Majesty's Tinder Box." The vessel was sailing along the coast to- wards Bass's Strait on her voyage from England to Sydney. Grant did not examine the shore of the Australian Bight, and he returned to England before Flinders made his systematic survey. When Governor King saw Grant's chart after the Lady Nelson reached New South Wales he made a note on the margin to the effect that he thought the appearance of the coast warranted the belief that the entrance to an inland sea would be found in the Bight. Grant can scarcely be re- garded as one of the explorers of South Australia. The pioneer in that work was Captain Matthew Flinders, the intrepid young naval officer who discovered and named the two gulfs, the principal capes, headlands, bays, islands, and other pro- minent landmarks from Cape Nuy to Encounter Bay. Flinders possessed con- siderable literary skill/ and he wrote a remarkably accurate series of pen pictures of the hitherto unknown coast of Southern Australia, which suggested the desirable- ness of founding a British province on the 2l6 THE CENTRAL STATE. EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK. 217 Central Mount Stuart. One of the most interesting geographical features in Australia, practically the centre of the continent. F. J. Gillen photo. southern coast of "New Holland." The meeting of Flinders and Captain Baudin, commander of the French exploring ship Le Geographe, in Encounter Bay, was a romantic incident which marked the com- pletion of the British officer's 1 original work on the south coast. Flinders was accompanied by Sir John Franklin, the celebrated Arctic explorer, who 1 joined the Investigator as a midshipman. The monu- ment which Franklin, when Governor of Tasmania, erected at Port Lincoln to the memory of his old commander serves as a link to connect the first of the splendid band of Australian explorers with the brilliant navigator whose life was sacrificed in an attempt to perform similar work amid the eternal ice fields of Arctic Seas. Captain Sturt was the first explorer whose work on Australian soil was worthy to be compared with that which Flinders had accomplished on the water. His life and explorations have a special interest for South Australians. A considerable part of his colonial career was spent in this State, and the greatest task of his life was completed within its territory. Sturt was a man of dauntless courage, boundless energy, and shrewd common-sense. He started on his first expedition on Novem- ber 10, 1828. After encountering many obstacles the party struck a large stream, but the water was so impregnated with salt that even the thirsty cattle refused to drink from it. After following the river for two days without finding fresh water, Sturt was compelled to return to the depot at Mount Harris. Before leaving the river he named it the Darling, after the Governor of New South Wales. The story which he had to tell on his return to the settlement only served to stimulate interest in the problems which he had been endea- voring to solve, and in September, 1829, the Governor gave instructions for a second trip. Sturt on this occasion was accom- panied by Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Macleay, and the party was provided with a complete equipment, including a whale boat. The Murrumbidgee was reached on September 25, but as the expedition ap- proached the meridian of longitude, at which most ol the other unknown rivers exhausted themselves, the leader was con- cerned to find that there^was not sufficient food to enable him to proceed further with his teams. He thereupon resolved upon the bold expedient of continuing the jour- ney in the boat. On November 6 the boat party left its companions behind 218 THE CENTRAL STATE. and set out upon the eventful and arduous voyage. It was a bold enterprise, because every mile that the little craft floated down stream took the party further away from its base. Nobody had any idea where the river would end. The active hostility of the natives proved a severe strain. Sturt's verdict respecting that portion of South Australian territory has been con- demned as unwarrantably pessimistic, but it must be remembered that by the time he reached Lake Alexandrina he was physically worn out, and had no time to examine the land beyond the immediate vicinity of the stream. Passing through the Great Lake, Sturt and his little band were mortified beyond description when they discovered that so nobl'e a river as the Murray had so miserable a termination. From the first the explorer recognised that the Murray mouth would prove a draw- back to the river trade. A subsequent examination confirmed his first impi*es- sions, and Sturt's opinion that the Murray mouth was not safe for navigation has been confirmed by experience. Keenly disappointed at finding that the river emptied itself into the sea at a point ex- posed to the full force of the ocean, Sturt began the long and toilsome journey back to the depot. The men under his com- mand were ill-fitted for the task of pulling against the current day after day, and they suffered terribly from fatigue. When they left the Murray mouth their provisions consisted of a small quantity of flour. Game was scarce, and the party was con- stantly harassed by the natives. Yet for a whole month the men toiled like galley slaves at the oars, loyally obeying their chief's commands. Sturt records in his journal how he frequently overheard a man say to his companions at night: "I must tell the captain to-morrow that I cannot pull any longer." When the morning came every man would be at his post. Not a murmur would escape their lips during the day. When the little party reached the place where the skiff had been launched for the downward journey the greatest disappointment of the voyage was experienced. They expected that stores would have been forwarded from Sydney to the depot there, but that had not been done. The next depot was 200 miles fur- ther up the stream, and 17 days elapsed before the emaciated men could lay aside their oars. One of the party became deranged when the boat was still 90 miles from its destination, and Sturt was com- pelled to form a camp. Two of the strongest men were sent on to endeavor to obtain help. A week went by, and then relief arrived. Every member of the party eventually returned to Sydney. Sturt's report to the Government of New South Wales created widespread interest, and the Governor instructed Captain Col- lett Barker, another officer in the 39th Foot, to examine the country in the vici- nity of the Lakes and the Murray mouth more systematically than his brother officer had been able to do. It was while Cap- tain Barker was endeavoring to carry out his commission in April, 1831, that he lost his life near the mouth through the treachery of the natives. Captain Sturt paid a heavy penalty for the strain to which his physical powers were sub- jected during that memorable trip. In 1838 he returned to South Australia, and was appointed Surveyor-General with a seat in the Executive and Legislative Councils. He subsequently became Com- missioner of Crown Lands, Registrar of the Province, and Colonial Secretary. In 1844 Sturt conducted an expedition into the interior, but was compelled to camp at Rocky Glen for six months owing to the intense heat the glass registering 130 degrees in the shade and absence of water. He then pushed on to within 150 miles of the centre of the continent, and later discovered Cooper's Creek. His con- stitution was completely shattered, and his sight faiieu. Sturt was knighted on his death bed in 1869, but did not live to re- ceive the title. Edward John Eyre, whose sensational journey from Adelaide to King George's Sound in 1840-41 was attended by one of the most tragic episodes recorded in Aus- tralian history, was an explorer of the practical type, whose chief object was to endeavor to open up pastoral country in the interior. He was a daring and in- trepid bushman, and the story of his ad- ventures in this State and Western Aus- tralia is full of interest. Eyre, who died in 1902, was a native of Lincolnshire, the county in which Captain Flinders, Sir Joseph Banks, and Sir John Franklin were born. About two years after he settled in South Australia the question of opening EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK. 219 Attack Creek, north of Barrow Creek, where Stuart was attacked 'by the natives. .F. J. Gillen photo. Mr. F. J. Gillen is shown in the photo. a, stock route to Western Australia was mooted, and it was suggested that Eyre was the man to undertake so formidable a task. At a meeting held in Adelaide in 1840 he told the settlers interested in the project that he did not believe any track along the Australian Bight would prove practicable, but expressed his willingness to search for good pastoral country beyond Lake Torrens, which he had seen and named in the preceding year. The pro- posal was approved by the Government, and the fund raised by private subscrip- tion for the purpose of equipping a party was subsidised by a grant from the Trea- sury of 100. The expedition consisted of five white men and three natives, with 14 horses and 40 sheep. A stock of pro- visions was also dispatched to the head of Spencer's Gulf in a small sailing boat. Eyre left Adelaide on June 18, 1840, in company with his friend, Mr. E. B. Scott who still resides in South Australia Corporal Coles, John Baxter, and two native boys. They forced their way northward for 400 miles until they reached the basin of Lake Torrens. Baffled and bitterly disappointed, Eyre was eventually forced to the conclusion that he could not proceed further in that direction. "I had one of three courses to choose," he wrote, "either to give up the expedition alto- gether, to cross to the Murray to the east and follow up that river to the Darling, or. by crossing over to Streaky Bay to the westward to endeavor to find some opening leading towards the interior in that direc- tion. After weighing all the advantages and disadvantages of each (and there were many objections to them all) I determined upon adopting the last." Eyre reached Streaky Bay and formed a depot there. Several weary months were spent in attempts to force a passage round the head of the Great Bight through country which Eyre characterised as "a hideous anomaly, a blot on the face of Nature, the sort of place one gets into in bad dreams." His third effort proved successful, and some idea of the dogged determination which he displayed may be formed from the fact that he travelled 643 miles in order to reach a point 153 miles distant from his depot. Having arrived at the head of the Bight, Eyre formed the daring and desperate plan of sending the majority of his party back to Adelaide while he pro- ceeded to King George's Sound with pack- horses, taking Baxter as his sole white com- panion. The horses were rested for several weeks, and, in spite of the fact that the Governor of the Province and Eyre's friends sent Mr. Scott back in order to urge him to relinquish the project, he refused to do so. Eyre and Baxter set out on their perilous journey from the head of the Bight on January 25, 1841. The two white men ai?d three natives took with 220 THE CENTRAL STATE. them nine horses, a Timor pony, and several sheep. Seldom has such a hazardous undertaking been entered upon by a party so ill-equipped. Baxter lost his life before the goal was reached, and at one stage of the journey it appeared as though nothing could save the leader of the expedition from a similar fate. On one occasion the party was without water for four days, and on another it was re- duced to such a desperate plight that Eyre was compelled to abandon everything that was not obsolutely essential to life. Two of the natives deserted, but subsequently rejoined the party, murdered Baxter, and decamped, carrying most of the stores away with them. The condition in which Eyre found himself the next morning when day broke would have caused most men to despair. He was in a waterless desert 500 miles from the nearest settlement with an inadequate supply of provisions, and a black boy to assist him in guarding what remained from treacherous natives Inactivity would mean disaster, and as soon as Eyre had buried the body of his devoted follower he resumed his journ'ey. The boy remained loyal, and on June 2 they reached Thistle Cove, where they found the French whaler Mississippi. The commander, Captain Rossiter, treated Eyre with the greatest kindness. At the end of a fortnight Eyre determined to com- plete his self-imposed task. He reached King George's Sound without further mishap. THROUGH THE HEART OF THE CONTINENT. The immense belt of territory to which the term Central Australia is applied proved a hard nut for explorers to crack. The vastn'ess of the country, the difficulties and dangers, served to fire the imagination of adventurous men. Many noble deeds were done far out of sight of the public with no thought of reward. It would be impossible to describe the amount of suf- fering endured by those who freely gave their lives to the work of solving the pro- blems presented by inland Australia. On the sand-drifts on the veldt side in the fern scrub they lay, That their sons may follow after by the bones along the way. The first explorer who fell a victim to the hardships and dangers which beset the paths of the pioneer bushmen in Northern Australia was Ludwig Leichhardt, the Prussian scholar and scientist, whose fate has never been definitely ascertained. Leichhardt made his first trip into the in- terior from Brisbane to Port Essington in 1844-6. In October, 1847, he set out on his last journey with the object of travel- ling to the Barcoo River and thence via the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria to Swan River. A letter was subsequently received by his friends which he wrote at Canning Down on February 26, 1848. That was the last authentic news of the ex- pedition, and, although it is supposed that the letter "I/" which Gregory saw carved on a tree in lat. 24.25, long. 145.6, marked the site of one of his camps, the theory has never been verified. Leichhardt was followed by the Hon. A. C. Gregory, who is still living in Queensland. After hav- ing made several journeys into the interior of Western Australia he was commissioned in 1855, by the Royal Geographical Society of London, to search for. the missing ex- plorer, who had then been absent more than four years. The expedition was also fitted out for exploration purposes, and the late Dr. Von Mueller accompanied the party as botanist. The explorers were conveyed to the mouth of the Victoria River by sea, and Gregory succeeded in following that stream to the east of the Fritzroy Range before the end of the year. Portion of the party eventually travelled to Mount Wilson, after which they re- traced their steps and crossed the water- shed of the Victoria River, and thence via the Roper River to the mouth of the Albert. Finding that the vessel which was to have met him there had not ar- rived, Gregory continued his journey over- land to Brisbane. That trip has been described by a competent authority as "one of the finest, most extensive, and ex- peditious explorations which has ever been recorded in Australia." In 1858 Gregory made another unsuccessful search for Leichhardt. It was during this trip that he found the tree marked by the ill-fated explorer. About the time that Gregory completed his last journey into the interior the idea of crossing the continent from south to north began to exercise a fascinating in- fluence upon the minds of those who were interested in Australian geographical pro- blems. The desire to achieve that object was stimulated by an offer from the South EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK. 221 /. H. Harris photo. Central Australian Natives in their War Paint. Australian Government of a bonus of 2,000 to the explorer who first succeeded in accomplishing the feat. John Mc- Douall Stuart, representing South Aus- tralia, and Robert O'Hara Burke, the ill- fated leader of a Victorian 'expedition, started for the prize. Stuart wasi the first on the scene, and he had pushed his way to a point within 250 miles of the Gulf of Car- pentaria before Burke's party crossed the continent ; he was compelled' to give up the attempt, however, and before he could fit out another expedition and return to the Northern Territory, Messrs. Burke and Wills had succeeded in passing his nearest approach to the goal. Those two courageous men were not destined to share the honor which Stuart enjoyed a few months later, of standing upon the northern shore of the continent. Burke and Wills proceeded down the Flinders River until they reached a point where the stream was affected by the rise and fall of the tide. They were provided with camels, imported from India for the purpose, whilst Stuart accomplished his journey on horseback. Burke had left the bulk of his stores under the care of four men at Cooper's Creek, and but for the fact that the custodians of the goods acting in accordance with their leader's instructions -left the depot on the very day that the travel-worn and starving advance party returned to Cooper's Creek, the gallant fellows might bave been spared to enjoy the reward of their enterprise. They had endured terrible hardships dur- ing the return trip. One of the party died of starvation and fatigue. When the three famishing survivors reached the camp they found it deserted and only a small quantity of food available. Know- ing that the remainder of the party could not be far in advance, Wills urged his leader to follow in their tracks, but Burke determined to strike across country to- wards the nearest sheep station, which proved to be much further away than he expected. The three men were eventually compelled to return to Cooper's Creek, where Burke and Wills died from starva- tion. Their companion, King, managed to obtain a subsistence from friendly na- tives until he was rescued by a relief ex- pedition. The bodies of Burke and Wills were eventually taken to Melbourne, where they were accorded a public funeral on January 21, 1863. It is a pathetic fact that their bodies were brought to Adelaide at the same time that Stuart returned from his successful journey from the Southern to the Indian Ocean. This accentuated the joy with which Stuart was welcomed. FROM OCEAN TO OCEAN. Forty-one years have elapsed since John McDouall Stuart waded into the sea on the 222 THE CENTRAL STATE. shore of Van Diemen Gulf and bathed his hands and face in the cool waters of the Indian Ocean after having crossed the con- tinent from south to north. It was the first time that such a feat had been accom- plished, and it is not difficult to imagine the delight with which the tired and travel-stained little band gazed upon the ever-changing sea and listened to the music of its waves after their long and arduous ride through the heart of a great continent. The narrative of that great achievement which Stuart gave to the world after he reached Adelaide is one of the most thrilling stories of adventure ever penned. The heroic fortitude which he displayed during the return journey, when he was too weak and ill to sit in the saddle, has seldom been surpassed. On October 31, 1862, he wrote in his journal : "I feel a little improvement this morning, which I hope will continue ; and I think I have reached the turn of this terrible disease (scurvy). On Tuesday night (this ex- tract was written on Friday) I certainly was in the grasp of death. A cold, clammy perspiration, with a tremulous motion, kept creeping slowly over my body during the night, and everything near me had the smell of decaying mortality in the last stage of decomposition and of the grave. I sincerely thank the Almighty Giver of all Good that He, in His infinite goodness and mercy, gave me strength and courage to overcome the grim and hoary-headed king of terrors, and has kindly permitted me yet to live a little longer in this world. . . . What a sad difference there is from what I was when the party left North Adelaide ! My right hand nearly useless to me by accident, total blindness after sunset although the moon shines bright to others, to me it is total darkness and nearly blind during the day; my limbs so weak and painful that I am obliged to be carried about ; my body reduced to that of infantine weakness -a sad, sad wreck of former days." In spite of bodily infirmity he continued to press forward. The entry made in his diary on the fol- lowing day reads: "Although in such a weak state, I shall try if I can ride in the stretcher (carried between two horses) as far as Hamilton Springs. Started early ; found the stretcher to answer very well. On arriving at the Springs saw that there was not sufficient water for the horses, and, as I had stood this part of the journey so well, made up my mind to cross the range to Brinkley Bluff. Arrived there about 5 p.m. I have stood the long journey better than I expected, but feel very tired and worn out." On another occasion he wrote: "Started in the cool of the morn- ing, and in two hours reached where the party were camped so much exhausted and so completely done up that I could not speak a word the power of speech has completely left me. . . . Gave orders that a horse was to be shot at sundown, as we are getting rather short of meat. I hope the change of beef-tea made from fresh meat will give me some increase of strength, for I am now reduced to a perfect skeleton, a mere shadow. . . . Fresh meat to the party is now a great treat, but I am denied participating in that pleasure from the dreadful state in which my mouth still is. I can chew nothing, and all that I have been living on is a little beef tea and a little flour, which I am obliged to swallow." These extracts are typical of the entries in the explorer's diary for a period of three months, and they indicate the terrible suffering which Stuart and his brave men faced for many weary weeks. "Should anything happen to me I keep everything ready for the worst. My plan is finished and my journal brought up every night, so that no doubt whatever can be thrown upon what I have done. All the difficult country is now passed, and what remains is well known to those who have been out with me before ; so that there is no danger of the party not finding their way back should I be taken away." At the time Stuart penned those words, eighteen years had passed since he gained his first experience as an explorer under the leadership of Captain Sturt. It was on Thursday, July 24, 1862, that Stuart made the following entry in his journal : "Thring Creek, entering the marsh. At eight miles and a-half came upon a broad valley of black alluvial soil covered with long grass ; from this I can hear the wash of the sea. . . . Crossed the val- ley and entered the scrub, which was a complete network of vines. Stopped the horses to clear a way, whilst I advanced a few yards on to the beach, and was grati- fied and delighted to behold the water of the Indian Ocean in Van Diemen Guff EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK. F. J. Gillen photo. A C'orroboree, Arunta Tribe, Central Australia. Central Australian Natives on the War path. The native on the extreme left tracked a white man, who had lost his way, for several hundred miles, and J. H. Harris photo. arrived in time to save his life. 224 THE CENTRAL STATE. before the party with the horses knew any- thing of its proximity. Thring, who rode in advance of me, called out 'The sea !' which took us all by surprise. Then they gave three long and hearty cheers. I dipped my feet and washed my face and hands in the sea, as I promised the late Governor, Sir Richard McDonnell, I would do if I reached it." The names of those who accompanied Stuart on that historic journey were Messrs. William Kekwick (second officer), F. W. Thring (third officer), W. P. Auld (assistant), Stephen King, John Billiatt, James Frew, Heath Nash, and John McGorrerey (shoeing smith). Mr. J. W. Waterhouse was also attached to the expedition as naturalist. Of the party, Messrs. Auld, Thring, King, Billiatt, Nash, and McGorrerey are alive. The return journey was begun on Satur- day, July 26, from Charles Creek, near Chambers Bay, and the expedition reached Adelaide safely after an absence of 12 months and 13 days. Stuart was still suffering from the effects of the terrible attack of scurvy which had prostrated him in the interior, but the cordial welcome which he received from his fellow-colonists rewarded him in some degree for the hard- ships he had endured. Subsequently the South Australian Government gave him a more tangible expression of its apprecia- tion. A resolution was carried in Parlia- ment to the effect that 3,500 should be paid as a reward to John McDouall Stuart and the members of his party, of which sum the leader was to receive 2,000. The Royal Geographical Society of London awarded him its medal and a gold watch. His success as an explorer was pheno- menal, and his five expeditions into the interior were carried out without the loss of human life. Stuart's journey across the continent enabled him to give valuable advice regarding the proposal to construct a telegraph line across the continent to Port Darwin, and the line closely followed his tracks. Stuart died in England in 1869. A GALLANT BAND. Since 1862 numerous explorers have been engaged in the task of determining the nature of the country on either side of the long but comparatively narrow strip of territory with which Stuart became familiar. The most important expedi- tions which have been equipped in South Australia during the last 40 years are worthy of reference, however, and a fore- most place must be accorded to Ernest Giles, who acted as leader of several ex- ploring parties. In 1872 Giles crossed fine country to the westward of the over- land telegraph line, and soon after his re- turn was appointed to command a party which mapped out about 700 miles of ter- ritory. In 1875 he was selected to command the expedition equipped by the late Sir Thomas Elder, and forced his way across hills and plains for 1,500 miles. During one stage of the journey no water was obtainable for 19 days, and even the camels suffered considerably. Giles was away for six months on that occasion, and travelled altogether about 2,400 miles. William Christie Gosse, who was for some time Surveyor-General of South Australia, entered the Government service in 1859, and was engaged in making trigonometri- cal surveys in the Far North. In 1873 he was sent out to explore new country about 800 miles south of Central Mount Stuart, with the ultimate object of pushing over to Western Australia. Gosse left Alice Springs in April, and discovered Ayers' Rock which he named after the late Sir Henry Ayers. He failed to reach Western Australia, and returned to Alice Springs in December, 1873. He was suc- cessful, however, in obtaining an accurate geographical knowledge of 60,000 square miles of new country. Gosse died in 1881 before he was 40 years of age. Major Peter Egerton Warburton, formerly Com- missioner of Police in Adelaide, conducted several expeditions into the interior be- tween 1856 and 1874. In 1873 he started across the continent, and with the aid of camels he succeeded in reaching an out- station in Western Australia after nine months travel. During the latter part of the time the party subsisted mainly on the flesh of worn-out camels. He was re- warded for his enterprise by a grant of 1,000 from the South Australian Parlia- ment, and was created a C.M.G. in 1875. He died in 1889. Mr. David Lindsay. F.R.G.S., is a native of South Australia who has worthily main- tained the traditions of Australian ex- ploration. In 1883 he was selected to lead an expedition which was about to proceed to Arnheim Land ; and afterwards conducted another party through the in- EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK. 225 terior. On the latter occasion he ex- plored the country between the overland telegraph line and the Queensland border. He discovered a deposit of rubies in the McDonnell Ranges which at the time ex- cited great interest ; and a few years later was chosen as leader of the Elder Exploring Expedition, which was equipped for the purpose of scientifically examining the unmapped portions of Australia. Mr. Lindsay passed within 12 miles of the Coolgardie goldfields, and was the first to call attention to the existence of the large auriferous region in the Western State. Mr. L. A. Wells' explorations ; Mr. David- son's work in Central Australia during the years 1898 and 1901 ; the splendid labors of the late Mr. Winnecke; and Mr. R. T. Maurice's recent expedition through a large tract of country to the north of Fowler's Bay, are contemporary history, the details of which are familiar to all South Australians who take an interest in the development of the State and its nor- thern dependency. Each of the gentle- men named have rendered valuable service by carefully examining territory which had not been previously surveyed. Mr. Maurice has made several extensive jour- neys along the western boundary of this State, and has done splendid work at his own expense. No record of exploration in South Aus- tralia would be complete without a refer- ence to Sir John Forrest, the present Federal Minister for Home Affairs. Al- though most of his exploration work was done in the adjoining State of Western Australia, his name is also intimately con- nected with South Australia. He was selected in 1869 to command the expedi- tion sent out to search for Leichhardt, and in 1870 he commanded the party which travelled from Perth to Adelaide along the south coast, and proved the practicability of the route for the telegraph line between the two capitals. Four years later he crossed the country between Champion Bay, in Western Australia, to the over- land telegraph line, a journey of 2,000 miles. A former Governor of Western Australia (Sir Frederick Weld) writing to Lord Carnarvon, said : "Mr. Forrest's ex- pedition has bridged the gap that separated Western Australia from the other colonies, has led to settlement on the shores of the Great Bight, and to the con- nection of this colony with the rest of the world by electric telegraph. I never doubted the future of Western Australia from the day when the news of Mr. For- rest's success reached Perth." Not a year goes by scarcely a day without an addition to the map of some range of hills, lakes, a tract of country suitable for the raising of live stock or an auriferous belt where the prospector may with advantage follow up the success of the road-breaking legion. The roll call of South Australian explorers contains many honored names of men who nobly did their duty in making known the interior of the continent and letting light into "Darkest Australia." They were the pathfinders and bridge builders the "road breakers" who made possible the peaceful occupation of the country for industrial de- velopment. The Northern Territory. There are two Australian. One lies within the tropics and the other is in the temperate zone. Nobody disputes that fact, because nobody who cares to look at the map can doubt it. Northern Austra- lia is in the same latitudes as Mozambique, Samoa, Abyssinia-, and Senegambia. It has been established also beyond doubt that the country is capable of producing on a commercial oasis such products as sugar cane, rice, maize, linseed, varieties of oil plants, tea, coffee, indiarubber, tobacco, cotton, millet, and cocoanuts. Yet with a soil capable of raising such choice products, a rainfall that can be measured in feet, and no lack of sunshine, the Northern Territory continues to be a nightmare to Australian statesmen, and a geographical enigma to the rest of the world. White men who have lived and worked there are unanimous in declaring that only the colored races can develop the resources of tropical South Australia. Politicians who once thought otherwise, but visited the place with open minds to enquire on the spot, have come back and admitted that the wnite man can. not work in the fields. With that con- viction strongly upon them they have re- turned south and voted for a "White Aus- tralia!" Senator Thomas Playford, now a member of the Federal Government, visit- ed India and the Northern Territory early in the nineties as Premier of South Aus- tralia, "to give effect to the following resolu- tion passed by the South Australian Par- liament : That "fifty experienced agricul- tural laborers and their families should be introduced under the Indian Immigration Act, that a special area of land should be set apart from them, and that subsist money should be provided until the land could maintain them. Mr. Playford, on his return (vide Parliamentary Paper 97, 1892), said : "The Territory must have cheap labor if tropical products are to be grown and sold with profit in the markets of the world. This is admitted by all who have any special knowledge of the subject. Only tropical products can be grown in the Territory. European labor is not cheap,, therefore if Europeans could stand the cli- mate, tropical products could not be pro- duced at a profit by them. It is generally admitted that Europeans cannot stand field work in tropical countries, therefore, first on the ground that European labor ia not cheap, and secondly on the ground that the laborers cannot stand the climate, it is not possible to employ Europeans at tropical agriculture." The same state- ments have been iterated and reiterated by competent authorities during the last thirty years. "Facilities to obtain suitable land ; facilities to obtain suitable cheap labor ; capital to take advantage of the first two conditions; intelligent manage- ment to use and not to squander the capi- tal." "Given these four conditions," says Dr. Holtze, for many years Curator of the Botanic Gardens at Port JJarwin, and now occupying a similar position in Adelaide, "and the Territory will surely become a prosperous field for plantation enterprise." Southern Australia has declared for a "White Australia," and until there is some modification of thait policy Northern Aus- tralia must continue to remain an unoccu- pied paradise of vegetable vitality aoid tropical luxuriance. Australia has yet to realise its duty towards this great terri- tory, comprising fertile plains and high table lands, carrying nutritive herbage plants and grasses. The country is very little improved since the Portuguese visited it in 1500 and the Dutch a hundred years later, or since Torres (passed through the straits that bear his name in 1606. Cook sailed along the coast in the next century, and Flinders in 1801. Portuguese. Dutchmen, and Englishmen, and in later days Australians, have all been unanimous in their praise of the country's natural beauties, the brilliancy of the tropic flowers, the rapid fecundation of tropic fruits, the grandeur of the jungle, and the luxuriance of growth everywhere to be seen. The late Duke of Manchester, after an- THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. 227 inspection lasting over several weeks in the Northern Territory, said: "I hawe seen other parts of Australia, and I must say before coming to Port Darwin I had cer- tainly thought Queensland the finest part of Australia, but I now consider, as far as I can judge by that portion of the Nor- thern Territory which I have seen, that the Territory is superior to Queensland, inasmuch as the vegetation seems richer, the grass thicker and of a more permanent character, and the country much better watered." Sir Gordon Bremer took possession of Raffles Bay on behalf of the British Go- vernment, and for a time a military settlement was formed at Melville Island. In 1827 a military depot was established first at Raffles Bay and then at Port Essing- ton. Leichhardt, the explorer visited the place in 1845, just before its desertion, and he was followed by Gregory and Stuart. It was the successful journey of the latter from south to north, and the additional knowledge supplied by his party of the re- sources of the country that induced South Australia to become foster mother to that portion of tropical Australia. Not only did John McDouall Stuart practically "discover" the Northern Territory, but his advocacy led to its annexation by South Australia. Prior to the expeditions of Leichhardt and Gregory, the great north- central part of Australia lying north of 126th parallel of S. latitude, and between the 129th and 138th meridians of east lon- gitude, was technically attached to New South Wales. The boundaries of Queens- land, South Australia, and Western Aus- tralia even to the disposal of "no man's land" had been agreed upon, but no men- tion had been made of the territory in be- tween. One of the first proposals made was that it should be proclaimed as a new Crown colony, and subsequently that it should be divided between Queensland and South Australia. When Stuart crossed the continent and planted the Union, Jack on the shores of the Arafura Sea., and re- turned through the heart of Australia to Adelaide, the South Australian Govern- ment of the day applied for the land in question. This request was acceded to by the British authorities, and in 1863 letters patent were granted incorporating the Northern Territory with South Australia. Since that time it has been managed from Adelaide, with a Government Resi- dent located at Port Darwin. The total area of the Northern Territory is 523,620 square miles, equal to 335,116,800 acres, or, say, 2 times the size of France and 4 times the size of Great Britain. It lies between the 129th and 138th degrees of east longitude,* the southern boundary is the 126th parallel of south latitude, and the moat northerly point of land nearly reaches the llth parallel With the exception of about 1\ degrees, the country is within the tropics or torrid zone. This fact hag had and is likely to have an important bearing in the future development of a resourceful country. Many authorities declare that the Nor- thern Territory cannot be utilized without the aid of colored labor, but the policy of South Australia was in recent years prior to federation opposed to this, and now that the Commonwealth Parliament has con- firmed the "White Australia" doctrine the employment of workmen in all parts of the continent is restricted to Europeans. Of the great resources of the country under review there never could be any dis- pute. Attention has been directed in the chapter on the pastoral industry tx> the suitable character of the table land country of the Northern Territory for the raising of cattle and horses. It will be interest- ing here, however -when dealing specifi- cally with this north country to quote the opinion of authorities who have trar veiled through it. My own journeyings have taken me through the heart of the continent and out in the north-east towards the Queensland border and the Gulf of Carpentaria. I can confirm many of the statements made concerning the quality of land and the supply of water and good grasses. Ag in other parts of the world, soil and climate and natural conditions over such a vast area vary. There are all sorts of country and several kinds of cli- mate. Port Darwin in the north has an average annual rainfall of over 60 inches; Charlotte Waters, the southern point of the Northern Territory, has about 6 in. The traveller between these two points and west and east finds stony wastes and spinifex, waterless plains and rocky, barren ranges alternating with undulating well-grassed downs, rich well-watered plains, heavily 228 THE CENTRAL STATE. View near Undoolya Cattle Station, Central Australia, the property of the Willowie Pastoral Company. A Mustering Party, MacDonnell Ranges. THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. 229 timbered hills, and on the north coast large navigable rivers. Of the Victoria River country on the west Mr. Wilson, the geologist to Gregory's expedition, wrote : "In no part of the world have I seen grass grow so luxuri- antly, and Mr. H. Gregory observed to me during a ten days' journey, when I accom- panied him and his brother to the upper Victoria, that he had seen more grass land than during all his life before. An aggre- gate of 5,000,000 of acres cam under the united observation of the party, a,nd may all be considered well-watered pasture land." Many years after Mr. N. Buch- anan reported : "I can confirm Gregory's accounts that the Victoria River country contains some of the finest pastoral lands in Australia. The grasses are principally Mitchell, Landsborough, or Flinders, and blue grasses, with some barley grass. The coomtry is well watered back from the river and its tributaries, which are permanent." Of the Victoria River, Captain Carrington wrote: "Perhaps the value of this magni- ficent stream as a commercial highway may be better shown by comparison. In mak- ing the comparison I have only in view its capacity as a harbor and easiness of access. I have no hesitation whatever in saying that the Victoria is superior to> the Thames, the Mersey, or Hooghly. The quantity of land for which the Victoria is the natu- ral, and, I believe, only outlet is approxi- mately 90,000 square miles 1 , or, say, 57,000,000 acres." Of North-east Arn- heim's Land Mr. H. Heber Percy, a Queens- land squatter, reported : "I was surprised to find the land so good. It is destined sooner or later to be made use of for agri- culture and to carry a large population." Of the eastern country, Mr. Isaac Little, a pastoral tenant, wrote : "I estimate that this part of the table land will carry from four to five millions of sheep. Of course, large sums for fencing and dam-making will have to be expended first." Mr. John Costello, of Lake Nash, in his evidence be- fore the Royal Commission, said : "There is a large area of country from Newcastle Waters and the head of the Roper to the Queensland border at Camooweal. This magnificent belt of country known as the table land may be said to be the cream, of the pastoral land of the Territory. I have the fullest and greatest faith in the future of squatting in it. I have travelled over most of the sheep-raising country in Queensland, and I can safely say that in no part of that colony have I seen country bet- ter adapted for wool-growing than this splendid table land. A permanent supply of water can be obtained in this country at a depth varying from 150 to 250 ft. It would not require an expensive boring plant to put down a 7-in. tubed well that depth. At each such well 6,000 to 8,000 head of cattle could be watered. It would be a certain reserve store in case of drought. I think I might safely say that (with suffi- cient wells) the stations from Lake Nash to the head of the MacArthur would be equal to supporting 10,000,000 sheep." Of Cen- tral Australia the late. Mr. E, S. Flint, of Alice Springs, wrote : "Cattle and horses thrive well, especially the latter, which in dry seasons are able to travel farther from water to feed. I am of opinion that Cen- tral Australia will be the chief horse pro- ducing district of Australia. Its con- tiguity to the tropics renders horses more hardy, and better able to cope with the heat and other drawbacks attaching to a tropical country than animals bred further south." The area held under pastoral leases in 1902, the latest statistics available, was 176,000 square miles; the area declar- ed stocked 91,144 miles. During 1902 14,000 cattle were exported, their value being 72,801. The Government Resi- dent, in his report for 1902, stated : "On the whole I regard the outlook for the pas- toral industry as being most promising, and that year by year we may look forward to its gradual expansion." The latest returns show a wonderful in- crease in the number of stock : Cattle, 1900, 250,730; 1901, 255,521; 1902, 305,820. Horses, 1900, 11,640; 1901, 12,896; 1902, 14,788. Sheep, 1900, 54,210; 1901,48,324; 1902,42,122. The exports for the last three years were : Cattle, 1900, 8,490 head, value 39,277; 1901, 36,036, value 170,241 ; 1902, 14,348, value 72,801. Horses, 1900, 522, value 3,175 ; 1901, 1,039, value 7,551 ; 1902, 447, value 2,166. Wool, 1900, 100,007 lb., value 3,244 ; 1901, 257,722 lb., value 6,719; 1902, 178,154 lb., value 6,253. The Eastern and African Cold Storage Company has acquired a large tract of country about 19,000 square miles on the 230 THE CENTRAL STATE. eastern side of the territory and is now stocking this with cattle. The late Hon. J. L. Parsons, for some years Government Resident of the Nor- thern Territory, and the best friend that country has ever had, was a strong believer in its agricultural resources. He regarded agriculture as "the richest resource of all." Dr. Maurice W. Holtze, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Lond.), for some time Curator of the Botanic Gardens, Palmerston, is equally convinced that tropical South Australia offers a promising field for the agriculturist. In a paper read before the Royal Geogra- phical Society, Adelaide, Dr. Holtze said : "Now, I a lion in question has a yield one is diffident about pulling down in plain figures. History ^J relates that Australians, next to Russians, consume more tea per capita than any other people Even then figures connected with the tea trade are staggering, even when the said figures are merely those of an individual firm frcm one single source. The tea from this lately acquired plantation is of a character that can hardly fail to maintain the reputation of the firm dealing with it. It is no cheaper than any other good tea The fact has been long recognised by every level-headed housewife that cheap tea is very poor economy. Other housewives have yet to learn that a tea at one and ninepence a pound goes twice as far as tea at a shilling, besides being infinitely more wholesome into the bargain. You may buy tea from this firm at as low a figure as price.-* go in the tea trade, but you will do it against he better judgment of any educaltd individual who sells it lo you. Ceylon is by no means the only market from which GRIFFITHS BROS, get their teas. China and India furnish their quota, tea from the latter place having been practically introduced to Australia by this firm. No one tea is universally popular, a blend of Chinese and Indian tea commanding a better sale than the unmixed lea from either country. Besides tea, the firm deals largely with coffees and cocoas at its warehouse in Rundle Street. As a last word on ihe lea question, I may lell you lhat the tea plant may be induced to grow without any difficulty in Victoria and the Mount Lofty hills. It is doing well in Mr. Griffiths' garden al Bayswaler, and il makes an exceedingly prelty ornamental shrub. Economic conditions are against it being grown for commercial purposes, as the land can probably be lurned to greater profit by other means. At the same time, it is an interesting item to add to your garden, the flower as well as the oliage having much to recommend it. ADVERTISEMENTS. xix. EXQUISITE, HIGHLY CONCENTRATED, DELIGHTFUL. iVJlSS the famous Singer, commends it as follows ' I rarely use perfumes, but this was so subtly fragrant and delightfully refreshing that I have used it constantly on boat and train during my long concert tour." Yours faithfully, ADA CROSSLEY. j. i. GOUDREY; Chemist, 12, Rvmdle Street, Adelaide, S.A. FEDERAL BOOT A knowledge of the rise and progress of the Federal Boot Company fills one with admiration for the dogged and determined perseverance of the proprietor (Mr. H. J. Pearce). Mr. Pearce started on his business career 27 years ago in premises situated in the east end of Rundle-slreet, his brother (Mr. S. Pearce) being his partner After obtaining a firm business footing Mr. H. J. Pearce decided to build a larger manufactory, and by a bold plunge he set up as a boot and shoe manufacturer in Pirie-street, Adelaide. The success which attended his efforts might be re- ferred to as "a triumph of industry," and as the quality, style, and finish of the F. B.C boots and shoes became known throughout the length and breadth of South Australia the output was increased till at length the Pirie-street premises were not suf- ficiently roomy for the business, and an architect was instructed to prepare plans and specifications for a commodious and modern factory, which would be capable of accommodating all the machines and employes the trade requirements of the firm would be likely to make necessary for many years This brings us back to the starting-point, and we are now standing on the threshold of the ' temple of trade" with the manager (Mr. E. Masey). No fewer than 1 60 machines, ranging in value from ^210 to 5, were seen in action, turning out beautiful work, such as would have made the name of the olden-time operatives familiar in every boot factory in the State. "Machines are brainless" it is true, but they are faultless and this is a great consideration, as the general public demand uniformity in style and finish. Two machines demand special notice "Lightning Lasters" they are called, and their name does not give wrong impressions. A machinist " feeds " a boot upper into tiny jaws, and in less time than it takes to write half a dozen words the job of " lasting " the boot is finished. The Federal Boot Company produces its leather at the Hindmarsh tannery, Mr, P. H. Tunbndge being the manager. The chief retail trading house of the firm i.<= at 78, Rundle-street, but an extensive wholesale warehouse is situated in Gawler-place, and 42 retail branches are scattered in various parts of the State. The success which is attending the efforts of the proprietor is well deserved, and the present indications are that the business will continue to expand in a gieater ratio than ever. XX. ADVERTISEMENTS Tormore School, CHILD^RS ST., NORTH * PRINCIPALS THE MISSES JACOB. BOARDING AND DAY SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, Pupils Prepared for University Examinations. Boys under 8 years of age admitted to Preparatory Class. Setyool, UN LEY PARK. PRINCIPALS THE MISSES THORN BER. PUPILS PREPARED FOR UNIVERSITY EXAMS. Extensive alterations have been recently made in the Boarding House, and it is now fitted with every comfort and convenience. The school is beautifully situated, and has large gardens and recreation grounds, cricket ground, and tennis court. Prospectus and any information may be obtained on application to the Principals. ADVERTISEMENTS. XXI. A. LESCHEN, 102, North Teirace. HUGO LESCHEN, Telephone 512. ITbe B6elaibe (B^mnasium o I^TH o ^E ID i c 6pmnastics, Sandou) System, Swimming, fencing, massage. OrihoncUp. CURVATURES OF THE SPINE A SPECIALTY. THE Main Hall of the Gymnasium is ' ^ '. ^ ,- '" 70 ft. x 33 ft. , and is fitted with all the necessary appliances for a course of sys- tematical training. A spacious Lavatory and Swimming Bath adjoin the main hall. Dressingrooms, containing nearly 200 lockers, are placed at the members' disposal. Gymnastics are valuable to all persons, but especially to clerks, stu- dents, sedentary artisans, and still more particularly to those who, in addition to sedentary habits, perform exhaustive in- tellectual labour. With the latter class, suffering from INDIGESTION and nervous debility, nothing but a wise system of gymnastic training can prevent the early failure of the powers of life. Sandow quotes in " Physical Culture," March, 1899: "Although all games, sports, &c. , carried on in the open air, if indulged in in moderation, tend to make boys healthy, active, and manly, they DO NOT and CANNOT compensate for the wants of an intelligent and progressive system of Physical Culture. For instance, of what use are either cricket or football to a weakly boy with an inclination, perhaps, to be knock-kneed, round-backed, or flat-footed ? None at all. And if he is either forced or jeered into playing games he is much more likely to grow worse than better. " As to the frequency of the exercises, Dr. Ideler says : " For the student, one or (better) two lessons in vigorous exercises each week will be sufficient. EVERY ORGAN WHEN BROUGHT TO ITS FULL TENSION HAS A TENDENCY TO CONTINUE UNIMPAIRED FOR A LONG T1MK." The sedentary life is one full of pitfalls. Such is now the strain of mental competition that the body is too often neglected. This neglect brings with it physical degeneration, and physical degeneration as surely undermines the mental and moral strength. Still, however, it must be admitted that under the present day conditions of life there is only one form of exercise which can be practised by all, from the weakest to the strongest, and from the poorest to the richest, from the most occupied to the most leisured classes. I refer to systematic exercise, which can be followed day in and day out, in the smallest room or in the open air. Systematic exercise has these several advantages over general or recreative exercises : its practice occupies comparatively Hi tie time ; each movement has a definite object, the result of which can be accurately calculated ; by its means one secures general and well-balanced development, almost an impossi- bility in ordinary exercise, the tendency of which is to develop one part of the body at the expense of another ; the will power is strengthened ; the internal organs, including the heart and the lungs, share in the benefits obtained. The contraction of the muscle is regulated by a series of nervous stimulations 10 the obvious muscle cells, the strength of such stimulus being tensified by the use of will power ; in fact it is im- possible to exaggerate the importance of will power in systematic exercise. The function of exercise is then to give to the body in any age and in either sex, the health, the strength, the beauty and grace which nature originally intended it should have, but of which it has been deprived by the shackled condition of civilised life The object of systematic exercise is to bring this great possibility within the reach of all, so that in the shortest space of time, whatever the physical condition may be, whatever the weight of the individual's purse may be, these results can be obtained without undue demands upon the time of the pupil, and without the slightest fear of overtaxing his strength. In exertion it is the chest which fails a man, either from loss of wind or from failure of the heart, and this is also the case with the torso, which cannot, in the average individual, stand any muscular strain. The cramped positions in which men do their work, the long hours, the inducements to forego exercise indeed, the lack of time to devote to exercise the follies of dress and the false supports have made the modern torso the hideous undeveloped thing it is. In nearly all cases of deformity it is the spine, shoulder-blade, shoulder-joint, hip or ribs that are at fault. The muscles are weak and the body falls into false positions, which, through persistence, produce the various deformities. This is a condition which can easily be remedied with a little care and attention. There is no reason why the possession of a perfect frame should be denied to any one on earth. XX11. ADVERTISEMENTS. fluldana Vincpards* ULDANA VINEYARDS, situated a few miles out of Adelaide, are noted for the quality of the wines produced there, and each year the proprietors are compelled to increase the area under vines on account of the great demand for their wines. ST. HENRI CLARET is renowned for its light alcoholic strength, and is greatly recommended by the medical profession. This wine secured a Silver Medal at Bordeaux Exhibition, also the Simpson Twenty Guinea Cup, the most valuable trophy offered in the State for competition amongst vignerons. This Cup had to be won twice before becoming the property of the exhibitor. AULDANA CHABLIS secured it the first year it was offered, and as the year following ST. HENRI CLARET was awarded first prize, the Cup became the property of the Auldana Proprietors. The w T inning of such a valuable Cup in two successive years speaks for itself. AULDANA secured two Champion Cups, presented by the Royal Agricultural Society of South Australia, also the same num- ber at the Agricultural Show at Sydney. AULDANA ST. HENRI CLARET and SPECIAL HOCK are the only Australian Wines used on the French Mail Steamers trading to the Commonwealth. Their SPECIAL PORT is noted for its high quality, and is used at the Adelaide Hospital for medicinal purposes. A noted wine produced at Auldana is their SHERRY, which experts pronounce equal to the imported wine of that brand. The Vineyards are reached by car after a beautiful ride through the Eastern Suburbs, and visitors are there welcomed by the managing partner, Mons. E. Mazure, who is looked upon as an authority on all matters pertaining to the making of wine. ADVERTISEMEN TS. XX111. F. RALPH & CO., Import and Export Merchants, And Manufacturers' Agents. WINE AND SPIRIT MERCHANTS. Buyers of South Australian Wines and all classes of Produce for Export. CABLE ADDRESS " RALPH," ADELAIDE. CODES USED Ai and ABC (4th and 5th Editions). TELEPHONE No. 618 "DOG'S HEAD" ^ Bottling of Guinnesses Stout AND It is the FINEST QUALITY Procurable. Bass's Ale is obtainable from every Wine and Spirit Merchant in South Australia, and from F. RALPH & CO., Sole Wholesale Agents. XXIV. ADVERTISEMENTS. FOR WOOD, DOWN & CO., LIMITED, anfc Jfounfcers, Boilermafcere, Makers of Patent Improved Grinding and Amalgamating Pans; Stamper Batteries; Cornish,. Lancashire, and Vertical Boilers; First Motion and Geared Winding Engines; Single or Duplex Plunger Pumps, suitable for fixing on wood framing, or complete with iron base plate and iron framing; Three-throw Plunger Pnmps, with iron base plate and framing, suitable for charging filter presses or lifting tailings ; Cyanide Plants and all kinds of Mining Machinery ; English and Colonial Stamper Shoes and Dies kept in stock. W. MENZ . CO Wakefield Street, Adelaide. E S T -A. B H, I S H E ID 185O Confectionery ar(d Biscuit Manufacturers. CABLE ADDRESS "MENZ." ADVERTISEMENTS. XXV. Che young men's Christian Association OF ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Corner Gawler Place and Grenfell St. YOUNG MEN COMING TO ADELAIDE are advised to make the Y.M.C.A. their first place of call. They will find in the Secretary a real friend. Registers of Employment and for Board and Residence are kept for the use of members and visitors The following are some of the Departments : Evangelistic Services, Bible Study Classes, Literary Society, Choral Society, Elocution Class, Reference and Reading Libraries, Gymnastic Classes, Cycling Club, Cricket Club. Young men are invited to call and inspect the rooms, which are open from Sam to 10 p. m. H. A. WHEELER, Gen. Sec. READING ROOM. XXVI. ADVERTISEMENTS. MONEY SAVED BY GOING TO ^^^CROOKS & BROOKER for Hardware ! Hardware ! Hardware ! and Furniture ! Furniture ! Furniture ! SOLE AGENTS FOR SHERWIN-WILLIAMS NOTED READY-MIXED PAINTS. Adelaide and Port Adelaide. Schoning & 94 Currie vtreetj Jictelaicte. RUNDLE ST., ADELAIDE. ' i Proprietor - - SYDNEY W. FERRY, i The Most Comfortable Commercial and Family Hotel south of the Line. LIBERAL TARIFF. CUISINE UNSURPASSED. Night Porter. Telephone 364. ADVERTISEMENTS. XXvii. . j. Gyre & Co, 98, O'CONNELL ST., NORTH ADELAIDE. Telephone No. 443. By appointment to their Excellencies the Right Hon. Earl of Kintore, P.C., G.C.M.G., &c., and Sir Thomas Powell Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G., &c. The Dispensing of Physicians' Prescriptions is a leading feature of our business and is carried on under personal supervision. NIGHT ATTENDANCE. Austral Piano and Music Stores, Hindley St., Adelaide. $OlC HCKMlS for Linke Self-Playing Pianos. Y^T Ji. TNTC^s^k IF YOU Y^T /^ 1\J^^4 *m. JL. jfr^ JL^L ^_J *Z^ WANT -m: A.^^L.AT^I ^^S^ let us know your terms. We will suit you, and we will send you a catalogue of all the leading makes. Pianos Exchanged, Tuned, and Repaired. ALEX. COLLINS (And at Mile End) "We are Booksellers, Stationers, Musicsellers, and Newsagents. Orders taken for all Magazines, Newspapers, and Fashion Books. Send to us by post, you will receive careful attention. E. J. & A. W. BARROW. And at 33, Arcade, Adelaide. R. GORRELL, iRusicstllcr $ Importer Importer of Violins, Flutes, Piccolos, Brass Band Instruments, Brass Bands' Music, &c. Also very best Stringrs for all Instruments. Larg-e stock Choicest Songs, Pianoforte and Orchestral Music published by Boosey & Co. ORCHESTRAL AND BRASS BAND INSTRUMENTS REPAIRED. Sole Agent in S.A. and Broken Hill for Boosey & Co.'s Famous Compensating Piston Brass Band Instruments; Boosey & Co.'s Famous Band Journals; Smith's Famous " Champion " Band Journals ; " The British Bandsman " ; " The Austral- asian Bandsman ;" Lightning Lubricant for Valves and Slides. ' The well-known " Correll " Brass Band Instruments, a really good instrument for a low price. Corner of Flinders and Hyde Streets, Adelaide. Hdclaidc Stock and Slwcbrokcrs. CLARKE & CO., 18 and 20, Grenfell Street, Adelaide. 311, Collins Street, Melbourne. Brookman Street, Kalgoorlie. A. RUTTER CLARKE, Member Stock Exchange, Adelaide and Melbourne LAURIE & GURNER, Stoch, Sljart anb Inbtstwtnt Brokers, BROKEN HILL CHAMBERS, ADELAIDE. ]. Buxton Laurie, Memb'r Stoct Exchange of Adelaide. E. R. Gurner, issocia/s Institute Accountants of S.A. HENRY GADD, Slgcnt, BROOKMAN'S BUILDING (or Stock Exchange of Adelaide) ADELAIDE. Moreing 1 117 S 1 1(7 if i ir" = S U = s A 000100370 iLIFOfyj, 1. &=? .? ^ faan-^