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Considerable alterations and additions have been made in this little work. — It is hoped that, in its present state, it will be found to contain a correct summary of the most important events in modern history, and an accurate view of the present condition of the principal nations in the world. For more specific information on the history of the separate countries, the readers are referred to the several Catechisms, of which a list will be found on the cover. W. C. T. Gilbert & Rivington, Printers, St. John's Square, London. CATECHISM MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. Fall of the Roman Empire. Question. Where does modem history com- mence ? Answer. The epoch at which modern history usually commences is the destruction of the Roman empire in the west ; for then the ancient nations of Europe were displaced by barbarians of different denominations, who founded new dynasties and formed new states from the fragments of the Roman empire. Q. When and by whom was the Roman empire divided ? A. In the year 395 the Roman empire was divided into two great parts, the Eastern and the Western, which took place on the death of Theodo'sius, whose son Arca'dms reigned in the East, and his son Hono'- rius in the West. Q. What soon followed this division ? A. The downfall of the Roman power. Q. By what was it occasioned ? A. Like the downfall of every other great nation, it A 2 212274B 4 CATECHISM OF was occasioned by its crimes, particularly its pride, luxury, and indolence. Q. What people first /aid the Roman power low ? A. The Goths, being numerous tribes of barbarians from the dark forests of Germany, who rushed in upon the Roman empire in such torrents, that they swept every thing before them. Q. Who was the king of the Goths at this time, and when did it happen ? A. Alaric was the king of the Goths who invaded the Roman empire, about 410 years after Christ. Q. What prince was called the " Scourge of God," the destroyer of nations ? A. At'tila, king of the Huns, because of his cruelty ; it was he who ravaged and completely destroyed the Roman empire in the west, in the reign of Augus'tulus, A.D. 476. Q. Who were the Huns ? A. A people of Hungary. Q. What became now of Rome, and of the Roman name ? A. Rome, which from a set of banditti had arisen to the highest pitch of greatness, and was gorged with the blood and spoils of so many nations, became in turn a prey to a set of barbarians; which put an end to all her boasting of valorous chieftains and mighty emperors. Q. Do you say that the Roman name was totally extinct ? A. No : I am speaking now of the western empire, which comprehended Africa, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Italy ; in the last-mentioned place stood Rome, which was the origin of the Roman name. Q. ^NTiat modern countries constituted the eastern empire? A. Turkey in Europe and Turkey in Asia, modem Greece, Egypt, and the whole country from the Lower Dan'ube to the confines of Persia, and Ethio'pia. MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER II. Of the Nations which arose from the Downfall of the Western Empire. Q. What countries did ancient Germany compre- hend? A. Modern Germany, the southern part of Den- mark, west part of Prussia, and part of Poland, the inhabitants of which first resisted, then invaded, and at length overran the western monarchy of Rome. Q. When the Roman empire was annihilated in the west, what nations rose up in lieu thereof ? A. The principal were those of Germany and France ; but to enumerate all the changes that took place at this time is impossible, being now amidst dark ages and hordes of barbarians, of which history records only ignorance and crimes. Q. How were the spoils of the Roman empire divided, and by whom ? A. Africa was a prey to the Van'dals, a people from Prus'sia; Spain to the Vis'igoths, a people from Jut- land ; Great Brit'ain to the Picts, the inhabitants of Scotland ; and Germany and Gaul were conquered by the Franks. Q. Who were the Franks ? A. The Franks originally were the inhabitants of a small district in Germany. It was they who gave Gaul the name of Fran'cia or France, in which country they reigned about 300 years. Q. What is the origin of the Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France ? A. The Gauls are said to have sprung from Go'mer, the eldest son of Ja'phet. ITiey were first called Gom'erites, then by the Greeks Gal'atce, and A 3 CATECHISM OF then Gauls. From this race sprang the Britons or English. Q. Whence originally came the Goths, the con- querors of the Romans ? A. This fierce and warlike people were originally a colony of Scyth'ians, who migrated from the banks of the Black Sea and the Caspian, into Scandina^-ia, whence they came down into Germany, &c. Q. Who was the founder of the Gothic nations ? A. Sig'ga, a Scythian prince, who is said to have undertaken a distant expedition, and after subduing several of the S>arma'tian tribes, to have penetrated into the northern parts of Germany, and thence into Scandina'^-ia. Q. What honours did he assume ? A. The honours of di\anity, and the title of Odin, his national god. Q. Did not the Gothic nation di^'ide itself into two great branches ? A. Yes ; into Os'trogoths and Vis'igoths ; the Os'trogoths remained in Panno'nia (in Hun'gary), and the Vis'igoths migrated thence and settled in the west of Eu'rope, Q. Who were the Picts ? A. A fierce and warhke people who inhabited the South of Scotland. In consequence of their incursions the Britons were obliged to call in the Anglo-Saxons, who took and kept possession of England. Q. What became of the Picts ? A. They were united into one nation with the Scots, by Kenneth Mac Alpin, King of Scotland. MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER III. The principal Epochs by which Modem History is divided. Q. What are the principal epochs in modern history ? A. The destruction of the Roman empire, the re- estabhshment of a Western empire by Charlemagne, the transfer of supremacy from. France to Germany by Otho, the Crusades, the establishment of the Austrian dynasty by Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the capture of Constantinople, the peace of Westphalia, the French Revolution, and the battle of Waterloo. Q. By what names may the ages or periods in- cluded between these epochs be distinguished ? A. l^, The dark — 2, the feudal — 3, the chivalrous — 4, the crusading — 5, the Mohammedan — 6, the reformed — 7, the literary — and 8, the revolutionary ages. Q. How is the dark age limited ? A. It com.mences with the destruction of the Roman empire, a.d. 475, and ends with the reign of Charlemagne, a.d. 800. Q. Why is it called dark ? A. Because the barbarians despised literature and the fine arts, deeming them the causes that had led to the decline of the nations they had vanquished ; learning of every kind declined in the Eastern empire, and was almost banished from the rest of Europe. ^ There may be some doubt of the propriety of the names here given to each period ; but as it was necessary to have a particular name for each, the most prominent feature in the history of the several periods has been selected. 8 CATECHISM OF Q. What were the most remarkable occurrences of this period ? A. The dissensions on points of speculative belief that broke out in the Christian church, the rise of the Pope's temporal power, the introduction of a new religion by Mohammed, and the establishment of a new Western empire by Charlemagne. Q. TNTiat events at this time contributed to produce a great change in the East ? A. The Greek, or Eastern empire, began rapidly to decline, and the power of the Saracens to increase ^vith equal rapidity. Q. What monarchies were estabUshedin the West? A. During this period the French, English, and Spanish monarchies were founded. Q. By what dates do you ascertain the duration of the second period ? A. The feudal age extends from the death of Charlemagne, a.d. 814, to the accession of Otho the Great, a.d. 936. Q,. Why do you call it feudal ? A. Because in this age the system of government so called was established. Nations were divided among a number of petty lords to whom the people were vassals, and these lords owed obedience to a single sovereign. Q. What is meant by feudal tenure ? A. It was supposed that the land in every king- dom belonged to the sovereign ; he granted it out in portions to the barons on condition that they should be ready with their vassals to assist the king in war. Those who obtained land on condition of performing this military sen'ice were said to hold it by feudal tenure. Q. What great revolutions occurred in this period ? A. The empire founded by Charlemagne fell through the weakness of his successors ; the Saracenic power. MODERN HISTORY. 9 which had reached the summit of its glory in the reign of Haroun-al-Raschid, was gradually sinking beneath the attacks of the Turks ; and idolatry disappeared from every part of Europe. Q. In what state were the manners of the people during this stage ? A. They were depraved and licentious. The nobles considered their vassals as the instruments of their injustice or the victims of their passions. The mass of the people, thus sunk and degraded, lost every trace of the milder virtues, and was swayed only by the sentiments of fear or ferocity. Q. AVas literature at all cultivated ? A. Some encouragement was given to the arts and sciences in Constantinople, and the English Alfred was a patron of learning ; but, generally speaking, the Saracens were the only nation in which the cultivation and diffusion of knowledge was encouraged. CHAPTER IV. The Epochs of Modern History continued. THE AGE OF CHIVALRY. Q. Between what epochs do you place the third age? A. The age of chivalry begins with the accession of Otho the Grea to the German throne, and ends with the first crusade a.d. 1108. Q. What is meant by chivalry ? A. The word is derived from the French cheval, a horse, and signifies a mihtary and political order of knighthood, which was about this time generally established in Europe. Q. How did it originate ? 10 CATECHISM OF A. The ancient Germans used certain ceremonies when first a youth was presented with arms, in order to raise the character of a soldier in his estimation, and inspire him with martial ardour; this custom continued to be observed by their descendants ; and from this, combined with some religious ceremonies, and the romantic gallantry which the Moors had in- troduced into Spain, chivalry sprung. Q. What ceremonies were used in the institution of a chevalier or knight ? A. The candidate or novice was first obliged to observe a prescribed number of fasts j he then watched his arms during a whole night in a church ; he then received the sacraments, and performed several other religious ceremonies, at which priests and godfathers assisted; after this he was struck on the back, to show that this was the last blow that could be given him ^\dth impunity, a sword was hung by his side, spurs fastened on his heels, and the knights present at the ceremony embraced him as a brother. Q. What vow did the knight make ? A. That he would defend the true faith, protect the widow, the orphan, and the oppressed, and perform his duties ** to king, to church, and lady fair." Q. What system of education arose from this ? A. The young nobihty were educated in the houses of the knights, and learned under them the trade of war ; while at the same time they imbibed the sentiments of rehgion and gallantry fashionable at the periods. Q. Through what gradations did they pass ? A. They first served as pages, afterwards as squires, and were raised to the rank of knights when they had given signal proofs of courage and ability. Q. What advantages resulted from this institu- tion? A. Those who were in possession of thejiefs (tracts MODERN HISTORY. 11 of land held by feudal tenure) had always a number of brave warriors attached to their service, and those of scanty fortune found resources, and education, and means of advancement. The tournaments were cal- culated to inspire a lofty principle of honour and a respect for the female sex, which always is found to advance with civihzation. Q. But were there not correspondmg disadvan- tages ? A. Certainly ; every idea of merit being confined to the objects of chivalry, ignorance, superstition, and an ungovernable thirst for war became more than ever the distinguishing characteristics of the nobles. Q. What were tournaments ? A. PubUc festivals, at which the knights joined in mock and sometimes real combats, before the mon- archs and the ladies of their court. Q. What were the principal events in this period ? A. The separation of the Greek and Roman church, the great increase of the papal power, the establish- ment of the Capetian ^ dynasty in France, and of the Normans in England. Q. For what else is this age remarkable ? A. During this period several monastic orders were founded, of whom the most remarkable was that of the Knights Hospitallers, called also the order of St. John of Jerusalem, and at a later period the Knights of Malta. Q. What was the state of literature during this period ? A. The Turks banished learning from the East, and its name was almost unknown in the West. Still ^ They are so named from Hugh Capet, who was raised to the throne on the extinction of the Carlovingian race, as the descendants of Charlemagne were called. — Fide Cate- chism of History of France. 12 CATECHISM OF literature lingered in Constantinople, and the Moors in Spain were distinguished by their attachment to the arts and sciences. CHAPTER V. The Age of the Crujsades. Q. What were the crusades ? A. Wars denominated holy, undertaken by the princes of Europe to drive the Turks from Palestine, and establish a Christian government at Jerusalem. Q. Whence did these wars derive their name ? A. They were called Crusades or Croissades from the crosses that the soldiers wore in these expeditions. Q,. How did they originate ? A. In religious enthusiasm combined mth the spirit of chivalry ; encouraged by the popes, because they increased the influence of the clergy, and by the sovereigns, because they tended to weaken the power of the principal vassals, and give occupation to their turbulent spirits. Q. By whom were they first proposed ? A. Peter the Hermit, a native of Picardy, on his return from Jerusalem, where he had been on a pilgrimage, represented the oppression of the Holy City, and the cruel treatment which the Christians suffered, in such striking colours to Pope Urban H., that this prelate set both kings and people in motion to recover it. Q. What success had Peter's preaching? A. He traversed a great part of Italy, Germany, and France, every where inspiring the people with an enthusiasm equal to his own. At the council of Clermont in France, an immense multitude devoted themselves to the holy war, exclaiming, " It is the will of God r MODERN HISTORY. 13 Q. What secular motive engaged many to join in the expedition ? A. The hope of acquiring rich territories in Pales- tine ; the beauty of its climate and soil being greatly exaggerated for the purpose. Q. What rewards did the church offer to the cru- saders ? A. The clergy undertook to protect the properties of all who joined in these expeditions from the pro- secutions of creditors, and the insults of enemies. They also declared that service in these wars would expiate eveiy crime, and thus collected thousands of wicked debauchees, who expected riches in this world, if they succeeded, or a crown of martyrdom in the next, if they failed. Q. How did they set out ? A. Peter the Hermit, in his double capacity of prophet and general, assembled 80,000 men, destitute of provisions or discipline ; associated with him in command was Walter the Pennyless, a man as ignorant and as confident as Peter : after these came a similar body, under the command of Godeschald, a German priest. Q. Whither did they direct their course ? A. They proceeded towards Constantinople through Bulgaria and Hungary. Q. What became of them ? A. Having committed the most frightful ravages, especially on the unfortunate Jews ', the inhabitants of the countries through which they passed rose against them, and hunted them down like wild beasts, until they were almost exterminated, Q. What became of the remnant ? A. About 20,000 arrived at Constantinople, where they were no very welcome visitors. The Emperor ' riffe Catechism of Jewish History. 14 CATECHISM OF Alexius immediately transported them to Asia ; there they were attacked and destroyed by Solyman, sultan of Nicea. Peter escaped to Constantinople, where he was confined as a lunatic. Q. Was there not a more regular expedition ? A. A better-disciplined army set out under the command of Robert, duke of Normandy ; Raymond, count of Thoulouse ; Godfrey of Bouillon, and other celebrated commanders : they arrived safely in Con- stantinople, and were conveyed across the Strait by the Emperor Alexius. Q. What was their success ? A. They overcame every obstacle ; reduced Bithy- nia, Cilicia, and Sicily; finally, after a siege of five weeks, they took Jerusalem by storm, and thus ac- complished the object of their expedition. Q. How did they act after they had conquered Jerusalem ? A. Actuated by rage and zeal, they commenced an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants, spared neither age nor sex, and committed every possible excess ; but no sooner did they arrive at the holy sepulchre, than, passing from the excess of cruelty to that of devotion, they stripped x)ff their shoes, melted into tears, and advanced towards the object of their adoration, with bare feet and streaming eyes. Q. How did they divide their conquests ? A. Godfrey was proclaimed king of Jerusalem ; Raymond obtained Edessa, with the title of count; and Bohemond, an Italian duke, became prince of Antioch. Q. What caused the second crusade ? A. The kingdom of Jerusalem was on the verge of ruin, and the different orders of knights who had been established to protect the sepulchre, by their mutual dissensions hastened the fall of the cause which it was their mutual object to support. MODERN HISTORY. 15 Q. By whose influence were the European princes prevailed on to join in the new expedition ? A. Pope Eugenius III. sent the pious and eloquent Saint Bernard to rouse the people of Europe in defence of their suffering brethren in the East. This great man, who was looked up to as the oracle of Christendom, prevailed upon Conrad, emperor of Ger- many, and Louis VII. of France, with vast numbers of their followers, to engage in this perilous enterprise. Q. What was the success of the second crusade ? A. Conrad was surprised in the defiles of Cilicia, and his forces cut to pieces by the sultan of Iconium. A similar misfortune befel the French king near Lao- dicea; and both monarchs, ha\'ing visited the holy sepulchre as pilgrims, instead of victors, returned to their dominions. Q. What caused the third crusade ? A. The Turks, emboldened by their success, at- tacked the Christians, and under the command of Saladin subverted the kingdom of Jerusalem, which did not last quite one hundred years. Q. How was the news of this calamity received in Europe ? A. All Christendom was filled with grief and con- sternation ; Pope Urban III. diedof excessive sorrow; and his successor, Clement III., immediately ordered a third crusade. Q. What monarchs engaged in this expedition ? A. Frederic I. of Germany, Phihp Augustus of France, and Richard Cceur de Lion in England. Q. What was their success ? A. Frederic, after having obtained several ^-ictories, died in consequence of incautiously bathing in the Cydnus ^ : his army dispersed after his death. The ^ The same river had nearly proved fatal to Alexander the Great, 1500 years before. fi 2 16 CATECHISM OF arrival of the French and EngUsh succours revived the drooping spirits of the Christians ; but Phihp returned home jealous of Richard's superiority ; and Richard himself, after exhibiting the most heroic bravery, was compelled to make peace with Saladin. Q. What prevented Richard from deriving any fruit from his victories ? A. Richard's great and shining qualities had pro- cured him many enemies; these created dissensions in the Christian army ; while the king of France, notwithstanding an oath to the contrary, invaded Richard's continental dominions, and assisted John (Richard's brother) to usurp the crown of England. Q. Were there any other crusades ? A. Yes, several such wars were undertaken, not only against the Mohammedans, but also against any Christian sect whom the pope thought fit to call heretics. Q. What instance of this do you recollect? A. Innocent III. preached a crusade against the Waldenses or Albigenses, a rehgious sect in Lan- guedoc. The war was conducted with the most savage ferocity, and the whole province laid waste by the crusaders under the command of Simon de Montford. Q. Who conducted the last crusade ? A. St. Louis, king of France, a. d. 1248. Q. How far was he successful ? A. He landed in Egypt and took Damietta; but being soon after defeated and made prisoner, Damietta was restored as a ransom for the king. In a second expedition to Africa he died, and with him perished the insane principles of crusading, a. d. 1270. Q. What were the most important events in this period ? A. In Germany the princes of the empire took advantage of the numberless disputes between the MODERN HISTORY. l7 pope and the emperor, to render themselves indepen- dent ; in France a contrary revolution was eflfected, the authority of the sovereign being firmly estabUshed ; in England, Magna Charta was signed a. d. ]215, and the foundation of our present constitution laid. Q. What was the state of manners and hterature during this period ? A. Both had considerably improved ; excellent laws were enacted by different sovereigns ; intercourse with the East introduced the Arabian sciences into Europe, and in England Roger Bacon made many important discoveries. CHAPTER VI. The Age of the Revival of Literature, and Triumph of Moh ammedanism . Q. How were the disturbances of Germany quieted ? A. Rodolph of Hapsburgh was placed on the throne, and his vigour reduced the turbulent princes to obedience, a. d. 1273. Q. What great revolutions took place in Scotland about this time ? A. Edward I. invaded and conquered Scotland, notwithstanding the patriotic exertions of William W^allace ; but Robert Bruce, during the reign of Ed- ward's inglorious son, liberated his native country from the yoke of England. Q. W^hat was the state of the Eastern empire ? A. The empire of Constantinople was fast sinking into ruin; the princes were indolent, the people de- praved, and their enemies the most warlike people that had hitherto appeared. B 3 18 CATECHISM OF Q. Hnw was it finally subverted ? A. Othman founded the Turkish empire, and his descendants continually increased its strength by ac- quisitions of the Greek provinces ; finally, Mohammed III. besieged Constantinople itself, and captured it A. D. 1453, with which epoch this period terminates. Q. AYhat revolutions took place in Western Europe during this period ? A, France after being twice subdued by the Eng- lish, regained its independence, principally by means of Joan of Arc ; Spain began gradually to rise in im- portance ; the authority of Parhament was strength- ened in England ; and an oligarchy established in Venice. Q. WTiat new state was established ? A. The Swiss threw off the yoke of Austria, and formed a republic, a. d. 1308. Q. Did not the power of the popes receive some severe checks at this time ? A. Yes, Rodolph of Hapsburgh refused to receive the imperial diadem from the pope ; a solemn diet of the empire declared the emperor independent of the Holy See, and the Papal encroachments were censured by the Universities of Paris and Oxford, and con- demned in some of the councils. Q. Was there any other attack made on the church ? A. Wickliffe, a doctor in the University of Oxford, attacked the supremacy of the pope, and the doctrine of transubstantiation ; his opinions were adopted and propagated in Germany by John Huss and Jerome of Prague, both of whom were burned by the council of Constance, A. D. 1417. Q. What great discoveries were made in this age ? A. The art of printing was discovered in Germany A. D. 1439, and introduced into England by Caxton, A. D. 1468 ; engraving was invented in 1423, and MODERN HISTORY. 19 Bartholdus Swartz, a German monk, discovered the composition of gunpowder. Q. How was navigation extended ? A. The discovery of the mariner's compass enabled the Portuguese, under the auspices of Don Henry, to explore Western Africa as far as the coast of Guinea, and discover several islands in the Atlantic. Q. What was the state of hterature during this period ? A. It every where exhibited symptoms of revival ; Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio appeared in Italy : Chaucer flourished in England ; France could boast of Villon and Clopinel ; and a growing taste for the elegance and luxury of the fine arts was manifested throughout Europe. Q. What was the state of manners ? A. They were daily becoming more reformed and refined, especially in Italy. Q. Why has this been designated the Moham- medan age ? A. Because during this period the followers of Mohammed had subdued Western Asia, and founded the Turkish empire in Europe. CHAPTER VII. The Age of the Reformation. Q. What facihtated the progress of the Reforma- tion ? A. The gradual decline of the Papal power, the de- sire of sovereigns to shake off the yoke of the Holy See, and a spirit of inquiry consequent on the more 20 CATECHISM OF general diffusion of knowledge, had gradually prepared the minds of men for important changes in rehgious matters. Q. By whom was this great revolution commenced ? A. Martin Luther, a German monk, commenced by opposing the sale of indulgences or remissions ^ of sin, which were publicly sold all over Europe by the agents of Pope Leo X. Q. Did any others assist him ? A. John Calvin in Geneva, Zuinglius in Smtzer- land, and Cranmer in England, opposed themselves to the church of Rome, and, in conjunction with Luther, violently attacked some of its most prominent doc- trines. Q. How long did the struggle last ? A. From the first preaching of Luther, a. d. 1517, to the general pacification of Europe by the treaty of AVestphaha, signed the 24th of October, a. d. 1648. By this treaty Protestantism was legally estabhshed, the independence of the German states secured, and the S^viss repubhc recognised by the empire. Q. What other important treaty was signed in the beginning of the same year ? A. On the 30th of January the peace of Munster, between the confederates of the Netherlands, and the Spaniards, was concluded. By this treaty Holland and the United Provinces became a free and independent state. Q. Who was the greatest European monarch during this period ? A. Charles V., Emperor of Germany, who laboured to acquire universal dominion, but eventually was ^ Properly speaking, indulgences are dispensations for not performing the penances which Roman Catholics believe necessary to obtain pardon for sin. The distinction is not, however, very important. MODERN HISTORY. 21 oLliged to concede liberty to Germany, and security to Protestantism. Q. What changes took place in the governments of Europe ? A. The kingdoms of England and Scotland were united under James L; the civil war between Charles I. and his parliament, which terminated in the execu- tion of the king, broke out ; France was raised to an important rank among the European states by Riche- lieu ; the Moorish empire was overthrown in Spain ; Portugal and Holland became independent states ; and the foundations of the future greatness of Russia and Prussia were laid. Q. What great discoveries were made ? A. The passage round the Cape of Good Hope, by Vasco di Gama, a. d. 1458, and of America, by Chris- topher Columbus, a Genoese in the Spanish service, A. D. 1498. Q. What were the principal inventions in this age ? A. Logarithms were invented in Scotland, by Na- pier ; telescopes in Italy, by Galileo ; and barometers, by Torricelli. Q. Who, during this period, eminently distin- guished themselves in science ? A. The true system of the universe was discovered by Copernicus ; several important additions made to astronomical knowledge, by Tycho Brahe and Kepler; the circulation of the blood was discovered by Har- vey, an English physician ; and Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, made so many improvements in physics and philosophy, that he may well be called the father of modem science. Q. What was the state of literature during the period ? A. A host of learned men appeared in every part of Europe, — Shakspeare and Milton in England ; Ari- osto and Tasso in Italy ; Lopez de la Vega and Cer- 22 CATECHISM OF vantes in Spain ; and Camoens in Portugal, immorta- lized themselves in their respective countries. Q,. Did not the fine arts also flourish ? A. This was the golden age of sculpture and paint- ing ; Correggio, Michael Angelo, and Titian flou- rished in Italy ; Rubens, in Flanders ; Hans Holbein, Vandyke, and Durer, in Germany ; with many others, too numerous to mention in this outline. CHAPTER Vni. The Augustan Age of Literature in France and England. Q. Why is this period called the Augustan age ? A. Because France and England produced their best writers at this time, and became as distinguished for literature as Rome was during the reign of Au- gustus. Q. How is this period limited ? A. It commences with the treaty of Westphalia, and ends with the breaking out of the French Revolution, A.D. 1789. Q,. What remarkable events occurred in the South of Europe ? A. The government of Spain, after a long contest, was transferred from the House of Austria to the Bourbon family ; France, whose power and resources threatened the liberties of Europe in the early part of the reign of Louis XIV., was greatly weakened by reverses of fortune in the latter end of the same reign, and still more impoverished by the expensive wars of his successor ; the Morea was wrested from the Vene- MODERN HISTORY. 23 tians by the Turks, and the ItaHan states were fallen into decay. Q. What important events occurred in the middle of Europe ? A. The House of Lorraine obtained the throne of Austria, Prussia was raised to importance by the abili- ties of Frederic II., Holland became a powerful naval rival of England, and Poland was dismembered by the allied powers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Q. Were there any revolutions in the north ? A. Denmark surrendered its liberties to Frederic, and became an absolute monarchy ; Sweden, after the splendid but ruinous reign of Charles XII., began to decline in political consequence; while Russia was elevated to the highest rank by the abilities of Petei the Great and Catherine II. Q. What were the most important events in Eng- land ? A. The restoration of the monarchy by Charles II. ; the expulsion of the Stuart family, and accession of William and Mary ; the union of England and Scot- land; the accession of the House of Hanover; the foundation of the British empire in India; and the revolt of the American colonies. Q. Who were the greatest geniuses of this age ? A. It would be impossible to enumerate all that appeared in this brilhant period, — Newton, in natural philosophy ; Locke, in the science of mind ; and Herschel, in astronomy, were the greatest geniuses of this, or perhaps any age. 24 CATECHISM OF CHAPTER IX. The Revolutionary Age. Q. What are the limits of the revolutionary age ? A. It began about a. d. 1787, and ended with the battle of Waterloo, a. d. 1815, Q, Why do you call it the revolutionary age ? A. Because all the wars and changes that occurred during this eventful period were all caused by one great event-^the French Revolution. Q. What caused the Revolution ? A. The French having assisted the United States in their revolt against England, became attached to prin- ciples of freedom, and impatient of their own despotic government. The expenses of that war had made the nation bankrupt, and some violent spirits took advan- tage of national calamity to change the form of go- vernment. Q. How was it carried on ? A. After several changes, each of which was at- tended with the most horrible excesses, they murdered the king, massacred immense multitudes for pretended crimes, abolished all religion, and outraged every moral principle, both human and divine. Q. What was the event ? A After a long series of foreign and domestic wars. Napoleon Buonaparte usurped the throne and esta- blished military despotism. By a series of brilliant victories, he made the great part of the European continent subject to his control; but eventually the sovereigns took advantage of the losses he sustained in Russia to combine and hurl him from his throne Q. What were the most important events in the South of Europe during this period ? MODERN EIISTORY. 25 A. Spain and Portugal were treacherously invaded by the French; but an English army, under the aus- pices of the Duke of Wellington, expelled the invaders, and restored the ancient dynasties ; the republics of Italy were destroyed by the French, and are now an- nexed to the dominions of Austria ; and the empire of the Turks, apparently, is on the verge of ruin. Q.. In the middle of Europe what changes have been made ? A. The emperor of Austria has been deprived of his title of emperor of Germany, several of the larger German principahties have been raised into kingdoms, and the republic of Holland, united with Flanders, forms now the kingdom of the Netherlands. This last arrangement has been recently changed, and Flanders divided from Holland forms now the king- dom of ['elgium. Q,. Flave there been any revolutions in the north ? A. The throne of Sweden is now occupied by Ber- nadotte, once a general in the French army. Den- mark has been deprived of Norway, which is now a province of Sweden. Q. What were the most important events in Bri- tain ? A. The English navy has overcome all its rivals, and is now the best and greatest in the world ; the British colonies are extended over the islands of the southern ocean, and the entire peninsula of India is subject to the control of Britain. England and Ire- land have been united by an act of the legislature, and the manufactures and commerce of Britain equal the rest of the world put together. 26 CATECHISM OF CHAPTER X. Of the French Monarchy. Q, Who were the founders of the French mon- archy ? A. The Franks, a division of the Gothic nation, who raised their chief, Phar'amond, to the kingly power ; but Clovis is generally considered to be the true founder. Q, What was the ancient name of France ? A. Gaul, generally called by the Romans Transal'- pine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to distinguish it from Cisal'pine Gaul on the Ital'ian side of the Alps, which country had been conquered by Ju'lius (.se'sar, and continued in the possession of the Romans till A.D. 420. Q. Who succeeded Phar'amond in the kingly power of France ? A. His son Clo'dian, in 428 ; who was continually at war with the Romans, and lost several battles : he was succeeded by MeroVeus, the first of the Merovin- gian Hne, A. D. 477. Q. What families have swayed the sceptre of France ? A. Three; namely, 1. the Merovin'gian; 2. the Carlovin'gian ; 3. the Cap'etine. From the last men- tioned, two collateral branches have issued, namely, the House of Valois and Bourbon, Q. Whence did they receive their names ? A. The Merovin'gian race, from Mero'veus ; the Carlovin'gian, from Charlemagne; and the Cap'etine line, from Hugh Capet : the last-mentioned family at present reigns in France. Q. How long did the Merovin'gian line sit on the throne of France ? MODERiN HISTORY. 27 A. Three hundred and thirty-two years ; from the year of our Lord 420 till the reign of Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. Q. How long did the Carlovin'gian race support the royal power of France ? A. From Charlemagne, or rather from the time of Pe'pin his father, when he deposed Chil'deric III., in 752, till Hugh Capet, who began to reign a.d. 987, being 235 years. Q. How long did the Cap'etine line sway the royal power of France ? A. From the time of Hugh Capet, a.d. 987, till the time of Charles IV., in 1328. The regular line of the Capets being broken into two collateral branches, the House of Valois then succeeded, and continued to the reign of Henry HI., in 1589. Q. \Yhen did the House of Bourbon ascend the throne ? A. In 1589. Henry IV. (justly called the great) was the first prince of the Bourbons, and his descen- dants continued in possession of the throne till Louis XVI., in 1793, when this unfortunate prince lost his life on the scaffold, and monarchy was entirely ab- olished in France, and the nation assumed the form of a republic, which it retained till 1804, when Napoleon Buo'naparte was declared emperor. Q,. How long did Buo'naparte reign ? A. Till the year 1814, when he was dethroned by the combined powers of Europe, and the ancient line was restored to its former dignity. Q. What became of Buo'naparte ? A. He was sent to Elba, but having returned from thence, he regained the French throne. The deci- sive battle of Waterloo, however, forced him to sur- render to the allied powers, and he died in exile at St. Helena. c 2 28 CATECHISM OF Q. Has not an important revolution since taken place in France ? A Yes; in July 1830, the elder branch of the Bourbons was deprived of the sovereignty, and Louis- Phihppe, duke of Orleans, elected king of the French. CHAPTER XI. Of the Invasion of France by the Normans, and some of the most remarkable Events in the History of France. Q. Who were the Normans ? A. The Normans were a race of Goths, who in- habited Scandina'via. Q. What depredations did the Normans commit ? A. In A.D. 843, the Normans sailed up the river Seine, and plundered Rouen, while another fleet en- tered the Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity, carrying, together with its spoils, men, wo- men, and children into captivity. Q. What coasts did the Normans attack in the following year ? A. The coasts of England, France, and Spain ; but were repelled from the last by the good conduct and courage of its Mohammedan rulers. Q. What outrage did the Normans commit in the year 845 ? A. Tliey entered the Elbe, plundered Hamburgh, and penetrated a good way into Germany. Q. By whom were the Normans commanded ? A. By Eric, king of Denmark, who sent them once more up the Seine with a fleet, which advanced MODERN HISTORY. 29 to Paris ; when its inhabitants fled, and the city was burnt, Q. Did the Normans ultimately make conquest of any part of France ? A. Yes; in the time of Rollo, in 912, who com- pelled the king of France to yield to him a large })or- tion of his territory, and to give him his daughter in marriage. Q. l3id the king of France comply with Rollo's request ? A. Yes; he gave him his daughter, and ceded to him the province of Neus'tria, which kingdom was afterAvards called Normandy. This is the race of warriors whose descendants were conquerors of England. Q. What great monarch is particularly celebrated in French history ? A. Charlemagne, the son of Pepin, who was one of the greatest princes that ever reigned in the western empire ; he extended his dominions over the greatest part of Europe, and was crowned by the bishop of Rome emperor of the west, on Christmas eve, 800. He reigned 46 years. Q. What celebrated character was contemporary with Charlemagne ? A. Ha'roun-al-Raschid, caliph of the Saracens; equally renowned for his conquests, excellent policy, and the wisdom and humanity of his government. Q. What English king laid claim to the crown of France ? A. Edward III., who afterwards gained the battle of Cressy. Q. Was not this claim at some future time allowed ? A. Yes : Henry V. of England having gained the battle of Agincourt, in the year 1420, the French agreed to crown his son, Henry VI., king of France, which ceremony actually took place at Paris ; but in c 3 30 CATECHISM OF the course of some years the French recovered all their possessions in that country. Q. To whose aid were the French indebted for the recovery of their possessions ? A. They were in a great measure indebted to a maid called Joan of Arc, who pretended that she was inspired by Heaven, and begged to be put at the head of the French army, promising the most complete success ? Q. What followed ? A. The leaders of the French were anxious to take advantage of any circumstance, however absurd or romantic, that would induce the soldiers to believe they were guided by supernatural agency. Joan of Arc was, therefore, put at the head of the troops, and her undaunted courage and the confidence with which she inspired the men led to complete success, except as to what regarded her own personal safety. Q. What happened to her ? A. She was taken prisoner by the English, and inhumanly burnt as a A\itch. Q. What dreadful massacre took place in France in the reign of Charles IX. ? A. On St. Bartholomew's Eve, in the year 15/2, about 70,000 Protestants were murdered, in cold blood, by the orders of that execrable persecutor. CHAPTER XH. . History of the Saracens. Q,. Whexce is the origin of the Saracens ? A. The origin of the Saracens was at Medina, in Ara'bia ; they were the first followers of Mohammed, MODERN IlISTCRY. Jl the Ara'bian impostor, or false prophet, whose career began about the year of Christ Giu, Q,. Why are they called Saracens ? A. They are so called from the word Sa'ra, which signifies a desert, as the greatest i)art of Ara bia is ; and this being the country of Mo'hamnied, his disciples or followers were called Saracens. Q. When did the Saracens begin to extend their empire ? A. Tn the eighth century, when they subverted the monarchy of the Vis'igoths in Spain, and easily over- ran the country. Q. When the emi)ire of the Saracens was at its greatest extent, what countries did it comprehend i* A. The dominions of the Saracens at this time com- prehended all the Southern parts of Asia, the Barbary states, and Egypt, from the Ganges to the Atlantic, and also Spain and Portugal. Q. Who was Mohammed, and in what manner came he to be the founder of the Saracen empire ? A. Moham'med was a native of Mec'ca, in Ara'bia, the founder of the rehgion which bears his name : he assumed the title and character of a prophet ; and, in consequence of his presumption, excited a faction against him, which obliged him to fly from Mec ca to Medi'na, wliich retreat occasioned the foundation of his empire and his religion. Q. What success did he meet with at Medi'na? A. In Medi'na he gained many converts, and with them he resolutely set out to propagate his religion by the sword. Q. What place was the object of his first attack ? A. Mec'ca his native place, the ca})ital of Ara'bia, which he took ; and here he met with such success, that all the Arabian^ tribes very soon acknowledged his authority, and submitted to whatever direction he thought proper to give them. 32 CATECHISM OF Q. By what names were the successors of Moham- med distinguished ? A. By the title of Ca'Uph, (that isj vicar,) a sove- reign dignity, being one who is vested with absolute authority in all matters relating both to religion and polity. Q. What countries did the Saracens threaten to subdue, besides those already mentioned ? A. All Europe, but were opposed by the Franks ; who checked their progress, and obtained several victories over them. Q. Under whom was the Saracen empire at the summit of its greatness ? A. Under Ha'roun-al-Ras'chid, an accomplished prince, but its splendour was tarnished by his children. Q. Vv^iat was the occasion of the downfall of the Saracen empire ? A. By the Saracens multiplying the imposts, divi- sions were raised among the people; Sy'ria revolted, and the governors of Tu'nis, Algi'ers, and Trip'oli, followed their example : and the Caliphs, for their defence, invited the Turks to assist them ; but the latter shortly after seized upon the government, and left the Ca'liphs the mere title of rehgious chiefs, and reduced all Asia under their dominion. Thus ended the empire of the Saracens. CHAPTER XIII. History of the Turks. Q. Whence is the origin of the Turks ? A. The Turks originally came from Tar'tary, and are said to be of Scyth'ian or Tarta'rian extraction, their name signifying wanderers. MODERN HISTORY. 33 Q. To what couiilry diJ the Turks migrate in the year 854? A. In the year 854, the Turks came from Tar tary, and settled in Armenia, hence called Turcoma'nia. The Turks were formerly called Tur'comans. Q. What did the Turks in the year 1043, under their leader Tangrolo'pix ? A. In the year 1013 the Turks made war against the Persians, defeated them, and slew their king, and Tangrolo'pix became sultan of Persia. Q. What was the next exploit of Tangrolo'pix ? A. He reduced Bag'dad, and overthrew the empire of the caliphs, but still leaving them their spiritual authority as supreme pontiflfs of the Mohammedan rehgion, 1055. Q. What did the Turks after overthrowing the empire of the caliphs ? A. They then made themselves masters of Palestine, &c., and laid the Christian pilgrims, who visited the sepulchre of our Saviour, under very heavy contribu- tions, and treated them in other respects so harshly as gave rise to the Crusades. Q. What celebrated character brought a powerful army against the Turks and Saracens, and overthrew their empire ? A. Zen 'gis- Khan, the chief of the Mogul' Tar'tars, who was one of the greatest conquerors that ever lived. He overran Rus'sia, Tartary, a* great part of China, Indos tan, and in short almost all A'sia. He died at an advanced age, a. d. 1226. Q. Who are the Ottomans ? A. The present Turks. Q. Why is the Turkish empire sometimes called the Ot'toman empire, and the inhabitants Ot'tomans ? A. At the time when the Turks were invaded by the Tar'tars, a number of Turks, who wished to save themselves from the yoke, took refuge in Bithyn'ia, a 34 CATECHISM OF province of Asia-Minor in Asiatic Turkey; but sallied out from thence, under the command of Othman, or Ot'toman, against the Tartars ; and by his courage and address they made considerable conquests ; whence the Turks received the name of Ottomans, and their empire the Ottoman empire, and sometimes the Ottoman Porte, being appellations given in honour of the above man, who was the first emperor of the present family. Q. Is the Turkish empire strong ? A. No ; it has lost Greece and Egypt, and has been so weakened during the late war with Russia, that it may be said to be at the mercy of that power ? CHAPTER XIV. History of the African States. Q. By whom was Egypt wrested from the Roman empire ? A. It was conquered by the Mohammedans under the command of the caliphs of Bagdad, called also Abassides. Q.. Did the caliphs of Bagdad retain possession of the country ? A. A new caliphate, called the Fatimite, was estabhshed in Africa, the fourth prince of which, called Moezz, subdued Egypt. Q. What reply of Moezz deserves to be recorded ? A. Being once sneeringly asked from what family he was descended, he pointed to his soldiers and his sword, saying, '' Behold my race and my genealogy !" Q. By what revolution was this race overthrown ? A. The Mamalukes, a body of soldiers composed of Circassian slaves. Christian renegades, and banditti, estabhshed a kind of mihlary aristocracy. MODERN HISTORY. 35 Q. What European power attempted to obtain pos- session of Egypt ? A. In 1798 the French, under the command of Buonaparte, defeated the Mamalukes, and obtained mihtary possession of the country. Q. Why did they rehnquish it ? A. Their fleet was destroyed by Admiral Nelson in the bay of Aboukir, and their entire army surrendered to the English troops, commanded by Lord Hutchin- son, A. D. 1801. Q. What has been its subsequent condition ? A. After having been for a long time devastated by the intestine wars of the Turks and Mamalukes, the latter were cut off by treachery, and Egypt became again a Turkish province, which it is nominally at present, though the active and independent conduct of its pacha, Mohammed x\li, has again raised it into a really powerful and industrious nation. Q. What Christian nation is there in Africa ? A. The Ethiopian, or Abyssinian ; but their religion is grossly corrupt. Q. Have any efforts been made to unite the Abys- sinian and Western churches ? A. The Popes made two or three efforts to convert the Abyssinians, but the injudicious zeal of some of the Romish missionaries produced a civil war, which ended in their expulsion from the kingdom. Q. For what is Barbary remarkable ? A. Its situation on the Southern coast of the Mediterranean induced the Phoenicians and Greeks to plant many colonies, but they have long since disap- peared, and Barbary is possessed by the Moors, under the control of Turkey. Q. What are now the principal towns in Barbary ? A. Tunis and Algiers, the capitals of piratical principalities. .36 CATECHISM OF Q. What great check did the Algerine pirates lately receive ? A. In consequence of several acts of piracy, an ex- pedition under Lord Exmouth was sent out in 1816 : the destruction of the Algerine fleet, and the battering of the town, compelled the Dey to submit to the terms proposed by the British admiral. Q. What has been the subsequent fate of Algiers ? A. It was conquered by the French in 1830, who retain military possession of it, though they are at constant war with Arab tribes. Q. What form of government prevails in Morocco ? A. The most despotic in the world; it was erected into a separate kingdom at the breaking up of the em- pire of the Fatimite caliphs, and raised to consequence by the abilities of Mohammed, a pretended descendant of the great impostor ? Q. How is the king: chosen ? A. Ever since the deposition of Abdallah, the great- est tyrant recorded in any history, the monarchy has been elective. Q. Who are electors ? A. The mihtia; but their choice is Hmited to one of the royal family. CHAPTER XV. Persia. Q. Who was the founder of the Persian dynasty ? A. Ismael, a descendant of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed. On this account the Persians have a form of religion differing in many respects from the MODERN HISTORY. 3/ Turkish, and though both are Mohammedans, they hate each other most cordially. Q. Who was the greatest of the Persian kings } A. Shah Abbas, who defeated the Turks and sub- dued the Tartar tribes, by whom Persia had been previously devastated ; he was, howev'er, a cruel and jealous tyrant, and committed several horrid murders in his own family. Q. By whom were the posterity of Abbas removed from the Persian throne ? A. By Mahmud, chief of the Affghans, a powerful nation on the borders of Persia ? Q. Were they ever restored ? A. The celebrated Kouh Khan, one of the greatest warriors that the East has produced, defeated the Affghans, and restored the posterity of Abbas to the throne of their ancestors. Q. Were they permitted to retain it ? A. No; Kouli Khan deposed the prince he had raised to the throne, and seized the sceptre himself; on his accession he took the title of Nadir Shah. Q. What has since been the condition of Persia ? A. It has suffered cruelly by civil wars, and in- vasions of the Tartars ; but there appears at present some hope that Persia will, ere long, make rapid pro- gress in civilization. Q,. What are your grounds for this opinion ? A. Its increased connexion with England, and a growing taste for English manufactures, and even literature. Q. Have the Persians been lately engaged in war ? A. They were recently attacked by the Russians; but the success of the invaders was not equal to their hopes, and a peace has been lately concluded between the two countries. 38 CATECHISM OF CHAPTER XVI. Of the German empire under Otho the Great. Q. Who was O'tho the Great? A. The eldest son of Henry the Fowler, whom Otho succeeded as emperor of Germany. Otho was cro\vned in 936, Q. In what situation were the Sar'acen and French empires in the time of Otho ? A. The Sar'acen empire, so triumphant a cen- tury before, was now almost overthrown, and that of France was di\ided into a great number of petty sove- reignties, which emanated from its ruins. Q. What is the character of Otho the Great ? A. He was a very virtuous and magnanimous prince. During his reign, he extended the Christian rehgion throughout the empire. He subdued, in various engagements, the French, the Hungarians, and the Bohemians, and performed several other gal- lant actions. Q How long did he reign ? A. Twenty-six years. He died a.d. 962, and was interred at Mag'deburgh. Q, What country embraced Christianity about this time? A. The Rus'sians, who in the year 924 were con- verted to Christianity by the Greeks of Constantinople. Po land, now emerged from obscurity, became also a Christian country. Q. Did not Bohe'mia take its date at this time ? A. l^es; Bohe'mia was enriched with the spoils of Po'land ; and Wratisla'us was its first king. Hun- gary likewise began to show some interesting records about this time. MODERN HISTORY. 39 Q. Who succeeded Otho the Great ? A. His son, Otho II. ; he entered Italy to defend Calabria and Apulia against the Greeks and Sar'a- cens, who attempted to take possession of it ; after defeating them, he died at Rome, a.d. 983, universally regretted by his people. Q. By whom was Otho IT. succeeded ? A. By his son Otho III., who, dying without issue, was succeeded by Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Lame, a.d. 1002. Q. To whom did the empire fall after the death of Henry the Lame ? A. To Con'rad, surnamed the Salic. In his time, Robert, son of Hugh Capet, reigned in France ; and Ferdinand I. in Spain. Con'rad reigned fifteen years, and was succeeded by his son, Henry III., in 1039. Q. Who succeeded Henry III. ? A. His son, Henry IV., in whose reign the bishops of Rome, availing themselves of the negligence of the emperor, and of the people's ignorance, began to erect themselves into primates and sovereigns of all Chris- tendom. Q. What popes then occupied the see of Rome ? A. The most celebrated was Greg'ory VII., a man of violent temper, and so strongly attached to his chi- merical pretensions, that he stopped at nothing to support them. Q. What were his first decrees ? A. The prohibition of the marriage of priests, which his successor fully completed ; who also took away the right of the emperor of putting the priests in possession of their dignities, which Henry opposed ; Greg'ory therefore excommunicated him, and exhorted all his subjects to revolt. Q. What did Henry on this occasion ? A. He made war against the Pope, besieged him in D 2 40 CATECHISM OF the castle of St. An'gelo, and obliged him to retire to Saler'no, where he died of chagrin. Q. How did the reign of Henry IV. conclude ? A, Pope Pas'cal H., in the year 1102, again excom- municated him, and instigated his son to declare war against his father, whom he vanquished and despoiled of the empire in 1106. Q. Who succeeded Henry IV. ? A. His son, Henry V., who married Maud or Ma- tilda, daughter of Henry I., king of England, by whom he had no children; so that the empire, after his death, was left without an heir, a.d. 1125. Q,. Who succeeded Henry. V. ? A. The States conferred the imperial dignity on Lotha'rio, duke of Saxe Suplembourg, who was dis- tinguished for his love of peace, and for an exact dis- tribution of justice. CHAPTER XVII. History of Sicily and Malta. Q. By whom was Sicily wrested from the Sa- racens ? A. The Normans, a set of heroic adventurers, who had, in the beginning of the eleventh century, spread themselves over the south of Italy, and conquered this island, a.d. 1058. Q. How has it been since governed ? A. It has almost ever since been subject to the king of Naples, who takes the title of King of the Two Sicilies. MODERN HISTORY. 41 Q. Did not a French prince once reign in Sicily ? A. Yes ; the Pope gave the kingdom to Charles of Anjou ; but the Sicilians joined in a conspiracy, and murdered all the French in the island. This massacre is called The Sicilian Vespers. Q. For what is Malta remarkable ? A. It was the residence of the knights of Saint John, after their expulsion from Rhodes. Q. When did those knights show great bravery } A. When the island was besieged by the Turks, they made one of the most vigorous defences recorded in history. Q. To whom does it now belong ? A. The knights gave it up to the French, but the English compelled the French garrison to sur- render, and have ever since kept possession of the island. CHAPTER XVIII. History of Spain. Q. Describe Spain. A. Spain is a very large country situated in tne south of Europe. It formerly included Portugal, and was known to the ancients by the name of Ibe'ria and Hespe'ria, as well as Hispa'nia. Q. Who were the original inhabitants of Spain ? A. The original inhabitants of Spain consisted of Celts from Gaul, and of Moors from Africa; but the latter, a more warlike race, expelled the former, and even j)assed into France. D 3 42 CATECHISM OF Q. ^\^ho were the next people that sent colonies into Spain ? A. The German Gauls, who seized the regions to the north-east. Q. Wi^at events soon followed in the east of Spain ? A. Towards the last were sent several large colonies from Carthage, and aftenvards numerous colonies v»ere sent from Rome, which subdued all the others, and made them subject to their power. Q. How long was Spain under the Roman power ? A. About 600 years; from 200 years before Christ till the beginning of the fifth century, when they were subdued by the Vandals, a people from Prussia, &c., who originally came from Scyth'ia : but these people being afterwards weakened by their settlements in Africa, were soon driven out by the Vis igoths from Jutland, &c. Q. From whom may the modern Spaniards be con- sidered to have descended ? A. From the Celtibe'rians or German Gauls, the Ro'mans, and the Vis'igoths. Q. Were not the contests between the Christians and Moors very numerous ? A. Yes; it is said by the Spanish historians, that they fought 3700 battles, being a continued scene of warfare for eight centuries, Q. In what state was Spain during this period ? A. During this period Spain was divided into a number of independent states. Almost every great town of the Moors, or Sar'acens, had its separate sovereign, — Toledo, Valen'tia, Sev'ille, &c. ; which dis- union rendered them more easy to be conquered. Q. What were the chief kingdoms of the Christians during this period ? A. Le'on, Astu'rias, Navar're, Cas'tile, Arragon, and For'tugal. MODERN HISTORY, 43 Q. By whom were these kingdoms united? A. By Fer'dinand, king of Ar'ragon, by his marriage with Isabel'la, queen of Castile ; he took Granada in 1492, the last city which the Moors retained in Spain, and expelled them from the kingdom to the number of 170,000 families, on which account Fer'dinand obtained from the Pope the title of Catholic. Q. What memorable event happened at this time ? A. The discovery of America by Colum'bus, a Ge'noese. CHAPTER XIX. History of Spain, continued. Q. Who succeeded Ferdinand and Isabella in the royal power of Spain ? A. Charles the Fifth of Germany, or First of Spain, of the house of Austria, grandson to Ferdinand and Isabella, by their daughter Johanna. Q. What was the state of Spain at this time ? A. Spain, at this time, was one of the greatest pow- ers of Europe ; comprehending Spain, the best part of Italy, the Netherlands, some provinces in Africa, and the new acquisitions in America ? Q. Had Charles V. no dignity besides king of Spain? A. Yes ; that of emperor of Germany, to which he succeeded upon the death of his grandfather, Maxi- mil'ian, a.d. 1519. Q. By whom was Charles V. succeeded ? A. By his son Phihp, whose tyranny in the Nether- lands, and cruel bigotry in the cause of popery, occa- sioned the revolt and loss of those provinces. Q, In what king did the line of Aus'tria fail ? 44 CATECHISM OF A. In the person of Charles II., who died without issue, 1700, when a long and bloody war was carried on between the powers of Europe about the suc- cession. Q. In whose favour was it determined ? A. In favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, (grandson of Louis XIV. of France,) by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. Q. What is the character of the Spaniards ? A. The Spaniards are in general grave and stately in their deportment, but honourable, generous, and humane. Q. What is their religion ? A. The Roman Catholic, in which they are very zealous. Q,. What calamities befel the late kings of Spain ? A. Charles IV. and his son (subsequently Ferdi- nand VII.) were entrapped, and made prisoners by Buonaparte, for the purpose of raising his bro- ther Joseph to the throne, but in consequence of the French being expelled from Spain by the Duke of Wellington, in 1813, they were liberated, and Fer- dinand VII. was restored to the throne. Q. What is the present state of Spain ? A. Ferdinand was succeeded by his infant daughter, concerning whose right to the throne a barbarous civil war long raged, her uncle, Don Carlos, claiming the throne under the Salique law. Don Carlos's re- sources failing him, he was compelled to retire into France. CHAPTER XX. History of Portugal. Q. What is Portugal ? A. A small kingdom situated on the west of Spain, MODERN HISTORY. 45 whose name is but of recent origin. It was anciently a province of Spain, and underwent the same revolu- tions with it. Q. What was the ancient name of Por'tugal ? A. Lusita'nia, but its boundaries did not exactly correspond with the present Portugal. Q. By whom was the kingdom of Portugal founded ? A. By Henry of Burgundy, who married one of the daughters of Alphon'so, king of Cas'tile, by whom he had been created count of Portugal in 1088. Q. What event happened in Portugal in the year 1640? A. A revolution, which placed the house of Bra- gan'za on the throne. Several ineffectual attempts were made by the Spaniards to re-estabhsh their authority in Portugal, but by the treaty of Lisbon in 1688 the Portuguese were declared a free and inde- pendent nation. Q. Has any thing of importance occurred in Por- tugal during the present century worthy of notice ? A. Yes; at the close of the year 1807, in conse- quence of the French invasion of Portugal, the whole of the royal family sailed for Brazil, in South Ame- rica ; but by the great exertions of the British army under the command of the Duke of Wellington, the French were expelled, and the royal family re-instated in all their rights. Q. Did Portugal ever possess a constitutional go- vernment ? A. On the death of the late king his son Don Pedro gave a constitution to the Portuguese, and at the same time resigned the crown in favour of his daughter Donna Maria. He retained for himself Brazil, previously a Portuguese colony, but which henceforth ranked as an independent state. Q. Wliat ensued upon this arrangement. A. Don Miguel, the brother of Pedro, usurped the 46 CATECHISM OF crown, and overthrew the constitution which he had sworn to maintain. Q,. What was the consequence ? A. Pedro, who had in the mean time been dethroned by the Brazilians, returned to Europe, and invaded Portugal, and his daughter's claims were ultimately substantiated, and acknowledged by the European powers. CHAPITER XXL History of Austria. Q. What is Austria ? A. Austria Proper is one of the nine circles of Germany ; but the empire of Austria is of great ex- tent, comprehending Austria, Bohe'mia, Hun'gary, and part of Poland, Moravia, Transylva'nia, Sclavo'-- nia, Croa'tia, the Tyr'ol, part of Dalma'tia, Lom'bardy, and Venice. Q. Who were the original inhabitants of Austria ? A. The original inhabitants of the Austrian domi- nions were very various, but they were principally Goth'ic and Sclavonic. Q. From whom arose the power of Austria ? A. From the humble counts of Hapsburgh, who possessed a small territory in Switzerland, in the northern corner of the canton of Berne. All that remains now of Hapsburg is nothing more than a ruinous castle, on a lofty eminence, inhabited by the family of a peasant. It is rendered famous for being the cradle, as it were, of the House of Austria, whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, when they were no more than simple MODERN HISTORY. 47 gentlemen of Switzerland, and afterwards for many years counts of Hapsburgh, till Rodol'ph I. raised himself to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria. Q. Of what family is the present emperor of Aus- tria ? A. Of the family of Lorraine, which succeeded to the empire on the extinction of the house of Haps- burgh, A.D. 1740. CHAPTER XXH. History of Switzerland. Q. What is Switzerland ? A. A small, romantic country, lying upon the Alps, between Germany, Italy, and France. Q. By what name were the ancient inhabitants known ? A. By the name of Helve'tii, and are supposed to have been a Gothic race from Germany. Q. In what state was Swit'zerland in the time of the Roman ? A. It was then under their control, but considered to be a part of Gaul. Q. To whom were the Swiss subject after the fall of the Roman empire ? A. To the House of Austria, (who originally were Swiss,) but being cruelly oppressed by its governors, the Swiss revolted, a.d. 1308, and in 1648, at the treaty of Westpha'lia, they were declared a free and independent nation. Q. Has no change of government taken place in Switzerland since that time ? 48 CATECHISM OF A. Yes ; it has been since annexed to France, and the people have been under the control of Buona- parte. They recovered their independence, however, by the consent of Europe, on the restoration of the Bourbon family to the crown of France. CHAPTER XXIII. History of Prussia. Q. Is Prussia an ancient or a modem kingdom ? A. Quite modern ; it commenced about the year 1700, and by gradual accessions of power became one of the principal kingdoms of Europe. It suflfered greatly from its long and unfortunate wars with Buo- naparte, but since the dethronement of that monarch, it has been making rapid advances to its former im- portance. Q. Who was the first king of Prussia ? A. Frederic AYilliam the Great, who placed the crown with his own hands upon his head, in 1701. Q. Who were the original inhabitants of Prussia ? A. The ancient history of this country being so little known, it is difficult to ascertain it with any degree of certainty ; but acccording to the account given of this people, by the celebrated Roman histo- rians, Ta"citus and Plin'y, they were descendants of the Goths from Scyth'ia. CHAPTER XXIV. History of the Netherlands or Low Countries. Q. What comprised the kingdom of the Nether- lands ? MODERN HISTORY. 49 A. The Netherlands comprised Holland and Bel'- gium ; the former is sometimes called Bata'via, and the latter the Catholic Netherlands or Flanders ; but now more commonly, Belgium. Q. Who were the ancient inhabitants of the Ne- therlands ? A. The Celts, but these were supplanted by the Belgae, from Germany, who were conquered by Ju'lius Caesar, 55 years before Christ, and continued in the possession of the Romans till the decline of their empire. Q. Who held the sovereign power of the Netherlands after the decline of the Roman empire ? A. It afterwards underwent several revolutions, but for a considerable period it was governed by counts from France, appointed by the family of Charle- magne ; but upon the extinction of this race, it be- came, for a time, independent; after which the sove- reign power was usurped by the Spaniards. Q. AMiat occasioned the separation of Holland from Flanders or Belgium ? A. The tyranny of its sovereign, which caused an insurrection of the inhabitants in I609, when the Spaniards were compelled to declare the Hollanders a free people. Q. How long did Holland continue an independent state ? A. From the year I609 till the French revolution in 1793, when it was conquered by the French. It was now formed into a republic, called the Bata'vian Re- pubhc ; and the other part of the Netherlands, namely, Flanders, underwent the same fate, which was called the Belgic Republic. Q. How long was the kingdom of the Netherlands subject to or under the control of France ? A. From 1793 till the overthrow of Buonaparte in IS 14, when Holland and Flanders were united into 50 CATECHISM OF one government, and the Prince of Orange raised to its sovereignty, under the title of William I., sovereign prince of the Netherlands. Q. What change has recently taken place ? A. The' Flemish or Belgians have separated them- selves from the Dutch, and chosen for their sovereign Leopold, Prince of Saxe Coburg. CHAPTER XXV. Of Denmark. Q. What is Denmark ? A. Denmark is a small kingdom to the north of Germany, consisting of the peninsula of Jutland, Hol- stein, the islands of Zealand, Funen, I'celand, and some others of less note. Q. Who were its original inhabitants ? A. The Cimbri and Teu'tones ; the former occu- pied Jutland, and the latter the several islands in the Baltic Sea. Q. Whence did the inhabitants of Denmark receive the name of Danes ? A. From the Dani, a distinguished people from Norway, who conquered Denmark in the seventh century. Q. What was the condition of the Danes in the early part of their history ? A. The Danes, in the early part of their history, were a race of bold adventurers, and in the eighth century they became very formidable to their neigh- bours by their piratical depredations on the coasts of England, Flanders, Normandy, and Germany ; which desultory warfare was maintained for more than two centuries ; tiU at length their savage manners being somewhat meliorated, they became cultiv^ators of their native soil, instead of adventurers at sea. MODERN HISTORY. 51 Q. When was this country at the zenith of its glory ? A. In the beginning of the 11th centur)', under Canute the Great, who died in England in the year 1036. Q. Is there any other Danish sovereign particularly worthy of notice ? A. Yes ; Margaret, who ascended the throne in the year 1387, who united Denmark, Norway, and Swe- den into one kingdom ; and on account of her great firmness and courage was frequently styled the Semi- ramis of the North. Her successors have lost Nor- way and Sweden, which are now united and become a separate kingdom, whose sovereign is Bernadotte, formerly one of Buonaparte's celebrated generals. CHAPTER XXVI. History of Sweden. Q. What is Sweden ? A. A very large country in the north of Europe, an- ciently called Scandina'via. Its chief city is Stockholm. Q. What comprises the empire of Sweden ? A. The empire of Sweden comprises Sweden, Nor- way, and the greater part of Lapland, to which for- merly were added Finland and part of Swedish Lapland, but these countries are now subject to Russia. Q. What is the character of the Norwegians ? A. The Norwegians in general are a simple and clownish people, but industrious, honest, strong, brave, and civil to strangers. Q. Who is the present king of Sweden ? A. The French general Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, who was raised to this throne through the intrigues of Buonaparte ; but in the war against France, in the year 1813, carried on by the Russians, Prussians, E 2 52 , CATECHISM OF Germans, and Austrians, Bernadotte turned his arms against his great patron, and vigorously assisted the allies in the reduction of France; and at the peace of Paris, 1314, Norway was wrested from Denmark, and ceded to Bernadotte for the reward of his ser- vices. Q. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Sweden ? A. The Goths or Scyth'ians, who have had the repu- tation of subduing the Roman empire and all the southern nations of Europe. Q. What is the general character of the Swedes ? A. The Swedes in general are healthy, cheerful, and courageous, and are celebrated for enduring hun- ger, cold, and poverty. Q. What is the state of the women in this country ? A. Very degraded, the lower order of women being compelled to plough, thresh out the com, row on the water, serve the bricklayers, and carry burdens. Q. Who was the most celebrated king that sat on the throne of Sweden ? A. Charles XII., who was crowned in the year 1697. Q. What were his principal exploits ? A. He first humbled Denmark ; then attacked the Russians, in 1700, and obtained an astonishing victory over them at Narva; his force consisting only of 8000 men, when he attacked the Russians in their en- trenchments, slew 30,000, and took 20,000 prisoners. Q. What followed the famous battle of Narva ? A. Charles next turned his forces against Poland, and after several battles dethroned Augustus, and placed Stan'islaus upon the throne. Q. What was the end of Charles XII. ? A. He invaded Norway in the year 1718, and at the siege of Frederickshall was shot by a cannon-ball, Dec. nth, after reigning 21 years. MODERX HISTORY. 53 CHAPTER XXVII. History of Russia. Q. What is Russia ? A. A very large empire, comprehending all the northern parts of Asia, also a great part of the north of Europe, containing more extent of country than any other in the world. Q. What is its capital city ? A. Pe'tersburgh, built by Peter the Great in I703j it contains 130,000 inhabitants. Q. In what state were the Russians before the days of Peter the Great ? A. In a very barbarous state, totally uninstructed. Q. For what was Peter celebrated ? A. For the greatness of his reforms in his own country, which he acquired by his travelling into fo- reign ones for information. In 1 698 he made a jour- ney to England, and worked at Deptford as a common carpenter, in order to acquire the art of ship-building. Q. Who succeeded Peter in the sovereignty of Russia ? A. His empress Catherine, a native of Livo'nia, whom he had raised to that dignity from being the wife of a Swedish corporal and a captive. Q. Who succeeded Catherine I.? A. Peter II., in 1/27, after whom came Peter III., the son of Ann Petro'wna, daughter of Peter the Great. Q. By whom was Peter III. succeeded ? A. By Catherine II. daughter of the Prince of A'nhault Zerbs, who was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrow'itz, who died in the year 1801, and was suc- ceeded by his eldest son Al'exander, who died in 1825, E 3 54 CATECHISM OF and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas, the present emperor. Q. Who were the original inhabitants of Russia ? A. The Scyth'ians, who were supposed to have de- scended from one of the tribes of Nimrod, from whom sprang the Parthians, Huns, Vandals, Goths, Cimbri, Danes, Franks, &c. CHAPTER XXVHI. History of China. Q. What is China ? A. An extensive country situated on the east of Thibet and Indos'tan ; it is said to contain 333 mil- lions of inhabitants. Q. By whom is the Chine'se empire said to be founded ? A. By Folii, who is generally thought to have been the Noah of Scripture. The early history of this country is very fabulous, but its original form of go- vernment is known to have been monarchical, in which opinion all historians perfectly agree. Q. What are the principal events in the history of the Chinese? A. The most interesting events are such as relate to the incursions of their neighbours the Tartars, who were continually encroaching on the Chinese, until they were driven far beyond the boundaries, and an immense wall, fifteen hundred miles in length, was built between China and Tartary, to keep them off for the future. Q. Did this precaution secure them from future MODERN HISTORY. 55 A. Yes, for many centuries; but in the year 1211, the Tartars broke in, defeated the Chinese, and made themselves masters of great part of the empire. Q. By whom is China now governed ? A. The present emperor of China is of Tartarian extraction, and the whole empire has for many centu- ries been under the same dynasty. Q. How many walled cities is China said to con- tain? A. 4400, the chief of which are Pe'kin, Nanliin, and Can'ton. Q. Which is the capital of China ? A. Pekin, which is 4999 miles from London. Q. What is worthy of imitation in the Chinese ? A, The great respect which children have for their parents, and the attention which the young invariably pay to their superiors in age. CHAPTER XXIX. History of India. Q. From whence does India derive its name ? A. From the river Indus ; it is also called Hindoo- stan, or the country of the Hindoos, its proper in- habitants. Q. When did Indian commerce with Europe begin ? A. It was first commenced by Alexander the Great, and was continued by the Romans. Q. What nations have successively possessed the commerce of India ? A. The Romans, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the Enghsh. 56 CATECHISM OF Q. "\NTiat was the route taken by the Roman mer- chants in their communications wnth India ? A. Through the Red Sea, and thence overland to the Nile, whence goods were conveyed to Alexandria. The attempt made by the French to seize Egypt, in 1798, was intended to re-open this ancient commercial road. Q. What was the next most important line ? A. Goods were conveyed through the Persian Gulf to the once flourishing kingdom of Ormuz ; caravans passed from thence to Cufa, in the Crimea ; and the Genoese conveyed the produce of India from thence to every part of Europe. Q. What caused a great revolution in Indian com- merce ? A. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese, and their establishment of colonies and factories in various parts of India. Q. Did the Portuguese retain possession of this valuable commerce ? A. No, it was ^^Tested from them by the Dutch, and they in their turn have been compelled to yield to the English East India Company. Q. What was the leading power in India ? A. The empire of the Moguls, founded by a body of Mogul Tartars ; but this has now fallen into decay. Q. Who are now the predominant power ? A. The English East India Company are virtually masters of the entire peninsula, ha\^ng subdued every native prince who ventured to oppose them., and expelled ever)' European nation whose rivalry they dreaded. MODERN HISTORY. 57 CHAPTER XXX. History of Tartary, Q. What is Tartary ? A. A very large country, divided into four great parts : namely, — Russian Tartary, — Chinese Tartary, — Independent Tartary, — and Thibet. Q. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Tartary ? A. The Scythians, a very powerful nation, supposed to have been descendants of the Babylo'nians. Q. Who was the first sovereign of Tartary ? A. Zengis Khan, in the year 1206. Q. What is the character of the Tartars ? A. The Tartars are a fierce and warlike people, leading in general a wandering life, and are said to be the greatest idolaters in the world. Q. How have they shown their bravery ? A. The empire of the Moguls in India was founded by warriors who issued from the Tartar deserts ; and the descendants of another Tartar horde conquered and retained possession of China for many years. Q. Are the Tartars now under one sovereign ? A. No ; since the death of Zengis Khan they have been divided into several principalities, and many tribes wander over the Desert, who do not acknow- ledge any superior. 58 CATECHISM OF CHAPTER XXXI. History of the European Political System. Q. When may a general system of politics be said to have begun in Europe ? A. 1, At the close of the fifteenth century, when the different European nations first began to pay attention to their relations \vith each other. Q. To what great event was this chiefly owing ? A. To the capture of Constantinople by the Turks : 2, the discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope : and. 3, the changes made in the art of war by the invention of gunpowder. Q. In what part of Europe did a political system first appear ? A. In the southern states, where it was produced by the negotiations and wars respecting Italy. The attempt to establish a balance of power in that penin- sula, was soon extended to Europe. Q. Did any event threaten the independence of the European States ? A. Yes ; the election of Charles V., king of Spain, to the empire of Germany united the two greatest powers of Europe in the same person ; and it seemed probable that he would make himself master of the European continent. Q. What prevented Charles V. from acquiring the empire of Europe ? A. The valour and constancy of his rival Francis I., the independence of the petty German princes, but, above all, the Reformation, which gave a bond of reli- gious union to those by whom he was opposed. These circumstances prevented Spain from becoming the mistress of Europe, which from the wealth of her MODERN HISTORY. 59 possessions in South America, and the possession of the empire, seemed at one time probahle. Q. How was the preponderance of Spain over- thrown ? A. By the bigotry of her monarchs, who expelled or put to death an immense number of her inhabitants ; hy her bad colonial system, which made South America a source of weakness rather than strength ; and finally by the revolt of the Netherlands, which not only de- prived Spain of valuable provinces, but raised a for- midable rival to her commerce in the republic of Hol- land. Q. When did England take a lead in the politics of Europe ? A. During the reign of Elizabeth; that wise prin- cess placed herself at the head of the Protestant interest in Europe, and by skilful negotiations managed to hold the balance of European power in her own hands. Q. Did England long retain this power ? A. No; it was lost during the inglorious reigns of the Stuarts ; under Cromwell it was partly recovered, but only to be sacrificed again by Charles H. and James H. after the Restoration. Q. What power, after England lost her influence in the councils of Europe, threatened the independence of the continental states ? A. France; this country had been long distracted by civil wars, but when Louis XIV. assumed the reins of power, he concentrated all his strength, menaced the independence of Germany, and threat- ened to subvert the repubUc of Holland. Q. How was the balance of power preserved ? A. The English nation, having driven out the Stuarts, chose as a sovereign William, prince of Orange ; he became the head of an alliance formed 60 CATECHISM OF to curb the ambition of the French monarch, and the weight of England turned the scale. Q. Did any new event threaten to give France in- ordinate preponderance ? A. The king of Spain at his death bequeathed his dominions to a grandson of Louis XIV. ; the probable union of France and Spain, under the same monarch, threatened wholly to destroy the balance of power, and the principal nations combined to prevent the union; hence arose the war of the Spanish succession. Q. During the war of the Spanish succession, what state began for the first time to take a share in the general politics of Europe ? A. Russia, which had been rai^d from barbarism by Peter the Great ; his wars with Sweden, though long unfortunate, eventually destroyed the former su- premacy of that power in Northern Europe, and gave the preponderance to Russia. Q. What was the next great change in the politics of Southern Europe ? A. The extinction of the house of Hapsburgh, and the wars occasioned by the disputed succession to the Germanic empire, which eventually was vested in the house of Lorraine. During the series of wars arising out of these events, Prussia became, from one of the least influential, one of the most powerful of the Eu- ropean states. Q. How was the political system of Europe sub- verted ? A. By the wars which arose out of the French revolution, and the establishment of Napoleon's su- premacy over the continent. (See Chap. IX.) Q. When was it restored ? A. After the final overthrow of Napoleon at Wa- terloo, A.D. 1815. MODERN HISTORY. 6l CHAFrER XXXII. History of America. Q. What is America, and how is it divided ? A. America is one of the five divisions of the world ; and it is divided into North and South. Q. By whom was it discovered ? A. By Christopher Colum bus, a Genoese, from Genoa. Q. WTiat was his first discovery ? A. San Salvador', and, soon after, the islands of Cuba, and Hispan'iola or St. Domingo, whence he returned to Spain, accompanied with some of the natives, some presents of gold, and some of the curio- sities of the country ? Q. What were the discoveries of his second voyage? A. The Caribbees and Jamai'ca. Q. What did Colum'bus discover in his third voyage ? A. The greater part of the eastern coast of South America. Q. Why is the country, then, called America ? A. Americus Vesputius, a Florentine, asserted that Columbus had only discovered islands, but that it was he who found out the continent. The name America was irrevocably given before the falsehood of his state- ments was proved. Q. By whom was Columbus sent out ? A. By Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain ; Columbus was endeavouring to find a western passage to India, when he discovered America. Q. How did Colum'hus describe the inhabitants ? 62 CATECHISM OF A. As a race of men quite different from the Eu- ropeans, of a copper colour, and no beard. Q,. What were the principal discoveries made by the Spaniards ? A. Mex'ico, Peru, Chili, Paragu'ay, and the above- mentioned islands. Q. In what state was Mex'ico when discovered by the Spaniards ? A. In a very flourishing state, and the inhabitants polished, refined, and luxurious. Q. Is this the description also of Peru, Chili, and Paragu'ay ? A. No ; here, in general, man was found a naked wandering savage, whose sole occupation was hunting CHAPTER XXXIII. History of AmericUy continued. Q. Did not the example of the Spaniards excite a desire in the other nations of Europe to participate with them in the riches of the New World ? A. Yes; the French, the Portuguese, Enghsh, and Dutch, have all at different times formed settlements in America, but at present have nothing but the slight settlements in Guiana. Q. What are the British dominions in America ? A. New Britain, Can'ada, and New Scotland, be- sides many valuable islands in the West Indies. The English once possessed the United States, which were formerly known by the name of the British colonies ; MODERN HISTORY. 63 but after a long and destructive war they were de- clared free and independent, in the year 1783. Q. What has been the fate of the Spanish posses- sions ? A. They have all thro^vn off their allegiance to the parent state, and have been formed into republics. At present they are distracted by civil dissensions, but it is to be hoped that in a short time they will begin to enjoy the blessings of freedom. Q. Why did the United States throw off their alle- giance to England ? A. ITie Parliament of England asserted a right to levy taxes on all the British colonies ; the Americans insisted that they should be permitted to tax them- selves ; and, after a great deal of useless discussion, both parties prepared to decide their disputes by the sword. Q. When did the Americans declare themselves independent ? A. On the 4th of July, 1776; the war that had continued for nearly two years, had so much alienated their minds from the parent state, that they renounced all future connexion with England. Q. Who was the leader* of the Americans during the war ? A. General Washington, equally distinguished for his wisdom as a statesman, his valour as a soldier, and his integrity as a patriot. Q. With what misfortunes did the English army meet with during this war ? A. In 1777 a large body of their troops under the command of General Burgoyne were compelled to surrender to the American general Gates at Saratoga ; and in 1781 the entire British army, commanded by Lord Cornwalhs, were obliged to surrender to the united forces of the French and Americans. Q. What was the consequence of this disaster ? F 2 64 CATECHISM OF A. The British government, hopeless of success, gave up the contest, and a treaty was signed on the 30th of November, 1782, by which the independence of the United States was formally acknowledged, and the British colonies in America assumed a place among the nations of the earth. CHAPTER XXXIV. The new States in South America. Q. Have not several new states been formed in South America ? A. Yes ; the old colonies of Spain and Portugal have succeeded in establishing themselves as inde- pendent states. Q. When did Brazil declare its independence ? A. Brazil was erected into an empire by Don Pedro, October 12, 1822. Q. When was the independence of the Caraccas, or Venezuela, established ? A. On the 10th of November, 1823, when the Spaniards evacuated Porto Caballo, the last fortress they held in the countr)\ A republic was formed under the directions of Simon Bolivar, the great leader of the American patriots, but since his death these states have been a prey to internal distractions. Q. Was not a new republic founded in North America ? A. Yes ; that of Mexico : the power of Spain was more obstinately supported in this than in any of the other provinces. At first, an imperial government MODERN HISTORY. 65 was founded under Iturbide, the insurgent genera], but this has been changed into a repubhc, modelled after the form of the United States. The tranquillity of the country, however, is far from being established. Q. Which of the republics was the first to assert its independence ? A. That of the Caraccas, but the republic of Buenos Ayres was the first to form a regular constitution. An unfortunate war between the new republic and the empire of Brazil led to the erection of a separate state, called that of Banda Oriental; but this little republic was subsequently again incorporated in an- other division of territory. Q. In which of the present di\asions was the autho- rity of Spain maintained the longest ? A. The Spaniards maintained themselves in Peru until the 19th of January, 1826 ; and indeed the Peru- vians would scarcely have succeeded in establishing their independence, but for the powerful assistance they received from the Chihan general San Martin, and still more from Bolivar, the patriot of Venezuela. Q,. Name the present divisions of this portion of South America ? A. It is at present divided into the republics of New Grenada, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, Paraguay. Q. When was the independence of these new states recognised by England ? A. In the beginning of the year 1825. Q. Does not England possess some part of South America ? A. Yes; the colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, which formerly belonged to the Dutch. France also retains possession of Cayenne, or Guiana, as it was called by the Portuguese. F 3 66 CATECHISM OF CHAPTER XXXV. History of the West Indies. U. Why are the islands between North and South America called the West Indies ? A. Columbus, by whom they were discovered, gave them the name of India, as he thought that they belonged to that country. Q. Who were the native inhabitants ? A. The Caribs, a race who have been represented as cannibals, (eating the prisoners they took in war,) and as the greatest foes to improvement and civiliza- tion. Q. Who are the present inhabitants ? A. The Caribs have been almost totally extirpated by the European colonists ; and these islands are now inhabited by the descendants of European settlers, and of negroes imported from Africa. Q. Why were the negroes brought thither ? A. ITie white inhabitants were not able to bear the fatigues of labour in such a sultry chmate; they therefore employed vessels to bring over from Africa as many negroes as they could obtain either by force or fraud. This was called the slave trade, and having long continued to be the disgrace of England, it was abolished by the British Parliament in 1807- Q. Which is the most important English island ? A. Jamaica ; which originally belonged to the Span- iards, but was taken from them by Penn and Vena- bles, during the usurpation of Oliver Cromwell. Q. To what is the prosperity of Jamaica owing ? A. It was the resort of the buccaneers, (pirates mddern history. 67 that infested these seas,) who spent there in extrava- gance the riches they had acquired by cruelty and murder. Q. What other large islands belong to the English ? A. Barbados, which was settled by the English in the reign of James I., and which was for many years the most flourishing British colony; Grenada, St. Vincent, and several others. Q. What caused the prosperity of Barbados ? A. The number of emigrants who came thither from England during the civil wars between Charles I. and his parliament. Q. Why did not this prosperity continue r A. The Parliament, to punish the people of Bar- bados for their attachment to the royal cause, pro- hibited them from all trade with foreign nations. Charles II., soon after his accession, passed the cele- brated Navigation Act, by which all foreign ships were forbidden to trade with the English plantations. Q. Is there not one of the West Indian Islands an independent state ? A. Yes; the negroes in the island of Saint Domin- go, during the revolution that agitated France in the end of the last century, took up arms against the colonists ; and France being unable to atFord the planters any assistance, a negro republic was estab- lished after a brief but bloody struggle. Q,. Did they not change the name of the island ? A. They restored its ancient Indian denomination, Hayti. The independence of Hayti has been recently recognised by France. Q. Which is the largest of these islands ? A. Cuba, belonging to the Spaniards. Cuba was the first Spanish colony that became valuable by its agriculture and commerce. It was from this island that most of the expeditions for the conquest of South America sailed. CATECHISl CHAPTER XXXVI. History of the Progress of Science. Q. What effect did the conquests of the barba- rians, who subverted the Roman empire, produce on science ? A . They almost destroyed knowledge of every kind, because they were ignorant of its value. Q. Where did science first begin to rei-ive ? A. Science was dihgently cultivated in the courts of the Saracenic Caliphs. By the command of these monarch s, many useful works were translated from Greek into Arabic ; among others, Euclid's Elements of Geometry, and Ptolemy's celebrated treatise on Astronomy. Q. By whom was the knowledge of Arabic science introduced into Europe ? A, Gerbert, a Flemish monk, w^ho lived in the tenth century, learned Arabic science from the Moors in Spain, and published his discoveries in France. Q. What was the most important service that Ger- bert rendered to European science ? A. He introduced the use of the Arabic numerals, or decimal scale of notation, which is now universally adopted. Q. V,'ho was the next that performed an important service to science ? A. Adelhard, an English monk, translated the Ele- ments of EucKd from Arabic into Latin ; and this was the first translation of this celebrated treatise on Geo- metry that appeared in Europe. Q. When were Universities established ? MODERN HISTORY. 69 A. In the eleventh century Universities began to flourish, but the exact time of their first institution cannot easily be ascertained. Q. Who was the first great reformer of science that came from a University ? A. Roger Bacon, who was born at Ilchester, a.d. 1214, was the first who taught the value of experimen- tal science. He showed that improvements in natural knowledge could only be obtained from a careful ob- servation of nature itself, and that the progress of science was impeded by a slavish adherence to au- thority. Q. By whom was the true system of the universe discovered ? A. There is reason to believe that the true system of the universe, which declares that all the planets re- volve round the sun as a centre, was known to the ancient astronomers. It had however been lost, and the merit of its discovery is fairly due to Copernicus, who was born at Thorn in Prussia, a.d. 1473. Q. Who improved and confirmed the Copernican system ? A. Kepler was the first great mathematician who saw the value of the Copernican system, which he confirmed by many valuable investigations, (a.d. 1596.) A little later Galileo advocated the same cause in Italy, for which he was cruelly persecuted by ignorant bigots. - Q. Where did the next great improvements in na- tural philosophy originate ? A. Lord Bacon pubhshed in England the best guides to the experimental study of nature, that ever appeared in any age or country. Following his direc- tions, the celebrated Boyle (a.d. 1649) commenced a series of researches, which laid the foundation of mo- dern chemistry. 70 CATECHISM OF Q. By whom were the laws that regulate the system of the universe discovered ? A. Sir Isaac Ne%vton, by reflecting on the causes of an apple's fall to the ground, was led to discover the laws of gravitation, which regulate the entire sys- tem of the universe. Nor was this his only discovery ; he may be said to have formed the science of Optics, which has been recently so much advanced by the labours of Professors Brewster, Hamilton, and Lloyd. Q. By whom were Newton's discoveries in phy- sical astronomy extended and completed ? A. Laplace collected all the discoveries of Newton and his followers into an orderly system, explaining what was obscure, completing what was deficient, and strengthening the whole by new demonstra- tions. Q. Did an American make any great discovery in science ? A. Benjamin Franklin, in the middle of the last century, discovered that the electric fluid is the same as the lightning ; and he was the first who raised elec- tricity to the dignity of a science. Q. Has not a new species of electricity been since discovered ? A, Volta has found that the electric fluid can be obtained from the chemical action of acids on metals, and the recent discoveries of Professor Faraday have shown that this is probably the cause of the composi- tion of bodies. Q. Have any great discoveries been made in astro- nomy ? A. In the latter half of the last centur}', Herschel discovered the new planet that is usually called by his name ; and in the beginning of the present century four small planets were discovered. MODERN HISTORY. 71 Q. What are the names of these small planets ? A. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi, in 1801; Pallas, by Olbers, in 1802; Juno, by Hardmg, in 1804; and Vesta, by Olbers, in 1807. On account of their minute size, these planets are sometimes called as- teroids. Q. Have the periods of any remarkable comets been recently established ? A. Yes ; Encke has discovered the period of a small nebulous comet, observed in 1819 and 1822; he pre- dicted its return in 1825, which was fully verified, and also in 1828 and 1832. Its orbit seems gradually to diminish. A similar comet was observed by Biehi in 1825. Q. You have mentioned planets and comets; has the examination of the fixed stars been neglected by modern astronomers ? A. No; the singular discovery has been made, that many of the stars which appear to us single are really double ; that many of these double stars have a periodic motion ; and the nebulae, or cluster of stars so remote that they appear like thin white vapours, have been examined with great care by Sir William Herschel. Q. Have any exertions been made to ascertain the true size and figure of the earth ? A. Yes ; and both may now be said to be deter- mined with very great accuracy. Q. What has been the most recent discovery in nautical science ? A. The discovery of the position of the magnetic pole has been effected by Captain Ross of the Royal Navy, and still more recently the certainty of the northern. Q. What is the present state of modern science ? A. 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