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THE CENTRAL STATE.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA:
Its History, Progress
And Resources.
BY
DAVID J. GORDON.
VARDON AND PRITCHARD, PRINTERS, GRESHAM STREET.
1903.
Stack
Annex
37V
HON. J. G. JENKINS,
Premier and
Chief Secretary.
HON. R. BUTLER,
Treasurer and
Commissioner of
Croirn Lands.
SIR G. R. LE HUNTE,
K.C.M.G.,
Governor of
South Australia.
w
HON. L. YON DOUSSA,
Attorney -General and
Minister of Education.
HON. R. W. FOSTER,
Commissioner of Public Works and
Minister of Industry.
1821151
CONTENTS.
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, THE ... ... ... ... 3
DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA ... ... ... ... ... 5
LAUNCHING A NEW PROVINCE ... ... ... ... ... 8
Proclaiming the Province Early Days The Pioneer as Pathfinder.
CLIMATE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18
GOVERNMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20
PRIMARY PRODUCER'S RECORD ... ... ... ... ... 27
INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION ... ... ... ... ... ... 30
PASTORAL INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... 38
Flocks and Fleeces Stud Flocks of South Australia The Murray Merinos :
Rhine Park, Mount Beevor, Mount Crawford, and Cappeedee Studs
Bungaree Canowie Wirra Wirra Rockbrook Koonoona and Keyneton
Merino Studs Ulooloo Dorset Horn Stud Sweet Home Shropshire Stud.
CATTLE RAISING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 69
Mount Crawford Jerseys Angas Shorthorns.
LAMB EXPORT TRADE, THE
AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY, THE
AIDS TO AGRICULTURE
CULTIVATION OF CEREALS ...
Hay Oats Bailey Field Peas.
FRUITGROWING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112
The Apple Industry Among the Orange Groves Lemon Culture Currants and
Raisins.
MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES ... ... ... ... ... ... 120
IRRIGATION COLONY, OUR (RENMARK) ... ... ... ... 122
A, second Fruit Colony Coonawarra.
DAIRY INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 129
WINE INDUSTRY, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 135
The Brandy Industry.
LAND LAWS, THE ... ... ... ... ... *.. ... 145
MINING ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 148
I'AGK.
MANUFACTURES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 60
Leading Engineering Works Salt Refineries Cement Works.
FOREST CULTURE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165
SHIPPING TRADE, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 168
Interstate Service Coastal Service - Lighthouse Service Marine Board Ocean
Mail Service River Murray Trade Vessels Registered in South Australia
Over-Sea Passenger Trade.
STATE RAILWAYS, THE ... ... ... ... ... ... 180
Trans- Australian Lines 1'laces worth Visiting served by Railways.
WATERWORKS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 187
Artesian Wells.
"NILE" OF AUSTRALIA, THE ... ... ... ... ... 190
FINANCE AND TRADE ... ... ... ... ... ... 192
Pursuits of the People Sixty Years of Progress.
ADELAIDE: THE CAPITAL OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA ... ... ... 196
EDUCATION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 201
Primary Education, State Schools University School of Mines Agricultural
College Public Library, Ari Gallery, and Museum St Peter's College
Prince Alfred College.
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK ... ... ... ... ... 215
NORTHERN TERRITORY, THE ... ... ... ... ... 226
The Commonwealth of Australia
fails to supply a parallel to the peaceful occupation of the Australian-
Continent. Not one British soldier or sailor has been called upon to
sacrifice his life in order to secure or to hold Australia for the Empire.
The ' ' Flag of England ' ' has never been challenged from the day in
April, 1770, when Captain Cook sailed the "Endeavor" into Botany
Bay, or since Captain Matthew Flinders cruised along the Southern Coast
from the L,euwin, and cleared decks in order, if necessary, to prevent any display of the
tricolour on land by the French explorer Baudin, whom he met in Encounter Bay.
Warships of every nation have visited our shores at frequent intervals, but their
emblems of nationality have been dipped to the Union Jack flying above the
harbours.
The bloodless conquest of the ' ' Grea, South I^and ' ' was followed by the-
trial of various systems of colonization. That employed in the founding of South
Australia was unique because of its ideal principles and the new theory of political
economy which they represented. The colonization and expansion of the Australian 1
group represent the most glorious triumphs of the Nineteenth century. A continent
had to be explored, rivers bridged, forests cleared, and a never-ending war waged
against unknown natural conditions. Fire, flood, and famine confronted the early
settler as he sought to make a home in the bush. These and other foes continued
to cross the path of the pioneer as he pushed his way into the heart of Australia,,
undismayed by the failure of others, confident in his own strength, unconquerable
in patience and determination.
Progress in other directions has been no less substantial and significant. Irr
no other country is there to be found greater political freedom or social equality ;
better facilities for education in all its branches more certainty that each ' ' shall
reap where he has sown ' ' than in that Commonwealth representing the union of
once divided States. At the beginning of the Nineteenth century Australia was-
practically unknown. A handful of white people were located on the Eastern
shore within sound of the Pacific Ocean. To-day there are few blanks in the map.
There is a population of nearly four millions. The flow of trade outwards and
inwards in 1902 represented a total annual value of ,138,231,000 ; production in
1901 represented a sterling value of ,112,704,000. The public revenue for 1902
aggregated ,28,000,000. Excluding unsold lands and public works the value of
private property in Australasia in 1813 was ,1, 000,000 ; twenty-five years later it
was ,26,000,000; in the next quarter of a century it rose to ,181,000,000 ; in
1888 it amounted to ,1,015,000,000; and in 1901 the total was ,1,083,838,000.
"Although Australasia," says Mr. Coghlan, the leading statistician in the Com-
monwealth, " has but the population of a province of some of the great European
powers, in the wealth and earnings of its people it stands before most of the
secondary states, and as regards wealth and income per head of population it
compares very favourably with any country." The value of land in private hands.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
in the Commonwealth is ,350,281,000, or 38.54 per cent, of the Value of all
property in Australasia. In this total South Australia is credited with ,34, 080,000,
or a proportion of 41.73 of all property held privately in the State. The value of
land and improvements together in the Commonwealth amounts to ,627,805,000,
or 69.08 per cent, of all property. This State's contribution to this result is
^56,060,000, or 68.65 P er cent. "The improvements on the lands of the Common-
wealth and New Zealand are," says Coghlan, "valued at ,327,163,000, which sum
represents 79.46 per cent, of the value of the land, ranging between 84.45 P er cent,
in New South Wales, and 59.16 in Tasmania." The nature and worth of private
property held in Australia are as follows: Land, ,350,281,000; houses and
permanent improvements, ,277,524,000; live stock, ,85,048,000; furniture, &c.,
,29,746,000; personal effects, ,12,066,000 ; machinery (excluding mining),
,29,852,000 ; shipping, ,5,874,000 ; mining properties and plant, ^32,299,000 ;
merchandise and produce on hand, ^59,711,000; coin and bullion, ,26,361,000 ;
total, ^"908,762,000. The subjoined table gives a bird's eye-view of the substantial
progress made, and serves to indicate the high level of prosperity at present enjoyed
in the Commonwealth of Australasia :
TJ
jj
J3
S
Total
to
STATES OF THE
COMMONWEALTH OF
AUSTRALIA.
ien Establis
Area in
Acres.
'-S CO
.js
Og
o
Value
of
Produc-
tion,
1901.
Pro-
duction
per
head.
Imports,
1902.
Exports,
1902.
Trade
per
head
of
Popula-
tion.
Private
Wealth
per
head.
"I
f religion.
At a meeting held at 19, Bishopsgate Street, London, on October 9, 1835,
Mr. G. F. Angas and four other gentlemen approved of the draft prospectus of
the "South Australian Company," which provided for: "FIRSTLY The
erection upon their town land of wharfs, warehouses, dwelling houses, &c., and
letting and leasing the same to the colonists, or otherwise disposing of them.
SECONDLY The improvement and cultivation of their country land, and the
leasing or sale of part of it, if deemed expedient, and the sub-letting of their
pasture land at advanced rates. THIRDLY The laying out of farms, the erection
of suitable buildings thereon, and letting the same to industrious tenants on lease,
with the right of purchase before the expiration of such lease at a price to be fixed
at the time the tenant may enter. FOURTHLY The growth of food for European
markets. FIFTHLY The pursuit of the whale, seal, and other fisheries in the
gulfs and seas around the colony, and the curing and salting of such fish as may be
suitable for exportation. SIXTHLY The salting and curing of beef and pork for
the stores of ships and for the purposes of general export. SEVENTHLY The
establishment of a bank or banks in or connected with the colony of South
Australia, making loans on land or produce in the colony, and the conducting of
such banking operations as the directors may think expedient." Mr. George
Sutherland, M.A., in his "Study in Colonization" gives in detail the history of
this company, which has had so great a hand in shaping the destiny of South
Australia. The story of splendid pioneer work need not be repeated here. Suffice
it to say that but for the company, the province in its early days could hardly have
escaped destruction on financial rocks. The association has been well repaid for
the enterprise and patience of its promoters, and well it deserved to be.
At a critical stage of the preliminary proceedings this company purchased
sufficient land at 1 2S. per acre to enable the Commissioners to comply with the Act
of 1834 " to erect South Australia into a British province, and to provide for the
colonization and government thereof." Thus was the way made clear for the
PROCLAIMING THE PROVINCE. II
practical work of colonization. The first ships were soon on the berth, and with
their departure the province of South Australia was successfully launched. Here,
again, the South Australian Company led the way.
"A free country for independent, liberty-loving people." That, in effect,
was the alluring promise held out. That in reality was the corner-stone of the
foundation of South Australia, upon which a great structure is still in course of
building. The new province when it first saw the light was free from any
41 birthstain." It has continued free ever since. The Act of establishment said:
" Thac no person or persons convicted in any Court of Justice in Great Britain or
Ireland, or elsewhere, shall at any time, or under any circumstances, be transported
as a convict to any place within the limits hereinbefore described."
The leading principles of the legislation which authorised the settlement
were that South Australia should not be a charge upon Great Britain ; that no
convicts should be transported, and no state church established. An attempt to
violate the latter principle a few years later was warmly and successfully resisted.
The province was also favored with trial by jury from the outset, the full right of
which privilege it had been found necessary to withhold in neighboring colonies.
The first courc of gaol delivery was held as far back as May 13, 1837. The presiding
Judge was Sir J. W. Jeffcott, subsequently drowned at the mouth of the Murray.
In his address to South Australia's first jury, His Honor congratulated the free
inhabitants of the colony in being able to claim as their birthright that most valuable
privilege of the British Constitution trial by jury. The judge went on to say :
' ' The only obstacle which seemed at first sight to interpose itself was the presumed
difficulty of procuring in so new a colony a sufficient number of intelligent
gentlemen to take upon them the highly important duties which you will have to
discharge. That difficulty was, however, at once obviated in my mind after I had
been a few days amongst you, and I had seen and conversed with the very many
respectable colonists whom I had had the pleasure of meeting in private society,
and amongst the many interesting and novel features which the formation of the
colony presents it is not the least interesting that, within four months of the landing
of the Governor and the first colonists on these shores shores hitherto untrodden
by the foot of civilised man there were found the means of assembling together a
number of gentlemen capable of constituting a grand and petit jury, who, in point
of intelligence and respectability are, I will venture to say, not inferior to any similar
body seen in the mother country. ' ' That of itself constitutes a remarkable tribute
to the character of the early settlers a testimony which the pioneers justified in
every particular.
Free passages for emigrants ; land sales to cover the outlay, were the
underlying principles of the unique experiment tried in the colonization of South
Australia. The South Australian Company came to the assistance of the
Commissioners, fitted out ships with stock, stores, and practical men. The
Company led the way in everything, introducing sheep and cattle ; importing seeds
and plants ; establishing a bank and finding money when funds in the public
treasury had dwindled until on one occasion only eighteenpence remained. The
Treasurer of the day on arriving at his office on that eventful morning found the
soldier on guard helplessly drunk.
Proclaiming tHe Province.
Captain Hindmarsh, R.N., was gazetted Governor of the new province of South
Australia on February 4, 1836. A month later the "Cygnet," 239 tons, left
London, having on board Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Kingston, Captain Lipson,
R.N., Dr. Wright, surgeon; Messrs. Finniss, Neale, Symonds, Hardy, and Cannan,
.surveyors ; Mr. T. Gilbert, storekeeper ; Mr. John Morphett, and a number of
12
THE CENTRAI, STATE.
An Interior View of the Adelaide Railway Station.
A. Vaughan, Survey Dept., pho'o.
Entrance to the Adelaide Railway Station.
A. Vaughan, Purvey Dept., i koto.
PROCLAIMING THE PROVINCE. 13
passengers. The " Rapid," 136 tons, with Colonel Light, left some weeks after the
" Cygnet," .but arrived at Kangaroo Island nearly a month before that vessel.
Colonel Light, as Surveyor-General, with an energy characteristic of him, at once
began his great labors of rinding a suitable site for the capital, fixing the place for
the chief seaport, surveying the country, and starting to fill up a blank map. The
process is still going on. South Australia has unknown fields to be explored, vast
tracts of country to be occupied, so that there are still offered splendid opportunities
for courageous enterprising men.
The " Buffalo," with His Excellency Captain Hindmarsh on board, dropped
anchor in Holdfast Bay on December 28, 1836. The Governor landed the same
day, and under the generous shade of gumtrees close to the beach the Union Jack
was hoisted, the proclamation read, salutes fired, and South Australia officially
started on its course. The following is a facsimile of the proclamation :
PROCLAMATION
By His Excellency JOHN HINDMARSH, Knight of the Royal Hanoverian
Guelphic Order, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of
HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE
OF
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
In announcing to the COLONISTS of HIS MAJESTY'S PROVINCE
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA the establishment of the Government, I hereby
call upon them to conduct themselves on all occasions with order and quietness,
duly to respect the laws, and by a course of- industry .and sobriety, by the
practice of sound morality and a strict observance of the Ordinances of Religion,
to prove themselves worthy to he FOUNDERS of a great and free Colony.
It is also, at this time especially, my duty to apprise the Colonists of my
resolution to take every lawful means for extending the same protection to
the NATIVE POPULATION as to the rest of His Majesty's Subjects, and
of my firm determination to punish with exemplary severity all acts of violence
or injustice which may in any manner be practised or attempted against the
NATIVES, who are to be considered as much under the Safeguard of the law
as the Colonists themselves, and equally entitled to the privileges of British
Subjects. I trust, therefore, with confidence to the exercise of moderation
and forbearance by all Classes in their intercourse with the NATIVE
INHABITANTS, and that they will omit no opportunity of assisting me to
fulfil His Majesty's most gracious and benevolent intentions towards them by
promoting their advancement in civilization, and ultimately, under the blessing
of Divine Providence, their conversion to the Christian Faith.
By His Excellency's Command,
ROBERT GOUGER, Colonial Secretary.
Glenelg, 28th December, 1836.
GOD SAVE THE KING.
GLENEI.G : Printed by authority by ROBERT THOMAS AND Co.,
Government Printers.
"The commission was read," wrote an eye-witness of the proceedings, "to
the settlers, of whom about 200 were present. . . . The health of ' His
Majesty,' 'The Governor,' 'Officers,' and 'Success to South Australia,' were
given and drunk with great enthusiasm. Our National Anthem, combined with
the circumstances in which it was sung, had more grandeur in its simplicity than
those who only hear it at a theatre can conceive."
The boundaries of the colony at this time were comprised between the i32nd
and 1/j.ist degrees of east longitude, and between the Southern Ocean and 26th
14 THE CENTRAL STATE.
degree of south latitude. Her territory amounted to nearly 300,000 square miles, or
192,000,000 acres, including Kangaroo Island, which contains 2,500,000 acres. In
1861 80,000 square miles of land between the western boundary of South Australia
and the eastern boundary of Western Australia a tract of country then known as
No Man's Land was added, and the western boundary is now the i2gth degree
of east longitude. In 1 863 her boundaries were further extended by the addition of
what is known as ' ' The Northern Territory, ' ' which consists of the country
stretching northward from the 26th degree of south latitude to the Indian Ocean,
and lying between the i2gth and i38th degees of east longitude. South Australia,
therefore, now extends from the Southern to the Indian Ocean, and contains an area
of 903,690 square miles, or 578,361,600 acres.
Early Days.
It was not to be expected that the heterogeneous company dumped on the
shores of an unknown land would work out their destiny without friction. There
were naval officers who had fought under Nelson, accustomed to prompt obedience
without questions being asked ; soldiers who had been through the Peninsula
wars and at Waterloo with Wellington ; men with money, and men without
money, each possessing strong individuality and a large supply of human nature.
Governor Hindmarsh was a warm-hearted, bluff sailor who had served under
Nelson, at whose hands he had the honor to receive a presentation sword,
accompanied by high compliments for gallant conduct. He combined all the
strength of the average naval officer to give orders with the weakness of the
average sailor to administer civil affairs and bear with the failings of an undis-
ciplined public. He wanted his own way over the site of the capital, and lost
his temper when opposed by a gallant soldier who had won distinction under the
Iron Duke. The Governor appealed to the Home authorities, but was informed
that "when he applied for the office of Governor he was distinctly informed that
the right of selecting the capital would be vested solely in the Surveyor-General. ' '
The little community ranged itself into two hostile camps, and a fierce wordy war
took place over the site of the capital. In the preface of his ' ' Journal of
Proceedings," published in Adelaide in 1839, Colonel Light wrote: "The reasons
that led me to fix Adelaide where it is, I do not expect to be generally understood
or calmly judged of at present. My enemies, however, by disputing their validity
in every particular, have done me the good service of fixing the whole of the
responsibility upon me. I am perfectly willing to bear it ; and I leave to posterity,
and not to them, to decide whether I am entitled to praise or blame." When
Colonel Light won the day it seemed as if all his fellow-colonists were bent on
justifying the theory of the great German philosopher, that as soon as a man does
anything remarkable "there is a general conspiracy to prevent him doing it again."
Colonel Light was worried into an early grave, and if his wishes as a man of retiring-
disposition were that he and his work might be speedily forgotten, those wishes
have been singularly respected. Time has vindicated him and the work he did.
Efforts have been made at various periods to erect some substantial memorial to
perpetuate the memory of the man who fixed the site and laid out the capital of
South Australia. Possibly a feeling that no such emblem is needed partly explains
why nothing has been done, and even the modest monument at his grave has
teen permitted to crumble away. " If you seek his monument, look around you,"
is after all the most enduring reminder the fortunate dweller in the cleanest and
most beautiful city in the Commonwealth is able to convey to the visitor. A
number of leading citizens are now endeavoring to remove this reproach of ingrati-
tude and a worthy memorial of Col. Light is promised.
THE PIONEER AS PATHFINDER.
Tne Pioneer as Pathfinder.
" What a land is this to which you have sent me ! The loveliness and glory
of its plains and woods, its glens and hills ! But of these you will hear from others.
I cannot, however, leave it out of my estimate of God's goodness to me, that He
has placed me in so fair and sweet a portion of His earth." So wrote the Rev. T.
Q. Stow to the Colonial Missionary Society.
A keynote of gratitude was struck by
many others, who wrote in glowing terms
of the beauty of the new land. Some
of the chroniclers of the day had lively
imaginations. One authority declared that
"the atmosphere is not subject to those
sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold that
we have in England," and that "through-
out the summer hardly a week occurs with-
out the most refreshing show r ers." The
same author wrote in 1839 : " Colds and
coughs are almost unknown. Locusts are
plentiful, but not injurious. Mosquitoes
are of no serious inconvenience." It is
also curious to read the following :
" Holdfast Bay will always be the place of
landing and embarkation for passengers,
saving the circuitous voyage to the port
of landing." At one time the River
Torrens, which trickles its way towards
the sea dividing the city proper from
North Adelaide, was described as a mighty
stream. Some of the early plans showed
vessels snugly at anchor behind w r here now
stands Government House ! It was origin-
ally intended to connect the city with the
sea by means of a canal, and surveys were
made with that end in view. On the
site intended for the waterway now grow
tall gum-trees, which afford a breakwind
and shade for travellers between Adelaide
and Port Adelaide.
The ' ' Pilgrim Fathers ' ' were well
represented among the early settlers.
They were ' ' self-selected ' ' colonists men
who felt that they were hampered in the
Homeland. Pride of race was a dominant
characteristic, but stronger still was their
love of liberty. They possessed physical and moral courage to an unusual degree,
cool determination in "the face of all difficulties. Of the pioneer it may truly be said
that he was
One who never turned his back, but marched breast forward,
Never doubted clouds would break ;
Never dreamed though right were worsted wrong would triumph,
Held, we fall to rise ; are baffled to fight better ; sleep to wake.
Troubles soon began, but the pioneers emerged triumphant and made
substantial progress when once initial difficulties were overcome. For many months,
the first settlers had been huddled together on small vessels lacking in everything
Waterfall in the, Mount Lofty Range
near Adelaide.
Ernest Gall, photo, il ,
i6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
I
e
g
c~
5
THE PIONEER AS PATHFINDER. IJ
that helps to modify the discomforts of a long sea voyage. When the landing took
place on the shores of Holdfast Bay each family had to shift for itself. Some had
tents, others had to imitate the natives and build bough wurlies. When a move
was made to the spot where the splendid city of Adelaide now stands, women and
children had to walk and carry as much of the household furniture as they could.
The men placed the balance on wheelbarrows, which they had to push through five
or six miles of scrub. Then came the "reed hut period." Houses of all shapes
and sizes were made from reeds growing in the River Torrens, and for some time
colonists clustered together, making occasional excursions back to the landing place,
or down to where Colonel Light had decided the chief seaport of the new province
should be established.
The time soon arrived when the practical work of colonization with all its
accompanying privations had to be faced. When it came there was ready as fine
a band of stalwart men and noble women as ever set out to subdue a wilderness or
wrest from Nature her choicest gifts. As the pioneers pushed out into the country
they caused the sunlight to break through the dark clouds which by this time hung
like a pall over the little city of reed huts clustering together on the banks of
the Torrens. The crack of the bullock-driver's whip as he turned his leaders
northwards, the music of the axe as roadways were made through the bush, stirred
the colonists to fresh activity and filled them with new hopes. The advance guards
of civilization moved outwards from the new centre of settlement, and the coloni-
zation of South Australia began.
The hardships endured, the failures which came in place of success, only
served to prove the mettle of the sturdy pioneers who so well and truly laid the
corner stone of a great structure, which at the end of sixty-six years typifies
national progress and prosperity. The hottest day was not too hot, the longest
journey not too long, the bush was not too dense, nor the hill too steep for the men
and women who had turned their backs on the newborn city. The pathfinders for
posterity moved out towards the unknown, to conquer the bush, bridge the ford,
and pave the way for their children and their children's children. By unremitting
toil, with primitive appliances, backed by rare patience and endurance, they created
the magnificent heritage which is ours to-day.
Men the workers, ever reaping something new ;
That which they have done but earnest of the things that they will do.
The sons and daughters of the pioneers have well maintained the family
reputation. Nowhere in the British Dominions is a better stamp of colonists to be
found than in South Australia. The work of colonization still goes on, only more
vigorously and systematically than in the early days. Growth is sometimes
checked, but the movement is ever outward. The stockman, the miner, the farmer,
seek fresh victories out in the heart of our great continent, where there is almost
unlimited room for expansion. Central Australia possesses a vast treasury of wealth
awaiting exploitation by capital and labor. The pathfinders have made the way
easy and safe for those who come after them. Roads cross and recross one another,
and form a perfect network of communication. From Adelaide to Port Darwin
there stretches a telegraph wire the pioneer connecting link between the old world
and the new. Railways have been built and rivers bridged. Newcomers have but
to enter and take advantage of the splendid self-denying labours of the early
settlers.
The Climate.
climate of South Australia is one of the healthiest in the world. No
serious epidemic has ever visited this State, which shares with Tasmania
the lowest death-rate in the Commonwealth. The territory of the State,
extending south to north from sea to sea over 26 degrees of latitude,
wedged in between the States of Victoria, New South Wales, and
Queensland on the east, and Western Australia along the whole length
of the western boundary, is, as may easily be imagined, subject to great variations
of climate. The temperate zone of the southern portion corresponds very closely to
the climate of Italy, while in the northern part tropical conditions prevail. Notwith-
standing the extremes of heat and cold, ranging from a thermometer of occasionally
over 100 in the shade down to say 40 or 50, the weather is delightful and
invigorating. In midsummer, when the heat is greatest, the air is generally clear
and dry, and owing to this dryness a temperature of noin the shade in South
Australia is not nearly so oppressive as is 90 in a moister climate. The extreme
heat of summer seldom extends for more than a week without a cool change setting
in. Dwellers in the city and suburbs can at all times within an hour reach localities
in the hills or at the seaside, where the temperature is low y er. December, January,
and February are the hottest months of the year. November and March are also
hot, but the nights are cooler, and the heat is seldom of long duration. "The
summer" (says Sir Charles Todd, Government Astronomer for many years) "may
l>e regarded as extending from October to March. After that month the temperature
falls rapidly. The weather during April and May is simply perfection, and the
same applies to most of the winter and till the end of October. ' ' The coldest months
are June, July, and August, but so equable is the climate that it is never necessary
to house and artificially feed the sheep, cattle, and horses, as is done in cold
countries. The mean temperature during June, July, and August over a period ot
43 years was 53*5, 51 '5, and 54^0 respectively. Sir Charles Todd remarks
' ' During these months, and occasionally even in September, there are frosts,
especially on the high-lying plains to the north." The mean temperature for the
summer months December, January, and February is 71.3, 74.2, and 74.0. The
thermometer exceeds 90, on the average, on eleven days in December, ten days in
January, and nine days in February. " The extreme dryness of the air," says the
Government Astronomer, "renders the heat very bearable and healthy." Fruits
and cereals of every kind grow luxuriantly, and live stock are almost entirely free
from disease. In the interior, where the heat during the day is greatest, the
nights are delicious, and fully compensate for the vigor of the sun. Explorers and
travellers have experienced no difficulty in penetrating into the heart of Australia,
and station hands and drovers living in the country for years at a time seldom know
what an illness is. It is recorded of one exploring expedition that no occasion
arose to open the medicine chests with which the party had been supplied. The
explorers spent many months in travelling about Central Australia, and although
enduring the usual hardships, the general health of all the party was perfect.
In the hills, which form so beautiful a background to the City of Adelaide, the
weather is delightful in the summer. These districts are connected by railway and
excellent roads. The handsome residences of wealthy colonists and the well-kept
orchards add to the great natural beauties of the mountains, which are largely
resorted to by citizens on holidays and on Saturdays and Sundays. The " National
THE CLIMATE. 19
Park," comprising 2,000 acres of beautiful fern glens and wooded hills, is situated
in these high lands, and throughout the whole year form a huge playground for the
public. So favorable is the climate in the ranges that shrubs from all parts of
the world thrive well, and some of the finest landscape gardens in Australia are
situated on the slopes of these hills.
Nothing could be further from the truth than to assert, as some travellers
have done after a flying visit, that the climate of South Australia is " hot and
oppressive. ' ' The thermometer readings placed in comparison with the records in
other countries afford no guide, because other conditions are not similar. Field
sports are freely indulged in a shade heat of over 100, and on account of the
clear, dry air, the hottest day in South Australia is not so enervating as is a lower
temperature range in a humid climate.
Ernest Gall photo.
Typical Residences in the Hills View at Mt. Lofty.
Government.
INCE the proclamation of the province there has been a complete political
evolution from a mild form of despotism to a democracy represented by
adult suffrage and a secret ballot system. The political constitution of
South Australia underwent a remarkable change more than half a century
ago, and improvements have taken place at intervals. For several years
colonists had no voice in the government of the new settlement. The
Act constituting South Australia a British province, passed in 1834 in the reign of
King William IV., provided that a Constitution should be granted to the inhabitants
"as soon as they numbered 50,000 souls." Under this Act a Board of Colonization
Commissioners was appointed in London. This Board controlled land sales and
emigration, and for a brief period exercised considerable authority in other
directions. Until 1851 executive control was vested in the Governor and a Council
appointed by His Excellency, and dominated by him. The Council was nothing
more than a convenient buffer. The Governor had all the power of an autocrat, and
occasionally he exercised it in a manner which often threatened the peace of the little
community of independent, strong-willed settlers. After 15 years' experience of
indirect management by a Board 16,000 miles away, in a period w r hen communication
was intermittent, and direct government on the spot was vested in one man
responsible only to the Imperial authorities, who knew little of colonial affairs, and
appeared to care less, the people were ripe for a change. When it came it partook
more of a political revolution than a constitutional evolution. In 1851 a measure
of self-government was substituted for the yoke of Imperial dictatorship, and so
greatly did the people appreciate the freedom that they soon began to ask for more.
The population at that time consisted of 66,538 persons 37,321 males and 29,217
females. A good story is told concerning this first Constitution. Mr. George Fife
Angas was about to leave London for South Australia, and he applied to the
Colonial Office to be allowed the honor of conveying the parchment to Adelaide.
This was contrary to precedent, so the important document was sent from the
Colonial Office in charge of a clerk, who was instructed to take it on board the
"Ascendant" and deliver it into the hands of the captain. The master was ashore,
and as the ship was on the point of sailing, the clerk, either through negligence or
from not understanding the importance of the papers with which he was entrusted,
gave the package to a stew r ard, who being very busy thrust it into the nearest place
of safety. The ship sailed, and if the captain gave a thought to the matter at all,
he merely supposed that there had been some delay or fresh arrangements had been
made. On arrival in Adelaide, the proper authorities went on board to demand
their Constitution and receive it \vith due honor, for advices from England had
informed them that it would arrive in the "Ascendant." The captain, of course,
protested that he had seen nothing of it, and there was a great hue and cry for the
lost Constitution, until one day shortly after, in turning out the captain's soiled
linen for the laundress, it was found, to the great amusement of everyone, at the
bottom of the bag, where the steward had hurriedly placed it for security !
GOVERNMENT.
21
22 THE CENTRAL STATE.
The Imperial Act authorised the formation of a Legislative Council not
exceeding 24 members, one-third of whom were to be nominated by the Governor,
and two-thirds elected by householders and property owners. The qualification for
membership in the first legislature was a freehold property of the annual value of
,100, or of the total value of ,2,000. This Council had distinct limitations, having
no power to deal with the land, which remained in the hands of the representative
of the Imperial Government. During the next few r years political growth was rapid,
and in 1853 a Bill constituting a bicameral legislature was passed, but was disallowed.
By 1856, however, the pioneers were in possession of a Constitution, the essential
principles of which still remain. In that year the bicameral system of government
was introduced, for the Act of 1856 created two houses a Legislative Council, con-
sisting of 1 8 members, elected on a property qualification franchise, the whole province
voting as one electorate ; and a House of Assembly, composed of 36 members, elected
on a manhood suffrage basis. The qualification for members of both Houses and
electors was the same as it is to-day. A member of the Upper Chamber is required
to be thirty years of age, born a British subject, or naturalised, and resident in the
State for at least three years. An elector must be 21 years of age, and the possessor
of a freehold estate of the value of ^50, or a leasehold of 20 annual value with
three years to run, or be the occupier of a dwelling-house of ,25 annual value.
Unsuccessful attempts have been made during recent years to modify this franchise.
A member of the other Chamber is only required to have the qualification of an
elector, viz., he must be a British subject, or naturalised, of the age of 21 years, a
resident of five years. The membership of the Council was increased in 1873 to 46,
in 1884 to 52, and subsequently to 54; but under a scheme of economy and as an
outcome of federation, a reduction was made to 42 in 1901. Manhood suffrage
obtained from the outset in respect to elections for the House of Assembly, and the
only variation was the political emancipation of women in 1894, which made the
franchise for that Chamber adult suffrage. Women vote for both branches of the
legislature under the same conditions as men. In 1887 the system of payment of
members was introduced, under which legislators are each paid ,200 a year.
There are now four Ministers, who receive ,1,000 each a year. The State Parlia-
ment is triennial, with annual sessions.
The last general elections w r ere held on May 3, 1902, \vhen the voting was as
follows :
For the LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL.
On Roll. Voted. Percentage Voted.
Males. Females. Males. Females. 1902.
38,419 13,497 29,952 7,921 Males 77-96
Total. Total. Females 51*27
37,873
Totals 7 2 '95
For HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY.
On Roll. Voted. Percentage Voted.
Males. Females. Males. Females.
1902.
76,899 72,020 . 53,410 36,508 . Men 69-45
Total. Total. Women 50*65
148,919 89,918
Totals 60-38
GOVERNMENT. 23
The power of both Houses is co-ordinate, excepting that Bills for appropriating
any part of the revenue, or for imposing, altering, or repealing taxation, must
originate in the Assembly. An attempt on the part of the Upper Chamber in 1857
to exercise a supposed authority to amend a Money Bill was strenuously and
successfully resisted. A great political battle, which shook the little province to its
very foundations, took place in the year named over the "Tonnage Duties Repeal
Bill," and in order to avoid the repetition of such a struggle it was eventually
arranged that the Council should not claim the right to ' ' amend ' ' Money Bills, but
should formulate "suggestions." The compact entered into nearly half a century
ago has been honorably observed ever since, and disputes between the two Houses
are unknown.
The legislative machinery created in 1856, and improved as occasion required*
has worked with perfect smoothness. The "will of the people " prevails in the
election of members of the legislature, and the power of Parliament is practically
absolute. There has never been a serious conflict between the representative of the
British Crown and his advisers, and the power of the Imperial authorities to disallow
Acts passed by the local legislature is rarely exercised. From the outset South
Australia has been fortunate in its Governors, Parliament, and Ministers. Their
respective powers have been wisely exercised, and the political freedom enjoyed
with the opportunities provided for social and industrial progress leave little to be
desired.
South Australia has led the way in several important reforms, having been
the first State of the Australian group to enjoy elective houses, manhood suffrage for
one chamber, voting by ballot, payment of members, and woman's suffrage. It was
also the first of the States to adopt the principle of taxation of land values, granting
the municipal vote to women, legalising marriage with deceased wife's sister,
separating Church from State by abolishing State grants to religion, and passing the
Real Property Act. The objects of the Real Property Act the creation of Sir R.
R. Torrens at one time Registrar-General are to give security and simplicity to
all dealings with land, by providing that the title shall depend upon registration ;
that all interests shall be capable of appearing or being protected upon the face of
the registry, and that a registered title or interest shall never be affected by any
claim or charge which is not registered. By this system every one who acquires
any estate or interest in land, upon being registered as owner thereof, obtains a title
absolutely secure as against every one whose claim does not appear upon the
registry ; and the two elements of simplicity and security as regards the acquisition
of land appear to be effectually attained. The Real Property Act of South Australia
has been copied by all the Australian States and in other parts of the world.
The ballot system was invented by the late Mr. W. R. Boothby, C.M.G.,
Chief Returning Officer, who for ever 50 years was an esteemed member of the
Civil Service of the State. His scheme has since been adopted by all the Australian
States, and is largely in use in the United States of America. The method of voting
is as follows : Each elector is given a voting paper containing the names of the
candidates, with a square set opposite each name. The voter enters a private
apartment and puts a cross within the square opposite the name of the favored
candidate. The folded paper is handed to the Returning Officer and he, in the
presence of the voter, drops it into a sealed box. Secrecy is thus assured, and no
matter how high political leeling may run at election time, there is the utmost
decorum within the polling booth. No electors need have the slightest appre-
hension in approaching a polling place to record his or her vote.
/
South Australia also led the way in a very fine system of local self-government
by means of Municipal Corporations and District Councils. These bodies, in addition
THE CENTRAL STATE.
GOVERNMENT.
to having control over streets and certain roads, are vested with considerable local
authority. In addition to fostering the important principles of self-government, the
plan has encouraged self-help among people in remote districts, and has had the
effect of lightening the labors of the State legislature regarding matters of local
concern, whilst relieving the central government of much detail administration.
The total amount of the assessment for the thirty-two Municipal Corporations for
the year 1902 amounted to ,1,195,990, as against ,1,032,163 in 1893. The ra te
declared in the pound varied from is. in the country to is. gd. for the city,
producing ,82,996. There are 141 District Councils, with a total assessment of
,1,433,036, as compared with ^1,529,643 in 1893. The rate declared in the
pound varies from 5d. to is. 4d., producing in 1902 ,63,950.
The last, but by no means least, significant evolution in the methods of
government was the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia, on January
i, 1901. South Australia was always strongly federal in sentiment, and exercised
considerable influence at every stage of federal evolution. At the various conferences
and conventions the South Australian representatives stood out prominently for a
united Australia. When the Commonwealth Constitution was submitted to the
electors of South Australia for approval, 65,990 electors voted for union, and 17,053
against. South Australia enjoys the right to elect six members to the Federal
Senate, and at present seven members to the House of Representatives. There is
equal representation of all States in the Senate, but membership in the other
chamber is regulated by population. The Commonwealth has control over Customs,
the Post Office, and immigration. The State retains the right of administering
its own land laws and other forms of taxation other than Customs duties.
The following shows the divisions of the State for both houses of legislature
and the members :
Legislative Council.
District.
Division.
CENTRAL
Adelaide
Port Adelaide
Torrens
SOUTHERN
Victoria and Albert
Alexandra
Murray
NORTH EASTERN
Barossa
Wooroora
Wallaroo
NORTHERN
Stanley
Burra Burra
Flinders
Northern Territory
Members.
Hon. George Brookman.
Hon. Joseph Vardon.
Hon. Henry William Thompson.
Hon. Robert Storrie Guthrie.
Hon. Andrew Alexander Kirkpatrick.
Hon. Hugo Carl Emil Muecke.
Hon. Sir John Lancelot Stirling, K.C.M.G., L,L,.B.
(President).
Hon. George Riddoch.
Hon. Alfred von Doussa.
Hon. John Hannah Gordon, K.C. (Attorney-General
and Minister of Education).
Hon. John James Duncan.
Hon. Thomas Pascoe.
Hon. Edward Lucas.
Hon. John Warren.
Hon. James Henderson Howe.
Hon. Arthur Richman Addison. ^
Hon. John George Bice.
Hon. John Lewis.
26
THE CENTRAL STATE.
House of Assembly.
District.
ADELAIDE
PORT.ADELAIDE
TORRENS
VICTORIA AND ALBERT
ALEXANDRA
MURRAY
BAROSSA
WOOROORA
WALLAROO
STANLEY
BURRA BURRA
FLINDERS
NORTHERN TERRITORY
Members.
Lewis Cohen.
William Joseph Denny.
Hugh Robert Dixson.
Johann Theodor Scherk.
Ivor Mc-Gillivray.
William Oliver Archibald.
Thomas Henry Brooker.
John Darling, jun. (Leader of Opposition).
Frederick William Coneybeer.
Hon. John Greeley Jenkins (Premier and Chief
George Klewitz So ward. Secretary).
Thomas Price (Leader of Labor Party).
John Livingston.
Archibald Henry Peake.
I Andrew Dods Handyside.
f Alexander McDonald.
| Charles Tucker.
} William James Blacker.
[ George Ritchie.
I Walter Hughes Duncan.
Robert Homburg.
( Fried rich Jacob Pflaum.
f Ephraim Henry Coombe.
J Hon. Richard Butler (Treasurer, Commissioner of
I Crown Lands, and Minister of Mines).
[ William Gilbert.
( Hon. Sir Jenkin Coles, K.C.M.G. (Speaker).
David James.
[ Friedrich Wilhelin Paech.
j" John Verran.
Peter Allen.
[ John Wallace Shannon.
(Hon. Alfred Catt (Chairman of Committees).
William Patrick Cummins.
Frederick William Young, LL.B.
[ Hon. Laurence O'Loughlin (Government Whip).
William Miller.
| Hon. William Benjamin Rounsevell.
David McKenzie.
Thomas Burgoyne.
Hon. Richard Witty Foster (Commissioner of Public
Works and Minister of Industry).
( Charles Edward Herbert.
( Samuel James Mitchell.
The Primary Producer's Record
OUTH AUSTRALIA is a country where the primary producer is King.
His sovereignty is undisputed, his reign continuous. Upon the products
of the soil the prosperity of the people depends. The flockmaster with
his sheep, the herdsman with his cattle, the tiller of the soil with his
cereals and fruits, have made South Australia what it is to-day, one of
the most self-contained and prosperous States in the Commonwealth
of Australia.
From the earliest days of the State's history primary products have been the
dominating factor of national progress. Were seasons favorable and harvests
bountiful ? then the merchant, the trader, the professional man, and the laborer,
down through all departments of industry, participated. Did the droughts come
and blight the cereal crops, and cause mortality among the flocks and herds ? the
evil influence was felt by all.
Notwithstanding the initial handicap of a handful of people having to control
and develop so vast a territory ; in spite, too, of periods of falling markets the
primary producer has a splendid record to his credit.
The following is a statement of the declared value of the staple exports of the
State during 1901 and 1902, with the aggregate value of each class from the first
exportation of the several products and manufactures of the State to 1902, inclusive
(arranged under twenty-seven heads):
Articles. 1901. 1902. Aggregate.
L L L
Wool 1,029,063 782,065 59,650,441
Flour 440,226 397,755 27,877,856
Wheat 839,731 744,68o 25,735,509
Copper ore and metal ... ... 491,617 430,712 23,507,082
Hides and skins ... ... ... 233,162 292,093 4,188,180
Livestock ... ... ... ... 130,230 162,642 1,965,403
Hay and chaff ... ... ... 75,798 481,404 1,586,108
Bark 67,601 68,850 1,545,042
Wine ... ... ... ... ... 92,418 124,916 1,340,126
Bran and pollard ... 43,872 62,505 1,198,976
Tallow 4,826 888 1,038,764
Eggs 73,520 107,739 1,016,286
Butter 17,620 23,230 606,568
Fresh fruit 62,662 37, 315 601,068
Gold 16,613 50 545,657
Preserved meat 28,181 27,717 454,380
Other minerals ... ... ... 722 42,735 45> 8 49
Frozen meat ... ... ... ... 58,477 95,028 263,480
Manure 3,ooo 4,478 207,291
Barley and oats 5,223 23,381 ^ 201,792
Honey and beeswax ... ... 2,522 8,m 138,869
Vegetables 8,063 ",278 121,046
28 THE CENTRAL STATE.
Articles. 1901. 1902. Aggregate.
Bacon and hams ... ... ... 9,329 32,628 103,300
Preserved fruit 2,628 4,455 4^869
Cheese ... ... ... ... 1,258 2,424 12,213
Frozen poultry, game, &c. ... ... i,i44 2,805 7,873
Unenumerated 477, 095 787,063 6,578,138
Total values ...
4., 216,601
4,768,947
160,984,266
Imports re-exported
... 3,799,288
2,929,567
85,020,826
Total exports
Total imports
Imports retained
... 8,015,889
7,371,587
3,572,299
7,698,514
6,073,781
3,144,214
246,005,092
231,156,790
146,135,964
Combined imports and exports ... 15,387,476 13,772,295 477,161,882
The first staple exports were made in 1838 ; minerals were first exported in
1841, and wheat, flour, and copper in 1843.
The total value of staple produce exported to the end of 1902 amounted to
,160,984,266, as outlined above.
Breadstuffs are responsible for ,55,014,133 ; minerals for ,24,000,000 ; wine
f r l , 34 ,i26 ; wool for ,59,650,441; and dairy produce for ^1,738,467.
The production of WHEAT in 1902 was 6,354,000 bushels. Its value was
,1,800,000. The crop now being gathered is expected to yield 14,000,000 bushels.
"Owing to favorable conditions of cultivation," says Mr. Coghlan, the Australasian
statistician, "a yield of seven bushels per acre is financially as satisfactory as one
of 15 bushels in New South Wales or of 20 bushels in New Zealand.
South Australian WOOL shipments for the 1902-3 season totalled 96,524
bales.
There are now 21,692 acres under VINES, and the "make" in the 1903
vintage was 2,573,422 gallons of wine. Wine shipments now reach a value of over
,90,000 per annum.
The PASTORAL wealth of South Australia is officially stated at
,2,086,000; AGRICULTURE ,3,712,000.
FLOCKS total 4,880,000 sheep; HERDS, 138,000 cattle, including
75,000 dairy cows. There are in the State 211,901 HORSES; 82,700 PIGS ;
8,700 GOATS ; and 1,281,000 poultry.
South Australia claims to possess some of the finest ORANGE groves in
Australia. There are 127,762 orange trees in full bearing. South Australian
oranges are shipped to London in increasing quantities every year.
The APPLE orchards comprise 17,000 acres. The high-water level of
apple shipments was in 1901 when 73,000 cases were exported.
The export of FROZEN MEAT (mostly lambs) has grown from 963,763
Ibs. in 1898 to 4,859,937 Ibs. in 1902.
The quantity of OLIVE OIL made in 1890-1 was 6,838 gallons. In 1902-3
12,422 gallons.
In the average of agricultural produce per head of population South
Australia leads all the other States in the Commonwealth with a value per head of
,10 45. 6d., as compared with ,8 i2s. od. for Tasmania, ,7 35. 5d. Victoria,
4 175. 6d. New South Wales, ,4 138. 6d. Queensland, ,4 us. lod. Western
Australia.
Evening Shadows at a South Australian Sheep Station.
7. Dailey photo.
View of Sheep Station Outbuildings, showing woolshed at Wellington Lodge, where
.*>'. /. Dailey photo. the River Murray enters Lake Alexandrina.
Industrial Expansion.
The material progress of South Aus-
tralia has been continuous and substantial.
A total population which at the present
time is less than 365,000 has, in a coun-
try more than four times the size of
France and more than seven times larger
than the United Kingdom, subdued the
wilderness ; conquered the desert, causing
it to blossom and become productive. At
the end of sixty-six years there is a popu-
lation of 362,000 persons; a public re-
venue of .2,646,000 ; a combined annual
trade -imports and exports equal to
13,772,000; 1,800 miles of railway have
been built; 18,000 miles of telegraph and
telephone wires are employed; 3,100,000
acres of land are annually cultivated ;
21,000 are under vines; there are over
5,000,000 sheep, 225,000 cattle, and
165,000 horses in the State, whilst the
staple export trade amounts to 4,768,947,
and has aggregated in the sixty-six years
160,984,266.
Even this record of industrial expansion
splendid though it is does not convey
an adequate idea of the work accomplished
in colonising and developing so vast a terri-
tory. When Governor Hindmarsh read
the proclamation in 1836 there were 500
colonists present, and they had not be-
gun to make history in the new country.
Not an acre of land had been disturbed,
roads and buildings were unknown, and ex-
penditure was the only item entered in
the national ledger. The outflow of pub-
lic money so exceeded income for a few
years that financial chaos resulted. A
vice-regal representative was made the
scapegoat. At this distance we can afford
to regard the perilous period referred to as
a "mere incident" in colonization a
phase through which nations pass a.nd are
all the better for the experience. The
fiercer the furnace the finer the quality of
the steel. Not since those strenuous days
of the early forties have colonists ever had
cause to question the security of a Go-
vernment promissory notie or doubt the
future. In 1841 there was a deficiency
in the accounts of nearly 300,000, and
bills drawn by Governor Gawler upon the
Imperial Government were dishonored.
The ettect of this was to stop all public
works, dislocate trade, and throw a number
of persons out of employment. It is the
first recorded unemployed trouble in the
State, and the incident gave birth to the
"deputation industry" which has flourished
ever since.
The check was not of long duration, for
a few years later discoveries were made of
rich copper deposits, and the new settle-
ment began to forge ahead on the high
road towards prosperity. Within a very
little time the public income was more
than sufficient to cover all outgoings. In
three years the revenue more than doubled
itself. The pastoral industry was rapidly
expanding, agriculture was extending,
mining was in a buoyant condition. A
reaction set in early in the fifties, when
gold discoveries were made in Victoria.
This threatened to produce disastrous re-
sults to the province then entering upon
its fifteenth year. The male population
stampeded to the goldfields. By bullock
dray, by pack horses, in traps, on foot, by
sailing vessels which sometimes occupied
as many days on the voyage aa it now
takes the mail steamers hours to cover the
same distance there was a steady out>
flow of humanity until only women and
children remained. There was no labor
available to gather the crops as they
ripened, and the natives had to be called
upon to help the harvesters. Work was
ever a stranger to the average Australian
aboriginal, and the blacks proved poor sub-
stitutes for the pale-faced settlers now
turned diggers. "Necessity" had again
proved the "mother of invention." With
ripe corn wasting in the fields for want of
laborers, Mr. Ridley had conceived the
idea of the stripper, an implement which
has had a remarkable evolution and
proved of incalculable benefit to the agri-
cultural industry in Australia. South
Australian strippers, vastly improved on
INDUSTRIAL, EXPANSION.
Mr. Ridley's model, are now to be found
in all parts of Australia and in the Argen-
tine Republic.
The critical period through which South
Australia passed during the height of the
gold fever was forcefully indicated in the
second annual report of the Chamber of
Commerce dated 1852, in which the fol-
lowing remarks occur: "For a time it
seemed that the props of our material
prosperity were about to give way. The
streets of Adelaide were deserted, houses
were abandoned by their tenants, rents
fell, and property became unmarketable.
The shops of our retailers presented their
tempting wares in vain. There was a
general arrest put on all business ; and this
at a time when the stock of merchandise
in the market was unprecedentedly heavy,
and when the bill engagements of the mer-
cantile community were larger probably
than they had ever been before. At this
juncture, as if to mark with greater em-
phasis the signs of the times, a vessel
arrived at Port Adelaide from Melbourne
with a number of our colonists on board
who, after a few weeks successful digging
at the goldfields of Victoria, had brought
back with them to this colony gold dust
to the value of .50,000. This they were
desirous of conyerting into money, but
such was the straightened condition of the
money market that purchasers could not
be found for it. A portion of it was
eventually sold at 55/ to 56/ per ounce, the
price at Melbourne being 60/ at the time,
and the remainder was carried back to
Victoria. Such a circumstance was quite
sufficient to show the critical position into
which the colony had been thrown. It
was, therefore, desirable by every possible
means to attract back again with their
gains as many of the absentee colonists as
could be induced to come, in order that
their wealth might be rendered available
for the general good ; but an unexpected
difficulty had to be encountered. The
successful digger could not sell his gold if
he brought it back, there being no money
in the colony with whicu to purchase it.
At one time the coffers in the Treasury
were empty, and the civil servants had
not received any pay for three months.
"It was at this time, when ruin was
staring everyone in the face, and when
there had already been unmistakable
symptoms of an approaching run on one
of the banks, that the Committee of the
Chamber of Commerce held a conference
with the managers of the three banking
institutions with reference to the measures
to be adopted to meet the appalling crisis.
At this meeting the difficulties of our
position were fully discussed. The radical
cause of the extreme financial embarrass-
ment which existed was acknowledged to
be the sudden and uncontrollable eniux of
specie, which was gradually contracting
the circulation into dimensions totally
inadequate to meet the wants of the com-
munity. It was considered, if the banks
were permitted by law to base their issues
for a time on uncoined gold at such a price
as would leave a safe margin for the trans-
mission of the gold to England and its re-
placement in coin, that perfect security
would be offered to the public, and a
palliation, if not a complete corrective,
presented to the disorder which prevailed.
It was perceived that such a measure, if
devised, would enable the banks to afford
the required banking accommodation to
their customers, so that every really sol-
vent man should have an opportunity of
retrieving his position. It was antici-
pated that a currency so free, and yet so
legitimate, would create a market for the
raw gold ; and that thus, which was a
much more coveted desideratum, the gold-
digger of South Australia would be laid
under inducements to return with his auri-
ferous treasure to this colony. It was
unanimously held that we were shut up
to the line of policy here indicated if we
would preserve the colony from general
bankruptcy and avert a catastrophe which
tnreatened to engulf all our colonial in-
terests, for a time at least, in overwhelming
confusion. To embody these views in
some definite shape it was resolved that
the Chamber, in conjunction with the
banks, should make an urgent application
to the Government to establish an Assay
Office for the purpose of assaying and con-
verting gold into stamped ingots, to be ex-
changed with the banks for their notes.
Such was the crude form of a scheme which
ultimatelv resolved itself into the Bullion
Act.
"The representatives of the mercantile
THE CENTRAL STATE.
and banking interests, with the exception
of the manager of the Bank of Australasia
(the late Mr. Tomkinson), who dissented
from this proposal, and would not "agree to
take the ingots of gold as a legal tender,
immediately petitioned the Lieutenant-
Governor, Sir Henry Young, to convene
the Legislative Council for the purpose of
taking into consideration these proposals
for the relief of the colony. At once
responding to the general desire, Sir
Henry issued a summons for the Council
to meet on the 28th of January, 1852.
The welfare of the colony was in their
hands. It was an anxious time for the
members, as they were called upon to
make a daring innovation on established
rules and principles; but the Council
nobly did their duty, and with but few
amendments the Government ordinance
was passed, and in time became law.
"And here it is only an act of justice to
the Lieutenant-Governor to acknowledge
the obligation under which he has laid the
colonists, for having, at considerable
responsibility, although at their unani-
mous desire, affixed the royal sanction to
a measure which, however imperatively
called for, and however beneficial in its
operation, is apt to be looked upon with
suspicion or aversion at a distance, where
the peculiar circumstances which rendered
it necessary, however forcibly described,
can be faintly appreciated. Such an act
on his part was a graceful concession to the
popular will, as expressed in one of its
most intelligent forms, and as such is cal-
culated to strengthen the good understand-
ing which ought to subsist betwixt the
Government and the people."
These were exciting and critical times
for South Australia, but they soon passed
away. As the gold seekers began to re-
turn home the wave of depression receded
even more rapidly than it had approached.
Many of the adventurers came back with
considerable quantities of gold to their
credit in the banks. Inspector Tolmer
had established his famous escort, and the
much-needed yellow metal as well as
miners flowed back to South Australia.
An era of increased activity in all branches
of industry began. The land office was
once more besieged by applicants wanting
broad acres, and sales of land jumped from
32,000 in 1848 to 383,000, and the pub-
lic revenue from all sources stood at-
595,000 in 1854. By 1851 imports from
Great Britain had aggregated 3,000,000.
Two years later they had increased to
5,000,000. It was during the successful
regime of Governor Young that the River
Murray was opened to navigation. Sir
Henry was a firm believer in the Murray
as a highway of trade to the interior, and
it was largely due to his splendid en-
thusiasm that navigation was inaugurated
and the possibilities of that noble stream
adequately recognised. Captain Cadell had
come down stream in a canvas boat, and
Captain Wm. Randall, who is still alive,
was engaged building a small steamer at
Mannum. Captain Randell's boat, the
"Mary Ann, ' was actually the first vessel
to steam up the Murray, but the "Lady
Augusta," brought round from Sydney by
Captain Cadell, fulfilled the conditions
which accompanied the Parliamentary
offer of a bonus. Thus the reward of
4,000 went to Captain Cadell. Governor
and Lady Young and party accompanied
Captain Cadell on the first voyage of the
Lady Augusta. At times the Murray
and Darling are navigable tor a distance
of 3,000 miles, and, despite the combined
efforts of various States to tap by railways
the legitimate river trade, the waterway
continues to be the cheapest means of
transit for a large number of producers.
In years of average rainfall the river more
than holds its own against land carriage.
The forties provided a copper boom ; the
fifties were known as the golden decade.
The population, having exceeded the
prescribed limit fixed by the Imperial Act,
the first Constitution Bill was passed and
a Parliament consisting of two Chambers-
established. About the same time rail-
ways connecting Adelaide with Port Ade-
laide, also with Gawler and Kapunda, were
begun, and the first telegraph line wa
erected. The extension. of the telegraph
went on apace, and within three years
from that time wires were stretched be-
tween Adelaide and Melbourne. The ten-
year period ending with 1859 was an im-
portant one in the history of the province,
and progress from 1836 to that time,
though spasmodic, was considerable, as is-
shown by the following comparisons:
INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION.
33-
Land under
Total
Year.
Population.
Cultivation.
Ac- res.
Revenue.
Total Trade.
Shipping.
Tons.
1836
546
_
1840
14,600
2687
30,618
335,436
83,787
184")
21,759
26.218
32,433
333.278
26,558
1850
63,700
64,728
238,983
1,416,389
174000
1855
96,982
140,000
453,641
2.359,153
226,000
1859
122,735
361,884
511,927
3,163,370
216,000
The sixties provide one of the brightest
chapters in the history of S.A. It was a
period of great activity, of splendid
achievements on the part of explorers,
and glorious triumphs in the work of
developing natural resources. Rich cop-
per deposits were again discovered, this
time on the northern end of Yorkes
Peninsula. These have proved the most
valuable mineral deposits yet found in the
State. Exploring parties pushed their
way north and west. On the third at-
tempt John McDouall Stuart, the famous
explorer, crossed the continent from south
to north and returned over his own tracks,
thus solving the problem of the interior
and providing a base line from which
others could operate in laying bare the
mysteries of inland Australia. In 1863
the Northern Territory, a tract of tropical
country consisting of 340,097,280 acres,
was by Royal Letters Patent annexed io
South Australia, and active operations
were at once begun to settle the newly-
acquired possession. Colonists were fur-
ther excited by a visit from His Highness
the Duke of Edinburgh, the first member
of the Royal Family to cross the seas to
Australia, By 1864 exports of staple pro-
duce had reached an annual value of
3,000,000, or over 20 per head of the
population a splendid achievement for a
handful of people to accomplish within a
period of twenty-eight years. Shipments
of cereal products amounted in that year
to 1,464,000 ; wool contributed 775,000 ;
metals and minerals 691,000. In an
official report dealing with trade in 1864
it was stated: "Agricultural, pastoral,
and mineral produce formed, as usual, the
great bulk of the year's exports, and wool
and copper were shipped in quantities of
nearly equal value ; but the breadstuffs
exported were worth as much as the pas-
toral and mineral produce put together.
This was, however, the result of excep-
tional circumstances, the value of cereal
produce usually averaging from 10 to 15
per cent, higher tnan that of the other two
staples. In fact, comparing the average
yearly exports of each class during the past
five years with the averages for the pre-
ceding similar period, it will be found that
the shipments by agriculturists bore a less
percentage to the value of the total ex-
ports during 1860-64 than in the years-
1855-9. For instance, in the two periods,
breadstuffs, &c., have decreased from 39.3
per cent, to 38.8 per cent, of the total ex-
ports of produce; minerals from 27.1 to
25.7 per cent. ; and, on the other hand,
wool has increased from 31.5 to 31.8 per
cent."
The population increased from 124,112
in 1860 to 181,146 by the end of 1869, and
the public revenue rose from 438,827 to
777,351 in the same period. In 1865
the national income exceeded a million
sterling. Agricultural expansion was of
steady growth. In 1860 the cultivated
area was 428,816 acres; by 1869 the
acreage tilled had risen to 850,576 acres.
At the end of that year the total trade
turnover was valued at 5,747,805^ There
were 4,436,000 sheep, 119,000 cattle, and
73,000 horses in the colony. Staple pro-
duce exported was valued at 2,722,438.
This forward movement was well main-
tained during the next decade. The in-
dustrial expansion, though less sensational
in the seventies, was substantial, and in
other directions some remarkable work
was accomplished. In the face of
numerous difficulties, and at great ex-
pense, the province then comprising less
34
THE CENTRAL STATE.
than 200,000 inhabitants ran a telegraph
wire through the heart of the continent,
a distance of 2,000 miles. The cost ex-
ceeded half a million. The completion of
this undertaking provided the first con-
necting link between the old worm and
the new. Australia has ever since been
indebted to South Australia for the enter-
prise thus exhibited. A few years later a
telegraph line connecting Adelaide and
Perth was constructed. The route of this
second transcontinental service followed
the tracks of the dauntless Eyre, and its
completion represented a second triumph
for an enterprising people who were
bridging the continent and increasing the
means of communication. Further ex-
plorations were conducted which helped to
remove wrong impressions concerning
Central Australia. In political circles
considerable activity was displayed, and
important public works were carried out.
During one session alone a loan of
3,000,000 was authorised, and Bills were
passed sanctioning the construction of 380
miles of railway. Agriculturists were
pushing their way northwards, and, as-
sisted by improved transport facilities,
production increased at a rapid rate. In
1875 over 500,000 acres were sold, and two
years later 638,000 were alienated the
largest area dealt with in one year with
the exception of 1881, when 640,000 acres
were disposed of by auction.
Railway construction was pushed for-
ward rapidly during the next few years,
including the important railway connec-
tion between Adelaide and Melbourne.
Trade steadily improved until combined
exports and imports reached an annual
value of 17,000,000. Staple produce
worth 4,670,000 was sent away to oversea
customers in 1888. Total acreage under
cultivation rose to 2,864,000 acres in 1889,
in which year 1,610 miles of railway were
open to traffic. In 1887 South Australia
celebrated its jubilee by holding an Ex-
hibition, and a magnificent demonstration
was given of the industrial progress made
since the proclamation. The Exhibition
Building cost 68,000, and was kept open
six months, during which time 790,000
persons attended. The aggregate value
of imports uad by that time reached a total
of 119,644,000, whilst exports had
reached a total of 102,000,000. Towards
this latter sum shipments of wheat and
flour contributed 36,000,000 ; other agri-
cultural produce, 1,300,000; wool,
39,000,000; and copper, 19,000,000.
At the end of fifty years of colonising
efforts 1,950,000 acres were under wheat;
360,000 utilised for hay, and 610,000 acres
were devoted to other crops. The sheep
in the province mustered 6,700,000; cat-
tle, 389,000; and horses, 168,000. The
population within the city boundary was
45,000, and in the whole of S.A. there
were 308,000 inhabitants.
The eighties witnessed one of the most
important industrial developments in the
history of S.A. Valuable mineral deposits
were discovered near the border of the
province which led to a remarkable im-
provement in trade and exercised far-
reaching influence. The great Barrier
silver and tin fields including some of the
richest silver mines in the world though
in New South Wales, belonged, geographi-
cally and commercially, to South Aus-
tralia. For fifteen years they have been
exploited by our capitalists large and
small by merchants and producers, and
tapped by the railways of the State. Some
idea of the magnitude of the business done
can be gathered from the fact that In
1900 produce to the value of 2,542,000
came over the border from N.S. Wales,
whilst local produce worth 1,108,000 was
sent over the border in return. It was
South Australian capital that opened up
the leading mines, and for many years the
largest interests in these great properties
were held by our people. South Austra-
lian enterprise gave the Barrier silver dis-
tricts railway communication to the sea-
board, and ever since this State has en-
joyed an immense carrying trade too and
fro. The prosperous mining town of Bro-
ken Hill, with a population of nearly
30,000 persons, has provided South Aus-
tralian producers with an excellent
market.
There was a growth in the general trade
of South Australia during the period
1881-'91, which can only be characterised
as "marvellous." Mr. Coghlan draws
special attention to the "marked impetus,"
and says that South Australian trade in
INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION.
35
1891 represented a trade of 64/3/4 per
inhabitant, "being almost without parallel
in any important country." By 1890 the
population had grown to 314,195 inhabi-
tants, the public revenue reached
2,557,722; total land under cultivation
stood at 2,649,098 acres; total trade
amounted to 17,090,051 ; exports of
staple produce had risen to 4,410,062.
The last decade of the century proved
disastrous in many directions for the whole
of Australia, and South Australia suffered
in common with her neighbors. Early in
the nineties financial troubles began to ap-
pear on .the surface, and the year 1893
witnessed the suspension of several banks.
The seasons were unfavorable, and for
several years the rainfall was below the
average. South Australia came through
the crisis remarkably well, and, consider-
ing the severity of the drought, production
was well maintained, whilst thera was no
appreciable increase in the list of insol-
vencies as a result ol bank failures and
bad times. By the consummation cf
Federation at the opening of the century
the term "State" was substituted for that
of "colony or "province" as South Aus-
tralians preferred to have their country
described and South Australia became a
member of the Commonwealth of Aus-
tralia by the voluntary act of a substantial
majority of electors. The seventh decade
in tlie uistory of what is now the Central
State of United Australia has opened full
of promise. Confidence is gradually being
restored in financial and commercial cir-
cles, trade is on the up grade, and the out-
look for rural producers was never
brighter. There is increased activity m
all departments of industry. The public
revenue is buoyant so much so that
deficits are giving way to surpluses
and in all directions there is a strong de-
mand for land and a growing disposition
to encourage private enterprise.
The wonderful record of industrial and
commercial growth made during the sixty-
six years of South Australia's history may
be gathered by a glance at the following
tables. The increase of population has
not been rapid, but a steady growth is
shown by the following :
Total
Inhabitants
1840 ... 14,600
1850 63,700
I860 124,112
1870 183,797
1880 267,573
1890 314,195
1900 357,099-
1902 362,000
Settlers early devoted attention to the
making of roads and building railways and
telegraphs. The whole of these belong to
and are worked by the State. In the con-
struction of railways alone over 13,000,000
has been expended, the gradual extension
of transit facilities is thus disclosed :
1840 ...
Main Roads.
Miles
1853 . .
33
1860 ..
. ... 175
1870 ...
... 597
1880
. 1 449
1890
. ... 4,485
1900 ..
4.500
Railways.
Miles.
56
133
667
1,610
1,736
Telegraphs.
Miles.
654
1,718
6,904
12,178
17,543
Production was materially assisted by
the improvements made in the means of
conveying goods to and from the seaboards.
The "area under cultivation" has steadily
expanded.
Land under
Cultivation.
Acres.
1840 2,687
1850 64,728
1860 428,816
1870 959,006
1880 2,574,489
1890 2,649,098
1900 3,279,406
1902 3,122,800
Wool and wheat have been the two great
staple products from the first. In later
years wine has come rapidly to the front.
Fluctuation in market prices has reduced
the monetary returns in recent years, but
a diminution in the coat of production has
helped to compensate the grower :
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Wool. Breadstuff's Wine.
cattli
X> fJ ~
perio
1840
8,740
1850
... 131,731 38,312
1860
... 573,977 499,102 1,430
1840
1870
... 902,696 470,828 12,097
1850
1880
. 1,716,171 2,469,720 8,481
1860
1890
... 1,353,762 2,018,719 50,738
1870
1900
... 1,003,391 863,463 78,153
1880
1902
... 1,061,809 1,229,212 124,916
1890
1900
In
minerals copper has easily led.
1902
Minerals.
So
Copper. Tolal value of
a hi
has
1840
"Scoi
1850
. 353,890 365,464
inter
1860
. 420,905 446,537
sagac
1870
568,780 574,090
chan
1880
346,174 347,246
of cc
1890
.... 226,992 284,893
the
1900
394,446 431,289
cord
1902
430,712 498,325
peric
and horses in the State at
periods named is shown as under :
the
Animal life thrives in all parts of
South Australia. There is no better cli-
mate in the world for the rearing of high-
class sheep, cattle, and horses. The mild-
ness and evenness of the temperature
makes the housing of live stock unneces-
sary, consequently artificial feeding has
never been practised. The growth of
flocks and herds has been checked by
droughts, but the work of_ restocking is
now well in hand. The number of sheep,
Sheep.
Cattle.
Horses.
200,160
15,100
1,060
984,199
60,034
6,488
2,824,811
278,265
49,399
4,400,655
136,832
83,744
6,463,897
307,177
157,915
7,004,642
359,938
187,683
5,235,220
214,761
166,790
5,012,216
225,256
165,303
South Australians have always enjoyed
a high reputation as traders. The State
has been frequently referred to as the
"Scotland of Australia," a title which is
intended to convey a compliment to the
sagacity, honesty, and prudence of her mer-
chants and traders. On a per capita basis
of comparison there are few countries in
the world that have a better trading re-
in South Australia. At one
period the decade 1881-'91 South Aus-
tralia had an annual turnover equal 10
64/3/4 per head of population a record
certainly without parellel in Australasia,
and scarcely exceeded by any country.
This was partly due to South Australia's
geographical position enabling the State
to act as carriers for other States, but the
produce passed over our railways and
wharfs, and the business proved profitable
in other ways. The following statement
is an instructive comparison one which
bears eloquent testimony to the progress
and prosperity of the State :
Year.
VAT.UE OF
IMPORTS.
VALUE OF
EXPORTS.
Total.
Per Inhabitant.
Total.
Per Inhabitant.
1840
303,367
20
15
6
32,079
2
5
3
1850
845,572
13
5
o
570 817
8
19
2
I860
1,639,591
13
4
2
1.783 71(5
H
I
i
1870
2.029.793
12
1
8
2.419 488
13
3
3
1880
5,581,497
20
17
2
5,574,505
20
16
8
1890
8.262,673
26
5
11
8.827,378
28
1
1900
8,034,552
22
9
11
8,029,157
22
9
8
1902
6,073,781
16
15
i
7,698,514
21
5
4
INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION.
37
The expansion of the export trade in
articles the produce of the colony is an in-
spiring record :
Number of
Depositors.
Amount
Deposited.
Year.
Staple
Exports.
Average per
head of
Population
16 10
18 4
1 1 5
6 1 2
1838 ...... 5,040
1839 ...... 9,165
1840 ...... 15,650
1845 ...... 131,800
1850 ...... 545,040 8 11 1
1855 ...... 686,953 7 1 8
1860 ... ... 1,576,326 12 18 6
1865 ...... 2,574,657 17 11 9
1870 ...... 2,123,297 11 11
1875 ...... 4,442,100 21 11
1880 ...... 4,829,577 18 11
1885 ...... 4,385,599 14 6 5
1890 ...... 4,410,062 14 8
1900 ...... 3,610,517 10 2 2
1902 ...... 4,768,947 13 3 5
The value of "total trade per head"
stood for South Australia at 35/9/10 in
1881; 64/3/4 the highest for Aus-
tralasiain 1891 ; and 42/19/7 in 1901.
On a per capita basis of comparison ranks
second highest among the States for ex-
ports of staple produce and total trading.
The growing trade of the State required
the services of a large fleet of ships, and in
no direction has there been a more remark-
able evolution than in the class of vessels
trading to our ports. The number and
tonnage of vessels entering and leaving
South Australian ports is set out below :
1840 ... .
Number of
Vessels.
425
Tonnage.
83,787
1850 ... .
559
174,455
1860 ... .
662
209,036
1870 ... .
1880 ... .
916
2,156
287,989
1,200,904
1890 ... .
2,122
2,190,442
1900 ... .
2,013
3,552,636
1902
2,038
3,959,352
The claim that South Australians as a
people are frugal is supported by this re-
cord of the Savings Bank :
Average
Credit per
Depositor.
s. d.
1848 ... 214 6,473 24 16 7
1850 ... 672 10,255 17 3 5
1860 ... 2,567 52,293 34 12 6
1870 ... 12,569 203,620 33 13 8
1880 ... 34,287 604,637 30 4 10
1890 ... 69,193 1,054,351 27 15 11
1900 ... 106,122 1,832,369 32 17 6
1902 ... 116,436 1,985,689 34 2 8
The reserve fund of the ''people's bank '
rose from 8 in 1848 to 25,000 in 1870,
and 131,000 in 1902. The total funds of
the Savings Bank stood at 5,414 in 1848 ;
448,658 in 1870; 3,631,537 in 1900, and
4,147,178 in 1902.
In 1870 183,797 persons in S.A. had on
deposit in various banks other than the
Savings Bank 1,196,678. This repre-
sents 6/10/2 per inhabitant. In the
periods named the comparison was as fol-
lows :
Amount of Average per
Deposit in Banks. Inhabitant
1880 4,265,274 15 18 9
1890 7,198,636 26 2 6
1900 5,778,325 13 7 9
1902 5,926,114 16 7 6
The public debt of the State now stands
at 27,272,545, representing 75/2/5 per
inhabitant. It is necessary to bear in
mind, however, that the greater portion of
this outlay is represented by public works
of a reproductive character such as rail-
ways 13,000,000, waterworks 4,500,000,
telegraphs 1,003,236. Apart from pub-
lic works earning interest the debt repre-
sents a deficiency to be made good by
taxation of only 1/9/2 per head of the
population a small amount when com-
pared with the services rendered.
The growth of the tState educational
system may be gathered from the follow-
ing multiplication of public schools and
the large increase of scholars :
1850
State Schools.
64
Scholars.
1,867
1860 ...
210
9,843
1870 ..
300
15,108
1*880 . . .
370
36,277
1890 ..
551'
44,804
1900 ...
690
62,439
1902 .
716
62,962
THe Pastoral Industry.
The rise and progress of the pastoral in-
dustry in Australia constitute one of the
finest records of expansion to be lound in
the history of any country. In less than
a century from the introduction of the
first sheep and cattle into New South
Wales, the flocks of Australia numbered
124,000,000 sheep the herds aggregate-*
12,000,000 cattle, and there were 1,700,000
horses. Exports of wool have represented
an annual value of as much as ,24,300,00-.
and the total value of pastoral property in
seven colonies was estimated in 1901 at
241,554,000. Exports of meat from four
States have touched an annual value of
800,000. Towards these colossal totals
South Australia has contributed for over
sixty years. Since these high-water levels
were touched, droughts in nearly all the
States, a rapid expansion of the meat ex-
port business, shipments of horses for mili-
tary purposes in South Africa and India
have reduced the number of livestock in
the Commonwealth. Even during the
period of greatest depression, when every-
thing seemed to combine to work destruc-
tion, the pastoral industry in South
Australia, as in other States, has main-
tained an unchallenged position at the
head of the export list. During sixty
years of chequered history, yet steady ex-
pansion, the wool industry has contributed
no less an amount than 59,000,000 to the
staple exports of South Australia.
The history of pastoral expansion in
these lands is the political, commercial,
and social record of our island continent.
They are so closely interwoven that it is
difficult to distinguish their respective
influences on one another. Australia
owes more than it is possible to estimate
to her shepherd kings, who were the
pioneers of pioneers the first to turn
their backs on the coastline and face the
unknown. Theirs was a strenuous life
from the first. They went out into tne
wilderness and did their own exploring
work, occupied and proved the country,
then moved on to make room for the
farmer and other rural producers. But
for the flockmasters, the occupation of
some portions of South Australia would
have been greatly delayed. They carried
their lives in their hands, lived hard and
worked laboriously. Who shall calculate
the influence of their courage and sturdy
independence, their patience in the face of
difficulties, their self-reliance and hopeful-
ness, or attempt to measure the results
which have directly sprung from their
victories over the natural conditions of an
unmapped country? The pastoralist was
called upon to solve geographical
mysteries, to deal with treacherous natives,
and the great warrior who burned his
boats was not more determined than were
the pioneer woolgrowers and herdsmen
who cut themselves adrift from civilization
as they pushed their way into the heart
of the continent. The blacks were
troublesome in the early days, and flocks
had to be carefully shepherded during the
daytime and yarded and watched at night.
One early squatter was so disgusted at the
depreciations of the natives and his
inability to stop them, that he sold pro-
perty for 300 which subsequently was
leased for 30 years at an annual rent of
10,000! During a visit to a number of
cattle stations in Central Australia and
the Northern Territory as recently as 1891
I saw quite a number of cattle which had
been speared by the blacks. One cow
looked like a porcupine, and we took
eleven spears out of the poor beast. Th&
natives soon learn to appreciate the dis-
tinction between meum et tuum, and be-
come very serviceable on outlying stations.
To appreciate the significance of the
pioneer worK done by the builders of this-
important industry is to comprehend at
one glance the whole romance of coloniza-
tion, as regards the development not only
of South Australia, but Australia as a
whole. Ever in the van the pastoralists-
have been the pathfinders who bridged the
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
39
Station Scene in the North Starting out for the day's work.
J . Dailey photo.
ford and cleared the road, and made the
country safe and pleasant for exploitation
by merchant and mechanic and all that
army of workers whose daily prosperity
may be measured by the fluctuating pros-
perity of rural producers.
Fortune smiled from the first on those
who were early in the field, and who by
exchanging cash for lands within easy dis-
tance of the seaboard helped the infant
province out of pressing financial difficul-
ties and laid the foundations of their own
fortunes. Sheepfarming within what is
termed the "rainfall line" was a profitable
business from the outset, and, although
these producers have at times suffered
from low prices and bad seasons, their lot
has been cast in pleasant places compared
with that of Crown tenants in remote
localities. Whilst the inside man has
enjoyed almost uninterrupted prosperity,
the "out-back" pioneers have had many
lips and downs. Although practically
"monarchs" of all they surveyed, living a
life of great freedom in one of the
healthiest climates in the world, their sur-
roundings have often been comfortless and
uninviting. They were not a feather-
bed race, and attached little or no value to
the luxuries of cities. They lived a
nomadic life, pitching their tents at sunset,
and by sunrise were extending the circle
of colonization. The outermost station
was always the starting point or the city
of refuge for the daring explorer.
Neither "baronial" nor any other castles
are to be seen on the great sheep and
cattle stations 1 of interior South Australia.
Two rooms of slab and mud, roofed with
broom or ti-tree. An old case for a table,
smaller ones in place of chairs. For beds,
the floor, with a saddle s a pillow, a rug
or blue blanket for covering. Menu for
breakfast: mutton and damper. Ditto
4 o
THE CENTRAL STATE.
for dinner and tea, with a few Johnny
cakes aj a rare luxury. Tea is the stand-
ing beverage newly-made billy-tea a
most refreshing stimulant. A rifle or two
and some old-fashioned guns hang on the
walls, which are well plastered with car-
toons from the comic press, colored pic-
tures from Christmas numbers of the
weekly papers, and representations of race-
horses. A few fly-speckled, broken-edged
photographs dispute the ownership of the
only mantelpiece with shortrstemmed clay
pipes and jars containing tobacco. There
is a blackfellows' camp a few hundred
yards down the hill from "Government
House" (as the head-station hut is called),
and close up are the drafting yards. It is
from some such centre as this typical of
the out-back station-manager's residence
that runs carrying vast flocks or herds, as
the case may be, are controlled. Very
often the owner or the manager and his
men are absent from the head station for
weeks at a time. Then they live in the
open : the earth for a mattress, the blue
sky for a roof.
This description applies to life out back
a life that is free and healthy and has
great advantages. In the more settled
parts of the State there are many hand-
some houses and fine estates, and station
life as there represented has countless at-
tractions. So mild and healthy is the cli-
mate of South Australia that man and
beast require practically no protection
against the weather. This is a most im
portant point for would-be settlers to
remember in weighing the advantages
of Australia against other countries
as a field for their enterprise. T!ie
fact that neither sheep nor cattle i.re
ever housed, and no artificial feeding of
stock is required, enables a great
saving to be made in the cost of produc-
tion, and partly explains the rapid expan-
sion of the pastoral industry.
In the early days the pastoralist paved
the way. He did more. He tested the
country in a variety of ways, sometimes
perishing in his attempt to occupy terri-
tory which even his pertinacity could not
subdue. It was the pioneer stockman who
first proved that the climate and soil were
admirably adapted for the raising of live-
stock, and that certain localities were
favorable for growing cereals; while
several of our most valuable mineral de-
posits were discovered by shepherds and
boundary riders. He did all this in face
of many dangers and difficulties. Whilst
the white settlers at times dealt out justice
in a rough and ready manner, the blacks
often took vengeance by murdering shep-
herds and putting firesticks to grass or
huts. The greatest source of anxiety and
expense against which the grower of the
"golden fleece" has had to contend ex-
cepting, of course, the rainless seasons
have been wild dogs and rabbits. Vermin
have proved an endless source of worry,
hundreds of thousands of pounds having
been spent in carrying on a relentless war-
fare against the dingo and the rodent.
From the shepherding in the early days
when the flock was guarded by day and
yarded at sundown the evolution has
been sheep-proof fences of five or six wires,
to wire-netting barriers of various types,
topped with barbed wire, in order to check
the movements of both stock and vermin.
The system is a costly one, but experience
has shown that it is the only way of pro-
fitably occupying our outside country.
Main lines of vermin-proof fences are now
erected at the expense of the lessee, as-
sisted by the Government, in various parts
of the State. This tract of country is then
divided and subdivided until each lessee is
able to cope with nis natural enemies
within his own boundaries. It was a long
time before fencing was substituted for
shepherding. The old squatter was pre-
judiced against fencing, but the advantages
of it eventually appealed to him. The
modern tendency is towards reducing the
size of the paddocks, which saves the sheep
the necessity of travelling long distances
for water and facilitates the preservation
of the grass and bushes.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
Shropshire Ewe and Progeny, the property of Sir S. J. Way, Bart., Kadlunga.
Flocks and Fleeces.
The foundation of sheep-breeding and
wool-growing in this State was laid by the
South Australian Company importing
Merinos from Tasmania and New South
Wales ; also rams from Mecklenberg. The
first fleet which sailed for South Australia
had on board some Leicester and South-
down sheep, and purchases were also made
at the Cape of Good Hope, where sheep
were then selling at 5/ each. From the
very beginning of settlement in this State
the value of the squatting industry has
been recognised, and South Australians
have every reason to be proud of the suc-
cess achieved in the various enterprises for
the rearing of sheep and the production of
wool. "The South Australian Company
had purchased," says "The Register," in
its first number, published in June, 1836,
''a very fine lot of rams and ewes of the
finest and purest breed of Merinos, which
were selected with great care and at much
expense in Saxony, by the son of a great
sheepholder of Van Dieman's Land for his
own stock. They also sent out in their
different vessels a supply of pure Leicesters
and Southdowns, and ordered the ship
Emma to call at Capetown and procure
other sheep for mutton and for crossing
purposes." The policy pursued by the
Company had the vigorous support of
Colonel Torrens, the Chairman of the
Board of Commissioners, who, in speaking
on the wool staple of Australia, said that
"as the population sweeps over the vast
regions of America from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, and as the freetrade in China
opens to British enterprise, hundreds of
millions of additional consumers, the
natural, the necessary conclusion seems to
be that for generations to come the still
increasing demand for Australian wool
THE CENTRAL STATE.
will be in advance of the constantly
augmenting supply ; and that the value of
this important staple will maintain an
elevation sufficient to secure to the British
nations growing up in New Holland a de-
gree of prosperity hitherto unexampled in
newly settled countries.'' Heavy losses
occurred on the voyage from Tasmania,
and the overland journeys from Sydney
proved expensive and dangerous: Not-
withstanding such drawbacks, however,
the South Australian Company and pri-
vate individuals continued to make im-
portations, so that within two years of the
proclamation of the colony the flocks
numbered 28,000. By the end of 1841
the Company owned 20,000 sheep, and
Messrs. Button and Bagot, Mr. Duncan
MacFarlane, and Mr. G. A. Anstey about
10,000 each. In December, 1837, Messrs.
Hallett & Duff shipped four bales of wool
at Port Adelaide for London by the
Orator. This was the first clip from a
South Australian flock. A month later
a joint stock sheep company was formed
in the colony with a capital of 20,000,
and in a very short time the shares were
all taken up and the company was in pos-
session of a flock of 600 maiden ewes and
300 wethers. From this time onwards
there was a rapid increase, so that by 1851
there were over 1,000,000 sheep, early in
the sixties over 3,000,000, in the seventies
over 6,000,000, the eighties 7,000,000,
whilst in 1891 the high-water mark was
State.
South Australia ...
New South Wales ...
Victoria
Queensland
New Zealand
1861.
11.
4.69
3.28
4.52
3.40
3.48
This increase in the weight of fleece per
sheep is what growers in this State have
been consistently aiming at for years, and
it is the pride of our stud-breeders that
they are able to produce rams and ewes
which will give these results. That
growers in other States, also in New Zea-
land and South Africa, recognise this
quality in South Australian stud sheep is
proved by the heavy drafts they make on
our flocks each year. Our sheep are
singularly free from disease, and practi-
cally the only trouble is tick, which is
reached, when the flocks aggregated
7,745,541. The decline which has since
taken place is attributed to large resump-
tions of pastoral country by the Govern-
ment for the purpose ot cutting it up for
agricultural requirements, the recurrence
of droughts, and low prices. The follow-
ing shows the decennial increase of the
flecks since 1841:
Five Years No. of Value of Wool
ending Sheep Kxporled.
1840 200,160 8,740
1845 480,699 72,235
1850 984,199 131,731
1855 1,768,724 283,419
1860 2,824,811 573,977
1865 3,779,307 821,656
1870 4,400,655 902,696
1875 6,179,395 1,833,519
1880 6,453,222 1,716,171
1885 6,696,406 1,417,245
1890 7,004,642 1,353,762
1896 6,233,993 1,228,991
1900 5,667,283 1,003,391
1902 5,012,216 1,222,403
According to Coghlan ("The Seven Colo-
nies of Australasia, 1901-2"), the weight
of wool per sheep has been increasing re-
gularly in each of the States, and that
authority says: "In South Australia the
weight of wool per sheep has been consis-
tently higher than in the other States,"
and the following table supports that
1871.
Ib
6.41
4.57
6.17
4.73
4.76
1881
Ib.
6.93
4.47
6.87
4.50
5.32
1891.
Ib.
6.85
5.74
5.68
4.73
6.42
1901.
Ib.
7.9
7.2
6.9
7.1
8.1
kept under by dipping at shearing time.
It is quite a mistaken idea that the area
adapted for raising sheep in South Aus-
tralia is limited, and that we can look for
no great expansion in the future. Given
a return of fair seasons, the multiplication
ol facilities such as water supplies in the
interior, additional railways (like those
projected, north and west), and there is
every reason to expect that the unoccu-
pied lands will be gradually taken up and
stocked. There is a class of people whose
very nature drives them into a pessimistic
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
$'. J. Dailey photo.
The Homestead, Mt. Crawford Stud Station.
view of everything. Their chief delight
is to pick out defects and unduly
magnify them. ' Of late there have been
.some critics who have declared that Aus-
tralia has reached the limit of its wool-
producing powers, and that henceforth
this industry must decline ; that the
quality year by year is becoming weaker,
and that the trend of future markets is
against the expansion of the wool trade.
It was said a few years ago that wool-
growers in New South Wales had more
cause to deplore than to rejoice in the in-
crease in their flocks ; that they must face
the unpalatable facts that there are far too
many sheep in the country ; that the coun-
try itself is sheepsick ; that all the best
saline grasses are eaten away; that,
although in many districts there is an
abundance of feed, io is sour and so poor
that it generates worms and produces in-
ferior wool ! If this were true of one
State it by no means applies to Australia
as a whole. As a matter of fact, it is
criticism born of ignorance. Surely it is
sufficient refutation of the charge that the
Australian sheep is deteriorating to point
out that the wool clip shows an increas-
ingly heavier yield per sheep, thus prov-
ing that the flocks per head have become
more productive. It is now recognised
that the way out of the difficulties which
beset the pastoralist is by advancing the
industry to a higher level that it must
be conducted not merely with greater
economy, but with the exercise of more
brain power than was formerly, as a rule,
required, and that at the disposal of this
brain power must be larger capital than
was once considered necessary. Economi-
cally managed there are millions of acres
in South Australia which are capable of
profitable occupation. Water conserva-
tion and additional transit facilities will
one day cause these idle lands to be made
highly productive. "Taking all circum-
stances into consideration," says Mr.
Coghlan, the statistician, "it may be fairly
estimated that under the present sy&tem
the States are capable of maintaining, in
ordinary seasons, stock equivalent to
390,000,000 sheep -- ftiat is, about
180,000,000 sheep, or their equivalent in
cattle, more than are now depastured."
44
THE CENTRAL STATE.
In the course of an address on "Our
Pastoral Interest," delivered in 1896, at
the invitation of the Chamber of Com-
merce, Mr. A. G. Downer, a gentleman
largely interested in pastoral pursuits,
aaid : "Let me now dwell on some of the
benefits that will flow from development.
Of the 318,000 square miles outside of
counties there are probably 200,000 that
can be profitably used by development.
Of this 200,000 miles, 100,000 will admit
of an expenditure of 50 a mile, or of
5,000,000, while the remaining 100,000
square miles will probably profitably ad-
mit of an outlay of 2,500,000, being the
minimum amount which it seems to me is
necessary for development. This will
probably mean an ultimate increase to our
flocks of 20,000,000. Every million of
sheep means permanent employment for
something like 500 regular hands on a sta-
tion. By regular hands bear in mind
that I mean merely the hands engaged
throughout the year in working the
station not the hands employed in de-
veloping, not the hands employed in
shearing, not the hands employed in the
carriage of stores, wool, &c. Quite apart
from the regular hands, it will mean ex-
penditure in the mere cost of and inci-
dental to shearing, wool-pressing, and the
carriage of wool to its shipping port, and
this will be from 2 to 4 per hundred
sheep. Taking, therefore, the mean of
3, this involves the annual expenditure
of no less than 600,000 on 20,000,000 of
sheep. Let me say that, large as the sum
of 4 may seem, it is under the actual cost
which is entailed on one station under 300
miles from Port Augusta. In a letter
published by Mr. Peter Waite in both our
leading papers on March 21 last, Mr.
Waite shows an expenditure for the year
ending January 31, 1893, of the Beltana
Pastoral Company's properties a sum of
63,839/3/8. Of this amount about
15,000 was paid to contractors for well-
sinking, dam-sinking, artesian boring,
building, &c., which may be called an ex-
penditure on capital account. Nearly all
the rest of the 63,000 is what may be
considered as fair annual expenditure on
the run; about 18,000 of this went to
the Government for rent and carriage.
The run carries about 350,000 sheep and
about 26,000 head of cattle equal say to
half a million of sheep. It is not too
much to say, therefore, that on this basis
expenditure every million of sheep will
mean an average annual of expenditure of
something like 100,000 a year. In this
expenditure there will probably be a con-
tribution to the revenue of something like
20,000 to 30,000 a year for rents and
carriage, to say nothing of the indirect
benefits will will flow to the revenue from
Customs duties." In a report to Parlia-
ment the then Surveyor-General, the late
Mr. Goyder, said : "I will submit the
following figures, which are (obtained
from actual experience) found necessary to
develop an area of 1,600 square miles on
the Mutooroo Run. As a preliminary ex-
penditure borings were sunk to various-
depths and in all parts of the run, but salt
water only was obtained. The idea of
developing the country by means of wells-
had, therefore, to be abandoned, and no
notice has been taken of the expenditure
on account of borings or well-sinkings.
The first step taken to secure surface
waters was, after careful inspection of the
fall of the country and depressions by
which flood waters reached the lower
levels, sites of small dams or reservoirs
were agreed upon and sunk. When these
were filled larger reservoirs were sunk
from these as a basis, until what appeared
to be a sufficient supply had been secured ;
but these were found to be too shallow, as
in a year of drought they became dry, and
all had to be deepencl not only to supply
the stock for (say) two years, but also to
provide for evaporation, which in the Far
North, North-West, and North-East is
from six feet to seven feet per annum.
The depth of these large reservoirs was
calculated not only to supply water to
stock depasturing the land within (say)
five miles of the reservoir, but also to
stand evaporation amounting to a vertical
height of from ten feet to fourteen feet of
water. This was done at a total cost for
dams and drains of nearly 30,000, and,
water having been secured,, the run was
fenced and other improvements made at
a cost of about 18,000, making
a total expenditure of 48,000, to
which may be added 600 for the destruc-
tion of vermin, about 400,000 raBbits
being destroyed by means of poisoned
twigs of sandalwood scattered about the
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
45
various waters, the bodies being after-
wards collected and carted away. This
expenditure, without cost of management,
comes to 48,600, or over 29 per square
mile. The country will carry an average
quantity of stock equal to forty sheep pei
square mile, and, assuming that these can
be placed on the run at 8/ per head, the
total cost of improvements and stock
cornea to 74,265, which at 5 per cent, per
annum comes to 3,713 interest, which
must be met before profits can be con-
sidered. Now 65,400 sheep will yield in
the country referred to 371,325 Ib. of wool,
which at 6d. per Ib. net is worth 9,288,
or 5,575 over the interest of amount ex-
pended on account of improvements and
destroying vermin; and allowing 1,500
for management, horses, drays, plant, and
contingencies, a balance of 4,075 is left
to the lessee, or a profit of 5^ per cent, on
his undertaking over the 5 per cent, pre-
viously referred to, requiring several
years' hard work, the anxiety of bad sea-
sons, the death in stock, occ., &c. and this
is assuming that Dy his expenditure he has
guarded himself against losses contingent
upon dry seasons and against the inroad of
vermin in other words, he receives on his
capital and expenditure a little over 10
per cent. Should the area of the lease be
small and the expenditure in proportion -
for 1,000 square miles and a capital of
45,226/16/8, he would receive 4,250 per
annum ; on 500 square miles, with a
capital of 22,610/8/4, he would receive
2,260; on 250 square miles with a
capital of 11,305 he would receive
1,130; and with 100 square miles and a
capital of 4,522, he would receive 452
net as profit, provideu the country carried
an average of 40 sheep per square mile
and yielded five pounds of wool per fleece
realising a net profit of 6d. per Ib."
It is a truism that the misfortunes
which at the time seem hardest to bear
are often blessings in disguise. So long
as the squatter could carry on in a happy-
go-lucky way, and yet make an ample in-
come, it was not to be expected that he
would turn his thoughts to the frozen meat
trade, to water conservation on a large
scale, to artesian boring, and to many
other more or less important matters
which now occupy his attention. But we
>iave reached the period when, the careless
producer must go to the wall. Gradually
his place is being taken by the pastoralist
always on the look-out for improved
methods of conducting his industry, who
knows that he can only thrive by using
his head as well as by undergoing physical
privations. Perhaps there is something;
to be regretted in the change. The old
time squatter was often a rough diamond,
but he was racy of the Australian soil, and
not devoid of a certain picturesqueness.
The modern pastoralist the change of
designation is of itself significant-^has to
be a smart man of business. He must be
better educated and see further ahead than
his predecessors had to look. In short,
the pastoral industry is more and more
assuming a new character. Principles
of the modern counting-house and the
banking chamber are driving out the
poetry. This was in any case inevitable
as the States grew older and were more
settled, but the necessity of the present
position will give the movement a marked
impetus. It cannot be doubted that the
new responsibilities devolving upon the
pastoral lessee entail new responsibilities
upon his landlord. If the day of the
squatter has gone, so have the times of
bitter antagonism between the pastoral
tenant and the selector. After much
beating about the bush it has been dis-
covered that there is room enough in
South Australia for both the pastoralist
and the agriculturist, and that there is
work enough for both to do without worry-
ing each other by a policy of pinpricks.
After many years of negotiations land
laws have been adopted which the lessee
regards with more favor, whilst more elas-
ticity has been introduced into the methods
of administration. To the capitalist in
search of fields of investment, the pastoral
industry in South Australia is one which
provides scope for capital and opportunity
for energy and business acumen.
4 6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Stud Flocks of South Australia.
The breeding of stud sheep has proved
a profitable business in this State. Cer-
tainly it is one of the most interesting
occupations engaging the attention of
some of the best and brainiest men in
South Australia. In this connection such
names as Angas, Murray, Browne, and
Hawker naturally suggest themselves.
These men and their sons have laid tne
foundations of an industry, the growth of
which is practically unlimited. The first
sheep introduced into Australia were im-
ported into New South Wales about 1788.
although not the first importer of sheep,
Captain Macarthur was the pioneer flock-
master of Australia, and from his stud
sprang most of the great flocks which have
made Australia famous throughout the
world as the home of the profitable all-
round Merino. During recent years
various types of mutton breeds have found
tavor in South Australia. Shropshire,
Lincoln, Southdown, and Dorset Horn
btuds now exercise an important influence
on the rapidly expanding lamb export
trade, and no review of stud sheep breed-
ing would be complete that omitted a
reference to them.
Dealing first with the Merino, it is a
singular fact that the stud breeding has
been in the hands of exceptional men
men who combined stern unbending deter-
mination with rare perception and saga-
city. According to Darwin, not one man
in a thousand has accuracy of eye and
judgment sufficient to become an eminent
breeder. The Merino flockmasters of
South Australia possessed these qualifica-
tions to a remarkable degree. More than
that, they had faith in themselves and a
clear intelligent conception of the type of
sheep they desired to produce. At dif-
ferent periods when leading Australian
breeders were blown hither and thither
like thistle-down in a breeze by a popular
fancy for some new breed, the majority of
South Australians paid no heed to the
voice of the siren of fashion. They kept
steadily onward, some of them, like the
late Mr. John Murray, founder of the
celebrated Murray Merinos, practising the
delicate and intricate art of in-and-in-
breeding others building up from with-
out, but with the one goat in view. The
result is that there is a fairly uniform type
of Merino in South Australia a high-class
animal remarkable for constitution, carry-
ing a heavy fleece, long and strong in
staple, and commanding top market
prices. A Russian expert who recently
inspected many of the leading flocks of
Australia spontaneously declares that the
"South Australian stud Merino sheep are
the best in the Commonwealth." It has
been my privilege to inspect most of the
stud flocks in this State, and opportunities
were afforded me at various times of study-
ing the methods of leading breeders and
noting the results obtained. The impres-
sion has been strongly conveyed to me that
our flockmasters work along scientific
lines, displaying remarkable consistency
and determination. An animal is being
produced in South Australia which is
eagerly sought after by sheepfarmers and
pastoralists throughout Australia and
South Africa, whose aim is to increase the
average yield of wool of their flocks.
Breeders in Argentine have not yet dis-
covered the South Australian Merino, or
they would hardly have failed to obtain a
type of sheep which for constitution and
character of wool is just what is required
to improve the flocks of South America.
Efforts have been made to induce breeders
nere to make a trial shipment of ranis to
Buenos Ayres, but the demand for regular
drafts from all parts of the Common-
wealth, New Zealand, and Southern Africa
has prevented the experiment being made.
A typical South Australian bred Merino is
an animal of large symmetrical frame and
robust constitution, carrying a hea.vy
fleece, of long staple, strong in character,
possessing lustre and softness. Artificial
feeding is never on any consideration re-
sorted to on the Merino stud farms of this
State. The law of the "survival of the
fittest" is allowed to work in its own re-
lentless way. The weaklings are not
spared by pampering methods.
The stud flockmasters are sometimes
envied by agriculturists, who cast covetous
eyes upon the beautiful estates devoted to
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
47
photo.
Valuing Wool at a Port Adelaide Wool Store.
Shearing Sheep by Machinery, compressed air system, at Wellington Lodge Station.
z years, Adelaide, September. 1899. Cut 23 Ibs.
6 oz. FIRST PRIZE under 3M years, Adelaide, 1900. and CHAMPION PRIZE. Cut 24
Ibs., March, 1901. Grazed at large on natural grasses only. Bred by and the
property of JOHN MURRAY. Rhine Park, S.A.
54
THE CENTRAL STATE.
21 lb. Royal Duke
runs back on the darn
side to Wool Prince,
a celebrated champion
ram, and on the
sire side to the cham-
pion John I., the two
last champions bred by
the founder of the
flocks. A noted stud
ram at Rhine Park
at the present time is
Wellington III., a
grandson of the cham-
pion Wellington. Wel-
lington III. cut 22 lb.
of superior wool when
2 years old; a prize
fleece of 23 lb. when
3 years old, and this
season 27^ lb. of wool
of great quality. A
son of Portlight's cut
27 lb. in 1902, and 29
lb. at the 1903 shear-
ing.
A fleece shorn from
the Rhine Park cham-
pion ewe "The Queen"
was sent to London a
few years ago, and the
following reports were
received : " We have
examined the prize
fleece with the greatest
interest and may at
once say that, of this
class of wool, it is the
most beautiful speci-
men we have ever seen.
The growth is deep
and sound, the staple
clear at the root and
evenly and compactly
formed a picture of
vigor and strength.
The fibre is of strong
quality, especially to-
wards the skirts, but
it is not too coarse con-
sidering the great
depth of the staple.
The condition is light
(about 55 per cent,
yield) and the appear-
ance bright and lus-
"THE QUEEN."
CHAMPION and FIRST PRIZE EWE. Adelaide, September, 1896. Cut Prize Fleeces. 3
Adelaide, March, 1896-7-8, By CROMWELL ( Prize Earn ), by SIR JOHN ( Prize Ram ),
by JOHN I. (Champion Earn). Bred by and the property of JOHN MURRAY, Ehine
Park. Grazed at large on natural grasses only.
y
"MONAECH" CiY, years).
r P ,!& e Ra . m) - by CROMWELL (Prize Earn), by SIR JOHN (Prize
I (Champion Earn) FIRST under IX years. Adelaide. Septem-
Ari ' a Cu } P K Ze Fleec es. 18^ Ibs., March, 1899. FIRST under 2M years.
Adelaide, September. 1899. Cut Prize Fleece, 20 Ibs.. March. 1900. SECOND under
nat^i 1 !' Adelaid , e - September, 1900. Cut Fleece 20 Ibs. Grazed at large on
atmal grasses only. Bred by and property of JOHN MURRAY. Rhine Park? 8. A.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
55
trous. Such wool as this will always
command attention, for, of its kind, it is
a perfect article. Helmuth Schwartz and
Co." "We had the greatest pleasure
in viewing this fleece, as w l e have never
had such a perfect specimen under our
notice before. Our report on same is that
it is a marvellous fleece and perfect in its
kind, good length, and remarkable even of
staple, of good lustre, and of a yield of
about 54 per cent, when the skirts and
pieces have been removed. The quality
though near 56/, the best quality of cross-
breds, is all the same a desirable and useful
one, and is at all times considered by the
trade a favorable quality. The fleece is of
immense size, and weighed close upon 18
lb., and it was a pleasure to look at it.
It was examined by brokers, spinners, and
manufacturers, both English and Continen-
tal. -H. Anders, manager Elder, Smith,
and Co., Ltd., London."
Rhine Park is situated near Eden Val-
ley, 50 miles north-east of Adelaide, in a
beautiful valley where the ridges run down
from the highlands of the Barossa range to
the great plain of the River Murray. The
country has an attractive appearance, and
the climate is favorable to the production
of healthy stock.
THe Mount Beevor Stud.
The Mount Beevor Estate, the property
of Mr. T. Hope Murray, is situated in
hilly country about 35 miles east of Ade-
laide, and seven miles north of the railway
station at Nairne. The flock was drawn
from the original stud at Mount Crawford,
and two years ago a third of the Cappeedee
flock was drafted to Mount Beevor. The
country is eminently suited to the breeding
of a strong type of sheep, which well main-
tain all the Murray Merino characteristics.
A purchaser of Mount Beevor rams resid-
ing in New South Wales recently wrote to
the "Stock and Station Journal," Sydney,
publicly expressing a highly favorable
opinion of the sheep. "The Mount Beevor
GROUF OF MOUNT BEEVOR RAMS.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
rams," he said, "had proved wonder
doers, and had cut 16 lb., 18i lb., 2Q3 lb.,
21 lb., and 22J lb. of clean, long, bold,
bright, strong wool." So pleased had he
been with tne results obtained that he had
induced two of his neighbors to make pur-
chases from Mount Beevor. At the Ade-
laide Jubilee International Exhibition
Mount Beevor wool was awarded three
diplomas and a medal, and in the same year
at the Royal Show prizes for three rams'
and three ewes' fleeces. Mount Beevor re-
presentatives have taken a prominent posi-
tion at the Royal Show, particularly in the
aged classes, and they are held in high
esteem by breeders throughout Australia.
93*
A MOUNT BEEVOK STUD RAM.
TKe Mount Crawford Stud.
Mount Crawford, the property of Mr.
Alick J. Murray, is one of the oldest stud-
breeding stations in the State. Unques-
tionably it has proved itself to be the most
successful, for at Mount Crawford the late
Mr. John Murray, in 1842, laid the founda-
tion of the now famous Murray Merino
sheep. It was in this well-favored dis-
trict that the flock was gradually built up,
and it was from Mount Crawford that the
additional estates purchased by the founder
for his sons were all stocked. Mount
Crawford lies about 35 miles north-east of
Adelaide in the high lands of the Barossa
Ranges, and the best testimony of the
country is that the flocks which have
sprung from Mount Crawford are after
more than sixty years' close breeding un-
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
57
surpassed in Australia
for constitution, size,
symmetrical frames,
weight of fleece, and
uniformity of type.
Mt. Crawford Merinos
are to be found afl
over Australia and
New Zealand, and a
number of them have
gone to South Africa.
At the last Christ-
church Show in New
Zealand, Mr. Andrew
Rutherford nearly
swept the ring in the
1 and 2-year-old classes
both- for rams and
ewes, and won both
champion prize for
ram and for ewe with
stock by the famous
500-guinea ram Fame,
which he bought from
Mr. A. J. Murray.
Four hundred of the
worst ewe weaners in
the Mount Crawford
stud were sold to Mr.
George Maslin, of
North Bundaleer, in
1902, taken home,
shorn in 1902, and
twelve months after
running on Bundaleer
when shorn again
averaged 14 lb. of
clean wool. The cham-
pion ewe, Flora van
Senden, won 2nd prize
in 1902 at Adelaide
Royal Show, 1st in
1903, and champion in
1903, and won Dalgety
Challenge Cup, not
only right out, but for
the third year in suc-
cession. This picture
was taken after rear-
ing a lamb, and the
ewe then cut 16 lb. of
lightrconditioned wool.
"FLORA MAcDOXALD," by POT.TSKA.
IRST PRIZE under I 1 /, years, 1897. FIRST PRIZE under 2'/ 2 years, and
CHAMPION EWE, Royal Show, Adelaide, 1898. Out 18 Ibs. 1 oz.
Grazed at large on natural grasses only. Bred by and the property
/of ALICK J. Mi'BRAY, Mount Crawford, S.A.
"FLORA VAX SBXDEX."
Bred by and the property .>f Ai.rci: J. MTKHAY. Mount Crawford. S.A.
Grazed at large on natural grasses only.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
The
Cappeedee
Stud.
The Cappeedee Es-
tate, situated near Hal-
lett, about 125 miles
north of Adelaide, was
founded by the late
Mr. John Murray in
1879. Drafts from
Mount Crawford were
gent from time to time,
and Cappeedee was
worked as a branch of
the homestead until
1886. On the death of
the founder of the ori-
ginal flock, Cappeedee
and a fourth of the
whole flock was taken
over by the youngest of
the four sons, the late
Mr. W. A. Murray, and
for fifteen years the
Cappeedee stud was
controlled by him with
rare skill. He was a
born flockmaster, and
bred excep-
tionally large-framed
sheep with deep necks,
and carrying a fleece of
great density. On the
death of Mr. W. A.
Murray in 1901, the
estate and a portion of
the flock, as already ex-
plained, came under
the control of Mr.
John Murray. Cap-
peedee is now worked
in conjunction with
Rhine Park, and is
managed by Mr. Wal-
ter S. Murray, second
son of the owner. The
country is treeless,
and, lying between two
ranges of hills, is cold
in winter and hot and
dry in summer. There
is no shelter of any
kind, and sheep bred
Twice CHAMPION
"CAPPEEDEE"
Royal Show Adelaide. Winner
Medal, First Prize as 6-tooth.
Silver Cup, Silver
"MODEL," A Cappeedee Bred Ewe,
Twace ft Prize Ewe, winner at the Royal Show, Adelaide.
on this open country thrive splendidly in took the championship at the Royal Show
practically anv climate to bfl found ,'T, A , 10 - . :_ -tvuydi onow
practically any climate to be found in Aus-
tralia, The champion ram, Cappeedee,
two years in succession, and he sired a large
number of prize winners.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
59
"CRONJE."
iBred by and the property of Messrs. HAWKER BROS., Dungaree.
THe
Btingaree
Merinos.
The Bungaree stud
flock was formed by
the late Hon. G. C.
Hawker very shortly
after his settlement in
the district. The ori-
ginal sheep were high-
class ewes and rams
from New South
Wales. Fresh blood
was introduced about 50
years ago, when five
Negrette rams were
added to the stock.
In 1861 Rambouillet
rams were used to
effect a change in
the blood, and in
1865 and 1874 rams
bred at Mount
Crawford were pur-
chased and employed
with success. The Ne-
grette-Rambouillet al-
liance produced highly
satisfactory results,
the latter strain no
doubt giving the prin-
cipal Bungaree char-
acteristics. The Bun-
garee sheep are noted
for their sound, robust
constitution, great size,
symmetry, and weight
of fleece. The Bun-
garee sheep are in
favor in the hot, dry
plains of the interior,
where they do remark-
ably well, and yield a
heavy fleece. Rams
from this stud have
been purchased by < (CFOIL RHODES ."
flockowners in all parts Firgt pri/e Combing Merino Ram, Royal Show, 1903. Bred by and the
of Australia and South property of Messrs. HAWKER BROS., Bungaree.
Africa, and their pro-
geny have invariably given the highest for export. The wool from this flock is
satisfaction. Owing to their great size well known as a sound, strong, well-grown
the ewes are much in favor with lamb combing wool of great length, and has al-
breeders for crossing with Shropshires and ways commanded high prices in the London
other mutton-producing strains, the lambs market. For several years, and until
from such a cross being especially suitable the September show this year, the Bun-
6o
THE CENTRAL STATE.
garee sheep have not competed at the Ade-
laide Show. Years ago, however, the stud
was a formidable aspirant for exhibition
honors, as the 100 or more prize tickets
still preserved in the shearing shed abun-
dantly demonstrate. One famous ram.
Emperor, was never beaten, and took
champion prizes in 1881, 1882, and 1883.
At 6 years old his live weight was over 250
lb., and he cut a fleece of 22| lb., which 20
years ago was considered a remarkable
weight. In 1883, in Melbourne, a ram,
from the station eold for 651. In 1886
Bungaree took 14 prizes for sheep (includ-
ing three champions, one special, and two
for fat sheep), and right on to 1892 the
station was a constant and successful ex-
hibitor. Bungaree Station is seven miles
north of Clare, and 29 miles from Saddle-
worth.
TKe Canowie Stud Merinos.
Canowie Station, the property of the
Canowie Pastoral Co., and managed by
Messrs. H. & F. Rymill, of Adelaide, lies
12 miles due west of Hallett. The pro-
perty extends to the bounds of Jamestown
on the west, Yongala on the north, Cappee-
dee on the east, and Booborowie on the
south, and takes in some of the finest
grazing areas in the State. The present
holding is about 67,000 acres, and is carry-
ing close upon 60,000 sheep. Canowie
sheep are well-known to Australian sheep-
breeders for their splendid frames, consti-
tutions, and profitable character. The
stud was formed in the early fifties with
200 of the finest ewes in the sheepbreeding
flock, and with them were used some im-
ported Spanish Negrctte rams, which ar-
rived in 1857. In 1859 the stud flock of
ewes comprised 500, in 1862 it was 780'
strong, and in 1864 it totalled over a thou-
sand. In 1860 the owners decided upon a
change of blood, and introduced it in the
shape of five Frenc i Rambouillet rams,
and the result was highly satisfactory.
The Rambouillets gave the sheep large
frame, with a long staple of a bold type
of combing wool. It is on record that one
of these rams lived until he was 14 years oi
age, and his last fleece weighed 13 lb. of
unwashed wool. A few sires were after-
wards imported from the Mount Crawford
stud, but for the last 40 years sires have
only been drawn from within the flock.
The great merit of the Canowie sheep in
the eyes of experts isi the general average
of the flock. The sheep flock comprise?
130 stud rams and 1,200 first-class ewes and
GROUP OF CAXOWIE STUD RAMS.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
6 1
GEOUP OF OANOWIE FOUR-TOOTH STUD EWES.
500 second-class ones ; 400 station flock
rams, and 22,009 station flock ewes. In
1875 the proprietors decided to bring the
Canowie sheep under the notice of the Vic-
torian and New J^outh Wales pastoralists,
and entered their sheep for competition at
the Victorian Stud Sheep Show held in
Melbourne that year. Accordingly 23
Canowie rams were taken to Melbourne,
half way by boat and half way in wagons
by road. The rams showed abundant
proof of their rough travelling, but not-
withstanding this one took second prize,
another third, while still another gained
an honorable mention. They afterward
figured conspicuously at the ram sales,
brought the top price, and averaged 150
guineas. The result of such enterprise re-
presented a new era for South Australian
liockmasters. Victorian and New South
Wales breeders became infatuated with the
quality of the Canowies, and a steady de-
mand sprang up for Canowie rams, and
continues to this day In 1876 ramsi to
the value of about =1,800 were placed.
The sales tnen gradually increased, cul-
minating in 1882. In that year 24,000
was received from sales of Canowie rams
alone. A glance at the sheep on the run
convinces one that they have lost nothing
of the size, symmetry, and vigor of constitu-
tion which were the chief characteristics
of their prize-taking predecessors. They
are still noted for carrying fleeces almost
unequalled for length of staple, density,,
and weight combined.
62
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Wirra Wirra
Stud
Merinos.
The Wirra Wirra
stud, the property
of Mr. Murray Daw-
son, was formed in
1892, and a splendid
foundation was laid
with selected rams and
ewes obtained by Mr.
Dawson from his uncle,
Mr. Alick. J. Murray.
The Wirra Wirra pro-
perty was at one time
part of the Mount
Crawford estate. The
sheep have been bred
in with great care
since 1892 with excel-
lent results. Mr. Mur-
ray Dawson has sent
some splendid repre-
sentatives of his stud
to the Royal Show at
Adelaide, and has had
the satisfaction of tak-
ing a number of prizes
in the leading classes
for sheep, and also for
fleeces. Mr. Dawson
aims at producing
Merinos of strong mas-
culine characteristics,
carrying heavy fleeces
of high quality wool.
In addition to the
Wirra Wirra Estate.
Mr. Dawson has a pro-
perty near Gawler
Plains, to where the
sheep are taken during
tlie winter.
WIRRA WIRRA STUD RAM "SULTAN."
SECOND PKIZE, 4-tooth, Adelaide, September, 1903. Bred by and the
property of MURRAY DAWSON, Wirra Wirra, S.A. Grazed at large
on natural grasses only.
WIRRA WIRRA STUD EWE.
Bred by and the property of MURRAY DAWSON, Wirra Wirra, Mount
Crawford.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
RockbrooR
Stud
Merinos.
The Rockbrook
Estate is the pro-
perty of Mr. W. D.
Crozier, and is
situated near Ka-
punda. Mr. Cro-
zier concentrates his
efforts towards the
production of high-
class Merino sheep,
of which the above
pictures are typical
representa/-
tions. The Rock-
brook stud is built
upon a substantial
foundation, having
sprung from the
Horseshoe stud on
the River Murray,
N.S.W. The Horse-
9 h o e stud was
established by
sheep from Mooma
Station, which for
over 30 years has
been noted for pro-
ducing animals es-
pecially suited for
inland Australia.
The Horseshoe stud
was removed to
Rockbrook in 1896.
Rockbrook sheep
have come rapidly
to the front, Mr.
Crozier having won
champion-
ship honors at the
Royal Show, Ade-
laide, in 1898 and
1903.
The following are
the average weights
"CHUNKY."
CHAMPION, R. A. & H. Society's Show, Adelaide, 1903.
WESTERN PRIDE.
nf wnnl of all JL -i 2-tooth Ram. sold to West Australian Buyer. Won FIRST PRIZE
01 wool ot all sneep rh.^-Wri shnw. W.A.. 1903.
shorn for 1903 :
old R Guild-ford Show, W.A., 1903.
Ibs.
27
20
ozs.
5
Highest ram
Highest ewe
All working rams 3> to 8^ years old 21 3^
All 2-tooth rams .. ... ... 20 3^
1st Fleece brought 9|d. to 10d., and 1st
lambs 8Jd., Adelaide, 1903. Wethers from
All 4-tooth rams
All grown sheep
All lambs ..
this flock have brought 40/ each
in the local sale yards in month
Ibs. ozs.
23 9^
14 2^
4 II
at auction
of May.
64
THE CENTRAL STATE.
PRIZE RAM "HECTOR."
Bred by and the property of the Trustees of the late Hon. Walter Duffield.
The Koonoona Stud Merinos.
The Koonoona stud Merino flock dates
back to the year 1863, when a selected
draft of the original Fisher ewes were
mated to a high-class ram from Mount
Crawford. From that date onwards the
Aiost careful attention has been paid to the
preservation and improvement of the stud
and flocks, and the aim has been to grow
a big mutton sheep carrying a heavy fleece
of bold combing wool. The estate com-
prises some 32,000 acres of freehold land,
besides some leasehold, and about 27,000
sheep and lambs are annually put through
the shed. The country is chiefly undulate
ing to high range, and the sheep are much
exposed in winter, feed making slow
growth during the wet months. The
^Koonoona sheep have met with consider-
able success in the Adelaide show ground,
and stud and flock rams meet with a ready
sale, and find their way to many parts of
Australia, and have also been purchased"
ior Tasmania. Owing to the rigid care
over the general flock sheep outside of the
-stud, the Koonoona surplus stock always
-excite keen competition in the markets.
and high prices are obtained. In evidence
of the profitableness of the flock, we (?)
have obtained permission to quote the fol-
lowing figures relating to the averages
clipped at the recent 1903 shearing : 20
first stud rams averaged 22 Ib. 8| oz.,
highest 26 Ib. ; 120 flock rams, 2J to 8|
years old, averaged over 19 lb v highest 29
Ib. ; 10 two-tooth stud rams averaged 20
Ib. 4 oz., highest 23| Ib. ; 50 two-tooth stud
rams averaged 17 Ib. ; 20 special two-tooth
stud ewes averaged 15 Ib. 8 oz., highest 18
Ib. ; 800 six-tooth wethers averaged 16 Ib.
3 oz. ; 18,784 grown sheep, of which over
12,000 were ewes, averaged 11 Ib. 3 oz. ;
6,984 lambs averaged 4 Ib. 4 oz. This
wool sold up to lOd. per Ib. at the Adelaide
sales. Koonoona is situated seven miles
south of _the Burra, and about 90 miles
north of Adelaide. It belongs to the
estate of the late Hon. Walter Duffield,
and Colonel Makin and Mr. D. Walter
Duffield are the trustees, and has been
under the management of Mr. W. G.
Hawkesf for many years.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
W. Gill photo.
A View of Keyneton Estate and Homestead.
THe Keyneton Merino Stud.
The Keyneton Merino flock, the pro-
perty of R. R.Keynes, of Keyneton, though
not large, is a choice one. It was estab-
lished sixty-one years ago by the late
Joseph Keynes, the foundation of the flock
being formed by the purchase of sheep
from early settlers, including the late John
Murray. In 1858 two rams were imported
from the flock of A. Steiges, Saxony. Sub-
sequently Murray rams were again intro-
duced. Since 1877 no rams but those bred
at Keyneton have been used. The Keyne-
ton Merinos are noted for their robust con-
stitutions, and do well in any State of the
Commonwealth, where they are well
known. Prizes for fleece have been won
at Adelaide, viz. : First prize 3 rams' fleeces
in 1885, International Exhibition, Phila-
delphia, bronze medal and certificate of
award, 1876, and Colonial and Indian Ex-
hibition with Commemorative Medal, 1886.
The latter fleeces were from sheep bred by
the present owner. Prizes for sheep have
also been taken at Angaston, 1858, and
Mount Pleasant and Kapund. Shows at
later dates.
THe Ulooloo Dorset Horn Stud,
Mr. John Melrose was the pioneer im-
porter of the Dorset Horn breed of sheep to
Australia, In 1895 he introduced eight
stud ewes and one stud ram from Dorset-
shire and one ram from Somersetshire.
The sheep were carefully selected in Eng-
land, and from the first they established
themselves as favorites in Australia. The
fleece much resembles the wool of high-
class crossbreds, being strong, bold, and
soft with good density across the back, and
coming well down the sides, arm, and thigh.
The Dorset has good carriage and great
activity, is set on goodr' legs, and has
sound feet. In carcase and shape it is
all that a butcher could wish for, having
66
THE CENTRAL STATE.
good depth of rib, finely turned buttocks,
deep through the heart, broad and straight
along the back, with full, prominent
briskets. The Dorset matures early, and a
cross with the Merino produces a type of
lamb suitable in every respect for the ex-
port trade. At the Roseworthy Agricul-
tural College a series of experiments have
been conducted with various crosses for
the production of an early-maturing lamb
of high quality and the Dorset Merino
cross has produced the best results. A pen
ol Dorset>Merino progeny took first prize
for fat lambs at the Royal Show held in
Adelaide last September. The Dorset
cross with the Merino is becoming popular
among lamb breeders, and they are draw-
ing upon the Ulooloo stud for suitable sires.
"SOMEiRSET,'' by GLOUCESTER, by PRESTON BOY.
Dorset Horn Ram, property of Mr. JOHX MELROSE, Ulooloo.
IMPORTED DORSET HORN EWES.
Bred by Mr. W. C. GROVES, Wilverton, Dorchester. Property of Mr. JOHN MELROSE, Ulooloo.
STUD RAM, "BATH BI&HTON." FIRST PRIZE and CHAMPION, 1897.
The property of RICHARD SMITH, Sweet Home, Strathalbyn.
"KINDARUAR ROYAL."
The property of RICHARD SMITH, Sweet Home, Strathalbyn.
68
THE CENTRAL, STATE.
The Sweet Home (Kindaruar) Shropshire Stud,
The Kindaruar stud flock of Shropshire
sheep was established in 1894. The estate,
which was situated near Lake Alexandrina,
was recently sold by Mr. Smith, and the
flock removed to his Sweet Home Estate
a beautiful property near Strath albyn.
The flock was founded by the purchase of
25 high-class pedigreed ewes from Mr.
Thomas Mason, of Tasmania. In 1896 a
further consignment of 10 high-class pedi-
greed ewes was received from England
from the flocks of Messrs. Peter Everall,
Ryton Grove, Shropshire ; Thomas Jones,
Cotwell, Shropshire ; and Richard Brom-
ley, Felton Butler, Shropshire. These
ewes were served by some of the best
rams in England. A special stud ram,
Bath Bishton (7,822), sire Bath Brick
(5,797), sire of dam Bishton Long Lad
(3,367), sire of g.dam Blue Patriot (2,400).
sire of g.g.dam Treble C. II. (1,7/6), bred
by Mr. J. Bowen Jones, of Shropshire, was-
brought out with these ewes. In 1897 30
pedigreed ewes were chosen from the flock
of Mr. R. Studley Steel, and in 1897 a
second importation was made from Eng-
land of six ewes and one ram, the best pro-
curable in England. The selection of the
English stock was entrusted to Mr. Preece,
of Shrewsbury, who is one of the most ex-
pert judges in England. The ram selected
was Corston Royal Victor, sire Corston
Victor (8,951), sire of dam Blink Bonny
(7,323), sire of g.dam Lord Patriot (4,267),
sire of g.g.dam Corston, True Blue (2,550).
Up to March, 1903, the following prizes-
fell to the Kindaruar Shropshires : Ade-
laide -One ten-guinea cup, 4 champions,
10 firsts, 9 seconds, 3 thirds, first prize for
three rams' fleeces, first prize for three-
ewes' fleeces. Country 1 ten-guinea cup,.
11 champions, 16 firsts, 20 seconds.
View at the Undoolya Cattle Station, Central Australia.
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
6 9
Mob of Cattle in Central Australia. The water is from an artesian well.
Cattle Raising.
Tasmania was the chief source of meat
supply for a few years after the proclama-
tion, but owing to heavy losses during
transit, importations were few and far
between. But for the splendid daring of
the "overlanders who pushed their way
over trackless mountains and unknown
forests, swam their flocks and herds across
the rivers, it would have taken many years
to build up the wool and meat industries.
As it was the flocks and herds multiplied
so rapidly that within seven years boiling
down works the common outlet of sur-
plus years were established. With the
advent of the meat export trade, boiling
down works have passed away, never to be
re-established. There are other and more
profitable outlets for surplus stock. It
was on April 3, 1838, that the first herd
of cattle and horses arrived in Adelaide
overland from Sydney. It comprised 335
head, and was in charge of the owner, Mr.
Joseph Hawdon, who, during the journey
of ten weeks, lost only four bullocks. To
celebrate this important event 90 gentle-
men sat down to a public dinner, and an
ox chosen from the herd was roasted
whole. A snuffbox was presented to Mr.
Hawdon in the name of the people of
South Australia, and the recipient, in re-
turning thanks, announced his intention
of settling in Adelaide "with all the force
he could gather." Of the arrival of
Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney Mr.
Anstey, an old colonist, has written :
"Never can I forget the impression made
on my mind by the arrival in Adelaide of
Messrs. Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bon-
ney, successfully conducting from New
South Wales the first overland herd of
cattle and horses from the Sydney side.
Their arrival was unexpected by us. In
those early days of the colony there were
no intercolonial posts save at long inter-
vals, and it was the natural desire of the
first overland parties organised for Ade-
laide to keep their journeys with their
herds of cattle and flocks of sheep as secret
as possible from the public. The news of
their arrival spread like wildfire." Mr.
Eyre, who subsequently won renown for
his exploring exploits, was the second
overlander with cattle, and Capt. Sturt
war in charge of the third party. From
THE CENTRAL STATE-
that time onwards cattle raising became
a profitable industry, and the herds gradu-
ally increased, as may be gathered from
the following :
Number of
^ ear - Cattle
1838 2,500
1840 15,000
1850 60,000
1860 278,000
1870 136,000
1880 307,000
1890 359,000
1900 214,000
1902 225,256
The highest point reached was in 1893,
when it was estimated there were 423,000
cattle in the country. The fifties wit-
nessed a marvellous expansion of the
cattle stations, but progress was checked
when the pastoralist, forced to make room
for the pioneer, had to carry on his
operations in less favored localities.
Cattle raising on an extensive scale is now
restricted to what is termed "outside
country" ohat is, the saltbush plains of
Central Australia and the Northern
Territory, where there are extensive runs.
There is a vast tract of splendid cattle
country in the north of South Australia,
only the fringe of which is occupied.
Difficulties of transit have hitherto pre-
vented the development of this territory,
but with the improvement of stock routes,
ranchmen should be attracted to the possi-
bilities of establishing themselves in
localities where the rent is low, and where
climate and natural advantages are
eminently suited to cattle raising. Mr.
David Lindsay, the explorer, states :
"Oodnadatta to Charlotte Waters is in
the driest belt in Australia, the average
rainfall being about six inches ; yet much
of it will stand light stocking, and as it is
within the artesian water area the precious
fluid can be obtained by boring. In-
cluding the wonderful nest of springs
known as Dalhousie, it should carry (say)
30,000 cattle, besides being an ideal
country for the Angora goat. Proceed-
ing northwards the rainfall gradually
increases, and we find belts of fair to good
pastoral country, with some natural waters
and water can be had by sinking whilst
there are many places suitable for con-
serving water. This should depasture at
least 15,000 cattle. The MacDomiell
Ranges, extending east and west of the
proposed railway, present a large area of
excellent pastoral country, good for sheep
or cattle ; and magnificent for horses,
perhaps unequalled for breeding a hardy
type of. horse suitable for military pur-
poses. The climate is beautiful. This
tract of country should carry (say) 150,000
head of great cattle. The mineral belt
the development of which awaits the ad-
vent of the railway is, I feel sure, an ex-
tensive one of great promise. The dis-
trict known as ^rltunga is already proved
to contain payable gold mines; but liow
can this field be exploited when for over
400 miles the supplies and machinery have
to be carried on camels or wagons? Still
on northwards, the rainfall increasing at
every stage, we pass through pastoral
country, capable of carrying (say) 30,000
cattle, to Tennant Creek, which is on the
edge of another belt of auriferous country,
in which prospectors have found quartz
reef carrying gold in sufficient quantities
to be payable with rail communication.
Just east of Powell Creek we find the edge
of a magnificent pastoral country stretch-
ing away to the Queensland border, having
many natural waters, and promising to
have abundant supplies underground.
This belt of country should carry (say)
900,000 great cattle. Then away to the
westward, right over to the border of
Western Australia, is a large tract of
magnificent pasture land fit for sheep or
cattle, with I believe, another belt of
auriferous country. This extensive region,
which would be served by the railway, is
capable of carrying (say) 300,000 great
cattle. Newcastle Waters is on the edge
of another large area of good pastoral
country. At this station at present
there are 7,000 fat cattle, but no means of
getting them 'to any market. The whole
of the country to the coast would carry
stock (say) 200,000 cattle. From the
break of the tableland to the coast, a strip
of country containing about 100,000
square miles, is not only capable of carry-
ing some stock, but is rich in all the
minerals, and the soil and climate are ad-
mirably adapted for the growth of all pro-
ducts indigenous to those latitudes. Mr.
Ernest Favenc, a recognised authority on
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
7 1
Central Australia, states that back from
the Powell Telegraph btation to the head
of the Nicholson River he found "a large
quantity of valuable cattle land country,
well and permanently watered.
The country on the southern slope is of a
nature known all over Australia as being
of the best description for sheep. The
country drained by the coast rivers is of a
different character better watered, not
so well grassed, and only adapted for
cattle, with the exception of the ISuac-
arthur and the head of the river I called
the Parsons. The territory possessed by
South Australia, viz., from the sixteenth
to nineteenth parallels of latitude, is of a
description calculated to invite settle-
ment. The rivers, though rough and not
exactly trafficable, are full of large, doep,
and permanent lagoons. The country is
not suited for sheep, although in these
epinifex ridges there is any amount of her-
bage and vines, which are very fattening
for the cattle. In fact, during my various
trips across the Territory I have always
found that, in even what is known as the
worst spinifex uesert, there are vines and
grasses that horses are always eager for,
and do well on. With regard to the
spinifex country, I should like to bring
under your notice tne fact that many
people are now recognising the value of
these hitherto abused tracts. The
spinifex itself is valueless, but the country
on which it grows is often rich in different
kinds of herbage and vines that alone rerve
to fatten."
Considerable attention has also been
devoted by several breeders to the produc-
tion of high-class Ayrshires and Jerseys
whilst splendid specimens of the noted
milkers, Holstein-Freisans, have been im-
ported.
A View at Mount Crawford, the property of Mr. A. J. Murray.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
C
f
s
-ii
a.
I
THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY.
73
Champion Jersey Cow, "Maitland Charlotte." The property of Alick. J. Murray,
V. J. Dailey photo. Mt. Crawford.
Mr. Alick. J. Murray, of Mt. Crawford,
owns one of the choicest herds of Jersey
cattle in Australia. The great "utility"
cow took his fancy some years ago, and the
more he studied the records of the island
butter-producers the more strongly was he
persuaded that they fulfilled all the condi-
tions required by dairymen with whom
the production of butter was the first con-
sideration. He laid the foundation of his
herd by careful purchases made in Vic-
toria from high-class imported stock. He
was fortunate in obtaining possession of
Progress III., a very superior imported
bull, and this animal stamped his high
qualities on the Mt. Crawford herds.
Mr. Murray also bought several imported
cows from the late Mr. Woodmrcm, of
Victoria, and at a later date a L ull ai .c!
two heifers, imported by the Rev. Ralph
Brown, were added to the Mt. Crawford
herd. The most important purchases
were made on Mr. Murray's behalf in the
Island of Jersey. These comprised two
bulls and a heifer, Maitland Charlotte,
and the latter's qualities may be gathered
from the fine illustration given of her
above.
Messrs. Fowler and De La Perrelle, of
England, recognised authorities on Jersey
cows, spent some time among the best
breeders and farmers of Jersey Island
making these purchases for Mr. Murray.
They wrote to him: "We are really
proud of our selection, for we do not con-
sider that there has been a better lot sent
out to Australia. The older bull is by
far the richest that has passed through our
hands. We cannot say too much of Uie
younger bull. He is really an almost per-
fect animal. The heifer is really a
picture, and should be an easy prize
winner." This high estimation of the
animals has since been abundantly con-
firmed at the Royal Shows in Australia,
where they have occupied the front rank.
The Mt. Crawford Jersays have practically
swept the boards at the Royal Shows in
Adelaide, and are largely sought after by
the stud breeds and dairymen throughout
Australia, All the Mt. Crawford Jerseys
are descended from cattle in the Island
Herd Book. The cow, Maitland Char-
lotte, yielded 17 Ib. 5 oz. of butter in one
week 8i months after calving when grazing
in the paddocks on natural grasses.
74
THE CENTRA!. STATE.
Rugia Niblett llth. Lord Waterloo 6th. Rose of Connaught 16th.
Champion Shorthorn Cattle, Melbourne, 1898. Bred by and the property of
S. G. Spink photo. /. H. Angas.
Mr. J. H. Angas has been a breeder
of high-class cattle for over sixty
years. He founded his now celebrated
stud of Shorthorn cattle by purchas-
ing twenty picked heifers and an im-
ported bull of the Bates breed, and
experts are of opinion that the Angas
stud is the only one in Australia that has
retained the true Bates type. These
animals were acquired from the South
Australian Company, but as the years
went on Mr. Angas introduced new blocd
from England, including a ^shipment of
21 head in 1879. No expense was spared
in securing the highest class animals, and
the Angaa stud of Shorthorn cattle are
famed throughout Australia. English
experts have declared that Mr. Angas has
produced a type superior in many respects
to the stock from which they sprang, and
efforts were made at one time to ship
specimens to England for competition at
the leading shows. Quarantine regula-
tions proved an insurmountable barrier.
Mr. Angas, however, sends a fine string of
Shorthorns to Sydney and Melbourne,
where on many occasions he has practically
carried everything before him. In South
Australia his cattle are unapproached by
any other stud. The Shorthorn stud,
numbering about 400 head, is kept at Point
Sturt, on Lake Alexandrina, near Milang.
The property is entirely devoted to the
purpose. The stock have great wealth of
flesh, aaid fatten to very heavy weights,
cows frequently dressing over 1,200 Ib. A
ready market is obtained for the young
bulls, which are generally cleared before
they are two years old to breeders in all the
Australian States and New Zealand. Sires
from the Angas stud have been used in all
the principal studs of Shorthorns in Vic-
toria and New South Wales, and as much
as 500 guineas has been obtained recently
for a young bull under one year old to New
Zealand. Mr. Angas established his now
famous Hereford herd in 1869 by import-
ing high-class animals from England. This
splendid beef-producing breed is in high
favor in Australia, and the Angas represen-
tatives find their way to all parts of the
Commonwealth.
TKe Lamb Export Trade.
It was Charles Dickens who once re-
marked, at an agricultural dinner, that
"the field which paid the farmer best to
cultivate was tne one within the ring
fence of his own skull." That statement
contains a more important truth to-day
than it did in the time of the great
novelist. Science is conspicuously aiding
the tiller of the soil who places himself
in a position to be assisted. Improved
ocean transit has brought the producer in
Australia and the consumer in the centres
of population in Europe closer together,
and the refrigerating chamber is opening
up almost unlimited opportunities for the
expansion of trade. The remarkable suc-
cess which attended the experiments made
in New Zealand in the shipment to Eng-
land of frozen meats compelled Australian
breeders to look askance at the "boiling
down" works which were employed for the
purpose of dealing with surplus stock in
times of plenty, and relieving the pressure
when droughts came. With a threatened
scarcity of feed and water before them,
pastoralists were sometimes forced to
sacrifice their stock in a flooded market.
Sheep us'ed to be killed for the sake of
the skins and the carcases either left to
rot on the ground or sold for a few pence
per head to the owner of the nearest boil-
ing down works and turned into tallow.
The advent of the freezing process and the
refrigerating chamber in the ocean steamer
altered all this, and the day of the "boil-
ing down" works passed away never to re-
turn. The results obtained in the land of
the Maori suggested to enterprising
breeders in South Australia the need of in-
troducing types of English mutton breeds
of sheep. These were wanted for the pur-
pose of crossing with the hardy Australian
Merino, which had hitherto been raised
chiefly from a wool point of view. Breed-
ing lambs for export followed closely on
the importation of the Shropshire, Dorset
Horn, and the Down breeds. In this con-
nection the Chief Justice of the State, Sir
S. J. Way, and the manager of his Kad-
lunga Estate, Mr. F. H. Weston, are en-
titled to the gratitude of stock owners and
the community generally, for they
were the pioneers in the introduction
of the mutton types which made
lamb-breeding possible. One of the
most gratifying features in connection
with this industry was that from the outset
farmers rather than pastoralists went into
the business. This led to the multiplica-
tion of farmers' flocks, and the innovation
has had a marked effect, not only on the
agricultural industry, but upon the wool
trade. The introduction of sheep to the
farm was the means of directly increasing
the producers' resources of revenue on the
one hand whilst improving his methods 01
cultivation to his general advantage. The
wool trade benefited to a considerable de-
gree ; the steady increase in the number
of sheep within hundreds largely com-
pensating for decimation caused in the
flocks of pastoralists in the outside country.
During recent years there has been an
increase of 10,000 in the flocks in the
Central Division of the State, and 122,000
in the South-Eastern, and this at a time of
general decline elsewhere owing to the
drought ! The number of sheep within
hundreds is the largest for six years, not-
withstanding the increasing number of
carcases sent away. The local wool sale*
are largely assisted by the small lots of
wool sent in by farmers who keep sheep
mainly for the purpose of breeding lambs
for the export trade.
Early in the nineties attention was
directed to the advantages which would be
likely to follow the erection of freezing
works. Leading pastoralists were scepti-
cal. They gave three main reasons for
not joining forces in order to follow the
example set by New Zealand. First, that
ai continuity of the supply was uncertain
under conditions then existing. It waa
pointed out that local consumption took
all the sheep that were in any degree suit-
able for export, and "surplus" supplies
would have to be irnported. The
second objection was that the right kind of
animal required for freezing was not bred ;
7 6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
and thirdly, that the bulk of the country
was not adapted for the carrying of the
large-sized mutton breeds. All three
objections have been removed. There is
a "continuity of supply" from sources un-
dreamt of ten years ago. The "right
kind'' of sheep are now bred in various
parts of the State, and a large portion of
our country has been proved to bs
eminently suited for the raising of animals
that meet with ready approval in England.
It was at one time asserted that sheep for
export must be "artificially fed." That
theory has been completely exploded,
thanks to the wonderful fattening qualities
of the pasture grasses of the State. The
grass-fed lambs of South Australia mature
earlier than do those grown in any other
part of the Commonwealth. In every
respect the South Australian article is
qual to the best that are shipped from
any other State.
The first practical attempt made in
South Australia to establish freezing
works was in 1894. It was my privilege
to become possessed of information con-
cerning what had been done in New
Zealand. Valuable facts were tabulated
and brought under the notice of
sheep owners, merchants, and capitalists.
Whilst without exception they were
impressed with the wonderful results
which had been obtained in New
Zealand, the objections already stated were
put forward as reasons why South Aus-
tralia could not hope to make a success of
the business. Eventually I was invited
by several gentlemen, who began to realise
that something had to be done, to draw
up a prospectus for a company. Because
cf its historical interest in connection with
the frozen meat trade, in view of the
developments which have taken place, a
c'Ummary of the document which repre-
sents the first practical effort to introduce .
what is now an important industry is
given in response to requests that
it should be placed on record. The
company was to be called the "South
Australian Freezing Co., Ltd.," and
the capital was fixed at ,10,000. The
"objects" set out were: "1. To establish
a butter factory and produce stores in or
near Adelaide. 2. To establish freezing
works and cold stores at Port Adelaide.
3. To receive and forward to Australian,
British, and foreign markets butter, bacon,
pork, beef, mutton, poultry, rabbits, eggs,
cheese, wine, fruit, and other farm, dairy,
and garden produce, frozen or otherwise.
4. To arrange for the sale and distribution
of produce in London and other populous
centres. 5. To provide local outlets for
produce of all kinds and in any quantity.
6. To improve the quality of produce and
the methods of placing it before consumers.
7. To assist farmers and others to start
creameries, &c. 8. To minimise the pre-
sent high charges to which producers are
subjected. 9. To bring producer and con-
sumer into closer business relations. 10.
To act as salesmen and forwarding and
commission agents." It was further
stated : "It is proposed that the freezing
works and cold stores at Port Adelaide
shall be placed afloat, and so obviate the
heavy lighterage and other incidental
charges now paid by producers. The pro-
visional directors are in possession 01
special advice as to the construction of
these floating freezing works and cold
stores, and believe that some of the latest
and best machinery is immediately avail-
able." The prospectus alsosiid: "The
successful development of the colonial pro-
duce trade in the future depends upon the
ability of producers to compete against
keen and well favored rivals in quality and
price. The company will seek to make
available for producers and shippers the
most approved means for enabling them to
participate, on a remunerative basis, in
this trade to an ever-increasing extent."
In the light of experience there are por-
tions of the foregoing which would now
be modified, but it represented at the time
the best scheme that could be devised on
the basis of the information then available.
The apathy of stockowners, the indiffer-
ence of merchants, and the timidity of
capitalists proved obstacles too great to be
overcome. The promoters were in earnest,
and some progress was made, but the com-
pany was never formed. A year or two
elapsed, and during that period the de-
mand for some establishment for dealing
with perishable produce on its way from
the farm to the refrigerating chambers of
the ocean steamer became more and more
apparent. An attempt on the part of the
Hon. George Riddoch to promote private
THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE.
77
flftfPj
I m
i -vim
a
I
<3
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: t
^B
i
THE CENTRAL, STATE.
freezing works in the South-East met with
no better success than did the efforts which
had been put forward in the city. With
private enterprise holding back exhibit-
ing indeed considerable scepticism and
producers demanding better facilities, the
State stepped in and the Government
Freezing Works were erected at Port Ade-
laide. These were opened in 1895, and
they have been of immense advantage to
producers and merchants. But for the
establishment of these works the industry,
which is now on a profitable basis, would
not have been started for several years
later.
At first the State Freezing Depot at
Port Adelaide consisted of four insulated
chambers for butter and a 6-ton "ice-
making" J. & E. Hall's refrigerating
machine. The building has a wharf
frontage capable of berthing the largest
steamer, and is situated at the end of
Ocean Steamers' Wharf, Port Adelaide.
The advantage of having such a wharf
frontage, where frozen produce is shipped
for export, is most apparent, and the con-
dition in which cargoes of frozen meat are
put on board ship is unequalled in Aus-
tralia. In 1896 additional accommoda-
tion was provided, and a 12-ton Hall's re-
frigerating machine was installed. In
December of 1897 Mr. R. W. Skev-
ington took over the management. Early
in 1898 still further additions were
made, and the small 6-ton machine
was replaced by an 18 tons Hall refrigerat-
ing machine. As will be gathered from
the foregoing, the business was increasing,
and a new slaughter-house, containing 18
butchers' tackles, was erected on the pre-
mises. In 1899, finding that freezing and
storage accommodation were too small, fur-
ther additions were made, giving a
maximum freezing capacity of 1,500 car-
cases per day, and the storage room for
20,000 carcases. The business done by the
department in 1899 showed the possibili-
ties and advantages to this State of the
lamb export trade. The local firms in-
terested waited on the Government and
successfully pointed out the importance of
the Government still making large in-
creased freezing and storage accommoda-
tion, and the following year a "LindeV
refrigerating machine was installed, bring-
ing our capacity up to freezing 2,500 car-
cases per day, and storing upwards of
85,000 carcases.
The slaughter-house was removed from
the Port works to Dry Creek, and the
situation selected is near to the railway-
station and on the great Northern track
route. The slaughter-house was built for
the treatment of sheep and lambs, and is.
one of the best of its kind in Australia.
It has tackles for 43 butchers, and with
first>class tradesmen 4,300 lambs can be
put through daily. After being
slaughtered and dressed every lamb is-
weighed separately, and is then removed to
the cooling room at the rear of the
slaughter-house, where the carcases are
hung oil rails according to their grade
marks. The distance between the slaughter-
house and the Port Depot is about five
miles per rail, and the carcases are carried
in specially constructed louvred meat vans.
The removal of the slaughter-house from
the Port works could not be avoided, as
there was no suitable land available ajoin-
ing the works.
This is the third season the department
has killed at Dry Creek during all weather,
and not one single carcase has shown de-
terioration in transit from the slaughter-
house to the freezing works. Besides
the handling of lambs and sheep for
export from the homestead to the
London market, including the receiving,
slaughtering, freezing, shipping, and selling:
in London and disposal of skins and fat on
behalf of clients, the department handles
wine, butter, fruit, rabbits, and other
perishable products, finding markets in
England when persons so desire. The
department claim that the plant
and facilities for shipping at Port Ade-
laide are equal to anything in the States,
and at Dry Creek the best provisions
are made for drafting and slaughtering,
and the utilization of all by-products for
making tallow fertilizing manures.
In 1900, Mr. G. A. MacDonald, of Syd-
ney, at a cost of 3,000, erected a freezing
establishment in Adelaide, known as
the Adelaide Ice and Cold Storage
Company. The refrigeration is sup-
plied by a 70-ton Hercules machine,
of which Mr. MacDonald is the
patentee. The Hercules has an excellent
THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE.
79
8o
THE CENTRAL STATE.
reputation, and the majority of the New
Zealand freezing works are fitted up with
similar machines, which are recognised as
being the most up-to-date obtainable. In
the eastern section are situated the boilers,
engines, machinery, and ice-making plant.
In the western section are the freezing
chambers and stores, of a total capacity of
150,000 cubic feet. The intake during
the present season is so great that it has
been found necessary to make shipments
at intervals of about 10 days in order to
meet the increasing demands for refrigerat-
ing space. The lambs on arrival are re-
moved to the top floor of the buildings by
means of an electric conveyor at
the rate of 800 per hour. They are then
placed in the freezing chambers, bagged,
and lowered to the store rooms below
ready for shipment, from whence, when re-
quired, they are loaded out into vans at
the rate of 1,500 per hour. Everything
on the establishment is done with a mini-
mum of handling, and exporters can
readily see for themselves that on these
works their produce is treated in the most
up-to-date fashion. The fact that the pre-
sent manager (Mr. H. Newman Reid) has
practically spent his life in the study of
refrigeration and cold storage, should in-
spire confidence in those doing business
with this firm that their produce will have
the scientific attention and care so neces-
sary to the successful handling of perish-
able products. In addition to the actual
freezing accommodation mentioned above,
one of the lower stores is divided into 42
private compartments, which are let at a
weekly rental to butchers, produce mer-
chants, and others, who have liberty of
access to them day and night. In
connection with the freezing works there
is an ice tank with a capacity of 21
tons of ice per 24 hours. The ice is manu-
factured from distilled water. A fish
auction mart has also been established,
and this has proved a great boon to
citizens. A large trade is also done in
freezing poultry for export and packing
eggs in cold storage for shipment.
With these facilities existing and the in-
terest shown in the trade by merchants
who buy direct from breeders and take the
risk of shipping, the export lamb trade has
been firmly established. The growth 01
the industry is shown in the following re-
cords of shipments of frozen lamb and
mutton :
Year. Ib
1898 963,763 13,602
1899 2,586,726 36,289
1900 4,267,664 65,085
1901 3,326,085 58,477
1902 4,859,937 80,927
1903 (estd.) 6,000,000 110,000
It is expected that during the present
season the export period lasts from, say,
August 1 to March 1 about 150,000 car-
cases will be sent away. The profitable
nature of the business to the grower may
be gathered from the fact that lambs are
marketable when they are about 16 weeks
old. At the present time well-bred lambs
are worth 16/ a head in the Adelaide
market. Instead of being uncertain as
was the case a few years ago, as to what
his animals would fetch up to a maximum
of 7/ each, the breeder now knows that
he" has a sure outlet for well-grown lambs
at several shillings per head advance on
that as a minimum. To the original
objection that breeders would not be able
to provide sufficient drafts of stock to war-
rant the erection of freezing works, the
actual experience is that the guaran-
teed demand has created a steadily
increasing supply. It is this fact which
effectually silences those who at intervals
complain that the exportation of lambs
makes "dear mutton" for the local con-
sumer and delays the restocking of idle
country. If it were not for the regular
outlet at a payable price the lambs would
not be produced. Besides, crossbred ewe
lambs now exported would not be suitable
for breeding purposes if retained.
A favorite cross with farmers for the
production of- an early maturing lamb is
the Shropshire-Merino. A typical lamb
most favored by exporters is one weighing
about 35 to 38 Ib., and about four months
old. The Tasmanian Shropshire Flock
Book has prepared the following "points
of excellence" in a typical animal : -Con-
sutution and quality 25, indicated by the
form of body ; deep and large in breast,
and through the heart ; back wide,
straight, and well covered with lean meat
or muscle; wide and full in the thigh, deep
in flank, skin thick but soft, and of a pink
color ; prominent brilliant eyes and
THE LAMB EXPORT TRADE.
8r
THE CENTRAL STATE.
healthful countenance. Size, 10; in fair
condition ; when fully matured, rams not
less than 225 lb., ewes not less than 175 Ib.
General appearance and character, 10 ;
good carriage ; head well up ; elastic move-
ment; showing great symmetry of form
and uniformity of character throughout.
Body, 15; well proportioned; medium
bones ; great scale and length ; well
finished hind quarters; thick back and
loins ; twist deep and full ; standing with
legs well placed outside ; breast wide, and
extending well forward. Head, 10 ; short
and broad ; wide between the ears, and be-
tween the eyes ; short from top of head to
tip of nose ; ears short, of medium size ;
eyes expressive ; head should be well
covered with wool to a point even with the
eyes, without any appearance of horns ;
color of face, dark brown or soft black.
Neck, 5 ; medium length ; good bone and
muscular development, and especially with
the rams; heavier towards the shoulders;
well set up and rising from that point to
the back of the head. Legs and feet, 10 ;
broad, short, straight ; well set apart ;
well shaped ; color, dark brown, and well
woolled to the knees. Fleece, 10 ; body,
head, belly, and legs to knees well covered
with fleece of even length and quality ;
scrotum of rams well covered with wool.
Quality of wool, 5 ; medium ; such as is
known in American markets as "medium
delaine," and half combing wool ; strong,
fine, lustrous fibre, without tendency to
mat or felt together; and at one year's
growth, not less than 3| inches in length.
Total, 100.
Producers have tasted the sweets of a
profitable branch of the export produce
trade, and it is not likely that further
opportunities of promoting it will be
neglected. Certainly the same undercur-
rent of apathy and in some quarters active
opposition which characterised the early
days of the lamb trade are not likely to
recur when new departures are suggested.
Brains more than anything else are re-
quired in the development of the natural
industries of Australia. The resources
exist. In order to tap them a.nd turn on
a stream of prosperity into private and na-
tional channels, the primary producer and
those who fill the gap between him and
the consumer in the old world, must work
intelligently and exhibit enterprise.
Knowledge is power. It is also profit
when properly directed in the by-ways of
commerce. As a by-product of the farm
lambs for export are proving highly re-
munerative, and the future of this steadily
expanded industry is assured. -
A Scene at the Mount Gason Artesian Bore.
The Agricultural Industry.
For many years South Australia was
known as the granary of Australia. That
title was legitimately earned, this State
having been the first of the Australian
group to export breadstuffs on a large
scale. At the outset the pioneers hung
about the city fearing to break away from
the companionship of shipmates doubtful
if the land available would repay cultiva-
tion. For some time a wrong impression
prevailed concerning the quality of the soil
on the Adelaide plains. Even Captain
Sturt was misled by the parched appear-
ance of the country. When delivering a lec-
ture to the settlers in 1838, he remarked :
"If you attempt to cultivate the land
around Adelaide you will be grievously
disappointed. You must not expect to
get crops of grain or fruit on this side of
the ranges." Within three years of the
delivery of that address sections on all sides
of the city were yielding 30 and 40 bushels
of wheat to the acre ! Breadstuffs were
imported from Tasmania, and at one time
Division.
Central ...
Lower North
Upper North
South-Eastern
Western
Total ... 2,573,904 2,649,098
1881.
1891.
931,783
894,593
822,615
967,627
699,391
665,479
90,313
73,085
29,802
48,314
flour was sold up to <100 per ton in
Adelaide. Cereal growing was a pro-
nounced success from the start, and in this
branch, of industry progress continued by
leaps and bounds for many years. The
population, exclusive of Northern Terri-
tory, shipping, and aborigines, in 1891 was
310,426, and at the census of 1901 had in-
creased to 354,001, an addition of 43,575
persons, or 14 per cent. During the same
period the area under cultivation had in-
creased from 2,649,098 acres to 3,279,406
acres, an addition of 630,308 acres, or 24
per cent., as compared with an increase of
3 per cent, during the preceding decade,
1882-91. There were 9.0 acres of tilled
ground per head of the population, as com-
parted with 8.4 acres at the date of the
census of 1891. The following table shows
the area under cultivation in each division
in South Australia at the date of the cen-
sus of 1881, 1891, and 1901 respectively,
and the increase or decrease, respec-
tively :
INCREASE OR DECREASE
1901. 1891 on 1881. 1901 on 1891.
1,152,340 - 37,190 +257,747
980,536 +145,012 + 12,909
841,036 - 33,912 +175,557
97,784 - 17,228 + 24,699
207,710 + 18,512 +159,396
3,279,406
+ 75,194 +630,308
The following statements shows the area of the State, also of the several divisions
referred to, of the land wholly or conditionally alienated, of Crown leases, and of
the total occupied :
OCCUPIED.
' 1. Central Division
II. Lower North
III. Upper North
IV. South-Eastern
V. Western
Total Counties
Remainder of State
AREA.
Alienated.
Crown Leases.
Total.
Sq. Miles.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
13,891
8,890,240
3,203,909
3,397,138
6,601,047
12,401
7,936,640
2,453,036
3,902,799
6,355,83
1 4,065
9,001,600
905,806
7,414,709
8.320,515
15,585
9,974,400
1,348,252
4,146,428
5,494,680
24,511
15.687,040
176,773
6,049,756
6,226,529
80453 51,489,920 8,087,776 24,910,830 32,998,606
299,617 191.754,880 1,121 60,666,325 60,667,446
Total South Australia 380,070 243,244,800 8,088,897 85,577, V55 93,666,052
Northern Territory ... 523,620 335,116,800 473,278 112,654, >88 113,127,566
Grand total 903,690 578,361,600 8,562,175 198,231,443 206,793,61g
8 4
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Building a Stack of Wheat at a Shipping Port.
South Australia, exclusive of the Nor-
thern Territory, has an area of 380,070
square miles, or 243,244,800 acres, of which
03,666,052 acres are in occupation,
?3,088,897 acres have been alienated, and
85,577,155 acres are held under lease from
the Crown, the remaining 149,578,748
acres being open for settlement. Forty-
*ix counties have been proclaimed, includ-
ing the more closely-settled portions, re-
presenting 80,453 square miles, or
51,489,920 acres. Of the total area
8,087,776 acres have been wholly or condi-
tionally alienated, of which 553,773 acres
are held by 1,404 selectors on the deferred
payment system. Of the remainder, more
than half, 24,910,830 acres, is held under
direct lease from the Crown for agricul-
tural or grazing purposes, or both com-
bined. "Showing the extension of the
leasing system for purposes of farming and
grazing," says the Government Statist,
"instead of the State parting with the free-
hold, it will be noted that 20,485 leases
have been granted, of which the area un-
der 8,429 right of purchase leases is
5,580,676 acres, under 5,168 perpetual
leases 7,143,283 acres, and under 3,695 mis-
cellaneous leases 3,904,960, together
16,677,175 acres, inclusive of 3,913 home-
stead blocks and leases, having an area of
48,256 acres. The area occupied for pas-
toral purposes only is 68,915,840 acres, un-
der 536 leases. The Renmark Irrigation
Colony, together with the village settle-
ments on the River Murray, cover 76,900
acres. The proportion of land occupied
under Crown leases for settlement is
nearly three to one held under freehold.
The receipts from the sale of Crown lands,
which in times past formed, a considerable
portion (for many years one-fourth) of the
general revenue, only average 40,725 per
annum, mainly completions of purchase of
land held on the deferred payment system.
The receipts from Crown lands form 7 per
cent, of the total fevenue in South Aus-
tralia, 15 per cent, in Queensland, and 21
per cent, in New South Wales.
Beyond the limits of agricultural settle-
ment 107,681 square miles, or 77,794,560
acres, are held by 536 Crown lessees as sheep
or cattle runs. The rental accruing in 1902
was 35,747, as against 37,068 the year
before. When the system of credit selec-
tion was introduced in 1870, the sale by
auction of land in fee simple was practi-
cally suspended. A further radical
change was effected by the Crown Lands
Act of 1888, which in its turn abolished
credit selections on deferred payments, and
substituted in lieu thereof a system of leas-
ing. Agricultural lands were subsequently
leased on a right of purchase system, or, as
an alternative, perpetual leases. Parliament
has recently passed legislation abolish-
ing right of purchase, and substituting a
covenant to purchase by means of sixty
THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY.
Hay-Making A Heavy Crop.
half-yearly instalments. Land legislation
is now on a liberal basis, and the Crown is
a good landlord. Small blocks in certain
localities, chiefly near centres of popular
tion, are also open for leasing by working
men in lots not exceeding twenty acres,
and upon similar tenure. In these cases
personal residence of the lessee or a mem-
ber of his family is required. Leases
with right of purchase, which is exercisable
after six years' tenure, are allotted for a
term of twenty-one years, with right of re-
newal for a further like period. Land un-
der perpetual leases will be re-valued by
the land boards every fourteen years. The
lands are classified and the rents and prices
Year.
1884-5 ..
1889-90 ..
1890-1 ..
1891-2 ..
1892-3 ..
1896-7 ..
1897-8 ..
1898-9 ..
1899-1900
1900-1 ..
1901-2
determined by these boards, but the right
of purchase may not be exercised at a less
price than 5/ per acre.
The system of leasing Crown lands at
one time in favor has now been abandoned
in favor of a plan whereby the tenant may
obtain the freehold. Taking the freeholds
and G-overnment leaseholds jointly, the
average area occupied by each individual
of the population is about seventy acres.
This is exclusive of pastoral lands. In
1844, 2,687 acres were under cultivation,
1860, 428,816 acres; and 1880, 2,574,000
acres. The following shows the extent of
land in occupation, cultivated and unculti-
vated :
Land
Extent of Land
Land
Land under
Land Enclosed
Alienated.
held by
Freeholders.
Enclosed.
Cultivation.
but not
Cultivated.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres.
Acres
Acres.
10,335,572
5,893,632
53,444,411
2,785,490
50,658,921
9,094,918
5,662,741
59,972,020
2,864,887
57,107,143
8,532,823
5,562,542
61,365,069
2,649,098
58,715,971
8,593,894
5,770,040
64,680,362
2,533,291
62,147,071
8,637,947
5,732,615
64,174,971
2,625,741
61,549,230
8,670,530
5,764,054
2,584,395
8,034,803
6,087,495
2,604,122
8,055,069
6,413,267
2,967,370
8,056,890
6,619,684
3,081,8415
8,073,814
6,086,462
-
3,279,406
8,088,897
6,375,820
;U*^
3,122,800
a
"a
THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY.
With reference to the column headed
"land alienated," it should be explained
that the figures previously to 1897 included
lands granted for educational endowment,
dedicated for forest reserves, &c., but now
leased. The "cultivated area" the true
test of agricultural progress is steadily
expanding, and as large estates in favored
localities are being purchased by the Go-
vernment or private persons and cut up
into small holdings suitable for farmers,
the area under cultivation will continue to
increase. There is room for considerable
development, more particularly in the
South-Eastern portions of this State, re-
garded by competent authorities as "the
New Zealand of Australia." "One of the
lessons, taught by the late drought," says
the Government Statist, "has been to im-
press upon farmers that, even in dry sea-
sons, careful husbandry and the adoption
of modern systems will ensure returns for
their labor otherwise unobtainable.
Utilising sheep in the stubbles and on the
fallows, thereby clearing the land of wild
oats and noxious weeds, is very general, as
also is early sowing with the aid of the
drill, depositing such chemical manures as
are required by the soil to produce good
and clean crops of superior grain. Ground
so husbanded has yielded more than
double the return in frequent instances,
both of wheat and hay, and conduces to the
fuller development of the staple products
of the country, and consequently to the
additional value of real estate. Not many
years ago the use of artificial manures was,
except to a few, unknown on farms; at
present about 1,000,000 acres, or one-half
of the entire crop, is so treated."
From 20 acres sown in 1838 the culti-
vated area was gradually extended until
15,000 acres were put under wheat in 1842.
For the first time South Australia was able
to produce sufficient grain to provide for
home consumption and begin an export
trade in breadstuffs, which was destined
to grow into a profitable industry. Coun-
tries which had hitherto supplied flour at
100 per ton were now able to purchase
the South Australian article at a tenth of
that price. From that time onwards
breadstuffs were exported, and by degrees
valuable business connections were
established with other States, South Africa,
Java, China, and Eastern ports generally.
The steadily growing demand from these
customers and the distance have prevented
large exportations of flour to the
United Kingdom. Consignments have
been made from time to time, and the
highest praise has been bestowed upon the
quality of the South Australian article,
Results, however, have seldom been so pro-
fitable as to encourage the miller to repeat
the experiment. From a few tons in the
early forties exports grew until in 1884
the highest point was reached, when bread-
stuffs to the value of 2,500,000 were
shipped away. An initial error made by
the pioneer agriculturist was an attempt
to transplant English methods of fanning.
Original blocks of 80 acres were surveyed,
but it was not long before these "garden
plots" were found to be quite inadequate
to support a family with wheat as the only
product. Then the pendulum swung the
other way, and in some instances farm*
held by one person became too large in the
best interests of the country, and often for
the good of the owner. The ambition of
the tiller of the soil was to be able to point
to large fields of waving corn to carry on
his operations on an extensive scale.
Quality was often sacrificed for quantity
in the desire to cultivate a maximum area
in a minimum period. Thus it came
about that prosperity in agricultural cen-
tres was wont to be measured by the
acreage sown. All this, however, belongs
to the past, and methods of farming are
not now the subject of reproach that they
Were twenty years ago. The acreage cul-
tivated means far more in South Australia
to-day than an equal area did fifteen, or
even ten, years ago. In other words, the
productive capacity of the farming country
has been steadily increased until our peo-
ple are able to better understand what "in-
tense culture" means. Said Professor
Lowrie (till recently head of the State
Agricultural College): "If we get a re-
turn to one of our normal years the wheat
acreage of South Australia, with the atten-
tion farmers are giving to manuring, will
be raised to a degree that even the most
sanguine scarcely expects. In a relatively
few years we will find the wheat average
in this country somewhere about eleven or
twelve bushels to the acre, and it will in-
volve very little more work than at pre-
sent."
88
THE CENTRAL STATE.
H'. S. Smith
Harvesting, Stripping, and Winnowing Grain.
The old order of farming gradually gave
way under the pressure of low prices and
dry seasons to systems which are safer
and more profitable. At one time when
the grain crop failed the farmer starved,
took a fresh mortgage if he could obtain
it or begged from the Government. The
modern tiller of the soil aims at diversity,
and is not so dependent upon one source
of revenue. There are still a number of
producers who are wheatgrowers, and that
only, "carrying all their eggs in one
basket," but their ranks are rapidly being
reduced. The tendency to lean on the
Government is not so pronounced as it was
a few years ago, and the progressive grain
grower owns a small flock of sheep, and is
interested in the fluctuations of the wool
market and in the export lamb trade.
In no direction has the evolution been O
marked as in the improvement of agricul-
tural machinery. Twenty years ago the
farmer trudged behind a single or double-
furrowed plough. To-day he rides on a
four, five, or six-furrowed implement i
The pioneers reaped their first crops with
sickles. Then came the Ridley reaper, a
wonderful invention. This machine un-
derwent frequent changes. Scarcely a
year went by without some improvement
having been made, until the farmer now
has a wide variety of choice the light
draught pony stripper ; the damp w'eather
machine ; the complete harvester which
threshes, cleans, and bags the grain ; or
there is the combined mower and binder
with the header to complete the process.
Another great influence on the progress
and prosperity of agriculture in South
Australia has been artificial manures. Un-
til a few years ago it was not considered
necessary to return to the soil any of the
properties taken from it. At the present
time it would be difficult to find a man
sceptical of the advantage of applying
science in the direction of artificial fer-
tilisers, and this season over a million acres
have been manured. Lands which were
regarded as worthless are now producing
heavy crops of hay or grain.
The farmer is often conservative in
thought and action. He clings to methods
with which he is acquainted on the prin-
ciple that it is wise to "hold fast that which
is good." After Captain Sturt's opinion
of the Adelaide plains had beem falsified,
it was confidently asserted that cereals
would not grow a few miles further north.
This was also proved to be a mistaken
notion. The early sheepfarmers clung tena-
ciously to the land secured by them, but
gradually they had to make way for the
THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY.
8 9
Harvesting a 10 ft. Maize Crop with Mower and Binder on the Markaranka Irrigation
Co.'s Farm near Morgan, River Murray.
agriculturist who was lured on until, some
think, he has at last gone beyond the line
fixed by Nature. It should not be as-
sumed, however, that the limit of produc-
tion has been reached that there is no
more land available that is fit for cultiva-
tion. Such is not the case. In addition
to the natural process ever at work, by
which large estates come into the market
automatically, the Government has power
to purchase large holdings and subdivide
"for purposes of closer settlement." In
the South-Eastern divisions of the State
drainage works have greatly multiplied the
fertility of the soil, and an extension of
this system is now making available a
large area of Crown lands which, without
drainage, would be useless swamps.
A few years ago Millicent a typical
centre of the drainage area was little bet-
ter than a swamp, with here and there a
hillock modestly raising its h'ead out of
the water, generously offering itself as a
perch for the wildfowl to rest upon. The
land when not so covered was sour and
irresponsive to the persuasive devices of
the cultivator. The town was small, and
nothing ever happened to disturb the
peaceful meditations of a somnolent peo-
ple. To-day Millicent hums. There is
a whirr and buzz everywhere you go. Out
on the lowlands where rank grass used to
grow you can get up to your knees in a
lucerne patch or a rape crop. Where a
mower and binder has been at work for
a week an army could be hidden out of
sight behind the stocks of hay, which
stand close together, and are eloquent of
the large yield which the paddock has
produced. There are root crops as well
as grain crops grown on the farms, lambs
are being bred for the export trade, and
more attention is now devoted to dairy-
ing. The more one sees what has been
done the more impressed one becomes with
the possibilities of this country. It is no
reflection on the settlers to say that they
have yet to realise the full extent of the
natural resources of the district. Some of
them have only begun to discover the capa-
.THE CENTRAL, STATE.
bilities of their land a few will not live
long enough to do that, but those who take
their places will find it out. Few pro-
blems have so exercised the minds of past
and present legislators than the question
of draining the lands of the South-East,
and yet it seems one of the surest and most
profitable investments in which public
money can possibly be employed.
Drainage applied to the swamp lands
adjacent to the River Murray has pro-
duced marvellous results. Mr. Allan Mc-
Farlane, of East Wellington, spent
10,000 on an embankment to reclaim 700
acres which now carries six sheep to the
acre. A neighbour, Mr. H. W. Morphett,
of Wood's Point, reclaimed 650 acres at a
cost of 6,500. Five acres under onions
yielded 30 tons per acre; the barley crop
returned 42 bushels per acre ; and the
lucerne crop gave five cuttings in one sea-
son. Irrigation has become a significant
factor in the agricultural industry of South
Australia. In addition to the irrigation
colony at Renmark, which will be dealt
with separately, settlements are steadily
multiplying in the valley of the Murray.
What within the memory of young men
was a wilderness barren, inhospitable
land or swamps covered with useless rushes
is being made productive. The trans-
formation scene has been worked so
quietly and quickly that few people
realise what the change really signifies. It
is materially affecting the producing
strength of South Australia. There are
also large areas of virgin land in th'e mid-
land districts which will one day be avail-
able for cultivation, and when that takes
place production will progress on a still
higher plane.
The climate and soil of the southern
portion of the State are eminently adapted
to agricultural pursuits. Every variety of
fruit and vegetable and the highest quality
cereals are successfully raised in the vici-
nity of Port Augusta, distant 260 miles
north of Adelaide. In the South-Eastern
districts 300 miles south of the city, are
some of the finest gardens in Australia,
Potatoes and onions are the chief products
of this part of the State, and every variety
of grain is successfully grown. There are
two oatmeal factories at Mount Gambier
which deal with the surplus oats grown in
that prolific district. There is at least a
stretch of country 500 miles long by an
average of 60 miles broad wherein agricul-
tural pursuits of every description can be
followed. Beyond this limit wheat can
be grown, but the experience of the last
few years has shown that the farmer who
goes too far out takes great risks. The
tendency is more towards grazing than
grain cultivation in remote parts of the
State.
The agricultural lands of South Australia
hug the coast-line. So pronounced is this
that the furthest grain-producing district
inland is well within 100 miles of a ship-
ping port. The average distance of grain
transport by rail is less than 50 miles.
The importance of this fact should
be apparent to the most casual observer.
It means cheapness of transit to the sea-
board, thus materially reducing the cost of
the grain by the time it is afloat. There
afe few countries in the world better
situated in the matter of climate, soil, and
machinery for the cheap production of
grain and proximity of the cultivated terri-
tory to the seaboard is a great factor when
prices are governed as they always are
when there is a surplus available for ex-
port by Mark Lane.
The agricultural industry is firmly estab-
lished. The farmer has become more pro-
gressive. Certainly he is more responsive
quick to note the demands of the mar-
ket, and more amenable than his father
was to the requirements of distant cus-
tomers. Science is proving a mighty in-
dustrial lever opening portals previously
closed against the Australian producer.
The modern wheat grower knows the
strength and weakness of his soil, and he
supplies deficiencies by 'employing artificial
manures. By the use of the best ma-
chinery he seeks to reduce the cost of pro-
duction, whilst he takes advantage of by-
products that his predecessor kicked on
one side or threw on the rubbish heap.
Scientific and economical methods char-
acterise the management of other branches
of agriculture until golden mile posts are
being firmly placed along the highway of
industrial progress in South Australia.
Droughts have been experienced which
threatened disaster. Prices at one time
fell so low that ruin stared the rural pro-
ducer in the face. The future looked
fcfc
THE CENTRAL STATE.
A Crop of Onions, the property of Webster Bros., Mt. Gambler.
dark and dismal hopeless. All this has
passed away. "Sick" soil is recuperated,
falling markets are met by reductions in
the cost ot cultivation. There is no
despair among the rural producers of our
State to-day, and there is no cause for any,
for the bulk of our producers were never
in a more prosperous condition than they
are at the present time. To the man of
intelligence, energy, and a little capital
there is practically no limit to the exer-
cise of his resourcefulness. The capabili-
Wheat
Hay
Barley
Oats
Fallow
Total cereals
Potatoes
Peas
Green forage
Garden ...
Orchard
Vines
All other
Totals
ties of the country are gradually becoming
known and appreciated, and the term
"farming" means more than it did ten
years ago. This fact cannot be better
illustrated than by showing the acreage
under different cereals and the various
agricultural produce raised. The follow-
ing table shows the total area of land un-
der cultivation in South Australia, the
10-year comparison proving that, in spite
of exceptional seasons, producers have
had the pluck to go forward :
Acres. Ac- es Acres.
1892-3. 1901-2. 1902-3.
1,520,580 1,743,542 1,746,842
434,116 369,796 325,789
13,285 15,517 21,493
15,745 34,660 50,296
567,878 862,738 888,946
2,551,604 3,026,163 3,033,466
6,014 6,248 7,763
4,705 4,938 5,452
27,999 37,205 38,573
5,853 9,005 9,489
9,918 16,315 17,376
15,418 20,860 21,692
4,230 2,066 3,464
2,625,741 3,122,800 3,137,175
THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY.
93
Compared with 1901-2 last season's acre-
ages showed the following increases :
Wheat, 3,390 acres; barley, 5,976 acres;
oats, 15,636 acres; peas, 151 acres; pota-
toes 1,515 acres; hay (decrease), 44,007
acres. Green Forage. Wheat, oats, or
barley (decrease), 37,642 acres; lucerne
(decrease), 76 acres; sown grasses, 1,318
acres; other crops, 1,398 acres; fallow,
26,208 acres ; garden, 484 acres ; orchard,
1,061 acres; vines, 832 acres.
From tiie area devoted to the various in-
dustries it will be interesting to turn to
the actual production of the State, and
again it will be well to take a 10-year
period. The following is the compari-
son :
Hay, tons ...
Barley, bus.
Oats, bus. ...
Peas, bus. ...
Potatoes, tons
Almond trees
Almonds, cwt.
Orange trees
Oranges, cases
Lemon trees
Lemons, cases
Olive trees
Olive oil, galls. ...
Hives of bees
Honey, Ib.
Vines, bearing
Not bearing
Grapes sold, cwt. . . .
Wine made, galls.
Currants dried, cwt.
Raisins made, cwt.
Butter, Ib.
Cheese, Ib.
Wattle bark, tons
It should be explained that the figures
1892 3.
1902-3.
9,240,108
6,354,912
389,277
308,825
175,468
317,155
166,489
620,823
69,922
89,654
20,057
28,312
111,607
165,255
3,388
5,699
73,365
127,762
43,817
62,814
67,557
27,057
48,252
78,642
2,291
12,422
22,142
18,731
412,886
756,822
4,206,880
10,067,139
4,545,737
1,723,787
72,798
235,948
594,038
2,145,525
4,886
711
11,562
3,110,093
4,521,246
661,314
705,969
3,131
9,212
The First Plough uszd in South. Australia.
relating to wine refer to the vintage of the
previous year, but do not include the wine
made from grapes sold to winemakers who
are not also growers. The above compari-
son reveals a most gratifying expansion of
rural industries. Compared with 1901-2
last season's production underwent the
following increase: Wheat, 1,657,850
bushels (decrease); barley, 73,793 bushels;
oats, 151,569 bushels; peas, 7,923 bushels
(decrease); potatoes, 13,253 tons; hay,
37,642 tons (decrease) ; almonds, 660 cwt. ;
oranges, 4,448 cases ; lemons, 12 cases ;
olive oil, 1,095 gallons; wattle bark, 646
tons; honey, 446,769 Ib. ; raisins made,
4,222 cwt. ; currants dried, 1,473 cwt. ; but-
ter, 433,277 Ib. (decrease); cheese, 347,191
Ib. (decrease). Last season there were 98
silos, with a capacity of 79,080 cubic feet,
in the State, compared with 87, of 146,640
cubic feet, in 1901-2.
At the time of going to press, the pros-
pects of the approaching harvest are ex-
tremely bright. Record crops of all
descriptions are confidently forecasted, and
fears are entertained that there will be a
block on the railways owing to the unpre-
cedented demands to move grain and other
produce to the seaboard.
Aids to Agriculture.
Before passing on to a review of the
various industries which come, naturally,
under the head of agriculture, it will be
interesting to briefly refer to a few potent
"aids" to farming. There is the influence
which artificial manures have had in
restoring fertility to over-worked soil ;
whilst no reference to the agricultural in-
dustry would be complete which omitted
to direct special attention to the remark-
able evolution in farm machinery. South
Australia has led the way in both. Tke
stripper was invented in this State, and
has been perlected here. Similarly, the
stump-jumping plough, which has been the
means of revolutionising farming in the
scrub lands of Australia. Just at
a time when it seemed as if the agricul-
tural industry had got into a blind alley
as if the limit of production had been
reached science came upon the scene and
provided a key capable of fitting every
lock. Unknown portals flew open and
showed a cleared passage where apparently
insurmountable obstacles had previously
blocked all progress. To Mr. Molineux
at that time agricultural editor of the
Adelaide Observer great credit is due.
He was the first man to preach the gospel
of hope to the rural producers. He did
more than preach; he demonstrated and
proved. It was Mr. Molinea.ux who
founded the Agricultural Bureau system
promoting experiments which lead to
the introduction of so many improvements
in the growing of cereals, and in fruit cul-
ture. One success led on to another, so
that from having been a class of sceptics,
rural producers took a pride in adopting
new methods. Science continues to be a
mighty lever in agricultural fields, and, it
is only those who are ignorant of the
forces at work who doubt the future of
the rural producer in these lands. No
Australian State has a better agricultural
record, while in South Australia the
cost of production is lower than elsewhere.
Fertilisers have had an important in-
fluence on the fortunes of producers.
They have helped more than anything
else to bring about a revival in agricul-
tural pursuits. Constant cropping had
exhausted the soil. The farmer in many
parts sowed but reaped not, and the
average production of the State began to
suffer. Fallowing was resorted to in order
to check the decline. There was a re-
covery, but not sufficient to compensate
for the rapid decline which took place
about the same time in the price of wheat.
The position became critical, but the dawn
followed the darkest hour in the agricul-
tural history of the State. In 1879 an
Experimental Farm and Agricultural Col-
lege were established at Roseworthy, dis-
tant some 30 miles north of the city. Pro-
fessor Custance was the first Principal, and
in his first report he stated: "Perhaps
the most important result is the beneficial
effect of bonedust and guano, 5 cwt. of
each, which produced 26 bushels per acre.
Should this result be confirmed next sea-
son it would indicate the value of phos-
phates and nitrogen in increasing the
wheat crop. Probably mineral phos-
phates and nitrate of soda may be found
in the colony. If so, by means of the
application of about 1^ cwt. of nitrate of
soda and 5 cwt. of phosphates per acre on
well cultivated lands, the yield of wheat
may be increased considerably, in many
districts as much as 50 per cent." In his
next report, 1883, Professor Custance
wrote: "Wheat may be grown year after
year on the same land under certain con-
ditions with profit to the farmer, one of
the conditions being a cheap supply of
suitable manure that is, manure contain-
ing the ingredient deficient in the soil
and required by the wheat plant, which
proves to be phosphoric acid." In 1885
the same authority wrote: "Some impor-
tant facts will be noticed, notwithstanding
the unfavorable season, such as the yield
of 22 bushels per acre from 3 cwt. of super-
phosphates. . . . The quantity of
superphosphates used, viz., 3 cwt., costing,
at 4/ per cwt., 12/ per acre, should induce
AIDS TO AGRICULTURE.
Golden Grain ready for Shipment Scene on a Wharf at Port Pirie.
A. Ball photo.
farmers to give this manure a fair trial.
After numerous experiments carefully con-
ducted during the last four years, I can
strongly recommend superphosphates as
the cheapest and best manure for the
wheat crop." Professor Lowrie, who suc-
ceeded Professor Custance at the Agricul-
tural College, enthusiastically worked
along the same line, and did yeoman ser-
vice to the State. In 1894 he put the
following opinion on record: "The phos-
phatic manures are found specially suitable
under our South Australian conditions.
The practice of bare fallowing and the
absence of under drainage and summer
leaching of the nitrates in the soil are the
means of maintaining a relatively high
proportion oi nitrogen in the soil, and ex-
perience is leading us more and more to
the use of phosphatic manures in relatively
high proportion compared with nitro-
genous manure. Speaking generally, it is
more from deficiency of phosphates than
any other element of plant food that our
average wheat yield in the colony is so
unfortunately and discreditably low." In
a paper read before the Agricultural
Bureau Congress in 1896, Professor Lowrie
observed: "The phosphatic manures are
the most beneficial in the first instance at
least. In all districts where the rainfall
exceeds 15 or 16 inches, I believe it will
be found, if the cost of carriage of the
manure be not prohibitive, that manures
can be profitably used for wheat, and in
all hay-growing districts I have not the
slightest hesitation in saying that no prac-
tice open to us is more profitable as far
as agriculture proper extends than the re-
gular judicious use of artificial manures.
For grain probably 1J to 2 cwt. will be
found a good useful dressing for an acre."
Subsequently Professor Lowri in the
light of further experiments conducted by
himself declared : "We only want a
good season to thoroughly establish the
confidence our farmers now feel in the use
of artificial manures. I am sure that with
a fair season the wheat average will be
nearly double what it would have been had
the practice of farmers been what it was
eight or ten years ago."
9 6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Whilst this educational process was at
work at the Agricultural College, enter-
prising farmers were supplying practical
demonstrations. Farmers on Yorke's
Peninsula led the way, and in no part of
the State have fertilisers worked so won-
derful a change. A few years ago land on
Yorkes Peninsula which is now firmly held
at 5 to 6 per acre, could not be sold at
25/ per acre. Artificial manure, and that
alone, was responsible for the change in
land values, and a corresponding move-
ment has taken place in other parts of
the State. In 1894 11 acres were drilled
in with wheat and superphosphate to the
extent of 90 Ib. per acre. The result was
satisfactory, and next year the area was ex-
tended to 200 acres. It is estimated that
this year (1903) over 1,000,000 acres have
been similarly treated! Importations of
artificial manures have been as follows :
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
Tons.
600
4,600
13,000
16,000
24,000
31,000
37,000
44,000
In addition to these foregoing, guano and
phosphates have been discovered in South
Australia. A tempting bonus was offered
by the Government to the discoverer of a
payable phosphate mine, and this amount
has been paid to a prospector on Northern
Yorkes Peninsula. Several other phos-
phate claims are being worked, and there
is every promise that payable mines will
be found in South Australia, The intro-
duction of fertilisers led to a largely in-
creased demand for seed drills.
The machinist has ever been a good
friend to the agriculturist. Early in the
forties there was an agricultural crisis, and
so serious did the position become that
an official decree went forth prohibiting
the exportation of wheat! From 4,000
acres under grain in 1841, the area under
cultivation rose to 14,000 in the next year.
The problem of harvesting the crop by
means of the ancient sickle, and in the
absence of a supply of laborers was ap-
parently insolvable. Imperial soldiers
then doing duty in South Australia were
ordered if not to actually turn swords
into ploughshares ana spears into pruning
hooks to go out into the fields and assist
to gather in the harvest. Harvesting
charges ranged up to 2 per acre. It was
doubtful whether, in view of their experi-
ences, landowners would sow wheat the
following year.
The necessity of some contrivance to aid
producers in harvesting having been made
so apparent, a body called the "Corn Ex-
change Committee" took the matter up
with zeal, and announced, through the
columns of "The Register," that they
would be prepared to give a reward for
the best invention to be exhibited to the
committee. Thirteen persons presented
models and drawings of various machines,
but the committee came to the conclusion
that there was none which they were justi-
fied in recommending for general adoption.
In the meantime, Mr. John Ridley, a mil-
ler, of Hindmarsh, who did not compete,
built a working machine, on the principle
of stripping the heads off the straw. He
acknowledged his indebtedness for the idea
to an article in an encyclopaedia, in which
was the cut of a machine used in ancient
days on the plains of Gaul. This was at
once a complete success. The machine
was propelled by a pole from behind, the
pole being supported on two wheels. Two
horses did the work. Mr. Ridley pre-
sented the invention to the public, and got
no profit out of it except a margin on the
actual implements which he made and
sold. Describing the first public trial of
this stripper the late Mr. Francis Button
said : "One afternoon during the summer
of 1843-4, some friends met in Adelaide
and asked me to join them in their ride to
a neighboring farm where Mr. Ridley's
reaping machine, which they said both
reaped and threshed the corn at the same
time, was successful at work. It was not
generally known at that time what the
machine was, and, although we were all
incredulous, we started to see with our own
eyes how far the reports we had heard were
correct. Presently we saw from several
quarters other horsemen all steering to the
same point. By the time we reached the
farm a large 'field' had mustered to wit-
ness the proceedings, and there, sure
enough, was the machine at work, by the
agency of two horses and two men one
AIDS TO AGRICULTURE.
97
The Ridley Reaper.
to guide the horses, and the other the
machine ! There was no mistake about it
the heads of the corn were threshed per-
fectly clean ; and, a winnowing machine
being at hand, the corn was transferred out
of the reaping into the latter machine, and
carts were ready to convey the cleaned
wheat to the mill, two miles off, where tne
wheat, which an hour before was waving
in the fields in all the lustre of golden tints,
was by Mr. Ridley's steam-mill ground
into flour. Never before was, perhaps,
such a revolution in the appliances of
agriculture caused as was done by this
machine ; success attended the very first
trial of it, and during seven days it reaped
and threshed the seventy acres of wheat of
which the paddock was composed."
New hope was given to settlers, and
agriculture progressed by leaps and bounds,
the "area under wheat" being nearly
doubled in one year. The late Capt.
Bagot wrote a letter to "The Register" giv-
,ng his experience of the machine in the
following harvest, 1844. He said that he
reaped a field of 39^ acres of wheat in nine
days, and obtained 843 bushels of good
clean grain. He figured out the cost
thus :
Two men with the machine, one
to steer, and the other to
drive, nine days, at 2/6 each ... 2 5
Use of the machine at 2/6 per
acre ... ... 5
Or a little more than 2d. per bushel.
Three men were employed for 12 days win-
nowing and carting in the corn to the store.
Three men, 12 days each, at 2/6 4 10
Use of winnowing machine ... 1
Cost of stripping 843 bushels
750
Cost of winnowing ... ... 5 10
Or less than Hd. per bushel.
Thus the Ridley stripper at once reduced
the cost of harvesting from 2/ per bushel
to 3|d., or for a 20-bushei crop from 2
per acre to 5/10 ! No wonder Captain
Bagot spoke of the "extraordinary value of
Mr. Ridley's admirable invention !"
From the Ridley machine sprang the
splendid strippers which are now to be seen
all over Australia and the "complete har-
vester" at present commanding attention.
In the fifties the late Hon. James Martin
obtained 150 for the first reaper he made.
To-day the greatly improved modern ma-
chine can be bought for a third of that
price. The principle of propulsion from
behind soon gave way to a side application
of motive power. Then followed the
thimble comb which prevented a loss of
grain. A simplification of the machine
enabled one man to steer and regulate,
whilst a reduction in the draught lessened
the number of horses required. The addi-
tion of the "damp weather gear" followed.
This enables stripping to be done in cold
weather when the straw is ^iot so brittle
as it is on a hot day. South Australian
makers export a large number of strippers
every year to neighboring States and
Argentina.
9 8
THE CENTRAL STATE.
A Modern Stripper Jos. Martin .
1899-1.
1891-2.
1892-3.
1896-7.
i&7-8. ;
' 1898-9.
'99-1900.
1900-1.
1901-2.
1902-3.
For Grain^
'
;
Wheat ..
1.673i573
1,552,423
1,520.580
1,693.045*
1,522,668-
1.788.770
1,821,137
1.913,247*
1,743.452
1,746.842
Barley '
14,472
11,461
13,285
14,484
13,232
16,962
15,767
15..352
15,517
21,493
Oats .. ..
12.475
12,637
15,745
40,215
31,398
25,823
20,229
27,988
34,660
50.296
Peas . . '
4s358
4.290
4,705
3,519
2,917
3,491
3,842
4.454
4,938
5,452'
For Green, Forage-
!
;
Wheat, Oats &c.
2,634
845
1,333
1.322
1,266
1.252
1.104
3,009
2,172
2.096
Lucerne
4.715
5,571
6,456
6.049
7.452
8.899
11,356
10,127
11,523
12,841
Sown Grasses
21,431
17,519
20.210
20,027
20,083
20,946
21,593
22.186
23,510
23,636
Other Crops .
4,615
2,663
4.230
3,936
2,617
2,002
1,520
2.556
2,066
3,464
Hay
345,150
304.171
434.116
339,257
449.167
316,413
311.440
341.330
369,796
325,789
Potatoes
6.626
6,892
6,014
6,417
6,449
6,653
8.406
6,628
6.248
7,763
Orchard
8.736
8.928
9.918
11,746
13054
14,396
15,477
16,001
16,315
17,376
Garden
6,1.26
5,494
5,853
6,669
7.574
7,994
8,524
8,830
9 005
Vineyard
9.535
12,314
15,418
18.333
18.761
19,159
19,438
20,158
20,860
21.692
Fallow Land .
534.152
588,083
567.878
512.561
507.484
734,610
822,013
887,540
862.738
888.946
Total
2,649,098
2,533.291
2,625.741
2,584,395t
2,604.122
2,967.370
3.081,846
3,279.406
3.122.800
3.137,175
* 605,723 acres of wheat were not reaped. t Owing to drought 93,185 acres of wheat sown for grain
were cut for hay. which were not included in the total. t Owing to drought 339,230 acres were
not reaped. 169,795 acres less wheat sown, 28,466 acres more hay cut. and 299,348 acres not
reaped owing to drought.
THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS.
107
In the following table is shown the gross produce and average yield of the various
crops :
Year.
Wheat
(bushels).
Barley
(bushels).
Oats
(bushels).
Peas
(bushels).
Hay
(tons).
Potatoes
(tons).
Wattle Bark
(tons).
Produce.
Avg.
Pr'duce
Avg.
Pr'duce
Avg.
Pr'duce
Avg.
Pr'duce
Avg.
Pr'duce
Avg.
1889-90 -
14,577,358
7.91
246,841
12 '54
131,449
12'77
57,800
13'55
395,920
1'20
23,853
3 - 74 j
1900-1 -
9,399.389
5 '62
175,583
12'13
116,229
9'32 64,068
14'70
310,125
90
23,963
3 - 62 4.372
1891-2 -
6.436,488
415
107,183
9'35
80,876
6'40 68,655
le'oo
193,317
'64
27,824
4'04 ! 3.904
1892-3 -
9,240,108
6'08 175,468
13'21
166,489
10'57 69,922
14'86
389,277
'90
20,057
3'34 : 3.131
1896-7 -
2,804,493
*1'66 107,798
7 '44
189,716
4'72 30,350
8 '62
170,808
'50
16.139
2'52 5,030
1897-8 -
4,014,85-2
2'64 162,065
1'2'25
204.444
6'51 31,936
10'95
298,184 '66
9,308
1'44 6.830
1898-9 -
8,778.900
4'91 234,135
13'80
304 002
11'77 i 51,151
14'65
258,518 | '82
14.445
2'17 8.217
1899-1900
8,453,135
4'6l 188,917
11 '98
218,331
10'79 52,883
13'76
229,800 '74
19.716
2'35 8,038
1900-1 -
11,253,148
5'88 ; 211.102
13 '75
366,229
13'09 67,415
15'14
353.662 ! 1'03
14,566
2'20
8,330
1901-2 -
8,012,762
4'60 ; 243.362
15'68
469,254
13'54
97,577
19'76
346,467 '94
15.059
2'41 8.566
1902-3 - 6,354,912
3'63 ! 317,155
14'70
620,823
10'35 89,654
16'62
308,825
'95
28,312
3'63 9,212
* Owing to drought 605,723 acres were not reaped.
In his annual report for the season
1902-3, the Secretary lor Agriculture, Pro-
fessor A. J. Perkins, points out that with
a total rainfall in 1902 considerably below
the previously-recorded mean, and a distri-
bution that in nowise tended to compen-
sate this difficulty, it might perhaps have
been anticipated that by comparison with
average returns such conditions would have
been gloomily reflected in the harvest
field. A glance at the table below, in
which are summarised the returns from
our main crops in tne different districts,
will show that this is very far from having
been the case.
AGRICULTURAL RETURNS IN 1902-3, CONTRASTED WITH MEANS OF PRECEDING
Six YEARS.
Wheat (bushel)
Oats
Barley
Hay (tons) -
Potatoes " -
CENTRAL,
DISTRICT.
LOWER NORTH.
WEST COAST.
> SOUTH-EAST.
UPPER NORTH.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Yrs.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Yrs.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Yrs.
i
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Yrs.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Yrs.
2.921,152
280,437
189.458
197,100
6.846
2,636,333
154,457
113.894
163,871
5.627
2.351,692
47,649
16.558
87,610
nil
2,443,687
33.075
14,605
70,480
17
448,618
27,495
22,011
6.584
nil
540,381
9.981
12.813
5,008
11
288,090
264.690
i 89,128
18,563
21,466
304.979
94.249
47,598
14,774
9.211
345,360
552
nil
15,932
nil
1,294.163
236
2.320
22.107
6
This table is self-explanatory, and
needs but little comment. It will be
noted that in the Central District returns
in wheat, oats, barley, hay, and potatoes
were all in excess of means of the preced-
ing six months; in the Lower North,
whilst wheat is in slight deficiency, oats,
barley, and hay are in excess; on the
West Coast results coincide with those in
the Lower North ; similar returns come
from the South-East, where the potato
crop attained remarkable proportions ; the
Upper North alone is characterised by
heavy deficiencies. Nor does it appear
that these satisfactory bulk returns are
merely a consequence of an expansion of
the area under cultivation, which would
perhaps tend to mask a contraction in
yields. An examination of the following
table, in which are contrasted the yields
per acre of wheat and hay during the past
season with the means of the previous six
seasons, shows that this is not the case :
io8
THE CENTRAL STATE.
SHOWING YIELDS PER ACRE OF WHEAT AND HAY IN 1902-3
MEANS OF PRECEDING Six SEASONS.
CONTRASTED WITH
WHEAT.
HAY.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Seasons.
1902-3.
Mean of
Previous
Six Seasons.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Tons.
Tons.
Cential District
5-59
4-91
1-04
086
Lower North
436
462
074
0-68
Western District
2-70
363
0-58
060
South-East
825
807
1-34
1 09
Upper North
071
2-48
060
058
Except in the Central District, the
yields oi wheat per acre are generally
slightly below the means of the preceding
six years, whilst the yields in hay are
slightly a,bove the means. The complete
failure of the Upper North excludes it
from these comments.
"We find ourselves faced, therefore,"
says Professor Perkins, "with a season over
which the rainfall was not only consider-
ably below normal means, but extremely
badly distributed, and during which har-
vest returns were nevertheless generally
in excess of those of preceding seasons. It
seems to me that improved and more ra-
tional soil tillage that has latterly come
into use, coupled with the general spread
of phosphatic manures, are mainly respon-
sible for this satisfactory state of things.
The complete failure of the Victorian
crops north of the Dividing Range, over
which reigned weather conditions no worse
than those that characterised our Lower
North, is, if it were needed, an additional
argument in support of this view. Such,
then, having been our returns in a rrost
unfavorable season, so far as rainfall is
concerned, it remains yet to be seen how
much in excess of our anticipations will be
under the influence of improved methods
the returns in the favorable seasons that
we have good reason to hope lie hidden in.
the immediate future."
On the question of how the rainfall
affects the grain harvests, Sir Charles Todd
(the Government Astronomer) observes
"We have to look, not so much at the
quantity of rain which falls in any year
which may be swelled by summer storms
nor even at the mean annual rainfall, but
at the general distribution of the rain, or
the months in which rain may be looked
for in sufficient quantities to adequately
reward the labor expended in cultivating
the soil." He furthe-- remarks 1 : "We
cannot, as a rule, expect a good harvest,
without copious rains in the period May
to October. The total rainfall for the
year may, however, be comparatively
small, and yet the harvest good (as in
1864, when it only averaged 18.83 inches,
taking the whole of the agricultural dis-
tricts), provided the rainall is ample in the
six months just specified. On the other
hand, the total rainfall may be large, but
the yield small, if the winter rainfall is-
deficient, or if heavy rains and adverse
atmospheric conditions occur late in
October, November, and December, as was
the case in 1871, when the rainfall
averaged 23.25 inches, and the yield was-
only 5 bushels 45 Ib."
THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS.
109
Patent Seed and Fertiliser Plough Combination, manufactured by Clarence H. Smith,
Ardrossan, Yorke's Peninsula.
Hay.
Hay-growing is a popular and profitable
auxiliary to the production of grain.
Fields sown for wheat are for various rea-
sons mostly because hay promises to pay
better cut for hay. During the last few
years chaff mills have sprung up all over
the State, while several compressed fodder
works have been erected. Large exports
of chaffed hay have taken place to other
States., and South Africa is a large cus-
tomer for compressed fodder. The quan-
tity of hay cut last season was estimated
at 308,000 tons, and prices ranged up to
as much as 7 per ton. In many cases
farmers were known to have realised as
much as 3,000 to 5,000 for their hay
alone; and one leading authority declares
that fortunes have been made out of hay-
growing in South Australia during the last
few years. According to the official re-
turns the total quantity of hay reaped was
308,825 tons, taken from 325,789 acres.
This return was slightly less than the pie-
vious year, when 369,796 acres yielded
346,467 tons. In 1900-1 the production
was 353,622 tons, but, while this year
farmers have been tempted by the price
to cut far more hay in the previous sum-
mers, they were forced to do so by the
prevalence of red rust. The average yield
this season was 0.9o ton u> the acre, while
at the previous harvest it was 0.94. The
central district, which is the largest pro-
ducer of hay, contributed 205,546 tons
from 197,100 acres, and the Lower North
65,114 tons from 87,610 acres. The
South-East is the third producer, having
supplied 24,877 tons from 18,563 acres;
while the Upper North reaped 9,485 tons
from 15,932 acres; and the Western dis-
trict 3,803 tons from 6,584 acres. The
hundreds producing the biggest returns
no
THE CENTRAL STATE.
were: Adelaide, 62,341 tons from 51,561
acres; and Light, 50,137 tons from 45,893
acres. Grey, in the South-East, had by
far the best average, having 16,208 tons
from y,016 acres, or 1.180 tons to the acre.
The vast proportion of the produce came
from between Adelaide and Manoora.
Shipments have increased from 9,185 tons,
valued at 22,402 in 1900, to 23,981 tons,
worth 75,000 in 1901, and 98,000 tons,
estimated at 425,000. There are several
compressed fodder mills in the State, and
large shipments of the compressed article
a mixture of chaff and bran are now sent
away to the other States and to South
Africa. The mean price of hay in the
Adelaide market for the six seasons (1896-
1902) was 2/5/2 per ton. In 1902-3 it
stood at 3/15/6. Last year's crop on this
basis had a monetary value of 1,165,814.
The following is the official returns of
the hay yields for the seasons stated :
Produce Average.
Tons Tons
1890-1 310,125 .90
1891-2 193,317 .64
1892-3 389,277 .90
1896-7 170,808 .50
1897-8 298,184 .66
1898-9 258,518 .82
1899-1900 229,800 .74
1900-1 353,662 1.03
1901-2 346,467 .94
1902-3 308,825 .95
There is a Customs duty of 20/ per ton
on hay.
Oats.
The cultivation of oats receives consider-
able attention on Yorkes Peninsula, where
last season 13,800 acres were sown, from
which 108,000 bushels were gathered.
The largest producer is the South-East era
district, of which Mount Gambier is the
centre. The acreage there was 8,472, but
so prolific was the harvest that no less
than 226,000 bushels were reaped. There
are two oatmeal factories at Mount Gain-
bier, where the bulk of the oatmeal con-
sumed in the State is manufactured. Oats
grow luxuriantly in the South-East, where
there is great scope for the expansion 01
what appears to be a profitable industry.
The total area under oate last harvest was
50,296 acres, which produced 620,823
bushels, as against 469,^54 bushels the
previous year. The following is the offi-
cial statistics of the production of oats for
the seasons stated :
Produce. Average.
Bushels. Bushels
1890-1 116,229 9.32
1891-2 80,876 6.40
1892-3 166,489 10.57
1896-7 189,716 4.72
1897-8 ... 204,444 6.51
1898-9 304,002 11.77
1899-1900 ... 218,331 10.79
1900-1 ... 366,229 13.09
1901-2 469,254 13.54
1902-3 620,823 12.34
The mean price of oats in the Adelaide
market for the six seasons (1896-1902) was
2/7 per bushel. In 1902-3 the price
was 3/4. There is a duty of 1/6 per
cental.
Barley.
The acreage under barley last year was
21,493 acres, which yielded 317,155
bushels, as compared with 15,517 acres,
producing 243,362 bushels in 1901-2. Bar-
ley is chiefly grown in the South-East,
where the yield last year was 85,000
bushels from 3,400 acres, and the Lower
North and Kangaroo Island. The new
duty is 1/6 .per cental. The duty on
malt, increased in 1891 to 4/6 per bushel,
has not much affected the imported article,
of which 26,789 bushels (value 8,052)
were introduced in 1901, against 34,378
bushels (value 10,092) tne year previous.
The following show the production and
average yield of barley: -
Produce. Average.
Bushels. Bushels
1890-1 ' 175,583 12.13
1891-2 107,183 9.35
1892-3 175,468 13.21
1896-7 107,798 7.44
1897-8 162,065 12.25
1898-9 234,135 13.80
1899-1900 188,917 11.98
1900-1 211,102 13.75
1901-2 243,362 15.68
1902-3 317,155 14.76
THE CULTIVATION OF CEREALS.
Ill
The duty has been reduced from 8/ to 6/
per cental.
Field Peas.
Field peas, mostly cultivated in the hilly
country in the Counties Adelaide and
Hindmarsh, where pig-rearing and bacon-
curing a,re chiefly carried on, is a crop
which, as a rule, gives a, better return than
wheat, and is well known for its recupera-
tive action on exhausted soils. It appears
to have stood the drought well, as the
average of 1897-8 was 11 bushels, in 1898-9
it was 15 bushels, in 1899-1900, 13.76
bushels, in 1900-1901, 15.14 bushels, in
1901-2, 19.76 bushels, and last year, 10.62.
The area under cultivation was 15,452, as
against 4,938 in 1901-2, and 4,454 acres
the previous year. The production and
average yields of field peas is shown in the
following :
Produce. Average.
Bushels. Bushels.
1890-1 64,068 14.70
1891-2 68,655 16.00
1892-3 69,922 14,86
1896-7 30,350 8.62
1897-8 31,936 10.95
1898-9 51,151 14.65
1899-1900 52,883 13.76
1900-1 67,415 15.14
1901-2 97,577 19.76
1902-3 89,654 16.44
This crop, grown in the midst of
our largest dairying districts, seems
to be a factor in the future expan-
sion of the bacon industry. The imports
of bacon and hams, on which there is an
impost of 3d. per pound, totalled .166,039
lb., value 5,745, against 213,725 lb., value
6,219, the year before.
Carting Grain to the Seaboard A -scene on the wharf at Port Pirie.
G. A. Ball photo.
Fruitgrowing'.
Horticulture has long since passed out of
the experimental stage. It is now firmly
established upon a profitable commercial
basis. There is a suiplus production of
many kinds of fruit, and the balance over
and above requirements for home con-
sumption is exported. Soil and climate
are eminently suited to the production on
a large scale of all kinds of fruit. The
variation in conditions obtainable in dif-
ferent districts throughout the State
c.iables fruitgrowers to diversify pro-
duction and extend the season for each
variety. Beginning with a few trees
brought out by the pioneers from England
and Cape Colony and plants introduced
from New South Wales later on, the in-
dustry slowly expanded until the freezing
chamber and improved transit facilities
brought the great consuming centres of the
old world nearer to producers. The pos-
sibilities of a (profitable export, trade were
realised, the horticulturist awoke, and at
once began extending his orchards and im-
proving his methods of cultivation. A
wonderful evolution has been witnessed
during the last ten years. From "any
sort of tree" the grower now makes a care-
ful selection of the best kinds. Science has
also entered the garden, and *he successful
horticulturist has become a close student
of formulae for spraying, also of the latest
methods of pruning and manuring. There
are colonists who remember the time when
seedling peaches were produced in such
abundance that the surplus supplies were
fed to pigs. The export trade has changed
all this and impressed growers with the
importance of obtaining quality as well as
quantity.
The fruit-growing areas of the State may
be classified into three sections. The
cool semi-humid localities represented by
a large tract of country in the elevated
districts of the Mount Lofty, Barossa,
Stanley, and Wirrabara Ranges and the
'South-East. These districts are the home
of the apple, pear, cherry, prune, and all
of the berry fruits. The rainfall varies
from 25 to 40 inches annually. The
second zone includes the low hill country
and the plains where the summer tempera-
ture is higher and the rainfall from 18 to
22 inches. Within this area the citrus
tribe, stone fruits, and grapes, olive and
almond grow to great perfection. Summer
irrigation is practised by the largest
orchardists. The water is either drawn
from the State waterworks or from natural
springs. The third zone includes the
valley of the River Murray, which follows
a serpentine course for 600 miles through
Soutii Australia to the Southern Ocean.
Fruit-growing of a distinctive character
on an increasingly large scale is being car-
ried on by means of irrigation. The
raisin and the currant vine, apricots, figs,
oranges, and lemons find here a congenial
climate. Sun-dried fruits of excellent
flavor are being produced in increasingly
large quantities, the clear, dry heat re-
taining the natural bloom and aroma of the
fruit. Evaporation factories also exist in
the fruit-growing districts, and this process
of drying is largely favored. Preserving
and jam-making establishments also ac-
count for a large annual home consump-
tion, and South Australian preserved fruits
and jams find a ready demand in Australia
and abroad.
Fruit-growing in South Australia is
destined to rank high among the primary
industries. That the people are deter-
mined to make this an accomplished fact
at an early date is evidenced by the man-
ner in which they are entering the lists in
the competition for the world's markets.
Within the last decade the production of
dried fruits, such as raisins and apricots,
has exceeded the local demand. The
growers of currant and sultana vines are
making a bold bid to exclude the imported
fruits by placing upon the markets of the
Commonwealth a locally-grown article of
superior excellence. Ten years ago the
export of fresh fruit to London comprised
a few scattered cases of apples sent in a
spasmodic manner by one or two venture-
some growers. Now the business has
reached large dimensions.
FRUITGROWING.
G. Quinn photo.
Orange, Grove, Salisbury.
The success obtained by shippers of
apples has encouraged experiments to be
made with fresh grapes, oranges, and pears
with the most satisfactory results as will
be shown. The Victorian commercial re-
presentatives in England sent the follow-
ing report last season to the Minister for
agriculture in Melbourne : "One hundred
and fifty cases of grapes from Adelaide,
per Victoria, arrived in good order. These
grapes were of the white Daria variety.
They are pronounced by salesmen here to
be identical with t"ie Almeria grape, which
is the best variety grown in Spain for the
English market. It is a white grape. The
flesh is firm, and it stands handling and
transportation better perhaps than any
other. At the conclusion of the Spanish
fruit season, in October, speculators fre-
quently buy quantities of Almeria grapes,
which are packed in small barrels in cork
dust. These are stored in London for
periods varying from two to six months,
and sold as opportunity offers. Some of
these grapes stored in this way came under
my notice a fortnight ago. They had
been taken out of the cork dust, and the
bunches had been cleared of any waste
berries. They were then put on trays
and sold wholesale at I/ a Ib. The white
Daria grapes from Adelaide, which are
stated to be identical with the Almeria,
carried better than any grapes I have yet
seen from Australia. They were packed
in cork dust, in shallow cases, containing
about 25 Ib. They sold at 22/6 per cass
a splendid price." Equally satisfactory
reports from independent sources will be
quoted later on concerning South Austra-
lian apples and oranges.
An increased area of country is being
planted with fruit trees, the horticulturist
having been satisfied that he can easily
overcome his natural enemies, and that in-
creased transport facilities will help to
guarantee to him a regular and profitable
outlet for his produce. The following is
the official return of the area represented
THE CENTRAL STATE.
by "gardens" and
not included :
1884-5 ...
1889-'90
1890-1 ...
1891-2 ...
1892-3 ...
1896-7 ...
1897-8 ...
1898-9 ...
1899-1900
1900-1 ...
1901-2 ...
1902-3 .
"orchards." Vines are
Gardens.
Acres.
4,942
5,763
6,626
5,494
5,853
6,669
7,574
7,994
8,524
8,830
9,005
9,489
Orchards.
Acres.
5,825
7,437
8,736
8,928
9,918
11,746
13,054
14,396
15,477
16,001
16,315
17,376
The following shows the growth of the
export trade in fresh fruit and South Aus-
tralian jams :
Fresh Fruit. Tarns.
1893 21,164 9,671
1894 16,817 15,085
1895 17,299 17,661
1896 19,567 21,548
1897 29,968 20,889
1898 22,211 12,523
1899 32,842 10,063
1900 42,567 16,245
1901 62,662 20,499
1902 37,315 16,783
THe Apple Industry.
That South Australia produces apples of
prime quality which commend themselves
highly to English palates is now admitted
on all hands. The growing of what is
often called the "king of fruits" is no
longer an experiment in this State, nor is
the export trade on its trial. The ques-
tions which are engaging the attention of
producers, merchants, and experts have
reference to the best varieties to be culti-
vated, methods of shipment, and the
cheapest and most effective systems for
waging war against pestiferous insects.
The industry has had its "ups and downs"
partly owing to the cultivation of varieties
not suitable for distant markets, whilst
planters have had to contend against un-
favorable seasons. But they have come
through these difficulties triumphantly,
and now enjoy the satisfaction of having
their produce highly praised and strongly
competed for by buyers in Covent Gardens
as well as at other centres. Our apples,
in fact, have established in England a re-
cord price for Australia. The manager
of the State Produce Depot in the English
capital reported a "very marked improve-
ment generally in the selecting, grading,
and packing," and this judgment is con-
firmed by the Victorian produce represen-
tative, who haa declared that the South
Australian apples "invariably reach
London in better condition" than those
from Melbourne and Hobart." Equally
favorable comments have been passed on
the quali uv of our fruit by colonists resi-
dent in England, who have critically
sampled shipments and closely watched the
improvement in quality and methods of
packing. The successful inauguration of
the industry and of the export trade, hav-
ing been accomplished, it only remains for
old growers to extend their operations
under improved methods, whilst en-
couragement must be extended to those
gardeners who have hitherto looked upon
the whole business with some amount of
scepticism. This is missionary work re-
quiring much tact and patience. Quite
recently some of the largest cultivators in
our hills districts, viewing the depreda-
tions of the codlin moth plus the, remedies
insisted upon by departmental inspectors,
declared that "apple and pear growing are
things of the past," and they added, with
an emphasis born of conviction, "Certainly
no one will plant them while the present
regulations remain in force." Mr. Quinn,
the State horticultural expert, and other
authorities, take a much more hopeful
view regarding the suppression of orchard
destructive pests. There is ample evi-
dence available that new orchards have
been extensively planted, and that growers
are well satisfied that a profitable outlet
can be found for all the fruit of good
quality that they can grow. Mr. Quinn
says that "improved attention" to the
regulations for dealing with diseases "has
removed the necessity" in many places for
FRUITGROWING.
the adoption of extreme measures. In
other words, producers have come to
realise that cleanliness, like honesty, is,
after all, the best policy, and they are
more and more systematically applying
methods recommended by the experts to
check disease.
The following is an extract from a letter
recently received from Hamburg :
"There is a good market here for South
Australian apples. They must be yellow
or red ; no greenish or brown color. We
have imported 2,000 cases of Tasmanian
apples for the last three years, but we get
higher and better prices for the good South
Australian apples, especially when yellow
or red, and not too many spots. We got
up to 20/ per case for New York Pippins
(or Cleopatras) whereas French Crabs, for
instance, are scarcely to be sold, and do
not fetch over 7/ per case." A large ex-
porter of fresh fruit to London has ex-
ceived the following interesting informa-
tion, showing the best paying varieties of
fruit to ship, the average being based on
the experience of the past season :
Apples Dunn's Seedlings, 13/4 to 16/8;
Rome Beauty, ll/ to 13/3; Stone Pippin,
ll/ to 16/; Cleopatras, 12/ to 15/ ; Jona-
than, 11/6 to 14/6 ; Esopus Spitzenberg, ll/
to 14/; Sturmers, 10/to 14/; Dumelow, 12/
to 16/; London Pippin, 10/to 13/; Adam's
Pearmain, 10/ to 12/. Pears Josephine,
12/ to 16/; Broom Park, 12/ to 12/6;
L'Inconnue, 12/ to 15/; Vicar of Wink-
field, 12/to 14/; Winter Nelis, 14/ to 20/.
South Australian apples are being shipped
in increasing quantities to Europe, South
Africa, Java, and Hongkong.
Among the Orange Groves.
South Australia possesses some of the
finest orange groves in Australia. Those
at Renmark are dealt with elsewhere, but
orange and lemon culture are not confined
to the irrigation colony on the banks of
the River Murray. Some of the most
productive groves are within a few miles
of the city. The gardens in the valley
of the Torrens within a radius of ten miles
of Adelaide appeal to visitors from over
the seas, who never fail to be impressed
with the grandeur of the scene and the
practical demonstration supplied of the
progress of intense culture in South Aus-
tralia. Deep, ferruginous soil, absolutely
free of extraneous vegetation, and so soft
that you sink almost to your boot tops;
healthy, vigorous trees, bending beneath
their rich load ; clusters of yellow fruit
all this tells a tale of scientific attention.
Admittedly there is money in orange cul-
tivation for those who understand it.
There are localities in South Australia
which embrace ideal conditions for the in-
dustry, and the favored spots are being
taken up with avidity. For years plant-
ing has been going on apace, and when all
the young trees have come into bearing
the harvesting of the crop will be a much
bigger business than at present. Growers
of citrus fruits have been systematically
digging up vines and other trees for the
purpose of devoting the land to what they
believe to be the more profitable undertak-
ing of orange growing. South Australian
oranges have found great favor with the
Australian consumer, and to_the foreign
buyer many thousands of miles across the
water they are an indescribable delicacy.
An English report, dated 21st August,
1903, states: "London's orange supply,
which is particularly abundant for the
time of the year, has received during this
week a welcome addition in the shape of
prime samples from Australia and
Jamaica. The Australian fruit arrived in
excellent order by the mail steamer Orita,
and the pick of the oranges from your end
of the world were some magnificent
'navels' from South Australia. These
created quite a stir in the trade, for the
fruit were so large that in some of the
cases there were only 72 oranges all told.
These sold at about 18/ a case on the
average, and 3/ a dozen for oranges whole-
sale is quite a phenomenal price. With-
out doubt the South Australian navels are
the finest oranges ever put on Covent Gar-
den market, and though retailers cannot
afford to sell them at less-^bhan 4/ or 5/ a
dozen, it is very certain that fruit of such
quality will always command a high price
n6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Orange Tree, 5 years old, bearing 1,400 oranges.
here. The market for such prime goods
is, of course, very limited at the prices
mentioned, and a shipment of, say, 5,000
or 6,000 cases would in all probability
meet with a considerably less profitable
market. The South Australian navels
are not only fine fruit to look at, but
splendid eating. The only fault one can
find with them is that the dominance of
juice in them renders it undesirable to
attack one without arming yourself with
a bib or some such protection for your
clothes." For several years shipments of
the golden fruit small, certainly, but
FRUITGROWING.
typical were made to the London mar-
ket, and the fact that buyers there are ever
asking for more is unmistakable evidence
of satisfaction with the article. In 1897
a few thousand cases were sent to 1 the old
country, but in the following year, owing
to a short crop, only about 500 cases were
dispatched. Then in 1899, when the trees
brought forth more fruit, nearly treble
that quantity left these shores. The
oranges which were shipped to the depot
averaged 14/2 a case, but this consignment
was by no means a first-class one. Much
of the fruit had shrivelled, and the grad-
ing was faulty. Since then shipments
have been spasmodic, but official reports
from the world's metropolis have consis-
tently called attention to the spirited de-
mand which exists for oranges of the best
quality, provided they are landed in Lon-
don between August and the end of the
year.
Imports of oranges to England have
grown from 4,593,000 bushels in 1893 to
18,250,000 in 1902. Australian growers
tested the English market seven years ago
and found it highly favorable to the de-
velopment of an export business. A trial
shipment of 1,740 cases of oranges was for-
warded from Sydney, and the prices
realised ranged from 23/ to 13/3, or an
average of 13/8 a case. After the pay-
ment of expenses the returns showed a net
profit of close on 134. As this was
an experimental consignment, the charges
were heavy. As yet South Australia is
not a large contributor to oversea markets,
but there is no doubt that in the near
future exports will assume important
dimensions. If landed in London between
the months mentioned above thousands
of cases of Australian oranges would
be absorbed, because during that period
consignments from other countries, such as
Jamaica, Florida, and California, are not
forthcoming. One authority estimates
that even if 5,000 or 6,000 cases were sent
from these ports for several months the
London market would not be supplied, to
say nothing of provincial requirements.
The South Australian industry, how-
ever, is making splendid progress, and it
is not to be doubted that in two or three
years' time markets will have to be dis-
covered for our surplus fruit. In ISP^
there were only 73,000 orange trees in
South Australian soil ; at present there are
close on 130,000 trees. When all these
have attained maturity thousands of cases
of this luscious fruit will be available for
foreign consumption. The development
of orange cultivation can be gauged from
the following figures, which deal with the
number of trees planted and the annual
yield :
Trees. Cases.
1895-6 73,365 43,817
1896-7 99,098 42,705
1897-8 104,612 46,469
1898-9 106,674 27,520
1900-1 109,490 40,073
1901-2 117,452 58,366
1902-3 127,762 62,814
Under the heading of "Giant Colonial
Oranges," the "Westminster Gazette,"
London, writes : "The orange supplies,
which are particularly varied and abun-
dant for the time of year, have had some
welcome additions in the way of prime
samples from South Australia and
Jamaica, The mammoth Washington
Navels have caused excitement in the
trade, for the fruit is so large that some of
the cases only contain 72 oranges, and they
sold at 18/ a package, or 3/ a dozen whole-
sale. This is a phenomenal price. Other
varieties, with 96, 120, and 150 to the case,
sold at 14/. Without doubt these South
Australian Na,vels are the finest oranges
ever put on Covent Garden Market. The
Jamaican arrivals are good, but in no way
comparable to the Australian fruit. With
150 and 200 to the case they sold from 10/
to 16/ each. These values are equal to
those prevailing for Choice Jaffa oranges,
which are now on sale, and are satisfac-
tory."
Lemon Culture.
Lemon trees thrive well in almost any
part of the State and considerable atten-
tion is devoted to the growing of lemons.
The official statistics give the number of
trees in 1902 at 67,557, producing 27,057
cases. The manufacture of candied lemon
peel is an established industry, and with
the prospect of a gro wing - x surplus efforts
are being made to cure lemons as is done
in Sicily, and also for making citric and
oil of lemon.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
,
G. Quinn photo.
Orchard at Chwin of JPonds.
Currants and Raisins.
Another industry closely connected with
viticulture and fruit-growing is the cul-
tivation of the Zante currant and
grapes suitable for raisins. The prac-
tice of ringing tjhe currant vine is
now largely practised throughout S.A.
with gratifying results. Ten years ago
some 36 tons was the total production, of
raisins, whilst last year 500 tons of the
local article were put on the market. In
1888 43 tons of currants were produced,
And in 1902-3 244 tons. The business is
rapidly expanding, and the quality is
superior to the imported article. Profes-
sor Perkins, in his last annual report, wrote
"Currant-growers have not as yet to look
for an outside market; it will, in fact, be
many years ere we succeed in supplying
even the Commonwealth's requirements.
The annual imports of currants into the
Commonwealth may be represented;
roughly by 5,000 tons ; whilst the local pro-
duction of Victoria and South Australia is
represented by less than 500 tons. If we
admit that the Commonwealth with its
rising population is in a posiion to absorb
6,000 tons annually, and assume that the
average yield of currants is not ikely to ex-
ceed i ton per acre, even an area of 12,000
acres under Zante currants would not un-
duly congest the local market. I have been
unable to ascertain the area under currants
in Victoria; but, from enquiries made
locally, I am able to classify c\irrant vine-
yards in South Australia as follows : Rey-
nella and Maclaren Vale, 244 acres; Clave
and Auburn, 220 ; Angaston and Tanunda,
286 ; Gawler River, 5 ; Yorke's Peninsula,
7 ; Renmark, 15 ; Langhorne's Creek, A-c.,
20 ; total, 797. We are far yet from the pos-
sible 12,000 acres, even admitting that Vic-
toria can show 1,000 acres under currants,
which I think unlikely. Currant-growing
can be confidently recommend to those who
have taste for the kind of work it involves.
I know of no more profitable method of
utilising good land."
FRUITGROWING.
119
EXPORTS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN RAISINS AND CURRANTS DURING FIRST NINE MONTHS
OF 1903, COMPARED WITH THOSE DURING THE WHOLE OF 1902.
RAISINS.
First nine
months 1903.
Ibs.
To New South Wales 162,085
Victoria 1,761
Queensland 69,439
Western Australia 48,597
Tasmania 1,358
1902.
Ibs.
155,890
97,091
122,194
95,788
CURRANTS.
First nine
months 1903.
Ibs.
19,969
2,209
2,470
56
New Zealand 30,072
United Kingdom
Other Countries . .
12,600
1,310
Total outside Commonwealth 30,072
13,910
1902.
Ibs.
27,475
23,758
616
Commonwealth 283,240 470,963 24,704 51,849
Total exports 313,312 484,873 24,704 51,849
Harvesting in the South-East Steam Threshing Machine at
Minor Rural Industries.
The climate and soil of South Australia
are so favorable to the production of all
kinds of grain, fruit, and vegetables that
there is practically no limit to what, in a
comparative sense, may be classed as "minor
rural industries." The term is employed
for convenience of classification. Many
of the "minor" industries are growing in
importance. Clover, lucerne, peas, beans,
plants are grown in various parts of the
State for the fattening of live stock.
Lucerne growing on the Adelaide plains
for "topping" up cattle that have travelled
long distances from Central Australian
cattle stations is becoming a flourishing
industry.
With a climate similar to that of coun-
tries where the olive flourishes it would,
indeed, have been strange if olive cultiva-
tion had been neglected in South Aus-
tralia. Olive oil manufactured in South
Australia was sent to the great exhibition
of 1851 and gained "honorable mention"
on account of "its clearness, color, and
flavor." South Australian oil has since
that time taken numerous prizes in dif-
ferent parts of the world. It has been
officially stated by experts that "no oil
that has ever been sent into a market sur-
passes in quality, lucidity, and creamy
delicateness of most delicious flavor the
oil that is produced on the Adelaide
plains." Sir Samuel Davenport, a high
authority and a pioneer in this, as well
as in the wine industry, has made the fol-
lowing written statement: "There being
many varieties of cultivated olives whose
merits for quantity or quality of oil differ,
or whose rank is held in degrees of esti-
mation relatively to national tastes, South
Australia has now become rich in the pos-
session of olive stocks of reputation secured
to her from Malaga, Gibraltar, and Lis-
bon ; from Cannes, Nice, and South of
France, via Marseilles ; and from Florence
and Ban, via Brindisi. Some skilled
French growers of the olive have been in-
troduced, whose labors, and the instruction
they must impart to others, cannot but
prove of great advantage to the future cul-
tivation and production of the olive. Had
South Australia been colonised by Greek,
Italian, or French olive growers, it most
probably would, long ere this, have pro-
duced large quantities of oil and preserved
olives for the various markets of the old
world. Nevertheless, in many gardens,
and in some special plantations of the tree
in and about Adelaide, the silvery hue of
the undersurface of the foliage, as inverted
by the winds, calls strikingly to mind the
scenery of well-known localities of its cul-
tivation, as of Cannes or Mentone on the
Mediterranean, or of the banks of the
Upper Tagus. The calcareous nature of
the soil around Adelaide and the warm
and dry climate assist in bringing the fruit
of the olive, as of the vine, to remarkable
perfection ; while for the benefit of the
laborers, as well as of the farmers, the olive
harvest conveniently follows on the vin-
tage as the vintage follows on the harvest
time of wheat and other grains." Supplies
of olive oil are now drawn from South
Australia by the comptroller of navy
stores on the Australian station. In 1902
there were 78,000 olive trees, from which
12,000 gallons of oil were made.
The wattle is largely cultivated for its
bark, which is chiefly used for tanning
purposes. Exports in 1902 amounted to
7,702 tons, valued at 68,850. In addi-
tion, large quantities were used locally.
Production has risen from 4,372 tons in
1891 to 9,212 tons in 1902.
Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., Curator of the
Technological Museum, Sydney, and Con-
sulting Botanist to the Forest Department,
in a pamphlet published in 1891, said:
"The broad-leaved wattle of South Aus-
tralia is one of the richest tanning barks in
the world. South Australia has practically
tne monopoly of this bark, and it is a grand
heritage the envy of the Eastern colo-
nies."
Hops have been cultivated at intervals,
and the quality of the produce proved that
MINOR RURAL INDUSTRIES.
121
soil and climate in favored spots were suit-
able to its production. The industry dur-
ing recent years, however, has not shown
any signs of expansion.
The same may be said respecting the
cultivation of tobacco. The plant grows
well in a few places, but the cost of labor
has so far been against growers.
Figs thrive luxuriantly, but up to the
present very little attention has been paid
to the business of drying. Quite recently,
however, the Smyrna fig has attracted
notice, and the success achieved in Cali-
fornia in "caprification'' by the introduc-
tion of the fig wasp, which accomplishes
this necessary function, is being closely
watched with a view of establishing the in-
dustry. A few years ago Mr. W. C.
G-rasby visited Smyrna as an honorary
Commissioner of the South Australian Go-
vernment, and studied the fig question on
the sipot. Mr. T. B. Robsoii, of Hector-
ville, has already a large number of the
true varieties, and has arranged for the in-
troduction of the fig wasp at once.
The drying of various kinds of fruit and
the making of jams are important indus-
tries, and quite a number of factories exist
in South Australia, The sun-drying of
raisins and currants is largely resorted to,
more particularly at the irrigation colony
of Renmark, where "acres" of drying trays
may be seen in the season. South Aus-
tralian jams have been supplied to the War
Office and the navy stations, and large
shipments are regularly made to South
Africa a,nd various parts of Australia. The
quality of South Australian dried fruits
and jams is excellent.
Bees do well in almost any part of the
State. At present there are 20,000 hives
producing about 1,000,000 pounds of
honey annually.
There are three experimental date plan-
tations in South Australia under State con-
trol. These are making good progress,
the dates grown being of good marketable
quality.
Exception will be taken in some quar-
ters to the classification of poultry breed-
ing, and the egg trade under "minor" in-
dustries. It has outgrown that limita-
tion, but without going into details of
breeding fowls for egg-production and
table purposes, there remains little to be
said in a general way. Poultry is one
of the leading "by products" of the farm in
this State. There are several poultry farms
conducted on a large scale, and fanciers
are frequently making valuable importa-
tions. Both in the matter of egg-produc-
tion and the export of frozen poultry the
industry promises to grow to considerable
importance. Mr. R. W. Skevington, the
manager of the Produce Export Depart-
ment, in his last annual report, wrote :
"The poultry trade is gradually increasing.
Paying prices for good young poultry can
be secured in London from February to
June. In every district of this State in-
creased activity is being displayed in the
raising of poultry, and it is expected that
definite steps will be taken next year to
open up a trade that will be profitable to
South Australian breeders." The follow-
ing shows the value of the eggs exported in
the years stated : 1890, 44,204; 1891,
48,554; 1892, 27,771; 1893, 26,575;
1894, 22,679; 1895, 27,275; 1896,
40,353; 1897, 50,034; 1898, 55,719;
1899, 62,493; 1900, 73,679; 1901,
73,520 ; 1902, 107,739. The shipments
of frozen poultry has increased from 42
in 1898, to 2,805 in 1902.
Within the last few years increased at-
tention has been devoted to the breeding
and fattening of pigs. Some well-ap-
pointed piggeries are to be found in
various parts of the State, and there has
been a steady increase in the number of
bacon factories. The export of South
Australian bacon and haotns in 1902
amounted to a value of 32,628. Ship-
ments of South Australian preserved
meats were worth 27,000.
Our Irrigation Colony.
And the wilderness shall put on the glory of a fruitful garden ; the desert
shall be made to blossom as the rose ; the dry land shall laugh with gladness ;
the valley shall be filled with joy ; the husbandman shall reap the increase and
enjoy the fruits of his labour under his own vine and fig tree.
All this has come to pass at Renmark,
the irrigation colony of South Australia,
situated on the banks of the River Mur-
ray. As you visit one block and then
another transformed in the space of a few
years from a barren waste into gardens of
loveliness you feel that Rabelais in his
valley had not more reason to be happy
than the men whose lot has been cast in
such pleasant places. The lands assessed
to the Irrigation Trust which controls the
colony comprise about 3,600 acres, and
consist of apricots, 842 acres; peaches,
122; citrus, 318; vines, 1,380; lucerne,
616; olives, 35; sundry fruit, 11, and
cereal, 479 acres. The blocks are situated
to the west of the township spread out
in the shape of a fan. To see the fruit-
ful orchards great orange groves and long
avenues of fruit trees and vines you must
get among the ribs of this fan and skirt
round the edges of it. At the handle of
the fan is No. 1 pump, a fine piece of
machinery capable of spouting forth
1,620,000 gallons per hour. The main chan-
nel which can be fed from the stream by
gravitation during periods of high river
level starts out in a northerly direction
gradually curving inwards west and south,
forming reservoirs for pumping stations en
route and ultimately enclosing the whole
settlement. There are several main chan-
nels and a number of secondary conduits.
Every block is connected. An open fur-
row within each garden allows the water
to gravitate along each row of trees and
provide the required moisture at the will
of the owner. The country in its natural
state consisted of low mallee scrub, with a
few blades of grass, fighting for a miserable
existence, and sand shifting from place to
place at the caprice of every breeze. Cul-
tivation and irrigation have worked a mar-
vellous change, and the transformation is
wonderful to behold. It forcefully illus-
trates what can be done in Australia by a
combination of water, soil, and sunshine.
These elements are always available. At
the irrigation colony they are regulated,
and the result is that nature yields her
fruit in abundance. An area of 3,600
acres is maintaining 1,000 persons, and last
year produced a crop worth 35,000. The
same land, without irrigation, would not
have been able to carry 500 sheep !
The rich, sandy loam to be found in
many parts of the settlement is said to be
equal to the best Califomian lands where
irrigation has been profitably carried on
for many years. It is easily cultivated,
and retains the moisture for a considerable
time. In other parts of the settlement
the soil is of a heavier quality, and re-
quires more working, but is splendidly
adapted for muscatels, which bear very
heavy crops. The water used in irrigat-
ing is well supplied with organic and in-
organic matter, which makes it an excel-
lent fertiliser.
An ounce of fact is better than many
pounds' weight of theory, and statistics of
production are, after all, the best test to
apply. The figures showing exports of
produce from Renmark for the past seven
seasons in sterling value are as follows :
1895 6,878
1896 7,398
1897 16,869
1898 11,968
1899 18,167
1900 22,086
1901 28,167
1902 35,000
These figures were from actual returns
obtained from apricots, peaches, nec-
tarines, currants, sultanas and raisins,
OUR IRRIGATION COLONY.
123
124
THE CENTRAL STATE.
C. Reiners jt/ioto.
Colonel Morant's Apricot Orchard, Renmark.
oranges, and lemons. Could facts be
more eloquent? They show steady sub-
stantial progress, and the outlook gives
promise of a further good increase for
next season. There is a general disposi-
tion to plant further areas, especially with
oranges and sultana and muscatel vines.
With climate and soil suitable, and an
ample supply of good water, cultivation
and care are alone required to guarantee
a maximum production. As one appre-
ciates all that Nature does for the place,
and watches the water intended for irri-
gation purposes coursing down the chan-
nels like small rivers, it is easy to under-
stand the remarkable results obtained at
Renmark, why the oranges, for instance,
are unusually large and of such delicious
flavor, and how the dried fruits and olive
oil from the irrigation colony have been
so successful at tue Royal and other shows.
The local government of Renmark is
constituted in what is known as the Irriga-
tion Trust. The members of that body
are charged, by Act of Parliament, with
the duty of raising and distributing water
in the horticultural areas, its expenditure-
being met by a uniform yearly rate of 1
per acre, payable on assessed lands whether
watered or not. A gentleman with ex-
tensive experience in California, in evi-
dence given before a Royal Commission,
stated that the water rate and labor were
cheaper at Renmark than in California.
He added: "Vineyards of three years
age in Australia, well watered, are better
than three years old in California, and
when you get on to six years old it will
be just about the same, but there is an
advantage in Renmark over California and
Florida." The Irrigation Trust has Dis-
trict Council powers over the horticultural
area ; but up to the present the township
area is without organised control. There
is, however, a movement proceeding to ob-
tain a Town District Council. The Trust
Act of 1893 provided for a loan of .3,000,
and that of 1900 for a loan of 16,000.
This advance of 19,000 was in order to-
make good the deficiencies of construction.
in plant and works as left by Chaffey
Bros., Ltd. This money has been admir-
OUR IRRIGATION COLONY.
ably expended by the Trust under the super-
vision of the Government, and a special rate
is about to be struck for the repayment of
the first instalment of the loan. The pump-
ing plant is in most efficient order, due
provision having been made for duplicat-
ing or breakdown, and the channelling,
where needed, has been well cemented.
This cementing has stopped the seepage
which was doing a good deal of harm on
the lighter land of the 60 ft. level.
Experience has proved that the raisin
grower got his returns first, and has done
well all along. It is not too much to say
that the Gordo Blanco raisin has seen
Renmark through her troubles. Apricots
have grown into a standard market de-
mand and value. Peaches and nectarines
are in small demand, relatively, as a dried
fruit, and the area so occupied is at present
limited. Otherwise the same remarks
apply to them. The sultanai has of re-
cent years come greatly into favor. The
capital cost of planting this variety ex-
ceeds that of the ordinary raisin vine on
account of trellising, which takes the cost
up to about 10 per acre. They are more
costly to work owing to the trellis, and
the need of increased hand labor to keep
weeds down. This also applies to cur-
rant vines. Their planting has hitherto
been limited ; but since the process of
cincturing has become established, produc-
ing quite wonderful crops, many more
acres have been planted. Oranges like
Washington Navels, Malta Bloods, and
Compudas, and, indeed, ordinary kinds as
well, are good property, and the market
results have always been good. Growers
are not troubled with scale or other tree
disease, and, although in the past the
cultivation of the lemon has not,
owing to market conditions, been com-
pletely satisfactory, the future is more
hopeful. A fair trade has been done with
West Australia and South Africa. The
superior claim of Renmark is its climate,
added to the fertility of the soil. Abun-
dant crops of good fruit are produced, and
they can almost invariably be dried with
very little hindrance from weather. In
proof of this it is important to note that
no evaporator of any kind has ever been
seen on the settlement. All the fruit is
sun-dried.
:
C Seiners photo. Picking Zante Currants at Renmark.
126
THE CENTRAL STATE.
C . Reiners photo.
Sulphuring Plant and Drying Pans, Renmark.
A Second Fruit Colony.
The Coonawarra fruit colony at Penola,
in the South-Eastern portion of the State,
was founded about ten years ago by the
late Mr. John Riddoch, who set aside a
portion of the Yallum estate for the ex-
periment. Two thousand acres were sur-
veyed and cut into small blocks of 10 to 15
acres. Settlers were charged 10 an acre
for the land, and were given 10 years in
which to pay it, 5 per cent, interest being
charged on the balance due. Many of
those who took up land have bought
straight out through the medium of the
State Bank, enjoying the benefits offered
by that institution in the shape of lower
interest, and the system of paying off the
principle and interest together over an ex-
tended period. Anybody visiting Coona-
warra at the present time cannot fully ap-
preciate the uphill struggle which most of
the colonists have had to make during the
last 10 years. Some of the settlers went
into the enterprise with insufficient
capital, and the period of waiting for the
fruit trees to come into bearing proved too
much for them, and the inevitable hap-
pened. Those who have been able to re-
main and work their land are now begin-
ning to reap some reward for their labor
and fortitude, and the impression created
by a tour of the vineyards and orchards
at this time of the year suggests that suc-
cess is within measurable distance for the
industrious husbandmen. There are about
18 families settled at Coonawarra at the
present time, and several instances were
supplied of where two brothers have taken
up blocks, and the one is out working,
earning a little money to keep the pot
boiling, while the other brother is bring-
ing the orchard into full bearing. One
of the largest gardens is that of Mr. Dar-
went, consisting of 22 acres under vines,
26 acres under apples, and 15 acres under
soft fruits. Mr. Darwent ships his apples
to England, Java, and the Continent.
OUR IRRIGATION COLONY.
I2 7
Among the varieties of apples grown at
Coonawarra are Cleopatra, Cox's Orange
Pippin, Five Crown (London Pip), Rome
Beauty, Nickajack, Scarlet Nonpareil,
Jonathan, Newtown Pip, Stone Pip, and
Roakewood. The variety of peaches in-
cludes Brigg's Red May, Early Silver,
Royal George, Merchant Campbell, Dr.
Hogg, and Lady Palmerston. The varie-
ties of apricots are Oullin's Early, Moor-
park, and Hemskirk. The plums include
Green Gage, French Prune, Felamburg,
Prime Pons Seedlings, and Coe's Golden
Drop. The Coonawarra fruit colony is
looking well, the trees a,nd vines having a
healthy appearance, and promising good
crops.
The soil at Coonawarra might be
described as being of a chocolate loam in
some places and a lighter sandy loam in
others, with a limestone formation running
throughout the colony. The country in
the vicinity of Coonawarra is what some
bushmen describe as "pockety," and these
little depressions in the land generally re-
present the richest patches. There is an
average rainfall of 27 inches during the
year, and water is obtainable anywhere at
a depth of irom 12 to 15 feet. Irrigation
is not required, owing to the splendid
rainfall and the good supply of water so
near to the surface ; and this, of course, is
a great advantage, and represents a sub-
stantial saving. Ever since the fruit
colony was founded Mr. Riddoch has
given every possible encouragement to the
settlers, and to serve as an object-lesson
he planted about 250 acres with vines and
fruit trees on his own estate. Of this
area about i39 acres are under vines. Ail
the grapes growing in the settlement are
carted to the wine cellar, and the settlers
are now receiving very good prices for
these, and there is a tendency to increase
the acreage of several of the vineyards.
The wine cellars at Coonawarra are an
adjunct of the fruit colony, and they re-
present a profitable outlet for a portion of
the produce raised by the settlers. Mr.
McBain, who was for some time assistant
viticulturist at the Roseworthy College, is
manager of the cellars, and his experience
has enabled him to bring the accommoda-
tion quite up to date and supply it with
all necessary appliances. In 1901 53,000
gallons of wine, practically all claret, were
G. Seiners photo.
Willow Channel, Renmark.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
6'. Seiners photo. A River Steamer, River Murray, discharging cargo.
made, and this was more than double the
vintage of any previous season. The make
in 1902 was aoout 80,000 gallons, and in
order to provide for this the cellars have
been enlarged and the storage capacity in-
creased to about 180,000 gallons. The
vines throughout the Coonawarra colony
are bearing exceedingly well, and the
grape crop promises to be the largest yet
gathered in the district. The yield was
as large as 2 tons of Cabernet Sauvignon
and 3 tons ox Shiraz to the acre last season,
which speaks well for the climate and
other natural conditions of the district.
The claret made at Coonawarra has already
secured a good reputation, and the con-
signment sent to London realised top
prices, 3/9 per gallon having been obtained
for it. This claret is of good quality, and
possesses an agreeable flavor and fine bou-
quet. Last year the growers received at
the rate of 7/10 per ton for Cabernet
Sauvignon, and 4/10 for Shiraz grapes,
prices which paid them very well. The
Coonawarra vinegrowers have had the ad-
vantage of the experience of the older
vine-growing districts, and have only
planted the most approved kinds for red
wine, viz., i/he Cabernet Sauvignon and
Shiraz. Some years ago Messrs. Thomas
Hardy and J. H. Foureur, a native of
Epernay, paid a visit to the district, and
were both of the opinion that the nature
of the soil and subsoil and the climate
were all in favor of the production ol
champagne, and recommended Mr. Rid-
doch to plant the Pinot Noir, one of the
best champagne grapes. Mr. Riddoch
acted on tne advice, and put in 30 acres
of that grape ; but the growth was disap-
pointing, and they were nearly all up-
rooted, and now only a few vines of that
variety are to be seen.
The orchards and the vineyards are now
coming into full bearing, and there ap-
pears to be every reason to believe that
the Coonawarra colony will prosper, and
that those settlers who have "come
through the fire" will be all the better for
the experience. The results now being
obtained at Coonawarra indicate the possi-
bilities of a practically new industry for
the South-East, and from a vigneron's
point of view the country has advantages
which are not to be found in less favored
parts of the State. The natural resources
of the great district of which Penola is the
centre are considerable. Some of them
have still to be discovered ; others have yet
to be fully utilised.
The Dairying Industry.
While it cannot be denied that the
conditions which obtain in South Australia
are not wholly favorable to the develop-
ment of every branch of dairying, the
State is favorably placed in many ways
su far as the manufacture of butter
and cheese are concerned. A reputation
for a choicely-flavored article was long ago
won by the producers, and during later
years it has been further improved, untu
now the monetary value of the industry
has assumed important and prosperous
dimensions. This happy position must be
attributed to the remarkable capabilities
of our soils, the strong nutritive herbages
and grasses which form a rich natural food
for milking stock and the beneficial char-
acter of the climate, combined with intelli-
gent and painstaking zeal on the part of
the modern dairyman. Dairying in South
Australia dates back to 1885, when ths
factory system was inaugurated. It was
expected that the introduction of modern
methods would arouse opposition, but the
practical sagacity of the dairy farmer and
a commendable readiness to adopt scienti-
fic principles led to the movement being
established on a firm basis. With a vigor
and determination worthy of their fathers,
the first settlers on the soil, the pioneer
dairymen applied themselves to the new
work. Rapid development followed. In
1892 that is, within seven years 25 fac-
tories were in operation. At present
there are 68 up-to-date butter and cheese
factories and creameries.
A significant feature which promises
well for this industry is a splendid record
of progress achieved in the northern areas
where severe and often erratic climatic
conditions prevail. The cow, in fact, has
proved the salvation of many farmers in
drought-affected localities, and the returns
from the dairy have more than compen-
sated for general expenditure and losses
made in other directions. "Give us enough
feed for a few cows and fowls and we can
live comfortably. The rest is profit." So
said a farmer on a recent occasion. An
eminently satisfactory fact is the superior
butter-fat quality of the milk supplies,
while the attractive aroma in the cream
and butter is substantial proof of the im-
proved methods adopted by the factories.
The milking herds are yearly receiving
more attention, and the standard ot
quality is being raised.
The general suitability of our climate
for dairy larming affords scope for a still
wider expansion of producing operations.
In the south and south-eastern portions oi
the State where the rainfall exceeds 30
inches, ana where the soil is above the
average, intense culture is being practised
and with its extension the milking stock
will be comfortably reared at a correspond-
ingly smaller cost. In the volcanic coun-
try near Mount Gambier the ideal home
of the dairyman is to be found, and it is
questionable whether more favorable na-
tural conditions are to be found in Aus-
tralia, It is in this part of the State
where the Hon. George Riddoch, M.L.C.,
one of our most enterprising stock owners,
has introduced uie system so successfully
practised in the western districts of Vic-
toria^ dairying on halves. Mr. Riddoch
has set aside a portion of his valuable
Koorine Estate, dividing it into handy size
farms. He supplies the cows, plant,
houses, &c., the dairymen finding the ne-
cessary labor. The plan is proving
mutually satisfactory and profitable.
An important feature of the industry is
the wealth of natural herbage which grows
with luxuriant vigor in many parts of the
State. The rich nutriment contained in
the native grasses during the warm months
of summer is calculated to astonish the
visitor by its rapid fattening properties for
milking and other stock. Cows grazing
on the plains and undulating lands yield
milt of magnificent flavor, producing but-
ter of remarkably dry texture, and un-
excelled in any part of the world. Mait-
land Charlotte, a champioif Jersey cow be-
longing to Mr. Alick. Murray, produced
over 17 Ib. of butter per week 8| months
130
THE CENTRAL STATE.
A Dairy Farm at Koorine, Kalangadoo, the property of the Hon. Geo. Riddoch*
after calving, when her supply of food con-
sisted solely in what the animal found in
the paddocks. Leading dairy farmers do
not allow their stock to entirely depend
upon natural grass, but supplement with
sweetly-flavored nutritious wheaten hay.
Bran and meals are liberally fed, and con-
siderable quantities of copra or cocoanut
cake are also consumed.
In the production of fodders great atten-
tion has been devoted to the cultivation of
lucerne. At present about 13,000 acres
are under cultivation, or an increase of
6,000 acres on the figures for 1890. Sown
grasses have also commanded the enter-
prise of the agriculturist, and 25,000 are
under crop. The turning of green crops
into ensilage has also received attention.
Official statistics of the last two years show
a.n increased storage of 1,937 tons. The
quantity has exceeded 150,000 cubic feet,
and a rapid extension of this branch is
bound to take place. Many other crops
are cultivated in extent according to the
suitability of climate and rainfall. Among
these are peas, rape, kale, cabbages, clover,
maize, sorghum, and mangolds. In one of
the five volcanic districts over 60 tons to
the acre of mangolds have been produced
without the aid of manure.
South Australia is strong in stud cattle,
and several breeders have done great ser-
vice for the dairying and agricultural in-
dustries of the State by producing and im-
porting nigh-class animals. Throughout
the milk-producing districts the profits of
the Shorthorns for milk and beef produc-
tion testify to their value for all-round
dairying purposes. These splendid cattle
lose none of their characteristic features
here, and probably a more congenial cli-
mate for them could not be found any-
where in the world. Jersey stock are also
well represented, and the exhibition ot
those famous "butter churnsi" at our agri-
cultural shows supplies conclusive evidence
that neither expense nor attention are
wanting in connection with the importa-
tion and maintenance of the breed. The
Jersey is a popular animal in South Aus-
tralia, and few herds are without a
sprinkling of the blood. The value of this
cow in the advancement of butter produc-
tion cannot be accurately assessed, and it
has been adequately demonstrated that the
breed reaches great perfection in our cli-
mate. Dairymen are rendering admirable
service by proving the value and impor-
tance of the Shorthorn-Jersey cross for
dairying purposes. Ayrshire cows are not
particularly favored, but representatives of
this, as well as the Holstein breed, are
to be found in the State.
In order to advance the industry the
Government has from time to time im-
ported specimens of Jersey and Ayrshire
THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY.
stock, the majority having been selected
for the Government by Mr. Alick. Murray.
These animals were placed tinder the care
of the Agricultural Bureau. This attempt
to improve the dairy herds of the State,
though not a pronounced success, was not
without some good influence.
The latest statistics show that there are
in South Australia 75,011 milch cows dis-
tributed as follows : Central Division,
41,174 ; Lower North, 16,187; Upper
North, 15,322; South-Eastern, 10,211;
Western, 1,620; outside districts, 463.
The quality of the milk supplies in
South Australia is declared by experts to
be high. Latest factory records for a year
show the high percentages of butter fat in
two samples :
1. 3-7 3'7 4-1 4-3 4-1 4'1 4-0 4'0 4'0 4'0 3"8 3'7
2. 4-0 4-1 4"2 4-2 4'1 4'1 4"0 3'8 3'8 4'0 4'2 4'4
These figures represent experiments con-
ducted at two of the largest factories in
the State, and a third factory, with 62 sup-
pliers, gives an average for the year of 4.4
per cent, oi butter fat. A number of
dairymen were credited with an average
exceeding b per cent, at different months
in the year. It is not uncommon for a fac-
tory to produce a month's yield of butter
with an average of less than 20 Ib. of milk
for a pound of butter, while it is on record
where a dairy farm fell to 17.4 Ib. of milk
for a week's supply from a herd of six cows.
Instances are to be found of cows yield-
ing milk with over eight per cent, of fat,
and five per cent, is of common occurrence.
The butter made in South Australia is of
excellent flavor, a fact largely due to
the educational work carried out by
the able Government dairy expert, Mr.
G. S. Thomson, F.R.S.E., who dis-
tributes reports embodying the merits
and demerits of the tests conducted
at the Produce Depot prior to shipment.
Under his guidance valuable experiments
have been made, and to-day our dairy
farmers are able to market a product em-
bracing many attractive features. At our
agricultural shows the display of dairy pro-
duce commands admiration and the un-
biased judging of the Victorian expert
at the expositions under the auspices of
the Royal Society has strengthened the
high position held by our butter makers.
The rapid means of transit provided by
modern ocean steamers, with their
spacious refrigerating chambers, have en-
abled our producers to place their article
on foreign markets in first-class condition.
Unfortunately continuous shipments were
interfered with, but the product has won
considerable favor with over-sea con-
sumers. The following figures, showing
exports, illustrate the progress of the
dairy industry and its monetary value to
the State :
Year. Butter. Bacon and Hams.
Cwts. Cwts.
1890 ... 3,798 16,100 789 2,891
1891 ... 4,269 21,408 413 1,311
1892 ... I,y01 9,851 172 632
1893 ... 5,757 20,693 105 425
1894 ... 13,774 54,080 296 898
1895 ... 15,477 70,459 1,073 2,869
1896 ... 5,404 26,194 1,597 5,051
1897 ... 1,484 6,879 813 2,942
1898... 6,869 28,007 411 1,745
1899 ... 12,520 61,470 1,950 6,495
1900 ... 10,210 51,173 2,968 9,069
1901 ... 3,118 17,620 2,648 9,329
1902 ... 3,692 23,230 7,789 32,628
In cheddar cheese production the State
holds a creditable position, and a wide and
profitable expansion must eventually take
place. Owing to the demand being in ex-
cess of the quantity manufactured, an ex
port business with England has not yet
begun. The richness of the product
and its general characteristics have gained
the public confidence, and this, no doubt,
is mainly responsible for consumption
being confined to our own State. A series
of comprehensive experiments conducted
by the Dairy Expert two years ago
gave ample proof of the successful
carriage of cheese from South Aus-
tralia to the British market, A consign-
ment was despatched to Glasgow, and was
tested there when eight months old. The
practical and scientific reports received
from the highest authorities who made the
examination in Scotland were highly com-
plimentary to the State, and it will not
be out of place to give the fat analysis of
four samples. When it is considered that
an average British cheese contains about
32 per cent, of fat, the superiority of our
132
THE CENTRAL STATE.
A Dairy Farm in tJie South-East, the property of the Hon. Geo. Riddoch. M.L.C.
experimental 'shipment is all the more ap-
parent, 'i'lie percentages were as fol-
lows : 43.95, 39.81, 39.50, 40.74.
The following shows the quantity of
butter and cheese manufactured since 1896
and the number of milch cows in the
State :
Year.
Milch Cows.
Butter.
Ibs.
4,616,675
3,900,118
4,559,683
5,581,231
5,525,606
4,954,523
4,521,246
more butter
Cheese.
Ibs.
907,123
849,845
923,123
946,930
1,030,680
1,053,160
705,969
was made
1896 ... 84,2o5
1897 ... 73,524
1898 ... 76,709
1899 ... 83,527
1900 ... /5,942
1901 ... 74,995
1902 ... V 5,011
Fifty per cent.
in 1896 than in 1892. The actual quan-
tity specified was 4,616,675 lb., as com-
pared with 3,110,093 lb. The cheese made
was 907,123 lb., against 661,314 lb., or 37
per cent, additional. In 1898 the quan-
tity of butter made was 4,559,683 lb., and
of cheese 923,123 lb., showing increases of
659,565 lb. and 73,278 lb. respectively. In
1899 the quantity of butter returned was
5,581,231 lb., the highest recorded, and an
increase of 1,021,548 lb., or 22 per cent, on
the previous year. Of cheese the output
increased to 946,930 lb., or 3 per cent, ad-
ditional. In 1900 the quantity of butter
made was 5,525,606 lb., in 1901 4,954,523
lb., and in 1902 4,521,246, the seasons
being less favorable. The average output
for the last five seasons has been
5,028,457. The output of cheese in-
creased from 1,030,680 lb. in 1900
to 1,053,160 lb. in 1901. In 1902 the
quantity was only 705,969 lb. The
average for the last quinquennial period
was 960,748 lb. Owing to the drought
only 605,301 lb. of butter, value 26,194,
were exported in 1896, and in 1897 but
166,213 lb., value 6,879, from the same
cause. In 1898, however, 769,393 lb.,
value 28,007, were shipped. In 1899 the
quantity of butter exported was 1,402,261
lb., an increase of 80 per cent., and of the
value of 61,473, showing 120 per cent,
more. In 1900 shipments were 1,143,473
lb., representing 51,173 in value, in 1901
only 349,178 lb. of 17,670 value, and 1902
413,504 lb. of 23,230 value. The total
export of South Australian butter during
the last 11 years has amounted to
8,983,305, of 369,709 value.
There is no branch of agriculture more
dependent upon the assistance of science
to promote its success than dairying. The
work of the dairy factory and the great
advance of technical education during re-
cent years have revolutionised the manu-
facture of butter and cheese. A know-
ledge of bacteriology is of the highest
THE DAIRYING INDUSTRY.
Portion of Churning Room, A. W. 8 and ford & Co.'s Creamery.
Gambler Produce Company's Freezing Works, Mount Gambier A. W. Sandford
and * Company, proprietors.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
value to the youth who enters upon a
course of training in order to fit himself
for the responsibilities of dairy manage-
ment. Indications of earnest endeavors
on the part of the State to thoroughly
equip him are everywhere apparent. At
the Agricultural School, the preparatory
institution, the student is first taught the
rudiments of dairy science and practice,
and at the conclusion of his elementary
training he passes into the Agricultural
College for the higher courses. Here he
is brought into contact with the practical
part of his duties, having to assist in the
operations of the farm and dairy, and on
the more scientific side give his attention
to the work of the chemical laboratory.
When he has completed his studies the
young man has a knowledge which enables
him to undertake the difficult work con-
nected with factory management. At this
stage in his career he is not left unaided,
for the Dairy Expert attached to the De-
partment of Agriculture visits the leading
centres and conducts demonstrations on
any branch of work desired by the
manager. Matters demanding careful in-
vestigation, such as taint in milk, butter,
and cheese which involve the farmer and
factory in heavy loss, receive attention,
and at the conclusion of his enquiries the
expert issues printed information dealing
with the cause of the trouble, its action in
the produce, and methods to obviate it. A
fully equipped laboratory is attached, to
the department where scientific work in
all its branches is carried out, from the
testing of factory thermometers to the
bacteriological and chemical examination
of samples of dairy produce.
The practice of dairying is not omitted
in the teaching curriculum of the Agricul-
tural Department, for meetings are ar-
ranged in any district throughout the
State, and lectures are delivered to the
dairymen on subjects in keeping with the
requirements of their particular part of
the country. Visits are also paid to the
State Schools, wh-sre the expert delivers
short, practical addresses to the children,
who take a keen interest in what ia said
to them. An improved system of judg-
ing, too, in connection with the agricul-
tural shows has been adopted. The good
and bad features of each exhibit are de-
tailed in a list of points showing where the
defects lie, and how readily they may be
noticed in comparative observation.
A reference to dairying would be incom-
plete that failed to acknowledge the splenr
did pioneer services rendered to the indus-
try by Messrs. A. W. Sandford & Co. In
the seventies this firm started the first
bacon-curing works on factory lines at
Mount Gambier and Port Adelaide, and al-
though supplies were scarce in those days,
and importations had to be resorted to from
Victoria, the business has made such strides
that now quite a number of factories are in
full swing, not only at Mount Gambier, but
in the hills close to Adelaide, resulting in
the State being self-supplying, and also
doing a very fair export business with our
neighbors in Broken Hill and Western
Australia. In dairy machinery this firm,
quickly recognising that there was an open-
ing for a new branch of industry, started
manufacturing dairying appliances. A
number of hands are employed by them
building and fitting churns, and the many
other appliances that are so essential to a
dairy and butter factory. The most im-
portant development in the line has been
the starting of the creamery system, which
is evidently much appreciated by the
farmers, judging by the large quantity of
cream forwarded daily ; and is an especial
advantage in a country like this, where
the holdings are invariably so widely scat-
tered. Throughout the areas dairy
farmers have adopted the separator, which
enables them, after separation, to secure
the wholesome sweet skimmed milk for fat-
tening purposes, whilst the cream is for-
warded on to the central creamery in the
city, where there are extensive freezing
rooms for its cooling and churning into
buter.
The Wine Industry.
"Our wines as a class are undoubtedly
superior to the bulk of the European
wines, and are, therefore, well able to hold
their own on the markets of the world."
This is the opinion of Professor Perkins,
the Government Viticulturist, and it has
been confirmed by leading authorities in
Europe, as well as experts in Australia.
Viscount Des Garets, a champagne
maker of Epernay, France, visited a num-
ber of South Australian cellars in July,
1903, and when in Western Australia on his
way back to France, he publicly made the
following statements: "Some of the best
wines I have tasted in Australia were
those of South Australian production. I
am taking several cases of claret, white
wines, and brandy to France with me.
Before many years the French market will
be killed out, and I am quite sure that the
export of Australian wine will improve
day by day and year by year. Many of
the ideas employed by Australian wine-
makers came from their own heads. These
young countries can teach the older places
many things, and I have learnt some ideas
which I will put into practice in France.
My countrymen do not travel enough ;
there is always something to be learned in
the changed conditions of younger coun-
tries. I intend to tell them that when I
get home, and persuade them to come and
see what Australasia has to show. Land,
land, land everywhere, and out here I see
the best means, not to become wealthy,
but to live very comfortably and make
money. It is a great mistake for the
old countries not to send more people out
to these places. Land is to be had
cheaply, and I think the French farmer
comes out on top of the list. I will speak
about these things when I get home."
The high quality of the South Austrar
Han product is commanding increased
appreciation in foreign markets. There
has been a vast amount of prejudice to
overcome, and an uphill fight to secure a
footing in conservative trade circles, but
these difficulties are gradually passing
away. The viticultural expert of the
State has affirmed that with due care there
will be no difficulty in placing wine-
making in the front rank of the revenue-
yielding industries of this State. There
is no room for doubt concerning the suita-
bility of South Australian soil and climate
to the growth of the vine. There never
was from the time that the first vine cut-
tings were imported.
"With the wonderful climate of Aus-
tralia," wrote Dr. Taylor many years ago,
"with its volcanic and other weathered
soils full of potash, iron, and other vine
food, it would be surprising indeed if Aus-
tralia were not supplying the world with
'wine that maketh glad the heart of man'
long after the worn-out vineyards of the
Old World have succumbed to horticultural
starvation and entomological ravages."
"Experience has shown," says the State
Viticultural expert, "that South Australia
is pre-eminently suited to the growth of
the vine; and that the manufacture
of a good sound wine, capable of
holding its own in the world's mar-
kets, can readily be obtained from a
large portion of our agricultural areas."
The vine nourished in South Australia
from the first, and wine made with the
most primitive appliances was pronounced
by connoisseurs to be of excellent quality.
Governor MacDonnell, writing to a friend
in 1859, said : "I have lately been going
through the dozen duplicate samples of
wine you sent me from Tanunda, and at
least eight of them are excellent. I have
been quite surprised at their quality ; but
I have no doubt this country will be a good
wine-producing country. People are set-
ting to work energetically planting vines
in all directions, and in four years I have
no doubt we shall obtain a tolerable foot-
ing in the English market." "With time
and care Australia ought to be the vine-
yard of the world," said Sir Charles Dilke
in his "Greater Britain," written after his
visit to these lands in 1867. He con-
tinued : "The Colonial wines are excellent,.
136
THE CENTRAL STATE.
better indeed than the growths of Cali-
fornia, which, however, they resemble in
general character. The Albury Her-
mitage is a better wine than can be bought
in Europe." South Australian wines
have improved out of all knowledge since
Sir Charles Dilke expressed his views.
Mr. P. B. Burgoyne (the London-Aus-
tralian wine merchant), after a visit to this
State, declared: "The wines of South
Australia as a whole are a great improve-
ment on those which I tasted in 1893. I
find the types exhibit a distinct indivi-
duality, and I have tasted wines with an
elegance and finish not surpassed by other
wine-growing countries. Of this you
might indeed be proud." The London
"Times," in 1887, stated that Mr. Richard
Bannister, in reporting on the subject in
connection with the late Colonial Exhibi-
tion under the auspices of the Society of
Arts, emphasises the fact that soil and
climate in many parts of Australia are
eminently suited to certain kinds of grapes.
"It depends on the choice of the grapes,
on the care with which they are grown and
tended, and on their subsequent manipula-
tion and the storing of the wines, whether
colonial wines will find permanent and in-
creasing favor among wine drinkers.
Recent improvements in South Australia
have had such marked beneficial results
that there is every hope of a successful
future for these wines." During the in-
terval of 16 years since those words were
penned, South Australian growers have
made great strides, and wines of splendid
quality are produced in increasing quanti-
ties.
This fact has received striking confirma-
tion from Mr. A. Browne, an expert from
the neighboring State of Victoria. Mr.
Browne acted as sole judge at the annual
Wine Show held in August, 1903, and at
the conclusion of his labors he said that
"In his experience as a judge he had never
met wines so universally good and of such
high standard. It showed that the
growers, or those interested in the trade,
thoroughly understood and appreciated
their business when they put forward
wines of such quality as they had done.
It had generally been his experience in
years past to be able to pick out four or
five wines from the 10 or 20 samples in a
class. because they stood above the others;
but in the present instance the exhibits
all ran very close. They would see this
when he furnished them with a copy of the
points. It had been a very difficult and
anxious matter to pick out the best wines.
Their full red wines were good, honest
wines, and approached the Burgundy.
They were good export wines. They had
got over the difficulty of producing wines.
It was now a question of finding a market
for them. He had never come across
wines equal to the sweet wines he had
judged. They could produce Tokay,
Madeira, and Verdeilho, which would com-
mend themselves anywhere. He had had
an interesting conversation with Mr.
Fueerhard, the Portuguese seller, who
assured him they could produce as good a
port wine as any in Oporto. He did not
know they wanted anything better than
the port wine he had judged." The
"Lancet," the well-known medical journal,
expressing an opinion on South Australian
wines submitted in London, wrote:
"Australia at a moderate cost is sending us
really good wines of the excellent type of
those before us. Each year sees a marked
improvement in the tone and quality of the
vintage."
Concerning the profitable nature of the
industry in this State, the case has been
officially represented thus: "If we admit
that a well-cultivated vineyard will yield
an average of two tons of grapes per acre,
or about 250 gallons of wine, returning
from 1/6 to 2/ a gallon at the cellar door,,
we have a gross return of from 19 to 25-
per acre ; and if from these figures we de-
duct the comparatively large sum of 10'
per acre for cultivation, manures, cost of
manufacture, interest on land and build-
ings, &c., we are left with a net profit vary-
ing from <9 to 15 per acre." "Can any
other cultivated plant, grown on a fairly
large scale," asks the Professor of Viti-
culture, "show figures to compare with
these?" ''Did our vineyard area," he
has remarked, "extend over 100,000 acres,
the land under vines would yield annually
from two to two and a-half millions
sterling, nearly one-half of which would be
distributed amongst the community, the
rest representing the profits of the
growers."
Natural characteristics of soil and situa-
tion of our vineyards must needs always-
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138
THE CENTRAL STATE.
be a vital point of consideration if growers
contemplate the production of high-classed
wines. In South Australia, as in other
countries, this potent fact is already mak-
ing itself felt, and wines of the rarest types
are met with in many cellars. The
Minister of Agriculture, in a recent public
utterance, said : "The possibilities of ex-
pansion in connection with the wine indus-
try were very great. At present they had
21,000 acres, and the average production
could be put down at 200 gallons per acre.
At 1/3 per gallon that meant ,12/10 an
acre, or a gross return of <250,000. The
cost of cultivation, the interest on plant,
and the value of the land could be put
down at 6/10 an acre, so that meant a
profit of 6/10 on every acre cultivated.
If they got 100,000 acres planted during
the next 50 years their present output
would increase fivefold. If they had
500,000 acres under cultivation it would
give them 6,000,000 a year."
Tiie growth of the wine industry has
been remarkable considering the difficul-
ties associated with the business. Some
vignerons had a lot to forget in the cultiva-
tion of the vine in a new land. All of
them had much to learn. The process of
education was slow and costly, but most
of the problems which troubled the early
makers are problems no longer. Present
day cellarmen have a clear course, and
when a few difficulties connected with the
marketing of the produce in foreign
markets shall have been overcome, as they
soon will be, the expansion of the industry
will be assured. Early history connected
with the introduction of the vine to South
Australia was so well reviewed by jbhe late
Mr. Crompton at a banquet held at Mc-
Laren Vale a few years ago that I cannot do
better than summarise the interesting state-
ment made by him. It appears that Sir
William McArthur, of New South "Wales,
to whom Australia was especially indebted
for the introduction of thj Merino sheep,
also imported vines suitable for wine-
making. That was the beginning of the
well-known Camden vineyards. There
was also a very valuable collection of vines
made by Mr. Bushby which was subse-
quently entrusted to the Sydney Botanic
Garden. There were Mataro, Grenache,
and Carignan, and probably nearly all the
vines of the South of France, and this col-
lection was large in the number of varie-
ties. Mr. Bushby spared no pains to
make it complete. About Perpignan his
tracks were to be found years afterwards.
It was probably from Mr. Bushby's collec-
tion that South Australians obtained the
varieties named, as well as the Shiraz. It
was known in South Australia that those
vines were to be had from Sydney, and
cuttings were sent here before 1850, pro-
bably to various applicants, notably to
Mr. Davenport at Macclesfield (now Sir
Samuel Davenport). In addition to those
importations to New South Wales, there
were two collections of Spanish vines.
From one of these originated the Claren-
don Vineyard belonging to Mr. Leigh,
after whom Leigh-street in Adelaide was
named. The collection went to form a
vineyard at Marino. In 1866 Mr. Cromp-
ton was introduced to the gentleman at St.
Mary's, near Cadiz, who selected these cut-
tings for Mr. John Brown, a name well
known to all old colonists, from whom they
passed to Sir George Kingston. The in-
troduction of the Zante currant vine is
credited to Mr. Bailey, well known as giv-
ing his name to Bailey's Garden at
Hackney. Various other vines were
brought to the State at different times, as,
for instance, the white Sauvignon, by Dr.
Kelly, the Sultana vine, for raisin making,
which was first grown at the Botanic
Garden. To the late Mr. John Reynell,
however, is due the credit of having im-
ported cuttings of wine grapes from Sir W.
McArthur, and of planting the first vine-
yard and making the first wine. Reynella
d:d not exist as a township for some years
afterwards, but there was a vintage there
in 1846 probably the first in South Aus-
tralia. Cuttings from Mr. Reynell were
used in planting Dr. Kelly's vineyard at
Trinity, Morphett Vale, and of Mr. Perry ;
also of some vineyards in the Tanunda dis-
trict. The varieties planted in the first
vineyard at Reynella were the Gouais and
Verdeilho, white grapes, two kinds of
Pineau, Malbec, and Carbenet grapes, red
grapes. That was no mean collection as
regarded quality, even judged with the ex-
perience of half a century. "It might in-
terest my younger hearers," concluded Mr.
Crompton, "to know when passing through
the now large acreage of vines at Reynella,
to recollect that it was the first vineyard
THE WINE INDUSTRY.
139
for winemaking in South Australia, and
the parent of an industry from which much
was now being realised, and from which
much more might be confidently ex-
pected."
South Australian wines have gained a
large number of prizes at foreign exhibi-
tions and Interstate wine shows. In 1891,
in Tasmania, the awards to South Austra-
lian makers were greater in number and
value than the combined prizes which went
to other States. The Colonial Surgeon,
in one of his recent reports, stated :
"Colonial wine still continues to be used
(in the hospitals), and the experience veri-
fies the remark made in previous reports
that, while it costs less, it is superior to the
imported article." South Australian wines
and brandies are now in general use in the
hospitals of Australia, and in many similar
institutions in England.
The following table shows the quantity
of wine made since 1861 in the years
given :
Year. Gallons.
1861 182,087
1865 798,647
1870 895,795
1875 648,186
1880 500,955
1884 ..." 473,535
1890 1,052,086
1895 1,578,590
1900 1,558,285
1902 2,431,563
1903 2,573,424
The acreage under vines has steadily in-
creased. In 1902 there were 12,314 acres,
with 4,030,724 vines in bearing and
3,146,564 non-producing. In 1902 the
area had increased to 20,860 acres, the
number of productive vines to 9,504,880,
and 1,396,531 vines not in bearing, aggre-
gating over ten million vines. The in-
crease in the area has been gradual over
that period, as the following table will
show :
In
Not in
Year.
Acres.
Bearing.
Bearing.
1892 .
.. 12,314
4,030,724
3,146,564
1893 .
.. 15,418
4,206,880
4,545,737
1897 .
.. 18,333
6,809,737
2,493,928
1898 .
.. 18,761
8,021,070
1,803,367
1899 .
.. 19,159
8,814,086
1,355,014
1900 ..
.. 19,438
9,032,083
1,310,948
1901 .
.. 20,158
9,207,935
1,215,908
1902 .
.. 20,860
9,504,880
1,396,531
The rapid increase in production during
the last ten years has, notwithstanding a
substantial advance in exports, compelled
winemakers to extend their cellars and
carry increasingly heavy stocks. Free-
trade between the Australian States as the
outcome of Federal Union has given an
impetus to the Interstate wine trade, and
South Australia has greatly benefited.
During the 12 months recently ended
60,517 gallons of bottled wine, valued at
22,665, was sent away, and 786,174 gal-
lons in bulk, worth ,102,251, against
40,826 gallons (18,241) in bottle and
555,027 (74,177) in bulk the year before.
Victoria required more bottled wine and
nearly treble the quantity of bulk, and
mostly all the other Commonwealth States
imported more than in 1901. The fol-
lowing table shows the wine in stock, the
quantities exported, and the value thereof
since 1892:
Year.
1892 .
1893 .
Wine in Stock.
Gallons
.. 2,578,070
.. 2,776,664
Wine Exported.
Gallons
325,038
260,251
Value.
64,780
47,300
Number
of Stills.
Spirits
Made.
Duty
Paid
36
109,239
6,410
1894 .
.. 2,908,320
256,216
49,475
39
76,951
5,832
1895 .
.. 3,579,605
343,405
58,826
36
98,718
7,096
1896 .
.. 3,713,381
391,233
73,316
38
147,093
9,779
1897 .
.. 4,371,951
513,714
82,553
38
128,376
12,628
1898 .
.. 3,717,008
514,065
78,381
37
149,488
11,346
1899 .
.. 3,896,307
496,610
77,773
38
94,045
11,195
1900 .
.. 3,521,637
476,646
78,153
40
123,302
12,930
1901 .
1902 .
1QD2
.. 4,915,636
.. 5,027,759
5 MR fi'. ./. Dailey photo.
The Land Laws.
In the Imperial Act establishing South
Australia as a British province the price
of land was originally fixed at 1 per acre.
Owing to the difficulty experienced in rais-
ing the prescribed sum of 35,000 from the
sale of lands 20,000 of which was to be
invested in Government securities in order
that the mother country should bear no
financial risk in the founding of the new
province the minimum was subsequently
reduced to 12/ per acre. Under the modi-
fied scheme 437 lots of land, comprising a
total of 58,995 acres, were granted under
preliminary land orders, which also entitled
the holder to a town acre, and these realised
35,397. There were also sold at the
same price twenty town lots of eighty acres
each, bringing the total territorial revenue
up to 36,357. The minimum price of
land in South Australia was thereupon
raised to 1 per acre. Regulations made
at the time provided that every applicant
for land, in order to entitle himself to a
grant, should pay a certain sum into a fund
to be employed in bringing out laborers.
Persons paying cash for 4,000 acres had
the right to call for the survey of any com-
pact district not exceeding in extent
16,000 acres. Under these provisions, up
to December 22nd, 1837, in addition to the
area already stated, 3,300 acres of country
lands at 1 per acre, and 563 town acre
lots for 3,594, had been alienated. In
1838 48,000, and in 1839 170,841 acres
were disposed of, making a total of sales
effected and amount realised up to January
1, 1840, 283,507 acres for 262,240. Land
continued to be dealt with under the ori-
ginal regulations until 1843, when the
first local Act was passed. The land laws
have undergone frequent alterations since
then, and a large volume would be re-
quired to review the process of evolution
necessary to meet the changing require-
ments. The initial mistake was in seek-
ing to transplant English methods of land
tenure to a new country where the condi-
tions were so dissimilar. Much mischief
haa also resulted from the attempt to apply
the same laws to lands varying in quality
and subject to different climates. The
difficulties of colonization were indefinitely
multiplied by these and other legislative
and administrative errois. It was only
after vears of bitter experience and fluc-
tuating fortunes that the vast territory
which forms the State of South Australia
came to be better understood. The flock-
master pushed his way back from the sea-
board, testing the climate and the produc-
tive capacity of the soil as he went. The
farmer followed with nis plough, never
heeding the warnings uttered by the squat-
ter or such an authority as the late Mr.
Goyder, for many years Surveyor-General.
This officer personally surveyed and in-
spected large areas, and, being a man of
keen observation, he noted the suddenness
with which the country changed from large
trees and rich grasses to stunted scrub and
bare hills or vast plains of salt bush, blue
bush, cotton bush, and other herbage. He
fixed what haa since been known as Goy-
der's line of rainfall, a theoretical division
which has proved to be singularly cor-
rect. The ancient theory, however, that
"rain follows the plough" waa firmly be-
lieved, and the agriculturist set his face
northwards with a determination which
was admirable. For some time land legis-
lation waa dictated by popular clamor for
broad acres.
The upset price of country lands was
fixed at 1 an acre, and as the financial
wants of the province increased every
effort waa made to push on with the sale
of land in order to bring in revenue. It
was shortly after the first flush of excite-
ment over the Victorian goidfields had sub-
sided and the stream of population had be-
gun to flow towards South Australia that
settlement began to increase. In the year
1853, 213,221 acres were sold for 291,660,
and from that time onwards the acreage
under cultivation rapidly expanded. In
18"54 it stood at 129,692 acres. Five years
later the cultivated area had increased to
361,884 acres, and in 1865 it was 660,569
acres. When power was granted to the
local Legislature to pass land laws an at-
146
THE CENTRAL STATE.
tempt was at once made to encourage occu-
pation. In 1869 an Act was passed pro-
viding for free selection after survey in
declared areas, the selector being allowed
a certain number of years in which to pay
his purchase money. He was compelled
in the meantime to pay interest at a
moderate rate and to comply with condi-
tions of residence and improvement. Re-
forms followed in quick succession, so rapid
indeed that the land legislation of the
country was confusing even to those whose
duty it was to administer the laws. Every
new Parliament made an attempt to im-
prove on the land laws, and whole Acts
were bodily repealed, or special clauses
were amended and patchwork legislation
was resorted to. The chaotic condition of
the land laws, after so much tinkering,
made a consolidating measure imperative,
and in 1878 the Crown Lands Consolida-
tion Act came into operation. The area
alienated from the Crown in fee simple, in-
cluding completed purchases, at that
time totalled 4,970,940 acres, realising
6,362,059, and the area held on credit
after deducting revoked and abandoned
selections and completed purchases was
2,509,606 acres, on which the sum of
3,534,576 was agreed to be paid. The
population then stood at 236,000, and the
area under cultivation at 1,828,000 acres,
giving an average area of about 31 acres
sold or selected land for each person, of
which area 7| acres were under cultivation.
Crown lands continued to be alienated for
some years until a resolution was carried in
Parliament stopping the sale of public
lands and adopting exclusively a system of
leasing. This method has since been
partially abandoned. Up to the latest
date available, the transactions in land
since the foundation of South Australia
have been as follows :
Area sold in fee simple-
Area granted University, &c.
Dedicated to Renmark Settle-
ment ...
Dedicated to Conservator of
Forests ..
Agreement to Purchase
Credit Selections ...
Scrub Leases (instalment pay-
ing)
Area in Amount
Acres. Received.
7,664,787 9,690,551
121,705
16,652
189,844
4,370 172
234,809 230,204
115,485 19.579
Leased Lands
Right ot Purchase Leases ...
Perpetual Leases ..
Miscellaneous Leases
Selectors' Leases ..
Grazing and Cultivation
Leases .. 535,344
Reserve Lands, S. E. Disl rict 5 1 643
Aboriginal Leases and Li-
cences ... ... 24,094
Pastoral Lands ... ... 74 917,305
Area in Annual
Acres. Rental.
5,556,3" 32,208
8,374,022 41,066
2,206,961 10,935
135,580 1,425
1,462
302
31,383
Total leased
...91,801,260 ,118,794
Area Surveyed Acres.
Open to Allotment, Ordinary Lands ... 2,752,311
" " Pastoral Lands .. 16,755,200
" " Miscellaneous ... 662,989
LANDS REPURCHASED FOR CLOSER SETTLEMENT
AND HOMESTEAD BLOCKS.
156,481 acres. Original purchase money, 197,389.
Repurchased at ^"306,800.
Area in Amount
Acres. Received.
540 3,794
fOn Land 2,531
Sold for Cash ... .,
Agreements to Purchase 59,603 { V"' ""'" *'^ 1
J (Imprvmts. 1,491
Total alienated, &c. 60,143
Right of Purchase Leases
(Homestead).... ... 2,541
Perpetual Leases ... 91,877
Miscellaneous Leases ... 274
Total leased, &c. .. 94,692
7,816
Annual
Rental.
576
8,276
49
8,901
Total alienated, &c. 8,347,652 9,940,506
Grand total of " Closer Settlement " lands in occupa-
tion, 154,835 acres.
During the last session (1902) of Parlia-
ment a further Crown Lands Consolidation
Act was placed upon the Statute Book.
This measure provides for Crown lands
being let on perpetual lease without re-
valuation, or disposed of under agreement
with covenant to purchase by sixty half-
yearly payments of the purchase money,
including interest at not less than two per
cent, or more than four per cent, per an-
num. The purchasers have the right to
complete purchase of their holdings after
having held the land for six years. In
order to meet the growing demand for
land, estates are now repurchased by the
Government and disposed of under agree-
ment with covenant to purchase, under
similar conditions to the covenants under
which Crown lands are disposed of, except
that the interest charged must not be less
than 4 per cent. About 154,000 acres
have already been repurchased and dis-
THE LAND LAWS.
147
posed of to desirable tenants, most of
whom appear to be doing very well on their
holdings. During last session Parliament
authorised the Pinnaroo Railway Bill.
This line, which will start from a point
Tailem Bend on the Adelaide to Mel-
bourne track, goes in an easterly direction
towards the Victorian border. It is ex-
pected that about half a million acres of
land on either side of this railway will be
available for purchase, and will almost all
be taken up within the next two or three
years. The purchase money will be pay-
able in sixty half-yearly instalments with
interest at 2 per cent, per annum, the
purchaser having the right to pay off the
whole of the purchase money at any time
during the currency of his agreement. It
is estimated that the work will have the
effect of opening up about 1,500,000 mil-
lion acres of good agricultural country
during the course of the next few years.
In no direction have greater changes
been made in the land laws than in the
treatment of pastoral country outside of
hundreds. A pastoral lease is now practi-
cally identical with a perpetual lease. The
country can only be resumed when it can
be shown that it is required for purposes
of "intense culture" or "closer settlement."
Pastoral country likely to be required for
closer settlement may be leased for 21
years ; all other pastoral lands may be let
for 42 years, subject to revaluation of the
rent for the last 21 years. In each case
the Pastoral Board fixes the rent, having
regard to the carrying capacity of the land
for depasturing the stock, the value of
land for agricultural or other purposes, the
proximity and facilities of approach to rail-
way stations, ports, rivers, or markets, and
any other circumstances affecting the value
of the land to a lessee. In revaluing the
rent for the second period of 21 years, the
amount fixed shall not be more than 50 per
cent, higher or lower than the rent pay-
able for the first period of 21 years. The
lessees are required to pay the value of the
improvements as fixed by the Pastoral
Board in 21 or 42 annual instalments (ac-
cording to the term of the lease), principal,
and interest at 4 per cent, per annum. The
lands are advertised open to a given date,
and all applications received up to that
time are considered by the Board, which
allots the leases to the most desirable appli-
cants. All such allotments! must be ap-
proved by the Commissioner of Crown
Lands. In the event of resumption for
any purpose, the lessees are entitled to be
paid the value of the improvements
effected by them, as well as compensation
for loss occasioned by resumption. If the
land is required for any public purpose,
one month's notice of intention to resume
is necessary. If for intense culture one
year's notice of intended resumption is re-
quired. The lessees are entitled to re-
ceive payment for improvement/si from the
incoming tenant if the lands are let to
other tenants at the expiration of the term
of the lease.
The land laws of the State are on a
liberal basis, and elasticity and sympathy
characterise their administration. There
is a genuine desire to encourage settle-
ment, and in no other State in the Com-
monwealth is the outlook brighter for the
producer possessed of brains and moderate
capital.
Mining.
South Australia's mineral potentialities
are immense, but with the exception of
copper the amount of wealth which has
been won from beneath the surface of the
earth does nqt compare favorably with
that derived from other sources. The
production of minerals does not fairly re-
present the amount of labor which has
been expended in this direction, or the
possibilities which await the prospector
and the miner. During 1901 the value
of the total productions of the State were
valued at 10,314,000, of which mining
was responsible for only <614,000. Cop-
per accounted for no less than 500,037.
So far from these figures affording any
ground for pessimism regarding the estab-
lishment on a broad basis of a mining in-
dustry they should stimulate further pros-
pecting and encourage judicious invest-
ment of capital. An official report issued
in 1859 contained the following refer-
ence: "The large extent of mineral
country and the valuable deposits of rich
copper ore, utc., lately discovered give pro-
mise of future wealth to South Australia,
the magnitude of which can scarcely be
estimated." One of the earliest arrivals
at Kangaroo Island was an experienced
German geologist and mineralogist Pro-
fessor Menge. In 1837 he removed to the
mainland and quickly earned for himself
the title of "Fatner of Mineralogy." Mr.
Menge soon came to the conclusion that
copper and gold abounded "the hills are
full of them." To him belongs the dis-
tinction of having demonstrated that pre-
cious stones existed in South Australia,
and during his residence he is said to have
discovered the following : Amethyst,
aquamarine, beryl, chalcedony, chrysolite,
chrysoprase, cornelian, diamond, emerald,
garnet, jasper, mocha-stone, opal, smar-
galdine, tourmaline, and topaz. Speci-
mens of these were sent to the Great Ex-
hibition of 1851, and attracted consider-
able attention. The first indication of the
existence of silver-lead ore was made in
1838 on a section of land belonging to Mr.
Osmond Gilles, after whom Glen Osmond,
at the foot of the Adelaide hills, was
named. ^o attempt was made at the
time to follow up the discovery. Three
years later, however, the South Australian
Mining Association was formed to work
the Wheal Gawler Silver and Lead mine
near Glen Osmond. A few tons of the
ore were sent to England in the Cygnet,
and an assay made in the State resulted
in 12 oz. of silver to the ton, and 75 per
cent, of lead. By the end of 1850 there
were 49 reputed mines at work, of which
39 were copper shows. Since those days
a diligent search for minerals has been
prosecuted, and almost all descriptions
have been found in various parts of South
Australia. In the south and mid-north
gold, silver, lead, asbestos, silver,
manganese, antimony, nickel, iron, zinc,
cobalt, bismuth, native sulphur, and
gypsum, in addition to others, have been
located. From the far northern part of
the State to the Northern Territory pre-
cious stones have been found. Of the
products which come out of the earth,
South Australia has valuable salt deposits,
as well as superior marble and slate.
Mineral oil is said to exist in several
places, but so far the assertions of experts
have not been proved. Coal has been
struck 370 miles north of Adelaide. It
is to copper that South Australia is chiefly
indebted for the development of the
mineral industry. The bronze metal was
first brought to ligut early in the forties,
and about the same time the existence of
gold became known. The manner in
which the first copper mines were dis-
covered would form material for the
novelist. The lonely boundary rider, the
shepherd intent on finding the best pas-
ture for his flock, the roving prospector
literally stumbled across stores of trea-
sure which have yielded enormous wealth
to individuals and the State.
The export of ores began in 1842-3,
when the records show that 100 worth
was shipped away. By 1855 exports of
mineral produce reached a value of
155,557, while four years later they had
MINING.
149
swollen to 411,018. During the five
years (1850-1854) copper, &c., constituted
no less than 40 per cent, of the exports
of produce, against 25 per cent, for wool,
and 27 per cent, for breadstuff s. A very
rapid increase took place during the next
fow years, and in 1864 official statistics
reveal that 691,624 represented the
value of the mineral industry of the
State. In that year the output was four-
fold greater than in 1855, while for the
ten-year period (1855-1864) exports
reached 4,500,000. To date the value
of ores and metals sent out of the State
has exceeded twenty-five millions sterling.
A ten-year comparison of exports, which
is the only trustworthy basis for gauging
the growth and importance of the mineral
industry is as follows :
1842 nil.
1852 374,778
1862 547,619
1872 806,364
1882 462,270
1892 204,4i8
1902 498,325
The export of minerals reached high-
water level in 1866, when the recorded
value was 824,501. It should be borne
in mind, however, that in the sixties and
early seventies the production of copper
was large and prices were high. It is
officially estimated that the number of
men at present employed in mining pur-
suits in South Australia is about 6,000,
as follows: Copper, 4,000; gold, 1,000;
salt, 300; silver-lead, 150; coal, 50;
other minerals, 550. These figures in-
clude employees of smelting works.
Copper.
Outside of copper comparatively little
has been done in mining in South Aus-
tralia for years, but in this department
of industry the record is one of which
any country could be proud. The first
discovery was made in 1842 by Messrs. F.
S. Dutton and C. S. Bagot, at Kapunda,
about 50 miles north-east of Adelaide.
Operations were started in the following
year, and from the outset they proved pro-
fitable. There were many obstacles to
be overcome in those early days, but the
pioneers of the State were men not to bo.
daunted. All the material raised had to
be carted to Adelaide by road, while bul-
lock drays uad to be requisitioned for the
conveyance of stores to the field. The
first ore was raised on January 8, 1844,
and on the 23rd of the same month a
small parcel was sent away. Four lodes
were revealed varying from 4 feet to 6
inches in width, the proportion of metal
to the ton running about 18^ per cent.
In 1879 the mine was sold under liquida-
tion, having yielded 70,000 tons of ore.
For a number of years afterwards the
property was work'jd by tributors, but of
recent years operations were suspended
owing to a large influx of water. The
opinion is held in some quarters that the
Kapunda mines should still be regarded
as one of South Australia's valuable
assets. This year a company was formed
to treat the tailings which were left on
the surface when work was suspended. A
magnetic extraction plant has been
erected, and work has been started.
Situated about 100 miles north of the
city is the celebrated Burra Burra mine,
which earned a world-wide reputation.
Discovered a couple of years after the
Kapunda show, the Burra Burra property,
in its palmy days, paid in dividends
800,000, and as the capital invested was
only 12,320, it will be seen that the for-
tunate shareholders were richly rewarded.
For many years the average yield was
from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore,
averaging from 22 to 23 per cent, of cop-
per. It is stated that in the 29 years of
active working 2,240,000 was disbursed
in general expenses, and equal to 51,622
tons of copper was secured, which, at the
average price of the metal at that time,
yielded close on 4,750,000. In 1859
there were 1,170 men employed. Work
was suspended in 1877 owing to the low
price of copper, and also because the de-
posit of rich metal seemed to have become
exhausted. Subsequent boring with the
diamond drill, however, pointed to the
continuance downwards of the copper-
bearing ground.
A mine still richer even that either the
Kapunda or the Burra Burra was acci-
dentally discovered in 1860 on Yorke's
Peninsula. This was the famous Wal-
laroo mine. For the first five years the
average output was under 8,000 tons, but
it increased rapidly, and by 1869 had
150
THE CENTRAL STATE.
View of the Smelters at Wallaroo.
reached 26,000 tons per annum. So great
was the interest aroused by this discovery
that in a tew months claims were lodged
for the lease of no less than 136 sections
of supposed mineral laud in the vicinity.
There are five lodes on the property vary-
ing from a lew inches to twelve or four-
teen feet in width. The drives, levels,
&c., extend for a distance of 20 miles, and
the present yield ranges from half a ton
to six tons per fathom. In 1861 a still
more valauble discovery was made by a
shepherd a little to the south-west of the
Wallaroo. This was the celebrated
Moonta mine, which from the first proved
so rich that within twenty months 80,000
tons of ore were recovered, and 64,000
distributed in dividends. There are five
main lodes, but numerous spurs and cross
veins bring the total to twenty-seven.
The mine has no fewer than 77 shafts, and
the levels measure 29 miles. At one
time employment was given to 1,600 men.
The Moonta ana Wallaroo mines were
amalgamated in 1890, and together they
have continued to constitute a rich source
of wealth to the State. This district has
put 12,000,000 into circulation, and has
for forty years employed between 2,000
and 3,000 persons, and indirectly sup-
ported many more. Since the amalgama-
tion of the two companies, 1,780,000 has-
been paid in wages,- irrespective of
420,000, for which the smelting works-
in connection with the mines have been
responsible. Recent borings have been
of an encouraging nature, and, quite apart
from the reserves of wealth which the
company has come upon, it is worth men-
tioning that an adjoining property the
Yelta haa been taken up and worked by
another company.
The following notes, furnished by Mr.
H. R. Hancock, late manager of the Wal-
laroo and Moonta mines to accompany
specimens which were exhibited at the
Jubilee Exhibition in 1887, will give some
idea of the geological occurrence of copper
at these famous mines: "Moonta Near
the surface recent limestone and clay de-
posits are found, but the bed rock in
which the lodes occur is a felsite porphyry
of a very hard and compact nature. The-
secondary aeries of rocks are entirely ab-
sent. The richer ores are met with only
at comparatively shallow depths, with the
exception of bornite rich purple sul-
phide which is occasionally found at the
deepest parts of the mines yet explored.
The bulk of the produce obtained consists-
of chalcopyrite, a large proportion of
which is found in connection with quartz.
MINING.
ov other gangue, and which is extracted
and brought up to an average of 20 per
cent, of copper by means of crushing and
jigging machinery." Wallaroo The
formation below the alluvial soil is com-
posed of recent limestone and clay, under-
neath which the bed rock, a non-fossili-
ferous talcose schist is met with. The
lodes exist in the older formation, and are
sometimes discovered by costeening to the
depth of the recent overlying deposits.
The ores near the cap of the lode axe
generally of the oxidised class, and they
pass generally into the chalcopyrite as
greater depths acre attained. The lodes
project above the bed rock into the cal-
careous deposits, but do not form an out-
crop above the surface of the ground.
Another property capable of good
things, in enterprising hands, is the Blin-
man, situated in the Flinders Range, 270
miles north of Adelaide, at an elevation
of 2,000 feet above the Parachilna Plains.
Its fortunes have been somewhat varied
since 1862, owin- in large measure to
drought; but the Government Inspector
of Mines says, in a recent report, that the
ordinary ore raised to-day averages 8 per
cent., and is dressed up to 23 per cent.,
whilst the ore from the cross-courses and
leaders, which can readily be separated by
hand-picking, averages from 30 to 40 per
cent, of copper. The same gentleman
states that there is no falling off in the
yield as the mine grows deeper; and he
is further of the opinion "that the strata
will continue to be ore-bearing to a great
depth, and that tne mine is, to all intent
and purposes, a permanent one." The
water difficulty, which militated against
operations in the past, has now been
largely overcome, and the capacity at the
present time is estimated at 150 tons of 23
per cent, copper per month, in addition
to 50 tons of 28 per cent, carbonates.
This property has been recently acquired
by the Tasmanian Copper Company, and
mining is being resumed.
The Hamley, which forms one of the
Moonta group, is another of the mines
producing copper at the present day.
Nine shafts have been sunk tne deepest of
which is 175 fathoms. There are six
lodes, varying in width from 1 foot to 6
feet. Close on ^60,000 has been distri-
buted in dividends. A number of other
smaller shows add to the annual produc-
tion of copper, while many are on the
verge of productiveness, and with a rise
in price of the metal, or with conditions
making it possible for plant to be erected
which would save a larger proportion of
copper, many other would again be
worked. The total number of mines
being operated and giving employment to
more than twelve men is nineteen. The
following table shows the most important
producing copper mines of South Austra-
lia :
Annual Copper
Men Production.
Employed. Tons.
Wallaroo and Moonta 2,100 5,500
Beltana
Prince Alfred
Lynda
Hamley
Paramatta ..,
50 In course of
development.
12 50
16 50
60 150
200 60
Moonta Mines.
152
THE CENTRAL STATE.
A View of the Smelting and Refinery Works, Port Pirie.
Other Minerals.
As previously remarked, not much has
been done in mining in South Australia
aipart from copper. The following table
showing the annual production in ten year
periods will illustrate thisi:
Silver and
Copper.
Gold.
Silver- Lead
. Total.
f.
f.
'
1843...
23
104
127
1844...
4,009
2,427
6,436
1845...
10,874
871
13,484
1846...
140,794
1,457
142,251
1847...
171,883
2,307
174,190
1848...
310,387
~
10,556
320,943
1849...
216,619
2,906
219,547
1850...
353,890
3,334
3(5,464
1851...
297,854
1,592
310,516
1852...
362,148
374,778
1862...
524,854
3,247
547,619
1872...
702,734
2,324
806,226
1882...
455,570
3,080
2,111
461,425
1892...
175,525
26,097
855
204,051
1902...
430,712
24,828
22,303
498,325
To date the detailed return of minerals
exported from the State is as follows :
Copper, 4,541,957 cwt., 16,798,789; cop-
per ore, 683,441 tons, 6,421,385; lead,
101,968 cwt., 92,435; lead ore, 10,711
tons, 169,089; regulus, 3516 tons,
125,545 ; bismuth ore and bismuth, 1,402
cwt., 16,679 ; manganese, 13,362 tons,
46,421; gold, 138,574 oz., 528,881; sil-
ver, 4,629 oz., 862 ; tin, 697 cwt., 605 ;
spelter, 12,888 cwt, 12,081. It is only
fair to state that the exact quantity of cer-
tain minerals won from the earth in South
Australia cannot easily be ascertained.
This is particularly the case with gold,
considerable quantities of which are sent
to the Melbourne Mint or are purchased by
the Banks without ever showing in the offi-
cial returns. Smelting works for the
treatment of ores were erected about the
fifties, the E. & A. Copper Co. smelting first
at Burraand later ait Port Adelaide. Works
were established at other centres also, but
at present operations are being conducted
MINING.
153
only at Wallaroo by the Wallaroo and
Moonta Co. Consequently about the
fifties exports of copper ore began
to show a decrease, and of copper
metal a corresponding increase. Dur-
ing the five years 1855/59, compared
with the preceding quinquennial period,
the increase in the average shipments of
copper was 30 per cent, compared with
a gain of only 10 per cent, of ore. The
export of copper was not commenced till
1848, but in three years it reached a total
of 174,574, and by 1862 was over
400,000.
The remarks regarding the wide distri-
bution of copper apply in an even greater
degree to the gold, though it unfortunately
cannot be said that the gold minesi have
come within measurable distance of the
copper mines as regards the value of the
yield. The precious metal was unearthed
as early as copper, the Victoria Mine, about
ten miles from Adelaide, being opened in
1846. The major portion of the gold-
bearing country to the south of Adelaide is
on land which was alienated from the
Crown in the early days, and consequently
no returns are available. Alluvial gold
has been worked for rnamy years in the
numerous gullies in the Adelaide hills.
Amongst other localities in the northern
areas, Teetulpa may perhaps be considered
the most important alluvial field, it being
estimated that over 300,000 worth of gold
was quickly obtained there. Valuable reef-
ing fields have been discovered in the
Echunga district, at Mount Grainger,
Barossia, Wadnaminga, Mannahill, Nil-
linghoo, atnd other localities, and it is
generally agreed that these reefs have not
been developed as their undoubted rich-
ness warrants. The Echunga diggings
became known early in 1852. Prospectors
came across some very rich surface shows,
and even down to the present day small
bodies of men have made a good living as
the result of mining operations at this
part. No "mines" have, however, been de-
veloped. It is estimated that at least
some 300 reputed gold mines have at
various tjmes been started, but most of
them have been abandoned. A year 01}
two aigo gold was discovered at Tarcoola,
situated about 360 miles north-westerly
from Adelaide, and 170 miles from the
Coward Springs Railway Station. This field,
from the promising, and in many cases ex-
ceedingly rich discoveries already made,
appeared destined to become the richest
goldfield worked in South Australia).
Much interest was aroused in the field.
Steps were taken to secure an adequate
water supply, and a Government battery
to treat the stone was erected. It was con-
fidently predicted by many of the mining
authorities who visited the field that it
would rival in richness many of the noted
discoveries of Australia. At its first
crushing the battery erected by the Tar-
coola Blocks Comipany crushed 384 tons for
an average of 3^ oz. per ton. Unfortu-
nately early expectations have not been
realised. The Tarcoola Blocks Company
alone remains as a producer, and this pro-
perty is being steadily developed. To date
7,847 tons of ore have been crushed for
15,178 oz. of gold, and in addition 850 tons
have been treated by cyanide for 171 oz.
The average number of men employed is
from 65 to 70. The average value of the
ore has dropped to rather under an ounce
to the ton. Attention was diverted from
Tarcoola by reports of phenomenally rich
finds at Arltunga, in the MacDonnell
Ranges, almost in the centre of the Con-
tinent, and within the boundaries of the
Northern Territory. Claims were rapidly
pegged out, prospecting parties were dis-
patched from Adelaide and Melbourne, aa
well as from many northern towns. A
"boom" took place on the Stock Exchange,
but disappointing returns were received,
and the excitement died away without the
field having been properly tested. For
many years individual miners have re-
covered payable quantities of gold from,
the MacDonnell Ranges, which are re-
putedly rich ; but as aj field for extensive
operations Arltunga has yet to be proved.
Regarding this locality, the Government
Geologist has made the following hopeful
remarks: "The MacDonnell Ranges ex-
tend more or less intermittently into
Queensland and westwards towards Wes-
tern Australia, and there is a vast area
available for prospectors in both direc-
tions. At Arltunga the reefs outside the
White Range are of small size, but have
been, and will continue to be, mined (pro-
fitably. With the exception of those ati
the White Range, up to the present no
gold-bearing deposits has been found sum-
154
THE CENTRAL STATE.
ciently large or extensive to be worked on
a large scale. This fact need not, however,
preclude the future discovery of larger
deposits elsewhere, or the finding of these
by deeper sinking on some of the present)
known auriferous reefs. Winnecke's Gold-
field. Although the lodes hitherto dis-
covered are small, some of them contain
rich ore. After further exploration at
depth large and deeper deposits may be
found. When facilities have been provid-
ed for the extraction of gold from the ore
a field for the employment of parties of
working miners, and, in some cases, for
joint-stock companies, will, I believe, be
established."
The discovery of silver lead ore at Glen
Oamond, about five miles from Adelaide,
was the first indication that South Austra-
lia possessed mineral resources. In 1838
some blocks of what wag supposed to be
limestone cropping out of the side of the
hill were found to be pure galena. An,
assay gave 75 per cent, of lead and about
18 oz. of silver to the ton. Smelting works
were erected in the neighborhood, but the
venture did not prove remunerative. Sil-
ver and lead are widely disseminated,
through the State, and amongst the most
noteworthy mines may be mentioned the
Talisker, Ediacara, Aclare, Avondale, Al-
manda, and Eukaby. The first-named,
situated at Cape Jervis, was opened in
1862, and was worked for ten years. The
surface ores were very rich in silver, and
the mine is still regarded as very valuable.
Comparatively little work is being done on
our silver-lead mines at present, but if at
any future time the ore is raised or the
metals extracted at less cost than at pre-
sent, the abundance of galena to be found
in South Australia, and the salver ore
yielding as high as 30 per cent., should
prove highly remunerative.
South Australia possesses an abundance
of iron. Many deposits are in close
proximity to railway lines and the sea
coast. Large quantities of iron raised in
the State are used as flux for smelting pur-
poses, and in most localities the ore carries
a small percentage of gold. When giving
evidence recently before the Federal Royal
Committee appointed to enquire into the
provisions of a Bill relating to bonuses for
the encouragement of the manufacture of
iron in the Commonwealth, Mr. H. Y. L.
Brown, Government Geologist, stated that
South Australia was capable of supplying
all the ore required for smelting works for
centuries. He was not, however, prepared
to say what kind of iron the ore would
make, but did not think it advisable to
smelt on the spot, but to ship the ore to
some place where coal could be easily got.
He instanced numerous places where some
millions of tons of ore were available.
Within thirty miles of Leigh Creek, and
three miles of a railway, there is reported
to be a hill of the purest iron to be found
in the State, and many thousands of tons
could be easily broken down. On Beltana
sheep run, within twenty-six miles of Leigh
Creek, there are outcrops and well defined
reefs carrying rich ores, covering large
areas, also manganese. Twenty-five miles
south of East, near Mount Serle, there are
huge outcrops of massive iron ore, some
hundreds of thousands of tons being visible.
Near this is a very large body of manga-
nese. At and near Boolyeroo goldfield,
six miles east, outcrops of iron ores are to
be seen. The seaport would be Port
Augusta, distant 169 miles. The best
known deposit at present being worked is
the Iron Knob, a veritable hill of iron of
high percentage, about fifty miles from the
Spencer's Gulf seaboard. The property on
which the deposit occurs has been leased
by the Broken Hill Proprietary Company,
which has constructed a railwajy to the
coast to facilitate the transport of the ore
to the company's smelting works at Port
Pirie.
So far as is known there are no coal mea-
sures in South Australia of the age of those
that are worked in New South Wales.
There is a great gap in the series of forma-
tions, namely, from the lower palaeozoic
(Cambrian, Silurian, and Devonian) to the
cretaceous; none of the intervening rocks
in that series having been observed out-
cropping upon the surface. Although
this is unfortunately the case, still it is
considered possible that beneath the thick
deposits of tertiary and cretaceous age,
which overlie the greater part of the older
rocks, there may exist any of the older for-
mations which occur in other parts of Aus-
tralia. In 1890 boring for coal was started
at Leigh Creek, and not long afterwards
the labor of those concerned was crowned
with success. The fuel, however, differs
MINING.
155
;
J . Joibson photo.
Silver-Lead Smelting Works, Port Pirie.
from the bituminous coal of Great Britain,
New South Wales, or Victoria, and in some
respects resembles the dense brown coal of
Europe. When lighted, it burns well, but
the absence of cinder and the powdery ash
produced render it difficult for economical
use on ordinary fire bars. Tests made by
the locomotive .department of the railways
proved that the coad was not as well
adapted for use on the railways as that of
New South Wales.
The large extension of the use of arti-
ficial manures by farmers in this State
causes great importance to be attached to
the existence of rock (phosphates. Partly
aa the result of a reward offered by the
Government for the discovery of beds of
this material a diligent search was institut-
ed. Deposits have been unearthed at Clin-
ton and Robertstown, both within com-
paratively easy distance of Adelade, and
these are being worked.
Precious stones are known to exist in
various parta of the State. At present the
gem fields of Kangaroo Island are attract/
ing a good deal of attention. Tourmalines
are being mined in considerable quantities,
and it is hoped that other precious stones
will be found in sufficient numbers to cause
this branch of mining to be /profitable.
Some of the tourmaline crystals brought
from Kangaroo Island are described by the
Government Geologist ae the largest which
he has seen in Australia.
Though not a mineral in the ordinary
sense, salt must be regarded as among the
wealth-producing agencies of the earth.
Twenty years or so ago comparatively little
salt was produced in South Australia, but
owing to the systematic working of the
lakes in different parts, principally, at the
south-eastern portion of Yorke's Peninsula,
last year the exports amounted to 37,500
tons. An important industry has been
established, giving employment to a great
many men both directly and indirectly.
Though geographically outside of South
Australia, mention should be made in this
chapter of the Brokn Hill silver-lead mines
situated sixteen miles east of the boundary
in New South Wales. These wonderful
and world-famed deposits were discovered
in 1883 by a boundary rider employed on,
the Mount Gipps sheep run while muster-
ing sheep in the Broken Hill paddock in
the neighborhood of the township subse-
quently formed a)nd named Silverton,
Leases were applied for, and the Broken
Hill Mining Company formed. In 1885,
as the result of a rearrangement, the cele-
brated Broken Hill Proprietary Company,
Limited, came into existence. From the
start South Australian capitalists and
miners were largely responsible for the
156
THE CENTRAL STATF.
opening and working of these phenomen-
ally rich hills of silver. Afc the outset the
mines were worked as silver propositions,
but of late years the lead contents of the
ore have predominated. A railway was
run to the Barrier as an offshoot of the
Great Northern system of this State, and
all the material required for the mines and
the supplies for the city which grew up
around them, as well as the ore recovered,
had to pass through South Australia. It
is little wonder, therefore, that for all
practical purposes Broken Hill has come
to be regarded as ajn integral part of this
State. Despite labor troubles, water
famines, and low-grade ore problems, the
Broken Hill mines continue to constitute
a source of wealth to all concerned. Last
year's total exports from the district
amounted to 1,327,350, of which concen-
trates accounted for 912,500, slimes
30,121, and zinc concentrates 239. The
recovery of a larger percentage of the com-
ponent metals from the huge heaps of tail-
ings at the mines is now occupying a1>
tention of the managements of the respec-
tive mines. There is good reason to be-
lieve that in one or two instances the solu-
tion of the problem has been reached. Ex-
periments in other directions are still being
conducted, and it is hoped that before long
the now neglected tailings heaps will yield
large profits.
A chapter on mining may not be inap-
prqpriately closed by a reference to the
fact that the South Australian public has
for many years been notoriously specula-
tive. Even in the early days, when the
mines of the Northern Territory were the
chief source of attraction a number of kin-
dred spirits gathered regularly in the city
for the purpose of dealing in shares. Wes-
tern Australia as a mining field was
brought into prominence principally by
"t'othersiders" drawn from South Austra-
lia, and for years the Adelaide market in
stocks of companies formed to develop
leases in the western State was the most ac-
tive of any of a similar nature. In 1893 a
syndicate was formed in Adelaide for the
purpose of sending a prospecting party to
"Western Australia. There were ten shares
of 15 each. Within five years that 150
had been the means of giving birth to pro-
perties valued at 30,000,000 !
Adelaide boasts of a. handsome Stock
Exchange building, which is the head-
quarters of a body of sharebrokers who for
business acumen and enterprise are hot to
bo surpassed in the Commonwealth. Aty
the same time it should not be omitted that
not once the reproach has been cast up to
South Australians that they are far more
ready to provide capital to develop mineral
resources supposed to exist hundreds of
miles away than they are to prospect their
own country. Critics have also com-
plained that too much mining has been
done on the "Corner" in Adelaide, and too
little in the undoubted mineral-bearing
country within the boundaries of the
State. What justification exists for these
strictures this is scarcely the place to en-
quire. It may be said, however, that
recent experience suggests that something
requires to be done to cause the active deal-
ing in shares at certain periods and the
too spasmodic scientific development of the
country to stand in ai more exact propor-
tion to one another. It has been pointed
out with some reason that existing legisla-
tion, which permits the formation of no
liability companies for the working of
mineral claims, while possibly providing a
very necessary safeguard or the dealer in
scrip, does not sufficiently provide for the
raising of capital, nor does it recognise
other abuses which creep into company
formation.
THe Mining Laws.
Mining in South Australia is regulated
by the Mining Act of 1893, which is cha-
racterised by extreme liberality and the
inducements offered for prospecting an
enormous area of practically new country.
A miner's right is obtainable at a cost of
5/. This right holds good for one year
from the date of issue, and may be renewed
at any time during its currency for another
term of one year on payment of 5/. The
holder of a miner's right is authorised to
prospect on any mineral lands for any
metal, mineral, coal, or oil, and to peg out
(of the prescribed shape and dimensions)
gold, mineral, coal, and oil claims, and also
leases of a like nature. A fee of 2/6 is
MINING.
157
A Double Four-Hutch Plunger Jigger, manufactured by Jas. Martin & Co., Ltd.
charged for registration. Gold claims
must be registered at once and mineral
claims within thirty days of pegging. The
miner's right under which, the claim was
pegged must be produced to the registrar
before registration can be effected, and
must be renewed from year to year during
its currency, or the claim is liable to for-
feiture. Gold claims must be constantly
worked one man for e>ach claim and
mineral claimholders must employ two
men for each claim. Amalgamation of
either gold or mineral claims reduces the
labor conditions by one-half.
Gold, mineral, coal, and oil leases are
granted for a term of forty-two years. t'.ie
two former at a rental of I/ per acre per
annum and a royalty of 6d. in the pound
on net profits, the latter at a rental of 6d.
per acre per annum until coal or oil is
found in payable quantities, when I/ per
acre is payable and a royalty of 6d. in the
pound on the net profits. Working con-
ditions provide in the case of gold leases for
one man for every five acres; mineral
leases, one man for every ten acres ; coal or
oil leases, one man for every forty acres.
The Minister may permit the concentra-
tion of labor of the amalgamation of from
not more than four adjoining gold or mine-
r<>l leases. Miscellaneous leases are
granted for salt, gypsum, mineral springs,
site for smelting works and mining works.
Maximum area of leases are Gold, 20
acres; mineral, 40 acres; coal or oil, 640
acres ; salt or gypsum, 640 acres ; mineral
springs, 40 acres; mining works, 10 acres;
smelting works, 10 acres. Any number
of gold, mineral, coal, or oil leases may be
held by one person.
Under the Mining Act Amendment Act
of 1900 licences to search for twelve
months for precious stones, mineral phos-
phates, oil, rare metals, minerals, and
earths are issued on specific mineral lands,
not exceeding five square miles in area for
one person, a fee of 20/ being charged for
each square mile or portion thereof. These
licences give a preferential right to a lease
over a portion of the area, as prescribed.
1*8
THE CENTRAL STATE.
The Phoenix-Weir Vanning Table, manufactured by Jas. Martin r
mining ; and diamond drills are loaned
under special conditions, and rewards for
discoveries are paid out of money appro-
priated by Parliament for that purpose. A
rebate of one-third of cost of freight if car-
ried over the railway line for treatment is
allowed to (prospectors on the first 50 tons
of ore raised a concession which is largely
availed of, and greatly assists prospectors
in the initial development of their proper-
ties. Assays are made at the School of
Mines free of cost for all samples obtained
from Crown lands, while special arrange-
ments for practical work in the laboratory
can be made at very low fees.
Kespecting mining on private property
the Act 1888, and amending Acts of 1895
and 1899 provide for the resumption of
private lands, proclamation of private land
as an alluvial goldfield, and compulsory
mining leases. In 1882 a Government
Geologist was appointed, and results amply
justified the wisdom of this step. In Mr.
H. Y. L. Brown the State possesses an able,
energetic, and withal cautious official, who
has done much to help forward the mine-
ral industry of the South Australia. His
efforts are well supported by the Inspector
of Mines, Captain W. H. Matthews, and
the other members of the Mines Depart-
ment, which comes under the control of
the Minister for Mines. No genuine
prospector will appeal in vain for advice
to the department, while long distances are
annually travelled by the officers in report
ing upon or inspecting likely properties.
Manufactures.
Although essentially a country of pri-
mary production, the conversion of raw
material into commercial articles received
early attention. For some time secondary
production was mainly in the direction of
providing agricultural implements and
commodities required by those who were
engaged in occupying the country. As
conditions became more settled industries
increased in number and variety, and now
that Federation has given Interstate Free-
trade, manufacturers are looking forward
to growing markets throughout the Com-
monwealth. The discovery of silver in the
western districts of New South Wales, and
the opening up of some of the richest silver
mines in the world, proved a great boon to
South Australian manufactures. Engineer-
ing firms and boiler makers received large
orders, and, by the excellence of their work,
have retained valuable connections with
Western Australia. Considerable assis-
tance has been given to the industry during
the past thirty years by a Chamber of
Manufactures, an active organization which
holds exhibitions, and in other ways pro-
motes the interests of manufacturers. The
following axe the published returns of
manufactories and the hands employed :
Total
Establish- hands em-
Year. merits. Males. Females. ployed.
1885 ... 646 7,952 1,350 9,302
1892 ... 815 9,642 1,847 11,489
1896 ... 767 10,974 1,811 12,785
1899 ... 841 12,941 2,214 15,155
1900 ... 1,036 14,800 2,859 17,659
1902 ... 1,275 15,268 3,512 18,780
As the production of grain increased
flour mills were started in the city and at
Port Adelaide, and the manufacture of
breadstuffs became an established indus-
try. At the present time there are 65
flour mills in various parts of the State, and
the South Australian article finds a ready
demand throughout Australia, South
Africa, and Java. Factories devoted to
the making of agricultural implements
number 31, employing 283 hands; chaff-
cutting 53, with 286 employees; boots and
shoes 78, 1,239; tanneries 21, 296; brick-
making 47, 285 hands; coachbuilding 28,
365 ; aerated waters, 30, 193 ; breweries
23, 348; distilleries 9, 72; clothing 252,
2,771; and sawmills 27, with 370 hands.
Extensive locomotive workshops aie estab-
lished near Adelaide in connection with
the State railways, and the making of cast
iron pipes for water reticulation is also
carried on by the Government.
THe Leading
Engineering Works
of the State.
The premier engineering firm of South
Austalia is James Martin & Co., Limited, of
Gawler. The history of this company
reads like a romance. The foundation of
the concern was laid in 1848 by the late
Hon. James Martin, M.L.C. After arriv-
ing in a dray, which contained all his
belongings his wife, furniture, and a few
tools, the enterprising young colonist cut
down a tree, constructed benches and a
lathe from the timber, and started business
as a bullock-dray maker! The original
site comprised only a few feet; the area
now occupied by the firm which has grown
out of that humble beginning is 18 acres.
Mr. Martin began operations with one
man ; to-day about 600 are employed.
From the manufacture of bullock drays
Mr. Martin took up the construction of
reaping machines and other agricultural
implements; then he extended his opera-
tions to mining machinery, and now the
establishment produces locomotives, which
are declared to be equal to any made in
the world! At first the trade was
strictly local ; then the reputation of the
firm for Mr. Martin soon took unto him-
self partners rapidly spread into other
districts, and demands for agricultural
machinery flowed in from all parts of the
State. Later orders were received from
other States, and to-day the business of
162
THE CENTKAI, STATE.
James Martin & Co., Limited, has rami-
fications in all parts of Australia, and ex-
tends even to South Africa, New Cale-
donia, and South America.
It is estimated that the firm mentioned
have constructed more than 16,000 reap
ing machines. Latterly they have taken
up the manufacture of complete harvesters
machines which strip, winnow, and bag
grain in the one operation. The enter-
prise of building locomotive engines has
turned out to be a complete triumph. Two
contracts, comprising 144 engines, have
been fulfilled for the South Australian.
Government, and a third, for ten locomo-
tives, is now in hand. Engines have also
been made for New South Wales, West
Australia, and Tasmania.
More mining machinery has been turned
out by James Martin & Co., Limited, dur-
ing the last twenty years than by any other
firm in Australia. It has supplied West
Australia with more mining plants crush-
ing, winding, pumping, concentrating,
cyaniding, and roasting than any other
establishment, either colonial, European,
or American. It has also assisted in the
development of the Broken Hill mines and
other mineral properties in the Common-
wealth. Specialities are made of copper,
tin, gold, and lead concentration and cop-
per and lead smelting. Most of the firm's
output is for exportabout 90 per cent, on
an average. Some time back 39 trucks of
machinery, weighing more than 200 tons,
and having a value of upwards of 10,000,
were dispatched in one day. The late Mr.
Martin had very little capital when he
started : it now takes 150,000 to run the
business.
A striking display of the firm's manu-
factures was given at the last Exhibition of
the South Australian Chamber of Manufac-
tures in Adelaide. The floor area covered
by Messrs. Martin & Co.'s specialities was
294 ft. in length, with an average width of
46 ft., and the value of their contribution
to the exhibition exceeded 8,000. In
point of variety and value this display of
engineering exhibits has never been
equalled by anv other Australian manu-
facturers. The collection included a
Cross compound engine and a winding en-
gine in motion, two filter presses, an air
compressor, three geared engines, jiggers,
refrigerating, and ice-making machinery,
general engineering exhibits and agricul-
tural implements oi every kind.
Of those who have this great business
now in hand, Mr. J. F. Martin is chair-
man of directors, Mr. J. F. Pearson, general
engineer, and Mr. James Fergusson, mana-
ger of the Agricultural Department.
In honor of the great services rendered
by the late Hon. Janies Martin to the
town, industrially and otherwise, a hand-
some marble statue was recently erected in
Gawler as the result of public subscriptions.
The unveiling ceremony was performed by
His Honor the Chief Justice (Sir Samuel
Way, Bart.).
Salt Refineries.
There are a number of fine natural salt
lakes in South Australia. This State led
the way in the Commonwealth in giving a
commercial value to the crude article.
There wag the usual prejudice to the "colo-
nial" product, but well-equipped refineries
were established, and gradually imports of
salts decreased and shipments of locally re-
fined salt increased. The following
figures serve to indicate the movement :
1891
1894
1897
1900
1902
Imports.
Tons.
1,225
763
136
201
Exports.
Tons
7,505
7,624
28,804
33,424
37,570
There are two refinery companies doing
business in South Australia the Castle
Salt Company, of which the directors are
Messrs. S. J. Jacobs, Hon. W. B. Rounse-
vell, Messrs. Pearce Delbridge, James H.
Philips, and Charles H. Warren, and Sec-
retary, Charles Allen; and the Colonial
Refining Company, the directors of which
are Messrs. R. Strachan (Chairman),
James Harvey, and E. J. Green, and Sec-
retary, Mr. R. J. Wyllie. The accompany-
ing photographs show the Castle Salt fac-
tory and views of the extensive lakes and
methods of gathering the salt.
MANUFACTURES.
163
Portion of the Castle Salt Company's Factory, Edithburg.
Scraping Salt on Lake Parawurlie, Southern Yorke's Peninsula, the property of
the Castle Salt Company, Limited.
Salt bagged ready for carting, Lake Monkawurlie, the property of the Castle
W. Riddle & Son photos. Salt Company, Limited.
164
THE CENTRAL STATE.
"
II. Krischnck jthofo.
TForA-s o/^ /;e ..4. Portland Cement Co., Ltd., Brighton.
One of the most interesting and also im-
portant industries in the State is the manu
facture of cement. When deposits of blue
cement rocks were discovered within a few
miles of the spot where the pioneers hnded
and the proclamation was made by Go-
vernor Hindmarsh, tests were at once made
to prove whether or not high-class cement
could be made. The reports of experts
were eminently satisfactory, and from
small beginnings an industry of increasing
importance has resulted. The South Aus-
tralian Portland Cement Co., Limited, has
only been in existence some eleven years,
but the works near Brighton have had to
bo enlarged several times, and the output
has been greatly multiplied. There was
the usual prejudice against the "colonial
article" to overcome, but once the cement
began to be used in Government works
and private undertakings, its quality stood
all the tests of engineers and time. Local
cement was used in the construction of the
tunnels at the Happy Valley Waterworks,
the weirs and channels of the Bundaleer
waterworks, and most of the large buildings
recently erected in the city, including the
School of Mines, Art Gallery, Children's
Hospital, Conservatorium of Music, Ade-
laide Steamship Co.'s offices, Brookman's
Building, &c. South Australian cement
is largely used in the building of large
cement wine vats, and is also favored by
the Corporation of the City of Adelaide
and large mining companies. The Go
vernment has purchased and used large
quantities in connection with the building
of reservoirs. A considerable trade is also
done with neighboring States, where the
article is regarded with much favor. The
works are situated near Brighton, and only
about seven miles to the south of Adelaide.
The directors of the company are Messrs.
J. H. Angas, S. Newland, and E. H. Bake-
well ('managing director), and the mana-
ger, Mr. Stanley Fraser.
Forest Culture.
South Australia, as in so many other
movements, was the first State of the Aus-
tralian group to establish State forests.
Early settlers were permitted to 1 draw
upon the supplies of native timber without
restriction until it became apparent that
the limited extent of natural forests would
soon become exhausted. In 1870, Mr. F.
E. H. W. Krichauff persuaded the House
of Assembly, of which he was then a. mem-
ber, to call for reports on the best size of
reserves for forest purposes, where they
should be made, the best and most
economical means of preserving the native
timber on them, and of planting and re-
planting the reserves as permanent State
forests. Three years later the Forest Act
became law, and a bonus was offered of 2
per acre of land on which forest trees were
planted and maintained for a period of five
years. The practical results of this
proved disappointing, for little or no effort
was made by private landowners to earn
the subsidy. The State forest system was
inaugurated in 1875, when the Forest
Board was appointed, and 195,398 acres
were set apart for tree planting and con-
servation of the indigenous timber by
natural regeneration where desirable.
Ultimately this area was increased until
the first reserves comprised 239,336 acres.
Alienations for perpetual leases have re-
duced the territory under the supervision
to about 189,834 acres. The late Mr.
Goyder, then Surveyor-General, in his ori-
ginal report, estimated that the expense of
the Forest Department for the first year
would be 14,357, and for the second year
and following years 10,500 a year, mak-
ing a total for the first twelve years of
130,000. No return was expected for
the first five years, but for the next four
years Mr. Goyder reckoned on receiving a
revenue of 35,000 a year, and of 70,000
a year for the next three, making a total
income of 350,000 for the next twelve
years. How far these figures fell short of
expectations will be seen from the fact
that the expenditure in those twelve years
amounted to 72,355, and the revenue to
81,066. For the whole 26 years of the
forests' history the expenditure has been
170,852, and the revenue 138,439. Mr.
Goyder remarked in one report: "The
above calculations do not take into ac-
count failure here and there in the growth
of trees, but they are sufficient to show the
value of the work, and that there is every
probability of ios being self-supporting, in
addition to its vast importance." But in
.only seven out of the 26 years has the re-
venue exceeded the expenditure. The
best result was in 1887-8, when the receipts
amounted to 12,080, and the expenditure
to 7,262. The present Conservator of
Forests, Mr. Walter Gill, was appointed in
1890, and he has done excellent work with
the limited funds at his command. Peo-
ple and Parliament in South Australia
have been singularly apathetic in the mat-
ter of afforestation, and the pruning knife
of economy has more than once been ap-
plied to this department. In all the
South Australian forests 800 acres of pines
have been planted, and nearly half of this
area is represented at Wirrabara, where
the trees vary in age from one to 25 years.
To-day 85 per cent, of the world's timber
demand is for pine, and the amount which
goes out of South Australia for this- useful
class of timber is between 100,000
and 200,000 every year. The world's
newspaper press alone devours 11,000,000
tons a year for its pulp paper, and in all
countries supplies are rapidly being de-
pleted. The Conservator is an 'extremely
cautious man, but after many anxious
years he has thoroughly satisfied himself
that pines which are suitable to local con-
ditions can be grown in South Australia
without risk and with great profit. At
Wirrabara there are only 85 acres of pines
which might fairly be regarded as having
attained timber maturity, and yet last
year ways and means would allow of fresh
planting to the extent of only 12 acres.
Thanks to the copious summer rains over
5| inches in the forest last December the
magnificent result of 9^8 per cent, cf
"takes" has to be recorded in resp'ect to
that 12 acres. About 400 acres are under
pine at Wirrabara altogether, and the trees
1 66
THE CENTRAL STATE.
W. Gill photo.
Telegraph poles. Forest plantation, Kapunda.
are making splendid progress. On the ques-
tion of the character of climate and soil
for the growing of timber the Conservator
of Forest states: "There are thousands of
acres in the State suitable for pinegrowing
now carrying inferior timber of practically
no value, or scrubby vegetation. The cost
of clearing, fencing, and planting varies
according to circumstances; but, speaking
broadly, a plantation of pines may be
established under suitable conditions, and
maintained till it represents the gross
value already indicated of 200 per acre,
at a cost varying from 5 under the most
favorable conditions to 10 per acre where
more work is needed to prepare each acre
for planting. The ultimate return to the
revenue shown as probable from the esti-
mates given is surely in itself a highly
satisfactory one ; but there are other
aspects of the matter quite as important
as the revenue one. The German forests,
which are rightly regarded as of incalcul-
able vaJue to the State, support directly
1,000,000 people in employment; while
another 3,000,000 are maintained by in-
dustries connected with them. In these
days of scarcity of employment for willing
hands is the possibility of ultimately re-
taining in the country money at the rate
of 100 per acre (estimating 50 per cent.
as the workers' share of the amount pro-
duced i.e., 200 per acre) to be lightly
thrown aside? Extensive tracts in the
Ninety-Mile Desert will grow the Maritime
pine, which, from careful observations re-
garding the behaviour of trees planted
there, is evidently more at home in that
locality than in other parts generally con-
s'dered far better country. Once let pine
forests be established there and the pro-
blem as to the possibility of its utilization
would be far on towards a satisfactory solu-
tion. Making and maintaining forests
means that men must be employed to do
it. It will pay well, given the requisite
time and patience for development. It
will pay in revenue ; but it will pay better,
there and in other districts, in the healthy
strong men it rears amidst healthy forest
conditions in the increase of the produc-
ing power of the country, and in assisting
to prevent the congestion of our generation
in our cities."
In answer to the question, "Can South
Australia grow any pine timber?" the Con-
servator of Forests reports : a. Some
pines, the timber of which for generations
has been a main source of supply in the
European markets, cannot be grown here
because the climatic conditions are un-
FOREST CULTURE.
I6 7
Date Palm in bearing, carrying 100 Ibs. dates, Government Plantation,
W. Grill photo. Hergott Springs, JfiO miles north of Adelaide.
suitable anywhere for their proper de
velopment. b. Even if in some localities
climatic and other conditions are favorable
for the growth of some species, the area
where these conditions exist is either re-
quired for other purposes generally con-
sidered more important than timber grow-
ing, or it is of too limited an extent to
produce timber in sufficient quantities to
prove of any appreciable value in provid-
ing an efficient supply for the State's de-
mand for coniferous timber. c. The
experiments made by the Forest Depart-
ment during the last 25 years have been
carried out, for the most part, in districts
in the State where the best all-round con-
ditions do not prevail. This circumstance
has a specially important bearing on the
question under review, as it is in connec-
tion with the work of the department that
the necessary facts are forthcoming to
solve the problem of pin'e production. So
far, of course, as some pines are concerned,
it is a distinct disadvantage that they can-
not be grown here ; but, on the other
hand, as an offset against this, it must be
remembered that the growth of Some pines
here is so rapid that they will attain cer-
tain given dimensions in from one-third to
even on'e-half less time than in some other
countries. Numbers of different pines
have been planted in various parts of the
State by private owners on their estates ;
no expense has been spared in many in-
stances, and, as a result, some fine collec-
tions of conifers are tc be found, which
speak volumes for the arboricultural en-
thusiasm of those possessing them. An
inspection of such trees as these affords
great pleasure to a forester ; it gives ample
opportunity to note the general habit and
balance of each tree when growing by it-
self, with ample room for development as
an object of beauty in the landscape."
' In reply to the question, "Can South
Australia grow pine timber?" the Conser-
vator of Forests gives an emphatic affirma-
tive. The pines can be cultivated on a
commercial basis, a fact now being
demonstrated by the department in the
making of fruit boxes.
The revenue of the department for the
last few years' operations shows an increase
of 1,516. The department also controls
three date plantations., comprising 3,000
palms. Dates of excellent quality have
been produced in varying quantities eleven
years in succession.
The Shipping' Trade.
The shipping trade has always occu-
pied and must retain an important posi-
tion in the development of South Aus-
tralia. It cannot be otherwise with a
producing country of extended coastline
situated thousands of miles from the chief
markets of the world. Notwithstanding
a splendid Interstate railway system, the
bulk of the produce exchanged with otner
parts of the island continent is transported
by water. South Australia has 2,000
miles of coastline within her own borders,
thus making necessary the employment of
a fleet of coasting vessels. The develop-
ment in the maritime branch of industry
within the short period of the State's exis-
tence has been no less marvellous than in
other directions, and the achievements are
as worthy of being recorded even though
they form part of a world-wide movement.
Especially is this true of the bringing into
existence of a distinctly Australian mer-
cantile marine in which South Australian
enterprise and capital have played an im-
portant part. Tne history of South Aus-
tralian shipping is the record of the rise
and development of long distance steam
communiaction by water. It was a year
after the province was proclaimed that
Brunei demonstrated that a regular steam
service could be maintained between the
United Kingdom and the United States
of America. Experts at that time con-
sidered that steamers would never be able
to make the voyage to India, much less
to Australia. The first steamer entered
Sydney harbor in 1831. Attempts were
made soon afterwards to establish regular
steam communication with the newly-
founded British dominions beyond the
seas, but as the Cape route had to be fol-
lowed the cost of coal proved prohibitive.
For many years South Australia had to
depend for intercourse with the old world
upon a type of sailing vessel long since
obsolete, manned by as intrepid navigators
as ever sailed the ocean. Later on came
the clipper barque which made such re-
markable passages. Then followed the
ocean leviathan, cutting off corners, and
making the voyage as safe and regular in
point of time and indeed more so as the
Channel service between England and
France was half a century ago. What
may be regarded as the first trading ves-
sel to touch these shores was the Duke of
York, the pioneer ship chartered by the
South Australian Company. This barque,
of 197 tons, in command of Captain R. G.
Morgan, anchored in Nepean Bay, Kan-
garoo Island, on July 27, 1836. She
brought 36 immigrants, and was lollowed
on August 2 by the Rapid, with Colonel
Light on board, by the Lady Mary Pel-
ham and the John Pelham about the same
time, and oy 'the Buffalo, with Governor
Hindmarsh, in December of the same year.
At that time over 100 days was required
to complete the voyage from England to
South Australia, Mails are now delivered
within the month, and this time could be
considerably reduced by the completion
of the railway from Adelaide to Pert
Darwin. The State in its early years of
existence was dependent much more tfcan
it is to-day upon the maintenance of com-
munication with the outside world. Ma-
chinery and implements, and even food
supplies, had to be imported, whilst the
little community depended from the outset
upon securing distant markets. Thus
the foundation was laid of an oversea and
Interstate trade which annually reaches
many millions sterling. The commerce of
South Australia was first carried on by
means of wooden sailing vessels. The
early arrivals included such names as the
Africane, Orleana, Platina, Hoogly, Lalla
Rookh, and Competitor. In those days a
vessel of 500 tons was considered a large
craft. These ships with bluff bows have
passed out of recollection. About the
sixties composite vessels having iron
frames and wooden planking began to be-
come popular. Among the best known of
these were the Glen Osmond, Beltana,
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
169
A Bitxy Wharf, Port Adelaide.
Collingrove, and Torrens, the last named
being still in the trade. In the wake of
the composite vessels came those con-
structed of iron, and native names were
perpetuated in the Barossa, Barunga, and
Kadina. Clipper built barques sprang into
prominence about this date, and surpris-
ingly smart were some of the passages
logged by wool laden "wind-jambers"
timed to catch the London sales.
"Built for freight and yet for speed.
A beautiful and gallant craft."
The last stage in the evolution of sailing
vessels was the substitution of steel as the
material of construction.
Half a century of progress is shown in
the following table of entries and clear-
ances at South Australian ports:
Inwards.
Outwards.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
1850
284
86,583
275
87,872
1860
324
100,681
338
108,355
1870
445
140,081
471
147,908
1880
1,045
590,085
1,111
610,819
1890
1,041
1,075,133
1,081
1,115,309
1900
1,010
1,780,383
1,003
1,772,253
The most significant change in the ship-
ping industry was the superseding of sail
power by steam. The bulk of South Aus-
tralia's oversea traffic is now conducted by
large steamers ranging up to 10,000 tons,
and these almost invariably bring cargo
170
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Sail
Tons.
Steam.
Tons.
for more than one State. Consequently,
their stay in port is not a fraction of the
time which used to be spent by the old-
style traders which ran direct between
Port Adelaide and the United Kingdom.
The evolution from sail to steam and the
growth of tonnage is illustrated by the fol-
lowing table of arrivals in South Aus-
tralia :
Total.
Tons
1848 ... 46.640
1858 ... 98,302
1868 ... f 1 136,051
1878 ... J [ 452,738
1888 ... 225,098 748,381 973,479
1898 ... 156,753 1,565,605 1,722,358
1902 ... 155,014 1,789,598 1,944,612
The first steam communication between
England and South Australia was opened
in 1852 via the Cape of Good Hope. The
service did not last long. The same year,
however, a branch line was established by
the P. and O. Company between Singapore
and Australia. In 1857 the need of an
improved connection with the outside
world was felt. The Chamber of Com-
merce, in a petition to Parliament, ex-
pressed the opinion that direct steam com-
munication with Great Britain, combined
with emigration and a postal service would
prove highly advantageous. The opening
of the Suez Canal effected a complete re-
volution in ocean traffic between Europe
and Australia. Branch lines became
trunk services, and South Australia occu-
pied a more prominent part in the time
table of ocean steamers. To-day the
steamers of four large mail companies in-
clude Port Adelaide in their time-tables,
and the flags of three nationalities float
over the splendid specimens of marine
architecture which regularly convey large
numbers of passengers to and from these
shores. Increased harbor accommodation is
now being provided for these
Swift shuttles of an Empire's loom that
weave us main to main.
The growth of foreign shipping visit>
ing South Australian ports has been
considerable. The early records of the
State do not distinguish between British
and foreign-owned tonnage. In those
days Britannia "ruled the waves." In
1847, out of 150 ships which arrived in
South Australian ports only 7 were from
foreign States, and even these were not
necessarily owned by foreign powers. In
1859 the number of vessels flying other
than the Union Jack on arrival was only
20, representing 20,189 tons, out of a total
of 429 vessels of 114,951 tons. Ten years
later the proportion was about the same
34 ships of 14,852 tons under foreign re-
gister, and 629 ships of 174,361 tons of all
nationalities. In 1901, out of 1,072 ves-
sels which arrived, no fewer than 910 were
British-owned. It is only of comparatively
recent years that foreign shipowners have
considered it worth while to make an at-
tempt to capture a portion of the Austra-
lian carrying business. The North Ger-
man Lloyd Company extended its service
so as to include this State in 1885, the
Messageries Maritimes steamers first
visited Port Adelaide in 1883, while the
German Australian line, which caters en-
tirely for cargo, became a factor in 1889.
The influence of these liners is easily trace-
able in official records. In 1902, for
example, total arrivals of shipping were
999 vessels of 1,944,612 tons, of which 864
ships of 1,609,669 tons were British, and
135 ships of 334,943 tons were foreign. It
is important to bear these figures in mind
in endeavoring to trace the growth of in-
ter-Empire trade. Owing to the estab-
lishment of direct lines of steamships be-
tween European and Australian ports, and
to the decline which has taken place in
consequence in transhipment at London
trade returns do not credit tne United
Kingdom with importing as much of tne
produce of the State, as formerly when a
proportion of that shown as shipped to
the motherland went into consumption in
foreign countries. From 1886 to 1893
1,163 vessels cleared for the United King-
dom, representing 2,188,479 tons. Dur-
ing the succeeding eight years the number
fell to 995, though the tonnage increased
to 2,446,770 tons. To foreign States in
the earlier period clearances numbered
463, aggregating 820,923 tons, and from
1894 to 1901, 535, 1,346,822 tons. In
1882 no vessels cleared direct for Ger-
many; in 1902 the number was 32, of
131,049 tons, all of which were under
foreign flag.
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
171
Commercial Road, Port Adelaide.
In 1901 vessels were dispatched from all
South Australian ports chiefly as follows :
To United Kingdom, 140, of 384,033
tons; to New South Wales, 382, aggregat-
ing 652,699 tons; Victoria, 227, 469208
tons; Western Australia, 138, 203,227
tons; Tasmania, 43, 6,073 tons; New Zea-
land, 15, 10,928 tons; Cape Colony, 39,
39,895 tons; Natal, 19, 30,167 tons;
France, 15, 40,854 tons; Germany, 26,
equal to 99,514 tons.
THe Interstate Service.
The Interstate shipping business fur-
nishes a picturesque chapter in South
Australian history. For many years
water carriage was the only means of main-
taining relations with the other settled
portions of the island continent. The
bulk of the goods traffic between the
States is still carried on by sea, the pro-
portion being over 60 per cent, of the
carrying trade of each portion of the main-
land. In 1847 no fewer than 115 ships
out of 150 arriving in South Australia
came from British colonies. The dis-
covery of gold in Victoria in the fifties led
to a rush for berths on every available
craft which could be pressed into service.
In 1859 clearances for the adjoining State
of Victoria numbered 199 ships, of 30,y67
tons, out of a total of 319 vessels, of 73,789
tons, including river traffic. Gradually
trade became established, a tourist move-
ment was encouraged by the purchase of
modern steamers, and, notwithstanding
the construction of railways, the coastal
service has steadily expanded.
During 1902 arrivals of shipping from
Victoria numbered 181 vessels, of 347,813
tons; from New South Wales, 300 vessels,
of 549,226 tons; from Western Australia,
144 vessels, of 210,656 tons; from Tas-
mania, 51 vessels, of 10,560 tons ; and from
Western Australia, 9 vessels, of 76,153 tons.
172
THE CENTRAL STATE.
The Coastal Service.
The purely coastal trade was carried on
in the early days by small sailing crafts,
which still constitute the greater number
of the vessels engaged. Exclusive of
Kiver Murray trade, there are ap-
proximately 100 vessels, of 5,600 tons,
engaged in maintaining communication
chiefly between Port Adelaide and the
outports, and of this total 10, representing
1,500 tons, are steamers.
South Australia has participated in the
benefits arising from the increase in the
size of ships during the past fifty years.
Of 102 vessels which arrived in 1828 the
largest was 600 tons, and for many years
the greater number fell beneath 1.000
tons. Of 315 arrivals in 1868, only one
exceeded 1,100 tons, while in 1878 the
limit was 2,700 tons. Ten years later
no fewer than 40 vessels which reported
in South Australia were from 3,000 to
3,500 tons register. Now the majority ol
merchantmen calling here are of mam-
moth proportions. As illustrating this,
the following list of the largest steamers to
so far enter Port Adelaide harbor stands
out prominently :
Tons gross. Tons net.
S.S. Manhattan 8,004 6,121
S.S. Maplemore 7,803 5,842
S.S. Jason 7,450 4,800
S.S. Star of Australia ... 7,198 4,668
S.S. Kanowna 6,976 4,399
S.S. Machaon 6,737 4,276
S.S. Commonwealth ... 6,611 4,172
S.S. Ophir 6,910 3,223
S.S. Morayshire 5,576 3,597
Increased tonnage and greater draft of
water have necessitated a vigorous policy
of harbor improvement. In the early
days the mariner had to guard against the
danger of having his ship left high and
dry on the mud banks when the tide re-
ceded. At the present time steamers of
from 5,000 to 8,000 tons comfortably berth
at the wharves. Captain John Jones was
the first mariner to enter the Port Ade-
laide inlet. In 1836 Colonel Light, in an
official report, referred to what was des-
tined to become the chief port of South
Australia in the following terms: "I
have no hesitation in saying that with the
entrance buoyed ships drawing 16 ft. of
water may go in with ease, and when in
there is no safer or more commodious har-
bor in the world for merchant ships." On
May 25, 1839, Governor Gawler turned the
first spadeful of earth in connection with
the construction of a road leading from the
river to the high ground at the rear of the
swamps. This marked the establishment
of the city of Port Adelaide at its present
site, the "old Port" having been laid out
higher up the river. McLaren Wharf
was formally declared open to the com-
merce of the world on October 14, 1840.
Improvements since then have been con-
tinuous, it being the boast of the authori-
ties that any vessel which can pass through
the Suez Canal may with perfect safety
proceed to the wharves. During 1902 the
longest vessel to enter the harbor was 469
ft. in length, and the most deeply laden
steamer on departure drew 27 ft. 2 in. As,
however, there was a depth of water of 33
ft. 7 in. at high water on the day of de-
parture of the most deeply laden vessel,
shipowners have no occasion to fear that
the river cannot be expeditiously and safely
navigated at almost any time. The con-
struction of a first-class harbor at the chief
ports of the State has been effected by
the outlay of a large sum of money. Total
expenditure upon deepening and improv-
ing the ports of South Australia to June
30, 1902, exceeds 1,000,000, of which Port
Adelaide has absorbed 757,000, and Port
Pirie 143,000. The channel leading
from the anchorage, where the English
mails are loaded and discharged, to the
wharves at Port Adelaide, a distance of.
about nine miles, is deepened to 23 ft.
low water springs, but ordinary high water
springs give from 31 to 32 Jt. of water.
The width of the channel is nowhere less
than 250 ft., and in some places it is as
much as 500 ft. The work of deepening
and widening certain portions so as to
straighten out curves and make the chan-
nel still more easily navigable by steamers
of great length is still in process. For
the convenience of ccean vessels, especially
mail boats able to remain here only a few
hours, accommodation is now being pro-
vided at Light's Passage at the entrance
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
173
Port Augusta.
to the river at a cost of 437,000. That
the oversea trade transacted at the Sema-
phore anchorage almost exclusively by
mail steamers is of considerable impor-
tance will be gathered from the fact that
vessels which called during 1901 had on
arrival 519,544 tons of general cargo, of
which 25,243 tons were discharged. A bout
a similar quantity of goods was loaded.
It is with respect to passengers, however,
that it is desired to provide extra facilities,
it being recognised that everything pos-
sible should be done to induce travellers
to break the journey for a few hours and
visit the city. During 1901 visiting
steamers which did not make their way
to the wharves owing to the shortness of
their stay, brought 35,882 passengers, of
whom 5,000 landed here and did not re-
sume the voyage. It is a tribute to the
productiveness of the State that only
about 10 per cent, of the ships clearing
from South Australia leave in ballast.
When the wheat harvest is small the pro-
portion is higher, but exports are now be-
coming so diversified that over an average
of years ballast ships do not amount to
more than 10 per cent, of clearances. The
fair-way of the river is well defined by
beacons, and is lighted at night by a
system of leading lights. Port Adelaide
has 2^ miles of wharves, mostly privately
owned, representing an outlay roughly of
a million sterling. Further wharf con-
struction is at present contemplated. A
swinging berth 600 ft. long, deepened to
23 ft. at low water, meets the convenience
of large vessels unable to turn in the har-
bor, and a mooring berth 700 ft. long, with
a depth of 26 ft. at low water, is available
for special occasions, and has been utilised
by visiting war boats. Four patent slips
privately owned are capable of taking on
vessels of from 300 to 1,500 tons, and a
company is now being formed to construct
a graving dock. There are over 40 pro-
claimed ports around the coast line of
South Australia.
Port Pirie, situated in Spencer's Gulf,
ranks next in importance to Port Adelaide.
The channel is 150 ft. wide, and is
deepened to 15 ft. low water springs
from tne entrance to the south end
of the harbor, two-thirds of which has
a breadth of from 350 to 400 ft. Vessels
of from 2,000 tons to upwards of 4,200
tons navigate this waterway during high
water, with 20 to 22 ft. of water in the
channel. Wharfage frontage extends over
4,500 ft. The greater portion of the Bro-
ken Hill traffic passes through Port Pirie.
The silver smelting works at Port Pirie are
174
THE CENTRAL STATE.
said to be the largest of their kind in the
world. At Port Germein, situated ten
miles from Port Pirie, is a jetty 5,459 ft.
long, is frequented by many large vessels
which load wheat drawn from the upper
north and middle divisions of the State.
Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer's
Gulf, has lost much of its former impor-
tance owing to the decline of the pastoral
industry in the far North of South Aus-
tralia. The fine harbor causes Port
Augusta to be specially favorably situated
with regard to the great interior country
stretching to the Queensland and New
South Wales borders, which only requires
a reliable rainfall to become wonderfully
productive. Port Augusta also commands
the trade of Central Australia, and in the
event of the construction of the transcon-
tinental railway from Oodnadatta to Pine
Total Trade.
Port Adelaide ... 9,212,509
Port Pirie 1,995,679
Wallaroo 580,685
Port Augusta ... 71,142
Edithburg 37,464
Creek, this outport will be greatly bene-
fited. Wallaroo, further south than Port
Pirie, assumes importance as a wheat and
copper shipping port, and is a regular call-
ing place with many Interstate steamers.
There are large copper smelting works at
Wallaroo. Kingston, on the south-eastern
coastline, forms the outlet for most f the
wool grown in that part which finds its
way direct to London. At present an
effort is being put forward to secure a har-
bor for the south-east capable of accom-
modating deep-sea steamers. Edithburgh,
on the south-eastern point of Yorkes
Peninsula, has come into prominence of re-
cent years owing to the development of
a salt industry in the neighborhood. The
following table shows the inward and out-
ward tonnage at the chief ports of South
Australia during 1902 :
Inwards.
Outwards.
Vessels.
Tons.
Vessels.
Tons.
785
1,710,501
756
1,713,516
52
82,647
101
159,958
62
97,286
32
45,583
9
13,349
5
7,563
7
5,181
54
54,145
THe Lighthouse Service.
The coastline of South Australia is re-
markably well lighted, especially consider-
ing the comparatively short time that the
State has been established. The earliest
guiding beacon set up was exhibited from
the mast-head of an old vessel moored out-
side the entrance to the Port Adelaide
River. This light was first shown on
July 17, 1840, and it was twelve years
later before a permanent mark was
erected. Lighthouse construction dates
from 1852, when a revolving light on
Cape Willoughby, situated on the eastern
extremity of Kangaroo Island, was set up.
Thence forward as trade increased, and,
unfortunately in some instances as disas-
trous wrecks demonstrated the necessity,
fine lighthouses were constructed around
the shores of the State. To-day from 14
towers warm rays of light warn of hidden
dangers and guide the way into the desired
haven. This number is exclusive of
smaller local lights, a light ship on Middle
Bank, Spencer's Gulf, and the lighthouse at
Point Charles, Northern Territory. The
total salaries of light keepers in 1856
amounted to only 1,378, but the aggre-
gate expenditure on lighthouses to June
30, 1902, amounted to over 160,000.
LIGHT DUES AND PILOTAGE.
The cost of lighting the coast is borne
by light dues imposed on visiting shipping,
the sum raised by this means during 1901
being 18,340. In 1845 the Government
of the day considered the state of the
finances justified the abolition of port
charges on ships of all nations without ex-
ception. This condition of affairs did not
last long, however, and to-day, in addition
to light dues, visiting shipmasters, unless
they have been successful in obtaining an
exemption certificate, have to submit to
compulsory pilotage. The minimum rate
of pilotage at Port Adelaide is 2/10, and
the maximum 12, and a sliding scale is
provided on the basis of l^d. per ton. At
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
175
Port Adelaide the pilots are Government
servants, the fees going into revenue.
Wharfage rates on goods landed and
shipped over the various wharves are
levied by the various owners. With the
exception of an enumerated list of goods,
the wharfage rate is uniform at 1/8 per
ton weight, or 2/ per ton measurement.
The necessity of making South Australian
ports as cheap as possible has been re-
peatedly urged upon the authorities, and
as a step in this direction a concession was
made not long ago whereby the payment
of light dues was made to cover a definite
period, one payment being sufficient for
any number of visits during the period.
During 1901 over 8,500 was paid to
pilots through the Marine Department for
pilotage services. In addition, tonnage
dues are levied by wharfowners upon ves-
sels evading or discharging at the wharves.
Facilities for expeditiously handling cargo
have greatly increased with the growth of
trade. In the fifties the landing of 130
tons of goods at McLaren Wharf, Port
Adelaide, in 10 hours was considered a
smart piece of work. Nowadays Port Ade-
laide stevedores who have won a reputa-
tion for despatch, can handle as much as
800 tons of goods in the same time.
The Marine Board.
Among the early Acts passed in the
colony in the first year of the reign of the
late Queen Victoria was one entitled "AJO.
Act for the better preservation of the
ports, harbors, havens, roadsteads, chan-
nels, navigable creeks and rivers in Her
Majesty's Province of South Australia, and
for the better regulation of shipping and
entering crews in the same." Originally
the marine administration was practically
in the hands of Captain Lipson, who was
appointed in England as naval officer and
harbor master, and who arrived in Ihe
Cygnet in September, 1836. It was sub-
sequently found necessary to subdivide his
duties between four departments Cus-
toms, Trinity Board, local Marine Board,
and Harbor Trust. The Trinity Board
was constituted in 1851, and Captain Lip-
son was selected as first master of the
body. He held office for only three years.
The functions of the board were chiefly to
license pilots, fix rates, superintend light-
houses, regulate wharves, and supply bal-
last to ships. Later on the board was
charged with deepening operations.
Deepening in the Port Adelaide River was
started in 1849, but not vigorously
prosecuted till 1854. The Trinity Board,
finding itself hampered for want of funds,
secured a grant of 100,000, and to ad-
minister this the four senior members were
appointed to give effect to the Act. Thus
the Harbor Trust was brought into exis-
tence. A few years later the Commis-
sioners passed under the control of the
Parliamentary head of Uie Public Works
Department, and to-day all harbor im-
provements are under the direction of the
Engineer-in-Chief. The local Marine
Board, of which the late Captain Douglas
was first chairman, and Mr. Arthur Searcy
is now President, took over and performed
for some years the duties discharged by
the Harbor Master as shipping master;
but in 1860 all earlier enactments were re-
pealed, and the Marine Board of South
Australia constituted to generally ad-
minister marine matters. For years the
Government nominated members, but in
1881 that system gave way to semi-elec-
tion, and at present three members of the
board are appointed by the Government,
representation being conceded to seamen
and engineers; two are elected by fhip-
owners and one each by the Chamber of
Commerce and the Marine Underwriters.
The Ocean Mail Service.
The development of the shipping nidus- by sailing vessels, and the time of arrival
try has had a most important bearing being very uncertain, the presence of a
upon the conveyance of mails between the boat in the offing caused great excitement.
United Kingdom and South Australia. In For many years there was no arrangement
the early days the service was maintained with particular lines. Letters were
1 7 6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
brought by any outward-bound crafts.
Among the best known were the clippers
of Captain Angel and Messrs. Elder,
Younghusband, and Levi. The bags were
landed in whale boats and taken to Ade-
laide by road. In 1844 a regular line of
sailing packets having been established
between London and Sydney, the bulk of
the mail matter was forwarded by this
route. The average time occupied was
158 days. The first regular steam com-
munication was established in 1852 via
tiie Cape of Good Hope, the contract time
from Plymouth to Adelaide being 68 days.
The initial mail, consisting of 1,799 letters
and 3,618 papers, arrived by the Austra-
lasian on August 29. The service was
terminated by the failure of the com-
pany, and sailing vessels were again
resorted to, until, in 1853, contracts -were
entered into with the P. & O. Company
for a mail every two months via Singapore.
In 1855 the steamers of this line and
those of the General Screw S.S. Company,
with which an arrangement had also been
entered into, were taken off to convey
troops to the Crimea, and colonists were
again left dependent upon sailing ships.
Letters were forwarded to Melbourne
twice a month. Even when a few years
later the British Government entered into
a contract with a steamship company, Mel-
bourne was made the distributing centre.
In 1860 the P. & 0. Company again ap-
peared as a contractor, and maintained a
monthly connection between England and
the colonies. South Australian letters
were delivered at Kangaroo Island. A
year later the route was altered. This
State was ignored, and it became necessary
for the Government to establish a branch
service between Albany, in Western Aus
tralia, and Adelaide. In 1874 a new sys-
tem was inaugurated whereby the .British
Government carried the mails as far as
Galle, and the Victorian authorities con-
nected from Colombo to Melbourne. This
State had to pay 5,000 for the steamers
to call at Glenelg. Some years later bet-
ter facilities were provided with wie P. and
O. Company, which, in conjunction with
the Orient Company, gave a weekly ser-
vice between Europe and Adelaide. This
was the first Federal arrangement come to,
and the contract still holds good. Owing
to the construction of a line of railway be-
tween Adelaide and Melbourne, this State
is now made the embarking and disem-
barking point for the mails for Eastern
States. The rail was first utilised in con-
junction with the steamers, which after-
wards resume the voyage to Melbourne
and Sydney, in 1887. The present agree-
ment expires in 1905. The contract time
is 686 hours from brindisi to Adelaide.
The Post and Telegraph Department, hav-
ing been taken over by the Federal Go-
vernment, the conclusion of mail contracts
between South Australia, as a part of the
Union, and the United Kingdom has now
to be negotiated by the Commonwealth
Government. The number of ship letters
which passed through South Australian
post offices in 1901 was 4,745,070 out of a
total of 21,401,518. In 1887 the number
of ship letters was 2,237,699 out of an
aggregate of 15,181,309. Newspapers
brought into South Australia or sent away
by sea numbered 1,622,788 out of
7,376,953 in 1887, and 3,144,128 out of
9,827,071 in 1901.
River Murray Trade.
South Australia has always been deeply
interested in the maintenance of a high-
way by water into the interior of the Con-
tinent, and has taken a leading part in
the navigation of the Rivers Murray and
Darling. The matter was actively taken
up by Sir Henry Young among pioneer
Governors, while the names 1 of Captains
Cadell, Randell, Johnson, and King will
ever be remembered among early navi-
gators of the river who did much to ex-
plore its tortuous reaches and demonstrate
its value as a highway of commerce. With
the settlement of the far western dis-
tricts of New South Wales and the country
on both sides of the Murray an important
trade was developed. Large quantities
of goods were yearly carried by this means
to distant stations, while pastoral produce
was brought down to the seaboard. The
volume of this interchange amounted in
1882 to no less than 837,704 worth of im-
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
177
Murray Bridge.
ports from New South Wales, and 23,555
from Victoria. Exports, on the other
hand, came to 346,153 to New South
Wales, and 564 to Victoria. Of recent
years the construction of railways, the
adoption of preferential railway rates,
droughts, and the conflict of irrigation in-
terests have caused this valuable trade to
seriously dwindle till, in 1901, river borne
imports from New South Wales amounted
to only 1 12,536, and from Victoria to
24,768. Exports in the same year were
36,526 to New South Wales, and 8,801
to Victoria. The question of riparian
rights has been debated for many years,
during which period the neighboring State
of Victoria has been extending diversion
schemes till at present there is grave fear
that the navigation of the river will be
destroyed. Hopes are entertained that
the establishment of Federation will ulti-
mately ensure an amicable and just settle-
ment of the river problem. It is pro-
vided by the constitution that "the Com-
monwealth shall not by any law or regula-
tion of trade or commerce abridge the
right of a State or of the residents therein
to the reasonable use of the waters of
rivers for conservation or irrigation."
Everything depends upon the construction
placed upon the words "reasonable use.''
Early in 1902 an Interstate Conference
was held to consider the question of water
conservation, and to South Australia and
the back blocks of New South Wales the
immensely important matter of locking
the river and generally disposing of the
water. The outcome of this gathering
was the appointment by the Common-
wealth Government of a Royal Commis-
sion, which brought up a report which
threatened to create a deadlock. At a
Conference of State Premiers in 1903 the
scheme of the experts was somewhat
amended, and it was agreed to submit this
modification to the State Parliaments of
South Australia, Victoria, and New South
Wales for acceptance. This agreement
was intended to hold good for five years,
but it did not prove acceptable, and has
not been ratified. The Government of
South Australia proposes to construct a
barrage across the mouth of the river to
keep out the sea and throw back the fresh
water into Lakes Alexandrina and Albert.
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Vessels Registered in SoutH Australia.
The first vessel registered at Port Ade-
laide was the Hero, built at the Manning
River, New South Wales, in 1837, and
transferred to South Australia the follow-
ing year. The certificate, which is still
preserved at the Custom House, sets out
that John Barton Hack, of Adelaide, was
the sole owner of a vessel of 36 tons, hav-
ing one deck, one mast, and a length from
the inner part of the main stem to the
sternpost of 40 ft., a beam of 14 ft., and a
depth of 7 ft. She was carvel built, and
square at the stern. It is not an easy
matter to give an idea of the extent to
which tonnage is owned in South Aus-
tralia, It is impossible to state what
amount of South Australian capital is in-
vested in the industry, and the tonnage
registered in the State does not throw
much light upon this question. The fol-
lowing is an official statement of the num-
ber of vessels belonging 'to Port Ade-
laide :
Steamers.
Sailers.
No. Tons. No. Tons
1892 90 15,852 215 23,909
1893 92 15,331 212 23,571
1894 94 16,146 212 22,880
1895 95 17,715 214 22,930
1896 103 29,073 215 22,507
1897 109 30,641 217 22,229
1898 107 28,413 222 22,573
1899 108 28,445 227 22,421
1900 107 26,945 216 19,140
1901 109 29,661 218 18,943
It is estimated that close on 300 seamen
whose homes are in South Australia find
employment in the Interstate and purely
coastal trade. The number would be
much greater except for the fact that the
steamship companies find it convenient to
register their vessels in other States and
pay wages and effect repairs there. It is
hoped that with the construction of the
contemplated graving dock at Port Ade-
laide still more seamen may be induced to
establish homes there. The substitution
of steam for sail has tended to reduce the
number of seamen carried on vessels trad-
ing to the State, but at the same time the
increase in the size of vessels has counter-
acted this tendency. This aspect is
brought out in the following table com-
piled from official records and showing en-
tries at South Australian ports :
Tons
Pear. Entered.
1871 9,152
1881 30,969
1891 52,145
1901 61,752
Average
Crews. per ton.
193,830 21
640,885 20
1,287,644 24
1,966,698 31
It will, of course, be understood that
these particulars relate to seamen of all
nationalities. Especially interesting just
now are the rates of wages ruling on the
Australian coast, and the following also
from official sources shows the average
wages per month paid to seamen who en-
gaged through the Department of Mercan-
tile Marine during 1901:
STEAMERS.
First mate
Second mate
A.B
O.S
Boatswain
Carpenter
Steward ...
Cook
First engineer . .
Second engineer
Fireman ...
Trimmer . .
Coasting.
15 to 16
11 to 13
6 15/
2 10/
8
9
3 to 9
3 to 9
18 to 20
16
8 15/
6 15/
Interstate.
16 to 17
11 to 13
7
3
8
9
3 to 12
3 to 12
20 to 25
16 to 18
9
7
Oversea Passenger Trade.
South Australia's great need as indeed
it is of all parts of the Commonwealth
is a larger population. In the early
days of the province a system of State
assisted immigration was in force by means
1886. Naturally, the human flow was all
in one direction in the early days, and by
1849 the excess of immigration over emi-
gration had reached to close on 14,000. In
the following year, when the Victorian
* i **,,. ^ iviivwiug year, wnen ine Victorian
of which population was attracted to the goldfields had begun to attract attention,
lony, but this policy was terminated in the excess had fallen to just over 6,000.
THE SHIPPING TRADE.
179
Total immigration during the ten years,
1850 to 1859, amounted to 124,595 per-
sons, of whom 67,815 arrived from Great
Britain, 49,309 from British colonies, and
7,471 from foreign countries. The num-
ber of immigrants introduced at public ex-
pense during the ten years was 50,355
29,675 English, 5,913 Scotch, and 14,767
Irish. The total was made up of 23,690
males and 26,665 females. Of the former
17,331 were adults and 6,359 children, and
of the females 19,926 were adults and 6,739
children. Total expenditure upon immi-
gration during the same period was
1,121,731, the average cost to the State
being 22/5/6 per Government immigrant,
or 19/15 for each individual who arrived
and remained in the colony. By the end
of the sixties the number of immigrants
brought at public expense had fallen very
low, and the year before the repeal of the
legislation amounted to only 293. The
following shows the gain or loss to popula-
tion by this means, it being understood
that the figures since 1886 do not include
any State assisted immigrants, that system
having ceased at that time :
Year.
1847
1857
1867
1877
1887
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
Immigra-
tion.
5,646
8,138
3,651
15,016
15,468
96,827
94,060
73,557
77,789
73,780
71,896
Emigra-
tion.
885
4,909
4,046
9,008
17,667
98,037
92,306
71,966
78,624
82,880
72,810
Excess of
Immgtn. Emigtn.
4,761
3,229
6,008
1,754
1,591
900
395
2,199
1.210
475
914
Nunyara Sanatorium for the Open- Air Treatment of Consumption, situated in
the Mount Lofty Ranges, Belair, seven- miles from Adelaide.
Altitude, 1,050 feet.
The State Railways.
Paradoxical though it may seem, it is
historically, as well as technically, correct
to declare that the first railway in South
Australia was a tramway ! The earliest
rail traction the pioneer scheme for the
transit of goods other than by the roadway
was witnessed early in the fifties. A
private company laid down rails between
Goolwa and Port Elliot for the carriage of
river-borne goods by means of horsepower
to the port of shipment. At a later date
the system was extended to Victor Har-
bor, and in due course the locomotive
superseded the horse.
But still more surprising facts remain
to be stated concerning the establishment
and extension of railways in this State.
The honor of building the first State-
owned railway in the British Empire be-
longs to South Australia! That claim
may sound extravagant, but it can be es-
tablished beyond doubt.. There is another
extraordinary fact in favor of this State.
In South Australia there are approximately
five miles of railway to each 1,000 inhabi-
tants. Compared on that basis, South
Australia leads the world as a builder
of railways! An influential rail-
way journal admits the accuracy
of this, and says: "Comparing the
railway mileage of the world, South Aus-
tralia is first with 52.3 miles for each
10,000 people, this result, of course, being
due to the comparative sparseness of the
population. In the United States there
are twenty-six miles to 10,000 inhabitants."
"Sparseness of population" does not take
anything away from so creditable an
achievement. The "sparse population"
pluckily shouldered the responsibility of
running a telegraph line through an un-
known continent in order to connect Aus-
tralia and the world beyond, and boldly
adopted a vigorous railway construction
policy. In a direct line from south to
north there is a clear run by railway unr
fortunately with a break of gauge of over
1,000 miles. The total railway mileage
open to public traffic is 1,736 miles, and
every inch of it is the property of the
people. The only privately owned line in
South Australia is a short span of thirty-
three miles built by the Broken Hill Pro-
prietary Company for the carriage of flux
from Iron Knob to the sea coast near Port
Pirie.
Within ten years of the proclamation of
the province a few pushful pioneers wanted
to know why George Stephenson should be
supplying locomotive traction to English-
men and South Austalians be left to wield
the bullock whip, taxing both their
strength and their vocabularies! An agi-
tation began late in the forties in favor of
linking the city and the chief seaport. A
company was formed in. 1848 for that pur-
pose, and legislative authority was given
twoyears later for the construction of a rail-
way from Adelaide to Port Adelaide, "with
a branch to the North Arm." The latter
was never built. The representative of the
company had at least three objections to the
terms offered. Maximum tolls of 2d.,
l|d., and Id. for first, second, and third
classes were claimed. The Government
reserved the right to purchase the line, and
a limitation was placed upon the grant of
lands. Negotiations were suspended, and
the Legislature came forward with a guar-
antee of 5 per cent, for ten years on the
estimated cost of construction. The com-
pany promoters were not satisfied, and the
Government stepped in and did the work,
thus laying the foundation for the extensive
system of State-owned railways in Austra-
lia. It was not until April, 1856, that
the seven and a half miles of track connect-
ing Adelaide and Port Adelaide was open-
ed as the result of an expenditure of
204,000 or over 27,000 per mile!
Platelayer and bridge-builder then began
work in earnest. They turned their faces
northward. The first section was twenty-
five miles to Gawler. That line was
opened in 1857, and the little province
owned at the end of that year 4H miles of
railway. The next step was to Kapund*,
where copper had been discovered. The
north-eastern section was available in 1860,
and for many years Kapunda remained n
terminus, and was greatly frequented by
northern settlers when visiting the city or
returning to their homes. For ten years it
represented the ultima thule of the rail-
way system, but in 1870 the copperopolis
of South Australia the Burra then re-
THE STATE RAILWAYS.
181
garded as being in the "Far Noi'th" was
connected. The opening up of the
"Northern Areas" a few years later took
the "iron horse" to Crystal Brook and Port
Pirit. The northward movement steadily
continued until Port Augusta, 260 miles
from Adelaide, was connected. The two
great engineering feats in connection with
railway building in South Australia, were
the construction of the Great Northern
system, which has its terminus at Oodna-
datta the point from which it is (proposed
the land-grant transcontinental work
F. J. Gillen photo.
Simpson Gap, McDonnell Ranges.
should begin and the line through the
Mount Lofty Ranges, across the River
Murray, and the Ninety-Mile Desert, con-
necting with the interstate system which
now extends to Gladstone in Queensland
2,100 miles from Oodnadatta without a
gap ! The mountain ranges between
Quorn and Port Augusta, in which is situ-
ated the bold and strikingly grand Pichi-
Hichi Pass tested the skill of the engi-
neers. Greater difficulties confronted them
in finding a passage through the Mount
Lofty Ranges, but they emerged from the
ordeal with infinite credit to themselves;
and few railways in the world better de-
monstrate the skill of engineer and work-
men than the line which winds its way to
high altitudes between Adelaide and
Mount Lofty. Nine tunnels, aggregating
a total length of nearly 2,000 yards, a
wrought-iron skeleton-looking viaduct 620
ft. long and 107 ft. high were necessary in
the first thirty miles. To cross the "Nile
of Australia" a bridge consisting of five
120-ft. main spans each containing 140
tons of ironwork and twenty-three 60-ft.
spans across a swamp had to be built.
The capital cost of the 1,229 miles of 3
ft. 6 in gauge and the 507 of 5 ft. 3 in.
gauge is set down at 13,400,796, equal to
7,718 per mile, and about half the total
public debt. The following state-
ment has reference to the working of the
railway system for the twelve months
ended June 30, 1903 :
Passenger traffic by ordinary
and season tickets 281,666
Coaching do. other than above 60,371
Mineral do. freight 226,728
Grain do. do 29,578
Wool do. do 19,690
Goods do. do. other than the
above 355,166
Live stock do. do 72,360
Miscellaneous earnings 31,053
Bevenue (Gross earnings) 1,076,612
Working expensey 624,511
Net revenue (balance after
.paying working expenses) .. 452,101
Percentage of working expenses
to revenue % 58.01
Do. of net revenue to capital .
cost (on average miles open)% 3.37
Number of passenger jour-
neys No. 9,061,488
Minerals carried tons 546,701
Grain do tons 101,602
Wool do tons 14,798
Goods do. other than the
above tons 647,066
Live stock do tons 39,450
Goods and live stock, gross
tonnage, freight paying 1,349,617
Train miles . .... 3,770,351
1 82
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Total earnings per train mile d. 68.53
Total working expenses per
train mile d. 39.75
Total earnings per average mile
open 620
Total working expenses per
do 360
Locomotives No. 346
Coaching vehicles No. 435
Goods and live stock
vehicles No. 6,021
Departmental wagonS, travel-
ling tanks, and cranes. . . No. 273
Population, excluding abori-
gines, at close of year, ap-
proximately 363,000
Miles of line open for every
one thousand of population,
approximately 4.78
Population or every mile of line
opened No. 209
REVENUE.
1902-1903.
Passengers First class 82,776
Second class 198,890
Mails, parcels, &c 60,371
Minerals 226,728
Grain 29,578
Wool 19,690
Goods other than above 355,166
Live stock 72,360
Miscellaneous Wharfage,
rents, &c 31,053
1,076,612
EXPENDITURE.
1902-1903.
Maintenance 139,297
Locomotive branch 317,217
Traffic, compensation, and
general charges 167,997
624,511
The foregoing figures are exclusive of
the Palmerston and Pine Creek Railway
in the Northern Territory, also a part of
the South Australian railway system and
controlled from Adelaide. This line is
145 miles in length, and the mileage run
last year was 30,422. The revenue was
11,298, and the expenditure 12,812.
In his last annual report the Railways
Commissioner was able to write: "I re-
cord with pleasure the fact that no passen-
ger has sustained an injury for which the
department could be held responsible, and
no better tribute to the general careful-
ness and attention to duty of the staff can
be necessary."
Actuated by the very best intention
that of lessening the cost of construction
a dominant section of legislators in the
seventies introduced what is known as the
narrow gauge, viz., 3 ft. 6 in., as against
the 5 ft. 3 in. gauge which was first estab-
lished. There are three narrow systems
in the State separated from one another
by the broad gauge. This greatly in-
creases the difficulty and cost of manage-
ment. There are breaks from the broad
to the narrow width at Hamley Bridge and
Terowie north of Adelaide and at Wol-
seley, in the South, and in bne event of a
glut of traffic in the far northern, the wes-
tern, or the south-eastern divisions it is-
not an easy matter to quickly concentrate
hauling power or increase the carrying
capacity at a given point, me 5 ft. 3 in.
(prevails between Adelaide and Melbourne,
and thence as far as Albury, the border
of Victoria and New South Wales. In
the latter State there is one gauge the
English 4 ft. 8 in. The question of uni-
formity is one that has 1 frequently been
discussed, and as often, put aside because
of the divergence of opinion concerning
the best width to adopt ana the enormous
outlay involved in bringing about one
common system.
An interesting feature in connection
with the South Australian railways was the
enterprise of this State in constructing a
line to the border of New South Wales to
tap the rich Barrier silver fields. The
whole of the trade of Broken Hill passes
over the South Australian railways.
During the last year the tonnage carried
amounted to 491,711 tons, giving a re-
venue of 339,441. Splendidly equipped
workshops exist at various centres, but
the main shops are at Islington, about
three miles north of the city. From this
establishment are turned out locomotives,
carriages, and wagon stock. Some of the
most powerful engines in Australia ha,ve
been designed and manufactured at Isling-
ton. The Chief Mechanical Engineer, Mr.
T. Roberts, in his last report, stated : "The
pattern class 'F' engine, 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, for
suburban passenger traffic, which was com-
pleted and issued to traffic in March, 1902,
has proved to be a most successful and
satisfactory engine ; her average cost
THE STATE RAILWAYS.
183
being 0.7 Id. less per train mile than the
average for the class 'P' engine doing
similar duty. The pattern class 'T,' 3 ft.
6 in. gauge, tender engine, built at Isling-
ton, was completed and issued to traffic in
February last, and is working very satis-
factorily, hauling loads 50 per cent, in ex-
cess of the maximum load for class 'Y/ the
previous standard engine.
The Ways and Works Shops, Glanville,
under the control of the Engmeer-in-Chief,
in addition to railway work, are capable
of turning out cast iron piping of various
sizes for the reticulation of water. The
Engineer-in-Chief, Mr. A. B. Moncrieff,
in his last statement, reported that
his expenditure for the twelve months
ended June 30, 1903, for various
works of construction being additions
to the existing lines amounted to
96,385. The only railway in course of
construction is a line 3^ miles long to con-
nect the Outer Harbor, now being built.
Parliament has recently sanctioned the
making of a railway between Tailem Bend
and Pinnaroo, a distance of eighty miles,
for the purpose of opening 500,000 acres
of agricultural country, and a line between
Wandilo and Glencoe, nine miles in
length. The former is to be the broad and
the latter the narrow gauge. When these
axe completed there will be approximately
2,000 miles of State-owned railways in
South Australia.
Trans-Australian Lines.
Two projects are before the public at
the present time for bridging the continent
with railways northwards from, Oodnadatta
to connect with the Pine (Jreek railway,
and westward from Port Augusta! to join
the Western Australian line at the gold-
fields. The construction of the latter is a
matter for the Federal Government, sub-
ject to the approval of the South Austra-
lian Parliament to allow the building of a
railway through its territory. The cost
is estimated in round figures at 5,000,000,
and its advocates assert tnat the work
would pay after a few years 1 . It is claimed
that the connecting by railway of Perth
in the west with Brisbane in the east via
Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney would
be of immense benefit in the expedition of
mails, and, if the occasion should arise, the
transport of troops.
The proposal which finds most favor in
this State is the extension, of the Great
Northern system of our railways. The ter-
minus of that is at Oodnadatta, 688 miles
from Adelaide, and between that point and
Pine Creek there is a gap of 1,063 miles.
It is claimed that it will be practicable for
passengers and mails to reach Port Dar-
win by the Siberian railway route in four-
teen days from London, or in seventeen
days to Adelaide.
Tenders are now being invited by the
South Australian Government for the con-
struction of 1,063 miles of railway on the
land-grant system. A bonus is offered to
the contractors of a grant of land in fee-
simple of 79,725,000 acres! Tenderers
must deposit 10,000, and must apply by
May 2, 1904. They must be prepared to
1. Construct the railway to the satis-
faction of the Engineer-in-Chief, on the 3
ft. 6 in. gauge ; the rails to i>e of steel, and
of not less weight than 60 Ib. to the yard.
2. Complete the work in eight years; the
minimum length of line to be constructed
in any one year being 100 miles. 3. Pro-
vide and always maintain a train service
for goods and passengers once a w?ek at
least from each terminus, with a minimum
speed of 20 miles per hour. 4. Deposit
50,000, which is to be absolutely for-
feited if default is made in any of the con-
ditions of the contract. The country
through which this line would pass pre-
sents no great engineering difficulties. For
the most part it is one vast plain, with
here and there a sand ridge or a water-
course.
The worst gradient would be 1 in 80 for
about two. miles. The only difficulties
between Oodnadatta and Alice Springs are
a few milea of sandhills and the spanning
of the Finke. From Alice Springs to
Woodford Creek, 100 miles, the railway
would cross high tableland country about
2,000 ft. above sea level. Then there would
be a descent to Teatree Well, 1,490 ft.
above sea level. The gradients for the rest
of the distance would be exceedingly easy.
The climate throughout the country
to be tapped is excellent all the year round,
and the contractors would meet with no
difficulty in the matter of obtaining water
and supplies of meat. Full information,
concerning the terms of the offer made
under the Land Grant Railway Act is ob-
tainable from the Government in Adelaide
or at the AgentXJeneral's Office, London.
1 84
THE CENTRAL STATE.
THE STATE RAILWAYS.
PLACES WORTH VISITING SERVED BY THE SOUTH (
AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS.
THE HILLS DISTRICT, THE NATIONAL PARK, AND THE
SOUTH COAST WATERING PLACES.
The line over the Mount Lofty Ranges
passes through beautiful scenery. Where
nature undisturbed has ceased to hold sway,
art and industry have stepped in, and all
along the line, picturesquely dotted about on
hillside and in valley, and surrounded by fruit
and flower gardens, the majority of which are
models of horticultural and floricultural skill
and artisitic arrangement, are to be found
pretty residences, 'charming villas, and neat
cottages. A pleasant day's outing in the
miidst of lovely surroundings may be enjoyed
at any point along the Mne.
At BEL AIR, 40 minutes' journey from.
Adelaide, is the National Park, a reserve for
recreative purposes, some 2,000 acres in ex-
tent. Its exceptional natural advantages
have been added to by judicious improve-
ments, under the diireerbion of a board of man-
agement: Miniature lakes have 'been formed,
drives and walks laid out, bowers, shelter
hoiises, &c., &c., ejected, so that now visitors
find here everything necessary for their plea-
sure and comfort.
After crossing the Ranges the line extends
through the districts of STRATHALBYN,
BLACK SWAMP, CURRENCY CREEK,
and FINNISS, to the charming South Coast
wafer ing places of GOOLWA. MIDDLETON,
PORT ELLIOT, and VICTOR HARBOR.
The first-named is the nearest staitdon to the
MURRAY MOUTH and the COORONG
(a favorite resort of sportsmen), and especi-
ally interesting as the place at which Gap-
tain Sturt, the earliest exploiter, after com-
iug down the rivers, reached the sea.
At MIDDLETON there is a fine stretch!
of s'hell beach.
PORT ELLIOT stands second to none in
natural attractions for visitors. The never
ceasing roll of the huge breakers of the
Southern Ocean, the lovely spray dashing
over the fine old granite boulders, and the
charming little bays, providing secluded nooks
for picnic parties, bears a striking resem-
blance, 'to New Zeadand or New South Wale*
coast scenery.
VICTOR HARBOR is situated a little
further south on the north-west coast of
Encounter Bay the bay of islands, com-
posed of granite boulders and is a moat
'picturesque place for a summer holiday.
Granite Island, the nearest to the mainland,
is connected with the town by a long and
convenient pier, which forms a delightful pro-
menade. The island itself has many plea-
sant walks and boulder-shaded nooks, where
a summer day may be enjoyably passed. A
tram-car runs to the island during the sum-
mer months. For geologists this is perhaps
the most attractive resort on the continent,
signs of glacial action being apparent on the
rocks, wliile the country is strewn with ice-
carried boulders.
At each place there are a number of com-
modious hotels, wiell-kept and replete with
every comfort for visitors, also numbers of
boarding-houses, where rooms or board and
lodging can be obtained a.t prices to suit the
pockeits of all classes.
BOATING and YACHTING may be in-
dulged in either OFF THE COAST, on the
RrvER MURRAY at GOOLWA, or on thie HIND-
MARSH RIVER, near VICTOR HARBOR. Safe
fast-sailing little centre-board cutters,
manned by capable men who spend their
working hours sailing for profit (fishing)
and their spare time sculling for pleasure,
can be hired for a few hours or a week if re-
quired. At Goolwa, there is also a steam
launch (The Singapore) and a 10- ton schooner
(The WliMe Cloud) always available for
visitors.
GOOD FISHING is obtainable ALL ROTJND
THE COAST, and in the MURRAY AND HIND-
MARSH. Schnapper, sweep, whiting, mullet,
&e., in tli* sea, and cod, butter-fish, &c., in the
river, being often very abundant. The break-
ers from the Southern Ocean dashing against
the granite rocks are an endless attraction.
THE LAKES, CAVES, AND ROCK-BOUND COASTS OF THE
SOUTH-EAST.
MOUNT GAMBIER AND ENVIRONS.
One of the principal pleasure spots in the
colony is Mount Gamlbier, with its wonderful
crater lakes, many curious caves, and English
scenery. The Blue Lake, thie most import-
ant of the group, is nearly a mile across from
east to wast. It is surrounded by rocky
banks, varying from 200 feet to 30 feet in
height, and the water .can only be approached
at two points by (prepared paths. The lake
varies in depth from 180 feet to 330 feeit.
The many beauties of the surrounding scen-
eiry, the adjoining lakes ajid caves, and the
mountain and view therefrom, and the indi-
genous flora, cannot be here described; but
an extended visit to this district will! give
holiday-seekers considerable enjoyment.
THE GLENELG RIVER This is one
of the most beautiful streams in the southern
portion of Australia. Nelson, or "The Punt,"
about two miles from the mouith of the river,
is twenty-Sour miles from Mount Gamlbier,,
1 86
THE CENTRAL STATE.
and is reached by a good road the whole
length. The banks of the river are in some
places rugged and steep, and in others
cloithed to thte water's edge in magnificent
specimens of trees, ferns, shrubs, and wild
flowers, particularly (brilliant in sipring and
summer. The river is fuilil of perch, bream,
salmon, and trout, and duck and other wild
fowl abound in large quantities.
BEACHPORT. This excellent watering-
place is reached by rail frtom Mount Gammer,
a distance of 51 miles. The sea being broken
by the bars at the entrance to the bay, th'e
water is always comparaitively smooth, and
boating can be indulged in at all times.
There is plenty of fishing, and also shooting
on lakes George and Frome, and smaller
sheets of water adjacent. The Barr-Smith
steam lifeboat. City of Adelaide, is stationed
at Reaohport; and Penguin Island, with its
lighthouse, is easily reached by water.
ROBE. This is another favorite watering-
place in the South-East, and is very pnettily
situated on the southern side of Guichen Bay.
Its temperature in sumimer is said to be the
coolest in the colony. It is reached from
Adelaide by rail to Kingston, and thence by
coach ; and visitors from the metropolis are
numerous during the hot mlonths.
PORT MACDONNELL. This watering-
place is 18 miles south of Mount Gambier.
The sea coast is wild and rocky, but a mile
or so inland there are many secluded spots
favored by picnic parties. There is a light-
house at Gape Northumberland, two miles
away, and the port contains public sea baths,
under good management.
NARACOORTE CAVES. The Rev.
Julian Woods, F.G.S., &c., &c., after his visit
to the caves, said "in point of magnitude and
splendor, and in a scientific view, -they do not
yield in importance to such wonderful pheno-
mena as the Adelsberg Oaves, the caves in
the Peak of Derbyshire, the Guarcharo Caves,
and those in New South Wales and Tas-
mania." Alighting from the train at Nara-
coorte. the caves are reached after an eight-
mile drive. No description can convey an
adequate idea of their vastness and the natu-
ral wonders to be found there, but all tra-
vellers should visit these subterranean phe-
nomena. A specially interesting cave, which
was discovered a few years ago, has recently
been opened to the public. It is near the
others, and is in a perfect state of preserva-
tion, the careful oversight of the Woods and
Forests Department, under whose control the
caves 'are placed, prteiventing the mutilation
of the beautiful stalactites with which it is
studded. Application musit be made to the
resident forester for permission to visit this
cave, a charge of I/ being collected from
each visitor. The Government has recently
spent some hundreds of pounds in improving
the facilities for visiting the caves. As they
beconre better known they will rightly take
their plaice as one of the show sights of the
Australian co'kxnies.
THE WORLD-FAMED BARRIER MINING FIELDS, AND SOME
PLACES OF INTEREST NORTH OF ADELAIDE.
Rail communication between the Barrier
Fields, New South Wales, the Seaboard, and
Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, is given via
the Silverton Tramway (33 miles) and the
S.A. Railways (Adelaide 299 miiles, and Port
Pirie 219 miles.) There is a daily express (14
hours) in each direction between Adelaide
and Broken Hill ; sleeping cars are attached
for the night journey berth fee 7/6 ; and ade-
quate refreshment-room accommodation is to
be found at convenient points.
PORT AUGUSTA. This township is
within a day's journey of Adelaide, and that
portion of the country between Quorn and
Port Augusta, through Pichi Riehi Pass, in
the Flinders Range, with Mount Brown
(H.-'OO ft. high) frequently in view, is ex-
tremely picturesque. Port Augusta is at
the head of Spencer's Gulf, one of the finest
waterways in Australia. The town is health-
ily situated, and contains many fine buildings.
First-class hotel accommodation is provided,
and the port offers a most enjoyable holiday
to those fond of yachting and fishing.
GAWLER AND ANGASTON. Visitors
should certainly see this charming district,
the home of the vine. Gawler often termed
the "Modern Athlens," is twenty-five miles
from Adelaide, and five trains a day run to
it. It is an exceedingly pretty town, situ-
ated on the banks of the South Para river,
and two large iron foundries give the town
a busy appearan0e. Eight miles east of
Gawler is the Barossa Goldifield, and con-
tinuing the journey north-east through Row-
land's Flat, Tanunda, and on to Angaston and
Schlunke's Creek, a most fertile tract of
country is passed through teeming with vine-
yards. The wine and brandy cellars of the
Adelaide Company, known as "Chateau
Tanunda," are the largest in the Australian
oolo-niies, and will well repay a visit. To
reach Angaston direct passengers alight from
the traan at Freeilong, 'thence coaching it.
Another well-known place is the Roseworthy
Argicultural College, about seven miles -from
Gawler. In fact, the whole of this district
is interesting, the scenery beautiful, and the
roads good.
GLARE. A lighting at Saddleworth, Clare
is reached by a twenty-two mile drive over to
an excellent road and through delightful
scenery. After passing Auburn the road
thence to Clare follows the windings of the
River Wakefield.
Commencing thirteen and on'ei-half miles
to the westward of Laura Railway Station,
tourists may drive or cycle through Wirra-
bara Plantation and Forest and the Telowie
Gorge, en route to Port Germein, amidst
scemery both varied and picturesque. The
Telowie Gorge is very fine.
Waterworks.
The metropolitan district and most of
the large country towns are provided with
an. abundant supply of excellent water from
waterworks constructed and controlled by
the State Government. The cost of these
works has been 3,668,289. The annual
working expenses amount to about 31,250,
and the net revenue to 81,150, thus giving
a percentage of net revenue to capital cost
2.2 per cent. The chief sources of the water
supply are running streams, on which weirs
are constructed to divert the water, when
free from flood pollution, into large storage
reservoirs. Two engineering methods have
been adopted in the construction of the
larger storage reservoirs. Where the sites
were suitable, such as those at Happy Val-
ley and Bundaleer, the reservoirs have been
constructed by building large earth and
clay embankments in natural basins away
from the main watercourses. The Happy
Valley Reservoir has a capacity of 2,950,000
gallons, and of this, as well as M the Bunda-
leer Reservoir, capacity 1,31D;000 gallons,
some views are given. " The Adelaide
Waterworks, with its headwbrks and 634
miles of reticulation mains, cost 1,645,812.
The net revenue from rates and sales of
water for the year ending June 30, 1903,
was 55,130, being 3.349 per cent, on the
capital cost. At the Barossa Waterworks
the reservoir wall has been constructed of
cement concrete on the curved .principle.
The height of the wall is 95 ft., and the
capacity of the reservoir 993,340,000 gal-
lons. The Beetaloo Waterworks, command-
ing Port. Pirie, Moonta, Wallaroo, Kadina,
and fifteen other towns, as well as about a
million acres of country lands, are unique
with regard to the extent of the reticulation
with cast iron pipes, of which there are no
lesa than 637 miles, the capital cost of the
works being 989,950. The aggregate
capacity of the reservoirs supplying these
town waterworks amounts to 7,365 million
gallons, and the length of trunk and reticu-
lation mains to 1,738 miles. The separate
assessments number 79,105 of the annual
value of 1,437,800.
Artesian Wells.
The State of South Australia and its ''de-
pendency, '" the Northern Territory, are
blessed with a large share of the "great arte-
aian basin of Australia/' The intake bed
of this is the western slope of the coast range
from Cape York, the noithernmost point iri
Queensland, into Uie nortn-eastern corner
of New South Wales. Over this range the
rainfall is exceedingly heavy, averaging 51
in. at Brisbane, 70 in. at Cooktown, 72 in.
at Mackay, and 149 in. at Geraldton,
These figures will give an idea of the fall
in the territory referred to. On the western
slope there is a large sandstone formation
so porous that the rain water as it runs
off the hilltops is mostly absorbed by the
sandstone rocks, and the volume along ther*
surface is considerably decreased by this
loss. Were it not for this enormous ab-
sorption by the porous band no' doubt the
Diamentiria River, Cooper's Creek, and
other streams which flow southward from
Queensland into South Australia would, in-
stead of running intermittently, be strong
rivers. Thus yearly a very large supply of
water flow's through the intaike beds and
passes underground to replenish the water-
bearing area of the artesian basin. This
annual contribution is so large that, accord-
ing to a-n eminent authority, the compara-
tively small quantity discharged by the
bores, however numerous they may be, will
probably make no permanent difference to
the subterranean storage. This is a region
akin to Kubla Khan :
In Kubla Khan a river ran,
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless iea.
The extent of the artesian basin is
590, 000 'square miles; of which Queensland
1 88
THE CENTRAL STATE.
4?-
i.
I
WATERWORKS.
189
has 380,000, South Australia 120,000, Nor-
thern Territory 30,000, and New South
Wales 60,000.
In addition to the town waterworks,
much attention has been given by the Go-
vernment to the development of the interior
by wells, reservoirs, and borings for arte-
sian water. On such works the sum of
660,643 has been expended. The annual
revenue is small, but the indirect advan-
tages are immense. A large measure of suc-
cess has resulted, particularly in the north-
eastern portion of the State. There are
about twenty flowing artesian wells, many
of which are of great depth. The Mount
Gason bore, 4,420 ft., is the deepest, and
the supply is about half a million gallons
per day. The water is invariably thermal,
and that from the Mount Gason bore flows
over the surface at a temperature of 204
deg. Fahr. It is a curious fact that the
temperature increases much more rapidly
in the locality of this artesian basin than
in most other parts of the earth, the ave-
rage mean of temperature being 1 deg.
Fahr. for each 27 ft. The Coward bore,
308 ft. deep, gives a flowing 1 million gal-
lons per day, and is fairly typical of the
other artesian wells in the locality. Kip-
ling declares that
In the Neolithic age,
When the prehistoric springs made the piled
Biscayan ice-packs split and shove.
Certainly, in South Australia the tapping
of the great subterranean sea hag com-
pletely changed the future of inland Aus-
tralia. Country that was once described
as "uninhabitable deserts," is now being
utilised because of a plentiful supply of
water ; and there is a possibility of develop-
ment on the lines followed by the great
western districts of the United States. On
the Adelaide plains and in other parts of
the States sub-artesian supplies have been
struck. At Virginia, about thirty miles
north of the city, 24,000 gallons per day
has been obtained from one bore. The
following is a list of the principal Govern-
ment artesian bores in South Australia :
Feef in
Gal. per
depth.
diem.
Mirra Mitta
3,534
400,000
Mungeranie
3,370
600,000
Kopperamanna
3,000
800,000
Dulkaninna
2,226
1,000 000
Lake Crossing
1,700
200,000
Yandama
1,620
430,000
Oodnadatta
1,571
270,000
Storm Creek
1,551
86,000
Hamilton Creek
1,417
200,000
Lake Harry
1,360
120,000
Anacoora
1,250
700,000
Petermorra
1,243
200 000
Strangways
365
1,250,000
Hergott
342
100,000
Coward
308
1,250,000
William Creek
229
20,000
Mount Gason
4,420
500,000
Lake Phillipson (unfi'ed)
2,232
G cyder'sLagoon (unfi'ed)
4,440
Cconanua
2,030
500,000
38,208 8,626.000
The "Nile" of Australia.
Do you know the blackened timber, do you know that racing stream,
With the raw, right-angled log-jam at the end,
And the bar of sun-warmed shingle, where a man may bask and dream,
To the click of shod canoe-poles round the bend ?
There is no "silent, smoky Indian" to go
to no Red-Gods "a-calling" at any point
on the Murray our greatest river, not
inaptly termed sometimes "The 'Nile' of
Australia." But the noble stream has many
other attractions to the pleasure-seeker, and
sportsman, whilst it represents to the mer-
chant a great artery of trade with inland
Australia, The Murray is the great natural
drainage line of the south-eastern part of
Australia. The basin of the river and its
tributaries comprises 414,253 square miles,
an area equal to double that of France!
Altogether there are over 3,000 miles of
navigable streams in the Commonwealth.
The Murray is navigable for 1,750 miles,
and the Darling in, good seasons 1,468.
About 500 miles of the navigable portion
of the Murray, including the outlet to the
sea, is within the borders of South Austra-
lia. This State is the natural outlet of the
trade of the Darling and the Murray, and
it was South Australian enterprise that
first proved these streams and inaugurated
a service of trading and passenger steamers.
It ig not surprising, therefore, that this
State should protest against the action of
States lip-streams in constructing diversion
works which would interfere with naviga-
tion. The whole question is now under
consideration by State and Federal Go-
vernments, and a solution will probably be
found in the building of locks and storage
basins. It is estimated that a complete
system of locks would cost 2,500,000, and
this would be a small outlay considering
the advantages from navigation and irriga-
tion.
The Murray was first navigated by Cap-
tain Cadell in the Lady Augusta in 1853.
but Captain W. R. Randell had the first
steamer on the river, and closely followed
Captain Cadell. The Lady Augusta- com-
pleted the first voyage made on the Murray
on October 14, 1853. The announcement
of the arrival of the steamer at Goolwa
with her cargo of 441 bales of wool, 1,000
sheepskins, and a quantity of tallow was
conveyed to the Legislative Council in the
following message from the Lieutenant-
Governor, who had journeyed up the river
with the vessel : "On board the Lady
Augusta, steamer, Goolwa, October 14,
1853 Lieutenant-Governor Sir Henry
Young has the gratification to announce
to the Legislative Council the arrival at
the Goolwa of the first river-borne wool, the
produce of the vast basin of the Murray. In
congratulating the Council on this auspici-
ous commencement of the steam naviga-
tion and commerce of the great River Mur-
ray, the Lieutenant-Governor is happy to
state that Casptain CadeH's voyage reached
to 150 miles beyond Swanhill, a distance
of about 1,450 miles from the sea, and was
also extended for 60 miles up the Wakool,
an important branch of the Murray. The
first cargo comiprises wool of the Murray,
the Darling, the Murrumbidgee, and the
Wakool Rivers." In reply to this an ad-
dress was drafted by the Select Committee
of the Council, and formally adopted on
October 21, 1853. It contained the follow-
ing clause : "The Council requests
your Excellency to cause three medals to
be engraved, with suitable device and in-
scriptions, commemorating the auspicious
opening up of the steam navigation and
Commerce of the Murray, and the first ar-
rival at the Goolwa of river-borne wool ;
and the Council requests that, as the Lieu-
tenant-Governor of South Australia, whose
personal exertions promoted this great en-
terprise, and in whose administration it
originated, and has been successfully ac-
complished, your Excellency would be
pleased to receive one of the said medals ;
and the Council further requests that your
Excellency will be pleased to cause one of
the said medals to be conferred on Captain
THE "NILE" OF AUSTRALIA.
191
Francis Cadell, who completed the first
commercial voyage, as owner and com-
mander of the Lady Augusta, steamer, and
Eureka, barge, with a cargo of Murray
wool ; and that the remaining medal may
be deposited with the records of the Legis-
lature of South Australia, under whose
sanction the necessary pecuniary aid was
voted in encouragement of the steam navi-
gation of the River Murray."
There are many beauty spots in South
Australia, numerous seaside and inland
pleasure resorts where holiday-makers may
obtain all that they require, but there are
few better pleasure trips than that obtain-
able on Australia's great river. A steamer
may be boarded at several points a few
hours after leaving the city by train, and
a new, ever-changing world is presented to
the traveller. The snorting paddle-boat
plugs her way up-stream battling pluckily
against a sluggish current. The splish,
splash, splish of the (paddle wheels and the
sharp, clear notes of the whistle, or the flash
of the electric head light break into the
stillness of slumbering Nature, and disturb
the dreams of animals and birds. These
are plentiful in the forests, which come
down to the water's edge. A cliff towers
high over the bows of the steamer, but the
boat is skilfully turned round a right-
angle bend opening out a fine long reach of
shimmering water, at the end of which is
another sharp corner. And so you go for-
ward, turning, twisting, first one way and
then another, as if following the track of
a huge snake heading northwards, then
face on to the chilling east winds, and
back again half round the compass; only
there are no compasses on these river
steamers. The helmsman wishes there
were. It is not a compass that he wants,
but clear eyes, double sets of cast iron arms
to attend to the steering gear, signal the
engine room, and the patience to answer
the hundred and one enquiries of the be-
wildered but interested passengers. The
steamer does a cakewalk going up the
Murray. There are some river stories told
to illustrate the serpentine character of the
channel, and it is necessary to believe them
all. A deck hand fell overboard one night,
and his absence was not noticed until some
hours afterwards, when he hailed the
steamer many miles up stream. He had
swum ashore, walked across a peninsula,
and waited for the boat to come round the
bend. It takes your steamer nearly all day
to pass a house near Wentworth. Passen-
gers can go ashore at the front door in the
morning, engage the occupants of the house
in a game of cricket, or even start a chess
tournament, and join the steamer from the
back door during the afternoon. The house
stands on one of the many bends of this
noble stream.
It is in the first flush of the dawn when
the thin grey veil of breaking day creeps
over the continent that you realise the
loveliness of the scenery in the valley of
the Murray, and fully appreciate the luxu-
rious laziness of life on a river steamer. The
scent of the eucalypti enters into every-
thing, and flocks of graceful swans fly over-
head. Birds of all descriptions abound
on the Murray. There is the toothsome
teal, the unsavoury shag, and the ungainly
ibis. There are cockatoos by thousands,
rosellas and grass parrots, pretty little
paraquets, the minor and the swallow, the
laughing jackasses, with their loud guffaws,
as if they recognised you as new chums ;
the curlew, whose half-whistle, half-screech
has a weirdness all its own in the night ;
the shepherd's companion, with his wag-
ging tail and chirrupy welcome ; and, of
course, the magpie and the crow.
The scenery constantly changes; sur-
prises meet the visitor at every turn of the
river. It is Nature's cinematograph, and
one panorama succeeds another, supplying
fresh beauty spots
So they pass
Prom stage to stage along the shining course
Of that bright river, broadening like a sea.
The oversea visitor who wants to "see
Australia" can study inland problems
quicker by taking a trip on the Murray,
and holiday-makers can find reet and plea-
sure as they steam between avenues of
eucalypti and boxwood and sheoak, breathe
fresh air, and look u,pon Nature in all its
ruggedness. The River Murray, with its
1,700 miles of navigable channel, is, from a
trading point of view, the "gateway of the
interior." South Australia holds the key.
Finance and Trade.
The public debt of the State amounts to
25,314,440, or 70/7/5 per head of the
population. Including the Northern Terri-
tory the debt is 27,828,370. The interest
chargeable to South Australia in 1903 was
920,768, or 2/11/2 per head per annum,
and the proportion of revenue raised by
taxation 1,063,000, or 2/19/1 per head.
To the European critic Australian obliga-
tions appear to be abnormally large.
There is an important distinction, how-
ever, between the national debts of
European countries and those of Aus-
tralia. In the one case loans have
disappeared in smoke, having been
chiefly employed for war purposes. In
these lands Government borrowings have
been used for the construction of railways,
waterworks, telegraphs, harbors, and in
other revenue-earning services. If offered
for sale the works representing the public
debt would bring several times over the
amount borrowed for their construction.
In his last Budget address in August the
Treasurer (Hon. R. Butler) said : "In al-
most every instance the figures are an im-
provement on those of last year. We have
20,203,792 earning 2.89 per cent, interest,
or nearly 3 per cent., out of a total debt
of about 27,000,000. Railways earned
3.33 per cent., against 2.98 per cent.
last year; waterworks, 1.85 per cent.,
against 1.77; sewers, 4.11 per cent.,
against 3.49 ; jetties and lighthouses, 1.33
per cent., against 1.86, a decrease in the
shipping accounting for that drop ; im-
provements on pastoral leases, 1.31 per
cent., against 1.02; and land repurchase
and working men's blocks, 4.1 per cent.,
against 3.37. It works out this way. Out
of a total annual interest payment of
913,829, we receive directly from the lines
I have quoted 587,870, so that we have
to make up from the general revenue
325,959. For what? For roads which we
have made, and which are a credit to the
State, amounting to nearly 1,500,000;
defences, 254,000; drainage, 273,000;
and harbor improvements, 1,114,000,
which indirectly must be considered one
of the most valuable heads of expenditure
because they enable shipping to come here
and increase the trade of the country.
School buildings and other works have also
to be reckoned. " Over 20,000,000 of the
public debt is represented by revenue-
earning public works. Taxation per head
of the population in 1902 was : South Aus-
tralia, 2/19/1$; New South Wales, 3
6/; Victoria, 2/17/3; Queensland, 3
5/9$; and Western Australia, 7/10/4. The
following shows the gross revenue and ex-
penditure during the last six years :
Revenue. Expenditure
1898 2,566,611 2,598,939
1899 2,665,477 2,632,840
1900 2,780,858 2,779,317
1901 2,824,212 2,846,577
1902 2,428,560 2,650,875
1903 2,483,095 2,482,919
There are seven Banks doing business
in the State, not including the Savings and
the State Banks. The Bank of Adelaide is
the only local financial establishment ; and
ever since it opened its doora for business
it has had a remarkably successful career.
The other institutions are the Union,
National, English, Scottish, and Austra-
lian, Commercial, New South Wales, and
Bank of Australasia. For 1902 the total
"notes in circulation" amounted to
361,372; bills in circulation, 12179;
and deposits, 5,926,113. The "total ave-
rage liabilities" amounted to 6,334,007 ;
the "coined gold, silver, and other metals,"
"bullion," and "Government securities"
held totalled 1,652,936; "advances"
amounted to 4,262.899 ; "total average
assets" stood at 6,481,037. Interest on
fixed deposit remainecf unaltered at 3 per
cent, per annum.
The Savings Bank of South Aus-
tralia first opened its doors for busi-
ness on March 11, 1848. There are
now 155 suburban and country branches.
In 1887 eighteen persons in every
hundred were depositors, while in 1903
the number had increased to thirty-
seven in every hundred. The expenses
of management, which were 12/8| per
1,000 of total funds in 1887 have
FINANCE AND TRADE.
193
gradually decreased to 6/5 in 1903.
The number of depositors in 1902
was 116,436, and the amount deposited
1,985,689, bearing 3 per cent, interest.
The reserve fund stood at 131,000, and
total funds 4,147,178. The amount on
mortgage was 1,397,869, bearing 4 per
cent, interest. During last session of Par-
liament legislation was passed to facilitate
the Bank extending its operations, and to
provide for the payment of the trustees.
The board now consists of Mr. W. H. Phil-
lipps (Chairman), Sir E. T. Smith, Hon. J.
V. CXLoghlin, and Messrs. H. Adams, W. G.
Coombs, and J. R. Corpe. The manager
is Mr. W. B. Poole, and the accountant Mr.
H. M. Mudie.
The State Bank was established by the
State Advances Act of 1895, under which
it was authorised to lend to producers to
the extent of three-fifths of the value of
their properties as determined by the
Bank's valuators. Advances were also
authorised to be made on Crown lands, and
by a subsequent Act power was given, to
make advances on, any freehold property
irrespective of whether the borrower was
a producer or not. Subsequently the
legislation regarding loans on Crown lands
was liberalised. The Bank is not permit-
ted to lend more than 5,000 to any one
person, nor must advances current at any
one period exceed three million pounds.
Money is raised by the issue of mortgage
bonds, payment of interest and principal
being guaranteed by the Government, and
these bonds are redeemable by ballot after
five years' currency. The Bank also has
power to ipurchase mortgage bonds instead
of balloting for their redemption ; and up
to the present time bonds to the amount
of 232,000 have been so repurchased. The
maximum rate of interest allowed to be
charged to borrowers is 5 per cent, per
annum, and the maximum currency of a
loan is forty-two years. All loans are re-
paid by equal half-yearly instalments,
which include interest at the rate agreed
upon, hitherto 4i per cent., and a portion
of the principal. Borrowers have the
right at any time to make repayment of
principal in excess of the amount included
in the instalment, or they may repay the
whole advance. In cases where excess
payments are made a corresponding reduc-
tion of interest is allowed by the Bank.
The following table will show at a glance
the operations of the State Bank from its
inception up to the date of the last balance-
sheet, March 31, 1903 :
ADVANCES AND REPAYMENTS SINCE THE
STATE BANK'S INCEPTION IN MARCH, 1896.
Period. Advances Repaid Balance.
Five months
June, 1896 ... 30,425 2 30,423
One year
June, 1897 ... 231,595 2007 229,588
Nine months
March, 1898 110,500 9,709 100,791
One year
March, 1899 91,632 32,137 59,494
One year
March, 1900 65,729 31,474 34,255
One year
March, 1901 90,824 37,967 52,857
One year
March, 1902 92,023 62,525 29,497
One year
March, 1903 81,280 56,441 24,840
Total
794,008 232,262 561,745
The reserve fund acquired by premiums
on the sale of mortgage bonds amounts to
6,097, added to which the difference be-
tween the rate a.t which the Bank has bor-
rowed and the rate charged to borrowers,
6,404, gives a total reserve of 12 501.
The working expenses on the total funds
amount to 10/11 iper cent. During the
early history of the Bank, owing to the
absence of capital, and some time being
required for the institution to get into
working order, the cost of management
was necessarily in excess of the profit. This
deficiency, however, only applies to the first
two years, whilst during the last three years
the profits have amounted to 1,723 in
1901, 2,011 in 1902, and for the twelve
months ending March 31, 1903, 2,730. It
is exoected that the current year's opera-
tions will produce a profit of not less than
3.000. The Bank is managed by a, paid
board of five members appointed by the
Government. The present trustees are
Messrs. G. Inglis (Chairman 1 ), George Ful-
ler, A. M. Simpson, E. W. Krichauff. and
H. D. Gell. The chief executive officer
of the Bank is the Inspector-General (Mr.
194
THE CENTRAL STATE.
G. S. Wright), and the Accountant (Mr. M.
F. McNamara). The accounts of the Bank
are audited by two auditors appointed by
the board, subject to the approval of the
Treasurer, whilst the Commissioner of
Audit also examines the accounts and
makes an annual report on the Bank to
Parliament. The Bank prepares all its own
mortgages free of cost to the borrower.
Trade statistics have already been dealt
with in reviewing the expansion of various
industries. It is only necessary to re-
state some of the leading items and to
give a summarised form an idea of the ex-
tent and direction of South Australian
trade.
The value of the wool sent away from
this State exceeds a million sterling each
year. The following statistics show the im-
portance of the wool trade and the growing
popularity of the local wool sales :
S.A
Adelaide
Per cent.
Exports.
Bales.
Sales.
Bales
Sales to
Exports.
1894-5 ...
173,189
64,056
37.
1895-6 ...
179,576
80,234
44.
1896-7 ...
153,751
63,804
41.
1897-8 ...
116,592
51,287
43.
1898-9 ...
113,056
61,122
54.
1899-1900
119,766
70,682
58.
1900-1 ...
115,774
42,637
37.
1901-2 ...
111,676
65,239
58.
1902-3 ...
96,524
61,215
63.
The declared value of wool shipments
from South Australia during the last five
years have been : 1898, ,945,589 ; 1899,
1,511,693; 1900, 1,003,391; 1901,
1,029.063; and 1902, 1,222,403. The
bulk of our wool is shipped to the United
Kingdom. France and Germany are the
next largest direct importers.
Pursuits of tKe People.
The following statement of the number
of persons engaged in agricultural, pas-
toral, and other productive pursuits in
South Australia is taken from the last
census 1901. Total population, 362,604;
total breadwinners, 153,296 :
Percent- Percent-
age of age of
Classification of Popu- Bread-
Occupation. Persons lalion. winners.
Primary Producers
Agricultural
pursuits 34,186 9.43 22.30
Pastoral
pursuits 7,061 1.96 4.61
Mining 6,301 1.74 4.11
Other primary
producers 1,613 .44 1.05
Total 49,161 13.57 32.07
Industrial
Manufacturing
Building and
construction
Indefinite
24,924 6.87 16.26
8.836 2.44
7,473 2.06
5.76
4.88
Total... 41,233 11.37 26.90
TOTAL IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE, AND BALANCE OF TRADE, &c., OF SOUTH
AUSTRALIA, 1893-1902.
Balance
Balance
Year.
Total
Import and Total
Export Imports.
Trade.
retained
for Home
Consump-
Imports
Ile-
Exported.
Total
Exports.
Exports
Produce
of the
State.
S.A. Pro-
duce Ex-
ported over
Imports
Imports
Consumed
over S.A.
Produce
Consumed.
Exported.
e
e
1393
16398,136
7.934,200
2,765,739
5,168,461
8,463 936
3,295,475
529 736
1S94
13,528,464
6,226.690
2,272 380
3.954,310
7,301,774
3,447.464
1.075,084
1895
12,762,639
5.585,601
1,946,314
3.639.287
7.177,038
3,537.751
1 591.437
1896
14.754,824
7.160.770
2 836,328
4,324.442
7,594 054
3269.612
433 284
1897
14,054,800
7,126,385
2,682.110
4,444.275
6.928 415
2,484 140
197,970
1898
12,980,579
6,184,805
1 876,040
4,308.765
6,795.774
2 487.009
610,969
1899
1 0,272,754 6,884358
2 441,007
4,443,351
8,388,396
3 945,045
1,505,038
1900
16,063,709 8.034.552
3,615 912 ' 4 418.640
8 029 157
3 610 517
5,395
1901
15,387,477 7.371,588
3 572 300 3,799,288
8 015,889
4 216 601
644 301
1902
13,772,296 6,073,782
3,144,215
2.929,567
7,698,514
4.768.947
1,624732 1
1
!
FINANCE AND TRADE. 1 95
VALUE OF IMPORTS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
1893. 1898. 1902.
From
Other Australian States 5,174,861 3,329,851 2,948,688
United Kingdom 1,925,985 1,974,818 1,901,996
Foreign countries 644,835 667,536 969,245
VALUE OF EXPORTS TO DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
1893. 1898. 1902.
To
Other Australian States 3,555,888 3,308,416 3,967,897
United Kingdom 3,477,579 2,306,202 1,911,116
Foreign countries 411,444 591,819 904,682
Sixty Years of Progress.
Few records of progress are more striking 1842-1902. The following figures speak
than those that can be put forward to de- volumes for the pluck, endurance, and en-
monstrate the substantial expansion which terprise of a people who have had an enor-
has taken place in South Australia during mous territory to develop :
the sixty years of its industrial history,
1842. 1872 1902.
Population 16,000 192,223 362,000
Land in cultivation (acres) 18,940 1,164,846 3,137,175
Sheep ... (number of) 300,000 4,900,687 5,012,216
Cattle (number of) 26,000 151,662 213,343
Horsea (number of) 1,560 82,215 164,625
Revenue ... ., (} 23,404 697,422 2,428,560
Expenditure (J) 68,434 700,255 2,650,875
Imports () 147,349 2,801,571 6,073,782
Exports () 75,248 3,738,623 7,698,514
Staple produce exported () 29,070 3,542,087 4,768,947
Railways open (miles 1 ) 133 1,736^
Telegraphs (miles) 3,731 20,000
Shipping (tonnage) 25,354 347,360 3,959,352
Public schools (number of) 307 716
Adelaide: the Capital of S.A.
Viewed from any aspect, Adelaide is a
beautiful city. The visitor from over the
seas picks up the skyline of the Mount
Lofty ranges soon after the steamer enters
the quieter waters of St. Vincent's Gulf
through Investigator Straits. The dark
hills stand out against the background of
pale blue sky and present kaleidoscopic
changes which hold the attention. Mount
Lofty, the highest peak, is 2,400 feet above
sea level. It forms a prominent land-
mark for the mariner, and proves a source
of delightful speculation to the stranger,
who cannot fail to be charmed with the
panoramic view gradually unfolded. From
the highest point a tapering, jagged line
of hills take the form of a half crescent
curving southwards towards the sea and
northwards until lost to view in banks of
fleecy clouds. The coastline of Yorke's
Peninsula which may be seen on the port
bow shortly after entering narrow waters
is lost to view as the anchorage on the
eastern shore of the gulf is approached.
The lowlands between the ranges and the
sea the rich and fruitful plains, by which
the capital city is bounded, stretching
north and south for many miles come un-
der observation.
The tourist from the deck of his steamer
lying in the roadstead cannot fail to be
deeply impressed with the magnificent
scene spread out before him. The ranges,
running nearly north and south, shut off
the eastern view and concentrate attention
to the plains to which the hills form so im-
posing a background. The country be-
tween is open and undulating, rising in
easy gradients from the sea shore, with
here and there a dome-shaped hill em-
phasising some feature of interest an out-
post of the metropolis, or perhaps a vine-
yard a clump of gum-trees or newly-
ploughed land providing a mellow brown
tint to the landscape. The cultivated fields
give the country a chess board appear-
ance, vineyards alternating with wheat
or lucerne crops; grass lands contrasting
with recently turned soil of varying colors.
Close at hand is a fine esplanade connect-
ing Largs Bay and the Semaphore two
leading watering places. The stranger who
looks with critical eyes at the dwelling
houses near the sea is satisfied, with the
taste displayed in the architecture, while
the substantial character of the buildings
cannot fail to please. Were he able to
extend his view a few miles along the
coast to the south and note the residential
mansions which cluster near the spot
where the pioneers of sixty-seven years ago
were carried on shore on the backs of
sailors, astonishment would be added to
his admiration of the beauty of the picture
now growing upon him. Substantial facts
of the great progress made in this new
land, of existing prosperity and present-
day activity, rapidly multiply as details of
the panorama are noted. Tall chimney
stacks belching forth smoke suggest a busy
manufacturing centre. The City of Port
Adelaide for it is the chief seaport of the
State that catches the eye is situated on
an inlet of the sea up which any vessel
that can pass through the Suez Canal may
be safely navigated. The Orient liner,
Ophir, on the occasion of the visit of the
Prince and Princess of Wales, berthed
alongside a wharf at Port Adelaide where,
sixty years ago, vessels of 200 tons got
stuck in the mud and the mangroves.
Between the chief seaport and the metro-
polis are a number of important manufac-
turing industries; but, carrying his vision
beyond tall masts of ships in harbor and
chimney stacks of silver and copper smelt-
ing works and factories, the newcomer
picks out the city and feasts his eyes on
the many evidences of beauty which even
this telescopic inspection of Adelaide pro-
vides. He has not yet seen the wide streets,
flanked by handsome buildings, which
intersect at right angles. Nor can that
belt of trees which encircle the four-ter-
raced city be fully appreciated from such
a distance. The observing tourist notes,
however, the elevated position that sup-
plies so fine a natural drainage, and he is
forced to the conclusion that for beauty
ADELAIDE : THE CAPITAL OF S.A.
197
of situation Adelaide is a well-favored city.
A close inspection cannot fail to confirm
-such an opinion. A fertile plain, bounded
to the south and east by a circling range
of softly rounded hills, parted by a suc-
cession of verdant valleys ; on the west by
the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Vincent
breaking upon long reaches of sandy
beach ; and on the north, stretching away
in gentle undulations as far as the eye cau
reach such is the site of Adelaide. Beau-
tiful for situation, admirably laid out,
compact in itself, with ample streets, well-
planted squares, and handsome buildings, a
forest of spires and towers visible from
afar, it rejoices in the possession of noble
pleasure grounds. Dr. Parkin, the represen-
tative of the trustees of the late Cecil
Rhodes, remarked during his speech to the
Adelaide University students on a recent
occasion that, speaking in all sincerity, and
with no desire to natter, he considered
Adelaide one of the most beautiful and one
of the most highly favored cities he had
seen in the course of his travels through
America and round the British Empire.
He referred to its lovely circle of hills, its
broad belt of park lands, its splendid edu-
cational institutions, its charming Botani-
cal Gardens, to the liberality of its wealthy
citizens, and to the native intelligence of
its people. Residents of Adelaide, he said,
might travel all over the world without
finding any reason to lose their admiration
'for their own home. They were "citizens of
no mean city," and they could without dif-
ficulty, if they proceeded in the future as
they had done in the past, make Adelaide
"the Athens of Australia."
The present necessity of having to board
a small launch in order to reach shore will
shortly be removed, as a commodious har-
bor is in course of construction at a cost
of about 500,000, not far from where the
mail steamers anchor. A train journey of
half an hour through the leading sea-town
will then bring the traveller to the capital
of the State. The more he becomes
acquainted with the chief town of South
Australia, its suburbs, and the surround-
ing country, the greater will be the ad-
miration of the critical visitor. He will
find much to appreciate such as wide,
clean streets, fine buildings, a perfect
system of drainage, and an absence of that
seamy side of city life so noticeable in
many metropolitan centres. Such ancient
means of locomotion as our horse tram-
cars will occasion amusement' perhaps
pity that such a blot should exist but
this is a weak spot which it is hoped will
shortly be removed. Negotiations are at
present (proceeding for giving Adelaide a
modern system of electric tramways.
Adelaide has long since been conceded
the title of the Queen City of the South.
One has only to look around to realise
that its municipal guardians are deter-
mined to retain that proud distinction for
the capital. Antiquity is no> doubt a fine
thing from many points of view, but it
certainly does not produce the best results
when applied to the general modelling and
the conveniences of a busy centre. The
great majority of the municipal services lo
be found within Adelaide's four-mile-long
terraces are distinctly on the modern sids,
while perhaps no city was ever laid out
with greater foresight than that shown by
Colonel Light. Much-travelled visitors
are never tired of praising the "cleanliness
and brightness of the streets," "the pic-
ture of simple Arcadian beauty presented
by the park lands." It has been said by
a recent visitor that Adelaide "presents
an aspect of substantial comfort and solid
opulence which is not equalled by some
English cities counting as many genera-
tions of existence as Adelaide does years."
The park lands of Adelaide are its glory,
and that is the first fact to be recognised
by 99 out of every 100 visitors who come
from the great builded brickeries of the
old world. They are popularly termed
the "lungs of the city" and "the people's
playground," and the aptness of the ap-
pellations may be gathered from the fact
that fully 150 athletic clubs of various
descriptions hold permits to carry on their
games in these reserves. One of the most
energetic committees into which members
of the Corporation divide themselves is
that which directs operations in the parks
and squares and plantations. The
beautifying of Adelaide is very dear Lo
the heart of every member of that com-
mittee, and each year sees some-
thing accomplished, something done
in the arboriculture for which the people,
the land, the climate, aiid the conditions
of the country generally cry out. There
has been misdirection in the long past.
198
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Some kinds of trees were planted
which are now an eyesore, and cannot be
spared by the municipal woodman.
Others have not flourished because they
have been put down in unfriendly soil.
These are handicaps which are being to a
large extent overcome. Mr. Peter Barr,
the "Daffodil King," said: "I am
charmed with your squares and reserves,
and am astonished to find that no effort is
made to exclude dogs, and that the
reserves are not closed at night time. In
no other city in Australasia where die
public have such free access have they
such excellent results to show as are pre-
sented by the municipal gardens of Ade-
laide." Mr. Barr was then referring
solely to the accomplishments of the
Corporation, and not to the triumphs in
arboriculbural enterprise which are to be
seen in the Botanic Gardens and the
Botanic Park, which come right within
the town bounds. The walk down the
city road, with its avenue of even plane
trees, its velvety and expansive lawns on
either side, its well-tended shrubbery, and
its rotunda, the gift of the late Sir Thos.
Elder, overlooking the Torrens Lake, the
creation of a former Mayor (Sir E. T.
Smith), is one of the finest examples of
municipally-created scenery to be found in
the Southern Hemisphere. The green
slopes of the banks forming the Torrens
Lake are a favorite resort of citizens dur-
ing the summer evenings. They rest on
the well-kept lawns and listen to open-air
concerts conducted in the Rotunda at the
cost of the municipality. Another spot
which has helped to make the name of
Adelaide fragrant is the approach to the
Zoological Gardens on Frome-road, but
there are dozens of other specimens of
artificial rurality which contribute 1 to ilie
general beauty of thb city. They need
not be catalogued. They require to 1>e
seen. Here and there the outlook is re-
lieved by statuary, the gifts of generous
citizens. Victoria-square claims two
magnificent bronzes representing the late
Queen Victoria and the Farnese Hercules,
while arrangements have been made for
setting up in the same locality a statue
of John McDoual) Stuart, the first ex-
plorer to cross the Australian continent.
A magnificent monument in memory of
South Australians who died for King and
Country in South Africa will shortly grace
the space in front of Government House.
Figures of Venus, Robert Burns, and Sir
Thomas Elder adorn North-terrace, where
national buildings, combined with muni-
cipal enterprise and substantial evidences
of public-spirited philanthropy, make up
one of the most picturesque boulevards in
the Commonwealth.
The width of the street is another
feature of the city which has received com-
mendation second only to its high tone
generally and that cleanliness for which
Adelaide is justly celebrated. The site so
wisely chosen by Colonel Light lent itself
to the adoption of an admirable deep
drainage system, and the capital of South
Australia enjoys about the lowest death
rate in the world.
Turning to the historical side, it is in-
teresting to note that Adelaide is the
birthplace of municipal Government in
Australia. In the latter part of 1839 Mie
first municipal law was passed in South
Australia, but it was not until October 31,
1840, that the principles of self-Govern-
ment were practically adopted by tiie
election of a Mayor and Common Coun-
cil, consisting of 19 members. The first
Chief Magistrate was Mr. J. H. (after-
wards Sir Jas. Hurtle) Fisher, and he has
had 25 successors. Mr. G. S. (afterwards
Sir Geo. Strickland) Kingston filled the
post of first Town Surveyor and Collector,
and Mr. John Morphett was the first City
Treasurer, the last-named receiving the
princely salary of 1 a week. The law
which called into being this local authority
was a partial transcript of the English
Statute of 1835, although modified to some
extent to meet the new conditions of a
people who only four years earlier had
landed in an unknown country. Mel-
bourne and Sydney followed South Aus-
tralia's lead two years later. From a
village of dug-outs, tents, and pine and
reed huts, Adelaide soon began to put on
the outward garb of a progressive city. In
the first year the property within its
bounds was valued for assessment purposes
at 60,000. So rapidly did the price of
land rise that within five years of the
colonization of South Australia the
capital value of the city site was estimated
at 300,000. The latest published figures
gives the value of the city estate for
ADELAIDE: THE CAPITAL OF S.A.
199
assessment purposes as 441,400. The
whole of the acres sold in Adelaide, with
the exception of the squares and reserves,
realised less than 4,000. The popula-
tion of the city in 1840 was 8,480, and
within the Corporation bounds to-day
there are nearly 40,000 people resident,
while the whole of the metropolitan area,
including the suburbs, claims over 163,000
souls. At the close of 1903 the bonded
debt will be 63,900, against which the
Corporation has assets in freeholds, build-
ings, and plant amounting to 214,164.
Even when it had become a full-blown
Corporation Adelaide did not always pos-
sess the same attractive appearance which
its fine broad streets now present. When
the Town Council was two years old the
roadways were in such a disgraceful con-
dition that bullock drays took possession
of the footpaths and pedestrians were
forced on to the roads. This State of
affairs continued for some years, owing
largely to the misdirected application of a
large proportion of the rates, and many
of the roads were repaired with funds pri-
vately subscribed. Much money was
thrown away in the building and re-build-
ing of unsubstantial bridges over the Tor-
rens a river which from time im-
memorial has been a source of great vexa-
tion to the municipal authorities. In
spite of many discouragements, the im-
provement of the city was systematically
undertaken, and to the present day the
spirit of progression has actuated the elect
of the ratepayers.
Bold and expensive but necessary works
were taken in hand in the earlier days.
The Torrens was at last effectively
spanned in three places, the Victoria
Bridge, opposite to the end of Morphett-
street, costing 11,317; the Adelaide
Bridge on King William-road, 11,050,
and the Albert Bridge, Frome-road,
8,348. An Act of Parliament authorised
the Corporation to borrow 20,000 for the
erection of a Town Hall and municipal
offices, and in June, 1866, a stately pile of
buildings was opened. The first meeting
of the Corporation took place in a rented
room in Hindley-street. Cattle yards
were constructed at a cost of 5,000, and
the Torrens Lake was created by the erec-
tion of a weir at an expense of 11,766,
while nearly 10,000 was spent in fencing
in five beautiful squares. Another
7,000 went in the erection of public
baths, while expenditure on markets of
various descriptions practically knew no
limits for a time. The Government un-
dertook the yater and drainage services,
while the lighting by gas and electricity
have always been in the hands of private
companies. Few modern cities, indeed,
have given more encouragement and scape
to private enterprise, and what is the re-
sult of this happy combination with muni-
cipal effort? A writer in the "Satur-
day Review" speaks of Adelaide as
"a model city," and adds : "There is
in it something wholly impossible to de-
fine ; a combination it may be of the sun-
shine, the dark trees, the low houses, and
an all-pervading look of cleanliness and
freshness in which Adelaide stands alone."
The present Mayor of Adelaide is the
Right Worshipful Lewis Cohen, M.P., who
held the same office some years ago. Mr.
Cohen is one of the most popular Mayors
the city has had, and is holding office at the
present time for the third successive year.
The Jubilee of the Corporation was cele-
brated in 1890, and eight years later Ade-
laide lost its veteran Town Clerk, Mr.
Thos. Worsnop, who for nearly 30 years
held executive sway. His name deserves
a high place in Australian municipal hi**-
tory. The city has had seven Town
Clerks in the past 63 years, the occupants
of the office having been: 1840-1843, D.
Spence; 1849-1852, E. S. Webber; 1852-
1856, W. T. Sabben; 1856-1869, W. A.
Hughes; 1869-1898, T. Worsnop,; 1898-
1899, A. Wright; May, 1899, T.
George Ellery. who now holds office.
Without doubt the last-named is one of
the most able and enterprising Town
Clerks in Australasia, an accepted
authority on all municipal questions, and
an officer possessing the complete con-
fidence of his Council and the citizens.
Within the confines of the City of Ade-
laide there are 90 miles of streets, and 13
miles of roads through the park lands.
There are 170 miles of footpaths in the
'city, and 27 miles of promenades in the
park lands, which comprise 2,300 acres.
The valuation of the city estate amounts
to 264,000, but in the course of a few
200
THE CENTRAL STATE.
years quite a number of valuable properties
will fall into the hands of the Corpora-
tion.
Few of the present generation stop to
enquire the origin of the names which
find a place on Adelaide's municipal map,
and yet, when one comes to investigate
the subject, it is found to be of engrossing
interest. The names of the leading
pioneers are perpetuated all over the city
throughout which the personal element in
the nomenclature is specially marked.
King William-street was named alter
King William IV., the reigning monarch
at the time of the proclamation of S.A. ;
Rundle-street after John Rundle, one of
the Commissioners for South Australia;
Hindley-street after C. Hindley, M.P.,
another Commissioner ; Grenfell-street,
after Pascoe Grenfell, M.P., anti-slavery
advocate and father of Sir Francis Gren-
fell, a general in the British Army; Car-
rington-street after Lord Carrington ;
Halifax-street after Mr. Hallifax, of Glen
and Co., one of the founders of the pro-
vince, whose name was wrongly spelt on
the original plan; Gilbert-street after
Thomas Gilbert, the comptroller of stores ;
Gilles-street after Osmond Gilles, first
Colonial Treasurer; Gouger-street after
Robert Gouger, and Grote-street after
George Grote, M.P., both Commissioners
of South Australia; Hill-street after Sir
Rowland Hill, British Postmaster-Gene-
ral ; Morphett>street after Sir John Mor-
phett; Pirie-street after Sir John Pirie,
Alderman of the City of London ;
Pulteney-street after Sir Pulteney Mal-
colm, Admiral; Waymouth -street after
Henry Waymouth ; and Wakefield-street
after Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the dis-
tinguished coloniser. Explorers by land
and sea are honored in the street nomen-
clature Captain Matthew Flinders, Sir
John Franklin, and Captain Sturt, who
discovered the River Murray. Angas-
street is after George Fife Angas, father
of the province, to whose memory a silent
toast is drunk every Commemoration Day
at Glenelg; Currie-street after the Hon.
Raikes Currie ; Hanson-street after Sir
Richard Davies Hanson, a distinguished
member of the Literary Society of London
and secretary to the Governor of Canada ;
and Hutt>street after Sir William Hutt.
In North Adelaide we are reminded of
Lord Brougham, Daniel O'Connell, and
Sir Fowell Buxton, father of an ex-
Governor of South Australia. Jeffcott-
street perpetuates the name of Sir J. W.
Jeffcott, the State's; first Judge, who was
drowned at the mouth of the Murray;
Kermode-street after Robert Quayle Ker-
mode, whose daughter was engaged to be
married to the Judge; and Melbourne-
street after Lord Melbourne, a Prime
Minister of England. The illustrious in-
dividuals after whom the five squares were
named were, at the time Princess Vic-
toria, heir apparent to the throne,
Colonel Light, Governor Hindmarsh, W.
Woolyche Whitmore, M.P., Colonization
Commissioner, Sir James Hurtle Fisher,
and the Duke of Wellington, under whom
Colonel Light had served in the Penin-
sular War, and by whom the latter was re-
commended the first Surveyor-General of
South Australia.
Education.
Whether or not the system of education
in South Australia realises Huxley's ideal
-"a great educational ladder with one end
in the gutter and the other in the Univer-
sity" experts agree that it represents a
gradation in regular steps towards "practi-
cal education" not excelled in any part of
the world. A remarkable evolution in
educational methods has been witnessed in
this State since the passing of the first
legislation on the subject in 1847 ; and the
movement has been in the direction of a
scientific development of mind and body.
During the pioneer days there were no pub-
lic schools, and little attention was de-
voted to the training of the young. To-
wards the end of the forties a capitation
grant was paid out of State funds to> the
few private schools then in existence, but
the plan did not work well. "The
pilgrim fathers" had no toleration for any-
thing that looked like "State aid to
religion." Five years later the Govern-
ment assumed direct control of primary
education, and early in 1852 a Central
Board of Education was created (1) To
establish schools, or recognise such schools
as were already in existence, in which good
secular instruction, based on Christian
principles, but free from sectarian differ-
ence of belief or opinion, should be im-
parted. (2) To grant licences to teachers,
and to pay them out of State revenues
salaries ranging from ,40 to 100 per
annum in augmentation of the fees paid
by the parents of the children. (3) To
appoint inspectors, who should visit the
schools and make reports on the character
of the instruction given to the Central
Board ; and (4) To recommend the Colonial
Government to give grants in aid of build-
ings erected by local subscriptions, up to
an amount not exceeding ,200 per school.
The next important step was taken in
1875, when the management of the public
schools was given to a Council of Educa-
tion under the presidency of a paid officer.
A wise choice was made in selecting for
this responsible post Mr. John Anderson
Hartley, B.A., B.Sc. (Lond.), at that
time headmaster of Prince Alfred College.
Mr. Hartley is regarded as having been
the father of the educational system of
South Australia. For over 20 years he
controlled the destinies of the department,
exercising a noble influence on the child-
life of the State. A man of great culture,
Mr. Hartley possessed exceptional powers
of organization and administration, high
ideals, and a splendid enthusiasm that were
infectious. It has been well said by one
of his colleagues that "it is to the genius
of this officer, and the love of their work
which he was able to create and sustain in
all his subordinates that the colonists of
South Australia are mainly indebted for
their excellent State schools and school
publications to-day." A national loss was
sustained in the death of Mr. Hartley,
which occurred in 1896 as the result of an
accident.
The Council of Education was superseded
by direct management with Mr. Hartley as
Inspector-General, in January, 1878, and
on his death the control was vested in a
"Board of Inspectors," consisting of Messrs.
L. W. Stanton (Chairman), Thomas Bur-
gan, and C. L. Whitham. In July, 1902,
the Board was abolished, and an Inspector-
General again appointed (Mr. L. W.
Stanton). He, assisted by an able staff of
inspectors and teachers, has charge of no
less than 716 State schools, with a roll call
of 57,973 children.
Prior to 1891 the State system of pri-
mary education was known as a secular and
compulsory system, but not free. The
Act of 1875 was, however, further amended
in 1891, and as from January, 1892, this
Act provided that "no fee shall be payable
by any parent to the minister, or to any
teacher of a public school established un-
der the provisions of the Education Act,
1875, for the education of any child in any
such school." This Act further provided
that in the case of children between the age
of nine and thirteen years the compulsory
distance should i>e increased from two to
three miles. To satisfy the compulsory
requirements of the Act each child in the
202
THE CENTRA!, STATE.
State between the ages of seven and thir-
teen years, residing within the compulsory
radius, must attend an efficient school for
at least thirty-five days each quarter.
The curriculum is of an elastic character
to permit of some display of individuality
on the part of teachers. The regulations
fix the course of instruction, but while the
main line of subjects is defined in order to
secure uniformity of work in all grades of
primary schools, variation is permitted
under the approval of the district in-
spectors. Head teachers also exercise dis-
cretion within the limits of the general
organization, but greater freedom is
allowed in the teaching of such subjects as
elementary science, horticulture, agricul-
ture, and other various kinds of manual
work. The main principles which give
tone to the whole system of State education
are thus officially defined: "That the
child should be led by carefully graded
steps, from the known into the region of
the unknown ; from the particular to the
general ; from the concrete to the abstract,
and from the microcosm of the school to
the macrocosm of the universe."
Considerable attention is devoted to
physical culture. Drilling, manual exer-
cise, and swimming are part of the curri-
culum. To the accompaniment of their
own drum and fife bands the State school
children can "march past" or engage in
military manoeuvring with the accuracy
and precision of well trained soldiers. In
the larger school girls are taught to cook
and sew, whilst the boys are encouraged in
the lower branches of manual work.
The State primary schools are of two
kinds public schools, under certificated
teachers, and provisional schools, taught
by uncertificated teachers. The latter,
however, are required to undergo a special
examination, and to serve in an efficient
school for a specified time. The public
schools are divided into twelve classes, and
the salaries of head male teachers range
from 90 in a Class XII. school, with an
average attendance of twenty to thirty, to
450 per annum in a Class I. school, with
an average attendance of 600 or over. The
annual increment is 10 in each case for
male teachers, the salaries of head female
teachers range from 92 to 156. A lady
cannot be appointed head teacher to a
school in any class above IX.
The course of study and the standard of
examination is exactly the same in both
public and provisional schools. A strict
supervision is kept upon the daily working
of the schools by means of a staff of in-
spectors. Districts are allotted, and the
inspectors pay periodical visits, subjecting
the classes to a critical examination, and
allotting percentage marks which affect the
reputation of both teachers and scholars.
For the benefit of those desirous of de-
voting their lives to teaching, an excellent
training college was established in 1876.
All students were non-resident. The term
of training in this college, after passing
successfully through a four years' pupil
teacher's course, was for one year, and the
student's time was about equally divided
between study under the master of the col-
lege, and in some cases at the University,
and in the practical teaching in a Class I.
school under a training master. In 1900
a new scheme of training was introduced.
The Council of the University of Adelaide,
having received a large bequest under the
will of the late Sir Thomas Elder, made a
generous offer to the Minister of Educa-
tion, by which those in training for
teachers would be allowed to have a two,
and some a i/nree, years' course of study for
the B.A. or B.Sc. degree free of cost. It
was, therefore, arranged that candidates
are, after showing a capability to teach (as
monitors), admitted to the Pupil Teachers'
School, where they study for two years to
pass the junior and senior public examina-
tions (the latter being the matriculation
standard of the University). After this
they spent two years teaching in the larger
public schools, and then enter the Univer-
sity Training College for another two, and
possibly three years, as stated above. Dur-
ing the term of training students receive
a maintenance allowance of from 30 to
80, according to circumstances.
State "secondary and higher" education
is confined to an "advanced school for
girls," and the subsidising of such institu-
tions as the School of Mines, College of
Agriculture, Public Libraries, Art Gal-
leries, &c. Higher education for boys is
still attended to by private establishments.
For the encouragement of secondary edu-
cation the following University scholar-
ships are offered annually, and are tenable
for one year : A. Entrance scholarships
EDUCATION.
203
I
I
204
THE CENTRAL STATE.
for day students one of the value of 35,
one of 30, and one of 25. Those scholar-
ships are open to all candidates under
eighteen years of age, who have resided in
the State for one year, but who have not
previously attended any part of the day
undergraduate course at the University.
B. Undergraduate Scholarships. Three
scholarships to first year students of the
value of 35, 30, and 25 respectively.
Three scholarships to second year students
of the value of 35, 30, and 25 respec-
tively. Scholarships are offered an-
nually to evening students in Arts or
Science. To enable boys from the pri-
mary schools to enter the secondary
schools, 6 public exhibitions, tenable for 3
years, are provided by competitive exami-
nations each year to boys from any schools
in the State. Besides these, 18 exhibi-
tions, also tenable for 3 years, are offered
each year to boys attending the public (i.e.,
Government) schools. For Girls. Six
public bursaries are offered to girls, tenable
for 3 years, from any school in the State,
and 18 bursaries, also tenable for 3 years,
are offered to girls attending public schools.
All the above give free tuition and books,
with an allowance not to exceed 25 per
annum in cases where the residence of the
parent is not within easy reach of Ade-
laide. In addition to this, 2 junior
scholarships for boys and 2 for girls are
offered each year which give free tuition
and books and an allowance of 15 for
maintenance to allow those who reside in
the country to attend a school with a sixth
class, and to study for the primary exami-
nation of the University in order to give
children in the country the same oppor-
tunity to compete for the exhibition and
bursaries as those who reside in the large
centres. The head of the Department id-
the Minister of Education, the Hon. L. Von
Doussa, Inspector General Mr. L. W.
Stanton, Assistant Inspector Mr. C. L.
Whitham, and Secretary to the Education-
Department is Mr. H. A. Curtis.
There were 716 State schools in South
Australia, with 57,973 on the roll in 1902,
with 1,341 teachers, including 233 moni-
tors, and the salary list amounted to
126,507 for the year 1902. The cost of
education for the year ending, December,
1902, was (primary) 149,392 ; secondary,
2,069, or a total after deducting profit
on the sales of books, fees received oi
151,461. Exclusive of expenditure on
buildings, improvements, repairs, &c., the
amount spent on buildings, improvements,
land, &c., from 1876 to 1902, amounted to
501,000. The cost per child educated,
and also per child in average attendance
since 1888, are shown thus:
1888 ... .
Cost per Child
Educated.
. ... 2 10 3
Cost per Chile
in Average
Attendance.
403
1889
2 12
422
1890 ... .
2 11 10
443
1891
2 10 8|
402
*1892
271
3 11 1
1893 ... .
253
3 14 10
1894
2 3
3 5 21
1895 .
2 3 7i
355
1896
23 10
3 4 11
1897 ... .
244?
3 4 lO^
1898 ... .
24 6|
3 10 04
1899
2 4 9
3 6 l]
1900
2 6 6|
3 7 4i
1901 ... .
27 4|
385
1902 ..
2 7 51
3 9 11
*Free education introduced.
The Adelaide University.
The higher grades of education are well
represented in a splendidly managed Uni-
versity, School of Mines, Agricultural and
Private Colleges. The University of Ade-
laide was established by Act of Par-
liament in 1874. In 1881 Royal Let>
ters Patent were issued by Her
Majesty the Queen declaring that the de-
grees granted by it should be recognised
as academic distinctions and rewards of
merit, and be entitled to rank, precedence,,
and consideration throughout the British
Empire as if granted by any University in
the United Kingdom. The University
owes its origin to the munificence and pub-
lic spirit of the late Sir Walter Watson
Hughes and Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G.,
each of whom gave 20,000. Parliamentpro-
vided for an annual grant from the public
revenues of a sum equal to five per cent.
EDUCATION.
205
Group of Educational Buildings, North- terrace, showing the Conservatorium of
Music, University, Museum, and Art Gallery.
on the capital funds then or afterwards to
be possessed by the University, but not ex-
ceeding in any one year the sum of 10,000.
Under the authority of the same Act an
endowment in land of 50,000 acres and a
grant of five acres in the City of Adelaide
as a site for the University buildings were
made. The University grants degrees in
Arts, Science, Law, Medicine, and Music,
and Diplomas in Music and in Mining
Engineering and Metallurgy. It was the
first University in Australia to provide for
the granting of degrees to women, as
authorised by Act of Parliament in 1880.
At first the professorships founded in the
University were four in number, their sub-
jects being the following: (1) Classics
and Comparative Philology and Litera-
ture; (2) English Language and Literature,
Mental and Moral Philosophy ; (3) Mathe-
matics, and (4) Natural Science. The first
and second were established in accordance
with the terms of Sir Walter Watson
Hughes' donations, and bear his name, the
third and fourth carry in the same way
the name of Sir Thomas Elder. The aca-
demical work of the University was com-
menced in March, 1876, the number of
matriculated students being 6, and of non-
graduating students attending lectures 52.
The foundation-stone of the University
buildings was laid by His Excellency
Major-General Sir W. F. D. Jervois,
K.C.M.G., on July 30th, 1879, and the
buildings were opened by him in April,
1882. Their total cost, including thai/
of subsequent additions, was about
38,000. In 1883 Sir Thomas Elder,
G.C.M.G., made a second gift to the Uni-
versity amounting to 10,000, for the
foundation of a School of Medicine. The
University Council thereupon established
a Chair of Anatomy and a Lectureship in
Physiology, and made further provision
for the first two years of the medical course.
In 1886 arrangements were completed for
a complete medical curriculum. In 1884
the Hon. J. H. Angas, M.L.C., gave 6,000
for the endowment of a Chair of Chemistry,
and in the following year the first Angas
Professor of Chemistry was appointed.
The Chair of Music was established in 1884
and a Professor of Music appointed. This
chair had no special endowment, but
through the efforts of His Excellency Sir
W. C. F. Robinson, K.C.M.G., it was su,p-
ported for the first five years by voluntary
subscriptions from the public amounting to
2O6
THE CENTRAL, STATE.
530 per annum, of which sum Sir Thomas
Elder contributed 300 yearly. In 1890
the Council established a Professorship of
Law in place of the Lectureship in Law
which had existed since 1883. In 1878
the Han. J. H. Angas gave 4,000 to pro-
vide for scholarships to encourage the
training of scientific men, and especially
civil engineers, with a view to their settle-
ment in South Australia'. In 1892, and
again in 1897 and 1899, Mr. Robert Barr
Smith presented to the University l,00u
for the purposes of the library. During
the year 1900 two other donations for
1,000 each, and during 1902, 500, for the
further purchase of books, were made by
Mr. Barr Smith. The library now, in con-
sequence of the large additions rendered
possible by these gifts, contains about
14,500 volumes. Sir Thomas Elder be-
queathed to the University the sum ol
65,000, his total gifts to the institution
amounting from first to last to nearly
100,000. By the terms of his will the
bequest was apportioned in the following
manner, namely, 20,000 to the School of
Medicine and 20,000 to the School of
Music, while the residue was left available
for the general purposes of the University
An Elder Conservatorium of Music was
accordingly established in 1898, in which
instruction is given in all branches of musi-
cal education. The foundation-stone ot
the Conservatorium building was laid by
Governor Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton on
September 26th, 1898. The Conserve
torium, which contains a large public hall
and an admirable suite of classrooms for
instruction in music, was completed in
February, and formally declared open by
His Excellency the Governor, Lord Tenny-
son, on the 26th September, 1900. IP
consequence of the large increase in the
number of students and the absolute neces-
sity for increased accommodation for thr
Engineering and Science Schools, a larg
suite of rooms has been built during the
past year. In 1898 the Council was
enabled, by means of Sir Thomas Elder':
bequest, to make arrangements for a post-
graduate course in Mining Engineering
and Metallurgy, and for the granting of a
diploma in these subjects. The Univer
sity is governed by a Council, which usually
consists of twenty members, elected by the
Senate, but which consists of twenty-on-
members whenever the Chancellor at the
time of his election to that office is not a
member of the Council. The Senate con-
sists of all graduates of the degree of Mas-
ter or Doctor, in any of the several facul-
ties, and of all other graduates of three
years' standing, besides graduates of other
Universities who have been admitted
ad eundem gradum by the Council. The
number of graduates admitted by examina-
tion s.nce the establishment of the Uni-
versity is 265. The number of under-
graduates in the year 1902 was 311, and oi
non-graduating students 287, exclusive of
those studying at the Elder Conserva-
torium, of whom in 1902 there were 286.
The teaching staff of the University com-
prises 9 Professors and 19 Lecturers, an.i
that of the Elder Conservatorium 12
Teachers. Facilities for University ex-
aminations have been extended to the coun-
try, and local centres with permanent com-
mittees have been formed, for examina-
tions in Music only at Broken Hill, and
for the Primary, Junior Public, Senior
Public, Higher Public, and Music Examina-
tions at Mount Gambier, Naracoorte, Port
Pirie, Clare, Jamestown, and Moonta, and
at Albany and Perth in Western Australia.
In the interests of education, Extension
Lectures have also been given in country
centres, as well as at the University. Pub-
lic examinations are conducted at country
centres and the "extension" of the Univer-
sity system to remote parts of the State re-
presents one of the most significant evolu-
tions in higher education. The Adelaide
University nas important relations with
Western Australia, and the Technical
School at Perth is affiliated, and some of
tho lectures are recognised by the Adelaide
University.
The scope of University teaching nas
been widely extended during the past few
years. Tne extension of the curricula,
and the steady grovvth of students have
compelled the Council to provide extra
accommodation. A public demand for
commercial education has been met by pro-
viding an advanced course. The Elemen-
tary Commercial Examination was held
for the first time in December, 1902, when
20 candidates presented themselves, and
13 received certificates. The success of
the experiment induced the Council to
establish a Board of Commercial Studies.
EDUCATION.
207
To obtain the advanced commercial certifi-
cate candidates must attend lectures and
pass examinations in the following sub-
jects, which need not be all taken in the
same time: (1) Business Practice; (2)
Accountancy ; (3) Commercial Law ; (4)
Economics and Commercial History; (5)
Banking and Exchange ; (6) Commercial
Geography and Technology. The lecture
fees for the full course amount to 12/1/6,
which, with examination fees, makes a
total outlay of 14/12/6. In connection
with the scheme of commercial education,
Mr. Joseph Fisher, a very old colonist, has
provided an endowment of 1,000 to pro-
vide for a lecture on a subject relating to
commerce. Other leading commercial
men are coming forward and providing
scholarships, vo that the success of the edu-
cational venture is assured.
A popular form of University teaching
are the "Extension Lectures" given by the
staffs. These are largely attended during
the winter. The last series included such
subjects as "The Electron and the Radio-
activity of Radium, Thorium, and other
Substances," "Color in Nature," "Shake-
speare's Romantic Plays," "Leaders of the
Middle Ages," "The Development of the
Violin, Sonata," and "Materialism." The
University aims at giving a "complete aca--
demical and professional and special train-
ing to all the candidates of the teaching
profession in Adelaide free of charge, and
without adding a sixpence to the burdens
of the taxpayers," and the Chancellor fur-
ther said that "there was no event in the
history of education in South Australia of
far more reaching importance" than the ar-
rangement which had been concluded for
training school teachers. "It secured to
every teacher in South Australia, to every
one of that important Public Service, the
social status to which they were entitled.
It secured to them a professional training
of a high-class, and some of the benefits of
the. endowments of the University of Ade-
laide. He knew of no other University
in the world that attempted anything of
the kind." The Chancellor went on to say
that the teachers get "the advantage of
training at the University for two years,
which in the aggregate amount of fees
woulH total about 1,400. That was to
say that the University presented the stu-
dents with 1,400. They had the assis-
tance of 14 professors and lecturers and
four demonstrators. They had the use of
a library of 15,000 volumes, and labora-
tories which had cost 10,000. They were
the pioneers in breaking down the narrow-
ness and exclusiveness of class which re-
cognised the republic of letters alone, and
demanded that the teacher was as much a
member of the learned professions as the
doctor and the lawyer. They had on a
small scale the University pupil continua-
tion school in those who were working in
the evenings for the completion of the
course and to obtain the authorization of
the University degree." The University
and the School of Mines co-operate in pro-
viding courses of instruction and examina-
tion in various branches of Applied
Science, and this union of forces is both
economical and effective. An important
development of the University move-
ment in South Australia is the train-
ing of school teachers. The Chan-
cellor of the University, in a recent public
utterance, claimed that there was no other
country in the world in which the Univer-
sity provided for candidates in elementary
school teachership a free, a compulsory, and
a liberal education. The number of pro-
fessors, lecturers, and teachers has increased
from 5 in 1882 to 39 in 1902; under-
graduates from 12 to 311 ; non-graduating
students from 99 to 287, and the number of
Conservatorium students from nothing to
286; or a total advance from 111 in 1882
to 884 in 1902. The number of candidates
for public examinations in the same
period has risen from 141 to 2,799. A
large number of valuable scholarships and
exhibitions are made available every year.
The Right Hon. Sir S. J. Way, Bart.,
K.C., Lieutenant-Governor and Chief Jus-
tice, is Chancellor, Dr. Barlow Vice-
Chancellor, and Mr. C. R. Hodge
Registrar.
THe School of Mines.
South Australia is greatly blessed in its
"School of Mines and Industries," an insti-
tution which in everything but name is a
high-grade Technical College. It is the
largest and most efficient training establish-
ment of its kind in Australia. Yielding
to the pressure of strong public sentiment
on the question, the Downer Government,
in 1886, appointed a board "to enquire into
208
THE CENTRAL STATK.
>N
"
Q
5
*a
EDUCATION.
209
:and report upon the best means of develop-
ing a general system of technical, including
agricultural, education in the province."
The Board consisted ol Dr. (now Sir John)
Cockburn (then Minister of Education), the
late Hon. Dr. Campbell, M.L.C., Professor
Rennie, the late Mr. M. P. F. Basedow,
Messrs. Rowland Rees, J. T. Scherk, M.P.,
Mr. (now Representative Sir) J. Langdon
Bonython, the late Mr. Adam Adamson,
and Mr. J. Fairfax Conigrave. Soon after
the appointment the Government also re-
mitted for the board's consideration the
question of the establishment of a School
of Mines. This proposal, having been
made a portion of the policy of the Play-
ford Government, the consideration of how
this object could be best accomplished was
relegated by the then Minister of Educa-
tion (Mr. J. C. F. Johnson) to the Techni-
cal Education Board. After visiting
similar institutions in the neighboring
States, and collecting much valuable
information, this body, in June, 1888, re-
commended in a comprehensive report that
a School of Mines and Industries should be
established. The recommendation was
given effect to witn surprising promptness,
for on November 30 the Council a thor-
oughly representative body was ap-
pointed. Six members were nominated by
the Government, and the remaining six
were elected by the University, the Board
of Governors of the Public Library,
Museum, and Art Gallery, the Chamber of
Manufactures, and the Trades and Labor
Council. At the beginning of 1889, so the
annual report of that year says, active steps
were taken to organise the school, and to
start work with as little delay as possible.
Dr. Cockburn was appointed Chairman,
and he threw his heart and soul into the
project. It was his untiring zeal and able
organization at the outset that gave the
movement an impetus that was ever sus-
tained. The Government handed over to
the Council the eastern annexe of the Ex-
bition Building, where class-rooms were
provided and exhibits constituting the
nucleus of a technological museum were
displayed. The actual work of the school
began on March 14, 1889. On that day
26 students were enrolled, and the curri-
culum contained 11 subjects. Success was
immediate, and at the time of the formal
opening of the institution by the Governor
(Lord Kintore) three months later, the
most sanguine expectations of the officials
had been more than realised. This is
what "The Register" said at that period :
"The School of Mines and Industries is ad-
mirably devised to secure the particular
ends at which it aims. Its constitution
and arrangement are elected, the labors of
the Council having enabled them to adopt
the best points in kindred institutions
throughout the world There
seems already to have been established be-
tween the students and the authorities
that oneness of purpose and unity of effort
which are essential to the well-being of
such an institution." Over 2,000 people
attended the opening ceremony, and up to
that date 100 students had enrolled. The
progress made was indeed remarkable. At
the end of 1890 there were 341 ->upils on
the roll; at the end of 1891, 468; 1892,
620; 1893, 667; 1894, 688; 1895, 670;
1896, 809 ; 1897, 957 ; 1898, 1,041 ; 1899,
1,266; 1900, 1,603; 1901, 1,756; and 1902,
1,913. In 1892 the Government Assay
Department was placed under the control
of the Council, and in December of that
year Parliament passed an Act to incor-
porate the school. The necessity for in-
creased accommodation was lelt for many
years. It is hardly probable that any
alteration from inadequate arrangements
would have been possible but for the
princely generosity of the Hon. G. Brook-
man, M.L.C., who donated 15,000 towards
the erection of a new building, the total
cost of which was 37,000. This handsome
contribution prompted the Government to
at once proceed with the erection of up-to-
date premises, and the Council can now
congratulate itself on the possession of a
building which in magnificence is second to
none in the Australian States. On the
occasion of the opening ceremony of this
magnificent structure, the following letter,
addressed to the President (Representative
Sir Langdon Bonython) by Lord Tennyson,
the Governor-General, was read: "Com-
monwealth of Australia. Governor-Gene-
ral, Marble Hill, Adelaide, February 23,
1903. Dear Sir Langdon I congratulate
the Government and you on the opening
of the fine building where is'to be housed
your excellent School of Mines, of which
you have been for so many years the lead-
ing spirit. I am glad to learn that you
2IO
THE CENTRAL, STATE.
are working hand in hand with the Uni-
versity of Adelaide, and I have much plea-
sure in testifying again to the very
valuable service your school performs for
Australia. It is certainly one of the best
of its kind that I know, and many of the
men trained here are to be found in ail
parts of the world holding good positions.
Yet Australia is, generally speaking, a
long way behind in the race of technical
handicrafts and industries. For instance,
when I have visited agricultural shows
throughout this continent, everywhere I
have found the stump-jumpers and strip-
pers, of which the South Australians are
justly proud ; but, be it observed, most of
the other implements and agricultural
machinery are made in Canada and
America. In order to keep pace with the
times, Australia will have to bestir herself,
to welcome fresh ideas and inventions, to
encourage the introduction of new and im-
proved methods, to place no artificial re-
strictions to the detriment of production
and trade on the output of commodities
and manufactures; and, above all, she
must multiply her technical schools and
better her technical education. It is,
more than anything else, the training (in
the workshop) of those directing scientific
industries, as well as of the woncers them-
selves, which makes a great industrial
community. By adopting such means,
with the aid of practical enthusiasts like
your Lieutenant-Governor, Mr. Brookman,
and yourself, Australia will, I feel sure, be
able eventually to develop her wonderful
resources, and to attain to her rightful
position among the industrial and com-
mercial peoples. 'Yours truly (Signed)
TENNYSON." The reproach that Aus-
tralia is a laggard among nations in tne
matter of "technical handicraft and indus-
tries" is rapidly being removed by such
institutions as the South Australian School
of Mines. The President, on the occar
sion of the last prize-day of the school,
said: "The wool of 250,000 sheep has
passed through the hands of our students
this year, and wool experts estimate that,
by reason of better classing ,the wool has
yielded to the producer fully 6,000 more
than would otherwise have been received.
But the 6,UOO by no means represents the
total gain to Soutn Australia. There is
the wool dealt with by former students;
and by those who have been taught by
such students ; and the day is coming when
the whole wool clip of the State will be so
manipulated as to reach the markets in
the best possible condition, and that will
mean a clear gain to South Australia of at
least 100,000 per annum." The wool
instructor (Mr. G-eo. Jeffrey) has nearly
200 students under his charge, and the
work done by them at shearing time on the
stations is admittedly excellent.
The members of the Council at the pre-
sent time are : Representative Sir John
Langdon Bonython (President), Henry
Adams, Esq., J.P., Honorable John George
Bice, M.L.C., Professor William Henry
Bragg, M.A., David Morley Charleston,
Esq., Lawrence Gray son, Esq., A.I.M.E.,
J.P., Representative Honorable Sir Fre-
derick William Holder, K.C.M.G., Joseph
Colin Francis Johnson, Esq., F.G.S.,
A.I.M.E., J.P., Representative Alexander
Poynton, Richard Edward Elm ore Rogers,
Esq., J.P., Johann Theodor Scherk, Esq.,
M.P., Edward Willis Van Senden, Esq.,
Registrar oi the School and Curator of the
Museum, Joseph Auburn Haslam, B.Sc.
Agricultural College.
Technical education on the agricultural
side has received considerable attention. In
addition to a well-equipped Agricultural
College, situated at Roseworthy, 30 miles
north of Adelaide, there are Agricultural
Bureaux scattered throughout the State,
whilst secondary agricultural instruction i&
obtainable at many of the public schools.
In 1879 the late Hon. F. Basedow carried
a resolution in Parliament in favor of the
"establishment of an experimental farm
and agricultural college." A site about
three miles west of Roseworthy was
selected, 830 acres of land was purchased
at 6/6 per acre, and the college erected at
a cost of about 6,000. Some of the land
was poor, and for this and other reasons
Professor Lowrie several years later char-
acterised the selection as an unfortunate
one. The area was added to in 1897, when
a contiguous block of 187 acres was secured
at 4 per acre In 1898 220 acres was
purchased at the same figure, in 1899 65
acres at 3/5, in 1900 178 acres at 4, and
last year i75 acres at 3/15. The total
area at present is, therefore, 1,655 acres.
The objects of the institution were declared
EDUCATION.
211
to be: (1) To train young men for the
practice of agriculture, horticulture, and
viticulture ; (2) To conduct experiments
with a view to the advancement of the
rural industries in South Australia. Pro-
fessor Custance, the first principal, was in
charge from 1881 until 188b. He was
succeeded by Professor Lowrie, M.A.,
B.Sc., who arrived in February, 1888, and
retained the position until September,
1901, 13^ years. During that period a
striking change took place in the public
estimate of the institution and the
methods of agriculture demonstrated at
Roseworthy. Professor J. D. Towar,
M.Sc., took over the control in May, 1902.
When Professor Lowrie arrived in 1888
the teaching staff comprised a science lec-
turer and himself. Four years later, Mr.
Arthur J. Perkins, fresh from Montpelier,
was appointed Government Viticulturist
and (Enologist, and has rendered valuable
service to the State in that capacity ever
since. That gentleman is now the oldest
member of the College staff, and alsoi holds
the office of Secretary for Agriculture.
Professor Perkins was acting principal
from the departure of Professor Lowrie
until the arrival of Professor Towar. As
the College advanced in popularity, and
the number of students increased, the staff
was gradually added to until to-day it is
composed as follows : Principal, Pro-
fessor J. D. Towar, M.Sc. ; Viticulturist
and (Enologist, Professor A. J. Perkins;
Housemaster, Secretary, and Lecturer on
Natural Science and Bookkeeping, Mr. F.
W. Russack ; Lecturer Chemistry and
Physical Science, Mr. W. R. Jamie-
son, B.Sc. ; Lecturer on Dairying, Mr.
G. S. Thomson, F.R.S.E. ; Lecturer on
Horticulture, Mr. G. Quinn ; Lecturer on
Wool-classing, Mr. G. Jeffrey ; Superinten-
dent of Vineyard, Mr. H. E. Laffer;
Teacher of Surveying, Mr. R. L. E. Bosr
worth, B.Sc. ; Farm Foreman, Mr. F. L.
Faulkner; Teacher of Blacksmithing and
Carpentering, Mr. G. L. Williams. Alto-
gether 355 youths have been enrolled at
the College, and of these 106 have obtained
their diploma. In 1890 the system of
offering scholarships for competition an-
nually, each carrying a free course of in'
struction at the College, was adopted.
Since that time 29 scholarships have been
awarded. Last year's gold medallist
entered the institution as a scholarship
winner, and the silver medallist of the
previous year likewise. Six scholarships
are offered annually, the State being
divided into so many districts for the pur-
pose. For several years the course of in-
struction at the College covered two years ;
but soon after his arrival Professor Lowrie
pointed out that this term was too short,
and urged tnat it should be extended to
three years. The recommendation was
adopted as from the beginning of 1893.
The curriculum is as follows : First year.
-Mathematics, anatomy, bookkeeping,
agriculture, chemistry, meteorology, heat,
electricity, and botany. Second year.
Mathematics, physiology, chemistry, agri-
culture, viticulture, fruit culture, me-
chanics, surveying, and wool-classing.
Third year. Chemistry, agriculture,
veterinary science, viticulture, cenology,
surveying, mechanics, physiology, and
wool-classing. Students who desire to at-
tend only two years are required to pass an
entrance examination equivalent to the
sessional examination at the end of the
first year. The fees were originally fixed
at ,50 per annum, but in 1888 they were
reduced at 30, at which amount they
now stand.
It is impossible to estimate in sterling
value the beneficial influence exercised by
this College on the agricultural industry
during the past twenty years. It has led
the way in revolutionising farming
methods in South Australia., and to Pro-
fessor Lowrie more than to any other man
is due the rapid expansion of the system of
drilling in seed with artificial manures.
His staff and enterprising farmers ably
seconded his efforts, but Professor Lowrie
headed the revolutionary band. The
work he began is being carried on with
skill and enthusiasm by his successors.
Special attention is devoted at the Agri-
culture College to "diversified farming, '
and valuable experiments are conducted in
live-stock breeding more particularly the
production of lambs suitable for export.
There is a "Council of Agriculture" ap-
pointed by the Government which acts in
an advisory as well as executive capacity,
and experts are connected with the De-
partment of Agriculture. A monthly
illustrated journal is issued containing
special articles by the staff and reports of
proceedings of Country Agricultural
Bureaux.
212
THE CENTRAL STATE.
Public Library, Art
Gallery, and Museum.
The Public Library, Museum, and Art
Gallery of South Australia was established
in 1884. Under the name of the South
Australian Institute it was incorporated in
1856. It comprises a free public refer-
ence library, a natural history museum, an
art gallery, and a school of design, paint-
ing, and technical arts. Affiliated with
it are the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia, the South Australian Society of
Arts, and 166 country Institutes. It is
governed by a board of 18 members, of
whom 8 are nominated by the Govern-
ment, 5 are elected by the country Insti-
tutes, 2 by the University of Adelaide,
and one each by the Royal Society of
South Australia, the S.A. Society of Arts,
and the Adelaide Circulating Library.
At the laying of the foundation-stone of
the Public Library building, Mr. Rowland
Rees, referred to the Universitv of Ade-
laide as "an institution which will provide
that higher education hitherto unattain-
able at common or ordinary schools. . . .
It remains to supply the middle course of
the structure to connect primary with
secondary schools by links composed of
higher subjects, the secondary education
being that acquired after the elementary
school days are passed, and composed of
teaching bearing on the life work of the
people, if need be, where social necessity
arises, cultivation in the highest form
which the University provides, as well as
in the 'elegancies of literature and art and
the pursuit of science for its own sake
apart from its utility.' .... We are met
to-day to witness the laying of the first
stone of an institution intended to provide
those missing links in the great educational
chain to which I have alluded." The ob-
jects thus outlined have been strenuously
pursued by the Board with much success,
although very often under adverse circum-
stances. The Public Library was opened
in 1884 with a collection of about 21,500
volumes, which had increased in Decem-
ber, 1903, to 50,450. A travelling library,
containing 6,000 volumes is circulated in
boxes among affiliated country Institutes.
Each box contains 30 volumes, and each
Institute changes its boxes three times a
jear. A special library of technical and
scientific works is also available for circula-
tion among country Institutes. The
Museum in 1884 occupied the northern
half of the Library building, but in 1895
the present Museum building was handed
over to the Board, and even this building,
200 ft. x 45 ft., is now taxed to its utmost
to accommodate the specimens, and the
director is applying for increased space.
The Australian ethnological collection in
this Museum is claimed to be the finest in
the world. The Art Gallery in 1884 was
located in a room at the south end of the
Public Library, but was afterwards
removed to rooms in the Exhibition
Building. Here for some years the
collection was housed in a building of a
very inflammable character. The Board
felt that this was a serious menace, and it
was, therefore, a very great relief to them
when it became known that Sir Thomas
Elder, K.C.M.G., had left a legacy of
25,000 for the purchase of pictures. The
Government then recognised the necessity
of erecting a suitable Art Gallery building
at once, and this was opened to the public
on April 7th, 1900. The Elder bequest
has made it possible for the Board to add
some fine examples of the leading modern
artists to the collection, and a large por-
tion of the bequest still remains unex-
pended. The art school, under the
directorship of Mr. H. P. Gill, A.R.C.A.,
Lond., has grown to large proportions.
The students in training under the Educa-
tion Department, as well as those in the
S.A. School of Mines and Industries, re-
ceive their art education in this school.
Art examinations are held under the
authority of the Board in Adelaide and
various country towns* and also in Perth,
W.A. In 1904 drawing will be a subject
for the University, Primary, Junior, and
Senior Public Examinations, and the
Board's certificate is to be accepted by the
University authorities as proof of efficiency
in art subjects. A South Australian
Mechanical Draughtsman's Certificate is
issued jointly by the Board and the Coun-
cil of the S.A. School of Mines and Indus-
tries, and another by the Board and the
Council of the Moonta School of Mines.
About 650 students were taught in the
Art School in 1903, and since 1888 20,503
examination papers have been worked by
candidates for tne Board's certificates, of
EDUCATION.
213
. Peter's College, Adelaide.
which 12,500 have been issued. The
prospects of the institution have been
greatly improved by a magnificent legacy
from the late Dr. Morgan Thomas. This
estate has not yet been wound up, but it is
expected that the Board, who are re-
siduary legatees, will receive at least
60,000, and a considerable portion of this
has already been paid over. The Public
Library and its associated departments is
doing excellent educational work. The
Royal Society, a branch of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, the Zoological Society,
with its magnificent collection of animals,
the Botanical Gardens, are all rendering
great public service in the same direction.
South Australia is also well served by an
-excellent metropolitan and country press.
St. Peter's College.
The Collegiate School of St. Peter, the
oldest school in the State, was first opened
on July 15, 1847, its purpose being to pro-
vide a good sound education on Church of
England principles, with a conscience
^clause admitting boys of all denomina-
tions. The course of instruction is similar
to that of the public schools of England.
The school is situated in the eastern
suburbs of Adelaide, about 1 miles dis-
tant from the city, and is surrounded by
30 acres of playgrounds, with a further 23
acres available if required. The sanitary ar-
rangements (on the deep drainage system)
are perfect. There are 15 large and well-
ventilated class-rooms, an excellent
laboratory for practical chemistry and
physics, a gymnasium 90 ft. in length,
fitted with all the latest and most com-
plete appliances, and a very handsome
chapel in which services are held daily.
Accommodation is provided for about 60
boarders. The boarding arrangements
are under the direct supervision of the
headmaster, assisted by 7 other resident
masters and a matron. Cricket, football,
rowing, bat and hand fives, and other out-
door sports are organised and encouraged.
The ;' liolarshipi and exhibitions given by
the school have an annual value of 800,
the most valuable of which are six scholar-
ships of 50 per annum each, tenable for
three years. The institution is managed
214
THE CENTRAL, STATE.
Prince Alfred College, Adelaide.
by a Council of Governors consisting of
15 members, of which the Lord Bishop oi
Adelaide is ex officio chairman. The
Headmaster is the Rev. Henry Girdle-
stone, M.A., of Magdalen College, Oxford,
and he is assisted by a staff of 14 masters.
Mr. A. E. H. Evans, King William-street,
is secretary and bursar. The average at-
tendance is about 300 boys.
Prince Alfred College.
The foundation-stone of Prince Alfred
College was laid in 1867 by the late Duke
of Edinburgh, and the institution was
named after him by special permission.
At first only the central portion was
erected, but continued prosperity caused
the original design to be completed by the
addition of the Waterhouse Wing in 1878
and the Colton Wing in 1882. A further
addition was made in 1891, when a
separate building was put up for science
lecture room and laboratory, thoroughly
equipped with the latest appliances. The
school was founded by members of the
Wesleyan Methodist Church, and the
governing board has for its chairman the
President of the South Australian Confer-
ence, annually appointed. It has always-
claimed to be a "modern" school, and has
given much attention to mathematics and
natural science. Its pupils have been
eminently successful in these departments.
The headmaster is Mr. F. Chappie, B.A.,
B.Sc. (Lond.), and he has under him an
excellent staff of masters, both resident
and visiting. At present the attendance
numbers about 350, of whom over 70 are
boarders.
Explorers and Their Work.
There's a legion that never was listed,
That carries no colors or crest ;
But, still in a thousand detachments,
Is breaking a road for the rest, KlPLlNG.
Australia owes a heavy debt to the men
who filled in the map of the island con-
tinent. In that great work South Aus-
tralia has been a generous contributor in
men and money. The journals in which
the leaders of the various expeditions sent
out from this State recorded their suffer-
ings and achievements are full of thrilling
narratives of brave needs. The names of
the men who devoted the best years of
their lives in making pathways for
posterity through a continent will be
honored so long as the inhabitants of the
Commonwealth preserve the spirit and
ideals which inspired our heroic pioneer
colonists. South Australians have reason
to take a special interest in this branch
of Australian history, because several of
the most notable and brilliant explorers
were intimately associated with this State,
and accomplished much of their work
within its borders. For many years after
the first immigrants landed on these shores
some of the shrewdest and most intelligent
of them held the opinion that a great lake
or inland sea would eventually be found
somewhere near the centre of the con-
tinent. Not a few of the ablest explorers
cherished the hope that they would be for-
tunate enough to be the first Europeans to
set foot upon the shores of an Australian
Mediterranean. Flinders was familiar
with the theory, and when his vessel was
lying at anchor near the entrance to
Spencer's Gulf, he wrote in his journal :
"Large rivers, deep inlets, inland seas, and
passages into the Gulf of Carpentaria were
terms frequently used in our conversation
of this evening, and the prospect of mak-
ing an interesting discovery seemed to have
infused new life and vigor into every man
in the ship." Nearly 30 years later, when
Captain Sturt landed in Sydney, the belief
in the inland sea hypothesis had been
greatly strengthened by the results of the
exploratory work accomplished during the
interval. The greater part of the immense
coast line of Australia had been more or
less carefully scrutinised, but by a strange
coincidence both English and French
navigators who visited Encounter Bay in
1802 failed to detect the mouth of the
Murray River in the long line of sandhills
behind those threatening breakers which
dash unceasingly upon the Coorong beach.
That omission was responsible for a great
deal of the speculation respecting the pro-
bable inundation of Central Australia.
The simple unadorned story of the methods
by which the inland sea theory was ex-
ploded, and the actual condition of the
interior revealed forms one of the most
romantic and inspiring chapters of South
Australian history.
The honor of having made the first im-
portant discovery in South Australia is
due to Lieutenant Grant, who on Decem-
ber 3rd, 1800, sighted Mount Gambier from
the deck of the Lady Nelson colloquially
known as "His Majesty's Tinder Box."
The vessel was sailing along the coast to-
wards Bass's Strait on her voyage from
England to Sydney. Grant did not
examine the shore of the Australian Bight,
and he returned to England before
Flinders made his systematic survey.
When Governor King saw Grant's chart
after the Lady Nelson reached New South
Wales he made a note on the margin to
the effect that he thought the appearance
of the coast warranted the belief that the
entrance to an inland sea would be found
in the Bight. Grant can scarcely be re-
garded as one of the explorers of South
Australia. The pioneer in that work was
Captain Matthew Flinders, the intrepid
young naval officer who discovered and
named the two gulfs, the principal capes,
headlands, bays, islands, and other pro-
minent landmarks from Cape Nuy to
Encounter Bay. Flinders possessed con-
siderable literary skill/ and he wrote a
remarkably accurate series of pen pictures
of the hitherto unknown coast of Southern
Australia, which suggested the desirable-
ness of founding a British province on the
2l6
THE CENTRAL STATE.
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK.
217
Central Mount Stuart. One of the most interesting geographical features
in Australia, practically the centre of the continent.
F. J. Gillen photo.
southern coast of "New Holland." The
meeting of Flinders and Captain Baudin,
commander of the French exploring ship
Le Geographe, in Encounter Bay, was a
romantic incident which marked the com-
pletion of the British officer's 1 original
work on the south coast. Flinders was
accompanied by Sir John Franklin, the
celebrated Arctic explorer, who 1 joined the
Investigator as a midshipman. The monu-
ment which Franklin, when Governor of
Tasmania, erected at Port Lincoln to the
memory of his old commander serves as a
link to connect the first of the splendid
band of Australian explorers with the
brilliant navigator whose life was sacrificed
in an attempt to perform similar work
amid the eternal ice fields of Arctic Seas.
Captain Sturt was the first explorer
whose work on Australian soil was worthy
to be compared with that which Flinders
had accomplished on the water. His life
and explorations have a special interest for
South Australians. A considerable part
of his colonial career was spent in this
State, and the greatest task of his life was
completed within its territory. Sturt was
a man of dauntless courage, boundless
energy, and shrewd common-sense. He
started on his first expedition on Novem-
ber 10, 1828. After encountering many
obstacles the party struck a large stream,
but the water was so impregnated with salt
that even the thirsty cattle refused to drink
from it. After following the river for
two days without finding fresh water,
Sturt was compelled to return to the depot
at Mount Harris. Before leaving the
river he named it the Darling, after the
Governor of New South Wales. The story
which he had to tell on his return to the
settlement only served to stimulate interest
in the problems which he had been endea-
voring to solve, and in September, 1829,
the Governor gave instructions for a second
trip. Sturt on this occasion was accom-
panied by Mr. (afterwards Sir George)
Macleay, and the party was provided with
a complete equipment, including a whale
boat. The Murrumbidgee was reached on
September 25, but as the expedition ap-
proached the meridian of longitude, at
which most ol the other unknown rivers
exhausted themselves, the leader was con-
cerned to find that there^was not sufficient
food to enable him to proceed further with
his teams. He thereupon resolved upon
the bold expedient of continuing the jour-
ney in the boat. On November 6 the
boat party left its companions behind
218
THE CENTRAL STATE.
and set out upon the eventful and arduous
voyage. It was a bold enterprise, because
every mile that the little craft floated down
stream took the party further away from
its base. Nobody had any idea where
the river would end. The active hostility
of the natives proved a severe strain.
Sturt's verdict respecting that portion of
South Australian territory has been con-
demned as unwarrantably pessimistic, but
it must be remembered that by the time
he reached Lake Alexandrina he was
physically worn out, and had no time to
examine the land beyond the immediate
vicinity of the stream. Passing through
the Great Lake, Sturt and his little band
were mortified beyond description when
they discovered that so nobl'e a river as the
Murray had so miserable a termination.
From the first the explorer recognised that
the Murray mouth would prove a draw-
back to the river trade. A subsequent
examination confirmed his first impi*es-
sions, and Sturt's opinion that the Murray
mouth was not safe for navigation has
been confirmed by experience. Keenly
disappointed at finding that the river
emptied itself into the sea at a point ex-
posed to the full force of the ocean, Sturt
began the long and toilsome journey back
to the depot. The men under his com-
mand were ill-fitted for the task of pulling
against the current day after day, and they
suffered terribly from fatigue. When they
left the Murray mouth their provisions
consisted of a small quantity of flour.
Game was scarce, and the party was con-
stantly harassed by the natives. Yet for
a whole month the men toiled like galley
slaves at the oars, loyally obeying their
chief's commands. Sturt records in his
journal how he frequently overheard a man
say to his companions at night: "I must
tell the captain to-morrow that I cannot
pull any longer." When the morning
came every man would be at his post. Not
a murmur would escape their lips during
the day. When the little party reached
the place where the skiff had been
launched for the downward journey the
greatest disappointment of the voyage was
experienced. They expected that stores
would have been forwarded from Sydney
to the depot there, but that had not been
done. The next depot was 200 miles fur-
ther up the stream, and 17 days elapsed
before the emaciated men could lay aside
their oars. One of the party became
deranged when the boat was still 90 miles
from its destination, and Sturt was com-
pelled to form a camp. Two of the
strongest men were sent on to endeavor
to obtain help. A week went by, and
then relief arrived. Every member of the
party eventually returned to Sydney.
Sturt's report to the Government of New
South Wales created widespread interest,
and the Governor instructed Captain Col-
lett Barker, another officer in the 39th
Foot, to examine the country in the vici-
nity of the Lakes and the Murray mouth
more systematically than his brother officer
had been able to do. It was while Cap-
tain Barker was endeavoring to carry out
his commission in April, 1831, that he lost
his life near the mouth through the
treachery of the natives. Captain Sturt
paid a heavy penalty for the strain
to which his physical powers were sub-
jected during that memorable trip. In
1838 he returned to South Australia, and
was appointed Surveyor-General with a
seat in the Executive and Legislative
Councils. He subsequently became Com-
missioner of Crown Lands, Registrar of the
Province, and Colonial Secretary. In
1844 Sturt conducted an expedition into
the interior, but was compelled to camp at
Rocky Glen for six months owing to the
intense heat the glass registering 130
degrees in the shade and absence of
water. He then pushed on to within 150
miles of the centre of the continent, and
later discovered Cooper's Creek. His con-
stitution was completely shattered, and his
sight faiieu. Sturt was knighted on his
death bed in 1869, but did not live to re-
ceive the title.
Edward John Eyre, whose sensational
journey from Adelaide to King George's
Sound in 1840-41 was attended by one of
the most tragic episodes recorded in Aus-
tralian history, was an explorer of the
practical type, whose chief object was to
endeavor to open up pastoral country in
the interior. He was a daring and in-
trepid bushman, and the story of his ad-
ventures in this State and Western Aus-
tralia is full of interest. Eyre, who died
in 1902, was a native of Lincolnshire, the
county in which Captain Flinders, Sir
Joseph Banks, and Sir John Franklin were
born. About two years after he settled
in South Australia the question of opening
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK.
219
Attack Creek, north of Barrow Creek, where Stuart was attacked 'by the natives.
.F. J. Gillen photo. Mr. F. J. Gillen is shown in the photo.
a, stock route to Western Australia was
mooted, and it was suggested that Eyre
was the man to undertake so formidable a
task. At a meeting held in Adelaide in
1840 he told the settlers interested in the
project that he did not believe any track
along the Australian Bight would prove
practicable, but expressed his willingness
to search for good pastoral country beyond
Lake Torrens, which he had seen and
named in the preceding year. The pro-
posal was approved by the Government,
and the fund raised by private subscrip-
tion for the purpose of equipping a party
was subsidised by a grant from the Trea-
sury of 100. The expedition consisted
of five white men and three natives, with
14 horses and 40 sheep. A stock of pro-
visions was also dispatched to the head
of Spencer's Gulf in a small sailing boat.
Eyre left Adelaide on June 18, 1840, in
company with his friend, Mr. E. B. Scott
who still resides in South Australia
Corporal Coles, John Baxter, and two
native boys. They forced their way
northward for 400 miles until they reached
the basin of Lake Torrens. Baffled and
bitterly disappointed, Eyre was eventually
forced to the conclusion that he could not
proceed further in that direction. "I had
one of three courses to choose," he wrote,
"either to give up the expedition alto-
gether, to cross to the Murray to the east
and follow up that river to the Darling, or.
by crossing over to Streaky Bay to the
westward to endeavor to find some opening
leading towards the interior in that direc-
tion. After weighing all the advantages
and disadvantages of each (and there were
many objections to them all) I determined
upon adopting the last." Eyre reached
Streaky Bay and formed a depot there.
Several weary months were spent in
attempts to force a passage round the
head of the Great Bight through country
which Eyre characterised as "a hideous
anomaly, a blot on the face of Nature, the
sort of place one gets into in bad dreams."
His third effort proved successful, and
some idea of the dogged determination
which he displayed may be formed from
the fact that he travelled 643 miles in
order to reach a point 153 miles distant
from his depot. Having arrived at the
head of the Bight, Eyre formed the daring
and desperate plan of sending the majority
of his party back to Adelaide while he pro-
ceeded to King George's Sound with pack-
horses, taking Baxter as his sole white com-
panion. The horses were rested for
several weeks, and, in spite of the fact that
the Governor of the Province and Eyre's
friends sent Mr. Scott back in order to urge
him to relinquish the project, he refused
to do so. Eyre and Baxter set out on
their perilous journey from the head of the
Bight on January 25, 1841. The two
white men ai?d three natives took with
220
THE CENTRAL STATE.
them nine horses, a Timor pony, and
several sheep. Seldom has such a
hazardous undertaking been entered upon
by a party so ill-equipped. Baxter lost
his life before the goal was reached, and
at one stage of the journey it appeared as
though nothing could save the leader of
the expedition from a similar fate. On
one occasion the party was without water
for four days, and on another it was re-
duced to such a desperate plight that Eyre
was compelled to abandon everything that
was not obsolutely essential to life. Two
of the natives deserted, but subsequently
rejoined the party, murdered Baxter, and
decamped, carrying most of the stores
away with them. The condition in which
Eyre found himself the next morning when
day broke would have caused most men to
despair. He was in a waterless desert 500
miles from the nearest settlement with an
inadequate supply of provisions, and a
black boy to assist him in guarding
what remained from treacherous natives
Inactivity would mean disaster, and as
soon as Eyre had buried the body of his
devoted follower he resumed his journ'ey.
The boy remained loyal, and on June 2
they reached Thistle Cove, where they
found the French whaler Mississippi. The
commander, Captain Rossiter, treated
Eyre with the greatest kindness. At the
end of a fortnight Eyre determined to com-
plete his self-imposed task. He reached
King George's Sound without further
mishap.
THROUGH THE HEART OF THE CONTINENT.
The immense belt of territory to which
the term Central Australia is applied
proved a hard nut for explorers to crack.
The vastn'ess of the country, the difficulties
and dangers, served to fire the imagination
of adventurous men. Many noble deeds
were done far out of sight of the public
with no thought of reward. It would be
impossible to describe the amount of suf-
fering endured by those who freely gave
their lives to the work of solving the pro-
blems presented by inland Australia.
On the sand-drifts on the veldt side in the
fern scrub they lay,
That their sons may follow after by the bones
along the way.
The first explorer who fell a victim to
the hardships and dangers which beset the
paths of the pioneer bushmen in Northern
Australia was Ludwig Leichhardt, the
Prussian scholar and scientist, whose fate
has never been definitely ascertained.
Leichhardt made his first trip into the in-
terior from Brisbane to Port Essington in
1844-6. In October, 1847, he set out on
his last journey with the object of travel-
ling to the Barcoo River and thence via
the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria to
Swan River. A letter was subsequently
received by his friends which he wrote at
Canning Down on February 26, 1848.
That was the last authentic news of the ex-
pedition, and, although it is supposed that
the letter "I/" which Gregory saw carved
on a tree in lat. 24.25, long. 145.6, marked
the site of one of his camps, the theory
has never been verified. Leichhardt was
followed by the Hon. A. C. Gregory, who
is still living in Queensland. After hav-
ing made several journeys into the interior
of Western Australia he was commissioned
in 1855, by the Royal Geographical Society
of London, to search for. the missing ex-
plorer, who had then been absent more
than four years. The expedition was also
fitted out for exploration purposes, and the
late Dr. Von Mueller accompanied the
party as botanist. The explorers were
conveyed to the mouth of the Victoria
River by sea, and Gregory succeeded in
following that stream to the east of the
Fritzroy Range before the end of the year.
Portion of the party eventually travelled
to Mount Wilson, after which they re-
traced their steps and crossed the water-
shed of the Victoria River, and thence via
the Roper River to the mouth of the
Albert. Finding that the vessel which
was to have met him there had not ar-
rived, Gregory continued his journey over-
land to Brisbane. That trip has been
described by a competent authority as
"one of the finest, most extensive, and ex-
peditious explorations which has ever been
recorded in Australia." In 1858 Gregory
made another unsuccessful search for
Leichhardt. It was during this trip that
he found the tree marked by the ill-fated
explorer.
About the time that Gregory completed
his last journey into the interior the idea
of crossing the continent from south to
north began to exercise a fascinating in-
fluence upon the minds of those who were
interested in Australian geographical pro-
blems. The desire to achieve that object
was stimulated by an offer from the South
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK.
221
/. H. Harris photo. Central Australian Natives in their War Paint.
Australian Government of a bonus of
2,000 to the explorer who first succeeded
in accomplishing the feat. John Mc-
Douall Stuart, representing South Aus-
tralia, and Robert O'Hara Burke, the ill-
fated leader of a Victorian 'expedition,
started for the prize. Stuart wasi the first
on the scene, and he had pushed his way to
a point within 250 miles of the Gulf of Car-
pentaria before Burke's party crossed the
continent ; he was compelled' to give up the
attempt, however, and before he could fit
out another expedition and return to the
Northern Territory, Messrs. Burke and
Wills had succeeded in passing his nearest
approach to the goal. Those two
courageous men were not destined to share
the honor which Stuart enjoyed a few
months later, of standing upon the northern
shore of the continent. Burke and Wills
proceeded down the Flinders River until
they reached a point where the stream was
affected by the rise and fall of the tide.
They were provided with camels, imported
from India for the purpose, whilst Stuart
accomplished his journey on horseback.
Burke had left the bulk of his stores under
the care of four men at Cooper's Creek,
and but for the fact that the custodians of
the goods acting in accordance with their
leader's instructions -left the depot on the
very day that the travel-worn and starving
advance party returned to Cooper's Creek,
the gallant fellows might bave been spared
to enjoy the reward of their enterprise.
They had endured terrible hardships dur-
ing the return trip. One of the party
died of starvation and fatigue. When
the three famishing survivors reached the
camp they found it deserted and only a
small quantity of food available. Know-
ing that the remainder of the party could
not be far in advance, Wills urged his
leader to follow in their tracks, but Burke
determined to strike across country to-
wards the nearest sheep station, which
proved to be much further away than he
expected. The three men were eventually
compelled to return to Cooper's Creek,
where Burke and Wills died from starva-
tion. Their companion, King, managed
to obtain a subsistence from friendly na-
tives until he was rescued by a relief ex-
pedition. The bodies of Burke and Wills
were eventually taken to Melbourne,
where they were accorded a public funeral
on January 21, 1863. It is a pathetic fact
that their bodies were brought to Adelaide
at the same time that Stuart returned from
his successful journey from the Southern to
the Indian Ocean. This accentuated the
joy with which Stuart was welcomed.
FROM OCEAN TO OCEAN.
Forty-one years have elapsed since John
McDouall Stuart waded into the sea on the
222
THE CENTRAL STATE.
shore of Van Diemen Gulf and bathed his
hands and face in the cool waters of the
Indian Ocean after having crossed the con-
tinent from south to north. It was the
first time that such a feat had been accom-
plished, and it is not difficult to imagine
the delight with which the tired and
travel-stained little band gazed upon the
ever-changing sea and listened to the
music of its waves after their long and
arduous ride through the heart of a great
continent. The narrative of that great
achievement which Stuart gave to the
world after he reached Adelaide is one of
the most thrilling stories of adventure ever
penned. The heroic fortitude which he
displayed during the return journey, when
he was too weak and ill to sit in the saddle,
has seldom been surpassed. On October
31, 1862, he wrote in his journal : "I feel
a little improvement this morning, which
I hope will continue ; and I think I have
reached the turn of this terrible disease
(scurvy). On Tuesday night (this ex-
tract was written on Friday) I certainly
was in the grasp of death. A cold,
clammy perspiration, with a tremulous
motion, kept creeping slowly over my
body during the night, and everything
near me had the smell of decaying
mortality in the last stage of decomposition
and of the grave. I sincerely thank the
Almighty Giver of all Good that He, in
His infinite goodness and mercy, gave me
strength and courage to overcome the grim
and hoary-headed king of terrors, and has
kindly permitted me yet to live a little
longer in this world. . . . What a sad
difference there is from what I was when
the party left North Adelaide ! My right
hand nearly useless to me by accident,
total blindness after sunset although the
moon shines bright to others, to me it is
total darkness and nearly blind during
the day; my limbs so weak and painful
that I am obliged to be carried about ; my
body reduced to that of infantine weakness
-a sad, sad wreck of former days." In
spite of bodily infirmity he continued to
press forward.
The entry made in his diary on the fol-
lowing day reads: "Although in such a
weak state, I shall try if I can ride in the
stretcher (carried between two horses) as
far as Hamilton Springs. Started early ;
found the stretcher to answer very well.
On arriving at the Springs saw that there
was not sufficient water for the horses, and,
as I had stood this part of the journey so
well, made up my mind to cross the range
to Brinkley Bluff. Arrived there about
5 p.m. I have stood the long journey
better than I expected, but feel very tired
and worn out." On another occasion he
wrote: "Started in the cool of the morn-
ing, and in two hours reached where the
party were camped so much exhausted and
so completely done up that I could not
speak a word the power of speech has
completely left me. . . . Gave orders
that a horse was to be shot at sundown, as
we are getting rather short of meat. I
hope the change of beef-tea made from
fresh meat will give me some increase of
strength, for I am now reduced to a perfect
skeleton, a mere shadow. . . . Fresh
meat to the party is now a great treat, but
I am denied participating in that pleasure
from the dreadful state in which my mouth
still is. I can chew nothing, and all that
I have been living on is a little beef tea
and a little flour, which I am obliged to
swallow." These extracts are typical of
the entries in the explorer's diary for a
period of three months, and they indicate
the terrible suffering which Stuart and his
brave men faced for many weary weeks.
"Should anything happen to me I keep
everything ready for the worst. My plan
is finished and my journal brought up
every night, so that no doubt whatever
can be thrown upon what I have done. All
the difficult country is now passed, and
what remains is well known to those who
have been out with me before ; so that
there is no danger of the party not finding
their way back should I be taken away."
At the time Stuart penned those words,
eighteen years had passed since he gained
his first experience as an explorer under
the leadership of Captain Sturt. It was
on Thursday, July 24, 1862, that Stuart
made the following entry in his journal :
"Thring Creek, entering the marsh.
At eight miles and a-half came upon a
broad valley of black alluvial soil covered
with long grass ; from this I can hear the
wash of the sea. . . . Crossed the val-
ley and entered the scrub, which was a
complete network of vines. Stopped the
horses to clear a way, whilst I advanced a
few yards on to the beach, and was grati-
fied and delighted to behold the water of
the Indian Ocean in Van Diemen Guff
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK.
F. J. Gillen photo. A C'orroboree, Arunta Tribe, Central Australia.
Central Australian Natives on the War path. The native on the extreme left
tracked a white man, who had lost his way, for several hundred miles, and
J. H. Harris photo. arrived in time to save his life.
224
THE CENTRAL STATE.
before the party with the horses knew any-
thing of its proximity. Thring, who rode
in advance of me, called out 'The sea !'
which took us all by surprise. Then they
gave three long and hearty cheers.
I dipped my feet and washed my face and
hands in the sea, as I promised the late
Governor, Sir Richard McDonnell, I would
do if I reached it." The names of those
who accompanied Stuart on that historic
journey were Messrs. William Kekwick
(second officer), F. W. Thring (third
officer), W. P. Auld (assistant), Stephen
King, John Billiatt, James Frew, Heath
Nash, and John McGorrerey (shoeing
smith). Mr. J. W. Waterhouse was also
attached to the expedition as naturalist.
Of the party, Messrs. Auld, Thring, King,
Billiatt, Nash, and McGorrerey are alive.
The return journey was begun on Satur-
day, July 26, from Charles Creek, near
Chambers Bay, and the expedition reached
Adelaide safely after an absence of 12
months and 13 days. Stuart was still
suffering from the effects of the terrible
attack of scurvy which had prostrated him
in the interior, but the cordial welcome
which he received from his fellow-colonists
rewarded him in some degree for the hard-
ships he had endured. Subsequently the
South Australian Government gave him a
more tangible expression of its apprecia-
tion. A resolution was carried in Parlia-
ment to the effect that 3,500 should be
paid as a reward to John McDouall Stuart
and the members of his party, of which
sum the leader was to receive 2,000.
The Royal Geographical Society of London
awarded him its medal and a gold watch.
His success as an explorer was pheno-
menal, and his five expeditions into the
interior were carried out without the loss
of human life. Stuart's journey across the
continent enabled him to give valuable
advice regarding the proposal to construct
a telegraph line across the continent to
Port Darwin, and the line closely followed
his tracks. Stuart died in England in
1869.
A GALLANT BAND.
Since 1862 numerous explorers have
been engaged in the task of determining
the nature of the country on either side
of the long but comparatively narrow strip
of territory with which Stuart became
familiar. The most important expedi-
tions which have been equipped in South
Australia during the last 40 years are
worthy of reference, however, and a fore-
most place must be accorded to Ernest
Giles, who acted as leader of several ex-
ploring parties. In 1872 Giles crossed
fine country to the westward of the over-
land telegraph line, and soon after his re-
turn was appointed to command a party
which mapped out about 700 miles of ter-
ritory. In 1875 he was selected to
command the expedition equipped by the
late Sir Thomas Elder, and forced his way
across hills and plains for 1,500 miles.
During one stage of the journey no water
was obtainable for 19 days, and even the
camels suffered considerably. Giles was
away for six months on that occasion, and
travelled altogether about 2,400 miles.
William Christie Gosse, who was for some
time Surveyor-General of South Australia,
entered the Government service in 1859,
and was engaged in making trigonometri-
cal surveys in the Far North. In 1873
he was sent out to explore new country
about 800 miles south of Central Mount
Stuart, with the ultimate object of pushing
over to Western Australia. Gosse left
Alice Springs in April, and discovered
Ayers' Rock which he named after the
late Sir Henry Ayers. He failed to reach
Western Australia, and returned to Alice
Springs in December, 1873. He was suc-
cessful, however, in obtaining an accurate
geographical knowledge of 60,000 square
miles of new country. Gosse died in 1881
before he was 40 years of age. Major
Peter Egerton Warburton, formerly Com-
missioner of Police in Adelaide, conducted
several expeditions into the interior be-
tween 1856 and 1874. In 1873 he started
across the continent, and with the aid of
camels he succeeded in reaching an out-
station in Western Australia after nine
months travel. During the latter part
of the time the party subsisted mainly on
the flesh of worn-out camels. He was re-
warded for his enterprise by a grant of
1,000 from the South Australian Parlia-
ment, and was created a C.M.G. in 1875.
He died in 1889.
Mr. David Lindsay. F.R.G.S., is a native
of South Australia who has worthily main-
tained the traditions of Australian ex-
ploration. In 1883 he was selected to
lead an expedition which was about to
proceed to Arnheim Land ; and afterwards
conducted another party through the in-
EXPLORERS AND THEIR WORK.
225
terior. On the latter occasion he ex-
plored the country between the overland
telegraph line and the Queensland border.
He discovered a deposit of rubies in the
McDonnell Ranges which at the time ex-
cited great interest ; and a few years
later was chosen as leader of the Elder
Exploring Expedition, which was equipped
for the purpose of scientifically examining
the unmapped portions of Australia. Mr.
Lindsay passed within 12 miles of the
Coolgardie goldfields, and was the first to
call attention to the existence of the large
auriferous region in the Western State.
Mr. L. A. Wells' explorations ; Mr. David-
son's work in Central Australia during the
years 1898 and 1901 ; the splendid labors
of the late Mr. Winnecke; and Mr. R. T.
Maurice's recent expedition through a
large tract of country to the north of
Fowler's Bay, are contemporary history,
the details of which are familiar to all
South Australians who take an interest in
the development of the State and its nor-
thern dependency. Each of the gentle-
men named have rendered valuable service
by carefully examining territory which
had not been previously surveyed. Mr.
Maurice has made several extensive jour-
neys along the western boundary of this
State, and has done splendid work at his
own expense.
No record of exploration in South Aus-
tralia would be complete without a refer-
ence to Sir John Forrest, the present
Federal Minister for Home Affairs. Al-
though most of his exploration work was
done in the adjoining State of Western
Australia, his name is also intimately con-
nected with South Australia. He was
selected in 1869 to command the expedi-
tion sent out to search for Leichhardt, and
in 1870 he commanded the party which
travelled from Perth to Adelaide along the
south coast, and proved the practicability
of the route for the telegraph line between
the two capitals. Four years later he
crossed the country between Champion
Bay, in Western Australia, to the over-
land telegraph line, a journey of 2,000
miles. A former Governor of Western
Australia (Sir Frederick Weld) writing to
Lord Carnarvon, said : "Mr. Forrest's ex-
pedition has bridged the gap that
separated Western Australia from the
other colonies, has led to settlement on the
shores of the Great Bight, and to the con-
nection of this colony with the rest of the
world by electric telegraph. I never
doubted the future of Western Australia
from the day when the news of Mr. For-
rest's success reached Perth."
Not a year goes by scarcely a day
without an addition to the map of some
range of hills, lakes, a tract of country
suitable for the raising of live stock or an
auriferous belt where the prospector may
with advantage follow up the success of the
road-breaking legion. The roll call of
South Australian explorers contains many
honored names of men who nobly did
their duty in making known the interior
of the continent and letting light into
"Darkest Australia." They were the
pathfinders and bridge builders the "road
breakers" who made possible the peaceful
occupation of the country for industrial de-
velopment.
The Northern Territory.
There are two Australian. One lies
within the tropics and the other is in the
temperate zone. Nobody disputes that
fact, because nobody who cares to look at
the map can doubt it. Northern Austra-
lia is in the same latitudes as Mozambique,
Samoa, Abyssinia-, and Senegambia. It
has been established also beyond doubt
that the country is capable of producing on
a commercial oasis such products as sugar
cane, rice, maize, linseed, varieties of oil
plants, tea, coffee, indiarubber, tobacco,
cotton, millet, and cocoanuts. Yet with a
soil capable of raising such choice products,
a rainfall that can be measured in feet, and
no lack of sunshine, the Northern Territory
continues to be a nightmare to Australian
statesmen, and a geographical enigma to
the rest of the world. White men who
have lived and worked there are unanimous
in declaring that only the colored races can
develop the resources of tropical South
Australia. Politicians who once thought
otherwise, but visited the place with open
minds to enquire on the spot, have come
back and admitted that the wnite man can.
not work in the fields. With that con-
viction strongly upon them they have re-
turned south and voted for a "White Aus-
tralia!" Senator Thomas Playford, now a
member of the Federal Government, visit-
ed India and the Northern Territory early
in the nineties as Premier of South Aus-
tralia, "to give effect to the following resolu-
tion passed by the South Australian Par-
liament : That "fifty experienced agricul-
tural laborers and their families should be
introduced under the Indian Immigration
Act, that a special area of land should be
set apart from them, and that subsist
money should be provided until the land
could maintain them. Mr. Playford, on his
return (vide Parliamentary Paper 97,
1892), said : "The Territory must have
cheap labor if tropical products are to be
grown and sold with profit in the markets
of the world. This is admitted by all who
have any special knowledge of the subject.
Only tropical products can be grown in the
Territory. European labor is not cheap,,
therefore if Europeans could stand the cli-
mate, tropical products could not be pro-
duced at a profit by them. It is generally
admitted that Europeans cannot stand
field work in tropical countries, therefore,
first on the ground that European labor
ia not cheap, and secondly on the ground
that the laborers cannot stand the climate,
it is not possible to employ Europeans at
tropical agriculture." The same state-
ments have been iterated and reiterated by
competent authorities during the last
thirty years. "Facilities to obtain suitable
land ; facilities to obtain suitable cheap
labor ; capital to take advantage of the first
two conditions; intelligent manage-
ment to use and not to squander the capi-
tal." "Given these four conditions," says
Dr. Holtze, for many years Curator of the
Botanic Gardens at Port JJarwin, and now
occupying a similar position in Adelaide,
"and the Territory will surely become a
prosperous field for plantation enterprise."
Southern Australia has declared for a
"White Australia," and until there is some
modification of thait policy Northern Aus-
tralia must continue to remain an unoccu-
pied paradise of vegetable vitality aoid
tropical luxuriance. Australia has yet to
realise its duty towards this great terri-
tory, comprising fertile plains and high
table lands, carrying nutritive herbage
plants and grasses. The country is very
little improved since the Portuguese
visited it in 1500 and the Dutch a hundred
years later, or since Torres (passed through
the straits that bear his name in 1606.
Cook sailed along the coast in the next
century, and Flinders in 1801. Portuguese.
Dutchmen, and Englishmen, and in later
days Australians, have all been unanimous
in their praise of the country's natural
beauties, the brilliancy of the tropic
flowers, the rapid fecundation of tropic
fruits, the grandeur of the jungle, and the
luxuriance of growth everywhere to be
seen.
The late Duke of Manchester, after an-
THE NORTHERN TERRITORY.
227
inspection lasting over several weeks in the
Northern Territory, said: "I hawe seen
other parts of Australia, and I must say
before coming to Port Darwin I had cer-
tainly thought Queensland the finest part
of Australia, but I now consider, as far as
I can judge by that portion of the Nor-
thern Territory which I have seen, that
the Territory is superior to Queensland,
inasmuch as the vegetation seems richer,
the grass thicker and of a more permanent
character, and the country much better
watered."
Sir Gordon Bremer took possession of
Raffles Bay on behalf of the British Go-
vernment, and for a time a military
settlement was formed at Melville Island.
In 1827 a military depot was established
first at Raffles Bay and then at Port Essing-
ton. Leichhardt, the explorer visited the
place in 1845, just before its desertion, and
he was followed by Gregory and Stuart. It
was the successful journey of the latter
from south to north, and the additional
knowledge supplied by his party of the re-
sources of the country that induced South
Australia to become foster mother to that
portion of tropical Australia. Not only
did John McDouall Stuart practically
"discover" the Northern Territory, but his
advocacy led to its annexation by South
Australia. Prior to the expeditions of
Leichhardt and Gregory, the great north-
central part of Australia lying north of
126th parallel of S. latitude, and between
the 129th and 138th meridians of east lon-
gitude, was technically attached to New
South Wales. The boundaries of Queens-
land, South Australia, and Western Aus-
tralia even to the disposal of "no man's
land" had been agreed upon, but no men-
tion had been made of the territory in be-
tween. One of the first proposals made
was that it should be proclaimed as a new
Crown colony, and subsequently that it
should be divided between Queensland and
South Australia. When Stuart crossed
the continent and planted the Union, Jack
on the shores of the Arafura Sea., and re-
turned through the heart of Australia to
Adelaide, the South Australian Govern-
ment of the day applied for the land in
question. This request was acceded to by
the British authorities, and in 1863 letters
patent were granted incorporating the
Northern Territory with South Australia.
Since that time it has been managed
from Adelaide, with a Government Resi-
dent located at Port Darwin.
The total area of the Northern Territory
is 523,620 square miles, equal to
335,116,800 acres, or, say, 2 times the size
of France and 4 times the size of Great
Britain. It lies between the 129th and
138th degrees of east longitude,* the
southern boundary is the 126th parallel of
south latitude, and the moat northerly point
of land nearly reaches the llth parallel
With the exception of about 1\ degrees,
the country is within the tropics or torrid
zone. This fact hag had and is likely to
have an important bearing in the future
development of a resourceful country.
Many authorities declare that the Nor-
thern Territory cannot be utilized without
the aid of colored labor, but the policy of
South Australia was in recent years prior
to federation opposed to this, and now that
the Commonwealth Parliament has con-
firmed the "White Australia" doctrine the
employment of workmen in all parts of the
continent is restricted to Europeans.
Of the great resources of the country
under review there never could be any dis-
pute. Attention has been directed in the
chapter on the pastoral industry tx> the
suitable character of the table land country
of the Northern Territory for the raising
of cattle and horses. It will be interest-
ing here, however -when dealing specifi-
cally with this north country to quote
the opinion of authorities who have trar
veiled through it. My own journeyings
have taken me through the heart of the
continent and out in the north-east towards
the Queensland border and the Gulf of
Carpentaria. I can confirm many of the
statements made concerning the quality of
land and the supply of water and good
grasses. Ag in other parts of the world,
soil and climate and natural conditions
over such a vast area vary. There are all
sorts of country and several kinds of cli-
mate. Port Darwin in the north has an
average annual rainfall of over 60 inches;
Charlotte Waters, the southern point of the
Northern Territory, has about 6 in. The
traveller between these two points and west
and east finds stony wastes and spinifex,
waterless plains and rocky, barren ranges
alternating with undulating well-grassed
downs, rich well-watered plains, heavily
228
THE CENTRAL STATE.
View near Undoolya Cattle Station, Central Australia, the property of the Willowie
Pastoral Company.
A Mustering Party, MacDonnell Ranges.
THE NORTHERN TERRITORY.
229
timbered hills, and on the north coast large
navigable rivers.
Of the Victoria River country on the
west Mr. Wilson, the geologist to Gregory's
expedition, wrote : "In no part of the
world have I seen grass grow so luxuri-
antly, and Mr. H. Gregory observed to me
during a ten days' journey, when I accom-
panied him and his brother to the upper
Victoria, that he had seen more grass land
than during all his life before. An aggre-
gate of 5,000,000 of acres cam under the
united observation of the party, a,nd may
all be considered well-watered pasture
land." Many years after Mr. N. Buch-
anan reported : "I can confirm Gregory's
accounts that the Victoria River country
contains some of the finest pastoral lands in
Australia. The grasses are principally
Mitchell, Landsborough, or Flinders, and
blue grasses, with some barley grass. The
coomtry is well watered back from the river
and its tributaries, which are permanent."
Of the Victoria River, Captain Carrington
wrote: "Perhaps the value of this magni-
ficent stream as a commercial highway may
be better shown by comparison. In mak-
ing the comparison I have only in view its
capacity as a harbor and easiness of access.
I have no hesitation whatever in saying
that the Victoria is superior to> the Thames,
the Mersey, or Hooghly. The quantity
of land for which the Victoria is the natu-
ral, and, I believe, only outlet is approxi-
mately 90,000 square miles 1 , or, say,
57,000,000 acres." Of North-east Arn-
heim's Land Mr. H. Heber Percy, a Queens-
land squatter, reported : "I was surprised
to find the land so good. It is destined
sooner or later to be made use of for agri-
culture and to carry a large population."
Of the eastern country, Mr. Isaac Little, a
pastoral tenant, wrote : "I estimate that
this part of the table land will carry from
four to five millions of sheep. Of course,
large sums for fencing and dam-making
will have to be expended first." Mr. John
Costello, of Lake Nash, in his evidence be-
fore the Royal Commission, said : "There
is a large area of country from Newcastle
Waters and the head of the Roper to the
Queensland border at Camooweal. This
magnificent belt of country known as the
table land may be said to be the cream,
of the pastoral land of the Territory. I
have the fullest and greatest faith in the
future of squatting in it. I have travelled
over most of the sheep-raising country in
Queensland, and I can safely say that in no
part of that colony have I seen country bet-
ter adapted for wool-growing than this
splendid table land. A permanent supply of
water can be obtained in this country at a
depth varying from 150 to 250 ft. It would
not require an expensive boring plant to
put down a 7-in. tubed well that depth.
At each such well 6,000 to 8,000 head of
cattle could be watered. It would be a
certain reserve store in case of drought. I
think I might safely say that (with suffi-
cient wells) the stations from Lake Nash to
the head of the MacArthur would be equal
to supporting 10,000,000 sheep." Of Cen-
tral Australia the late. Mr. E, S. Flint, of
Alice Springs, wrote : "Cattle and horses
thrive well, especially the latter, which in
dry seasons are able to travel farther from
water to feed. I am of opinion that Cen-
tral Australia will be the chief horse pro-
ducing district of Australia. Its con-
tiguity to the tropics renders horses more
hardy, and better able to cope with the
heat and other drawbacks attaching to a
tropical country than animals bred further
south." The area held under pastoral
leases in 1902, the latest statistics available,
was 176,000 square miles; the area declar-
ed stocked 91,144 miles. During 1902
14,000 cattle were exported, their value
being 72,801. The Government Resi-
dent, in his report for 1902, stated : "On
the whole I regard the outlook for the pas-
toral industry as being most promising, and
that year by year we may look forward to
its gradual expansion."
The latest returns show a wonderful in-
crease in the number of stock : Cattle,
1900, 250,730; 1901, 255,521; 1902,
305,820. Horses, 1900, 11,640; 1901,
12,896; 1902, 14,788. Sheep, 1900,
54,210; 1901,48,324; 1902,42,122. The
exports for the last three years were :
Cattle, 1900, 8,490 head, value 39,277;
1901, 36,036, value 170,241 ; 1902, 14,348,
value 72,801. Horses, 1900, 522, value
3,175 ; 1901, 1,039, value 7,551 ; 1902,
447, value 2,166. Wool, 1900, 100,007
lb., value 3,244 ; 1901, 257,722 lb., value
6,719; 1902, 178,154 lb., value 6,253.
The Eastern and African Cold Storage
Company has acquired a large tract of
country about 19,000 square miles on the
230
THE CENTRAL STATE.
eastern side of the territory and is now
stocking this with cattle.
The late Hon. J. L. Parsons, for some
years Government Resident of the Nor-
thern Territory, and the best friend that
country has ever had, was a strong believer
in its agricultural resources. He regarded
agriculture as "the richest resource of all."
Dr. Maurice W. Holtze, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
(Lond.), for some time Curator of the
Botanic Gardens, Palmerston, is equally
convinced that tropical South Australia
offers a promising field for the agriculturist.
In a paper read before the Royal Geogra-
phical Society, Adelaide, Dr. Holtze said :
"Now, I a lion in question has a yield one is diffident about pulling down in plain figures. History
^J relates that Australians, next to Russians, consume more tea per capita than any other
people Even then figures connected with the tea trade are staggering, even when the
said figures are merely those of an individual firm frcm one single source. The tea from this lately acquired
plantation is of a character that can hardly fail to maintain the reputation of the firm dealing with it. It is
no cheaper than any other good tea The fact has been long recognised by every level-headed housewife
that cheap tea is very poor economy. Other housewives have yet to learn that a tea at one and ninepence
a pound goes twice as far as tea at a shilling, besides being infinitely more wholesome into the bargain.
You may buy tea from this firm at as low a figure as price.-* go in the tea trade, but you will do it against
he better judgment of any educaltd individual who sells it lo you.
Ceylon is by no means the only market from which GRIFFITHS BROS, get their teas. China and
India furnish their quota, tea from the latter place having been practically introduced to Australia by this
firm. No one tea is universally popular, a blend of Chinese and Indian tea commanding a better sale than
the unmixed lea from either country. Besides tea, the firm deals largely with coffees and cocoas at its
warehouse in Rundle Street. As a last word on ihe lea question, I may lell you lhat the tea plant may be
induced to grow without any difficulty in Victoria and the Mount Lofty hills. It is doing well in Mr.
Griffiths' garden al Bayswaler, and il makes an exceedingly prelty ornamental shrub. Economic conditions
are against it being grown for commercial purposes, as the land can probably be lurned to greater profit by
other means. At the same time, it is an interesting item to add to your garden, the flower as well as the
oliage having much to recommend it.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
xix.
EXQUISITE, HIGHLY CONCENTRATED, DELIGHTFUL.
iVJlSS
the famous Singer, commends it as follows
' I rarely use perfumes, but this was so subtly fragrant
and delightfully refreshing that I have used it constantly
on boat and train during my long concert tour."
Yours faithfully,
ADA CROSSLEY.
j. i. GOUDREY;
Chemist,
12, Rvmdle Street, Adelaide, S.A.
FEDERAL BOOT
A knowledge of the rise and progress of the Federal
Boot Company fills one with admiration for the dogged
and determined perseverance of the proprietor (Mr.
H. J. Pearce). Mr. Pearce started on his business
career 27 years ago in premises situated in the east
end of Rundle-slreet, his brother (Mr. S. Pearce)
being his partner After obtaining a firm business
footing Mr. H. J. Pearce decided to build a larger
manufactory, and by a bold plunge he set up as a
boot and shoe manufacturer in Pirie-street, Adelaide.
The success which attended his efforts might be re-
ferred to as "a triumph of industry," and as the
quality, style, and finish of the F. B.C boots and
shoes became known throughout the length and
breadth of South Australia the output was increased
till at length the Pirie-street premises were not suf-
ficiently roomy for the business, and an architect was
instructed to prepare plans and specifications for a
commodious and modern factory, which would be
capable of accommodating all the machines and employes the trade requirements of the firm would be
likely to make necessary for many years
This brings us back to the starting-point, and we are now standing on the threshold of the ' temple
of trade" with the manager (Mr. E. Masey). No fewer than 1 60 machines, ranging in value from ^210
to 5, were seen in action, turning out beautiful work, such as would have made the name of the olden-time
operatives familiar in every boot factory in the State. "Machines are brainless" it is true, but they are
faultless and this is a great consideration, as the general public demand uniformity in style and finish.
Two machines demand special notice "Lightning Lasters" they are called, and their name does not
give wrong impressions. A machinist " feeds " a boot upper into tiny jaws, and in less time than it takes
to write half a dozen words the job of " lasting " the boot is finished.
The Federal Boot Company produces its leather at the Hindmarsh tannery, Mr, P. H. Tunbndge
being the manager. The chief retail trading house of the firm i.<= at 78, Rundle-street, but an extensive
wholesale warehouse is situated in Gawler-place, and 42 retail branches are scattered in various parts of the
State. The success which is attending the efforts of the proprietor is well deserved, and the present
indications are that the business will continue to expand in a gieater ratio than ever.
XX.
ADVERTISEMENTS
Tormore School,
CHILD^RS ST., NORTH
*
PRINCIPALS THE MISSES JACOB.
BOARDING AND DAY SCHOOL FOR GIRLS,
Pupils Prepared for University Examinations.
Boys under 8 years of age admitted to Preparatory Class.
Setyool,
UN LEY PARK.
PRINCIPALS
THE MISSES THORN BER.
PUPILS PREPARED FOR UNIVERSITY EXAMS.
Extensive alterations have been recently made in the Boarding House, and it is now
fitted with every comfort and convenience.
The school is beautifully situated, and has large gardens and recreation grounds,
cricket ground, and tennis court.
Prospectus and any information may be obtained on application to the Principals.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
XXI.
A. LESCHEN, 102, North Teirace. HUGO LESCHEN, Telephone 512.
ITbe B6elaibe (B^mnasium
o I^TH o ^E ID i c
6pmnastics, Sandou) System, Swimming, fencing, massage. OrihoncUp.
CURVATURES OF THE SPINE A SPECIALTY.
THE Main Hall of the Gymnasium is ' ^ '. ^ ,- '"
70 ft. x 33 ft. , and is fitted with all the
necessary appliances for a course of sys-
tematical training. A spacious Lavatory
and Swimming Bath adjoin the main
hall. Dressingrooms, containing nearly
200 lockers, are placed at the members'
disposal.
Gymnastics are valuable to all
persons, but especially to clerks, stu-
dents, sedentary artisans, and still more
particularly to those who, in addition to
sedentary habits, perform exhaustive in-
tellectual labour. With the latter class,
suffering from INDIGESTION and nervous
debility, nothing but a wise system of
gymnastic training can prevent the early
failure of the powers of life.
Sandow quotes in " Physical
Culture," March, 1899: "Although
all games, sports, &c. , carried on
in the open air, if indulged in in moderation, tend to make boys healthy, active, and manly, they DO NOT
and CANNOT compensate for the wants of an intelligent and progressive system of Physical Culture. For
instance, of what use are either cricket or football to a weakly boy with an inclination, perhaps, to be
knock-kneed, round-backed, or flat-footed ? None at all. And if he is either forced or jeered into playing
games he is much more likely to grow worse than better. "
As to the frequency of the exercises, Dr. Ideler says : " For the student, one or (better) two lessons
in vigorous exercises each week will be sufficient. EVERY ORGAN WHEN BROUGHT TO ITS FULL TENSION
HAS A TENDENCY TO CONTINUE UNIMPAIRED FOR A LONG T1MK."
The sedentary life is one full of pitfalls. Such is now the strain of mental competition that the
body is too often neglected. This neglect brings with it physical degeneration, and physical degeneration
as surely undermines the mental and moral strength.
Still, however, it must be admitted that under the present day conditions of life there is only one
form of exercise which can be practised by all, from the weakest to the strongest, and from the poorest to
the richest, from the most occupied to the most leisured classes. I refer to systematic exercise, which can
be followed day in and day out, in the smallest room or in the open air.
Systematic exercise has these several advantages over general or recreative exercises : its practice
occupies comparatively Hi tie time ; each movement has a definite object, the result of which can be
accurately calculated ; by its means one secures general and well-balanced development, almost an impossi-
bility in ordinary exercise, the tendency of which is to develop one part of the body at the expense of
another ; the will power is strengthened ; the internal organs, including the heart and the lungs, share in
the benefits obtained. The contraction of the muscle is regulated by a series of nervous stimulations 10 the
obvious muscle cells, the strength of such stimulus being tensified by the use of will power ; in fact it is im-
possible to exaggerate the importance of will power in systematic exercise.
The function of exercise is then to give to the body in any age and in either sex, the health, the
strength, the beauty and grace which nature originally intended it should have, but of which it has been
deprived by the shackled condition of civilised life The object of systematic exercise is to bring this great
possibility within the reach of all, so that in the shortest space of time, whatever the physical condition may
be, whatever the weight of the individual's purse may be, these results can be obtained without undue
demands upon the time of the pupil, and without the slightest fear of overtaxing his strength.
In exertion it is the chest which fails a man, either from loss of wind or from failure of the heart, and
this is also the case with the torso, which cannot, in the average individual, stand any muscular strain. The
cramped positions in which men do their work, the long hours, the inducements to forego exercise indeed,
the lack of time to devote to exercise the follies of dress and the false supports have made the modern torso
the hideous undeveloped thing it is. In nearly all cases of deformity it is the spine, shoulder-blade,
shoulder-joint, hip or ribs that are at fault. The muscles are weak and the body falls into false positions,
which, through persistence, produce the various deformities. This is a condition which can easily be
remedied with a little care and attention. There is no reason why the possession of a perfect frame should
be denied to any one on earth.
XX11.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
fluldana Vincpards*
ULDANA VINEYARDS, situated a few miles out of
Adelaide, are noted for the quality of the wines
produced there, and each year the proprietors
are compelled to increase the area under vines
on account of the great demand for their wines.
ST. HENRI CLARET is renowned for its light alcoholic
strength, and is greatly recommended by the medical profession.
This wine secured a Silver Medal at Bordeaux Exhibition, also the
Simpson Twenty Guinea Cup, the most valuable trophy offered in
the State for competition amongst vignerons. This Cup had to be
won twice before becoming the property of the exhibitor.
AULDANA CHABLIS secured it the first year it was offered,
and as the year following ST. HENRI CLARET was awarded
first prize, the Cup became the property of the Auldana Proprietors.
The w T inning of such a valuable Cup in two successive years
speaks for itself.
AULDANA secured two Champion Cups, presented by the
Royal Agricultural Society of South Australia, also the same num-
ber at the Agricultural Show at Sydney. AULDANA ST. HENRI
CLARET and SPECIAL HOCK are the only Australian Wines
used on the French Mail Steamers trading to the Commonwealth.
Their SPECIAL PORT is noted for its high quality, and is used
at the Adelaide Hospital for medicinal purposes.
A noted wine produced at Auldana is their SHERRY, which
experts pronounce equal to the imported wine of that brand.
The Vineyards are reached by car after a beautiful ride through
the Eastern Suburbs, and visitors are there welcomed by the
managing partner, Mons. E. Mazure, who is looked upon as an
authority on all matters pertaining to the making of wine.
ADVERTISEMEN TS.
XX111.
F. RALPH & CO.,
Import and Export Merchants,
And Manufacturers' Agents.
WINE AND SPIRIT MERCHANTS.
Buyers of South Australian Wines
and all classes of Produce for Export.
CABLE ADDRESS " RALPH," ADELAIDE.
CODES USED Ai and ABC (4th and 5th Editions).
TELEPHONE
No. 618
"DOG'S HEAD"
^ Bottling of
Guinnesses Stout
AND
It is the
FINEST QUALITY
Procurable.
Bass's Ale
is obtainable from every Wine and
Spirit Merchant in South Australia,
and from
F. RALPH & CO.,
Sole Wholesale Agents.
XXIV.
ADVERTISEMENTS.
FOR WOOD, DOWN & CO., LIMITED,
anfc Jfounfcers, Boilermafcere,
Makers of Patent Improved Grinding and Amalgamating Pans; Stamper Batteries; Cornish,.
Lancashire, and Vertical Boilers; First Motion and Geared Winding Engines; Single or
Duplex Plunger Pumps, suitable for fixing on wood framing, or complete with iron base plate
and iron framing; Three-throw Plunger Pnmps, with iron base plate and framing, suitable
for charging filter presses or lifting tailings ; Cyanide Plants and all kinds of Mining Machinery ;
English and Colonial Stamper Shoes and Dies kept in stock.
W. MENZ . CO
Wakefield Street, Adelaide.
E S T -A. B H, I S H E ID 185O
Confectionery ar(d Biscuit Manufacturers.
CABLE ADDRESS "MENZ."
ADVERTISEMENTS.
XXV.
Che young men's Christian Association
OF ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Corner Gawler Place and Grenfell St.
YOUNG MEN COMING TO ADELAIDE are advised to make the Y.M.C.A. their first place of
call. They will find in the Secretary a real friend. Registers of Employment and for Board and Residence
are kept for the use of members and visitors The following are some of the Departments : Evangelistic
Services, Bible Study Classes, Literary Society, Choral Society, Elocution Class, Reference and Reading
Libraries, Gymnastic Classes, Cycling Club, Cricket Club. Young men are invited to call and inspect the
rooms, which are open from Sam to 10 p. m.
H. A. WHEELER, Gen. Sec.
READING ROOM.
XXVI. ADVERTISEMENTS.
MONEY SAVED BY GOING TO
^^^CROOKS & BROOKER
for Hardware ! Hardware ! Hardware !
and Furniture ! Furniture ! Furniture !
SOLE AGENTS FOR
SHERWIN-WILLIAMS NOTED READY-MIXED PAINTS.
Adelaide and Port Adelaide.
Schoning &
94 Currie vtreetj Jictelaicte.
RUNDLE ST., ADELAIDE.
' i
Proprietor - - SYDNEY W. FERRY, i
The Most Comfortable Commercial and Family Hotel south of
the Line.
LIBERAL TARIFF. CUISINE UNSURPASSED.
Night Porter. Telephone 364.
ADVERTISEMENTS. XXvii.
. j. Gyre & Co,
98, O'CONNELL ST., NORTH ADELAIDE.
Telephone No. 443.
By appointment to their Excellencies the Right Hon. Earl of Kintore, P.C.,
G.C.M.G., &c., and Sir Thomas Powell Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G., &c.
The Dispensing of Physicians' Prescriptions is a leading feature of our business
and is carried on under personal supervision. NIGHT ATTENDANCE.
Austral Piano and Music Stores, Hindley St., Adelaide.
$OlC HCKMlS for Linke Self-Playing Pianos.
Y^T Ji. TNTC^s^k IF YOU Y^T /^ 1\J^^4
*m. JL. jfr^ JL^L ^_J *Z^ WANT -m: A.^^L.AT^I ^^S^
let us know your terms. We will suit you, and we will send you a catalogue
of all the leading makes. Pianos Exchanged, Tuned, and Repaired.
ALEX. COLLINS (And at Mile End)
"We are Booksellers, Stationers, Musicsellers, and Newsagents. Orders taken for
all Magazines, Newspapers, and Fashion Books.
Send to us by post, you will receive careful attention.
E. J. & A. W. BARROW.
And at 33, Arcade, Adelaide.
R. GORRELL,
iRusicstllcr $ Importer
Importer of Violins, Flutes, Piccolos, Brass Band Instruments, Brass Bands' Music, &c.
Also very best Stringrs for all Instruments. Larg-e stock Choicest Songs, Pianoforte and
Orchestral Music published by Boosey & Co.
ORCHESTRAL AND BRASS BAND INSTRUMENTS REPAIRED.
Sole Agent in S.A. and Broken Hill for Boosey & Co.'s Famous Compensating
Piston Brass Band Instruments; Boosey & Co.'s Famous Band Journals; Smith's
Famous " Champion " Band Journals ; " The British Bandsman " ; " The Austral-
asian Bandsman ;" Lightning Lubricant for Valves and Slides. ' The well-known
" Correll " Brass Band Instruments, a really good instrument for a low price.
Corner of Flinders and Hyde Streets, Adelaide.
Hdclaidc Stock and Slwcbrokcrs.
CLARKE & CO.,
18 and 20, Grenfell Street, Adelaide.
311, Collins Street, Melbourne.
Brookman Street, Kalgoorlie.
A. RUTTER CLARKE,
Member Stock Exchange, Adelaide and Melbourne
LAURIE & GURNER,
Stoch, Sljart anb Inbtstwtnt Brokers,
BROKEN HILL CHAMBERS,
ADELAIDE.
]. Buxton Laurie,
Memb'r Stoct Exchange of Adelaide.
E. R. Gurner,
issocia/s Institute Accountants of S.A.
HENRY GADD,
Slgcnt,
BROOKMAN'S BUILDING
(or Stock Exchange of Adelaide) ADELAIDE.
Moreing
1 117 S 1 1(7
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