THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 A£6 
 
 TO THE 
 
 P 
 
 J • 
 
 ATRONS of the Arts and Sciences; the 
 promoters of ufeful and ornamental Literature 
 
 \ in the United States of America, whofe communi- 
 ^ cations have enriched this extenfive and impor- 
 tant work ; and by whofe generous encouragement 
 this arduous enterprife has been brought to its com- 
 
 ^ pletion ; 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 1798. 
 
 'The American Edition of the 
 ENCTCLOPJEDIA 
 is Dedicated, 
 with the mod grateful refpefl:, 
 by their much obliged fervant, 
 THOMAS DOBSOK 
 
 S9S115
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 i HE utility of fcience, and the delight which it affords to the human mind, are ac- 
 knowledged by every man who is not immerfed in the groffeft ignorance. It is to the 
 philofopher that the hufbandnian, the archite<5t, the carpenter, and the feaman. Sec. 
 are indebted for the principles of thofe arts, by which they furnifli us with mod of 
 the accommodations, and with all the elegances, of civilized life ; whilfl the pleafure 
 experienced in the very progrefs of philofophical refearch is fuch, as both reafon and 
 revelation intimate, not obfcurely, will conftitute part of our happinefs in a future flate. 
 
 Small, however, would be the attainments of any man in fcience, were they confined 
 within the limits of his own refearches. Our knowledge of corporeal nature originates 
 in thofe perceptions which we have by the organs of fenfe ; and which, treafured up in 
 the memory, we can, by the powers of reafon and imagination, varioufly modify, ar- 
 range, and combine, fo as from a number of particular truths to form to ourfelves ge- 
 neral principles. But thefe principles would be few indeed, had each individual no 
 other materials of which to form them than the perceptions furniflied immediately by 
 his own fenfes. It has long been a matter of general regret, that the progrefs of fcience 
 has been flow and laborious ; but it never could have commenced, or could have only 
 commenced, were every man obliged to begin his career from his own fenfiitions, with- 
 out availing himfelf of the difcoveries of others who have travelled over the fame ground 
 before him. 
 
 To this narrow field, however, philofophical invefligation is not confined. By 
 means of the arts of writing and drawing, the difcoveries of one individual may be 
 made accefilble to another, and the fcience of every age and of every country treafur- 
 ed up for the ufe of ages and countries the moft remote. Hence arifes the utility of 
 what is generally called literature, or the knowledge of the languages, cuftoms, and 
 manners, which have prevailed among the various nations of the earth. Without this 
 knowledge the fcience of the ancients would be locked up from the moderns ; and 
 even the difcoveries of modern nations would be inaccelTible to each other. 
 
 With all the aid which can be furniflied by one age or nation to another, the la- 
 bours of the philofopher flill prefent themfelves as immenfe and difficult. His objeft 
 comprehends uni\erfal nature, of which nothing can be known but by fenfation and 
 reflcftion ; but the objefts of fenfe arc all individuals, almoft infinite in number, and 
 for ever changing : fo that inflead of a fyflem of fcience, the firft view of the corporeal 
 world would lead us to imagine, that from our mofl diligent refearches nothing could 
 be obtained but a vafl collection of particular truths. Such a collection, whiHt it 
 would burden the memory, could be of little advantage to the arts of life ; for we arc 
 very feldom brought, on different occafions, into circumflances fo perfefHy fimilar, as 
 to require, without the fmallcil variation, the fame coudud. 
 
 Vol. I. Part I. a But
 
 IT PREFACE. 
 
 But though all the objefts of fenfe, of memory, and of confcioufnefs, are unqueftion- 
 ably individuals diftinft from each other, the contemplative mind of man obferves 
 among them various refemblanccs and analogies. It obftrves, that the fenHition com- 
 municated to the fight by fnow is fimilar to that communicated by milk, paper, chalk, 
 and a thoufand other objefts ; that all external objefts are folid, extended, divifible, 
 and of fome figure ; that the path defcribed by a planet round the fun rcfemblcs 
 that defcribed by a cannon bail over the furface of the earth ; and that many 
 of the aftions of brutes are fimilar to thofe which we are impelled to perform by the 
 internal feelings of defire and averfion. 
 
 This view of nature, quiefcent and aftive, fuggefted to the philofopher the expedi- 
 ency of ftudyin^ the vaft multitude of objefls which compofe the univcrfe ; not indi- 
 vidually, but in groups clafled together according to their perceived refemblanccs or 
 analogies. He faw that his labour would thus be at once ihortencd and rendered in- 
 finitely more ufeful ; but he likewife faw, or ought to have feen, that it would by no 
 means be taken wholly away. Much cautious attention is requifite to dafs objeifls in 
 human fyftems as they are in faft claffcd in the fyflcm of nature. Analogies are apt 
 to be miftaken for refemblanccs ; a refemblancc in a few particulars for a refemblrince 
 in all ; and events, which have in reality very little in common, to be attributed to 
 the fame or funilar caufes. Thefe miflakes can be avoided only by a painful in- 
 duftion of fafts, by means of experiments accurately made on individual objefts ; and 
 it was but very lately that induction was employed as the inftrument of fcientific re- 
 fearch. 
 
 In ancient Greece, where philofophy firfl; aflumed a fyftematic form, all the objefts 
 of human thought were ranged under ten CATEGORIES or predicaments; and every 
 thing which could be affirmed or denied of thefe categories was fuppofcd to be com- 
 prehended under five clafles called predicables. Among the Greek phiiofophers, 
 therefore, the ufe of indudion was to afcertain the category to which any particular 
 object belonged; after which, nothing more wa: .jbe done but, by a ihort procefs of 
 fyllogillic rcafoning, to affirm or deny of that objeft whatever could be affirmed or 
 denied of its category. 
 
 To this ancient arrangement of human knowledge many infuperable objeftions have 
 been urged. But it mull be confefTed, that the arrangements which have been propo- 
 fcd in its flead, by the fages of modern times, have little claim to greater perfeftion. 
 Locke claffed all things under three categories ; substances, modes, and ideas. 
 Hume reduced the number to two ; impressions and ideas. The former of thefe 
 philofopliers admitted of only four predicables, all different from thofe of the ancients ; 
 the latter at firil extended the number to feven, but afterwards reduced it to three ; 
 among which none of the ancient predicables are to be found, and only one of thofe 
 which had been admitted by Locke. 
 
 These different claffifications of knowledge are the natural confequences of mens at- 
 tempting what the greateft powers of the human intellecft will never be able to accom- 
 plilh. It certainly was the aim of Arillotle, or whoever was the inventor of the categories 
 and the predicables, to delineate the whole region of human knowledge, aftual and 
 poffible ; to point out the limits of every diftrift ; and to affign to every thing which 
 can be the object of human thought its proper place in the vaft arrangement. Such 
 an attempt evinces the ambition of its author : nor has the ambition been much lefs of 
 fome of thofe by whom the raffi arrogance of the Stagyrite has been moll feverely 
 cenfured. Locke fays cxprcfsly, that as the objects of our knowledge are confined to 
 fubllances^ modes, and ideas, fo we can difcover nothing of thefe, but i/?, their identity 
 or diverfity ; 2d, their relation ; T,d, their co-cxiflence or neecffary connexion ; and 4ihy 
 their real exUlence : while Ilurae declares, with fome hefitation indeed, that we caa 
 know nothing but the refemblance, contiguity iu time or place, and canfation of our im- 
 preffions and ideas. 
 
 These
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 These attempts, as well modern as ancient, to contraft the whole furniture of the 
 human mind into the compafs of a nut-fhell, and to give at once a compleat chart of 
 knowledge, have been ccnfured, not only as prefumptuous, but as the fertile fources of 
 error, by a philofopher whofe writings do honour to this age and nation. " To 
 make a perfect divilion (fays Dr Rcid), a man muft have a perfect com43rchenfion of 
 the whole fubjcift at one view. When our knowledge of the fuhjeft is imperfeft, anv 
 diviGon we can make mufl: be like the firft iketch of a painter, 'to be extended, con- 
 trafted, or mended, as the fubject Ihall be found to require. Yet nothing is mere 
 common, not only among the ancient but even among modem philofophers, than to 
 draw from their incomplete divilions, conclulions which fuppofe them to be perfect. 
 A divlfion is a repolitory which the philofopher frames for holding his ware in con- 
 venient order. The philofopher maintains, that fuch or fuch a thing is not good 
 ware, becaufe there is no place in his ware room that fits it. We are apt to yield tu 
 this argument in philofophy, but it would appear ridiculous in any other traiEc." 
 
 The truth of thefe obfervations will be controverted by no man who is not an abfo- 
 lute ftranger to the various fyftems, ancient and modem, of what has been called the 
 fir II philofophy. 
 
 But if every fcientific arrangement of knowledge which has hitherto been propofed 
 be fo very imperfeft, what judgment are we to form of that which is adopted by the 
 compilers of Dictionaries or Encyclopaedias, in which the arts and fcicnces are arranged 
 according to the order of the alphabet, and A, B, C, &c. confidered as the categories ? 
 The author whom we have juH: quoted affirms, that of all methods of arrangement this is 
 the mofl: antiphilofophical ; and if he allude only to fuch Encyclopaedias as arc mere 
 di<flionaries, in which the feveral arts and fciences are broken into fragments, fcattered 
 through the work according as the alphabet has happened to difpofe of the various 
 technical terms which have place in each, his alTertion is unqueitionably true. Its 
 truth is indeed admitted by Chambers himfelf, the compiler of one of the ferfl and mofl 
 valuable of thefe dictionaries, who fpeaks of the works of his predeceflbrs as containing 
 nothing but a multitude of materials, or a confufed heap of incoherent parts. " For- 
 mer lexicographers (fays he) fcarce attempted any thing like Itrufture in their works ; 
 they fecm not to have been aware that a diftionary is in fome meafure capable of the 
 advantages of a continued difcourfe: and hence it is, that wc fee nothing like a whole 
 in what they have done." 
 
 Proposing to remedy this defeft in his own Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, he in- 
 forms us, that " his view was to confider the feveral matters, not only in ihemfelves, 
 but relatively, or as they refpecft each other ; both to treat them as fo many wholes, and 
 as fo many parts of fome greater whole j and to point out their connciftion with each 
 other, and with that whole, by reference : fo that by a courfe of references from gene- 
 rals to particulars, from premifes to conclufions, from caufe to effeft, and vice ■vcrfa, 
 a communication might be opened between the feveral parts of the work, and the de- 
 tached articles be in fome meafure replaced in the natural order of fciencc, out of which 
 the alphabetical order had removed them." To enable the reader with the greater cafe 
 to replace in the order of fcience the various articles fcattered through the diftionary, 
 he furnilhed him in the preface with what muft be confidered as an elegant analyfis of 
 human knowledge ; by which may be feen, at one view, the mutual dependence of the 
 feveral parts upon each other, and the incimate connexion of the whole. 
 
 But though the found judgment of Mr. Chambers thus direftcd him to make the ar- 
 rangement of his Cyclopcrdia vaftly preferable to that of any work of the i'anie kmJ 
 which had been publifhed before it; we are afraid that, in ' its original form, it was 
 Hill liable to the objections of Dr Reid. Had all the articles in the work been treated 
 in fufficient detail to conftitute, when reunited in the order of fciencc, fo many com- 
 plete fyftems ; yet the multitude of references was fo great, that this reunion could not 
 have been made but by a degree of irkfome labour, to which few readers will ever fub- 
 
 mit.
 
 VI 
 
 R E 1- 
 
 A 
 
 E. 
 
 itiit (a). The work therefore, with all its improvements, was flill a book of flireds 
 and patches, rather than a fcientific di<5tionary of arts and fciences ; and confidcring 
 the letters of the alphabet as the categories, the arrangement was certainly inconve- 
 nient as well as antiphilofophical. 
 
 Of this inconveniency, infeparablc from a mere diBlonary of arts and fciences, the 
 original Compilers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica were fully aware ; and they refolved 
 to conftruft their own Work upon a plan from which it might be completely removed. 
 They were equally apprifed with their predeceflbrs of the utility of explaining by it- 
 felf every technical term, and of illullrating every particular topic, in the wide circle 
 of the arts and fciences ; but they were at the fame time fenllble, that it is only by 
 thinking in method, and reducing their ideas to the order of nature, that mankind can 
 
 make 
 
 (a) To be convinced of the troth of this affertion, one needs but to call his eye over the author's table of arrangement. 
 It is as follows. 
 
 C Meteorology. 
 Senfible ; confiding in the perception of phenomena or external ob- | Hydrology. 
 je<5ls — called I'livsiOLOGY or Natural History; and which, <i Mineralogy. 
 according to the different kinds of fuch objedls, divides into — | Phytology. 
 
 
 o 
 p 
 w 
 
 .-4 
 
 c 
 
 Kaluralzv\A 
 Scinilijual ; 
 which is ei 
 ther — 
 
 :!-<! 
 
 Rational : confiding in 
 theperception of the in- < 
 trinlic charmfters or ha- 
 bitudes of fenfible ob- 
 jeifts — either their — 
 
 I^Zoology. 
 ' Po-wers, and Properties — call Physics, and Natural Philosophy. 
 
 ^bjlrafls — called Metaphysics, which fubdivides into -J p. . 
 ^lantities — called Pure Ma- ("Arithmetic — whence -J 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 matology. 
 Analytics. 
 _ Algebra. 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 Or, 
 
 ^lanllties — called Pure Ma- ("Arithmetic— 
 
 thematics — which divides, I - r,i 
 
 ,. t- , 1 • fi ,< /-. u f lRlGO^•o^ 
 
 according to the lubjetl ot I (jeometry — whence J p 
 
 the quantity, into — lStatics ) ,, 
 
 ' •' *- (. .S p h r R I cs. 
 
 lefs — called f Ethics, or Natural CPoliti 
 
 doi^rine of< Religion — whence (^Law. 
 
 divides into i.T"eology, or Revelation. 
 
 Relations to our happinefs — called 
 Religion, or the t" " ' 
 1_ Offices, which fubd 
 
 ' Intnnal; employed in difcovering their agreement and difagreement; ortheirrelationsinrefpefl of truth 
 called Logics. 
 
 /inljiciahr.il 
 Tetlmical, 
 (confiding 
 in the appli- 
 cation of na- < 
 turalnotices 
 to farther 
 puipofes), 
 wljich is 
 either — 
 
 Or, 
 
 BMY. 
 
 \L Magic, 
 
 &c 
 
 ■ Liiletit po'-.uers and properties of bodies — f Alchem' 
 called Chemistry — whence (^Naturai 
 
 r Optics,Catoptrics,Dioptrics, f Plrspectivs. 
 — whence j Painting. 
 Phonics — whence Music. 
 Hydrostatics, Hydraulics. 
 
 PnIiUMATICS. 
 
 ' Real, ein- 
 pl(<ycd in 
 difcoveiin? > 
 and apply 
 
 t 
 
 External; 
 which is 
 either 
 
 ing the 
 
 Or, 
 
 ^uantitiesoiho. 
 dies — called 
 Mixed Ma- 
 thematics ; 
 wliich, accor- 
 ding to the 
 different fub- 
 je^fts, refolves 
 into 
 
 r Architecture. 
 Mechanics — whence < Sculpture. 
 
 (.Trades and Manufactures. 
 
 T, , f The Military y/r/. 
 
 rYROTECHNiA-wnence < ,- 
 
 i iORTIFICATION. 
 , , fCHRONOLOGY. 
 
 AsTRONOMV — wlience -J t-i 
 
 l_ UlALLING. 
 
 Geography, Hydro- f Navigation. 
 GRAPHY — whence ^Commerce. 
 Stntclure AVid economy oi organical bodies, called Anatomy. 
 
 Relations thereof 
 to the prefer- 
 vation and ira- 
 prnvemciu — 
 ciiher of — 
 
 ... ,, , CMedicine. 
 
 r Animals called -J ,j 
 
 .^Pharmacy. 
 
 Vegetables — called < p 
 
 f Parrying. 
 {^Manhgk-wIi 
 
 Brut! 
 
 - called 
 
 f Hunting. 
 ' Falconry, 
 
 lencc j T- <■ 
 
 (, iisHiHG, &:c. 
 
 Symholical, employ 
 framing and appl 
 
 WorJs, or articulate figns of ideas — called Grammar. 
 
 {Words, or articulate ligns oi ideas — c? 
 Armories — called Heraldry. 
 Tropes and Figures — called Rhetoric 
 Fables — called Poetry. 
 
 Such
 
 PREFACE. vii 
 
 make any progrefs in ufcful knowledge. To accomplifli therefore efTciftually wliat Mr 
 Chambers by means of his prefatory fcientifical analyfis attcmpicd in vain, they endea- 
 voured to give a compendious, yet clear and fatisfa^tory, account of the fcveral arts 
 and fciences under their proper denominations, whiift the fubordinate articles in each 
 were likewifc explained under their technical terms. 'I'hcfe fubordinate articles they 
 divided into three kinds ; of which the firft confifls of fuch as, independent of particu- 
 lar fyftems, admit of a full and complete illuftration under their proper names ; 
 the fecond, of fuch as require to be partly difcufTcd under the fyftems to which they 
 belong, and partly under their own denominations ; and the third, of fuch as apper- 
 tain to fyftems of which* all the parts muft be elucidated together. Articles of the firft 
 kind admit of no references ; thofe of the fecond, being only partially explained under 
 their proper denominations, demand references to the fyftems where the illuftrations 
 are completed ; and thofe of the lad are wholly referred to the fyftems of which they 
 arc conftiiucnts. 
 
 Such has been the arrangement of the Arts and Sciences in every edition of the En- 
 cyclopcedia Britannica ; and it furely falls not under that cenfure which Dr Reid pro- 
 nounced with jullice on many other works bearing a fimilar title. 
 
 In the fpirit of true philofophy, that great man obferves, that the fame fubjeft may 
 admit, and even require, various divifions, according to the different points of view 
 from which it is contemplated ; and we doubt not but, if he had been afkcd, he would 
 candidly have acknowledged, that the divifions and arrangement of the Encyclopa-dia 
 Britannica are calculated to anfwer every purpofe which can be expeftcd from a gene- 
 ral repofitory of arts, fciences, and mifcellaneous literature. They are fuch as mull 
 give to readers of every delcription the moft eafy accefs to the objects of their purfuit ; 
 for whiKl the philofoplier or fyftematic artift may be fully and regularly informed by 
 turning to the general name of the fcience or art which he willies to explore, the man 
 who has occalion to confult only particular topics will find them illuftrated under the 
 terms by which they are denominated. Contemplated from this point of view, the 
 arrangement of the Encyclopaedia Britannica needs not flirink from a comparifon e\en 
 with that of the Encyclopedic Methodiquc ; for though that voluminous work, confilling 
 of a dictionary of dictionaries, may have the appearance of being more fyilematically 
 arranged ; yet we, who have had occafion to confult it frequently, have never found 
 our oljjeCt: the more readily for having been obliged to travel in quefl: of it through 
 different alphabets. 
 
 A DICTIONARY, in which the feveral arts and fciences are digerted into diftinct trea- 
 tifes or fyllems, whilft the various detached parts of knowledge are explained in the order 
 of the alphabet, feems indeed to have received the befl form of which fuch a work is 
 fufceptible ; and may certainly be made to anfwer one end, which more philofophical 
 ;irrangcments never can acconiplilli. Under the various letters of the alphabet, it is 
 obvious that the whole circle of the fciences may be completely exhaufted ; and that 
 every difcovery, ancient or recent, may be referred to the particular fyftem which it 
 
 Vol. I. Part I. b tends 
 
 Such is that great and general analyfis of know ledge, which has by fome of our correfpondents been recom- 
 mended to us in terms of the highellpraife, and to which elegance and accuracy cannot perhaps be refufed. Its 
 utility, however, as piefixedto a diiSionary of arts and fciences, is not very apparent, l-'rom each word, which 
 in this table is printed in capitals, many branches are made to fpring, whicli in tiie dictionary are all treated as 
 fcparatc articles. Thus from Metiorology wcarc referred, in a fubordinate analyfis, to Air and the At- 
 mosphere: including, ill, The liillory of its contents, VF-vmer, Fire, Vapour, E.v halation, S:c. 2d, Me- 
 teors formed theiein; as Cloud, Rain, Shower, Drop, Snow, Hail, Dew, Damp, &c. Rainbow, 
 Parhelisn, Halo, Thunder, Waterspout, &c. Winds, Monsoon, Hurricane, and the like. As every 
 word printed in capitals, as well in this fubordinate divifion as in llie general table, is the title of an article 
 treated feparatejy in the Cyclopidia, we mull turn backwards and forwards through more than 24 references 
 before we come at the detached topics, wliich we are directed to unite into a fyfleni of MrTtoROLOc y. The 
 number of articles which muft be united in the fime manner to conftitutethe Compiler's fyftem of Metaphv- 
 sics is upwardi of 48 ; and thofe which arc referred to Theology above 300 !
 
 VIU 
 
 P R E F A C E. 
 
 fcnJs to confute or to confirm, without havinp; rccourle to the awkward expedient of 
 cmp!o)inL; icveral alpliabets, or the ftill more inconvenient arrangement by whicli the 
 lyllems thcmlelves are broken into fragments. 
 
 JiuT on this topic it is needlefs to expatiate. The very favourable reception with 
 which the two former editions of the EncyclopxJia Britannica were honoured by the 
 I'ubhc ; the Hill greater encouragement which has been given to the prefent ; and the 
 adoption of the plan by the editors of other repofitories of arts and fciences — l->ear ample 
 teftimony to the excellence of the arrangement. On this fubjefl we exprcfs ourfclves 
 w ith the greater cafe and the greater confidence, that we cannot be accufed of flattering 
 our own vanity, or publifliing our own j^raifes ; for the merit of forming the arrange- 
 ment, as well as of introducing into the work various branches of knowledge, from 
 w hich, as they are not generally to be found in dictionaries, it derives a jull claim to 
 the favour of the Public, belongs not to the Compilers of tlic prefent Edition. 
 
 After furveying any particular art or fclence, our curiofity is excited to acquire fome 
 knowledge of the private hillory of thofe eminent perfons by whom it was invented, 
 or has been cultivated and improved. To gratify this curiofity, tliofe \\ho formed 
 the plan of the Encyclopaedia Britannica refolved to enrich it with a department not 
 to be found in any prior collection of the fame kind except the French Encyclopedic. 
 
 Of all the various fpecies of narrative-writing, it is acknou'ledged that none is more 
 worthy of cultivation than biography ; fince none can be more delightful or more 
 ufeful, rone can more certainly enchain the heart by irrefiflible intereft, or more 
 widely dilVufe inRruftion to every divcrfity of condition. Its tendency to illullrate 
 particular paffages in general hiftory, and to diflufe new liglit through fuch arts and 
 fciences as were cultivated by the perfons whofe lives are related, are fafts too obvious 
 to require proof. It exhibits likewife the human characfter in every poflible form and 
 fituation. It not only attends the hero through all the biiftle of public life, but pur- 
 fues him to his moil fequeftered retirements. It ihows how diftingiiilhed characters 
 have been involved in misfortunes and ditlicukics; by what means they were extricat- 
 ed J or with what degree of fortitude and dignity they difcharged the various func- 
 tions, or fullained the viciflitudes, fomctiraes profperous and fometimes adverfe, of a 
 checqucred and a flu(ftuating life. In fuch narratives men of all ranks mufl frel tliem- 
 fclvcs iiitercfled ; for the high and the low, as they have the fame faculties and the 
 fame fenfes, have no lefs fimilitude in their pains and pleafures ; and thereJbre in the 
 page of honeft biography, thofe whom fortune or nature has placed at the grcatefl dif- 
 tance, may mutually afford inflruftion to each other. For thefe reafons it is, that every 
 man of learning and talk has efteemed tlie biographical labours of Plutarch among the 
 mofl valuable and interelting remains of antiquity. 
 
 '1"h£ lives and cliarafters, therefore, of iuch perfons as have excelled in the arts 
 cither of war or of peace, of fuch as have diftinguilhed themfclves either on the theatre 
 of aftion or in the recefs of contemplation, will be found in the Encyclopa-dia Bri- 
 tannica alphabetically difpofed under their proper names. Many indeed are omitted, 
 for whom the reader will naturally look ; fome becaufe, in the order of the alphabet, 
 we had paffed the initial letters of their names before we had intelligence of their 
 deaths ; others, through the inadvertency, whether excufable or not, of the Editors j 
 fevcral, for a reafon which fhall be afterwards afligned for omifilons of a different 
 kind, and perhaps of greater importance ; and a very few from the contemptuous re- 
 fufal of their friends to anfwer the Editor's letters rcfpeftfully rcquefling the neceffary 
 information (b). 
 
 But 
 
 (b) Of this treatmsnt we have not inJeed often had occafion to complain. While mea of the firft eminence 
 in church and ft.*ie have readily anfwcred the letters lliat were adJrcffed to them, and either communicated the 
 
 ior-
 
 PREFACE. , It 
 
 But while one part of our readers will regret that we have given no account of their 
 favourite philofophcr, hero, or rtatcfman, others may be difpofed to remark, that wc 
 have dragged from obfcurity the names of many pcrfons who v/erc no proper objcfts 
 of fuch public regard. To thefe we can only reply, that, with the grcatcll: biographer 
 of modern times, wc have long thought that there has rarely pafTed a life of which a 
 faithful narrative would not be ufeful ; and that in the lives of the moil: obfcurc per- 
 fons, of whom we have given any account, we faw fomcthing either conncfted v;ith 
 recent difcoveries and public afiairs, or v/hich we thought capable of affording a leflbn 
 to great multitudes in fimilar circumitances. 
 
 Between eminent atchievements and the fcenes where they were performed, there 
 is a natural and neccflary connexion. The charafter of the warrior is connected with 
 the fields of his battles ; that of the legiflator, with the countries which he civilized ; 
 and that of the traveller and navigator, with the regions which they explored. Even 
 when we read of the perfons by whom, and the occafions on which, any particular 
 branch of knowledge has been improved, we naturally, wifli to know fomcthing of, 
 the places where fuch improvements were made. lliis curiofity, fo natural and fo 
 laudable, has been frequently felt by ourfelves during Ihe compilation of this Work ; 
 and to gratify it in others, we have fubjoined to the name of every confiderable place 
 an account of its fituation, its climate, its foil, its peculiarities, its inhabitants, with 
 their manners, cufloms, and arts ; its revolutions, laws, and government, with what- 
 ever elfe appeared necelTary for the readers information, and at the fame time admif- 
 lible fnto a work of fuch variety and extent. It is indeed probable, that by many of 
 our readers we (hall be thought to have done too much rather than too little in this 
 department ; and to have filled our pages with accounts of towns and villages not of 
 fuSicicnt importance to demand general attention. But were it known how many of 
 fuch places we have excluded from our Work, though recommended to us by fome of 
 our mod obliging correfpondents, thofc who refleft upon the different tafles of man- 
 kind, and confider that we wrote for the Public at large, would forgive us for having 
 occalionally employed a few fentences in the defcription of others, which, whatever be 
 their real importance, could not have been omitted without difappointing a very nu- 
 merous clafs of readers. 
 
 The knowledge of hifliory is fo important, not only to the flatefman and the legifla- 
 tor, to whom indeed it is abfolutely necefTary, but likewife to every man who moves 
 in a fphere above that of the loweit vulgar, that a Work profeffing to be a general re- 
 pofitory of arts, fciences, and literature, would be exceedingly defective, if it did not 
 contain fome information of the tranfaftions of thofe who have been in pofl'cfTion of the 
 world before us ; of the varbus revolutions of flates and empires ; and of all the other 
 means which have contributed to bring every thing into the flate in which we behold 
 it. Fully aware of this, the compilers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, befides giving 
 a general view of univcrfal Iiillory and chronology, have enriched this Cklition with a 
 fliort, though they hope luminous, detail of the progrefs of each particular nation, 
 which from the remotefl period to the prefent time has afted a confpicuous part on 
 the theatre of the world. The reader therefore will here find a very comprehenfive 
 view of Civil History, ancient and modern, in all its branches. Nor have the hiflo- 
 ries of Nature and Religion been neglefted. Of the former, it is not perhaps too 
 much to fay, that in all the fubdivifions of its three great kingdoms, it will be found more 
 tully, more accurately, and mure fcicntifically, detailed in this Work than in any other 
 di(ftionary which has yet been publifhed. Of the latter, a brief view is given under 
 the general article History ; the unavoidable dcfeifts of which are in a great mcafure 
 
 b 2 Aipplicd 
 
 information which was requefted, or politely ailignsd reafons for wilhing the lives of iheir friends not to be 
 publilTied in the Encyclopidia Britannica, the Editor rccolkfts but two men, who maintained a fulWn 
 lilence ; and ihefs he canuot confider as movins in a fphere much hijjhsr than his own.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 fuppIIeJ by the accounts that will be found, under their proper denominations, of all 
 the coufklerable feifts and opinions which have prevailed in the religious world from tlic 
 earlicll periods to the prefent day. 
 
 Such was the plan of the fecond edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; to which, 
 as it fcems hardly capable of improvement, the Compilers of the third have, with a 
 few flight variations, ftrit^lly adhered. Still, however, there was ample room for the 
 efforts of all their indullry and all their learning ; for the rapid progrefs of the phyfi- 
 cal fciences had rendered the labours of their predeceflbrs in many departments ufelefs. 
 Befides the introduction of fome thoufands of new articles, there are not many of great 
 importance, thofc in biography and geography alone excepted, which Ihuid in this 
 Edition as they flood in the laif. Such recent difcoveries as could be introduced, have 
 been mentioned with reference to their proper authors ; and, vhile the feveral fciences 
 have been treated more fully and fyllemalically, greater care has been employed to 
 trace the hirtory of each from its firll invention, and to apply them all to the arts of life. 
 
 To accomplilh a talk fo arduous and fo important, neither labour nor expence has 
 been fparcd. Literary journals ; the memoirs and tranfa(ftions of philofophic focicties ; 
 and all the moft valuable diftionaries of arts and fciences, both in our own and in 
 other languages, have been conllantly confulted. The works of the moft eminent au- 
 thors, as well ancient as modern, who have written on any particular art or fcicnce, 
 have been collefted and compared. Such of them as treat of topics, about which there 
 is no room for controverfy, and are at the fame time fufceptible of abridgment, have 
 been abridged with the greatefl care ; whilfl others, more concife and tenacious of their 
 fubjefts, have been more clofely purfucd and more faithfully retained. Upon thofe 
 branches of fcience on which the works of other authors furniflied nothing fit for the 
 purpofe of the Editors, original cffajs and treatifes are inferted, which were compofed 
 either by themlclves, or by fuch of their friends as they knew to be intimately ac- 
 quainted with the fubjeft. On difputed points, whether in the phyfical or moral 
 fciences, arguments and objections have been difplayed in their full force ; and of each 
 of the various fefts into which the Chriftian church is divided, the account is generally 
 given by the moft eminent clergyman of that feft to whom the Editors could find ac- 
 cefs. 
 
 After the utmoft exertions, however, of our attention and induftry, we are fcnfibic, 
 perhaps more fenfiblc than any of our readers, tliat the Work paffes from our hands in 
 a ftate far from perfection ; and that the man who fliall not difcover in the Encyclo- 
 paxha Britannica miftakes, needlefs repetitions, and even culpable omiffions, will bring 
 to the examination of it no great ftock of general knowledge. But for thefe ollences the 
 Editors perhaps need no other apology than what will be furniflied by the nature of 
 the Work and the hiftory of its publication. 
 
 In a collection fo extenfive and multifarious, a few miftakes, repetitions, and omif- 
 fions, might furely be paflcd over without feverity of cenfure, although the publicatioa 
 had from the beginning to the end been fuperintended by the fame man ; but they 
 •will be allowed to have been almoft unavoidable, when it is known that, after the 
 AVork was far advanced, it was committed to the care of a new Editor, who, though 
 he was in a great degree a ftranger to the contents of the printed volumes, found no 
 clue of his predeceflbr's which could guide him accurately through thofe to be com- 
 piled. 
 
 We beg it to be underftood, that this obfervation is not made with a view to re- 
 move any ihare of blame from the fecond to the firft Editor ; for Mr Colin Macfar- 
 qulrar, who conducted the publication beyond the middle of the twelfth volume, 
 was a man whom few who knew him will be difpofed to blame, and on whofe indu- 
 ftrious integrity thofe who knew him beft muft admit that it would be difficult to 
 beftow too much praife. Born in Edinburgh of parents refpeftable, though not afllu- 
 cat, he was, at an early period of life, bound an apprentice to a printer. This pro- 
 feffion gave him a tafte for fcicnce and literature, or rather furniflied him w-jth oppor- 
 
 luiiitics.
 
 P R E F A C: E. 
 
 tunities of cultivating the tafte which he derived from nature : and he foon became 
 well acquainted with the mod popular writers in natural hiflory and in natural and 
 moral philofophy. When he opened a printing-houfe of his own, rectitude of conduct 
 quickly recommended him to friends and to employment ; and the unremitted profe- 
 cution of his ftudies eminently qualified him for fupcrintcnding the publication of a new 
 diftionary of arts, fcicnces, and literature ; of which, under the title of ENCYCi.op.tDiA 
 Britannica, the idea had been conceived by him and his friend Mr Andrew Bell en- 
 graver. By whom thefe gentlemen were affifted in digcfting the plan which attracted 
 to that Work fo much of the public attention, or whether they had any aflillance, are 
 queftions in which our readers cannot be interefled. Suffice it to fay, that Mr Mac- 
 farquhar had the fole care of compiling the prcfent Edition ; and that, with the aid 
 of a very few literary friends, he brought it down to the article Mysteries, in the 
 twelfth volume, when he was cut olT in the 4.8 ih year of his age by a death which, 
 though not fudden, was perhaps unexpected. His career was indeed fliort ; but of him 
 it may be faid with as much propriety as of moft men, Nemo parum diii vixit, qui 
 virtutis perfe^a pcrfcclo functus cfl inuncrc. 
 
 Among his literary correfpondents was the Reverend Dr Gleig of Stirling, who had 
 written for him various articles, of which fome were publiflaed during his lifetime 
 and others in their order after his death. Thefe fliall be afterwards enumerated with 
 thofe furniihed by other occafional contributors ; but they are mentioned at prefent, 
 becaufe they account for that partial regard of Mr Macfarquhar for their author, which, 
 on the death of the former, induced the truftees for his children, together with Mr Bell 
 the furviving partner, to requeft the latter to undertake the ta/k Mhich their dcceafed 
 friend had hitherto difcharged with fo much credit to himfelf. In this propofal, after 
 fome hefitation on account of his dillance from Edinburgh, Dr Gleig acquiefced ; but 
 wdien he entered on his new office, he found matters in a flate of no little confufion. 
 Mr Macfarquhar, though his death had not been long expefted, had laboured long 
 under a complication of difeafes; the confequence of which was, that the materials 
 which he had prepared for the prefs were almoft exhaufled ; and of thofe vliich were 
 firfl: called for, fome had not pafl'ed through his correfting hand. 
 
 This circumftance may perhaps account for fome defefts and inaccuracies in that 
 part of the Work, to which the fecond Editor looks back with the leaft fatisfaftion: but 
 that which mud be his apology for feveral repetitions and omilfions, was the neglcft of 
 his predecelTor during his laft illnefs to make an intelligible index to his own labours. 
 From the want of fuch a necefTary guide, Dr Gleig was perpetually liable, notwith- 
 ftanding his utmoft circumfpeftion, to give under one title an explanation of fubjcfts 
 which had been before explained under another ; and to omit articles altogether, from 
 a perfuafion that they had been difculled in fome preceding volume under the general 
 fyitem to which they belong. 
 
 Neither his repetitions nor omilllons, however, are fo many as fome have ftippo- 
 fed them ; for what has been hallily cenfured as a repetition, is frequently nothing 
 more than the neceflary relumption of fome important fubjeft. Availing himfelf 
 of the excellence of the plan upon which the Encycloprodia Britannica is conilruft- 
 ed, he took the opportunity, when he found any fyltem fuperiicially treated, to fupply 
 its defefts under fome of the detached articles belonging to it. Of this he (hall men- 
 tion as one inilance Hydrostatics ; which, confidered as a fyilem, muft be con- 
 fefl'ed to be defeftive ; but he trulls that its defers are in a great meafure fupplied un- 
 der the feparate articles Resistance o/"/''/K/i/i, River, Specific GravitVj and IVjhr- 
 Works. 
 
 That in the Encyclopaedia Britannica no account is given of fome things which 
 fliould have a place in a .general repofitory of arts, fciences, and mifcellaneous litera- 
 ture, muft be acknowledged ; but it mull likewifc be acknowledged that fuch omiiEons 
 are neither numerous nor very important ; for many fubjefts, which have been fup- 
 pofed to be omitted, arc trcatal under titles different from tliofe under which they 
 
 have
 
 Nil PREFACE. 
 
 hnve been looked for. Thus the method of calculating compound interefls, which one 
 of our correfpondents cannot find in our Work, 'a taught in the article Algebra ; 
 that of coaling mirrors, of which another complains that no account is given, will be 
 found under the term Foliating ; and though it may be true, according to the 
 peevifli remark of a third, that the reader is nowhere dircftly in(hni(?>cd how to grind 
 optical giafles, yet if he read the article Gi.Ass-Gr/W//?^, and undcrlland the doclrine 
 of lenfes as laid down in the article Optics, he will cafily, if an artift, difcover a 
 method of perlorraing that operation for himfelf. 
 
 Omissions, however, there are towards the end of the Work j not the confequence 
 of carcleilhefs, but the offspring of neccility. 
 
 In an addrcfs to the Purchafcrs of the Encyclopa-dia Britannica, fubjoincd to the 
 ninth volume, the proprietors gave a rafli promifc to comprehend the whole of their 
 undertaking within the limits of eighteen ; and if intervening difcovcrics fhould make 
 it ncceflary, to enlarge the iafl volumes in quantity without any additional charge to 
 Suhfcribers. 
 
 That the promife was rafli, a moment's reflection fliould have taught them ; for in 
 the prefcnt rapid progrefs of phyficrd fcience, when new difcoveries are daily made, it 
 was obvioufly nnpoiFible, at fo early a period, to afcertain with prccifion how many vo- 
 lumes would be neceffary to bring a Work of fuch comprehenfive variety to the utmofl 
 perfection of which it is capable. This was indeed foou difcovered ; but the proprie- 
 tors fhrunk not from their engagement, which they determined to fulfil to the utmoft 
 extent of its meaning, till the additional tax, which in 1795 vi'as laid upon paper, in- 
 volved them in diflicuities which they had not forefeen. By the a<ft of parliament they 
 were indeed authorifed to reimburfe thcmfclves by raifing the fubfcription-price of 
 their volumes ; but they chofe rather to fubmit to a diminution of profit, than to take 
 even a legal advantage of that Public by which they had hitherto been fo generoufly 
 lupported. 
 
 To complete their plan, however, in its original extent, was now impofllblc, with- 
 out a violatiou of the facred duties which they owe to themfelvcs and to their families. 
 In this dilemma the Editor propofed that they ihould ftate the cafe to their Suhfcri- 
 bers, of whom he is confident that nine-tenths would have releafcd them from the obliga- 
 tion of their promife: but after long deliberation, they judged that it would be more 
 acceptable to the public at large to comprehend the Work in the propofed number of 
 volumes, though they fliould exclude from the Iafl fuch articles as might be omitted 
 without injury to fcience or the arts of life. If by any of their readers they fliall be 
 thought to have erred in this judgment, let them not, however, be too feverely bla- 
 med ; for they have done much to adhere to the fpirit of their promife ; and, in the large 
 addition made to the bulk of the lall volume, have fliewn that they prefer their honour 
 to their intercfl. Several things have indeed been excluded ; but except fuch recent dif- 
 coveries as could not be noticed under the Iafl: letters of the alphabet, it is believed that 
 very little has been omitted which can be confidered as of great or general importance. 
 At any rate, the Editor flatters himfelf, that the Iafl fix volumes of the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica do not difgrace thofe by which they are preceded, and that the whole will 
 bear to be comi)ared with any other 'Work of the fame kind extant. Imperfeft it cer- 
 tainly is : " but if much has been omitted, let it be remembered that much has like- 
 wife been performed;" that perfeftion is not to be looked for in the works of man; 
 and that evcrv compilation of fuch variety and extent fliould be examined with the 
 fpirit which actuated one of the greatefl: critics of antiquity when peruCng the works 
 of his brother poets : 
 
 Vcrum iibiplura ni'cnt in carmine, non ego paucis 
 
 Offender ni^eulis, quas atit incuriafudtt, 
 
 atlut humana parum cavit naiura. HoR. DE art. poet. 
 
 W,F
 
 P R i: F A C E. 
 
 We mentioned our obligations to occafional contributors ; and many of our corrc- 
 fpondents have exprcfled an earncfl: defire to know who thcfe contributors have been. 
 As there can be no impropriety in gratifying fuch a defire, v/e fliall conclude this Pre- 
 face, by afligning the various articles, not compiled by the Editors tliemfclves, to their 
 refpeftlve authors : but as many of the v.riters for the lirlt twelve volumes were known 
 to IVIr. Macfarquhar alone, they will not attribute the omilHon of their names to cul- 
 pable defign, but to irremediable ignorance. 
 
 For whatever inftruction may be conveyed in the articles Anatomy and Surgery 
 the Public is indebted to Andrew Bell, F. S. S. A. one of the proprietors, and the in- 
 genious MrFyfe. IVom the former of thefe gentlemen the world will foon receive 
 one of the moil fplendid anatomical works whicii it has yet fceu ; and as the latter has 
 long officiated under Dr Monro as difTettor in the anatomical fchool of the univerfity 
 of Edinburgh, it is needlefs for us to fay how well he mull be acquainted with the 
 fubjefts on which wc employed him to write. Aerology, Aerostation, Chemi- 
 stry, Electricity, Gunnery, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Meteorology, with 
 mofl: of the feparatc articles in the various branches of natural hiftory, we have reafon 
 to believe were compiled by Mr James Tytler chemifl ; a man who, though his con- 
 duct has been marked by almoft perpetual imprudence, poffcfTes no common fliare of 
 fcience and genius. The article Blind was furnilhed by Dr Blacklock and Ur Moyes, 
 both blind themfelves, and both men of fuperior attainments ; the former in elegant 
 literature, and that latter in the phyfical fciences. We believe that the article Edu- 
 cation was compofed by Mr Robert Heron, author of a liiftory of Scotland now pu- 
 blifliing, who likewife furniflied the greater part of what we have publiihed under the 
 titlesRELiGiON and Society. The lives of Johnson and Maky ^een of Scots, with 
 the articles Instinct, Love, Metaphysics, Miracle, the hillory Ethics under 
 Moral Philosophy, Oath, Passion, Plastic Naturf, Polytheism, Prayer, 
 Slavery, and Supper of tbe Lord, were contributed by Dr Gleig, Editor of the lad 
 fix volumes; Grammar (c) and Theology by. Dr Gleig and the Reverend James 
 Bruce, A. B. late of Emanuel College, Cambridge ; and Motion by Dr Gleig and 
 Mr Tytler. The fyftem of Medicine, which was publiihed in the former edition, 
 was reviled and improved for the prefent by Andrew Duncan, M. D. Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh, and Profeflbr of the Inftitutes of Piivfic in the Univerfi- 
 ty. The notes to the article Music were contributed by Dr Blacklock, and the hi- 
 llory of the art by AVilliam Maxwell I\Iorifon. Eiq ; advocate, who likewife favoured 
 us with what we have publiflicd on the fcience of Physiognomy. The articles My- 
 steries, Mythology, and Philology, we owe to the erudition of David Dolg, 
 L. L. D. F. S. S. A. mafler of the grammar-fchool of Stirling, and author of two very 
 ingenious Letters on the Sav ge State, addrefled to the late I.ord Karnes. Naviga- 
 tion, Parallax, Pendulum, Projection cftbe Sphere, Ship-Building, and Naval 
 Tactics, were furnilhed by Andrew Mackay, L. L. D. F. R. S. E. of Aberdeen, and 
 known to the Public as author of a treatife on the Theory and Praclicc of finding the 
 
 Longitude 
 
 (c) Mr Bruce, who communicated ilie rnofl valuable parts of the article Grammar, and who was for ' 
 many years a fludent in the univerfity of St Andrew'^, wilhes, from gr ititr.de to his old mailer, to declare, 
 in this public manner, that, to the inllruflions of Dr Hunter, profelibr of humanity in that univerfity, hs 
 is indebted for much of what philological knciwledjjc he may poilcfs. We believe indeed that Dr Hunttr 
 may claim as his own the theory which we have given of the cafes of nouns, the doiflrine concernin':^ the 
 inverfe acceptation of the adjective, and the refoluiioii of the relative pionoun by means of the prepofiiion 
 of inllead of the conjun(5Hon and. Tliere is noth.ing clfe in cur article which the attentive reader inav nit 
 find in the grammatical writings of Vnjfius, ScsUger, San^ius, Perizcnius, iruHis, RudJiman, Harris, Horm- 
 Tcok; and Dr Gregory of Edinburgh. Difcoveries in grammar are not indeed to be looked for. They 
 are nearly allied to tliofe in metaphyfics ; of which, it has been well obfervcd byone of theacuteft writers 
 of the age, that ths very appearance lliould be rcjeilcd as an error, if not as an impoCiion, upon ma.ikinJ. 
 
 xm
 
 xiv PREFACE. 
 
 Longitude nt Sea or Land. John Robifon, M. A. fecrctary to the Royal Society of 
 Edinburgh, and profcflbr of natunil philofophy in tlie Univertity, did the Editor the 
 honour of contributing to the Encyclopaedia Britannica the valuable articles Physics, 
 i*NEUMATics, Precession of the Equinoses, Projectiles, Pumps, Resistance of 
 Fluids, River, Roof, WovE-Making, Rotation, Seamanship, Signals, Sound, Spe- 
 cific Gravity, Statics, Steam and Steam Engine, Strength of Materials, Tele- 
 scope, Tide, Jrticu/aiing '1'v.vMVEr, Variation c///j^ Cowy^^, and W^/cr- Works. 
 Philosophy is the joint production of ProfeiTor Robifon and Ur Gleig. Physiology 
 was furnilhed by John Barclay, RI. D. of Edinburgh, whofe merits, if the Editor be 
 not partial to his friend, it will raife high in the elUmation of nun of fciencc. The 
 fflays on Predestination and Providence were contributed by Robert Forfyth, Efq. 
 advocate ; the account of the French Revolution by Mr. Forfyth and Dr Gleig ; and 
 Oxygen and Phlogiston by John Rotheram, M. D. profeflbr of natural philofophy 
 in the Univerfity of St Andrew's. 
 
 The other contributors to the firfl part of the Work we cannot enumerate ; but we 
 know that much ufcful information was occafionally communicated by Dr Latham of 
 Dartford in Kent, the celebrated ornlthologiH; ; by Dr William Wright Phyfician- 
 general to the forces in the Well Indies under the command of Sir Ralph Abcrcrom- 
 l)ie ; by the Reverend J. Hawkins, vicar of Halfted in EfTex ; by the late Mr Adams, 
 mathematical inllrument-maker to his Majefly ; and by Mr William Jones, optician 
 in Holborn, London. There is, however, no man to whom the Proprietors of the En- 
 cyclopa'dia Britannica feel theinfelves under greater obligations than to Dr Black, 
 for the very handfome offer which he inade to the perfon who was at firft entrulled 
 with the chemical department of the Work. And while they exprefs thus publicly 
 their gratitude to him, may not the Editor declare how much he is indebted to his 
 two afiiliants, the Reverend James Walker, M. A. of St John's College, Cambridge, 
 and Mr James 'I'homfon of CrieiT, preacher in the church of Scotland i* Of thefe gen- 
 tlemen, who fucceffively had the care of the Work when he was neceffarily abfent, he 
 could always fay, £^dbus in rebus ipfi interejfc non fojfumus, in his, operas mfira vicaria 
 fides amicor umfupponitur. 
 
 TO the above preface of the European Editors the publiflicr of the American Edi- 
 tion begs leave to add, that neither care nor expenfe have been fpared to render the 
 work worthy of the Public attention. Some articles have been written anew, feveral of 
 original matter have been inferted, and many have been revifed and important improve- 
 ments made in them, indeed, through every volume ufeful though minute improve- 
 ments have been introduced which contributed to the excellence of the work. The 
 engravings, the paper, and the general execution of the work mufl: fpeak for them- 
 felves, on this fcore the publiiher thinks he has not much cenfure to fear; for typo- 
 graphical inaccuracies, which are comparatively few, he has no apology to offer, but flat- 
 ters himfelf that in a work of fuch variety and extent the candid reader will view them 
 with indulgence. 
 
 From the nature of the work many things muft be expefted to be imperfeft, and 
 fome through inadvertence omitted, thefe, with a variety of original materials are pro- 
 poled to be taken up in a fupplementary volume. 
 
 ENCYCLOPiEDIA.
 
 Encyclopaedia. 
 
 THE firfl letter of tlie alphabet, in all 
 
 A. A 
 
 abbreviat. Xl) known languages of the World, that ot Ethiopia 
 
 ^ ' cxcepteil, ill which it is the 13th. It has defervcdiy 
 the firR place in the alphabet on account of itsfimplici- 
 ty, very little more being necelfary to its pronunciation 
 than opening the mouth. 
 
 In the EngliQi language A is the mark of three dif- 
 ferent founds, termed, by our grammarians the broad, 
 ibe op:n, and \\\t Jltiidcr A. The firit refembles that 
 of the German A, is found in fevcral monofyllablcs, 
 as -wall, fait, &c. and is pronounced as au in caufi. It 
 is probable that the Saxons exprclled only this broad 
 found of the letter, as it is ftill commonly retained in 
 the northern dillrids of England, and univerfally 
 tliroughout Scotland ; as tank for talk, -wank for walk 
 ■or -make. The open A refembles that of the Italians 
 in adagia, and is the fame with tJut ui a in father, ra- 
 ther, &c. The (lender found is peculiar to the Englilh 
 language, and refcmblts the found of the French diph- 
 tJiong ai \npais, or their a mafculine, or perhaps it is 
 a middle found between them : it is exempliticdin/'/<icif, 
 •wajlc, &c. alfo in toleration, jujlificathn, and all other 
 words ending with ation. 
 
 A is fometimes added afterwords in burlefque poetry ; 
 in which cafe it only makes an additional fyllable with- 
 out any alteration of the fenfe, as the interjeiftion O 
 very often does in our ballads. It is alfo fometimes 
 redundant, as in the words arife, aivak:, &c. which 
 arc not different in fignification from ri/e, wake. 
 Sec. 
 
 It is fometimes a word, either noun or interjedlion ; 
 in which lafl cafe it iscommonly an exprellion of grief, 
 and joined with the afpirate, a.sahf Wiien a noun, it is 
 only with rcfpefttu itfelf ; is great A, little a, &c. 
 
 A is very frequently ufedas an article; in which cafe 
 it has no pUual fignitication, and is ufcd 10 denote the 
 nuBiber one, as a houfe, a field, &c. When placed as 
 an article before any of the vowels, } and ~^n only ex- 
 cepted, it is joined with the letter « ,- as, a/i illand, an 
 orator, &c. In the three following cafes it is a prcpo- 
 fition. I. When it goes before a participle, or noun 
 derived from a participle ; as, I am a doing this or 
 that. 2. When ufcd before local furnaincs, as Corne- 
 lius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis, Sec. ^. When it is 
 iifed in compofition ; as, a foot, a llecp, S;c. In fome 
 inftances it denotes the proportion of one ihing to ano- 
 tlicr ; as fo much a week, a man, ahead, Sec. 
 
 A, among the ancients, was a i;umcral l»ttcr, and 
 Vol. I. 
 
 A. 
 
 the lignilied joo ; and when a dafh was added on the top, 
 
 A, jooo. 
 
 A, in the Julian calendar, is the firft of the feven 
 DOMINICAL letters. It had been in ufe amongft the 
 Romans long before the eflablifliment of Chriftianity, 
 as the firIt of the eight nundinates literce ; in imita- 
 tion whereof it was that the dominical letters were firft 
 introduced. 
 
 A is alio an abbreviation ufcd with different inten- 
 tions. Hence, 
 
 A, among logicians, is nfed to denote an univerfal 
 affirmative proportion; according to the verfe, 
 
 /^fferit A, negat E, veru7ii gencraliter ambit. 
 Thus, in the firft 'figure, a fyllogifm confiRing of iht^ee 
 univerfal affirmative propolitions, is faid to be in Bar- 
 ba-r3; the ^thrice repeated, denoting fo many of the 
 propofitions to be univerfal, &c. See Barbara. 
 
 A, among the Romans, was ufed in the giving of 
 votes or fuftrages. When a new law was propofcd, 
 each voter liad two wooden ballots put in his hand : 
 the one marked with a capital A. fignifying aniiquo, 
 q. d. antiquavi volo ; and the other with V. R. for uti 
 rogas. Such as were againft the law, caft the firft into 
 the urn ; as who Ihould fay, I refufe it, I antiquate it ; 
 or, I like the ancient law, and dtfire no innovation. 
 
 A, in the trials of criminal caufes, alfo denoted ab- 
 folution ; whence Cicero, pro Milone, calls A, Utera 
 falutaris, a faving letter. Three ballots were diftri- 
 buted to each judge, marked with the letters, A (ot 
 ahfolvo, I acquit; C for cendcmno, I condemn; and 
 N. L. for /ion liquet. It is not clear. From the number 
 of each caft into the urn, the prxior pronounced the 
 prifoncr's fate. If they were equal in number, he was 
 abfolved. 
 
 A, in the ancient infcriptions of marbles, &c. occa- 
 fionally Hands for Auguflus, ager, aiur.t, &c. When 
 double it 'denotes Augujli ; when triple, auruvi, ar- 
 gentuvi, rf-j; and fbnietimes its meaning can only be 
 known by the reft of the infcription. Ifidorc adds, that 
 when it occurs ai'ierthe word milei (foldier), it denotes 
 him young. On the rcverfe of ancient medals, it de- 
 notes them flruck by the city of Argos, fometimes by 
 that of Athens ; but on coins of modern date, it is the 
 mark of Paris. 
 
 A, as an abbreviation, is alfo often found in modern 
 writers: as, A. D. iw aiir.o Doviini: A. M. «irO//M» 
 V!ag}j\er, mafter of arts, &c. 
 
 A, the letter a, with a line above it thus, i, is ufed 
 A in
 
 A A R 
 
 [ 2 ] 
 
 A A R 
 
 in medical prcfcriptions for aim, of each ; fomciiinesic 
 is written thus, aa : e. g. ^^ Mel. Sacchar. & Mann, a, 
 vel aa, 5J. i. c. Take ot honey, fugar, and inauna, of 
 each one ounce. 
 
 A, put to bills of exchange, is in England an abbre- 
 viation for accepted, and in France for acccpti. It is 
 likewifc iifiial among merchants to mark their fctsof 
 books with the letters A, B, C, S:c. inftcadof the mim- 
 bers I, 2, 3, &c. 
 
 A. A. A. The chemical abbreviation for Amalgama, 
 or Amalgamation, 
 
 A A, the name of fcveral rivers in Germany and Swif- 
 fcrland. 
 
 AACH, a little town in Germany, in the circle of 
 Suabia, near the fourcc of the river Aach, and almoll 
 equally dillant from the Danube and the lake Con- 
 fiance. It belongs to the houfc of Auflria. E. Long. 
 9. o. Lat. 47. 55. 
 
 AAHUS, a little town in Germany, in the circle of 
 Weftphalia, and bilhopric of Munftrr. It is the capital 
 of Aahus, a fmall dirtriil;^ ; has a good callle ; and lies 
 north-eaft of Coesfcldt. E. Long. 7. I. Lat. 52. 10. 
 
 A.\M, or Ha AM, a liquid meafure in common ufc 
 among the Dutch, and containing 12S meafurcs called 
 mingles, each wcii'hing nearly ?6 ounces avoirdupoife ; 
 whence the Auni contains 218 Engliih, and 148; pints 
 Paris meafure. 
 
 AAR, the name of tsvo rivers, one in SwiiTcrhnd, 
 and another in Wellpalia in Germany. It is alfo the 
 name of a fmall ilhnd in the Baltic. 
 
 AARASUS (anc. gcog.), a town of Pilidia, in 
 the Hither Alia, thoug'u to be the Anailis of Pto- 
 lemy. 
 
 AARON, high-pricfl of tlie Jews, and brother to 
 Mofes, was by the father's fide great grandfon, and by 
 the mother's gr.mdfon, of Levi. By God's command 
 he met Mofes at the foot of mount Horcb, and they 
 went together into Egypt to deliver the children of If- 
 rael : he had a great Ihare in all that Mofes did for 
 their deliverance ; the fcriptiires call him the prophet of 
 Mofes, and he ai5led in that capacity after the Ifraelites 
 had palFcd over the Red Sea. He afcendcd mount Si- 
 nai with two of his fons, Nadab and Abihu, and fe- 
 veniy elders of the people; but neither he nor they 
 went higher than halfway, from whence they faw the 
 glory of God ; only Mofes and J.ilhua went to the top, 
 where they ftaid forty days. During their abfence, 
 Aaron, overcome by the people's eager entreaties, fet 
 up the golden calf, which the Ifraelites worfliipped by 
 his confcnt. This calf has given rife to various cnn- 
 jedures. Some rabbles maintain that iie did not make 
 the golden calf; but only threw the gold into the tire, 
 to get rid of the imjiortunitics of the people ; and that 
 certain magicians, wlio mingled with the Ifraelites 
 at their dcparinrc from Eygpt, cart this gold into 
 thefijurc of a calf. According to fome authors, 
 the fear of a falling a facrificc to the refentment of 
 the people by giving a refufal, made Aaron comply 
 with their defire; and they alledge alfo, that he hoped 
 to elude their requeft, by demanding of the women to 
 contribute their ear-rings, imagining they would rather 
 choofe to remain wiiho^it a vilible deity, than be de- 
 prived of their perfonal ornaments. This aft^ir of the 
 golden calf happened in the third month after the If- 
 raelites came out of Egypt. lu the firA mouth of the 
 
 following year, Aaron was appointed by God high- Aaion, 
 pricft; which olTicc he executed during the time that Aarfcoi. 
 the children of Ifrael continued in the wildernefs. He ' ^ ' 
 died in the fortieth year after their departure from 
 Egypt, upon mount Hor, being then 123 years old; 
 A. M. 2 J22, of the Julian period 3262, before tlie Chrif- 
 Aian sera 14J2. With regard to the attempts oi the 
 Egyptian magicians to imitate the miracles performed 
 by his rod. Ice fome remarks under tlie article Ma- 
 
 CICIAN. 
 
 Aaros and Julius (Saints) fuffcred martyrdom 
 together, during the perfecuiion under the emperor 
 Dioclefian, in the year 303, about the fame time with 
 St Alban, the proiomariyr of Britain. We are no 
 where told what their Britilh names were, it being ufual 
 with the Cliriftian Britons, at the time of bapiifm, to 
 take new names from the Greek, Latin, or Hebrew. 
 Nor have we any certainty as to the particulars o( their 
 death; only that they futfered the moll cruel torments. 
 They had each a church created to his memory ; and 
 their fcflival is placed, in the Roman martyrology, on 
 the firll of July. 
 
 Aaron, or Hanin, At Rafckid, a celebrated khalif, 
 or Mahometan fovereign of the Saracen empire ; v\ hofc 
 hifteiry is given under the article of Bagdad. 
 
 Aaros Harifchon, a learned rabbi and caraite 
 in the 1 5th century, wrote an Hebrew grammar, print- 
 ed at Conftantiuople in 15S1 ; probably the fame with 
 Aaron the caraite, who wrote a commentary on the 
 five books of Mofes, which is in MS. in the French 
 king's library. 
 
 AARSENS (Francis), Lord of Someldyck and 
 Spyck, was one of the greatell minillcrs for negocia- 
 tion the United Provinces eould ever boaft of. His 
 father, Cornelius Aarfeiis, was Regifler 10 the States ; 
 and being acquainted with Mr Plelfis Mornay, at the 
 Court of William Prince of Orange, he prevailed 
 upon him to take his fon under hiin, with whom he 
 continued fome years. John Olden Barntvelt, who 
 prcfided over the affairs of Holland and all the United 
 Provinces, fcnt hiin afterwards agent into France, 
 where he learned to ncgociate under thofe profound 
 politicians Henry IV. Villeroy, Silleri, Roflie, Jaon- 
 nin, &c. and he acquitted himfelf in fuch a manner as 
 to obtain their approbation. Soon after, he was in- 
 vefled with the chara;Ser of ambalfador, being the hrll 
 who was reeognifcd as fuch by the French court ; ac 
 which lime Henry IV. declared, that he Ihoiild take 
 precedence next to the Venetian miniik-r. He refidcd 
 in France 15 years; during which time fee received 
 great marks of cflcem frotn the king, who creatcil him 
 a knight and baron ; and for this reaf<m lie was re- 
 ceived amongft the nobles of the province of ITo'.land. 
 However, he became at length fo odious to the French 
 court, that they dclired to have him recalled. He 
 was afterwards deputed to Venice, and to feveral Ger- 
 man and Italian princes, upon occalion of the troubles 
 in Bohemia. He was the hrlt of three extraordinary 
 ambalfadors fent into England in 1620, and the fccond 
 in 1641 ; in which latter enibalfy he was accompanied 
 by the Lord of Brederode as Hr/l ambaflador, and 
 Hecmfvliet as third, to treat about the marri;ige ot' 
 Prince William, fon to the Prince of Orange. He 
 was likewife ambaffador-exiraordinary to the Frencli 
 court in 1624, and the Cardinal de Richlicu having
 
 ABA 
 
 [ 3 ] 
 
 ABA 
 
 Aurfeni juft taken tlie adminiflration of affairs into his hands, 
 and knowing he was an able man, marie ufc of him to 
 fervc his own purpofcs. He died in a very advanced 
 ajje; and his fon who furvivcd him, was reputed the 
 wealihieft man in Holland. 
 
 Aarsens (Pcier), a painter, called in Italy Pietro 
 Longo, becaufc of his ftatiire, was born at Amitcrdam 
 1519. He was eminent for all kinds of fubjccls; but 
 was particularly famous for ahar-pieccs, and for rcpre- 
 fcnting a kitchen with its furniture: he had the pain 
 to fee 1 tine altar-piece of his deftroyed by the rabble 
 in the infurreftion 1566, though a lady of Alcmaer 
 offered 200 crowns for its redemption. 
 
 AARTGEN, or Aertgen, a painter of merir, 
 was the fon of a woolcomber, and born at Leyden in 
 1498. He worked at his father's trade until he had 
 attained the age of eighteen; and then having difco- 
 vered a genius for defigning, he was placed with Cor- 
 nelius Engelheihtz, under whom he made a confider- 
 •blc progrefs in painting. He became fo diftinguifh- 
 ed, that the celebrated Francis Floris went to Ley- 
 den out of mere curiofity to fee him. He found him 
 inhabiting a poor half-ruined hut, and in a very mean 
 ftylc of living: He folicited him to go te Antwerp, 
 piomiling him wealth and rank fuitable to his merit; 
 but Aartgen refufed, declaring that he found more 
 fweets in his poverty than others did in their riches. 
 It was a cultom with this painter never to work on 
 Mondays, but to devote that day, with his difciplcs, 
 to the bottle. He ufed to ftroll about the ftrcets in 
 the night, playing on the German flute, and in one of 
 thefe frolics was drowned in 1564. 
 
 AASAR (anc. geog.), a town of Paleftine, in the 
 tribe of Judah, fituate between Azotus and Afcalon. In 
 Jerome's time it was an hamlet. 
 
 AB, the eleventh montli of the civil year of the He- 
 brews, and the fifth of their ecclefiaftical year, which 
 begins with the month Nifan. It anfwers to the moon 
 of July ; that is, to part of our month of the fame 
 name, and to the beginning of Auguft : it confiils of 
 thirty days. The Jews fait on the firft of tliis month, 
 in memory of Aaron's death ; and on the ninth, becaufc 
 on that day both the temple of Solomon, and that 
 erciflcd after the captivity, were burnt ; the former by 
 the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans. The 
 fame day is alfo remarkable among that people for the 
 publication of Adrian's edi6t, wherein they were for- 
 bid to continue in Judea, or even to look back when at 
 a. diflance from Jerufaleni, in order to lament the defo- 
 lation of that city. The eighteenth of the fame month 
 is alfo a fafl among the Jews; bccaufe the lamp in the 
 fanduary was that night cxtinguillicd, in the time of 
 Ahaz. 
 
 Ag, in the Syriac calendar, is the name of the lad 
 fummer-month. The firft day of iliis month they call- 
 ed Suiim Miriam, the fart of the virgin, becaulV the 
 eaftern Chriftians faflcd from that day to the fitttenth, 
 \khich was therefore called /j/Zr-iW/r/tfOT, the celfa- 
 tion of the fart of the virgin. 
 
 ABA (or rather Abau) Hani* ah or Hakfah, fir- 
 named Al-Nooma, was the fon of Thabet, and born 
 at Coufali in the 80th year of the Hegira. This is the 
 moft celebrated doctor of the orthodo.x MuiFiilmans, 
 and his feci holds the principal eftcem among the four 
 u-hich they it^iU-Tcrently follow. Notwithftanding diis, 
 
 he was not very well cfteemed during his life, iufomnch 
 that the khalif Almanfor caufed him to be imprifoiied 
 at Bagdad, for having refufed to fubfcribe to the opi- ^ 
 nion of abfolute prcdeltination, which the Miiiliilinans 
 call Cadha. But afterwards Abou Joftph, who was 
 the fovcreign judge or chancellor of the enipire under 
 the klialif Hadi, brought iiis dov?lrine into fuch credit, 
 that it became a prevailing opinion, That to he a good 
 Muil'ulman was to be a Hanifite. He died in the 
 I5cth year of the Hegira, in the prifon of Bagdad 
 sforefaid : and it was not till 53 j years after his death, 
 that iMelick Schah, a fultan of the Selgiucidan race, 
 built for him a magnificent monument in the fame city, 
 whereto he adjoined a college peculiarly appropriated 
 to fuch as made a profelfion of this fcdl. This was 
 in the 485th year of the Hegira, and AnnoChtilli 
 1092. The moll eminent fuccellorsof this doiftor were 
 Ahmed Benali, Al Gialfas, and Al Razi who was the 
 mafter of Nalfari ; and there is a mofqne particularly 
 appropriated to them in the temple of Mecca. 
 
 Aba, y^bai, j^bcs, or ^hts, (anc. geog.), tlie 
 name of a mountain of Greater Armenia, fiiuated be- 
 tween the mountains Niphatos and Nibonis. Accord- 
 ing to Strabo, the Euphrates and Araxes rofe from this 
 mountain ; the former running eaftward, and the lat- 
 ter weftward. 
 Aba. See Ab«. 
 
 ABACjtNA (anc. geog.), a town of Media, and 
 another of Cana in the Hither Afia. 
 
 ABAC^NUM (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, 
 whofe ruins are f ippofed to be ihofe lying near Trippi, 
 a citadel on an high and fteep Mountain not far from 
 Medina. The inhabitants were called Abacittiiiii. 
 
 ABACATUAIA, in iclnhology, a barbarous name 
 of the zeus vomer. See Zeus. 
 
 ABACH, a market town of Germany, in Lower 
 Bavaria, feated on the Danube. It is remarkable for 
 Roman antiquities, and for fprings of mineral waters, 
 which are faid to be good for various diftempers. E. 
 Long. II. 56. N. Lai. 48. jcj. 
 
 ABACINARE, or Abbacinare, in writers of the 
 middle age, a fpccies of puniihment, confifting in the 
 blinding of the criminal, by holding a hot bafon or bowl 
 of metal before his eyes. 
 
 ABACK (a fca-'erm), the fituation of the fails when 
 their furfaces are flatted againft the mafts by the force 
 of the wind. The fails are faid to be taken aback when 
 tlicy arc brought into this fituation, cither by a fudden 
 change of the wind, or by an alteration in the (hip's 
 courfe. They are laid aback, to effcel an immediate re- 
 treat, without turning to the right or left ; or, in the fea 
 phrafe, to give the Ihip ftirti-'jiay, in order to avoid 
 fomc danger difcovercd before her in a narrow channel, 
 or when ihe hasadvanccd beyond her ftation in the line 
 of battle, or otherwife. The fails are placed in this 
 pofition by (lackening the lee-braces, and hauling in 
 the weather ones; fo that the whole efTort of the wind 
 is exerted on the forepart of the furface, w hich readily 
 pulhes the fliip aftern, unlefs flie is reflrained by fomc 
 countcrafling force. It is alfo ufual to fpread fome 
 fail aback near the ftern, as the mizzcn top-fail, when 
 a fliip ridts with a finglc anchor in .t road, in order to 
 prevent her from approaching it fo as to entangle the 
 flukes of it with her ilackened calde, and thereby loofcn 
 it from the ground. 
 
 A 2 ABACOT, 
 
 Aba 
 
 I 
 
 Aba^k.
 
 A B A 
 
 C 4 ] 
 
 ABA 
 
 ABACOT, the inme of an ancient cap of llaic 
 worn by tlic kings of Kngland, the upper part where- 
 of was in the form of a double crown. 
 
 ABACTORS, or Abactores, a name given to 
 thole who drive away, or rather Ileal, cattle by herds, 
 or great numbers at once ; and are therefore very pro- 
 perly dillinguilhcd from j'irti, or thieves. 
 
 ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cup- 
 board or buffet. Livy, dclcribing the luxury into 
 which the Romans degenerated after the conqucft of 
 Ada, fays. They had their abaci, beds, ire. plated 
 over with gold. 
 
 Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, figni- 
 fitd a table covered with dull, on which they drew their 
 diagrams ; the word in this feiifc being derived from 
 the Phoenician akak, diifl. 
 
 Abacus, in architecture, fignifics thcfuperior part or 
 member of the capital of a column, and I'crvcs as a kind 
 of crowning to both. Vitruvias tells us the abacus was 
 originally intended to reprcfent a fquare tile laid over 
 an urn, or rather over a balkct. Sec Architec- 
 ture, no" I J. The form of the abacus is not the 
 lame in all orders : in the Tufcan, Doric, and Io- 
 nic, it is generally fquare ; but ia the Corinthian and 
 Compofitc, its four fides are arched inwards, and em- 
 bellinied in the middle with forae ornament, as a rofc 
 or other flower. Scammozzi ufcs abacus for a con- 
 cave moulding on the capital of the Tufcan pedeftal ; 
 and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus, or boul- 
 lin, in the Tufcan and Doric orders, by the fame 
 iiumc. 
 
 Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inftrument for 
 facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is varioufly 
 contrived. That chiefly ufcd in Europe is made by 
 drawing any number of parallel lines at the diflance of 
 two diameters of one of the counters ufed in the calcu- 
 lation. A counter placed on the lowefl line, figni- 
 lies I ; on the ad, lo ; on the jd, ico ; on the 4th, 
 1000, &c. In the intermediate fpaces, the fame 
 counters are eftimatcd at one half of the value of the 
 line immediately fuperior, viz. between the ill and 2d, 
 ? ; between the 2d and 3d, 50 ; &c. See the figure on 
 Plate 1. where the fame number, 1788 for example, is 
 reprcfented under both divifions by different difpoliti- 
 ons of the counters. 
 
 Abacus is alfo ufed by modern writers for a table of 
 numbers ready cafl up, to expedite the operations of 
 arithmetic. In this fenfe we have Abaci of addition, of 
 multiplication, of divilion. 
 
 Chinef; Abacus. See SwanFan. 
 
 Abacus Pythagoriciis, the common multiplication- 
 table, lb called from its being invented by Pythagoras. 
 
 Abacus L'jgijiicus, is a rcdlangled triangle, whofe 
 fides, forming the right angle, contain the numbers 
 from I to 60 ; and its area, the fadta of each two of the 
 numbers perpendicularly oppolite. This is al.'b called 
 .1 canon af fexagefnnali. 
 
 Abacus ir Palmiil<r, in the ancient niufic, denote 
 the machinery, whereby the firings of Polypledlra, or 
 jnllruraents of many flrings, were ftruck with a plec- 
 trum made of quills. 
 
 Ab-icvs Harnio):icus, is ufed by Kircher for the 
 finifture and difpofition of the keys of a mufical in- 
 Urument, whether to be touched with the hands or the 
 feet. 
 
 AiiAcus Major, in inetallurgic operations, the r.ame 
 of a trough ufed inihe mines, wherein iheore is walhed. 
 
 Al>.'\L)DON, is the name which St John in the 
 Revelation gives to the king of the loculls, tlie angrl 
 of the bottomlcfs pit. The infpired writer fays, this 
 word is Hebrew, and in Greek lignifles 'A-T«>,>iaT, /. e. 
 a dcjiroycr. That angtl-king is thought to be Satan or 
 the devil : but Mr le Clers thinks, with Dr. Hammond, 
 that by the locufls which came out of the abyfs, in.iy 
 be undcrllood the zealots and robbers, who miferabljT 
 afllifted tiie land of Judca, and laid it in a manner w3(le 
 before Jerufalcm was taken by the Romans ; and that 
 Abaddon, the king of the locufls, may be John of Gif- 
 rhala, who having trcacheroully left that town a little 
 before it was furrendf red to Titus, came to Jerufalcm, 
 where be foon beaded part of the /e.ilois, who acknow- 
 ledged him as their king, wliilfl the relt would not 
 fubmit to him. This fubdivilion of the zealot pany 
 brought a thoufand calamities on die Jews. 
 
 ABADIR, a title which the Carthaginians gave 
 to gods of the firft order. In the Roman mythology, 
 it is the name of a Hone which Saturn fwallowed, by 
 the contrivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his 
 new-born 4bn Jupiter : hence it ridiculoufly became 
 the objed of religious worfliip. 
 
 AB.'E, or Aba (anc. geog.) a town of Phocis in 
 Greece, near Helicon ; famous for an oracle of A- 
 pollo older than that at Delphi, and for a rich temple 
 plundered and burnt by the Perfians. 
 
 ABAFT, a fea-tcrm, fignifying the hinder part of 
 a fliip, or all tliofc parts both within and without which 
 lie towards the flern, in oppofuion to afore ; which 
 fee. Abaft, is alio ufed as a prcpofiiion, and lignifies 
 further aft, or nearer the Jlerr: ; as the barricade ftands 
 abaft ihe main-mafl, /. c behind it, or nearerthe flcrn. 
 
 ABAISStD, Abaijfe, in heraldry, an epithet ap- 
 plied to the wings of eagles, 3cc. when the tip looks- 
 downwards to the point of the (liield, or when the 
 wings are Ihut, the natural way of bearing them be- 
 ing extended. 
 
 ABAKA KHAN, the i8ih emperor of tlie Mo- 
 guls, a wife and clement prince. He rtigned i 7 years, 
 and is by fome authors faid to have been a ChriAian. 
 It may be admiued, indeed, that he joined with the 
 Chrifiiansin keeping the feaft of EaAer, in the ciiy 
 Hanadau, fome fliort time before his death. But this 
 is no proof of his Chrillianity ; it being common, in 
 limes of brotherly love, for Chrifliansand Mahometans 
 to join in keeping the fame feafts, when each would 
 compliment the other with doing honour to his folem- 
 nity. 
 
 ABALAK, a town of Siberia, two miles from To- 
 bolfk. E. Long. 64. 10. N. Lat. J7. 1. 
 
 ABALIENATION, in law, the aft of transfer- 
 ring one man's property to another. 
 
 ABALLABA, the ancient name of Appleet, a 
 town in Weflmoreland, remarkable only for its anii- 
 qiiiiy, having been a Roman Aation. W. Long. i. 4, 
 N. Lat. 55- 38. 
 
 ABALUS, (anc. geog.), fuppofed by the anci- 
 ents to be an illand in the German ocean, called by 
 TimaEus Bafitta, and by Xenophon Lampfacenns Bal- 
 tia ; now the peninfula of Scandinavia, litre, accord- 
 ing to Pliny, fome imagined that amber dropped from 
 ihe trees. 
 
 ABANA,
 
 ABA 
 
 [ 5 ] 
 
 ABA 
 
 ABAN'A, or Amama (anc. geog.), a river of Phoe- 
 nicia, wliich, riling from Mount Hermon, waihcd the 
 foiith and weft fides of Daniafcus, and falls into the 
 Phceaician fea to the north of Tripolis, called CArji- 
 forrhtai by the Greeks. 
 
 ABANGA. SccAdy. 
 
 ABANO, a town ot the Padnano, in the republic of 
 Venice, famous among the ancients for its hot baths. 
 
 ABANTES, a people who caine originally from 
 Thrace, and fettled in Phoccca, a country of Greece, 
 where they built a town which ihry called Aba, after 
 the name of Abas their leader; and, if we may credit 
 foinc ancient authors, the Abantcs went afterwards into 
 the illand Euboea, now called Negropont : others fay 
 the Abantes of Euboea came from Athens. The Aban- 
 tcs were a very warlike people, dofing with their ene- 
 mies, and fighting hand to hand. 
 
 ABANTIAS, or Abantis (anc. geog.), a name 
 of the illand Euboea in the Egean fca, extending a- 
 long the coaft of Greece, from the promontory Su- 
 nium of Attica to ThelTaly, and feparaicd from Bceo- 
 tia by a narrow ftrait called Euripus. From its length 
 the illand was formerly called Macris ; afterwards yi^- 
 tant'ias, or Abantis, from the Abantcs, a )>eop!e origi- 
 nally of Thrace, called by Homer otis-ShKiucihtsc, from 
 wearing their hair long behind, having in a battle ex- 
 perienced the inconvenience of wearing long hair be- 
 fore. From cutting iheir hair before, they were call- 
 ed Curetes. 
 
 ABAPTISTON, in furgery, the perforating part 
 of the inftruracnt called a trepan. 
 
 ABARA, a town in the Greater Armenia, under 
 the dominion of the Turks: it is often the refidcnce 
 of the archbifhop of Nakfivan. E. Long. 46. aj. N. 
 Lat. 59. 4J- 
 
 ABARANER, a town of Afia, in Grand Armenia, 
 belonging to the Turks : it is fcated on the river Alin- 
 gena. E. Long. 46. 50 N. Lat. 39. yo. 
 
 ABARCA, an ancient kind of flioe ufed in Spain 
 for palling the mountains with. It was made of raw 
 hides, and bound with cords, which fecured the feet 
 of travellers againft the fnow. 
 
 AB.^RIM, high mountains of fteep afcent, fcparat- 
 ing the country of the Ammonites and Moabites from 
 the land of Canaan, where Mofes died. According to 
 Jofephus, they flood oppofite to the territory cf Jeri- 
 cho, and were the lall ftaiion but one of the Ifraelites 
 coming from Egypt. Nebah and Pifgah were pans of 
 ihefe mountains. 
 
 ABARIS, the Hyperborean; a celebrated fage of 
 
 antii]uity, whofe hiitory and travels have been the fub- 
 
 jciJl of much learned difcuffion. Such a number of fa- 
 
 * JiBiblichi bilious ftories* were told of him, that Herodotus him- 
 
 yitcPjthag felf feems to fcruple to relate ihem. He tells us only,-)- 
 
 t ^'•>- "• that this Barbarian was faid to have travelled with an 
 
 c»p. 36. arrow, and to have taken no fuftenance: but this docs 
 
 not acquaint us with tiie marvellous properties which 
 
 were attributed to that arrov/ ; nor that it had been 
 
 given him by the Hyperborean Apollo. M'iih regard 
 
 to the occafion of his leaving his native country, Har- 
 
 } Under pocration| tells ns, that the whole ear:h being infclled 
 
 the word with a deadly plague, Apollo, upon being conftdicd, 
 
 AC<fi(. gave no other aniwer, than that the Athenians fliould 
 
 offer up prayers in behalf of all other nations : upon 
 
 which ft vera! comitries deputed ambp-iTadors to Athens, 
 
 th< word 
 
 Acconnt 
 
 among whom was .^baris the Hypcrl»or«an. In this AlirJi. 
 journey he renewed the alliance between his country- "* ^'— "* 
 men and the inhabitants of the ifland of Deios. It 
 appears that he alio went to Lactdaemon ; fmce, ac- 
 cording to fomc writers*, he there built a temple, con- JPjufaria* 
 fecratcd to Proferpine the Salutary. It is affertcd, that Lb.iii.p.^4. 
 he was capable of foretelling earthquakes, driving away 
 plagues, laying flormsj, &c. He wrote fe\eral books, } Porphyry 
 as S'.iidas f informs us, vit. Apollo's arrival into the in VittPj- 
 country of the Hyperboreans ; The nuptials of the river '^^'f'- 
 Hebrus; ©it^tj/a, or the Generation of the Gods; A t ^''"'"' 
 collection of oracles; &c. Himerius the fophill ap- 
 plauds him for fpeaking pure Greek; which attain- 
 ment will be no matttr of wonder to fuch as confider 
 the ancient intercourfc there was between the Greeks 
 and Hyperboreans. If the Hebrides, or Wellern 
 Ifland of Scotland (fays Mr Tolland*), were the Hy- ' 
 perboreans of Diodorusf, then the celebrated Abaris ff '*!« Dru- 
 was of that country ; and likewife a druid, having been '^'' '" *"* 
 the priefl of Apollo. Suidas, who knew not the dif- |^,/"^J^i 
 tinclion of the infular Hyperboreans, makes him i;,p.j(,i, ' 
 Scythian; as do fomc others, milled by the fame vul- -fUiod.Sic. 
 gar error ; though Diodoras has truly fixed his country lib. ii.iii. 
 in an ifland, and not on the continent. Indeed, the 
 fiftions and miflakes concerning our Abaris are infi- 
 nite : however, it is by all agreed that he travelled quite 
 over Greece, and from thence into Italy, where heeon- 
 verfcd familiarly with Pythagoras, who favoured him 
 beyond all his difciples, by inftrufting him in his doc- 
 trines (efpecially his thoughts of nature), in a plainer 
 and more compendious method than he did any other. 
 This dillinftion could not but he very advantageous to 
 Abaris. The Hyperborean, in return, prefeiited the 
 Samian, as though he equalled Apollo hinifclf in wif- 
 dom, with the facred arrow, on which the Greeks 
 have fabuloully related $ that he fat aftride, and flew IJambHcfci 
 upon it, through the air, over rivers and lakes, forells ''''" ''.'**"• 
 and mountains; in like manner as the vulgar ftill be- P- "^' 
 lieve, particularly thole of the Hebrides, that wizards 
 and witches fly whiihcrfoevtr they pleafe on their broom 
 Aicks. The orator Himerius abovementioncd, though 
 one of thofe who, from the equivocal fenfe of the word 
 Hyperborean, fccms to have miflaken Abaris for a Scy- 
 thian, yet defcribes his perfon accurately, and gives 
 him a very noble character. " They relate (fays he) 
 " that Abaris the fage was by nation a Hyperborean, 
 " appeared a Grecian in fpecch, and refembled a Scy- 
 " thian in his habit and appearance. He cane to 
 " Athens, I'.olding a bow in his hand, having a quiver 
 " hanging on his Ihouldcrs, his body wrapt up in a 
 "plaid, girt about the loins with a gilded belt, and 
 " wearing trowfers reaching from his waift downward." 
 By this it is evident (continues MrToland) that i:c 
 was not haViited like the Scythians, who were always 
 covered with (kins; but appeared in the native j^arb 
 of an aboriginal Scot. As to what relates to his abi- 
 lities, Himerius informs us, tliat " he was afiable and 
 " pleafant in converfation, in difpatching great sliairs 
 " fecrct and indullrious, quick-lighted in pirfent exi- 
 " gencics, in preventing future dangers cireumfpe<?t, 
 " a fearcher after wildom, defirous of fricndlliip, tnilt- 
 " ing little to fortune, and having every thir.fj truflcd 
 " to him for his prudence." Neither the Academy 
 nor the Lycxum could have furniflied a man with fit- 
 ter qualities to travel fo far abroad, and 10 fuch wife 
 
 nations.
 
 ABA 
 
 t 6 ] 
 
 ABA 
 
 II.. 
 
 Abalcia. 
 
 AUartitu- nations, about affairs no lefs arduous than imponant. 
 latioii. And if we furtlier atccniivcly conlidcr liis moderation 
 in eating, drinlcing, and tlic ufc of all tliofe tilings 
 , which our natm-al appetites incelllintly crave j joining 
 the candour and fimplicity of his manners wiih the fo- 
 lidiiy and wifdom of his anfwers, all which wc find 
 iiirticiently attcllcd : it mull be owned, that the world 
 at that time had few to compare with Abaris. 
 
 ABARTICULATION, in anatomy, a fpecics of 
 articulation admitting of a manifcft motion ; called al- 
 io Dianhrofis, and Ucaniculatio, to diilinguilli it from 
 that fort of articulation wliich admits of a very obfciirc 
 motion, and is called Synarthrofis. 
 
 ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls. 
 It is one-eighth Icfs than the European carat. 
 
 Abas, in the heathen mythology, was the fon of 
 Hypoihoon and Meganira, who entertained Ceres, and 
 otiirred a facrificc to that goddefs; but Abas ridiculing 
 the ceremony, and giving her opprobrious language, 
 fliefprinkled him with a certain mixture Ihe held in her 
 cup, on which he became a newt or water lizard. 
 
 Abas (Schah) the Great, was third fon of Coda- 
 bendi, yth king of Pcrfia, of the race of the Sophis. 
 Succeeding to his father at i8, in ijSj, he found the 
 affairs of Perfia at a low ebb, occalioned by ilie con- 
 quefts of the Turks and Tartars. He regained Icvcral 
 of the provinces they had feized ; but death put a flop 
 to his vidories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He 
 was the greatcrt prince that had reigned in Perlia for 
 many ages; and it was he who made Ifpahan the 
 metropolis of Perfia : his memory is held in the highelt 
 veneration among the Pcrlians. 
 
 Abas (Schah) his grandfon, 9th kin<j of 'Perfia, of 
 the race of the Sophis, fuccccdcd his fatlier Sefi at 13 
 years of age: he was but 18 when he made himfelf ma- 
 fter of the city Candahar, which had furrendcred in his 
 father's reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province 
 about it ; and he preferved it afterwards againfl this 
 Indian emperor, though he beliegcd it more than once 
 with an army of 500,000 men. He was a very merci- 
 ful prince, and openly protected the Chriflians; he had 
 formed a dcfignof extending the limits of his kingdom 
 towards the north, and had for that effeftlcvied a pow- 
 erful army ; but death put a flop to all his great defigns 
 at 37 years of age, in 1666. 
 
 ABASCIA, or Abcas, a country in Afia, tributa- 
 ry to the Turks, fituated on the coaft of the Black 
 Sea. The people are poor, thievifli, and treacherous, 
 infomuch that there is no trading with them without 
 the utmofl caution. Their commodities are furs, buck 
 and tygcr fkins, linen yarn, boxwood, and bees-wax: 
 but their grcatell traffic is in felling tlieir own children, 
 and even one another, to the Turks; infomuch that they 
 live in perpetual diflnift. They arc defliiutc of many 
 nectlTarics of life, and have nothing among them that 
 can be called a town; though we find Anacopia, Dun- 
 dar, and Czekovni, mentioned in the m.ipb. They have 
 the name of Chriflians; but having nothing left but the 
 name, any more than the Mingrelians their northern 
 neighbours. The men are robnil and aiJlive, and the 
 the women are fair and beautiful ; on which account the 
 Turks have a great value for the female flavrs which 
 they piHchafe from among them. Their ciifloms are 
 much the fame as thofc of the Mingrelians ; which 
 fee. E. Long, from 39 to 43. N. Lat. from 45 to 45. 
 
 ABASCUS, a river of Aliatic Sarmaiia, which, Abafcui 
 rifing from Mount Caucafus, falls into the Kuxii.e, be- II 
 tween Pityus to thceaft, and Nofis to the wc(t. Abatoi. 
 
 ABASITIS (anc. gcog.), a tradl of Afiaiic Riylla, " " 
 in which was lituatcd the city of Ancyra. 
 
 AB.ASSI, or Absasis, a lilver coin current in Per- 
 fia, equivalent in value to a French livrc, or tenjicncc 
 halfpenny Sterling. It took its name from Schah 
 Abbas II. king of Perfia, under whom it was ftrutk. 
 
 ABASSUS (anc. geog.), a town of the Greater 
 Phrygia, on the confines of the Toliftobagii, a people 
 of Galatia in Afia. 
 
 ABATAMENTUM, in law, is an entry to lands 
 by inttrpolition, i. i. when a perfon dies feized, and 
 another who has no right enters before the heir. 
 
 To ABATE, (from the French «^ia/rf, topuU down, 
 overthrow, dcniolith, batter down, or deflroy), a term 
 ufed by the writers of the Englilh common-law, botli 
 in the adive and neutral fenfe ; as, To abate a cafUe, is 
 to beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by fome excep- 
 tion, to defeat or overthrow it. A fhangcr abateth ; 
 that is, cntereth upon a houfe or land void by the death 
 of him that lafl poffeircd it, before the heir takes pof- 
 fcflion, and fo kecpcth him out : wherefore, as he that 
 puttcth out him in polfeflion is faid to dill'cize, fo he 
 that flcppeth in between the former polfeiibr and hi* 
 heir is fuid to abate. In the neuter fignification thus : 
 The writ of the demandant fhall abate ; that is, Hiall be 
 difabled, fruflrated or overthrown. The appeal abanth 
 by covin ; that is, the accufaiion is defeated by deceit. 
 
 Aba te, in the manege, implies the performing any 
 downward motion properly. Thus a horfe is laid to 
 abate to take down his curvets, when he puts both his 
 hind legs to the ground at once, and obferves the fame 
 exaflncfs in all the times. 
 
 ABATELEMENT, in commerce, a term ufed fur 
 a prohibition of trade to all French merchants in the 
 ports of the Levant who will not fland to their bar- 
 gains, or refufc to pay their debts. It is a feiitencc 
 of the French conful, which muff be taken off before 
 they can fuc any perfbn for the payment ot their debts. 
 
 ABATEMENT, in heraldry, an accidental figure 
 fuppofcd to have been added to coats of arms, in order 
 to denote fome diflionourable demeanour or (lain, 
 whereby the dignity of coat-armour was rendered of 
 lefscflecm. See Heraldry. 
 
 Abatement, inlaw. See To Abate. 
 
 Abatement, in the cufloms, an allowance made up- 
 on the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged is 
 determined by the judgment of two merchants upon 
 oath, and afceriained by a certificate from the furveyor 
 and land-waiter. 
 
 ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of ilieflables. 
 
 ABATON, an ereftion at Rhodes, as a fence to 
 the trophy of Ancmilla, queen of Halicarnailus, Coos, 
 &c. railed in memory of her viflory over the Rhodians; 
 or rather as a fcreen to conceal the dilgracc of the 
 Rhodians from the eyes of the world, the tfiacirgor 
 deftroying the trophy being with them a point of re- 
 ligion. 
 
 ABATOR, in law, a term applied to a pcrfon 
 who enters to a houfe or lands void by the death of 
 the lafl poflelTor, before the true heir. 
 
 ABATOS (anc. gcog.), an illand in tbclake Mocris, 
 
 formerly
 
 ABB 
 
 [ 7 ] 
 
 ABB 
 
 formerly famous for its papyrus. It was the burial- 
 place of Ofiris. 
 
 AIJAVO, in botany a fynonirae of the Adansokia. 
 
 A3U, a term; among clothiers, applied to the yarn 
 of a weaver's warp. They fay alio Al)b--^o<il in the 
 fame fcnfe. 
 
 AIJBA (anc. geog.) a town of Afric Popria, near 
 Canhaj^e. 
 
 ADL5A, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, liie- 
 raliy li^iiitics a father ; and, figuratively, a Uiperior, 
 reputed as a father in refpect of age, dignity, or af- 
 fedion. It is more particularly ul'cd in the Syriac, 
 Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a title given to the 
 bifliops. The bilhops themfelves bellow the title /Ibba 
 more eminently on the bilhop of Alexandria ; which 
 occafioned the people to give him the title of Baba, 
 or Papa, that is, Crandj other ; a title which he bore 
 before the bilhop of Piome. It is a Jewilh title of 
 honour given to certain rabbins called Taiuiites ; and 
 it is alfo particularly ufcd, by (bme writers of the middle 
 age, for ihc fuperior of a monaftery, ufually called 
 
 ABBOT. 
 
 ABBADIE (James), an eminent Proteftant divine, 
 born at Nay in Bern in 1654; firft educated there un- 
 der tlie famo IS John la Placcite, and afterward at the 
 univerfity of Sedan. From thence he went into Holland 
 and Germany, and was miniiler in the French church of 
 Berlin. He left that place in 1690 ; came into England ; 
 was fonieiimcminirter in the French church in the Sa- 
 voy, London ;and was made deanofKillalow in Ireland. 
 He died at St Mjry le Bonne near London, in 1727, 
 aged 73. He was lirongly attached to the caufe of king 
 William, as appears in his elaborate dclcnce of the re- 
 voKition, and his hi(li>ry of the aflalliuation-plot. He 
 had great natural abilities, which he improved by true 
 and ufeful learning. He was a niofl zealous defender 
 of the primitive do,5lrinc of the Protcftants, as appears 
 by his writings ; and that llrong nervous eloquence, for 
 which he was fo remarkable, enabling him to enforce the 
 doiflrines of his profeifion, from the pulpit with great fpi- 
 rit and energy. He publiflied fcveral works in French 
 that were much eftcemed ; the principal of which are, A 
 Trcaiife on the Truth of the Chriftian Religion ; The 
 art of Knowing one's Self; A Defence of the BritiOi 
 Nation ; The Deityof Jcfus Chrift eflential to theChri- 
 flian Religion ; The Hiftory of the laft confpiracy in 
 England, written by order of king William III. ; and 
 The Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the open- 
 ing the Seven Seals by the Son of God. 
 
 ABBAS, foil of Abdalmothleb, and Mahomet's nn- 
 cle, oppofed his nephew with all his power, cfteeming 
 hiin an impoftor and infidel ; but in the fecond year of 
 the Hrgira, being overcome and made a prifoner at 
 the battle of Bendir in 623, a great ranfom being de- 
 manded for him, he reprefented to Mahomet, that his 
 paying it would reduce him to poverty, which would 
 redound to the didionour of the family. But Mahomet 
 having been informed of Abbas's having fecretcd large 
 fums of money, alked him after the purfes of gold lie 
 had left in his mother's cuflody at Mecca. Abbas, up- 
 on this, conceiving hiin to be really a prophet, cm- 
 braced his new religion ; became one of his principal 
 captains; and Caved his life when in eminent dangerat 
 the battle of Hcnain, againll the Thakefitcs, foon after 
 the rcduiJlion of Mecca. But bclidcs being a great 
 
 commander. Abbas was a famous doJlor of the Muf- 
 fuliuan law, infomuch that he read lectures upon every 
 chapter of the Koran, as his nephew pretended to re- 
 ceive them one by one from heaven. He died in 652, 
 and his memory is held in the highcfl veneration among 
 the Miiliiilmans to this day. 
 
 /4bul Ahhas, furnamcd Sajfah, was proclaimed kha- 
 lif ; and in him began the IJynafty of the 
 
 ABBAbSlDKS, who poirellcd the khalifate for 524 
 yeari ; and there were 37 khalifs of this race who fuc- 
 cecded one another without interruption. 
 
 ABBE, in a monaftic fenfe, the fame with Abbot. 
 Abbe, in a modern fcnfe, is the name of a curious 
 popular character in France, very much mentioned, 
 but very little known, in Britain. The term is not to 
 be rendered in our language, as the exillence of the 
 being which it denominates is pofterior to the reforma- 
 tion, and no fuch character was known among the Ro- 
 manills till about a century and a half ago. 
 
 Abbes, according to the Itrit^eft definition, are pcr- 
 fons who have not yet obtained any precife or fixed 
 fettlement in church or flaie, but molt heartily with for 
 and would accept of either, juft as it may happen. 
 In the mean while, their privileges are many. They 
 are admilFible in all companies, and no degradation to 
 the belt, nctwithltanding they are fomctimes found in 
 the worft. Their drefs is rather that of an academic, 
 orofa proftlTed fcholar, thanof anecclefiaflic ; and, ne- 
 ver varying in colour, is no incumbrance on the pocket. 
 Thcfe abbes are very numerous, and no lefs ufeful. 
 They are, in colleges, the inftrudors of youth ; in pri- 
 vate families, the tutors of young gentlemen ; and many 
 procure a decent livelihood by their literary and witty 
 compofiiions of all kinds, from the profoundeA philo- 
 fophy to the moil airy romances. They are, in Ihorr, 
 a body of men who polfefs a fund of universal talents 
 and learning, and are incellantly employed in the culti- 
 vation of every various branch of literature and inge- 
 nuity. No fubjeft whatever efcapcs them ; ferious or 
 gay, folid or ludicrous, facred or profane, all pay tri- 
 bute to their refearches; and as they are converfant in 
 the lowell as well as the highelt topics, their fame is 
 equally great in the learned and in the fcribbling world. 
 A didinguifhing part of their character, too, though 
 we Ihall but (lightly touch it, is their devotion to the 
 fair fex : whofe favourites, in return, they have the ho- 
 nour of being in the molt enviable degree ; the wit and 
 fmartnefs for which they are ufually remarkable, being 
 ju(t the very things that fuit the French ladies. — In fine, 
 thefe abbes are fought after by inoft people, on various 
 accounts ; as they are equally men of bufinefs and plea- 
 furc, not lefs expert in the moll ferious tranfaiftions, than 
 fond of enjoying their (hare in whatever occupies the gay 
 world. Hence they diligently frequent ail public fpec- 
 tacles, which are thought incomplete w iihout them ; as 
 they compofe the moll intelligent part of the company, 
 and are the nio.t weighty approvers or condemners of 
 what palFes in almolt all places. 
 
 ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of 
 nuns. The abbcfs has the fame rights and authority 
 over her nuns that tlie abbots regular have over their 
 monks. The fex indeed does not allow her to perform 
 thefpiritual funi5lion<; annexed to the pritfthood, where- 
 with the abbots isufually inverted ; but there are inftarces 
 of fomc abbclTcs who have a right or rather a privilege, 
 
 t«
 
 ABB 
 
 [ 8 ] 
 
 ABB 
 
 Abbfvnie, to eommiffion a pricft to ncl for them. They have even 
 Abbey, a kind of epifcopal jurifdidion, as well as fonie abbots 
 
 * ' who are exempted from the vifitation of their dioccfans. 
 
 Mincne, in his trcatifc on ilic rights of the Church, 
 obfc-rves, that fome abbelTes have fortnerly conf«lTcd 
 their nuns. But he adds, that their cxceflivc curiofiiy 
 cariicJ them fuch lengths, ih.it there arofe a necelhty 
 of checking it. However, St Balil, in his Rule, allows 
 ti;e abbefs to be prcfciit with the prieft at the confcflioii 
 ot her mins. 
 
 ABBEVILLE, a confiderable city of France in 
 Picardy, and the C3pi'.:il ot Ponihicu; the river Somiiic 
 runs through the middle of it, and divides it into two 
 psrts. It has a collegiate church and twelve pariih- 
 chiirches; the moltconfiderablcof which are St George's 
 and St Giles's, befides a great number of raonaltcrics 
 and nunneries, a bailiwic, and a prcfulial court. It isa 
 fortified town; the walls are f.ankcd with hallions, and 
 fiirroundcd by large ditches ; and was never yet taken ; 
 from which circiimftance it is Ibmetimes called the 
 Mj:.!i!i Tc-vtv;. The coiintry about it is low, marthy, 
 end dirty. It is pretty well peopled, and is famous lor 
 its woollen manufadory. The cloths and lliifTs made 
 there are faid to be mnv little inferior to thole of Eng- 
 land and Holland. The work, however, is alfifted by 
 the clandeftinc importation of Englilli and Irilh wool, 
 and workmen from Great Britain. It is about fifteen 
 sillies cart of the Briiilli channel, and Ihips n'.iy come 
 Irom thtncc by the river Somme to the middle of the 
 town. E. Long. 2. 6. Lat. 50. 7. 
 
 ABBEY, a monaftery, or religious houfe, governed 
 by a faperior under the title ai al-bot or ahbejs. 
 
 y^^it^/ differ from priorhs, in that the former are un- 
 der the diredion of an abbot, and the others of a prior : 
 but abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual) are 
 much the fame thing, differing in little but the name. 
 Fauchetobfcrvesjthatin the early days of the French 
 monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbas, and 
 duchies and counties abbess. Even fome of their kings 
 .ire mentioned in hillory under the title of abbots, Phi- 
 lip I. Louis VI. and afterwards the dukes of Orleans, 
 arc called abbots of thi vtonaflcyy of St Aigitan. The 
 dukes of Av]uitain were called abbots of thevionaflery of 
 5/ Hilary, at PoiP.Urs ; and the earls of Anjou, of i/ 
 Aubin, &c. 
 
 Monafteries were at firft nothing more than religious 
 linufes, whither prrfons retired from the buflle of the 
 world to fpend their time in folitudc and devotion. But 
 ihcy foon degenerated from their original inflitution, 
 and procured large privileges, exemptions, and riches. 
 They prevailed greatly in Britain before the reforma- 
 tion ; particiLirly in England : and as they increafed 
 in riches, fo the Aate became poor ; for the lands, 
 which thefc regulars poffeffed were in viortua manu, 
 i. f. could never revert to the lords who gave them. 
 This inconvenience gave rife to the llatutes againft gifts 
 in mortmain!, which prohibited donations to thefc re- 
 liffious honfes : and Lord Coke tells us, that feveral 
 lords, at their creation, had a claufc in their gi'ant, 
 that the donor might give or fell his land to whom he 
 would {^ixaptis viris religiofis & Jtii/ais) excepting 
 monks and jews. 
 
 The places wrre wholly abolilhcd in England at 
 the lime of the Reformatioti ; Henry VIII. having 
 firft appointed vifitors to infpeft into the lives of the 
 
 monks and nuns, which were found in fome places very Abbey, 
 difordtrly : upon which, the abbots, perceiving their Abbej- 
 dilfolution unavoidable, were induced to refign their . t"'y''- 
 houfesio the king, who by that means became invelled " 
 with the abbey-lands: thefc svcre afterwards granted to 
 different perfons, whofc defcendents enjoy them at this 
 day : they were then valued at 2,853,000/. per annum, 
 an immenfe fum in ihofe days. 
 
 Though the fuppreffion of religious houfes, even con- 
 fidcred in a political light only, was of a very great na- 
 tional benefit, it mufl be owned, that, at the time they 
 flourillied, they were not entirely ufclcfs. Abbeys ormo- 
 nafteries were then thercpoiitories, as well as the femi- 
 naries, of learning ; many valuable books and national 
 records, as well as private evidences, have been preftrv- 
 edin their lioraries ; the only places wherein they coulJ 
 have been fafcly lodged in ihofc turbulent limes. Many 
 of thofe, which had efcapcd the ravages 01 the Danes, 
 were deflroyed with more than Gothic barbarity at the 
 diiToliition of the abbeys. Thefc ravages are pathetical- 
 ly lamented by John Bale, in his Declaration upon Lc- 
 land's Journal 1549. " Covetoufncfs," fays he, " was at 
 that time fo bufy about private commodity, iliat public 
 wealth, in that mod ncceffary and of rcfpe^, was not 
 any where regarded. A number of tliem which pur- 
 chafed thefe fuperftitious manfions, referved of the li- 
 brary-books, fome to ferve their jacks, fome to fcour 
 the candlelticks, and fome to rub their boots ; fome 
 they fold to the grocer and foap-feller ; and fome they 
 fcnt over fea to the book-bindtrs, not in fmall numbers, 
 but in whole Ihips full ; yea, the univerfiiics of this 
 realm are not clear of fo delegable a faft. 1 know a 
 merchant that bought the contents of two noble libra- 
 ries for 40s. price ; a ihame it is to be fpoken ! This 
 ftuffhath he occupied inllead of gray paper, by the 
 fpace of more than thefc ten years, and yet ht hath 
 ftorc enough for as many years to come. 1 (hall judge 
 this to be true, and utter it with hcavinefs, that neither 
 the Britons under the Romans and Saxons, nor ytt th.e 
 Englifli people under the Danes and Normans, had ever 
 fuch damage of their learned monuments as we hayc 
 fecn in our time." 
 
 In thefc days every abbey had at Icaft one perfon 
 whofc oiEce it was to inflruft youth ; and the hiftori- 
 aiis of this country are chicfiy beholden to the monks 
 for the knowledge they have of former national events. 
 In thefe houfes alfo the arts of painting, architeflure, 
 and printing, were cultivated. The religious houfes 
 alfo were hofpitals for the fick and poor ; affording 
 likewife entertainment to travellers at a time when there 
 were no inns. In them the nobility and gentry who 
 were heirs to their founders could provide for a certain 
 number of ancient and faithful fervants, by procuring 
 them corodies, orflated allowances of meal, drink, and 
 clothes. They were liktwife an afylum for aged and 
 indigent perfons ot good family. The neighbouring 
 places were alfo grea:ly benefited by the fairs procured 
 for them, and by their exemption from foreft-laws ; 
 add to which, th it the monaflic eftates were generally 
 let at very eafy rents, the fines given at renewals in- 
 cluded. 
 
 ABBEYBOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the coun- 
 ty of Rofcommon, and province of Connaught. W. 
 Long. 8. 52. N. Lat. 56. 44. It is remarkable for an 
 old abbey. 
 
 ABBEY-
 
 ABB 
 
 [ 9 J 
 
 ABB 
 
 Abbey- 
 
 holm, 
 
 Abliot. 
 
 ABBEYHOLM, a town in Cumberland, fo called 
 from an abbey built there by David king of Scots. It 
 
 ftaiiJs on an arm of the lea. W. Long. 2. 38. 
 
 Lat. 54. 45. 
 
 ABBOT, or Absat, the fupcrior of a monaftcry 
 of monks crcdeJ into an abbey or prelacy. 
 
 The nunc Wiist is originally lUbriw, where it fig- 
 r.ifics father. Thcjcw scaliy^j/Zv;-, in ilieirlangiiage, 
 yfo ; whence the Chaldeans andSyrians formed WiO^ , 
 thence the Greeks ACCot, which the Latins retained, 
 Al/iaj J and hence our Abbni, the French Abbi, &c. 
 —St Mark and St Paul ufc the Syriac Abba in their 
 Greek, by rcafon it was then commonly k.iown in the 
 fynagogiics and the primitive aiicmblics of the Chri- 
 itians: adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word 
 father, AC^a « -r«Tiif,"Abba, father ;"y. </. Abba, that 
 is to fay, Father. — But the name Ab, or Abba, 
 which was at iirft a term of tendernefs and affeflion in 
 the Hebrew and Chaidee, became at length a title of 
 dignity and honour : The Jewilh doflors afi"c(5ttd it ; 
 and one of their mofl ancient books, containing the 
 fayings or apophthegms of divers of them, is intitled 
 Pirkcy^Wo//', or Avoth ; ;.c. Chapters of the Fathers. 
 It was in aHulion to i'.is affectation, that Jefus Chrill 
 forbad his difciplcs to call any man their father on 
 earth ; which word St Jerome turns ag.iinff the fupe- 
 riorsof the monafleries of his time, for affaming the 
 title of Abb'As, or Fathers. 
 
 The name Abbit, then, appears as old as the infti- 
 tiition of monks itfelf The governors of the primi- 
 tive monaftcries alfumed indifferently the titles Abbots, 
 • Sec Mcnl and Archimandrites* . Thcy were really diftingiiilhcd 
 and Arcbi- j^om the clergy ; though frequently confounded with 
 them, liecaufe a degree above l.iymen. 
 
 In thofc early days, the abbots were fubjcA to the 
 bifliopsand the ordinary paftors. Their monafteries 
 being remote from cities, built in the fanhell folitudes, 
 they had no Ihare in ecclcliaAical affairs. They went 
 on Sundays to the parifli-church with the reft of the 
 people ; or, if they were too remote, a pricfl was fent 
 them toadminiflcr the facraments ; till at length they 
 Were allowed to have priclls of their own body. The 
 abbot or archimandrite himfelfwas ufually thepriefl : 
 but his funftion extended no farther than to the fpiritual 
 adiftancc of his monaAcry ; and he remained ftill in 
 obedience to the bilhop. There being among the ab- 
 bots feveral perfons of learning, they made a vigorous 
 oppolition to the riling herefies of thofc times ; which 
 (irfl occafioned the bilnopstocall them out oftheirde- 
 farts, and fix them about the fuburbs of cities, and at 
 length in the cities dienifclves : from which sera their 
 degeneracy is to be dated. The abbots, now, foon 
 Wore ofFtheirformer plainncfs and fimplicity, and be- 
 gan to be looked on as a fort of little prelates. They af- 
 pired at bein^indepcn dent of the bilhops ; and became fo 
 infupportabIc,that fomc fcvcre laws were madeagainll 
 them at the council of Chalcedon ; this notwithftand- 
 ing, in time many of ihcm carried the point of inde- 
 pendency, and got the appellation of /or,/, with other 
 badges of the epifcopatc, particularly the mitre. 
 
 Hence arofe new fpccics of dillindions between the 
 abbots. Thofc were termed mitred abliots, who were 
 privileged to wcarthemitrc, and excrcifccpifcopal au- 
 thority within their refpciflive precindils, bcingcxcmp- 
 ted from the jui;ifdidion of the bilhop. Others were 
 Vol. I. 
 
 vumdritem 
 
 called crcfterfi Aj^iAi, from their bearing the crolicr Abbot, 
 or paftoral llaff .' Others v.'cre iiyViTctnhcnicnloxwvA- ^~~ 
 vtrlal abbots, in imitation of the patriacli of Conllan- 
 tinoplc: wliileothcrs were termed cardinal z\i\oi%, from 
 
 their fuperiority overall other abbots In Britain, the 
 
 mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; and calieJ 
 al;bots-fovereign, and abbots-general, to diflingi'ifh 
 them from the other abbots. And as there were lords 
 abbots, fo there were alio lords priors who hadcxcn.pt 
 jurifdiJlion, and were likcwifc lords of Parliar.cnt. 
 Some reckon 26 of thcfc lords abb-its and prior that 
 fat in parliament. Sir Ldward Coke fays, iha. there 
 w ere 27 parliamentary abbots and two priors. In the 
 parliament 20 Piich. IL there were but 25;ibbots end 
 two priors : but in the fummons to parliament fl/.v.5 
 4Ed. in. more arc named. 
 
 At prcfcnt, in the Roman-Catholic countries, tiic 
 principal diftinftions oLfcrved between the abbots arc 
 thofc oiregulari.ni\ recomiiniidatrjry. The former take 
 the vow and wear the habit of their order -, whereas the 
 latter are fectilars, though they arc obliged by their 
 bulls to take orders whesi of proper age. 
 
 Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot con fift- 
 cd in clothing him with the habit calleda/t«/«j, or cowl; 
 putting the pafloral ilafFinto his hand, and the fboes 
 called pcdales on his feet ; but at prcfcnt, it is only 
 a limple benediction, improperly called, by fomc, coa- 
 fecration. 
 
 Abbot isalfoatitlc given toothers befide the fupc- 
 riors of monafteries : thus bilhops, whofe fees were 
 formerly abbeys, arc called abbots ; as are the fupe- 
 riors of fome congregations of regular canons, parti- 
 cularly that of St Genevieve at Paris : and among the 
 Genoefc, thechicfinagiftratc of their republic former- 
 ly bore the title of Abbot of the people. It was like- 
 wife ufual, about the time of Charlemagne, for feveral 
 lords to afliime the title of autit-abbots, abba cotnites ; 
 and that for no other reafon, but becaufe the fuper- 
 intendcncy of certain abbeys was commited to them. 
 
 ABBOT (George), archbid'.op of Canterbury, was 
 born Oct. 29. 1362, at Guildford in Surrey. He 
 went through his iludics at Oxford, and in 1597 was 
 chofen principal of Univcrfity College. In 1^99, he 
 was inilalled dean of Winehefter : the year following, 
 he was chofcn vice-chanccllorof the univcrlity ofOx- 
 ford, and a fecond time in 160;;. In i6c4, that tranf- 
 lation of the bible now in ufe was begun by the direc- 
 tion of king James ; and Dr. Abbot was the fecond of 
 eight divines of Oxford, 10 whom the care of tranlla- 
 ting the whole NewTellanicnt(excepting the cpiftles) 
 was committed. The year following, he was a third 
 time vice-chancellor. In i6o9, he went to Scotland 
 with George Hume Earl of Dunbar, to alii It in elta- 
 blifhingan union betwixt the kirk ofScotltnd and the 
 church of England ; and in thisaffairlu Hrhavcd'with 'Htylin'* 
 fomuch addrcfsand moderation, that it 1 ,id thcfouni^a- bid. of 
 tionof all hisfuiurc preferment. For king James ever Hnftiytcn- 
 aftcrpaidgreat deference to hisadviccandcounfel. and *"*'?• *'■'' 
 upon the death of Dr. Overton bilhopofLitchfiel land 
 Coventry, he named Dr. Abbot for his fuccclTor, who 
 was accordingly co:.(tituted bifliopof tliofe t\<o united 
 fees in December 1609. About a month afterwards 
 he wasiranllatcd to the fee of Loncinn.and on the fe- 
 cond of November thereafter was raifcd to ihcarchie- 
 pifcopal fee. 
 
 B It
 
 ABB 
 
 [ io ] 
 
 ABB 
 
 AM:ot. It is not however improbable, that his extravagaiii 
 ■■ -• ' aJulaiioii ot iiis royal mailer, in wtiicii he wciii a^ lar 
 as any other court chaj>iain cuulJ do, coiurio^iicJ no: 
 a little to the acctleratioii ot his preferment. In the 
 preface to a piniplilct he publiihcd, the I'ollowiiij; fpc- 
 ciiiun of riJiculoiis riattery occurs : Speaking oi the 
 king, he fays, " wliofc lilc haih been io immaculate 
 atuluiifpoticd, Stc. thatcvt n nulice iifclt, whi-h leaves 
 rothi.i^ iinfrarcheJ, could never iui>l true ijUmilh in 
 it, nor call probable af^Mrfion on it. — Zcaloui as iJa- 
 vid i learned and wife, the Stiowoi: of onr a^je ; rcli- 
 j;ious as Jolias ; cartful of fpreading Chrill's faith as 
 C'onilantine the Great ; jnltas Mofcs , undcidedin all 
 Jiiswaysasa Jehofaphat uiidHc^iekias ; full of clemen- 
 cy as another Theodoiius." — If Mr Walp^Ic had fecn 
 this pafliige, he certainly would not have faid, that 
 " hoiicll Abbot could not rtatttr." 
 
 His great zeal for the I'rotellant Religion made him 
 a Hrenuous promoter oi tlie match between the elector 
 Palatine and the Princefs JLlizabeth ; which was accor- 
 dingly concluded and folemni/cd the 1 4''' of February 
 161:, the archbilhop performing the ceremony on a 
 fla^c erected in the royal chapel. In the following 
 year happened the famous cafe of divorce betwixt the 
 lady Francis Howard, daughter of the earl of Suffolk, 
 and Robert earl of Kllcx: an attair which has been by 
 many confidercd as one of the greatell blcmilhes iu 
 king James's reign ; but the part therein acted by the 
 archbilliop added much tothe reputation he had al- 
 ready acf^uired for incorruptible integrity. I he matter 
 was by the king referred to a court of delegates. The 
 nrchbilhop law plainly, that his Majcrty was very de- 
 firous the lady Ihould be divorced : but he was, in his 
 own judgment, dircflly aguinil the divorce. He la- 
 boured all he could to extricate himfelf from thisdiiR- 
 culty, by having an end put to the caufc by fomc o- 
 thcr way than by fcntence : but it was ta no purpofe : 
 for thofc who drove on this affair, had got too great 
 power to be retrained from bringing it to the conclu- 
 f.on the king defired. The archbilhop prepared a 
 fpccch, which he intended to have fpoken againd the 
 nullity of the marriage, in the court at Lambeth ; but 
 he did not make ufe of it, becaufe the king ordered 
 the opinions to be given in few woras. He continued, 
 however, inflexible in his opinion againflthe divorce ; 
 and drew up his reafons, which the king thought fit 
 to anfwer himfelf. It need fcarce be added, that fen- 
 icnce was given in the lady's favour. In 161 1, the 
 king publiihcd a declaration, which he ordered to be 
 read in alhhe churches, permittingfports and pallimes 
 on the Lord's day : this gave great uneafinefs to the 
 archbifhop , who, happening to be at Croydon when it 
 came hither, had the courage to forbid its being read. 
 Being now in a declining flate of health, the arch- 
 bilhop ufed in the fummer to go to Hamplhire for 
 the fjke of recrcaiion ; and being invited by lord 
 Zouch to hunt in hii park at Bram/.ill, he met there 
 with the grcateft misfortune that ever bcfel him ; 
 for he accidentally killed the game keeper by an 
 arrow from a crofs-bow which he (hot at one of the 
 deer This accident threw him into a deep melan- 
 choly ; and he ever afterwards kept a moiitiily falton 
 •F 11- •« Tuefday, the day on which this fatal raifchance hap- 
 chiircS-Kiil.P''""^'^' ^'-^ "^ fettled an annuity of 20 . on the wi- 
 tc-iit xviii, dow. There were feveral perfons who took an ad- 
 p. 87- 2 
 
 vantage of this misfortune, to IcflTen him in the king's Abbot 
 
 favnir ; bit his Majtlty laid, "Aw angtl might have — 
 
 mifcariiea in tliis lo. t." His cneiaits alledging that 
 he had incurred an irregularity, and was thereby inca- 
 pacitated lor performing the oihce of a primate j the 
 king directed a commiiiioa to ten peifons lo inquire 
 iuiuihis matter. 
 
 1 he refult, however, was not fatisfaclory to his 
 Graces' enemies; it being declared, that as the mur- 
 der was involu.itary, he had not lorteited his archic- 
 pifcopalcharatter. The archbiuiop thenceforward fel- 
 dom aililled at the council, being chielly hindered by 
 hib inhrmities ; but in the king's hit illniTs he was 
 lent tor, and attended wi'.h great conllancy tiil liis 
 Majclly expired on the 27''' of March 162;. He 
 penormed the ceremony of the coroa.lion of king 
 Chailts I. thotigh very intirm and much troubled with 
 the gout. He was never greatly in this kMg'cfavour ; 
 and the duke of Buckingham being his declared cut my, 
 watched an opportunity of making him feel the wiighc 
 of his difpleaf ire. 1 his he at lait accomplilhed, upon 
 thearchbilhop's rcfuiing to licence afcrmon, prcached 
 by Dr Si jthorpc to jultify a loan w hich the kiig had 
 demanded, and pregnant vvith principles which tended 
 to overthrow t.hc conllitution. 'I'he archbilhop was 
 imnicdiately after ful'pended from all his functions as 
 primate ; and i hey were excrcifed by certain biihopscom- 
 miilioned by the kii:g, of whom Laud, the archLilhop's 
 enesiy, ana afterwards his fuc-.elibr, was one : while 
 the only caufe alligned for this procedure was. That 
 the archbilhop could not at that time perfonally attend 
 thofd fervices whicli were oiherwife proper for his 
 cognifancc and direction. He did not, however, re- 
 main long in this lituation ; for a parliament being ab- 
 foUitely necelfary, liis Grace w as fent for, and reltore J 
 to his authority and juriluiction. But not proving 
 friendly to certain rigorous meafures adopted by the 
 prevailing church-party, headed by Laud, whole power 
 and interefl at court w ere now very couliderable, his 
 prefence became unwel ome there ; fo that upon the 
 birth of the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II. 
 Laud had the honour to baptize him, as dean of the 
 chapel. The archbilhop being worn out with cares 
 and intinnities, died at Croydo'i, the jth of Augufl 
 163:, aged 71 years ; and was buried at Guilford, the 
 place of his nativity, and where he had endowed an 
 holpital with lands to the amount of 500-. per annum. 
 A llatcly monument was erected over the grave, with 
 the efiigy of the archbilhop in his robes. 
 
 He thewedhimfelf, in moll circum fiances of Lis life, 
 a man of great moderation to all parties ; and was de- 
 li roust iiat the clergy (hould attract the ellcem of the lai- 
 ty by the fandiry ol their manners, rather than claim it 
 as due to their lanction. His notions and principles, 
 however, not fuiting the humour of fome writers, have 
 drawn upon him many fcvere retieclions ; particularly, 
 which is to be regretted, from the earl of Clirendoii. 
 But Dr Welwood has done more ju:;ice to his merit 
 and abilities*. He wrote feveral tracts upon various 
 fnbjecls; and, as already mentioned, tranllated part of 
 the New Teflameni, with the reft of the Oxford di- 
 vines, 161 1. 
 
 It is proper to obferve here, that there was another 
 writer of both his names, who fiourilhcd fomevvhat 
 later. This George Abbot wrote y/ l'ar,ii'hr,!p on 
 
 'Memoirs, 
 8vo. 1 70c, 
 p. 38.
 
 ABB 
 
 [ II ] 
 
 A B D 
 
 uj thi f.ibb.itk, and .4 purafhriip 
 
 AbSot y?^, /I viuiicatioit 
 I' 611 //•-■ I Julius. 
 Abboiaury AUBO 1" ^Robert), elder brother to the former, and 
 ' born at GuilJi'ord in 1560, went through hisfludica in 
 Baliol college, Oxford. In is^a* he look his degree 
 of mailer ol arts, and loon became a celebrated preach- 
 er; and to this talent hecliicHy owed his j-reftrnicnt. 
 Upon his tirft fermon at Worccfter, he was chofcn lec- 
 turer in that city, and icon after redor of AU-faiuts in 
 the fame place. John Stanhope, £fq ; happening to hear 
 him preach at I'aiirs-crofs, was fo plcafcd uith him, 
 that he immediately prcfcntcd him to the rich living of 
 Biagham in Nottinghimfliiro. In 1597, he took his 
 degree of doctor in divinity : and, in the beginning of 
 king James's rtign,\vas appointed chaplain in ordinary 
 to his Majclly ; who had fuch an opinion of him as a 
 writer, that he ordered the doifter's book Di AiA'ichrifio 
 to be printed with his own conimcnt:.ry upon part of 
 the Apocalypfe. In 1609, he was elcJlcd mailer of 
 Baliol College; wlrich triift he difcharged with the ut- 
 inoft care and aliiduity, by his frequent IcChires to the 
 fcholarSjby his continual prefence at public exercilcs, 
 and by promoting temperance in the fociety. In No- 
 vember 1610, he was made prebendary of Normanton 
 in the church of Southwell ; and, in 1612, his Majclly 
 appointed him regius profcifor of divinity at Oxford. 
 The fame of his lectures became very great ; and ihofe 
 which he gave upon the fupreme power of kings againft 
 Bellarmine and Suarez, fo much plcafcd his Nlajclly, 
 that, when the fee of Salilbury became vacant, he na- 
 med him to that bilhopric, and he was confccratcd 
 by his own brother at Lambeth, December 3, 1615. 
 When he came to Salifb.iry, he found the cathedral 
 running to decay, through the negligence and covct- 
 oufntfs of the clergy belonging to it: however,he found 
 means to draw live hundred pounds from the prebenda- 
 ries, which he applied to the reparation of this church. 
 He then gave hinifelf up to the duties of his function 
 with great diligence and afiiduity, vililing his whole 
 dioccfc in perfoa, and preaching every Sunday whilll 
 health would permit. But this w^s not long: for his fc- 
 dentary life, and clofc application to fludy, brought 
 upon him the gravel and ilonc ; of which he died on the 
 ad of March 161S, in the tifty-cighth year of his age ; 
 hiving not filled the fee quite two years and three 
 months, and being one of the five bilhops which Salif- 
 bury had in fix years. He was buried oppofite to the 
 • IVorthitj bifhop's feat in the cathedral. Or Fuller,* fpeakingof 
 of England the two brothers, fays, " that George was the more 
 in Strrij. II plaufible preacher, Roben the grcateft fcholar ; 
 " George the abler llatefman, Robert the deepeft di- 
 " vine : gravity did frown in George, and (juile in 
 " Robert." He publilhcd fcvcral pieces ; he alfo 
 left behind iiim fundry manufcripts, which Dr Corbet 
 made a prcfent of to the Bodleian library. 
 
 ABBOrSBROMLKY, a town in St.iffordlhirc, 
 ^vith a market on Tuefday. After the dilToluiioii of 
 the monalleries, it was given to the Lord Paget ; and 
 has fince been called FuJit's BrijinUy, and is fo deno- 
 minated in the county map. But it retains its old 
 name in the king's books, and is a difcharged vicarage 
 of ;ol. clear yearly value. It likewifc retains its old 
 name with regard to the fairs. W. Long. i. 2. Lat. 
 52 45- 
 .(^.BBOTSBURY,afmalliowninDorftiaiirc,v\uh 
 
 lek. 
 
 amarkctonThurfday. W. Long. i. 17. Lit. ;c. 40. ALbreviate 
 'Ihe abbey near this town v.as founded by a Norman I 
 
 lady, about the year 1026 ; and tdv^ard the Confclfor ••^^'^f-!'^*- 
 and William the Conqueror were coafidciablc bene- ^ 
 f..(5tors to it. 
 
 ABBREVIATE ft/ Adjudications, in Scots law, 
 anabitrsclorabridgeme.il of a decreet of adjudication, 
 vvhich is recorded in a regiflcr kept for that purpofc. 
 
 AliBREVIA HON, or Abbrevi;(tcr.^., a con- 
 traction of a word or p.iiragc ;. made by dropping fome 
 of the letters, or by fubllituting certain marks or cha- 
 raclcrs in their place — Lawyers, phylicians, &c. ufc 
 abundance of abbrc\ iitions, partly for the fake of ex- 
 pedition, and partly for that of myllcry; but of all 
 people the Rabbins are the mod remarkable for this 
 practice, fo that their writings arc unintelligible \\ iih- 
 out the Hebrew abbreviatures. The Jcwilli authors 
 and copy ills do not content themfelves with abbrevia- 
 ting words like the Greeks and Latins, by retrenching 
 fome of the letters or fyllabks ; they frequently take 
 away all but the initinl letters. They even frequently 
 take the initials of fevcral fucceeding words, join them 
 together, and, adding vowels to them, make a fort of 
 barbraous word, reprefentativeof all iliofewhich they 
 have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi Mofes ben Mai- 
 mon, in their abbreviature is Ratnbavi, &c. 
 
 ABBRtVl.A lOR, inageneral fenfc,apcrfon who 
 abri.lges any large book into a narrower compafs. 
 
 ABiiREvnTORS,acollegeof 72 perfons in the chan- 
 cery of Rome, who draw up the pope's brieves, and re- 
 duce petitions, when granted by him, into proper form 
 <or being converted in bulls. 
 
 ABBL'T.ALS, llgnify the buttings or boundings 
 of lands towards any point. Limits were anciently 
 diflinguithed by artificial hillocks, which were called 
 b-jtiwi::es ; and hence butting. In a defcription of the 
 lite of land, the lides on the breadth are more proper- 
 ly ^^^.jccn.'j, and thefe terminating the length zre ab- 
 butaiJij i which, in old furveys, were fomtrimcsex- 
 prefled hy ca/iitare, to head, whence abbuiais arc now 
 called hiad-lar.ds. 
 
 ABCEDARY, or Abcedarian, an epithet given 
 to compolitions, the parts of which are difpofcd in the 
 orderofthe letters of the alphabet: thus we fay, Ab- 
 cedarian pfilnis, lamentations, hymns, &c. 
 
 ABCOURT, a town ncarStGcrmains, four leagues 
 from Paris. Here is a brilk chalybeate water, impreg- 
 nated witli tixci air and the folFil alkali ; and refem- 
 bling the waters of Spa and Ihningron. 
 
 ABDALLA, the fonof .'VbJalmothlcb, was the fa- 
 therof the prophet Mahomet. Several other Arabians 
 of eminence bore the fame name. 
 
 ABDALMALEK, the fon of .Mirvan, and the s'" 
 khalifof the race of theOmmiades, f.irnanied Rjllhal 
 Hc~:.i!iat, i. e. the Ikinner of a (lone, becaufc of his 
 extreme avarice ; as alfo Aoaulzekab. becaufe his 
 brea;h was faid fi be lo poifonous as to kill all the flics 
 which rcfted on his face. Yet he furpalfed all his prt- 
 decellbrs in power and doniinion ; for in his reign the 
 Indies were conquered in the call, and hisarmics pene- 
 trated Spain in the well : he likew ife extended his em- 
 pire toward the fouth. by making himfelf maficr of 
 Medina and Mecca. He began his reign in the 65"" 
 of the hcgira, A. D. 648 ; reigned 1 5 years ; and four 
 of his fo.is enjoyed the khaliiate one at'tcr another. 
 B 3 Abdalmelf.e,
 
 A B D 
 
 r 12 ] 
 
 A B D 
 
 
 /\ni>A I .: fc I y. K (l)cn Zoliai), an ciiiiiiciit pliyfitiaii, 
 coiniuonly called by the Eurojitaus Avutzoar. Sec 
 
 h\ i NZOAK. 
 
 ABDALMOIIILEU, or Ahdal Mateleb, the 
 fon of Haflicni, the father of AbJalla, and grandfather 
 of Mahomet tlic prophet of the Miiifiilmaiis, was, it is 
 faij, of filch woiultriulconicliiulsand beauty, thataJl 
 women who faw him became enaiiuuired : w hich may 
 have given occalion to that proplutic liglii, which, ac- 
 cording to the Arabians, flionc on the foreheads of l:im, 
 l\is anceflors, and defccndents ; it being certain that 
 they were very handfome and graceful men. He cjied 
 when Malioniet, of whom he had taken peculiar care, 
 was only 8 or 9 years old ; aged, according to fome, 
 no, and according to other writers 120. 
 
 ABDALONYIviUS, or Abdoi.onymus, (in cladlc 
 hiltory), of the royal family of Sidon, and dcfcended 
 from king Cinyras, was contented to live in obfcurity, 
 and get his lubiillence by cultivating a garden, while 
 Strato was in poircflion of the crown of Sidon. Alexan- 
 dertheGreat having depofcd Strato, inquired whetlicr 
 anyofilie raceofCinyras was living, that he might fct 
 him on the throne. It was generally tlioiiglu that the 
 whole race was extincb : but at l.ill AbJalonymus was 
 thought of, and mentioned to Alexander ; who imme- 
 diately ordered fome of his foldiers to fetch him. They 
 found the good man at work, happy in his poverty, 
 and entirely a flraiiger to the noifcof arms, with which 
 all Afia was at that time diilurbed ; and they could 
 fcarcely pcrfuade him that they wCre in carnell. Alex- 
 ander was convinced of his high dcfcent by tlie dig- 
 nity that appeared in his perfon ; bat was defirous of 
 learning from liim in v/hat manner he bore his poverty. 
 " I Willi" faid AbJalonymus, " 1 may bear my new 
 condition as well : Thel'e hands have iupplied my ne- 
 celiities: I have had nothing, and I have wanted no- 
 thing." This anfwer pleafed Alexander fo much, that, 
 belides giving him all that was Strato's, he augment- 
 ed his dominions, and gave him a large prcfcnt out of 
 the Pcrlian fpoils. 
 
 ABDALS, inthe Eaftern countries, akind of faints 
 f'.ippofcd to be infpircd to a degree of madnef>. Tiic 
 word comes, perhaps, from tiic Arabic, ylbdallah, the 
 fervant of God. The Per/ians call them dcvaneh kho- 
 da, fimilar to the Latins way of fpeaking of their pro- 
 phets and (ibyts, q. d. Jtire/ites deo, raging with the 
 god. They arc often carried by excels of zeal, efpc- 
 cially in the Indies, to run about the ilreets and kill 
 all iliey meet of a different religion ; of which travel- 
 lers furnilh many inilanccs. The Knglilh call this, 
 fuunin^ a muk, from the name of the inftrument, a 
 fort of poniard, which they employ on thcfc defpcratc 
 occafions. If they are killed, as it commonly happens, 
 before they have done much mifcliicf, they reckon it 
 highly meritorious ; and arc eflcemed, by the vulgar, 
 martyrs for their faith. 
 
 ABDARA, or Apdera, (anc. geog.) a town of 
 BcEotia in Spain, a Phoenician colony ; wow Adra, to 
 the weft of Alme ira in the kingdom of Granada. 
 
 ABDERA, (anc. geog.) amaritime town of Thrace, 
 not far from the moutli of the river Ncflus, on the 
 eafl fide. The foundation, according to Herodotus, 
 was attempted to be laid by Timefms the Clazome- 
 nian ; but he was forced by the Thracians to quit the 
 defign. The Tcians undertook it, and fuccecded ; fet- 
 
 tling there, in order toavoid theinfultsof tlie Pcrlians. .-VUItr* 
 — Several lingularitiesarc toldofAbdcra.* The grafs II 
 of the eoiuury round it was fo Itrong, that fiich horfcs -'Abdication 
 as cat of it ran mad. In the reign of Callander king of • piinii, 
 Maccdon, this city was fopeflcred with frogs and rats, lib. xxv. e. 
 thai the inhabitants were forceil to quit it for a time. 8. Juft. lib. 
 — The Abdcritcs, or Abdcritani, were very much dc- ^^'- '• *• 
 riJcd for tluir wai;: of wit and judgment: yet their 
 city has given birth to fcvcral eminent perfons; as, 
 i'rotagoras, Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecat*ns the 
 hilh)rian, Niceiuvtus the poet, and many others, who 
 were mciuioncd among the illullrious men. — In the 
 reign of Lylimachus, Abdcra was atiiifled for fome 
 months w ith a inoll extraordinary diftafc f : this was f Luciaiiuj 
 a burning fever, wliolecrilis uasahvays on the feventh i/utimoJo 
 day, and then it left them ; but it fo diUrac-led their MiJI./ii nif 
 imaginaiiop.s, that they fancied themfelves players./"'. '' 
 After this, they were ever repeating vcriVs from fome "" 
 tragedy, and particularly out Of the Andromeda of Eu- 
 ripides, as if they had b.en upon the ilage ; fo tliat 
 many Of thefc p.'de, meagre actors, were pouring forth 
 theirtragiccxelamaiionsin every ilreet. Thisdclirinni 
 eo)itinucd till tiic winter following ; which was a very 
 cold one, and therefore fitter to remove it. Lucian, 
 who has defcribed this difcafe, endeavours to account 
 for it in this manner : AreJiclaus, an excellent player, 
 ac^ed the Andromeda of EuHpidis before the Abdc- 
 ritcs, in the height of a very hot fumnier. Several had 
 a fever at their coming out of the theatre; and as their 
 imaginations were full of the tragedy, the delirium 
 which the fever raifcd reprefentcd perpetually Andro- 
 meda, Perfeus, Medufa, &c. and the feveral dramatic 
 incidents, and called wp the ideasof thofc objcfts, and 
 the pleafureof the rcprefentaiion.foftrongly, that they 
 could not forbear imitating Arclielaus's atlion and de- 
 clamation : And from ihefc the fever fpread to others 
 by in feci ion. 
 
 ABDERAHMA, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who 
 revolted, and formed an inticpendent principality at 
 Cordova. He had feveral fuccellbrs of the fame name. 
 
 ABDEST, a Perfiaa word, properly fignifying the 
 w.".ter placed in a bafon for walhing the hands ; but is 
 iifed to imply the legal purifications pradifed by the 
 Mahometans before they enter on their religious ce- 
 remonies. 
 
 ABDIAS Of Babylon, one of the boideft legend- 
 writers, whoboafled he had fecn our Saviour,tha the was 
 one of the 72 difcipks, had been eye-witncfs of the ac- 
 tions and prayers at the deaths of feveral of the apolUes, 
 and had followed into Periia St Simon and St Jude, 
 who, he faid, made him the firll bilhop of Babylon. 
 Hisbook intitled HiftoriacsrtamiiiisapoJIolici, was pub- 
 lifhcd by Wolfgang Lazius, at Bazil, 15 Ji ; and it has 
 lince borne feveral impreflions in different places. 
 
 ABDICATION, the action whereby a magi/Irate, 
 or perfon in ofiice, renounces and gives up the fame 
 before the term of fervice is expired. 
 
 This word is frequentlyconiounded with refignatton ; 
 I ut di.'iers from it, in that abdication is done purely 
 and limply, w'lercas rcfignation is in favour of fome 
 third perfon. It is faid to be a renunciation, quitting, 
 and relinquilliing, fo as to have nothing further to A(j 
 with a thing ; or the doing of fuch aflions as are in- 
 confiflent with the holding of it. On king James'slca- 
 ving the kingdom, and abdicating the goverament, t-he 
 
 lords
 
 A 13 E 
 
 [ 
 
 Al.cl. 
 
 AWomeii lords woulJ have ]iad the word dcf:it'i',n made iilc of ; 
 but the conur.ons thought it was not comprchcndvc 
 enough, lor that the king might then have liberty of 
 rctiiniing. — Among the Roman writers it is more par- 
 ticularly ufcd for the act whereby afaihcrdifcardedor 
 difclaimcd his fjii, and expelled him the family. It is 
 diflingiiillicd ixo\y\.exh.iradatKjox dijinheniing, in that 
 the former was done in the father's lifetime j the latter, 
 by will at iiis death : fo that whoever was abdicated, 
 was alfo difinhtritcd ; Lul not via vcrfa. 
 
 ABDOl^IE^J, in anatomy, is that part of the trunk 
 of the body which lies between the thorax and the bot- 
 tom of the pelvis. See Anatomy. 
 
 ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, con- 
 ftitute the IV"' Order of the Fourih C/a/j of Animals, 
 in the Linna;an fyftcm. Sec Zoology. 
 
 ABDUCTION, in logic, a kind of argumentation, 
 by the Greeks called apagog; wherein the greater 
 extreme is evidently contained in the medium, but the 
 medium not fo evidently in the lelicr extreme as not to 
 require fome farther medium or proof to make it ap- 
 pear. It is called abdufHon, becaiifc, from the con- 
 clufion, it draws us on to prove the proportion alfumed. 
 Thus in the fyllogifm, " All whom God abfolves arc 
 free from fui ; but God abfolves all who are in Chrill ; 
 therefore all whoareinChrift are free from fin," — the 
 major is evident ; but thcminor, or airumption,isnot fo 
 evident without fome other propofition to prove it, as, 
 " God received full fatisfadion for lin by the fuffer- 
 ings of Jefus Chrifl." 
 
 Ab Dv c r I o N ,in fiirgery,a fpceies of fracture, where- 
 in the broken parts of the bone recede from each other. 
 ABDUCTOR, or Abdi; CENT, in anatomy, a name 
 given to fcvcral of the inufcles, on account of their 
 ferviiig to withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to 
 which they belong. 
 
 ABKL, fecond fon of Adam and Eve, was a (liep- 
 herd. He oilcred to God fome of the firlUings of his 
 flock, at the fame time that his brother Cain offered 
 the fruits of the earth. God was pleafcd with Abel's 
 oblation, butdifpleafed with Cain's ; which fo cxafpe- 
 rated the latter, that he rofe up againft his brother 
 and killed him. Thefe arc the only circumflances 
 Moles relates of him ; though, were we to take notice 
 of the fcvcral particulars to which curiolity has given 
 birth on this occafion, they would run to a very great 
 length. But this will not be expected. It is remark- 
 able, that the Greek churches, who celebrate thefealls 
 of every other patriarch and prophet, have not done 
 the fame honour to Abel. His name is not to be 
 found in any catalogue of faints or mirtyrs till the 
 lo"' century ; nor even in the new Roman martyrolo- 
 gy. However he is prayed to, with fome other faints, 
 in fcvcral Roman litanies faid for pcrfons who lie at 
 the point of death. 
 
 y/sAX Kcrav!i!!}, or Vincarumy beyond Jordan, in 
 the country of the Ammonites, where Jephthah de- 
 feated them, fevcn miles diflant t'rom Philadelphia, 
 abounding in vines, and hence the name. It was alfo 
 called Ahcla. 
 
 ABF.L-Mihilii, the country of the prophet Eliflia, 
 fituatc on this fide Jordan, between the valley of Jez- 
 rcel and the village Bethmaela in the plains of Jordan, 
 where the Midianites were defeated by Gideon. Judges, 
 vii. 3 2. 
 
 13 ] ABE 
 
 .^JuKL-M-zi ui„ , called alfo the th:clhi;!g-no('r ui' 
 Atad i fignifying the lamentation of the Egyptiins ; 
 in allulioii to the mourning (cr Jacob, Gcu. 1. 3, ic, 
 II. Suppofed to be near Hebron. 
 
 JuEL-M'jfch, or Abchnrifik, \\\ botany, the trivial 
 name of a fpecics of the Hibiscus. 
 
 AHEL-Saitim, or Saiim, a town in the plains of 
 Moab, to the N. E. of the Dead Sea, not far from 
 Jordan, where the Ifraclites committed fornicatio.n 
 with the daughters of Moab: So called, probably, 
 from the great number of Sittim-trces there. 
 
 ABELARD (Peter), one of the mod famous doc- 
 tors of the twelfth century, was born at Pcliis near 
 Kantz, in Britany : he was well learned in divini y, 
 philofophy, and the languages ; but was particularly 
 diftinguilhcd by his Ikill in logic, and his fondnefs for 
 difputations, which led him to tiavel into feveral pro- 
 vinces in order to give public proof of his acutcncfs 
 in that fciencc. 
 
 After having baffled many antajonifls, he read 
 lectures in divinity with great applaufe at Paris ; 
 where he boarded with a canon whofe name was Ful- 
 bcrt, and who had a very beautiful niece named He- 
 loife. Tlie canon ardently wilhed to fee this young 
 lady make a figure among the learned, and Abelard 
 was made her preceptor : bat inftcad of inllruding her 
 in tiie fcienccs, he taught her to love. Abelard now 
 performed his public functions very coldly, and wrote 
 nothing but amorous verfes. Heloife proving with child, 
 Abelard fent her toa lifter of his in Britany, where Ihc 
 was delivered of a for.. Tofoftcn ilie canon's anger, he 
 offered to marry Heloife privafly ; and tluoldman was 
 better picafed with tIiepropofahli;in the nicee.who.from 
 alingularexcefsofpa!iion,chofc to be Abelard 'smillrefs 
 rather than his wife; She married, however, but ufed of- 
 ten to protell upon oath that fhcwas fingle,which provo- 
 ked the canon to ufe her ill. Upon this, Abelard fent 
 her to the monaftery of Argcnteuil; where flic put on .1 
 religious habit, but did not take the veil. Heloifc's re- 
 lations confidcring thisas a fecond treachery, hired ruf- 
 lianS, who, forcing into his chamber in the dead of the 
 night, emafeulated him. This infamous treatment made 
 him fly to the gloom of a eloifter. He allumed the mo- 
 naftic habit in the abbey of St Dennis ; but the difor- 
 dcrs of that houfe foon drove him from thence. He 
 was-aTtcrwards charged with hcrcfy ; but after fcvcral 
 perfecutionsforhis religious fentiments, he fettled in a 
 folitudein the dioccfc ofTroies, where he built an ora- 
 tory, to which he gave the name of the Paraclct. He 
 was afterwards chofcn fuperiorof the abbey of Ruis in 
 the dioeefeof Vannes : when the nuns being expelled 
 from the nunnery in which Heloife had been placed, 
 he gave her his oratory ; where llie fettled with fome 
 of her lifter nuns, and became their priorefs. 
 
 Abelard mixed the philofophy of Ariltotlc with his 
 divinity, and in 11 40 was condemned by the council of 
 Rhcims and Sens. Pope Innocent II. ordered him to be 
 imprilbncd, his books to be burnt, and forbid him ever 
 leach in', again. However, he was foon after pardoned, 
 at the folicitationof Peter the Venerable, who received 
 him into his abbey of Clugni, where he led an exem- 
 plary life. He died in the priory of Marcellus at Cha- 
 lons, April 2\, 1142, aged lixty-tliree. His corpic 
 was fent to Heloife, who buried it in the Paracler. 
 He left fcvcral works : the moft celebrated of which 
 
 arc 
 
 , I
 
 ABE I 14 J 
 
 Abil-trec crc thofc teiiiicr Icltcrs that pilFcc! bf twecn liirn and 
 
 ABE 
 
 I 
 
 Ikluilc, \\ iih the accouiu ot thtir uiibloi t'.'.ncs prciix- 
 td J which lidvc been iraiilUicti into Lngliili,anJ i.ii- 
 juoriaUi'cii by the luniioiiy ot Mr I'opi'b iiuiubcis. 
 
 ABtL-TKEE, or Ahele-tree, an obfolctc nuiac 
 for a fjiccics ol'ihe popbr. Sec Populus. 
 
 ABLLIANS, Aheolites, or Abelonians, in 
 ciuirch-liillory, a ltd onicrcilcs mentioned by bt Aii- 
 llin, which arofc in the dioccie of Kippo in Ahici, 
 a:'.d is fuppofcd to have beg :n in the reign of Arcadiiis, 
 and ended in thr.t of '1 hcodofms. Indeed it \va^ not 
 calculated for being of any long coniiiiuauce. ThoCc 
 of this fc«5l regulated marriage after the example of 
 Abel J who, they pretended, was married, but died 
 withoutever havin;; known his wife. They tlicrcfore 
 cll'jwcd each man to marry one woman, but enjoined 
 them to live in continence : and, to keep up the IcJ, 
 when a man and v. oman entered into this focicty, they 
 adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their 
 goods, and to marry upon the fame terms of not be- 
 getting children, but of adopting two of diftcrent 
 fexcs. 
 
 ABELLA, anciently a town of Campania, near 
 the river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abel- 
 lani, and f.iid to have been a colony of Chakidians. 
 The mix Avcllana, called alfoPrcenellina, or the ha- 
 zelnut, takes its name from this town, according to 
 •jVlacrobius. Now Avelia. 
 
 ABELLINUM, anciently a town of the Kirpi'.ii, 
 apeopleof Apjlia ; dillant abouta mile from the rivu- 
 IctSabbato, between Bencventum and Salcrnuni. Pliny 
 calls the inhabitants Abellinatcs, with tlie epithet pro- 
 topi, to diflinguilh them from the AbcUinates Marli. 
 Now Avellino. E. Long. I J. 20. Lat. 21. 
 
 ABKN EZRA (Abraham), a celebrated rabbi, born 
 at Toledo in Spain, calledby the Jews, Thcwife, great, 
 and admirable Doctor, was a very able interpreter of 
 the Holy Scriptures ; and was well fkilledin grammar, 
 poetry, philofophy, aftronomy, and medicine. V.c 
 was alfo a perfed mafterof the Arabic. His principal 
 work is, Comip.cntarics on the Old Teftamcnt, w hich 
 is much eflcemed : thefe are printed in Bombcrg's and 
 Eiixtorf's Hebrew Bibles, ilis (lile is clear, elegant, 
 cjiicifc, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures : 
 lie almoll always adheres to the literal fenfe, and every 
 v.here gives proofs of his genius and good fenfe : he, 
 however, advances fome erroneous feiuiments. The 
 fcarcellof all his books is intilled,Jcfud Mora ; which 
 is a theological work, intended as an exhortation to the 
 lludy of tlie Talmud. He died in 11 74, aged 75. 
 
 y-lBEx Metier, a learned rabbin, who wrote a com- 
 mentary on the Old Tellament in Hebrew, intitled 
 The Perfection of beauty. This rabbin generally 
 follows the grammatical fenfe and the opinions of 
 Kimehi. The btct edition is that of Holland. 
 
 ABENAS, a town in France, in Languedoc and in 
 the lower Vivarais, feared on the river Ardefch, at the 
 foot of the Ccvennes. E. Long. 4. 43. Lat. 44. 40. 
 ABENEL Gauey, a fixed liar of the fecond or 
 third magnitude, on the fouth fcale of the conftella- 
 tion Libra. 
 
 TVBENSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the 
 circle and dutchy of Bavaria, and in the governiv.eni of 
 Munich. It isfeatcd on tlie river Abentz, near the Da- 
 nube. E. Lon^g. II. jS. Lat. 4S. 45. 
 
 AIji:RAVON, a borough town of Glaraorganfliirc Abcravon, 
 in Wales, go\ crntd by a portreeve. It had a market, Abt-rliro- 
 
 w hich is now dilcomiiuicd : the vicarage isdifcharged, ''" '^*^- ^ 
 
 and is worth 45I. clear yearly value. It is feated on ^~ 
 the mouth of the river -Avon, 104 miles well of Lon- 
 don. W. Long, 3. 21. Lat. 51. 40. 
 
 ABEllBUOrHH.K, or Akbroatii, one of the 
 royal boroughs of Scoiland, Jituatc'd in the county of 
 Angus, about forty miles N. N. E. of Edinburgh j its 
 \\ . Long, being 2. 29. and N. Lat. 56. 36. It is feat- 
 ed on the difcharge of the little river Brothic into tlic 
 fea, as the name imports, Abcr in the Britilh implying 
 f.ich a lituation. it is a fmall but fiouril!;ing place, 
 well built, and fliU iucreafing. The town has been 
 in an improving ftate for the forty laft years, and the 
 number of inhabitants greatly augmented ; which 
 is owing to the imroduclion of raanufadurcs. The 
 number, at this time, is faid to be about four thou- 
 fand : tliefc principally conliit of weavers of coarfe 
 brown linens, and fomc fail-cloih ; others are employ- 
 ed in making white and coloured threads: the remain- 
 der arc either engaged in the fliippiug of the place, or 
 in the ncccflary and common mechanic trades. The 
 brown linens,crOfnaburghs,were manufactured here 
 before any encoiiragcnieiit w as given by Government, 
 or the linen company ereited at Edinburgh. It ap- 
 pears from the books of the flamp-oiiice in this tov.n, 
 that fcve;! or eight hundred tlioufaiid yards arc annu- 
 ally made in the jdace. and a fmall difli ith.^ound. Bc- 
 fiJes this export and that of thread, much barley and 
 fome wheat is fent abroad. -The foreign imports arc 
 flax, flax-feed, and tin.bcr, from the Baltic. The 
 coafting trade conlills of coals from Borrowftounnefs, 
 
 and lime from Lord Elgin's kilns in Fife At this 
 
 place, in default of a natural harbour, a tolerable arti- 
 ficial one of piers has been formed, where, at fpriiig- 
 tides, which rife here til teen feet, fliips of two hun- 
 dred tons can come, and of eighty at neap-tides ; but 
 they mull lie dry at low water. This port is of great 
 antiquity : there is an agreement yet extant between 
 the abbot and the burghers of Aberbrothick, 1111194, 
 concerning tiiemakingof the harbour. Both parties 
 were bound to contribute their proportions ; but the 
 largcll fell to the (liare of the former, for which he 
 was to receive an annual tax payable out of every rood 
 of land lying within the borough. — The glory of this 
 place V. as the abbey, whofc very ruins give fome idea 
 of its former magnilicence. It was founded by AVil- 
 liam the Lion in 11 78, and dedicated to the celebra- 
 ted primate Thomas a Becket. The founder was b.i- 
 ried here ; but there are no remains of his tomb, or 
 of any other, excepting that of a monk of the name 
 of Alexander Nicol. The monks were of the Tyro- 
 ncfian order -, and were firft brought from Kelfo, 
 Vihofe abbot declared thofe of this place, on the Hrfl 
 inflituiion, to be free from his jurifdiciiou. The laft 
 abbot was the famous Cardinal Beaton, at the fame 
 timearchbiihopofSt Andrew's, and, before his death. 
 as great and abfolutc here as V/olfey was in England. 
 King John, th< Englilli monarch, granted this mona- 
 fteryinoft uncommon privileges ; for, by charter under 
 his great fcal, he exempted it a teloniis et confuctiK^ine 
 in every part of J'ngland, except London. At Aber- 
 brothii.k is a chalybeate water, finiilar to thofc of Pe- 
 terhead and Clcndy. 
 
 ABERCONWAY,
 
 A D E 
 
 I IS ] 
 
 ABE 
 
 Abcrton- ABERCONWAY, or Conway, CainarvoaQ.irc, 
 way, Nortli-W ales ; fo called iroiuits litualioiii: the mouth 
 Aberdeen, of the river Conway. It ii a haudfunie town, pica- 
 ^ fantly lituatci on the liJe of a hill, ami h;s nuv.y con- 
 venience's for trade ; uotAitlittaiiding which it is the 
 poorclt town in the county. It was built by lidward I. 
 and had noto .ly walls, biit a llrong calilc which is now 
 ill ruins. Kcrc is an inlcrip:ioii o.i the tomb of one 
 Nicholas Kooks, imporiiag thjt he was the oiic-and- 
 fortieih child of his father, and had twcnty-fcven 
 children himfclf. It is 229 miles from Lonuoa, \V. 
 Long. 3. 47- N. Lac. 53. jo. 
 
 ABtllDliEN, the name of two cities in Scot- 
 land, called the OiiJ and A'c'o) Towns, lituated on 
 the German ocean, in W. Lon^. i. 40. ana N. 
 Lat. 57. 19. 
 
 Aberdeen is a place of great antiquity. According 
 to tradition, it was of note in the reign of Gregory, 
 who conferred ou it fomc privileges about the year 
 893. In X004, Mal.olm II. founded a bilhopric at 
 a place called Mortlich in Bantlihire, in memory of 
 alignal victory wbicn he there gained over the Danes : 
 which bilhopric was tranilatcd to Old Aberdeen by 
 David 1. ; and in 1165, the then bifliop of Aberdeen 
 obtained a new charter from Malcolm iV. There is 
 extant a charter of Alexander II. hy which, in I2t7, 
 the King grants to Aucrdeen the fame privileges he 
 had granted to his town of Perth. 
 
 The Old Town lies about a mile to the north of the 
 new, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a 
 fine Gothic bri.'ge, of alinglc arch, greatly admired, 
 which rclls at both lidcs on two rocks. 1 his arch, 
 faid to have been built by a bilhop of Aberdeen about 
 the year 1290,1567 fectwideatthcb >ttoni,a!id 34", feet 
 high above the lurfaceof the river, which at ebb-tide is 
 here 19 feet deep. The old town was formerly the feat 
 of the bilhop, and had alarge cathedral commonly cal- 
 led 5/ Alac/iLr's. 1 wo very .intique fpires,andoneai!lc, 
 ■which is u led as a church, are now the only remains of 
 it. The bilhopric was founded in the time of uavidl.as 
 abovcmentioncd. 1 he cathedral had anciently tworows 
 of fione pillars acrofs the church, and three turrets; 
 the ftecfle, which w as the largeft of ihefe turrets, reli- 
 ed upon an arch, fupported by four pillars. In this ca- 
 thedral there was a line library ; but, about the year 
 I j6o, it was almoll totally dcllroyed. But the capital 
 building is the king's-college, on the fouth lide of the 
 town, which isalarge and flatcly iabric- Itis builtround 
 a fquare, with cloiltcrson the fouth lide. The chapel is 
 very ruinouswiihin; but there llill remaiasfome wood- 
 work of exquiliteworkmanihip. This was preferved by 
 the fpirit of the principal at the lime ot the reformati- 
 on, who armed his people and checked the bliiid zeal 
 of the baroris of the Mearns ; who, after Itrip, iug the 
 cathedral of its roof, and robbing it of the bells, were 
 goi ig to violate tliis feat of learning. They ihipped 
 their facrilegious booty, w ith an intention of cxpoling 
 it to fale in Holland : but the vellel had llarcely gone 
 out of port, when ir pcrilhcdina liormwitli ail its ill- 
 gained lading. The lleeple is vaulted wiili a double 
 crofsarch ; above which is an imperial crown, fupport- 
 ed by eight ftoiu-pilUrs, and clofed w ith a globe and 
 two gilded erodes. In the year i6;i this lleeple was 
 thrown down by a florm, but was fc.on after rebuilt 
 ia a more Aately form. This college was foandcd ia 
 
 1494, by William Eli>liinflo:i bilhop of this place, Abfrdeen. 
 
 Lord Chancellor of Scotland in the reign of james III. v— - 
 
 and Lord Privy Seal in that of James IV. Hut 
 Jan;cs IV. claimed the patronage ot it, and it has 
 liiice been Colled the A'./j^'/ CuisgL-. Thiicolltgc, and 
 the Maiifehal-coUegc in tlie New Town, form one 
 univeniiy, called the \Jiuu<.rj.ty cj KiirgLbarlct. 1 Ue 
 lijrary is large, but not remarkable for many curiofi- 
 tics. Hector Liocthius was the tirlt principal of the 
 college ; and feiit for from Paris tor that purpole, on 
 an annual falary of forty marks Scots, at thirteen pence 
 each. The Iquare tower on the hde of the college 
 was buiit by contribution Ironi General monk and 
 the oliiccrsunderhi.a then quartered at Aberdeen, fcr 
 the reception of lludcnts ; of which tiicrc are about 
 a hundred belonging to the college who lie in it. 
 
 The New Town i» the capital of the ihire of Aber- 
 deen, t'orlargciicls, trade, ana beauty, it greatly ex- 
 ceeds any town in the north 01 Scotia. id. It is 
 built OH a hill or riling ground, and lies on a fmall 
 bay formed by the Dee, deep enough for a lliip of 
 2CO tons, and above two miles in circumference — 
 The buildings (which are of granite from the neigh- 
 bouring quaries) are generally four llories high ; anj 
 have, liJi the molt part, gardens behind them, which 
 gives it a beautiful appearance. On the high-llrect is 
 a large church, which formerly belonged to the Iran- 
 cifcans. This church was begun by iJiil.op \V illiani 
 Llphinlton ; and tinill.ed by Ga\inus Dunbar, bilhop of 
 Aljcrdeen, abjut the year t 5&0. Bilhop Dunbar is faij 
 liivewife to have built the bridge over the Dee, which 
 coalillsof feven arches. In ihe niidiileof Calue-Ilreec 
 is an octagon building, with neat bas-relievos of the 
 kings of Scotland from James 1. to James VII. The 
 town-houfc makes a good figure, and has a handlome 
 fpirc in the centre. The grammar-lchoolisa low but 
 neat building. Gordon's hofpiial is handlome ; in front 
 is agood liatue of the founder : it maniains forty boys, 
 whoarc apprenticed at proper ages. The infirmary is 
 a large pbiin building, and fends out between eight 
 and nine hundred cured patients annually, but the 
 chief public uuilding ii: thenewtown isthe .Marifchal- 
 coUcge, founded by George Kicth carl of Marifchal, 
 in the year 1593 ; but lince greatly augmented with 
 additional b.iilUings. There arc about 1 43 ftudents 
 btlongi.ig to it. In both tiie Mariichal and King's 
 college the languages, mathematics, natural philolb- 
 phy, divinity, ice. are taught by very able profellbrs. 
 The convents in .-iberdeen were : Oneof Mathurines, 
 orof the order of the Trinity, founded by William the 
 Lion, whouied in 1314 ; another of Dominicans, by 
 Alexander II. ; a third of Obfcrvantir.es, a building 
 of great length in the middle of the cily, founded by 
 the citi/.er.s and Mr Richard Vans,&c. ; and a fourth 
 of Carmelites, or White Kriars, founded by Philip de 
 Atbuthniit in 1 350. 
 
 Aberdeen, including the Old Town, is fnppofej 
 to co;uain 25,000 people. Its trade is conllderablc, 
 but might be greatly extended by an atte/ition to the 
 white lilheries. 
 
 The harbour was long a great detriment to its trade, 
 and ocealioncd the lofs of many lives and much pro- 
 perty. A Hrangcr could'r.ever depend upon t^ndin;; it 
 as he left it ; while vcilels lay at anchor in the read till 
 the tidcflioulUiuakc, they have often been wrecked by 
 
 dorms
 
 A » E 
 
 I 16 ] 
 
 A li E 
 
 •\hcrJcen. Aorms which f.uliicnly arofc. It v./is \ cry narrow at 
 
 ■ " ihc moiiili, having ilic calUrly rocky point of the 
 
 Graiiipian niountaius on the foutli, anJ a tlat Lljwiiig 
 f;iiulon the north, txtcndiiig along the co.ilt formally 
 miles. By the ealkrly and north- call llorms the faud 
 was driven in a long ridge acrol's tlic harbour'smouth, 
 aid lornicd what was called the I'ur. Upon this bar 
 thcdepihof watcrat lowtiJe wasfomciinics not above 
 ihrce feet. Clearing away the faud, though but a par- 
 tial and temporary remedy, was a matter of great ex- 
 pence to the comnumily : If it was cleared one week 
 lb as to have live or lix feet of water at ebb, a frelli 
 florin the next week undid all that had been done. The 
 town at lall came to a refohition of creeling a llrong 
 pier on the north fide of the harbour. This pier is 
 I 200 feet in length, and gradually iacrealcs in tliick- 
 nefs and height as it approaches the fea, where the 
 head or rounding is 60 feet diameter at the bafc, and 
 the perpendicular elevation is 3S feet. The whole is 
 built of granite, the mofl durable flonc known : many 
 of the outlide Hones arc about three tons weight, with 
 hewn beds. It was built under the direction of Mr 
 Smcatoii ; and the expcncc, anioiinting to above 
 17, cool, is defrayed by doubling the harbour-dues, 
 whicli are ehieHy paid by the inhabitants. 
 
 A little to the foutli of the bar, they have now a 
 depth of 7 fathoms at low water ; and at the har- 
 bour mouth, from eight to nine fithoras, where they 
 had formerly but a few feet. 
 
 Aberdeen once enjoyed a good lliareoftlie tobacco 
 trade. At prefcnt, its importsare from the Ualtic, and 
 a few merchants trade to the Weft Indies and North 
 America. Its exports arc ilockings, thread, falmon, 
 and oatmeal. The firft is a mofl important article, as 
 appears by the fallowing ftatc of it. For this manu- 
 failure, 20,8co pounds worth of wool is annually 
 imported, and 1600 pounds worth of oil. Of this 
 wool arc annually made 69,333 dozen pairs of Jlock- 
 iiigs ; worth, atanavarage, il. ios./>ct dozen. Thefe 
 are thcworkof the country-people in almoflall partsof 
 this great couiity, who get 4s. />;/• dozen for fpinning, 
 ' and 14s. /><:r dozen for knitting ; fo that there is an- 
 nually paid them 62,5291. 14. There is, befidcs a- 
 bout 2000I. value of Hockings manufaiflured from the 
 wool of the county. The thread manufat'lure is ano- 
 ther conliderablc article, though trifling incomparifon 
 ■of the woollen. The falmon filherics on the Dee and 
 the Don arc a good branch of trade. About 46 boats, . 
 and 130 men, are employed on the firfl ; and, in fome 
 years, 167,000 lb- of filh have been fent pickled to 
 Loudon, and about 930 barrels of faltcd fifli exported 
 to France, Italy, See. — The fiOiery on the Don is far 
 lefseonlideraMc. The fifli of this river are taken iu 
 cruives above the bridge; a pra<;Hce contrary to the 
 ancient laws of the kingdom, irnlefs v/here the nature 
 of the water rendered the nct-tilliciy impracticable. 
 The inhabitants likewifc exjrart conlidcra'olc quanti- 
 ties of pickled pork, which they fell to the Dutch for 
 victualling their Eafl India (liips and men of war ; 
 the Aberdeen pork having the reputation of being the 
 beil curcJ of "any in Europe for keeping on long 
 voyages. 
 
 " It is however remarkable, (Mr Kr.ox obfcrves), 
 that there is not a tingle decked vcfftl fitted out from 
 Aberdeen forthe herring or white iiflicrics: here is now 
 
 3 
 
 an excellent iiarbonr ; an aclivc people, couverfant in Abcrdctui- 
 tradc, and pollclled of capital , fealcd within (ix hours 1'ir<; 
 failing of Long Fortys, and two days failing of the 
 Shetland Illcs. This inattention is the more extraor- 
 dinary, as the exports of Aberdeen, thougii very con- 
 fiderable, do not balance the imports in value. 'Ihc 
 herring and wliile iiiheries, tlierefore, ifprofecutcd 
 with vigour, cured and dried with judgment, wouldiiot 
 only extend the fcale ot exports, but alfo furnilh the 
 outward bound vellcls with Ireights, and better alliirt- 
 -mentsforihe foreign markets. The falnionof the Dec 
 and Don are taken in great abundance, cured in the 
 higliell perfctlion, and greatly valued at the Kuropean 
 markets. If the merchants, in addition to tlufc, ihould 
 alfo export the cargoes of 50 or 60 veliels conftaiuly 
 employed in tiie herring and white filhenes, the port 
 of Aberdeen would in a few years become the nioft ce- 
 lebrated mart of lidi now exifling." 
 
 From a round hill at the weft end of the city, flow 
 two fprings, one of pure water and the other of a 
 quali:y relcmbling the German Spa. Aberdeen, with 
 Aberbroihick, Brechin, Moniroie, and Inverbervie, 
 returns one member to Parliament. 
 
 ABLRDEENSHIRE, comprehends the diftrifts 
 of Mar, Garioch, Strathbogie, and the greater part 
 of Buchan ; and fends one member to Parliament. 
 It is walhed on the eaft and north by the ocean ; and 
 abounds in fea-ports, from whence there is a fafe and 
 ready paffage to the Orkneys and Shetland Illcs, the 
 Greenland Rlheries, Norway, and the regions round 
 the Baltic, the German coaft, Holland, Flanders, 
 France. It is watered by numerous ftreams, all of 
 them the refort of falmon, and whofc banks difplay the 
 nioft extenlive plantations as well as natural wooids in 
 Britain. 
 
 ABERDCUR, a fmall town in Fifediire, Scot- 
 land, on the frith of Forth, about ten miles N. W. of 
 Edinburgh. In old times it belonged to the Viponts ; 
 in T 1 26 it was transferred to the IVIortimersby marri- 
 age, and afterwards to the Douglafcs. William, lord of 
 LiddefJale, furnamcd the Flcwcr of chivalry, in the 
 reign of David II. by charter conveyed it to James 
 Douglas, aneeftorof the prefcnt noble owner the Earl 
 of Morton. The monks of Inchcolm had a grant 
 for a bun-ial-place here from Allan de Mortimer, in the 
 reign of Alexander III. The nuns, ufually Ayled the 
 poor Clares, had a convent at this place. 
 
 ABERFORD, a market-town in the weft riding 
 of Yorklhire, Hands in a bottom ; and is about a mile 
 long, and inditfereiitly well built. It is near a Ro- 
 man road, which is raifcd very high, and not far 
 from the river Cock ; between which and the town 
 there is the foundation of an old caftle ftill viliblc. 
 It is 181 miles north-by-weft from London. W. 
 Long. 2. 45. Lat. jj. 52. 
 
 ABERGAVENNY, a large, populous, and floa- 
 riHiing town iu Moninouthlhire, featcd at the conflu- 
 ence of the ri\crs U(k and CJavenny. It lias a fine 
 bridge over the U(k, conliftingof fifteen arches ; and 
 beinga great thoroughfare from the weft part of Wales 
 to Bath, Briftol, Glouccfter, and other places, is well 
 furnillicd with accommodations for travellers. It is 
 furroundcd with a wall, and had once a caftle. It car- 
 ries on a eonfiderable trade in flannels, which are 
 brought hither for fale from the other parts of the 
 
 county.
 
 ABE [ 
 
 It is 142 miles diiiant from Loiulon. 
 
 M 
 
 /Sliernctliy, couiuy 
 
 Aberration. Long. 2. 45. Lat. 51. 50. Abergavenny a^'i'cars to 
 " liavc been tlie Cil'l>a/iiu),j of Amunhms, and die town 
 
 of Ul!: his Buniui/i. 
 
 ABERNtTHY (Joliu), an eminent cliireniitKr nii- 
 nillcr, was the fon ot Mr John Abtriicihy a (.Uilcr.ring 
 Hiinidcr in Colraine, and was born on tiic 19''' of Oc- 
 tober 1680. When aboat nine years of age, he was 
 feparaicJ from his parents, liis father being obliged to 
 attend fume public affairs in London ; and his mother, 
 to dialler hcrfclf from the mad fury of the Irilh rebels, 
 retiring to Dcrry, a relation who had liim under his 
 care, having no opportunity of conveying hiiu to her, 
 took Jiim with liim to Scotland; by which means he 
 cfcaped the hardllripshe inuftliavcfifFcrcd at llic ficgc 
 of Ucrry, where Mrs Abcrnclhy loft all her other 
 children. He afterwards ftiidied at the univcriity of 
 Cyjafgow, till he took the degree of mafterofans; and, 
 in 1708, he was chofcn niinillcr of a dilfcniing con- 
 gregation at Antrim, where he continued above twenty 
 years. About (he time of the Bangorian contrtjvcrfy 
 (for which,fec Ho a d ley), a dillenlion arofe among his 
 brethren in the miiiidry at Bclfaft, on the fubjed of 
 fubfcripiion to the Wcftminfter confeilion ; in which 
 he became a leader on the negative fide, and incurred 
 the ccnfurc of a general fyiiod. Being in confequence 
 dcferted by the greateft part of his congregation, he 
 accepted an invitation to fettle ip. Dublin, where his 
 preacliing was much admired. He was dillinguilhcd by 
 his candid, free, and generous fentiments j and died of 
 the gout in Dec. 1740, in the fixtieth year of his age. 
 He publifhed a volume of fermons on the Divine At- 
 tributes ; after his death a fccond volume was publilh- 
 ed by liis friends ; and thefc were fucceedcd by four 
 other volumes on dittcrent fubjects : all of which have 
 been greatly admired. 
 
 Abernethy, a town in Strathcrn, a diftricl of 
 I'erthlhire in Scotlaini. It is feated on the river Tay, 
 s little above the moutli of tlic Erne. It is faid to have 
 been the feat of the Pictilh kings ; and vvfus afterwards 
 the fee of an archbiihop, fincc transferred to St An- 
 drews. It is now greatly decayed. 
 
 ABERRATION, in aftronoiny, a fmall apparent 
 motion of the fixed ftars difcovered by the late Dr 
 Bradley. Tlic difcovcry was made by accident in the 
 year 1 72 j, when Mr Molyncux and Dr Bradley began 
 to obferve the bright ftar in the head of Draco, mark- 
 ed > by Bayer, as it paifed near the zenith, with an 
 inflrument made by MJ Graham, in order to difcovcr the 
 parallaxof the earth's annual orbit ; and, after repeated 
 obfervations, tliey found this liar, about the beginning 
 of March I7J6, to be 20" more foutherly than at the 
 time of the firft obfervation. It now indeed iecnie d to 
 1\ave arrived at its utmoft limit fouthward ; bccaufc, in 
 fevcral trials madeabout this time, no fen fible difference 
 vasobfcrved in its lituatiou. By the middle of April, 
 it appeared to be returning back again toward the 
 north i and, about tlic beginning of lunc, it palled at 
 the fame diftancc from the zenith as it had done in De- 
 cember, wlien it was firflobfcrved : in September fol- 
 lowing, it appeared ;9" more northerly than it w as in 
 March, juft the contrary way to what it ought to 
 appear by the annual parallax of the ftars. Tliis un- 
 expcifled phmoracnon perplexed tlic obfervers very 
 much ; and MrMolyneuxdied before the true caufc of it 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Abcx. 
 
 17 ] ABE 
 
 was difcovered. After iliis, Dr Bradley, wiih another Alerrition 
 inftrumcnt more exai.'t and accurately adapted to this 
 parpofcjobfervcd the fame appearaaces not only in tiiat 
 but many other ftars : and, by the great regularity 
 that appeared in a ferics of obfervations made in all 
 parts of tlic year, the Dodtor was fully faiiilied with re- 
 gard to the general laws of the phenomena; and there- 
 fore endeavoured to lind out the caafe of them. He 
 was already convinced, that the apparent motion of tlic 
 ftars was not owing to a nutation of the earth's axis. 
 The next thing that offered itfelf, was an alteration in 
 the dircilion of the plumb line, witli which the ia- 
 ftrumciit was eonftantly rcftified ; but this, upon trial, 
 proved infuliicient. Then he had recourfe to what rc- 
 fraftion might do ; but here alfo nothing fatisfaclorjr 
 occurred. At laft this acute aftronomcr found, that the 
 phenomena in queftion proceeded from the progreffivc 
 motion of light, and the earth's annual n.otioii in its 
 orbit : for he perceived, that if light was propagated 
 in time, the apparent place of a fixed objeit would not 
 be the fame w'hcn the eye is at reft, as when it is mo- 
 ving in any other direftion than that of the line paf- 
 fing through the eye and object ; and that, when the 
 eye is moving in ditferent directions, the apparent 
 place of the object would be different. 
 
 Aberration, in optics, isufed to denote that error 
 or deviation of the rays of light, when inflected by a 
 lens or fpcculum, whereby they are hindered from 
 meeting or .uniting in tlic fame point. There are two 
 fpecies of the aberrations of rays, diftinguilhed by 
 their different caufcs ; one arifing from the figure of 
 the glafs or fpcculum, the other from the unequal re- 
 frangibility of the rays of light. This laft fpecies is 
 fometimes called the Newtonian, from the name of 
 its difcoverer. See Optics, n" 17. 136. 173. 
 
 ABERYSWITH, a market-town of Cardigan- 
 ftiire,in Wales, feated on the Ridal, near its conflu- 
 ence with the Iftwith, where it falls into the fea. It 
 is a populous, rich town, and has a great trade in 
 lead, and a conliderable filhcryof whiting, cod, and 
 herrings. It was formerly furrounded with walls, and 
 fortified with a caltlc ; but both are now in ruins. Its 
 diftance from London is 199 miles weft-fouih-wcft. 
 W. Long. 4. I J. Lat. 52. 3c. 
 
 ABKSTA, the name of one of the lacrod books of 
 the Pcrfian jiiagi, which they afcribc to their great 
 founder Zoroafter. The abefta is a commentary on two 
 others of their religious books called Z^'w./and Fa'tnri; 
 the three together including the whole fyftein of the 
 IgnicoUl, or worfltippers of fire. 
 
 ABETTOR, a law-term, implying oncwlio en- 
 courages another to the performance of fome criminal 
 artion, or who is art and part in the performance it- 
 felf. Treafon is the only crime in which abettors are 
 excluded by kw, every individual concerned being 
 confidered as a principal. It is the fame with .4ti- 
 and-p.trt in the Scots law. 
 
 ABEX, a country in High Ethiopia, in Africa, 
 bordering on the Red Sea, by which it is bounded on 
 the eaft. It his Nubia or Scnnar on the north ; Sennar 
 and Abvffmiaon the v.'cft ; and Abyiiiniaoa the fouth. 
 Its principal towRs are Snaqucm and .Arkcko. It is 
 fubjeft to the Turks, and has the name of the Brgler- 
 bcg of Habcleth. It is a.Wivx five hundred miles in 
 length and one hundred in breadth, and is a wretclied 
 C country ;
 
 A B G 
 
 [ 18 ] 
 
 A B I 
 
 A' eyancc country ; for the hcatlicrc is almofl infiipportablc, and 
 
 I the air is lb unhealthy, tliat an European cannot Hay 
 
 Ahgillus. ]q„^. ;,, jj without the utniolt hazard of his life. It is 
 
 very mountainous, infonuich tliat there are many more 
 
 wildbeafts than men. There are forells, inwhichgrow 
 
 a great number of ebony trees. 
 
 ABKYANCE, in law, the expectancy of an cftate. 
 Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, with 
 revcrfion tootle another for years, the remainder for 
 years is an abeyance till the death of the Iclfce. 
 
 ABGAR, or Arc Aitis, a name given to feveral 
 ofthekinj;s of Edellh inSyria. 'I'he moll celebrated of 
 them is one who, it is laid, was cotemporary with 
 Jefus Chrid; and who having adidcmperin his feet, 
 and hearing of Jcfiis's miraculous cures, reijuellcdhini, 
 * Ec:l Hifl. by letter, to come and cure him. Eufebius*, who bc- 
 lil). i. c. 13. licved that his letter was genuine, and alio an aiifwer 
 our Saviour is faid to Iiavc returned to it, has iranf- 
 lated them both from the Syrvac, and alferts that they 
 were taken out of the archives of the city of Edelia. 
 The firi't is as follows : " Abgarus, prince of Edclla, to 
 " Jefub the holy Saviour, who hatiiappcared in the Helh 
 " in tlie contincsofjcrufaleni, greeting. Ihaveheard 
 " of thee, and of the cures thou hall wrought without 
 '' medicines or herbs. For it is reported thou makell 
 " the blind to fee, the lame to walk, lepers to be clean, 
 " devils and unclean fpirits to be expelled, fucli as 
 *' have been long difcafed to be healed, and the dead 
 " to be raifed ; all which when I heard concerning 
 " thee, 1 concluded with myfelf. That cither thou 
 " waft a God come down from heaven, or the Son of 
 " God fcnt to do thefe things. I have therefore writ- 
 " ten to thee, befeeching thee to vouehfafc to come 
 " unto me, and cHre my difeafc. For I have alfo heard 
 " that the Jewsufe thee ill, and lay fnares to deftroy 
 " thee. I have here a little city, pleafantly filuated, 
 " and fuflicient for us both. Abgarus." To this 
 letter, Jcfus, itisfaid, returned an anfwerby Ananias, 
 Abgarus's courier ; which was as follows : " BlelFed 
 " art thou, O Abgarus ! who haft believed in me 
 " vvhom thou haft not feen ; for the fcriptures fay of 
 " me. They who have feen nic have not believed in 
 •' me, that they who have not feen, may, by believing, 
 " have life. But whereas thou writcft to have me 
 " come to thee, it is ofncceility that I fulfil all things 
 " here for whicli lamfeni; and having iiniihed them, 
 " to return to him that fent me : but when I am rc- 
 " turned to him, I will then tend one of my difciplcs 
 " to thee, who Ihall cure thy fwalady, and give life to 
 " thee and thine. Jesus." After Jefus's afcenfion, 
 Judas, who is alfo named Thomas, fcnt Thaddeus,oric 
 of the feventy, to Abgarus ; who preached the gofjiel to 
 him and his people, cured him of his difordcr, and 
 ■Wrought many other miracles : which was done, fays 
 Eufcbius, A. D. 43. — Though the above letters are 
 acknowledged to be fpurious by the candid writers of 
 the church of Rome ; feveral Proteftant authors, as Dr 
 Parker, Dr Cave, and Dr Grabe, have maintained that 
 they arc gen\iine, and ought not to be rejeded. 
 
 ABGILLUS (John), furnamed Prefter John, was 
 fon to a king of the Frifcii ; and, from the aufterity of 
 his life, obtained the name oi Preftcr, or Pricft. . He 
 attended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy 
 Land ; but inftead of returning with that monarch to 
 Europe, it is pretended that he gained mighty con- 
 
 quells, and founded the cmjiire of the AbylTines, call- 
 ed, from his name, the empire of Prefter John. He is 
 faid to have written the hiftory of Charlemagne's jour- 
 ney into the Holy Land, and of his own into the In- 
 dies ; but they are more probably trifling romances, 
 written in the ages of ignorance. 
 
 ABIANS, anciently a people of Thrace, or (accord- 
 ing to fonicauthors) of Scythia. Tiiey had no fixed ha- 
 bitations; they led a wandering life. Their houfes were 
 waggons, which carried ail their poifellions. They 
 lived on the llefli of their herds and flocks, on milk, 
 and cheefe, chiefly on that of mare's milk. They were 
 unacquainted with commerce. They only exchanged 
 conur.oditics with their neighbours. They poll'elled 
 lands, but they did not cultivate them. Thcyaflign- 
 ed their agriculture to any w'ho Mould undertake it, re- 
 ferving only to themfclves a tribute ; which they ex- 
 afted, not w ith a view to live in aiRuence, but merely 
 to enjoy the ncccffariesof lif'e. They never took arms 
 but to oblige thofc to nuike good a promifc 10 them by 
 wiiom it had been broken. They paid tribute to none 
 of the neighbouring ftatcs. They deemed themftlves 
 exempt from fuch an inipolition ; for they relied on 
 their ftrength and courage, and coiifequently thought 
 themfelves able to repel any invafion. The Abians, 
 we are told, were a peojde ofgreat integrity. Tliis ho- 
 nourable eulogium isgiven them by Homer. (Strabo. ) 
 ABIATHAR, high-prieft of the Jews, fon to Abi- 
 melcch, who had borne the fame ofliee, and received 
 David into his hotife. This fo enraged Saul, who ha- 
 ted David, that he put Abimelecli to death, and 8r 
 pricfts ; Abiathar alone efcaped tlic maffacre. He af- 
 terwards was high-prieft ; and often gave king David 
 teft imonies of his fidelity, particularly during Ablalom's 
 confpiracy, at which time Abiathar followed David, 
 and bore away theark. But after this, confpiring with 
 Adonijali, in order to raifc him to the throne of king 
 David his father ; this focxafperated Solomon againft 
 him, that he divefted him of the pricfthood, and ba- 
 niflied liim, A. M. 3021, before Chrift 1014. 
 
 ABIB, fignifying an ear of corn, a name given by 
 the Jews to the firft nionthof their eccleliallieal year, 
 afterwards called N'ftin. It commenced at the vernal 
 equinox ; and according to the courie of the moon, by 
 which their months were regulated, anfwered to the 
 latter part of our March and beginning of April. 
 
 ABIDING h Writings, in Scots law : When a 
 perfon founds upon a writing alleged to be falfc, he 
 may be obliged to declare judicially, whether he will 
 ftand or abide by it as a true deed. 
 ABIES, the KIR-TREE. See Pinus. 
 ABIGEAT, an old law-term, denoting the crime 
 of ftealing cattle by droves or herds. This crime was 
 fcvcrly punilhed ; the delinquent being often condem- 
 ned to the mines, banilhment, and fometimes capitally. 
 ABIHU, brother to Nadab, and Son of Aaron. 
 The two former had thehappinefs to afcend mount Si- 
 nai with their father, and there to behold thcglory of 
 God: but afterward putting ftrangc fire into their cen- 
 fers, inftead of the facred fire commanded by God, fire 
 rufliing upon them killed them. Though all the peo- 
 ple bewailed this terrible cataftrophe, Mofes forbad 
 Aaron and his two fons Eleazar and Ithamar to join 
 in the lamentation. 
 
 ABII ScYi h;e, taken by Strabo to denote the Eu- 
 ropean 
 
 Abians 
 
 1 
 Ahii.
 
 A n 1 
 
 [ 19 ] 
 
 A 13 J 
 
 Abimilcth ropcan Sarniatx, boi-dcriiig on die Tlixaciaiis and Ba- 
 il ilanue : They were commended by Cunius for their 
 Abipoiii- love of juflice, and by Ammitfus for their contempt 
 ^ ana. pf earthly things. 
 
 ABIMKLKCH, king of Gcrar, a country of the 
 PhililUncs,\vas cotcniporary with Abraham. This pa- 
 triarch ana his family being there, his %vife Sarah, 
 thongh 90 years of age, was not fafe in it ; for Abi- 
 mclech carried lierott, and was fo enamoured of her, 
 that he refolved to marry her. Abraham did not de- 
 clare himfelf Sarah's hulband ; but gave out Ihe was 
 his fiflcr. But the king being warned in a dream, that 
 flic was married to a i)rophet, and that he Ihould die if 
 he did not relhore iier to Abraham, the king obeyed ; 
 at the fame time reproving Abraham for hib dilinge- 
 nuity ; who thereupon, among other cxcufes, faid Ihc 
 was really hisliltcr, being born of the fame father, tho' 
 of adifferent mother. Abimelech afterwards gave con- 
 fiderablc prefcnts to Abraham ; and a covenant, that of 
 
 Bcerfheba, was entered into between them .After the 
 
 death of Abraham, there being a famine in the neigh- 
 bouring countries, Ifaac his fon alfo withdrew intoGe- 
 rar, which was then likewife governed by a king called 
 Abimilech, probably the fucccll'ur of tlie former. 
 Here Rcbekah's beauty forced her huiband to employ 
 Abraham's artifice. Abimelech difcovering that they 
 were nearly related, chid Ifaac for calling his wife his 
 fiflcr J and at the (ame time forbid all his fiilijefts, 
 upon pain of death, to do the leall; injury to Ifaac 
 or Rebekah — Ifaac's profperity loll him the king's 
 friendlhip, and he was delired to go from among them. 
 He obeyed ; but Abimelech afterwards entered into a 
 covenant with him. 
 
 Abimelech, the natural Ion of Gideon, by Druma 
 his concubine. His violent ai!ls and death arc record- 
 ed in Judges, chap. ix. 
 
 ABINGDON, a market-town in Berklhirc, feated 
 on a branch of the Thames, received its name from an 
 abbey anciently built there. The flreets, which are 
 well paved, centre in a fpacious area, in which tlie 
 market is held ; and in the centre of this area is the 
 market-houfe, which is fupported on lofty pillars, with 
 a large hall of free-done above, in w hich the fummer- 
 alhzes for the county arc held, and other public buli- 
 ncfs done, the Lent aflizes being held at Reading. It 
 has two churches ; one dedicated to St Nicholas, and 
 the other to St Helena : the latter is adorned with 
 a fpire, and both are faid to have been erected by the 
 abbots of Abingdon. Here arc alfo two hofpitals, 
 one for fix, and the other for thirteen poor men, and 
 as many poor women ; a free fchool ; and a charity- 
 fchool. The town was incorporated by (^uecn Mary. 
 It fends two members to parliament, who are choftn 
 by the inhabitants at large not receiving alms. Its 
 great manufadure is malt, large quantities ofvvhichare 
 fent by water to London. It is fix miles and a half 
 foiith of Oxford, 47 eaft of Glouceiler, and 55 weft 
 of London. This town is fuppofed by Bilhop Gibfoii 
 to be the place called, in the Saxon annals, Clo-jcjhoo, 
 where two fynods are faid to have been held, one in 
 742, and the other in 822. Long. 1. 20. Lat. ji. 
 
 ABINTESTATE, in the civil law, is .ipplied to a 
 pcrfon who inherits the right of one who died intcflate 
 or without making a will. See Intestate. 
 
 ABIPONIANS, a tribe of American Indians, who 
 
 formerly inhabited the diftrict oi Chak> in Paraguay; Alilphnm- 
 but the hoiliiities of the Spaniards have now obliocd »u» 
 them to remove fouthward intothe territory lying be- ll . 
 tween Santa Fc and St Jago. The only account we ^''J"^*""" - 
 have of them is that publilhed by M. DobrizhofFcr in 
 1785. Thisgentleman, wholived feven years in their 
 country, informs us that they arc not numerous, the 
 whole nation not much exceeding 5000 ; for which he 
 aliigns as a reafon an unnatural cullom among their 
 women of fometimes dcllroying their own children 
 from motivesofjealoufy, left their hulhandsfliould take 
 otlier mates during the long time they give fuck, which 
 is not Icfs than two years. They are naturally white, 
 but, by cxpofurc to the air and fmokc, become of a 
 brown colour. They arc a ftrongand hardy race of 
 people ; which our auiiior attributes to their marrying 
 io late, an Abi|)onian fcldom or never thinking of mar- 
 riage till 30 years of age. They are greatly celebrated 
 on account of their chaltity and other virtues; though, 
 according to our author, they have no knowledge of a 
 Deity. They make frequent incurfions into the terri- 
 tories of the Spaniards, mounted on the horfes which 
 run wild in thofe parts. They have a kind of order of 
 chivalry for their warriors ; and are fo formidable, that 
 ] 00 of their enemies will riy before ten of thefc horfe- 
 mcn. The hatred which thefc favages, whofe manners, 
 though xnAc and uncultivated, arc in many refpccl» 
 pure and virtuous, bear to the Spaniards, is invincible. 
 " Thefc pretended Chriftians," fays our author," who 
 are the fcura of the Spanifli nation, practice every kind 
 of fraud and villainy among thefc poor barbarians ; and 
 their corrupt and vicious morals arc fo adapted to pre- 
 judice the Abiponians againft the Chriftian religion, 
 that the Jefuit milHonaries have, by a feverc law, pro- 
 hibited any Spaniard from coming, without a formal 
 pennillion, into any of their colonies." — From his ac- 
 count of the fuccels of thejefuits in converting them 
 to Chriftianity, however, it does not appear that they 
 have been able to do more than bribe them to a com- 
 pliance with the ceremonicsof the Popilh fupcrftitions; 
 fo that in general they are quite ignorant and uncivil- 
 ized : a moll ilriking inftance of which is, that in 
 counting they can go no farther than three; and all 
 the art of the Jefuits to teach them the fimpleft nfc 
 and cxpreflion of numbers has proved unfuccefsful. 
 
 ABIRAM, a feditious Lcvite, who, in concert 
 with Korah and Dathan, rebelled againft Mofes and 
 Aaron, in order to fliare with them in the government 
 of tiie people ; when Mofes ordering them to come 
 V. ith their ccnfers bcl'ore the altar of the Lord, the 
 earth fuddcnly opened under tlieir feet, and fwallowcd 
 up them and their tents ; and at the fame inftant fire 
 came from heaven, and confumed 250 of their follow- 
 ers. ^^llmb. xvi. 
 
 ABISHAI, fon of Zcruiah, and brother to Joab, 
 was one of the celebrated warriors who tlourilhcd in 
 the reign of David : he killed with his own hand 300 
 men, with no other weapon but his lance ; and llew a 
 Philiftinc giant, the iron of whole fpear weighed 300 
 ihekels. i Sam. xxvi. 2 Sam. xxiii. 
 
 ABJURATION, in ancient cuftoms, implied an 
 oath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who had 
 ried to a place of fanfluary, whereby he folemnly en- 
 gaged to leave the kingdom for ever. 
 
 Abjuration, is uowufed in Britain to fignify the 
 C 1 rciiouii-
 
 Able. 
 
 A 13 L [ 20 ] 
 
 Abjuration renouncing, liifclaimiiig, and denying npon oath, the Arts on the 
 I PrctcnJcr to have any kind of ri;;ht to the crown. 
 
 AHfVii ,Ti(js (if liercfy, the I'ulcmu recantation of 
 any doctrine as fjlfe and wicked. 
 
 ABLACTATION, or weaning a child from the 
 brca/h Sic Wean- IMG. 
 
 Abi-ac rATioN, amonji; the ancient gardeners, the 
 fame with what is called CuAiTisc, by aptnoach. 
 
 ABl.AI, a country of Circat Tartary, tlie inhabi- 
 ■tanisof which, cillea Buct,iri or Buchaies, art lubjecl 
 to Rulfia, but that only for proteftion. It lies eall- 
 vard of the river Irtis, and extends five hundred 
 leagues along the foiuhcrn frontiers of Siberia. 
 
 ABLAtHJEACTlON, an old term in gardcnin;j, 
 •fignilics the operations of removing the earth and ba- 
 ring the roots of trees in winter, to expole them more 
 frtclv to the air, rains, fnows, &c. 
 
 ABLANCOURT. See Perrot. 
 . ABLATIVE, in grammar, the fixth cafe of Latin 
 nouns. The word is formed from a?{/i.'r;-ir, " to take 
 away." Prifciaa aUb calU it the eijmparative cafe ; as 
 fervin|T, among the Latins, for comparing, as well as 
 taking away. 
 
 T!ie ABLATIVE isoppolite to the DATIVE ; thefirll 
 cxpreinng the aciion of taking away, and the latter 
 that of giving. 
 
 In Englilh, French, &c. there is no precifc mark 
 xsliereby to dillingnith the ablative from other cafes; 
 and we only ule the term in analogy to the Latin. 
 Thus, in the two p]irafcs,M.' viagnitudt of the city, and 
 he /poke Much of the city ; we fay, that of the city in the 
 Jirlb \% genitive, and in the \^\.\.tx abiativ: ; becaufc it 
 would be fo, if the two phrafcs were exprc lied in Latin. 
 Tiiequellion concerning the Greek ablative has been 
 the fubjec^ of a famous literary war between two great 
 grasnmarians, Prifchlin and Crufms ; the former of 
 whom maintained, and the latter oppofcd the reality 
 of it. The difpute ftill fnbfifts among their refpedive 
 followers. The chief rcafon alledged by the former is, 
 that the Roman writers often joinedGrcck words with 
 the Latin prepofuions, which govern ablative cafes, as 
 well as with nouns of the fame cafe. To w hich their 
 opponents anfwer, that the Latins anciently had no 
 ablative thenifclvcs ; butinflcad thereof, made ufe, like 
 the Greeks, of the dative cafe ; till at length they for- 
 med an ablative, governed by prepofuions, which were 
 not put before the dative : that, at firft, the two cafes 
 had always the fame termination, as they flill have in 
 many inrtances : but that this was afterwards changed 
 in certain words. It is no wonder then, that the La- 
 tins fometimcsjoin prepofuions which govern an abla- 
 tive cafe, or nouns in the ablative cafe, with Greek da- 
 lives, fincethey were originally the fame ; and that the 
 Greek dative has the fame efFeft as the Latin ablative. 
 ABLE, or abel (Thomas), chaplain to queen Ca- 
 tharine confort to Henry the eighth, diftinguilhed him- 
 felfby hi: zeal in oppofingthe proceedingsagainft that 
 unfortunate princcfs for a divorce. For this purpofe 
 he wrote a piece intitled " TraUaftfs de uon diffoh:>ido 
 Hei:r!ci ct Catherine matrimonio, i. e. A Treatifc pro- 
 ving that the marriage of king Henry and queen Ca- 
 therine ought not to be diilblvcd." But the title of 
 the book, according to billiop Tanner, was Inviila Ve- 
 ritas. He took the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Ox- 
 ford on Lhc 4:h«f July 151 3, and that of Matter of 
 
 A B N 
 
 7th of July I 516. In I J ?4 he fell under 
 a profecation for being concerned in tlie affair of E- 
 lizubctli Barton, called the //^o/)' Mai I '.f K:!:t. This 
 was an infamous iinpollor, fuborned by the monks to 
 ufe fomellrange gelticulations, and to pretend to infpi- 
 ration by the fpirit of prophecy ; and fo well did file 
 act her part, th<it fjme people of confeijiience gave cre- 
 dit to her : but being at h(l dete«."led, ihe was condemn- 
 ed and executed, after difcovcring the names of her 
 principal accomplices and inlligators. On heraccounc 
 Able wasaccnfed of mifprilion of ireafon, by ftat. 25. 
 Hen. Vlll. ; and being alfo one of thofc who denied 
 the king's fuprcmacy over the church, he was apprc- 
 hcnJcd and imprifoned ; during which time hiscon- 
 hnemcnt was fo rigorous, that the keeper of Ncwgarc 
 was committed to Marlhalfea prifon for fufFering him 
 to go out npon bail. He was afterwards hanged, 
 drawn, and quartered, at Smithlield in 1540. Eouchicr 
 gives him the character of a very learned man ; and 
 tells us, that he ufcd to teach the qneen niufic and the 
 learned languages. 
 
 ABLECl'l, in Roman antiquity, a fclecl boily of 
 folditrs chofcn from among thofe called Extraordi- 
 
 NARII. 
 
 ABLEGMINA, in Roman antiquity, thofe choice 
 parts of the entrails of victims which were offered in 
 facritice to the gods. They were fprinklcd with tl<atr, 
 and burnt upon the altar ; the pricfts pouring fom« 
 wine on them. 
 
 ABLUENTS, in medicine, the fame with diluters 
 or Di:.L'ENTs. 
 
 ABLUTION, in a general fenie, figniiies the wafli- 
 ingor purifying fomtthing with water. 
 
 Ablution, in a religious ftnfe, a ceremony in ufe a- 
 mong theancients, andlliUpraclifcd in feveral parts of 
 the world : it confided in wadiing the body, which was 
 always done before facrificing, or even entering their 
 houfcs. — Ablutions appear to be as old as any ctrcmo- 
 nief , and external worfhipitfeU'. Mofes enjoined them ; 
 the heathens adopted th'ein ; and Maiiomet and his fol- 
 lowers have continued them : thus they have got foot- 
 ing among mofl nations, and make a confiderable pare 
 of mofl ellablilhcd religions. The Egyptian priells 
 had thcirdiiirnal and nocturnal ablutions ; the Grecians 
 their fprinklings ; the Romans their luftrations and la- 
 vations ; the jews their wafliingof hands and feet, bc- 
 fidc their baptifms.TheancientChriftians had their ab- 
 lutions before communion ; which the Roniilh church 
 flill retain before their mafs, fomeiimes after : the Sy- 
 rians, Cophts, Sec. have theirfolemn wa filings on Good- 
 F'riday : the Turks their greater and lelfer ablutions ; 
 their Ghafl and M'odou, their Aman, Taharat, S:c. 
 
 ABNER, the fon of Ner, fatlier-in-law to Saul, 
 and general "fall his forces, who ferved him on all oc- 
 calionswith fidelity and courage. After the death of 
 that prince, Abner fet Iflibofheth, Saul's fon, on the 
 throne. A war breaking out between the tribe of Ju- 
 dah who had eleftcd David king, and Ifrael, Abner 
 marched againil that prince with the flower of his 
 troops, but was defeated. Abner afterward, being 
 difguifed, went over to David, and difpofcd the chiefs 
 of the army and the elders of Ifrael to declare for 
 him ; and was received liy David with fuch tcflimo- 
 nies of atFeftiou, as gave umbrage to Joab, who killed 
 him traitcrourty. 
 
 AB-
 
 ABO [2 
 
 ABNOBA, no'.vABENow, a loii;^ range of moun- 
 tai.is in Germany, takiiigilittcrenl names accordin;^ to 
 theditfcrtTit countries they run throiigli. As about tiic 
 river Maine, aUtidtlit OJ^u or Oiuniva/ J ; bctwecii 
 HcUe and Kraaconii, the S/>ijfurt ; and about the duchy 
 of\\'irteii;bcrg,v. here the Danube takes its rife, called 
 the Baar. 
 
 ABO, a maritime town in Sweden : it is the capi- 
 tal or the province of Finland, and lies ui'on the point 
 tvhere the gulphi of Bothnia and Finland unite. Jt 
 is a good port ; and is the fee of a bilhop, futfraganof 
 Upfal. It has anunivcrlity, founded by queen Chri- 
 ftina in 1640, and endowed with the fame privileges 
 as thct of Upfal. There is alfo a fchool here, which 
 was toundcdby Guflavas AJolphus, for joofcholars. 
 The town is tolerably well built, and contains fcvcral 
 brick buildings ; but the generality are of wood paint- 
 ed red. The inhabitants export linen, corn, and 
 planks. It lies 120 miles north-call from Stockholm. 
 E.Long. 21.28. Lat. 60. jo. 
 
 ABOARD, the infide of a Ihip. Hence any perfon 
 who enters a Ihip is fciid to^s aboard : but when an 
 enemy enters in the time of battle, he is faid to board ; 
 a phrafe which always implies holUlity. — To jail a- 
 board of, istollrike onncvunter another fliip when one 
 or Iwjth arc in motion, or to be driven upon a (hip by 
 die force of the wind and current. — Ab'.ari-ma.n-tack, 
 the order to draw the n:ain-tack, /. e. thelowcrcorner 
 of the main-fail, down to the Ch ess-tree. 
 
 ABOLITION, implies the aft of annulling, de- 
 flroying, making void, or reducing to nothing. In 
 law, it (ignifies the repealing any law orftatute. 
 
 ABOLLA, a warm kind of garment, lined or dou- 
 bled, worn by the Greeks and Romans, chicriy out ot 
 the city, in toUowing the ramp. — Critics and aniii]ua- 
 ries are greatly divided as to the form, ufe, kinds, &c. 
 of this garment. Papiasmakcsit a fpcciesof the toga, 
 •r gown ; but Nonius, and the generality, a fpcciesof 
 the pallium, or cloak. The alolla fteius rather to have 
 flood oppofed to the toga, which was a garment of 
 peace, as the aholla was of war ; at Icafl V'arro and 
 Martial place them in this oppolite light. There fccm 
 lo have bccndifferent kinds ot'Abollas, fiited to ditter- 
 cnt occafions. Even kings appear to have ufed the 
 abolla : Caligula was affi onicd at king Ptolemy for ap- 
 pearing at the (hews in a purple abolla, and by the eclat 
 thereof turning the eyes of the fpeclators from the 
 emperor upon himfclf. 
 
 ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names 
 of the fourth (lomsch of ruminating animals. It is in 
 the abomafus of calves and lambs th.it the runnet or 
 earning is formed wherewith milk is curdled. See 
 Comparative Auatovty. 
 
 ABOMINATION, a term ufed in fcripture with 
 regard to the Hebrews, who, being fliepherds, arc faid 
 to have been an abomination to the Eg;,'ptians, becaufc 
 they facriticcd the facrcd animals of that people, as 
 oxen, goats, (heep, Sec. which the Egyptians edeemcd 
 as abominations, or things nnlawt'ul. The term is alfo 
 applied in the facred writings to idoUtry and idols, be- 
 caufc the wor'.hip of idols is in itfelf an abominable 
 thing, and at the fame time ceremonies obfrrvcd by 
 idolaters were alwaysattcndfdwith licentioiifncfsand 
 other odious andabominableaflions. The abonii/tJl/cn 
 *f dcfolatioii foretold to the prophet Daniel, is luppo- 
 
 r ] 
 
 ABO 
 
 fed to imply the (latue of Jupiter Olympius, which AUn, 
 Aniiochus tpiphanescaufcd to beplace din the temple Aborigines, 
 of Jerufalcm. And l\\c aI>(,Kii:ati.u oj d:J'olatt'iU, mci:- ""^ ' 
 tioucd by the Lvangclifls, lignifics the enfigns of the 
 Romans, during the laft ficgc of Jerufalcm by Titus, 
 on which the figures of their gods and eirperors were 
 embroidered, a:id placed upon the temple after it was 
 taken. 
 
 ABON, Abo.na, otAbonis (aac. geog.), a town 
 and river of Albion. Thetov.n, accoriiing to Caraden, 
 is Abingdon ; and the river Abhon or Avon. But by 
 Antoninc's Itinerary, the cillance is nine miles from 
 the VcntaSilurum, orCacr-Went : others, therefore, 
 take the town to be PorOuit, at the mouth of the river 
 Avon, overagainfl Briftol. AbhoaorAvon, in the 
 Celtic language, denotes a river. 
 
 ABORIGINES, (Di.myfiusofHaricarnairjs,Livy, 
 Virgil) ; originally a proper name, {;ivcn to a certain 
 people in Italy, who inhabited the ancient Laiiuni, 
 or country now called Campagtia tit Roiua. In this 
 fenfe the Aborigines are diAinguiQied from the Jaiii- 
 gcnse, who, according to the filfe Berofus, inhabited 
 the country before iJiem ; from the Siculi, whom 
 they expelled ; from the Grecians, from whom tiicy 
 defcended ; J'rom the Laiir.s, whofe name they af- 
 fumed after their union w iih itneas and the Trojans ; 
 lallly, from the Aufonii, Volfci, Ocnotrii, &c. neigh- 
 bouring nations inothcr parts of the country. %\htncc 
 this people came by the appellation, is much difputed. 
 St Jerom fays, they were fo called, as being, abfqiu 
 engine, die primitive planters of the country after the 
 flood : Dion, of HalicarnalFus accounts for the name, 
 asdenotingthem the foundersof thcraccofinhabitants 
 of that country : others think ihem fo called, as bcin^; 
 originally Arcadians, who claimed to be earth-born, 
 and not defcended from any people. Aurelius Vi.lor 
 fuggefls another opinion, viz. that they were called 
 Aborigines, q. d. Abirrigii:es, from ab " from," and er- 
 rare " towandcr ;" as having been beforeawandering 
 pcop'e. Paufanias rather thinks they were thus call- 
 ed «T« ofiti, from " mountains ;" which opinion feems 
 confirmed by Virgil, \\ ho, fpeaking of Saturn, tbelc- 
 gillator of this people, fays, 
 
 Isgiiius iiidociii ac di/pirfum marJibui altis 
 
 Confofuit, Ugtfqut dfdit 
 
 The Aborigines were either theoriginalinhabitantsof 
 the country, fettled there by Janus, as fome imagine ; 
 or by Saturn, or Cham, as others : not long after the 
 difpcrlion, or even, as fome think, before it : Or they 
 were a colony fcnt from fome other nation ; who cx- 
 pcllingthcancient inhabitants thcSiculi,fetded in their 
 place. — About this mother-nation there is great dif- 
 pute. Some maintain it to be the Arcadians, parties of 
 whom were brought into Italy at different times ; the 
 firrt under the conduft of Oenotrius, fon of Lycaon, 
 45oyears before the Trojan war ; afccondfrom Thcf- 
 f.ily ; a tliird under Evandcr, 60 years before the 
 Trojan war : belides another under Hercules ; and 
 another of Lacedx'mouians, who .ied from the fcverc 
 difcipline of Lycurgus : all ihefe uniting, arc faid to 
 have formed the nation or kingdom of the Aborigines. 
 Other? will have them of barbarous rathe- than Gre- 
 cian origin, and to have come from Scythia ; others 
 from Gaul. Lallly, others will have them to be Ca- 
 naauites, expelled by Jolhua. 
 
 Tkc
 
 ABO 
 
 [ 22 ] 
 
 A B R 
 
 Abortion 
 
 I . 
 
 Aboukir. 
 
 The term //i^£/;/j;;«.-/, though fo famous in antiquity, 
 is ufej in modern gcogiajihy only occalioiially as an 
 appellative. It is given to the primitive inhabitants 
 of a country, in coutraJidinction to colonics, or new 
 races of people. 
 
 ABORTION, in midwifery, the exclufion of a foe- 
 tus before it has acquired a fufficient degree ot perfec- 
 tion to enable it to perform refpiration and the other 
 vital functions. See Midwikerv. 
 
 The pradice of procuring abortions was prohibited 
 by the ancient Greek legillators Solon and Lycurgus. 
 Whether or not it was permitted among the Romans, 
 has been much difputed. It is certain the pradtice, 
 which was by them called vifcenhns vim iiiferre, wa,s 
 frequent enough : but whether there was any penalty 
 on it, before the emperors Scverns and Antonine, is 
 thequcftion. Noodt maintains the negative ; and fur- 
 ther, that thofe princes only made it criminal in one 
 particular cafe, viz. of a married woman's pradillng 
 it out of rcfentment againll her hufband, in order to 
 defraud him of the comfort of children : this was or- 
 dered to be punillied by a temporary exile. The foun- 
 dation on whicii the praftice is faid to have been al- 
 lowed, was, that the fuctus, while in utcro, was repu- 
 ted as a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own 
 vifcera, over which Ihc had the fame poweras over the 
 refl : befidcs, that it was not reputed as a man, howo ,- 
 nor to be alive, otherwife than as a vegetable ; confe- 
 quently, that the crime amounted to little more than 
 that of plucking unripe fruit from thetrce. Seneca rc- 
 prcfents it as a peculiar glory of Htlvia, that Ihe had 
 never, like other women, whofe chief iludy is their 
 beauty and ihape, dcllroyed the foetus in her womb. 
 The primitive fathers, Athenagoras, TertulHan, Mi- 
 nutius Ftlix, AugulUn, &c. declaimed loudly againfl 
 the pra^ice as virtual murder. Several councils liavc 
 condemr.id it. Yet we are told that the modern Ro- 
 niifh •ertleliallical laws allow of difpefations for it. 
 Egane mentions the rales at which a difpenfaiion for 
 it may be had. 
 
 The praclice of artificial abortion is chiefly in the 
 hands of women and nurfes, rarely in that of phyfi- 
 cians ; who, in fome countries, are not admitted to the 
 prrfeHiou without abjuring it. Hippocrates, in the 
 oath he would have enjoined on all phyiicians, includes 
 their not giving the pcffm aborirous ; though elfe- 
 wherc he gives the formal procefs v.hereby he him- 
 felf procured in a young woman a mifcarriagc. It 
 may, however, be obfervcd, that often all the powers 
 of art prove inefFeftual, and no Icfs often do the at- 
 tempts prove the means of punilhment by the fatal 
 confequences which they produce. 
 
 A BO RT ION, among gardeners, fignifiesfuch fruits as 
 are produced too early, and neverarriyc at maturity. 
 
 abortive; IS, in general, applied to whatever 
 comes before its legitimate time, or to any defign 
 which niifcarries. 
 
 yy«6K7/K/'.C'5;«,adi(lemperofcornmentiojiedby1M. 
 Gille:, and fufpecled to be occafioned by iufccls. It ap- 
 pears long before harvefl, andmay be known by a de- 
 formity of the ftalk, the leaves, the ear, and even the 
 grain. 
 
 AsoRttvE Vellum is made of the Ikin of an abortive 
 calf. 
 
 ABOUKIR, a fmall town of Egypt, fituate in the 
 defart between Alexandria and Rolctta. It is the an- 
 
 cient Cannpus, and is (ituatcd, according to Mr Sava- 
 ry, lix leagues from Pharos. Pliny fays, from the te- 
 llimonics of antiquity, that it was formerly an illand: 
 and its local appearance makes this credible ; for the 
 grounds around it are fo low, that the fca (till covered 
 a part of them in the days of Strabo. The town is 
 built upon a rock, which forms a handfome road for 
 ihipping, and is out of tlic reach of inundations. 
 See Canotus. 
 
 ABOUT, the fituation of a fliip immediately after 
 flie \\zitack.:d, or changed her courfe by going about 
 and ftauding on the other lack. — /houtjlup .' the or- 
 der to the fliip'sercw to prepare for tacking. 
 
 ABOUTIGE, a town in Upper Egypt, in Africa, 
 near the Nile where they make the bell opium in all 
 the Levant. It was formerly a large, but now is a 
 mean place. N. Lat. 26. 50. 
 
 ABPiA, a filver coin ftruck in Poland, and worth 
 about one Ihilling Sterling. It is current in feveral 
 pans of Germany, Conrtantinople, Allracan, Smyrna, 
 and Grand Cairo. 
 
 ABRABANEL, Abarbanel, or Avravan'el, 
 (Ifaac),acelcbratcdrabbi, defeendcdfrom king David, 
 and born at Lilbon A. D. 14^7. He became eoun- 
 fellor to Alphonfo V. king of Portugal, and afterwards 
 to Ferdinand the Catholic ; but in 1492 was obliged 
 toleave Spain with the other Jews. In Ihort, after re- 
 fiding at Naples, Corfu, and feveral other cities, he 
 died at Venice in i Jo3, aged 71. Abrabanel palfed 
 for one of the moll learned of the rabbis; and the Jews 
 gave him the na]nes of the Sage, the Prince, and the 
 Great Politician. We have a commentary of his on 
 all the Old Teftament, which ispretty fcarce: he tlierc 
 principally adheres to the literal fenfe ; andhisflile is 
 clear, but a little ditFufe. His other works are, A Trca- 
 tifeon the Creation of the World; in which he refutes 
 Arillotlc, who imagined that the world was eternal ; 
 A Trcatife on the explication of the prophecies relating 
 to the Meffiah, againlf the Chrillian : A book con- 
 cerning articles ef Kaith ; and fome others Icfs fought 
 after. Though Abrabanel difcovers his implacable a- 
 vcriion to Chrillianity in all hiswriiings, yet he treat- 
 ed Chriftians with politenefs and good-manners in the 
 common affairs of life. 
 
 ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended 
 by Serenus Samonicus as an antidote againft agues and 
 feveralothcr difcafes. It was tobe writtenuponapiecc 
 of paper as many times as the word contains letters, 
 omitting the lall letter of the former every time, as in 
 the margin \, andrepeatcd in the fameorder; and then 
 fufpended about the neck by a linen thread. Abracada- 
 bra w as the name of a god worlliiped by the Syriaus ; 
 fo wearinghis name was afortofinvocationof his aid : 
 a praclice which, though notmoreufeful,yet was lefs ir- 
 rational, thanis the equally hc.itheniflipraiflice among 
 thofewhocall themIclvesChrillians,of wearing various 
 things, in expei5iation of their operating by a fympa- 
 thy, v.hofc parents were Ignoranceand Superflition. 
 
 ABRAHAM, the father and Hock whence the 
 faithful fprung, was the fon of Terah. Kc was de- 
 fccnded from Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine 
 degrees removed. Some lix his birth in the i w'"" year 
 of Terah's age, but others place it in his fathers 70"' 
 year. It is highly probable he was born in the city of 
 Ur,inChaldca, which he and his father left when they 
 
 went 
 
 abracadabra 
 
 abracadabr 
 
 abracadab 
 
 abracadi 
 
 abracad 
 
 abraca 
 
 abr?.c 
 
 abra 
 
 abr 
 
 ab
 
 yY B R 
 
 [ 23 ] 
 
 A B R 
 
 Abraham, went to Canaan, where they remained till the death of 
 
 '' V Ttrali ; after which, Abrals.uii nfumcd his find dtlign 
 
 of going to Palelline. The Scrii)turcs mention the fc- 
 veral places he Hopped at in Canaan ; hie journey into 
 Egypt, where his wife was carried oti from him ; his 
 going into Gcrar, where Sarah was again taken from 
 him, but rcftorcd as before ; the victory he obtained 
 over the four kings who had plundered Sodom ; his 
 compliance with liis wife, who iiUiltcd that he Ihould 
 make ufc of their maid I fagar in order to raifc up chil- 
 dren ; the covenant God made with him, fealcd with 
 the ceremony of circumcifion ; his obedience to the 
 command of God, who ordered him to offer up his 
 only fon as a facrifice, and how that bloody aft was 
 prevented; his marriage with Keturah ; his death at 
 the age of 175 years: and his interment at the cave 
 * of Macpclah, near the body of Sarah liis firft wife. 
 It would be of little ufc to dwell long upon thefc par- 
 ticulars, fmcc they arc fo well known. But tradition 
 has fupplied numbcrlcfs others, the mention of one or 
 two of which may not be unacceptable. 
 
 ^lany extraordinary particulars have been told rela- 
 ting to his convcriioii from idolatry. It is a pretty 
 general opinion, that he fucked in the poifon with his 
 milk ; that- iiis failicr made ftatues, and taught that 
 they were to be worfiuppcd as gods*. Some Jewilh 
 authors relatcf , that Abra'iam followed the fame trade 
 withTcrah foraconliderable lime. Mainionaidcsjfays, 
 that he was bred up in the religion of tiie Saba;ans, who 
 acknowledged no deity but the flars ; that his reflec- 
 tions on the nature of the planets, his a.imiration of 
 their motions, beauty, and order, made him conclude 
 there mull be a being fuperior to the machine ot the 
 univerfe, a being who created and governed it : how- 
 ever, according to an old tradition, he did not renounce 
 paganifm till the 5o"'yearof hisage. It isrclated\\, 
 that his father being gone a journey, left him to fell 
 the flatucs in his abfence ; and that a man, who pre- 
 tended to be a pnrchal'er, alked him how old he was, 
 Abraliam anfwered, "Fifty." — "Wretch that thou 
 art, (fjid the other), for adoring at fuch an age, a be- 
 ing which is but a (lay old .'" Thefc words greatly 
 confounded Abraham. Some time afterwards, a wo- 
 man brought him fome flour, that he might give it as 
 an otFering to the idols; but Abraham, inrtead of do- 
 ing fo, took up a hatchet and broke them all to pieces, 
 excepting the largell, into the hand of which he put 
 the weapon. Terah, at his return, aftced whence 
 eamc all this havock ? .Abraham made anfwcr that the 
 ftataes had had a great contcfl which (hould eat riril of 
 the oblation ; " Upon which (faid he), the god yon 
 fee there, being the ftouteli, hev.cd theoihers to pieces 
 with thai hatchet." Terah told him this was bintcr- 
 iug ; for thole idols had not the fenfc to aA in this 
 manner. Abraham retorted thefe words upon his fa- 
 ther againft the worlhipping of fuch gods. Terah, 
 ftung with his raillery, delivered up his fon to the 
 cognifancc of Nimrod, the fovereign of the country : 
 who exhorted Abraham to worlhip the lire ; and, upon 
 his refufal, commanded him to be thrown into the 
 midll of the Hanies : "Now let your God (laid he) 
 come and deliver you :" But (adds the tradition), Abra- 
 _ ,. ham came fafe and found out of the flames. — This 
 Helirilcla f^'^itio" is not of modern date, lince it is told by St 
 (•ciicHu. Jerome^ ; who fccnis to credit it in general, but dilbe- 
 
 * Suidas, in 
 
 bee Jorti. 
 xxiv. 2 
 t Aiiuil Oe- 
 ncbraiid. in 
 Chron. 
 JMore Nc- 
 voch. C. 2y, 
 
 § Hci.lcgg. 
 
 Hirt- 
 
 Patriarch, 
 torn. iii. 
 
 lieves that part of it which makes Terah fo cruel as to 
 
 be tile informer againfl his own fon. Perhaps the am- 
 biguity of the word Ur" might have given rife to the 
 iiction altogether. Such as lay Ilrefs on the following 
 words which God fays to Abraham (Gen. xv. 7.), / 
 aw the Lord that broi^ht thee out oj Vr oj tht Chatdeei, 
 imagine that he faved him from a great perfccution, 
 fincc he employed the very fame words in the begin- 
 ning of the decalogue to denote the deliverance from 
 Egypt. 
 
 Abraham is faid to have been well (killed in many 
 feienees, and to have wrote feveral books. Jofcphus-j- 
 tells us that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic and 
 geometry ; and, according to Eupolcmus and Ariapan, 
 he inllruoled the Pha'nicians, asw'ellas the Egyptians, 
 in adronomy. A work which treats of the creation 
 has been long aferibed to him ; it is mentioned in the 
 Talnuid:]:, and the Rabbis Chanina, and Hofchia ufed 
 to read it on the eve before the fabbath. Ih the firft 
 ages of Chriflimity, according to St Epiphanius \, a 
 heretical feci, called Sclhinians,difpcrfed a pieccwhich 
 had the iwXtoi ylbraham' i Rtvciation. Origcn mentions 
 alio a treatifc fuppofed to be wrote by this patriarch. 
 All the feveral works which Abraham compofcd in the 
 plains of Mamre,are faid to be contained in the library 
 of the monaflcry of the Holy Crofs on Mount Anu- 
 ria, of Ethiopia *{ . The book on the creation was 
 printed at Paris 1552, and tranllated into Latin by 
 Poilcl : Riltangel, a converted Jew, and profelfor at 
 Konigfberg, gave alfo a Latin irandation of it, with 
 remarks, in 1642. 
 
 Abraham Usq^uE, a Portugcfe Jew% who tranfla- 
 ted the Bible outof Hebrew intoSpanilli. It was print- 
 ed at Ferrara in 155;?, and reprinted in Holland in 
 1630. This Bible, eipecially the firft edition, which is 
 nioft valuable, is marked with flars at certain words,. 
 which are deiigned to (how that the words are difli- 
 cult to be underftood in the Hebrew, and that they 
 may be ufed in a ditrcrenl fenfe. 
 
 Abraham (Nicholas), a learned Jcfuit born in the 
 dioccfe of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtained the 
 rank of divinity profelfor in the univcrfity of Pont-a- 
 Moufon, which he enjoyed i 7 years, and died Septem- 
 ber 7, 1 6 J J. He wrote Notes on Virgil and on Non- 
 nius ; a Coianientary on fome of Cicero's Orations, in 
 2 vols folio : an excellent coIlc(itioii of theological 
 pieces, in folio, intitledf/'<i;7/j rcterh TcJIavxnti ; and 
 fome other works. 
 
 ABKAHA.'VIITES, aw order of monks extermina- 
 ted for idolatry by Theo; hilns in the ninth century.. 
 Alfo the name of another fed of heretics wlio had a- 
 dopted the errors of Paulus. Sec PAULfci.ANs. 
 
 ABR.ANTES,.' town of Portugal, in Ellremadura,. 
 feated on the river T.ajo, belongs to a marquis of the 
 fame name. ltflandshigh,isfi>rroiHided with gardens 
 and olive-trees, andeontainstliirry-five thoufand inha- 
 bitants. It has four convents, an alnis-houfc, and aiv 
 hol'pital. W. Long. 7. 18. Lat. ^9, 15. 
 
 ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the fuprtme god of the 
 Bafilidian heretics. It is a niyflical word, compofcd of 
 the Greek niunerals <t, ^, c, a, f, «, c, which together 
 make up the number CCCLXV. For Bafilidestaught 
 that there were 56 j heavens between the earth and the 
 empyrean : each of which heavens had its angel or in- 
 telligence, which created it j cacho/ which angels likc- 
 
 \kilie 
 
 .^b'absm 
 
 li 
 Abrafax. 
 
 • It is 
 the projjcr 
 names uf a 
 city, and ic 
 alfo figiiifi- 
 iAfire. I'he 
 Lat vcrfioil 
 Elilras ii, 
 has it thus: 
 
 cum de i(nt 
 Chatjforum^ 
 t -Antiq. 
 lib. i.cap.7. 
 8. 
 
 \ HeidfgfT. 
 Hilt. I'^.tri- 
 arch.tom.ii. 
 
 p. '43- 
 § Advtrf- 
 Hscr p.2i!& 
 
 ^Klrchem'-, 
 treatifc of 
 librjricf^ 
 p. 142.
 
 A 13 ri 
 
 [ 24 ] 
 
 A B R 
 
 Abrafion 
 
 II 
 Alircaft. 
 
 wife \v;i^ crcuifilby t)u- angel ncxi alovc it ; iV.iss a(- 
 cciidin;^ by a i'c.le to the I'lprciiic Being, or firll crea- 
 tor. 'J'Ijc Baliliilians iilcil ihc woYdyj'i'ruxai by way of 
 cliMrm or anuilLt. 
 
 ABRASION, is foniciinics ufcil amorg mttUtinal 
 writers, tor the ettcct ol lliarp corrollve mtilicincs, or 
 humours in wearing away the natural mucus \v liitli co- 
 vers the ir.enibrancs, and particularly thole oltht llo- 
 niaeh and intefliiics. I'hc word is compofed of the 
 Latin ai and rai/o la fliavi: o\ [crape off. 
 
 ABRAVANNUS (anc. gcog.) the name of a p.-o- 
 inontory and river of Galloway, in Scotland, fo called 
 from the CcUic terms Ebcr, lignify ing either the mouth 
 of a river, or the coniluence of two rivers, and yJi'Oii, 
 a river. 
 
 ABRAUM, in natural hiflory, a name given by 
 fomc writers to a fpecies of red clay ufed in hnglaud 
 by the cabinet makers, £>:c. to give a red colour to 
 new mahogany wood. We have it from the ille of 
 Wight ; but it is alfo found in Germany and Italy. 
 
 ABRAXAS, an antique Hone with the word abraxas 
 engraven on it. They are of various fizes, and moll 
 of them as old asthc third century. They arc frequent 
 in the cabinets of the curious ; and a colledionofthcm, 
 as complete as poUible, has been defired by ieveral. 
 There is a lineone in theabbcy of St Genevieve, which 
 lias occalioncd much Ipeculation. Moll of them fecm 
 to have come from Egypt ; whence they are of fome 
 ufe for explaining the antiquities of that country. 
 Sometimes they have no other infcription befidcs the 
 word : but others have the names of i'aints, angels, or 
 Jehovah himfelf annexed ; though moH ufually the 
 name of the Bililidian god. Sometimes there is are- 
 prcfcntation of Ills littingon a lobes, or apis, furround- 
 cd with ttars i fomctinies monflrous comiiofnions of 
 animals, obfcene. images. Phalli and Ithyfalli. The 
 graving is rarely good, but the word on the revcrfe is 
 ibmetiincs faid to be in 3 more modern taflc than the 
 other. The chiraCccrs are ufually Greek, Hebrew, 
 Coptic, or Hetnerian, and fometimes of a mongrel 
 kind, invented, asit would fceni, to render their mean- 
 ing the more infcrutable. It is difpuled whether tlie 
 Veronica of M(>nt;euil, or the graniie obcliik men- 
 tioned by Gori, be Abraxaja. 
 
 ABREAST ( a fca-term), (ide by lide, or oppofite 
 to ; a fituation in which two or more fliips lie, with 
 their flies parallel to each other, and their heads equal- 
 ly advanced. This term more particularly regards the 
 line of battle at fea, where, on different occafions 
 of attack, retreat, or purfuit, the fever.1l fquadrons or 
 divilions of a fleet are obliged to vary their difpofiiions, 
 and yetmaintain aproper regularity by failing in right 
 or curved lines. When the line is 'i .-.-mt A abrt a j\ ,x.\\t 
 whole Iquadron advances uniformly, the fliips being 
 equally diltant from and parallel to each other, fo that 
 the length of each fiiip forms a right angle with ihc 
 extent of the fquadron or line abreaft. The commander 
 in chief is always ftationed in the centre, and the fe- 
 cond and third in command in the centre of their re- 
 fpective fquadrons. — .i'.^ri-.-iiy?, within the (liip, implies 
 on a line with the beam, or by the lidc of any object 
 aboard ; as, the frigate fprung a leak, alrcajl of the 
 niain-hatch-way, /. c. on the fame line with the main 
 hatch- way, crolUngihe fiiip's length at riglit angles, in 
 oppofition to AioRK or abaft the hatch-way. — We 
 
 2 
 
 difcovcred a fleet alrcoj} of b'cachy-hcaJ ; ;. ». oiV, or Alir.ttene, 
 ciirctlly uppolitc to it. Alirulge- 
 
 AhKK'i TtNE,or Aebf.ttinf (anc.geog.), adi- ■'"^^' ■'- 
 ftiii-l of ^ryfla, in Afia. Ilcnct the epithet .'Jbrittc- '~ " ' 
 III'! given to Jupiter (Strabo); whofe pricfl was Ckon, 
 fornurly at the head of a gang of robbers, and who 
 received many and great favoursat the hand of Antony, 
 but afterwards went over to Auguflus. The people 
 V, ere called ALrcttcni ; inhabiting the c()uniry between 
 Ancyra of I'hrygia, and the river Rhyr.dacus. 
 
 ABRIDGEMENT, in liieratkire, a term lignify- 
 ing the rcduclion of a book into a fmallcr cor.ipafs. 
 
 The art of conveying much feniinicnt in few words, 
 is the happiefl; talent an author can be pofleired of. 
 'J'liis talent is peculiarly ncceliary in the prcfent flatc 
 of literature ; I'or many writers have acquired the dex- 
 terity of fprcading a few triiical thoughts over Ieveral 
 hundred pages. M'hcn an author hits upon a thought 
 that plcafcs him, he is apt to dwell upon it, to view it 
 in diti'erent lights, to force it in improperly, or upon 
 the llightcfl relations. Thougli this may be pleafant 
 to the writers, it tires and vexes tlic reader. 'Ihcre is 
 another great fourcc of difluiion in compolition. It is 
 a capital objcft with an author, whatever be the fub- 
 jert, to give vent to all his bcfl thoughts. When he 
 finds a proper place for any of them, he is peculiarly 
 happy. But, rather than facrifice a thought he is fond 
 of, he forces it in by way of digreffion, or fuperfluous 
 illuflration. If none of thefe expedients anfwer his 
 purpofe, he has recourfe to the margin, a very conve- 
 nient apartment for all manner of pedantry and imper- 
 tinence. There is not an author, however correft, 
 but is more or lefs faulty in this refpei^. An abridger, 
 however, is not fubject to ihcfe temptations. The 
 thoughts are not his own ; he views them in a cooler 
 and lefs atledionaie manner ; he difcovcrs an impro- 
 priety in fome, a vanity in others, and a want of utili- 
 ty in many. His butlnefs, therefore, is to retrench fu- 
 perfiuitics, digreffions, quotations, pedantry, &c. and 
 to lay before the public only what is really ufcful. 
 This is by no means an eafy employment : To abridge 
 fome books, requires talerits equal, if not fuperior, to 
 tliofe of the author. The facts, manner, fpiiit, and 
 reafoning, muflbcprcferved ; nothing efleniial, either 
 in argument or illuflration ought to be omitted. The 
 dilHculty of the tafk is the principal reafon why we 
 have fo few good abridgements : Wynne's abridgment 
 of Locke's Ellay onthcKumauUndcrflanding, is, per- 
 haps, the only unexceptionable one in our language. 
 
 Thefe obfervaiions relate folely to fuch abridge- 
 ments as are dellgncd for the public. But, 
 
 When a perfon wants to fet down the fubflanceof 
 any book, a (liortcr and lefs laborious method may be 
 followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex- 
 amples of abridgements for the public : But as it may 
 be ufeful, efpccially to young people, to know how to 
 abridge books for their own ufe after giving a few di- 
 reolions, we Ihall exhibit an example or two, or fliow 
 with what cafe it may be done. 
 
 Read the book carefully ; endeavour to learn tlie 
 principal view of the author, attend to the arguments 
 employed : When you have done fo, you will general- 
 ly find, that what the author ufes as new or additional 
 arguments, are in reality only collateral ones, or cx- 
 tenfions of the principal argument. Take a piece of 
 
 paper
 
 A B R 
 
 [ 25 ] 
 
 A B K 
 
 Abridge- paper or a common-place book, put down what the 
 nunt. author wants to prove, fiibjoin the argument or argu- 
 ^~"^' meiits, and you have the lubftance ot" the book in a 
 few lines, tor example, 
 
 In the EU'ay on Aiiracles, Mr Hume's defign is to 
 prove. That miracles which have not been the imme- 
 diate objects of our fcnfes, cannot reafonably be be- 
 lieved upon the tcdimony of others. 
 
 Now, his argument (for there happens to be but 
 one) is, 
 
 " That experience, which in fomc things is variable, 
 " in others uniforn\, is our uidy guide in reafoning 
 " concerning matters of li.t\. A variable experience 
 " gives rife to probability only ; an uniform cxpcri- 
 *' ence amounts to a proof. Our belief of any fac't 
 " from the tellimony of cye-witnell'cs is derived from . 
 " no other principle than our experience in the vcra- 
 *' city of human teftimony. If the faifl attcfled be 
 " miraculous, here arifes a conteil of two oppofite cx- 
 " periences, or proof againft proof. Now, a miracle 
 " is a violation of the laws of nature ; and as a firm and 
 " unalterable experience lias eftablilhcd thefe laws, the 
 *' proof againll a miracle, from the very nature of the 
 " faft, is as complete as any argument from experi- 
 " ence can poflibly be imagined ; and if fo, it is an un- 
 " deniable tonfcqucnce,thatit cannot be furmountedby 
 " any proof whatever derived from human teilimony." 
 
 In Dr Campbell's DilTertation on Miracles, the au- 
 thor's principal aim is toflicw thefallacy of Mr Hume's 
 argument ; which he has done mofl fuccefsfuUy by 
 another fingle argument, as follows: 
 
 " The evidence arifingfrom human teRimony ;/7;o/ 
 " foltly derived from experience : on the contrary, te- 
 «' flimony hath a natural influence on belief antcce- 
 " dent to experience. The early and unlimited alfent 
 •' given to teftiniony by children gradually contrads 
 " as they advance in life : it is, therefore, more ron- 
 " fonant to truth, to fay, that our diffidcnc: in tertimo- 
 " ny is the refult of experience, than that aar fuith in 
 " it has this foundation. Bcfides, the uniformity of 
 " experience, in favour of any faft, is not a proof a- 
 " gainft its being reverfcd in a particular inllance. 
 " The evidence arifing from the linglc tcflimony of a 
 " man of known veracity will go farther to cllablilh a 
 " belief in its being ailiially rcverfed : If his tellimo- 
 " ny be contirmed by a few others of the fame charac- 
 " tcr, we cannot with-hold our alfent to the truth of it. 
 " Now, though the operations of nature are governed 
 " by uniform laws, and though we have not the tcfti- 
 " mony of our fenfcs in favour of any violation of 
 " them ; ftill, if in particular inflances wc have the 
 " tcflimony oi thou fundi of our fellow-creatures, and 
 " thofe too, men of ftri t integrity, fwaye d by no mo- 
 " tivcs of ambition or intireft, and governed by the 
 " principles of comnion-fcnfe, That they wereaiftu- 
 " ally eye witnelfes of thefe violations, the conflitu- 
 " tion of our nature obliges us to believe them." 
 
 Thefe two examples contain the fuijftance of about 
 
 400 pages. Making private abridgements of this 
 
 kind has many advantages ; it engages us to read with 
 .■jccuracy and attention ; it fixes the fubjeit in our 
 minds ; and, if wc ihould happen to forget, inflead of 
 reading the book r._';ain by glancing a few lines wc 
 are not only in poirelRouof the chief arguments, but rc- 
 calin a good mcafurc tUc author's method aad mauner. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Abiuzza. 
 
 Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fub- Abrintau- 
 flance of what is delivered by ProfeflTors, &c. It is >■>"" 
 impoUible, even with the allirtance of (hort-hand, 10 
 take dov. n, verhalini, what is faid by a public fpeakcr. 
 Befides, although it were pradlicable, fuch a talent 
 would be of little ufe. Every public fpeakcr has cir- 
 cumlocutions, redundancies,- lumber, which defcrvc 
 not to be copied. All that is really ufeful may be 
 comprehended in a Ihort compafs. If the plan of the 
 difcourfe, and arguments employed in fupport of the 
 different branches, betaken down, you have the whole. 
 Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of a dif- 
 courfe drelfed in your own language. This would not 
 only be a more rational employment, but would like- 
 wife be an excellent method of improving youirg men 
 in compolition ; an object too little attended to in all 
 fcminarics of learning. 
 
 ABRINCATARUM oppidum (anc. geog.), tlir 
 town of the Abrincatx or Abrincatui, now Avranchti, 
 in France, fituatcd on an eminence in the fouth-wcft 
 of Normandy near the borders of Brittany on the Er.c- 
 lilh channel. W. Long, i. 10. N. Lat. 4S. 40I 
 
 ABROGATION, the acl of abolilhing a law, by 
 authority of the maker ; in which fenfc the word is 
 fynonymous with abolition, repealing, and revocation. 
 Abrogation ftands oppofcd to rogation : it is dillin- 
 guilhed from dirr0gation,wh'\ch impliesthetakingaway 
 only fomc part of a law ; t'rom fulrogation , <vhieh de- 
 notes the adding a claufe to it ; from obrogation, which 
 impliesthe limitingorrellrainingit ; iromdifpenfation, 
 which only fets it afide in a particular inftance ; and 
 from antiquati'jn, which is the refuiing to pafs a law. 
 ABROKANI, or Mallemolli, a kind of mullin, 
 or clear white line cotton cloth, brought from the Ealt 
 Indies, particularly from Bengal ; being in length 16 
 French ells and 3 quarters, and in breadth J eighths. 
 ABROLKOS, the nameof certain flielveSjOr banks 
 of fand, about 20 leagues from the coall of Brazil. 
 
 ABROTANUM, in botany. See Arte.misia 
 and Santolina. 
 
 ABROTONUM (anc. gcog.), a town and harbour 
 on the Mediterranean, in the diilrict of Syrtis Parva, 
 in Africa, one of the three cities that went to form 
 Tripoly. 
 
 A BRUS,inbotany,the trivial nameof theGL Yd NE. 
 ABRUZZO, a province in Naples. The river Pef- 
 cara divides it into two parts ; one of which is called 
 Ulterior, whereof Aquila is the capital ; and the other 
 Citerior, whofe capital is Soromona. Belides the Ap- 
 peni)ics, there are two confiderable mountains, the one 
 called Monte Cavallo, and the other Monte Maicllo; 
 the topof which laft is always covered with fnow. A- 
 bruzzoisa cold country ; but the rigour of the climate 
 is not fo great as to prevent the country from proilu- 
 cini; in abundance every thing rrqnifitc for the fupport 
 of life. Vegetables, fruits, animals, and numberlefs 
 other articles of fuftenancc, not only furniih ample 
 provifion for the ufe of the natives, but alfo allow of 
 exportation. There is fo large a quantity of wheat 
 reaped, that many thoufands of quarters are annually 
 Ihipped off. Much Turkey wheat is feni out, and the 
 province of Teramo fells a greit deal of rice little in- 
 ferior in goodncfs to that of Lomba-dy. Oil i< a plen- 
 tiful comir.odily, and wines arc made for exportatim 
 on many parts ofihc coall ; but wool has always been, 
 D and
 
 A B R 
 
 [ 26 ] 
 
 A B S 
 
 Alriiz'zo. and ftiUis, thtir flaplc coniiiiodity : the flocks, after 
 
 ^~~'^' }';iliirg ihc whole i'ammcr iu the fine palhircs ol' the 
 
 iiioiuctiiius, are driven for the winter into the warm 
 plains of Puglia, and a few (pots ntarjhcir own coall, 
 where the faow docs not lie; there arc no inanufacliires 
 of woollens in the province, except two fmall ones 
 of coarfe cloth, and the greatcft part of the wool is 
 fcnt out iiHwronght. No fi!k is made here, though 
 niulUcrry-trecs would grow well in the low grounds. 
 
 Formerly the territory of Aquila furuilhed Italy al- 
 moltexelulivclywiliifaftron;biitiincc the culture ot that 
 plant has been fo much followed in Lombardy, it has 
 fallen tonothingin Ahiuz/.o. in the nuiritiine iraeksof 
 the country the cultivation of liquorice has be t u iucrca- 
 fed of late years, but foreigners export the roots in their 
 natural Hate : iu the province of Teramo there is a ma- 
 nufactory of pottery-ware, for which there is a great 
 demand in Germany, by the way of Trielle, as it is 
 remarkably hard and tine; but even this is going to 
 decay, by being abandoned entirely to the ignorance 
 of common workmen. It is not to be expccled that 
 any improvements will be made in arts and manufac- 
 tures, where the encouragement and attention of fu- 
 pcriors is wanting, and no pains taken to render the 
 commodily more marketable, or to oyen better chan- 
 nels of fale for it. The only advantages thefc provin- 
 ces enjoy, are the gift of benevolent nature ; but llie 
 has ftill greater prefents in Itore for them, and waits 
 only for the helping hand of government to produce 
 thetn. This whole coaft, one hundred miles in length, 
 is utterly dellitute of lea-ports ; and the only fpots 
 where the produce can be embarked arc dangerous in- 
 convenient roads, at the inoutlis of rivers, and along a 
 lec-Hiorc : the ditliciilty of procuring lliipping, and of 
 loading the goods, frequently caufes great quantities 
 pf them to rot on hand: which danipsindullry, and pre- 
 vents all improvements in agriculture. The hufband- 
 man is a poor difpirited wretch, and w retclicdnefs pro- 
 daces emigration : the uneven furface of the country 
 occalions it to be inhabited by retail, if the expreffion 
 may be ufed, rather than in large malFes ; for there is 
 not a ciiy that contains ten thoufand people, and the 
 moft of them would find it difficult to muller three 
 thoufand. Villages, caflles, and feudatory eftates, are 
 to be met witli in abundance ; but the numbers of 
 their inhabitants are to be reckoned by hundreds, not 
 thoufands : in a word, the political and focial fyltem 
 iif the province fliows no figns of the vigour which na- 
 ture fo remarkably difplays here in all her operations. 
 
 The antiquary and tlie naturalill may travel here 
 with exquilile plcafure and profit ; the former will find 
 treafurcs of infcriptions, and inedited monuments ap- 
 pertaining to the warlike nations that once covered the 
 face of the country ; the natural pliilofopherwiU have 
 a noble field for obfervation in the liupendous monu- 
 Hients that arifc on all lides. Monte-corno and Majella 
 arc among the nu)fl interefting ; the firfl islike an aged 
 monument of nature, bald, and horribly broken on 
 every afpefl : from various appearances, it is evident 
 that its bowels contain many valuable veins of metallic 
 ore ; but the great difliculty of accefs renders the fearch 
 of them almoll impraflicable. Majella has other me- 
 rits, and of a gayer kind : — nature has clothed its de- 
 clivities and elevated fields with an infinite variety of 
 Lermoft precious plants; vulnerary herbs grow there 
 
 in as great perfection as on the Alps of SwifTcrland, 
 and are applied by the natives to wounds with equal 
 fucccis. 
 
 The charaderofthe inhabitants varies alittlc among 
 themfelves, according to fituation and climate, but el- 
 fentially from the difpolition of the natives of the more 
 fouthcrn provinces. This proceeds from a dilf'crcncc 
 of origin: for the Lombards, who were barbarians, 
 but not cruel; poor, but hofpitable ; endowed with 
 plain honert fenfc, tliongh polfelled of little acutenefs 
 or fubtlcty ; remained peaceable proprietors of thefe 
 mountianous regions, till tiicNormans, who were ac- 
 cullomed to a limilar climate, came, and difpoirellcd 
 them. The Greeks, who retained almoft every other 
 part of tlie kingdom under their dominion, never had 
 any fway here. For this reafon tiie Abruzzeli ftill 
 bear a great refemblance to their northern progenitors 
 or maltcrs : to tliis day, one may trace in them the 
 fame goodnefs of heart, but great indolence, and re- 
 pugnance to lively exertions ; a fault that proceeds ra- 
 ther from a want of aclive virtue, than a difpolition to 
 wickcdnefs. Hence it comes that in thefe provinces, 
 w here tlie proximity of the frontier almofl infures im- 
 punity, fewer atrocious and inhuman deeds are heard 
 of than in otiier parts of ihe realm. Remnants of 
 ancient northern cufloms exiJled here fo late as the be- 
 ginningof this century, and, among ilie mountaineers, 
 very evident traces of the Frank and Teutonic lan- 
 guages may be difcovered. 
 
 ABSALOM, the fcm of David by Maacah, was bro- 
 ther to Thamar, David 'sdaugh ter, who was raviflied by 
 Amnon their eldell brother by another mother. Abfa- 
 lom waited twoycars for an opportunity of revenging 
 the injury done to his (ifter ; and at laft procured the 
 afl'aflination of Amnon at a feaft which he had prepared 
 for the kiKg's fons. He took refuge with Talmai king 
 of Gefher ; and was no fooner reflored to favour, but 
 he engaged the Ifraelites to revolt from his father. 
 Abfalom was defeated in the wood of Ephraim : as he 
 w'as flying, his hair caught hold of an oak, where he 
 hung till Joab came and thurft him through with 
 three darts : David had exprefsly ordered his life t» 
 be fpared, and extremely lamented him. 
 
 ABSCESS, in furgery ; from ahfado, to depart. 
 A cavity containing pus ; or, a gathering of matter in 
 a part : So called, becaufe the parts which were joined 
 are now fcparated ; one part recedes from another, to 
 make way for the colledted matter. See Surgery. 
 
 ABSCISSE, in conies, a part of the diameter or 
 tranfverfe axis of a conic feclion intercepted between 
 the vertex or fome other fixed point and a femiordi- 
 nate. See Cosic Scdiom. 
 
 ABSCONSA, a dark lanthern ufed by the monks 
 at the ceremony of burying thci; dead. 
 
 ABSENCE, in Scots law : When a perfon cited 
 before a court docs not appear, and judgment is pro- 
 nounced, that judgment is laid to be hi abfeiice. No 
 perfon can be tried criminally in abfence. 
 
 ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impreg- 
 nated with abfinthium or wormwood. Bartholin men- 
 tions a woman whofe milk was become abfinthiated, 
 and rendered as bitter as gall, by the too liberal ufe of 
 wormwood. 
 
 Vhium abfinthites, or foculum ahfinthiaium, " worm- 
 wood wine," is much fpoke of among the ancients as a 
 
 whole-
 
 A B S 
 
 r 27 J 
 
 A B S 
 
 wholefome drink, and c vcnan aiuidote againfl drunkcn- 
 ncfs, though fomc have charged it witli being off'cii- 
 five tothe head, and liable tocaufc fevers, cephalalgias, 
 _ vomitings, uterine liiixcs, &c. Ray allb makes it a 
 preventative of venery. According to the common 
 opinion, it is made by infixing the leaves of the plant 
 in wine ; but, according to Kchr, it ought to be pre- 
 pared by fermentation, in order to corrctt the crudi- 
 ties, and call forth a volatile fait ; which lall, how- 
 ever, does not exill in wormwood. Some prefer the 
 diilillcd water ; but whatever virtues wormwood pof- 
 fcfles relide entirely in its elTential oil. 
 
 ABSINTHIUM, in botany, the trivial name of 
 the common wormwood. Sec the article Artemi- 
 sia. 
 
 ABSIS, in aftronomy, the fame with apfis. See 
 Arsis. 
 
 ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, fomething that 
 ftands free or independent. 
 
 Absolute is more particularly underflood of a bcin g 
 or thing which does not proceed from any caufe, or 
 does not fubfift by virtue of any other being, confi- 
 dered as its caufe ; in which fenfe, God alone is abfo- 
 lut!. Abfotute, in this fenfe, is fynonymous with /«;/<:- 
 pendent, and Ilands oppofed to dependent. 
 
 Absolute alfo denotes a thing's being free from 
 conditions or limitations ; in which fenfe, the word is 
 fynonymous with unconditional. We fay, an abfolute 
 6ccrtt,abfolute promife, abfolute obedience. 
 
 Absolute Covemmint, that wherein the prince is 
 left folcly to his own will, being not limited to the ob- 
 fcrvancc of any laws except thofc of his own difcre- 
 lion. 
 
 Absolute Equation, in aftronomy, is the aggregate 
 of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent 
 inequality of a planet's motion ariling from its not be- 
 ing equally diflant from the earth at all times, is call- 
 ed its optic equation, and would fublill even if the pla- 
 net's real motion were uniform. The eccentric ine- 
 quality is caufed by the planet's motion being uniform. 
 "To illuftratc which, conceive ths fun to move, or to 
 appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in 
 whofe centre the earth is placed. It is manifcll, that 
 if the fun moves uniformly in this circle, itmufl appear 
 to move uniformly to a fpectator on the earth, and in 
 this cafe there will be no optic nor eccentric equation : 
 but fuppofe the earth to be placed out of the centre of 
 the circle, and then, though the fun's motion ihould 
 be really uniform, it would not appear to be fo, being 
 fetn from the earth ; and inthis cafe there would be an 
 optic equation, without an eccentric one. Imagine 
 farther, the fun's orbit to be not circular, but elliptic, 
 and the earth in its focus; it will be as evident that 
 the fun cannot appear to have an uniform motion in 
 fuch ellipfe : fo that liis motion will then be fubjed to 
 two equations, the optic and the eccentric. 
 
 Absolute Number, in algebra, is any pure number 
 ftanding in any equation without the conjumflion of li- 
 teral charafters ; as 2.v-|-36=48 ; where :;6 and 48 
 are abfolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined 
 with the letter .v. 
 
 ABSOLUT ION, in civil law, is a fentcncc whereby 
 the party accufed is declared innocent of the crime laid 
 to his charge — Anion;; thcRomans, the ordinary me- 
 thod of pronouncing judgment was this : after the cauie 
 
 had been pleaded on both fides, the prseco uftd the Abfo'ution 
 word dixerunt, q. d. they have faid what they had to I 
 
 fa/ ; then three ballots were diflribiited to each judge, At'^T- 
 marked as mentioned under the article A ; and as the ""°' . 
 majority fell of cither mark, the accufed was abfohed 
 or condemned, &c. If he were abfolvcd, the prastor 
 difmidtd him with videtur noiifecijfe, or jure videtur 
 
 Absolution, in the canon law, is ajuridical aft, 
 whereby the pricft declares the lins of fuch as are pe- 
 nitent remitted. — The Romanifts hold abfolution 1 
 partofthefacrament of penance: thecouncilof Trent, 
 fcir. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in thedccreea^ 
 Armenos, declare the form or clTence of thcfacrameni 
 to lie in the words a{ abjolutioii, I abfolvc thee of t!iy 
 lins. Theyirw.v/a of abfolution, in the Romilli church, 
 is abfolute : in the Greek church it is deprecatory ; 
 and in the churches of the reformed, declarative. 
 
 Absolution is chicrty ufed among protcllants for 
 a fentence whereby a perfon who Itands excommuni- 
 cated is releafcd or freed from that punilhmcnt. 
 
 ABSORBENT, in general, any thing poflefllng 
 the ijia\\ly oi abforbing , or fwallowing up another. 
 
 Ausokbest Medicine J , teftaceous powders, as chalk, 
 crab-eyes, &c. whicli are taken inwardly for drying up 
 orabforbingany acidor redundant humours in the (lo- 
 mach or intellincs. They are likewifc applied out- 
 wardly to ulcers or fores with the fame intention. 
 
 Absorhent l\-[fcls, a name given promifeuoully to 
 the lafteal vefTels, lymphatics, and inhalent arteries. 
 See Anatomy. 
 
 Naturalifts fpeak of the like abforbents in plants, 
 tlie fibrous or hairy roots of which are as a kind of va- 
 fa abforbentia, which attrart and imbibe the nutritious 
 juices from the earth. See Plants. 
 
 ABSORBING, the fwallowing up, fucking up, or 
 imbibing any thing : thus black bodies are faid to ab- 
 forb the rays of light ; luxuriant branches, to abforb 
 or wafte the nutricious juices which fliould feed the 
 fruit of trees, &c. 
 
 ABSORPTION, in the animal ceconomy, is the 
 power whereby the abforbent vctfels imbibe the juices, 
 &c. 
 
 Absorptions of the Earth, a term ufed by K ire her 
 and others for the finking in of Urge tracts of land by 
 means of fubterrancous commotions, and many other 
 accidents. 
 
 Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cym- 
 botus, with the town of Eurites, which llood on its 
 fide, were wholly abforbed into the earth, fo that not 
 the leaft trace of either remained ; and he records the 
 like fate of the city Tantalis in Magnefia, and after it 
 of the mountain Sypelus, both thus abforbed bv .1 vi- 
 olent opening of the earth. Galanis and Garmtus, 
 towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to 
 have met the fame fate ; and the vaft promoniory, cal- 
 led P/'/ci;///;//, in Ethiopia, after a violent carthqaakc 
 in the night-time, was not to be feen in the morning, 
 the whole having difappeared, and the earth clofed o- 
 vcr it. Thefe and many other hidorics, attcfled by 
 the authors of greatcll credit among the ancients, a- 
 bundantly prove the fart in the earlier ages ; and there 
 have not been wanting too many inllanccs of more mo- 
 dern date. Kircher's Mnnd. Subtcr. p. 77. Sec 
 Earth and Earthq_uake. 
 
 D 3 ABSOR-
 
 A B S 
 
 [ 28 ] 
 
 A B S 
 
 Aliform ABSORUS, Apsokus, Absyrtis, Absyrtidf.s, 
 
 II Apsvktides, ApsYRTis, aiul Absv RTiUM, (btralio, 
 
 Abftiiience ^1^^, Ptolemy ;) illaiuls iu tl\e Adriatic, in the gulph 
 
 *" of Carnero ; I'o called iVom Ablyriis, Medea's brother, 
 
 tliere llaiii. 'J'hey arc either one illaiul, or two, I'c- 
 
 paratcd hy a narrow channel, and joined by a bridge j 
 
 and are now called Ch^rfo and Ojcro. 
 
 ABSTEMII, in church hiflory, a name given to 
 fuch perfons as could not partake of the cup of the 
 cucharilt on account of their natural avcrlion to wine. 
 Calvinills allow thcfe to communicate in the Ipcciesot 
 bread only, touching the cup with their lip ; which, 
 on the other hand, is by the Lutherans deemed a pro- 
 fanation. 
 
 ABSTEMIOUS, is properly undcrftood of a per- 
 fon who refrains abfolutcly from all ufe of wine. 
 
 The hillory of Mr Wood, in the Medic. Tranf. 
 vol. ii. p. 261. art. iS. is a very remarkable exeinpli- 
 lication of the very beneficial alterations which may 
 be effcded on the human body by a Uriel; courfe ot 
 abftemioufnefs. 
 
 The Roman ladies, in tlie tirll ages of the republic, 
 were all cnjoiued to be ablltmious ; and that it might 
 appear, by their breath, whether or no they kept up 
 to the iniunction, it was one of the laws of the Ro- 
 man civility, that they Ihould kifs their friends and 
 relations whenever they accolled them. 
 
 ABSTEMIUS (Laurcntias), a native of Macerata, 
 profelVor of belles lettres in Urbino, and librarian of 
 dukeGuido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of Alexan- 
 der VI. He wrote, i. Notes on mofl difficult palfages 
 of ancient authors. 2. Hecatomythium, /'. e. A col- 
 ledion of an 100 fables, &c. which have been often 
 printed with thofc of yEfop, Phaedrus, Gabrias, Avi- 
 enus, &c. 
 
 ABSTERGENT medicines, thofe employed for 
 refolving obftruilions, concretions, &c. fuch as foap, 
 &c. 
 
 ABSTINENCE, in a general fcnfe, the art or ha- 
 bit of refraining from fomcthing which we have a pro- 
 penlion to or find pleafure in. — Among the Jews, va- 
 rious kinds of abllincnce were ordained by their law. 
 Among the primitive ChrilHaiis, fume denied them- 
 felves the ufe of fuch meats as were prohibited by that 
 law,other3 looked uponthisabftinencc with contempt ; 
 as to which, St Paul gives his opinion, Rom. xiv. I — 3. 
 The council of Jrrufalcm, which was held by tlie Apu- 
 llles, enjoined the Chrillian converts to abllain from 
 meats llrangled, from blood, from fornication, and 
 from idolatry. Abllincnce, as prclcribed by the gof- 
 pel, is intended to mortify and rcflrain the palllons, to 
 humble our vicious -natures, and by that means raife 
 our minds to a due fenfe of devotion. But there is 
 another fort of abftinence, which may be called ritual, 
 and confifts in abllaining from particular meats at cer- 
 tain times and feafons. It was the fpiritual monarchy 
 of the weflern world which firfl introduced this ritual 
 abflinencc ; the rules of which were called rogations ; 
 but grofsly abufcd from the true nature and defign of 
 fafting. — In England, abftinence from flelh has been 
 enjoined by flatutceven fincethe reformation, particu- 
 larly on Fridays and Saturdays, on vigils, and on all 
 commonly called/y^-i/^j'j. The like injunctions were 
 renewed under Q^. Elizabeth : but at the fame time it 
 was declared, that this was done not out of motives of 
 religion; as if tJiere were any difference in meats ; hue 
 
 in favour of the confimiption of filli, and to multiply the Abllincnce 
 iiumber of Hlhcrmen and mariners, as well as fpare the " ' 
 tiock of fltecp. 1 be great faft, fays St AuguAin, is to 
 abftain from (in. 
 
 Abstinence is more particularly uftd for a fpare 
 diet, or a (lender parlimonious ufe of food, below the 
 ordinary ftandard of nature. The pliyficians relate 
 wonders of the cffcfts of abftinence in the cure of 
 many diforders, and protracting the term of life. The 
 noble Venetian, Cornaro, after all imaginable means 
 had proved vain, fo that his life was dcfpaired of at 
 40, recovered, and lived to near ico, by mere dint 
 of abftinence ; as he hiinfelf gives the account. It is 
 indeed furprifing to what a great age the primitive 
 Chriftians of the eaft, who retired from the ptrlecu- 
 tions into the dcfarts of Arabia and Egypt, lived, 
 lualthful and cheerful, on a very little food. Caflian 
 alfurcs us, that the common rate for 24 hours was 12 
 ounces of bread, and mere water : with this St An- 
 thony lived loj years ; James the Hermit 104 ; Ar- 
 feuius, tutor of the Emperor Arcadius, 120; S. Epi- 
 phanius, 115; Simeon the Stylite, 112; and Romauld, 
 120. Buchanan writes, that in Scotland one Laurence 
 prefervcd himfelf to 140 by force of temperance and- 
 labour ; and Spotfwood mentions one Kcntigern, af- 
 terwards called S. Mongah or Mungo, who lived to 
 i8j by the fame means. Other inftances fee under 
 the article Longevity. 
 
 Abftinence, however, is to be recommended only as 
 i t means a jiroper regimen ; for in general it nuift have 
 bad confequences when obfcrved without a due regard 
 to conftitution, age, ftrcngth, ire According to Dr 
 Chcyne, moft ofthe chronical difeafes, the infirmities 
 of old age, and the ihort lives of Englifhmen, are owing 
 to repletion ; and may be either cured, prevented, or 
 remedied by abftinence : but then the kinds of abfti- 
 nence which ought to obtain, cither in ficknefs or 
 health, are to be deduced from the laws of diet and re- 
 gimen. 
 
 Among the brute creation, we fee extraordinary in- 
 ftancesof long abftinence. The ferpcnt-kind, in parti- 
 cular, bcarabftiuence to.-; wonderful degree. We have 
 fcen rattle-fnakes that had fubfifte d many months w ilh- 
 oul any food, yet ftill retained their vigour and fierce- 
 nefs. Dr Shaw fpcaksof a couple of ceraftes, (a fort of 
 Egyptian ferpents), which had been kept five years in 
 a bottle clofc corked, without any fort of food,unlcfs a 
 fmall quantity of fand wherein they coiled ihcmfclves 
 up in the bottom of the velfcl may be reckoned as 
 fuch : yet when he faw them, they had newly caft their 
 (kins, and were as brifkandlively as if juft taken. But 
 it is even natural for divers fpecies to pafs four, five, or 
 fix months every year, without either eating or drink- 
 ing. Accordingly, the tortoife, bear, dormoufe, fer- 
 pent, &c. are obfervcd regularly to retire, at thofc 
 feafons, to tlicir refpcclive cells, and hide ihcmfelves, 
 fome in the caverns of rocks or ruins ; othersdig holes 
 under ground ; others get into woods, and lay them- 
 felves up in the clefts of trees ; others bury themfelves 
 under water, ire. And thefe animals are found as fat 
 and tlefliy after fome months abftinence as before. — 
 Sir G. Ent* weighed his tortoife feveral years fucccf- , ^^^.^ 
 fively, at its going to earth in Oftobcr, and coming j-ra,,/. 
 out again in March ; and found, that, of four pounds, n 194. 
 four ounces, it only ufed to lofe about one ounce. 
 — Indeed, we have inftances of men palfiug feveral 
 
 mouths.
 
 A B S [ ; 
 
 Abflinenec months as ftriflly abflincnt as other crcatiircs. In par- 
 II ticiilar, tlic records of the Tower of London mention a 
 Abftraift, Scotchmaji imprifuned for felony, and ilriitlywatclicd 
 in that fortrefs for lix weeks : in all which time he 
 took not the leaflfuflenancc: for which he had his par- 
 don. Numbcrlcfs inftancesof extroardinary abAinence, 
 particularly from morbid caufcs, are to be found in the 
 different periodical Memoirs, Tranfadions, Epheme- 
 
 rldcs. See It is to be added, that, in moft inflances of 
 
 cxtroardinary human ablUncnce related by naturalifts, 
 there were laid to have been apparent marks of a tex- 
 ture of blood and h'umours, much like that of the alii- 
 mals aoovementioncd. Though it is no improbable o- 
 pinion, that the air itfclf may furnilh fomcthing for nu- 
 trition. It is certain, there are fubftanccs of all kinds, 
 animal, vegetable, &c. floating in the atniofpliere, 
 which muft be continually taken in byrcfpiration. And 
 that an animal body may be nourilhcd thereby, is evi- 
 dent in the inftance of vipers ; which if taken when 
 firft brought forth, and kept from every thing but air, 
 will yet grow very coniidcrably in a few days. So the 
 eggs of lizards arcobferved to increafe in bulk, after 
 they are produced though there be nothing to furnilh 
 the increment but air alone; in like manner as the eggs 
 orfpawn of tilhcs grow and arenourilhed with the wa- 
 ter. And hence, fay fome, it is that cooks, turnfpit- 
 dogs, &c. though they eat but little, yet are ufually 
 fat. See Fasting. 
 
 ABSTINKN TS, or Apstiken'tes, a fet of here- 
 tics that appeared in France and Spain about the end 
 of the third century. They are fuppofed to have bor- 
 rowed part of their opinions from the Gnollics and 
 Manicheans, becaufe they oppofed marriage, condemn- 
 ed the ufe of llclh meat, and placed the Holy Ghoflin 
 the clafs of created beings. We have, however, no 
 certain account of their peculiar tenets. 
 
 ABSTRACT, in a general fenfe, any thing fcpa- 
 rated from fomething elfe, 
 
 /fBSTRAcr Idea, in metaphylics, is a partial idea of a 
 complex object, limited to one or more of the compo- 
 nent parts or properties, laying alidc or abftrafting 
 from the reft. Thus, in viewing an object with the 
 eye, or recollecting it in the mind, we can calily ab- 
 ftraft from fome of its parts or properties, and attach 
 ourfelves to others : we can attend to the rednefs of a 
 cherry, without regard to its figure, talle, or confift- 
 encc. See Abstraction. 
 
 j^R^.TRAcr Turns, words that are ufed to exprcfs 
 abftraft ideas. Thusbeauty,uglinefs,whitcnefs, round- 
 nefs, life, death, are abllrait terms. 
 
 Abstract Niivibers, are alFemblagcs of units, con- 
 fidcred in thcmfelvcs without denoting any particular 
 and determined particulars. Thus 6 is an abflract 
 number, when not applied to anything; but, if we 
 fay 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number. See the ar- 
 ticle Number. 
 
 Abstract Mathematics, othcrwife called Pure Ma- 
 thtviat'ics, is that which treats of magnitude or quan- 
 tity, abfolutely and generally conlidered, witliout re- 
 flriiition to any fpecies of particular magnitude ; fuch 
 arc Arithmetic and Geometry. In this fenfe, abftradt 
 mathematics is jppofed tomixcd mathematics; wherein 
 iimple and abltraft properties, and the relations of 
 quantities primitively con(idercd in pure mathematics, 
 ue applied to fenliblcobjcfts, and by that means bc- 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 AbfurJ. 
 
 19] A B S 
 
 come intermixed with phyfical conliaeraiions ; fach Abftnft 
 arc Hydroltatics, Optics, Navigation, 3ic. 
 
 Abstract, in literature, a compendious view of 
 any large work ; ihorter and more fupcrticial than an 
 abridgment. 
 
 ABSTRACTION, in general, the aftof abftradt- 
 iug, or the Hate of being abttraftcd. 
 
 Abstr ACT I o.s', in metaphylics, the operation of the 
 mind when occupied by abftract ideas. A large oak 
 fixes our attention, and abflracls us from the ihrubs 
 that furround it. In the fame manner, a beautirul 
 woman in a crowd, abllraclsour thoughts, and cngrof- 
 fesour attention folcly tohcrftlf. Thefcare examples 
 of real abftraetion : when thefc, or any others of a fi- 
 milar kind, arc recalled to the mind after the objcds 
 themfclvcs are removed from our light, they form what 
 are called abjlraci ideas, or the mind is faid to be em- 
 ployed in abflract ideas. But the power of abllraclioa 
 is not confined to objects that arc fcparable in reality 
 as well as mentally : the fize, the figure, the colour of 
 a tree are infeparably connedlcd, and cannot cxift in- 
 dependent of each other ; andyctwecanmentally con- 
 fine our obfcrvaiions to any one of thefe properties, 
 neglecting or abflrading from the rert. 
 
 Abllrattion is chiefly employed thefe three ways. 
 Firft, When the mind confiders any one part of a 
 thing, in fome rcfpect diftinft from the whole ; as a 
 man's arm, without the conlideration of the reltof the 
 body. Secondly, When we confidcr the wod't'of any 
 fubltance, omitting the fubftance itfclf ; or when we 
 fcparately conlider fcvcral modes which fubfift together 
 in one fubjcCt. This abllradion the geometricians 
 make nfe of when tlity confider the length of a t>ody 
 fcparately, which they call a tine, omitting the conli- 
 deration of its breadth and thicknefs. Thirdly, It is 
 by abftraction that the mind forms general or univcrfal 
 ideas ; omitting the modes and relations of the parti- 
 cular objcits whence they arc formed. Thus, when 
 we Ihould underAand a thinking being in general, wc 
 gather from ourfclf-confcioufnefs what it is to think ; 
 and, omitting thofe things which have a particular re- 
 lation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we 
 conceive a thinking being in general. 
 
 Ideas formed in this manner, which are what we 
 properly aWakjirad ideai, become general reprefen- 
 tatives of all objects of the fane kind ; and their names 
 applicable to whatever exifts conformable to fuch 
 ideas. Thus the idea of colour that wc receive from 
 chalk, fnow, milk, &c. is a rcprefentativeofall of that 
 kind; and has a name given it, 'd)l;ilen:/s, \\hich 
 fignifies the fame quality wherever fuujid or imagi- 
 ned. 
 
 ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, concealed, 
 or far removed from common apprehculions, and there- 
 fore not eafily underftood ; in oppofiiion to what is 
 obvious and palpable. Thas metaphyfics is an ab- 
 flrufc fcicncc ; and the doiflrine effluxions, and the 
 method flV maximis et muiiniis, arc abftrufc points of 
 knowledge. 
 
 ABSURD, an epithet applied to any thing that 
 oppofcs the human apprchention and contradicts a 
 manifclt truth. Thus, it would be abfurd 'o fay 
 that 6 and 6 make only 10, or to deny that twice 6 
 make 12. Whenthc terra <ii5/«r«'isapplicd to actions, 
 it has the fame import as ridiculous. 
 
 ABSYN-
 
 ABU 
 
 [ 30 ] 
 
 A B Y 
 
 AHSYNTHIUM. Sec Absinth ium. 
 
 ABSYKTUS, ill the licatlicii myiliolngy, the fon 
 of ^taaiul Hypica, and tlic broihciot" Medea. The 
 latter nuiniugaway with Jafon, after her having aflift- 
 cd him in carrying off the golden Hcece, was piirfued 
 by her father ; when, to Hop his progrefs, (he lore 
 Abfyrtiis in pieces, and fcaitercd his limbs in his way. 
 
 ABTHANES, a title of honour ufed by the an- 
 cient inhabitants ot Scotland, who called tlieir nobles 
 /^<j/;tM, which in the old Saxon lignifies^;/;^'j «//«/// tfr'j; 
 and of thcfe the higher rank were ^yXiAabihaiia, and 
 thofe of the lower uitdcrthaiies. 
 
 ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight ufed 
 in the kingdom of Pegu. One abucco contains 12', lec- 
 calis ; two abuccos make a. giro or agire ; twogiri, halt 
 z hiza ; and a /'/ca weighs an hundred tcccalis J that 
 is, two pounds five ounces the heavy weight, or three 
 pounds nine ounces the light weight of Venice. 
 
 ABUKESO, in commerce, the lame with Asi.an. 
 
 ABULFARAGIUS (Gregory), fon to Aaron a 
 phyfician, born in 1226, in the city of Malalia, near 
 the fourcc of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed 
 the profelllon of his father ; and pradlifcd w ith great 
 fuccefs, numbers of people coming from the moll re- 
 mote parts to alk his advice. However, he would hardly 
 have been known at this time, had his knowledge been 
 confined tophyfic : but he applied himfclf to the lUidy 
 of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as well 
 as philofopliy and divinity ; and he wrote a hillory 
 which docs honour to his memory. It is written in 
 Arabic, and divided into dynafties. It confifts of ten 
 parts, being an epitome of univcrfal hillory from the 
 creation of the world to his own time. Dr Pocock pu- 
 blillied it with a Latin tranllation in 1663 ; and added, 
 by way of fupplement, a fliort continuation relating 
 to the hillory of the eallern princes. 
 
 ABUNA, the title given to the arehbifhop or me- 
 tropolitan of Abyirinia. Sec Abyssinia. 
 
 ABUNDANT number, in arithmetic, is a num- 
 ber, the fum of whole aliquot parts is greater than the 
 number itfelf. Thus the aliquot parts of 12, being i, 
 2, 3, 4,' and 6, they make, when added together, 16. 
 An abundant number is oppofed to a deficient number, 
 or that which is greater than all its aliquot parts taken 
 together ; as 14, whofe aliquot parts are i, 2, and 7, 
 whicli make no more than ten : and to a pcrjiB num- 
 ber, or one to which its aliquot parts are equal, as 6, 
 whofe aliquot parts are i, 2, and 3. 
 
 ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, reprefcnted 
 in ancient monuments under the figure of a woman 
 with a pleafingafpeiil, crowned with garlands of flow- 
 ers, pouring all forts of fiuit out of a horn which flic 
 holds in her right hand, and fcattcring grain with her 
 left, taken promifcuoully from aflieafofcorn. Onamc- 
 dalof Trajan, Iheis reprefcnted with two cornucopiae. 
 
 ABU SAID, (Ebn Aljaptu), fultan of the Moguls, 
 fucceeded his father anno 717 of the hcgira. He was 
 the lafl monarch of the race of Jcnghizkhan ; and af- 
 terhis death, wiiich happened the fame year that Ta- 
 merlane was l)orn, the empire was made a fcene of 
 blood and defolation. 
 
 ABUS, (anc.geog.% a rivcrof Britain, formed by 
 the co:iiiucncc of the Ure, the Dcrwent, Trent, Sec. 
 falling into the German fca, between Yorkrtiire and 
 Lincolnflure, and forming the mouth of the Huinbcr. 
 
 ABUSE, an Irregular ufe of a thing, or the intro- 
 ducing foraething contrary to the true intention there- 
 of. In grammar, to apply a word a^.v//f £■/)■, or in an 
 abufivc fciifc, is to mifapply or pervert its meaning. — 
 A permutation of benefices, without tlieconlcntof th« 
 bilhop, is termed </^////ff, and confequently null. 
 
 ABUTILON, in botany, the trivial name of fcvc- 
 ral fpecics of the fida. Sec Si da. 
 
 ABYDOS, (ane.geog.), anciently a town built by 
 the Milelians in Aiia, on the Hellelpont, where it is 
 fcarcea mile over, oppofite to Sellos on the Euro- 
 pean fide. Now both called the Dardautiles. Abydos 
 lay midway between Lam pfacus and Ilium, famous for 
 Xerxes's bridge, (Herodotus, Virgil); and for the 
 loves of Leander and Hero. (MufiEus, Ovid); celebra- 
 tcdaKoforits oyflers, (Ennius, Virgil). 'Iheinhabi- 
 tants were afoft, effeminate people, given much to de- 
 traction ; hence the proverb, Ne toii^n /j!'yduw\\\\ei\ 
 we would caution againll danger, (Stephanus). 
 
 Abvdos, (anc. geog.), anciently an inland town of 
 Egypt, between Ptolemais and Diofpolis Parva, to- 
 wards Syene ; famous for the palace of Mcmnon and 
 the temple of Oliris. A colony of INIilefians ; (Ste- 
 phanus.) It was the only one in the country into 
 which the fingers and dancers were forbid to enter. 
 
 This city, reduced to a village under the empire of 
 Augdus, now prefents to our view only an heap of 
 ruins without inhabitants; but to the well of thcfe 
 ruins is Hill found the celebrated tomb of Ifraandes. 
 The entrance is under a portico 60 feet high, and fup- 
 portcd by two rows of malfy columns. The immove> 
 able folidity of the edifice, the huge malles which com- 
 pofe it, the hieroglyphics it is loaded with, (lamp it a 
 work of the ancient Egyptians. Beyond it is a temple 
 300 feet long and 14J wide. Upon entering the mo- 
 nument wc meet with an immenfe hall, the roof of 
 which is fupported by 28 columns 60 feet high and 19 
 incircumference at the bafe. They are i2fcetdiHant 
 from each other. The enormous ilones that form the 
 ceiling, perfectly joined and incruiled, as it were, one 
 in the other, offer to the eye nothing but one folid plat- 
 form of marble 1 16 feetlongand 26 wide. The walls 
 are covered with hieroglyphics. One fees there a mul- 
 titude of animals, birds, and human figures with point- 
 ed caps on their heads, and a piece of fluff hanging 
 down behind, drelTcd in loofe robes that came down 
 only to the waift. The fculpture, however, is elumfy ; 
 the forms of the body, the attitudes and proportions of 
 the members, illobferved. Amongfl thcfe we may di- 
 ftinguifli fome women fuckling their children, and men 
 prefenting offerings to tliem. Here alio we meet with 
 the divinities of India. Monfieur Chevalier, formerly 
 governor of Chandcrnagore, who relided 20 years in 
 that country, carefully vilitcd this monument on his re- 
 turn from Bengal. He remarked here the gods Jag- 
 gnnat, Coiuz, and Vcchiiou or Wijhion, fuch as they arc 
 reprefcnted in the temples of Indoflan. — A great gate 
 opens at the bottom of the lirll hall, wjiich leads to an 
 apartment 46 feet long by 22 wide. Six fquare pillars 
 fupport theroof of it ; and at the angles are the doors 
 of lour other chambers, but fo clioaked up m ith rub- 
 biili that they cannot now be entered. The lafl hall, 
 64 feet long by 24 wide, has flairs by which one dc- 
 fcends into the fubterrancous apartments of tiiis grand 
 cdiiice. The Arabas,in fearching after treafure, have 
 
 piled
 
 A B Y 
 
 C 3t ] 
 
 A li Y 
 
 Aliydos piled up heaps of earth and rubbilh. In the part we- 
 ll are able to penetrate, fciilpture and hieroglyphics arc 
 Aliyfs. difcoverable as in the upper llory. The natives lay liiat 
 '^ they corrcfi-oiid exactly with tiiofc above ground, and 
 thai the columns are as deep in the earth as they are 
 loity above ground. It would be dangerous to j>(( tar 
 into thole vault ; for the air of them is lb loaded with a 
 niephitic vapour, that a candle can fcarcc be kept burn- 
 ing in them. Six lions heads, placed on the two lides 
 of the temple, fervc as fpouis to carry off the water. 
 You mount to the top by a flaircafe of a very lingular 
 llruchirc. It is built with floues incrufted in the wall, 
 and projecting lix feet out ; fo that being fupported on- 
 ly at one end, they appear to be fufpendeil in the air. 
 The Walls, the roof, and the columns of this cditiee, 
 have futi'ered nothing from the injuries of time ; and 
 (lid not the hieroglyphic:, by being corroded in fome 
 places, mark its antiquity, it would appear to have been 
 newly built. The lolidity is fuch, that unlcfs peojde 
 make a point of dcllroying it, the building niu(t lall a 
 great number of ages. Except the colollal ligurco, 
 whofehc.idsferve as an ornament to the capitals of the 
 columns, and which- are fculpturcd /« relievo, the relt 
 of the hieroglyphics which cover the inlide are carved 
 in Ito.ic. To the left of this great building we meet 
 with another much fmaller, at the bottom of which is 
 a fort of altar. This was probably the fancluary of 
 the temple of Ofiris. 
 
 ABYLA, (Ptolemy, Mela) ; one of Hercules's pil- 
 lars on the African lide, called by the Spani.irds Sur- 
 ra de Ins iMoiias, over againll Calpc in Spain, the other 
 pillar ; fuppofcd to have been formerly joined, butfe- 
 paratcd by Hercules, and thus to have given entrance 
 to the lea now called the IMcditerraiiean : the lin)its 
 of the labours of Hercules, (Pliuy.) 
 
 ABYSS, in a general fenfe, denotes fomcthing pro- 
 found, ant), as it v;ere, bottomlefs. The word is ori- 
 ginally Greek, afi-5-3-oc; compounded of the prinntivc 
 a, and Ci^ra-n, q. d. without a bottom. 
 
 Abyss, in a more particular fenfe, dcnots a deep 
 mafs or fund of waters. In this fenfe, the word is 
 particularly ufcd, in the Septuagint, for the water 
 which God created at the beginning with the earth, 
 which encompatred it round, and which our iranlla- 
 tors render by def/>. Thus it is that darknefs isl'aid 
 to be upon the face of the abyfs. 
 
 Abyss is alfo ufed for an immcnfe cavern in the 
 earth, wherein God is fuppofed to have coUefled all 
 thofe waters on the third day ; which, in ourveriion, 
 is rendered thc/eai, and elfewhere ihc great deep. Dr 
 Woodward, in his Natural Hillory of the Karth, af- 
 fcrts, That there is a mighty colledion of waters in- 
 ciofcd in tlie bowels of the earth, conllituting a huge 
 orb in the interior or central parts of it ; and over the 
 furfaceof this water he fuppofes the terreftrial ftrata to 
 be expanded. This, according to him, is what Mofes 
 csilh the great deep, and what moft authors render the 
 great abyfs. The water of this vaft abyfs, he alleges, 
 does communicate with that of the ocean, by means of 
 certain hiatufes or ehafms palling betwixt it and the 
 bottom of the ocean : and this and the abyfs he fup- 
 poies to have one common centre, around which the 
 water of both is placed ; but fo, that the ordinary fur- 
 face of the abyfs is not level with that of the ocean, 
 nor at fo great a diltaucc from the centre as the other. 
 
 it being for the moft part rcflraincd and deprefled by 
 the ftrata of earth lying upon it ; but whenever thofe 
 ftrata are broken, or fo lax and porous that water can 
 pervade them, there the water of the abyfs afccnds : 
 lills up all the clefts and tiifures into which it can get 
 admittance ; and faturatcs all the intcrflices and pores 
 of the earth, ftone, or other matter all around the 
 globe, quite up to the level of the ocean. 
 
 The exiftcncc of an abyfs or receptacle of fub- 
 terraneous waters, is controverted by Camcrarius*; 
 and defended by Dr Woodward chieriy by two ar- 
 guments : the tiril drawn from the vaft quantity 
 of water which covered the earth in the time of 
 the deluge ; the fccoiid, from the conlideraiion of 
 earthquakes, which he endeavours to Ihow are oc- 
 calioncd by the violence of the waters in this a- 
 byfs. A great part of the tcrrcllrial globe has 
 been frequently Ihaken at the fame moment ; which 
 argues, according to him, that the waters, which wcrt 
 tile occalion thereof, were co-extended with that part 
 of the globe. There are even inftanccs of univcrfal 
 earthquakes ; which (fays he) ftiow, that the whole 
 abyfs muft have been agitated : for lo general an effect 
 mull have been produced by as a general caufe, and 
 that caufe can be nothing but the fubtcrraneous 
 abyfsf. 
 
 To this abyfs alfo has been attributed the origin 
 of fprings and rivers ; the level maintained in the 
 furfaceof different feas ; *nd their not overflowing 
 their banks. To the cffluvias emitted from it, fome 
 even attribute all thcdiverlitiesof weather and change 
 «i our atmofphercj. Kay* , and other authors, an- 
 cient as well as modern, fuppofe a communication be- 
 tween the Cafpian fea and tlie ocean by means of a 
 fubterrancan abyfs : and to this they attribute it that 
 the Cafpian fta does not overriow,notwithftanding the 
 great number of large rivers it receives, of which 
 Kempfer reckons above Jo in the compafsof 6omiles; 
 tho', as to this, others fuppofe tliat the daily evapo- 
 ration may fufSce to keep the level. 
 
 The different arguments concerning thi^ fnbjcft 
 may be feen collecHcd and amplitied in Ccckburu's 
 Inquiry into the Truth and Cirtai,:ty cf the Ah- 
 faic Delude, p. 271, &c. After all,'howevcr, this 
 amazing theory of a central abyfs is far from be- 
 ing demonftrated : it will perhaps in fevcral rcfpefls 
 appear inconliftent with found philofophy, as well as 
 repugnant to the phenomena of nature. In particular, 
 if we believe any thing like eleflric attradion to have 
 prevailed in the formation of the earth, we muft believe 
 that the fcparatioii of the chaos proceeded from the 
 union of limilar particles. It is certain that reft is fa- 
 vourable to fuch operations of nature. As, therefore, 
 the central parts of the earth were more immediately 
 quicfcent than thofe remote from the centre, it fc unsab- 
 furd to fuppofe that the heavier and dcnfer bodies gave 
 place to the more light and fluid ; that the central part 
 ftiould conlill of water only, and the more fuperticial 
 part of a cruft or ihell. Vid. IVhitehurji's Inquiry i>i- 
 ti) the original Formation oj the Strata &c. Sec De- 
 luge. 
 
 Abyss is alfo ufcd to denote hell ; in which fenfe 
 the word is fynonymous with what is otherwife called 
 Barathrum, Erebus, zw^Tartarus ; in the Englilh bible, 
 the bottomlefs pit. The uuclcau fpirits expelled by 
 
 Chxift, 
 
 Abyfc. 
 
 •OilTcrt. 
 Taiir. .\&.i 
 Eru<l. fupp- 
 
 C(>RI. Vi. 
 
 p. =4- 
 
 tHlft.of 
 tlie Earth. 
 Jounial de 
 bcavans, 
 torn. Iviii. 
 
 P- 393- 
 
 Mcnupirjof 
 
 l^itcrature,. 
 
 torn. viii. 
 
 p. loi, &c. 
 
 ft-loUoway 
 
 Introcl. to 
 
 Wojd- 
 
 ward's hiff. 
 
 orthcKanli 
 
 AiflaErud. 
 
 ^ Thy Ceo 
 Ih-ol. 
 Difc.ii.c. 1. 
 p. 76.
 
 A B Y 
 
 I 32 ] 
 
 A B Y 
 
 Aliyfs. Cliriil, bcggcJ. nciiiipcrarel iin iij alijjf/m ireiit, accor- 
 ASyfiiiia. iVing to tlic vulgatc j nc afvyrov according to the Greek. 
 '— "• Luke viii. -ii. Kcv. ix. i. 
 
 Abvss is more particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de- 
 note the temple of Proferpinc. It was thus called on 
 account 01' liie immenle fund of gold and riches depo- 
 jited there ; fonic fay, hid under ground. 
 
 Abyss isalfo ufed in heraldry to denote the centre 
 of an cfcutchcon. In which fcnfe a thing is faid to 
 be bore in aby is, e/i abyfrne, when placed in the middle 
 of the fliiclJ, clear from any other bearing : He bears 
 azure, a tiower Je lis, in aliyls. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, by fomc called Highif Ethiopia, and 
 by the Arabians Al Habujh, is bounded on the north 
 by Nubia; on the eall,by ilie Arabicgulph or Red Sea, 
 and the kingdom of Adel ; on the fouth, by the king- 
 doms of Ajan, Alabo, and Gingiro ; and on the well, 
 by the kingdomsof Goram, and par: of Gingiro ; and 
 is divided into a great number of provinces. The 
 principal river is the Nile, which has its fourcein this 
 country ; and the mofl confulerablelakc, that of Dam- 
 bea, which difchar£^cs itfelf intothe Nile, is about 700 
 miles in Icngih, and 90 in breadth. The air is pretty 
 temperate inthe mountains, and therefore thcirtowns 
 and ftrong holds arc generally placed on them ; but in 
 the valleys it is hot and fulFocating. The foil and face 
 of the country is various. Jn fome places there arc 
 nothing but rocks and profound caverns : in others, 
 efpecially where thcrcarerivcrs,tlie lanuiscxceeding. 
 ly fruitful ; and the banks of ihefe ilreams are bordered 
 with flowers of various kinds, many of \\'hich are un- 
 known in Europe. The torrents in the rainy, fcafon 
 walh a great deal of gold from the mountains. This 
 feafon begins in May, when the fun is vertical, or di- 
 reftly over their heads, and ends in September. — The 
 country produces a great variety of animals, both tame 
 and wild.fuch as lions, tigers, rhinocerofcs, leopards, 
 elephants, monkeys, flags, deer ; horfes, camels, dro- 
 medaries, goats, cows, Iliecp ; likewife oltriches, with 
 a vaft variety of other birds. In the rivers are croco- 
 diles and the hippopotamuf . Travellers mention alfo 
 a peculiar kind of bees, fmall, black, and without a 
 iling, which hive in the earth, and mak'- honey and 
 wax that arc extremely white. The country is great- 
 ly infelled with loculls, which devour every thing 
 that is green wherever they come. 
 
 Theinhabitanisare Moors, Pagans, Jews, and Chri- 
 flians. The lafl was the reigning and eflablilhed reli- 
 gion wlien father Lobo vifited this country in 1624. 
 This divcrfity of people and religion is the rcafon tjiat 
 the kingdom, in JifFerent parts, is underdifferentforms 
 of government, and that their laws and cuftoms arc ex- 
 tremely various. Some of the people nrither fow their 
 lands norimprove them ; but live on milk and tlelh.and 
 encamp like the Arabs, without any fettled habita- 
 tion. In fome places they prac^ife no rites ofworlhip, 
 though they believe that there dwells in the rcj;ions a- 
 bove a Being who governs the world : Ihisdeity they 
 call'5.v/. Inthefc parts where Cluiftianily isprofed"ed,it 
 isfo corrupted with fupcrflitious errors, and fo mingled 
 vith certtnonics borrowed from the Jews, that little 
 befide the mine of Chrillianity is to be found among 
 them. (See the next article.) — They have two har- 
 vefts intheye.tr ; one in winter.which begins in May, 
 aaJ lafts, witli great rigour, through the mouths oi 
 
 July, Augufl, and September; and the other in fpring. AbylTmin. 
 
 Every man who has a thoufand cowsfavcsoncea-ycar ^ ' 
 
 a day's milk, and makes a bath for his friends ; fo that 
 to give an idea of a man's wealth, their common ex- 
 prcllion is, hi bathes fo many timei a-year. Their males 
 marry about ten years old, and their females younger. 
 Their marriage tie isfoloofe, that they part whenever 
 they tind that they cannot live agrcealjly together. 
 
 Belldes the lirge towns, there are a great number 
 of villages, which in for.ic places arc fo thick fowu, 
 that they look like one continued town : the houfes arc 
 very mean, being but one flory high, and built of 
 flraw, earth, and lime. In mofl of the towns the 
 houfes are feparated by hedges, which are always 
 green, and mixed with flowers and fruit-trees at a cer- 
 tain dillance from each other, whicliaflbrds an agree- 
 able profpei;t. Tlic government is monarchical. The ^ 
 fovcrcign has the title of Negus, and is an abfolutc 
 prince. When he is in camp, the tents arc fo regularly 
 difpofcd as to have the appearance of a city ; and there 
 is a captain over every divilion, to prevent diforders, 
 and to execute juflice. 
 
 The Abyliines in general are of an olive complexion, 
 tall, graceful, and well featured. Thofe who are nei- 
 ther mechanics nor tradefmcn (which few of tliem are) 
 nor tillers of the ground, are inured to bear arms,wliich 
 are a head-piece, a buckler, a coat of mail, bows and 
 arrows, darts, pikes capped with iron at both ends, a 
 fling, and a fvvord : they have very few fire-arms, anil 
 thofe were introduced by the Portuguefc. The habit 
 of perfonsofquality is a fine lilken vert, or fine cotton, 
 with a kind of fcarf. The citizens have the fame ha- 
 bit, only coarfer. The common people have nothing 
 but a pair of cotton drawers, and a fcarf which covers 
 the relt of their body. The women are of a healthy 
 conflitution, active, and moderately handfome, having 
 neither flat nofes nor thick lips like the negroes ; and 
 nature is fo friendly, that they Hand in little need of 
 midwivcs, which isindecd thecafe, of moft countriesin 
 the torrid zone. They appear in public as in Europe, 
 without being forbid the convcrfation of the men as 
 amongthe Mahometans. Princeffes of the royal blood 
 are not permitted to marry foreigners : and when they 
 take the air, they go in great flate, with 400 or 500 
 women attendants. Their language is the Ethiopic, 
 which bears a great affinity with the Arabic ; but par- 
 t'cular provinces have a different dialtft. 
 
 Manu failures are almoft wholly wanting in this coun. 
 try ; and the few trades which they have amongfl thein 
 are always conveyed from the father to the children. 
 They fecm indeed by their churches, and other ruinated 
 places, to have had a knowledge of archite<5ture. But 
 the workmen were fent for from other countries, and 
 were forced to do all thcmfelves ; fo that xvhen thefc 
 fabrics v.'cre reared, efpecially the imperial palace built 
 by Peter Pais,a Portuguefc architcfl:, the pcopleflock- 
 cd from all parts of Ethiopia to view it, and admired 
 it as a nev/ wonder of the world. — Gold, lilvcr, copper, 
 and iron, are the principal ores with which their mines 
 abound in this extenfive part of Africa: but not above 
 one third part is made ufe of by way of merchandize, 
 or converted into money, ofwhi'-h they have litt'eor 
 no ufe in Abylllnia. They cut their goM indeed into 
 fmall pieces for the pay of their troops, and for expen- 
 /es of the court, which is bat a modern cuiloni among 
 
 them ;
 
 A B Y 
 
 [ 33 ] 
 
 A B Y 
 
 AHyflinla. tlicm ; ihcking's gold, before the end of ihc 1 7ih ccii- 
 ' " ' tury, being Ijid up in his trcafiiry in ingois, with in- 
 tent to be never carried out, or never iifcd in any thing 
 but velFels and trinkets for the fervicc of the palace. 
 In the lieu of fmall money, they make ufc of rock fait 
 as white as fnow and as hard as Hone. This is taken 
 out of the mountain of Lafta, and put into the king's 
 warehoufes ; where it is reduced into tablets of a foot 
 long, and three inches broad, ten of which are worth 
 about a French crown. When they are circulated in 
 trade, they are reduced into ftill fniallcr pieces, as oc- 
 cafion requires. This fait is alfo applied to the fame 
 pnrpofe as common fca-falt. With this mineral fait 
 they purchafe pepper, fpices, and iilk fluff's, which arc 
 brought to them by the Indians, in their ports in the 
 Red Sea. Cardaraunis, ginger, aloes, myrrh, caflia, 
 civet, ebony-wood, ivory, wax, honey, cotton and li- 
 nens of various forts and colours, arc merchandizes 
 wliich may be had from AbylFinia ; to whicii may be 
 added fugar, hemp, flax, and excellent wines, if thcfe 
 people had the art of preparing them. It is affirmed 
 there arc in this country the fincll emeralds that are 
 any where to be found ; and, though they are found 
 but in one place, they arc there in great quantities, 
 and fomc fo large and fo perfeft as to be of almoft in- 
 I cflimablc value. The greatefl part of the nierchan- 
 
 difes abovemcntioncd, are more for foreign than in- 
 land irade. Their domellic commerce confifts chiefly 
 in fait, honey, buck-wheat, grey peafe, citrons, oran- 
 ges, lemons, and other provifions, with fruits and her- 
 bage neceflary for the fupport of life, Thofe places 
 that the Abyflian merchants frequent the mofl, who 
 dare venture to carry their commodities by fea them- 
 felves, are Arabia Felix, and the Indies, particular- 
 ly Goa, Cambaye, Bengal, and Sumatra. With regard 
 to their ports on the Red Sea, to which foreign mer- 
 chants commonly refort, the moft conlldcrable are 
 thofe of Mette, Azum, Zajalla, Maja, Dazo, Patea, 
 and Brava. The trade of the Abyflinians by land is 
 inconfiderable. There are, however, bands of them 
 who arrive yearly at Egypt, particularly at Cairo, la- 
 den with gold dull, which they bring to barter for the 
 merchandifes of that country, or of Europe, for which 
 they have occafion. Thefe catilas or caravans, if we 
 may be allowed thus to call a body of 40 or jo poor 
 ■wretches who unite together for their mutual allift- 
 ance in their journey, are commonly three or four 
 months on their route, travcrfing forefls and monn- 
 tainsalmoflimpaflabIe,in order to exchange their gold 
 for neceflaries for their families.and return immediately 
 with thegreateftpartofthemerchandifcontheirbacks. 
 Frequently the Jews or Egyptians give them large 
 credit ; which may feem/urprifing, as they are beyond 
 recourfe if they fliould fail of payment. But experience 
 has fliown, that they have never abufed the confldencc 
 rcpofed in them ; and even in the event of death, their 
 fellow-travellers take care of the cffcCls of the deceal- 
 ed for the bcnelit of their families, but in the lirll place 
 for the difcharge of thofe.debts contracted at Cairo. — 
 It remains only to be obfervcd, that one of the prin- 
 cipalbranchcs of trade of t!ie Abyllinesis thatof llaves; 
 who arc greatly cfleenieJ in the Indies and Arabia for 
 the bcft and moft faithful, of all that the other king- 
 doms of Africa furnilh. The Indian and Arabian mer- 
 chants frequently fublUtutc them as their fadors; and, 
 Vol. I. 
 
 on acconnt of their good fcrviccs and integrity,rot only AbyJIiuIa. 
 
 often give them their libcrty,but liberally reward tliem. "^ 
 
 Into this part of the globe the admiuoii of travel- 
 lers has been fuppofed extremely diflicult, and their 
 return from thence almoft impradicable. A Scotch 
 gentleman, howe\er, of family and fortune, James 
 Bruce, El'q; of Kinnaird, is known not only to have 
 entered that country, but to have re fidcd in it fcveral 
 years, ar.d returned fsfe home, bringing with him 
 many great curiofities. Soon after his return, the fol- 
 lowing notice was given by the Count dc Bufion in an 
 advertifement prefixed to the ;d volume of Iiis Hiflo- 
 ry of Birds : " A new aid which I have received, and 
 which I am anxious to announce to the public, is the 
 free and generous communication which 1 had of the 
 drawings and obfervations of James Bruce, El'q; cf 
 Kinnaird, who returning from Numidia, and the inte- 
 rior parts of AbyfFinia, llopt in my houfe.for fcveral 
 days, and made me a partaker of the knowledge which 
 he had acquired in a tour no lefs fatiguing than ha- 
 zardous. It filled me with the utmofc aHonifliment to 
 view the numerous draw ings which he had made and 
 coloured himfclf. He polTefl'es the mofl pcrfeft repre- 
 fentations and defcriptions of the birds, filhes, plants, 
 edifices, monuments, drefs, arms, &c. of different na- 
 tions, all of them objcfls worthy of knowledge. No- 
 thing has efcaped his curiofity, and his talents have 
 been proportioned to it. The Englilli government 
 will without doubt take proper meal^ures for the, pub- 
 lication of his work. That refpeftable nation, which 
 lias given a lead to all others in difcoveries of every 
 kind, will not fail to add to its glory, by fpeedily com- 
 municating to the world at large, thofe of this excel- 
 lent traveller, who, not contented with accurate de- 
 fcriptions of nature, has made many important obfer- 
 vations on the culture of different kinds of grains ; oa 
 the navigation of the Red Sea ; on the courfeofthe 
 Nile, from its mouth to its fource, which he has been 
 the firftto difcover ; and on different particulars which 
 may be of the highefl utility to commerce and agri- 
 culture, thofe great arts which arc but little known 
 and ill cultivated. Yet, on thefe alone, the fuperiori- 
 ty of one nation over another does depend, and for 
 ever will depend." 
 
 It is much to be regretted, that after fo long an in- 
 terval, this gentleman's difcoveries have not yet made 
 their appearance. The delay has given rife to various 
 fpcculations. Doubts have even been entertained con- 
 cerning the credibility of the reports that have tran- 
 fpircd, or been gathered from his convcrfation. His 
 honour and abilities, however, are too exteufively 
 known tobeatfctfedbyfuch injuriousiiifinuations.That 
 he hath great talents for the information of his read- 
 ers, appears by his differt.uion on the Theban harp*, • Sm tht 
 which Or Burncy hath infcrtcd in the firft volume of article 
 his Iliffory of Mulic, and in which are alfo mentioned Harpid 
 fcveral of the Abyliinian inftrumcnts. Mr Bruce more- ." * 
 over, is faid to have a great facility in learning Ian- 
 {Tuages, and talents for drawing ; nor perhaps was any 
 other traveller furnillicd with folarge and fcientihcan 
 apparatus of inftruments. Add to all this, that he is 
 poUclTed of afpirit and entcrprife not calily to be e- 
 quallcd. The fpeedy production, therefore, of foin- 
 tercfting an account as he is capable of giving, of this 
 almoft unfrequented part of Africa, cannot but ftill be 
 E earncftly
 
 A B Y 
 
 [ 3-1- ] 
 
 A B Y 
 
 Aliyfiliwa. earneftly wiihcd for. In the mean time, the following 
 
 * '■ authentic anecdotes n ill not, it is prcfunicd, he imac- 
 
 ccptable, nor apj ear foreign to the prel'ent article. 
 
 Mr Bruce was appointed confiil to Algiers, where 
 hccoiiiinucd till 1765. In Iiiiic 1764, he rcqueftcd 
 leave of at Icucc from the fccrctary of flatc for the 
 foiithern dcpartmcm, in order to make fomc drawings 
 of 2nlic|iii!its near Tunis. 
 
 In Mr Uriice's lart letter from Algiers to the fame 
 fecrctary (dated December 29. 1764), he alludes to 
 another leave of ablcnce, which he had likewifc re- 
 queftcd, that he might vilit parts of the African con- 
 tinent. He explains himlelf no farther in this letter ; 
 hut it is believed that he proceeded confiderably to the 
 fouthward of Algiers, and made thofe very capital 
 drawings of remains of Roman architcfture, which 
 many have fecn lincc his return to Britain. Before 
 he let out for Algiers, he informed fomeof his friends, 
 that the making fuch exciirfions for thefe intercfting 
 purpofes was his principal inducement for accepting 
 the confullhip. 
 
 How long he continued in Africa, the prcfent writer 
 has not had the opportunity of procuring information ; 
 but having intentions afterwards of viliting Palmyra, 
 he was fliipwrecked on the coaft of Tunis, and plun- 
 dered of every thing by the barbarous inhabitants. 
 
 The mofl: diftrelhng part of the lofs was probably 
 that of his inflruments, fo nccclfary toa fcientific tra- 
 veller ; and though he afterwards procured fomc of 
 thefe, yet others (particularly a quadrant) could not 
 be recovered. Mr Bruce, however, determining to 
 repair this lofs as foon as polFiblc from France, fo much 
 Jicarer to him than England, was fo fortunate as to be 
 provided with a time-piece and quadrant from that 
 quarter. Upon this occafion Lewis XV. preftntcd him 
 with an iron quadrant of four feet radius, as he had 
 probably reprefented to the academy of fciences his 
 want of fuch an inllrument w'hilll he (liould be in 
 Abyflinia : Mr Bruce brought back with him to Eng- 
 land this cumbrous fellow-traveller, and, having put 
 upon it an infcription to the following purport, is faid 
 to have prefented it to the univerfity of Glafgow : 
 " With this inflrumcnt given by the king of France, 
 Lewis XV. Mr Bruce proceeded to the fources of the 
 Nile, it being carried on foot, upon mens fhoulders, 
 over the mountains of Abyflinia." This information 
 was received from that eminent maker of inllruments 
 Air Nairne. 
 
 Where and %vhen Mr Bruce received the French 
 inflruments is not known ; but as he was flill bent on 
 viliting Abyflinia, he gave a comniiinon to Mr W. 
 RulTel, F. R. S. for a reflecting tclefcope, made by 
 Bird or Short ; a watch with a hand to point feconds, 
 and the newefl and completeft Englifli aflronomical 
 tables ; all of which were to be fent to Mr Fremaux, 
 and forwarded to him at Alexandria before Auguft. 
 On the 29th of March 1 768, Mr Bruce was at Sidon 
 on the coafl of Syria, and wrote to MrRuflel from 
 thence for the following additional inflruments, viz. a 
 twelve-fecl reflecting telefcope, tobe divided into pie- 
 ces of three feet, and joined with fcrews. This tele- 
 fcope was alfo accompanied by two thermometers and 
 two portable barometers. Mr Bruce moreover infor- 
 ed Mr Ruffel, that he was going into a country (viz.A- 
 byfEnia) from which few travellers had returned ; and 
 
 wifhed Mr RnfTel, or his philofophical friends, would Abyflinis- 
 
 lend him their dclidcrata, as he was entirely at their ' >- ' 
 
 fVrvicc. Mr Bruccaddtd, that if he could not obtain 
 adniiliion into Abyllinia, he ftill would do his bell in 
 the caufe of fcieiice on the eallern coafl of the Red 
 Sea. 
 
 As Mr Bruce had direftcd the inflruments to be 
 ready for him at Alexandria by the beginning of Au- 
 guft t 768, it is probable that he reached Cairo about 
 that time ; from wlience he proceeded to Abyllinia, 
 by way of Jedda, Mazava, and Arquico. 
 
 It is fuppoltd that Mr Bruce did not continue long 
 at Jedda, as he is faid to have explored the coafl on 
 the eaft fide as low as Mocha, during which drawings 
 were taken of many curious filh in the Red Sea. Tvlr 
 Bruce mufl alfo have entered Abyllinia, either at the 
 latter end of 1768, or the very beginning of 1769, 
 as he made an obfcrvation in that part of Africa on 
 the 15th of January of that year. 
 
 In this perilous enterprife he was accompanied by a 
 Greek fervaut (named Micharl), and an Italian paint- 
 er, who probably allifled in the numerous articles which 
 might deferve reprefentation, and wlio died of a Hux 
 before MrBruce's return to Cairo in 1 773. Mr Bruce 
 mull at times alfo have been airided by many others, 
 as his inflruments, apparatus for drawings, and other 
 neccn'arics, t>om their weight and bulk could not be 
 ealily tranfported from place toplnce, and perhaps re- 
 quired bealls of burden. To thefe likew ife nuill be 
 added feveralmedicines which enabled him topcrform 
 cures on the inhabitants, and probably occalioned the 
 good reception he afterwards met with. 
 
 Such otlier particulars as happened to Mr Bruce, 
 duringhislong refulcncc in this unfrequented country, 
 nuill be left to his own fuperior narrative ; and it fliall 
 fuflice, therefore, only to ftate, that he made a large 
 number of obfcr\ations to lix the (Ituatiuns of places, 
 out of which 31 have been examined and computed 
 by the aflronomer royal. The firfl of thefe obferva- 
 tioiis was madeon the loth of January 1769, and the 
 lafl on the 5th of OiSlober i772i from 30 to 38 de- 
 grees of eafl longiiude from Greenwich, and from 12 
 to 28 degrees of north latitude. It need fcarcely be 
 faid tlicrefore, that thefe obfervations, which include 
 fo large an extent of almofl unknown country, mufl 
 prove a moll valuable addition to geography ; and the 
 more fo, becaufe the Portugucfe, who firft vifited A- 
 byfhnia, give neither longitude nor latitude of any 
 place in that empire ; and Poncet only two latitudes, 
 viz. thofe of Stnnar and Giefum. 
 
 As Mr Bruce made the lafl of his obfervations on 
 the 5th of October 1772, it is probable that he might 
 then be on his return to Cairo, through Nubia and 
 Upper Egypt, where he arrived on the 15th of Janu- 
 ary 1773, after an abfence of more than four years ; 
 bringing back with him his Greek fervant, named 
 Michael. 
 
 Mr Bruce continued at Cairo four months, diiring 
 which time he had daily intercourfe with Mr Antes ; 
 the fubflance of a letter from whom will contain the 
 principal confutation of Baron Tott, and others, who 
 have been incredulous with regard to Mr Bruce's ex- 
 pelled narrative. 
 
 Mr Antes was born of German parents, who were 
 poireffed of lands in the back fettlcmcnts of Pcnufylva- 
 
 uia;
 
 A B Y 
 
 [ 
 
 Abyninia. nia ; and having fhowcd tai Jy abiliiies as a mcclianic, 
 
 ■ y, removed to Europe, where he dillinguilhed himlelf in 
 
 the art of watch-making, which he learned w ithoiit ap- 
 prenticclhip. Being a membcrtf the church known by 
 the mmcot U/iitas t'ratru/ii, and commonly called Mo- 
 ravian, he wiflicd to be employed in their millions, and 
 more efpecially that of the fame perfualion elbiblilhed 
 at Cairo, who always have defircd to procure oppor- 
 tunities of inflriicling the Abyllu'ians. 
 
 Mr Bruce had left Cairo tificen months before Mr 
 Antes came there ; and the intcrcourfe, therefore, be- 
 tw-eeii them firll took place on Mr Brucc's return in 
 1773. 
 
 Having given this account of Mr Bruce and Mr 
 Antcs's being Hrrt known to each other, wc Ihall llatc 
 the fubflance of fome information received from the 
 latter, who is now ellabliHied at Kulncck near Leeds, 
 after having rcfiJed eleven years at Cairo. 
 
 " That Mr Bruce left Cairo in i 768, and proceeded 
 thence by way of Jcdda, M.zkva, and Arcjuico, into 
 Abyllinia. 
 
 " That in 1771, a Greek came from Gondar (the 
 capital) in Abylfiuii, who had a draught from Mr 
 Bruce on a French Merchant at Cairo (named Kofe) 
 foi- fome hundred: of German crowns, which were paid 
 immediately. This draught was accompanied by a let- 
 ter from Mr Bruce, and was the tiril time that he had 
 been heard of at Cairo fince his departure in 1768. 
 
 " That after Mr Brucc's return to Cairo in 1775, 
 Mr Antes faw a young Armenian and his father (who 
 came likewife from Gondar) at Mr Pint's, an Italian 
 merchant of Cairo, where they and Mr Bruce con- 
 verfed in the Abyflinian language, and fectned glad to 
 meet him again. 
 
 " That Mr Bruce returned to Cairo from Abyflinia 
 by way of Nubia and Upper Egypt ; which can be 
 fully attcllcd by the Krancifcan friars who are eftab- 
 liflicd at Ifne near Afyuwan, which latter is the high- 
 eft town of Upper Egypt. 
 
 " That during Mr Bruce's ftay at Cairo, which was 
 not lefs than four months, no day palfed without their 
 feeing each other ; which gave Mr Antes frequent op- 
 portunities of inquiring with regard to Abyflinia, con- 
 cerning which he was particularly intercfled from a 
 reafon before ftated. 
 
 " Than Mr Antes likewife frequently converfed 
 with Michael, Mr Bruce'sGreek fervant ; who is ftated 
 to have by no means had a lively imagination, and who 
 
 35 ] A B Y 
 
 always agreed with the circumftances ir.entioned by Ab.ripii. 
 
 his niaftcr, and more particularly in relation to their • ' 
 
 having viiittd the fourccs of the Nile ; which the Ba- 
 ron 'i. ott doubts of, fruiu having had a converfatioa 
 with this fame Greek fervant. 
 
 Mr Antes adds, " That Baron Tott ftaid but a few 
 days at Cairo; and, from his fliort relidencc in that 
 country, hath givenfcvcral erroneousaccounts relative 
 to Egypt. Mr Antes, on the other hand, had almoft 
 daily convcrfations w ith Michael for feveral years, and 
 often in relation to tlie fourcesof the Nile." 
 
 Lallly, " That after Mr Bruce left Cairo, Mr An- 
 tes had converfed with others who had known Mr 
 Bruce in Abylhnia, and that he was there called Maa- 
 lim Jakiib;, or Mr James. 
 
 Alter this ftaie oi facts, it is conceived that no one 
 can entertain a reafonable doubt with regard to Mr 
 Bruce's not only having vidtcd, but relided long- in 
 Abyllinia ; though it is remarkable that the Jcfuits ex- 
 prelii/d the fame doubts in relation to Ponccf, \\ ho had 
 continued there nearly as long as Mr Bruce. Poncct 
 happened to be a layman ; and the Jcfuits, perhaps, 
 would not approve of any narrative that did not come 
 from father Benevent, who accompanied Poncct to 
 Abylfinia, but unfortunately died there (a). 
 
 Driven, however, ("rom this hold, the objectors will 
 poliibly retain their incredulity as to many particulars 
 to be related. 
 
 The firft of thcfc is, the having vifited the fources 
 of the Nile ; "which, from claflical education, we can- 
 not ealily believe, as they were unknown to the an- 
 cients, though they had fo great curiolity with regard 
 to this difcovery." 
 
 Many things, however, have been accompliilicd by 
 travellers in modern times, which the ancients ne- 
 ver could atchieve, and which may be attributed to 
 their want of cnterprife (as travellers at leaft), of lan- 
 guages, and laftly the not being able to procure cre- 
 dit when in a diftant country. Mr Bruce could not 
 have continued fo long as he did in Abyflinia, unlefs 
 he had drawn from Gondar upon a merchant eftablifli- 
 ed at Cairo. 
 
 The dilficulty, however, with regard to reaching 
 the fourcesof the Nile, arifcs principally from the un- 
 civilized ftate of Abyllinia, unlefs the traveller hath a 
 proper introdnclion [h). When once this is procured, 
 all difliculties fecm to ceafe, as we find by Lobo's (f) 
 account of this fame difcovery, and likewife by Pon- 
 E 2 cet's 
 
 (a) It muft be admitted, however, that wc owe to the zeal of tlie Jefuits the bcft accounts we have both 
 of China and Paraguay. Few laymen have been actuated fo ftrongly for the promotion of geography and fcicnce 
 as Mr Bruce; and we muft therefore (upon the order of the Jcfuits being abolilhed) look up chiefly to the mif- 
 lionaries from the church of the Umtas Fratrum, who, though ililiering fo totally in other rcfpecis, fecm to 
 have an equal ardour with the Jefuits for inftrucling the inhabitantsof countries unfrequented by Europeans. 
 Such milfions are already eftabliihed in W eft Greenland, the coaft of Labrador, N. Lat. 56. the back fettlemcnt? 
 of Carolina and Penfylvania, in India. Bengal, and the Nicobar illands. Thole eftabliihed on the coaft of La- 
 brador fend over yearly mcieoroh.gical journals, which arc communicated to the Royal Society. As for the 
 difpute between Poncec and MailUt the French tonful at Cairo, See Mod. Univ. Hift. vol. ^. 
 
 {b) The profeflini!; the kno\\ ledge of medicine was Ponect's introduction, and fccms to have been that of 
 Mr Bruce. Even in our own civilized country, how arc quacks and momitebanks reforted to ? And what 
 an imprelfion muft Mr Bruce, with his magniiiccnt and fcientilic apparatus, have made uj'on the i.ihabitant* 
 ot fuch a country as Abyllinia ! 
 
 (c) In father Telles's c nipilation. Sec alfo LudolfF.who defcribes the fources from Grcgory,who was a native 
 of Abyllinia. Father Pacz was the lirft who vifited them, A. D. 1622. His account of this is faid to be in the 
 
 archives
 
 A 13 Y 
 
 [ 36 ] 
 
 A 13 Y 
 
 A'i}i3n":a. cei's narrative, whu wHsjircvciucd by illntfsfrom vi- 
 
 ' iiiing tlic very I'liut, but htith given an ample relation 
 
 from an Abyflinian wlio had olten been there. Pon- 
 eet, moreover, had obtained leave from the emperor 
 to make this journey, which he llates as not being a 
 dillaut one, and that the emperor hath a palace near 
 the very fourccs. 
 
 If it be doubted whether Mr Bruce hath vilitcd e- 
 very fourcc of the Nile, it may be anfwercd, that per- 
 haps no Ingliflimm hath taken this trouble with rc- 
 •i;ard to the fourccs of the Thames, which, like inofb 
 other great rivers, is probably derived from many 
 fprings and rills in different dire(5lions. 
 
 The other objection which we have often heard, is, 
 " That Mr Bruce hath mentioned in eonverfation, 
 that the Abylliiiians cut a llicc from the living ox, 
 eActming it one of their grcatcll delicacies." 
 
 This fort of dainty, indeed, is not fo conlidcrcd in 
 other parts of the globe ; but every nation alniort hath 
 its peculiarities in the choice of their food. Do not 
 we cat raw oyllcrs within a fccoud of their being fepa- 
 rated from the ihell ? And do not we roaft both them 
 andlobllers whiUl alive ; thebarbarity of which prac- 
 tice feems to equal that of the Abyllinians r Do not 
 cooks Ikin eels whilft alive ? And do not epicures crimp 
 lilh for the gratificativm of their appetites. 
 
 That the Abyllinians eat beef in a raw ftatc, is a- 
 greed both by Loboand Poncet ; and the former fays, 
 re^-kiiig from the beafl. Mr Antes, moreover, was 
 told by a Francifcan monk, who went with the cara- 
 van from Abyllinia to Cairo ((/), that he was witnefs of 
 an ox being killed, and immediately devoured by the 
 band of travellers. 
 
 One reafon, perhaps, for this ufagc may be, the 
 great heat of the climate, which will not permit meat 
 to bekcpt afullicient time !o make it tender (as with 
 us) : and it is generally allowed, that u fowl, drelfed 
 immediately after it is killed, is in better order for eat- 
 ing than if it is kept four and twenty hours. 
 
 Is it therefore extraordinary, that an Abyffinian 
 epicure may really Hnd (or perhaps fancy) that apiece 
 cut from the bcall whilrt alive, may be more tender, 
 or have a better relilh, than if it is prcvioully killed by 
 the butcher ? To this maybe added, that according to 
 the information which has been received on this head, 
 Mr Brucc's account of this pradice is much mifrepre- 
 fentcd by the objeftors, who ftippofe that the ox lives 
 a conliderablc time after thcfe pieces are cut from it. 
 When thefc dainty bits, however, have been fentio the 
 great man's table (and which arc probably taken from 
 the flefliy parts), the beall foon afterwards expires, 
 when the firfb artery is cut, in providing dices for the 
 numerous attendants. 
 
 Upon the whole, the not giving credit to a traveller, 
 bccaufe he mentions an ufage which is very different 
 from ours (and is undoubtedly very barbarous), feems 
 rather to argue ignorance than acutcnefs. 
 
 This brings to recollection the incredulity which 
 
 was (hown to another diftinguiflicd travel ler,Dr Shaw J Ahyflinia, 
 who hiving mentioned, in an Oxford common room, Abvirmisii. 
 that foine of the Algcrines were fond of lion's flcfli, ne- ' " ' 
 vcr could obtain any credit afterwards from his bro- 
 ther-fcllowsof the fame college, though many of them 
 were learned men. It is well known, however, tho' 
 Dr Shaw llates this fame circuniftancc in the publica- 
 tion of his travels, that he is ciicj with the grcatell 
 approbation in almoft every part of Kuropc. Sir 
 William Temple fonrcwhere mentions, that a Dutch 
 governor of Batavia, who lived much with one of the 
 mofl confiderable inhabitants of Java, could never ob- 
 tain any credit from him after having mentioned, that 
 in Holland water became a folid body. The traveller 
 who tirll faw a llying filh probably told every one of 
 this extraordinary circumftance as foon as he fet his 
 foot on ihore, and was jirobably diferedittd with re- 
 gard to tlie other particulars of his voyage. 
 
 The natural caiifc and progrefs of the incredulity 
 which a traveller generally experiences, feems to be 
 the following : 
 
 When he returns from a diftant and little frequented 
 country, every one is impatient to hear his narrative ; 
 from which, of courfc, he felcds the more llriking 
 parts, and particularly the ufuges which ditfer moll 
 from our own. Some of the audience, dilbelieving 
 what tlic traveller hath mentioned, put quelUons to 
 him which fliow their dillrufl. The traveller by this 
 treatmentbecomes irritated, andanfwers fome of them 
 peevilhly,othersironically, of which the interrogators 
 afterwards take advantage to his prejudice. Nothing 
 is more irritating to an ingenuous perfon than to find 
 his alfertions are dilbelieved. This is commonly ex- 
 perienced in the crofs examinations of almoft every 
 witnefs. To the diftrclfes of the traveller on his re- 
 turn, we may add, the being often tcafed by \ery ig- 
 norant queflions. 
 
 ABYSSINIAN, in ecclefiaftical hiftory; is ufcd 
 as the name of a feft, or liercfy, in the Chriftian 
 church, eftablillicd in the empire of Abyffinia. The 
 Abyllinians aie a branch of the Copis or Jacobites ; 
 with whom they agree in admitting but one nature in 
 Jefus Chrill, and rejedling the council of Chalcedon : 
 whence they arc alfo called Kutychians, and ftand 
 oppofed to the Melchitcs. They are only diftin- 
 guiflicd from the Copts, and other (eels of T.icobites, 
 by fome peculiar national ufages. — The Abyilinian feft 
 or church is governed by a bilhop or metropolitan 
 ftylcd Abuna, lent them by the Coptic patriarch of 
 Alexandria rclidiiig at Cairo, who is the only perfon 
 that ordains pricfts. The next dignity \i that of Ko- 
 mos, or Hcgumenas, who is a kind of arch-prcft)ytcr. 
 They have canons alfo, and monks: the former of 
 whom marry ; the latter, at their admiflion, vow celi- 
 bacy, but with a refcrvation : thefe, it is faid, make a 
 promife aloud, before their fuperior, to keep chaftity ; 
 but add, in a low voice, asymt keep it. The emperor 
 has a kind of fuprcmacy in ecclefiaftical matters. He 
 
 alone 
 
 archives of the college de propaganda fide at Rome. It is believed that there are many other curious particu- 
 lars for the illuftration of geography to be found in the fame depofitory. Dr Sfliaw mentions, moreover, fome 
 papers of Lippi (who accompanied the French cmbalfy into Abyllinia, A. D. 1704)7 which are to be found 
 in the botanical library at Oxford. 
 
 ((/) This points out another clTanncl by which a traveller of entcrprifc may vifit Abyffinia.
 
 ABA [ 37 ] 
 
 Abyflinian alone takcscognifanccof all ccclefiaflicakaufcs.cxcepc 
 n fonie fmaller ones rcfcrved to the judges ; and confers 
 Acjcalocl. all benefices, except thatofAbuua — The Abylfinians 
 '^ " ' have at different times exprelfed an inclination to be 
 reconciled to the fee o( Rome ; but rather out of 
 intcrcft of flaic than any other motive. The emperor 
 David, or the queen regent on his behalf, wrote a 
 letter on this head to pope Clement VII. fall of fub- 
 milTion, and demanding a patriarch from llomc to 
 be inftruiicd by : which being complied svilli, he 
 publicly adjured the doctrine oi Eutychius ami Diof- 
 corus in 1626, and allowed the fupremacy of the pope. 
 Under the emperor Sultan Seghed all was andone again; 
 the Rom ill] milTionaries fettled there had their churches 
 taken from tliem, and their new converts banilhed or 
 put to death. The congregation diprofaganda have 
 made feveral attempts to revive the mifllon, but to lit- 
 tle purpofe.— The doftrines and ritual of this fcflary 
 from a llrangc compound of Judaifm, Chriltianity,aud 
 fuperllition. They practifccircumcilion ; and arc faid 
 loextend the practice to the fenialesas wcllasmalcs: 
 They obferve both Saturday and Sunday fabbaths : 
 they cat no meats prohibited by the law of Moles : 
 women are obliged to the legal puritications : and bro- 
 thers marry their brothers wives, trc. On the other 
 Land, they celebrate the epiphany with peculiar fefli- 
 vity, in memory of Chrifl's baptifn: ; when they plunge 
 and fport in ponds and rivers ; which has occafioned 
 fome to affirm that they were baptized anew every 
 year. Among the faints-days is one coiifecraied to Pi- 
 late and his wife ; by reafon Pilate walhed his hands 
 before he pronounced fentence on Chrift, and his wife 
 defired him to have nothing to do with the blood of 
 that juft perfon. They have four lents: the great one 
 comraeiices ten days earlier than ours, and isobfcrvcd 
 with much fcverity,many abflaining therein even from 
 fifh, becaufe St Paul fays there is one kind of fie(hof 
 men, and another of filhes. They allow of divorce, 
 which is eafily granted among them, and by the civil 
 judge ; nor do their civil laws prohibit polygamy it- 
 felf. They have at leallas many miracles and legends 
 of faints as the Romilh church ; which proved no fmall 
 cmbarralfmcnt to the Jefuitmiflionaries, towhomtiiey 
 produced fo many miracles, wrought by their faints 
 in proof of their religion, and thofe fo well circuni- 
 ftantiatedand atteflcd, that the Jefuits were obliged to 
 deny miracles to be any proof of a true religion ; and 
 in proof hereof to allege the fame arguments againft 
 ^ the Abylfinians, which Proteftants in Europe allege a- 
 ^ gainft Papills. Tlicy pray for the dead, and invoke 
 faints and angels ; have fo great a veneration for the 
 virgin, that they charged the Jefuits with not render- 
 ing her honour enough. Images in painting they ve- 
 nerate ; but abhor ail thofe in relievo, except tiic crofs. 
 They hold that the foul of man is not created ; be- 
 caufe, fay they, God finilhcdallhis work on the fixth 
 day. They admit the apocryplial books, and the 
 canons of the apoflles, as well as the apollolical con- 
 ftitutions, for genuine. Their liturgy is given by Al- 
 varez, and in Englilhby Pagit. 
 
 ^Ch, ACE, or ACON, a town of Phcenicia, on the 
 Mediterranean; afterwards called f/o/.'Wd/i, now .■icre. 
 ACACALOTL, the Brafilian name of a bird called 
 by fomc corvtis aquatictis, or the water-raven : proper- 
 ly, the pclicanuscarbo, or corvoraut. Sec Pelican us. 
 
 A C A 
 
 ACACIA, Ecypiia.vThor.v, orBiKDiHG BEA\- 
 iREE, in bjtany, a fpecics of Mimofa, according to 
 Linnaeus ; tho' other botanills makeitadillinw^ genus. 
 Sec Mimosa. 
 
 The {lowers of a fpecics of the acacia are ufcd by 
 the Chincfe in making that yellow, which wc fee 
 bears walhing in their lilks and ftufFs, and appears 
 with fo much elegance in ilieir painting on paper. The 
 method is this : 
 
 They gather the flowers before they are fully open ; 
 thcfe they put into a clean earthen veiltl over a gentle 
 heat, and ilir them continually about, as they do the 
 tea-leaves, till they become dryifh and of a yellow co- 
 lour ; then to half a pound of the tlowcrs they add 
 three fpoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little 
 more, till there is jull enough to hold the flowers in- 
 corporated together : they boil this forfonie time, and 
 the juice of the dowers mixing with the water, it be- 
 comes thick and yellow ; they then take it from the 
 fire, and flrain it through a piece of coarfc lilk. To 
 the liquor they add half an ounce of common alum, 
 and an ounce of calcined oyrter-lhells reduced to a fine 
 powder. All is then well mixed together ; and this is 
 the fine lafling yellow they have fo long ul'cd. 
 
 The dyers of large pieces ufe the flowers and feeds 
 of the acacia for dying three different forts of yellow. 
 They roait the flowers, as before obfcrvcd ; and then 
 mix the feeds with them, which muft be gathered 
 for this purpofe when full ripe : by different admixture 
 of thefe, they give the different Ihades of colour, on- 
 ly for tlic deepeit of all they give a fmall mixture of 
 Brazil wood. 
 
 Mr Geoffroy attributes the origin of bezoar to the 
 feeds of this plant; which being broufcd by certain 
 animals, and vcUicaiing the flomach by their great 
 fournefs and aflringcncy, caufe a condenfation of the 
 juices, till at length they become coated over with a 
 ilony matter, which we call bezoar. 
 
 Faife j^CAcih. See RoBiNiA. 
 
 Threc-theriiid ^c^ciA, ox Honcy-locufl. See Gle- 
 
 DISTI A. 
 
 Acacia, in the Materia Medica, the iufpiifatcd juice 
 of the unripe fruit of the Mimosa NiUtica. 
 
 This juice is brought from Egypt, in roundiih 
 malhcs, wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of 
 a deep brown colour, inc!i:;ing to black ; inwardly of 
 arcddilh orycllowilh brown ; of arirm confidence, but 
 not very dry. It foon foftens in the juouth, and dif- 
 covcrs a rougii, not difagrecable talle, which is fol- 
 lowed by a fweetilh rclilh. This infpilfated juice en- 
 tirely diifolves in watery liquors ; but is fcarcc fcnlibly 
 aded on by redilied fpirit. 
 
 Acacia is a mild aflringent medicine. The Egyp- 
 tians give it in fpitting of blood, in the quantity of a 
 dram, diilblvcd in any convenient liquor ; and repeat 
 this dofc occalionally : iheylikcwilc employ it in col- 
 ly ria for ftrcnglhening the eyes, andingargarifms for 
 quinlcys. Among us, it is little othcrsvile ufed than 
 asan ingredient in niithridatcand theriaca, and is rare- 
 ly met w-ith in the Ihops. What is ufnally fold for the 
 Egyptian acacia, is tlic infpiifated juice of unripe lloes : 
 this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and fome- 
 vhat fliarpcr talic, than the true fort. Sec the next 
 article. 
 
 Ctriiian jicACiA, the juice of unripe llces infpifTated 
 
 nearly 
 
 Acacii. 
 
 • 39L115
 
 A C A 
 
 38 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 Ac.i:ii nearly todryi'.cfs over a gentle fire, care being taken 
 
 1 to prevent its burniiig. It is modcrattly aftringcnt, 
 
 AraOimici. ('miilar to the Egyptian acacia, lor whith it has been 
 
 " commonly fubUitiitcJ in the lliops. It is given in 
 
 lluxcs, and other dil'ordcrs where Ityptic medicines are 
 
 indicated, from a Icriiple to a dram. 
 
 AcAci A,amongantiquaries,fomcthingrefcmblinga 
 roll or bag, feen on medals, as in the hands of fcveral 
 confi'ds and emperors. Some take it to rcprcfent a 
 handkerchief rolled up, wherewith they made lignals 
 at the games ; others, a roll of petitions ornicmorials ; 
 and fonie, a purple bag full of earth, to remind them 
 of their mortality. 
 
 ACACIANS, ill ecclefiaftical hiftory, thcnamcof 
 fcveral feds of heretics ; fomc uf which maintained, 
 that the Son w'as only a limilar, not thcfame, fubllancc 
 with the Father ; and others, that he was not only a 
 diftinci, but a diilimilar, fubftancc. Two of ihcfe feds 
 had their denomination from Acacias bilhopof Casfa- 
 rea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his 
 opinions, fo as, at dirtcrent times, to be head of both. 
 Another was named from Acacius patriarch of Con- 
 llantinople, who lived in the clofc of the fifth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 ACACIUS, firnamed Luscus, becaufe he was blind 
 of one eye, was bilhopof Csefarca in Palcftine, and fuc- 
 cceded the famous Eufebius : he had a great fliarc in 
 thebaniflimenr of Pope Liberius,and bringing Felix to 
 the fee of Rome. He gave name to a fcft, and died 
 about the year 365. He wrote the life of Eufebius, 
 and fcveral other works. 
 
 Acacius (St. ), bilhopof Amida, in INIefopotamia, in 
 420, was diflinguilhcd by his piety and charity. He 
 fold the plate belonging to his church, to redeem fe- 
 ven thoufand Pcrfian llaves who were ready to die with 
 want and mifery ; and giving each of them fome mo- 
 ney, fent them home. Veranius, iheirking, was foaf- 
 fe(5ted with this noble inftance of benevolence, that he 
 defired to fee the bilhop ; and this interview procured 
 a peace between that prince and Theodolius I. 
 
 There have been fcveral othcremincnt perfonsofthc 
 fame name ; particularly, A martyr under the emperor 
 Decius : A patriarch of Antioch, who fuccecdcd Bafil 
 in 458, and died in 459 : A bifhop of Miletum in the 
 fifthcentury : A famousrhetorician in thereignof the 
 emperor Julian : and, A patriarch of Conftantinople in 
 the fifth century ; who wasambitious to drawthe whole 
 power and authority of Rome by degrees to Conftan- 
 tinsplc, for which he was delivered over irretrieva- 
 bly to the devil by Pope FclixIM. 
 
 ACAD,or AcH AD, (anc. geog.) the town in which 
 Nimrod reigned, called y4rchadhyx.\\c feventy ; fitua- 
 ted in Babylonia, to the eaftw'.rd of the Tigris. 
 
 ACADEMICI.AN, or Academist, a member of 
 an academy. Sec Academy in a modern fenfc. 
 
 ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination 
 given to the cultivators of a fpecies of philofophy ori- 
 ginally derived from Socrates, and afterwards illu- 
 flraied and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove 
 near Athens,eonfccraied to the memory of Academus, 
 an Athenian hero ; from which circumftance this phi- 
 lofophy received the name o( acndoiucjl. Before the 
 days of Plato, philofophy had in a great meafure 
 fallen into contempt. Tlte coniradidlory fyftems and 
 hypoihcfcs which had fucceffively been urged upon the 
 
 world were become fo numerous, that, from .1 view Aca.1fniic« 
 
 ofthisiiiconllancyand uncertainty of human opinions, ( 
 
 many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the Acail einy.^ 
 
 reach of our comprehenfion. Abfolute and univcrfil ' " ' 
 
 fcepticitm was the natural confequencc of this conclu- 
 
 iion. In order to remedy this abufc of philofophy 
 
 and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the 
 
 principles of the academical philofophy ; and, in his 
 
 Phaedo, reafons in the following manner. " If we arc 
 
 " unable to difcover truth, (fays he), it mull be owing 
 
 '< to two circumflances : cither there is no truth in 
 
 <' ihe nature of things j or the mind, from a defect 
 
 "in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon 
 
 " the latter fuppolition, all the uncertainty and tiuc- 
 
 " tuation in the opinions and judgments of mankind 
 
 " admit of an eafy folution: Let us therefore be mo- 
 
 " dell, and afcribc our errors to the real weaknefs 
 
 "of our own minds, and not to the nature of things 
 
 " themfelves. Truth is often difficult of accefs; in 
 
 " order to come at it, vre mull proceed with caution 
 
 " and diffidence, carefully examining every ftep j and 
 
 "after all our labour,we will frequently find our grcat- 
 
 " ell efforts difappointcd, and be obliged to confefs our 
 
 " ignorance and weaknefs." 
 
 Labour and caution in their refearchcs, in oppofi- 
 lion to rafn and hally decifions, were the dillinguilhing 
 charaCleriflics of the difciples of the ancient academy. 
 A philofophcr, polieiled of thefe principles, will be 
 How in his progrcfs ; but will feldom fall into errors, 
 or have occafion to alter his opinion after it is once 
 formed. Vanity and precipitance arc the great fources 
 of fcepticifm. Hurricdon by thcfeindcad of attending 
 to the cool and deliberate principles recommended by 
 the academy, fcveral m.odern philofophers have 
 plunged themfelves into an abfurd and ridiculous kind 
 of fcepticifm. They pretend to defcredit fubjeifls that 
 are plain, (imple, and eafily comprehended ; but give 
 peremptory and decifive judgments upon things that 
 evidently exceed the limits of our capacity. Of thefe, 
 Berkley and Hume are the mod confidcrable. Berkley 
 denied rhe exiflence of every thing, excepting his own 
 ideas. Mr Hume has gone a Hep further, and qucftioncd 
 even the exiflence of ideas ; but at the fame time has 
 not helitatcdto give determined opinions w'ith regard 
 to eternity, providence, and a future ftate, miraculous 
 intcrpolitions of the Deity, &c. fubjeds far above the . 
 reach of our faculties. In his eflay on the academical 
 or fceptical philofophy he has confounded two very 
 oppofite fpecies of philofophy. After the days of Plato, 
 indeed, the principles of thetirfl academy were grofsly 
 corrupted by Arcefilaus, Carneadcs, &c. This might 
 lead Mr Hume into the notion that the academica/and 
 faptkal philofophy were fynonymous terms. But no 
 principles can be of a more oppofite nature than thofe 
 which were inculcated by the old academy of Socrates 
 and Plato, and the fceptical notions which were pro- 
 pagated by Arcelilaus, Carneades, and the other difci- 
 ples of the ficcceding academics. 
 
 ACADEMY, in antiquity, agardcn, villa, or grove, 
 fituated within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his 
 followers held their philofophial conferences. It took 
 its name from one Academus, or Ecademus, who was 
 the originalowncrof it, and made it a kiadof gymna- 
 fium : he lived in the time of Thcfeus ; and, after his 
 death, it retained his name, and was coufecrated to 
 
 his
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 39 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 his memory. Cimon cmbcllilhcd it with fountains, 
 trees, and walks ; but Sylk, during thclicgc of Athens, 
 employed thclc very trees in makinji; battering engines 
 again!! the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place of 
 retirement, near Puziuoli, which he alio named an 
 acadimy, where he compofcd his Ai-iidimkaiqueflhns, 
 and his book Di uMitradibnim. 
 
 Academy, among the moderns, is mod commonly 
 ufcd to fignify a society of learned men eftablilhcd 
 for the iinprovcment of any art or fcieuce, and gene- 
 rally uhdtr the protcdlion of a prince. 
 
 The tirft; Academy wc read of, was eftablilhed by 
 Charlemagne, at the infligation of Alcuin. It was 
 compol'ed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor 
 himfclf being a member. In their academical con- 
 ferences, every perfon was to give an account of what 
 ancient authors he had read ; and each even alTumed 
 the name of fomc ancient author who plcafed him molt, 
 or fome celebrated perfon of antiquity. Alcuin, from 
 whofc letters we learn thefe particulars, took that of 
 Flaccus, the fitnamc of Horace ; a young lord, named 
 Augilbert, took that of Homer : Adelard, bifliop of 
 Corbie, was called Augullin : Riculfc, bilhop of Mentz, 
 was Dametas ; and the king himfclf, David. This 
 ihows the miftake of fome modern writers, who re- 
 late, that it was in conformity with the genius of the 
 learned men of thofe times, who were great admirers 
 of Roman names, that Alcuin took the name of Flac- 
 cus Albinus. 
 
 Mofl nations have now their academies ; but Italy 
 
 has the greatell number The French have many 
 
 flourilhing academies, mofl of which were cftabliflicd 
 
 by Lewis XIV There are but few in Britain ; and 
 
 ihofc of chiefell note go by a different name. See tiic 
 article Socie r v. 
 
 In giving an account of the principal Academies, it 
 feems mofl proper to arrange them according to their 
 fubjecls. 
 
 I. Medical Aeadsmies, as that of the Naturae Cu- 
 rioli in Germany ; that founded at Palermo in 164J : 
 another at Venice in i 701, which meets weekly in a 
 hall near the grand hofpital ; another at Geneva in 
 1715, in the houfe of M. Le Clerc. The colleges of 
 phyficiansat London and Edinburgh are alfo, by feme, 
 ranked in the number of Academics. 
 
 The Academy o( Naturx Curioji, called alfo the 
 Lcopoldine Academy, was founded in i6j2, by Jo. 
 Laur. Baufchius, a phyfician ; who, in imitation of the 
 Englilh, publidied an invitation to all phyficians to 
 communicate their extraordinary cafes ; and, meeting 
 with fucccfs, waseledcd prefident. Their works were 
 at firft publiflied feparately ; butin i67oanew fcheme 
 was laid for publiihing a volume of obfcrvations every 
 year. Tlie firll volume appeared in 1684, under the 
 title of Ephemerides, and the work has been continued 
 with fome interruptions and variations of the title, crc. 
 In 16S7, the emperor Leopold took the fociety under 
 his protection, granting the members feveral privileges, 
 particularly that their prcfidents Ihould be counts pa- 
 latine of the holy Roman empire. This academy has 
 no fixed rcfidence, nor regular afi'emblics ; infteadof 
 thefe, there is a kind of bureau, or ofRce, firfl cftabliQi- 
 cd at Brcllau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg, 
 where letters, obfervations, b-c. from correfpondents 
 or members arc taken in. The academy confiAs of a 
 
 3 
 
 prcfiienc, two adjuncts or fecretaries,snd colleagues or Ai-ademie*- 
 
 members without reftriclion. Thccolleagucs, at their >- 
 
 admiluon,obligethenifclvcstotv.-othings:lirll,tochoofc 
 
 fome objcel out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral 
 
 kingdom, to handle, provided it had not been treated 
 
 of by any colleague before : the fecond, to apply them- 
 
 felvestofurnifh materials for theannual Ephemerides. 
 
 Each member to bear a fymbol of the academy ; ■aiz. 
 
 a gold ring ; whereon, inllead of a ftonc, is a book 
 
 open, and, on the face thereof, an eye; on the other 
 
 fide the motto of the academy, Nunqiiani iiulfus. 
 
 II. Chirurgical Acidcwks ; as that inftitutcd fome 
 years ago, by public authority, at Paris : the mem- 
 bers of which were not only to publilhtheirown and 
 correfpondents obfervations and improvements ; but to 
 give an account of all that is publiiliedon furgcry,and 
 to compofe a complete hillory of the art, by their 
 extracts from all the authors ancient and modern 
 who have wrote on it. A quellion in furgcry is an- 
 nually propofed by the academy, and a gold medal of 
 2C0 livres value given to him who furnifhcs the moft 
 fatisfaclory anfwer. 
 
 Academy of Surgery at Vieniiii, was inftituted fome 
 years ago by the prtfent emperor, under ihcdiredlion 
 of the celebrated Brambilla. In this there were at 
 firfl only two proftifors ; and to their charge the in- 
 llrudion of 130 young men was committed, 30 of 
 wliom had formerly been furgeons in the army. But 
 of late the number both of the teachers and pupils 
 has been confidtrably increafed. Gabrielli has been 
 appointed to teach pathology and praftice; Boecking, 
 anatomy, phyliology, and pliyfics : Streit, medical and 
 pharmaceutical furgery ; Hunczowlky, furgical opera- 
 tions, midwifery, and thcchirurgiaforenfis; and Plenk, 
 chemiftryand botany. To thefe alfo has been added, 
 Bcin*!l, as profedor and extraordinary profcflbr of 
 furgery and anatomy. Befides this, the emperor, with 
 his ufual liberality, has provided a large and fplenJid 
 edifice in Vienna, which affords Iiabitation both for the 
 teachers, the lludents, pregnant women, patients for 
 clinical leftures and fcrvants. He has alfo purchafed 
 for the ufe of this academy a medical library, which 
 isopeneveryday : a complete fetof chirurgical inftru- 
 mcnts; an apparatus for experiments in natural philo- 
 fophy ; a coilcdion of natural hiftory ; a number 01 
 anatomical and pathological preparations ; a colleflion 
 of preparations in wax brought from Florence; and a 
 variety of other ufeful articles. Adjoining to the 
 building alfo there is a good botanical garden. 
 
 Among other parts of this inftitution, three prizc- 
 mcdals, each of the v.-iluc of 40 liorins, are to be an- 
 nually bellowed on thofe lludents who return the bell 
 anfwer toqucllions propofed the year before. Thefe 
 prizes are not entirely founded by the emperor, but 
 arc in part owing to the liberality ot Brcndellius the 
 protochirurgus at Vienna. 
 
 III. KccLtsiA'^TiCAL Acadniiits ; as that of Bologna 
 in Italy inftituted in ib'^T, troplnycd in the examina- 
 tion of the doctrine, difcipline, and hillory, of each 
 age of the church. 
 
 IV. Co^yocRAfHicAL Acad<mus \ as that at Ve- 
 nice, called the Argtuauls. This was inftituted at the 
 foiicitation of F. Corojielli, for the improvement of 
 ftcograpliieal knowledge. Its dtlign was to publifli 
 exact maps, both celcilialand terreftrial, as well par- 
 ticular
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 40 3 
 
 A C A 
 
 A"d:my. liculir as general, togeiherwithgcograpliical, hiftori- 
 
 — ^ cal, and allronomical dclcriptions. Karhiiicnibtr, in 
 
 onlcr to defray the cxpcncc of fuch a publication, was 
 to I'ubfcribe a proportional fum, for wiiicli they were 
 to receive one or more copies of each piece publilhcd. 
 For this end three focietits are fettled ; one under 
 V. Moro, provincial of the minorities inlliuicary; ano- 
 ther under the abbot Laurence an Rue Payenne au 
 JVlaraii ; the third under K. Daldigiani, Jefuit, profcf- 
 for of mathematics in the Roman college. 1"hc device 
 of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the 
 motto I'/ia ultra ; and at its cxpencc all the globes, 
 maps, and geographical writings, of K. CoroncUi haTC 
 been pnblilhed. 
 
 V. Acadimhs oj Sciesces. — Thcfc comprehend fuch 
 as arc crciiled for improving natural and mathematical 
 knowledge. They arc otherwifc called Phitofophi- 
 crt/and f/^r.'^tWacademies. 
 
 The firflofthefe was inllitutcd at Naples, about the 
 year i 560, in ihcxhoufc of hapiilla Porta. It was call- 
 ed the Academy Si-oeloruM Niit!ir,e ; and was fuc- 
 ceeded by the Academy oi Lyncti, founded at Rome by 
 Prince Frederic Cell, towards the end of that century. 
 Several of the members of this academy rendered it fa- 
 mous by their difcovcries ; among thefe was the cele- 
 brated Galileo. .Several other academics were inftitu- 
 tcd about that time, which contributed greatly to the 
 advancement of the fciences ; but none of them com- 
 parable to that of the Ljiicci. 
 
 Some years after the death of Toricelli, the Acadimy 
 dil Cirneiito made its appearance, under the protection 
 of Prince Leopold, altcrwards Cardinal de Medicis. 
 Iledi was one of its chief members ; and the lludics 
 purfued by the rell may be coUcclcd from thofc curi- 
 ous experiments publilhed in 1667, by their fecrctary 
 Count Laurence Maguloiti, under the title of 5..*^/ di 
 Natural! Efpencuze ; a copy of which was prefented 
 to the Royal Society, tranlla:ed into Englilh by Mr 
 Waller, and publiflied at London in 4''. 
 
 The Academy dcgl' hiqukti, afterwards incorporated 
 into that of Delia Tracia in the Aime city, followed the 
 example of tliat of Del Cimcnio. Sonic excellent dif- 
 courfcs on phyfical and mathematical fubjefts, by Ge- 
 miniano Montenari, one of the chief members, were 
 publilhcd in 1667, under the title of Pcrfieri Fifico 
 Matcmatlci. 
 
 Tlic Academy of Rojfnno, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 was originally an academy of Belles Letters; founded 
 in 1 540, and transformed into an Academy of Sciences 
 in 1695 at the folicitation of the learned abbot Don 
 Giacinto Gimma; who being made prefidcnt, under 
 the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a 
 new fet of regulations. He divided the academics 
 into the following clalFcs : Grammarians, Rhetoricians, 
 Poets, Hiftorians, Philofopliers, Phy licians, Mathema- 
 ticians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a clafs apart for 
 Cardinals and perfons of quality. To be admitted a 
 member, a man niufb have fome degrees in the faculty. 
 The members are not allowed to take the title of Aca- 
 demiOs in the beginning of their books, without a 
 written pcrinilfion from their prelident, which is not 
 granted till the work has been examined by the cen- 
 fors of the academy ; and the permiliion is the greatell 
 honour the academy can confer, as they thereby adopt 
 the work, and arc anfwerablc for it againll all criti- 
 
 3 
 
 cifms that may be made upon it. To this law tlic Acadtmy- 
 
 prelident or promoter himltlf is fubjcil ; and no aca- ' ^^ — ' 
 
 dcmill is allow ed to publilh any thing againll the wri- 
 tings of another without leave from the locicty. 
 
 Several other Academics of Sciences have been 
 founded in Italy ; but, for want of being fupported by 
 princes, did not continue long. The lofs of them, how- 
 ever, was abundantly repaired by the inflitution of o- 
 thers ftill iubfilling ; fuch as, the Academy cj t'ilarwo- 
 T.'ici at Verona ; of ;?/f(;:'o/r/ at Padua, where a learned 
 difcourfc on the origin of fprings was delivered by 
 Sig. Vallifnieri, lirll profelibrof phy lie in the univt-r- 
 lity of that city, and which was afterwards printed. 
 To the Academy of the Mutt dc Reggio, at Modena, 
 the fame Sig. Vallifnieri jircfcntcd an excellent dif- 
 courfc on the fcalc of created beings, lince infcrted 
 in his hiflory of the generation of man and animals 
 printed at Venice in the year I 721. 
 
 F. Merfennc is faid to have given the firfl idea of a 
 philofophical academy in France, towards the begin- 
 ning of the 17"' century, by the conferences of natu- 
 ralilts and mathematicians occalionally held at his 
 lodgings ; at which Gall'endi, Des Cartes, Hobbes, 
 Roberval, Pafcal, Blondcl, and others athflcd. F. Mer- 
 fennc propofcd to each certain problems to examine, or 
 certain experiments to be made. Thcfc private alicm- 
 blics were fucceeded by more public ones, formed by 
 Mr Montmort, and Mr Thevenot the '■clcbrated tra- 
 veller. The French example animated feveral Englilh- 
 men of dillinftion and learning to erett a kind of 
 philofophical academy at Oxford, towards the clofc of 
 Oliver Cromwell's adminillration ; which, after the 
 relloration, was cretted into a Royal Society. See So- 
 ciETV. TheEnglilh example, in its turn, animated the 
 French. Lewis XIV. in 1666, aliiftcd by the counfcis 
 of Mr Colbert, founded an academy of fciences at 
 Paris, with a fufficicnt revenue to defray the charge 
 of experiments, and falaries to the members. 
 
 Royal Academy of Sciences. After the peace of the 
 Pyrenees, Lewis XIV. being delirous of cftablilhing 
 the arts, fciences, and literature, upon a folid founda- 
 tion, diredcd M. Colbert to form a fociety of men of 
 knownabilitiesandcxpericncc in the different branch- 
 es, who Ihould meet together under the king's protc^li- 
 on, and communicate their refpeftivc difcovcries. Ac- 
 cordingly Mr Colbert, having conferred with'thofe 
 who were at that time moft celebrated for their learn- 
 ing, refolved to form a fociety of fuch perfons as were 
 converfant in natural philefophy and mathematics, to 
 join to them other perfons Ikilled in hiftory and other 
 branches of erudition, along with thofe who were en- 
 tirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres, 
 grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians 
 andnaturalphilofophers were ordered to meet on Tucf- 
 days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king's li- 
 brary, where the books of mathematics and natural 
 philofophy were contained ; the learned in hiftory to 
 adeniblc on Mondays and Tuefd.iys, in the hall where 
 the books of hiftory arc contained ; and the clafs of 
 Belles Letters to alfenible on Wednefdaysand Fridays. 
 All the different claflcs were likcwifc ordered to meet 
 together upon the firfl Tuefday of every month ; and, 
 by their refpcCtive feeretaries, make a report of the 
 proceedings of the foregoing montli. 
 
 In a fliort time, however, the claflcs of Hi/lory, 
 
 Belles
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 41 J 
 
 A C A 
 
 Academies. BcUcs Lcrtrcs, &c. were united to thcfrfwcAAcauciny, 
 
 " *■ ' which was originally iiilUtuted for the im|irovcmcnr 
 
 and refining the French language ; fo that the royal 
 Academy contained only two claifes, viz. that of natu- 
 ral philofophy and mathematics. 
 
 In the 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the 
 26th of January, gave this Academy a new form, and 
 put it upon a more refpedablc footing. — It was now 
 to be compofed of four kinds of jncmbcrSj viz. hono- 
 rary, />;n/ionarj-,aJfoc/al(j, and I'/t-cc-/. Thtfe laft were 
 a kind ot pupils, or fcholars, each of whom was at- 
 tached to one of the pcufionaries. The firft clafs to 
 contain ten perfons,and each of the reil twenty. The 
 honorary academilts to be all inhabitants of France ; 
 the pcnlionaries all to refide at Paris ; eight »f the af- 
 fociates allowed to be foreigners ; and the eleves all 
 to live at Paris. The oificcrs to be, a prelidcnt named 
 by the king, out of the clafs of honorary academics ; 
 and a fccrctary and trcafurcr to be perpetual. Of the 
 penfionarics, three to be geometricians, three aftrono- 
 lacrs, three mechanics, three anatomiils, three che- 
 iiiifts, three botanifls, and the remaining two to befe- 
 cretary and treafurer. Of the twelve allbciatcs, two 
 to apply thcmfcives to geometry, two to botany, and 
 two to chcmiftry. The eleves to apply themfelvcs to 
 the fame kind of fcience with the pcnlionaries tlicy 
 were attached to ; and not to fpeak except when call- 
 ed by the prelidcnt. No regular or religious to be ad- 
 mitted, except into the clafs of honorary acadeinirts ; 
 nor any perfon to be admitted either for allbciate or 
 penlionary, unlefs known by fomc confiderable printed 
 work, fome machine, or other difcovcry. The aflem- 
 blies were held on Wcdnefdays and Saturdays, unlefs 
 cither of them happened to be a holiday, and then the 
 alfembly was held on the preceding day — To encou- 
 rage the members to purfue their labours, the king 
 engaged not only to pay the ordinary penfions, but e- 
 ven to give extraordinary gratifications, according to 
 the merit of their refpcc^ivc performances ; furnilhing 
 withal the expence of the experiments and other in- 
 quiries necelfary to be made. If any member gave in 
 a bill of charges of experiments he had made, or dcfir- 
 ing the printing of any book, and brought in the char- 
 ges of graving, the money was immediately paid by 
 tlie king, upon the prefident's allowing and fignJng 
 the bill. So, if an anatomift required live tortoifcs, for 
 inllancc, for making experiments about the heart, &c. 
 as many as he plcaicd were brought him at t lie king's 
 charge. Their motto was, hwcnil ct psrj^-cit. 
 
 In the year i 716, the duke of Orleans, then regent, 
 made an alteration in their conftitution ; augmenting 
 the number of honorarics, and of aiR>ciates capableof 
 being foreigners, to 12; admitting regulars among 
 filch allbciatcs ; and fupprefling the clafs of clcvcs, as 
 it appeared to be attended with fomc inconveniences, 
 particularly that of making too great an inequality a- 
 mong the chcmills, and being prodnclive of fome inif- 
 ii>ideril,indings and aniinofitits among the members. 
 At the fame time he created other two claifes ; one con- 
 fiding of 12 adjuncts, who, as well as the aifctiates. 
 Were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative 
 to fcience ; and the other lix free aifociatcs, who 
 were not attached to any particular fcience, nor obli- 
 ged to purfue any particular work. 
 
 Since its rc-ellablirtvnient in 1696, this academy has 
 Vo:.. I. 
 
 been very exact in publilliing, every year, a volume AcmJemiet 
 containing cither the works of its own members, or " 
 fuch memoirs as have been compofed and read to the 
 academy during the courfe of that year. To each vo- 
 lume is prefixed the hilloryof the academy, or an ex- 
 tract of the memoirs, and, in general, of whatever has 
 been read or faid in the academy ; at the end of the 
 hiflory, are the eulogiums on fuch icadeinills as have 
 died that year. — M. Kojille de Meflay, counfcUor to 
 the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of 
 2JC0, and the other of 2CX3o livres, which are alter- 
 nately dillribiited by the parliament every year ; the 
 fubjed for the firft mull relate to phy ileal ailronomy, 
 and thofc for the latter to navigation and commerce. 
 
 Notwithrtanding the advantages which the members 
 of this academy enjoy over others, in having theirex- 
 pences defrayed, and even being paid for their time 
 and attendance, they have fallen under fome imputa- 
 tions, particularly that of plagiarifin, or borrowing 
 their neighbour's inventions ; but with what jufticc we 
 do not fay. 
 
 The French have alfo confiderable academiesinmofl 
 of their great cities : as, at Montpelicr, a royal aca- 
 demy of fcienccs on the like footing as that at Paris, 
 being as it were a counterpart thereof; aiThouloufc, 
 an academy under the denomination of Lanternifls ; 
 others at Nifmes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bourdcaux, 
 &c. 
 
 The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded 
 in 1700, by Frederic 11. kingofPruflla, on the model of 
 that of England ; excepting that, befides natural know- 
 ledge, it likewife comprehends the Belles Lettres. In 
 1710, it was ordained that the prclident iTiall be one 
 of the counfellors of llate, and nominated by the king. 
 The members were divided into four clalies ; thefirll 
 for profecuting phylics, medicine, and cheraiflry; the 
 fecond for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics ; 
 the third for the German language and the hiftory of 
 the country ; the fourth for oriental learning, parti- 
 cularly as it may concern the propagation of the gof- 
 pel among infidels. Each clafs to eled a diredor for 
 thcmfcives, who (liall hold his poll for life. The mem- 
 bers of any of the claifes have free admillloaintu the 
 alfemblies of any of the reft. 
 
 The great promoterof this inftitution was the cele- 
 brated Mr Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the 
 firft diredor. The firft volume of their tranfadions 
 was publiflied in 1710, under the title oi MifcdUmea 
 Deroiineiijia ; and though they received but few marks 
 of the royal favo;ir for fome time, they continued to 
 publilh new vohiincs in 172;, I72j, 17^4, and 1740. 
 At laft, however, Frederic III. the late king of Pruf- 
 fia, gave new vigour to this academy, by inviting to 
 Berlin fuch foreigners as were moft dillingiiilhed for 
 their merit in literature, and encouraged his fubjefts 
 to profecute the lluJy and cultivation of the fcienccs 
 by givingample rewards ; andthinking that iheacade- 
 my, which till that time had had fome minillcr nr opu- 
 lent noblenum fori;s prefident, would find an advan- 
 tage in having a man of letters at its head, he confer- 
 red that honour on M. Maupertuis. At the fame time, 
 he gave a new regulation to the academy, and took 
 upon himltlf the title of its protedor. 
 
 The academifts hold two publicaii'emblies annually ; 
 
 one in January, on the hte king's birth-day ; and the 
 
 F other
 
 A C A 
 
 I 42 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 Acadcn'.iei. other in >'ay, on thed.iy ol'liisacccflion to the throne. 
 
 ■■~~^' — At the latter ot thdc is j^ivcn, as a I'rizc, a gold nic- 
 
 lial of JO diicais value : the fiibjeiit for tliis prize is 
 
 fuccellively, natural philolbpliy, niaihcuiaiiti, meta- 
 
 phylics, and erudition. 
 
 The Ivipinal Aiadiviy of Sciences at Fctcr/hiirgh 
 was projected by Czar I'ttcr the Great. That great 
 monarch having, during his travels, obfcrved the ad- 
 vantage of public focitlies for the encouragement and 
 prouii'iion ot litrrature, fornicu the deiign of founding 
 an academy of fcienccs at btPcterlLurgh. l>y the ad- 
 vice of Wolf andLcibnifz, whom he confulted on this 
 occalicn, the fociety was regulated, and fcvcral learn- 
 ed foreigners were invited to become members. Peter 
 himfclf drew the plan, and llgned it on the loth of 
 l''eb. 1724 ; but was prevented, by the fuddennefs of 
 his death, from carrying it into execution. His dc- 
 ccafe,huvvcver, did not prevent its completion : for on 
 the 2 1 it of December 1725, Catharine I. eliablilhed 
 it according to Peter's plan ; and on the 27th of the 
 fame month the fociety was firfl alleuibled. On the 
 iftof Auguft 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting 
 with her prefencc, when profellbr Bultinger, a German 
 natiiralill of great eminerce pronounced an oration 
 upon the advances made by the loadllone and needle 
 lor the difcovcry of the longitude. 
 
 The emprefs fettled a fund of 4982I. per annum for 
 the fupport of the academy ; and fifteen menibtrs, all 
 eminent for their learningand talents, were admitted 
 . and pcnlioned, under the title of Profellors, in the va- 
 rious branches of literature and fcience. Tlie mofl 
 dillinguiflied of thcfc protellbrs were Nicholas and Da- 
 niel Bernouilli, the two De Lilies, Bullingcr, and 
 Wolf. 
 
 During the fliort reign of Peter II. the falaries of 
 the members were difcontinued, and the academy was 
 utterly neglcttcd by the court ; but it was again pa- 
 tronized by the enipreis Anne, who even added a fc- 
 minary for the education of youth, under the fuperin- 
 tendunce of the profellors. Both inllitutions tlourilhed 
 for fomelimc under the direction of Baron Korf ; but 
 upon his death, towards the latter end of Anne's reign, 
 an ignorant perfon being appointed prefident, many of 
 the molt able numbers quitted Ruflia. At the accef- 
 fion of Elizabeth, new life and vigour were again rc- 
 ftored to the academy : the original plan was enlarged 
 and improved ; fome of the moll learned foreigners 
 were again drawn to Pctcrlburgh ; and, what was con- 
 fiJcred asagood omen for the li;erature ofRulfia, two 
 natives, Lomoaofof and Rumovfky, men of gciiiusand 
 abilities, who had profecuted tJicir fludies in foreign 
 univerfitics, were enrolled among its members. The 
 annual income was incrcafed to 10,659!. and foon af- 
 terwards the new inflitution took place. 
 
 The prefcnt emprefs Catharine III. with her ufual 
 zeal for promoting the diffulion of knowledge, has ta- 
 ken this ufeful fociety under her more immediate pro- 
 tection. She has altered the court of dirertors greatly 
 to the advantage of the whole body ; (lie has corrected 
 many abufes, and has infuftd a new fpirit into their 
 rcfearehes. By her majefly's particular recommenda- 
 tion, the moll ingenious profellors have vilited the va- 
 rious provinces of her vafl dominions ; and as the fund 
 of the academy was not fufiicient to fupply the whole 
 expence of thcfe fevcral expeditions, the emprefs be- 
 
 ilowed a largefs of 20&cl. vviiich Ilic has renewed as Acadetiiiei. 
 
 occaliou has required. ' •^ ' 
 
 'l"hc piirpofe and intent of thefe travels will appear 
 from the iiillructions given by the academy to the fe- 
 vcral perfons who were engaged in them. They were 
 ordered to purfue their inquiries upon the different 
 forts of earths and waurs ; upon the bell methods of 
 cultivating the barren and delart fpots ; upon tlie local 
 diforders incident to men and animals, and the moll 
 cflicacious means of relieving them; upon the breeding 
 of cattle, and particularly of Ihcep ; on the rearing of 
 bees and filk-worms ; on the dilierent places and ob- 
 jects for tilhing and hunting ; on minerals ; on the arts 
 and trades ; and on forming a Klora Rulfica, or eoUcc- 
 tionof indigenous plants: they were particularly in- 
 ilruiled to rectify the longitude and latitude of the 
 principal towns ; to make allronomical, geographical, 
 and meteorological obfervations ; to trace the courfc 
 of the rivers ; to take the molt exav.^t charts ; and to be 
 very dillinet and accurate in remarking and defcribing 
 the manners and cnltoms of the different people, their 
 drelfes, languages, antiquities, traditions, hiltory, re- 
 ligion ; and, in a word, to gain every information 
 which might tend to illullralc the real Hale of the 
 whole Ruliian empire. 
 
 In confequence of thefe expeditions, perhaps no 
 country can boall, within the fpace of lb few years, 
 fuch a number of excellent publications on its internal • 
 Hate, on its nalsral produ(!:tions, on its topography, 
 geography, and hiltory ; on the manners, cuftoms, 
 and languages of the ditterent people, as have illucd 
 from the prefs of this academy. 
 
 The iirft tranfaftions of this fociety were publiflied 
 in 1 728, and intitled Commentarii Acader/iia Scienti- 
 arutn Imperialii Pftropclitanit ad an. 1726, with a 
 dedication to Peter II. The publication was conti- 
 nued under this form until the year 1747, when its 
 tranfactions were called Novi Cfiiiiineiitarii Acadetnia, 
 &c. In I 777 the academy again changed the title in- 
 to ACla Acadetnia Scientiariifn Ir/iperial'ts Petropoli' 
 tarne, and likewife made fome alteration in the ar- 
 rangement and plan of the work. The papers, which 
 had been hitherto publiflied in the Latin tongue, arc 
 now written either in that language or French; and a 
 preface is added, ftyled Partic Hijiorique, which con- 
 tains an account of its proceedings, meetings, admil- 
 fion of new members, and other remarkable occur- 
 rences. Of the Commentaries, 14 volumes were pub- 
 liflied : the firfl of the New Commentaries made its 
 appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 1776. Un- 
 der the new title oi Aiia Academic, fevcral volumes 
 have been given to the public, and two arc printed 
 every year. Thefe tranfaiitionsabound with ingenious 
 and elaborate difquilitions upon various parts of fcience 
 and natural hillory, and which rctlccT; the greatell ho- 
 nour upon their authors; and it may not be an exag- 
 geration toalTert, that no fociety in Europe has more 
 diftinguiflied itfelf for the excellence of its publications, 
 and particularly in ihe more abflrufe parts of the pure 
 and mixed mathemaiics. 
 
 The academy is flill compofed, as at firft, of fifteen 
 profeflbrs, befide the prelldent and direc'or. Each of 
 thcfe profelforshas a houfe and an annual Itipcnd from 
 2Col. to 600I. Belide the profeflbrs, there are four 
 adjuncts, who are peuUoued, and who are prcfent at 
 
 the
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 43 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 Academies, the fittings of the focicty, and fuccecd to the firfl va- 
 »— V— — ' cancies. — The dircftioii of the academy is at prcfent 
 configned to the Princefs DaQiliof. 
 
 The building and apparatus of this academy are ex- 
 traordinary. There is a fine library, confiding of 36000 
 
 curious books and manufcripts Tiicre isan extenii vc 
 
 niufcum, in which the various branches of natural hi- 
 Aory, &c. arc dirtributed in different apartments : it is 
 extremely rich in native productions, having been con- 
 fiderably augmented with a variety of fpccimens col- 
 lected by Pallas, Gniclin, Guldenftaedt, and other 
 learned profellbrs, during their late expeditions thro' 
 the Ruifian empire. The fluffed animals and birds 
 occupy one apartment. The chamber of rarities, the 
 cabinet of coins, &c. contain innumerable articles of 
 the highell curiofityand value. The fociety has this 
 motto, Paulatim. 
 
 The Academy of Sciir.ca at Bologna, called the Injil- 
 tute of Bologna, wzi founded by count Marfigli in 171 2, 
 for the cultivating of phyfics, mathematics, medicine, 
 chemiflry,and natural hiflory. Its hilloryis written 
 by M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnilhed by the 
 founder himfclf. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences at Stockhohn, or Royal 
 Swedip? Academy, owes its inflitution to fix perfons of 
 diftinguifhed learning, amongfl whom was the celebra- 
 ted Linnaeus: they originally met on the jj of June 
 1 739, formed a private fociety, in which fomc diiFer- 
 tations were read ; and in the latter end of the fame 
 year their firfl publication made its appearance. As 
 the meeting continued and the members increafed, 
 the fociety attracted the notice of the king, and was, 
 on the 31ft of March 1741, incorporated under the 
 •name of the Royal Swedilh Academy. Not receiving 
 any penlion from the crown, it is only under the pro- 
 tedion of the king, being dircded, like the Royal 
 Society, by its own members. It has now a large 
 fund, which has chiefly arifeu from legacies and other 
 donations ; but a profcffor of experimental philofophy, 
 and two fecretaries, are flill the only perfons who re- 
 ceive any falaries. Each of the members rchdent at 
 Stockholm becomes prefident by rotation, and conti- 
 nues in office during three months. There arc two 
 fpeciesof members, native and foreign : the cledionof 
 the former is held in .'\pril, and of the l.uter in July : 
 no money is paid at the time of admiilion. The dif- 
 fcrtations read at each meeting are collected and pub- 
 liflied four times in the year; they are written in the 
 Swedilh language, and printed in oJlavo, and the an- 
 nual publications make a volume. Tiie lirft 40 vo- 
 lumes, which were finillied in 1779, arc called the Old 
 Tranfaclions ; for in the following year the title was 
 changed into thit of New Tranfaclions. The king is 
 fometimes prefentat the ordinary meetings, and par- 
 ticularly at the annual affembly in April lor the elec- 
 tion of members. Any pcrfon who fends a treatife 
 which is thought worthy of being printed, receives the 
 tranfadions tor th.tt quarter ^r<///;, and a Uiver medal, 
 which is not cfleemcd for its value, being worth only 
 three (hillings, but for its rarity and the honour con- 
 veyed by it. All the papers relating to ai^riculturc 
 are put forth fcparately under the title of 0:coiio!ii:ca 
 aftj. Annual premiums, in money and gol.i medals, 
 principally for the encouragement of agriculture and 
 inland trade, arc aUb dillributcd by the academy. The 
 
 fund for thcfe prizes is fupplied from private dor.a- Aci.!cra:«. 
 tions. *— V-— ' 
 
 The Royal Academy ofScienasat Ccpenhagen, o^-c% 
 its inftitution to the 2eal of fix literati, who.n Chrif- 
 tian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of 
 medals. The count of HoUlei.n was the firil prefi. 
 dent ; and the fix perfons who rint formed the dclign, 
 were John Gram, joacliim Frederic Ramus, Chriltiau 
 Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickcy, Eric Poiuoj;iJan, and 
 Bernard Moclman. Thefc perfons occafioiidllyr meet- 
 ing for that purpofe, extended their dcfigns ; adbciatcd 
 witii them others whowcrccmiiientin fcvcralbranches 
 of fcience ; and forming a kind of literary fociety. em- 
 ployed themfelves in fcarching into, and explaining 
 the hillory and antiquities ot their country. The 
 count of liolllcin warmly patronised this fociety, and 
 recommended it fo llrongly -to Chriltiau VI. that, in 
 I 743, iiis Danilh Majelly look it under his protcdiun, 
 called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it 
 with a fund, and ordered the members tojoin to tlieir 
 former purfuits, natural hillory, phylics, and mathe- 
 matics. Inconfcquenceof the royal favour, the mem- 
 bers engaged with frelh zeal in their purfuits ; and 
 the academy has publiihed 15 volumes in tlic Danilh 
 language, fome whereof have been tranilated into 
 Latin. 
 
 Afnerkan Academy of Sciences, was eftablilhed 
 in 17S0 by the council and houfc of reprcfentatives 
 in the commonwealth of MalFachufett's Bay for promo- 
 ting thckuowledge of the antiquities of America, and of 
 the natural hiltory of the country ; for determining 
 the ufesto which its various natural productions might 
 be applied ; for encouraging medicinal difcoveries, 
 mathematical difquifitions, philofophical inquiries and 
 experiments, aAronomical, meteorological, and geo- 
 graphical obfcrvations, and improvements in agricul. 
 ture, manufadures, and commerce ; and in Ihort, for 
 cultivating every art and fcience which may tend to 
 advance the interell, honour, dignity, and h.ippinefs, 
 ot a free, independent, and viriuojs pcojlc. The 
 members of this academy are never to be more than 
 200, nor lefs than 40. 
 
 VI. Academies or Schools of Arts ; as that at Pctcrf- 
 burgh, which was edablilhed by the cmprtfs Elizabeth, 
 at the fiiggeftionof count bhuvaLf, and annexed to the 
 academy of fciences : the fund was L. 4000 per annum, 
 and the foundation for 40 fcIiolars.The prcfent cmprefs 
 has tormcd it into a feparatc iuftituiioi!, enlarged "ihc 
 annual revenue to L. 12,000, and has augmented i!ic 
 number of fcholarsto 300 ; Ihe hasalfocondrudcd, for 
 the ufe and accommodation of the me nibcrs. a l.^rgc 
 circular building, which fronts the Neva. The f-ho- 
 lars are admitted a the age of lix, and contin-ic until 
 they have attained that of 18 : they arc clothed, fed, 
 and lodged, at the cxpcncc of the crown. They arc 
 all iullrudcd in reading and writing, arithmetic, the 
 French and German languages and drawing. At the 
 age of (4 they arc at liberty to choofc any of the fol- 
 lowing arts, divided into four claii'cs. i. Pai;Uing in 
 all its branches of hiflory, por;raits, battles and land- 
 fcapcs ; ar(:hitci::lure : Mofaic ; enamelling; &c.3. En- 
 gravin;^on copperplates, lcal-cutli:i»:, &c. ;. Carving 
 in wood, ivory and amber. 4. Watch-making, turn- 
 inir, iallruaicnt-maki'i7, calling flaturs in bronze and 
 other metals, imitating ^cms and medals in palle and 
 F 2 other
 
 A C A 
 
 [ '1-4 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 Acidfitiief. o:!ier coiiipoiuioiis, giKling and vaniilhing. Prizes 
 ^"^ arc annually diilribiucd to iliolc who excel in any par- 
 ticular art J and Iron', thofe wlio liavc obtained four 
 jirizcs, twelve arc feleded, who arc lent abroad «tthe 
 charge ol' the empreis. A certain funi is paid to de- 
 fray theirtravclling cxpcnccs ; and when they are fet- 
 tled in any town, they receive an annual falary of L.60. 
 %\hicli is continuediiuring four years. There is a fmall 
 aiFortnicnt of paintings for the ufe of the fcholars ; 
 and thofe who have made great progrcfs are permitted 
 to copy the pictures in the er.iprcfs's colledion. For 
 the purpofc of dtlign, there arc models in plallcr of 
 the bell antique ftatiiesin Italy, all done at Rome, of 
 the fame fize with the originals, v.'hich the artills of 
 tlic academy were employed to cafl in bronze. 
 
 y^.- Ro)al Academy of Aits in Loiuion, was in- 
 flituted for the encouragement oiDifigning, Painting, 
 Sciilftiin, S:c. &c. in the year 1768. This academy 
 is under the immediate patronage of the king, and un- 
 der the dirc<5tion of 40 artifls of the firft rank in tht ir 
 feveral profeiiions. It fnrniihes, in winter, living mo- 
 dels of difFercnt chara.lers to draw after ; and, in funi- 
 mcr, models of the fame kind to paint after. Nine of 
 the ablclt academicians are annually elefled out of the 
 40, whofe bulincfs is to attend by rotation, to fet ilic 
 figures, to examine tiic performance of the fludcnts, 
 and to give them ncccilary indruftions. There are 
 likewife four profeflbrs, of Painting, oi ylrchitedure, of 
 Anatomy, zwAoi Perfpedive, who annually read public 
 Icftureson the fubjcfts of their feveral departments ; 
 befide a prelident, a council, and other officers. The 
 admilfion to this academy is (rcc to all ftudeiits pro- 
 perly qualified to reap advantage from the Ihidies cul- 
 tivated init ; and there is an annual exhibition of paint- 
 ings, fculptures, and defigns, open to all artills of di- 
 llinguiflied merit. 
 
 The Acadimy of Paintingand Sculpture at Paris. This 
 took its rife from the difputcs that happened between 
 the mafter painters andfculptors in that capital ; incon- 
 fequence of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin Corneille, and 
 others of the kinp^'s painters, formed a dcfign of in Hit u- 
 tingaparticularacademy ; and having prcfentcd apeti- 
 tion to the king, obtained an arret dated Jan. 20. 1648. 
 In the beginning of 1655, they obtained from cardi- 
 jial Mazarin a brevet, and letters jiatcnt, which were 
 rcgifteredin parliament ; in gratitude for which favour 
 they chofe the cardinal for their prote<Slor, and the 
 chancellor for their vicc-protcftor. In 1663, by means 
 of M. Colbert, they obtained a penlion of 4000 livres. 
 The academy conlifts of a protc(ilor ; vice-proteclor ; 
 a diredlor ; a chancellor ; four reClors ; adjuncts to the 
 reiflors ; a treafurer ; four profellors, one of which is 
 jirofeffor of anatomy, and another of geometry ; fe- 
 veral adjnnds and counfcllors, an hiftoriogrophcr, a 
 fcretary, and two ulhers. 
 
 The Academy of Painting holds a public afTembly 
 every day for two hours in the afternoon, to which the 
 painters refort either to delign or to paint, and where the 
 feulptors model after a naked perfon. There arc 12 
 profcifors, each of whom keeps the fchool for a month ; 
 and there are 12 adjunfts to fupply them in cafe of 
 need. The profeilbr upon duty places the naked man 
 as he thinks proper, and fetshim in two different atti- 
 tudes every week. This is what they czWfettingthe 
 model. In one week of the month he fets two models 
 
 togctlicr, which is called/".//'//^ the group. The paint- Acadcmlei 
 
 ings and models made after this model, arecallcdafw- — — ~ 
 
 demici or acadin/y -figures. 'I'hey have like\> ife a ■« 0- 
 mm who iUndi lor a model in the public fchool. 
 Every three months, three prizes for delign arcdidri- 
 butcd among the eleoes or dildples ; two others for 
 painting, and two for i"culpture every year. 
 
 '1 here is alfo an Academy of Painting, Sculpture, 
 Sec. at Rome, cllaUilhcd by Lcv.isXl V. wlurtin thof: 
 who have gained the uimual prize at Paris are intiilcd 
 to be three years entertained at the king's cxpence, 
 for their further improvement. 
 
 Tk.' Academy of Ar<.kitcc'urc, eftablithed by M. 
 Colbert in 1671, conlilling of a company of Ikiltul 
 archiicds, i:nder the dic'iiuii 01 the fupcrintendant 
 of the buildings. 
 
 The Academy of Dancing, crc(5lcd by Lewis XIV. 
 wiili privileges above all the reft. 
 
 VII. Academies cf Law -, as that famous one at 
 13cryta, and that of tlic Siticntes at Bologna. 
 
 VIII. Academies oj HiiTOKt ; as the Royal Acaden:y 
 tf Portugnefe Hi (lory at Li/boi.. This academy was 
 inftituted hy king John V. in 1720. It confiils of a 
 diredlor, four ccnlors, a fccretary, and 50 members ; 
 to each of '.vhom isalligncd fomepirt of the ccclcfiatli- 
 cal or civil iiiilory of the nation', which he is to treat 
 either in Latin or Portugnefe. In the church-hiftory 
 of each diocefe,the prelates, fynods, councils, churches, 
 monafteries, academies, perfons illuftrious for fanility 
 or learning, places famous for miracles or relics, muii 
 bediftinftly relatedintwelvechapters. Tliccivilhillo- 
 ry comprifcs the traiifaftions of the kingdom from the 
 government of the Romans down to the prtfenttimc. 
 The members who refide in the country arc obliged to 
 make collections and extrafts out of all the rcgifters, 
 &c. where they live. Their meetings to be once irt 
 I'j days. 
 
 A medal was Ilruck by this academy in honour of 
 their prince : the front of which was his effigy, with 
 the infcriptionyo/'fl/;«^j W .Lufitauorutn /fi.v.and, on 
 the re verfe, the fame prince is reprefcn ted ftanding,and 
 railing Hiftory almoft proflrste before him, with the le- 
 gend Hifloria Refurges. Underneath are the follow- 
 ing words in abbreviature: REGia ACADemia HI- 
 Sloria LUSlTante, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decem- 
 bris MDCCXX. 
 
 Academy oj Suabian Hijlory at Tubingen, was lately 
 e.1abli(hed by fonic learned men, for publiihing the 
 heft hiftorical writings, the lives of the chief hifto- 
 rians, and compiling new memoirs, on the feveral 
 points and periods thereof. 
 
 IX. Academies (yf AsTiSi/irlES ; as that at Corto. 
 na in Italy, and at Upfal in Sweden. The firft is 
 defigncd for the ftudy of Hctrurian antiquities ; the 
 other for illuflrating the northern languages, and the 
 antiquities of Sweden, in which notable difcovcrics 
 have been made by it. The head of the Hctrurian 
 academy is called Lucomon, by which the ancients go- 
 vernorsof the country were diftinguilhcd. Oneoftheir 
 laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the 
 year ; another is to fix their feflions, and impofc a tax 
 of a dilfcrtation on each member in his turn. 
 
 The Academy of Medals and Infcriptions at Paris was 
 fet on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of 
 Lewis XIV. iii 1663, for the ftudy and explanation 
 
 of
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 45 D 
 
 A C A 
 
 AcademicB. oF r.ncicnt monunicnts, and perpetuaiiiig great and 
 ■ memorable cvcjits, elpecially tliolc ot the trench mo- 
 narchy, by coins, relievos, infcriptions, &c. The 
 number or members at firlt was confined to four or 
 live, choicn out of tJiofe of the French academy ; 
 who met in the library of Mr Colbert, from whom 
 they received his mijcity's orders. Thcdaysof tli^ir 
 meciings were not dtitrmined ; but generally they 
 met on Wedncl'days, efpecially in the winter fcafon : 
 but, in 1691, the king having given the infpcftion of 
 this academy to M. dc Pontchartrain comptroller ge- 
 neral, &c. he lixcd their meetings on Tuefdays and 
 Saturdays. 
 
 By a new regulation, dated the 16"' of July i 701, 
 the academy was compofcd of ten t^Onorarji members ; 
 ten ajjocialfj, each of whom had two declarative voices ; 
 ten />cn/ion(iii(j ; and ten elevis, or pupils. They then 
 met every Tucfdayand Wcdncfday,inoneof the halls 
 of the Louvre ; and had two public meetings yearly, 
 one the day alter Martinmas and the other the 16''' 
 after Ealler. The clafs of elevcs Jias been fupprcflcd, 
 and united to the alFociates. The king nominates their 
 prefidcnt and vice-pre(ident yearly ; but their fecrcta- 
 ry and trcafurcr arc perpetual. The rcil are chofcn 
 by the members themfclves, agreeably to the conlli- 
 tutions on that behalf given them. 
 
 One of thefirfl; undertakings of this academy, was 
 to compofe by means of medals, a conncifted hiftory of 
 the principal events of Lewis XI V's reign : but in this 
 defign they met with great difficulties, and of confe- 
 queiicc it was interrupted for many y;ears ; but at length 
 it was completed down to the advancement of the duke 
 of Anjou to the crown of Spain. 
 
 In this celebrated work, the cflabliflimeni of the 
 academy itfclf was not forgot. The medal on this 
 fubjcd reprefents Mercury fitting, and writing with an 
 antique ftylus on a table of brals , he leans with his 
 left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet arc 
 fcveral others placed upon a card : the legend, Reruvi 
 gefl drum fides ; and on the exergue, /!:jd:tn:ti reg'u 
 hifcriptionum et Kumifmatiu/i, iiijlitiita M.DC.LXIIL 
 fignifying that the Royal Academy of medals and Jn- 
 fcriptions, founded in 166;, ought to give to future 
 ages a faithful tellimony of all great adlions. Befides 
 this work, wc have fcveral volumes of their memoirs ; 
 and their hillory, wcittcn and continued by their fe- 
 creiaries. 
 
 X. Acaiimits of B ELLES Lettrf.^ , are thofe where- 
 in eloquence and poeiry are chictly cultivated. Thefe 
 arc very numerous in Italy, a:id not uncommon in 
 France. 
 
 The Academy cf Umidi at Fhrcncc has contributed 
 greatly to the progrefs of the fcicnces by the excel- 
 lent Italian tranilations given, by fome of its members, 
 of the ancient Greek and Latin hiftorians. Their 
 chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the fame 
 time that they have applied thcmfclvts to the pulilh- 
 ing of their language, which produced the Academy 
 del la Cri/fca, 
 
 The Academy of Humorifis, Umori/li, had its origin 
 at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a 
 Roman gentleman ; at which fcveral ptrfons of rank 
 were gucfts ; and, it being cam:' al time, to give the 
 ladies fomedivcrfion, they took t!:cml'clves to the re- 
 citing of vcrfes, fonuets, fpcechcs, lirAfxr^w/erc, and 
 
 aficrwards premeditatcly ; which gave them the dcno- Acadcmici- 
 
 minaiionof ^t/// //««,j,/7. After ionic experience, co- ^ — ' 
 
 ming more and more into tlic lalle of iheic exeicifes, 
 they rcfolved to form an Academy cf Belles Lcttres ; 
 and changed the title of Belli hnmin for that of Hii- 
 Piorijli : choofing for their device, a cloud, which, after 
 being forn.cd of exhalations from the fait waters of 
 the ocean, returns in a gentle fwcet Ibowcr ; with this 
 motto from Lucretius kedttagmine duU't. 
 
 In 1690, the Academy c/Arcadiwzs eftablilhed at 
 Rome, for reviving the ftudy of Poetry and of ihc 
 Belles Leilres. Befidcs molt of the politer wits of 
 both fexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many 
 princes, cariiinals, and other ecclcfiaflics ; and, to a- 
 void difputes about pre-eminence, all appeal' malked 
 after the manner of Arcadian Ihcpherds. W ithin ten 
 years from its ^rll eltabliflimcnt, the number of Aca- 
 dei/iijls amounted to (ix hundred. They hold aifcm- 
 blies fevcn times a-ycar in a mead or grove, or in the 
 gardens of fome noblemen of dillinction. Six of thcfc 
 meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and 
 vcrfes of the Arcadi rc;iding at Rome ; who read 
 their own compofitions ; except ladies and cardinals, 
 who are allowed to employ others. The ftvcnth meet- 
 ing is fee apart for the compolitions of foreign or ab- 
 fcnt members. 
 
 This academy is governed by a Cuflos, who repre- 
 fents th^ whok fociety, and is chofen every four years, 
 with a power of electing 12 others yearly for his af- 
 fiftauce. Under thefe arc two fub-cullodcs, one vicar 
 orpro-cuflos, and four deputies or fuperintendants, an- 
 nually chofen. The laws of the fociety arc immuta- 
 ble, and bear a near rcfcmblance to the ancicjii model. 
 There arc five manners of clefling members. The 
 firfl is by acclamation. This is nfcd when fovcrciui: 
 princes, cardinals, and ambalfadors of kings, defirc to 
 be admitted ; and the votes are then gircn viva voce. 
 The fccond is called an>iumeratio/i. This was intro- 
 duced in favourofladicsandacadcmicalcolonic5,whcrr 
 the votes arc taken privately. The third reprefenta- 
 tion, was eltablilhed in favour of colonies and univcr- 
 fities, where the young gentry arc bred ; who have 
 each a privilege of recommending one or two mem- 
 bers privately to be balloted for. The fourth, farro- 
 giition ; whereby new members arc f.ibllituted in the 
 room of thofe dead or expelled. The lalt, dejiuiatun 
 whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, per- 
 fons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi con- 
 fcrcd upon them till fuch time as a vacancy (hall hap- 
 pen. All the members of this body, at their admif- 
 lion, alfume new p.-iftoral names, in imitation of the 
 flicphcrds of Arcadi.t. The academy has fcveral co- 
 lonies of A. rcadi in different cities of Italy, who arc 
 all regulated after the fame manner. 
 
 XI. Academies cf Lascvaghs ; called, by fome, 
 Craintiiaihal Academies : 35. 
 
 The Ae^de/ny del/a Crnfca at Florence, famous for 
 its vocabulary of the kalian tongue.was formed in i J82, 
 but fcarce heard of before the year 1584, when it be- 
 came noted for a difpurc between Talfo and feveralof 
 its members. Many authors confound this with the 
 Florentine academy. The difcourfes which Toricelli, 
 the celebraied difciple of Galileo, delivered in thcaf- 
 lemblies,conccrninglevity, the wind, the power of per- 
 culfion, laathematics, and military architefturc, arc a 
 
 proof
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 46 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 AcaJemi«s. proof that thcfc acatlcmills ajiplicJ themfelvcs to 
 
 """^-^ things as well as words. 
 
 Tha Acadci.iy cj FruiJifcri had its rife in 161 7, at 
 an ali'cinbly of fevcral priiiccsand iiobilityof the coun- 
 try, who met with a dtfign to refine and pcrfe<^t the 
 German tongue. It tlor.riflied long under the direc- 
 tion of princes of the empire, w ho were always chofcn 
 prelideuts. In 166S the number of members arofc to 
 upwards of 900. It was prior in lime to the Krench 
 academy, which only appeared in 1629, and was not 
 eftablilhed into an academy before the year 1655. lis 
 hillory is written in the German tongue by George 
 Ncumarck. 
 
 Thi French Academy, which had its rife from a mcct- 
 ingof menoflcttersinthe huufeof IM. Conrart,in 1629. 
 In 1635, it was erected into an academy, by Cardinal 
 Richlieu, for rcliniiig and afcert.iining the French lan- 
 guage and llile. — 'I he number of its members are li- 
 mited at 40 ; out of whom a director, chancellor, and 
 Iccretary, are to be chofen : the two former hold their 
 port for two months, the latter is perpetual. The mem- 
 bers of this academy enjoy fcveral privileges and im- 
 munities, among which ib that of not being obliged to 
 anfwer before any court but that of the king's houfe- 
 hold. They meet three times a-wcek in the Louvre ; 
 at breaking up, 40 lilver medals arc diftributcd among 
 them, having on one fide the king of France's head, 
 and on the rcverfc, Prtt.cUur dil' Acadtmii, with lau- 
 rel, and this motto, A /' Itnmtrtiiitte. By this dillri- 
 butiou, the attendance of the Acadaailh is fecurcd, 
 thofe who are prcfcnt receiving the furplus otherwife 
 intended for the abfeut. To elect or expel a member, 
 at Icall iS are required ; nor can any be chofen unlcfs 
 he petition for it: by this expedient, the affront of 
 refufals from pcrfons elciilcd is avoided. Religious are 
 not admitted ; nor can any noblemen, or perfon of 
 dirtinCtion, be admitted on another footing than as a 
 man of letters. None arc to be expelled, except for 
 bafc and diihonclt pradices ; and there are but two 
 inftances of fuch expulfions, the tirfl of M. Granier 
 forrefufing to return adepofit, the other of the Abbe 
 Furetierefor plagiarifm. Thcdelignof this acade- 
 my was 10 give not only rules, but examples, of good 
 writing. They began with making fpceches on iub- 
 jecls taken at pleafurc, about 20 of which were print- 
 ed. They met with great oppolition from the parlia- 
 ment at their tirft inllitution ; it being two years be- 
 fore the patents granted by the king would be regifter- 
 cd. l"hey have been fcvercly fatyrized, and their (tylc 
 lias been ridiculed as encrvatin'> inftcad of rcHningihc 
 Frijnch language. They are alfo charged with having 
 furfcited the world by (lattery, and hiving cxhaulled 
 all the topics of panegyric in praifc of their founder ; 
 it being a duty incumbent on every member, at his ad- 
 Tuiihon, to make a fpecch in praife of t!ic king, the 
 cardinakthe chancellor Scguier,ai:d the perfon in vvhofe 
 place heiseledcd. The mod remarkable work of this 
 academy is a didionary of the French tongue : which, 
 after jo years fp:nt in fettling the words and phralcs 
 10 be ufcd in wrilina;, was at lad publiihcd in 1694. 
 
 The foundati'ni of an Acad-viy fimiUrio tlie aiiovc, 
 has been propofed at Pcteriburgh, by the learned priii- 
 cefs Daflikof: it is to confilt of 60 members. The 
 plan has been approved by the emprcfs, w ho has al- 
 ready given a fund for its fupport and citabliiliment. 
 
 The Royal Spani/ly Aiadcmy at Madrid held its firft Academlti 
 meeting in July i 71 ?, in the palace of its founder, the |1 
 duke d'Efcalona. It confillcd at firft of eight acadc- Acxna. 
 mifts, including the duke ; to which number 14 others " ' 
 Were afterwards added, the founder being chofen pre- 
 lidcnt or direftor. In i 714, the king granted them 
 life confirmation and protection. Their device is a cru- 
 cible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Lim- 
 pia,Fya, y da Efplendor ; " it purities, fixes, and gives 
 brightnefs." The number of members is limited to 
 24 ; the duke d'Efcalona to be diredor for life, but 
 his fucceflbrs chofen yearly, and the fecrctary to be 
 perpetual. Their objed, as marked out by the royal 
 declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national 
 language : they were to begin with chooling carefully 
 fuch words and phrafes as have been ufcd by the bell 
 Spanifli writers ; noting the low, barbarous, or obfo- 
 lete ones ; and compoling a dictionary wherein thefc 
 may be diftinguilhcd from the former. 
 
 XII. Academies cf Politics ; as that at Paris, con- 
 fifling of fix pcrfons, w ho met at the Louvre, in the , 
 
 chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs 
 were lodged. But this academy proved of little fer- 
 vice, asthekingsof France were unwilling to truft any 
 '.ut theirminifters with the in fpcction of foreign affairs. 
 For a further account of iimilar cftablifliments, fee 
 the article Society. 
 
 Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other femi- 
 iiaries of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins 
 and dodors inftruded their youth in the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, and explained to them the Talmud and the fe- 
 crets of the caballa : Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon 
 have been the nioft noted. 
 
 The Romans had a kind of military academies, efta- 
 bliihcd in all the cities of Italy, under the name of 
 Canifii Martis. Here the youth were admitted to be 
 trained for war at the public expence. The Greeks, 
 befide academies of this kind, had military profeffors 
 called Tiiclici, who taught all the higher offices of 
 war, &c. &c. 
 
 Academy is often ufcd to denote a kind of col- 
 legiate feminiry, where youth are inftruded in arts 
 and fciences. There is one inPorlfmouth for teaching 
 navigation, drawing, &c. ; another at Woolwich, for 
 fortification, gunnery, &c. — Bclides thcic, there are 
 numerous academies, efpecially in London, for teach- 
 ing mathematics, languages, writing, accounts, 
 drawing, and other branches of learning. 
 
 The nonconformift minillcrs, &c. arc bred up in 
 private academies; as not approving the common u- 
 nivcrlity education. The principal of their academies 
 are tliofe in London, Daventry, and Warrington. 
 
 Academy is likewife a name given to a riding- 
 fchool, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the 
 great horic, &c. and the ground allotted is ufually cal- 
 led the Manege. 
 
 AciDF-.w Figure, a drawing of a naked man or wo- 
 man, taken from the life ; which is ufually done oil 
 p.'.per with red or black chalk, and fomctimcs wii h pa- 
 Itilsor CRAYOi^s. See Ac A DEMY, N" VI. par. 4. /"/jOri?. 
 ACADlii, or Acady, in geography, a name for- 
 merly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. See 
 Nov 1 Stfitin. 
 
 AC/liNA . in antiquity, aCrecian meafureof length, 
 being a ten f:et-rod; ufed in meafuring their lands. 
 
 Ac^NA,
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 47 ] 
 
 A c: A 
 
 AciNA, in botany, a genus of the iiioiiogynia or- 
 der belonging to the tctraiiclria clafs ol" plants ; the 
 charadcrs of which arc thcic : The calyx is a pcrian- 
 ' thium conliftingof four leaves, which ate ovate, con- 
 cave, equal, anjpcrlillcnt ; there is no corol.a : The 
 Jlauihia cM\hl\s of tour equal niiddlc-lizedHlaments op- 
 polite to the calyx ; the anthcrae arc quadrangular, 
 twin, erect : iVcpijIilluin has an inverfcly-ovate hifped 
 gcrnt ; the Ilylus is fmall, and inticftcd on one tide ; 
 and the lligniais a fniall thickilh coloured membrane, 
 divided into many ftgmcnts : Tlie pericai pium is an 
 inverfcly-ovated dry one-ccllcd berry covered with 
 prickUs bent backwards : Theyj-f^^is linglc. There 
 is only one fpccies, a native of NIexico. 
 
 ACAJOU, or Cashew-nut-tkee. iiec Akacar- 
 
 D 1 U M . 
 
 Ac ALANDRUS, a river falling into the bay of 
 Tarentum, not far from the iMetapontuin, (Pliny, Sira- 
 bo) ; now FiuKii d; R'.f(.to. 
 
 AC A LEPriC, in ancle ntprofody, a complete vcrfe. 
 
 ACALYPHA, the Three-seeded MERcuav, 
 a genus of plants belonging to the monoetia mona- 
 delphia clafs. The characters of this genus arc the 
 following. — Male ji^wirs crowded above the female 
 ones : The ca/j't is a three or four-leaved pcriaiuhiuni, 
 the leaflets roundilh, concave, and equal: T\\ccoroila\.% 
 wanting : The Jlaiiiina have from 6 to rS lilaments, 
 which arc lliort, crowded, and connedcd at the bafe ; 
 the antherse arc roundilh — FemaL-fiowen fewer, pla- 
 ced beneath, and received into a large divided involu- 
 crura : The calyx is a perianthium, conlifling of three 
 leaflets, which are concave, converging, fmall, and 
 perliflent : isocorolla.- The/i//7/////whasaroundilliger- 
 men : the flyli are three, branchy, oftcncr tripartite, 
 andlong; theAigmataarc llmple : Tlic/ifr;ca/-^;//whas 
 a roundifli trifulcated trilocular capfulc, the valvulets 
 gaping two ways : Thc/ei.-ds arc folitary, roundilh, and 
 large. — This genus ranks in the 58th natural order, 
 Trtcocc.r. There arc Ave fpccies, all natives of Virginia. 
 
 ACAMANTIS (the ancient name of the illand of 
 Cyprus), taken from one of its promontories fituated 
 to the wed, and called Acaviai. Teos in Ionia was 
 alfo called thus from Acamus the founder. 
 
 ACAMAS, AcAMANTis (anc. geog.), the weft 
 promontory of the illand of Cyprus, from whence it 
 took its ancient name : now Cape Pifanio or Epifanio, 
 where formerly was a town of the fame name, now a 
 village called Crufocco. 
 
 AcAMAS, fon of Thefcus, followed the rcfl of the 
 Grecian princes to the liege of Troy ; and was deputed, 
 with Diomedes, tothc Trojans, in order to get Helsii 
 rcftored. Laodicc, Priam's daughter, fell in love with 
 him, ftolea nisht with him, and had a fon by him call- 
 ed Munilus. He wis one of the heroes who concealed 
 thcmfelves in tlie wooden horfe. One of the tribes of 
 Athens was called Acamantida from him, by the ap- 
 pointmcntof theoracle ; and he founded a city in Phry- 
 gia Major, called Acatiiantiuvi. Homer mentions 
 two other heroes of this name ; one a Thracian prince 
 who came to fuccour Priam, another a fon of Ante- 
 nor. 
 
 ACANACEOUS PLANTS, fuchasare armed with 
 prickles. 
 
 ACANGIS, that is, Ravagers or Aihtnturfrs ; a 
 name which the Turks give their huflars or H.^ht- 
 
 troops, who are generally lent out in detachments to Acantfia 
 procure intelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the | 
 
 country. Acartlut. 
 
 ACANTHA, in botany, the prickle of any plant; *^~^ 
 
 in zooloi^y, a term for the fpinc or prickly tins of 
 liQies. 
 
 ACANTHABOLUS, in furgery, an inftrumcnt 
 for pulling thoriis, or the like, out of the Ikin. 
 
 aCANTHINE, any thing refembling or belong- 
 ing to the herb acanthus. Acanthine garments, among 
 the ancients, are faid to be made of the down of thi- 
 rties ; others think they were garments embroidcd iii 
 imitation of the acanthus. 
 
 ACANTHOPTKRYGIOUS fishes, a term ufed 
 by Linnoeus and others for li.ofe tilheswhofc back-tins 
 are hard, olTeous, and pricLly. 
 
 .^CAjNTHOS, a town of Egypt, near Memphis, 
 (Pliny) ; now bifaltj. Alfo a mariiime town of Ma- 
 cedonia, to the weft of mount Athos, a colo.iy of An- 
 drians,(Thucyilides,Ptolemy);uow£'r;j/c.; near which 
 was fliown Xerxcs'sdiich, ot feven ftadia, in order to 
 feparate mount Athos from the continent, and convey 
 his fliips, without doubling Athos, into the Singitic 
 Bay. Acauth'js, is alfo a town of Epirus. 
 
 ACANTHUS, bear's-dkeech, or brank-tirfine, 
 in botany : a genus of the angiofpermia order, be- 
 longing to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and ranking 
 in the 4th natural order, Perfonatx. The generic 
 eharafters are : The calyx is a perianthium with leaf- 
 lets of three alternate pairs unequal and perliflent: The 
 corolla isone-petal'dand uncqi:al; the tubus very Ihort, 
 clofcd with a beard; no upper-lip, the under-one very 
 large, flat, ftraight, very broad, thrcc-lohed, and ob- 
 tuft : The fiamiiia have four Tubulated filaments Ihor- 
 ter than the corolla ; the two fuperior rather longer, 
 recurvatc, and incurved at the top ; the anthers; arc 
 oblong, comprtlled,obtufc,lateral,paralkl,and villous 
 before: ihe piftillnm his a conic germcn; a filiform 
 flylus, the length of the ilamina ; and two acute la- 
 teral ftigmata : The periauthi-jiu is an acutely-ovateJ 
 bilocularcapfule, with a lateral partition : Thc/aJt 
 one or two, flefliy and gibbous. 
 
 Specici. I . The mollis, or common bear's-brecch, a 
 native of Italy, is the fort that is ufed in medicine, and 
 is fuppofcd to be the r/iollis ,::canthus of Virgil ; and 
 the leaves are famous for having given rife to the 
 capital of the Corinthian pillars. 2. The fpinofus, 
 or prickly bear's-brecch ; the leaves of which are 
 deeply jagged in very regular order, and each feg- 
 ment is terminated with a Iharp fpine, as are alio the 
 footftalksofthelcavesandthe einpalemcntofthe flow- 
 er, whichrenders it troublcfome to handle them. ;.lli- 
 cifolius, or flirubby bear's-brecch, grows naturally in 
 both the Indies. It is an evergreen Ihrub, which rifes 
 about for feet high ; and is divided into many branch- 
 es, garnilhcd with leaves like thofc of the commoa 
 holly, and armed with fpines in the fame manner: 
 the flowers are white, and Ihaped like thofe of the 
 common acanthus, but fniallcr. 4. The nigra, or 
 Portugilbear's-breech,wiih fmooth linuatcd leaves of 
 a livid green colour, was difcovcrcd in Portugal by 
 Dr Jurfieu of the royal garden at Paris, j. The mid- 
 dle bear's-breech, with entire leaves, havin;; fpines 
 on their border, is fuppofcd to be tie acanthus of 
 Diofv.oridcs. 
 
 Culture
 
 • 4.37,S'3Cl 
 Sterling. 
 
 A C A [ 48 
 
 Cnltrire,icc. They arc all perennial plants. ThcfirR 
 and fccond fpcciesmay be propagated citiicrby feeds, 
 or by oificts from the roots. The beit way is to raifc 
 them fioin the feeds : which (houUI be fown about the 
 end of iMarch, in a light foil. They are bcfl dropped 
 at dillanccs into lliallow drills, and covered three 
 tjiiartersof an inch with mould. When the plantsare 
 come up, the ftrongcft Ihould be marked, and the reft 
 fliould be pulled up, that tlicy may ftand at a yard di- 
 flance one from another. They require no other cul- 
 ture but to keep them clear from weeds. The third, 
 fourth, and Kfth forts, are propagated only by feeds ; 
 which, as they do not ripen in Kurope, mufl be ob- 
 tained from the places in which they grow naturally: 
 the plants arc fo tender, that they cannot be prefer- 
 vedoutof tlieflove in nortliern countries. — The firft 
 fpecics is the fort ufcdin medicine. All the parts of it 
 havcafoftfweetilh tafte, and abound with a mucilagin- 
 ous juice: its virtues do not fecni to differ from thofe 
 ofalthca and other mucilaginous plants. 
 
 Ac.i VTH usjinarchitcdure, an ornament reprefent- 
 ing the leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of 
 the Corinthian and Compofue orders. 
 
 ACAPULCO, a con(idcrable town and port in 
 Mexico, on the South Sea. It has a fine harbour, from 
 whence a ihip annually fails to Manila in the Philip- 
 pine idands, near the coaft of China in Alia ; and an- 
 other returns annually from thence with all the trca- 
 furesof the eaft Indies, fuch as diamonds, rubies, fap- 
 phircs, and other precious Hones ; the rich carpets of 
 Perfia ; the camphire of Borneo; the benjamin and 
 ivory of Pegu and Cambodia, liie filks, muliins, and 
 calicoes, of the Mogul's country ; the gold-duft, tea, 
 china-ware, lilk, and cabinets, of China and Japan ; 
 bcfidcs cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper; 
 infomuchthat this Tingle ihip contains more riches than 
 many whole fleets. The goods brought to Acapuleo 
 are caried to the city ofMexico by mules and pack- 
 horfes ; and from thence to Vera Cruz on the North 
 Sea, in order to be fliipped for Europe. Acapuleo itfelf 
 is a fmall place, coufifting about 2 or 300 thatched 
 houfes. Ships arrive at the port by two inlets, fepa- 
 rated from each other by a fmall illand : the entrance 
 into them in the day-time is by means of a fea-brceze, 
 as the failing out in the night-time is cfTetted by a 
 land-breeze. A wretched fort, 42 pieces of cannon, 
 and a garrifon of 60 men, defend it. It is equally ex- 
 tenfive, fafe, and commodious. The hafon which con- 
 flitutes this harbour is furrounded by lofty m.ouniains, 
 which are fo dry, that they are cvendeftitute of water. 
 The air here is hot, heavy, and unwholefome ; to 
 which none can habituate themfelvcs, except certain 
 negroes that arc born under a (imi'ar climate, orfomc 
 nv.ilattoes. This feeble and miferable colony is crow- 
 ded with a vaft accedion to its numbers upon the arri- 
 val of the galleons ; traders flocking here from all the 
 provincesof Mexico, who come to exchange European 
 toys, their own cochineal, a]id' about ten millions* of 
 lilver for fpices, muflins, printed linens, lilk, per- 
 fumes, and the gold works of Afia. W. Long. 102. 
 29. N. Lat. 17- 30. 
 
 AC.ARAI, a town of Paraguay in South America, 
 built by the Jefuitsin 1624. Long 116. 40. S. lat., 26'. 
 
 ACARAUNA, a fmall American fifli, called by 
 ourfailars tl'S old-nv'.fc. See Labrus. 
 3 
 
 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 ACARNANIA, tlie firft country of Free Greece, Aranmnix 
 or Greece Proper, bounded on the well by the Sinus I 
 Ambracius, and fcparated from /Ktolia by the river _^"|f" 
 Achelous on the eaft, and by the Sinus Ambracius " ' 
 from Epirus. The people were called Acarnaites, de- 
 noting perfons unlhorn ; other Etolians, to the call of 
 the Achelous, being called Curctis (Homer) from 
 being fliorn. According to Lucian, they were noted 
 for erfeminancy and incontinence ; hence the proverb, 
 Porcetliii Acariianiiis. This country was famous for 
 anexcellent breed of horfes ; fothalAitaf»ixeci»-^©^, is 
 a proverbial faying for a thing excellent in its kind. 
 It is now called la Cjrn'ne and il Defpotato. 
 
 ACARON,or AccARON, a town of Paleftine, call- 
 ed £^)(3;/ in fcripture. It was the boundary of the Phi- 
 liftincs to the north ; ftood at fome diftance from the 
 fca, near Bethfllemelli ; and was famous for the idol of 
 Baalzcbub. 
 
 ACAIIUS, the Tick or Mite, a genus of infedls 
 belonging to the order of aptera, or fuch as have no 
 wings. The acarus has eight legs ; two eyes, one on 
 each fide of the head ; and two jointed tentacula. The 
 female is oviparous. Linnaeus enumerates 35 fpecies ; 
 of which fome arc inhabitants of the earth, ibmc of 
 waters ; fome live on trees, others among ftones, and 
 others on the bodies of other animals, and even under 
 their fkin. The defcription of a few of the moft re- 
 markable will here fufficc. 
 
 I. The firo, or checfe-mitc, is a very minute fpecics. 
 To the naked eye, thefe mites appear like moving par- 
 ticles of duft : but the microfcope difcovers them to 
 be perfed; animals, having as regular a figure, and per- 
 forming all the funtlions of life as perfeftly, as crea- 
 tures that exceed them many times in bulk. The prin- 
 cipal parts of them are the head, the neck, and the 
 body. The head is fmall in proportion to the body ; 
 and has a fliarp fnout, and a mouth that opens and fliuts 
 like a mole's. They have two fmall eyes, and arc ex- 
 tremely quickfighted ; and when they have been once 
 touched with a pin, you may eafily perceive how cun- 
 ningly they avoid a fecond touch. Their legs are each 
 furnilhed at the extremity with two little claws, with 
 which the animal very nicely takes hold of any thing. 
 The hinder part of the body is plump and bulky ; and 
 ends in an oval form, from which there ilfue out a few 
 exceeding long hairs. Other parts of the body arc 
 alfo befet with thin and long hairs. The males and 
 females are eafily diftinguiflicd in thefe little animals. 
 The females are oviparous, as the loufe and fpider ; 
 and from their eggs the young are hatched in their 
 proper form, without having any change to undergo 
 afterwards. They are, however, when firft hatched, 
 extremely minute ; and, in tlieir growing to their full 
 fize, they eaft their (kins feveral times. Thefe little 
 creatures may be kept alive many months between two 
 concave glarfes, and applied to the microfcope at plea- 
 fure. They are thus often feen tn coiiti, conjoined tail 
 to tail ; and this is performed by an incredibly fwifc 
 motion. Their eggs, in warinwea;hcr, hatch in 12 
 or 14 days; bat in winter they are much longer. 
 Thefe eggs arc fo fmall, that a regular computation 
 ftiows, that 90 millions of them are not fo large as a i 
 
 common pigeon's egg *. They are very voracious ani- • Bakir's . 
 mals, and have often been feen to eat one another. iW/Vro/io/*/. 
 Their manner of eating is by thrufting alternately one p- JS?. 
 
 jaw
 
 A C A 
 
 [ 49 ] 
 
 A C A 
 
 Acar'ji. j.iw forward an J the o;hcr backward, mo' i.i this nian- 
 
 ^" — •J-'—' ncr griiijin^ their food ; and after they h^ive done 
 
 feeding, thty fccm to cliew the cud. — There are fc- 
 
 vcral varieties of this fpecics found in dili'crent fub- 
 
 Aaaces bclidcs chcefc ; as in malt-daft, flour, oatmeal, 
 
 &c. Thofe in malt dull and oat-meal are much nimbler 
 
 than the chcefe-mites, and liavemore andlonger hairs. 
 
 There are alfo a fort of wandering mites, which range 
 
 ■wherever there is any thing they can feed on : They 
 
 are often fccn in the form of a white duft, and are not 
 
 fufpcilet'- to be living creatures — The niitc is called 
 
 by authors, finiply, Acaini. It is an animal very ten.i- 
 
 cious of life, and will live months withont food. Mr 
 
 t Arcati. Lcwenhoek f had one which lived ii weeks on the 
 
 Nai. tnm. point of a pin, on which he had lixed it for examining 
 
 iv. i>. 368. jjy j^j5 niicrofcope. 
 
 2. The fanguifugus. The hinder part of the abdo- 
 men is crenated, the fcuttellum is oval and yellowifli, 
 and the beak is trilid. It is a native of America, and 
 flicks fo faft on the legs of travellers, fucking their 
 blood, that they can hardly be extraifled. 
 
 3. The telarius is of a greenilh yellow colour. It 
 has a fniall Uing or weapon, with which it wounds the 
 leaves of plants, andoccafions them to fold backward. 
 They are very frequently to be met with in the autumn, 
 inclofed in the folded leaves of the lime-tree. 
 
 4. The exulcerans, or itch-acarus, is a very fmall 
 fpecies : its body is of a rigurc approaching Vj oval, 
 and lobated ; the head is fniall and pointed ; its colour is 
 whitilh, but it has two duiky femicircular lines on the 
 back. It has long fetaceous legs, but the two hrrt are 
 fliort. It is found in the pu fillies of the itch : authors in 
 general have fuppofed that it caufcs that difeafc ; but 
 others obfcrve, that if this were fo, it would be found 
 more univerfally in thofe puftules. It is more proba- 
 ble that thefe only make a proper nidus for it. Sec, 
 however, the article Itch. 
 
 J. The batatas is of a blood-colour, and a little 
 rough ; the fore pair of legs are as long as the body. 
 It inhabits the potatoes of Surinam. 
 
 6. The ovinus, or Ihecp-tick, has a flat body, of a 
 roundifh figure, but fomewhat approaching to oval, 
 and of a yellowilh white colour, and has a fingle large 
 round fpot on tlieback: the anus is vifiblc in the lower 
 part of the body ; the thorax is fcarce confpicuous ; 
 the head is very fmall and black ; the mouth is bifid : 
 the antenna: are of a clavated figure, andof the length 
 of the fuout ; the legs are Ihort and black. It is com- 
 mon onflieep,and its excrements Itain the wool green : 
 it will live in the wool many months after it is ihorn 
 from the animal. 
 
 7. Thecoleoptraiorum, or ararus of infefts, is ex- 
 tremely minute : itsbody is round, reddifli, aiidcover- 
 cd with a firm and hardil-cin ; the licad is very fuiall, 
 the neck f'.arcc viliblc ; the legs are maderately long, 
 the anterior pair longer than the others-, it hasawhitt- 
 ntfs about the anus. It is frequent on the bodies of 
 many infeds, whichit int'cfis.as the loufe doooihers; 
 it runs very fwifily : the humble bee, and many uthcr 
 of the larger infeits, arc continually infcllcd with it ; 
 but none fo much as the common black beetle, which 
 
 • has thence been called the loufy beetle. 
 
 8. The baccarum, or fcarlct tree-mile, is a fmall 
 fpccif s : iisbody is roundilh, and the back not at all 
 flatted, as it is in many others ; the Ikiu is fuiooth. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Ihinijii^, and glofly ; and the whole oniintl fecms di- 
 Jtcnded, and ready to bunt ; the coloMr is a bright 
 red, but a little dufkier on the fiJti than elfcwhtrc : 
 the head is very fmall, and the legs fhort ; there is on 
 each lide a fmall dulky fpot near the thorax, and a few 
 hairs grow from ditfercnt parts of the body. It is \c- 
 ry common on trees, particularly on the currant, on 
 the frait of which we frequently fee it running. 
 
 9. The longicornis, or red (louc-acarus, is very 
 fniall, and of a bright red colour ; the body is round, 
 and dillcnded ; the head is ver)- finall and pointed ; 
 the legs arc moderately long, and of a paler red than 
 the body : the antennK are much longer than in any 
 other fpecies. It is frequent about old ftone-walls and 
 on rocks, and runs very nimbly. Sec Plate I. 
 
 10. The aquaticus is a fmall fpecies : the body is of 
 a figure approaching to an oval, and the back appear* 
 deprtifed; it is of a bright and Itrong fcarlct colour. 
 The head is (mail ; the legs are moderately long and 
 firm, and are of a paler red than the body. It is com- 
 mon in (hallow waters, w here it runs very fwifily along 
 the bottom. Its diminutivcncfs hinders the beauty of 
 its colours from being perceived, as they are not dif- 
 ccrnible without the niicrofcope, 
 
 1 1 . The holofericeus is a fmall fpecies : its body is 
 roundilh, but a little approaching to oval ; the back 
 fomewhat deprelfed : it is of a fine fcarlet colour, and 
 covered with a velvety down. The head is very (mall; 
 the eyes are two, and very fmall ; tlie legs arc (hurt 
 and of a paler red, and there is a fmall black fpot near 
 the infertion of the anterior ones. It is very common 
 under the furface of the earth, and fometimes on herbs 
 and among hay. It is fuppofed to be poifonous if 
 (wallowed ; but we do not feem to have any certain 
 account of fuch an eflect. 
 
 12. Thelongpipes is the largeftof the aearus kind : 
 its body is roundidi, of a dulky brown on the back, 
 with a duflder fpot of a rhomboidal figure near the 
 middle of it ; the belly is whitilh ; the legs arc ex- 
 tremely long and (lender. On the back part of the 
 head there (lands a little eminence, which has on it a 
 kind of double crcll, formed as it were of a number of 
 minute fpines : the eyes are fmall and black', and are 
 two in jiumbcr. It is very common in paftures 
 towards the end of fnmmer. Ray and Liller call it 
 iiraneiti cruflatui tongpifes ; MouuCt, anicm li.i:g- 
 pipti ; and, notwithflanding its having but two eyes, 
 it has been almofl univerfally ranked among the fpi- 
 dcrs. 
 
 ACASTUS, in clalJic hiftory, the fonof Pclias king- 
 ofThellaly. and one of the moil famous huraers of his 
 time, married Kippolyta, who falling defprrately in 
 love with Pclcus her fon-in-law,andhe refufing to irra- 
 tify her wilhes, flic accufcd him to her hulb^nd of a 
 rape ; on which he (lew them both. 
 
 'AC.ATALLCTIC, a term, ia the ancient poetry, 
 for fuch vcrfts as have all their feet or fyllablcs, in 
 com radi ft in it ion to ilu.fc that have a fyllable top few. 
 
 ACATALLPSV, lignifies the impolTibility of com- 
 prcliending fomethiiig — The dirtingui(hing tenet of 
 the Pyrrhonifts was their alTertiiig an abfolute acata- 
 lepfy in regard to every thing. 
 
 ACATKRY, or Accatrv, anciently an ofiiccr of 
 the king's houfchold, de(i;;ncd forachcck betwixt the 
 clerks of the kitchen and the purveyors. 
 
 G ACA- 
 
 /icsriu 
 
 Acu-
 
 A C C 
 
 f 5^ J 
 
 A C C 
 
 ACA'I'HARISLA, in nicJicinc, an impurity of tlic 
 bl'.od or i.uinoiirs. 
 
 AC ATIIISTUS, the name of a fokmn hymn an- 
 ciently I'linfr in the Greek cluirch on tiic Saiurday of 
 ihc liltii wttkof Lent, i;i honour of the \'irgin, for 
 l.aviiig thrice delivered Conftantinopic from the inva- 
 lionsof the barbarous nations. 
 
 ACAIIUM, in the ancient navigation, a kind of 
 boat or pinnace ufed for military purpofcs. The aca- 
 liic/i was a fpccics of thofe vclltls called naves a[ina- 
 lia-, i. e. fiich as were wrought with oars. It was 
 f )metimcs made ufc of in battle. Strabo dcfcribes 
 it as a privateer or private (loop. 
 
 ACAULIS, in -feotany, a term applied to certain 
 plants, the (low crs of which have no pcdiculc or llalk 
 to f ipport them, but reft immediately on tlie ground, 
 fuch as the ciirline ihillle, &c. 
 
 ACCA (St), bilhop of Haj^uflalJt, or Hexham, in 
 Northumberland, fuccteded Wilfridiii that ice in 709. 
 l!c ornamented his cathedral in a moll nuignilicent 
 Planner : he furnillicd it alio with plate and holy vcft- 
 ments ; and ereftcd a noble library, eonlilUng chicrty 
 of ecclelialliral learning, and a large colledion of tlic 
 Jives of the fjints, which he v, as at great pains to pro- 
 cure. — He was accounted a very able divine, and was 
 famous for his (kill ii church-niulic. He wrote feveral 
 pieces : particularly, I'njjiones SaiiSiortuii, the Suffer- 
 ings of the Saints: Fro uluflraiidis fclptuns, ad Be- 
 dam; for explaining the fcriptures, addrclTcd to Bede. 
 He died in 740, havingenjoyed the Iccof Hexham 31 
 years, under Kgbert king of the Northumbrians. 
 
 ACCALIA, in Roman antiquity, folcmn fclHvals 
 held in honour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus's nurfc : 
 they were othcrwile called Laurf.ntalia. 
 
 ACCAPITARK, in law, the aft of becoming vaf- 
 fal of a lord, or of yielding him homage and obedience. 
 Hence, 
 
 ACCAPITUM, fignities the money paid by a valTal 
 upon his adniilfion to a feu. 
 
 AccAPtTi'M, in ancient law, was ufcd alfo to 
 cxprefs the relief due to the chief lord. Sec Rei.iek. 
 
 ACCEDASau Curiam, in the Engiilh hw, a 
 writ lying, where a man has received, or fears, fall'e 
 judgment in an inferior court. It lies alfo for jufiicc 
 delayed, and is a fpecics of the writ Rfcordare. 
 
 ACCKLERATION, ill mechanics, the increafe of 
 velocity in a ir.oving body. Accelerated motion is that 
 wliich continually receives frclh acccfllons of velocity. 
 Acceleration flands dirCL-Uy oppofed 10 rctardat'iot:, 
 which denotes adiminution of velocity. 
 
 Acceleration is chieHy ufcd in phyfics, in re- 
 fpciit of falling bodies, /. c. of heavy bodies tending to- 
 wards the centre of the earth by the force of gravity. 
 That natural bodies are accelerated in their o'efccnt, is 
 evident from various donfulcrations, both a priori and 
 pcjleriori. — Thus, we aftually find, that the greater 
 height a body falls from, the greater impreflion it 
 makes, and the more vehemently does it flrike the fub- 
 jeft plane, or other obftacle. 
 
 Various were the fyflems and opinions which philo- 
 fophers produced to account for this acceleration. But 
 the immediate caufe of acceleration is now fufHcicntly 
 obvious; the principle of gravitation, which deter- 
 mines the body to defcend, deter.-nining it to be acce- 
 lerated by a ncccflary confequence. 
 
 Stippofc a uody let fall from on high : tl;c prin;ary Acali-ra- 
 laufc ofits bcgihiiiugtodcfccnd isdoubtlefs ihcpower •'<">• 
 of gravity ; but when once the dtfcent iscomuunccd, " "' 
 that Hate becomes in fjme meafure natural to the bo- 
 dy J fo that if left to itftlf, it would perfevere in it 
 for ever, even though the fird caufe fiiould ccafe : as 
 we fee in 3 flone calt with the hand, which continues 
 to move a('tcr it is left by the caufe that gave it mo- 
 tion. But, belidc the propenlity to defcend imprelTed 
 by the lird caufe, and v.hich of itftlf were fiiriicient 
 to continue the fame degree of motion, once begun, 
 ;// infittitum ; there is a conltant accclllon of fubfcipicnt 
 efforts of the fame principle, gravity, which continues 
 to aft on lilt body already in motion, \•^. the fame man- 
 ner as if it were at rcil. Here, then, being a double 
 cauic of motion ; and both ailing in the lame direc- 
 tion, viz. dirtftly tow ards th.e centre of the earth ; the 
 motion they jointly produce mu/l nccellarily be greater 
 
 than that of any one of them And the velocity thus 
 
 incrcafed having the l".ime caufe of increafe dill per- 
 iilting, the dtfcent mud nccelfarily be continually ac- 
 celerated. 
 
 The morion of a body afcending, or impelled up- 
 wards, is diminillied or retarded from the fame prin- 
 ciple of gravity, acting in acontrary dircftion, in the 
 fame manner asa falling body is accelerated : See Re- 
 tardation. A body thus projefted upwards, rifes till 
 it has lod all its motion : which it docs in the fame 
 time that a body falling would have acquired a veloci- 
 ty equal to that wherewith the body was thrown up. 
 Hence the fame body thrown up, will rift to the 
 fame height from which fallingit would have acquired 
 the velocity wherewith it was thrown up : And hence 
 the heights which bodies thrown up with different 
 velocities do afcend to, are to one another as the 
 fquares of thofe velocities. 
 
 jIccelf.r iTios of Bodies of inclined Plains. The fame 
 general law obtains here as in bodies falling perpendi- 
 cularly : the effcftof the plane is to make the motion 
 (lower; but the inclination being every where equal, 
 the retardation ariling therefrom will proceed equally 
 in all parts, at the beginning and at the ending of the 
 motion. Sec Mechanics. 
 
 y^ccELERyiT/ox of the Motion of PendultaKS — Thcmo- 
 tion of pendulous bodies is accelerated in their dc- 
 frent ; but in a kfs ratio than that of bodies falling 
 perpendicularly. See Mechanics and Pendulum. 
 
 }}ccF.LERATios'jfthe Motioii cf PrcjeSiiles. ^cc Pro- 
 ject n. E . 
 
 Accelerat:o."j is alfo applied in the ancient aftro- 
 r.omy, in rcfpeft of the lixcd liars. — This acceleration 
 was the difference between the revolution of the /W- 
 mtim mobile and the folar revolution ; which was com- 
 puted at three minutes and 56 feconds. 
 
 jicczi.tR/mos oj the iMoon, a term ufed to cxprcis 
 the increafe of the moon's mean motion from the fun, 
 compared with the diurnal motion of the earth ; fo that 
 it is now a little fwifter than it was formerly. Dr Hal- 
 ley wasthcfirft who made this difcovcry ; and he was 
 led to it by comparing the ancient cclipfcs obferved at 
 Babylon with thofe obferved by Albatennius in the 
 ninth century, and fomc of his own time. He wai 
 not able to afccrtain the quantity of this acceleration, 
 becaufe the longitudes of Bagdad, Alexandria, and 
 Aleppo, where the o'jfervations were made, had not 
 
 been
 
 A C C 
 
 { 5i ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 Accclera- bceii accurately dctcnni:icJ. Bal ih'.cic his time, tlic 
 tioii longitude of Alcxiiulria has been afcertaiacd by Cha- 
 I zcllcs ; and Babylon, according to Ptolemy's account, 
 Acccndonct jj^.^ ^^. ^.^^ jYoiu Alexandria. From thde data, Mr 
 Dimi liornc com pared fcveril ancient and modern eclip- 
 fcs,wiih the calculations of them, by hisown tables, and 
 lurcby verified Dr IloUcy's opinion ; for he found that 
 the fame tables rcprcfcut the moon's place more back- 
 waril than her true place in ancient etlipfcs, and more 
 forward than her trueplace in later cclipfcs ; and thence 
 jiiflly inferred, that her motion in ancient times was 
 llowcr ; i;i]atcr times (jiiicker, than the tables give it. 
 Cut he did not content himfclf with merely afccrtaiii- 
 iiigthe fait ; he proceeded to determine the quantity 
 of the acceleration ; and by means of the moll ancient 
 cclipfc of which any authentic acco.int remains, ob- 
 fcrved at Babylon in die year before Chrift 721, he 
 concluded, thatthe obfcr\ed beginning of this ecliplc 
 was not above an hour and three-quarters before the 
 beginning by the tables ; and therefore the moon's true 
 place could precede her place by computation but little 
 more than 50' of a degree at that time. Admitting 
 the acceleration to be uniform, and the aggregate of 
 it as a fquare of the time, it will be at the rate of 
 about 10' in 100 years. 
 
 Dr. Long attributes the acceleration above dcfcribed 
 to one or more of thefe cjufes : cither, t. The annual 
 and diurnal motion of the earth continuing the fame, 
 tlie moon is really carried round the earth with a great- 
 er velocity than heretofore : or, 2. The diurnal motion 
 of the earth, and the periodical revolutions of the moon 
 continuing the fame, the annual motion of the earth 
 round the fun is a little retarded ; which makes the 
 fun's apparent motion in the ecliptic a little llowcr 
 than formerly, and confcqucntly, the moon in palling 
 from any coiijundion with the fun, fpends lefs time 
 before Ihe again overtakes the fun, and forms a fubfc- 
 quent conjuniflion : in both thefe cafes, the motion of 
 the moon from the fun is really accelerated, and the 
 'fynodical month actually fliortcned. Or, 5. Tlic annual 
 motion of the earth, and the periodical revolution of 
 the moon continuintr the fame, the rotation of the 
 earth round its axis is a little retarded : in this cafe 
 days, hours, minutes, feconds, &Cyby which all periods 
 of time muli be meafurcd, arc of'^a longer duration ; 
 and confequently the fynodical m.outli will appear to 
 be ihortcned, though it really contains the fame quan- 
 tity of abfolute time as it always did. If the quantity 
 of matter in the body of the fun be lelFcned by the 
 particles of light continually dreaming from it, the 
 irotionof the earth round the fun may become llowcr : 
 if the earth increafes in bulk, the motion of the moon 
 round the earth may be quickened thereby. See A- 
 
 STRONOMY. 
 
 ACCELERATOR, in anatomy, the pamc of two 
 mufclcsof the penii, which fervc for cjecling the urine 
 or fcmcn. See .Anatomy, Tj/-/.- oJ ihc MnJlL-i. 
 
 ACCENDEMTES, a lower order ofminillcrs i.i 
 the Romiih church, whofc ofikc is to light and trim 
 «he candles. 
 
 ACCEN'DONES. i.i Roman antiquity, a kind of 
 gladiators, whole olTice was to excite and animate ilic 
 com'j.tants duriii:; the en:ra;^emcr:!. The orthogra- 
 phy of the word is couteftcd : the lirft edition cf Tcr- 
 rullian, by Rhenanus, has i: .u:c.h>t:i ; an ancient 
 
 m-i.nni'-.rx^l, acceiiJo?!.'!. Aquinas auiierci to the for- Ac«.ii( 
 mer, Pitil'cus to the latter. The origin of the word, I 
 
 (iipp'ii'mgh accfiic/o/iej, is fiom acceiido, 1 kindle ; fup- J^lf^'l 
 poling it acced'jms, irovaac^sdo, I accede, am added to. 
 The former places their diilinguilhing character ii>c to- 
 livening the combat by their exhortations and fugge- 
 ftions ; the latter f-ippofes ihem to be much the f-.iae 
 with what araoiig us are c'xWcAfi.c'jndi, among the Ita- 
 lians, />.j/r5//; .• excepting that thefe laf.cr rmly fland by 
 to fee the laws of the fword duly obferved, withoji in- 
 termeddling to give advice or inllrudi on. 
 
 ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain fupernu- 
 raerary fulJiers, deligned to fupply the places of thofc 
 who Ihoald be killed or any wife difabled. They were 
 thus denominated, quia acaitfcbaKtur, or ad c:iifina 
 adjtciebaKtir. Vegetius calls them fiipcrrtuvurarit !c- 
 gioiiiitn: Cato calls them J.-nratjrii, in regard they 
 furnilhed thofe engaged in bittle with weapons, drink, 
 &c. Tliough Noniiius fuggefts another reafon of that 
 appellation, viz. becaufc they fought with Hones, fling', 
 and weapons qu^ femntlur, fuch as are thrown, not 
 carried in the hand. They were fometimes alfo called 
 ve/itis, and velati, becaafe they foughtclothed, but not 
 in armour ; fometimes adfi.ril>Ucii, and adrcriftivi ,- 
 fometimcst rcrarii. The accenji, Livjr obferves, were 
 placed ct the rear of the army, becanfe no great mat- 
 ter was expected from them : they were taken oat of 
 the fifth clafs of citizens. 
 
 AccENsi,in antiquity, denotes an inferior order ef 
 officers, appointed to attend the Roman magillraies, 
 fomewhat in the manner of uflicrs, ferjeants, or lip- 
 flaves among us. They were thus called from accirc, 
 to fend for ; one part of their office being to call allem- 
 blies of the people, fummon parties to appear and an- 
 fwer before the judges, &c. 
 
 AccEN'si,was alfo an appellation given to a kind of 
 adjutants, appointed by the tribune to affiil each cen- 
 turion and deeurion. In which fenfe, acanfus is fyno- 
 nynious with oftio. In an ancient infcription, given 
 by a Torre, we meet Accf.nsus Eq_uiTUM Romano- 
 RCM : an office nowhere clfe heard of. That author 
 fufpeds it for a corruption j and infleid thereof reads 
 
 A CCENSIBUS. 
 
 ACCENSION, the aftion of fetting a body on fire : 
 thus the accenlion of tinder is effeftcdby ftrikinir fire 
 with flint and fteel. ° 
 
 ACCENT, in reading or fpeaking, an inSeclion of 
 the voice, which gives to each fyllablc of a word it; 
 due pitch in refpeit of hei:^ht or lownefs. See rkad- 
 l.N'G. The Word is originally Latin, acantu! : a com- 
 pound oiad, to ; and cani, to lln^. j^-tiitui, q:iaff, 
 adca>:tus, or juxta caiiuim. In this fenfe, accent is iy- 
 nonymons with the Greek «.».- ; the Latin ttn^r, or 
 
 ioiior •, and the Hebrew cryc, g'iftus, tafte For the 
 
 do.^rine of ./ain-./jin Co:r.poj:t'r.ii, fee Poetry, Pirt III. 
 N° 103. 114. 
 
 Accent, among grammarians, is a certain mark or 
 charatler placed over a fyllable, to dirc^ the jlrcfs of 
 its pronunciation. We generally reckon three gram- 
 matical accents in ordinary ufe, all borrowed from t!;r 
 Greeks, viz. the acuic acfut, ('), which ihows whc:: 
 the tone of the voice is to be raifcd. 1\\cgr.i:c o.- 
 ci'it O.whcn the note or tone of the voice'is to be 
 deprelTcd. The draimfltx iHcoit (' or "), iscompofcd 
 oflx'th the acute and the grave, and points out a kind 
 G 2
 
 A C C 
 
 [ i2 ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 Accent, of iinJiilatiou of the voice. The Latins have made the 
 
 ' ^ fai-ic ufcof tlicl'c three accents. 
 
 The Hebrews have agrainmatical, a rhetorical, and 
 nui Ileal accent : though the firll and lall feeni, in etfed, 
 lo^bc the fame ; both being comprifcd under the ge- 
 neral n:ime o( Ionic (iccc-i/ii , becaiife they give the pro- 
 per tone to fyllaliles ; as the rhetorical accents are faiJ 
 to be euphonic, bccaufc they tend to make the 
 pronunciation more fweci and agreeable. There arc 
 four euphonic accents, and 25 tonic ; of which feme 
 are placed above, and ollicis below the fyllablcs ; the 
 Hebrew accents fcrving not only to regulate the rilings 
 and fallings of the voice, but alfo to dilliiiguilh the 
 fe^KionSjperiods, and numbers ofperiods,ina difcourfe ; 
 and to anfwcr the fame purpofes with the points in 
 other languages. Their accents are divided into cvj- 
 perors, kings, dukes, ire. each bearing a title anfwer- 
 able to the importance of the dillinction it makes. Their 
 emperor rules over a whole phrafe, and terminates the 
 fcnfe completely ; anfwering to our point. Their king 
 anfwers to our colon ; and their duke to our comma. 
 The king, however, occafionally becomes a duke, and 
 the duke a king, as the phrafesare more or lefs fliort. 
 It mull be noted, by the way, that the management 
 and combination of thefc accents differ in Hebrew 
 poetry from what they arc in profe. The ufc of the to- 
 nic or grammatical accents has been much controver- 
 ted : fomc holding that they diftinguilh the fenfe ; 
 while others maintain that they are only intended to 
 regulate the niulic, orlinging ; alleging that the Jews 
 fmg, rather than read, the fcripturcs in their fyna- 
 • Coi'per, gogucs*. Bc this, liowever, as it will, it is certain the 
 
 D.im Mo- ancient Hebrews were not acquainted with thcfe ac- 
 cents. The opinion which prevails amonglf the learn- 
 ed, is that they were invented about thefixth century, 
 bythcjewifh doilorsof the fchool of Tiberias, called 
 the M,ilfor:i;s. 
 
 As to i!ic Greek accents, now fecn both in mann- 
 fcripts and primed books, there has been no lefs dif- 
 pate about- their antiquity and ufe than about thofe of 
 the Hebrews. Ifaac Volfius endeavours to prove them 
 ofmoderninvention ; ailening, that anciently tlicyhad 
 nothing of the kind, bat only a lew notes in their po- 
 etry, which were invented by Ariilophancs the gram- 
 marian, about the time of Ptolemy Philojiater ; and 
 that theic were of mufical, rather than grammatical ufe, 
 ferving as aids in the finging of rheir poems, and very 
 different from thofe introduced afterwards. He alfo 
 Hiowsfrom fcvcral ancient grammarians, that theman- 
 nerof writing the Greek acccntsin thefc days was quite 
 different from that which appears in our books. The au- 
 thor of L'iVl'/ir//i(i</c<7r:'^/.'f, p. 546 ,obferves,t hat the right 
 pronunciation of the Greek language being natural to 
 tlie Creeks, it was needlefs for them to mark it by ac- 
 cents in their writings : fo that, according to all ap- 
 pearance, they only began to make ufe of them fo low 
 as the time in which the Romans, being curious to 
 learn the Greek tongue, fent their children to ftudy at 
 Athens, thinkingthereby to fix the pronunciation; and 
 to facilitate it to llrangers; v.'hicii happeiied,as the fame 
 author obfervcs,a little before Cicero's time. Wetflein, 
 Greek profeabr at Balil, in a learned ditl'crt ition, en- 
 deavours to prove the Greek accents of an older land- 
 ing. He owns that they were not always formed in the 
 f^mc manner by the ancients j but thinks that difference 
 
 faiac 
 
 Cla 
 
 owing to the different pronunciation which obtained in Accent 
 thediilercnt pans of Greece. He brings feveralrcafons, I 
 
 aprt'ji-i, for the ui'e of accents, even in thccarlieft days : Accepta- 
 as that they then wrote all in capital letters cquidifiant . "°"' 
 from eachother.without any dillinction either of words 
 or phrafes, which without accents could fcarce be in- 
 telligible ; and that accents werenecclfaryto dillinguilh 
 ambiguous words, and to point out their proper mean- 
 ing i which he conlirms (rom a difpute on a palfage in 
 Homer, mentioned by Arilfotle in his Fol-Iics, chap. v. 
 Accordingly, hcobfervcs, that the Syrians, who have 
 tonic, but no diftincUve accents, have yet invented cer- 
 tain points, placed either bclov." or above the words, to 
 lliow their mood, tcnfe, perfon, or fenfe. 
 
 The ufe of accents, to prevent ambiguities, is niofl 
 remarkably perceived in fome eailern langu.igcs, par- 
 ticularly the Siamefe and Chinefe. Among the peo- 
 ple of China, every word, or (which is the fame thing) 
 fyllable,admits of live accents, asfpoken moreacurately 
 or remifsly ; and thus ftands for many different things. 
 The fame found r<^, according to the accent affixed to 
 it, lignirtes Cod, a wn//, excclUiit, jtupidity, and a 
 gooj'e. The Chinefe have but ;!:?ofpokcn words in their 
 language; but thcfe being multiplied by the different 
 .iccents or tones, which afFcft tlie vowels, furnilh a 
 language tolerably copious. By means hereof, their 
 5;!o limple founds come to denote 1650 things ; but 
 this being hardly fufficient,they are encreafed further 
 by afpiraies added to each word to double the number. 
 The Chinefe only reckon four accents: for which the 
 miijionarics ufe the following marks, aa, a, a, a ; to 
 Mliich they have added a tiftli, thus, S. They made a 
 kind of modulation ; wherein, prolonging the duration 
 of the found of the vowel, they vary the tone, railing 
 and finking it by a certain pilch of voice : fo that their 
 talking is a fort of nuillc or llnging. Attempts have 
 been madetodetermine thequantityof the rifeorfall in 
 each accent by meansof mnllcal notes ; but this is hard 
 to cffctf, as being dirtereni in different perfons. Hence 
 tlie great difKculty of tlie language to foreigners ; they 
 arc forced to ling mofl fcrupuloully : if they deviate 
 ever fo little from the accent, they fay quite a diffe- 
 rent thing from what was intended. Thus, meaning 
 to compliment the perfon you are talking to with the 
 title Sir, you call him a beait with the fame word, 
 only a little varied in the tone. Magalhon makes the 
 language the caller to learn on this account. — The 
 Siamefe are alfo obferved to ling rather than talk. 
 Their alphabet begins with fix characters, all only 
 equivalent toa K, but differently accented. For tho' 
 in the pronunciation the accents are naturally on the 
 vowels, yet they have fome to divcrfify fuch of their 
 conlonants as are in other refpcfts the fame. 
 
 Accent, in mullc, is a certain enforcement of par- 
 ticular founds, whether by the voice or inflruments, 
 generally ufed at the beginning of bars. 
 
 ACCKPTANCE,in law,a perfon'sagreeing to offers 
 made in bargaining, by which the bargain is concluded. 
 
 AccErTANCE, in the church of Rome, is put for 
 receiving the pope's conflitutions. 
 
 Acceptance, in cominerec, is the fubfcribing, 
 fiuning, and making one's felf debtor for the fum con- 
 tained in a bill of exchange or other obligation. 
 
 ACCEPTATION, in grammar, the fenfe or mean- 
 ing v.'hcrein any word is taken. 
 
 ACCEP-
 
 A C C 
 
 [ 53 1 
 
 A C C 
 
 ACCEPTER, or AcKEPToR, the pcrfoii who .ic- 
 ccpis a BILL of exchange, &c. 
 
 ACCKPTILA 1 ION, among civilians, an acquit- 
 tance or dil'charge given by the crctliior to the debtor 
 without the payment ot'any value. 
 
 Accessible, Ibmething that may be approach- 
 ed, or that accel's may be had to. Thus we lay, Such 
 a ])l.ice is accclliblc on one tide, Sfc. 
 
 ACCESSION, in law, is a method of acquiring 
 property, by which, in things that havcaclofe connec- 
 tion or dependence upon one another, the property of 
 the principal thing draws after it the property ol llie 
 accellbry : Thus, the owner of a cow becomes like- 
 wife the owner of the calf. It i'omctinics iikcu ifc lig- 
 nities coufcnt or acquiefcence. 
 
 Accession, among phyficians, is iifed for a pa- 
 roxyfm of a difeafc ; among politicians, it liguii-es a 
 prince's fuccceding to the government upon ilie death 
 of his predecclibr. 
 
 ACCESSORY, or Accessary, fomething that ac- 
 cedes, oris added to auotlier more conlidcnible tliiug ; 
 in which fenfc the word Randsoppofed to principa l. 
 
 ykcEssoRV, or Jccslfiiry, in common law, is chioiiy 
 iifed for a pcrfou guilty of a felonious offence, not prin- 
 cipally, but by participation : as, by advice, command, 
 or concealment. 
 
 There are two kinds oi accejfories : before the faft, 
 and after it. — Thc/>// is he who commands, or pro- 
 cures another to commit felony, and is not prelent liim- 
 felf; for if he be prefent, he is a principal. Theyi'- 
 fowi/ is he who receives, alhlls, or comforts any man 
 thath.-.s done murder, or felony, whereof he has know- 
 ledge. A man may be alfo accelTory to an accelFory, 
 by aiding, receiving, &c. an accellbry in felony. 
 
 An accellbry in felony ihall have judgment of life 
 and member, as well as the principal who did the fe- 
 lony ; but not till the principal be tirll attainted, and 
 convict, or outlawed ihercon. Where the principal is 
 pardoned without attainder, the accellbry cannot be 
 arraigned ; it being a maxim inlaw, Ubs non eli pr'tn- 
 c'lpaiii, iiOH potfjl c[fi: acccjjaniis : but if the principal 
 be pardoned, or have his clergy afler attainder, the ac- 
 cellbry fliall be arraigned ; 4 and 5 \V. ct M. cap. 4. 
 And by llat. i Anne, cap. 9. it is enacted, that where 
 the principal is convicted of felony, orftands mute, or 
 challenges above 20 of the jury, it Ihall be lawful to 
 proceed againft the accellbry in the fame manner as if 
 the principal had been r.ttainted ; and notwith!landir.g 
 fuch principal fliall be admitted to his clergy, pardoned, 
 or delivered before attainder. In forae cafes only, if 
 tlie principal cannot be taken, then the accelfory may 
 be profecuted for a mifdcmeanour, and punilhed by 
 fine, imprifonmcnt, &c. In the lowefl and highcll 
 offences there are noacccflbrics, but all are principals: 
 as in riots, routs, forcible entries, and other trefpall'es, 
 which arc the lowclt offences. So alio in the highcfl 
 offence, which is, according to the Englilh law, high 
 treafon, there are no acccllbrics. 
 
 Acceflbrics, in petty treafon, murder, and in felonies 
 of fcvcral kinds, arc not to have their clergy. There 
 can be no accellory before the fact in manllaughtcr ; 
 bccaufe that is fuddcn and unprepeiifcd. 
 
 ylcttssoRr Nerrf , in anatomy, a pair of nerves, 
 v\hich,arilingfrom thcmcduUa in the vertebra; of the 
 ucck, afcendymnJ cuter the Ikull, and pafsoucof it'a- 
 
 gainwith the par vaguni, wrapped up in the fame Acccflory 
 common integument, and after quitting tlicm, arc di- II 
 ftributed into the inufcles of the neck and Hiouldcrs. Accident.^ 
 See An A TO. MY. 
 
 Accessory, among painters, an epithet given to 
 fuch parts of an hilkory-piccc as fcrve chietiy for or- 
 nament, and might have been wholly Icit out : fucli 
 as vafes, armour, &c. 
 
 ACCl, (niic. ge'tg.) a town of Tarraconcnfis, for- 
 merly called Altt ; fuppofcd to be Gtianix, to the cafl 
 of the city of Granada, at the foot of a mountain, near 
 the fource of the rivulet Guadalantin ; now greatly de- 
 cayed. It is the Colonia Accitania GemcUa, and was 
 of foinc repute among the Roman colonics. The peo- 
 ple were called Geniellenfes, bccaufe the colony con- 
 lillcd of colonills from the third and lixth legions. 
 
 ACCIAIOLI (l)onata), a man fanious for his learn- 
 ing and the honourable employments he polfelicd in 
 Florence his native country, in the 15"" century. He 
 wrote, A Latin tranllationoffomeof Plutarch's Lives ; 
 Commentaries 011 Ariltoile's Ethics and Politics ; and 
 the life of Charlemagne. He was fcnt to Prance by 
 the Florentines, to lue for fuccour from Lewis XI. 
 againll Pope Scxius IV. but on his journey died at 
 Milan ; his body was carried to Florence, and buried in 
 the church ot the Cart hulians.Tliefmall fortune he left 
 his children is a proof of his probity and diiinierclled- 
 nefs. His daughters, like thole of Ariliidcs, were 
 married at the public expence, as an acknowledgement 
 of his fcrviccs. His funeral culogium was fpokcn by 
 Chridopher Landini ; and an elegant epitaph, by Poli- 
 tion, was infcribed on his tomb. 
 
 ACCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any ca- 
 fual accident. 
 
 Accident, among logicians, is ufed in a tlirccfolJ 
 fenfe. i. \V'hatevtr does not elleniially belong to a 
 thing ; as the clothes a man wears, or the money in his 
 pocket. 2. Such properties in any fubjett as are not 
 clfential to it ; thus whitenefs in paper is an acci- 
 dental quality. 3. In oppolition to fubllance, all qua- 
 lities whatever arc called accidents ; as fwceincfs, foft- * 
 nefs, 6-c. 
 
 AcciPEN'T, in grammar, implies a property attach- 
 ed to a word, w ithoHt entering into its elfcntial defini- 
 tion ; for every word, notwithitanding iis lignitica- 
 tion, will be either primitive, derivative, liniple, or 
 compound, which are the accidents of words. A 
 word is laid to be priuiiiive, when it is taken from no 
 other word ia the language in wliich it is ufed : thus 
 hcavm, king,gO'jJ, are primitive words. It is faid to 
 be derivative, when it is t.iken from fome other word : 
 \.\m% hiavmlv, kiiigJom, gooJneJ'i, &c. are derivatives. 
 A limplc word is calily dillinguilhcd from a compound : 
 \.\\n& jujt, jujiicc, arc limple words ; unjuft, hijujike, 
 arc compound : r(s is a limple word, as well ispnblua ,- 
 hMrcffuhlica is a compound. Bclidcsthefe accidents, 
 which arc common to all forts of words, each particu- 
 lar fpecies has its accidents : thus the accidents of the 
 noun fubllantive arc the gender, dcclenlion, and num- 
 ber ; and the adjective has another accident, nanuly.ihe 
 coniparifon- See the article Gr a m m a r and L an g u ac e- 
 
 Acci D F. N T , in heraldry, an additional point or mark 
 in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re- 
 tained without altering the elTcnce of the ariuoar ; fuch 
 as, abatement, dilfirrcnce, and tincture. 
 
 ACCI-
 
 A C C Is 
 
 Acci.lcntal, ACCIDENTAL, in a general Icnl'c, iinplies fome- 
 Acciiicnfir. thing ili.it Jiappciis by accident, or iliat is not cliciuial 
 " to its fiibjtcl. 
 
 AcciDF.N- rAi-, in philyfoiiliy, is applied to tliat cf- 
 fcd whicli Hows from fonic caiifc inicrvcning by acci- 
 dent, without being fubjed, or at Icall without any 
 appearance of its being lubjcctjlo general laws or regu- 
 lar returns. In this lenle, rtai./cv.'/isoppoled loconjlant 
 and ['liLcifal. Thus tlic fun's place is, \\ itli rcfpcJt to 
 tlir earth, the conflant and principal caufe of the heat 
 in fummcr, and the cold in winter ; whereas winds, 
 fiiows, and rains, arc the accidental caufes which of- 
 ten alter and modify the adlion of the principal caufe. 
 
 ylcciDF.STAi. I oiiit, in ptrfpcftivc, is that point in 
 the horizontal line where tiie projcdions of two lines, 
 parallel to each other meet the perfpertive plane. 
 
 AcciDEXTAL Colours, arc ihofc which depend upon 
 the affedions of the eye, in contradiflinflion to thofc 
 which belong to the light itfelf. The iniprcllions made 
 npon the eye by looking Itedfaflly at a particular co- 
 lour, arc various,according toihe fingle colour or com- 
 bination of colours in the object ; and they continue 
 for fonie time after the eye is withdrawn, and give a 
 falfe colouring to oihcr objcds. Mr BufFon has en- 
 deavoured to trace the connedions which thcfe acci- 
 dental colours have with fuch as arc natural, i)i a va- 
 riety ofinflances. The fubjed has alio been coniidered 
 by De la Hire, and M. Epences ; and M. d' Arcy has 
 contrived a machine for determining the duration of 
 the efFeds of light, and after fcvtral trials, finds that 
 it continues about eiglit thirds of a minute. 
 
 ACCIPENSER, in ichtiiyology, a genus offilhcs 
 belonging to the Ampliibia Nantes of Linnscus. The 
 accipenfcr has a fingle linear noflril : the mouth is in 
 the under part of the head, and contains no teeth ; the 
 cirri are below thcfnout, and before the mouth. There 
 arc three fpeciesof this genus, viz. 
 
 1. The rutheiuis has 4 cirri, and i J fquamous pro- 
 tuberances. It is a native of RulTia. 
 
 2. The hufohas 4 cirri ; the body is naked, /. e. has 
 no prickles or protuberances. The (kin of the hufo 
 is fo tough and flrong, ihat it is employed for ropes 
 in carls and other wheel-carriages ; and the icjithyo- 
 coUa, or isingi ass of the Ihops, famous as an agglu- 
 linant, and ufed alfo for the fining of wines, is made 
 from its found or fcales. The ancients were acquaint- 
 ed with the fifli tliat afforded this drug. The hufo is 
 the largefl of the genus, and grows to 24 feet in length. 
 Jt inliabits the Danube and the rivers of RufTia. 
 
 3. Theftario, or lhirgeon,with 4 cirri and 1 1 fquam- 
 ous protuberances on ihc back. This fifli annually af- 
 cends the rivers in Briiian, but in no great numbers, 
 and is taken by accident in the falmou-nets. Itfccmsa 
 fpiritlefs fiili, inakin"; no manner of relillance when 
 entangled, but is drawn out of the water like alifelefs 
 lump. It is fcldom tsken far out at fea, but frequents 
 •fuch parts as are not remote from the a;ftuarics of great 
 livers. It is admired for the delicacy and firnuicfiof 
 its flelh, which is white as veal, and extremely good 
 when roaO.ed. 1; is generally pickled. A conlidcrable 
 quantity are annually fcnt 10 Britain from America 
 and the Baltic rivers. Great numbers nre taken during 
 f.inimer in the lakes FrifclreHaff, anuCurifchhafr near 
 Pil!aii,in !&rgc nets made of fmall cord. The adjacent 
 ilio'res arc formcj intodiP.rids, and (armcJo-.u to con:- 
 
 \ ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 panics of fiflicrmcn, fome of which aic rented for fix Acclpittr 
 tlioufandguildcrs,near three hundred pounds,/ii;-rtA';7. I 
 
 They arc found in va(l abundance in the American ri- Acciu?. 
 vers in May, June, and July ; at which lime ilicy leap " " ' 
 fomeyardsoutoftlic water, and, filling on thcir'lides, 
 make a noife to be heard in flill weather at a great 
 diftance. Caviare is made of the roes of this, and a!fo 
 of all the other forts of (lurgeons, dried, falted, and 
 pickled up elofe. IchthyocoUa, or ilinglafs, is likcwifc 
 made of the found of this filli, as well as that of the 
 others ; but in \cry fmall quantity. The llurgeoii 
 grows to a great fizc, to the length of 18 feet, and to 
 the weight of 500 pounds. In the manner of breed- 
 ing, this filh is an exception among the cartilaginous 
 kind ; being, like the bony fifli, oviparous, fpawn- 
 iiig in water. 
 
 ACCII'lTER, tlie name of Linnaeus's firfl order of 
 Birds. See Zoo log v. 
 
 Among the Romans, the term accipiier li^nified a 
 hawk, and wliich, from its being very carnivorous, 
 they arc conlidered as birds of bad omen ; 
 
 OJimut accipittem^ quia fcmpcr tiiv'it in armit, OviD. 
 
 Pliny., however, tells us, that in fomc cafes, parti- 
 cularly in marriage, it was cHeemed a bird of good 
 omen, becaufe it never eats the hearts of other birds ; 
 intimating thereby, that no differences in a married 
 flate ought to reacli the heart. The accipiter was 
 wordiipped as a divinity by the inhabitants of Tcnty- 
 ra, B.n idand in the Nile, being eoniidered by them as 
 the image of the fun ; and hence we find that lumina- 
 ry reprefented, in hieroglyphics, under the figure of 
 a hawk. 
 
 ACCISMUS, denotes a feigned refufil of fome- 
 tliing which aperfon earnefliy defires. The word is 
 Laiin ; or rather Greek, Axx/»^«c; fuppofed to be form- 
 ed from y^cio, the name of a foolilh old woman noted 
 in antiquity for an affcdation of this kind. 
 
 ^ccy'nius is fometimes confidered as a virtue ; fomc- 
 timcs as a vice, which Augullas and Tiberius prac- 
 tifed with great fuccefs. Cromwell's refufal of the 
 crown of England may be brought as an inflance of an 
 Accifnuis. 
 
 AcciSM us is more particularly ufed, in rhetoric, as 
 a fpccies of irony. 
 
 ACCITUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Hifpania Ba- 
 tica, now Fiii'!a>;a, as appears from an ancient inlcrip- 
 tion ; fitnaic on an eminence of the mountains Alnu- 
 xaras in Granada. 
 
 ACCIUS (Lucius), a Latin tragic poet, the fon of 
 a frecdman, and, according to St Jerome, born in the 
 confullhip of Hoflilius Mancinus and Attilius Serra- 
 nus, in the year of Rome 583 ; but there appears 
 fomcwhat of confufion and perplexity in this chronolo- 
 gy. He made himfelf known before the deaih of Pa- 
 cuvius, a dramatic piece of his being exhibited tlic 
 fame year that Pacuvius brought one upon the ilage, 
 the latter bciii;!; then eighty years of age, and Accius 
 < nly thirty. NVe do not know the name of thi;; piece 
 of Accius's, but the titles of fevcral of his tragedies 
 are mentioned by various authors. He wrote on the 
 mofl celebrated Itories which had been reprel'cnted on 
 tlic Athenian ftage ; as Andromache, Andromeda, A- 
 trcus, Clytcmnclh-J, Medea, MeIc3gcr,"Phi!ocleres, 
 
 i5)e
 
 A C C [ s 
 
 Accius, the civil wars of Tlicbcs, 'I'crcus, tlie Troades, &c. 
 Acclama- He iliJ not always, however, take his fubjeds from 
 ''°" the Grecian llory ; tor he coinpofcd one dramatic piece 
 " wholly Roman : it was intitlcJ Brutus, and related to 
 
 tlic expliilioii of the Tarquins. It is aflirnicd by fume, 
 that he wrote alfo comedies ; which is not unlikely, if 
 he was the author of two pieces, the Wedding and 
 the .Merchant, which have been afcribed to him. He 
 did not conline himfclf to dramatic writing ; for lie left 
 other produL'Hons, particularly his annals, iu<;iuioncd 
 by Macrobius, Prifcian, Keftus, and Nonnius Marcel- 
 lus. He has been ccnfured for writing in too harlli a 
 ftylc, but in all other refpcc^s hasbcencllcemeda very 
 great poet. He was fo much efleemed by the public, 
 that a comedian was puniflied for only mentioning his 
 name on the ftagp. Cicero fpeaks with great deriiion 
 of one Accius who had written a hiftory ; and, as our 
 author had wrote annals, fome inlill that he is the per- 
 Ibn cenfured : but as Cicero himfclf, Horace, (^uinti- 
 lian,Ovid, and Paterculus, have fpokenof our author 
 with fo much applaufe, we cannot thinkit is him whom 
 the Roman orator cenfures with fo much fevcrity. 
 
 There was alfo in this age a pretty good orator of 
 the fame name, againfl whom Cicero defended Cluen- 
 tius. He was born in Pifeurum, and perhaps was a re- 
 lation of our poet. 
 
 ACCIUS, a poet of the 16"' century, to whom is 
 attributed A Paraphraf:: of JEfop'i FabUs, on which 
 Julius Scaliger bellows great encomiums. 
 
 ACCLAMATION, a confufed noife or fliout of 
 joy, by which the public exprcfstheirapplaufe, crtecm, 
 or approbation. 
 
 Acclamation, in a more proper fenfe, denotes a 
 certain Ibrni of words, uttered with extraordinary ve- 
 liemencc, and in a peculiar tone fomewhat refem- 
 blinga fong, frequent in the ancient afl'emblics. Ac- 
 clamations were ufually accompanied with applaufcs, 
 with which they are fomctimes confounded ; though 
 they ought to be difliuguifl\ed ; as acclamation w as 
 given by the voice, applaufe by the hands ; add, that 
 acclamation was alfo bellowed on pcrfons abfent, ap- 
 plaufe only on thofe prcfent. Acclamation was alfo 
 gived by women, whereas applaufe fccms to have been 
 confined to men. 
 
 Acclamations are of various kinds; ccclefiiiflical, 
 military, nuptial, fcr.alorial,fynodi a!, fcholaflic, thea- 
 trical, &e. We meet with loud acclamations, nuihcal, 
 and rythmical acclamations; acclamations of joy and 
 refpcfl, and even of reproach and contumely. The 
 former, wherein words of happy omen were iifed, 
 were alfo called Laud.itic>iej, et bona vota, or good willi- 
 es ; the latter, Exccratiott^s et co/ivitia. Suetonius fur- 
 nifliesaninflanceofthis lad kind in theR'iman fcnate, 
 on occalionof the decree for demolifliing ihrftatucsof 
 Domiiian, when the fathers, as the hidorian reprefcnts 
 it, could not refrain from contumelious acclamations of 
 thedeceafed. The like were fliown after the death of 
 Commodus, where the acclamations run in the follow- 
 ing llrain : NoJIi />utri.r honoret dctrahaTitur, piiriiciii<r 
 koiiorej dctiahiiiitur ; hoftis ftiit:ias uitdiqut, (iarr'ic':d^r 
 jiatuas undique, gtadiatoris jlaluai r/zid/iju. ■,$:<:. — The 
 formula, in acclamations, was repeated fometimes a 
 greater, fomctimes a lefler, number of times. Hence 
 we find in Roman writers acc/anuili'i'i rft tjuiarjuies, et 
 viae: ,- five times, and twenty times : fomelinics alfo 
 /ixa^ies and even iClua^Us ,■ (ixiy and eight limes. 
 
 3 
 
 ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 Atclamaiioui ». ire not unknown on the theatres in 
 the carlieA ages of the Roman commonwealth ; but 
 they were artlefb then, and little other than confufed 
 Hiouts. Afterwards they became a fort of regular con- 
 certs. That mentioned by Phxdrus, l.ttaie incohimit 
 Romafaho lirii.cipi:, which was made for Auguflns, and 
 proved the occafion of a pleafant niiflake of a flute- 
 player called /^////ff/iijniowsthat mufical acclamations 
 were in ufe in that emperor's reign. Rcvcrtei.l.-m ex 
 I'lovincui jijuhilatii cartiiinibui frijiqucbuntur, fays 
 .*>uetonius, who gives another inflance iu the time of 
 Tiberius : a falfe report of Germanicus's recovery be- 
 ing fprcad thrftugh Rome, the people ran in crowds to 
 the capitol with torches and vidlims, linging, Saha 
 Ro/»a, Saha Patrij, italvus ejl Cerviai.wii. — Ncro, 
 jiallionatcly fond of nuuic, took fpecial care to improve 
 and perfect the muiic of acclamations. Charmed with 
 tiie harmony wherewith the Alexandrians, who came 
 to tlie games celebrated at Naples, hadfunghispraifes, 
 he brought fcveral over to inllrucl a number of youth, 
 chofen from among the knights and people, in the dif- 
 ferent kinds of acclamations praclifed at Alexandria. 
 Thefe continued in ufe as long as the reign of Tlico- 
 doric. Hut the people did not always make a finglc 
 chorus; fometimes there were two,w ho anfwered each 
 other alternately : thus, when Nero played on the 
 theatre, Burrhus and Seneca, who were on cither 
 hand, giving the fignal by cLipping, 50CO fcldicrs 
 called Augullals, began to chaut his praifc, which the 
 fpedators were obliged to repeat. The whole was 
 conduced by a mufic mafler called Mcfochorus or /'</«- 
 farius. — The honour of acclamations was chiefly ren- 
 dered to emperors, their children, and favourites; and 
 to the magillrates who prefiJcd at the games. Pcr- 
 fons of dillinguilhed merit alfo fomctimes received 
 them, of which diiiiuilian gives us inilanccs in Cato 
 and \ irgil. The moll ufual forms were, Filidter, Lok- 
 giorem v':tit7ii, Aititoi jtlicis. The aftors themfelvcs, 
 and they who gained the prizes in the games of the 
 circus, were not excluded the honour of acclama- 
 tio:is. 
 
 To the:itii:al acclamations may be .''dJed thofe of 
 the foldiery and people in time of ci.imph. The 
 vi^orious army accompanied their general to the capi- 
 tol ; and,3:nongthc vcrfestliey fung in his praifes, fre- 
 quently repeated, lo Triu.mphe, which the people 
 anfwered \\ the fame ftrain. it was a'.fo in the way 
 of acclamation, that tlu foldicrsgavc thcirgeneral the 
 title of hn^eraf'r, after fome notable victory : a title 
 which he only kept till the time of his triumph. 
 
 The acclamaiionsof the fcnate were fomewhat more 
 fcriousihan the popular ones ; but arofe from the fame 
 principle, :'.-. a dclirc of plcaling the prince or his fa- 
 vourites; and aimed likewifc at the fame end, cither to 
 cxprefs the general approbation and zeal of the com- 
 pany, or to congratulate him on his viclorics, or to 
 make him new proteftations of fidelity. Thefe accla- 
 mations were ufually given after a report made by fome 
 fenator, to which thcrcft all cxprclfed their eonfent by 
 crying Omn fs.Om NEs ; or clfe, /I'q^ium est, jus- 
 TUM EST. Sivnctimcj they began with acclamations, 
 and fomctimes ended with them without other debates. 
 It was after this manner that allthe eleftionsand pio- 
 claniations of emperors, made by the fcnate, were con- 
 duifled ; fomething of w^iich prac'lice is ftill retained 
 ati;io.'.ern c!cdionsofkiugsandcmperors,\vheic I'wat
 
 A C C 
 
 [ S6 ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 AccUma- JiiX, Vive li Koy, zwd Long live the King, are cufto- 
 
 tiou. m;u-y fonus. 
 ' ^' The Greeks borrowed tlieciifloin of receiving tlicir 
 
 emperors in die public places from the Romans. Liiit- 
 pranj relates^ tliat at a proctllion where he was pre- 
 ftiu, they I'liug to the emperor Niccplioriis, ?To>.>,a it* ; 
 that is, JMany years: wliich Codin exprelles thns, by 
 TO ■J.atxxsiv TO 7rt,>.\/^ft,tn,t, or by TO ToXi/^pov^^Kv J and the 
 \\ ilh or faliitatiou by Troxtp^foKs-M^. And at dinner, the 
 Greeks then prefent v\ilhcd with a lond voice to the 
 emperor and Bradas, Ut Deus aiinos iimltipiuct ; as he 
 tranllates tlie Greek. Plutarch mentions an acclaniu- 
 tion fo loud, upon occafion of Klaminius^s relloring li- 
 berty to Greece, that the very birds fell from heaven 
 wiih the lliout. The Turks praOlife fumething like 
 this on the lij^lu of their emperors and grand viziers 
 to this day. 
 
 For the acclamations wherewith authors, poets, &c. 
 werereceivcd, who recited their works in public ; it is 
 lobeobferved, the all'embliesfor this purpofc were held 
 with great parade in the moll folcmn places, as the ca- 
 pitol, temples, the Athcnfeuni, and the houfes of great 
 men. Invitations were lent every where, in order to 
 get the greater appearance. The chief care was, that 
 the acclamations might be given with all the order and 
 pomp polliblc. Men of fortune who pretended to wit, 
 kept able applauders in ihtir fervicc, and lent them to 
 their friends. Others endeavoured to gain them by 
 prefeiits and treats, philollratus mentions a young 
 iiian named Vavus, who lent money to the men of let- 
 ters, and forgave the intereil to fuch as applauded his 
 excrcifcs. Thele acclamations were condu6led much 
 after the fame manner as thofe on tlic theatre, both as 
 to the niulic and the accompaniments ; they were to 
 be fuited both to the i'ubjcc^ and to the perfon. There 
 were particular ones for the philofophers, for orators, 
 for hilloriaus, and for potts. ]t would be dillicult to 
 rchcarfe all the forms of them ; one of die moilufnal 
 was io/iAt'J, which was to be repeated three times. Mar- 
 tial comprehends feveral other ufual forms in (his verfe: 
 
 Craviter, ttto, Nequiter, Etigc, Beati. 
 Neither ths Greeks nor Romans were barren on this 
 head. The names of gods and heroes were given thofe 
 whom they would extol. It was not enough to do it 
 after each head of difcourfc, chieHy after the exordi- 
 um ; but the acclamations were renewed at every tine 
 paliage, frequently at every period. 
 
 The acclamations wherewidi the fpei51ators honour- 
 ed the v;dorics of the athletx, were a natural confe- 
 qucnce of the impetuous motions which atetndcd tlie 
 gyymaftic games. The cries and acclamations of the 
 people, fomciimcs cxprefling their compaflion and joy, 
 fomttimcs their horror and difgnlt, are flrongly 
 painted by difiercnt poets and orators. 
 
 Acclamations made alfo a part of the ceremony of 
 marriage. They w-erc ulcd for the omen's fake ; be- 
 ing the L.Tta On4na, fometimts fpokcn of before 
 marriage in Roman writers. 
 
 Acclamations, at tirft praflifed in the theatre, and 
 palling thence to the fenatc,&c. was in procefsof time 
 received into the acits of councils, and the ordinary af- 
 ftmblies of the church. The people cxpre/lcd their 
 approbation of the preacher varioully ; the more ufual 
 forms were, C*-7/'a.-/o.v.' Tkiri ^.(xiflh, &c. Thefc accla- 
 mations being fometimcs carried to excefs, and often 
 
 iTiifpliccd, were frequently proliibited by llie ancient Accl;im». 
 dotlors, and at length abrogated ; though they ap- «'»" 
 pear to have been in fome ufe as low as the time of ' 
 
 St Bernard. 
 
 ylccLAM ATioK DLulcili, auiong antiquaries, fuch as 
 reprcfcnt the people e.\prclfing their joy inihcpollurc 
 of acclamation. 
 
 ACCLIVITY, the rife or afcenc of a hill, in oppo- 
 fiiion to the declivity or defcent of it. Sonic writers 
 in fonitieation ufe it for the talus of a rampart. 
 
 ACCOLA, among the Romans, figniried a perfoii 
 who lived iieur fome place ; in which fcnfe, it differed 
 from ii:c'.4a, the inhnbitai.t of fuch a place. 
 
 ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently ufcd in the 
 coufcrrino- of knisrhthood. 
 
 Antiquaries arc not agreed wherein tlie accolade 
 properly conliUtd. The generality fuppoft it to be the 
 embrace, or kifs, which princes anciently gave the new 
 knight, as a token of their aff'cdion : whence the word 
 accolade; ij. d. a clafping, or taking round the neck. 
 Others will rather have it to be a blow on the chine of 
 the neck, given on the fame occafion. The Accolade 
 is of fome antiquity, in which foever of the twofenfes 
 it be taken. Greg, de Tours writes, that the kings of 
 Krance, even of the firll race, in conferring the gilt 
 Ihoulder-belt, killed the knights on the left cheek. For 
 the acclee, or blow, John of Salilliury allures us, it was 
 in ufeamong the ancient Normans : bythis itw-as that 
 William the Conqueror conferred thehonoiir of knight- 
 hood on his fon Henry. At firft, it was given with 
 the naked fift; but was afterwards changed into a blow 
 with the flat of thefw'ord on the Ihoulderof the knight. 
 ACCOLEE, foaittiraes fynonymous with Acco- 
 lade, which fee. — It is alfo ufed in various fenfes 
 in heraldry : fometimes it is applied to two things 
 joined ; at other times, toaniinals with crowns, or col- 
 lars about their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy's 
 arms ; and, laftly, to kcws, bations, maces, fwords, 
 &c- j'laced faltierwife behind the lliield. 
 
 ACCOLTI (Bernardo), fccretiry to the republic 
 of Florence, was furnamed L'Unieo, or the Nonfuch, 
 probably from the great extent of his underftandiuF, 
 tlie variety of fciences he had acquired, and the ex- 
 cellency oi'his poetic vein ; which not only gained 
 him a icat among the academicians of the court of 
 Urbino, but matlc that great Mecx-nas, pope Leo X. 
 in I 520, create him prince of the flate of Nepi. He 
 wrote many pieces; among others, a colleftiou of beau- 
 tiful piicms, primed in Venice in 1519 and 155:?. 
 
 ACCOMFvlODATlON, the application of one 
 thing, by analogy, to another ; or the making two or 
 more things agree with one another. 
 
 To know a thing by accotiimijdiition, is to know it 
 by the idea of a limilar thing referred thereto. 
 
 A prophecy of fcripturc is faid to be fulfilled vari- 
 ous ways ; properly, as when a thing foretold comes 
 to pafs : and improperly, or by way of aec07rimoda- 
 tioti, when an event happens to any place or people, 
 like to what fell out fome time before to another. — 
 Thus, the words of Ifaiah, fpoken totliofe of his own 
 time ; are faid to be fultilled in thofe who lived in our 
 Saviour's ; and are accoininodnted 10 them : " Ye hy- 
 pocrites, well did Ifaias prophecy of you," &c. which 
 fame words St Paul afterv/ards accojwmdata to the 
 Tews of his time. 
 
 The
 
 o 
 
 A C C 
 
 [ 57 ] 
 
 A C C 
 
 'iScconifi- 
 nimvnt 
 
 I 
 
 Acconi- 
 plifhnient. 
 
 • Saurln. 
 IMK. O. T. 
 tuiii. i. 
 
 f De Icglb. 
 Htbr.diff.i 
 
 1. 3- r- 3«- 
 
 The primitive church accommoJtit^t! mu\i\ludes of 
 Jewilli, ■■:nd even heathen ceremonies and pradices, to 
 Chriftiaii parpofcs ; but the Jews had before done llic 
 fame by thcGentilcs : fome will even jiavc circumci- 
 fioii, the tabernacle, brazen fcrpeut, &c. to have been 
 originally of f^gyptian ii(e, and only accovimodalcd by 
 Mc-fcs to the purpofcs of Judailm*. Spencer maintains, 
 that mod of the rites of the ohl law were an imitation 
 of tliofe of the Gentiles, and particularly of tJie Kg/P- 
 lians ; that God, in order to divert the chiKlrcn of \i- 
 racl from the worlhip they paid to the falfe deities, 
 confccratcd the greatell part of the ceremonies per- 
 formed by thofc idolaters, and had formed out of ilicm 
 a body of tlic ceremonial law ; that he had indeed made 
 fome alterations therein, as barriers agaiull idolatry ; 
 and that he thus accotiiviodated his worlhip to the ge- 
 nius and occaiions of his ancient people. To this 
 condefcenlion of God, according to Spencerf , is ow- 
 ing the origin of the tabernacle, particularly that of 
 the ark. Thcfc opinions, however, have been con- 
 troverted by later writers. 
 
 ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or 
 added as a circumflance to another, either by way of 
 ornament, or for the fake of fymmctry. 
 
 Accompaniment, in nuific, denotes ihcinflruraents 
 vhich accompany a voice, in order to fuftain it, as well 
 as to make the nuUic more full. The accompaniment is 
 ufcd in recitative, as well as in fong ; on the ftagc, as 
 well as in the choir, &c. Tlic ancients had likewife 
 their accompaniments on the theatre ; they had even 
 different kinds of inllruments toaccompany the chorus, 
 from thofc which accompanied the aftors in the reci- 
 tation. — The accompaniment, among the moderns, is 
 frequently a different parr or melody from tlic fong it 
 accompanies. It is diiputcd whether it was fo among 
 the ancients. It is generally alleged, that their ac- 
 companiments went no farther than the playing in 
 octave, or in antiphony to the voice. The Abbe Kra- 
 guier, from a palfage in Plato, pretends to prove, that 
 they had adual fymphony, or n\ulic in parts : but his 
 arguments Icem far from being conclufive. 
 
 Arco.MrANiMENT, in painting, denotes fuchobjefls 
 as are added, eitherby wayofornament, or probability; 
 as dogs, guns, game, Sic. in a hunting piece. 
 
 Accompaniment, in heraldry, any tiling added to 
 a fliield by way of ornament ; as the belt, mantling, fup- 
 porters, &c. It is alfo applied to fcveral bearings about 
 a principal one ; as a falticr, bend, fefs, chevron, 
 &c. 
 
 ACCOMPLICE, one that has a hand in a bufinefs ; 
 or is privy in the fame defigu or crime with another. 
 See Accessory. 
 
 By the law of Scotland, Ihe acco'itplicc can only be 
 prolccutcd after the convidion of the /ir//;ci/ii7/olfend- 
 er, unlefs the arcelFion of the accomptia is immediate, 
 in i[>fo aOu, fo as in ctfc^'l to render them c'l-pniicipcil. 
 l\y the general rule, the accomplice fullers the fame 
 punilhmcntwith the/T/«d/><//otFcnder ; yet if he be re- 
 markably lefs guilty, juftice will not permit equal pu- 
 iiifhmcnt. 
 
 The council of Sens, andfcveralothcr fynodical lla- 
 tates, cxprcfbly prohibit the revealing o( aicomplicj. 
 
 ACCOMPLlSiIMi:NT, the entire execution or 
 fulfilling of any ihiug. 
 
 Accomplish MENT, is principally nfed in fpcaking 
 of events foretold by the Jcwilh prophets in the Old 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Teflament, and fulfilled under the New. We fay a Accom- 
 literal accomplilhment, a niyllical or fpiriiual accom- plifomeiit 
 plilhmcnt, a iinglc accomplilhment, a double accom- ' 
 
 plifhment, a Jcwilh accomplilhment, a Chriftian, a Accouoiaiu 
 heathen accomplillinient. The fame prophecy is fomc- 
 timcsaccoraplillied in all, or in fcveral of thole different 
 ways. Tlius, of fome of the prophecies of the Old Te- 
 ftamcnt, the Jews find a literal accomplifl'.mcnt in their 
 own hillory, about the time w hen the prophecy was 
 given : the CliriUians lind another in Chri'.l, or the 
 earlieftdays of the church; the heathens another, iu 
 fome of their emperors ; the Mahometans another, in 
 their legillator, &e. Tiifre are two principal ways of 
 accomplilhing a prophecy ; diriBly, and by accovwir,- 
 datioii. See Accommodation, and Prophecy. 
 
 Accomplishment, is alio ufed for any mental or 
 perfonal endowment. 
 
 Accord, in painting, is the harmony that reigns 
 among the lights and fliades of a pidure. 
 
 Accords (Stephen Tabourot, feignear des^ advo- 
 cate ia the parliament of Dijon in France, and king's 
 advocate inthe bailiwic and chancery of that city, born 
 in the year 1549. ^^ ^^^ "^ man of genius and learn- 
 ing ; but too much addic-led to trifles, as appears from 
 his piece, intitled," LesBigarrures," printed at Paris 
 in 1582. 1 his was not his firft. production, for he 
 had before printed fome fonncts. His work, in- 
 titled, " Les Touches," was publiilied at Paris in 
 IJ85 ; which is indeed a colledion of witty poems, 
 but worked up rather in too loofe a manner, according 
 to the licentious taflc of that age. His Bigarrures are 
 written in the fame drain. He was cenfured for this 
 way of writing, which obliged him topublilh an apo- 
 logy. The lordlhip of Accords is an imaginary fief or 
 title from the device of his ancellors, which was a 
 drum, with the motto, a tons accords, " chiming v, itii 
 all." He had fent a fonnet to a daughter of Mr Be- 
 gat, the great and learned prclident of Burgundy, 
 "who (fays he) did me the honour to love me: — 
 And inafmuch (continues he), I had fubfcribed my 
 fonnet with only my device, a torn accords, this lady 
 firfl nicknamed me, in her anfwer, Scig/icur des A'c- 
 cords ; by which title her father alfo called me fcveral 
 times. For this rcal'on I chofe this furname, not only 
 in all my writings compofed at that time, but even ia 
 thefe books." He died July 24th 1561, in the 46th 
 year of his age. 
 
 ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in a general fenfc, a 
 computation or reckoning of any thing by numbers. 
 Collcdively, it is ufcd to cxprefs the books which 
 merchants, traders, bankers, bcc. ufe for recording 
 their tranf.idions in bulincfs. See B(>ok-kefpixc. 
 
 Chujiibcr (jf j^'ccov^T.t, in the French polity, ii a 
 fovcreign court of great antiquity, whi-h t.ikcs cog- 
 nifancc of and rcgillers the accounts oi the king's re- 
 venue. It is nearly the fame with the Englifli Court of 
 Exchiqiicr, 
 
 Account is taken fomctimes, in apanicnlar fenfc, 
 for the computation of time: tiuis we fay. The Julian 
 Account, the Gregorian Account, ire. iu which Iciifc 
 it is equivalent to Jtyli. ' 
 
 ACCOUNTANT, or Acoomptant, in the mort 
 general fenfc, is a perfon (killed in accounts. In a 
 more refti'icled fenfc, it is applied to a perfon, or of- 
 ficer, appointed to keep ihi accounts of a public com- 
 pany or oflicc ; as the South-lea. 
 
 H ACCOUNT-
 
 A C C 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 58 1 
 
 A C C 
 
 ACCOUNTANli)!!!!', the art of keeping and 
 buldnciag accounts. Sec BooK-KEtPiNG. 
 
 ACCOUNTAN T-CENERAi., a new officer in the 
 court of Chancery in GreacBiitiin appointed by act of 
 parliament to receive all moneys lodged in court iii- 
 Itead of the lUJllcrs, and convey the lame to the bank 
 of England for fecnrity. 
 
 ACCOUTREMENT, an old term, applied to the 
 furniture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman. 
 
 ACCRETION, in phylics, the increafe, or growth 
 of an organical body, by the accclHon of new parts. 
 Sec NuiKirioN, Plants, and Vegetables. 
 
 Accretion, among civilians, the property acquired 
 in avagLte or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to or 
 following another already occupied : thus, if a legacy- 
 be left to two perfons,one ofwhom dies before the ttf- 
 tator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor by right of 
 accretion. 
 
 ACCROCHE, in heraldry, denotes a thing's be- 
 ing hooked with anotlur. 
 
 ACCUHATION, a pollure of the body, between 
 fitting and lying. The word comes from the Latin Jtv/c 
 /•are, compounded of «</, to, and c!/!>o, 1 lie down, y^c- 
 cubatioii, or Accubitin, was the table-pofture of the 
 Greeks and Romans ; whence we lind the words par- 
 ticularly nfe for the ly iiig, or rather (as wc call it) fit- 
 ting down tomcat. The Greeks introduced this pof- 
 ture. The Romans, during the frugal ages of the re- 
 public, were llrangcrs to it : but as luxury got footing, 
 this poflurc came to be adopted, at lead by the men ; 
 for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in them 
 to lie down among the men : though, afterwards, this 
 too was got over. But children did not lie down, nor 
 fervants.nor foldiers, nor ptrfons of meaner condition; 
 but took their meals fitting, as a poflurc lefs indulgent. 
 TheRoman mannerofdifpofingihemfelves at table was 
 this : A low round table was placed in the ccenaculum, 
 or dining-room ; and, about this, ufually three, fonie- 
 tiraesonly two, beds or couches ; according to the num- 
 ber of which, it was called bicltuiuvi or tiicliiiium. 
 Thefe were covered with afort of bed-clothes, richer 
 or plainer according to the quality of the perfon, and 
 furnilhed wi:h quilts and pillows, that the gue lis might 
 lie the more commodioully. There were ufuilly ihrce 
 perfonson eacli bed ; to crowd more, was eflecmed for- 
 did. In eating, they lay down on their leftlides, with 
 their heads refting on the ))illows, or raiher on their 
 elbows. The firll lay at the head of the bed, with 
 his feet extended behind the back of the fecond ; the 
 fccond lay with the back of his head towards the navel 
 of tl.efirft, only feparated by a pillow, his feet behind 
 the back of the third; and lb of the third, or fourth. 
 The middle place was eflecmed the moH honourable. 
 Before they came to table, they changed their clothes, 
 puttingon what they called (nr/Zij/'z/vd veJHs,\.\it dining- 
 garment ; and pulled off their Ihoes, to prevent fouling 
 the couch. 
 
 ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors 
 of Conftantineple, whofe bufinefs was to lie near the 
 emperor. He was the head of the youth of the bed- 
 chamber, and had ihe cuiicu/ariiu and /'rocuiitur mi- 
 tlcr him. 
 
 ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of 
 heaping or amaffing things together. Among lawyers, 
 it is ufcd in fpeaking of the concurrence of fevcral titles 
 
 to the fame thing, or of fevcral circumllances to the AccumuU- 
 fanic proof. tlon 
 
 yAcvMULyrr/os ofDegna, in an univcrfity, is the | . 
 taking fevcralot them together, or at fmaller intervals ^''"|»^°°; 
 than ufual, orthan is allowed by thcrulcs of the uni- 
 vcrlity. 
 
 ACCURSED, fomcihiag that lies under a curfc, 
 or fenteuce of exconimuuicaii ^n. 
 
 la the Jewilh idiom, accurfid and crucified were fy- 
 nonymous. Among them, every one was accounted 
 accurfcd who died 011 a tree. This fcrves to explain the 
 difficult palfagc in Rom. ix. 3. where the apollle Paul . 
 wiflicshimftlt rtav/r/c'i/<//;ir thi inaiimr oj thriji,i. e. 
 crucified, if happily he might by fuch a death fave his 
 countrymen. The propoliiionirri here made ufe of, 
 is ufcd in the fame fenfe, 2 Tim. i. 3. M'h'ere it ob- 
 vioufly iignifies after thi vtanuer of. 
 
 ACCURSIUS, a law-profcllorin the 13th century, 
 born in Florence. His authority was for foine time 
 fo great, that he was called the Idol of the Lawyers. 
 — Other three lawyers of note had the fame name. 
 
 AccuRsius (Mariangelus), a famous critic of the 
 i6th century, born at Aquilo in the kingdom of Na~ 
 pics. His Diatrcbes, printed at Rome in folio, ia 
 1524, on Ovid and Solinus, are a proof of his abili- 
 ties in that kind of erudition. In his edition of Am- 
 mianus Marcellinus there arc five books more than in 
 any of the preceding ones ; and he affirms he had cor- 
 reded 5000 errors in that hillorian. His predomi- 
 nant palHon was the fearching for and collefting of old 
 manufcripts: yet he made Latin and Italian verfes ; 
 was complete maflerof the Erench, German, and Spa- 
 nilh tongues ; and underilood optics and mufic. He 
 purged himfelf by oath, bcingchargcd for being a pla- 
 giary with regard to his Aufonius ; it being reported, 
 that he had appropriated to himfelf the labours of Fa- 
 bricio Varana, bilhop of Camerino. 
 
 ACCUSATION, the charging any perfon with a. 
 criminal action, either in one's own name, or in that 
 ofthcpubJic. The word is compounded of tfi/, to; 
 and caufari, to plead. 
 
 Writers on politics treat on the benefit and the in- 
 conveniences of public accufations. Various argu- 
 ments are alleged, both for the encouragement and. 
 difcouragement of accufations againfl great men. No- 
 thing, according to Michiavel, tends more to the pre- 
 fervation of a flate, than frequent accufations of per- 
 fons irufled with the admiiiiflration of public affairs. 
 This, accordingly, was flrictly obfcrvcd by the Ro- 
 mans, in the inftancesof Camillus, accufcd of corrup- 
 tion by ManliusCapitolinus, Oc. Accufations, how- 
 ever, in the judgment of the fame author, are not more 
 beneficial than calumnies are pernicious ; which isalfo 
 confirmed by the praftice of the Romans. Manlius 
 not being able to make good his charge againfl Ca- 
 millus, was cafl into prifon. 
 
 By the Roman law, there was no public accufer for 
 public crimes; every private perfon, whether interefl- 
 ed inthe crime or not, might accufe, and profecute the 
 accufcd to punilliment, or abfolution. Caio, the mcfl 
 innocent perfon of his age, had been accufed 42 times, 
 and as often abfolved. But the a.cc\iid.i\on oi private 
 crimes was never received but from the mouths of thofc 
 who were immediately interefled in them : None {:•£•) 
 but the hulband coiilil accufe his wife of adultery. 
 
 The
 
 ACE 
 
 [ 59 1 
 
 ACE 
 
 ^cTOfiitivc Ttie anticncRomon liwyers diftinguirtied between 
 I foftulatio, ddcitio, and accujutio. Kor, tirll, leave was 
 riccntctum delircd to bring a charge agiiufl one, which was called 
 ' " pufiitlarc: then he agaiiift whom the charge was laid, 
 was brought before the judge : which was called Hi- 
 fcrrc, or noHiinhdilatio : laltly, the charge was drawn 
 up and prefented, which was properly the acaifatio. 
 The accufation properly commenced, according to 
 Paedianus, when the reus or party charged, being in- 
 terrogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and fub- 
 fcribcd his name to the dclatio made by his opponent. 
 
 In the French law, none but the Procureur general, 
 or his deputies, can form an accufation, except for 
 high-trcafon and coining, where accufation is open to 
 every body. In other crimes, private pcrfons can on- 
 ly act tlie part of denouncers, and demand reparation 
 for the offence, with damages. 
 
 In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man fliall be im- 
 prifoned or condemned on any accufation, without trial 
 by his peers, or the law ; none fiiall be vexed witli any 
 accufation, tjut according to the law of the hud ; and 
 no man may be molclled by petition to the king, &c. 
 nnlcfsit be by indidmentor prefentmcnt of lawful men 
 or by proctfs at common law. Promoters of fuggef- 
 tions, are to rind furety to purfue them ; and if they do 
 not make them good, Ihall pay damages to the party 
 accufed, and alfo a rine to the king. No perfon is 
 obliged to anfwcr upon oatli to a queftion whereby 
 he may accufe himfslf of any crime. 
 ' ACCUSATIVE; in the Latin grammar, is the 
 fourth cafe of nouns, and lignities the relation of the 
 noun on which the aftion implied in the verb termi- 
 nates ; and hence, in fuch languages as have cafes, thefe 
 nouns have a particular termination, called accufative : 
 as, Auguflus vicit Antonium, Auguftus vanquilhed An- 
 tony. Here Antiiiiitrn is tlie noun, on which the ac- 
 tion implied in the verb vicit terminates ; and, there- 
 fore, muft have the accufative termination. Ovid, 
 fpeaking of the palace of the fun, fays, Materiem fu- 
 fcrahat opus. The work furpalfed the materials. Here 
 materiem has the accufative termination ; becaufe it 
 determines the aftion of the ytrh fuperabat. — In the 
 Englilh language there arc no cafes, except the geni- 
 tive ; the relation of the noun being (hown by the af- 
 lirtance of prepolitions, as o/^ to, from, &c. 
 
 ACCUSIORUM CoLoNiA (anc. geog.), an in- 
 land town in the Cavares, in Gallia Narbonenlis: now 
 Crenoble, in Dauphine. See GRENobi.E. 
 
 ACE, among gamcfters, a card or die marked only 
 with one point. 
 
 ACELUM, orAcEMUM (anc. geog.), a town of 
 the Venetian territory, now called, Azolo, iituatcd to 
 the weft of Trevigi, at the fource of the rivulet Mu- 
 fone. E. Long. 13", N. Lat. 4;°. 
 
 ACENTETUM, orAcANTETA, in natural hifto- 
 ry, a nauie given by the ancients to the purcll and 
 rinefl kind of rock cryllal : They ufed the cryftal in 
 many ways ; fometimes ingraving on it, and fome- 
 times forming it into vafcs and cups, which were held 
 next in value to the vafa vittrrhina of thefe times. 
 The cryllal they obtaiued from the illand of Cyprus 
 \v.as much efteemed ; but often faulty in particular 
 parts, h.aving hairs, cracks, and foulneifcs, which they 
 called /;////, in the middle of the large pieces. Pliny 
 tells lis, that when it was ufcd for engraving on, the 
 
 artift could conceal allthcfcblemillics among the rtrokes Ac-pK»li 
 of hi3 work J but when it was to be formed into cups I 
 or precious vafes, they always chofc the accntetam '^"r'>^- 
 which had no Haws or blcmilhcs. , ^ , 
 
 ACEPHALI, or AcEPHALiTit, a terra applied to 
 fevcral feds who rcfufed to follosv fomc noted Icadt . . 
 Thus the perfons who rcfufed to follow cither |ohii ot 
 Antioch, or St Cyril, in a difpute that happened in the 
 council of Ephcfus, were termed Aeephuii, without a 
 head or leader. Such bilhops, alfo, as were exempt 
 from the jurifdidion and difcipline of their patriarch, 
 were ftylcd Acephali. 
 
 AcEPHALi,the levellers in the reign of king Henry 
 I. who acknowledged no head or fuperior. They were 
 reckoned fo poor, that they had not a tenement by 
 which they might acknowledge a fuperior lord. 
 
 ACEPILALOUS, or AcEPHAtus, in a general 
 fenfe ; without a head. 
 
 The term is more particularly ufed in fpeakingof 
 certain nations, or people, reprefented by ancient na- 
 turalills and cofmographers, as well as by fonie mo- 
 dern travellers, as formed without heads ; their eyes, 
 mouths, &c. being placed in other parts. 
 
 Such arp the Blemmyes,a nation of Africa near the 
 head of the Niger, reprefented to be by Pliny and So- 
 linus ; Blemviyes tradunttir capita abi^e, ore et oculis 
 peiiore affixis. Ctelias and Solinus mention others in 
 India near the Ganges, Jine cervice ocu/es in humeris 
 habentes Mela alfo fpeaks of people, qtiibvs capita et 
 ■julttisin peBore fiu'.t. And Suidas, Stcphanus Byzan- 
 tinus, Vopifcus, and others after them, relate the like. 
 Some modern travellers ftill pretend totind acephalous 
 people in America. 
 
 Several opinions have been framed as to the origin 
 of the fable of the Acephali. The tirft is that of Tho- 
 mas Bartholin, who turns the whole into a metaphor ; 
 being convinced, that the name Acephali was anciently 
 given to fuch as had lefs brain, or conduced themfelves 
 lefsby the rules of prudence, than others. Olearius 
 rather apprehends,that the ancient voyagers, viewing 
 certain barbarous people from the coalts, had been ini- 
 pofed on by their uncouth drefs ; for that the Samo- 
 gitians, being Ihort of ftature, and going in the fcve- 
 rity of winter with their heads covered in hoods, fecni 
 at adiftance asif they were hccdlefs. F. Lafitau fays, 
 that by Acephali are only meant, people whole heads 
 are funk below their Ihouldcrs. In ctfed, Hulfius, in 
 his epitome ofSirWalterRaleigh'svoyagc toGuaiana, 
 alfo fpeaksof a people which that traveller found in the 
 province of Irvipanama, between the lakes of Panama 
 and Calfipa, who had no header neck ; and Hondius, 
 in his map, marks the place with the figures of thefe 
 monfters. Yet Dc Laet* rejecis the ftory ; being in- 'Uefcript. 
 formed by others, that the inhabitants of the banks -^^mcr.l.ir. 
 of the Caora, a river that flows out of ihc lake of '• *-• 
 Callipa, have their head fo far funk between their 
 Ihoulder, that many believed they hid their eyes in 
 their Iboulders and their mouths in their brealls. 
 
 But though the exillencc of a nation of Ac:/ kali 
 be ill warranted, naturalills furniih fcveral inftanccs 
 of individuals born without heads, by fomc lufus or a- t '" l^r''- 
 berration of nature. Wepfer gives -j- a catalogue of ^cr. Jcc^^i. 
 fuch aceph.-ilous births, Irom Schcnckius, Licetus, Pa- *"' ■'■ "o 
 
 i.r l.r »i • ~ HQ.PM84. 
 
 raeus, Wolhus, Mauriccau, i^c. Dec-i an o. 
 
 ACEPHALUS, an obfoleie term for the tsenia or obfer. ms! 
 H 2 tape- p xj8.
 
 A C 
 
 [ 60 J 
 
 A C £. 
 
 A«pha!ns, 
 
 Acer, 
 
 the 
 
 M.i'ile tree 
 
 tape-worm, which was longfuppofcd to be acephaluus. 
 Sec Tjesia. The lirlt who gave njt. head was Tiil- 
 piiis ; and after him, Kchr : 1 he t'urmcr even makes 
 it bicefs,o\-i\vo licadcd. 
 
 AcEPH ALUi,isalt'oul'ed to exprcfs a verfe dcfcclivc 
 i-i the beginning. 
 
 ACER, the Maple or Sycamore Tree , a genus 
 of themoncecia order, bclonjjing 10 thepolygamiu claCs 
 of plants ; and ranking under the 23d Natural Order 
 Trihilat.c. — The generic characters, both natural and 
 cffential, are : The Hermaphrodte ailyx is an a- 
 cute, coloured, one-leaved pcrianthium, divided into 
 five iegmcnts, flat and entire at tiic bale, and perlilient: 
 the corolla is (ivc-petal'd, ovate, and expanding : the 
 jla/iiina conliftof eight lubulatcd fliort hlaments ; the 
 anthers limplc, the dull cruciform : Thep JIiIuim has 
 a coinprelR-d germen, imnierfed in the receptacle, 
 which is convex, perforated, and large ; the Itylus is 
 filiform : the itigmataare two, pointed, (lender, and 
 reflex : The pcr'icarfium conlills of two or three cap- 
 ful* uniting at the bafe, roundilli, coniprefled, each 
 terminated with a large membranous wing : Thcjl-ids 
 are folitary and roundilh. The MALEtay.v, corolla, 
 and ftaiiiina, are the fame as in the hermaphrodite ; 
 The p'iftillum has no germen, nor flylus ; the Itignia 
 is betid. {_Nja, On the firfb opening of the flower, 
 the jl'igma alone appears ; a few days after, \.\\c Jly/iis. 
 — The hermaphrodite flowers on the fame umbel are 
 frequently of two forts: the inferior onc^Jeniiiihu-, 
 the anthcras of which do not buril, but the piftillum 
 ijuickly grows into fruit : the fuperior ones tnafaiime, 
 of wliich the antheras fcatter their pollen, but the 
 pillilla without increaling fall off.] 
 
 Species, with their ufcs and properties. '\ I. The 
 pfeudo-piatanus, or fycamore, is a very large and 
 beautiful tree, with broad leaves, divided into live 
 lobes ferratcd in their edges ; of a dark green colour 
 on the upper fide, but paler and fomewhat hoary un- 
 derneath ; the flowers are very fmall, and of a green- 
 ilh white colour. The corolla of this fpecics is 
 fcarcely diflinguilhable from the calyx, and the fta- 
 mina are long. T he fruit is large, and beautifully 
 variegated with green and purple. This fpecics is a 
 native of Germany, but thrives very well in Great 
 Britain, where it is frequent in plantations. It is very 
 proper for making plantations near the fea, orlhelter- 
 ing Inch as are already too near it ; becaufe the fyca- 
 morc-tree refills the (pray of the ocean much better 
 [han moft other trees. But it has this inconvenience, 
 tiiat its leaves are devoured by iiifeds, foas to become 
 full of holes, and very unfightly : which has caufed 
 the planting of it to be much neglected of late. It 
 has, howe\er, long been conlidcred as a timber 
 tree, having been much ufed by the. turners for 
 wooden bowels, diflies, trenchers, &c. ; but lincc 
 the cuflom of ufmg earthen ware has become fo pre- 
 valent, its value for thofe purpofes has greatly dccrea- 
 fed. There are two varieties ; one with broad leaves 
 and large keys, the other with variegated leaves. By 
 tapping it yields a liquor not unlike that of the birch 
 tree ; from which the highlanders of Scotland forac 
 times make an agreeable and wholefome wine. 
 
 1. The campeltris, or common maple, is too well 
 known to need any particular dcfcription, as it grows 
 very frequently in hedge-rows in moft parts of Britain. 
 
 The timber of the common maple is far fuperior to Acer, 
 the beech tor all the. ufes of the turner. When it tlic 
 abounds with knots, as it frequently docs, it is highly Mai>k--trcei 
 elteemed by joiners for inlay inga. it isalfo irequently * 
 employed tor making niulical inllruments, on account 
 of itslightncfs ; and lor the i\hitenels of its wood was 
 formerly cltcemed for makiug tables, &c. But the 
 principal va!ue of the maple is for underwood ; it be- 
 ing of a quick growth, and affording good fuel. 
 
 3. The negundo, or Virginian alli-leaved maple, ij . 
 avery llrongiliooting tree ; and in Virginia, whcreit 
 is a native, is one of the largelt trees of this kind. 
 Its leaves .ire of a pale green, and well adapted to give 
 a variety of tint : but ilanbury fays, that this trcc- 
 ought not to be planted in expofed fituations, the 
 branches litingfubject tobc fplit ott'by the wind. Ita 
 ufcs are limilar to thofe of the fycamore. 
 
 4. The platanoides, or Norway-maple, grows na- 
 turally iiiNorway, Sweden, and othernorthern coun- 
 tries of Europe. ]t rifes to a good height, and is well 
 furnilhed with branches with fmooth leaves, of a Ihining 
 green colour, and beautifully indented. Thefc have an 
 acrid milkyjuice, which prcvtnts them from being 
 preyed upon by infefts as the fycamore is ; and as this 
 fpecies relift s the fpray of the fea equally with the firft, 
 it is preferable in plantations fituaicd near the fea. In au- 
 tumn the leaves dye to a golden yellow colour, which 
 caufes a delightful elfec^fc at that feafon when the differ- 
 ent tintsofdecayingvegctablesaredifplayed.The dow- 
 ers are alfo beautiful ; they come out early in the fpring, 
 are of a fine yellow colour, and fliow themfelves to ad- 
 vantagebefore the leaves come out. They are frequent- 
 ly fucceededby keys, which fonietimcsarriveat maturi- 
 ty in Britain. There is a variety with llriped leaves 
 
 5. Therubrum, or Virginia fcarlet flowering maple, 
 is a native of that country, and never grows to a large 
 llze in Britain. It is, however, cultivated in gardens 
 for the beauty of its flowers, wliich appear in the be- 
 ginning of April, in roundifli bunches, at the bottom 
 of the footllalksof the leaves. The feeds are ripe in 
 live or (ix weeks after ; and ought to be immediately 
 fown, being othcrwife very apt to pcrifii. The tree 
 ought tobclheltered,efpecially whilft young, from the 
 north-eaft winds ; it delights in a inoill light foil, where 
 it will thrive much better, as well as produce many 
 more flowers and much better feeds, than in a dry 
 ground. A variety of this tree is known in England 
 by the name of SirCharlci Wager's Flowerirg IMaple, 
 from its being firft fent from America to Sir Charles 
 Wager. The flowers of this kind come out in larger 
 clufters than the other, and furround the fmall branch- 
 es, fo that the tree appears entirely covered with them, 
 and makes a much more beautiful appearance than the 
 former, which is now not fo much efleemed. 
 
 6. The faccharinum,orfugar-maple,isa large grow- 
 ing tree : will arrive at the height of 40 feet ; and has 
 broad thin leaves, divided into five principal parts ; 
 which are again indented or cut at the edges intofe- 
 veral acute fcgmcnts. Their furface is fmooih, of a 
 lightgrcen colour, whitifli underneath; and they grow 
 on pretty long footllalks. The flowers come out in 
 the fpring, about the time of the Norway maple ; and 
 they are fucceeded by long keys, which fometimes ri- 
 pen in England. In America the inhabitants tap this 
 tree iu.the fpring, boil the liquor, and the feces af- 
 ford
 
 ACE 
 
 [ 6i ] 
 
 ACE 
 
 Acer ford a ufcful fugar. The fycamorc, the afli-lcavcd, 
 the and the Norway maples, alfo abound with a faccharine 
 SJaple-trec jiiioe, from which there is no doubt but a afcful fugar 
 *"~^' might be jncpartd. 
 
 7. The Fcufylvanicum, or American mountain-ma- 
 ple, very much refemblcs the fugar-maple, only its 
 leaves are ir.orc pointed. 
 
 8. The opalus, or Italian maple, is very common 
 in moll parts of Italy, particularly about Rome ; but 
 in Britain is very rarely t j be met with, though hardy 
 enough to bear the open air. It is one of the largcll 
 fpecics of trees in Italy, ?.nd atfords a great fliadc by 
 its numerous and large leaves. On this account it is 
 planted on the road-lidcs, and near habitations. 
 
 9. The monfpefulanum, or Montpelier maple, is 
 common in the fouth of France, and in Italy ; but is 
 hardly met with in Britain. The leaves rclcmblc thofc 
 of the common maple ; but are of a much thicker fub- 
 llance, a fliiniug green colour, and not fo large. They 
 continue in verdure very late in the autumn, whicli 
 renders the trees more valuable. 
 
 10. The creticum, or Cretan maple, grows natural- 
 ly in the Levant ; it fomewhat refcmbles the la(l fpe- 
 cies ; but its leaves arc of a much thicker texture, and 
 their footllalks covered with a foft hairy down ; where- 
 as thofe of the other arc fmooth and loft. 
 
 Propagation and ciillure.'\ — I. By/cei/i. The firfl 
 four fpecics arc cafily propagated in this way. The 
 keys, when ripe in aulumn, may be gathered, and in a 
 few days after fown about an inch and an half deep, in 
 beds of common mould. In fpring the plants will ap- 
 pear, and make a flioot of about a foot and an half 
 by the autumn following, if the ground of the femi- 
 nary be tolerably good, and they are kept free from 
 weeds. The fpring after they come up they fliould be 
 planted in the nurfery in rows two feet and an half 
 afunder, and their diftance in the rows mull be one foot 
 and an half. Here they may remain till they are big 
 enough to plant out finally, with no further trouble than 
 taking otf unlightly lide-branches, and fuch as have a 
 tendency to make the tree forked, except digging be- 
 tween the rows, which mufl always be done every 
 
 winter. For the other fpecics, their feeds, as they 
 
 do not ripen in this country, ought to be procured froui 
 the places where they naturally grow, and managed in 
 the following manner : A cool ihady part of the femi- 
 nary Ihould be appropriated for the purpofc ; the mould 
 fliould be made tine ; beds (hould l)e marked out four 
 fcctwide, and in length propsrtionable tothecjuantity; 
 and in thefc the feeds fhould be regularly fown, fifting 
 over them about half an inchofthctinefl mould. When 
 the plants come up, they mull be kept clean from weeds, 
 and frequently watered : and this work inull be duly at- 
 tended to all fummer. The next fpring, the ftrongcft 
 may be drawn out, and planted in the nurfery, in rows 
 two feet afunder, and at the dillance of a foot from each 
 other in the rows ; leaving the others in the feminary 
 to gain ftrcjigth. The fpring foilowii;g they alio nuifl 
 receive tlie lame culture ; and in the nurfery they may 
 remain with no other trouble than keeping the ground 
 clian from the weeds in fummer, digging between the 
 rows in the winter, and taking off all flrong and irre- 
 gular fidc-dioots till they arc planted out. Trees railed 
 from feedswill ^row faflcr, and arrive at greater height, 
 than thofc railed from layers: but they will not pro- 
 
 duce fueh (juaniiiiesof riowers ; which makes the latter Acer, 
 method more eligible for thofc who want thefc plants the 
 for a low Ihrubbery. — Seeds of the variegated kinds al- Maple-tree 
 fo, when lown, will produce variegated pLnts in re- """'' 
 turu : which renders the propagjiion of thefc forts 
 very expeditious where plenty of feeds may be had. 
 Where thefc are not to be obtained, the plants are 
 propagated by budding, as afterwards directed. 
 
 2. By/ajerj. All the fpecics may be propagated b/ 
 this inetiiod ; though it is never pradifedfor the com- 
 mon maple and the fycamorc. The young Ihoots may 
 be at any time laid down in the autumn, i^ inter, or 
 early in the fpring. By the autumn following, they 
 will have flruckroot, and become good plants ; when 
 the llrongcll may be let out in the places where they 
 are to remain ; whilll the weakcft may be planted in 
 the nurfery, like the fcedlings, for a year or two, to 
 acquire llrength. 
 
 :;. By cuttings : which method, however, is chiefly 
 praiitifcd on the alli-lcaved and Norway maples, which 
 more readily take root this way. The cuttings ihould 
 be the bottom parts of the lalt year's Ihoots : They 
 Ihould be taken off early in Odober, and planted in 
 rows in a moill ihady place. The fpring and fummer 
 following, they mult be duly watered as often as dry 
 weather makes it nccelliry, and be kept clean from 
 weeds. By the autumn they will be (it to remove into 
 the nurfery ; though if the cuttings are not planted 
 too clofe, they may remain in their lituation for a year 
 or two longer, and then be fet out finally, without the 
 trouble of being previouliy planted in the nurfery. 
 
 4. By iiidJii.g, grafting, and inarching. 1 hefe 
 methods are only praclifed for the variegated forts and 
 the large broad-leaved kind. The latter is to be conti- 
 nued no otherwife than by budding it on llalks of the 
 common fycamorc ; for from the feeds, tho' fo large 
 themfclves, only the common fycamorc is produced. 
 
 In order to propagate chefe varieties by budding, 
 let Ibme plants of the common fycamorc, one year old, 
 be taken out of the feminavy, and fet in the nurfery in 
 rows a yard afunder, and the plants about a foot and 
 a half dirtance from each other in the rows : Let the 
 ground be kept clean from weeds all fummer, and 
 turned in in the winter ; and the fumnier following the 
 ftocks \\ ill be of a proper lize to receive the buds, 
 which Ihould be taken from the moll bcautifully-ftriped 
 branches. The bell lime for this work is the middle or 
 latter end of Auguft. Having then budded yonr Hocks 
 with the eyes or buds fronting the north, early in Oc- 
 tober takeoff.thc bafs-matting, which before this time 
 will have confined the bark and pinched the bud, but 
 not fo as to hurt it much. Then cut off the ilock 
 jull above the bud, and dig the ground between the 
 rows. The fummer follo\\ing, keep the ground clean 
 from \s eeds ; cut off all natural lide-buds from the ilock 
 as they come out ; and by aulumn, if the land is good, 
 the buds will have Ihot forth, and formed thenifclvcs 
 into trees live or fix feet high. They may be then re- 
 moved into the places where they are deiigned to re- 
 main ; or a few of them only may be drawn out, lea- 
 ving the others to be trained up I'or larger ftandards. 
 Tiie ftriped Norway maple Ihould be budded on flocks 
 of its own kind; for on thefe they take bed, and both 
 kinds are not very liable to run .iway frimi their co- 
 lours. Variegated plants in general mull be planted in 
 
 poor, .
 
 ACE 
 
 [ 62 ] 
 
 A C II 
 
 Actrb ponr, htingvy, gravelly, or faiijy foils, 10 feed iliedif- 
 Cafc whicli occalions ilicfc beautiful ilripcs, and caufc 
 it to be more powerful. But thefc trees fliow their 
 Ib'ipesin greater pcrfcil'liou in a good foil : Tlie plant, 
 though ill liekuefs, has the appearance of health ; tlie 
 Jhoots are vigorous raid llroiig ; the leaves arc large, 
 Jcfs liable to be hurt by infciils ; and the llripes appear 
 more perfect, natural, and beautiful, than thofc on 
 ftnnted trees growing on a poor foil. 
 
 ACERB, a four rough ailringciicy of taAe, fuch as 
 that of unripe fruit. 
 
 ACERNO, a town of Italy, in the citerior princi- 
 pality of Naples, with a bilhop's fee. E. Long. ij. 
 4&. N. Lat. 40. 50. 
 
 ACERIN A, in Iclithyology, a namegivenby Pliny, 
 and other of the old naturalills, 10 the filh we at this 
 .time call the ruffe. See Perca. 
 
 ACERRA, in antiquity, an altar erected, among 
 the Romans, near the bed of a pcrfon deceafed, on 
 which his friends daily offered incenft till his burial. — 
 The real intention probably was tooverconieauy offcn- 
 five fmcU that might arife from the corpfc. TlieChi- 
 ncfe have Aill a cuflom like this : they crefl: an altar 
 to the deceafed in a room hung witji mourning ; and 
 place an image of thedcadperfonon the altar, to which 
 everyone that approaches"!! bows four times, and of- 
 fers oblations and perfumes. 
 
 The y/cc-fv-a alfo fignitied a little pot wherein were 
 put the inccnfe and perfumes to be burnt on the altars 
 -of the gods and before the dead. It ajipears to have 
 been the fame with what was otherwife called thuri- 
 iulum, and f'yxis. 
 
 We find mention of Accrrx in the ancient church. 
 The Jews had alfo their Accir.e, in our verfion render- 
 ed cenfcrs ; and the Romanifts ftill retain them under 
 the name of Uiccufi-poti. In Roman writers, we fre- 
 quently meet with pUtia acerra, a full acerra : to un- 
 derftand which, it is [o be obfcrved, that people were 
 obliged to offer incenfc in proportion to their eflateand 
 condition ; the rich in larger quantities, the poor only 
 a few grains ; the former poured out acerras full on 
 the altar, the latter took out two or three bits with 
 their fingers. 
 
 ACERRA, a town of Italy, in the kmgdom of 
 Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro ; feated on the ri- 
 ver Agno. E. Long, i j. 10. N. Lat. ^o. J5. 
 
 ACERR/F. (anc. geog.), the ancient name of a 
 townon the Clanius, in Campania, not far from Naples, 
 now Acerra. — The name alfoof another town, now 
 called la Cirola in the territory and to the fouth-cafb 
 of Lodi, where the rivulet Serio falls into the Adda, 
 to the well of Cremona and north of Placentia. 
 
 ACESCENT, a word ufed to denote any thing 
 which is turning four, or which is (lightly acid. It is 
 only applied properly to the former of thtfe two mean- 
 ings. The fecond may be exprell'ed by either of the 
 TWO words, acci.Uilmi ox fi:b-ac:^1. 
 
 ACETABULUM, in antiquity, a meafure ufed by 
 
 .the ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It feems 
 
 .to have acquired its name from a veflcl in which ace- 
 
 tmn or vinegar was brought to their tables, and which 
 
 probably contained about this quantity. 
 
 Acetabulum, in anatomy, a cavity in any bone for 
 .receiving, the protuberant head of another, and there- 
 
 by forming tliat fpecics of articulation called Ewar- 
 TUROSI6. 
 
 Ace I abulum, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe- 
 cics of the pcziza, or cup-pcziza, a genus belonging to 
 the cryptoj^amia fungi of Linnaeus. It has got the 
 name of acetabulum, from the rcfemblancc its leaves 
 beartoaeup. SccPeziza. 
 
 ACETARY. Nehemiah Grew, in his anatomy of 
 plants, applies the term to a pulpy fubllancc in certain 
 fruits, f.^. the pear, which is iuclofed in a congeries 
 of fmall calculous bodies towards the bale of the fruit, 
 and is always of an acid talle. 
 
 ACETOSA, Sorrel ; by Linn.rus joined to the ge- 
 nus of Dock, under the u\.\K.ai Rut/icx. See Rum ex. 
 
 ACETOSELLA, in botany, a fpecies of Oxalis. 
 
 ACETOUS, an epithet applied to fuch fubllances 
 as are four or partake of the nature of vinegar. 
 
 ACETUM, VINEGAR, the vegetable ACID of the 
 chemifts. Sec Vinegar. 
 
 ACHABYTUS (anc. geog.), a high mountain in 
 Rhodes, on the top of which iTood a temple of Jupiter. 
 
 ACH^-EA (anc. geog.), a town of the illand of 
 Rhodes, in the diflridl of Jalyfus, and the firlt and 
 moft ancient of all, faid to be built by the Hcliades, 
 or Grandfons of the Sun. 
 
 AcH «A, a hamlet of Aliatic Sarmatia on the Eux- 
 ine. The inhabitants were called Achai, a colony of 
 llie Orchomenians. 
 
 ACtL'l'ANS, the inhabitants of Achaia Propria, 
 a Pcloponnelian flate. This repul)lic was not con- 
 fiderable in early times, for the number of its troops, 
 norfor its wealth, norfor the extent of its territories ; 
 but it was famed for its probity, itsjuflicc, and its 
 love of liberty. Its high reputation ior thcfe virtues 
 was very ancient. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to 
 rc-eflablifli order in iheir towns, adopted the laws and 
 cufloms of the Achaeans. After the famous battle of 
 Leuftra, a difference arofe betwixt the Lacedemonians 
 and Thebans, who held the virtue of this people in 
 fuch veneration, that they terminated the difpute by 
 their decilion. The government of the Achxans was 
 tleniocratlcal. They prcferved their liberty till trie 
 time of Philip and Alexander : But in the rcrgn of 
 thofe princes, and afterwards, they were eithe!*'(ubjeft 
 to the Macedonians, who had made themfelves maflcrs 
 of Greece, or oppreffed by cruel tyrants. The Achajan 
 commonwealth confiftedoftwelveinconiiderable towns 
 in Peloponncfus. Its firft annals are not marked by any 
 great adion, for they arc not graced with one eminent 
 eharafter. After the death of Alexander, this little 
 republic was a prey to all the evils which flow from po- 
 litical difcord. A zeal for the good of the community 
 was now extinguilhcd: Each town was only attentive 
 to its private intereft. There was no longer any labi- 
 lity in the flatc ; for it changed its maflers with every 
 revolution in Macedonia, Towards the 124''' Olym- 
 piad, about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and 
 when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the republic of the A- 
 chccans recovered its old inflitutions and unanimity. 
 The inliabitants of Pata: and Dymse were the tirfl 
 jlTcrtcrs of ancient liberty. The tyrants were baniHi- 
 ed, and the towns again made one commonwealth. 
 A public council was then held, in which affairs of 
 importance were difcullcd and determined. A regiffer 
 
 was
 
 A C H 
 
 [ 63 ] 
 
 A C If 
 
 • l,ib. viii, 
 •ap. V. 6. 
 
 was appointed to record the tranfadlions of the coun- 
 cil. This aiicmbly had two prciidcnts, who were no- 
 minated alternately by the diti'erent towns, but in- 
 ftcad of two prcfidcnts, they fooii elertcd but one. Ma- 
 ny neighbouring towns which admired the conftitution 
 of this republic, founded or. equality, liberty, the love 
 of julHce, and of the public good, were incorporated 
 with the Achasans, and admitted to the full enjoyment 
 of their laws and privileges. — The arms which the 
 Achasans chiefly ufcd were (lings. They were trained 
 to the art from their infancy, by Hinging from a great 
 diflancc, at a circular mark of a moderate circumfe- 
 rence. By long practice they took fo nice an aim, 
 that they were furc, not only to hit their enemies on 
 the head, but on any part of the face they chofc. 
 Their flings were of a different kind fromthofeof the 
 Balearians, whom they far iurpall'cd in dexterity. 
 
 ACHiEI, (Achseans) ; the inhabitants of Achaia 
 Propria. In Livy, the people of Greece ; for the mofl 
 part called Achivi, by the Roman poets. In Homer, 
 the general name for Grecians. SccAchsans. 
 
 ACH^iiORUM tortus, (Pliny) ; now Porto 
 Buoii, a harbour of the Cherfoncfus Taurica, on the 
 Euxine. Another, near SigaEum, into which the 
 Xanthus, after being joined by the Siraois, falls. 
 
 ACHj4iMENES, according to Herodotus, was fa- 
 ther of Cambyfes, and grandfather of Cyrus the firfl, 
 king of Perfia. Mofl of the commentators of Horace 
 are of opinion, that the Achxmenes whom that poet 
 mentions, ode xii. of his 2'' book, was one of the Per- 
 llan monarchs: but, if that were true, he mail have 
 reigned before the Medcs fubdued the Pcrflans ; for 
 we do not hear of any king of that name from the time 
 that the Pcrlians founded that great monarchy, which 
 is looked upon as the fccond univerfal one. However 
 this be, the t^\i\\ct y^rclixmaiians is frequently given 
 to the Perlians, in the old Latin poets. 
 
 AcH jEmenes, fon of Darius I. king of Perfia, and 
 brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt bc- 
 ftowed on him, after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians 
 toreturn to theirallegiancc. Hefomctime aftcrcom- 
 nianded the Egyptian fleet in the celebrated expedition 
 which proved fo fatal to all Greece. The Egyptians 
 having again taken up arras after the death of Xerxes, 
 Achatmenes was fent into Egypt to fuppr&fs the rebel- 
 lion ; but was vanquifliedbylnarus, chief of thcrebels, 
 f uccoured by the Athenians. 
 
 ACHytUS, coufiu-gcrman to Seleucus Ceraunus 
 and Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, became a 
 very powerful monarch, and enjoyed the domitiions 
 he had ufurpcd formany years ; but at lafl he was pu- 
 nifhed for his ufurpations in a dreadful manner, in the 
 -I4o"^ycar of Rome, as related by Polybius*. 
 
 ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece 
 which Ptolemy calls //f///jj; the younger Pliny, Crx- 
 cia ; now called LivaJia : bounded on the north by 
 Theflaly , the river Sperchius, the Sinus Maliacus, and 
 mount Oeta ; on the wefl by the river Aclielous ; on 
 the eaff, turning a little to the north, it is wafiied by 
 the Archipelago, down to the promontory of Sunium ; 
 the foiith, joined to the Pcloponnefus, or Morca, by 
 the ifthnius of Corinth, five miles broad. 
 
 yfcmn /';c/ir/rt, anciently a fmall diflriifl in the 
 north of Pcloponnefus, running '.vcflward along the bay 
 of. Corinth, and bounded on the wcA by the Ionian 
 
 Sea, on the fouth by Klis and Arcadia, and on the eafl 
 by Sicyonia: inhabitants, the Achaam, properly fo 
 called ; its metropolis, latra. It is now called Ro- 
 t/iuiiia /iita, \\\ the Morca. 
 
 AqI aia was alfo taken for all thoft countries that 
 joined in the Achsean league, reduced by the R.omans 
 to a province. Likcwife for Pcloponnefus. 
 
 A(.HAts. Prejby.tri, or the Prelbyters of Achaia, 
 were thofc who were prefcnt at the martyrdom of St 
 Andrew the Apoftle, A. D. 59 ; and are faid to have - 
 written an epilile in relation to it. Bellarmin, and fe- 
 vcral other eminent writers in the church of Rome, - 
 allow it to be genuine , while Du'Pin, aud forae o- 
 thcrs, cxprcfsly rcjedl it. 
 
 ACHAIUS, fon of Ethwin, was raifed to the 
 crown of Scotland, A. D. 788. The emperor Char- 
 lemagne fent aa cmbafly to defire an alliance with • 
 him againft the Englifli, whofc parties fo infefted the 
 feas, that the merchants could not carry on their 
 trade. This alliance was concluded in France upon, 
 conditions fo advantageous to the Scots, that Achaius, 
 to perpetuate the memory of it, added to the arms 
 of Scotland a double field, fowed with lilies. He died 
 in 819. 
 
 ACHALALACTLI, in ornithology, a fpecies of 
 king's-fifher. See Alcedo. 
 
 ACHAN, the fon of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, 
 at the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred flickcls 
 of lilver, a Babylonilli garment, and a wedge of gold, 
 contrary to the cxprefs command of God. This fin 
 proved fatal to the Iiraelites, who were repulfed at the 
 fiege of Ai. In this dreadful exigence, Jofhua proffra- 
 tcd himfclf before the Lord, and begged that he would 
 have mercy upon his people. Achan was difcovered 
 by calling liHs, and he and his children were floned to 
 death. This expiation being made, Ai was taken \>j 
 ftratagcm. Joih. vii. 8. 9. 
 
 ACHANE, an ancient Perfian corn mcafure, con- 
 taining 4J Attic medimni. 
 
 ACHARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, fituate 
 between TruUesand Nyfa ; in which were the temple 
 of Pluto, and the cave Charonium, where patients flept 
 in order to obtain a cure. 
 
 ACHAT, in law, implies a purchafe or bargain. 
 And hence probably purveyors were called Achators, 
 from tlieir making bargains. 
 
 ACHATES, the companion of Eneas, and his mofl 
 faithful friend, celebrated in Virgil. 
 
 Achates, in natural hillory. See Agate. 
 
 Achates (ar.c. geog.), a river of Sicily, now the 
 Driiio; which runs from north to fouth, almoft paral- 
 lel with, and at no great diflance from, the Gela ; and 
 rifes in the north of the teriitory of Notto. It gave 
 name to the Achates, or Agate, faid to be firfl found 
 there. 
 
 ACHAZIB, or Ach'zib, (anc. gcog.), a town of 
 Galilee, in the tribe of Artier, nine miles from Ptole- 
 mais. — Alfo a town in the morefouihern parts of the 
 tribe of fudah. 
 
 ACHEEN, Ache', or AcHEv, a kingdom of Su- 
 matra in the Eafl-Indies, fuuated on the nonh-wcft- 
 cru part of the ifland. 
 
 The capital is fitaatcdon a river which empties it- 
 fclf near the north-weft point, or Achten-hcad, about 
 two miles from the nicuth. It lies iu a wide valley, 
 
 formed ■
 
 A C H 
 
 f 64 ] 
 
 A C II 
 
 Ache»n. forme J like an amphitheatre by twoloftyranges of li ills. 
 
 " •> The river is not large, ami by emptying ufcltin Icvtral 
 
 cli.innels is rendered very ihallow at the bar. In the 
 d.-y nionfoon it will not admit boats of any bv.rihen, 
 much Icfs large vclfels, which lie w iihoiu, in tiic road 
 f<jrnitd by the illanJs ort the point. Though no long- 
 er the ;;reat mart of eaftcrn commodities, it llill carries 
 on a conliderable trade with tiie natives of that j'art of 
 the coaflof Indoftan Q.A\ii\Tel:i:ga, who fupply it with 
 the cotton goods of their country, and receive in re- 
 turn, gold-daft, fapan-wood, betel-niit, patch-leaf (co/- 
 fiii Ifidicus), a little pepper, fulphnr, cainphirc, and 
 benzoin. The country is fupplied with Bengal opi- 
 um, and alfo with iron, and many otiier articles of 
 merchandize, by the European traders. 
 
 Achcen is cfteemed, comparatively, healthy, being 
 more free from woods and fwamps than luoftolher por- 
 tions of the illand ; and the fevers and dyfcnteries to 
 which thcfe are fuppofed to give occafion, arc there 
 faid to be uncommon. Tlie foil is light and fertile ; 
 and the products, bcfidcs thofe already enumerated as 
 articles of export trade, and a variety of fine fruits, are 
 chiefly rice and cotton. There is likewife fome raw 
 lilk procured in the country, of very inferior quality. 
 Gold dull is colle<5led in the mountains near Acheen, 
 but thegreateft part is brought from the fouthern ports 
 of Nalaboo and Soofoo. The fulpliur is gathered from 
 a volcano mountain in the neighljourhood, which fup- 
 plics their own confumption for the manufacture of 
 gun-powder, and admits of a large exportation. 
 
 lil their perfons, the Achenefe differ I'rom the reft of 
 the Sumatrans, beino- taller, fboutcr, and darker com- 
 I'lexioned. Theyappear not to be a oenuine people; but 
 arc thought, with great appearance of reaibn, to be a 
 mixture <if Battas, Malays, and Moors fri"-..! thcwe/lof 
 India. In their difpolitions they are more adive and 
 indnftrious than their neighbours ; they polFcfs more 
 penetration and fagacity ; have more general know- 
 ledge ; and as merchants, they deal upona more exten- 
 sive and liberal footing. Their religion is Mahonic- 
 tanifni ; and, having a great number of niofques and 
 priefts, its forms and ceremonies are ItriiStly obferved. 
 
 The appearance of the town, and the nature of the 
 buildings, are much the fame as are found in the ge- 
 nerality of Malay bazars, excepting that the fuperior 
 wealth of this place has oeealioned a great number 
 of public edifices, but without the fmalleft pittenfions 
 to magnificence. The king's palace, if it defervcs the 
 appellation, is a very rude and uncouth piece of arclii- 
 tedure, delipnied to refift the force of an enemy, and 
 furroundcd for that purpofe by flrong walls, but with- 
 out any regular plan, or view to the modern fyftem of 
 military attack. Tlie l-.^)'.!fes in common are built of- 
 iamboos and rough limber, and raifed fome feet from 
 the ground on account of the place being overflowed 
 in the rainy feafon. 
 
 A eonfidcrable fabrick of a thick fpecics of cotton 
 cloth, and of ftuff for the tliort drawers worn both by 
 Malaysand Achenefe, is eftabli(h:d here, and fupplies 
 an extenfive demand. They weave alfo very handfonie 
 filk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the 
 drcfs which is called by the P*Ialays cayeti fanaiig. 
 
 The Achenefe are expert and bold navigators, 
 and employ a variety of velfels, according to the 
 
 3 
 
 voyages they undertake, and the purpofes for which Arhte». 
 
 thty riefign tlicm. The liveris covered with a mul- ' >• — ' 
 
 titudc of tilhing fampans or canoes, which go to fta' 
 with the morning breeze, andrcturn in the afternoon, 
 with the fca wind, full laden. 
 
 Having no convenient coIhs, though moft fpecies of 
 money will be taken there at a valuation, they com- 
 monly make their payments in gold dufl, and for that 
 purpofe arc all provided with fcalcsor fmall fteelyards. 
 They carry their gold about them wrapped up in 
 pieces of bladder, and often purchafe to fo fmall an a- 
 mount, as to make ufe of grain or feeds for weights. 
 
 The monarchy is hereditary ; and the king ufually 
 maintains a gnard of 100 Seapoys about his palace. 
 
 According to Mr Marfden, " the grand council 
 of the nation confifts of, the King or Sultan, four 
 Oelooballangs, and tight of a lower degree, who 
 fit on liis right hand, and fixtcen Cajoorai/gi, who 
 fit on his left. At tlie king's feet fits a woman, 
 to whom he mal.es known his pleafurc : by her it 
 is communicated to an eunuch, who fits next to her, 
 and by him to an officer named Cajooraiig Condoiig, 
 who then proclaims it aloud to the alfembly. There 
 arc alfo prefent two other officers, one of whom has 
 the government of the hazar or market, and the o- 
 therthe fuperinteiuiing and carrying into execution 
 the punifliment of criminals. All matters relative to 
 commerce and the cuftoms of the port ceme under the 
 jurifdiiilion of the Shakmdar, who performs the cere- 
 mony of giving the chap or licence for trade ; which 
 is done by lifting a golden handed creefe over the head 
 of the merchant w'ho arrives, and without which he 
 dares not to land his goods. Prefents, the value of 
 vvhicharebecomepretfy regularly afcertained, are then 
 fent to the king and his officers. If the ftranger be in 
 the ftyle of an arabalfador, the royal elephants arc fent 
 down to carry him and his letters to the monarch's 
 prefcnce ; thcfe being firil delivered into the hands of 
 an eunuch, who places them in a filver difh, covered 
 with rich lilk, on the back of the largeft elephant, 
 which is provided with a machine (houdcr) for that 
 purpofe. Witliin about an hundred yards of an open 
 hall where the king fits, the cavalcade ftops, and 
 the ambaifador difmounts, and makes his obeifance by 
 bending his body, and lifting his joined hands to his 
 head. When he enters the palace, if an European, he 
 is obliged to take off his fnoes ; and having made afe- 
 cond obeifance, is featcd upon a carpet on the floor, 
 where bctil'ii brought to h im. The throne was fome 
 ycarsagoof ivory and tortoifefhell, and when the place 
 was governed by queens, a curtain of gauze was hung 
 before it, which did not obflnift the audience, but pre- 
 vented any perfedlview. The flranger, after fome ge- 
 neral difcourfe, is then conduced to a feparate build- 
 ing where he is entertained with the delicacies of the 
 country, by the officers of flate, andinthc evening re- 
 turns in the manner he came, furroundcd by a prodi- 
 gious number of lights. On high days (ar:-; ryah) the 
 king goes in great ftatemounted on an elephant richly 
 caparifoned, to the great mofque, preceded by his ooloo- 
 hallar.gs ; who are armed nearly in the Europeanman- 
 ner." 
 
 The country under the immediate jurifdidfion of 
 Acheen, is divided into three diftri&s, named Duo 
 
 pooloo
 
 A C II 
 
 [ 65 ] 
 
 A C H 
 
 Achfn, po'jloo duo, Duo l^coloo lecmo, ix\iDu(, Jooko anam. 
 Aclicl'juj. Each dJArid is governed hy a Paiiglccnio, and under 
 ^~"~ him an Imaum and four Pangccchcs to each mofijuc. 
 " Aclicii has ever been remarkable ibr the fcvcrity 
 with which crimes are punilhed by their laws ; the 
 fame rigour Hill fubfills, and there is no commutation 
 admitted, as is regularly edabliOicd in the foutlicrn 
 countries. Tlicrcis great rcafon, however, toconcludc 
 that tlic poor alone cxj'erience the rod of ju/licc ; the 
 nobles being fccurc from retribution in the number of 
 their dependents. Petty theft is punilhed by fufpcnd- 
 ing the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy 
 weight tied to his feet ; or by cutting otf a finger, a 
 hand, or leg, according to the nature of the theft. 
 Many of thefe mutilated and wretched objeds are daily 
 to be fecn in the Itrccts. Robbery on thehigliway and 
 houfe-breakingare punilhed by drowning, and after- 
 wards expoling the body on a llake for a few days. If 
 the robbery is coniniittcd upon an imtum or pricll, the 
 facrilcgeis expiated by burning the criminal alive. A 
 man whois convidcd of adultery is feldom attempted 
 to befcrecncd byhis friends, but is delivered up to the 
 friends and relations of the injured hulband. Thefe 
 take him to feme large pbiin, and forming themfelves 
 in a circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon 
 called a Cadoohoiig, is then delivered to him by one of 
 his family ; and if he can force his way through thofc 
 who furround him, and make his cfcape, he is not 
 liable to further profecution ; but it commonly happens 
 that he is infl.-intly cut to pieces. In this cafe Iiis re- 
 lations bury him as tliey would do a buffalo, refufing to 
 admit the corpfe into their houfe, or to perform any 
 funeral rites." Thefe difcouragcments to vice might 
 fcem to bcfpcak a moral and virtuous people : yet all 
 travellers agree in rcprcfcntiug the Achencfeasonc of 
 the nioll dilhoned and flagitious nations of the Kaft. 
 
 Achen was vilited by the Portuguefe in 1509, only 
 12 years after they had difcovercd the palfage to the 
 Eaft-Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. They made 
 various attemptstoeftablilh themfelves in the country, 
 but were expelled with difgrace. Sec Sitmmatra. 
 
 ACHELOUS, in fabulous hiftory, wrcllled with 
 Hercules, for no lefs a prize than Deianira, daughter 
 to king Ocnus : but as Achclous had the power of af- 
 fumingall fliapes, the contert was long dubious : at lail, 
 as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his 
 horns ; fo that he was forced to fubmit, and to redeem 
 it by giving the conquerfu- the horn of Amalthea, the 
 fame with the Cornucopia or horn of plenty ; wiiich 
 Hercules having iilled with a variety of truits, confc- 
 crated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by faying, 
 That Achelous is a w inding river of Greece, whole 
 ftream was fo rapid, that it roared like a bull, and over- 
 flowed its banks ; but Hercules, 1-y bringing it into two 
 channels, broke off one of the liorui-, and fo reftorcd 
 plenty to the country. Stt t!i; next article-. 
 
 AcHELcis, a river of Acarnania ; which rifcs in 
 mount Hindus, and, dividing A'tolia from Acarnania, 
 falls from north to finiili into the Sinus Corinihiacus. 
 It was formerly called T/oai, from its inipetuofny, and 
 king of rivers, (Homcr.) The epithet Achcihus is 
 ufed for .Vy« 7/j, ( Virgil) ; the ancients calling all water 
 .^cA.^/o.'/.'.cfpccially inoaths, vows, and facritices, accor- 
 ding to Kphorus : Now called .V/^j/oPs/tfw/o. llivers 
 are by iheancicnt poets called 7ri«r//()r*/«, cither from 
 \"oi.. I. 
 
 the bellowing of ilicir waters, or from their ploughing Achtii 
 thccarthiii theircourfe: Hcrcule9,rcflriiniugbydykcs ( 
 
 and mounds the inundati'jns of the A:hilous, is faiJ to Achlcolom. 
 have broken oit'onc of his horns, and to have brought " ^ 
 back plenty to the country. ^;e tht preceding artut:. 
 
 ACHERI (Li;ke u'), a learned Benedictine of the 
 congregation of St Maur, was born at St Qiiiutin, in 
 Picardy, in 1609 ; and made himfelf lamoas by printing 
 fcveral works, which till then were only in maiiufcript: 
 particularly. The cpilUe attributed to St Barnabas ; 
 The works of Lanfrank, archbiihop of Canterbury ; 
 A collcfiion of fcarce and curious pieces, under the 
 title of Spicilcgium, i.e. Gleanings, in thirteen vo- 
 lumes, quarto. The prefaces and notes, which he an- 
 nexed to many of thefe pieces, Ihow him to have been a 
 man of genius and abilities. He had alio fonic iharc in 
 the pieces inferted in the lirft volumes of Theafts of 
 the faints of the order of St Bennct ; the title whereof 
 acquaints us that they were collcded and publilhcd 
 by him and father Mabillon. After a very retired life, 
 till the age of 73, he died at Paris the 29th of April, 
 1685, in the abbey of St Germain in the helds, where 
 he had been librarian. 
 
 ACHERNER, or Acharnee, a flar of the firfl 
 magnitude in the fouthern extremity of the fonllel- 
 lation Eridancs. 
 
 ACHERON, a river of Epirus. The poets feign- 
 ed it to have been the fon of Ceres, whom Ihe hid in 
 hell for fear of the Titans, and turned into a river, o- 
 ver which fouls departed were ferried in their way to 
 Elyfium. 
 
 Acheron, a river of Thefprotia, inEpirus; which, 
 after forming the lake Acherulia, at no great diftancc 
 from, it falls into the fea near the promontory of Chi- 
 merium, tothc weltof the Sinus Ambracius, in a courfe 
 from north to fouth. 
 
 Acheron, or Acheros, a river of the Brnttii in 
 Italy, running from eaft to well: Where Alexander 
 king of Epirus was llain by the Lucani, being decei- 
 ved by the oracle of Dodona, which bid him beware of 
 Acheron. 
 
 ACHERSET, an ancient meafure of corn, conjec- 
 tured to be the fame as our quarter, or eight bulhcls. 
 
 ACHERUSIA PELis, a lake between Cum* and 
 the promontory Mifenum, now il Lago DclUCatlucia, 
 (Cluverius.) Some confound it with the Lac;ii Lucn- 
 iiiii, and others with the Lacui Avemi. But Strabo 
 and Pliny dillinguiih them. The former takes it to be 
 an effulion, exundation.orwafliesofthefca, and there- 
 fore called by Lycophron, \y»ftTni x"-'''- — Alio a lake 
 
 of Epirus, through which tiie Acheron r'ins There 
 
 is alio an ^i/'i'/ ////</, a peniufula of Uithynia on the 
 Euxine, near Heraclca ; and a cave thereof the fame 
 name, throigh which Hercules is fabled to have dc- 
 fcended to hell to drag forth Cerberus. 
 
 ACHI.AR, is a Malayan word, which lignjfies all 
 forts of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and fpice. 
 The Dutch import from Batavia all Ibrts of achiar, 
 but particularly that of Bamboo (fee Arvni>o), a 
 kind of cane, extremely thick, which grows in the 
 Ealt Indies. It is prcfcrvcd there, whilll li is ftill 
 green, with a very llrong vincsjar and fpice j and is 
 called bandio achuir. The name changes acrording 
 to the fruit with which the achi.ir is made. 
 
 ACHICOLUM, is ufed to cxprefs the fornix, t/>4- 
 l ' lui.
 
 A C II 
 
 [ 66 ] 
 
 A C H 
 
 AchiUxj. liij, oT Jii<!att.iiiim oi tlic ajicieiic baths j whicli was a 
 
 — ^- hot room where ihcy iifcd to fweat. It is alfo called 
 
 archithcliti. 
 
 ACHlhhJEA, Yarrow, Milkoi r., Nose bleep, 
 or Snf.fzf.wort ; agcnusoftlie ordcrof tht polyg.i- 
 jnia fiipcrrtua, belonging to the fyngcnelia claCs ut' 
 plants. The natural order to which it belongs is ihc 
 
 49th, C(in:fCijitx dlfLtii(f:i. 
 
 The characters Are : The common calyx is ovate 
 and imbricattd, with ovate, acute, converging fcaUs. 
 The comj-oiintl corolla is rayed ; the hermaphrodite co- 
 rollcts arc tubular ii; the difc, llic I'eminiiic lingiii- 
 torni and from 5 to 10 in the rays : The proper corol- 
 la of the hermaphrodites is funnel-lhapcd, expanded, 
 and di\idcd into 5 fcgments ; that of the females, 
 longdc-lhapcd, inverfcly cordaied, expanding, and of 
 ? fcgments. The Jlamiiia in the hermaphrodites con- 
 iift of J very Ihort capillary filaments ; the anthera is 
 cylindricanJ tubular. The/*.-///////;// in the hermaphro- 
 dites has a fmall germen ; the ftylus is filiform the 
 length of the llamina ; the lligma is obtufe and end- 
 notched : in the females, the germen is fmall ; the fly- 
 lus is filiform ; the ftigmata are 2, obtufe and reflcdcd. 
 The/>i'/-/car/i///?« is wanting ; the calyx fcarcely chan- 
 ged ; the receptacle filiform, elongated at the difc of 
 the feeds, ovate, and twice as long as the calyx. The 
 /eetis are folitary, ovate, and furnilhcd with a lock of 
 wool ; no pappus. The receftaculmn is chaffy and ele- 
 vated. 
 
 Sptcies and properties. There are 20 fpccies, of 
 which the following are the principal : i. The niil- 
 lifolium, or common yarrow, is found naturally on 
 banks, and by the fides of foot-paths, in nioft parts of 
 Kngland. It moll commonly bears white flowers, 
 though a variety of it is found which bears purple ones. 
 Thefe, however, do not long continue to bear flowers 
 of this colour, if tranfplanted into gardens. It was 
 formerly ufcdin medicine ; but though itmay fiill have 
 a place in foine difpenfatorics, nophyfician of any note 
 cxpeds any virtue from it, or ever prefcribes it. It 
 creeps greatly by its roots, and aUo multiplies by the 
 feeds, fo that it becomes a troubleforae weed where it 
 is once all>^wed to get a footing. The cultivation of it 
 is recommended by Mr Andcrfon, in his Eflays on A- 
 griculture, as a jiropcr food for cattle. This fpccies 
 was the proper achillaja of the ancients, fo named from 
 Achilles ; who,having been the difcipleof Chiron, firfl 
 brought it into ufe for the cure of wounds and ulcers. 
 2. The fant<>lina,or eallcrn fueezcwort, isfometimes 
 cultivated in gardens; it has large yellow flowers, which 
 ftand upon pretty long footilalks jilaced fingly,- not in 
 bunches as in the common kind. It has leaves like 
 lavender-cotton, which, when rubbed, emitaflrongoily 
 odour. The flowers appear in Juneajid July. ;;. The 
 tomentofa, or woolly varrow, is a native of the fouth of 
 France and Spain, b-it lives in the open air in England. 
 The flowers are of a bri;zht yellow, and continue long 
 in beauty, growing in cluftcrs at the top of the flalks, 
 which feldom rife above a foot high. The leaves arc 
 finely cut, and very hoary. 4. The abrotanifolia, or 
 tall eaftern yarrow, is a native of theiflands in the Ar- 
 chipelago: it grows to the height of two feet and a 
 half, with large umbels of yellow flowers on the top ; 
 the leaves refemble ihofe of the common wormwood, 
 and arc cut into long narrow fegmcnts. 5. The cla- 
 
 venna, or Alpir.e umbelliferous wormwooj, takes its AchilJata. 
 name from the mountains of which it is a native. It — v'— 
 frldom grows above iix or feven inches in height ; it 
 fupports umbels of white flowers, like thofe of the 
 commwn fneezcwort, which appear in .April and May. 
 The leaves are lilvery, and (hapcd like thofe of worm- 
 wood, which often decay in the autumn and winter. 
 6. The tanacctifulia, or eaflern fneezcwort, with tan- 
 fey leaves, is a very humble plant, feldom rtling above 
 fix inches in height. The flowers arc nearly as large 
 as thofe of the common fneezcwort, white, and grow- 
 ing in flat umbels. They appear in June and July. 
 Tlie leaves of the plant have fome liktuefs to thofe of 
 the common wormwood, are very hoary, grow clofe 
 to the ground, and decay in autumn fo as to make little 
 appearance in winter. Like the lafl fpccies, this is a 
 native of the Alps. 7. Tiic agcratum, or fwcct maud- 
 lin, was formerly much ulcd in medicine and forculi- 
 nary purpofcs, but has now fallen fo much into neg- 
 lect as to be totally unknown in tlie markets ; fo that 
 when it is demanded, the while maudlin is fubflitutcd 
 initsflcad. The rcafon of this fiibflitution \j'as, that 
 the latter is more hardy and eafily propagated than the 
 fwcct maudlin, which is apt toi'ot in wet winters. The 
 common maudlin flov\ersinJunc and July, and the feeds 
 are ripe in September. 8. The Egyptiaca, or hoary 
 fneezcwort, is a native of the Archipelago. It hatli 
 very hoary leaves, which remain all the year ; and 
 the plants growing clofe and low, make a pretty ap- 
 pearance at all feafons. The flowers are yellow, and 
 are produced in umbels on the top of the flalks ; they 
 appear in June, and continue till the end of Septem- 
 ber. 9. The ptarmica, or common fneezcwort, grows 
 wild in the woods, and other lliady places, in many 
 parts of England ; fo is not admitted into gardens. 
 There is a variety, however, with double flowers, 
 which is preferved in gardens, and is commonly known 
 by the na.mc o{ doril>le maiiil/in. This fpccies creeps 
 greatly by the roots, fo as foon to overfpread a large 
 fpot of ground. If planted in pots, fo as to confine its 
 roots from creeping, the flalks grow clofe together, 
 and make a tolerable appearance when in flower ; but 
 when at a diflancc, fo that the roots have full liberty 
 to run, the flowers appear but indifTerently. 10. The 
 macrophylla, or Alpine fneezcwort, with fewer 
 leaves, is a native of the Alps. It produces many flalks 
 riling near three feet high ; having loofe branching 
 umbels of white flowers on theirtop, refembling thofe 
 of the common fneezcwort, but larger. 11. The na- 
 na, or hoary Alpine milfoil, is likewife a nativeof the 
 Alps; the leaves are hoary, and the umbels of its flow- 
 ers arc moreconipaifl than the former ; the flalks do not 
 rife m.ore than a foot high. 12. The nobilis, or fweet 
 milfoil, approaches to the nature of the common mil- 
 foil; but its leaves are of a paler green, and are nei- 
 ther fo long nor fo mucji cut ofFas thofe of the commoa 
 milfoil are : they have a flrong fweet fcent when brui- 
 fed. 1 3. The alpina, or white maudlin, bears fomc re- 
 femblance to the common fneezcwort; but the leaves 
 arc longer, of a deeper green colour, and deeply in- 
 dented in their edges ; the flowers are white, and the 
 roots creep far under g'round. The plant will rife, in 
 good land, to the height of four feet. 
 
 Cri.'ttne. All the forts of yarrow arc eafily propa- 
 gated by feeds, which maybe fown either in the fpring-
 
 A C H 
 
 [ 67 ] 
 
 A C II 
 
 AcViiUcii, or autumn upon ?. bed of common earth. When ilic 
 Aciiillc?. plants come up, and are ftrong enough lor traiifplsut- 
 
 * -^~^ i;ig, they /lioi.ild be planted in beds in tiie nurlcry, 
 
 where they niaycoiitinuetillautmnii,when ihcy Uiould 
 be iraiifplantcd to the places where they arc to remain. 
 The Archipelago kinds, however, are often deftroycd 
 by fevcre froll ; fo they ought to be fiicltcrcd during 
 the winter. Thefe kinds alio rarely bring their feeds 
 to pcrfedlion in Lngland ; they arc therefore to be 
 propagated by flips, wliicli may be taken off and plant- 
 cil in a Ihady border .-iny time in fumnicr, when they 
 will take root in about fix weeks, and then may be 
 trunfplanted where tkcy are to remain. 
 
 ACHILLEID, AcHii.r.E IS, a celebrated poem of 
 Statins, in which thai author propofcd to deliver the 
 whole life and exploitsof Achilles; bin being prevent- 
 ed by death, he has only treated of the infancy and c- 
 ducatlon of this hero. Sec SrArius. 
 
 ACHILLES, one of the greatefl heroes of ancient 
 Greece, was the fon of I'cleus and Thetis. He W'lS a 
 native of Pythia, in Thelfaly . I lis mother, it is faid, 
 in order to confume every mortal part of his body, tiled 
 to lay him every night under live coals, anointing liim 
 w ith ambrofia, which prcfervf d every part from burn- 
 ing but one of his lips, owing to his liaving licked it. 
 She dipped hiin alfo in the waters of the river Styx ; 
 by which his whole body became invulnerable, except 
 that part of his heel by which llie held him. But this 
 opinion is not univerfal, nor is it a part of his charac- 
 ter as drawn by Homer; for in the Iliad (B. xxi. 161.) 
 he was aftually wounded in the right arm, by the lance 
 of Afleropaut, in the battle near the river Scamander. 
 Thetis afterwards enirulledhim tothecarc of the een- 
 fanr Cliiron, w ho, to give him the flrength necelfary 
 for martial toil, fed him with honey and the marrow 
 of lions and wild boars. To prevent his going to 
 the (lege of Troy, fhe difguifed him in female apparel, 
 and hid him among the maidens at iTie court of king 
 Lycomedes : but Lilylles difcovering him, perfuaded 
 him to follow thcGreeks. .Achilles diftinguilhed hini- 
 felf by a number of heroic aiflions at the liege. Briiig 
 difgufled, however, with Agamemnon for the lofs of 
 Brifeis, he retired from the camp. But returning to 
 avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he llcw Hec- 
 tor, faftcncd his corps to his chariot, and dragged it 
 round the walls of Troy. At lall Paris, the brother 
 of Heflor, wounded him in the heel with an arrow, 
 while he was in the temple treating about hiimarriagc 
 with Philoxena, daughter to king Priam. Of this 
 wound he died, and was interred on tlie promontory of 
 Sigjsniii ; and after Troy was taken, the Greeks facri- 
 ticed Pliiloxena on his tomb, in obedience to his dc fire, 
 that lie might enjoy her company in the Elylian HtUis. 
 It is faid iliat Alexander, feeing his tomb, honoured 
 it by placing a crown upon it ; at the fame time cry- 
 ing out, that '*■ Achillss was happy in having, during 
 his life, fnch a friind as Patroclus ; and, after his 
 death, a poet like Homer." Achilles is fuppofed to 
 have died I iS j years before the Chrillian aera. 
 
 Achilles Tati us. SccTatius. 
 
 Teniia Acuiius, in anatomy, is a llroiig tendinous 
 cord formed by the tendons of feveral nuifeles, and in- 
 fcrtrd into the os calcis. It has its name from the fa- 
 tal wound Achiilcs is faid to have received in that part 
 from Paris the fon of Priam. 
 
 ACHILLINI (Alexander), bom at Bologna, and 
 do,.tor of philofopliy in that univcrlity. He riuuriflied 
 in thcijthand i6thecnturies, and by way of eminence 
 was llylcd the Great Philofophcr. He was a licdlal'L 
 follower and accurate interpreter of A verroes uponAri- 
 llotlc, but mofl admired for his acutenefs and flrength 
 of arguing in public and private difputations. He made 
 a furpriling quick progrefs in his lludies,and was very 
 early promoted to a prot'ellbrfiiip in the univcrlity ; iu 
 which he acquitted hiinfelf «itii fonr.ichapplaufc thar 
 hisname became famous throughout all Italy. He con- 
 tinned at Bologna till liie year t jo6 ; when the uni- 
 verfity of Padua made choice of him to fuccccd Anto- 
 nio Francatiano in the firll chair of philofophy, and 
 liis fame brought vaft numbers of fludents to his lec- 
 tures at Padua : but the war, wherein the republic of 
 Venicii was engaged againll the league of Canibray, 
 putting a flop to the lectures of that uiiiverlity, he 
 withdrew to his native country; where he was received 
 with the fame marks of honour and dillinflion ai be- 
 fore, and again appointed profedbr of philofophy in 
 Bologna. Hc-fpest the remainder of his life in this- 
 city, where he died, and was interred with great pomp 
 in the church ofSt Martin the Great, which belongs to 
 the Carmelite Friars. Jovius, who knew Achillini, and 
 heard his Icclures, fays, that he was a man of fuch ex- 
 ceeding limplicity, and fo unacquainted with addrcfs 
 and flattery, that he was a laughing-ftock to the pert 
 and fancy young fcholars, although elleemedon account 
 of his learning. He wrote feveral pieces on philofo- 
 phical fubje(5ls, which he publilhcd, and dedicated to 
 John Bentivogli. 
 
 Achillini (Claudius), grandfon of the former, 
 read Icdlures at Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma ; where 
 he was reputed a great philofopher, a learned divine, an 
 excellent lawyer, an eloquent orator, a good mathe- 
 matician, and an elegant poet. He accompanied Car- 
 dinal Ludovino, who went as legate into Piedmont; but 
 being afterward negledcd by this cardinal, when he 
 became pope under the name of Gregory XV. he left 
 Rome indifguft,and retired to Parma ; where the duke 
 appointed him profellbrof law, with a good falary. He 
 publilhcd a volume of Latin Letters, and another of 
 Italian poems, which gained him great reputation : he 
 died in 1640, aged 66. 
 
 ACHIOTTE, orAcHioTt, a foreign drug, ufed 
 in dying, and in the preparation of chocolate. It is 
 the fame with the fibflanee more ufually known by 
 the name Arnotto ; which fee 
 
 ACHIROPOETOS, a name given by ancient wri- 
 ters to certain miraculous pitlures of Chrift and the 
 Virgin, fuppofed to have been made without Iiands. — 
 The moll celebrated of thefe is a picture of Chrill, 
 prefcrved in the church of St John Lateran at Rome ; 
 faid to have been begun by St. Luke, but linidAcd by 
 the niinillry of angels. 
 
 ACHMET, fonof Seerim, has left a book concern- 
 ing the interpretation of dreams according to the doc- 
 trine of the Indians, Perlians and Egyptians, which 
 wastranilated out of the Greek into Latin by Leo Tnf- 
 cus in 1160. He lived In the 9th century. 
 
 ACHMRT-GF.DUC, a famous general under Ma- 
 homet i I. and Bajaztt II. in the ijth century, \\hen 
 Mahomet n. died, B.ija/.et and Zezan both claimed 
 the throne : Adimet iided with the former, and by his 
 I 2 bra\crv
 
 A C H 
 
 [ 68 ] 
 
 A C H 
 
 bravery and conduce fixe J the crown on his head. But 
 Bajazci took awjyhislil'c ; fiiiaiiig viiLucbciiig always 
 an unparjoriat Ic crime in the eyes ot a tyrant. 
 
 ACHMKTSCHKT, a town of the pcninfiila of 
 the Crimea, the rclidenee of the fultait Gal^a, who is 
 ilJcll foil of tlic Khanuf Tartary. Long. 51. 20. Lat. 
 45.0. 
 
 ACHiMIM, a large town of Upper Egypt, fituatej 
 0:1 the eallcrn bank of the Nile. " One admires there 
 (f<!ys Abulfcda, as quoted by Mr Savary), a temple, 
 wliich is comparable to the mull celebrated monuments 
 (ff antiquity. It is coaitrudcd with Itoiicsof a fiirpri- 
 li rtgfizc, on which are fculptured innumerable figures." 
 Though this town be fallen from its ancient fplcndor, 
 it is ftill one of the n.ofl beautiful of Upper £gypt. 
 According 10 Mr Savary, an Arab prince commands 
 tiicre, and the police is well attended to. The llrects 
 are wide and clean, and commerce and agriculture llou- 
 riili. It has a manufactory of cotton, Itutfs, and pot- 
 tery, which are conveyed over all i^gypt. It is the 
 fame that Herodotus calls Ghcimuis, and Strabo Pano- 
 pol'n, or the city of Pan, who was worlhipped there. 
 Herodotus fiys, that Pcrfcus was a native of this city, 
 and that his defcendants had eltabliflicd fcllivals there 
 in his honour. Ithas loft its ancient edifices, and n;uch 
 of its extent ; the ruins of the temple, delcribcd by 
 Abulfcda, being without its limits, to the north. No- 
 thing remains of it but feme flones, of fucli magnitude 
 that the Turks have not been able to move them. They 
 are covered with hieroglyphics. On one of them are 
 traced four concentric circles, in afquarc. The inncr- 
 mofl of thcfc contains a fun. The two fucceedingones, 
 divided into 12 parts, contain, one, 12 birds, the other, 
 12 animals almofl effaced, which appear to be the 
 ligns of the zodiac. The fourth has no divilions, and 
 prefents 12 human figures; which Mr Savary imagines 
 to reprefcnt the 12 gods, the 12 months of the year, 
 and the 12 figns of the zodiac. The Egyptians, fays 
 Herodotus, are the firll who divided the year into 12 
 months, and employed the namcsof the i2gods. The 
 four feafons occupy the angles of the fquare, on the 
 fide of which may be diflinguilhed a L,lobe with wings. 
 Mr Savary thinks it probable that this ftone belonged 
 10 a temple dedicated to tjie fun, that the whole of 
 thefe hieroglyphics mark his pallage into the figns of 
 the zodiac, and his courfe, whofe revolution forms the 
 year. The columns of this temple have been partly 
 broken to make lime and millftones. Some of them 
 have been tranfported into one of the mofques of Ach- 
 mim, where they are placed without taitc ; others are 
 heaped up in the fquares of the town. 
 
 Mr Savary tells us of a ferpent which is wor- 
 fliippcd here, and is the wonder of the country. 
 " Upwards of a century ago (fays he), a religious 
 Turk called Schdlk Haridi died here. He palTed 
 for a faint among the Mahometans ; who raifed a 
 monument to him, covered with a cupola, at the 
 foot of the mountain. The people flocked from all 
 parts to offer np their prayers to him. One of their 
 priefls, profiting by their credulity, perfuadcd them 
 that God had made the foul of Scheilk Haridi pafs in- 
 to the body of a ferpent. Many of thefe arc found 
 in the Thebais, which are harmlefs ; and lie had 
 taught one to obey his voice. He appeared with his 
 ferpent, dazzled the vulgar by his fiirprifing tricks. 
 
 and pretended to cure all diforders. Some lucky in- Achmim 
 itances of fuccels, due to nature alone, and fonietimcs ii 
 
 to tile imagination of the patients, gave him great ce- ■^''"'"- , 
 lebrity. He foon confined his ferpent Haridi to the 
 tomb, producing him only to oblige princes and pcr- 
 fons capable of giving him a handfomc rccompencc. 
 The fuecelfors of this prielf, brought up in the fame 
 principles, found no difficulty in giving fandion to 
 lo advantageous an error. Tiiey added to the general 
 perluafion of his virtue that of his immortality. They 
 had the buldncfs even to make a public proof of it. 
 The ferpent was cut in pieces in prcfcnce of the Emir, 
 and pLiccd for two hours under a vale. At the inllani: 
 of lifting up the vafe, the priclfs, no douht, had the 
 addrcfs to fubllitute one exactly refembling it. A mira- 
 cle was proclaimcd,and the immortal Haridi acquired a 
 frclh degree of confidcr.ition. This knavery procures 
 them great advantages. The people flock from all quar- 
 ters to pray at this tomb; and if the ilrpent crawls 
 out from under the flone,andapproachcs the fuppliant, 
 it is a lign that his malady will be cured. It may be 
 imagined, that he does not appear till an offering has 
 been made proportioned to the quality and riches of 
 the different pcrfons. In extraordinary cafes, where 
 the lick perfon cannot be cured without the prcfencc 
 of the ferpent, a. pun- virgin mull come to folicit him. 
 To avoid inconveniences on this head, they take cars 
 to ehoof e a a very young girl i'ldced. She is decked out 
 in her bell clothes, and crowned with flowers. She 
 puts herfelf in a praying attitude ; and as the priefts 
 are inclined, the ferpent comes out, makes circles 
 round the young fuppliant, and goes and repofes on 
 her. The virgin, accompanied by a vafl multitude, 
 carries him in triumph aniidll the general acclama- 
 tion. No human reafoning would perfuadc thefe igno- 
 rant and credulous Egyptians tliat they are the dupes 
 of a few impoflors : they believe in the ferpent Ha- 
 ridi as firmly as in the prophet." 
 
 ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland, in the pro- 
 vince of Connaught and county of Sligo, feated on the 
 river Shannon. 
 
 ACHOR, avalley of Jericho, lying along the river 
 Jordan, not far from Gilgal ; fo called from Achan, 
 the troubler of Ifrael, being there floned to death. 
 AcHOR, in medicine, a ipecies of Herpes. 
 AcHOR, in mythology, the god of flies ; to whom, 
 according to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene facrifi- 
 ccd, in order toobtain deliverance from the infects and 
 the diforders occalioned by them. 
 
 ACHRADINA (anc. geog.), one of the four ci- 
 ties or divilions of Syracufe,and the (lrongefl,largeft, 
 andmofh beautiful part of it ; fcparatcdby a very itrong 
 wall from the outer town, TychazwA Niapolis, It was 
 adorned with a very large forum, with beautiful por- 
 ticos, a moll elegant prytaneum, a fpacious fenate- 
 houfe, and a fuperb temple of Jupiter Olympius. 
 
 ACHRAS, or Sapota Plum : a genus of the nio- 
 nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of 
 plants ; and ranking in the 43d Natural Order, Dii- 
 moj'tc. 
 
 The characters are : The calyx is a perianthium, 
 conlifting of fix ovate concave ereft leaflets, the ex- 
 terior ones broader and fliorter, the interior ones co- 
 loured. The corolla is compofed of one ovate petal, 
 the height of the calyx; the border divided into fix 
 
 fcgments.
 
 A C H 
 
 [ 69 
 
 A C I 
 
 fefumciits. Theftami/ia have lix fhort fabaUted fila- 
 ments at the throat of the corolla ; and the antherx 
 arc acute. The i>i]IUlum has a rouiidilh dcprellcd gcr- 
 , men ; the llyliis is Tubulated, and longer than the 
 corolla ; the lligraa is obtufc. The pericarpim/t is a 
 globular twelve-celled pomum, with very foft fielli. 
 The feeds trc folitary, ovate, and gloITy. 
 
 There arc four fpecics, all natives of the Weft In- 
 dies. The principal are, I. Tlie fapota, with oblong 
 oval leaves, and fmooth turbinated fruit. 2. The mam- 
 mofa, with fpear-lhapcd leaves, and large oval fruit. 
 The lirll is common about Panama, and fome places 
 i;i the Spanilh Well Indies ; but is not to be found in 
 any of the Britiih fetilenicnts in America. The fe- 
 co:id fort is very common in Jamaica, Barbadocs, and 
 moll of the Welt India Illands, where the trees are 
 planted in the gardens for their fruit, ■ • hich is by many 
 perfons greatly eflcemed. They grow to the heightof 
 3 J or 40 feet, having a ftraight trunk covered with an 
 alh-colourcd bark. Tlie branches arc produced on c- 
 very tide, forming a regular head ; and arc befet with 
 leaves near a foot long, and almoll three inches broad 
 in the middle. The flowers are of a cream colour : 
 and are fuccceded by large oval fruit covered by a 
 brownilh Ikin, Lnclofing a thick pulp of a ruffet colour, 
 very lufcious, and called natural marmalade, from its 
 refemblance to that of quinces. The llones taken in 
 emullion are reckoned good againll the gravel. — Thefe 
 trees being natives of very hot climates, cannot be prc- 
 ferved in Britain, except in the warmcll (loves. 
 
 ACHROMATIC, an epithet cxprefling want of co- 
 lour. The word is Greek, being compounded of «, 
 privative, and xft^"' colvur. 
 
 AcHROM/aic Tchfcopcs, are tclefcopcs contrived to 
 remedy the aberrations in colours ; fee Abe kr at ion. 
 — A particular account of the invention and conilruc- 
 tion of thefe inftruments will be found under Orrics. 
 
 ACHTELING, a meafurc for liquids ufed in Ger- 
 many. Thirty-two achtci'mgs make a keener ; four 
 fciiti?»i or fcilt:iu, make an acht cling. 
 
 ACHYR, a flrong town and cafllc of the Ukrain, 
 Aibjc(5l to the Ruffians lince 1667. It flands on the 
 river Uorfklo near the frontiers of Ruflia, 127 miles 
 W. of Kiow, Long. ;6. o. Lat 49. 32. 
 
 ACHYRANTHES, in botany, a genus of the pen- 
 tandria order, belonging to the monogynia clafs of 
 plants, and aflbciating with the Mifeellanex, in the 
 54ih Natural Order. 
 
 The characters are : Tlie calyr is a double peri- 
 antliium ; the exterior one conliftiug of three lan- 
 ced acute leaves, which are pcriillent ; the iiitcrior of 
 five leaves, alfo perfiflent. No corolla : The ne Clarinm 
 isfive-valvcd furronnding thegermen, bearded at the 
 top, concave, and falling oH". The /fami'ia confift of 
 five filaments the length of the corolla, the antherx 
 arc ovate and incumbent. The pijlillum has a top- 
 ihaped germcn the flylus is filiform, and the length 
 of the ftamina ; the ftigma is villous, and divided into 
 two fegments. The ferianthiuvt is a rouHdilh one- 
 celled capfulc, not gaping. The feed is fingle and ob- 
 long. 
 
 Of this genus eight fpecies are cnuoicrated ; but 
 
 the character of the genus docs not agree in them all. 
 
 The fpecies are all natives of ihe Indies. Only one 
 
 of them, the amai'anchus, is conimouly cultivated iu 
 
 botanical gardens, and that more for the fake of va- 
 riety than beauty. It grows to the height of three 
 fett, with oblong pointed leaves. The flowers come 
 out in long fpikc s from the extremities of the branches, 
 and appear in July, the feeds ripening in September. 
 Plants of this kind inull be reared in a hot-bed, and 
 may be tranfplantcd when they have acquired fufHci- 
 ent Itrength. If kept in pots, and (helicred during 
 the winter in a warm grecn-houfc, they will live two 
 or three years. 
 
 ACICANTHER.^, in botany, the trivial name of 
 a fpecics of Rhexi a. 
 
 ACICULit, the fmall pikes or prickles of the 
 hcdgc-hog, echinus-marinus, &c. 
 
 ACIDALIUS (Valcns) would, in all probability, 
 have been one of the grcateit critics in thefe latter a- 
 ges, had he lived longer to perfect thofe talents which 
 nature had given him. He was born at Witftock, in 
 Brandenburg ; and having vifitcd feveral academics in 
 Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was 
 greatly elleemcd, he afterwards lookup his refidcncc 
 at Brcilaw, the metropolis of Silelia. Here he remain- 
 ed a confiderable lime, in expectation of fome employ- 
 ment ; but notliing offering, he turned Roman-Catho- 
 tic, and was chofen rector of a fchool at NielFa. It 
 is related, tliat about four mouths after, as he was fol- 
 lowing a proceflion of the hoil, he was feized with a 
 fudden phrcnzy, and being carried home, expired in a 
 very fhort time. But Thuanus tells us, that his ex- 
 ccliivc application to fludy was the occalion of his un- 
 timely death : and that his litting up a-nights in compo- 
 fing ins conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a 
 diftemper which carried him off in three days, on the 
 25"" of May 159J, beingjuiliurnedof 28. He wrote 
 a Commentary on Qiiintus Curtius ; alfo, Notes on Ta- 
 citus, on the twelve Panegyrics ; belidcs fpeeches, let- 
 ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are infcrted in 
 the /)<'//£/> of the German poets; and confiH of epic 
 verfcs,odcs, and epigrams. A little piece, printed in 
 I 59;, under the title of Mulisrts non efft homintis, 
 " That women were not of tlie human fpecies," was 
 filfcly afcribed to him. But the fact was, that .'\cida- 
 lius happening to meet with the manufcript, and think- 
 ing it very whimlicjl, tranfcribed it, and gave it to the 
 bookfeller,w ho printed it. The peribrm.incc was high- 
 ly txclairocd againfl, infomuch that the bookfeller be- 
 ing feized, he difcovered the pcifon who gave him the 
 maniifcript,anda terrible outcry wasniadeagainA Aci- 
 dalius. A itory goes, that being one day to dine at a 
 friend's houfe, there happened to be feveral ladies 
 at table ; who fuppofing iiim to be the author, were mo- 
 ved with fo much indignation, that they threatened to 
 throw their plates at his head, .^cidalius, however, in- 
 genioudy diverted their wrath. In his opinion, he faid, 
 the nutlior was ajudicious perfon, the ladies being cer- 
 tainly more of the fpecies oi angeh than of wi/;. — Mr 
 Baillet has given him a place among his Enfaris Cele- 
 bres ; and fays, that he wrote a comment upon Plau- 
 tus when he was but 17 or iS years old, and that he 
 compoftd feveral Latin poems at the fame age. 
 
 ACIDALUS, a fountain in Orchomenus, a city of 
 Bocotia, in which the Graces, who are facred to Ve- 
 nus, bathed. Hence the epithet Acidalia, given to 
 Venus, (V'irgil.) 
 
 ACIDITY, that quality which renders bodies acid. 
 
 ACI-
 
 A C I 
 
 [ 70 ] 
 
 A C I 
 
 Aci.loton, ' ACIDOTON, in boiany, the tihial lumeofafpc- 
 
 ^UliK. cics of A D E L I A . 
 
 '^~^'~~' ACIDS, in clieniiflry, the name by wliich one of 
 I the gcntral clalics of faltsait diltingiiiiiitd. The cha- 
 General raderilUc marks of them are, i. The peculiar tulle 
 properties wliich \vc call lour ; tliougii this dots not hold iin'ivcr- 
 of »cid». faiiy : j„i- the acid of arfenic, \\hich in other rcfpc(5ls 
 ntanitells a ilrongacid power, lias not this four talle ; 
 nor arc the volatile fulphurcous acid, or thofc ui tmig- 
 l.en and molybJaiia, lately dilcovcrcd by Mr Scheelc, 
 Very diflinguilhable in this way. On the other hand, 
 ihe flrong acids of vitriol, nitre, and even fea-falt, arc 
 altogether raullic, and cannot be tailed until they have 
 been largely diluted with water. 2. With water they 
 combine intoa fluid, the fpeciiic gravity of which isnot 
 a mcdiiini betwixt the w.uer and acid fcparately taken. 
 This holds good with the Ihong acids, which grow hot 
 with water, and Ihriuk into lei's bulk by reafon of their 
 emitting a nuaniity of the fire they contain: but whe- 
 ther it alio t^kes place in the weaker acids, bus not yet 
 been afcertaincd ; though the probability is, that it will 
 take place in them alfo. -i.. VN'ith fpirit of w iiie, they 
 unite in to a very xolatileand inflammable fubllance cal- 
 led ethtr. This mult alfo be undcrllood only of the 
 llrong mineral acids, or of the acetous when very much 
 concentrated ; for the acids of tartar, borax, arfenic, 
 lapis ponderofus (tuitgjhn), and molybdsena, do not 
 produce any. 4. They change the blue colour of ve- 
 getables to red, and heighten the colourofthofe which 
 arc already red. — This property is moreuniverfal than 
 thofe we have yet mentioned ; but the volitile fiilphu- 
 reousaeid, thofe of tungilen and niolybdasna, are excep- 
 tions. 5. They unite with all kinds of earths except- 
 ing the filiceous (though the fluor acid diilblvcs this 
 alfo), with fixed and volatile alkalies, and with metals, 
 in fuch a manner as to form compounds conliderably 
 permanent, and whofc ingredients cannot be fcparated 
 without fomedifliculiy. This is the moftunivcrfalanJ 
 didinguilhing mark ; and there is not any acid but what 
 Ihows its attraflion for one or more of thefc fubllanccs, 
 cfpccially the alkaline falts. Oilband fats, indeed, will 
 unite wiih alkalies ; but they may be fcparated by the 
 weakeft known acids, fo that there is no danger of 
 confounding the two together. 6. When mixed with 
 any fermentable liquor, they prevent that proccfs from 
 taking place : or, if it has already begun, they w'lll 
 pat a (lop to it. This alfo nuifl be undcrllood only of 
 the ftronger acids, or at leafl will require a conliderable 
 «iuantity of the weaker to cffeft it. 7- They cannot 
 be frozen but in a degree of cold below the freezing 
 point of water. This property is likcwife not univer- 
 fal, but is remarkable only in the flronger acids. 
 
 The nature of acids has long been a matter of fpe- 
 culation, and of late has engaged the attention of phi- 
 lofophcrs very conliderably. Some have fuppofed them 
 to be funple chemical elements, while others imagined 
 them to be compofed of water and earth. Both 
 ti-.efeopinions, however, arc inadmifllble ; the former, 
 becaufe we are certain that mofl acids may be entirely 
 decompofed, and refolvcd into aerial vapours of diifer- 
 ent kinds, which could not happen if they were limple 
 and unchangeable elements ; the latter, becaufe there 
 is not the fmalleft probability that two ingredients, 
 feemingly fo iniipid and inadive as water and earth 
 could by their union produce a compound endowed 
 
 Of the na- 
 ture of a- 
 .cids. 
 
 with fuch powerf il and even dcllruclivc properties 
 as many of the acids polfefs.— — The late difcovc- 
 ries concerning air of different kinds have iuggelkd 
 a new theory, lirll publilhcd by M. Lavoider, anJ Ihe- 
 iHionlly maintained by the Kreiifh chemills, viz. That 
 the acid principle is contained in the air ; and, accor- 
 ding as it con-ibincs itfelf with different fubllances, 
 forms acids of ditfercnt denominations. 
 
 This theory be conliders as cllablilhcd by numerous 
 indifputalile experiments. Thcfc cannot here be de- 
 tailed ; but his conclulions from the whole are. That 
 " dephJogiJticated air enters as a conllituent part into 
 the compoiitioH of feveral acids, particularly the phof- 
 phoric, vitriolic, and nitrous ; that this pure and high- 
 ly refpirable air is the conflilutive principle of acidity 
 common to all acids ; and that the difference by which 
 they are diAing-'.llied from each other is produced 
 by the union of one or more principles bclidcs this 
 air, fo as to conflitute the particular form under which 
 each acid appears." To dephlogillicated air in its 
 flate of fixity, therefore, he gives the title of the aci- 
 difying or oxygenous principle ; and concludes farther 
 from his experiments, i." That, whencombined with 
 the matter of fire, heat, and light, this principle pro- 
 duces dephlogillicated air ; though he conliders this 
 pofition as not capable of abfolute demonllration. It 
 mail not, therefore, be confounded with the follow- 
 ing ; which, he lays, are fupported by experiment and 
 politive proofs. 2. That the fame acidifying principle, 
 combined with phlogillic fubllanccs or charcoal, forms 
 fixed air. 3. That with fulphur it forms vitriolic acid. 
 4. That with nitrous air it forms nitrous acid. 5. That 
 with Knnckel's phofphorus, it forms the phofphoric 
 acid. 6. With fugar it forms the acid of fugar," 6cc. 
 
 The opinion of Mr Lavoificr concerning the com- 
 pofition of acids has in part been adopted by Mr Kir- 
 wan ; who, in his treatife on Phlogillon, publilhed in 
 J 78 7, informs us that he is now of opinion " that de- 
 phlogillicated air becomes an elfential conflituent part 
 ofacids. All acids (he adds) confill of two principles : 
 one peculiar to each, which, in the opinion of thcan- 
 tiphlogiftians, has not as yet been decompofed, and 
 confequently mull be looked upon, relative to the pre- 
 fent liate of our knowledge, as a limple fubflance : 
 the other, pure air, in a concrete ftate ; that is, de- 
 prived of the greater part of its fpecific heat, and con- 
 denfed into a fmall volume. The firllthey call the 
 acid hajis ; the lall, the oxygenous principle: thus the 
 vitriolic acid, according to them, conlifts of fulphur 
 as its bafis, and pure air in a concrete (late as its aci- 
 difying or oxygenous principle. This doctrine of the 
 compofition ofacids has been admitted by fome of the 
 ablefl defenders of phlogillon, and particularly by thai 
 dillingnifliedphilofophicchemillM. de Morveau, « ith 
 this lingle modification, that the bafes of acids contain 
 phlogillon, which they lofe on uniting to pure air : 
 yet it feems very difficult to conceive how pure air can 
 unite to phlogillon, a fubllancc to which it has the 
 greateft affinity, without forming a new compound en- 
 dowed with very different properties from thofe which 
 itpolTeflcd beforefuch union. It fcems therefore more 
 reafonable to conclude, either that it forms water, as 
 Mr Cavendiih thinks ;or fixed air, as I lliall afterwar<ls 
 endeavour to prove." 
 
 In his explanation of the formation of acids, Mr 
 
 Kirwan 
 
 Ac'iii. 
 
 Mr Lavoi- 
 ficr's li) p(»- 
 thcfis, that 
 air islhc 
 acid princi- 
 ple. 
 
 4 
 Bafls i>f dc- 
 phlogifti- 
 catcd air 
 fuppofed to 
 be the acid 
 principle. 
 
 Mr Kir- 
 wan'sopi-
 
 A C I 
 
 [ V J 
 
 A C I 
 
 Acids, Kirwari firftitarcs die opinion of the diuij)Iil'jgi(lians, 
 
 — '■ viz. Thatihc vitriolic acid, when confidcrcdrtbdradcd- 
 
 ]y I'roni the water it contains, always confirts of fulphur 
 (which they coiifidcr as afiinplcfubllancc) united toa 
 large portioaofthcoxygcrnousprinciplc. " Inniyopi- 
 nion (fays he), it conliitsof a bafis or radical principle, 
 Mhich, when fatnrated with phlogillon, conflitutcs ful- 
 phur ; when faturated with hxedair, becomes common 
 fixed vitriolic acid; and, when combined partly with the 
 one and partly with tlie other, becomes volatile vitri- 
 olic acid. That fulphur, during its converliuii into vi- 
 triolic acidjUnitcs to air of fome i'ort or other, is evident 
 from the quantity of air which it abrorl)S, in whatever 
 way that converfion is brought about. 1 hus, Hrfl, du- 
 ring combuflion in refpirablc air, loo grains of fulphur 
 abforb 420 cubic inches ofpurc air, or about 143 grains : 
 
 gillicated air, phlogiilicatedair, and inflammable air, 
 all in their concrete ftate. 
 
 " Red, yellow, green, and blue nitrons acids, 
 when thofe coloursarc intcnfe, owe their origin to the 
 abforption of nitrous air; and confequently the pro- 
 portion of their principles is variable, though all 
 have. the dephlogillicatcd acid for their ground. Thus 
 Dr Pricftley, having expofedllrongpale-ytllownitrous 
 acid, whofc fpccinc gravity could not be lefs than 
 1.400 to nitrous air, found thit loo grains of this 
 acidabforbcd, in two days, 247 cubic inchesof nitrous 
 air: now, loograinsofthisfpiri: mull have contain- 
 ed, by my calculation, about 21 grains of dry acid, 
 and thcfe 21 grains took up 9i.:9 grains of nitrous 
 air. When about 20 cubic inches of nitrous air were 
 abforbed(thatis, about fcvcn grains), the acid became 
 
 ..AciJ^ 
 
 but the proportion of this pure air united with a_given of an orange colour ; when 50 cubic inches were ab 
 
 quantity of fulphur is not calily determined, becaufe 
 it is vitriolic air thatisconllantly formed ; and this air 
 ellentially contains fome portionof fulphur in folution, 
 wliicli portion is variable. Secondly, Pyrites, during 
 thcirdecompolition, abforba confiderableproportionof 
 pure air, as Mr Lavoifier has obftrvco : fo alfo does 
 liver of fulphur expofed to the atmofphere, for after 
 fome time it is converted into tartar vitriolate." 
 Mr Kirwan next proceeds to inquire, whether the 
 pure air all. air abforbed during the combuflion of fulphur continues 
 forbed in to be pure air ; or whether it be converted into water 
 thcburnin^' or iixcd air ? He inclines to the latter opinions, for va- 
 of fulphur j.jp|,5 reafons * which he fpecifies. 
 
 With regard to the nitrous acid, the experiments of 
 MrCavendini,aswelIasof the French chemifts, leave 
 
 6 
 
 Whether 
 
 continues 
 to he fo. 
 
 p. 29. 
 
 forbed (about 18 grains) it became green ; and when 
 nearly the whole was abforbed, it evaporated in tlie 
 form of nitrous vapour, carrying oft" part of the wa- 
 ter with it. Hence we fee, that nitrous vapour con- 
 firts of nitrous acid united to three or four times its 
 weight of nitrous air and a little water." 
 
 Mr Kirwan next proceed to contcfl Mr Lavoificr's Mr Laroi- 
 opinicn, th at nitrous air is a conflituent principle of the ficr'stheory 
 nitrous acid. " The following experiments (fays he) contcfted. 
 Ihow that nitrous air is not a conrtituent principle of 
 the nitrous acid, but that fixed air is. i. There is not a 
 doubt but that pure nitrous acid enters en tire, and with- 
 out deconipofition, into lixcd alkalis, and forms nitre. 
 Now if nitre be diftilled in a good earthen retort, it 
 will be wholly decompofcd ; and fo alfo will the acid 
 
 no room to doubt that it is produced during the defla- itfelf, except a few drops which pais in the beginning 
 
 Formation 
 of the ni- 
 trous acid. 
 
 gration of dephlogifticated and inrtammable air. Mr 
 Cavendifli has fliown that the nitrous acid may be 
 formed by taking the electric fpark in a mixture of 
 three rncafurcs of plilogirticatcd air and fcven ofdc^ 
 phlogilHcated air, or, in weight, one part of the for- 
 mer and about 2.6 of the latter. Mr Lavoifier, as 
 has been already mentioned, fuppofcs the nitrous acid 
 to be compofed of nitrous air united to the oxygenous 
 principle, or balisof pure air ; and 100 grains of dry 
 
 of the dilliilatioii, and nothing but dephlogiilicated 
 air, more or lefs pure, and confequently intermixed 
 with phlogiJlicated air and a (light proportion of tixed 
 air, will be found : thefe, there lore, are its true confli- 
 tuent parts when difcngaged from fubllancesthat can- 
 not communicate phlogilton to it in any remarkable 
 quantity, fuch as alkali^;s and earths; butifit be fepara- 
 tcd from fubllancesthat contain phlogiilon, fuch as me- 
 tals, it will then indeed be refolved into iiurous air and 
 
 I'roportjon 
 ni its coD- 
 Hitucuc 
 p^rts. 
 
 nitrous acid confill of 64 grains of nitrous air united dcphlogiilicated air more or lefs pure, the phlogirton 
 
 to ;6 of pure air deprived of its fpecitic fire ; or, ac- of the fixed air being detained by the metal. Mr Bcr- 
 
 cording to Mr Kirwan's calculation, 1 73 cubic inches thollet, who fcems to have made the experiment with 
 
 of nitrous air and loj of pure air. But nitrous air, thegreatefl exa^lncfs, produced 7i4cubic inchesof dc- 
 
 as Mr Lavoil'ier himfelf has obfervcd, is a compound ; phlogifticatcd air from a troy ounce of nitre.' This, 
 
 100 giains of ir, according to him, containing 32 cf however, was far from being of the purefl kind ; and 
 
 phlogifticated and 68 of pure air; confequcmly 64 Dr Prielllcy, Mr Berthollct, and Mr Succow, obferv- 
 
 grains of it contain 20.5 of phlogirticated air, and ved, that the air which tirfl palles contains fixed air 
 
 4^5 of pure air. Hence, according to him, 100 and renders lime-water turbid. Here then we have 
 
 grains of dry nitrous acid contain 79; of pure air and three of the conrtituent partsof the nitrous acid, with 
 
 20; of phlogifticated air. Mr Kirwati is of opinion fcarce any nitrous air ; which the antiphlogiflians fup. 
 
 that too grains of pure, dry, and colourlcfs nitrous pofe to be one of the conllituent parts of the acid, and 
 
 acid contain 58.1 7 grains of hxcd air as its acidifying to make two thirds of its bulk when exhibited in an 
 
 principle, 57.0') of nitrous balls, and 4.77of jihlogiflon aerial frrm. 
 
 united to the nitrous bafis. With regard to the nitrous To obviate an obje(flion that the quantity of fixed 
 
 bafis itfelf, he fays that one third of its weight is air thus obtained is too fmall to dcfcrve to be ranked 
 
 phlogifticated and two thirds dephlogifticated air, among the cotuiiiuent [lartsofthe nitrous acid, Mr 
 
 both in a concrete flate. Kirwan firft inquires in what proportion it ought to 
 
 " Nitrous bafis (fays Mr Kirwan), faturated with exift tliere ; and though this is variable, according to 
 
 phlogiilon, conftitutcs nitrons air : 1^0 grai.'s of this the different ftates of the, nitrous acid with refpcct to 
 
 bafis take up nearly 22 of phlogifton. Hence the con- phlogiftication, he reckons it at one-third of the acid 
 
 /liiucnt principles of nitrousacid arc fixed air, dephlo- as exjfting in the nitre ; and, from the dccompofitioii of 
 
 ihu.
 
 A C I 
 
 [ 72 ] 
 
 A C I 
 
 AcU\s. this lixcilair, and the phlogillon emitted by itof confc- 
 
 — -^ ' qucnce,heaitribiittstht phlogidicaiionaiid rcdnefs ot 
 
 the nitrous acid wlicn cxpoicd to more heat. Asa 
 prool" that fixed air may be dccompcfcd in this man- 
 ner, he adduces two expcririuiits or iJr PrielUcy. In 
 oncofthefcjdcphlogiflicatcd air was obtained by means 
 el" acetous acid in that concentrated Itatc in which it 
 is called radicut liuegar. Raving mixed half an ounce 
 of the acid with two ounces of calcined whiting, he 
 obtained from it 350 ounce-r.ieafiires of air ; of which 
 about one third was fixed more in the firll portion, 
 and Ids in the lall. The ftandard of the refiduum in 
 the firll portion was, 1.66, in the fecond, 1.42, and 
 in the third, 1.38; wliich is very near the goodnefsof 
 common air. The whiting then weighed 760 grains. 
 On adding a quarter of an ounce more of radical vine- 
 gar, and repeating the operation, 1 20ounce-meafures 
 of air were obtained, and the whiting was reduced to 
 750 grains. A third operation, in which another quar- 
 tcrof an ounce of vinegar was added, reduced the mat- 
 ter to 489grains : but thelafl portion of air extracted 
 had no fixed air, and was confiderably better than that 
 
 of the atmofphtre. The other experiment was 
 
 laadc with linie-llone alone ; from four ounces of the 
 lahit.- cry flats, of which830ounce-nieafures ofair were 
 obtained, the tint portion of which had only one- 
 fourth of fixed air, and the ftandard of the refiduum 
 was never better than 1.56, nor worfe than 1.66 ; fo 
 that it was nearly of (he goodncfs of common air. 
 
 Our author then proceeds to relate feveral other ex- 
 periments in which the nitrous acid was decompofed ; 
 but a particular relation of them would fwell this ar- 
 ticle beyond its due bounds. At lad, however, he 
 concludes in the following manner. " If fpirit of 
 nitre be made to boil, and its vapour received through 
 a red-hot earthen tube, it will be converted into de- 
 phlogillicated air, in which a portion both of phlogi- 
 fiicated and fixed air is found, as Dr Pricflley has dif- 
 covered : the water through which this air pilfes will 
 alfo contain fixed air. Here then are feveral ways of 
 liecompoilng the nitrous acid ; and in one only it is 
 refolved into nitrous and dephlogiilicated air ; and in 
 this way it may, at leall, be llrongly fufpecled to re- 
 ceive an addition of another principle. Why thenfhould 
 thefe bercgHrucd as its conllitucnt principles? And as 
 inthetwolimpleftmethods of decompofition, inwhich 
 the re-aclion of no forciij;n fubftancc can be (uipeclcd, 
 it appears in the form of dephlogiilicated, phlogiflica- 
 ted, and fixed air ( the former always containing a por- 
 tion of the two lail), why then fliould not thefe be ac- 
 counted its true conflitucnt parts ? This theory 
 
 '■'i • is further confirmed by reflcdiug on the manner in 
 naturally which nitrous acid is generated by nature. Mr 
 generated. Thouvencl found that this acid is conllantly produced 
 when ehalk is expofed to a mixture of putrid air and 
 common air, or putrid and dcphlopiiticated air ; but if 
 die putrid air be paflTed through lime-water, it is ne- 
 ver generated ; and that it is rarely produced by the cx- 
 pofurc of quick lime or fixed alkalis to thtfc airs. The 
 reafon tha; alkalis, though aerated, are not fo proper, 
 is, that they do not comliine with phlogiflicated air 
 as calcareous ear;hs do. Mr Cavendilh, indeed, pro- 
 duced nitrous acid without any apparent mixture of 
 fixed air ; but the atom of it uecciFary for the for- 
 mation of the fniall q-ianiity of nitrous acid he proJu- 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Fixed air 
 one of the 
 elements of 
 nitrous 
 acid. 
 
 II 
 How ni- 
 
 ced (about one-third of a grain), might well be con- Aci.li. 
 
 tained in iht; phlogiflicated air he employed, or perhaps ' 
 
 formed in the operation." 
 
 Having thus far ftatcd the different opinions of 
 
 the mofl celebrated French and Englilh philofophcrs 
 
 concerning the compofition of acids, it is iicccirary n 
 
 to take notice of fome experiments made by Mr Experi- 
 
 M'att, in order to determine whether the dcphlo- ments by 
 
 gillicatcd air produced from nitre really proceeds from ^^. ^'*", 
 
 a decompofition of the acid, or what ouantity of the T" 
 
 , • ' -J „: J ' . ' feem cou- 
 
 latter is required to conftitute a determinate quan- ,^^j. j^j^j^ 
 
 tity of the former. To afcertain this *, 240 grains of Kirwan't 
 mercury were put into a glafs retort with 480 grains dodrine. 
 of diluted dephlogiilicated nitrous acid, which was the ' I'hiloi. 
 quantity necclfary todilfolve the whole of the mercury; Tranf. 
 and as loon as the common air was expelled, a proper ^'' "'*' 
 vcflel was applied to receive the air produced in the''' 
 operation. Sixteen ounce-meafures of nitrous air came 
 o\er during the folulion, and on changing the recei- 
 ver, a quantity of dilute, but higlily phlogiflicated ni- 
 trous acid, was obtained. The air receiver being again 
 applied, fou rounce-meafures of llrong and pure nitrous 
 air wereobtjined, which, by the dephlogifticated air 
 that arofe immediately after, were reduced to half an 
 ounce-meafure. The production of dephlogiflieatcd 
 air continued very rapid, the mercury being all the 
 while received, until the operation was ended by the 
 dillillation or fublimaiion ofthe whole of the mercury. 
 Two hundred and eighteen grains of the metal were 
 obtained in its running form, and 32 remained in the 
 form of an orange-coloured fublimate in the upper part 
 of the retort. — -The 16 ounce-meaiurcs of nitrous air, 
 firll obtained, were then converted into nitrous acid by 
 the gradual admiffion of common air, and then added 
 to the water in the bafon in which the receiver had 
 been inverted ; the whole quantity being about two 
 quarts, and very acid to the tafle, fparkling at the fame 
 time with nitrous air. To determine the quantity of 
 acid thus recovered, as well as that which remained in 
 the fublimate , a folution of alkali of tartar was made ; 
 and by experiment it was found, that 120 grains of the 
 acid, originally employedin diflblving the mercury, fa- 
 turated 5 j2grainsof this folution ; theorange colour- 
 ed fublimate and all the acid liquorrecovered being fa- 
 turated by 1595 grains ofthe fame. Hence it appears, 
 by the rule of proportion, that out of 480 grains of 
 nitrous acid originally employed, only five were lofl ; 
 " a fuialler quantity (asMr Wattjuflly obferves) than 
 what might reafonably be fuppofed to be lofl in the 
 procefs by the extreme volatility ofthe nitrous acid." 
 His couclulion therefore is, that " the nitrous acid 
 docs not enter into the compofition of dephlogiilicat- 
 ed air : it feems only to ferve to abforb phlogillon from 
 the watery part ofthe mercurial nitre." 
 
 This experiment was repeated with cubic nitre, and 
 only 30 ounce-meafures ofair diliilled from an ounce 
 ofthe mineralalkali exadly faturated with nitrous acid. 
 The water through which the air paii'ed was acid, and 
 the reliduum in tlie retort all^aline ; but on mixing the 
 two together, the folution was found to be exatlly neu- 
 tral by every pollible teft. 
 
 Notfatisticd with thefe experiments, ?'Ir Watt di- 
 ftillcd an ounce (4S0 grains) of common nitre, flop- 
 ping the procefi when 50 ounee-meafurcs of air had 
 been produced. This air had a flrong fn-.cU of the 
 
 nitrous
 
 A C I 
 
 73 1 
 
 /v c I 
 
 Aciils. nitrous acid, frcm wliicli it couUl not be iVced by \va(l;- 
 
 ^""■^' ing witli tlie water in tlie bai'on. Tlie rciidiuiin in tlic 
 
 retort was alkaline as before, and the water (lightly 
 acid ; iior was the faluration cojnpletcd by mixing the 
 two together. Ten grains of weak nitrous acid, 105 
 grains of which contained the acid of6o of nitre, com- 
 pleted the fatiiration. Tliefc ten grains contained the 
 acid of 5 7 grains of nitre; which, by Mr Kirwan's ex- 
 periments, is equal to two grains of real nitrous acid. 
 " \S't have therefore (fays fir Watt) 3<;gr?ins weight 
 of dephlogillicated air produced, and only two grains 
 of real acid milling j and it is not certain that even this 
 quantitywasdeftroyed bccaufc fomc portion of thcglafs 
 of the retort was diiiolved by the nitre, and fonie part 
 of the materials employed in making the glafs being 
 alkali, we may conclude, that the alkali of ihe nitre 
 would be augmented by the alkali of that part of the 
 glafs it had diflblved ; but as the glafs cracked into 
 fmall pieces on cooling, and fome part of tlie coating 
 adhered firmly to it, (he quantity of the glafs that 
 j^ was diilolvcd could not be afcenair.ed." 
 ^nrwcrca To avoid the force of objedions drawn from thefc 
 jy MrKir- experiments, and which fecm ready to overthrow his 
 ivau. hypothefis, as well as that of Mr Lavoilicr entirely, Mr 
 Kirwan mskcs the following reply " Wy inge- 
 nious friend Mr M'att, as well as Mr Cavcndilh, are 
 of opinion, that the whole quantity of dephlogifticated 
 air, produced from ihediftillation of nitre, arilesfrom 
 the dephlogiflicatini of the water it contains, it being 
 decompofed by the nitrous acid, which then becomes 
 phlogillicated. Thisopinion is expofcdto infurmounc- 
 able dilliculties. For, in the firft place, nitre affords de- 
 phlogillicatcd air at the rate of 146.125 cubic iriches 
 for every hundred grains of nitre, which, by the proper 
 allowances for phlogiilicattd air, fliouKl weigh 46.77 
 grains: but then dephlogiliicatcdairisonly oncof the 
 conftituent parts of water, for it contains i^/'^r cf/it. 
 of inflammable air, that is to fay, 87 grains of dcphlo- 
 gifticatcd air : to form 100 grains of v. ater requires an 
 addition of i 5 grains of inrtammable air ; confcquent- 
 ly 46.77 grains of dephlogiftlcatcd air require nearly 
 7of inflammable air, and would then form 5?.77grains 
 of water, which exceeds half thcwtight of the nitre ; 
 a quantity of water, as Mr Watt owns, certainly in- 
 adniiiliblc. Mr V.'att found, that the water over which 
 the .-"ir proceediirg from the decompofition of </(>o 
 grains of nitre had been reieived, contained only the 
 acid belonging to 120 grains of nitre ; and even this 
 fmall qnandiy he inferred onlyfron\ my cxpcrimctits. 
 IJut r.iy experiments arc totally inapplicable in this 
 cafe; for I iifed only the dci>hlogi!iicjttd nitrous ,1- 
 cid : and alkalis arc faiurable by a much fmallcr quan- 
 tity of phlogifticated than of dephlogifticated acids, as 
 is evident in ihc cafe of lhctifp}ci^i/lici>t,;Jmari/ii a.tid, 
 as Stahl long ago obferved ; for he fays, that the vo- 
 latile acid of fulphur faturates 10 times :is nnicli :ilkali 
 as the fixed. Mr Btrjirian and Mr Scheeleobfcrvcd, 
 that nitlicd nitre is llill neutral, though it be phlo- 
 gifticatcd ; iheitforc it is air, and not water, which 
 it wants. Accordingly Dr Priclllcy found it to injure 
 coTTiTTion air by attri ling its dephlogiftici-.ted part : 
 but if it be keja in fufion for fome time, it lofcs its a- 
 cid, and becomes alkaline j and the air it receives 
 mud furcly be deemed rather to recompofc the acid 
 than to form water ; of whofc formation, in the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 temperature of the atraofphcrc, wc have no fort of 
 proof. On the contrary, the impoiSbility of ac- 
 ceuniing for the lofs of acid in this cafe is an evident 
 
 proof of the fallacy of that hypothefis By MrLavoi- 
 
 ficr's analyfis, 100 grains of nitre contain 5J of caj- 
 Aic alkali ; by Mr Bergman's, 49; by Mr {('ISIizers, 
 52 ; by Mr Wicgleb's, 461 ; by mine, 63 : the mean 
 of all wliicli is, 5;', ; which leaves 46. j for acid an<i 
 water, which is very nearly the weight of the air 
 expelled. The different quantiiv of acid affigned by 
 different pcrfons to nitre, is in part owing to its de- 
 gree of phlogirtication in nitre. I believe at prcfent 
 that 100 grains of nitrecontain 34 of acid, and about 
 12 of water, including the water i:i the acid and that 
 of cryltallization." 
 
 Mr Kirwan next proceeds to confidcr, in a manner 
 firailar to liiat above rcUted, the compofition of the 
 other acids — The marine acid, according tohini, can- 
 iifts of a peculiar bads united to phlogillon, and a cer- 
 tain quantity of tixed air ; to both of which the bills 
 fcems to have a ftrong affinity. On depriving it of 
 this phlogifton, the affinity of the acid to fixed air be- 
 comes much flronger, and it faturates itfelf fo largely 
 w-ithit, that its altrac'tions for other fubflanccs, con- 
 taining little or no phlogirton, become nearly as weak 
 as thole of fixed air itfelf when equally condenfcd ; but 
 with refpcct to bodies that contain a conliderable quan- 
 tity of phlogifton, its affinities arc much flrongcr, r.s 
 its balis attrafts the phlogi.ton, while thofc bodies 
 attrad itsexeefs of fixed air. la this flate it does not 
 expel fixed air from ab'rated fixed alkalis or earths 
 until it is heated ; and then dephlogifticated air fepa- 
 rates from it, and it becomes, in all refpects, commou 
 marine acid. For as it contains an exeefs of tixed air, 
 ilafts nearly as an acid of the fame nature ; but when 
 heat is applied, its balis dephlon-ifticates its own fixed 
 air, which then becomes defihrogifticated air, at the 
 fame time that the acid becomes common marine acid, 
 and ads as fuch. 
 
 Mr Lavoilicr, and other philofophcrs, who deny the 
 exiftencc of phlogifton, are of opinion, that the com- 
 mon maritic acid conlifts of a peculiar balis united to a 
 fmall proportion of pure air. or oxygenous principle, 
 and the dcphlogiilicaled ma, ine acid differs from it only 
 by containing an exccfs of this principle Thisopi- 
 nion they arc chiefly induced lu maintain, bccanfe the 
 acid in its dcphlogiiUeatcd ftate is procured by diftil- 
 ling common marine acid from mangancfe ; and the 
 manganefc, if diliillcd by itfelf, before the acid is Ji- 
 ftilled from it, affords dephlogifticated air ; but after 
 the a-id is diflilied from ii.ityicldsnonc.— "Thisex- 
 pcriir.cnt, however, (fays Mr Kirwan), pi^jves no more 
 but that the mnnganefc contains fome air which is de- 
 phlogiftieatedduringthccalciiiation. And that this air 
 is fixed air, appears from the following conliJerations : 
 The black c^lx ofmanganefc slmoft always gives out 
 fixed air at lirft, ! cfore any dephlojrjftirated air ap- 
 pears ; whence it is natural to think,'thar thedephlo- 
 giftiratcdair procecdsfromtlic dephlo-^iflicatinnofthc 
 fixed. And hence, if it bcdiftiiled witii tilii:>T^of iron, 
 or in a gun-birrel, it fcarrc gives out anv other than 
 fixed air ; if at any time it gives out dcphl.i.^ifticatcd 
 air, with little or no mixture of lixed air, this isow ing 
 to a very perf'cd de.dilo^ifticatioii of liic calx, and to 
 its containing very little moifturc. Thus Dr i'rit lUey, 
 K havinij 
 
 A-ids. 
 
 14 
 
 Qnanctyof 
 arid cou. 
 tjiflcd in 
 
 nitre. 
 
 Prlncipin 
 of the n:i- 
 risc acid. 
 
 91 
 Mr Lavai- 
 ficr's opini- 
 on. 
 
 17 
 ContelleJ 
 by Mr Kir- 
 wan.
 
 A C I 
 
 C 74 
 
 1 
 
 A C I 
 
 Acids, having pafled the fleam of boiling water through man- 
 
 — ^ ■ ganclelieatedin an earthen tube, obtained a very large 
 
 quantity of fixed air, and fcarce any other ; though on 
 repeating this experiment with manganefc well freed 
 from calcareous earth, I obtained a large portion of dc- 
 phlogilUcated air ; but I believe mueh depends ontlic 
 degree of heat to which the tube is fubjeflcd. But 
 having (J illillcd manganefc, which yielded of iifclffome 
 fixed air with common fpirit of fait, I obtained de- 
 phlogilticated marine acid, and not a particle of fixed 
 air; which fliows that this lall combined with the de- 
 phlogiflicatcd bafis, and formed the dcphlogilficated 
 acid. Mr Hermlladt having dilfolved the black calx 
 in common marine acid, and precipitated it with an ae- 
 rated llxed alkali, obtained, as ufual, a white preci- 
 pitate ; which, when heated, afforded a great part of 
 the fixed air it had abfurbcd from the alkali ; but when 
 heated to fuch a degree as to be of a brown red colour, 
 and confequcntly dcphlogifticatcd, it converted com- 
 mon fpirit of fait into a dcphlogillicaied acid, wliich 
 
 With regard to the acid of fugar, Mr Kirwaii ob- 
 ferv cs, that fugar itfelf is a compound of fixed air witii 
 a much larger proportion of inflammable air, and fome 
 Water, all coudenfed to a degree of which wc are ig- 
 norant, but retaining, upon the whidc, much more 
 fpecilic heat thancither oil or charcoal ; tho' he feems 
 iucliiicd to the hypotheiis of Mr Morveau, that this 
 fubilance has for its bafis a fine ethereal oil, to which 
 a large proportion of condeufed iulianimable air is fu- 
 pcradded. The acid of fugar, then, according to him, 
 confilts of this peculiar bafis deprived of its fuperfiuous 
 phlogitlon,and united to a great quantity of fixed air in 
 a concrete ftale. JJe is alfo of opinion, that it docs 
 not cxifl ready formed in tlie fugar, but is produced in 
 the operations that fubilance undergoes : that it de- 
 rives mofl of its acid principle from the nitrous acid 
 employed ; the nitrous balis taking up the phlogiflon, 
 and the fixed air of the nitrous acid combining with 
 the faccharine bafis. He contefts flrongly an opinion 
 of Mr Lavoificr, that fugar is a fort of charcoal, which. 
 
 Aciift. 
 
 \% 
 DeciCve 
 
 experiment 
 in fiis fa- 
 Tour. 
 
 couki proceed only from fome fixed air yet unexpcUcd: uniting with the oxygenous principle of the nitrous 
 
 Yet if fal-ammoniac be diftilled with the black calx of acid, dccompofes it, fets loofe the nitrous air, and 
 
 manganefe, it will be expelled in a cauflic flate ; for forms the faccharine acid ; and that, towards the end 
 
 the fixed air unites to the dephlogifticated marine ba- of the operation, the faccharine acid itfelf is dccom- 
 
 fis in preference to the volatile alkali." pofcd ; _ the confequence of which is the pruduc- 
 
 Severalotherexperimenis are related byMrKirwan, tion of fixed air, which, according to him, isonlythe 
 
 which the limits of thisartide will not allow ns to in- oxygenousprinciplecombined with charcoal. On this 
 
 fert; but the following, he is of opinion, fully confirms 
 his hypothcfis, and fubverts that of the antiphlogifUans. 
 '' Six cubic inches of inflammable air were mixed with 
 as much dephlogilUcated marine air over lime-water. 
 In about 10 minutes af'tcr the greater part of the di- 
 minution had taken place, a white cloud appeared on 
 
 Mr Kirwan remarks, i . " That, according to this the- 
 ory, the acid of fugar lliould be the fame with fixed 
 air, flnce both are compofcd of the oxygenous prin- 
 ciple united with charcoal; or, if Mr Lavoifier fliould 
 reply, that fugar is different f'rom common char- 
 coal, he reminds him, that, according to his own ta- 
 
 the furface {a) of the lime-water, and by agitation it ble of affinities, the oxygenous principle has a much 
 
 became Ifill more turbid. As it was poliible that the Ifronger attraction for charcoal than for fugar, and 
 
 manganefe might be mixed with calcareous earth, fome confcquently that the latter ought to be decompofcd 
 
 dcphlogilficated marine air was extrafled from another by the former ; nay, that it fliould be regenerated by 
 
 portion^of it, and received on lime-water ; but it was various metallic fubftances, which, according to him. 
 
 19 
 Phofphoric 
 
 acid. 
 
 have a greater attraction for this principle. 2. Accor- 
 ding to this hypothefis, the fiicchariue acid ought to 
 weigh n'ore than the fugar employed in the operation ; 
 w hich is fo far from being the cafe, tliat it is univcr- 
 faliy agreed to be much Icfs ; Bergman making it only 
 
 wholly abforbed, w ithout forming the leafl cloud, tho 
 there was lime enough ; for, on adding aerated water, 
 a cloud appeared." 
 
 The other acids particularly treated of by Mr Kir- 
 wan are the phofphoric and facchiirine. In his ireatile 
 on the former, he adopts the analyfls of Mr Lavoifier, 
 changing only his acid principle of dephlogifficatcd 
 for fixed air. From this it appears, that the phofpho- 
 ric acid confiffs of a peculiar balis united to 2.265 of 
 
 its weight of the acid principle ; or, in other words, treating fugar v.'ith the black calx of manganefe, or 
 100 grains of dry phofphoric acid contains about 69 of with dcphlogifticatcd marine acid ; both of which, ac- 
 
 id, Mr Chaptal from ;d to iths, and Mr Sage inhs. 
 3. If the faccharine acid confifbed of fugar, or confifl- 
 ed of that fubilance undecompofed, and barely united 
 to the oxygenous principle, it ought to be formed by 
 
 fixed air and 31 of its peculiar balis : 100 grains of 
 the phofphoric balls take up 226.5 of fixed air, or 
 32.9of phlogiflon when it becomes phofphorous; and 
 100 grains of phofpliorus contain 75.24 of balis and 
 24.76 of phlogiflon. — The bafis of this acid is the only 
 one that can be procured free, both from the phlogi- 
 flon and the acidifying principle ; it is called, though 
 improperly, as it is not foluble in water, \^\^ glacial 
 phofphoric acid. Mr Lavoifier and others are of opini- 
 on, that phofphorus is a flmple fubilance containing 
 no phlogiflon, and that the acid confifls of the oxyge- 
 nous principle united to it. 
 
 cording to him, have lefs attraction for the oxygenous 
 principle than fugar. Laflly, (fays Mr Kirwan), if the 
 acid of fugar be diftilled, it is wholly converted into 
 water, fixed inflammable air, and not a particle of coal 
 or dephlogifticated air is found in it. It is not there- 
 fore reafonabletolook on either of them asitsconflitu- 
 ent principles ; but as fixed air alone can be extrac- 
 ted f^rom ail vegetable acids, it feems to be the true a- 
 cidifiablc principle. 
 
 Having given a \iew of the prefenc opinions re- 
 lative to the original formation of acids, it remains to 
 treat a little more particularly of each of the different 
 
 kinds. 
 
 21 
 Fixed air 
 the acid 
 principle, 
 according 
 to fVIrJCir- 
 wan. 
 
 [a) On mixing thefe, a denfe white cloud appears ; one half the bulk of both difappears, and the refiduuin. 
 explodes lilie a mixture of iariammable and dephlogifticated air.
 
 A C I 
 
 [ 75 ] 
 
 A C 1 
 
 Aiidt. 
 
 Acids, liow 
 divulcd. 
 
 23 
 Enumcra- 
 
 i4 
 Gsneral ac- 
 count of 
 their at- 
 tra<f^ions 
 for alka- 
 lis, &c. 
 
 kinds. They arc lihidcd into three dlL-crciu claflis, 
 cxpreiiivc of iheirorigiii, r/z. the Mineral, Vegetable, 
 and Aiiinal. The mineral acids arc thofc ct \itriul, 
 nitre, fea-fah, borax, anibtr, tiuor, arlciiic, tunglleu, 
 niolybdaena, &c. 1 he vegetable arc, thofe of vine- 
 gar, tartar, fugar, benzoin, ajiplcs, citrons, lemons, 
 tamarinds, forrel, eork, f<e. The aninial^cids arc, 
 the iiiicrofiuic or acid of urine, and thm of bones, both 
 of which are. alfo called the [<hofphoric, though this 
 might be accounted a vegetable acid, as it is procured 
 by dillilling niullard and fonic other vegetables by a 
 violent fire. iJclidcs tliefc, there are the acids of ants, 
 wafps, bees, fdk-worms, milk, &c. It has alfo been 
 difcovercd, that the human calculus is_forincd for the 
 mofl part of a peculiar acid, whicli has received tkc 
 name of lithiaj.c acid. Lallly, As an acid dillinft 
 from all theft, we may now nAilfix^d air, by fomc cal- 
 led the aerial, and by others the cretaaoni acid j the 
 latter appclbuion it derives from crcta, chalk, beciufc 
 it is found in that fabllauce in great quantity. See 
 Aerology. 
 
 The general properties of acids have already been e- 
 iiumeratcd; the moll remarkable ofwhich is their attrac- 
 tion foralkaline falts, earths, and metals. Though this 
 is common to all, yet very conliderablcdifterenccs are 
 obferved among them in this rcfpect,and on ihofe differ- 
 cnces depend almofl all the phenomena of tiiat part of 
 Chemistry which treats of fults. As thcfe phenomena 
 are particularly conlidered under that article, we Ihall 
 here only in general take notice, that the three acids 
 named the vitricl:c, nilrous, and mar:>:c, are the flrong- 
 eft of them all ; that is, if any other acid be united to 
 an alkali, earth, or metal, the union will be broken by 
 adding to that compound any of the three acids jull 
 mentioned. Neither arc thefe equal in power among 
 themfelvcs ; fop the vitriolic is (Ironger than the ni- 
 trous, and the nitrous ftronger than the marine. The 
 rule, however, is liable to certain exceptions and vari- 
 ations, depending chiefly on the circumftances of heat 
 or cold, moilfure or drynefs, and particularly on the 
 Aatc of the marine acid \\ith regard to its being in the 
 form of an aqueous fluid or reduced to a dry vapour. 
 In this laft cafe it fcems flronger than cither the vi- 
 triolic or nitrous ; and even when in an aqueous flate, 
 both the nitrous ana marine acids, when added in great 
 quantity, feem to opprcfs and overwhelm the ftronger 
 vitriolic acid, fo that they w ill partly expel it from an 
 alkaline filt. This docs not depend on tlie mere quan; 
 tity of acidity they polTefs : for the acetous acid may 
 be concentrated to fach a degree as to become flronger 
 in this refpec^ than fpirit of fait ; yet it will always be in- 
 ferior in pointofre.il ftrength, when tried with anal- 
 kali in competition with the latter. The aerial acid is 
 the wcakeft of all ; and may be expelled not only by 
 vinegar, but by the acid jui es of fruits, tartar, and 
 the acids of tungften and molybda:na. 
 
 Some acids have the property of refilling the lire, 
 and melting into a kind of glafs, fuch as that of borax 
 and phofphorus. This circumllance gives them an ad- 
 vantageover the ftrongeracids whichare volatile; and 
 thus the two juft mentioned, as well as thofc of arfcnic 
 and tungften, will, in a very flrong heat, expel the a- 
 cid of vitriol itfclf, though the latter will, in the cold, 
 expel any one of them with great cafe. 
 
 Both the vitriolic and nitrous acids have a very ftrong 
 
 attraction for phlogiilon ; and unite with certain oily 
 and inriammablc matter fo vehemently as to occafion 
 great heat, and fometiincs even violent and uacxtin- 
 guilhablc flame. This is particularly the cafe with 
 the nitrous acid, or with a mixture of the two ; and 
 indeed the nitrous acid, though weaker than the vi- 
 triolic, (hows itfclf in every inllancc to be far more ac- 
 tive, and to perform all its operations with vallly great- 
 er rapidity, than the other. All thcfe particulars, how- 
 ever, as they properly fall under the aiiiclc Chemi- 
 stry, arc there explained at length : together with 
 the origin and peculiar methods of preparing each of 
 the acids, and the various ufes to which they may be 
 applied in arts and nianufailures. bee alfo their diffe- 
 rent titles as they occur in the order of the alphabet ; 
 as. Nitre, Vinegar, Vitrioi, &c. 
 
 ACIDULOUS denotes a thing that is (lightly tfi/i/; 
 it is fynonymous with the wovi fub-acid. 
 
 ACIDU hA\. Miner.-il waters that contain a brilk 
 fpirit,whcn unaccompanied \\ ith heat, are thusnamed; 
 but if they arc hot alio they are called Ihermae. See 
 Mineral Waters. 
 
 ACIDU LATKD, a name given to medicines that 
 have an acid in their compofition. 
 
 ACIDU M A tREUM, the fime with Fixed Air. 
 
 AciDUM piiiguc, an imaginary acid, which fome 
 German chcmills fuppofcd tobe contained in tire, and 
 by combining V. ith alkalies, lime, &c. to give them 
 their cauflic properties -, an etieot which is found cer- 
 tainly to depend on the lofs of their fixed air. 
 
 ACILA, OciLA, or OcELis (anc. geog.), a ftaplc 
 or mart town in Arabia Felix, on the Arabic gulf, 
 from which, according to Pliny, they fet fail for In- 
 dia. Now Zidiii. 
 
 ACILIUS GLABRIO (Marcus), conful in the 
 year of Rome 562, and 1 1 1 years before the Cbriftian 
 oera, diftinguilhcd himfclf by his bravery and conduct 
 in gaining a complete victory over Antiochus the 
 Great, kingof Syria, at thcftreights of Thermopylae 
 in Thcllaly, and on feveral other occafions. He built 
 the Templeof piety at Rome, in confcqucncc of a vow 
 he made before the abovementioned battle : aid the 
 reafon of his giving it that name is very remarkable. 
 The flory is mentioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus, 
 and others. See the article Piety. 
 
 ACINIPPO (anc. geog.), a town of Bsetica ; its 
 ruins, called Konda la Vtt^ga, are to be feen near A- 
 runda, in the kingdom of Granada. 
 
 ACINODKNDRUM, in botany, the trivial name 
 of a fpccics of M E L A S T O M A . 
 
 ACINOS, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies 
 of Thymus. 
 
 ACINUS, or Acini, the fmuU protuberances of 
 mulberries, flrawbcrries, &c. and by fome applied to 
 grapes. Generally it is ufed for thofc fniall grains 
 growing in bunches, after the manner of grapes, as 
 LignJIruw, &c. 
 
 ACIS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Faunas and 
 Simetheis, was a beautiful Ihcpherd of Sicily, who be- 
 ing beloved by GaUica, Polyphemus the giant was fo 
 enraged, that he dalhed out his brains againft a rock ; 
 after which Galatea turned him into a river, which 
 was called by his name. 
 
 Acis, (Ovid, Theocritus) ; a river of Sicily, run- 
 ning from a very cold fpring, in the woody and ihady 
 K a foot
 
 A C N 
 
 f 76 ] 
 
 AGO 
 
 Acknow- foot of mount .^tna, callward into, and not much a- 
 Itd-jnicijt ijove a mile fVom the fca, along green and plcaiunt 
 ' banks, with the fpcedof an arrow, irom which it takes 
 cocmetg . jj^ umiic. Il is now called /Ici Icici, or CIn/ui, accor- 
 ding to ihc difiercnt Sicilian dialcifls : Antonine calls 
 it Adui. Alio the name of a hamlet at the mouth of 
 the X//. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a 
 jjcrfon's owning or confcfTuig a thing; but, more 
 particularly, is the cxprcinoii of gratitude for a fa- 
 vour. 
 
 AcKSOivLtDGMEST- Money, a certain fum paid by 
 tenants, in fcvcral parts of England, on the death of 
 their landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new 
 lords. 
 
 ACLTDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of inilFive 
 weapon, with a thong afii.xed to it, whereby to draw it 
 back. Moll authors defcribe it as a kind of dart or ja- 
 velin ; but Scaliger makes it roundilh or globular, and 
 full of fpikcs, with a ilcndcr wooden Item to poilc 
 it by. 
 
 ACLOW.A, in botany, a barbarous name of a fpc- 
 cies of CoLUTEA. It is ufcd by the natives of Gui- 
 nea to cure the itch : They rub it on the body as wc 
 do unguents. 
 
 ACME, the top or heiglit of any thing. It is u- 
 fually applied to the maturity of an animal jull before 
 it begins to decline; and phylieians have nfcd it to 
 cxprefs the Htnioft violence or crilis of a difeafe. 
 
 ACMELLA, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe- 
 
 cics of SPILANTHUS. 
 
 ACMONIA, andAcMONiA, in Peuiingcr's maji, 
 a town of Phrygia Major, now in ruins. The inhabi- 
 tants arc called AitnoHinfcs by Cicero, and the city Ci- 
 'j'ttai Acmoitcujh. Alfo a city of Dacia ( Ptolemy ) , on 
 the Danube, near the ruins of Trajan's bridge, built 
 by Severus, and called Severkum ; dillant 12 German 
 miles from Temefwar, to the foutheail. 
 
 ACNIDA, Virginian Hemt, in botany, a ge- 
 nius of the dia-cia order, belonging to the pentandri.i 
 clafs of plants ; and, in the Natural Order, allocia- 
 ting with the Scabnda (5?). The charaders arc: 
 In the male, the calyx is a perianthium conlilling of 
 Jive leaves, ovate, concave, acute, and membranous on 
 the margin. 'Ho cor 'A! a. The //<?»///;« conlill of five 
 very (liort capillary filaments ; the antheras are verfa- 
 tile, two-celled, and forked at both ends. — Fa/iale on 
 a feparatc plant ; of which the calyx conlifls of an in- 
 volucrum many-leaved, linear, and deciduous ; and a 
 perianthium two leaved, very fmall, and perfiftent. Xo 
 corolla. Thefiffillar:! has an ovate germcn ; the flyli 
 are five, long, reflected, and downy ; the Itigmata arc 
 ■ fimple. The pericarp'tu}n is an egg Ihaped fruit, com- 
 prelFed, many-angled, fukated, and covered with a 
 fucculent calyx. The/^fi/ is folitary, round, and com- 
 prclled. There is only one fpecies of it, wz. the ac- 
 nida cannabida. It.is a native of Virginia ; but rarely 
 cultivated in Europe, except for the fake of variety. 
 It has little beauty, and at prefent is applied to no 
 ufeful purpofe. 
 
 ACNUA, in Roman antiquity, fignified a certain 
 meafure of land, near about the Engliih rood, or fourth 
 part of an acre. 
 
 ACOEMET^, or AcoEMETi, in church-hiftory ; 
 or, Meti who lived without deep : A fet of monks who 
 
 ba. 
 
 chanifd the divi;'.c fervicc night and day in their pla- Acoluihi 
 CCS of worlhip. They divided themfclves into three ^ [ 
 bodies, who alternately fucceeded c.icli other, fo that ■ ^'"" '^ 
 their churches were never filent. This praelice they ' 
 founded upon the precept, /V.y without cctil'tug. They 
 llourilhcd in the caft about the middle of the 5"' cen- 
 tury. There are a kind of aeocmeti flill fubfiiling in 
 the Roman church, viz. tlie religious of the holy fa- 
 cramcnt, who keep up a pcrpctu. 1 adoration, fome one 
 or other of them praying before the holy facramcnt 
 day and night. 
 
 ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists, in antiquity, was 
 an appellation given to thofc pcrfons who were fleady 
 and immoveable in their refoluiions : and hence the 
 lloics, bccaufc tiiey uouldnot forfike their principles, 
 nor alter their rcfolutions, accpiired the title of Acolu- 
 thi. The word is Greek, and compounded of a, priv. 
 and xoxii-S©.,, way; as never turning from the origi- 
 nal courfe. 
 
 Acoi. u riii, among the ancient Chriflians, implied 
 a pccidiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin 
 church ; for they were unknown to the Greeks for • 
 above 400 years. They were next to the fub-deacon ; 
 and we learn from the fourth council of Carthage, 
 that the archdeacon, at tluir ordination, put into their 
 hands a candicllick with a taper, giving them there- 
 by tounderltand that they were appointed to light the 
 candles of the church ; as alfo an empty pitcher, to 
 imply that they were to furnilh wine for tlie cucha- 
 rili. Some think they had another office, that of at- 
 tending the bilhop wherever lie went. The word is 
 Greek, and compounded of a, priv. and x4».i«<), to hin- 
 der or ditlurb. 
 
 ACOLYTHIA, in ihc Greek church, denotes the 
 office or order of divine fervicc ; or the prayers, cere- 
 monies, hymns, &c. whereof the Greek fervicc is 
 corapofed. 
 
 ACOMA, a town of North America, in New Mex- 
 ico, feated on a hill, with a good caflle. To go into 
 the town, you muft walk up 50 Heps cut out of the 
 rock, it is the capital of that province, and was ta- 
 ken by the Spaniards in 1599. VV. Long. 104. 15. 
 L. 55- o. 
 
 ACOMAC or ACCOM j\CK, the name of a county in 
 Virgini.!. It is on the caftern fide of the Chefapeak 
 bay, on :>. (lip of land, called the eaflii-ti JJ?orc. 
 
 ACOMINATUS (Nicetas), wasfccretary to Alex- 
 ius Coinncnus and to Ifaacus Angelus fucccflively : he 
 wrote an hillory from the death of Alexius Comnenus 
 iifS, wliere Zonaras ended his, to the year 1203, 
 which has undergone many imprellions, and is much 
 applauded by the befl critics. 
 
 ACONITE. See .^coNiTUM. 
 
 Winter AcoMTE. Sec Heleborus. 
 
 ACONCROBA, in botany, the indigenous name of 
 a plant which grows wild in Guinea, and is in great 
 efieem among ihe natives for ils virtues in the fmall- 
 pox. Tbcy give an infulion of it in wine. The leaves 
 of this plant are opake, and as fliff as thofeof the plii- 
 lyrea; they grow in pairs, and /land on fliort foot- 
 flalks ; they arc fmall at each end, and broad in the 
 middle ; and the largcfl of thcmare about three inches 
 in length, and an inch and quarter in breadth in the 
 middle. They arc of a dufky colour on the upper 
 fide, and of a pale green underneath. 
 
 ACONITIi
 
 A C O 
 
 [ 77 ] 
 
 AGO 
 
 Acoiiiti, ACONITI, in antiqyity, an appellation given to 
 
 Aconitum. fomc of the ATHLF.T;ii, but differently intcrpntcd. 
 
 " '''~~~' Mcrciirialis underftanJs it of thofe who only anointed 
 
 their bodies with oil, but did not fmcar themfelvcso- 
 
 ver with dull, as was the ufual praclice. 
 
 ACON ITU M,A(?6 NIT E, Wo LKSB AN E,or Monks- 
 hood ; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to 
 the polyandria clafs of plants. In the natural order, 
 it all'ociatcs with the ALiltifil'uju^, 26. The cha- 
 rafters are : Thereis no£-d/).Y. The <rorc/yi7 conlifts of 
 five unequal petals oppofitc in pairs ; the highelt hel- 
 nict-tubed, inverted, and obtufe ; the two lateral ones, 
 broad, roundilh, oppofite, and converging ; the two 
 lowelf, oblong, and looking downwards : The nc(5laria 
 are two, piped, nodding, and (itting on long Tubulated 
 peduncles, andconccalcdundcrihe highcdpctal : The 
 fcalesare lix, very Ihort, coloured, and in an orb with 
 the neJlaria. The /la>j,ir:a conlill of numerous fniall 
 fubulated filaments ; the antherae are ercft and I'mall. 
 The p/Jli/i'u>/i has three [five] oblong germens, ending 
 in llyli the length of the {lamina ; the Iligmata are 
 fimple and reflected. The pericarpiiwi has three or 
 five univalve capfules gaping inward. The feeds arc 
 numerous, angular, and wrinkled. 
 
 Species. I. The lycodonum, or yellow wolfsbane, 
 grows upwards of three feet high, flowers about the 
 middle of June, and if the feafon is not warm will con- 
 tinue in flower till Augufl. 2. The altilfimum, or 
 greatell yellow wolfsbane, grows upv/ards of four 
 feet high, and the fpikesof its llower are much longer 
 in this fort than the former. 5. The variegatum, 
 or Icller wolfsbane, feldom grows more than two feet 
 high, it carries blue flowers, and the fpikes of them 
 arc much Ihorter than either of the two laft. 4. The 
 anihora, or wholefoinc wolfsbane, liowers in the middle 
 of Auj^uJl, and often continues in beauty tillthe middle 
 of September ; its flowers are not large, but are of a 
 beautit'ilfulphur-yellow colour, j. The napcllus, bears 
 large blue flowers, which appear in Augult, and make 
 a pretty appearance. There are two or three varieties 
 of this kind ; one with white, another with rofe-co- 
 loured, and a third with variegated fiowers : but thefc 
 arc oiily varieties which often change. 6. The Py ra- 
 midalc, or common blue monkdiood, bears a long fpike 
 of blue flowers, which appear foontr than any of the 
 other forts, being fo early as June, or fonietinies even 
 May. The fpikes of liowers are upwards of two feet 
 long, fothat it makes a pretty appearance ; the feeds 
 are ripe in September. 7. The alpinum, or large- 
 flowered nionklhood, flowers in Augnft, and will grow 
 to the hci;;ht of live feet in good ground ; the flowers 
 are very large, of a deep blue colour, but not many 
 upon eacjt fpike. S. The pyreniacum, or Pyrcnean 
 monkfliood, flowers in July. It grows about four feet 
 high, and carries a long fpike of yellow flowers. 9. The 
 cammarum, grows about four feet high, and flowers 
 in tlie beginning of July. i:?. The oricntale, oreaft- 
 ern monkfhoou, grows fonietimes more than fi.x feet 
 high, and bears a white flower. 
 
 Culture. All thefe fpecies, except the lafl, arc na- 
 tives of the Alps, the mountains of Germany, Au- 
 flria, and Tartary ; fo require a cool Ihady (ituation, 
 except the wholefome wolfsbane, which mufl: have an 
 open expofure. They tlirive better in a moid than dry 
 foil : but the ground mull not be fo wet as to have the 
 
 water flanding near their roots in the winter-time. Aconitum, 
 
 They may all be propagated by fowing their feeds in ' " ' 
 
 autumn, upon a north boi der, \\ here they are fcrcencd 
 from the fun. The plants will come up in the fpring, 
 when they mufl be kept clean from weeds during the 
 fummer-months : and in very dry feafons, if they arc 
 frequently refreflied with water, their growth will 
 be greatly promoted. 'J he following autumn they 
 fnould be tranfplantcd into Ihady borders, in rows afoot 
 afunder, and the -plants fix inches diflant from one 
 another. In this fituation tlity may remain two years, 
 when they will carry flowers, and fo may be tram'- » 
 planted to thofe places where they are to remain. The 
 caftcrn monklhood is a native of the Levant, from 
 whence the feeds of it were firfl fcnt by Dr Tourne- 
 fort to the royal garden at Paris, from whence fonie 
 other gardens have been furnifiied with feeds. It is 
 very rare in Europe at prefcnt. 
 
 Q^iahiies. Since tlie time of Theophraflus, mofb of 
 the fpecies of monk ll'.ood have been reckoned a deadly 
 poifon both to men and brutes. Diofcorides, however, 
 recommends the cxtcrnahpphcation of common monks- 
 hood for pains of the eyes. The flowers of a great 
 many fpecies comminiicate their noxious quality by 
 being fmcllcd to ; and thofe of the fpecies called /;«- 
 pelltts being placed on the head, occafion a violent me- 
 grim. Of the bad qualities of thefe plants wc fonie- 
 times avail ourfelves to get rid of vermin. A decoc- 
 tion of the roots deflroys bugs ; the fame part being 
 powdered, and adminillered in bread or fome other pa- 
 latable vehicle to rats and mice, corrodes and inflames 
 their inteftines, and foon proves mortal. The juice of 
 the plant is ufed to poifon fltfli with, for the deflruc- 
 tion of wolves, fo.xcs, and other ravenous beaffs. The 
 bell antidote to the poifon of the different monks- 
 hoods is faid to be the root of the anthora, a fpecies of 
 the fame genus, hence termed keaitl-f'ul or vjl-o.'efotHi 
 nionkjh'jod . The fame plant is regarded as efTicacious 
 againfl bites of ferpents and other venomous creatures. 
 The roots have a bitter acrid tafle ; the leaves are only 
 bitter : the former arc chiefly ufed in medicine ; and, 
 bclides the excellent quality jufl mentioned, are flo- 
 machic, Vi\iS. promote perfpiraiion. The pcafants, who 
 gailier the plants on the Alpsand Pyrenees, are faid to 
 ufe it with fucccfs againA the biting oi mad dogs, and 
 to cure the cholic. It is remarkable, that the monks- 
 hoods with blue flowers are much more virulent than 
 the yellow or white-flowered kinds. Miller alTcrts 
 that the hunifmen of the wolves and other wild beads 
 on the Alps, dip their arrows into the juice of thofe 
 plants, which renders the wounds made by ihem 
 deadly. 
 
 That the anthora is an antidote to the poifon of the 
 refl of the fjiecies, is not confidered as a facl fufficient- 
 ly eflablidied. Of the etFecls of the above, indeed, 
 and other vegetable poifons, medical writers give but 
 .T confufcd arcount. In general, thofe which .".re not 
 of thcnarcotic kind, nor e.xcite violent vomitings and 
 purgings, produce their pernicious cfTeclsby irritating 
 the nervous coats of the ftoniach and intellir.es, fo as to 
 occalion riolent convullions, not only in them, but, 
 through the whole body. The proper cure is evacua- 
 tion by vomit :• but this is not to be obtained without 
 fome difliculty ; bccaufe there is ufually fuch a contrac- 
 tion about the upper orifice of the flotnach, that no- 
 thing:
 
 ACQ 
 
 [ 7« ] 
 
 AGO 
 
 Acoiuia« tlii.ig an ciclicv be fwallowcd or tliiown up. In this 
 II cafe, an infilion of tobacco has been rccommenJcJ, 
 ^ Acorus. 21, J j„jy prohibly be of fervicc : for being i:lelt of a 
 very liinuilating nature, it may for a m"nicnt take off 
 the violent fpafais occalioned by the poifon ; in wliich 
 cafe, a violent vomiting will imiuediately enfuc — 'i'hc 
 l!oniach biing thoroughly emptied, und deglutition 
 rendered cafy, the cure may be completed by oily and 
 jiiucilagiuoius medicines. On account of the poifonous 
 ijualitics of monklhood, no fpecics(jf itihould be plant- 
 ed where children have acccfs, lell they Ihould fulicr 
 by putting the leaves <ir dowers in their mouths, or 
 nibbing them about their eyes ; for the juice of the 
 leaves will occalion great dilorderbybeingonly rubbed 
 upon very tender fielli ; and the farina of the llovvers, 
 V henbl<>« n into the eyes, caufestiiem to fwell greatly. 
 
 ACONTIAS, ii! /.ooh.gy, an obfoleie name of tlic 
 anguis jiculis, or dart-fnakc, belonging to the order 
 of amphibia ferpcnies. See Anc.iiis. 
 
 ACO.NrlUM,*«i>vTj«v, in Grecian antiquity, a kind 
 of dart or javelin, refcmbling the Roman piluni. 
 
 ACONTIUS (James), a pl-.ilofopher, civilian, and 
 .divine, born at Trent in the l^"" century : he embra- 
 red the reformed religion ; and, coming into England 
 in the reign of queen Elizabctli, was much honoured 
 by her, v.hich he acknowledges in a book dedicated 
 to that queen. This work is liis celebrated Collection 
 of the Stratagems of Satan, which has been fo often 
 .trandated, and borne fo many editions. 
 
 ACOSTAN, a mountainous idand in the north 
 feas between Afia and America, obfcrved by captain 
 ■Cook. 
 
 ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree. See Quercus. 
 
 Acorn, (in fea-langujge), a little ornamental piece 
 of wood, falhioncd like a cone, and fixed on the upper- 
 mofl point of the fpindle, above the vane, on the malt- 
 head. It is ufed to keep the vane from being blown 
 off from the fpintlle in a whirlwind, or when the lliip 
 leans much to one fide under fxil. 
 
 ACORUS.Ca i.a mus Arom aticl'sSweet Flag, 
 orSwEF.T Rush : A genus of the inonogynia order, 
 belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants, and ranking 
 in the (econd natural order, / ipsiit.r. The characters 
 are : The calyx is a cj.lindric iimple fpadix covered 
 with florets ; there is noy/).7//i:j, nor /i.T/;»«/A/?/7/'^. The 
 corolla is compofed of fix obtufe, concave, loofc petals. 
 The flam} nil conilflof lix thickifli filaments, fomewhat 
 longerth an the corolla; the an therK arc thickilh and di- 
 dymous. The /i./////?/w has a gibbous oblong germcn the 
 length ef the ftamina ; no (tylus -, the ftigma a promi- 
 nent point. The pcrscarpiinii is a fliort triangular, 
 obtufe, three-celled capfule, attenuated at both ends. 
 Thtfccdi are numerous, and of -an oblong egg-lTiape. 
 There is but one<<j')ecics, the acorus calamus. It 
 grows naturally in (liallow Handing waters, and is 
 found wild in fome pans of Britain. It grows plenti- 
 fully in rivulets and mariliy places about Norwich and 
 other parts of the illand, in the canals of Holland, in 
 Switzerland, and in other countries of Europe. The 
 fiiops have been ufually fupplied from the Levant with 
 dried roots, w'hich do not appear to be fuperior to thofe 
 •of other parts. The leaves are f^jmetimes two feet 
 l.ing,narrow,comprc(red,fmooth,audof a bright green. 
 
 terminating in a point ; the root is pretty long, of a 
 whitilh, rcddilh, and partly gretr.ilh colour. Among 
 the leaves there arifes a lingle one, thicker and more 
 robult than the reft, furrowed on the furtace, and of a 
 paler green. On this grow frequently two fpikes of 
 ilowers, by many writers called iuli. Thefe arc of a 
 brown colour, having a chequered furface. The root 
 of tliis plant has a very agrtcable flavour, which is 
 greatly improved by drying. It is reckoned carmina- 
 tive and llomachic, having a warm, pungent, bitterilh 
 tafle ; fois frequently ufed as an ingredient in bitters. 
 It has been complained of, however, as communicating 
 a naufeous flavour to thofe bitters in which it was in- 
 fufed ; and Neumann obfcrvcs, that its agreeable fla- 
 vour, as well as itsdillinguilhing talte, relides entirely 
 in a volatile cll'cntial oil ; the rcliduum after diflillation 
 having a naufeous flavour, not at all refcmbling that of 
 the calamus. It is an ingredient in the mithridate and 
 therjacaof the London pharmacopoeia ; and in the aro- 
 matic and llomachic tinfturcs, and compound arum 
 powder, of the Edinburgh. The frelhroot candiedis 
 faid to be employed at Conftantinopl? as a prcfervative 
 againll epedemic difeafes. The leaves of this plant have 
 a fweet fragrant fmell, more agreeable, though weaker 
 than that of the roots. Neither horfes, cows, goats, 
 llieep, nor fwine, will cat the herb, or its root. 
 
 Ciiltiin. The acorus bcinga perennial plant, may 
 be tranfplanted into a garden, where itwill thrive very 
 well if the ground is moifl ; but never flowers unlcfs it 
 grows in water. It loves an open fituation, and will 
 not thrive well under the fliade of trees. The flowers 
 appear the latter end of June, and continue till Au- 
 
 gurt. 
 
 Acorus, in the materia medica, a name fometimcs 
 given to the great galangal. Sec KE.MPfERiA. 
 
 Acorus, in natural hiftory, blue coral. The true fort 
 is very fcarce ; fome, however, is tilhed on the coafls 
 of Africa, particularly from Rio del Re to the river of 
 the Camarones. This coral is part of the mcrclian- 
 dife which the Dutch trade for with the Camarones : 
 that of the kingdom of Benin is alfo very much efleem- 
 cd. It grows in form of a tree on a rocky bottom. 
 
 ACOUSMATICI, fonutimes alfo called Acouflki, 
 in Grecian antiquity, fuch of the difciplesof Pythago- 
 .ras as had not completed their five years probation. 
 
 ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that re- 
 lates to the ear, the fcnfe of hearing, or the dodrine 
 of founds. 
 
 Acoustic DuO, in anatomy, the fame with meatus 
 auditorius, or the external paflagc of the ear. See A- 
 N A T o M \ . 
 
 y/cousr/c /^Tyrz/wf/;^, or auricular tube. Sec Acou- 
 stics, n° 26. 
 
 AlOustic Vajfili, in the ancient theatres, were a 
 kind of veiTels made of brafs, lliaped in the bell fa- 
 fiiion, which being of all tones within the pitch of the 
 voice or even ofinllruments, rendered the founds more 
 audible, fo that the aftors could be heard through all 
 partsof theatres, which were even 400 feet in diameter- 
 jIcovhtic Difciphs, among the ancient Pythago- 
 reans, thofe more commonly called Acousmatici. 
 
 The Science of 
 
 ACOUSTICS
 
 79 
 
 A 
 
 O U 
 
 I C 
 
 Diacoullks 
 
 2 
 
 Citacou- 
 ftics. 
 
 Of the VC' 
 hides of 
 found. 
 
 A vidcd by fome writers into DiacouJIici, which ex- 
 plains the properties of thofe founds that come di- 
 rcil-tl/ from the fonoroiis body to the car ; and Cata- 
 couflici, which treats of reHei;l:cd founds : but fiich di- 
 Ilinition docs not appear to be of any real utility. 
 
 Chap. I. Different thsoria of Sound. 
 
 Moft founds, we all know, are conveyed to us on 
 the bofoni of the air. In whatever manner they either 
 float upon it, or are propelled forward in it, certain it 
 is, that, without the vehicle of this or fome other fluid, 
 we fliould have no founds at all. Let the air be cx- 
 liaufled from a receiver, and abcll Ihall emit no found 
 when rung in the void; for, as the air continues to 
 grow Icfs denfc, the found dies away in proportion, fo 
 that at laft its Itrongcfl; vibrations are almofl totally 
 filent. 
 Air not the Thus air is a vehicle for found. However, we mufl 
 only one. not, with fome philofophers, alfert, that it is the only 
 vehicle ; that, if there were no air, we Ihould have no 
 founds whatfoever : for it is found by trial, that founds 
 are conveyed through water almofl with the fame faci- 
 lity with which they move through air. A bell rung in 
 water returns a tone as diflinft as if rung in air. This 
 was obfcrved by Derham, who alfo remarked that the 
 tone came a quarter deeper. Some naturalifts alfure 
 us alfo, that filhes have a ftrong perception of founds, 
 even at the bottom of deep rivers (a). From hence, 
 it would feem to be not very material in the propaga- 
 tion of founds, whether the fluid which conveys them 
 be claflicor otherwife. Water, which, of all fubllan- 
 ces that we know, has the leall elallicity, yet fcrves to 
 
 carry them forward; and if we make allowance for the 
 difference of its denlity, perhaps the founds move in 
 it with a proportional rapidity to v/hat they are found 
 to do in the claflic fluid of air. 
 
 One thing Jiowever is certain, that whether the fluid 
 which conveys the note be elaflic or non-elallic, wiiat- 
 ever found we hear is produced by a flrokc, wiiich the 
 founding body makes againll the fluid, whether air or 
 water. The fluid being llruck upon, carries the im- 
 prcflion forward to the ear, and there produces its fen- , 
 faiion. Philofophers are fo far agreed, that they all what 
 allow that found is nothing more than the imprcflion f<JU"J i», 
 made by an elallic body upon the airor water (b), and ^"'* ^°^ 
 this impreffion carried along by either fluid to the or- P''°P*8** 
 gan of hearing. But the manner in which this convey- 
 ance is made, is flill difputed : Whether the found is 
 dilfufed into the air, in circle beyond circle, like the 
 waves of water when we dillurb the fmoothncfs of its 
 furface by dropping in a ilone ; or whether it travels 
 along, like rays ditfufed from a centre, fomewhat in 
 the fvvift manner that cledricity runs along a rod of 
 iron ; thcfc are the ijucftions which have divided the 
 learned. (, 
 
 Newton was of the firfl opinion. He has explained Newtoirf 
 the progrelTion of found by an undulatory, or rather a theory, 
 vermicular, motion in the parts of the air. If we have 
 an cxatt idea of the crawling of fome infeds, we fliall 
 have a tolerable notion of the progrcilion of found upon 
 this hypothefis. Theinfeiit, forinflance, in its motion, 
 iirft carries itscontraclions from the hinder part, in or- 
 der to throw its fore-part to the proper dillance; then 
 it carries itscontraftions from the fore-part to the hin- 
 der to bring that forward. Something flmilar to this 
 
 is ■ 
 
 (a) Dr Hunter has proved this, and dcmonftrated the auricular organ in thcfc animals. See Fisu, and 
 Co M PA R A T I V E Anatomy. 
 
 (b) Though air and water are both vehicles of found, yet neither of them fccms to be fo by ilfclf, but on- 
 ly as it contains an exceedingly fabtile fluid capable of penetrating the molt folid bodies. Hence, by the me- 
 dium of that fluid, founds can be propagated through wood, or metals, even more readily than through the o- 
 pen air. By the fame means, deaf people may be made Icnfibre of founds, if they hold a piece of metal in their 
 mouth, one end of which is applied to the founding body. As it is certain, therefore, that air cannot pene- 
 trate metals, we mult acknowledge tl:c medium of found to be of a more fubtilc nature ; and thus the elciftrical 
 fluid will naturally occur as the proper one. But why then is found no longer heard in an exhauftcd recei- 
 ver, if the air is not the fluid by which it is conveyed, feeing the eleflrical matter cannot be excluded ? The 
 reply lo this is obvious : The electrical fluid is fo exceedingly fubtilc, and pervades folid bodies with fo much 
 cafe, that any motion of a folid body in a quantity (>{ elcdric m'attcr by ilfclf, can never excite a degree of a- 
 gitation in it fulFicient for producing a found ; but if the elciJlric fluid is entangled among the particles of air, 
 water, wood, metal, &c. whatever affeds their panicles will alfo afiVa this fluid, and produce an audible 
 noifc. In the experiment of the air-pump, however,thcrc may be an ambiguity, as the gradual cxhaulling of 
 the air creates an incrcafing difference of preffure on the outfidc, and mayoccalion in the glafs a difficulty of 
 vibrating, fo as to to render it lefs lit to communicate to the air without the vibrations that flrike it from 
 ■within. From this caufe the diminution of found in an cxhanlted receiver may be fuppofcd to proceed, as 
 well as from the diminution of the air. But if any internal a.^iration of its parts ihould happen to the elec- 
 trical fluid, exceeding loud noifcs might be propagat.-d thrpugh it, as has been the cafe when lirgc mcirors 
 have kindled at a great diflance from the earth. Iiis alfo difficult to account for the exceeding great hviftncfs- 
 of found, upon the fuppofition that it is propagated by means of air alone ; for nothinn; is more certain, than that the 
 flroiigell and moil violent gale is, in its courfe, inert and ihiggilh, compared with tlie jisoiiou of found .
 
 So 
 
 A C O U S 
 
 Sound. 
 I'latc I 
 
 Different in the motion of tlic air when Aruck upon by a founding 
 riicoriesof body. To be a little more prccifc, fuppolcAHC, the 
 Itriiigof an harplicliord fcrcwed to a proper pitch, and 
 draw a out of the right line by ihc finger at B. \S'e 
 Ihall have occaliou clfcwhere to obfervc, that fuch a 
 ilring would, if let go, vibrate to E ; and from K to D, 
 and back a.;ain ; tliat it would continue thus to vibrate 
 likcapcndulum forever, if not externally rcfiflcd, and 
 like a pendulum, all its little vibrations would be pcr- 
 lornicd in equal times, the lad and the firfl being c- 
 cjually long in performing ; alfo, that, like a pendulum, 
 its grcatcll fwiftnefs would always be when it arrived 
 at K, tlic middle part of its motion. Now then, if this 
 ftring be fuppofcd to tly from the ringer at B, it is ob- 
 vious, that whatever be its own motion, fuch alio will 
 be the motion of the jiartsof air that fly before it. Its 
 motion, as is obvious, is firft uniformly accelerated for- 
 ward from B to K, then retarded as it goes from K to 
 D, accelerated back again as it returns from 1) to E, 
 and retarded from Elo B. This motion being tliere- 
 fore fent in fucccffion through a range of elaflic .lir, it 
 mufl happen, that the parts of one range of n'lv nnifl 
 bcfent forward with accelerated motion, and then witli 
 a retarded motion. This accelerated motion reaching 
 thcrcmotert; end of the firfl range will be coninuini- 
 cated to a fecond range, while the neare ft pans of the 
 iirft range being retarded in their motion, and falling 
 back with the receinon of the ftring, retire firft with 
 an accelerated, then with a retarded motion, and the 
 rcmoteft parts will foon follow. In the mean time, 
 while the parts of the lirft range are thus falling back, 
 the parts of the fecond range are going forward with 
 an accelerated motion. Thus there w ill be an alter- 
 nate condenfation and relaxation of the ;iir, during the 
 tiine of one vibration; and as the air going forward 
 ftrikcs any opnoling body with greater force than upon 
 retiring, foeach of thefe accelerated progreinons have 
 been called by Newton a pn/fc of found. 
 
 Thus will the airbe driven forward in the direction 
 of the ftring. But now we nuift obfcrvc, that thefe 
 pulfes will move every way ; for all motion imprelFed 
 upon fluids in any diredion whatfoevcr, operates all 
 around in a fphere : fo that founds will be driven iii all 
 directions, backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards, 
 and on every fide. They will go on fuccccding each 
 other, one on the outfidc of the other, like circles in 
 diftnrbcd water ; or rather, they v.-ill lie one without 
 the other, i.i concentric Hulls, Ihell above flicll, as 
 wc fee in the coats of an onion. 
 
 All who have remarked the tone of a bell, while its 
 founds arc decaying away, mull have an idea of the 
 pulfesof found, which, according to Newton, are form- 
 ed by the air's alternate progrellionand recelllon. And 
 it muft be obfcrvcd, that as each of thefe pulfes is 
 formed by a lingle vibration of the ftring, they muft 
 be equal to each other ; for the vibrations of the ftring 
 are known to be lb. 
 
 Again, as lothe vdo-rity with which founds travel, 
 this Newton determines, by the moft diliicult calcula- 
 tion that cm I)c imagined, to lie in proportion to the 
 thicknefs of the parts of the air, and the diilancc of 
 thefe pirts from each other. From hence he goes on 
 to prove, that e a-h little part moves backward and for- 
 ward like a pendulum ; aiid from thence he proceeds 
 to demon Itratc, that if the atmofpherc wereof tlic fame 
 
 TICS. Chap. I. 
 
 denfity every where as at the furface of the earth, in Different 
 fuch a cafe, a pendulum, that reached from its highcft Theories of 
 fui-face down to the furface of the earth, would by i:s ^"" "^' 
 vibrations dilcovcr to ns the proportion of its velocity 
 with which founds travel. The velocity with which 
 each pulfc would move, lie fliows, would be as much 
 greater than the velocity of fuch a pendulum fwinging 
 with one complete vibration, as thecircnmfcreneeofa 
 circle is greater than the diameter. Fnm hence he 
 calculates, that the motion of found will be 979 feet 
 in one fecond. But this not being confonant to ex- 
 perience, he takes in another conlidcration, which de- 
 ftroys entirely the vigour of his former dcmonftration, 
 namely, vapours in the air ; and then finds the motion 
 of found to be 1142 feet in one fecond, or near i 5 miles 
 in a minute : a proportion which experience had cJta- 
 bliHied nearly before. 7 
 
 Thus much will ferve to give an obfcnre idea of a Trrccdirg 
 theory which has met with numbers of oppofers. Even 'I'licory op- 
 John Bernouilli, New ton's grcatefl difciple, modeftly V^'^'^- 
 owns that he did not pretend to underftand this part 
 of the Priuci/'ia. lie attempted therefore to give a 
 morepcrfi)icuous dcmonftration of his own, that might 
 conrirm and ilhiftrate the Newtonian theory. The 
 fubjeft feented to rcje(5l elucidation : his theory is ob- 
 vioully w rong, as D'Alerabcrt has proved in his The- 
 ory of Fluids. g 
 
 Various have been the objeiflions that have been The objcc- 
 madc lothe Newtonian fyfttm of founds. It is urged, tions. 
 that this theory can only agree with the motion of 
 found in an elaftic fluid, whereas founds are known to 
 move forward through water that is not elaftic. To 
 explain their progrcfs therefore through water, a fe- 
 cond theory nuiil be formed : fo that two theories muft 
 be made to explain a limilar cfTefl ; which is contrary 
 to the fimplicity of true philofophy, for it is contrary 
 to the fimplicity of nature. It is farther urged, that 
 this flow vermicular motion but ill reprefcntsthe velo- 
 city with which founds travel, as we know by experi- 
 ence that it isalmoft i^ miles in a minute. In fhort, 
 it is urged, that fuch undulations as have been defcri- 
 bcd, when coming from feveralfonorous bodies at once, 
 would crofs, obftruft, and confound each other ; fo 
 that, if they were conveyed to the ear by this means, 
 we fhould hear nothing but a medley of difcord and 
 broken articulations. But this is equally with the reft 
 contradictory to experience, lince we hear the fnlleft 
 concert, not only without confniion,butw ith the high- 
 cft pleafure. Thefe objcftions, whether well founded 
 or not, have given rife to another theory : which we 
 ftiall likcwife lay before the reader ; though it too ap- 
 pears liable to objedions, which fliall be afterwards 
 mentioned. „ 
 
 Every found may be confidcred as driven of! from Anotlicr 
 the founding body in ftraigjit lines, andimprcfTcd upon 'I'hcory. 
 the air in one direction only : but whatever inipreilion 
 is made upon a fluid in one direftion, is diffufed upon 
 its furface into all directions ; fo that the found firft 
 driven direitly forward foon fills upa w ide fphere, and 
 is heard on every fide. Thus, as it is imprcffed, it in- 
 ftantancouHy travels forward with a very fv.ifi motion, 
 refembling the velocity with which wc know eledri- 
 city flies from one en i of a line to another. 
 
 Now, as to the pulfes, or clifc Ihakcs, as the niufi- 
 cians cxprcfi it, which a founding body is know-n to 
 
 make
 
 ACOUSTIC 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 DifTercnt make, each pulfc (fay the fupportcrs of tliis ihcoiy,) 
 Tlicoricsof IS itftlf a diltiiiLt aiul pcrftit found and die interval 
 Sound, between every two pulics is profoundly lilcnt. Con- 
 ^tinuity of found froju the fame body is only a decep- 
 tion of tlic hearing ; foras each dillinit found fuccccds 
 at very fmall intervals, the organ has no time to tranf- 
 mit its images witii cijual fwiftnefsio the mind, and 
 the interval is thus lod to fcnfe ; jiill as in feeing a 
 flaming torch, if liarcd round in a circle, it appears 
 as a ring of fire. In this manner a beaten drum, at 
 fome fmall dillance, prcfenis us with the idea of con- 
 tinuing found. When children run with their-llicks 
 along a rail, a continuing found is thus rcprcfented, 
 though it need fcarce be obferved that the ftroke a- 
 gainil each rail ispcrfedtly dillinctand infulated. 
 
 According to this theory, therefore, the pulfcs are 
 nothing more than dillinct founds repeated by the fame 
 body, the firll llroke or vibration being ever theloud- 
 cft, and travelling farther than (hole that follow; while 
 eachfucceeding vibration gives a new found, but with 
 diniinilhcd force, till atlall the pulfcs decay away to- 
 tally, as the force decays that gives them exillenee. 
 
 All bodies whatfoevcr that arc flruck return more 
 orlefs a found : but fome, w-antingelafticity, give back 
 no repetition of ihe found ; the noife is at once begot- 
 ten and dies : while other bodies, however, there are, 
 which being more claAic and capable of vibration, give 
 back a found, and repeat the fame feveral times fuc- 
 ccflively. Thcfe lall are faid to have a tone ; the 
 others are not allowed to have any. 
 
 This tone of the elaflic llring, or bell, is notwith- 
 flanding nothing more than a fimilar found to what 
 the former bodies produced, but with the diifercnce of 
 being many times repeated while tluir note is but 
 fmglc. So that, if we would give the former bodies a 
 tone, it will be neccllary to make ihcm repeat their 
 found, by repeating our blows fwiftly upon them. This 
 will ctfcttually give them a tone ; and even an nnmuli- 
 cal inllramcnt has often had a fine cii'cci by its tone 
 in our concerts. 
 
 Let us now goon then tofuppofe, that by fwift 
 and equably continued Itrokes wc give any non-ela(\ic 
 body its tone : it is very obvious, that no alterations 
 will be made in this tone by the quicknefs of the llrokes, 
 though repeated ever fo faA. Thefc will only render 
 the tone more equal and continuous, but make no al- 
 teration in the tone it gives. On the contrary, if we 
 make an alteration in the force of each blow, a dirte- 
 rent tone will (hen undoubtedly be excited. The dif- 
 ference will be fmall, it mult be confelfed ; for the 
 tones of thefc inflcxilile bodies are capable but of fmiU 
 variation ; however, there will certainly be a diffe- 
 rence. The tabic on which wc write, for inllance, 
 will retnrn a dirl'crcnt found wlitn ilruck with a club, 
 from whatit did when (truck only with a fw itch. Thus 
 non-dailic bodies return a ditrcrcncc of tone, not in 
 proportion to the fwiftncfs with which their found is 
 repeated, but in proportion to the greatncfs of the 
 blow which produced it ; for in two equal noii-tlallic 
 bodies, the body produced the deepell tone which was 
 Ilruck by the greatcft blow. 
 
 Wc now then come to a critical qncftion. What 
 
 is it that produces the diticrenec of tone in two elallic 
 
 founding bells or llrings.' Or what makes one deep and 
 
 the other (hrilHThisnucftion has alwaysbcen hitherto 
 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 ai'.fwcred by faying, that tlic depth or luigtit of the niffcrcut 
 note proceeded from the flowncfs or fwiftncfs of the 'I'ix-critt vt 
 tiuics of the vibrations. The llowcA vibrations, it has Sound, 
 been faid, arcqualifiedforproducingihc deepefltoncs, " "* 
 
 while the fwifteil vibrations produce the Iiighcft tones. 
 In tliis cafe, an cffccl has been given for a caufc. It i» 
 in fait the force with which tlie founding ftringftrikci 
 the air when Ilruck upon, that makes the tr.- .- diflinc- 
 tioninthe tones of founds. It is this force, withgrcat- 
 erorlcfsinipreliions.refemblingthegreater orlefs force 
 of the blows npon a nou-elaftic body, which produce* 
 correfpondent affcflions of found. The greateft forces 
 produce the deepcll founds : the high notes are the cf- 
 fc6l of fmall efforts. In the fame manner a bell, wide 
 at the mouth, gives a grave found ; but if it be very 
 maliy withal, that will render it Hill graver ; but if 
 mally, wide, and long or high, that will make the 
 tone decpcft of all. 
 
 Thus, then, will claftic bodies give the deepcll 
 found, in proportion to the force with which they 
 ftrike the air : but if we fliould attempt to incrcafc their 
 force by giving them a llronger blow, this will be in 
 vain ; they will flill return the fame tone ; for fuch ii 
 their formation, that they are fonorous only becaufe 
 they are elaftic, and the force of this clalHciiy is not 
 increafed by our ftrcngth as the greatncfs of a pendu- 
 lum's vibration will not be increafed by falling from 
 a greater height. 
 
 Thusfar of the length of chords. Now as to the fre- 
 quency with which they vibrate the'deepefl tones, it 
 has been found, from the nature of elaflic llrings, that 
 the longed Arings have the widcA vibrations, and con- 
 fequently go backward and forward llowcA; while, on 
 the contrary, the lliortcll Arings vibrate thequickcA, 
 or come and go in the LiorteA intervals. Krom hence 
 thofc whohave treatcdof founds, have alicrted, as was 
 faid before, that the tone of the Aring depended npon 
 the length or the Ihortnefs of the viljratioas. Tliis, 
 however, is not the cafe. One and the fame Aring, 
 when Aruck, muA always, like the fame pendulum, re- 
 turn precifcly fimilar vibrations ; but it is well known, 
 that one and the fame Aring, when Aruck upon, does 
 not always return precifcly the fame tone : fo that in 
 this cafe the vibrations follow one rule, and the tone 
 another. The vibrations muA be invariably the fame 
 in the fame Aring, which does not return the fame tone 
 invariably, as is wcUknown tomuliciansinE:cner.al. In 
 the violin, lor in Aancc, they can calily alter the tone of 
 the Aring an oclavc or eight notes liigher, by afoftcr 
 method of drawing the bow ; and fome are known thus 
 to bring out the moA charming airs imaginable. Thefc 
 peculiar tones arc by the Englillt fiddlers cMedfut:- 
 liott'i. Tlic only rcafon, it has been alleged, that can 
 bealligned for the fame llring thus returning different 
 tones, mull certainly be the ditferent force of its Arokes 
 upon the air. In one cafe, it has double the tone of 
 the other ; becaufe upon the foft touches of the bow, 
 only half iss elaAicity is put into vibration. 
 
 This being under Aood (continue the authors of 
 this theory), we ihall be able clearly to account for 
 many things relating to founds that have hitherto 
 been inexplicable. Thus, for inftance, if it be alk- 
 cd. When two firings are llretched to;;cther of equal 
 lengths, tenlions, and thicknefs, how does it happen, 
 LJiat one of Uiem being Ilruck, and made to vibrate 
 L throughout.
 
 8a 
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 Diffcreut 
 Theories of 
 
 lo 
 Xolijii 
 L.yre See 
 ri.itc I. 
 Cg. 1. 
 
 • ru, Kir- 
 chcri Mu- 
 furgia. lib. 
 Ix. 
 
 tlirov.j;ho;it, the otlicr fiiall viUratc tjiroiigliont alio? 
 thcamwtrisolnioiis: The force that the Itring llruck 
 receives is comimnucatcd to the air, and the air com- 
 nuinicaics the lame to the limilar Jlriiij; ; which there- 
 fore receives all the force ol the former ; and the force 
 beinj; equal, the vibrations mult be fo too. Again, 
 pi't the q'jcltion. If one Ihing be but half tlie kiijrth 
 of the other, and be ftriick, how will the vibrations 
 be .' The anfwcris, The longell llringwill receive all 
 ihc force of the firing half as long as iifilf, and there- 
 fore it will vibrate in proportion, that is, ilirongh half 
 its length. In the fame manner, if the longell firing 
 were three times as long as the other, it would only 
 vibrate in a third of its length ; or if four times, in a 
 fourth of its length. In Ihort, whatever force the 
 finallcr firing imprellcs upon the air, the air will im- 
 prefs a limilar force upon the longer llring, and par- 
 tially excite it2 vi'urations. 
 
 From hence alfo we may account for the caufe of 
 thofe charming, melancholy gradations oi found in the 
 Eolian lyre ; aiiiulhumcnt (lays Sir John Hawkins) 
 lately obtrudeil upon the public as a new inveuiion, 
 though defcribed above a century ago by Kirchcr *. 
 This inftrunient is ealily made, being nothing more 
 than a long narrow box of thin dale, about :!o inches 
 long, J inches broad, and i J inches deep, with a cir- 
 cle in the middle of the upper fide or belly about \\ 
 inch diameter, pierced wilhfmall holes. On thiilide are 
 fcven, ten, or (according to Kirchcr) fifteen or more 
 llringsof very tine gut, llretched over bridges at each 
 end, like the bridge ot a riddle, and fcrewedup or re- 
 laxed with fcrew-pins (b). The firings are all tuned 
 to one and the fame note ; and the inllrunient is placed 
 in fomc current of air, where the windcau brufh over 
 its firings with freedom. A window with the fafh 
 j ufl railed to give the air admiirion. will anfwer this 
 purpofc exa-Hly. Now when the entering air blows 
 nponthefe firings with ditFerent degrees of force, there 
 •will be excited different tones of found ; fometimes the 
 blafl brings out all the tones in full concert ; fometimes 
 it links them te the fofteft murmurs ; it feeis for every 
 tone, and by its gradations of flrength folicits thofe 
 gradations of found which art has taken different me- 
 thods to produce. 
 
 It remains, in the lafl place, to conlider (by this 
 theory) the loudncfs andlowncfs, or, as thcmulicians 
 fpeak, the flrength and foftncfs of found. In vibra- 
 tino- claflic firings, the loudnefs of the tone is in pro- 
 portion to the deepnefs of the note ; that is, in two 
 firings, all things in other circumfiances alike, the 
 dcepeft tone will be loudefi. In mufical infiruments 
 upon a different principle, as in the violin, it is other- 
 wife ; the tones are made in fuch infiruments, by a 
 number of fmall vibrations crowded into one firokc. 
 The rolined bow, for infiance, being drawn along a 
 firing, its ronghnelVes catch the firing at very fmall 
 intervals, and excite its vibrations. In this iiifirument, 
 therefore, tocxcite loudtones, the bowmufi be drawn 
 quick, and this will produce the greatefi number of vi- 
 brations. But it muft be obfcrved, that the more 
 quick the bow pafles over the firing, the lefs apt will 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 the roughnefs of its furfacc be to touch the firing at Different 
 every infiaiil ; to remedy this, therefore, thcbow niufi 'J'^'-oricsof 
 be prell;d the hari!er as it is drawn (]uickfr, and tluis ■''""' "'• 
 itslulle'i found will be brought from tiic iiifirument. ^""^ 
 Ifthe fwiftnifsof ilie vibrations in an iufirnineiu thus 
 rubbed upon, exceed the force of the deeper found in 
 anotlier, then the fwit't vibrations will be heard at a 
 greaterdillance.andasmuch fai therotFas the fwiltnels 
 in ihein ex-.eeds ilie force in the other. 
 
 By the fame theory (it is alleged) may all the phe- _,. " 
 nomciia of mufical founds be eafily explained. — The j^j- i^iif,.-ii 
 fables of the ancients pretend, that mulic was firll Sounds il- 
 found out by the be;.tiiig of different hammers upon the luflrated 
 fmiih's anvil. W ithout purluing the fable, let us en- according 
 deavour to explain the nature of mufical founds by a to'l^ef*'"* 
 limilar method. Let us fuppofc an anvil, or Icveral li- '""'y- 
 niiiar anvils, to be llruck upon by fcveral hammers of 
 ditferent weights or forces. Tlie hammer, which is 
 double that of'anoilier, upon fiviking the anvil will 
 produce a found double that of the other : this double 
 foui.d muficians have agreed to call an Oclave. The 
 ear can judgeof the difterenceor refeniblance of thcfc 
 founds with great eafe, the numbers being as one and 
 two, and therefore, very readily compared. Suppofc 
 that an hammer, three limes lefs than the rirfi, flrikes 
 the anvil, the found produced by this will be three 
 times leis than the firit : fo that the ear, in judging tho 
 liniilitude of thefe founds, uill find fiimewhat more 
 difliculty ; becaufe it is not fb eafy to tell how often 
 one is contained in three, as. it is to tell how often it 
 is contained in two. Again, fuppofe that an hammer 
 four times lefs than the hrft firikes the anvil, the ear 
 will find greater (lifhculty fiill in judging prccifcly the 
 difference of the founds; for the ditfcrence of the num- 
 bers four and one cannot fo foon be determined with 
 precilion as three and one. Ifthe hammer be five 
 timcslefs. the dilFiculty of judging will be fiill greater. 
 If the hammer be iix times lefs, the difficulty fiill in- 
 creafcs, and fo alfo of the fcvcnth, infomuch that tlic 
 car cannot always readily and at once determine the 
 precife gradation. Now, of all comparifons, thofe 
 which the mind makes mofi ealily, and with leaft la- 
 bour, are the mofi pleafing. There is a certain re- 
 gularity in the human foul, by which it finds happi- 
 ncfs in exad and ftriking, and eafily-madc compari- 
 fons As the ear is but an infirument of the mind, it 
 is therefore mofi pleifcd with the combination of any 
 two founds, the ditFerences of which it can mofi rea- 
 dily difiinguilh. It is more pleafcd with the concord 
 of two founds which are to each other as one and two, 
 than of two founds which are as one and three, or one 
 and four, or one and five, or one and fix or fcven. Up- 
 on this pleafure, which the mind takes in comparifon, 
 all harmony depends. The variety of founds is infi- 
 nite ; but becaufe the ear cannot compare two founds 
 fo as readily to difiinguilh their difcrimalions when 
 they exceed the proportion ofoneand feven,mulicians 
 have been content to confine all harmony within that 
 compafs, and allowed but feven notes in mufical com- 
 pofition. 
 
 Let us now then fuppofc a ftringed infirument fitted 
 
 up 
 
 (b) The figure reprefents the infirument with ten chords ; of which fome direft only eight to be tuned 
 unifons, and the two outcrmoft octaves below them. Bu: this feema not to be material.
 
 Chiip. I. 
 
 A C O U 
 
 TICS. 
 
 8.? 
 
 Of Muiiial up i:i tiic orJcr nuiui iit-il above. For ialbuicc : Let 
 souii.ls. tlic (ivll firing be twice as loiij; ab the Iccoinl ; let the 
 
 " " iliird Itriug be tliree times lliorttr th^ii llie lint ; let 
 
 tlic fotirtli be four times, the lil'th firing five ti;iie.i, 
 and the lixtb lix times as Ihort as the lint. Such au 
 iiiflrumcui would picbably give us a rcprcfentaiion oC 
 the lyre as it came rirlt Irom the hand of the invcii- 
 tor. This inftrumcut will give us all tiie fcvcn notes 
 following each other, in the ord^rr in whicii any two 
 of thcni will accord together moll plealingly ; but yet 
 it will be a very inconvenient and a very dil'agrecable 
 inllrument : inconvenient, for in a compafs of fcven 
 llriiigs only, the ilrft mull be fcven times as long as 
 the lall ; and difagreeablc, becaufe this firft llring will 
 be fcvcn times as loud alfo ; fo that when the tones arc 
 to be played in a diifcrent order, loud and foft founds 
 Would be intermixed with mofl difgufling alternations. 
 In order to improve the firft inllrument, therefore, 
 fucceeding mulicians very judicioufly threw in all the 
 otlier firings between the two tirfl, or, in other words, 
 between the two O^-laves, giving to each, liowevcr, the 
 fame proportion to w hat it would have had in the firfl 
 natural inflrunicnt. This made the inllrument more 
 portable, and the founds more even and plealing. They 
 therefore difpofcd the founds between the Octave in 
 their natural order, and gave each its own proportional 
 dimcnfions. Of thcfe founds, where the proportion 
 between any two of them is mofl obvious, theconcord 
 between them will be molt plealing. Thus OJtaves, 
 vhich are as two to one, have amolt harmonious effedt ; 
 the fourth and fifth al.o found fweetly together, and 
 they will be found, upon calculation, to bear the fame 
 proportion to each other that Odavcs do. " Let it 
 " not be fuppofed (fays Mr Savcur), tliat the mnlical 
 " fcaie is merely an arbitrary combination of founds ; 
 " it is made up from the confonancc and difTerenccs of 
 <' the parts which corapofc it. Thofe who have often 
 " heard a fourth and tilth accord tf gether, will be 
 " naturallylfd todifcovcr their difference at once ; asd 
 " the mind unites itfclf to their beauties." Let us then 
 ccafe to aflign the coincidences of vibrations as the 
 caufcof harmony, fincc thcfe coincidences in two firings 
 vibrating at ditiercnt intervals, mufl at bell be but for- 
 tuitous ; whereas concord is always plealing. The true 
 caufc why concord is plealing,nuifl aril'e from ou r power, 
 in fuch a cafe, of mcafuring more calily the didcrences 
 of the tones. In proportion as the note can be mea- 
 fured with its fundamental tone by large and obvious 
 diflindions, then the concord is moll plealing ; on the 
 contrary, when the earmeafurcs thedifcriminations of 
 tw^o tones by very fmall parts, or cannot nicafute them 
 at all, it lofcs the beauty of their rcfemblancc ; the 
 whole is tlifcord and pain (c). 
 
 Bu t there is another property in the vibration of a mu- 
 fical llring not yet taken notice of, and which is alleged 
 to confirm the foregoing theory. If we ftrikeihc ft ring 
 of an harplichord, or any other elaftic founding chord 
 whatever, it returns a continuing found. Thistillof 
 late was confidcrcdas one llmple uniform tone ; but all 
 
 mulicians now coaftfi, that i.ifleid of one tonelt cc- Of VTufi.al 
 tuilly returns four tones, and that conflantly, 1 he Snuii.ls 
 noil s are, bclide the fun Jamciital t'>nc,3n octave above, ' ' 
 
 a twelfth above, and a fcvcnlccnth. Oncof ihebafs- 
 iiotes of an harplichord has been diilectcd la this ma.i- 
 ner by Rair.cau, and the aftual txillcncc of tliefc toucs 
 proved bcyoiul a poliibility of being coiitrovcrrcd. In 
 fact, the experiment is ealily tried ; for if \vc fmaril/ 
 ftrike one of tlie lower ktys of an harplichord, anj 
 then take the finger brilkly away, a tolerable ear will be 
 able to difiinguilii, that, alter the fundamental tone ha» 
 ceafcd, three other Ihrillcr tones will be dillinctl/ 
 heard ; firft the odave above, then tne twelfth, and 
 laflly the feventecnth : the octave above is in general 
 alnioll mixed with the fundamental tone, fo as not tj 
 be ealily perceived, except by an car long habituated 
 to the minute difcrimination of founds. So that wc 
 may obfcrve, that the fmallcft tone isiicard laft,andthc 
 dcepcft and largefl one firft : the two others in order. 
 In the whole theory of founds, nothing has given 
 greater room for fpcculation, conjecture, and difap- 
 pointment,than this amazingpropertyin elaftic firings. 
 The whole firing is uni vcrfally acknowledged to be in 
 vibration in all its parts, yet this linglc vibration re- 
 turns no Icfs than four diiierent founds. They who 
 account for the tones of firings by the,nuinber oftiieir 
 vibrations, arc here at the grcateft lofs. Daniel IJer- 
 nouilli fuppofcs, that a vibrating ftring divides itfclf 
 into a number of curves, each of which has a peculiar 
 vibration ; and though they all fwing together in the 
 common vibration, yet each vibrates w ithin itfclf. This 
 opinion, which was fupported, as moft geometrical 
 fpeculations are, with the parade of dcmonftration, 
 was only born foon after to die. Others have afcribcd 
 this to an elaftic ditlerencc in the parts of the air, each 
 of which, at different intervals, thus received different 
 imprcflions from tiie ftring, in proportion to their cla- 
 fticity. This is abfurd. If wc allow the difference of 
 tone to proceed from the force, and not the frequency, 
 of the vibrations, this difliculiy will admit of an cafy 
 fohuion. Thcfe founds, though they fceni to exift to- 
 gether in the ftring, ailually follow each other in fiic- 
 ceffion : w hile the vibration has greater force, the 
 fundamental tone is brought forward : the force of the 
 vibration decaying, the oftavc is produced, but alraofl 
 only inftantancoudy ; to this fuccecds, with diminilhed 
 force, the twelfth; and, laftly,ihc feventecnth is heard 
 to vibrate with great diflinftnefs,while the thrceother 
 tones are always filent. Thefc founds, thus excited, 
 arc all of them the harmonic tones, whofe difTcrcncts 
 from the fundamental tone arc, as was faid, ftrong, and 
 diftini5t. On the other hand, the difcordaut tones can- 
 not be heard Their differences being but very fmall, 
 they are overpowered, and in a raanncr drowned in the 
 tones offupcrior difference : yet not always neither ; 
 for Daniel Hernouilli has been able, from the fame 
 ftrokc, to make the fame ftring bring out its harnie- 
 nic and its difcordant tones alfo (d.) So ih^t from 
 hence wc may juftly infer, that every note whatfoeve r 
 La is 
 
 (c j It i-i cci tain, tliat in proportion to the llmplicity of relations in found, the car is pleated with its combina- 
 tions ; but this is not to be admitted as the caufe why mulicians have confined all harmony to an octave. Dif- 
 criminatcd founds,whofe vibrations either never coincide, or at Icall very rarely, do not only ce:'fe to pleafe, 
 b'lt violently grate the ear. Harmony and difcord, therefore, are neither difcriminated by the iudgmcr.: of 
 liearcrs, nor the inftitution of mulicians, but by their own ellcntial and immutable nature. 
 (d) Vid. Memoircsdel' Academic dc Berlin, i753, r-'JS-
 
 S4 
 
 of Muficj! 
 Sounds. 
 
 12 
 Oujcclions 
 to the pre- 
 ceding thc- 
 •ry. 
 
 A C O U S 
 
 is only a fuccclTioii of tones ; and that thofc arc mod 
 diflincHy heard, whole dillirciicts are nioft eaiily per- 
 ceivable. 
 
 To this theory, however, tlioiigh it hns a plaulible 
 appearance, there are ftrong and indeed iiilupcrable 
 objeiMioiis. The very fundamental ptintiplc of it is 
 falfe. Nobody whati-vtr, whether clallic oi' non-e- 
 lafiic, yields a graver fomid by beinj^ (Iruck wi'.h a 
 larger inftiiment, unlcfs cither the founding body, or 
 that pnrt of it which emits the found, is enlarged. In 
 this cafe, the largclt bodies always reiurn the gravtll 
 founds. 
 
 In fpeaking of claflic and non-elaftic bodies in a nui- 
 fical fenfr, we are not to puih the dillincUon fo far as 
 when we fpcakof them philofophically. A body is w.v- 
 fically elaftic, all of whofe parts arc thrown into vibra- 
 tions fo as to emit a found wlien only part of their fur- 
 face is flruck. Of this kind are bells, nuilicalilrings, 
 and all bodies whatever that are conliderably hollow. 
 — Mulical non-tlaflics arc fuch bodies as cniit a found 
 only from that particular place which is llruck : thus, 
 a table, a plate of iron nailed on wood, a bell funk 
 in the earth, are all of them non-elaflics in a mutical 
 fenfe, though not philofophically fo. When a folid bo- 
 dy, fuch as a log of wood, is llruck with a fwitch,only 
 that part of it emits a found which comes in conta(M 
 ■with the fwitch ; the note is acute and loud, but would 
 be no lefs fo though the adjacent parts of the log were 
 removed. If, inftead of the fwitch, a heavier or lar- 
 ger inflrumcnt is made ufe of, a larger portion of its 
 furface then returns a found, and the note is confe- 
 <)uently more grave ; but it would not be fo, if the 
 large inllrument flruck with a lliarp edge, or a furface 
 only equal to that of a fmall one. 
 
 In founds of this kind, where there is only a fingle 
 thwack, without any repetition, the immediate caufe of 
 the gravity or acutenefs feenis to be the quantity of air 
 difplaced by the founding body ; a large quantity of 
 air difplaced, produces a grave found, and a fmallcr 
 quantity a more acute one, the force wherev\ith the air 
 is difplaced fignifying very little. — What we here ad- 
 •vancc is confirnud by foine experiments made by Dr 
 Pricdley, concerning the »/;//;c<///o/;f of electiical dii- 
 chargcs. ThepalDge being curious, and not very long, 
 we Ihall here tranilribe it : 
 
 " As tlic ccurfe of my experiments has required a 
 great variety of elcftrical cxplofions, I could not help 
 obferving a great variety in the mafical tone made by 
 chc reports. This excited my curiofity to attempt to 
 reduce'tiiis variation to (ome meafure. According- 
 ly, by the help of a coople of fpinets, and two perfons 
 •who had good ears for mulic, I endeavoured to afcer- 
 tnin the tone of fome ele<ftrical difcharges ; and ob- 
 ferved, that every difcliarge made fcvcral firings, par- 
 ticularly thofc that were chords to one another, to vi- 
 brate : but one note was always predominant, and 
 founded after the rell. As every cxplolion was re- 
 peated feveral times, and three of us fcparately took 
 the fame note, there remained no doubt but that the 
 lone we fixed upon was at Icall very near the true 
 one. The refult was as follows : 
 
 "A jar containing half a fquare foot of coated glafs 
 founded F (harp, concert j'itch. Another jar of a dif- 
 ferent form, but equal furface, founded the fame. 
 
 " A jar of three fquare feet founded C belov/ F 
 
 TICS. Chap. I. 
 
 fliarp. A battery confifting of fixty-four jirs, each Of Mufical 
 coni.tining half a fquare foot, founded K below the C. Sound*. 
 
 " The lame battery, in conjunction with another '— — v— ' 
 of thirty -one jars, founded C lliarp. So tliat a great- 
 er quantity of coated glafs always gave a deeper note. 
 
 " Ditfercncts in the degree oj a charge in the fame 
 jar made little or no dillcrruce in the tone of the cx- 
 plolion : if any, a higher charge gave rather a deeper 
 note." 
 
 Thcfc experiments fliow us howniuch the gravity or 
 acuttiicf!; of founds depend on the quantity of air put 
 in agitation by the founding body. We know that the 
 noife of the eleclric exploiiou arifcs from the rcturu 
 of the air into the vacuum produced by the eleilric 
 rialh. The larger the vacuum, the deeper was the 
 note : for the fame rcafon, tlic dilcharge of a niuflcet 
 produces a more acute note than thatof a cannon ; and 
 thunder is deeper than cither. 
 
 iJcrulcs this, however, other circumllanccs concur 
 to produce ditierent degrees of gravity or acutenefs ia 
 fouiids. The found ofa tal)lc flruck upon with a piece 
 of w ood, will not be the fame with that produced from 
 a plate of iron llruck by \\.\z fame piece of v,-ood, even 
 it the blows thould be exaflly equal, and the iron per- 
 fccliy kept from vibrating — Here thefoundsare gene- 
 rally faid to differ in their degrees of acutenefs, accord- 
 ing to the fpecitic gravities or denfitiesof the fubflan- 
 ces which emit tliem. Thus gold, which is the inoll 
 denfe of all met.iK, returns a much graver found than 
 fdver ; and metalline wires, which are more dcnfe than 
 therms, return a proponionably greater found. — But 
 neither does this appear to be a general rule in which 
 we can put cimfidence. Bell-metal is denfer than cop- 
 per, but it by no means appears to yield a graver found; 
 on the contrary, it ftems very probable, that copper 
 will give a graver found than bell-metal, if both are 
 flruck upon in their non-claltic (late ; and we can by 
 no means think that a bell of pure tin, the leall denle 
 of all the metals, will, give a more acute found than 
 one of bcll-mttal, which is greatly more dcnfe. — In 
 f jjne bodies iiarducfs leems to have a confiderable cf- 
 fccl. Gl.ifs, which is confiderably harder than any 
 r.;etal, gives a more acute found ; bcll-meial is harder 
 than gold, lead, or tin; and therefore founds much 
 more acutely ; though how far this holds with regard 
 to Jifterent fubilauces, there are not a fufiiciem num- 
 ber of e;-Lpcriments for us to judge. 
 
 In bodies raullcally ehiftic, the whole fubflance vi- 
 brates witlithe llighteil fhroke, and therefore they al- 
 ways give the fame note whether they arc flruck with 
 a large or with a fmall inllrament ; fo that llriking a 
 part of the furface of any body mufically elalli: is c- 
 qvivalcnt, in it, to llriking the whole furface ofa noa- 
 claftic one. If the whole furface ofa tabic was (Iruck 
 with another table, the note produced would be neither 
 more or lefs acute whatever force was employed ; be- 
 caufe the whole furface would then yield a found, and 
 no force could increafc the furface : the found would 
 indeed be louder in proportion to the force employed, 
 b'.t the gravity would reir.ain the fame. In like man- 
 ner, when a bell, ormudcal firing, is llruck, the whole 
 fubflance vibratcs,anda greater Aroke cannot increafc 
 the fubllancc. — Hence we lee the fallacy of v/hat is 
 fdd concerning tlie Pythagorean anvils. An anvil is 
 a body niulically elaftic, and no difference in the tone 
 
 can
 
 Chap. I. A C O U 
 
 Of Muficitl can be perceived whether it is itruck with a large, or 
 bouiidi. wiili a fjiiall hammer ; becaiifc cither of them arc fuf- 
 
 *■ v^^-^ liciciit to make the whole fubllaricc vibrate, provided 
 nothing but the anvil is llruck upon : fmiths, however, 
 do dot llrikc their anvils, but red-hod iron laid upon 
 their anvils ; anil thus the vibrations of the anvil arc 
 flopped, fo that it becomes a uon-claftic boJy, and tjxc 
 differences ottonc in the Urokes otditlercni hanuDcrs 
 proceed only from the furlace of the large hammers 
 covering tiic whole furfacc of the iron, or at leall a 
 greater part of it than the fmall ones. If the fmall 
 hammer is fufhcicnt to cover the whole fiirface of the 
 iron as well as the large one, the note produced wili be 
 die (amc, whether the large or the fmall hammer is ufcd. 
 LaiUy, The argumtiit for the preceding theory, 
 grounded on the production of what are called j?»/f. 
 notes on the violin, is built on a falfe foundation ; for 
 the bow being lightly drawn on an open ftring, pro- 
 duces no Jiuti-iiotis, butonly the harmonies of the note 
 to which the firing is tuned. The fiute-nous arc pro- 
 duced by a particular motion of the bow, quick and 
 near tlic bridge, and by fingering very gently. By 
 tins management, the fame founds are produced, tho' 
 at certain intervals only,as if the vibrations were tranf- 
 ferrcd to the fpace between the end of the linger- board 
 and the finger, inftead of that bctu een the finger and 
 the bridge. Why this fmall part of the firing ihouUl 
 vibrate in fiich a cafe, and not that which is under the 
 immediate at^tion of the bow, wc mufl own ourfclves 
 ignorant : nor dare we afhrm that the vibrations real- 
 ly are transferred in thismanner, only the fame founds 
 arc produced as if they were. 
 
 Though thcfe objcdions fccm fufricicntly to over- 
 turn the foregoing theory, with regard to acute founds 
 being the cffcds of weak flrokes, and grave ones of 
 flronger inipulfes, wc cannot admit that longer or 
 ihortcr vibrations arc the occalion of gravity or a- 
 cutcncfs in found. A tnufical found, howeverkngth- 
 eued, cither by firing or bell, is only a repetition of a 
 fingle one, wliofe duration by itfelf is but for a mo- 
 raent, am! is therefore termed inafpretiable, like the 
 fmack of a whip, or the explofion of an eleclrical bat- 
 tery. The continuation of the found is nothing more 
 than a repetition of this inftantaneous inappretiable 
 noife after the mauuerofan echo, and it is only this 
 echo that makes the found agreeable. Korthis rcafon, 
 mufic is much more agreeable when played in a large 
 hall where the found is reverberated, than in a fmall 
 room where there is no fuch revciberation. for the 
 fame realbn, the found of a firing is more agreeable 
 when put on a hollow violin than when fattened to 
 a plain board, &c. — In the found of a bell, we cannot 
 avoid obferving this echo very diftinicly. The found 
 appears to be made upof diflincl pulfes, or repetitions 
 of the fame note produced by the flroke of tlic hammer. 
 It can by no means be allowed, that the note would be 
 more acute thougli thcfe pulfes were to fuccccd one 
 another more rapidly ; the found would indeedbecomc 
 more fimple, but would Hill prefcrve the fame tone. — 
 In nuificaJilrings tliC reverberations arc valtly niorc 
 quick than in bells ; and therefore their found is more 
 uniform or fimplc, and confequently more agreeable 
 
 ' Ste Hur- 'han that of bells. In mulical glalles*, the vibrations 
 
 KRics. mull be inconceivably quicker than in any bell, or 
 lliinged iuflrumcni : aaid IiciKC they are of all others 
 
 85 
 
 S T I C S. 
 
 the mofl fimplc and the moi! agreeable, though neither Propijra 
 
 the molt acnte nor the loudefl As far as wc can «'on ^f 
 
 judge, quicknefs of vibration contributes to the uni- SounH. 
 formity, or fimplicity, but not to the acutencfs, nor to ^ " ' 
 the loudiitis of a mulical note. 
 
 It may here be objec:cd, that each of the different 
 pulfes, of which we obferve the found of a bell to be 
 compoled, is of a very perceptible length, and farfrom 
 being injiantancous ; fo that it is not fair to infer that 
 the foundof abcUisonly a repetition of a fingle inftan- 
 taneous (Irokc, feeing it is evidently the repetition of 
 a lengthened note — To this it may be replied, tliai 
 the inappretiable found which is produced by flriking 
 a bell in a non-claflic ftatc, is the very fame which, 
 being lirfl propagated round the bell, forms one of 
 thcfe lliort pulfes tjiat is afterwards re-echoed as long 
 as the vibrations of the metal continue, and it is im- 
 poflible that the quicknefs of repetition of any found 
 can either iucreafc or diminilh its gravity. 
 
 Chap. II. Ofthepropagat'nnofSound. Newtaii'i 
 DoHiiiie expjai/tid U'td vindicated. 
 
 The writers on found have been betrayed intothefc Pr<.pae». 
 difficulties and obfcurities, by rcjefting the 47th pro- tion rf 
 polition, B. ii. of Newton, as inconclufivc reafoniug. found* 
 Of this propofition, however, the ingenious Mr Young 
 of Trinity college, Dublin, has lately given a clear, 
 explanatory, and able defence. He candidly owns that 
 the demonltration is obfcurcly Itated, and takes the li- 
 berty of varying, in fome degree, from the method of 
 Newton. 
 
 " I. The parts of all founding Ijodies, (heobferves), 
 vibrate according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum : 
 for they may be conlidcred as compofcd of an indefi- 
 nite number ofelaftic fibres; but thefe fibres vibrate 
 according to that law. Vide Heijfyam, p. 270. 
 
 " 2. Sounding bodies propagate their motions on all 
 i'idts in diieffun;, by fucceffive condenfations and rarc- 
 failions, and fuccelhvc goings forward and rcturnings 
 backward of the particles, i iJc prop.j^^.B.i. AcivtoM. 
 
 " ;. The pulfes arc thofe parts of the air which vi- 
 brate backwards and forwards ; and which, by going 
 forward, ftrikc (/>,v.yi/;./) againilobllacles. The lati- 
 tude of pulfe is the rectilineal fpace through which the 
 motion of the air is propagated during one vibration. 
 of the founding body. 
 
 " All pulfes move equally fall. This is proved by 
 experiment ; and it is fouad that they dcfcribe 1070 
 I'aris feet, or 1 142 London feet in a fccond, whether 
 the found b= loud or low, giave or acute. 
 
 " ?. Prob. To determine the latitude of a pulfc. 
 Divide the fpace which the pulfc defcribes in a given 
 time (4) by the number of vibrations performed in the 
 fame time by the founding body, (cor. 1. prop. 24. 
 Simtl's Hfri/foniij), the quotient is the latitude. 
 
 " M. Sauveur, by fome experiments on organ-pipes, 
 found that a body, which gives the graved harmonic 
 found, vibrates 12 times and a halt in a fccond, and 
 that the Ihrillcft founding body vibrates 51.100 times 
 in a fccond. .^t a medium, let us take the body which 
 gives what S.iuveur calls \\\% fixed found : it performs 
 100 vibrations in a fecond, and in the fame time the 
 pulfes dcfonbc 1070 Harifian feet ; therefore the fpace 
 dcfcribed by liu pulfes whilll the bwly vibrates once.
 
 86 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 I'ropara- 
 tioii nf 
 Souii 1. 
 
 I'hte I. 
 fig- 7- 
 
 thai is, the l:iLiuiic oi- L.ttwal of the jiilfe, v.lli Le 
 10.7 fcft. 
 
 " 6. Prob. To find the l'rojx>rtion wliiih the 
 grcattll I'/scc, through which the particles of the air 
 vibrate, bears to tlic raJius of a circle, whofc perime- 
 ter is equal to the latitude of the piilfc. 
 
 " During the firll half of the progrcfs of the claftic 
 fibre, or founding body, it is continually getting near- 
 er to the next particle ; and during the latter half of 
 its progrefs, that particle is getting farther from the 
 fbrc, and thel'c portions of time arc equal [Hcljhum): 
 therefore we may conclude, that at the end of the pro- 
 grefs of the fibre, tlic firft particle of air will be near- 
 ly as far dillant from the tibre as when it began to 
 move ; and in the fame manner we may infer, that all 
 the particles vibrate through fpaces nearly equal to 
 that run over by the fibre. 
 
 " Now, M. Sauveur { Acad. Science, an. 1 700, />. 1 41 ) 
 lias found by experiment, that the middle point of a 
 chord which produces h'K fixed J'otiiiJ, and whofc dia- 
 meter is ^th of a line, runs over in its fmallcfl fcniible 
 vibrations -,',th of a line, and in its greateft vibrations 
 72 times that fpace ; that is 72-1-, '^th of a line, or 4 
 lines, that is, ;d of an inch. 
 
 "The latitude of the pulfcs of this fixed found is 
 10.7 feet (5); and llnce the circumference of a circle is 
 to its radius as 710 is to 11 3, the greateft fpace dcfcri- 
 bed by the particles will be to the radius of a circle, 
 whofe periphery is equal to the latitude of the pnlfe as 
 ;d of an inch is to 1.7029 feet, or 20.434S inches, that 
 is, as I to 61.3044. 
 
 " If the length of the ftringbeincrcafed or dimini Hi- 
 ed in any proportion, crteris paribus, the greateft 
 fpace dcfcribed by its middle point will vary in the 
 fame proportion. For the iniicfting force is to the 
 lending force as the diftance of the ftring from the 
 middle point of vibration to half the length of the 
 ftring [fee Ihlfham and Mar1in\ ; ai:d therefore the 
 int!c(5ting and tending forces being given, the ftring 
 will vibrate through fpaces proportional to its length; 
 but the latitude of the pulfc is inverfely as the number 
 of vibrations performed by the ftring in a given time, 
 (5) that is, direcHy as the time of one vibration, or 
 ilireiflly as the length of the ftring {piop. 24. cor. 7. 
 Smith's Harmonic)) ; therefore the greateft fpace 
 thrcugh w hich the middle point of the ftring vibrates, 
 will vary in the direft ratio of the latitude of the pulfe, 
 or of the radius of a circle whofe circumference is e- 
 qual to the latitude, that is, it will be to that radius 
 as I to 61.3044. 
 
 " 7. If the particles of the aerial pulfes, during any 
 part of their vibration, be fucceirivcly agitated accord- 
 ing to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the compara- 
 tive elaftic forces arifing from their mutual aiflion, by 
 wb.ich they will afterwards be agitated, will befuchas 
 will caufc the panicles to continue that motion, accor- 
 ding to the fame law, to the end of their vibration. 
 
 " Let AB, BC, CD, &c. denote the equal dif- 
 tanccs of the fuccc'rive pnlfes ; ABC the direflion 
 of the motion of the pulfes propagated from A to- 
 wards B ; E, F, G, three phyfical points of the 
 quiefcent medium, fituared in the right line AC at c- 
 qual diftanres from each otlier ; Ke, Yf, (jg the very 
 fmall equal fpaces through whi h thcfe particles vi- 
 b.a:e ; •,<?,> any intermediate places of thcfe points. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 Draw the right line PS equ.il to Ei-, bifeft it in O, and I'roi.sga- 
 froni tjie centre O with the radius O P dcferibe the tim of 
 circle SIP/'. Let the whole time of the vibration of Sound, 
 a particle and its parts be denoted by the circuinfcr- 
 reuce of this circle and its proportional parts. And 
 fiiice the particles are fuppofed to be at lirft agi;ated 
 according to the law of a eycloiJal pendulum, if at any 
 time PU, or PHS/', the pcrpcndici.hr HL or /•/, be let 
 fall on PS, and if tf Le taken equal to PL orlV, the 
 particle E Ihall be found ini. Thus will tlie particle 
 E perform its vibrations according to the law of a cy- 
 cloidal pendulum. Prop. 52. B. I. Frincipia. 
 
 " Let us fuppofc now, tl.at the particles have been 
 fuccclfi\cly agitated, according to this law, for a cer- 
 tain time, by any caufc whatfoever, and let us examine 
 what will be the comparative elaftic forces arillngfrom 
 their mutual adion, by w hich they will afterwards con- 
 tinue to be agitated. 
 
 " In ihe circumference PITS/i take the equal arches 
 HI, IK, in the fame ratio to the whole circumference 
 which the equal right lines tV, t'G have to BC the 
 whole interval of the pulfes ; and let fall the per- 
 pendiculars HL, IM, KN. Since the points E, F, G 
 are fuccefllvely agitated in the fame manner, and per- 
 form their entire vibrations of progrefs and rcgrefs 
 while the pulfe is propagated from B to C, if PH be 
 the time fnnn the beginning of the motion of E, PI 
 will be the time from the beginning of the motion of 
 F, and PK the time from the beginning of the motion 
 of G ; and therefore Et, ¥<f, Gy will be refpecfivcly 
 equal to PL, PM, PNin the progrefs of the particles. 
 Whence (<;> or EF-J-P'^ — E, is equal to EF — LM. But 
 i^ is the expanfion of KF in the placcfc, and therefore 
 this expanlion is to its mean expanfion as EF — LM to 
 EF. But LM is to IH as IM is to OP, and III is to 
 EF as the circumference PIISAis to BC ; that is, as 
 OP is to V, if V be the radius of a circle whofe cir- 
 cumference is BC ; therefore, ex o'qiio, LM is to 
 EF as IM is to V ; and therefore the expanfion of EF 
 in the place Kf is to its mean expanfion as V — IM is 
 to V; and the elaftic force exifting between the phy- 
 fical points E and F is to the mean elaftic force as 
 
 is to — (Cotes Pneum Led. g.) By the fame 
 
 V_1M V y ■> Jt 
 
 arguments, the elaftic force exifting between the phy- 
 fical points F and G is to the mean elaftic force as 
 
 is to — ; and the difference between thefe 
 
 V— KN V 
 
 forces is to the mean elaftic force as 
 IM— KN 
 
 is to : 
 
 V— V.IM— V 
 IM— KN 
 
 .KN-t-lM.KN 
 
 that is, as 
 
 is to — ; or as IM — KN is to V ; 
 
 if on- 
 
 ly (upon account of the very narrow limits of the vi- 
 bration) we fuppofc IM and KN to be indefinitely Icfs 
 than V. Wherefore, fince Vis given, the difference 
 of the forces is as IM—KN, or as HL — IM (becaufe 
 KH is bifeded in I) , that is (becaufe HL — IM is 
 to IH as OM is to OI or OP, and IH and OP arc 
 given quantities) as OM ; that is, if lybe bifeftcdin. 
 n as n<?. 
 
 " In the fame manner it may be fiiown, that if PHSA 
 be the rime from the beginning of the motion of E, 
 PHS/ will be the time from the beginning of the mo- 
 tion of F, and PHS^ the time from the beginning of 
 
 f (be
 
 II. 
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 87 
 
 the motion of G ; and that the expan/ion of EF in 
 the j>lacc t^ is to its mean cxpanfioii as EK+K^ — E<, 
 or as EV+J>» is to EF, or as \'+/>/ is to V in its re- 
 grcfs ; and its elailic force to the mean clallic force as 
 
 ' i» to — ; and that the diltcrence of the eladic 
 \+/>t V 
 
 forces exifling between E and F, and between V and 
 G is to the mean elaflic force as i/j — /;/i is to V ; that 
 is, directly as n^. 
 
 " Uut this diifcrcncc of the elaftic forces, cxifting be- 
 tween L and F, and between F and G, ib the com- 
 parative clalHc force by which the phylical point » is 
 agitated : and therefore the comparative accelerating 
 force, by which every phylical point in the medium 
 will continue to be agitated both in progress and re- 
 grcfs, will be directly as its diflance from the middle 
 point of its vibration ; and cunfequcntly, will be fucli 
 as will caufc the particles to continue their motion, un- 
 diilurbcd, according to the law ot a cycloidal pen- 
 dulum. Pro/i. 38. 7. I. Ncwtoi. 
 
 " Newton rejects the quantity + Vxl M+KN-j-IMx 
 KN on fuppolition that IM and KN arc indefinitely 
 lefs than V. Now, although this may be a reafonable 
 hypothelis, yet, that this quantity m;iy be fafely re- 
 jeclcd, will, I think, appear in a more farisfac^ory 
 manner from the following conliderations derived from 
 experiment : PS, in its greateft polliblc iUtc, is to V 
 as I is to 61. 3044 (6) ; and therefore IM or KN, in 
 its greateft pofllble flate, (that is, when the vibrations 
 of the body are as great as polFible, and the particle in 
 the middle point of its vibration) is to V as one is to 
 122.6. Hence 'V'^' = (5030.76, — VxlM+KN=:24J.2 
 and IMxKN ^i ; therefore V- is to V— Vxli\t+ 
 KN-)-IMxKN as 15.03076 is to 14.7S656 ; that is, 
 as 61 is to 60 nearly. 
 
 " Hence it appears, that the greateft; pofTible error 
 in the accelerating force, in the middle point, is the 
 ^S ft part of the whole. In other points it is much 
 lefs ; and in the extreme points the error entirely va- 
 nifhes. 
 
 " We fliould alfo obfcrve, that the ordinary founds 
 we hear are not produced by the greateft polfible vi- 
 bration of which the founding body is capable ; and 
 that in general IM and KN are nearly cvancfcent with 
 rcfpeft to V. And very probably the difagrceable fen- 
 fat ions we feel in very loud founds, arife not only from 
 IM or KN bearing a fenfible proportion to V, by which 
 means the cycloidal law of the pulfcs may be in fome 
 meafure diOurbed, but alfo from the very law of the 
 motion of the founding body itfclf being difturbcd. 
 For, the proof of this law's being obferved by an e- 
 laftic fibre is founded on the hypothelis that the fpace, 
 through which it vibrates, is indcrliiitcly little with 
 refptS to the length of the ftring. See S/>ulh's Har- 
 monics, p. 21.'!, H.ijhav:, f. 270. 
 
 " 8. If a particle of the medium be agita'ed, ac- 
 cording to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the com- 
 parative elaftir force, acting on the iiijaccnt particle, 
 from the inftaiit in which it begins to move, will be 
 fuch as will caufc it to continue its motion according 
 to the fame law. 
 
 " For let us fuppofe, that three particles of the me- 
 dium had continued to move for times denoted by the 
 arches PK, PI, PH, the comparative elaftic foroc, 
 
 3 
 
 I'fopaga- 
 tiou of 
 SouD>j>. 
 
 afting on the fccond during the time of Its motion, 
 would have been denoted by HL — IM, that is, would 
 have been directly at MO (7). And if this time be 
 diminifhed till I becomes coincident w ith P, that is, if 
 you take the panicles in that itatc when the fccond is 
 juft beginning to move, and before the third particle 
 has yet been fct in motion ; then the point M will fall 
 on P, and MO become PO ; that is, the comparative 
 claftic force of the fecond particle, at the i.Ulant in 
 which it begins to move, will be the force with 
 wliich it is agitated in any other moment of time, be- 
 fore the fubfequcnt particle has yet been fet in motion, 
 directly as its diftance from the middle point of vibra- 
 tion. Now this comparative elaftic force, with which 
 the fccond particle is agitated in the very moment in 
 which it begins to move, arifes from the preceding 
 particle's approaching it according to the law of apcu- 
 duliim ; and therefore, if the preceding particle ap- 
 proaches it in this manner, the force by which it will 
 be agitated, in* the very moment it begins to move, 
 will be exactly fuch as (honlJ take plscc in order to 
 move it according to the law of a pendulum. It there- 
 fore fctsout according to that law, and confequently 
 the fubfcqaent eliftic forces, generated in every fuc- 
 celFive moment, will alfo continue to be of the juft 
 magnitude which thould take place, in order to pro- 
 duce fuch a motion. 
 
 " 9. The pulfes of the air are propagated from 
 founding bodies, according to the law of a cycloidal 
 pendulum. The point E of any elaftic fibre pro- pi„j i 
 ducing a found, may be confidered as a particle of fig. ;. 
 air vibrating according to the law of a pendulum (i). 
 This point £ will therefore move according to this 
 law for a certain lime, denoted by the arch IH, before 
 the fecond particle begins to move ; for found is pro- 
 pagated in time through the fucccflive particles of air 
 (4). Now from that inftant, the comparative claftic 
 force which agitates F, is (8) directly as its diitancc 
 from the middle point of vibration. F therefore fcts 
 out with a motion according to the law of a pendulum : 
 and therefore the comparative elaftic force by which it 
 will be agitated until G begins to move, will continue 
 that law (8). Confequently F will approach G in the 
 fame manner as E approached F, and the comparative 
 elailic force of G, from the inllant in which it begins 
 to move, will be dircdtly as its distance from the middle 
 point of vibration ; and foon in fuccellion: Therefore 
 all the particles of air in the p'llfes fuccelFively fct out 
 from their proper places according to the law of a pen- 
 dulum, and therefore (7) will finilh their entire vi- 
 brations according to the fame law. 
 
 " Cor. I. The number of p\ilfes propagated is the 
 fame with the number of vibrations of the tremulous 
 body, nor is it multiplied in their progrefs : btcaufe 
 the little phylical line \y, l^fg. 7I as foon as it returns 
 to its proper place, will there quiVfcc ; for its velocity, 
 tvhich is denoted by the line IM, then vanifhes, and its 
 denfity becomes the fame with that of the ambient me- 
 dium. This line, therefore, will no longer move, un- 
 lefs it be again driven forwards by the irapulfc of the 
 founding body, or of the pulfes propagated from it. 
 
 '• Cor. 2. In the extreme points of the little fpace 
 through w'hich the particle vibrates, the expanlion of 
 the air is in its natural ftatc ; for the expanlion of the 
 
 phyfical Line is to its natural expanlion as V-i-IMis 
 
 10
 
 88 
 
 A C O U 
 
 T I C 
 
 .Sound. 
 
 Propaj^- to V ; but IM is dien equal tonotliing. In the miJiUc 
 tionof point otthe progrcis llie condcnl'aiion isgrcatcft ; tor 
 IM is then greatcft ; and conl'cqiicntly tiic cxpanlion 
 ' V — IM IcalL In the middle of the regrcfs, the rare- 
 fafliim is grcatell ; for ir/i, and confcqnently V+im, 
 is then greatcft. 
 
 " lo. To rind the velocity of the pulfes, the den- 
 sity and elaftic force of the medium being given. 
 
 " This is the 49th prop. B. 2. Newton, in which 
 he Ihows, that whilil a pendulum, whole length is equal 
 to the height of the homogeneous atmofphere, vibrates 
 once forward and backwards, the pulfes will defcribe 
 a fpace equal to the periphery of a circle defcribed 
 with tliat altitude as its radius. 
 
 "Cor. I. He thence fliows, that the velocity of the 
 pulfes is equal to that which a heavy body would ac- 
 quire in falling down half the altitude of that homoge- 
 neous atmofphere ; and therefore, that all pulfes move 
 equally faft, whatever be the magnitude of t^S, or the 
 time of its being defcribed ; that is, whether the tone 
 be loud or low, grave or acute. See Hales dc Sonii, 
 
 § 49- 
 
 "Cor. 2. And alfo, that the velocity of the pulfes 
 
 is in a ratio compounded of the dircd fubduplicate ra- 
 tio of the elaftic force of the medium, and the inverfe 
 fubduplicate of its denfity. Hence founds move fome- 
 what falter in fummerthan in winter. SccBa/ij de 
 Sonis, p. 141. 
 
 "11. The ftrength of a tone is as the moment of 
 the particles of air. The moment of thcl'c particles, 
 (the medium being given) is as their velocity ; and the 
 velocity of thcfc pvrticles is as the velocity of the firing 
 which fets them in motion (9). The velocities of two 
 ditfertnt firings are equal when the fpaccs whicli they 
 dcfcribc in their vibrations are to each other as the 
 timesofthefe vibrations: therefore, two dilicrent tones 
 are of equal ftrength, when thefpaccs, through whicli 
 the ftriiigs producing them vibrate, are directly as their 
 vibration. 
 
 " 12. Let the ftrength of the tones of the two 
 firings AB, CD, which differ in tenfiou only (fig. I, 
 2.) be equal. Oiiere the ratio of the inflccling forces 
 F and /! From the hypothelis of the equality of the 
 ftrength of the tones, it follows (11), that the fpace 
 GE muft be to the fpace HF as fi to F i,, {^Smith's 
 Han/i. Prop. 24. C'er. 4.) Now the forces inflecting 
 AB, CD through the equal fpaccs GE, HP are to 
 eacli other as the tending forces, that is, as F toyl 
 {Malcolms Trcatir-' 01: Mufic, p. 52.) But the force 
 inflei^ing CD through HP is to tlie force indectingit 
 through HF as HPorGEtoKF, [ib.p. 47.) that is, 
 by the hyp. as f'\, to F ;. Therefore, f.v aguo, the forces 
 infleiiing AB and CD, when the tones are equally 
 ftroug, are to each other as F-f-/i to /+F 4 , or as F 4 
 to/ ;. That is, the forces neccllary to produce tones 
 of equal ftrength in variousftrings which differ only in 
 tenlion, are to each other in the fubduplicate ratio ot 
 the tending forces, that iSjinverfely as the time of one 
 vibration, or directly as the number of vibrations per- 
 formed in a given time. Thus, if CD be the acute 
 oftave to A B, its tending force will he quadruple that 
 of AB, {Matcolm'i Trtatife on Alr/fic, p. J?) ; and 
 therefore to produce tones of equal jlrength in thefe 
 firings, the force impelling CD muft be doable that 
 iinpeillag AB : aud fo in other cafes. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 " Suppofc, now, that the firings AB, CD, (fig, 2, 
 3.) ditlcr in length only. The force iiitltciiug Afa 
 through GE is to the tending force, which is given, as 
 GE to AG ; and this tending force is to the force 
 inflecting CD through the fpace HP equal to GE, as 
 HD to HP. Therefore, ex <ttjiio, the forces inflefting 
 AB and CD through the equal fpaces GE and HP, 
 arc to each other as HD to AG, or as CD to AB. 
 But the force infleiiting CD through IIP is to the force 
 iuflcdiug it through HF, as HP or GE to HF, that 
 is, becaufe ihcfe (paces arc as the times (11), as AB 
 to CD. Therefore, *.v aqiio, the forces inflecting AB 
 aud CD, when the tones are equally ftrong, are to each 
 other in a ratio of equality. Hence we Ihould fuppofe, 
 that in this cafe, an equal number of equal impulfes 
 would generate equally powerful lonesin thefe firings. 
 But wc are to obfei ve, that the longer the firing, the 
 greater, cuterii pmibi/s, is the fpace through wliich a 
 given force inflects it ( Makohii) ; and therefore what- 
 ever diminution is produced in the fpaces thro' which 
 the firings move in their fuccelfive vibrations, arifing 
 either from the want of perfedl elafiicity in the firings 
 or from the refiftance of the air, this diminution w'ill 
 bear a greater proportion to the lefs fpace, through 
 which the fhorter ftring vibrates. And this is confirm- 
 ed by experience ; for we find that the duration of the 
 tone and motion of the whole ftring exceeds that of any 
 of its fubordinate parts. Therefore, after a given in- 
 terval of time, agreatcrquantity of motion will remain 
 in the longer firiiig ; and confequently, after the fuc- 
 ccllive equal impulfes have been made, a greater degree 
 of motion will fiill ftibfifi in it. That is, a given num 
 ber of equal impulfes being made on various Itrings dif- 
 fering in length only, aftronger found will be produced 
 in that which is the longer." 
 
 Chap. III. Of the Velocity, 8:c. of Sound. Axiovts. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 tiuD of 
 Sound. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 T4 
 
 Experience has taught us, that found iravelsat about Velocity of 
 the rate of 1 142 feet in a fecoud, or near i % miles in a found. 
 minute ; nor do any obftacles hinder its progrefs, a con- 
 tr-iiy wind only a fmall matter diminifliingits velocity. 
 The method of calculating its progrcfs is ealily made 
 known. When a gun is difcharged at a diftance, wc 
 fee the fire long before we hear the found. If then we 
 know the diftance of the place, and know the time of j, 
 the interval between our firft feeing the fire and tlien it» progreli 
 hearing the report, this will Ihow us exactly the time calculated, 
 the found has been travelling to us. For inftance, if 
 tiie gun is difcharged a mile off, the moment the flalh is 
 fcen,youtakeawatch and count the feconds tillyou hear 
 the found ; the number of feconds is the time the found 
 lias been travelling a mile Again, by the above ax- 
 iom, we are cnabKd to find the diliance between ob- 
 
 ieets that would be otherwife immeafurable. For ex- ,,.„ 
 
 X r f <- 1 ,1 1 r • 1 • 1 iJiilancci 
 
 ample, luppofe you lee the nalh ot a gun lu the night at calculated 
 
 fea, and tell feven feconds before you hear the report, by means 
 
 it follows therefore, that the diftance is feven times offouiid. 
 
 1142 feet, that is, 24 yards more than a mile and a 
 
 half. In like manner, if you obferve the number of 
 
 feconds between the lightning and the rejfort of the 
 
 thunder, you know the diftance of the cloud from 
 
 whence it proceeds. j. 
 
 Derham has proved by experience, that all founds All founds 
 
 whatever travel at the fame rate. The found of a gun, travclatthe 
 
 and fame rate.
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 Reverbe- 
 rated 
 Suuadi. 
 
 i8 
 
 24 
 Whifper- 
 ing Galle- 
 ry, riatc I 
 fig- 3 
 
 Speaking- 
 trumpet, 
 lig.4. 
 
 aad the ftriklngof a hammer, arc equally fwifi in [heir 
 motions : tiie lol'tell wifpcr flics as fwiitly, as far as it 
 goes, as the loudclt thunder. 
 
 To thcfe axioms we may add the following. 
 
 Smooth and clear founds proceed from bodies that 
 are homogeneous, and of an uniform figure ; and hurlh 
 or obtufc founds, from fuch as arc of a mixed matter 
 and irregular figure. 
 
 The velocity of found is to that of a briflc wind as 
 •fifty to one. 
 
 The ftrength of founds is greateft in cold anddenfc 
 air, and lead in that which is warm and rarcticd. 
 
 Every point agai nil which thcpuH'cs of found Itrikc, 
 become a centre from which a new fcries of pulfcs 
 are propagated in every direction. 
 
 Sound delcribcs equal fpaccs in equal limes. 
 
 Chap. IV. Of Reverberated Sounds. 
 
 Sound, like light, after it has been rcfleded from 
 feveral places may be collcdcd in one point, as into a 
 focus ; and it will be there more audible titan in any 
 other part, even than at the place from whence it pro- 
 ceeded. On this principle it is that a wifpcring gal- 
 lery is conftruftcd. 
 
 The form of this gallery mull be that of a concave 
 hemifphcre (e), as ABC ; and if alow founder vvhifper 
 be uttered at A, the vibrations expanding thcnifelves 
 ■ every way will impinge on the points HDD, Sec. and 
 from thence be rcrie tted to EEE, and from thence to 
 the points K and G, till at lall they ail meet in C, 
 where, as we have faid, the (ound will be the mo/t 
 diflindly heard. 
 
 The augmentation of found by means of fpeaking- 
 trumpets,isufuallyjlliillraicd in the following nianner: 
 Let ABC be the tube, IJD the axis, and h tlic mouth- 
 piece for conveying the voice to the tube. Then it is 
 evident, when aperlon fpeaks at B in the irunipct, the 
 whole forccof his voire is fpcnt upon the air contained 
 in the tube, which will be agi'.ated through the whole 
 length of the tube ; and, by various reflexions from the 
 fide of the tube to the axis, the air along the middle 
 part of the tube will be greatly contlenfed, and its?;/o- 
 ri. ;7/to;/;proportionably incrcaicd, fo th.U when it cunics 
 to agitate the air at the orilice of the tube AC, its 
 force will be as much greater than wh:itit would have 
 becnwithout the tube, as the furface of aiphcrc,wliofe 
 radius is equal totht length of the tube, isi!,rcatcr(han 
 the furface of the fcgnicntor fuch a fphcrc whofebafe 
 is the orifice of tiic tube. Kor a pcrfon fpcakiug at B, 
 without the tube, will have the force of his voice fpcnt 
 in exciting concentric f'lipcrfiticsof air all around the 
 point B ; and uhcn ihofc lupirticies or pulfcs of airare 
 diffuftd as far as L) every way, it is plain the force of 
 the voice will there be ditTuled through the whole fu- 
 perficicsofafphcre whole radinsis BD; butin the trum- 
 pet it will be fi) confined, thai at its exit it will be dif- 
 fufed througii lb much of that fpherical furface of air 
 as corrcfpouds to ihc orifice of the tube. But fince the 
 force is given, its inienfity will be always invorlcly as 
 the number of particles it has to move ; and therefore 
 Vol. I. 
 
 in tlie tube it will be to that without, as the fuperficies 
 of fuchafpherc tothe jtraof the large end of the tube 
 nearly. 
 
 But it is obvious, Mr Young obferves, that the con- 
 finement of the voice can have littleeffeiit in increaling 
 the ftrength of the found, as this ftrength dependson 
 the velocity with which the particles move. Were this 
 reafoning conclulive, the voice fhould ilfue through the 
 fmallell pofTiblc orihcc ; cylindrical tubes would be pre- 
 ferable to any that increafed in diameter ; and the Icfs 
 the diameter, the greater would be the effect of the iu- 
 flrumcnt ; becaufe the plate or mafs of air to be moved, 
 would, in that cafe, be Icfs, and confcqucntly tlie effect 
 of the voice the greater ; all which is contradicted 
 by experience. 
 
 Tlie caufe of the increafe of found in thefc tube* 
 muft therefore be derived from fomc other principles : 
 and amongll thefc we fhall probably find, that what the 
 ingenious Kircher has fuggcflcd in his Phonurgiaisthe 
 mofl deferving of our attention. He tells us, that "the 
 augmentation of the found dependson its reflexion from 
 thetrcmulous fidesof the tube ; whichrefleclions, con- 
 fpiring in propagating the pulfcsin tlicfamcdiredion, 
 mufl increafe its intenlity." Newton alfo feems to have 
 confidc^ed this as a principal caufe, in the fcholium 
 of prop. 50. B. 2. Priucip. when he fays, " we hence 
 fee why founds are lb much encrcafcd in flentoro- 
 phonic tubes, for every reciprocal motion is, in each 
 return, increafed by the generating caufe. 
 
 Farther, when we fpeak in the open air, the effed 
 on the tympajuimofadillant auditor is produced mere- 
 ly by a lingle pulfe. But when we ufc a tube, all the 
 pulfcs propjgated from the mouth, except thofe in the 
 diredionof iJieaxis,llrikeagainll the fides of the tube, 
 and every pointof jmpulfebccoiuiHgancwcentrc.trom 
 wiicnce the pullcs are propagated in all directions, » 
 pulfe will arrive at the ear from each of thofe points; 
 thus, by the uf'e of a tube, a greater number of pulfes 
 arc propagated to the car, and confcquentby the har.d 
 increafed. The confinement too of the voice may have 
 Ibnie cfFecT:, though not fuch as is afcribed to it by 
 fome : forthecondenled pulfcs produced by the naked 
 voice, freely expand every way ; butin tubes, the late- 
 ral expanfion being diminilhed, the direct expanfiou 
 will be increafed, and confequenily the velocity of the 
 particles, and the intenfity of the found. ThcfubfUnce 
 alfo of the tube has its cttecl ; for it is found by expe- 
 riment, that the more elalHc the fubfli^ncc of the tube, 
 and confcqucKtly the more fuf"ct|>tiblc it is of thefc 
 tremulous iiiotions, the Hrongcr is the found. 
 
 If the tube be laid on a;iy nou-ilafiic fubftance, it 
 deadens the found, becaufe it prevents the vibratory 
 motion of the pans. Tlie found is increaffd in fpeaking 
 trumpets, if the tube be fufpended in the air; bccaufc 
 thc agitations are then carried "U without intcrruj)tion. 
 Thefc tubes fhould inert afc in diameter from the mbtitli 
 piece, becaufe the parts, vibrating in direijllons pcrpcn- 
 diculT to the furficc, willconfpirc in impelling ('on- 
 ward the particles of air, andconfequeiuiy, by increa- 
 fing their velocity, will increafe the intenfity of the 
 found: and the furface alfo incrcafing, the number of 
 points of impiilfc and of new propagations will increafe 
 M pro- 
 
 (t) A cylindric or elliptic arch will anfwcr ftill better than one that is eiicular.
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 R«vcil)c- projiortionully. The fcvtval caiifcs, tlicreforc, of the 
 ratid incrcalcofthcrotindia iliclttobeSjMrYounijconclujcs 
 . ^p" ' "*^' to be, I. The liiiiiiiiiitiou of the lateral, and coiifc- 
 iiur-iuly the incrcafc of the directj expanfion and ve- 
 locily of tlie included air. 2. The increafc of the 
 nuir.bcr of pulfcs, by iiicreafiug the points of new pro- 
 pagation. 3. The rcrici-Hloiis of the piilfes from the 
 trcniiiloiis lides of the tube, wliich impel the particles 
 of air forward, and thus increafc their velocity. 
 
 26 As echo is arcflcflion of found flrikingagainftfome 
 
 Echoes. object, iS an image is relitcted in a glafs : but it has 
 been difputed what are the proper qualities in a body 
 forthus rcHectingfiunds, It is in general known, that 
 caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, 
 return this image of found. Wc have heard of a very 
 extraordinary echo, at a ruined fortrefs near Loiivain 
 in Klanders. If a pcrfon fung, he only heard his 
 own voice, without any repetition : on the contrary, 
 thofc whollood at fonie diliance, iieard the echo but 
 not the voice ; but then they heard it with furpriling 
 variations, fcunetimes louder, ibmetimes fofter, now 
 more near, then more diltant. There is an account 
 in the memoirs of the French academy, of a limilar 
 echo near Rouen. 
 
 As (by n° 21 and 22) every point againfi which the 
 pull'es ot founds llrikc becomes the centre of a new fc- 
 ries of pulfes, and found defcribes equal dillances in 
 equal times ; therefore, w hen any found is propagated 
 from a centre, and its pulfes rtrikc agninft a variety of 
 obllacles, if the fum of the right lines drawn from tliat 
 point to each of the obftacles, and from each obliaclc 
 to a fccond point, be equal, then will tlic later be a 
 point in whicli an echo will be heard. " Thus let A 
 be the point from which the found is propagated in all 
 directions, and let the pulfes ftrike Tigainil tlic obfta- 
 cles C, D, E, Y, G, H, I, &c. each of thefc points 
 becomes a new centre of pulfes by the firft principle, 
 and therefore from each of them one feriesof pulfes will 
 pafs through t'.ie point B. Now if the fcvcral fumsof the 
 ri gilt lines. -.t-t-CB, Ah+DB, Ak+^B, AO-i-OB, 
 Afl+HB, rtl-t-lB, &c. be all equal to each other, 
 it is obvious that the pulfes propagated from A to thcfe 
 points, and :'gain from tliefe points to B, will all ar- 
 rive at B at the fame inflant, according to the fccond 
 principle ; and therefore, if the hearer be in that point, 
 his ear will at th» fame inftant be Itruck by all thefc 
 pulfcs. Now it appears from experiment (/!■<.- Av'lfchc/i- 
 Lroek, V. \\. p. 210), that the ear of an exercifcd mu- 
 fician can only dillinguifli fuch founds as follow one 
 another at the rate of 9 or 10 in a fecond, or any (low- 
 er rate : and therefore, for a diftini'l perception of the 
 dirert and rcfleflcd found, there Ihould intervene the 
 interval of ;th of a fecond ; but in this time found 
 defcribes i-i-!-^ or 127 feet nearly. And therefore, 
 unlefs the fum of the lines drawn from each of the ob- 
 llacles to the points A and B exceeds the interval A B 
 by 127 feet, no echo will be heard at B. Since the 
 feveral fums of the lines drawn from the obftacles to 
 the points A and B are of the fame magnitude, it ap- 
 pears that the curve pafTing through all the points C, 
 D, E, ¥, G, H, I, &c. will be an ellipfe, {piof>. 4. 
 B. 1. Ham. Con.) Hence all the points of the obfta- 
 cles which produce an echo, muft lie in the furface of 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 the oblong fplicroid, generated by ihx: revolution of R-vtrbe- 
 this ellipfe round iis major axis. ruted 
 
 '< As there may be leveral fphcroids of diticrcnt So""'is. 
 magnitudes, fo there may be feveral oiilcreni t. hocsof " 
 the fame original found. And as there may happen to 
 be a greater number of rcdeciing points in the lurface 
 of an exterior I'pheroid than in that of an interior, a 
 fecond or a third echo may be much more powcrtul 
 thin the tiril, provided that the fuperior number of re- 
 ficctiiig points, th It is, the fuperior number ot rcllce- 
 tcd pulfes propagated 10 the car, be more than fulli- 
 cient to compeiifate for the decay of found which a- 
 rifesfrom its being propagated through a grcatir (pace. 
 This islincly illultratedin the celebrated (chocs at the 
 lake of Killarncy in Kerry,' where tlie hrll return of 
 the found is much inferioi in llrength 10 iliofe wliich 
 immediately fucceed it. 
 
 " From what has been laid down it appears, that for 
 the molt powerful echo, the founding body Ihould i^e in 
 one fo usof the ellipfe which islhc lection ot the echo- 
 ing fplicroid, and the hearer in the other. However, 
 an echo may be heard in other liiuations, though not lo 
 favourably , as fuch a number of retlcctecl pulfcs may 
 arrive at the fame time at the ear:;s may be fufiicicnt 
 to excite a difiiiicl perception. Thus a pcrfon often 
 hears the echo ol his own voice ; but for this purpofc 
 he flinuld ftand at Icall 63 or 64 feet from the refiecl- 
 ing obll cle, according to what has been (aid before. 
 At the common rate of fpeaking, we pronouuce not 
 above three fyllables and an half, that is, fcvcn half 
 fyllables in a fecond j therefore, that the echo may re- 
 turn juft asfoon as three lyliables are exprclFcd, twice 
 the diftance of the fpeaker from the reflecting objeft 
 mult be equal to 1000 feet ; for, as found defcribes 
 1 1(]2 lect in a fccond, *ths of that fpace, th^t is, 1000 
 feci nearly, will be defciibed while fix half or three 
 whole fyllables are pronounced : that is, the fpcaker 
 muft ftand near 500 feet from the obftacle. And in 
 general, the diftance of the Ipeaker from the echoing 
 furfate, for any nunbtr of fyllables, muft be equal to 
 the fcvemh part of the product of 11 42 feet multiplied 
 by that number. 
 
 " In churches we never hear a diftinct echo of the 
 voice, but a confufed found when the fpeaker utters 
 his words too rapidly ; bccaufc the grtatcft difference 
 of diftance between the direft and relieded courfes of 
 fuch a number of pulfes as would produce a diilincl 
 found, is never in any church equal to 127 feet, the 
 limit of echoes. 
 
 " But though the firft reflefted pulfes may produce 
 no echo, both on account of their being too few in 
 number, and too rapid in their return to the ear ; yet 
 it is evident, that the rerie6l.ing furface may be fo 
 formed, as that the pulfes which come to the ear after 
 two retleilions or more may, after having defcribed 
 1 27 feet or more, arrive at the ear in fufficient numbers, 
 and alfo fo nearly at the fame inftant, as to produce 
 an echo, though tiie diftance of the refieiting furface 
 from the ear be lefs than the limit of echoes. This 
 is confirmed by a fingular echo in a grotto on the banks 
 of the little brook called the Dianan, about two miles 
 from Caftlccomber, in the county of Kilkenny. As 
 you enter the cave, and continue fpeaking loud, no re- 
 turn of the voice is perceived : but on your arriving at
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 £«terta!ii- 
 ing Experi- 
 ments, l^i. 
 
 »7 
 I. tl>c Coii- 
 vfrlivc Sta- 
 tue, 
 Plate I. 
 H- 5- 
 
 a ccnaia point, which'is not above 14 or ij fctt iVom 
 ■th:; rciliding furfatc, a very diltiuiit echo is iicar;!. 
 i-.ow iJiii cclio caiiiioi arilc from the ririt com ic ol' p'.il- 
 fcs that are rcriccleJ to the ear, bccaulc the breadth of 
 thecavc is fo fniall, that they would return too quick- 
 ly 10 produce auiltinct fcnfation from that of the ori- 
 ginal found : it therefore is produced by thofe pulfts, 
 which, after having been reiiceted fcvcral tiiuti from 
 one fide of the grotto to the other, and having run o- 
 vcr a greater fpace thaH 127 feet, arrive at the car in 
 confidtrable numbers, and not more dillant from each 
 oihcr,in point of time, than the ninth part of a fccond." 
 
 This article lliall be difmiffcd with a few inventions 
 founded on fomc of the preceding principles, which 
 may aiuufe a number of our readers. 
 
 Etitertaiiii?ig Experlinsnts and Contrivances. 
 
 I. Pi. ACE a concave mirror of about two feet diameter, 
 as AB (g), ina perpendicular dircftion. Thefocusof 
 this mirror may be at 15 or 18 inches diftancc from 
 its furface. At the dillance of about five or fix feet 
 let there be a partition, in which there is an opening 
 E F, equal to the fize of the mirror: againll this 
 opening mud be placed a picture, painted in water- 
 colours, on a thin cloth, that the found may eafily pals 
 through it ( h). 
 
 Behind the partition, at the dillance of two or three 
 feet, place another minor G H, of the fame lizc as the 
 former, and let it be diametrically oppolite to it. 
 
 At the point C let there be placed the figure of a 
 man fcated on a pedeftal, and let his car be placed ex- 
 »cHy in the focus of the firft mirror : his lower jaw 
 muft be made to open by a wire, and lliut by a fpriag ; 
 and there may be another wire to move the eyes : thcfe 
 wires mull p ifs through ihe figure, go under the 
 floor, and come up behind the partition. 
 
 Let a perfon, properly inllrudled, be placed behind 
 the partition near the mirror. You then propofc to 
 any one to fpeak foftly to the flatuc, by putting his 
 mouth to the earof it, alluring him that it will anfwer 
 inflanlly. You then sjive the fignal to the perfon be- 
 hind the partition, who, liy placing his ear to the fo- 
 cus I, of the mirror G H, will hear dillindly what the 
 other faid ; and, moving the jaw and eyes of the ftatuc 
 by the wires, will return an anfwer diredly, which 
 will in like manner be diftinclly heard by the firfl 
 fpeakcr. 
 
 This experiment appears to be taken from the 
 Century of Inventions of the Marquis of Worccf- 
 ter ; whofc defigns, at the time they were publiilicd, 
 were treated with ridicule and nealeil as being im- 
 prafticablc, but are now known to be c;cnerally, if not 
 univerfally pradicablc. The words of the Marquis arc 
 thefe : " How to make a bra/.en or Hone head in t .e 
 midll of a great held or garden, fo artificial and natu- 
 
 ral, that though a man fi'.cak cvci fo W.i\j, r\X even E::t:rtai;i- 
 whilptr into iliccar ihtrcot, it willprclciitly open its n't '-xpt"- 
 nicuth, and refolve the quciiioii iu Ficnch, Latin. ' "" '^' ^•' 
 Welih, IriQi, or Knglilii in good terms, aticring it out 
 of its mouth, and then Ihut it until the next qucltioii 
 be alkcd." — The two following, of a fimilar nature, 
 appear to havo been inveutiuns of Kircher, by means 
 of which (as he informs us *) he ufcd to " utter * Pl'mur- 
 feigned and ludicrous coafuliaiijas, with a view toi!".^'^''' 
 Ihow the fallacy and impoflurc of ancient oracles." .vi-d. 
 
 II. Let there be two headsofplallcrofl^aris, placed 18 
 on pedellals, on the oppolite (ides of a room. There Tlie com- 
 muil be a tin tube of an inch di.n:netcr, tiiat mufl pafs m«n"-"ati»c 
 front tlie ear of one-head, through the pcdeflal, linJcr **" 
 
 the floor, and go up to the mouth of the other. Ob. 
 fcrvcjthat the end of the tube whi:h is next the earof 
 the one head, ihoiild be conliderably larger than that 
 end which comes up to the mouth of the other. Let 
 the whole be fo difpofcd that there may not be the 
 leall fuipicion of a communicaiion. 
 
 Now, when a perfon fpeaks, quite low, into the ear 
 of one bull, the found is reverberated thro' the length 
 of the tube, and will be diftinclly heard by any one 
 who fliall place his ear to the mouth of the other. It 
 is not neceilary that the tube fhould come to the lips 
 
 cf the bull if there be two tubes, one going to the 
 
 ear, and the other to the mouth, of each head, two pcr- 
 fons may converfe together, by applying their mouth 
 and ear recriprocally to the mouth and earof the bufl ; 
 and at the fame time other perfons that lland in the 
 middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not 
 hear any part of their convtrfiition. . 
 
 III. Place a bufl on a pedcflal in the corner of a TheOracu- 
 room, and let there be two tubes, as in the foregoing br Head, 
 amufement, one of which mud go from the mouth and 
 
 the other from the ear of the bull, through the pedeftal, 
 and the fioor, to an under apartment. There may be 
 likewifc wires that go from the under jawand the eyes 
 of the bull, by whicii they may be ealily moved. 
 
 A perfon being placed in the under room, and at a 
 fignal given applying his car to one of the tubes, will 
 hear any qiiellion that is aflce.d, and immediately re- 
 ply ; moving at the fame time, by meansof the wires, 
 the mouth and the eyes of the bufl, as if the reply 
 came from it. ^g 
 
 IV. In a large cafe, fuch asisufed for dialsandfpring A SolirS<». 
 clocks, the front of which, or at Icafl the lower part of "ati. 
 
 it, nuifl be of glafs, covered on the iniide with gauze, 
 let there be placed abarrel organ, which, when wound 
 up, is prevented from playing, by a catch that takes a 
 toothed wheel at the end of the barrel. To one end of 
 this catch there muft be joined a wire, at the end of 
 which there is a flat circle of cork, of the fame dinien- 
 fion w ith the iiifide of a glafs tube, in which it is to rife 
 and fall. This tube mull communicate w ith a reUr- 
 voir that gocsacrol\ the front part of the bottom of the 
 cafe, which is to be rilled with fpirits, fuch as \% ufed in 
 M 2 thcr. 
 
 (c) Both the mirrors here ufcd may be of tin or gilt palleboard, this experiment not rcquirins fuch asa^e 
 very accurate. t 6 - 
 
 ( h) The more effectually to conceal the cnufe of ihisalhifion, the mirror AB may be fixed in the wainfcot, 
 and a gauze or any other thin covering thrown over it, as thit will not in the leaft prevent the fomid from 
 being rcHc^ed. An experiment ot this kind may be performed in a fieid or garden, between two hedtres in 
 cne ot which the mirror All may be placed, and in the other an oi^enin^ aritully contrived
 
 92 
 
 ACOUSTICS 
 
 Entertaiii- 
 ingHipcri- 
 menfs, 'Jft. 
 
 31 
 Automa- 
 mus Harp- 
 fichord. 
 
 theniiunittcrs, but not culourtd, iliat ii may be tlic 
 belter concealed by the gauze. 
 
 This cai'e being placed in the fun, the fjurits will be 
 rarefied by the heat ; and riling in the tube, will lift 
 up ihe catch or trigger, and let the organ in play : 
 rvhicli it will continue todo as long as it is kept in the 
 fiin ; for (he fpirits cannot run out of the tube, that 
 part of the catch to which the circle is tixcd being 
 prevented from riling beyond a certai n point by a check 
 placed over it. 
 
 When the inachincc is placed againfl the fide of a 
 room on which the fun fliines ftrong, it may conllantly 
 remain in the fame place, if you iiulofc it in a fecond 
 cafe, made of thick wood, and placed at a little di- 
 itanccfrom the other. When you want it topcrform, 
 it will be only neceiTary to throw open the door of the 
 outer cafe, and expofeit to the fun. 
 
 But if the machine be moveable, it will perform in 
 all feafons by being placed before the hre ; and in the 
 winter it will more readily (lop w'htn removed into 
 the cold. 
 
 A machine of this fort is faid to have been invented 
 by Cornelius Dreble, in the lad ceiunry. W hat the 
 conrtruftion of that was, vvcknow not ; it might very 
 likely be more complex, but could fcarce anfwer the 
 inicntion more readily. 
 
 V. Under the keysofa common harpfchord let 
 there be fixed a barrel, fomething like that in a cham- 
 ber organ, wiili flops orpinscorrefpondingto the tunes 
 you would have it play. Tliefe llopsmnft be moveable, 
 io that the tunes may be varied at pleafurc. Krom 
 each of the keys let there go a wire perpendicular 
 down : the ends of thefe wires mull be turned up for 
 about one-fourth of an inch. Behind thefe wires let 
 there be an iron bar, to prevent them from going too 
 far back. Now, as the barrel tuins round, its pins 
 take the ends of the wires, which pulldown the keys, 
 and play the harpfichord. The barrel and wires are 
 to be all inclofed in a cafe. 
 
 In the chimney of the fime room where the harpfi- 
 chord flaiuls, or at leaA in one adjacent, there niufl be 
 a fmoke jack, from whence comes down a w ire, or 
 cord, that, palling behind the wainfcot adjoining the 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 chimney, goes under the floor, and up one of the legs Entortain- 
 of the harjilichord, iuio the cafe, and round a fuuill iiigcx|HTi- 
 w heel fixed on ilic axis of that tirll mentioned. There mcnts, t5V. 
 Ihould be pullies at different diltanc-s, behind the " ' 
 
 waiufcot and under the floor, to facilitate the motion 
 of the chord. 
 
 This machinery may be applied to any other keyed 
 inflrumcnt as v,'ell as to chimes, and to many otiier 
 purpofcs where a regular continued motion is re- 
 quired. 
 
 An inllrunient of this fort may be confidered as a 
 perpetual motion, according to the vulgar accepta- 
 tion of the term ; tor it will never ccafe going till t];c 
 fire be extinguilhed, or fonie parts of the machinery 
 be worn out. 
 
 VI. Ar the topofa fummcr-houfe,orothcrbnilding, a Vcntofal 
 let the wind-wheel B (of wliich A is an horizontal Symphony, 
 fcction,) be on the upper end of the perpendicular Pl^t« '• 
 axis K ; on the lower end of which is fixed tiie pini- %• ^' 
 on C that takes the toothed wheel D on the axis of 
 the great wheel E — The perpendicular axis F goes 
 down very near the wall of the room, and may be 
 covered after the fame manner as are bcU-wircs. 
 In the great wheel there niufl be placed a num- 
 ber of if ops, correfpouding to the tunes it is to play. 
 Thefe Hops are to be moveable, that the tunes may be 
 altered at pleafure. Again ll this wheel there mufl 
 hang 12 fmall bells, anfwering to the notes of the ga- 
 mut. Therefore, as tiie wheel twrns round, the flops 
 flrikingagainll the bells, play 'hefevcral tunes. There 
 ihould be a fly to the great wheel, to regulate its mo- 
 tion when the wind is flrong. The wheel E, and the 
 bells, arc to be inclofed in a cafe. 
 
 There may be feveral fets of bells, one of which 
 may anfwer to the tenor, another to the treble, and a 
 third to the bafs ; or they may play different tunes, ac- 
 cording to the (ize of the wheel. As the bells are 
 fmall, if they arc of lilvcr, their tone will be the more 
 plealirig. 
 
 Inflcad of bells, gkfTes may be here ufed, fo difpo- 
 fcd as to move freely at the flroke of the flops. This 
 niacliinery :nay likewife be applied to a barrel-organ ; 
 and to many other ufes. 
 
 ACQ, 
 
 ACQ_S, a town at the foot of the Pyrenxan moun- 
 tains, in the government of Kuix in France. It takesits 
 name from the hot waicrs in thefe parts. E. long. i. 
 40. lat. 43. o. 
 
 ACQUAPENDENTE, a pretty large town of Ita- 
 ly, in the territory of the church, and patrimony of 
 St Peter, with a bilhop's fee it is feated on a moun- 
 tain, near the river Paglia, ten miles W. of Orvictto, 
 and 57 N. by W. of Rome. E. long. 11. 53. Lat. 
 42. 43. 
 
 ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a 
 diflrift of Modcna, which is remarkable for its medi- 
 cinal waters. It is 12 miles fouth of the city of M(xlc- 
 na. E. long. it. 17. lat. 44. 24. 
 
 ACQUEST, or Acquist, in law, fignifies goods 
 got by purchafeor donation. See Conq^uesj'. 
 
 ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont- 
 
 Acquit- 
 tance. 
 
 ACQ, 
 
 ferrat, with a bifliop's fee, and commodious baths. It Acquifitioa 
 was taken by the Spaniards in 174S, and retaken by | 
 
 the Piedmontefe in i 746 ; but after this, it was taken 
 again and difmantled by the French, who afterwards 
 forlbok it. It is feated on the river Bornia, 2.5 miles 
 N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal. E. long. 8 30. 
 Lat. 44. 40. 
 
 ACQU ISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining 
 or procuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufcd 
 for the right or title to an eflate got by purcliafc or 
 donation. 
 
 ACQUITTAL, a difcharge, deliverance, orfet- 
 ting of a pcrfon free from the guilt or fufpicion of an 
 offence. 
 
 ACQUITTANCE, a rtleafe or difcharge in wri- 
 ting for a fum of money, witnefhng that the party has 
 paid the faid funi. — No man is obliged to pay a fum of 
 
 money
 
 .■Imnij 
 
 . Imri s. 
 
 I'latr I 
 
 ^»*f 
 
 Acoustics 
 
 .^./iir* /rt/^
 
 A C R 
 
 C 93 ] 
 
 A C R 
 
 Acra 
 
 I 
 
 Acrafis. 
 
 money if the dcinandant rcfufcs to give an acquittance, 
 which is a lull dilcharge, and bars all actions, &c. An 
 acqiiiti.ince given by a fcrvant for a fiim of money re- 
 ' ceiveJ for ilic iifc of his mailer, llull be a good dif- 
 chargc for that Ami, provided the fcrvant ufed to re- 
 ceive his mailer's rents, debts, &c. 
 
 ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coafl of Guinea, 
 where the Englilli, Dutch, and Danes, have /Irong 
 forts, and each fort its particular village. W. Long, 
 o. 2. Lat. J. o. 
 
 AcRA (anc. geog.), one of the hills of Jerufalem, 
 on which flood the lower town, which was the Old Je- 
 rufalem ; to which was afterwards added /ion, or the 
 city of David. Probably called ^cra, from the fort- 
 refs which Antiochiis buili there in order to annoy the 
 temple, and which Simon Maccabseus took and razed 
 to the ground. 
 
 AcRAj^pJ'gi" (anc. geog.), called Salcntia by Pto- 
 lemy; now Lap'i di San Hiaria di Leiicti : A promon- 
 tory in the kingdom of Naples, to the fouth-eall of O- 
 tranto, where formerly was a town, now lying in ru- 
 ins, on the Ionian fea, over againll the Montes Acro- 
 cerauuii of Epirus. 
 
 Acr;e (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, whofc inhabi- 
 tants were called Acniifu. It Hood to t!ie fouth of 
 Syracufcat the diftanceof 24miles, near the place now 
 called the monallery of Santa Maria d' Aiaa, on an 
 eminence, as appears from Silius Italicus. The Sy- 
 racufans were the founders of it, according to Thuci- 
 dydes, 70 years after the building of Syracufe, or 66j 
 before Chrift. Hence the epithet Acr.eus. 
 
 ACRAGAS, or Acracas (anc. geog.), fo called 
 by the Greeks, and fomctimes by the Romans, but 
 more generally Agrigcntum by the Litter ; a town of 
 Sicily. In Greek medals the inhabitants are called 
 AiCPrrANTlNor, and Agrtge/it'mi by Cicero. The town 
 flood upon a mountain, at the confluence of the Acra- 
 gas and Hypfa, near the port called EuTtp/cv by Ptole- 
 my, but Es-irtnv, or the Dock, by Strabo ; and in the 
 time of the latter, fcarce a trace of all that lide remain- 
 ed. In the year before Chrift 3S4, the people of Gcla 
 built Acragas, 108 years after building their own city. 
 It took its name from the river running by it ; and be- 
 ing but two miles from, enjoyed all the conveniences 
 that (liuuld come by, the fea. It was a place of great 
 flrcngth, flanding on the top of a very fleep rock, and 
 wadied on the fouth lide by the river Acragas, now 
 called Fiume di Cergeiiti, and on the fouth-vveft by the 
 Hypfa, with a citadel to the fouth-eaft, externally fur- 
 rounded by a deep gulf, which made it inaccc!!il)lc but 
 on the lide next the town. It was famous for the ty- 
 rant Phalaris and his brazen bull. They were a peo- 
 ple luxurious in their tables, and magnificent in their 
 dwellings ; of whom Empedocles, in Diogenes Laer- 
 tius, fays, that they lived to-day as if they were to die 
 to-morrow-, and built as if they were to live forever. 
 The country round the city was laid out in vine and 
 olive yards, in the produce of which they carried on 
 a great and profitable commerce with Carthage. . E. 
 Long. I?. ?o. Lat. 57- 20. 
 
 ACRASIA, among phyficians, implies the predo- 
 minancy of one quality above another, cither with re- 
 gard to artificial mixtures, or the humours of the hu- 
 man body. The word is Greek, and compounded of 
 
 «, priv. and Ktf.nofti, to mix ,- q. d. not mixed in a jufl Acrath, 
 proportion. . ■'^'^'^'- 
 
 ACRATH (anc. gfog.), a place in Mauritania Tin- ' ' 
 giiana, now fuppofcd to be l^f/^z de Comara ; A lor- 
 tilieJ town in the kingdom of I'ez, with a capital and 
 commodious harbour on the Mediterranean, I'carce a 
 mile dillant from Fenon de V'clez, a Spanilh fort. 
 \V. Long. J. Lat. 34. 4J. 
 
 ACRE, or AcRA, a fea-port town in Syria. It was 
 formerly called I'loUviais, and is a bitliop's fee. It 
 was very famous in the time of the eruladocs, and un- 
 derwent fevcral lieges both by the Chriltians and Sa- 
 racens. It is lituated at the north angle of a bay, 
 which extends in a femicircle of three leagues, as tar 
 as the point of Carmcl. 
 
 During the Crufades, the poUeflion of this town 
 was long difputed by tlie Chriliians and Saracens. In 
 1 192 it was taken from the latter by Richard I. of 
 England and Philip of France, who gave it to the 
 knights of St John of Jerufalem, who kept poirelTioii 
 of it 100 years, when it was retaken by the Saracens, 
 and almoll entirely deftroyed. This event is rendered 
 memorable by an ad of lingular rcfolution with which 
 it was accompanied. A number of beautiful young 
 nuns, terrified at the profped of being cxpofed to the 
 brutal laft of the infidels, determined to avoid the vio- 
 lation of iheir challity, by rendering themfelves ob- 
 jeds of avcrl'ion. With this view they cut off their 
 nofes and mangled their faces. The Saracens, inria- 
 med with refentment at a fpcftacle which prevented 
 the gratification of their appetites, immediately put 
 them all to the fword. After the expullion of the 
 crufaders, it remained almoll dcfertcd ; but in our time 
 h.is again revived by the injuilry of Dalier ; and the 
 works creded by Djczzar, within the lall ten years, 
 liavc rendered it one of the principal towns upon the 
 coafb. The mol'que of this Pacha is boafled as a ma- 
 flerpiece of eaftcrn taftc. The bazar, or covered mar- 
 ket, is not inferior even to thofe of .Aleppo ; and its 
 public fountain furpalles in elegance thofcof Damafcus, 
 though the water is of a very iudifl'erent quality. The 
 Pacha has derived the more honour from thcfe works, 
 as he was himfclf both the engineer and architcd : 
 he formed the plans, drew the dcligns, and fupcrin- 
 tcndcd the execution. 
 
 The port of Acre is one of the beft fiiuated on the 
 coaft, as it is Iheltered from the north and north-weft 
 winds by the town itfelf ; but it is greatly choaked up 
 fince the time of Fakr-el-din. Djczzar has contented 
 himfelf with making a landing-place for boats. 1 he 
 fortifications, though more frequently repaired than 
 any other in all Syria, are of no importance : there 
 are only a few wretched low towers, near the port,, 
 on which cannon arc mounted ; and ihefc rufty iron 
 pieces are fo bad, that fome of them burft every time 
 they are fired. Its defence on the land lide is merely 
 a garden-wall, without any ditch. 
 
 Corn and cotton form the bafis of the commerce of 
 Acre, which is becoming more tlourilhing every day. 
 Of late, the Pacha, by an abufe common throughout 
 all the Turkilh empire, has monopolized all the trade 
 in his own hands ; no cotton can be fold but to him, 
 and from him every purchafe inuft be made. In vain 
 have the Europc<iu merchants claimed the privileges 
 
 granted
 
 A C R 
 
 [ 94 ] 
 
 A C R 
 
 Acre, graiucil thcra by ihc Sultan j Djczzar rcplii. J, ili.it lie 
 •'——' was the Sultan in liis country, and contiuucd liii mo- 
 nopoly. Tlicfc mcrchantsin general arc French, and 
 have lix iioufcs at Acre, with a conful ; an Imperial 
 agent tuo is lately fettled there ; alfo a rclident lor 
 Rtiflia. 
 
 That part of the bay of Acre, in which Hiips an- 
 chor with the grcatcft fecuriiy lies to the north of 
 Mount Carmel, below the villj^c of Haifa (commonly 
 called Caiffa). The bottom is good holding ground, 
 and docs not chafe the cables ; but the harbour is open 
 to the north-weft wind, which blows violently ah)ng 
 all this coaft. Mount Carmel, which commands it to 
 the fouth, is a flattened cone, and very rocky ; it is 
 about 2O00 feet high. We flill tind among the 
 brambles wild vines and olive trees, which prove that 
 induftryhas formerly been employed even in this uii- 
 gralelul foil : on the fummit is a chapel dedicated to 
 ihe prophet Elias, which affords an extcnlive profpect 
 over the fea and land. It is 20 miles S. of Tyre, and 
 37 N. of Jerufalem. E. Long. 59. 25. Lat. 32. 40. 
 
 Acre, i!i the Mogul's dominions, the fame with 
 lack, and ligniiies the fiim of 100,000 rupees ; the ru- 
 pee is of the value ofthc FrencJicrown of three livres, 
 of 30 fuls of Holland ; an 100 lacks of rupees make 
 a couron in Indoftan,or io,ooo,coo rupees : the pound 
 Sterling is about eight rupees ; according to which 
 proportion, a lack of rupees amounts to 1 2,500 pounds 
 Sterling. 
 
 Acre, the univerfal nieafure of land in Britain. 
 The word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the Ger- 
 man akir, a (icld), did not originally fignify a deter- 
 mined quaiuity of land, but any open ground, efpe- 
 cially a wide champaign ; and in this antique fcnfe it 
 fecmstobe prefcrved in the names of places, asCaftle- 
 acrc, Weft-acre, &c. An acre in England contains 
 four fquare roods, a rood 40 perches or poles of 16; 
 feet each by ftatutc. Yet this meafure does not pre- 
 vail in all parts of England, as the length of the pole 
 varies in different counties, and is called cujlomaij mea- 
 fure, the diftcrencc running from the 16; feet to 2?. 
 The acre is alfo divided into 10 fquare chains, of 22 
 yards each, that is, 4S40 fquare yards. An acre in 
 Scotland contains four fquare roods; one fquare rood 
 is 40 fquare falls ; one fquare fall, ;6 fqu.ire ells; one 
 fquare ell, nine fquare feet and 73 fquare inches; one 
 fquare foot, 144 fquare inches. The Scots acre is 
 alfo divided into 10 fquare chains; the meafuring 
 chain fliould be 24 ells in length, divided into 100 
 links, each liuk 8,VA- inches; and fo one fquare 
 chain will contain 10,000 fquare links. The Englifli 
 flatute-acre is about three roods and fix falls ftandard 
 meafure of Scotland. 
 
 The French acre, arpent, contains i^ Englifli acre, 
 or J4,450 fquare Englifli feet, whertof the Englifli 
 
 acre contains only 43,560 The Strafburgh acre is a 
 
 bout half an Englifli acre. — The \\'ellh acre contains 
 
 commonly two Englifli ones The Irifli acre is equal 
 
 to one acre two roods and 19 perches ,V,, Englifli. 
 
 Dr Gre w attempts to afcer tain the number of acres in 
 England, which, according to him, amounts to 46 
 millions and 80,000. The United Provinces are faid 
 to contain 4,^82,000 acres : The province of Holland 
 but one million <if acres. The territory of the United 
 States of America, according to calculations lately 
 
 Lib. iii. 
 & xxxix. 
 
 made by order of Con^rcfs, contains 589 iniliions of Acrc-Fiylit 
 acres, cxcl'Jlivc of water, w'hick is computed at 51 \ 
 
 luillioiis more. Achdo- 
 
 ^riiK-Fight, and old fort of duel fought by Englifli P'"g'' , 
 and Scotiilh combatants, between the frouiiers of tneir 
 kingdoms, with fword and lance : it was alfo called 
 cavip-fight, and the combatants c amfiom, from the 
 open held being the Itage uf trial. 
 
 Ai.Rt.-Ta\, a tax laid on land at fo much per acre. 
 In fomc places this is alfo called acic-Jhot. Impofitions 
 ou lands in the great level are to be raifcd by a pro- 
 portionable acre-tax, 2oCar. II. cap. 8 An acre-tax 
 
 ot 2s. 6d. per acre, for draining Hadcnham-level, 1 3 
 Geo. I. cap. 18. 
 
 ACRllijilA, a term purely Greek, literally deno- 
 ting an exquiliteor delicate accuracy ; fometimcs ufed 
 in our language, for want of a word of equal lignilica- 
 tiun. 
 
 ACRID, a name for any tiling that is of a fliarp or 
 pungent talk. Sec Materia Medica. 
 
 ACRIUOPHAGI, in the ancient geography, an 
 Ethiopian people, rcprefeiucd as inhabiting near the 
 defcrts, and to have fed on locufts. This latter cir- 
 cumftance their name imports ; the word being com- 
 pounded of the Greek axf/t loaijl, and .ya^w to cut. We 
 have tlic following account of them by Diodorus Si- 
 culus *. Their ftature was lower than that of other 
 men ; they were meagre, and extremely black. In the 
 fpri.ig, high weft winds drove from the defert to their Alfo Stra- 
 quarter locufts of an extraordinary fize, and remarka- ^°> '"''■ *^'' 
 ble for the fqualid colour of their wings. So great was 
 the number of thefc infects, that they were the only 
 fuftcnancc of the barbarians, who :00k them in the fol- 
 lowing manner: At the diftance of fomc ftadia from 
 their habitations there was a wide and deep valley. 
 They liUed this valley w ith wood and wild herbs, with 
 wiiich their country abounded. When the cloud of 
 locufts appeared, which were driven on by the wind, 
 they let lire to the fuel which they had collected. The 
 fmokc which arofc from this immenfc fii e was fo thick, 
 that the locufts, in crofling the vallty, were fti.led by 
 it, and fell in heaps on the ground. The paiTage of 
 the locufts beingthus intercepted for many days, they 
 made a large proviiion of thofe iiifefts. As their coun- 
 try produced great quantities of lalt, ihcy falted them, 
 to render them more palatable, and to wake them keep 
 till the next feafon. This peculiar fupply was their 
 fole food : they iiad neither herds nor llocks. They 
 were unacquainted with tifliing; for they lived at a dif- 
 tance from the fea. They were very active, and ran 
 with great fwiftnefs. But their life was not of long 
 duration; it exceeded not forty years. The clofc of 
 their life was extremely miferablc ; for in their old age, 
 winged lice of different, but all of ugly forms, bred in 
 their bodies. This malady, which began in the 5reaft 
 and belly, foon fpread through the whole frame. The 
 patient at tirft felt an itching ; and the agreeable fen- 
 iatiou produced by his fcratching of hirafelf, preceded 
 a moil deplorable calamity. For when thofe lice, 
 which had bred in his body, forced their way out, 
 they cauftd efflifions of corrupt blood, with cxcrncia- 
 ting pains in tlie ikin. The unhappy man, with la- 
 mentable cries, was induftrious himfelf to make paf- 
 fages for them with his nails. In fliort, thefe lice if- 
 fued forth facccflivcly from the wounds made by the 
 
 hands
 
 A C R 
 
 [ 95 ] 
 
 A C R 
 
 Acrido- hinds of the patient, as from a veflcl full of holes, and 
 P*"t''- in fiich niinibtrs that it \vas impoiiiblc to exterminate 
 ' ' tliem. — \V liether this extraordinary and dreadful dif- 
 tcnipcr was occafmncd b) the food of the inhabita.iis 
 of this country, o- by a pcilciiiial quality oi tlieir 
 climate, it is diincull tn dtieriiiinc. Indeed, as to the 
 credibility ot' the whole account, we mull leave the 
 rsa.lcr to judge. 
 
 But though the circumftanccs of thcfe people (liould 
 be deemed fabulous, yet may the acrtdophj^:a be true. 
 It is well known, that to this day the iuhauiiaiits of 
 Ethiopia, /\rabii, &c. frequently ufe locurts as lood. 
 The reader will not be difpleafcti it we lay before him 
 the refult of Dr Ilalfelqailt's inquiries as to this parti- 
 cular, who travelled in Syria antt r.gypt fo late as the 
 year I 752. This ingeiiious j;entleman, who travel- 
 Ld with a view to improve nat\ir.il hiilory, informs 
 us. that healked Kranks, and many other people who 
 had lived long in thefe countries, whethtr tlicy had c- 
 ver heard that the inhabitants of Arabia, tthiopii, &c. 
 ufed loculls as food. I hey anfwcred that they had. 
 He likcwifc alked the fame qucftion of Armenians, 
 Copts, and Syrians, who lived in Aral)ia, and had 
 travelled inSyria and near the Red Sea ; lorae of whom 
 faid they heardoffuch a practice, and others that they 
 had oitenleen the people eat thcfe iiifccls. He atlall 
 obtained compl te faiibfaelion on this head from a 
 learned ihcckat Cairo, who had lived lix years in ^iec- 
 ca. This gentleman told him, in prcfcnce of M. Ic 
 Grand tiie priutipal French interpreter at Cairo, and 
 others, that a famine frequently rages at Mecca when 
 there is a fearcity of corn in Kgy pt, which obligi s the 
 inhabitants to live upon coarfcr food than orninary : 
 That when corn is fcarce, the Arabians grind tiic lo- 
 cufts in hand-mills, or flone-mortars, and bake them 
 into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes in pl.icc of bread : 
 That he has frequently feen locults ufed by ilie Ara- 
 bians, even when there was no fearcity of corn ; but 
 then they boil them, (lew them with butter, and make 
 them into a kind ot fricalTee ; which he fays is not dif- 
 agreeably tailed, for he had fome'.imes tailed thcfe lo- 
 cull-fricaiFcesout of curiofity. 
 • Vcyart to '^ later traveller, Dr Sparrman, informs us *, 
 the Cafe, " That loculls fomctimcs atfbrd a high treat to the 
 vol.l.p.36. more unpoliihed and remote hordes of the Hottentots; 
 when, as fomctimes happens, after an interval of 8, 
 10, 15, or 20 years, they make their appearance in 
 incredible numbers. At thefe times they come from 
 the north, migrating to the foiithward, and do not fuf- 
 fer themfelves to be impeded by any obftacles, but 
 fly boldly on, and are drowneo in the fea whenever 
 they come to it. The females of this race of infects, 
 which are moll apt to migrate, and are chietly eaten, 
 are faid not to be able to riy ; partly by reafon of the 
 ihortnefs of their wings, and partly on account of 
 tlieir beinj heavy and diftended with eggs ; and ihort- 
 ]y after they have laid thefe in the land, they arc faid 
 to die. It is pirticuLirly of thefe that tlie f lottentots 
 make a brown cotfee-coloured foup, which, at the fame 
 time, acquires from the eggs a fat and greafy appear- 
 ance. The Hottentots are highly rejoiced at llie ar- 
 rival of thefe loculls, though ihey are fire to dedroy 
 every bit of verdure on the ground : but the Hotten- 
 tots make themfelves ample amends for this lofs, by 
 falling foul on the animals ihcniftlves, eating them in 
 
 fuch quantities as in the fpace of a few days to get AcriCui 
 vilibly fatter and in belter condition than before." I 
 
 The Aobi Poirct, alio, in this Memoir on the Infecls Aciobatica 
 of Barbary and Numidia, informs us, " That the '^~~' 
 Moors make loculis a part of their food ; that they 
 go to hunt them j iry thci.i in oil and butter ; and fell 
 them publicly at i uiiis, at Bonne," &c. 
 
 From thtfe accounts, we may fee the folly of that 
 difpute among divines about the nature of St John"* 
 fooo in the wiluernefs : fome maintaining the origi.ir.1 
 word to lignify the fruits of certain trees ; others, a 
 kind of birds, &c. : but thofe who adhered to the li- 
 teral meaning of the text were at leaft the molt ortho- 
 dox, although their arguments were perhaps not fo 
 ilrong as they might have been, had thiy hid an op- 
 portunity of q loting fuch authors as the above. 
 
 ACRlblLS, king of .Argos (fab. hid.), being told 
 by the oracle tiiat he Ihouldbekilledby hisgrindchild, 
 ihut up his only daughter Uaiiae in a brazen tower : 
 but Jupiter coming down in a golden lliower, beuot 
 Perftus upon her : afier Perfeus had llain tlie Gorgons, 
 he carried Medufa's head to Argos ; which Acrifms 
 feeing, was turned into a llatue. 
 
 -ACRITAS (anc. geog.), a promontory of MelTc- 
 nia, running into the lea, and forming ihe beginning 
 of the bay of Mcllcnc. Now called Cafo ds Galto, 
 between Methone to the welt, and Coronc to the eaft, 
 w here the Sinus Coroiijeus begins. 
 
 ACROAMATIC, or Acrcatic, in general, de- 
 notes a tiling f iblime, profound, or abftrufe. 
 
 ACROAAIATICI, a denomination given the dif- 
 ciples or followers of Arillotle, &c. who were admit- 
 ted into the fecrcts of the inner or acroamatic philo- 
 fophy. 
 
 ACIIOA riC. Ariftotles leaures to his difciples 
 were of two kinds, ixotnU- and airoatic. The acruatic 
 were thofe to which only his own difciples and inti- 
 mate friends were admitted ; whereas the exoteric 
 were puLlic, and open to all. But there are other dif- 
 ferences. The acroatic were let apart for the higher 
 and more ab.lrufc fubjeds ; the exoteric were employ- 
 ed in rhetorical and civil fpeculaiions. Again, the 
 acroatics were more fubtile and exact, evidence and 
 demonllration being here aimed at ; the exotericschief- 
 lyaimedat the probable andplaulible. The former were 
 the fubjecl of the mornings exercifesin the Lyceum, 
 the latter of the evenings. Add, that the e.xoicrics 
 were pLiblilhed : whereas the acroatics were kept fe- 
 cret ; bcingeiihcr entirely conce.-iled ;or, if they were 
 publiflied, it was in fuch obfcurc terms, that few but 
 his own difciples could be the wiftr for them. Hence, 
 when Alexander complained of his preceptor for pub- 
 lilhing his acroatics, and thus revealing what liiould 
 have been refervcj to his difciples, Ariltotleanfwercd 
 that they were made public and not public ; for that 
 none who had no: heard them explained by the author 
 viv^t voce, would underlland them. 
 
 ACROATflOUM, or Acrothoum (anc. geog.), 
 a town lituated on the top of inoant Athos, where the 
 inhabitants, according to Mela, were longer lived by 
 half than in any other country : called by the modern 
 Greeks, Ayior tftc; by the Italians, La Cima Ji.Mciili 
 Santo. 
 
 ACROBATICA, or .Acrobaticu.m, from ««»«t, 
 iigf; and ^«t<«, or ^<ii« J ^0 ; an ancient engine, 
 
 )A hereby
 
 A C R 
 
 (y6 3 
 
 A C R 
 
 Acroce- 
 
 raunia 
 
 il 
 Acrspolis. 
 
 wlicrcby people were raifed aloft, thnt tlicy might fee 
 more conveniently about ihein. The ncrobatica among 
 the Greeks amounted to tlie fame witli what liicy call 
 fcanfunutii among the Latins. Authors are divided 
 as to the office of this engine. Turuebus and Barba- 
 rns take it to have been of the military kind, railed 
 by beliegcrs, high enough to overlook the walls, and 
 difcover the (late of things on the oilier iide. Baldus 
 rather fuppofcs it a kind of moveable fcairbld, or cradle, 
 contrived for railing painters, plallcrers, and otlicr 
 workmen, to the tops of houfes, trees, &c. Some 
 fufpect that it might have been ufcd for both purpofes; 
 which is the opinion of Vitruvius and Aquinas. 
 
 ACROCERAUNIA, or Montes CERAUNii(anc. 
 geog.), mountains running out into the fea (fo called 
 from their being often thunderllruck), fcparating the 
 Ionian fea from the Adriatic ; where lllyria ends and 
 Epirus begins ; now called Monti dclla Chiniira. 
 
 ACROCHERISMUS, among the Greeks, a fort 
 of gymnaftic exercife, in which the two combatants 
 contended with their hands and fingers only, without 
 clofmg or engaging the other parts of the body. 
 
 ACROCORINTHUS (anc. geog.), a high and 
 flcep hill, hanging over the city of Coriiuh, which was 
 taken within the walls, as an acropolis, or citadel. On 
 its top Hood a temple of Venus ; and lower down if- 
 fued the fountain Fyrene. 
 
 ACROMION, in anatomy, the upper part of the 
 fcapulaor Ihoulder-blade. Sec Anatomy. 
 
 ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM,in poetry, a kind 
 of poem, wherein every fubfequcnt verfe b'-gins with 
 the letter wherewith the immediately preceding one 
 terminated. 
 
 ACRON, a celebrated phyliciau of Agrigentum, 
 who firfl though: of Ighring large fires, and purify- 
 ing the air with perfumes, to put a flop to the peili- 
 lence that ravaged Athens, and which was attended 
 with fuccefs. He lived about 473 years before the 
 Chriftian xra. 
 
 AcRON, a territory on the gold-coaft of Guinea, in 
 Africa, bordering on the Fantynean country. The 
 Dutch have a fort here called Fort Patience ; and un- 
 der it is a village, inhabited only by filhcrmen. The 
 other inhabitants arc addicted to hufbandry, and fell 
 their corn to other countries. There is jdeiuy of game, 
 which is very commodious for the Dutch factory. Tlie 
 people are very ignorant, m\^ j^onaked like therell of 
 the negroes. 1 his is called Little Acron ; lor Great 
 Acron is farther iiita. id, and is a kind ef a republic. 
 
 ACRONICAL,AcHRONYCH Ai.,or Ach ronical, 
 in aflronomy, is a term applied to the rifini; of a liar, 
 when the fun isfet in the evening ; but has been prt>- 
 iiiifcuoufly ufcd to exprefs a Har's riling at funfct, or 
 fetting at fun-rife. 
 
 ACRONIUSlacus, (Mela) ; a fmall like formed 
 by the Rhine, foon after its rife out of the ^Ips, and 
 after palling the greater lake at Coullanee, called / V- 
 «;/./, and now the Boimgec, or lake of Coullanee. 
 
 ACROPOLIS (anc. geog.), the citadel, and one 
 of the divilions of Athens ; c::llcd Fo//;, becaufe eoii- 
 flituting the firfl; and criginal city ; and the Upfier Po- 
 lls, to diiliaguifh it from the Lower, which wasafter- 
 wards built round it in a large open plsin, the Acro- 
 polis Handing on a rock or eminence in the heart of 
 
 this plain ; and hrnce its name : To ihe north it had a Acropollii 
 wall, built by the I'clafgi, and therelorc called / claf- || 
 
 gk ; and to the fouth a w all, by Cy mon the fou of Mil- Acrofto- 
 tiadcs, out of the Pcrfian fpoils, many ages after the . ''""'• . 
 building of the north wall. It had nine gates, and 
 was therefore called Eiirieapy)oii ; yet but one princi- 
 pal gate or entrance, iltc afcent to w hich was by a 
 riiglit of (leps of white marble, built by Pericles with 
 great magniiicencc, (Plutarch). 
 
 ACROPOLITA (George), one of the writers iti 
 the Byzantine hiilory, was born at Conllantinople, in 
 the year 1220, and brought up at the court of the em- 
 peror John Ducas at Nice. He was employed in the 
 moll important atiairs of the empire ; being fent am- 
 ball'adof to Larill'a, to cllablilh a peace with Michael 
 of Kpirus ; and was conllitutcd judge to try Michael 
 Conincnus, fufpefted of engaging in a confpiracy. 
 Theodorus Lafcaris, ihp fon of John, whom he had 
 taught logic, appointed him governor of all the wcllern 
 provinces in liis empire. IniajJ, he was taken pri- 
 ibncrina war with Michael Angelas : but gaining his 
 liberty in 1260, by means of the emperor Palaologus, 
 he was fent by him ambalfador to Conilantine, prince 
 of Bulgaria; and was employed infeveral othernego- 
 ciaiions. He wrote, A Continuation of the Greek Hi- 
 ilory, from the taking of Conllantinople by the Latins 
 till it was recovered by Michael Pal*ologus in 1261, 
 which makes part of the Byzantine hiilory ; A Trea- 
 til'e concerning Faith, Virtue, and the Soul ; An Fx- 
 polition of the Sermons of St Gregory Nazianzcn and 
 other pieces. Gregory Cyprian, patriarch of Con- 
 flantinople, in his encomium upon him, prefixed to 
 Acropolita's hiftory, is perhaps foinewhat extravagant 
 in his praifc, when he fays he was equal lo Ariliotlc 
 in philofophy, and toPlatoin tlie knowledge of divine 
 things and Attic eloquence. 
 
 ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for wliat botaniflscall 
 the //f/CTi". See the article Plants. 
 
 ACROSPIRED, in malt-making, is the grain's 
 fliooiing both at the root and blade end. 
 
 ACROSTIC, in poeti-y, a kind of poetical compo- 
 fition, difpofed in fuch a manner, that theinitiallettcrs 
 of the verfes form the name of fome perfoii, kingdom, 
 place, motto, Sec. The word is compounded of the 
 Gj'cek, sotoQ^i-.v/r.-w//^, and annx^j-jerft:. The acroflic 
 is conlidercdby the critics as a fpeciesof falfe wit, and 
 is tlierefore very little regarded by the moderns. 
 
 ACROSTICUM, RusTVBACK, Wall rue, or 
 FoRK-iERN, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamiri 
 tilices. The frudifications arc accumulated on the 
 whole inferior furface of the frond, fo that they every- 
 where cover it. There are upwards of ;;o fpecics ; 
 but only three of them (according toothers, two) 
 arc natives of Britain, viz. the fepientrionalc, or horn- 
 ed fern, wliich grows on walls or clifts of rocks ; the 
 ilvcnfe, or hairy {trn, growing in clifts of rocks ; and 
 the thclyptris, or marlhfern, in tufty bogs. 
 
 ACROSIOLIUM, in ancient naval architeflurc, 
 the extreme part of the ornament ufcd on the prows of 
 their lliips, which was fomctimes in the Ihapc of a 
 buckler, helmet, animal, &c. ; but more frequcnily cir- 
 cular, or fpiral. It was ufual to tear ihcm from the 
 prows of vanquilhed vclitls, and fix them to the con- 
 querors, as a lignal of victory. 
 
 ACRO-
 
 ACT 
 
 r 9' 
 
 .\a. 
 
 Acrotclcu- ^CROTELEUTIC, anoiig cccldiallk wriicrs, rui 
 tic apjjclliiti ).i given to aiiy iliiug added to the cud ot a 
 pfalm ; as the Gloria I'atri, or Dox()!o;ry. 
 ^ ACKO I'lCllIA, ill arcliitcchirc, f.-.i;;!! pcJcujli, 
 ofii.iily witlioiit bafcs, anticiitly placed at tlic n'.ijdls 
 or i\vi> cxu•cIl.^i ot'pcdimeius orlr-ji'-rilpicccs, fcrviiij; 
 to fupport the ibtues, Sec. It alio ligiiiiies the ritriircs 
 placed as ornamcius cii the tops otcliurchcs, and tlic 
 fliarp pi'iiiaclssthat ftandin ranges about fiat buildings 
 v.'itli rails and balluftcrs. 
 
 Amon;^ ancient phyllcians, it fignificJ the larger ex- 
 tremities of the body, is ilic head, hands, and Ret, 
 It has alio been ii led tor the tips of the ticgcrs, and 
 fomctinTes for the eminences or procelfcs ■ £ bones. 
 
 ACROTHYMION, lVoni««f9^,c;.\7;-?///f,and^i/.u»{, 
 thymi-. A fort of wart dcferibed by Cclfus as hard, 
 rough, with a narrow bads and brond toj) ; ihc top is 
 of the colour of thyme, it cafily fpliis and bleeds. 
 This tumour is alio called thyii.us. 
 
 ACT, in genernl, denotes the exertion of power ; 
 and differs from power, as tlic etfect from the caufe. 
 
 Act, in logic, is particularly undcrilood of an ope- 
 ration of the iuiman mind. Thus to difcern and ex- 
 amine, arc arts of the uiidcrllanding ; to judge and af- 
 firm, arc afts of the will. There are vohuuary and 
 fponttneoiis ads-, the former are produced by the o- 
 peration of the foul, the latter wiihout its privity or 
 participation. 
 
 Act, ill the univcrfuics, fignificsa tlielis maintained 
 in public by a candidate for a degree, or to (how the 
 capacity iiid proficiency of a fludcut. TIic candidates 
 for a degree of bachelor and mailer of arts arc to hold 
 philofophical A(5ts ; and thole for baclulor of divinity, 
 theological Afts, &c. At Oxford, the time when ma- 
 ilers or doctors complete their degrees is alfo called the 
 ad ; which is hrld with great folemnity. At Cam- 
 bridge, they call it ihc'covwictKcment. 
 
 ^cr of Faith, /luto da Ft, in the Romifli church, is 
 a folemn day held by the inqiiifiiion, for the punilh- 
 inent of heretics, and theabfoliuionofiheinnoccnt ac- 
 cufed*. They nfually contrive the Auto tofall on fome 
 great felliv. 1, that the execution may pals with the 
 more awe and regard ; at Icafl it is ahvay s on a Sunday. 
 
 The Auto da Vc may be called the lad art of the 
 inqiiilitorial tragedy; it is a kind of goal-delivery, ap- 
 pointed as oft as a competent number of prifoners in 
 the inquifuion arc convirted of herify, cither by their 
 own vohuuary, or extorted confellion, or on the evi- 
 dence of certain witnelFcs. The procefs is thus: in the 
 morning they arc brought into a great hall, where 
 they have certaiuhabitsput on, which they are to wear 
 in the proccflion. The procellionis led up by domini- 
 can friars ; after which come the penitents, fome with 
 fan-bcnitoes, and fome without, according to the na- 
 ture of their crimes ; being all in black coats without 
 llceves, and bare-footed, with a wax-candle in their 
 hands. Thcfc are followed by the peaiients who have 
 narrowly clcaped being burnt, who over their black 
 coats have flames paintcdwith their points turned down- 
 wards, Fiiego icvilto. Next come the negative, and 
 relapfed, who are to be burnt, having flanici on their 
 habitspointingupwards. After thcfc come fuch as pro- 
 fefs dortrincs contrary to the faith of Rnmc, who, bc- 
 (idesflamcs pointing upwards, have thcirpirture paint- 
 ed on their brcaih, with dogs, ftrpentSj and devils, all 
 Vol. I. 
 
 7 ] ACT 
 
 open-mouthed, about it. Each prifoncr is attended Aft. 
 
 withafjii.iliarof theinquilitio;i; and thofc to be burnt -^ 
 
 have alio a Jcfuit on each ha:id, who arc continually 
 prtaeliiiiginhcm to abjure. After the prifoners, comes 
 a troop of tamiliars on horfcback ; and after them the 
 inquilitors, and other othcers of the court, on mules ; 
 lali of all, the inquilitor-general on a white hvrfe, led 
 by two ir.t.i with black hats and green hat bands. A 
 fcalFoid is crertej in the Tcrriero dc I aio, Ww cnnnvh 
 fortwoov thrte ihojfand peojilc; atone cudofwhich 
 are the prifoners, at the other the inquilitors. After 
 a ftrmauinadeup of cncomiu'.nson thcinquil'.tion, and 
 invectives ag.iinit heretics, a pricll afccndsa dtOcnear 
 tlie niidjlcot the fcali'.dJ, auJ haviiigtaken thcahjura- 
 lioii of the penitents, recitcsthc final fenti nc; of thofc 
 who arc to be put to diath ; and delivers them to t'lc 
 Iccular arm, earneflly bcfecchingat the fame ti;nethe 
 ftcular power not to touch their blood, or put their 
 lives in danger. The prifoners being thus in i lie hands 
 oftheti*ilmagiftra!c,arcpre(enily ii.aded with chains, 
 and carried iiril to tlic fecuLnr goal, and from thcn^c i.i 
 an hour or two brought bcl'ore tlie civil jiulgc ; who, 
 alter alking in what religion they intend to die, pro- 
 nounces linteuce, on fuch as declare they die in t'lC 
 communion of the church of Rome, that they (hall be 
 firft ilrangied, and then burnt to alhcs ; on fuch as die 
 in any other faith, that they be burnt alive, lloth arc 
 immediately carried to tlic Riiitra, the place of exe- 
 cution ; where there are as many Hakes fci up as there 
 areprifoners to be burnt, with a quantity ofjry furz a- 
 bout them. The (lakes of the profelfed, thai is, fuch 
 as perlilt in their hercfy, are alout four yards high, 
 having a fiiiall board towards the top for the priloncr 
 to be fcatcd o*!. The negative and relapfed being firft 
 ffrangled md burnt, the profetfed mount their (takes 
 by a ladder ; and the Jefuits, after feveral repeated ex- 
 hortations to be reconciled to the church, part with 
 them, telling them they leave them to the devil, who 
 is flanding at their elbow to receive their fouls, and 
 carry them with him into the tlamcs of hell. On this 
 a great iTiout is raifed; and the cry is. Let the dogs 
 b.nrdi bt viad: ; which is done by thrulling flaming 
 furzes faftcned to long poles againfl their faces, tifl 
 their faces are burnt to a coal, which is accompanied 
 with the loudc/l acclamations of joy. At lail, lire isfet 
 to the furz at the bottom of the Hake, over which the 
 profcfredarc-cliaincd fo high, that the topoftherianic 
 feldom reaches higher than the feat llicy (iton ; foiliat 
 they rather feem rcafted than burnt. There cannot be 
 a more lamentable fperticle ; the (ufFerers continually 
 C17 out while they are able, jMiJl-riordia for amor de 
 Dios, '• Piiy for tlie love of God '."yet it is beheld by all 
 fcxes, and ages, with tranfports of joy and fatisfartion. 
 Act, in dramatic poetry, ligniiics a certain divi- 
 fion, or part, of a play, deligncd to give fome rcfpitc 
 both to the artors and Ipcrtaiors. The Romans were 
 the tirfl who divided thtir theatrical pieces into srts ; 
 fer no fuch divilions appear in the works of the lirll 
 dramatic poets. Their pieces indeed eonfilled of feve- 
 ral parts or divilions, which they called prr^iafu, epi- 
 tafii, ciitiijlalh, and iatajlriphe ; but thefedivifions were 
 not marked by any real interruptions on the theatre. 
 Nor does Aridotle mention any thing of arts in his Art 
 of Poetry. But, in tli« time of Horace, all regular 
 and finidicd pieces were divided into five a.ls. 
 
 N Ncuvf
 
 ACT 
 
 [ 9^ ] 
 
 A C T 
 
 Ni'ivt minor, ncii Jit ijuinto jtiodiiHior «i/.v 
 Fabula, (jiix pnfci villi if fpetiata nponi. 
 'l"lie firfl att, according to fonic ci-itics, befidcs in- 
 troducing upon the ftagctlic principal charac^crsol'dic 
 play, oiij;ht to piopofc ihc argununt or fuhjccl of tlic 
 piece ; the fccond, to exhibit tliis to the audience, by 
 carrying the fable into execution; the third, to raifcob- 
 ftacles and difhcultics : the fourtli, to remove thefe, or 
 raifc new ones in the attempt ; and the fifth, to con- 
 clude the piece, by introducing lomc accident tluumay 
 unravel the whole affair. This divifion, however, is 
 not elleniially neccifary ; but may be varied accoruing 
 to the hunieur of the author, or the nature of the fub- 
 jed. See Poetry, Fart 11. Seit. i. 
 Act bf Grace. SccGrace. 
 
 Act, amoaglawyers, is an inftrunient in writing for 
 declaringorjuiUfyingthetrutk of any thing. In which 
 fenfe, records, decrees, fenteuces, reports, certiti- 
 catcs, &c. are called a6ls. 
 
 Acts, alfo denote the deliberations and rcfolutions 
 of an aliembly, fenate, or convention ; as aifls of parlia- 
 ment, S:c. Likcwife matters of faft tranfmittcd to 
 pofterity in certain authentic books and memoirs. 
 
 JcTA Coiijijiurii, the edii.^s or declarations of tlie 
 council of ftate of the emperors. Thefe edifts were 
 generally exprelfed in fuch terms as thefe : " The au- 
 gull emperors, DiocUfian and I\Iaximian, in council de- 
 clared. That the children of Decurions ihould not be 
 cxpofed to wild bcalls in the amphitheatre." 
 
 The fenate and folditrs often fwore, either through 
 abjeftllatteryor by conipulfion, upon the edifis of the 
 emperor, as wc do upon tiie bdlc. And the name of 
 Jfidiui Msrula waserafed by Nero out of theregiller 
 of fenators, becaufe he rcfuftd to fwcar upon the edicts 
 of the emperor Auguflus. 
 
 Acta Diuma, was a fort of Roman gazette, con- 
 taining an authorized narrativcof the traulaftions wor- 
 thy of notice which happened at Rome. Petronius has 
 given us a fpccimen of the a[]a diurna in his account 
 of Trimalehis; and as it may not perhaps be unenter- 
 taining to fee how exaftly a Roman newfpaper runs in 
 the flyle of an American one,the following is an article 
 or two out of it : 
 
 " On the 26th of July, 30 boys and 40 girls were 
 born at Trimalchi's eilate at Cuma. 
 
 " At the fame time a (lave was put to death for ut- 
 tering difrcfpectful words againfl his lord. 
 
 "Thefanic day a fire broke out in Pompey's gardens, 
 which bcganin the night, in the Iteward's apartment." 
 JcTAl'upiili, among the Romans, were journals or 
 regifters of the d:tily occurrences ; asafl'cmblics, triiJs, 
 executions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c. 
 of illurtrious perfons, and the like. Thefe were other- 
 wife called /^il;i Piiblica, and ABaDiuniu, or limply 
 Ada. The Alia differed from Annals, in that only 
 the greater and more important matters were in tlie 
 latter, and thofc of Icfs note were in the iormer. Their 
 origin is attributed to Julius Cxfar, who firfl ordered 
 the keeping anJ making public theactsof the people. 
 Some trace them higher, to ServiusTullius ; who, to 
 difcovcr the number of perfons born, dead, and alive, 
 ordered that the next of kin, upon a birth, fliould put 
 a certain piece of money into the treafury of Juno Lu- 
 cina ; upon a death, into that of Venus Libitina: the 
 like was alfo to be done upon alliiniing the toga virilis, 
 
 &c. Under Marcus Antoninus, this was cari-ied fur- 
 ther : perfons were obliged to notify the births of tlu ir 
 children, with their names and furnamcs,thc day,con- 
 f.il, and whether legitimate or fpurious, to tlie praifciils 
 of the JErarimii Suturin, to be entered in the public 
 afls ; though before this time the births of perfons of 
 quality appear thus to have been regillered. 
 
 Acta Senatus, among the Romans, were minutes 
 of what palled and was debated in the fenate-houfc. 
 Thefe were alfo called Conwientarli, and by a Greek 
 name tj^ufit^ixtTa.. They had their origin in the con- 
 fulfiiip of Julius Cacfar, who ordered them both to be 
 kept and j sblilhcd. The keeping them was continued 
 under Augullus, but the publication was abrogated. 
 Afterwards all writings, relatingtothedccrces orfcn- 
 tcnccs of the judges, or whatpalfed and was done be- 
 fore them, or by their authority, in any eaule, were 
 alfo called by the name Acia : Jn which fenfe wc read 
 of civil adfs, criminal afts, intervcnient afts ; ada ci- 
 vilia, cri7nii:alia, iiitcrvciiieiitia, &c. 
 
 Piil'/ic Acts. The knowledge of public ai51s forms 
 part of a peculiar fcience, called the Diplomatic, 
 of great importance to an hilforian, ilatefman, chro- 
 nologcr, and even critic. The prefervation of them 
 was the firft occafion of ereding libraries. The flyle 
 of aifls is generally barbarous Latin. Authors are di- 
 vided as to the rules of judging of their genuiiienefs, 
 and even whether there be any certain rule at all. F. 
 Germon will have the greater part of the ai^s of former 
 ages to be fpurious. Fontanini aflerts, that the num- 
 ber of forged afts now extant is very fm'all. It is cer- 
 tain there were fcvere punilliments inflicf ed on the for- 
 gers and faUiliers of ads. — The chief of the Englilli- 
 a<5ts, or public records, are publiflied by Rymer, under 
 the title of f^ri/i'r^, and continued by Saunderfon ; an 
 extraclwhereof has been givcnin French byRapin,and 
 tranHatcd into Englilh under the title of Acta Regia. 
 Great commendations have been given this work : alfo 
 fome cxceptionsmade to it ; as thatthereare many fpu- 
 rious a'^is, as w ell as errors, in it ; fome have even char- 
 ged it with falfifications. — The public afts of France 
 fell into the hands cf the Englilh after the battle of 
 Poitiers, and are commonly faid to have been carried 
 by them out of the country. But the tradition is not 
 fupported by any fujHcient teflimony. 
 
 Acts 'jfih; Apopies, one of the facred books of the 
 NewTcilament, containing the hiftoryof the infant- 
 church, during the fjuce of 29 or 50 years from the 
 afccnlion of our Lord to the year of Chrili;6 5. — It was 
 written by St Luke ; and addreffed to Theophilus, the 
 perfon to whom thecvangelill had before dedicated his 
 gofpcl. Weherefind theaccomplilhmentoffeveralof 
 the promifesmade by our Saviour; his afccnfion ; the 
 defccntofthe Holy Cihofl; the firft preaching of the a- 
 po;Hcs, and the miracles whereby their doctrines were 
 confirmed ; an adniirablepidureof the manners of the 
 primitive Chriftians ; and, iii Ihort, every thing that 
 palFedin the church till the uifperfion of the apoliles, 
 who fcparuted themfelvcs in order to propagate the 
 gofpel throughout the world. From the period of that 
 feparation, St Luke quits the hiftory of the other apo- 
 flles, who were then at too great a diftancc from him, 
 and confines himfclf more particularly to that of St 
 Paul, who had chofen him for the companion of his 
 labours. Ke follows that apoftlc in all his niilfions, 
 
 and 

 
 A C 'i^ 
 
 [ 99 ] 
 
 ACT 
 
 AA*. 
 
 *ictAbJiai 
 
 4 Efeub ii. 
 Hijl EccUu 
 lib.ii.cap.2< 
 and ix. J. 
 
 tCavc«;/f. 
 L iter jr. 
 
 anJ even Roine itfdf ; for it appears that the Ai'ls 
 wcrcpublilhc-di:uhcfccoiiJycaroi StPauli'srcliJcncc 
 in that city, or the 36"' year of tlic ChrilHan xn, ami 
 in the 9''' or lo"" ycarof Kcro's reign. The llylc of 
 this work, which was originally compofcd in Greek, is 
 much purer than thatof tlic other canonical writers j 
 and it is obfcrvable, that St Luke, who was nuich better 
 acquainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, always, in his quotations from the OKI Tella- 
 nient, makes ufc of the Scpluagint verfion. The coun- 
 cil of Laodicca places the AiXs of the ApolUes among 
 the canonical books, and all the churches have ac- 
 knowledged it as fuch without any controverfy. 
 
 There were fcveral Spurious Acts of the Apo- 
 stles ; panicularly, I. A{li, fuppofcd to be written 
 by Abdias*, the pretended biflioji of Babylon, who 
 gave out that he was ordained bili;op by the Apofllcs 
 thenifclvcs when they were upon their journey into 
 Perlia. II. The Aits if St I'eter : tilis bcKjk came o- 
 riginally from the fchool of the Ebionites. III. The 
 Ms of St Patil, which is entirely loft. Eufcbius, who 
 had feen it, pronounces it of no authority. IV. Th: 
 jids of St John the Evaiigelijf ; a book made ufe of by 
 Vac EncratiteSjManichaeans, and Prifcillianifts. V .The 
 Ads of Sty4ti(/riiu ; received by the Manicheaens, En- 
 cratitcs, an Apotaflics. VT. Tie Alh oj St Thoirms the 
 Apojile ; received particularly by the Manichaans. 
 VII. The Acls of St rhilip. This book the Gnoftics 
 made ufc of. VIII. The Alh of St Matthias. Some 
 have imagined that the Jews for a long time had con- 
 cealed thcoriginal acls of the life and deathof St Mat- 
 tiiias written in Hebrew j and that a monk of the ab- 
 bey of St Matthias at Treves, having got them out of 
 their hands, procured them to be tranllated into Latin, 
 and publilhcd them ; but tlie critics will not allow them 
 to be authentic. 
 
 Acts oj Pilate ; a relation fcnt by Pilate to the em- 
 perorTiberius, concerning Jefus Chrift, his death, re- 
 furrcflion, afcenfion, and the crimes of which he was 
 convicted before himf . It was a cuftom among the 
 Romans, that the proconfuls and governors of provin- 
 ces (hould drawup ails or memoirs, of what happened 
 in the conrfeof their government, and fend them to the 
 emperor and fcnate. The genuine a(ts of Pilate were 
 fentby him to Tiberius, who reported tlicm to the fc- 
 nate ; but they were reje(5lcd by that afl'cnibly, btcaufc 
 not immediately addrelfed to them : as is tcitificd by 
 Tertullian, in his Apol. cap. j. and 20, 21. The 
 heretics forged ads in imitation of them : in the reign 
 of the emperor Maximin, the Gentiles, to throw an 
 odium on tlie Chriftian name, fprcad about fpurious 
 Afts of Pilate ; which the emperor, by a folcmn edict, 
 ordered to be fent into all the provinces of the empire, 
 and enjoined the fchool-uiafters to teach and explain 
 them to their fcholars, and make thera learn them by 
 heart. Thefc a,.1s, both the genuine and the fpurious, 
 are loft. There is indeed extant, in the Pfeudo-Hcge- 
 fippas, a letter from Pilate to the emperor Claudius, 
 concerning Jefus Chrift J ; but it difcovers itfelf at 
 firft fight not to be authentic. 
 
 Act of Parliament of Great Britan, is a pofitivc 
 law, confifting of two pans, the words of the ai5t, and 
 its true fcnfe and meaning ; which being joined, 
 make the law. The words of afts of parliament (Iiould 
 be taken in a lawful fenfe. Cafes of the fame nature arc 
 
 within the intcii'.ion, tho.igli without the letter, of 
 tlic act ; and funic atts extend by equity to things not 
 mentioned therein. Sec Parliamewt. 
 
 AQTAl, were meadows of remarkable verdure anJ 
 luxiiriancy near the fea-lhore, where the Romans ufcj 
 to indulge thenifclvcs to a great degree in foftncfsand 
 delicacy of living. The v/ord is ufcdiu this fenfe by 
 Cictro and Virgil ; but Vollius thinks it can only be 
 ufed in fpcaking of Sicily, as thtfc two authors did. 
 
 ACT/EA, AcoNiTUM Racemosum, Herb Cris- 
 topher, or Baxe-berries ; a genus of the inou'jgy- 
 nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. 
 The characters arc : the caljx is a pcrianthium con- 
 filling of four roundiih, obtufc, concave leaves, which 
 fall ott". Tlie «rs//<7 confi;ls of four petals, larger 
 than the calyx, pointed at both ends, and falling otf. 
 '1 be jlamiua conlill of numerous capillary filaments ; 
 the anihera are roundiih, crcft, and didymous. The 
 pifiilium has an ovate germ.cn j no ftylas ; the fligina 
 thickilli and obliquely dcprcdcd. The pericarpium is 
 an oval fniooth one-furrow'd one-ccU'd berry. The 
 feeds are very numerous, fcmiorbicular, and incumbent 
 in a double order. — This genus is alFociattd with the 
 Muliijitiqtia, the 26"" natural order. There arc four 
 
 Species and properties. I. The fpicata, or common 
 hcrb-chriftophcr,is a native in fcveral parts of Britain. 
 It grows to the height of about two feet and a half ; 
 the foot-ftalks of the leaves arifc from the root ; thcfc 
 divide into three fniallerfoot-ttalks, each of which arc 
 again divided into three, and thefe have each three 
 lobes , fo that each leaf is compofcd of 27 lobes or fmal- 
 ler leaves. The flowers grow in ramous fpikes, and arc 
 of a pure white: they are borne upon a dcndcr, jointed, 
 and furrowed llcm; appear inMay; and are fucceedcdby 
 black, fhining, pulpy berries, about the li^c of peas, 
 whicii ripen in the autumn. This plant is a powerful 
 repellent, and the root has been ufed internally in fomc 
 nervous cafes, but muft be adminiftercd with caution. 
 The berries arc highly poifonous. It isfaid toads re- 
 fort to this plant, on account of its fetid fmell. Sheep 
 and goats cat it ; cows, horfcs, and fwinc refufe it. 
 2. The alba, or Amcricanhcrb-chriftophcr, isa native 
 of North America. The leaves of this fpccics arc fomc- 
 what like the former, but not fo deeply indented in iho 
 edges. The flowcrsgrowin a morecompael fpike, and 
 the berries arc very white and tranfparent when ripe ; 
 the roots arc compofcd of thick knobs. This fpecics 
 has been ufed as an emetic, and fometimes called ipe- 
 cacoaiiha. 3. The raceinofa, or American black or wild 
 inakcroot, is likewife a native of Nonh-Amtrica. It 
 has large compound Icavcs.riling immediately from the 
 root, and branched after the fame manner as the firft 
 which grow more than two feet high. The flowcr- 
 ftcm rifcs to the height of four or five feet; and carries 
 along fpike of white ilowers refiedrled atthetop. Thcfc 
 appear in June or the beginning of July, but the feeds 
 do not come to maturity in Britain. The root of this 
 plant is greatly ufed by phylicians in this country, 
 in many diforders ; and is fuppofcd to be an antidote a- 
 gainft poifon, or the biting of a raitle-fuakc. 4. The 
 cimicifuga, is A native of Siberia ; the leaves rcfemblc 
 thcfc of the feathered columbine ;theftalks ri£e little 
 more than a foot high, fupporting particles of white 
 flowers, which appear in ftlay. This fpecies is rare 
 in Britain. 
 
 N 2 Culture. 
 
 AftT,
 
 ACT 
 
 [ 100 1 
 
 ACT 
 
 Culture. Tlic (irfl fpccics hath .1 perennial root, 
 but the ihlks aumially decay. It may be propagated 
 either by feeds, or parting the roots, which flwiiki be 
 traMfplaiUcd iuu'iiiimn. 1 he I'ecds Ihoiild be IbwrJooii 
 after tlicy src ripe, or they will lie a w hole year in the 
 ground before they vegetate. They liiould befoWii in 
 a fliady border : and as all the plants do not come up at 
 the fame time, the border ihoald not be di;-ti;rbcd till 
 the following autumn, when they ihould betranfplant- 
 cd into a fhady border, where they may be allo\\ed to 
 remain and flower. — The fecond ipecies may be pro- 
 pogated in the fame manner : only the pLiiits ihould 
 be allowed three feet every way, on account of their 
 wide-1'preading leaves. This fpecics delights in a 
 light r.ioill foil, and lliady liiuation — The third is 
 nfually propagated by feeds feiii annually from North 
 America : it thrives in the fame kind of foil as thefor- 
 mer ; and is very hardy, requiring no other culture 
 than the common tlowering-lhrubs. 'I'he plants fliould 
 not be often removed for that will prevent their How- 
 
 ering llrong The fourth requires a moill; loamy foil, 
 
 and ihady iltuation. It may be propagated in the fame 
 manner as the others. 
 
 ACTytON, in fabulous hiflory, the fon of Arifl^tus 
 and Autonoe ; a great hunter. He was turned by Di- 
 ana into a ftag, for looking on her while bathing ; and 
 died by his own dogs. 
 
 ACTAXIA, an iiland, .-iccording to Pliny, in the 
 North fea. It lies to the well of Holilein and Dit- 
 mcrfch, not far from the mouth of the Eyder and Elbe, 
 and is now called Hcytiglatid. 
 
 ACTE. Sec Sam Bi'cus. 
 
 ACTIAN Games, in Roman antiquity, were foicmn 
 games inllituted by Augultus, in memory of his vic- 
 tory over Marc Anthony at Aftium, held every lifih 
 year, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fuice called 
 Mitus. Hence Aciiau Years, an jera commencing from 
 the battle of Actium, called the JEra of Angujtus. 
 
 Virgil irifinuates them to have been inflituted by -'E- 
 ucas; from that pallage Kn. HI. v. 2S0. 
 Aitiaqiic Jl.acis Q.hbrajiius litora litdis. 
 
 i^LS. iii. 2S0. 
 But this he only does by way of compliment to Auguf- 
 tus ; attributing that to the hcto from whom he de- 
 fcended, which was done by the emperor himfelf : as 
 is obfcrvcd by Servius. 
 
 .ACTINIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to tlie 
 order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and 
 fmootli, attaching itfclf lirmly by its balls to rocks or 
 other folid fubrtances, having a dilatable apex hooked 
 within. The mouth is furniihed with crooked teeth, 
 thcroftrum cylindrical and radiated. There are five 
 fpccies, fomc of which make a beautiful appearance, 
 and arc called Annual Flo'Jj:;rs, S;a Aueji.-oniis, and 
 Urti'.a Miiiiiia. See A n t m a i. Fionvir. 
 
 Progrellive motion in ihefe creatures is fo How, that 
 it isditiicult topcrtf iveany,as they fcarce advance the 
 1( ngth of one inch in an hour. It would fecm they do 
 not sll produce, when handled, the painful fcnfaiion 
 which had acquired them the name oi fsj-iuttlci — 
 They are viviparous, feed on (hcllnni, open their mouth 
 more or lefs according to the lize of the prey they have 
 to de-il with, and then rcjcft the fnell through the fame 
 aperture. When the mouth is open, all the tenticula 
 of the adinia may- be fcen, rcfcmbling in that fituatiou 
 
 a full-blown flower, which has given it the dcnomi- Aflio. 
 nation of \\\epu'AK-rfipK ' « — 
 
 ACTIO, in Roman antiquities, an ai5iion at law in 
 a court ofjullice. The forniirtiiies ufed by the Ro- 
 mans, injudicial adliuns, were thefc : If the ditference 
 tailed to be made up by friends, the injured perfons 
 proceeded //; jus rcuvt vocan, to fummon the offending 
 party to the court, who was obliged to go and give bond 
 tor his appearance. 
 
 The oitcnding party might be fumnioned into courc 
 viviivcce, by the plaintilfhimfclf meeting the defen- 
 dant, declaring his intention to him, and commanding 
 him to go before the magifirate and make his defence. 
 If he would not go willingly, he might drag and force 
 him along, unlets he gave fecurity for his appearance 
 on Ibme appointed day. If he failed to appear on the 
 day agreed on, then the plaintiri', whcnfoeverhe met 
 him, might take him along with him by force, calling 
 any by-ltandtrs to bear W'itnefs, by alkingthem vi/rii: 
 antejlari ; the by-flanders upon this turned ihcir ear to- 
 wards him in token of their coufcnt : To this Horace 
 alludes in his Sat. againil the impertinent. Lib. I . Sat. 
 9. See this further explained under the article An- 
 
 TESTARI. 
 
 Bath parties being met before the pr«tor, or other 
 fupreme magifirate prcfidingin the court, (he plaintift 
 propoft. d the attion to the defendant ; in which he de- 
 Jigncd to profeciite him. This they termed cdcre ac- 
 tionem ; and was corrmonly performed by W'riting it in 
 a tablet, andolieringit to the defendant, that he might 
 fee whether he had better Hand the fuit or com- 
 pound. 
 
 In the next place came the poptihtio a{lionis , or the 
 plantiti's petition to the prsetor, for leave to profecutc 
 the defendant in fuch an adion. The petition was 
 granted by writing at the bottom of it nfiionem do, or 
 refufcd by writing in the fame manner aHi^netu noii 
 do. 
 
 The petition being granted, the ^\z.Vi\\?i vadahattir 
 reum, i. e. obliged him to give fureties for his appear- 
 ance on fuch a day in the court ; and this w-as all that 
 was done in public, before the day fixed upon for the 
 trial. 
 
 In the mean time, the difference was often made up, 
 either tranfaBioni:, by lettingthecaufcfall as dubious ; 
 or paCiiane, by conipofition for damages amongll 
 friends. 
 
 On the day appointed for hearing, the prastor or- 
 dered the feveral bills to be read, and the parties fum- 
 moned by an accmifiis, or beadle. See Accensi. 
 
 Upon the non-appearance of cither pai.y, the de- 
 faulter lofl his caufe ; — if they both appeared, they 
 were faid fi: f\ stir's ; and the the plaiiuifF proceeded 
 liietn fiv! alliontiiilntcitdvre, i. e. to prefer his fuit, 
 which was done in a fet form of words, varying accor- 
 ding to the difference of the aftions. After this the 
 plaintiff delired judgment oftlie praetor, that is, robe 
 allowed a judix or arbiter, or elfe the rccuperaton:! or 
 centumviri. Thefe he requeflcd for the hearing and 
 deciding the bufinefs ; but none of them could be de- 
 fired but by the confent of both parties. 
 
 The pr.'sior having aHigned them their judges, de- 
 fined and determined the number of witnelfes to bead- 
 milted, to hinder the protracling of the fuit ; and 
 then the parties proceeded to give their caution, that 
 
 the
 
 ACT 
 
 [ loi 1 
 
 A C 1' 
 
 ilicjuJKiiicnr, whaicvcrkwas, illo^ll.lftanJan•.ibcpcr- 
 ' fi)i-iiicd onboili fides, 'riicjadgcs took a t'olrninuach 
 to be imparlial; and the parties took l\\cj:'r.i»u-».'.-iiu 
 calumiiia. Then the ti ial W-^iw with the afilftancc of 
 witriellcs, writings, 8:c. which was called djccftaih 
 
 Action, in a general ftnfc, iinplics nearly the 
 fume thing with Act. — Grammarians, however, ob- 
 fcrvc fomc dillintlion between afl/o/zand ail ,• ilic for- 
 mer being generally reftrit'ted to the common or ordi- 
 nary trsnfactions, whereas the latter is ufed tocxprcfs 
 thofc which are remarkable. Thus, wc fay it is a good 
 eSlion to comfort the unhappy ; it is a generous ah to 
 deprive ourfclves of what is nccelury for tlieir fake. 
 The wife man propofcs to hinifelf an honcfl end in all 
 his ti{fio)ts ; a prince ought to mark every day of his life 
 with fomc a{l of greatnefs. The a!)b^ Cirard makes a 
 further diflindion between the words action and aff. 
 The former, according to him, has more relation to the 
 power that afts than the latter ; whereas the latter has 
 more relation to the eifeCt produced than the former : 
 and hencethe one isproperly theattributeof the other. 
 Thus wc may properly fay, " Be Aire to prcfervc a 
 prefcnce of mind in all your adlions ;and take care that 
 they all be acts of equity." 
 
 Action, in mechanics, implies cither the effort 
 which a body or power maJ^es again fl another body or 
 power, or the effeifl itfelf of that.etfort. 
 
 Asitisnccelfiry in works of this kind to have a par- 
 ticular regard to the common language of mechanics 
 and philofophcrs, vve have given this double detiiiition : 
 but the proper fignification of the term is the motion 
 which a body really produces, or tends to produce, in 
 another ; that is, fuch is the motion it would have pro- 
 duced, had nothing hindered its cffedl. 
 
 All power is nothing more than a body actually in 
 motion, or which tends to move itfelf ; that is, a body 
 which would move itfelf if nothing oj'pofcd it. The 
 adion therefore of a body is rendered evident to us by 
 its motion only ; and confequently we muft not fix any 
 other idea to the word adion, than that of adlual mo- 
 tion, or a fiuiple tendency to motion. The famous que- 
 lliou relating to -ois viva, and vii mortua, owes, in all 
 probability, its e.\iftence to an inadequate idea of the 
 word action ; forbad Leibnitz and hisfoUowersobfer- 
 ved, that the only precife and diiUniit idea we can give 
 to the word force or aition, reduces it to its effir .51, that 
 is, to the motion it adlually produces or tends to pro- 
 duce, they would never have made that curious dif- 
 tinclion. 
 
 (lliaiitity of Acriox, a name given by ]\J. de M.ui- 
 periuis, in the Memoirs of the Pariiian Acailemy of 
 Sciences for i 744, and thofc of Berlin for i 746, to the 
 product of the mafs of a body by the fpace w liich it 
 runs through, and by its celerity. He lays it down 
 as a general law, "that, in thechsnges made in the 
 "rtatcof ahody, the quantity of adtion neceflary to pro- 
 " ducc fuch a change, is the lealt pofTiblc." This prin- 
 ciple he applies 10 the invcfligation of ilie laws of rc- 
 lrai5lion,of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of 
 aiJifng employed by the Supreme Being. In tliis man- 
 ner M. de Maupertuis attempts to cnnccl the meta- 
 phylics of ilnal caufcs with the fundamcndal truths of 
 mechanics, to Ihow the dependence of the coliiiion of 
 both ehftic and hard bodies upon one and the fame law, 
 
 which before had always been rc/errtil to I'rptr.-.tc 
 laws ; and 10 reduce the laws of motion, aiul thofc of 
 equilibrium, to one and the fame principle. 
 
 AcrxoN, in ethics, dcnotcstheextcrnaliignsorc.K- 
 prcflions of the fentiments of a moral agtut. See 
 AcTlVL lo-vjsr, infra. 
 
 Action, in poetry, the fame with fubjeft or fable. 
 Critics generally diJliugui.li two ki:'.ds, the principal 
 .Tnd tiie incidental. The principal action ii what is 
 generally called i\\c fable ; and the incidental an ept- 
 fJc. See Poetry, Part 11. 
 
 Action, in oratory, is the outward deportment of 
 the orator, or the accommodation of his tountenancc, 
 voice, and gcflure, to the fubjcitoi which he is treat- 
 ing. See Oratory, Part IV. 
 
 Action, in a theatrical fcnfe. See Declamati- 
 on, Art. IV. 
 
 Actios for thi Fulpit. Sec Declamation, .\rt. I. 
 
 Action, in painting and fculpture, is the attitude 
 or pofition of the feveral parts of the face, body, and 
 limbs of fuch figures as arc reprcfcnied, and whereby 
 they fccm to be really aftuated by paliions. Thus wc 
 fay, the aftion of fuch a figure hncly exprelTcs the 
 paflions with which it is agitated : wc alio ufc th« 
 fame cxprcliion with regard to animals. 
 
 Action, in phyliology, is applied to the function? 
 of the body, whether vital, animal, or natural. 
 
 The c/w/ functions, or actions, are thofc which are 
 abfo'utely nccelTary to life, and without which there is 
 no life, as the aftion of the heart, lungs, and arteries. 
 On the action aHd reaction of the folids and iluids o.i 
 each other, depend the vital functions. The pulfc and 
 rcfpiration are the external llgnsof life. Vital difeafcJ 
 are all thofc which hinder the influx of the venous 
 blood into the cavities of the heart, and the expidhon 
 of the arterial blood tVom the fame. — The /w/.vr.j/ func- 
 tions are thofe which are inllrumental in repairing the 
 feveral lolfcs which the body fuflains ; for lifeisdcf- 
 truftive of itfelf, its very otRces occafioning a perpe- 
 tual wafle. Thcmanducation of food, the deglutition 
 and digeftion thereof, alio the fcparation and didribu- 
 lion of the chyle and exerementitous parts, &c. arc 
 under the head of natural functions, as by thcfe oura- 
 liment is converted into our nature. They arc nccclfa- 
 rytothe continuance of our bodies. — Tlieanir/ia! func- 
 tions arc thofc which we perform at will, as mufcular 
 motion, and all the voluntary actions of the body, they 
 are thofe which conftitutc the fenfes of touch, taflc, 
 finell, fight, hearing ; perception, rcafoaintr, imagina- 
 tion, memory, judgment, atFcftionsof themind.\S'i;h- 
 out any, or all oftheui, a man may live, but not fa com- 
 fortably as with them. 
 
 Action, in commerce, is a term ufed abroad for a 
 certain part or lliare of a public company's capital 
 Aock. Thus if a conipany has 400.000 livres capital 
 Hock, this may be divided into 4C0 actions, caeli con- 
 lifting of 1000 livres. Hence a man is f.iid to have two, 
 four, &c. actions, according as he has the property of 
 two, four, cic. 1000 livres capital Itock. The trans- 
 ferring of actions abroad is performed much in the 
 fame manner as ftocks are in England. See .Stock?:. 
 
 Action, in law, is a demand made before .t jid^c 
 for obtaining what wc arc legally iniiiled to demand, 
 and is more cn-nmonly kiiowu by the nime <>i I'a-^-fnit 
 or fraccf J. See Suit. 
 
 ACTIONARY, 
 
 AAin.l.
 
 ACT 
 
 [ t 
 
 »/i tic Ac- 
 ti-ve Pciifrs 
 ff Man, 
 P- IT* 
 
 ACTIONAllY, or Actionist, a proprietor of 
 ftock in a trading company. 
 
 ACTIONS, aiiioiu' merchants, fomctimes fignify 
 moveable ctfeds ; and we fay the merchant's creditors 
 have feizcd on all his aflions, when we mean that they 
 have taken poirdllon of all his active debts. 
 
 ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates 
 aftion or motion to anotlicr ; in which acceptation it 
 Hands oppofcd to padive. 
 
 Active, in grammar, is applied to fiich words as . 
 exprefsaflion;andis thcrcforeoppofed topaffivc. The 
 adive performs the adion, as the pallivc receives it. 
 ThVis we fay, a verb ailive, a conjugation nBive, &c. 
 or an aOivc participle. 
 
 j4cTtrE Verbs, arcfuch as do not only lignify doing, 
 or ading ; but have alfo nouns following them, to be 
 the fubjcd of the aftion or imprellion : thus. To love, 
 to teach, arc verbs a^livc ; becaufe we can fay. To love 
 it thing, to teach a ti.-an. Neuter verbs alfo denote an 
 adlion, but are diftingnidicd from adivc verbs, in that 
 ihey cannot have a noun following them : fuch arc 
 To Jlcep, to go, i7c. — Some grammarians, however, 
 make three kiiidsof active verbs: xXxctiaiifdOive ,\\\\cxc 
 the aftion pail'cs into a fubjcc^ ditfc-rent from the agent : 
 rcficOcd, where the aflion returns upon the agent ; 
 tmA reciprocal, where the action turns mutually upon 
 the two agents who produced it. 
 
 AcTivF. Po-iver, in metaphylics, the power of exe- 
 cuting any work or labour : in ccntradiftinciion to 
 fpeciilative powers*, or the powers of feeing, hearing, 
 remembering, judging reafoning, &c 
 
 The exertion of aftivc power we call acfion ; and 
 as every action produces fomc change, fo every change 
 muR be caufcd by fome ciieft, or by the ccllation of 
 fomc exertion of power. That which produces a 
 change by the e;xerlion of its power, we call the caiife 
 of that change ; and the change produced, tke efftfl 
 uf that caufe. See Met.^ph ysics. 
 
 j4ctive Princifh-s, in chemillry, fuch as are fuppofed 
 lo ad without any alTiHance from others ; as mercury, 
 fulphur, &c. 
 
 ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of act- 
 ing, or the atlive faculty. See Active. 
 
 Sphcn of AcTivirr, the whole fpace in wliich the 
 virtue, power, or iniiuence, of any olijed, is exerted. 
 
 ACTIUM (anc. geog.), a town fituated on the 
 foaft of Acarnania, in itfelf inconfiderable, but famous 
 for a temple of Apollo, a fafe harbour, and an adjoin- 
 ing promontory of the fame name, in the mouth of 
 the Sinus Ambracius, over againft Nicopolis, on the 
 other lide of the bay : it afterwards became more fa- 
 mous on account of Angnflus's vidory over Anthony 
 and Cleopatra; and for quinquennial games inltitutcd 
 there, ciWeti J^ia or Lii.li AcTiaci. Hence the epi- 
 thet ji/i??////, given to Apollo (Virgil). Jliiaca ^ra, 
 a computation of time from the battle of Adium. The 
 promontory is now called Capo di Figalo. 
 
 ACTIUS, inmythology, a furnair.e of Apollo, from 
 Adiuni, where he was worlhipped. 
 
 ACTON, a town near London, where is a well that 
 affords a purging water, w-hich is noted for the pun- 
 gency of its fait. This water is whitilh, to the tafte it 
 is fweetilh, with a mixture of the fame bitter which is 
 in the Epfom water. The fait of this water is not quite 
 fo (oft as that of Epfom ; and is more calcareous than 
 
 02 ] ACT 
 
 it, being more of the nature of the fait of lime : for a 
 quantity of the Adon water being boiled high, on be- ^ 
 ing mixed with a foluiion of fublimatc in pure water, 
 threw down a yellow fcdiment. The fait of the Adon 
 water is more nitrous than that of Epfom ; it Itrikcs a 
 deep red, or purple, with the tiiidure of logwood in 
 brandy, as is ufual with nitrous falts ; it does not pre- 
 cipitate lilver out of the fpirit of nitre, as common fait 
 docs: I ; lb of this water yields 48 grains of fait. 
 
 ACTOR, in general, (ignifies a perfon who ads or 
 performs fomething. 
 
 Actor, among Civilians, the prodor or advocate 
 in civil courts or caufcs : as, ^iVrt/r ecclef^ has been 
 fomelimes ufed for the advocate of the church ; a{hr 
 domiiiicus for the lord's attorney ; a{lor villcc, the llew- 
 ard or head baililFof a village. 
 
 Actor, in the drama, is a perfon who reprefcnts 
 fome part or charadcr upon the theatre. The drama 
 coniilkd originally of nothing more thanafimple cho- 
 rus, who fung hymns in honour of Bacchus ; fo that 
 the primitive adors were only fingers and mulicians. 
 Thefpis was the firft that, in order to cafe this un- 
 formed chorus, introduced a declaimer, who repeated 
 fome heroic or comic adventure, ^ii^fcliylus, finding a 
 linglc perfon tirefome, attempted to introduce a fe- 
 cond, and changed the ancient recitals into dialogues. 
 Mc alfo drclled liis adors in a more majcftic manner, 
 and introduced the cothurnus or buikm. Sophoclci 
 added a third, inordcrtoreprefentthe variousincidcnts 
 in a more natural manner: and here the Greeks Hopped, 
 at leall we do not lind in any of their tragedies above 
 three perfons in the fame fccne. Perhaps they lookcu 
 upon it as a rule of the dramatis poem, never to admit 
 more tlian three fpeakers at a time on the flage ; a rule 
 which Horace has exprelfed in the following verfe : 
 
 Nee quarta loqiii perfona lahoret. 
 This, however, docs not prevent their increafing the 
 number of adors in comedy. Before the opening of a 
 play, they named their adors in full theatre, together 
 with the parts they were to perform. The ancient 
 adors were mafked, and obliged to raife their voice 
 extremely, in order to make themfelves heard by the 
 innumerable crowd of people who filled the amphithe- 
 atres: thcywere accompanied with a player on thertute, 
 who played a prelude, gave them the tone, and play- 
 ed while they declaimed. Horace fpeaks of a kind of 
 fecondary adors, in his time, whofe bulinefs was to 
 imitate the firft ; and IclTcn themfelves, to become bet- 
 ter foils to their principals. 
 
 The moderns have introduced an infinite number of 
 adors upon tlie flage. This heightens the trouble and 
 diftrefs that lliould reign there, and makes a divcrfity, 
 in which the fpedator is Ak'c to be interefled. 
 
 Adors were highly honoured at Alliens. At Rome 
 they were defpifed, and not only deiiyed all rank among 
 the citizens, but even when any citizen appeared upon 
 the flage he was expelled his tribe and deprived of the 
 right of fufFrage by cenfors. Cicero, indeed, efteems 
 the talents of Rofcius : but he values Ivij virtues flill 
 more ; virtues which diftinguiflied him fo remarkably 
 above all others of his profelfion, that they feemed to 
 have excluded him from the theatre. The French 
 have, in this refped, adopted the ideas of the Romans; 
 and the Englilh thofe of the Greeks. 
 
 Actor, the name of fevcral perfons in fabulous hi- 
 
 Hory 
 
 Aflor.
 
 ACT [1 
 
 ftcry. One Aclor among the Auriinci is dcfcribcJ by 
 V'ir'i-il as an hero of the lirll rank. /Ek. xii. 
 
 ACTORU MTABULA;,iii antiquity, were tables in- 
 ftituted by Scrvius TuUiiis, in which the birtlis of chil- 
 dren were rcgilUrcd. They were kept in the trcafury 
 of Satiirnus. 
 
 ACTRESS, in a general feafe, a female who acis 
 or performs fomething. 
 
 Actress, in the drama, a female performer. %\'o- 
 men aCtors were unknown to the ancients, among 
 whom men always performed the female charader ; 
 and hence one rea(bn for the ufc of malks among 
 them. 
 
 Aetreflesarc faid not to have been introduced on the 
 Englilh llage till after the rcllor.uion of king Charles 
 II. who has be-n charged with contributing to the 
 corruption of manners by importing this ufage 
 from abroad. But this can be but partly true : the 
 queen of James I. afted a part in a palloral ; and 
 I'rynn, in his Hillriomaftix, fpeaks of women aClors 
 in his time as whores ; which was one oceafion of the 
 fcverc profecution brought againll him for that book. 
 
 Thcreare fome very agreeable and beautiful talents, 
 of which the poircflion commands a certain fort of ad- 
 miration ; but of which the excrcife for the fake of 
 gain is confidered, whether from reafon or prejudice, 
 as a fort of public proditution. The pecuniary recom- 
 pencc, therefore, of thofe who excrcife them in this 
 manner, mull be fufRcient, not only to pay for the 
 time, labour, and expence of acquiring the talents, 
 but for the difcredit which attends the employment of 
 them as the means of fubfiftence. The exorbitant re- 
 wardsof players, opera-fingers, opera-dancers, &c. arc 
 founded upon thofe two principles ; the rarity and 
 beauty of the talents, and the difcredit of employing 
 them ill this manner. It feems abfurd at lirll light 
 that wc fliould defpife their perfons, and yet reward 
 their talents with the moll profufe liberality. While 
 We do the one, however, wc muft of neccihiy do the 
 otlicr. Should the public opinion or prejudice ever al- 
 ter with regard to fuch occupations, their pecuniary 
 reeompence would quickly diminilh. More people 
 would apply to them, and the competition would quick- 
 ly reduce the price of their labour. Such talents, 
 though far from being common, are by no means fo 
 rare as isimagincd. Many people polfcfs them in great 
 perfeftion, who difdaiu to make this ufc of them; 
 and many more are capableof acquiring them, i^any 
 thing could be made honourably by them. 
 
 ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effedlive, or 
 that cxills truly and abfolutely. Thus philofophcrsufc 
 the terms aSlual heat, adtiat cold, &c. in oppolltion 
 to virtual or potential. Hence, among phylicians, a 
 red-hot iron, or fire, is called an actual cautery ; in di- 
 ilintlion from cauteries, or caullics, that have the 
 power of producing the fame tft'ecl upon the animal 
 iblids as aflual fire, and are called pol.ntiiil caute- 
 ries. Hoiliag water is actually hot ; brandy, pro- 
 ducing heat itfthc body, is potcutially hot, though of 
 itfclf cold. 
 
 y4cTV4L Si/t, iliai which is committed by the perfon 
 liimfelf, in oppolltion w origi/taJ fin, or that which he 
 coiuraflcd from beinga child of Adam. 
 
 AC TUARI/E NAVES, a kind of ihips among the 
 Roman*, chicHy dcligncd for fwif; filling. 
 
 ^3 ] 
 
 A C U 
 
 ACTUARIUS, a celebrated Greek pLylician, of Atrtuiriua 
 the I 3"" cCTitury, and tlic lirit Greckauihor wfaj ha'i il 
 treated of mild purgatives, fuch as caCia, manna, fc:. a, •^•ruai, ^ 
 £cc. His'works were printed in one volume folio,by 
 Henry Stcphcn.s, in 1567. 
 
 Aci L, ARius, or AcTARius, 3. Hotarv or officerap- 
 pointed lo write the ads or proceedings of a court, or 
 iheli!;c. In the Ealicrn Lnipire, the attuarii were 
 projicrly officers who kept ilie military accounts, re- . 
 ccivcd the corn from ihc j'ufc^f tores or llorc-kccpcrs, 
 aiul delivered it to the foldiers. 
 
 ACTUATE, to bring into acl, or put a thing 
 in airtion. Thus an igent is faid, by the fchoolmeii, 
 to aduaii a power, when it produces an act in a fub- 
 ject. And thus the mind may be faid to aCluate the 
 body. 
 
 ACTU S,in ancient architc(5lure,a meafurc in length 
 equal to no Roman feet. In ancient agriculture, the 
 word fignilied the length of one furrow or the diAancc 
 a plough goes before it turns. 
 
 jicTUS Minimus, was a quantity of land 120 feet iit 
 length, and four in breadth. 
 
 Acrvi Pt'hjir, or Actus Quadratui, a piece of 
 ground in a fquarc form, whefc lide was equal to 12a 
 feet, equal to half the jugcrum. 
 
 Actus L.tcrvucnalis, a fpace of ground four feet in 
 breadth, left between the lands as a path or way. 
 
 ACUANITES, in cecleliaAical hiftory, the fame 
 with thofe called more frequently Ma nigh ees. They 
 took the name from Acua, a difciplc of Thomas one 
 of the twelve apolHes. 
 
 ACULEATE, or AcuLEATi, a term applied to any 
 plant or animal armed with prickles. • 
 
 ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants. 
 
 ACULER, in the manege, is ufed for the motion 
 of a horfe, when, in working upon volts, he does nut 
 go far enough forward at every time or motion, fo that 
 his Ihoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and 
 his croupe comes too near the centre of the vol:. 
 Horfcs arc naturally inclined to this fault in makin* 
 demi-volts. 
 
 ACUMINA, in antiquity, a kind of military omen, 
 iBoll generally fuppofcd to havo been taken from the 
 points or edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons. 
 
 ACUNA (Chrillopher de), a Spanilh Jefuit, born 
 at Burgos. Kc was admitted into the fociety in 1613, 
 being then but i 5 years of age. After having devoted 
 fome years to ftudy, he went to America, where he af- 
 fifted in making converts in Chili and Peru. In 1640, 
 he returned to Spain, and gave the king an account 
 how far he had fucceedcd in the commilHun he had re- 
 ceived to make difcoveries on the river of the Amazons; 
 and tlic year following he publiihed a dcfcripiion of 
 this river, at Madrid, .\cuna was lent to Rome, ?s 
 procurator of his province. He returned to Spain 
 with the title of (^ualilicaior of the Inquiiition ; bi'.t 
 foou after embarked again for the Weft Indies, and 
 was at Lima in i67}, when father Southwell publiihed 
 at Roinctlie Bibliothcque of the Jefuit writers. Acu- 
 na's work is iniitleJ, Ninz") Jtjcubririieiito dti gran rn 
 de las Amaz'ii:as : i. e. " 3 new difcovcry of the great 
 river of the Amazons." He was ten months togctlier 
 upon this river, having had iiillruclioiis to inq^jire i.it* 
 every thing with the greateflexaelnefs, that his IV '''-•••' 
 might thereby be enabled to »endcr the navi^.. •> 
 
 ill' ■; I-
 
 ADA 
 
 [ 134 ] 
 
 A' D A 
 
 AcTipnnc- more caf/ and connnouioiis. ITc went aboard a lliip 
 at Oiiiio wiih PtiCT Tcxicra, whohadalrcHdy btc-n h> 
 iar uji the livcr, and v. as thcvcfurc tho-.ight a proiicr 
 pcri'oii to accompany him in this expedition. They 
 (rnibarked in February 1619, but did r.ot arrive at Pa- 
 ra till tlie December loliovvin;;;. It is thoiiijht iliat 
 the vcviluiioiis of Portngal, by wliich the Spaniards 
 loil all Dralil, and ihc colony of Para at the month of 
 the rivtrot" the Ania/.ons, were the caiifc that the re- 
 lalior. of this Jt fiiil was In pprelled ; for as it could not 
 1-e of any advantage to the Spaniards, they w ere afraid 
 it might prove of great fervicc 10 the Portugucfc. 
 Tilt copies of this work became extremely fcarce, fo 
 that the prbliihers ol tlic Krcnch tranilaiiou at Paris 
 aliened, that there was not one copy of the original 
 extant, excepting one in the iioirclfion of the tranlla- 
 tor, an J? perhaps, that in the Vatican library. M. de 
 Combervillc was the author of this tr inflation : it was 
 puLliflicd after his death, with a longdilicriion. An 
 account of the original may be fcen in the Paris Jour- 
 nal, in that of Lciplic, and in Chcvcrcau's liillory of 
 the world. 
 
 ACUPUNCTUPvE, the name of .1 furgical opera- 
 lion among the Chincfc and Japaucfc, which is per- 
 formed bypri. king [lie part artcttcd with a filvcr needle. 
 They employ this operation in headachs, lethargies, 
 convulfions, colics, &c. 
 
 ACUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpe- 
 cies of fyngathus. Sec Svnga 1 hus. 
 
 ACUSIO COLON! A, now Ancone, according to 
 Holftenius, between Orange and ^^akncc, near Mou- 
 Lelimart, on the banks of the Rhone. 
 
 ACUTE, an epithet applied to Inch things as ter- 
 minate in a (harp point or edge. And in this fenfc it 
 ftands oppofed to obtufe. 
 
 ^cvTE -riiigUy in geometry, is that which is lefs 
 than a right angle, or which does not fubtend 90 de- 
 grees. 
 
 AcvTE-angUd Triangle, is a triangle whofc three 
 «ngles are all acute. 
 
 AcvTE-angUd Co\E is, according to the ancients, a 
 right cone, whofe axis makes an acute angle with its 
 lide. 
 
 Acute, in mufic, is applied to a found or tone that 
 is fliarp or high, in comparifou of fome other tone. 
 Ill this fenfe, acute ftands oppofed to gruiii. 
 
 Alvte Accent. Sec Accent. 
 
 AcUTu Difiafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crids. 
 This term is ufed for all difeafes which do not fall un- 
 der the head of chronic difeafes. 
 
 ACUTIATOR, in writers of the barbarous ages, 
 denotes a pcrfon that wl\ets or grinds cutting inltru- 
 Tnents; called alfo in ancient gloiraries,ac///sr, ax(n/)iT»{, 
 faimarlui, coharhn, &c. In the aticient armies there 
 M'cre acntiators, a kind of fmitlis, retained for whet- 
 ting or keeping the arms (harp. 
 
 AD, a Latin prepofuion, originally fjgnifying to, 
 and frequently ufed in compolition both vviihaiid with- 
 out the d, to exprcfs the relation of one thing to ano- 
 ther. 
 
 Ad Bejii^u, in antiquity, is the punifliment of cri- 
 minals condemned to be thrown to wild beads. 
 
 Ao Homir.an, in h'gic, a kind of argument drawn 
 from the principles or pi'cjudiccsof thofe with whom 
 re ar^ue. 
 
 An Ludijs, in antiquity, a fcntencc upon criminals 
 among the Romans, \n hereby they were londcnined to 
 cnteriain the people by lightingtither with wild beads, 
 or with one another, and thus executingjulUce upon 
 tliCnifelvcs. 
 
 Ar> IMilalln, in antiquity, the puuiilimeut of fuch 
 criminals as were condemned to the mines, among the 
 Romans ; and therefore called Metuiiici. 
 
 Ad l/'alori.i'.', a term chielly uftd in (peaking of the 
 duties or cufloms paid for certain goods : '1 he duties 
 0:1 fome articles are i>aid by the nNnibcr, v^'eight, mea- 
 furc, tale, &c. ; and others are paid advalonr/i, that is, 
 according to their value. 
 
 ADAGE, a jirovcrb, or (liort fcntencc, coniaining 
 fome wife obfervation or popular f 'y ing. Erafmus ha* 
 made a very large and valuable collection of the Greek 
 and Piouian adages ; and Mr Ray has done the fame 
 with regard to the K^ngliih. We have alio Kelly's 
 coTlection of Scots Proverbs. 
 
 ADAGIO, in mufic. Adverbially, it iignifiesyl^/- 
 /)', h'.'futtiy ; and is ufed to denote the (lowed of all 
 times. Ufed fubftantively, it iignilies a (low move- 
 ment. Sometimes this word is repeated, as adagio, 
 adiigto, to denote a dill greater retardation in the time 
 of the mufic. 
 
 ADALIDES, in the Spanifh policy, arc ofiicers 
 of judicc, for matters touching the military forces. 
 In tile laws of king Alphonfus, the adalides are fpo- 
 ken of as oilicers appciuted to guide and direct the 
 marchiagof the forces in time of war. Lopez repre- 
 Icnts them as a fort of judges, who take cogniAaite of 
 the diderencc arifing upon excurtlous, the didributioii 
 of phuuler, &c. 
 
 ADAM, the fird of the human race, was formed 
 by the Almighty on the lixth day ofthe creation. His 
 body was made of the dud ofthe earth ; after which, 
 God animated or gave it life, and Adam then became 
 arationalcreaturc. — Hisheavenly Parent did not leave 
 hisoliipringin adeditutc date to fliift forhimfelf : but 
 planted a garden, in which he caufed to grow not on- 
 ly every tree that was proper for producing food, but 
 likcwife fuch as were agreeable to the eye, or merely 
 ornamental. In this garden were alfemblcd all the 
 brute creation ; and, by their Maker, caufed to pals 
 before Adam, whogaveallof them names, which were 
 judged proper by the Deity himfelf. — In this review, 
 Adam found none for a companion to himfelf. This 
 folitary date was feen by the Deity to be attended with 
 fome degree of unhappiuefs ; and therefore he threw 
 Adam into a deep llccp, in which condition he took a 
 rib from his lide, aid healing up the wound formed a 
 woman of the rib he had taken out. On Adam's a- 
 waking, the woman was brought tohim ; and he im- 
 mediately knev^ her to be one of his own fpecics, call- 
 ed her his bone and his tlelTi, giving lier the name of 
 •w'jmr.ii becaufe Ihe was taken out of man. 
 
 The fird pair being tluis created, God gave them 
 authority over the inferior creation, commanding them 
 to fubdue rffe earth, alfo to incrcafe and multiply and 
 (ill it. They were informed of the proper food for the 
 beads and for them ; the grafs, or green herbs, being 
 appointed for beads ; and fruits or feeds, for man. 
 Their proper employment alfo was afligiied them ; 
 namely, to drcfs thi garden, and to keep it. 
 
 T hough Atiainv.'a'sthushighly favoured andindruc- 
 
 tcd
 
 ADA 
 
 [ I 
 
 AJam. ted b/ his Maker, there nas a liiiglc tree, wliicli grew 
 
 ' •■'-—^ in the middle of the garden, of the fruit of which they 
 
 were not allowed to cat ; being told, that they IhoulJ 
 furely die in the day they eat of it. This tree was 
 named, the Tree oj the Knowledge of CooJ and Evil. 
 This prohibition, however, they foon broke tlirongh. 
 The woman having entered into cor.vtrfation with the 
 Serpent, was by him ptrfuadcd, tjiat by eating of the 
 tree (lie ihouUl become as wife as God himftlf ; and ac- 
 cordingly, being invited by thcbcaMty of the fruit, and 
 its defirable property of imparting wifdom, Ihe plucked 
 and eat ; giving her hufband of it at the fame time, 
 who did likewife eat. 
 
 Before this tranfgreflion of the divine command, A- 
 dam and his wife had no occafion for clothes, neither 
 had they any fenfe of (hamc ; but immediately on eat- 
 ing the forbidden fruit, they were alhamed of being 
 naked, and made aprons of tig-lcaves for thcmftlves. 
 On hearing the voice of God in the garden, they were 
 terrified, and hid themfclvcs : but being qucltioiicd by 
 the Deity, they confelfed what they had done, and re- 
 ceived fcntence accordingly ; the man being condemn- 
 ed to labour ; the woman to fubjcdion to her luif- 
 band, and to pain in childbearing. They were now 
 driven out of the garden, and their acccfs to it pre- 
 vented by a terrible apparition. They had clothes 
 given them by the Deity made of the Ikins of bcalls. 
 In this Hate Adam had feveral children ; the names 
 of only three of whom we are acquainted with, viz. 
 Cain, Abel, and Scth. He died at the age of 9 jo years. 
 Thcfe are all the particulars concerning Adam's life, 
 that we havcon divineauihority : but a vaft multitude of 
 othersareadded by thejews, Mahometans, andothers; 
 all of which niuft be at befl conjci.1nral ; molt of them, 
 indeed, appear downright falfehoods or abfurditics. 
 The curiofity of our readers, it is prefumcd, will be fuf- 
 ficiently gratified by the few that are here fubjoincd. 
 
 According to the Talmudills, when Adam was cre- 
 ated, his body was of immcufe magnitude. When he 
 fmncd, his flature was reduced loan hundred ells, ac- 
 cording to fome; to nine hundred cubits, according 
 toothers ; who think this was done at the requeft of 
 the angels, who were afraid of fo gigantic a creature. 
 In the idand of Ceylon is a mountain called the Veak 
 or mountain of Adam, from its being according to the 
 tradition of the country, the relidcucc of our firfl pa- 
 rent. Here the print of his fooiftcps, above two palms 
 in length, arc llill pointed out. 
 
 Many reveries have been formed concerning the 
 perfonal beauty of Adam. That he was a handl'ome 
 well-lhapcd man is probable ; but fome writers, not 
 content with this, affirm, that God, iniendiiig to create 
 man, clothed Himfclf with a pcrfedly beautiful human 
 body, making this liis model in the formation of the 
 body of Adam. 
 
 Nor has the imagination been If fs indulged con- 
 cerning the formation of the human Ipecies male iiul 
 female. — It would be endlefs to recount all the vhim- 
 fics that have been wrote on this fubjcifl ; but as Mad. 
 Bourignon has made a confuierable tigure in the reli- 
 ti'ioui, or rather fupcrflitioui world, wc cannot help iii- 
 ferting fome of her opinions concerning the firll mm, 
 which arc peculiarly marvellous. According to tlie 
 reviLitious of this lady, Adam before his fall pollclTcJ 
 'in himfclf the principles of both fe.xes, and the vir- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 05 1 A D .\ 
 
 tuc or power of producing iiii like, wiihout \\.r. 01;- .\^m\. 
 current aiiiftancc "f woinin. The diviiion into tv.o ■~~' 
 
 fexcs, (he imagined*, was a cor>fcqucnc< of man's !i;i ; ' I'r;faceto 
 and now, llic obfcrves, mankind uic become fo many »t>o»kiii- 
 vionflers ii: nature, beino- much Icfs pcrfrct in thij re- '"•'•■"• ■^' 
 fpectthan pUntsor trec:i, whoarc capabicof producing ,,/j „„,„//, 
 their like alone, and without pain or mifcry. She even /„>•», .\«it. 
 imagined, that, being in an ccllacy, we law tlic figure 679. 
 of Adam before he fell, with the manner now, by liim- 
 fclf, he was capablcof procreating other men. ''God," 
 fays Ihc, '< rcprcfentcd to my mind the beauty of tiie 
 lirlt world, and the manner ho'.v he h.id drav, n it from 
 the chaos: every thing was bright,- tranf^-arcnt, and 
 darted forth liglit and incffjble glory. The body or 
 Adam was purer and r.iore tranfparenithancryiUl, and 
 vaRly Hcet ; through this body were fcen veilels and 
 rivulets of light, which penetrated from the Inward ti> 
 the ounvard parts, through all his pares. In fome 
 velfels ran fluids of all kinds and colours, vaftly bright, 
 and quite diaphanous. The nioft raviihing harmoi;/ 
 arofc from every motion ; and nothingrelilled,or coulJ 
 annoy, him. His flature was taller than the prefent 
 race of men : his hair was Ihort, curled, and of a colour 
 inclining to black ; his upper lip covered with ihort 
 hair : and initead of the beftial parts which modefty 
 will not allow us to name, he was falliioned as our bo- 
 dies will be in the life eternal, which I know not whe- 
 ther 1 dare reveal. In that region his nofe was form- 
 ed af'ter the manner of i face, which difiufed the mofl 
 deliciousfra2;rancyandpcrfumes;whencca!fomeu were 
 toillue.all whole principles were inhercntin him ; there 
 being in his belly a veliel, where little eggs were form- 
 ed ; and a fecoud veliel rilled with a fluid, « hich impreg- 
 nated thofc eggs : and when nun heated himfclf in 
 the love of God, the dclire he had that other creatures 
 Ihould exifl belides himfelf, to praife «nd love God, 
 caufcd the fluid abovementioned (by meansof the nrc 
 of the love of God) to drop on one or more o( thefc 
 eggs, with ine.xpreliible delight ; which being thus im- 
 pregnated, ilfacd, fome time at'ter, out of man, by tiiis 
 canal |-, in the fliape of an egg, whence a perfect man t '■ '• '*>< 
 was hatched by infenfible degrees. Woman was form- »j/j.'can>l, 
 td by taking out of Adam's fide t!ie vctfels that con- ^""^"■^" 
 taintd the eggs ; which fhertillpofreires,asis difcovcr- r '"k!j'" 
 ed by anatomills."^' 
 
 Many others have believed, that Adam at his firfl 
 creation was both male and female : otlicrs, that he had 
 two boJiis joining to.j;ether at the Ihoiil 'crs, and tiicir 
 faces lookingopi'olitc w.nys like thof): of Jauus. Hence, 
 fay the fe, when God created Eve, he had no more to 
 do tlian to fcparaie the two bodies from one .iiotlicrj. } See 
 Of all others, however, the opi;iion of ParaeeJfusfccins >*w^i;^»««. 
 the mofl ridicnlo»s||. Ne^i'hit ^rimos psrcutcs ante lap- iHaracdlm 
 fiivi hji'ii'lfe partes "e/ieratiori homiiiit nicelfariai ; ere- "t" , , ,' 
 d. h.it pojiea accejplje, iit ftn.mjvi ^ntttir.. /.fHa,c. ix. 
 
 Extravagant il)iii'.;s ire aliened concernini; Adam's .,. ^,.' 
 knowleiia,e. ]t is very probable that he was inllni'flcd 
 by the Deity how to accompliih the work appointed 
 him, viz. to drefs the grrden, and keep it t'rom being 
 dcllroycd by the brute creatures ; and it is .ilfo proba- 
 ble that he had likewife every piece of knowledge coni- 
 numicaied to him that was either neceinry or plcaling: 
 but that he was acquainted witli grinnetry, mathema- 
 tics, rhetoric, poetry, painting, fculpture, ire. is too 
 ridiculous to be crcvlited by any fobcr perfon. Some 
 O rabbles.
 
 ADA 
 
 [ io6 ] 
 
 ADA 
 
 Adam, 
 
 • Tf?is i> 
 jufl tlic pic- 
 ture i)f the 
 Orion or 
 Polyphe- 
 mus of the 
 poets. JE' 
 veid,'u\ 663 
 *64.i.763 
 
 rabbles, iiulceJ,!iave contented thcmfchcs v\ ith tquul- 
 ling Adam's knowledge to thatof Moles and Solomon ; 
 while others, again, have maintained that lie excelled 
 the angels thcmlVlves. Several Chriitians fcem to be 
 littlebehindthefe Jews in the degree ofknoN\ ledge they 
 afcribc to Adam ; nothing being hid from him, ac- 
 cording to them, except contingent events relating to 
 fiuiirity. One writer indeed (I'incdo) excepts politics ; 
 but a Carthiifian friar, having cxhaufled, in favour of 
 Arillotle, every image and comparifon he could think 
 of, at lall alfcrts that Arillotle's knowledge was as ex- 
 tonlive as that of Adavi. — In confequencc of this fiir- 
 priling knowledge with which Adam was endued, he is 
 fiippoicd to hive been a confiderable author- The Jews 
 pretend that he wrote a book on the creation, and an- 
 other on the Deity. Some rabbles afcribe the 9a'' pfalm 
 to Adam ; and in fome manufcripts the Chaldee title of 
 this pialra exprcfsly declares that this is the fong of 
 praife which tlicfirlt man repeated for the fabbath-day. 
 Various conjecftures have been formed concerning 
 the place where man was firft created, and where the 
 garden of Eden was fituuted : but none of thefc have 
 any folid foundation. The Jews tell us, that Eden was 
 fcparatcd from the refl of the world by the ocean ; and 
 that Adam, being banifhed therefrom, walked acrofs 
 the fea, which he found every way fordable, by rea- 
 fonof his enormous ftature*. The Arabians imagined 
 ■ paradife to have been in the air ; and that our firll: pa- 
 rents were thrown down from it on their tranfgref- 
 fion, as Vulcan is faid to have been thrown down 
 headlong from heaven by Jupiter. 
 
 Strangeftoriesarc told concerning Adam'schildren. 
 , That he had none in tlie (late of innocence, is certain 
 . from fcriptnre; but that his marriage with Eve was not 
 confummated till after the fall, cannot be proved from 
 tiience. Some imagine, that for many years after the 
 fall, Adam denied himfelf die connubial joys by way 
 of penance; others, that he cohabited with ano- 
 ther woman, whofe name wasLii.iTH. The Ma- 
 hometans tell us, that our firfl parents having been 
 thrown headlong from the celeflial paradife, Adam fell 
 upon the iiie of Serendib,- or Ceylon, in the Eafl-In- 
 dies; and Eve on lodda, a port of the Red Sea, not 
 far from Mecca. After a feparation of upwards of 
 200 years, they met in Ceylon, where they multiplied : 
 according to fome Eve had twenty, accgrding to others 
 only eight, deliveries ; bringing forth at each time 
 twins, a male and fcm.ile, who afterwards married. 
 The Rabbins imagine that Eve bruuglu forth Cain 
 and Abel at a birth ; that Adam wept for Abel an hun- 
 dred years in the valley of tears near Hebron, dur- 
 ing which time he did not cohabit with his wife ; and 
 that this feparation would probably have continued 
 longer, had it not been forbid by the angel Gabriel. 
 The inhabitanis of Ceylon affirm, that the fait lake on 
 the mountain of Colembo confifls wholly of the tears 
 which Eve for one hundred years together Ihed becaufe 
 of Abel's death. 
 
 Some of the Arabians tell ns, that Adam was buri- 
 ed near Mecca on Mount Abukobcis : others, that No- 
 ah, having laid his body in the ark, caufed it to be 
 carried after the deluge to Jerufalem by Mclchifcdek 
 the fon of Shcm : of this opinion are the eaftern 
 Chriftians ; but the Perfians affirm that he was interred 
 iii the iHc of Serendib, where his corps was guarded by 
 
 lions at the time tlie giants, warred upon one another, Adam 
 
 St Jcroni imagined that Adam was buried at Hebron ; | 
 
 others, on Mount Calvary. Some are of opinioH that Adamitii. 
 he died on tlic very fpot where Jerufaleni was after- ^~^ 
 
 wards built ; and was buried on the place where Chrifl 
 fuffered, that fo his bones might be fprinkled with the 
 Saviour's blood ! ! ! 
 
 Adam (Mclchior) lived in the 17"' century. He 
 was born in the territory of Groikaw in Silclia, and 
 eilucated in the college of Brieg, where the dukes of 
 that name, to the utmofl of their power, encouraged 
 learning and the reformed religion as profelfed by Cal- 
 vin. Here he became a firm Proiellant ; and was en- 
 abled to purfue his lludiesby the liberality of a perfon 
 of quality, who had left feveral exhibitions for young 
 Ihidcnts. He was appointed rector of a college at 
 Heidelberg, where he publilhed his firfl volume of il- 
 lullrious men in the year 1615, This volume, which 
 coniillcd of philofopliers, poets, writers on polite li- 
 terature, and hiflorians, &c. was followed by three o- 
 tliers ; that W'hich treated of divines was printed in 
 1619 ; thatof the lawyers came next ; and, finally, that 
 of the phylicians : the twolallwere publilhed in 1620. 
 All the learned men, whofe lives are contained in thefc 
 four volumes, lived in the 16"', or beginningof theiy"" 
 century, and are cither Germans or Flemings; but he 
 publilhed in 1618 the lives of twenty divines of other 
 countries in a feparate volume. All his divines are Pro- 
 teflants. The Lutherans were not pleafed with him> 
 for they thought him partial ; nor will they allow his 
 work to be a proper ftandard whereby to judge of the 
 learning of Germany. He wrote other works befides 
 his lives, and died in 1622. 
 
 Adam' s Apple, zriimt^vitw toa fpeciesofCiTRUS. 
 
 Adam's Needle. See Yucca. 
 
 Adam's Peak, a high mountain of the Eafl Indies, 
 in the illand of Ceylon, on the top of which they be- 
 lieve that the firfl man was created. Sec Adam. 
 
 Adam, or A DOM, a town in the Peraea, or on the o- 
 thcr fide the Jordan, over-againfl Jericho, where the 
 Jordan began to be dried up on the pafTagc of the If- 
 raelites; (Jofliua.) 
 
 ADAMA, or Adma h, one of the towns that were 
 involved in the deftruclion of Sodom ; (Mofes.) 
 
 ADAMANT, a name fometimcs given to the dia- 
 mond. (See Diamond.) It is likewife applied to 
 the icor'ix of gold, the magnet, &c. 
 
 ADAMIC EARTH, a name given to commoM red 
 cl.iy, alluiUng to that fpecies of earth of which thi; firfl 
 man is fuppofed to have been made. 
 
 ADAMI roMUM, in anatomy, a protuberance in 
 the fore-part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides. 
 It is thought to be fo called upon a fbrange conceit, that 
 a piece of the forbidden apple which Adam eat, fluck 
 by the w.iy, and occalioncd it. 
 
 ADAMITES, in ecclellaflical hi/lory, the name of 
 a fec^ of ancient heretics, fuppofed to have been a 
 branch of the Bafilidians and Carpocraiians. 
 
 Epiphanius tells ns, that they were called Adamites 
 from their pretending to be re-eflabliflied in the ftateof 
 innocence, and to be fuch as Adam was at the moment 
 of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him in 
 his nakednefs. They detcfled marriage ; maintain- 
 ing that the conjugal union would never have taken 
 place upon earth had fin been unknown. 
 
 This
 
 ADA 
 
 [ »o7 ] 
 
 A D A 
 
 Adamui This obfcure and ridiculous fcc'l did not at firfl laft 
 I long ; but it was revived, with a4!ditionalal»furdilics, in 
 
 Adamfnn. the twelfth century, by one Tandainus,(incc known by 
 ' the name of Tanchelin, who propagated his errors at 
 Antwerp, in the reign of the emperor Henry V. He 
 maintained, that there ought to be no diftinctiou be- 
 tween priefts and laymen, and that fornication and a- 
 dultery were meritorious ac'tions. Tanchtlin had a 
 great number of followers, and was conltaiuly attend- 
 ed by 3000 of thele profligates in arms. His feft did 
 not, however, continue long after his death : but ano- 
 ther appeared under the name of Turlupins, in Savoy 
 and Dauphiny, where they committed the mod bru- 
 tal aflioiis in open day. 
 
 About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one 
 Picard, a native of l-'landers,; fpread thefe errors in 
 Germany and Bohemia, particularly in the army of 
 the famous Zifca,notwithfiandingthefeveredifcipline 
 he maintained. Picard pretended that he was lent into 
 ihe world as a new Adam, to re-crtablilh the law of 
 nature ; and which, according to him, confifted in ex- 
 pofing every part of the body, and having all the wo- 
 men in common. This feft found alfo fome partizans 
 in Poland, Holland, and England : they afleniblcd ia 
 the night ; and it is afferted, that one of the funda- 
 mental maxims of their fociety was contained in the 
 following verfc : 
 
 Jura, perjura^ficrttum prodcre noli. 
 
 ADAMUS, the philofopher's ftone is fo called by 
 alchemills ; they fay it is an animal, and that it has 
 carried its invifible Evt in its body, fmcc the moment 
 they were united by the Creator. 
 
 ADAMSHIDE, a diflria of the circle of Raflen- 
 burg, belonging to the king of Prullia, which, with 
 Donibroftcen, was bought, in i 737, for 42,000 dollars. 
 
 ADAMSON (Patrick), a Scottifli prelate, archbi- 
 fliop of S[ Andrews. He was born in the year i J43 
 in the townof Perth, where he received the rudiments 
 of his education ; and afterwards lludied philofophy, 
 and took his degree of mailer of arts at the univerfity 
 of St Andrews. In the year is66, he fet out for 
 Paris, as tutor toayoung gentleman. In the month of 
 June of the fame year, Mary queen of Scots being 
 delivered of a foil, afterwards James VI. of Scotland 
 and Kirft of England, Mr Adamfon wrotea Latin poem 
 on the occafion. This proof of his loyalty involved 
 himinfomediificuhics, havingbccn conlined in France 
 for (ix months ; nor would he have eahly gut oif, had 
 not Queen Mary, and I'omc of the principal nobility, 
 intcrcftcd ihcmfclvcs in his behalf. As'fooii as he re- 
 covered his liberty, he retired with his pupil to Bour- 
 ges. He wasin this city during the nialTacre at Paris; 
 and tlic fame pcrfccuting f))irit prevailiutf amimg 
 the catholics at Bourges«a»at the metropolis, he lived 
 concealed for fevcn months in a public houfe, the ma- 
 flerof which, upwardsof 70 yearsof age, was thrown 
 from the top thereof, and had bis brjins Jaflud out, 
 for his charity to heretics. VVhilll Mr Adamfon lay 
 thus in hisfepulchrc, as he called it, lie wrote his La- 
 tin poetical vcrfion of the Book of Job, and his Tra- 
 gedy of Herod in the fame language. In the year 
 I )7?> he returned to Scotland ; and, having entered 
 intoholyordcrs, became mini fler of I'aillcy. In the year 
 r J7J, he was appointed one of^he commillioners, by 
 the general atTcmbly, to fettle the jurifdiiftion and Po- 
 
 licy of the church ; and the following year he was lu- AJm. 
 
 nied, with Mr. David Lindfay, to report their proceed- * — 
 
 ings to the earl of Mortoun, then regent. About tliis 
 time the earl made hira one of his chaplains ; and on 
 the death of bifhop Douglas, promoted him to the 
 archicpifcopal fee of St Andrew's, a dignity which 
 brought upon him great trouble and uncafmcfs : for novr 
 the clamour of the prefbyterian party rofe very high a- 
 gainilhim, and many inconlillcni abfurd ftorics were 
 propagated concerning him. Soon after his promo- 
 tion, he publilhed his catechifm in Latin verfe, a 
 work highly approved even by his ecemics ; but nr- 
 verthelcis, they Hill continued topcrfecute him with 
 great violence. In i)78, he fubinitted hinilelf to 
 the general aflembly, fthich procured him peace but 
 fora very little time ; for, the year following, they 
 brought frelh accufations againll him. In the year 
 1 5S2, being attacked with a grievous difeafe, in which 
 the phyficians could give him no relief, he happened 
 to take a limple medicine from an old woman, which ■ 
 did him fervicc. The woman whofe name was Alif<Hi 
 Pearfon, was thereupon charged with witchcraft, ar.d 
 committcdtoprifon,but efcapcdoutof her confriiemcnt; 
 however, about four years afterwards, Ihe was again 
 found and burnt for a witcii. In 1583, king Jamci 
 came to St Andrews ; and the Archbifliop, being nmcii. 
 recovered, preached before him, and difputed with Mr 
 Andrew Melvil,inprefcncc of his >iajelty, with great 
 reputation, which drew upon hiin frelh calumny and 
 perfecution. The king, however, uaslb well pleafcd 
 with him, that he fent him ambartader toQiiecn Eii- 
 fabeth, at whofe court he refided for fome years. His 
 conduct, duringhis em bally, has been variouily report- 
 ed by different authors. Two things he principally 
 laboured, nc. the recommending the king his mailer 
 to the nobility and gentry of England, and the pro- 
 curing fome fupport for the epifcopal party in Scotland. 
 By his eloquent preaching, lie drew after him fuch 
 crouds of people, and raifed in their minds fuch a high 
 idcaof theyoungking hismafter, that queen Elil'abcth 
 forbad him to enter the pulpit during his ftay in her 
 dominions. In 1584, he was recalled, and fat in the' 
 parliament held in Auguft at Edinburgh. ThePrcfcy- 
 terian party was flill very violent againfl the arclibi- 
 fliop. A provincial (j-nod was held at St Andrew's 
 in April 1586 ; the Archbifliop was here accuftd and 
 excommunicated : he appealed to the king and lli« 
 flates, but this availed him little : for the mob being 
 excited againfl him, he durll fcarce appear in public. 
 At the next general allcmbly, a paper being pro- 
 duced containing the archbilhop's fubiiiilnon, he was 
 abfclvcd from the cxcomniunicalioti. In 1588, frelh 
 accufations were broticrht againfl him. The year fol- 
 low ing, he publilhed the Lamentations of the prophet 
 Jeremiah in Latin verfe ; whioh he dedicated to 
 the king, complaining of his hard ulagc. In the lat- 
 ter end of the fame year, he publiihed a tranflaiioa of 
 the Apocalypfe, in Latin i^rrfe ; and a copy of Latin 
 vcrfes. addrclled alio to his Maitlly, when he was iu 
 great didrefs. The king, however, was lo far from 
 giving him alTillaurc, tlwt he granted the rcven'.x of 
 his fee to the duke of Lennox ; fo that the remainin<» 
 part of this prelate's life was very wretched, hehaviii'i 
 hardly fubliilcnce for his family. He died in I <<;». 
 ADANA, a town of Afu, in Natolia, and in ti <. 
 O : province
 
 ADA 
 
 [ io8 ] 
 
 ADA 
 
 Adapfoiiia. province of Caimauia. It is I'catcdon the river Cho- 
 ^— V— ^ il^iien ; on die biui;sof whicli (lauds a f'tronj; little calllc 
 built on a rock. It has great number ot beautiful 
 fojntains brougiit from tiic river by means of water- 
 works. Over liicriver there isa flaidy briJgcof lif- 
 tccn arches, which leads to the waicr-works. I he cli- 
 mate is very plcafar.t and healthy, and the winter mild 
 and fcrene : but tlie fuinmer is lb hot as to oblige the 
 prii'.cipal iiilKibiiants to retire into the neighbouring 
 mountains, wlicre they fpeud lix niunihs among Ihady 
 trees and groitocs, in a molt dclii.ious manner. The 
 adjacent coantry is rich and fertile, and produces me- 
 lons, cucumbers, pomegranates, pulfe, and herbs ot 
 all forts, sU the year round ; bciides corn, wine, and 
 fruits in their proper feal'on. It is 30 milts call of 
 Tarfus, on the road to Aleppo. E. long 5 J. 42. N. 
 lat. 38. ic. 
 
 AD.ANSONIA, ETHioriAS Sour-gourd, Mon- 
 KiES-BREAD, or Akrican' Ca l Aa AS h-tree, a genus 
 of the nionodelphia order, belonging to the polyaudria 
 clafs of plants ; the characters of whiehare : The calyx 
 is a perianthium one Icav'd, iialf live-cleft, ciip-lorm, 
 (the divilions revolutc), deciduous: The corolla con- 
 lillsof five pciali, mundidi nerved, rcvolute, growing 
 reciprocally svitli the claws and Itamina : \.\\c Jiamiiia 
 have numerous filaments, coalefccd beneath into a tube, 
 and crowning it, expanding horizontally thcanthera: 
 .kidney-form, incumbent : The piflillum has an egged 
 germ ; the llylus very long, tubular, varioufly intoned; 
 the iligmata numerous ( i o) prifmatic, villous, ray-cx- 
 pandcd : '^\\.t pincnrptinn is an oval capfule, woody, 
 not gaping, ren-celled, with farinaceous pulp, the par- 
 titions membranous : 'YXvi feeds are numerous., kidney- 
 ihapcd, ratherbony, and involvedina friable pulp. 
 
 There is at prefent butone known fpecicsbelonging 
 to this genus, the Baobab, which is perhaps the lar- 
 gell produdion of the whole vegetable kingdom. It 
 is a native of Africa. 
 
 The trunk is not above laor 15 feet high, but from 
 65 to 78 feet round. The lovvcll branches extend al- 
 raoR horizontally ; and as they are about 60 feet in 
 length, their own weight bends their extremities to the 
 ground, and thus form an hcmifpherical mafsof ver- 
 «lure of abinit izoor i3ofect diameter. The roots 
 txtcnd as far as the branches: that in the middle forms 
 a pivot, which penetrates a great way into the earth ; 
 tlie reft fprcad near the furiace. The dowers are in 
 [iroportion to the fizc oi' the tree : and arc followed by 
 an oblong fruit, pointed at both ends, about 10 inches 
 loiig, five or fix broad, and covered with a kind of 
 grccniih down, under which is a ligneous rind, hard 
 and alinoft black, marked with rays which divide it 
 Icngtliwifc into fides. The fruit hangs to the tree by 
 a pedicle tw^o feet long and .in inch diameter. It con- 
 tains a whiliih fpongy juicy fnbflancc ; with feeds of a 
 brown colour, and ihaped like a kidney bean. The 
 bark of this tree is nearly an inch thick, of an' alh- 
 coloured grey, greafy to the touch, bright and very 
 fniooth : the outfideis covered with a kindofvarnilli; 
 and the infide is green, fpccklcd with red. The wood 
 is white, and very foft ; the firfl flioots of the ear are 
 creen and downy. 
 
 The leaves of the young plants are entire, of aaob- 
 long form, about four or five inches long, and almofl 
 three broad towards the top, having fc veral veins run- 
 
 ning from the middle rib ; they arc of a lucid green Adanfonai. 
 
 colour. As the plants advance in height, the leaves "— — ^/ ' 
 
 alter, and arc divided into three parts, and afterwards 
 into five lobes, which fprcad out in the ihapc of an 
 hand. The tree llieds its leaves in November, and new 
 ones begin to appear in |unc. Its ilowcrs in July, and 
 the fruits ripens in Ottobtr and iS'ovember. it is very 
 common in Senegal and the Cape de Verd idands : 
 and is found 100 leagues up thecountry at Gulam, and 
 upon the fea-coili as far as Sicrra-ltona. 
 
 The age of this tree is perhaps no lefs remarkable 
 than iis enormous lize. Mr Adanfon relates, that in a 
 botanical cxcurllon to the Aiagdalenc idands, in the 
 neighbourhood of Gorce, hcdifcovercd fonie calabalh- 
 trecs from five to lix feet diameter, on the bark of 
 which were engraved or cut to a confiderable depth 
 a number of European names. Two of thefe names, 
 wiiich he was at the trouble to repair, were dated one 
 the 14th, the other the 15th century. The letters 
 were about lix inches long, but in breadth they occu- 
 pied a very fmallpart only of the circumference of the 
 trunk : from whence he concluded they had not bcca 
 cut when thefe trees were young. Thefe infcripiions, 
 however, he thinksfufficient to determine pretty nearly 
 theage whichthefccalaballi-trcesmay attain ; for even 
 fuppofmg that thofe in quciUon were cut in their early 
 years, and that trees grew to the diameter of lix fecc 
 in tv.o centuries, as the engraved letters evince, how 
 many centuries mufl be reiiuifitc to give them a dia- 
 meter of 25 feet which perhaps is not the laft term of 
 their growth ! The infcribed trees mentioned by this 
 ingenious Frenchman had been fcen in tJ5J, almolt 
 two centuries before, by Thevet, who mentions them 
 in the relation of his voyage to Terra Antardica or 
 Auflralis. Adanfon favv them in i 749. 
 
 The virtues and uf€s of this tree and its fruit arc 
 various. The negroes of Senegal dry the bark and 
 leaves in the Ihadcd air ; and then reduce them to 
 powder,' which is of a pretty good green colour. 
 This powder they preferve in bags of linen or cot- 
 ton, and call it idlo. They ufe it every day, putting 
 two or three pinches of it into a mcfs, whatever it 
 happens to be, as we do pepper and fait : but their 
 view is, not to give a rclifli to their food, but to pre- 
 ferve a perpetual and plentiful perfpiration, and to at- 
 temper the too great heat of the blood ; purpofes 
 which it certainly anfwers, as feveral Europeans have 
 proved by repeated experiments, prcfervingthemfelvcs 
 from the epidemic fever, which, in that country, de- 
 flroys Europeans like the plague, and generally rages 
 during th.e months of September and Odtober, when, 
 the rains having fuddenly ceafed, the fun exhales the 
 water left by them upon the ground, and fills the air 
 with a noxious vapour. M. Adanfon, in that critical 
 feafon, made alight ptifan of the leaves of the baobab, 
 which lie had gathered in the Augull of the preceding 
 year, and haddriedin the iliade ; and drank conltantly 
 about a pint of it every morning, cither before or af- 
 ter breakfafl, and the fame quantity of it every even- 
 ing after the heat of the fun began to abate ; he alfo 
 fometimcs took the fame quantity in the middle of the 
 day, but this was only when lie felt fome fymptomsof 
 an approaching fever. By this precaution he prefer- 
 ved himfelf,during the five years he refided at Senegal, 
 from the diarrhcea and fever, which are fo fatal there 
 
 and,
 
 ADA 
 
 [ 109 ] 
 
 ADA 
 
 (Jaiifonia and whicli are, however, the only dangerous difcafcs 
 I of the place ; and other officers flittered very ftvercly, 
 
 Adar. only one excepted, upon whom M. Adaiifon pr'^v^ilcd 
 " to life this remedy, which for its iimplicity was dcf]'i- 
 fed by the rcil. This ptiL-- alone alfo prevents that 
 heat of urine which is common in thefe parts, from the 
 month of July to November, provided the pcrfon ab- 
 ftains from wine. 
 
 The fruit is not lefs ufefiil than the leaves and the 
 bark. The pulp that envelopes the feeds has an agree- 
 able acid taflc, and is ea;cn for plcafure : it is alfo 
 dried and powdered, and thus ufed medicinally in pclli- 
 lential fevers, the dyfcntery, and bloody iiux ; tlic 
 dofe is a drachm, pallid through a tine lieve, taken 
 either in common water, or in an infulion of the plan- 
 tain. This powder is brought into Kurope under the 
 name oi terra ji^il/ata /. miiui. The woody bark of the 
 fruit, and the fruit itfclf when fpoikd, helps to fup- 
 ply the negroes with an excellent foap, which they 
 make by drawing a ley fr»m the aflics, and boiling it 
 with palm-oil that begins to be rancid. 
 
 The trunksof fuch of thefe trees as are decayed, the 
 negroes hollow out intoburying places for ihiir poets, 
 nuificians, buffoons : perfons of thefe charafters they 
 ellcem greatly while they live, fuppofnig them to de- 
 rive their fupcrior talents from forctry or a commerce 
 with demons ; but they regard their bodies with a kind 
 of horror when dead, and will not give them burial in 
 the ufual manner, neither futfering them to be put into 
 the ground, nor thrown into the fea or any river, be- 
 caufe they imagine that the water would not then nou- 
 rifli the fifli, nor the earth produce its fruits. The bo- 
 dies fliut up in thefe trunks become perfciflly dry wiih- 
 out rotting, and forming a kind of mummies without 
 the help of embalment. 
 
 The baobab is very diflinft from the calabafli-tree of 
 America, with which it has been confounded by fa- 
 ther Labat. See Crescenti A. 
 
 Culture. This tree is propagated from feeds, which 
 are brought from the countries where they grow na- 
 turally, being nativesonly of hot climates, the plants 
 will not thrive in the open air in Britrin, even in fum- 
 mcr. The feeds are therefore to be fown in pots,- and 
 plunged into a hot-bed, where the plants will appear 
 in about fix weeks, and in a (hort time after be tit to 
 tranfplant. They muft then be planted each in a fe- 
 parate pot, in light fandy earth, and plunged into a 
 hot-bed, ihading them until they have taken root : af- 
 ter which they Ihould have frefli air admitted every day 
 in warm weather; but mull be fparingly watered, as 
 being apt to rot. They grow quickly for two or three 
 years, but afterwards make little progrefs j the losvcr 
 part of the Item then begins to fv/cll, and put out la- 
 teral branches, inclining to a horizontal polition, and 
 
 covered with a light grey bark. Some of this kind 
 
 of plants were railed from feeds obtained from Grand 
 Cairo by Dr William Sherard, in 1724, and were 
 grown to the height of iS feet ; but were all dellroyed 
 by the fevere frofl in 1740; after which they were 
 unknown in Britain till the return of Mr Adanfon to 
 Paris in 17J4. 
 
 ADAPTERS, or Adopters. See Chemistry, 
 (hiJex). 
 
 ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering 
 to the end of February and begitiuing of March, the 
 
 12"' of tlicir facred, and 6'' of their civil year. On Adirct 
 the 7''" day of it, the Jtv.s ktcpafeaft for inedcatiiof i 
 Moles; on the 1 ;th, they have the feall of Efthcr ; and '^''<'''^'"''' 
 on the 14"", they celeLiaie the fcad of Purim, for the ~' 
 
 deliverance from Haman's cor.fpiracy As tl'.c lansr 
 
 year, wl.ich the Jews folluwed in their c.':lcuhtions, is 
 Ihortcr thau the folar by about 11 days, which at ihc 
 end of three years make a month, they then interca- 
 late a 1 3"' month, wliich they call i' saJar, or thc/ir- 
 c(jnd Adar, ^^ 
 
 ADARCE, a kind of concreted falts found on reeds 
 and other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a 
 remedy in feveral cutaneous difeales. 
 
 ADARCON, in Jewilh antiquity, a gold coin men- 
 tioned in fcripture, worth about 15s. (terliug. 
 
 ADARME, in commerce, a fniall weight in Spain, 
 wliich is alio uftd at Kiienos-Z.ires, and in all Spanifli 
 America. It is the 16"" part of an ounce, which at 
 Paris is called the damgri,s. But the bpanilh ounce is 
 feven/>cr n/;/. lighter than that of Paris. Stephens 
 renders it in Englilh by a drain. 
 
 ADATAIS, Adatu, or Adatys, in commerce, 
 a niurtin or cotton-cloth, very fine and clear, ofwl.Uh 
 the piece is ten French ells long, and three quartcrj 
 broad. It conus from the Eafl-Iudies ; and the lincft 
 is made at Bengal. 
 
 ADCORDABILIS penarii, in old law books, 
 fignity money paid by the vaiiiil to his lord, upon the 
 felling or exchanging of a feud. 
 
 ADCFif^SCENTES, among the Romans, denoted 
 a kind ofl'oldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put 
 on duty ; from thefe the Handing forces were recruited. 
 See AccENSl. 
 
 ADDA, in geography, a river of Switzerland and 
 Italy, wliich rifcs in mount Braulio, in the country of 
 the Grifons, and, palTing through the Valtclinc, tra- 
 verfesthc lake Cou:o and the Milanefe, and falls into 
 the Po, near Cremona. 
 
 ADDKPH.AGIA, in medicine, a term nfed by 
 fomc phylicians, for gluttony, or a \oraclous appetite. 
 
 ADDER, in zoology, a name for the Viter. Sec 
 
 Coil'BER. 
 
 AaDER-Bolis,<^T Addtr-fiit. See Libeluila. 
 
 Sia-AoDKR, the Englilh name of a fpccies of Syn- 
 gn athus. 
 
 IVater-AoDER, a name given to the Colvber Na- 
 trix. 
 
 AuDER-ftung, is ufed in refpeiJl of cattle, when flung 
 with any kind of venomous reptiles, as adders, fcor- 
 
 pions, &c. or bit by a hedge-hog or Ihrew For the 
 
 cure of fuch bites, fome ufe an ointment made of dra- 
 gon's blood, with a little barley-meal, and the whites 
 of eggs. 
 
 AoaER-JVort, or Sf/akfwood. See Polygonum. 
 
 ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, the 
 pope's mitre-bearers, focalled, according to Ducange, 
 becaufe they walk at ihe Pope's right-hand when he 
 rides to vilit the churches. 
 
 AD DICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked ax ufed by 
 Hiip-wrights, carpenters coopers, &c. 
 
 ADDICTI, in antiquity, a kind of Haves, among 
 the Romans, adjudged to ferve fomc creditor wliom 
 tliey could not otherwife fatisfy, andwhofe flaves thiy 
 became till they could pay or work out of the debt. 
 
 .ADDICTION, among the Romans, was the m.i- 
 
 kinc
 
 ADD 
 
 [ no ] 
 
 ADD 
 
 Acliliilio, king over goods to another, titlicr by falc, or by legal 
 All hfiiii. fcnltncc ; thf goods lb delivered were called bona ad- 
 " t//^itt. Debtors were fomctimcs delivered over in the 
 fame manner; and tlicncc tailed /t^rn/ aildidi. 
 
 ADDICTIO IN DIEM, among the Romans, the ad- 
 judging a thing to a pcrfon for a certain price, unlcfs 
 by liicli a day the owner, or fomc other, give more 
 for it. 
 
 ADDISON (Lancelot^ fon of Lancelot Addifon 
 a clergyman, was born at Monldiimealnn lie, in the pa- 
 rilh of Croiby Kavenfworth in Wcftmorthiiid, in ilic 
 year 163J. He was educated at Qiiceii's College, Ox- 
 lord ;aud at t lie Rclloraiion of king Charles II. accept- 
 ed of liic thaplainlhip of the garrifon of Dunkirk : 
 but that fortrci's being delivered up to the Frcjicii in 
 1662, he returned to Kngland, and was foon after 
 made chaplain to the gairilon of Tangier ; where he 
 continued fcven years, and was greatly efteemed. In 
 1 670, he returned to England, and was made chaplain 
 inordinary to the king ;but his chaplainlliip of Tangier 
 being taken from him on account of his abfence, he 
 found himfelf ilraitened in his circumilances, when he 
 fcaibnably obtained thcredoryof Milflonin Wiltlhire, 
 worth about I ioX.per anitiiin. He afterwards became 
 a prcbtndary of Sarum j- took his degree of dodtor of 
 divinity at Oxford ; and in 1683 was made dean of 
 I.itclificki, and the ncxtyear archdeacon of Coventry. 
 His life was cxem'plary ; his convcrfatiouplealing, and 
 greatly inllrucfive ; and his behaviour asagentlenian, 
 a clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place 
 of his relidencc. He wrote, i. A lliort Narrative of 
 the Revolutions of ihe kingdoms of b'tzand Morocco : 
 3. The prefcnt Hiltory of the jews : 3. -A Difcourfc 
 on Catechifing : 4. A Modcft'Plea for the Clergy : 
 5. An Introducfion to the Sacrament : 6.Therir(t 
 State of Mahomelifm : and fcveral other jiicces. This 
 w^ortliy divine died on the io"" of April 1703 and 
 left three fons : Jofcph, the fubjeiJl of the next article; 
 Culflon, who died while governor of Fort St George; 
 Lancelot, niaftcr of arts, and fellow of JVIagdalen Col- 
 lege in Oxford : and one daughter firfb married to Dr 
 Sartre prebendary of Weftmiullcr, and afterwards to 
 Daniel Combes, Kfc]. 
 
 Addison (Joftph), fon of dean .Addifon the fub- 
 jett of the lall article. He was born at Wilfton, near 
 .•\mbre(bury, in Wjltlhirc, on the 11"' of May 1672 ; 
 and not bti;ig thought likely to live was baptized tlie 
 fame day. He received his tirft rudiinents of liis edu- 
 cation at the place of his nativity, under the reverend 
 Mr Nailh ; but was foon removed loSalilbury, under 
 the care of Mr Taylor ; and from thence to tlic char- 
 ter- houfc.wJiere he commenced his acquaintance with 
 Sir Richard Steele. About fifteen, he was entered at 
 Qiiccn's College, Oxford, where hcapplitd very dofc- 
 ly to the ftudy of tlafllcal learning, in uhich he made 
 a furprifing proficiency. 
 
 In the year 16S7, Dr Lancaftcr, dean of Magda- 
 len College, having, by chance, feen a Latin poem &f 
 Mr Addifon's, was fo plcafed with it, thai he imme- 
 diately i^ot hiui elected into tha houfe, where he look 
 uphis (legrcesofha'.hclorarni mallerofarts. His Lstin 
 pieces in the courfc of a few years, were exceedingly ad- 
 * mired in buib. iviivei fitits: nor wercthcy lefs tftten.ed 
 
 abroad, particularly by the celebrated Koileau, who is 
 reported to have faid, that he would not have written 
 
 againftPerrault.had he beforcklecnfuch excellent pieces AaJifon. 
 
 by a modern hand. He pnblilhed nothing in Engiilh '' ^~ — 
 
 before the twcnty-fecondyear of his age ; when there 
 appeared a Ibort copy of verfcs written by him, and ad- 
 dreffed to Mr Dry den, \\ >ich procured iiim great re- 
 putation from the belt judges. This was foon follow- 
 ed by a tranllation of the Fourth Gcorgic of Virgil, 
 (omitting the llory of Arillaius), much commendedby 
 Air Dryden. He wrote alio the Elfay on the Gcor- 
 gics, prefixed to Mr Dryden's tranllation. There arc 
 feveral other pieces written by him about this time ; 
 among the refl, one d.lled the 3'' of April 1694, 
 addrelfed to H. S. that is, Dr Sachevcrel, who be- 
 came afterwards fo famous, and with whom Mr Addi- 
 fon lived once in the greatefl friendlhip ; but their iu- 
 limacy was fome time after broken off by their difagrce- 
 mcnt in political principles. In the year 169J, he 
 wrote a poem to king William on one of his cam- 
 paigns, addrelfed to Sir John Somers lord keeper of 
 the great leal. This gentleman received it with great 
 pleafurc, took the author intothcnumber of his friends, 
 and beflowtd on him many marks of his favour. 
 
 Mr Addilbn had been clofely prcffed, while at the 
 univerliiy, to enter into holy orders ; and had once re. 
 folved upon it : but his great moderty, his natural dif- 
 fidence, and an uncommonly delicate fcnfc of the im- 
 portance of the facred function, made him afterwards 
 alter his rcfohition ; and having exprefled an inclina- 
 tion to travel, Jie was encouraged thereto by his patron 
 abovcnuntioned, who by his intereft procured him 
 from the crown a penlion of L.300/>£'r annum to fup- 
 port him in his travels. He accordingly made a tour 
 to Italy in the year 1699 ; and, in 1 701, he wrote a 
 poetical cpiftle from Italy to the earl of Halifax, which 
 has been univcrfally ellcemedas a moft excellent per- 
 formance. It was tranllated into Italian vcrfe by the 
 abbot Antonio Maria Salvini, Greek profelfor at Flo- 
 rence. In the year i 70J, he publiihed an account of 
 his travels, dedicated to lord Somers ; v/hich, though 
 at firfl but inditi'crcntly received, yet in a little time 
 met with its dcfcrved applaufe.. 
 
 In the year 1702, he was about to return to Eng- 
 land, when he received advice of his being appointed 
 to attend prince Eugene, who then commanded for the 
 emperor in Italy : but the death of king William hap- 
 pening foon after, put an end to this affair as well as his 
 penlion ; and he remained for a confiderable time un- 
 cinjiloyed. But an unexpeflcd incident at once raifed 
 him, and gave him an opportunity of exerting his fine 
 talents to advaiitaj';c : for in the year i 704, the lord 
 treafurer Godolphin happened to complain to lord Ha- 
 lifax, that the duke of Marlborough's vicflory at Blen- 
 heim had not been celebrated in verfe in the manner it 
 deferved ; and intimated, that he would take it kindly, 
 if his lordfliip, who was the knownpatron of the poets, 
 would name a"gentlcman capable of doing juflice to lb 
 elevated a fubjed. Lord Halifax replied, fomcwhat 
 hallily, that he did know fuch a perfon, but would 
 not mention him ; adding, that long had he feen, with 
 indignation, nien of no merit n^aiiuained in luxury at 
 the public expcncc, whilll thole of real worth aud mo- 
 dtlly were fuff'ered to langtiilh in obfcurity. The 
 treafurer anfwcred very coolly that he was fony there 
 Ihould be occafioiii for fuch an obfcrvation, but that he 
 would do his endeavour to wipe off fuch reproaches for 
 
 the
 
 ADD 
 
 r II' ] 
 
 ADD 
 
 t}}e future ; and he engaged his honour, that whoever 
 his lordlhip named, as a perfou capable of celebraiing 
 this victory, fliould meet with a liiitablc recoinpcncc. 
 Lord Halit'ax thereupon named Mr Addifon ; inlilling, 
 however, that the trealurer liiniftlf Ihould fend to himj 
 whicli he promifed. Accordingly he prevailed on Mr 
 Boyle (aftcrsvards lord Carlton) then clianccllor of 
 the exchequer, to make the propofal to Mr Addifon ; 
 which lie did in fo polite a manner, that our author 
 readily undertook the talk. The lord-treafurer had a 
 fight of the piece, when it was carried no farther tlian 
 the celebrated fnnilie of the angel ; and was fo plcafcd 
 with it, that he immediately appointed Mr Addifon a 
 coniiniinoner of appeals, vacant by the promotion of 
 Mr Locke, chofen one of the lords commillioners for 
 trade. The Campaign is addrelfed to the Duke of 
 Marlborough ; it gives a (liort view of the military 
 tranfactions in 1704, and contains a noble dcfcriptiou 
 of the two great actions at Schcllemberg and Blen- 
 heim. In in I 705, he attended lord Ilalfax to Hano- 
 ver; and the year following was appointed under-fecre- 
 tary toSirCharles Hedges fccretary of Hate ; in which 
 ortice heacquitted himfelf fo well, that the carl of Sun- 
 derland, who fuccceded Sir Charles in December, con- 
 liiuied ^lr Addifon in his employment. 
 
 A tafle for operas beginning at this time to prevail 
 in England, and many perfons having felicited Mr Ad- 
 difon to write one, he complied with their requefl, and 
 compofed his Rofamond. This, however, whether 
 from the defeft of the mullc, or from the prejudices 
 in favour of the Italian tafte, did not fuccecd upon the 
 ftage ; but the poetry of it has, and always will be, 
 juiUy admired. About this time. Sir Richard Steele 
 compofed his comedy of the Tender Hulband, to which 
 Mr Addifon wrote a prologue. Sir Richard fiirprifed 
 him with a dedication of this play, and acquainted the 
 public, that he was indebted to him for fome ot the 
 mofb excellent ftrokes in the performance. The mar- 
 quis of Wharton, being appointed lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland in 1709, took Mr Addif(m with hira as his 
 fecretary. Her majefty alfo made him keeper of the 
 records of Ireland, and, as a father mark of her fa- 
 vour, confiderably augmented the falary annexed to 
 that place. Whilil he was in this kingdom, the Tat- 
 ler Was firft publidied ; and he difcovcred his friend 
 Sir Richard Steele to be the author, by an obfervation 
 on Virgil, which he had communicated to him. He 
 afterwards aflifted conl'iderably in carrying on this pa- 
 per, which the author acknowledges. The Tatler be- 
 ing laid down, the Spectator was fet on foot, and Mr 
 Addifon furniflied great part of the moft admired pa- 
 pers. The SpciJlator tnadc its firft appearance in March 
 I 71 1, and was brought to a conclulionin September 
 
 I7H- 
 
 His celebrated Cato appeared in I7f?. He form- 
 ed the delign of a tragedy upon his fubjeifl when he 
 was very young, and wrote it when on his travels : 
 he rctouclicd it in England, without any intention of 
 bringing it on the ftage ; but his friends being per- 
 fuadcd it would fcrve the caufe of liberty, he was pre- 
 vailed on by their folicitations, and it was accordingly 
 exhibited on the the.-ttrc, with a prologue by Mr Pope, 
 and an epilogue by Dr Garth. It was received with 
 the mod uncommon applaufc, having run thirty-five 
 nights without interruption. The Whigs applauded 
 
 every line in whicli liberty was mentioned, as a faiire A<lJif<>n, 
 on the Tories; and liic 'I orics echoed every clap, to ^ " " 
 [how that the fatirc was iinfelt. When it was printed, 
 notice wus given that the Q_aeca would be plcafcd if 
 it was dedicated to her ; " but ashe h.id dclit;ncd that 
 compliment cHcwhcre, he found himfelf obliged, "fays 
 TickcU, " by his daty on the one hand, and his ho- 
 nour on the other, to fend it into the world without 
 any dedication." It was no lefs eftccincd abroad, ha- 
 ving been tranflated into French, Italian, and German ; 
 and it was acted at Leghorn, and fcvcral oihcr places, 
 with vaft applaufc. The Jcfuits of Sr Omers made a 
 Latin verfion of it, andthe ftudentsav'tcdit withgrsat 
 magnificence. 
 
 About this time, another paper called the Guardian 
 was publilhcd by Steele, to which Addii'on was a prin- 
 cipal contributor. It was a continuation of the Spec- 
 tator, and was diftinguillled by the fame elegance and 
 the fame variety ; but, in confcquence of Steele's pro- 
 pcnfity to politics, was abruptly difcontinued in order 
 to write the Engliflinian. 
 
 The papers of Addifon are marked in the Spedator 
 by one of the letters in the nar.ic of 67/», and in tiie 
 Guardian by a Hand. Many of ihefc papers were 
 written with powers truly comic, witli nice difcrimi- 
 nation of characters, and accurate obfervation of na- 
 tural or accidental deviations from propriety ; but it 
 was not fuppofed that lie had tried a comedy on the 
 ftage, till Steele, after liis death, declared him the au- 
 thor of " TJie Drummer." This, however, he did 
 not know to be true by any cogent teftimony : for 
 when Addifon put the jday into his hands, he only- 
 told him it was the w->rk of a grnilcinan in the com- 
 pany ; and when it was received, as is confclicd, with 
 cold difapprobation, he was probably lefs willing to 
 claim it. Tickell omitted it in his colledion ; but the 
 teftimony of Steele, and the total (ilcnce of any other 
 claimant, has determined the public toaffign it to Ad- 
 difon, and it is now printed with his other poetry. 
 Steele carried "The Drummer" to the playhoufe, and 
 afterwards to the prefs, and fold the copy for 50 gui- 
 neas. To Steele's opinion may be added the proof 
 fupplied by the play itfclf, of which the charadlers arc 
 fii(^ as Addifon would have delineated, and the ten- 
 dency fuch as Addifon would have promoted. 
 
 It is faid that Mr Addifon intended to have compo- 
 fed an Englifli didionary upon the pi. in of the Italian 
 (Delia Crufca) ; but, upon, the .leath of the quern 
 being appointed fecretary to the lords jullices, he had 
 notleifure to carry on fuch a work. When the c;irl i>f 
 Sunderland was appointed lord lieutenant of Irel::ud, 
 Mr Addifon was again made fecretary for the afiaii:s 
 of that kingdom ; anduponthe earl's being removed 
 from the lieuicnancy, he was chofen one of the lords 
 of trade. 
 
 Not long afterwards an attempt was made to revive 
 the Speftator, at a time indeed by no means favour- 
 able to literature, when the fucceliion of a new family 
 to the throne filled the nation with anxiety, difcord, 
 and confulion ; end either the turbulence of the times 
 or the faticty of the readers put a ftop to the publica- 
 tion, after an experiment of 80 numbers, which were 
 afterwards collected into an eighth volume, perhaps 
 more valuable than any of thofc that went before it : 
 Addifon produced more than a fourth part. 
 
 In
 
 ADD 
 
 f n 
 
 AJilifon. In 171 J> hi began the Frcdioldor, a political pa- 
 
 ' "^ ' per, which was much admired, and proved ot great 
 
 ufc at that juiiAiirc. lie piiblilhcd alio, about this 
 lime, verfcs to Sir Godfrey Kiicller upon the king's 
 pidiirc, and fome to the priuccfs of Wales with tlie 
 tragedy of Cato. 
 
 liefore the arrival of king George he was made fe- 
 crciary to the regency, and was required by his office 
 to fend notice to Hanover thit the queen was dead, 
 and that the throne was vacant. To do this would 
 iiot have been diiRcuk to any man but Addifon, who 
 was fo overwhelined with the grcatncfs of the event, 
 and fo difbracted by clioice of cxpreliion, that thelords, 
 who could not wait for the niceties of criticifm, called 
 Mr Southwell, a clerk in the houfc, and ordered him 
 todifpatch the mcllagc. Southwell readily told what 
 was nccellary, in the common flylc of bufmcfs, and 
 valued himfelf upon having done what was too hard 
 for Addifon. 
 
 In I 716, he married ihc countefs dowager of War- 
 wick, whom he had folicitcd by a very long and anxi- 
 ous courtlhij). He is faid to liavc iirll known her by 
 becoming tutor to her fon. The marriage, if uncoa- 
 tradided report can be credited, made no addition to 
 his happincfs ; it neither found them nor made them 
 equal. She always remembered her own rank, and 
 thought herfclf intitled to treat with very little cere- 
 mony the tutor of her fon. It is certain that Addifon 
 has left behind him no encouragement for ambitious 
 love. The year after, 1717, he rofc 10 his highed 
 dcvalion, bci:ig made fecrctnry of Itate ; but isrepre- 
 fcnted as having proved unequal to the duties of his 
 place. In the houfc of commons he could n«t fpcak, 
 and thcreliorc wasufclefsto the defcnceof the govern- 
 ment. In the olHce he could not iliue an order with- 
 out loling his time in quell of line exprellioiis. At 
 lall, finding by experience his own inability for public 
 buliuefs, lie was forced to folicit his difmilfion, with a 
 pcnfioiT of ijool. a-year. Such was the account of 
 iliolc who were inclined to detract from liis abilities ; 
 but by others his relinquifhnuiu v.as attributed to de- 
 clining hcaltji, and the ncrciruy of recefs and quiet. 
 In iiis retirement, he applied bimfclf to a religious 
 •Evi.lciices work *, which he hid begun long before ; part of 
 nftheXiau which, fcarce tinilhcd, his been printed in his works. 
 iUligion. He intended alio to have given an Englilh paraphrafe 
 of fome of David's pfalms. But his ailments incrcafed, 
 and cut ihort Uis deligns. ITe had for fome time been 
 oppreCal by an ailhmaiic diforder, which was now ag- 
 gravaii'd by a dro^ify, and he prepared to die conform- 
 ably to his precepts and profeluons. He fent, as Pope 
 relates, anicliage by the earlof Warwick to Mr Gay, 
 dcliring to fee him : Gay, who h-'d not vilited him for 
 fome time before, obeyed the fummons, and found 
 himfelf received with great kindnefs. The purpofel'or 
 which the interviev,- had been foliciicd was then difto- 
 vered : Addifon told hi;n, that he had injured hi n ; 
 but that if he recovered, he would recompciife him. 
 Wli.-.t the injury was he did not explain, nor did Gay 
 ever know ; but I'lppofed thit fome preferment defiu;n- 
 fd for him had by Addifon's intervention been with- 
 held. — Aiiolherdeath-bfd i;itcrview, of a morcfolemn 
 iiaiurr,!S recorded: Lord Warwick wasayoungman of 
 very irregr.'.ar life, and perhaps of ioofc opinions. Addi- 
 fon, for whom he did not want rcfpc<.l,had very diligent- 
 
 2 ] ADD 
 
 ly endeavoured to reclaim him ; but his argumcntsand AdUiion. 
 cxportulations hadnocfied: One experiment, how- *— v— 
 ever, remained to be tried. When he found his life 
 near its end, he dircded the young lord to be called : 
 and when he dclired, with great tcndernefs, to hear 
 Jiis lafl injundions, told him, " I have fcnt for you that 
 " you may fee how a Chrillian can die." What ef- 
 fect this awful fcenehad on the carl's behaviour is not 
 known: he died himfelf in a Ihort time. Having gi- 
 ven directions to Mr Tickell for the publication of his 
 works, and iledicated them on his deadi-bed to his 
 friend Mr Craggs, he died June 17. i 7i9,at Holland- 
 houfe, leaving no child but a daughter who is flill 
 living. 
 
 Addifon's courfc of life before his marriage has been 
 detailed by Pope. He had in the houfc with him 
 Rudgell, and perhaps Philips. His chief companions 
 were Steele, LJudgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and 
 Colonel Brett. With one or other of thcfc he al- 
 ways brcakfaflcd. He ftudied all morning ; then din- 
 ed at a tavern, and went afterwards to Button's. From 
 the coffcehoufc he went again to the tavern, where 
 he often fat late, and drank too much wine. 
 
 Dr Johnfon, in delineating the character of Addi- 
 fon, obferves with Tickell, that he employed wit on 
 the fide of virtue and religion. He not only made the 
 proper ufe of wit himfelf, but taught it to others ; 
 and from his time it has been generally fubfcrvient 
 to the caufe ofreafon and truth. He hasdilTipatcd the 
 prejudice that had long conneded gaiety with vice, 
 and eafinefs of manners with laxity of principles. He 
 has rellorcd virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence 
 not to be afliamed. This is an elevation of literary 
 charadcr, " above all Greek, above all Roman fame." 
 No greater felicity can genius attain than that of ha- 
 ving purified intelledual pleafure,fepar3ted mirth from 
 indecency, and wit from licentioufnefs ; of having 
 taught a fuceefiion of writers to bring elegance and 
 gaiety to the aid of goodiiefs ; and, to ufe exprcfTions 
 yet more awful, of having " turned many to righte- 
 " oufnefs." Asadefcriberof lifcand manners, hemuft 
 be allowed to (land perhaps the firA of the firft rank. 
 His humour, \\ hich, as Steele obferves, is peculiar to 
 himfelf, is fo happily diffufed as to give the grace of 
 novelty to domellic fcenes and daily occurrences. He 
 never "outflcps the modelly of nature," nor raifes 
 merriment or wonder by the violation of truth. His 
 figures neither divert by diftoriion, nor amaze by ag- 
 gravation. He copies life with fo much fidelity, that 
 he can be hardly faid to invent ; yet his exhibitions 
 have an air fo much original, that it is difficult to 
 fuppofe them not merely the produd of imagination. 
 As a teacher of wifdom he may be confidently follow- 
 ed. His religion has nothing in it entluifiaftic or fu- 
 percilious ; he appears neither weakly credulous nor 
 wantonly fceptical ; Jiis morality is neither dangerouf- 
 ly lax nor impradicably rigid. All the enchantuient 
 of fancy and all the cogency of argument are employ- 
 ed to recommend to tlie reader his real interelt, the 
 care of plealing the Author of his being. Truth is 
 fliown fomciimes as the phantom of a vifion, fomc- 
 times appears half-veiled in an allegory ; fometimcs 
 attrads regard in the robes of fancy, and fometimes 
 flcps forth in the confidence of reafon. She wears a 
 thoufand drclles, and in all is plealing. 
 
 The
 
 ADD 
 
 I »i3 
 
 ADD 
 
 /\ddifo!t> The Doctor, Iiov/cvcr, li.ia rclitcd tl)c following a- 
 
 ^ — nccJoif, which every admirer of Addifon, every man 
 
 of feeling, nuiii be reluctant to believe. " Steele ( fays 
 ihe Doitor), wliofc imprudence of gciicroliiy, or va- 
 nity of ^Mofufion, kept him always incurably neccfli- 
 tous, upon fomc prciiing exigence, in an evil lionr, 
 borrowed an hundred pounds of his friend, probably 
 without much purpofc of repayment ; but Addifon, 
 who fecms lo have had other notions of a hundred 
 pouncis, j;rcw impatient of dcla)', and reclaimed his 
 Joan by an execution. Steele felt, with great fcnlibi- 
 lity, tlic obduracy of his creditor ; but with emotions 
 of forrow rather than of anger." It is much to be 
 wiflied, fays Dr Kippis, that Dr jolinfon had produ- 
 ced his authority fortius narration. It is very poliible, 
 that it may be only 2 flory the Doctor had fcmrwhcre 
 heard in converfation, and which is entirely ground- 
 lefs: " and this I am t!ie rather inclined to believe, 
 as I have been aruircd by one of the moft rcfptftable 
 charai.1ers in the kingdom, that the fact hatii no foun- 
 dation in truth." Mr Potter, in a late pnhlitation, 
 hath informed us, that lie is told by the bcft authority, 
 . tiiat the Uory is an abfol.itc falfchood. 
 
 Mr Tycrs, in " An hiftorical ElTay on Mr A.Wi- 
 fon," printed, but not puMilhcd, has mentioned fomc 
 fads concerning him, witli which we were not before 
 acquainted. Thefc are. That he was laid out for dead 
 as foon as he was Ixirn : that, when he addrcfled his 
 verfcs on the Englifh poets to Henry Sachcverell, he 
 courted that gentleman's lifter : tliat, whenever Ja- 
 cob Toiifon came to him for tlie Spediator, Baylc's 
 F'rcnch Hiftorical and Critical DiSionary lay always 
 open before him : that, upon his return to fengland, 
 after hi-; travels, he difchargcd feme old debts he had 
 contrat'lcd at Oxford, with tiie generofity of good 
 intcreft : that he was put into plentiful circumftanccs 
 by the death of a brother in the F:ift Indies: that, 
 having received encouragement from a married lady, 
 of whom he had been formerly enamoured, he had the 
 integrity to refifc the temptation : that he refufcd a 
 gratification of a three hundred pounds ba!.k-note, 
 and afterwards of a diamond ring of the fame value, 
 from a Major Dunbar, wliom he had cn<leavourcd to 
 ferve in Irclin.' by his intcrcfk with lord Sunderland : 
 and that his daughter by lady Warwi-k is ftill alive 
 and unmarried, relidingat Biltonncarllugby, and pof- 
 fc (ling an income of more than twelve liundreda-y ear. 
 The following letter, which probably relates to the 
 cafe of Major Dunbar, rcflerts great honour on Mr 
 ^ddifon's integrity. '< Jvne 26. 1 71 J. Sir, I rind 
 tRcre is a very flrong oppofition formed againft you ; 
 but I fhall wait on my lord lieutenant this morning, 
 and lay your cafe before him as advantageoully as I 
 can, if lie is not engaged in other company. I am 
 afr. id w hat you fay of his grace docs not portend you 
 any good. And now. Sir, believe me, when 1 allure 
 you I never did, nor ever will, on any prcten'-c what- 
 foevcr, ta':e more than the P.atcd and eu'lomary fees 
 of my office. I night keep the contrary practice 
 roncealtd from the world, were I capab'.c r>f it, but 
 I could not from n'yfclf ; and I hope I II1.1II always 
 fear the reproaches of my own heart i:io"e than 
 thofe of all mankind. In the mean time, if I can 
 ferve a gentleman of i:ierit, and fich a charaflcr as 
 vou bear in the world, i^e faiisfadion I meet with on 
 Vol. I.' 
 
 fiich an occafion is always a fufficicnt, ami the only re- 
 ward to, Sir, your moft obedient, humble fervai't, 
 I- Arcisor*." — Theanccdotcwhich follonswas tolj 
 by the late Dr Hirch. Addifon and Mr lemplc Sian- 
 yan were very intimate. Inihcfamiliarconvcrfations 
 which pafTed l)etwefn thcni, they were accuftomcJ 
 freely to difpi-tc each other's opii,';ons. CJpon fjme 
 occalion, Mr Addifon lent Stanyan five hundred pounds. 
 After this, Mr Stanyan behaved with a timid rtfcrve, 
 deference, and refpet^ ; not convening with the fame 
 frccdoin as formerly, or canvaifing his friend's fcnti- 
 ments. This gave grezt unealincfs to Mr Addifon. 
 One day, they happeuc J to fall upon a fubjec'l, on whicli 
 Mr Stanyan had always been ufed ftrcnuoufly to oppofc 
 his opinion. But, even upon this occalioa, he gave 
 way to what his friend advanced, without interpofnig 
 his own view of the m.ittcr. This hurt Mr Addifou 
 ft) much, that he faid to Mr Stanyan, " Either cor.tra- 
 diifl: me, or pay me the money." 
 
 In TickeH's edition of Mr Addilon's wor!;3 tkere 
 are fc vcnil pieces hitherto unmesitioned, viz. The Dii- 
 fcrtatian on Medah ; which, though not publKhed till 
 after hir. death, yet he had collefted the materi.ils, and 
 began to put them in order, at Vienna, in 1702. A 
 pamphlet, intitled. The prefent iState of the War, 
 and the XcceiTity of an Augmentation, conlidcred. 
 The late Trial and Conviftion of Count Tariff. The 
 Wliig Examiner came out on the 14th of September 
 1 716: tlierc were five of thefc papers attributed to 
 Mr Addifon, and they are the feverefl pieces he ever 
 wrote. He is fiid aUb to have been the author of a 
 performance intitled Difrrt^tio di infgnhrihui R-.i/.a- 
 fiorum Po:lij, and of a Difcourfe on Ancient and Mo- 
 dern learning. 
 
 ADDITAMENT, fomeihing added to another. 
 "Thus phyficians call the ingredients added to a medi- 
 cine already compounded, aiditamni'i. 
 
 ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting! we 
 or more things, or augmenting a thing by the acccflio:! 
 of others thereto. 
 
 Aoon ION-, in Arih.metic, Algebra, &c. Sec 
 thefc articles. 
 
 Addition, inmnfic, a dot marked on the right lidc 
 of a note, fignifying that it is to be founded or length- 
 ened half as much more as it would have been without 
 fuch mark. 
 
 Additick, in law, is that name or title wliich is 
 given to a man over and above his proper name and 
 fnrname, to (how of what eftate, degree, or myftery 
 he is ; and of what town, village, or country. 
 
 ^Dnmo\s fJ'F.n^t:-, QixQu(iliiy,vcc, Yeoman, Gen- 
 tleman, Efquirc, and fuch like. 
 
 .inniTioss r,f Degree, are thofe we call names of 
 dignity; :fs Kuight.^Lord, Earl, Marquis, and Duke. 
 
 j4dditioxs of My fiery, are fuch as fcr:vcncr, paint- 
 er, mafon, and the like. 
 
 AoniTioss 'jf 1 lac;, arc, of Thorp, of Dale, of 
 Woodftcrk — \Vher- a man hath houfchold in iwo 
 places, he (liall be faid to dwell in loth ; fo that his 
 addition ill either may fi.'Hcr. Knave was a!icicntly a 
 regular adi!i:ioii. Ily flat. 1. Hen. V. cap. j. it v.as 
 ordained, that in fuch fuits or anions v. here prorefsof 
 outlawry lies, fuch addition lliould be made 10 the 
 name of the defendant, to ihow his ellate, myftery, 
 and place where he dwells: and that the writs not ha- 
 P ving 
 
 cicm 
 
 I. 
 
 Add tion*
 
 A D E 
 
 [ i'4 ] 
 
 A D E 
 
 Adili'.ioin ving fiich aiU'iiions lliall abutc if the dcfciulaiii take 
 
 1) txccptioii tlicrttj ; but nut by the office of" the court. 
 
 Adclij. -yhc rtaibn ot this oriJiiiaiicc was, thai one man niifju 
 
 ' - not be truubUd by the ouiliwry of another ; but by 
 
 rcifoii of tlic ceiiaiii addition, every perfoii might bear 
 
 his own burden. 
 
 Additions, in diftilling, a name given to fuch 
 things as arc added to ihc walh, or lienor, while in a 
 ftale of fermentHtion in order m improve the viuoliiy 
 of the fpiilt, procure a largi r quantity of it, or gi\ c 
 it a particular Havour. All tilings, of whatever kind, 
 thus added in the time of fermentation, are called by 
 thofc of the bufmefs who f,>eak moll intelligently, <r./- 
 • ilitioiis ; but many confound them with things of a ve- 
 ry diifcrcnt nature, under the name of_/frwf///j. Sec 
 D 1 s r I 1. L I N G . 
 
 AoDirioNS, inlicraldry, fomc things added to a 
 coat of arms, as marks of honour ; and therefore di- 
 rc'.'lly oppolitc to abatements. Among additions we 
 reckon Uordure, Q^uakter, Canton, Gvron, 
 Pile, &c. See Thele articles. 
 
 ADDRESS, in a general fenfe, is ufed for ikill and 
 good management, and of late has been adopted from 
 the Krench. It is ufed alfo in commerce, a-* fynony- 
 mous with direclion to a perfou or place. The word 
 is formed of the Krench verb adnjfcr, To dired any 
 thing to a perfm. 
 
 ACDUCENT musci.es, or Adductors, in ana- 
 tomy, thofe nmfcles which pull one part of the body 
 towards another. See Anatomy, Tuhle of the Mi/fclcs. 
 ADKB, in commerce, the name of a large Egyp- 
 tian weight, ufed principally for rice, and conlifling of 
 210 okes, each of three rotolos, a weight of about two 
 drams lefs than the Englilli pound. But this is no cer- 
 tain weight ; for at Rofetto the adeb is only i jo okes. 
 ADEL, a kingdom on the eaftern coalt of Africa, 
 which reaches as far as the flraits of Babelniandel, 
 which unite the Red Sea to the feaof Arabia. This 
 country produces corn, and feeds a great number of 
 cattle. The inhabitants carry on a trade in gold, (li- 
 ver, ivory, oil, frankincenfe, a fort of pepper, and other 
 merchandifes of Arabia and the Indies. The king was 
 formerly a valfal to the grand negus of Abyllinia : but 
 being Mahometans, and the Abyliiniansafort of Chri- 
 llians, they could not agree ; and in 14^ J came to an 
 open rupture, when the Adelines threw off the yoke, 
 feeking protedion from the Grand bignior. The prin- 
 cipal places are, Adcla, feated in the centre of the 
 country, and is the town where the king relidcs : Zei- 
 la, near the Arabian Sea, is a rich town, and has a 
 good trade : Barbora, near the fca-coaft, is an ancient 
 trading town. It rains very feldom in this country. 
 ADELIA, a genus of the monodelphia order, be- 
 longing to the dioecia clafs of plants ; the charafters 
 of which are: The male calyx is a perianthium one- 
 leaved, three-parted ; the riorcts fublanced and con- 
 cave : Nocoro//a: The //<j;/;;/.'<J confift of many capil- 
 lary filaments the length of the calyx, conjoined at 
 the bafe in a cylinder ; the anthcrae are roundifli. The 
 /■f:.i//«i£- ca/>x is a five-leaved perianthium ; thelcatlets 
 fublanced, concave, perfiftent : No corolla : T\\t pijltl- 
 /umhis a roundilh germen ; the (tyli are three, ihort, 
 and divaricated ; the fligmata lacerated : The periaii- 
 /^H/7/; is a three-grained, roundilh, three-celled capfule: 
 Th.e feeds arc folitary and roundilh. In the natural 
 
 method, this geniu; belongs to the ;8'''ordcr,Tricecca:. . 
 Of liiis genus there arc three fpecics ; the bciitaidla, 
 tiie I'ic'iiii-lla, and actdolou, for which we have no pro- 
 per names in Englilh. 'i'hey are natives of Jamaica, ^ 
 and are akin to ihc ricinus or croton, and may be pro- 
 pagated in hot-be Js from feeds procured from Jamaica. 
 ADELME, or Aldhelm, fon to Kcnrcd, iiephc\r 
 to Ina king of the Wcll-Saxons ; after having been 
 educated abroad, was abbot of Malmlbury 30 years. 
 He was the firft Englilhman wlio wrote in Latin the 
 firfl who brought poetry into England, and the tirlt 
 bifliop of Shcrburn. He lived in great eflccm till his- 
 death, which liappened in 709. He was canonized, 
 and many miracles were told of him. He is mention- 
 ed with great honour by Camden and Baylc, and his- 
 life was written by William ol Malmlbury. 
 
 ADELPHIANI, in church hillory, a feit of an- 
 cient licretics, who failed always on Sundays. 
 
 ADELSCALC, in ancient culloms, denotes a fer- 
 vantof the king. The word is alfo written adilfcalche, 
 and adilfcalcus. It is compounded of the German adi-l, 
 or (del, "noble," anifcalc, " fervant." Among the 
 Bavarians, adcifcalis appear to have been the fame with 
 royal thanes among the Saxons, and thofe called niini- 
 fltt regis in ancient charters. 
 
 ADEMPTION, in the civil 1 iw, implies the re- 
 vocation of a grant, donation, or the like. 
 
 ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of 
 Arabia the Happy. It is feated by the fea-fidc, a 
 little eaflward of the flraits of Babelmandel. 
 
 ADENANTHERA, bastard > lower-kence, a 
 genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de- 
 candria clafs of plants. In the natural method, it 
 belongs to the 33'' order, Lotnentacea. The clia- 
 raiiters are : The calyx is a periantliium conlifling 
 of one very fmall five-toothed leaf. The corolla con- 
 fids of five bell- Ihaped lanceolate feflile petals, convex 
 within and concave under. The//((w///ahave ten ereit 
 fubulatcd filaments Ihorter than the corolla ; the anthe- 
 ra; arc roundilh, incumbent, bearing a globular gland on 
 the cxttrior top. "Yhc p'lflillinn lias a long gibbous ger- 
 men ; the flylus fubulated the length of the (lamina ; 
 the fligma liniple. The pericarpium is a long com- 
 preficd membranous legumen. They^t-f/i are very nu- 
 merous, roundilh, and remote. 
 
 Only one fpecies of this plant is know-n in Britain : 
 but thtre is a variety, with fcarlet feeds ; which, how- 
 ever, is rare, and grows very ilowly. It is a native of 
 India, and rifes toa confiderable height. It is as large 
 asthetamarindtree ;fprcads its branches wide on every 
 fide, and makes a fine Ihade ; for which rcafon, it is 
 frequently planted by the inhabitants in their gardens 
 or near their habitations. Tlie leaves of this tree arc 
 doubly winged, the flowers of a yellow colour, and 
 difpofedina long bunch. Thefeare fucceedcd by long; 
 twifted membranaceous pods, inelofing feveral hard 
 compreffed feeds, of abeautiful fcarlet, or (hining black, 
 colour. This plant mud be raifcd in a hot-bed, and 
 kept during the winter in a ftove. 
 
 ADENBURG, or Aldenburg, a town of Weft- 
 phalia, and in the duchy of Burg, fubjcifl to the Elec- 
 tor Palatine. It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne, and 
 I 7 W. of Bonn: E. Long. 7. 2 J. Lat. jl. 2. 
 
 ADENOGRAPHY, that part of anatomy which 
 treats of the glandular parts. Sec Anato.mv- 
 
 ADE-
 
 A D H 
 
 [ lis ] 
 
 A D I 
 
 AJenoIdct 
 
 I 
 
 Adliatoda, 
 
 ADENOIDES, glandulous, orof aglandulur form ; 
 an cjutlic-i applied to the prostata:. 
 
 AWENOLOGY, the fame with Adenography. 
 ADENOS, a kind ot' cotton, othtrwife called ma- 
 rine collo/i. It conies from Aleppo by liie way of Mar- 
 fcillcs, where it ])ays 20 /■£•;• cent. duty. 
 
 AliEON A, iinnyiliology, the name of agoddcfsin- 
 vokedby the Romans when they fct out upon a journey. 
 ADlPHAGIA, in mythology, the goddefs of glut- 
 tony, to whom the Sicilians paid rciigiinis vvorlhii). 
 
 AlJEPS, in anatomy, the fat found in the abdo- 
 men. It alfo llgnifies animal fat of any kind. 
 
 AJ^EI'TS, a term among alchemills for thofe who 
 pretended to have found the panacea or philofopher's- 
 Aonc. 
 
 AOERBIJ.'VN, a province of I'erfia, bounded on 
 rhe N. by Armenia Proper, on the S. by Irac-Agemi, 
 on the E. by Ghilan, and on the W. by Curdiltan. 
 The principaltownis Tauris ;from42. to 48. E. long, 
 from 36. to 59. lat. 
 
 ADEllN'O, a fniall place in the Val di Deniona in 
 the kingdom of Sicily : p], long. ij. 2J. lat. 28. j. 
 The ancient Adranum. 
 
 ADES, or Hades, denotes the invifible flate. In 
 the heathen mythology, it comprehends all thofe re- 
 gions that lie beyond the river Styx, viz. Erebus, Tar- 
 tarus, and ElyUiim. See Hei.l. 
 
 ADESSENARIANS, Adessenarii, in chnrch- 
 hiflory, a fefl of Chriltians who hold the real prefencc 
 of Chrill's body in the eucharifl, though not by way 
 of tranfubftantiation. They differ conliderably as to 
 this prefence ; fome holding that the body of Chrill is 
 in the bread ; others that it is about the bread ; and 
 others that is under the bread. 
 
 ADEILIATION, a Gothic cuftom, whereby the 
 children of a former marraige are put upon the fame 
 footing with thofe of the fccond. This is alfo called 
 un'io proliuvi, and ftill retained in fonic parts of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 AD FINES (Antonine), a town of SwilTerland, 
 fuppofed to be the modern Vfin, in the north of the 
 dillricl of Turgow, on the rivulet Thur, not far from 
 the borders of Suabia, about half-way between Con- 
 llance and Frauenlicld. So called, becaufe when Cc- 
 cinna,gcneralof the emperor Vitclliiis, with the aux- 
 iliary Rhetians, defeated the Helvetii, the former 
 extended their borders thus far, their territory end- 
 ing here j and, in time of the Romans, it was the laft 
 town in this quarter, and of fome repute. 
 
 ADHA.a fellival which the Mahometans celebrate 
 on the ictli day of the month Dhoitlliegiat, which is 
 the i2th and Li'l of their year. This month being 
 particularly deilincd for the ceremonies which the pil- 
 grims obferve at Mecca, it takes its name from thence, 
 for the word llgnifies //n- month ofPtlgrimagt. Onthat 
 day they facrifice with great folemnity, at Mecca, and 
 no where elfe , a fliccp, which is called by the fame 
 name as thcfedival itfelf. The Turks commonly call 
 this fellival the Great Rainivi, to dillinguilli it from 
 the led'cr, which ends their fart, and which the Chri- 
 /Uans of the levant call the Eafier of the Turki. The 
 Mahometans celebrate this fellival, out of the city of 
 Mecca, in a neighbouring valley ; and fometimcs they 
 facrifice there a camel. See Bairam. 
 
 ADHATODA, in botany. See Jt;sTiciA. 
 
 AHjazro. 
 
 Act ion of ADHERENCE, in Scots law ; an ac- A5lon «f 
 tion competent to a hulband or wife, to compel either sdherence 
 party to adhere, in cafe of dcferiioii. 
 
 ADHESION, in a general fenfe, implies the flick- 
 ing or adiiering of bodies together. 
 
 Adhesion, in philofophy. Sec Cohesion. 
 
 Adhesion, in anatomy, a term for one part flick- 
 ing toanoijier, which in a natural rtatc arc fcparatc. 
 For the moll part, if any of thofe parts in the thoraxor 
 belly lie in contact, and inflame, they grow together. 
 The lungs very frequently adhere to tiie pleura. 
 
 ADHIL, in allronomy, a liar of the flxth magni- 
 tude, upon the garment of Andromeda, under the hit 
 liar in her foot. 
 
 ADHOA, in ancient cudoins, denotes what we 
 othcrwifc call reliej. In which fenfe we fometimcs alio 
 find the word written adoha, adhoavtiiituvt,axiA adhoga- 
 victitKm. 
 
 ADIANTHUM, maiden-hair; a genus of the 
 order offilices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of 
 plants. The fructifications arc collected inoval fpots 
 under the refieded tops of the fronds. 
 
 Species. Ofthis genusbotanical writers enumerate 
 fifteen fpecies ; the mofl rcmarkableare the following. 
 I. The capillus veneris, or true maiden-hair, is a na- 
 tive of the fouthern parts of France, from whence it 
 is brought to Britain ; though it is likewife faid to 
 growpleiuifully in Cornwall, and the Trichomanes has 
 been almoft univerfally fubllituted forit. 2. Thcpe- 
 datum, or American maiden-hair, is a native of Ca- 
 nada ; and grows in fiich quantities, that the French 
 fend it from thence in package for other goods, and the 
 apoihtcarics of Paris ufe it for maiden-hair in thccom- 
 pofiiions wherein that is ordered. ;. The trapezi- 
 forme, or black American maiden-hair, is a native of 
 Jamaica ; and has Ihiiiing black flalks, and leaves of 
 an odd (hape, which makean agreeable variety among 
 other plants, fo is fbmelimes cultivated in gardens. 
 
 Culture. The firA fpecies grows naturally out of 
 the joints of walls, and filTures of rocks. It ought 
 therefore to be planted in pots filled with gravel and 
 limc-rubbilh ; w here it will tlirive much better than in 
 good earth. It mull alfo be Iheltcrcd under a frame 
 during the winter. — The fecond is to be treated in 
 the fame manner; but the third will not thrive in Bri- 
 tain, unlcfskcpt in a flove during the winter. 
 
 Properties. The true maiden-hair has been greatly 
 celebrated in diforders of thebreafl proceeding from a 
 thinncfs and acrimony of the juices; and likewife for 
 opening obllruclions of the vifcera, and promoting the 
 expcftoration of tough phlegm. But modern practice 
 pays little regard to it ; the alplcnium trichomanes, or 
 Engliflimaiden-hair, fupplying its place. See Asple- 
 N I u M . 
 
 ADIAPHORISTS, inchurch-hiftory, a name im- 
 porting hikewarmnc(^s, given, in the i6th century, to 
 the moderate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions 
 of Mclancthon, whole difpofition was vaftly more paci- 
 fic than that of Lutlur. 
 
 ADIAPHOROUS, Adiaphorus, a name given 
 by Mr Boyle to a kind of fpirit dilliiled from tartar 
 and fome other vegetable bodies ; and which is neither 
 acid, vinous, nor urinous ; but in many refpciEls dif- 
 ferent from any other fort of fpirit. 
 
 ADJAZZO,ADRAZ7-o,orAjACC!o,ingcography, 
 P 2 a
 
 A D J 
 
 L 116 3 
 
 A D J 
 
 Ailitflive a hanJfoinc townainl cilHcot Corlica in the Mcditcr- 
 
 I ranca'.i, with a biiliop's I'cc, aiut a gooj harbour. U 
 
 Aiijudicj- is |)oj)iiloub, and Icriik in wine. It is 27 miles S. W. 
 
 '■° "- 111' Cone. K. lo:ig. 41. 54. Lit. 38. J. 
 ' ^ ADJrX'TlV'i^, in gramnifir, a l^ind of noun joined 
 
 ~ with a fiibftantivc, eiihcrexi're;rtd or iinj lied, lo!l'.ow 
 
 its qiiliEics ur accidents. Sec Gka.':;.ak. 
 
 aDIGI:;, a river in Italy, __\vliich taking its rife 
 fo.ithof ilie lake Glace ainunji; the Alps, runs fouth by 
 Trent, then tall by Verona in the territory of Venice, 
 a. id falls into the gnlph of Venice, north of the uiouih 
 of the i'o. 
 
 ADJOURNMENT, the putting off a court, or 
 other meeting, till anotlicrday. In Knj;ldnd there is a 
 i^ifFerencc between the adjournment and the proroga- 
 tion of tlie parlianunt -, the former being not only for 
 a iliorter ti:ne, butalfo done by the lioulcitfelf; wbcre- 
 a ithc latter is an atl of royal authority. 
 
 .ADIPOSE, a term iifed by anatoinillsforany cell, 
 ^ membrane, &c. that is remarkable for its fatnefs. 
 
 ADUIBEITS.^N, in geography, a province of 
 Perlia, in Alia, and part of the ancient Media. It is 
 bounded on the N. by the province of Shirvan, on the 
 S. by Irac-Agtnii and Curdilhn, on the E. by Gilan 
 and the Cafpian fca, and on the W. by Turcomr^'iia. 
 ADIT, in a general fcnfc,thc palfage to, orcntrancc 
 of, any thing. 
 
 j4dit of a Mine, the hole, or aperture, whereby it 
 is entered and dug, and by which the water and ores 
 arc carried away. The term amonius to the fume witli 
 funiculus or drijt, and is diftinguilhed from dir-Jhajt. 
 Thc:;dit is ufually made on the lide of a liill, towards 
 the bottom thereof, about four, five, orlix feet high, 
 and tight wide, in form of an arch; fometimcs cut in 
 the rock, and fi)metimesfupportcdwitli timber, focon- 
 ducled as that the fole or bottom of the adit may an- 
 fwer to the bottom of the llial't, only fomev.hat lower, 
 that the water may have a fulRcicnt current to pafs 
 away without the ufe of the pump. Damps and tlic 
 impurity of the air are tht great impediments againll 
 driving ailits above 20 or ;o fathoms, by reafon of the 
 neceflity, in this cafe, of letting down air-iliafts from 
 the day to meet the adit, which are often very expcii- 
 five, both en account of the great depth of mines, and 
 the hardncfs of the mineral llrata to be cut through. 
 The bell remedy againfl this is that priftifed in the 
 coal-mines, near Liege, where they work tiieir adits 
 without air-fliafts : the manner of whicli is defcribed 
 by Sir Robert Moray. Vid. Phil. Tranf. ?>J° j. 
 
 j4i^tT of a Mil!.' is fometimes ufed for the air-fliaft 
 itfelf,beinga hole driven perper.dicularly from thefur- 
 faccof the earth intofome part of the mine, to give en- 
 trance to the air. To draw of! the Handing water ia 
 winter, in deep mines, they drive up an adit, or air- 
 fliaft, upon which the air difcngages iifelf from the 
 water, when it begins to run with fach violence as pro- 
 duces a noife eijiial to the burflingof a cannon, dafhcs 
 every thing in the way againfl the fides of the mine, 
 and loofens the very rocks at a dillancc. Ibid. N° 26. 
 ADJUDICATION, implies the afh of adjudging, 
 or determining, a caufe in favour of fomc perfon. 
 
 Adjudication, in Scots law, the name of that ac- 
 rion by which a creditor attaches tlie heritable eflate 
 of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appro- 
 priate it to hiiufelf, either in payment or fccurity of his 
 
 debt ; or that aetion by which the holder of an hcri- Adjunft 
 tjl Ic right, labouring mulcr any defect in point of form, I 
 m-iy fu|)ply thjt deled. A.llcgation 
 
 ADJUNCT, among philofophtrs, f:gnifics fonie- " 
 thing added to another, without being any iieccirary 
 part of It. '1 hus water Lbfurbcd by cloth or a fpongc, 
 is an adjunct, but no neccll'ary part of either of thefc 
 fubllanccs. 
 
 Av]vt)Cr, in nietaphyfirs, fome quality belonging 
 to cither the body or niinJ, v/hethcr natural or acqui- 
 red. 1 hus thinki:;g is an a 'junit of the mind, and 
 growth an adjinict of the body. 
 
 Adjunct, in muiic,.a word whi-h is employtd to 
 denominate the connection or relation between the 
 principal mode and the modes ol its two-lifths, which, 
 from the intervals that conliituie the relation between 
 them and it, are called its adjm.ds. 
 
 Adjunct is alfo ufed to lignify a colleague, or fomc 
 perfon atlbr-iatcd with another as an al'iltant. 
 
 AD}v.\cr CoJs, or jIdjvsxts of ths Gods, among 
 the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added as 
 ailillants to the principal ones, to cafe tliem in their 
 fundions. Thus, to Mars was adjoined liellona and 
 Nemelis ; to Neptune, Salacia; to Vulcah, the Cabi- 
 ri ; to the Good Genius, the Lares ; to the Evil, the 
 Lcmurcs, &c. 
 
 Adjuncts, in rhetoric and grammar, lignify cer- 
 tain words or things added to others, to amplify or 
 augment the force of the difcourfc. 
 
 Adjuncts, or Adjoi n'ts, in the royal academy of 
 fciences at Paris, denote a clafsof members, attached 
 to the purfuit of particular fciences. The clafs of AJ- 
 j:/ijdi\\is created in 1716, inlieuof the Elcves : they 
 are twelve in number ; two for geometry, two for me- 
 chanics, two for allronomy, two for anatomy, two for 
 ehcmillry, and two for botany. Tlie Ehves not ta- 
 ken into this cftablilhment were admitted on the foot 
 of fupcrnumerary yjdjtmih. 
 
 ADJUTANT, in the military art, is an ofRcer 
 whole bulinefs it is to afTill the major. Each battalion 
 of foot and regiment of horfc has an adjutant, who re- 
 ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major j. 
 which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers 
 out to the fcrjeants. When detachments arc to be 
 made, he gives the number to be furnillicd by eacit 
 company or troop, and aliigns the hour and place of 
 rendezvous. He alfo places the guards ; receives, and 
 diflributes the am munition to tile companies, &:c. ; and, 
 by the major's orders, regulates the prices of bread, 
 beer, and other provilions. The word is fometimes. 
 ufed by the French for an aid-dn- camp. 
 
 /iirjUTASTS-geKcral, among the jcfuits, a felefl 
 number of fathers, who reiided with the general of 
 the order, each of whom had a province or conntry af- 
 ligned him, as England, Holland, &c. and their buli- 
 nefs was to inform the faiiier-gcncral of Hate-occur- 
 rences in fuch countries. To this end tlicy had their 
 eorrcfpondents delegated, cmillaries, viliioi s, regents, 
 provincials, if.c. 
 
 ADJUTORIUM, a term ufed by phyficians for 
 any medicine in a prefcription but the capital one. 
 
 ADLE-ECGS, fuch as liavc not received an impreg- 
 nation from the fcmenof the cock. 
 
 ADLEGATION, in tlie public law of the German 
 empire, a right cl-iimcd by the ftatcj of the empire of 
 
 adjoin-
 
 ADM 
 
 [ 117 ] 
 
 ADM 
 
 Admini- 
 ftration. 
 
 Adlo:uticn aJjoiniiig plcnipienii.irits,in public treaties and ncgo- 
 I t iatioas, to thole ot" the emperor, l"or the tMiifadting of 
 matters whicli relate to the empire in general. In 
 wliich fciifi adlcgalion tiilicrs from legation, wliich is 
 the ri^^htof fending anibalikdors on apcrfon's own ac- 
 count Several prin-esanJ Ilatcsot the empire enjoy 
 
 the right ai iegati'jii, who have not that of udi.gaioii, 
 and vuj virJU, I'he bilhops, for inilancc, have the 
 right oi aJicgutioii in ilic treaties which concern the 
 couimou intercit, but no right o( hgi/tu/i for their own 
 private affairs. The like had the duke of Mantua. — 
 The emperor allows the princes of Cicrniany the privi- 
 lege oi l-gatiou, but dif|Hitis that o( aJugnlto/i. They 
 challenge it as belonging to \.\\cm jar: regui, which 
 they enjoy in common with the emperor himfclf. 
 
 .'vDLOCUTlON, Adj.ocutio, in antiquity, is 
 chierty nnderllood of fpeechcs made by Roman gene- 
 rals to their armies, to encourage them before a battle. 
 Wt frequently iind thcfc adlocutions exprclled on me- 
 dals by the abbreviature Adi.ocut. Con The ge- 
 neral is fonittiincsreprefented as fcated on a tribunal, 
 often on a bank or mount of turf, with the cohorts 
 ranged orderly round him, in mampuli and iu)i„\e. 
 The ufual formula in adlocutions was, Fortis effi-t ac 
 fid;,s. 
 
 ADMANUENSES, in ancient law books, denote 
 perfons who (wore by laying their hands on the book. 
 — In which fenfe, ad,iianncnj\s amount to the fame 
 with lay uien ; and lland oppofed to clerks, who were 
 forbid to fwear on the book, their word being to be 
 reputed as their oath ; whence they were alio deno- 
 minated /..'-• digiii. 
 
 ADMKASLTIEMENT, Admensuratio, in law, 
 a writ which lies for the bringing thofe to reafon, or 
 mediocrity, who ufurp more of any thing than their 
 fliare. This vvri- lies in two cafes; termed, 
 
 AnMKA^VKKMK\T of Doivfr, AJ'iietifiiratio d'jfis, 
 where the widow of the dcceafed holds more from the 
 heir, or his guardian, on accouiit of her dower, than of 
 right belongs to her. And, 
 
 Aonir.A^VKt'MJ-w ofPajlure, AJmenfuratiofa[lura; 
 this lies between thofe who have common of pallures 
 appendant to their freehold, or common by vicinage, 
 in cafe any of them furcharge the common with more 
 cattle than tiiey ouglit. 
 
 ADMINICLE, a term nfcd chiefly in old law- 
 books, to imply an aid, help, ain/tance, or fupport. 
 The word is Latin, adniintaduni ; .ind derived trom 
 adiiihiiciiior, to prop or fupport. 
 
 Adminicle, in Scots law, fignifics any writing or 
 deed referred to by a party, in an adtion of law, for 
 proving his allegations. 
 
 ADMINICULATOR, an -ancient officer of the 
 church, v.hofe bufincfs it was to attend to and defend 
 the caufeof the widows, orphans, and others delUtutc 
 of htlp. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION, in general, the govern- 
 ment, direction, or manai^cment of attaivs, and parti- 
 cularly the exercife of dillributive jullice ; among cc- 
 clcliadics, it is often nfed tocxprefs the giving or dif- 
 penfuig ihe facranients, S:c. 
 
 Administration, is alio the name given by the 
 Spaniards in Peru to the flaplc maga'/rine, or warchoufe, 
 elt.ibli;hed at Callao, a fmall town on the S. Se.i, which 
 i:; ilic port of Lima, the capital of that part ofvSimth 
 Amcjica, and particularly of Peru. TJic foreign lliips, 
 
 wJiich hnvc leave to trade along that coaft, are obliged 
 to unload here, paying 13 fir cent, of the price they 
 fell lor, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 fcr cci.t. 
 if otherwifc; befides which, they pay 3 per 1000, 
 duty, for confuldiip and fome other fmall royal rights 
 and claims. 
 
 ADMINISTRATOR, in law, he to v/hom the or- 
 dinary commits the adminiilration of the goods of a 
 pcrfon dcceafed, in default of an executor. — An adion 
 lies for, or againft an adminillrator, as for, oragailift 
 an executor; and he Ihall be accountable to the value 
 of the goods of the dcceafed, and no farther : — inilefs 
 there be wafte, or other abufe chargeable on him. If 
 the adminiftVator die, his executors arc not adminiftra- 
 tors ; but the court is to grant a new adminiilration. 
 — If a ftraiigei , who is neither adminillrator norexe- 
 c'ltor, takes ihegoods of the dcceafed, and adminiftcr, 
 he lliall be charged, and fued as an executor, not as an 
 adminillrator. 'I'he origin of adminillrators is derived 
 from the civil law. 'Iheir eflablilhnicnt in England is 
 owing to a flalute made in the 3 ill year of Edw. III. 
 Till thcH, no ofiicc of this kind was known belidcthat 
 of executor ; in cafe of a want of wliich, the ordinary 
 had the difpofal of goods of perfons intellite, &c. 
 
 Administrator, in Scots law, a pcrfon legally 
 impowered to act for another whom the law prefumes 
 incapable of atting for himfclf. Thus tutors or cu- 
 rators are fometimes llylcd ad/ni/ii/l>iil on hi /aw to p<.i- 
 pils, minors, or fatuous perfons. But more generally 
 the term is ufed to imply that power which is conferred 
 by the law upon a father over the perfons and eflatcs 
 of his children during their minority. SecLA\v,N°clxi. 
 
 Administrator, is fometimes ufed for the prcli- 
 dcnt of a province ; for a perfon apj'ointed to receive, 
 manage, and diflribute, the revcnuesof an hofpital or 
 religious Iioufe ; for a prince who enjoys the rcvciuics 
 of a fecularized bilhopric ; and for the regent of a king- 
 dom during a niinoriiy of the prince, or a vacancy of 
 the throne. 
 
 ADMIRABILIS sal, the fame with Glauber's 
 fait. See Chemistry, n° 124. 
 
 ADMIRAL, a great officer or magiflratc, who has 
 the government of a navy, and the hearing of all ma- 
 rine caufes. 
 
 Authors a:e divided with regard to the origin and 
 denominati'^'n of this important officer, whom we find 
 eflabliflied in moft kingdoms that border on the fca. 
 liut the mod probable opinion is that of Sir Henry 
 Spelman, who thinks, that both the n.ime and dignity 
 were derived from the Saracens, and, by reafon of the 
 holy wars, brought into Europe ; for admiral, in the 
 Arabian langnage, lignifies a prince, or chief ruler, 
 and was the ordinary title of the governors of cities, 
 provinces, &c. and therefore they called the com- 
 mander of the navy by that name, as a name of dignity 
 and honour. And indeed there are no inflanecs of 
 admirals in any part of Europe bcfoie the year 1284, 
 when Philip of Krance, whoha<l attended St Lewis in 
 the warsagainft the Saracens, created an admiral. Dii 
 Cange allures us, that the Sirilians were the tirll, and 
 the (jenoefc the next, who gav^- the denomiiuiion of 
 AUiitrul to the commanders of their naval armaments ; 
 and tlint they took \i from the Saracen or Araoic ^- 
 v:ir, agi-ueral name for every commanding officer, .^s 
 for the cxa^'l lime when the wo d wasintrodu cd inEng- 
 land, it is uncertain ; fome tliiivk it was in the reign of 
 
 Edward I . 
 
 Admini- 
 ilrator 
 
 / 
 
 Admiral.
 
 ADM 
 
 r m8 ] 
 
 ADM 
 
 A<Sniir-l. Echviid I. Sir I'ciiry Spdniaii is> of ophiion tlut it 
 
 " " ' \x ,:s lirftufeJ in llic itigii of Hciuy III. bccaiife iici- 
 
 ilurtlic laws of Olcroii made in 1266, nor liraclon, 
 who w rote about that liint, nial;c any mention of it ; 
 and thai the term adKiml was not uftd in a eharter in 
 the eighth of Henry III. wherein he granted this of- 
 fice to Richard de Laccy, by thcfe words lMiiriiit,ia?n 
 Angh^ ; but in the 56th year of the fame reign, not 
 only the hiflorians, but-thc charters ihemfclves, very 
 frequeiul) tifc the uord ad>iiiral. 
 
 Anciently there were generally three or four admi- 
 rals appointed in the Englillifcas, all of them holding 
 x\\ca\^cc ilnrarti biiii pliuito : and each of them iiaving 
 yariicnlar limits under their charge and government : 
 as admirals of the tleci of lliips, from tlie mouth of the 
 Thames northward, foiuhward or weflward. Befidcs 
 thcfe, there were admirals of the Cinque Ports, as in 
 the reign of Kdward III. when one \\ illiain Latimer 
 wzi ii)\cA .Tdmiralis qiihiqtu portin/M ; and we fomc- 
 limes find that one perfon has been admiral of the llcets 
 to the fouthward, northward, and welhvard : but the 
 title of adiniratii Aiiglite was not frequent till th e reign 
 of Henry IV. when the king's brother had that title 
 given him, which in all conimiirions aftcrsvards was 
 granted to the facceeding admirals. It may be ob- 
 fervcd, that there was a title above that of admiral of 
 England, which was locurn-tii:e>is regis fhpcr tiian, the 
 king's lieutenant general of ihefea ; this title we find 
 
 mentioned in the reign of Richard II Before the ufe 
 
 of the word Wwz/W was known, the I'iiie oi ciijlos i/iaris 
 was made ufe of. 
 
 I.iid High AdmiraloJ England, in fome ancient re- 
 cords called c<?/i;/<j«//j marititnarnni, an officer of great 
 antiquity and trull, as appears by ilie laws of Oleron, 
 fo denominated from the place they were made at by 
 Richard I. TIic (iril title of Admiral oj England, ex- 
 prcfsly conferred upon a fubjei.'f, was given by patent 
 of Richard 11. to Richard Kif/.-Allen, jun'. earl of A- 
 rundcl and Surrey ; for thofe who before enjoyed this 
 office were limply termed adiuirnb, though their jurif- 
 diclion feems as large, cfpecially in the reign of Ed- 
 ward III. when tlie court of admiralty waslirfl ereded. 
 This great officer has the management of all mari- 
 time affiiirs, and the government of the royal navy, with 
 power of decidon in all maritime cafes both civil and 
 criminal : he judges of all things done upon or beyond 
 the fea, in any part of the world j upon the fca-coalls, 
 in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers below the 
 firft bridge from tlie fea. By him, vice-admirals; rear- 
 admirals,jaiid all fea-eapiains arc commiffioned : all de- 
 puties for particular coafls, and coroners to view dead 
 bodies found on the fea-coafts, or at fea ; he alfo ap- 
 points the judges for his court of admiralty, and may 
 imprifon, relcafc,&c. All ports andliavens are iitjra 
 carpus coinitatiis, and the admiral hath no jurifdii^tion 
 of any thing done i:i them. Between high and low 
 watermark, the coniniou-law and the high-admiral 
 have jurifdi(5lion by turns, one upon the water, and the 
 other upon the land. 
 
 The lord-admiral has power, not only over the fea- 
 mcn ferving in liis (hips of war, but overall other fta- 
 nien, to arrclt them for the fervicc of the ftate : and 
 if any of them run away, without leave of the admiral, 
 he hath power to make a record thereof, and certify 
 rhc fame to the llieriffs, mayors, bailiffs, &c. wlio 
 fiiall caufe them to be apprehended andimprifoned. 
 
 To the lard high-admiral belong all penalties and Admlrsl, 
 amcieemtnts of all tranlgrelfions at fea, on the fea- Atlmiralty. 
 
 Ihore, in ports an.) havens, and all rivers below the ' '■' ' 
 
 firll briilgc from the fea ; the goods of pira'.esand fe- 
 lons condemned or cnllaved, fea- wrecks, goods float- 
 ing on the fea, or call on the lliore (not irranied to lords 
 of manors adjoining to the fea), and a Ihare of lawful 
 prizes, alfoallgreat tithes, commonly called royal fijhcs, 
 except whales and llurgeons : to u hich add, a lalary 
 of 7000/. a year. 
 
 In Ihori, this is fo great an office, in point of trufl, 
 honour, and profit, that it has been uftially given to 
 princes of the blood, or the moll eminent perfuns a- 
 mongtlic nobility. There has been no high admiral for 
 fomeyears; theoffice being put in cumniillion, or un- 
 der the adminillration ol the lords conimiliioncrs of 
 the admiralty, who by llatute have the fame power 
 and authority as the lord high admiral. 
 
 Lord High AnMjRAL'if Scotland, one of the great of- 
 ficers of the crown, and fupreme judge in all juariiimc 
 cafes within that part of Britain. See Law, Part HI. 
 1\° clvii. 15. 
 
 Admiral, alfo implies the commander in chief of 
 any lingle tieet or fquadrou , or, in general, any llag- 
 offiecr whatever. The commander of a fleet carries 
 liis flag at the niain-top-mafl head. 
 
 l'ic{ Admiral, isthecommander of thefccond fqua- 
 dron, and carries his flag at the forc-top-mafl head. 
 
 Rear Admiral, is thceommander of the third fqua- 
 dron, and carries his flag at the miztn-top-mafl head. 
 Vice Admiral, is alfo an officer appointed by the 
 lords commiihoners of the admiralty. There arefcveral 
 of thcfcofficers cflablilhedin diftcrent parts of Great- 
 Britain, with judges and martials under them, for 
 executing jurifdidion within their refpedive limits. 
 Their decrees, however, are not fi:ial, an appeal ly- 
 ing to the court of admiralty in London. 
 
 Admiral is alfo an appellation given to the inofl 
 confidcrable ihipof a fleet of merchant-men, or of the 
 velfels employed in the cod-fiihery of Newfoundlaiid. 
 This lafl has the privilege of choofing what place he 
 pleafes on the ffiore todry his fi(h; gives propcrorders, 
 and appoints the fiihing places to thofe who come af- 
 ter him ; and as long as the fifhing feafon co^ntinucs, 
 lie carries a flag on his main-mafl. 
 
 Admiral, in zoology, the Engliflt name of a fpe- 
 ciesofthc voluta, a ffiell-fiffi belonging to the order of 
 vermes teftacca. See Voluta. 
 
 ADMIRALTY properly fignifics the office of lord 
 high-admiral, whether dilchargcd by one iingle per- 
 fon, or by joint commiffioncrs called lords of the admi- 
 raty. 
 
 Court of Admiraltv, is a fovereign court, held by 
 the lord high -admiral, or lords of the admiralty, where 
 cognizance is taken in all maritime affairs, whether 
 civil or criminal. All crimes committed on the high- 
 leas, or on the great rivers below the firfl bridge next 
 the fea, arc cognizable in this court only, and before 
 which they m. Ill be tried by judge and jury. But in civil 
 caufts the mode is different, the dcrilions being all 
 made according to the civil law. From thcfentc H' rsof 
 the admiralty-judge an appeal always lay, in c ruinary 
 courfc, to the king in chancery, as may be eolledled 
 from flatute 25 Hen. VIII. e. 19. which direds the 
 app'-a! from the archb'.!:op's courts tobc determined by 
 perfons Jiamed in the king's eonimiffion, "like as in 
 
 "cafe
 
 A D N [ I 
 
 Admiralty " cafe of appeal fioni the admiral-court." But this is 
 
 I .ilfo cxpiclily dcckrcd by flatutc 8 £li/,. c 5. which 
 
 Adnata, t'uads, that upon aii appeal made to the chancery, the 
 
 ' ^ fcniciice dcliuilive of the delegates appointed by coiu- 
 
 iniiiioa fliali be fir.al. 
 
 Appeals from the vice-admiralty courts in Ameri- 
 ca, and other plantations and fettlemeuts, may be 
 broujvht before tiie courts of admiralty in England, as 
 being a branch of the admiral's jurifdiction, tho' they 
 may alfo be brought before the king in council. But 
 in cafe of prize velfels, taken in time of war, in any 
 part of the world, and condemned in any courts of ad- 
 miialty or vice-admiralty as lawful prize, the appeal 
 lies to certain cr.mmijficiars of appeals confifling chielly 
 of the privy council, and not tojudgcs delegates. And 
 this by virtue of divers treaties with foreign nations, 
 by which particular courts are cftablilhed in all the 
 maritime countries of Europe for the decifion of this 
 tjueflion, whether lawful prize or not ? for this being 
 a quelHon between fiibjec1:s of different Ibitcs, it be- 
 longs entirely to the law of nations, and not to the 
 municipal laws of cither country, to detetermiue 
 it. 
 
 Court of Admiruti in Scotland. Sec law, Part 
 III. N'' clvii. I J. 
 
 AoMmALnlflands, lie in about 2° iS' S. Lat. and 
 16" 44' E. long. There are between 20 and 30 
 iilands faid to be fcattered abouthcre, one of which a- 
 lone would make a large kingdom. Captain Carteret, 
 who firfl difcovered them, was prevented touching at 
 f hem, although their appearance was very inviting, on 
 account of the condition of his fliip, and of his being 
 entirely unprovided with the articles of barter which 
 fuit an Indian trade. He dcl'cribes them as clothed 
 with abcautiful verdure of woods, lofty and luxuriant, 
 interfperfcdwith fpots that have been cleared for plan- 
 tations, groves of cocoa nut-trees, and houfes of the 
 natives, who feem to be very numerous. Thelargcftof 
 ihefc iilands is 18 leagues long in thedireflion of eaft 
 and weft. The difcoverer thinks it highly probable 
 that thefe iflands produce fevcral valuable articles of 
 trade, particularly fpiccs, as they lie in the fame cli- 
 mate and latitude as the Moluccas. 
 
 ADMONITION, in ecclcfiaflical affairs, a part of 
 difcipline much ufed in the ancient church. It was the 
 fii ft a J, or ftep, towards the punithment or cxpulfion 
 of delinquents. In cafe of private offences, it was per- 
 formed according to the evangelical rule, privately : 
 in cafe of public offence, openly, before the church. 
 If either of thofc fufficed for the recovery of ilie fallen 
 perfon, all firthcr proceedings in the way of ccnfurc 
 ceafcd : if they did not, recourfe was had to excom- 
 munication. 
 
 Admositio Fuflitim, among the Romans, a military 
 punilhment, not unlike our whipping, only it was per- 
 formed with vine-branches. ^ 
 
 ADMORTIZATION, in the feudal cuftoms, the 
 redujHon of the property of lands or tenements to 
 mortmain. See Mortmain. 
 
 ADNATA, i.i anatomy, one of the coats of the 
 eye, which is alfo called ccnjunnira and a.'lnigii.ea. 
 
 Adnata, is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like, 
 which grows upi,>n animals or vegetables. 
 
 /^ p N AT A, or /td'uirc^'>:tia, among <rardcners, denote 
 tjiofe off-fets, which, by anew germination under the 
 earth, proceed irom the lily, narcilTus, hyacinth, and, 
 
 3 
 
 19 ] A D N 
 
 other flowers, and afterwards grow to true roots. The 
 Krencli call them cayeux, '< ftalks." 
 
 ADNOUN, is ufed by fomc grammarians to ex- 
 prefs what we more ufually call an Adjcdive. The 
 word is formed by way of analogy to adverb ; in re- 
 gard adjecJlives have much the fame otHce and relation 
 to nouns that adverbs have to verbs. Biihop W ilkins 
 ufes the word adname in another fenfc, viz. for what 
 we otherwife call a prepolition. 
 
 ADOLESCENCE, the ftate of growing youth ; or 
 that period of a perfon's age commencing from his in- 
 fancy, and terniiiiating at his full llature or manhood. 
 The word is formed of the Latin adot fare, to grow. 
 — The ftate of adolefcence lafts fo long as the fibres 
 continue to grow, cither in magnitude or tirmnefs. 
 The fibres being arrived at the degree of firmncfs and 
 tenllon fufficicnt to fiiftain the parts, no longer yield 
 or give way to tlic efforts of the nutritious matter to 
 extend them ; fo that their farther accretion is ftop- 
 ped, from the very law of their nutrition. Adolefcence 
 is commonly computed to be between 15 and 25, orc- 
 ven 30 years of age ; though in different conftitutions 
 
 its terms are very ditrerent. The Romans ufually 
 
 reckoned it from 12 to 25 i" boys ; and to 21 in girls, 
 &c. And yet, among their writers, juvcnis and ado- 
 lefceus are frequently ufed indifferently for any perfon 
 under (jj years. 
 
 ADOLLAM, orOnoLLAM (anc. geog.), a town 
 in the tribe of Judah, to the eaft of Eleutheropolis. 
 David is faid to have hid himfelf in a cave near this 
 town, (Bible.) 
 
 ADON, a populous village in the province of Stuhl- 
 Weillemberg, belonging to Hungary. It lies in a 
 fruitful country, towards the river Danube. Long. 
 19. 20. Lat. 47. 30. 
 
 ADONAl, one of the names of the Supreme Being 
 in the fcriptures. The proper meaning of the word is 
 my lords, in the plural number ; as Adutl \%my hrd,\\\ 
 the lingular. The Jews, who cither out of refpett, or 
 fuperftition, do not pronounce the name of J::hovah, 
 read Ad'jiiai in the room of it, as often as they meet 
 with Jehovah in the Hebrew text. But the ancient 
 Jews were not fofcrupulous; nor is there any law which 
 forbids them to pronounce the name of God. Calmer. 
 ADONIA, in antiquity, folemn I'eafts in honour of 
 Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The 
 Adoiiia were obferved with great Iblcmnity by moft 
 nations; Greeks, Pha-nicians, Lycians, Syri.uis, Egyp- 
 tians, &e. From Syria, tliey arc fiippofcd to have paf- 
 fed into India. The prophet Ezekiel* isuudcrftood to •Ch.viii.ia. 
 fpeak of them. They were ftill obferved at .Alexandria 
 in the time of St Cyril ; and at -Antioch inthat of Julian 
 the .ipoftate, who happened to enter that city during 
 the folemnity, which was taken for an ill omen. The 
 Adonia lailed two days: on the tirft of which certain 
 images of Venus and .Adonis wcrecarricil, with all the 
 pompand ceremonies practifed a: funerals -, the women 
 wept, tore their hair, beat their brcafts, &c. imittiing 
 the cries and lamentations of Venus for the death of 
 her paramour. This lamentation they ciUcd Aiftanarutc. 
 The Svrians were not conte.ited with weeping, but s^avc 
 themfclves difcipline, fhaved their heads. &:. Among 
 the Egy inkins.the queen herlVlfufcdtocarry the image 
 ofAdonisin proccinon. St . yri! mentions an extraordi- 
 nary ceremony practiledby t'le .Alexandaians: .A letter 
 waswritteiuoiliewomenofBybuluSjtouiform them that 
 
 Adonis,
 
 AD O 
 
 [ 120 ] 
 
 ADO 
 
 AA»ailr«, Adonis w-ufo'-mda^uiii: this ktlcv \v,;s ihrowii into 
 Adoiiij.' tl;c Tea, wliicli (it was pretcndeJ)diil not fiilpuuttudl- 
 ' ' \y to convey it lo Bybnlasiii fcvcii days; iij-oii tlic re- 
 ceipt of w hich, the Jiy blian women etiUc;! tlicir niouni- 
 iiiu-, fun ' his praifts, and made rtjuicii:gsi^ir he were 
 ratfed to'^lifc again: Or rather, accorjin^ to Mcurlius, 
 the two o;iLccs of mourning and rtj.)ii.ing made two di- 
 (iintt fcafts, which were ht Id at different times of the 
 year, the one fix months after the otiicr; Adonis being 
 l.ippcfcdtopafs half ihcyc.-.r with I'roferptnc.and half 
 with Vcnns. — The Kgypiian Adonia arc faid to have 
 I'ccn held in memory oi the death ofOluis; by oihtrs, 
 of his licknefsand recovery. Bill^op l'airi:k dates their 
 ori;;in from the Ikn^hter of the lirll-born under Mofcs. 
 
 ADONIDKS, in botany, a name given to Lotanills 
 who di fcribcd or made catalogues of plants cultivated 
 in any particular place. 
 
 ADONIS, fon to C inyras king of Cyprus, the dar- 
 ling of tlic goddefs Venus : being killed by a wild boar 
 ill the Idalian woods, Jie was turned into a riower ofa 
 blood-colour, fuppofcd to be the Anemone. Venus 
 was inconfolible; and no grief v.-aa ever more celebrated 
 than this, mofi nations having ptrpctuated the memory 
 •See yfaV ot'it by a trainof anniveriary ccremoniis*. Among 
 •;j. Shakcfpeare's poems, is a long one on the fubjed of 
 
 Vcnus's atfciilion for Adonis. 
 
 The text of the vulgatc in Ezckicl, viii. 14. fays, 
 that this prophet faw women lilting in the temple, and 
 weeping for Adonis: but according to the reading of 
 th-: Hebrew text, they arc faid ta weep for Tammuz, 
 or the hUd.ti one. Among the tgyptians, Adonis was 
 adored under the name of Cliris the hufoand of His. 
 13ut he w;is fomeiimcscp.llcd by the name of Animuz, 
 cr Tammuz, //'.' corc-aleJ, to denote probably his 
 death or burial. Tlic Hebrews, in derilion, call him 
 fometimes the d^nd. Pfal. cvi. 2S. and Lev. xix. 2S. 
 bccaufc they wept for him, and reprefented him as 
 one dead in his coffin ; and at other times, they c:ill 
 him the image of jcaloufy, f:zek. viii. :?. 5- bccaufc 
 ic was the objeo-1 of the god Mars's jcaloufy. The 
 Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians called him Ado- 
 nis, and K. Calmet is of opinion, that the Ammoni:cs 
 niyi Moabiies gave him the name of Baal-pcor. Sec 
 Baal-teor. 
 
 ADOTiis, W.fo/iiui, (anc. geog.) ; a river of Phoe- 
 nicia, rifing in Mount Lebanon, and falling into 
 the fea, after a north-weft courfe, at BybuUis ; fa- 
 mous in fable, as a beautiful Ihepherd youth, (Virgil ;) 
 fon of Cynarasjkingof the Cyprians, loved by Venus, 
 f.ain by a boar, and turned intoa river. Theocritusla- 
 mcnts him dead in an idyllion,or railierodc.asuid the 
 women yearly, when in flood time, the river rolled 
 down a red eanh, which tinged its waters, deemed to 
 be hiswomd bleeding afrclh. In the Phoenician lan- 
 guage Adan fignifics a willow, and Adon lord," with 
 the fame radical letters. J'cnce iT«,t< ;\</'«T,{,Salignus, 
 a:id Ktfi,-, or Kipit A/iiT.c, for Ktfiot. Adonidis horii. 
 arc gardens btautif.illy arranged, but more adapted 
 for pleafure than prof.t. 
 
 AroHis, Bn-ii-iy:-, ex rh:ara>its-cye \ a genus of 
 the polyandria order, belonging to the polygynia clafs 
 of plants. It is aiFo'-iatcd with the Multil'tiqua , or 
 26th Nat Order — The charadcrs are : Thef'i/'.fis 
 a perianthium, confifting of five nbtufe concave leaves, 
 fomcwhat coloured, and deciduous. The corolla 
 
 has from five to fifteen oblong petals oltufc and glof- AJjnir.i 
 iy. They/.:</////m confill of very jiuaitrous, iliort, fub- i 
 
 ulatcd filaments j the anther* arc onlong and iulk>i- Adcption 
 ed. The pijl-.tium has numerous germina collected in ^~ 
 a head ; no llyli ; the itigmata acute and reilet'leil. 
 There is no pincurfiuni ; he receptacle is oblong and 
 fpiked. 'I'ilcyTi'i/j are numerous, irregular, angular, 
 gibbous at the b.:fc, retlcdcJ at the top, fo!nev hat 
 prominent, and awnlcfs. 
 
 S/>s-ciii. The moft remarkable fpccics arc the follow- 
 ing : I. The annua, or common adonis, is a native of 
 Kent, where it isYuund in great plenty in the fields fown 
 with wheat. Its flowers aic ofa beauiii'ul fcarlet colour, 
 and appear in the beginning of June , the feeds ripen- 
 ing in Augult and Scpicniber. Great quantities of 
 thcfe flowers arc fold in London, under the name of 
 Pied Morocco. 2. The a:ltivalis, or annual adonis, wiih 
 yellow llowers, jrrows much taller than the firft, has its 
 leaves thinner fcr, and of a lighter colour. 3. Jhc 
 vernalis, or perennial adonis, grows naturally on the 
 mountains of Bohemia, i'rnliia, and other parts of 
 Germany. It flowers the latter end of March, or be- 
 ginning of April ; the (lalks rife about a foot and a 
 half high ; and when the roots are large, and have ftood 
 unrcmoved for fome years, they will put out a great 
 number of flalks from each root ; on the top of each of 
 thcfe grows one largeycUow flower. 4. The apennina, 
 is a native of Siberia and the Appcnines. 
 
 Ciiituti:. The lirll two fpccies, being annual, mull 
 be propagated from feeds, which ought to be fown in 
 autumn, foon al'ter they are ripe, or they will be in 
 danger of not growing up that year. They thrive beft 
 in a light foil. The third and fourth fpecies are like- 
 wife to be propagated from feeds, which mull be fown 
 in auti'.n-.n, or they feldom fucceed. \V hen the plants 
 come up, thi-y mull be carefully kept ckarfromwceds ; 
 and in very dry weather theirgrowth will be promoted 
 by being now and then watered. Th<y Ihould remain 
 in the place wlicrc they arc fown till the fecond year ; 
 and be tranfplanted thence in autumn, to tlie place 
 where they are to reinain. 
 
 ADONIS rS, a fed or party, among Divines and 
 Critics, who maintain, that the Hebrew points ordina- 
 rily annexed to the confonants of the word Jehovah, arc 
 not the natural points belonging to that word, nor ex- 
 prefs the true pronunciation of it ; but are the vowel- 
 points, belonging to the words ^ 'c/,<j/and F.tohivi, ap- 
 plied to the confonants ot the incffiblc name Jehovah ; 
 to warn the readers, that inftead o! the word Jehovah, 
 Vi'hicli the Jews were forbid to pronounce, and thetrnc 
 pronunciation of which had been long unknown to 
 thcn^, tlicy are always to read Adonai. 1 hey arc op- 
 pofcd to "Jehovilli : of whom the principal are Drufu:s, 
 Capclhif, Buxrorf, Alting, and Rdand, who has pu- 
 blifhcd a collctlibn of their writings on this fubjcel. 
 
 ADOPTlANl, in church hillory, a fedt^f ancient 
 heretics, followers of Felix of Urgel, and Llipand of 
 Toledo, v.'iio, towards the end of the eij^hth century, 
 advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in Iiis human na- 
 ture, is the fon of God, not by nature, but by adoption. 
 
 ADOPTION, an acl by whicli any one takes ano- 
 ther into his facility, owns him for his fon, and ap- 
 points him for his heir. 
 
 The cudori of adoption was very common ?.mong 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans : yet it was not prac- 
 
 tifed,
 
 ADO 
 
 121 ] 
 
 ADO 
 
 ilici!, b:it for ccrt.iiii caufis cxprcflcd in the laws, and 
 witli ccriaiii formaruici lil'ual iu fuch calVs. It was a 
 fort of ir.iiratioii of iKitii'.e, intended for the comfort 
 of ihofc who had no children : wherefore he thi: was 
 to adopt was to have no cLildren of his own, and to be 
 . palt the age of getting any ; nor were eunuchs allow- 
 ed to adopt, as being under an a(5tual inipotcncy of 
 begetting children ; neither was it lawful for a yojng 
 man to adopt an elder, becaufc that would have been 
 contrary to the order of nature ; nay, it was even rc- 
 tiuircd that the perfon who adopted fliould be eighteen 
 years older than his adopted fon, that there might at 
 lead appear a probability of his being the natural fa- 
 ther. 
 
 Among the Greeks it was called uinTtitjfiliathn, It 
 was allowed to fuch as had no ilfue of their own ; ex- 
 cepting thofe who were not K^iinitx-jTui, th;ir own -ina- 
 J'.ers, e. g. flaves, women, madmen, infants, or pcrfons 
 under twenty years of age ; who being incapable of 
 making wills, or managing their own cUatcs, were not 
 allowed to adopt heirs to them. Foreigners being in- 
 capable of inheriting at Athens, if any fuch were a- 
 dopted, it was necelfary firfl to make them free of the 
 city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the a- 
 doptcd had his name enrolled in the tribe and ward of 
 his new father ; for which entry a peculiar time was 
 allotted, viz. thefcftival&ac^iixia. Topreventrafliand 
 inconliderate adoptions, the Lacedemonians had a law, 
 that adoptions lliould be tranfacled, or atlcafb confirm- 
 ed, in the prefence of their kings. The children adopt- 
 ed were inverted with all the privileges, and obliged to 
 perform all the duties, of natural chiViirtn ; and being 
 thus provided for in another family, ccafcd tohavc any 
 claim of inheritance, or kindred, in the family which 
 ihcy had left, unlefs they lirft renounced their adop- 
 tion ; which, by the laws of Solon, they were not al- 
 lowed to do, unlefs they had firft begotten children, to 
 bear the name of the perfon who had adopted them : 
 thus providing againft the ruin of familieSjWhich would 
 otherwife have been extinguilhed by the dcfcrtion of 
 thofe who had been adopted toprefervc them. If the 
 children adopted happened to die without children, the 
 iuhcritance could not be alienated from the family into 
 which they had been adopted, but returned to the re- 
 lations of the adopter. It fliould fccm, that by tJie 
 Athenian law, a perfon, after having adopted another, 
 was not allowed to marry without permiliion from the 
 magiilrate : iu effeft, there are inllanccs of pcrfons, 
 who being ill ufed by their adoptive children, petition- 
 ed for fuch leave. However this be, it is certain fume 
 men married after they had adopted fons : in which 
 cafe, if they begat legitimate children, tlicir ertates 
 were equally fliartd between the bcgottcs and adopted. 
 
 The Pi.omans bad two forms of adoption ; one be- 
 fore the praetor ; the other at an aflembly of the people, 
 in the times of I'.'c commonwealth, and afterwards by 
 a rrf<;ript of the emperor. In the former, the natural 
 father addrefled himfclf to the prxtor, declaring that 
 hr emancipated liis fon, reiigned all his authority over 
 him, and confentedhe Ihouldbe tranilatcd into the fa- 
 mily of the adopter. The latter was praclifed, where 
 iiie party to be adopted was already free ; and tliis was 
 called aJrogalioii. The perfon adopted changed all 
 his names; affuming tht prcr.anie, nair.c,and fur.iauic 
 of the perfon who adopted him. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Bcliacs the formalities prciciibcd by ihcR.on;an 'uw, Adopion 
 various other methods have taken place ; which have """v 
 given dcnominaiious to dittereiit O'ccics of adoption, 
 among the Gothic I'.atior.s, i:i dilitrcnt ages. A«, 
 
 ^uo! Tios by arms, was when a prince Kiade a pre- 
 fent of arms to a pcrfo."., in conftdtrarioii ol his merit 
 and valour. Thus it was that the king of the Ileruli 
 was adopted by Thcodoric ; Athalaric by the cn;pcror 
 Ju.liiiian ; and Cofroes, nephew of the king of I'trfia, 
 by the emperor JulUn. — '1 he obligation here l.'.id on 
 the adoptive fon was, to protect and dcfcr.d the lather 
 from injiries, affronts, &c. And hence, according to 
 Seldrn, the ceremony of dubbing knights took its ori- 
 gin as well as name. 
 
 AuoiTius hy biii'iifm, is that fpiriruLl affinity which 
 is contracted by god-fathers and god-childreii, in the 
 ceremony of baptifm. This ki::d of adoption was in- 
 troduced into the Greek church, and came afterwards 
 in afe among the ancient Tranks, as appears by the 
 Capitulars of Charlemagne. 
 
 In reality, the god-father was fo far conf:dered as 
 adoptive father, that his god-children were fuppofcd 
 to be intitled to a fhare in the inheritance of his c- 
 flate. 
 
 Adoption by kair, was performed by cutting off" the 
 hair of a perfon, and giving it to the adoptive father. 
 It was thus that pope John VIII. adopted Bofon king 
 of .Arlej; which perhaps is the only inftancc in hi- 
 flory, of adoption, in thcordcr of the eccleliaftics ; a 
 law that profclfesto imitate nature, not daring to give, 
 children to thofe in whom it would be thought a crime 
 to beget any. 
 
 Aduption by matrimony, is the taking the children 
 of a wife or hulband, by a former marriage, into the 
 condition of proper or natural children ; and admitting 
 thein to inherit on the fame footing with thofe of the 
 prefent marriage. This is a praflice peculiar to the 
 Germans ; among whom, it is more particularly known 
 by the name oi cwkiudjchuft ; among their writers in 
 Latin, by that o( lu.io protium, or union ofijj'ucs. But 
 the more accurate writers obfcrve, that this is no adop- 
 tion. See Adhliation. 
 
 AoijfTios by tiflamcKt, that performed by appointing 
 a perfon heir by will, on condition of his aifumingthc 
 name, arms, &c. of the adopter. Of which kind wc 
 meet with fevcral inflanccs in the Roman hiftory. 
 
 Among the Turks, the ceremony of adoption is per- 
 formed by obliging the pcrfim adopted to pafs through 
 th«. fllirt of the adopter. Hence, among that people, 
 to adopt, is cxprcil'cd by the phr.ife, to d'cmi ar.othei- 
 tkro.-igh ifiy Jhtrt. It is faid, that fomctliing like this 
 has alfo been obfcrvcd among the Hebrews ; wlierc the 
 prophet Elijah adopted Llilhaforhis fo-i and fiictcifor, 
 and comraunicatcd to him the gift of prophecy, by 
 letting fall his cloak or mantle on him. But adaption, 
 properly fo called does not appear to have been piac- 
 tifcd among the ancient Jews : Mofcs I'lys nothin;? ci 
 it in his laws ; and j.icob's adoption o; his two grand- 
 fons, Ephraini and Manalfeh, is not fo properly a:i 
 adoption, as a kindof fubfUtution, whereby thefe two 
 fonsof Jofepli v.erc allotted an equal portion in Ifraci 
 with his own funs. 
 
 Adottion isalfoufcd, inthcology, for a federal act 
 
 of God's (rcc grace ; whereby thofe who arc rcgcnc- 
 
 rateJ by faith, are admitted into his huufchoid, and 
 
 Q_ iiniilcd
 
 A D O 
 
 [ '22 ] 
 
 ADO 
 
 Adoption intiilcJ toa fliarc in the inheritance of the kingdom of 
 
 II heaven. 
 
 Adoration. ADOPTION is fomctinicsalfoiifcd, in fpcakingofthc 
 ' '^ ' ancient clergy, wlio had a ciilloni of taking a maid or 
 ividow into their houfcs, under the denomination of 
 an aJiiftive, or fpniiiial filhr or »iiccf. 
 
 Adoption is alfo uf;d in fpeaking of the admilUou 
 of pcrfons into certain hofpiials, particularly ih.it of 
 Lyons ; the adiniuillrators whereof liave all the power 
 and rights of parents over the children admiiicd. 
 
 Adop no n is alfo ufed for tlie reception of a new a- 
 cadeniy into the tody of an old one Thus 
 
 The Trench academy of Marftillcs was adopted hy 
 that of Paj is ; on which account we (ind a volume of 
 fpeeches extant, made by feveral members of the aca- 
 demy of Marfcilles, deputed to return thanks to that 
 of Paris for the honour. 
 
 In a iimilar fenfc, adoption is alfo applied by the 
 Greeks, totlieadmittingamonk,orbroihcr, intoa mo- 
 nailic community : fomciimes c\V^tAfpinttial adiipthn. 
 
 ADOPTIVK, denotes a perlon or thing adopted by 
 another. 
 
 Adoptive children, among the Romans, were on the 
 fame footing with natural ones ; and accordingly were 
 either to be inllituted heirs, or exprefsly dilinherited, 
 otherwifc the teflament was null. The emperor A- 
 drian preferred adoptive children to natural onei ; bc- 
 caufe we choofe the former, but arc obliged to take 
 the latter at random. 
 
 M. Men.ige has publiflied a book of eloges, or ver- 
 fes addrelFed to him ; which he calls Liber /Jdoptivui, 
 an adoptive book ; and adds it to his other works. — 
 Hcinfus, and Furilemburg of Munllcr, have likesvil'e 
 publilhcd adoptive books. 
 
 In eccleliaftical writers we find adoptive women, or 
 fitters, (adoptive JTmintc, ox fororcs,) ufed for thofe 
 handmaids of the ancient clergy, otherwife callcdy;;^- 
 iutrodtidit. 
 
 Adoptive arms arc thofe which a perfon enjoys by 
 the gift or concefiion of another, and to which he was 
 not otherwife intitled. Theyfland contradillinguilh- 
 ed from arms of alliance. 
 
 Wc fometimes meet with adoptive hair, by way of 
 oppofition to natural hair; and adoptive gods, by way 
 of contradiftinrtion to domeftic ones. The Romans, 
 notwithflauding the number of their domcftic, had 
 tK.iir adoptive gods, taken chiefly from the Egypriaus : 
 fuch were His, Ofiris, Anubis, Apis, Harpocrates, and 
 Canopus. 
 
 ADORATION, the ac^ of rendering divine ho- 
 nours ; or of addrclfing a being, as fuppofing it a 
 god. The word is compounded of <7i/ "to ;" and c/, 
 »ris, " mouth ; " and literally fignifies, to apply th e hand 
 to the mouth : Manum ad os admavcrc, cj. d. " to kifs 
 the hand ;" this being, in the eaftern countries, one of 
 the great marks of rcfpedt and fubmillion. — The Ro- 
 mans pradtifed adoration at facrifices, and other fo- 
 Icmnities ; in palling by temples, altars, groves. Sec. ; 
 at the fight of llatucs, images, or the like, whether 
 of flone or wood, wherein any thing of divinity was 
 fuppofed torefide. Ufually there were images of the 
 gods placed at the gates of cities, for thofe who went 
 in or out, to pay their .'efpecls to. — The ceremony of 
 adoration among the ancient Romans was thus : The 
 devotee having his head covered, applied his right hand 
 
 to his lips, the forc-fingtr rcltiug on his thumb, which AJuratioii. 
 
 was erect, and thus bowing his head, turned himfelf '"^^■^'"^ 
 
 round from left to right. The kifj thus given was 
 
 called ofdtluih labratuti. ; for ordinarily they were afraid 
 
 to touch the images of their gods themft Ives with their 
 
 profane lips. Sometimes, however, they would kifs 
 
 their feet, or even knees, it being held an incivility to 
 
 touch their mouths; fo that the affair palled at fome 
 
 dillance. Siiturn, however,and Hercules, were adored 
 
 with the head bare ; whence the worfliip of the laft 
 
 was called injlitiituvi peregriiium, and ritm Grxcaiii- 
 
 cui, as departing from the cuftomary Roman method, 
 
 which was to facrificc and adore with the face veiled, 
 
 and i)ie cloths drawn up to the ears, to prevent any 
 
 interruption in the ceremony by the fight of unlucky 
 
 objcds The Jewilh manner of adoration was by 
 
 proO.ration, bowing, and kneeling. — The Chriflians 
 adopted the Grecian rather than the Roman method, 
 and adored always uncovered. The ordinary poflurc 
 of the ancient Chriflians was kneeling, but on Sundays 
 Handing : and they had a peculiar regard to the Eafl, 
 to w hicli point they ordinarily directed their prayers. 
 
 Adoration is more particularly ufed fortheadlof 
 praying, or preferring our rcquellsor thankfgivings 
 to Almighty God. 
 
 Adoration is alfo ufed for certain extraordinary 
 civil honours or refpeds which refemble thofe paid to 
 the Deity, yet are given to men. 
 
 The Perlian manner of Adoration, introduced by 
 Cyrus, was by bending the knee, and falling on the 
 face at the prince's feet, flriking the earth with the 
 forehead, and kifling the ground. This ceremony, 
 which the Greeks called vftmi^iiii.^ Conor, rcfufed to 
 perform to Artaxerxcs, and Calillhencs to Alexander 
 the Great, as reputing it impious and unlawful. 
 
 The Adoration performed tothc Roman and Grecian 
 emperors confided in bowingor kneeling at the prince's 
 feet, laying hold of his purple robe, and prefcntly with- 
 drawing the hand and clapping it to the lips. Some 
 attribute the origin of this pradice toConflantius. It* 
 was only pcrfons of fome rank or dignity that were in- 
 titled to the honour. Bare kneeling before the empe- 
 ror to deliver a petition, Wasalfo called adoration. 
 
 The practice q( adoration may be laid to be flill fub- 
 fiftingin England, in the ceremony of kilTing the king's 
 or qnci-n's hand, and in ferving them at table, both be- 
 ing performed kneeling. 
 
 A DO RAT ion is more particularly ufed forkiffingone's 
 hand in prefenceof another, asa token of reverence. — 
 The Jews adored by kiffing their hands and bowing 
 down their heads ; whence, in their language, kijfing'vi 
 properly ufed for adoration. 
 
 Adoration is alfo ufed among Roman writers for 
 a hifh fpecies of applaufe given to perfons, who had 
 fpokenor performed well in public. (Sec Accla.ma- 
 tion.) We meet with adoration paid to orators, ac- 
 tors, muficians, &c. The method of exprelling it was, 
 by riling, putting bwh hands to their mouth, and then 
 returning them towards the perfon intended to be ho- 
 noured. 
 
 Adoration is alfo ufed, in the court of Rome, for 
 the ceremony of kilTing the pope's feet — The intro- 
 duction of adoration among the Romans is a''cribed to 
 the low flattery of Vitellius, who, upon the return of C. 
 Caefar from Syria, would not approach him otherwife 
 
 thau.
 
 ADO 
 
 [ 123 ] 
 
 A D R 
 
 Aux». 
 
 Aduratloii than with his head covered, turning himfelf roHncl,and 
 i then tailing on his t'acc. Hdiogabiilus rcftored the 
 practice, and Alexander Scvcrus again prohibited it. 
 Diocklianrcdcinandcdit ; and it was, in Ionic nicafurc, 
 continued under thefucctedingprinces,cvcn after the 
 ellablilhnicntof Chriftianity, asCo;iAantinc,Conrtan- 
 tius, &c. It is particularly faidof Dioclclian, that he 
 had gems fallened to his ihoes, that divine honours 
 might be more willingly paid him, by kiirmg his feet. 
 The like ufagc was afterwards adopted by tiie popes, 
 and isobfervcd to this day. 1 hcfe prelates, liiiding a 
 vehement difpolition in the people to fall down before 
 them and kifs their feet, procured crucifixes to be fa- 
 llencd on their llippcrs ; by which ftratagem, the ado- 
 ration intended for the pope's pcrfon is fippofcd lobe 
 transferred to Chrift. Divcrsacts of this adoration we 
 find olfercd even by princes to the pope. 
 
 Adoration is alio ufcd fora method of cleifling a 
 pope. The election of popes is performed two ways ; 
 by adoration and by fcrutiny. In eledion by adora- 
 tion, tJie cardinals rufli haftily, as if agitated by fome 
 fpirit, to the adoration of fome one among them, to 
 proclaim him pope. When the cleiJlion is carried by 
 fcrutiny, they do not adore the new pope till he is pla- 
 ced on the altar. 
 
 Barbarous /iDOR^Tios is a term ufcd, in the laws of 
 king Canute, for that performed after the manner of 
 the heathens who adored idols. The Romirti church is 
 charged with tlic adoration of faints, martyrs, images, 
 crucifixes, relics, the virgin, and the hell; all which by 
 Proteftants are generally aggravated into idolatry, on 
 a fuppofition, that the honour thus paid to them is ab- 
 folute and fuprcme, called by way of dillinffion Latria, 
 which is due only to God. Roman-catholics, on the 
 contrary, explain them as only a relative or fubordi- 
 nate worlhip, called Diilia and Hyperdulia, which ter- 
 minates ultimately in God alone. But may not the 
 fame be faid of the idol-woriliip of the heathens .' 
 The Phoeciniaiis adored the winds, on account of the 
 terrible effects produced by them; the fame was adopt- 
 ed by mod of the other nations, Pcrlians, Greeks, 
 Romans, &c. The Perlians chiefly paid their adora- 
 tions to the fun and fire ; fome fay alio to rivers, the 
 wind, &c. The motive of adoring the fun was the 
 benefits they received from that glorious luminary, 
 which of all creatures has doubtlefs the beft pretcn- 
 lions tofuch homage. 
 
 ADOREA, in Roman antiquity, a word ufcd In 
 ditierent fcnfcs ; fonietimcs for all manner of grain, 
 fomctimcs for a kind of cakes made of fine fiour, and 
 offered in facrificc ; and finally for a dole or ditfribu- 
 tion of corn, as a reward for fome fcrvicc ; whence by 
 metonymy it is put for praife or rewards in general. 
 
 AUOSCU LATION, a term ufcd by Dr Grew, to 
 imply a kind of impregnation, without iiitromifliou ; 
 and in this manner he fuppofcs the impregnation of 
 plants isatfeftedby the falling of the farina fcEcundans 
 on the piflil. 
 
 ADOSEK, in heraldry, fignifies two figures er 
 bearings being j^laced back to back. 
 
 ADOUR, the name of a river in France, which rifcs 
 in the mountains of Bigorre, and running N.by Tarbes 
 through Gafcony, afterwards turns E, and, palling by 
 Dax. falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne. 
 
 ADOXA, Tuberous Moschatel, IIollow- 
 
 ( 
 
 Ailr^inun- 
 
 ROOT, or Inglorious j a gcnusof the tetragyniaor- M Punt-'m 
 der, belonging to the oftandria clafs of planis. Ill Omnium, 
 the natural method it belongs to the ijih order, or 
 
 SuccuUntx The characters of this genus are : The 
 
 calyx is a pcrianthium beneath, divided into two ftg- 
 mcnts, fiat, perliitent. 1 hec'/ro/Aiis compofcdof one 
 flat petal, divided into four ovate acute fcgmcrrts long- 
 er than the calyx. The jiamina confill of eight fubu- 
 lated filaments the length of the calyx ; with roundilh 
 anthcrae. 7 he fiflUiton has a gcrmcn beneath the 
 receptacle of the corolla ; four fimple, erect, pcrfifl- 
 cnt ffyli, the length of the ftamina ; and fimplc ftig- 
 mata, The pericarpium is a globular four-celled berry 
 between thecalyx and the corolla. IhcfieJi ire fo- 
 litary and comprcflcd. 
 
 There is but one fpecies, which is a native of ihc 
 Woods in Britain, and fevcral pans of Europe : it is a 
 very low plant, feldom riling more than four or five 
 inches high ; the leaves rcfemble thofc of bulbous fu- 
 mitory ; the ffower-ftalk arifcs immediately from the 
 root, on the top of which grow four or five finall 
 flowers ofan herbaceous white colour, which appear in 
 the beginning of April, and the berries ripen in May, 
 feon after w hich, the leaves decay. The herb may be 
 procured by iranfplanting the roots any timeaf'tcr the 
 leaves decay, till w inter. They muft be planted in the 
 fhade, under Ihrubs; for they will not thrive if cxpofed 
 to the fun. The leaves and tfowers fmcU like muik, 
 from whence it has by fome been called mujk-crr,tufcot. 
 
 AD roNi>i;s OMNIUM, amongphylicians, on abbre- 
 viation in their prefcriptions, fignifying that the lafl 
 mentioned ingredient is to weigh as much as all the 
 reft together. 
 
 j4d Quod Damnu7ti, in the Englifli law, a writ di- 
 refted to the fhcriff, commanding him to inquire into 
 the damage which may bcfal from granting certain 
 privileges to a place, as a fair, a market, or the like. 
 
 ADRACHNE, in botany, a fpecies of the flraw- 
 bcrry-tree. Sec Arbutcs. 
 
 ADRA.MELECH, one of the goJs of the inha- 
 bitants of Scpharvaim, who were fettled in the country 
 of Samaria, in the room of thofe Ifraclites who were 
 carried beyond the Euphrates. The Scpharvaites made 
 their children pafs through the fire, in honour of this 
 idol and another called Anamii^ch. It is fuppofed, 
 that Adrammelech meant thefun,and Anamelcch the 
 moon : the firfl lignifies ih; magnificent king ; the fc- 
 cond the gentle king. 
 
 ADRAMYTTIUM (ahc. geog.), now Andramiti ; 
 a town of Myfia Major, at the foot of mount Ida, an 
 Athenian colony, with a harbour and dock near the 
 Caicus. Adra7/iyttcnii! the epithet ; as Adratnytteuus 
 Sinus, a part of the Egcan Sea, on the coaft of Afyfia ; 
 yidramyttenuiConvenus, ftliions or allizcs. The eighth 
 in order of the nincC»nt'^«f«// Juridiciof the province 
 of Alia. 
 
 ADRAN.^, a river of Germany, (Polybius): now 
 the Edcr, riling on the borders <-f the county of Naf- 
 fau, to the North-ealf of, and not farfrom Dillenburg, 
 running through the landgraviate of Hclle the county 
 of W'aldcck, by Kritzlar, and then again through tHe 
 landgraviate, and, together \\ ith the Eulda, falling in- 
 to the Wcfer, to the fouth of, and not far from Caird. 
 
 ADRANUM, or Hapranum, (anc. gcog.), now 
 AdcritQ ; a town of Sicily, built by the elder Dionylius, 
 
 0,2 »
 
 A D R 
 
 [ 1 24 J 
 
 A D !<. 
 
 Adr;k{tca at ilie Rot of iiiciint .'Ltiia, (Diudorus Siculus), four :i,^i:i, is 011 cuiiij and ftoncs HaJn 
 
 I 
 
 Adriaiium 
 
 hundred years before Chrill. ito called from thcicin- 
 plc of Adranas, or Hadranus, a god imich worlhipped 
 by the Sicilians ; with a river of i he fame name, (Stc- 
 ptianus,) now Fiuvte d' Ada no. The inhabitants, 
 ttadrav.ttaii'i, and Adrmiil^. 
 
 ADRASTfAjin antiquity, an epithet given to the 
 goddcfs Nemclis, or Revenge. It was taken from king 
 Adraftiis, who firlt erected a temple to that deity. 
 
 Adrastia Cntiimtiia, in antiqiiiiy, a kind ot I'y- 
 ihian games, inlliiiited by .'^dralliis iiiiig of Argos, in 
 the year of the world 2700, in honour of Apollo, at 
 bicyou. Thefc are 10 be di/linguilhcd from the Py- 
 thian games celebr.ited at Delpiii. 
 
 AUKAbltS, kiii;^ of Argos, fon of Talaus and 
 Lyfiar.ilVa, daughter of I'olybius king of bicyon, ac- 
 quired great honour iti the i'amous war of Thebes, in 
 fuppDrt of Polyuiccs his fon-in-law, who had been ex- 
 eluded the fovereignty of Thebes by Kteocles liis bro- 
 ther, notv.'iihllanJing their reciprocal agreement. 
 Adrallus, followed by Polynices and Tydcus hisothcr 
 fon-in-law, by Capaneus and Hippomedou his filler's 
 fons, by Amphiaraus his broiher-in-law, and by Par- 
 thenopneus, marched againll the city of Thebes ; and 
 this is the expcdiiioii of the Seven Worthies, which 
 the poets have fo often lung. They all loll their lives 
 in this war, except AdraHus, who was faved by his 
 liorfc called Aiion. This war was revived ten years 
 after by the fons of thofe deceafcd warriors, which 
 vas called the war of the Epigones, and ended with 
 the taking of Thebes. None of them lofl their lives 
 except Aigialeus fon of Adrafl'js ; which aillidlcd him 
 fo much that he died of grief in IMegara, as he was 
 leading back his viiflorious army. 
 
 ADRAZZO, or Ajaccio. The f^me with Ad- 
 jazz o . 
 
 ADRIA, orHADRiA (anc. geog.), the nameof two 
 tow ns in Italy. One in the country of the Veneti, on 
 the river Tartarus, between the Padusand the Athe- 
 lis, called Airia by Pliny and Ptolemy, but Adrias by 
 Strabo. Another on the river Vomanus, in the ter- 
 ritory of the Piceni, (to which Antonine's Itinerary 
 from Rome is dircded), the country of the ancellors 
 of the emperor Adrian. From which of thcfe the Ad- 
 riatic fca is denominated, is matter of doubt. A 
 third opinion i.s, that it is fo called from Adrias 
 the fou of Joan, of Italian origin; (Euflathius in 
 Dionylium.) 
 
 ADRIANUM (or Atriaticum) mare (anc. 
 geog.), now the gujf of Venice, alarge bay in the Me- 
 diterranean, between Dalmaiia,Sclavonia,Greece,and 
 Italy. It is called by the Greeks, A<ff/ac koxji-cc ; and 
 Adriahy the Romans, (as Arbiter Adri.t Notus, Hor.) 
 Cicero calls it Hadnanum Mare ; Virgil has Hadria- 
 ticiri Undiis. It is commonly called Mare Adriaticum , 
 without an afpiration ; but whether it ought to have 
 one, is a difpute: if the appellation is from Hadria, 
 the town of the Piceni, it mull be written HadrUtiaitn, 
 bccaufe the emperor's name, who thence derives his o- 
 
 bat if from A l.ian. 
 
 ihc town in the territory of Venice, as the more an- 
 cient, and of which that ot the Piceni is a colony, this 
 will juiiify the common appellation Adriatkum. 
 
 AuRIaN, or Hadkian, (I'liblius Alius), the 
 Roman emperor. He v;as born at Rome the 24"" of 
 January, in the 76th year of Chrill. Hisfathtrlcft him 
 an orphan, at ten years of age, under the guarjian- 
 Ihip ot I'rajan, and Callus i atianus a Roman knight . 
 He began to fervc very early in the armies, having been 
 tribune of alegion before the death of Domilian. He 
 was the pcrfon chofen by the army of Lower Mtrlia, 
 to carry the news c)f Nerva's death to Trajan, fueeef- 
 for to the empire. He accompanied Trajan in moll of 
 his expeditions, and particularly diilinguilhedhinifcU" 
 in the fecond uaragainll the Daei ; and having before 
 been qu«llor, as well as tribune of the people, he was 
 now fuccelPively prsetor, governor of Pannonia, and 
 conful. After the liege of Atra in Arabia was railed, 
 Trajan, w'ho had already given him the government of 
 Syria, left him the command of the army ; and at 
 length, wlien he found death approaching, it is faid he 
 adopted him. Adrian, who was then in Antiochia, 
 as foon as he received the news thereof, and of Tra- 
 jan's death, declared himfilf emperor, on the i llh of 
 Aiigud, 117. No fooner had lie arrived at the im- 
 perial dignity, then he made peace with the Perlians, 
 to whom he yielded up a great part of tiieconquells of 
 his predecelfurs ; and from gencroliiy, or policy, he 
 remitted the debts of the lioman people, which, ac- 
 cording to the calculation of thofe who have reduced 
 them to modern money, amounted to 22,500,000 gol- 
 den crowns ; and he burnt all the bonds and obliga- 
 tions relating to thofe debts, that the people might be 
 under no appreheiiiions of being called to an account 
 for them afterwards. There are medali in commemo- 
 ration of this fact, in which lie is reprefentcd holding 
 a flambeau in his hand, to fet fire to all thofe bonds 
 which he had made void. He went to vilit all tlie pro- 
 vinces ; and did not return to Rome till tiie year 1 1 8, 
 when the fenate decreed him a triumpli, and honoured 
 him with the title of Father of his country ; but he 
 refnfed both, and delired that Trajan's image might 
 triumph. No prince travelled more than Adrian ; 
 there being hardly one province in the empire which 
 he did not vilit. In 120 he went into Gaul ; from 
 thence he went over to Britain, in order to fubdue 
 the Caledonians, who were making continual inroads 
 into the provinces. Upon his arrival they retired co- 
 wards the nortli : he advanced however as far as York, 
 where he was diverted from^his intended conquefl by 
 the defcription fome old foldiers he found there, who 
 had ferved under Agricola, gave him of the country. 
 In hopes, therefore, of keeping them quiet by enlar- 
 ging their bounds, he delivered up to the Caledonians 
 all the lands lying between the two Friths and the 
 Tyne ; and at the fame time, to fecure the Roman pro- 
 vinces from their future incurfions, built the famous 
 wall which ftill bears his nairie (a). Having thus fet- 
 tled 
 
 (a) This work, though called by the Roman hiflorians )}itirus, which fignifies a \ynll of ilonc, was only 
 compofed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried on from the Solway Frith, a little weft of the 
 village of Burgii on tlK Sands, in as dired a line as poffible, to the river Tyne on the eaft, at the place where 
 
 the
 
 A D 
 
 !l 
 
 AJriin. 
 
 ikd matters in £ritii!i, lie rcturr.fj to Koine, sphere 
 he was hoioiived wi.h the title of Picftoi-cr of Britain, 
 iis appears by fomc medals. He foon after went imo 
 Spain, to Mauritania, and at kiigtli ir.tu the Ea/l, 
 where he quieted ilit coiiiniorions railed liy the Par- 
 liiiins. Alter having vilited all the pravin<.e3of Afia, 
 lie rtiurncd to Athens in I2J, where he pasFcd the 
 winter, and was initiated in the myftcrics of Elcuii- 
 nian Ceres. He went from thence to Sicily, chieHy to 
 view nioauc Atna, coriteciplatc its phenomena, and 
 enjoy the beaatifii! and extcnlive prol'pec^ afforded from 
 its top. He returned to Home the beginning of the 
 year 129 ; and, according to fouie, he went again, the 
 fame year, to Africa; and, after his return from 
 thence, to the Kill. He was in Ejiypt in the year 
 i;!2, rcvilitcd Syrii the year following, returned to 
 Athens in r54, and 10 Rome in 13 j. 'Ihe perfecu- 
 tion againil ilie Chrillians was very violent under lu; 
 reign ; but it was at length fufpcndcd, in coufequence 
 of the remoulf ranees of (hiadrat bilhop of Athens, 
 and Ariflidcs, two C.'hriflian philufophers, who pre- 
 fenttd the emperor witli fonie books in favour of the 
 Chriltian religion. He conquered the Jews ; and, by 
 way of infiilt, crcdcd a tem|ilc to Jupiter on Calvary, 
 and placed a llatue of Adonis in the manger of Bethle- 
 hem ; he caufed aifo the images of fwine to be engra- 
 ven on the gates of Jerufalem. At !a(t he was feized 
 with a dropfy, which vexed him to fuch a degree, 
 that he became almoll raving mad. A great number 
 of phylicians were fent for, and to the multitude of 
 them he afcribed his death. He died at Uaix in the 
 63d year of his age, having reigned 21 years. Tiic 
 Latin vcrfes (b) ho addrellcd to his foul have been 
 much eriticifed and varioufiy interpreted. 'Iherearc 
 fome fragments of his Latin poems e«tant, and there 
 are Greek verfes of his in the Anthology. He alfo 
 wrote tlie hillory of his own life : to which, however, 
 he did not chufe to put his name ; but tliat of Phlegon, 
 one of his freed-men, a very learned perfon, was pre- 
 •videi/j>- fixed to it*. He had great wit, and an extenfive me- 
 
 /(»/;, iriAJri- 
 
 1 12J 3 ADR 
 
 mory. He '...idcritood the fcicnccspcrftcll/ well; Luc Ad-Jan. 
 
 was very jealous of others who excelled in thcui. He ■^ — 
 
 was aifo cruel, envious, and lafciviouj. Ar.toni.ir.iliij 
 fucccilbr obtained his apotheolis ; and prevented the rc- 
 feiifion of his atls^ which the fenate once intended. 
 
 ADH lANiV. (Pope), the only Englilhman who 
 ever had the honour of lilting in the papal chair. His 
 name was Nichidas Brekefperc ; and he v^as Lorn at 
 Langlcy, near St Alban's, in Htr!f.>rdn'.ire. His 
 father having left liis family, and taken the habit of 
 the nionallcry of St Alban's, Nicholas v.as obliged to 
 fiibmit to the lowelt oiiices in that houfefor c!aily fjp- 
 port. After fon;c lime, he Jeiired to takj the hatit m 
 thatmonaltery, but wasrejecledby the abbot Iiichard. 
 Upon thisherel'oiveJ to tryhistortune in another coun- 
 t)-y, .ind accordingly went to Paris ; where, thougli in 
 very poor cireumilauces, he applied hiinfclf to Lii 
 lUiilies v\ ith great alFiduity, and made a wonderful pro- 
 ficiency. But having (lill a ftrong inclinalidR to a re- 
 ligious life, he left Paris, and removed to Provence, 
 where he became a regular clerk in the monaftery of 
 St Kufus. He was uoi iinn.cdiatcly allowed t« take 
 the habit ; but palTcd fome time, by way of trial, in re- 
 commending iiimfelf to the monks by a Uriel .-itentic!; 
 to all their commands. Thisbchaviour, together with 
 the beauty of his perfon, and prudent cor.vcrfation, 
 rendered him ^ij acceptable to thofc religious, that af- 
 ter fume li.-.ic they intreaied Jiim to take the habit of 
 the canonical order. Here he difting liihed himfclf fo 
 much by Iiis learning and ftrift obfervance of the mo- 
 naftic diicipline, that, upon t!ie death of the abbot, he 
 was ehofen fuperior of that houfc ; and we are told 
 that he rebuilt tliat cojivent. Pope t'ugcnius 111. 
 beinii, apprifcd of the great merit of N'ich>)las, and 
 thinking he might be ferviceable to the church in a 
 liighcr llalion, created him cardin.il-biilwp of Alba 
 in 1 1 46. In 1148, his Holinefs fent him legate to 
 Denmark and Norway : where, by his fervent preach- 
 ing and diligent inftrue^ions, he converted thofe bar- 
 barous nations to the ChrilUan faith ; and erefted Ui>- 
 
 fal 
 
 the town of Ncweaftle now (lands ; fo that it muft have been above 60 Englifh, and near 70 Roman miles in 
 length. It confilled of four parts : i. The principal agger, mound of earth, or rampart, on the brink of the 
 ditch. 2. The ditch on the north fide of the rampart. 3. Another rampart on the fi^uth (ide of the principal 
 one, about five paces dillant from it. 4. A lar^e rampart on the north lide of the ditch. — This lafl was pro- 
 bably the military way to the line of forts on this work: it was fo to thofc formerly built by Agricola ; and if 
 it did not ferve the fime purpofe in this, there mull jiave been no military way attending it The fouili ram- 
 part might ferve for an inner defence in cafe the enemy Ihould beat them from any part of the principal ram- 
 part, or it might be deligned to protect the foldiers from any fudden attack of the provincial Britons For 
 
 many ages, this work hath been in fo ruinous a condition, that it is impolfible todifcovcr its original dimen- 
 fions w-ith certainty. F'rom their appearance, it feems probable that the principal rampart was at lead 10 or 
 12 feet high, and the fouth one not much lefs ; but the north one was confiderably lower. From the dimen- 
 fionsof the ditch taken as it paflTes through a lime-flone quarry near Harlow-hill, it appears to have been 9 feet 
 deep, and 11 wide at the top, but fomcwhat narrower at the bottom. The north rampart was about 20 feet 
 dLftant from the ditch. 
 
 (b) The verfes arc thefe: 
 
 Animula vagula, blandula, 
 Hofpes, comefquc corporis, 
 Quae nunc, abibis in loca 
 Pallidula, rigida, nudula, 
 Ncc, ut foles, dabis jocos ? 
 
 Thus tranflated by Mr Pope : 
 
 ."Vh ! fleeting fj'irit 1 wand'riog fire, 
 
 That long haft warm'J my lernlcr brcaft, 
 Mud thou no more this frame infpirc ? 
 
 No more a pleating cheerful gucft ? 
 Whither, ah whither art ihou flying ? 
 
 T» what dark undifcovcr'd fliore ? 
 Thou feen\"ll all trembling, (hiv'ring, dying. 
 
 And wit aiid hucioui are jio more !
 
 ADR [12 
 
 AdriiB. fil iiiioaii arcliicjnlcopal fee. When l;c returned to 
 ' " ' Rome, he was received by the pope and cardinals with 
 );reat mirks of honour : and Pope Anallalins, wiio 
 1 iccceJcd Eiigenlus, lupptniiig to die at this time, 
 Jsicliol.is was unaninio'iuiy chofi-a to the holy fee, in 
 Kovember 115.], and he luok the nOimv ci' Mriau. 
 W'heli the news of his promotion reached England, 
 Kinj; Henry II. fent Robert abbot of St Alban's, and 
 three bifliops, to Rome, to congratulate him on his 
 eledion ; upon whieh occalion Adrian jrraiited very 
 conlidcrable privileges to the nionalttryofSt Alban's, 
 particularly an exemption from all epii'eojial jnrifJic- 
 tion, excepting to the fee of Rome. Adrian, in the 
 beginning of l)is poniilicaie, boldly wiihllood the at- 
 tempts ot the Roman people to recover their ancicJU 
 liberty under iheconfuls, andobliged ihofe magillrates 
 t to abdicate their authority, and leave the government 
 
 of the city 19 the pope. In 115J, he drove the he- 
 jctic Arnaud of Brclfe, and his followers, out of 
 Rome. The fame year lie excommunicated William 
 king ofSicilywhoravagcd the territories of thcchurch, 
 and abfolvcd that prince's fubjc-lls from their allegi- 
 .aacc. About the fame time, Frederic king of ihcRo- 
 jnans, having entered Italy with a powerful army, A- 
 driau met him near Sutrium, and concluded a peace 
 with him. At this interview, Krederic confented to 
 hold the pope's flirrup whilil he mounted on horfc- 
 •back. After which, his hcJinefs couduJlcd that prince 
 .toRemc, and iu St I'ctcr's church placed the imperiiul 
 crown on his head, to the great mortification of the 
 Roman pcMple, who alFemblcd in a tumultuous man- 
 ner, and killed fcvcral ol the Impcri dills. The next 
 year a reconciliation was brought about between the 
 pope and the Sicilian king, that priiicc taking an oath 
 to do nothing farther to the prejudice of the eluirch, 
 and Adrian granting hiin the title of ki/i^ oj'thc two Si- 
 ci/icj. He builiand fortilied feveral caitles, and left the 
 papal dominions in a more Hourilhing condition than he 
 found them. B.it notwithflandiug all his fuccefs,h'e was 
 extremely fenlibleof thcdifqiiictudcsattendfiigfoliigh 
 a fbation ; and declared to his countryman Joint of Sa- 
 lilbury, that all the former harddiips of his life were 
 mere amufement to the misfortunes of the popedom : 
 that he looked upon St Peter's chair to be the moft 
 uncafy feat in the world ; and that his crown feemcd 
 • IJaronius to be clapped burning on his head*. He died Scptem- 
 Annal.tum bcr I. ! I $'), in the fourth year and tenth month of his 
 Ki1.an.1154 pontificate ; and was buried in St Peter's church, near 
 the tombof his prcdecefFor Eugcnius. Tliere arecx- 
 tant feveral letters, and fome homilies, written by Pope 
 Adrian. 
 
 ADRIAN, cardinal-pried, of the title of St Chry- 
 fogonus, was a nativeof Cornetto in Tufcany. Inno- 
 cent VIII. fent him nuncio into Scotland and into 
 France ; and after he had been clerk and treafurcr of 
 the .npofiolic chamber, pope Alexander \'I. whofe fc- 
 cretary he had been, honoured him with the cardinal's 
 hat. His life was a continued fcene of odd alterations. 
 He narrowly efcaped death theday Alexander VI. poi- 
 foned himfclf by miflake. Afterward he drew upon 
 himfelf the hatred of Julins II. fo iliat he was obliged 
 to go and hide himfelf in the mountains of Trent. Ha- 
 ving been recalkdlvr Leo X. he was foungrateful, that 
 lie engaged in a confpiracy againft him. The pope par- 
 doned this fault : but the cardinal^ not caring to truA to 
 
 6 ] 
 
 ADR 
 
 this, made hii cfeapc, and it coidd never be known Adrian 
 exactly what was become ot him. He was one of the il 
 
 Jirlt that ctieCtuiUy reformed the Latin ftyle. He flu- Adriai iople 
 died Cicero with great fueeefs, and made many excel- ^ 
 lent obferv atious on tlie propriety of the Latin tongue. 
 Thetreatifehe cumyx^ii'cdDi /(imonc Lati/io, is a i>roof 
 of this. He had begun a Latin tranflation of the Old 
 Teltanicnt. HcwroicDi vti a philofophin : Thistrea- 
 tii'e was printed at Cologn 154^. 
 
 ADRIAN VI. (Pope), was born at Utrecht in 
 I4J9- His father was not able to maintain him at 
 fchool, but he got a place at Louvain, in a college 
 in w hich acertain number of fcholarsweic maintained . 
 grata. It is reported that he ufcd to read in the night- 
 time by the light of the lamps in the churches or 
 llrects. He made a confiderablc progrefs in all the 
 fcienccs ; led an exemplary life ; and there never was 
 a man lefs intriguing and forward than he was. He 
 took his degree of dodorof divinity at Louvain ; was 
 loon after made canon of St Peter's, and profeffbr of 
 divinity at Utrecht, and then dean of St Peters and 
 vice-chancellor of the unirerlity. He was obliged to 
 leave an academic life, to be tutor to the archduke 
 Charles. This young prince made no great progrefs 
 under him : however, never was a tutor more conli- 
 derably rewarded ; for it was by Charles V.'s credit he 
 was rai fed to the papal throne. LcoX. had given him 
 the cardinal's hat in IJ17. After this pope's death, . 
 feveral cabals in the conclave ended in the eletlion of 
 Adrian, with which tlie people of Rome were very 
 much difpleafed. He would not change his name, i|»t 
 and in every thing he Ihowed a great dillike for all of- 
 tentatioii and fcnfual pleafures, though fueh an avcrfion 
 had been long ago out of date. He was very partial 
 to Charles V. and did not enjoy much tranquillity un- 
 der the triple crown. He lamented much the wicked 
 morals of the clergy, and wilhcd to eflablilh a refor- 
 mation of manners among them. He died Sept. 14. 
 152;. 
 
 AURIANI (Joanni Batilla), was born of a patrici- 
 an family at Florence, in ijii. He wrote a Hiflory of 
 his own Times in Italian ; which is a continuation of 
 Guicciardini, beginning at the year ij;6 ; to which 
 Thuanus ackiiowledges himfclf greatly indebted : be- 
 fide which, he conipofedlixfuneralorations,onthe em- 
 peror Charles V. and other noble pcrfonages ; and is 
 thought to have been the author of a long letter on an- 
 cient painters and fculptors, prefixed to the third vo- 
 lume of Vafari. He died at Florence in 1579. 
 
 ADRIANISTS, in cccleliaftical hillory, a feft of 
 heretics divided inio-two branches ; the firA were dif- 
 ciples of Simon Magus, and flourilhed about the year 
 34. Theodorct is the only perfon whohas preferved 
 their name and memory ; but he gives us no account 
 of their origin. Probably this fec't, and the fix others 
 which fprung from the Simonians, took their name 
 from the particular difciples of Simon. The fecond 
 were the fullowersof Adrian Hamflcad.the anabaptiil; 
 and held fome particular errors concerning Chri/t. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, a city of Turkey in Europe, in 
 the province of Romania, and the fee of an archbirtiop 
 nndcrthe patriarch of Conflantinople. It is about fc- 
 vcnor eight miles in circumference, includingtheold 
 city and fome gardens. The mofques and other pu- 
 blic buildings arc built of (lone, and are very elegant : 
 
 but
 
 A D V 
 
 [ '27 ] 
 
 A D V 
 
 Adrogation but private houlcs in general are meanly built ; ami tlic 
 I Arccts are cxcceJiiig dirty. The walls and towers are 
 Adva nced. j,j ^ great meafure fallen to decay. However, there is 
 ' abeautitiil ba*ar, or market, lialfa mile long, called 
 All Balfa. It isavart arched building, with lix gates, 
 and 365 wtll-furniflied ihops, kept by Turks, Arnie- 
 nians, and Jews, who pay five crowns a-inonth for 
 each lliop. I'lie number or inhabitants of all nations 
 and religions may be about 100,000 : provilions are 
 plenty, and living cheap. The air ii: wholcfomc, and 
 rhe country very pleaiant in fumnier, on account of 
 the river and llreams that run near and about the city ; 
 the chief of which is the Marina. Thefe promote 
 and prcfcrvc the verdure of the gardens, meadows, and 
 fields, for aconiidcrablepartof iheycar. In the win- 
 ter there is plenty of game. Near the principal hi- 
 zar there is another, about a mile in length, covered 
 with boards, with holes on each lide to let in the light. 
 It is full of good Iliops, which contain all kinds of 
 commodities. Sultan Selim's niofque (lands on the 
 lide of a hill, in the midll of tlie city ; and hence this 
 magnificent itrudurc tnay be feen on all lidcs. Every 
 thing made of gold and lilver, jewels, pillols, fcime- 
 tars, &c. are fold in another part of the city, called 
 by travellers the bizcjhhi, though it diflers little from 
 a bazar. This contains about 200 tliops, and is co- 
 vered like the former : but the covering is fupported 
 by two rows of large pillars. ' The grand vifier's pa- 
 lace is tiothing more than a covcnicnt houfe, after the 
 Turkilh manner of building. The emperor's fcraglio 
 isa regular (Irufture, in a plain near the river Tungia. 
 It is two miles in compafs, and has feven gates, be- 
 fides thofeof the gardens, w'hich are feveral miles in 
 circumference. 1 he city is governed by a mullah cadi, 
 who has an abfolute authority botli in civil and crimi- 
 nal matters. In the time of the plague, or war, the 
 grand figniorhas fomctimesrelided here. The Turks 
 took this city from the Greeks in 1562, and made \i 
 the capital of ihe empire, till Mahomet II. took Con- 
 flantinoplc in 1453. K. Long. 26. 27. Lat. 41. 41.. 
 
 ADROGA riON, in Roman antiquities, a fpecies 
 of adoption, whereby a perfon who was capable of 
 chooliiig for himfelf was admitted by another into the 
 relulionofafon. The word is compounded of W, "to," 
 and rogiiie," to alk,"on accoiin: of aqucllion put in the 
 ceremony of it, whether the adopter would take fueh 
 a perfon for his fon ? and another to the adoptive, whe- 
 ther he confenied to become fuch a perf )u's fon f 
 
 ADSIUrXl.A, in antiquity, the table at wliich 
 the tlamcns fat during the facrifices. 
 
 AUSTRICTION, among phyficians, a term ufed 
 to denote the rigidity of any part. 
 
 ADUAC/^, or Atuaca, anciently a large and fa- 
 mous city of the Tungri ; now a I'luall and inconlider- 
 able village, called Tongiren, inthe billiopiic of Liege, 
 to the north-wcfl of the city of Lic>;e, in the terri- 
 tory of Hafpc'igow, on the rivulet Jeckcv, that foou 
 after falls into the Made. E. Long. 5. 52. Lat. 50. 54. 
 
 ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftylc, denotes mo- 
 ney paid before goods are delivered, w ork done, or bu- 
 fincfs performed. 
 
 ADVANCF-^D, in a general fenfc, denotes fomc- 
 thiiig ported or lituated before another. Thus, 
 
 yiDVASCKn Ditch, in tortiticaiivin, is that which fur- 
 rounds the glacis or efplanadc of a place. 
 
 yJiiyASccD Guard, or Vanguard, in the art of war. Advanced 
 the firfl line or Jivilion of an army, ranged or inarch- I 
 
 ing in order of battle ; or, it is that part which is next '^"l''^"'"''': 
 the enemy, and marches firft towards them. . ^'^^' . 
 
 j^dvanciJCuard, is more particularly ufed for a 
 fmall party of horfc flationed before the main-guard. 
 
 ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of the flirts 
 or branches ofa buck's attire, between theback antler 
 and the palm. 
 
 .'\DUAIl, in the Arabian and Moorifli cuftoms, a 
 kind of ambulatory village, conliflingof tents, which 
 thefe people remove from one place to another, as fuits 
 their conveniency. 
 
 ADVENT, in the calendar, properly fignifies the 
 approach of the I'catl of the nativity. It includes four 
 Sundays, which beein on St Andrew's day, or on the 
 Sunday before or alter it. During advent, and to the 
 end of the oilaves of epiphany, the folemnizing of 
 marriage is forbid without a fpecial licence. It is ap- 
 pointed to employ the thoughts of Chriflians on the 
 firfl advent or coming of Chrifl in the Helh, and his 
 fecond advent or coming to judge the world. The pri- 
 mitive Chriflians praftifed great aullerity during this 
 feafon. 
 
 AD vENTREM iNspiciENDiiM, in law, a writ by 
 which a woman is to be fcarched whether (he be with 
 child by a former hulband, on her with-holding of 
 lands from the next, failing iffue of her own body. 
 
 ADVENTURE, inageneral fenfe, foine extraor- 
 dinary or accidental event. It alfodcnoccs a hazardous 
 or ditiicult undertaking. 
 
 Bill ofyiorFsrvRE, among merchants, a writing 
 figned by a merchant, teflifing the goods mentioned 
 in it to be ihippcd on board a certain velfel belonging 
 to anotherperfon, who is torun allhazards ; the mer- 
 chant only obliging himfelf to account to him for the 
 produce. 
 
 j4DVESTVRE-Bay, in Van Diemcn's land. There is 
 a beautiful fandy beach*, about two miles long, at the • Cook'i 
 bottom of Adventure Bay, formed to all appearance laft voyage 
 by the particles which the fca walhcs from a tine white B. i. ch. 6. 
 fand-flone. This beach is very welladaptcd for haul- 
 ing a feine. liehind it is a plain, with a brackilh 
 lake, out of which we caught, by angling, fome bream 
 , and trout. The parts adjoining the bay arc mollly 
 hilly, and are an entire forcfl of tall trees, rendered 
 almoft impadablf by breaks of tern, thrubs, &c. The 
 foil on the Hat laud, and on the lower part of the 
 hills, is fandy, or confids of a ycllowiih eartli, and 
 in fome parts of a rcddilh tlay ; but further up the 
 hills, it is of a grey tough call. This country, upon 
 tife whole, bears many marks of being very dry, anJ 
 the heat appears to be great. No mineral bodies, nor 
 Aones of any other kind but the white fand-ftone, 
 were obfrrved by us ; uorcoiild wc find any vegetables 
 that aiforded fubfidrnec for man. The forcll-trees 
 are all ofonc kind, and generally quite llraight : thy 
 bcarcluflcvs of fr.ialt wliitc flowers. The principal 
 plantsoblcrved, are wod-forrel, milk- wort, cudweed, 
 bell flower, gladiolus, famphire, and feveral kinds of 
 fern : the on'y quadruped, a fpecies of opotrum, about 
 twi.e the fi/.e of a Urge rat. The kangooroo, found 
 further northward in New Holland, may alio be fup- 
 pofed to inhabit lierc, as fome of the inhabitants had 
 pieces of the Ikia of that animal. 
 
 The
 
 A D V 
 
 Alvcnturer I'i.e p.-inripjl lonsof Uirii; 
 
 [ IZi 
 
 I 
 
 AJv;ifa- 
 tivc. 
 
 i:ii,ic V, IK .;s art hroua 
 Iii\vji.i or cajjlcs, crows, large pigeons, ycllowilh pa- 
 r»qucis, and a fpccics which \vc- callcil ■■tolJ^i!!^ c.u- 
 . ;.:-.7, I'rom llic bcactiful azure colour ot its litad aiij 
 neck. On the lliorc were I'everal i^ul'iy,, black oyllcr- 
 catchrrSjOr fca-pics, and plovers ola (l<>nc-cob.;r. 
 
 TJic inhabit Jilts fecmed milJandchecrt'al, with lit- 
 tle of that wild appearance that favagcs in general 
 have. Tbcy'arc almoll totally devoid of pi rfoiial ac- 
 tivity cr genins, and arc nearly upon a par with the 
 wretched natives of Terra del Fucgo. They difplay, 
 however, fonic contrivance in their method of cutting 
 raeir arms and bodies in l'):i:s of diticrent direct ions, 
 raifed above the furfacc of the fcin. Their indiffer- 
 ence for prefeuts, their general inattention, and want 
 of cufiolity, wffrc very remarkable, and tcltificd no 
 acntenefs of undcrflanui'ig. Their complexion ii a 
 d'.iU black, which they fouieiimes heighten by fmut- 
 ting their bodies, as was f.ippofed, from tiieir leaving 
 a mark behindoii any clean fubllancc. Their hair is 
 perfectly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red 
 ochre, like that of the Hottentots. Their nofes arc 
 broa 1 ;uul full, and the lower part of the face projcfts 
 confidcrably. Their eyes are of a niodcritc lize, and 
 though they arc not very quick or piercing, they give 
 the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleafing caft. 
 Their teeth are not very white, nor well fet, and tlieir 
 mouth s arc too wide : they wear their beards long, and 
 clotted with paint. They are, upon the whole, well 
 proportioned, though their bellyisratlier protuberant. 
 Their favourite attitude is to fland with one lide fur- 
 ward, and one hand grafpiug, acrofs the back, the 
 oppolite arm, which, on this occafion, hangs down by 
 the fide that projcds. 
 
 ADVENTURER, in a general fen Ic, denotesonc 
 who hazards fomething.- 
 
 Adventurers, is particularly ufcd for an ancient 
 company of merchants and traders, erciitcd for the dif- 
 covcry of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. 
 The focicty of adventurers had its rife in Burgundy, 
 and its firll cflablifliment from John Duke of Brabant 
 in m^, being known by the namcofT'r^ irotherhood 
 of St Thanai a Btcket. Jt was afterwards tranflated 
 into England, and fucceiTively confirmed by Edward 
 111. and IV. Richard III. Henry IV. V. VI. and 
 VII. who gave it the appellation of Merchant Adveu- 
 turen. 
 
 ADVERB, in grammar, a particle joined to a verb, 
 adjeclive, or participle, to cxplaiatheir manner of ac- 
 ting or fuffa-ing ; or to mark fome circiimllance or 
 quality fignificdby them. The word is formed from 
 the pr'tpolition ad, " to, "and vtrbunt, "a verb ;"and 
 lignirics literally a word joined to a verb, to (how how, 
 when, or where, one is, does, or fuffcrs ; as, the boy, 
 paints ;/i^^-/.>, writes ///; the houfcftands M^rf, 3cc. 
 See Grammar. 
 
 ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a book of 
 accounts, not unlike ourjournals or day-books. It is 
 niiore particularly ufcd for a kind of comnion-placc- 
 book. See Com MON-rLACE-BOOK. 
 
 ADVERSATU'E, in grammar, a word cxprc0ing 
 fome difference between what goes before and what 
 follows it. Thus, in the phrafe, hi ii an honcj} man, 
 but a gnnt cijl-nfiajl, the word tut is an adverfativc 
 conjunction. 
 
 ] A D U 
 
 ADVEllS.^TOR, ill mtiquity, a i' :;v.\: v.iio at- Advcrfjtor 
 tended the rich in returning from fupper, to give theiu I 
 notice of any oblhdcsin the way, at which thev luighi A4v luri- 
 be apt loltumblc. ' ";^" . 
 
 ADVERl rSEMENT, in a general fcnfe, denotes " 
 any informaiiongiven topcrfoiisiiucrcdrd InauaiTair; 
 and is iTtore pariiciilarly ufcd for a brief account of an 
 affair infertcd in the public papers, for the information 
 of all concerned. 
 
 ADUL.^ (anc.gcog.), a mountain hi Rhaetia, or the 
 country of the Grifona, part of the Alps, in which arc 
 the fountains of the Rl.inc ; now i>t C'.dkards. 
 
 ADULK, or Apulis, (anc. gcog ) a town of E- 
 gypt built by fugitive ilavcs, dillaat from its port on 
 the Red Sea :j Jladia. Pliny calls the inhabitants 
 A-u'.::a:. The epithet is cither .r//«/.'/j';//j ; as, Monu- 
 iiteittum Adutitanujii, on the pompous infcripiiuu of tlio 
 ftatue of Ftolcmy Eaergctcs, publillied by Leo Alatius 
 at Rome in i5ji, and to be found in Spon and Theve- 
 not : Or, Adultcus ; as Adiilicus Sinus, a part of the 
 Red Sea. 
 
 .■\DULT, an appellation given to any thing that is 
 arrived at maturity : Thus we fay, an adult pcrfon, an 
 adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a youth 
 between 14 and 2J years of age. 
 
 ADULTERER, a man who commits adultery. Sec 
 Adui.t fry. 
 
 ADULTERESS,awomanguiltyof Adultery. An 
 .idiilterefs, by the Englilh law, undergoes no temporal 
 punilhmeni whatever, except the lofs of her dower ; 
 and (he does not lofe even that, if her hufband is weak 
 enough to be reconciled to her, and cohabit with her 
 after tlie offence committed. 13 Ed. I. cap. 34. 
 
 But it is to be obferycd, that adultcreflcs arc fuch 
 either by the canon or civil law. According to the 
 former, a woman is an adultcrefs who, cither being 
 herfcl f married, converfcs carnally with another man ; 
 or being fmgle herfclf, converfes with a man that is 
 married. According to the latter, ike is not an adul- 
 tcrefs, if (he be not hcrfelf in the married fiate, though 
 file converfes with a man that is. The crime, in this 
 cafe, was more properlycalled (lupnun than adtiiteriuvi. 
 Hence, among the Romans, the word adultera " a- 
 dultcrcfs," ditfcred from pellex, which denoted a fin- 
 gle woman who cohabited with a married man, and 
 pil'.ix differed from cowa/Wwi/ which iignifiedher who 
 had only intercourfc with an unm.irried man. The 
 former was reputed infamous, ard the latter innocent. 
 
 ADUTERATION, the ad of dchafiug, by an im- 
 proper mi.xture, fomething that was pure and genu- 
 ine. 
 
 The word is Latin, formed of the verb adulterare, 
 " to corrupt," by mingling fomething foreign to any 
 fubflance. There are in England laws againfl the a- 
 dulteration of coffee, tea, tobacco, fnufF, wine, beer, 
 bread, wax, hair-powder, &c. 
 
 AwLTERATios of din, properly imports the mak- 
 ing, or cafling of a wrong metal, or v.ith too bafe or 
 too much alloy. 
 
 Adulterations of coins arc cfcfted divers ways ; as, 
 by forging another rtamp «': i".fcription ; by mixing 
 impure metals with the gold or lilvcr : moft properly, 
 by making ufe of a wrong metal, or an undue alloy, 
 or too great an admixture oftlic I).,/ r metals with 
 gold or filvcr. Counterfeiting the flanip, or clipping 
 
 and
 
 A D U 
 
 [ 129 ] 
 
 A D U 
 
 AJuItcrin<; a» J leircuiiig the weight, clonot Id properly come under 
 Ailulicry. the Jenominatioii ol aJulttratnig — Lvclyu gives rules 
 
 ' 'and methods, both of adulterating and detecting a- 
 
 dulterated metals, &c. — Adtiltcrutnigvi fomcwha: iefs 
 extenlive than debafmg, which includes dimiiiilhinjj, 
 clipping, &c. 
 
 To adulterate or debafe the current coin, is a capi- 
 tal crime in all nations. — The ancients puniihed it with 
 great feverity : among the Egyptians both hands were 
 cutort"; and by the civil law, the offender was thrown 
 to wild beafts. The emperor Tacitus enacled, that 
 counterfeiting the coin lliould be capital ; and under 
 Conrtantinc it was made treafon, as it is alio among us. 
 The adiilteratingof genisisa curious art, and the mc- 
 thodsofdeie>^ingitnolefsufcful. Nichols Lapid.p. 18. 
 
 ADULTKRINE, in the civil law, is particularly 
 applied to a child ilRied from an adulterous amour or 
 commerce. Adulterine children are more odious than 
 the illegitimate offspring of llngle perfons. — The Ro- 
 man law even refufes them the title of natural children ; 
 
 as if nature difowned them Adulterine children arc 
 
 not calily difpenfcd with for admiinon to orders. Thofe 
 are not deemed adulterine, who are begotten of a wo- 
 man openly married, through ignorance of a former 
 wife being alive. By a decree of the parliament of 
 Paris, adulterine children are declared not legitimated 
 by the fubfequent marriage of the parties, even though 
 a papal difpenfation be had for fucli marriage, wherein 
 is a claufe of legitimation. 
 
 Advlteri.\E Marriage s , in St Augufline's fenfe, de- 
 note fccond marriages, contra,5tcd after a divorce. 
 
 ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one 
 married perlon and another, or between a married and 
 unmarried perfon. 
 
 Punilhmentshave been annexed to adultery in mofl 
 ages and nations, though of different degrees of feve- 
 rity. In many it has been capital ; in others venial, and 
 attended only with (light pecuniary mulcts. Some of 
 thepcnaUies areferious, andevcn cruel ; others ofajo- 
 cofe and humorous kind. Even contrary things have 
 been enacTcd as punilhments for adultery. By fome 
 laws, the criminals are forbid marrying together, in cafe 
 they became flngle ; by others, tluy arc forbid to 
 marry any befidcs each other ; by fome, they are inca- 
 pacitated from ever committing the like crime again ; 
 by others, they are glutted with it till it becomes 
 downright naufeous. 
 
 Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were allowed to 
 redeem tiiemfclvcs by a pecuniary fine ; the woman's 
 father, in fuch cafes, returned the dower he had recei- 
 ved from her hulband, which fome think was refunded 
 by the adulterer. Another punillimcnt among thofe 
 people was, putting out the eyes of adulterers. 
 
 The .-Athenians had an extraordinary way of punifli- 
 i ng adulterers, called -rap an x^@.,afa<^«T()((fiiiT/c,pradifed 
 .'.Hlcad on the poorer fvirt who were not able to pay the 
 fines. This was an awkward fort of impalement, per- 
 formed by thurflii^ one of the largefl radilhcs up the 
 amis of tiic adulterer, or, in dcfcft thereof, a tifii with 
 a large head called mugil, " mullet." Alcaeus is faid 
 to have died this way, though it is doubted whether 
 the punifliment was reputed mortal. Juvenal and Ca- 
 tullus fpeak of this cullom, as received alfo among the 
 Romans, though not a.ithorifed by an exprefs law, as 
 ii was among the Greeks. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Therj are various conjectures concerning the inci- AJ'ahery. 
 
 eiit punilliment of adultery among the Romans. Some ' '^~' 
 
 will have it to have been made capital by a law of Ro- 
 mulus, and again by the twelve tables. Others, th^c 
 it was firfl made capital by Auguflus ; and others, not 
 before the emperorConftantine. The truth ij, the pu- 
 nilhmentin the early daysv/as very various, much be- 
 ing left to the difcrction of the hufband and parcntsof 
 the adulterous wife, who exerci fed it dittc-rently, rather 
 with the filence andeounienance of the magillratc than 
 any formal authority from him. Tliuswcare told, the 
 wife's father was allowed to kill both parties, when 
 caught in thcfacl, provided he did it immediately, kil- 
 led both together, and as it were with one blow. The 
 fame power ordinarily was not indulged the hufband, 
 except the crime were committed with fome mean or 
 infamous perfon; tho', in other cafcj, if his rage car- 
 ried him to put them to death, he was not puniilicd as 
 a murderer. On manyoccafions, however, revenge was 
 not carried fo far ; but mutilating, caflrating, cutting 
 off the ears, nofes, &c. ferved the turn. The punilli- 
 ment allotted by the /t-.v Jn/ia, was not, as many have 
 imagined, death ; but rather banifhment, or deporta- 
 tion, being interdicled tire and water : though Oclavi- 
 us, appears, in fcveral inftances, to have gone beyond 
 his own law, and to have put adulterers to death. Un- 
 derMacrinus, many were burnt at a flake. Conflantinc 
 firfl by law made the crime capital. UnderConftan- 
 tius and Conftans, adulterers were burnt, or fewed in 
 facks and thrown into the fea. Under Leo and Mar- 
 cian, the penalty was abated to perpetual banillimenr, 
 or cuttingoff thenofe. Under Juflinian, a furtiier mi- 
 tigation was granted, at leaf! in favourof the wife,who 
 was only to be fcourged, lofe her dower, and be ihutup 
 in a monaftery : after two years, the hufband was at li- 
 berty to take her back again ; if hercfufed,lhe wasflia- 
 vcn, and made a nun for life : But it ftill remained deat h 
 in the hufband. The reafon alleged for this difference 
 is, that the woman is the weaker velfel. Matthjeus de- 
 claims againft the emprcfs Theodora, who is fuppofeJ 
 to have been the caufe of this law, as well as of others 
 procured in favour of that lex from the emperor. 
 
 Under Thcodofius, women convicted of this crime 
 were punifhed after a very lingular manner, viz. by a 
 public conftupration ; being locked up in a narrow cell, 
 and forced to admit to their embraces all the men that 
 would offer ihemfelves. To this end the gallants were 
 to drefs thcmfclves on purpofe, having feveral little 
 bells faftened to their clothes, tlie tinkling of which 
 gave notice to thofe without ot every motion. The 
 cullom was again aboliflied by the fame prince. 
 
 By the Jewiih law, adultery was puniihed by deatlt 
 in both parties, where they were both married, or on- 
 lythewomAn. The Jews had a particular method of 
 trying, or rather purging, an adulterels, or a woman 
 fufpefted of the crime, by making her drink the bit- 
 ter waters of jcaloufy ; which, if Ihc were guilty, made 
 her fwell. 
 
 Among the Mingrelians, according toChardin, a- 
 dultery is puniihed with the forfeiture of a hog, whicli 
 is ufually eaten in good fricudlhipbetweenthe gallant, 
 the adultrcfs, and the cuckold. In fome parts of the 
 Indies, it is fiid any man's wife is permitted to pro- 
 ftitutc herfelf to him who will give an elephant for the 
 ufe of her ; and it is reputed no fniall glory to her to 
 R have
 
 A D U 
 
 [ 130 ] 
 
 A D U 
 
 AJuUcry. liavc Dccu liUcd fo high. Adultery is laid to be l"o 
 *~— >» — - I'rcqiient at Ceylon, that not a woman but praiMifes it, 
 uotwithflandiiig its bei:ij; jninilhablc with dcatli. A- 
 mong the Japancfe, and divers other nations, adultery 
 is only penal in the woman. Among the ,'\byllinians, 
 the crime of the hiifband is faid to be only punilhed on 
 the innocent wife. In tiie Marian illands, on the con- 
 trary, the woman is not punilhable for adultery ; but 
 if the man go aftray he pays fevercly : the wile and 
 her relations wafte hislands, turn him out of his houfe, 
 &c. Among the Chincfc, there is reafon to conclude 
 that adultery is not capital ; for it is laid that fond pa- 
 rents will make a coatrad for their daughters fn- 
 lure hulbands to allow ihem the indulgence of a gal- 
 lane. 
 
 In Spain, they punilhed adultery in men by cutting 
 oft' that pan wliich had been the inllrumcnc of the 
 crime. In Poland, before Chrifliany was tllablilhed, 
 they punilhed adultery and fornication in a very parti- 
 cular manner: tlie criminal they carried to the mar- 
 ket-place, and there f.ilUncd himby the telliclcs with 
 a nail ; laying a razor within his reach, and leaving 
 him under the iieceinty, cither of doing jullice upon 
 hiinfclf or of perifliing in that condition. 
 
 The Saxons formerly burnt the adultrefs, and over 
 herafiies crcifted a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was 
 hanged. In England, likewife, adultery, by the 
 ancie:it laws, was fevercly punilhed. King Edmund 
 the Saxon ordered adultery to be punilhed in the fame 
 manner as homicide ; and Canute the Dane ordered 
 thai a man who committed adultery Ihould be banilh- 
 cd, and that the woman fliould have her nofe and ears 
 cut off. In the time of Henry I. it svas punilhed with 
 the lofs of eyes and genitals. 
 
 In Britain, adultery is reckoned a fpiritual offence, 
 that is, cognisable by the fpiritual courts, where it is 
 punilhed by fine and penance. The common law takes 
 310 farther notice of it, than to allow the party grie- 
 ved an aclion and damages. This practice is often cen- 
 fured by foreigners, as making too light of a crime, 
 the bad confequences of which, public as well as pri- 
 vate, arc fo great. It has been anfwered, that per- 
 haps tbis penally, by civil adion, is more wifely cal- 
 culated to prevent the frequency of theoffence, which 
 Di'jrht to be the end of all laws, than a fcverer punilh- 
 cient. He that by a judgment of law is, according 
 tocircumftances, llrippcJ of great part of his fortune, 
 thirown into prifon till lie can pay it, or forced to fly 
 his country, will, no doubt, in moll cafes, own that he 
 pays dearly for his amulement. 
 
 As to the moral turj/itudeof this offence, fome have 
 vainly endeavoured to deny or explain it away by va- 
 rious arguments, and even by an appeal to fcripture. 
 On the part of the man who folicits the chalUty of a 
 married woman, it certainly includes the crime of se- 
 tiUCTioN, and is attended with mifchief flill more 
 tomplicattd and extenlivc : It creates a new fufferer, 
 the injured hufhand, upon whofe limplicity and affec- 
 tion is inflifted a wound the mofl painful and incu- 
 rabie that human nature knows. The infidelity of the 
 VQMiu! is aggravated by cruelty to her shildren, who 
 are generally involved in their parents fliamc, and al- 
 ways made unhappy by their quarrel. 
 
 It has been argued, that thcfe confequences ought 
 lefstobe attributed to the crime than to the difcovcry. 
 But, in the nrft place, the crime co;;ld not be difco- 
 
 vert J uulcfs it were committed, and the commilllon is Adultery, 
 never fccurc from difcovcry. Zi/Zy, If adulterous con- ^r— 
 
 nedioiis were allowable whenever the parties could 
 hope to efcapc deiedion, which is the conclulion to 
 which this argument leads, the hulband would be left 
 no other fecuriiy for his wife's chalUty, than in her 
 want of opportunity or temptation : which would pro- 
 bably deter moll men from marrying ; or render mar- 
 riage a rtate of continual jealoufy and alarm to the huf- 
 band, which would end in the (lavery and confinement 
 of the wife. 
 
 The i75arriagc-vow is " witneffed before God," and 
 accompanied with circumflanccs of folcmnity and re- • 
 ligion which approach to thp nature of an oath. The 
 married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little fliort 
 of perjury, and the feduftion of a married woman is 
 little lei's than fubornation of perjury : — and this 
 guilt is independent of the difcovcry. 
 
 But the ufiial apology for adultery is the prior tranf- 
 greflion of the other party ; and fo far, indeed, as the 
 bad erterts of adultery arc anticipated by the conduft 
 of the hulband or wife who offends firll, the guilt of 
 the fecond offender is extenuated. But this can never 
 amount to a jullification ; unlefs it could be Ihown that 
 the obligation of the marriage-vow depends upon the 
 condition of reciprocal fidelity ; a conllrudion which 
 appearsfounded ncitherinexpediency,norin thetcrms 
 of the vow, nor in the delign of the legillature which 
 prefcribcd the marriage-rite. The way of confidering 
 the ofi'cncc upon the ioonngof provocation and rttalia- 
 tion, is a childilh trifiing with words. 
 
 "Thou llialt not commit adultery," was an intcr- 
 did delivered by God himfclf ; yet fcripture has been 
 adduced as giving countenance to the crime. As Chrift 
 told the woman taken in adultery," Neither do I con- 
 dctiiii thee," we mult believe, it is faid, that he deemed 
 her conduct cither not criminal, or at leaft not a crime 
 of the heinous nature we reprefent it to be. But from 
 a more attentive cxanunation of the cafe, it will be 
 evident tliat nothing can be concluded from it favour- 
 able to fuch an opinion. The tranfadion is thus re- 
 lated* : ' Early in the morning Jefus came again in- 
 ' to the Temple, and all the people came unto liim ; 
 
 < and he fat down and taught them ; and the Scribes ''"'• 
 ' and Pliarifces brought unto him a woman taken in 
 ' adultery ; and When they had fet her in the midft, 
 ' they fay unto him, Mafter, this woman was taken 
 ' in adultery, in the very ad; now Mofes in the law 
 ' commanded that fuch Ihould be Itoncd, but what 
 ' faycfl thou ? This they faid tempting him, that they 
 'might have to accufe Iiim : but Jcfus Hooped down, 
 ' and with his finger wrote on the ground as though 
 ' he heard them not. So when they continued alking 
 
 < him, he lift up himfelf, and faid unto them, He that 
 ' is without fin amonglt you, let him firfl call a 
 ' flonc at her ; and again he ftooped down and wrote 
 ' on th^ground : and they which heard it being con- 
 ' vided by their own confcitnce, went out one by one, 
 ' beginning at the eldefl, even unto the lall ; and Je- 
 ' fus was left alone, and the woman Handing in the 
 ' midA. 'When Jcfus had liit uphirrfclf, and law none 
 ' but the woman, he faid unto licr, Woman, where 
 'are thofe thine accufers ? Hath no man condemned 
 ' thee ? She faid unto him. No man, Lord : and he 
 ' faid unto her. Neither do 1 coudemn thie ; go and fin 
 ' no more.' 
 
 'This 
 
 • St John's 
 Gofpcl, ch.
 
 A D U 
 
 [ 131 ] 
 
 A O V 
 
 A'lulffry. 
 
 Mtrat and 
 Polilital 
 Pbiltfifby. 
 Philad.cd. 
 p. i03- 
 
 *Dt S:rm. 
 Dom. in 
 
 cap. 16. 
 
 Civ Dti, 
 lib. xvi. 
 Cip. Ji. 
 
 ' This ihey faid tcmptin": him, that they niight 
 ' have to accufc him ;' trial is, to draw him into an 
 exercife of judicial authority, that thty might have 
 to accufe him belbrc the Ronian governor of iifurping 
 or intermeddling with ilic civil government. 
 
 'This was their dcfign ; and Chrill's behaviour 
 throughout the whole aftair proceeded from a know- 
 ledge of this defign, and a determination to difcat it. 
 He gives them at tiril a cold and fullcn n ceptioi;, well 
 ftiitcdto the inliduousintcution with which they came : 
 ' he Hooped down, and with his linger wrote on 
 ' the ground as though he heard them not.' ' When 
 ' they contintieti Jibing him,' when they tcaztd him 
 to fpcak, he difmilicd rhem with a icbukc, which the 
 impertinent malice of their errand, as well as thefc- 
 crct charaftcr of many of them, dcicrvcd : ' he that is 
 'without lin (that is, this fm) among you, let him 
 ' rirlt call aftoncat her.' This had its ctfeft. Siimg 
 with the reproof, and difappointed of their aim, thty 
 ftole away one by one, anti left Jefus and the woman 
 alone. And then follows the cuflverfaiion, svhich is 
 the part of the narrative molt material to our prcfent 
 fubjccl. ' Jefus faith unto her, Woman, where are 
 'thofe thine accjfcrs .' hath no man condemned thte ? 
 'She faid, No man. Lord. And Jefus faid unto her. 
 Neither do I condemn thee ; go and fin no more.' 
 Now, when Chrift alked tlie woman, < Kaih no man 
 ' coitdtjuncdlhct ? he certainly fpoke,and was under- 
 flood by the woman to fpeak, of a legal and judicial 
 condemnation; oiherwifcheranfwer, 'Nomau,Lord,' 
 was not true. In every other fenfe of condemation, 
 as blame, cenfur::, reproof, private, judgment, and the 
 like, manyhad condemned her ; all thofe, indeed, who 
 brought her to Jefus. If then a judicial fciuence was 
 what Chrill meant by coiideimiing in the (jucfiion, the 
 coramqn ufe of language requires us to fuppofc that 
 he meant the fame in his reply, 'Neither do I con- 
 ' demn thee :' i. e. I pretend to no judicial charaifler 
 or authority over thee ; it is no office, or bufinefs of 
 mine to pronounce or execute the fcntencc of the law. 
 When Chrift adds, ' Go andiinnomore," heinerteft 
 tells her that ftie had iinned already ; but as to the 
 degree or quality of the fin, or Chrill's opinion con- 
 cerning it, nothing is declared, or can be inferred, ci- 
 ther way." 
 
 It has been controverted, whether adultery may be 
 lawfully committed in war, with the enemies wives ? 
 The anfwcr is in thcnegativc, and the authorifcd prac- 
 tice of civilized nations is agreeable to this. It has 
 alfo been a famous qucftion, whetlicr it be lawful for 
 a woman to commit adultery with the confent of her 
 hulband, and for tlic procuring fomc great good to 
 him ? St. Auftin apparently allows of it ; at Icaft docs 
 not condemn it*. 
 
 It has likcwifc been a difpute, whether it be lawful 
 foroneof the parties married to commit adultery, with 
 the confent of the other, for the fake of liaviiig chil- 
 dren ? of which we liave iiiftance-s iuAbraliam, who, 
 on this account, convcrfed with Haaiar : and likcwifc 
 among the Greeks an J Romans. Pollnian, a German 
 proferfor, has a dilfcrtation on the hulband's right 10 
 alienate his wife's body to another's ufe. 
 
 It is much difputed whether adultery diflblvcs the 
 bond of matrimony, and be a fufficicnt caufe of di- 
 vorce, fo that tlie particsraay marry again. This w as 
 
 allowee! in the ancient church, and is Aill continued in .".dultcry, 
 the Greek, as well as the Lithcrca and Calviiiift AJvooic. 
 churches. Romani.ls, however, difallow of it, and the * 
 council of Trent even anathematized tliofe who main- 
 tain it : though the canon of anathematization was 
 mitigated in deference to the republic of Venice^ in 
 fomc of whofc dominions, as Zan:, Cephaloaia, &c. 
 the contrary ufage obtains. Theecclcfiallical courts 
 iii England fo far agree with thofe of Rome, that they 
 only grant a divorce i vKrfa et thuro, in cafe of adul- 
 tery ; fo that a complete divorce, to enable the panics 
 to marry again, cannot be had without an aifl of par- 
 liament. 
 
 Adultert is alfoufcd in ancient cuftoms, for the 
 punilhment or fineimpofed for that offence, or the 
 privilege of profecuting for it. In which icuituduiiL-- 
 riu7/i amounts to the fame with what the Saxons cali 
 /cgertuita. 
 
 Adultery is fometimes ufed in a more extenfivc 
 fenfe, for any fpecies of impurity or crime, againll 
 the virtue of chaftity ; and in this fenfe divines under- 
 Hand the feventh commandment. 
 
 Adultery is alfo ufed, efpecially in fcripture, for 
 idoktry, or departing from the true God, to the wor- 
 Ihip of a falfc one. 
 
 Adultery isalfo ufed, inecclefiaftical'writers, for 
 a pcrfon's invading or intruding into a biOiopric du- 
 ring the former bifliop's life. The reafon of the ap- 
 pellation is, that a bifhop is fuppofed to contract a 
 kindoffpiritual marriage with his church. The tranf- 
 lationof a bilhop from one fee to another was alfo re- 
 puted a fpecies of adultery on the fuppofition of its be- 
 ing a kind of fecond marriage, which, in thofe days, 
 was efteemed a degree of adultery. This conelulion 
 was founded on that text of St Paul, Let a bijkop he 
 thi h:ijba>:d of one 'xife, by a forced conftruclion of 
 church for wife and of bilhop forhufband. Du-Cange. 
 
 Adultery is alfoufcd, in ancient naturalifts, for 
 the ai5b of ingrafting one plant upon another. la 
 which fenfe, Pliny fpeaks of the adulteries of trees, 
 arborum adulttria, which he rcprefents as contrary 
 to nature, and a piece of luxury, or necdlcfs rctinc- 
 ment. 
 
 ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon f^dll- 
 ed in their law, who undertook the defence of caufes 
 at the bar. The Roman advocates anfwercd to one 
 part of the office of a barrillcr in England, viz. the 
 pleading part ; for they never gave council, that being 
 the bufinefs of the /vr//I',>,y;//r;. 
 
 The Romans, in the firil ages of their ftate, hclj 
 the profefTion of an sdvocote in great honour ; and 
 the feats of their bar were crowded with fenarorsand 
 confuls ; they, whofe voices comnLindcd the people, 
 thinking it an honour to be employed in dcfcnJiag 
 them. They were llylcd comites, hontrjti, cl-irifir<i, 
 and even fJtroni; as if their clients were no; lefs obli- 
 ged to them than freed men to tiieir inalters. The 
 bar was not at that time venal. Tlioff who aff'trcj 
 to honours sndofliccs took this wiy , an in- 
 
 tercft in the people, and alw.iys pies ^ . But 
 nofooncrwcrc luxury and corriiption introduced into 
 the commonwealth, than the bar become a Ciarcr in 
 them. Then it was that the fenatirs let out their 
 voices for pay, and zeal and eloquence were fold to 
 the highcH bidder. To put a flop to this abufc, the 
 R a trlb'.:ne
 
 A D V [13 
 
 Aiivocatt'. tiiuiincCiiu'ius jit'ociired a law to be parted, called from 
 
 '^ •^ 'him Lex Ci'icia, \\ lurtby tlic advocates were forbid 
 
 to take any money of their clients. It had before this 
 been prohibited the advocates to take any prtfcnts or 
 - gratuities for their pleading. The emperor Aufnillus 
 added a penalty toit: notuithlUnding which, ihead- 
 vocatcs pl.iycd their part fo well, that the emperor 
 Claudijs thought it an extraordinary circnmllance, 
 when he obliged them not to take above ei^ht great 
 fcflerccs, which are equivalent to about 64I. Sterling, 
 for pleading each caule. 
 
 Advocate is ftill ufcd, iii countries and courts 
 where the civil law obtains, for thofc who pkad and 
 defend the caufc of clients truflcd to ihcm. 
 
 Aovoctrt. if n City, in the German polity, a ma- 
 giflrate appointed in the emperor's name toaJminiiler 
 juftice. 
 
 Advocate is more particularly ufed, in church hi- 
 llory, for a perfou appointed to defend the rights and 
 revenues of a church or religious linufc. The word 
 adv<jcat:is, or advbiuee, is flill retained for what wc ufu- 
 ally call \.\\c patron, or he who has the advowfon, or 
 right of prefentation, in his own name. 
 
 Conjiflorial /Idvocatfs ; ofliccrs ef the confiftory at 
 Rome, who plead in all oppofiiions to th» difpofal of 
 benefices ia that court : they arc ten in number. 
 
 Elcdive AuvcciTLS, thofc chofen by ihe abbot, bi- 
 fliop, or chapter ; a particular licence being had from 
 rhe king, or prince, for that purpofe. Thcclcftions 
 were originally made in tlic prcfencc of the count of 
 the province. 
 
 Feudal Aavo( ATE!:. Thefc were of tlic military 
 kind, who, to make them more zealous for the inrc- 
 lefl of the church, had lands granted them in fee, 
 which ihcy held of the church, and did homage, and 
 took an oath of fidelity to the bilhopor abbot. Thefe 
 were to lead tlic vatTals of the church to war, not'only 
 in private quarrels of the church itfclf, but in military 
 expeditions for the king's fervice, in which they were 
 the ftandard-bcarcr^of their churches. 
 
 Fifcat Advocatf., fifci advocatui, in Roman anti- 
 quity, an oflicer of ftatc under the Roman emperors, 
 who pleaded in all caufcs wherein ihcfifcus, or private 
 treafury, was concerned. 
 
 Juridical Advocate'^, in the middle age, were thofc 
 who from attending caufes in the court of the comes, 
 or count of the province, became judges themfclves, 
 and held courts of their vaflals thrice a-year, under the 
 name of the tria placita generalia. In confideration 
 of this further fervice, they had a particular allowance 
 of one third part of all fines, or mulds, impofed on 
 defaulters. Sec. befides a proportion of diet for them- 
 fclves and fervants. 
 
 Mairicutar Advocates, were the advocates of the 
 mother or cathedral churches. 
 
 Military AorocATEs, thofe appointed for the de- 
 fence of the church, rather by arms and authority than 
 by pleading and eloquence. Thefe were introduced 
 in the times of confufion, when every perfon was obli- 
 ged to maintain their own property by force ; bifliops 
 and abbots not being permitted to bear arms, and the 
 fcholaflic or gowned advocates being equally unac- 
 quainted with them, recourfc was had to knights, no- 
 bJemen, foldiers, or even to princes. 
 
 Nimi'iativc AoyoC'tTES, thofe appointed by a king 
 
 2 ] 
 
 A D V 
 
 or pope. Sometimes the churches petitioned kings, AJv.ic«tci 
 &c. to appoint them an advocate ; at other times this •— ^<— — 
 was done of their own accord. By fome regulations, 
 no perfon was capable of being elected advocate, un- 
 lefs he lud an ellate in land in the fame county. 
 
 Regular AmotATEh, thofe duly formed and quali- 
 fied lor their profcllion, by a proper courfe of liudy, 
 the requitite oath, ful)fcription, licence, &c. 
 
 Sul/itrdujute Aut'ocATEs, thofe appointed by other 
 fiiperior ones, acting under them, and accoiuitable to 
 them. '] here were various reafons for the creation of 
 thefe fubordinate advocates,- as, ilie fuperior quality 
 of the princi)>al advocate, his being detained in war, 
 or being involved in other affairs ; but chiefly the too. 
 great dillance of fome of the church-lands, and their 
 lying in the dominions of foreign princes. 
 
 Siiprewe or Soveri'igv Am'rjc/>rES, w ere thofc who- 
 had the authority in chief; but a<^ed by deputies or- 
 fubordinatc advocates. Thefe were called 3.\(o friiici- 
 fai, greater, and ferret imes^v^AcT*/ advocates. Such 
 in many cafes were kings, &C. when either they 
 had been chofen advocates, or became fuch by be- 
 ing founders or endowers of churches. Princes had 
 alio another title to advocatefliip, fome of them pre- 
 tending to be advocati nati of the churches within 
 their dominions. 
 
 Advocates, in the Englilli courts, are more ge- 
 nerally called cointfel. See Counsel. 
 
 Faculty oj AoyocATES, in Scotland, a refpciFlablc 
 body of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before the 
 Court of Sellion, Jufliciary, and Exchequer. They 
 are alfo intitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o- 
 thcr fupreme courts in England. 
 
 In the year 1660, the faculty founded a library 
 upon a very extenfive plan, fuggefted by that learned 
 and eminent lawyer Sir George M'Kenzie of Rofe- 
 haugh, advocate to king Charles II. and king James 
 Vll. who enriched it with many valuable books. It 
 has been daily incrcalin.g fmce that time, and now con- 
 tains not only the befl collection of law-books in Eu- 
 rope, but a very large and (cltii collection of books on 
 all fubjecT;s. Befidcs, this library contains a great 
 number of original manufcripts, and a vaft variety of 
 Jewiili, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Englilh coins and. 
 medals. 
 
 A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoes 
 three fcvcral trials: The firll is in Latin, upon the ci- 
 vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities ; the fecond, 
 in f.nglifli, upon the municipal law of Scotland ; and, 
 in the third, he is obliged to defend a Latin thefis, 
 which is impugned by three members of the faculty. 
 Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate 
 makes a fliort Latin fpeech to the lords, and then takes 
 the oaths to the government and de fideli. 
 
 The faculty at prefcnt confifts of above 200 mem- 
 bers. As an advocate or lawyer is efteemed the gen- 
 teelefl profcflion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for- 
 tune take the degree of advocate, without having any 
 intention of praftifing at the bar. The circumftancc 
 greatly incrcafes their number, gives dignity to the 
 profcllion, and enriches their library and public fund. 
 It is from this refpeftable body that all vacancies on 
 the bench are generally fupplicd. 
 
 Lord Advocate, or King's Advocate, one of the 
 eight great officers of flate in Scotland, who as fucb. 
 
 fai;
 
 A D V 
 
 [ ^3^^ ] 
 
 A D V 
 
 Advocation Lit in parliamciu without clcftion. He is the priiici- 
 Advowee. pal crown-livvycr iu ticoiland. His buliucfs is to ait 
 ~7~^ as a public profecutor, and lo plead in all cafes that 
 concern the crown; but puticularly in Inch as arc of 
 a criminil nature. The office of kiiig's advocate is 
 not very ancient : It fceuis to have been eftabliflicd 
 about the bcginnifigof ihc i6th century. Originally 
 he had no power to profecutc crimes without the con- 
 currence of a private party ; but, in the year 1597, 
 he was empowered to profecute crimes at his own in- 
 ilance. He has the privilege of pleading in court with 
 liishaton. This privilege was firil granted to Sir 
 Tlionias Hope ; who having.ihrce fonslords of fellion, 
 it was thought indecent tliat the father (hould plead 
 uncovered before the f)ns, who as judges fat covered. 
 
 Bill ck ADVOCATIOI^, in Scots law, a writing 
 drawn up in the form of a petition ; whereby a party, 
 ia an adion before an inferior court, applies to the fu- 
 preme court, or court of ScIIion, for calling the action 
 from the inferior court before itfelf. 
 
 Letters of ^iivoc^rto\, in Scois law, the decree or 
 warrant of the court of SciRon upon cognifance of the 
 fafls fet forth in the bill, drawn up in the form of a 
 fummons,and paffing under the fignet,difcharging the 
 inferior judge and all others from further procedure in 
 the caufe, and advocating it to itfelf. 
 
 ADVOWEE, iu ancient cuftoms and law books, 
 denotes the advocate of a church, religious houfe, or 
 the like. There wereadvoweesof cathedrals, abbeys, 
 nionafteries, &c. Tlius, Charlemagne had the title of 
 advowee of St Peter's; king Hugh, of St Riquier ; 
 and Bolandus mentions fome letters of pope Nicholas, 
 by which he conflituted king Edward the Confeflbr, 
 and his fuccelTors, advowees of the monaflery aiWefl- 
 jniuiler, and of all the churches in England. Thefe 
 advowees were the guardians, proieftors, and admini- 
 ftratorsof the temporal concerns of the churches, &c. 
 and under their atithority were palfcd all contrads 
 which related tothem. It appears alfo, from ihemofl 
 ancient charters, that the donations made to churches 
 wxre confcrredon theperfons of the advowees. They 
 always pleaded the caufes of the churches in court, 
 and (liflributtd juftice for tlicm, in the places under 
 tlieir jurifdidion. They alfo commanded the forces 
 fiirniiiicd by their monafleries, kc. for the war ; and 
 c I'en were th circhampions, and fometimes maintained 
 duels for them. 
 
 This office isfiij to have beenfirft introduced in tire 
 fourth century, in the time of Stillico ; though the 
 Benedicli 'cs do not iix its origin before the eighth 
 century. By degrees, men of the firll rank were 
 brought intoit, as it was found necelfary cither to de- 
 fend with arms or to proteft with power and authority. 
 In fome monallcries they were only r'.Ued conprvators; 
 but thefe, without the name, had all the functions of 
 advowees. Tlicrc were al b fometimes fcveral fub- 
 advowccs, or fub-advocates, in each nionaliery, who 
 officiated inflead of the advov/ecs themlelves j which, 
 however, proved the ruin of monafleries ; thofc infe- 
 rior officers runniii>>; intogrcat abufcs. 
 
 Hence alfo, hulbands, tutors, and every perfon in 
 general, who took upon bin the defence of another, 
 were denominated ./.■/t'OTU.vj, or advocates. Hence fc- 
 veral cities had their advowees; which were cflablilh- 
 oj long after the ccclcfiallical ones, and doubtlcfs from 
 
 their example. Tlius wc read in hiftory of the aJ- Mwv/ti, 
 vowecs of Augfburg, of Arras, &c. AUvowion. 
 
 The f/./iia.'/afiunied the quality of advowees ; and ' ^~^ 
 hence it is, that fevcral hiflorians of the eighth cen- 
 tury confound the two funi^lions together, ilcnce al- 
 fo it is, that feveral fecular lords in Germany bear 
 mitres for tlieir crefls, as hiving anciently been ad- 
 vow'ecs of the great churches. 
 
 Spelman diflinguiflies two kinds of eeclefiafiical ad- 
 vowees. — The one, of caufes or procelles adtccati 
 caufantm; (lie other, of territory or lands, a./vccati 
 flit. The former were nominated by the king, and 
 were ufually lawyers, who undertook to plead the 
 caufes of the monafleries. The other, which ftill 
 fubfifl, and are fometimes called by their primitive 
 name, advciuees, though more ufually patrons, were 
 hereditary ; as being the founders and cndowcrs of 
 churches, &e. or their heirs. 
 
 Women wcrcfometimesadvowecs,^yyi;cd//^f . And, 
 ia cfieJl, the canon law mentions fome who had this 
 title, and who had the fame right fif prefentation. Sec, 
 in their churches wliich the advowees themfelveshad. 
 In a flat. 25 Edw. III.- wc meet with advoviet para- 
 mount for the liighefl; patron ; that is, the king. 
 
 ADVOWSON, or Acvowzen, iu common law, 
 fignities a right to prefcnt to a vacant benefice. Ad- 
 vowfon isfo called, becaufe the right of prcfenting to 
 the church was (irfl gained by fuch as w ere founders, 
 benefactors, or maintainersof the church. 
 
 Though the nomination of fit perfons to officiate in 
 every dioccfe was originally in the bilhop, yet they 
 were content to let the foundersof churches have the 
 nomination of the perfons to the churches fo founded, 
 relcrving to themfelves a right to judge of the fitnefs 
 of the perfons fo nominated. 
 
 Advowfons formerly were moflof them appendant 
 to manors, and the patrons were parochial barons : 
 the lordlliip of the manor and patronage of the church 
 were feldom indifferent hands, until advowfons were 
 given to religious houfes. But of late limes the iord- 
 lliip of the manor and advowfon of the church have 
 been divided. 
 
 Advowfons are prefentjtivs, collativi, or donative : 
 prcfintative, wliere the patron prefents or ofi'crs hi* 
 clerk to the bilhop of the diocefc, to be inllitutcd Ih 
 his church ; collathc, where the beneike is given by 
 the bifhop, as original patron thereof, or by mcansof 
 a right he has acquired by lapfc ; donative, as where 
 the king or other patron does, by a fmgle donation in 
 writing, put the clerk into polfcffion, without prefen- 
 tation, iuflitution, or iuduition. 
 
 Sometimes, anciently, ilie patron had the fole no- 
 mination of the prelate, abbe, or prior : either by in- 
 vcfliture (/. ^.delivery of a pafloral Raff), or by dircdt 
 prefentation to the dioccfan ; and if a freeeledion was 
 left to the religious, yet a cnn^c d'eltre, or li-cnce of 
 eleftion, was firlt to be obtained of the patron, and 
 the perfon ek:tcd was cijn'irnicd by him. If the 
 founder's family became cxtiiu., the patronage of the 
 convent went to the lord of the manor. Unlifs the 
 fcveral colleges in the univerlities be reflrained in the 
 number of advowfons they may receive, it i< argued 
 they will in time acquire fuch a llock as to frultratc 
 the defign of their foundation (which is the education 
 of youth, by creating too quick a fuccelHon of fel- 
 lows ;
 
 ADZ [ 134 ] 
 
 MuA lows ; fo that there will not be in the college; a I'ufR- 
 
 ll ciciit number ofpcrronsot'compttciit age, knowledge, 
 
 Ad^a- anil experience, to inllruft and form the niiiidsot the 
 
 ' youth In I'onie colleges the number of advowfoiis is 
 
 iaiii to be already two thirds, or more, of the number 
 of fellows. — It is ohjcded, on tlic other fide, that tire 
 fucccllion of fcllevvs may be too flow as well as too 
 quick ; whereby pcrfons well qualified may be detained 
 folong in colleges as not to have llrcngth 01 activity 
 enough left for the difchargc of parochial functions. 
 
 Colleges holding more advowfons in number than 
 moiety of the fellows, are not capable of purchafmg 
 more. Grants of advowfoas by papiUs are void. 
 9 Geo. II. c. 36. 5 J. II Geo. II. c. 17- ^ 5- 
 
 Advowfonsarc temporal inheritances aiul lay fees ; 
 they may be granted by deed or will, and are alfets in, 
 the hands of heirs or executors. Prcfcniations toad- 
 vowfons for money, oroiher reward, arc void. 31 Lliz. 
 cap. 6. 
 
 In Scotland, this right is called patronage. See 
 Patronage. 
 
 ADUST, Adustus, among phyficians, &c. is ap- 
 plied to fuch humours as by lon|»heat become of a hot 
 and fiery nature. Such is choler fuppofcd to be. 
 Melancholy is ufually coufidered as black and adullbile. 
 Blood is faid to be aduft, when, by reafon of fonic 
 extraordinary heat, its more I'ubtile pans are all eva- 
 porated, leaving the grollcr, with all the impurities 
 therein, half torrihed. 
 
 ADY, in natural liiftory, a name given to the palm- 
 tree of the iilandof St Thomas. It is a tall tree, with 
 a thick, bare, upright llcm, growing linglcon its root, 
 of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of 
 this tree (hoots into a vail number of branches, which 
 being cut o(F, or an incifion being made therein, afford 
 a great quantity of fwect juice, which fermenting fup- 
 plics the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit 
 of this tree is called by the Poriugucfe Car\ occs and Ca- 
 rh'J; ; and by the black natives, Abauga. This fruit 
 is of the fize and fhape of a lemon ; and contains a 
 kernel, which is good to eat. The fruit itfclf is eat 
 roaflcd, and the raw kernels are often mixed with man- 
 dioc meal. Thcfe kernels are fuppofcd very cordial. 
 An oil is alfo prepared from this fruit, which anfvvers 
 the purpofe of oil or butter.. This oil is alfo ufed for 
 anointing ftitt'and contraaed parts of the body. 
 
 ADYNAMIA, in medicine, debility, or weakncfs, 
 from fickncfs. 
 
 ADYNAMON, among ancient phyficians, a kind 
 of weak faftitious wine, prepared from mull boiled 
 down with water ; to be given to patients to whom 
 genuine wine might be hurtful. 
 
 ADYTUM, in pagan antiquity, the mofl retired 
 and facred place of their temples, into which none but 
 thepriefts were allowed to enter. The Ssnf^um Sanc- 
 torHi'iof the temple of Solomon was of the nature of 
 the pagan adytum, none but the high pricft being ad- 
 iviited into it, and he but once-year. 
 
 ADZE, or Addick, a cutting-tool of the ax kind ; 
 havinjr its blade made thin aud arching, and its edge 
 at right an/lts to the handle ; chicly ufed for taking 
 oft thin chips of timber or boards, and for paring away 
 certain irret^ularities which the a.x cannot come at. 
 The adze is ufed by carpenters, but more by coopers, 
 as being convenient for cutting the hollow liJes of 
 
 IE D I 
 
 boards, &c. It is ground from a bafe on its infidc to Ae 
 its outer edge ; fo that, wiicn it is blunt, they cannot Jl 
 conveniently grind it without taking its helve out of -^'^"'"'*' 
 the eye. 
 
 AE, or A",, a diphthong compounded of A and F. 
 Authors are by no means agreed as to the ufe of the 
 a; in tngiifh words. — Some, out of regard toeiynio- 
 logy, inlilt on its being retained in all words, particu- 
 larly teciinical ones, borrowed from the Greek and 
 Latin ; v.'hile others, from a coniidcration that it is 
 no proper dijiluhong in our language, its found being 
 no other than that of the fimple e, contend thit it 
 ought to be entirely difiifcd ; and, in faft, the limple<; 
 has of hte been adopted inlleJd of the Roman ^r, ai 
 in the word equator. Sec. 
 
 ,^-;ACEA, in Grecian antiquity, folemn feflivals 
 and games celebrated ^t A'gina, in honour of Abacus. 
 
 ABACUS, the fon of Jupiter by Algina. When the 
 IHe of Angina was depopulated by a plague, his father, 
 in compallionto his grief, changed all the ants upon it 
 into men and women, who were called Mjrr/ndons, 
 I'rom ftuffif^, an ant. The foundation of the fable is 
 faid to be, that when the country had been depopula- 
 ted by pirates, who forced the {c\v that remained to 
 take liieltcr in caves, yEacus encouraged them to come 
 out, and by commerce and induflry recover what they 
 had loll. His charader for jullice was fuch, that, in a 
 time of univerfal drought, he was nominated by the 
 Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his prayer 
 wasanfwercd. See the article Algina. The Pagans 
 alfo imagined that Abacus, oa account of his impartial 
 juilice, waschofenby Pluto one of the three judges of 
 the dead : and that it was his province to judge the Eu- 
 ropeans. 
 
 vEBURA (anc.geog.), a town of Spain, in Eftre- 
 madura, on the river Guadiana, to the well of Me- 
 rida, now called Tatavera. W. Long. 7. 15. Lat. 
 3S. 40. 
 
 AiCHMALOTARCHA, in Jewilli antiquity, a ti- 
 tle given to the principal leaderor governor of the He- 
 brew captives refiding in Chaldea, Alfyria, and the 
 neighbouring countries. This magiftrate was called 
 by the Jews lofck-galah, i. c. the chief of the capti- 
 vity : but tlie above term, of like import in the Greek, 
 is that ufed by Origen and others who wrtte in the 
 Greek tongue. 
 
 The Jcwilh writersalTure us, that tie achmahtarcha 
 were only to be chofen out of the tribe of Judah. The 
 ealkrn Jews had their princes of the captivity, as the 
 wcftcrn Jews their patriarchs. The Jews are (lilllaid 
 to have an achtnalotaicha at Babylon, but without the 
 authority of theancientones. BafnageHlll. Jews, and 
 Prideaux's Connexion. 
 
 AlCULANUM (anc.geog.), a town of the Hir- 
 pini in Italy, at the foot of the Appenine,to the eaft 
 ofAbellinum, contracled JEclainnn, litnate bctv.een 
 Beneventum and Tarentuni. The inh.'ibitants are call- 
 ed JEciilani by Pliny ; ^wA/Eclamnfis, inan ancicntin- 
 fcription,(Grutcr). The town is now called Fricetito, 
 Cluverius 4^ miles eaft of Naples. E. Long. ij. 38. 
 Lat. 41. I }. 
 
 Tl^lDES, in Roman antiquity, bcfides its more ordi- 
 nary lignilication of a houfe, likew ife figiiijicd an in- 
 ferior kind of temple, confccratcd to fome deity. 
 
 A^DICULA, a term ufed to denote the inner part 
 
 of
 
 JE D I 
 
 r 13s ] 
 
 7E G I 
 
 of die temple, where the altar and ftatue of the deity 
 flood. 
 
 AIDILATE, the office of a:dile, fometimcs called 
 JEdititty. Sec the next article. 
 
 itDlLE {irdiits^, ia Roman antiquity, a magiftrate 
 whofc chief bulincis was to fupcriiuciid buildings of all 
 kinds, but more efpecially public ones, as temples, 
 aqacduiSs, bridges, &c. To the aedilcs likcwile be- 
 longed the care of the highways, public places, weights 
 and racafures, &c. They alio fixed the prices of pro- 
 vjllons, took cognizance of debauches, punilhed lewd 
 womcn,andfuchp€rfons as frequented gaming honies. 
 The cultody of the plcbifcita, or orders of the people, 
 waslikewifc committed to them. They had the infpec- 
 tionof comcdiesand other pieces of wit ; and were ob- 
 liged to exhibit magniricent games to the people, at 
 their ownexpcncc, whereby many of them were ruin- 
 ed. To them alfo belonged the cullojy of the pie- 
 bifcita, and the cenfure and examination of books. 
 They had the power, on certain occaiions, 01 ilfuiiig 
 edicts ; and, by degrees, they procured to thcmftlvcs 
 a conlidcrable jurifdidiou, the cognizance of various 
 caufes. Sec. ThisoiHcc ruined numbers by its txpcn- 
 livcncfs J fo that, in Auguftus's time, even many fc- 
 nators declined it on that account. 
 
 Allthcfe fundions which rendered the aedilcs fo con- 
 fidcrable belonged at firfl to the xdiles of the people, 
 adtiiiplebeii, or miuorci : thefe were only two in niun- 
 ber, and wcrefirft created in the fameyear as the tri- 
 bunes : for tjie tribunes, finding themfclves oppreii'ed 
 with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the fe- 
 natc to have officers, with whom they might ijitruft 
 matters of lefs importance ; and accordingly two aedi- 
 lcs were created ; and lience it \v as that the arailes w ere 
 elected every year at the fanicaircmbly asthc tribunes. 
 But thefe plebeian aediles having refufcd, on a iJgnal 
 occalinn, to treat the people with ihows, as pleading 
 ihemfclvcs unable to fnppori the cxpence thereof, the 
 patricians ma je an otter to Jo it, proviJcJ tliey would 
 admit them to the honours of the adil^tc. On this 
 occafion there were two aediles created, of tlie num- 
 ber of the patricians, in the year of Rome ;!88 ; they 
 Were called trdilis airuits, or wiijtra ; as having a right 
 to fit on a curule chair, enriched w ilh ivory, when 
 they gave audience ; whereas the plebeian asdilcs 
 only fat on benches. — Belides that tiic curule asdilcs 
 lliared all the ordinary fundions with the plebeian, their 
 chief employ was, to procure the celebration of the 
 grand Roman games, and to exhibit comedies, Ihews 
 of gladiators, &c. to the people ; and they were alfo 
 api)ointcd judges in all cafes relating tu tlie felling or 
 exchanging cftaies. 
 
 To caie thefe four firft asdilcs, Caefar created a new 
 kind, called xdiLi ccniilei, as being deputed cliietly to 
 take care of the corn, which was called dmuu ccrerit ; 
 for the Heathens honoured Ceres as the goddefs who 
 prefided over corn, and attributed to her the inven- 
 tion of agricnlturc. Thefe aediles cercalcs were alfo 
 taken out of the order of patricians. In the munici- 
 pal cities there were sedilcs, and with the fame autho- 
 rity as at Rome. 
 
 We alfo read of an ledilts alimentarius, cxprcficd in 
 abbreviature by JEdil. aihn. whofe bufinefs ftcms to 
 have been to provide diet for thofc v. ho were maintain- 
 ed at the public charge, though others aiDgn him a 
 
 I 
 
 ditfcreut office. — In an ancient infcriptionwc alfo meet >E-iilitiiin 
 
 with ddiliof the camp, icdtlii cafimnnit. 
 
 jtDILITIUM EDicTi!M,among the Romans, was 
 that whereby a remedy was gi\en a buyer, in cafe a 
 vicious or unfound beafl, or Have, was fold him. It 
 was called trditititim, becaufcthe preventing of frauds 
 infalcsand conti-a£ls belonged efpecially to the curule 
 aediles. 
 
 ^DITU US, in Roman antiquity, an ofHcer belong- 
 ing to the temple, who had the charge of the oticrings, 
 treafure, andfacred utcnfils. The female deities had 
 a woman officer of this kind called JEdilua. 
 
 AIGAGROPILA, a ball conipofed of a fubflancc 
 rcfrmblinghair, gencratedin tiic ftom3ch,ofthe cha- 
 mois-goat. This ball is of the fame nature with thofc 
 found in cows, hogs, &c. 
 
 A'.GJV., or /Eg«a (anc.geog.), the name of iEj/c-/^ 
 fa, fo called from the following adventure .• Caranus, 
 the tirll king of Macedonia, being ordered by the o- 
 racle to feek out a feitlcment in Macedonia, under the 
 condut^ of a (lock of goats, furprifed the town o{ AL- 
 dciTa during a thick fog and rainy weather, in follow- 
 ing the goats that fled from the rain ; which goats 
 ever after, in all his military expeditions, he caufcd 
 to precede his ilandard ; and in memory of this he 
 called AAcSiJEgtca, and his fco^Xc/E^xadaa. And 
 hence probably, in the prophet Uaniel, the he-goat is 
 the fymbol of the king of Macedon. 
 
 AEGEAN SEA (anc. geog.), now the Archipelago, 
 a part of the Mediterranean, feparating Europe from 
 Afia and Africa ; walhing, on the one hand, Greece 
 and MacedoHia ; on the other, Cariaand Ionia. The 
 origin of the name is greatly difputcd. feflus advan- 
 ces three opinions : one, that it is fo called from the 
 many iilands therein, at a dillancc appearing like fo 
 many goats : another, becaufe y^igca queen of the A- 
 niazons pcriflied in it: a third opinion is, becaufe A- 
 gcus, the father ofThefeus, threw hinifelf headlong 
 into it. 
 
 AIGEUS, in fabulous hillory, was king of Athens, 
 and the father of Thefcus. The Athenians having 
 bafely killed the fon of Minos king of Crete, for carry- 
 ing away the prize /roni them, Minos made war upon 
 the Athenians ; and being vidorious, impofcd this fe- 
 vere condition on yf^gcus, that he fliould annually fend 
 intoCrete fcven of the nobleftof the Athenian youths, 
 chofcn by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. On 
 the fourth year of this tribute, the choice fell on The- 
 fcus; or, as others fay, he himfclf intreated to be fcnt. 
 The king, at his fon's dej'arture, gave orders, that as 
 thefliip failed with black fails, it (hould return w ith the 
 fame in cafe he pcriihed ; but, if he became victorious, 
 he fiioiildchange them into white. When 1 hefcus re- 
 turned to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and for- 
 got to change the fails in token of his vidory, accord- 
 ing to the agreement with his father; the latter, 
 who watched the return of the velTel, fuppofmg by 
 the black fails that his fon was dead, calthimfelf head- 
 long into the lea, which afterwards obtained the name 
 of the JEgcan Sea. The Athenians decreed .igcus 
 divine honours ; and facriliced to him as a marine dei- 
 ty, the adopted fon of Neptune. 
 
 ^.GIAS, among^yficians, a white fpeck on the 
 pupil of the eye, wNfch occaiions adimnefs of fijht. 
 
 AGIDA, ( Pliny )^ nowCrf/9 </' Jjtria, the princi- 
 pal 
 
 I
 
 ^ G I 
 
 [ 136 J 
 
 /E G I 
 
 ^giiopi pal town on the north of the territory of Iftria, fitiiatcd 
 
 ( ill a little iila;id, joined to the land by abridge. Inau 
 
 ^ JE/ina. infcription, (Gniter), it is called j£gidis 1/iJ'uta. K. 
 
 ' " Long. 14. 20. Lar. 45. 50. It wasaficrwards called 
 
 Juliiinpolis, after the enipcior Juflinus. 
 
 AGILOI'S, the name of a tumor lathe great angle 
 of the eye ; cither with, or without, an inriamniation. 
 The word is compcKinded of «;f , giat, and a^, ^y ; 
 as goats arc fuppolcd CMtrcmelv liable to this diilciu- 
 per. 
 
 Authors frcquenly iile the words agil'jfs, avch'.hpi, 
 zxiA fijl::ta lachryiiialis, promifcuouily ; but the more 
 accurate, after ytginiti, make a difference. — The tu- 
 mor, before it becomes iilcerous, is properly called an- 
 chilops : and, after it is got into the lachryn\al palfagcs, 
 and has rendered the os lachrymale cit\o\i%,JiJiula ia- 
 chrynalis. 
 
 If the segilops be accompanied with an inflamma- 
 tion, it is fiippofcd to take its rife from the abundance 
 of blood V hich aplcthoiichabit difchargcson the cor- 
 ner of the eye. Jf it be without an inrtammation, it is 
 fuppofed to proceed from a vifcous pituitous hamour, 
 thrown upon this part. 
 
 The method of cure is the fame as that ( f the opli- 
 
 thalmia. But before it has reached the lachrymal paf- 
 
 . fages, it is managed like other ulcers. If the a;gilops 
 
 be negleded, it burfls, and degenerates into a lillula, 
 
 which eats into the bone. 
 
 ^',GiLOPs,/f'////".-//.vc;3genusofthemouoeciaordcr, 
 bclongingto tlie polyganiia clafsof plants, and ranking 
 -under the 4"" natural order, Craw//;^. — Thecharadcrs 
 arc: The hennaphrodit! caljx isa two- valvcd glume, tri- 
 florous ; the corolla a two-valvcd glume, the exterior 
 valvalct terminated by three ariflse or awns, the in- 
 terior awnlcfs : 5/^;;/.'///^, three capillary rilamcnts ; 
 ftylc, two : Sad, one, oblong. Mah' calyx iwA corolla, 
 each a glume as in the farmer ; ^nd /lamina, the fame 
 
 number There are fevcn fpecics, natives of Italy 
 
 and fome other parts of Kiirope ; one of them, the in- 
 curvata, anativeof Britian,growsby thefea-lhore, and 
 is vulgarly aWcdfea-hard-grafs. 
 
 yKoiLorsis alfo the trivial name of a fpccies of 
 Qy E R c u s . 
 
 jtGIMURUS ( anc. geog. ), .-m illand on the bay 
 of Carthage, about 30 miles dillant from tliat city, 
 (Livy) ; now the CaUtta : This illand being after- 
 wards funk in the lea, two of its rocks remained a- 
 bove water, which were called Ai\r , and mentioned 
 by Virgil, tecaufe the Romans and Carth.iginians en- 
 tered into an agreement or league to fettle their mu- 
 tual boundries at thcfe rocks. 
 
 ..tGlNA, in fabulous hillory, the daughter of ^- 
 fopiis, king of Bseotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who 
 debauched her in the finiilitude of a lambent flame, 
 and then carried her from Epidanrus to a defert illand 
 called Oeiiope, which afterwards obtained her own 
 name. 
 
 j^GINA (anc. geog.), an illand on the Saronic Bay, 
 or bay of Engia, 20 miles dillant from tlie Piraseus, 
 formerly vyin;^ with Athens for nival power, and at the 
 fca-fight of Salamin difputiiig the palmof vidory wiiii 
 the )^thcniaiis. It was the coiintry and kingdom of 
 VEacus, who called it JEgiiia from Ills mother's name, 
 it being before called Oenopia, (Ovid ). The inhabi- 
 tants were called JEginrtic, and JEginenf.-s. The Greeks 
 
 3 
 
 had a common temple dedicated to Jupiter in JF.gim. 
 Thejtginetae applied to commerce : and were the tirll 
 who coined money, called No^ir//aA>/»a/M : hence Al- 
 giiKliai.ti as, formerly in great repute. The inhabi- 
 tants were called My n/iyd cms, or a nation of ants, 
 from their great application to agriculture. Sec jEa- 
 cus. 
 
 This illand was furroundrd by Attica,-the territory 
 of Megara, and the I'cloponnefus, each diftant about 100 
 Haiia, or 1 2 milts and a half. In circumference it was 
 reckoned 180 iladia, or 22 miles and a half. It was 
 walhedonthf call and fouth by the Myrtoauand Crc- 
 .tan feas. 
 
 It is now called Eyiiia, or Eg'ma, thc^.foft and the i 
 fliort. The temple abovemcntioned is (ituated upon 
 the fummit of a juountain called faiihiUcnius, about 
 an hour dillant from the Ihore. The A^ginetans affirm- 
 ed it was crct^ed by /l^Acus ; in whofe time Flellas 
 being terribly opprclfedby drought, the Delphic oracle 
 was con lulled; and thcrtlponfe was, That Jupiter mull 
 be rendered propitious by iEacus. The cities intreat- 
 cd him to be their mediator : He facriticcd and prayed 
 to Jupiter Panhellcuius, and procured rain. 
 
 The temple was of the Doric order, and had fix co- 
 lumns in front. Twenty-one of the exterior columns 
 arc yet ftanding, with two in the front of the pronaos 
 and of the polliciim, and five of the number which 
 formedtherangesof the cell. The entablature, except 
 the architrave, is fallen. The Hone is of a light bro%vn- 
 illi colour, much eaten in many places, and indicating 
 a very great age. Someof the columns have been in- 
 jured by boring to their centres for the metal. In fc- 
 vcral, the junction of the parts is fo exact, that each 
 feems to conliA of one piece. This ruin Mr Chandler 
 conllders as fcarcely to be paralleled in its claim to a 
 remote antiquity. The lituation on a lonely mountain, 
 at a diflance from the fea, has prcfcrved it from total 
 demolition, amid all the changes and accidents of nu- 
 jTierous centuries. 
 
 Near the fliore is a barrow, raifed, it is related, for 
 Phocus, tipon the following occalion. Telamon and 
 Pcleus, fons of Abacus, challenged their half-brother 
 Phocus to contend in the Pentathlum. In throwing 
 the Hone, which ferved as a quoit, Pcleus hit Phocus, 
 who was killed; when both of them fled". Afterwards, 
 Telamon fent a herald to alFert his innocence, j^acus 
 would not fuffer him to land, or to apologize, except 
 from the vclfcl ; or, if hechofe rather, from aheap cafl 
 up in the water. Telamon, entering the private port 
 by night, raifed a barrow, as a token, it is likely, of a 
 pious regard for the deceafed. He was afterwards 
 condemned, as not free from guilt ; and failed away a- 
 gain to Salamis. The barrow in the fecond century, 
 when feenby Paufanias, was furroundcd with a fence, 
 and had on it a rough Hone. The terror of fomc 
 dreadful judgment to be inilitled from heaven had pre- 
 fcrvcd it entire and unaltered to his time ; and in a 
 country dcpapulated and negletled, it may ftill endure 
 for many ages. 
 
 The foil of this illand is, as dcfcribed by Strabo, 
 very ftony, efpecially the bottoms, but in fome places 
 not unfertile ingrain. Bclidcs corn, it produces olives, 
 grapes, and almonds ; and abounds in pigeons and 
 partridges. It has been related, that the iilgine- 
 tans annually wage war with the feathered race^ care- 
 fully 
 
 Ji-ixm-
 
 JE G I 
 
 [ '37 ] 
 
 /\L G I 
 
 fully colkAiiigor breaking their eggs toprtvtiit tlicir 
 iiuilnplying, aiidiiicoiifcqutnci ay tarly limine. Tluy 
 • liavc no hares, foxes, or v.ohxs. Tlie rivers in fum- 
 mcr arc all dry. The vaiwode or governor farms the 
 revenue of the Grand Signior for J2 purfcs, or 6000 
 juaftres. About half this fiini is repaid yearly by 
 the caratch-moncy, or poll-tax. 
 
 AlciNA, the capital of the above illand. Itsfitehis 
 been long forfaken. hiflead of the temples mention- 
 ed b/ Paiifinias, there arc 13 lonely churches, all 
 very mean ; snd two Doric columns fiipj'orting their 
 architrave. Thefc ftand by the fea-fide toward the 
 low cape ; and, it has been fuppofcd, arc a remnant 
 of a temple of Venus, which %\ as (ituated by the port 
 principally frequented, 'i he tlicatrc, which is recor- 
 ded as worth feeing, refembled that of the Kpidaurians 
 both in (i/.c and workmanlhip. It was not far from 
 the private port ; the rcadiuni,Vy'hic!i,likc that at Pricnr, 
 was conlh'uded with only one fide, being joined to it 
 liehind, and each ftruc^urc mutually fullaining and 
 proppi;ig tlic other. The walls belonging to the ports 
 andarfenal were of excellent niafonry,and may be tra- 
 ced 10 aconfideraLle extent, above, or nearly even with 
 tlie water. At the entrance of the mole, on the left, 
 is a fmall chapel of St Nicholas; and oppofite, a fquarc 
 tower with licps before it, dctkched, from which a 
 bridge was laid acrofs, 10 be removed on any alarm. 
 This ftruflurc, which is mean, was erefted by the Ve- 
 netians, while at war with tlfc Turks in 1693. 
 
 A^GINKTA (Pauhis), a celebrated fur^geon of the 
 illand of .."Jilgiiia, from whence lie derived his name. 
 According to M. Le Clerc's calculation, he lived in 
 the fourth century ; but Abulpharagius the Arabian, 
 M'ho is allowed to give the bell account of thofc limes, 
 places him with more probability in the fevcnth. His 
 knowledge in ftirgery was very great, and his works 
 arc dcfervedly famous. Fabrieius ab Aquapendcnte 
 has thought tit to tranfcribe him in a great variety of 
 places. Indeed the doJlrinc of Paulus .+;gineta, toge- 
 ther with that of Ctlfusand Albucafis, make up the 
 whole text of this «u:hor. He is the firft writer who 
 takes notice of liie cathartic quality of rhubarb ; and, 
 according to Dr Milward, is the hrft in ail antiquity 
 who deferves the title of a ma:i-niidwifc. 
 
 i9-',GINHARD, the celebrated fscretary and fup- 
 pofed fon-ir.-law of Charlemagne. He is faid to liavc 
 been carried through the fnow on the Ihouldcrs of the 
 affeclionate and ingenious Imma, to prevent his being 
 tracked from her apartments by the emperor her fa- 
 ther : a ftory whi-.h the elegant pen of Addifon has 
 copied and embellilhed from an old German chronicle, 
 and iuferted in the 3d volume of the Spectator. — This 
 happy lover (fuppoiing the llory to be true) fecms to 
 have pofTell'ed a heart not unworthy of fo enchanting a 
 miftrcfs, and to have returned her affeftion with the 
 nioft faithful attachment ; for there isaletterof ^tgin- 
 hard's flill extant, lamenting the death of liis wife, 
 which iswritteninthc lendereftflrain of connubial a f- 
 fli.'lion ; — it joes not. howe\ er, cxprtfs that this lad^' 
 was the afTcdionateprinccfs, and indeed fome late critics 
 have proved that Imnia was not the daughter of C}iar- 
 lemagne. — Uut to return to our hillorian : He was a 
 native of Germany, and educated by the muniticence of 
 his imperialmalUr, of which he has left the moft grate- 
 in! tellimony inhis preface tothc fife of that monarch. 
 Vol. 1. 
 
 .i^ginharJ, after the lofs of his hmentcd v. ifc, is fup- ys^ij.aii 
 poled 10 have palled tiie remainderof his days in rtli- I 
 gious retirement, and to have died foon after the year j'^nil'ii-'*- 
 8^0. ITis life of Charlemagne, his a:;r..-.ls from 7.^1 to " '^ 
 839, and his letters, are ah iufcned in the 2d volinne 
 of Duchc.Gie's Scriptores Krancorum. But there is an 
 improved cdili'Ui of this valuable hiftorian, with the 
 annotations of Hermann Schniincke, in 4to, 1711. 
 
 AiGlPAN, in heathen mythohigy, a dcnominaiion 
 given to the god Pan, becaufe he was reprcfcr.ltd with 
 the horns, legs, feet, &c. of a goat. 
 
 A-GIPHILA, Go.4T-i RiF.ND ; a genus of the mo- 
 nogy niaori!er,bt longing to the tetrandriaclafsof plants; 
 the charaftersof which arc : The caljx is a iinglc-lea- 
 ved perianthiuni, bcll-(hap'd, four- tooth 'd,loofe, very 
 (liort, and perfirtent: The co: o//a conliftsof one petal ; 
 the tubus cylindric, narrower and longer than the ca- 
 lyx ; the border divided into four fegmcnts, flat and e- 
 qual ; the divifions oblong : The/^v/z/Haconliftof four 
 ere(5l capill;>ry filaments ; the antherse arc incumbent 
 and fquared : 1 he pij'.illuifi has a gernu)i above ; a ca- 
 pillary, two-cleft, iniddle-llzed llylus; and a fimple 
 fligma : The /'ericarphn/i is a roundilh unilocular ber- 
 ry : The A-.'(/j are four. There is only one fpccics, a 
 native of Martinique. 
 
 /LGlS, in the ancient mythology, s name given to 
 the fliield or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas. 
 
 The goat Amalthca, which had fucklcd Jove, being 
 dead, that god is faid to have covered his buckler with 
 the (kin thereof; whence the appellation irgis, from 
 «(f, aiy<,t,Jhc'-g(iat. Jupiter, afterwards rcAoring the 
 beaft to life again, covered it with a new Ikin, andpla 
 ccd it among the flars. As to his buckler, he made a 
 prefent of it to Minerva ; whence that goJdcfs's buck- 
 ler is alfo called a-gii. 
 
 Minerva, having killed the Gorgon Mcdufa, nailed 
 her head ill the middle of ihe;rgis, which henceforth 
 had the faculty of converting into /lone all thofe who 
 looked thereon; as Medufa herfelf had done durini' 
 her life. 
 
 Others take the aegis not tohave bcenabue^;ler, bnt 
 a cuirafs, or breaft-plate : and it is certain the asgis of 
 Pallas, defcribed by Virgil, A'.n. lib. viii. yer. 43y, 
 mull have been a cuirafs ; fincc that poet fays cxjTcfs- 
 ly, that Medula's head was on the breall of the goj- 
 defs. But the cegis of Jupiter, mentioned a little high- 
 er, ver. 3J4, fecms to have been a buckler : the words 
 Cunifxl: tiigrantcvi 
 vEgida ctiicuUret dextra, 
 agreeing very well to a buckler ; but not at all to a 
 cuirafs or brcaft-platc. 
 
 Servius makes the fame dillinflion on the two paf- 
 fagcs of Virgil : for on verfe ;J4, he takes the xgis 
 for the buckler of Jupiter, made, as aboveincntioned, 
 of the (Vin of the goat Amalthca ; and on verfe 455^ 
 he defcribes the affgis as the armour which covers the 
 bread, which in fprakingof men is called ci//^},and 
 tgis in fpeakingof the gods. Manyauthors have over- 
 looked thcfc dillinilions for want of g"ing to the four- 
 ces. 
 
 ^^GISTHUS, in ancient hiilory, was the (on of 
 Tycfles by hii own daughter Pllopeia, who, to con- 
 ceal her flume, expofed him in th'- woods: fome fay 
 he was taken up by a Ihepherd, and fuckled by a goat, 
 whence he was called AgiUhuu He corrupted Cly- 
 '^ tcjiineltr*
 
 .^ G O 
 
 [ 138 ] 
 
 .^ G O 
 
 ^glthallus icmncAra the wife of Agamemnon ; and with litr af- 
 
 I (illancc (lew her hulbuiui, aud rci^^ncd fcvcn years in 
 
 JEgofpota- Mycciigg. He was, toocilicr with Cly tcmncflra, (lain 
 
 . "'"'• byOrcflcs. Pompey iifcd tocull JiiliuiCxfar/E^///'/v/j, 
 
 on account ol his having corrupted his wife Miitia, 
 
 whom he afterwards put away, though he had three 
 
 cliilJren by her. 
 
 i?->GlTHALLUS (anc. gcog.), a promontory and 
 citadel of Sicily, between Drcpanum and the Kmpo- 
 rium Acgiftanum, afterwards called /Iccllus ; corrupt- 
 ly written J.-githaif'>s, in Ptolemy ; fituatc near mount 
 Eryx, and now called Vapo di Santo Teoiioro. 
 
 jCGIUM, (anc. gcog.) a town of Achaia Propria, 
 five miles from the place where Hclicc Aood, and fa- 
 mous for thccouncilof the Acheans, which ufiiiilly met 
 there on account either of the dignity or commodious 
 fituation of the place. It was alfo famous for the m or- 
 fliip of o^«)i-f/oc 2(1/5, Conventional Jiipitir, andof 7'^- 
 natharaiiCtiis. The territory of A^gium was \\atered 
 by two rivers, viz. the Phoenix and Meganitas. The 
 epithet is JE^iciifu. There is a coin in the cabinet of 
 the king of Pruilia, with the infcription Airi, and the 
 figure of a tortoife, which is the fymbol of Pelopon- 
 nefus, and leaves no doubt as to the place where it was 
 flruck. 
 
 ^GOBOLIUM, ill antiquity, the facrifice of a goat 
 offered to Cybclc. The xgobolium was an expiatory 
 facrifice, which bore a near rcfcmblance to the tauro- 
 bolium and criobolium, and leems to have been fome- 
 liniesjoincd with them. 
 
 /f^GOPODIUM, S.M ALL WILDAn-CELICAjGoUT- 
 WORT, GOATSKOOT, HeRbGf. RARD, or Ash WEEP ; 
 
 a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the penian- 
 dria clafs of plants; the charadcrs of which are: 
 The univcrfal calyx is a manifold convex umbel ; the 
 partial one, confnnilarand flat ; there is noiuvolucrum ; 
 and the proper perianthium is fcarccly difcerniblc : 
 The univerfalcoro/7a is uniform, the florets all fenile ; 
 ' the proper one has five inverfe-ovate, concave, equal 
 
 petals, inriecled at the top: The jlamina confill of 
 live fimfle filaments twice the length of the corolla ; 
 the antherx roundidi : The pijVtllum has a germen be- 
 neath ; two purple creft ftyli the length of the corol- 
 let ; the (lamina are headed : No fericarpiiu:i : The 
 fruit is ovate, ftriated, and bipartite: The/ftv/; are 
 two, ovate, on one fide convex and ftriated, and flat 
 on the other. There is but one fpecies, a native of 
 • Britain and other parts of Europe. It is very common 
 under hedges and about gardens; the leaves refemWe 
 thofe of Angelica, and it carries fniall white flowers 
 
 into the IlcUefpont, to the north of CeAos ; alfo a jT.gofpota- 
 town. Ration, or road for ihips, at its mouth. Merc mos- 
 
 the Athenians, under Conon, through the fault of his ^"""^ ' 
 
 colleague Ifocratcs, received a lignal overthrow ficm 
 the Laccdemoiiiarisunder Lyfaiulcr, which was follow- 
 ed by the taking of Athens, and put an end to the 
 Peloponnelian war. 'Ihe Athenian fleet having fol- 
 lowed the Lacedemonians, anchored in the road, over 
 agaiufl the enemy, who lay before Lampfacus. The 
 Hilkfpont is not abcve two ihoufand paces broad in 
 that place. The two armiesfceiiig theinlelves foncar 
 each other, expected only to reft that day, and were 
 in liopes of coming to a b.itllc on the next. 
 
 Hut l.yfandcr had another dclign in his view. He 
 commanded the feamen and pilots to go on board llicir 
 galleys, as if they were in reality to fight (he next 
 morning at break of day, to hold themfelves in rcadi- 
 ncfs, and to \\ait his orders with profound (ilcnce. 
 He commanded the land-army in like manner to draw 
 up in battle upon the coafl, and to wait the day with- 
 out noife. On the morrow, as foonas the fun was ri- 
 fen, the Athenians began to row towards them with 
 their whole fleet in one line, and to bid them defiance. 
 Lyfand';r, though his lliips were ranged in order of 
 battle, with their heads towards the enemy, lay Aill 
 without making any movement. In the evening, when 
 the Athenians withdrew, he did not fuller his Ibldiers 
 to go afliorc, till two or three galleys, which he had 
 fent out to obferve them, were returned with advice 
 that they had fecn the enemy land. The next day 
 palled in tlic fame manner, as did tlie third and fourth. 
 Such a condu(;l, which argued referve and apprchen- 
 lion, extremely augmented the fecurity and boldnefs 
 of the Athenians, and infpired them with an extreme 
 contempt for an army, which fear, in their fenfe, pre- 
 vented from iliowing themfelves, and attempting any 
 tiling. 
 
 W'hilA this pafFcd, Alcibiades, who was near the 
 fleet, took hori'e, and came to the Athenian generals ; 
 to whom he reprcfented, that they kept upon a very 
 difadvantagcous coafl, where there were neither ports 
 nor cities in the neighbourhood ; that they were ob- 
 liged to bring their proviflons from Cellos with great 
 danger and difficulty ; and that they were very much 
 in the wrong to fuffer the foldiers and mariners of 
 the fleet, as loon as they were alliore, to Araggle and 
 difpcrfc themfelves at thcirown pleafure, whilft dvcy 
 Were faced in view by the enemy's fleet, accuAomed 
 to execute the orders of their general with the rca- 
 dieft obedience, and upon the IlighteA fignal. He 
 
 I.s roots run fo fafl, as to render it a very troublefome offered alio to attack the enemy by land with a Arong 
 weed. — - 
 
 ^^GOPRICORN, a genus of the monoecia order, 
 belonging to the diandria clafs of plants ; the characters 
 • of which are : The calj-xhoih of the male and female 
 is a tubular perianthium of one leaf divided into three 
 fcgmcnts : Coro//a wanting in both : The JIan/ina con- 
 I'lAofa finj;lecrca filament longer than the calyx, with 
 an ovate anthera : The pi/lillum has an ovate germen, 
 three divaricated Ayli, and fimple perfiAent Aigmata : 
 The pcricarpium is a globular berry, three-grained 
 within, and three-ccU'd : The/vj'j are folitary, and 
 angular on one fide — There is but one fpecies, a na- 
 tive of Surinam. 
 
 .^^GOSPOTAMOS, (anc. geog.), a river in the 
 Thracian Chcrfoncfus, falling with a fouth-eaA courfe 
 
 body of Thracian troops, and to force them to a bat- 
 tle. The generals, efpecially Tydeus and Mcnan- 
 der, jealous of their command, did not content them- 
 felves with refufing his offers, from the opinion, that 
 if the event proved unfortunate, the whole blame 
 would fall on them, and if favourable, that Alcibia- 
 des alone would have the honourof it; but rejecfled 
 alfo with infult his wife and falutary council, as if a 
 man in difgrace loA his fcnle and abililics with the 
 favour of the commonwealth. Alcibiades withdrew. 
 The fifth day the Athenians prefciited themfelves 
 again, and offered battles retiring in the evening ac- 
 cording to cuftom with more infuliing airs than the 
 days before, l.yfander, as ufual, detached fome gal- 
 leys to obferve ihem, with orders to return with the 
 
 utinoft
 
 iE G Y 
 
 [ 139 ] 
 
 J^ M I 
 
 ^gofpora- utmoft digilcnce when they law the Athenians land- 
 
 mu* cd, and to put up a brazen buckler at each ihip's head 
 
 I as foon as they reached the middle of the channel. 
 
 ^gyP"' * Himl'clf in the mean time ran through the whole line 
 
 in his galley, cxhortiuj; the pilots and otiiccrs to hold 
 
 the fcimcn and foldicrs in readinefs to row and tight 
 
 on thcfirft lignal. 
 
 As foon as the bucklers were put up in the fliips 
 heads, and the admiral galley had given the fignal by 
 the found of. trumpet, the whole Hcct fet forward in 
 good order. 'Jhi- land-army at the fame time made all 
 pojiblc hafte to the top of the promontory to fee the 
 battle. The (lr«it that fcparatcs the two continents 
 in this place is about fifteen IlaJia, or three quarters 
 of a league in breadth ; whichfpacc was prcfently clear- 
 ed through the aftivity and diligence of the rowers. 
 Conon the Athenian general was the firrt who percei- 
 ved from fliore, the fleet advance in good order to at- 
 tack him ; upon which he immediately cried out for 
 the troops to embark. In the height of forrow and 
 • trouble, fomc he called to by their names, fome he 
 conjured, and others he forced to go on board their 
 galleys ; but all his endeavours and emotion were inef- 
 fcdual, the foldiers being difperfed on all iides. For 
 they were no fooner come on iliorc, than fome ran 
 to the futlers, fome to vvalk in the couJitry, fome 
 to lleep in their tents, and others had begun to drefs 
 their fuppcrs. This proceeded from a want of vigi- 
 lance and experience in their generals, who, not fuf- 
 petting the Jeafl danger, indulged themfclves in 
 taking their repofc, and gave their foldiers the fimc 
 liberty. 
 
 The enemy had already fallen on with loud cries and 
 a great noifeof their oars, when Conon, difengaging 
 himfclf wiiliniucgalleys,of wliich numbcrwas the fa- 
 cred fhip called the Puralian, flood away for Cyprus, 
 where he took refuge with Evagoras. The I'elopon- 
 ncfiaus, falling upon the reft of the fleet, took imme- 
 diately the galleys which were empty, and difabled and 
 deftroycd fuchas began to fill wi h men. The foldiers, 
 who ran without order or arms to their relief, were ei- 
 ther killed in the endeavour to get on board, or flying 
 on fliore were cut to pieces by the enemy, who landed 
 in purfuit of them. Lyfandcr took 3000 prifoners, 
 with all tl'.e generals, and the whole fleet. After ha- 
 ving plundered the camp, and fafltned the enemy's 
 galleys to the flerns of his own, he returned to Lamp- 
 facus amidft the found of flutes and fungs of triumph. 
 It was his glory to have aichievcd one of the greatell 
 military exploits recorded in hiftory with little or no 
 lofs, and to have terminated a war in the fmall fpacc 
 of an hour, which had alrc.idy laflcd 17 years, and 
 which, perhaps, without him, had been of much longer 
 continuance. 
 
 itGYPT. See Egypt. 
 
 iEGYP TIACL'M, in pharmacy, I'le name of fcvc- 
 ral detergent ointments ; which are dtfcribcd under 
 the article Ointnent. 
 
 itlGYPTILLA, in natural hiilory, the name of a 
 ftone defcribcd by the ancients, and faid by foutc au- 
 thors, to have the rcpKirkable quality of giving water 
 tlic colour and taflc of wine. This feems a very ima- 
 ginary virtue, as arc indeed too many of thofc in for- 
 mer ages attributed to Hones. The dcfcriptions left us 
 of this remarkable foffil tell us, that it was variegated 
 
 with, or compofed of, veins orolackand white, or black VEjryt'" 
 and blucifli, with fomctimcs a plate or vein of whitiUi \t 
 red. 'J'hc authors of thcfe accounts fccm to have un- -^ "*''"":. 
 derflood by this name the feveral Hones of the onyx, 
 fjrdonyx,andcamacakind; all which. we have at prc- 
 fent conimou among us, but none of which poflcfs any 
 fuch flraiigc properties. 
 
 A:GYPT0S, (fab. hifl.) was the fon of Bcleus, and 
 brother of Danaus. See Beliues. 
 
 ytLINATit, inantiquiiy, a denomination given to 
 the fcnatorsof Miletus, because they held their deli- 
 berations on board a fliip, and never returned to land, 
 till iHatters had been agreed on, 
 
 .(tLlAN (Claudius), born at Prasnefte in Italy. He 
 taught rhetoric atRome, according to I'erizonius, un- 
 der the LmprrorAlexanderScverus. Iiewai lirnamed 
 Mf>./}>.4?a-7©k., Honey- Ahuth, on account of the fwcel- 
 nefs of his flyle. He was likewife honoured with the 
 tide of Sophill, an appellation in his days only given to 
 men of learning andwifdom. He loved retirement, 
 and devoted hinifelf tofludy. He greatly admired and 
 fludied Plato, Ariflotle, Ifocratcs, Plutarch, Homer, 
 Anacreon, Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman, 
 gives the preference to the writers of the Greek nation. 
 His two moll celebrated works arc, his Various Hi- 
 flory,and Hillory of Animals . He compofed likewifc 
 a bo.ik on Providence, mentioned by Euftatliius ; and 
 another on divine Appearances, or The Declarations 
 of Providence. There have been feveral editions of 
 his Various Hiflory. 
 
 yELl PONS (anc. gcog.) one of the fortrefTes near 
 the wall or rampart, or, in the words of the Notitia, 
 through thclincof the liitherwall; built, as is thought, 
 by Adrian*. Now Portcland, (Camden), in North- *S«-^-^'«« 
 umbcrland, between Newcaftle and Morptth. (emperor). 
 
 /^iLIUS PON'S, now it Poriti S. Aiigeln, a ftone- 
 bridgeat Rome, over the Tyber, which leads to the 
 Burgo and Vatican from the city, along Adrian's mole, 
 built by the Emperor Adrian. 
 
 yELKRXD. SteALfRED. 
 
 ALURUS, in Egyptian mythology, the deity or 
 god of cats ; reprefented fomctimcs like a cat, and 
 fometimes like a man witli a cat's head. The Egyp- 
 tians had lo fupcrflitious a regard for this animal, that 
 the killing it, whether by accident ordelign, waspu- 
 niihcd with death : and Didorus relates, that, in the 
 time of extreme fauiiuc, they chofc rather to eat one 
 another than touch thcle facred auim.-.ls. 
 
 AEM, Am, or Ame, a liquid meafurc ufcd in moll 
 parts of Germany ; but different in diiFerent towns ; 
 tlic aem commonly contains 20 vertils, or 80 malfes » 
 that of Heidelberg is equal to 4S maiies ; and that of 
 A\'irtcmbcrgh to i6omafl"es. See Aam. 
 
 AMIl.IL'S (Paubis), the fon of Lucius P^iilus, 
 who was killed at the battle of Cannx, was twice con- 
 ful. In his flrft confulatc he triumphed over the Li- 
 gurians : and in the fecond fubducd Perfeus king oi 
 Macedonia, and reduced that country to a Roman pro- 
 vince, on wiiich he obtained the furnamcof Maccdoni- 
 cus. He returned to Rome loaded with glory, and 
 triumphed for three days. He died 160 years b:io;c 
 Chrift, 
 
 jk'.s\ iLius (Paulus), a celebrated hiflorian, boni a: 
 
 Verona, who obtained fuch reputation in Italy, th .the 
 
 was invited into France by the cardinal of Biurboi, in 
 
 S 2 the
 
 IE N E 
 
 [ 140 ] 
 
 .-E N I 
 
 stair* J Le* 
 
 tliercigii of Lewis XII. iiionkr to wiiic ilic liillury 
 oi the T.iiij^j of Krancc in Latin, m\<\ was given a ca- 
 lioiiry ill the cathedral of I'.iiis. He was near 30 
 year.; in writing that hiilory, which has heen greatly 
 admired ; auJ iiicd at Pat i* on tTic 5th of May 1529. 
 
 iliMOBOLlUM, in aniiiiuity, the blood ^)( a btill 
 or ran\ oft'cred in the facririccs, called tauiobotia and 
 iiioliolia : in which I'cnfe the w.jrd occurs in ancient 
 infeti,'tions. 
 
 jtNARIA (anc. geog.), an iiland on the bay of 
 .Cum«, or ovcr-ag.'.inllCumxinltaly, (I'iiny ) It is 
 alfo called Inariim, (Virgil) ; and now Jfchia : fcarce 
 three milts diltant from the coall, and the piomontoiy 
 Mifenns to the well ; 20 miles in conipafs ; called / 1- 
 ik.cufa by the Greeks. It is one of the OenotriJes, 
 and fenced round by very high rocks, lo as to be in- 
 acceliible hut on one fide ; it wa: formerly famous for 
 its earthen ware. Sec Ischia. 
 
 ytNKAS (fab. hill.), a far.ious Trojsn prince, the 
 fo;i of Anchifts and Veiuis. At the deitruction of 
 Troy, he bore his aged father on his back, and favtd 
 him from the Greeks; but being too folicitous about 
 his fuuand houfehold-gods, lo!lhis wile Crcufainthe 
 cfcajie. Landing in Ahita, he was kindly received by 
 queen Dido: bimiuitting hercoali,he arrived in Italy, 
 where he mirried Lavinia the daughter of king Lati- 
 nus, and defeated Turnus, to whom flic had been con- 
 traacd. After^hc death of his father-in-law, he was 
 made king of the Latins, over whom he reigned three 
 years : but joining WMth the Aborigines, he was llain 
 in a battle againll the Tufcans. Virgil has rendered 
 the name of tiiis prince immortal, by making him the 
 hero of his poem. Sec /Eneid. 
 
 yE.NEAs SvLvies, (Pope). See Pius II. 
 
 .ICNEATORES, in antiquity, the niuficians in an 
 army, including thofe who played trumpets, horns, &c. 
 The word is formed from ^nnf, on account of the 
 braiicn inllrumeius ul'cd by them. 
 
 yKNKID, the name of Virgil's celebrated epic po- 
 . ein. The fubjtd of the /tneid, which is the ell.ib- 
 lilltment of .tncas in Italy, is extrcmily happy. No- 
 thing could be more inttreiU'.ig to the Romans than to 
 look back tothcir orij,iii from lb famous a hero While 
 theobjcft was fplendid itl'elf, the traditionary hillury 
 of his country opened intcrelling lields to the poet ; 
 and he could glance at all the future great exploits of 
 the Roin.iiis, in its ancient and fabulous (late. 
 
 As to the unity of action, it is perfectly well prc- 
 ferved in the Aineid. The fcttlement of A;neas, by 
 the order of the gods, is conOantly kept in view. The 
 epifodes are linked properly with the main fiibject. 
 The nodus, or intrigue of the poem, is happily ma- 
 naged. The wrath of Jnno, whooppofesj'Eneas, gives 
 rife to all his difficulties, and connects the human with 
 the ccieftial operations throughout the whole poem. 
 
 One great imperfeclion of the /Eneid, h.owever, is, 
 that there are aluioll no marked characters in it. A- 
 chates, Cloanthes, Gyas, and other Trojan heroes who 
 accompanied yEneas into Italy, arc inlipid figures. 
 Even Apneas hiinfclf is without intercfl. The charac- 
 ter of Dido is the befl fupportcd in the whole Alncid. 
 
 The principal pxcellcneyof Virgil istenderncfs. Hi; 
 foul was full of fenlibility. He mull have felt him- 
 felf all the affcfting circumftances in the fcencs he de- 
 fcribes ; and hekiic w how to touch the heart by a finglc 
 
 llrokc. In an epic poem this merit is the next to fub- JEn^lna, 
 liuiity. The fecond book of the /Eneid is one of the Mm%mi. 
 greatcll mailer pieces that ever was executed. The """ ' 
 death of old Priam, and thefamily-pieces of /Eneas, 
 Anchifes, and Crcufa, are as tender as can be conceiv- 
 ed. In the fourtli book, the u.i happy pallion and 
 death of Dido arc admirable. The epifodes of Palkis 
 and Evander, of Nifus and Euryalus, of Laufus and 
 Mczentius, arc all fupcrlaiively fine. 
 
 In his battles, \ irgil is far inferior to Homer. But 
 in the important cp'fode, the defcent into hell, he has 
 outdone Homer by many degrees. Tiicrc is nothing in 
 antiquity to equal the lixth book of the /Eneid. 
 
 /ENG1N.'\, one of the illands of the Archipelago. 
 It lies in the bay of Engia, and the town of tiiat name 
 contains about 800 houfes and a caillc ; and near it arc 
 the ruins of a magniliccnt ilructure, which was pro- 
 bably a temple. 
 
 A^NIGMA, denotes any dark faying, wherein fomc 
 well-known thing is concealed underobfcureUuguagc. 
 The word is Greek, \iiiyun, formed ol ainTTiTSai, ob- 
 fcure iiinuerc, to hint a thing darkly, and of jr/»oc, an 
 obfcurc fpcecliordifcourle. Ihc popularnameisr/i/.//^; 
 from tiie Bclgic rasdn:, or the Saxon ariftMa//, to in- 
 terpret. Ka. Bouhours, in the memoirs of Trevoux, 
 delincs an a;nigma, Adifcoarfe, or painting, including 
 fomc hidden meaning, which is propoftd to be guelFcd. 
 
 /'a;//r£'J'yEN-lGMAS,arereprefentationsof the works 
 of nature, orart, concealed undcrhuman figurcs,drawa 
 from hiilory, or fable. 
 
 //A'c)-^<7/ .-Enigma, is awitty, artful, and abflrufc 
 defcription of any thing — In a general fenfe, every 
 dark faying, every dithcult quellion, every parable, 
 niiy pals for aji .migma. Hence obfcure laws arc , 
 called JEiiigmat.i Juiis. The alchcmifts arc great 
 dealers in the a;nigmatic language, their procelTes for 
 the philofophers (lone being generally wrapped up in 
 riildies: e. g. Fuc ex viaic at fiemtna circiilutii, iiide 
 quadrangluiis, hiiic triaiig:ilu'>i, f'lic ci'd/Jmu, el hul/eliit 
 lapi.-lcui philop,,' honitn. — F.Menellricr has attempted to 
 reduce the compolition and refolution of isnigmas to a 
 kiiid oi art, with fixed rules and principles, which he : 
 calls the philolbpiiy oi .tuigvtatic images. 
 
 7/v SubjeSi of an ytNiOMA, or the thing to be ■ 
 concealed and niade a myllcry of, he juftly obferves, 
 ought not to be fuch in itfclf ; but, on the contrary, 
 common, obvious, and eafy to he conceivei!. It is to 
 be taken, either iVom nature, as the heavens, or ftars : 
 or from art, as painting, the compafs, a mirror, or 
 • the like. 
 
 Tht Form c/zF^NioMASconfii'lsin the words, which, 
 whether they be in profeor verfe, contain either fomc 
 defcription, a quellion, or a profopop*ia. The lalt 
 kind are the moil pleafing, inafmuch as they give life 
 and aflion to things which otherwifc have them nor. 
 To make an oeni'^ma, therefore, two things arc to be 
 pitched on, which bear fomerefcmblancetoeachotlier; 
 as the fun and a monarch; or a fliip and a honfc : 
 and on this refemblan:c is to be raifcdafupcrftruftiirc 
 of contrarieties to amufc and perplex. It is caficr 
 to find great fubjefts for oenigmas in figures than ki 
 words, inafmuch as painting attracts the eyes and ex- 
 cites the attention to difcovcr the fenfe. The fubjeifts 
 of enigmas in painting, are to be taken either troiM 
 hiilory or fable : the compolition here is a kind of ine- 
 
 lamor^ioUSj .
 
 IE N I 
 
 [ t 
 
 , tamorplioiis, wherein, c. g. human figures arc changed 
 ■ iiuo irces, and rivers iuio mculs. It is clTcntial to ae- 
 niTmas, that the hillory or tabic under which they 
 arc prefented, be known to every body ; othcrwifc it 
 ■will be two Kuigmas inflead of one ; the firll of the 
 liillory or tabic, the fccond of the fcnfe in which it 
 is to be taken. Another clTential rale ofthesenigma 
 is, that it only ad mils of one fenfc. Every ajnigmawhicli 
 is fofccptivc of different interpretations, all equally 
 natural is fo far impcrfti^. What gives a kind of eru- 
 dition to an aenigiiia, is an invention of figures in li- 
 tuations, gefturcs, colours, &c. authorifcd by palTages 
 of the poets, thecuftonisofariiflsin ftaiucs, baifo relie- 
 vos, infcriptions, and medals. — In foreiga colleges. 
 
 The explication cj Enigmas makes a conliderablc 
 exercife j and that one of the moii difficult and amu- 
 ling, where wit and penetration have ihc largcft field. 
 — By explaining an aenigma, is meant the finding a 
 motto correfponding to the adion and perfons repre- 
 fented in a picture, taken eitlicr from hiftory or my- 
 tliology. The great art «f this exercife conlifls in the 
 choice of a motto, which cither by itfclf, or the cir- 
 cumftanccsof lime, place, pciibn who fpeaks, or thofc 
 before whom he isfpeaking, may divert the fpedlators, 
 and furnifli occafion for ftrokesof wit ; alfoin lliowing 
 to advantage the conformities between the figure and 
 thing figured; giving ingenious turns to the reafons 
 employed to fupport what is adk'anced, and in artfully 
 introducing pieces of poetry to illuflrate ihefubjecl and 
 awaken the attention of the audience. 
 
 As to the folution of aenigmas, it may be obfcr- 
 ▼cd, that tbofe exprefledby figures arc more difficult 
 to explain than thofc confifting of words, by rcafon 
 images may figuify more things ihan words can ; fo 
 that to fix them to a particular fcnfe, we mull apply 
 every (ituation, fymbol, &c. and without omitting a 
 circumflance. — As there arc few perfons in hillory, or 
 mythology, but have fome particularcharaifler ofvicc 
 or virtue, we are, before all things, to attend to this 
 ckaralhr, in order to divine what the figure of a pcr- 
 fon reprcfented in a painting fignifies, and to find what 
 agrtemcTt thismay have with the fubjeft whereof we 
 would explain it. Thus, if Proteus be reprcfented in 
 a picture, it may be taken to denote ir.coKJhmcy, and 
 applied citJKr to a phylical or moral fubjecl, wbofc 
 chara'leris to be changeable ; e.g. an almanack, which 
 fxprcflcs the weather, the feafons, heat, cold.llorms, 
 aii.l the like. The colours of figures may alio help to 
 unriddle what they mean: luA-r^, forindanee, isa mark 
 of innocence, red of moJedy, green of hope, black of 
 forrow, &c. When figures are accompanied with 
 fymhoh, they are lefs precarious ; thcfe being, as it 
 were, the foul of xnigmas, and the key that opens the 
 niyflcryof them. Of all the kinds offymbo's v.liich 
 may be met vu:h in thofc who have treated profclFed- 
 ly on the fubjccf . thconly truly :T;i-igmaticaI arc thofc 
 of Pythagoras, which, nnderdark prBVcrbs.hold forth 
 ciTonsof morality ; as whcnlic (.xys^Stiiteraw ue trun- 
 (ili'ts, to fi'Tnify, Do no i'.'juftioc. 
 
 But it mull be added, that we meet with fome x-n'>^- 
 inas in hillory, coropliuxtcd to a degree, wh'ch much 
 tranfccnds all rules, and has given great perplexity 
 to the interprctr i of them. Such is that celebrated 
 ancient ore jEiia L^lia CrifpU, about which n;nny of 
 the learned Lave puzzled tlicir heads. There arc two 
 
 41 3 /E N I 
 
 exemplars of it : one found 140 years ago, on a mar- 
 ble near Bolognia : the other in an ancient MS. writ- 
 ten in Gothic letters, at Milan. It is controverted be- 
 tween the two cities, which is to be reputed the more 
 authentic. 
 
 The Gononian Mnigvta. 
 
 D. M. 
 
 JElia La-lia Criffii, 
 
 Nee vir, nee mulier. 
 
 Nee androgyna ; 
 
 Nee puella, aecj.yve/iis, 
 
 Nee anus ; 
 
 N.'c cajla, nee mcrelr'ix, 
 
 Nee pudica j 
 
 Sed omnia : 
 
 Sublata 
 
 Nf Hue fame, neqtieferro, 
 
 Neqtii veneno ; 
 
 5: d omnibus : 
 
 Nee ctIo, nee terris, 
 
 Nee aquis, 
 
 Sed uhique jacit. 
 
 Lucius AguthH Prifcius, 
 
 Nee 7iiaritui, nee aviator, 
 
 Nee Jiecelfarius ; 
 
 Neque vixrens, neque gaudens, 
 
 Neque fiens ; 
 
 Hanc, 
 
 Nee molem, t:ee pyraviidem, 
 
 Nee J'cpuUhruiii, 
 
 Sed omnia, 
 
 Scit et nefcit, c'li popierk. 
 
 That is to fay, To the gods manes, JElia LxrtaCriff.is, ■ 
 
 neither man, or luoman, nor hermaphrodite ; neither girl, 
 
 nor fouug -woman, nor old ; neither ehajte, nor a -euhtre ; 
 
 but all the fe : killed neither by hunger, iiorfteel, nor pci- 
 
 fon ; but by all tkefe : rej/s neither in heaven, nor on 
 
 earth nor in the waters ; tut every where. Lucius A- 
 
 gatho Pr'fciui, neither her hujband, nor lever, nor friend ; 
 
 neither forrowful, nor joyful, nor weeping, certain cr 
 
 uncertain, to wle'itn he rears this vicnuvient, neither e- 
 
 reBs her a temple, >:o'r a pyramid, nor a tomb, but 
 
 alt thcfe. In the MS. at Milan, inllead of /3. M. we 
 
 find A. M. I'. P. D. and at the end the following ad 
 
 dition : 
 
 Hoc efl fepulchrum intus cadaver noii habcns, 
 H'jc ejt cadaver fe piilchi U)n extra non babens, 
 Sed cadaver ii^ m ejl et fepulchrum 
 We find near 50 fcvtral folutions of this aenigma 
 advanced by learned men. Marius Michael Anue- 
 lus maintains JElia L.elta Crifpis 10 (Ignify rain-wa- 
 ter fallin J into the lea. Ri. Vitus lirll explained it of 
 Niube turned to a flone, afterwards of the rational 
 foul, and afterwardsoftl'.e PI itonicidca ; Jo.Turrius, 
 of "the materia prima ; Fr. Schottus, of an eunuch; 
 Nic. Bernardus.of the philolophcrs-nonc.in wliich he 
 is followed by Borrichius ; Zucb. Poiitinus, of three 
 human bodies in i'.ic famclitu.ition,aiulliiiricJby three 
 ditrcreiit men it the fame lime j NcfmonJius, of a 
 l.iw fuit ; [o. Gaf. lierartius, of love ; 7.u. Boxhor- 
 nius, of a (liidow ; P. Tcrronus, of mulic. Fort Li- 
 ceius, ofgrncratiun friendlhip, and privation : M.Ov. 
 Montalbanus, of hemp ; Car Ca-f. Malvalia, ofana- 
 bortive girl proniifcd in marrlajre ; Pet >'engailu,':, of 
 the rule of cIiaAity, prefcribed by the founder of the - 
 
 military.'' 
 
 JF.mzTKk^
 
 ^, O L 
 
 [ 
 
 VEniftiiatO' 
 grjphy 
 
 11 
 j'EoUpilc. 
 
 ■ military religion of St Mary ; M. dc Ciconia, of pope 
 Jo.iii ; llciiinaiuis, of Lot's wife ; and Lutly, J. C. S. 
 an anonymous writer in the Leipiic Ads, of the Chri- 
 ilian church. 
 
 .t:NlGMATOGRAPHY,or^:NiGMATHOLOGY, 
 the art of rcfolving or making asnigmas. 
 
 ANONA (anc.gcog.),acity of Liburnia, called by 
 Pliny C/p//tf/ I /tf/.'»;;,lhercalon of which isiinknown ; 
 aho £/;o«rt,andisnow called A o«a ; on the Adriatic, by 
 which it is for I he greater part furrounded; ovcr-againll 
 the illand Gilia, from which it is dillant four miles to 
 the well. E. Long. i6o, Lat. 28". 
 
 jtNL'S (anc. geog.), now the /;;;/, a river of Ger- 
 many, which, riling in the country of the Grifons, 
 out of the Alps, in the dillriiit called Gottes-haus-punt, 
 runs through the Grifons, the county of Tyrol, the 
 duchy of Havaria, and through Pallau into the Da- 
 nube. 
 
 ALkvs, JEhos, ox JEnum (anc. geog.), a town of 
 Thrace, fituate on the eaft-moft mouth of the Hebrus, 
 which has two mouths ; and faid 10 be built by the Cu- 
 means. It was a free town, in which flood the tomb 
 ofPolydorus, (Pliny) ; A'///.vj is the epithet. Here the 
 brothcrof Cato Uticcniis died, and was honoured with 
 amonument of marble in the forum of the ^nii, (Plu- 
 tarch) ; called JEiu'i, (Stephanus) ; Livy fays that the 
 town was oiherwifc called Ahfynihus. Now£«o. 
 
 ^NITHOLOGIUS, in poetry, a verfe of two 
 dacly Is and three trochxi ; as, Pracliu dira placciit 
 triici juveiilae. 
 
 >EOLI/E INSULj?:;, now Ifole di Lipari, (anc. 
 geog.), fcveni (lands, fituatcd between Sicily and Italy, 
 io called from yEolus, who reigned there about the 
 time of the Trojan war. The Greeks call them H^l^hae- 
 Jliades ; and the Romans K«/t^«;<7t-, from their fiery 
 eruptions. They are alfo called Liparaeorum liifu- 
 lac, from their principal illand Lipara. Dionyfms Pe- 
 riegetes call them n>.i/Ta/ becaufe circumnavigable. 
 
 jtOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething be- 
 longing to Aolis. 
 
 A^OLIC, or i-Eoi.iAN, in grammar, denotes one of 
 the five dialects of the Greek tongue. It was tirfl ufcd 
 in Koeotia ; wiicnce it palled into ^Eolia, and was that 
 which Sappho and Alcseus wrote in. The Alolic dia- 
 Icft generally throws out the afpirate or Iharp fpirit, 
 and agrees in fo many things with the Doric dialect 
 that the two are ufually confounded together. 
 
 JE'jUc digawa'i'i, a namegi\f.i to the letter F which 
 the yJlolians ufed to prefix to words beginning with 
 vowels as \ octc, for ixroc ; alfo to infert between vow- 
 els, as OF j{, for mc 
 
 JEoLic yerfi, in profody, a verfe confining of an i- 
 ambus, or fpondce ; then of two anapefls, feparated 
 by a long fy liable ; and, ladly, of another fyilable. 
 Such as, jtillifiii coiidilor orbii. This is otherv.ilc 
 called i?;/A^'/c verfe ; and, from the chief poets wlio 
 ufed it, Arch'dochiait and rindarit. 
 
 /^iOLIPlLE, in hydraiilics, is a hollow ball of me- 
 tal, generally ufed in courfes of cx|"eriniental philofo- 
 phy, in order to demonftrate the poiiibility of convert- 
 ing water iiito an elallic ileam or vapour by heat. The 
 inilrumcnt therefore, conlilts of a (lender neck, or 
 pip;-, having a narrow orifice inferred into the bnll by 
 means of a Ihouldertd fcrew. This pipe bcini> taken 
 out, the ball is filled almufl full of water, and the pipe 
 
 4.2 ] y1^ O L 
 
 being again fcrewed in, the ball is phced on a pan of jEilis 
 kindled charcoal, whi^c it is well heated, and tliere I 
 
 iliues from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious vio- . -^" "- 
 lencc and great nolle, which continues till all the in- 
 cluded water is difcharged. 'I'hc Itronger the fire is, 
 the more elallic and violent will be the lUim ; but care 
 mull be taken that the fmall orincc of the pipe be not, 
 by any accident, Hopped up ; becaufe the inilrumcnt 
 would in that cafe infallibly burit iu pieces, with fucli 
 violence as may greatly endanger the lives of the per- 
 fons near it. Another way of introducing the water 
 is to heat the ball red-hot when empty, which v.'ill 
 drive out almofl all the air ; and then by fuddenly im- 
 mcrging it in water, the prcifure of the atraofpherc. 
 will force in the fluid, till it is nearly full. Des Cartes 
 and others have ufedthisjnlhunicnt to account for the 
 natural eaufc and generation of the wind : and hence 
 it was called JEohpila: q. d. pilaJEoli, the ball of JiLo- 
 lus or of the god of the winds. 
 
 v^-^OLIS,or yEo I.I A ( anc. geog ), a country of the 
 Hither Afia, fettled by colonies of vtolian Greeks. 
 Taken at 1 irgc, it comprehends all Troas, and the coafl 
 of the Hellefpont Co the Propontis, becaufe in thofc 
 parts there were feveral /tolian colonies: moreftrictly, 
 it is lituated between Troas to the north, and Ionia to 
 thelouth. The people are called JEolns, or JEolii. 
 
 iiEOLIUM MARE (anc. geog.), apartoftheEgeaa 
 fea, wadiing /Eolis ; called alfo Myfium, from Mylia* 
 Now Cillcd, (Jbtfo diSmynia. 
 
 /J^OLUS in heathen mythology, the god of the 
 winds, was faid to be the fon of Jupiter by Acalla, or 
 Sigclia, the dauglitcr of Hippotus; or, according to 
 others the fon of Hippotus by Mcneclca, daughter of 
 Hyllus king of Lipara. He dwelt in the illand 
 Strongylc,nowcalledi'/r6«io/o,oneof thefeven illaads 
 called /Eolian from their being under the domin- 
 ion of ..i^olus. Others f;iy, that his relidcnce was at 
 Regium, in Italy ; and others again place him in the 
 illand Lipara. He is rcprefentcd as having authority 
 over the winds, which he h eld enchaincdin a vaflcavera 
 to prevent their continuing the deveflations they had 
 been guilty of before they were put under h is direction. 
 Mythologids explain the original of ihefe fables, by 
 faying, that he was a wife and good prince ; and, be- 
 ing (killed in aftrononiy, was able, by the flux and re- 
 flux of the tides, and the nature of the volcano in the 
 illand Strongylc, 10 foretel (lorms and tcmpelts. 
 
 Harp of ALiilvs, or the /Eolian lyre. Sec Acot;- 
 sTics, n" 10. 
 
 AiOX, a Greek word, properly fignifying the age 
 or duration of any 'hing. 
 
 /Eon, among the followers of Plato, was ufcd to 
 fignify any virtue, attribute, or perfection : hence 
 they rcprefentcd the deity as an alfemblage of all pof- 
 liblc seons ; and called him pleiorna, a Greek term 
 lignifyiaqiy.'vA/f/}. The Valcntinians, who, in the firfl 
 ages of the church, blended the conceits of the Jewifli 
 cabalifts, the Platonills, and the Chaldean pliilofoplicrs, 
 with the I'lmplicity of the Chrilliando^trine, invented 
 a kind of Thcogiiny, or Genealogy of Gods (not un- 
 like that of Heliod), whom they called by fc veral glo- 
 rious names, and all by the general a)ipcl!ation of 
 /Eons ; among which they rcckoncilzaw,/^//?; Aoj-ot, 
 Word ; Mer(->-cr»:, Oniy-bigutteu ; n>.»f(it-«, fiilir.fs ; and 
 
 many other divine powers and emanations, amountijig 
 
 in
 
 JE R A 
 
 C H3 ] 
 
 A E R 
 
 JE^ri 
 
 An. 
 
 iu number to thirty; which they fancied tobefuc- 
 cclTivcly derived from one another ; and all from one 
 fclf-origiiiatcd deity, named Bjthus, i.e. projoiind or 
 ' unJathoviabU ; wliom they called likcv\ ifc, Thi j/iojl 
 high and iiicffabie Father, See V A L E N T i N i A n s . 
 
 ^ORA, among ancient writers on medicine, is ufed 
 forgeftaiion ; which fortofexercife was often prefcri- 
 bed by the phyficians of thofc days. Other cxcrcifes 
 coiuillcd principally in the motion of the body ; but 
 in the awa the limbs were at reft, while the body was 
 carried about and moved from place to place, in fuch 
 a manner as the phyfician prefcribed. It had there- 
 fore theadvantagcs of extrcife, without the fatigue of 
 it. — This exercife was promoted fevcral ways : Tome- 
 times the patient was laid in a fort of hammock, fup- 
 ported by ropes, and moved backward and forward ; 
 fometimes his bed run nimbly on its feet. And belidc 
 thcfe, the feveral ways of travelling were accounted 
 fpeciesof the xora, whether in tiic litter, in a boat or 
 Hiip, or on even ground ina chariot. — Afclepiadcs was 
 the firft who brought gellation into praflice, which 
 w-as ufed as a means to recover flrcngth after a fe- 
 ver, &c. 
 
 jiQUANA juGA, (anc. geog.) ; mountains of 
 Picenum, in the kingdom of Naples, now called Mou- 
 tagiia lit Sorrsnto, denominated from the town Aiqua, 
 which being deftroyed, was replaced by Vicus, now 
 Vico diSarrtiito ; called alfo JEquatia, Sil. Italicus. 
 
 .lEQUIMELIUM, in antiquity, a place in Rome, 
 where flood the houfe of Spiirius Melius, who, by lar- 
 gclTcs corrupting the people, affeded the fuprerac 
 power : rcfufnig to appear before the dictator Cincin- 
 natus, be was (lain by Scrvilius Ahala, mafter of the 
 horfe ; his houfe was razed to the ground ; and the 
 fpot on which it ftood was called Area Equiiuelii. 
 (Livy.) 
 
 jtRA, in chronology, a fi.xed point of time from 
 whence any number of years is begun to be counted. 
 
 It is fometimes alfo written in ancient authors Era. 
 The origin of the term is contefted, though it is ge- 
 nerally allowed to have had its rife in Spain. Scpul- 
 veda fuppofed it formed from A. £R. A. the notoe or 
 abbreviatures of the words, annus crat Atigujli, occa- 
 fioned by the Spaniards beginning their computation 
 from the time their country came under the dominion 
 of Auguftus, or that of receiving the Roman calendar. 
 This, opinion, however ingenious, is rejcfted by Sca- 
 ligcr, not only on account that in the ancient abbre- 
 viatures /i/ncver ftood for annus, nnlefs when preceded 
 by V for vixU ; and that it fcems improbable they 
 fliould put ER for erat, and the letter A, without any 
 difcrimination, both for annus znd Auguftus. Voffius 
 nevcrthelcfs favours the conjedure, and judges it at 
 leaft as probable, as cither that of Ifidore, who de- 
 rives ara from as, the tribute-money," wherewith 
 Auguftus taxed the world : or that of Scaliger himfelf, 
 vho deduces it likcwife from ars, though in a different 
 manner. JEs, he obf«rves, was ufed among the an- 
 cients for an article or item in an account ; and hcnc* 
 it came alfo to ftand for a fum or number itfelf. 
 From the plural <r»d, cameby corrupiion ra, aravi, 
 in the fingular ; much as Ofti, Ofliam, the name of a 
 place, from Gllia, the mouths of the Tyber. 
 
 The difference between the terms .rra and e[ioch is, 
 that the acras arc certain points fixed by fome people, 
 
 or nation ; and the epochs are poins fixed by chrono- jErarium 
 logifts and hiftorians. The idea of an aera compre- \ 
 
 hends alfo acertainfucceffion of years proceeding from XxtaU ^ 
 a fixed point of time, and the epoch is that foint it- " ' 
 
 felf. Thus the Chriftian aera began at the epoch of 
 the birth of Jefus Chrift. Sec Chro.s-oloc v, where 
 the different itras, &c. are enumerated and explained. 
 
 ^RARIUM, thctreafury or place where the pub- 
 lie money was depofited amongft the Romans. 
 
 JERAKiv.MSanflhis contained the monies arifing from 
 the twentieth part of all legacies : this was kept for the 
 extreme neceffities of the ftate. 
 
 JEr4rilm Prhalum was the emperor's privy purfc, 
 or the place where the money arifing from his private 
 patrimony was depofited. 
 
 jUrarivm Viceftmarum, the place where the money 
 arifing from the taxes levied fromforeign countries was 
 laid up, fo called becaufe it inoft commonly conlirttd 
 of a twentieth part of the produce. 
 
 Mrarivm Ilithjiae, or Junortis I.ucinae, was where 
 the monies were depofited which parents paid for the 
 birth of each child. 
 
 There are feveral other trcafurics mentioned in hif- 
 tory, as the xrariutn Juventutis, Veneris, &c. The 
 temple of Saturn was the public treafury of Rome, 
 either becaufe Saturn firft taught the Italians to coin 
 money, or, which is moft likely, becaufe this temple 
 was the ftrongeft and moft fecure, and therefore the 
 fitteft place for that purpofe. 
 
 JErarnnu differs from Jifcus, as the firft contained 
 the public money, the fccondthat of the prince. The 
 two are, however, fometimes indifcriminaiely ufed for 
 each other. 
 
 ^RARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a 
 degraded citizen, who had been ftruck off the lift of 
 his century. Such perfons were fo called becsufe they 
 were liable to all the taxes {^ara), without enjoyino- 
 any of its privileges. 
 
 The ararji were incapable of making a will, of in- 
 heriting, of voting in alfemblies, of enjoying any poft 
 of honour or profit ; in effect, were only fubicct to the 
 burdens, without the benefits of fociety ; yet they re- 
 tained their freedom, and were not reduced to the con- 
 dition of (laves. To be made an urarlns was a pu- 
 niflimeni infiicled for fome offence, and reputed one 
 degree more fcvere than to be expelled a tribe, triiu ■ 
 nioveri. 
 
 j9iR ART us was alfo an officer in ftittited by .'Alexander 
 Severus, forthe diftribution of the money given in lar- 
 geffes to the foldiery, or people. 
 
 j^RARius was alio ufed for a perfon employed in 
 coining or working brafs. 
 
 Thcfe arc fometimes called *r*r////y(iri?j : at other 
 times, ararius is diftinguiflicd from y'/z/or ; the former 
 anfwering to what we now callcopper-fmiths, the lat- 
 ter to founders. 
 
 jEr ARi c s was ILkewifc applied to a foldicr who re- 
 ceives pay. 
 
 AERIA, or Eeria (anc. geog.), the ancient name 
 of Egypt: the fcholiaft on Apollonius Rhocii;s, fays, 
 that not only Thclfaly, but Egypt, was called 'Hifiaby 
 the Greeks, which Eufebius alfo confirms : and hcucc 
 ApoUinarius, in his tranilation of the ir^th Pfalm, 
 nfes it for Egypt. Hefychius applies this name to E- 
 thiopia. 
 
 AERIAL,
 
 1 
 
 A E R 
 
 [ 144 ] 
 
 A E R 
 
 Aer;al, AETIIAL, i:i a gciicfiil fcnfc, Jcnotcs f,;niciliir.g 
 Acrians. partaking of the nature of air; ihus, aeiial lubilaiicc, 
 "^ aerial particles, &c. 
 
 JtiiiAL I crjjpiflhe. ScePEK.sri.cTi\ E aiidPAiNT- 
 
 ING. 
 
 AKRIANS, in church hiflory, a brar.ch of Arians, 
 vlio, 10 the doitriiicsof that feet, a.'.Jeil fame pecu- 
 liar dogmas of tiicir own; as, that ilierc is no dilfe- 
 rcncc between Lifliops and pricfts ; a doftrlne iiiain- 
 tained by mar.y modern divines, par;ici;ljrly of the 
 prefbyterian and reformed churches. The fcclrcceiv- 
 cd its denomination from Acrius an Arn'.enian pricft of 
 the fourth century. He founded liis dodtriuc chitrly 
 npon fo.iic palfagcs in St Paul ; and, am')ng others, 
 upon that in i Tim. iv. 14. where the apollle exhorts 
 him not to ncglccl Iki giji *..• haJ rccifived by the Uiying 
 nil of the hanih of the I rcjl'jtiry. Here, obfervcs Ac- 
 
 rius, are no iTicntioiiof bifliops : on the con-.rary,TL- Flo< Jy- 
 luotliy evidently received hiv-urdination from the pref- jTicro, 
 bytcrsor priclls. — Epiphiniuszcalr;ul1y mainiaiiis the . T"-' 
 fuperiorily of bilhops againft the Atrians. The word 
 preJl>)Un, ulVd by the apoftb , he obfervcs, includes 
 both bifiiops and pricRs ; the v<hole fcnatc or allembly 
 of the cccleuadics of the place. 
 
 Flos /tRlS, among alchcniifls, fniall fcales procu- 
 red from copper melted by a ftrong heat ; it is fomc- 
 linits ufcd for wnigo or vcrdigrifc. 
 
 AEROGRAl'HY, from «.f, air, and >;«?», I d.'- 
 fi.ribc ; a dcfcriptionof thcair,oratmofphcrc, its limits, 
 liimcnfions, properties, &c. — fliis amounts to much 
 the fame \\ ith aerology, unlefs wc fuppofc thcla'tcr to 
 enter into ilic rational, and tlie former to conline it- 
 fclf to 3 defcription of the more obvious affcclioas 
 thereof. See Atmosphere. 
 
 AEROROLOGY, 
 
 THE doflrineor feicnccof Air, its nature and dif- 
 ferent fpccies, with their ingredients, properties, 
 phenomena, and ufcs. 
 
 Air, in a general fenfe, isthat invifiblc fluid every- 
 where furrounding the globe; on which depends not 
 op.ly animal but vegetable life J and which fecins, in 
 fliort, to be one of t)ic great agents employed by na- 
 ture in carrying on her operations throughout th« 
 world. 
 
 Though the atteniwnof philofophers has in all ages 
 been eng.igcd in fome mcafureby inquiries concerning 
 the nature of the atmof|diere, yet till within thefc lafl 
 50 years, little more than the mere mechanical action 
 ofthis fluid wasdifcovercd, with the exigence of fome 
 anomalous and permanently elaflic vapours, whofcpro- 
 perties and relation to the air we breathe were aliiioll 
 entirely unknown, ^\■ithin tlie abovemtntioncd pe- 
 riod, hovvcver, tlic difcovcries concerning the conlli- 
 tuent parts of the atmofphcrc itfelf, as well as the na- 
 ture of the dilTercr.i j'ermancnlly clallic fluids which go 
 under the general nameof </jr, have been fo numerous 
 and rapid, that they have at once raifed this fubjcit tt) 
 the dignity o( 3. Science, and now form a very conlidcr- 
 ablc, as well as important, part of the modern fyflcm 
 of natural philofophy. 
 TTtility of Thofc difcoveries, indeed, have not been more in- 
 ithefabjca. tcrefling to philofophers, than ufeful tofcienccand be- 
 neficial to fociety. Many perplexing procclfcs in che- 
 miltry have been explained in confecjuencc of them, 
 fevcral have been facilitated, and a number of new 
 and nfcfur ones have been introduced. The pheno- 
 mena attending metallic calcinations and reductions 
 have been greatly elucidated. The knowledge of the 
 ufe of the air in refpiration ; the method of afcertain- 
 ing its purity and titnefs for that funftion; the invcfti- 
 gation of dephloj'jfticated air ; the metliod of impreg- 
 nating water with fixed air ; are all cakulated to an- 
 fwerpurpofes of the highefl utility. Tlie medicinal 
 properties of rixcd air have been in a great nieafure 
 afcertained, and its aniifcinic qualities in other re- 
 fpccls pri^nife to be of conlideraMc advantage. The 
 method of afcertaining the purity of the air of a place, 
 and the inai,iner of ventilating an apartment, arc of 
 
 great ufe for thofc concerned in public buildings. In 
 ihort, there is perhaps no flation in life where fome 
 knowledge of tliis fubjett may not be of ufe. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the general Conflitutlon, Mechanical 
 Fropcrtics, and Operations of the Air. 
 
 \ I. The general Conflilution of the Air lue breathe. — 
 For many ages this fluid was fuppofed to be ilmplc 
 and homogeneous ; its common operations to depend 
 on its heat, cold, moillure, or drynefs ; and any eilcds 
 which could not be explained by thefc (fuch as the 
 appearance of pellileniial difcafcs), were reckoned to 
 be entirely fupernatural, and the immediate etfee^sof 
 Divine power. But, however limple and homogene- 
 ous this fluid may have been thought in former times, 
 itis fo far from poircfling the fimplicity of an element, 
 that it is the receptacle of all kinds of effluvia )iroduced 
 from terrefirial fubftanccs either naturally or artificial- 
 ly. Hence, whatever maybe the nature of the aerial fluid 
 when abfolutely pure, that which we breathe, and com- 
 monly goes under the name of air, mnlt be confidercd 
 as an exceedingly heterogeneous mixture, various at 
 various times, and which it is by no means poflible to 
 analife with accuracy. 
 
 Though, in this view, air feems to be a kind of fink 
 or common fewer, where all the poifonous effluvia ari- 
 fingfrom putrid and corrupted matters are depolitcd ; 
 yet it has a wonderful facility of purifying itfelf, and 
 one way or father of depofiting thofe vapours contained 
 in it ; fo that it never becomes noxious except in par- 
 ticular places, and for a fliort time ; the general mafs 
 remaining upon all occalions pretty murh the lame. 
 The way in which this purification is efl^efted is dif- 
 ferent, according to the nature of the vapour with which 
 the air is loaded. That which molt imivcrf.illy pre- 
 vails is water ; and from experiments it appears, that 
 the quantity of aqueoiis vapour contiined in the a'- 
 mofphcrc is immcnfe. Dr f'allcy, from an experi- 
 ment on the evaporation from a fluii furface heated to 
 the fame degree with that given by our meridian fun, 
 has calculated, that the evaporation from thcMediicr- 
 ranean fea is alone fufScicnt to yield all the water of 
 
 the 
 
 Ancient 0- 
 pinions 
 concerning^ 
 the air. 
 
 a 
 Common 
 air 3 very 
 heteroge- 
 neous fluid* 
 
 3 
 In what 
 manner 
 it ymrifici ' 
 itfelf. 
 
 4 
 Vaft quail" 
 titich of 
 water con- 
 tinuallydil* 
 charged in- 
 to it by e- 
 vaporation.
 
 Sea. I. 
 
 A E R 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 l')iffcreut 
 kinds of 
 apoitfs 
 
 Of Air tlic rivers wliiclinin iiitoic. Dr. Wstfoii, in liisCla- 
 iii general. lAical K:r;ys, h;'.s givcnaii accoiintoflomc cxpcrinicnis 
 ^ mr.dc with a view to determine the ijnaiitity of tin; wa- 
 ter raifci! from the earth iif^if in time of dro-.iijht. 
 He informs us, that, when there had been no r.-iii for 
 ahove a inojiih, and the grafs vas become quite brown 
 and parched, the evaporation irom an acre was iioi lefs 
 than i6co gallons in 24 hours. Making afterwards 
 two experiments, when the ground had been v.tited by 
 a thimdcr-lhowcr the day before, the o:!e gave i97?> 
 the other 1905, gallons in 12 hoiirs, I'rom this the 
 .lir is every moment purilicd by the afccnt of the va- 
 pour, which flying off into the clouds, th'.;s leave* room 
 lor the exhahtion of frclh quantities ; fo thai as the 
 vapour is coiifiderably lighter than tlie common r.tmo- 
 fphere, andofconfequeucc afcends with greater velo- 
 city, t!if air during all this time is faid to be i!i\} , not- 
 withflariding the vifl quantity of a'.jutou3 fluid that 
 paflcs through it. 
 
 Nor is it only from t!ic aqueous vapou/ tiiat the air 
 is purified at this time. Much of that vapour arifing 
 from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable fub- ■ 
 '*'"'''"'"■ llances, and which by font e nioJern I'liilofopheis is 
 called phlojijioti, attaches itftlf to cue aqueous vapour, 
 and afcends along with it. Another part is abforb- 
 od by vegetables ; for tke phlogiliic vapour, as is 
 fliowuundcr Agriciii.ture,ii° J. is probably the food 
 of plants. The phlogifiic vapours which afccnd along 
 vnth the water, probably continue there and defcend 
 along with the rain; whence the fertilizing quilities 
 of rain-water above thofc of any other. Thus we may 
 fee why a dry air, whether cold or hot, niiifl always 
 be wholcfomc ; but as the atmofphere cannot always 
 receixie vapours, it is obvious, that when great rains 
 come on, efpecially if attended with heat, the lower 
 regions of the air raufl be overloaded with vapours botli 
 of the aqueous and phlogiliic kind, aiidof confcquence 
 be very iinwholcfomt. 
 
 But btlides the aqueous and phlogiftic vapours, both 
 of which are fpecih'cally lighter than common air, 
 there arc others, which, being fpecifically heavier, 
 cannot be carried off in this manner. Hence thefc 
 grofs vapours coniamiuatc certain places of the atmo- 
 fphere, rendering them not only unhealthy, butabfo- 
 lutcly poifonous. Ofthefeare, I. Sulphureous, acid, 
 and metalline exhalations. Thefe are produced prin- 
 cipally by volcanoes ; and as they defcend, in confc- 
 quence of their fpceific gravity, they fuftbcate and 
 fprcaJ deft- uelion all around them, poifoning not only 
 animals, but vegetables alfo. 2. The vapours ari(ing 
 from houfeswherc lead and other metah arefnielted, 
 have the fame pernicious qualities ; infomuchthat the 
 men who breathe them, the cattle who cat the grafs, 
 and the fiihcs who ir.habit the waters on which they 
 fall, arc poifoned by them if taken into the body in a 
 certain proportion, j. Of the fame kind arc the }/io- 
 fctcs, orcminaiions of fixed air, which fomctimes pro- 
 ceed fromokl lavas, or perhaps from fome other places 
 even of the f.irfacc. From all thefc the air feems not 
 capable of purilying itfelf, otherwife than either by 
 difpcrfmg them by winds, or by letting them fubfidc 
 by ihcir fuperior gravity, till they are abforbed cither 
 by the earth or water, according as it is their nature 
 to unite with one or other of thefc elements. 4. Of 
 this kind alfo feem to be the vapours w hich are called 
 ' Vol.. 1. 
 
 LOG Y. 
 
 properly pcjliU-utiaL 'J"hc contagi in of the plag.ic it- 
 felf feems to be of an heavy Ihiggiih nature, i::capjble 
 ofariJingin the air, but attaching itfelf to the wall? 
 of houf.s, bed-cloihs, and weariig apparel. Hence 
 fcar.-e any conftitution of -the atmofphere can difpcl 
 thefe noxious eiiluvia ; nor does it fccm probable that 
 pcftileniial diftempers ever ccafe until the contagion 
 has operated fo long, and been fo frcqicnily comnui- 
 nicatcd from one to another, that, like a ferment much 
 cxpoled to the atmofplierc, it becomes vapid, comma- 
 iiicatcs a milder infection, and at lail lofesiis ftrcniiih 
 altogether. 
 
 5 2. 3ici.k.ii!ical VitpirtUs of th; Aiyi In common 
 
 with v.-ater, the air we breathe polFcdcs gravity, and 
 confcquentlywill perform evcrythingiii tiut waywhich 
 water can do, making allowance for the great ditfc- 
 rence between the fpeciric gravity of water and of air. 
 This dirt'eret'.ce indeed is exceedingly great, and has 
 been varioudy calculated. Iliceioluseftimates the gra- 
 vity of air to be to that oi water as i to 1000 ; Mcr- 
 fennus, as i to 1300, or i to 1356 ; Lana,as i to 6..;o ; 
 and Galileo, only as i to 400. Mr Boyle, by more ac- 
 curate experiments makes the air at London to be to 
 water as i to 983 ; and thinks, that, all things con- 
 fidered, the proportion of r to icoo may be taken ai 
 a medium. Jiut by three experiments made lince that 
 time before the Royal Society, the fpceific gravity of 
 the air was determined to be to that of water as i to 
 84D, S52, and 860. By a very accurate experiment, 
 Mr. Haukfbee fixed the proportion as i to88j. But 
 as all thefc experiments were made when tl;e barome- 
 ter was at 29', inches, Dr Jurin fuppofcs, that, at a 
 medium between heat a;'.d cold, when the barometer 
 is 50 inches high, the proportion between the two 
 fluids may be taken as one to 800 ; and this agrees with 
 the oblervations of the Hon. Mr Cavendilh, made 
 when the barometer was 594 inches, and the thenr.o- 
 me ter at jo. 
 
 By means of its gravity, the air prclfcs with great 
 force upon all bodies, accordiitg to the extent of their 
 farface. M. Pafcal has computed the quintityof this 
 prelfure to be no Icfs than 2232 pounds upon every 
 fquarc foot of furface, or upwards of 15 pounib on 
 every fquare inch. According to fome cxprinients 
 made by M. Amontons andde la Hire, a column of 
 air on the furface of the earth, and 36 fathoms high, 
 is equal in weight to three lines depth of mercury. 
 F'rom the barometer, however we know that the 
 vliok prellare of the almolpherc is very different; 
 fometimc:; b.ing equal only to a column of 23 inches, 
 and varying from thence to 31 inches. The whole 
 quantity of prelliire mufl thus be be immeufe, and has 
 been computed equal to a globe of lead 60 miles in dia- 
 meter. 
 
 By means of itsgravity , t!icatmofphe"rc accompliilies 
 many ufefal purpofes in nature. It prevents the ar- 
 terial vell'els of animals and the fap-vclFels of plants 
 from being toomnch di:tcnded by the expanfivc power 
 
 f whatever it is), which has a perpetual tendency to 
 well them out. Thus we fee, that, in the operation 
 of cupping, where the ^'refr.rc of the air is taken oS" 
 from a pariiei.hr part, the rxpanfivc force inftantly 
 ads, and fwellsoutthc velfcls toagreat degree. Hence 
 alfo, when animals are put i:'i> an air-pump, their 
 whole bodies fwcU. 
 
 T By 
 
 6 
 
 Specific 
 j»ravity of 
 the air. 
 
 Effea$ of 
 the praviry 
 of the air.
 
 14^ 
 
 Of Air 
 in gcueral' 
 
 8 
 
 Elafticity 
 of the air. 
 
 9 
 Whether 
 
 thisproper 
 
 ty can be 
 
 diminilhed 
 
 A E 11 O 
 
 By its graviiy, ihe air promotes the union of liiiiJ 
 bodies, wliicli woiilJ iiiftantly ccafc in vacuo. Thus 
 oils ami falts, whicli remain united in air, feparate as 
 foon as iliat lluid is extracted. Hence alio, when hot 
 water is put under an exhauftcd receiver, it boils vio- 
 lenily ; becaule the prelllire of the air being now ta- 
 ken of, the panicles of lleam, which cxided iiivilibly 
 amonj; the water, and which the gravity oftheatmol- 
 phere"prcventcd from liyingotf fo foon, are now hur- 
 ried up with great velocity, by means of the exccliivc 
 comparative gravity of the aqueous fluid. 
 
 On the graviiy of the air depend the afcent of wa- 
 ter in pumps.fyphons, &c. and likcwifc all the phtno- 
 nomcnaofthe barometer. 
 
 Belides its gravity, which the air has in common 
 with water and other fluids, there is another which 
 it has only in common with fleam or vapour. This is 
 cnlleii its ilapkily ; by which, like a fpring it allows 
 iifclf to be comprclfed into a fmaller bulk, and then 
 rtturns again to its original li/,c upon removing the 
 prelfure. 
 
 The elafticityof the air was firfl afccrtaiucd by fomc 
 experiments of lord Bacon, wiio, upon this principle, 
 conftrufted the tirA thermometer, which he called his 
 vitrui/icalciidarf. Of this power we have numerous 
 proofs. Thus a blown bladder being fijueezed in the 
 hand, we find the included air fcnlibly refill ; fo that, 
 upon ccaling to comprefs, the cavities or imprclTions 
 made in its furfacc arc readily expanded again and 
 filled up. 
 
 The ftruilure and office of the ///V-Pump depend 
 on this elaflic property. Every panicle of air always 
 cxertsa nifus or endeavour to expand, and thusilrives 
 againll an equal endeavour of the ambient particles ; 
 whole rcfiftauce happening by any means to be weak- 
 ened, it immediaiely dilfufes itfelf into an immenfe 
 extent. Hence it is that thin glafs bubbles, or blad- 
 ders filled with air, and exa^ly doled, being included 
 in the exhaullcd receiver of an air-pump, burllby the 
 force of the air tliey contain ; and a bladder almofl 
 quite flaccid, fwells in the receiver and appears full. 
 The fame effect alfo takes place, though in a fmaller 
 decree, on carrying the flaccid bladder to the top of 
 an high mountain. 
 
 It has been quellioncd among philofophers, whether 
 this elaflic power of the air is capable of being deflroy- 
 edordiminidicd. Mr Boyle made feveral experiments 
 with a view to difcovcr how long air would retain its 
 fpring after having alfumed the greatefl degree of ex- 
 panlion his air pump would give it ; but he was never 
 able toobfcrvc any feniible dimunition. Defaguliers 
 found, that air, after having been inclofed for half a 
 year in a wind-gun, had lofl none of its elaflicity ; and 
 Robcrval, after preferving it in the fame manner for 
 l6 years, obfcrved, that its expanfive projedile force 
 was the fame as if it had been recently condenfcd. 
 Iseveithelcfs, Mr Haukfbec concludes, from a later 
 cxptriment, that the fpring of the air may be di/lurb- 
 cd by a violent prcllure, in fuch a manner as to require 
 fomc time to return to its natural tone. Dr Hales in- 
 terred, from anumber of experiments, that the elafli- 
 city of the air is capable of being impaired and dimi- 
 nilhed by a variety of caufes. 
 
 The weight or prelTure of the air has no dependence 
 on its elafticiiy ; but would be the fame whether it had 
 
 o 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sea. I. 
 
 fuch a property or not. The air, however, being c- Of Air 
 laflic, isneccilkrily afFe(5led by the prcffurc, which re- ' " i*^^"*^ 
 duces,it into fuch a fpacc, that the tlalliciiy, which rc- 
 atts agamll the conipnlliing weight, is equal to that 
 weight, hi eticC;t,the law of this clailicily is, that it 
 increafts as the denfiiy of the air increafcs ; and the 
 deiility increafcs as the force increafcs by which it is 
 prefVed. Mow there uiufl necelfarily be a balance be- 
 tween the adion and rc-action : i. e. the gravity of the 
 air which tends to comprefs it, and the elaflicity by 
 which it endeavours to expand, mull be equal. Hence 
 the elaflicity increafiug, or diminilhing univerfally, as 
 the denlity lucrealesor diminiihcs, it is no matter whe- 
 ther the air be coniprelfcd and retained in fuch a fpacc 
 by the weight oi the atmofpherc, or by any other 
 means ; it mufl endeavour in cither cal'e to expand 
 wall the fame force. And hence, if air near the earth 
 be pent up in a veflcl, and all communication with the 
 external fluid cut ott, the prcllure of ihc inclofed air 
 will be equal to the weight of the atinofphcre at the 
 time the quaniiiy was conlincd. Accordingly, we find 
 mercury iuflained to the fame height, by the elaflio 
 force of air inclofed in a glafs vcllel, as by the whole 
 atmofpherical prelfurc. On the fame principle air may 
 be artificially coiidcnlcd ; and hence the llrufturc of 
 theAiK-6'««. jg 
 
 The utnioll limits to which air, of the dcnfity which Utmoft li- 
 it potrellcsat the furfacc of the earth, is capable of be- mitsof its 
 ing comprelled, have not been afcertained. Mr Boyle condcnfa- 
 niadc it i 3 times more denfe ; Dr Halley fays that he "°" *"•* 
 has feen it comprellcd fo as to be 60 times denfer than '"P*""""- 
 in its natural Itatc, whi«h is farther confirmed by M. 
 Papin and M. Huygeus. Dr Hales, by means of a 
 prcfs, condenfcd it 38 times ; and by forcing water in 
 an iron bailor globe, into 1551 tinics lets Ipace than 
 it naturally occupies. However, Dr Halley has af- 
 ferted, inthe Philofophical Tranfaillions, Abr. vol. ii. 
 p. I 7. that from the experiments made at London, and 
 by the academy del Cimcnto at Florence, it might be 
 fal'cly concluded, that no lorce whatever is able to re- 
 duce air into 800 times Icfs fpace than that which it 
 naturally pollell'es on the furfacc of our earth. In an- 
 fwer to this, M. Amontons, in the Memoirs of the 
 French Academy, maintains, that there is no fixing 
 any bounds toitscondenfation ; that greater and great- 
 er weights willflill reduce itintolefsandlefscompafs : 
 that it is only elaflic in virtue of the tire which it con- 
 tains i and that as it is impollible ever to drive all the 
 fire out of it, it is impoffiblc ever to make the utmoll 
 condenfation. 
 
 The dilation of the air, by virtue of its elaflic force, 
 is found to be very furpriling ; and yet Dr. Wallis fug- 
 gefls, that we are far from knowing the utmofl of 
 which it is capable. It fever,:l experiments made by 
 Mr. Boyle, it dilated firfl into nine times its former 
 fpace ; then into 5 1 times, than into 60 ; then into 1 50. 
 Afterwards it was brought to dilate into 8000 times 
 its fpace, then into 10,000, and even at laftinto i 3,679 
 times its fpace ; and tliis altogether by ilsown expan- 
 five force, without the help of lire. On this dejiend 
 the flrudurc and ul'c of the Manometer. 
 
 Hence it appears, that the air we breathe near the 
 furfacc of the earth is comprelfed by its own weight 
 into at lead the i3,679lh part of the fpace it would 
 polftCs ill vacuo. But i-f the fame air be condenfcd by 
 
 art.
 
 Sect. 1. 
 
 E R O 
 
 Of Air ai't, the fjiace it will take up when mod dilated, to 
 in ncnci-al. tliat it pojiclI'c>. when comleiifcd, will be, accoiiliiig to 
 
 " •' the lame author's cxperiineiiti, as 550,000 10 1. 
 
 _ "j: M. Ai:ioiitoiis, ami others, w t have already obfcr- 
 
 .,f the air vcil, atiribtitc the rarefaetion of the air w holly to tlic 
 by heat fire contained in it ; and therefore by ir.crcaling the 
 degree of heat, the degree of rarefaction may be car- 
 ried IHII farther than its fpontancous dilatation. Air 
 is expanded one-third of its bulk by boiling water. 
 
 Dr Hales found, that the air in a retort, when the 
 bottom of the vellel was juft beginning to be red-hot, 
 was expanded through twice its former fpace ; and in a 
 white, or almoft melting heat, it occupied thrice its 
 former fpacc ; but Mr Robins found it was cx]>anded 
 by the heat of iron, jull beginning to be white, to four 
 times its former bulk. On this principle depend the 
 llrufture and oftice of the Thermometer. 
 
 M. Amontons tirll difcovcrcd that air will expand 
 in proportion to its denlity with the fame degree of 
 lieat. On this foundation the ingenious author has a 
 difcourfc, to prove " that the fpring and weight of the 
 air, with a moderate degree of warmth, may enable 
 it to produce even earthquakes, and other of the molt 
 vehement commotions of nature." See the article 
 jj Earthcjuake. 
 General ef- The elalUc powcrof the air, then, is the fecond great 
 lc&» of the fource of theeff'edsofthis important fluid. Thusit in- 
 air'selafti- fmuatcs into the porcs of bodies ; and, by podcfling this 
 "'f' prodigious faculty of expanding, which is fo ealily ex- 
 
 cited, it mud neceflarily put the particles of bodies 
 intowhicli it inilnuatcsitfeif into perpetual ofcillations. 
 Indeed, the degree of heat, and the air's gravity and 
 dcnliiy, and confcqucntly its elafticity and expanlion, 
 never remaining the fame for the Icall fpace of time, 
 there muft be an incelfant vibration or dilatation and 
 contraftion in all bodies. 
 
 We obfcrvc this reciprocation in feveral inftanccs, 
 particularly in plants, the air-veflcls of which do the 
 office of lungs ; for the contained air alternately ex- 
 panding and contrading, according to the incrcufe or 
 diminution of the heat, alternately prell'es the vellels 
 and eafes them again, thus keeping up a perpetual mo- 
 tion in their juices. 
 
 Hence we find, that no vegetation or germination 
 will proceed /;/ vacuo. Indeed, beans have been ob- 
 fervcd to grow a little tumid therein ; and this has led 
 fome to attribute that to vegetation which was really 
 owing to no other caufe than the dilatation of the air 
 within them. The air is very inflrumental in the pro- 
 duftion and growth of vegetables, not only by invigo- 
 rating their feveril juices while i nan elafti'- active ftate, 
 but alfo by greatly contributing in a fixed ftate to tlie 
 union and firm connexion of tneir feveral conftitucnt 
 parts. 
 
 From the fame caufe it is, that the air contained in 
 bubbles of ice, by its continual adion burfls the ice. 
 Thus alfo, entire columnsof marble fomeiimes cleave 
 in the wintertime, from theincrcafed elafticity of fomc 
 little bubble of air contained in them. From the fame 
 principle aiifc all putrcfartion and fermentation ; nei- 
 ther of which will proceed, even in the beft difpofed 
 fubjcdils, In vacuo. 
 
 Since we find fuch great quantities of ekftic air ge- 
 nerated in the fohition of animal and vegetable fub- 
 llances, a good deal mult conflantly arife from the dif- 
 
 »47 
 
 Air 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 foluiion of ihefe aliments in the ftDma'.h aa J bowels, O; 
 wiiich is much promoted by it ; and, i.i rt^alily, ail ■'> gitciil. 
 natural cjrrupiion and alteration fecin to depend on ' 
 
 air. 
 
 \ 3. F.ffeCis of the different Ingndietiti if /lir 
 
 This Iliiid acls not only by its common properties of 
 gravity and elafticity, but produces numerous other cf- 
 itds ariiing from the peculiar iugrtdicnts of which it 
 con fills. J, 
 
 Thus, I. It not only dilFoivcs and attenuates bodies SoUmt 
 by its prefliirc and attrition, but as a chaos containing power of 
 all kinds of mcnftrua, and confcqucntly poirclling pow- 'li'*"" <"> 
 ers for dill'olving all bodies. It is known that iron '""*''■ 
 and copper readily diiFolvc and become ruflyin air, ini- 
 lefs well defended with oil. Bocrhaave alFures us, that 
 he has fcen pillars of iron fo reduced by air, that they 
 might be crumbled to duft between the fingers ; and as 
 for co)>pcr, it is converted by the air into a fubftance 
 much like the verJigril'c produced by vinegar. 
 
 Mr Boyle relates, that in the fouthcrn Englilh co- 
 lonies the great guns ruft fo i:i.ti., that after lying in 
 the air for a few years, large cakes of crocus raartis 
 may be feparated from them. Acofta adds, that in 
 Peru the air diirolvcs lead, and confidcrably increafes 
 its weight. Yet gold is generally eftcemed indilfoluble 
 by air, being never found to contract ruft, though ex- 
 pofcd to it ever fo long. In the laboratories of che- 
 mifts, however, where aqua rcgia is prepared, the air 
 becoming impregnated with a quantity of the vapour 
 of this mcnftruum, gold contracts a ruft like other bo- 
 dies. ,^ 
 
 Stones alfo undergo the changes incident to metals. On ftouc». 
 Thus Purbeck ftone, of which Salilbury cathedral con- 
 lifts, is obferved gradually to become fofter, and to 
 moulder away in the air ; and Mr Boyle gives the fame 
 account of Blackington ftone. He adds, that air may 
 have a confiderable operation on vitriol, even when a 
 ftrong fire could ait no farther upon it. And he has 
 found, that the funics of a corrofive liquor work more 
 fuddcnly and manifelHy on a certain metal when fuf- 
 tained in the air, than the mcnftrumn iifclf did, w liich 
 emitted fumes on thofe parts of the metal which it co- 
 vered ; referring to the effects of the effluvia of vinegar 
 on copper. 
 
 The dilfolving power of air is increafed by heat, and 
 by other caufes. It combines with water ; and by ac- 
 ccfs of cold, dcpofits part of the matter which was 
 kept diifolved in it by a greater degree of heat. Hence 
 the water, by being depofitcd and condcnfcd upon any 
 cold body, fuch as glafs, &c. in windows, forms fogs, 
 and becomes vifible. 
 
 In the various operations of chemiftry, air is a very y -^-^ 
 neceifary and important agent ; the refuli oi particular chemicll 
 procelles depending on its prefcncc or abfencc, on its effefij of 
 being open or inclofed. Thus, tiic parts of animals the air. 
 and vegetables can only be calcined in open air ; in 
 clofe vellels they never become any other than black 
 coals. And thcfc operations arc effected by the changes 
 to which the air is liable. .Many inftanccs mioht be 
 adduced to this purpofe. Let it fuffice to obferve, 
 that it is very ditticult to procure oil of fulphur, pa- 
 catnpanam, in a clear dry atmofphere ; but in a thick 
 moift air it may be obtained with greater cafe, and in 
 larger quantities. So, pure wcll-fermenicd wine, if it 
 be carried to a place where the air is repleniii.ed with 
 T 2 the
 
 J 48 
 
 of Air 
 ill jjciicral 
 
 l6 
 Van Hel- 
 niunc the 
 firft difco- 
 vertrofdif- 
 fcrcntkiiids 
 cf air. 
 
 >7 
 Difcovcrics 
 hy Mr 
 
 A E R O 
 
 tfit fiir.ics of new wiiic ilicu rcnneiiiiiig, will btgiii to 
 ' I'crnicm atVtlh. 
 
 1 he changes in the air arifc from various caiifcs, 
 andare obfcrvaLIc, not only iii its mechanical proptr- 
 lics, fuch as gravity, dcniity, &c. but in the ingredients 
 ihat cmifofe if. 'i hiss, as Kalhlun in Sweden, noted 
 forcojii'cr-mincs,thc mineral exhalations affe,:l the air 
 in fuch a manner as to dilVolour the lilver coin in purfes ; 
 and the fame titiuvia change the colour of brafs. In 
 Carniola, Campania, &c. w lit re arc mines or fulph.ir, 
 the air bcconus fometimcs very unwholefome, which 
 occalions frequent epidemic difcafes, «c. 
 
 T!ic ellUiviaof animais alio have their effcft in vary- 
 ing the air ; as is evident iiicoi.tagious difcafes, plagues, 
 murrains, and other mortalities, which arc iprcud dy 
 an infcded air. 
 
 For the vivifying principle of air, fee the article 
 Blooc. 
 
 Sec r. H. Hiliorual AccoidA of tkc pr'titcipal Difcove- 
 riTS ctnccrniir^ thi Compojltiun of yitmojphencal Aif 
 and othir AJritil Fluidi. 
 
 Wh ile the preceding difcoveries were making con- 
 cerning the mcehanical and other propcniesof the air, 
 little notice feems to have been taken cf the elementa- 
 ry parts of the air itfelf, or the dilferent kinds of Huid 
 which go under that name. It was known, indeed, 
 that air was feparable from tcrreflrial bodies by means 
 of fire, fermentation, &c. but this was commonly rec- 
 koned to be the fame \\ith what we breathe. Van 
 Helniont, a difeiple of Paracelfus, was the tirll who 
 undertook to n'.ike inquiries concerning this Ipccics of 
 air. He gave it the name of gas f)lvi.Jlre, Irom the 
 Dutch woTy^ghnajl, figr.ifying fpirit ;and obfcrvcs,that 
 fome bodies refolve themfelvts ahiiofl; entirely into it. 
 " Not (fays he) that it had btcii aclually contained 
 in that form in the bodies from which it was feparatcd ; 
 but it was contained under a concrete form, as il iixed, 
 or coagulated." According to this aiuhcr, the gas 
 fylveftrc is the fanicv^ith what is feparated from all 
 fubftances by fermentation ; from vegetables by the 
 aftion cf fire ; from gun-powder when it explodes ; 
 and from charcoal when burning. On tliisoccalion lie 
 alFerts, that 62 pounds of charcoal contain 61 pounds 
 of gas and only one pound of earth. To the etiiuvium 
 cf gas he alfo attributes the fatal efFeols of the grotto 
 del Cani in Italy, and the fuffocation of workmen in 
 mines. He allcrts, that it is to the corruption of the 
 aliment, and the gas difcharged from it, that we are 
 to attribute wind, and the difchargcsofit from the bow- 
 els. Upon the fame principles he accounts for the 
 ftvellingof dead bodieswhith have remained for a time 
 under water, and for the tumours which arifc on fome 
 parts of the body in certain difcafes. He alfo '.eter- 
 mines, that t his gas is diftl rent from the air we breathe ; 
 that it has a greater affinity with water : and he ima- 
 gined it might conlift of water reduced to vapours, or 
 a very fubiile acid combined with volatile alkali. 
 
 My Boyle repeated all Van I'clmont's experiments 
 to more advantage th.ni hehimfclfhad perforined them ; 
 but feems not to have proceeded further in his difco- 
 veries than Van Hclmont did : only he found fome 
 bodies, fu;h as fulphur, amber, camphor, &c. dimi- 
 niCh the volume of air in which they burn.^ 
 
 O Cr 
 
 Sedt. ir. 
 
 Dr Hales firll attempted to ddermine the quantity 
 of air produced from dilierent bodies ; for which pur- 
 pole he made experiments on almoft every known fub- 
 Itance in nature, examining them by uiltillaiion fer- 
 mentation, eonibuiUon, combinations, he. He alfo 
 firll fufpeded, that the brilknefs and fparkling of the 
 \saters called acdtHous, Vi-cre owing to the air they 
 contained, liut netwithllanding all hisdifcovcricscon- 
 cerning the quantity of elallic tluld obtained from dif- 
 ferent bodies, he did not imagine there was any ellen- 
 lia! dilFerence between this riuid and the air we breathe; 
 only that the former was loaded \\ ith noxious vapours, 
 lorcign to its nature. His lufpicion ceiicerning this- 
 impregnation was confirmed by i\l. Vend, protellijrof 
 chemiltry at Montpilier, in a memoir read before the 
 "Royal Academy of iieicnccs in 1750. This gentle- 
 man was able to difeiigagc the air from the 5ilt/.er 
 v.-aters, and to meafurt its quaiitity ; vhichhccon- 
 flanily found to amount to about one-fitih of its bulk. 
 The water thus dcj'rivcd i>f its air became fiat, and 
 ceafed to Iparkle ; the only diHerence then betwixt it 
 and common water was, that the former contained a 
 fmall quantity of fea-falt. Upon ihefe principles he 
 attempted to recompofc Selt/.er water, by dilfolving 
 in a pint of common water two drachms of ludile al- 
 kali, and tlun adding an equal quantity of nariiie acid. 
 The quantity of fea-filt produced by the union of 
 ihefc two, he knew would prove equal to that contain- 
 ed in a pint of Seltzer water ; and the effcrvtfcencc 
 produced by the aiflion of the acid and alkali upon 
 each other, he imagined, would produi^c air fuflitie]U 
 for the impregnation of the water. In this he was 
 not deceived ; the water thus produced was not only 
 analogotis toiieltzer, but nuith nore llrongly impreg- 
 nated will) air. 
 
 Dr 131ack lirfl difcovcicd, that chalk, and the other 
 earths reducible to quicklime by calcination, confillof 
 an alkaline cs.riii by iifclf fohiblc in water, but which, 
 combined with a large <|uan;ity of fixed air, becomes 
 iufoluble ; loling the propeniesof quicklime, and af- 
 fuming the natural appearance we obfervc ihofe earths 
 to have when nt)t reduced into lime. The fame thing 
 he difcovcrcd in niagnelia alba, and in alkaiis botii. 
 fixed and volatile. On the fixed air contained in thcfc 
 bodies, he found not only their property of cfTcrvef- 
 cing with acids to depend, but likewife their niildncfs; 
 both the alkalis and calcareous earth being highly 
 caufiicwhen deprivtdof their fixed air. He alfo found, 
 that this fl'jid, which he C2\\td. fixed air, had different 
 degrees of affinity with different fubflanccs ; that it 
 was Hrongcr w ith calcareous earth than with fixed al- 
 kali ; with fixed alkali, than magnefia ; and v, ith mag- 
 nelia, than volatile alkali. He aifofurpc(?}cd, thatlhe 
 fixed air of alkaline falls unites itfelf with the precipi- 
 tates of metals, when thrown down from acids ; and 
 that the incrtafc of weight obfcrvable in thefe preci- 
 pitates was owing to this caufe. But he was of opini- 
 on, that the fluid which he called ^xt"/ o/r was very 
 different from the common air we breathe ; and there- 
 fore adopted the name of air, merely as one already 
 cftablilhed, whatever impropriety there niitht be in 
 the term. 
 
 It was not long bef re the difcovrry of this fpecies 
 of air fuggefled new theories in pliyliology and natural 
 pbilofopliy. Mr Haller had inferred, from Dr I'ales's 
 
 experiments. 
 
 Of Air 
 in gencrsiU 
 
 ~l8 
 Uy Ur 
 Halt*. 
 
 19 
 
 Sufpicion 
 uf airinniU 
 ntral wa- 
 ters. 
 
 ao 
 t'onBrmed 
 liyM.Vcr- 
 net 
 
 Ilifcuvcfics 
 by Dr 
 Black, &c.
 
 Scd. H. 
 
 A E R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 '49 
 
 of Air 
 ill general 
 
 (Quantity 
 of filed air 
 coQtainc'l 
 in alkaline 
 falfs dctcr- 
 mincil by 
 Mr CaVLii- 
 dift. 
 
 1,? 
 Coatcft 
 concerning 
 the doc- 
 trine of 
 fixed air. 
 
 14 
 Con-j-nfi- 
 lion *»f the 
 atrr.ofphere 
 difcovtred. 
 
 e:4pcrimcnt$, that air is the real cement of bodies ; 
 which, tixiiigiil'tlt in thcfoiijj aaJiiiiitis.iiaiics them 
 to cacli otiicr, and I'civcs as a bond by svolcIi they arc 
 kept tVoiu diiroliition. In r764, Ur .vlacbiidc ot Uub- 
 lia publiflied a number ot txi>erimciits in fiipjiort of 
 this doctrine, from his work it appcai\>, that lixcd 
 air is leparatcd, not only from all f.ibltaucLS in fenncn- 
 tation, bjtalfo from all animal fuDltanccs a> they begin 
 to putrefy ; and that this air is capable of ujiiiing it- 
 A!f 10 all calcareous earths, as well as alkalisbjth nxtd 
 a;'.d volatile, and rclloring to them the property of ef- 
 ftrvcfting with acids when they have by any means 
 been deprived of it. But though thcfe opinions have 
 (ince been found erroneous, the conclulioas drawn by 
 him from his numerous experiments llill liold good, 
 viz. that fixed air is an clailic fluid, very dittcrcnt from 
 the common air we breathe: that it is poli'eli'cd of a 
 llrong antifeptic quality, and may be introduced with 
 fafcty into the intellinal canal, and other parts of the 
 aiiiuial (Economy, where common air would have fatal 
 clFccls; but is mortal if breathed into the lungs, &:c. 
 
 In 1766 and 1767, Mr Cavendilli communicated 
 fomc new experiments to the royal Society at Lon- 
 don, wherein he determines tiie quantity of air con- 
 tained in fixed alkali, when fully faturatcd with it, to 
 be live-twclfthsofits weight, and fcven-twclfthsinvo- 
 latilc alkali : that water is capable of a'oforbing more 
 than its own bulk of this air ; that it has then an agree- 
 able, fpirituous, and acidulous talle; and that it has 
 the property of dilFolving calcareous earths and mag- 
 nelia, as well as almoll all the metals, eipecially iron 
 and zinc : that the vapour of burning charcoal occali- 
 ons a remarkable diminution of common air, at the 
 fame time that a coiMiderable quantity of fixed air is 
 produced in liie operation, lie f.lfo found, that foLi- 
 tion of copper in fpirit of fak, inlleail of producing in- 
 flammable air, like that of iron or zinc, atri)rded a 
 fpccics of air whicli lot its clallicity as foon as it came 
 into coniaft with water. 
 
 The dikovcrics of Dr Black concerning fixed air 
 had not been long publiih-.-d, when they were violcntl/ 
 attacked by fome foreign chcmills, while his cai;fc was 
 3s eagerly cfpoufcd by others. The principal oppo- 
 nents were Mr Meyer apothecary at Ofnabrnck, Mr 
 Crans phylician to his Ruliian ALijerty, and f.lr dc 
 Smcthat Utrecht. Tlu Ir arguments, however, Vvcre 
 eifcctually cnfwcrcdat the time by Mr Jacquin, bota- 
 nical profeilbr at Vienna; and the numerous difcovc- 
 ries made fince that time have given fuch additional 
 confirmation to liis do^'trine, that it is now univcrfally 
 adopted by chcmills both in Britain and other coun- 
 tries. It was refcrved, however, for Dr Priclllcy to 
 make the great difcovery concerning the natureofour 
 atr.iofphcrc ; and to inform the world, that it is com- 
 pofcd of two fluids ; tlie one abfolutcly noxious, and 
 i;;capablc of fupporiing animal life for a moment ; tlic 
 other extremely falutary, and capable of prcfcrving 
 auiiiiaJs alive and healthy for a much longer time than 
 the purefl air we can meet with. Ti'.is may beconli- 
 dercd as the ultimate period of our hiltory : for finrc 
 that time thedifcovericsof philofophcrs Piill living, i.i 
 many diltlrcnt countries have been fo rapid, that it is 
 ditiicult toafccrtain the dates ofthcmby any authentic 
 documents ; cfpccially as, by rcafon of Inch numerous 
 txpcrimeiits, the time things have not unfrcquently 
 
 been difcovcrcd by diifercut pcrfons unk.iowr. t-'CJch n.r!iIo<;if- 
 other. We Ihall tlicrefore proceed to,gi. . it ticiSed .-lir. 
 
 of the diit'tront kinds of aerial riui.ls, bi^i, .h y~~' 
 
 thole which arc kno.vn, or fuppofcd, u coiuutuie a 
 par: of our atniofphcrc. 
 
 Sect. Ill, 0/ Defh.'cri/licjteJ Air. 
 
 5 I. Difcji'try and Mithods of proc:iriiig this K:i:J 
 of Air.— L'cplilogiilicated air was firlt obtained by Vr 
 I'riellleyon the iit of Augull 1774. The circjmuan- 
 ces w hich led him to the tiifcovcry, were his caving 
 always procured inliammable air from fpirit of fait, by 
 adding to it Ipirit of wine, oil of olives, oil of t'Trj-cn- 
 tinc,thirco:'.l,pholphoru;,. bees wax, and even fulphur. 
 Hence he fulpcctcd, that the common air we breathe 
 might be compofcd of fomc kind of acid united with j. 
 phlogilton. On this iuppolition he extracted air from Whence 
 mercurius calcinatus p^rfi, by expoling it to the fccus 5r(l ex:nc- 
 ofa burning-glafs 12 inches in diameter; and, hiving '^■'• 
 repeated thcexperiment with red precipitate and mini- 
 um, he found, that though a quantity of fixed air was 
 always produced, yet after that wasfeparated, the re- 
 mainder fupported iiame much more vigoroudy than 
 common air ; for a candle burned in it with a rtimc 
 very much enlarged, and with a crackling noifc, at 
 the fame time that it appeared fully as much diniiniih- 
 cd by the tell of nitrous air. \V hence he concluded, 
 thaiit wasrefpirable ; and, on making thcexperiment, 
 found that it a^'tiially was fo, for a moufc lived a full 
 halfhourinaqujntity of this fluid ; which, had it been 
 common air, would only have kept it a'liV-c half that 
 time. No- did the animal fccm to be otherwifc irjureil 
 thaii by the cold ; as it prefently revived on bringing 
 it near the fire, and the remainder of the air fti'.fap- \ 
 p-arcd better than that of the ?.tniofphcrc, when the 
 t£!l of nitrous air was apj'licd to it. , 
 
 This pure kind of air being difcovcrcd, the Do.".cr why na- 
 next proceeded to nzmc'n d^pklcp'tjticat.d, from his ire.'. de- 
 opinion that common air, in the"acl of burning, ab- pJilosiKi^^- 
 forbed pl.logidon ; of conftqiience, he fuppofed, that "'*• 
 which abfurocd the moll, or which inoft vigoroudy and 
 for the grtateil length of time f :pportcd flame, was 
 fuppofed 10 contain the fmallell qu.intity of this fub- 
 lla.icc. In the courfc of his inquiries why this kind 
 of air comes to be fo much dcphlogifticatcd, he fell upo:i 
 a method of extrafling it from a great variety of fub- 
 ftancesjviz. bymoiilcningthtmwiihfp:ri:ofnitre,and 
 then dilUUing them witha ftronghcat. Thus hcob- Produced 
 taincd it from ilowcrsofziirc,chalk,quicklime,llacked from a 
 lime, tobjcco-pipe clay, riint, Mufcovy talcs, and even great vari- 
 glafs. He then found, that by finiply diilblving any ''X oifnh- 
 metal-in the nitrous acid, and then dillilling the foln- '^""'• 
 lion, he coulj obtain very pure air: and Mr Warltirc 
 found even the trouble of diftillaiiounnnectirary ; no- 
 thing more being requiiite than to moilteiiVc'd lead 
 with the fpirit of nitre, and then pour upon it the oil 
 of vitriol, which inftantly i:ifengiv;ed the dephloTifti- 
 cated air without applying any more heat than what 
 was generated by the mixture.' jg 
 
 \V hi:e difccvcries of this kind engaj:;ed Dr Prieulev Thii kind 
 in Engl md, Mr Scheele was employed in a fin-.ilarman- of »'•■ J'f- 
 ner in Sweden ; and had adually obtai;;cd the fame '■"°''""^"=''.^-- 
 kind of air, without knowing anv thing of w-hat Dr^"}''^'' 
 Prie.llcy had done. Th: latisr had the merit of the '"'"''• 
 
 prior
 
 'JO 
 
 E 
 
 K 
 
 O 
 
 »9 
 
 Mjy be 
 )in)duccil 
 wiihout 111 
 trui'5 aciil. 
 
 Ucj-libgif- piiyr f?if covery : but Mr Stlicdc's method wus more 
 t i. jctd Air. i,:iij,l..-, ^oiiliiiingoal/ in tli. dillilUtion otiiilvc witli 
 *" a llroii^ iit-at ; by \.hich weans ii is iinw lunad tha; 
 dirphli'jiiUcaicd air uiay bcobiuincd in very coniulci- 
 ablc quantity, and in as grtar purity, as by llic more 
 < xpciilivf proccllcS. Tlic port uir from riiuc haj in- 
 c'ctdpirtly btcn obtai.icd by Dr H^lcs long before 
 lliis time ; liiK-e lie intornis lu, that liilf a cubic inch 
 of nitre yielded 90 cubic inches ol'air, which was un- 
 doubtedly the fluid \vc Ipeak of; but as he neglected 
 t'j profecutc the dilcovcry, nothing fanlur was known 
 at that lime. 
 
 As the nitrous acid was univcrfally concerned in the 
 (irft pr6ccires for obtaining this kind of air, it was for 
 fome lime generally believed to be a peculiar pro- 
 perly of thai acid alone to produce it ; but the in- 
 defatigable genius of Dr PriclUey fooi. found, that it 
 might not only be procured where no niirous acid was 
 employed, but where the fubllances were treated with 
 vitriolic acid. It was indeed evident, from the very 
 lirft experiment, that niirous acid was not ellcniially 
 nccelfary ; fmce pure air was procured from precipitaie 
 fir fi, in the preparation of \\ hich no nitrous acid is 
 cmi>loycd. The AbbeKontana found, that 192 grains 
 of this fubftance yicldcd65l cubic inches of dephlogi- 
 flicaied air, at ihe fame time that the weight of it was 
 reduced to 7885 grains, which is nearly the weight of 
 that quantity of air. It had formerly been obfervcd, 
 that the weight of mercury is augmented during its 
 convcrlion into precipitate psr fe, as that of lead is by 
 its converlion into minium. The experimentsjull now 
 r.'.eniioned, therefore, Ihow, that during this procefs 
 the air is decompounded ; the pure dcphlogillicaicd 
 part of it being abforbed by the metal, and appearing 
 agiinon the application of heat , and the fame appears 
 to be the cafe with red lead, from the experiment of 
 Mr Warltirc already mentioned. With regard to this 
 Lift fubfl.ince, however, a very great fingulariiy is ob- 
 fervcd ; viz. that when new ly prepared it yields none 
 at all, and even for fome tii.ie after ihc produce is 
 much fmaller than when it has been long kept. The 
 reafon of thisfcems to be, that the minium fiill con- 
 tains a confiderable quantity of phlogilion, which flics 
 ofFintuthcatmofpherc by long keeping, a larger quan- 
 tity of the dephlogiilicated part of the atmofphcre be- 
 ing imbibed a the fame lime. The mode of applying 
 heat has alio a very confiderable efTcfl on the quantity 
 of air produced. Thus, Dr Prieflley remarks*, that 
 aiii Obfcrv " from equal quantities of red lead, wiihout any mix- 
 i i. 27. ture offpirit of nitre, andulingthe fame apparatus for 
 30 diftilling it, he obtained, by means of heat applied 
 
 • Exper. 
 
 Ill grcutc 
 
 ;n 
 
 I'riuluccd Cudjf „iy^ more air than when (lowly applied, in the 
 
 fcy'i'qu'ick was the fame in both cafes, and the remainder equally 
 
 and vUrntdephlogiiticated." 
 
 heat. By heat alone, the Doftot found, that fedaiivc fall, 
 
 31 mangaiiefe, lapis calaminaris, and the mineral called 
 Method of - - ■ ■ 
 
 itVrom'TO- pill' gift'catcd air ; the firft indeed in very fmallqnan- 
 rious fub- t'ty > and f 'mciimcs even of a quality very little fupc- 
 flmccs. rior to common air. In thefe experiments, he made 
 uft of fmall-bellied retorts of green glafs, which can 
 fland the fire bell, containingabout an ounceof water, 
 and having narrow necks 18 or 20 inches long. The 
 Hibllance xo be examined was put into a retort of this 
 
 proportion of ten to fix. The proportion of fixed air 
 
 lap:i poni;rofui, luolfiam, or tuiiglieri, would yield dc- 
 
 LOGY. Seel. Iir. 
 
 kind, and theuexpofed 10 a red heat, cither in ftnd or Dephlogir- 
 ovcr a lukcil tire, while the neck of the vtiltl was «i"'<-<i--^'''- 
 i)lungtd in water or mercury. ^——-r—^ 
 
 Haviugdiifolved lixpcnnywcightsof very clean iron 
 in oildf \itriol, and ihen dillilUd ihe fohiiion to dry- 
 nefs iji a long- necked retort, he received the common 
 air a liiilc phlogiiticaicd, fome fixed air, nmch viuio- 
 lic acid air, and laiUy 18 ounce mcafiires of dt))hlo- 
 gilticaicd air. The iron that remained undinulved 
 weighed 2;; grains, l"o that the air uas yielded by live 
 pennyweights one grain of iron. The ochre weighed 
 ii:\c\\ pennyweigliij thirteen grr.ins : folhat, fays lie, 
 tliere probably remained a quantity of oil of vitriol in 
 it ; andconfequently, had the heal been greater, more 
 air would have been obtai'cd. 
 
 In his experiments wiili the nitrous acid, as it had 
 conflantly been found, that by pouring on more nitrous 
 acid on ilie reliduum, and repeating the operation, 
 IP >re deplilogiflicated air might be obtained, the Doc- 
 tor determined to try whether the fame would not hold 
 good with vitriolic acid alio. For this purpofe, he 
 added more oil of vitriol to the rcliduutn of the laft- 
 meniioncd experiment. When in a red heat with a glafs 
 retort, it )iclded a quantity of vitriolic acid air, no 
 fixed air, but aboat 24 ounce mcafurcs of dephlogifti- 
 cated air : when, the retort being melted, a good deal 
 of the air was neccllarily loll ; but, on refuming the 
 procefs in a gun-barrel, he procured as much air as 
 had been got before. — Purfuinglhefe experiments, he 
 obiain.cd with common crull of iron and oil of vitriol, 
 dephljgillicaied air at the firfl diftillaiion, and a great 
 deal more from the reliduum, by pouring frelh oil of 
 vitriol upon it. The fame proLluct he obtained from 
 blue vitriol, fohuion of copper in the vitriolic acid, 
 and from a folution of mercury in that acid. On this 
 fubftance he remarks, that " cither by means of oil of 
 vitriol er fpirit of nitre, it yields a great quantity of 
 dephlogifiicatcd air : but wiih this diffiirence, that in 
 the procefs w ith fpirit of nitre, almoll the whole of 
 the mercury is revived (not more than a twentieth 
 pan being loll, if the procefs be conduced w-iih care),; 
 but in that with vitriolicacid,almo(lthe whole islofl." 
 From the later cxperimcntsof Mr Lavoifier, however, 
 it appears that the Doctor's procefs had not been con- 
 ducted with futhcicni care ; as from two ounces of the 
 dry fall formed by a combination of vitriolic acid with 
 mercury, the former obtained 6 drachms 12 grains of 
 running mercury, belides % drachms 58 grains of mer- 
 curial fublim: tc of two ditTcrent colours. Dcphlogi- 
 flicated air was likiwife obtained from pure calx of 
 tin, or putty, mixed with oil of vitriol ; but none ill 
 any trial with the marine acid, excepting when it was 
 mixed with minium ; in which cafe the airobtainedwas 
 probably that which the minium would have yielded 
 wiihout any addition. 
 
 Thercfult ofallihefe,and innnmcrableotherexperi- 
 m cuts made by philofophers in different countries, was, 
 that dephlogifticaicd air may be obtained from a vafl 
 variety of mineral and metallic fubftances by means of 
 the vitriolic and niirous acids. It now remained only How d«- 
 to difcover in w hat manner this fluid, foeiTentiatly nc- phlogifti- 
 celFary to ihe fupport of animal lit'c, is naturally pro- cated air is 
 duced in quantities fufficient for the great expence of naturally 
 it throughout the whole world, by the breathingof a- P''"""^' 
 nimals, the fupport of fires, &c. This difcovcry, in- 
 deed.
 
 Sedt. III. 
 
 A E 
 
 R 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 '5» 
 
 Dcphlogif- deed, had been made before even ths cxirtencc of de- 
 ticatcdAir. phlogifticatcd air itl'clf was known. Dr Pritltlcy, af- 
 
 ^^ tcr haviiijjcricd various mtllioJsof purifying contami- 
 
 natidair unfuccefsUilly, found at Ull, thai foine kinds 
 
 of vegetables anfwcrcd this purpole very clfectually ; 
 
 for which difcovcry he received the thanks of the 
 
 Royal Society. Among the vegetables employed on this 
 
 occaiion, he found mint anfwer the purpofc very cltlc- 
 
 • Ejpcr. tually. " When air," fays he*, "lias been frelhly and 
 
 andObfcrv. ftrongly tainted with putrefaction, fo as to fmell 
 
 vol. 1. p. I. through the water, fprigs of mint have prefently died 
 
 4- upoH being put into it, their leaves turning black ; but 
 
 if they do not die prefently, they thrive in amoltfur- 
 
 prifing manner. In noothcr circuiulUnces hivcl ften 
 
 vegetation fo vigorous as in this kind of air, which is 
 
 immediately fatal to animal life. Though tlicfc plants 
 
 have been crowded in jars tilled with tiiis kind of air, 
 
 every leaf has been full of life; frefh Ihoots have 
 
 branched out in various directions, and grown much 
 
 33 fafltr thanother limilarplaius growing in the famee.x- 
 Noxiousair pofurc in common air." — Having in confequcnce of 
 improved j|j j^ obfcrvation rendered a quantity of air thoroughly 
 by vcgcu- „ojjjm,5^ l,y f„j^j breathing and dying in it, he divi- 
 
 ' ^ ' ded it into two receivers inverted in water, introdu- 
 cing a fprig of mint into one of them, and keeping 
 the other receiver unaltered. About eight or nine 
 days after, he found that the air of the receiver into 
 which he had introduced the fpri g had become refpi- 
 rable ; for a moufc lived very well in this, whereas it 
 
 34 died the moment it was put into the other. 
 
 fixperi- From thefe experiments the Doilor at hrfl conclu- 
 
 mcutj ded, that in all cafes the air was meliorated by the ve- 
 ceming y ~jtation of plants : but even in his tirft volume he ob- 
 t<jry_ lerves, that lome experiments ot this kind did not an- 
 
 fwer fo well towards the end of the year as they had 
 done ill the hot feafon ; and a feconJ courfc fcemcd to 
 be almoft entirely contrary to the former. Having 
 tried the power of fevcral forts of vegetables upon air 
 infected by refpiration or by the burning of candles, 
 he found that it was geiurally rendered worfc by their 
 vegetation; and the longer the plants were kept in the 
 infecled air, the more they phlogiilicated it ; though 
 in feveral cafes it was undoubtedly meliorated, efpcci- 
 ally by the Ihoots of ftrawberrics and fome other 
 plants, introduced into the vials containing foul air, 
 and inverted in water, which were placed near them, 
 whilft their roots continued in the earth in the garden. 
 Sometimes the infected air was fo far mended by the 
 vegetation of plants, that it was in a great meafurc 
 • Eipcr. tiirncd into deplogiilicated air. " On ihe whole,*" 
 andObfcrv. fays Or Priertlcy, " I ftill think it probable, that the 
 iv. vegetation of healthy plants, growing in fituations na- 
 
 tural to them, have a falutary effect on thcair in which 
 they grow — For one inflance of the melioration of air 
 in thefccircumilances iliuuld weigh againfl an hundred 
 in which the air is made worfe by it, both on account 
 of the difadvantagcs under which all plants labour, in 
 the circumllances in which thefe cxperimentsniullbc 
 35 made, as well as the great attention and many prerau- 
 m'cms'of "°"^ '^^' ^'"'^ requilite incondudiing fuch a prorcfs." 
 Dr Inpcn- ^^ ''i<^ ''"^^ t''^' Dr Pricftley made thefe cxptri- 
 houfz on mcnts, he fuppofed that the air was meliorated merely 
 thcratlio- by the abforption of phlogillon from that which had 
 ration of been tainted ; but the experiments of Dr Ingenhoufz, 
 air by ve- ^ajj jjj j -j.j^ foowcd that this wasaccomnliflied, not 
 gct.ition. ^ ' 
 
 only by the abforption jnft mentioned, but by the e- Dcphlo;;lf 
 milfion of dephlogifticated air. He obfcrvcd in L;c;it- litatc d Mr- 
 ral, that plants have power of correding bad air, and " 
 even of improving common air in a few hours, when 
 expofed to the light of the fun ; but, in ihc night-time, 
 or when they arc not iiiHucnced by the folarrays, they 
 contaminate the air. This property, however, docs 
 not belong in an equal degree to all kinds of plants : 
 nor is it polfible to difcover by the external properties 
 of a plant, whether it be fit for this purpofeor not ; as 
 fome whicli have a bad fmcll,and are entirely unfit for 
 food, fi^ow (hemfelves much fuperior toothers whole 
 external appearance would fccm preferable. His me- 
 thod of making the experiment was, to fill a vial with 
 air, fouled either by refpiration or coinbullion ; after 
 which a fprig of any plant was introduced, by palfmg 
 it through the water in which the vial was immerfed. 
 The vial was then flopped ; or it was removed into a 
 fniall bafoH full of water, and expoled to the fun, or fi- 
 tuatedin fome other proper place asoccafion required. 
 Air phlogiflicated by breathing, and in which a candle 
 could not burn, after being expoled to the fun for three 
 hours, with a fprig of peppermint in it, was fo far cor- 
 
 reftcd, as to be again capable of fupporting flame 
 
 The following experiment, however, made with a 
 muflard plant, may be looked upon as decifive: A plant 
 of this kind was put into a glafs receiver containing 
 common air, and its (lem cut oif even with ihemoutii 
 of the receiver. The veHcl was then inverted in au 
 earthen pan, containing fome water to keep the plant 
 alive, and the whole apparatus was fctover-night in a 
 room. Next morning the air was found fo much con- 
 taminated, that it exttnguilhed liie flame of a wax ta- 
 per. On expoling the apparatus to the fun for a qu ir- 
 terof an hour, the air was found to be fomewhat cor- 
 refted ; and after an hour and an half it was fo far im- 
 proved, that by the ted of nitrous air it appeared con- 
 liderably better than common air. •(, 
 
 Before we proceed farther in the account of Dr In- l)cphli>gif- 
 genhoufz's experiments, it will be ncceliaiy to relate t'catid ^ic 
 fome obfervations made by Dr Prielllcy ; from wlii:h pfo'luctd 
 it appears, that dephlogifticatcd air, in very conlidcr- ^'""^ *■'" 
 able quantity, may, in certain circumllances, be pro- 
 cured from water alone. The fubllance of thefe is, 
 that water, efpccially pump-water, when cxpofed to 
 the light of the fun, emits air (lowly : but after fome 
 time a green matter appears on the bottom and lidcs 
 of the glafs ; after which it emits very pwre air in great 
 quantity, and continues to do fo for a very long time, 
 even after the green matter has Ihown lomefymptoms 
 of decay by becoming yellow. He obfervcd, that the 
 water which naturally contained the greatefl quantity 
 of fixed air, yielded alfo ihcgreated quantity of that 
 which was dephlogiflicatcd ; but that the quantity ot 
 the latter much exceeded that of the fixed air contain- 
 ed even iu any water. Thelightof the fun was found 
 to be an rlfential requifitc in the foriuaiionof thisair, 
 as very little, and that of a much worfc quality, was 
 produced in the dark. 
 
 Asthegreen matter produced in Dr Prielllcy "s glaf- 
 fcs,wasby himlVlf, as well as others, confidercd as be- 
 longingto the vegetable kinirdom, Dr hii^r -.houf/ im- 
 proved upon his procefs, by putting the leaves of pla.irs 37 
 into water, and cxpofing'them to the fun. .All planes From the 
 were not equally fit for producing dcphlcMjiflicatcd air '«'"" "' 
 3 bjP'"':».
 
 '5^ 
 
 A 
 
 R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sed. III. 
 
 P?plilo;;ir- by t uli i;-.cthc J ;i.o:'c ilii.i by tlic orhcr. Some pcifonous 
 ti..i!:i Air. pliiiis, £3 ihe hyofcyanuis, lauro-ccraCi'.s, lii^ht-l'.iaJi-, 
 
 " '^ ilic tnbacco-phiit, a trijil-rx vulvarii, ci:u[u aqiutica, 
 
 .MiJfabina, were fouiij \cry fit tor the purpolc ; biu 
 ihcpurcll kindof air was cxtrac-lcj frmu ioiwc aquaiic 
 vegetables, the turpciuiiic-trees.andcfpccijUyrroiii I iic 
 green mailer be collected in a fionc :;o;i;^h v.hicliwas 
 kept eoiitinual'y filled \\i;h water froiu t!vc Ipiingncar 
 the lii^h-roaJ. Tlic purity of rliis dephlogilticatcd air, 
 he fays, was cfjual, it not fupcrior, lo that procured by 
 the beft chemical procelTcs ; as it lonictimcs required 
 tight timta its own quantity of nitroi's air to faturate 
 it. All pans of the plants were not found equally pro- 
 j'crfor ihe prodadijn of tlcphlogidiciitt-J air ; the full 
 grown leaves yield it in grcatcll quantity and purity, 
 tfpccir.liy from their under fiirfic<'. It was alio pro- 
 tared from the green Ualki.— One liundrcj leaves of 
 Ngjltiitl:i,"ilnd!c!im, put into a Jar holding a gallon, 
 filled witli ordinary punip-watcr, and expofed to the 
 fun from to to 12 o'clock, yielded as mucji air as lill- 
 fd a cylindrical jar four inches and an half in length, 
 
 and one and three quaitcrs in brcaJtli On removing 
 
 this quantity of air, end expoling them again to the 
 fin till fevcn o'clock, abouthaltasniuch wasprodiiccd, 
 of a quslity ilill fupcriorto the fornur ; andnextinor- 
 iiing by eleven o'clock, they yielded as much more of 
 an equal quality. The roots of the plants, he fays, 
 when kept out of ground, generally yield bad air, and 
 at all times contaminate common air, a few only ex- 
 cepted. l'"lowers and fruits, in general, yield a very 
 fuiall quantity of noxious air, and contaminate a great 
 quantity of common air at all times, efpecially in the 
 night, and when kept in th'j dark. Two dozen of 
 young and fmall French beans, kept in a quart-jar of 
 common air for a fingle night, co-.;tar.iinated the air 
 to fu;h a degree, that a very lively chicken died by be- 
 ing eontinci! in it kfs than half a minute. 
 
 The ohfervations of Dr IngcnhoulV. on the whole, 
 fays Mr Cavallo, clearly Ihow, << that the vegetation 
 iiriiigen- of plants isone of the great means employed by nature 
 hHufz's ex- to purify the atraofphcrc, fo as to couiit:raet, in great 
 primciitr. meafure, the damage done by animal refpiration, com- 
 buflion,&c. It may only be faid, that vegetation does 
 not appear to be fufneient to remedy entirely that da- 
 ma'^e." The Doclor himfclf, however, fpeaks very 
 highly of the powers of vegetables in, this refpert. He 
 intorms us,that their office in yielding dephlogil^icatcd 
 air begins a few hours after the fun lias made his ap- 
 pearance in thchorizon,or ratherafter it has palled the 
 meridian, and ceafcs with theclofcof the day ; cxcept- 
 ino-fome plants which continue it a fltort time after fun- 
 fen The quantity of dephlogillicated air, yielded by 
 plants in general, isgrcterin a clear day than when it 
 isfomewhat clojily. It is r.lfo greater when the plants 
 are more exjjofcd to the fun, than wlicn they are lituated 
 ja fliady places. lie obfcrves, moreover, that the da- 
 mage done by plants in the night,is more than counter- 
 balanced by the benefit they ailbrd in the day-time — 
 " By a rough calculation, (fays he), I found the poifon- 
 OBS .'.ir, yielded by any plant during the whole nif ht, 
 could not amount to one hundredth part of the depfilo- 
 gifticated air which tlie fame plant yielded in two hours 
 time in a fair day." — It does not appear, however, that 
 plants yield dcphlogifticatcd air iiy any kind of genera- 
 tion of that fljid, but only by liltrating the common 
 
 • 3» 
 ("onclufi- 
 oni frotii 
 
 :;ir, which all plants abforb thrc-.igh their pores ; the DcpMogif- 
 
 plilogillic ji^art becomijig part of tlicir fubllance, and located air. 
 
 jiroLiably being the true vegetable food, as is explain- ' *" ' 
 
 td more at large under the article .-\chicl'ltvre. — 
 
 JJry plants liavc little or no cfTed upon the sir until 
 
 they were nioiiUned. — Onall thclecxperirfteiits,how- 
 
 ever, it mufl be obfcrvcd, that they liavc fomctimcs 
 
 failed in the hands of ihofc whom wc cannot but fup- 
 
 pofc very ccpab'.c of trying them ; as Mr Schcde, 
 
 Mr Cavallo, and the Abbe Kontana. 
 
 After the publication of Dr Ingenhoufz's cxperi- <j|^ if'^;,. 
 ments, it became generally believed, tliat the atniof- niinTliom- 
 pherc was meliorated by the common proccfs of vegc- fon's expc- 
 tation, and that plants abforbcd the plilogidic part as mtiits. 
 their food, difehargiiig the purcdephlogilticated airas 
 an excrement ; which isjuft the reverie of what hap- 
 pens to animals, who abfi^rb the pure part in rcfj)ira- 
 tion, and rcjec'lthc phlogilMc. Jn the Philofophical 
 Tranfaiflions for 1787, however, we lind a numberof 
 experiments related by Sir Benjamin Thompfon, which 
 feem to render tills matter dubious. — One very conli- 
 derable objedfion is, that ihc green matter, already 
 mentioned in DrPrieftley's experiments, when care- 
 fully obferved by a good microfcopc, appears not to be 
 of a vegetable, but ofanajiimal nature. Tlie colouring 
 matter of the water, fays lie, is evidently of an animal Green mat- 
 nature ; being nothing inorethan the aflemblage of an tcr obfcr- 
 inlinitenumber of very fmall, active, oval-formed ani- vcd l>yn 
 inalculcs, without any thine refembling trtimlla, or J'r, 7' r 
 that kind of green matter or watcr-mofs which forms ■ , 
 
 upon the bottom and fides of the vefTel when this water na,ure. 
 is fuffcred to remain on it for a confidcrable time, and 
 into which Dr Ingenhoufz fuppofcs the animalcules 
 above mentioned to be aftually transformed. 
 
 This gentleman has alio foniid, that feveral animal 
 fubflances, as well as vegetables, have a power offepa- 
 raiiiig dephlogiAicated air from water when expofed 
 to the light of the fun, and tliat for a very great length 
 of time. Not that the fame quantity of water will al- 
 ways continue to fiirniili air; but the fame animal fub- 
 itance being taken out, wadied, and again put into 
 frclh water, fcems to yield dcphlogifticated air, with- 
 out any kind of limitation. 
 
 Raw lilk poifelfcs a remarkable power of this kind. D^piJio. 
 To determine it, Sir Benjamin introduced 30 grains of gijij^ated 
 this fubllance, previoully waflied in water, into a thin airprodu- 
 glafs globe 44- inches in diameter, having a cylindrical ced by raw 
 neck ^nhsofan inch wide, and twelve inches long, in- '•In- 
 verting the globe into a jar filled with the fame kind cf 
 water, and expoling it to the adion of the fun in the 
 window. It had not been ten minutes in this ftuati- 
 on, when the lilk became covered with an infinite 
 number of air-bubbles, gradually incrcafing in lizc, till, 
 at the end of two hours, the lilk was buoyed up, by 
 their means, to the top of the water. By degrees they 
 began tofeparate themfclves, and form a collection of 
 air in the upper part of the globe ; which, when exa- 
 mined by the tell of nitrous air, appeared to be very 
 pure. In three dayshe had collected ^; cubic inches of 
 air ; into which a wax-taper being introduced, that 
 h.ad juft been before blown out, the wick only remain- 
 ing red, it inftanily took fire, and burned with a bright 
 and enlarged flame. The water in the globe apjieared 
 to have loll fomething of its tranfpa.ency, and had 
 clianged its colour to a very faint grecnilh caft, having 
 
 at
 
 Sect. III. 
 
 R 
 
 O 
 
 Dcphlogif- at the fiimc time acquired tlie fmtU of raw filk — This 
 ticatcdAir. was fevcral times repeated with frcili water, retaining 
 " " ' the fame lllk, and always with a fnialler refult ; but 
 witli this difference, that when the fun Ihone very 
 bright, the quantity of air produced was not only 
 greater, but its quality fuptrior to that yielded when 
 the fun's rays were feeble, or when they were fre- 
 quently intercepted by tlying cloudb. "The air, how- 
 ever, (fays he), was always not oiilymuch beiter-than 
 common air, but even than that produced by the frefli 
 Icavcsofplantscxpofcdinwater to the fun's rays in the 
 experiments of Dr ingcnhoufz ; and, under the moll 
 favourable circumllances, it was fo good, that onemea- 
 fure ot it required four of nitrous air to faturate it, 
 and the whole live meafures were reduced to i.^S-" 
 No air pro- ^" experiment was next made in order to determine 
 duccd ill thecrfctt of uarknefs upoa the proJuftionof air: and 
 the dark, in this cafe only a few inconlidcrable bubbles were 
 formed, which remained attached to tliefilk; nor was 
 the cafe altered by removing the globe into a German 
 flovc. Some llngle bubbles, indeed, iiad detached 
 thenifelves from the filk and afceuBed to the top, but 
 the air was in too little qoantiiy to be meafurcd or 
 proved. — The medium heat of the globe, when expo- 
 fed to the fun's rays, was about 90" of Fahrenheit, 
 though fometimes it would rife as high as 96 ; but air 
 wasfrequently produced, when the heat did not exceed 
 EffccU of ^5 3ud 70°.— On reverfing this experiment, in order 
 light with- to try the etfett of lighi without heat, it was found, 
 •utheat. that by plunging the globe into a mixture of ice and 
 water, which brought it to the temperature of about 
 50°of Kahrenheit, the produce of air was diniinilhcd, 
 though it ftill continued in confiderable quantity. 
 
 _. **.. • 1 Th' effedtof artilicial light, inllead of that of the 
 Of artificial - .._'?.' 
 
 light. 
 
 fun, was next tried. For this purpofe all the air was 
 removed from the globe ; and its place being fupplied 
 with a quantity of frefli water, fo as to render it quite 
 full, it wasagaininvertedinthe jar, and removedintoa 
 dark room furrounded with fix lamps and refleftors; iix 
 wax candles were alfo placed at different diilancesfrom 
 three to fix inches from it, and dil'pofcd in fuch a man- 
 nerasto throw the greatefc quantity of light polfiblc 
 upon the lilk, taking care at the fame time that the 
 water Ihould net acquire a grer.ter heat than 90". In 
 this fituation llic lilk began to be covered with air- 
 bubbles in about ten minutes; and in fix hours as much 
 was collected as could be proved by nitrous air, whea 
 it was found to be very pure. A frefl\-gathcred, 
 healthy leaf of a peach-tree, and a ftcm of the pea- ' 
 plant with three leaves upon it, furnilhcdair by expo- 
 fure to the fame light, but in fmaller quantities than 
 by the iiflion of the folar rays. The air produced in 
 the dark, in whatever manner procured, was always 
 in too fmall a quantity to be meafnred. 
 
 In making thefe cxucriments, as it was found fomc- 
 whattroiiblcforae to invert the globes in water, they 
 wcrcatlalloulykcpt iiian inclined poihireonthe t.ible, 
 as reprcfented in PI. X. lig. i.the aircolktlingitfelf 
 in the upper part of the belly. Having provided iiim- 
 felf with a number of globes of diiierent fizes,he then 
 proceeded in his experiments in the following manner. 
 Finding that raw filk, expofed to the aiflion ol" light, 
 produced fo rreat a quauaiy of air, ie was induced to 
 fuljftltutird try whether Ibrae other fubftaiiccs might not be found 
 (or raw out capable of doing the fame. Having therefore 
 filk- Vol.. I. 
 
 AS 
 ▼arioiis 
 fu'ulancc* 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 provided fix globes of 4'. inches in diimetcr, and filled 
 tiK:mwithfpringwater,hcintroducedintocachof them 
 1 5 grainsof one of the following fubltanccs,i'/c.thcep's 
 wotd, cider-down, fur of a Ruliian hare, cotton wool, 
 
 lint or the ravelingsof linen yarn, and human hair 
 
 The refults of tl.efe experiments were, i. The globe 
 containing the fheep's wool began to yield air in three 
 da^s; but feveral days of cloudy weather iiucrvcning, 
 he did not remove it for fome time, when only ijihs 
 of an inch of air was coUefted, which proved very 
 pure when tried with nitreus air; but the wool, even 
 in the moll favourable circumllances, never afforded 
 more than one third of the quantity which would have 
 been yielded by lilk. 2. The water with the eider- 
 down began to furnilhair almoll immediately, and con- 
 tinued to do foin quantities little Icfs than had been 
 furnilhed by the filk, and nearly of the fame quality. 
 One cubic inchand ihreequarttrsof thisair, furuilhtJ 
 the eighth day from the beginningof the experiment, 
 with three meafures of nitrous air, was reduced to 
 1.34. 3. The furof the hare pi oduced more air thaa 
 the wool, but lefs than the cider-down. Two cubic 
 inches of air were collected in four days ; which made 
 its appearance in a different manner from that of the 
 other fubftances, the air-bubbles being at confiderable 
 diilancesfrom one another, and growing loan uncom- 
 mon lize before they detached themfelvcs from the fur. 
 The cotton yielded a conlnlerable quantity of air of a 
 better quality than any of the former. Tiic ravelings 
 of linen were very flow in furnilhing air, and produced 
 but a fmall quantity ; only two cubic inches beinw col- 
 ledUd in the fpace of a foi'tnight. This fubllance ap- 
 peared to be the very re\'crfeof the hare's fur; for the 
 air, inlUad of attaching and coUet^ingitfclf about the 
 fubtlance in large bubbles, fearce ever ma3e its appear- 
 ance in fufficient quantity to raife it to the top of the 
 water. The human hair furniOied ilill lefs than the 
 linen, and the produce wasof inferior quality, though 
 ftill fuperior to the common atmofphere. 
 
 In order to difcover the comparative finenefs of air 
 produced from vegetables and from raw filk, a fmatl 
 qiinntityof airfrom tlie llemof a pea-plant, which had 
 four healthy leaves upon it, was proved with nitrous 
 air, and found greatly inferior to that from raw lilk 
 and feveral of the fubftances already mentioned. An 
 entire plant of houfewort, of a moderate fize, furnilhed 
 only jths of a cubic inch of air in feven hours, and 
 that greatly inferior to common air; but the leaves a- 
 lone afforded a much greater quantity, and o[ a.qua- 
 lity greatly fuperior. 
 
 Having proceeded thus far, it was next determined 
 to afcertain how much air a given quantiiy of water 
 would yield by expofiirc to tlic fun's rays. For this 
 purpole, a globe of tine white, clear, and very thin 
 glafs, containing 296 inches, being liiled with frelh 
 Ipring water, and 30 grains of raw filk immerfed in ii, 
 was expofed to the air for three days in the mouth ot 
 May, but for the moll part rold and cloudy. During 
 this lime only 94. inches of air were produced ; but 
 next day. by expofure to the fun from nine in the 
 morning till rive in the afternoon, the weather being 
 Very tine, S.46 inches more were produced. The wa- 
 ter h ul now alfumed a light grecnilh colour. Next 
 day, the produfl of air wa*; ni;ie cubic inches, of a 
 better quality ; and the day following, Iix inches ftill 
 U fureritv. 
 
 'i3 
 
 ticatcdAir 
 
 46 
 
 Of the 
 "juantirjr 
 of air pro- 
 cured by 
 means of 
 ihcfc fu!>- 
 llanccs 
 from w-a* 
 tc.-.
 
 '54 
 
 (Icatcd V 
 
 E 
 
 R 
 
 O L O G Y. 
 
 St(ft. III. 
 
 47 
 Of the 
 taafc of 
 this pro- 
 du<5lion 
 air. 
 
 f- f.iperi'.ir, tlioii tJi cxpift J only for tlirce hoar-i anJ an 
 "• hilf ; b u thf next da/, it bci.ig coKl aid cloudy, only 
 J;lis of an iaoh of air were proJuccd, a:;d tlufc- maiii- 
 f flly iiiftriiirtu tlie f ireji;oiii^. Is'u niort air could 
 sfttrwirds be pro-iirtd, ex tpiiiigoiii-quancr of a cu 
 l>ic iiicli i f'tliat friin 29') iiiclies of thii water, 3 .9''> 
 of air were obtained. 
 
 In tliis ex^>cri;iKm the air prodarcd wis every day 
 removed from t'.ie globe, and its place f.iyi'litd willi 
 \vat<r : the follow i.ijr were niade, to dcterniiac vhat 
 alteration wj.ibl t.:ke j'la?e on allowi.ij;; llie quantity 
 of air prodn ed t.> remain from firft to l.ift. The globe 
 being therefore filled again, and the filk well wilhcd 
 a;id replaceJ in it, the quantuy of air produced a- 
 r.iounted in foardayb to ;o.i c.ibit inches ; a.id would 
 probably h.-.ve been iiure co ili Icrable, had not the 
 globe been unable to contain it along with the water, 
 a id therefore there was a nccelfity for putting an end 
 to the experiment. Thcqvia'iiy was fupcri -r to the 
 former. — In this experiment the water had loft its 
 tranfparency, and acq.iircd a grecnilhcafl ; a quantity 
 of ycllowilh earth ivas precipitated to the bottom, and 
 altarhcd iifelf fo ftroiigly to the glafs, that it could 
 rot be removed v.ithout great diiiiculiy. 
 
 On varying the experiment, by employ ing unwidi- 
 eJrawfilk, it was found, that i 7 grains of it in 20 cu- 
 bic inches of water, produced, for the firft 4 days, air 
 of a worfc quality than the atmofphcre ; but afterwards 
 yielded near two inches of a fupeiior quality. The 
 quantity o! this air was fuperior to that in otlier expe- 
 riments, tliough its quality was fumewhat inferior. 
 
 Inrefleclingon the experiments above related, it oc- 
 curred to Sir Benjamin, tliat the cotton-like fubftancc 
 produced by l^c pof>fi/r/s t:'igra,a. fpecies of poplar tree, 
 jnight be a proper fubftitute for the raw filk ; efpeci- 
 «lly as he rccoUeded, tliat on rendering it very dry 
 i ir fome other purpofe, fome parcels of it had quitted 
 the plate on which they were laid, and mounted u]) to 
 the top of the room. An hundred and twenty grains 
 of tliis fubftance were therefore put into the large 
 globe containing 296 inches ; but after cxpofure to the 
 fun for fome hmirs the air produced, in quantity a- 
 bout I Jihs of a cubic inch, was found to be little bet- 
 ter tliavi phlogifticatcd air. In three days after, only 
 one cubic inch was formed ; and this appeared to be 
 completely phloriftif-ated. Next day, only a few iu- 
 confiderable air-bubbles appeared ; but, the day fol- 
 lowing, the water fuddcniy changed to agrcenilh eo- 
 1 )ur, and began all at once to give good air, aid in 
 great abundance. This day 10.42 cubic inches were 
 produced, and the next 14.34 The fame water con- 
 tinued to furniih air for four days longer ; the whole 
 quantity amounting to 44', cubic inches, tlic quality 
 of which was fuperior to that of the air produced in 
 former experiments. 
 
 In fpeculatingon the caufcof this projiK^tion of air, 
 it occurred to our author, that perhaps the quantity of 
 it might be in proportion to the fnrfaccs of boh. In 
 order toaf-crtain this, he viewed an hair of filk, and 
 another of poplar-cotton, through a good microfcope, 
 when the former appeared twice the diameter of the 
 latter. The fpecilic gravity of the cotton was found 
 
 of 
 
 lobe nearly equivalent to th it of witcr; a:i!, by a Pcrhlogif- 
 
 comparative view of the two througli a microfcope, ti'^'td Air. 
 
 thefurfa.es appeared tobe'as loco to 5468. 1 y pro- "~ "' 
 
 ceedingin thii calculation, iiappearc ! that the furiacc 
 
 cf 30grai'i5of the cott m could not be Icf. than 66co 
 
 fquarc inches, while that of a like q lantity of the filk 
 
 a nounted to no more thin 476 rcnec it evidently 
 
 appeared, that tlic produce of air from the two f b- 
 
 Itance* w as neither in proportion to th' ir v\ eights nor 
 
 their fiirfaces. It appeared alfo, tliat the qiility of 
 
 t'leair produced it firll was confulerably inferior to tjial 
 
 ji'lded fometiuie afterwards. In order toafceitain 
 
 t!ie times at which air of the bt ft quality was produ- 48 
 
 ctd, &c. tliefollov; ills; experinients were made : i. A At »hat 
 
 irlobe.containiiiCT /}(> cubic inches.beiu'i filed with \\a- '■"'<^* air of 
 
 tcr, and 30 grains of raw filk, well wallicd, and freed ,' . 
 r,°. ,-/■ • . . quality is 
 
 from the remains ot former expennieius, put into it, pn.juccd 
 
 yielded ill a cold and cloudy day only ith of a cubic 
 inch of air : the two fjllowiugdays it yielded 3^ cubic 
 inches, the quality of whi :h was fuperior to that of the 
 former in the proportion of 296 to 1 14 (a). 2. T he 
 globe filled again with water, in two other diyswhcn 
 the funihine was kfs powerful, the q lality was 197, 
 and the quantity ij.ih ; but afterwards, when the 
 weather became fine, the quantity wasa^'ain 3.8 in- 
 ehes, and quality 342. 3. The globe being again fil- 
 led w ith water, and expofed to the fun for two days, 
 yielded 2 2 inches of air, of a qualiiy equal to 233. 
 4. A limilar globe, with poplar-co'ton which had been 
 ufed informer experiments, gave 2.53 inches, of a qua- 
 lity 280. 5. A fuiall globe of 20 inches, with 17 
 grains of raw (ilk, gave one cubic inch of air, of the 
 quality 263. 6. A large globe of 296 iichcs, filled 
 with frelh water, and a fmall quantity ufco'Jcrva rivu- 
 Iciiii, gdiVC ij. cubic inch, of the quality only of 124. 
 The water was changed to a brown colour. 7. On 
 repeating the experiment \\ ith a fmall handful of the 
 conferva, 1314 cubic inches of air were produced, of 
 the qu.iliiy 24'). The water was very faintly tinged, 
 towards the end of the experiment, of a greenilh call. 
 8. '1 he globe of 46 inches, w ith 30 grains of raw iilk 
 ufed in many former experimenis, produced in two days 
 1.6 cubi" inches of air, of the quality of 204. 9. A 
 globe of equal capacity, with 1 j grains of poplar-cot- 
 ton, produced ill the fame tine 1.2S inches, of tlie 
 quality 260. In both thcfe experiments, the water had 
 acquired a faint greenilh eaft ; but the colour of that 
 with the cotton was deepeft. On examining this wa- 
 ter with a microfcope, it was found to contain a great 
 number of animalcules exceedingly fnia'I, aid nearly 
 of an oval figure ; that with the (ilk contained them 
 likewife, but not in fiich numbers : however, our 
 author affiires us, that in all cafes in which the 
 water acquired a greenilh hue, he never failed to find 
 thein ; and thinks, that from their prcfence alone, 
 the colour of the water in the firfl inftanccuniverlally 
 arofe. 49 
 
 As SirBenjamin was now more than ever embarralTcd Exp'-ri- 
 with refpect to the lliare the filk and other bodies em- JT""" '^''''' 
 ployed in thcfe experiments had in producing the air, ''"'S'*'*- 
 he made the following experiment to determine I'nc 
 matter : " Concluding (fays he), that if Iilk and other 
 
 bodies. 
 
 (a) In a'.l thcfe experiments^ the quality of the atiu'^fpheric air is fuppofcd to be ico.
 
 Sed. III. 
 
 E R O L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 50 
 
 Of the 
 
 quantity 
 
 ])e|ihloi;if- boJits, ufrdhi die foregoing <xj>criirieius, acliuill/iiij 
 tiiateilA.r. not conuibiiic any thiiu';, conliJcicd as chemical fub- 
 '—''—' ftanccs, in the piocefs of the jJiodiK'tion of inirc air 
 yii IJt J by water ; but if, on [he contrary, they ae'Ud 
 merely as a methauical aid in its fi[arut.oii (roin the 
 v.'ater, by affording them a coiivcuient tarfacc for air to 
 attach iifelf to ; in this cafe, any other body having i 
 large furface, and atiraetin^^ air in water, miglit Le 
 niadeufc ofinflcad of the lilk in the cxp rin.ciit, and 
 jnire air flioild be furnilhtd, though the body fliould 
 be totally incapable of communicating any thing what- 
 ever to the water." 
 
 With a view toafcertain this, the large globe bi in 5 
 made pcifccdy cUan, and lilkd with fpring-wattr, he 
 introduced into it a qianiity of tlie fine thread of glafs 
 commonly calli d fiuii.gUiJ's, futh as is uftd for making 
 a brulli for ckauing jewels, and an rtitlci;.! feather 
 fold by Jew pedlars. The rcfult of the cxpirimcit 
 was, that the globe being t ^poftd to the fun, air- 
 bubbles begjn almoft inftaiuly to make their appear- 
 ance on the furface, and in four hours 0.77 of a cu- 
 bic inch of air was produced, which, witli niirous air, 
 fliowed a quality of 88 ; after which, not a lingle glo- 
 bule more was procured, thouivh the globe was expo- 
 fed for a whole week in fine funlhinc weather. Hence 
 it appears, th.it fomctliing more than mere furface was 
 wanted to produce dcphlogillicaiedair from svater by 
 means of the fun's light. 
 
 Thefollowin^ experiments were made with a view 
 to determine the quantity and quality of air produced 
 and <iu.ility by means of the heat and light of the fm fioin water 
 iifuirpro- alone. A large jar of clear glafs, containing 455 cu- 
 duccdfrom j^j^ inches, bcine wafhed very clean, was tilled with 
 frefli fpring water, inverted ui a glafs baton ot the 
 fame, and expofed to the weather for 28 days, ^t the 
 fame time, another fimilar jar was tilled with water 
 taken from a pond in a garden ia which many aquatic 
 plants were growing, and expofed in the fame place, 
 and during the fame period. The latter began to yield 
 air in pretty large quantities on the thi:d day, and 
 continued to do fo till the 14''' ; the former yielJeJ 
 little or none till the 14'''; when it began to emit air, 
 and continued todo fo till the 22d. On removingthe 
 air produced, that from the fpring-watcr was 14 in- 
 ches in quantity, and I 58 in quality; but from the 
 pond water, 31 ; in quantity, and 252 in quality. The 
 colour of the water was not changed; but both of 
 them had depofitcd a confidcrable quantity of earth, 
 which was found adheringto the furfaces of the glafs 
 bafons in which the jars were inverted. As thefeba- 
 fons, however, were very thick, and confcquently had 
 but little iranfparcncy, the fcdiment of the water was 
 in a irrc.t meafure deprived of the benefit of the fun's 
 liffhi ; the experiment wastherefore repeated n iih the 
 following variation: In alarge cylindrical jar of very 
 fine tranfparent glafs, loinchis in diameter and 12 in- 
 ches hi jh, filled with fpring-watcr, a conical jir, 9J i ".- 
 chesin diameter at the bottom, and containing 2^4 in- 
 ches, was inverted, and the 'vhole «xp fed to the fii t 
 for2ldays. Liltlcair was furiii.l ed till the 7"" day, 
 when the licpjor alHimed a grccniili c.-ift, and a tine 
 (limy fcdiment of the fimc colour, the green matter oi 
 Dr Pricflley, be»;inning fo be formed on the botto;?, 
 air was generated i:i abuiij rice, and was lurniiiicd i:j 
 pretty large (luautit'es till the iSth, when it entirely 
 
 ceafid. T he whole amounted lo;)ocuUc inches, :nd 
 the quality 21 ?. 
 
 T he f(? are '.he principal experiments contained in Sir 
 rei^janiin Thomjifon's letter to Sir Jofepli Banks. 
 In his poftfcript he obfervis, that as he never was 
 thoroughly fatisf ed with tlic opii.iun of DrIngeHhouf/,, 
 that the dephlogiiticatcd air wasWiiis/a/s-i/in the vcf- 
 fi Is of the plant, he found his doubts rather confirmed 
 than diminidicd by the experiments above related. 
 'That ihefrelh 1; aves of certuiii vegetables (fays he) 
 expofed in wat^r to thra(ftion of the fun's rays, caufe 
 a certain quantity of pure air to be produced, is a faA 
 which has been put beyond all doubt : but it does net 
 appear to me by any means fo clearly proved, thai this 
 air is ' elaborated \\\\\\t\\M\.\-^ the powers of vege- 
 tation, — phlogiflicatcd or fixed air being received by 
 the plant as food, and the dephlogifticaied air rejccl( d 
 as an excrement:' for befides that many other fuh- 
 flanccf, and in which no elaboration or circulation can 
 poffbly be fuppofed to take place, caufe the water in 
 which they are expofed to the action of the light u 
 yield dephlogiRicatedair as well as plants, and even in 
 niuth greater quantities, and of a more eminent qua- 
 lity ; the circumflances of the leaves of a vegetable, 
 w liich, accuP.omed to grow in air, arc fcparated from 
 its flem and confined in w^ater, are fo unnatural, that I 
 cannot conceive that they can perform the fame func- 
 tions in filch differtnt lituations. 
 
 " Among many facts which have been brought i:i 
 fupport oi the received ojiinion of the elaboration of 
 air in the vclfels of plants, there is one upon which 
 great flrcfs is laid, which, 1 think, requires further ex- 
 amination. The frclll healthy leaves of vegetable.', 
 fcpp.rated from the plant, and expofed in water tothrf 
 action of the fun's rays, appear, by all the experiments 
 w Iiich have hitherto been made, to furnilli air only for 
 a fliorttinie. .'^fter a day or two, the leaves, chan- 
 ging colour, ceafe to yield air. This has been con- 
 ceived to arife from the powers of vegetation being dc- 
 flrcyed, or, in other words, the death of the plant : 
 and from hence it has been inferred, w ith fome degree 
 of plaulibility, not only that the leaves actually retain- 
 ed their vegetative powers for fomc time after they 
 were fcparated t'rom their flalk ; but that it was in 
 confequence of the exertion of thofe powers, that the 
 air yielded in the experiment was produced. 
 
 " But I have found, that although the leaves, expo- 
 fed in water to the a>-tion of light, actually A^i ceafe 
 to furnilli air alur a certain time, yet that they regain 
 this power after a dion interval, when they furniih (or 
 rather caufe the water to furniih) more and better air 
 than at firft ; which can hardly be accounted for upon 
 the fuppolition that the air is elaborated in the vcifcls 
 of the plant." 
 
 Ill conf.rmation of this do<5trinc, the globe of ^5 
 inchcswas tilled with frelli fpringwater,anJtwo j>earh- 
 leaves were expofed for 10 days to the fun. Ii fo' r 
 days the water fcemed to be entirely cxh..iiflcd ; bur, 
 not day, the water .icquired a gntniih col ur, and 
 again produced air prett_y plentifvilly, which appeared 
 in bubbles on the leaves ; and on th>- 6th day, 0.^4 of 
 a cubic inch of air was produced, of the q..:dity I'l. 
 Next d;y it yielded ,',.lhiv'f a cubic i:irh, of the quality 
 291. rhc ihree fuccccdingd.ysityiclded 1 '. i'lchis^the 
 quality 307 ; after which an end was put to the e xpe- 
 U 2 riir.fiit. — 
 
 Dtpllloi; f- 
 
 traced Air. 
 
 CI 
 
 Dr iiig>K- 
 
 ll'jufz'j 
 
 iheoiyctiu- 
 tcacd. 
 
 5» 
 Lravcs of 
 j'lihts rc- 
 funtc their 
 property c( 
 emitting 
 air, d/t-T 
 fceminsT t» 
 havclollit^
 
 156 
 
 E R O L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sc(5t. III,., 
 
 Si 
 Pure air 
 found in 
 fca-water. 
 
 54 
 How to 
 procure 
 pure air in- 
 
 l^cphlogif- rimciu. — Onmakiiigotlier trials with leaves immtirc J 
 ticjted Air ju water already green andprejiarcd to yield dcplil.igi- 
 """" Aicaced air, it was found that they produced air in 
 great quantity : but our author is of opiiiion, that all 
 the appearances may be folvcd, by I'uppoling that the 
 air was produced in the mals ot water by the j;rccn 
 matter ; and thai the leaves, (ilk, &c. did iioinore than 
 ainn it in making its tl'capc, by atfording a conveni- 
 ent furface to which it eouid attach iifelf, in order to 
 colled together and alVunie its elallic form. 
 
 Thus we fee, that nature i^ provided with abundant 
 refourccs for tlie fupplying of this pure part o( the at- 
 mofphcre which is fiibjed to fueh continual w alle ; and 
 
 • there is not tlie leall doubt, that in a great number of 
 cafes the light of the fun produces pure air from wa- 
 ter as well as from vegetables. Jt is probable, alfo, 
 that even the waters of the ocean contribute towards 
 this falutary purpofe j as Dr Dobfon of Liverpool 
 found, that fea-watcr contained air fuperior in quality 
 to that of the atmofpherc. The purification of a.mo- 
 fpherical air by agitating it in water, will be confidered 
 in a fubfecjuent feetion. 
 
 As deplilogi.'ticated air is found to fupport animal 
 life for a mucli longer time than common air, it has 
 been fupjiofed thst it might anfwer valuable purpofcs 
 large quail- j^ medicine, provided any cheap method of procuring 
 *">'• it in large quantities could be fallen upon. With this 
 
 view, Air Cavallo propofesto dillil it from nitre with 
 a ftrong heat ; but the experiments already related cer- 
 tainly point out an caller method, free from the ex- 
 pence and trouble which mull necellarily attend every 
 chemical operation of tliis kind. 
 
 § 2. Properties oj Dcphiogifikatcd Air This kind 
 
 • of air polfcfTes feme of the properties of common air in 
 a very eminent degree, but isdetiticnt mothers. Thofc 
 in which it excels, are the fupport of dame and of ani- 
 mal life. It is equally elalUc or rather'more fo, than 
 common air ; as it likewife exceeds it a little in fpecific 
 gravity, the proportion betwixt it and common air 
 iseing that ofi6o to 152. On introducing a lighted 
 candle into dephlogiflicatcd air, the flame not only 
 grows larger, but becomes exceedingly bright ; and 
 when the air is very pure, the candle burns with a 
 crackling noifc, as if the air contained feme combuili- 
 ble matter, at the fiimc time that the wax or tallow 
 
 j5 walles furpriliiigly fafl. 
 r«pliiogif- The heat of the tlamc is in proportion to its li^^ht. 
 ticattd air Jf ue fill abladder with dcphlogi/lieated air, and then 
 produces fa/^^n to its neck a glafs tube whofe aperture is drawn 
 to a fine point, the dcphlogicated air, if driven out 
 by prelfing the bladder, will augment the heat of a 
 candle to fuch a degree, that if any fmall bits of 
 metal, placed on a piece of charcoal, be held in the 
 apex ofihe flame, they will almod inflanly be melted. 
 Even grains of platina may by this means be melted ; 
 and in a larger fire there is no doubt that the cffcels of 
 burning mirrors might be equalled. 
 
 On mixing dcphlogifticated and inflammable air, to- 
 gether, an explollon takes place as on mixing com- 
 jlamiuaHe mon and inflammable air, but with much greater vio- 
 »■'■• lencc. If an ounce vial, which for thispnrpofe fliould 
 
 be very .flrong, be filled with a little more than one- 
 third of dephlo^iflicatcd andtherclt inflammable air, 
 and the flame of a candle prefented to its mouth, it 
 ■will explvdt uearly as loud as a fmall pillol. 
 
 intcnfc 
 heat, 
 
 56 
 
 Explodes, 
 with in- 
 
 J9 
 
 All phlogiflic procelfes are pronoted nmch better Dcpldogif- 
 by dephlo^ikicatcd than comruou jii. i^r Prieltlcy titauJAir, 
 put a quantity of pyrophorus intoo.ie ol the f;,iall jars ^ 
 uicd for making experiments upon air in quiklilvir ; j^ 
 then liUing up the vcll'el with that lluid, he inverted it Burns ve- 
 in a bafou of the fame, and thiew in deplilogiilieateil iKuuntly 
 air at diiitrenc times. It always occafioned a fudden with pyro- 
 aiid vehement accenfion, like the tialhingof guii-pow- !>"<"■"»• 
 der, and the air was gre.illy oiniinillied. ^g 
 
 It iias been, almolt througiiout all ages, believed, Cftmnion 
 mat combuilion in every inltance dimiuiahed common air is not 
 air, or reduced it to a fmaller volume : but the late diminifln-d 
 experimenuof .Mr Lavoilier have Ihown, that this is ^"i ''"'"'"S 
 a miltakc ; and that in ordinary procelfes attended 
 with the jiroduCtion of fixed and phlogillicatcd air, 
 the quantity of vapour produced is equivalent to that 
 abforbed, or other wife made to diiappear during the 
 operation. With dephlogillicatedair the cafeis very 
 dirt'creiit. * Mr Lavoilier hiving introduced a burning 
 candle into a glafs jar filled With very I'U'c ^ir obtain- ^.^jj^^jjig. 
 cd from calciu.aed mercury, a great iieat took place ; giuKmed 
 which at lirll expelled a fmall quantity of the air ; but au- lulTers 
 afterwards, when the candle was extiuguilhcd, it was dimiuutioo 
 found that two-thirds of the bulk of air employed had 
 been converted into tixed air, or a quantity of this 
 kind of air equivalent to the former had been produ- 
 ced. The remainder, after taking up the fixed air by 
 cauflic alkali, was flill as pure as before. In ihc com- 
 mon procelfes, he obferves, that notnuore than onc- 
 tonih of the air employed is converted into fixed air. 
 In this cxperin\ent, the fuperior gravity of fixed air, 
 and the confequcnt condcnfation of the other, mull 
 undoubtedly have produced fonic diminution in the 
 volume of air, though Mr Lavoilier does not take no- 
 tice of it. In other cafes, hbwever, the diminution 
 is much more perceptible. Mr Scheele having intro- 
 duced fome live coals into ainatrafs filled witli dephlo- 
 gillicated air, found that it was diminillied by one- 
 fourth of its quantiiy. Repeating the experiment 
 with fulpluir, the flame beeanielarger and more vivid 
 than in common air, and three-fourths of its quantity 
 were loft. Putting a piece of pliofphorus into feveii 
 ounce-meafures of this kind of air, flopping the mouth 
 of the bottle with a cork, and fcttingfire to thephof- 
 phorus within it, the phial broke to pieces, as foon as 
 the flame wasextinguilhed, by the prelfure of the ex- 
 ternal air. Repcatingrhe experiment with allrongcr 
 vial, and opening it afterwards under water, the fluid 
 rulhed into it in fuch a manner as almoft to fill it en- 
 tirely. This extraordinary diminution was alfo per- 
 ceived on felling fire to iiUlammableair in the dephlo- 
 gifticated kind. The way in which he accomplilhed 
 this was, by filling a matrafs with dephlogilHcated air, 
 and invcrtingit over a phial containing an cff'Tvefcing 
 mixture of vitriolic acid and iron-tilings plunged into 
 a vcllel of hot water, andfurninied with a flendertiibe 
 reachingabove the furface of the vellcl, asrcprefcnted 
 Plate X. fig. 2. The inflammable air iiiuing from 
 the orifice of the fmall tube, was let on fire previous 
 to the inverlion of the maltrafs, and the mouth of the 
 latter immerfed in the water; on which that fluid foon 
 began to rife, and continuedto dofo ti'l fevcn-eighths 
 of the velTcI were full. In cafes of flow combuftion, 
 where common air is diniinifhed and phlogifticated, 
 the dcphlogilUcaicd kind was found to be almoft en- 
 tirely
 
 Seel. III. 
 
 E R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 157 
 
 Dcphlogil- 
 ticaccd air. 
 
 60 
 I'hciionic- 
 m oi dc- 
 phlogidi- 
 catt'd with 
 ■itroiis air. 
 
 How de- 
 phlugifli- 
 Ciitctt air 
 tn:^yl)(: coii- 
 uminatcd. 
 
 tirily dcftroycd. A phial, containing 20 ounce nica- 
 fiires of" citplilogifticatcd air, and inverted into a lo'ln- 
 tion of litpur l.iipluiris, was entirely lilUd with the 
 latter in the Ipaec of two days. 
 
 The purity of dcphlogiilicatcd air js .ifcertaincJ 
 by itb degree of diniiniaion with nitrous air; which, 
 like that of the diniiniition by liver of fiilphiir, or o- 
 thcrwU'e, is lobe coalidercd as a phlogifiic procefs, or 
 kind ol biirniu;;, cfpecially as a conlideraLle degree of 
 heat is thereby generated. Very great dilarenccs are 
 perceived in tliis refpect ; and according to the quan- 
 tity of diniinulion, the air is faid to be two, three, 
 or four times bet.er than common air. It is not yet 
 accurately determined how far this proportionable pu- 
 rity extends. Dr FrieUley mentions fonie extracted 
 from red lead five times as pure as common air. Another 
 quantity, produced from aloUiticn ohiiercury in nitrous 
 acid, was fo pure, that one meafurc of it mixed with 
 two of nitrous air, which had been obtained in tiie 
 firft part of the fame procefs, occupied only 0.0; of a 
 meafure. " Repeating the experiment (fays he), I 
 found, that two meafures of nitrous air were ratiicr 
 more than fufRcir.nt to faturate one meafurc of the de- 
 phlogiflicatedair; fo that poliibly, had the former ex- 
 periment been made with more circumfpcctioii, the di- 
 Jiiinution, extraordinary as it was, wouKI have been 
 fomewhat greater. Indeed it cannot be fuppofed, 
 that exactly two meafures of nitrous air fliould be the 
 prccifc quantity lliat would afford the grcatcll diminu- 
 tion. It (hould alfo be confidercd,- that a fmall por- 
 tion of air might be yielded by the water in which the 
 experiments were made. Upon the whole, therefore, 
 I am inclined to think, that, were it pollible to make 
 both thedephlogifticated and nitrousair in thcgrcatefl 
 purity, and t;ien to mix them in fonic exact jiropor- 
 tion, the aerial form of them both wwdd be dellroy- 
 cd, the whole quantity feeming to difappcar, as in 
 the mixture of alkaline and acid air." 
 
 Notwithftanding this great degree of purity, the 
 befl dephlogii;icated air is capable of being co.irami- 
 nated by fome of the procelFes which alteti the com- 
 mon air of our atniofphcre. Dr Pricftky having in- 
 troduced a quantity of very dry, clean nails, into a re- 
 ceiver tilled with dephlogillicatcd air, and inverted it 
 in quickfilver, found, that about nine months after, 
 one-tenth of the whole quantity h.id difappeared, the' 
 he could not perceive any riilt upon the nails. The 
 etfe.-ts of combultion have already been related, viz. as 
 producing a great quantity of pure fixed air , but pn- 
 trefailion and animul refpiraiion probalily t'ontaininatc 
 it in a manner limiiar to that of atmofplurical air, , 
 tliouirh few or no experiments feem to have been made 
 on this fubjecl. Mr Cavallo, however, i. forms us, 
 thai " when an animal is contined in a quantity of de- 
 phlogifticated air, and is kept therein till it dies, that 
 air is not rendered fo bad but that it will Hill be ca- 
 pable of confiderablc diminution by nitrousair. This 
 feems to (liow, tha' dephlngifticated air is fomewhat 
 different from pure common air ; or that common air 
 is ori;rin.^lly different fn-mdcphlogiftirated air, lower- 
 ed by the addition of phlogifton. The phenomenon is 
 certainly very remarkable ; and fomctimes a quantity 
 of dephlogi?\icated air, after having been brriuhed by 
 an animal till it died, will .ippear by the nitr(^ns tell 
 to be even better than.cominoa air. When the expe- 
 
 riment is performed over limc-witcr (to abforb the Dcphlogif- 
 fixcd air produced in refpiraiion), the diminution by a ticatcdAir. 
 mixture of^niirous air is lefs than it would otherwife ' 
 be ; but it is llill diminilhed much more than common 
 air after an animal has died in it ; which feems to in- 
 timate, that the death of the animal in dephlogiltica- 
 ted air is principally owing to the lixed air formed by 
 the att of refpiraiion. It may be faid, that the in- 
 fiammable principle difcharged through the Inngs of 
 an anvj'.ial, being perhaps combined vith fome other 
 principle, requires a longer time to combine with the 
 dephlogifticated air than tlic phh'gilton of nitrous air; 
 but this is only an hypothetical explanation of the 
 abovementioned remarkable phenomenon, which re- 
 quires many direct proofs." *i 
 
 Dephlo^;;illicated air is much inferior to that of the ^^e-'-^^'on 
 common atmofphtre in fupporling vegetable life. This ' ^,"1'?°"' 
 has been afcertained by the experiments of Dr Prieft- phiogiftH 
 ley, Mr Fontana, Mr Schccle, Dr Ingenhoufz, Scccatedaic 
 Dr PrielUey took three fprigs of mint, and having put 
 allihc roots into vials containing the fame pump- water 
 which had been for fome time expofed to the atiuo- 
 fphere, introduced one of them into a jarof dephlogi- 
 fiicaied air, anotherin to ajar of common air, and a third 
 into that which had been phlogillicated with nitrous 
 air fevcrral months before, and in fuch a (late, tliatonc 
 meafure of it, and one of nitrous air, occupied the 
 fpacc of I = meafures. This was done in April ; and 
 on examining them on the 12th of May following, it 
 was found, that the plant in phlogillicated air had 
 grown remarkably, much better than tiiatiu common 
 air ; while the plant in dephlogifticated air had a very 
 liekly appearance. Examining them on the 26th of the 
 fame mom h , the appearance continued nearly as before ; 
 but it was now found, that though the plant in phlo- 
 giflicated air had grown fo w'ell, the air was not fen- 
 (ibly improved by it, though the dephlogifticated air 
 was injured by the plant which grew in it. 
 
 5 3. (5/ t/je Cowpojitioi: oj DephlogijltcaUd A')- <',1 
 
 When Dr Prieftley firll difcovcrcd the exiftencc of this r*"", Pridl- 
 
 fluid, having found that it was always procured by !'' ' \^r 
 
 r I r 1 n J 1 • hypotbeli». 
 
 means of earthy fubftances ; and that as it came over, " 
 
 the bubbles appeared full tine of white powder ; he 
 concluded, tliat it is compofed of the nitrous acid and 
 earth, with as much phlogiflon as is necedary to its 
 clafticity ; and that the common aimofphere has as 
 much more as is necelfary to bring it into the mean 
 condition in which wc find it. It was not lor.g, how- 
 ever, before this theory lyet with oppolition. Dr 
 Prieftley himfelf, thouirh induced, from the wafte of 
 the folid matter ufed in his experiments, to conclude 
 that the air contained fome quantity of earth, was 
 nevcrthelcl's unable, by any method he could think of 
 to afcertain that quantity. His experiments were op- 64 
 pofcd by others made by Lavoiiicr ; who intilled, tli.it niffcr-n'-c 
 when folution of mercury was carefully didilled, tiic ''c''<^i»t l'» 
 metal w.ts obtained in full quantity, or with fcarce r^'v' ^^' 
 any lofs, notwi:hftandingthc dephlogiliieatedair pro- '^^^ ^^ 
 duced. This gtnileman having put two ounces and 
 one drachm of mercury into red precipitate, and after- 
 wards revived it, loft a very few grains of ihc metal; 
 which, he fays, might be the weight of a little red 
 matter that was found adhering to the neck of the 
 velFcl. The fame thing wis ohfcrvedby Mr Kontana, 
 who repeated the experiment olxu v/iii^lcls than a. 
 
 graini
 
 1^3 
 
 A E \l O L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sect. iir. 
 
 <s 
 
 Farth can- 
 not be yrj- 
 
 Uq^M'^gif- grain wiight of lufs. The vcll'il he ufcd liaJ a iuc'< 
 tiritcd ^ir cf ab('m ;\vo feet long : and lie particularly rclua^lv.^, 
 " thur, in order to facciCil ill liiis txfciiiv.eiit, the fire 
 flioulJ be managed with very great dexterity ; for it 
 that be toj Ihong, part of ikc j rccipitaic w ill be vo- 
 hiiliifJ, and then the rtfult of the txpcrimtiu is pre- 
 carious. 
 
 Thtfe cxpciinien:s were oppofed by others made by 
 rrrricftlty, who in fevcral tri JslounJ th. t aconli- 
 dtrablc qiaaiiiy of the nutal was always loll. In one 
 of ihtfc expirinicnts, oat of 1 1 pennyweights lO 
 grdns of mtrciiry, the lofs amounted to one penny- 
 weight two grains. In another experiment, 88 grains 
 wtre loll, out of a quantity of red precipitate, in the 
 preparaiion of which half an ounce of mercury had 
 bi en cnipl.iyed. The qnanliiy of mercury loll in his 
 experiments or rather the proportion of it to that of 
 the metal employed, was always various, and the dif- 
 ference not very' fm..ll; whence !V!rCa valla and others, 
 with gri at appearance of reifon, conclude, that the 
 ved toTxirt tnie rei.fonofany perceptible lofs was ihc llrong heat 
 ind.phlo- made i-feofin the didillation, and confequentiy that 
 giliicaud there is no reafon to fuppofc that any earth exiils in 
 air- dcphlogifticuled air. 
 
 Tlie next qucllioa was. Whether any of the nitrous 
 aciJ.exillcd in dephlogiliicated air > '1 hat it contains 
 nor.ein a proper ll^te of acidity, is indeed evidmt from 
 many decilive experiments ; but an idea was naiurally 
 entertained, that in the fonnalion of dt phlogil.icated 
 66 air the nitrous acid was decompofed, and part of it en- 
 Wtuthcr tered into the coirpoiition of the aerial fluid. This 
 the nitrous gjyj j-jfc to the theories of N'r Lavoilicr and N'r 
 a.idei t»s Kjr^van, which are noticed under the ar.irle Acid ; 
 ■p^"""!'"''- as alfo the experiments of Mr Watt, which tend- 
 *"°' cd to fhow that no nitrous acid was dcllroyed it 
 
 the compolition of dephlogiliicated air. To thcfe 
 MrKirwan r( plied in the manner rela'.ed in that ar- 
 ticle. We Ihall here, however, give a quotation from 
 Dr PrieRley as a kind of addition to Mr Watt's tefti- 
 n-.ony on tjiis head, fo that the reader may be the bet- 
 ter al le to determine the weight of the evidence on 
 both fid< s. 
 
 " At Mr Watt't requcfl (fays he), I endeavoured to 
 afcertain the quantity of acid that was expelled from 
 nitre, in procuring the dephlogifticated air from it. 
 To do this, I put two ounces of purified nitre in;o a 
 glafs retort, and rtctiving the air in joo oniice mcc- 
 furcs of water, only filled each recipient h;'.lffull, and 
 ajiiated the air very much in the water, in orJir to 
 make the fluid in bibe as much as polliMe of the acid 
 it contained. Notwithfanding this agitation, hosvtver, 
 every velFt lof the air retained a ftropgfmell of the acid. 
 The moment the air eeafed to come, I f.lled a large 
 phial with the water, and carried it to Mr Watt, \\ h.> 
 carefully < xamincd it: and in a pap<r w hich he prefeni- 
 ed to the Royal Society, and which is publiflied in the 
 Philofcph.ital tranTic^ions, he has given an account of 
 the quantity of acid that w..s contained in all the ;oo 
 ounces of water : whence it may be fairly inferred, 
 that thtre was .lo occafion to fuppofe tlatany of the 
 acid entered into the eonipofi[iin of the ; ir ; but that 
 it WJS all either rendered volatile or retained in the 
 water." On the other hand, the Abbe I'ontaniin- 
 forms us, that, in diftilling an ounce of nitre with a 
 flrong hcat^ in order to expel dephlogi .icated air from 
 
 metals. 
 
 it, only a few grains of weak nitrous acid .ire obt.ii;- Dtplilogif- 
 ed, more or lefs as the fire ap, lied is weak ir I'rong: ticjtcd .\iri 
 but tlua the quantity of dephlogiliicated air extricated >/— 
 
 from it follows the toiitrary rule -, being grcateil w hen 
 the heat is moll vi.ilent and fuddc.'ly applied, and lefs 
 when the fire is griiiually applied. 
 
 On eakiningmeialsin dcptilogiuicaied air, very fm- 
 guhr phcnoinei.a are obfervcd, which feem to throw 
 great light upon the compolition of this iluid. " One 
 of the moll limplc of all iihlogiilic proce-lfts (fays Lr 
 Piieltlcy),is thatin which mciuls aremeUed indfplilc- 
 giiticated air. 1 therefore'began with thi", with a 
 view loafccrtain whether any water be produLcd when 
 the air is made to difappear in it. Accordingly, into 
 a glafs vellel, containing fevenouncc-meafures of pret- 
 ty pure dephlogiliicated air, I introduced a quantity of 
 iron turnings, which is iron in thin fm 11 pieces, ex- 
 ceedingly eoiiViniem for thefe and many other expe- 
 riments, having pre vioully made them, together wiili 
 the vellil, the air, and the m^rcmy I'y which it was 
 coniiUtd, as diy as I polii, ly could. Alfo to prevent 
 the air from imbibing any moillure, 1 received it im- 
 mediately in the vellil in which the experiment was 
 ma V, from the procefs of procuring it fiom red prc- 
 eiiitate, fo that it had never been in contacl with any 5- 
 waiCr. I then tired the iron by means of a burning ivpKlogif- 
 lens, and prtfently reduced the fevenouncc-meafures tica-ed air 
 to 0.6 J of a mepfiirc ; but I found no more water af- '"'•''l"-*' t] 
 ler this proccls than 1 imagined it had not been polfi- <^»''-=s '^1 
 blc for me to exclude, as it bore no proportion to the 
 air which had difappeared. Eyamiiiing tlie n liduuia 
 of the air, I found one-fifth of it to be fixed air ; and 
 when I tried the puiity of that which remair.ed b/ 
 the tell of nitrous air, it <lid not appear that any phlo- 
 gillicatcd air had been produced in the proceis : for 
 though it was more impure than I fuppofc ihe . ir w iih 
 which 1 began the cxpirimei.t mull have been, it was 
 not more fo than the phlogifcicaied air of the frven. 
 ounce-mcafures, which had not been affected by the 
 proctfs, and which mull have bten contained in the 
 refiduuni, would necellarily make it. In this cafe, one 
 meafure of this refidunm, and two of nitrous air, oc- 
 cupied the fpace of 0.52 of a meafure. In another 
 experiment of this kind, ten ounce-meafurcs of de- 
 phlogifticated air wercreduced too. Sofa meafure, and 
 by wafliing in lime-water to 0.38 of a meafure. In 
 anothcrexperiment, yi ounce-meafures of dephlogilii- 
 cated air were reduced to half an ouncc-meafure, of 
 \\ hich one-fifth was fixed air, and the rcliduuin was 
 quite as pi're as the air with which I began the expe- 
 riment; the teflwith nitrous air, in the proportions 
 abovemeniioncd, gi\ing 0.4 in both cafes. 
 
 " In thefe experiments the fixed air mu/l, I pre- 
 f-imc, have been formed by the union of the phlo^iiloii 
 from the iron and dephlogiliicated »ir in which it was 
 igniied ; but the quantity of it was very fmall in pro- 
 portion to the air which had difappeared ; and at that 
 time I hnd nofifpicion that the iron, which had been 
 melted and gathered into round balls, could have im- 
 bibed it ; a melting heat having been fuificient, as I 
 had imagined, to expel every thing that was capable 
 of alfuniing the form of air from any fubllancc what- 
 ever. Sinlible, however, that fnch a quantity of air 
 mufl ha\ e been imbibed by Aw./.f.wr, to which it mufl 
 hive given a very perceptible addition of weight, and 
 
 feeing
 
 Etdt. III. 
 
 A E R O L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 a;n-,o- 
 fjihcre 
 
 L!ei))il.>glf- f.ciiig fiOthii-.g the tlut could h-ivc in;Libcd it, ii oc- 
 icatcJ Air.furrtd to D.e to Weigh the caljc into wbi.h the iron 
 ^~~fil' tJii betii reduced ; and Ipreltntly foand, that the 
 ITuhl.pif- dcfhlo^iliit.itcd air had aaiially been iir,b!bed by the 
 ticatidair Lu'licd iron, in the lame manner as in.-ianiir.abjc air 
 iir,bii)td by had been iir.bibed by ihc melted calces of metals in my 
 •"*" former experiments, how ever ir.iprobiblc f ich aa ab- 
 
 forption might have appeared a /"hri. In the (irft 
 i.iftancc, about twelve ojuce-mtaiures of dcphh>giHi- 
 catcd air hp.d dilappcarcJ, and the iron had giiacJ fjx 
 grains in weight. Repeating the experiment very fre 
 qutntly, I always found that other cjnaiitiiics cl i/on, 
 treated in the fime manner, gained iiuiilar adJi.ions 
 cf weight, which was always very nearly th.^.t of the 
 g. air which had difappeared. 
 l8car''We '<Concl.idi;igfrom the preceding experiments, that 
 cf taVing it iron, f ifHciently heated, was capable of fitiirati.ig it- 
 unirom the fclf v. ith p irc air from the atmofphcrc, 1 then procecd- 
 cd to melt it with the heat of a burning lens i;i the 
 open air, and 1 prcfently found, thatpcrfeit iron was 
 tafily capable of being fafcd in this way, and conti- 
 i:ucJ in this fjfion a certain time, exhibiting the ap- 
 pearance of h/ili/ig or throwing out air ; whereas it 
 was, on the coiitrary, imbibing air ; and, w hen it was 
 fuiirated, the fadon ceafed, and the heat of the lens 
 could make no f irther inipreffion upon it. When this 
 was the cafe, I always found that it had gained weight 
 i'l tlie proportion of 71 to 24. which is very nearly 
 one-third of the original w eight. The fame was the 
 cffcft when I melted fteelin the fame circuniTtances, 
 and alfo every kindof iron on whi:h the experiment, 
 could be tried. But I have reafou to think, that with 
 a greater degree of heat than I could .ipply. the iron 
 might have been kept in a Rate of fulioii fomewhat 
 longer ; and by that means have iuibibed more than 
 even one-third of its original weight. 
 n.eiiijr»- " There was a peculiar circumftancc attending the 
 able pheno melting of calt iron with a burning lens, w^hich ren- 
 Djcnon 3t dercd it impollible to afcertain the addition thu w-as 
 t.-mlingthc made to its weight, and at the fame t me afforded an 
 melting of amufing fpeiJlaclc : for the moment that any qaantity 
 cafl-iron. ^^j- j^ ^^,.^^ melted, and gathered into a round ball, it 
 began to difperfe in a tho ifiind diredions, exhibiting 
 the appearance of a moll bca'itiful fire-work ; feme of 
 the particles flying to the dillance of half a yard from 
 the place of fufion ; and the whole was attended with 
 a confiderable hiJm? noife. So:^c of the large ft pie- 
 ces, which had been difpcrfed itl this manner, 1 was 
 able to collcv.!, and havin<; f ibjccted them to the heat 
 of the lens, they exhildicd the fame appc trance as the 
 larger mafsfron which they had been fcattercJ. 
 
 '« When this caft inm i.i-a,s melted in the bottom of 
 a deep fflafs receiver, in order to colleft all the par- 
 ticles that w^ere difpc-fcd, they firmly aJhercd to the 
 plafs, melting it faperlici.illy, though without nuking 
 it crack, fo that it was fiill impoiriblc to collect and 
 weigh them. However, I generally found, that, not- 
 withftandingthe copious difperfion, what rem lined af- 
 ter the experiment rithcr excceJcd th in fell lliort of 
 the original weight of the iron " 
 
 On attempting to revive this calx of iron in iuflani- 
 mablc air, a very newand unexpeifl' d appearance took 
 
 Rem^rk- 
 
 Ff)rination 
 of ua'er 
 from de- 
 phlogifti- 
 catcd ami 
 inflam 
 Stable air. 
 
 place. 
 
 FTaving put i piece of iron faturited with pure 
 air into a vclTcl filled with in'^amTable air con.'incd by 
 Water, the inflammable air di(;ippcared and the metal 
 
 V. as revived ; but on weigl)in^ it, he found thJt a' 
 grains out of 1 1| had been IjA, bclides the 7^ ouuce- 
 r.icjf res cfia.iamn; able air which had vaniihtd. Con- 
 lideringall thcfe cir.umftanccs, the L>oc"tor had now 
 110 doubt that the two kir.ds of air had u.ijicd a::d 
 formed either fixed air or v, atcr j and w ith a view 10 
 deterii.ine this point, he repeated the tx,>eriiiicnt in a 
 vcU'el where thein'iammablc wascoiit'ncdby mcrcuty, 
 loth th.c vcllcl and mercury having been peviou:ly 
 r.iadc as dry as pofliblc. In the I'e circuinftaucts he had 
 no fooner begun to hjat the iron, than the air was 
 perceived to dimiiiifn, and at the finie tine the iiifidc 
 of the veflel to become clo idy, with pirticks of dew 
 that covered alnioft the whole of it. Thefc particles 
 ly degrees gathered into drops, and ran down in all 
 places, excepting thofe w hich were heated by the fan- 
 beams. On ccUefting the water produ -cd i.rthis ex- 
 periment, by menns of a piece of hltcring paper care- 
 fully introduced to abfoib it, he found it to be as near- 
 ly as pofTible of jhe fame w eight w ith that w hich h^id 
 been loft by the iron ; and alfo in every cxperinitut of 
 this kind, in which he atten.led to the circurr.rtance, 
 he found that the quantity of iuflammablc air which 
 had dif.ippeared w as about double that of the depLlo- 
 p^ifticate J air fct loofe in the operation, f ippofmg that 
 weight to have been reduced into air. Ihus, at 0:1: 
 time, a piece of this (l.ig abforbcd j^ ounce-nicafures 
 cf in.larnmable air, while it loft the weight of a'jont 
 three ouncc-meafures of dcphlogifticited air, and the 
 water coUcfted weighed two grains. Another time a 
 piece of flag loft i.j grains, and the water produced 
 V. as 1. 7 grains. In a third cafe, where 6^ oance-ntca- 
 fuces of inflammable air were reduced to 0.92 of a mc::- 
 fare, the iron hid loft th.e weight of 5.3 ouuce-.nea- 
 fures of dephlogifticated air, or nearly two grains. 
 
 Th c Do'itor having fuccceded fo well svith iron, next 
 tried the calx of copper, or thofe f.aK-s which fly off' 
 from it by hammering whiUl it is red-hot ; and found 
 water produced in the inSammable air in the fame 
 manner as when the fcalcs of iron were nfcJ. On u- 
 fmg precipitate /t-r/i-, he imagined at firft that water 
 was obtained from this fubftance alfo ; but on repeat- 
 ing the experiment to more advantage he found no 
 Hiore water than might be f ippofcd to have been con- 
 tained as as extraneous fubftance cither in the in.'lam- 
 mableairor in the red preci,Mtate. With iron, how- 
 ever, the cafe was vaftly ditferent. As the Doctor 
 had formerly fjtistied hi.nfeU' that inHamniabic air al- 
 ways contains a portion of water, and alfo thjt when 
 it has been fome time confined by water it imbibes 
 more, fo as to be increafed in its fpeciiic gravity by 
 that means, he repeated the cx,>eriment with in.iam- 
 mable air which had not been conrined by that fluid, 
 bit was re-civcd in velfel of dry mercury from the 
 veflciinwhi -h it haJbeen generated . butinthiscafethc 
 v.'aterwasprodu-ed,toappc:iranrc, as copiously as in the 
 former expcrimcnr. " Indeed ,f."ys he), the quantity 
 of water produced, fo greatly exceeding the wci_;ht of 
 all the inHamm.!b!e air, is fufli-icnt to prove that it 
 nuift hive had f > nc other fource tlinn any conf^iturnt 
 part of that air, or thcwholc of it, together with the 
 water contained in it, without taking inro confidcra- 
 tion the corrrfponding lofs of weight in the iron. 
 
 " I niuft here obferve, th it tic 'ron flig w-hi-b I 
 had treated in this manner, and which hid thereby loft 
 
 " the 
 
 '59 
 
 OepMojr- 
 ticati. J .Air* 
 
 72 
 Quintity 
 produced 
 inthl:>mai]- 
 
 73 
 E.tpL-ri- 
 mcnti with 
 cjpper.
 
 i6o 
 
 AERO 
 
 O 
 
 Sed. III. 
 
 Dcplilojif- the weight which it had acquired in dcplilogiflicaicd 
 tkateil Air. air, became pcrfcc^ iron as at lirll, and was ihcu ca- 
 -1 pable of being melted by the burning lens again ; fo 
 Iron may tliat the fame piece of iron would ftrve for tliefe e^- 
 be niaJc to perimcnts as long as the operator ihould choofc. It 
 imbibe dc- was evident, therefore, than if the iron had loA its 
 phloj.;i(U- plilogiftonin the preceding fulion, it had acquired it 
 catctl air as ^ggj,, f^om the intiamniablc air which it had abforbcd ; 
 
 often as we ° , , , ,• i i i i 
 
 plcafc. ''"" ' "" "°' ^^'^ "°^^ '"^ experiment can be accounted 
 
 7j for in any oihcr way." 
 Expcri- As the experiments of Dr Prieftlcy tend very 
 
 mtiitsof much to throw fomc light on the compolition of dc- 
 ^i'"" *■',"""■ phlogiflicated air, we ihall here give an account of 
 <)ifli,.<cc.on j-yj^^^ others made by Mr Cavendilh, as well as tliofe 
 of Dr Prieftley and the French chemifts, upon \\ ater : 
 From all which it is concluded by the molt celebrated 
 philolbpScrs and chemilts, That dcphlogilUcatcd air 
 is oneof the conliitucnt and elementary parts of water, 
 inHamniable air being the other ; though the opinion 
 is ftill contelied by fomc foreign chemilts. 
 PhU.Tranf. " As there fcemcd great rcafon," fays Mr Cavcn- 
 lixiv. 12J. difli, " to think, from DrPricftlcy's experiments, that 
 the nitrous and vitriolic acids were convertible into de- 
 phlogidicatcd'air, 1 tried whether the dephlogilticatcd 
 part of common air mi^ht not be converted into nitrous 
 or vitriolic acid." For this purpofe he impregnated 
 fome milk of lime witli the fumes of burning fulphur, 
 by burning 122 grains of fulphur in a large glafs re- 
 ceiver, in which fomc lac calcis was included. No 
 nitrous fait, nor any thing bclldes felenitc, was pro- 
 duced in the proccfs. Neither was any nitrous acid 
 :* produced by phlogillicating common air with liver of 
 fulphur, or by treating dephlogilticatcd air in the fame 
 manner. The liver of fulphur ufed in thtfc experi- 
 ments was made with lime ; and the only obfcrvation 
 made on this occalion was, that the felenitc produced 
 was much more foluble in water than when made with 
 dcphogilticated vitriolic acid. 
 
 To try whether any vitriolic acid was produced by 
 the phlogiltication of air, 50 ounces of diltilled water 
 giiticatiou were impregnated with the fumes produced on mixing 
 of air pro- ^^ ounce-meafures of nitrous air with a quantity of 
 •rioUc acid. '^""""''" ^'^ fufficient to decompound it. This was 
 done by tilling a bottle with fomc of this water, and 
 inverting it into a bafonof the fame ; and then by afy- 
 phon, letting inasmuch nitrous air as filled it half full; 
 after which, common air was added flowly by tlic fame 
 fyphon, till the nitrous air was decompounded. When 
 tljis was done, the diltilled watcrwas further iiiipreg- 
 ratcd in the fame manner till the whole quantity of 
 nitrous air was employed. The impregnated water 
 was fcniibly acid to the talte ; andondiltillation yield- 
 ed firft phlogillicated nitrous acid, then water, and 
 laftly a very acid liquor conlilting of dephlogilticatcd 
 nitrous acid. By faturation with fait of tartar, R7; 
 grainsof nitre, without any mixture of vitriolatcd tar- 
 tar, or other vitriolic fait, were obtained. 
 
 Thefc experiments having proved uniucrcfsful, Mr 
 Cavendilh next proceeded to try the tffeels of explo- 
 ding dcphlogillicated and inHamniable air together in 
 clofc velfcls. He begins with relating an experiment 
 
 76 
 Whether 
 the phlo- 
 
 77 
 Nitrous a- 
 cid produ 
 ted frjm 
 de|hlo,'if- 
 
 ti.attJ and ^ ^ Prlcltlcy ; in which, it was faid, that'on firing 
 
 ble iiir, 3 mixture of common and innammablc air by elertn- 
 
 city, in a clufe copper veflll holding .bout three pints, 
 
 a lofs of weight was always perceived, on an average 
 
 about two grains, though the veflel was flopped in 
 fuch a manner that no air could cfcape by tlie explo- 
 llon. It is alfo related, that on repeating the experi- 
 ment, in glafs vellils, the infide of the glafs, though 
 clean and dry betorc, immediately became dewy ; 
 which confirmed an opinion he had long entertainetl, 
 that common air dcpolits its moillure by phlogiilica- 
 tioii. The experiment, however, did notfucceed wilk 
 MrCavcndilh, at Icall with regard to the lofsof weight ; 
 which never e.-icceded the hfth part of a grain, and 
 commonly was nothing at all. In thcfe experiments 
 the greateft care was taken to obferve with accuracy 
 the diminution of air by the explolion, and quality of 
 the remainder ; from which it appeared, that 423 mea- 
 fures of inrtammable air were ne.irly fuliicient to phlo- 
 gill^cate icooof common air, and that the bulk of 
 air remaining atter liie explolion is very little more 
 than fuur-tifthsof the common air employed ; whence 
 he conclu.les, that " when they arc mixed in this jiro- 
 portioh, almollall thein/lammablc, and aboutone-fifth 
 of the common air, lofc their el 'llicity, and arc con- 
 denfed into the dew which lines the glafs." 
 
 To examine more exactly the nature of this dew, 
 500,000 grain-incafures of inflammable air were burnt 
 with about 2; times the quantity of common air, and 
 thx' burnt air was made to pals through a glafs cylinder 
 eight feet long and flirce-fourths of an inch in diame- 
 ter, in order to depoiit the dew. The two airs were 
 conveyed flowly into this cylinder by feparate copper 
 pipes, palling through a brafs plate which Aoppcd up 
 one endof the cylinder ; and as neither inflammable nor 
 common air can burn by themfelves, there was no dan- 
 ger of the Hame fprcading to the magazines from which 
 they were conveyed. Each of thefc magazines eon- 
 iKtcd of a large tin vcffel inverted into another jufl big 
 enough to receive it. The inner velFel communicated 
 with the copper pipe, and the air was forced out of it 
 by pouriivg water into the outer velFel : and in order 
 that the quantity of common air expelled (hould be 
 2V times that of the iniiammable air, the watcrwas 
 let into the outer vefltli by two holes in the bottom of 
 the fame tin pan ; the whole which conveyed the water 
 into that vcUcl in which the common air was confined 
 being 21 times as big as the other. In trying the ex- 
 periments, the magazines being firll filled with their 
 refpeftive airs, the glafs cylinder was taken ott', and 
 water let by the two holes into the outer velfcls, till 
 the airs began to iiiuc from the ends of the copper 
 pipes ; they were then feton fire by a candle, aiid the 
 cylinder put on again in its place. By this means up- 
 wards of 155 grains of Water were left in the cylinder, 
 which had no talte nor Imell, and which left no per- 
 ceptible fediment on being evaporated to drynefs ; nei- 
 ther did it yield any pungent fmell during the evapo- 
 ration ; in fhort, it fcemed pure water. In one of his 
 experiments a little footy matter was Jierceived, butit 
 was found to proceed from the luting. On repeating 
 the experiment with deplilogifticated, inllcad of com- 
 mon air, the produce was nitrous acid. 
 
 The following conclufion is drawn by Mr Cavendilh. 
 from all thcfe experiments : " There feem two ways 
 by which the production of the nitrous acid, in the 
 manner abovementioued, may be explained : firft, by 
 r.ppoling tliat dephlogilticatcd air '-omaiusa little ni- 
 trous acid, which entersintoitas one of the component 
 
 parts i 
 
 Dephlogif- 
 ticatcd.-iir. 
 
 78 
 Qu.vitityiif 
 inflamma- 
 ble air ne- 
 celTary tu 
 phlogilli- 
 catc com- 
 muD air.
 
 Sea. in. 
 
 A 
 
 R O 
 
 licphloyif- parts ; and thai iliiracid, when tiic inflammable air is 
 ticateJ Air. ia fafficicilt proportion, unites to ihc phloj;' lion, and is 
 " ' turned into ^•iilo;;iitic;itcd air, but di-cs not when the 
 
 Conrluri- inflammable air isintoo!n>ali proportion : and,fccoud- 
 cins frum Jy, by fuppoling that there is no nitrous acid mixed 
 tliefe expe- with or entering into the compofition of dephlogiUi- 
 uients. cated air; but that, wii'-n the air is in fufficient pro- 
 portion, part of the dephljgiiii'.-at'd air with which it is 
 dcbafcd is, by the flrong aflinity of phlo^ifton to dc- 
 phlogillicated air, deprived of itsphlogifton, and inrn- 
 ed into nitrous acid ; whereas, when the dcphlogifti- 
 cated air is not more than fufficient to confamc the in- 
 flammable air, none then remains to deprive the phlo- 
 gifticatcd air of its phlogiflon, and turn it into acid. — 
 If the latter explanation be true, I think we mufl al- 
 low that dcphlogifticatcd air is in reality nothing but 
 d;phlogijikatcd watir, or water deprived of its phlo- 
 giflon ; or, in other words, that water confifts of dc- 
 jihlogifticatcd air unitrd to phlogifton. On the other 
 hand, if the former explanation be true, v.e mud fup- 
 pofe, that dephlogiflicatcd air confifts of water united 
 to a little nitrous acid, and deprived of its phlogiflon ; 
 but ftiU the nitrous acid in it muft only make a very 
 fmall part of the whole, as it is found that the phlo- 
 gifticated air into which it is converted is very fmull 
 in comparifonof the dephlogifticated air. I think the 
 fecond of thefc explanations feems much the raorclike- 
 ly i as it was found that the acid in the condcnfed li- 
 quor was of the nitrous kind, not only when the de- 
 phlogifticated air was prepared from nitrous acid, but 
 when procured from plants or turbith mineral. Ano- 
 ther ftrong argument in favourof this opinion is, that 
 dephlogifticated air yields no nitrous acid when phlo- 
 gilticated by liver of fulphur; for if this air contains 
 nitrous acid, and yields it when phlogifticated by ex- 
 plofton with intlammable air, it is very extraordinary 
 that it (hould not do fo by other means. Rut what 
 forms a ftrongcr, and, I think, almoft decifive argu- 
 ment in favour of this explanation, is, that when the 
 dephlogifticated air is very pure, the condenfed liquor 
 is made much more ftrongly acid by mixing the air to 
 
 80 be exploded with a little phlogifticated air." 
 
 Dr Vrieft- The experiments of Dr Priedlcy alluded to were 
 ley • cxpe- jhofc ill which inriammablc air was luppofcd by Mr 
 runciits. Lavoilier to be procured from water by paiiing its 
 /team through ret-hot iron tubes. It was foon difco- 
 vered, however, by DrPriiftliy, that this inflammable 
 air did not proceed from the water, but from the iron of 
 the tube; and might bcobtaincd by tranfmittiag aqueous 
 vapour through charcoal or iron placed in tub-.-sof cop- 
 per, glafs, or earthen ware, made red-hot, but not 
 through thtfe tubes by ihemfelves. In this cafe, the 
 lofsof the water employed exceeded that of thcindam- 
 inable air produced Ih the proportion of i.;; to 2 ; and 
 the iron which had thus abforbed the water, aj'pearcd 
 exactly fimilar to that which had been burned in de- 
 
 81 phlogifticated air in the manner already rc!a\ed. His 
 Hiscpinion conclul:ons from thence are thefc: " Since iron gains 
 conccnimg ,^g j-j,,,^ addition of weight by being melted in dc- 
 thc compe- i , . „. , . ' i i r i i . • • 
 
 (itioiioi phlogifticated air, and alfo by the adoition ot water 
 water. Vol. I. 
 
 L O G V. 
 
 wluii red hot, and becomes, abl have already obftrv- 
 ed, the fanicfubftance in allrcfptcts, it is evident tb:il 
 this air or water, as exifting in the iron, is the very 
 fame thing; and this can harJly be explained but on 
 the fiippofition that water confifts of two kinds of air, 
 viz. inllammablc and dephlogifticated." 
 
 Of thcfe proceflcs he gives the f.jllowing explana- 
 tion: " When iron is heated in dephlogilUcatcd air, 
 we may fuppofc that, though part of its phlogiftioK 
 cfcapes, focnter into theconipolitionof the fmall qoan- 
 tity of fixed air which is then procured, yet enough re- 
 mains to form water with the dcphlogifticatcdair which 
 it has imbibed, fo that this calx confifts of the inti- 
 mate union of the pure earth of iron and of water; 
 and therefore, v, hen the fame calx, thus faturated with 
 water, is expofcd to heat in intlammable air, this air 
 enters into it, deftroys the attraiflion between the wa- 
 ter and the earth, and revives the iron, while tLe wa- 
 ter is expelled in its proper form." 
 
 The whole of the Dofior's opinions on the compo- 
 nent parts of this kindof air, however, are fummcd up 
 in the following fentence in VisObfirvaticiiis relating to 
 Th:oty — "The only kind of air that is no»v thought 
 to be properly elementary, and to conlift of a fimple 
 fubftancc, is dephlogifticated air ; with the addition at 
 Icaftofihe principle ofheat,concerningwhich we know 
 very little ; and as it is not probable that this adds any 
 thing to the weight of bodies, it can hardly be called 
 an ^/tw/.'/./in their compofition. Dephh>gifticatcd air 
 appears to be one of the elements of water, of fixed 
 air, of all theacids, and many other fubftanccs, which, 
 till lately, have been thought to be I'lmple." 
 
 The experiments of the French philofophcrs were of 
 the fame nature with thofe of >ir Cavcndifli, but con- 
 ducted on a larger fcale. The inference drawn from 
 them was the fame with that already mentioned, viz. 
 tliat dephlogifticated and indammable air in all cafes 
 arc the twoconftituent parts of water. This opiaioa 
 is adopted by Mr. Kirwan in his TrcatiCe on Fhlcgijhtt. 
 " The experiments of Mr Cavendiih, and of Wr 
 Mongc," fays he, " appear to me to leave no room to 
 doubt, that when very pure dephlogifticated and in- 
 flammable air are inflamed, the product is mere wa- 
 ter (a) ; for when thefc airs are employed in the pro- 
 per proportion, only 0,02 of the mixture of both airs 
 retains its aerial form. Now it is impoiliblc to lupptjfc 
 that all the water obtained pre-exilled in thefc airs; 
 that is, that 49 parts in jo were mere v.atcr. 
 
 Notwithlianding thefc pofiiive conclufio?.s, how- 
 ever, byfomcof the mofl refpcflablc names in Eng- 
 land, the criJcnces adduced have been uuialisfac- 
 tory to fonie French chcmiils ; who maintain, that 
 Mrifrs Cavcndilh, Pricftlcy, and Kirwan, are totally 
 miftakcii with regard to the produ(5iion of water from 
 dephl'igitlicatcd and indammable air ; contcnding,tiiat 
 the Wutcrobtained had prcviou'Iy exilted in the air, and 
 was not originally pro.iuced in the oper.ition. The 
 facl, indeed, becomes ibmtwhat dubious from fonic ex- 
 periments relatfd by Dr Priefthy liimfclf, and of 
 wiiich w e lliall now proceed to give an account. 
 
 X One 
 
 161 
 
 Ut-i>hlo,c'f- 
 ticitcd Air 
 
 01'fcr%'.anJ 
 Lxpcr. vi. 
 40J. 
 
 8» 
 Experi- 
 menciof 
 tlie ftt Dch 
 philnfu- 
 p)icr>. 
 
 8i 
 Mr KJr - 
 
 wan't con- 
 clofions 
 from them. 
 
 84 
 The fore- 
 going theo- 
 ries not sl- 
 togcUier 
 fatijfifio- 
 
 (a) The experiments of Mr Cavcndilh (how iliat niirous arid is the produi.1 in this cafe. He takes notice of 
 the difference between the refidt of the French experiments and his. but afci ibes it to tlicir uiiufi; iiii;.-tnma- 
 tit ait prepared from charcoal: His was from zinc.
 
 1 63 
 
 Ucphlopif- 
 tiiratcJAir. 
 
 A 
 
 R O 
 
 O G Y. 
 
 Scd. irr. 
 
 ])iiriculti<rs 
 ;u'iliDj^ ill 
 fiimc of l)r 
 I'rieftlcy's 
 •iperi- 
 nieiits. 
 
 One eonff qiicnccof tlic liyiiothelis in qutlHon is evi- 
 dent, thai it" water really he produadhy the dctiagra- 
 tiou oi'eiihcr dc[.hloj;ilticatcctor common air with in- 
 riiuimablt air, the quantity of liquid obtained ought to 
 iiicrcale iii proportion lo the quantity ot the two sirs 
 co'if'tnici!, and that without any limitation. Tliis, 
 however, is not the catc, as Dr I'liiftley lias obfcrved. 
 He had iuccecdcd indeed with I'cales of iron and cop- 
 per, as has already been related ; and in the expeiimcut 
 v\ ith the latter, tiie production of water was fo copious, 
 that when only 3; ounce-meafurcsof air were abforb- 
 cd, the water llood indropson the inlideofthe vell'cl, 
 and fome of thcfe ran down it. Water was alio pro- 
 cured by firing dtpiilogiflicated and inflammable air 
 from iron by the electric fj-ark in a clofe vclfel, an ex- 
 periment fimilar to thofc niadcby Mr Lavoilicr at Pa- 
 ris. In his tirll experiment lie put 2.7> ounce-mea- 
 fures of a mixture of air, of which one-third vvasde- 
 phlogillic.iicJ and two-thirds intlauimablc air from 
 iron, in aclofc vellcl,;'.nd, after liic cxplolion, found in 
 it one grain of uioilUirc ; but on repcatinp; the experi- 
 ment with hall'asmuchdephlOj;illicatcdasinrtaramabl£ 
 air, lu could perccivcnofign of nioillure. The greatell 
 difficulty, however, which he fays he ever met with re- 
 fpcdingtheprccedin>;theory,arofe from hisnever ha- 
 ving been able to procure any water when lie revived 
 red precipitate in inflammable air, or at Icall; no more 
 than might have been fuppofcd to be contained in the 
 inflaminablc air as an extraneous fubftanc;. 
 
 In order to make the experiment with the fcalcs of 
 iron and that with .the red pccipitaicas much alike 
 as poifible, and compare them both to the greatcll ad- 
 vantage, he made them one immediately after the other 
 with every circumflance as nearly the fame he could. 
 Theinriammablc air was the fame in both experiments, 
 and both the fcales of iron and red precipitate were 
 made as dry as pollible. They were heated in vclfcls 
 of the fame fize and form, and equally confined by dry 
 mercury : and yet with the former, water was produced 
 as copioully as before, viz. running down the inlidc of 
 the veficl in drops, when only four ounce-nieafurcs of 
 inflammable air were abforbcd ; but though he heated 
 the red precipitate till eightounce-meafures of thein- 
 flammablc air wercabforbcd,and only 0.75 of an ounce- 
 neafure remained, there was hardly any fenlible quan- 
 tity of water produced, "certainly," fays he, " not 
 on'c-tcnthof what appeared in the experiment with the 
 fcales of iron. In this experiment there can be no 
 doubt but that the dephlogilUcatcd air produced from 
 the red precipitate mixed with the inrtammable air in 
 the velTel ; and as no 'duuter equal to the weight of tiic 
 two kindsof air was produced, they mull have formed 
 fome moxcfoliJ fuhfiance, w hich ,in the fmall quantities 
 I was obliged to ufe, could not be found. 
 
 " The difficulty, with rcfpeol to what becomes of 
 the two kinds of air, was not leilened by the attempts 
 whicli I made to collect rdl that I could from repeated 
 dccompofitionsof inflammable anddephlogiflicated air 
 in a clofe velfel. As I had produced water in this pro- 
 ccfs when nomore than alingleexplofion was made at 
 a time, I thought that by continuing to make explo- 
 fions in the f.inie velfel, the water would not fail to ac- 
 cumulate till any quantity might be coUee^ed ; and I 
 intended to have collefted a coufidcrablc part of an 
 ounce. And as I would know exactly what quantity 
 
 of air I dccompofed, I had no doubt of being able to licphlogif- 
 afcertain the proportion that the w ater and air bore to ticatcd .^ir. 
 
 each other. With this view a mixture was made of a " 
 
 large quantity of air, one-third dephlogillicaied and 
 two thirds inriammable,from iron andoilof vitriwl. — 
 But though 1 had a fenlible quantity of water at the 
 Jirll explolion ^in each of which between foiiraud five 
 ounce-meafurcsoftiie mixture of air were ufed), I W'as 
 furprifed to perceive no very fenlible incrcale of the 
 quantity of water on repeating iheexplolions. Ha\ing 
 therefore expended 48 ojnce-mcaluresof the mixture, 
 the procefs w as difcontinucd ; and, coUeCling the wa- 
 ter with all the care iliat I could, 1 found no more 
 tlian three grains, w^hen there ought to have been 
 eleven. 
 
 " III this procefs the infidc of the veflTel was always 
 very black after each explolion ; and when I poured in 
 tlie mercury after the explolion, though there was no- 
 thing viliblc in the air within the vellcl, there ilfucd 
 
 86 
 Incnnden- 
 
 from the mouth of it a denfe vapour. This was the 
 cafe, iliough I waited fo long as two minutes after any 'f^^\^ y^, 
 explolion, before I proceeded to put in more mercury pourari- 
 in order to make another ; w hith, if the vapour had fmg from 
 been fleam, would have been time more than iuincienr ^vater. 
 to permit it tocondcnfe into water. I even perceived 
 this vapour when I jiad a quamity of water in the vel- 
 fel, and tiie ex]ilolion was eonfcquenily made over it, 
 as Well as in contatil with tlie lidcs of the velfel which 
 Were wetted with it ; fo that, as this vapour had paf- 
 fed through the whole body of water when the velfel 
 Was inverted, it is prubable that it mull have coiililfcd 
 of fomething clfe than mere water. But I w-as never 
 able to collect any quantity of it, though it mufl have 
 been fomething produced by theunionof theiwokinds 
 of air." 
 
 In order to colle<5t a quantity of this vapour, he con- 
 trived an apparatus, which, by diffuling it through a 
 thin glafs velfel, he fuppofcd would condenfe all the 
 contents whether fluid or folid ; but after repeating 
 the experiment as carefully as polhble, by taking 20 
 explolions, and repeating the whole feveral times o- 
 ver, he could find nothing in the velfel belides a fmall 
 quantity of water, which, addeii to that in tiie flrong 
 veliej, came far ihort of the weight of the air that 
 was dccompofed. . 
 
 " Ail the eonjcdure," fay he," that I can advance, prieftfey'i 
 in order to explain tliis phenomenon is, that fince foot coiiieaure 
 yields pure air, part of the foot is formed by the union concerning 
 of the dephlogidicated air in the atmofphere, and the this vapour, 
 inflammable air of the fuel : hnl fmoks, which contains 
 much/c';/, is foon difperfed, and becomes invilible in 
 the open air. Such, therefore, may be the cafe here. 
 The foot formed by the union of the two kinds of air, 
 may be diffufcd through the air, in the velfel in which 
 they are exploded, and be carried inviljbly into the 
 common atmofphere ; which may account for my not 
 being able to collcft any quantity of it in this appa- 
 ratus." 88 
 
 Not difcouraged by this bad fuccefs, the Doftor at Unfuccef*- 
 temptcd to collect this volatile matter by means of a fulattempts 
 quantity of water incumbent upon the mercury in the tocolleA it. 
 If rong glafs velfel in which the cxplofions were made, 
 though he had found that part of it could efcape 
 through the water. He decompofcd agrcat quantity of 
 the two kinds of air in thcfe circumftances; and pre- 
 
 fcntly
 
 Sed. IV. 
 
 E .!<. 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Y. 
 
 89 
 
 W'attr in 
 confidcr- 
 
 air 
 
 See Plate 
 
 X.fig.3. 
 
 IVphlogif- fciuly found that the water became very cloudy, anj 
 ticatcdAir. was at length filled with a blackidi matter. This he 
 
 ' " ' collected, and loiiud that it remained perlccHy black. 
 
 upon the earthen velFcl in which the water containing 
 it was evaporated ; which would not have been the 
 cafe if the blackilh matter in the water had been that 
 powder of mercury which is produced by agitating it 
 in pure water : For that black mafs always became 
 white running mercury the moment the water was e- 
 vaporated from it. Ifafufficient quantity of this mat- 
 ter could have been procured, he could have fatisticd 
 himfelf whether it was foot or not. 
 
 "That Water in great quantities (fays), is fomc- 
 times produced from burning inriammable and dcphlo- 
 able quin- ginicat^d air, is evident from the experiments of MeflVs 
 edfrom^de- C-ivcndifli and Lavoificr. 1 have alfo frequently coUcft- 
 phlogiftica- ed coniidcrablc quantities of water in this way, though 
 ted and in- never quite fo raucii as the weight of the two kinds of 
 flammable air decompofed. My apparatus for this purpofc was the 
 following : Into the mouth of a large glafs balloon, I 
 introduced a tube, from the oriticc of which there 
 continually iflued inflammable air from a veiiel con- 
 taining iron and oil of vitriol. This being lighted, 
 continued to burn like a candle. Prefently after the 
 lighting of it, the infide of the balloon alvvaysbecame 
 cloudy, and the moiflurc foon gathered in drops, and 
 fettled in the lower part of the balloon To catch 
 what might iliue in the form of vapour, in the cur- 
 rent of air through the balloon, 1 placed theglafs tube 
 h, in which I always found fonie water condenled. 
 It is very polhble, however, that in both thefc modes 
 of experimenting, the water may be converted into 
 a kind of vapour, which is very dificrent from fleam, 
 and capable of being conveyed a great way through 
 air, or even water, without condenfation along with 
 the air with which it is mixed ; and on this account 
 it may not be poITible, in cither of tliefc modes 
 of experimenting, to collect a// the water into which 
 the two kinds of air may be converted. The nature 
 of this kind of vapour into which water may be chan- 
 ged, and which is not rcadilycondcnfedby cold, is very 
 little underllood, but w ell defervcs the attention of phi- 
 lofophcrs. 
 
 " That the water collefted in the balloon comes 
 from the deconipolition of the air, and not from the 
 frclh air circulating through it, was evident from pla- 
 cing bills of hot iron in the place of the llamc, and 
 f.uding that, though the balloon was as much heated 
 by them as by the tlameof the burning of the inriam- 
 mable air, and coafequently there miift have been the 
 fame current of the external air through it, no moi- . 
 Iture was found in the balloon." 
 
 Sect. IV. Of TPhlogijlkated Air. 
 
 Plilogiai- "^"^ univerfal prejudice in favour of the cxiflcnce 
 caiionofair of that principal named Phlogijlsti, firfl fiiggelled by 
 explained. Stahl, gave rife, on the firfl appearance of br I'rieft- 
 Icy's difcoveries, to a theory, concerning the action 
 of this fubflance upon air and other bodies. As 
 it had been obfervtd, that air was dimiiiilhcd, in 
 forae cafes at lealt, by burning, univtrfally by rc- 
 (piraiiou, and by fonie otlier procellts, it was ima- 
 gined that phlogifton was a body of fuch a fingular na- 
 ture, that whcu mixed with air, it always diminiflicd 
 
 163 
 
 itsbiilk, infleadof enlarging it, which might havebcen Plilt.fifti- 
 more nar,ii-:.lly expected from tiic mixture of any va- ' ■■.ted .^ir.^ 
 ponr whatever. Itwasalfofiippofcd by fomc, that the '^ ' 
 phlogillon was not only entirely devoid ofgra\ity, but 
 thatit w'as a principle oipoftwe livity ; fo that the <i^- 
 Jlluti wcightof bodies was diniinilhcd by anunion wiili 
 it, and augmented when it was expelled, though their 
 _/^c-c//J'cgravity wasdiminilhcd. Variousothcrfarprifing 
 properties were attributed to phlogiflon : fuch as that y^ '° , 
 of giving ehllicity to air, of conflituting fiamc by a ""^^^^at- 
 chankal (.(,7nbiiiatton witli air, &e. Its emillion into the triliuted to 
 aimofphere was fu -pofed to be alway as attended w iih phlogiflon- 
 a diminution of air j and therefore, all procelies in 
 which air was diminilhed and became noxious, fuch as 
 that by liver of fulphur, a mixture of iron tilings and 
 brimllone, !e.c. wtrtciWti i>hiog:jiic [iroctjfes. Rcfpi- 
 rationof animals was taken into the fame account; but 
 neither in this, nor in combuflion, was it allowed that 
 any kind of vital fpirit was abforbed by the blood, or 
 feparated from the air by the burning body. On the 
 contrary, it was ftrenuoudy argued, that all this was 
 performed by ihcemijpou o( phiogijloii from the lungs 
 or theinriamed fubflance, w-hich depraved tlie air, and 
 diminifhcd it in bulk ; and as all air was fiippofed to 
 contain phlogiflon, it was likewife imagined, that in all , 
 
 cafes where air was mended, as by the growing of ve- 
 getables, oragitation in water, the emendation was ac- 
 complilhed, not by the emiflion of any thing into the 
 atmofphere, but by the mere abforption of phlogirton. 
 In other refpefts this fubflance was thought to be an 
 exceedingly powerful principle in nature ; (he light of 
 the fun itfelf and the cledric riuid being faid to be modi- 
 fications of it, the different kinds of airs to be phlog- 
 Jlic vapours, Sec. ; fo that the whole fyflem of nature 
 feemcd ready to be abforbed by it at once. ^i 
 
 The formidable powers of this principle were firftDovlrlue of 
 checked by the difcoveries of Mr Lavoifier, though the p''Io).'ifion 
 latter erred equally on the contrary lide ; and not con- "rpof"! by 
 tent with keeping the phlogillic principle within due '^^ ^^'a'^" 
 bounds, would needs deny its exiflence altogether *. '^•tee/i!^ 
 In a treatife publilhed in the year 17S2, he lirft im-^j/fw. 
 pugns Dr Frieflley's theory of refpiraiion, and denies 
 that " the refpiraiion of animals has the propenv of 
 phlogiflicatingairiuauiannerficiilar to whatisetfed- 
 ed by the calcination of metals ar:d many other che- 
 mical proceffes ; and that it ccafes not be refplrablc till 
 the inftant when it becomes furch.irged, or at Icail fa- 
 turated, w'ith phlogiflon." 
 
 In order to difprove this afTcriion, he introduced ivfrl-'voi- 
 four ounces of mercury to jo cubic inches of common fict\ expe- 
 air, propofingto calcine the mct.il by keeping it for 12 rimenu on 
 days in a heat almoll equal to that which is neceifary "■•alcinatiou 
 to makeit boil. After the expiration of the appciiit- °'^ ""^'^l' 
 ed time, 4J grains of precipitate pcrf^ were formed, *"^ "'•"' 
 and the air ill the vellcl was dirainifiicd by about jth 
 of its volume. In this flate ir did nor precipitate lime 
 water; but inftantly cxiingiiillic<l candles, and killed 
 animals immerfed in it ; no longer affording any red 
 vapours, or being diuiinidird by mixture with nitrons 
 air : On diflilling the prei.ipitate i>rodoced, about as 
 much dcphlogiflicaled air vas obtEincd as liad been 
 left by the common lir in the calcination ; and by re- 
 combining tl'.is with the iiuxious air left in the vcflel, 
 hereconipoftd a fluid nearly of the lame goodncfs with 
 common air. Hcucc he draws ihc following k'HcIu- 
 X 2 flon :
 
 i6+ 
 
 A E 
 
 Iv 
 
 O 
 
 Pl.lo-irti- 
 
 citU dir. 
 
 Cotnpofi- 
 ti'Jii uf at- 
 mofphcci- 
 cjI uir. 
 
 91 
 
 rci|>lraciun 
 on air. 
 
 9J 
 Shetlc's 
 cxpcri- 
 nicQU. 
 
 96 
 f'onipou- 
 tion of at- 
 mofpheri- 
 cal airde- 
 monllratcd 
 
 linns : 1. TliJt I ths of t!;c.iir we breathe arc mcpliitic, 
 or iiicaiLiulc of lupporiiiig the rcfjjii atioa of ailiinali, 
 or the liiiiainniauon and combiiliion of boJies. 2. Thjc 
 the iurjilus, or only j th of the volume of atinofphcrical 
 air, isrcfjii.ablc. 3. Th.it in the calcination of mercury, 
 tiiii uietaliie fuullantc abforbs the lalubrious part, Ita- 
 viiig (liily the mcphitic portion of the air. 4. That by 
 jtunitiiigtlicfc two portions which had beenfeparatcd, 
 We c.iii rtconipouiiiiainir.iilano thatof tlitatmofi>hcrc. 
 
 To determine the itt'ccts of rtfpiration upon air, a 
 live fj'arrow was placed under a j|,l.ifs receiver, tilled 
 with common air and inverted in mercury, containing 
 3 1 cubic inches. Jn a quarter of an hour it became a- 
 gitated, and in 5 j minutes died convulfed. Notwith- 
 Jtanding the heat of the animal, which neccUitrily, it 
 trll, rariiicd tiieair in the receiver, there was a fen- 
 iiiile dimi.iution of its bulk ; which, at the end of 15 
 minutes, amounted to one-fortieth : but, inlltad of 
 incrcafing afterwards, the diminution bc.amc Ibmc- 
 ih ing lets in about half an hour ; and u lieu the animal 
 was dead, and the air in the reccivcrhad recovered the 
 temperature of the room wlicie the experiment was 
 made, the diminution did not a])pear to exceed oiie- 
 li:itcenthpart. — I'liisair which had been refpircd by 
 the fparrow, though in many refpcctsiiinilar to that in 
 which the mercury had been calcined, uiifcrcd from 
 it in this refpecl, that it precipitated lime-water, and, 
 by introducing cauilic lixed alkali to ii, was reduced 
 one-lixth in bulk by the abforption of hxed air ; after 
 w hich it appeared cxadly the fame with that produced 
 by the calcination of mercury or other metals ; and at- 
 mofphcrical air wab recompofed by mixing this with 
 pure dcphlogiilicatcd air in the proportions already 
 mentioned. 
 
 That common air is compounded uf two kinds of 
 elallie Huids, Mr Scheele has proved by the following 
 experiment.: " I diffblved ( fays he ) one ounce of al- 
 kaline liverof fulphur iueightounces of water ; of this 
 folution I poured four ounces into an empty bottle, 
 whofc capacity was 24 ounces, and worked it well ; 
 then I turned the bottle, immerfed its neck intoafmall 
 veilcl with water, and kept it in this pofition a fort- 
 night. The folutior>had partly loft its red colour, and 
 lonie fulphuf liad been precipitated fromit during this 
 time. After this 1 put the bottle in the fame poiition 
 in a larger velfel with water, keeping the mouth and 
 neck under water, and the bottom of the bottle above 
 water, and thus I drew the cork under water, which 
 immediately rulhed W'iih violence into the bottle. On 
 examining the quantify of water in the bottle, it was 
 found, that during this fortnight, fix parts out of 20 
 of air were loft." On repcatins>; the experiment w'ith 
 the fame matcriils, and in the fame bottle, only four 
 parts out of 20 were loll by llanding a week, and no 
 more than lix after four months. 
 
 From thefe experiments, and many others fimilar, 
 it appears that the do,.-lrine of phlogillon had been car- 
 ried too far by Dr Pricllley and other Britidi philofo- 
 phcrs,and that the air confifts of two kinds of fluids ; 
 'one perfectly falutary, and friendly in the higheft de- 
 gree to animal life ; the other altogether untit for it. 
 Thefe two appear incapable of being converted direct- 
 ly into one another by any proccfs, natural or arti.'ici- 
 al : for though both are dcftruftiblc, yet they arc 
 always converted into other fubftances ; from which 
 
 LOGY. Sca.IV. 
 
 indeed, either the one or the other may be cxtrafled l-hlogifli- 
 at pleafure by employing the proper inetiiods. TJic "t<-J .-^ir. 
 
 ftrongeitargmneiits in lavour oi the tranfmuiation of — " 
 
 phlogiilicatcd air into iiial of a pure kiiid, w ere drawn 
 irom the purification o] noxious air by vegetation, uni 
 by agitation in water. In the loriner tale, howevt r, 
 it has been obftrvcdin thclail fecUoii, iJut tiiis fccni- 
 i;ig puriticatioii is no other liian an exchange of tlic 
 one air for the other ; the vegetables abiorbing the 
 phlogiiticattd, and emitting the dcphlogii.icaicd air iii 
 its Head. With refpccl to tiie agitation in water, the 
 matter remained more dubious ; and it is only in the Howtir is 
 lall volumcof Or Prieftlcy's treaiife that wc have any purified Vj 
 account ot this being accomplilhed by an emillioQ of agitation in 
 purerairfrom the water. — " In the infancy of my ex- ^•"'■'' 
 periments." fays he, " I concluded, that all kinds of ^^P""- "".<* 
 air were brought by agitation to the fame Hate; the ^g/"' "'' 
 purcll air btiag partially phlogiilicatcd, and air com- 
 pletely phlogifticated being thereby made purer ; in- 
 flammable air alio loliug its inriammability, and all of 
 thein b.-ought into fuch a Hate as that a cajidlc would 
 juftgo out in them. This inference I made from all 
 thckindsofair with w hich I was then acquainted, and 
 which did notrequirctobeconfinedby mercury, being 
 brought to that Hate by agitation in a trough of wa- 
 ter, the furface of which w as e.xpofed to the open air ; 
 never imagining that when the air in my jar was fcpa- 
 rated Ironi the conimon air by a body of water, gene- 
 rally about twelve inches in depth (adding that with- 
 in to that without the jar), they could have any inriu- 
 cnce on each other. 1 have, however, been long con- 
 vinced, that, improbable as it then appeared to me, 
 this is aituuUy tlie cafe." - 
 
 Tins remarkable fac^ is illuHrated by the following Wa^'r per- 
 experinients : i. About three ounce-meafjres of air, vioustoair, 
 phlogiflicatcd by nitrous air, was agitated for a quar- and purifies 
 ter of an hour in a vcllel containing 20 ounces of wa- '' '" r^'fl'"? 
 ter, which had been boiled forfcveral hours, and which '•^'■""g''- 
 was Hill very warm. By this proccls it became dimi- 
 nilhcd one-lixth, and conliderably improved in qua- 
 lily. The next day the remainder was agitated for 
 another quarter of an hour, and the water which 
 had been boiled at the fame time, when it was alfo 
 diminifhed in quantity and improved in quality. 
 2. An equal qua;uity of air, phlogiHicated by means 
 ot iron-filings and brimllonc, being agitated for 20 
 miiuites, was diminilhcil one fevcutli^ andimproved 
 fo far that a candle would burn in it. 3. After ex- 
 pelling all the air he could from a quantity of water 
 by boiling, he put to it, in feparate phials, air that 
 had been phlogiHicated with iron-tilingsandbrimHonc, 
 as well as that which the heat had expelled, leaving 
 them with their moiuhs in water, and agitating them 
 occalionally. On examining the phials in about two 
 mouths, he found both the air that was confined by 
 water and that which had been expelled by heat com- 
 pleiely phlogiilicatcd. 4. That water does imbibe the 
 purer partof the atmofphcre.inpreference to that which 
 is impure, is evident, he fays, from any examination of 
 it : For if the water be clear, and free from any thing 
 that is putrcfccnt, the air expelled from it by heat is ge- 
 nerally of the llandard of i ; whereas that of the atmo- 
 fphere, when the nitrousair isthc purell. is about 1.2. 
 PhlogiHicated air is equally invifible with common pronerties 
 air, and fomething more claftic. Mr Kirwan pro- ofplilogifti- 
 
 curcd caiod air.
 
 Sedl. IV, 
 
 AERO 
 
 I'hlo^ifti- 
 cated .'Vir. 
 
 Mlirous 
 acid prucU' 
 red from 
 phlogilli- 
 cate<i air. 
 
 Mr (Javen- 
 diih's expe- 
 riments on 
 tlic produc- 
 tion of iii- 
 tr«u&acid. 
 
 ciiicd (ome perfectly pblo^riuicated, I'o that it was i:ot 
 ia the Ica't diiiiiiiilhcd by nitrujs air, I'ronia mixture 
 of iroil-fili;igs and brimrtonc. Having driiJ it by 
 frcqucmlyiir.ro.lijcingdryliltcringpapcr under the jar 
 that contained it, he tound its weight to be to that of 
 the common air as 9?5 to looo, the barometer flanj- 
 ing at 30.46 and the thermometer at 60". The other 
 properties of it are, that it is extremely fatal to ani- 
 mal life, and friendly to t!iat of veg«ables, inl'oiuuch 
 that it is nowgencr lily believed to be the trueand proper 
 iiourirair.entoftht latter. It feems tocxifl originally, in 
 very large qr.jinty, in our atmofpherc. It may be 
 feparated fro.^l the common mafs of air by coinbuilioa, 
 b| rcfpiration, by putrefaction, and in Ihort by every 
 fpeciesof phlogiilic procefs; neither is there any other 
 fpccits of air but what may be converted into this by 
 means of fire, dephlogiUicatcd air alone excepted. 
 
 Phlogifticated air is nov.' generally believed to be i 
 combination of the nitrons acid with phlogifton; and 
 that, in its gradual pro^^rcfs towards this, which is its 
 ultimate ftage, it tirll aifumcs the character of phlo- 
 giilicated nitrousacid ; theu of nitrous air, in which it 
 readily parts with its phlogifton to the atmofpherc, or 
 rather to the dcphlogiilicatcd part of it ; and laftly, it 
 bcconus phlogi.iicatf d air, in which the union betwixt 
 the principles is lb /Irong, that it cannot be broken by 
 fimplc cxpofure to dephlogiflicatcd air without heat ; 
 tliough the experiments of Mr Cavendifn Ihow, that 
 this maybe doncby means of the ckclric Tiark, which 
 produces the moll violent heat we can imagine. 
 
 It had been frequently obfcrved, that common at- 
 mofplierical air was always diniinilhed by taking the 
 electric fpark in it ; and this diminution was fuppolcd to 
 beoccaiioned hy l\\t phlo^ijl icatt'jn of the air, and repa- 
 ration of its fixed part ; in confcquence of which it 
 was urged, that lime-water is precipitated by taking 
 the eletSric fpark over it in a fmall quantity of air. 
 Mr Cavendilh, however, who has carefully examined 
 this fubjeiit, denies that any fixed air is produced in 
 this manner ; and by a fet of very curious experiments, 
 publilhed in the 75'" volume of the Philofophical 
 Tranfaclions, has clearly fliown that nitrous acid, and 
 not fixed air, is the produ,-l of this operation. 
 
 The apparatus ufcd in thefc experiments, was that 
 feprcfcntcd Plate X. fig. 4. and confills only of a 
 crooked glafs tube, whofc ends are plunged into r,.iick- 
 filver contained in two glades, in th; middle part of 
 which the air is confined betwixt the two portions of 
 quicklilver. The air was introduced by means of a 
 fmaller tube, fig. j. the tube M of the foriiicr fi- 
 gure bcini; filled with quick!llver,thcbentei.dof which 
 was introduced into ajar DtK, filled with the pro- 
 per kind of air and inverted in water. The end C 
 being (topped by the finger, the qui:kfilver was thus 
 prevented from falling out, let the tube be placed in 
 what polition it wo.i'd, until this prclFare was removed. 
 Upon introdi":ing the crooked tube into the jar in the 
 pof'tioii ir rtfenicd in the ficure, and removing the 
 finger frri, the orifice at C. the qnickfilver would dc- 
 fcend ; and ! y flopping this orifice again, anv qu.'U- 
 tity of the \\w\ may be allowed to run out, and the 
 empty fpjcc of t'.e tube will be filled with the air dc- 
 fircd. Having thus got the proper quantity of air in- 
 to the tube ABC. it was held with the end C upper- 
 moll, and flopped with the finger ; and the end A, 
 
 LOGY. 16,- 
 
 made fmaller for that purpofc, being i.itroduccd into Phlo-ini- 
 thc end 01 rlic bent tube M, the air, on removing ;he fit«d Air- 
 finger from C, was forced i:.to thst tube by the prtf- ' ' 
 
 furc of the qaicklilver in the leg BC. Thus he w«s 
 enabled to irit.oduce any quantity he plcafcd of ai:/ 
 kind of air into the tube M ; and by the fiinc meins jt 
 was in his power to let up any quantity of foap-ley, or 
 other liquo;- which he wanted to b<. in contact with it. 
 In one Cafe, however, in whi^h he wiihcd to introduce 
 lir into the lubes many times in the fame expel iment, 
 he made ufc of the apparatus rcprcfentcd lig. 6. con- 
 lilting of a tube AB, of a fmaller bore, a ball C and 
 a tube Ut of a larger bore. This apparatus was firll 
 hllcd with quickfilvcr ; and then the ball C and the 
 lube AB were filled with air, by introducing the end 
 A under a glafs inverted into water, wliich contained 
 the proper kind of air, and dra.ijng out the quick- 
 lilver from the leg El) by a fyphon. A tcr being thus 
 furnilhed with air, the apparatus was weighed, and the 
 end A introduced into one end of the tube M, and 
 kept there during the experiment ; the way of forcing 
 air out of this apparatus in;o the tub', being by thrull- 
 ing down the tube ED, a wooden cjlinuer of fuch a. 
 lize as almoft to fill up the w hole bore, and by occa- 
 lionally pouring quicklilver into the fame tube, to fup- 
 ply the place of that puihed into the ball C. After 
 the experiment was linilhed the apparatus was wei h- 
 ed again, which lliowcd cxa.lly how much air had bee.i 
 forced into the tube M during the whole expcrlmctit ; 
 it being equal in bulk to a quantity of quicklilver, 
 whole weight was equal to the incrcafc of wtight rf 
 the apparatus. The bore of the tube M, ufcd i.i thcfj 
 experiments, was about the tenth of an iuch in dia- 
 meter; and the length of the column of air occupying 
 the upper part of the tube was in general from ;ths 
 to I i inches — In order to fore e an elciflrical fpark 
 through the tube .M, it was necclTary to place an in- 
 fulatcd ball at fuch a diftancc from the conductor as to 
 receive a fpark from it, and to make a communication 
 between that ball and the quickfilvcr in one of the 
 glafles, while the quickfilvcr in the other glafs com- 
 municated with the ground. 
 
 When the elcdric fpark was made to pafs tlirough 
 common air included between Ihort columns of a fobi- 
 tion of litmus, the folution acquired a red colour, and 
 the air was diniinilhed, as had bcrn obferved by Dr 
 Prielllcy. When lime-water was ufed inllead of the 
 folution of liimus, and the fpark was continued till the 
 air could be no further diniinilhed ; but not the fmalleft 
 cloud could be perceived in the water, tliough the air was 
 reduced to two thirds of its ori;;inal bulk ; which is a 
 greater diminution than it could have fuflcred by any 
 phlogirticprocefi.that beinglittle more than one-fifth 
 of the whole. The experiment being repeated with 
 impure dephlogifticaicd air, a great diminution took 
 place, but withont any cloud in the limf-\r.iicr. Nei- 
 ther was any clond pniduccd wucn fixed air was let up 
 into it ; but, on t! e addition of a little caullic volatile 
 alkali,, a brown fcoiment immcdi.itely uppcirrd. 
 
 It beiig thi-: evident that the lime was faturated by 
 fome acid produced in the operation, the exrcri.-nent 
 Wis repeated with foap-leys to difcover the nature of 
 it. A previous t xperincnt had beci made in oHer to 
 know what degree of puri :y th - ;.ir or.ght to be of to 
 produce the grcatell diminution ; a;jd thus it was 
 
 found.
 
 1 66 
 
 I'hlogilii- 
 Catc'U Air. 
 
 lOi 
 TrApor- 
 tioiis u( the 
 different 
 airs iiectf- 
 fary for the 
 prodiuSion 
 of nitrous 
 aciJ. 
 
 103 
 Mr Caven- 
 dilh's opi- 
 nions on 
 nature of 
 phlogifti- 
 catcd air. 
 
 AERO 
 
 focind, tli.it when good dcphlogifticatcd air was iifcd, 
 the diuiimition was but fiiiall ; where |n.rfci.'lly phlo- 
 giilicatcd air was made ulc of", no fcnru)lc diiuimitioii 
 took place ; but when live pans of pure dcphlogillica- 
 tcd air were mixed with three of coniraon air, almoft 
 the vvliolc was made to difappear It mull be remem- 
 bered, that common air confills of one part of dephlo- 
 gilUcatcd ami four of phlogifticatcd air; fothat a mix- 
 ture of five parts of pure dephlogillicated air and three 
 of common air, i.s the fame thing as a mixture of fcven 
 parts of dcphlogilHcatrd air witli three of phlogillica- 
 tcd. Having made ihifc previous trials, he introdu- 
 ced into ilie tube a little foap-leys, and tlicnlet upfome 
 dephioj^iiUcatcd and common air mixed in the above- 
 mentioned proportions, which, rifing in the tube M, 
 divided the foap-leys into its two legs. As fafl as the 
 air w as diminilhcd by l!ie elcdric fpark, he continued 
 to add more of the fame kind till no further diminution 
 took place. Tlie foap-leys being then poured out of 
 the tube, and feparatcd from the quickfilver, fcemed 
 to be pcrfcclly neutralized, as they did not at all dif- 
 colour paper tinged with blue riowcrs. On evapora- 
 ting the liquor to dryncfs, a fmall quantity of fait was 
 left, which was evidently niire, from the manner in 
 which a paper impregnated with the folution of it 
 burned. On repeating the experiment on a larger 
 fcale, with five time; the quantity of materials, pure 
 nitre was obtained in proportion, and was found by the 
 tell oi terra fondirofn falila, to contain no more vitri- 
 olic acid than what might Iiave been expedlcd in ilic 
 foap-ley itfclf, and which is exceedingly fmall. 
 
 As, in fome former experiments of Mr Cavendilh, 
 it had been found, that by deriagrating nitre with 
 charcoal, the whole of the acid was converted into 
 phlogifticatcd air, lie concluded that this kind of air 
 is nothing clfc than nitrous acid united to phlogiflon; 
 according to which, it ought to be converted into ni- 
 trous acid by being deprived of its phlogifton. " But 
 (fays he) as dcphlogillicated air is only water depri- 
 ved of phlogillon, it is plain, that addin*; dcphlogilli- 
 cated air to a body, is equivalent to depriving it of 
 phlogifton, and adding water to it; and therefore 
 phlogifticatcd air ought alfo to be reduced to nitrous 
 acid, by being made to unite or form a chemical com- 
 bination with dcphlogifticated air ; only the acid thus 
 formed will be more dilute than if the phlogifticatcd 
 air was limply deprived of phlogillon. 
 
 " Thisbcingpremifed, we may fafely conclude, that 
 in theprefent experiments, the phlogifticatcd air was 
 enabled, by means of the eledrical fpark, to unite to, 
 or form a chemical combination with, the dephlogift- 
 catcd air, and was thereby reduced to nitrons acid, 
 which united to the foap-leys, and formed a folution 
 of nitre ; for in thtfc experiments the two airs adually 
 dilappeared,and iiitrousacid was formed in their room : 
 and as it has been fliown, from other circumdanccs, 
 tli.it plilogillicatcd air nnift form nitrous acid when 
 combined with dephlogi.'^icaiedairj theabovemcntjon- 
 cd opinion fcems 10 be fufiiciently eflab1i!l~.cd. And a 
 i'uriher conlirmation is, that no diminution of air is per- 
 ceived when thccleclijc fpark is pafTcd cither through 
 pure deplilogiili'-ated or ilirough perftiJUy phlosrifti- 
 catcd air ; v\ hich indicates a nccelTity for the combi- 
 nation of the two in order to produce nitrous acid. 
 It was alfo found by the laft experiment, that the 
 
 o 
 
 Se(fl. IV. 
 
 quantity of niirc produced was the fame that would Phlojriai- 
 havc been obtained from the fuap-leys, had tiiey been catcJ Air. 
 faturated with nitrous acid ; which Ihows, that the 'y—^ 
 
 production of the nitre was not owing to any dccom- 
 pofition of t!ic fo,i])leys. 
 
 " The fo.-tp-leys ufed in the foregoing experiments 
 were made from fait of tartar prepared without nitre, 
 and were of fuch a (Irength as to yield one-tenth 
 of their wei,iht of nitre when faturated with nitrous 
 acid. The dcphlogifticated air was alfo produced 
 without nitre ; that ufcd in the firft experiment witli 
 the foaj'-Jeys being procured from the black powder 
 formed by the agitation of quickfilvermi.xed with lead, 
 and that uled in the latter from turbith mineral. In 
 the firft experiment, the quantity of foap-leys ufcd was 
 3} meafurcs, each of which was equal in bulk to one 
 grain of quickfilver ; and that of the air abforbcd was 
 416 fuch meafures of phlogifticatcd air and 914 of 
 dcphlogifticated. In llie fecond experiment, 17S 
 nieafuresof foap-leys were ufed ; which abforbcd 1920 
 of phlogifticatcd air and 4860 of dcphlogifticated. 
 It mull be obfcrved, however, that in both experi- 
 ments fome air remained in the tube undecompofed, 
 whole degree of purity I had no means of trying ; fo 
 that the proportion of each fpecies of air abforbcd 
 cannot be known with much exaiSlnefs. 
 
 "As far as the experiments hitherto publilhed extend, 
 we fcarccly know more of the nature of the phlogifti- 
 catcd jiart of the atniofphere, than that it is not dimi- 
 nilluil by lime-water, cauftic-alkalies, or nitrous air r 
 that it is unfit to fupport fire or maintain life in ani- 
 mals ; and that its fpecific gravity is not much lefs 
 than that of common air : fo that though the nitrous 
 acid, by being united to phlogifton, is converted into 
 air polfeircd of thefe properties ; and, confeqiicntly, 
 though it was reafonablc to fuppofe, that part at leafl 
 of the phlogifticatcd air of the atniofphere conlifts of 
 this acid united to phlogifton ; yet it might be fairly 
 doubted whether the whole is of this kind, or whe- 
 ther there are not, in reality, many difi'erent fubftan- 
 ccs confounded by us under the name of phlogifticatcd j^, 
 air. I therefore made an experiment to determine Enperi- 
 V. licther the whole of a given portion of the atmo- menttode- 
 fjli ere could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whet her the re tcmiinethe 
 was not a partof adiiferent nature froin the reft, which "^'"" °' 
 would rcfufc to undergo that change. For this pur- ^ °S".'' 
 pofe, I diniinidied a finiilar mixture of dcphlogiftica- 
 ted and common air in the fame manner as before, 
 until it was reduced to a fmall part of its original 
 bulk ; after which fome dcphlogifticated air was add- 
 ed, and the fpark continued until no further diminu- 
 tion took place". Having by thefe means condenfed 
 as much as I could of tlie phlogifticatcd air, I let up 
 fome folution of liver of fulphur to abforb the dcphlo- 
 gifticated air ; after which only a fmall bubble of air- 
 remained unabforbcd, which certainly was not more 
 than , ;„.th of the bulk of the phlogifticatcd air let up 
 into the tube ; fo that if there is any part ofthepliio- 
 gifticated air of our atmofphere w hich differs from the 
 reft, and cannot be reduced to nitrour acid, wc may 
 fafely conclude, that it is not more than .. i ^th p?.rt of 
 the whole." 
 
 Though thefe experiments had fliown that the 
 chief raufe of this diminution of airs is the convcrlion, 
 of the phlogifticatcd kind into nitrous acid, it feemed 
 
 not
 
 twccn dif- 
 ferent li' 
 quors. 
 
 Sect. V. AERO 
 
 phlogiftica- not unlikely, that when any li(iuor containing indam- 
 tcil Air. maule matitr was in contact with liic air in the tube, 
 " fomc of thii mat tr might be burnt by the i'park, anJ 
 Effta'/of thereby diminilh the air. In orilcr to determine this, 
 the cicdric the eiti-iric I'park was palled through dephlogifticatcd 
 fpark oil air included between different liquors ; and ;hc rclalt 
 dci'hlogif- of the txperimeats was, that when dcphlogiiUcatcd 
 ticatcdair ^j^^ containing only V.th part of its bulk of phlo^i- 
 inclofedbe- j^■^^.^^^.^ jj^^ ^^35 conlined between Ihort column:, of 
 fojp leys, and the fpark paii'ed through it till no far- 
 ther diminution could be perceived, the airlolt v'/.il^of 
 itsbulk ; which is not a greater diminution than might 
 very likely proceed from the dccompoution of the 
 fmall quantity of phlogiilicatcj air contained in it, as 
 the uephl'Jgillicated air might eal'ily be mixed with a 
 fmall quantity of common air while putting into the 
 tube. When the fame dephlogiUicated air was con- 
 fined bttw'ccn columns of Jillillcd water, the diminu- 
 tion was rather greater than before, and a white pow- 
 der was formed on the fiirface of the quickfilver be- 
 neath : the rcafon of w'hich, in all probability, was, 
 that the acid produced in the operation corroded the 
 quickfilver, and formed the powder ; and that the ni- 
 trous air produced by that corrofion united to the de- 
 phlogifticated air, and caufed a greater diminution 
 than would othcrwifc have taken place. When a fo- 
 lution of litmus was ufcd inftcad of diftillcd water, the 
 fohiiion foon acquired a red colour ; which grew paler 
 and paler as the fpark was continued, till it became 
 quite colourlefs and tranfparent. The air was dimi- 
 nilhed by almoft one-half, and might perhaps have been 
 further diininilhed had the fpark been continued. 
 When lime-water was let up into the tube, a cloud 
 was formed, and the air was further dirainilhed by 
 about one-lifth ; the remainder was good dephlogilli- 
 catcd air. In this experiment, tlicrcfore, the litmus 
 was, if not burnt, at leafl decompounded, fo as to 
 lofc entirely its purple colour, and to yield fixed air; 
 fo that, though foap-leys cannot be decompounded 
 by this proccfs, yet the folution of litmus can, and 
 fo very likely might the folutions of many other fub- 
 ftahccs be. But there is nothing in any of thefe ex- 
 periments which favours the opinion of the air being 
 at all dimiuilhed by means of phlogiflon csmmiinica- 
 ted to it by the electric fpark. 
 
 Sect. V. Of Fixed Air. 
 
 Fixed air Th E difcovery of this kind of air is as old as Van 
 found in a Hclmont : who gave it the name oi gas filviflre, from 
 greatvarie- its being emitted in great quantity by burning char- 
 tyoffuh- coal. Subfeqiient difcovcrics fliowed, that a rtuid of 
 fiances. tjic fame kind was plentifully produced by fermenting 
 liquor, in alraofl every kind of combuftion, and natu- 
 rally generated in vaft. quantity in mines and coal-piis, 
 where it is known by the name of the chouk-davip ; 
 that it exills in a concrete (late in alkaline falts, chalk, 
 limcftone, the ihells of marine animals, magneiui alba, 
 &c. in a very hrge proportion, conftiiuting one-half, 
 and fometimcs more of their weight ; and that it might 
 aKvays be extracted from the atmofphere, in unlimit- 
 ed quantity, by cxpoiing certain fubllances to it 
 
 On 'xamining the nature of this fluid, it was found 
 fo manifeltly acid, that it has now obtained a place 
 among thcfe fubllances under the name oi a'iiiaJaaJ ; 
 
 o 
 
 167 
 
 or, more improperly, cretaceous acid, from its being Fited Air. 
 contained in great quantities in chalk, as has been al- ' ' 
 ready mentioned. 107 
 
 Kixed air is the heavied of all permanently claftic Specinc 
 fluids, excepting thofc derived from the mineral acids. g''^v"T> 
 Mr kirwan determines itto be to common air as 1500 '^' '»''""' 
 to 1000, tnc barometer being at 29. Sj, thcihcrmo-^' ' 
 meter at 64, and the tixcd air being extracted from cal- 
 careous fpar by marine acid, whole fpeciflc gravity w as 
 1. 01 4;. He obfervcs, however, that though this air 
 was obtaineiVin the dricit manner poiuble, and that 
 the globe which contained it appeared perfedly free 
 from moiilurc ; yet, when carried into a room 27 de- 
 grees colder, thciufidc of tlic globe was covered with 
 dew, which foon formed vLliblc drops. — In its concrete 
 flate, fixed air is one of thehcavielt bodies in natrre. 
 Mr Kirwan, in the 711! volume of the I'hilofophical 
 Traafaclions, gives anaccount of hi&ingcnious method 
 of finding the fpccitlc gravity of fixed air in its tixcd ' 
 
 flate, when combined with calcareous earth, from 
 which it appears, that fixed air, in tliat Itate, ispro- 
 digioully concentrated, and, were it polfible to cxifl 
 by itfclf in that concentrated (late, it would be the 
 heaviefi; body known, geld and platina excepted. 
 
 MrKirwan firftafcertained thefpccilic gravity of a 
 piece of white marble ; then expelled the fixed air from 
 a known weight of it liuely powdered, by means of di- 
 lute^ vitriolic acid; the bulk and weight of the obtain- 
 ed fixed air being afcertained. Next, he calcined a 
 known quantity of the fame fort of marble, by keeping 
 it in a whire heat for the fpace of 14 hours ; after 
 which, being weighed again, and from the weight loit 
 by this calcination, the weight of the fixed air, which 
 mull have efcaped ("rora it according to the abovemen- 
 tioned experiment, being fubtraCted, the remainder is 
 the weight of water contained in tlie marble; from 
 which experiments it appears, that too grains of the 
 marble contained 32.42grainsof fixed air, 11.66 grains 
 of water, and JJ.92 grains of pure calcareous earth. 
 
 << I next (fays he) proceeded todifcover the fpccific 
 gravity of the lime. Intoa brafsbox, which weighed 
 607.65 grains, and in the bottom of which a fmall hole 
 was drilled, I fluffed as much as polhble of the finely- 
 powdered lime, and then fcrewcd the cover on, and 
 weighed it both in air and in water. When immerfcd 
 in this latter, a confiderablc quantity of common air 
 was expelled ; when this ceafcd, I weighed it. The 
 refult of this experiment was as follows: 
 
 Grains. 
 Weight of the box in air - - 607.6J 
 
 Its lofs of weight in water - - 73-75 
 
 Weight of the box and lime in air - 1045.5 
 
 Weight of the lime lingly in air - 43>.S5 
 
 Lofs of weight of the box and lime in water 256. j 
 Lofs of weight of the lime fingly - 182.3 
 
 " Hence, dividing the abfolute weight of the lime 
 by its lofs in water, its fpecific gravity was found to 
 be 2.390S. 
 
 " From thefc datx 1 deduced the fpccific gravity of 
 fixed air in its fixed flate i for toograinsof niarblccon- 
 firt of 55.92 of earth, 32.42 of fixed air, and 11.66 of 
 water; and the fpecific gravity of the marble is 2.717. 
 Now the fpccific gravity of the fixed air, in its fixed 
 flate, is as its ablblute weight, divided by it? lofs of 
 weight in water ; and its lofs of weight in w iter is as 
 
 the
 
 1 68 A li R O L 
 
 Fixed Air. the lofs of 100 gr.iiiisof marble, ;////.,vj the lolfcs of the 
 ' " pure calcareous earth auii the water. 
 
 Lofs of 100 grs, of marble =_i£2 =36.8 grs. 
 
 a. 717 
 Lofs of J J. 92 grs. of calcarcoui 
 
 eartii ... 
 
 i.39 
 Lofs of 11.66 "[rs. of water = - 11.66 
 
 O G Y. 
 
 Scd. V. 
 
 ??-02 
 
 " Tlicn the lofs of the fixed air 36.8- 
 
 5J-o> 
 -J5-o5=i-75; 
 
 coiifcquciuly its fpecific gravity islll2?=: 18. 52." 
 
 Its other Fixed air differs confiderably in its properties from 
 
 properties, the airs already meiuioncd. Its acidity is manifellto 
 the talle,a!;d Hill more from its iiciitialiiingboth fixed 
 aud volatile alkalis ; which it will do in fiich a manner 
 as not only to dcftroy their cauflicity, but to give them 
 amanifeftlyacid talk, and will moreover enable them 
 to form cryllals of a neutral or acidulous Hilt. It has 
 aconfidcrablc antifcptic power, and will even check 
 the putrefaclion of animal fubflanccs ; iho' it has been 
 obfervcd, th.it in this cafe it acls only by abforbing the 
 putrid effluvia already emitted from the body, and be- 
 comes itfeli' very offcnfive, while it fwectens the other. 
 When taken into the lungs, it is equally poifonous with 
 phlogiflicated orany other noxiousair,aud cxtinguiflies 
 flame as effectually ; but, when mixed with dephlogif- 
 licated Jiir, may be infpircd without any danger, and 
 f ven in its pure rtatc may be fwallowed in large quan- 
 tities, not only without danger, but with the moft filu- 
 lary cffeds in fomc difeal'es, whence it has now be- 
 come an article of the Materia Medica. As an acid it 
 Aands in the lowefl rank, being expelled from alkalis 
 by every other ; though it is capable of feparaiing oils, 
 iulphur, and the colouring matter of Prulfian blue, 
 ,o,j froui the fubilances with whicli they are combined. 
 Conftituciit The origin of this acid was for a long time as much 
 principles unknown as that of the others; and while the general 
 of fixed air. prejudice remained tliat acids were a kind of primary 
 elements unchangeable in their nature, it was fuppofed 
 that iixcd air was fomc modification ol the others, pio. 
 bably the nitrous. Rut the difcoverics made of late 
 years, have abundantly tliown, that tlie chctiiical prin- 
 ciples arc by no means fo indellrut^ible as they were 
 imagined ; .ind that the vegetable acids particularly, 
 may be almoll totally rcfolvcd into lixed air. Hence 
 ic was naturally fuggclled, that fixed air itfelf might 
 be a compound of fome other principles ; and it was 
 fiiggeflcd by Dr Black, that it was a combination of 
 atmofj.herical air with jihlogifton. As the air of our 
 atmofphcre, however, is compounded of two fubfiances, 
 one of which naturally contains no phlogiilon, and the 
 other as much as it can hold ; it fcenied unlikely that 
 there (lunildbe any pollibiliiy of adding to the quat'.tity 
 of phlogillion contained in aportionof the atmofpherc, 
 without decompolingit in fouie manner or other. Sjc- 
 ceeding cxi'criinenis evinced, that it was by a dccom- 
 pofition of the pure part of atmofpherical air, and a 
 combination ofthe phlogifton of the fuel with its bafis, 
 that fixed air was produced ; and this iact was evinced 
 by numerous experiments made by Mr Kirwau, Mr 
 Lavoilicr, and i)r Pricftlcy, (j that it is now looked 
 upon to be generally elUbliihcd: and as the cxperi meats 
 
 made by Dr Pricllley ap]>car fully as eoiivificiiig as Fixed Air. 
 
 any, we Ihall here content ourfelves with giving an ^ — " ' 
 
 account of them. 
 
 I'he compound nature of iixtd air, and the principles d^ Pricft- 
 from which it is formed, were firll difcovcrcd by Mr ley's cxpc- 
 Kirwan ; but Dr I'rieflley was not convinced by the rimuit* on 
 proofs he adduced, till after making fome experiments ''^f compo- 
 of his own. The firll was, by tiring fliavings of iron^"'"" ".' 
 in dephlogidicated air ; \\ hen he obfervcd a conlidcr- ^'^' 
 
 al)le reliduum of fixed air, though that in the receiver 
 had been of the purefl dcphlogillicated kind, and iron 
 could only have yielded inHan;niable air. The hypo- 
 thclis of Mr Kirwan was lUU further confirmed by an 
 cxperi incnt in which iron- tilings, wliich could only have 
 yielded iullammable air, were mixed with red precipi- 
 tate, which is known to yield only purr dcphlogilli- 
 cated air. On heating thefe in a glafs retort, tliey 
 gave a great quantity ot fixed air, in fome portions of 
 which ninetecn-twenticths were abforbed by lime- 
 water, and the reliJuum was inflammable ; but when 
 the red precipitate was mixed with powdered charcoal, 
 which iiad been found to yield only inflammable air, 
 the fixed air produced from it was fo pure that only 
 one-fortieth part remained unabforbed by water, which 
 is as pure as that generally prepared frofu chalk and oil 
 of vitriol. In fome of thefe experiments it appeared, 
 tliat three ouncc-meafures of dephlogifticatedair went 
 to the compolition of two of fixed air : for one ounce 
 of red presipitate gave 60 ounce-meafurcs of dcphlo- 
 gillicated air ; and, when mixed with two ounces of 
 iron-filings, it gave about 40 ounce-meafurcs of fixed 
 air that were actually abforbed by water, belidesa rc- 
 liduum that was inflammable. The fame proportion 
 was obtained \\ hen half the quantity of materials were 
 made ufe of ; but on uling an ounce of each, only 20 
 ouncc-meafures of fixed air, including the reliduum, 
 could be got. 
 
 Inconlideringthis fubjeCl farther, itoccurred to Dr 
 Prieflley, that his experiments, in which charcoal was 
 ufed, lay open to an objection, that lincc dry wood, and 
 iniperfcclly made eh.-ircoal, yield fixed air, it might be 
 faid, that all the elements of fixed air are contained in 
 charcoal ; and though this fubllance alone, even with 
 the afnUance of water, w ill not yield fixed air, this 
 might be effccled by trealitig it with other fubilances 
 without their imparting any thing to it ; efpecially as 
 the inflammable air procured from charcoal by tneans 
 of water, appears to contain fixed air when decompof- 
 ed v.ith the dephlogiflicated kind. In order to expel 
 all the fixed air from charcoal, he made a quantity of 
 it from dry oak, and pounding it while Jiot, inllantly 
 mixed four meafures of it with one of red precipitate, 
 and, putting them into an earthen retort, got, with a 
 heat no greater than what was futhcient to revive the 
 mercury, a large qiantity of air, half of whicii was 
 fixed. Afterwards the proportion of fixed air was Icfs, 
 and at lafl no fixed air at all was obtained : but as the 
 reliduum wasworfe than tlicconimon atmofphere,heis 
 thence inclined tobclieve, notwith (landing MrCavcn- 
 dilh's experiments, that pMogifliratcd air may be com- 
 pofcd of phlogiflon and dephlogiflicated air. In ano- 
 ther experiment he found a better proportion of char- j(,„^^rniiig 
 coal and red precipi;ate. This was by mixing one thccumpo- 
 ouuce of precipitate with the fame quantity of perfect fition of 
 
 char- phlogillica- 
 icd uir. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Prlcftlty's 
 opli ion
 
 Sea. V. A K R O 
 
 FisttI Air. charcoal hot fror.i the retort in which it was ma.lc. 
 
 ' ^' ■ I'uiiiiig thcfe into a coatcil retort^ he cxpclle'd from 
 
 ihcin, by a llrong heat, about 30 oiincc-iiicafiirts of 
 air, the whole of which v/as the ptirell fixed air, Ica- 
 \ ing Djily about one-fortieth part unabforbcd by water, 
 ami thibalinoft perfedly phlogillicatcd. 
 
 Havi'ij; recoUecled, that in fonie former experi- 
 ments he had obtained fixed air from nitrous acid arid 
 charcoal, he therefore repeated the experiment wi;]i 
 fi)nicof the fame charcoal which had then been made 
 I ';of; when fixed air was obtained, in the quantity 
 foinetimes only of one-fifth, and fomctin-.es of one- 
 half; to the formation of which he fuppofed the phln- 
 gilHcated air produced by heating the nitrous acid mufl 
 have contributed. Cn account of the objcdions, how- 
 ever, which might be made to the ufe of charcoal, he 
 r.ext employed /r6//, which was liable tonothingof this 
 kind ; and on mixing an ounce of iron-filings with as 
 much charcoal, and then heating them in a glafs re- 
 tort, he obtained 20 ounce-meaf'ires of air, ofwhicii 
 onc-feventh rcu'.ained iniabforbed by water. The refi- 
 duum was of the flandard of i .52, but fiightly inliam- 
 mablc. Repeating tlie experiment with h.ilfan ounce 
 of iron filings, he got 26 oun cc-mcafures of air, of 
 which t he firfl part was pretty pure, but afterwards one- 
 tenth remained unabforbcdby water; but on mixingonc 
 ounce of precipitate with two ounces of filings, he got 
 about 40 ouncc-meafurcsof air, ofthcfirlt portions of 
 which only one-twentieth was nnabforbcd by water, 
 though towards the conclufion the rciiduum was grea- 
 ter. Ill this procefs he got in all 36 ounce-meafures of 
 pure fixed air, completely abforbed by water, belldes 
 about other four ounce-meafures, which, he fuppofcs, 
 juight have been abforbed in receiving the air and 
 transferring it into other velFtls. 
 
 Fixed air was alfo produced from red pccipitate 
 mixed withbrafs filings, with zinc, from turijitli mi- 
 neral with iron filings, and from the blaclt powder into 
 which mercury mixed with lead is cadly converted. 
 In this lal^ cafe the Doftor fuppofcs that the fixed air 
 was produced from the dephlogifticated kind abforbed 
 by the metals and the plilogillon of the lead ; and this 
 is confirmed by an obfcrvation that the fixed air always 
 comes firftin the procefs, when the phlogiflon is mofl 
 readily leparated, but afterwards tlie produce becomes 
 quite pure and dcphlogiflicated. In attempting, how- 
 ever, to increai'c the quantity of fixed air by heating 
 this bhck powder in deplilogiflicatcdair, lie found on- 
 ly an augmentation of the quantity of dcphlogiflicated 
 air, anil tliatof the purefl kind. 
 
 "Perhaps," fays lie, " as deciiWe aproof as any of 
 tlie real produdion of fixed air from phlogiflon and de- 
 f hlogiflicatcdair, may be drawn from the experiments 
 in which I always found a quantity of it when 1 burn- 
 ed Atlphur in dcphlogiflicated air. In one of thefc ex- 
 periments, to which I g^ve particular attention, fix 
 ounce-meafures and an halfof the dephlogiiiicated air 
 were reduced to about two ounce-meafarcs ; and one- 
 fifth of this was fixed air. When both the vitriolic 
 acid and fixed air produced by this operation were 
 abforbed by water, the remainder was very puredc- 
 logiflicatcd air. 
 
 " I had always concluded, that no fixed air could 
 be procured by the dccompofition of inrtammable air 
 which had bcten produced by mineral acids, bccaufe I 
 
 *\"JL. I. 
 
 LOGY. ,69 
 
 had not been able to do it v, iih that which I had get FIjed A-.r. 
 
 by means of vitriolic acid ; but I learned from Mr hie- — r^* ' 
 
 thcric, thattliis is peculiar to luc vitriolic acid, the re- 
 mains of which, dirfiMcd through the in.-lammdbleair, 
 procured by ii, he conjci5iarcs,niay aftually decor:; of: 
 the fixed air produced in the proicfs. For, as 1 1) ivc 
 hinted before, when the inflair.miblc air is produced 
 from iron by mcansof fpiritof fait, there is a very per- 
 ceivable quantity of fixed air when i; is united wiiii dc- 
 phlogiflicated air. When I dccornpofed thefc two 
 kinds of air in equal quantities, they wtre reduced to 
 about 0.5 of a meafurc, and of this not more than a- 
 bout one fortieth part was fixed air. This experiment 
 ought, hov. ever, to be added to the other proofs of 
 fixed air being pruduccd by the union of dephlogiUi- 
 catcd air and phlogiflon. j,- 
 
 " Thelafl iullance, which I (hall mention, of the I'roportioa 
 generation of fixed air from phlogiflon and dephioTii". cf fixed air 
 ticated air, is of annich more flriking nature than any r'''"J"ol 
 th.-;t I have yet recited Having m.ade what I call "^'.T !!f.' 
 charcoal oj coffer, by palling the vapour of fpirit of [^^ ^^ 
 wine over copper when it was red-hot, I heated apiece 
 of it in different kinds of air. In common air, obfer- 
 ving neither iiicrcafe nordecrcafc in the quantity, I 
 concluded, perhaps too haflily, that no change was 
 made in it : for when I repeated the experiment in 
 dephlogillicatedair, the charcoal burned very intenfc- 
 ly ; and \\hen a part of it was confumed, wliich (like 
 common charcoal in the fame jiroccfs, was done with- 
 out Icavingany fenlible re(idu-.im) 1 foundthat no heat 
 which I could apply afterwards, had any farther cffcft 
 on what was left of the charcoal. Concludirg, there- 
 fore, that fome change mufl be made in the quality of 
 the air, I examined it, and found about nine-tentlis to 
 be the purefl fixed air; and therefiduum was fach as 
 would have been made by feparating the abfolutcly pure 
 part of the dephlogiAicated air; leaving all the impuri- 
 ties behind — Having afccrtaincd this facl, I repeated 
 the experiment, weighing the piece of charcoal very 
 carefully before and after the procefs ; and then found, 
 that by she lofs of one grain of charcoal, I reduced four 
 ounce meafurcsofdcphlogifticatedairtill one-ninth on- 
 ly remained unabforbed by water ; and ag."in, with the 
 lofs of one grain and an half of the charcoal, I reduced 
 fix and .in half-meafures of dcphlogiflicated air till five 
 and an Iialf-mcafures were pure fixed air. In this pro- 
 cefs there was a diminution of bulk after thecxperi- 
 Tncnt,as might have been expefted from the change of 
 the air into one of a litavirr kind by means of a iiib- 
 flancc or principle that could not add much to tlic 
 weight of it. In one of the experiments, 4.;! ounce- 
 meafures of deplilogiflicated air were reduced about 
 one-thirtieth part ofthe whole ; andin this cafe, when 
 tlie fixed air was fcparated by water, there was a rcfi- 
 duuni of 0.7J of a meifurc ofthe flandard of r.o, 
 whereas tlie dephlogiflicatrd air, before the experi- 
 ment, had been of the flandard of 0.2. 
 
 " That dcphlogiiiicatedair aAualiy enters into the 
 compofition ofthe rixed air, in this experiment, is evi- 
 dent from the weight ofthe iaff r, v. hich far exceeds 
 that ofthe charcoal difperfed in the procefs. Fcr, in 
 this kfl expcrimciii, the weight ofthe fixed air pro- 
 duced was 4.95 grains. Confrq-iently, foppodng the 
 charcoal to be wholly phlogi Hon, as itis very nearly fo, 
 fixed air juav be faiii toconfift of 3.45 parts of dephlo- 
 V gillicated
 
 "3 
 
 Effifts of 
 
 AERO 
 
 j;iAicalcil r.ir, and 1.5 of j.hldgiflon ; fo that the dc- 
 phlogiilicatcd air is more than three times the proi)or- 
 tio:i of jijilogillon in it I nnill not concUidc, how- 
 ever, without oblcrving, that, in one experiment, I ne- 
 ver tailed to produce hxed air ; thougli it is not eal'y 10 
 fee how onu of its fuppofcd tkinents, viz. dcphlogilli- 
 catcd air, could enter into it. This is by heating iron 
 in vitriolic acid air. In one of thefe experiments, four 
 ounce-mcafuresofthcviiriolicacid air were reduced to 
 0.65 of an ounce-iueafure ; and of the quantity lolt 
 three and an half meafures were fixed air abforbed by 
 lime-water, and the remainder weal.ly inriammablc." 
 Fixed air, even when pure and unmixed, is reniark- 
 thc c\t&iic aijiy altered by the elearic fp.irk, part of it being thus 
 fpark on rendered immifciblc in water. Ur Pricllley, having 
 fixed air, j.jj.j,„ ,|,,. tic^iiic fpark for about two hours in a fmall 
 quantity of fixed air confined by mercury, found, that 
 after tlic cipcration,one.fourihof it remaincdlmniifti- 
 blc with water ; though, before it, only one-thirtieth 
 part had remained unabforbed. Theiulide of ihe tube 
 had become very black ; wiiieh, in other experiments 
 of 2 fimilar kind with vitriolic acid air, he had obfervcd 
 to arife from the adlielion of a fmall quantity of mer- 
 cury fupcrfaturated with phlogillon. In another ex- 
 periment, in which the fpark was taken an hour and 
 ten minutes in about half an ounce-meafure of fixed 
 air, one-tifth remained unabforbed, and the llandardof 
 the reliduumwaso.9;though, before theoperation, only 
 one thirtieth part had been abforbed, and the llandard 
 of the reliduum was i.o. Iniiii* experiment, alfb, he 
 obfcrved, that the air was incrcafcd about a twentieth 
 part. On taking the eleftric fpark an hour in half an 
 ounce of fixed air, as much reliduum was left as had 
 remained in five times the quantity of the fame fixed 
 air in which no fpark had been taken. This rcfiduum 
 was alio much purer than that of the original fixed air, 
 the ftandard being 0.8 ; whereas that of the original 
 fixed air had been, as before, i .0. On repeating the 
 experiment, he found the refiduum flill greater, but 
 equally pnre ; and, in this cafe, a goud quantity of 
 black matter was obferved adhering to the tube. Ha- 
 ving taken the fpark in a fmall tube containing ,'- th of 
 an ounce-meafure of fixed air, the infide of the tube 
 J, 4 was clouded with black matter, and in the bottom was 
 Ixpcri- a fmall quantity of yellowifh matter refemblin;; ful- 
 Bieiit in fa- phur ; the reliduum was between one-founh and one- 
 vourot _ fifth of the whole, and Icfs pnre than formerly. This 
 Vricftley's circumflance he alfo fuppofes to be a proof that 
 cJnctrnin- ^'^^'^ *'"■ '"*y '^^ compofed of phlogifton and de- 
 tfic cumi-o'- phlogillicated air. Purfuing this experiment, by ta- 
 fition of king the cleftric fpark three hours in a fmall quantity 
 phlogiaica- of fixed air, he obfcrved that it was firA increafcd, and 
 ttd air. t],e;, diminiflicd about one-eighth of the whole ; the 
 infide of the tube being very black on the upper part, 
 and below the mercury very yellow, for the fpace of 
 a quarter of an inch all round the tube ; but this fpace 
 had been above the mercury in the beginning of the 
 operation. One-third of the air remained unabforbed 
 by water ; but fo impure, that the fiandard of it was 
 1.8, or alnioft completely phlogifticated — Varying 
 the procefs by ufnig water impregnated with fixed air 
 inftead of mercury, the quantity of air was much aug- 
 mented by that W'hich came from the water ; but thus 
 the far greater part of it was incapable of being ab- 
 forbed by lime-water ; and on this occafion he obfer- 
 
 o 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sect. V. 
 
 cdair. 
 
 vcd, that water impregnated with fixed air is a much Fixed Air. 
 
 worfc conductor of electricity than the fame fluid im- ' ^ ' 
 
 pregnated with mineral acids. On uiil varyi ig the 
 circumdances of the experiment, by ufing common 
 water inllead of that which had abforDed fixed air, he 
 found that the quality of the reliduum was evidently 
 better than that of the original fixed air. 115 
 
 In order to difcovcr whetherthc heat or light of Ifftdtsof 
 thceleclrie Ipark were the circumftances which ell'ett- » ftronj 
 cd the change, the Doitor threw a flrong light, by h^'*'"" £*- 
 means of a lens, for f'omc hours, on a quantity of ^ 
 pounded glafs confined in fome fixed air ; but though 
 the volume of refiduum was thus fomewhat increaled, 
 yet as it was of the faiuc q lality with common air he 
 fufpected that it might be only that portion which had 
 been introduced among the particlcsof the glafs. The 
 quantity of air was increafed after the operation. 
 With glafs-houfe fand made very hot, the quantity of 
 air was likewife increafed ; but the experiment was 
 not more fatisfacliry than the former. Heated bits of 
 cruciblesincreafed the quantity of rciiduum in thepro- 
 portion of 10 to 6.6 ; but the quality was injured ci- 
 ther direclly by a comparifon with nitrous air or b/ 
 producing a larger quantity of refiduum equally bad. 
 By heating iron, how ever, in fixed air, part of it was 
 evidently converted into phlogillicated air. On htat- 
 ing turnings of malleable iron for fome time in fixed 
 air, one-tenth partof it was rendered immifcible with 
 water ; and on rcpeatirig the procefs with the remain- 
 der, there was a refiduum of one-fourth of the whole. 
 There was alfo a fmall addiiion to the quantity of air 
 after the i\rl\ part of the procefs, but none after the 
 fecond ; nor could he, after a third and fourth pro- 
 cefs, render more than one -fourth immifcible with wa- 
 ter. In two experiments, the reliduum was inflam- 
 mable, and burned with a blue Hame. ^ , 
 
 With regard to the quantity of fixed air which may Ouantityof 
 be expelled from different fubflances, Dr Prietlley ob- fijcdairex- 
 fcrves, that from fevcn ounces of whiting, thepureft pelledfrom 
 calcareous fubdancewe arc acquainted with, he expel- different 
 led by heat 650 ounee-meafures of air ; by which '^"''''*""'" 
 means the whiting was reduced to four ounces. One 
 third of this was fomewhat phlogillicated ; the fiand- 
 ard being 1.36 and 1.58. Repeating the exj'eriment, 
 he obtained 440ounce-meafurcs of air from fix ounces 
 of whiting; about one-half of which was fixed air, and 
 the remainderof the fiandard of 1.4. On nioiflening 
 fome calcined whitingwithwaterimpregnated with vi- 
 triolic acid air, he obtained 90 ounce-meafures ; of 
 which the firft portions were three-fourtlis fixed air, 
 and the fiandard of the reliduum i.jjthe htterhadlefs 
 fixedair.andtheflandardofthereliduum was 1.44. 'I'he 
 whiting was rendered blackand hard, bntbccame foft 
 and white with fpirit of fait. Three ounces and a 
 quarter of lime fallen in the air, yielded 375 ounce- 
 meafures ; of which about one-fifth was fixed air, and 
 the llandard of the reliduum 1.4. Four ounces of white 
 lead had yielded 240 meafures of air when the retort 
 melted. The rciiduum of the firll procefs was one- 
 third, the fiandard 1.36 ; and of the lafl the fiandard 
 was 1. 28, that with the common atmofphere being 
 1.23. Two ounces and three quarters of wood-a(hes 
 yielded, in a very flrong heat, 4'o ounce-meafures of 
 air jofthefirft portion of which one-tenth, of the fe- 
 cond one-third, and of the third cne-half, was fixed 
 
 air
 
 Sea. VI. 
 
 A 
 
 R O 
 
 . air. 1 he llandard of tlic rdiJuum of the rirll portion 
 ■ was 1.6, and of" the fccoiid 1.7. It cxtinguilhcd a 
 candle ; fo that the air came properly fron) thealhcs, 
 and not from any remaining; particles of the charcoal 
 mixed with them. After theprocefs, the alhcs weigh- 
 ed 839 grains ; but by expofiirc to the air for one day, 
 tlic weight Wis iucrcafed to S42 grains ; and, perhaps 
 with more heat than before, y ielued 50 ounce-mcafures 
 of air ; of which about onc-cigluh was fixed air, and 
 the flaudard of the reuduam 1.38 and 1.41. A can- 
 dle burned in this reliduum, and the alhes were redu- 
 ced to 739; grains. Two ouncc-meafures of Hom- 
 berg's pyrophorus burned in the open air, and then 
 diflilled in a retort, yielded 144 ouncc-meafarcs of 
 air; of whichone-iulf at firit was fixed air, but at the 
 lall very little. The refiduum of the firit portion cx- 
 tinguiflied a candle, but that of the lad burned with 
 a blue lambent liame. The flandards of both with ni- 
 trous air were about i.8. The pyrophorus was then 
 kept two days in the retort, with the mouth immerfed 
 in mercury ; after which, on being taken out, it burn- 
 ed as flrong as ever. Immediately before the burning, 
 it weighed 428 grains ; immediately after it, 449 ; 
 but being fpread thin and expofed to the atmofplierc 
 for a night, the weight was incrcafed to 828 grains ; 
 though, on being well dried, it was again reduced to 
 486. Subje(^ting it to a greater heat than before, the 
 matter yielded no ounce-meafures of air ; the tirft 
 portions of which were half lixed air, but thelaft con- 
 tained very little, and burned with a blue lambent 
 flame. It was then reduced to 396 grains. The ex- 
 periment was then repeated with a quantity of pyro- 
 phorus, which would not take lire in the open air ; 
 and on heating thisfubrtance inan earthen retort, rivc- 
 fcvenths of the firll part of the produce was tixcd air : 
 but this proportion gradually diminiflied ; till at laft 
 nine-tenths of the whole was inflammable air, burning 
 with a lambent blue Jiame. This inflammable air be- 
 ing decompofed with an equal quantity of dephlogi/li- 
 cated air, yielded 0.86 of a meafure of lixed air. A- 
 nother quantity of pyrophorus, which burned very well, 
 and which by expofure to the atniofphere had gained 
 132 grains, being again expofed to heat in an earthen 
 retort, gave rSoounce-mcafuresof air ; thrce-fevenths 
 of the flrfl portion of which was lixed, and the rcll 
 phlogillicated air ; but afterwards only one-half was 
 fixed and the reft inflammable, burning with a lambent 
 blue flame ; and at laft it was wholly inflammable. 
 This pyrophorus took lire again after being poured 
 out of the retort, but not without the alTiftance of ex- 
 icrnal heat. It had been red-hot through the whole 
 mafs at the firfl burning, and the furfacc was covered 
 with white adics ; but all the inlide was as black as 
 Cirerithid been. Kour ounces of dry ox-b!ood yield- 
 ed I2C0 ounce-mcafures of air, and it was coHJectured 
 that not lefs tlun 20omeafures had efcaped. It con- 
 tained no lixed air. The flrft portii :i burned with a 
 large lambent white liame, the middle portion f.iinter, 
 and the laft was liardly inflammable at all. The re- 
 maining coal weio;hcd 255 grains, and was a good con- 
 duftor of electricity. 
 
 Sect. VI. Irfiainwai/i Air. 
 
 We owe the knowledge of the txiftence, and of fome 
 remarkable properties, oftbisiir, 10 MrCavendilh, by 
 
 LOG Y. 171 
 
 whom they were tir(! pnbl'r.ud in 17^7. Its c!Fc.'"!s, Ii.il-nm.s- 
 however, had long befure been fatally expcrieliceJ by "is -•'-^- 
 ininers ; in whofc fubterraneous habitations it is often ' 
 
 collected ill fuch quantities as to produce llie moft ino'mma 
 dreadful eficcts. It is produced in abuadancc from bU air pr.i- 
 putrid animal a'nd vegetable fubftances ; aiid, in gene- daced iu 
 ral, by all thole which part with tlitir phlogiftoa ca- n>iiie«rr..i« 
 lily. Being much lighter than common air, it always P""'"' *** 
 riics to the top of thofc places where it is generated ; '"'" *" 
 fo that it cannot be confined except in fome vajltcd 
 place, but always ftrives to afcend and n.ix with the 
 atmofpherc. By itfelt it is very noxious,|and will in- 
 ftantly put an end to animal life ; but when mixed 
 with atmofpherical air, may be breathed in much 
 greater quantity than fixed air. Its great inflamma- 
 bility in th:s Hate, however, renders it very dangerous 
 to bring any lights, or even to ftrikc a flint with ftcel, 
 ill thofe places where it abounds. But this only takes 
 jilace when the inflammable air is mixed with common 
 atmofpherical or with dephlogifticated air ; in which 
 cafe, the explolion is mudi more violent than the for- 
 mer ; for pure inflammable air extinguilhes flame as 
 ericctnally as fixed or phlogifticated air. 
 
 Befides the fubterraneous phccsalreadymentioncd, 
 this kind of air is found in ditches i over tiie furfacc of 
 putrid waters, oat of which it efcapes ; in buryir.g- 
 placcs ; in houfcs of office w here putrid animal and vege- 
 table matters are accumulated ; and may, by Handing 
 or boiling, be extradcd from the waters of moft lakes 
 aiid rivers, cfpecially thofc in which great quantiticS" 
 of fermenting and putrefying matters are thrown : and 
 as putrefaction thus fceins to be the principal fourcc of 
 inflammable air, it thence happens, that much more „g 
 of it is produced in warm than in cold climates. In Great 
 thofe countries, we are informed by Dr Franklin, that quantitlci 
 if the mud at the Iwttom of a pond be well ftirrcJ, and produced 
 a lighted candle brought near to the furface of the wa- '" ^' ' '''" 
 ter immediately after, a flame will inftantly fpread a """*■ 
 conliderable way over the water, from the accclSon of 
 the inflammable air, affl)rding a very curious fpei-^aclc 
 in thcnighttime. In colder climates, the generation 
 of inflammable air is not fo plentiful as to produce this 
 phenomenon ; ncverthclefsJ\IrCavalloinformsus,thac 
 it may be plentifully procured in the following manner, j, 
 in all the ponds about London. " Fill a wide-mouthed Mr Ca'aU 
 bottle with the water of the pond, and keep it invert- iVsmtthoi 
 cd therein; then, with a ftick, ftir the mud at the"fc"ll«<- 
 bottora of the pond, juft under the inverted bottle, fo '"? '"fl^in- 
 as to let the bubbles of air which come out of it enter f'"'' ""; 
 into the bottle ; which air is inflammable. When by '"""P""'^'- 
 thus ftirring the mud in various places, and catching 
 the air in the bottle until this is filled, a cork or glafs 
 floppcr nuift be put over it whilft l^anding in water ; 
 and then the bottle may be taken homcj^in order to 
 examine the contained inflammable fluid at leifurc." 
 
 The 2;re..t quantity of inflammable air produced in \fc'(.or» 
 warm climates has given occafion to fome philofophers thi^ught t« 
 to fuppofe, that it may poflihiy have fome Jhare in proceed 
 producing certain atmofpherical meteors. The weak fft"" ■'• 
 lightnings without any explolion, which are fome- 
 timcs perceived near the hori/.on in fercue weather, 
 are by them co::ieClured to proceed from inflammable' 
 air fired by eleciric cxploiions in the atmofnlxre. 
 Mr Volta fuppofes that the igufs foiul arc occalioncd 
 by ihc iu.lammable air which proceeds from marlhy 
 ^ 2 grounds.
 
 A E R 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Se(fr. VI. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Differences 
 anion;^ in- 
 fiamniable 
 airs. 
 
 Ill 
 TxtriOled 
 frum v<tri- 
 OU6 fuh- 
 flaiicci by 
 licat. 
 
 "3 
 
 Marc air 
 prucurctl 
 by a fud- 
 den thjii 
 gradual 
 hoat. 
 
 gniunus, a:iJ is ftt on lire by clcclric f]'arks; bat thtlc 
 piienoracna cm be ^ccutintcd for in a niv>rc probable 
 iiun;ur troni the action olliie electric Jhiiil ilfclt. 
 
 1 hii kind ot" air is more common than any of ihe 
 other noxious airs ; lor there is hardly any intlamniiblc 
 liibllancc on ear.Ii, oiu of which it iniy not be ex- 
 tracted by one incaissor oiher. The fluids, however, 
 which p;oby ihcgcncral na;ne o( inf.aiin/iabl: air, have 
 fcarce ai:y other jiropcriy ia common to them all, bc- 
 fuies thole of inriamniability, and being lpcciiic;illy 
 liglucr than the common atmofphcricalair. In other 
 rcfpccis, the ditfcrences between them are very conli- 
 dcrablc. 'Ihcfmell, wciglil, power of burning, of 
 prcfcrving their propcrtic!^, and the phenonienar.ticnd- 
 ing their combiUViun, are by no means ilie fame in 
 them all ; fomc burning ia an cxjnolive nianutTi o- 
 thers rjuictly, and with a lambent tlanic of a white or 
 bine colour, his, however, necciliiry to make a pro- 
 per diltincUjn between an iafiamniablc chllic fluid or 
 inrtiuiaisblc gas, whi;h may be properly called fo, and 
 that \vhich is evidently made by combining an iniiam- 
 niab'.e fub!tance with common air ; whi.h being cilily 
 leparable from the air, leaves that fiiiid in the Itate 
 11 was before. Th'is a drop of ether, pji inii) a quan- 
 tity of coiBnion air, mixes itfclf with it, and takes lire 
 on the approach of flame, like a mixture of intlamnia- 
 blc and common air j Li.i if the air to which ether is 
 added be walhed in water, the latter is foon fcpar.ited 
 from it. Common air becomes ajf') iuflammablc by 
 being tranfr.iiited through f veral tilential oils ; and 
 thus the air contiguous to the plant called \rux\milla 
 becomes inflammable in calm and hot weather, by the 
 emiinon of its inflammable air, 
 
 liy heat alone, a conlidcrablc quantity of thi% kind 
 of air may be extrailcd from moll inilaninuble fub- 
 flances, and even from fome of the met lis. Dr Hales 
 obtained inflammable air by limply diililling wax, 
 pitch, amber, coals, peafc, and cylter flulls ; and Mr 
 Fontana informs us, that he obtained a conlidcrab'e 
 quantity of inflammable air from fpathofe iron, by the 
 action of fire only applied to it in a matrafs. Dr 
 PrieP.ley, however obtained it from a vaft number of 
 other fubllances, by diililling them in a gun-barrel ; to 
 the extremity of which was luted a tobacco pipe, or 
 fmall glafs tube, with a flaccid bladder tied on the 
 end. He obferves, that the heat mull bf fuddcnly 
 applied, in order to get a conliJerablc quantity of air 
 from thefe fub/lances. «' Notwithllniiding (fays hr) 
 the fame care be taken in luting, and in every other 
 refpecl, fix, or even ten, times n:ore air may be got 
 by a fudden heat than by a (low one, thongli the licat 
 that is lad applied be as inienfe as that which was ap- 
 plied fuddcnly. A bit of dry o:'.k, weighing about 
 ivvclve grains, will generally yiti.ta flie: p's bladder 
 full of inrlammable air with a briik heat, when it will 
 orily yield two or three ouncc-meafurcs if the fame 
 heat be applied gradually." When he wanted to ex- 
 tract inflammable air from metals, a glafs was ufcd, the 
 focus of which aiforded a more intenfe heat than ar.y 
 furnace he could apply : and in this w.iy he obtained 
 inflammable air from fcveral metals ; as iron, brafs, 
 and tin ; but with the metallic calces he had no fuc- 
 cefs. 
 
 In the infancy of his experiments, and even after 
 very couliJcrable praiflicc, the Doctor itnaj"'^^; ih''t 
 
 the infianimable air produced in this way cai.ic only InJlamnu- 
 from the mct.il, without attending to the fliarc which ble Air. 
 water had in the production. Some l.itc experiments ' p.'T ' 
 of Mr Lavuilier, howcvir, U.owcd, tliat water had a Howiiro- 
 grcat fliare in the production of iiiflammaMc air , inlo- cured from 
 much that it gave occalion lo a fupp( lition, that the water and 
 wutcrwas the only fourcelrom whence it was derived, "tl'cr fluid 
 This millakc, however, was dete cd by iJr I'ritliley ; ""''/"''d 
 
 lltlltlillCCft 
 
 who, by his nun-.crous awA accurate experiments, leems 
 in a manner to have exhaulied the iiityttt. Tiic me- 
 thod which Mr Lavoilitr had followed, s\asto feml 
 the lleam of boiling water through a red-hot iron 
 tube; in doing which, the intenfe heat acquired by 
 the water oeealioncd the production of a great quan- 
 tity of iuflammable air. Dr PritlUcy repeated his ex- 
 perimct;ts not only with water, but with other fluids. 
 Sending the vapour of two ounces of fj^irit of wine 
 through a red-hot earthen tube, he obt^iiiied 1900 
 ouncenKafuresof in flammable air, which burned v iih 
 a white lambent flame. It contained no (ixcd air ; 
 and 30 ounce-meafures of it weiglicd eight graias Icf.? 
 than an equal quantity of common air. He colkaed 
 ylfoo.jjof an ounce-mcafurc of water. In thistxpcri- 
 nicnt,thc weight of the water eolletttd wcs 1 63 grains, 
 of the inflammable air 633 grains, and tlutof the fpirit 
 of wine originally was 821 grains, {ii that as little was 
 loft in the procefsas could beexpccled. — Repeating the 
 experiment with vitriolic ether, an ounce of it treated 
 in the fame manner in an earthen tube almoft fllled 
 with pieces of broken earthen retorts and crucibles, 
 one-tenth part of an ounce of water was collcilied, 
 and 7<}Oouuce-ineafures of inflamsnable air were pro- 
 cured, without any mixture of lixcd air, burning 
 witli a white lambent flame like that of wood, anj 
 not exploding with dcpiilogillicated air. Tweiuy- 
 ninc ounce-nieafurcs of this w eighed five grains Icfs 
 than an equal quantity of common air. Vapour of 
 fpirit of turpentine yielded inflammable air mixed with 
 much black fmoke, which foon collected on the fur- 
 face of the water in the receiver. The fnull of this 
 air w.is ixceedingly olfenlivc, and its flame was nnich 
 lef? biniinous than that of the former. Its fpecific 
 gravity was the fame with that of the air procured 
 from fpirit of wine. Oiive oil yielded a conlidcrable 
 quantity of airon beingmixed with calcined whiting ; 
 thefirlt portions burning with a Urge white flame, and 
 the lalt with a lambent blue one. 
 
 In cxtrading air from folid fubftances, the fleam 
 of water was always necellary ; and tlius inflammable 
 air was produced from a great number of ditt<:rent 
 ones. From fulplutr treated in this manner in an 
 earthen tube, inflammable air was obtained of a nature 
 fiir.ilar to that from oil of vitriol and iron. From ar- 
 fcnic, the produce was onc-fevci:tii of fixed air ; but 
 all the reft ilrongly inflammable, with a fmcll fcarccly 
 Ciftinguifhable from th.it of phofphorus. Twenty 
 ouncc-meafurcs of this air weighed 4, grains lefs than 
 an equal quantity of common air. Both thefe experi- 
 ments, however, were very iroublefoine, on account of 
 the volatility of the matters, which fublinieil and 
 choakcd up the tubes. From two ounces of the 
 fealcs of iron or fining cinder, which he has found to 
 be the fame thing, Dr Prietlley obtained jfio ouncc- 
 mcafures of air; one-tenth of the nrfi part of whicfi 
 was f.::cd air, but afterwards it was all iniiammablc. 
 
 Forty
 
 Sea. V!. 
 
 A 
 
 R C) 
 
 T. 
 
 O 
 
 '73 
 
 Inflamini- Forty ounce mcafurcs of this air wci^Licd two jr.iiius 
 l>ic Air. jr.orc than an equal quantity of common uir. r'rora 
 
 * ■' — charcoal expofcd to the red- hot lltan: ot water, i:i- 
 
 iiammahlc air was procured in great quantities, i torn' 
 nincty-fcur grains of pcrlc-a charcoal, that li, prepared 
 v.ith a Jtrong heat fo as to expel all hxed air from it, 
 and 140 ounces of water, 84c our.cc-mcafurcs of air 
 were elit.iiiicd, onc-iifth part of wJiich was fixed air ; 
 and the inflamniaUe part appeared likewifc, by dccom- 
 politiou, to have a quantity of fixed air intimately 
 combined withit. — Threeounccs of bones burnt black, 
 and treated in this manner in a copper tabc, yielded 
 340ounce-nieafiircsof air ; the water cxpenUcd being 
 28<J grains, and tlic bones loiiug 110 grains of their 
 Weight. This air, he obfcrves, differs conlidcrably 
 from that of any other kind of inH.unmablc air ; being 
 in feveral rcfpcds a medium betwixt the air procured 
 from charcoal and thai from iron. It coiitaius about 
 one-fourth of its bulk of uncombined fixed air, but 
 not quite one-tenth intimately combined with the re- 
 mainder. The water that came over was blue, and 
 ■* pretty flrongly alkaline ; ov.iiig to the volatile alkali 
 not having been totally expelled by the heat which had 
 reduced the bones to blackuefs. 
 
 A variety of fubdances, faid not to eont.iin any 
 pLlogillon, were fubjecicd to tl:c fame procefs, but 
 without yielding any inilamraable air. The cxpe;i- 
 meiitswiih iron, however, were the moll fatisfadory 
 as being fubjeef to lefs variation than thofc with char- 
 coal ; and clearly evincing, that the air in the proccls 
 docs not come from the water alone, but from the 
 iron alio ; or, as Dr Pricflley fays, " only from the 
 iron ; the weight of water expended, deducting the 
 v/cight of air produced, being found in the addition 
 of weight in the iron as nearly as could be expcclcdin 
 experiments of this kind. And though the inliam- 
 luable air procured in the procefs is between one- 
 third and one-half more than can be procured from 
 iron by folution in acids, the rcafon may be, that 
 much phlogi;ion is retained in the folutions ; and 
 therefore much move may be expelled from iron when 
 pure water, without any acid, takes place of it. The 
 produce of air, and likewifc the addition of weii^ut 
 gained by the iron, arc alfo much more eafily afccr- 
 tainedin thcfe experiments than thequantiiy of water 
 expended in them ; on account of the great length of 
 the veirds ufed in the proccls, and ihediiTereni quan- 
 tifies that may perhaps be retained in the worm 01 the 
 tube. 
 iij The following are the rtfults of fome of the Doc- 
 
 Propbr- tor'ie.\| c/inients Two hundred and llxty-fevcn 
 
 tioiis of ill- grains, ad icd to the weight of a quantity of iron, pro- 
 flimniablc jUicf J j lofs of 3 ;6 grains of Wuler, and an emiiiion 
 ajro.itaiiieJ^^g ouu T-nuafurcs of air ; and in another exptri- 
 
 ironi iron ^ i 1 t • 1 i- 1 • 
 
 mcnt, 140 grains aided to the veightot the iron 
 
 piodnccd a lofs of 240 grains of water, and the emif- 
 
 lion of 4Jooiuicc-nicalures of air. "The intiamuiiblc 
 
 ron 
 of ftcam. 
 
 air prod. iced in this manner (fays he) isof tlie lightefi luflamnn- 
 kind, and free iTfom that very orfcntivc fmcU which is ^'' '' ^"' 
 generally occufsoned by the ra;id ful.iiion of metals in ' ' 
 
 "oil of vitriol; and it is extricated in as litilc time i.i 
 this way as it is pn'hule to do it by any mode ot folu- 
 tion. The folI</wi::g expcrinxiit was in rte wi:h a 
 view to afccrtain the quantity of infiaT.nable ;ir that 
 may be procured iu this manner from any give;, quan- 
 tity of iron. Nine hundred and iixty grains of iron, 
 when diiTolvcd in acids, will yield about fooouucc- 
 mcafures of air ; but, treated in this manner, it yield- 
 ed 10J4 iRcifares, and then the iron had gained 329 
 grains ill weight (a)." 116 
 
 laflammablc air having been at firft proJuccd only Ofti.econ, 
 from nut^li by nicai.s of acids, it was then fuppolcu il""*-'!" 
 that part of thcacid r.eceiFarily enters iao its compo- '"J"' .f'*-' 
 fition ; but this hypothclis is now found to be ill " '11,1"^ 
 grounded. " That no acid (fays Ur rucU'cy), IS nc- ,,. 
 ceilarily contained, or atleait in any fenfibli; Ljuantity, No acid 
 either in inflammable air, though produceil by means contained 
 of acids, or in the depblogifncated air of the atmo- >" 't- 
 ff here, is e vide;: I from the follow ingcxpcrir.ie::t, which 
 1 made with the greateil c.irc : Takiiigabafon which 
 contained a fmall quantity of water tinged blue with 
 the juice of turnlblc, I placed it in a bent tube of 
 glafs, which came from a vcliel cortair.iiig iron and 
 diluted oil of vitriol ; and lighting the current of in- 
 flammable air as it iiTucd fVon this tub;, fo that it 
 burned exactly like a candle, 1 placed over it an in- 
 verted glafs jar, fo that the i.TO'ith of it was plunged 
 in the liquor. Under this jar the inrfammable air burn- 
 ed as long as it could; and when extinguilhed for 
 want of more pure air, 1 fulfcrcd the liquor to rife as 
 high as it could within the jar, that it might imbibe 
 whatever fhould be depoiitcd from the decompofition 
 of either of the two kinds of air. I then took off 
 the jar, changed the air in it, and lighting the flrcasi 
 of inilanimablc air, replaced the jar as before. This 
 I did till I had decompofcd a very great quantity of 
 the two kinds uf air, without perceiving the leall 
 change in the colour of the liquor, which mart have 
 been the cafe if any acid had entered as a ncceflary 
 conlbtuent part into viiher of the two kinds of air. 
 I alfo found no acid whatever iu the water, which was 
 procured by keeping a ftream of inflammable air con- 
 fUntly burning in a large glafs balloon, through which 
 the air could circulate, fo that the tiar.ie did not go 
 out. Neither was there any acid produced in the dc- 
 compoiition of ia:lamniablc and dcphlogilticatcd air 
 in a ftron_^ elofe glafs velfcl. 
 
 " With refpecf to indammable air, I haveobferved, 
 that when futficicnt care is taken to free it from any 
 acid vapour that may be accidentally contained in it, 
 it is not iu the fmallcil degree atle.-led by a mixture of 
 alkaline air. On the whole, thcrclbrc, 1 haveatpre- 
 fcnt no doubt, but that pure inrtammable air, though it 
 certainly contains ti'ater, does not nccclfarily contain 
 
 any 
 
 (a) In thcfe experiments, the Doctor feems r.ot to have fuppofed that ar.y particular kind of water was ne- 
 celfiry for this produiition of intlanirasble air : but in the Memoirs of the Philofophical Society at Ilaer'em, it 
 is alliTted by Dr. Deiiiian and M. I'aets Van Trooilv./k, that the experiment will notTiTcced when boiUd or 
 dillillcd waiCr, or any oiher than that contai.iing fixed air, is made ufc of; and to this air they attrilmie the 
 c..: nation of the iron, and produdinnof iniiammable air. This affcrtion, however, ii contrary to what wc nnd 
 rtl.i-cd by Mr Kirwan. Sec n" 1 53.
 
 «74 
 
 ble Air. 
 
 128 
 
 Water ne- 
 ccffary to 
 its produc- 
 tiuii. 
 
 129 
 
 Charco;il 
 totally cin 
 ■vertible in- 
 to inflara- 
 luabie .Ur, 
 
 130 
 Weight of 
 aflics deri- 
 veJ from 
 the air. 
 
 *3i 
 
 Experi- 
 ment fliow 
 iiij; tlie nc- 
 ceflit} of 
 water to 
 the produc- 
 tion of in- 
 flamnialilc 
 sir. 
 
 AERO 
 
 any .itid : yet .111 aiiJ vai'oiir may be cifily liitfiilcj 
 through it, and may pirhaps in mai»y cal'es be oblli- 
 natcly retained by it, as no kind of air fccms lobe ca- 
 pable of fo great a variety of impregnations as inllam- 
 niable air is." 
 
 Mr Cavendilh firft perceived the ncceflity of nioi- 
 fliirc to the production of iullanimable air ; but it was 
 not until after making fcvcral experiments that l)r 
 PrielUey coulJ adopt ihclanie idea. He had obftrved 
 fome very remarl^able circumllanccs relating to the 
 production of inlianimablc air from charcoal, by which 
 he war. induced to fuppofe thai the former was pure 
 phlogifton in a volatile Hate without any moillurc 
 whatever. The Doelor obfcrves, that " charcoal is 
 generally faid to be indellrucliblc, except by a red 
 heat in contact with air. Hut 1 lind (fays lie), that it 
 is perfectly Jellrui5tiblc, or dccompofed, /'.' vacwi, and, 
 by tlic heat of a burning lens, almoll convertible into 
 inllammable air ; lb that nothing remains beildcs an 
 exceedingly fniall quantity of white allies, which are 
 feldom vifible, except when in very fmall particles th cy 
 happen to crofs the fun-beains as they tiy about tlie 
 receiver. It would be be impollible to collect or weigh 
 them i but according to appearance, the afnes thus 
 produced, from many pounds of wood, could not be 
 fuppofedto weigh a grain. The great weight ofalhes 
 produced by burning wood in open air arifes from 
 whatisattracfted by them from the air. The air which 
 I get in this manner is wholly inflammable, without 
 the leaft particle of fixed air in it. But in order to 
 this, the charcoal muft be perfectly well made, or with 
 fuch a heat as would expel all the fixed air which the 
 wood contains ; and it nuilt be continued till it yields 
 inllinimable air only, which in an earthen retort, is 
 foon produced. 
 
 " Wood or charcoal is even perfedly deftruCliblc, 
 that is, refolvable into inflammable air, in a good 
 earthen retort, and a (ire that would about melt iron. 
 In thcfe circuniftances, after all the fixed air had come 
 over, I Icvcral times cor.tinued the proccfs during a 
 whole day ; in all which time inilammablc air has 
 been produced equably, and without any appearance 
 of a termination. Nor did I wonder at this, after 
 f;.eing it wholly vanifii into inflammable air;« vacuo. 
 A quantity of charcoal made from oak, and weighing 
 about an ounce, generally gave me about five ouncc- 
 meafures of inflammable air in twelve minutes." 
 
 Although from thcfe experiments it did not appear 
 that water was in any waysclTcntially necelfary to the 
 produftionofthiskindof inflammable air, it appeared 
 manifeftly to be fo in the following : " At the time 
 (fays he) when! difperfedanyquantityof charcoal with 
 a burning lrns/« vacuo, and thereby filled ray receiver 
 with nothing but inflamniablc air, I had no fufpicion 
 that the wet leather on which my receiver llood could 
 have any influence in the cafe, while the piece of char- 
 coal was fubjcft to the intenfe heat of the lens, a;:d 
 placed feveral inches above the leather. I had alio 
 procured inflammable air from charcoal in a glazed 
 earthen retort for tsvo whole days luccellivcly, during 
 which it continued to yield it without intermiilion. 
 Alfo iron-tilings in a gun-barrel, and a gun-barrel it- 
 fclf,had always given inflammable air whenever! tiied 
 
 O G Y. 
 
 Sedl. V[. 
 
 tlictxperiment. Thcfucircumflanccs, hov.-cver, de- Inflamma- 
 ceivcd me, and perhaps would have deceived any other Ijle Air. 
 ptrlon i for I did nit know, and could not have be- TVr"** 
 1 it vcd, the powerful ail raclion between water and char- p.xccflive 
 coal or iron, when thelatler arc intenfely hot. They attraAion 
 will lind, and attra(;b ii, in the niidlt of the hottcll betwixt 
 fire, and through any pores that may be left open in t'larcoal.oi 
 a retort ; and iron filings arc felJom fo dry as not to "^''" ''"'^ 
 have as much moiflure adhering to them as is capable 
 of enabling them to giveaconliderable quantity of in- 
 Hammable air. But my attention being now fuliy 
 awakened to the fuljert, I prclently found that the 
 ciremnltances abovementioned had actually milled nic; 
 I mean with refpccl to the concluflon which I dre\r 
 from the experiments, and not with refpcft to the ex- 
 periments thenifclves, every one of which will, I 
 doubt not, be found to anfwer, when properly tried. 
 
 " Being thus apprifed of the inlluence of unper- 
 ceivcd moillure in the production of intlammaLlc air, 
 and willing to afcenaia it to my perfect faiisfaction, 
 I began with filling a gun-barrel with iron tilings in 
 their common flate,without taking any particular pre- 
 caution to dry them, and I found that they gave air 
 as they had been uled to do, and continued 10 do fo 
 many hours : I even got ten ounce-meafures of inllam- 
 mable air from two ounces of iron filings in a coated 
 glafs retort : At length, however, the production of 
 iniiammablc air from the gun-barrel ceafed ; but, on 
 putting water to it, the air was produced again ; and j 
 a few repetitions of the experiment convinced nic that fnflamnia- 
 I had been too precipitate in concluding that inflam- i,leairi»ii"t 
 mable air is pure phlogiflon. I then repeated the ex- pure phlo- 
 periment with the charcoal, making the receiver, the ijifon. 
 Itand on which I placed the charcoal, and the charcoal 
 itfclf, as dry and hot as poUiblc, and uling cement in- 
 Jlead of wet leather, in order to exclude the air. In 
 thcfe circumflances I was not able, with the advantage 
 of a good fun and an excellent burning lens, to dccom- 
 pofc <iiiite {^ much as two grains of the piece of char- 
 coal which gave me ten ounee-nieafurcs of inflamma- 
 ble air; and this, 1 imagine, was efFeCtcd by means 
 of l"o much moifturc as was depofited from the air in 
 its flate of rarefacTion, and before it could be drawn 
 from the receiver. To theprodudion of this kind of 
 inflammable air, therefore, I was now convinced that 
 water is as e.flcntial as to that from iron." j^ . 
 
 In his analyfis of different kinds of inflammable air, Priell'lty'* 
 the Doctor obfcrves, that the difference molt com- analyfis of 
 monly perceived is, that fome of them burn with a dilTcrcnt 
 lambent flame, fometiines white, fometimes yellow, '1'"'^'°^"'" 
 and fometimes blue ; whileanotherkindalways burns *°"^** "^ 
 with an explolion, making more or lefs of a report 
 when a lighted candle is dipped into a jar filled with 
 it. The inflammable air extrafted from metals by 
 means of acids is of this lafl kind ; and that from wood, 
 coal, or other inflammable fubftances by means of heat, 
 belongs to the former. It has alfo been obferved, that 
 thefe kinds of inflammahle air have different fpecific 
 gra\itics; the, pureft, or that which is extracted from 
 iron, &c. being about ten times as light as common 
 air ; but fome of the other kinds not more than twice 
 as light (a). 
 
 'I his difl'ercnce was fer fome time attributed to a 
 
 quantity 
 
 ( A ) Here the Dodor's calculaticat differs fomewhat from that of Mr Kirwan ; v. ho, in his Treatife on Phlo- 
 
 giilon.
 
 VI. 
 
 R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Iiiflammj- qtiantiiy of fixed air intimartly combined with the 
 bic Air. heavier kinds, f.) that it could not be difcovcrcd by 
 
 ' ^ lime-water, while the lightclt contained no fixed air at 
 
 all. In order to aktrt .in this point, he had rccourrc 
 to dcconipoiition ; which was performed by nii.xing 
 with the inrianiiiiablc air to be tried an equal quantity 
 of common or depiilo^ifticated air, and thcncontiniiig 
 ihiiiiina ftrongglafs vclfel previoiilly tilledcithcrwith 
 water or mercury ; makingaftcrwards an electric fpark 
 in fonic part ot the mixture by means of wires infertcd 
 through the fidesof the veflcl,and nearly meeting with- 
 in it. Thus he fuppofed that he might be able to de- 
 termine the quaiitity of c'j>uIii/i f J iixcd air, and likcwife 
 the relative quantity of phlogifton contained in each 
 of them. The former appeared by wafliing the air 
 with lime-water after the cxplolion, and obfcrving 
 how much of them was abforbcd ; and the latter by 
 examining the refiduum with the teft of nitrous air, 
 and obfcrving the purity of it. Kinding, however, 
 that, In fome cafes, more fixed air was found after the 
 cxplolion than could have been contaiutdm the inflam- 
 mable air, he was thence led tooblcrvcthe^fn!Ta//»«of 
 fixed air from t he princplcs mentioned in thclaflfcJlion. 
 In profecuting this fubjcct, it was found, that one 
 nieafure of inrlammable air produced by fteam from 
 metals, and one of ilcphlogillicated air, f ich as by 
 mixture with two raeafures of nitrous air was reduced 
 to 0.72 of a meafure, were reduced by explofion to 
 0.6 ot a meafure ; the refiduum, by an equal quantity 
 of nitrous air, was reduced to 0.87. With the fame 
 dcphlogillicatcd air, the inflammable air from fining- 
 cinder and charcoal was reduced only to 1. 8 J of a 
 meafure ; but by waQiing in lime-water, to 1.2. The 
 rcliduura examined by nitrous air appeared to be of the 
 flandardofo.9. In another procefs, the diminution after 
 the cxplolion was to i. 5 j, and that after wafliing in lime- 
 water to o.6y, of a meafure ; in a third, by explofion to 
 1.6, and by wafliing to 0.66 ; and in a fourth, the tirlt 
 diminution was to 1.6, and the fecond to 0.9. In this 
 lad experiment there was n. generation of an entire 
 meafure of fixed air ; and that this had not been con- 
 tained originally in any latent llate in the original 
 fluid, was evident from the fpecific gravity of the in- 
 flammable air made ufe of. This, indeed, was one of 
 the heavieft kinds of the fluid : but 40 ouncc-meafures 
 of it weighed only two grains more than an equal bulk 
 of common air ; whereas, had all the fixed air found 
 in the refiduum been cmitaiuei in the original air, it 
 muft h.ive been at lealt one half heavier. " Indeed 
 (fays the Doctor) if any quantity of inflammable air, 
 of about the funic fpecific gravity with common air 
 (which is the cafe with that fpecies of it 1 am now 
 conlidcrinn;), yield fo much as feven-trnthsof its bulk 
 of fixed air in confequence of its explofion with de- 
 phlogifticatcd air, it is a proof that at Icafl part of 
 that fixed air was generated in the procefs, becaufc 
 feven-tenths of fuch fixed air would weigh more than 
 the whole meafure of inflammable air." 
 
 '75 
 
 Equal parts of dcphlogifiicated air and the inflam- Infiamn-.a- 
 mablc kind produced from fpirit of wine, were redu- bic Air. 
 ced to one mealure, and by wafliing in lime-water to ^""^ 
 0.6 of a meafure. The ftandard ot the refiduum was 
 1.7. — In another cxptrimcnt^ in which the vapour of 
 the fpirit of wine had palled tiirough a tube tilled with 
 bits of crucibles, the ririt diuiiuution was to 1.6, the 
 fecond to 1.4, and the Itandar J of the reliduuin was to 
 1.84: but in a third, the firlt Jirr.iiiution was to 1.2, 
 the fecond to 0.9. — Air procured by Iteam from red- 
 hot platina was reduced to 0.72 of a meafure, and the 
 ftandard of the refiduum was 0.9. It contained no 
 fixed air. — t\\r from brimltonc, with an equal part of 
 dcphlogifticatcd air, was diniinilhcd to 0.6, and ho 
 fixed air was found in the refiduum. Its ftandard was 
 0.95 — With inflammable air from arfcnic, the nrfl re- 
 duction was to I.I J, tlu- fecond to 0.95. The ftand- 
 ard was 0.82 With the inflammable air procured bv 
 
 adccompofition of alkali. le air, the diminution by ex- 
 plofion was to 0.96, and no fixed air was contained in 
 the refiduum; the ftandard of which was 0.8 — In- 
 flammable air from ether refcmbles that from fpirit of 
 wine. The firll diminution was to 1.36, the fecond to 
 1.2 ; and the ftandard was 1.9. 
 
 Inflammable air procured by means of fteam from 
 charcoal of metals produces a confidcrable quantity of 
 fixed air ; the firll diminution being to 1.12, the fe- 
 cond to 0.8, and the ftandard of the refiduum 1.9. 
 This analylis was of the firft portion that came over, 
 the fecond was fomewhat different : the firft diminu- 
 tion being to i.o, the fecond to 0.75, and the ftand- 
 ard of the refiduum 1.9. — From conk, or the charcoal 
 of pitcoal.the rirfl diniiiiution was to t.15, the fecond 
 to 0.9 J, and the ftandard 7.9; but the dephlogiflica- 
 tcd air in this experiment was by no means pure. 
 
 With inflammable air from f'pirit of turpentine, the 
 firft diminution was to 1.7, the fecond to 1.6, and the 
 ftandard 1.9 — From bones, the firft diminution was 
 
 to 0.67, the fecond to o.j8; the ftandard 1.47 
 
 From common charcoal, the firft diminution was to 
 1.5, the fecond to o 74, and the ftandard 1.7. In ano- 
 ther experiment, the firft diminution was to 0.82, the 
 fecond to 0.63, and the ftandard of the refiduum 
 1.37. 
 
 Inflammable air procured by diftilling fome rich 
 mould in a gun-barrel had a ycry otfenfivc fmell, like 
 thatprocurcd from putrid vegetables ; itcontained one- 
 twentieth part of uncombincd fixed air. When this 
 was fcparated from it, and the remainder decompofcd 
 with dephlogiflicated air, the firft diminution was to 
 1.4, the fecund to 0.67, and the ftandard of the refi- 
 duum was 0.6. — The air procured from caft iron has 
 likcwife a peculiarly oflcnfive fmell ; and, on this ac- 
 count, the Doctor imagined, that it might contain 
 more phlogiftoii than couimon inflammable air, fo as 
 to abforb more dephlojrifticatcd air than the other. 
 But this conjecture did not appear to be well founded ; 
 for on exploding it with dephlogiflicated air in the 
 
 proportions 
 
 inrianiniablc air cxtradcd from clean ne wly-nia>!e filinfj 
 
 nd obtained over 
 
 gifton, informs us, that in hiscxperimeius he uicd •• .._ ,..„>.^ ....,■.> 
 
 of foft iron, in the temperifirc of 59", by vitriolic acid whofc fpecific gravity was 1.097?, and obtained over 
 
 mercury, having very little fmell, and what it had being very unlike the ufu.il fmell of inrlimmab'.e .lir." 
 
 The weight of this air, when the biromctcr flood at 29.9, and the tlicrmomcter at 60°, was foaud to be to 
 that of common air as 84.3 to loooj and, confcquently, near 12 times lighter.
 
 
 176 
 
 E R O L O G 
 
 Scc"t. Vf 
 
 lna«inn:a- pi'ojwrii^iis ahm^Jy ii:c!in:>ncd, the dlininuiiori wms 
 Me .Mr. iixe liUiC as wiih i.i.limi'.iublc air produccj iVom liic 
 " "^ ' iiv;llia!>le kiuii, vli. 1.56. 
 
 In tlKfcixpcriiueius, itfcemed evident, that at leaft 
 pan ot'tiic lixcJ ail- fmiuJ alter the exploiioii was pro- 
 diiccJ bj' its means ; but the ibllowiiig iccui no Ids con- 
 vincing proofs, thattixcd airniay lie converted into the 
 iiiflammable kind, or ailealltiiat the elements of fixed 
 air may remain in inrfamniablc air in fuch a manner as 
 ,,6 to be impcrccpiiblc. On healing in an cartheni re- 
 flxtj ;.ir tort a ijnaiitity of llai<cd lime, which had long been 
 convertible kept cUifc corked in a bottle, it gave air, of whidi ohe- 
 iiuo in- j^fti) \vas generally fixed air ; but in the gvin-barrei the 
 flammable ^^^^^ jj^.^j. ^.jt-iJcj no hxcdair/at all, but a great quan- 
 '^'^' lay of inrlaminablc air of the cxplolivc kind, like tluc 
 
 which is got from iion alone by means of water. As 
 this total difjppearance of the fixed air appeared ex- 
 tra-ordinary, the Doftor was induced to repeat it fcve- 
 ral limes v. ith all poliiule care ; and the follov.ing v/as 
 the refiilt of his experiments: Three ounces oFllakcd 
 lime, which liad for fomc time been cxpofed to the 
 open air, heated in an earthen tube, yiildcd i4ounce- 
 incafaresof air, of which only two and an half rcmajn- 
 fd niiabfoibed by water; the refiduum was ilightly in- 
 flaraniablc, but not perfcdly phlogillicatcd. Ihree 
 ounces of tlie fame lime, heated in a gun-barrel, gave 
 20 ounce-mcafures of air, all of which was inrtam- 
 mable, and no part fixed. It was expected, however, 
 ibat the fixed air would have appeared on the dcc.im- 
 polition of this inrtammablc air with the deplilogidi- 
 eatcd kind : but after this procefs, it appeared to be 
 exaftly fuch inllamnublcairas isprocured from metals 
 by the mineral acids, or by fleam ; the diminution of 
 the two kinds of air being exaflly the fame : and tho' 
 fome fixed air was found in the reliduum, it was no 
 more than is nfually met with in t'le decompofition of 
 indammablc air procured by means of fpirit of fait. — 
 SuppoUn^ tiiatihc two kinds of air might incorporate, 
 when one of tliem vjas generated within the other, a 
 gun-barrel was filled with fixed air, and the clofed end 
 of it put into a hot fire. InfiarnmaHc air was inilant- 
 ly produced ; but when the fixed air wjs feparated 
 from it, it burned like in.*lammablc air with which no 
 other kind had ever been mixed. 
 
 On heating iron-turnings in fiveonnce-meafurcs of 
 fixed air, the quan:iiy of it was incrcafed about one 
 ounce-meafure, and there remained one and three- 
 fonnlis unabforbcd by water. The experiment was re- 
 peated with ihc fame rcfult; and itwas farther obferv- 
 ed, that though the inflammable air procured in this 
 • manner did not appear by the tell of lime-water to con- 
 
 tain any fixed air, yet when it was decompofcd by fir- 
 ing it with an equal quantity of dephlogiilica ted air, the 
 reliduum contained one-third of fixed air. The dimi- 
 nutioi; was to 1.4J. Hence the Doctor conjecture?, 
 ihat though, in fome cafes, the fixed air appears to be 
 gtmratid by the dccompolition of dcphlu;;iltic!ttd and 
 inrtamniiblc air, yet that inrtammable air, when LJiiis 
 produced in contact with fixed air, may combine with 
 it, fo as to be properly tontjimd in it, and in fach a 
 manner that it cannot be difcoyered by lime water. 
 
 Indaminable air, when produced in the driell way 
 poiTiblc, is exceedingly lii^ht, as has been already ob- 
 fcrved : but Dr I'rie.lley has found, ihat by Handing 
 
 on water, a very confuityablc incrc-.fo is mr.de in its lpflav»:r;.- 
 (pccinc gravity ; fothai from bciiigtcnor twelve times We Air. 
 lighter than atmolpherical air, it foon becomes only ' ^ ' 
 fiveu times lighter. This great propenfiiy to unite creat'V"- 
 vith water is alio taken notice of by Mr Kirwan ; who pcnlity ol 
 tells us, that the bulk of inllammable air obtained o- inffamma- 
 ver water with the afliiiancc of heat towards ihe end, l'''^ »'>■ '" 
 was one-eighth greater than when produced over mcr- ""'" ^^'"'* 
 cury ; but that the weight of it in the former cafe was '^■'■'"''" 
 
 only eight or nine times lefs than common air 
 
 " From 8j cubic inclies ol intiammablc air obtained 
 over watrr,l extracHed," fays he, " by oil of vitriol cx- 
 pofed to it for 5) hours, two grains of water; and, 
 though undoubtedly there is an error in all ihefe cxpc- 
 rinieuis, yet ijierc can be littic ilo.ibt but this infiara- 
 nable air contained one-half its weight of water. The 
 inrianimable air, by the fubtraetion of its water, loll its 
 fmell, but continued as inliaramabic as ever ; and there- 
 fore there is norcafon to think that it was decompofcd, 
 or thjt water is any way elfential to it." 
 
 The coacluiio.i is dircftly contrary to that of Dr 
 Pricfllcy, that -water is an elfential ingredient in the 
 compoliiion of inrtammable air ; nor do ilic experi- 
 ments of the latter, already recited, fccm to have had 
 any weight with him, as he concludes his Trcatife on j,g 
 Phiogifton in thcfe words. <• lo the proofs I have Mr Kir- 
 hcretofore given, that inllammable air and phlogillon wan's conJ 
 are the fame fubdance, jull as ice and the vapour of c'ufinn con- 
 water are called the f.»me fubdance, no objcLtion of '^'^'^""['C '*'* 
 any wcii^-ht has fincc b:cn made. Some have thought P''""'?''^' 
 
 1 I A 1 1 1 -1111 r 1 "^ ol inflam- 
 
 tnat 1 ihould liave included tlie matter of heat or ele- n,j(,lc air. 
 nicntary fire in tliedcfiaiiionof inrtammable air: butas 
 fire is contained in all corporeal fubftances, it is per- 
 fectly necdlefs, except where bodies difier in the quan- 
 tity of it they contain ; and in this refpcft I cxprefsly 
 mentioned its ditTcrence with phlogilton to conlift. — 
 Others, attending to the quantity of water contained 
 in inrtammable air, have fuppofcd it to be an tlFcntial 
 ingredient in the compofitionof this air,and have call- 
 ed \x. ph:'jgij}icnt;d -water; but they may as well fup- 
 l)ofc water to be an efleniial ingredient in common air, 
 or fixed air, and call this lafl acidulated -water : for in- 
 rtammable air,equally as other airs, maybe deprived of 
 its water without any limitation, and yet preferve all 
 its properties unaltered , which Ihows the prcfcnceof 
 water to be no way ellcniial to it. Laftly, others have 
 thought, that it clfentially requires an acid oran alkali, 
 or fomc falinc fiibltance, for its bafis ; as if there were 
 any more repugnance in the natureof things that phlo- 
 girton (liould exifl in an aerial ftate without any balls, 
 than marine air, alkaline air, or dephlogidicatcd air; 
 when it is evident, than an aerial flate requires no more 
 than a certain proportion of latent heat : but the pro- 
 duction of inflammable air from iron by means of di- 
 flilled water, without any acid or fait, has effcdlually 
 done away any fufpicion of that fort." j,. 
 
 On the other Iiand, Dr Pricllley informs us, thatprPricd- 
 " inflammable air fccmsnowtoconiift of water and in- leys con- 
 flammable air : which, however, feems extraordinary, cluCon. 
 as the two fubfiances are hereby made to involve eacli 
 other ; one of the conftituent pans of water being ir.- 
 flammablc air, and one of the confiitutiit parts of in- 
 flammable airbeingwater ; and therefore, if the expe- 
 riments would favour it (but I do not fee that flicvdo 
 
 io).
 
 Sea. vr. 
 
 E K O 
 
 O G Y, 
 
 ky water. 
 
 ), it would be more iiauiral to fuppofc, tlu: water, 
 like fixed air, conlilts of phlogiftim and dcplilogillica- 
 tcJair, ill feme difierciit inodt of conibiiiiiioii. 
 
 " There is an aftonilhiiig variety i:i the different 
 kindsof inflaniinableair,thccaiifcof whichis very im- 
 per!c(^y known. Thcli^htcft, and tlicrciore probably 
 the piircll kind, fetms toco^liflof phlugiiton and wa- 
 ter only. But it is probable that oi/, and that of dif- 
 ferent kinds, may be held in foluiion in fevcral of 
 them, and be the reafon of their burning with a lam- 
 bent flame, and alfo of their being fo readily refolvtd 
 into fixed air when they arc decompofcd by dephlo- 
 gillicatcd air ; though why this Ihould be tlic cat'c, I 
 cannot imagine. 
 
 " When inflammable and dcphlogifticated air arc 
 burned together, the weight of the water produced is 
 never, I believe, found quite equal to that of both kinds 
 of air. May not the /ig/'t, therefore, emitted from the 
 flame, be partof the phlugillonof the iiirt.immablc air 
 united to the principle of heat ? And as light accom- 
 panies the clcBricfpark, may not this alfo be the real 
 accenfim of fome phlogiflic matter, tliough it is not eafy 
 to find the fource of it." 
 
 The French chemifts, who deny the cxiftencc of 
 phlogifton, are of opinion, that iurianiniable air is a 
 iimplc uncompo'inded element; but lor a more full 
 140 difcullionof this fubject, fee tlic article Phlogiston. 
 Abforpcion Inflammable air is abforbcd by water in ronfidcrablc 
 ofinflam- quantity, but by the application of heat may be expel- 
 mable air Jcjagjjn ju equal 'quantity. By agitation in water Dr 
 Prieltky was formerly of opinion that this kind of air 
 might be rendered as good as common air ; but this 
 undoubtedly proceeds from the atmofpherical air tranf- 
 mitted bythe water, as is the cafe witU pMogilUcated 
 air mentioned in the kill fcetion. After a quantity of 
 water, which had abforbed as much inflammable airas 
 it could, had been futfercdto lland a month, it was ex- 
 pelled by heat, and found to be asllrongly inflammable 
 as ever. The water after the procefs, depofited a 
 kind of filmy matter ; which he fuppofed to be the 
 earth of the metal that had keen employed in produ- 
 cing it. 
 
 Plants in general grow tolerably well in inflammable 
 on vegeta- 3]^^ j„j [],j billow plant has been obferved to abforb 
 tioii and great q;uiuitics of it. Its inflammability is not di- 
 minilhed by the putrefaflion of animal fubllanccs, nor 
 does their putrefadi nfcem to be retarded byit. Ani- 
 mals confined in it are killed almo.1 as-foon as in fixed 
 air: but infecls, which can live a conliderable timcia 
 phlogirticated air, live alfo a conliderable time in this 
 kindofair; but at lafl they become torpid, and appear 
 to be dea<', though they will ftill recover if removed 
 into the open air. Mr Cavallo relates, that the Abbe 
 Fontana, having filled aUrgc bladder with inflammable 
 air, began to breathe it in hi^ prefcnec ; after having 
 made a very violent expiration, in which cafe the ef- 
 fects arc moft powcrfid. The firft infpiration produced 
 a great opprclTion in hishmg.i, the fccond mailc him 
 look very pale, the third was fcarce acconipliihed 
 when heVcll on his knees through weakricfs. birdsand 
 fniall quadruped-., inciofcd in fmall velfels of this air, 
 died afttrvcry fewinfpiritions. Laftly, inflammable 
 air appears to have a fmalltr fnare of refrsiTive power 
 than common air ; for Mr \\'avUi;e inforwis us, thit 
 hiving placed an hollow ividBgubrprifni, of Vvhichiht 
 Vol. I. 
 
 »77 
 
 141 
 
 Its tStdii 
 
 142 
 
 Has lictle 
 rcira<5tive 
 power. 
 
 angle was 72 degrees, fo as tohalfjovera iargeoSj-(!l. Tiiflimma- 
 glals in one of Air DoUond's ])crfp< dives, aiidfo tnrn- Vic Air. 
 td round as to make the frame of a uindow, at ihcdi- ' "' ' 
 Hanccof i23ofeet, fceu partly through the prifiifand 
 partly through common air, appear undivided. 'I'he 
 inflaniniiblc air was then blown out of the prifm, boi 
 no part of the apparatus was moved ; when the frame 
 of the window leen through the object glafs and 
 the prifm as before, fecmed to feparatc about four iii- 
 
 *''"• . „ . 144 
 
 I he inflammability of this fpecies of air lias given Schcmnt* 
 
 occalion to various projctts concerning it ; fuch as that emploj- it 
 of employingit togifrc Rght andheat : and lamps have forvsrioM 
 b^.i defcribcd, v.'hich may be lighted by the electric 1>"''P°'<«' 
 fpaik in the night lime. By its means alfo very pret- 
 ty artihci.1l tires are made, with glals tubes tjciit in va- 
 rious dirciflions, and pierced with a great number of 
 finall apertures. The inflammable gas is introduced 
 into thcfc tubes, from a bladder filled with that (laid, 
 and fitted with a copper cock. When the bladder is 
 prefled, the inflammable air, being made to pafs into, 
 the tube, i:liics out of all the fraall apertures, and is let 
 on Arc by a lighted taper. None of thefc contrivances, 
 however, have ever been applied to any ufe ; and the 
 fcheme of Mr V'olta, who propofed to fubftitutc its ex- 
 plolive force inllead of gun-powder, is found infufli- 
 cient, onaccount of ihe weaknefs of the cxplofion, ex- 
 cept when the two airs arc fired in very great quan- 
 tity, which would be incompatible with the fmall bidk 
 neccffary for warlike engines. 
 
 Sect. VII. Sulphurated JujlammabU Air. 
 
 This was difcovered by Dr Prieftley at the timt 
 when he was engaged in the experiment of which I'orac 
 account has been given in thclallfection, of tranf'mit- 
 ting the fleam of water and other fluids through red- - . 
 hoi tubes containing fomefoliJ material. H3\ing, a- nrU prc- 
 mong others, treated manganefc in this manner, by cured from 
 flopping one end of the heated tube with a cork be- mangiuieft. 
 fore the lleam was applied, he received forty ouacc- 
 meafures of air, of which one fixth was fixed air, aiid 
 the refl of the llandard of 1.7, lambeiitly iunammablc. 
 Having then opened the other end of the tube ia or- 
 der to admit the ftcam, air was procured more co- 
 pioufly than before. Of 50 ounces of thli air, o.ic/. 
 fcventh was fixed, and the reft, of thellandard of 1.8, 
 cxjloilvcly inflammable. The lafl portions were vcr/ 
 turbid ; and the fmell, cfpecially that of the hll por- 
 tion, was very f ilpUurcoiis, liuging the water of a ve- 
 ry dark colour, by drpofitingia it a quantity of blackilh 
 water. However, thcair itfclfbccimcprefcnily tranl- « 
 parent, and had no oiher appearance than that of any 
 other kind of air. On looking ai the jar in about ten 
 minutes after, it was quite black and opaque; fo that 
 Kothi'ig could befcen in theinfidcof it. Filling after- 
 wards another jar wiih the lame kind of air, in order 
 to obfervc 1 he progrcfs of this uncommon p'oenome no>i, 
 he found, that when the water was ^^■cUl'l;^;ided, black 
 fpecks began to apptar in dificrent places, and, cx^ 
 tending thcmfclvcs ia all directions, at length joined 
 each other, till the whole jar w:is become perfev'tly 
 black, and the gl ifs opaque. When this w as doiiC, he 
 transferred the air into anoihcr jar ; and it toon pro- 
 tUiced a liiuilarcficclui'xm this, tiiougbi; never became
 
 vjtriolic 
 acid air. 
 
 iyH A li R O 
 
 inlluminar fo black as tlic jar in wliicli it had been firft rccci- 
 i)Ie Air. ye J, Italfo rrcqucmly luipjoicd, that only the lower 
 '■'""' part of tlic jar would become blick, as it the iiiaitcr 
 with which it was loaded had kept fubiidiiig, tliough 
 invilibly, in tke iiiafs of air, and occupied aiily the 
 Jowcrrcgioiis, kavingthc upper pan entirely free from 
 •• it. On cspoling to the open air tlic vcll'els thus turn- 
 
 ed blr.ck, the colour prefcnily ilifa|'pcarcd, .ind a yel- 
 low or brown incnillation wa;. leli upon ii. The fame 
 change took place when the vellcls were inverted ij 
 water, in order to.obferve the alteration of thcairwitli- 
 in them ; but on examining this air, no fenfiblc change 
 was perceived. In fume cafes, indeed, he thought the 
 air wis injured, but it was mucli lefs fo than he Tfad 
 expected. After dcpofiting the black matter, the air 
 ftill retained its fulpluircous fmell, and he did not 
 imagine that would ever leave it entirely. 
 Procured On trying other fpecimcns of manganefc, no air of 
 from ivory this kind was obtained ; bi'.t fonit time after, having 
 melteil in occafion to make a large quantity of inriamni.ilde air, 
 he ufcd, inllcad of frelh iron, foine that had been al- 
 ready melted in vitriolic acid air. Dillolvinj; ihiswiih 
 a coniidcrable quantity of frelh metal in diluted vitrio- 
 Jic acid, he found that the water in which the air was 
 received became very black, and depolitcd more fedi- 
 nient than had appeared in the experiment with the 
 manganefe. The jars were as black as ink, but be- 
 came yellow on expofure to the air as before ; fo that 
 there could be no doubt of its being the fame thing 
 he had got before. On burning a quantity ot it, this 
 kind of air appeared to contain fonie vitriolic acid, the 
 balloon being tilled with a very denfe white fume, which 
 rendered the water fenfibly acid to the talle. On de- 
 compofing it w'th Jephlogifticatcd air, however, he 
 found the dimiuution exactly the fame as when com- 
 mon in:iamnTable and dephlogifticated air were ufcd ; fo 
 that it appeared to contain neither more nor lefs phlo- 
 gillon than the other ; only there was afniall quantity 
 of lixcd air produced, which is never the cafe with 
 common intiammable air from vitriolic acid and iron. 
 Whcnthc fulphuratedinllammableairisrcceivcd o- 
 ver mercujy, very little black matter is produced on 
 the jars; and it is remarkable, that though the black 
 tiiaticrcollcdedon theiii,when the air-is taken through 
 water, foon grows yellow upon expofmg it to tlic air, 
 it is not the cafe v»ith that which remains in the wa- 
 ter; it adheres to the evaporating vell'cl in form of a 
 black incrullation, which does not burn blue until it 
 has been digelled in the niirousjicid, which deprives 
 it of its fuperriuous phlogillon, aud leaves it both of 
 the colour and fmell of fulphur. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Of ^Ikalhie Air. 
 
 This was procured by Dr Pricftley, in the begin- 
 ning of his experiments, from common fpirit of fal- 
 .inimoniacwith quicklime, or the materials from which 
 it is made. He did not at that time profecute tl:e 
 difcovcry fartherthan by imprcgnatingwater with it ; 
 ky whif-li means he couhI make a much llronger alka- 
 line fpirit than any to be met with in the (hops. His 
 method of procuring it was by mixing one part oi 
 poundcdfal-ammoniac with three pans of Hacked lime; 
 and forconimoit experiments the fame quantity of ma- 
 terials would lall a coniidcrable tiuie. 
 
 L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Seft.Vin. 
 
 This kind of air, w hen jiure, i.siiiAantly fatal to aiii- Alkaline 
 mal life, and extinguilhcs liame ; though, when riiixed '^■'"• 
 with common atmofpheiical air, it is llightly iiuiam- ' ^— ' 
 mable, and alfo medicinal in faintings and other cafes »46 
 of debility. A candle dipped into a jar of this air l^"?'^'''.'" 
 is extinguillicd ; but jull before the .tlame goes out, it "f ^'kahne 
 is enlarged by the addition of auother /lame of a palc^' * 
 yellow colour, and fometinus a weak tiame fpreads for 
 a confiderablc way, or even through the whole body of 
 the alkaline air. The electric (park taken in it ap- 
 pears of a red colour. Every fpark taken in it aug- 
 ments its bulk, and by degrees turns the whole into 
 inriammable air. It is readily abforbcd by water, as 
 has been already obferved, and dillolvcs ice alniofl as 
 lalt as an hot lire. On confining (bme w atcr iiupreg- 
 jiated with alkaline air in a glafs tube, and thus expo- 
 fmg it to a ftronghcat in a faiid-fi:rnacc forfome days, 
 he obferved that a white fediment or incrullation waj . 
 formed on the fiirlacc. The Dr remarked, that 
 bits of linen, charcoal, and fpongc, admitted into a 
 quantity of alkaline air, diiniiiilhed it, and acquired a 
 very pungeut fmell; cfpecially the fuonge, a bit of 
 which, about the fiice of an hazle-nut, abfoj-bed ca 
 ounce-meafure. It is remarkable that copper, which 
 is fo ealily corroded by the common volatile alkalis, 
 is not affected by alkaline air. The fpecilic gravity of 
 this kind of air is, by Mr Kirwan, determined to be 
 to that of common air as 600 to loco ; though, as he 
 jullly obfervcs, this niufl differ very confidcrably ac- 
 cording to the quantity of moidure it contains. j^j 
 
 In profccutiug his experiments on alkaline air, Dr Proofs of 
 PrieRlcy conluded that it contains phlogiflon, both its contain- 
 from its being convertibleiiito iiillammableair by dec- ";P P'^''-'" 
 trie explollous, and likcwUt from its reviving thecal- e'"""" 
 ces of metals. In attempting to afcertain the quan- 
 tity of lead revived in alkaline air he met with two 
 dithculties ; the firff, on account of foinc part of ilic 
 calx being blackened and imperfectly revived ; thefc- 
 cond, that the lead completely revived wasdillblvedby 
 the mercury employed to confine the air. To prevent 
 this lall inconvenience, he put the powdered maflicot 
 (tiic fubffance he chofe toemployon thisoccafion) in- 
 to fmall cirthen cups, contriving to place them with 
 their mouths upwards, in fuch a manner, that wlicn 
 the lead was revived by means of a buriiing lens, it 
 would remain in the cup, and not nii.K with the mer- 
 cury which fupported it. The proportions of metal 
 then revived, w ere fix grains ol lead in three ounce- 
 meafures, 16; in three mcafures and an half, 13 in two 
 and an half, and 1 2 in three and three-fourths ; but the 
 experiment on w'hich he laid the greatefl llrefs, was 
 that in which 26; grains of lead were revived in 7; 
 ounce-meafures of alkaline air. In this proportion, 
 100 ounce-mcafures of alkaline air, would revive 552 
 grainsoflead ; butan equal quantity of intiammable air 
 from iron would have revived 4?o grains ofmetnl. 
 This deficiency appeared fomewhat furpriling to the 
 Doctor, confidcring that alkaline air refolvcd into 
 more than twice its bulk of the inflammable kind; 
 though it is pollible, that inflammable air from iron 
 may contain more phlogiflon than that into which al- 
 kaline air is refolvable. 
 
 On heating red precipitate in alkaline air, the mer- 
 cury was revived as in other cafes, and a conliderable 
 quantity of water was produced, though none appears 
 
 «n
 
 .sedt.vm. 
 
 E R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y, 
 
 Alkaline oil reviving it ■with common inflammable air. " It has 
 /4ir. even (lays lie) run down in drops in the inlidcola 
 *■ " ' vclli'l which coalaiiicd live ouncc-mcaftires olthc air ; 
 and a conliderable qiiaiiiity of dcphlogilticatcdair was 
 found in the rcfuloum." On throwing the locus of the 
 lens on red precijiitatc, inckifcd in tllis kind of air, till 
 three nicafiircs I'f it were reduced to two, water was 
 produced as ul'iul, and ihc llandard of the reliduuin 
 V7as r.y. In another experiment, a violent explofion 
 took place before he could obferve whether any water 
 148 ^^•'"' produced or not. 
 Convrrfion In examining the phenomena which attend the con- 
 of alkaline verlion of alkaline air into the inflammable kind, the 
 iiitoinflam-Dotrlor was induced to believe that it was ocealioned 
 niablc uir. [j^ licataloivc, without the concurrence of light. The 
 citccls of the former were iirll perceived on heating 
 ome ochi c of iron in alkaline air; when, though the 
 matter turned black, as in an incipient redii.Sion of the 
 metal, he Ibund a conliderable increafe of quantity in- 
 llcad of decreafein the air, as he had expected ; and, 
 on examining the quality of it, he found that it con- 
 tained no fixed air, but was entirely inrtammablc. With 
 fcales of iron a limilarenlargement was perceived ; but 
 in this way he could never increafe the quantity to more 
 than double that which had been originally employed, 
 and even after thi,s the w hole fmelled flrongly of vola- 
 tile alkali ; and the iron had undergone no change. 
 
 The Dodor now, concluding from thefe experiments 
 that the cliangc of alkaline into inrtammablc air was 
 produced by this caufc alone, proceeded to repeat the 
 experiment, by heating in the alkaline air bits of dry 
 crucibles, or of earthen retorts, which had been jult 
 before expofed to very great heats, fo that they could 
 not be fuppofcd to give out any air tliemfelves, and 
 therefore could only fervc to communicate a Ilrong 
 heat to the alkaline air ; and in thefe experiments the 
 rcfult was the fame as wh.cn ochre and iron were made 
 ufe of. The bits of white earthen ware were always 
 turned black ; but finding the fame cfFeft of augmcnt- 
 rngthe airand giving it an inriammable quality, though 
 lie ufed the bit of crucible over and over again, he was 
 thoroughly convinced that the change was effecJted by 
 heat alone. 
 
 In all thefe experiments, however, with a burning- 
 glafs, as a ftrong light was alfo concerned, he heated a 
 quantity of alkaline air in a green glafs retort, receiving 
 inaglafs tube, filled with water, all the air that could 
 be expelled from it by heat. At firft it was all abforb- 
 cd by the water, being merely alkaline air expelled by 
 the rarefaction ; but when the bulb of the retort be- 
 came red-hot, he found tliat the bubbles driven out 
 were not wholly abforbed, and at tail none of them 
 were fo Tiiefe were altogethrr intiamniable ; fotliat 
 no doubt remained of the change being produced by 
 heat alone, without any intervention of light. 
 
 It was farther obferved, that whenever thealkaline 
 air was changed into inliammable by means of tiits of 
 retorts or rrncibles containing clay, they always be- 
 came black during the procefs. He inclined therefore 
 to fuppof*, that foinelliiug raiglit be depofitcd from 
 the air which might attach itftlf to the clay- " In- 
 deed, (fays he) if ihis was not the cafe, I do not Ice 
 why tile clay ihouUI become blark ; though, perhaps, 
 part of the fame phlogiftoii which fornij the intlam- 
 fliablc air may be attracted by the red-hot clay, with- 
 
 79 
 
 f>u> air 
 aud iron. 
 
 out there being any proper decomporuioa of the air. N>r.u« 
 That this is the caie f<cms prob.iblc from an cxperi- Air. 
 r.icnt in v/hich I ufed porcelain iiillcad of common " ' 
 
 earthen ware ; which did not become black in the pro- 
 cefs, though inflammable air was produced." i^j 
 
 In fonic of Ur Pricftley's ixperiments, he had ob- V<l.i le al- 
 ferved that iron, which had long rullcd in nitrous air, kuji produ- 
 gave out a (Irong fmcll of v<'latilc alkali. This extra- '';'' "■ "'. 
 ordinary piienoincnon, however, v.as only perceived " '' 
 where the nitrous airand iron had been in contact for ^" 
 a very long time ; but he found that it was much foon- 
 tr produced by niaking ufe of a weak foUuiou of cop- 
 per ; by putting iron into which he obtained that fjic- 
 cies of nitrous air called d.-fhtn^ifticated. A phial oii- 
 taining (one of this iron, which liad been iiled only 
 once tor the purpofe jull mentioned, having been kept 
 clofe corked for about two mouths, was accidentally 
 broken ; wlien fomc piectsof the iron were found co- 
 vered with a green crull, and thefe had a ftiong (mcll 
 of volatile alkali. On making fome more experiments 
 on this fubjcft, he found tiiat two months flanding was 
 reqiulite to produce the alkaline fmcll delircd. 
 
 Sect. IX. OfNttrmts Air. 
 
 I5» 
 
 This kind of air is plentifully obtained in all cafes Howpro» 
 where the nitrous acid is combined with phlogifton: duccd. 
 Thus, when it is mixed with metals, or animal or ve- 
 getable fubftances, nitrous air is produced in great 
 quantities ; but very fparingly when treated with me- 
 tallic calces, earths, or other matters which arc faid to 
 contain little or no phlogifton. All the metals, ex- 
 cepting gold, platina, and regulus of antimony, which 
 are not folublc in the pure nitrous acid, yield nitrous 
 air on being treated with it; and even from thefe, 
 when dilfolved in aqua rcgia, fome quantity of this air 
 may be obtained. Every metal, however, does not 
 yield it in equal quantity, with equal facility, or c- 
 qually good. Silver, copper, iron, brafs, bifmuth or 
 nickel, when put into nitrous acid, yield this air in 
 confiderablc quantity : Mercury yields it but llowly 
 without the application of heat, tiiough no great de- 
 gree of it is necelfary. Copper and iron, efperially t ic 
 latter, require the acid to be cautioufly applied on ac- 
 count of the violent emiilion of fumes. Gold, platina, 
 and regulus of antimony, when put in aqua rcgia, yield 
 nitrous air pretty readily ; but lead yields it in fniall- 
 er proportion than any other metal, and zinc docs the 
 fame among the fcmimctals, the clafttc fluid-produced 
 from it being moltly phh-gifticated air. 
 
 In the production ot this kind of air, great differen- 
 ces are perceived by a divcrlity in the llrcngth of the 
 acid. Thus, if we dillblvccopper in (Irouij nitrous a- 
 cid, no nitrons air is produced, though the fame ma- 
 terials will yield air in great quantity by the mere af- 
 fulioii of water to liilutc the scid. This is very pro- whyftranr 
 perly explained by Doctor Prieflley, from the proper- nitruusccid 
 ty that the nitrous acid has of aitratting ph'op^il'on, yield* .t> 
 which is evident from what happens in the l"i-lution o\ niirou* air. 
 mercury. W hen flrong fpirit of nitre is poured upon 
 this metal, the lolution f on bcj^ins, and is very rapid, 
 yet not a linsrlc bubble of clallic (jnid is produced ; but 
 in a (liort time the acid n<xl to the mercury is chan- 
 ged into an orange colour, which is an indication of its 
 having acquired phlogifloii, probably from the nitrous 
 Z a air
 
 i3o 
 
 jMitroiii 
 
 E R 
 
 O 
 
 L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Scft. IX. 
 
 Properties 
 of nitrous 
 air. 
 
 '13 
 
 J»t^\ to a- 
 nimal and 
 vegetable 
 life. 
 
 air wliicli is dccompofcd tlit nioinciu it is t'ormcd, AUyi 
 before itspaiiitlcsaic dividcJ into viliblc bubbles. The 
 bubbles ol air indeed break througli tlie coloured acid, 
 bin tlicy dil'appcar tiic moment tlicy come in contact 
 with the pale-colonrcd acid. As ioou as the whole 
 quantity ot acid has allumeil the orange colour, nitrous 
 air efcapcs Croni it in couiidcrabie quantity ; but the 
 p.ixtiirc «f water deprives the acid ol its power ot'de- 
 roni poling nitrous air. The Itrong and pale-coloured 
 nitrous acid ought to be diluled with at leall two or 
 three pans ot viatcr to one ol" the acid, for the ea- 
 fy production of nitrous air lioni copper and nicrcu- 
 
 In coninion experiments no other degree fit heat is 
 iiccdfary iluiii that produced by the eltervef.encc it- 
 felf,(Xeept ncicnry be iifed, which retjuires theappU- 
 catioii of loi-.-.e degree of heat ; biii when the metal ex- 
 pofes a very great furface to the aeUl, as is the cafe 
 when the tilings of the metal arc uled, the eitcrvcf- 
 cencc and produdion of nitrous air are oiien much 
 quicker than c.in be con venicntjy managed. The uioll 
 proper u.ethod of prod::cing nitrous air, however, is 
 explained in the iall fec^ion of tkis trentifc. 
 
 Nitrous air by itfclfis equally tranfparcnt and in- 
 vilible with common air, excepting at itsfjrll produc- 
 tion, when it is foincwhat cobured, owing to a liitle 
 fupcrfiuous nitrous acid, or to fonic earthy particles 
 which arc carried uuw iih ir. Its fmcll rtfcmbles that 
 gf jiitrous acid,* or indeed is the very fsir.e ; bccaufe, 
 in pafiing through the common air to our nodrils, it 
 is deconipofed, and converted into nitrous acid. The 
 fame is to be laid of its talle ; thougli Mr F'ontana, 
 who tailed it without any coiitart of external air, af- 
 iirms that it has no ta(le whatever. Tiie nu thod in 
 wliich he afcertained this fde^ was as follows. Having 
 lirrt introduced the nitrous air into a bottle of clallic 
 gum i'.i water, as is done with glafs bottles, he brought 
 his mouth, (hut, while the neck of the elailic gum 
 bottle was under water, near the neck of it ; and then, 
 by prclliu'T the bottle, introduced the nitrous air into 
 his mouth. I'hc experiment, however, is by no means 
 Void of danger; for if the perfon happens to draw any 
 quantity of this air into the lungs, he may be nearly 
 fuffocated, as nitrous air is exceedingly noxious. In 
 performing of it, he recommends to exhauft the mouth 
 entirely of common air, though he does not inform us 
 how this can be done ; nor indeed is it eafy to con- 
 ceive the poifibility of doing To. 
 
 Though nitrous air cxtinguilhcs flame, it may by" 
 certain procefl'es be brought into fuch a Hate that a 
 candle will burn in it with an enlarged flame ; and it 
 becomes wliat Dr Pricfllcy calls defhUj^i/fUiiUd /Jitror/s 
 a r, which is treated of in the next fecflion. It is 
 remarkable, however, that when a candle is extin- 
 gaiflied, as it never fails to be in conimon nitrous air, 
 the flame feems to be a little enlarged about its edges 
 by the addition of another bluilh flame before the for- 
 mer goes out. 
 
 Nitrous air feems to be the mod fatal to animal life 
 of any. Kven infects, \sliich can bear phlogillicated 
 and inflammable ?ir, generally die the moment they 
 are put into it. F'rogs, fnail,;, and other animals 
 which do not rcfpirc very frequently, die in a few mi- 
 nutes, and generally do not recover even when taken 
 cut'of this noxious fluid before they are dead. Plants 
 
 periili very foon in nitrous air, and even in conimon 
 air faturated with nitrous air; but iJri'rielllcy informs 
 us, that " though in general plants die almoU iuiine- 
 diately in water impregnated with nitrous air, yet in 
 one cal'eof this kind, w hen the fuperfluous nitrous air 
 was let out under water, fo that no part of it was de- 
 conipofed in contad with the water, the plant grew 
 in it remarkably well." 
 
 \\ater, by agitation in nitrous air, may be inide to 
 imbibe one- tenth par tot it:; bulk; and after wards the ni- 
 trous air may be e.\pellcd again by boiling, thoiigh not 
 '%\ the fame qiar.tity as it was abforbed ; but lor this 
 purpofe the water lliould be previoufly depiived of its 
 air. Dr Prieilley informs us, that having carefully 
 pumped all the air out of a quantity of rain-water, 
 letting it ilaiid 24 hours in a good vacuum, and then 
 impregnating it witlmitrousair, he inftantly expelled 
 it again by b--iling, v.'hen he obtained only about one 
 fourth part of it, though fjlficiently pure, and with- 
 out any mixture of fixed air. Water may alfo be de- 
 prived of the nitrous air it contains, though it does not 
 irce/e quite fo readily whenimpregnateu with this air 
 as in its natural (laic. 
 
 Nitrons air isablorbed by ftrong oil of vitriol nearly 
 in tlie fame quantity as by water ; the acid acquiring 
 a purple colt>ur, b_y rcafon of the phlogifton contained 
 in the nitrous air. The Arong nitrous acid abforbs it 
 in great quantity ; and becomes fmokiiig, orange co- 
 loured, and afterwards green, on account of the phlo- 
 gillon contained in it. Marine acid imbibes but a 
 fmall quantity, and very llowly, acquiring at tlie fame 
 lime a light-blue colour. Both nitrous air and com- 
 mon air jihlogilUcated by it are meliorated by agita- 
 tion in nitrous acid. 
 
 Nitrous air is abforbed in confiderable quantity by 
 
 radical vinegar, and the concentrated vegetable acid 
 
 Solution of green vitriol imbibes it in much greater 
 quantity than water, and acquires a black colour ; 
 which, liowever, foon goes off by expofurc to the 
 common air. Its talle alio becomes acid. — Very little 
 is abforbed by caullic alkalis. Oil-olive flowiy ab- 
 forbs a conlidcrable quantity, but oil of turpentine 
 abforbs much more. By a little agitation, it will 
 imbibe more than ten times its quantity of nitrous 
 air ; acquiring at the fame time ayellowilh or orange 
 colour, and becoming a little glutinous. The part 
 which is not abforbed appears to be converted into 
 plilogillicated air. — Ether and fpirit of wine abforb 
 it very quickly, but no nitrons air is obtained by the 
 apjdication of heat after they have abforbed it. .It is 
 greatly dimini;hcd by oil of turpentine, liver of ful- 
 phar, and pyrophorus ; all of which leave it in a phlo- 
 gillicated Hate. It is alfo diminifiicdand phlogillica- 
 tcd by being kept in a bladder, alternately expofctl to 
 moillure and drynefs. Nitrous acidair has the fame 
 efFe<5l. 
 
 One ofthemofl remarkable properties of nitrons Diminlftcs 
 air, is its diminution with dcphlogillicated air ; by dephli.jjil- 
 which means it becomes a reft of the quantity of tliai ''"tid air. 
 kind of air contained in the atmofphere. W ith pure 
 dephlogirticatcd air, the diminution is aliiioft to no- 
 thing, at the fame time that fomc quantity of nitrous 
 acid is reproduced by the derompofition ot the nitrous 
 air ; but as our atn;ofpbcrc is always mixed with a 
 confiderable quantity of phlogifticated air, on which 
 
 nitrous 
 
 IJ4
 
 E R O 
 
 led. IX. ^v It 1^ 
 
 Nitrouj nitrous air has no tiFtcl, '.he diininiuion in this cafe is 
 
 Air. 
 
 o 
 
 Y. 
 
 i8i 
 
 J5< 
 
 never Co ctnlidcrablc. Upon liiis principle the Eu- 
 diometer is conliruclcd. 
 ■ r Anoihir very rcniarkablc property of nitrous air is 
 
 ,c power. Its Itro'iganiifc-piic power; inlomuchtiiat animal mat- 
 ters may, by its means, bcpreltrvtd for many months 
 wiihout corruption. Tliis property, it was thought, 
 iiiif^ht have been extremely ufcful on many occuiions ; 
 but Dr I'ricflUy, after a number of expcri.Ticnts on 
 the f ibjfd coiicludesin the following manner. " Ni- 
 trous air will indeed prcfcrvc meat from putref.i(^lion ; 
 but after long Kccpinj;, it becomes very oifenlive Loth 
 to tlic nolhils and palate, though the fSr.ell ii nor alto- 
 gether that of putrefaclion ; and indeed the fubllancc 
 toiuinuingquiLc firm, it could not be properly putrid. 
 — Having formerly experienced the remarkable anii- 
 kplic power of nitrous air, I propofcd an attempt to 
 prcftve anatomical preparations, &c. by means of it ; 
 but Mr Key, wh<> made the trial, foiuul, tiiat, after 
 fome mon'.Iis, variou- animal fubllances were (hrivel- 
 led, and did not prcfcrvc their forms in this kind of 
 155 air." 
 picific The fpecific gravity of nitrous air, as well as of 
 
 ravity of other kinds, ha^ Uuiw afcertaincd by Mr Kirwan. As 
 itrous sir. ^ corrodes metals, he endeavoured to fiiul its weight 
 by comparing t!ie lofs fullaincd by the materials which 
 produce it. Thus lie fo'ind, that 14 grains of the 
 materials produced 38.74 inches of nitrous air ; and, 
 confcqucntly, by proper calculation, that the fpecilic 
 gravity of nitrous air is to that of atmofphcric air as 
 119J to tooo. — " If this air (fays he) had been ob- 
 tained over water, or in ftrong heat, its weight would 
 probable have been very ditfcrcut ; as it is liable to be 
 mixed witli phlogillicaied air, nitrous vapour, and a 
 variable quantity of water. Nitrous vapour would 
 render it heavier, and phlogifticatcd air or water pro- 
 bably lighter." 
 
 With regard to the conftitucnt principles, or ele- 
 ments of nitrous air, all thofe who louk upon phlogi- 
 fton to be a dillintl fiibftance, have believed that the 
 former is a compound of nitrous acid and phlogiflon. 
 By the oppofitc party, it is fuppofcd to be a fubilance 
 entirely fimplc, and one of the conlHtuent partsof the 
 nitrous acid. This opinion fcenis in part now to be 
 entertained by Dr Prieftlcy hiinfclf, noiwithllan>!ing' 
 his former fcntiments on the fubjedt. " I had no 
 doubt on the fubjcct (lays he) until I read the worlc 
 of Mr Mcthcric ; whoalierts, that nitrons air contains 
 no proper nitrous acid, but only one of the elements 
 of it; the other being dcphlogifticaied air, which had 
 before been confidcrcd by Mr Lavoificr as the prin- 
 ciple of all acidity Among other olif^rvations in 
 
 fupport of his alTertion, Mr Methcrie has the follow- 
 ing. I. Nitrous air burnt together with inflammable 
 air, produces no nitrous acid. 2. Thoui;;h nitrous air 
 be obtained from a folution of cierciny in the nitrous 
 acid, alnioll all the acid is found in the folution. 3. 
 Nitrous air, abforbed by r.:arlac acid, docs not make 
 aqua rcgia. 4. \\c is of opinion, that a fmall poi tioii 
 of the nitrous acid being dccompofcd, furniihcs.i pure 
 air, fo altered, that, uniting with inrtammable air, it 
 chan^jcs it into nitrous.air. 
 
 " In reviewing the experiments I had ffirmcrly 
 made on this kind of air, I could not recollect any of 
 thciu in which tie pure nitrous aci J was produced, ex- 
 
 >37 
 'oiupo- 
 cnt p.:>rts 
 r nitrous 
 
 cepting tint with dcphlogidicstcd air, bcfides the ex- 
 periment in which it was decompoftd by the electric 
 ipark ; which fiirni;!ies a (Irong objection to this hy- 
 pothciis." To afcertain the matter more full/, the 
 following experiments were made. 
 
 " When nitrous air is dcconipofcd by iron, or by a 
 mixtureof iron and fulphur, the water, over which the 
 proccfs is condutted, acquires no acidity ; but 1 had 
 iuppofcd that all the acid was abforbed by the iron. 
 Having by me a quantity of this iron which had been 
 reduced toperfeiJtnifl in nitrous air,and which,! knew, 
 iwil have imbibed more tjian its wti'^ht of the air, 
 {thought that the acid might be obtained from it by 
 diftiUation ; bjt a quantity of this ruft of iron, dillili- 
 cd i:i an earthen retort, yielded neither nitrous air 
 nor nitrous acid, at lead in any quantity that could fa- 
 vour the common hypothefis. 
 
 " 1 then endeavoured to decompnfe nitrous air by 
 heating iron in it with a burning lens ; and in this 
 proccfs 1 fuccecded farbeyoiidmy expectation: for tlic 
 air was prefently diminillied in quantity, while the 
 iron became of a darker colour, was fometinics melted 
 into balls, and gathered co;;riderablc weiglit, though 
 
 it had no appearance of coutainiiig any nit-.ous acid 
 
 In :lte lirii experiment, the original quantity of ni- 
 trous air was diminillied to about oac-third ; and after 
 this, it was increafed." The increafe was found to 
 arife from a production of inriammable and dephlogi- 
 llicated nitrous air. 
 
 The Doctor proceeded to try various other experi- 
 ments on the decompofition of nitrous air, particularly 
 that of burning Homberg's pyrophorus ; but without 
 any fuccefs, or obtaining tlie fmallcll particle of ni- 
 trous acid. His concluiions from the whole are the 
 following. 15S 
 
 " Water feems to be a nrceflary ingredient in r.i- Nitrou-iair 
 trons as well as intlamniable air; at lea II without a *<'""!'"''"^ 
 quantity of water, nitrous air cannot be formed. For",' ['"'"(f')- 
 
 1 Ml 1 i-,r 1 1 • /I tl^atcd ni- 
 
 example, copper will be diliolved in Itroiig mtrous jj.^yjjjj;j 
 acid without producing any nitrous air, jult as iron 3^4 water. 
 may be dilFolved in concentrated vitriolic acid without 
 producing inriammable air. 
 
 " That nothing is nrcclfary to the formation of ni- 
 trous air belidcs phlogillicaied nitrous acid and water, 
 is evident from the production of it by the impregna- 
 tion of pure water with phlogillic.itcd nitrous vapour 
 formed by the rapid folution of bifmuth ; an experi- 
 ment which I mentioned before. However, to make 
 it in a more unexceptionable manner, I interpofed a 
 glafs vell'el between that in which the folution was 
 made and that in which the water to be impregnated 
 with the phlogillicaied vapour was contained, iliac 
 whatever was diftilled over by the heat of tlic procefs 
 might be prevented from reacliing tlie water. l;i 
 thcfc circu'n (lances, however, when nothing but the 
 dry phlojillicated vapour could enter the water, it be- 
 gan to fparkic and yield nitrous air very copioully as 
 foon as it had received a bUicr tinge from tiie impreg- 
 nation Nitrons air is alfo produced by pouring a 
 
 highly coloured or phlngiiticutcd nitrous acid isto 
 pure wntcr, in whicli no metal or earthy matter is 
 any wav concerned. 159 
 
 " I have foiincrly obfcrved, howreidily nitrous air Effea-> of 
 is diminithed by taking the electric fpark in it. This ''"= e''>Sf'>; 
 experiment I have frequently repeated, inordermort ff*r!""i°'- 
 
 particulaily
 
 lS2 
 
 A E 
 
 R 
 
 O 
 
 Nitrous particiiliily toalct-naiii the quantity and cjuality ofilic 
 -^" "' rcliJiiam. In one expcrimcni lialt an ounce ofniirous 
 a^l•^\asl•cJl!ccd, inlclsthan half an hour, to one quar- 
 ter of its bulic. One-fourth of LJic reiidinini was Hill 
 nitrous, and the rcll phlogiiHcated. raking the tlcc- 
 tric fj'urkiu a quantity ol nitrous air till it was dimi- 
 uillicd loonc-third, the whole was cuniplctcly phlo>;i- 
 llicatcd, notalfcctin;;comniouairatall,andcxtiiiguifh- 
 iiig a caudle, A wiiitc matter was formed with the 
 mercury over whith the fpark was taken, which made 
 the water admitted to it extremely turbid. In another 
 proccl's, the electric fpark was taken in a quantity.of 
 nitrous air till it could I'o more be diminilhcd, w hen it 
 was reduced in bulk in the proportion of lo; to 24. 
 Letting it ftand all night upon the mercury, it was in- 
 crc.ifcd in the proportion of 1 1 ', to 24 ; feemingly by 
 • the acid uniting to the mercury and generating more 
 nitrous air, llncc it had that fmell. No water appear- 
 ed after the proccis j and the water admitted to it ac- 
 quired no acid ta(le,butan allringcnt one like that of 
 water impregnated with iiiiroui air. There was a 
 white powdcrformcd,asin the former ex))erimcnts. — 
 To try if it were podibk to make water imbibe the a- 
 cid from the nitrous air, the electric fpark was taken 
 in it, with a fmallquantity of water over the mercury. 
 But even this water did not acquire any acid talle, but 
 ojily an ailringent one." 
 
 The Doftor concludes his experiments on this fub- 
 ]t6i with a conjedure, that the phlogirton, and nei- 
 ther the heat nor light of the eletlric, contributes to 
 the decompolition of nitrous air. As his final fcnti- 
 luentson the matter, however, are merely conjefture, 
 without any certain experiments to confirm them, we 
 Iliallliere refcrthe reader to his Section on Theory, at 
 .the end of his lixth vohime of experiments, &c. 
 
 Sect. X. Defh/ogi/ficated Nitrous At-. 
 
 This fpeeics differs from common nitrous air in be- 
 
 160 ingable to fupport fiame, though it llill continues fatal 
 
 How pro- to animal lite. Common nitrous air may be converted 
 
 •rured. jj^^^ ^j^^. Jcphlogillicatcd kind by particular procelfcs ; 
 
 though, wk..n zinc isdilfolvcd in the nitrous acid, if 
 
 the air be taken at ditFerent times, that which comes 
 
 about the middle, or rather the latter end of the pro- 
 
 cefs, will be of this kind ; in which it not only fup- 
 
 . ports the burning of a candle, but the flame is enlarged 
 (lomctiraes to four or five times its original bulk) by 
 the addition of a weaker and bluifli tiame round 
 
 - the former ; ,ind this burning is fometimes accompa- 
 nied with a crackling noifc, as if the candle was burn- 
 ing in deplilogillitaled air. It may alfo be obtained 
 in fome part of the proccfs of procuring nitrous air 
 from iron, though with this metal the fuccefs is uncer- 
 tain; but tin yields a confidcrablc quantity of it. By 
 cxpofing iron to nitrous air, it may be fo far dcplilo- 
 gifticated as to admit a candle to bi;rn in ir. Dr I'riert- 
 ley filled an eight-ounce pliial with nails, and then with 
 mercury ; and difplacing the mercury with nitrous air, 
 left the phial inverted iu a quantity of the fame fluid. 
 Two months after, the nitrous air was found to be 
 changed in fuch a manner as to admit a candle to burn 
 ia it with its natural flame ; and by continuing fiill 
 longer in contael with the iron, a candle would burn 
 
 iinitwith anenlargcUiiame. TJiefc changes, however, 
 
 LOG Y. Scdl.X. 
 
 arc very irregular, fo that they feldom product the like ncphlopif- 
 etteds with the regularity one might expect. Dr tuatcd Ni- 
 Prielllcy once found, that by the contad of iron in "•""» '^^J- _ 
 qtiicklilvcr, it was fo changed as to be tired with an 
 CKplofion like a weak inflammable air ; wliilll another 
 quantity of nitious air, which liad been treated in like 
 manner for about the fame length of time, only ad- 
 mitted a candle to burn in it with an enlarged tiame. f j. 
 In that fedion of his lall volume in which tlic Doc- Compo- 
 tor treats of this kind Lif air, he obfcrvrs, tliat water is nsnt parts 
 abfolutely neceliary to its conipolition, or rather to the ^\ 'I'l'hlo- 
 decompolitiou uf rhe common nitrous air by iron. He f?'''""''^". 
 had dccompofcd it before, either by previoully tilling '" """"' ^ ' 
 the veifels that were to contain the nitrous air with 
 water or with mercury ; though it had always requi- 
 red a much longer time when the latter was made ufc 
 of. The rcafon of its being formed at all in this lad 
 way, was a fmat! quantity of moillure adhering to the 
 infide of the velFcl containing the mercury. jfii 
 
 To try the influence of water in this cafe, he now JSficifts of 
 procured a number of very clean fmall needles ; and ^^'»t<:'■ on 
 having made a phial, and likewife a proper quantity of "'"*»• '"■• 
 mercury, quire clean and dry, he put the needles into 
 the phial, and, filling it up with mercury, introduced 
 the nitrous air : but it continued in this way for lix or 
 eight months without the fmallcit alteration. Intro- 
 ducing a few drops of water, a diminution cf about 
 one-third of the air took place, and the remainder ap- 
 peared tobe phlogiflicated. On the 26th of May 1782, 
 lie examined a quantity of nitrous air, which had been 
 confined with iron-lhavings from the 27th of Augufl 
 preceding, when he found one-half of itabforbed ; the 
 remainder fupported the flame of a candle better than 
 common air, though a moufe died in it ; and yet this 
 air had continued feveral months in the fame flate with 
 regard to quantity, nor was it at all probable that its 
 quality would have been altered by any Icngtli of 
 time. ffij 
 
 Though this kind of air is produced by the contaft BcTl me- 
 of iron and nitrous air, the Dodor has never been able '''o** °f 
 to afcertain tlie quantity of nitrous air which a given foc^r'^E 
 quantity of iron can decompofe; and though ironfoon "" 
 becomes fo much afleded by this proccfs that it crum- 
 bles into powder, it llill feems equally capable of dc- 
 compofing a frelh quantity. Having made a compa- 
 rative experiment, by putting together one quantity of 
 nitrous air with frefli iron and another with ruil, he 
 found that in both the air was dirainillied to about one- 
 third, and a candle burned in both equally well ; but 
 neither of them had the properties of frcfn nitrous ai^ 
 in any degree. 
 
 As the proccfs forobtaiuing dephlogifticated nitrous 
 air by means of iron is very tedious, the Doctor en- 
 deavoured to find another which might be attended 
 with lefsinconvcnience. This heaccomplilhed by dif- 
 folving turnings of iron in a dilute folution of copper 
 in nitrous acid (the fame that remains after the pro- 
 dudion of nitrous air), mixing it again with an equal 
 quantity of water. V/ithout this precniion, he tells 
 us, that though the iron will at firfl be adcd upon very 
 flowly, yet the mixture will at length grow fo hot as 
 adiially to boil, and the procefs will be exceedingly 
 troublefomc ; however it will be necelfary previous to 
 any attentpt to difTolve the iron, to heat the folution of 
 cojpper, ill order to expel all tJie nitrous.air and fuper- 
 
 fluous
 
 ft. XI. 
 
 A E R 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 Y, 
 
 •5^3 
 
 jlilngif- 
 ted Ni- 
 ls Air. 
 
 164 
 idc to 
 jroachto 
 ; nature 
 itmof- 
 icrical 
 
 i<5i 
 ow pro- 
 red. 
 
 fl joiis nitrt5us aciJ. Without this precaution a quan- 
 tity of common nitrous air will be produce J. 
 
 Dcphlogifticattd nitrous air is abfurbed by water al- 
 inofl as readily as fixed air, and in conddcrable quan- 
 tity ; the liquid taking up about one-halt" its bulk of 
 air. After being thus faturated, the whole quantity 
 of dcphloj^irticatcd nitrous air may be expelled pure by 
 heat, anil iscallly received in velkls containing mer- 
 cury. It was lil>cuirc obfcrvcd, that as this kind of 
 air mucli rcftniblcs fixed air in its properties of being 
 imbibed by water, and expelled again by heat, it rc- 
 fcmblcs it alfo in this farther properly, that all the air 
 which ha.s been actually incorporated with the waier 
 will not be imbibed by water again. But the propor- 
 tion of this part is three or four times greater than the 
 corrcfponding part of fixed air ; it is alfo conlicierably 
 more phlogidicaccd. Water impregnated with it very 
 foon parts with it again on being expofcd to the atmo- 
 fphere. — It difcovcrs not the fmallefl trace of contain- 
 ing cither acid or alkali. Its fpecific gravity is lefs 
 than that of common air. On heating red precipitate 
 in this kind of air, pure phlogillicaled air was pro- 
 duced without afFecHing, or being affcfted by, the ni- 
 trous air. Repeating the experiment with malleable 
 iron, the quantity of it was enlarged, and the whole 
 phlogilUcated, without any mixture of fixeii air. By 
 healing bits of clean crucibles or retorts in this kind of 
 air, it fecmeJ to approach in quality to common atmo- 
 fpherical air ; and the effects were always found to be 
 the more conlidcrable the longer the procelswas con- 
 tinued. On attempting, however, to determine whe» 
 ther this change in the conflitution of dcphlogifticaied 
 nitrous air was occafioned by means of heat or liglit, 
 he heated it in earthen tubes ; but found, that though 
 thcie were glazed both 011 the outlide and infidc, and 
 feemcd per^ftly air-tight both before and after the ex- 
 periment, ihe air had efcaped. By the elejlric fpark 
 it was rendered wholly imniifcible with water, and 
 brought to the llandard of 1.45; fo that the Doctor 
 had no doubt of iis being re fpirable. Yet this kind of 
 air, though it admits a candle to burn fo well in it, will 
 not kindle pyroplrorus, though the nitrous air from 
 which it is produced would inilantly fet it on fire. 
 
 Sect. XI. Of Vitriolic, Nitrous, Mariiif, and 
 other AciJ Airs, 
 
 \ I. Vitriolic aci:i Air This is always a combina- 
 tion of vitriolic acid with phtogifton, and conlVijuently 
 may be procured from any mixture of that acid in its 
 higlilyconcentratcdflate with phlogi (lie matters. Hence 
 it is obtained from all the metals, gold and platina ex- 
 cepted, on boiling them willi (Irong oil of vitriol. It 
 is'alfo procurable from the fame acid rendered black by 
 any phlogiftic matter. No greater heat is required to 
 expel this kind of air than ihat produced by the flame 
 of a candle. It is the heavieftof all aerial fluids, next 
 to fluor acid air, being to comnicwi air as 2265 to icoo. 
 Dr Prieftley informs us, that a quantity of vitriolic 
 acid thusimpregnatcd with phlogilton, will yield many 
 times more air than an equal quantity of the il: on jcII 
 fpirit of fait — When the vitriolic acid air is produced 
 jngreatplenty,the topof the phialin which it is gene- 
 rated is commonly filled with white vapours. The air 
 has alio thefamc appearance asit is tranfmiticd through 
 
 3 
 
 the glafs tube ; and it is fometimes difcovcrablc in the Nitroi!^ 
 recipient. When fuch fubflanccs arc put to the oil of '^^ '^ '^^r- 
 viiriol ascaufeagreat cftervefccncc with that acid, care '' ' 
 Ihould be taken to a. Id them by very fmall quantities 
 at a lime, and likewife toapply the heat by very (low 
 degrees, left the rapid pro<luetion of air, and the heat 
 attending it, Ihould brrak the vcdcls. It is moil equa- 
 bly produced by uling (Irong oil of vitriol and char- 
 coal ; but in mod cafes the produftion of vitriolic acid 
 airii attended wuh thatof inilammablc, and fomctiiiics 
 fixed or phlogiflicated air. With ether about one- 
 half of the fint produce is inflammable ; but the quan- 
 tity leifens as the proccfs goes on. The Doftor ob- 
 fcrved, th.at, when quickfilvcr was ufcd, the acid was - 
 not turned black, as in other experiments of the like 
 nature. He alfo obferved, that icon yielded a little in- 
 flammable air together with the acid gas ; but that the 
 elalHc fluid produced when zinc was ufed, contained 
 about two parts of inflammable and one of acid air. 
 Copper, lilver, and lead, when heated in vitriolic acid, 
 yield the purefl vitriolic acid air without any mixture 
 of inflammable air ; but the lead yields only a very 
 fmall quantity, and requires a great degree of heat. It. 
 is procured in the greatefl abundance from the fumes 
 of burning fulphur, and is then called the volatile vi- 
 triolic, ux/iitj'kurcoKs acid ; for an account of the pro- 
 perties of which, fee Chemistrv, (7';.Vf.v). j56 
 
 \ 2. Of Nitrous Ar.id Air. — Tills is the pure nitrons How ob- 
 acid by itfelf, without any addition of phlogillon. It taincd. 
 IS procured by heatincr the llrong fpirit of nitre in a 
 phial,and then receiving the vapour inglafsvclfelsfillid 
 with quickfilvcr. It is, however, extremely difficult, 
 or rather inipolfible, to prcfcve it for a length of time j^- 
 by means of any fluid hitherto known, ^^■aterabforbs CaHnotbe 
 it immediately, and quicklilver is corroded, and pro- prefcrved 
 duces nitrous air. " But (fays DrPriefllcy) tho' the by nieaot 
 acid vapour very foon unites with the qvricklilver,yct, "f fl"'***- 
 thejar in which it was received being narrow, the fa- 
 line crufl which was formcdon the furtaceof the quick- 
 lilver, impeded the adlionofthe acid upon it till I 
 had an opportunity of admitting water to the air I 
 had produced, and of fatisfyiug myfclf, by its abforp- 
 tion, of its being a real acid air, having an altinity with 
 water limilar to other acid airs." ,, 
 
 The niofl remarkable property of this vapour is, that AfTumesa 
 its colour may be made more or Icls intcnfe by the rtd colour 
 mere circumilance of heat. It may be confined in by being 
 glafs velfcls with ground-lloppers, orin tubes hcrmeti- te«<ed- 
 cally fealcd, and thus expofcd to the aflion of heat : 
 in which cafe it will be found, that the colour of the 
 vspour becomes confulerably more intcnfe in propor- 
 tion as the glafs vcllel coittaining it is more or lefs 
 heated ; and that, on ihe contrary, the intenlity of 
 the colour diminillies as it is cooled. " It feems pro- 
 bable ^fays Dr Pritftley), that if this vapour was not 
 confined, but had room to expand itfelf, it would be- 
 come colourlels with heat. This at leaft is the cafe 
 when it is combined with water. The phenomena I 
 refer to arc very common in the procefs for making 
 dcphlogillicated air, in which I firft obferved them. 
 But the f-ime things are obfcrvablc in the procefs for 
 producing any other kind of air in which much fpirit of 
 nitre is made ufe of ; and likewife conflantly in the 
 cimimon prorefs for making fpirit of nitre itfelf. I: 
 is, that when the heat is wodcrate, the vapour within 
 
 ihr.
 
 184 
 
 Marine 
 Acid Air. 
 
 1 61; 
 
 Its zSfc&t 
 oiircd-lcail 
 
 A 
 
 E R O L O C V. 
 
 Sea. XI r 
 
 170 
 
 How ob- 
 tiinetl. 
 
 17' 
 
 Its proper- 
 ties. 
 
 the j;lil'5 v-ihe or rriort is iti! ; bit that, as tlic htat 
 iiicrtafcs, i: brcoiiics Maiilpiiicni." The Doclor ha- 
 ving obltvvcJ ilu: rcJlcad, impregnated with iiiiious 
 vapour, may he prtfcrvtj a long lime wiihoat dcli- 
 .qiicfcing or hiling its aci>i, made life of' a compulitioii 
 oMiiis kind for procuring the nitrous vapour with 
 W'liich he. lilled his tubes. By imbibing this vapour 
 tlic minium loll its red colour and became white. '' I 
 put (lays he) a fmall qiianiiiy of this white minium 
 into a glafs tube clofcd at one end ; then holding it to 
 llic fire, make it emit the red vapour till tlic whole 
 tub'.- is lilled with it ; and having llic other end of the 
 tube drawn out ready for doling, ai foon js the vapour 
 begins to illlic out of that end, J apply my blowpipe 
 and feal it. By tliis means I conclude that the tube 
 is filled with a pure red vapour, without any juixture 
 of nitrous air, and pcri;aps common air alio." For a 
 further account of the properties of nitrous acid air, 
 fee Chemistry, {^Ir.dix.) 
 
 \ 5; Of Alari/ic Ac;f yjir The marine acid, by 
 
 Vat, may be refolvcd into a permanently claiHc and 
 tranfparent inviublc vapour, which, however, is more 
 calily preferved in itsacrial Hate than nitrousacid air, 
 as the former has no effect upon cjuicklilver. An eafy, 
 and cheap method of obtaining this kind of air is by 
 filling a phial, litted with a glafs tube and Hopper, 
 with common fait, and then pouring a fmall quantity 
 of oil of vitriol upon it ; which, by the alfillance of 
 heat, will difengage the acid principle, or the marine 
 acid air, from the fait. " A phial (lays Dr Pricltley ) 
 prepared in this manner will fufRcc, for common cx- 
 periinents, many weeks ; efpecially if fomc niore oil 
 of vitriol l)e occalionally put to it. It only requires a 
 little more heat at the lall tlian at the firft. Indeed, 
 at firfl, the heat of a pcrfon's hand will often befuf- 
 ficieni to make it throw out the vapour. In warm 
 wcatiicr it will even keep fmokiug many days williout 
 the application of any other heat. On tl)is account 
 it Ihould be placed where there arc no metallic uten- 
 lils which it can corrode ; and it may ealily be prr- 
 ceiveil when the phial is throwingout thisacid vapour, 
 as it always appears in the open air in form of a light 
 white cloud." 
 
 After the marine acid has yielded all the air that 
 can be expelled from i:, it is extremely v/eak, fo that 
 it can but barely corrode iron. The gas itfelf is con- 
 liderably heavier than common air, the fpecilicgraviiy 
 of the two being in the proportion of five to three ; 
 .1 cubic inch weighing 0.654 grains. It is very fatal 
 to animal life, but leYs fo tlu'n pure nitrous air ; for 
 flies and fpiders live longer in marine acid than in ni- 
 trous air. In dipping a candle into ajar of this air 
 the flame is extiiiguillied ; but the moment before it 
 goes out, and alfo when it is afterwards firfl lighted 
 again, i: burns with a green or light-blue fiame, like 
 that of conimou fait thrown inta a fire. Its diminu- 
 tion by the eledlric fpark is barely perceptible, ice 
 is dilfolved by it as fall as if it touched a red-hot iron. 
 It is partly abfjrbcd by ahno'l every fubllance con- 
 taining phlogifton. and the remaining part becomes 
 inHammablc. Oilof olives abforbs it very (lowly, and 
 oil of turpentine very fill ; by which ihcy both be- 
 come almoll black, and the remainder of the air is in- 
 fiauMnablc. ElVential oil of mint abforbs marine air 
 pretty fad, becoming brown, conliflcnt, aad fo heavy 
 
 as to link in water ; and its fmcll is in great mcafurc Fluor Aci 
 altered. Kther abforbs it very fall, and has its colour Air, &c. 
 ahtjcd by the impregnation, beeoniing tirll lurbid, "' 
 
 then yellow, and at lalt brown. The air over the ether ,-, 
 is llrougly inllammablc. A fmall bit of phofpl'orus changed 
 fmokcd and gave light in this acid air ; and the elallic i"to in- 
 fluid was but little dimiuifliedin twelve hours. On */""'"^l'l< 
 the admillion of water, about four-fil'ths of the gas""'" 
 were abforbed, and tlte refl was inflammable. This 
 change was alfo cfl'eded by a great number of other 
 fubAanccs : fomc of whi:h, however, require acon- 
 fidcrable time to produce their efFefl ; fuch as crulls 
 of bread not burned, dry wood, dry flefli, roalled pieces 
 of beef, ivory, and even Hints. beeCtiEMisi kv, (//i- 
 ^..•..) 
 
 § 4. Of ill! or Acid jlir The difcovcry of fluor a- 
 
 cid air was made by Mr Schcele, who obtained it by di- 
 Hilling the fpar called ihior with vitriolic acid. Dr 
 Priellley, W'homade feveral experiments upon the fub- 175 
 JC(51, was of opinion that this new acid was only the lliffcrcrt 
 vitriolic difguifed by its connexion with the fluor. f™"' ^■"" 
 He even fuppofed that he liaJ produced it by pouring 
 
 elio acid 
 air. 
 
 vitriolic acid on other phofplioric fpars : both thcfc ' 
 opinions, however, he has now retracted, and believes 
 the tluor acid to be one of a peculiar kind. Its moH 
 remarKablc property is the great attraction it has for 
 liliceous earth, fo that it even corrodes and makes 
 holesin the retorts in which it is diHilled. See Che- 
 mistry, {hiJex). 
 
 § 5. Of the Vegetable atij other Acid Air By- 
 means of heat alone, the concentrated vegetable acid 
 emitsapernianently elallic and aerial fluid. This has 
 the properties of the acid of vinegar ; but, like it, is 
 weaker than the rcH of the miueral acid airs, tlibugh 
 it agrees with theui iu its general characters. Water 
 imbibes it as readily as any of the other acid airs , oil- 
 olive readily abforbs it, and in confiderable quantity, 
 loliug at the fame time its yellowilli colour, and be- j 
 coming quite tranfparent. Common air is phlogilli- phloirifti- 
 cated by it, as it is alfo by the liquid vegetable acid, cates conv 
 As the vegetable acid, however, from which this air moii air. 
 had been obtained, was diitillcd by oil of vitriol, the 
 Doctor fufpecled that what he had examined might 
 derive mollof iis properties from the oil of vitriol, and 
 
 rather be vitriolic than vegetable acid air. 
 
 175 
 
 An acid air, fomcwhat difTcrent from any hitherto Air from 
 defcribed, was obtained by Dr Prieflley from the va- folutiou a 
 pour arillng on diltilling to dryncls a folution of gold R°'''' 
 in marine acid impregnated with nitrous acid vapour, 
 which makes the bell kind of aqua regis. <' The 
 produce (fays hel was an .icid air of a very peculiar 
 kind, partaking both of the nature of the nitrous and 
 marine acids ; but more of the latter than of the for- 
 mer, as it extinguiflied a candle ; but it was both ex- 
 tinguillied and lighted again with a mofl beautiful deep 
 blueHame. A candle dij>pcd into the fame jar with this 
 kind of air went out more tjian 20 times fncceffivety, 
 making a very plcaling experiment. The quantity of 
 this acid air is very great ; and the refiduum I have 
 fjinetimes found to be dcphlogiflicated, fometdraes 
 phlogiftjcated, and at other limes nitrous air." 
 
 IJect. XII. Of Hepatic Air. 
 
 This fperies of air, firfl particularly taken notice 
 of by Wr Bergman, who obtained it from an orr cf 
 
 zinc
 
 Sed. XIII. AERO 
 
 Atniofphc- z.in: ca'.led TfnihgaLua nigra Dafimuiorenfis, a:id 
 rkkl Air. svjiicli was fouiiH to comaiii 29 parts 0} fulphur, oac 
 
 — — ' of rc;jiilu'5 of arfcnic, fix of water, lixoflead, nine 
 
 .. '.' , of iron, 4J of zinc, aiiJ four of iiiiccous c;;rtli. Tlic 
 Trft rr,>,r, hcp.u:c air was proJitcca 1)U m fmall iimmiiy by 
 
 i[iniiiiiy by 
 fpiri: of iAi 
 
 far fulphu 
 
 fuftfrom "cp,u:c air was p 
 
 «n ore of ptuiiiiig oil of vitiifil on this mine 
 
 zinc. produced u in niiich larj^er quantity ; but iiitroas a-jid 
 
 177 produccc! only iiiti'ous air. The moll projier method 
 
 neflobtain- q^- obtaining iiiis air is by poiu-iiig marine .Hid o;i he- 
 
 ei< froir. lic- fulphuris, which extricates ii in vaft quantity. It 
 IS faid alfo to be for.ictimes produced natariiiy Irom 
 putrefying matters. It is the characlerillic of all li- 
 vers of fulphur, whether they b^ made with alkalis or 
 earths. The Imcll of the pure gas is intolerable; and 
 the vapour has a difa:irceabl" citcclou many metallic 
 fabltances, particularly filver, lead, copper, S:c. dc- 
 llroying their colour, and rendering them quite black. 
 It is luddeiily fatal to animal lii'c, renders fyrup of 
 violets green, and is i.iflamiuablc, burning with a very 
 light blue ti.iuic. It is dccompofcd by vitriolic and 
 nitrous air, by dephlogiliicated air, and by the contaft 
 of atniofphc ical air, in which cafe it dcpolils a fm;>!l 
 quantity of fi-lphur ; being indeed, as is fuppofcd by 
 IVIr Ucrgman and Mr Kirwan, no other than fulphur 
 kcjit in an aerial form. Its fptcitic gravity, compared 
 *' with that of atniofpherical air, is as 1106 to \ooo. 
 It combines readily with water, and gives the fmcll 
 totlie fulphurcous medicinal waters. Its great atf ac- 
 tion for fome of the metals and their calces makes it 
 the bafis of fomc Sympathetic IsKS. Sec alfo Che- 
 
 WISTH.Y, t^hldix.) 
 
 S E c T . X I II . Oj Jt.iiofi'hincal Air. 
 
 The two component parts of our atniofphere, viz. 
 deplilogillicatcd and phlogiflicatcd air, have been lb 
 fully treated of under their refpc."^ive feftions, that 
 little remains to be faid in this place, excepting to de- 
 j % tcrminc the proportion in which they are ufually met 
 Proportion with in the common air. The only regular fct of cx- 
 ol'tlii; two perimeats which have been made on this fubjedt are 
 ingredicnti [hofc of Mr Schcclc. lie conllrufted an eudiometer, 
 of whicli It confilUnK of a srlafs receiver, which could contain %i, 
 fed ouncci ol water, and agl.ils cup contauung a mixture 
 
 of one pound of iron-filings, and an eqnal weight of 
 flowers of fulphur moiilencd ; which cup Handing up- 
 on a glafs fupponer, was infcrteJ in the former re- 
 ceiver, which, when this was in it, could contain 35 
 ounces of water. To the outliJe of the glafs tube or 
 receiver, was atilxcd a !lip of paper, to the heiv ht of a 
 third of the tube, containing 1 1 divllions, each currc- 
 fponding 10 one ounce of water. This paper was var- 
 nilhcd over with oil varnilh, to prevent its being fpoil- 
 cd by water. The whole then was placed in water, 
 which gradually rofe as the air was diminilhed. This 
 mixture would fcrvc four times before the power of di- 
 miniihing air was loll. lie carefully compared the 
 height of the air tliercin with the i)ari>uietcr and ther- 
 mometer, both before and after the experiment ; in 
 tight hours the experiment was completed. With 
 this inllrunient he cxaniined the goodncfs of the eoui- 
 iJion air in Stoekholni every day for a whole year, and 
 found the diminution never to exceed 5:, nor to fall 
 (liortof ,'j ; fo that upon a n-.clium it may be e(linia:cd 
 at ,"- . During the months of January aad February it 
 
 \'0L. 1. 
 
 LOG Y. 
 
 was /, . 'liic 23d of >;arcij it v.zt ,%, though the 
 cold iiicreafed, and ihc baromeiLr P.ooJ hi-'her tliaif 
 before. The 19 of April in v/as 5 ;, tliojgh the bj- 
 ro;neter and ihermomc'.er did not vary, and ioliuod tiil 
 the 2ilt. In May and {unc it flood between /, ajd 
 ,'j. The 30th uf July it Hood at ::. From the ji 
 I J the 15th of September at ,",. 'I'he 6th of Octo- 
 ber at J J, during a high (torniV but after it flood be- 
 tween ,', and /., till the 4rh of November, when ic 
 fell to '/j, and continued between ,', and ,% lo tl.o 
 20th, when it role t" ',]. The 2 til it fell to 3, and 
 Hood between ,", and \\ till the Sth of December, 
 when it rofc to Jj ; and from thence to the 3 ill it 
 ftood between -". and",';. 
 
 As it has already been Ciown that the pure depiilo- 
 gillicaied part of the ar.mofplierc is entirely confunicd 
 by phlogidic proceifes, fuch as that of fer.T.cating 
 brimllone and iron-tilings, this eudiometer muit hi 
 coniidcred as an exacl tell of the proportion of i!t- 
 phlogillicated air contained in the atniofphere. The 
 fmall variation in the quantity Ihows, that the procef- 
 fes in nature which dellroy this air, are nearly balanceti 
 by thofe which produce it ; tiiough it mnfl appear fur- 
 prifing, that both tliefe fluiJs, fo extremely diiTerenr, 
 lliould be produced at all feafons of tiie year in a pro- 
 portion nearly equal ; nor is it lefs furpriang that two 
 fluids of unequal fpecific gravity fhould remain incor- 
 porated together without any tendency to fepcrate, 
 which it is certain they never do, cither in the atnio- 
 fphere itfclf, or when confinedinveirds in any quanti- 
 ty whatever — As phlogilUcated air is fomc what light- 
 er than dcphlogillicaied, it might be fuppofcd that the 
 former would occupy the higher regions of the atnio- 
 fphere in fuch a manner as to render them conlider- 
 ahly more unwliolfome than the lower pans; but this 
 fecms not to be the cafe : On the contrary, h appe.irs 
 by experiments with the eudiometer, that the upper 
 parts of the air contain a greater proportion of dephlo- 
 gillicated air than thofc near the earth. Sec Eudio- 
 meter. 
 
 Sect. XIV. Of the artificial rrodtiClion tf.iirs of dif- 
 ferent Kinds. 
 
 \ I. Fixf.n Air, or Aerial Acid. The artificial nic- 
 thods of producing this are principally three, viz. by 
 fermentation, by heat, and by acids. 
 
 (1) By ferment atiou. When vegetable or animal 
 fubllances, efpccially theforn<er, arc fermented, they 
 yield a great quantity of lixeu air. In brew cries, on 
 the Inrfare of die fermenting liquor, there is always a 
 flratum of lixcd air reaching ns high as the edge of the 
 vats ; fothat ifthel'e veilcls are deep, and the ferment- 
 ing li.]uor much below their edges, thcabovcmention- 
 cd flratum may be fome fee: in ihicknefs. The fame 
 phenomenon isobfervablc in the fermentation of wines 
 in general ; .and it is owing to the produftiouand cla- 
 ftiatyoflixed air, that fernunting liquors, whc« put 
 intoclofe vellcls often burll them with great violence. 
 'I'he cafe is the fiiiie whatever fiibllanrf it is tint un- 
 dergoes tile vinous fermentation, though the qianiiiy 
 of fixed air produced is not the fame in all fubllances, 
 noreven in liie fame fubllance at f'ilfcrent times. Frorn 
 42 cubic inches of beer Dr Hales obtained <S?9 cubic 
 inches of air in 13 days. From a quantity of figar 
 A J undcrgoiug 
 
 .85 
 
 AtrnfifiUe. 
 ri.'il Air. 
 
 >7» 
 
 Upper rf- 
 pionsof ih{ 
 air more 
 falu^^ou$ 
 tlian ihd 
 lower.
 
 i86 
 
 E R O L O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Seft. XIV. 
 
 of Artifi. undergoing the vinousfcrmciua:ion, MrCavcndifli ob- 
 cial Air». taincd fo much lixcd air, ihat out of loo parts of the 
 """^■^ ' former 57 appeared to have been volatilized and con- 
 verted into fixed air. . 
 
 But though a vaft quantity of fixed air cfcapcs du- 
 ring this proccfs of fermentation, a very conlidcrablc 
 portion ilill remains united with the fermented liquor, 
 and to this it owes all its brilkncfs and agreeable pun- 
 gent acidulous tallc ; for wlien the fixed air is totally 
 evaporated, the liquor becomes entirely vapid anil Hat. 
 Hence aUo we are furnillied with a mcthodof rcftoring 
 the brifknefs tothefe liquors after they have loll it in 
 confcqucnce of being cxpofcd to the aimofphere. Viz. 
 by imprcjinating them again with tixed air, either na- 
 turally or artiticially produced. 
 
 Dr Pricftley has made feveral experiments in order 
 to determine the quantity of fixed air contained in fe- 
 veral forts of wine. His method was to take a glafs 
 phial (fitted with aground flopple and tubcj, capable 
 of containing 11 ouncc-meafurc. This he filled with 
 wine, plunged it into a proper vcllel of water. The 
 . whole was Uien put over the fire, and the water, into 
 • which the phial was plunged, fullered to boil. The 
 
 end of the tube being placed under the mouth of an 
 inverted receiver filled with quickfilvcr, the heat ex- 
 pellcdthe fixed airfroui the wine, which entering into 
 the receiver, afccndcd in bubbles through the quick- 
 lilver to the top, pufliing out part of the metal and ta- 
 king its place. The refult of his experiments was as 
 follows : 
 
 C Madeira 
 Port of iix years old 
 Hock of ti\c years 
 Barrelled claret 
 i Tokay of 16 years 
 
 i^oz. 
 nieaf. 
 t.f 
 
 j Champagncoftwoyears 
 (_Bottledcydcrof ijycars |_ g 
 
 Oh 
 
 I T»T I 
 I ,'. I 
 
 of an 
 ounce 
 meaf. 
 
 
 I 2 oz. meaf. 
 J 3; ditto. 
 
 During the acetous fermentation alfo, liquors emit 
 a. vapour, great part of which is fixed air, though the 
 nature of its otJicr component parts has not yet been 
 ihorov.ghly afcertained. 
 
 " Fixed air is likewife produced, though in no great 
 qua!!tity, by putrtfaJlion. In this cafe, however, a 
 great part of the elaftic fluid conlilTs of infianunable 
 and phlogiflicatcd air, and the fixed air iifclf fecms to 
 be intimately connet^tcd with a putrid otfcnfivc efiluvi- 
 \\m. It fcemed to Dr Pricftley to " depend in fome 
 nicafure upon the time and other circumllancts in the 
 (dilibhuion of animal or vegetable fubilances, whctlicr 
 they yield the proper putrid diluvium, or fixed or in- 
 f.amnublc air." 
 
 The elaftic fluid produced by putrefying vegetables, 
 when kept in a moderate degree of heat, is almoft all 
 liscd air ; while that from animal I'ubftances contains 
 feveral times more inflammable than fixed air. Vege- 
 table fubftances yield almo/l all the permanently elallic 
 fluid in a few days, but animal bodies continue to emit 
 it for feveral weeks. When the tlaftic fluid yielded 
 by animal fubftances is abforbcd by water, and that 
 water boiled, the fixed air may then be obtained with- 
 out any mixture of the putrid cflluvium. It is alfo to 
 be obfervcu, that the quantity of elaftic fluid produ- 
 cible from animal fubftances is various according to 
 *the nature of the partsof the animal employed. Thus 
 the mafcular parts will vicldlcfs elaftic fluid, and alio 
 
 Icfs mixed with any putrid or offenfivc eflluvium, than Of Artifi- 
 a whole animal, or than the liver, &c. Thcpropor- cial Airs. 
 
 tion of inflammable and of fixed air is alfo various, ac- ""^ ' 
 
 cording to the various pans employed. 
 
 (2.) By hcut. In every combullion, except that of 
 fulpluir or of metals, a quantity of fixed air is genera- 
 ted. This may be obferved by fixing a lightetl candle 
 in an iuvcrtcd receiver overa bafon of lime-water, for 
 a precipitation of ilic lime \\ill prefently cnfuc ; and 
 the fame precipitation (which is one of the charaflc- 
 riftics of fixed air) will always cnfue, whether a candlcj 
 a burning piece of wood, or, in Ihort, any other com- 
 buftible fubftance, ejj^ccpt fulphur or metals, be made 
 ufe of. 
 
 During this production or extrication of fixed from 
 atmofphcrical air, the latter is commonly fuppofcd to 
 be conlidcrably diminilhed, though M. Lavoificr and 
 Mr Scheele have now rendered that opinion doubt- 
 ful. If a piece of charcoal be burned by tlirowing 
 the focus of a lens upon it when contained in a glafs- 
 recciver inverted in water, after the apparatus is cool- 
 ed, the water will have mounted a fmall way into the 
 receiver. The diminution, however, is limited, and 
 depends on feveral circuniftances. Dr Hales has ob- 
 ferved, that, in equal receivers, theairfuflers a greater 
 diminution Ijy burning large candles than fmall ones; ** 
 and likewife iliat, when equal candles arc made ufe of 
 the diminution is greater in fmall than in large recei- 
 vers. The caufe of this phenomenon probably is, that 
 the air contained in the receiver cannot all come into 
 contad with the flame of the candle ; whence, as fooa 
 as the air which is nearcft the flame becomes conta- 
 minated, the candle is extinguiflied. Thus the author 
 of a Concife Trcaiife on tlie Various kinds of Perma- 
 nently Elaftic fluids, has diminilhed the air of an in- 
 verted receiver one fixih part, by moving the candle 
 whilft it burned through the different parts of the vef- 
 fel, fo that the flame was brought into contact with a 
 greater quantity of the confined air than if it had re- 
 mained in one fituation till it became cxtinft. Dr 
 Mayow obferved, that by the burning of a candle the 
 air was diminilhed of one thirtieth only; Dr Hales 
 found it to be diminifiied of erne twenty fixth part ; and 
 Dr Pricftley found it to be diraini.htd of one fifteenth 
 or lixtcenth. Mr Cavcndifli obferved, that air fuf- 
 fercd adiminutionof one-tentii of ihc whole quantity, 
 by palling through an iron-tube filled with red-hot 
 powder of charcoal. A candle, or any other combuf- 
 tiblebody, willceafe to barn by iifclf, and confequeiuly 
 to contaminate a quantity of confined air much Iboner 
 than when it is, in fome manner, forced to burn by the 
 external application of heat. " The focus of a burn- 
 ing mirror," fays Dr Pricftley, " thrown for a fuffi- 
 cicnt time either upon brimftone or wood, after it has 
 ccafed to burn of its own accord, and has become 
 charcoal, will have a much greater effect of the fame 
 kind, diminilhing the air to its utmoft extent, and 
 making it thoroughly noxious." The combuftion of 
 the phofphorus of urine diminilTies air in a great de- 
 gree. Mr Lavoifier has obferved, that by the com- 
 buftion of phofphorus, air may be diminilhed of about 
 one-fifth or onc-fixth . This accurate philofopher has 
 alfo obferved, that the acid of phofphorus thus formed, 
 acquires the weight loft by thediminiflicdair ; finding 
 that about three inches of air were abforbed by every 
 
 one
 
 XIV. 
 
 A 
 
 R O 
 
 one grain of phofphorus, when the experiment was 
 tried with a receiver inverted in water, upon the fur- 
 ficc of which a I'mall quantity of oil had been intro- 
 duced ! but when the receiver was inverted in quick- 
 filver, the abforption wasconftantly between twoone- 
 fourth and two three-fourth inches for each grain. Mr 
 Cavallo mentions his having often repeated ihe expe- 
 riment of burning phofphorus in a glafs tube inverted 
 in water, by applying the clofcd part of the tube, 
 wherein the pliofphorns was contained, to a pretty 
 ftrong fire, when he always obfcrvcd that the utmoft 
 diminution of the inclofcd air cffedled by this means 
 was full one-fifth. • 
 
 Dr Hales remarked, that after the extinftion of 
 candles in a receiver, the air continued todiminilh for 
 fcveral days after. This may be owing to the gradual 
 abforption of part of it by the water ; it having been 
 remarked by Dr PriclUey, " that this diminution of 
 air by burning is not always immediately apparent, till 
 the air has palled fcveral times through water ; and that 
 when the experinientwasmadewithveirds Aandingin 
 quicklilverinftead of water, the diniinutionwasgent ral- 
 ly inconfiderable till the air had palled through water." 
 In thefe experiments of burning conibullible bodies 
 in a quantity of air, and meafuring the diminution, we 
 fhould always remark two caufes of miftake, viz. the 
 abforption of air by the coaly rcfiduum of the burned 
 matter, which fometimes is very conlldcrable, or by 
 the fluid in which the receiver is inverted, and the 
 produdion of elallic fluid from the burning fubftan- 
 ces ; thus gunpowder generates a great quantity of 
 claflic fluid when inflamed, &c. 
 
 Even the eleftric fpark feparates fixed air t'rom com- 
 mon atmofpherical air ; for when a number of thefe 
 fparks arc taken in a fmall quantity of common air 
 over lime-water, a diminution-will take place, the lime 
 will be precipitated, and if we put a blue vegetable 
 juice inftead of the lime-water, it will be turned red 
 by the acidity of the fixed air depolitcd upon it. Dr 
 Prieftley having cemented a wire into one endof a glafs 
 tube, the diameter of which was about one-tenth of an 
 inch, and having fixed a brafs ball to that extremity 
 of the wire which was out of the tube, filled the lower 
 part of it with the juice of turnfole or archil, fo that a 
 quantity of common air was contained in the tube be- 
 tween the extremity of the wire and the furfacc of the 
 liquor. Then takingthceleclricfparksbetweenthe laid 
 wire and liquor for about one minute, the upper part 
 of the liquor began to look red, and in about two mi- 
 nutes it was manifelUy fo. The air at the fame time, 
 was diuiinidied in proponionas the liquor becamered ; 
 but when the diminution arrived to be one-fifth of the 
 quantity of the air contained, then a longer elciflriza- 
 tion produced no fenfiblc effed. " To determine," 
 fays the doctor, •' whether the caufc of the change of 
 colour W'as in the air or in the eledric matter, I ex- 
 panded the air which had been diminifhed in the tube 
 by means of anair-jnniip, till it expelled all the liquor, 
 and admitted frclh bLie liquor in its place ; but after 
 that, eledricity produced no fenfiblc cfFeft, cither on 
 the air or on the liquor ; fo that it was evident that the 
 rlcftric matter had dccompofed the air, and had made 
 it depofit fomething that was of an acid nature." 
 
 The calcination of metals, as already obfcrvcd, phlo- 
 gifticaics, and confcqucntly diminidies common air ; 
 
 LOGY. 18.7 
 
 but dots not produce any fixed air,fince the limc-Witer, Of Artifi- 
 
 over which the cakii-.ation is made, dots not become c'pl Air». 
 
 turbid ; and when metallic calxcS arc expofed to a fuf- ' ' 
 
 ficiently ftrong heat, they in gtncral yield fomc fixed 
 
 air : fo that it fecms that the fixed air v. hich is formed 
 
 in the act of the calcination of metals is abforhed by 
 
 the calx. Some fixed air may be obtained from red 
 
 lead, by no greater degree of h eat than that 0} the dame 
 
 of a-candle applied to the phial that contains it. igo 
 
 The calcareous earths, v/hich, when arted on by Obuii.ci! 
 acids, yield a vaft quantity of fixed airj produce a very fronieirkt 
 fmall quantity of it when expofed to a ftrong heat by ^J ''Y*°* 
 themfelves,in aproperveircl,cven when expofed to the " 
 focus of a lens. Dr Pricftlcy, in his expcrin;ents re- 
 lating to the production of dephlogifticctcd air from va- 
 rious fubftanccs,whcnnioiftcUcJ with nitrousacid,aud 
 afterwards expofed to a fuflicicnt degree of heat, gene- 
 rally found that fome fixed air was produced together 
 with the dephlogifticated air ; butofttn obtained fixed 
 air only, without any dephlogifticated air being mixed 
 with it, or fixed and nitrous air together. From half in 
 ounceof ruft of iron, moiftened with fpirit of nitre, and ' 
 dried, he obtained about a quart of elaftic fluid, about 
 one-third of which was fixed and the reft nitrous air. 
 From alhes of pit-coal, treated in the fame manner, he 
 obtained nearly the like refult. But in thofe experi- 
 ments, the Doftor moftly ufed a gun-barrel, into which 
 he introduced thefubftancestobe tried ; fo that it ii very 
 probable, as hejuftly obfcrves, that the iron might have 
 contributed to the formation of the fixed air. In facl', 
 when he tried lubftances of the fame fort,firft in a gun- 
 barrel and then in glafs vcflcls, he obtained much more 
 fixed air in the former than in the latter cafe. One 
 of thofe experiments he made with tobacco-pipe clay, 
 which, after being moiftened with fpirit of nitre, was 
 when dry expofed to the fire in a gun-barrel7 and yield- 
 ed fome elaftic fluid, which appeared to be wholly fix- 
 ed air ; but repeating the experiment in a glafs phial 
 with a ground ftopple, and taking the produced ela- 
 ftic fluid at eight diflerent times, found that on the 
 beginning fomc fixed air was produced, but afterwards 
 the produce was dephlogifticated air. He made a 
 fimilar experiment with flints carefully calcined in 
 clofc velFcls, and obtained a fmiilar refult. ,^, 
 
 Moft minerals contain fixed air, which may be ex- From diffc- 
 tradlcd to a certain degree by means of heat. Mr rem mine- 
 Krenger, diftilling a greenifli fulihle fpar, which was '■^• 
 luminous in the dark, obtained from it fomc per.-ua- 
 nently elaftic fluid, which, like fixed air, cryftallizcd a 
 folutionof fixed alkali. Mr Fontana in hisanalyiisof 
 the malachite, finds that that mineral contains a vaft 
 quantity of fixed air, as pure as that whici'. is extracl- 
 cd from chalk by means of vitriolic acid. 
 
 From almoft every metallic ore and earthy mineral 
 fome fixed air may be obtained, as well as from chalk, 
 lime-ftone, marble, marine fliells, fixed and volatile al- 
 kali, and from maguclia alba, by means of a violent fire, 
 or of acids. 
 
 In Mr Boyle's, Dr Boerhaave's and Dr K;'.lcs"j 
 works, and in other books, the quantities of elaftic 
 fluid generated in various procclTcs, and by divers fub- 
 ftances, are mentioned with dilUnclion, but as thofe 
 writers are not acquainted with thecharatHereftic pro- 
 perties of fixed air, we do not know whether the elaftic 
 fluid mentioned by them was pure fixed air or not. 
 
 A a 3 From
 
 J S3 A ]L K O 
 
 Of Artifi- From niiinial fiibll?.!iccE, niixcil ^^ itli fj-irit of nitre, 
 ci.il !\ite. and Ibuiciinits h<alcda lilllf, in onlir to tacilh.uc; tlic 
 ' "' ' prodiiciion ofclullic fluid, Dr I'lici^j^ obtained, in 
 general, fixed air ; biitVhcrcas ilic tixt J air produced 
 by a liniil;(rproctfs with vegetable liibltanccs ismollly 
 inixcd ^^■ilh nitrous air, this is mixed with an claliic 
 fluid, which is ftldom .litroits in a very llij;ht degree, 
 bin is ol'ten phlogifliciind :;ir, viz. in Inch a ihite as 
 cxtinj^ui flies a candle, docs not diniinifli comrnon air, 
 nor is iiTelf diniinilhcd by nitrons air. Towards the 
 end of the iiroccfs, the Doilor remarks, " that when 
 by means of a llrong heat, the pro. luce of air is very 
 raj-id, and the air full of clouds, it is, like air, produ- 
 ced from \egctal>lc fubitanccs in the fame circnniftan- 
 ces, llii!,litly inJiamnir.bic, buruin;; with a hnibent, 
 grcenini, or bluiih tlanie." 
 
 (3.) By achh. Calcareous fubflaiices in general pro- 
 
 O G Y. 
 
 Sea. XIV. 
 
 Altundant- 
 
 lyrfo''""'' duce abundance of fixed air when at'lcd iii'on by any 
 
 I'rom calca- 
 reous fub- 
 ftanccs. 
 
 ■ acid, only the llrongcfl acids will expel jVoju them 
 more fixed air than the wcakcll ; and it happpens to be 
 peculiarly advantageous for thole who want to proJiicc 
 a great quantity of iixcd air, th«l the vitriolic acid is 
 both the clicapcft .ind llrongcfl acid, and, upon the 
 whole, the fittcll for this purpofe. The phenomena 
 attending the produflion of fixed air from caLartoas 
 fublUncis, &c. arc themrtlvcs very remarkable, and 
 furnilh the fubjec'l of much fpcculation in phiKilophy. 
 — The principal fads arc the following, i. Wlicn 
 calcareous earths, alkalis, andinannefia, in thtir ufual 
 ftate,arc mixed with acids, they caufcancftcrvcrccnce; 
 and confciiutntly the production of a permanently ela- 
 flic fluid, namely, fixed air. 2. Thefc iubflanccs re- 
 tain the fixed air very obfliuatcly ; fo that a ftrong fire 
 is nccefTary toexpcl it from niagnelia, and il.e ilron^eil 
 is not fiifficicnt to expel it entirely from feed alkalis, 
 and efpecially from calcareous earths (a). V«'hcn tliefe 
 fubflanccs are treated with acids, they yield the fixed 
 air, bccaufe they have a flrongcr attraclion to thofe 
 acids than to the fixed air. 3. The calcareous earths 
 which are infoUible in water, when dcj'iivcd of the 
 fixed air becotnc fohible in it. Thus linic-Aonc is not 
 foluble in water, but lime (viz. limc-flone deprived of 
 its fixed air (is foluble in water. And if thofe fub- 
 Aanecs, deprived of their fixed air, are put in a fitua- 
 tion proper to recover their lofl fixed air, tlicy lofe 
 the property of being foluble in water. Thus, when 
 lime-water is expofcd to fixed air, the lime abforbs the 
 •fixed air ; and, lofing at the fame time its property of 
 being foluble in water, is precipitated from it in the 
 llate it was before calcination, vi/.. of a ralcarcous 
 earth infoluble in w'ater, and capable of cfiervcfcing 
 with acids. 4. Alkalis, both fixed and volatile, when 
 deprived of their fixed air, become more raullic, and 
 more powerful folvcnts, incapable of crylhllization, 
 and of efiervefcing with acids. But if to thofe alkalis, 
 and alfo e?rihs rendered more cauflic, their fixed air 
 be reftorcd, they acquire at once all the properties 
 they had before they were deprived of the fixcvi air, 
 viz^ they become more mild, eiTervefce with acids, rc- 
 coven their weight, 8:c. 
 
 Thofe properties of calcareous earths .Tnd alkalis OfiXn.fi- 
 wcre afcertaiued by the learned Dr I l„ck, wii(> ptr- cial Air?. 
 
 formed a variety of decifive and w ell-contrived exi cri- " "^ ' 
 
 iiients, upon which he formed a juli theory, vi/.. that 
 the caufticiiy, Iharpncfs, loliibiliiy, &c. of thofe fnb- 
 Itances, wasowing to the fixed air being expelled from 
 them ; and that when they were coniLii^ed v.iih a pro- 
 per quantity of fixed air, they were mild. See. The 
 Uottor gives the epithet of wii.i 10 thofe fnbrianccs 
 when they arc combined with air, and of i:^////,-c when 
 deprived ol'it; ascanftic calcareous earth, caufiicfixtii 
 alkali, &c. Among the other experiments, he connec- 
 ted two phials by means of a bent tube ; in one of which 
 he pi.t fomc caiiJiic i'pirit of fal ammoniac, and iji the 
 other fomc luild alkali, or mild calcareous earth ; then 
 pouring, through a hole made in the lidc of the latter 
 piiial, fonie .-.cid upon the mild alkali, fo as to produce 
 fome fixed air, which, lulling tlirouj^h the tube into 
 theother phial, combined with the fpirit of fal ammo- 
 iiiar, and rendered it mild. 
 
 Eufy 7i:cthods of oituhi'mg F'^xablc /-llr for oicaf vital 
 Expdinicutj, Sic. 
 
 ( I .) By Fcrnjciitiitioii. Mix together equal parts of 
 bfov. n fiigar and good ycft cf beer, to v. hich add about 
 tw ice the bulk of water. This mixture being put in- 
 to a phial, to which a bent tube with a cork nay be 
 adapted, w ill yield a confiderablc quantity of fixed air, 
 which may be received into a phial filled with qnick- 
 lilvcr or water, as in the following proccfs. 
 
 (2.) By ^^cids. Let a glafs tube, open at both ends, 
 be bent, by means of a blow-pipe and the flame of a 
 candle, nearly into the Ihape of an S, as it is rcpre- 
 fenicd by Ali, and fix a cork D to one' of its extre- Plate X. 
 mities, fo ns 10 fit the neck of a common phial, that fig. i. 
 may hold about four or live ounce- nicafiires. The hole 
 through the cork may be made with an iron wire red- 
 hot, and the tube ntay be laflened in it with a bit of 
 fofi wax, fo as not to let any air go through. Fill a 
 fimilar phial, or any glafs receiver X,with water, and Cavaiu «» 
 invert it after the manner (hown above, in a bafon Hi, Air. 
 about half iilled with water. Now put fome chalk or 
 marble, grofsly powdered, itito the bottle E, fo as to 
 fill about a foarth or fit'th part of it, and itpoil it pour 
 fome water, juft enough to cover the chalky then add 
 fomc oil of vitriol to it, which needs not be more than 
 about the fourth or fifth part of the water. Imnte- 
 diatcly after, apply the cork D, with the tube AB, 
 to the bottle, and putting it in the litaation KG, Jet 
 the extremity B of the tubepafs through the water of 
 the bafon into the neck of the bottle K, which now 
 mufl be kept up with t/.c hand, or other convenient 
 fiipport, as it cannot reil npen the bottom of the ba- 
 fon. The mixture of chalk, &c. in the bottle FG, 
 will immediately begin to cfTervcfcc, fiiowing a froth- 
 ing, and an intcfline motion accompanied with heat, 
 that may be felt by applying the hand to the outfidc 
 of the fluid. The elaitic fluid called fixed air is co- 
 I'ioully emitted from this mixture, and I'affing through 
 the bent tube, will go into the bottle K, as appears 
 by the bubbles wliich come out of the tube, and, pal- 
 ling 
 
 (a) Chalk, limc-ftone, £<c. after being kept in a very flrong fire for many hours, if they 
 ids, yield a conlidcrable quantity of fixed ajr ; wliich Ihows that the pnrefl quick-lime c 
 
 aci 
 fixed air 
 
 are ptit into 
 contains fomc
 
 Seel. XIV. 
 
 A 
 
 E R O L O G Y. 
 
 Of/^rtifi- (ing throui^h the water," aP ciul to tlie top of tlic in- 
 cial Air». vciicJ bottle. Ill jToporikm as ilic clallic riuiJ tills 
 ^ thcb)t'lf. K, the w:Ucr gradually defccncis, aiidat lalt 
 is quite cxixllcd from ic ; the bot^e K then is rilled 
 with fixed air, and being corked under water, may be 
 removed from the bnloii, and kept for ufe. Another 
 boirlcniay tlien It lilled with water, and nny be in- 
 verted over the extremity of the bent tube in the place 
 ofK, which other bottle may be lilled ia a limilar man- 
 ner, and fo on tiU the niixttire in KG has linilhtj to 
 yield nny fixed air. 
 
 If one of thcfe bottles filled with fixed air be un- 
 corked, and, holding it with the mouth upwards, a 
 lighted wax taper, bent like L, or a fiiiall piece of it 
 affixed to the cxireniiiy ofa\vi;-e, be immcJiately let 
 down in it, the ilaine will be inllaatly extin^uiihcd. 
 The fame thing wiil ha;jK-u if a lighted piece of wood 
 islet down in it. 
 
 Take a clean bowl, and p'jtting the mouth of a bot- 
 tle, filled witli fiXcd air, in it, uncork it, and keej) it in 
 that fituation for about a miiuitc. The fixed air be- 
 ing fpcciiically heavier tl:an common air, will come out 
 of the bottle, and will rcr.iain at the bottom of the 
 bowl, whilit common air enters into the bottle ; which 
 bottle may now by removed ; and, in order to Ihow the 
 rcalf iiflenceofthe fixed air, which will immediately 
 Cdvalh an fliow its being jieavicr than common air, put a lighted 
 ylir. wax-taperiutotbc bowl, pretty near its bottom, which 
 
 taj'er will be extinguilhcd immediately. The air in 
 this experiment muit be agitated as little as it is pof- 
 fible. That theflamcof the wax taperwas really cx- 
 tinguidicdby the lixcJair, may be calily proved in the 
 lollovviHg uiancr : — Ulow once or twice into the bowl, 
 by which means the iixc J air will be expelled from it ; 
 and then, on letting doivn alighted wax-taper in it as 
 before, it will be found that itisiiolonger extinguilh- 
 cd, but will burn very well, the bovvl being now tilled 
 with common air. This experiment never fails of fur- 
 prilingthcfpetlators, as it clearly cxliibits two remark- 
 able properties of a fluid, which they can neither lee 
 Jior difliiiguilh by the feeling. 
 
 When the bottle K is about half filled with fixed 
 air, put a mark with a bit of foft wax on the outlide 
 of it, jiifl coiiiciJing with the level of the water in it, 
 and immediately after lliake the bottle ; but taking 
 care that its mouth be not lifted above the furface of 
 the water in the bafon. After having fhaken it for 
 about a minute, on intermitting the agitation, it will 
 be found that the wafr is above the mark ; which 
 fhows that fome of the fixed air has been abforbed by 
 it. Let this abforption be carried on as far as pof- 
 fiblc, by agitating the bottle repeatedly, and allowing 
 time to let more rixed air be produced and cuter into 
 the bottle in proportion as the water abforbs it. Then 
 apply the hand, ora finger, to the niouthof the b'tile 
 whiiil: under water ; bring the bottle out, and turn it 
 with the mouth upwards. The water then will be 
 found to have.icquired a pleafant acidulous taile, Ti\e 
 water th isimpregiiated withfixedairchaugcs the blue 
 infuliou of Ibmc vegetable fubflances into red ; lb that 
 if a weak folution of heliotrope is mixed with it, or 
 indeed if it is limply cxpofed to lixcd air, the liquor 
 acquires a reddilh appearance. It alio corrodes iron, 
 and fome other metals, mn^nTore calily than commoi 
 water. But the grcatcll and inoil ufcful property of 
 
 1S9, 
 
 this acidulated water, or water impregnated with fix- Of Artifi- 
 ed air, is its being a powerful a:'.tifcptic. As the moft ciJ Airs, 
 ufed mineral waters arc medicinal ]>rLicipaily on at- — — v^— ' 
 count of their being 'mpregnatc^ with fixed air, bclidcs 
 wliich they generally ^on tain fume tmall portion of me- 
 tal or fait dillblvcd ; they may be imitated by imprig- , 
 nating water with iixed airund then adding ilui quan- 
 tify of lalt or of mct,il, that by analylis the original 
 mineral waters arc found to contain. 
 
 It is for its grcatpropertyof hindtringputrefaiflion, Ufcful pro- 
 tliat fixed air by itlclf, or incorporated with various pcrticsof 
 fluids, cfpeci.illy with water, and that vegctabUs, •'"J ^"■• 
 fugar, and ctlitr ftibdances which abound with hxtd 
 air, are very powerful remedies i.i putrid dilVafts. Sir 
 John I'ringlc fuppofcs, with great i)robabitity, that 
 thefrtquent ufe of fugar and vc^ctanl-s, wiiich at this 
 time make up a conlidcrable part of the diet of the 
 European n.-ttions, prevents thole putrid dilc.iles and 
 plagues which formerly were rather frequent. — Or 
 IV'acbride, Ihowing experimentally that fixed air is 
 dilchargcd by fuch fubllanccs as form our couimou 
 food, afcribcs the preft rvation of the body from putre- 
 faition in great mcafure to the fixed air, which in the 
 ordinary procels of digeftion is difeiigajed from the a- 
 liment, and incorporates with the Huids of the body. 
 
 From tire fame property it may be alio ufcfully ap- 
 plied to fcveral oeconomital purpofcs. Mr Ktnry 
 found, that fixed air can preferve fruit for a conlidcr- 
 able time. He tried a bunch of Italian grapes, which 
 being fufpended in the middle part of Or Nooth's ap- 
 paratus, and being fupi-licd with plentiful f^reanij of' 
 fixed air every day, was prcfervcd without any ligns of 
 decay for about one month longer than a limilar buucli 
 fufpended in a decanter containing common air. Straw- 
 berries and cherries he alfo found to be prcl'irveJ 
 without decay fome days longer in fixed thin in 
 common air. Indeed tlxcd air prefcrvcs not only fruit, 
 but refills putrefaction in general. Dr Macbridc, 
 in his elegant ellays on Medical and Philofophieal 
 Subjccis,has pubtilhed various experiments wliich ic- 
 rrsonflr.-.te this property of fixed air. He found, that 
 not only good meat was preferved incorrupt for a con- 
 fiderable tiiue, when c.xpofed to fixed air ; but that 
 the putrcfudion of fubftances aftually putrid was im- 
 peded by this means, and even that thofc fubtlances 
 were reftorcd from the putrefcent to a found Hate. lij^ 
 Tliat putrefaftion was cheeked by fermentation, was Refills pu- 
 difeovcrd by Sir John Pringle ; and l)r M.iebride ob- trtfailion- 
 fervcd. that tliis c<feCt was owingto the fixed air pro- 
 duced in the a6t of fermentation. But it mull be 
 obfervcd, that when the fbiiiid, or even putrid fub- 
 flances, expofe a very great furface to the fixed air, as 
 is the 'afe with milk, bile, and other iluids imprc^'-.a- 
 ted with fixed air, and alfo with finall liits of meat, 
 then tiicy arc preferved for a conlidcrable time : but 
 large pieces of ("olid animil liddla ices, as for influucc 
 roundilh pieces of flelli of about half a pouf.d weight, 
 do not feeni to remain incorrupt niurii longer in fixed 
 than in comnum lir ; at Icail the difference is inconli- 
 (Icrablc, Sir WiMam Lrc, baroi'et, in tWo nf his let- 
 ters to Dr I'riclilcy, informs him of his having found, 
 that tiolh-meat, even in t'le iiot fealon, could be pre- 
 fcrved^v-liolefonie tor fcvcial days, by only wi.hir.g ic 
 two or three limes a-dsy in water impregnated with 
 
 dxcd
 
 190 
 
 of Artifi. 
 cial Airs 
 
 185 
 PrnduClion 
 of inliaiu- 
 
 axMe air* 
 
 186 
 Pheno- 
 mena. 
 
 AERO 
 
 (ixcJ air. " W'c have been enabled," dys he, " to 
 prelervc meat as perfectly fweet anJ good to* the ex- 
 tent of ten days, as at the lirll killing : and there I'eenis 
 no doubt it might be preferved much longer." He 
 ]ias even recovered Ibme meat that had begun to 
 change. This iifetul difcovery, Sir William jaltly ob- 
 ferves, may be very beneficial to the public, efpe- 
 cially to butchers. " Particularly a butcher," fays 
 he," who deals pretty largely, alhires me he found 
 the grtatcll fuccefs from it, and only objects that the 
 veal was a little difcoloarcd though kept perfedly 
 fweet." 
 
 Fixed air, as it combines with water, fo it may be 
 combined with other liquors. Beer, wine, and other 
 fermented liquors, may be impregnated with fixed air, 
 and by this means their Iharpirtfs may be reilored, 
 when they are becom(fvapid, or as it is commonly fai J, 
 dead. Tlie acidulous tafte communicated by the im- 
 pregnation of fixed air, cannot be difcovered in beer, 
 wines, and, in Ihort, in fuch liquors which have much 
 tafte of their own. Milk acquires an acidulous tafte 
 by being impregnated with fixed air, and is tliereby 
 preferved incorrupt for fome days ; which affords a 
 very eafy expedient of prcierviug milk in thofe pla- 
 ces where it cannot be had new very often. 
 
 5 2. To produce IsFLAMM^BLE Air — The procefs 
 for making this fort of gas is the fame as that for nia- 
 Jiing tixed air: one ot^the materials only muft be dif- 
 ferent, viz. iron-filings, or grof»ly powdered zinc, 
 muft be ufed inftcad of chalk ; to which filings fome 
 oil of vitriol and water mull be added, in the fame pro- 
 portion as in the fixed air, or rather a little more of 
 oil of vitriol. 
 
 N. B. Inftead of the filings of iron, fmall nails, or 
 fmallbits of iron-wire, anfwer equally well. 
 
 The inflammable elaftic fluid produced by this mix- 
 ture has a diiplcaling fmell, even when mixed with a 
 very large quantity of common air ; lb that if any 
 conliderable quantity of it comes out of the bottle, 
 before the cork with the bent tube be applied to it, &c. 
 its fmell may be perceived all over the room in which 
 the experiment is made, but this fmtll is not particu- 
 larly otFenfive. 
 
 When a bottle has been filled tvith this elaftic fluid, 
 flop the mouth of it with your thumb, or any ftopper, 
 and taking it out of the bafon, bring it near the liame 
 of a candle ; and when the mouth of the botileis very 
 near it, remove the ftopper, and the cl.iftic fluid con- 
 tained in the bottle will be immediately inflamed ; and 
 if the capacity of the bottle is nearly equal to four 
 ounce-meafures, it will continue burning quietly for 
 about half a minute, the flame gradually defccnding 
 lower and lower, as far as about the middle of the bot- 
 tle, in propotiion as the inflammable gas is confumed. 
 
 In this experiment we fee, that inflammable air fol- 
 lows the general rule of all other combuftible fuh- 
 flances, namely, that of burning only vvhen in eontad 
 with common air : thus the flame of this gas, whilfl 
 burning, is obfcrvable only on that furface of it wliich 
 is contiguous to the common air ; fo that if the bottle 
 be clofcti, the flame is put out immediately, becaufe 
 the air is intercepted from it. But if the inflammable 
 air were put in fuch a fituation as to expofc a very 
 great furface to the common air, it is plain, that by 
 
 o 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sc<a. xiv. 
 
 this iiieaus its combuftion would be accelerated, fo as 
 to let it burn iiiilantly, and go oft' with an explofion, 
 caufed by the Hidden rarcfaclion of the air. In facl, 
 this efFetl; may be eaiily obferved in the following man- 
 ner : When the bottle is to be inverted into the baton, 
 in order to let rt be rilled with the intiammablc gas, 
 inftead of filling it entirely with water, let half of it 
 remain filled with common air ; then invert it, and let 
 theoiherhalf, which is nov/ filled with water, be filled 
 withiniiammablc air after tlieufual manner ;and when 
 the bottle is full, remove it in the manner fliown above, 
 and approach it to the flame of the candle, by which 
 means the inflammable air takes fire ; but now it ex- 
 plodes all at once with a large flame and a conlider- 
 able report, fometimes breaking the boiile in which it 
 is contained. In this cafe, ihe bottle being filled with 
 equal parts of inflammable and common air, tliefe two 
 elaftic fluids wercmixcd together, fothat abnoll every 
 particle of the one touched every particle of the other, 
 and hence the fuddcn combuftion was occafioned. The 
 force of this explolion isfo veryconfiderable, that foinc 
 piftols have been contrived, which are charged with a 
 mixture of air and inrtammable gas, and being fired 
 by means of an eleclric fpark, are capable to drive a 
 leaden bullet with great violence. Sometimes thofc 
 piftols are made of glafs (but in this cafe they are not 
 charged with a bullet), and it is very diverting to Ihow 
 that piftolsarc charged and explode by the combaftioa 
 of an invillblc fubftancc. 
 
 When a (lender pipe is tied to the neck of a blad- 
 der, and the bladder is filled with inflammable air, 
 after the manner defcribcd in the preceding experi- 
 ment (viz. when the bladder was required to be filled 
 with fixed air), two V4»jy plcaling experiments may be 
 performed with it. P'irli:, the inrtammable gas may be 
 inflamed by applying the flame of the candle to the 
 extremity of the pipe ; and fqueczingat the fame time 
 the bladder, a ftream of fire will be formed in the air, 
 which will laft a& long as the bladder contains any in- 
 flammable air ; for this gas coming out of the pipe 
 with violence, will coiui Hue in flamed for a conliderable 
 way in the air. Secondly, the extremity of the pipe 
 may be dipped into a fohuion of Ibap, then removing 
 it from the folution, and fqueczing the bladder very 
 gently, a ball of foap-water may be fornud, including 
 in.iainmable air : v.'hieh ball, onacconntof the inflam- 
 mable gas being much lighter than common air, asfoon 
 as it is detached from the pipe will afcend upwards, 
 and will break by dalhing agaiuft the ceiling, contrary 
 to thofc commonly made by children, whicji in ftillair 
 go downwards. — Whilll the ball is afcendjng, if the 
 flame of the candle be approached to it, the film of 
 foap-water will be inftantly broke, and the inflam- 
 mable air will take fire ; thus a flame may be lltowu 
 to be feeiningly produced from a foap-ball. 
 
 By taking cledric fparks in any kind of oil, fpirit 
 of wiue, ether, or fpirit of fal ammoniac, Dr Pricft- 
 ley obtained inflammable air. The oil, or other li- 
 quor, was confined in a glafs tube by quickfilver, and 
 ■A wire was cemented in the upper part of the tube, 
 through which ihe fparks being fent, went to the 
 quickfilver through the oil ; but after that a few fparks 
 had been taken, a cpianiity of iuflammable air was 
 generated. Sec. Left>tlflj production of inflammable 
 air Ihould be attributed to the cement which faftened 
 
 the 
 
 Of 
 
 Artifi. 
 
 cial Airs. 
 
 187 
 
 Inflamma- 
 ble air ob- 
 taincdfroDi 
 varioukfiib- 
 flaiiccs.
 
 5e6t. XIV. AERO 
 
 Of Artifi- ihs wire, the Dofbor repeated the experiment with 
 
 cul Airs, ether in aglafs fyphon ; but the iuhanmialile air was 
 
 — ~^ — ~ generated as before. This cluflic Hiiid does not loie 
 
 its inllaiuniabiliiy by being palled fcveral times from 
 
 one vclltl intoaiiotlitr through water. 
 
 Alkaline air, by takinj;; eltiilric cxploiions in it, is 
 changed into inflammable air. 
 
 By means of acids, inflammable air is obtained in 
 greater abundance, and more readily. Iron, zinc, or 
 tin, yield plenty of intlammable air when aCted on by 
 diluted vitriolic or marine acids. 
 
 Jfiron is put into ilrong vitriolic acid, (he quan- 
 tity of claflic liuid that is produced is very liitlc, ex- 
 cept heat be applied to the phial, for then the pro- 
 duction of elaltic fluid is more copious; but this cla- 
 flic fluid is vitriolic acid air, mixed with a fmall por- 
 tion of inflammable air, the proportional quantity of 
 it being lefs when the acid is more concentrated. 
 
 Zinc treated after the fame manner,produees the like 
 trfFet^s, except that it gi\cs more elatfic fluid, without 
 the application of heat, than iron does j and the great- 
 cll part of the pioducedelallic fluid is inriamjnablc. 
 
 In order to obtain the greaiefl quaniity of inflam- 
 mable air from iron or zinc, the vitriolic acid mull be 
 diluted with much water, as about one part of flrong 
 oil of vitriol to live or fix parts of water. Dr Priefl- 
 ley found, that li grains of iron yielded 8^ ounce- 
 lucafures of inflammable air. According ;o Mr Ca- 
 vendilh, one ounce of zinc, dilfolved either in the vi- 
 triolic or marine acid, yields a quantity of inflamma- 
 ble air equal to the bulk of 356 ounces of water ; one 
 ounce of iron, dilli)lvcd by means of vitriolic acid, 
 yields a quantity of inflammable air equal to the bulk 
 of 412 ounces of water ; and one ounce of tin yields 
 half as much inflammable air as iron docs. 
 
 The folutions of iron, tin copper, lead and zinc, 
 in the marine acid, produce marine acid air, and in- 
 flammable air, but in various quantities. The propor- 
 tion of the former to the latter is as one to eight in 
 iron, as one to fix in tin, as three to one in copper 
 and lead, and as one to 10 in zinc. Regulus of anti- 
 mony, diiiolved in marine acid, with the application 
 of heat, yields a fmall quantity of elaflic fluid, which 
 is weakly infiammablc. 
 
 Dr Prielllcy obtained infiammnble air, not only by 
 difTolvii'g various fubflances in marine acid, but alio by 
 expoling divers bodies to marine acid air, which is 
 probably tlie purefl part of the marine acid. Having 
 admitted iron-filings to this acid air, they were diffol- 
 ved by it pretty fall ; half of the elaflic fiuid difap- 
 l)eared,aud the reft was rendered unabforbable bywa- 
 ler, and inflammable. The fame effeCit was produced 
 by almoll every fubflance which contains phlogillon, 
 as by fpirit of wine, oil of olives, fpirit of turpentine, 
 charcoal, phofphorus, bees wax, fulphur, dry-cork- 
 wood, pieces of oak, ivory, pieces of roaftcd beef, and 
 even fome i)ieccs of a whitifli kind of flint. 
 
 A greater or fmaller portion of the aei.l air was ab- 
 forbcd, and the reft fonietimes was all inflammable, 
 and oficn was partly acid air, which w as foon abforbcd 
 on the admilfion of water, and partly inflammable. 
 In Ihort, it feems as if this acid air, having a great 
 atiiuity witk phlogiRon, fcp.-irates it from all thole fub- 
 flances which contain it even in fmall quantity, and 
 I'rom that combination becomes inllauunablc. 
 
 LOGY. 191 
 
 By means of nitrous acid, inflammable air may be rtfArtifi- 
 obtained from various fubflances containing phlogillon; cul Airs. 
 
 but it is always mixed with nitrous air, and fonietimes *- ' 
 
 alio with flxed and common or phlogiflicated air. If 
 two parts of fpirit of wine, mixed with one part of 
 nitrous acid, are put into a phial with a ground-llopplc 
 and tube, and the flame of a candle be applied to it, fo 
 as to heat it gradually, the inflammable air will be pro- 
 duced very readily ; the inflammability of which is, 
 however, not very permanent, for by a little walhing 
 in water it may be annihilated. In the folution of 
 mofl fubftances in nitrous acid, it generally happens, 
 that the claflic fluid, which is obtained towards the 
 latter end of the procefs, poflelfcs the property of be- 
 ing inflammable : thus iron, dilfolved in nitrous acid, 
 yields nitrous air ; but when the nitrous air ccafes to 
 be produced, if the heat of a cindle be applied to the 
 folution, more elaflic fluid will be produced which is 
 inflammable. " The nitrous acid (fays Dr Irigen- 
 houz) when mixed with iron-fllings in a very diluted 
 ftate, gives, by the aflillance of a moderate degree of 
 heat, a mixture of different airs, partly fixed, partly 
 common air, and partly phlogiflicated air. See further 
 the article Aerostatkin. 
 
 53. To produce NiTRovs Air — This permanently 
 elaflic fluid is never found naturally, like fixed or in- 
 flammable air, but is entirely artiflcial. igg 
 
 Either filvcr, copper, brafs, iron mercury, bifmuth. Nitrous air 
 or nickel, whesi mixed with nitrous acid, yield nitrous 's nuirely 
 airin great quantities. Some of thcin, efpecially mcr- ^rtificuU 
 cy, require tlie aid of heat in order to produce the 
 elaflic fluid ; the flame of a candle applied to the phial 
 is fufficient : but others, efpecially copper and iron, 
 do not want the application of any heat. Gold pla- 
 tina, and the regulus of antimony, when put in aqua 
 regia, yield nitrous air pretty readily. Among the 
 metals, lead yields nitrous air in the fmallell quantity. 
 " I poured (fays Dr. Pricitly) fmoking fpirit of nitre 
 into a phial with a ground-flopple and tube, contain- 
 ing U ounce-meafure fllled with fmall leaden flior, 
 fo as to leave no common air at all, either in the 
 phial or in the tube ; and I placed it fo as to 
 receive the air that might come from it in water. i8<; 
 After waiting an hour, in w hich little or no air was From what 
 produced, I ap])lied the flame of a candle, though fuMfance* 
 not very near, to it : and in thcfe circumftances I got pr-Ju""!- 
 about an ouncc-nieaiure of air: but upon fome water 
 rufhingintothc phial while the candle was withdrawn, 
 air was produced very plentifully. I colleded in all 
 about a quarter of a pint ; and might probably have 
 got much more, but that the fait formed by the folu- 
 tion of the lead had fo nearly clofed up the tube, that 
 I thought propertodifconiinue the procefs. The air, 
 both of the flrfl and of the lafl produce, was of ihc 
 fame quantity ; and fo far nitrous, that two meafurcs 
 of common air, and one of this, occupied the fpacc 
 of two meafures only ; excepting that the very rirll 
 and very lafl produce, mixed with common air, took 
 up a little more room than that which I got in the 
 middle of the procefs. When the air was produced 
 very fall, it was exceedingly turbid, as if it had been 
 filled with a white powder." 
 
 Among the lemi-metals, zinc gives the wcakefl ni- 
 trous air, V, hcu dilfolved in nitroui acid. The claiHc 
 
 fluid
 
 l()2 
 
 Of Artifi- 
 cial A;rj. 
 
 E R 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 Sed. XIV. 
 
 floiJ produccJ from ii is niotlly plilo^illicated air. 
 Kroni tour pennyweights and i 7 j^rainsi't zinc, diill)I- 
 vcJ ir. Ipirii of aiire dilated wilii an equal qaantiiy of 
 water, l>r PriclUcy obiaiucd about 1 2 ouiicc-nicarnrcs 
 of very weak nitrous air. It occafi'-'.ed a very I'.iglit 
 cifervcfcencc wlicn wi.\cd with common air. the 
 Dov^or obtained nitrous air even from fome fiowcrsof 
 zinc. " Having (fays he) mixed a quantity of bhic 
 fjiirit of iiitrc with Howcrs of zinc, which were of a 
 dull colonr, and appeared from fevcral experiments to 
 contain a portion of phlo-jillon, it yielded, with the 
 heat of a candle applied to the piiial wliich contained 
 jt, llrong nitrous, air ; when the common fpirit of nitre, 
 applied 111 the fame manner, tjavc only phloj^illicated 
 air; the phlogidon of which came probably from the 
 calx itfclf, though a fmsU portion ofit might have been 
 in the nitrons acid, vviiich 1 believe is never entirely 
 free from it." 
 
 Thp quantity of nitrous air that may be obtained 
 from various metals, is diflicult to be afcertaincd, ou 
 account of the divcrfity occalioned by the llrcngtli of 
 the acid, the virions nature of the metallic fubltance, 
 and the method of performing the experiments. The 
 iollowing is a tabic of the produce of nitrous air from 
 various metals, cxtrieled from Dr I'rieftley's firll vo- 
 lume of Kxpcrimcnts and obfervations ; but wliich, 
 as the anilior bimfclf intimates, is far from being very 
 accurate. 
 
 of filver yielded 1 7i ounce-meafures. 
 
 of qiiickfilver, 4i 
 
 of copper, 14V 
 
 of brais, 21 
 
 of iron, 
 
 ofbifmuth, 6 
 
 of nickel, 4 
 
 The various flrcngth of the nitrous acid produces 
 great diverlity in the productiim of nitrous air. Thus, 
 if copper is didblved in ftrong nitrous acid, it will not 
 produce tlic Icaft quantity of nitrous air ; but when dif- 
 folved indihiicd nitrous aci J, it produces a great quan- 
 tity of thatclartic fluid. The ftrong and pale-coloured 
 nitrous acid lliould be dilutcdwiih at Icalt twoorthree 
 parts of water to one of the acid, for the esfy pro- 
 duction of nitrous air from copper and mercury. 
 
 The brilkncfsof thceffcrvcfccnce,and the produc- 
 tion of niiious air, are promoted by heat, and alfo by 
 letting the metallic fubllance prefcnt a great quantity 
 of furt'acc to the aciJs. 
 
 Kur the generality of experiments, no other Ccgrec 
 of heat is required than that produced by the etier- 
 vcfccncc itfclf, except mercury be ufed.which requires 
 liic application of fouie he.at. When the metal exhi- 
 bits a very great furfacc to the acid, as is the cafe when 
 Jiliugs arc ufed, the cfiervcfcence and production of 
 jiitrous £ir are often much quicker than can be con- 
 veniently managed. 
 
 Cojipcr or brais, when clipped into flat bits, each 
 about two or three grains in weight, and about a 
 quarter of a fquarc inch in furfacc, and when difl'olved 
 in nitrous acid properly diluted, yield nitrous air VLvy 
 equably ; but if iron be ufed, the pieces of it feould 
 be l.irger and I'ewcr ; in fhort, it iho.ild prefeni a much 
 Icfs furfacc to the diluted acid ; otherwife the incrcafe 
 ofhca: in the proccfs, and the rapid produaion of 
 
 dwt. 
 
 grs 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 ^2 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 t 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 chllic fluid, render the operation both dilEcalt.and Of Artlfi- 
 dangcroui for the operator. '•=.! Aic». 
 
 As the nitrous air is moftly ncccfTary to try the '""'' ' 
 goodncfs of refpirablc air, it is of great confcqucnce i»ure mer- 
 to make it aUvay of one conflant degree of goodntfs ; curyyielj*. 
 but this object is anfwcred by dill'olving fubltances i:f titcbcll. 
 a very homologous nature i:t the nitrous acid ; there- 
 fore it is pl.iin, that the metals w'hofc nature is more 
 uniform muft be prefcrreil for this purpofc. Accord- 
 ingly, brafs yicldsnitrous air of a more uniform nature 
 than iron : copper is fuperior to brafs ; bit pure mer- 
 cury is lliU fuperior to copper : and indeed this is the 
 metal which, conlidering its nature, uniformity of fub- 
 fcance, and cufy folution, is upon the whole the moll 
 ufcful for tliispurpofe. 
 
 It h.is been generally obfervc J, that folid vegetable 
 fubllanccs, when dillolvcd in nitrous acid, yield more 
 nitrous air than the animal fubllanccs, though this ni- 
 trous air is not fo pure as that obtained from metals. 
 
 Sometimes it contains fome ii.xcd air, and a good 
 deal of inHainmablc air which is inoftly produced to- 
 wards the endoftiie procefs. On ilic other hand, the 
 nitrous air, extracted from animal fubllanccs generally 
 contains a good deal of phlogillicatcd air, and fowt- 
 times lonie Hxed air. In order to obtain nitrons air 
 from the folution of animal and vegetable fubllanccs 
 in nitrous acid, often fome degree of heat muft be ap- 
 plied to tile phial. The acid alfo fomeiinies muft be 
 very concentrated, and in other cafes it mult be dilu^ 
 ted , but it is hardly worth while, or practicable, to 
 determine w ith exacf nefs all thofe particular cafes. 
 
 To make NitKiut Air. — The metal, viz. copper, 
 brafs or mercury, is iirft put into the bottle (which, 
 as well as the whole procefs, is tlie fame as that dc- 
 fcribed for fixed An), fo as to (ill about one-third of 
 the fame ; then fome water is poured into the bott)e, 
 fo as juft to cover the metal-filings J and laftly, the ni- 
 trous acidisadded,lhequaiitityof which, when ftrong, 
 fhould be about one-ihird or half the quantity of the 
 water. The fmell of the nitrous gas is very penetra- 
 ting and oJilntive, and occalions a red fmoke as foon 
 as it comes i'lto contact with the common air; hence 
 whenever any of it efcapcs from the bottle, it may be 
 obfcrved not only by the fmell, but alfo by the llight 
 re<l colour. 
 
 In order to obfervc tiie principal property of this 
 elaftic rtuid, which is that of diminilhing the bulk of 
 common air, let a glafs tube, clofcd at one end, and 
 about nine inches long, and half or three quarters of 
 an inch in diameter, be iillcd with water, and inverted 
 in water ; then take a fmall phial, of about half an 
 onncc-meafure, filled with commonair, and plunging 
 it under the water contained in the fame bafon where 
 tjie inverted tube is kept, let that quantity of air en- 
 ter into the tube, which will go to the top of it, the 
 water fubliding accordingly. Let, a mark be made, 
 either with a file or by fticking foft w.ix on the tube, 
 jnft oppolite to the furface of the water in it, which 
 will mark how much the tube is filled by that given 
 meafurc of air. After the fame manner, till the fame , 
 fmall phiai ( whi«h we ihall call the »;<•«/«;•£■) again with 
 air ; throw that air into the tube, and put a mark on 
 the tube coinciding- with the level of the water in ir. 
 In this manner, let four or live meafurcs be marked on 
 the tube. Now, if three meafurcs of common air are 
 
 pat
 
 Sect. XIV. AERO 
 
 Of .\rtifi- put inio this tube, when filled with water and inverted, 
 cial Airs, they will fill a fpacc of it as Car as the third mark. 
 ■ ' The fame thing will happen if three incafurcs of ni- 
 trous in&ead of common air be put iii it ; but if two 
 fneafjr9s of common air and one mcafure of nitrous 
 air, or one meafurc of the former and two of the lat- 
 ter, be introduced i,i it, they will lill a fpacc much 
 f.iorcer than the third mark. On the moment that 
 thefe two kinds of elatlic fluids come into contact, a 
 reddilh appearance is perceived, which foon vanilhcs, 
 and the water, which at lirft nearly reaches the third 
 mark, rifcs gradually into the tube, and becomes near- 
 ,ly Aationaryafter'abont two or three minutes ; which 
 Ihows that the diminution is effected gradually. See 
 
 El/DIOMETER. 
 
 § 4. To procure Dephlooisticated Air This is 
 
 no otiier than exceedingly pure atniofpiierical air, en- 
 tirelyfree from thofe heterogeneous vapours which con- 
 taminate the air we commonly breathe. The cafieft 
 method of procuring this air is to put fome red-lead into 
 the bottle, together with fome good (Irong oil of vi- 
 triol, but without any w-ater. Let the red-lead fill 
 aboQt a quarter of the bottle, and the vitriolic acid be 
 about the fame quantity or very little Icfs ; then ap- 
 ply the bent tube to the bottle, and proceed in the 
 fame manner as above. But it mull be remarked, that 
 without beat this mixture of red-lead and vitriolic acid 
 will not give any dephlogiilicated air, or it yields an 
 inconliderable quantity of it ; for which reafon the flame 
 of a candle (that of a wax taper is fuificient) muft be 
 applied under the bottom of tlie bottle ; which for this 
 purpofc mult be rather thin, oiherwifc it will be ealily 
 cracked (a). In this manner the red-lead will yield 
 a good quantity of eLiftic fluid, the grcateil part of 
 which is dephlogiilicated air ; but not the whole quan- 
 tity of it, for a good portion of fixed air comes out 
 with it. Inordertofcparatc the fixed air from the de- 
 phlogi Aicated air, the inverted bottle, when filled with 
 the compound of both, as it is emitted from the red- 
 lead, muft be Hiook in the bafon for impregnating 
 water with fixed air ; by which means the water w ill 
 abforb the whole quantity of fixed air, and leave the 
 dephlogiilicated air by itfclf. 
 
 From every experiment it appears, that dephlogiili- 
 cated air, if it could readily be obtained, and at a cheap 
 rate, would be a mofl valuable manufacture. The 
 heat communicated by means of it to burning fuel is 
 incredible. 
 
 Thefc are not the only advantages which might be 
 expefled fromdcphlogiflicated air. It has been found 
 by experience, that animals will live much longer in 
 this kind of air than in an equal quantity of common 
 air ; whenccitis fuppofed, that the breathing ofit muft 
 be much more healthy, and contribute to longevity 
 much more than the common atmofphcrc. Nay, there 
 arc not wanting fome who attribute the longevity of 
 Vol. I. 
 
 LOGY. T93 
 
 the Antediluvians to the great purity of the atmcfplierc Of.Vn fi- 
 at that time ; the.v. hole mafs being afterwards tainted clal Air«. 
 by the deluge, in fuch a manner that it could never ' ' 
 regain its former purity and falubrity. But all this as 
 yet is mere conjecture ; and excepting the linglc fa:}, 
 that animals live much longer in a quantity of dephlo- 
 gifticated than of common air, diere 1= no cviJcnce 
 that the former contributes more to longevity than the 
 latter. DrFrieflleyeven throwsouta conjecture, that 
 the wii:. of dephlogiilicated air might perhaps wear out 
 the fyllem much fooncr thin common air, in the fame 
 manner as it confumes fuel much fafler than common 
 air. The great quantity, however, even of the purefl 
 air, which is rcquifitc to fupport animal life, and the 
 expcnce and trouble of the nioft ready methods of 
 procuring it, have hitherto prevented any fair trial 
 from being made. Yet phiU'fophers, conlidering the 
 probability there is of this kind of air being falutary 
 in many difeafcs, having bellowed fome pains in at- 
 tempting to find out methods of procuring it eafily 
 and in large quantity ; concerning which we have 
 the following obfervations in Cavallo's Treatife on 
 Air. 
 
 " A man makes in general about 15 infpirations in 
 a minute, and takes in about 30 cubic inches of aerial 
 fluid. But the air which has Ijcen once infpired is not 
 thereby much injured, and it may be refpired agaiu 
 and again ; fo that upon a very moderate calculation, 
 and as appears from adual experiments often repeated, 
 we may fafely affert, that a perfon can breathe 400 
 cubic inches of good ordinary atraofplieric air, at Icaft 
 30 times, without any inconvenience, i. e. it would 
 lerve for two minutes j after v.'hich that air, though 
 much depraved, is flill in a flatc of being breathed, 
 but then it would occallon fome unealinefs. Now, 
 fuppoling the dephlogiflicated air employed to be four 
 times more pure thaH common air, 400 cubic inches 
 of dephlogiilicated air would fervc for at lead 1 20 re- 
 fpiraiions or eight minutes. 
 
 " But fuppoiing that 30 inches of common air are 
 completely phlogiilicated by a lingle infpiration, and 
 changed for fuch as is quite frcfh, which indeed is the 
 cafe in common refpiration, then 450 cubic inches of 
 common air will be requilite for one minute's refpira- 
 tion, and 27,coo for one hour; and as dephlogiilica- 
 ted air is fuppofed to be four times as good, the fame 
 quantity of it willferve for four hours. Indeed, if we 
 could depend on the allertions of Mr Kontana, that 
 by adding lime-water to abforb the fixed air produced 
 by refpiration, an animal can live ;o times as long as 
 without it, no doubt a much fmaller quantity would 
 ferve." 
 
 But it is certain fiirh alTertions cannot be true; bc- 
 caufe, though the fixed air fliould be abforbcd as foon 
 as produced, the remaining quantity would flill be 
 contaminated by phlogiilon. Nay, we arc informed 
 by Dr FriclUcy, who repeated Foatana's experiments, 
 B b that 
 
 (a) In this operation the flame of the candle, when once applied, mu/l be kept continually near it ; and 
 when the mixture does not produce any more cladic fluid, or the opcr.iiion is required to be intermitted, care 
 Jhould be taken to remove the extremity of the bent tube from the water lirll, and then to take oil the liamc of 
 the candle from under the bottle ; othcrwife, if the flame of the candle be firll removed, the materials within 
 the bottle condeuliiig by cold, the water immediately enters, wliich in an iiiA ant fills the bottle, and gcaerally 
 breaks it.
 
 194 AERO 
 
 Of Artifi- that animals iv'ill not live longer in a quantity of de- 
 cial Airs, phlogillicatcd air when it Hands in contaft with limc- 
 ' " water, than they will when no lime-water is ufed. 
 In what manner a dittbrcncc fo enormous can take 
 place, between pbilofophers in other rcfpeds fo accu- 
 rate, wc can by no means determine. It is plain, 
 however, that if 27,000 inches of common air are ne- 
 ccdiiry for a perfon in one hour, the fame quantity of 
 dcplilogiPLicated air cannot be breathed loiij^er than 
 four hours, nor even fo long with any real advantage, 
 Mr Cavallo indeed allows only 12,000 inches for four 
 hours ; but though this miglit no doubt fullain life for 
 that time, the perfun muft ai bell expert nothing from 
 it fuperior to ilic common atmofphcre, if he was not 
 materially injured by it. 
 
 A very ready method of procuring dephlogifticatcd air 
 in large quaniiiy, is by means of nitre ; and on the fup- 
 pofuion that i2,oooinches are fufficient for four hours, 
 (or for 40 hours, as he limits the Abbe Kon tana's fuppo- 
 lilion), MrCavallo proceeds in the following maniier : 
 " The inllruments necclfary for the production of dc- 
 phlogilUcatcd air from nitre are the following; viz. 
 earthen retorts, or earthen velFels with a ftraight neck, 
 fomewhat in the Ihapc of Florence flalks, but with a 
 longer neck, tiicfc being clieaper than the retorts, and 
 anfwcring as well ; — a finall furnace, in which the 
 earthen retort mult be kept red-hot ; a common 
 chimney tire is not futficicnt. Thefc furnaces may be 
 very ealily made out of large black lead crucibles. 
 The nitre mull be put into the retort or other velfel, 
 fo as to fill half or nearly three quarters of its belly; 
 then a bent glafs tube is luted to the neck of the ear- 
 then veli'el, in fuch a manner as not to let any clallic 
 tluid cfcape into the open air. The bcfl lute or ce- 
 ment for this or limilar jnirpol'cs ic made by mixing to- 
 gether whiting and drying oil. Tiie retort being put 
 into the furnace, muft be furrounded with lighted 
 charcoal, which is to be fupplied according as it walles: 
 in Ihort, the belly of the retort muft be kept quite 
 red-hot, or rather white-hot, for about three hours at 
 Icaft. If, infteadof the retort, the other defcribed 
 earthen vefl'el be ufed, care (hould be had to place it 
 with the neck as little inclined to the horizon as pof- 
 liblc, left the nitre ihould ftop ihe neck and break it." 
 The air is then to be received into large glafs jars, as 
 is nfual in other experiments on air. 
 
 '< The retort or other earthen velfel that i^s ufed for 
 this purpofe cannot fervc for more than once, becaufe 
 it generally breaks in cooling; and befules, the de- 
 conipofed nitre cannot ealily be taken out of it. The 
 retort capable of holding a pound of nitre (the quan- 
 tity necflfary for producing 12,000 cubic inches of 
 dephlogifticatcd air) for this operation, cofts at leaft 
 half-a-crown ; the other earthen velfels in the (liapeof 
 Florence fialks, but with longer necks, coft ab'iut 
 l8d. a-picce, or 2S. ; fo that the price of thefe velfels 
 forms a conliderable part of the expcnce. If glafs 
 veffcls arc employed, the nitre will not yield near fo 
 much air, though of a purer fort, becaufe the glafs 
 velfels cannot endure fuch a great tire as the earthen 
 ones. The retorts of metal, or at Icafl of thefe metals 
 which aremoft ufually employed for this purpofe, viz. 
 iron and copper, phlogillicate in a great meafurc the 
 air as foon.as produced. Confidcring, then, all thefe 
 circumflances, it appears, that when a perfon has all the 
 
 LOGY. Sect. XIV. 
 
 ufual apparatus and furnace, the expences at prcfcnt Of Artifi- 
 necellbry in London for rtie produi.'tion of : 2,000 cu- cial Airs, 
 bic inches o/dcphlogifticatcdair, (vi/.. thepriceofonc *~~*^~~' 
 pound ofnitre, of an cart hen retort orother vcll'el, and 
 of charcoal), amount to about 4s. or 4s. 6d." 
 
 Another method of preparing dephlogifticatcd air 
 is, by blowing that of the common atmofphej-e lino' 
 melted nitre. In this procefs the phlogiftou contained 
 in the atmofphere is gradually confumcJ, by detonating 
 with the acid of the nitre, and therefore ilfues much 
 more pure than licforc. This method has the appear- 
 ance at firft of being much catier and more commodious 
 than the former ; but as it is impotlible to mix the at- 
 mofphcric air fo exaclly with the melted nitre that every 
 particle of the one may come in contaiit with every 
 particle of the other, it is plain that the former me- 
 thod muft be preferable ; not to mention that it will 
 be found exceedingly troublefome to blow the air 
 through the nitre, as the latter will be perpetually apt 
 to cool and concrete into lumps by the cold blaft. 
 
 5 J. To procure VimioLic Acid ^ir — Thisconfiftsof 
 the vitriolic acid.united with fomcphlogifton,wliich vo- 
 latilizes and renders it capable of allliming the form of 
 a permanently clallic fluid. To obtain it, fome ftrong 
 concentrated vitriolic acid muft be put into the ufual 
 bottle, together with fome fubftancc capable of fur- 
 nifliing piilogillon. 01i\c oil anfwers very well. The 
 oil of vitriol lliould be about three or four times as 
 much as the fwcet oil, and both together fliould fill 
 about one-third or half the bottle. A gentle degree 
 of heat is then required, in order to let thefe materials 
 yield any elaftic tluid ; \\ hich may be done by apply- 
 ing the riamc of a wax taper, as dircftcd above for the 
 produdion of dephlogifticatcd air. 
 
 \ 6. To procure Makise Acid Air, which is no o- 
 ther than the marineacid itfelf,and which without any 
 addition becomes a permanently elaftic fluid ; put fome 
 fea-falt, or common kitchen fait, into the ufual bottle 
 in which the materials for producing elaftic fluids are 
 generally put, fo as to fill about a fourth part of it, 
 and upon this fait pour a fmall quantity of good con- 
 centrated vitriolic acid ; then apply the bent tube to 
 the bottle, and introdsce it through the quickfdvcr 
 into the receiver, filled with an din verted in quicklilver 
 after the ufual method, and the elaftic fluid is copi- 
 oully produced. 
 
 § 7. To procure Nitrous Acid Air This may be 
 
 obtained from heated nitrous acid, the vapourof which 
 acquires a permanent clafticity, and it has been found 
 to remain uncondenfed into a vilible fluid by any cold 
 to which it has been hitherto expofed. The great dif- 
 ficulty is to find a fluid capable of confining this acid 
 air ; becaufe it is ealily and abundantly abforbed by 
 water, which is one of its properties by which it differs 
 from nitrous air. It ads upon quicklilver, and alfo up- 
 on oils : hence its examination cannot be made but 
 wtry imperfedlly ; for fubftances muft be expofed to it, 
 or mixing with it, whilft it is adually changing its na- 
 ture by acting on the mercury or other fluid rhat con- 
 fines it. 
 
 When water has abforbed a good quantity of this 
 elaftic fluid, it acquires the properties of nitrous acid ; 
 and when heated, it yields a large quantity of nitrous
 
 Sea. XIV. 
 
 E R O 
 
 Of Artifi- air, viz. aquaniity many times greater than that which 
 cial Air, vvatcr is wont to imbibe of it by agitation, or by any 
 * known means. 
 
 When the nitrous acid air is combintd with cfTcn- 
 tialoils, a conliJcrablc cttcrvefcence and heat arc pro- 
 duced, nearly in the fame manner as when the nitrous 
 acid itfelf is poured upon thofc oils. 
 
 § 8. Fluor Acid Air. — ^Put fomc of thofe minerals 
 called /«orj, ox jiijlbU fpan, pulverized into the ufual 
 bottle, and upon it pour fome concentrated oil of vi- 
 triol J then adapt the bent tube, &c. The fiuor acid 
 
 I 
 
 N 
 
 D 
 
 Aerial acid, a name for fixed 
 air, n" io6. 
 
 Air, fuppofcd anciently to be 
 homogeneous, i . Not fo in 
 reality, 2. Has fome way of 
 purifying itfelf, 3. Halley's 
 calculationof thequantity of 
 water evaporated into it from 
 the fca, 4. Dr Watfon'sof 
 themoiilure evaporated from 
 dry ground, ibid. How it is 
 purified from the aqueous va- 
 pour, 4. From phlogiftic va- 
 pours, J. Why a dry air is 
 always wholcfomc, but a 
 moifl one is not, ibid. Con- 
 taminated in certain placesby 
 various kinds of vapours, /W. 
 How purified from vapours 
 heavier than itfelf, ibid. Its 
 fpecitic gravity compared 
 with water, 6. Itsprclfurcas 
 a gravitating fluid, 7. Effects 
 of its gravity on vegetables 
 and animals, ibid. Of its e- 
 la{licity,8. Whether this can 
 be impaired, 9. Its clallicity 
 is always in proportion to its 
 dcnfity, ibid. How far a 
 quantity of air may be com- 
 prclfcd, 10. Is capable of 
 vail dilatation by its elaftic 
 force, //).'./. In wliat propor- 
 tion it is expanded by heat, 
 II. Its elallicily fuppofeil to 
 be the caufc of earthqu.ikfs, 
 ibid. Effeds of its clallicity 
 on various bodies, 12. Grc.'.t 
 folvent powe-r of the air, i ?. 
 Its chemical cflefts, 15. Air 
 contained in mineral waters, 
 19, 20. DccompounJtd in 
 tlic calcination of metals, 29. 
 Is not diminii'ied in common 
 cafes ofcombullion, 58. A 
 
 , kind of air procured frora fo- 
 lutioii of gold, 17;. 
 
 Alkaline air : Its properties, 
 
 146. Contains phlogillon, 
 
 147. Converted into inflam- 
 mable air, 148. 
 
 AnihiaU : Caufe of their death 
 in dephlogillicated air, 61. 
 Eff'eiits of i nflammable air on 
 them, 141. 
 Arfcnic : Inflammable air pro- 
 duced from it by the red-hot 
 fleam of water, 124. 
 AJhes gain moll of their weight 
 byabforptionfrom theatmo- 
 fphcre, 122, 
 Atmofphers confiAs of two very 
 different kindsof fluids, 24, 
 93. The proportions of 
 thefe, 178. The upper parts 
 of it more falubrious than the 
 lower, 179. 
 
 B. 
 Black's (Dr) difcoverics, 21. 
 His theory concerning fixed 
 air attacked at firll, but now 
 univcrfally received, 23. 
 By/if's difcoverics, 17. 
 
 C. 
 Calcination of metals : Mr La- 
 voilicr's experiments on it, 
 92. His conclulions there- 
 from with regard to the 
 conipolition of atmofphcrical 
 air, 93. 
 Cajt iroi: : Remarkable pheno- 
 menon attending its calcina- 
 tion with a burning-glufs, 70. 
 Cavallo's conchiiious from Dr 
 Iiigcuhouf/.'s experiments, 
 3S. His method of collcc- 
 tiiig inilammable air from 
 ponds, 1 19. 
 Cavitidijh' s experiments on 
 water, 75. On the pro- 
 dui^iou of nitrous acid, loi, 
 102. "" 
 
 C/;</;-<r'/i'/yiclds a great quantity 
 of ;-.xcdair,i6. — totally con- 
 vertible iiuoinflammable air, 
 
 LOGY. - '95 
 
 air is at firfl produced without the help of hcit : b'.it in Of .Vrtifi- 
 a fhort time it will be ncceffary to apply the flame of cial .-^in. 
 a candle to the bottle, by which means a conlidcrablc ^ ' 
 quantity of this elaftic fluid is obtained. 
 
 \ 9. Alkause Air — Let the ufuil bottle be about 
 half rilled with volatile fpiriiof fal ammo)iiac; and after 
 applying the bent tube, &c. let the flame of a candle 
 be brought under the bottle, by which means the al- 
 kaline air will be produced copioully. 
 
 Hepatic Air. Sec SclI. XX.fupra. 
 
 E X. 
 
 129. Its exceJIive atiratflion 
 for water, 132. 
 
 Coiiibufiion, whether common 
 air is diminillicd by it, j8, 
 183. 
 
 Contagion of the plague,o(i\\ca.- 
 vy fluggifli nature, j. 
 
 Copper : Dr Prieflley's experi- 
 ments toproduce water by its 
 means, 73. Is not affeclcd 
 by alkaline air, 146. 
 
 Cotton-wool: Qiiantity of de- 
 phlogillicated air produced 
 by its means from water 45. 
 
 Cn'taciorii acid .• An improper 
 
 name for fixed air, 107. 
 
 D 
 
 Darknefs : Its cffedls on the 
 produiSion of air, 42. 
 
 Dephlogiflicatcd air difcovered 
 by Dr Prieflley, 24. Firrt. 
 obtained by means of a burn- 
 ing-glafs from precipitate 
 pi:rJ'e,2S. Whycalleddcphlo. 
 gillicated,26. Produced from 
 a great variety of fubflances, 
 Hid. Difcovered by Mr 
 Scheele, 28. May be ob- 
 tained without the ufe of ni- 
 trous acid, 29. Produced in 
 greatell quantities by a fud- 
 den and violent heat, 30. 
 Method of procuring it from 
 different fubftances,3 1. How 
 it is produced by nature, 32. 
 Method of obtaining it from 
 water, 36. From the leaves 
 of plants, 37. By means of 
 raw lilk, 41. From various 
 other lubllanccs, 4J. Qiiaii- 
 tity of it produced from wa- 
 ter, 46. Of the caufe of its 
 prodiiftion, 47. At what 
 times it is produced of the 
 bell quality, 48. Found in 
 fea-water, $3. How to prc- 
 fervc it inlargequaniity, 54. 
 It produces iuicnfc heat, j j. 
 Bb 
 
 Explodes violently with in- 
 flammable air, 56. Burns 
 violcnily with pyrophorus, 
 57. Is diminilhcd by corn- 
 bullion, 59, — and by nitrous 
 air, 60, I J 4. In what man- 
 ner it maybe contaminated, 
 61. Docs not fupport vege- 
 tation, 62. Of its compo- 
 nent parts, 63. Does not 
 contain earth, 65. Whether 
 it contains any nitrous acid, 
 66. Imbibed by calces of 
 metals, 67. By iron, 68. 
 Mr Cavcndilli's experiments 
 on its conipolition, 75. Ni- 
 trous acid produced from a 
 mixture of it and inflamma- 
 ble air, 77. Suppofedtobc 
 one of the component parts 
 of water, 81, 82, 83. El'- 
 fcclsof the electric fpark on 
 it when inclofed bet ween dif- 
 ferent liquors, 105. Dr 
 Pricllley's experiments oti 
 the production of fixed air 
 from it, I ro. 
 
 DephlogiJIicated nitrous air, how 
 procured, 160. Its compo- 
 nent parts, 161. Bert me- 
 thod Of procuring it, 163. 
 Made to approach to the na- 
 ture of atmofphcrical air, 
 164. 
 
 DimmutioK of air, fuppofcd to 
 be owing to phlogifton emit- 
 ted into it, 89. 
 £. 
 
 Earth is not a component part 
 of dephlogillicated air, 6j. 
 
 /yc/r;/lv/;<rf bet ween acids and 
 alkalis occalloncd by fixed 
 air in the latter, 21. 
 
 Eider •d:,'d.'n .• Dephlogillicated 
 air produced by its means 
 from water, 4;. 
 
 Elellric fpark: Its etTedson de- 
 phlogillicated air inclofed bc- 
 
 2 twecn
 
 I (y6 
 
 twcciidiflcreiu liquors, 105. 
 On fixed air, 11;. On nitrous 
 air, ijcf. 
 
 K 
 
 Fiiniental'ton : Why it will not 
 go on in vacuo, 12. 
 
 Fen/jeiiht/ lijiioi ircdond from 
 a vapid ftatc by adding lixcJ 
 air to theni, 180. 
 t'i'ifiy-cindir, tbe fame with 
 fcales of iron, confiftsof tlic 
 metal united with dephlogi- 
 iHcated air, 124. 
 
 Fire fuppofed 10 be the caufc of 
 the air's ekllicity, 11. 
 
 Fix: A a':r contained in abfor- 
 btnt earths and alkaline falls, 
 21. Its proportion in thefe 
 fubftanccs,2 2.Ktrcrvcfccncc 
 of thefc lubftanccs with acids 
 occalioned by rixed air, 21. 
 Incrcafcs the weight of me- 
 tallic precipitates, 21. Sitp- 
 pofed to be the principal of 
 union in terrellrial bodies, 
 ibid. Separated from fernitn- 
 
 . ting and putrifyiiig fubftan- 
 ccs,2i. Diirolvcs cartlisanj 
 metals, 22. Formed by thc_ 
 union of phlogiilon with de- 
 phlogiilicatedair,67. Found 
 in a great variety of fubftan- 
 ces, 106. Specific gravity, 
 and other properii^s of this 
 kind of air, 107, 108. Its 
 conllituent principles, 109. 
 Dr Priellley's experiments 
 onitscompofition, no. Pro- 
 portion ofit produced from 
 dcphlogifticatedair,ii2. Ef- 
 fc(Sls of the eledric fpark on 
 it, 115. Of a ftrong heat on 
 it» II5- Qiiantity of it ex- 
 pelled from different fubftan- 
 ces, 116. Ge^ierated in the 
 dccompofiliono; inflammable 
 air, ijs- Convertible into 
 inflammable air, 136. Great 
 quantities produced by fer- 
 menting fubflances, 180. 
 Proportions contained in dif- 
 ferent kinds of wine, 181. 
 Emitted by putrefying mat- 
 ters, 182. 
 
 Foiitana, Abbe : Effects of his 
 breathing inflammabJe air, 
 141. 
 
 French phihfophers, their cxpe- 
 rimentson the compofition of 
 water, 82. 
 
 Fur of a Rzijfian barf produces 
 dephlogifticated air with 
 water, 45. 
 
 G 
 
 Cdld : A peculiar kind of air 
 
 A 
 
 E R O 
 
 O 
 
 Y. 
 
 produced from its folntlon, 
 
 I 75. A bcautitiil experiment 
 with it, it. Green matter 
 obtcrvcd by Dr Priefllcy in 
 glafs jars producing dcphlo- 
 gitlicated air, proved to b«- 
 i"f an animal nature, 40. 
 
 H 
 Hala, Dr, hisdifcovcries, iS, 
 
 19. 
 H,at ; Its tffefls on fixed air, 
 
 I I J. 
 
 Hiputx air, produced from an 
 
 ore of /.inc, 176. 
 Bcj\ obtained from liver of ful- 
 
 phur, 177. lis properties,/^. 
 H'jt Climata : Great quantity 
 
 of inflammable air produced 
 
 in them, 1 18. 
 liuiiian hair produces dephlo- 
 
 gifiieatcd air with water, 4J, 
 
 Ice diflblvcd very fall by alka- 
 line air, 146. And by ma- 
 rine acid air, i 71. 
 
 hicouditijiblc vap ourz ri flngfrom 
 water, 86. Priefileys con- 
 jcfturcs concerning it, 87. 
 Attempts to collciit it, 88. 
 
 hifiamviuble air : Method of 
 burning it in the dcphlogi- 
 flicaled kind, 59. Water 
 produced from a mixture of 
 inflammable and dcphlogi- 
 flicatedair, 77. Qiianiityof 
 it ncccffary to phlogiflicate 
 common air, 78. This kind 
 of :iir produced in mines, 
 from putrid waters, &c. 11 7. 
 Great quantitiesgenerated in 
 hot climates, 118. MrCa- 
 vallo's method of collciirling 
 it from ponds, 119. Me- 
 teors thought to be produced 
 by it 120. Different kinds 
 of inflanimableair,i2l. Ex- 
 trafled from various fubflan- 
 ces by heat, 122. More air 
 procured by a fudden and 
 violent than by a gradual 
 heat, 125. How procured 
 from water and other fluid 
 and folid fubflances, 124. 
 Proportions of inflammable 
 air procured from iron by 
 means of fleam, 125. Of 
 the confliiuent parts of in- 
 flammable air, 126. No acid 
 contained in it, 127. Water 
 nccclTary to its produflion 
 according to Dr Prieflky, 
 128. Denied by Mr Kir- 
 wan, I ;8. Charcoal totally 
 convertibleintoit, 729. Ex- 
 periment Ihowing the uecef- 
 
 tity of water for the produc- 
 tion of inflammable air, 131. 
 Is not pure plilogifton, 135. 
 PricfUey's.anaiylis of diffe- 
 rent kinds ofit, i 34. Fixed 
 air gencr.itcd in its decom- 
 petition, 1 3 J. Fixed air 
 conveniblcintoit, I 36. Has 
 a great propcnfity to uniic 
 with water, 137. Dr Priell- 
 ley's conclulion with regard 
 to its component parts, 139. 
 Itsabforption by water, 140. 
 Its effects on vegetation and 
 animal life, 141. Has little 
 refractive power, 142. 
 Schemes to employ it for 
 various purpofes, 143. 
 
 higtr.houfz, Dr, his experi- 
 ments in the melioration of 
 air by vegetation, 35. Produ- 
 ces dephlogitlicatcd air from 
 water by means of the leaves 
 of plants, 37. Conclufions 
 from his experiments, 38. 
 His theory difputed, 51. 
 
 hdi: fomctimesdiirolved by the 
 air, 13. Yields depjilogifli- 
 cated air with oil of vitriol, 
 3 1 . Imbibes depbJogiflicated 
 air, 68. Takes it from the 
 atmofphere, 69. May be 
 madetoimbibcdephlogiiiica- 
 ted air as often as\vc pkafe, 
 74. Properties of the iu- 
 flammabie air obtained from 
 it by means of fleain, 125. 
 K. 
 
 Kir-man's condufion concern- 
 ing the aniticial production 
 of water, 83. Obfervcs the 
 propenlity of inflammable air 
 to unite with water, 137. 
 His opinion concerning the 
 conflitucnt principles of in- 
 flammable air. 138. 
 L. 
 
 Lavoifier corrects a procefs of 
 Dr Priefllcy, 31. His ex- 
 periments on tlie diminution 
 of air by burning, 58, 59. 
 Differences betwixt him and 
 Dr Pricftley, 64. Denies 
 the exiflence of plilogiflon, 
 91. His experiments on the 
 calcination of metals and re- 
 fpiration, 92, 93, 94. 
 
 Lead: Proponioiis of it re- 
 vived in alkaline air, 147. 
 
 J.eavii of plants fcparate de- 
 phlogiflicated air from wa- 
 ter, 37. 1' (.fume this pro- 
 perty aftertheyfecm to have 
 loft it, J2. 
 
 Light • Effcfls ofit ia the pro- 
 
 Index. 
 
 dufljon of dephlogillicatcd. 
 air, 36. Eltects of light 
 without heat, 43. Ofuiti- 
 Hcial light, 44. 
 
 Li/:i produces dcpblogifticatcd 
 air, 4J. 
 
 Litmuj, its folution decom- 
 pounded by t.iking the elec- 
 tric fpark in dtphlogiflicated 
 air confined over it, loj. 
 
 Liver oj fulphtir abforbs dephlo- 
 giflicatcd air, 95. Yields 
 hepatic air in plenty, 177, 
 M. 
 
 Mai:gaiicp : Sulphurated in- 
 flammable air jiril produced 
 from it, 144. 
 
 jMarb/e, why it fometimea 
 burlls with troll, 5. 
 Alari/jv j4cid yi/ir,how iiroca- 
 red, I 70. Its properties, 1 71. 
 Changed into inflammable 
 air, 172. 
 
 Mediterranean fea : Qiiantity 
 of water evaporated from it&- 
 furface, 4. 
 
 Metallic vaponn^ their poifon- 
 ous qualities, j. 
 
 Metallic calces imbibe dephlo- 
 gillicatcd air, 67. 
 
 Mercury yields dephlogiftica- 
 ted air cither with nitrous or 
 vitriolic acid, 31. 
 
 Mineral "waters contain air, 
 19, 20. 
 
 Mint reilores noxious air to a 
 /late of falubrity by its vege- 
 tation, 32. 33. 
 
 Mojetesy their nature, 5. 
 
 Mujlard, its cfteds on air, 35. 
 N. 
 
 Nitre yields a great quantity of 
 dcphlogiflicaiedair, 28. 
 
 Nitrous air diminillies dephlo- 
 giflicatedair,6o,i54. Y'ields 
 nitrous acid when decompo- 
 fed, 76. How procured, 150. 
 Why ftrong nitrous acid 
 yields none, 151. Properties 
 ofit, 1 52. Extremely fatal to 
 vegetable and animal life, 
 153. Has a ftrong antifeptic 
 power, 15J. Its fpecific gra- 
 vity, 156. Its component 
 parts, IJ7. Compofed of 
 phlogillicated nitrous acid 
 and water, r 58. Effefls of 
 the electric fpark on it, 159. 
 
 Nitrous acid, whether or not 
 it enters the compofition of 
 nitrous air, 66. Produced 
 from dephlogifticated and 
 inflammable air, 77. 
 
 Nitrous acid air, how procu- 
 red, 166. Cannot be pre- 
 ferved
 
 Tnoex. 
 
 fcrvcd by means of any fluid, 
 167. Ail'iiines a red colour 
 by being htatcd, 168. Its 
 clFccts on red lead, 169. 
 
 Noxious air, {low puriticd by 
 agitation in water, 97. 
 O. 
 
 Oi/j and Sirits, why tlicy fcpa- 
 ratc in vacuo, 7. 
 
 0,'rv oil, with whiting, yields 
 irianimabk air, 124. 
 P. 
 
 Phhgiflicated ail- ,'ni^Yo^cn\es, 
 99. Nitroas acid procured 
 by means of it, 100. Mr 
 Cavcndilh's opinions on its 
 nature, 103. 
 
 Phlogijiicalioii of air, whether 
 it contains any vitriolic acid, 
 76. Kxplaincd, 89. 
 
 PhlogiJIon, too great powers at- 
 tributed to It, 90. Its ex- 
 iftence denied by the foreign 
 chemilH, 91. Whether in- 
 flammable air is pure phlo- 
 gifton or not,- ij,-}, i ;8. 
 Contained in alkaline air, 
 147. 
 
 Plaiiu purify air by their ve- 
 getation, 58. 
 
 Poptilns nigra, dephlogifticated 
 air plentifully produced from 
 water by means of its cotton- 
 like fubflancc, 46, 47. 
 
 Prccifitjtc per /;, yields no 
 water on being revived into 
 a metal, 7?. 
 
 PriefUey, Dr, difcoversdephlo- 
 gifticated air, 24. His firll 
 hypothefis concerning the 
 component parts of dephlo- 
 gifticatcd air, 6;. DifFcr- 
 encc betwixt fomc of his ex- 
 periments and tjiofe of La- 
 voificr,64. His opinion con- 
 
 AERO 
 
 cerning the non-exiftcncc of 
 nitrousacid indephlogillica- 
 tcd air, 66. Oiliicukies a- 
 riling from fome of his ex- 
 periments concerning the 
 generation of water in derta- 
 grating dcphlogiflicatcd and 
 inriamraabic air, 8j. Kis 
 conjectures concerning the 
 incondcnfible vapour of wa- 
 ter, 87. His experiments on 
 the rompolition of fixed air, 
 no. His opinion concern- 
 ing the compolition of phlo- 
 gillicated air. III. Experi- 
 ment in favour of his hypo- 
 thefis concerning phlogilli- 
 cated air, 114. 
 
 Putrefying fubjlances emit fix- 
 ed air, 182. 
 R. 
 
 Raw-filk produces dephlogilti- 
 cated air by means of water, 
 41. Various fubflanccsfub- 
 fiituted forit, 45. Compa- 
 rifon between itsfurfacc and 
 that of the cotton-like fub- 
 ftancc of the Popuiui nigra, 
 47- 
 
 Jied-Zead yields no dephlogifli- 
 catedairwhenfirfl prepared, 
 and but little for fome time 
 after, 29. Gives a greater 
 quantity by a faddcn than a 
 flow heat, 30. 
 
 Refpiraf.on, Mr Lavoilier's ex- 
 periments on it, 91. 
 
 Retorts with long necks proper 
 for diftilling dephlogilHca- 
 ted air, 31. 
 S. 
 
 Scales of iron the fame with 
 finery-cinder, 124. 
 
 5t/'fc-/ifdilcoversdcphlogiflica- 
 tedair, 28. Hiscxperimcnts 
 
 LOGY. 
 
 on its din:i:iution by com- 
 buftion, 59. On the com- 
 ponent parts of the atmo- 
 fphcre, 24. 
 
 Sea-'iOaler co\:V.ms^arc a.\r ,^l. 
 
 Seltzer-water imitated by ^lr 
 Vencl, 20. , 
 
 Sheep'} -.U6s/feparates dcphlogi- 
 flicatcd air from water, 45. 
 
 Soot yields pure air by dillilla- 
 tion, 87. 
 
 Sponge imbibes a great quantity 
 of alkaline air, 146. 
 
 Spuu-glafsy unfuccefsful at- 
 tempt to procure dcphlogif- 
 ticated air from water by its 
 means, 49. 
 
 5/;a,v/,proportionsof inflamma- 
 ble air obtained by its means 
 from dirfcrcnt fubflanccs, 
 1 2 J. Its inlhicnce on the 
 production of inflammable 
 air from charcoal, "n2. 
 
 Stones fometimes diilolved by 
 the air, 14. 
 
 Sulphureous vapnurs, ih eir per- 
 nicious effe^is, 5. 
 
 Sulphur yields inflammable air 
 
 with ftead, 124. 
 
 Sulphur ate din fianwia'ole air pro. 
 cured from manganefe, 144. 
 and from iron melted in vi- 
 triolic acid air, 145. 
 T. 
 
 Thou foil, Sir Benjamin, his ex- 
 periments on tlie production 
 of dephlogifticated air, 39 
 etfeq. 
 
 Turpentine c/V yields inflamma- 
 ble air, 124. 
 V. 
 
 Vegetation will not go on in 
 vacuo, iwd why , 12. Pro- 
 duces dephlogifticated air, 
 32. Improves noxious air, 
 
 35. Experiments fcemingly 
 contradictory, 34. Dr la- 
 genhoufi's experiments on 
 tliis fubjcd, 3 J. 
 
 Van Heh/iiint's difcovcries, 16. 
 
 Vegetable acid air phlogillicates 
 common air, i 74. 
 
 Vitriolic acid ar, 16;. 
 
 Volatile alkali produced from 
 
 nitrous acid and iron, 149. 
 
 W . 
 
 Water, quantity of it evapo- 
 rated from the Mediterrane- 
 an, 4. From an acre 01 
 ground, ibid. Why it boils 
 violently in vacuo, 7. Pro- 
 duces dephlogifticated air, 
 
 36. Qiiantityofairyieldcd 
 by it, with the mixture of 
 various fnbftaiiccs, 46. By 
 water alone, 50. Formed by 
 the deflagration of inflam- 
 mable and dephlogifticated 
 air, 71. Qiiantity produced 
 in this manner, 72, 73. Ca- 
 vcndilh's experimentson this 
 fubjcct, 7j. Dr Prieftley's 
 experiments on the fame, 80, 
 81. Experiments of the 
 French philofophersand Mr 
 Kirwan,82, 83. Waterpcr- 
 vious to air, 98. Method of 
 procuringinriammablc airby 
 its means, 124. Always ne- 
 cclfary to the production of 
 this kind of air, 12S, i;i. 
 Atira^ion betwixt it and 
 buriiingchareoaloriron,i32. 
 Great propenfity of inflam- 
 mable air to unite with it, 
 137, 140. Its effc(5ls on ni- 
 trous air, 162. 
 
 Wines, proportions <^( fixed air 
 ill dirtcrcut kinds of liicm, 
 182. 
 
 A E R 
 
 AEROMANCY, a fpeciesof divination performed 
 by means of air, wind, &c. See Divination, u° 5. 
 
 AEROMETRY, the fcience of mcafuring the air. 
 It comprehends not only the doctrine of the air itfelf , 
 conlidered as a fluid body ; but alfo its prclfure, elafti- 
 city, rarefaction, and condenfation. But the term is 
 at prefent not much in ufc, this branch of natural phi- 
 lofophy being more frequcntlycallcd Pneumatics. See 
 Pneumatics. 
 
 AERONAUT, a perfon who attends and guides 
 an air-balloon. See Aerostation and AiR-BalUon. 
 
 AERONAUTICA, from nno^ and vai,T(«oc, derived 
 from roiic, (hip ; the iriof failing in a\cflcl or machine 
 
 A E R' . 
 
 through the atmofphere, fuftained as a /hip in the fea. Atropl.j-. 
 Sec Aerostation. hcea. 
 
 AEROPHYLACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts 
 
 for caverns or refervoirs of air, fuppofcd to cxift in the 
 bowels of the earth. Kircher fpcaks much of acro- 
 phylacea, or huge caverns, replete with air, difpo- 
 fed under ground ; from whence, through numerous 
 occult palVages, that element is conveyed cither to 
 fubterraneoiis receptacles of water, which, according 
 to him, are hereby raifed into fpringsor rivers, or in- 
 to the funds of fubterraneous fire, which ai-c hereby 
 fed and kept alive for the preparation oftnetais, mine- • 
 rals, M\\ the like. 
 
 'lEROSTATlON
 
 19B 
 
 AEROSTATION 
 
 r 
 
 iiical 
 Kicans 
 
 [S a fcicnce newly iiitroJaced into the Kncyclojiocdia. 
 Tlieworil, in its priniiiivc i'en(V, denotes the fcicnce 
 olTufpcnJing wciglits in the air ; but in its modern ac- 
 ceptation, it lignilies aerial navigation, or the art of na- 
 vigating through ihc atniofphcre. Hence alfo the ma- 
 chines which arc employed for this purpofe are called 
 iierojlals, or aerojiatic machines ; and from their glo- 
 bular Ihapc, air-litlloon!. 
 
 The romances of almofl every nation have recorded 
 inflances of pcrfons being carried through the air, both 
 J by the agency of fpiritsand by mechanical inventions ; 
 Lord riac- but till the time of the celebrated Lord Bacon, no ra- 
 onfirftpub- tional principle appears to have been thought of by 
 lifhcd the \vhich tliis might be accomplillied. Before that time, 
 true prin- i,ij(.gj^ Friar Bacon had written upon the fubjed ; and 
 ftation JTisny had been of opinion, that, by means of artificial 
 wings, lixcd to the arms or legs, a man might rty as 
 well as a bird : but thefe opinions were thoroughly 
 Itnponitiili- refuted by BorcUi in his irealife /Ji- Motii Anhnaltuiii , 
 ty of flying where, from a eomparifon between the power of the 
 by incchi- mufclcs which move the wings of a bird, and thofe 
 which move the arms of a man, lie dcmonftrates that 
 the latter arc utterly infiifRcicnt to flrike the air with 
 fuch force as to raife him f;om the ground, ft can- 
 not be denied, however, that wings of this kind, if 
 properly conftrui^tcd, and dcxieroully managed, might 
 be fulHcicnt to break the fall of a human body from an 
 high place, fo that fonie adventurers in this way might 
 poliibly come olt with fafety ; though by far the grcat- 
 cft number of thofe who ha% rafhly adopted fuch 
 fchertes, have either loll their lives or liaibs in the 
 , attempt. 
 Scheme of In the year 1672, Bidtop Wilkins publillied a trca- 
 iJiihi.pWil- tifc, intillcd, the Difcovcry of the New World ; in 
 Miiiand which he mentions, though in a very indiftinft and 
 Albertusdc confufcd ni,-.nner, the true principle on which thcair 
 is navigable ; quoting, from /Ubertus de Saxonia and 
 Francis Mcndoca, " that the air is in fomc part of it 
 navigable : and upon tliis Aatic princij>lr, any brafsor 
 ironveirel (fuppofe a kettle), whofe fubftance is much 
 heavier than that of water, yet being filled with the 
 lighter air, it will fwim upon it and r.otlink. So fup- 
 pofe a cup or wooden veflel ujjonthe outward borders 
 of this elementary air, the capacity of it being filled 
 with fire, orrather ethereal air, itmullncceffarily, up- 
 on the fame ground, remain fwimming there, and of 
 itfelf can no more fall than an empty fliip can fink." 
 This idea, however, he did not l>y any means purfue, 
 butrefted his hopes eiuircly upon mechanical motions, 
 to be actomplill'.ed by the mere llrengih of a man, or 
 by fprings, &c. and which have been demonftratcd in- 
 capable of anfwering any uftfd purpofc. 
 liifliop La- The only pcrfon who brought his fchemc of flying 
 na'sfchciiii:. to any kind of rational principle was the Jcfiiit Francis 
 Lana, cotemporary with Bifliop W'ilkius. lie, being- 
 acquainted V. i:h the real weight of the atmofphere, 
 juftly concluded, that if a globular vefTcl wereexhauft- 
 cd of air, it would weigh lefs ihan before ;"and conli- 
 
 Saikonia. 
 
 dering that the folid contents of vcfTcIs increafe in 
 much greater proportion tlian their furfaces ; he I'uppo- 
 fed that a metalline veliel might be made fo large, 
 that, when emptied of its air, it would be able not 
 only to raifc iifelf in the atmofphere, but to carry up 
 pallengcrs along with it ; and he made a number of 
 calculations necclfary for putting the project in execu- 
 tion. But though the theory was here unexception- 
 able, the means propoled were certainly infufficient to 
 accomplifh the end : for a vefTcl of copper, made fo 
 thin as was necclfary to make it float in tlie atmo- 
 fphere, would be utterly unable to refill the external 
 preliurc ; which being dcmonflrated by thofe Ikilledin 
 mechanics, no attempt was made on that principle. 
 
 In the year r 709, however, as we were informed by 
 a letter publilhcd in France in 1784, a Portuguefe 
 projedor. Friar Gufman, applied to the king for en- 
 couragement to his invention of a Hying machine. The 
 principle on which this was conllruftcd, if indeed it 
 had any principle, feenis to have been that of the pa- 
 per kite. The machine was conftrufted in form of a 
 bird, and contained feveral tubes through which the 
 wind was to pals, in order to fill a kind of fails, which 
 were to elevate it ; and when the wind was deficient, 
 the fame efFei-l was to be performed by means of bel- 
 lows concealed within the body of the machine. The 
 afcent was alfo to be promoted by the eleftric attrac- 
 tion of pieces of amber placed in the top, and by two 
 fphtrcs incloling magnets in the fame lituation. 
 
 Thefe childilh inventions Ihow the low ftate of fci- 
 cnce at that time in Portugal, efpecially as the king, 
 in order to encourage him to farther exertions in fuch 
 anufeful invention, granted him the firll vacant place 
 in his college of Barcelosor Santarem, with the firft 
 profellbrfliip in the Univcrllty of Coimbra, and an an- 
 nual penlion of 600,000 reis during his life. Of this 
 De Gufman, it is alfo related, that in the year 1756, 
 he made a wicker bafkei of about feven or eight feet 
 diameter, and covered with paper, which raifcd itfelf 
 about 2C0 feet in the air, and the efFedl was generally 
 attributed to witchcraft. 
 
 In the year i 766, Mr Henry Cavendilh afcertained 
 the weigh t and o: her properties of inf.airiiTiable air, de- 
 termining it to be at leaf! feven times lighter than 
 common air. Soon aUer which, it occurred to Dr 
 Black, that perhaps a thin bag filled with infiamniabic 
 air might be buoyed up by the common atmofphere ; 
 and lie thought of having the allantois of a calf prcpa- 1 
 red for this jnirpofe : but his other avocations prevent- 
 ed him from profecuting the experiment. The fame 
 thought occurred fomeyearsafterwards toMrCavalln ; 
 and iic has the honour of being the firll who maile ex- 
 periments on the fubjcct. He firil tried bladders ; hut 
 the thinne/l of tliefe, however well fcraped and prepa- 
 red, were found too heavy. He then tried Chinefe 
 jiaper ; but that piroved fo permeable, that the vapour 
 paflfed through it like water thro igh a fieve. ITisex- 
 periiuents, therefore, made in the year i 782, proceed- 
 ed 
 
 5 
 Strange 
 propol'al of 
 Friar Guf- 
 man. 
 
 PofTibillty 
 of bodies 
 rilmjiinthe 
 air thouj:ht 
 of by Dr 
 Black and 
 MrCaval-
 
 Hiftory. 
 
 AEROSTATION. 
 
 Acroftation 
 (tifcovcred 
 liy Monf. 
 Montgol- 
 
 Accouat of 
 his expcri- 
 
 lUCIlti. 
 
 cd no farther than blowing up foap-bubbles witli in- 
 iiammable air, which afccndcd rapidly to the ceiling, 
 ard broke againfl it. 
 
 But while the difcovcry of the art of acroftation 
 feemcd thus on the point of being made in Britain, it 
 was all at once announced in France, and that from a 
 quarter whence nothing of the kind W;!S to have been 
 expccTied. Two brothers, Stephen and John i^ont- 
 golfier, natives of Annonay, and mailers of a conlider- 
 able paper manufactory there, had turned their thoughts 
 towards this projcift as early as the middle of the year 
 1782. The idea was iirfl fuggellcd by the natural 
 afccntof the Imokeand clouds in the atmofplicre ; and 
 their delign was to form an artiliciai cloud, by iiicloling 
 the fmoke in a bag, and making it carry up the cover- 
 ing along with it. Touards the middle of November 
 that year, the experiment was made at Avignon with 
 a tine lilk bag of a parallelopipcd Ihape. By applying 
 burning paper to the lower aperture, the air was rare- 
 lied, and the bag afcended in the atniofphere, and 
 flruck rapidly againfl the ceiling. On repeating the 
 experiment in the open air, it rofe to the heiglit of 
 about 70 feet. 
 
 An experiment on a more enlarged fcalc was now 
 projcfbed ; and a new machine, containing about 650 
 cubic feet, was made, which broke the cords that con- 
 fined it, and rofe to the licight of about 600 feet. A- 
 nother of ^5 feet in diameter rofe aliouc 1000 feet 
 high, and fell to the ground three quirters of a nule 
 fromtheplacc whereitafccndcd. A public exhibition 
 was next madeon the fifth of June 178^, at Annonay, 
 where a vafl number of fpcO-lat'>rs ademblcd. An im- 
 mcnfe bag of linen, lined with paper, and c-ont.iining 
 upwards of 2^,000 cubic feet, was found to have a 
 power of lifting about joo pounds, iiuludinglts own 
 weight. The operation was begun by burning chop- 
 ped draw and wool under the aperture of the machine, 
 wiiicli immediately began to I'well ; and after being fct 
 at liberty, afcended into the atmofphcre. In ten mi- 
 nutes it had afcended 6000 feet ; and when its force 
 wasexhaufted, it fell to the ground at the dillance of 
 7668 feet from the place from whence it fet out. 
 
 Soon after this, one of the brothers arrived at Paris, 
 where he was invited by the Academy of Sciences to 
 repeat his experiments at their cxpence. In confe- 
 qucnccof this invitation, he conftrucfed, in a garden 
 in the Kauxbourgof St Germain, a large balloon of an 
 elliptical form. In a preliminary experiment, this ma- 
 chine lifted up from the ground ciglit perfons who held 
 it, and would have carried them all orf if more had not 
 quickly come to their afiiftance. Next day the expe- 
 riment was repeated in prcfenceof theniembersof the 
 academy ; the machine was filled by thecombullion of 
 50 pounds of ftraw made up in fniall bundles, upon 
 which about 12 pounds of chopped wool were thrown 
 at intervals. Tlie ufual fuccefs attended tliis exhibi- 
 tion : The machine loon fwelled ; endeavoured to a- 
 fcend ; and immediately after fuftained itfelf in the 
 air, together with the charge of between 4 and joo 
 pounds weight. It was evident that it would have 
 afcended to a greater height ; but as it was defigncd 
 to repeat the experiment before the king and royal 
 family at Verfailles, the cords by which it was tied 
 down was not cut. Butinconfequcncc of aviolcntrain 
 and wind whichhappened at this timc,thc machine was 
 
 fo far damaged, that it became neccfTary to prepare a 
 new one for tlie time that it had been determined to 
 honour the experiment with the royal prcfcnce ; and 
 fuch expedition was ufcd, that this valt machine, of 
 near 60 feet in height and 43 in diameter, was made, 
 painted with water-colours both within and without, 
 and finely decorated, in uo more than four days and 
 four nights. Along with this machine was fcnt a 
 wicker cage, contaiuing a Ihecp, a cock, and a duck, 
 whicli were the firft animals ever fcnt through the atr 
 mofphere. The full fucceisof the experiment was pre- 
 vented by a violent gull of wind wiiich tore the cloth 
 in two places near tlie top before it afcended : How- 
 ever, it rofe to the height of 1 440 feet ; and, after re- 
 maining in the air about eight minutes, fell to the 
 ground at the dillancc of 10,200 feet from the place 
 of its letting out. The animals were not in the lead 
 hurt. 
 
 Tlie great power of thefc aeroftatic machines, and 
 their very gradual defcent in falling to the ground, had 
 originally Ihowed that they were capable of tranfport- 
 ing people through the air with all imaginable fafety ; 
 and this was further confirmed by the experimental- 
 ready mentioned. As Mr MoutgoKitr, therclorc, 
 propofed tom.ikeancwaeroflatic machine, of a firmer 
 and better conllruc^tion than the former, Mr Pilatrc dc 
 Ilozicr offered hinifelf to be the firft aerial adventu- 
 rer. 
 
 This new machine was conftru<ifcd in a garden in 
 the Fauxbourgof St Antoine. It wasof an oval fliapc, 
 abo\it 48 feet in diameter and 74 in height ; elegantly- 
 painted on the ouifide with the ligns of the zodiac, 
 ciphers of the king's name, and other ornaments. A 
 proper gallery, grate, &c., were appended in the hian- 
 ncr afterwards deferibed ; fo that it was eify for the 
 perfon who afcended to fupplv the fire with Jiicl, and 
 thus keep up the machine ai lorig as he pkafeif. The 
 weight of the whole apparatus was upwards of i/ico 
 pounds. The experiment was performed on the 15th 
 of Oflober 1783. Mr Pilatre having placed hinifelf 
 in the gallery, the machine was inflated, and pcrmit- 
 cd to afcend to the height of 84 feet, where he kept 
 it afioat for about four minutes and a half; after 
 which it defcendcd very gently : and fuch was its 
 tendency to afcend, that it rebounded to a conliderable 
 height after touching the ground. Two diiys after, 
 he repeated the experiment with the fame fuccefs as 
 before; b)it the wind being ftrong, the machine diJ 
 not fuftain itfelf fo well as formerly. On repeating 
 the experiment in calmer weather, he afcended to 
 the height of 210 feet. His next al'ccnt was 262 
 feet ; and in the defcent, a gurt of wind having 
 blown the machine over fome large trees of an adjoin- 
 ing garden, Mr Pil.itre fuddenty extricated himfclf 
 from fo dangerous a (ituation, by throwing fome ftraw 
 and chopped wool on the fire, which railed him at 
 once to a fulKoient height. On defceiiding again, he 
 once more raifed hinifelf to a proper height by throw- 
 ing ftraw on the fire. Some time after, he afcended 
 in company with Mr Girond dc \illcttc to the height 
 of 330 feet ; hoveringover Paris at leall nine minutes 
 in light of all the inhabitants, and the machine keep- 
 ing all the while perfedly ileady. 
 
 Thefc experiments had Ihown, that the aeroftatio 
 
 machines might be raifed orlowcredat tlic plcafureof 
 
 ' iba 
 
 99 
 
 9 
 
 Some ani- 
 nnU I'afciy 
 fcnt thru' 
 the ail. 
 
 10 
 Mr rilatre 
 dc Ro7,icr 
 the tiril ae- 
 rial naviga- 
 tor. 
 
 II 
 
 Accr.uiit of 
 h!» diffcr- 
 rcnt voya- 
 
 gCi.
 
 zoo 
 
 AEROSTATION. 
 
 the iv:n'o;,s v."; j afcendtvi : ihcy had likcwifc difcovcr- 
 cd, tint the keeping them fait witli ropes was no 
 aiivamnge ; but, oa tlic contrary, thai this was attend- 
 ed witliliKonvcuiencc and hazard. Onihezillot 
 November 1785, therefore, M. I'ilairc determined to 
 undtrtakcan aerial voyage in whic!i ihc machine ihould 
 be fully ftt at liberty. tLvcry thing being got in rci- 
 dincfs, the balloon was filled in a lew minutes : and 
 M. Pilatrc placed himfclf in the gallery, counterpoiJcd 
 by the Marquis d'.-^rlandcs, who occupied the other 
 fide. U was intended to make fome preliminary ex- 
 periments on the afcending power of the machine: 
 hut the violenceof the wind prevented this from being 
 done, and even damaged the balloon eil'entially : lo 
 tiiat it would have been entirely dtllroyed had not 
 timely aflillance been given,. The extraordinary ex- 
 cnioas of the workmen, however, repaired it again in 
 two hoars, and the adventurers fet out. They met 
 with no inconveiiitiice during their voyage, \'.hich 
 lallcd about 25 minutes ; during which time they 
 had pRfled over a fpace of above live miles — From 
 the account given by the Marquis d'Arlandcs, it ap- 
 pears that they met with feveral ditierent currents of 
 air ; the eltccl of which was, to give a very fcnlible 
 Ihock to the machine, and the dircaiou of the motion 
 fecmcd to be frowi the upper part downwards. It ap- 
 pears alfo that they were in fome danger of having the 
 balloon burnt altogether ; as the Marquis obfervcd ie- 
 veral round holes made by the fire in the lower part 
 ofit, which alarmed him con fiderably, and indeed not 
 without reafon. However the progrefs of the tire 
 was ealily Hopped by the application of a wet fpun^e, 
 and all appearance of danger cealtd in a very Ihort 
 li time. . 
 
 Monfgol- This voyage of M. Pilatrc and the Marquis d Ar- 
 ficr'sm.v lauJcs maybe faid to conclude the hillory of thole 
 chiBcs fii- aeroftatifc machines which are elevated by means of 
 •^r'c^l^^\ fire ; for though many other attempts have been made 
 „°h In! upon the fame principle, moft of them have either 
 flammable provedunfuccefsfulor wereof little confequcnce. They 
 air. have therefore given place to the other kind, filled v/ith 
 
 inilammablc air ; which, by reafon of its fmaller fpe- 
 citic gravity, is both more manageable, and capable of 
 performing voyages of greater length, as it docs not 
 require to be fupplicd with fuel like the others. This 
 was invented a very Ihort time after the difcovery had 
 been made by M. IMonigolfier. This gentleman had 
 ihdeed dcligned to keep his method in fome degree a 
 fecret from the woild ; but as it could not be conceal- 
 ed, that a bag filled with any kind of fluid lighter than 
 the common atmofphere would raifc in it, intlaKmable 
 air was naturally ihouijht of as a proper fucce<lancum 
 for the rarefied air of M. MontgoUier. The firll ex- 
 periment was made by two brothers iMeffrs Roberts, 
 and K;. Charles a profefTor of experimental philolb- 
 Charlcsand phy. The bag which contained the gas was compo- 
 Roberts. f^jj „f inLcftring, varnilhcd over with a folution of the 
 clalUcgura caUed catutchoic; and that wiih which 
 they made their firft cliay was only ai.out 13 Englilli 
 feet in diameter. Many dilficulties occured in filling 
 it wi:h the inflammable air, chiefly owing to their ig- 
 norance of the proper apparatus ; infoniuch, that, al- 
 ter a whole day's labour from nine in the morning, 
 they had got the biUoon only one third part full. 
 Next morning they were furprifcd to find that it had 
 3 
 
 13 
 Expt-Ti- 
 mcnt of 
 McCTri 
 
 Hiftory. 
 
 fully inflated of Ltfelf during the night : but upon in- 14 
 quiry, it was fiiund, that they had inadvertently left I" v/n^t 
 open a llop-cockconnecled \\iih the balloon, by which ">»■■"<='■ a 
 the common air gaining acccfs, had mixed itftlf wiih ."c,, . 
 
 11 11 • P in-iii- 1 partly tilled 
 
 the innammablc air; forming a compound ftill lighter |j^i„(jjjj 
 than thecommon atmofphere, but not fufliciently light ahM. 
 to anfwcr the purpofes of acroflaiion. Thus they were 
 obliged to renew their operation ; and, by fix o'clock 
 in the evening of next day, they found tlie machine 
 confiderably lighter than the common jiir j and, in an 
 hour after, it made a coiuidcrablc effort to afccnd. 
 The public exhibition, however, had been announced 
 only lor the third day after ; fo that the balloon was 
 allowed to remain in aninllateJ flate for a whole day ; 15 
 during which they found it had loll a power of afeent Lofs ol' 
 equal to about three pounds, being one feventh part power in 
 of the whole. When if was at lall fet at liberty, after J'^'"' ^'''' 
 having been well filled with inflainmable air, it was 55 '"'"'■ 
 pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. It 
 remained in the atmofphere only three quarters of an 
 hour, during which it had travcrfed 15 miles. Its 
 fudden defcent was fuppofed to have been owing to a 
 rupture which had taken place when it had afctjiidcd 
 the higher regions of the atmofphere. j^ 
 
 The fucccfs of this experiment, and tlie aerial yoy- pirft aerial 
 age made by Melfrs Rozicr and Arlandes, naturally voy^e »i 
 fuggelled the idea of undertaking fomething of the Mellrs. 
 fame kind with a balloon filled with inilammable air. ^l"'''''*"''- 
 The machine ufed on this occafion was formed of gores ^"l'""- 
 of lilk, covered over witha varuilh midc of cjo'/tcktnc, 
 of a fpherical figure, and mealuring 27^ feet in dia- 
 meter. A net was fpread over tlie upper hcmifphcre, 
 and was fallened to an hoop which palfed round the 
 middle of the balloon. To this a fort of car, or ra- 
 ther boat, was fufpended by ropes, in fuch a manner 
 as to hang a few feet below the lower part of the bal- 
 loon ; and, in order to prevent the burlling of the ma- 
 chine, a valve was placed in it ; by opening of which 
 fome of the iuHammable air might be occafionally let 
 out. A long lilken pipe communicated with the bal- 
 loon, by means of which it was filled. The boat was 
 made of bafket work, covered with painted linen, and 
 beautifully ornamented ; being 8 feet long, 4 broad, 
 and ji deep; it weight 130 pounds. At this time, 
 however, as at the former, they met with great diifieul- 
 ticsin filling the machine with inflammable air, owing 
 to their ignorance of the mod proper apparatus. But 
 at laft, all obllacles being removed, the two adventu- 
 rers took their feats at three quarters after one in ihc 
 afternoon of the firft of December 1783. Perfons 
 Ikillcd in mathematics wereconveniently ftationed with 
 jiroper iuftruments to calculate the height, velocity, 
 Ccc. of the balloon. The weight of the w^holc appa- 
 ratus, including that of the two adventurers, was found 
 to be 604I pounds, and the power of afeent when they 
 fet out was 20 pounds ; fo that the whole difference 
 betwixt the weight of tills balloon and an equal bulk tj 
 of common air was 624 pounds. But the weight of Specific 
 common atmofphere difplaccdby the in!iamniable gas E"".''' °^ 
 was calculated to be 771 pounds, fo that there remains 'J^''"^"?" 
 1 47 lor the weight of the latter ; and this calculation ^^^■^^ ^^^ 
 makes it only 5^ times lighter than common air. voyage. 
 
 At the time the balloon left the ground, the ther- 
 mometer llood at 9" of Fahrenheit's fcale, and the 
 quicklilvtr,in the barometer at 30.18 i.ichcs ; and, by
 
 Hiftory. 
 
 A E R O S T A 1' 1 O X. 
 
 201 
 
 i8 
 MrChirlcs 
 afcrnds by 
 himrdt. 
 
 Hai a pain 
 in his ear 
 aud jaw 
 when in 
 the higher 
 regions. 
 
 30 
 
 Various 
 currents of 
 wind and 
 eddies in 
 thcfe re- 
 gions. 
 II 
 Strsamers 
 of his ban- 
 ners Hand 
 upwards. 
 
 means of the power of afcc:u with which they left the 
 ground, the balloon role till the mercury fell to 27 in- 
 ches, from whence tiiey calculated their height to be 
 about 6 JO yards. By throwing out ballafl occalion- 
 allyas they found the machine dcfccnding by the e- 
 fcapc of fomc of the in.Hammable air, they found it 
 practicable to keep at pretty near the fame dillance 
 from the earth during the reft of their voyage ; the 
 quickfilver rtaduating between 27 and 37.65 inches, 
 and the thermometer between j?" and 57', the whole 
 lime. They continued in the air for the fpace of an 
 hour and three quarters, when they alighted at the 
 diftance of 27 miles from Paris ; having fufFcred no 
 inconvenience during their voyage, nor experienced 
 any contrary currents of air, as had been felt by 
 MtlTrs Pilatre and Arlandes. As the balloon ftill re- 
 tained agrcat quantity of inflammable gas, MrCharlts 
 determined to take another voyage by himfelf. Mr 
 Robert accordingly got out of the boat, which was 
 thus lightened by I 30 pounds, and of confequence the 
 aeroftatic machine now had nearly as much power of 
 afcent. Thus he was carried up with fuch velocity, 
 that in twenty minutes be was almofl 9000 feet high, 
 and entirely out of light of terrcllrial oUjefts. At the 
 moment of his parting with the ground, the globe had 
 been rather flaccid ; but it foon began to fwell, and 
 the inflammable ai." cfcaped from it in great quantity 
 through the lilken tube. He alfo frequently drew 
 the valve that it might be the more freely emitted, 
 and the balloon efFeftually prevented from burfting. 
 The inflammable gas being confiderably warmer than 
 the external air, difFufed itfelf all round, and was 
 felt like a warm atmofphere ; but in ten minutes the 
 thermometer indicated a variation of temperature as 
 great as that between the warmth of fpring and the 
 ordinary cold of winter. His fingers were benumbed 
 by the cold, and he felt a violent pain in his right 
 car and jaw, which he afcribed to the dilatation of 
 the air in thefe organs as well as to the external cold. 
 The beauty of the profpecl which he now enjoyed, 
 however, made amends for thcfe inconveniences. 
 At his departure the fun was fet on the valleys ; but 
 the height to which Mr Charles was got in the at- 
 mofphere, rendered him again vifible, though only 
 for alhort time. He faw, for a few feconds vapours 
 riling from the valleys and rivers. The clouds 
 fcemed to afcend from the earth, and collect one upon 
 the other, ftill prefcrving their ufual form ; only their 
 colour was grey and monotonous for want of fufficient 
 light in the atmofphere. By the light of the moon, 
 he perceived that the machine was turning round with 
 him in the air; and he obfcrved that there were con- 
 trary currents which brought him back again. He ob- 
 fervcd alfo, with furprife, the effefts of the wind, and 
 that the ftreamers of his banners pointed upwards ; 
 which, he fays, could not be the effcd either of his 
 afccnt or dcfcent,3she was moving horizontally at the 
 time. At hit, recollecting his promife of returning 
 to his friends in half an hour, he pulled the valve, and 
 accelerated his defcent. When within 200 feet of the 
 earth, he threw out two or three pounds of ballalt, 
 which rendered the balloon again ftationary: but, in a 
 little time afterwards, he gently alighted in a field a- 
 bout three miles diilant from the place whence he fet 
 oat; though, by making allowance for all the turii- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ings and windin^^s of the voyage, hefunpofcs that he 
 had gone through nincmilci at Icalt. By the calcu- 
 latioiisof M. de Maunicr, he rofc ai this time not Icfs 
 than io,joo feet high ; a height fomewhat greater 
 than that of Mount /ttna. A fmall balloon, which 
 had been fcnt off before the two brothers fet out orl 
 their voyage, took a direftiouKf ppolite to that of the 
 large one, having met with an i^pofite current of air, 
 probably at a much greater height. 
 
 The fubfcqucnt aerial voyages ditfer fo little from 
 that juft now rehted, that any particular defcriptiou of 11 
 them feems to be fuperriuous. It had occurred to Mr .^ttcaii't* 
 Charles, however, inhis lafl flight, that there might be '" »;"'''.= 
 apolfibiliiy of directing thcmathine in the atmofphere; »'^''''''»"= 
 and this was foon attempted by Mr Jean-Pierre Blan- ,"u"he"aV- 
 cliard, a gentleman who had, for feveral years before, mofphete. 
 amufcd himfelf with endeavours to fly by mechanical 
 means, though he had never fucceedcdin theundcr- 
 takiug. As foon as the difcovcry of theaerollatic ma- 
 chines wasannounced, however, hcrefolved to add the 
 wings of his former machine to a balloon, and made no 
 doubt that it would then be in his power to dired him- 
 felf through the air at pleafure. In his firlt attempt 
 he was frullrated by the impetuofity of a young gentle- 
 man, who inllfted, right or wrong, on afcending along 
 with him. In the fcuftl^ which enfued on this occa- 
 fi )n, the wings and other apparatus were entirely de- -, 
 ftroyed ; fo that Mr Blanchard was obliged to commit Two firft 
 himfelf to the dircdlion of the wind ; and in another ^oj-^^a of 
 attempt it was found, that all the ftrength he could ap- ^'f Blan- 
 ply to the wings was fcarce fufficient to counteradtthe ^'**^''" 
 impreflionof the wind in any degree. In hisvoyao-e, 
 he found his'balloon, at a certain period, aded upon 
 by two contrary winds ; but, on throwing out four 
 poundsof ballad, he afcended to a place where he met 
 with the fame current he had at fctting out from the ,^ 
 earth. His account of the fenfations he felt during His fcnfa- 
 this voyage, was fomewhat ditferent from thai of Mr tions while 
 Charles ; having, in one part of it, found the atmo- '" '*" »'- 
 fphere very warm, in another cold ; and having once "'"''?''"■=• 
 found himfelf very hungry, and at another time almofl 
 overcome by a propcniity 10 flecp. The height to 
 which he arofe,asmeafiired by feveral obftrvations with 
 mathematicalinftruments,was thought to be very little 
 lefs than ao,ooo feet ; and he remained in the atmo- 
 fphere an hour and a quarter. 
 
 The attcmptsof Mr Blanchardtodirei5t his machine Vovage of 
 through the atmofphere, were repeated in the month Mcff Mor- 
 of April 1784 by Melfrs Morveau and Berirand, at *"" "'"1 
 Dijon, whoraifed themfelves with an inflammable air ^"™'<1' 
 balloon to the heigh t, as it was thought, of f 3,000 feet; 
 palfing through a fpace of 18 miles in ajj hour and 2; 
 minutes. Mr Morveau h.id prepared a kind of oars 
 for directing the machine through the air ; but they 
 were damaged by a gult of wind, fo that only two of 
 them remained ferviceablc ; by working thefe, howc- 
 ever, they were able to produce a fenfible etfcd on the j^, 
 motion of the machine. In a third aerial voyage per- Third' vot- 
 formcd by Mr Blanchard, he fcemed to produce forae ace of Mr 
 effcAby the agitation •f his wings, both in afcending, lii»nch»rd. 
 dcfccnding, moving lidcwifc, and even in fome mea- 
 fure againfl the wind ; however, this is fuppofed, with 
 fomc probability, to have been a millake, as, in all his 
 fuccceding voyages, the effcds of his machinery could 
 not be perceived. 
 
 Cc The
 
 20 2 
 
 Second 
 voyage of 
 MclUeiirs 
 Charles 
 «adRobi:rt. 
 
 AEROSTATION. 
 
 78 
 
 Are inilan- 
 gcr of ruii- 
 nint; into 
 thunder- 
 clouds. 
 
 29 
 Heat of the 
 air within 
 their bal- 
 loon. 
 
 30 
 Effca of 
 their oars 
 in moving 
 the ma- 
 chine. 
 
 The fiicccTs of MelTrs Charles and llobtrt in ihtir 
 former expcrinunts, encouraged them foon to repeat 
 thcni, with the addition of funic machinery to direct 
 their tourfc. Ilavin;^ culaij^ed ihtir former balloon to 
 to the liicof an oblong fphcroid 46; feet long and 2^'^ 
 ia diameter, they made it to tloat with its longcU pare 
 parallel to the horizon. The wings were made in the 
 fn.ipe ofaii nmbrcUa (ritiiout the handle, to the top of 
 which a llick was fafiened parallel to the aperture of 
 the umbrella. Five of thelc were difpofcd round the 
 boat, which was near 17 feet in length. The balloon 
 was tilled i:l :; hours, and, with ihc addition of 450 
 pounds ofballall, remained //; .r^«//.'^;70 with the at- 
 nol'phcrc. About noon, on the 19th of September 
 I 7S4, they began to afcend very gently in conlcqucncc 
 of throwing out 24 pounds of ballalt, but were foon 
 obliged to throw out eight pounds more in order to a- 
 void running againft Ibuic trees. Thus they rofe to 
 the height of 1400 feet, when they perceived fome 
 thunderclouds near the horizon. On this they afccnd- 
 ed and defcended, to avoid the danger, as the wind 
 blew directly towards the threatening clouds ; but, 
 from the height of 600 feet to tliat of 4200 above the 
 furface of the earth, the current was quite uniform and 
 in one dircdion. During their voyage they loll one, 
 of their oars ; but, found, that by means of tiiofc which 
 remained, they confidcrably accelerated their courfc. 
 From the account of their voyage, it svould feeni that 
 they had palfed fafcly through the thunder-clouds ; as 
 we are informed, that, about 40 minutes after three, 
 they heard a loud clap of thunder ; and, tiirce minutes 
 after, another much louder ; at which time the ther- 
 mometer funk from 77 to 59 degrees. This fuddcn 
 cold, occalioned by the approach of the clouds, con- 
 denfed the inllaramablc air lb that the balloon defcend- 
 ed very low, and they were obliged to throw out 40 
 pounds of ballart ; yet on examining the heat of the air 
 within the balloon, they found it tobe 104°, when that 
 of the external atmofpiicre was only 65. Mhen they 
 had got fo high that the mercury in the barometer Hood 
 onlyat 23,94inches,they founJthemfelves becalmed ; 
 fo that the machine did not go even at the rate of two 
 feet in a fecond, though it had before gone at the rate 
 of 24 feet in a fecond. On this they determined to 
 try the effect of ihcir oars to the utmofl ; and, by 
 working them for 35 minutes, and marking the Ihadow 
 of the lialloon on the ground, they found, in that time, 
 that they had defcribcd the fegment of anellipfis whofe 
 longell diameter was 6000 feet. After having tra- 
 velled about t jomilcs, they defcended, only on account 
 of the approach of night, having llill 200 pounds of 
 ballaft left. 
 
 Their conclufien, with regard to the cfFeft of their 
 wings, is as follows : " Thofc experiments lho\v,that 
 far from going againft the wind, as is faid by fome 
 perfons to be polllble in a certain manner, and fome 
 aeronauts pretend to have actually done, we only ob- 
 tained, by means of two oars, a deviation of 22 de- 
 grees : it is certain, however, that if we could have 
 ufcd our four oars, we might have deviated about 40 
 degrees from the direflion of the wind, and as our ma- 
 chine would have been capable of carrying feven per- 
 fons, it would have been eafy for fve perfons 10 hive 
 gone, and 10 have pu. in adion eight oars_, by means of 
 
 Hiftory. 
 
 which a deviation of about 80 degrees would havcbccu 
 obtained. 
 
 " We had already obfcrved (fay tiicy), that if we 
 did not deviate more than 22 degrees, it was bccaufc 
 the wind carried us at the rate of 24 miles an hour; 
 and it is natural to judge, that, if the wind had been 
 twice as llrong as it was, we ihould not have deviated 
 more than one-half of what we actually did ; and, on 
 the contrary, if the wind had been only iiall'as llrong, 
 our deviation would have been proportional)ly great- 
 er." 
 
 Having thus related all that has been done with re- 
 gard to tlie conducting of aeroilatic machines tii rough 
 the atmofphere, we ihall now relate the attempts that 
 have been niadc iokli'en their cxpcnce, by falling upon 
 fome contrivance to afcend without throwing out bal- 
 lall, and to defcend without loling any of the inllam- 
 mable air. The fill attempt of this kind was made 
 by the Duke dc Ciianres ; who, on the i Jih of July 
 1784, afceiu'.cd with the two brothers, Charles and Ro- 
 bert, from the Park ot St,<-loud. Tlie balloon was 
 of an oblong form, made to afcend with itslongelldia- 
 meter horizontally, and mcafured 55 feet in length 
 and 24 in breadlh. U containetl within it a fmaller 
 balltjon filled with common air , by blowing into which 
 with a pair of bellows, and thus throwing in a conli- 
 derable quantity of common air, it was fuppofed that 
 the machine would become fuilicicntly heavy todcfccnd, 
 efpecially as, by the inllation of the iiucrncl bag, the 
 intlammable air in the external one wouldbccondcnfcd 
 into a fmaller fpace, and thus become fpecihcally hea- 
 vier. The voyage, however, was attended withfuch 
 circumllances as rendered it impofllble to know what 
 would have been the event of the fehemc- The p ivver 
 of afcentwith which they fet out, feems to have been 
 very great ; as, in tliree minutes after parting with the 
 ground, they were lofl in the clouds, and involved in 
 fuch a dcnfe vapour that they could fee neither the (ky 
 nor the earth. In this lituation tliey fcemed to be 
 attacked by a whirlwind, which, belides turning the 
 balloon three times round from right to left, Ihockcd, 
 and beat it fo about, that they were rendered incapable 
 of ufing any of the means propofed for direeling their 
 courfc, and the filk llutf of which the helm had been 
 compofed was even torn away. No fcenc can be con- 
 ceived more terrible than that in which they were now 
 involved. An immenfc ocean of Ihapelefs clouds rolled 
 one upon another below them, and fcemed to prevent 
 any retnrnto the earth, which llill continued invilible, 
 while the agitation of the balloon became greater every 
 moment. In this extremity they cut the cords which 
 lield the interior balloon, and of confcquence it fell 
 down upon the aperture of the tube that came from 
 the large balloon into the boat, and ilopped it up. 
 They were then driven upvvardsbyagnfl of wind from 
 below, which carried them to the top of the florniy 
 vapour in which they had been involved. They now 
 faw the fun without a cloud ; but ihe heat of his rays, 
 w ith the diminilhed denlity of thcatmoi'pht re, had fuch 
 an ffTtdt on the inflammable air, that the balloon fcem- 
 ed every moment ready to burfl. Toprevcnt thisthey 
 introduced a liick through the tube, in order to pulh 
 away the inner balloon from its aperture ; but the ex- 
 panlion of the ihiianimablc air pulbed it fo clufc, that 
 
 all 
 
 31 
 
 Contrivan- 
 ces ufed to 
 prevent the 
 waltc of in- 
 flammable 
 air. 
 
 Voyage of 
 the Wuke 
 de Chartrtt 
 
 33 
 Is involved 
 in dar'> 
 clouds and 
 attaikcil by 
 a whirl- 
 wind.
 
 Hiftory, 
 
 AEROSTATION. 
 
 203 
 
 34 
 
 Unfortu- 
 natevoyage 
 and death 
 of Meffrs 
 Rozicr and 
 Romainc. 
 
 3J 
 Voyage of 
 Mcn'.BIan- 
 chard and 
 Jeffries 
 acrofs the 
 Straits uf 
 Dover. 
 
 all attempts of this kind proved inttFei.'Uial. It was 
 now, however, bceome abfohitely neccd'ary to give vent 
 to a very conlidcrablc quantity of the iiitlHrnmable air ; 
 for which purpoft the Dukcdc Chartres himftlf bored 
 twoholes in the balloon, which tore open for the length 
 of fcven or eight feet. On this they defccnded with 
 great rapidity ; and would have falltn into a lake, had 
 they not haflily thrown out 60 pounds of ballad, which 
 enabled them juft to reach the water's edge. 
 
 The fuccefs of the fchcmc for raifnig or lowering 
 aeroftatic machines by means of bags filled with com- 
 mon air being thus rendered dubious, another method 
 was thought of. This was to put a fniall aeroftatic 
 machine with rarefied air under an inflammable air- 
 balloon, but at fuch a diftance that the iurtammable air 
 of tlic latter r.iight be perfectly out of the reach of the 
 fire ufcd for inflating the former ; and thus, by increa- 
 fing or diminifliing the fire in the fmall machine, the 
 abfolutc weight of the whole would be confiderably di- 
 minilhed or augmented. This fcheme was unhappily 
 put in execution by the celebrated Mr Pilatre de Ro- 
 zier, and another gentleman named Mr Romainc. Their 
 inflammable-air balloon was about 157 feet in diameter, 
 and the power of the rarcficd-airone was equivalent to 
 about 60 pounds. They afcendcd without any appear- 
 ance of danger or (iniller accident ; but liad not been 
 long in the atmofphere when the inflammable-air bal- 
 loon was leen to fwell very conliderably, at the fame 
 time that the aeronauts were obferved, by means of te- 
 lefcopes, very axious to get down, and bulled in pull- 
 ing the valve and opening the appendages to the bal- 
 loon, in order to facilitate the efcapc of as much in- 
 flammable air as poliible. A Ihort time after this the 
 whole machine was on tire,when they had then attained 
 the height of about three quarters of a mile from the 
 ground. No cxplolion was heard ; and the filk which 
 compofed the air-balloon continued expanded, and 
 feemcd to refifl the atmofphere for about a minute ; 
 after which it collapfed, and the remains of the appa- 
 ratus defcended along with the two unfortunate travel- 
 lers fo rapidly, that both of them were killed. Mr Pi- 
 latre fecmed to have been dead before he came to the 
 ground ; but MrRomaine was alive when fome perfons 
 came up to the place were he lay, though he expired 
 immediately after. 
 
 Thefe are the mod remarkable attempts that have 
 been made to improve the fcience of aeroftation ; tho' 
 a great number of other expeditions through the at- 
 mofphere have taken place. But of all the voyages 
 which had been hitherto projerted or put in exe- 
 cution, the moll daring was that of Mr Blanchard 
 and Dr Jeffries acrofs the Straits of Dover which 
 feparatc Britain from France. This took place on 
 the 7th of January nSs, being a clear frolty mor- 
 ning, with a wind, barely perceptible, at N. N. W. 
 The operation of filling the balloon began at 10 
 o'clock, and, at three quarters after twelve, every 
 thing was ready for their departure. At one o'clock 
 Mr Blanchard defired the boat to be puflied off, which 
 now flood only two feet diftant from th.it precipice fo 
 finely dcfcribed by Shakefpeare in his tragedy of King 
 
 Lear. As the balloon was fcarccly fufEcient to carry 
 two, they were obliged to throw out all their baliait 
 except three bags of ten pounds each ; when they at 
 laft rofe gently thoagh making very little way on 
 account of there being fo lit.le wind. 'At a quarter 
 after one o'clock, the barometer, which on the clilF 
 flood at 29.7 inches, was now fallen to 27.3, and the 
 weather proved tine and warm. They had nowamofl 
 beautiful profpedt of the fouth coafl of England, and 
 were able to count 37 villages upon it. Alter palhng 
 over feveral vefl'els, they found that the balloou, at 50 
 minutes after one, was defcending,on which they threw 
 out a fack and an half of ballad ; but as they faw that 
 it flill defcended, and that witii much greater velocity 
 than before, they now threw out all the ballad. This 
 dill proving inelfeiflual, they next threw out aparcclof 
 books they carried along with them, whi.h made the 
 balloon afcend, when they were about midway betwixt 
 France and England. At a quarter pall two, finding 
 themfclves again defcending, they threw away the rc.>. 
 mainder of their books, and, ten minutes after, they 
 had a mod enchanting profpe<5t of the French coall. 
 StUl, however, the machine defcended; and as they had 
 now no more ballad, they were fain to throw away 
 their proviiions for eating, the wings of their boat, and 
 every other moveable they could eafily fparc. " Wc 
 threw away, fays Dr Jeffries, our only bottle, which, 
 in its defcent, cad out a fleam like fraoke, with a rufli- 
 ingnoifc ; and when it ftruck the water, wc heard and 
 felt the (hock very perceptibly on our car and balloon." 
 All this proving infufficient to dop the defcent of the 
 balloon, they next threw out their anchors and cords, 
 and at lad dripped off'their clothes, fadcningthemfelvcs 
 to certain drings, and intending to cut away the boat 
 as their lad refource. They had no:v the fatisfadion, 
 however, to find that they were riling ; and as they 
 palled over the high lands between Cape Blanc and 
 Calais, the machine rofe very fad, and carried them to 
 a greater height than they had been at any former 
 part of their voyage. They defcended fafely among 
 fome trees in theforedof Guienncs, where there was 
 jud opening enough to admit them. 
 
 It would be tedious as well as unneceflary to recount 
 all the other aerial voyages that have been performed 
 in different parts of Europe ; It appeared fulKcient 
 for the purpofe of this article to notice thofe which 
 were mod remarkable and intereding ; and therefore 
 an account of the ingenious Mr Baldwin's cxcurlion 
 from Cheder, alluded to above, iliall now clofe our 
 enumeration. 
 
 On the 8ih of September 1785, at forty minutes 
 pad one P. M. Mr Baldwin afcendcd from Cheder ia 
 Mr Lunardi's (a ) balloon. Aftcrrraverfing in a variety 
 of different direi.iions, he rirll aliguteJ, at 2S minutes 
 after three, about 12 miles from Cheder, in the 
 neighbourhood of Frodfham j then reafcending and 
 purluing his excurfion, he finally landed at Rixton 
 raofs, five miles N. N. E. of Wavington, and 25 miles 
 from Cheder. Mr Baldwin has publiihcJ his Obfcrva- 
 tions and Remarks made during his voyage, and takcR 
 from minutes. Our limits w ill not admit of relating 
 C c 2 many 
 
 (a) Accounts of this gentleman's adventurous cxcurfions have been publilhed in all the Newfpapers i aad 
 therefore it appeared unnecelTary to take up room with an account of them iu this article.
 
 204 A E R O S 
 
 k many of his obfervatioiis ; but ihe few following arc 
 fume of the molt imporunt and curious. '< The fen- 
 fatiou of afcenJing is compared to »hat of a llrong 
 prcilurc from llic bottom of the car upwards againit 
 the folcsof his feet. At the liillaiice of v hat appeared 
 lo him fev..ii miles from the earth, though by the ba- 
 rometer fcarccly a mile and a half, he had a granil and 
 moll enchanting view of the city of Cheller and its 
 adjacent places below. The river Dec appeared of a 
 red colour; the city very diminutive ; and the town 
 entirely blue. The whole appeared a perfetf plain, 
 the higheft building having no apparent height, but 
 reduced all to the fame level, and the whole tcrrcllrial 
 profpeCf appeared like a coloured map. Ju(l alter hij 
 tirll afceni, being in a wcU-watered and maritime part 
 of the country, he obfcrved a remarkable and regular 
 tendency of the balloon towards the lea ; but iliorily 
 after riling into another current of air, he efcapcd the 
 danger : this upper current, he fays, was vilible to him 
 at the time of his defccnt, by a lofty found llratum of 
 clouds flying in a fafe direction. The perfpeclivc ap- 
 pearance of things to him was very remarkable. The 
 lowell bed of vapour that firft appeared as cloud was 
 pure white, in detached fleeces, increaling as they 
 rofe : they prefently coalefeed, and formed, as he 
 exprclfes it, a fea of cotton, tufting here and there by 
 the aclion of the air in the undillurbed part of the 
 clouds. The whole became an extended white floor 
 of cloud, the upper furfacc being fmooth and even. 
 Above this white floor he obferved, at great and une- 
 qual dillances, a valt alfemblage of thunder-clouds, 
 , each parcel conlilling of whole acres in the denfeft 
 
 form : he compares their form and appearance to the 
 fmoke of pieces of ordnance, which had confolidated 
 as it were intomalfesof fnow, and penetrated thro' the 
 upper furface or white floor of common clouds, there 
 remaining vilible and at reft. Some clouds had mo- 
 tionsin flow and various dircftions, forming an appear- 
 ance truly flupendous and majeftic. He endeavours 
 to convey fome idea of the fcene by a figure ; (and from 
 which fig. 13 of Plate III. is copied), vi/reprefents 
 a circular view he had from thecar of the balloon, him- 
 felfbeing over the centre of the view, looking down on 
 the white floor of clouds and feeing the city of Chefler 
 through an opening, which difcovered the landfcape 
 below, limited by furrounding vapour, to lefs than two 
 miles in dinmeter. The breadth of the outer margin de- 
 fines liis apparent heightin the balloon (viz. 4 miles) a-' 
 bove the white floor of clouds. Mr Baldwin alfo gives a 
 curious defcription of his tracing the fhadow of the 
 balloon over tops of volumes of clouds. At firft it 
 was fmall, in lize and fliape like an egg ; but foon en- 
 creafed to the magnitude of the fun's difc, ftill grow- 
 ing larger, and attended with a mod captivating ap- 
 pearance of an iris encircling the whole iliadow at fome 
 diftance round it, the colours of which were remarkably 
 brilliant. The regions did not feel colder, but rather 
 warmer, than below. The fun was hotteft to him 
 when the balloon was ftationary. The difcharge of a 
 cannon when the balloon was at a confiderable height. 
 Was diftinftly heard by the aeronaut ; and a difcharge 
 from the fame piece, when at tlic height of 30 yards, 
 fo difturbcd him as to oblige him for fafety to lay hold 
 firmly of the cords of the balloon. At a confiderable 
 
 T A 'J' I O N. Hillory. 
 
 height he poured down apintboiilc full of water; and 
 as the air aid not oppofe a rciiftaiice futficiciU to break 
 the llrcari into fmall drops, it nioftly fell down in large 
 drops. In the courfc of the balloon's traiit it was 
 found much atilcted by tiie water (a circumltancc ob- 
 ferved in former aerial voyages). At one time the 
 direcliou of the balloon kept coniinualiy over the wa- 
 ter, going directly towartls the fea, fo much as to cu- 
 (huigcr the aeronaut; the mouth of the balloon was 
 opened, and he in two minutes defended into an under 
 current blowing from the fea : he kept defccnding,and 
 landed at Bella ir farm inRinllcy, 12 miles from Cheller. 
 Mere he lightened his ear by 31 pounds, and inflantly 
 reafcending was carried into the interior par: of the 
 country, performing a number of ditFerentmano'uvres. 
 At his greatell altitude he found his refpiration free and 
 eafy. Several bladders which he had along wiili him 
 crackled and expanded very conliderably. Cloi ds and 
 land, as before, appeared on tiie fame level. By way 
 of experiment, he tried the upper valve two or three 
 times, the neck of the balloon being clofe ; and re- 
 marked, that the cfcapc of the gas was attended with a 
 growling iioife like millftonc:-, but not near fo loud. 
 Again, round the ihadow of the balloon, on the clouds 
 heobferved the iris. A variety of othercircumilances 
 and appearances he met \\ itii, is fancifully defcribed ; 
 and at 53 minutes part three he finally landed. 
 
 The frequency of aerial voyages, accompanied with 
 particular details of trifling and unintcrelling circum- 
 ilauces, and apparently made with a view to promote 
 the intcrcll of particular perfons, regardlefsof any ad- 
 vancement in knowledge, have now funk the Iciencs 
 of aerollation fo low in the opinion of moll people, that 
 that before giving any account of the niofl proper me- 
 thod of conitrufting thefe machines, it may feem ne- 
 celfary to premife fomething concerning the ufes to 
 which they may pofiibly be applied. Thefe according 
 to Mr Cavallo are the following. . 
 
 "The fmall balloons, efpecially thofe made of paper, uf^s of al- 
 and railed by means of fpirit of Mine, may ferve to ex- roftation. 
 plore the dirci^tion of the winds in the upper regions 
 of the atmofphere, particularly when there is a calm 
 below : they may ferve for ligwals in various circum- 
 flances, in which no other means can be ufed ; and let- 
 ters or other fmall things may be ealily fcnt by them, 
 as for inftance from (hips that cannot fafely land on 
 account of llorms, from beiicged places, iflands, or the 
 like. The larger aeroftatic machines may anfwerall 
 the abovementioiied purpofes in a better manner ; and 
 they may, belidcs, be ufed as a help to a perfon who 
 wants toafcend a mountain, a precipice, or to crofs a 
 river ; and perhaps one of thefe machines tied to a boat 
 by a long rope, may be in fome cafes, a better fort of 
 fail than any that is ufed at prefent. The largefl fort 
 of machines, which can take uponeormoremen, may 
 eyidently be fubfcrvient to various ceconomieal and 
 philofophical purpofes. Their conveying people from 
 place to place with great fwiftnefs, and without trouble, 
 may be of effential ufc, even if ihe art of guiding them 
 in a diredion different from that of the wind Ihould 
 never be difcovered. By means of thofe machines the 
 fhape of certain feas and lands may be better afcer- 
 tained ; men may afcend to the tops of mountains they 
 never viiitcd before ; they maybe carried over marlhy 
 
 and
 
 Principles. A L R O S T 
 
 and dangerous grounds ; they may by that means come 
 out ofa bciicgcd I'licCjOrau idand ; and tlicy may, in 
 hot climates, afcend to a cold region of the atmofpherc, 
 either to refrelh themfclvcsjortoobfcrvc the itc which 
 is never fcen below; and, in Ihort, they may be thus 
 taken to fcveral places, to which human an hitherto 
 knew of no conveyance. 
 
 " The phUofophicalufes, to which thefe machines 
 may be fibfervicnt, are numerous indeed ; and it may 
 be fufilcient to fay, that hardly any thing which pallcs 
 in the atmofpherc is known with preciiion, and that 
 principally for want of a method of afccnding into it. 
 The formation of rain, of thundcr-liorms, of vapours, 
 hail, lno\v,and meteors in general, require to be atlen- 
 tively examined and afccnained. The action of the 
 baromcter,therarefaftionand temperature of the air in 
 various regions, the dcfcent of bodies, the propagation 
 of found, &c. are fubjefts which all require a feries of 
 obl'ervations and exjieriments, the performance of 
 which could never have been properly cxpeCled be- 
 fore the difcovery of aeroftatic machines." 
 
 To thofeufes we may add the gratification of curiolity 
 and pleafureas a very llrong inducementtotlie practice 
 of an art, in which, with any tolerable degree of cau- 
 tion, there appears not to be the fmalleft danger. 
 Everyone who has tried the experiment teilifies, that 
 the beauty of tlie profpefl afforded by an afcent, or 
 , the pleafure of being conveyed through the atmof- 
 pherc, cannot be exceeded. No one has felt the 
 Icall of that giddinefs confcquent upon looking from 
 the top of "a very high building or of a precipice, nor 
 have they any of the licknefs ariling from the motion 
 of a vefl'cl at fca. Many have been carried by bal- 
 loons at the rate of 30, 40, or even 50 miles an hour, 
 without feeling the leaft inconvenience, or even agi- 
 tation of the wind ; the reafon of which is, that as 
 the machine moveswithnearlythevelocityof thewind 
 itfelf, they are always in a calm, and without uneali- 
 nefs. Some have apprehended danger from the elec- 
 tricity of the atmofpherc ; and have thought that a 
 flroke of lightning, or the fmalleft cleftric fpark, hap- 
 pening near a balloon, might fet fire to the inflamma- 
 ble air, and deftroy both the machine and the adven- 
 turers. Mr Cavalio has fuggefted fcveral conliderati- 
 ons for diminifliing apprehenlions of this kind. Bal- 
 loons have been already raifed in every feafon of the 
 year, and even when thunder has been heard, without , 
 injury. In cafe of danger, the aeronauts may either 
 dcfcend to the earth, or afcend above the region of the 
 clouds and thunder-ftorms. Delides, as balloons are 
 formed of materials that are not conductors of eledri- 
 city, they are not likely to receive ftrokes, efpccially 
 as by being encompalfed with air they itand infulated. 
 Mereover, inflammable air by itfelf, or unmixed with 
 a certain quantity of common air, will not burn ; fo 
 that if an clcrtric fpark (hould happen to pafs through 
 the balloon, it would not fet fire to the intiammable 
 air, unlcfs a hole was made in the covering. 
 
 The general principles of aerortation arc fo liitlc 
 different from thofe of hydroflatics, that it may fecui 
 fuperrtuous to inlift much upon them. It is a fac'l 
 univerfally known, That when a body is immerfedin any 
 fluid, if its weight be lefs than an equal bulk of that 
 fluid, it will rife to the furface ; but if heavier, it will 
 fink ; and if equal, it will remain in the place where it 
 
 205 
 
 A T 1 O N. 
 
 is left. For this reafon fmokc afcends into ihc atmo- 
 fpherc, and heated air in that which is colder. The ^% 
 afcent of the latter is fliown in a very eafy auJ fatis- Eipcn- 
 fadory manner by bringing a red-hot iron under one !^<^nt> 
 of the fcaksof a balance, l.y which the latter is in- *^''"'''^,c 
 flantl/ made to afcend ; for, as loon as the red-hot 'rV".' j ' 
 iron IS brougiu under the Icalc, the hot air being light- jjr. 
 cr than that which is colder, afccnds, and ftriAC!, the 
 bottom, which is thus impelled upwards, and the op- 
 pofite fcale defcends, as if a weight had been put in- 
 to it. 
 
 Upon this firaple principle depends the whole theo- 
 ry of aeroftation , for it is the fame thinp; whether wc 
 render the air lighter by introducing a quantity of 
 heat into it, or incloling a quantity of gas fpecifically 
 lighter than the common atmofpherc inacertainfpacc ; . 
 both will afcend, and for the fame reafon. A cubic 
 foot of air, by the moft accurate experiments, has 
 been found to weigh about jJ4 grains, and to be ex- 
 panded by every degree of heat, marked on Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer, about -J 5th part of the whole. 
 By heating a quantity of air, therefore, to 500 de- 
 grees of Fahrenheit, we will juft double its bulk when 
 the thermometer Hands at 54 in the open air, and in 
 the fame proportion we will dimiuillt its weight ; and 
 if fuch a quantity of this hot air be inclofed in a bag, 
 that the excels of the weight of an equal bulk of com- 
 mon air weighs more than the bag with the air con- 
 tained in it, both the bag and air will rife into the at- 
 mofpherc, and continue to do fo until thej^arrivc at a 
 place where the external air is naturally fomucb ra- 
 refied that the weight becomes equal ; and here the 
 whole will float. 
 
 The power of hot air in railing weights, or rather 
 that by which it is itfelf impelled upwards, may be 
 fliown in the following manner : Roll up a Iheet of 
 paper into a conical form, and, by thrufting a pin in- 
 to it near the apex, prevent it from unrolling. Fafltn 
 it then, by its apex, under one of the fcales of a ba- 
 lance by means of a thread, and, having properly 
 counterpoifed it by weights, put it into the oppofitc 
 fcale ; apply the tjaine of a candle underneath, yon 
 will inltantly perceive the cone to arife, and it will not 
 be brought into equilibrium with the other but by a 
 nmch greater weight than thofe who have never feen 
 the experiment would believe. If wc try this experi- 
 ment with more accuracy, by getting proper recep- 
 tacles made which contain determinate quantities of 
 air, wc will find that the power of the heat depends 
 much more on the capacity of the big which contains 
 it than could be well fuppofcd. Thus, let a cubical 
 receptacle be made of a fmall wooden frame covered 
 with paper capable of containing one foot of air, and 
 let the power of a candle be tried with this as above 
 direded for the paper cone. It will then be found that ^. 
 a certiin weight may be raifed ; but a much greater RarcVieii- 
 one will be raifed by having a receptacle of the (ame »>t iailoout- 
 kind which contains two cubic feet; a ftill greater ""F**"" ''* 
 by one of three feet ; a yet greater by one of four feet, "'* " 
 &c. and this even though the very fame candle be ujjjj^^ 
 made ufe of ; nor is it known to what extent even 
 the |jower of this fmall flame might be carried. 
 
 From thefe experiments it appears, that in the aero- 
 ftatic machines conftrucled on Slontgolfier's plan, it 
 mull be an advantage to have them as large as polGblc ; 
 
 bccaufc
 
 206 
 
 AEROSTATION 
 
 40 
 
 How bul- 
 
 bcc;uife afmaller quantity of fire will then liavea great- 
 er tifctl in railing thtni, and tlic danger Irum that 
 clement, which in thiskindot machines li eh ietiy to be 
 dreaded, will be in a great nicafure avoided. On this 
 Iuon?niij;ht fubjett it may be reuiarked, that as the cubical con- 
 rile Ly the tents of a globe, or any other figure of w liich balloons 
 common a,-g niadc, incrcaic much more rapidly than their fur- 
 ." r J faces, there mull ultimately be a degree of niairni- 
 ' tudc at which the Imalleit imaginable heat would raiic 
 any weight whatever. Thus, liippoliiig any acrollalic 
 machine capable of containing 500 cubic feet, and the 
 air within it to be only one degree hotter than the ex- 
 ternal atmof|i]icre ; the tendency of this machine to 
 rife, even without the application of artificial heat, 
 would be near an ounce. Let its capacity be increafcd 
 16 limes ; and the tendency toarifc will be equivalent 
 10 a pound, though this may be done without making 
 the machine 16 times heavier than before. It is cer- 
 tain, however, that all aerollatic machines have a ten- 
 dency to produce or preferve heat within them, which 
 would by no means be imagined by thoie who have 
 netmaucthe experiment. When Mell'rs Charles and 
 Roberismade their longclT; aerial voyage of 150 miles, 
 they had the curiolity to try the temperature of the 
 air w iiliin their balloon, in comparifon with that of 
 the external atmofphere; and at tiiis time they found, 
 that when the external atmofphere was 63", the ther- 
 juometer, within the balloon lloodatr04''.Such adiffer- 
 enccof temperature mull have given a machine of the 
 magnitude w-hich carried them a conliderable afcend- 
 ing powerindependent of any other caufe, as it amount- 
 ed to 41 grains on every cubic foot ; and therefore in 
 a machine containing 50,000 fucli feet would have 
 been alniofl 200 pounds. Hence we may ealily ac- 
 count for what happened at Dijon, and is recorded by 
 Mr Morveau. " A balloon, intended to be liUcd wiili 
 inflammable air, being completed, was, by way of 
 trial, filled with the common air, and in that flate ex- 
 iiuotheat- pofed to ihc atmofphere. Kow it was obfcrved, and 
 mofphcre. indeed a limilar obfcrvation had bc^n made before, 
 that the air witliin the balloon was much hotter than 
 the circumambient air : the ihermometerin the former 
 floodat 120" ; whereasin thclattcr, even when the fun 
 (hone upon it, the thcrmomete-r Hood at 84c This 
 Ihowed a conliderable degree of rarefaction within the 
 balloon ; and confequently it was fufpeded, that by 
 means of this rarefadion alone, efpecially if it were 
 to increafe a little, the balloon miglit afccnd. On the 
 poth of May, about noon, the wind being rather 
 flrong, agitated the balloon lb that two men were em- 
 ployed to take care of it ; but notw^ith (landing all 
 their endeavours, itefcaped from its confinement, and, 
 lifting up about 65 pounds weight of cords, equato- 
 rial circle, &c. role many feet high, and, palfing over 
 fome houfcs, wenttothe dillance of 250 yards, where 
 at length it was properly fecured." 
 
 This difference between the external and internal 
 lieat of ilie heat being fo very conliderable, mud have a great in- 
 ballonnshai fluence upon acrollalic machines, and \\ ill undoubtedly 
 great u;fiu- influence thofe filled with inflammable air as well as ihe 
 "",*" other kind. Nor is it unlikely, that the fhort time 
 
 41 
 A halloon 
 at Dijon 
 rifcs thus 
 
 41 
 
 Internal 
 
 ages. 
 
 w hich many aerial voyagershave been able to continue 
 in the aniofpherc, may have been owing to the want 
 of a mtthod of picfcrving this internal heat. It may 
 naturally be fappofed, and indeed it has always been 
 
 Principles. 
 
 found, that balloons, in palling through thehighcr re- 
 gions of tjic aimofphere, acquire a very conliderable 
 quantity of nioilturc, not only trom the rain or fnow 
 they fomciimes U)cet w ith, but even from tlie dew and 
 vapour which condenfes upon them. On this an eva- 
 poration will inllaiilly take place ; and as it is the pro- 
 perty of this operation to produce a very violent cold, 
 the internal heat of the balloon muil befoon cxhauftcd 
 in fuch ainanner as to make it become fpccifically hea- 
 vier than the common atmofphere, and confequently 
 defcend in a much Ihortcrtime than it would have done 
 by the mere lofs of air. To this, in all probability, orcal ten- 
 we are to afcribe the defcentof the balloon which ear- dtncy of 
 ried MclfrsBlanchard and JcfFrics ; and which feemed Mr Khn- 
 fo extraordinary to mauy people, that they were ob- chard's bal- 
 liged to have recourfe to an imaginary attraiflion in '""" '° "*'■ 
 
 the waiers of the ocean in order to folvc the nheno- '^'^" ^?' 
 -^L- 1 /- • • ■ n \ < TL, K- . counted 
 
 nienon. This (uppolition is rejected by Mr Caval- f^^ 
 
 lo ; who explains the matter by remarking, that in 
 two former voyages made with the fame machine, 
 it could not long fupport two men in the atmofphere ; 
 fo that we had no occafion to wonder at its wcakncfs 
 on this occafion.. '< As for its riling higher (fays he) 
 jufl when it got over the land, that maybe ealily ac- 
 counted for. In the firfl place, the two travellers 
 threw out their clothes jull about that time ; fecondly, 
 in conlequenceof the wind's then increafing, the bal- 
 loon travelled at a much greater rate than-it had done 
 whilll over the fea ; which increafe of velocity leil'ened 
 its tendency to defcend : bclidcs which, the vicillitudes 
 of heat and cold may produce a very conliderable cf- 
 fccl ; for if we fuppofe, that the air over the land was 
 colder than that over the fea, the balloon coming into 
 the latter from the former, continued to be hotter than 
 the circumambient air for fome time after ; andcoafe- 
 qucntly, it was comparaiivcly much lighter when i:i 
 the cold air over the lanih, than when in the hotter air . 
 over the fea ; hence it floated ealierin the former than 
 in the latter cafe." 
 
 It fecnis indeed very probable, that there was fome- 
 thing uncommon in the cafe of Mr Blanchard's balloon 
 while palling over the fea ; for, asit rofehighcr after 
 reaching the land than in any former period of the 
 voyage, andlikcwife carried them to the diflancc over 
 land more than half of that which they had palled over 
 water, we can fcarcc avoid fuppoling, that it had a 
 tendency to defcend when over the water more than 
 when over land, independent of any lofsof air. Isow, 
 it does not appear that the air over the fea is at all 
 warmer than that above land ; on the contrary, there 
 is every reafon to believe, that the fuperior refleclive 
 power of the land renders the atmofphere above it 
 warmer than the fea can do ; but it is very natural to 
 fuppofe, that the air above the fea is more moifl than 
 that above land , and confequently by letting fall its 
 moifture upon the balloon, mull have occalioned an e- 
 vaporation that would deprive the machine of itsiiuer- 
 nal heat, which it would partly recover after it entered 
 the warmer and drier atmofphere over land. 
 
 We Ihall now proceed to the conflrudion of aero- Co„a_ic. 
 flatic machines; of which the fmaller are only fur a- tiouof ae- 
 mufcment, or fome flight experiments, and arc very roibticma- 
 ealily made. As in all of them, however, it is of the chines, 
 utmoll cenfequence to have the W'tight as little as pof- 
 fible, the Ihaps becomes anubjeft of great conlidera- 
 
 tion.
 
 Pradice. 
 
 AEROSTATIC N. 
 
 45 tion. For tliis purpofc a fphciical lij^iire has been ma- 
 Of their theniaticall/ dtinoultratcd to be the btll ; as capable of 
 fliape. containing a greater quantity under a Imalkr furface 
 
 than any other. Thus a ptrieit fphcrc contains Icfs 
 furface in proportion to its lolidity than a I'pheroid ; a 
 fphcroid Icfs than a cylinder ; the latter Icfs than i 
 cube ; and a cube Uiil lefs than a paralUlopipcd. In. 
 all cafes, therciore, where wc can till the whole capa- 
 city of the balloon with air equally light, thefphtrical 
 figure is undoubtedly to be preferred ; and this holds 
 good with regard to all inflammable air-balioons, whe- 
 ther their (iiie be great or fmall ; but in the rarefied 
 -airones, where the under part niullnecellarily be much 
 colder than the upper, the globular ihape feems not fo 
 " proper. An inverted cone, or tVuncatcd pyramid, with 
 the fmaller part undermolf, feems then to be molt pro- 
 per, as it allows the heated air (which has a great ten- 
 dency to expand as well as to afcend) to collect in the 
 wide part at the top, while the ufelefs furface in the 
 lower part, and which, in any oliicrligurc, would con- 
 tain only the colder and heavier air, is thus thrown 
 alide. in fadt it has been founii, that aeroltatic ma- 
 chines, raifed by means of rarefied air, when made of 
 the <hapc of a parallelepiped, or even one deviating 
 fliUmore from the Ihapcof aglobe, havcanfwered the 
 purpofe as well as they could have been luppofcd to 
 do, had ever fo much care been taken in fcirming them 
 cxadly to that ihapc. The very hril machine made 
 by Mr Montgollicr was in form ot a parallelopiped ; 
 and though it contained only 40 cuijic feet, Ihowed a 
 very confiderable power of afcent. A very large one, 
 74 feet high, which Mr MontgoUier had dcligned to 
 exhibit before the royal family, had the middle part of 
 it prifmaiic for about the height of 2{ feet; its top 
 was a pyramid of 29 feet : and its lower part was a 
 truncated cone of near 20 feet. It weighed icoo 
 pounds ; and, notwithflanding its Ihape, in a very ihort 
 lime nianifelled a power of alcent equal to joo pounds. 
 Another aeroltatic machine of a fmaller iVic, but of the 
 figure of a parallelopiped, being futfered to afcend 
 with 30 fliccts of oiled paper fixed to a wire frame, 
 and fet on fire, role to a great height, and in 22 nn- 
 nutes could not be fcen. Ii feems therefore, that, w itli 
 regard to the Ihape of thefe machines, it is by no means 
 necellary to adhere rigidly to that of a fphere ; but 
 , that any oblong form anfwers very well. 
 Materials. ^'"^ experimental purpofes, both tiie inflammable 
 and rarefied air-balloons may be made of paper ; the 
 former being made of that kind called thm-poji, var- 
 nilhcd over with linfecd-«il ; the latter either of that 
 or any other kind, without varnilh. Inordir to avoid 
 the danger of burning, however, it has been propi.)fed 
 to impregnate the paper of which thefe linall rarefied 
 air-balloons are made with folution of fal-ammoniac, 
 alum, or fome other filt ; but this does not feem to be 
 neceirary. rhofc tilled with iiitiammablc air have been 
 made of gold-beater (kin or peeled bladders ; but ihe 
 ^^ cheaper muerial of paper is undoubtedly preferable. 
 13e(lvarni(h Kor aeroltatic michiiiesof a larger lize, the material 
 for li.nam- uiiiverf illy employed is vamilhed lilk ; and for thofeof 
 mj|)k-air the rarefied-air kind, linen painted over with foiue (Izc 
 ■m.rj'inff f'"'"'' "^ •"^'^J ^ith paper. The bell varnilh for an 
 to Mrde '■ili-immable air-balloon is that made with bird-lime, 
 St I'oiiJ. ^"J recommended by Mr Kaujas de Saim-Fond, in a 
 treatilc pablilhcd on the fubjcct. The following is his 
 
 207 
 
 method of preparing it : " Take one pound of bird- 
 lime, put it into a new proper earthen pot that can re- 
 lit! the fire, and let it boil gently for about one hour, 
 viz. till it ceafes to crackle ! or, which is the fame 
 thing, till it is fo far boiled, as that a drop of it being 
 let fall upon the fire will burn: then pour upon it a 
 pound of fpirits of turpentine, ftirring it at the fame 
 time with a vvooden fpatula, and keeping the pot at a 
 good diltance from the fiame, leaft the vapour of this 
 cll'eniialoil Ihould take fire. After this, let it boil lor 
 about lix minutes longer ; then pour upon the whole 
 three pounds of boiling oil of nuts, linfccd, or poppy 
 rendered drying by means of litharge ; llir it well, let 
 it boil for a quarter of an hour longer, and the varnilh 
 is made. After it has retted for 24 hours, and the 
 fediment has gone to the bottom, decant it into ano- 
 ther pot ; and when you want to ufe it, warm, and ap- 
 ply it with a fiat brulh upon the lilk llutf, whilll that 
 is kept well flretched. One coatofitmay be futfi- 
 cient ; but if two arc necellary, it will be proper to 
 give one on each tide of the lilk, and to let them dry 
 in the open air while the tilk remains extended." 48 
 
 Mr Cavallo gives the following method of preparing Mr Caval- 
 this varnilh, which he prefers to that of M. d St '"'* "'"=" 
 Fond — " In order to render linleed-oil drying, boil * 
 it with two ounces of faceharum faturni and three 
 ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil 
 has dillblved them, which will beaccomi>lilhcd in half 
 an hour ; then put a pound of birdlime and half a 
 pint of the drying oil into a pot (iron or copper pots 
 are the fafell for this purpofe), the capacity of which 
 may be equal to about one gallon, and let it boil very 
 gently over a ilow charcoal fire till the birdlime ceafes 
 to crackle, which will be in about half or three quar- . 
 ters of an hour; then pour upon it two pints and a 
 half more of drying oil, and let it boil for one hour 
 longer, flirring it very frequently with an iron or 
 wooden fpatula. As the varnilh, whilll boiling, and 
 cfpecially when it is nearly done, fwells very much, 
 care ihould be had to remove, in thofe cafes, the pot 
 from the fire, and to replace it when the variiillifub- 
 lides, otherwife it will boil over. Whiltl the Ituffis 
 boiling, the operator Ihould, from lime to time, ex- 
 amine whether the varnilh has boiled enough ; which 
 is thus known: — Fake fome of it upon the blade ofa 
 knit'e, and then, after rubbing the blade of another 
 knite upon it, fcparate the knivts ; and when on this 
 feparation,thc varnilh begins to form threads between 
 the two, you may conclude that it is done ; and, 
 without l0')liuj;time, ifmutl be removed from the fire. 
 When it isalmolt, tliongh not quite, cold, add about 
 an equal quantity of fpirit of turpentine: mix it 
 well togcrher and let it rcil till the next day ; when, 
 having warmedit a little, llrain and bottle it. It 
 it is too thick, add fome more fpirit of turpentine. 
 When this varnilh is liid upon the tilk, the il iif 
 fliould be made perfectly dry, and llretchcd ; fo that 
 the varnilh, which ought io be nfed lukewarm, may 
 till up the pores of the llutf. The varnilh Ihould be 
 laid once very thin upon one fide of the ftulF. anJ 
 about 12 hours after, twoothcr coats of it ihould be 
 laid on, one on each tide ; and, 24 hurs after, the 
 lilk maybe iifed, thouj;h in cold weather, it m.ay be 
 left to .Iry fome time longer." 
 
 Much has becu faidiu France of their elaltic giun- 
 
 \anmli.
 
 203 
 
 AEROSTAT ION. 
 
 Practice. 
 
 varniili, and its compoCitioa kept a ftcrct ; but Mr 
 Baldwin, after many cxpcnlivc iiials, declares to the 
 world what heconfidersas the fecrct; and ii is merely 
 this: "Take any quantity oi" caoutchouc, as two ounces 
 avcrJupois ; cut it into fmall bits with a pair of fcif- 
 fars ; put a flrong iron ladle (like that ufcd by plum- 
 bers) over a common pitcoal or other (ire. The lire 
 muft be gentle, glowing, and without fmokc. \yhcii 
 the ladle is hot, much below a red heat, put a lingle 
 bit into the ladle. If h/ack fmokc ilfucs, it will prc- 
 fently rtainc and difippear, or it will evaporate with- 
 out Uamc : the ladle is then too hot. When the 
 ladle is Icfs hot, put in a fccond bit, which will pro- 
 ilucc a 'Jikiti fmokc. This -white fnioke will continue 
 during the operation, and evaporate the caouthoac : 
 therefore no time is to be loll ; but little bits are to 
 be put in, a few at a time, till the whole are melted. 
 It Ihould be continually and gently Ibrred with an 
 iron or brafs fpoon. Two pounds or one quart of 
 the bed drying oil (or of raw linfeed-oil, which, to- 
 gether with a few drops of ncats-foot oil, has Hood a 
 month, or not fo long, on a lump of quicklime, to 
 make it more or lefs drying), is to be put into the 
 melted caoutchouc, and Itirred till hot, and the whole 
 poured into a glazed vcffel, through a coarfe guaze or 
 tins fieve. When fettled and clear, which will be in 
 afewminutes, it will befit for ufe either hot or cold." 
 Mr Baldwin is not at liberty, heobferves, topublifli 
 the art of laying on the vaniiih: but fays, that it con- 
 lirtsin mik'mgnoJriteJItNe m'ltioii in the varnilh, which 
 ■would create ni».ute bubbles ; that therefore brulhes 
 are improper.MrBlanchard'smethodof making elalHc- 
 gum varnilh for the lilk of a balloon, is the following. 
 " Diffolve elaflic gum (caoutchouc) cut fmall in five 
 times its weigh t-cffpiriiof turpentine, by keeping thera 
 fomedays together ; then boil on,c ounce oi this folu- 
 tion in eight ounces of drying linfeed-oil tor a few mi- 
 nutes J lalUy, ftrain it. It mull be ufcd warm." The 
 pieces of filk for the balloon mull be cut out of a pro- 
 per fize, according to the dimenlions, after the varnilh 
 is fufficicntly dry. They may be joined by laying 
 about half an inch of the edge of one piece over the 
 edge of the other, and fewing them by a double flitch- 
 ing. Mr Blanchard ufes cxpeditioully the following 
 method. He lays about half an inch of the edge of 
 one piece flat over the edge of the other, and palfes a 
 hot iron over it ; in doing which a piece of paper 
 ought to be laid both under and over the lilk. The 
 joining may be rendered more fecure by running it 
 with a filkthread, and flicking a ribband over it. The 
 ribbands laid over feams may be lluck with common 
 glne, provided the varnilh of the lilk is properly dried. 
 When the glue is quite dry, the ribbands Ihould be 
 varniQied over, to prevent their being unglaed by the 
 *9 . rain. 
 Of cutting .pjjg ^g^ method of cuttingthe pieces of filk that arc 
 fcra^elobe. '^ f"""™ ^ balldon, is to defcribe a pattern of wood orllitf 
 card-paper, and then to cut the lilk upon it. As the 
 edges of fuch a pattern are not perfeft circles, they 
 Plate III. cannot -be dcfcribed by a pair of compafles; but the 
 fig. j. beftmethodofdrawingthcm is as follows. Firll,draw, 
 
 on a dat fjrface two right lines AE and BC, per- 
 pendicular to each other. Secondly, find the cir*uu- 
 ference anfwering to the given diameter of the balloon 
 in feet and decimals of a foot ; and make AD and DE 
 
 each equal to a quarter of the circumference, fothat 
 the whole length AE of the pattern may be equal to 
 half the circumference. Thirdly, divided AD into i8 
 equal parts ; and to the points of divilion apply the 
 lines/<', hi, k/,Si.c. parallel to each other, and perpen- 
 dicular to AO. Fourthly, divide the whole circum- 
 ference in twice the given number of pieces, and make 
 DC and BB each equal to the quotient of this divi- 
 lion ; fo that the whole, BC, is equal to thcgrcatelt 
 breadth of oneof ihefe pieces. Fifthly, multiply the 
 abovemcntioned quotient by the decimals annexed to 
 Ji^', viz. 0.99619, and then the product exprelfes the 
 length ofy^ ; again multiply the fame length of DE 
 by the decimals annexed to hi, and the produ£l cx- 
 prelies the length of hi ; and, in fliort, the produft 
 ariling from the multiplication of the length of DC by 
 the decimals annexed to each of the 4)arallel lines, 
 gives the length of that line. Lallly, having found 
 the lengths of all thefe lines, draw by hand a curve- 
 line palling through all the extremities of the faid 
 lines, and that is the edge of one quarter of the pat- 
 tern. The other quarters may be ealily dcfcribed, by 
 applying to them apiece of paper cut according to 
 
 that already found Suppofe, for example, that the 
 
 diameter of the balloon to be conllrucled is 20 feet, 
 and that it is required to make it of 1 2 pieces : then, 
 in order to draw the pattern for thofe pieces, find the 
 circumference of the balloon, which is 62.83 feet, and, 
 dividing it by four, the quotient is IJ.7 feet ; make 
 therefore AD equal to 15.7 feet, and DE likewife of 
 the fame length. Divide the circumference 63.8 3 by 
 34, which is double the number of pieces that are to 
 form the balloon, and the quotient, 3.618 feet, is the 
 length of DC and likewife of BD ; fo that BC is 
 equal to 5.236 feet. Then, having divided the line 
 AD into 18 equal parts, and having drawn rhc paral- 
 lel lines from thofe points of divifion, find the length 
 of each of thofe lines by multiplying 2.618 by the de- 
 cimals annexed to that line. Thus, 2.618, multiplied 
 by 0.99619, gives 2.608 feet for the length ofy^ ; and 
 again, multiplying 2.618 by 0.98481, gives 3.578 
 feet for the length of hi ; and fo of the reil. — In cut- 
 ting the pieces after fuch a pattern, care fhould be 
 taken to leave them about three quarters of an inch all 
 round larger than the pattern, which will be taken up 
 by the feams. 
 
 To the upper part of the balloon there (hould be 
 adapted, and well fitted in, a valve opening inwards ; 
 to which Ihould be faflened a firing palhng through 
 a hole made in a fmall piece of round wood fixed in 
 the lower part ot the balloon oppollte to the valve, the 
 end of this llring faftened to the car below, fo that the 
 aeronaut may open the valve when occafion requires. 
 The action of this valve may be underflood from fig. 6. 
 A round brafs plate AB has a round hole CD, about 
 two or three inches diameter, covered on both fides 
 with ftrong fraooth leather. On the inlide there is a 
 Ibutter E, alfa of brafs, covered with leather, which is 
 to clofe the hole CD ; being about two inches larger 
 in di imeter than the hole. It is faftened to the lea- 
 ther of the plate AB ; and by a fpring, which need 
 not be very ilrong, it is kept againft the hole. The 
 elaflicity of the gas itfelf will help to keep it (hut. 
 To this Clutter the firing is faftened, by which it is 
 occAiionally opened for the efcape of gas. A fmall 
 
 ftring
 
 y/a,/ 
 
 •^^^ 
 
 ^^/c^ 
 
 
 %> 
 
 .frois'l'irs 
 
 A£Ii OS TA TJOK 
 
 Plat cm 
 
 . /to ,j 
 
 X 
 
 '-"% 
 
 % 
 
 -0,087 1 ♦> 
 
 -0.1 7,16 ; 
 
 o.«588a 
 
 0.34 a oa 
 
 -0.5 
 
 ■0.47 358 
 -0.64 « -9 
 
 o. 7 o 7 1 1 
 
 "^1^ 
 
 ■\ 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 \N 
 
 )' 
 
 / 
 
 Sv 
 
 •ir 
 
 ""^^'"^-...,^,.^//,^■cvi""^•" 
 
 ..<•'" 
 
 , ^/y Z^'' ? D^ 
 
 0.76^04 
 .81 91 5 
 ,8660 J 
 
 4".. /.Vv . >n4/fi. ^Ati/^f
 
 Practice. A E P. O S 
 
 firing or oilier fecuriry liio lUI l.t fjxcjtoilic (hnUcr 
 and the platt, fo as not to adirit the iiiuttcr to be o- 
 ptiicd beyond a certain fafe dillaiice. To the lower 
 part ot' the balloon two pipes fliould be fixed, made of 
 the fame ftutf'as the envelope; 6 inches disnicttr for 
 a balloon of 50 feet, and proportionally lati;er for l)al- 
 loonsof a greater capacity. 1 hey niufl be loi;g enough 
 for the car. For balloons rf t!J feet and Icfs diame- 
 ter, one neck or pipe will be fiifiiciciit. Thefe pipes 
 arc the apertures through which die inflammable gas 
 is introduced into the balloon. 
 
 The car or boat is bell made of wicker-work, cover- 
 ed with leather, and well painted or varnilhed over ; 
 and the proper mcthcJ of fiifpending it, is by ropes 
 proceeding from the nee which goes over the balloon. 
 This net llionld be formed to the fhapc of the balloon, 
 -and fall down :o the middle of it, with various cords 
 proceeding from it to the circumi'erencc of a circle a- 
 bout two feet below the balloon ; and from that circle 
 other ropes (liould go to the edge of the boat. This 
 circle may be made of wood, or of fevcral pieces of 
 flendcr cane bound together. The melhes of the net 
 may be fmall at top, again.t which part of the bal- 
 loon the inflammable air exerts the greatell force ; 
 and increafc in lize as they recede fVoai the top. A 
 hoop has fometimes been applied round the middle of 
 the balloon to fallen the net. This, though not ab- 
 folutely nccellary, is bcfl made of pieces of cane bound 
 together, and covered with leather. 
 
 With regard to the narefied-air machines, Mr Ca- 
 vallo recommends firfl to foak the eloih in a folution 
 of fal ammoniac and common lize, ulingone pound of 
 each 10 every gallon of water ; and when the cloth 'u 
 quite dry, to paint it over in the iKiiJe with fomc 
 earthy colour, and flroiig fize or glue. M'hen this 
 paint has dried perfcclly, it will then be pr^iper to 
 varnifh it with oily varnilh, which miglu dry before it 
 could penetrate ipiite through the cloth. Simple dry- 
 ing linfced oil will anfwer the purpofc as well as any, ■ 
 provided it be nV)t very fluid. 
 
 It now only remains to give fome account of the 
 method by which aeroflatic machines may be tilled 
 with tluir proper gas, in order to give them their 
 powtr of afcendinginio the atmofphere ; and here we 
 are enabled to determine with much greater preciflon 
 conceri'.ing the inflannv.able-air balloons than the o- 
 Methodsof odiers. \\ iih regard to then, a primary conlidcration 
 procuring jj^ iln; mod proper mcthoJ of procuring the inflamma- 
 ble air. It may be cbt.incd in various ways, as has been 
 Ihown under the article Aerot-ocy : But the mofl 
 advantageous methods are, by applying acids to cer- 
 tain metals ; by cxpofing animal, vi getablc, and fonic 
 niineral fidiftances, in a clofc vcii'el to a ftrong fire ; 
 or by tranfmiitiugthcvapourof certain fluids ihrough 
 red-Slot tubes. 
 
 I. In the firfl of thefe methods, iron, zinc, and 
 vitriolic acid, are the materials moll generally ufed. 
 The vitriolic acid mufl be dihiied by live or lix parts 
 of water. Iron may be expected to yield in the com- 
 mon way 1700 times its own bulkof g.is ; or one cubic 
 iootof inflaniiiiable air to be produced by 4; ounces of 
 iron, the like weight of oil of \itriii'., and 22; oun 
 
 T A T I O N. 
 
 proptr to ufc thi turnings or chipping? of great piece » 
 of iron, as of canno:i, uc. than the lilings of that 
 metal, becaufc the heat atieadiji;; the ctfc: vcictncc 
 will be diuiinifiied : and the diluted acid will pafs 
 more readily -through tiic intcrlticcs of tlic turnings 
 when they are heaped together, than through the fc- 
 liiigs, which flick clofcr 10 one anot!-cr. The weight 
 of tlie jnriamuiablc air thus obtained by means of aciil 
 of vitriol, is, in the common way of procuring it, ge- 
 nerally one fcventh pari of the weight of conin.on air ^ 
 but with the nccelliry precautions for philofophical 
 experiment.;, Itls tiian o.'ic-tenih of the weight ot 
 common air. Two other forts of elaftic fluids arc 
 fometimes generated \\ith the intiammable air. Thcfc 
 may be feparated from it by palling the inflammable 
 air through water in which quicklime has been dillbl- 
 ved. The water will abforb thefc tiuids, cool the in- 
 liammable air, and prevent its over-heatiag the bal- 
 loon v.hen introduced into it. 
 
 Fig. 7. of Plate 111. rcprcfents an apparatus dc- 
 fcribcd by MrCavalloas proper for tilling balloons of 
 the fize of two or three feet in diameter with inflam- 
 mable air, after palTing it through water — A is the 
 bottle with the i:igredients ; ^CD a tube fullencd ia 
 the neck at B, and paiUng through C, the cork of the 
 other bottle, in which there is another hole made to 
 receive tl.e ti'be on which the balloon is tied. Thus it 
 
 209 
 
 50 
 
 Of filling 
 aeroliatic 
 mschiiics. 
 
 51 
 
 iuflamma' 
 ble air. 
 
 is plain, tJiat the inflammable air coming oat of the 
 tube D will pafs firft through the water of the bottle 
 K and then into the Ijalioon. Two finall cdks may 
 be ufed initeadof the bottles A and E. 
 
 2. Inflammable air may be obtained at a much 
 cheaper rate by theaCflionof tire on various fubllances ; 
 but the gas which tlicle yield is not fo light as that 
 produced by the effervefceucc of acids and metals. The 
 fubllances proper to be ufed in this way arc, pit-coal, 
 afphaltuni, amber, rock-oil, and other minerals : wood 
 and tfpecially oak, camphor-oil, fpiriis of wine, ctlier, 
 and animal fubllances, which yield air in dilferem de- 
 grees, and of various fpecitic gravities ; but pit-coal is 
 the preferable fubitance. A pound of this expofed to 
 a red heat, yields about three cubic feet of inHaramaWe 
 air, wliich, whether it be palFcd through watcrornot. 
 Weighs about one-fourth of the weight of common air. 
 Dr I'riefllcy found, as we have clfcwhere noticed, that 
 animal or vegetable fiibllances will yield fix or fcvcn 
 limes more inflammable air when the fire is fuddenlf 
 iiic.eafed than when it is gently railed, thou;;h if be 
 afterwards made very I'.rong. Mr Civaiio oblerves, 
 that the various fubitanccs nbove enumerated general- 
 ly yield all their inflammable air in about one hour's 
 lime. The general method is, toinclofc the fubflances 
 in iron or earthen vell'els, and thus expofe thcni to a 
 flrong lire lafiicient to make the veifcls red-hot : the 
 inHamiiiable air proceeding from the aperture of the 
 velfel is received intoa tube or rcfiigeraiory,and,pal8- 
 ing through the tube or worm, is at lall collc.itd in a 
 balloon or other veH'cl. A gun barrel has often l<eu 
 nfed for elf.ys of this kind. The fabUance is put into 
 it fo as to fill fix or ci^rht inches of its loweft part, the 
 remainder tilled with ilry fan 1 : a tube, adapted to 
 the mouth of the barrel, is brouirht i:iro a balou of 
 
 ccsofwa'cr. Six ounces of zinc, an equal wtightof water under an inverted reriivcr ; and the part ot ihc 
 
 oil of vitriol, and ;o ounces of water, are neciffary barrel containing the fcbllancc i'eing put into the 
 
 for producing the fatoe quantiiy of gas. It is more fire and nmdc red-hot, the inflammable air is col- 
 
 VoL.l. Dd lectcd
 
 2(0 
 
 A K Tv O S T A T I O N. 
 
 Pradice. 
 
 lcii*c(l ill ilic iuvcricd receiver. As tlic giiu-b.irrcl can- 
 not fcrvc tor producing.'. lar^'ciiiiiiiitily <)t"iiillai:imal>!c 
 air, Mr Cavallorecoimncr.Js, as the iiioil advantageous 
 fhape, I he following contrivance : — Let the vcllel be 
 made of clay, or ra:hcr of iron, in the Ihape ot" a KJu- ' 
 rciicc tlalk, fomcwhat larger, and whole neck is longer 
 and larger. (Sec ABC, tig. 8.) Put the fubllaiice to be 
 ufed into this vcflil, foaito till about fnur-iirths or Ids 
 ot its cavity ."^15. If the fiibilaiice is of fuch a nature 
 as to fwell much by the a,Mion of the fire, lute a tube 
 of brafs, or iirft a bi afs and tiun a leaden tube, to the 
 itct-k C of the vell'el; and let the cud D of the tube be 
 Jhapcdasin the ligurc, fo that going into the water of a 
 tub in, it may ternii.iaiv; under a fort of inverted vcf- 
 ftl tl", to the upper aperture of which the balloon Ci 
 is adapted. Thinjs thus prepared, if the part Ali of 
 the vclit-l is put into the fire, and made rt d-liot, the in- 
 flamiHHble air produced will come out of the lube CD, 
 and palling through the Water willatlall enter into the 
 balloon G. Previous to the operation, as a conlider- 
 ablc quantity of common ; ir remains in the inverted 
 vclicl hF, which it is more proper to expel, tiic vcH'tl 
 EK fliould have a Itop-cock K, through which the 
 common air may be funked out, and the water afccnd 
 as high as the (top-cock. 1 he dimrnfions of fuch an 
 apparatus Mr Cavallo gives thus : Uian:cter of largelt 
 part of the velicl ABC fcven inches, length of whole 
 vcllil i6 inches; diameter of its aperture one inch, 
 diameter of the cavity of tube CD three-fourths of an 
 inch ; lower aperture of the vclicl EK llx inches, leall 
 height of the vtlfcl EK 2 , inches ; its aperture K about 
 tuo inches. The aperture of the veliil EK IhouUI be 
 atleaftone foot below the furface of the water in Hi. 
 Care muft be taken that the tire ufed in tliis procels be 
 at a fulllcient dillancc, othcrwife it \nay happen to tire 
 the iiitiammablc air which may efcape out of the vcdVI 
 EF. 
 
 3. The laft method of obtaining inflammable air was 
 lately difcovcred by Mr Lavoiliir, and alio by Dr 
 PrielUey. Mr Lavoilier made the lleam of boiling wa- 
 ter pafs through tlie barrel of a gun, kept red-hot by 
 burning coals. DrPricflley ufcs, inliead ol the gun- 
 barrel, a tube of red-hot br^.fs, ujion which the Ilcani 
 of water has no elFed:, and which he tills with the 
 picccsof iron which are fcparatedin the borintj of can- 
 non. By this method he obtains an inflammable air, 
 thefpccitic grav'ty of which is to that of coninion air 
 as I to 15. In this method, not yet indeed reduced 
 to general prafli.e, a tube, about three quarters of an 
 inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is tilled 
 with iron turnings; then the neck of a retort, or clofe 
 boiler, i^ luted to one of its ends, and the worm of a 
 rcfrigera'ory is adapted toils other extremity. The 
 middle part of the tube is then furroundcd with burn- 
 ing coals, fo as to keep about one foot in length of it 
 red-hot, and a tire is always made under the retort or 
 boiler fiifficicjit tonirike the water boil with vehemence 
 — In this proccfsa tonliderahle quantity of inflamma- 
 ble air conies out of ,he worm of the refrigeratory. It 
 is faid th"t iron yields one half more air by this means 
 than b^ the a.-lion of vitriolic acid. 
 
 For tiling large balloons, a greater apparatus is ne- 
 cellbry : and the only materials that can, withany cer- 
 tainty of fuccefs, be employed for producing the pro- 
 per gas, are, oil of vitriol, and iioii filings or.turnings . 
 
 It has indeed been recommended tonic zinc itiflead 
 of iron hliugs, bccaufc white vitriol, the fal: produced 
 by the union of the vitriolic acid and zinc, is much 
 more valuable than the green fort produced by the u- 
 nion of the fame acid with iron. But though this is 
 undoubtedly the cafe, it will as certainly be found, up- 
 on trial, that the lupcriorpricc of the zinc will be more 
 than an equivalent for all the advantage that can be 
 derived from the additional price of the white vitriol. ji 
 Kor a balloon of ^o feet diameter, Mr Cavallo rccom- Mr Caval- 
 mcnds 5900 pounds of iron turnings, as much oil of I"'' '■':<^'='P'' 
 vitriol, and 19,500 pounds of water. Thcl'e pro- 
 portions, however, appear too great with refpect to 
 the acid at'.d metal, and too little v.itli refpect to the 
 water. Oil of vitriol will not exert its power upon 
 iron unlcfsit be diluted witii five or (ix times its quan- 
 tity of water ; in which cafe, amuch fmallcr quantity ^3 
 of lx)th acid and metal will fervc. JMr Lunar^i, who ^t^ Lunar- 
 from the number ot his voyages had certainly much '^''^ •"'- 
 practical knowledge in aerolhition, filled his balloon t*^"''* 
 at Edinburgh and Glafgow with about 2000 pounds of 
 iron (the borings of cannon procured from Carron), 
 as much vitriolic acid, and 12,000 pounds of water. 
 The iron was placed in his vcii'cls in layers, with Itraw 
 between them, iti order to incrcale the furface. His 
 apparatus was not materially dillcrent from that of Mr 
 Cavallo, reprcfcntcd bottom of Plate I. fig. 3. where 
 AA arc two tubs, about three feet in diameter and 
 nearly two feet deep, inverted in large tubs BH filled 
 with water. In the bottom of each of the inverted 
 tubs a hole is made, and a tube E of tin adapted, which 
 is about feven inches in diameter, and feven or eight 
 long. To thefe tubes the lilken ones of the balloon 
 are to be tied. Round each of the tubs B, five, fix, 
 or more Arong calks are placed ; in the top of each 
 two holes are made, and to one of thefe holes a tin 
 tube is adapted, and lb fliaped, that, palling over the 
 edge of the tub B, and through tlie water, it may ter- 
 minate with its aperture under the inverted tub A. 
 The other hole of thefe calks ferves for the introduc- 
 tion of materials, and is flopped with a wooden plug. 
 When the balloon is to be tilled, put the net over it, 
 and let it be fufpenjed as Ihown by CDF ; and having 
 expelled all the common air from it, let the filkenrabes 
 be laflencd round the tin ones EE ; and the materials 
 being put into the calks, the inflammable air, pafling 
 into the balloon, will foon diflend, and render it ca- 
 pable of fupporting itfelf ; after which the rope GH 
 may be flipped off. As the balloon continues to be 
 filled, the net is ailjufled properly round it ; the cords 
 that furround it are faflcned to the hoop MN ; then 
 the boat IK being placed between the two fets of ' 
 cafks, is faflcned to the hoop MN, and every thing 
 that is required to be fen t up, as ballafl, intfrnmcnts, 
 &c. is placed in it. At lad:, when the balloon is little 
 more than three quarters full, ihc (ilkcn tubes are fe- 
 paratedfroni the tin ones of the inverted tubs, and their 
 extremities being tied up, are placed in the boat. 
 Laftly, the aeronauts being featcd in the boit, the la- 
 teral ropes are llipped of}, and the machine is abando- 
 ned to the air. (See Blanchard'i bailooii, Plate II.) 
 Tjiis apparatuswas at lafl reduced by Mr Lunardi to 
 its utmoli limplicity, by uling only two large calks,, 
 and fuffering the vapour to go into the balloon with- 
 out pafljng through water. Thus his balloon was filled 
 
 ia
 
 Practice. AERO: 
 
 in led than half an hoarj when, before, it liail requi- 
 red two iioui's at Icaft. The linking of his cafks in the 
 ground was alfo an additional convenience, as it created 
 no conftftion, and rendered tlie jiiatcrials much more 
 calily conveyed intotiicni. 
 orfiilin'T %\'ith regard to the rarcficd-air balloons, the method 
 rarsficd-airof iilling tlicm is as foUows. A fcafTold ABCD, tlic 
 bjllooni. lireadthof whichisatlcaft two-thirds ofthc diameter of 
 ihc machine, is elevated about lix or eight feet abo\e 
 titcground. From the middle of it defcenda a well E, 
 riliiii^ abcJt two or three feet above it, and reaching 
 to the ground, farnillicd with a door or two, througli 
 which the tire in the well is fnpplied with fuel. The 
 Well fliould be conflrufted of brick or of piallcrcd wood, 
 and its diameter fiiould be fomcwhat Icfs than that of 
 ilic machine. On each fide ofthc fcaftuld arc ereftcd 
 two niaRs HI, KL, each of which has a pulley at the 
 top, and rendered firm by means of ropes KG, KP, 
 HP, HG. Ths machine to be filled is to be placed 
 <m the fcailold, with the neck round the aperture of 
 the well. The rope pafling over the puUies of the 
 two mafls, ferves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the 
 balloon about 15 feet or more above the fcaff'old ; and 
 the refl of the machine is reprefented by the dotted 
 lines in the figure MNO. The machine is kept ftcady, 
 and held down, whilft filling, by ropes pafling through 
 loops or holes about its equator ; and thefe ropes may 
 calily be difengagcd from the machine, by dipping 
 tlieni througli the loops when it is able to fuftain it- 
 felf. The proper combuflibles to be lighted in the 
 well, are thofe wliich burn quick and clear, rather than 
 fuch as produce much fmoke ; becaufe it is hot air, 
 and not fmoke, that is required to be introduced into 
 the machine. Small wood and flraw have been fgund 
 to be very fit for thispurpofe. MrCavalloobferves, as 
 therefult of many experiments withfmallmaehines,that 
 fpirits of wine are npon the whole thebeftcombuflible; 
 but its price may prevent its being ufed for large ma- 
 chines. As the enrrcutofhotair afcends,the machine 
 will foon dilate, and lift itfelf above the fcafTold and 
 gallery which was covered by it. The pellengers, fu- 
 el, inllruments, &c. are then placed in tlie gallery. 
 When the machine mjkes efforts to afcend, its aper- 
 ture mud be brought, by means of the ropes annexed to 
 it, towards the fide of the well a little above the fcaf- 
 fold ; the fire-placcisthcnfiifpcndedinit, the firelight- 
 cd in the grate, and the lateral ropes being Hipped off 
 the machine is abandoned to the air. (See Mongotfi- 
 er'sballcon, Platell.) It has been determined by accu- 
 rate experiments, that only one-third of the common 
 air can be expelled from thefe large machines ; and 
 therefore the nfcending power of the rarefied air in 
 them can be eftimated as only equal to half an ounce 
 avcrdupoife for every cubic foot. 
 
 The conduft of balloons, when conftruifled, filled, 
 and aftually afcending in the atmofpherc, is an objeifl 
 of great importance in the praifliceof aeroftation. The 
 method generally ufed for elevating or lowering the 
 balloons with rarefied air, has been the incrcafe or di- 
 minution of the fir( ; and this is entirely at the com- 
 mand of the aeronaut, as long as he has any fiel in the 
 gallery. The inrtammable-air balloons have been go- 
 rally raifed or lowered by diniinifliing the weiirht in 
 the boat, or by letting out foinc of the gas tlirnigh 
 the valve : but the alternate cfcapc of the air in de- 
 
 T A T I O N. 
 
 fccnding, and difcliargc of the balluft for ifccnding, 
 will by degrees render tiic maciiincincapbableof float- 
 ing ; for in the air it is inipollible tu fupply the lofs of 
 ballaft, auj! very dilficult to fuppiy that of inriaiiimable 
 air. Thefe balloons will ;.lib riit or fall by means of 
 the rarefaition or coiidcnfai 1.1 of the inclofcd tir, oc- 
 cafioned by heat and cold. It lias been pru^iofej to 
 aid a balloon in its alicrnaie motion of afccni I'ud dc- 
 fccnt, by annexing to it a veliciof conni.0,1 aii witich 
 might be conJcafcd for lowering the machine, and ra- 
 refied again, by expelling part of it, for railing the 
 machine: But a vcllel ailapte.t to this purpolc mult 
 be veryltrong; and, aftt rail, the aliillancc afforded by 
 it would not be very conlidcrable. M. Mounicr, in or- 
 der to attain this end, propofes to inclofi o.ic bllon 
 filled with common air in another filled v. ith iniijiu- 
 niable air : as the balloon afcends, the infiammaLlc air 
 is dilated, and of courfe conir;; clfes the internal balloon 
 containing the common air ; and by diniinilhing its 
 quantity, leflens its weight. If it Ihonld be neceSary 
 to fuppiy this lofs, he fays it may be ealily done by a 
 pairof bellows fixed in the gallery. Others have pro- 
 pofed to annex a fmall machine w ith rarefied air to an 
 in flammable-air balloon by ropcs,at fnchadiftancc that 
 the fire ofthc former might not affccl the inflammable 
 .Tir of the latter: the whole apparatus, thus combined, 
 of balloons formed on the two principles of heated and 
 inflammable air, might be raifed or lowered by merely 
 increalingor diminilliing the fire in the lower balloon. 
 Wings or oars are the only means of this fort that have 
 been ufed with fome fuccefs ; and as Mr Cavallo ob- 
 fervcs, they feem to be capable of con fiderable improve- 
 ment. Although great efi'eds arc not to be expected 
 from them when the machine goes at a great rate, the 
 bell methods of moving thofe wings are by the hu- 
 man ftrength applied limilarly to the oars of a water- 
 man. They may be made in general of filk llrctched 
 between wires, tubes, or fticks ; and when ufed muft 
 be turned edgewife when they arc moved ia the direc- 
 tion in which the machine is intended to be impelled, 
 but flat in the oppofue dirciition. Fig. 9. Plate III. 
 is the reprefentation of one of Mr Blanehard's wings. 
 Fig. 10. is one of thofe ufed by Mr Lunardi, which 
 conlills of many lilk Ihutters or valves, ABCD, DECK, 
 &c. every one of which opens on one lide only, viz. 
 ADEC opens upon the line AB, DKCF opens upon the 
 line DC, &c. In confequenceof this conftruclion, this 
 fort of oars do not need being turned edgewife. Fig. 
 ir. reprefentb one of the wings ufed by the brothers 
 Roberts in the aerial voyage of the 19th September 
 I 784; and fig. 1 2. reprefentsone of the wingsconftrud- 
 ed by Count Zambeccari, which confifts of a piece of 
 lilk ftretched between two tin tubes fct at an angle ; 
 but ilitfe wings are fo contrived as to turn edgewife 
 by thcmfclves when they go on one direction. Other 
 conilvances have jcen m^.'e to cirtft aerollatic ma- 
 chines, but they ha»e moftly bee- invented to effctl a 
 power npon them as upon a lliip. It appears, however, 
 that they can have no cffeift when a machine is only 
 moved by the wind alone, becaufe the circumambient 
 air isatrtfl in rcfpect 10 the machine. The cafe is 
 quite dilTercnt with a vclFcl at fca, becaufe the water on 
 whish it iloats ftards whilft the vtlTcl goes on ; but it 
 mull be lime and expcr"ence that can reali/.e the ex- 
 pcLlaiions fuggeflcd by thefe v;onirivances 
 
 D d 3 AERSHOT, 
 
 21 I
 
 Aernio: 
 I 
 
 .'"E 3 C [21 
 
 AERSIiOT, a town in ihe NcihcrlanJs, in tlic 
 duchy of liral),iiu, iiui capital ofthc cUicliy ot .rttrlliot. 
 It is ItatcJ on ihc river Ucnuir, ten miles call ot'Ma- 
 ' lines or Mechlin, and eight north of Louv;iin. E, 
 Loiii;. J. 4. N. Lar. 51. 15. 
 
 ytlVUGlNOOS, an epithet gis'cn to fuch things as 
 rcreniblc or partake of the nature ut the mil of copper. 
 
 y£RUGO, in natural liiliory, pioperly li^iiiiirs the 
 rnllofcopprr, whether natural or artiilci.il. The for- 
 mer is found about copper Uiiiic:, and the latter, called 
 verdcgris, made by corroiling coppir-platcs with atiJs. 
 
 See /'i.Vr/i'^'lW. 
 
 ytKUSCATORES, in antiquity, akinJofftrol- 
 liiigbcg;;:irs, not unlikely plies, wiiudrcw money from 
 the creOidousby fortune-icHing,&c. It was alio a de- 
 nomination given to griping exaiilors, or colie<fiois of 
 tlie revenue. The Galli, or priefts of Cybclr, were 
 cM.i:A ^r II fu-toii;.! v.a^inc vmlns ; and ynTfa^tfTot;, oil 
 account of tlieir begging or colleciing alms in tlic 
 itreets ; to which end tlicy had little bells whereby 
 to draw people's attention to tliem, much like fomc or- 
 ders of mendicants in fomc parts of Jiurope. 
 
 AERY, or Airy, amonn; fportfmcn. See Ainv. 
 
 ^£s uxoRiUM, in ah ' I'Jity, a lum paid by bache- 
 lors, as a penalty for li .ng (ingle to old age. 1 his 
 rax for not marrying f*" 11s to have been firit inipofed 
 in the year of Rome ;50, under the cenforiliip of M. 
 Furius Camillas and M. Pollhumus. At the cenfus, 
 or revicv/ of the people, each pcrfon was afked, Ft tu 
 ex aiihita fcntcr.tia uxorcm h^xhis tibcruin ijuarenc'cir tan 
 caufa? He who had no wife was hereupon fined af- 
 ter a certain rate, called irs uxorinm. 
 
 JEs p<r ct I'ibraiii was a formula in the Roman law, 
 vhercby purchafcs and falcs arc ratified. Originally 
 the phrafe feems to have been only ufed in fpeaking 
 of things fold by weight, or by the fcalcs ; but it after- 
 v.-ards was uftd on other occalions. Hence even in a- 
 doptions, as there was a kind of imaginary purchafe ; 
 the fornuila whereof expreircd, that the perfon adop- 
 ted was bought per irs ct librani. 
 
 JEs Finvutn, yellow copper, among the Romans, an 
 tppcllation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs. 
 
 JEi Calday'tum, a term ufed by the German mincra- 
 Vifls, for a fubflance whirh fometimes occurs toiliofe 
 wlio work upon cobalt, and is ufed for the making the 
 fine blue colour calld/zAv//. 
 
 Ms VJhnn, a chemical preparation, made of thin 
 leaves of copper, fulphur, and nitre, fXiicKA Jiratnm 
 fufcr Pratum in a crucible, and fel in a charcoal fire 
 till all the fulphur is confumed ; after which, the cop- 
 per is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to power. 
 Some quench the leaves of copper ia vinegar, and re- 
 peat the calcination. .^Its principal ufe is in colouring 
 glafs, to which it gives a beautiful tindure. The fur- 
 geons ufe it as a detcrlive, and fomc have given it in- 
 ternally ; bu it is certainly a very dangerous medi- 
 fcine, and Ihoidd be avoided. 
 
 jtSC'HINES, a Socratic philofophcr, the fon of 
 Charinus a faufaTc-makcr. He was continually with 
 Socra\cs ; which occalioned thisphilofophertofay, that 
 the fauf.ige-makcr's fnnwas the only perion who knew 
 how to pay a due regard to him. it is faid that po- 
 verty obliged him to go to Sicily to Dionylius the Ty- 
 rant ; and that he met with great conti mpt from Plato, 
 butwasextremely well received byArilUppus ; to whom 
 
 J 
 
 yE S C 
 
 he Ihowed fouicof his diiilogues, and received from him ^fc!iylu». 
 
 a hauillomc reward. He would not venture toj-rofcls ^ ^ ' 
 
 I'liiiofophy at Athens, Flaiu and Ai illippus being in 
 luch liigli clleeni ; lyit he fet up a l.luxi to'maintain 
 hinilVlf. He afterwards wrote orations for ilie Forum. 
 I'hryiiicus, ill Photius, ranks iiim among the bcft ora- 
 tors; an<!^mcniions his orations as the Itandard of tlie 
 pureAtticlivle-HennogcLttshasalfofpokcii very higb- 
 
 l_y*of him He alio wrote fovcraJ,dialogiics, of wiiicii 
 
 I here are only three extant : i. concerning V irtue, whe- 
 ther it can be taught. 2. £ryxi.is, or Lruultrattis j con- 
 cerning riches, whctlitr they arc good. 3. .•ixioeiuis j 
 concerning death, whether ii is to be feared. ?.Jf Lc 
 Clerc has given a Latin tranllation of them, with notes, 
 and I'cvcral uid'crtations iiuiiled Sylvx th'iloiogica-. 
 
 ASCH V I. US, the tragic poet, was born at Athens. 
 Authors diticr in regard to tiie time of his birth, fonie 
 placing it in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad ; 
 but according to Siaiilcy, who relics on tht Arundc- 
 lian marbles, he was born in the 6;d Olympiad. Ifo 
 was the fou of Kuphorion, ar.d broiiier to Cyiieginis 
 and Aminias, wliodillingiiiniedihcmielvesin.lhc battle 
 of Marathon, and the fca-light of Salaniis, a: which tn- 
 gigemcnts Afchylus waslikeuifcprcfciit. In thislalt 
 action, accori',i;ig to liiodorus Siculus, Arcinias, tlic 
 younger of the three brothers, commanded a fquadron 
 of Ihips, and behaved with fo much conduij't and bra- 
 very, that he funk the admiral of the Periian riett, and 
 fignalizcd himfclf above all the Athenians. To this 
 brother our poet was, upon a particular occalion, obli- 
 ged for faving his life : AA\ai\ relates, that ^fchylus 
 being charged by the Athenians with certain blalphe- 
 mous exprciiions in fomc of his pieces, v.'as accufed of 
 impiety, and condemned to be floned to death : they 
 Were juil going to put the fentence in execution, when 
 Aminia , wit ha happy prcfenccofmind,ihrowingaliJe 
 hiscloik, Ihowed his arm without aliand, which he IiaJ 
 loll at the battle of Salamis in defence of his country. 
 Tliis iiglit made fuch an impreflion on the judges, that, 
 toirchcd with the remembrance of his valour, audwitli 
 the Iricndlliiji he Ihowed for his brother, they pardoned 
 A^fchylus. Our poet, however, refented the indignity 
 of thi.s ptrlecutiou, and refolved to leave a place where 
 his life had been in danger. He became more deter- 
 mined in his relolution when he found his pieces Icfs 
 pleafuig totheAthenians than thofeof Sophocle^, tho' 
 a much younger writer. Some affirm, that /tifchylus ne- 
 ver fat down to compofc but when lie had drank liberal- 
 ly. Hew rote a great numberof tragedies, of which there 
 arcbut fcven remaining :andnotwithflandingthe iharp 
 cenfurcs of fomc critics, he mull be allowed to have 
 been the father of the tragic art. In the timeof Thefpis, 
 there was no public theatre to a.5t upon ; the flrollcrs 
 driving about from place to place in a cart. Aifchylus 
 furnilhed his aftors with maiks, and drelFed tlieni 
 fuitably to their characters. ITelikewifeiniroduced the 
 butkin, to make them appear more like heroes — The 
 ancients gave A'fchyliis alfo the praife of having been 
 the hrll who removed murders and fhocking fights from 
 the eyesof the fpec^ators. He is fiid likev.ife to have 
 lelleiied the number of the chorus. M. Le Kevrc 
 has obferved, that Afehylus never reprcfented women 
 in love in his tragedies ; which, he fays, was not fuited 
 to his 'renins ;b>.it,iii rcprcfen;inga woman tranfportcJ 
 w i,ih fury, he was incomparable. Longinus fliys, that 
 
 A,fchylus
 
 /ESC 
 
 [ 2'3 ] 
 
 /ESC 
 
 yBfchyno- /Tlftiiylus has a noble bolcliiei'sof cxprcflioii; auii that 
 mcuc. hisiiiiagiiiatioii is h>lly and hciciic. h niuftbc owned, 
 
 ' >- ]iosvcvir, that hca.'Fc^tcd pompous words, and that his 
 
 fciifc ij too ot'icn o'ulcured by figures : this gave Sal- 
 nialijs o-calion to lliy, that he wis more difficult to 
 be underllooJ il\m the fcripturc itfclf. But notwith- 
 Jlauding the fcinipcrffCtionijthi:-. poet was htldiii great 
 veneration by tlie Athenians, who made a public de- 
 cree that i:i5 tragedies ihoiild be played after his death. 
 He was kiiltd in the 69th year ot his age, by an ea^jle 
 Jetting tall a toi toilc uponhishcadashc was walking in 
 the lields. He had the liouonr of a pompous funeral 
 from the Si Jlians, who buried him near the river Ge- 
 Ja^ and the tragedians of the country performed plays 
 
 and theatrical cxercifts at his tomb I'hc btfi; edition 
 
 i)f Ills pliiys is that of London, 1663, fol. with a La- 
 tin tranllaiion, and a learned commentary by Thomas 
 Stanley. 
 
 yK!>CHYNOMENE,I3ASTARDSE:,iiTivE-p'.AKT: 
 A j.^cnus of the dtcandiia order, belonging to the dia- 
 dtlphia clafs of plants ; the characters of wiiich are : 
 The ta/ji-isa c-ne-leav'd campanulatcd hilabiatcd pe- 
 riaMihinm ;• the lips equal, bat the fuperior one two- 
 clef:, the inferior trideatate. The corolla is papiliio- 
 • naeeoas ; liie banner co.-dattd and fubringcnt j the^j.'^ 
 ovate, obtufe, and Ihortcr than the banner ; and the 
 carina lunaicd, pointed, and the length of the aljs. 
 The j-amu.ii condll of 10 liniplc 9-cleft filaments ; 
 the aiuhcrx fmall. 1\\c piji.liutu is an oblong villous 
 columnar gcrnun ; tlie (lyhisfubulated and ilcending, 
 the lliguii (i'nplc and fomcwhat obtufe. The pcricar- 
 piuui is a lo'ig compreficd, unilocular jointed poj. 
 'J he/, .(.'j are k i hicy-lhapcd, and foliury within each 
 joint. Of this genus there are reckoned fix. 
 
 Sffcus. I. The afpcra (as well as the re (I of this ge- 
 nus) is a naiive of warmtountries. It rifes tothc lieight 
 of to ir 01 iivc fert, having a lingle herbaceous ftalk, 
 uhich is r«ugh in fomc parts. The leaves come out on 
 every fide towari's the top, forming a fort of head ; 
 the lo'.vers (onM; out l>ctwccn the leaves, two or three 
 togetSv r upon long footftalks ; they are yellow, and 
 flfapcd like thofe ot peas : after the rtower is part, the 
 gernu-n bccouies a rtat jointed pod, which, when ripe, 
 parts at thcj<>inis,andin eachdivifion is lodged : lingle 
 kidnty-lhaped feed. 2. The American, fcldoui riles 
 more than two feet in height. The iiovvcrs cor.ic out 
 from the leaves on branching footftalks, five or fix to- 
 gether ; thrfc arc much Icfj than the former, and of a 
 paler yellow coliir. The feed is lodged in pods like the 
 » other. ^. The arborei, grows to the height of 1;.\ or 
 feven feet, with ' fiiiglcftein ; the flowers come out two 
 or three togethe", of a copper colour, and as large as 
 thofcof th'. afpera. 4. The felban hath woody l'tcms,an J 
 branches garni!lu-d with fmooth leaves. The ilowers 
 are fmall, of a deep yellow colour, and come out on 
 long fjiikes hangin<; downward. The feed is contain- 
 ed in ii fuKuitii pod not jointed. 5. The pumila, riles 
 to the htitrbt of ab ..'t three feet ; has dowers of a pale 
 yellow cc'.our, whici' comes out fomctinics fingle, at o- 
 thertimestwoortiircr upoicach footftalk. The feeds 
 are -.-oniaiiied in a l'^n<: falcated pod having i ? or 14 
 divilions. carli of which lodges a fiitgle feed. 6. The 
 grandiiora, r;ft s fix or eight fret hijvh, with a woody 
 Hem, frrr'i.ng out branches towards 'he top, garniihed 
 Wtih obtufe leaves. The flow<;rsarc large, yellow, and 
 
 fuccctdcJ by large pods coalaiiiing kidfiCy-lhaped yEfruU- 
 fccds. piui. 
 
 Ciiltiirf. Thefc plants arc propagated by feeds, ^'~~' 
 
 which ihoulJ be fown early in tUe fpriug, on a hot- 
 bed ; and when the plants have Itrength cno:igli to be 
 removed, ihey ihould each be put iuto a fcp„ratc pot 
 filled with light earth, aKd plunged into a hot-bed. 
 As they increafc in li/.e, they mull be removed into 
 larger pots ; but if thefc are too large, the pLuts ,vill 
 not thiive. They inuii be brought forward c^rly in the 
 ycar,o£h':rwite llic fccond kind will not pcrfc.t its feed. 
 
 AESCULAPIUS, in the lleatiicii mythology, the 
 god of phyiic, was the fon of Apollo and the nymph 
 Coronis. He w.ts educated by the Centaur Chiron, 
 who taught hin phytic ; by which means /"Lf-iilapiiis 
 cured i he molt dcfperaic difcafcs. But jnpiier, enraged 
 at hisrcftoriiig to life Hippoiitjs, who h:d been torn 
 in pieces by hisown horfcs, killed himwiih athuiider- 
 bolt. According to Cicero, there were llir^e deities 
 of this name: the firft, the fm of .Apollo, worihipped 
 in Arcadia, who i.ivcnted the probej and bandages for 
 wounds ; the fecond, hhc brother of ^Jercllry, killed 
 by lightning ; and the third, the fon Arifippus and 
 Ar!ine>e, who lirll taught the art of looih-drawin;; 
 and purging. At Epidaurus, itfculapius's llatue was 
 of gold and ivory, with a long beard, his head fnr- 
 roundec! with rays, juddiug in one hand a knotty (lick, 
 and the other cutwi.ied with a ferpent ; he was fcatcj 
 on a throiie of the fame materials as his llatue, and 
 had a dog lying in liis feet. The Romans crowned hini 
 with laurel, to rcprefeni hfs defcent from Aj'ollo ; anj 
 t!ie Philialinsrcprefcntedliiinaj beardlefs. The cock, 
 the raven, and the goat, were facrcd tothisdeiiy. His 
 chief temples were at Perganuis, Smyrna, Trica a ci- 
 ty in lonii, and the illc of Coos; in ail which, votive 
 tablets w-erc hung up, fliowing the difcafes cured by 
 hisafii.lance. Buthismofb famous ihriue was at Epidau- 
 rus ; where, every live years, games were inihtutei 
 to him, nine days after the Illhmian games at Corinth. 
 
 /ESCULUS, the Horse-cii esnut : A genus ot" 
 the monogyr.ia order, belonging to the hcptandria 
 clafs of plants ; and ranking, in the natural method, 
 under the ;9tii order, 7'r//i.7a/.r. — The characters are: 
 The ca/i.v is a fmalhingle-lcaved, bellied pcrianihiu!;i, 
 divided into five fcgiiienrs. The corolla (cxcfpt in the 
 pavia, where it is four petal'd and clofe) con(i,is ot 
 five roundiQi, fiat expanding petals, unequally" co- 
 loured, and with narrow claws infertcd i:;to the csiyx. 
 The y?fl////;/<i have feven fnbulatcd dcclininT tilamcnts, 
 the length of the corolla ; thcantherseafccndiiig. I be 
 pijliUt,mi% a roundilh gerraen, ending in a fubal.-ted 
 ftylus ; the fUgma pointed. The p.-ricarpiutii is a 
 leathery, roundifti, trilocular, thret-valved capfule. 
 The f:eds arc two, and fubglobular. In this genus 
 Van Rozcn and Miller obfcrvc both male and herma- 
 phrodite flowers. There arc two 
 
 S[':cics. I. The hlppocaflanuTn, or common horfc- 
 chefnut. It was brought from the northern parts of 
 Afia about the year i j>o, and fcr.t to Vienna about 
 158;?. This tree makes a noble appearance all the 
 month of May, the extremiii'v of the branches being 
 terminated by line fpikes of flowers fpotted with rofe 
 colours,fothitt;ic whole tree i"eems covered with them. 
 It is quickin its growth ; fothat in a few ycirs it ar- 
 rives at a lizc Urge enough to alford a good f.iade in 
 
 fummcr,
 
 /E. S C 
 
 1 214 ] 
 
 y^ S C 
 
 /FfL-ulu*. Timiiicr, as ftH'iUoinoduce plenty of flo.vtis. I'licy 
 
 ' "^ Iiave, however, tliis great inconvenience, that their 
 
 JvoiiJ is of no life, being unfit even for burning : and 
 tlicir Icivcs bcgmni! ■^;; to fall in July, foon deiirivc the 
 trec^iif their beanlj-. There is loinctiiing very lingu- 
 lar in the growth uf llicfr trees ; w hicli is, that the 
 whole (lioot is pcrrinincdiulefs than three wrtks after 
 
 the buds are opened The nuis are reckoned good 
 
 food for horfes. In J'nrkey, thty arc ground, and 
 mixed with the proven Jer for ihefeanintalsjcfpeeially 
 thofe.which. arc troubled with coughs, and broken wind- 
 ed. Deer arc aUb very fond of the fruit ; and at the 
 time of their ripening keep much about tlie trees, but 
 cfpecially in flrong winds, when the nuts are blown 
 ■down, which they carefully watch, and greedily de- 
 vour as they fall. 
 
 2. The pavia, or fcarlct-flowcring horfe-clicfnnt, a 
 native of Carolina, the 15ra/.ils,and tlic Kail. It grows 
 to al>onr fifteen or lixtecn feet high : and there is a 
 delicacy in this tree that makes it dcfirable. The bark 
 of the young (liootsis quite fmooth, and the growing 
 Ihoots in fummer are of a reddifli hue. The leaves 
 arc palniatcd, being pretty much like thofc of the 
 horfc-chcfnut, only naich fmallcr, and the indentures 
 at the edges arc deeper and much more acute. The 
 lobes of which they are compofcd are fpear-fliaped ; 
 they arc five in number, arc united at their bifc, and 
 Hand on a long red footflalk. The leaves grow oppo- 
 liteby pairs on the branches, which are fpread abroad 
 on every fiJe. The flowers come out from the ends 
 of the branches. The firft appearance of the buds is 
 in May ; though they w-ill not he in full blow till the 
 ' middle of June. Tliey are of a l^right red colour,and 
 
 confcqucntly haveapleafingefteil: among the vafl tribe 
 of yellow-flowering forts which fliow thcmfclvcs in 
 bloom at that feafon. They continue in fucccflion for 
 upwards of fix weeks, and fometimcs fucceeded by 
 ripe feeds in our gardens. 
 
 Propagation and culture. The firft fpecies is pro- 
 pagated from the nuts. In autumn, therefore, when 
 they fall, a fuilicicnt quantity (liould be gathered. 
 Thefe fliculd be fown foon afterwards in drills, about 
 two inches afunder. If the nuts are kept till fpring, 
 many of thera will be faulty ; but where thcfeminary- 
 ground cannot be got ready before, and they are kept 
 lo long, it may be proper to put them in water, to try 
 ■their goodnefs. The good nuts will (ink, whlirtthofe 
 which are faulty will fwim ; fo that by proving them 
 this way you may be Aire of good nuts, and have more 
 promifing hopes of a crop. In the fpring the plants 
 will come up ; and when they have ftood one year, 
 they may be taken up, their top-roots fliortened, and 
 afterwardsplantedin the nnrfery. When they are of 
 fnflicicnt lize to be planted out finally, they muft be 
 taken outofthe nurferywiih care, thegreat (ide-flioots 
 and the bruifcd parts of the roots fliould be taken off", 
 and then planted in large holes level with thefurface 
 of the ground, at the top of their roots ; the fibres be- 
 ing all fpread and lapped in the fine mold, and the 
 turf alfo worked to the bottom. A flake Ihould be 
 placed to keep them fafr from the winds ; and they 
 muft be fenced from the cattle till they are of a fuffi- 
 cient fize to defend thcmfclvcs. The beft feafon for all 
 this work is Oiflober. After the trees are pi inted, 
 neither knife nor hatchet ihould- come near them ; but 
 
 they fiiould be left to Nature to form tlieir beautiful ^fmlm. 
 
 parabolic heads, and afliime their utmolt beauty. — The ' >' 
 
 horfe-c)icfnut, like moll other trees, delights mofl in 
 good fat land ; but it will grow exceedingly well on 
 clayey and m.irlcy grounds. 
 
 Wilier fays, " When thefe tr;cs are tranfplanicd, 
 their roots ihould be prcferved as entire as polfiblc, for 
 they diO not fuccetd well when torn or cut : nor fliould 
 any of the branches be fliortened, for there is fcarcc 
 any tree thst will not bear amputation better than this; 
 fo that when any branciicsare byaccidentbrokcn, they 
 fliould be cut ort' clofc by the llem, that the wound 
 may heal over." 
 
 Tiie fecond fpecies is propagated, i. By budding 
 it upon the young plants of the horfc-ciicfnut. Thffe 
 ftocks fliould be raifed as \' as diredcd in that article. 
 They flioulil be planted in the nurfcry way, one foot 
 afunder, and two feet diflant in the rows^ which 
 fliould be kept clean of weeds, and muft be dug be- 
 tween every winter till the operation is tobc pcrlorm- 
 cd. After they have ftood in the nurfery-ground 
 about two years, and have made at leaft one good 
 fuinmcr's flioot, the funimcr following is the time for 
 the operation. Then, havingyour cuttings ready foon 
 after midfummer, the evenings and cloudy weather 
 fliould be made choice of for the work. ^V■hocver has 
 a great number of trees to inoculate, muft regard no 
 weatlicr, but keep working on, to get his bufinefs over 
 before the feafon ends ; and, indeed, a good hand will 
 be always pretty fure of fucccfs be the weather what 
 it will. If the ftocks were healthy, the fummer fol- 
 lowing they will make pretty good flioots ; and in a 
 year or two after that will flower. This is one me- 
 thod of propagating this tree ; and thofc plants that 
 are propagated this way will grow to a larger lize than 
 thofc raifed inimediatcly from feeds — 2. This tree 
 alio may be propagated by feeds; which will fome- 
 timcs ripen with us, and may be obtained out of our 
 gardens. The manner of raiflng them this way 
 is as foUov.-s: Let a warm border be prepared ; and if 
 it is not naturally fandy, left drift-fand be mixed with 
 the foil ; and in this border let the feeds be fown in 
 the montli of March, about half an inch deep. After 
 this, conftant weeding muft be obferved ; and when 
 the plants are come up, if they could be fhadedinthe 
 heat of the day, it would be much better. Thefe, 
 with now and then a gentle W'atcring in a dry feafon, 
 will be all the precautions they will require the flrft 
 fummer. The winter following, if the (ituation is not 
 extremely well flieltered, protection muft be given them 
 from the hard black frofts, which will othtrwife often 
 deftroy them ; lb that it will be the fafeft way to have 
 the bed hooped, to cover them with mats in fuch 
 weather, if the fituation is not well defended : if it is, 
 this trouble may be faved ; for, even when young, 
 they are tolerably hardy. In about two or three years 
 they may be removed into the nnrfery, or planted 
 where they are to remain, and they will flower in three 
 or four years after. The ufual nurfery-care muft be 
 taken of them when plantcdin that way ; and the beft 
 time for planting them there, or where they arc to re- 
 main, is October ; though they will grow exceeding 
 well if removed in any ot the winter ir.onihs ; but if 
 planted late in the fpring, they will require more 
 watering, as the ground will not be fo regularly 
 
 fettled
 
 ^ s o 
 
 C 215 ] 
 
 /E r H 
 
 :£(op. fettled to the roots as if they had been planted car- 
 
 — ■^— ' IJcr. 
 
 AliOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon, 
 about the 50"' Olympiad, under the reign of Cra-fiis 
 the iaft king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, lie 
 was greatly indebted to nature ; but in other refpctts 
 not lo fortunate, being born a flavc and extremely de- 
 formed. St Jerom, fpeaking of him, fays he was un- 
 fortunate in liii birth, condition in life, and death ; 
 hinting thereby at his deformity, icrvile ftatc, and 
 tragical end. His great genius, however, enabled him 
 to fupport his misfortunes ; and in order to alleviate the 
 hardihips of fcrvitude, he compofed thofc entertaining 
 and inllructive fables which have acquired him fo much 
 rcput;'.lion. He is generally fuppofed to have been the 
 inventor of that kind of writing ; but this is conteile J 
 by fevcral, particularly Qiiintilian, whofeems tothink 
 that Hcliod was the firll author of tables. /Efop, how- 
 ever, certainly improved this art to a very great de- 
 gree ; and hence it is that he has been accounted the 
 author of this fort of produftions : 
 
 u^fopus autflor quani inateriam rciicrit, 
 Huiic ego pollivi TcrCbrs fenariis. 
 
 PttJ. I'rol. aJ. Ill), i. 
 " If any thoughts in thcfc iambics fliine, 
 Th' invention's .flil'op'.', and the verfe is mine." 
 
 The firll raaftcr whom ^fop ferved, was one Cara- 
 fuis Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens ; and there 
 in all probability he acquired his purity in the Greek 
 tongue. After him he had fcveral mailers; andat length 
 . came under a philofopher named Idmonorladmonwho 
 enfranchifed him. After he had recovered his liberty, 
 be foon acquired agrcatrcpuiationaraonglUhe Greeks; 
 fothat, according to Meziriac, the report of his wif- 
 dom having reached Croefus, he fent to inquire after 
 him, and engaged him in his I'ervice. He travelled 
 through Greece, according to the fame author : whe- 
 ther for his own pleafure,or upon the affairs of Croefus, 
 is uncertain ; and palling by Athens foon after Pili- 
 ftratus had ulurped the fovercign power, and finding 
 that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he 
 told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter 
 for a king. The images made ufe of by itfop are cer- 
 tainly very happy inventions to inllruct ntankind ; they 
 polfel's all that is necelfary to perfect a precept, having 
 a mixture of the ufeful with the agreeable. " /Efop 
 the fibuliil (fays .-^iilus Gellius) was defervedly e- 
 flccmcd wife, lincc he did not, after the manner of ihc 
 philofophers,rigidlyandimpcriou(lydi>:tatefucii things 
 as were proper to be advifed and pcrfuadcd ; but, fra- 
 ming entertaining and agreeable apologues, lie thereby 
 charms and captivates the human mind." — .tfopwas 
 put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us that he came 
 there with a great quantity of gold and filver, being 
 ordered by Croefus to offer a facrilice to Apollo, and 
 to give a confiderable fum to each inhabitant : but a 
 quarrel ariling betwixt him and the Uclphims, he fent 
 back the money to Cra-fus ; for he thought ihofe fur 
 whom the prince defigncd it, had rendered thtmfilves 
 unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi contrived 
 an accuiation of faerilege againll him ; and pretending 
 they had convicted him, threw him headlong from a 
 rock. Kor this cruelty and i'iif>ice, we are told they 
 were viiitcdwithfamincand pc ili ice ; andconfulting 
 the oracle, they received for anfv\(.r, that the god de- 
 
 3 
 
 lignedthiiasapanillimcnt forthcir treatmentof Alfop: 
 they endeavoured to make an atonement, by railing a 
 pyramid to his honour. 
 
 /KSOP (Cludius), a celebrated a,5lor, whoflourilTicd 
 about th 670''' year of Rome. lie cncl Roftius were 
 cotemporai ies,and the belt performers whoever appear- 
 ed upon the Roman ftagc, the former excelling in tr.i- 
 gedy, tiie latter in comedy. Cicero put himfclf under 
 their direftion topcrfed his action. yEfop lived in a 
 moll cxpcnfve manner, and at one entertainment is 
 faid to have had a dilh which coll above eight hundred 
 pounds ; this difli, we arc told, was filled with fmging 
 and fpeaking birds, fome of which coll near 50/. The 
 delight which ^tfop took in thtfe fortof birds proceed- 
 ed, as Mr Baylc obfervcs, from the cxpencc. He did 
 not make a dilliof them becaufe they could fpeak, ac- 
 cording to the refinement of Pliny upon this.cireuni- 
 flance, this motive beingonly by accident; but becaufe 
 of their extraordinary price. If their had been any 
 birds that could not fpeak, and yet more Icarcc and 
 dear than thefe, he would have procured fuch for his 
 table, ytfop's foil was no lefs luxurious than the father, 
 for he diliblved pearls for his guells tofwallow. Some 
 fpeak of this as a common practice of his ; but others 
 mention his falling into this excels only on a particular 
 day, when hewas trcatinghisfriends. Horace* fpeaks '.f^[."' 
 only of one pearl of great value, which he dilfolvcdin ' ^^^'' 
 vinegar, and drank. Aifop, notwithllanding his ex- 
 pences, is faid to liave died worth above 160,000/. 
 When he was upon the llage, he entered into his part 
 to fuch a degree, as fomctimes to be fcized with a per- 
 fcdt ecllafy : Plutarch mentions it as njiorted of him, 
 tliat wliilll he was rcprcfciiting Atrcus deliberating 
 how he ihould revenge himfclf on Thyeftts, he was (ly 
 tranfportcd beyond himfclt in the heat of action, that 
 with his truncheon he fmotc one of the fervant crof- 
 ling the llagc, and laid him dead on the fpot. 
 
 A;ST1MATI0 capitis, a term met with in old 
 law-books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for 
 ortcnccs committed againll perfons of quality, accord- 
 ing to their fcveral degrees. 
 
 -tSTIVAL, in a general fcnfc, denotes fomething 
 connefted with, or belonging to, funimer. Hence 
 scllival lign, a:llival follHce, &c. 
 
 ^STC ARIA, in gcogra^diy, denotes an arm of the • 
 fea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the 
 Chefapcakbay, &c. 
 
 ^•ESTU.-VRIKS, in ancient baths, were fecret paf- 
 fages from the hypocjuflum into the chambers. 
 
 yi^STU.ARY, among phylicians, a vapour-bath, 
 or any other inftnimcnt for conveying heat 10 the 
 body. 
 
 ^SYMNIUM, in antiquity, a monument ere.5led to 
 the memory of the heroes, by .Lfymnusthe Megarean. 
 Kc conff.lting the oracle in what manner the Megare- 
 ans might be moft happily governed, was anfwered. If 
 thi^ /'£■/</ confulation 'Ji:!h the more iiuii.ercus .• whom he 
 taking for the dead, built the faid monument, and a 
 fcnaie-houfc that took within its compafs the monu- 
 ment ; imaginlnij, that thus the dead would alfill in 
 thiir conf-.lations. (i'aufanias.) 
 
 A'.-TH, or ATH.allronglittle town in the Auflrian 
 Netherlands and province of Hainaulr, lituatcdon the 
 river Dendcr, about tw;nty miles S. VV. of Brullcls. 
 
 Al'H.ALlA, or Ilua ^anc. gcog.) now E;oa; an 
 
 illauil
 
 /E T II 
 
 r ai6 ] 
 
 M T H 
 
 A'thflftio,ii^*nil on t^<^ coaft of Kiruri.i, in compafsan haudrcii 
 JilOicT. niiUi, aboLuiJii.o iiiiron, ss I' Ibi Itiil dues. S(«;|>liainiS 
 
 * — " calls it j^jth.tte. Tilt port ot'Acthalia \\as called ^r- 
 
 ^o:i.', (DioiJ. Si:\il.) 
 
 yL I'lIULb TAN, S;f ArwEtsTAK. 
 AETHER, is ui'iially iindcrllooj of a ihin, fabtile 
 Tii.iitcr, or medium, m irh iiiirr .mJ rarer ilian air ; 
 wiiich coiuincncing fri)iu tin limits of our atinofphcic 
 podiilcs the whok heavenly fjMcc. — Tho wi.r.l is 
 Greek, "S"?, fiippoftd to be formed from the \til> 
 <«i6»f, " to burn, tu fiame ;" forac of rhe ancients, ;'.'.r- 
 ti.Lilarly Aiuxugoras, fiippoiing itof the nature of nrc. 
 iicc Fire. 
 
 The philafophers cannot conceive that the largcfl 
 pan of t lie creation llTJuld be ptrfc'.ly vol J jaiul there- 
 fore they fill it with a fpecies of niaittr under the dc- 
 Honiinjtion ot' a:.hcr. But thcyv<.ry extremely as to 
 tlie nature andcliaraiiler of thisctiher. iionic conceive 
 it as a body/iv ?.-;/£ ?7J,.nppoiii ted only to fill up thcvacui- 
 ties between tlie heavenly bodies ; and therefore con- 
 fined to ihc regions above our atmofphcre. Others 
 fiippofe it oi fo fubtile and penetrating a nature, as to 
 pcj vade the air, and other l>.).iies,and poireifes the pores 
 and intervals thereof. Others deny the exiitcncc of a- 
 ny fucli fpcciric matter; and think tlicairitfelf, by that 
 iinnienfe tenuity and cxpanfion it is found capable of, 
 may diffufe itfelf through the interllellar fpaccs, and 
 be the only matter found therein. 
 
 In eticd, sether, being no objefl: of our fcnfe, hat 
 the mere workofiniagiiiali.in, brought only upon the 
 ftage for the fake of hypothefis, or to folve fonie phe- 
 nomenon, real or imaginary ; authors take the liberty 
 tn modify it how they ple.if';. Some fuppofc it of an 
 elementary nature, like other bodies ; and only diftiu- 
 guillicd by its tenuity, and the other affeelionsconfe- 
 qnent thereon : whicli is tlie philofophical asther. O- 
 ihers will have it of another fpecics, and not elemen- 
 tary ; but rather a fort of fifth tlemtnr, of a purer, 
 ■more refined, and fpirituous nature, than the fublianccs 
 about our earth : and void of the common alFcitions 
 thereof, as gravity, &c. The heavenly fpecics being 
 the fuppofcd r(gion orrcddcnceof amore exalted clafs 
 of beings, the medium mud be more exalted in pro- 
 portion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of x- 
 iher, or astherial matter. 
 
 The term ^:/kt being thus embarrafTcd with a va- 
 riety of ideas and arbitrarily applied to lb many dif- 
 ferent thin 2;'<, the liter and I'evcrerphilofopherschoofe 
 10 let ita!ide,and in lieu tlicrcoff.ibllitute other more 
 determinate ones. Thus, the C:irteriaus ufe the term 
 materia fublHit ; which is their aether: and Sir Ifaac 
 Newton, fomciimes afiit'.ile fpirit, as in the clofe of 
 his Pri'icifi'hi ; and fometimes ayi^///.' or iCthcrial 7ue- 
 diuni, as in his Optics. 
 
 The truth is, there are abundance of con fidcrations, 
 which feem to evince the cxirtcncc of fome matter in 
 ihe air, much tinerthan the air itfelf. There isan un- 
 known fomcthing, which remains behind when the air 
 is taken away ; as appears f'rom certain effcds which 
 we fee produced in iiacuo. Heat, Sir Ifaac Newton 
 obferves, communicated through a vacuum almott as 
 readily as through air : but fuch communication can- 
 not be without fome interjacent body, to act as a me- 
 dium. And fuch body may be fubtile eno'igh to pe- 
 nttratc the pores of ghfs ; and may be very well con- 
 
 ( ! :>.t J to permeate thofc of all other bodic;, and con- 
 :>:i;ii.;ly l:e uiiaifed tlirough all the parts of fpace 
 wiiicfi aufwcrs to the full cliaracter of an sethcr. Sec 
 Heat. 
 
 'J he cxiilcnccoffjch an xtlierial medium being fet- 
 tled, th.ar author proceeds to iis properties ; infei rinir 
 it to Lc Dot only rarer and more liuid lh:ui air, but cx- 
 ccfi^i'.igly more ilaftic and ailivc : in virtue of which 
 properties, he Ihows, thatagrcat pariof thephcnome- 
 ;ia of nature may be produced by it. To the weight, 
 e.g. of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or the 
 weight of all other bodies; anil to its clallieity, the 
 el.iliic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the 
 cmiiiion, refraction, reflcilion, and other phenomena 
 of light ; as alfo, fcnfatinn, mufcular motion, &c. lii 
 fine, this fame matter fecms \.\\t priintim vttbile, the 
 liritfourcc or fpring of phylical adion in the raoderfi 
 fydem. 
 
 The Cartelian aether is fuppofednotonlytopcrvade, 
 but adequately to fill, all the vacuities of'^bodies ; and 
 thus to make an abfolutc plenum in the univerfc. 
 
 But Sir Ifaac Newton overturns this opinion, from 
 divers conliderations ; by Ihowing, that the ctleflial 
 ("paces are void of all fcnilble rcfiilance : for, hence it 
 follow s, that the matter contained therein mull be im- 
 mcnfcly rare, in regard the re lillanceof bodies is chief- 
 ly as I heir dcniity ; fo that if the heavens were thus 
 ailequatcly filled with a medium or matter, how fubiile 
 focvcr, tlu-y would refill the motion of the planets and 
 comets much more than quicklllvcr or gold. 
 
 The late difcoveriesin electricity have thrown great 
 light upon this fubjecf ,and rendered it extremely pro- 
 bable thai the irther fo often talked of is no other than 
 the tl'-iifric fluid, or folar light, which dillufes itfelf 
 throughout the whole fyltcm of nature. Sec Elko- 
 TRicJTV, KiRE, Heat, Light, &c. 
 
 AETHER, in chcmiflry, thelightefl, mod volatile, 
 and moll inllanimable of all liiiuids, is produced by 
 dillillation of acids with rciiticd fpirit i>f wine. See 
 Chemistry and Pharmacy (the InJcxcs), 
 
 itTHERIAL, Etherius, fomcthing that belongs 
 to, or partakes of", the nature of ^-ErH er. Thus we 
 ' fay, the atheriat fpace, athcri.il regions, &c. 
 
 Some of the ancients divided the univerfc, with rc- 
 fpeit to the mattcrcontaincd thtrtin, into elementary 
 and asiherial. 
 
 Under the .-Ethcrial world was inchu'ed all that fpace 
 above the uppcnnnft element, \'n.. fire. This they 
 fcippofcd to be perfectly horaogcneous, incorruptible, 
 unchangeable, c;c. Sec CoRRuprioN. ThcChaldccs 
 placed an xtlierial world between the cmpyreum and 
 the region of the fixed flars. Bcfide which, they 
 fonietimcs alfofpeak of a fecoud a-tlierial world, mean- 
 ing by it the llarry orb ; and a third aelhcriai world, 
 by which is meant the planc.ary region. 
 /ETHIOPIA. See J-.TKiuriA. 
 j^TIilOPS, Tn<.nrr,il, Martmt, and Antimoiiial. 
 See Ph.'R-.iacy {Judex). 
 
 j^iTHUSA, in botany, a genus of the pentandrja 
 digynia clafs ; and, in i!ie natural method, ranking 
 under the 45"" ortXcr, Uv/bcit.iij^ Tlie chnrafters are : 
 Thc«/>.^isan onivcrfalnmbel expanding, the interior 
 rays fliortcr by degrees ; with a partijl umbel, fmall, 
 and expanding. There is no anivcrfalinvoluerum ; 
 the partial one is dimidiated, with three or five leaf- 
 lets.
 
 A E T 
 
 [ 217 ] 
 
 JE r u 
 
 Aeti»n3 lots, and pendulous; the proper pcrianthiuin fcarccly 
 II difccrniblt. Tne uiiivcri'al orolla is uniform, vvilii 
 Actiiis. fertile florets ; tlie partial one has five hc.irt-initcitcd 
 '~~^ unequal petals. 'Ihc Jiar/iiua conlillof live limplc fila- 
 ments, with roinulilh aiithcr.x. \\\t[>i]liUum\% ager- 
 men btnta:h ; with two rcftcdeJ Ayli ; the (ligmata 
 obtiifc. There is wo pi riuirp'vi fn; the fruit is ovate, 
 ftriated, and tripartite. The feeds are two, rounJiili 
 and ftriated. There is bat one fpccies, viz. the aetbufa 
 fynapiam, fools-parlley, orleil'cr hemlock (a native of 
 Britain),whi'.h grows in corn-fields and gardens. This 
 plant, from its rclcmblance to common, parlley, hath 
 foractimcs been miilaken for it ; and when eaten, it oc- 
 cadons licknel's. If the curled-leaved parlley only was 
 cultivated in our gardens, no fuch miftakes would hap- 
 pen in future. Cows, horfcs, (hccp, goats, and fwine, 
 cat it. It is noxious to g'-cfe. 
 
 AETIANS, in church-hiftory, a branch of Arians 
 whom.iintained, that the Son and Holy Ghoftare in 
 all things diflimilar to the Father. SeeAETius. 
 
 j^TlOLOGY, is that part of Pathology which is 
 employed in exploring tlm caufes of difeafes. 
 
 AETION, a celebrated painter, who has left us an 
 excellent picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he 
 exhibited at the Olympic Games : it reprefents a mag- 
 nificent chamber, where Roxana is fitting on a bed of 
 a moft fplcndid appearance, which is rendered ftill 
 more brilliant by her beauty. She looks downwards, 
 in a kind of couiulion, being ftruck with the prefencc 
 of Alexander ftanding before her. A number of little 
 Cupids flutter about, fome holding up the curtain, as 
 if to (how Roxana to the prince, whillt others are 
 bufied in undrefling the lady ; fome pull Alexander by 
 rhc cloak, who appears like a young balhful bride- 
 groom, and prefeut him to his miftrcfs ; he lays his 
 crown at her feet, being accompanied by Epheftion, 
 who holds a torch in his hand, and leans upon a youth, 
 who reprefents Hymen. Several other little Cupids 
 are reprefented playing with his arms ; fome carry his 
 lance, (looping under fo heavy a weight ; others bear 
 along his buckler, upon which one of them is fcated, 
 \vhom the red carry in triumph ; another lies in am- 
 bulh in his armour, waitingto frighten the reft as they 
 pafs by. This picture gained Action fo much repu- 
 tation, that the prclidcut of the games gave him his 
 daughter in marriage. 
 
 ./ETITES, or Eagi-e-stone, in natural hiftory, a 
 flinty or cruftatcd Uone, hollow within, and contain- 
 ing a nucleus, wlj^ich, on fliaking, rattles within. It 
 was formerly in repute for fcveral extraordinary magi- 
 cal as well as medical powers ; Inch as preventing abor- 
 tion, difcovering thieves, andother ridiculouspropcr- 
 ties. The word is formed from «it©„, " eagle ;" tlic 
 popular tradition being, that it is found in the eagle's 
 iieft, whether it is fuppofed to be carried while the fe- 
 male fits, to prevent her eggs from being rotten. It 
 is found in fevcral parts: near Trevouxiu France, one 
 canfcarce diga lev/ feet, without finding a confidera- 
 ble ftrata or beds of the coarfer or ferruginous kind. 
 Tlicy are originally foft, and of the colour of yellow 
 ochre. But the finell and mofl valued of all the cagle- 
 ftones, arc accidental (lutes of one or other of our 
 common pebbles. 
 
 AETIUS, one of the moft zealous defenders of 
 Arianifm, was born in Syria, and flourillied about the 
 year :;^6. After being fervant to a grammarian, of 
 Vol. I. 
 
 whom lie learned grammar and logic, he '.vas ordained Aetjtai, 
 deacon, and at length bilhop, by EuJoxus patriarch il^tm- 
 of Conftantinoplc. St Ej iphannis has prcferved 47 of ' 
 his propofitions againft the Trinity. His followers 
 were called Aetians. 
 
 Aetil's, a famous phyfician, born at Atnida in Mc- 
 fopotamia, and the author of a work intiilcd Tetrabi- 
 blos, which is a colledlion from the writings of thofc 
 phyficians who went bel'orc him. He .lived, accor- 
 ding to Dr Friend, at the end of the jth or tlic begin- 
 ning of the 6th century. 
 
 Aetius, governor of Gallia Narbonenfis in the 
 reign of Valentinian III. forced tlie Franks who were 
 palling into Gaul to rcpafs the Rhine. He defeated 
 the Goths ; and routed Attila king of the Huns, who 
 invaded Gaul with an army of 700,000 men. But the 
 emperor, jealous of the merit of this great man, kill- 
 ed him in 454 with his owa hand, under the pretence 
 that he had permitted the invafiou of the Huns, after 
 Attila's defeat. 
 
 A'TNA, (in the Itineraries JEthna, fuppofcd from 
 «i9a(, " to burn ;" according to Bochart, from Atk:ii:a, 
 a furnace, or JEtuna, darkncfs), now MonteCibclli : a 
 volcano or burning mountain of Sicily, (ituated in 
 lat. 38°. N. long. 15a. E. 
 
 This mountain, famous from the remoteft antiquity, 
 both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, ftanJs in the 
 eaftern part of thcilland, in a very extenlive plain, 
 called Val Detiioni, from the notion of its being inha- 
 bited by devils, who torment the fpirits of the damn- 
 ed in the bowels of this volcano. 
 
 Concerning the dimenlions of mount /Etna, we can Inconfift- 
 fcarce extrat^t any thing confillent, even from the ac- «"' *'• 
 counts of the latell and moft ingenious travellers. Pin- """"'o"- 
 dar, who lived about 43 j years before Chrift, calls it ^j!!'n"ifud/ 
 the Pillar of heaven, on account of its great height, gf ^{na. 
 All modern writers likewifc agree, that this mountain 
 is very high, and very large; but differ excclFively both 
 as to its height and magnitude : fome making it no lefs 
 than twelve miles high, others eight, others fix, fome 
 four, while Mr Brydone, and Sir VNilliam Hamilton, 
 who lately afcended to its higheft fummit, reduce its 
 height to little more than two miles ; nay, by fome it 
 is reduced to 10,036 feet, fomewhjit Icfs than two 
 miles. Nolefs remarkable are the differences concern- 
 ing its circumference : fome making it only 60 miles 
 round, others 100; andSigniorRecupero, from whom 
 Mr Brydone had his information in this rcfpcifl, affirms 
 it to be no Icfs than 183 miles in circuit. 
 
 Wc arc forry to detrart from the merit oi Mr Bry- 
 done, or to involve in obfcurity what he hath been at 
 fo much pains to elucidate ; but every perfon who com- 
 pares the account of mount jttna's circumfcre.iicc, gi- 
 ven by Signior Recupero, and to which Mr Brydone 
 fecms to have alFented, with its apparentcircumfcrence 
 on the map prefixed to that pcntleman's tour through 
 Sicily and Malta, mull at once be Jlruck with the pro- 
 digious difparity. Indeed, it is plain, that, in the J'.iap, 
 the geographer hath not left room for any fuch moun- 
 tain ; nor can we help thinking, that, by comparing 
 the diftanccs of fome of the Sicilian towns from one a- 
 nother, Signior Recupcro's dimenlions will be found 
 
 cnormoully exaggerated Certain it is, riiat there the 
 
 geographer hath placed Cat;cnia, which ftands at the 
 
 foot of mount yt^tna, c-h one fide, no more than 28 
 
 miles from the moft dillant point of the river Alcan- 
 
 E e tara,
 
 Jl^tnft. 
 
 JE T N [ ai 
 
 tara, which forms the bouiulary on the oppofitc fide ; 
 
 ""— ^-^ fo that a cirtk, whofc radius is 14 or 15 miles, mull 
 
 ciicoir,;>afs as much fpacc aswc can pollibly think isoc- 
 cupicil by the bafis oi"Mo\iiu Atna. Thus we will re- 
 duce the circumftrcnce of this famous mountain to be- 
 tween 80 and 90 miles ; and even when we do fo, it 
 mull Hill be acknowledged tube very great. 
 
 But if we arc embarralled with the circumference 
 of A.tna, we arc much more fo with the accounts rela- 
 ting to its height ; and one circumftancc, particular- 
 ly, creates alinoll inlurmountablc difliculties. It is a- 
 greed upon by all travellers, and among the rcll; by Sir 
 William Hamilton, that from Catania, where the af- 
 ccnt firll begins, to the fummit, is no lefs than 30 
 miles. The dcfctnt on the other fide we have no ac- 
 count of; but, whatever fvippolition we make, the 
 height of tlie mountain nuift be prodigious. If we fup- 
 pofc it likewifc to be 30 miles, and that mount ^Etna 
 can be rcprefented by an equilateral triangle, each of 
 whofe lidcs is 50 miles, we will have an amazing ele- 
 vation indeed, no lefs than 26 miles perpendicular ! — 
 Such a height being beyond all credibility, we mull 
 contrad the lldes of our triangle, in proportion to its 
 balls. \Vc iliall begin with allowing 10 miles for the 
 difference between a llraight line from Catania to the 
 fummit, and the length of the road, occalioned by the 
 inequalities of the mountain ; and fuppoling the de- 
 fceiit on the other fide to be Ibmewhat Ihoner, we may 
 call it 1 J miles. Mount A^tna will now be rcprefented 
 by a fcalene triangle, whofe bafcis 30 miles, its long- 
 clt lidc 20, and its lliortcfl 15 ; from which propor- 
 tions we will llill lind its height to be betwixt eight 
 Diinoifion* i"J nine miles. — This is flill incredible ; and when 
 miicrrtain. all the various relations concerning the height of JEl- 
 na are compared, we hope it will not be thought pre- 
 fumptuousin us to give it as our opinion, that the true 
 dimenlionsof this mountain are as yet unknown. The 
 following mcafuresare given by different authors : 
 
 Height above the furface of the fca, 10,036 feet. 
 
 One linndred and eighty miles circumference at the 
 bale. — I'.Tujas de S. Kon in his Volcans du Vivarais. 
 
 Hciglit 12,000 feet. — lirydonc. Tour to Sicily. 
 
 Height 2500 toifes. — La PlatriOre, faid as from 
 R<cupcio. 
 
 Height 1950 toifes — Diameter 30 miles. — Men- 
 lelle Geogr. conip. 
 
 Others make its height only 2000 toifes, and its 
 fu)itrljc;s 300 fquare miles. 
 
 Concerning the products and general appearance of 
 this volcano, authors arc much better agreed-. — 1 he 
 journey from Catania to its fummit has been lately 
 dcfcribcd by three travellers, M. D'Orville, MrBry- 
 done, and Sir William Hamilton. All thefc agree, 
 that this fingle mountain affords an epitome of tlie dif- 
 ferent climates throughout the whole world : towards 
 thcfoot, it is vci-y hot ; farther up, more temperate ; 
 and grows gradually niore and more cold the higher we 
 afcend. At the very top, it is perpctuiUy covered with 
 inow : fromthence the whole illandisfuppliedwith '.hat 
 article, fonecelfaryinahot climate, and without which 
 the natives [ay Si-ily could not be inhabited. So great 
 is the demand for this commodity, that thebilliop's re- 
 venues, which arc confidcrable, arife from the falcof 
 mount /Etna's fnow -, and he is faid to draw 1000/. a- 
 ytar from one fnull portion lying on the north fide of the 
 laountaiii. Great quauiitics of fnow and ice arc like- 
 
 8 ] 
 
 J£. T N 
 
 Central an- 
 
 pcaraiict, 
 
 &c. 
 
 wile exported to Malta and Italy, nuking a confiderablc ^tni. 
 branch ol comnurtc. On the north liuC of thisfnowy *— v— ' 
 rigicm, MrBryduiic was alTurcd, thai there are fcveral 
 Imall lakes which never thaw; and that the fnow mixed 
 with the allies and fait of tlie mountain are accumulated 
 to a vail depth. 1 he quantity of falts contained in this 
 mountain, he, with great probability, conjectures to be 
 one reafonofthe prefervation of itslnows ; for fakin- 
 creafesthe coldncfsof fnuw to a furprilingdcgree*. ' See Cold, 
 In the middle of the fnowy regions flaudsihe great anJCc^*- 
 f/v7/f/-, or mouth of yKtna ; from which, though con- """• 
 trary to the ufual meihod of travellers, we Ihall begin 
 our particular account of this mountain. Sir William 
 Hamilton defcribes the crater as a little mountain a- 
 bout a quarter of a mile ]>erpendicular, and very lleep, 
 fitnated in the middle of a gently inclining plain, of Crater de- 
 about nine railesin circumference. Itis entirely formed fcrU)cJ. 
 of Hones and allies ; and, as Mr Hamilton was infor- 
 med by fcveral people of Catania, had been thrown 
 up about 2 J or joyearsbdore the time (i 769) he vilit- 
 ed mount /ttna. Before this mountain was thrown 
 up, there was only a prodigious large chafm,orgulph, 
 in the middle of the abovementioned plain ; and it 
 has been remarked, that about once in 100 years the 
 top of yEtna falls in ; which undoubtedly mull be the 
 cafe at certain periods, or the mountain behoved con- 
 tinually toincreafc in height. As this little mountain, 
 though emitting fmokc from every pore, appeared fo- 
 lid and firm, Mr Hamilton and his companions went 
 up to the very top. In the middle is a hollow, about two 
 miles and a half in circumference, according to Mr 
 Hamilton ; three miles and a half, according to Mr 
 Brydone ; and three or four, according to Mr D'Or- 
 ville. Theinlide is crufled over with falts and fulphur 
 of different colours. It goes (helving down, from the 
 top, like an inverted cone; the depth, in Mr Hamil- 
 ton's opinion, nearly correfponding to the height of 
 the litilc mountain. From many places of this fpace 
 ilfue volumes of fulphureous fmokc, whicli being much 
 heavier than the circumambient air, inftead ofalcend- 
 ing in it, roll down the fide of the mountain, till, co- 
 mingtoamore dcnfe atmofphcre, it Ihoots off horizon- 
 tally, and forms a large trait in the air, according to 
 tlie direction of thcwind ; whicli, happily for our tra- 
 vellers, carried it cxaclly to the lidc oppofite to which 
 they wcreplaced. In the middle of this funnel is the 
 trenicnduous and unfathomable gulph, fo much cele- 
 brated in all ages, both as the terror of this life, and 
 the place of pnnilhment in the next. From this gulph 
 continually ill'ue terrible and confuted noifcs, which in 
 eruptions are increafed to fuch a degree as to be heard 
 at a prodigious dilhince. Its diameter is probably very 
 different at different times: for Mr Hamilton obfcr- 
 vcd, by the w'ind clearing away the fmokefrom time 
 to time, that the inverted hoUov.' cone was contracted, 
 almofl to a point ; while Mr D'Orville and Mr Bry- 
 done found the opening very large. Both Mr Bry- 
 done and Mr Hamilton found the crater too hot to 
 defccnd into it ; but Mr D'Orville was bolder : and 
 accordingly he and his fellow-traveller, faflened to 
 ropes which two or three nscn held at a dillanee for 
 fear of accidents, defccnded as near as poluble to the 
 brink of the gulph ; but tiic fmall flimes and fmoke 
 which ilfued fro-,n it on every lii-e, and a greeiiifli ful- 
 phur, and puniice-lloiies, quite black, which covered 
 the margin, would uot pciniit ihciix to co;nc fo near 
 
 as
 
 i?I T N 
 
 r 219 ] 
 
 y£ TN 
 
 jEtna. as to liave a full .view. They only faw dlftinaiy ia 
 
 ^-— V the niiJJlc, a inafs of matter u hicli fofc, in the Ih.ipc 
 
 of a cone, to the heijjht of about 60 feet, and which 
 towards the bafc,as faras their light could reach, tni(;ht 
 be 600 or 800. While they were obf^rving this fub- 
 ftancc, fome motion whs perceived on the north fide, 
 oppofite to that whereon tlicy Hood ; and immediately 
 the mountain began to fend forth fmoke and allies. 
 This eruption was preceded b/ a fcniible iucreafc of 
 its internal roarings ; which, however, did not conti- 
 nue ; but after a moment's dilatation, as if 10 give it 
 vent, the volcano rcfunied its former tranquillity ; but 
 as it was by no means proper to make a longer Hay in 
 fuch a place, our travellers immediately returned to 
 their attendants. 
 
 On the iummit of mount ^■Etna, Mr Hamilton ob- 
 fcrves, that he was fcniible of adilliculty in refpiration 
 from the too great fub;ility of the air, independent of 
 what arofe from the fulphureous fmoke of the moun- 
 tain. Mr Crydonc takes no notice of this, which pro- 
 bably arofe from the air being in a more rarelied (late 
 at the time of Mr Hamilton's obfcrvations than of Mr 
 Brydone's ; the barometer, asobfcrved by the former, 
 Handing at i3 inches and 10 lines, by the latter at 19 
 inches 6; lines. 
 
 In thcie hii^h regions there is generally a very vio- 
 lent wind, wiiich, as all our travellers found it con- 
 (lantly blowing from the fouth, may polfibly be com- 
 monly direfted from that point. Here Mr Brydone's 
 thermometer fell to 27°. 
 , , . , The top of A^tua beiuE above the common region 
 the ftars of vapours, the heavens appear with excce<ling great 
 feen from fp'endor. — Mr Brydonc and his company obfcrved, as 
 the top of they afcended in the night, that the number of liars 
 
 £tna. 
 
 Extcnfive 
 profpcdt. 
 
 fcemed tobeintinitely increafed, and the light of ea-h 
 of them appeared brighter thanufual; the whitenefs of 
 the milky-way was like a pure dame which lliot acrofs 
 the heavens ; and, with the naked eye, they could ob- 
 fcrveclufters of ftars that were invillble from below. 
 Had Jupiter been villblc, he is of opinion that fome of 
 his fatellites miglit have been ilifcovcrcd with the na- 
 ked eye, or at lead with a very fniall pocket-glafs. 
 He likewife took notice of fcverul of thofe meteors 
 caXlcA falling ft an ; which appeared a? much elevated 
 as when viewed from the plain : a proof, according 
 to Mr Brvdone, that " th' fe bodies move in regions 
 " much beyond the bounds that fome philofophcrs 
 " have aHigncd to our atmofphcre." 
 
 To have a full and clear profpetT; from the fummit 
 of mount /Ltna, it isneccll'iry to be there before fun- 
 rife ; as the vapours railed by the fun, in the day-time, 
 will obfcurc every obj ed : accordingly, our travellers 
 took care to arrive tliere early enough ; and all agree, 
 that the beauty of the profpecl from thence cannot be 
 cxprclFcd. — Nerc MrHrydone and Mr Hamilton had a 
 view of Calabria in Italy, with the fea beyond it ; the 
 Lipari i lands, and Stromboli a volcano at about 70 
 Biiles diftance, appeared jiill under tlieir feet; tlic 
 whole illandof Si:ily, with its rivers, towns, harbours, 
 Reappeared Jiftin:^, as if fccnonamap. Ma;ra,a Sici- 
 lian author, aflirms, that the Afri -an coaft, as well as 
 that of Naples, with m iny of itsiilands have been dif- 
 covcred from the top of iiCtna. The viable hori/.on 
 here is nut Icfs t'.ian 8 or 9C0 miles in diameter. The 
 pyramidal (hadow of the mountain reaches acrofs the 
 
 whole illand, and far into the fea on the other fi?c, JF\At 
 forming a vilible tract in the air, which, as the fun ' ^'— ' 
 rifcs above the hori/.on, is ihortened, and at hfl con- 
 fined to the ncighbourhoodof /Etna. The luoft beautiful 
 part of the fccne, however, in Mr Brydone's opinion, 
 is the mountain ilfelf, the illand of Sicily, and the mi- 
 mcrous illands lying round it. Thefc lall fcem to be 
 clofe to the (kirts of A^iua ; the diltanccs appearing 
 reduced to nothing. 
 
 This mountain is divided into three zones, which Divifionio- 
 might properly enough be difiinguiihcd by the names '"'" •'"■'•^ 
 oi torrid, temperali, and frigid: they arc, however, ^'"'"" 
 known by the names of the I'lcdmontefijOX Ri-^iim ail- 
 ta, the cultivated or fertile region ; the S//:"j/^, woody, 
 or temperate zone ; and the Kc^ii>ni deftrta, the frigid, 
 or dcftrt zoiK, or region. All thcfe are plainly diltin- 
 guilhed from the iiinimit.The Ri:g!(:iic dt:fertu\i\\\Ax)f.- Rrpoti* 
 edoutby a circle of fnow and ice, which extends on all drferta- 
 fides to the diftance of about eight miles, beginning at 
 the foot of the crater. Greateft part of this region is 
 fmooth and even. This is immediately fucceedcd by 
 the Syhofa, orwoody region ; which forms a circle of 
 the moftbeautiful green, furroundingthe inountaiaon 
 all fides. This region is variegated with a vaft number 
 of mountains of a conical form, throv,-n up by .t^tiia in 
 thofc eruptions which burft out from its lides. Mr Ha- 
 milton counted 44 on the Catania lide, each having its 
 crater, many with large trees riouriftiing both within 
 and without the craters. All thefe exceptafewof late 
 date, have acquired a wonderful degrccof fertility. The 
 circumference of this zone, or great circle, according 
 toRecupero, is not lefs than 70 or 80 miles. It is every- 
 where fucceeded by the Repiom ciilta: which is mucii 
 broader than the reft, and extends on all fides to llic 
 foot of the mountain. Here terrible dcvaftations arc 
 fometimcs committed by the eruptions ; and the whole 
 region is likewile full of conical mountains thrown up 
 by them. The circumference of this region, is, by Rc- 
 cupcro, reckoned 183 miles ; but we have already gi- 
 ven our reafons for rejecting thefc dimenfions This 
 
 region is bounded by the fea to the foalh and fouth- 
 eaft ; and on all other fides, by the river Sciuctus and 
 Alcantara, which form the boundaries of mount /Kina. 
 
 About a mile below the foot of the great crater, arc U Torre del 
 found the ruins of an ancient ftrui5ture, called ll Torre Fiiofofu. 
 del Filof'fo, by fome fippofed to have been built by the 
 philofopher Empcdocles, who took up his habitation 
 here, the better to ftudy the nature of mount .'I'^tna. 
 By others they are fuppofed to be r,iin«of a temple of 
 Vulcan. They areof brick, and fecm tohave been or- 
 namented with marble. Somewhere in this region alfo, 
 Mr D'Orvillc found a great oblong block of polifticj 
 marble, eight or ten feet high, and three or four thick ; 
 though how it came there was quite unaccountable to 
 him. Kroni Mr D'Orville'sand .Mr Brydone'saccounts 
 we mufl reckon thispart of the mountain pretty ftccp: 
 but Mrllamilion fiys, that the afcent was fo gradual, 
 as not lobe in the Icall fatiguing ; and had it not been 
 for the fnows, they might have rode on their mules to 
 the very foit of the crater. 
 
 The woody region dcfcends eight or n"ne miles be- Rcgione 
 low the Rtrgidtif ihfurta, but differs greatly in the teni- sjlvofi. 
 perature ofthe climaie. Mr Hamilton obfcrved a gra- 
 dual decrcafc ofthe vegetation as he advanced ; the 
 under part being covered with large timber trees, which 
 Ee a firc'.T
 
 M T N 
 
 [ 220 ] 
 
 M T -N 
 
 ^tna. grew graJually Icfs as he approached the t'liril region, 
 
 ■* • ' at l.ilt they Jegciieratcd iiiio tlic I'mall plants ot the 
 
 northern climates. He airooblervcd qiiantititsof ju- 
 niper and tanfey ; and was informed by his guide, that 
 later in the real'on(hc vilited/ttnain June i 769)therc 
 arc a great many curious plants, and in lomc places 
 rhubarb and fatt'ron in great plenty. In Carrcra's hi- 
 llory of Catania, there is a lill of all the plants and 
 herbs of /Etna, in alpliabetical order. 
 
 Tliis region is extolled by Mr. Brydone as one of the 
 moll dclighful fpots on earth. He lodged for a nigiit 
 in a large cave near the middle, formed by one of the 
 uioll ancient lavas. It is called La Spi:h?icadet Capri- 
 ole, or the goats cavern ; becaufe it is frequented by 
 thofc animals, which take refuge there in bad weather. 
 Here his rcfl was difturbed by a mountain thrown up 
 in the eruption i 766. It difcharged great quantities 
 of fnioke, and made feveral explolions like heavy can- 
 non fired at a dillance ; but they could obfcrve no ap- 
 pearance of fire. 
 
 This gentleman likcwifc vifitcd the eaftcrn fide of 
 \\cReghni fylvofa, intending to have afcended that way 
 to the fummit, and dcfcended again on the fouth fide 
 to Catania ; but found it impracticable; though what 
 the infurmountable diihcullics were, hedoesnotmen- 
 JEniptionof ^-^^^^ qj^ ^j^j^ jiJ^.^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^ woody region was dc- 
 bmling\va- j^^y^^j^ j„ j ^^j^ (jy 3,, immcnfc torrent ot boiling wa- 
 ter which iirucd from the great crater. Its traces were 
 flill very vifible, about a mile and a half broad, and 
 in fome places more. The foil was then only begin- 
 ning 10 recover its vegetative power, which it fecnis this 
 torrent had dcfiroyed for 1 4years — Near this place are 
 I'omc beautiful woods of cork, and evergreen oak,grow- 
 ing abfolutcly out of the lava, the foil having hardly 
 filled the crevices, and not far off our traveller obfer- 
 ved 7 little mountains that feemed 10 have been form- 
 ed by a late eruption. Kach of thcfe had a regular cup, 
 or crater, on the top ; and, in fome, the middle gulph, 
 ox Voragtua,^%\.\\K. Sicilians call it, was flill open. 
 Into thcfe gulphs Mr Brydone tumbled down floucs, 
 and heard the noifc for a long time after. All the 
 fields round, to a conliJcrable dillance, were covered 
 with large burnt floncs difcharged from thcfe little 
 volcanoes. 
 
 The woody region, efpecially the eafl fide, called 
 Ca;-;'/«..-.'/(i, abounds with very large chcfnut-trecs; the 
 moilremarkableof which hasbcen called, from itsfize, 
 Cajhgnndi Coilo Cavalli, or chcfnut-trcc of .in hun- 
 dred liorfe. M. Brydone was greatly difappointcd at 
 the light of this tree, as it is only a bulli of five large 
 ones growing together : but hisguides aluired him, that 
 all thcfe five were once united into one Hem ; andSig- 
 nior Recupero told him, that he himfclf had been at 
 the cxpencc of carrying up peafants with tools to dig 
 round thisbulh of trees, and found all the ilems united 
 below ground in one root. The circumference, asmea- 
 fured byMelfrs Brydone and Glover, who accompanied 
 him, amounted to 204 feet. Another of thefe, about a 
 Biileand a halfliighcron the mountain, is called /7<»^<?f- 
 iia dilCat:a : it rifes from onefolid Hem to a conlide- 
 rable height ; after which it branches out,and is a much 
 6ncr object than the other : this was meafured two feet 
 above the ground, and found to be 76 feet in circum- 
 ference. A third, called Caflngrta del Nave, is pretty 
 nearly of the fame fize ; and Maffa, one of the moll 
 
 Over- 
 grown* 
 chirnut'- 
 trees. 
 
 cilccmcd Sicilian authors, afiirms that hchas feen folid 
 oaks there upwards of 40 leet round. All tlielegrow 
 on a thick rich foil, which fccms origin.:lly to have 
 been formed of alhes thrown out by the u.ountain. 
 Here the barometer flood at 26 inches 5 lines and an 
 half, indicating an elevation of near 4CC0 feet. 
 
 The Piedmontcfediflricl is covered with towns, vil- 
 lages, monalleries, &c. and is well peopled, notwith- 
 flanding the danger of fuch a fituation : but the ferti- 
 lity of the foil tempts people to inhabit that country ; 
 and their fupcrflitious confidence in their faints, with 
 the propenfity mankind have to defpifc danger which 
 they do not ice, render them as fecurc there as in any 
 otherplace. Here,SirW illiam Hamilton obferves,thcy 
 keep their vines low, contrary to the cuflom of thofc 
 who inhabit mount Vefuvius ; and they produces 
 flrongcr wine, but not in fuch abundance : here alio 
 many terrible eruptions have burfl forth ; particularly 
 one in 1669. At the foot of the mountain railed by 
 that eruption, is a hole, through which Sir William 
 Hamilton dcfcended, by means of a rope, into feveral 
 fubterrancous caverns, branching out and extending 
 much farther than he chofe to venture, the cold there 
 being exccllive, and a violent wind extinguifhing fome 
 of the torches. Many othercaverns are known in this 
 and the other regions of ittna; particularly one near 
 this place called La Spehuca delta I'alomba, (from the 
 wild pidgcons building their nefls there.) Here Mr 
 Brydone was told that fome people had lofl their fenfes, 
 from having advanced too far, imagining they faw de- 
 vils and damned fpirits. — Some of thefe caverns are 
 made ufe of as magazines for fnow ; which they arc 
 well adapted for, on account of their extreme cold. 
 Thefe arc with great probability fuppofed by Sir Wil- 
 liam Hamilton to be the hollows made by the iffuing 
 of the lava in eruptions. 
 
 In this region the river /^c'n, fo much celebrated by 
 the poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its 
 rife. It burfls out of the earth at once in a large flream, 
 nms with great rapidity, and about a mile from its 
 fource throws itfelf into ilie fca. Its water is remark- 
 ably clear; and fo extremely cold, that it is reckoned 
 dangerous to drink it : It is faid, however to have a 
 poifonous quality, from being impregnated with vitriol; 
 in confequcncc of which cattle have becnkilled by it. 
 It never freezes, bat is faid often to contracfl a greater 
 degree of cold than ice. 
 
 Having thus given an account of tliis mountain in 
 its quiet and peaceable Hate, wc mufl now defcribe 
 the appearance it puts on during the time of an erup- 
 tion, when it fpreads dellrui^ionfor many miles round, 
 and is capable of flriking the boldell with terror. 
 
 Sir William Hamilton, who has examined both Ve- 
 fuvius and /t'tna in a very accurate manner, never had 
 anopportunity of feeing an eruption of the latter ; but 
 as he is of opinion that the two volcanoes agree per- 
 fectly in all refpeils, only that the latter is on a much 
 larger fcalc than the former, we hope it will not be 
 unacceptable to our readers to give an account of fonic 
 of the general appearances of Vefuvius when in aflatc 
 of eruption, the better to help their ideas concerning 
 ittna. ■ 
 
 It has been alrc.-idy obfcrved, that a fmoke con- 
 flantly ilfucs from the top of Atna, andthat iisintcr- 
 nal noil'es never ccafc. The cafe is the fame with Vefu- 
 vius i 
 
 lt\.n\. 
 
 Rfgione 
 Culta. 
 
 Subterra- 
 neous c»- 
 vcrns. 
 
 KivcrAcit; 
 
 Appearan- 
 CC5 during 
 an erup- 
 tion.
 
 /li T N 
 
 [ 221 ] 
 
 JE T N 
 
 ^tna. 
 
 Signs of an 
 approach- 
 ing erup- 
 tion. 
 
 Hamilton's 
 Obfcrva- 
 tioiis, p. 4. 
 
 Thunder & 
 lightnhig 
 from the 
 
 vius : and Sir Williasu Hamilton obfcrvcd, that in bad 
 weather the fiiiokc was more confidcrable, as well as 
 rlic nolle miicii louder, than when it was fair ; fo that 
 in bad weather he hadfVeqiienily iieard the inward ex- 
 plolions of the mountain at Naples lix miles dii'lant from 
 Vcfuviiis. He alio obftrved the fmoke that illued 
 from the mountain in bad weather to be very white, 
 inoift,and notncar foofFeiiliveas thef.iliihurcoiisitcams 
 from various cracks in the lidc of the mountain. 
 
 The firft fymptom of an approaching eruption is an 
 increale of the Inioke in fair weather : after fomc time, 
 a piifFof black fmokc is frcquenily feen to flioot up in 
 themidflof the white to aeonlidtrable height! Thcfc 
 puffs are attended with confiderable explufions : for 
 while Vefuvius was in this Hate, Sir William Hamilton 
 went up to its top, which was covered with fnow ; and 
 perceiving a little liillock of fiilphur, about lix feet 
 high, which had been lately thrown up, and burnt with 
 a bine riamcat tlie top, he was examining this pheno- 
 menon, when fuddcnly a violent report was heard, a 
 columuof black fmoke Ihot up with violence, and was 
 followed by areddifli flame. Immediately a fliowcr of 
 /tones fell ; upon which he thought j'ropcr to retire. 
 Phenomena of this kind, in all probability, precede the 
 eruptions of /Etna in a much greater degree. — The 
 finoke at length appears wholly black in the day-time, 
 and in the night has the appearance of flame ; Ihowers 
 of allies are Cent forth, earthi]uakes are produced, the 
 mountain difchargcs volley s of red-hot flones to a great 
 height in the air. The force by which thefe flones 
 are projeftcd, as well as their magnitudes, fecnis to be 
 in proportion to the bulk of the mountain. Signior 
 Recupcro affwrcd Mr Brydone, that he had feen im- 
 nicnfely large ones thrown perpendicularly upwards 
 to the height of 7000 feet, as he calculated from the 
 time they took to arrive at the earth after beginning 
 to dcfcend from their grcatell elevation. The largelt 
 ftonc, or rather rock, that was ever known to be emit- 
 ted by Vefuvius, was 12 feet long and 45 in circum- 
 ference. This was thro.wn a quarter of a mile ; but 
 mucii larger ones have been thrown out by mount /Kt- 
 na.almoflin the proportion in which the latter exceeds 
 Vefuvius in bulk. Along with thcfc terrible fymp- 
 toms, the fmoke that ill'ues from the crater is fome- 
 timcs in a highly electrified Itaic. In this cafe, the 
 finall afhcs which are continually emitted from the cra- 
 ter, arc attra<5ted by the fmokc, and rife with it to a 
 great height, forming a vall black, and to appearance 
 denfe, column ; from tliis column continual tlalhes of 
 forked or zig-zag lightning illiic, fometimes attended 
 with thunder, and fometimes not, but equally powerful 
 with ordinary lightning. This phenomenon was ob- 
 ferved by Sir William Hamilton in the fmoke of Vefu- 
 vius, and has alfo been taken notice of in that oi li'x- 
 na ; and where this electrified fmokc hath fprcad over 
 a traft of land, much mifchief haili been done by the 
 lightning proceeding from it. 
 
 When ihele dreadful appearances have continued 
 fometimes four or live months, the /./crt begins to make 
 its appearance. This is a ftream of melted mineral 
 matters, which in V'efuviiis commonly boils over the 
 top, but very feUIom docs fo in Altna : owing to the 
 preat weight of the lava, which long before il can be 
 nifed to the vaft height of mount* .4!tna, burfis our 
 iiirough foinc weak place in its lidc. Upon the ap- 
 
 pearance of the lava, the violent eruptions of the moun- j^ina. 
 
 tain generally, though not always, ceafe ; for if this * ' 
 
 burning matter gets not fuflieient vent, the commo- 
 tions incrcafe to a prodigious degree. — In the night- 
 time the lava appears like a fircani of fire, accompanied 
 with Maine : but in the day time it has no fuch appear- 
 ance ; its progrcfs is marked by a white fmoke, svhich 
 by the reflection of the red-hot matter in the night af- 
 fumes the appearance of flame. 
 
 Alltheabovementioned fymptoms preceded the great Eruption i» 
 eruption of /Etna in 1669. For feveral months before i('(")- 
 the lava broke forth, the old mouth, or great crater on 
 the fummit, wasobfcrved tofend forth great quantities 
 of fmokc and flame ; the top had fallen in, fo that the 
 mountain was much lowered ; the illandsalfoof Volcan 
 and Stromboli, two volcanoes to the weft ward of Sicily, 
 wcreobfcrved toragemorethan ufual. — Eightcendays 
 before the eruption, the fky was very thick and dark, 
 with thunder, lightning, frequent concuflions of the 
 earth, and dreadful fubterraneous bellowings. On 
 the iitji of March, fomc time before thelavagot vent, 
 a rent was opened in the mountain twelve miles in 
 length, into which, when ftones were thrown down, 
 they could not be heard to Itrike the bottom. Burning 
 rocks, 60 palms ( i 5of our feet) in length, were thrown 
 to the dillancc of a mile ; others of a lelfer lizc were 
 carriedihrcemilesoff; the internal noifes of the moun- 
 tain were exceedingly dreadful, and the thunder and 
 lightning from the fmoke fcarce lefs terrible than 
 they. When the lava at laft gqt vent, it burfl out of 
 a vineyard, 20 miles below- the great crater, andfprung 
 upintotheairtoaconrKierableheight.' Hcrcil formed 
 a mountain of ftones and allies, not lefs, .as Sir \\"^ 
 Hamilton conjectures, than half a mile perpendicular 
 in height, and three miles in circumference. Kor 54- 
 days neither fun nor flars had appeared : but foon af- 
 ter the lava got vent, the mountain became very quiet. 
 The terrible effeftsofthis fiery Itream may be imagined 
 from its amazing extent , being, as Sir W"' Hamilton 
 obfervcs, no lefs than 14 miles long, and in many pla- 
 ces fix in breadth. In its courfe, it dcftroyed the ha- 
 bitations of near ;o,ooo perfons ; and meeting with 3 
 lake four miles in conipafs, it not onlv tilled it up, 
 though feveral fathom deep, but made a mountain in 
 the place of it. Having reached Catanea, it deltroycd 
 part of its walls, and ran for a conliderablc length into 
 the fea, forminir a fafc and beautiful harbour ; w hicb, 
 however, was foon lillcd up by a frelh torrent of the 
 fame inflamed matter. 
 
 It is not eal'y for ihofe who have never been prefent PhcDoni*- 
 at thole terrible operations of nature, to reprcfent to "^ *' .'*"= 
 their minds the horrors which muft attend the break- 1'"^^^^'"^ 
 ing forth of the lava; for though the giving vent to,", 
 this burning matter generally produces a cctlation of 
 the violent ctf()rts of the internal tire, yet at the very 
 inflant of its cxplollon fcarce any thing can be con- 
 ceived lb dreadful. See Vesuvius. 
 
 When the lava firft ilfues, it appears very fluid, and Hamilton'j 
 runs with the rapidity of a fwift river; but even then it obfcrva- 
 furprilinglyrelillsthc imprcflion of I'olid bodies : for Sir tion», p 10- 
 W™ Hamilton could not pierccthat of Vefuvius with a 
 flick driven againft it with all his force ; nor did the 
 largeft flone he wasable to throw upon it link, but made 
 a (light imprefTion, and then floated along. Tiiis hap- 
 peucJalmoftat the very mouth, when thclava appear- 
 ed.
 
 ^ T N 
 
 [ 222 
 
 y?L T N 
 
 Mtwi. 
 
 Lava of 
 1(169 de- 
 scribed. 
 
 cd liquid as water, and wlu-n he faw it running with a 
 rapiJity tnual to the river Severn at the pallagc near 
 briltol. — A dtfcriiuioa otikc lava ilfiiing from mount 
 /i-tna ill 1669 was lent to the court ot England by 
 Lord \V iMcheUea, will) at that -.inie happened to be at 
 Catania in his way home from an cmbaily at Conllanti- 
 no,)lc. His account is not now to be procured ; but 
 Mr Hamilton found a copy in Sicily, and hath given 
 an extract, part of whiih follows. " When it was 
 night, 1 went upon two towers in diii'crcni places ; and I 
 could plainly ice, at ten miles dillance, as wc judged, 
 the lire begin to rnn from the mountain in a direct line, 
 Llic flame to afccnd as high and as big as one of the 
 greatelHlceples in your Wajcily's kingdoms, and to 
 throw up great iloncs into the air ; I could difcern the 
 river of lire todefcend tiie mountain of a terrible fiery 
 or red colour, and Iloncs of a paler red to fwim there- 
 on, and to be fomc as big as an ordinary table. Wc 
 could fee this tire to move in fevcral other places, and 
 all the country covered with fire, afcending with great 
 flames in many places, fmoking like to a violent fur- 
 nace of iron luclled, making a noife N\iih the great 
 pieces that fell, cfpecially thole that fell into the lea. 
 A cavalier of Malta, who lives there, and attended me 
 told me, that the river was as liquid, where it iffucs 
 out of the mountain, as water, and came out like a 
 torrent with great violence, and is five or fix fathom 
 deep, and as broad, and that no Itoues fnik therein." 
 
 The account given in the Philofophical Tranfac- 
 lious is to the fame purpofe. Wc are there told, that 
 the lava is " iiotliing clfe than divers kinds of metals 
 and minerals, rendered liquid by the hercenefs of the 
 fire in the bowels of the earth, boiling up and gulhing 
 forth as the water doth at tiie head of fomc great ri- 
 ver ; and having run in a full body for a Hone's cait 
 or more, began to crull or curdle, becoming, when 
 cold, thole hard porous Iloncs which the people call 
 Sciani." Thofe, tliough cold in comparilbn ot what 
 firft ilfucs from the mountain, yet retained fo much 
 Jicat as to rcfemblc huge cakes of lea-coal (Ircngly ig- 
 nited, and came tumbling over one another, bearing 
 down or burning whatever was in their vvay — In this 
 manner the lava proceeded llowly on till it came to the 
 lea, when a moll extraordinary couriic'k enfued betwixt 
 the two adverfe elements. The nolle was vallly more 
 dreadful than the loudtll thunder, being heard thro' 
 the whole country to an imnienfe diftance ; the water 
 I'cenicd to retire and diminifli before the lava, while 
 clouds of vapour darkened the fun. The whole tilh 
 on the coafl were dtllroyed, the colour of the fca it- 
 fclf was changed, and the tranfparcncy of its v\aters 
 loft for msnv months. 
 
 While this lava was iiruingiii fuch prodigious quan- 
 tity, the merchants, whole account is recorded in the 
 Philof()phic:il Traufaaions, attempted to go up to the 
 mouth itfelf ; but durll not come nearer than a furlong, 
 led they (liould have bienoverwhclmcd by a vail pillar 
 of allies, whi:h to their apprehcniion exceeded twice 
 thebignefs of St Paul's llecplc in London, and went 
 up into the air 10 a far greater height ; ar the mouth 
 kfclf was a continual noife, like ihc beating of jrreat 
 wavesof the feaagainll rocks, or like dillant thunder, 
 which fometimcs was fo violent as to be heard 60, or 
 even too miles ofT; to which dillance alio part of the 
 «fhcs were carried. Some lime after, having gone up, 
 
 they found the mouth from whence this terrible deluge ^tn». 
 iiiiicd to be only a hole about 10 feet diameter. This ~ — "'"""' 
 is alio confirmed by Mr bryuouc ; and is probably the o{^^'.'"„]c 
 fame throiiuh which Mr \V '" Hamilton dclctndcd iuio whenttthc 
 the fubtcrrancan caverns already mentioned. lava ilTucd. 
 
 Mount j-ttna, as wx- have already remarked, has Antiquity 
 been a celebrated volcano from tlic remotcll antiquity, ofthccrup- 
 DioJorus Siculus mentions eruptions of it as happening "°"'' 
 5ooycars before the Trojan war, or 1693 years before 
 the Lhrilliau a:ra. Krom Homer's lilentc with regard 
 to the phenomenon of -itna, it is to be prefunud that 
 the volcano had been many ages in a Hate of inactivity, 
 and that no tradition of its burning remained among 
 the inhabitants at the time he compofcd his Odyllcy ; 
 perhaps it never had emitted tlaiues lince the country 
 was peopled. The firft eruption taken notice of by an- 
 cient, but by no means cotemporary authors, happcncil 
 before the Greeks landed on the illand, and is fuppofeH 
 to have feared the Sicani from the call part of Sicily. 
 
 Piudar, quoted above, is theoldeil writer extant who 
 fpcaks of Atnaasavolcano. The liril recorded erup- 
 tion was in the time of Pythagoras. Plato was invited 
 by the younger Dionylius to examine the ft;'.lc of the 
 mountain after the fixtli. It threw up flames and lava 
 near an hundred times between that period and the 
 battle of Pharfalia ; it w;s particularly furious while 
 Scxtus Pompcius was adding the horrors of war to its 
 dcvaftations. Charlemagne happen; d tobc at Catania 
 during one of the eruptions ; and from his reign the 
 chronicles mention fifteen down to that of the year 
 1669, the moft tcrribleof them all. Since 1669 there 
 have been fcveral eruptions, b\it none of them compa- 
 rable to it. In that which happened in i 766, the lava 
 fprang up into the air to a conlidcrable height, twelve 
 miles below the fitmmit ; but formed a ftream only fix 
 miles in length and one mile in breadth. 
 
 The laft eruption happened in 1 787. From the ift Account of 
 to the lOth of July, there were ligns of its approach. '^^ 1^'* '" 
 On the Tith, aftera little calm, there was a fubterra- j"'^''""' 
 neous noife, like the found of a drum in a clofe place, 
 and it was followed by a copious burft of black fmoke. 
 It was then calm till tlic i 5th, when the fame progno- 
 llics recurred. On the i 7th, the fiibtcrraneous noife 
 was heard again ; the fuioke was more abundant, flijjit 
 Ihocksofau earthquake followed, and the lava flowed 
 from behind one of the two little mountains which form 
 the double head of A'.tna. On the iSth, while the 
 fpec^ators were in anxious cxpe'lationofa morcfcvcrc 
 eruption, all was quiet, and continued fo more than 
 )2 liours : f'lon after they perceived fomc new lliocks, 
 accompanied with much noife ; and the mciuntain threw 
 out a thick fmoak, which, as the wind was weftcrly, 
 foon darkned the caftern hori/.on : two hours afier- 
 wards a Ihower of fine black brilliant fand dcfccnded : 
 on the eaft fide it was a ftorm of floncs ; and, at ihc 
 foot of the mountain, a deluge of flalhes of fire, of 
 fcoria and lava. 
 
 Thefe appearances corninucd the whole day ; at the 
 fctting of the fun the ficne changed. A number of 
 co'iiciil flaivcs rofc from the volcano ; oneon ihc north, 
 another on the fouth, were very confpicuous, and rofc 
 and fell alternately. At three in the morning, the 
 mountain appeared cleft, and the fummitficmed a burn- 
 ing mafs. The ^♦oncs of lijjhi which arofe from the 
 crater were of animmcnfe extent, particularly the two 
 
 juft
 
 JE r N 
 
 [ 225 } 
 
 A F F 
 
 JEtna, juft mentioned. The two heads fcemed to be cut away; 
 Etna fait, and at their Icparation was a cone ot" riam;, feeiniiigly 
 
 ' ' compofcd of many lellcr cones. The riamc lecmtdot' 
 
 the li eight of the mountain placed on the mouinain ; 
 fo tliat it was probably two miles high, on a bafe of a 
 mile and a half in diameter. This cone was (till co- 
 vered with a very thick finoke, in which there appear- 
 ed very brilliant tlalhcs of lightning, a phenomenon 
 which .'Ktna had not before attbrded. At limes, founds 
 like thofe from the cxplollon of a large cannon were 
 heard feemingly at a lefs diitancc than the moiintain. 
 From the cone, as from a fountain, a jet of many da- 
 rning volcanic matters were throu n, wlii-h were car- 
 ried to the diftance of lix or feven miles : from the 
 bafe of the cone a thick fmoke arofe, which, for a mo- 
 ment, obfcnred fomc parts of the name, at the time 
 when the rivers of lava broke out. This beauliful ap- 
 ])earance continued three quarters of an hour, it be- 
 gan the next night with n;orc force; but continued 
 only half an hour. In the intervals, however, /i.tiia 
 continued to throw out rianics, fmoke, llones ignited, 
 and Ihowers of fand. From the 20lh to the szd, the 
 appearances gradually ccafed. The llrc.imof lava v.as 
 carried towards Bronte and the plain of Lago. 
 
 After the eruption, the top of the mountain on the 
 weftern fide was found covered with hardened lava, 
 fcoria, and flones. The travellers were annoyed by 
 fmoke, by fliowcrs of fand, mephitic vapours, and ex- 
 ccflive heat. Tliey faw that the lava which came from 
 the weftcrn point divided into two branches, one of 
 which wasdireChedtowardsLibcccio; iheother, as we 
 have already faid, towards the plain of Lago. The lava 
 on the wellcrn headof the mountain, had from its va- 
 rious fliapcs been evidently in a itate of fufion : from 
 oneofihe fpiracula, the odour was llrongly thatof li- 
 ver of fulphur. The thermometer, in defcending, was 
 at 40 degrees of Karcnluit's fcale ; while near the 
 lava, in the plain of Lago, it was 140 degrees. The 
 lava extended two miles ; its width was from 13 Mo 
 21 feet, and its depth 13! feet. 
 
 Thefe arc the moltreniarkablecircnm fiances we have 
 been able to collect, that miijhi ferve to give an ade- 
 quate idea of this famous mountain. — Many things, 
 however, concerninj; the extent, antiquity, ire. of the 
 lavas, remain to be difculled, as well as the opinions of 
 philofophers concerning the origin of the interna! lire 
 which produces fo much mifchief: but tlieconlideration 
 of thefe belongs to the j^cr.eral article Voicano, to 
 which the reader is referred. — Phefateof Cv/^/z/wand 
 llyhia, which have often been deftroyed by eruptions, 
 will be mentioned under thefe two words. 
 
 JErsAfait, Sal JEtine, a name given by fomc authors 
 to ilie fil ammoniac, which is found on the furface 
 and lides of the openings of .^tna, and othir burn- 
 ing mountains after their eruptions ; and fometimcs 
 on the furface of the ferruginous matter which they 
 throw out. This f.ilt makes a very various ap- 
 pearance in many cafes ; it is fomctimes found in large 
 and thick cakes, fometinies only in form of a thick 
 powder, fcattered over the furf.ice of the earth and 
 llones. Some of this f.ilt i> yellow, fome white, and 
 fomc grceniih. This fait is a concrete of nitre, fulphur, 
 and vitriol, burnt and fublimcd together ; Borelli found 
 QUce 1 vali ii^uuiuiiy of this fait on mount .-Etna, and 
 
 tried many experiments on it : from whence he con- .^tolarcBa 
 eluded, that tliiifalt isfo far from occafioning the ex- I 
 
 plolions of that mountain, as lome have fuppofcd, that Aflc.ainn. 
 it does not exiit in it, but is formed during the burn- '^ ' 
 ing. Phil. Tranf. N° 100. 
 
 vtTOLARCHA, in Grecian antiquity, ihepHn- 
 cipal magillrate or governor of the ytiolians. 
 
 AFLK (Uomitius), a famous orator, born at Nif- 
 mes, iiourilhed under Tiberius and the three fucceed- 
 ing emperors. Qjiintilian makesi'rcquent mention of 
 him, and commends his pleadings. But he difgraced 
 his talents, by turning informer againft fonie of the mo/l 
 dillinguilhed perfonages inRoine. Qjiintilian, in his 
 youth, cultivated the friendlhipof Domitius very a!ii- 
 duoudy. He tells us that his pleadings abounded with 
 pleafant (lories, and that there were public collections 
 of his witty fayings, fomc of which he quoies. He a Kb 
 mentionsiwobooksof his " OnlVittiejf.t." Domitius 
 was once ingreat danger from an inferiptionhe put up- 
 on a (latue erected by him in honour of Caligula, wh cre- 
 in he declared that this prince was a fecond time a 
 conful at the age of 27. This he intended asan encom- 
 ium, but Caligula taking it as a farcafmupon hisyoutli, 
 and his infringmentof the laws, railed a proccfs againll 
 him, and pleaded himfclf in perfon. Domitius inllead 
 of making a defence, repeated part of the emperor's 
 fpeech with the highefl marks of admiration ; at'ter 
 which he fell upon his knees, and, begging pardon, 
 declared, that he dreaded more the eloquence of Cali- 
 gula than his imperial power. This piece of rtattcry 
 lucceeded fowell, iliat the emperor not only pardon- 
 ed, but alfo raifcd him to ilie confullhip. Afer died 
 in the reign of Nero, A. D. 59. 
 
 AKFA, a weiglit ufcd on the Gold Coaft of Guinea. 
 It is equal to an ounce, and the half of it is called 
 tgg'^ba. Moftof theblacksou the Gold Coaft give thefe 
 names to thofe weights. 
 
 AFFECTION, in a general fenfc, implies an at- 
 tribute iiifcparablc from itsfubjecl. Thus magnitude, 
 rignre, weight, &c. are alFeciions of all bodies ; and 
 love, fear, hatred, &c. are atfeclions of the mind*. 'ScKMtrae 
 
 Ai-FEcriON,ligiufyingrty":///t</if«/ oj mi nd toward Plilo/ifly, 
 a particular being or thing, occupies a middle fpaec P*"'''««-'« 
 between difpojition on the one hand, znil pit Jjitn on the ''• 
 other f . It is diltinguii'nable from Difpolition, which t^"'^^ 
 being a branch of one's nature, originally, mull exill yjj^'^" 
 before there can be an opportunity to exert it upon any 
 particular objecl ; whereas Aifection can never be ori- 
 ginal, becaufc, having a fpecial relation to a particular 
 object, it cannot c.xill till the objcCl has once at lead 
 been prefented. It is aifodillinguilhable from Pallion, 
 wliich, depending on the real or ideal prcfcnee of its 
 objeCl, vanilhes with its objctl : whereas Affeflion is a 
 lallingcouueclion ; and, like other connctlions, fubfills 
 even when we do not think of the perfon. A familiar 
 example u ill illullrate this. There may be in one pcr- 
 fon's mind a difpofnion to gratitude, which, throui'h 
 want of an obje.-t, happens never to be exerted ; and 
 which therefore is ncvcrdifcovcrcd even by the perfon 
 hinifclf. Another, who has the famedifpolition, meets 
 wiihakiiidly odice I iiat makes him grateful to his bene- 
 factoK An in limateconncCtion is formed between them, 
 termed affiil:oii : which, like other connedions, has a 
 permanent cxJUence, though not always in view. The-
 
 A F F. [ 224 
 
 affciflion, for the molt part, lies dormant, till an oppor- 
 tunity oticr tor cxcnin;^ it : in that circumftancc, it is 
 converted into the paffion of gratitude j and tlic oppor- 
 tunity is eagerly ftizcd of tellitying gratitude in the 
 wariucfl manner. 
 
 Akkection, amon^ phyficians, fignifics the fame 
 as difeafc. Thus the hyllcric ajfMion is the fame 
 with till, hyftcric difeafe. 
 
 AKb'EREKS, orAKKERORS, inlaw, perfons ap- 
 pointed in court-lects, courts baron, &c. to fettle, upon 
 oath, the linisto be iuipofcdupon thofc who have been 
 guilty of faults arbitrarily punilhablc. 
 
 AKFETL'OSO, or Con AttBTTo, i<j the Italian 
 niufic,intimatcs that the part to which it is added ought 
 to be played in a tender moving way, and confcquently 
 rather llow than fal^ 
 
 AFKIANCE, in law, denotes the mutual plight- 
 ing of troth between a man and woman to marry each 
 other. 
 
 AI'"KIDA\"IT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn 
 before fomcpcrfon who isauthorifcd to take the fame. 
 
 AKKI N IT Y,among civilians, implies a relation con- 
 iraiSed by marriage; incontradilHnilion loconfangui- 
 nity, or relation by blood. Affinity does not found any 
 real kinlhip; it is no more than a kindof lic^ion, intro- 
 duced on account of the clofe relation between hulband 
 and wife. It is even faid to ceafe when the caufeof it 
 ceafes : hence a woman who is not capable of being a 
 witncfs for her hufbaud's brother during his lifetime, 
 is allowed for a witnefs when a widow, by reafon the 
 affinity is dilfolvcd. Yet with regard to the conttait- 
 ing marriage, afllnity is not diffolvcd by death, though 
 it be in every thing clfe. 
 
 There are fcveral degrees of affinity, whereiti mar- 
 riage was prohibited by the law of Mofes : thus, the 
 fon could not marry his mother, nor his father's wife 
 (Lev. xviii. 7. et.feq.) : the brother couldnot marry 
 his filler, whether ftie were fo by the father only or 
 by the mother only, and much Icfs if file washis liller 
 both by the fame fatherand mother; the grandfather 
 could not marry his grand-daughter, either by his fon 
 or daughter. No one could marry the daughter of his 
 father's wife ; nor the fiflcrof his father or mother. 
 Nor the nncle his niece; nor the aunt her nephew. 
 Nor the nephew the wife of his uncle by the father's 
 lide. The father-in-law could not marry his daugh- 
 ter-in-law : nor the brother the wife of his bro- 
 ther, while living; nor even after the death of his 
 brother, if he left children. If he left no children, 
 the furviving brother was to raife up children to his 
 deceafed brother, by marrying his widow. It was for- 
 bidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one 
 lime, or the daughter of the mother's fon, or the 
 daughter of her daughter, or two fillers together. It 
 is true th« patriarchs before the law married their 
 lifters, as Abraham married Sarah.who was his father's 
 daughter by another mother ; andtwo fillers together, 
 as Jacob married Rachel and Leah; and their own 
 lifters by both father and mother, as Scth and Cain. 
 But thefc cafes are not to be jn-opofed as examples : 
 becaufe in fomc they were authoril'ed by iieccllity ; in 
 others by cuftom ; and the law as yet was not in being. 
 If fome other examples may be found, eillicr before 
 or fmcc the law, the fcripture exprefsly difapprovcs of 
 
 I 
 
 ] 
 
 A F F 
 
 them, as Reuben's inccft with Balah his f^ither's con- 
 cubine, and the atli-nof Amnion with his lifter Ta- 
 mar; and that of Hcrod-Antipas, who married Hc- 
 rodias his liltcr-in-la\\-, his brother Philip's wife, 
 while her hufl^and was yet living. 
 
 An I NIT V is alio ulcd to denote conformity or a- 
 grcement : Thus wc fay, the aiKnity of languages, 
 the affinity of words, the affinity of iounds, ike. 
 
 AniNiTY, or Elective Attraction, arcttrnix 
 ufed by modern chemifts to pxprefs that peculiar pro- 
 peiility which different fpecics of matter Jiave to unite 
 and combine with certain other bodies exclulivtly, or 
 in preference to any other connciiion. 
 
 AKKIRMATION, in logic, the alfcrting the truth 
 of any propolition. 
 
 Akkirm ATioN,in law,denotes an indulgence allow- 
 ed to the people called ihuikers ; who, in cafes where 
 an oath is required from others, may makeafolcmn af- 
 firmation that what tlicy fay is true ; and if they make 
 a falfc aliirmatioii, they are fubjeit to the penalties of 
 perjury. 
 
 Afkir mation is alfo ufed for the ratifyingor con- 
 firming the fentence or decree of fome inferior court : 
 Thus, iu England, tiicy fay, the houfe of lords affirm- 
 ed the decree of the lord chancellor, or the decree of 
 the lords of felfion. 
 
 AFFIRMATIVE, in grammar. Authors diftin- 
 guilli affirmative particles ; fuch is, yes.— The term 
 affirmative is fometimes alfo ufed fubllaniively. Thus 
 wc fay, the affirmative is the more probable lide of the 
 quellion : there were fo many votes, or voices, for 
 the aflirmativc. 
 
 AFFIX, in grammcr, a particle added at the clofe 
 of a word, either to diverlify its form or alter its ligni- 
 fication. We meet with affixe- in the Saxon, the Ger- 
 man, andothcrnorthcrn languages ; butmorc efpccial- 
 ly in the Hebrew, and other oriental tongues. The 
 Hebrew ^^"xtv are fingle fyllables, frequently lingle 
 letters, fubjoined to nouns and verbs ; and contribute 
 not a little to the brevity of that language. The ori- 
 ental languages are much the fame as to the radicals, 
 and differ chiefly from each other as to affixes and 
 prefixes. 
 
 AFFLATUS, literally denotes a blaft of wind, 
 breath, or vapour, ftriking with force againft another 
 body. The word is Latin, formed from «</" to," and 
 fiare " to blow." Naturalills fometimes fpcak of the 
 afflatus of fcrpents. Tully ufcs the word figuratively, 
 for a divine infpiration ; in which fenfe, he afcribes all 
 great and eminent accomplilhments toadivincalHatus. 
 The Pythian prieftcfs being placed on a tripod or per- 
 forated ftool, over a holy cave, received the divine 
 afflatus, as a late author cxpreires it, in her belly ; and 
 being thus infpired, fell into agitations, like a phrene- 
 tic ; during which Ihe pronounced, in hollow groans 
 and broken fentences, the will of the deity. This af- 
 flatus is fuppofcd, by fome, to have been a fubterra- 
 neous fume, or exhalation, w herewith the pricflefswas 
 literally infpired. Accordingly, i: had the effects of 
 a real phyfical difeafe ; the paroxyfm of which was fo 
 vehement, that Plutarch obfcrves it fometimes proved 
 mortal. Van Dale fuppofcs the pretended euthuiiafra of 
 the Pythia to have arifcn from the fumes of aromatics. 
 
 AFFLICTION, is not itfelf, in propriety of medi- 
 cal 
 
 Aflinit/ 
 
 r 
 
 Afflidioa.
 
 A F R 
 
 [ 
 
 ] 
 
 A F R 
 
 Afforage cal fpccch, a difcafc, but it produces many : for what- 
 II ever excites envy, anger, or li.ured, produces diCcafts 
 Africa. {i;,u\ tcnl'c fibres ; as wliaicver cxcilcs fear, grief, joy, 
 ' " or delight, begets difcafes from relaxation. 
 
 Ahi'ORAGt;, in tiie French cuftoms, a duty paid 
 to the lord of a dillrict, for pcrmiilion to fell wine, or 
 others liqu.irs, within his feignory. Aiforage is alfo 
 ufed forihc rate or price of jjroviiions laid anil rixcd by 
 the pi ovoll or Ihcriifs of Paris. 
 
 Ar'FORtSl'ING, Akfokestatio, t!ie tiirning 
 ground into forcft. The Conqueror, and his fuccc(- 
 fors, continued atforelling the lands of the iubjett for 
 many reigns ; till the grievance became fo notorious, 
 thai the people of all degrees and denoniinatious were 
 brought 10 fjc for relief; which was as length obtain- 
 ed, and coniiuiifti ns were granted to furvey and pc- 
 rambulate theforell, andltpirateall the lujvv aftbretled 
 lands, and re-convert them to the ufcs of thtir propri- 
 , ctors, under the name and quality of /larZ/Va ax pouralle 
 
 land. 
 
 AFFRAY, or Affrayment, in law, formerly fig- 
 nitied the crime of affrighting other perfoas, by ap- 
 pearing in unufual armour, branditliing a weapon, ike. 
 but, at prefent, affray denotes a Ikirmiih or tight be- 
 tween two or more. 
 
 AFFRON 1 £E, in heraldry, an appellation given 
 to animals facingone another on an efcutchcon ; a kind 
 uf bearing which is othersvile called conjrQiito., and 
 Hands oppofed to adi,^'.c. 
 
 AFFUSION, the aft of pouring fome fluid fub- 
 ftance on another body. Ur Grew gives feveral expe- 
 riments of the luCtation ariling from the afFulion of 
 divers menftruums on all forts of bodies. Diviuesand 
 church hillorians fpcak of baplifm by atfulion ; which 
 amounts to much the fame with what wc now call 
 fpriukimg. 
 
 AFRANIUS, a Latin poet, who wrote comedies 
 in imitation of Mcnandcr, commended by TuUy and 
 Qiiintilian : he lived in the I70lh Olympiad. 
 
 AFRICA (according to Bochart, from a Punic 
 Word.fignifying /Tarj of Coru) ; one of the four great 
 divifions, by the moderns called j.v<3;7:'«,of the world, 
 and one of the three called by tne Greeks H)ri<pc/, or 
 eoiitliients. By them it was alfo called Libya. 
 
 'Africa lies fouih of Europe, and weft of Afia. It is 
 bounded on the uorth by the Mediterranean, which fc- 
 paratcs it from the former; on the north-caft, by the 
 Red Sea, which divides it from Afia, and to which it is 
 attached by a neck of land called the Iji hunts of Suez, 
 about 60 miles over,fcparating the Mediterranean from 
 the Red Sea. On the weft, fouth, and eart,it is bound- 
 ed by the main ocean : fo that it is pro])erly a vart pc- 
 ninfula, bearing fome faint refemblance of a pyramid, 
 the bale of which is the northern part,^ running along 
 the Ihores of the Mediterranean; and the top of the 
 pyramid is the moft fojiherly point, called the Cafe 
 sf Good tiofe. Its greateftU nifth from north to fouth is 
 4500 miles, and its grcatcll breadth from eaft to weft 
 is ^500 miles ; reaching from Lat. 37" N. to 35" S. 
 and from Long, i 70 VV. to si** E. 
 
 Thougli tlu grcateft p-irt of this continent hath been 
 in all ages unknown both to the Kuropeaiisand Afiatics, 
 its fiiuaiion is more favourable than cither F.urope or 
 Afia for maintaining an iniercourfe with other na- 
 tions. It ftands, as it were, in the centre of the thite 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 other quarters of thegl'ibe; afid has thereby a much Afrrea 
 
 nearer communication with Eiirnpc, Aii.i., and .Ai.ic- — - — 
 
 riea, than any oiicof thefe has with another. For,(l.) 
 
 It isoppolitc to Europe in the MeJiterranean, for al- 
 
 nioll looo miles in a line from eaft to weft ; the dif- 
 
 taiice feldoin too miles, never ico leagues, and fome- 
 
 limcs not above 20 leagues. (2) It is o|)pofitc to A- 
 
 fia forali thelength of the Red Sea, the diitancc foinc- 
 
 limcs not exceeding five leagues, ftldom fifty. (?) itj 
 
 coaft for the length of about 2000 miles lie:; oppo.ite 
 
 to America at ihe diftanceof from 5Q0 to 700 leagues, 
 
 including the illands : whereas America, uulcfs wiicrc 
 
 it may be a terra incngnita, is no where iicarcr Europe 
 
 than 1000 leagues ; and Alia, than 2500. 
 
 As the equator divides tiiis continent almoft in the 
 middle, the far grcateft part of it is within the tro- 
 pics; audof confequencc the heal in fome places is al- 
 moft jnfupportablc by Europeans, it being there great- 
 ly increafed by vaft dtferts of buri;ing land. — It can- 
 not be doubled, however, that, were tlie country well 
 cultivated, it would be extremely fertile; ajid would 
 produce in great abundance not only the neceiiaries, 
 but alfo theluxuries, of life. Ithasbten alFerted, that 
 the fugars of Barbadoes and Jamaica, as alfo the gin- 
 ger, cotton, rice, pepper, pimento, cocoa, indigo, 
 6cc. of thefc illands, would thrive in Africa to as much 
 perfcdion as where they arc now produced. Nor can 
 it be doubted, that the Eaft Indian fpices, the tea of 
 China and Japan, the cofl'ec of Mocha, &c. would all 
 thrive in fome parts of the African coaft ; as this con- 
 tinent has the advantage of feeling no cold, the climate 
 beiiig either very warm or very temperate. 
 
 Whatever may be the cafe with the iiiLcrnal parts of 
 Africa, it is certain that its coafts are well watered 
 with many very conliderable rivers. The Nile and the 
 Niger may be reckoned among the largeft in any part 
 of the world, AmcriL-a excepted. The rirll difcharges 
 itfelf into the Mediterranean, after a prodigious courfe 
 from its fource in Abylfinia. The origin neither of 
 the Nilc,nor of the Niger, is certainly known; but that 
 of the latter is fuppofed to run through a t ad of land 
 little lefs than 5000 miles. Botii thefe rivers annually 
 overflow their banks, fertilizing by that means the 
 countries through which they pafs. The Gambia and 
 Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger. Many 
 vaft ridges of mountains alfo run through diffirrent parts 
 of this continent ; but their extentis very little known. 
 Some of the moft remarkable arc, (i.) Thofe railed 
 y/r/aj, lying between the 2othand asihdcgrecof north 
 latitude, and fuppofed alnioJl to divide the eoniiiiciit 
 from eaft to weft. (2.) The mountains of the mo',n, fo 
 called on account of theirgrcat height ; fuppofed tube 
 the boundaries between Abylfinia and fome of the in- 
 terior kingdoms. (3.) The mountains of 6";.-r;-<i /,^- 
 ana, fo called on account of their abounding with li- 
 ons, and likewifc fuppofed to be the boundaries of fome 
 of the nations. (4) Thofe called by the ancients tiie 
 moiinta'in of (joii, on accjnint of their being fubjcct to 
 perpetual thunder and lightning. Of all thefe, how- 
 ever, little more ii known than their names. 
 
 To what we have already fiid concerning the pro- 
 duce of Africa, wc may add, that no part of the world 
 abounds with gold and tilvcr in a greater degree. Here 
 alfoarra prodigious number of elephants ; and it is 
 furprifing, that neither the ancient nor modern Euro- 
 F f peans,
 
 A F R 
 
 [ 226 
 
 A F R 
 
 Africi. pcans, notwiihllaiuiing Llicir cxtravaga-.u and inlaii- 
 
 able lliiill after golJ aiid filvcr, ihoulJ have cndta- 
 
 vourcd to cilablilli thcinrclvcs ctteaiially in acouiiuy 
 inucli nearer u> them than cither America or the Edit 
 ' Indies ; and w here the oljccls olthcir delirc arc found 
 in equal, if not greater, plenty. 
 
 Next to gold and filver, copper is the moft valuable 
 metal ; and on this continent is found in great plenty, 
 inlbmuch that the mountainsof Atlas above mentioned 
 arc faid all to be eompofed of copper ore. In ihort, 
 Africa, though a full quarter of die globe, ftored with 
 aninexhaulUblc treafure, and capable of producing al- 
 moft every neccllary, convenicney, and luxury ot lite, 
 within itfelf, fcenis to be utterly neglededboth by its 
 own inhabitants and all other nations : the former, 
 being in a favage Hate, art incapable of enjoying the 
 blcHings offered them by nature ; and the latter taking 
 no farther notice of the inhabitants, or their land, than 
 to obtain at the ealiell rate what they procurt_ with as 
 little trouble as polliMe, or to carry them off for Haves 
 to their plaiitatioiis in America. 
 
 Only a fniall part of this ecuitinent was known to 
 the ancients, viz. the kingdom of Egypt, and the nor- 
 thern coaft, comprehending little more than what is 
 now known by the name ui Barbary. It was divided 
 into Africa [ I ol>iui, and JJiica Iiitdrior. Africa Pro- 
 pria comprehended only the Carthaginian territories. 
 Africa Interior comprehended all other nations to the 
 fouthward of thefe territories, or thofe at a greater di- 
 ftance from Rome. The only kingdoms, however, 
 with which the Romans had any connection, were the 
 Nuniidians, the Mauritanians, and the Gsetuli. All 
 thefe, as w<;ll as Kgypt, were fwallowed up by that 
 enormous power, and reduced to the condition of Ro- 
 man provinces. But the Romans never feem to have 
 penetrated beyond the tropic of cancer. There appears, 
 indeed, to have been fomc intercourfe between them 
 and the Ethiopians : but the latter always preferved 
 iheir liberty ; and we find their queen Candace men- 
 lioned in the times of the apoiUcs, when the Roman 
 power was at its highell pitch. 
 
 Ueiwecn the tropic of cancer and the cquinoflial 
 line, amnliitiide of favage nations were fuppoled to 
 have their relidcncc, known by the names of Melano- 
 gaetuli, Nigritx, Blemmyes, Dolopes, Aftacuri, Lo- 
 tophagi, Ichihyophagi, Elcphantophagi, &c. (which 
 are taken notice of, is will as the others already men- 
 tioned, under their proper names) ; but tiiat Africa 
 vvasapeninfula, ftems to have been totally unknown 
 both to the Europeans and Afiatics for many ages — 
 It is probable indeed, that fome of the Phenicians, and 
 their offspring the Carthaginians, were not foignorant ; 
 as thry carried navigation to a much greater Iieight 
 t!ian either the Greeks or Romans : but their difcove- 
 ries were all concealed with the greatefl care, left other 
 nations (hould reap the benctit of them ; and accord- 
 ingly we can now find no authentic accounts concern- 
 ing them. The navigation round Africa, in particular, 
 is recorded by the Greek and Roman writers rather as 
 a ftr.mge amuling tale than as a real tranfadion ; and 
 as neither the progrcfsof the Phenician and Carthagi- 
 nian difcoverics, nor the extent of their navigation, 
 were communicated to the reft of mankind, all memo- 
 rials of their extraordinary Ikill in naval affairs feem 
 jjia great mcolurc to have peri:iied, when the niari- 
 
 liuie I'ower of the former was anniliilated by Alexan- Africa. 
 
 der's eonqutft of Tyre, and the empire of the latter '' — 
 
 was overturned by the Romans. 
 
 That the iieninlula of Africa, however, was in re- 
 ality failed round by the Phtnidans, we have on in- 
 difputablc authority ; for fomc of that nation under- 
 took the voyage, at the command of Neciio king of E- 
 gypt, about 604 years bef re the Chriftian a;ra. They 
 lailcJ iVom a port in the Red Sea, and after three 
 years returned by tlic Mediterranean : and the very 
 objtttions that were made to the veracity of their 
 accounts at that time, arc unanfwcralle proofs to us 
 tiiai tills voyage was really accomplilhed. They pre- 
 tended, that, having failed forfome time, the fun be- 
 came more and more vertical, after which he appeared 
 in the north, and fecmed to recede from them : that 
 as they returned, the fun gradually feemed to move 
 fouthwards ; and, after becoming vertical once more, 
 appeared then in the fouih fide of them as before they 
 fct out. This, which we know mull certainly have been 
 the cafe, was deemed incredible at that lime, and uni- 
 vcrfal ignorance concerning the extent of this conti- 
 nent prevailed till the i5thcentnry. Thefirftattempts 
 towards attaining a knowledge of Africa was made by 
 die Portuguefe in 1412. Notwithftanding their vici- 
 nity, they had never ventured beyond Cape No'i, litu- 
 attd in about N. lat. 27^. : it had received its name 
 from a fuppofed inipollibility of palFing it. This year 
 they proceeded 160 miles farther, to Cape Bojador ; 
 which ftretching a conllderable way into the Atlantic 
 ocean, with rocky clifts, appeared fo dreadful to the 
 navigators, that they returned without any attempt to 
 pafs it. In an attempt to double this formidable cape, 
 they difcovcred the Madeira illands in 1419: but Cape 
 Bojador continued to be the boundary of their conti- 
 nental difcovcries till 1433 ; when they penetrated 
 within the tropics, and in a few years difcovered the 
 river Senegal, Cape de Verd, and the illands which lie 
 off that promontory. In 1449, the weftern illands, 
 called the Azores, were difcovered : and in 1471, they 
 lirft penetrated beyond the line ; and were furprifed to 
 find, that the torrid zone, contrary to the opinion of 
 the ancients, who imagined it to be burnt up with 
 heat, was not only habitable, but fertile and populous. 
 In 1 48 ij, they proceeded 1500 miles beyond the line ; 
 fo that they began to entertain hopes of finding that 
 way a paffage to the Eaft Indies : and two years after- 
 wards, the Cape of Goad Hope was difcovered by Bar- 
 tholomew de Diaz ; but it was not lill the year 1497, 
 that the Portuguefe, uuilc r Vafquez dc Gama, aftually 
 doubled this cape, and difcovered the true fliapc of the 
 continent. Thus the coafts of Afria were made per- 
 fectly known; and probably the knowledge concerning 
 its interior parts would have been much greater than 
 it is, had not the general attention been called off from 
 this continent by the difcovery of America in 1492. 
 
 The Romans for along time maintained their power 
 in Africa : but in the ye ir 426, Bonifacius, fupreme 
 governor of all the Roman dominions in this quarter, 
 being compelled to revolt by the treachery of another 
 general called Aitins, and finding himfclf unable to 
 CMiitend with the whole ftrength of the Roman em- 
 pire, called in Gcnfericking of the Vandals to his aid ; 
 who thereupon abandoned the provinces he had feized 
 in Europe, and pallcJ uver into AfriLa. Bonifacius, 
 
 however,.
 
 A F R 
 
 [ 227 ] 
 
 A F R 
 
 Tiowever, being foon after reconciled to his cmprcfs 
 ' Placidia, endeavoured in vain to perfuadc the Vandals 
 to retire. Hereupon a war cnfiitd, in wliich the bar- 
 barians proved victorious, and qiii.kly over-ran all the 
 Roman provinces in Africa. In the year 4 55, a peace 
 was concluded ; when Nuniidiaand lo;nc other coun- 
 tries were ceded to the Vandals, wlio foon after fci^ed 
 all the reft. Thefc b irbari.ins aid not long enjoy their 
 ill-gotten poirciiioas : for, aL)o it the year 53;, Be- 
 lifarius drove iheni out, annexin;r the provinces to 
 the caftern empire ; and in 647, the Saracens, having 
 conquered Mcfopotaniia, I'gypt ^which anciently was 
 not included in the meaning of the word Ajr.cu), 
 Phcaicii, Arabia, and Palcftine, broke like a torrent 
 into Africa, which they quickly fubducd. Their vaft 
 empire bci.ig in 9^,6 div led into feven kingdoms, the 
 Atrican ilaes retained ihcir independency long after 
 theothers were fUniaed by the Turks : but in the be- 
 
 f inning of the i6th century, bfingafraid of falling un- 
 er the yoke of Spii.i, they invited the Turks to their 
 alQftance ; whofirlt:protcctcd,andtheninllaved,them. 
 They ftill continue in a kind of dependence on the Ot- 
 toman empire. They arc not. however, properly 
 fpeaking, the fubjifis of the grand Signior, but call 
 him their pnteflo', paying him an annual tribute. On 
 the coafts, the natives are aimoft all addicl.ed to pira- 
 cy ; and with fuch faccefs have they carried on their 
 employment, that the greateft powers in Europe are 
 become their tributaries, in order to procure liberty 
 to trade on the Mediterranean. 
 
 Concerning even thofc ftates which arc neareft to 
 Europe, very little is known : but the interior nations 
 are fcarcc known by name ; nor do aimoft any two of 
 the moft learned moderns agree in their divili'm of A- 
 frica into kingdoms ; and the rcafon is, that fcarcely 
 any traveller hath ever penetrated into ihefe inhofpi- 
 table regions. According to the beft accounts, con- 
 cerning thofc regions of Africa lying beyond Egypt 
 and Barbary, they are divided in the following man- 
 ner. On the weilern coaft, to the fouth of Barbary, 
 lie the kingdoms of IJildulgerid, Zaara, Ncgroland, 
 Loango, Congo, Ang da, Benguela, and Terra de 
 Netal. On the eaftcrn coaft beyond Egypt, are thofe 
 of Nubia, Adal, Ajan, Zanguebar (between thefe two 
 ahugedcfart isintcrpofcd), Monomatapa, and Sofola. 
 In the interior parts, the kingdoms of Lower Ethio- 
 pia, Abex, Monemuge, and Matanan, are made men- 
 tion of. The fouthermoft part, called Cafraria, is 
 well known for the habitation of the Hottentots. 
 
 In many material circumftances, the ialiib'tantsof 
 this extenlivecontineni agree with each other. It we 
 exrept the people of Abyllinia, who are tawny, and 
 profefs a mixture of Chriftianity, Ju iaifm,and Fagan- 
 ifm, thry are all of a black conipWxinn. In their re- 
 ligion, except on the fea-coifts, which have been vili- 
 ted and fettled by fti angers, they arc pagans ; and the 
 form of government isevtry where nionar-hical. Few 
 p'inres, however, po!refsavcryextfiilivejurifdi>fti<'n; 
 lor as the natives of this part of Africa are grofsly ig- 
 norant in all the arts of utility or refinement, they 
 .ire little arquiinted with one another ; and generally 
 nnitid in f' all focicties, each govenu-d by its own 
 prince. In Aby'.finia. indeed, as wrll is in Congo, 
 Loaago, and Ani;olo, we arc told of powerful n.o- 
 Karchs ; but on examination, it is found th«t the au- 
 
 thority of thefe princes ftands on a precarious footing, 
 each tribe or fcparate body of their fubjects being un- 
 der the influence of a petty chieftain of their own, 
 flyled Nigiii, to whofc commands, however coBtrarjr 
 to thofe of the Negafcha Negafcht, or king of kings, 
 they are always ready tofubmit. 
 
 The fertility of a country fo proJigioufly extenlive, 
 might be fuppofed more various than wc rind it is : in 
 (id:, there is no medium in this part of Atrica witk 
 regard to the advantages of foil ; it is cither pcrfc.il/ 
 barren or extremely fertile. This arifcs from the in- 
 tenfe heat of the fun ; which, where it meets -.vilh fuf- 
 ficient moifture, produces the utmoft luxuriancy ; and 
 in thofe countries were there are few rivers, reduces 
 the fnrface of the earth to a barren fand. Of this fort 
 are the countries of Anian and Zaara ; which, for 
 want of water, and confequcntly of ail other ncceli'a- 
 rits, arc reduced toperfctl deferts,as the name of the 
 latter denotes. In thofc countries, on t!ie other hand, 
 where there is plenty of water and particularly where 
 the rivers ovcrrtow the land part oi the year as in A- 
 byflinia, the prodiitlions of nature, both of the animal 
 and vegetable kinds, arc found in the higheft perfec- 
 tion and greateft abundance. The countries of Jlan- 
 dingo, Ethiopia, Congo, Angola, Batua, Truiicui, 
 Monomotapa, Cafati, and Mehenemugi, are extreme- 
 ly rich in gold and filver. The bafcr metals, like wife, 
 are found in thefe and many other parts of rtfrica. 
 But the perfonsof the natives make the moft confider- 
 ablc article in the produce and traffic of this miferable 
 quarter of the globe. 
 
 On the Guinea or weftern coaft, the EnglilTi trade 
 to James Kort, and other fettlcmcnts near and up the 
 river Gambia; where they exchange their woollen and 
 linen manufactures, their hardware, and fpirituous li- 
 quors, for the perfons of the natives. By the treaty 
 of peace in 1785, the river of Senegal, with its de- 
 pendencies, were given up to Krance. Gold and ivory, 
 next to the llave trade, form the principal branches of 
 African commerce. Thefc are carried on from the 
 fame coaft, where the Dutch and French, as well as 
 Englifh have their fctilcments for this purpofe. 
 
 The P.)rtiigucfe are in poifcilion of the call and weft 
 coaft of Africa, t'rom the Tropic of Capricorn to the 
 Equator; which iinmenfe trad thry became mafters 
 of by their fuccellivc attempts and happy difcovery and 
 navigation of the Cape of Good Hope. From the 
 coaft of Zanguebar, on the caftern lide they trade not 
 only for the articles abovementioncd. but likcwife for 
 fcveral others ; as fcna, aloes, civet, ambergris, and 
 frankincenfe. The Dutch have ftttlements towards 
 the fouthcrn part of the continent, in the country 
 called CafFraria, or the land of the Hottentots, parti- 
 cularly Cape Town, whichiswcll fettled and fortitied ; 
 where their (liips bound to India ufually put in, and 
 trade with the natives for their cattle, in exchange for 
 which thiy give them fpirituous liquors. 
 
 The Portuguefcbcingfovercignsof the greateft part 
 ofthccoaft, have a number of black princes their iii- 
 bntaries. There arc feme independent princes who 
 have cxicnfivc dominions ; particularly the kings of 
 Dahome and W'i lah, the moft noted of any for the 
 infamous llave trade. Upwards of 200 years have the 
 European nations traded with Africa in human flclh ; 
 and encouraged in the Nrj^ro couniiici, wars, rapine, 
 Y i 2 dcfolatioD, 
 
 Africu.
 
 A G A [22 
 
 Affua defolation, and murder, that the Weft India idands 
 II miglu be fupplica with that commodity. The annual 
 ^ gg- exportation of poor creatures from Africa for (laves 
 "^ ' hath exceeded ioo,coo; numbers of whom are driven 
 down like fliccp, perhaps a looo miles from the fca- 
 coall, who are generally inhabitants of villages that 
 have been furrounded in the night by armed force, and 
 carried ott' to be fold to traders. — Nor do tiic plan- 
 ters, who purchalc them, iile any pains to inllruift 
 them in religion, to make them amends for the oppref- 
 lion thus exercifed upon them. It is faid they are un- 
 naturally avcrfc to every thing that tends to it ; yet 
 thcFortugucfe, French, and Spaniards, in their fet- 
 tlcmcnts, fuccced in their attempts to inftrutl: them, 
 as much to the advantage of the commerce as of reli- 
 gion. It is for the fake of Chrillianity, and the ad- 
 vantages accompanying it, that Englilh (laves embrace 
 every occafionofdei'ertingto thefettlcmcnts of thcfe 
 nations. — But upon this fubjert the feelings and re- 
 flexion of that nation have of late been aljundaiitly 
 roufed, and in the inveifigation of it the wifdom of 
 the Icgillator is foon to be employed. 
 
 AKRlCANco.MPANY.a fociety of merchants, cfta- 
 blillied by KingCharlcs the II. for trading to Africa; 
 which trade is now laid open to all thcfubjccls, paying 
 lo per ant. for maintaining the forts. 
 
 AFRICANUS (Julius), an excellent hiftorian of 
 the third century, the author of a chronicle which 
 was greatly t(kcmed,and in which he reckons 5500 
 years from the creation of the world to Julius Csefar. 
 This work, ofwliich we havenownomore thanwhat 
 is to be found in tuftbius, ended at the 22ill:yearof 
 the vulgar xra. Africanus alfo wrote a letter to Ori- 
 gen on the hillory of Sufanna, which he reckoned 
 fuppolititious ; and vvc havcflill a letter of his to,Ari- 
 Uides, in which he reconciles the feeming contradic- 
 tions in the two genealogies of Chrift recorded by 
 Sr Mathew and St Luke. 
 
 AKSLAGERS, pcrfons appointed by the burgo- 
 mailers of Amftcrdam to prefide over the public falcs 
 made in that city. They muft always have a clerk of 
 tiie fecretary's office with them, to take an account of 
 the fale. They corrcfpond to our brokers, or auc- 
 tioneers. 
 
 AVT, in the fea language, the fame with abaft. 
 
 AFTERBIRTH, in midwifery, fignitics the mem- 
 branes Mhicli furrounded the infant in the womb, 
 jjencraHy called the fecundines. See MidwIkerv. 
 
 AFTERJMATH, in hultandry, lignifies the grafs 
 which fprings or grows up after mowing. 
 
 AFTliRNOON, the latter half of the artificial day, 
 or that fpaee between noon and night. 
 
 AFTER-PAINS, in midwifery, exceflive pains felt 
 in the groin, loins, &c. after the woman is delivered. 
 
 AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees, 
 ;irc thofe which leave the hive fomc time after the firfl 
 has fwarmcd. Sec Bee. 
 
 AFWESTAD, a large copper-work belonging to 
 the crow-fi of Sweden, which lies on the Dala, in the 
 province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden. It looks like a 
 town, and has its own church. Here they make cop- 
 per-platcs; and have a mint forfmall lilver coin, as well 
 asaroyal poft-hoiifc. W.l/ong. (4. to.N. Lat. j8. ro. 
 
 AGA, in the t-jrkifh language, fignifics a great lord 
 or ■commaiMltfr. Hence the aga of the Janilfaries is 
 
 s ] 
 
 A F R 
 
 the commander in chief of that corps ; at the general 
 of horic is denominaitd Jpakcclar oga. 'J'lie aga of 
 the Jauidarics is an ofiicer of great importance. Me is 
 ihe only ptrfon who is alhiwed to appear before the 
 Grand Siguior witliout his arn.sacrofs Jiis brealt in the 
 pofturc of a flavc. Eunuchs at Conftantinople are in 
 pollcllion of moil of the principal pofts of the feraglio : 
 The title Ǥ^i/ is given tothcui all, whether in employ- 
 ment or not. '1 his title is alio given to all fuchincn 
 without employ, and tfpccially to wealthy landholders. 
 A\ c (ind alio agtii in other countries. The chief 
 officers under the Khan of Tartary arc called by this 
 name. And among the Algerincs, we re.id of ajaj 
 chofen from among the botuk bnfliu (the firft rank of 
 military otHcers), and fent to govern in chief the towns 
 and garrifons of that llatc, Thc/!'^« of Algiers is the 
 prelidcnt of the divan, or fcnate. For fomeycars, the 
 aga was the iupremc ofiicer ; and governed the ftate in 
 tlie place of balhaw','whofe power dwindled to a flia- 
 dow. But the foldier/ riling againft the boluk bejlns, 
 or agai, maliacred moll of them, and transferred the 
 fovereign power to the calif, with the title of ZJt;^ or 
 King. 
 
 AGADES, a kingdom and city of Ncgroland in A- 
 frica. It lies nearly under the tropic of Cancer, be- 
 tween Gubur and Cano. The town fl.inds on a river 
 that falls into the Niger ; it is walled, and the king's 
 palace is in the midlt of it. The king has a retinue, 
 wlio fcrve as a guard. The inhabitants are not fo 
 black as other negroes, and confift of merchants and 
 artificers. Thofe that inhabit the fields arc Ihephcrds 
 orherdfmen, whole cottages are made of Iwughs, and 
 arc carried about from place to place on the back of 
 oxen. They arc fixed on the fpot of ground where 
 they intend to feed their cattle. The houfes in the 
 city are flately, and built after the Barbary fafliion. 
 This kingdom was, and may be Hill, tributary to the 
 kingof Tombut. Itis well watered ; and there is great 
 plenty of grafs, cattle, fcuna, and manna. The pre- 
 vailing religion is the Mahometan, but very loofely 
 profclied. N. Lat. 26. 10. E. Long. 9. 10. 
 AGALLOCHUM. See Xvlo Aloes. 
 AGALMATA, in antiquity, a term originally 
 ufed to fignify any kind pf ornaments in a temple ; 
 but aftcrw-ards for the llatues only, as beingmoflcon- 
 fpicuous. 
 
 AGAMEMNON, the fonof Atreus by Eropc, was 
 captain gcneralof the Trojan expedition. It was fore- 
 told to him by Caflandra, that his wife Clytcmneftra 
 would be his deaih : yet he returned to her ; and ac- 
 cordingly he was llain by /Egillhus,who had gained up- 
 on his wife in his abfence, and by her means got the 
 government into his own hands. 
 
 AGANIPPIDES, in ancient poetry, a defignation 
 given to the mufes, from a fountain of mount Helicon, 
 called yjganippe. 
 
 AGANIPPE, in antiqity, a fountain of Bocotia 
 at mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and 
 Bocotia, facrcd to the mufes, and running into the river 
 Permcll'cus ; (Pliny, Paufanias.) Ovid fcems tomake 
 yiganippe and Hippocrene the fame. Solinus more tru- 
 ly diftinguifhes them, and afcribes the blending thdm 
 to jioctical licenfc. 
 
 AGAPE, in ecckriaflical hiftory, the love-feaft, or 
 fcaft of charji V, in ufe among the primitive Chriftians ; 
 
 when
 
 A G A 
 
 [ 229 ] 
 
 A G A 
 
 Agapeta, when a liberal contribution v.as maJe by the rich to 
 A^-ard. feed the pour. The word is Greek, and ligjiilicsAf 1^. 
 — ■^~ St Cry foilom gives the following account of the fcaft, 
 which he derives from the apo.iolical practice. He 
 lays, " the firlt Chriftians had all things in common, 
 as wc read in the Acts of tjie Apoillcs ; but when that 
 equality of poffciuona ccafcil, as it did even in the A- 
 poflles time, the agape, or lovc-fcaft, was fubflituted 
 in the room of it. Upon ccruin days, after partaking 
 of the Lord's fupper, they met at a common fcaft ; the 
 rich bringing provifioas, and the poor who had nothing 
 being invited." It was always attended with receiving 
 the holy facrainentibut there is fomc difference bet ween 
 the ancient and modern interpreters as to the eircum- 
 ftance of time, viz. \V b ether this fcad v.as held before 
 or after the communion. St CryfoHoin is of the lat- 
 tcropinion ; thelcarntd Dr Cave of the former. Thcfe 
 lovc-feails, during the three firft centuries, were iicld 
 in the church without fcan Jal or offence ; but, in after 
 times, the heathens began to tax them with impurity. 
 This gave occalion to a reformation of thcfe agapie. 
 The kifs of charily, with which the ceremony ufcd to 
 end, wasnolongcrgiven between different fcxes ; and 
 it wasexprcfsly forbidden to have any beds or couches, 
 for the convcnieucy of thole who would be difpofcd to 
 eat more at their ctfe. Notwithftanding thcfe precau- 
 tions, the abiifes committed in them became fo noto- 
 rious, that the holding of them (in churches at Icafl) 
 was foleiniily condemned, at tlie council of Carthage, 
 in the year ^97. 
 
 AGAPETyt, in ccclefiaftical hiftory, a name given 
 to certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient 
 church, aflbciated thcmfelves with, and attended on, 
 ecclefiaflics, our of a motive of piety and charity. 
 
 In the primitive days th)[re were women indituted 
 De A co»JEsSEs,who,de voting thcmfelves tothefervice 
 of riie church, took up their abode with the minifteis, 
 and aflilled them in their functions. In the fervour of 
 the prijuiiive'picty.therc was nothing fcaadalous in thcfe 
 focietics: but they afterwards degenerated intoliber- 
 tiuifm ; infomuch, that St Jeroni alks, with indigna- 
 tion, undc, agapitaruvt pejl's i'l ecclcfias iiitroiit ? This 
 gave occafion to councils to fupprcfs them. — St Atha- 
 nafius, mentions a priell, named Leontius, who, to re- 
 move all occafion of fufpicion, offered to mutilate him- 
 fclf, to prefcrve Iiis beloved companion. 
 
 AGARD (Arthur), a leirned Englifli antiquarian, 
 born at Tcfton in Derby/hire in the year IJ40. His 
 fondncfs for Englifh antiquities induced him to make 
 many large collections ; and his ofRcc as deputy cham- 
 berlain ol the exchequer, which he held 45 years, gave 
 him great opportunities of acquiring (kill in that (tudy. 
 Similarity of tailc brought him acquainted w ith Sir 
 Robert Cotton, and other learned men, who aflbciated 
 themfclvesunder thenameofT/W5o«i'/y of Antiquarians , 
 of which fociciy Mr Agard wasaconfpicuous member. 
 He made the doomfJay-book his ]ieculiar ftudy ; and 
 compofed a work purpofely to explain it, under the title 
 of Ti aflatns de t/fii ct obfciirioiibiii verbis libride Domef- 
 day : he alfo compiled a book for the fcrvicc of his fuc- 
 celTors in office, which he dcpolited with the officers 
 of the king's receipt, as a proper index for fuccecding 
 officers. All the red of his collcilions, containingat 
 Icaft twenty volumes, he bequeathed to Sir Robert 
 Cotton; and died in 1615. 
 
 AGAR.IC. Sec Ac.^Ricf s. 
 
 Fi:male AatRic. See Boletus. 
 
 Mincr.-'l /IcAtLic, a marlcy earth rcfcmbling the 
 vegetable of that name in colour and texture. It is 
 found in the fiil'ures of rocks, and on the roofs of ca- 
 verns i and is fometimes ufcd as an aftringcnt in fluxes, 
 hemorrhagies, &c. 
 
 AGARIC US, or Mushroom, a genus of the order 
 of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants^ 
 
 Species and uj'ii. Botanical writers enumerate JJ 
 fpecics belonging to this geiius ; of which the mod re- 
 markable arc the following. 
 
 1. The campcllris, or common mufhroom, has the 
 top or cap firft of a dirty cream colour, convex, and, 
 if but jud expanding, the under part, or what is called 
 the gi/ii, is of a bright fle.Qi red : this colour lads but 
 a little time before it turns darker ; and when the 
 plant is old, or has been fomc time cxpaudcd, the gills 
 become of a dark brown, the cap almod rtat, of a 
 dirty colour, and often a little fcaly. It differs much 
 in fizc in different plants, it being from an inch to 
 Ceven inches broad. The general ufe of it is well 
 known, it is found in woods, old paftures, and by 
 ro.id-fides, and is in the grcatcft perfection in Sep- 
 tember. There is a variety of this with a yellowini 
 white cap and white gills ; this is very firm, but feldora 
 expands fo freely as the true fort, and when broiled 
 will exude a yellowi/h juice. It is probable this fort 
 is not pernicious, though it is always rejedcd by fuch 
 as can diftinguiih it. 
 
 2. The pratenfis, or champ'gnion, is very common 
 upon heaths and dry paftures. A number of them ge- 
 nerally come up in a place, ranged in curved lines or 
 circles. The cap is finall, almod flat, from one to 
 two or three inches diameter, of a pak buff colour, 
 often crimplcd at the edges, and, when dry, tough 
 like leather or a thin piece of fine cork. The gills 
 are of the colour of the cap ; are thinly placed ; with 
 a iliort one, and fometimes two, coming from the edge 
 of the cap between each. The dalk or pillar is alfo 
 of the colour of the cap ; it is long, flendcr, and aH 
 the way of a thickncfs. Tliis plant has but little fmcll j 
 is rather dry ; and yet, when broiled or dewed, it 
 communieatcs a good flavour. In pcrfciflion ai the 
 fame time with the former. 
 
 3. The chaniarellus, or chantarelie agaric, is rather 
 a fmallcr fungus than the former. The rap is yellow, 
 of different hues in diflercnt plants, fome being of a 
 paleyellow,and others of an orange colour. It is gene- 
 rally funk in the middle, fomewhat rcfcmbling a tun- 
 nel, and its edges are often twided and contorted fo as 
 to form finufes or angles. The gills arc of a deeper 
 colour than the outlide, are very fine, even, numerous, 
 and beautifully branched. The ramifications begin at 
 the dalk, and are varioully extended towards the edge 
 of the cap. The pillar is of the fame colour as the 
 cap, is fcldoni infertcd in the centre, but rather fide* 
 ways; it is fliort, thickilh at the root, and the gills 
 modly run down the top, which make it appear fmall- 
 eft in the middle. This plant broiled with fait an4 
 pepper has much the flavour of a roaded cockle ; and 
 is edeemed a delicacy by the French, as is the former. 
 It is found in woods and high padures, and is in per- 
 fcftion about the end of Seinember. 
 
 4. The dcliciofus, or orange agaric. The general 
 
 fize
 
 A G A 
 
 [ 230 ] 
 
 A G A 
 
 ,. ■. of the rip of ihis ipccics is from two t > four 
 inches broid. its tonu is circular, wiih tLe cdj;cs 
 bent inwards J convex on the iipprr liirface, except 
 in the cintrt-, where it is s little dcprelltd, fo as near- 
 ly toreicmlile the apex of a fiiio,)th apple. The co- 
 lour is a fordid yel.ow, llreakcd w iih afli and ycllow- 
 ilh Isrown, Irciu the centre to the edge, and when It 
 is bro/icn ii emits a gold colour juice. The gills are 
 of a deep ytUow, and a few ot ilieiu corae out by p.iirs 
 at the ftrilk, but divide innncdijitly, anJ run llraij;ht 
 to the edge of the cap. The llalk or pillar is thinncfl 
 near the middle, thickell at the root, and when cut 
 traufverftly, it is quite white in the centre, with a 
 tine yellow ring that goes to the edge. The fungus, 
 well fcafoiicd and then broiled, has the exact flavour 
 of a roalled niufcle. Its prime time is September, and 
 it is to he found in high dry woods. 
 
 5. The cinnaniomcus, or brown mufliroom, has a 
 cap the colour of frelh-tanned hides. At firft it is 
 hemifphcrical, firm, even, and flefhy, with moilly a 
 fmall rifing in the centre ; but when old it is quite flat. 
 The gills are of a ycUowifli brown, not very dillant 
 from each other, bent like a knee at the pillar, and 
 have a fliort one or two run from the edge of the cap 
 between each. The pillar is near the length of a fin- 
 ger, firm, rather thick, brown at the bafc, of a for- 
 did yellow upward, and, when cut tranfverfcly, of a 
 fine white grain. The cap in different plants is from 
 two to five inches broad. The whole plant hasaplea- 
 fant fu'cU, and when broiled gives a good flavour. It 
 is found in woods in September and October. 
 
 6. The violaceus, or violet mufliroom. Its cap, 
 when firft expanded, is fmooth, hemilphcrical, the 
 main furfaccof a livid colour, but towards the margin 
 it is of a better blue. When full grown or old, it be- 
 comes corrugated, and of a rufty brown. The gills 
 of a young plant are of a beautiful violet colour, and 
 regularly placed. The pillar is of the colour of the 
 gills, iliort, of a conical form, but fwcUed at the bale 
 into a fort of bulb. Its upper part is furrounded with 
 an iron-coloured wool, which, in a plant jull expand- 
 ing, ftreiches crofs to the edge of the cap like a web. 
 This fpecies requires much broiling; but when fufhci- 
 cntly done and icafoned, it is as delicious as an oyfler. 
 It is found in woods in Oftobcr. Hudfon's bulbofus 
 is only a variety of this plant. 
 
 The above arc the only fpecies that can be fafcly 
 recommended as edible : though tliere are fome o- 
 ther forts which are frequently eaten by the country 
 people ! and it is probable tiie grcatefl part of thofe 
 with firm Hefhy caps might be eaten with fafety, pro- 
 vided they were chofcn from dry grounds. It is 
 well known that foil and fituation have a great in- 
 fluence upon the properties of plants; and thefe be- 
 ing of a lingular nature, and abfolutely between that 
 of an anin\al and vegetable, mny be more powerfully 
 afFccled than a complete fpecic-s of either, by reafon 
 they iiave ni ither leaves nor branches to carry offthe 
 noxious damps and vapours ofa rtagnant foil, as a per- 
 fect vesretable has ; nor have they any grofs excremen- 
 tal dif-hari'es, like thofe of living animal. The gills 
 iiodoubt do exh le fome i)t their fuperfluous moifturc ; 
 I)it their (itiaiion is fuch, that any thick (team from 
 the earth may lodge in them, and by cloguing their 
 excretory ducts, render the plants morbid. Thus they 
 foon run into a ftate of putrefaction, and become a 
 
 prey to worms, f^ies, and other infe(?ts. The common ARarlcus 
 
 nuilhroom, which is in general clleem (though we have v— — ' 
 
 fevcral others better) is not fafely eaten when produced 
 upon a moiil {oil. I liofe w!io gather muflirooms for 
 fule IhoulJ therefore have particular regard to the lands 
 they collect thtm from, efpeciaily it they know ihcy 
 are to be broiled ; but if they be intended for catchup, 
 perhaps they may be lefs cautious, as the fait and fpices 
 with which the juice is boiled may correct any evil 
 difpoiition in the plants. But, even in this cafe, catch- 
 up made of muflirooms taken from a dry foil has a 
 more aromatic and pleafunt flavour than that which is 
 made of thofe taken from a moiit one, and it will al- 
 ways keep a great deal better. 
 
 Of the poifonous forts, the two following are the 
 molt lingular : 
 
 7. The mufcarius, orrcddiih mulliroom, has a large 
 hat, almolt flat, titherwhitc,red,orcrinifon,fonKtimes 
 bcfet with angular red wans ; the gills are white.flat.and 
 invcrfely fj>car-fliapcd ; the pillar is hollow.thecaphxtd 
 to the middle of the pillar, limber, and hanging down. 
 This fpecies grows in pallures, and is laid 10 dcltroy 
 bugs effectually if ihcjuice is rubbed upon the walls and 
 bed-pofls. The inhabitants of the north of Europe, 
 whole houfesare greatly in felled with flies at the de- 
 cline of fummer, intufc it in milk, and fct it in their 
 windows, and the flies upon tafting the Icaft drop arc 
 inflantly poifoned. An infulion of common pepper in 
 milk anfwers the fame purpofc : but the flies through 
 time become wife enough not to talle it ; and though 
 vaft numbers are at firll deftroyed, it is impoliible to 
 
 clear a houfe of thcfe infeils by this means This is 
 
 the trioucho-7>:ore of the Ruilians, Kamtf.hadales, and 
 Koriacs, who ufe it as an inltrument of intoxication. 
 They fomctimes cat it dry, fometimes immerfed in a 
 fermented liquor made with the cpilobium, which they 
 drink notwithftanding the dreadlul eftefts. They arc 
 firft fcized with convullions in all their limbs, then 
 with a raving fuch as attends a burning fever. A thou- 
 fand phantoms, gay or gloomy (according to their con- 
 flitutions), prefent themfelves to their imaginations : 
 fome dance, others arc fcized with unfpeakablc hor- 
 rors. They pcrfonify this mufliroon ; and, if its ef- 
 fects urge them to fuicide, or any dreadful crime, they 
 fay they obey its commands. To fit themfelves for 
 preniiditated alfaflinations, they take the moucho- 
 more. Such is the fafcination of drunkcnnefs, among 
 thefe people, that nothing can induce them to forbear 
 this dreadful potion ! 
 
 8. The clypcatos, or long-ftalked mufliroom, has 
 ' an hemifphcrical hat taperingto a point,andclaniiTiy ; 
 the pillar is long, cylindrical, and white ; the gills arc 
 white, and not concave, dulled with a fine powdery 
 fubflance on each fide ; the rout is bulbous, longf, and 
 hooked at the end. It is found in September, in 
 woodlands and pafturcs. This fpecies is thought to 
 be poifonous; and we have the following account of 
 the fymptoms produced by eating it, in Dr Pcrcival's 
 Eifays. " Robert U flier wood, of Middlctown, near 
 Manchefter, aftrong hedlihy man, a;;rd ;o years, ear- 
 ly in the morning gathered and eat what he fuppofed 
 to be a mufliroom. He felt no fymi;toms of indifpo- 
 fition, till five o'clock in the evening ; when, being 
 very thirfty, he drank near a quart of talk -beer. 
 Soon afterwards he became univerfally fwoln, was (ilk, 
 and in great agonies. A fcvcrc vomiting and purging 
 
 fuccccded,
 
 A G A 
 
 r 231 ] 
 
 A G A 
 
 Vgaricui. fucceedcJ, with violent cramps in his legs and thighs. 
 
 — ~ He difch.irgcd fcvcral pieces of the fungus, but with 
 
 little or no relief. His pains and cvacuationscontiaucd, 
 almoA \v ithout interniiilion, tili the next night ; when 
 he fell into a found lleep, and awaked in the morning 
 perfedl/ cafy, and free from complaint." 
 
 Many of the dittercnt fpccies of this genus grow on 
 cows or horfes dung, on dungjiills, on rotten wood, in 
 cellars, or on the trunks of trees ; of which the moil 
 remarkable is, 
 
 9. The qucrcinus, or agaric of the oak. This is 
 of various lizcs, fonietimcs not exceeding the bignefs 
 of the fifl, fometimcs as large as a man's head. It 
 takes at leaft a year or two to grow to its full fize. 
 It is dark coloured, hard, heavy, and woody; it is 
 fometimcs ufcd by the dyers, as an ingredient in the 
 black dye. It taftesat firll fwcctifli in the mouth, but 
 prcfcntly becomes very bitter and naufcoiis. It was 
 formerly an article in the Materia Mcdica ; but is 
 now defcrvedly rcjeiJltd from our pharmacopoeias. 
 
 Cultun. Only the efculent kinds of mu(hrooms are 
 cultivated ; and the following method is ufed by the 
 gardeners who raife them forfale. — Iftheyoungmulh- 
 rooms cannot be procured from gardens, they muft be 
 looked for in rich pafturcs during the months of Au- 
 guftand September : the ground mufl be opened about 
 their roots, where it is frequently found fulloffmall 
 white knots; which are the off-fcts, or young mufli- 
 rooms. Thefe mull be carefully gat'iercd in lumps, 
 with the earth about them : but as this fpawn cannot 
 be found in the pallure, except at that feafon when the 
 muflirooms are naturally produced, it may be fearchcd 
 for at any time in old dung-hins,efpecially where there 
 has been much litter, and it hjth not been penetrated 
 by wet fo as to rot : it may alfo be found very often 
 in old hot-beds ; or it may be procured by mixing 
 fomc long dung from the liable, which has not been 
 thrown on a heap to ferment, with llrong earth, and 
 put under cover to prevent wet getting to it. The 
 fpawn commonly appears in about two months after 
 the mixture is made : but proportionably fooncr the 
 more cff'edtually the air is excluded, provided the mix- 
 ture is not kept fo clofe as to heat. Old thatch, or 
 litter which has lain long abroad fo as not tofermcnt, 
 is the bed covering. The fpawn has the appearanc, 
 of white mould Ihooiing out into long llriugs, by which 
 it may bccalily known wherever it is met with. — The 
 beds for receiving the fpawn are now to be prepared. 
 Thefe ihould be made of citing in which there is plenty 
 cf litter, but which (hould not be thrown on a heap to 
 ferment : that dung which has lain fprcadabroad fora 
 month or longer isbeJl. The beds ihould be made on 
 dry ground, and the dung laid on the furface ; the 
 width at the bottom (hould be two ;md a half or three 
 feet, the length in proportion to the quantity of mulli- 
 rooms dcfircd ; then lay the dung »bout a foot thick, 
 covering it with ftrong earth about four inches deep. 
 Upon this lay more dung, about loinchcs thick ; then 
 another layerof earth, (tilldrawing inthe ildesofthe 
 bed, foastoform itlikc the roofof ahoufe ; which may 
 be done by three laycrsof dung, and as many of carih. 
 When the bed is finillied, it mull be covered with litter 
 or old thatch, both to prevent its drying too faft and 
 to keep out wet. In this fituation it ought to remain 
 eight or ten days, whcu it will be in a proper tempe- 
 
 rature to receive the fpawn; for this is dellroyed by Agarims,. 
 
 too much heat ; though, before planting, it may be kept « ' 
 
 very dry, not only without detriment, but with conli- 
 derablc advantage — The bed being in a proper tem- 
 perature for the fpawn, the coveringof litter ihould be 
 taken oft', and the fides of the bed linoothcd ; then z 
 covering of light rich earth, about an inch thick, 
 fliould be laid all over the bed ; but this fliould :iot be 
 wet. Upon this the fpawn rauft be thrull, laying the 
 lumps two or three inches afunder j then gently cover 
 this with the fame light earth, above half an inch 
 thick; and put the covcringof litter over the bed, lay- 
 ing it fo thick as to keep out wet, and prevent the bed 
 from drying. In fpring or autumn the mulhrooins 
 will begin to appear, perhaps in a month after making j 
 but when the beds are made in fuminer or winter, they 
 are much longer before they produce. In any feafon,. 
 however, they ought not to be hallily dellroyed ; fincc 
 mufliroom-bcds have been known to produce very 
 plentifully, even after the fpawn has lain in them live 
 or lix months. When the beds arc dellroyed, the 
 fpawn fliould be carefuliy prcfervcd, and laid up in 3. 
 dry place, at Icafl five or fix weeks before it is again 
 planted — The dilHculty of managing muihroora-bcds 
 is, to keep them always in a proper degree of inoiflurc. 
 In the fummer feafon they may be uncovered to re- 
 ceive gentle fhowers of rain at proper times ; and in 
 long dry feafons the beds Ihould now and then be 
 watered, but much wet ought by no means to be fuf- 
 fered to come to them. During the winter feafon they 
 muft be kept as dry as polfiblc, and fo clofcly covered 
 as to keep out cold. In frolly, or very cold weather, 
 if fomewarm litter, (haken out of a dung-heap, is laid 
 on, the growth of the muflirooms will be promoted : 
 but betwixt this and the bed, a covering of dry litter 
 mud be interpofed ; which Ihould be renewed as it de- 
 cays ; and, as the cold increafcs, the covering muft be 
 thickened. By attending lothcfe diretlions, plenty of 
 muflirooms may be produced all the year round. One 
 bed will continue good for many months. Kor a pe- 
 culiar, perhaps fabulous, method of producing mulli- 
 rooms, fee the article Lyncurius. 
 
 Phyficians have difputed much about the qualities 
 of muflirooms ; fome confidering them as a rich nou- 
 riihmcnt, and perfcclly innocent, when prsperly cho- 
 fcn ; and others alltrting them to be extremely dele- 
 terious. Moll of the fungi arc indeed of a hurtful 
 qnality ; and, with rcfpcd to the whole tribe, the ef- 
 culent are scry few. Kfculcnt mulhrooms are very 
 nutritive, very readily alkalefccnt, and more fo with- 
 out intermediate accfcciuy than any other vegetable : 
 they arc therefore a rich nourilhmcnt, and much jkin 
 to animal food ; on which account they may be in- 
 dulged in conliderablc quantity to llrong perfons. It 
 requires, howcver,lkill to diftinguifluhis efculent kind; 
 and very few, cfpecially of thofc who arc commonly 
 employed to gather them, viz. the fcrvants, have ftu- 
 dicd Clufuis, or other authors who have been at the 
 pains to dillinguilli them. Perhaps efculent mufli- 
 rooms, if old, acquire a dangerous acrimony ; and for 
 thefe rcafons Dr CuUcn is of opinion that it is for i^e 
 moft part prudent to avoid them. In the warm cli- 
 mates they may be ufed as light food ; but here it is 
 prepofterous to ufe them alo;,g witli animal food, as 
 dicy do not corrci,'l its alkaline tciideucy. 
 
 AGATE,,
 
 A G A [ 23 
 
 Apart. AGATE or Achat, (among the Greeks and La- 
 
 " tins, A;^aT»c, ami y^chdt^i, tVoni a 1 ivcr iii S cily,oii tlic 
 
 banks v)t w hieh it wasSrlt K'iiiul),a very cxtcii(ivc ge- 
 nus ottlie lcinij>cllacid griiis. 
 
 Thcle Jloiics arc v.iritg iicd with vti.is and clouds, 
 but iiave no zones liivc thofc of the oiiyx. 'I licy are 
 compofcd 01' chrydal Jtbafcd by a lirge quantity of 
 earth, and not formed, either by repcaitd incrullaiions 
 round a central nucleus, or maiicupuf pl.ucs laid even- 
 ly on one another ; but are nicrily the elfeCt of onciim- 
 plc concretion, and variegated only by the difpolitioa 
 given, by the HuiJ they were formed in, to their dif- 
 ferently coloured veins or matters. 
 
 Agates arc arranged according to the different co- 
 lours of their ground. Of thofc with a ivhite ground 
 there are three fpecies. ( 1 . ) The lieiidiachatei, inocoa 
 fione, or aborefcmt agate. This fecms to be the fame 
 with what fome authors call the achates with roiemary 
 in the middle, and others achates with little branches 
 of black leaves. (2). The dull, miiky-looking agate. 
 This, though greatly inferior to the former, iiyet a 
 \ery beautiful ifone. It is common on the Ihorcs of 
 rivers in the Ealt Indies, and alfo in Germany and 
 fome other parts of Kuropc. Our lapidaries cut it in- 
 to counters for card-playing, and other toys of fniall 
 value. (5.) The Uad-coUrtmd agau, called the fhaj/a- 
 chatts by the ancients. 
 
 Ol the agates with a reddijh ground there arc four 
 fjjecics. (i.) An impure one of a llefli-coloured white, 
 which is but of little beauty in comparifon with other 
 agates. The admixture of flelh-colour is but very 
 flight ; and it is often found without any clouds, veins, 
 or other variegations , butfonietimes it is prettily vein- 
 ed or variegated vtith fjiots of irregular figures, ha- 
 ving limbriated edges. It is found in Germany, Italy, 
 and fome other parts of Europe j and is wrought into 
 toys of fmall value, and often into the German gun- 
 flints. It has been fome times found with evident fpeci- 
 liicnsof the perfeft niolfcs bedded deep in it. (2.) 
 That of a pure blood colour, called ha^niachatei, or 
 the btootly agate, by t)ic ancients. (?.) The clouded 
 and fpotted agate, of a pale fielh colour, called by the 
 ancients the carncluin agate, or fard achates. 4. The 
 red-lead coloured one, variegated with yellow, called 
 the coral agate, or corutla-achates, by the ancients. 
 
 Of the agates with a >(7/^«)//Z» ground tliere are on- 
 ly two known fpecies ; the one of the colour of yel- 
 low wax, called cerachatcs by the ancients ; the other 
 a very elegant Hone, of a yellow ground, variegated 
 with white, black, and green, called the le^niiia, and 
 ■leciitcrfercs by the ancients. 
 
 Laflly, Of the agates with a greenijh ground, there 
 is only one known fpecies, called by the ancicnis_/.//^- 
 pachatei. 
 
 Of all thefe fpecies there are a great many varieties; 
 fomcof them havingupon them natural reprcfentations 
 of men and different kinds of animals, &c. Thefe 
 -ycprcfcntations are not confined to the agates wliofe 
 ground is of any particular colour, but are occalioual- 
 ■ly found on all the different fpecies. Velchius had in 
 his cudody a fiefti-colonred agate, on one fide of which 
 appeared a half-moon in great pcrfcif ion, rcprcfentcd 
 by a milky femicircle ; on the other fulc, the pjiafes of 
 •fi.;^.'iT,or ihi-' evcning-ftar ; whence he denominated it 
 axiaphiodifsaii agate. An agate is mentioned by Kir- 
 
 I 
 
 J ] A G A 
 
 ehcr *, on which was the rcprelcntation of a heroine 
 armed ; and one in the chu cli of .St Mark ia V enicc 
 has tiie rcprefcntation of a king's head adorned with a 
 di.idem. On another, in the mufaeum of the prince 
 of Gonzaga, wai rcprtfcnied the body of a man with 
 all his cloilus ill a running poflnre. A ftill more cu- 
 rious one ismeiiiiontd by dc Boot f, wherein ajjpearsa 
 circle flruck in brown, as exactly as if done with a pair 
 of compalles, a id in the niiJdlc of the circle the exart 
 ligurt of a bilbop with a mitre on : but inverting the 
 ffoiie a litile, another figure appears ; and if it is turn- 
 ed yet further, two others appear, the one of a man, 
 and the other of a woman. But the mod celebrated 
 agate of this kiad is that of Pyrrhus, wherein were rc- 
 prefentcd tJie ninemuft.s, each with their proper attri- 
 butes, and Apollo in the middle playing on the harp f. 
 Ill the tiiipcror's cabinet isan oriental agate of a lur- 
 priling bigntfs, being faihioncd into a cup, whole dia- 
 meter is an ell, abating two inches. In tlic cavity is 
 found delineated in black fpccks, n. xris for. s. xxx. 
 Other agates have alfo been found, reprcfcnting the 
 numbers^lyi, 181 : whence they were called <»' ;//iwf- 
 //1.V7/ agates, as thofe reprcfcnting men or women have 
 obtained the name oi anthropDmijrjyhous. 
 
 Great medicinal virtues were formerly attributed to 
 the agate, fuch asrcliding poilbns, cfpecially thofc of 
 the viper, fcorpion, and fpider ; but they arc now very 
 judly rejected from medicinal pradice. The oriental 
 ones are all faid to be brought from the river Gambay. 
 A tiiine of agates was fome time ago difcovered in 
 Tranfylvania, of divers colours ; and fome of a large 
 fize, weighing fcveral pounds. 
 
 Agates may be daintd artificially with folution of 
 filvcr in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards expoling the 
 part to the fun ; and though thefe artificial colours 
 difappear on laying the done for a night in aquafortis, 
 yet a kno\\ ledge of the pradicability of thus daining 
 agates, mud render thofc curious figures abovemen- 
 tioned flrongly fufpeded of being the work not of na- 
 ture, but of art. Some account for thefe phenome- 
 na from natural caufes. Thus, Kirchcr, who had fecn 
 a done of this kind in v\'hich were dcpicfcd the four 
 letters ufually incribed on crucifi.\es, I. N. R. I. ap- 
 prehends that fome real crucifix had been buried un- 
 der ground, among dones and other rubbifli, where 
 the infcription happening to be parted from the crofs, 
 and to be received among a foft mould or clay fufcepti- 
 bleoftheimprellion of the letters, came afterwards to 
 be petrified. In the fame niifiucr he fuppofes the agate 
 of Pyrrhus to have been formed. Others rcfolve much 
 of the wonder into fancy, and fuppofe thofe dones 
 formed in the fame manner witli the Cam'teux * or Flo- 
 rentine dones. 
 
 The agate is ufcd formaking cups, rings, fcals, han- 
 dles for knives and forks, hilts foriwords and hangers, 
 beads to pray with, fnuUing boxes, patch-boxes, &c, 
 being cut or fawed withiiogreat diiRculty. At PariSj 
 none have a right todt.'.'iin this commodity except the 
 wholcfale mercers andgoldfmiihs. The fword-cutler.s 
 are allowed tofell it, but only when n'.adeinto handles 
 forcoutcaiixdechalTe, and ready to fetin. Tliccutlcrs 
 have the fame privilege for their knives and forks. 
 
 Condderable quantities of thefe dones are dill found 
 near the river Achates in Sicily. 'Ihcrc arc found in 
 fome of thefe the furpriling reprcfentations above- 
 
 iiicn- 
 
 Agate. 
 
 • liphem. 
 German, 
 dec. i an.I, 
 obf. 151. 
 
 t De Oem. 
 1. ii. C.9J. 
 
 I xxxvii. 
 c. 3- 
 
 * See C».
 
 A G A 
 
 [ ^33 ] 
 
 A G A 
 
 ' Voyage 
 Vital, lorn, 
 ', p. 1^6, 
 
 lift. AcaJ 
 i. Infcript, 
 torn, i, p. 
 
 i37>— 344 
 
 nicntiop.cJ, or others (iniilar to liiein. I5y a dexterous 
 iiiaiiagemciu of tlicfc natural Ihiiiib, iiicdah have bctii 
 prodiictdjWlirch I'cciii r.iailcr-picccs of nature: for this 
 Jtoiit bears the graver well ; and as j'icccs of all niag- 
 iiittidcs arc fotiiul of it, they make all forts of work of 
 it. 'rhehij^h altar of thecaihedral of Mclliiia is a'.l over 
 Micruiled with it. The lapidaries I'rcteiid that tiie In- 
 dian agates arc liner than the Sicilia:: ; but Kather La- 
 bat"* informs us, that in tlie fame qjarrics, and even in 
 the faniebloek, thtrcarc foundpieccsmuch finer than 
 others, and tliefe line pieces are fold for Indian agates 
 in order to enhance their pvi;c. 
 
 Ac ATT., among antiquaries, denotes a floncof this 
 kind cngravenby art. In this fcnfe, agates make a fpc- 
 cics of antique gems ; in the uorkmanihip whereof we 
 findVniinent proofs of the great (kill and dexterity of 
 the fciilf^tors. Several agates of cxquiiite beauty arc 
 prefcrvcd in the cabinets of the curious ; bat the facls 
 or hillories reprelcniedon tlicfe antique agates, how- 
 ever Well cxceuted, are now become fo obfcure, and 
 their explications fo diliicult, that fevcral diverting 
 niillakes and difputts havearifen among thofc who un- 
 dertook to give their true mea:iing. 
 
 The great agate of the ajiotheolis of Augullus, in 
 the treafury ot the holy ciiapel, when fen t from Con- 
 flantinople toSt Lewis, palfed for a triumph of Jofeph. 
 An agate, now' in the French king's cabinet, had been 
 kept 7ooycarswithgreat devotion, in the Bencdifline 
 abbey of St Evrc at Toul, where it palled for St John 
 the Evangelill carried away by an eagle, and crowned 
 by an angel; but the Heathcnifm of it having been 
 ^tely detcded, the religio\is would no longer give it 
 a place among their relicts, but prefentcd it in 1684 
 to the king. The antiquaries found it to be the apo- 
 thfolis of Gcrmaiiicus. In like manner the triumph 
 of Jofeph was found to be a rcprefcntation of Gcnna- 
 nicus and Agrippina, under the figures of Ceres and 
 Triptolcmus. Another was preferved, from time im- 
 memorial, in one of tlic mofl ancient churches of 
 France, where it had palled for a rcprefcntation of pa- 
 radifeand the fall of man ; there beingfound on it two 
 figures repivfcntii'.g Adam and Eve, with a tree, a fer- 
 pcnt, and a Hebrew infcription round it, taken from 
 the third chapter of Genclis, " The woman faw that 
 tlie tree was good," Sec. The French acadcmitls, in- 
 flead of our firll parents, found Jupiter and Minerva 
 reprefentcd by the two figures : the infcription was of 
 a modern date, written in a Rabbinical cliarai5ler, \c- 
 ry incorreft, and poorly engraven. The prevailing 
 opinion was, that this agate reprefentcd limply tlie 
 worlhip of Jupiter and Minerva at Alliens. 
 
 Agate, is alfo a name of an iiiftrunicnt u fed by 
 goldwire-drawers; fo called from the agate in the hud- 
 dle of it, which forms its principal part. 
 
 AGATJIIAS, or, as he calls himfclf in liis epi- 
 grams, Ao.^THlus, diftinguillied by the title of Str/'C- 
 l.ipicta, a Greek liiflorian in the 6th century under 
 Jufliiiian. He was born at Myrina, a colony of tliean- 
 cient yEolians, in Alia the lefs, at the mouth of the ri- 
 ver Fhythicus. He was an advocate at Smyrna. Tlio' 
 hehadatallc for poetry, lie was yet more famous for 
 his hirtory, which begins with the 36th year of julli- 
 nian's reign, where Procopius cuds. It was prinrcd 
 in Greek and Latin, with Bonaventurc Vulcaiiius's, at 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 Lcyiien, IJ94, in 410; and in Paris at the king's prini- 
 ing-houfc, 1660, in folio. 
 
 AG.'VTHO, a tragic and comic poet, difciple to 
 Prodicus and Socrates, applauded in Plato's l>ialogacs 
 for his virtue and beauty. His firJl tragedy cbtaiiiej 
 the ))rizc ; and he was crowned in the pVtfence of 
 upwards of 5o,coo men, the 4tli year of the 901I1 
 Olympiad. Jliere is nothing now extant of his, cx- 
 ce])t a few quotations in Ariftotlc, Athcnseus, aiiJ 
 others 
 
 AG.'^THOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, was 
 fon of a I'otier at Rcggio. He was a thief, a commoii 
 foldier, a centurion, a general, and a pirate, all in a 
 regular fucceinon. He defeated the Carthaginians fe- 
 vcral times in Sicily, and was once defeated himfclf. 
 He fird made himfelf tyrant of Syracufc, and then of 
 all Sicily ; after which, he vanquiihed the Carthagi- 
 nians ag.iin botii in Sicily and Alrici. But at length 
 having ill facccfs,and being in arrears with his foldier";, 
 they mutinied, forced him to tiy his cftni]', and cut 
 the throats of his children, whom he left behind. Re- 
 covering himfelf again, he relieved Corfou, beliege.l 
 by CalFanJer ; burnt the Macedonian fleet ; returned 
 to Sicily ; murdered the wives and children of thefc 
 who had murdered his ; afterwards meeting with the 
 foldicrs themfelves, he put them all to the iword ; and 
 ravaging the fea-coalt of Italy, took the city of Hip- 
 ponium. He \\ as at length poifoncd by his graadfon Ar- 
 chagathus, in the 72d yearofhisage, 290 years before 
 Chrift, having reigned 28 years. 
 
 AGATHYRNA, or Ag ath vrnum, Ac ath vr.-^a, 
 or AoATHYRsiJiM, (anc. gcog. ), a tovvn of Sicily ; now 
 S. Marco ; as old as the war of Troy, being built by 
 Agathyrnus, fon of v^^olus, on an eminence. The 
 geiuilitious name is Agathyrnaus ; or, according to the 
 Roman idiom, Agathyri:etij'is. 
 
 AGAVE, the common American aloe : A genus of 
 the monogynia order^ belonging to tlie hexandria clafs 
 of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under 
 the loth order, Corcn^irij-. The charaftcrsare .-There 
 is no calyx : The corolla is nionopetalous and funnel- 
 fliaped ; the border fix-parted, with lanced ercift: divi- 
 lions : T\\t]la»ii>ia cou lilt ofli.xercrt filaments, longer 
 than the corolla ; the anthers arc linear, Ihorterthan 
 the filaments, and vcrfalile : The ftjltllmu is an oblong 
 gennen ; the ftylus is filiform, the length of the flami- 
 na, and triangular ; the Aignia headed and triangular: 
 The per'icarpiuvt is an obloug triangular capfule, tri- 
 locularand tiiree-valved : The /^t-a'j are numerous. Of 
 thisgenus, botanical writers enumerate eight fpecies. 
 
 Of the Americana, or great American aloe, the ftems 
 generally rife upwardsof 20 feet high, and branch out 
 on every lide towards ihe top, fo as to form a kind of 
 pyramid: t he llcnderlhoots being garnilhed with green- 
 ilh yellow flowers, which fland crcd, and come out in 
 thick cluflers at every joint : thefe make a fine ap- 
 peara'.;ce, and continue long in beauty ; a fucccllionof 
 new flowers being produced for near three months in 
 favourable feafons, if the plant is protected fVoni the 
 autumnal colds. The feeds do not ripen in England. 
 It has been generally thought, that ll.cfe plants do not 
 flower till ihey arc 100 years old : but this is a mif- 
 lake ; for the time of their flowering dcpendson their 
 growth : fo tlui in hot countries, where they grow 
 G g faff.
 
 AGE . [ 2 
 
 fafl, and expand many Uavcs every ftafon, they will 
 tiowcr in a lew years ; but in colder climates, where 
 llur growth is (low, it will be nuicli loajjer before they 
 ihoot up their ftcm. There is a variety of this fpecics 
 with ftripcd leaves, which arc pretty coniniun iii the 
 Knglilh gardens. The other forts arc fo tender, tiiat 
 they nuill conflantly remain in the Hove. 
 
 ADGli, a city of France, in Lower Laiigucdoc, 
 in the territory of Agadez, with a bilhop's fee. Tiic 
 dioccfe is fmall, bui is one of the richcit countries in 
 the kingdom. It produces fine wool, wine, oil, corn, 
 and lilk. It is feated on the river Eraut, a mile and a 
 quarter from its mouth, where it falls into the gulpli 
 of Lyons, and where there is a fort buih to guard its 
 entrance. It is well peopled ; the honfes arc built of 
 black llouc, and there is an entrance into the city by 
 four gates. The greatefl part of the inhabitants are 
 merchants or fcamcn. The public buildings are but 
 mean : the cathedral is fmall, and not very hanjfomc : 
 the bilhop's palace is an old building, bur convenient. 
 The city is extended along the river, where it forms 
 a little port, wherein fmall craft may enter. There 
 is a great eoncourfe of pilgrims and other devout peo- 
 ple to the cliajiel of Notre Dame de Grace It is a 
 little without the city, between which and the chapel 
 there are about i ;; or 14 oratories, which iluy vilit 
 with naked feet. Theconvcnt of the Capuchius is well 
 built, and on the outlide are lo.igings and apartments 
 for the pilgrims who come to perform their muvatue 
 or nine days devotion. The chapel, which contains 
 the image of the Virgin Mary, is dillinit from the 
 covent. E. Long. 3. 20. Lat. 4;. 19. 
 
 AGE, in the molt general fcnfcpf the word, ligni- 
 fies the duration of any being, from its nril coming in- 
 to exillence to the time of fpcaking of it, if it Hill con- 
 tinues ; or 10 its dellruction, if it has ceafed to cxill 
 fome time before we happen to mention it. 
 
 Among the ancient poets, this word wasufcdfor the 
 fpace of thirty years ; in which fcnfc, age amounts to 
 much the fame WwV Pineratioii. Thus, Nellor is fiid 
 to have lived thra ages when he was 90 years old. — 
 By ancient Greek hillorians, the time clapfcd lince the 
 beginning of the world is divided into three periods, 
 which they called aga. The firil reaches from the cre- 
 ation to the deluge which happened in Greece during 
 ilie reign of Ogyges ; this they called the obfcure or 
 i!i:ccrttii/i zgc, bccaufe the hiflory of mankind is alto- 
 gether uncertain during that period. Thefecond they 
 call \.\icfabulo!'s or heroic age, beeaufe it is the peri- 
 od in which the fabulous exploits of their gods and he- 
 roes arc faid to have been pertornied. It begin with 
 ihcOgygian deluge, and continued to the firll Olym- 
 piad ; where the third or hifloiical age commenced 
 
 Thisdivilion, however, it mnft beobfcrved, holds good 
 only with regard to the Greeks and Romans, who had 
 no hillories earlier than the firfl Olympiad ; the Jews, 
 Egyptians, Phenicians, andChaldees, not to mention 
 the Indians and Chincfe,who pretend to much higlier 
 antiquity, are not included in it. 
 
 'J he interval lince the firit formation of man has been 
 divided by the poets intofoura^'w, diflinguiflied by the 
 eyhheis o( gc/i/cn, /i/ver, irazen, and ire/i. During 
 the go/de/i age, Saturn reigned in heaven, and jufticc 
 and innocence in this lower world. The earth then 
 
 34 J A G E 
 
 yielded her produilions without culture ; meiihcld all 
 [jiiiigs in common, and lived in perfect fricndlhip. ~ 
 This period is fuppofcd to have hlled till the cxpullion 
 of Saturn from his kingdom. The Ji/ver age coninieu- 
 ced when men began to deviate I'rom the paths of vir- 
 tue ; and in confequence of this deviation, iheir lives 
 became lefs happy. The ti azcii age commenced on a 
 farther deviation, and the /re// age took place in confe- 
 
 quenccof one Hill greater A late author, however, 
 
 reilecling on the barbarifm of the lirll ages, will have 
 the order which the poets allign to the four ages invert- 
 ed ; the lirll being a time ol rudcnefs and ignorance, 
 more projicrly denominated an //•()// than a golden age. 
 W hen cities and Hates were founded, the Jit'ver age 
 commenced ; and (incc arts and fcieiiccf, navigation 
 and commerce, have been cultivated, the^o/i/f/;agelias 
 taken place. 
 
 In fonic ancient northern monuments, the rociy or 
 /lo/.y ao;e correfponds to the t>raze/i age of the Greeks. 
 It is called rocky, on account of Noah's ark, which 
 rclted on mount Ararat ; whence men were faid to be 
 defccndcd or fprung from mountains : or froui Deu- 
 calion and Pyrrha relloring the race of mankind, by 
 throwing Hones over their heads. The northern poets 
 alio tlyle the fourth age of the world the tijhe/: age, 
 from a Gothic king Madenis, or Mannus, \\ ho on ac- 
 count of his great Hrength was faid to be made of alh,, 
 or bccaufe in his time people began to make ufe of 
 weapons made of that wood. 
 
 Among the Jews, the duration of the world is alfo 
 divided into three ages. i.'Xhe feciilum inane, or 
 void age, was the fpace of time from the creation to 
 Mofcs. 2. The pre/eat age, denotes all the fpace of 
 time from Mofes to the coming of the Mehiaii ; and, 
 3. The age to conic, denotes the time from the com- 
 ing of the Welliah to the end of the world. 
 
 Various other divilions of the duration of the world 
 into ages have been made by hillorians — Tlic Sibyl- 
 line oracles, wrote, according to fome, by Jews ac- 
 quainted with the prophecies of the Old Tellament, 
 divide the duration of tlic world into ten ages ; and ac- 
 cording to Jofephus, each age contained lix hundred 
 years. It appears, by Virgil's fourth eclogue, and o-- 
 thcr tcftimonies, that the age of AuguHus was repu- 
 ted the cud of thofe ten ages, confcqucntly as the peri- 
 od of the world's duration. 
 
 By foiTic, the fpace of time commencing from Con- 
 Hantine, and ending with the taking of Conflanlinoplc 
 by the Turks in the 15th century, is called the tiiid- 
 die age : but others choofe rather to date the middle 
 age from the divilion of the empire made by Thcodo- 
 lius at the clofc of the 4th century, and extend it to 
 the time of the emperor Maximilian I. in the begin- 
 ning of the 16th century, when the empire was HrH 
 divided into circle. — The middle is by fome denoted 
 the l/hrbaroiis age, and the latter part of it the loiueP 
 age. Some divide it into the nou-academical and aca- 
 doiiical Rge%. The firH includes the fpace of time from 
 the 6th to the 9th centuries, during which fchools or 
 academies were loH in P'.urope. The ftcond from the 
 9th century, when fchools were rellored, and univer- 
 iitics eHablilhcd, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne. 
 
 The fevcral ages of the world may be reduced id three 
 grand epochas,i//£. thcrt^t' of the law of nature, called 
 
 Age.
 
 AGE 
 
 [ 235 ] 
 
 AGE 
 
 by tlic Jews the void age, from Adam to Moles ; the 
 age of the Jcwilh law, from Mofcs to Chrill ; and 
 the agJ of grace, from thrill to the prcfent year. 
 
 Age is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe with 
 century, to denominate a duration of IGO years. 
 
 Age likewife figniiies a certain period of the du- 
 ration of hunianlife, by foine divided into four ftages, 
 namely, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age ; the 
 firil extending to the 14th year, the fecond to tJic 
 251!), the third to the 50th, and the fourth to the end 
 of life ; l^y others divided into infancy, childjiood, 
 youth, manhood, and old age. 
 
 Ac F., in law, fignitics a certain period of life, when 
 pcrfons of both fexes arc enabled to do certains afts. 
 Thus, one at twelve years of age ought to take the 
 oath of allegiance to the king in a leet ; at fourteen 
 he may marry, chuli his guardian, and claim his lands 
 held in Ibccigc. Twenty-one is called fii,'l age, a man 
 or woman being then capable of acting for ihenifclves, 
 of managing their affairs, nvaking contrails, difpoling 
 of tJieir ellatcs, and the like. 
 
 Age oJ a Horfe. See Ho rs e . 
 
 Aqe of Tries, Thcfe after a certain age wafte. 
 An oak at an hundred years old ceafes to grow. The 
 ufual rule for judging of the age of wood, is by the 
 number of circles which appear in the fubltancc of a 
 trunk or flock cue perpendicularly, each circle being 
 fuppofed the growth of a year : though fonic reject 
 this method as precarious, alledging that a limple cir- 
 cle is fometimes the produce of feveral years : belidcs, 
 that, after a certain age, no new circles are formed. 
 
 Act:- frier, in law, is when an action being brought 
 againft apcribn underage, for lands defcended to him, 
 he, by motion or petition, llicws the matter to the 
 court, praying thcaftion maybellaid till his full age, 
 which the court gener.illy agrees to. , 
 
 AGELNOTH, EGELNOTH,0r iETHELNOTH,in 
 
 Latin Achelnotus, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the 
 reign of Canute the Great, fuccceded Livingus in that 
 fee in the year 1020. Thisprelatc lirnamed thcCtad', 
 was the the fon of Agilmer, and, at the time of his elec- 
 tion, dean of Canterbury. After his promotion he 
 went to Rome, and received his pall from Pope Bene- 
 diifl VIII. In his way thither, as he palfed through 
 Pavia, he purchafed, for an hundred talents of lilvcr 
 and one of gold, St Auguflin's arm, which was kept 
 there as a relic ; and fent it over to England as a pre- 
 fent to Leofric earl of Coventry. Upon his return, he 
 is faid to h.ivc raifed the fee of Canterbury to its for- 
 mer hidre. He was much in favour with king Ca- 
 luitc, and employed his intcrcll with that monarch to 
 good purpofcs. It was by his advice the king lent 
 ovcrlargc funis of money for the fupportof the foreign 
 churches ; and Malmlbury obferves, that this prince 
 was prompted to afts of piety, and retrained from ex- 
 cefles, by the regard he had fortlic archbilhop. Agel- 
 r.oth, at"ter he had fat ty years in the fee of Can- 
 cerbury, departed this life the 29th of Ot?tober, 1038, 
 and was fuccceded by Eadlius, king Harold's chap- 
 lain — This archbilhop was an author, having written, 
 i. .\ Panegyric on the blclfcd Virgin Mary. 2. A 
 Letter to Earl Leofric concerning St AugulUn. 3. 
 Letters to feveral pcrfons. 
 
 AGEMA, in Macedonian antiquity, was a body of 
 foldicry, not unlike the Roman legion. 
 
 AGEMOGLANS, Aciamoci-am?, or Azamo- 
 GtANs, in thcTurkidi polity, arc children purchafed 
 from the Tartars, or raifed every third year, by way 
 of tribute, from the Chrillians tolerated in the Turkilh 
 empire. Thefc, after being circumcifedar.dinftrucicd 
 in thereligion and languageof their tyrannical malUrs, 
 are learnt the cxereifes of war, till iheyarcof a pro- 
 ber age for carrying arms ; and fror.i thiseorps the Ja- 
 nilfaries arc recruited. With regard to tliofe who arc 
 thought unfit for the army, they are employed in the 
 lowelloihcesof the fer.ngiio. Their appoiiitiuents alfo 
 arc very fmall, not exceeding fcvcn ai'pers and a half 
 per day, which amount to about thrccpciice-hallpcnny 
 Sterling. 
 
 AGEN, a city of France, on the river Garonne, the 
 capital of Agenois in Guienne, and the fee of a bilbop. 
 The gates and old walls, which arc yet remaining, ihow 
 that this city is very ancient, and that its former cir- 
 cuit was not fo great as the prelent. The palace, 
 wherein the prelidial holds hi.-, felfjons at this day, was 
 heretofore called the caftleof Moniravcl, and is fcated 
 without the walls of the old city, and cm the fide of 
 the folfc. There are likewife the ruins of another 
 caftlecallcdL<j5(jgn^, which was without the walls clofc 
 by a brook. Though the fituation of Agen is very 
 convenient for trade and commerce, the inhabitants 
 are fo very indolent that there is very little ; of w'hich 
 the neighbouring cities take tlic advantage. It is feat- 
 ed on the bank of the river Garonne, in a plcafant 
 country: but is itfelf a very mean and difagrecablc place, 
 the houfes being ill built; and the llreets narrow, crook- 
 ed, and dirty. E. Long. o. 3©. N. Lat. 44. 12. 
 
 AGENDA, among pliilofophcrs and divines, figni- 
 fics the duties which a man lies under an obligation to 
 perform : liius, we meet with the agenlaoi a Chri- 
 llian,or the duties he ought to perform, in oppofuioa 
 to the cr'.deiida, or things he is to believe. 
 
 Agenda, among merchants, a term fometimes ufed 
 for a memorandum-book, in which is fct down all the 
 bufmefstobe tranfacled during the day, either at 
 home or abroad. 
 
 Agenda, among ecclefiaftical writers denote the 
 fcrvice or office of the church. W'cmet with agenda, 
 inatutina ir vsffeilina, " morning and evening pray- 
 ers ;" agenda diei, " the otTice of the day," whether 
 feall or fafld.ay ; agenda mortuoruvi, called alfo limply 
 agenda, " the fcrvice of the dead." 
 
 Agenda is alfo applied to certain ehnrch-books, 
 compiled by public authority, prcferibing the order 
 and manner to be obferved by the ininillers and peo- 
 ple in the principal ceremonies and devotions of the 
 church. In which fenfe, agenda amounts to the fame 
 with what is otherwife called ritual, liturgy, acatou- 
 thia, miffal, for/niitary , direiiory, &c. 
 
 AGENHINE, in old writers, iignilies a giiefl 
 that has lodged at an inn for three nights, after 
 which lime he was accounted one of the family ; and 
 if he otrcndcd the king's peace, liis holl was anfwcr- 
 able for him. It is alfo written hogenhine and 
 
 HOGENHYSE. 
 
 AGENORIA, in mythology, the gooddefs of cou- 
 rage and indiillry, as I'actaiawis of indolence. 
 
 AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any a.:1ive 
 
 power or caufc. Agents arc either natural i r moral. 
 
 Natural agents are fuch inanimate bodies as have a 
 
 G g 2 power 
 
 I, 
 A;:cnt.
 
 AGE f 23 
 
 /^rtnt po'.vcr Lo rH upo',1 other bodies in a certain anJ ilcicr- 
 I iiiinatc manner ; .;s, grivity, lire, &c. .Moral agents, on 
 Agefilans. iijg contrary, are rational creatures, capable oiregula- 
 " ** ' ting their actions by a certain rule. 
 
 Agent, is alto uled to denote a perfon intrnfteJ with 
 thcnian.igcnicnt ot an atr'air, whether belonging to a 
 Jociety, company, or private pcrlon. 
 
 j^GLSTt-S in liL'Ui, one ol' the ranks of officers in the 
 conn of the Conltantinopoliian emperors, whole bii- 
 linefs was to collect and convey the corn botli for the 
 army andhoufthoKI ; to carry letters and nieilages from 
 court to all p.irts of the empire; to regulate com iers,and 
 their vehicles ; to make frequent journeys and expedi- 
 tions through the provinces, in order to iiifpeCt any mo- 
 tions, diduibances, or machinations tending that way, 
 and to give early notice thereof to the cmpcrur. 
 
 "YXxca'sntcs u! nhiis, are by I'onie made fynonymous 
 with our poll-malhrs, but their fuuclions were ot great 
 extent. They correipond to what the Greeks call 
 «ri.f6ifcfo/, and tiie Latins v:r-:durii. 
 
 There were various orders or degrees of agcntei in 
 rebus ; a.s,liii;t/ii, piimicerii,Jci!Moi\i, duaitani, hi- 
 archi, circiUns, eqiiites, tyrones, &c. through all which 
 they roic gr.uiat:v.\ Their chief, who relided at Con- 
 ftantinople, was denominated pnncepi ; which was a 
 poll of great dignity, being reckoned on a level with 
 that of proconful. They were fettled in every part of 
 the empire ; and are alfo faid to have fervcd as inter- 
 preters. 
 
 AGEIl, in Roman antiquity, a certain portion of 
 land allowed to each citizen. Sec .■^grari.^n L.^w. 
 
 AGKIl PictNus, or Pid'niim, (anc. geog.) a ter- 
 ritory of Italy to the fouih-calt of Umbria, reaching 
 from thcApcnnine to the Adriatic. The peoj'le are 
 called iictiites (Cicero, Livy ), diiUntH: from the I'icen- 
 tini on the Tufcan fca, though called by Greek wiiters 
 n;Ki»Tivo/. This name is faid to be from the bird Puns, 
 under whole conduO^ they removed from the Sabines, 
 of whom they were a colony. 
 
 AGKIIA rUM,r.ASTARD-IlEMr-AGRIMONV: A gc- 
 
 nus of tlie polygamia squalls onlcr, beh)nging to the 
 fyngenciia clifs of phuits : and in the natural method 
 ranking under the 49th order, 6"'o;/.'/'<///V.r difioidcs. The 
 characters are: The common caiyr. is oblong, with ma- 
 ny fcales. The compound corolla is uniform ; the co- 
 rollets hermaphrodite, tubular and numerous : the 
 proper cor jUa is funnel-lhapcd; the border 4-clcft, and 
 expanded. The Jlami/sa conlilt of 5 capillary very Ihort 
 hlaments ; the anthera is cylindric and tubular. The 
 piJIUlum is an oblong germen ; with a filiform llyl.H, 
 and two (lender erect iligmata. There is no pencar- 
 pinm; the calyx unchanged. The feeds are folitiry, 
 oblong, and angular. The receptaculuni is naked, con- 
 vex, and very fniall. Of this genus there are three 
 
 Species ; the conyzoides, the houltonianum, and the 
 altilfimum. All ihcfe sre natives uf warm climates. 
 The two tirll are annual plants, and confeqnently can 
 be propagated oidy by feeds ; which, however, come 
 to perfection in EnjHand. The third fpecies vvill 
 bear the fevcrell cold of Britain, but its feeds do not 
 riper, in it. 
 
 AOERATU.M, or.MAUni.IM. Sec ACHILI.*. 
 
 AGESILAUS, king of the Laced^ismonians, the 
 fonof Archidimus, was railed to the throne notwith- 
 ftanJing the fuf erior claim of Leotychidcs. As fooa 
 
 6 J 
 
 AGE 
 
 as he came to the throne, he advifcd the Laccdacino- Avccfdau?; 
 iiians to be beforeh.iiid with the king of Pcrlia, who -^ — v— ' 
 was making great preparations forw^r, and to attack 
 him ill his own dominions. He was himftlf cliofen for 
 this expcdirion ; and gained fo many advaiu.igcs over 
 ihe enemy, that if the league which the Athenians and 
 the Thcbans formed againll the Lacedxinonians had 
 not obliged him to return home, he would l»ave car- 
 ried his \ idorious arms into the very heart ol tlie Per- 
 lian empire. He gave up, however, all tJiefe triumphs 
 readily, to come to the fuccour of his conniry, which 
 he happily relieved by his victory over ihe allies inBic- 
 otii. lie obtained another near Corinth ; but to his 
 great moriilication, the Thcbans afterwards gained fe- 
 ver.il over ihe Lacedxmonians. 'I hefe mislortunes at 
 iirlt raifed lomewhat of a clamour againll him. HehaJ 
 been lick during the lirll advantages which the enemy 
 gained; but as foon as he was able to aiJt in perfon, 
 l>y his valoJr and prudence he pre\ ented tlie "1 hebaiis 
 from reapiiigtheadvantagtsoithcir victories; infomuch 
 til it it was generally believed, had he been in lualth at 
 the beginning, theLaceda'mouiaiiswoiild have fufl .lined 
 no lodes, and that all would have been loll had it not 
 been for his alHllance. It cannot be denied but he loved 
 war more than the iiitereil of hiscountry required, for 
 if he could have lived in peace, he had faved the Lacc- 
 dasmonians feveral lolles, and they would not have been 
 engaged in many enterprifes which in tlie cud contri- 
 bated much to weaken their power. He died in the 
 third year of the 104th Olympiad, being in the 8 3th year 
 of his age, and 4illycar of his reign. Agefilaus would 
 ncverfurtcr any picture or fculptiire to be made of him, 
 and jn-ohihited it alio by his will : this he is fuppofed 
 tohavedone froni a confcioufnc fsof his own deformity; 
 for he was of a lliovt llature, and iame of one foot, ^o 
 that Grangers ultd todcfpife him at the tirll light. His 
 fame went before him into Kgypt, and there they had 
 formed the liigheflidea of Agelilaus. When he l.inded 
 in that country, the people ran in crouds to fee him ; 
 butgreat was their Aiprifc when they fa wan ill-dreired, 
 I'oveiily mean-looking little fellow lying upon the 
 grafs ; they could not forbcir laughing, and applied to 
 liiiii the fable of the mnuniain in labour. He was, 
 however, the lirft to jell upon his own perfon ; andfuch 
 was the gaieiy of his temper, and the llrcngth with 
 which he bore the roughell exercifcs, that thefe qua- 
 lities made amends for his corporal defce'is. He was 
 extremely remarkable for plainnefs and frugality of his 
 di cfsand way of living. "Tliis (fays Cornelius Nepos) 
 is efpecially to be admired in Agelilaus : when very 
 great prefents were lent him by kings, governors, and 
 liates, he never brought any of them to his own houfe ; 
 hechanged nothingof the diet, nothing of ilie apparel 
 of the Lacedxmonians. He was contented with the 
 fime houfe in which Kuriflhencs the founder of his 
 family had lived; and whoever entered there, could fee 
 no lign of debauchery noneof luxury; but out lie contra- 
 ry, many of moderation and abflinencc ; for it was fur- 
 niilicd in fuch anianncr,that it diflcrcd in nothing from 
 that of any poor or private perfon." Upon his arrival 
 in Egypt, all kind of provifions were fcnt to him ; 
 but he cliofe only the moll common, leaving the per- 
 f.imes, tlic confections, and all that was cfleemed mod 
 delicious, to his fervants. Agelilaus was extremely 
 iondof hischildren, and would often amufc himfelfby 
 
 joining
 
 A G G 
 
 L 237 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 A G H 
 
 Agga, joining iii tlicir divcrfioiis : one day wlicn he was fiir- 
 jVggir. priCed lidinjv upon a liick with tlitiii, he faid ro the 
 " perfon who had lecn in liini in ihis polhire, " t'orbcar 
 ulXiiii^ ot' it till you arc a father." 
 
 AGCjA, or AcGONNA, a iiritilli fcitlcniciu on the 
 gold-coall of Guinea. It is lltiiatcd under the meri- 
 dian ot" Loudon, in 6 degrees ot" N. Lai. 
 
 AGGLK, in tlie ancieiit niililary an, a work of for- 
 tification, nCcd botli for tiie defence and tlic attack of 
 towns, camps, &c. In wliich fente it is the t"ame with 
 \\hatwasotiierwif"ecalledt':j//'/w, and in later times i/g-- 
 gej!u»i ; and among the moderns lines, fomctimcs cavu- 
 lifr<, tcrrujj'cs 8cc. '1 he agger was iifnally a bank, or 
 elevation of earth or other matter, bound and fupport- 
 cd witli timber ; having fomelimes turrets on the top, 
 wherein the workmen, engineers, and foldicry, were 
 placed. It was alfo accom(ianicd with a ditch, wiiich 
 I'crvcd as its chief defence. The ufnal materials of 
 which it was made wereeart]i,bouglis, fafcincs, flakes, 
 and even trunks of trees, ropes, &c. varioully crolled, 
 and interwoven fbmcwhal in the figure of liars ; whence 
 they wcrecallcdyyf//<j.'/'<JAfi'j. Where thefe were want- 
 ing, floncs, bricks, tiles, fupplied the office : on fomc 
 occafions, arms, utenfils, pack-faddles, were thrown in 
 to till it up. We even read of aggers formed of the 
 csrcafes of the llalii ; fomciimcs of dead bones mix«d 
 with lime ; and even with the heads of llauglitercd ci- 
 tizens. For want of due binding, or folid materials, 
 aggers have fometimes tumbled down, with infinite 
 luilchief to the men. The beliegers ufed to carry on 
 a work of this kind nearer and nearer towards the 
 place, till at length they reached the very wall. The 
 meti'.ods t:iken, on the other fide, to defeat them, were 
 by fire, efpecially if the agger were of wood ; by fap- 
 pingand undermining, ifof earth ; and, in fomc cafes, 
 by creeling a counter agger. 
 
 The heigiitof the agger was frequently equal to tliat 
 of the wall of the place. Ca;l"ar tells us of one he made, 
 that was 50 t'ccl higli and ^^o feet broad. Belides 
 the ufc of aggers before towns, the generals ufed to 
 fortify their camps with fuch works ; for want of this 
 precaution, armies have often been furprifed aiij 
 ruined. 
 
 There were vaft aggers made in towns and places on 
 the fea-lide, fortified with towers, caflles, Stc. Thofc 
 maiie by Cxfar and Pompey at Brundulinm, are fa- 
 mous-. Sometimes aggers were even buih acrofs arms 
 of the fea, lakes, and moralles ; as was done by Alex- 
 der bet'ore Tyre, and b/ M. Anthony and Calfius. — 
 '1 he wall of Sevtrus, in the north of England, may be 
 conlldercd as a grand agger, to which belong feveral 
 lelicr ones. Sec Sgi'KRUs'j IVall. 
 
 Agger, in ancient writers, likcwit"c denotes the 
 middle partof amilitary_road, railed into a ridge, with 
 a gentle llopc on either fide, to make a drain for the 
 water, and keep the way dry. 
 
 The term is alio ul"ed for the whole road, or military 
 way. W here highways were to be made in low grounds, 
 as between two hills, the Romans ufed to rail'e them 
 above the adjacent land, fo as to make them On a level 
 M'ith the hills. Tliefebanks they called ^^i,vrc/. Bcr- 
 gier jjicntions l"evcral in Gallia Belgica, which were 
 thus raifed ten, fifteen, or twenty feet above ground. 
 — They arc fomctimesalfo called >yi't7vj ctLiati ; a:id 
 
 now generally known by the name chiujftei, or cau/c- Aggerhuys 
 
 AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the Aglirim. 
 province of tlie fame name. It is fubjeet to Denmark, '■ ^""^ 
 and fituated in E. Long. 28. ^ j. and N. Lat. $9. 50. 
 
 AGGERS-HERRED, a diflrict of ChriltianfanJ, 
 andadioecfeof Norway. It conliils of three juridical 
 places ; namely, Afcher, Well liarum, and ."^gcr. 
 
 AGGLUTINANTS, in pharmacy, agcncral name 
 for all medicines of a glutijious or vifcid nature . which, 
 by adhering to the folids, contribute greatly to repair 
 their lofs. 
 
 AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfc, denotes 
 the joining two or more things together, by means of a 
 proper glue or cement. 
 
 AaCGlutination, amorfg phyficians, implies the 
 action of reuniiing the parts of a body, feparatcJ by a 
 wound, cut, &c. It is alfo applied to the action of 
 fuch internal medicines as are of an aggluiinaiingqua- 
 iity, and wliich, by giving a glutinous conlillcnce to 
 theanimal-tiuids, render them more proper for nouriili- 
 ing the body. 
 
 AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the Aim 
 of fcvcral things added together, or the collection of 
 them into one whole. Thus, a houfe is an aggregate 
 of floncs, wood, mortar, &c. It differs from a mixed 
 orcompoinid,inafmuch as the union of thefe laft ismorc 
 intimate than between the parts of an aggregate. 
 
 Aggregate, in bo; any, is a term ufed to cxprcfs 
 thofe flowers, v. hich arc compofed of pan* or florets, 
 fo united by means either of the receptacle or calyx, 
 that no one of them can be taken away w ithoiA dc- 
 Ilroying the form of the whole. They arc oppofcd to 
 fimple riowcrs, wiiich have no l"uch common part, and 
 arc ufually divided into fevcii kinds, viz. the aggreguli, 
 properly fo called, whofc receptacle is dilated, and 
 whole florets arc fuppo4-tcd by foot-llalks ; fuch arc 
 the blue daily, thrif't, or tea-pink, &c. ; the covtp'iund; 
 \.\\c umi'cilaii ; the cjwo/;f; lh.c amentaceous ; thc^/«- 
 vioj'e ; and \\\i: fpaJiceotis. 
 
 AGGREGATION, in phytics, a fpccics of union 
 wliereby feveral things wliich have no natural depen- 
 dence or connection with one another are collected to- 
 gei'ier, I'o as in fome fenfe to conllituc one. Thus, a 
 heapoffaiid, or a mafs of ruins, arc bodies by aggre- 
 gation. 
 
 AGHER, a town of Ireland, which fends two mem- 
 bers 10 parliament. It is (ituatcd in the fjuthera part 
 of UllUr, not f'ar from Cloghcr. 
 
 AGHRliM, a town of Inland, in the county of 
 Wieklow, and province of Leinllcr, fituated about i ? 
 miics fouth wcfl of M icklow. 
 
 Aghrim, in Gal way; a fmall village, diflant about 
 21 miles t"rom Dublin, and rendered memorable by a 
 decilive battle fought there, and at Kilcommodon-hill, 
 the 13th of July 169 1, between general Ginckle and 
 Monfieur St Ruth, the commanders under king Wil- 
 liam 111. and Janes II, w hen St Ruth, the general of 
 the Irilh army, with 7ccoof his men, were llain ; but 
 of the Engiilh only 6co. The vioilory was the more 
 couliderable, as the Englifli army ronfillcd of no more 
 than 18, coo men; wlicreasihc Irilhwere compiucd at 
 20,000 foot and fooo horfe and dragoons. They loll 
 likcwife uinc pieces of brafs canuou fall their ammuni- 
 tion .
 
 A G I 
 
 [ ^38 ] 
 
 A G I 
 
 ti-jn, lents aiul b.iijgagc ; uiofl of ihcir fmall arms, 
 which they ihrcw away to cxptdiic their flight ; with 
 ri /tanilards, and 52 pair of" colours. 
 
 AGIADKS, in ihc Turkifli armies, 'a kind of pio- 
 neers employed in fortifying camps, Inioothing of 
 roads, and the like oflices. 
 
 AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the 
 body to motion — The improvinj;; of agility was one 0/ 
 tiic chief ohjeds of ilic inlUtution of games and excr- 
 cifcs. Tlieathlei;t; made particular profcllion of the 
 fciencc of cultivating and improving agiiity. Agility 
 of body is often fuppofed peculiar to fomc people ; yet 
 it feemslefs owing to any tiling peculiar in tlicir frame 
 and flrudure, than to pradice. 
 
 AGINCOURT, a village of the French Nether- 
 lands, fituatcd in E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 50. 35 ; fa- 
 uiou!' on account of the victory obtained by Henry V. 
 of Kngland over the French, in 141 5. 
 
 The army of Henry, after landing in France, was 
 by various accidents reduced to 10,000 men, of whom 
 not a few were fick, or llowJy recovering from (ieknefsj 
 — they had to traverfe a long trad of country, inha- 
 bited by exafpcratcd enemies, from whom tlicy were 
 to procure provifions, lodgings, guides, intelligence, 
 and every thing they wanted ; — that country was de- 
 fended by many ftrong towns, interfered by deep ri- 
 vers, and guarded by an army of 100,000, or (accord- 
 ing to fomc contemporary writers) 140,000 men. 
 
 Henry, undaunted by all thcfe dangers and ditHcul- 
 lies, departed from Harfleur, marching his army in 
 tJiree lines, with bodies of cavalry on tlic wings. He 
 proceeded by very eafy journeys, that he miglunotfa- 
 tiguc'his troops, or difcourage them by the appearance 
 of a flight ! obfcrving the llrideft dil'cipline, and pay- 
 ing gcneroudy for every thing he received ; which in- 
 duced tlic country people to bring provifions to his 
 camp, in fpiteotall the commands they had received 
 to llie contrary. To keep his men in fpirits, and from 
 repining, the king fared as ill as the meancll foldier, 
 always appearing with a chcarfiil countenance, and ad- 
 drefling them iu tlie moft friendly and encouraging 
 language. They arrived at ilie village of Agincoart, 
 in the county of St Hoi, on the evening of Odober 
 34th ; and there bclicld the whole French army, at a 
 fmall diilance, dire(^lly in their route. The king took 
 an attentive view of it from an eminence ; and being 
 fully convinced that it was impoffible to proceed any 
 further on his way to Calais without a battle, and e- 
 qually impoffible to return to Harflcur with fo great an 
 army iii his rear, he refolved to hazard an adion next 
 morning, as the only means of preferving himfclfand 
 his liiilc army from deftrudion. 
 
 The Knglilh army lodged that night in the villages 
 of Agincourt, Maifoncclle, and fome others; where 
 they met with better accommodaiion than they had 
 been accuilomed to for fome time palt, and fpent part 
 of their time inlmitualexhortaiions to fight bravely in 
 the approachingbattle. The king, overhearing fome 
 of his nobles cxprelling a wilh that the many brave 
 men who were idle in Kngland were prefcnt to adifl 
 them, is laid to have cried oui — '< No! I would not 
 have one man more: — if we arc defeated, Ave arc too 
 many — if it fliall pleafe God to give us the vidory, as 
 I trull lie will, thcfmaller our number the greater our 
 glory." The moon happening to thine very bright. 
 
 Henry, with fomc of his bell officers, carefully cxa- Aifinrourt. 
 
 mined the ground, and pitched upon a field of battle, ■ y-'-^ 
 
 admirably calculated to prefcrvc a fmall army from be- 
 ing furrounded by a great one. It was a gentle de- 
 clivity from the village of Agincourt, of fjifiicient ex- 
 tent for his fmall army, dcfcndcdoii each lide by hedges, 
 trees, and brulh-wood. Having placed guards and 
 kindled fires on all fides, the king and liis army betook 
 themfclvcs to reft ; except I'uch as were of a more fc- 
 rious turn of mind, and/ confidcring that as the lafl 
 night of their lives, fpcnl it devotion. 
 
 The French, exulting in their numbers, confident of 
 vidory, and abounding in provifions, fpent the night 
 in noify feflivity, and in forming fanciful Ichemes a- 
 binit the difpofal of their priloners and their booty, 
 it was in general refolved to put all the Lnglifli to the 
 fword, except the king and the chief nobility, who 
 were to be taken prifoncrs for the fake of their ran- 
 fonis. 
 
 On the morning of Friday, the memorable 2jth of 
 October, A. D. 1 41 5, the day of Crifpin and Crifpia- 
 nus, the Englifli and French armies were ranged in or- 
 der of battle, each in three lines,with bodies of cavalry 
 on each wing. The Conflablc D'Albert, who com- 
 manded the French army, fell into the fnare that was 
 laid for him, by drawing up his army in the narrow 
 plain between the two woods. This deprived him, in 
 a great meafure, of the advantage he fliould have de- 
 rived from the prodigious fuperiority of his numbers ; 
 obliged him tomake hislinesunnccelTarily deep, about 
 50 men in file ; to croud his troops, particularly his 
 cavalry, fo clofe together, that they could hardly move 
 or ufe their arms ; and, in a word, was the chief caufe 
 of all the difafters that followed. The French, it is 
 fuid, had a conliderable number of cannon of different 
 lizcs in the field ; but we do not hear that they did 
 any execution, probably for want of room. The firfl 
 lineof the French army, which conflfledofSooomen- 
 at-arms on foot mixed wilh 4000 archers, with joo 
 men-at-arms mounted on each wing, was commanded 
 by the Conflable D'Albert, the dukes of Orleans and 
 Bourbon, and many other nobles ; tlie dukes of Alen- 
 con, Brabant, and Bar, &c. conducTied the fecond line ; 
 and the carls of Marie, Dainartine, Fauconberg, &c. 
 M'creat the head of the third line. The kingof Eng- 
 land employed various arts to fupply Ws defeiit of num- 
 bers. He placed 200 of his beft archers in ambuffi, in 
 a low meadow, on the flank of the firfl line of the 
 French. His own firfl line confifled wholly of archers, 
 four in file ; each of whom, bcfides his bow and ar- 
 rows, had a battle-axe, a fword, and a flake pointed 
 with iron at both ends, which he fixed before him in 
 the ground, the point inclining outwards, to protcd 
 him from cavalry ; which was a new invention, and had 
 a happy cflecT:. That he might not be incumbered, he 
 diimillcd all his prifoncrs, on their word of honour to 
 furrender themfelvcs at Calais, if he obtained the vic- 
 tory ; and lodged all his baggage in the village of A- 
 gincourt, in his rear, under a flendcr guai-d The 
 command of the firftline was, at his earncfl rcqucft, 
 committed to Edward duke of York, alliflcd by the 
 lords Beaumont, Willoughby, and Fanhope ; the fecond 
 was condiided by tlie king, with his youngcft'brothcr 
 Humphrey duke of Glouccfler, the carls of Oxford, 
 Marfhal, and Suffolk ; and the third was led by the 
 
 duke
 
 A G I 
 
 [ 239 ] 
 
 A G I 
 
 \gincourt. diikc of Excicr, ihe king's uncle. The lines being 
 
 V. — ,,, formed, the king, in Ihiaing armour, with a crown of 
 
 gold adorned with precious ftones on his helmet, mount- 
 ed on a fine white horfe, rode along them, and aJdref- 
 fed each corps with a cheerful countenance and ani- 
 mating fpecchcs. To inliame their refenimcnt againll 
 their er.eniies, he told them, that the French had de- 
 termiucd to cut off three fingers of the right hand of 
 every prifoncr ; and to roufe their love of honour, he 
 declared, that every foldicrin that army who behaved 
 well, iliould from henceforth be deemed a gentleman, 
 and be intitlcd to bear coat-armour. 
 
 When tlic two armies were drawn up in this man- 
 ner, they flood a conliderablc time gazing at one ano- 
 ther in folemn fllence. But the king, dreading that 
 the French woulddifcover the dangcrofiheir fituation 
 and decline a battle, commanded the charge to be 
 founded, about ten o'clock in the forenoon. At that 
 inflant, the firff line of the Englilh kneeled down, 
 and killed the ground ; and then flaning up, difchar- 
 gcd a flight of arrows, which did gteat execution a- 
 jnong the crowded ranks of the French. Immediate- 
 ly after, upon a fignal being given, the archers in am- 
 bufh arofc, and difcharged their arrows on the flank of 
 the French line, and threw it into fome diforder. The 
 battle now became general, and raged with uncommon 
 fury. The Englilli archers, having expended alltlieir 
 arrows, threwaway their bows, and, rulhing forward, 
 made dreadful havoc with their fwords and battle-axes.. 
 The firfl line of the enemy was, by thefc means, de- 
 feated ; i[S leaders being either killed or taken prifou- 
 crs. The fccond line, commanded by the duke D'A- 
 lenfon, (who had made a vow either to kill or take tlie 
 king ofEnglmd, or to perifli in the attempt), now 
 advanced to the charge, and v/as encountered by the 
 fecond line of the Englilh, conduced by the king. 
 This conflict was moreclofe and furious than the for- 
 mer. The duke of Gloucefler, wounded and unhorfed, 
 was protedled by his royal brother till he was carried 
 offthe field. The duke D'Alcnfon forced his way to 
 the king, and atTaulted him with great fury ; but that 
 prince brought him to the ground, where he was in- 
 flantly difpatched. Difcouraged by this difaftcr, the 
 fecond line made no more rcliftance ; ami the third fled 
 without flriking a blow ; yielding a complete and glo- 
 rious victory to the Englilh, after a violent ftrugglcof 
 three hours duration. 
 
 The king did not permit his men to purfue the fu- 
 gitives to a great diftance, but encouraijed tlicni to take 
 as many prifoners as they could on or near the field ; 
 in which they were fo fuccefsful, that, in a litik time, 
 his captives were more numerous than his foldiers. A 
 great proportion of thefe pt ifoncrs were men of rank 
 and fortune ; for many of the French noblelle being 
 on foot, and loaded v. iih their heavy armour, could not 
 make their cf< ape. Among thefc were tlic dukes of 
 Orleansand Bourbon, the martlial Houcicaut, the counts 
 D'Eu, Vcndoiiie, Richemont, and Harcourt,and 7000 
 barou', knights, and gentlemen. The French left dead 
 on the field of battle, the conllabtc D'Albcrt.the three 
 tlukesof Alenfon, Bra'oant, ai^d Bar. the archlilhop of 
 Sens, one marlhal, i; earls, 92 barons, tjooknighis, 
 and a far greater numberof genllen:cn, b' fides fevcral 
 ihoiifands of common folJiers. Even the French lii- 
 ftorians acknowledge, that the lofs of the Englilli 
 
 was intonfidcrablc : thofe of Englilli contemporary 
 writers who make it the grcatcll, affirm, that it did not 
 exceed 100, and that the duke of York and the carl 
 of Suffolk were the only great men v^ho fell on that 
 fide in this memorable aclion. 
 
 AGIO, in commerce, is a term chiefly ufed in Hol- 
 land, and at Venice, tofignify the difference between 
 the value of bank-ftock and the current coin. The 
 agio in Holland is generally three or four per ceiif. 
 and at Rome it is from 15 to 2^ psr ant. but it Venice 
 the agio is fixed at 20 per cent, 
 
 AGIOSYMANDRUM, a wooden inftrumcnt ufed 
 by the Greek and other churches, under the dominion 
 of the Tu^ks, to call together affeinblies of the people. 
 The agiofyj/iaiidruf/i was introduced in the place of 
 bells, which the Turks prohibited their Chriflian 
 fubjedls the ufe of', left they Ihould make tlicm fub- 
 fervient to fedition. 
 
 AGIS, king of Lacediemon, was defcended from 
 Agefilaus 11. in a right line. He projcfted the re- 
 formation of his kingdom, by the reftoringof the laws 
 of Lycurgus ; but he fell under the weight of an en- 
 lerprife that could not but be difagreeable n» all thofe 
 who had great pollelTions, and had beenlongaccuftom- 
 ed to the fweets of a voluptuous life. Agis being in 
 the flower of his age, and having a very refined dellre 
 of glory, praelifed the ancient difcipline firll iu his 
 own perfon : liis clothes and his table were accord- 
 ing to the manners of former limes j which is fo 
 much the more to be admired, beeaufe Ageliflrata 
 his mother and -Archidamii his grandmother had 
 brought him up voliipiuou'.ly. When he founded 
 his people's minds, he found the younger fort oppo- 
 fed his projeft lei's than thofe who had enjoyevl a 
 relaxation of difcipline fevcral years. The greaicfl 
 difficulty was expe.'fed toarifcfroin the women. They 
 had at that time more credit than ever ; for their 
 power isnever greater than whenluxury is in fafhion. 
 Agcfilaus's mother did not at all relilh the jiropo- 
 led reformation. She raufl have loft her riches, which 
 gave her a fliarc in a thoufand forts of intrigues ; fo 
 Ihe oppofed the ddign at once, and treated it as a 
 chimera. But her brother Agelilaus, whom Agis had 
 engaged in his iiiterefls, knew how to manage her in 
 fuch a manner that (he promifed to fecond the enter- 
 prifc. She endeavoured ro gain the women : but in- 
 ftcad of fufFering themfcl ves to be perfuaded, they ap- 
 plied to Lconidas the other king of Laceda:mon, and 
 humbly befought Iiim to fruftrate the dellgns of his 
 colleague. Leonilas durll not oppofe it openly, for 
 fear of irritating the people ; to whom the reforma- 
 tion was agreeable, beeaufe they found their .account 
 in it. He contented hinifc If with countermining it by- 
 intrigues, and fou ing fufpicions as if Agis had afpired 
 to tyranny, by pulling dow n the rich and raifnig the 
 p<K)r. Agis did not fail to propofe his new laws to 
 the fenate, relating to the difcharge of debts, and a 
 newdlvil'ion of the lands. Leonid is, being fupported 
 by the rich, oppofed thisprojcd fofbongly, that there 
 was one voice more againfl it than for it. He paid 
 dear for his fuer( fs in this affair. Lyfander, one ot 
 the Ephori, who had been the grand promoter of the 
 reforniation,ca'Icd him to account ; alleged the celcfliul 
 figns ; and putto death Cleoinbrotus, a priKcc of the royal 
 blood and Iba-in-law to LcoiiiJas, to make fure of the 
 
 kJugdonj..
 
 A G < 
 
 [ 240 
 
 A G M 
 
 .j^ifixci.t, ki;;gJi)ni. Lro;u.ias Liiug iVi^litcrcJ at ihii tcok rc- 
 ^V'rittor. fiigc ill a icnij-lc ; whitlitr his daughter, the wilt of 
 " ' Ckonibrotus, loilowtii liim. Hc\\es i'liminoiKd : aad 
 bccaiilt he oii not appear, he was degraded oi his dig- 
 nity, which was eoiiCcrred 0:1 Cleoiiibrotus. K'c oj- 
 laiiicukavc to retire to 'i'ega:!. The New ipliori had 
 Ly finder and Man JrocliJds tried for innovation: thefc 
 pcrfjaded the two kings to nniie and turn out thefc 
 Kpiiori. The thing was brought about ; but not with- 
 out a grer.t uproar in the city. Agciilaiis, one ot the 
 Ephori that luceeeded thofe who wcrejiut turned out 
 Would liavc caufed LeoniJas to be killed on the Wi;y 
 to Tcga;a, if Agh had i;oi ftiit him a llrong guarJ. 
 The refornialiJii might then liavebecn ellabiilhcd, if 
 Agelrlaus had 1101 found means to elude thcgooj in- 
 teniioiis of tiic two kings. WhiUl this was tranfact- 
 ing, the Achaians alktd afliltancc ; which was given 
 thcni, and Agis had the command of the troops. He 
 acquired a good deal of reputation in this campaign. 
 At his return, he found his atiairs (o embroiled by 
 the ill condud of Agelilaus, that ic was impolliblc 
 for him to niantain liimfelf. Lcoiiidas was recalled 
 to Laccdxmon ; Agis retired into the temple and 
 Cleoniencis into another. The wile of the laiter bc- 
 ]:avedherfclfinfuch amanner that llie became thcad- 
 jniration of every body. Leouidaswas contented with 
 banilhing hisfon-in-law ; after which heapplied hini- 
 fvlf eniiitly to the ruin of Agis. One of the Ephori, 
 who had no mind to return what Agcfiftrata had lent 
 him, was the principal inflrument of the misfortune 
 of this family. Agis never went oat of his fanctuary 
 but to bathe. One day, as he was returning from 
 thence to the temple, he was feized by that Ephorus 
 and carried to priibii. Then he was brought to his 
 trial and condimned to death, and delivered to the 
 executioner. His mother and grandmother ufcd all 
 the iutreaty and importunity imaginable, that, as he 
 was king ot I.aeedaKm.on, he might at leaft be perniit- 
 I ted to plead his canfe before the people. But they 
 
 wcreapprehcnfn e left his w'ords would make too great 
 r.n imprcflion, and therefore they ordered him to be 
 ftrangled that very hour. The tphorus who was in 
 debt to Agcliflrata permitted that princefs to go into 
 theprifon ; which he granted likewife to Agis'sgraiid- 
 jnother ; but he gave orders to ftrangle them one after 
 another. Agefiltrata died in a manner that was ex- 
 tremely to her honour. The wife of Agis, who was 
 a princefs of great fortune and prudence, and one of 
 the linefl ladies in Greece, was forced away from her 
 apartment by king Leonidas, and obliged to marry his 
 fon, w-ho was then very young, and hardly fit for mar- 
 riage. 
 
 AGISTMENT, AcisTAGE, or Agistation, in 
 law, the taking in other people's cattle to graze at fo 
 much p.'r week. The term is peculiarly ufcd for the 
 taking cattle ro feed in the king's forells, as well as 
 for the profits ariiing from that pradice. — It is alfo 
 ' ufcd, in a mct.iphorical fcnfc, for any tax, burden, or 
 change ; thus, the tax levied'for repairing the banks 
 of lto:uncy-marni was called ag:l:uiui:iittn/i. 
 
 AGISTOR, or Agistatok, an officer belonging 
 ^o forefts, who has the care of cattle taken in to be 
 grazed, and levies the moneys due on that account. 
 They are generally called /juejt-iaksrs or gift-tnL-n, 
 
 and are created by letters-patent. Each royal forcfl 
 has four agiltors. 
 
 AG1SYMJ3A (anc. geog.), a difiria of Libya In- 
 terior, according to Agathemcrus, lituaied t? the I'outh- 
 cad of the jtthiopes Anthropophagi ; the parallel jaf- 
 fingtiirough which, at 160 to the fouth of the equator, 
 wastheuimoft extent of the knowledge of thcaneicnis 
 to the fouth (Ptolemy). 
 
 AGITATION, theadoffhakingabody, ortofiim.' 
 it baekw'ards and I'orwards. 
 
 Ac I T A T I o N , in phy lies, is often u fed for an in tcflinc 
 commotion of the parts of a natural body. FcriBcn- 
 tation and eti'ervefcencc arc attended with a brilli agi- 
 tation of the particles. 
 
 AciTATioNisoneofihechicf caufcsorinftruments 
 of mixtion: by the agitation of the pans of the blood 
 and chyle, in their continual circulation, fanguification 
 is in a good meafure cffctied. Butter is made out of 
 milk by the fame means : in w hich operation, a fepa- 
 ration is made of the oleous parts from the ferous, and 
 a conjunction of tlie oleous together. Digcftionitfclf 
 is only fuppofed to be an inftnlible kind of agitation. 
 AoirATioN is reputed one of the fymptomsof in- 
 fpiration. Petit informs us*, that, in the laft century, 
 there arofe in a church in Italy, for the fpace of a year, 
 a vapour of an extraordinary kind, which put all the 
 people into trembling and agitations, and unlefs they 
 got away betimes, fct them a dancing, with Arange 
 contortions and gefticulations. This fcems to verify 
 what has been related of the temple of Delphi. 
 
 Agitation is alfo nfed in medicine for a fpecies 
 of cxercife popularly callcd/;w«^;//j. Maurice prince 
 of Orange found this metliod a relief againft the fevcre 
 pains of the gout and ftone. Banlioline mentions lits 
 of the toothach, dcafncfs, &c. removed by vehement 
 agitations of the body. 
 
 AGITATOR, in antiquity, » ternifojnetimes ufcd 
 for a charioteer, efpecially thofe who drove in the cir- 
 cus at the curule games. 
 
 Agitators, in the Englilh hiftory, certain olEcers 
 fet up by the army in 1647, to take care of its intc- 
 refls. — Cromwelljoined theagitators,onIy witha view 
 to ferve his own ends ; w hich beingonce accoaiplifhcd, 
 he found means to get them abolilhed. 
 
 AGLAIA, the name of the youngeft of the three 
 Graces, efpoufed to Vulcan. 
 
 AGLiONBY (John), an Englilh divine, chaplain 
 in ordinary to king James I. a man of univerfal learn- 
 ing, who had a very confiderable hand in the tranlla- 
 tion of the New Teflament appointed by king James I. 
 in 1604. 
 
 AGMEN, in antiquity, properly denotes a Roman 
 army in inarch : in which fcnfe, it Hands contradi- 
 (linguifhed from acks, w hich de;;oted the army in bat- 
 lie array ; though, on fome occalions, we find the two 
 words ufcd indilcrcntly for each other. The Roman 
 armies, in theirmarches, were divided mio prh/mm ag- 
 mci:, anfwering to our vanguard ; medium agiian, our 
 main-battle ; and /^oflrnunm agmum, the rear-guard. 
 The order of their march was thus: After the firfl fig- 
 nal with ihctrunipets, S:c. the tents were taken down, 
 and the baggage packed up ; at the ftcond lignal, the 
 baggage was to be loadcnon the horfes and carriages; 
 and at the third lignal, they were tobegin their march. 
 
 Eirft 
 
 • Petit. i!e 
 Sybilla, I. i. 
 Nouv. Rep. 
 Lett, toiii. 
 viii.p.1113.
 
 A G N 
 
 [ 241 ] 
 
 AGO 
 
 gnate Firft came the extraorJinaiii ; then the auxilliaritsuf 
 I) the firll wing, with their baggage j thefc wvrc follow- 
 gnus. gj ijy the Icgjoiis. The cavalry marclied either on 
 '^ ' Cich liJc or behind. 
 
 AGNATE, in law, any male relation by the fa- 
 ther's lide. 
 
 AGNEL, an ancient French gold coin, firft llrack 
 under the reign of St Louii, worth about twelve fols 
 fix denicrs. The agnel is alfo called fometimes moutoit 
 d'ar, and agnel ti'ar. The denomination is fuppofcd 
 to have arifcn from the figure of a lamb, agnus, or 
 flicep, flnick on one lide. 
 
 AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife 
 in the mountainous parts of Terra di Lavoro, wallics 
 the town of Acerra ; and, pafling between Capua and 
 Averfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about fevcn miles 
 north of Puzzuoli. 
 
 AGNOETtE (from ayitio, to be ignoratit of,) in 
 church-hiflory, a hSt of ancient heretics, who main- 
 tained that Chrift, confidercd as to his luiman nature, 
 was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the 
 time of the day of judgment. Eulogius, patriarch of 
 Alexandria, afcribcs this hcrefy to certain folitarics in 
 the neighbourhood of Jerufalem, who built their opi- 
 nion upon the text Mark xiii. 32 " Of that day and 
 " hour knoweth no man, no not the angels who arc 
 " in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only." — 
 The fame paiFage was made ufe of by the Arians ; and 
 hence the orthodox divines of thofe days were induced 
 10 give various explications thereof. Some allege, that 
 our Saviour here had no regard to his divine nature, 
 but only fpoke of his human. Others undcr.land it 
 thus. That the knowledge of the day of judgment 
 does not concern our Saviour confidercd in his quality 
 of Mefliah, but God only: which is the moll natural 
 foluiion. 
 
 AGNOMEN, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fourth 
 or honorary name, given to a perfon on account of 
 fome extraordinary action, virtue, or other accompli fli- 
 ment. Thus the agnomen Aj'vicanus was bellowed 
 upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great 
 atchievements in Africa. — The agnomen was the third 
 in order of the three Roman names ; thus, in Marcus 
 TuUius Cicero, Marcus is the praeuomen, Tullius the 
 Bomen, and Cicero the agnomen. 
 
 AGNUS, or Lamb, in zoology, the young of the 
 ovis or Iheep. See Ovis. 
 
 j4ckus Cafltis, in botany, the trivial name of a fpc- 
 cies of the vitex. See Vitex. The Greeks call it 
 «yf©., chaPi ; to which has fince been added the re- 
 duplicative cafli.'s, q. d. chaflc chaflc. It was famous 
 among the ancients as a fpecih'c for the prefcrvation of 
 chaAity. The Athenian ladies, who made profefiion 
 of challity, lay upon leaves of a^^ww f4'/7,v/ during the 
 feafls of Ceres. — Being reputed a cooler, and parti- 
 cularly of the genital parts, it was anciently ufed in 
 phyfic to allay thefc inordinate motions ariling from 
 Icminal turgefccnccs : but it is out of the prcfent 
 practice. 
 
 AcsvsDei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax 
 flamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting the ban- 
 ner of the crofs. Thefe being confccrated by ihe 
 pope with great folcmnity, and dillributcd among tlic 
 people, are fuppofed to have great virtues ; as, to pre- 
 icrve thofc who carry them worthily, and with faith, 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 from all manner of accidents ; to expel evil fpirits,&c. A^niut 
 The name literally fignifics L^wi '^ 6'o</ J this being I 
 fuppofcd an image or reprefcntation of the Lamb of Agunalit.^ 
 God who took away the fins of the world. Thty co- " ' 
 ver it up with a piece of Hurt" cut in form of a heart, 
 and carry it very devoutly in their procellions. — The 
 Rorailh pricfts and religious derive confiderahle pecu- 
 niary advantage from felling thefe j4gnus Deis to ibme, 
 and prefenting them to others. The pope provides a 
 regular fupply, by confecrating once in feven years; 
 they arc diftributcd by the maftcr of the wardrobe, 
 and received by the cardinals and other prelates, with 
 great reverence, in their caps and mitres This cere- 
 mony they pretend to derive from an ancient eullom 
 of the church, wherein part of the pafchal taper con- 
 fecrated on Holy Thurfday was diftributed among the 
 people, to perfume their houfes, fields, £cc. in order tu 
 drive away devils, and to prcferve them from florms 
 and tempclls. The Agnus Dei is forbidden to be 
 brought into England under pain of incurring i pri. 
 tmmire ; 1 3 Eliz. cap. 2. 
 
 Agsus Dei is alio a popular name for that part of 
 the mafs wherein the prieft, ftriking his bread three 
 times, rehearfes, with a loud voice, a prayer beginning 
 with the words Agnus Dei. — The Agnus Dei is faid 
 to have been firft brought into the luidai by pope Ser- 
 gius L 
 
 Acxus Scylhicus. See Scythian Lamb. 
 AGOGE, among ancient mulicians, a fpecies of 
 modulation, wherein the notes proceed by contiguous 
 degrees. 
 
 AGON, among the ancients, implied any difpntc 
 or contefb, whether it had regard to bodily exercifes 
 or the accomplilhmcnts of the mind ; aad therefore 
 poets, mulicians, painters, &c. had their agons, as 
 well as the athleta;. Games of this kmJ were celebra- 
 ted at moflof the heathen fe(livals,wiihgrcat folcmnity, 
 either annually, or at certain periods of years. Among 
 the latter were celebrated at Athens, iheagongymnieus, 
 the agon mineus inflituted by the Argives in the J3d 
 Olympiad, and ihe agon 0/)Mpius inllituted by Her- 
 cules 430 years before the rirll Olympiad The Ro- 
 mans alfo, in imitation of the Greeks, inAitutedcontcfls 
 of this kind. The emperor Aurelian cflablilhed one 
 under the name of agon J'olis the contell of the fun ; 
 Dioclefian another, which he called agon capitdinus, 
 which was celebrated every fourth year, after the man- 
 ner of the Olympic games. Hence the years, iufleaJ 
 oduflra, are fometimes numbered by agones. 
 
 Agon alfo lignified one of the niiniUcrs employed in 
 the Heathen facrifices, and whole bufinefs it was to llrikc 
 the vidim. The name is fuppofed to have been derived 
 from hence, that Handing ready to give the Urokc he 
 alked, Agon' ? or Agone ? Shall I llrikc ? 
 
 AGONALES, an epithet given to the Salii. 
 AGONALL'l, in Roman antiquity, fclliv.ils ce- 
 lebrated in honour of Janus, or the god Agoiiius, 
 whom the Romans invoked before undertaking any 
 affair of importance. 
 
 AGON.ALIS CIRCUS, now La Piazza Njvora, a 
 long, large, beautiful llrect in the heart of Rome, a- 
 dorned with fountains, and the obclilk of Caracalla, ftill 
 retaining ihc form of that circus. The reafon of the 
 name Agonalis is eiiher unknown or doubtful. Ovid 
 feems to derive it from the agones, or folemn games, 
 H h there
 
 AGO 
 
 [ 242 ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 Ag«nifhi« there celebratcJ ; fuppolcd to have been thcLudi ^j-o/- 
 I /mans, or ^'cliaci, iiiililiiicd by Auguftus ; whence 
 the circus Was called JfoUinaris; Mo AlexaiiJnuui, 
 from the emperor Alexaiider Scvcrus, who cither ca- 
 tlofcd or rcp;;ived ihc rircus. 
 
 AGOiNlSMA, in aiuiqui:y, denotes the prize given 
 to the victor in any coi! bat or dilpviic. 
 
 AGOMSTARCHA, troin ajar " combat," and 
 «»;(te " thief," in antiquny, Iccms to have occn much 
 tlic l.ime with agviiotkitu j though Ionic ("uggcll a dif- 
 ference, making it ihc office ol ihc fiirnicr to prcfiilc 
 at anddirtd the private cxcrcifcs of the athletae, which 
 they went tlirough .by way of practice, before tliey 
 made ihtir appearance on the public theatres or am- 
 phitheatres. 
 
 AGOMSTICI, in church-hiftory, a name given by 
 Donatus to fuch of his dilciplts as he fent to fairs, 
 jnarkets, and other public places, to propagate his doc- 
 trine; for which rtalon they were alio cadcd Circut' 
 tores, Circi/iiones, Catropita, Coiopitjr, and at Rome 
 Moutiiifes. They were called ^'0/.<///t/, from ihcGrcek 
 tiyvi " combat," in regard they were feat as it were 10 
 light and lubdue t!ic people to their opinions. 
 
 AGONIUiM, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the 
 day on which the rex ftaorum facrificcd a vidini, as 
 well as for the place where the games were celebrated, 
 othcrwifc calkd agdti. 
 
 AGONOTHEl'A, or Agon-otiietes, in Grecian 
 antiquity, was the prefidcm or fupcriatemiant of the 
 fjcrcd games ; who not only defrayed the txpcnce at- 
 tending them, butinfpcftcd the manners and ilifciplinc 
 ef the aihlctx, and aJjiidged the prizes to the viitors. 
 
 AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ided for 
 the pangs of death. Much of the terror of death con- 
 lids in tiic pangs and convullions wherewith the agony 
 leems attended ; though we havcreafon to believe tliat 
 the pain in fuch calts is ordinarily not extremely acute; 
 a courlc of piin and ficknefs having ufually Aupified 
 and iiidifpofed the nerves for any quick fcnfaiions — 
 However, various means have been thought of for mi- 
 tigating ilie agony of diath. Lord Bacon confiders 
 this as part of the province of a phylician ; and that 
 not only when fuch a mitigation may tend to a recove- 
 ry, but alfo when, there being no turihrr hi pes of a 
 recovery, ii can only lend to make the pallage out of 
 life more calm and eafy. Complacency in death, which 
 Auguilus fo much defired, is certainly no fniall part of 
 haj'pinefs. Accordingly the author lall cited ranks 
 lulhaiiafa, or the art of dying ealily, among the de- 
 fiderata of fcicncc ; ar.d does not even fccm to difap- 
 provc of the courfe Epicurus took for that end, 
 
 Htiic jiy^iiis cbriin haujit iiquas. 
 
 Opium has been applied for this purpufe, with the ap- 
 plaufe of fomc, but ihc condemnation of more. 
 
 AGONYCLIT/E, or Agonyclites, in church- 
 hiftory, afeftof Chriftians, in the 7th century, who 
 prayed always flanding, as thinking it unlawful to 
 knee!. 
 
 AGOR.^^US, in heathen antiquity, an appellation 
 given to fuch deities as had flatucs in the market-place ; 
 particularly Mercury, whole flatue was to be fecn in 
 almort every public place 
 
 AGORANOMUS, in Grecian antiquity, a m.igi- 
 Aratc of Athens, who had the regulation of weights 
 and meafures, the prices of provifions, &c. — The ag^- 
 
 ranomi, at Athens, were ten in number, five belong- Agouti 
 ing to ihe city, and as many to the Piraeus ; tlioiigh II 
 otucis make them iifitcn in all, of wlioiji they alhgn A^ricoli. 
 ten to i!ic city. Toincfc accriaiu toll ortriliute was ' 
 
 paid, by all who brouglit any tiling to lell in the 
 market. 
 
 AoOUTI, or Act-Ti. Sec Mus. 
 AliKA, ti.c capital town of a province of the fame 
 name, in ludolla.i, and in the doiKiuions of the Great 
 Mogul. It is luoked upon as the Urged city in ilicfc 
 pans, and is in the form of a half-mooii. A man on 
 jiorleback can haruly riJc round it m a vtay. It is lur- 
 rouiidcd with a wall of red lloi.c, and witli a ditch too 
 feet wide. The palaee is prodigiuully large, and the 
 feraglio commonly contains above 1000 women. '1 here 
 arc upwards ot 800 baths in tiiis town; bui that which 
 travellers moll admire, is the maululeum of one of the 
 Mogul's wives, which was 20 years in building. The 
 indigo of Agra is the moll valuable of all tnai comes 
 from the Kait ladies. This town is fcaied on the river 
 Jcmiiia, about 50 miles above its conrtiiencc viih the 
 Tehcmel, and is 30c miles N. £. of Sural. E. Long. 
 79. 12. N. 26. 29. 
 
 AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thofe 
 relating to the divuiuu and ditltibution ol lands ; of 
 which iherc were a great number ; but thai called the 
 Agrarian Law, iiy way ot cmiaeuce, was pul)lilhed by 
 Spurius Callius, aliout the year of Rome 268, lor di- 
 viding the conquered lands equally among all the citi- 
 zens, and limning the nuailer of acres whieh each 
 citizen might eiijuy. — Tke Roman lanes were of fcve- 
 ral kinds; fomc cwnqicred I lom the enemies, and not 
 yet brought to the puolic acciunt ; others brought in- 
 deed to the public, but clanucftinely iiiiirped by pri- 
 vate great men ; laltly, others purchafcd with the 
 public money, in order to be oividcd. Agrarian l.iws, 
 cither lor dividing lands taken from the enemy, or the 
 public lands, or ihofc purthafcd with the public mo- 
 ney, were ealily palled with dillurliance , but thofe 
 whereby privjitc rich men were to betieprived of their 
 lands, and tlic cummcn people put in polielimii tf 
 what had been held by the nobility, were never at- 
 tempted v\iihoui great dillurbaiices. 
 
 Several ha\e pleaded tor the iiecefliiy of agrarian 
 laws in England : but no author has entered lb detpiy 
 into the ful)jccl asMrtLrringioii in his C'te-a//<j ; which 
 the reader who choofes may coi.fuli. 
 
 AGREDA; a town of Spain, in Old CafiiJc, n-^ar 
 the frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues 
 loulh-well of Taracon. 
 
 AGRIA, called by the Germans Fger, is a fniall 
 but Itroiig tow n in Upper Hungaiy, aiui is a billiop's 
 fee. It is I'ltuaied on a river of the fame iiaue, and 
 has a citadel called Eriaw. It was belitged by the 
 Turks in 1552, with 70,000 men : but they lofl 8oco 
 in one day ; and were obliged to raifc the fiege, though 
 the garrilon conlilled only of 2000 Kuiigarians, afiilt- 
 ed by the won en, who perlormed wonders on this 
 occalion. However, it was allerwards taken by Ma- 
 homet 111. in 1596 ; but was retaken by the emperor 
 in 16S7 ; iince which time it has continued under the 
 domiaiun of the houfe of Anltria. It is 47 miles iiorih- 
 eafl of Buda, and 55 fouih-wellof Caflbvia. E. Long. 
 20. 10. N. Lat. 48. 10. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (Cneus Junius), born at Frejus in 
 
 Pro-
 
 A G R 
 
 [ 243 ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 Provence, was, in Vcipaliiu's time, made liciitenaiit 10 
 \'ctiiui iJolanus in Briuia; and, upon his return, was 
 rankcJ by that cm ptror among the patricians, and made 
 goveniorof Aqiiitaiiia. rhis po(t he held three years; 
 and upon his return he was citolen conUil, and atter- 
 warJs appointed g^jvcrnor ot Britain, wlicre he grcauy 
 diuinguilhed himiclt. He relorincd maiiy abules oc- 
 Cilioijed by tiie avarice or negligence of lorincr gover- 
 nors, put a ftop to txtortioii, and caufcd ju.ii«;e to be 
 imp.ir;ially adininiftcred. Vcfp.'.lian dying almut this 
 time, his fon Titus, kno.ving the great lucni ot Agri- 
 cola, continued hira in the government. In the 
 fpring, he marched towards the north, where he made 
 f jmc ne\T conqiiclls, and ordered lorts to be built lor 
 the R<>nians to winter in. He fpent the following win- 
 ter in concerting fchcmes to bring the Britons to con- 
 form to the Roman cuftoms. He thought the belt way 
 of diverting them from riling and taking arms, was to 
 foftcn their rough maaners, by propoimg to thcra new 
 kinds of pleafiire, and infpiring them with a dcfire of 
 imitating the Roman manners. Soon after this, the 
 country was adorned with magnificent temples, porti- 
 cos, baths, and many other fine buildings. The Britilh 
 nobles hid at length their fons educated in learning ; and 
 they who before had the ntmod avcrfion to the Koinan 
 language, now began to ftudy it with great alliduiiy : 
 they wore likcsvifc the Roman habit ; and, as Tacitus 
 obfcrvs?, they were brought to confidtr thole things as 
 marks of politenefs, which were only fo many badges 
 of flavcry. Agricola, in his third camp.ugn, advan- 
 ced as far as the Tweed ;. and in his lo^irth, he fub- 
 dued the nations betwixt the Tweed and tiie friths of 
 Edinburgh and Uumbiitton, into which the rivers 
 Gloita and Bodotria difcliargc theiiifelves ; and here he 
 built fortrcli'cs to (hut up the nations yet uuconciuered. 
 In his fifth, he marched beyond the friths ; where he 
 made fomc new acquiiiiions, and fixed garrifons along 
 the wcflern cojfti, over againll Ireland. Inhislixih 
 campaign he pall(:d the river Bodotria, ordering his 
 fleet, the firft which the Romans ever had in thofc 
 parts, to row along the coafls, and take a view of the 
 northern parts. In the following fpring, the Britain* 
 railed an army of 30,000 men ; and ihe command was 
 given to Galgaciis, who, according to Taciius, made 
 an excellent fpccch to his countrymen on thisoccafion. 
 Agvicola likev.ile addrciird his men in very flrong and 
 eloqjcnt terms. The Romans gained the victory, and 
 10,000 of tiie Briiains are faid to have been killed. 
 This happened in the reign of the emperor Domitian ; 
 who, growing jealous of the glory of Agiicola, recal- 
 led him, under pretence of making him governor of 
 Syria. Agricola died foon after; and his death is 
 fufpcifted to have been orcaiioned by poifon given him 
 by that emperor. Taciius the hiftorian married his 
 daughter, wrote his life, and laments bis death in the 
 moll pathetic manner. 
 
 Agricola (George), a Gcrmaii phylician, famous AgricoU. 
 
 for I115 Ikill in meuls. He was b->rn at Glaucha, " >^ 
 
 in Mifnia, the 24ih of March 1492. The difcovcrics 
 which he njade in the mountains of Bohemia, gave 
 bini fo great a dclire of examining accurately ii.io e- 
 very thing relating to metals, that though he bad ea- 
 gageil in the practice of phyfic at Joachimftal by ad- 
 vice of his ft-iends, he lliU profecuted his fludy of Iwl- 
 fils with grcit alliduiiy ; and at length removed to 
 Chemnitz, where he entirely devoted bimfclf to this 
 itudy. He fpcni in purluit of it the pcnfion he had of 
 Maurice duke of Saxony, and part ot his own cllatc ; 
 fo that he reaped more reputation than profit from his 
 labours. He wrote fcveral pieces upon this and other 
 fubjeds; and died at Chemnitz the 21ft of November 
 IS5J> a 'cry firm I'apirt. In his younger years he 
 leemcd not averfe to tiic Protcftant dciflrine; and he 
 highly difapprovcd of the fcandalous traffic of indul- 
 gences, and feveral other things in the church of 
 Rome. The following lines ot his were poAcd up in 
 iheflrtetsof Zwickaw, in the year 1719 • 
 
 Si not injeBo fslvehit cijtttla niimrtOf 
 Htu nitrtium infcUx tu mihi, pauper^ tr'it ! 
 m noij CBriJlc^iuaJcrvJtoj morte Icjjli, 
 Tarn nib'ttinfelix tu m'tl't, pauper^ trli. 
 
 If wealth alone fslvation can procure, 
 How fad a Uatc for ever ^^ait^ the poor! 
 liutifthou, Clirift, our only faviuurbe, 
 Thy merits ftill may bicfs tv'n poverty I 
 
 In the latter part of his life, however, be had 
 attacked the Proiellant religion: which rendered him 
 fo odious to the Lutherans, that they luffcred hit 
 body to remain unburied for five days together ; 
 fo that it was obliged to be removed from Chem- 
 nitz to Zcits, where it was interred in the principal 
 church. 
 
 Agricola (John), a Saxon divine born at Iflebe 
 in 1492. He went as chaplain tocount Mansfield, when 
 that nobleman attended the Eledor of Saxony to the 
 diet of Spire in 1526, and that of Augfburg, in IJ30. 
 He was of a reillcfs ambitious temper, rivalled and 
 wrote againll Mclancfhon, and gave count Mansfield 
 occafion to reproach him fcvercly. He obtained a pro- 
 fellbrlhip at Wittemberg, where he taught particular 
 doctrines, and became loundcr of the fect of Antino- 
 niians; which occailoncd warm difputes between him 
 and Luther, who had before been his very good friend. 
 But though he was never able to recover the favour ei- 
 ther of the elrftnr of Saxony or of Luther, he recei- 
 ved foDie confolationfnim the fame he acquired at Ber- 
 lin ; when he became preacher at court , and was cho- 
 fen in 1548, in conjunftion with Julius Phlng and 
 Michael Heldingus, to compofe the famous Intcnm, 
 which made fo much noife in the world. He died at 
 Berlin in 1566. 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 DcfiuitloD 
 
 MAY be defined. The art of difpofing the earth in by thisdcfiniiion, agriculture, ftriaiy fpeaking,ineluJei 
 fuch a manner as to produce whatever vegetables in it the cultivation of every fpecies of vegetable wh.n- 
 \ve delire, in Urge quantity, and in the greatelt perfec- ever, ajid confcquently comprehends all that is undcr- 
 tion of which their natures are capable— Bui though ftood of gardening and planting, we racaH here to con- 
 
 Hh 3 iiBC
 
 244 
 
 A G R I C U 
 
 fine oiufclvcs to ilie cultivation of tliofe fpecics of grain, 
 (jrafs, &c. which arc generally neceility as food for 
 men and bealls. 
 
 lIisTORT. The antiquity of this art is undoubtedly beyond 
 that ol all others; for wc are informed by Scrip- 
 ture, that Adam was fcnt from the garden ot Eden 
 to till the ground; zniS, this being the cale, he certain- 
 ly nuiit have known how to do fo. — It would be ridi- 
 culous, however, to imagine that he was acquainted 
 with all the methods of plougiiing, harrowing, fallow- 
 ing, &c. which arc now made ale of ; and it would be 
 equally fo to fuppofc, that he ufed fuch clumfy and 
 unartful inftrnmcnis as wooden hooks, horns of oxen, 
 &c. to dig the ground, which were afterwards employ- 
 cd for tills purpofc by certain favages : but as we know 
 nothing of the particular circumllaiiccs in which he was 
 litnatcd, wc can know as little concerning his method 
 of agriculture. 
 
 The prodigious length of life which the antedilu- 
 vians enjoyed, mull have been very favourable to the 
 advancement of arts and fcicnccs,efpecially agriculture, 
 to which it behoved them to apply thcmfelvcs in a par- 
 titular manner, in order to procure their fubfillcnce. It 
 is probable, therefore, that even in the antediluvian 
 world, arts andfcicnces had made great progrefs, nay, 
 might be farther advanced in fome refpcfts than they arc 
 at prcfent. Of this, however, we can form no judg- 
 ment, as there are no hillories of thofc times, and the 
 fcripture gives us but very llight hints concerning thefc 
 matters. 
 
 No doubt, by the terrible cataftrophe of the flood, 
 which overwhelmed the whole world, many fcicnces 
 would be entirely lofl, and agriculture would fufFcr ; as 
 it was impoliible that Noah or his children could put 
 in praclicc, or perhaps know, all the different methods 
 of cultivating the ground that were formerly ufed. The 
 common methods, however, wc cannot but fiippofe to 
 have been known to him and his children, and by them 
 tranfmitted to their poderity: fo that as long as man- 
 kind continued in one body without being difperfed in- 
 to different nations, thcarts, agriculture efpecially, would 
 neceiFarily advance ; and that they did fo, is evident from 
 the undertaking of the tower of Babel. It is from the 
 difpcrfion of mankind confequent upon the confudon 
 «>f tongues, that we mufl date the origin of favage na- 
 tions. In all focieties where different arts arc cultiva- 
 ted, there are fome perfons who have a kind of g< nc- 
 ral knowledge of moJt of thofc praclifcd through the 
 whole fociety, while others arc in a manner ignorant 
 of every one of them. If we fuppofe a few people of 
 undcrflanding to feparaie from the reft, and become 
 the founders of a nation, it will probably be a civilized 
 one, and the arts will begin to flouriih from its very 
 origin; but, if a nation is founded by others whofe in- 
 tellects are in a manner callous to every human fcience 
 (and of this kind there arc many in the moft learned 
 countries), the little knowledge or memory of arts that 
 were among the original founders will be lofl:, and fuch 
 a people will continue in a flate of barbarifm for many 
 ai:;es, unlefs the arts be brought to them from other 
 nations. 
 
 From this, or fimilar caufes, all nations of equal an- 
 tiquity have no: been equally favage, nor is there any 
 fulid reafons for ce.iclading that all nations were ori;:i- 
 
 L T U R E. Hiftory. 
 
 nally unikillcd in agriculture ; though as wc know not 
 the original inilrumeius of hulbandry ufed by mankijul 
 when living in one fociety, wc cannot lix the daic of 
 the improvements in this art. DifFcrcnt nations have 
 always been in a liiticrcnt ftate of civilization ; and 
 agriculture, as well as other arts, has always been ia 
 different degrees of improvement among diti'erent na- 
 tions at the Tame time. 
 
 Krom theearlitfl accounts of the eaftcrn nations, we 
 have reafon to think, that agriculture has at all times 
 been undci flood by them in conf:dcrablc pciicctien; 
 feting ihcy were always fupplied not only with the 
 nccellaries, but the greateft luxuries of life. 
 
 As focn as the dclctndauis of Abraham were fettled 
 in Paltllinc, they gcneially became hulbandmen, from 
 the chiefs of the tribe of Judah to the lowcfl branch of 
 the family of Benjamin. High birth or rank did 
 not at that lime make any dillinction, lor agriculture 
 was conlidcrcd as the ini>il honourable of all employ- 
 ments; witnefs the illullrious examples of Gideon, 
 Saul, and David. 
 
 The Chaldeans, who inhabited the country where 
 agriculture had its birth, carried that valuable art to a 
 degree of excellence unknown in former times. They 
 cultivated their lands with great afiiduiiy, and feem to 
 have found out fome means of relloring fertility to an 
 exhaufted foil, by having plentiful harvclis in luccellion ; 
 on which account they were not obliged, as their pre- 
 decefTors had been, to change their lituations, in order 
 to obtain a fufTiciency for themfelvcs and their nume- 
 rous flocks and herds. 
 
 The Egyptians, who, from the natural fertility of 
 their country by the overflowing of the ISiie, raifcd 
 every year vail quantities of corn, were fo fcnfiblc of 
 the bleliitigs refuliing from agriculture, that they afcri- 
 bed the invention of that art to Ofiris. They alfo re- 
 garded Ills, their ftcond deity, as the difcovcrer of 
 the ufe of wheat and barley, which before grew wild 
 in the fields, and were not applied by that people to the 
 purpofes of food. Their fupcrftiiious gratitude was 
 carried fo far, as to worlhip thofc animals which were 
 employed in tillage ; and even to the produce of their 
 lands, as leeks, onions, &c. 
 
 The divine honours paid to Bacchus in India were 
 derived from the fame iburce, he being conlidered in 
 that country as the inventor of planting vineyards, and 
 the other arts attendant upon agriculture. 
 
 It is alio related of the anciejii Ptrfians, on the mo/l 
 refpeclable authority, that their kings laid afide their 
 grandeur once every month to cat with hufbandmcn. 
 This is a flriking inflancc of the high eftimation in 
 which they held agriculture; for at that time arts were 
 prailifed among that people in great perfcdion, parti- 
 cularly thofe of weaving, needle-work, and embroidery. 
 The precepts of the religion taught by their ancient 
 magi, or priefls, included the practice of agriculture. 
 The yi//;;/ among them was obliged to work out his 
 falvation by purfuing all the labours of agriculture: 
 And it was a maxim of the Zendavcfta, that he who 
 fuws the ground with care and diligence, acquires a 
 greater degree of religious merit, than he could have 
 gained by the repetition of ten thoufand prayers. 
 
 The Pheaicians, fo well known in fcripture by the 
 name of Philifiiiics, were alio remarkable for the at- 
 tention to, and fkill in agriculture. But finding them- 
 felvcs
 
 Hiftory. A G R I C 
 
 fclves loo much didiubcd and confined by the incur- 
 fions and conqucilsof the IlVaelitcs, they fprcad ihem- 
 fclvcs tliioiighoiit the grcateft pan of the Mediterra- 
 nean ilknds, and carried with them their knowledge 
 in the arts of cultivation. 
 
 Mago, a famous general of the Carthaginians, is faid 
 to have written no Icfs than 28 books on the fobjefl ; 
 which Columella tells us were tranllated into Latin by 
 the exprcfs order of the Roman fenate. VVc arc in- 
 formed by the ancient writers, that Ceres was born in 
 Sicily, where flie firfl invented the arts of tillage and 
 of fowing corn. For this ell'cntial fervicc, fhe was, 
 agreeably to the fiiperllition of thofc ages, deiticd, 
 and worliiipped as the goddefs of plenty. The truth 
 of this is, that in the time of Ceres, the illand, through 
 her endeavours and the induftry of the people, became 
 very fruitful in corn ; and agriculture was there cftccin- 
 ed ib honourable an employment, that even their kings 
 did not difdain to practifc it with their own hands. 
 - But lime, whicli at firft gave birth to arts, often 
 caufed them to be forgotten when they were removed 
 Ironi the place of their origin. The dcfcer.dants of 
 Noah, who fettled in Europe, doubtlefs carried ihcir 
 knowledge of agriculture with them into the regions 
 wliich they fucceffively occupied. But thofe who took 
 poii'cliion of Greece w ere fuch an uncivilized race, that 
 they fed on roots, herbs, and acorns, after the man- 
 ner of beads. Pelafgus had taught them the culture 
 of the oak, and the ufe of acorns as food; for which 
 fervicc, we are told, divine honours were paid him 
 by the people. 
 
 The Athenians, who were the firft people that ac- 
 quired any tinfture of politenefs, taught the ufe of corn 
 to the reft cf the Greeks. They alio inflrucled them 
 how to cultivate the ground, and to prepare it for the 
 reception of tlie feed. This art we arc told, was 
 tauijht them by Triptolemus. The Greeks foon per- 
 ceived that bread was more wholefcme, and its laftc 
 Diorc delicate than that of acorns and the wild roots of 
 the fields ; accordingly they thanked the gods for fuch 
 an unexpefled and beneficial prcfent, and honoured 
 their benefactor. 
 
 As the arts of cultivation increafed, and the blcf- 
 fings they afforded became generally experienced, the 
 people foon preferred them to whatever the ravages of 
 conqueft, and the cruel depredations of lavage life, 
 could procure, .^nd accordingly we find, that the A- 
 thenian kings, thinking it more glorious to govern a 
 fmall ftate wifely, than to aggrandize themftlvcs, and 
 enlarge the extent of their dominions by foreign con- 
 quefts, withdrew their fubjcdls from war, and moftly 
 employed them in cultivating the earth. Thus, by 
 continued application, they brought agriculture to a 
 confiderable degree of perfcdion, and foon reduced it 
 »o an art. 
 
 Hcfiod was the firft we know of among the Greeks 
 who wrote on this interefting fubject. According to 
 the cuftom of the Oriental authors, he wrote in poetry, 
 and cmbellilhed his poem with luxuriant dcfcriptions 
 and fublime imagery. He calls his poem We.'ks and 
 Days, bccaufe agriculture requires exatl obfcrvations 
 on times and feafons. 
 
 Xetiophon has alfo, in his Oecononiics, remarked, 
 that a2,riculiure is the nurfing mother of the arts, Kor, 
 fays he, " where agriculture fuccccds prufperouily. 
 
 U L T U R E. 
 
 there the arts thrive ; but where tlie earth i;cceflarily 
 lies uncultiyated, there the other arts are dtftroyed." 
 
 Other eminent Greek writers upon agriculture 
 were, Democriius of Abdera, Socraticus, Archytas, 
 Tarentinus, Ariftotle, and Theophrallus, from whoia 
 the art received confiderable improvements. 
 
 The ancient Romans elUrmrd agriculture fo honour- 
 able an employment, that the moll illuftrioui fenators 
 of the empire, in the intervals of public concerns, ap- 
 plied thcmfelves to this profcflion ; and fuch was the 
 fiinplicity of thole ages, that they allDmed no appear- 
 ance of magnificence aiid fpiendor, orof majefly, but 
 when they appeared in public. At their return from 
 the toils of wsr, the taking of cities, and the fuLduing 
 of hoflile nations, their greateft gener^ils «crc impa- 
 tient till they were again employed in the arts of cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 Regulus, when in Africa, reqnefted of the fenate to 
 be recalled, left his farm might iuffer, for want of pro- 
 per cultivation, in his abfcnce j and the fenate wrote 
 him for anfwer, that it fliouid be taken care of at the 
 public expence, while he continued to lead their ar- 
 mies. 
 
 Cato the cenfor, after having governed cxtenfive 
 provinces, and fubdued many warlike nations, did not 
 think it below his digniiy to write a Treaiife on Agri- 
 culture. This work (as we are told by Scrvius) he 
 dedicated to his own fon, it being the firft Latin trca- 
 tife written on this important fubjeft ; and it has been 
 handed down to us in all its purity, in the manner that 
 Cato wrote it. 
 
 Varro conipofed a trcatifc on the fame fubjcft, and 
 on a more regular plan. This work is embellifiird 
 with all the Greek and Latin erudition cf that learned 
 author, who died 28 years before the commencement 
 of the Chriftian £era. Virgil, who lived about the 
 fame time, has, in his Gcorgics, adorned this fub- 
 jecl v/ith the language of the JMufcs, and finely illuf- 
 trated the precepts and rules of hulhandry left by He- 
 fiod, Mago, and Varro. 
 
 Columella, who flouriftied in the reign of the em- 
 peror Claudius, wrote 12 books on hufbandry, replete 
 with important inftrudion. 
 
 From this period to that of the reign of Conftaiitine 
 Poganatus, hufbandry continued in a declining ftate ; 
 but that wife emperor caufed a large colledion of the 
 moft ufcful precepts relating to agriculture to be ex- 
 trafled from the belt writers, and publilhcd them un- 
 der the title of Ccc/ni.ici. It has been airerted, that he 
 made this colle(^ioii with his own hand; and the truth 
 of the aflertion is not improbable, as it is well known, 
 that after he had conquered the Saracens and the A- 
 rabians, he not only pra<?lired and encouraged, but ftu- 
 died the arts of peace, fixing his principal attention 
 on agriculture, as their heft foundation. 
 
 After the death of Conftantine, however, the in- 
 ereafing attention of the people to comnierce, and the 
 ignorance and groi's fupcrliiiion of the ages which fuc- 
 cccded, feems to have rendered agriculture an almoft ne- 
 glcdcd fciencc. The irruptions of the northern na- 
 tions foon aboliflicd any improved fyflem. Thefc innu- 
 merable and entcrprifing barbarians, who over-ran all 
 Europe, were origirially flitpherds or hunters, like the 
 prcfent Tartars and the l'2v.i;',cs of America. They con- 
 teuted themfelvcs with peilcii;:.g thofc valldcfartsniidc 
 
 by- 
 
 245
 
 246 A G R I C U 
 
 by their own ravages, without labour or trouble, cul- 
 livaiing only a very linall Ipot near ihcir habitations; 
 aiul la litis irilliuj; hulbaiidry only the nicancfl llavcs 
 were cuiploytd ; lo that llif art itiilf, which formerly 
 was tho ifjht wunhy of tiie iluily of kings, was now 
 looked u [Kin as mean and ignoble ; a prejudice which 
 is fcarccly effaced at prtfiiii, or at Icall but very lately. 
 — During this period, ihtrct'orc, wc liiut no vcuigts 
 of any thing tolerably written on the fubjcif.. No new 
 attempts were made lo revive it, or to improve ii, till 
 the year 147S, when Crtfcenzio publilheda;i excellent 
 performance on the liibjccl at Fiorencc. This rou/ed 
 the llumberinir attention of his countrymen, levera! of 
 whom foon followed his eximplc. Among thcfc, Tat- 
 ti, Stertano Angullino G.iUo, Sanfovino, Lauro, and 
 'l"arcllo, defervc panicular notice. 
 
 At what time aj!;ricuhiirc was introduced into Bri- 
 tain, is uncertain. When Julius Cjelarlirft invaded that 
 illand, it was no; wholly unknown. That conqueror 
 was of opinion, that agriculture was firll introduced by 
 Ibmeof thofe colonies from Gaul which had fettled in 
 the Ibuthcrn pans of Britain, .-\bout 100 ycrrs beiore 
 • Cafar de the Roman invafion *. 
 
 Bell. Gill. It js „oj to be expetlcd that we can now be acquaint- 
 ''''■•5''' **• cd with many of the praiflices of thefc ancient luif. 
 bandmfn. It appears, however, that they were not 
 uajcq.iainted, with the ufe of manures, particularly 
 + Plin. marie. Thiswc have on the authority of Pliny f, who 
 Nat. Hift. tgijj „5^ that it was peculiar to the people of Gaul and 
 lib. 17. c o.^j; j3|.jt3i|i . that its eftefts continued 80 years ; and 
 that no man was ever known to marie liisrield twice, 
 &c. — It is highly probable, too, that lime was at this 
 time alio ufed as a manure in Britain, it being certain- 
 ly made ufe of in Gaul for this purpofe at the time of 
 Julius Cxfar's invalion. 
 
 The ellablihmcnt of the Romans in Britain produ- 
 ced (T/cat improvements in agriculture, infomuch that 
 prodigiou'; quantities of corn were anr.ually exported 
 from the illand; but when th( Roman power began to 
 decline, this, like all the other arts, declined alio, and 
 was almoft totally dellroyed by the departure ot that 
 people. The unhappy Britons were now rxpofed to 
 Irrquent inc '.rlions of the Scots and Pifls, whodeftroy- 
 cd the tr.iits of their labours, and iiiterrupied them in 
 the exercife of their an. Alter the arrival of the Sax- 
 ons in the year 449, they were involved in futh long 
 wars, and underwent fo many calamities, that the huf- 
 b.indinen gradually loft much of their fkill, and were 
 at lail driven from thofe parts of the country which 
 were mo'l proper for tuhivation. 
 
 After ihe Britons retired into \Valcs, thoufji it ap- 
 pears from the laws made relative to this art, that aari- 
 culture was thought worthy of the atiemion of ihe le- 
 giilature, yet their inflroments appear to havebeen very 
 unartful It was ciiadcd that no man fliould undertake 
 t<i guide a ploueh who could not make one ; and that 
 ihc driver ihould make the ropes of twilled willows, 
 with which it was drawn. It was ufual for fix or eight 
 p-rlo:is to lonn ihemff Ives into a foeiety for lilting out 
 one of thcle ploighs, providing it with oxen and every 
 thing nec'ffiry for plougliiiig ; and iiiatiy minuie and 
 curious laws were made for the regulation of fuch (b- 
 ciciies. If any perlon laid dung on a (ield with the 
 coi'fent of the proprietor, he was by law allowed the 
 ufe of that land for one year. If the dung was carried 
 
 L T U R E. Hiflory. 
 
 out in a cart in great abbundaiicc, he was to have the 
 uf: of the land lor three y ears. W liocver cut down a. 
 Wood, and converted the ground into arable, with the 
 conicnt of the owner, was to have the ufe of it lor five 
 years. If any one folded his cattle, for one year, up- 
 on a piece ot grouid belonging to another, with the 
 owner's confent, he was allowed the ulc of that field 
 for four years. 
 
 Thus, though the Britons had in a great meafurc 
 loll the Jiowledge of agriculture, they appear to have 
 been very alliduous in giving encouragement to fuch as 
 would attempt a revival of it ; but, among the Anglo- 
 .Saxons, thini^s were not at prefent in fo good a ftaie. 
 Thcfe relHefs and haughty warriors, having contrac- 
 ted a dillafle and contempt for agriculture, were at 
 pains to cnad laws to prevent its being followed by any 
 other than women and llaves. When they firfl arri- 
 ved in Britain, they had no occafion for this art, being 
 fupplied by the natives v;iih all the necclFarics of 
 life. Afier the commencement of holtiliiies, the Sax- 
 ons fublilled c'r.icjiy by plunder: but havi;:g driven 
 out or extirpated moll ot the ancient Britons, and di- 
 vided their lands among tliemfelves, they found tbem- 
 felves in danger of Ilar\ing, there being now no ene- 
 my to plunder ; and therefore they were obliged to 
 apply to agriculture. 
 
 The Saxon princes and great men, who, in the divi- 
 
 fion of the lands, had received the greatell Ihares, arc 
 
 laid to have fubdivided their ellates into mo parts, 
 
 which were called the in-lamls and the out lands. The 
 
 ill-lands were th;fe which lay moll contiguous to the 
 
 manliun-houfc of their owner, which he kept in his 
 
 own pollcfllon, and cultivated by his llaves, under the 
 
 direction of ab..ilift', for the purpofe of railing provi- 
 
 lions lor th« family. The out-lands were thofe at a 
 
 greater diflancc from the houfe, and were let to the 
 
 ccorli^ or farmers of thofe times, at ^K.\y moderate 
 
 rents. By the laws of Ina king of the weft Saxons, 
 
 who reigned in the end of the feventh and beginning 
 
 of the cijjhth ccHtury, a farm confilling of ten hides, 
 
 or plough-lands, w as to pay the following rent ; " Ten 
 
 calks of honey ; three hundred loaves of bread ; twelve 
 
 calks of llrong ale; thirty cafks of fmall ale; two 
 
 oxen ; ten wedders ; ten geefe ; twenty hens ; ten 
 
 clieefcs; onecalkof butter ; five falmon; twenty pounds 
 
 of forage ; and one hundred eels." From this low 
 
 rent, the imperftiStion of agriculture at that time is 
 
 eafily difcovcrablc ; but it is flill more fo from the low 
 
 prices at vi'hich land was then fold. In the ancient 
 
 hiflory of the church of Ely, publiflied by Dr Gale, 
 
 there are accoirits of many piirchafts of lands by j^-Jdel- 
 
 wold the founder of that ehkreh, and by oihcr bcre- 
 
 fatlors, in the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, in tJie 
 
 tenth century. By a comparifon of ihefe accounts it 
 
 appears, that the ordinary price of an acre of the bell 
 
 land in that part of f^ngland, in thofe times was no 
 
 more than 16 Saxon pennies, or aboi;t four fliillings 
 
 flerling: a very trilling price, even in romparifon 
 
 with thatof other commodiiies at thcfsipc time, for, by 
 
 comparing oiher accounts, it appears, that four Iheep 
 
 were then equal in value to rn acre of the btfl lanci, 
 
 and one horfe of the fairc value wiih thtee acres. 1 he 
 
 frequcntand dcplorablefamineswhieh afdiftcd England 
 
 alraur this time, are further inftanccs of the wrttclicd 
 
 ftatc of agriculture. In 1045, a quarter of wheat fold 
 
 for
 
 Hiftory. A G R I C U 
 
 from 60 Saxon pennies (ij fliilliiigs ftcrling), and at 
 thai tirr.e cqiijl in value 10 Icveii or ciglii pounds 
 llcrl n^ at prclciii. 
 
 Tlic luvulioa oMlie Noniuiis, in io65, contribjtcd 
 very inin;li to tlic iinpri.>vcment of agriculture ; for, by 
 thii cvciii, many ihoufiiiijs of UulbaaJinca from Haii- 
 dcrs, France, and Noruiatui)', Iculcd iu britain, ob- 
 laineJ cllaics or farins, and cuitivaicd tlitm aficr the 
 manner of their c )untry. The iiiiplemcnis ot liuJban- 
 dry, ufcd at this time, were of thclainc kind wuliihoi'c 
 employed at prcfenc ; but foine of them were kfs per- 
 fect in their cop.itructijii. The ploagh, fur cxjmplc, 
 had but one Hilt or handle, whicii the ploughman 
 glided with one hand, having in his other hand an in- 
 flruiHent which fcrveJ b>ih for cleaning and mending 
 ths plouf^h, as well aa fur breaking tnc clods. The 
 Norman plough had two wlicels ; aud in the li^^ht (oil 
 of Normandy was conimoaly drawn by one or two 
 oxen, but, ill £;i^linJ, a ;4reatcr ilumbtr was ouen 
 necelfary. in Wale?, the perion who conducted the 
 oxen in (he plougli walked backwards. Their cans, 
 harrows, fey tlies, lit klcs, and riaiis, from the fij^urcs 
 of tliem ilill renuining, appear 10 have been nearly of 
 the fame conllrudion with ihofc that are now ufcd. In 
 Wales, they did not ufe a fickle fur reaping their corn, 
 but an inlliumcni like the blade of a knife, with a 
 wooden handle at each end.--- Their chief manure, next 
 to dang, ftems ilill to have been marie. Summer fal- 
 lowing of lands dcfigned tor wheat, and ploughing 
 them fcveral times, appear to have been frequent prac- 
 tices of the Knglilli farmers iiithis period. 
 
 We are, aficr all, very much in the dark wiih refpett 
 to the ttatc and progrefs of agriculairc in Great Uri- 
 lain previous to the fourteenth century. That it was 
 pretty g'-nerally pradlifed, cfpccially in the callcrn, 
 ibuth, and midland pans of tnglaad, is certain ; bit 
 of the mode, and tae faccefs, we are left almolt totally 
 ignorant. In the latter end of the hftecath century, 
 however, it fcems to IijVC been tuliwied as a fciencc, 
 and received very great improvenieat. 
 
 At this tiuie in Kngland b'u/lierbert. Judge of the 
 Common-Fleas, fhinc furth with di;-ingiiilheil emi- 
 nence in the pradical pirts of hulbandry. Heap- 
 pears to have been the firfb Engliflinian who iludicd the 
 nature of foils, aid the laws of ve^etation, with philo- 
 fophical attention. On ihefe he formed a theory con- 
 firmed by experiments, and rendered the ftiidy plcafing 
 as well as profitaSle, by realizing the principlesof the 
 iincieuts, to the honour and advantage of his country. 
 Aceurdiiigly, be pubblhed two trcatiies on thisfubjefl : 
 thefirll.in MedT/a Book of Nrijbn>/ii'-j,3\'f cared tS54; 
 and the f'Tond, called Th^Beok of S^irvtying and Im- 
 frouci?i;ritj, in I S'g Thefe books, being written at 
 a time when philofophy and fcicnce were but jufl 
 emcrijino from that gloom in wliich thry had long 
 been buried, were dnubtli fs replete with many err irs j 
 but they conniiied the ruibmmts of mie knowledge, 
 and revived the Ihi Iv and loveofan art, the advanta^^es 
 of whi'-li were obvimis to men of the Icall rertcii^ion. 
 We therefore fiiKJ tint Fitzherbert's books on Agri- 
 cnltiire fooii railed a fpirit of rmulatioii in his coutitry- 
 mcn, and many trratifes of the fame kind fuccellively 
 ajipeired, which time has however drprivcd us of, or 
 at leaCt ihev arc b. come fo very ftarcc as only to be 
 found in the libraries of the curious. 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 About the year 1600, France made fome confidtr- 
 ablc citbris to revive the arisof hipdjanilry, as appears 
 from feveral large works, particularly Le/ jyiojcJ de 
 d.viiiir R.chii and the Cofm.ponie, by Beri.ard dc 
 Paliily, a poor porter, who fccm> to have been placed 
 by toriunc la a itation for whiib nature never intended 
 liim ; Lc Thi-atre d' Agrkulture, by UeferrcJ ; and 
 U Agriculture et Maifon Rujiique, by Melfrs tiicnut; 
 Lieuauli, &c. 
 
 Nearly in the fame period, the pradice of hufbandry 
 became more prevalent among this people and the Fic- 
 miiigs than the publilliiiig of books on the luLjedl. 
 Their intention Icemcd tobe that of carrying on a pri- 
 vate lucrative cmpl.iymeni, without iiUtiuctiag ilicir 
 neighbours. Whoever therefore became delirous of 
 copying their method of agriculture, was obliged tj 
 viiit that coii..try, and make hia own remarks on their 
 praclice. 
 
 The principal idea they had of hufoandry was, by 
 keeping die lands clean and in line iilih, to make a 
 farm refcmblc a garden as nearly as pouiblc. 
 
 Such an excellent principle, at rirlt letting out, led 
 them of courfc to undertake the culture of fmall farms 
 only, which they kept free from weeds, continually 
 turning the ground, and manuring it plentifully and 
 juJicioully. When they had by this method brought 
 the foil to a proper degree of cleanlineis, health, and 
 fweetnefs, they chielly cultivated ihc more delicate 
 grades, as the furell means of obtaining a certain pro- 
 fit upiu af.aiil cftaic, without the expcnce of keep- 
 ing many draught horlics and fervants. A few years 
 experience was fuificient to convince them, that ten 
 acres of the bell vegetables lor feeding cattle, properly 
 cultivated would maintain a larger llock of grazing 
 animals than forty acres of cominin Jarm gr.ifs 011 
 land badly cultivated. They alfo found, the befh 
 vegetables for this purpofe were lucerne, faintfoin, tre- 
 foil i>t all kinds, held turnips, &e. 
 
 The grand political fecrct of iheir hufbandry, there- 
 fore, comilled ia letting farms on improvement. They 
 are faid alio to have difcovered nine furts of manure ; 
 but what they all were we are not panicularl} in- 
 formed. We find, however, that marie was one of 
 them ; the ufe and virtues cf which appear alfo to have 
 been well known in England two hundred years 
 ago, although it was afterwards much neglected. They 
 were the firlt people among the moderns who plough- 
 ed in green crops for the f.;ke of fertilizing the loil ; 
 and who confined (heir ftieep at night in large fheds 
 built on purpofe, the Hoors of which were covered 
 with find or virgin earth, &c. whicli the ihephcrd 
 caned away eath morning to the compoll dunghill. 
 
 In England, during (he civil wars, though the ope. 
 rations and improvements in hulbandry futtered fomc 
 temporary checks, there fiourilhtd feveral excellent 
 writers on (he fubjeOt, and the art itfelf received con- 
 fiderable encouragement. Sir Hugh Piatt was one of 
 the mofl ingenious hulbandmen of the age in which lie 
 lived ; yet fo great was his modclly, (hat all his works, 
 except his I'aradife of Flora, fecm to be poilhumous. 
 He held a correfpondence with mofl of (he lovers and 
 patrons of agricuhure and gardcuirg in England; and 
 fuch was (he jullicc and mojefty of his (emper, that he 
 alveays named the author of every difcovery communica- 
 ttd to him. Perhaps no man in any age difcovered, or at 
 
 leaH 
 
 247
 
 248 A G R I C U 
 
 Icafl brought into ufe, fo many new kinds of manure. 
 This will lie cviJent to tliofc who read his account of 
 the conipofl and covered dung-hills, and his judicious 
 obfervaiions on the fertilizing qualities lodged in fait, 
 ftrcet-dirt, and the fullage of flrccts in great cities, 
 clay, fuller's earth, muurilh earths, dung-hills made in 
 layers, fern, hair, calcination of all vegetables, malt- 
 dull, willow-tree earth, foapcr's allies, urine, marie, 
 and broken pilchards. 
 
 Gabriel Plattes may be faid to have been an origi- 
 nal genius in hulbandry. He began his obftrvations 
 at an earlier period, in the reign of Qiieen Elizabeth, 
 and continued thcni duwn to ilic Conunonwcallh. But 
 notwitkllaiuling the great nieritof this writer, and the 
 cil'ential fcrvicehchail rendered his country by his wri- 
 tings, the public ungratefully fuffcred him to llarve 
 and periQi in the flrects of London ; nor had he a (hirt 
 on his back when he died. 
 
 Samuel Hartlib, a celebrated writer on agriculture 
 in the laft century, was highly cflecmcd and beloved 
 by Milton, and other great men of his time. In the 
 prelace to his work intiilcd His Legacy, he laments 
 that no public dirtclor of ILifbandry was cllabliflied in 
 England by authority ; and that they had not adopted 
 the Klcmilh metjiodof letting farms upon improvement. 
 This remark of Hartlib's procured himapcnfion of 
 L. 100 a-year from Cromwell; and the writer after- 
 wards, the better to fulfil the intention of his beac- 
 fadtor, procured Dr Beatti's excellent annotation on 
 the Legacy, with other valuable papers from his nu- 
 merous corrcfpondcnts. 
 
 Tiie time in which Hartlib flourillicd feems to have 
 been an ccra when thcEnglilh hulLandry rofe to great 
 pcrfci^lion, compared with that of former ages ; for 
 the preceding wars had impoverillied the country gen- 
 tlemen, and of courfe made them induflrious. They 
 found the cultivation of their own lands to be the moft 
 profitable ftation they could fill. But this wife turn 
 was m. of long continuance. At the reftoration, 
 ihcy generally became infected with that intoxication 
 and love of pleafure which fucceeded. All their in- 
 duflry, and knowledge were exchanged for negleifland 
 didipaiion; and hufbandry defcended alinoit entirely 
 into the hands of common farmers. 
 
 Evelyn was the tiril writer who infpired his country- 
 men with a dcfire of reviving the fludy of agriculture ; 
 and he was followed by the famous Jcthro Tnll. The 
 lormer, by his admirable ireatifcs on earth and on 
 planting, and the latter, by fliowing the fuperior advan- 
 tages of the drillhufbandry, excited numbers to bring 
 their theory to the tcft of fair experiment. 
 
 Many valuable and capital improvements have, fincc 
 that period, been made in Eiigli.li hnfb.uidry ; and 
 thefe great men have licen fucceeded by a variety of 
 writers, many of whom have done elfcntial fervice, by 
 enlightening the minds of their countrymen, and ex- 
 citing them to emulation. 
 
 About the middle of the laft century, Ireland be- 
 gan to make a confidcrabic figure in the art of huf- 
 bandry. It mud indeed be confcflcd, that the Iridi 
 had very Arong prejudices in favour of a wretched me- 
 thodof agriculture, till Blyth opened their eyes by his 
 excellent writings. Since that time, a fpirit of im- 
 provement has more or lefs been promoted, and in 
 many inflanccs carried on with great zeal, by the 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 nobility, clergy, and gentry of that kingdom 
 proof of this, it will be futHcient to obfervc, that 
 the Tranfaitions of tlie Dublin Society for ciicourage- 
 ing Hufbandry are now cited by all foreigners in their 
 memoirs relating to that fubjtct. And the obftrva- 
 tions of that diiccrniug and judicious writer, Arthur 
 Young, E(q ; in his late Tour through that kingdom, 
 fiiow, that ill many rcfpcds improvements there have 
 of late years made a progrefs nearly as rapid as in 
 England. 
 
 Mitv the peace of Aix-la-Chapcllc, moft. of the na- 
 tions of Europe, by a fort of tacit confcnt, applied 
 themftlvcs to the lludy of agriculture, and continued 
 to do fo, more or Icfs, amidlt the univcrlal confufion 
 tliat fucceeded. 
 
 The Frtnch found, by repeated experience, that 
 they could never maintain a long war, or procure a to- 
 lerable peace, nnlcfs they could raife corn enough to 
 fupport thcmfelvcs in liich a manner as not to be ob- 
 liged to liarlli terms on the one hand, or to perifli by 
 famine on the other. This occafioned the king to give 
 public encouragement to agriculture, and even to be 
 prefent at the making of ftveral experiments. The 
 great, and the rich o( various ranks and Aations, fol- 
 lowed his example ; and even the ladies were candi- 
 dates for a fliarc of fame in this public-fpiritcd and 
 commendable undertaking. 
 
 During the hurry and dill relies of France in the war 
 of 1756, confiderable attention was paid to agricul- 
 ture. Prize-quellions were annually propofcd in their 
 rural academics, particularly thofc of Lyons and Cour- 
 deaux ; and many judicious obfervaiions were made by 
 the Society for improving agricLilture in Brittany. 
 
 Since the concluhon of that war in 1765, matters 
 have been carried on there with great vigour. The 
 univerfity of Amiens made various propofals for the 
 advancement of hulbandry; and the NIarquis de Tour- 
 billy (a writer who proceeded chiefly on experience) 
 liad the principal direction of a Georgical fociety efta- 
 blilhcd at Tours. 
 
 The fociety at Rouen alfodeferves notice ; nor have 
 the king and his miniltcrs thought it unworthy their 
 attention. Thcreare at prefent about fifteen focieties 
 exifling in France, cftabliflicd by royal approbation, 
 forthe promotingof agriculture; and ihtfe have twenty 
 co-operating focieties belonging to them. 
 
 About this time vigorous exertions began to be 
 made in Ruflia to introduce the mofl approved fyflem 
 of hulbandry which had taken place in other parts of 
 Europe. The prefent Emprcfs has fcnt ftveral gentle- 
 men into Britain and other countries to lludy agricul- 
 ture, and is giving it all polfible encouragement in her 
 own dominions. 
 
 The art of agriculture has alfo been for near 30 
 years publicly taught in the Swedilh, Danifli, and 
 German univerfities, where the profeflbrs may render 
 effectual fervice to their rcfptctivc countries, if they 
 underfland the practical as well as the fpceulative part, 
 and can converie with as inuch advantage v/ith the far- 
 mer as with Virgil and Columella. 
 
 Even Italy has not been totally inaflivc. ThcNea- 
 politans of this age have condefcended to recur to the 
 firll rudiments of revived hufbandry, and begun to llu- 
 dy anew the Agricultural Syflein of Crefctnzio, firfl 
 publiflicd iui478. Tlie people of Bergamo have pur- 
 
 lued 
 
 H irtory 
 
 In
 
 Hiftory. A G R I C U 
 
 f.;id the fame pljn^ar.J given a r.cw Cvli-inn of the R.i- 
 corJo d'Agriculture de Tanllo, (irllpublillicd in 1577. 
 The duchy of Tufcany liave imbibtd ibe fiinc fpirit 
 for iinproveir.cnt. A privaiegentlcnian, above 40) ears 
 fincc, left his whole fortune 10 endow an academy of 
 agriciilliirc. The tirfl ecclcfiallic in the duchy is pre- 
 fidcnt of ihii fociety, and many of the chief nobility 
 arc members. 
 
 His Sardir.im Majei'ly has alfo fent pcrfons to learn 
 the different modes of practice in foreign countries ; and 
 made fume fpiriicd attempts to cftablifli a better ine- 
 tliod of agriculture among his fubjtds. 
 
 In Poland, alfo, M. De Biclu/ki, grand marflial of 
 tlie crown, has made many fuccel'sfu) attempts to in- 
 troduce the new hufbandry among his countrymen ; 
 and procured the bed inrtruments fi>r that purpofc from 
 France, England, and other prns of Europe. 
 
 Tlic Hollanders arc the only people now in Europe 
 who fccm to look upon agriculture with indificrciice. 
 Except the fiiigle colUtcral inHance of draining their 
 fens and inoralfes, they have fcartely paid any atten- 
 tion to it ; and even thislcems to have proceeded more 
 from ti\e motive of fclf-prciervation than any love of, 
 or difpolition to, hufbandry. 
 
 In the year I 756, a few ingenious and public-fpirit- 
 ed men at Berne in Switzerland eftablifhed a fociety for 
 the advancement of agriculture and rural oeconomics. 
 In that fociety were many men of great weight in the 
 republic, and mofl of them perfous of a true cart for 
 making improvcmenis in hulbandry, being enabled to 
 join the praiJlicc with the theory. 
 
 Norniuft we here omit tomention, that the juftly cele- 
 brated Linnaeus and his difciples have performed great 
 things in the north of Europe, particularly in difcovcr- 
 ing new kinds of profitable and wcU-tafled food for cat- 
 tle. About the fame time, Sweden bcflowcd fuccefsful 
 labours on a foil which had before been looked upon as 
 cold, barren, and incapable of melioration. Of this 
 the Stockholm Meinoirs will be a lalHng m-mument. 
 
 Denmark, and many of the courts in Germany, fol- 
 lowed the fame example. Woollen manufaftures were 
 encouraged, and his Danifh Majcfty fent three perfons 
 into Arabia Felix to make remarks, and bring over 
 fuch plants and trees as would be ufeful i.n hufbandry, 
 building, and rural affairs. 
 
 The duciiy of Wiriemburgh, alfo, a country by no 
 means unfertile, but even friendly to corn and pillurc- 
 agc, has contributed its afTiflance towards the improve- 
 ment of agriculture, having more than ;o years fincc 
 publiflicd 14. oeconomical relations at Stutgard. 
 
 Neither mud wc forgtt the very airiduous attention 
 
 L T U R E, 249 
 
 of the learned in Leipfic and Hannvtr to this import; ::t 
 objc(Jt. During the r jge and devall.iiion of a long war, 
 they cultivated the arts of peace ; v.itiiefs the Jiuriial 
 d'^gricultiin printed at Leiplic, and the Rccueils d' 
 Haii',vir printed in that city. 
 
 Even Spain, condiiutionaliy and habitually inaftivc 
 on Aich occafious, in fpiteof all their natural indolence, 
 and the prejudices of bigotry, invited Linnaeus, v.itli 
 the ofier of a large penfion, to fupcrintend a college 
 founded for the purpofe of ir.aking new entjuirics into 
 the hiftory of Nature and the art of agriculture. 
 
 Among the Japanefe, agriculture is in great repute ; 
 and among the Chinefe it is dillinguilhed and encou- 
 raged by the court beyond all other fcicnets. The 
 Emperor of China yearly, at the beginning of fprirg, 
 goes to plough ill perfon, attended by ail the princes and 
 grandees of the empire. The cercnieny is performed 
 with great lolcmnity ; and is accompanied with a la- 
 crifice, which the emperor, as bigli-priell, otfcrs to 
 Chang-Ti, to enfure a plentiful crop in favour cf bis 
 people. 
 
 But, without any improper partiality we arc 
 fully jufliticd in alferting, that Britain alone ex- 
 ceeds all modern nations in hufbandry ; and from 
 the fpirit which for the laft twenty years has ani- 
 mated nuny of her nobility and gentry, to be- 
 come ilie liberal patrons of improvement, there 
 is reafon to believe that this inoft ufeful of arts will, 
 in a few years, be carried to a greater pitch of pcr- 
 fe(5lion than it has ever yet attained in any age or 
 
 country The Royal Society, the Bath Society, and 
 
 the Society of Arts, &c. in particular, have been fig- 
 nally ufeful in this refpcct ; and the other alTociations, 
 which arc now cAablifued in many pans of the king- 
 dom, co-operate with them in forwarding their laudable 
 defign. 
 
 It is not, however, to the exertion of public focie- 
 ties, excellent and honourable as they arc, that all the 
 modern improvements in agriculture owe tlieir origin. 
 To the natural genius of the people have been added 
 the theory and praftice of all nations in ancient and 
 modern times. This accuiimlatcd mal's of knowledge 
 has bctn arranged, divided, and fubdivided ; and after 
 pafTing the tcA of praAical experiments, tlic eiTential 
 and mofl valuable parts of if have been prefcrvcd, im- 
 proved, and amply diffufed in the works of Lord 
 Kamcs, Mr Young, Siiliin«tlcci, Dr Hunter, Ander- 
 fon, Dickfon, Ellis, Randal, Liilc, Marllial, Mortimer, 
 Duiumel, Bradley, Kent, Mills, and a fcwoiher wri- 
 ters upon this grand art of rendering mankind happy, 
 wealthy, and powerful. 
 
 Part I. THEORY of A G R 1 C U L T U R E. 
 
 Ignorance 
 of the fooJ 
 of vegeta- 
 bles, the 
 reafon of 
 imperfec- 
 tion In the 
 thciiry of a- 
 griculturc. 
 
 IN an art focxtenfivcly ufeful to mirkind, and which 
 has been fo univerfally praftifcd fincc the creation 
 of the v.orld, it is natural to expccl the molt rxaft and 
 and pcrfeift theory. But in tiiis v/c arc totally difjp- 
 poinied. 
 
 One reafon of this want of a dilVind theory of agri- 
 culture is, the ignorance of what 'S properly tlic food 
 of vegetables ; (o- as the art of agriciilure coi. fills 
 principally in fupjilying them with a proper quantity 
 of food, ill the mofl fav.virabie circiimllancf s, it is evi- 
 dent, we might proceed upon a miicii furer loun- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 dation if we could afcertain what their jropcr nou- 
 rilbmcnt is, than we can do v ithout this knowledge. 
 — The reafon of the great differences rer.ardii:," the 
 prailice, probably, is the di/Rculty of makini' expe- 
 riments in agriculture. It is not in this srt as in Me- 
 chanics, Chciniflry, &c. where an txptrin'int can be 
 made in hour, or a day or two at f.'.i;hcft : ^n expe- 
 riment in agriculture cannot be properly n;ac'e in Icii 
 than (evcral years. Some fivouraliic unobrnvcd cir- 
 cumfianccs, quite foreign to the experiment itfelf, n;aj 
 concur to produce plentiful crops for a year or two: 
 I i and
 
 'i;lK'iry. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 aid iliiis ilic finiur may be i uliiccii to jmblilh his 
 la :cic(l iiuprovcnicnis ; wliich falling in the hands of o- 
 thcrs, or pciliaps even in liiso.vnon a rcpciiiion of ilic 
 ixpcritneiii, ihc new iinprovemenis arc totally ucglcdl- 
 cJ, av.d liiiiigs contiaucin their oKI way. Were he, 
 Jiowever, capable of feeing and lianJling the food of 
 v.getables, as well as he can do that of a lioifc or an 
 ox, and procuring it in any imaginable quamiiy, it is 
 plain, that he would be able to caiifc vegeiabUs grow 
 in their luinoll luxuria;icy, or, if wc may be allowed 
 I'lc txprcflioii, filleii iheui, with as great certainty as 
 he can fatten a horfc or an ox, when he haih plenty of 
 ])roper food to give them. — Toafcertain what this luoj 
 is, therefore, iniift be a ftep towards the pcrfeflion of 
 agriculture ; and to this vvc fliall coniribiiic our endea- 
 vour. 
 
 Sect. 1. Of the proper Food of rianis. 
 
 We (lull not here fpend time in refuting the theo.ics 
 
 of thjfs who imigined the vegetable food to conlifl of 
 
 oily and falinc fuMlanccs. A more probable fuppo- 
 
 ceriiiiiKtIiej-,iion i,as been. That Water and Air arc the proper 
 
 tlicy lilvewifc incrcafc in bulk by admitting water to 
 tiitir roots, a:id more fo when the water contains much 
 of that kind ofcffl.ivlum tlian when it contains hfs: 
 fj wc would conclude, that the nourilhmcnt received 
 by the roo;s of plants is of the fame kind with that 
 received by their leaves j and ihar this food m.ay be 
 given them in greater plenty than ihcy i;aturally re- 
 ceive it, by impregnating the air which lurrounds tlicm, 
 or the water whicii nioillcns ihtin, with a greater quan- 
 tity of putrid matter than what they contain in a natu- 
 ral ftatc. 
 
 Sect. II. The foregoing Theory confirmed from confi- 
 deration) o;i the nature oj vegit^tble Mould, and the 
 different kinds of Manure found proper for jei til- 
 izing the Soil. 
 
 Various 
 fuppofi- 
 tions coli- 
 
 food of 
 planet. 
 
 Vcgct»l)lc3 
 thrive iu 
 putrid air. 
 
 4 
 Water ca- 
 pable of 
 imbibing 
 f>utrid ef- 
 fluvia. 
 
 vegetable fond, to which alone they owe their incrcafe 
 i'l hulk and weight. — That plants cannot be fupportcd 
 without both thefc is very certain ; but we know, that 
 air is a compoinj fluid-, and water is never without 
 fome impurities, fo may alfo be confidercd as a com- 
 pound Is it then the aqueoas, the earthy, the acid, or 
 
 the phlogiilic part of the air, which nourifhcs plants ? 
 In like manner, is it the pure elementary part of wa- 
 ter which nourilh'-s them? or does it contribute to their 
 grjwth only by the heterogeneous fubftances which it 
 contains ? 
 
 From Dr Prieftley's experiments on different kinds 
 of air, it appears that the purcft kind of that fluid is 
 not the fittell for the purpofes of vegetation. On the 
 contrary, vegetables flourilhed in a furprifing degree 
 when confined in a fmall quantity of air made pcrfcclly 
 noxiojs by the putrid effluvia of animal bodies. — 
 Hence it appears probable, that fuch cfduvii, or, in 
 other words, the cilence of corrupted matter, conftitute 
 at leafl one fpecies pf vegetable food j and when vege- 
 tables are p it into fuch circumflanccs that the fleams 
 of pu refying bodies can have acccfs to ihcni, wc arc 
 furc they will thrive the better. 
 
 The Dodor alfo found, that by agitating putrid air 
 in water, pan of which was cxpofed to the atmofphere, 
 the water acquired a very patrid noxious fmell ; which 
 fliows, that water, as well as air, is capable of abforbing 
 thofe effluvia which are found proper food for vegetables. 
 We cannot help concluding, therefore, that in the con- 
 tinual afcent of water in vapour, and its defccnt again 
 in rain, wliich is a much more etTeftual agitation than 
 could be made by Dr Priefiley, the water muff be very 
 intimately combined with the ph/ogiftic or putrid efflu- 
 via which arc contained in the air. To this union we 
 are led flrongly to fufpcfl that rain-water owes its fer- 
 tilizing q lalities ; for the purcfl fpring waters, though 
 
 mod wholefome for animals, are not found to be fitteft 
 for promoting the growth of vegetables. — As, there- 
 fore, vegetables evidently receive nourifhment bothby 
 propcrfooJ iheirleavcs and roots, and increafe remarkably in bulk 
 «f plants. [j„ abforbing ihe putrid cflluvia from the air ; and as 
 
 5 , 
 
 Putrid ef- 
 fluvia the 
 
 Though plants will grow on any kind of earth. All kindsof 
 
 and flourilh vigoroufly, if jdentifully fupplicd \\illi wa- earth mit 
 
 tcr; yet fome kil:ds of liiilsare found much more proper '^"°")'l"'''" 
 /- I- 1 - 1 -1 -n 1 1 t\- rcrforiiou- 
 
 for fupplying thim with nourylnncnt thanothtis. — W c '-nii, ^j. 
 
 cannot, indeed, allow the inferences to be quite fair „j,ji)i,;s. 
 which (bme would draw from experiments on plants 
 fit in mere faiid, &c. ; viz. that the earth is of no other 
 nfe to vegetation than to afford a proper fupport to the 
 plant, that it be not cafily moved out of its place ; bc- 
 caufe the experiments made on fmgle vegetables ai e al- 
 ways performed in or very near houfcs, where the air 
 is by no means fo pure as in the open fields, and cou- 
 fcquently where they have an opportunity of receiving 
 as much nouriniment from the air as may compciifatc 
 the want of what they would have derived from the 
 earth if planted in a rich foil. Lord Kamcs, in the 
 Gentleman Fanner, meiitioiis an experiment wherein a 
 pea was planted on fome cotton fpread on water, in a 
 phial. It fprung, and puthed routs through the cotton 
 into the water. The plant grew vigoroufly, and, at 
 the lime of his writing the experiment, carried large 
 pods full of ripe feed. — From this experiment, or 
 others of a fimilar kind, however, a far'mer would not 
 be thought to 3.A very j idicioufly, who fliould conclude 
 that nothing more was requifite to produce a plentiful 
 crop, than to keep his fields conflantly foaking with 
 water, and apply his labour only for that purpofe, with- / 
 out regarding either tillage, jtianurc, or the difj'erence 
 of foils. Experience has abundantly Ihov.n, that by 
 certain operations performed on the earth itfclf, it is 
 rendered much more capable of fupplying vegetables 
 with plenty of nouridiment than if fuch operations were 
 omitted ; and that fome kinds of foils cannot without 
 certain additions be rendered fo fit for this purpofe as 
 others ; and this is what conflitutes the difference be- 
 tween a rich and a poor foil. j 
 
 That fpecies of earth which is capable of fupply- Of the true 
 ing the vegetable kingdom with nourifliment in the ^'?"*'''' 
 greatefl plenty, is found bcft in well cultivated gar- '""*• 
 dens. 1; is not, however, even in thefc, found in pcr- 
 feft purity ; being conflantly mixed with greater or kfs 
 proportions of fand, fmall flones, &c. It can be had 
 by itfclf, and entirely feparatcdfrom allotherfubflances, 
 only by fuffering vegetable or animal bodies to putrefy. 
 By undergoing this operation, they are at lafl refolved 
 into a kind of earth, whicli appears perfc(?tly the fame, 
 from whatever fibflance it is produced. Of this earth 
 Dr Lewis gives us the following charaiftcrs. It is in- 
 
 difFoluLle
 
 Part I. 
 
 Tlieory. 
 
 AGRICULTU 
 
 rhh earth 
 nii>rcgni- 
 :ed with 
 
 in prodigi- 
 ous quikiiti 
 tics. 
 
 dilK>!iiblcin iciJs, foinewlut cciiacious when moiftencj 
 Willi water, friable when dry, and acquires no adJiiion- 
 al hardncis in the fire. — The chcniiliry of nature, ai:d 
 that ot'art, however, arc I'o very dilliiiiilar, thai an ac- 
 count of the chemical properties of tl. is carih can be but 
 of very liitlc itrvice to tlicpracliccwf agriculture ; how- 
 ever, to thole ahoveinentioni.d we may add, that when 
 it is diftilled with a violent tire, a volatile alkaline fpi- 
 rit, and I'oetid oil, finiilar to ihofc of hartfliora or other 
 annual fubflanccs, are obtained. 
 
 As the volatile alkali is knov.'n to be proihiccd in 
 great plenty by didilling putrid fnbftanccs either ani- 
 n)al or vegciablc, the obtaining an alkaline fpirit from 
 putrid cf-ihis kind of earth is a ftrong argument of its being 
 luvia. much impregnated wiih the putrid tilluvium, which wc 
 have already nieuiioncd as the proper vegetable food 
 contained in the air and water. Indeed, confidtring 
 that this kind of earth is produced by putrefadion, it 
 is next to an inipolfibility that it Ihould not be impreg- 
 nated with putrid fleams, as much as earth can be ; and 
 if the earth which is molt impregnated with thtfe fleams 
 is found to afford the grcaicfl quantity of nourilhnient 
 to vegetables, wc have from thence an additional proof 
 that they live on the putrid matter emitted from dead 
 g animals and vegetables like themfelves. 
 Earthisca- That WC may be the more afcertained of this, it 
 pablcof jb- mud be conlidcred, that the earth, which undoubtedly 
 forbing pu- is the great fource of nouriflimcnt to vegetables, is ca- 
 irid "«;'n" pabie of abforbing putrid effluvia more powerfully, or 
 at lealf in much greater quantity, before it is fatnraied, 
 than either the air or water. The practice of bury- 
 ing dead bodies is an undeniable proof of this. They 
 arc laid butafmall depth under the ground ; yet the abo- 
 minable llcnch emitted by the carcafc is retained in 
 the earth, lb that it never penetrates in fuch a man- 
 ner as to be offenfive. That earth may be faiurated 
 with this putrid matter, as well as air or water, is very 
 certain; and, in cafe of fuch a faturation, no doubt 
 cither of thele will take up the fuperlfuous quantity, 
 and become noxious ; but unlcfs the earth is fully fa- 
 iurated, both of them will dcpolit part of what iliey 
 themfelves contain in the earth, and by that means be- 
 come more laluiary than they were belbrc. 
 
 That earth is capable of at tracing putrid effluvia from 
 od'ourcmit- the air, perlups, may not be fo readily granted ; and in- 
 tcdbymoift ilecd WC know of 110 experiment whereby it can be 
 cirth. Ihown that putrid air is made falutary by having any 
 
 kind of carih agitated in it : but if we conlidcr the ex- 
 ceeding great I'alubrity of the air in tiie country, and 
 the hcalthinefs of thofc who follow tlie plough, or are 
 employed in digging the ground, wc niufl at lead al- 
 low, that when the ground is turiud up, it communi- 
 caics no kind of noxious quality to the air ; which it 
 would certainly do, if it emitte<l a putrid eflluvium. 
 So far from this, the fmell of moill earth is always a- 
 greeablc and wholefomc; and here we have the fatis- 
 fadion to find our ihtory fomewhat conlirnicd by the 
 celebrated Baron van Swieten, late phylician to the 
 emprcfs of Hungary. 
 
 " Fhyliciaiis," fayshe, " nfually advifellieir patients 
 to ruflicaiion, not only that they may enjoy a pure and 
 freely circulating air; but that, as their llrtngih in- 
 ereafes, they may, difcngaged from all care, cxercifc 
 their body by the (lighter labours of agriculture, and 
 other country ainiifemems. 
 
 10 
 
 Agreeable 
 
 E. 2jl 
 
 " There n.ay perh:p be another coufc whyrufica- ihcotj. 
 lion will be of btneht to coifumptiors. It is wtll "— ■^^-~' 
 known, tliai, altrr foire days drougin, on the falling 
 of rain that moiftcns tl.c earth, there arifcs a grateful 
 fmell, which we are all fer.fiblc of ; and this is common- 
 ly attributed to the vegetables, whii.h befose laplefs, but 
 now refrcfhed by rain, pcrfpiie n ore co^ioilly. Bit 
 Reaumur obfcrvcd, that a like fra^irancy is alfo per- 
 ceptible alter rain when the corn has bem-cni down in 
 the fields, where there only reuiains dry luilblc ; and 
 examining ihc matter more jarticidaily, he found that 
 dry earth is without fmell, but as foon as ii is moilleii- 
 cd to the degree of having the confluence of foftilh p^p, 
 it then diff'ufes a flrong fmell ; but if more water is 
 added, the fmell is diifiiiiiihed, nay even quite diffipatcd. 
 Neiiherdocsit feeni an cafy matter to cxhauflihatpowcr 
 of producing finclls which the earth is pofrclUd of. Li- 
 very day, during a fortnight, he irade cake stf uoillencd 
 earth ; and having dried and wetted them overagain, he 
 could not perceive that ihc earth was lefs fragrant af;cr 
 all thefe repeated experiments, if it was again vveitcd. 
 He further oblerved, that this fragranry docs not diffufc 
 itfelf loany thingat a great diflance, without being nii ch 
 
 diminiflK-d, and foon entirely gone It has been cb- 
 
 ferved, that iliis expiration of the earih ceafes if thun- 
 der and .dorms foon follow : while they continue, ii be- 
 gins to return ; and w hen over, the fame fragrancy of 
 the earth for fome hours affeifls the fmell of a n:an as 
 he walks along over a confidcrable tradl of ground. 
 There is no one, I believe, but lias fometimcs made 
 this obfervation ; and hence the ear:h, when moificned 
 to a certain degree, fcems to exhale fragrani odours, 
 and indeed various in various places, as wc are fenliblc 
 of from their divcrfity. They are for the mod part of 
 a fulubrious quality ; as fome perfons quite faiiu and 
 languid in the fummcr-luats perceive themlelves won- 
 derfully refreflied, whild, after rain, they fnuft up the 
 fragrant odour. In fome places thofc effluvia arc per- 
 lups bad, and may be the caufes of difcafcs." 
 
 This property of emitting a fragrant fmell is like- 
 wife taken notice of by Dr Home in his Principles of 
 Agriculture and Vegetation. Soaic phyflcians have 
 prcfcribed a bath of earth for the cure of confump- 
 tivc patients ; and Dr Solano de Luqne was of opinion, 
 that the earth had the property of abforbing conta- 
 gious miafmata into it : but whether it can abforb thefe 
 miafmata from living bodies or not, it certainly can ab- 
 forb them from ilcad ones; for a piece of putrid meat 
 will be much fweetcned by lying for a lliort time in the 
 ground. jj 
 
 From all this wc cannot indeed infer, that putrid Powcr of 
 air is fweetcned by niere earth ; but we difcover what trmfmuta- 
 is perhaps more important, namely, that though earth <'on in the 
 is the common receptacle of all putrid matters both '*''''' '''^''■" 
 animal a:id vegetable, there is a change m.de on them "^''' 
 when in it, which cannot be made either by ar or wa- 
 ter. Thus, if the carcafc of a fmall animal is left to 
 putrefy in the air, it be. omes exceedingly ofllnfivc, 
 and contii ues fo tromfiid to lafl. The lame th'nir 
 happens if it is left to putrefy in waier. But, in e.irih° 
 the cafe is quite diflcrcnt. After the carcafc is con- 
 fumed, the earth which has imbibed all the putrid 
 fleams, indcad of exhaling an otrciUive odonr, difllifes 
 an agreeable one; and thus wc may fee that it is en- 
 dued with a power no lef'- remarkable than that of jt- 
 I i 2 iraflion
 
 25- 
 
 Theory. 
 
 A G 
 
 I C U L T U R E. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Attrailion 
 infufliciciit 
 to folvc the 
 I'hcijomena 
 of vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 13 
 Confirma- 
 tion of the 
 above theo- 
 ry from the 
 tlilTcrciit o- 
 peratiuiisof 
 agriculture 
 
 14 
 Fallowing. 
 
 15 
 
 The capaci- 
 ty of a foil 
 to retain 
 ■water not 
 increafcdby 
 fallowing. 
 
 tiadiwi or rcpuliion, unil svliicli \vc may ililliiigiiifn by 
 ilic r.aiiic of ii aitjt.itttaitoii. Willi regard 10 water, 
 llic cal'c is niorccviJciii : lor the moll piiirid water will 
 be Cwcciencd by percolation throii^h earth, or even 
 ruiininj in a channel lor fomc time on its lurl'ace ; but 
 if it contains any impurities of the falinc kind, they 
 will not be fcpirattd, or at leall in very fmall quan- 
 tity. 
 
 The exigence of futh a power as that of tranfinuta- 
 tion we will be obliged to own, whatever we imagine 
 ilic vegetable food to conlill of; for it is inipolliblc to 
 folvc the phenomena of vegetation by attractions and 
 repullions. If we fuppofe the vegetable food to be 
 fall, kt i!s attack and repel fait as wc will, it remains 
 fait from tird to laft. Let us fuppofe it water, the 
 cafe is the fame ; and, by mere attradion, nothing but 
 malFcs of fait, or pools of water, could be produccJ. 
 1 he c ;fe is the fame on our own hypothclis ; for, fup- 
 poling plants compofed of the putrid eflluvia ofolhcr.s, 
 and of dead animals, if nature was endued wiihno 
 ulhtr power than attraclion or repullioii, the vcuciablc 
 would nccclfarily be .•'. corrupted mafs like that of which 
 it was compoftd. — Thispower, aswchavealrcady feen, 
 rclides only in the earth, and in the vegetables tliein- 
 Iclves; air and water can indeed atl as powerful fol- 
 venis, but cannot iransform or compound. 
 
 We mull next conlidcr the nature of thofc different 
 operations, which, from time iinmcinorial, have been 
 performed on the earth, in order to caufc it produce 
 the greatell crops of vegetables. If all of thcfc Ihall 
 be found confpiring to one general purpofe, then the 
 fftortell and molt eafy method of aitaining that pur- 
 pofe is undoubtedly the moll proper to be praftifcd in 
 agriculture, whether it hath been as yet put in execu- 
 tion or not. Thtfe are, 
 
 I. Fnqtieiit ploughing, oijallowiii^. The imme- 
 diate confeqiiences of this is to expofe different quan- 
 lities of the fo;l to tlie aifliOn of the air and fun, which 
 will not fail to exert their folvcnt powers upon it. In 
 confeqnenec of this aclion, the earth is partly reduced 
 to powder; many of the roots of vegetables, witli which 
 it always abounds, are dillolved and putretied ; and the 
 earth produced from thcni mixes with the reft, as well 
 as the effluvia they emit during their diirolutioii. The 
 earth f.ion begins aj'.ain to exert its prolific powers, 
 and a crop of vegetables is produced. By a repttiiiou 
 of the ploughing, thefe are turned with their routs up- 
 vvards, are cxpofed to the folveiu powers of the air and 
 light ; in coiifequence of which they die, are puiretied, 
 and more of the native foil is reduced to powder, and 
 mixed wiih iliem. By a frequent repetiiion of tl;is 
 procefs, the foil becomes vaflly more tender, and ap- 
 proaches to the nature of garden mould, and its ferti- 
 lity is confiderably increafcd. 
 
 Lord Kames is of opinion, that the reafon of the 
 fertility of any foil being increafcd by fallowing, is, 
 that its capacity of retaining water is increafcd. E,it 
 this cannot be admitted; for fo far from being more 
 difpofed to retain water by its pulverilation, the foil is 
 evidently more difpofed to part with it, either by eva- 
 poration, or by fiiffering the moiflure to percolate tliro' 
 it. In this relped it is far inferior to clay ; for though 
 dry garden-mould abforbs water much more quickly 
 than clay, it alio dries much fooner, and thus all the 
 advantage is lull. 
 
 To tr.olc who reckon the food of vegctaLlcs to con- Theory. 
 
 fill of oils or falls, tlie operation of lalluwing ground ' ' 
 
 inult appear an iifclcfs one, as it can tend ncu.itr to o:i«and 
 produce oils nor lalis, but to deltroy ihtin. As its (ai,.„otthe 
 utility, however, cannot be denied, the favourers oftrutvege- 
 this theory inugiiic, that the ground, by repeated npe- tabic food, 
 rations of this kind, is tilted tor aiiraeliiig the nitreus 
 falts (rum the air: bi:t it is lound, that ihcfc falls cuii> 
 not be attradcd by earth, or any other fubllancc, evrn 
 when txpoled fur a great length of time to the ;iir 
 with a view to produce fah-petrc; v hich gives a llrong 
 fiifpicion aganul their exii.encc; and even if 1 itrc is 
 mixed with the ioil, it is lound to le deirimciiial, and 
 will kill or poil'cn plants inlleadol iiuuriihi'ig them. j. 
 
 2. OvirJiowii;g tin ground -xiih ■water. — This is Overflow- 
 found piooigiouily to iucreafe the fertility of any foil, irgthe foil 
 It is v,-(ll known how much Egypt owes to the annual withwater. 
 I'verflowing of the Nile ; and even in this country the 
 overriowiug of any ground is found to be atttiiued with 
 
 great advantage. This is praclifed by Mr Bakewell 
 of LeicelUrlhire, famous for his impiovciueiit in the 
 breed of cattle; aiul he finds it fully to anf.ver an an- 
 nual manuring of any other fort. It is alfo recom- 
 mended by MrAnJcrfon of Monkfliill, in his Allays on 
 Agriculture. jg 
 
 The fertilizing quality of water willealily be ac- Rcafontof 
 counted for on the fame principles. W hen grown ve- theincrcafe 
 gctables are covered with water, their growth, how- ^ fertility 
 ever vigorous before, is immediately ilopt, unlcfs they ^^ ' e-o\cr- 
 be of the aquatic kind : they die, are dilTolvcd, and " 
 putrefied; in which cafe, their iincr parts are undoubt- 
 caly abfoibed by the earth: and thus ihe fiuattug, as 
 it is called, of fields with water, anfwers thi-purpofeof 
 fallowing, .vith very little trouble. This is not all : for 
 flagnating water always depolites a fcdimciit, which 
 mixing with the diii'oived parts of the vegciables all 
 over the field, forms an excellent manure ; and when 
 the water is allowed to run off, the heat of the fan foon 
 brings the highcll degree of puirefae^ion on the dead 
 vegetables ; the tilluvia of which, mixing with the mud 
 depolited from the water, makes it exceedin;;ly rich. 19 
 
 Upon the fuppofuion of oily and faline food for ve- Oils & fairs 
 gctablcs, this operation mufl certainly be prejudicial ; cannot he 
 for nothing can fu eficftually deprive any fiibllancc of J'j'^ ^'^f"" 
 fill as llceping It in water. Neither will water either 
 depolit oil from itfelf, orfuffer it to mix with the ground 
 if accidentally brought to it ; nay, though a field were 
 previoully impregnated with oil, upon overflowing it 
 with water great part of the oil would be fcparaied, 
 and rife to the top: fo that, in either cafe, this opera- 
 tion could not fail to impovcrifh land rather than enrich 
 it ; and as vegetables are found to be fupplicd with food 
 in plenty by an operation which mufl undoubiedly 
 tend to take away both oils and falts from them, we 
 cannot help thinking this a demonflration, that their 
 food is compofed neither of oil nor fait. so 
 
 3. Manuring, or mixing the foil with different fub- Of manure* 
 fiances— W'cftisll here confine oiirfelves to thofc which ^^^ Hieiro- 
 are of undoubted efficacy, and have their credit ella- P'""°°' 
 blilhed by lung experience. Thefe are, i. lime, chalk, 
 
 inarle, (liells, or other earths, called by the chemifts 
 calcareous earthi; 2. foot; ■}. alhes: 4. dung of dif- 
 ferent kinds (i) The lime, chalk, ir.arle, and lliells, 
 
 are all found to be of the fame nature. The marlc 
 differs from the reft, only in having a mixture of clay 
 
 abng
 
 I. A G R I C 
 
 ■. along wiiii i(s calcareous part, Thtfe contain ntiilicr 
 — (alt nor oil ot any kiiiJ ; ihcy rtaJily imbibe wjttr, 
 and as rcaiiiiy part widi it. ^lickliuic, indeed, retaitis 
 water very obltinattly : Li.i fiich lime as ii laid upon 
 the ground ioon rcluriis to the fame ilatc in whicii it 
 originally was ; and powdered limcllone is found lo 
 ar.fwcr as wtU for the purpofcs of manure as that svhich 
 has been burnt ; fo thai iicre v.c may conlider iheia 
 all as fubitances of the f-imc dafs. If any of ihtfc 
 iubltanccs arc mixed with dead animal or vegetable 
 bodies, ihcy remarkably quicken their dulo'iution and 
 corruption, as appears froai Sir John Priiiglc's expe- 
 riivci.tson putrclact oa. X^htii mixed wiih the foil, 
 therefore, tlicy moll undoubtedly exert their powersoii 
 fuch Kibllancesas they find there, in the fame manner 
 as they do on othira ; that is, they muft haften their 
 dilfoliition and putrcfaclion, and j^ivc the pure vege- 
 table mould an opportunity of abforbir.i; their putrid 
 fleams, and confcquendy of being fertilized by it in 
 t!ic fame manner as by putrid fu^rtanccs of any kind. 
 (2.) Thofc who contend for oily and laline principles 
 in the vegetable food, avail thenifclvesof the ufcfulncfs 
 of foot as a manure ; which is not only oily of itfcif, 
 but affords a great quai'.tity of volatile ialt, along with 
 fome neutral fal-ammoniac. It mult be remembered, 
 however, that not an atom either of volatile fait or fal- 
 ammoniac can be extracted from foot without a cotifi- 
 dcrablc heal, which no foil can give, nor could any 
 vegetable bear. Neither doth its oil appear without 
 a great degree of heat : and though it feels fomewhat 
 unc^tuons to the touch, this is but a mere deception ; for 
 no true oil, capable of tloating on water, can be ob- 
 tained from foot witiiout diflilUtion. It is impoflibic, 
 therefore, that foot can aft upon the foil either as an 
 oily or a faline fubftancc ; how lar it is capable of dif- 
 fbliition by putrefaccian, or being otherwifc converted 
 into an earth, hath not yet been determined by expe- 
 riments ; but as i: yields, on diilillation, the fame 
 principles which are obtained from animal or putrefied 
 vcgciablc fnbftanccs, it is probable that foot enriches 
 the ground in the fame manner that they do. (5.) 'i he 
 ufc of allies in manure is likewife urged as an argument 
 {Oi- the food of vegetables being of a filinc nature ; as 
 it is known, that the common alkaline falts arc procured 
 by lixiviating the allies of wood and oiher vegetables. 
 Experience, however, ftiows us, that aihes arc no lefs 
 fit for manure after ihcfaltis extracted from them than 
 before. Indeed, if there be any difference, it is in 
 favour of the wafhed alhes. The alkali itfelf, though in 
 Sir John Pringlc's experiments it was found to be auti- 
 f:l>tic, or a refilier of putrefaction, is ncverthelcfs a 
 powerful dilTolvent ; and as it nmft fooii lofc its alkaline 
 properties when mixed with the earth, in confcqucncc 
 of the univerfal cxiltcnce of the vitriolic acid, thofe 
 fabllanccs which it has diilblved will be more d^fpofed 
 to putrefaction than before, and confequcntly tend 10 
 fertilize the ground in the manner we have already de- 
 fcribed. The walhed alhes arc fiflici, or promoters 
 of putrefaction, and confequcntly act in the f.ime man- 
 ner as chalk or limeftonc. (4.) All kinds of dung are 
 fo much difpofcd to putrefaclion, that it is diihcult to 
 imagincany otlier way in wliich they can befcrviccabic 
 to vegetation iha'i by their putrid effluvia People in- 
 deed may dream of imaginary falts in dung; but if 
 they knew or coniidcrcd the diiHculty of procuring 
 
 U L T U R E. 
 
 ialt of any kind Ironi dung, they vvoi.lj proLally 
 tcr their lentimcius. The volatile lilts procured from 
 this as Well as oiher animal matters, are mere creatures 
 of the lire : putrid urine produces them iiidced v. iihouc 
 heat, but fcorce any other animal fubllance. IScvcr- 
 thclei's, othcrputiiJ fublUnces will fertilize the ground 
 as well as urii;c, and therefore muft aCt in fon:c eihtr 
 way than by their falts. Though Dr Pritftly's cxfc- 
 rimtnts haJ never been made, we coi;lu hive termed no 
 oiher rational fuppcliiion concerning the ir.anrtr in 
 which putrid fubliaiices fertilize tlie earth, than what 
 v^c have already done ; Luc as he has ihown that \e- 
 geiables aie prodigiouily increafed in bulk by the n;crc 
 contaft ot theic putrid llrtams, where no laline fub- 
 itances that coulu have acccfs to them, wc cannot help 
 thinking ibis a dccilivc expcrimmt concerning the 
 manner in which the ground is fcrtiiizcd by manuring 
 wiih dung or ither putrid fubftanccs. j. 
 
 We fliall conclude this part of the iubjeft with in ac- Iffc(a«r.f 
 count of ionic txperinients concerning the tfiefts of fa- faline fub. 
 line fubftanccs on the growth of vegetables. '1 he fol- lances on 
 lowing arc related by lord Kames, in his Gentleman g™"";? 
 Farmer. — .\ number of Jerulalcm artichokes were fct ""8"* "• 
 in pots filled with pure fand. One plant was kept as 
 a ftandard, beir.g nouriliicd wi;h water only. Other 
 plants ot the fame kind were nouriihed with water in 
 which fait of tartar, a tixcd alkali, was diiTolvcd. 
 Thcfc grew more vigoroully than the ftandard plant ; 
 but, by reiterated waterings, there came to be luch an 
 accumiilatio:. of the fixed alkali among the fand, as to 
 make the plants decay, and at lall to die. Some plants 
 were r.ourilhcd with water in which !al-aramoniac, a 
 volatile alkali, was dilTolveJ. Thel'e grew alio. well for 
 fome time ; but, like the former, were deftroyed by 
 frequent reiterations of it. Weak lime-water promo- 
 ted (he growth ol its plants more than common water. 
 But v.ater completely faturated wiih quicklime, pro- 
 ved more .noxious than that which contained a fixed al- 
 kali, though lefs than that which contained a folution 
 of volatile alkali. — Urine piomored, for a lor.g time, 
 the growth of its planrs ; and the moj} i^utrid aj'p:eired 
 lo have th: ftroigejl ifici ; but at laft it totally ocftroy- 
 thcm. Wuti-r iti.pregr.atid'<uith futrid an'mat end vc- 
 g.'tablcfitbftaiicis, didmare (ffedua/ij frowttuhtgt vailh 
 oj ill plant J ihan any uhir Joiuthii ,- and in everj flagt 
 of thi fnc^J's appeand to be fah.Ury." jj 
 
 With regard to oiher faline fubftanccs, there arc not Common 
 many experiments which can be depended upon ccn- '^'' incffcc- 
 cerning their qualities as manure. Mr Anderfon re- '"*'" * 
 latcs an experiment made with common fait ; the fuc- '°"""'** 
 cefs of which, wc apprehend, may juftly enough be ta- 
 ken as a fpecimen of what is to be cxpeftcd from ma- 
 nures of a liinilar kind He marked out a circle of fix 
 
 feet diameter in the middle of a grafs-field, which he 
 diftinguiihcd by driving a ftake in its centre. All over 
 this circle he ftrewed common fait, which, abou: the 
 ftake, lay near an inch thick on the ground. In this 
 ftatc he left it to the operations of nature. Tlie grafs 
 fprung upas ufual, neither bei:cr nor worfe about the 
 ftake than in the reft of the field, and the place where 
 the circle uas could be dill inguilhed only by the ftake, 
 which was left there for fome years. 
 
 Upon ihcfe experiments we need make very fewob- 
 fervations. They are fo mush in favour of our theory, 
 that they fccm made on purpofe to confirm it. The 
 
 fixed
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 13 
 End to be 
 ktiit in 
 view by a 
 farmer. 
 
 »4 
 Richcft 
 foils mud 
 at lad be 
 impo- 
 TeriflieJ. 
 
 fixcJ alkilt employ cJ ia Lord Kamcs's exiiciimcnts 
 would tint cxcit iis folvcni powers on f\icli lieitrogc- 
 neous fiibRanccs as i[ nut "Aiih among ihc land : for no 
 find an be I'uppolcd lo be pcrlcdlly Ircc of thcfc. .As 
 long as it excncd iis Urtngih on thcfc o-ily, the plant 
 would thrive, for the realons we have already men- 
 tioned; but having exhaulkd thcfmall quantity of liib- 
 ftances contained in the (and, it would next attack the 
 phnl itfclf, which confcqucntly would decay -and die. 
 The lame cHccls would luccH'arily follow in a greater 
 degree from llrong linic-watcr which contains lime in 
 its caullic Hate ; for this is a more powerful fdvcnt 
 than fixed alkali itfdf, and would not fail to dcllroy 
 every thing it touched ; nor is it at all improbable ih.it 
 the plant would fecm to grow vigoroully by tiic dillb- 
 hition of part of its own roots, more nourilhnient be- 
 ing by this means given to thofc which remained found. 
 — Volatile alkali is likewife a powerful folvciu : but, 
 by reafon of its volatility would exert its caullic power 
 on the plant fooncr than either lime or fixed alkali ; 
 and accordingly itfcems to have been the molldeflruc- 
 tive of any thing that was tried. It fcems owing to this, 
 that putrid urine at lall dellroyed the plants whole 
 growth it fo long promoted ; while water impregnated 
 with otlicr puirid matters, which yield no volatile al- 
 kali without heat, proved always falut.nry. 
 
 From all this, we may draw the following general 
 conclniion, viz. That the principal eiul which a far- 
 mer ought to keep in view, is to impregnate his ground 
 as much as poiFible, with f.ibilances which either actually 
 contain putrid matter, or whicli are in their own na- 
 li.\rcfi/>t}c, or promoters of putrcfaftion. To impreg- 
 nate the air with putrid effluvia is impolfible : and iho' 
 it could be done, would be highly dangerous ; for how- 
 ever lalutary fuch effluvia may be to vegetables, nothing 
 cm be more fatal to mankind. The putrid fubllanccs, 
 therefore, can only be uled by mixing them with the 
 earth ; and in whatever manner they can be mofl pcr- 
 feftly, and in the greatcil quantity, mixed with the 
 foil, there ihc befl crops may be expeded. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the differtiit Soils, and the Ma;iurcj 
 mo/t proper for each. 
 
 AccoRDiNo to the theory we have jurt now laid 
 down, the richeft foil mud be that which contains the 
 greatcft quantity of putrid matter, either animal or ve- 
 getable ; and fuch is the earth into which animal and 
 vegetable fnbftancesrefolvc ihcmfclvcs. Was this earth 
 to be had in perfe<flion, it is evident it could not fland 
 in need of manure of any kind, or be the lead enrich- 
 ed by it ; for containing an immenfe quantity of putrid 
 matter, it would freely communicate it to the vegetables 
 planted in it, which would grow in the mod luxuriant 
 manner, witliout requiring any other care than that of 
 keeping them conftantly fupplied with water. If we 
 fuppofc the cr)plcft upon the ground to putrefy and 
 mix with the earth as before, the foil will contain the 
 fame quantity of putrid matter the iecond year that it 
 did the firfl, and be equally piolitjc: but if the crop 
 is removed to another place, and nothing is brought 
 back to enricli the ground in its (lead, it is evident, 
 thit it will contain lefs of the true vegetable food the 
 fccond yeir than it did tlie tirft, and confcqucntly be 
 Icfe piolitic. For fome time, however, the diilcrencc 
 
 will not be pcrccpiibk ; and people who are in poflcf- Theory, 
 iion of fuch ground may imagine that tlicy enjoy a *— -v— -^ 
 foil which will be perpetually fertile ; but long ex- 
 perience has taught ut, liiat the richeft foils will at lall 
 be cxhaudcd by repeated cropping without manure, as 
 according to our theory they ought to be. 
 
 Where the ground has been luffercd to remain un- 
 culiivated for formally ages, produing all that lime fuc- 
 culcni plants which are calily putrefied, and trees, the 
 leaves of which likewife conti ibute to enrich the giound 
 by their falling off and mixing with it, the foil will in 
 a manner be totally made up of pure vegetable eanh, 
 and be the richelf, when cultivated, that can be ima- 
 gined. This was the cafe with the lands of America. 
 They had remained uncultivated perhaps fince the crea- 
 tion, and were endowed with an extraordinary degree 
 of fertility ; it is ntvcrihelefs certain that fuch grounds 
 as have been long cultivated, were fo much cxhauftcd, 
 as to be not much better than the generality of cuki- j, 
 vated grourds in France or England. Here, then, we One fpeclei 
 have an example of one fpccics of poor foil ; namely, of poor foil 
 one that has been formerly very rich, but has been Jeftroyed 
 deprived, by repeated cropping, of great part of "^ "™*' 
 tile vegetable food it contained. The farmer who 
 is in polfclTion of fuch ground, would no doubt willingly 
 rellore it to its former flate; the prefent qucllion is. 
 What mud be done in order to obtain this end ? We 
 have iTientioned fcvcral kinds of manures which long 
 prat^licc has recommended as fcrviceable for improving 
 ground : we lliall fuppofe the farmer tries lime, or 
 chalk ; for, as we have ,-lready feen, their operations 
 upon the foil muft beprccifcly the fame. Thisfubdance, 
 being of a feptic nature, will aft upon fuch parts of the 
 foil as are not putrefied, or but imperfeiflly fo ; in confc- 
 qucncc of which, the farmer will reap a better crop 
 than formerly. The feptic nature of the lime is not al- 
 tered by any length of time. In ploughing the ground, 
 tlie lime is more and more perfeftly mixed with it, and 
 gradually exerts its power on every putrefcible matter 
 it touches. As long as any matter of this kind re- 
 mains, the farmer will reap good crops : but when the 
 putrelcible matter is all exhauded, the ground then 
 becomes pcrfeiftly barren ; and the caudic qualities of 
 the lime are more unjudly blamed for burning the 
 ground, and reducing it to a caput mortutim ; while it 
 is plain, the lime has only done its office, and made 
 the foil yield all tliat it was capable of yielding. i6 
 
 Wlien the giound has been longuncultivated, producing A fpcciei 
 all the time plants, not fuccnlent, but fuch as are very "'^P""'' 
 difficultly dillblved, and in a manner incapable of pu- '"' j ^ '°' 
 trcfaftion ; tiicre the foil will be cxceffively barren, and );„,(_ 
 yield very fcanty crops, tho' cultivatedwith the greateft 
 care. Of this kind are thofe lands covered with heath, 
 whicli are found to be the mod barren of any, and the 
 mod difficultly brought to yield good crops. In this 
 cafe lime will be as fcrviceable, as it was detrimental 
 in the other : for by its feptic qualities, it will con- 
 tinually reduce more and more of the foil to a putrid 
 date ! and thus there will be a condant fucccffion of 
 better avjd belter crops, by the continued nfc of lime 
 when the quantity fird laid on has exerted all iis force. 
 By a contii>ued ul'cof this manure the gronnd will be 
 gradually brought nearer and nearer to the nature of gar- 
 den-mould ; and, no doubt, by proper care, might be 
 
 made
 
 A G R I C U L U U R E. 
 
 »7. 
 jor foiU, 
 »\v redo- 
 d. 
 
 s8 
 ir AndcF' 
 jn's opini 
 1 concern' 
 ig lime. 
 
 ir.aJe as gooJ as any : bm ii will be as grca'. a iiiilUkc 
 lo imagine, llial, by ll)c ii(e of lime, this kind of f<'il 
 may he rendered ptrpcuuilly fertile, as lo iliiuk that 
 I'lic oilier was naturally lo ; for thor.gh lime enriches 
 this foil, it does fo, not by adding vcgctabl- food lo it, 
 bill by preparing what it already contains » anil when 
 all is properly prepared, it niufl as certainly be cxisaafl- 
 co as in the oilier cafe. 
 
 Here, then, wc have examples of two kinds of />«er 
 foils ; one of which is totally dcflroycd, the other 
 greatly improved, by lime, and whichlhtrtforc rcqiire 
 very diti'crcnt manures ; lime bti.ig more p:o,ier for ihe 
 lallihan diing ; while dung, being more proper to reflorc 
 an exhaulkd foil tlian lime, ought only to be ufed for 
 the firft. Befides dunging lai.d which lias been ex- 
 hiuftcd by lo:!g cropping, it is of great fcr\ ice to let it 
 lie fallow for fonie time : for to this it owed its ori- 
 ginal fertility ; and what gave the fertility originally 
 cannot fail to reAore it in fome degree. 
 
 By attending to ihe diftinclion between the rcafons 
 for the poverty of the two foils jaft now mentioned, wc 
 will always be able toji.idge with cenainiy in w hat cafes 
 lime is to be ufcd, and when dung is proper. The 
 mcrcpoverty of the foil is not a criterion whcrc'.iy wecau 
 judge ; we mufl confider what hath made it poor. If 
 it is naturally fo, we may almofl infallibly conclude, that 
 it will become better by being manured wiih lime. If 
 it is arufiaall} poor, or cxhauflcd by continual crop- 
 ping, Wc may conclude that lin^c will entirely de- 
 ilroy it. — Wc apprehend, tint it is this ;,'i7///r<7,' kind of 
 poverty only wh ch Mr AnJerfon fays in his Eflays on 
 Agriculture, may be remedied by lime ; for we can fcarce 
 think that experience would diree't any perfon to put 
 lime npou land already cxhaufled. His words arc, 
 
 " Calcareous matters a<5l as powerfully upon land 
 that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more 
 richly impicgnaied with thofc fubrtanccs that 
 tend to produce a luxuriant vegetation." 
 
 " Writers on .igriculuire have lung been in the cu- 
 flom of dividing manures into two claflcs, viz. Ennckwg 
 manures, or thofe that tended dircftly to render the 
 foil more proHrtc, however fterile it may be ; among the 
 foremoft of which was dung : £.vc///?jf manures, or thofe 
 that were fuppofed to have a tendency to render the 
 foil more prolific, merely by afling upon thofe enrich, 
 jug manures that had been formerly in the fjil, and 
 giving them a new flimulns, fj as to enable them to 
 operate anew upon that foil which they had formerly 
 fertilized. In which clafs of ftimulating niannutes, 
 ItiM was always allowed to hold the foremoft pi ice. 
 
 " In confeqiience of this theory, it would follow, 
 t'nt lime could only be of ufe as a manure when ap- 
 plied to rich foils---3nd when applied to poor foils, 
 would produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful, 
 tffedls. 
 
 " I will frankly acknowledge, that I myfclf was fo 
 far impofed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to 
 be hurried along wiih the general current of mankind, 
 i.i the firm perfuafion of the truth of this obfervation, 
 and for many years did not fufficiently advert to thofe 
 iiSli that were daily occuriug to contrsdicl this 
 theory."-! am now, however, firmly convinced, from 
 r'peaied obfcrvations, that lime, and other calcareous 
 m mures, produce a much greater />ro/>or//oH<i/ improve- 
 ment upon poor foils ihau fuch as are richcr.--And 
 3 
 
 thailiinc aloue, upon a poor foil, will, in many cafes, 
 produce a much gi eater and more lafticg degree of 
 jcrtiliiy than dung alone." 
 
 Thus far Mr Andcrfjn's experience is exaftly con- 
 formable to the theory we have Lid down, and what 
 ought 10 happen avcording to our principles. He men- 
 tions, however, fome fads w hich feem very ftrongly lo 
 militate againll it ; and indeed he hiuifclf fecms to 
 proceed upon a theory aliogetlier difiirrcnt. 
 
 " Calcareous matter alone (fays he) is not capable 
 of rearing plants to perfection ;-■- mould is necef- 
 lary to be mixed with it in certain proportions, 
 before it can form a proper foil. It remains, 
 however, to be determined, what is the due pro- 
 portion of ihcfe ingredicnis for forming a proper 
 ioil. 
 " AVe know that neither chalk, nor marie, nor lime, 
 can be made to nourifli plants alone ; and foils arc 
 fometimes found tliat abound with the two firft ot thcfe 
 to a faulty degree. But the proportion of calcareous 
 matter in theft is fo much larger than could ever be 
 produced by art, where the foil v\ as naturally dcftitutc 
 of thcfe fubftanccs, that there fecms to be no danger of 
 erring on that fide. Probably it would be much tafier 
 to coned the dtfeds of thefc foils in which calcareous 
 matters fuperabound, by driving tarih upon them as 
 a manure, than is generally imagined ; as a very fmall 
 proportionof it fometimes affords a very perfed foil. 
 1 fiiall illuftratc my meaning by a few examples. 
 
 " Near Sandfidc, in the county of Caithnefs, there 
 is a pretty extcniive plain on ihe fea-coaft, endowed 
 with a mort fingular degree of fertility. In all feafons 
 it prod ices a moft luxuriant herbage, alihouj^h it never 
 got any manure fince the creation ; and has been for 
 lime immemorial fubjedeJ lo the following courfc of 
 crops. 
 
 " I. Bear, after once ploughing from grafs, 
 
 ufn.tlly a good crop. 
 " 2. Bear, after once ploughing, a better crop 
 
 than the firfl. 
 " 3. Bear, after once ploughing, a crop equal 
 
 to the firft. 
 '•■ 4. 5. and 6. Natural grafs, as clofe and rich 
 as could be imagined, might be cut, if 
 the polfelFor fo inclined, and would yield 
 an extraordinary crop of hay each year. 
 " After this the fame courfc of cropping is renewed. 
 The foil that admits of this fingular mode of farming, 
 appears to be a pure incoherent fand, dcfiitute of the 
 fnuUcft particle of vegetable mould; but, upon cxa- 
 minsiijn, it is found toconuil almoft entirely of broken 
 fnells : ilie fine mould here bears fuch a fmall propor- 
 tion 10 ihe calcareous matter, as to be fcarce percep- 
 tible, and yet it lorms the moft fertile foil that ever I 
 yet met wiih. 
 
 " I hivefeen many other links (downs) n pen ihe 
 fca-Ihorc, which produced the moft luxuriant herbage, 
 and the cU'fcft and fwecteft pile of grafs, where ihcy 
 coi'.fifted of flielly fand ; which, w'i;hoiit doubt, derive 
 their extraordinary fertility from that caufe. 
 
 " A very remarkable plain is found in the idand of 
 Jircye, one of the Hebrides. It has been lon» cm- 
 ployed as a common ; fo tbii it has never been difturb- 
 cJ by ihe plouph, and atiorJs annually the moft luxu- 
 riant corp of herbage, coafilling of white clover, and 
 
 o;hcr 
 
 »9 
 
 Query con- 
 cerning the 
 u:i:ure of a 
 proper foiL 
 
 Examples 
 ui foil per- 
 perpetu- 
 illy fer- 
 tile.
 
 256 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 I'hcorf. Oilier v.il'jablc pafliirc-gralRs, I'.iai can he ni.'i wiili 
 — ^ ' anywhere. The I'oW conliflsof a very pure (liclly faiul. 
 
 '' From thtfc f Xiiniplcs, I think it is evi.lcnt, ihata 
 very fiinll proporiion (il'vfjjciaLilc iiioiild is ruliiciciu to 
 rciiJcr calc.irtous inalicr a very rich fuil. Perhaps, 
 liowevcr, a larger proportion may be neciirary when it 
 is mixed with clay ih.in wiih land; as poor chalky 
 foils lecin to be of the nature of that cuir.podiion. 
 
 To tlicfc cximples brought by Mr Andcrfon, we 
 may add fome of the fame J.iiid i;ic;uioncd by Lord 
 Kames. His lordlhip having; endeavoured to cllablilh 
 the theory of wattr bcinj' the only food of plants, tho' 
 lie hiiufcU freq-iCnily deviates from that theory, yet 
 thinks it polFible, upon f;ich a princijilc, to make a (oil 
 pcrpcfially fertile. 
 
 " To recruit (fays he) with vegetable food, a foil 
 impaverillied by cropp;n;j, has hilhcrto been held ihc 
 only objed of agriculture. But here opens a grander 
 objeiit, worthy to employ our kcciiefl inikiftry, that of 
 making a foil perpetually fcriilc. Such foils aflnally 
 cxidj and why lliould it be thought, that imitation 
 here is above the reach of art ? Many arc the inllan- 
 ccs of natnrc being imitated wiih fnccefs. Let us not 
 dcfpair, while any hope remains ; for invention never 
 was cxcrcifed upon a fubje,^ of greater utility. The 
 attempt may fuggeft proper experiments ; it may open 
 new views : and if wc fail in equalling nature, may wc 
 not, however, hope to approach it ? A Ibil perpetually 
 fertile mufl be endowed svitii apowcr 10 retain moiJhire 
 fufficicnt for its plants ; and at the fame time mull be 
 of a nature that does not harden by moiiUire. Cal- 
 careous earth proniifes to anfwer both ends : ii prevents 
 a foil from being hardened by water ; and it may pro- 
 bably alfo invigorate its retentive quality. A field 
 that got a fufficicnt dofe of clay-marle, carried above 
 qo fuccelFive rich corps, without either dung or fallow. 
 Doth not a foil fj inclioraied draw near to one per- 
 petually fertile? Near the eaft lide of Fife, the coaft 
 for a mile inward is covered with fca-fand, a foot depth 
 orfo ; which is extremely fcitilc, by a mixture of fea- 
 Jliells reduced to powdel- by attrition. The powdered 
 fhclls, being the fame with (liell-marle, make the fand 
 retentive of moiflure ; and yet no quantity of nioiflurc 
 will unite the fand into a folid body. A foil fo mix- 
 ed, feems to be not far diltant from one perpetually 
 fertile. Thefe, it is true, are but faint cllays ; but 
 what will not perfcveranceaccoinplifli inagood caufe ?" 
 
 Having ilms, in a manner, pofitively dcierniincd 
 with Mr Anderfon, that no dofe of calcareous m.iiter 
 can poffibly be too great, we cannot help owning our- 
 felves furprifcd on finding his Lordlhip exprcCing him- 
 felf as f ollov.'s : " An over-dofe of Ihell-marle, laid per- 
 haps an inch, and an inch and a half, or two inches 
 thick, produces, for a lime, large crops ; but at lafl it 
 renders the foil a cap/it mortr/in//, capable of neither 
 cornuir grafs; of which there are t(jo many inllanccs 
 in Scodand ; the fame probably would follow from an 
 over-dofe of clay-niarlc, llone-inarle, or pounded lime- 
 ftone." — To account for this, he is obliged to make a 
 fuppofiiion diredly contrary to his former one; name- 
 ly, that calcareous matter renders the foil iitcapab/e oi 
 retaining water. This phcnomenoi, however, we think 
 is (olved upon the principles firfb laid down, in a fa- 
 tisfaftory manner, and without the leal] inconfifttncy. 
 
 As to rendering foils perpcrually fertile, we cannot 
 
 Incoiifillcn- 
 cy in Lord 
 Karnes's 
 
 Part I. 
 
 helpthinkingthcattciv.pl altogether chcmcrical and Theory, 
 vain. There is not one cx3nij)le in nature of a foil "" — •j—' 
 pcrpeiually tertile, where it has no fupply I'l't from the p^^. ;^^j_j|, 
 air, and the rain which falls upon it. The above re- f/riliity^of 
 cited examples can by no means, be admitted as proofs foils chime- 
 of perptiualfcrtiii;y. Wc ki'.ow, that the grafson iht rical. 
 banks of a river is much more luxuriant than what 
 grows at a diflancc ; the rcafoji is, thai the water is :;- 
 trailed by the earth, and communicates its fertilizing 
 qualities to it j but was the river lobe dried up the 
 grafs Would foon become like the rc(L Why iliould 
 not the ocean have ihe lainc power of fertilizing plains 
 near its lliores, that rivers have of fertilizing fmall fpois 
 near their banks .' AVc fee, however, that it hath not ; 
 for the fea-(liores are generally faiidy and barren. The 
 reafon of this is, that the waters of the ocean contain i 
 quantity of loofe acid*; and this acid is poifonous 10 • scc Wa- 
 plants ; but abflraeling this acid part, wc liefitatc net z^,.. 
 toaflirm, that fca-water is more fertilizing than river- 
 water. It is impolTible to know how far the waters of 
 the ocean penetrate under ground through a fandy 
 foil. Where they meei with nothing to ablbrb their 
 acid, there the ground is quite barren ; but in palling 
 through an immenfe quaniity of broken (lulls, the 
 calcareous matter we arc very certain, willah.'brb all the 
 acid ; and thus the foil will be continually bcnclited by 
 its vicinity to the ocean. All the above fields, there- 
 fore, are evidently fupplied with nouriflimcnt from the 
 ocean : for if the falt-water has fufficicnt efficacy to 
 render fields wliicharein its neighbourhood barren, 
 why Ihould it not render them fertile when the caufe 
 of bairennefs is removed from its waters ? 
 
 After all, the field in Caithnefs, mentioned by Mr 
 Andcrfon, feems to have been perpetually fertile only 
 in grafs ; for though the fccoud year it carried a better 
 crop of bear than it did the firrt, yet the third year 
 the crop was worfe than the fccond, and only equal to 
 the firft. Had it been ploughed a fourth time, the crop 
 would probably have been worfe than the firli. Ground 
 is not near fo much exhaufted by grafs as corn, even 
 though the crop be cut, and carried off'; and Aill Icfs, 
 if it only feeds cattle, and is manured by their dung ; 
 which appears to have been the cafe with this field. 
 Lord Kames, indeed, mentions fields iu Scotland, that, 
 paft memory, have carried fucceffivc crops of wheat, 
 peafc, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without a ma- 
 nure ; and particularifcs one on the river Carroii, of 
 nine or ten acres, which had carried 103 corps of oats 
 without intermillion, and without manure : but as we 
 are not acquainted with any fuch fields, nor know any 
 ihing about their particular fituaiion, we can form no 
 judgement concerning them. 
 
 Bcfidcs the two kinds of foilsabovementioned, 'here pj "'j^^j 
 are others, the principal ingrediei.t of which is clay or famiy foils, 
 fand. The firft of thefe is apt to be hardened by ihc 
 heat ofthe fim, lb that the vegetables can fcarcc pe- 
 netrate it in fuch a manner as to receive proper nou- 
 riflimcnt. The fecond, it it is no: iituaicd fo as to re- 
 ceive a great deal of moifture, is very apt to be parch- 
 ed lip in fummcr, and the crop deHroyed ; nor has it 
 fufficicnt adhefion to fuppdrt plants ihat have few roots 
 and grow high. From thefe oppofite qualities, it is 
 evident, that thefe two foils would br a proper manure 
 for one another ; the clay would give a fuffieieiii de- 
 gree of firnuiclsio the fand, and the fand would break 
 
 ihe
 
 »art I. 
 
 '1 hcory. 
 
 A G R I C U L T U 11 E. 
 
 257 
 
 S4 
 
 crtility of 
 le cartli 
 Hiked. 
 
 3S 
 oil pulvc- 
 izcd by 
 srtain ve- 
 ctabUs. 
 
 the too great tenacity of the chy. /^ccoiiliiia; to Ih' ilic wiiucr'i fri.i(i ; but tlufc yWd^iuAgiy'u'i 1 no cr^p Tiiur)-. 
 
 Hoiiic'scxpcriiiients^liov, cvcfjlanci is thcwoi It manure as long as the fidi! is not fuwii. By plai'iiiig in t'jc " *'"" 
 
 for clay lliat can be ulcit. licrccoinnicnils iiiarle nio/t. titld, however, tiiofc vegetables w iiofe roots fwell to a 
 
 To rciliice clay-groiintl as near as-po.1ib!e to the form confider.ible bulk, the ground niuil be coiUlautly aflcJ 
 
 of pure vegetable mould, it mull tirfl be pulveri/.cd. upon by thefwelliugot'theirrootsirialldircLiions; auJ 
 
 This is inoft eftctlually ptrtormcd Ly ploughir.g and thus ilie growing ot the crop itfclt' may be equal, or ia- 
 
 Iiarrov.iiig ; but care ro.ill be taken not to plougli it pcrior, in clHcacy to fcvcral ploughiJigs, at the fame 
 
 MJiillUoo wet, otherwifeit will eoueretciiuohardclots time that tlic farmer cnjo>s the bencfitofit. 'i hrpljuc 
 
 which can fcarccly be broken. After it is pulverized, moll rciiiarkabie for the iVcUing of its roots is the po- 
 
 howcver, fome means mult be taken to keep it from tato; and by none is tlic ground meliorated more, or c- 
 
 concreting again into the fame hard malles as before, ven fo much. They nre not, however, equally proper 
 
 According to Lord Karnes, though clay, after pulve- for all foils. In clay they do not thrive, nor are pala- 
 
 li/.ation, will concrete into as hard a mafs as bctorc, if tabic ; but in hard gravelly or fandy f >i!s, thcygrow to 
 
 mixed with water ; yet if mixed with duiigiiill juice, it a large fize, and arc of an excellent quality. Turnips 
 
 willnotconcrctcany more. Lime alfobrcaks itstenaci- lilttwife contribute to meliorate the ground, by the 
 
 ty, and is very ufefulasan:anurefortl;iskindoffoil. fwciling of their roots, though not fo much as potaiocs. 
 
 The co'iclulion we wilh the pradical farmer todraw They have this advantage, however, that they thrive 
 
 from our theory is. That there is a certain limit to the inalmoilany foil. In clay ground, peas and bea;is thrive 
 
 fertility of the earth, both as to duration and to dc- exceedingly well, and thcreforcare propcrin this kind 
 
 grce, at any particular lime : that the nearer any foil of foil as a preparatory fur other kinds of grain. Thefe 
 
 approaches to ilic nature of p:ire garden-mould, the pufli their roots deep into the ground, and cover it 
 
 nearer it is to the moll perfect degree i)f fertility ; but with their leaves more tlian other crops ; fo that the 
 
 that there arcnohopcsof keeping it perpetually in fuch fun has not fo much acccfs as when it is covered witli 
 
 a llatc, or in any degree of approximation 10 it, but other kinds of grain. Wiurcvcr any of tliefc kinds 
 
 by conllani and regular manuring witl; dung. Lime, of vegetables arc raifed, it is obftrveable, that more or 
 
 chalk, marie, &c. may be proper to bring it near to 
 this Hate, but are abfoliitcly unfit to keep it continu- 
 ally fo. They may indeed tor feveral years produce 
 large corps; but the more they incrcaCc the fertility 
 
 lefs blackncls is communicated to the foil : an evident 
 li,i!;n of its melioration ; this being the colour of the 
 true vegetable mould, ox loamy foil, as it is called. 
 Befides the abovementioned plants, carrots, parfiiips, 
 
 for fome years, the fooncr will they bring on an abfo- cabbages, and all tliofe vegetables which link their 
 
 lute barrcnncfs; wJiilc regular manuring with }ileiity roots deep in the ground, anfwcr the fame purj'ofe of 
 
 of dung will always enfure the keeping up the I'oil in ioofening and pulveriling the earth ; but as they will 
 
 good condition, without any occafion for fallow. What not thrive but on ground already well cultivated, they 
 
 we have faid concerning the ufe of lime, Sec. applies cannot be raifed to any advantage for the purpofe of 
 
 likewile to the prailice of frequent ploughing, though meliorating a poor foil. 
 
 in a lefs degree. This tends to meliorate ground that It hath been cullomary in many places, particular- 
 is naturally poor, by giving an opportunity to the ve- ly in England, to fow turnips, peafe, buck-wlicat,5:c. 
 getable parts to putrefy ; but when that is done, it and then to plough them down for manuring the land, 
 tends to cxhauft though not fo much as lime. Aju- This being fimilar to that operation of nature by 
 dicious farmer will eonflanily ftrive to keep his lands which flic renders the uncultivated foils fo exceedingly 
 always in good condition, rather than to make them fertile, cannot fail of being attended with lingular ad- 
 faddenly much better ; lellafewyearsfliould convince vantages ; and might be looked upon as preferable even 
 
 him that he was in reality doingalmoll irreparable mif- 
 chicf, while he fancicdhimfelfmaking improvements. 
 As for the ridiculous notions of ftinnilating the ground 
 by falinc manures, we hope they will never enter the 
 brain of any rational practitioner of agriculture. 
 
 to driving dung on the land to fatten it, was it not 
 attended with the entire lofsof a crop for that year. 
 
 Sect. \ . Of de fir tying Weeds. 
 
 What we have already faid regarding the cultivation 
 
 of the foil, refpecls only tlvp lifting of it for producing 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the different kinds of Vegetables pro- all kinds of vegetables indifcriniinately. Kxperience, 
 
 per to be raifed viith a view to the Melioration of however, fliows, tiiat the ground is naturally much 
 
 Soil. more dii'pofed to produce and iiourifn fome kinds of 
 
 The mctliods of meliorating foils, which we have vegetables than others; and thofe which the earth 
 
 mentioned above, conlilting of tedious and laborious feems moll to delight in, arc commonly fuch as are of 
 
 operations that yield no return at firll, it is natural for very little ufe to man ; but if negleded, willincreafc 
 
 a farmer towifli for fome method of meliorating his tofuchadcgrec,ascniireIy todeltroy the plantsintcnd- 
 
 ground, and reaping crops at the fame time. One very cd to be raifed, or at leall hinder them fromcomini; to 
 
 confiderable Hep towards the melioration of ground is, perfcclion, by depriving them of nouri(hnicnt. The 
 
 its pulverization. This is aecomplilhed by repeated clearing the ground of weeds, tlicrefore, is an aniclc 
 
 ploughings(A),asalready mentioned; efpecially if per- no lefs nccelfary inagricullure, than thcdifpofr.ig it to 
 
 formed in autumn, that the ground may be cxpoled to produce vegetables of any kind in plenty. 
 
 Vol. I. Kk The 
 
 (a) This, however, inull be anderllood with fome limitation : for it appears from experience, th:!t many 
 light and //'.•/; foils receive detriment rather than advantage from frequent ploughings ; particularly in lunimcr 
 wiicii the fun exhales the imtritivc particles in great abundance.
 
 15 S 
 
 Theory. 
 
 Wetds Ji- 
 TiiJcd into 
 annual and 
 prrcnniil. 
 
 37 . 
 Perennial 
 V.cei1s,huw 
 4(flroycd. 
 
 ■Broom, 
 furze, &c. 
 how de- 
 •ruvcd. 
 
 A G R 
 
 The wecils may be divided, according to the timcol' 
 their duration, v.no annual, or Inch as luring trom a 
 fttd, and die the f.imc year; Aadp<T-tm/n/, that is, Inch 
 as are jiropagated by the roots, and lull tor a iiiiiuber ot 
 years. The hrll kind are the Icall noxious, and moll 
 calily dcllroycd. For this purpoie it will be lutficiciit 
 to let them fpringnpiill near ihclimcot ripening thcir' 
 Iced, and then plough them down before it comes to 
 maturity. It is alio of iervicc to dellroy fuch weeds 
 as grow in borders, or neglected corners, and frequent- 
 ly I'cattcr their feeds to i great dilbnce ; fuch as the 
 thilUe, dandelion, rag-weeu, &c. forihcfc are fulficient 
 to propagate their fpecies through a deal of ground j 
 as thcirftcds.iie carried about wiih the wind to very 
 conliderabledidanccr. A fanner ought jlfo to take 
 care, that the fniall feeds of weeds,feparated from corn 
 in winnowing, be not fown again upon the ground ; 
 for this ccrt.iinly happens when they arc thrown upon 
 a dunghill ; bccaufe, being the natural otl'spring of the 
 earth, they are not ealily dcllroyed. The belt method 
 of preventing any mifchicf from this caufc, would be 
 to burn them. 
 
 l^ercnnial weeds cannot be effeelually dcflroycd.bac 
 by removing the roots from the gro.ind, which is often 
 a matter of fome difficulty. Many of ihefe roots I'trike , 
 fodcep in the ground, that they can fcarceiy be got 
 out. The only method that can be depended upon in 
 this cafe, is frequent ploughing, to render the ground 
 as tender as pollible ; and harrowing with a particular 
 kind of harrow, w^hich (hall hereafter bedelcribed, in 
 order to collect thefc pernicious roots. When collec- 
 ted, they ought to be' dried and burnt, as the only 
 ertcctual method of iufuring their doing no further 
 mifchicf. 
 
 There is a particular fpecies of weed, peculiar only 
 to grafs-lands, of a loft fpongy n.uure, ca!led/c_^, which 
 it is found very difiicull to cxterminate.Wherc thcland 
 can be conveniently tilled, this weed may be dcllroycd 
 by covering it with a crop of pcafe, potatoes, &c. or, 
 palTing a heavy roller over the ground will beot great 
 fervicc ; for tog owcJits origin to too great a laxity of 
 the foil, and will no! grow upon firm ground. 
 
 Belidcsihefekindsofweedswhicharcofan herbace- 
 ous nature, tlicrc are others which are woody, and 
 grow to a very conliderable lizc i fuch as broom, furze 
 or whins, and thorns. Broof// is an evergreen lluub, 
 that thrives bell in fandy foil , and there it grows lb vi- 
 goroully, as fcarce to admiwiny grafs under it. It pro- 
 pagatesby feed which growsinpods; and thefe, when 
 fully ripe, break with violence, fcatteringthe feeds all 
 around. Thus, a field which is overgrown with 
 broom, belides the old plants, always contains an in- 
 linite number of young ones ; fo that though the old 
 plants die when cut over, a frelh crop conllantly fprings 
 up. It niay,liowcver, be dcllroycd by frequent plough- 
 ing and harrow ing, in the fame manner as other peren- 
 nial weeds arc ; for it does not for fome time carry any 
 feed, and the frequent ploughing encourages the vcge- 
 tationof all thofe that arcalready in the ground,which 
 cannot fail of being dcllroycd by frequent repetitions of 
 the operation. Another method of dellroying broom, 
 is by palluringthe field where itgrows with ihccp. A 
 few of the old bulhes may be left as a (lielter, and thefe 
 will be in a good meafure prevented from fpreading by 
 the cropping of thclliccp.Thcfcajiunals arc very fond 
 
 I C U L T U R E. 
 
 of broom, and greedily devour every young fiioot ; fo 
 that if a)iy remain alfer the lirll year, there will not be 
 a vcltige the lecond. If this method of extirpating 
 broom is equally etfcdual with that of frequent plough- 
 ing, it is certainly much more profitable, as there is 
 no food more nourilliing to fheep than young broom. 
 Broom, however, is laid to haf e a lingular effect upon 
 Iheep: it makes them drunk fo cftccliially, that when 
 heated with a little driving, they tumble over, and lie 
 witliout motion. 
 
 ThcwA/// is aline evergreen flirub,carrying a fwcct- 
 fnulling liowcrall the year round. It propagates both 
 by Iced and by its roots, wiiich fpread lonietinies to the 
 diilance of loor 12 feet ; and hence, when once elhi- 
 blilhcd, it is with difficulty extirpated. 1 he bell mc- 
 tiiod is to let fire to the wiiins in frolly weather ; for 
 iVoil has the efi'ecl to wither whins, and make ihcin 
 burn readily. The flumps mull then be cut over with 
 a hatchet ; and when the ground is well foftened by 
 r:iin, it may be ploughed up, and the roits taken out 
 by a harrow adapted to that purpole. If tlic field is 
 fooii laid down to grafs, the whins will again fpring up 
 in great abundance, fr(>m tile feeds, and finall parts of 
 the roots left in the ground. In this cafe, palluring 
 V ith llieep is an ctiectual remedy ; as they are no lefs 
 fond of young whins than of young broom ; and if 
 there arc a lutiicicnt number, tliey will not leave a 
 lingle plant above ground, iiut if grafs is not imme- 
 diately w'anted, the moll ctfectnal method of clearing a 
 field of whins, is by reiterated ploughings. 
 
 The ih'jiii, or biaiiiblc, fprcads its roots very w ide, 
 and at the fame time links them deep in the eartii. 
 Though cut in the winter, it rifcs, and comes to fuch 
 perfection as to cany fruit in fummer. It can only 
 be extirpated by ploughing up the ground, and collec- 
 ting the roots. 
 
 Sect. VT. Ofthmiojl proper kinds r.fyegelnbles to h 
 raifedjor the purpufes oj jeedtng Cattte. 
 
 Thoug h this muft be an article of tlie utmofl coii- 
 fequcnccioevery farmer,wedi)not find tliat it has been 
 niuchconlidcred. Mr Andcrfon feems to have been tlie 
 firll writer on agriculture who hath properly attended 
 to this fubjeft ; and what he hath wrote upon it, ra- 
 ther a catalogue of dcliderata, than any thing tlfe : 
 and indeed tlie delidcrata on this fubjcci are fo many 
 and lb great, that we mull acknowledge ourfclves ve- 
 ry unable to rill thtm up. — To attain to a competent 
 knowledge in this rtfpcet, the following things mufl 3^ 
 be taken into coiuidcration. (i.) The wholefomcnefs Qualitiej 
 of the food for caillc, with regard to health and "' the foosl 
 llrength, or fatnefs. (2) The quantity that any extent "qu'l'te 
 of ground is capable of yielding. (3.) 1 he quantity ""''"''=• 
 nccelTary to feed the diti'erent kinds of cattle. (4.) The 
 labour of cultivation ; and, (5) The foil they require 
 to bring them to perfeclion, and the efi'etl tlicy have 
 upon it. 
 
 With regard to the wholefomencfs, it is plain, that 
 as the natural food of wild cattle is the green fucculent 
 plants tlicy meet w ith all the year round, food of this 
 kind, could it be had, mufl be preferable to hay ; and 
 accordingly wc find that cattle will always prefer fuc- 
 culent vegetables where they can get them. To find 
 
 plants
 
 Part T, 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Tht.i 
 
 40 
 Cabbage 5, 
 their pro- 
 perties. 
 
 plants of thii kiiiJ, and having proper qualities in o- 
 ' ilicr rcfpc.ls, \vc mud fcarch among thole which con- 
 tinue green all the year round, or conic to their great- 
 ell perfection in the winter lime.— .Of thefc, cabbages 
 bid f.iir for holjing the tint place ; both as being very 
 fucculciit, and a very large ijuaiitity of them growing 
 upon a fniall fpacc of ground. In Mr Young's Six 
 Months Tour, wc have an account of the produce of 
 cabbages in many diifcrent places, and on a variety of 
 foils. The produce by Mr Crow at Keplin, on a clay 
 foil, was, on an average of fix years, 35 ton per acre ; 
 by Mr Smelt at the Lcafes, on a fandy gravel, 38 :ons 
 
 259 
 
 giving putrcfcent food to his cattle. It is well ktiowii, Theciy. 
 what a prodigious dirfercnec there is in the health of ^— ~— 
 the human fpecies when fed on putrid meats, in com- 
 parifouof what they enjoy when fuppliedwith food Oi' 
 a contrary nature ; aiui why may there not be a dif- 
 ference in the health of beads, as well as of men, when 
 in limilar circumllances ?r— It is alio very probable, 
 that as carrots are morcfUid than cabbagisor turHijs, 
 they will go much farther in feeding cattle than ci- 
 ther of them. The aboveiucntioncd example of the 
 hog feems fome kind of confirmation of this ; he being 
 fed, for ten days together, with 21 lb. Icfs weight of 
 
 per acre ; by Mr Scroop at Danhy , on an average of carrots than what an ox devoured of cabbages and hay 
 
 41 
 Mr render 
 '.d noxious 
 >y them. 
 
 rurnijj- 
 "ootcd cab 
 
 >agc. 
 
 43 
 fur nips. 
 
 44 
 
 i^rrots. 
 
 lix years, 37 tons per acre : and the general average 
 of all the accounts given by Mr Young, is 36 tons per 
 acre. 
 
 Cabbages, however, have the great inconveniency 
 of fomctimcs imparting a difagrecabic riavour to the 
 milk of cows fed with them, and even to the flcfii of 
 other cattle. Tiiis, it is faid, may be prevented by 
 carefully picking ofFihe decayed and withered leaves : 
 and very probably this is the cafe ; for no vegetable 
 inclines more to putrefaction than this ; and therefore 
 particular care ought to be taken to pull off all the 
 leaves that have any fyinptonis of decay. Dr Priellley 
 found that air was rendered noxious by a cabbage-leaf 
 remaining in it for one night, though the leaf did not 
 fliow any fymptom of putrefaftion. — For milk-cows, 
 probably the cabbages might be rendered more proper 
 food by boiling them. 
 
 The culture of the turnip-rooted cabbage has lately 
 , been much pradifed, and greatly recommended, parti- 
 cularly for the purpofe of a late fpring feed ; and icems 
 indeed to be a moll important article in the farming 
 oecononiy, as will be fliown in its proper place. 
 
 Turnips likewifc produce very bulky crops, though 
 far inferior to thofe of cabbages. According to Mr 
 Young's calculation, the tinell foil does not produce 
 above five tons of turnips per acre ; which is indeed a 
 very great difproportiou : but pollibly fuch a quantity 
 of turnips may not be confumed by cattle as of cab- 
 bages ; an ox, of 80 (lone weight, eat aiofc. o{ cab- 
 bages in 24 hours, belides feven pound of hay. 
 
 Carrots arc found to be an excellent food for cattle 
 of all kinds, and arc greatly relillied by them. In a 
 rich fand, according to Mr Young's account, the pro- 
 duce of this root was 200 bufliels per acre. In a liner 
 foil, it was 640 bufhcls per acre. A lean hog was fat- 
 ted by carrots in ten days time : he eat 1961b. ; and 
 his fat was very fine, white, firm, and did not boil a- 
 v.ay in the drclfing. They were preferred to turnips 
 by the cattle ; which having tailed the carrots, foon 
 became fo fond of them, as difficultly to be made to 
 eat the turnips at all. It is probable, indeed, that 
 carrots will make a more wholefome foo.l for cattle 
 than either cabbages or turnips, as they are llrongly an- 
 tifeptic ; infomuch as to be iifed in poultices for correc- 
 ting the fanics of cancers. It is probably owing to 
 this, that the milk of cows fed on carrots is never found 
 to have any bad t:u1e. Six horfeskept on them thro' 
 ;iie winter without oats, performed their work asufual, 
 :.7.d looked equally well. This may be looked upon 
 ns a proof of their falubrity as a food ; and it certain- 
 ly can be no detriment to a farmer to be fo much vcr- 
 fantin medical matters, as 10 know the impropriety of 
 
 45 
 
 n one day. There is a great difproportion, it mull 
 be owned, between the bulk of an ox and that of a 
 liog ; but we can fcarce think that an ox will eat as 
 much at a time as ten hogs. At Parlington i.n York- 
 fliirc, 20 work horfes, four bullocks, and lix milk-cows, 
 were fed on the carrots ihatgrcwon threeacres, from 
 the end of September till the beginning of May ; and 
 the animals never tailed any other food but a lit tie hay. 
 The milk was excellent, and 30 hogs were fattened 
 upon what was left by the other cattle. 
 
 Potatoes likewife appear to be a very palatable food Poutoea. 
 for all kinds of cattle ; and not only oxen, hogs, &c. 
 areealUy fed by them, but even poultry. Thccheap- 
 nefs of potatoes compared with other kinds of food for 
 cattle, cannot well be known, as, belides the advantage 
 of the crop, they improve the ground more thin any 
 other known vegetable. According to a correfpondcnc 
 of the Bath Society*, " roalling pork is never fomoill •Letters 
 and delicate as when fed w iih potatoes, and killed from m"/ Pafen 
 the barn-door without any confinement. For bacon "" ■^g"'"'- 
 and hams, two bulhels of pea-meal Ihould be well in- ''"'.f^^' 
 corporatcd with four bufliels of boiled potatoes, w hich V/' '"' "^ 
 quantity will fat a hog of twelve ftonc (fourteen pounds 
 to the ftone). Cows are particularly fond of them : 
 half a bulhel at night, and the fame proportion in the 
 morning, with a fmall quantity of hay, is fufficient to 
 keep three cows in full milk ; they will yield as much 
 and as fweet butter as the beft grafs. In fattening 
 cattle, I allow them all they will eat : a beaft of about 
 35 flone will require a bufliel per day, but will fatten 
 one-third fooncr than on turnips. The potatoes Ihould 
 be clean walhed, and no. given until they arc dry. 
 They do not require boiling for any purpofe but fat- 
 tening hogs for bacon, or poultry ; the latter eat them 
 greedily. I prefer the champion potato to any fort 
 1 ever cultivated. They do not anfwer fo well for 
 horfes and colts as I expected (at lead they have not 
 with me), though fome other gentlemen have appro- 
 ved of thtm as fubllitutcs for oats." 
 
 The abov ementioned vegetables have all of them the 
 property of meliorating, rather than exhaufiing the 
 foil ; and tliis is certainly a very valuable qualification : 
 but carrots and cabbages %vill not thrive except in foils 
 that arc alre.uly w ell cultivated ; while potatoes and 
 turnips may be uled as the firfl crops of a foil with 
 great advxnt.ige. In this refpcel, they are greatly fu- 
 perior to the others ; as it may be difagrecable to take 
 up the bell groumds of a farm with plants dcfigned 
 only for fwid to cattle. , 
 
 Buck-wheat (f olyganinn fagopyrum) has been lately I'.uck- 
 recommcnded as an ufeful article in the prefent as wheat, 
 well as other rcfpccls. It has been chietly applied to the 
 K k 2 feeding
 
 a6o 
 
 Theory. 
 
 A G R I C U L T U R E. 
 
 A? 
 Whins an 
 cxcclknt 
 food for 
 liorl'cs. 
 
 48 
 liurnct. 
 
 49 
 Recom- 
 mcndtd b] 
 Sir Jauics 
 Caldwell. 
 
 fccdiii"' lio iS, anil crtcemtil cqii.il in value to barify ; 
 it is niiicli more tiilily ground limn barley, as a lualt- 
 niill will j;rinJ it completely. Horles arc very louil 
 of the ;;ra;u ; poultry of" all forts arc fpeedily fattened 
 by it ; and the bottom of the plant affords food for bees 
 at 7. very opportune feafun ol the year, Mhcn the mca- 
 ilows and trees are niolU)Nftripped of their flowers. 
 Probably the grain may hereafter be even found a ma- 
 teiial article in diliillation, Ihould a fuihcient quantity 
 be raifed with that vitv/. From the fuccel's of fonie 
 experiments detailed in the Bath Soeiciy j'apcrs, and 
 lor which a premium was bellowed, it has been infer- 
 red, that this article ought in nniiicrous cafes to fupcr- 
 eedc the practiee of funimer-faliowing. 
 
 Whins have lately been recommended as a very pro- 
 per food for cattle, efpecially horfes; and are recom- 
 mended by Mr Andcrfon in a particular manner. 
 They have this ad vantage, that they require no culture, 
 and grow on the very worll foil ; but they arc troublc- 
 fomc to cut, and require to be bruifed in a mill con- 
 Itruifled for this purpofe ; neither is the ground at all 
 meliorated by let ting whins grow upon it for any length 
 of time. Notwithllanding tlieiV difudvantages, ho»v- 
 ever, as whins continue green all the year round, and 
 when bruifed will aftbrd an excellent fucculent food, 
 which fecmspollcHcd of ilrongly invigorating qualities, 
 they may be looked upon as the cheapcit winter-food 
 that can pollibly be given to cattle. According to the 
 calculations of Mr Kddifon of Gatcford, a lingle acre, 
 veil cropped with whims, will winter fix horfes : at 
 three or four years growth, the whole crop lliould be 
 taken, cut dole to the ground, and carried to the 
 iTiill ; in which the whins are to be bruifed, and then 
 given to the horfes. Four acres ought to be planted, 
 that one may be ufed each year, at the proper age to 
 be cut ; and he reckons the labour of one man fuflici- 
 cnt for providing food to this number of horfes. He 
 fays they all prcler the whins to hay or even to corn. 
 The herb called iiirmt Iiath likewifc been recom- 
 mended as proper food for cattle, on account of its 
 being an evergreen ; and further reeoramcndcd, by 
 growing almoU as fad in wiiiter as in fummcr. Of this 
 herb, however, we have very various accounts. ]n a 
 letter addrelFcd by Sir James Caldwell, t'.R.S. to the 
 Dublin Society, the culture of this plant is ftrongly 
 recommended on the authority of one Bartholomew 
 Roequc, farmer at W'alhani-Green, a village about 
 three miles fouth-wcfl; of London. 
 
 What gave oceafion to the recommendation of this 
 plant, was, that about theyear -760, Mr Wych, chair- 
 minof the committee of Agriculture of the London 
 Society for the encouragement of arts, manufac'hires, 
 and commerce, came to Rocque (who was become very 
 eminent by the premiums he had received from the I'o- 
 ciety), and told him, he had been thinking, that as 
 there arc many animals which fubiill wholly upon the 
 fruits of the earth, there muft; certainly be fome plant 
 or herb fit for them that naturally vegetates in winter ; 
 otherwifewe mufl believe the Creator, infinitely wife 
 and good, to have made creatures without providing 
 for their fublirtence ; and that if there had been no 
 fuch plants or herbs, many fpccies of animals would 
 have pcrilhed before we took them out of the hands of 
 nature, and provided for them dry meat ai a feafon, 
 ■when, indigenous plants having been iiidifcriminatcly 
 
 excluded, under the name of weeds, from cultivated Theory 
 
 fields and places fet apart for natural grafs, green or * ^ — 
 
 t'r 111 ir.eat was no Icngcr to be fou;id. 
 
 Rocque allo\\ cd thcforceof this reafoning ; but faid, 
 the knowledge of a graff, or artificial p.illure, that 
 would vegetate in winter, and producegrccnfodderfor 
 cattle, was loll ; at lealt, that he knew of no fuch 
 
 plant Mr Wych, however, knowing how very great 
 
 the advantage would be of dilcovering a green fodder 
 for V. inter and early in thcf/ring, wrote tu Berne, and 
 alfo to fonie eonliderable places in Sweden, lialing the 
 fame argument, and alking the lame quellion. His an- 
 fwcrs to thefe letters were the fame that had been givetl 
 by Rocque. They .owned there mull be fuch a ;)Unt, 
 but declared they did not know it. 
 
 Mr Wych then applied again to Rocque ; and deli- 
 red him to fearch for the plant fo much delircd, and fo 
 certainly exilHng. Rocque fet about this fearch with 
 great alliduiiy ; and finding that a pimpernel, called 
 biiriiet, was of very fpeedy growth, and grew near as 
 fad in winter as in iummer, he took a handful of it. 
 and carried it into h.is liable, where tiierewere five hor- 
 fes ; every one of which eat it with the greatefl eager- 
 nefs fnatching it even without firil fmelling it. Upon 
 the fncccfs of this experiment he went to London, and 
 bought ::ll the burnct-fecd he could get, amounting to 
 no more than eight pounds, it having been only ufed in 
 falads ; and he paid for it at the rate of 4s. a pound. 
 Six of the eight poun.ds of feed he fewed upon half an 
 acre of ground, in March, in the year 1761, with a 
 quarter of a peck of fpring-wheat, both by hand. The 
 feed bcingvery bad, it came upbut thin. However, he 
 fowed the other two pounds in the beginning of June, 
 upon about fix rood of ground: this lie luowcJ in the 
 beginning of Augart ; and at Michaelmas he jdantcd 
 ortilic plants on about 20 rood of ground, giving each 
 plant a foot every way, and taking care not to bury 
 the heart. Thefe plants bore two crops of feed the 
 year following ; the firft about the middle of June, the 
 fecond about the middle of September; but the June 
 crop was the bed. '] he year after, it grew very rank, 
 and produced two crops of feed, both very good. As 
 it ought not to be cut after September, he let it-Aand 
 till the next year ; when it Ihcltered iifelf, and grew 
 yury well duringall the winter, except wlien there was 
 a hard froll ; and even during the fro.'l it continued 
 green, though it was not perceived to grow. In the 
 -Slarch following it covered the ground very well, and 
 was fit to receive cattle. 
 
 If the winter is not remarkably fevere, the burner, 
 iliough cut in September, will be iS inches long in 
 March ; and it may be fed from the beginning of Fe- 
 bruary till May : if the cattle are taken off in May, 
 llicre will be a good crop of feed in the beginning of 
 July. Five weeks r.ftcr the cattle are taken off, it may 
 he removed, ifthat ispreferred to its /landing for feed ; 
 it grows at the rate of an inch a-day, and is made into 
 hay like other grafs. It maybe mown three times in 
 one fummer, and IhoulJ be cut jull before it begins to 
 flower. Six rood of ground has produced 1 1 50 pounds 
 at the firlt cutting of the third year after it wasfc)wed ; 
 and, in autumn 1763, Rocque fold no lefs than 300 
 bufliels of the feed. 
 
 According to Rocque, the foil in which burnct fiou- 
 riUies bell, is a dry gravel ; the longcft drought never 
 
 biiris
 
 A G R I C U L r U 
 
 E. 
 
 30 
 
 liiirnct rec- 
 otK'cl dn 
 iniprojjcr 
 food by Mr 
 Millrrand 
 Mr i\ndcr- 
 fun. 
 
 51 
 
 White beet 
 recom- 
 mended. 
 
 52 
 Koot of 
 fcarcity. 
 
 hiirtoit: and Sir James Caldwell alFcrts, that lit faw a 
 very vigorous and exuberant plant of this kind, growing 
 from between two bricks in a wall in PiocqucS ground, 
 without any communication with the foil ; for he had 
 cut away all tlic fibres of the root that had (iretchcd 
 downward, and penetrated the earth, long before. 
 
 Burnet w.ts found equally tit for feeding cows, Ihccp, 
 and horfcs ; but the Iheep mud not be fulfercd to crop 
 it tooclofc. Though nofccd was left among the hay, 
 yet it proved nourilhing food : and Roqnc kept a 
 horfe, upon nothin>r,elfc, who, at the time of writing 
 the account, Avas in good heart, and looked well. He 
 affirmed alio, that it cured horfts of the difteuiper cal- 
 led the ^nafc, and that by its means he cured one 
 which was thought incurable ; bat fays, it is only the 
 filft crop which has this efFeft. 
 
 This is the fubftanceof Sir James Caldwell's letter 
 to the Dublin S(*:iety, at lead as to what regards the 
 culture of Burnet ; and it might reafonably be expect- 
 ed, that a plant, whofe ufe was recommended to the 
 public with fo much parade, would foon havecomt into 
 univerfalelleem. Wearefurprifed therefore, on look- 
 ing into Mr Miller's Dictionary, to find the following 
 words, under the article Poterium : — " This plant has 
 of late been recommended by ^fr/i5«j of little Jkill, tobe 
 fownasa winter pabulum for cattle : but wliocverwill 
 give themfelves the trouble to examine the grounds 
 where it naturally grows, will iind the plants left un- 
 eaten by the cattle, when the grafs about them has been 
 cropped to the roots ; belides, in w-ct winters, and in 
 flrong land, the plants are of fhort duration, and there- 
 fore very unfit for that purpofe : nor is the produce 
 fufficient to tempt any perfon of fkill to engage in its 
 culture ; therefore I wilh thoic pcrfons to make trial 
 of it in fmall quantiiics, before they embark largely in 
 thefe new fchemcs." — Mr Anderfon, too, in his Effays 
 on Agriculure, mentions the produce of burnet being 
 fo fmall, as not to be worth cultivating. 
 
 Upon the authority of Mr Rocque, likcwife, the 
 white beet is recommended as a mod excellent food 
 lor cows ; that it vegetates during the whole winter, 
 eonfrquently is very forward in the fpring : and that 
 themofl profitable way of fcedingcows is, to mow this 
 herb, and give it to them green all the iunimer. It 
 grew inRocquc'sgarden, duringa very great drought, 
 nolefs than four feet high, from the 50th of May to 
 the 5d of July ; which is no more than otic moitth and 
 four days. In fiimmer it grows more than an inch a- 
 day, and is bed fown in March: a bulhcl is enough 
 fur an acre, and will not cod more than ten Ihillings. 
 It thrives bed in a rich, deep, light foil: the dalks 
 are very thick and fucculent ; the cows fliould there- 
 fore c:'.t them grt en. 
 
 Another fpecies of beet {Beta ciJ.i), the Mangel 
 Wur7.el,or Rod of Scarcity, as it has been called, has 
 been lately extolled as food for both man and cattle, 
 but, after all, ftcmsouly to defervc attention in the 
 latter view. It is a biennial plant ; the root is large 
 and tlelhy , fomctimii a foot in diameter. It rifcs above 
 the ground feveral inches, is thi.kcd at the top, taper- 
 ing gradually downward. 1 he roots are of various 
 colours, white, yellow, and red . but thefc lad are al- 
 ways of a much paler colour tlr.in beetrave. It is good 
 fodder for cows, and does not communicate any tadc 
 to the milk. It produces great abundance of leaves 
 
 in Aimmer, wiiicii may be cut three or foor lii.-.tj 
 wiuhout injuring the plant. '] he leaves are more pa- 
 latable to cattle tjian mod other garden plants, and are 
 found to be very wholefome. The fanners in thofc 
 parts of Germany where it is chieliy cultivated, v/c arc 
 told, prefer this fpecies of beet, for feeding cattle, to 
 cabbages, principally becaufe they are not ?j Uabl: to 
 be hurt by worms or infects ; but they think they ire 
 not fo nourilhing as turnips, potatoes, cr carrots, and 
 that cattle are not nearly fo foon fattened by this ro::t 
 as by carrots, parfiiips, or cabbages. It has even been 
 alfertcd, that this root affords lefs nourilhment than 
 any of thofc that have been commonly employed for 
 feeding cattle. This does not corrcfpond with the 
 pompous accounts with which the public have been en- 
 tertained. Upon the whole, however, it is a phnc 
 which fccms to defervc the attention tif fanners; 
 as on fome foils, and in particular circi;mdHnces,itniay 
 prove a very ufeful article for the above purpofes. 
 
 In Mr Anderfon's edays, we find it recommended to sicntfcf- 
 make trial of fomc kinds of gralies, which probably cuegrai^ 
 would not only anfwcr for frefli fodder during the win- 
 ter, but might alfo be cut for h.iy in fummer. This 
 is particularly the cafe with that fpecies cMcA Jh:(p's 
 fifcue grafs. " I had (fayshe^ a fmall patch of this 
 grafs in winter i 773 j which, having been cut in the 
 month of Augud or September preceding, was faved 
 from that period, and had advanced before winter to 
 the length of five or lix inches ; forming the clofed 
 pile that could be imagined. And although wc had 
 about lix weeks of very intenfc frod, with fuow ; and 
 about other lix weeks, immediately fuccceding that, 
 of exceeding keen frod every night, with frequent 
 thaws in the day-time, withoutanyfnow,duringwhich 
 time almod every green thing was dcdroycd ; yetthis 
 little patcli continued all along to retain as fine a ver- 
 dure as any meadow in the month of May ; hardly a 
 point of a leaf having been withered by the uncommon 
 feverity of the weather. And r.s this grafs begins to 
 vegetate very early in the fpring, I leave the reader to 
 jud^c what might be the value of a field of grafs of 
 this^kir.d in thefc circumdauces." 
 
 Of another kind of grafs, cAleA fmrple fi/cue, Mr ,4 
 
 Anderfon gives the following characler. " It retain- Purple fef- 
 ed its verdure much better than rye-grafs duriniT the "»«• 
 winter-feafon : but it had more of' its points killed by 
 the weather than the former. It likewife rifes in the 
 fpring, at lead as early as rye-grafs." 
 
 This ingenious farmer has alfo made experiments 
 on the culture of thefc and feveral other kinds of o-raf- 
 fes ; which being very well worthy of attention7 wc 
 ihall here infert. 
 
 I. Vurple jefcuc-grafi. "Although this grafs is very 
 often found in'oldpadures, yet it has b.:t a few riowcr- 
 d.ilks, and as it isgrecdi:y eat by all domedic animals, 
 thefc are fddom furt'ered to appear ; fo that it ufjclly 
 remains there unpcrceived. But it fecnis to be better 
 able to endure the peculiar acrimony of the dung of 
 dogs than almod any other plant ; and i:> therefore of- 
 ten to be met with in dog-hilU, as I cail the little hills 
 by road-fidcs where dogs ufually pifs and dung : and 
 as it is allow ed to grow there undidu; bed, the farmer 
 may have an opportunity of examining the plant, and 
 becoming acquainted with its appearance. 
 
 " The leaves arc long and fmall, and appear to be ■ 
 
 roaadifli^ ,
 
 •zSz 
 
 A G 
 
 R I C U 
 
 ss 
 
 Appcar- 
 aucc in its 
 
 Throry, roaiiili:li, fometliing like a wire ; biu, upon txuiiiina- 
 
 '' lion, llicy arc found noc to be tubulated like a reed or 
 
 rulll : the lldcs of the leaf being only folded to^cilitr 
 Irom the middle lil>, exactly like the llron;; beiit-;j;rafs 
 on the fta ihore. The fiowcrllalkis finall,andbrauciu-s 
 out ill the head, a little rcfcmbliiig the wild-o.it ; only 
 liie grains are much fnialler.aMd the car does not fi>rtad 
 foil open, bullies bending a little to one lidc. I he 
 Jlalks are often fpolicd withrcddilh freckles, and the 
 tops of the riKJts are uuially tinged with the lame co- 
 lour; from whence it has probably obtained its dilliiic- 
 tivc name of t'cjlnca rubra, or re,i {purf'U) f.fcuc. 
 
 «'Il is often to be met wiih in old garden-walks ; and 
 as its leaves advance very quickly alter cutting, it may 
 ufually be difcovcrcd above the other gralfcs, about a 
 week or fortnight after the walks arc cut. Nor do 
 tbcy fcem to advance only ?.i one feafon, and then Hop 
 and decay, like the rye-grafs; but continue to advance 
 during thewholcofihcfummer^evcnwhere they arcnot 
 cut ; lb that they fometimcs attain a very great length. 
 Lafl feafon , ( i 7 74, ) 1 mcafured a leaf of i his grafs, that 
 fprung up in a ncglefled corner, which was four feet 
 and four inches in length, although not thicker than 
 a finall wire. It is unnecelfary to add, that thefe leaves 
 naturally trail upon the ground, unlefs where they meet 
 with feme accidental fupport ; and ilut if any quan- 
 lity of it is fuffercd to grow for a whole feafon, with- 
 out being eat down or cut, the roots of the leaves are 
 alnioft rotted, by the ovcrlhadowing of the tops of the 
 other leaves, before tliC end of the feafon. 
 
 This is the appearance and condition of the plant 
 in its native filuation ; as it is fcldom that it is difco- 
 ruitivatcd vcred but in pretty old paftures, and as in that ftate 
 ■ft'te- it carries only a very few feed-ftalks, it was with fome 
 
 dilHculty that I could collect a fmall handful of the feed, 
 whicli 1 carefully fowed in a fmall patch of garden- 
 mould, to try if it could be eafily cultivated. It came 
 upas quickly as any other kind of grafs, but was at 
 lirfl as fmall as hairs: the leaves, however, advanced 
 apace ; and were, before autumn, when thegraiii with 
 ■which they had been lowed was cut down, about 16 
 or 18 inches in length : but having been fown very 
 thin, it was necelfary to pick out fome other kinds of 
 grafs that came up amongll it, left it might have 
 been choakcd by ihem. Early next fpring it advanced 
 with prodigious vigour, and the tufts that were form- 
 ed from every feed became exceeding large ; fo i hat ii 
 quickly filled the whole ground. But now the leaves 
 were almoll as broad as thofe of common rye-grafs, 
 and the two fides only inclined a little towards one 
 another from the mid-rib, without any appearance 
 of roundnefs. In due time a great many fecd-ftalks 
 fprung out, which attained very nearly to the height 
 of four feet, and produced feeds in abundance ; which 
 may be .is eafily laved as ihofe of common rye-grafs. 
 
 "The prodigious diffcrcncebetweentliis plant in its 
 native and cultivated ftate amazed me ; but it was with 
 a good deal of falisfacTion that 1 found there would be 
 no difficulty of procuring feeds from it, which I had 
 much doubted of at firil. It would feem, that nature 
 hath endowed this plant with a (Irong generative power 
 during its youth, which it gradually lofes as it advan- 
 ces in age (for the difference perceived in this cafe 
 could not be attributed to the rirhncfs of the foil); 
 and that, on the contrary, when it was old, the leaves 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 advanced with an additional vigour, in proportion to 
 the declining llrength of the ilowcr-llalks : for the 
 leaves of the young plant fcldom exceed two feet, 
 w hereas numbers ot' the old leaves were near four feet 
 in length. 
 
 " Krom thcfe peculiarities in the growth of this plant, 
 ii would feeni to prouiife to be of great ufc to the far- 
 mer; as he could reap from a field 01 it, for the firft two 
 or three years, as great a weight of hay as he could 
 obtain fiom any of the culmifcrous graifes (thefe bear- 
 ing a long jointed ftalk); and, if hq,meaiu afterwards to 
 pallurc it, he would fuller no inconveniences from the 
 flower-ftalks ; andthc fucculent leaves thatcontinueto 
 vegetate during the whole fummer, would at all limes 
 furnilli his cattle with abundance of wholefome food. 
 It has alfobeen reuiarked, that this grafs rifes as early 
 in the fpring as rye-grafs ; and continues green for the 
 grcatell part of winter, which the other does not. It 
 is moreoveran abiding plant, asit fecms never m wear 
 out of the ground where it has once been eftablilhed. 
 On z'\\ which accounts, it appears to me highly to me- 
 rit the atlemion of the farmer ; and well defervcs to 
 have its feveral qualities, andtheculturc thatbeftagrecs 
 with it, afcertained by accurate experiments. 
 
 2. '^ Sheep s fifcut grafs, or f.'fluca oviita, is much 
 praifed by tl;eSwedilh naturalifls for its lingular value 
 as a pafture-grafs for flieep ; this animal being repre- 
 fcnied as fonder of it than of any other grafs, and fat- 
 tening upon it more quickly than on any other kind 
 of food whatever. And indeed, the general appearance 
 of the plant, and its peculiar manner of growth, feems 
 very much tofavourthe accounts that have been given 
 us of it. 
 
 "Thisplantisof the fame family with the former, 
 and agrees with it in feveral refpecls; although they 
 may be eafily diftinguilhed from one another. Its 
 leaves, like the former, in its natural ftate, are always 
 rounded, but much fmaller ; being little bigger than 
 large horfe-hairs,orfwines-briflles, andfeldom exceed 
 fix or fcven inches in length. But thcfe fpring out of 
 the root in tut"ts, fo dole upon one another, that they 
 refemblc, in tliis rel'pcct, a clofe hair-brudi more than 
 any thing clfe 1 know : fo that it would feem natural- 
 ly adapted to form that thick fliort pile of grafs in 
 which Iheep are known chiefly to delight. ItsHower- 
 flalks are numerous, and fometimes attain the height 
 of two feet ; but are more ufually about 12 or 1 5 inch- 
 es high. 
 
 " Upon gathering the feeds of this plant, and fow- 
 ing them as the former, it was found that they fprung 
 up as quickly as any other kind of grafs ; but the 
 leaves are at firft no bigger than a human hair. Krom 
 each fide fprings up one or two of thcfe hair-liKe fi- 
 laments, that in a fhort time fend out newoff-fets, fo 
 as quickly to form a fort of tuft, which grows larger 
 and larger, till it at length attains a very large lize, or 
 till all tiie intervals are clofed up, and then it forms 
 the clofeft pile of grafs that it is potTiblc to imagine. 
 In April and May it puflicd forth an innumerable quan- 
 tity of flower-ftalks, that afforded an immcnfc quan- 
 tity of hay ; it being fo clofe throughout, that the 
 fcythe could fcarcely penetrate it. This was allowed 
 to ftand till the feeds ripened ; but the bottom of ihe 
 ftalks were quite blanched, andalmoft rotted for want 
 of air before that time. 
 
 <'Th)s 
 
 Theory. 
 
 56 
 Slieeps fef- 
 cuc defcri- 
 bed. 
 
 57 
 Its appear- 
 ance when 
 cultivated.
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 263 
 
 " This was the appearance that it made the lirllyear 
 ' after it was fowed : but I have reafon to think, that, af- 
 ter a few years, it likcwifc produces fewer fced-ltalks, 
 aiid a greater quantity of leaves than at firll. But 
 however that may be, it is certain, that if thtfc arc cat 
 down in the fpring, it docs not, like rye-grafs, pcrlill 
 in a continual tendency to run to feed ; but is at once 
 determined to pulh forth a quantity of leaves without 
 alniotl any ftalks at all : and as all donieilic animals, 
 but more cfpecially (heep, are extremely fond of this 
 grafs, if they have liberty to pallurc where it grows, 
 they bite it fo clofe as never to fufFeralmofl a linglc feed- 
 flalk to cfcape them ; fo that the botaiiift will often 
 fearch in vain for it, when he is treading nifon it w iih 
 his feet. The bell way to dilcover it in any pallurc, 
 is to fearch for it in winter, when the tufts of it may 
 be ealily dillinguilhed from every other kind of grafs, 
 by their extraordinary clofencfs, and the deep green 
 colour of the leaves. 
 
 " It fcems to grow in alnioft any foil ; altho' it is ima- 
 gined that it would fiouvilh bed in a light fandy foil, 
 as it can evidently live with Itfs moiilnre than alnioA 
 any other kind of grafs ; being often feen to remain in 
 the fods that iiave been employed in coping for (lone- 
 dykes, after all the other grilles that grew in them 
 have dilappearcd. It is likewife found in poor barren 
 foils, where hardly any other plant can be made to grow 
 at all ; and on the i'urface of dry worn-out pcat-niofs, 
 where no raoifhire remains fuflicicnt to fupport any o- 
 ihcr plant whatever : but in neither of thefc lituations 
 does it thrive ; as it is there only a weak and unlighily 
 plant, very unlike what it is when it has the good for- 
 tune to be ellabliflicd upon a good foil ; although it is 
 feldomcr met with in this laft Hate than in the former. 
 
 " I will not here repeat what lias been already faid 
 about the particular property that this plant polTclics of 
 continuing all winter : nor point out the benefits that 
 
 the farmer may reap from this valuable quality He 
 
 need not, however, expect to find any verdure in win- 
 ter on fuch plants as grow upon the loofc molTy foil 
 abovementioned ; for, as the froft in winter always 
 hoves up the furfaceof this foil, therootsof the plants 
 are fo lacerated thereby, as to make it, for fome tinie 
 in the fpring, to all appearance dead. Nor will he of- 
 ten perceive much verdure in winter upon thofe plants 
 that grow upon poor hungry foils, whichcannot afford 
 abundant nourithment to keep ihem in a proper ftate 
 of vegetation at all limes : but fuch plants as grow 
 on earthen dykes, which ufually begin to vegetate with 
 vigour when the autumnal rains come on, for the mod 
 part retain their verdure at that leafon almod as well 
 as if they were in good garden-mould. 
 
 " I liavebeen very particular in regard to this plant ; 
 becaufe, in as far as my obfervations have yet gone, it 
 promifes on many accounts to make a mofl valuable ac- 
 quilition to the farmer, and therefore juftly demands a 
 \ery particular fliare of his attention." 
 
 3. Thth'jlcuslaiiatiis, orcreepingfoft-grafsof Hud- 
 fon — Thi'- is confidered by our author as one of the 
 moft valuable kinds of ineadow-graifes ; its pile being 
 exceedingly clofe, foft, and fucculent. It delights 
 much in moiflure, and isfeldom found on dry ground, 
 imlels the foil is exceedingly rich. It is often found on 
 ihole patches near fprings, over which the water fre- 
 quently flows ; and may be known by the uncommon 
 
 foftncfs and lucculence of ihe blade, the lively light Theory, 
 green colour of the leaves, and the matted i.itertexturc ' '■' 
 ofiis roots. But, notwithftanding the fofmefs of its 
 tint leaves, when the feed-llalks advance,! hey arc rou^^h 
 to the tou^h, fo that the plant then alfumcs a very dif- 
 ferent appearance from what we wouldhavccxpecled. 
 The carisbranched out into a great numberof tine ra- 
 mifications fonicwhai like theoat, butmuch fmaller. — 
 This kind of grafs, however, would not be eafily culti- 
 vated, on account of a kind of foft membrane that 
 makes thcfecds adhere toihe (lalk, andtooneanother, 
 after they are feparatcdfroniit, as if they were inter- 
 mixed «ith cobweb, fo that it is ditiicult to get them 
 feparated from the rtalk,or tofpread readily iu fowing. 
 It fpreads, however, fo fafl by its running roots, that 
 a fmall quantity fowed very thin, would be futScient to 
 Aock a large field in a fliort time. 
 
 Thefc arc the kinds oi^rajf^i, properly fo called, 
 which have not as yet been cultivated, that Mr A\\- 
 derfon thinks the moft likely to be of value ; but be- 
 fidcs thefc he recommends the following, of the pea- 
 tribe. 60 
 ■ I. Milk- vetch, liquorice-vctch, or n!ilk-'j;crt. This^'"''*- 
 plant, in fome rcfpects, very much refcmbles the com- """• 
 nion white clover ; from the top of the root a great 
 number of Ihoots come out in the fpring, fpreading a- 
 long the furface of tlie ground every way round it ; 
 fromwhich arife a great many chifters of bright yel- 
 low flowers, exactly refembling thofe of the common 
 broom. Thefc are fucceedcd by hard round pods, fil- 
 led with fmall kidr.cy-fliaped feeds. F'roma fuppofed 
 rcfemblanceof a clallcr of thefe pods to the fingers of 
 an open hand, the plant has been, fometimes called 
 l^idies fingers. By others it is called cro'ji-ton, from a 
 fancied refemblaiice of the pods to the toes of a bird. 
 Others, from the appearance of the bloiTum, and the 
 part where the plant is found, have called it ftal, im- 
 properly /WZ-irc',?//. It is found plentifully alraoft c- 
 very where in old grafs-ficlds ; but as every fpccics of 
 donieftic animals eat it, almoft in preference to any o- 
 thcr plant, it is feldora allowed to come to the flower 
 in pafture grounds, unlcfs where they have been acci- 
 dentally faved from the cattle for fome time ; fo that 
 it is only about the borders of corn-fields, or the fides 
 of inclofures to which cattle have not acctfs, that wc 
 have an opportunity of obferving i:. A& it has been 
 imagined that the cows which feed on thcfe pallures, 
 where this pi. '.n: abounds, yield a quantity of ri>.h milk, 
 the plant has from thatcircumftancc, obtained its moft 
 proper EngliPn name o( r:ilk-vetch, gj 
 
 One of liic grcatcft recommendatior.s of this pladt Its pwd . 
 is, that it grows in poor barren ground, where almofl qualitict. 
 no other plant can live. It has been obferved in ground 
 fo poor, that even heath, or ling {^trica covn'iunis), 
 would fcarccly grow; and upon bare obdurate clays, 
 where no other plant could be made to vegetate ; in- 
 fomuch that the furface remained entirely uncovered, 
 unlefs where a plant of this kind chanced to be ella- 
 bliflicd ; yet even in thefe unfavourable circumilances, 
 ic riouriihcd with an uncommon degree of luxuriance, 
 and yielded as tender and fucculent, though not fuch 
 abundant flioots, as if reared in the rlcheft manured 
 fields. In dry barren fands, alfo, where almoll no o- 
 ther plant could be made to live, it has been found to . 
 feud out fuch a numberof healthy Ihoots all around, as
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part r. 
 
 61 
 
 Yellow 
 Telchlin; 
 
 to cover i!:c canh wjtii ilic clol'cfland mofl bcauiir.il 
 carpet tliat csn be deliicd. 
 
 The ibilks ot'tlic milk-vetch arc weak aiui llcniicr, 
 foihat tlicy fprcinl-wpon the furlacc of the grcmiul, iisi- 
 Icfs they arc fiipporicil by foiiic other vr<;ctiible. In 
 ordinary Toils they do not gvuw to a great length, nor 
 prodiice many llovvcrs ; bm in richer licKis tlic Italks 
 grow to a much greater lenj^jth, branch out a good 
 deal, but carry lew or no llowtrs or (ceJs. From tiicfc 
 finaliiicsour author did not attempt at lirft to cultivate 
 it witJi any other view than tha;,of palhirc ; and with 
 this intention, fowcd it with his ordinary hay feeds, 
 txpefting no material benelit from it till he dcliltcd 
 from cutting his 1'kKI. In this, however, he was a- 
 greeably difappointcd ; the milk vetcii growing, the 
 firfl; fcafon,as t..ll as his great clover, and lot iiiiiig ex- 
 ceeding line hay jbeing fcarccdiltingiiilhable from lu- 
 cerne, butby the llenderncfsof the llalk, and propor- 
 tional fiiiallncfs of the leaf. 
 
 Another reconimendatiou to this plant is, that it is 
 ■perennial. It is fevcral years afterit is fowcd before 
 it attains to its full perfeclion ; but, wheaonce cfla- 
 bliflu-d, it probably remains for a great number of 
 years in full vigour, and produces aniially a great 
 quantity of fodder. In autumn 1 773, Mr Anderfon 
 cutthcflalk from an old plant that grew on a very in- 
 ditfercnt foil ; and after havin;'; thoroughly dried it, he 
 found that it weighed 14 ounces and a half. 
 
 The Ilalksofthis plant die down entirely in winter, 
 and do not come up in the fi'ring till the fame time 
 that clover begins to advance ; nor does it advance ve- 
 ry fall, even in iVimmer, when once cut down or cat 
 over : fo that it fecms much inferior to the abovemcn- 
 tioned grades ; but might be of ufe to cover the worlt 
 parts of a farm, on which no other vegetable could 
 thrive. 
 
 2- The c'>tiimi7iy^ll(iwvetchHtig,(L(ithynis pratiiifis) 
 ■ or (vtr/u/li/ig tare, grows with great luxuriance in 
 ftift'clay foils, and continues to yield annually a great 
 weight of fodder, of the very bell quality, for any 
 length of time. This is equally lit for pallure, or 
 hay ; and grows with equal vigour in ihe endof funi- 
 jncr as in the beginning of it : fo would admit being 
 paftured upon in the fpring, till the middle, or even 
 the endof May, without endangering the lofs of the 
 crop of hay. This is an advantage which no other 
 plant except clover polTcfTes ; but clover is equally un- 
 fit for early padure or for hay. Sain-foin is the only 
 plant whofe qualities approach to it inthisrcfpci.'t,and 
 the yellow vctchling will grow in fuch foils as are ut- 
 terly untit'/or producing fain-foin — It is alfoa peren- 
 nial plant, and increafes fo fafl by its running roots, 
 that a fmall quantity of the feed would produce a fuf- 
 ilcient number of plants to fill a whole field in a very 
 fliort time. If a fmall patch of good ground is fowed 
 with the feeds of this plant in rows, about a foot di- 
 Ilance from one another, and the intervals kept clear of 
 weeds for that feafon, the roots will fpread fo much as 
 to fill up the whole patch next year ; when the (lalks 
 may be cut for green fodder or hay. And if tint 
 patch were dug over the fpring following, and the 
 roots taken out, it would furnilh a great quantity of 
 plants which might be planted at two or three feet 
 diftance fromonc another, where tiiey would probably 
 overfpreadthe whole field in a fiiort time. 
 
 ■}. The coijimin Hue larj fecms more likely than Tlicory. 
 the firmer to produce a more nourilaing kind of hay, . " ' '' 
 as it abounds much more in feeds; but as the fialks j,, ^ 
 come up more thinly from the root, and brancli more 
 above, it does not appear to be fo well adapted for a 
 pallure-grafs as the other. The leaves of this pl.int 
 arc much fnialltr, and more divided, than thofe of the 
 other i the Italks are likcwifc fmallcr, and grow to a 
 much greater length. Though it produces a great 
 quantity of feeds, yet the fmall birds arc fo fond of 
 them, that, unltfs the field was carcfuly guarded, few 
 of fhein would be allowed to ripen. 64 
 
 4. 'X\\tV'tc'iafcf'i!im,pu:ptiivcrli>^ii!g, or b:iJJ)-Vilch. Bulh- 
 Our author gives the preference to this plant beyond vetch, 
 all others of the fame tribe for pallure. The roots 
 of it fpread on every fide a little below the furfaee 
 of the ground, from which, in the fpring, inanyftcms 
 arife quite clofc by one another ; and as thefc have a 
 broad tufted top covered with many leaves, it forms as 
 clofe a pile as could be delircd. It grows very quick- 
 ly after being cut or cropt, but docs not arrive at any 
 great height ; fo that it .appears more proper for pafbu- 
 ragethan makinghay ; altho', upon a good foil, it will 
 grow fufficicntly high for that purpofe ; but the Aalks 
 growfoelofe uponone another, that there is great d.an- 
 ger of having it rotted at the root, if the feafon fliould 
 prove damp. It fecms to thrive beft in a clay foil. 6j 
 
 Bclides ihefe, there are area variety of others of the EverlaUing 
 fame clafs, which he thinks might be ufeful to the pca. 
 farmer. The common garden everlallingpea, culti- 
 vated as a flowering plant, he conjectures, wouldyield 
 a prodigious weight of hay upon an acre ; as it growls 
 to the height of ten or twelve feet, having very llrong 
 llalks, that could fupport thcmfelves without rotting 
 till they attained a great height. 
 
 Oncother plant, hitherto unnoticed, is icconimend- 
 ed by our author to the attention of the farmer ; it | 
 \%x\\ccMinn<iity arrow, (^AchilUamilUj oliitiii'), ox hutidrcd- 
 kavid grtifs. Concerning this plant, he remarks, that, 
 in alniofl every fine old pallure, a great proportion of 
 the growing vegetables with which the field is covered, 
 eonlifts of it ; but the animals which feed there are fo 
 fond of the yarrow, as never to allow one fecd-ftalk of 
 it to come to perfed:ion. Hence thefc fced-llalks are 
 never found but in negle(5ted corners, by the fides of ' 
 roads ; and are lb difagreeable to cattle, that they are 
 never tailed ; and thus it has been erroneoully thought 
 thatthc whole plant was refufed by them. — The leaves 
 of this plant have a great tendency to grow very thick 
 iipontme another, and are therefore peculiarly adapted 
 for paflurage. It arrives at its greatefl perfeftion in 
 rich fields that are naturally fit for producing a large 
 and fucculcnt crop of grafs. It grows alfo upon clays ; 
 and is among the firll plants that Urikc root in any 
 barren clay that has been lately dug from any confi- 
 derablc depth ; fo that this plant, and thiflles, arc ufual- 
 ly the firfl that appear on the banks of deep ditches 
 formed in a clayey foil. All animals delight to eat it ; 
 but, from the dry aromatic tafte it polfelfcs, it would 
 fecin pe uliarly favourable tothe conllitution of (hcep. 
 It fecms altogether unfit for hay. 67 
 
 Bclides thefc plants, which are natives of Great Lucerne- 
 Britain there arc others, which, though natives of 
 other countries, are found to thrive very well in Bri- 
 tain ; and have been raifed with fuch fncccfs by indi- 
 viduals, 
 
 66 
 
 Achillxa 
 millefo- 
 lium.
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 vidiials^as highly to merit the attcntionofcv cry fanner. 
 ■ y^inoni]; thcfc llic /iift place is claimed by lucerne. 
 
 '1 his is the I'lant called >,i:dica by the aiicicius, bc- 
 caufe it came criminally from Media, and on the culture 
 of which they beuowtd fucli great care and pains. It 
 hath a perennial ro3t,and annual ftalks, \vhicli,in good 
 foil, rile to three fcct,or fometimcs more in height; its 
 leaves grow at a joint like t hole of clover ; the flowers 
 which appear in June, arc purple, and its pods of a 
 fcrew-likelhapc, containing feeds which ripen in Sep- 
 tember. All forts of doincllic cattle arc i'ond of this 
 plant, efpecially when allowed to eat it green, and black 
 cattlcmay be fed very well with the hay made from it; 
 but an excels of tiiis food is faid to be very dangerous. 
 
 Lucerne has the property of growing very quickly 
 after it is cut down, iufomuch that Air Rocijuc has 
 mowed it five times in a fcafon, and Mr Andcrfon af- 
 tirins he has cut it no lefs ihun fi.\ times. It is, how- 
 cvcr,noiveryea(ily cultivated; in confequcnceof which 
 it fomciiracsdocs not fucceed; and as it dies entirely in 
 the winter, it is perhaps inferior to the fefcuc gniUcs 
 already mentioned, wliich.tho' defpifedand negletlcd, 
 might pri)b:ib!y yield as rich a crop as lucerne, w ith- 
 out any danger of a mifcarrijge. 
 
 j^nothergrafs was brought from Virginia, where it 
 J5 a native, and fown by Rocquc in 1 765. This grafs 
 is called T/wc/A)', from its being brought from New- 
 York to Carolina by one Timothy Hanfon. Itgrows 
 bell in a wet foil ; but will thrive in almoll any. If it 
 is fown in Angnd, it will be lit for cutting in the latter 
 end of May or beginning of June. HoriVs are very 
 fond of it, and will leave lucerne to eat it. It is alfo 
 preferred by black cattle and Ihecp ; for a fquarc piece 
 of land having been divided into four equal parts, and 
 one part fowcd with lucerne, another with fau-foin, a 
 third with clover, and the fourth with timothy, fome 
 horfes, black cattle, and Ihecp, were turned into it, 
 when the plants were all in a condition for paflurage ; 
 and the timothy was eaten quite bare, before the clover, 
 lucerne, or fan-foin, was touched. 
 
 One valuable property of this grafs is, that its roots 
 arc fo Ilrong and interwoven with one anotlicr, that 
 they render the wettefl and foftcll land, on which a 
 horfe could not find fouling, firm enough to bear the 
 heavieftcart. Wiihthe view of improving boggy lands, 
 therefore, fo as to prevent their being poached with the 
 feet of cattle, Mr Andcrfon recommends the cultiva- 
 tion of this kind of grafs, from which he has little 
 expcdation in other refpefts. 
 
 Sect. VII. Of th.- Difiafes if Plants. 
 
 Th ESE r)re divided byTournefort into the following 
 clalTes. i. Thole nhicharifc from too great an abun- 
 dance of juice ; 2. Krom having too little ; ?. From its 
 bad qualities ; 4. From its unequal diftribuiion ; and 
 5. From external accidents. 
 
 Too great an abundance of juices caufes at firft a 
 prodigious luxuriant growth of the ves;etable ; fo that 
 it does not come to the rcquifite pertedion in a due 
 time. Wheat is fubiect,iii fome climates, toatUfeafe of 
 this kind ; it vegetates cxcellively, without ever car- 
 rying ripe grain ; and the fame difeife may be .iriiti- 
 cially produced in any grain, by planting it in too rich 
 a foil. Too much rain is apt likewife to do the fame. 
 Wlicn a vegetable isfupplicd too abundantly withjui- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 70 
 
 ces, it is very apt 10 rot ; one part of it ovcrlliadowirg 
 another in fucii a manner as to prevent the accefs of 
 frclh air ; upon which ]'utrcfaction foontnfucs, as has 
 been already obfcrved uitli regard tothcftfcuc graflcs. 
 
 In grafb, or any herbaceous pLr.t, where the leaves Smtt i« 
 are only wanted, thisovcr luxniiancy cannot bccaUcti -rain, 
 a difcafc, but is a very dclirablc property ; but in any 
 kind of grain, it isquite otherwilc. Dr Home, in his 
 Printiplcsol Agriculture and Vcgetation,'jlairesthcy}/ia/ 
 in grain among the difcafcs ariliiigfrom this caufc. He 
 is of opinion, that too great an abundanceof j'liccs in a 
 vcgctabld will produce difcafcs fimilar to ihofe occa- 
 lioned by repletion in animal bodies ; viz. Aag'.ialious, 
 corruptions, varices, cariohties, &c. along with the too 
 great luxuriancy we have juit now mentioned, which 
 he expreires \)y " too great an abundance of water- 
 llioots." Hence he is induced to clafs the fniut among 
 difcafes arifing from this caufc ; it being a corruption 
 happening moll in rainy fcafons, and to weak grain. 
 Like other contagious difcafcs, he tells us, the fmut 
 may be communicated from the infefled to healthful :• 
 grain. As a preventative, hereconnnends (let)iing the How prc- 
 grainin a ilrong pickle of fca-falt. iielidcs the tftcft """"*• 
 which this has upon the grain itfclf, it is ufefiil for fc- 
 parating the good from the bad ; the bell feed falling to 
 the bottom, and the faulty fwimming on the top of the 
 liquor. For the fame purpofe, aley of wood-alhes and 
 quicklime is recommended by fome ; and, by others,-.', 
 folutionof faltpetrc orc<ipperas; after which thcgrain 
 is to be dried with (lacked lime, or dry turf afhcs. This 
 fulution, however, we can by no means recommend, as 
 it feenis mod likely to kill the grain entirely. 71 
 
 According to Dr Home, dung is a preventative of Difeafe* 
 difeafesarilingfrom too great moillurc; in confirmation '^'"" <°° . 
 ofwhich,hc relates the foUowinjjexperiment. " Two ^"" ,"""' 
 
 c 1 u • t 1 I ilurc, how 
 
 acres of poor ground, which had never got any ma- pi^venttd. 
 nure, were fallowed with a defign to be fown with 
 wheat ; but the fchcme being altered, fome dung was 
 laid on a fniall part of it, and the whole fowed, after it 
 had got five furrows, with barley. A great quantity 
 of rain fell. The barley on that part which was dung- 
 ed was very good ; but what was on the reft of the 
 field turned yellow after the rains, and when ripe was 
 not worth the reaping." -. 
 
 The want of nourilhmcnt in plants may be cafily DifL-aVe pe- 
 knovvn by their decay ; in which cal"c,thc only remedy culiir to 
 is, to fupply them with food, accordingto the methods faffron, 
 we have already direded,or to remove from their ncgh- 
 bourhood fuch other plants as may draw olFthe nou- 
 riihment from thofc we wilh to cultivate. — In the Me- 
 moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 172S, Mr Du 
 Haniel mentions a difcafe, which he calls/,? 7nort, that 
 attacks falfrcn in the fpring. It is owing to another 
 plant, a fpecies of trefoil, fixing fome violet-coloured 
 thrcaos, which are its roots, to the roots of the fafFron, 
 and fucking out its juice. This difcafe is prevented 
 by digging a trench, whicii favcs all the uiiaflccled, 74 
 
 The bad qualities, or unequal diltributions, of the Vcpcublet 
 juiccsof plants, arc the occafionof fo few of the difcafcs dcftroycd 
 to which vegetables in every country are fiibje.'l, th.it '')'"fe>-1s 
 wc ft>rbear to mention tlicin at prcfent. Moll of the 
 difcafcs of plants are owing to external accidents, par- 
 ticularly to the depredations of infcfts — The inic -Is 
 by which the grcatell devaftations are comuiittcd in 
 Great Britain are, fuails,caiicrpillars, grubs, and files. 
 Thefnailsand catterpillarsfcedonthelcavcsandyoung 
 L 1 Ihoots ;
 
 266 
 
 y\ G R I C U L T U R E, 
 
 Tart I. 
 
 Theory. Ihooii ; by vs liicli means ihry ol'itn lotally deftroy the 
 
 ' — ""^ ' vcgttai Ic. Where llic plants arc oi cai'y accels, ihclc 
 
 Infcdsdc- ^'^'''"''1 "'^y be dcAroycil by I'prinkling the vegetable 
 (troyed Uy ^^''1^ liiiie-watcr ; lor quitk-liine is mortal poilon to 
 limcwatcr, creatures of this kind, aiiJ throws ihem into the great- 
 c/\ agonies the moment they are touched with it. On 
 trees, however, where this method cannot fo well be 
 lollowcd, fnmigaiion is the moll proper ; and, for tliis 
 purpofc, nothing is better than the fmokc of vcge- 
 t.'.bUs not perfectly dry. hi fume cafes the eggs of 
 thcfe dellroying creatures niay be obfcrved, and ought 
 without doubt immediately to be taken away. On liic 
 fruit trees, as apples, pear.s, medlars, on feme forell- 
 trces, the oak and dwarf-maple efpccially, and the 
 white and blackthorn in hedges, a kind of little tufts 
 are to be cjbftrvtd, rtfenibling, at tirll light, withered 
 leaves twilUd, by cobweb, about the uppermolt twigs 
 or branches. Ihefc contain a vail number of little black 
 eggs, that in llie fpring produce fwarnis of caterpillars 
 which devour every thing. To prevent tliis, all tlie 
 twigs on which ihcfc cobwebs appear Ihonld be taken 
 off and burnt as foon as podible. This ought to be 
 done before the end of March, that none of the eggs 
 
 76 be allowed fufficient time for hatching. 
 
 Crabs. 1 he grubo arc a kind of worms which deflroy the 
 
 corn by feeding upon its roots ; they are transformed 
 every fourth year into the beetles called cock-chaffen, 
 iiiay'bugi, &c. they arc very dellruclivc when in their 
 vermicular Hate, and cinuot then bedeflroycd becaufe 
 they go deep in the ground. When become beetles, 
 theyconceal themfelves under theleavesof trecs,whcre 
 they feem aileep till near funfet, when they take their 
 flight. It is only now that they can be dellroyed, and 
 that by a\cry laboriousnulhod ; namely, by fprcading 
 pack-llieets below the trees in the day-time when the 
 I beetles are in their torpid /late, then ihaking them oft 
 
 and burning them. Some time ago, they made fuch 
 devaflationsiu the county of Norfolk, that feveral far- 
 mers were entirely ruined by them ; one gathered So 
 buflrels of thel'e inlefts from the trees which grew on 
 hisfarni. It is (aid that, in i 574, there fell fuch a 
 multitude of thefc inlec'ls into tlic ri\er Severn, that 
 they llopped and clogged the wheels of the water- 
 
 77 mills. 
 
 Turnip fly. Turnips, when young, are apt to be totally dellroyed 
 by a multitude of little black flies, from thence called 
 t\\cturiiif-fy. As a preventative of thefe, fome ad- 
 vifc the feed to be mixed with brimllone ; but this is 
 improper, as brimllone is found to be poifonous to ve- 
 getables. The bed method feems to be the fumiga- 
 tion of the fields wiih fuioke of half-dried vegetables. 
 -8 For this purpofc weeds will anfwer as well as any. 
 Prevcntrd This fumugaion mufl no doubt be often repeated, in 
 byfumiga- order to driveawrty the innumerable nuillitudcsof thtle 
 tioii, &c. infecis which are capable of dcAroyingalarge field of 
 turnip. 
 
 Some h'vefuppofed that the fly is either engendered 
 in new dung, or enticed by it ; and have therefore ad- 
 vifed tlie manure to be laid on in the autumn preced- 
 ing, by which it lofes all its noxious qualities, v.hilc 
 its nutritive ones .ire retained, notwithflanding thcfe 
 mi';hi be fuppofcd liable in fome degree to be exhaled 
 by the fun. This method is faid to have been afcer- 
 t;;ined by experiments ; and it is added, that another 
 material advantage accruing from autumn manuring for 
 
 turnips is, that all the feeds contained in the ilung,and I'l'licory. 
 
 w hicli of courfc arc carried onihe laud with it, vege- ' 
 
 tate almoil immediately, are mollly killed by the fe- 
 verity of the winter, and the few that remain fcldom 
 avoid dcllrucUon from the pKnigh-lharc. 79 
 
 The (oUowing method ot lowing has alfo been re- Various re- 
 commended as a preventative of the (iy : — " About "";^"^' ^^ 
 ^!idfumlncr, take the lirll opportunity when It rairis, t-'^'"" „ 
 or there is an apparent certaimy ot ram approaching, ' 
 to fow your turnip, feed ; if about the full moon, the 
 better. In this caie, luiiher h ;rrow, brulh, nor roll, 
 after fowiiig. The naiur.il heat of the ground at that 
 feafon, and the confequent fermentation occalioncd by 
 copious rain, will give an allonilhin^ly quick vegeta- 
 tion to the feed, which in a few days will be up ami out 
 of all danger from the rly. .At all events, fov. not till it 
 rains ; it is better to wait a month, or even longer, for 
 rain, than to low (merely for the fake of fowingabout 
 the uAial time)when the ground is parched witii heat. 
 By the fcorching of the fun, the oil and vegetative 
 quality of the feed arc exhaufled j and the few weak 
 plants ihat come up w ill be dellroyed by the Hy before 
 theycan attain llrength to put forth their rough leaves. 
 The rly infells the ground abundanily in dry hotwea- 
 tlier, but docs no injury in rain. The falling rain will 
 futlicicntly walh the turnip-feed into the ground with- 
 out harrowing it in ; which, inllcad of merely cover- 
 ing, too often buries thisfmall leed at fo great a depth, 
 as never afterwards to get above ground." 
 
 The following remedies are alfo recommended aj 
 having often proved fuccefsful : — Afmall quantity of 
 foot fown over the land at their firlt appearance. Bran- 
 ches of elder witli the leaves bruifed, drawn in a grate 
 over them. Mulk mixed with the feed before it is 
 fown. And fulpluir burnt under it, after moiftcning 
 it wiih water in which tobacco has been fleeped. 
 
 But Ihowcrs on the plants as foon as they appear a- 
 bove ground, are elleemed the bell prefcrvativcs. They 
 enfeeble and kill the fly, and hallen the plants into the 
 rough leaf, in which flaie they are out of danger. 
 
 The fweet fmellof the turnip has been thought to 
 attract the fly ; upon which luppoliiion, the remedy 
 appeared to conlill in overpowering that finell by one 
 w hich is lliong, fetid, and difagreeable. Hence it has 
 been recommended, that upon an acre of turnips fown 
 in the ufual way, a peck or more of dry foot be 
 thrown after the ground is riniihed, and in as regular 
 a way as he fows the feed. „ 
 
 Some time ago an infeiJl, called the corii-biitterfiy, q^^^^ (j^, 
 committed fuch ravages w hile in its vermicular ftaie, tcrfly. 
 in France, that upwards of 200 pariflies were ruined 
 by it ; and the miuiftry offered a reward to the difco- 
 verer uf an effeclual remedy againll this dellroying 
 worm. The cure which was at lall difcoverej, was 
 to heat the corn, in an oven, fo much as not to de- 
 flroy its vegetative power, but fufRciently to deflroy 
 ihefmall W'orms which made their nefl in the fubflance 
 of the grain, and at lafl cjt out the fubflance fo com- 
 pletely that nothing could be got from the hulk, even 
 by boiling it in water. It is certain, that though in- 
 fers can bear a greai deal of cold, they arc ealily de- 
 flroyed by a flight degree of heat ; nor is the vegeta- 
 tive power of corn ealily deflroy ed, even when kept for 
 a long time in a pretty llrong heat. This method muft 
 therefore be very effectual for dellroying all kinds of 
 
 infcds
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 8i 
 
 The curled 
 difcarc in 
 potatoes. 
 
 f.1 
 Various 
 methods of 
 prevention. 
 
 infects with which grain iiapt to be iiifcdcd : but care 
 niuft be taken not to apply too great a heat ; and the 
 adjiiftingof the prccifc degree necclFary to Jfflroy the 
 infect, wiih-iut hurting thccorn, will be attended with 
 fonic difiicuity. 
 
 The curkd difeafc in potatoes has long been a fiib- 
 jeft of invelUgatiou and experiment among farmers; 
 and the knowledge of its caiifc and cure fcems yet to 
 rcmai.T a defideratnni. The Agricultural Society at 
 Mancheflcr, a few years ago, oifcred a premium for 
 difcovcring by actual experiment the ciufc of the dif- 
 eafc in qucltion ; and a great variety of letters were, 
 inconfequence,addrciredtoihcin upon the fubjecl. — As 
 thefe contain many interedingobfcrvationsbothon the 
 difeafc itfelfand the beil methods hitherto adopted for 
 preventing it, the following abllra^.^ of them may not 
 improperly be introduced in this place. 
 
 I. According to the writer of the iirft letter, this 
 difeafc is caufcd by an infect produced by frofl or bad 
 keeping before fctting ; and the newefl kinds, fuch as 
 have been raifed within thefe nine or t^ii years, are 
 moil apt to curl, becaufe they will not (land to be kc;t 
 in winter and fpring before fetting, as the old kinds 
 will. In autumn 1776, he got up a bed of potatoes 
 to lay by in winter, leaving plenty in the ground as 
 regular as poflible ; and, before the fevcriiy of winter 
 came on, covered part of the bed with Qraw and peafe- 
 haulm, and left the other part of the bed uncovered. 
 That part of the bed which was covered w.is quite free 
 from curled ones ; but the uncovered part produced a 
 great many curled, owing, as the writer fays, to froft 
 and fevcrity of the weather. 
 
 II. This writer had about a quarter of an acre of 
 potatoes, well manured with cow and horfc dung, and 
 took thegreateft care in picking the fine fmooth-ikinned 
 potatoes for fets ; yet nine out often parts were curled. 
 He attributes the caufe of this difeafc to a white grub or 
 infect, which he found near the root, about half an 
 inch long, with eight or ten legs, its head brown and 
 hard ; as upon examining a number of the curled roots, 
 he found them all bitten, chicriy from the furface to 
 tlic root, which of courfe flopped the progrefs of the 
 lap, and threw the leaf into a curl. The uncurled 
 roots were not bitten. He tried a few experiments as 
 follow : — Kirll, he put foot to the infects in the rows 
 for two days ; and after that, he put lime to them for 
 the fame time, but they (till kept lively ; next he. put 
 a little fait, which dellroyed them in a few hours. 
 From which he infers, that if coarfe fait were put into 
 the ground at the time the land is preparing for pota- 
 toes, it would eft'ectually cure this diflemper. 
 
 III. In this letter, the caufe of the difeafe is attri- 
 buted to the method of earthing the Items while in cul- 
 tivation ; and the branch, ftriking root into the new 
 earthcd-up foil, it is laid, produces potatoes of fuch a 
 nature as the year following to caufe the difeafc com- 
 plained of. 
 
 .To prevent the difeafe, it is recommended to take 
 the fets from thofe potatoes that have not bred any 
 from the branch covered ; or otherwifc, to dig the 
 part the fets are to be raifed from. 
 
 IV. According to this writer, the difordcr proceeds 
 from potatoes btingfctia old-tilled or worn-out ground; 
 for though rhofc potatoes may look tolerably well, yet 
 their fets will moft, if not all, produce curled potatoes. 
 
 Hence he is convinced, that no kn otij/ht to bp nied The 
 from old-tilled or couch-grafs land ; and t[)at, in order 
 to have good lets, they Ihould be procured from land 
 that was purpofely fallowed for them ; from frefli Icy 
 land, where tliey arc not curled ; or from ley land that 
 w-as burnt lall fpring. He directs to plant tlicm on 
 virgin mould, and the potatoes w ill have no curled one.^ 
 amongft them ; and to keep them fur winter, from any 
 other kind. 
 
 To avoid the uncertainty of getting good fets, lie 
 recommends crabs to be gathered trom potatoes grov,-- 
 ing this year on frelli land free from curl, and the next 
 fpring to fow them on frclh ley land ; and continue to 
 plant their fets on freih ley lajid yearly, which he is 
 convinced will prevent the curl. 
 
 All the good potatoes he faw this year, eitlicr on 
 frelh ley land or on old-tilkd land, were raifed from 
 fets that grew upon fredi ley land lad year ; and where 
 he has feen curled potatoes, he found, upon inq'.-iry, 
 the potato-fets grew upon old-tilled and worn-out land 
 lall year. He gives as a general reafon for the difor- 
 der, that the land is oftener cropt than it had ufed to 
 be, much more corn being now raifed than formerly. 
 
 V. In 1772) this writer planted forae potatoes by 
 accident full nine inches deep : when taken up, many 
 of the plants were rotted, and a few curled. He kept 
 the whole produce for feed, and planted two acres with 
 it in I 773, not quite fix inches deep. The crop was 
 amazingly great ; and he did not obferve any curled 
 plants among them. In 1774, many of thefe were 
 planted in dilferent foils; yet they were fo infefted 
 with the curled difeafe, that not one in twenty efcaped. 
 In I 77 J, the complaint of this difeafe became general. 
 In 1 776, it occurred to him that the good crop of 1 773 
 was owing to tlic accidental deep felting of i 772 ; and 
 that the reafon why the fame feed became curled in 
 1 774) ^\'as their being fet fo near the furface in i 773 ; 
 and attributes the difeafe totlie practice of cbb-fctting. 
 In 1777) he took fome potatoes from a crop that was 
 curled the year before, and after cutting the fets, lefc 
 them in a dry room for a month. Half were planted 
 in ground dug fourteen days before ; the other half, 
 having been lleeped inabriue madeofwhirilcr'salhes 
 for two hours, were alfo planted in the fame land at 
 the fame time. The ftceped ones came up ten days 
 before the others, and hardly any milFcd or were curl- 
 ed. The unlleeped ones generally failed, and thofe 
 few that came up were mollly curled. 
 
 He therefore .idvifed as a remedy, I. That the po- 
 tatoes intended for next year's fet5 be planted nine in- 
 ches deep. 2. That they remain in the ground as long 
 as the feafon will permit. 3. That thefe fets be well 
 defended from froll till the beginning of March. 4. 
 That the lets be cut a fortnight before planting, j. 
 That they be lleeped, as above, two hours in biine or 
 ley. 6. That the dung be put cvfr the fets. And 
 7- Th:it frelh fets be got every year from fandy foils 
 near the coaft, or on the fliore. 
 
 P. S. At planting, the hard dry fets fliould be cad 
 afide, for they will probably be curled. Curled pota- 
 toes always proceed from fets which do not rot or pu- 
 trefy in the ground. 
 
 VI. Tliis writer had five drills of the old red pota- 
 toes, and four of the wintrr whites, growing at :!ie 
 fame time in the fame field. Thcdrills were prepared 
 
 L 1 2 cxaflly 
 
 267
 
 A C; R 1 C U L T U R E. 
 
 Part. I. 
 
 cxacUy alike. Among the red not one was curled ; 
 the winter wiiitcs were nearly all curled. He fays he 
 has t'oiiiid by experience, that the re 1 never curl. 
 
 Vll. Two of the writer's neighbours had their fcts 
 out of one licap of potatoes. Tlicy botli fet with the 
 plough, the one early, and the other late in thcfca- 
 fon. Mod of thofc early let proved curled, and moll 
 of ihofe fet late fmooth ; the latter on cl^y land. 
 
 A few roods of land were alfo planted with fiiiall 
 potatoes, which had lain I'prcad on a chamber lioor all 
 the winter and fpring, till the middle of May. They 
 were foft and withered ; they proved fmooth and a 
 .rood cn-p. Middlc-fizcd potatoes, withered and foft, 
 which had been kept in a larg-c dry cellar, and the 
 fproutb of w hieh had been broken otl'tliree times, pro- 
 d'jccd alfo a fmooth good crop. 
 
 Hence he was led to think a fuperfluity of f.ip, oc- 
 cafioncd by the feed being unripe, might caufe the dif- 
 c;;fe. To be fr.tistied in this, he alkcd the farmer w he- 
 ihcr he had fet any of the fame potatoes this year, and 
 wiiat was the nature of his land .' He told him " he 
 h:;d : that they had been feton his farm fourtce.i years, 
 without ever curling ; that his foil was a poor whitiilt 
 fand of little depth ; that he let thofc he defigned for 
 keeping grow till they were fully ripe." 
 
 Hence he concludes, the only fure way to prevent 
 the curl is, to let potatoes intended for feed ftand till 
 they are fully ripe, and to keep them dry all winter. 
 
 VIII. This writer fet a quantity of the red potatoes, 
 without having a curled one amongft them. Hisme- 
 thod is, when the fets are cut, to pick out fuch as are 
 reddell in the iulide. On digging them up at Mi- 
 chaelmas, he mixes none of the curled feed among the 
 others. The curled are eafily dilVinguilhed, by their 
 Italks withering two months before the refl of the 
 crop. 
 
 The caufe of the curled difeafe he attributes to po- 
 tatoes being of late years produced from feed inllead 
 of roots, as formerly. Such will not Hand good mr.rc 
 than two or three years, ufe what method you pleafc. 
 Laft fpring, he fet the old red and white raflcLS, and 
 had not a curled potato amongfl them. 
 
 On the lime-llone hnd about Denbigh, in North 
 Wales, they have no curled potatoes. If this be ow- 
 ing to the nature of that land, perhaps lime might 
 prevent tlie difeafe. 
 
 IX. According to this writer, all forts of grain 
 wear out and turn wild if fown too long on the fame 
 land; the fame will hold good in all forts of pulfe, 
 peafe, beans, and (as he conceives) potatoes. It ge- 
 nerally happens, that thofe who have moft curled po- 
 tatoes plant very fmal! fets. 
 
 Eleven years ago he bought a parcel of frefh fets, of 
 the golden-dun kind, and has ufed them without change 
 to the prefcnt year, without any being curled. This 
 he principally attributes to liis having always planted 
 good large fets. 
 
 About four years fince, he thought of changing his 
 fets, as his potatoes were too fmooth, too rourij, and 
 much diminiflicd in fize. But the curl at that time 
 begirning to be very alarming, he continued his fets 
 till part of his crop milTing Ufl year, he was obliged to 
 buy new fets this fpring, which, being linall, were 
 curled like other peoples. 
 
 He allows, that the curl lias frequently happened to Theory. 
 
 pcrfiins who have ufed large potatoes for fets ; -for, as -' — 
 
 all roots are not equally attcCtcd, fome curled ones may 
 be mixed with tlic rcll. 
 
 To prevent the evil, cut your fets from clean and 
 niiddle-lizcd potatoes, gathered from places as clear of 
 the curl as poliiblc ; preferve ihcm as iifual till fpring. 
 If any arc harder or gralh more in cutting than ufual, 
 call them afide. He would alfo rccouiuicnd the railing 
 a frefh fort front the crab produced on the forts Icalt 
 alt'cdlcd, which in Lancalhire are the long-duns. 
 
 X. Set potatoes with the fprits broke ott', and they 
 will (fays the writer ot this letter) be curled ones j if 
 fet with the fprits on, they W'ill not be curled. Again, 
 take a potato which is fprit, and cut a fet off with two 
 lights : break one fprit oif, and let the other Hay on, 
 and fet it ; the former will be curled, and the la[ter 
 will not. 
 
 AVhcn yon have holed your potatoes, take them out 
 before they are fprit, and lay ihcm dry until you have 
 fet or fown them, and you will have no curled pota- 
 toes. 
 
 XI. This writer was at the expence of procuring 
 fets at fifty miles diflance, and where this difeafe was 
 not known. The firll year's trial was fuccefsful ; the 
 year following he procured fets from the fame place, 
 but one-fifth of his crop was infefted. By way of ex- 
 periment, he planted fets from roots which had been . 
 infciSled the year before, and fome of thefc produced 
 healthy plants, free from all infeftion. 
 
 As every cffcd muft have a caufe, he fuppofed it 
 might be fome infect, which, living on the leaves, gave 
 them that curled and lickly appearance, as is the cafe 
 in the leaves of many flirubs and trees. I5ut whether 
 the infeil is lodged in the old fets, and to be dcflroyed 
 at the time of planting, or, proceeding from fome ex- 
 ternal caufe, can only be dcllroyed atterwards, he is 
 not yet certain, although he has made the following 
 cxpeiimcnts. 
 
 On a piece of ground tiat had not been dug for 20 
 years, he planted four rows of fcts, which he knew to 
 be perfectly clear ; the drills were two feet diflant, the 
 fets one foot diflant in each drill. He then planted 
 on the fame ground four rows with fets from curled 
 potatoes at equal diflances ; in each row were about 
 20 fets. 
 
 Lot ifl, tlie curled fiate. 
 
 N" I. 
 
 K° 3. In foot. 
 
 4. In quicklime. 
 
 N» 
 
 Without manure. 
 In fait. 
 
 Lot ;d, the clear fcts. 
 Without manure, I N" 3. In foot, 
 2. In fait, I 4. in quicklime. 
 
 Thofe planted in fait and foot in both lots were de- 
 flroycd. In lot I. n° I. and 4. all curled. Lotj.n"!. 
 and 4. quite clear. 
 
 This experiment was made on a fuppofition that the 
 infeiS lodged in the fet, and niufl be deflroyed by plant- 
 ing. But of that he is not fully fatislied. He re- 
 peated fait, foot, and quicklime, on the branches of 
 feveral curled potatoes. Salt deflroyed all he touched 
 with it. Lime and foot had, he thought, a partial 
 cffcift on the plants. After fome time, they appeared 
 almofl as healthy as the refl. Thus, although he had 
 done little towards the cure, te flatters himfclf he has 
 
 pointed
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 pointed ojt the caufe, the iiifcfls on the cu:lcd plants 
 being not only very numerous, but viliblc to the naked 
 
 XII. This writer afcribcs the caufc ot the dilcafe 
 to the froit, and bad keeping in winter and Ipring be- 
 fore fetting. They arc liable to be damaged by ("roll 
 aftcrlhey arc fct, but this may be prevtntcd by cover- 
 ing. If it be aiked, why frolt did not injure them for- 
 merly ? he anfwcrs, it is only the new kinds which 
 are apt to curl. To this may be added, that Icfs care is 
 now taken of the feed than formerly. To prevent the 
 latter, let them remain in the ground covered with 
 haulm or litter, till the time they arc wanted for fet- 
 ting ; and, in cafe no fro 1 1 touches them afterwards, 
 they will be free from the difcafc. 
 
 XIII. This writer fays, the red potato was as ge- 
 nerally plan ted as the wintcr-whiteandthcLincolnlhirc 
 kidney are now. The firfl, being a later potato, did 
 not fprout I'o early as the others. The white fprout 
 very early, and therefore Qiould iirfl be moved out of 
 the place where they have been prefcrved in the winter. 
 Inftcad of that, they are often let remain till their 
 roots and fprouts are matted together. On feparating 
 them, thefe fprouts are generally rubbed off, and they 
 are laid by till the ground is ready ; during which in- 
 terval they fprout a fecond time : but thcfc fecond 
 fprouts, being weak and languid, will Ihrink, licken, 
 and die ; and the fruit at the roots will be fmall, hard, 
 ill fliaped, and of a brown colour. 
 
 Now, it putting off the fprouts once or more, be- 
 fore the fets are put in the ground, be the caufe (as 
 he verily believes it is) of the curled difeafe, an ealy 
 remedy is at hand. When the pot.itocs intended for 
 fets are dug up, lay them in a weft afpeCl as dry as 
 polFible : in fucha lituaiion they will not fprout fo loon. 
 The belt time for removing mofl forts, is the firft fine 
 day after the 24th of February. Cut them into fets 
 as foon as polFible, and let them remain covered with 
 dry fand till the ground is prepared, which Ihould be 
 a winter fallow. Lay the fets in without breaking off 
 any of the fprouts, for the fecond will not be fo vigo- 
 rous. This accounts for one fprout out of three from 
 the fame fct being curled. The two ftems not curled 
 rofe from two later eyes, and were tirfl fprouts. The 
 fprout curled was a fecond, the Iirfl having been rub- 
 beil off". 
 
 XIV^ This writer fays, that lad fpring one of his 
 neighbours cut and fet, in the ufual way of drilling, 
 fome loads of the largcll potatoes he could procure ; 
 and more than half of them proved curled. Being a 
 few fets Ihort of the quantity wanted, he planted fome 
 very fmall potatoes which he had laid by for the pigs. 
 Thefe being fully ripe and folid, there was not a cur- 
 led plant among them. He apprehends, the others 
 being curled was owing to their not being fully ripe. 
 A crop of potatoes, fet this year in rows on ground 
 that had borne a crop of them lall year, were niollly 
 curled ; but many plants came up from feed lel"t in the 
 ground lad fcafon, and there was not a curled one 
 among them. 
 
 XV. Of late years, this writer fays, great improve- 
 ments have been made in fetting potatoes and cutting 
 the fets. The ground is drclfcd cleaner and dunged 
 ftronger. Many people, in drilling, wrap up the fets 
 eijtircly in the dung ; by which means, though their 
 
 potatoes are larger, the difeafe feenis to be increafcd. 
 They alfo cut their fets out of the richcfland largefl 
 potatoes, which is perhaps another caufe of this evil. 
 Jn cold countries, where they fet th^rir own feed, 
 which has grown on poor land, with Icfs dung, they 
 have no curled plants. On the contrary, when they 
 bought rich and lirgc potatoes for feed, they have 
 been curled in great quantities. He believes, the 
 richncfs and largenefs of the feed to be the caufe of 
 the evil ; for he docs not ren:ember to have fecn a 
 curled Hem which did not fpring from a fet of a largo 
 potato. 
 
 XVI. This writer apprehends the curled difeafe ill 
 potatoes to proceed from a de fedl in the f/aita /fmina - 
 Ih, or feed-plant ; and from comparing curled ones 
 with others, there appeared to be a want of, or ina- 
 bility in, the powers of expanding or unfolding the 
 parts of the former ; which, from this defctJl, forms 
 Ihrivclled, ftarvcd, curled Hems. On examining fome 
 of the lets at tlic time of getting the crop, he found 
 them hard and undecayed ; fo hard, indeed, that feme 
 of them would not be foft with long boiling. This 
 led him to think, that fome manures might have the 
 fame effect on them as tanners ooze has on leather, 
 and fo harden them, that the embryo plant could not 
 come forth with eafe ; but a clofer examination taught 
 him othcrwife, and that tiiat they grow equally in all 
 manures. 
 
 Some have thought that the fermentation is occa- 
 fioned by too great quantities being heaped together ; 
 but the writer has fcen an inflance, wherein a linglc 
 potato, prefcrved by itfclf, when fct, produced flems 
 of the curled kind. He thinks the moll conlillent and 
 rational opinion is, that the difeafe is occalioned by 
 the potatoes being taken from the ground before the 
 flamcn, or miniature-plant, is properly matured and 
 ripened. 
 
 For let it be obfcrved, that the potato, being a na- 
 tive of a warmer climate, has there more fun, and a 
 longer coiitinuance in the ground, confcquently, it 
 has not the fame natural caufes in a cold climate to 
 mature the feed-plant as in its native Hate. All the 
 opportunities, therefore, ought to be given in which 
 climate will admit for nature to coniplce her work, 
 and fit the flamen for the next date of vcgctatio:!, 
 ifpccially in thofe intended for feed, but if the po- 
 tato be taken up before the feed-plant he fully matu- 
 red, or the air and fap-velfels have acquired a proper 
 degree ofiirmnefsor hardnefs, it muff, when thus rob- 
 bed of turtlicr nutriion, Ihrivel up ; and when thevcf- 
 fels, in this immature flatc, come- to act again in the 
 fecond ftate of vegetation, they may produce plants 
 which arc cut led. 
 
 Ifir be alked, why arc they more common now 
 than formerly .' he anfwers, that before the prcfent 
 mode of fetting them took place, people covered them, 
 while ia the ground, with ilraw, to protect them from 
 froft. 
 
 If it be alked, why one fet produces both curled and 
 fmooth ficms .' he anfwcrs, v/c fuppofc every eye to 
 cor\lM\ ^ p!^i:ta remiitatis : that all the embryos, or 
 feed-plan. s, contained in one potnto, are nouriihed l-y 
 one root ; th.it, as in c.irs of corn, fome of thcfc feed- 
 plants nuy be nouriihed before others. 
 
 Oat of his neighbours, lall year, fet two rows of 
 
 potatoes,
 
 27© 
 
 A G R I C U L T U R E. 
 
 'I'hcory. potatoes, wliich proving all curled, he did not take 
 
 " 'ihcmup; and this year there is not a curled one 
 
 among them. Such potatoes, therefore, as arc delign- 
 cd tor feed, Uiould be prefervcd as long in the ground 
 as polFiblc. 
 
 XVII. This writer advifcs fuch fcts to be planted 
 as grow in mols-lanJ ; and, he fuys, there will not be 
 a lin|?;lc curled one the tirli year. This is ailirmcJ by 
 the inhabitants of two towniliips, where they grow a- 
 mazing quantities. — A medical gentleman lowed lall 
 year two bufliels of fcts from one of the above places, 
 and had not one curled ; but on fowing them again 
 this year, he had a few. 
 
 Notwithrtanding there feems to be a diverfity of 
 opinions in the above writers, ocealioned by the diffe- 
 rent appearances of their crops, and the fecmingly 
 contrary ctTccfs of the means ufed to prevent or cure 
 the difeafe, wc conceive tliiit the following general 
 propolitions may be fairly drawn from the whole. 
 I. That fome kinds of fotatoes are {^oetirii paribui) 
 much more liable to be aiieclcd by the difeafe than the 
 reft ; and that the oldrcd, the golJendun, and the 
 long-dun, are the moft free from it. — 2. That the 
 difeafe is ocealioned by one or more of the following 
 caufcs, either iingly or combined : ift. By froft, cither 
 before oraftcrthc fetsareplanted : 2d, Krom planting 
 i'ets out of large unripe potatoes : fjd, From planting too 
 near the furfacc.and in old worn-out ground: 4th, Krom 
 the firftflioots of the fcts being broken off before plant- 
 ing ; by which means there is an incapacity in the pl.11:- 
 ta fimiiiaiii to feud forth others fufliciently vigorous to 
 expandfo fully as they ought. — 5. That the moft fuc- 
 ccfsful methods of preventing the difeafe, arc cutting 
 the fcts from fmooth midjle-fizcd potatoes, that were 
 full ripe, and had been kept dry after they were taken 
 out of the ground ; and without rubbing off their lirft 
 
 llioots, planting them pretty deep in frclh earth, with 
 a mixture of quicklime, or on lime-ftone land. 
 
 A corrclpondent ofliie liath Society is convinced 
 that, whatever may be its caufc, the fault itfclf is inhe- 
 rent in the feed ; and has communicated the following 
 method of avoiding it : "I made a hot-bed in the fol- 
 lowingmanner: (which method Ihave ufed everfince) 
 I laid horfe-dung, &c. (as is generally ufed in making 
 hotbeds) about 18 inches thick ; over which I fpread 
 a layer of line rich mould abuut four or live inches 
 thick : uponthe top of thismould I laid, in ditterent 
 divifions, a certain numberof potatoes of various forts, 
 fome of my Ovvn growth, and others brought from dif- 
 ferent parts, and covered thefe lightly over with more 
 mould ; they foon canic up. 1 then obfcrved which 
 was freell from the blight or curl ; for if there were 
 not more than one defective \\\jorty ox fifty, I concluded 
 1 might let of that fort with fafcty. This method I 
 have now praflifed near twelve years, and never loll 
 my crop or any part thereof worth mentioning; whilft 
 my neighbours, who followed the old method, were 
 frecjuently difappointcdin their crops ; and to the bcft 
 ofniy knowledge, all thofe of my neighbours who have 
 of late been perfuaded to take the trouble of uling the 
 fame means as myfelf, have never failed of fuccefs to 
 their utmoftwiflies inone inftance ; nor do I ever think 
 it will fail, if duly attended to ; the fault being fome 
 hidden caufe in the feed unknownat prefent, andl be- 
 lieve incurable by any means, at leaft which have yet 
 come to my knowledge. RJy reafon for planting my 
 hot-beds fo foon is, that if the froft hinders the firft 
 experiment, or they all prove bad, I may have time to 
 make a fecond or third if necell'ary, with different 
 forts of feed, before the proper fcafon arrives for plan- 
 ting in the Helds and grounds appointed for the great 
 and general crop." 
 
 Part r. 
 
 Theory. 
 
 Part II. PRACTICE of AGRICULTURE. 
 
 83 
 
 Skct. I. Inftrumtnts of Hujbandry. 
 
 ''1"'HE inftrumcnts employed in agriculture are vari- 
 -^ ous ; as the plough, the harrow, the roller, &c. 
 which are again greatlydiverlitied by various conftruc- 
 tions adapted to particular ufes. 
 
 I. Of Ploughs. 
 
 Scots The plough conftrufled in the following manner is 
 
 plough, flillthe moft common and the moft generally underftood 
 in Scotland : and, if properly made, is thebcftforan- 
 fwcring all purpofes, when only one is ufed ; though 
 others are, perhaps, more proper on fome particular oc- 
 „ caiions. 
 
 Dflcription '^^^ parts of which this plough is compofed, are, the 
 of the Scots hcadjthe beam, the flicath, the wreil, the mould-board, 
 plough. the twohanJles, the two rungs, the lock, and t lie coul- 
 ter, the twolaftarcmadcofiron,andall the reft of wood. 
 I'bte V. The Head, isdelisaed for opening the ground be- 
 
 fig. I. low. The length of the head from A to B is about 20 
 inches, and the breadth from A to D about five inches ; 
 C is the point upon which the fock is driven, and tlic 
 length from B to C is about fix inches ; a is the mor- 
 loife into which the larger handle is fixed, and ^is the 
 mortoife into which the iheath is fixed. 
 
 The head is that part of the plough vhich goes in 
 the ground ; therefore the fliorter and narrower it is, 
 the fridion willbe the lefs, and the plough more eafily 
 drawn : but the longer the head is, the plough goes 
 more fteadily, and is not fo calily put out of its direc- 
 tion by any obftruclions that occur. Twenty inches is 
 confidered as a mean length ; and five inches is the 
 moft convenient breadth. 
 
 The Sheath, E, is driven into the mortoife b, and p. 
 thus iixed to the head A B. It is not perpendicular to 
 the head, but placed obliquely, foas to make the angle 
 formed liy the lines A B and £ B about 60 degrees. 
 The (heath is about I 3 inches long, belides what is dri- 
 ven into the mortoife b (fig. i.) ; about three inches 
 broad, and one inch thick. 
 
 The Iheath isfixed to the mould-board, as in fig. 11. 
 E, in the fame manner as the wreft isfixed co the head 
 in fig. 7. 
 
 The MouLD-EOARD, is defigned to turn over the Fig. 
 earth of the furrow riaJc by the plough ; and it is ob- 
 vious, that, according to the pofiiion of the Iheath, the 
 mo.ild-boardwill turn over the earth of the furrow more 
 or lefs fuddenly. Befides, w hen it forms a lefs angle 
 with the head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great 
 danger of being chtkcd, as the farmers term it. 
 
 The
 
 Part II. 
 
 A G R 1 C U 
 
 271 
 
 The Larger Handle, K A, isfixcd to iliehead, by 
 ' driving it into the mortoilcrf(iig. i.). It is placed in the 
 fame pUnc witli the head ; and itslcngtli I'roni A Fis 
 about live feet four inches, and itsdiamitcrauheplacc 
 where it is fixed to the beam i^ about two inches and an 
 half, audiapers a little to the top V. About ten inches 
 from A, there is a curve in the handle, which, when K 
 is raifcd to its proper licight, makes the lower part of 
 it nearly parallel to the ihcath E B. This curve is dc- 
 ligned tollrenglhcn the handle. The proper pofition 
 of the handle is, when the top V is about three feet two 
 inches higher than the bottom of the head A B. 
 
 'Ihc longerthc handles, theplough isthe more cafi- 
 ly managed, becaufe the levers arc more diftant from the 
 centre of motion. The higher the top of the handles, 
 ti:C plough is more ealiiy raifed out of the ground, pro- 
 vided they be no higher than the lower part of a man's 
 breaft. 
 
 The Beam, is fixed to the larger handle and the 
 llieath, all of which are placed in the fame plane witii 
 the head. The length of it, from H to I, is about fix 
 feet ; its diameter is about four inches. When the 
 plough is in the ground, tlic beam Ihould be juit high 
 enough not tobe incommoded by any thing on the fur- 
 face. 
 
 The pofition of the beam depends on the number of 
 cattle in the plough. W hen two horfes arc yoked, the 
 beam (houlj be placed in fiich a manner as to make the 
 perpendicular diilaiice betwixt the bolt-hole of the 
 beam and the plane of the head about 2 1 inches; when 
 four horfes are yoked, two a-breaft, this diftance 
 fhould only be about 18 inches. 
 
 The Sock, BP, is fixed toihe end of the head, and 
 is about two feet long. In fitting the Sock to the head, 
 the point ought to be turned a little to the land or left 
 iide ; becaufe othcrwife it is apt to come out of the 
 land altogether. When turned to the left, itlikewife 
 takes ort'more land ; when turned upwards, the plough 
 goes lliallow; and when downwards, it goes deeper. 
 
 The Coulter, is fixed to th- beam, and is about 
 two feet ten inches long, two inches and a half broad, 
 (harp at the point and before, and thick on the back, 
 like a knife. It is fixed and dircfted by wedges, fo as 
 to make the point of it equal to, or rather a little be- 
 fore the point of the f>ck, and upon a line with the left 
 fide of the head. This oblique pofition enables it to 
 throw roots, &c. out of the land, which requires lefs 
 force than cutting or pufliing them forward. 
 
 The Wrest, B O, is fixed to the head, and is about 
 26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It is fixed 
 to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to make the 
 an:;le contained l)etween the lines AB and BD about 
 25 degrees. The wrelf is feldom or never placed in 
 ihefimc place with thehead, butgradiially raifcd tVom 
 the place where it is fixed to it; that ii, from B to K, 
 as in fig. 8. 'I he polition of the wreftdeteruiincs the 
 nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide and l<iw 
 fct,the furrow is wi.le; and whcnit is narrow and high 
 fet, the furrow is narrow. 
 
 i'\i 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixedtogetber 
 by the two rungs. The larger handle his already been 
 dcfe-ibed ; the Iclfcr one is a few inches fhortcr, and 
 docs not require to be quite fo ft ron;;. The diilance of 
 the handles at the little rung depends on the poliiijn 
 of the wrclt. Their diilance at M and P is about two 
 
 Vraflii 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 feet fix inches. The Iclfcr handle is fixed to the mould 
 
 board at M, fig. 10. anil to the wrell K B, at L. >/-^ 
 
 Fig. II. reprefents the plough comiletc, by joining 
 togetlicr figures 6. and lot in the Ihcath K B. The 
 wreA B K is fuppofed to jnake an angle with the head 
 A B as in fig. 7. and the handles joined together asiu 
 fig. 9. 
 
 Alter having given fuch a particular defcription of 
 all the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it 
 willeafily appear how it feparates,r3ifes,and turns over 
 the eartli of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth 
 would open above the middle of tile fock, and in a line 
 before the Ihcath ; but as the coulter opens the earth 
 in a line with the left Iide of the head, if the Ibil has 
 anycohefion, the earth of the furrow u ill be wholly 
 raifed from the left fide, and, as the fock moves for- 
 ward, will be thrown on the right Iide of the Iheath, 
 and by the calling out of the mould- board, or the rai- 
 fingof the wrell, will be turned over. 
 
 The BRiDLi-_,or Muzzle, isanothcrarticle belong- Fig. 11, 
 iiig to theplough. It is fixed to the end of the beam, 
 and the cattic arc yoked by it. The muzzle commonly 
 ufcd is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by a 
 bolt through it. ABC is the muzzle, A C the bole 
 by which it is fixed to the beam; D. is the fwingle-trec 
 or crofs-tree, to which the traces are fixed ; and Bis 
 a hook, orc/.vi, as it is comraonly called, which joins 
 the muzzle and fwingle-tree. 
 
 Some nfe another kind of muzzle, A B C D. It is Fig. 13, 
 fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by 
 which the deck of the fwingle-tree may be fixed ci- 
 ther to the right or the left of the beam. There arc 
 alio ditlerent holes for the hind-bolt to pafs thro', by 
 which the draught may be fixed either above or below 
 the beam. A D is the fore-bolt upon which the 
 muzzle turns ; on B C are four notches, betwixt any 
 two ofwhich the clcekofthc fwingle-trec may be fixed. 
 When the deck is fixed at B, the plough is turned to- 
 wards the firm land, and takes off a broader furrow ; 
 and when fixed at C, it is turned towards the plough- 
 ed land, and takes otFa narrower furrow. K and F 
 arejhe holesoneach fide thro' which thehindmollbok 
 palfes. When the boltisput thro' the highcft two,thefc 
 holes being thereby brought to themidiileof thebcam, 
 the fore-part of the muzzle is raifed above the beam, 
 and the plough is made to go deeper ; and when put 
 through the lowed two, the fore part of the muzzle is 
 funk below the beam, and the plough is made to go 
 Ihallower. This muzzle may be fo conllriictid as to 
 have the kme play with the common one. A is the Fig, 16,. 
 end of the beam ; B a plate of iron fjiik into it, and 
 with a limilar one in the other fide, is rivettcd into it 
 by bolts ; C isthe muzzle fixed to thefc plates of iron 
 by the bolt D, which bolt miy be put through any of 
 the holes E E. From thir conilruclion of this muzzle 
 it is plain, that it has the fame play with the common 
 one, and that by it the land of the plough may be al- 
 tered at pleafurc. g 
 
 Of all forms, that of the Scotch plough is the fit- IVoptrtiet 
 tcil for breaking up Ilitf and rough land, efpecially of chc Scots . 
 where ftoncs abound; and nokfs fit for (Irong cliys plough. 
 hardened by drought. The length of its head gives it 
 a firm hold of the ground ; its weight prevents it from 
 beingihrown out by Hones; the length of the handles 
 gives the plougbman great coiiuuand todirecl its mo- 
 tion ;
 
 272 ' A G R 1 C U 
 
 Traiiicc. tion ; anj by the Iciip^ili ol' its licaJ, and of its mouLl- 
 *—^^— board, i: lays the fiirrow-llice cleverly over. This 
 j'luugh was contrived during liic infancy cf a;;ricul- 
 tiire, and was well contrived : in iho foils above dc- 
 j(6 fcrihcd, it has not an cqnal. 
 In what foil Uiit i'l tender full it is iiupropcr, bccaufe it adds 
 iinproin-r. grcaily tothc cxpcnceof plou^hini;, withontany corin- 
 terb'.l incing benciit. 'I'iie length of the licad and 
 n'.onld-board incrcafcsthc frivHion,aiui conftqnently it 
 requires agrcuer number or oxen or horfes tlian are 
 ncccllary in a (liorter plojg^. There is another par- 
 ticular ill its form, that rclills tliedranghl: tlic mould- 
 board makes an angle witli the fock, iialeadof making 
 a line with it gently curved backward. There is an 
 objccHon againft it no kfs fodd, that it does not Air 
 the ground pcrfcftly : the hinder part of tlic wreil 
 rifes a foot above the foleof the head ; and the earth 
 that lies immediately below that hinder part, is left 
 nnllirred. This is ribbing land below the lurface, li- 
 milar to what is done by ignorant farmers on the lur- 
 face. 
 
 Thefe defects nuift be fiibmittcd to in a foil tliat re- 
 quires a llrong l)cavy,ploui:;h ; but may be avoided in 
 a cultivated foil by a plough diticrintly conftrutled. 
 Of all the ploughs fated for a cultivated foil free of 
 floncs, that introduced into Scotland about ao years 
 ago, by J?mes Small in IJlackadder Mount, bcrwick- 
 fliirc,is thebeft. Itis nowin great rcquei't ; and with 
 rcafon,asit avoids all the defecls of the Scots plougli. 
 The fliortncfs of its held and of its mould-board lelfeu 
 the friJlion greatly : from the point of the fock to the 
 back part of the head it is only ;o inches j and the 
 whole length, from the point of the beam to the end 
 of the handles, between eight and nine feet. The 
 fock and niouldboard make one line gently curving ; 
 andeonfequently gather no earth. Inlleadofa wrcll, 
 the under edge of the niouldboard is in one plain with 
 the foleof the head ; which makes a wide furrow,'.\ ith- 
 out leaving any part unflirred. It is termed the ch^iin- 
 ptough, becauie it is drawn by an iron cliain fixed to 
 the back part of the beam immediately before the 
 coulter. This has two advantages: firfl, by means of 
 a muz/de, it makes the jdough go deep, or Ihallow ; 
 and, next, it flrellcsthe beam Id's than if tixed to the 
 point, and therefore a dendercr beam is fufficient. 
 
 This plough may be well confidered as a capital im- 
 provement ; not only by faving expence, but by ma- 
 king belter work. It is proper for loams ; for coarl'e- 
 clays ; and, in general, for every (ort of tender foil 
 free of ftones. It is even proper for opening up pa- 
 fture-ground, where the foil has been formerly well 
 cultivated. 
 •OftheSock A fpikcd fock is ufed in the Scotch plough. The 
 Plate V. difference between it and the feathered fock will be 
 bcft underllood by comparing their figures. Fig. 14. 
 is the common fock, and fig. is- 'he feathered one. 
 
 From the conflruiflion of the feathered fock, it is 
 obvious, that it muft meet with greater refiftance than 
 the ronion fock. However, when the plough takes 
 off the earth of the furrow broader than that part of 
 the fock which goes upon the head, it is more eafily 
 drawn than the plough with the common fock; for the 
 earth which the common fock leaves to be opened 
 by the wrefb, is more cafily opened by the feather of 
 the other fock. In ley, the feathered fock makes the 
 
 87 
 Chain- 
 )iloiigh 
 Plate V 
 f'g. I- 
 
 Sg 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 plough go more cafily, becaufe the roots of the grafs, 
 which go beyond the reach of the plough, arc more 
 cafily cut by the leather, than they can lie torn afunder 
 by tlie common lock. The feaiht red fock is alfo of 
 great life in cutting and deflroying root-weeds. Ihc 
 tomnioii fock, however, anfwers much bettcrin llrong 
 land. 
 
 It is proper here to add, that in fitting tJie feathered 
 fock to the head, the point of it ihould be turned a 
 little from tlic land, or a little to the right hand. 
 
 If we look back ;;o years, ploughs of different con- 
 ftruftions did not ciitcreven into a dream. The Scotch 
 plough was nniverfally ufed, and no other was known. 
 There was no lefs ignorance as to the number of cattle 
 neccllary for this plough. In the fouth of Scotland, 
 lix oxen .ind two horles were univerfal ; and in the 
 north, 10 oxen, fometimes 12. I'he firll attempt to 
 lelfcn the number of oxen was in Rcrwickiliire. The 
 low part of that county abounds with ftonc, clay, and 
 marl, the moll fubftautial of all manures, which had 
 been long nfcd by one or two gentlemen. About 2J 
 years ago it acquired reputation, and fprcad rapidly. 
 As two hoifcs and two oxen were employed in every 
 marl-cart ; the farmer, in fummer-fallowing, and in 
 preparing land for marl, was confined to four oxen and 
 two liorfes. And as that manure afforded plenty of 
 fucculcnt rtraw for oxen, the farmer was furprifed to 
 find that four oxen did better now than fix formerly. 
 Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded (low- 
 ly, till people were taught by a noted farmer in that 
 country, what induflry can perform by means of power 
 properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty talk to 
 marl five or fix acres in a year. That gentleman, by 
 plenty of red clover for his working-cattle, accom- 
 plilhcd the marling jo acres in a fuinincr, once 54. 
 Having fo much occafion for oxen, he tried with fuc- 
 ccfs two oxen and two horfes in a plough; and that 
 practice became general in Berwicklhire. 
 
 Now here appears with ludre the advantage of the 
 chain-plough. The great friflion occafioned in the 
 Scotch plough by a long head, and by the angle it 
 makes with the mouldboard, neceUarily requires two 
 oxen and two horfes, whatever the foil be. The fric- 
 tion is fo much lefsin the chain-plough, that two good 
 horfes are found fufiicient in every foil that is proper 
 for it. Belldes, the reducing the draught to a couple 
 of horfes has another advantage, that of rendering a 
 driver unneceffary. Thisfavingonevery plough, where 
 two horfes and two oxen were formerly ufed, will, by 
 the (Irii'lcll computation, be L. 15 Sterlingyearly ; and 
 where fourhorfes were nfcd, nolefs than L. 20 Sterling. 
 There is now fcarcc to be fcen in the low country of 
 Berwicklhire a plough with more than two horfes ; 
 which undoubtedly in time will become general. Wc 
 know but of one further improvement, that of ufing 
 two oxen inllead of two horfes. That draught has 
 been employed with fucccfs in feveral places ; and the 
 faving is fo great, that it mufl force its way every 
 where. It may be confidently affirmed, no foil ftirred 
 in » proper feafon, can ever require more than two 
 horles and two oxen in a plough, even fuppoling it the 
 ftiffelt clay. In all other foils, two good horfes, or 
 two good oxen abreafl, may be relied on for every o- 
 peration of the chain-plough. 
 
 A chain-plough of a fmaller iize than ordinary, 
 
 drawM 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Praflice- 
 
 89 
 
 Ignorance 
 of farmers 
 in Scotland 
 but a few 
 years ago, 
 
 yo 
 AdT.inta- 
 gc5 of the 
 chain 
 
 }ilough par- 
 ticularly il- 
 luftrated.
 
 I'lateV 
 
 • ',', '.w , ',„//, . f /■,,,,, f
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 l>ra<aicc. 
 
 9' 
 A fmall 
 finjjlc horfe 
 plough re- 
 commend- 
 ed for va- 
 riout pur- 
 poki. 
 
 drawn by a fiiigle horfc, is of all the mod proper 
 for liorfc-hociiig, fuppoliii^ the land to be mellow, 
 wliich it ought to be for that operation. It is fuffi- 
 cicnt for making furrows to receive the dung, for 
 ploughing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the 
 crop. 
 
 A flill fmalltr plough of the fame kind may be re- 
 commended for a kitchen-garden. It can be reduced 
 to the fmallcit h/x, by being made of iron ; and where 
 the land is properly drclitd for a kitchen-garden, an 
 iron plough of the rniallcll lizc drawn by a hoile wi) 1 fave 
 much fpadc-work. in Scotland, tliirty years ago, a kit- 
 chen-garden was an article of luxury merely, bccaufc 
 at that time there coiild be no cheaper food than oat- 
 meal. At prefcnt, the farrier maintains his fcrvants at 
 double expcncc, as the price of oat-meal is doubled ; 
 and yet he has no notion of a kitchcn-girden more 
 than he had thirty years ago. He never thinks, that 
 living partly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would 
 fave much oat-meal : nor does he ever think, that 
 change of food is more wholcfo.ne, than vegetables 
 alone, or oat-meal alone. We need not recommend 
 potatoes, which in fcanty crops of corn have proved 
 a great blelling : without them, the labouring poor 
 would frequently have been reduced to a llarving con- 
 dition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen- 
 garden with as much induftry as he bellows on his 
 potatoc crop, he need never fear want ; and he can 
 cultivate it with the iron plough at a very fmall ex- 
 pcncc. It may be held by a boy of 12 or 13 ; and 
 would be a proper education for a ploughman. But it 
 is the landlord who ought to give a beginning to the 
 improvement. A very fmall expencc would inclofc an 
 acre for a kitchen-garden to each of his tenants ; and 
 it would excite their indiiftry, to beftow an iron plough 
 on thofe who do bed. 
 
 Nor is this the only cafe where a fingle-horfc plough 
 may be proh'tably employed. It is fufficient for feed- 
 furrowing barley, where the land is light and well- 
 drcflcd. It may be ufcd in the fccond or third plough- 
 ing of fallow, 10 encourage annual weeds, which are 
 dcllroyed in fubfcqucnt ploughings. 
 
 The Rotheravi pmu^h is a machine of very fimple 
 conftruclion, and eafily worked. AB is the beam, 
 CD the (heath, EBD the main handle, FR the fmall- 
 cr handle, GH the coulter, KI the fock or (hare, NP 
 the bridle, S the lly-band, and ML a piece of wood 
 in place of a head. The whole of this plough fliould 
 be made of afli or elm . the irons (liould be flccled and 
 well-temprred ; and that part of the plough which is 
 underground in tilling (hould be covered with plates 
 ofiron. The difference between this and the common 
 plough fcems to confifl in the bridle at the end of the 
 beam, by which the ploughman can give the plough 
 more or le fs land by notches at N, or make it cut deep- 
 er or (hallower by the holes at P; in the coulter or 
 Iharc, which are fu made and let as to cut off the new 
 furrosv without tearing; and in the mould-b'iard, which 
 isfolhapcdat tirft t<> raife a little, and then gradually 
 turnover the new cut furrow wiih very little rcliflance. 
 But the grcatcft advantage attending it, is its being fo 
 tafy of draught, that it will do double the work of any 
 common plough. 
 
 The / arwg fk:igh is an inflrument ufcd in fcveral 
 parts of EngUnd for paring off the furfaceofihegrouad, 
 Vol . I. 
 
 in order to its being burnt. Mr OraJliy has giren the 
 following defcription of a very limplc inftrument of 
 this kind: From A to A (lig.ij.) is the plough-btam, 
 about fevcn feet long, inortifcd and pinioned into the 
 block B, which is of clean timber wi hout knots. 
 CC arc the flicaths or llandards, made fiat on the in- 
 lidc, to clofc equally \rrth the paring plate, and falleii- 
 ed to it with a bolt and key on cicl; lidc, as at D. 
 E is the paring plate of iron laid with fteel, about four 
 inches wide, and from 12 to 18 inches long. This 
 plate mull be made to cut on the fidcs, which are bolt- 
 ed to the ftandards as well as at the bottom part. W 
 Tixc two iron braces to keep the ftandards from giving 
 way : thefe ftandards mull be raortifed near the out" 
 iidcs and through the block. GG are the plough 
 handles, which mult be lixcd (lope ways between the 
 beam and tlic ftandards. The pin-holes in the beam, 
 the ufe of which is to make tiie plough cut more or 
 Icfs deep, by fixing the wheels nearer to or farther 
 from the paring plate, fliould no: be ibove two inches 
 afunder. 
 
 Fig. I. reprefents the four-coukered plough of Mr 
 Tull. Its beam is ten feet four inches long, where- 
 as that of tlie common plough is but eight. The beam 
 is (Iraight in the common plough, but in this it is 
 ftraight only from a lot, and tliencc arched : (> that 
 the line let down perpendicuhrly from the corner at .r, 
 to the even furface on which the plough ftands, would 
 be It; inches; and if another lint were let down from 
 the turning of the beam at b [.<> the fame furface, ic 
 would be one foot eight inches and a half; and a third 
 line let down to the furface from the bottom of the 
 beam at that part which bears upon the pillow, will 
 fhow the beam to be two feet ten inches high in that 
 part. At the diftance of three feet two inches from 
 the end of the beam a, at the plough-tail, the firft coul- 
 ter, or that next the Ihare, is let throu^ih ; and at 13 
 inches from this, a fccond coulter is let through : a 
 third at the fame diftance from that ; and, finally, the 
 fourth at the fame diftance from the third, that is, 13 
 inches : and from a 10 ^ is feven feet. 
 
 The crookcdncfs of the upper part of the beam of 
 this plough is contrived to avoid llie too great length 
 of the three foremoft coulters, which would be too 
 much if the beam was ftr.iight all the way ; and ihcy 
 would be aj)i to bend and be difplaccd,' unlefs they 
 w ere very heavy and clumfey. Alh is the bcft wood to 
 make the beam of, it being fufficiently ftroug, and yet 
 light. The fheat in this plough is to be feven inches 
 broad. The fixing of the Ihare in this, as well as in 
 the common plough, is the niceft part, and requires 
 the utmoU art of the maker; for the well-going of the 
 plough wholly depends upon the ))lacing this. Sup- 
 poiing the axis of the beam, and the left tide of the 
 Iharc, to be both horizontal, they muft never be fct 
 parallel to each other ; for if ihcy are, the tail of the 
 fliarc bearing againft the trench as much as the point, 
 would caufc the point to incline to the right hand, aiwl 
 it would be carried out of the ;rround into the furrow. 
 If the poi'u of tiie H.are (l:oivld be fct fo, tliat its (idc 
 fliould niskc an angle on the right tide of the axis of 
 the beam, this inconvenience would be much greater; 
 and if its point fiiould incline much to the Icf:, and 
 make too large an angle on that fide with the axis of 
 the beam, the plough would runquitcto the left hand ; 
 M m and 
 
 273 
 
 VnSizt. 
 
 9.1 
 TheViriag 
 f*liiu^h, 
 I'Ute VII, 
 
 9« 
 The Four, 
 conltcrcd 
 iMougb, 
 ['late VII.
 
 274 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 ice. ami if the holder, to prevent its running quite out of 
 the ground, turns the upper part of his pluugh to- 
 wards the kft hand, tlic pin of the Iharc will me up, 
 and cut the farrow di.igonilly, leaving it half unplouo li- 
 ed. To avoid this anil fcveral other inconveniences, 
 ihcftraijjht lide of the Iharc mull make an angle up n 
 the left fide of the beam ; but iWat n:ulk be fo very a- 
 cuic a one; that the tail of the lliare may only prcfs 
 Ufs aji;ainll the fide of tiic trench ihsn the point noes. 
 This angle is Ihown by the pricked lines at the bottom 
 of fig. 9. where i'/ is fupjiofcd to be ihc axis of the 
 beam let downto the furfacc, and^ /parallel lolhelelt 
 lide of the lh;rc : and it i^ the fubtenfe .'g that deter- 
 mines the inclination which the point of theiharc nuifl 
 have towards the left hand. '1 his fubtenfe, fays Mr 
 TuU, at the fore-end of an eight-feet beam, ihouid ne- 
 ver be more than one inch and a half, and whether the 
 beam be long or Ihort, the fubtenfe mull be the fame. 
 
 The great thing to be taken care of, is the placing 
 the four coulicrs ; which mull be fo let, that the four 
 imaginary places defcribed by their four edges, as the 
 plough moves forward, may be all parallel to each o- 
 thcr, or very nearly fo ; for if any one of them Ihould 
 be very much inclined to, or fliould/'ecede much from 
 cither of the other, then they would not enter the 
 ground together. In order to place them thus, the 
 beam mull be' carefully pierced in a proper manner. 
 The fccond coulter- hole mufl be two inches and ahalf 
 more on the right hand than the Itrft, the third mull 
 be as much more to the right of the fecond, and the 
 fourth the faniemcafurc to the right hand of the third; 
 and this two inches and ahalf mull be carefully mea- 
 lured from the centre of one hole to the centre of the 
 other. Each of thefe holes is a niortifc of an inch and 
 () uartcr w ide, and is three inches and a half long at the 
 top, and three inches at the bottom. The two oppo- 
 liic lidcs of this hole are parallel to the top and bot- 
 tom, but the back is oblique, and determines the ob- 
 liquity of the Handing of the coulter, which is wedg- 
 ed tight up to the poll. The coulter is two feet eight 
 inches long before it is worn ; the handle takes up lix- 
 tecn inches of this length, and is allowed thus long, 
 that the coulter may be driven down as the point wears 
 away. As to the wheels, the left hand wheel is 20 
 inches diameter, and that on the right hand two feet 
 three inclics, and the diftancc at which they arc fet 
 from each other is two feet 5; inches. 
 
 36 
 
 Swani- 
 cutter, 
 Plill* V 
 
 2. The Patent Sward-cuttf.r. 
 
 The ditFc rent parts of thisinflrument arcreprcfcnt- 
 ed by N" 1. 2. 3. of fig. 6. A. A.&c. afquareframc 
 
 5 feet 4 inches from the fore to the hind part, by 4 
 I feet Z inches, the breadth of the machine within 
 
 fide ; the timber (when of fir) 4 inches fquarc, pla- 
 ced on two wheels B. B. 5 feet diameter, a little more 
 or Icfs (the old fore-wheels ofa chaife may anfwcrthc 
 purpofe), to fupport the hind part of the machine. 
 
 C. C. &c. arc fix ftrong pieces of wood, called iu/Zs, 
 3 feet long, 5 inches and a half broad, the thicknefs 
 
 6 inches at E. and tapering to 5 inches at K. Into 
 thefe bulls arc fixed the cutting wheels, which are i- 
 ron, 1 3 inches diameter, 'ths of an inch thick at the 
 centre, about an inch diameter for piercing holes to fix 
 tlie iron axles in -, from that they are' to be of fuch 
 
 thicknefs, as allow tlic edges to be well ftccled. The rraflict. 
 
 wheels are fixed by two bolts going through the balls, ^— -» 
 
 with cyeiion out end for the axles of the wheels to 
 run in, and nuts andfcrewson the other to make ihein 
 veiy firm and funk in the bulls, to prevent tlicir inter- 
 fering with the weights L. L. &c. rellingon them, 
 
 0. O. &c. arc hollow piece of wood, calUd tkorles, 
 each 3', inches long, which indole the bolt M. M. 
 and keep the onlls C. C. &c. at their proper diJlaiices, 
 but may be made longer or Ihortcr at pleafurc, accor- 
 ding as the fward requires to be cut in larger or fn<all- 
 er pieces. They are ill two pieces bound together, 
 and joitited by a llrap of leather or cord, which allow s 
 them to be readily changed when the cutting wheels 
 require to be kept at more or lefs diilance. 
 
 'I'hc iron bolt M. M. goes through tw-o pieces of 
 wood or iron P. P. 7 inches long, clear of the wood, 
 fupporied by iron flays fixed to the frame, and tiiro' 
 all the bulls. It requires to be ftrong, as the draught 
 of the horfes terminate there. 
 
 H. H. N* 2. and 3. a cylinder or fegmcnt of 
 wood, 7 inches diameter, called a rocking tree, which 
 goes acrofs the frame, and moves on the pivots fixed 
 into it, one at each end, fupported by an iron bolt or 
 pieceof wood mortifed into the frame, 8 inches high, 
 as appears in N" 2. and 3. to wjiich 6 chains or ropes 
 are fixed by hooks, at different dillances, as you want 
 your cuts, 9, 8, 7, or fix inches from one another, and 
 arejoined to the end of each bull in w hich the cutting 
 wheels run ; fo that when the rocking tree is turned 
 about by the lever I. fixed in the middle of it, all 
 the bulls, with their cutting wheels, are raifcd out of 
 the ground at once, as in N° 3. by which means the 
 machine may be turned, or moved from place to place 
 with great cafe, without any danger of flraining the 
 wheels. 
 
 L. L. L. &c. NS 1.2. 3. are weights of freeftone, 
 26 inches long and 6 inches broad ; the under one 4 
 inches thick, the upper one 3 inches thick ; weighing 
 about 64 lb. the under, and 48 the upper ; each of 
 them having two holes, through which iron fpikes, 
 firmly fixed in the bulls, pafs, in order to keep them 
 fleady. 
 
 When the ground is ealily cut, theunder flone may 
 anfuer ; when more difiiculi, the other flone may be 
 added ; fo that every wheel may have 7 ftonc-weight 
 upon it, which has been found fufficient for the flirlell 
 land and toughcll fward the machine has ever been 
 tried on. Cafl iron weights will anfwer fully belter, 
 but are more expcmivc. 
 
 The lever I. N° 2. 3. which ought to be 5 feet long, 
 mull have a (liding rope on it ; fixed to the back part 
 of the frame ; fo that when the cutting wheels are all 
 taken out of the ground thr.ee or four inches, by the 
 rocking tree's being turned partly round by the lever, 
 the rope may be fixed to it by a loop over the pin R. 
 N° 3. (it ought to be placed 3 feet 4 inches from the 
 extremity of the It vcr 1.) Thus all the cutting wheels 
 are kept out of the ground till the machine is turned ; 
 and then by moving the loop off'thc pin, it flips back 
 towards the frame, and the lever is gently let back to 
 its place, as in N*^ 2. by which the cuttiiit^ wheels are 
 put into their former p'ifliire,by the weights fixed. en 
 the bulls in wliich they run. The levers .nay be made 
 of good tough a(h. 
 
 P. P. N81.
 
 Part II 
 
 VtdAke. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 p. p. N" I. a fmall b)lt of imn, with a hook on 
 one end «Mt (one is I'liHiLiciii), to llrengihcn ilie bolt 
 M. M. to bf hookt J on the centre of it, and joined to 
 the frame by a i.ut and fcrcw. 
 
 The grooves in whicii tlie cutting wheels run, may 
 be covered below at tlic iiiiider part with a plate of 
 thin black iron, 6 inches long, 3 inches broad, having 
 a Hit in it where the wheels run, to prevent fif found 
 nccclfary ) any grafs, weeds, or fmall (loncs, from till- 
 ing the grooves, and clogging the wiieels. 
 
 To the frame N" i. are tixcd (for a double-horfc 
 fward-ciittcr) three (liafts, as in a waggon, of fuch 
 length, ftrciigth, and diilance fromonc another, asany 
 workman may thi;ik proper. 
 
 Foralinglc horfe Iward-cutter (wliich has only four 
 cutting wheels); a pair of Ihafts are ufed, and may 
 make the two lides of the frame without any joinings. 
 The width of the frame, in proportion to the doublc- 
 horfe fward-cuttcr, is as four to fix. 
 
 It is recommended for a double-horfe fward-cutter 
 to have eight bulls and wheels, in order that when it 
 is ufed to reduce hard clody fummer- fallow, or land 
 for barley, before the laft furrow, or even after it, the 
 whole weight (42 itone) employed in cutting the ftiff- 
 eft land and toughcft fward, may be applied to the 8 
 bulls then at 6 inches from one another. The 641b. 
 weights to be applied to fix of the bulls, and two of 
 the 48 lb. weights to each of the additional bulls, 
 which is a fufficicnt weight for the purpofe, and will 
 effeftually prevent a clod of more than fix inches 
 breadth from efcaping being broke to pieces. 
 
 In the fame manner, a fingle-horfc fward-cutter may 
 have lix bulls for the abovementioned purpofe ; the 
 28 ftone belonging to it divided thus: The 64 lb. 
 Weights to four of the bulls, and two of the 48 lb. 
 weights to each of the additional bulls. 
 
 That the machine may come as cheap as poflible to 
 the public, the inventor is of opinion, that the expcnce 
 of the two wheels and the iron axle (which is confi- 
 derablc) may be favcd, by joining ftrongly to the frame 
 at S. N* 3. a piece of wood with a little curve at the 
 extremity of it, refeinbling the foot of a lledge, for- 
 merly much ufed in Scotland to carry in the corn from 
 the field ; the part of it rrfting on the ground being 
 kept iSinchcs (the halfdiameterof the wheels) from 
 the frame, by a rtrong fupport of wood. 
 
 As t'lC two outer bulls next the frame are apt to 
 get under it, fo as to prevent the cutting wheels from 
 being taken oiit of the ground, a thin Hip of iron fixed 
 to the infidc of the frame, nearly oppoliie to the back 
 end of the bulls, of convenient length, will be found 
 necelTary. 
 
 The original intention of this machine was to pre- 
 pare old grafs-ground for the plough, by cutting it 
 acrofs the ridges, in the beginning of or during win- 
 ter, when the ground is foft, in order to anfwer all 
 the purpofes that Mr Tull propofed by his four-coulter 
 plough above dcfcribcd, anil fo llrongly recommended 
 by him for bringing into tilth grafs-ground that has 
 been long reftcd. This the fward-cutter has been 
 found to do much more efTcdlually and cxpev.itioully : 
 For Mr Tail's machine cuts the fward in the fame di- 
 reflion with the plough ; and is liable, from every ob- 
 flrne^ion any of the coulters meet with, to be thrown 
 out of its work altogether, or the inftrumcnc broken: 
 
 275 
 
 to which the fwarj-cuttcr, confiflingof four, lix, or Prsaice. 
 
 more cutting wheels, is never liable, I roni thefc being ' * 
 
 entirely independent of one anoihcr.cuttiug the ground 
 aerolstiieridgcs before ploughing, and rendering that 
 operation caller to two horfes than it would be to three 
 without its being cut. The furrow being cut acro(s, 
 falls finely from the plough in fquarcs of any fiic re- 
 quired Hot under fix inches, in pUcc of long llijis of 
 tough fward fcldotuand imperfectly broke by the four- 
 coultcred plough. 
 
 This inllrun.cnt isvery fit for preparing ground for 
 burnbating, as it will favc much hand-labour. 
 
 It may be properly ufed in crofs-cutting clover of 
 one or two years flanding, to prepare the ground for 
 wheat, if the land is ftifland inoill enough. 
 
 It may be applied to cutting and crofs-cnttin^r pa- 
 Aurc-grouud, intended to have manure of any kind put 
 upon it to meliorate the grafs. In this it will far ex- 
 ceed the fcarificator mentioned in one of Mr Young's 
 tours ; as that inllrument is liable, as well astlie four- 
 coultcrcd plough, to be thrown out of its work when 
 meeting with a ftoneor other interruption. This the 
 fward-cuttter is proof againft, which is looked on as its 
 greateft excellence. 
 
 In preparing for barley, the fward-cutter excels a 
 roller of any kind in reducing the large hard clods in 
 clay land, occafioned by a fuddcn drought, after its 
 being ploughed too wet ; and it is likewife very pro- 
 per forrtducing fuch clay land when underafuinmer- 
 fallow. In thisoperation, the fward-cutter is greatly 
 to be preferred to the cutting-roller, likewife men- 
 tioned by Mr Young in one of his tours ; for the 
 wheels of the latter being all dependent one on ano- 
 ther, when one is thrown out by a flonc, thrceor four 
 mull fliare the fame fate. Belides, the cutting-roller 
 has but feven wheels infix feet; whereas the fward- 
 cutter has lix in four feet three inches, at nine in- 
 ches diftance ; and, if neccflary, may have thenifo 
 near as lix inches. 
 
 Afterold grafs-ground is cut acrofs with thcfward- 
 cntter and ploughed, it has a very uncommon and 
 worklike appearance, from each fquarc turned over by 
 the plough being railed up an inch or two at the fide 
 laft moved by the earth-board ; fo that the field, when 
 finithed, is all prettily waved, and refembles a piece 
 of water when blown on by a gentle breeze. By this 
 means a very great deal of the land's furfacc isexpofed 
 to the frofb and other influences of the air, whicli 
 cannot fail to have a good efFcft on it. 
 
 Two hi>rlcs are fuffitient for the draught of a double- 
 horfe fward.cuttcr,andonehor(cforaringlc-horfeone. 
 One man manages the machine and drives the horfes. 
 He begins his operation by firft meafuring off 20or ;o 
 paces from the machine, Icfs or more as he inclines, 
 and there fixes a pole. He then cuts the field crofs, as 
 near at right angles with the ridges as he can. When 
 the cutting wheels arc part the laft furrow about a 
 yard or fo, and liie machine is upon the outmoll ridge 
 of the field on which it muft turn, he muft ftop ti;e 
 horfes ; then take hold of the lever I. N". 2. and by 
 pulling it to him he raifes the cutting wheels out of 
 the ground, which arc kept fo by the loop of the rope 
 being put over the pin R. in the lever I. N";. till the 
 machine is turned and brought to its proper place, 
 which is done by meafuring offthc fame diilance for- 
 M m 2 merly
 
 376 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part ri. 
 
 Vn&ki. mrrly Joiic on the oppoiitc fide pf the (icUl. When 
 " »^— ' the cut lint; wheels are exactly over the out mod Airrow, 
 then, on the horfes being (lopjicJ, the rope is dipt off' 
 the pin R, and the lever returned to its former place, 
 asrcprcfcntcd N^j-whichallowsihewcights L.L.&c. 
 to force the cutting wheels into the ground again. 
 He then goes on till the interval betwixt the tirlland 
 fccondftrokcof ilie machine is all cut. In this manner 
 the Held is lobe tinilhed, after which you may begin 
 to plough when you pleafe. (N. 13. There mufl be a 
 pole at each fide of the lidd. 
 
 It is of no confcqiience whether the land to be fvvard- 
 cut is in crooked ridges nrflraight, in flat ridges or in 
 very high raifedones. Be the lurfacc ever fo uneven, 
 the tatting wheels, being all independent of one ano- 
 ther, are forced by their weights into every furrow 
 or hollow. . 
 
 One fward-cuttcr will cut as much in one day as fix 
 ploughs will plough. 
 
 The land may lie feveral months in winter after be- 
 ing fward-cut, wiicn there is no vegetation to m-ikc 
 the cuts grow together again before it is ploughed ; 
 but the fooner it is ploughed after cutting the better, 
 that it miy have the benefit of all the winter's 'froll, 
 which makes it harrow better in feed-time. 
 
 When tiie ground is harrowed, the harrows ought 
 toiro with the wavei which appear after ploughing, 
 not againd them, as by that means they are lefs apt to 
 tear up the furrows all cut into fquares. This, how- 
 ever, need only be attended to the two lirft times of 
 harrowing, as they arc called. 
 
 Any common wright and fmith may make the in- 
 ftrument. It is very llrong, very fimple, and cafily 
 managed and moved from place to place ; and, if put 
 undercover, will laft many years. 
 
 It was invented fome time ago by the honourable 
 Robert Sandilands ; and is rcprtfentcd in the Plate as 
 it has been lately improved by him, the price being 
 at the fame time reduced from L. i 5 or L. 16 toL. 5 
 or L. 6. 
 
 9« 
 
 BrjVe de- 
 fcribtrd, 
 Plate VI. 
 
 97 
 Ufcs. 
 
 3. The Brake. 
 
 The brake is a large and weighty harrow, the pur- 
 pofc of which is to reduce a (lubborn foil, where an 
 ordinary h.irrow makes little imprclTioR. It confifts 
 of four f.piare bulls, eacii fule five inches, and lix feet 
 and a half in Icnjfth. The teeth are 17 inches long, 
 bendirh' forward like acoultcr. Four of them arc in- 
 ferted into each bull, fixed above with a fcrcw-nut, 
 having 12 inches free below, with a heel clofc to the 
 Under part of the bull, to prevent it from being pullied 
 Kick by rtones. The nut above makes it ealy to be 
 taken out for iharping. This brake requires four horfes 
 crfouroxen. One of alelfer lizc will not fully anfwer 
 the piirpofe: oHc ofa Isrgcr fi.'.e will require fix oxen : 
 in which cafe the work may be performed at lefs ex- 
 pcncc with tlie plough. 
 
 Thi> iiilhument may be applied to great advantage 
 in the following; tircumllances. In the fallowing flrong 
 clay that requires frequent plouj;hi;ig3, a breaking be- 
 tween evfry ploughing wi'.l pulverize the foil, and ren- 
 der the fiiblequent ploughings more eafy. In the 
 tnonth or \'arch or A'lril, when flrong (»-rour.d is 
 ploughed for barley, dpcci.illy if bound with couch- 
 
 grafs, acrofs-breakingisf>erfcrable to a crofs-plough- Pr.iia.ice. 
 
 iug, and is done at half the expcncc. When ground «»— " 
 
 is p oughed from the Uatc of nature, and after a com- 
 petent time iscrol's-ploughed, the brakcisapplicd with 
 great fuccefs, iiiimedidtily after the crofs-ploughing, 
 to reduce the whole to proper tiltli. 
 
 Let it be obfervcd, tliat a brake with a greater num- 
 ber of teeth than abovcmentioned, is improper for 
 ground that is bound together by the roots of plants, 
 which isalways the cafe of ground new broken up from 
 its natural flate. The brake is foon choked, and can 
 do no execution till freed from the earth it holds. A 
 lefs number of teeth would be dcticieiit in pulverizing 
 the foil. 
 
 4. The Harrow. 
 
 Harrows are commonly confidered as ofnoufc 
 but to cover the feed ; but they have anotlier ufc 
 fcarce lefs ctfentiil, whi-li is to prepare land for the 
 feed. This is an article of iinjiortancc for producing 
 agoodcrop. But iiow imperfectly cither of thefe pur- 
 polcs is performed by the common harrow, will appear 
 from the following account of it. a$ 
 
 The harrow commonly ufed is of different forms. Imperfec- 
 The firil we will mention has two bulls, four feet long tion of the 
 and 18 inches afunder, wiihfour wooden teeth in each. ''"°"»<'a 
 A fecond has three bulls and 12 wooden teeth, a '""*"'^' 
 third has four balls, and 20 teeth of wood or iron, 
 10, II, or 12 inches afunder. Now, in fine mould, 
 the laft may be fufficicnt for covering the feed ; but 
 none of them are fufficient to prepare for the feed any 
 ground that requires lubduiug. The only tolerable 
 form is that with iron teeth ; and the bare defcrip- 
 tion of its imperfeiftions will Ihow the necelhty of a 
 more perfect form. In the firll place, this harrow is 
 by far too light for ground new taken up from the 
 Ifateofnature, forclayshardencd with fpring-drought, 
 or tor other Ihibborn foils : it rioats on the furface ; 
 and after frequent returns in the fame traft, nothing 
 is done cffedually. In the next place, the teeth are 
 too thick fet. by which the harrow is apt to be choked, 
 efpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which 
 is commonly the cafe. At the fame time, the lightnefs 
 ant! number of teeth keep the harrow upon the furf.iec, 
 and prevent one of its capital pnrpofcs, that of divi- 
 dingthc Ibil. Nor will fewer teeth aufwerforcovering 
 the iced properly. In the third place, the teeth arc- 
 loo Ihort for reducing a coarfc foil to proper tilth ; and 
 y^t it would be in vain to make them longer, becaufe 
 the harrow is too light forgoing deep into the ground. 
 Further, the common harrows are foill conllruclcd,as 
 to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is 
 loll in difengaging them. Laflly, it is equally unfit 
 for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo 
 bound with couch-grafs, as to make the furrow- llicc 
 Hand upright, as when old lea is ploughed : notwith- 
 flanding much labour, the grafs- roots keep tlie field, 
 and gain the victory. 
 
 A litilc rcrieclion, tven without experience, will 
 make it evident, that the fame harrows, whatever be 
 tile form, can never aiifv.er all the dilferent purpoiesof 
 harrowing, nor can operate equally it all dirrcrtnt foils, 
 rough or fmooth. firm or loole. i he follow in,^ there- 
 fore, have bctn recommended ; which arc of three dif- 
 ferent
 
 [I. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Pfaiftice fcrcnt forms, adapted for different purpofcs. They 
 
 " « ■ arc all of the fame weight, druwii each by two horfes. 
 
 iJircli is the bell wood for thcin, becaufc it is cheap, 
 and not apt to fplit. The tiril is coinpoftd of four 
 bulls, each four feet ten iiicheslong, three and a quar- 
 ter inches broad, and three and a half deep ; the in- 
 terval between the bulls 1 1 and ihrcc-faurths incJics ; 
 fo that the breadth of the whole hariow is four feet. 
 The bulls are connedtd by f ^ur llicths which go thro' 
 each bull, and arc fixed by timbcr-nailsidrivcnihrouj^h 
 both. In each bull live teeth arc infened, ten inches 
 free under the bull, and ten inches afunder. They arc 
 of the fame form with thofc of the brake, and infertcd 
 into the wood in the fame nianniT. Kach of tlicfc teeth 
 is three pounds weight ; and where the harrow is made 
 of birch, the weight of the whole is fix llone 14 pounds, 
 Dutch. An ered bridle is fixed at a corntr of the 
 harrow, three inches high, with four notches for draw- 
 ing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is 
 fixed for two horfes drawing abrealf, as in a plough. 
 And to llrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is 
 nailed upon the harrow from corner to corner in the 
 line of the draught. 
 
 The fecond harrow confiflsof two parts, conncfted 
 together by a crank or hinge in liie middle, and two 
 chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep 
 the two parts always parallel, and at tlie fame uillance 
 from each other. The crank is fo contrived, as to al- 
 low tiie two parts to p'y to the ground like two un- 
 connected harrows ; but neither of them to rife above 
 the other, more than if they were a fingle harrow 
 without a joint. In a word, they may form an angle 
 downward, bat not upward. Thus they have the cf- 
 fedl of two harrows, in curved ground, and of one 
 weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is conipofed 
 of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad, 
 and three and a h.'.lfdeep. The interval between the 
 bulls nine and a lialf inches ; wliich makes the breadth 
 of the whole harrow, including the length of the crank, 
 to be five feet five inches. Kach bull has five tetth, 
 nine inches free under the wood, and ten inches afun- 
 dfr. The weight of each tooth is two pounds; the 
 reft as in the former. 
 
 The third comifls alio of two parts, connected to- 
 gether like that lafl mentioned. It has eight bulls, 
 each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and 
 three deep. The interval between the bulls is eight 
 inches ; and the breadih of the whole harrow, inclu- 
 ding the length of the crank, is fix feet four inches. 
 In each bull arc inftrtcd five tecth.feven inches free un- 
 der the wood, and ten and a half inches afunder, each 
 tootlt weighing one pound. The rellas in the twofor- 
 nier harrows. 
 
 Thefc harrowsarcaronfiderable improvement. They 
 ply tocurved ground like twounconncttedharrows;aiid 
 when drawn in one plain, they are in efTecloiie harrow 
 of double weight, whicli makes the teeth pierce deep 
 into the ground. 7 he inipcrfeiVion of common har- 
 rows, meiuioncd above, will luggell the advniit.igcs of 
 the fet of harrows here recommended. The lirA is pro- 
 per forharrowiii", land thai has long lain aficr plough- 
 ing, as where oats arc Town on a winter-furrow, and in 
 Rrnerat fur harrowing lliiriand : it pirrccsdccp inio the 
 foil by its long teeth, :.nd divides it miiuittlv. The fe- 
 
 cond is intended for covering the feed : i-.s lono- tectii 
 lays the feed deeper than tiie cainmon hirrow can do : 
 which is no ili^rht advantajic. By placing the feed 
 coiUiderably under the furfacc, the young plants are, 
 on the one hand, protected from too much heat, and, 
 on the other, have fuiUciency of moiiinrc. At the 
 fame time, the feed is fo well covered that none of jt 
 is loft. Seed .'lightly covered by the common harrows 
 wants moiihirc, and is burnt up by the fun ; be.lde, 
 that a proportion of it is left upon tiie furface unco- 
 ver cd. The third harrow fupplies what may be defi- 
 cient in the fecond, by fujoothing the furface, and co- 
 vering the feed more accurately. Tiie three harrows 
 make the ground finer and finer, as licckies do lint ; 
 or, toufeaditierentconiparifon,the firll harrow makes 
 the bed, the fecond Lays t'lc feed in it, the tiiird 
 fmooths thccloaths. They liave anothcradvautagc not 
 inferior to any mentioned : they mix manure with the 
 foil more intimately than can be done by common har- 
 rows; and upon fuch iniiuiatc mixture depends great- 
 ly the cficct of manure as has already been cxplai.ied. 
 To conclude, rhefe harrows arc contrived to anfwcr an 
 eftabliflicd principle in agriculture. That fertility de- 
 pends greatly on pulveri/.ing the foil, and on an iiiii- 
 niate mixture of manure with it, whether dung, lime, 
 marl, or any other. 
 
 T/ji' Chain and Screw Harroiv. Fig. 8. is the plan Piatt VU 
 of a harrow alfo invented by Mr Sandilands, and to 
 which he has given the name of the chaii: ami fcrcjj 
 harrow. Its properties are, that if your ridges be 
 high, and you willi to harrow them from one end to the 
 other,by lengthening the chain (\\ hich the fere w com- 
 mands), the harrow.whcn drawn along, formsan angle 
 downwards, and milfes none of the curve of the ridge, 
 fo far as it extends (which may be nine feet, the di- 
 ftancc from A to B. The extent, in the contrary di- 
 reclion is five feet fix inches). When the crowns of 
 the ridges have got what is thought fufficicnt harrow- 
 ing Icngthwife, you Ihorten the chain by the fcrew, 
 wliich forms an angle upwards : the harrow' is then 
 drawn by the horfes, one on each tide of the furrow ; 
 wbicii completely harrows it, and the fides of the ridge, 
 if 18 feet broad. 
 
 When you want to harrow even ground or high, 
 ridges acriifs with the fercw, yon can bring the har- 
 row to be horizontal, fo as to work as a folid hariow 
 without a joint. 
 
 The teeth are formed and fixed in the common man- 
 ner, fquare, not in the fafliion of coulters; and are nine 
 or ten inches below the wood, and of fuch ftrcngth as 
 it is thought the land requires. The tcerh cut, or ra- 
 ther tear, the ground at every four inches withunt va- 
 riation, though fceuiingly placed irregularly ; and this 
 without any rilk of choaking, except fonictimrs at ti;c 
 extreme angles, where the teeth are necelfarily near 
 each other ; but which may b;' cleaned with thcgrcateft 
 cafe, by railing them a little out of tiie ground. The fi- 
 gures I, 2, &c. point out where the ij teeth on each 
 lideof the harrow are placid. 
 
 Where a ftrong brake-harrow is not nccelfary, by 
 making the teeth ihortrrand lighter, you may have 48 
 teeth, whi h will tear the ground at every two inches, 
 cover the feed well, and make a fine mould. 
 
 It is recommended, that harrows for every purpofe, 
 
 and
 
 278 
 
 A G R I C U L T U R li. 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 Prad :oanil ol any lizc, be maJe on tlic aliovc priiirij'lc ; by 
 
 ' " whicli no 'o'tli can ever t'oUow tht track or aauihcr^ 
 
 id ajlof ihc.ii will be kept coiilkaiiily acting. 
 
 iiT' 
 
 5. The Roller. 
 
 loi 
 
 The roller. The roller is an inrtriiment of capital ufe in Inif- 
 banilry, tiiough ftarcely known in ordinary ,>ra^tict ; 
 and, where introduced, it ii> commonly fo lliglit as to 
 • have very lictlc clfec^. 
 
 Roilersareotdiliercnt kinds; ftonc,caft-iron,\vooj. 
 Each ot' ihelc has its advantages. \V c \\ oiild recom- 
 mend the lalt, conllrnoted in (he fullowing manner. 
 Take the body ol a tree, lix feet ten inches long, the 
 larj;er the better, made as near a ptrlcct cylinder as 
 polliblc. Siirnmnd this cylinder with three rows of 
 lillits, one row in the middle, and one at each end. 
 Line ihel'etillics with plauksot" wood equally long with 
 the roller, and fo narrow as to ply into a circle. Bind 
 them fart together with iron-rings. Beech- wood is the 
 bell, being hard and tough. Tlie roller thus mount- 
 ed, ought to have a diameter of three feet ten inches. 
 It has a double pair of lliatts for two horfes abreaft. 
 Thcfe are futlicieiit in level ground ; ia ground not le- 
 vel, four horfes may be neceliary . The roller without 
 the Ihafts ought to weigh 200 Itone Dutch ; and the 
 large diameter makes this great weight eafy to be 
 ,oi drawn. 
 Seafoii for Rolling wheat in the month of April is an iniport- 
 roUiog. ant article in lool'c foil ; as the winter-rains prelling 
 down tlie foil leave many roots in the air. Barley 
 ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is fown ; 
 efpecially where grafs-feeds are fown with it. The 
 bell time for rolling a gravelly foil, is as foon as the 
 mould is fo dry as to bear the roller without clinging to 
 it. A clay foil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed, 
 ror rolled, till the licUl be perfeOlly dry. And as 
 rolling a clay foil is chiciiy intended for fnioothing the 
 furface^ a dry feafon may be patiently waited for, cvch 
 till the crop be three inches high. There is the great- 
 er real'on for this precaution, becaufe nmch rain im- 
 mediately after rolling is apt to cake the furface when 
 drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled 
 immediately after the feed is fown, unlefs the ground 
 be fo wet as to cling to the roller. In a clay foil, de- 
 lay rolling till the grain be above ground. The pro- 
 per time for lowing grafs-feeds in an oat-field, is when 
 the grain is three inches high ; and rolling (liould im- 
 mediately fuceccd, whatever the foil be. KLix ought 
 to be rolled immediately after lowing. This fliould ne- 
 ver be neglected ; for it makes the feed pufli equally, 
 and prevents after growth ; the bad ctlcd of which is 
 vifiblc in every flcp of the proccfs for drelFing iiax. The 
 lirfl year's crop of fown grafles ought to be rolled as 
 early the next fpring as the ground will bear the hor- 
 fes. It fixes all the roots precifely as in the cafe of 
 wheat. Rolling the fecond and third crops in loofc 
 foil is an ufcfal work ; though not fo elfential as rolling 
 103 the tirll crop. 
 Effeas of In the firfl placc.roilingrcnders aloofefoil niorecom- 
 loUiog. paclandfolid ; which encourages the growthof plants, 
 by making the earth clap clofc to every part of every 
 roo:. Nor need we be afraid of rendering the foil too 
 compacl ; for no roller that can be drawn by two or 
 four horfes will have that effcd. In the next place, 
 
 rolling keeps in the nioillurc, and hinders drought to Pra«flice. 
 
 jenciratc. This eltcit is ol great moment. In a dry • ' 
 
 i'eafon, it may make the uilfereiice of a good crop, or 
 no crop, cf,.ecially w here itie foil is light. In the third 
 place, ihe rolliiiggrafs-iVeJs, beli^estue foregoing ad- 
 vantages, laciliiai.es the mowing lor hay ; and it is to 
 be hoped, that the adv.mtagc ot this pra -lice will lead 
 farmers to mow thtircoru alio, which will increafe the 
 quantity of itraw boUi for food and for the dunghill. 
 There is a fmall roller for breaking clods in land in- 
 tended for barley. The common way is, to break 
 clods with a n'.all : which requires ninny hands, and is a 
 laborious work. i his roller performs the work more 
 eftcctujily, and at much klsexpencc ; let a harrow ing 
 precede, %\ hich w ill break the clods a little ; and after 
 lyuiga day,ora day and an half, todry, this roller will 
 dillolve them into powder, fhis however does not fu- 
 perfedc tht ufe of the great roller after all the other ar- 
 ticles arc finillied, in order to make the foil compaft, 
 and to keep out the fiimmer-drought. A Hone roller 
 four feet long, and tiftccn inches diameter, drawn by 
 one horfe, is fulRtieni to break clods that are ealily dil- 
 folved by prelfurc. The ufe of this roller in preparing 
 land for barley is gaining ground daily, even among 
 ordinary tenants, who have become fenlible both of the 
 expencc and toilof uling w'ooaen malls. But in a clay 
 foil, the clods are fometimes too firm, or too tough, to 
 be fubdacd by fo light a machine. In that cafe, a rol- 
 ler of the fame lize, but of a different conllruelion, is 
 neceliary. It ought to be furrounded with circles of 
 iron, fix inches afunder, and fevcn inches deep ; which 
 will cut even the moll llubborn clods, and reduce them 
 to powder. Let not this inllrument be conlidered as 
 a finical refinement. In a ftitf clay, it may make the 
 dirterencc of a plentiful or fcanty crop. 
 
 6. The Fallow-cleansing Machine. 
 
 104 
 
 This was invented by Mr Aaron Ogden, a fmith Thefal- 
 at Alhlon-under-Line, near Manchcfter in Lancafliire. low-cleau- 
 It is intended for clcanling fallows from weeds, &c. fingma- 
 which exhaull the richcsof the foil. A, A, is the frame ; fhrnc. 
 B, thcfirll roller ; C, the fecond ditto ; in which lafl are '''^'^ ^"' 
 two cranks to move the arms D, D, which work the rake ^' ^' 
 up thedirci^tors fixed on the plank f^. Thcunder,lideof 
 thelowerendsorlharesofthefediredlorsarelharp,tocut 
 thcclodsandlet them come on the upper lide. Each al- 
 ternate heel of the Ihare is longer than the intermediate 
 one, that they may not have more than one-half to cut 
 at once. At the back of the plank E are two fcrcws 
 to let it loofc, that the dirctiors may be fet higher or 
 lower. The Ihares arc to penetrate the ground two or 
 three inches, to raife the quicks till the rake I, I, 
 fetches them into the cart H, where a man muft be 
 ready with a muck-hook 10 clear them backward when 
 gathered. In the rake I are two teeth for every fpace 
 of the diretSlors, that Hones, &c. may be gathered 
 without damage. K, K, are twollaples, by which 
 the machine is drawn : uiiderthcm at /; arc two hooks; 
 placed low to raiie the machine in turning, by the help 
 of the traces ; and the axle-tree of the carl lliould be 
 fixed upon a pin, that it may turn like a wan;2;on. 
 F, F, are the triggers to throw the rake behind the 
 roots. The long teeth at G, G, are to cleanfe the 
 lolicr C. I, I, is the rake which gathers up the weeds 
 
 into
 
 AgRICIjI- TL lUl 
 
 PlatcM 
 
 (7r}-rrr 
 
 '^^ y y y y ^^-^-^ 
 
 /..I .'W-w"
 
 art II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 iato the cart H, and is diiwii ;ioovc ihc trigger *•' by 
 liic worki 1^; at llic arms U, cxj'rtucJ by tlic lioucd 
 liiics at (/ i/, ///. i he triggers f, ot wliich there is 
 Oiie oil euch lidc, move on ilic I'ivots a ; (o tlia: whca 
 the points l>, of tlic rake 1, have been drawn up by the 
 dircai>rs E to the y^n marked c, iftc tr.gger, giving 
 way permits the rikc to pafs ; but ininieuiately tail- 
 ing, the rake returns aLrngtlie upper lurtace of tJie 
 trigi^cr marked <;, e, and or courle fills on the weeds 
 when it coincs to the end, a little beyond the pivot a. 
 The reader will obftrvc, tliac the boarding is taken 
 away on one fide, in the Plate, in order to give a mure 
 pcrfed view of the inner part of the machine ; and 
 in fact it would perhaps be better if all the boarding, 
 marked L, L, L, was taken away, and irame-work 
 put tn its Head. The carl H might uiidoubieuly alio 
 be made lighter. The wheels M, M, appear in the 
 Plate to be made of folid wood ; but there is no nc- 
 cefTity tliat it Ihould be fo. At N is anotlier view of 
 the rallcr C, by which the difpolition of the fpikes 
 may be ealily comprehended, buppofe the circle O, 
 defcribed by the end of the roller N, to be divided l)y 
 four (Irait lines into tight equal fegnums,asreprcfciit- 
 cd at P. Let the fame be done at the oilier end of 
 the roller, and parallel lines be drawn fromonccorre- 
 fpondiug point to the odier the length of the roller ; 
 mark the points with rigures i, 2, 3, 4. 5, 6, 7, 8 ; 
 afterwards draw oblique lines, as from i, at the end of 
 O to 2, at the other end, and from 2 to 3, &c. on 
 thcfe oblique lines the fpikes are to be fixed at equal 
 diflance in eight circles, defcribed on the circumfe- 
 rence of the roller. The fpikes of the fmall roller B 
 are fixed in the fame manner, except that the diameter 
 being fmallcr, there arc only fix inltcad of eight rows. 
 R is another view of tlic direttors, with the plank £ 
 on which they are fixed ; and S is a fection of a part 
 of the plank, with one of the directors as fixed, in 
 which may be feen the heel «;, from whence to the 
 point of the (hare « is a (liarp cutting edge. Sec the 
 fame letters in figure R. At T is one of the long 
 teeth to be feen at G ; it is bent towards the roller C, 
 which it fervcs to cleanfe. When the end of the rake 
 l>, after riling above c, is pulhed, by the motion of the 
 arms D, D, along the upper part i, of the trigger 
 F, and comes to the end beyond a ; as it falls, the 
 part of the arm marked reils in the notch p, till it 
 is again raifcd by the motion of the roller C with the 
 rake. The roller C is to be one foot diameter, the 
 fpikes nine inches long, that they may go through the 
 furrow (if the foil lliould bcloofe) into the hard earth, 
 tlie more cfFeCtually to work the rake, wliich other- 
 wife might be fo overcharged as to caufe the roller to 
 drag without turning. In therake-cnds^ their Ihould 
 be pivots, with rollers or pullers on, 10 go in the 
 groove, to take off the fridion ; and they would like- 
 wile take the triggers more furely as the rake comes 
 back. The rake mould alfobc hung fo far backward- 
 er, that when it is fallen the arms of it may lie in the 
 fame plane or parallel with the directors, on which it 
 comes up( which will require the frame to be two inches 
 longer in the model). This will caufe the rake to fall 
 heavier, and drive the teeth into the roots, and bring 
 them up without (hattering. Thefe teeth mull be 
 Blade of lleci, very fine, and fo long as to reach down 
 
 279 
 
 to the plank on which the directions are fixed, that is .rnflicc. 
 
 to fay, lix inches long (the directors arc alfo to be ^ — 
 
 made lix inches broad above the plank). The rake- 
 head Ihould alfo fall a little before the crank i> at its 
 extremity, which will caufe the rake to pulh forward 
 to let the teeth come into the roots. 1 he rake-teeth 
 muitdrop inthcfauie plane with the roller and wheels, 
 or on the furfaceof tiie earth. No more fpace Ihould 
 be given from the roller C to the long teeth at G G 
 than that the rake may jull mifs the fpikes of the rol- 
 ler C and fall on the places before mentioned. As 
 the tint roller B was intended to cleanfe the fecond C 
 more than for any other ufc, it may be omitted when 
 the machine is made in large, as Mr Ogden has lately- 
 found that the long teeth at G G anfwer the end alone, 
 and thi) renders the machine about a llxth part ihorter. 
 Now, to fuitany fort of earth, there Ihould be to each 
 machine three planks, with dircciors at different fpaces, 
 to ufe occalionally ; in the hrll, the fpaces between 
 the direcbors Ihould be eight inches wide, in the fe- 
 cond lix, and the third f»ur. This will anfwer the 
 fame end as having fo many machines. 
 
 As there may be fome objections to the rake not 
 leaving the roots when it has brought them up, Mr 
 Ogden has fcveral methods of cleanling it ; but as he 
 would make it as fimple as poinble, he choofts to let 
 it be without them at prefent ; Imi fuppofe it lliould 
 bring fome roots back again with it, it will probably 
 lofe them before it gets back to the extremity ; whence 
 they will lie light, and be of but little detriment to 
 the others coming up. Mr Ogden would have the 
 firll machine made four feet lix inches wide, the teeth 
 divided into equal fpaces the ouilides into half fpaces. 
 
 7. The new invented Patent Univcrfal Sowing 
 Alachint. 
 
 105 
 
 Th 1 s machine, whether made to be worked by hand, Univtrfal 
 drawn by a horfe, or fixed to a plough, and ufcd with fowing 
 it, is extremely limplc in the conftruition, and not machine, 
 liable to be put out of order ; as there is but one P'^"' 'X. 
 movement to direct the whole, nor does it require any '"E" >■»'"' 
 (kill in working. It will fow wheat, barley, oats, rye, 
 clover, cole-feed, hemp, fiax, canary, rape, turnip, be- 
 fides a great variety of other kinds of grain and feeds 
 broad calf, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. It 
 is equally ufefnl in the new hulbandry, particularly 
 when fixed to a plough ; it will then drill a more extcn- 
 live variety of grain, pulfe, and feed (through every 
 gradation, with regard to quantity), and deliver each 
 kind with greater regularity than any drill-plough 
 whatever. When uftd in this manner, it will like%\ife 
 be found of the utmoil fcrvice to farmers who are par- 
 tial to the old hulbandry, as, among many other very 
 valuable and peculiar properties, it will not only fow 
 in the broad-caft way with a moft fingular exaclncfs, 
 but fave the expcnce of a fcedfman ; the feed being 
 fown (either over or under furrow at pleafurc), and' 
 the land ploughed, at the fame operation. 
 
 Perhaps a fair and decifive experiment for afcepf lin- 
 ing the fuperior advantage of broad-calling or drilling 
 any particular crop, was ncverbeforc fopriiflicablc; as 
 the feed may now be put in with the iitmoft He ■rcc of 
 regularity, in both methods of culture, by th( (xi".r
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 ri£. 
 
 mnchiiic; conftqiicntly, the feed will be fownin both 
 cal'ts willi equal accuracy, without which it is iinjiol- 
 lililc 10 nials.«va ji'ilt liecilioii. 
 
 Tilt excellence of tins machine confids in fprcading 
 any given quaniiiyuf iccJ over any given luinibtr of 
 acres, with a mathematical cxactnefs, which cannot be 
 done by h:uid ; by which a great laving may be made 
 in feeding the ground, as well as bcuefiting the cx- 
 j)c;tcd crop. 
 
 There has always been a ditiiculty in fowing turnip 
 feed with any degric of cxatliicfs, both from tlic nii- 
 Juitcncfs of the feed, and the fniallncfs of ihequantity 
 required to be fown on an acre. Merc the machine 
 has a manifeft advantage, as it m^y be fet to fow the 
 lead quantity ever reqiiiicd on an acre ; and with an 
 accuracy the bell fecdiinan can never attain to. 
 
 It will alf.i fow clover, cole, riax, and every other 
 
 kind offmallfccd.with the utmoft degree of regularity. 
 
 Jt \\iU likcwifc broad-call beans, peafc, and tares, or 
 
 drill them with the grcatell cxaclnefs, particularly 
 
 when conftrucled to be ufcd with a plough. 
 
 Another advantage attending the ufeofthis ma- 
 chine, is that the wind can have no cfted on the fall- 
 ing of the feed. 
 
 Of the Machine lohoi niadi to be ttfed ■mithout a 
 Plough, and to be drawn by a H',rfe — It may in 
 this cafe be made of dirf'ereni lengths at the defirc of 
 the purchafcr. The upper part AAAA, contains 
 the hoppers from which the grain or feed dcftends into 
 the fpouis. The feveral fpouts all reft upon a bar, 
 which hangs and plays freely by two diagonal fupport- 
 crs 31! ; a trigger tixed to this bar bears a catch wheel: 
 this being fixed on the axle, occafions a regular and 
 continual motion, or jogging of the fpouts, quicker or 
 flower in proportion to the pace tlie perfon fowing 
 with it drives ; and of courfc, if he quickens his pace, 
 the bar will receive a greater number of ftrokes from 
 the catch wheel, and the grain or feed will feed the 
 faftcr. If he drives (lower, by receiving fewer ftrokes, 
 the contrary nuift take place. In going along the 
 (Ide of a hill, the ftrength of the llroke is corrcclcd by 
 a fpring which arts with more or lefs power, in pro- 
 portion as the machine is more oriels from a horizon- 
 tal pofition, andcounteraths the dilfcrenceof gravity in 
 the bar, fo that it preircs, in all lituaiions, with a pro- 
 per force againil the catch wheel. This I'pring is un- 
 ncccflary if the land be pretty level. At the bottom 
 of the machine is placed an apron or Ihclf iu a lloping 
 polition, and the corn or feed, by falling thereon from 
 the fpouts above, is fcattercd abmit in every riircclion 
 under the machine, and covers the ground in a nioft 
 regular anii uniform manner. 
 
 To fow the corn or feed in drills, there arc moveable 
 fpouts(fec fig. 10.) which arc fixed on, or taken off 
 at plcafure, to direct the feed from llic upper fpout to 
 the bottom of the furrow. 
 
 The machine is regulated for fowing any pirticular 
 quantity of feed on an acre by a brafs llider. A, fig. 7. 
 fixed by fcrews againft a brafs bridge on each of the 
 fpouts. The machine is prcvcn ted Troni feeding while 
 turning at the ends, by only removing the lever, E, 
 tig. 2. out of the channel G, toanother at II, on the 
 riaht hand of it, which carric? back the bar from the 
 catch-wheel, and occalions the motionof the fpouts to 
 ccafe, and at the fame time brings them upon a level 
 
 t 
 
 by the action of the diagonal fipporters j fo chat no Pradlce. 
 corn or feed can tall froui them. ^— v— 
 
 The machine in this form is particularly ufeful for 
 broad-cafting clover upon barley or wheat ; or for low- 
 ing any other kind of feed, where it is necelfary that 
 the land Ihould firll be harrowed exceedingly fine and 
 even. 
 
 Manner of iifng the Machine ii'hcn drawn by a 
 Horfc — l-'lace the mariiine about two feet from the 
 ends of the furroMs where you iiHend it (hall begin to 
 fow. Fill the hojipers wi: h feed, and drive it forward 
 with tiie ouilidc wheel in the firll furrow. When you 
 arc at the end of the length, attheoppoflte lidecf the 
 field, lift the lever E, fig. 2, into the channel li, and 
 the machine will inftantly Hop fowing. Drive it on 
 about two feet and then turn. Kill the hoppers again 
 if hecellary; then remove the lever back again into the 
 channel G, and in returning, let the ontddc wheel of 
 the machine go one furrow within the track which 
 was made by it, in palling from (he oppolite end : as 
 for example, if the wheel palled down the eighth fur- 
 row from the ontlide of the field, let it return in the 
 fevcnth ; and in every following leiigth let the outfidc 
 wheel always run one furrov/ within the traft made 
 by the fame wheel : becaufe the breadth fown is about 
 nine inches lets than the diliance between the wheels. 
 
 Let the machine be kept in a perpendicular fitua- 
 tuation. Ifthe farmer wilhcs to fow more or lefs feed 
 on any one pan of the field than the other, it is only 
 railing the handles a liuVe hi;;her, or linking them a 
 little lower than ufual, and it will occalion a fufllcient 
 alteration ; and fliould the laft turn be lefs in breadth 
 than the machine, thafc f|)outs which are not wanted 
 may be taken up from tiie bar, and prevented from 
 feeding, by turning the knobabovc tlum. 
 
 Alfo when the lanj rcc^uircd to be fuwn has what is 
 called a vent, that is, when the fides of the field run in 
 an oblique line to the furrows, which by this means 
 arc uneqnal in length : the fpouts muft be taken up or 
 let down in fucccinon by turning the knobs ; as that 
 part of the machine, where they arc placed, arrives at 
 the ends of the furrows. This is done while the ma- 
 chine is gi'ing forwards. 
 
 Ifthe land be tolerably level, the machine may be 
 fixed by the fcrevv in the front, and the machine may 
 then be ufed by any common harrow boy. 
 
 Method of regulating tht: Machine. — In each fpout is 
 fixed a bridge, (fee fig. 7.) with an aperture in it, B, 
 for the grain or feed to pals through. This aperture 
 is enlarged or contracted by a (lidcr. A, which palfes 
 overit; and when properly fixed for theqaaniity of feed 
 dcllgned to be fown nn an acre, is faftencd by ineans 
 of two ftrong fcrews firmly againft the bridge. This 
 is made nfe of in fowing all kinds of feed, where it is 
 required to fow from one buflicl upwards oii an acre. 
 To fow one, two, three gallons, or any of the inter- 
 mediate quantities, as of clover, colc-fecd. Sec. the 
 brafs plate, fig. 6. is placed between the bridge and the 
 flider, with the large!! aperture B downwards, which 
 aperture is enlarpcd or coniraiJlcd by t!ie ilider as be- 
 fore. To fow turnips, the fame plate is placed be- 
 tween the bridge and tlie llider, with its fmallcfl aper- 
 ture A downwards, and the hollow part about the fame 
 aperture inwards. 
 
 I. is a view of the regulator, by which tlic 
 
 aperture 
 
 Fig.
 
 A' ' 
 
 ' yVa.J. Fflt/r Cou//rrt/ /■'LCrO//. 
 
 PlateNll. 

 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTU R E. 
 
 Vraitice- apcrtiircs in the fcveral fpoiits arc all fct cxaJhly alike, 
 
 *~~v wich the iitmoil caff, to make them feed equ.illy. The 
 
 extreme height of the largcd aperture is equal to the 
 breadth A B, and the breadth at C is equal to the 
 height of the fniallclt aperture ufed, viz. that for tur- 
 nips. The lide AC, is divided into 60 equal parts, 
 and on it move the Aider or horfe D ; which being 
 placed at any particular degree, according to the quan- 
 tity of feed required to be fown on an acre, is fixed 
 upon it, by a fcrew on tlic (ide of the ilider or horfc. 
 
 When this is done, the enAof the regulator is put 
 through the aperture in the bridgeor plate (whichever 
 is intended to be ufed), and the Ilider againft the 
 bridgein the fpout, raifcd by it, till it Hops ag.iinft the 
 horfe on the regulator ; then the iliiicr is fa!lcned 
 againfl the bridge (irmly by the two fcrews; care be- 
 ing taken at the fame tiuie that it flands nearly fquare. 
 
 By this means the fpouts (being all fixed in the 
 fame mannei ) will feed equally. 
 
 It is cafy to conceive that the lize of the apertures, 
 and confcqucnlly the quantity of feed tobc fownonan 
 acre, may be regulated with a f.ir greater accuracy 
 than is required, in common practice. 
 
 The fpouts may bercgulated with theutmofl nicety, 
 in five minutes, to fow each particular feed, for the 
 whole feafon. But alittlcpradice will enable any per- 
 fon, who polfelles but a very modcraie capacity, to 
 jnal.e the fpouts feed equally, even without ufing the 
 rcguUtor(A). 
 
 OJ the hlachhie lahcn matle to be ufed by Htind. — 
 The dirterence of the machine in this cafe is, that it is 
 made lighter, with but three fpouts, without fliafts, 
 and is driven forward by the handles. It hath alio a 
 bolt in front, which being pullied in by the thumb, re- 
 leafes the machine ; fo that itcan then ealily be placed 
 in a perpendicular polition. This alteration is neccf- 
 fary to keep the handles of a convenient height, in 
 {owing up and down a hill, where the (lope is conlidcr. 
 able ; and is done while the machine is turning at the 
 end of the length. The method of regulating and 
 ufing it is the fame as when made to be drawn by a 
 horfc. 
 
 Oj the Machine, ly/u/; co/iflnifletl It be tifed ii'ilh a 
 Plough. — This is, without doubt the mofk ufeful ap- 
 plication of the machine , and it can be fixed without 
 difliculty to any kind of plough, itt the fame manner as 
 to that reprcfentod fig. i. 
 
 The advantages ariling from the ufe of it are great 
 and numerous ; for, beiide the increafc in the crop, 
 which will be infured by tiie feeds being broad-cad 
 with a mathematical nicety, a large proportion of feed 
 (the value of w liich alone, in a few months, will amount 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 281 
 
 to more than the price of the machine) and the fccdf- PraSice. 
 
 man's labour will be faved. The feed may likcwilc >/— 
 
 be fown either under or over furrow ; or one cart each 
 way, as ispraftifed by fonie farmers. The feed alio, 
 being call by the machine upon the frelli ploughed 
 land, may be immediately harrowed in, before the 
 mould has loll any part of its moifture ; which in a dry 
 feafon will greatly promote the crop. In drilling any 
 kind of grain, puKe, or feed, it polleii'es every property 
 that can be wilhed for inthc bcftd.nll-plough, norwill 
 it (as moil of them do) bruife the feed, or feed irre- 
 gularly. The conftructionofthc machine is the fame 
 as the large ones, except being made witli one hopper 
 and fpout inftcad of fevcral, and the apron moveable 
 inllead of being fixed, as may be feen by infpeding 
 fig. 4. Tlie only alteration necelfary to make the 
 machine broad-call or drill is, in t!\e former cafe to 
 place the apron B, fig. i. at the bottom of the ma- 
 chine, upon the hooks KF, (loping either towards thfc 
 furrows or the imploughcd land, according as it is in- 
 tended to fow the feed, either under or over farrov,'. 
 Whenever the aprou is required to be (liifted, it is done 
 in Icfs than a fecond of time ; as it only requires to be 
 moved upor down with the hand, when a catch fixes it. 
 
 To prepare it for drilling, inllead of the apron, place 
 the long fpout, fig. 10, upon the brackets, on the front 
 of the machine, by the ears AA, tore(cive the feed 
 from the upper fpout, and faflcn the lower end of it, 
 by a fmall cord, to that hook upon which the apron is 
 hung for broad -cafling, v hich is next the plough (fee 
 fig. 3 ;) the feed will then be diretled by the long 
 fpout, to the centre of the furrow, near the heel of the 
 plough. The fpring for correcting the Jlrength ofthe 
 Itroke, isneecllary only wlicn they are required to uo 
 along the lide of a condderablc declivity. The nia- 
 chine, wlien fixed to a plough, does not require the 
 fmalleft degree of (kill in uiing, as nothing is neccifary 
 but to keep the hopper filled, wiiich will contain a fuf- 
 ficient quantity of Iced to go upwards of i.jo rods, be- 
 fore it will want re-filling, when three bufliels and a 
 half are fown on an acre. The accuracy with which 
 it willbroad-caft, may in fomc meafure bcconceiveii, 
 by cenfidcring that the feed regularly defcends upon 
 the apron or IhcU", and is from thence fcattcrcd upon 
 the ground, in quantity cxacUy proportioned to the 
 fpeed of the" plough : alio that each ca(t fprcads to the 
 third furrow; and by this means (huts upoq. the lall. 
 In this manner it is continually filling up till the whole 
 field is completely covered ; fo that it is irapoliible to 
 leave the fmallcft fpacc withoift its proper quantity of 
 feed. 
 
 A\ hen the plougli is wanted for any other purpofe, 
 N 11 ihe 
 
 (a) Proper dircJlions are given with each niacliine for ufing it, as alfofor fixing the fiidersto fow any parti- 
 cular quantity of corn or feed on an acre, fo as to enable any perfon to ftt the fpouts. 
 
 The prices of the machine (exclulive of the packing cafes) are as follow. If conllruclcd to be ufed with a 
 fingle furrow plough ; the wheel, with the axle and cheeks fleelcd, ftrap, re,'5ulator, brafsplates torbroad-ca(l- 
 ing or drilling turnips, lucerne, tares, wheat, barley, &c. &c. &c. and every article necelfary for fixing it in- 
 cluded, Aree guineas and a. half. If made with a fpring (for fowiitg on the fide of a hi!l, where the llopc is 
 confiderablr), but which is very rarely necelfary, rive ihillings more. If .made to be fixed to any double- 
 furrow plough, four guineas and a half. 
 
 The large machine, fig. 2. when made to broad-call feven farrows ar a time, and to be drawn by a horfe, 
 eight guineas and a half. If conllruiilcd to fow {\\<: furrows at a time, and to be ufed by hand, fix guineas, 
 Thefe are alio live lljilliiigs more if made with a fpi ing. 
 
 /^
 
 282 
 
 A G R I C U L> T U R E 
 
 l'ra«ice. the macliii.c,\viih ilic wheel at ilic heel ot the pluiijjli 
 
 ' " tor giving it motion, can be removed or replaced at any 
 
 time in tivc minutes. ** 
 
 Hg. II. rcprcfcnts the machine fixed to a double 
 furrow crca/ing plough, and prepared fordrilliiig. As 
 this plough may not lie generally known, it will not be 
 improper to obfcrvc.that it iscliieHy ufcd tor crcaling 
 theland wiihturrows(aticr it has been once ploughed 
 and harrowed) ; whicji method is necefi^ry whcnthc 
 feed is to be fown broad-caCt upoii land that has been 
 a clover lay, &c. becaufc, il' the feed be fown upon the 
 rough furrows, a conliJcrable part of it will tall be- 
 iwetn them, and be unavoidably lo(l, by laying to 
 deep buried in the earth. This mode anfwcrs ex- 
 tremely well, and pariakcs of bo:h methods of culture ; 
 the feed, thouj^h fown bioad-call, falling chictiy into 
 the furrows. 
 
 The machine is very ufeful for fowing in this man- 
 ner ; as the feed is broad-call, with an inconceivable 
 regularity, at the time the land is crcafed. The ad- 
 vantages it like wife poll'cfles for drilling all forts of 
 grain or feed with this plough, arc too c\ident to need 
 mentioning. 
 
 The machine, when conftrnifled to be ufcd with a 
 double-furrow plough, is made with two upper and 
 two long fpouis for drilling, two aprons for broad- 
 calling, and with a double hopper ; but in other re- 
 fpceis the fame as when intended for a lingle furrow 
 plough : it is uTed in all cafes with the grcatcll cafe 
 imaginable. 
 
 Tiie interval between the points of the two fliares of 
 a crealing plough is ufaally ten inches ; the beam about 
 ' nine feet long ; and the whole made of a light con- 
 
 Plate IX. llrudion. 
 
 A more particular explanatioti of the figures. — Fig. I. 
 The machine iixcdtoaKentilh turn wrefl plough. A, 
 The machine. B, the apron upon which theftcd falls 
 and rebounds upon the land, in broad-calling. C, Lid 
 to cover the hopper. D, Wheel at the heel of the 
 plough. E, ftrap. YV, Hooks upon which the apron 
 turns by a pivot on each fide. G, Stays, to keep the 
 machine fteady. H, Lever to prevent it from fowing. 
 
 Fig. 2. The machine conllructed to be drawn by a 
 horfe. AAAA, The hoppers. BB, The diagonal 
 fupporters. CCCC, The upper fpouts. D, The apron 
 or Ihelfupon which the feed falls from the upper fpouts. 
 E, The lever, which carries back the bar,and prevents 
 the machine from fowing. FF, Staples upon the han- 
 dles, through which the reins pafs, for the man who 
 condufts the machine, to dired the horfe by. I, 
 Screw to fix the machine occalionally. N. B. The 
 knobs (by turning which each particular fpout may 
 be taken from off the bar, and thereby prevented from 
 fe«ding) are over each upper fpout ; but, to prevent 
 confufion, are nn lettered in the Plate. 
 
 Fig. ?. Is the fame machine with that in fig. i. The 
 dotted lines, exprelTing the fituation of the lung fpout, 
 when the apron is removed, and the machine adapted 
 for drilling. 
 
 Fig. 4. Alfoihc fame'machine, with the front laid 
 open to fliow the inlide. A, The catch-whccl fixed 
 upon the axle. BB, The axle upon which the machine 
 hjings between the handles of the plough. C, The 
 pulley, by which the llrap from the wheel at the heel 
 of the plough turns the catch-whccl. D, The bar, 
 
 Partir. 
 
 upon which the upper fpout refls, fnfpcaded by the Triaicc. 
 
 diagonal fupporters EE, b-.aring a;;p.inlt the catch- « '' 
 
 wheel by the trigger F, aud thereby kept in motion 
 
 while the plougii is goi;ig. G, the apron in a llopiiig 
 
 poiition, upon which tlie corn or feed falls from the 
 
 upper fjiout, and is fcaitcred by rebounding upon the 
 
 land. It turns upon pivots, and by this means throws 
 
 the feed cither towards the right handor Icftatplca- 
 
 fuie. 
 
 Fig. ;. The upper fpout. 
 
 Fig. 6. The plate whicli is placed between the bridge 
 and the llider for fowing fmall feeds. The aperture 
 A being downwards for fowing laruips ; the larger 
 one B downwards for fowing clover, &c. 
 
 Fig. 7. The briv!;re, fixed in the upper fpouts. A, 
 The llider, which contraftsor enlarges the diticrent 
 apertures. B, the aperture in the bridge, through 
 w hif-h the feed p.id'cs, when fowing any q^uaatiiy from 
 one bulhcl upwards on an acre. 
 
 Fig. 8. The regulator made of brafs. D, The 
 llider or horfe which moves upon it, and is fixed at 
 any particular decree by a fcrcw in its iidc. 
 
 Fig. 9. Reprcfcnts the movement in the machine 
 fig. 2. AAAA. Ckcts, between which the upper 
 fpouts reft. BB, The diagonal lipporters by which 
 the bar with the upper fpouts hang. C, The catch- 
 wheel. DD, ihe axle. E, The trigger upon the 
 bar, which bearsagainfl the catch-wheel. FF, Stays 
 from the back of tlie machine, by wliich the bar plays. 
 
 Fig. 10. The longfpout. AA, Theearsby which 
 it hangs. 
 
 Sect. II. Preparing Land for Cropping. 
 
 I. Obstrvctions to CRorriNC. 
 
 ic6 
 In preparing land for cropping, the firft thing that obftiuc- 
 occurs, istoconfiderthe obflnii^lions to regular plough- tious, viz. 
 ing. The moft formidable of thefe, are// r'/fjlyinga- *°'! 
 Love or below the furface, which are.-'n impediment to S'""'*- 
 a plough, as rocks are to a fhip. Stones above the 
 furface may be avoided by the ploughman, lliough not 
 without lofs of ground : but ftoncs below the furface 
 are commonly not difcnvered till the plough be Ihar- 
 tered to pieces, and perhaps a day's work loft. The 
 clearinglandofftones istherefore necelfary to prevent 
 milVhief. And to encourage the operation, it is at- 
 tended with much aclual profit. In the firft place, tlw 
 ftonesare ufeful for fences : when large they muft be 
 blown, and commonly fall into parts proper for build- 
 ing. Aiidas the blowing, when gunpowder is furnilh- 
 ed, does not exceed a halfpenny for each inch that is 
 bored, thefe ftones come generally cheaper than to dig 
 as many out of the quarry. In the next place, as the 
 foil round a large ftone is commonly tlie heft in the 
 field, it is purchafed at a low rate by taking out the 
 ftone. Nor is this a trUe ; for no; only is the ground 
 loft that is occupied by a larae ftone, but alfo a con- 
 fiderabU fpace round it, to which the plough has not 
 accefs w ithout danerr. A third advantage is greater 
 than all the reft ; which is, that the ploui^liing' can be 
 carried on with much expedition, when there is no ap- 
 prehenlion of ftones: in ftony land, the plough muft 
 proceed fo flow as not to perform half of its work. 
 To clear land of flones, is in many inflauces an un- 
 dertaking
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 dcrtriking too cxpenfive for a tcnant,who has not a 
 ' very long Icafc. As ilis profitable both to him and to 
 his 1 iiulljrdj it appears rcaloii.iblc tluit the work liioul J 
 be divided, where llie Icalc exceeds not nineteen years. 
 It fails naturally upon the landlord to be at the f xpenrc 
 of blowing the ftones, and upon the tenant to carry 
 them ort'the field. 
 
 Another obftniflion is wft ground. Water may 
 improve gravelly or fandy foils ; but it fours (A)aclay 
 foil, and converis low ground into a morafs, unjit lor 
 any purpofe that can intcreflthe huibaudnian. 
 
 A great deal has been written upon different me- 
 thods of draining land, moftly fo expenlive as to be 
 fcarce fit for the landlord, not to mention the tenant. 
 
 One way of draining without expencc when land is 
 to be inclofcd with hedge and ditch, is to direct the 
 ditches fo as to carry off tlie water. But this method is 
 notalways practicable, even where the divifionslie con- 
 venient for it. If the run of water be conliderablc, it 
 will dcllroy the ditches, and lay open the fences, efpe- 
 cially where the foil is loofe or findy. 
 
 If ditches will not anfwer, hollow drains are fon.e- 
 times made, and fometimesopen drains, which mull L>e 
 made l"o deep as to command the wa'cr. The former 
 is tilled up with loofe ftones, with brulli-wood, or with 
 any other porous matter that permits the water to 
 pais. The latter is left open, and not Hlled up. To 
 make the former effectual, the ground nuift have fuch 
 a dope as to give the water a brilk courfe. To execute 
 them in level ground is a grofs error : the palfagcs arc 
 foon ftopped up with fand and fediment, and the work 
 is rendered ufelefs. This inconvenience takes not place 
 in open drains ; but they are fubjeft to other inconve- 
 niences : They are always filling up, to make a yearly 
 reparatiim aecclTary ; and they obllrud both plough- 
 ing and pafluring. 
 
 The following is the beft in all views. It is an open 
 drain made with the plough^ cleaving the fpace in- 
 tended for the drain over and over, till the furrow be 
 riade of a futHcient depth for carrying off the water. 
 The (lope on either fide may, by repeated ploughings, 
 be made fo gentle as to give no obflruftion either to 
 the plough or to the harrow. There is nooccalion for 
 a fpade, iinlefs to Imooth the fiJes of the drain, and to 
 remove accidental obllrucHons in tlie bottom. The 
 advantages of this drain are manifold. It is executed 
 at much lefs expence than either of the former ; and 
 it is perpetual, as it can never be obfhuc'fed. In level 
 ground, it i^ true, grafs may grow at the bottom of 
 the drain ; but to clear off the grafs once in four or five 
 years, will reflore it to its original jierfeftion. A hol- 
 low drain may be proper between the fpring-headand 
 the main drain, where the diflancc is not great ; but 
 in every other cafe the drain recommended is thcbefl. 
 
 \\ here a level field is inftlled w'th water from 
 higher ground, the water ougiit to be intercepted by 
 a di;cli rarricd along the foot of the high ground, and 
 terminating in fonic cajut il drain. 
 
 The only way totlcara field of water tiiat is hollow 
 
 2S3 
 
 in the middle, is to carry it off by fome drain ftill low- rraaicc. 
 er. This is couiuionly the cafe *>f a morafs fed with 
 water from higher ground, and kept on the furfacc by 
 a clay bottom. 
 
 A clay foil of any thickncfs is never pcflcred ■with 
 fprings; but it is pcllercd with rain, which fettles on 
 the furface as in a cup. The only remedy is high nar- 
 row ridges, wellroundcd. And to clear the furrows, 
 the furrow of the footbridge ought to be conliderably 
 lower, in order to carry off the water cleverly. It can- 
 not be made too low, as nothi.ig hurts clay foil more 
 than the itagnaiion of wateronit ; witncfsthe hollows 
 at the end of cro.ked ridges, wliich arcabfolutely liar- 
 rcn. Some gravelly foils have a clay bottom ; which 
 is a i'ublbntial benefit to a held when in grafs, as it 
 retains moifture. But when in tillage, ridges arc nc- 
 celary to prevent rain from fettling at the bottom ; 
 and this is the only cafe where a gravelly foil ought 
 to be ridged. 
 
 Clay foils that have little or no level, have fomctimcs 
 a gravelly bottom. For difcharging the water, the befl 
 method is, at the end of every ridge to pierce down to 
 the gravtl, which will abforb the water. But if the 
 furrow of the foot-iid^e be low enough to receive all 
 the water, it will be more expeditious to make a few 
 holes in that furrow. In fome cafes, a field may be 
 drained, by tilling up the htdlows with earth taken from 
 higlier ground. But as this method is expenlive, it 
 will only be taken where no other method anfwcrs. 
 Where a tield happens to be partly wet, partly dry, 
 there ougiit to be a feparationby a middle ridge, if it 
 can be done conveniently ; and the dry part may be 
 ploughed while the other is drying. 
 
 The low part of Berwick (liire is generally a brick clay, 
 extremely wet and poachy during winter. This in a 
 good incafurc may be prevented by proper inclofmg, 
 as there is not a field but can be drained into lower 
 ground all the way down to the river Tweed. But 
 as this would lefTen the quantity of rain in a dry cli- 
 mate, fuch as is all the call fide of Britain, it may ad- 
 mit of fome doulit whether the remedy would not be 
 as bad as the difeafe. (S;i: the artidi Dr.imning.) 
 
 2. Bringing into CULTURE, Land from the 
 
 SI ATE of NATURE. 
 
 109 
 
 To improve a noor, let it be opened in wiritcr when Moi.rifh 
 it is wet; which has one convenience, that the plough grouud. 
 cannot be employed at any other work. In fpring, after 
 frofl is over, a llight harrowing will (ill up the fcams 
 with mould, to keep out the air, and rot the fod. In 
 that ftate let it lie the following fummcr a"d winter, 
 which will rot the fod more than if laid open to the air 
 by ploughing. Next April, let it be crofs-ploughed, 
 braked, and harrowed, till it be fulticicntly pulvcrifcd. 
 Let the manure laid upon it, whether lime or dung, 
 be intimately mixed ^A ith the foilb/ rrpeattd harrow- 
 ings. This will m.ake a tine bed for'turui p-fecd if fown 
 broad-caft. But if drills be intended, the method muft 
 N n 2 be 
 
 (a) By thi^expreflion it is not meant that the ground really becomes acid, but only that it beco'.ncs unfit 
 for the purpofesof vegetation. The natural produc^ts of fuch a foil arc rulhcsand ft^ur graTs : which Lift ap- 
 pears in the furrows, but fcldom in the crov;n of the ridge ; is dry and tailckfslikca ch'ipof wood ; and feels 
 rough when flrokcd backwards.
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 no 
 
 Swampy 
 
 Ill 
 
 Of ridges. 
 
 be followed that is Jirc6lcd afterward in treating more 
 dirciUy of the ciilcurc of turnip. 
 
 A factcfsful turnip-crop, fed on the ground with 
 fliecp, is a line preparation for laying down afield \\itli 
 jjrals-fccds. It is an improvement upon this method, 
 lo take two or three fiicceflivc crops of turnip, which 
 will require nodung for the fecond and following crops. 
 This will thicken the foil, and enrich it greatly. 
 
 The bell way of improving fwanipy ground after 
 draining, is paring and burning. But wiicrc the ground 
 is dry, uud the f<;il fo^ thin as that the iiirface cannot 
 be p.'.red, the bell way of bringing it into tilih from 
 the llate of nature, as mentioned sbove, is to plough 
 it wiih a feathered focJi, laying the gralfy furface un- 
 der. After the new furface is mellowed'with froft, 
 fill ujiallthcfeams by harrowing crofs the field, which 
 by excluding the air will etfeclually rot the foj. In 
 this llitc let it lie fumnicr and winter, in the bcgin- 
 ing of May after, a crofs ploughing will reduce all to 
 fmall fquare pieces, which mult be pulverized with the 
 brake, and make it ready for a May or June crop. If 
 ihcfc fquare pieces be allowed to lie long in tiie fap 
 without breaking, they will become ton^h and not be 
 calily reduced. 
 
 3. Forming Ridges. 
 
 Th e firfl thing that occurs on this head, is to con- 
 fidcr what groundsought to be formed iuto ridges, and 
 what ought to be tilled with a flat furface. Dry foils, 
 whichfulfer bya lack of nioillure,ought to betillcd flat, 
 ■which tends to retain moilhire. And the method for 
 fuch tilling, is to go round and round from the cir- 
 cumfercucc to the centre,or trom the centre to thecir- 
 cuniferencc. This method is advantageous in point of 
 expedition, as the whole is tinillicd without once turn- 
 ing the plough. At the fame time, every inch of the 
 foil is moved, inflead of leaving lithcr the crown or 
 the furrow unmoved, as is commonly done in tilling 
 ridges. Clay foil, which futfers by water /landing on 
 it, ought to b-- laid as dry as polhble by proper ridges. 
 A loamy foil is the middle between the twomentioned. 
 It ought to be tilled flat in a dry country, efpecially 
 if it i.iclnie to the foil firfl mentioned. In a moill 
 country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high or 
 k)w according to the degree of moiflure and tendency 
 to clay. 
 
 In grounds that require ridging, an error prevails, 
 that ridges cannot be raifcd too high. High ridges 
 labour under fcveral difadvantages. The foil is heap- 
 ed upon the crown, leaving the furrows bare : the 
 crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet : the crop, 
 which is always bcft on thecrown.is more readily iha- 
 kcn with the wind, than where the whole crop is of an 
 equal height : the halfof tiie rid^e is always, covered 
 from the fun, a difadvantage which is far from being 
 flight in a cold climate. High riJges labour under a- 
 nother difadvantage in ground that has no more level 
 than barely fuiiicient to carry off water : they fink the 
 iarrows below the level of the ground ; and eon fe- 
 quently retain water at the end of every ridge. The 
 furrows ought never to be funk below the level of the 
 ground. Water will more etfcctually be carried off 
 by IclTcaing the ridges both ia height and breadth : a 
 
 narrow ridge, the crown of which is but 18 inches 
 higher than tlie furrow, hasa greater Hope than a very 
 broad ridge where the dillcrcnce is ihrcc orfour feet. 
 
 Next, of forming ridgts where the ground lungs 
 eonfidcrably. Ridges may be too fteep as well as too 
 horizontal ; and if to the ridges be given all the llcep- 
 rel'sof a fit IJ, a heavy Ihower may do irreparable mil- 
 chief^ To prevent fuch mifchicf, the ridges ought to 
 be fo-dirccled cruls ihe field, as to have a gentle llopc 
 for carrying off water llowly, and no more. In that 
 rcfpecl, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of 
 one that is nearly ho: izont.:l ; beeaule in the latter, 
 there is no opportunity of a choice in forming the 
 ridges. A hill is of all the bell ad.ijited for directing 
 the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be 
 ploughed round .ii:d round, beginning at thcboitoui 
 and afccnding gradually to the top in a fpjral line. 
 '1 his I'.ictliod vt ploughing a hill, requires no more 
 force than pKnij^iiiag on a level ; and at the fame time 
 removes the great inconvcnicnceota gravelly hill, that 
 rains go oft" too quickly ; for the rain is retained in 
 every furrow. If the foil be fucii as to require ridges, 
 they may be directed to any Hope that is proper. 
 
 In order to form a field into ridges, that has not been 
 formerly cultivated, the rules mentioned are eafily put 
 in c.\ecuii('ii. But what ii ridges be already formed, 
 that are cither crooked or too high ? After feeing the 
 advantage of forming a field into ridges, people were 
 naturally led into an error, that the hightr the better. 
 But what could tempt them to make their ridges crook- 
 ed.' Certainly this method did not originate from de- 
 iign ; but from the lazinefs of the driver futiering the 
 cattle to turn too hallily, inllcad of making them hnilh 
 the ridge without turning. There is more than one 
 difadvantage in this llovenly praelice. t'irll, the wa- 
 ter is kept in by the curve at the end of every ridge, 
 and fours the ground. Next, as a plough has thelealt 
 frittion poflible in a llr.tight line, the friction mud be 
 incrcafed in a curve, the back part of the mouldboard 
 prelfing hard on the one hand, and the coulter prefling 
 hard on the other. In the third place, the plough 
 moving in a flraightline, has the greatell command in 
 laying the earth over. But where the ilraigln line of 
 the plough is applied to the curvature of a ridge in 
 order to licighten it by gathering, the earth moved by 
 the plough is continually falling back, in fpite of the 
 niofl fkilful ploughman. 
 
 The inconveniencesofridgeshighandcrookcdarefo 
 many, that one would be tempted to apply a remedy at 
 any rifk. And yet, if t!ie foil be clay, it would not be 
 advifcable for a tenant to apply ihc remedy uponalcafc 
 fliorter than two nineteen years, in a dry gravelly- 
 foil, the work is not difficult nor hazardous. When 
 the ridges are cleaved two or three years fuccef- 
 fively in the eourfc of cropping, the operation ought 
 to be concluded in one fummer. The earth, by reite- 
 rated ploughings, lliould be accumulated upon the fur- 
 rows, fo as toraifc them higher than the crowns : they 
 cannot be raifed too high, for the accumulated earth 
 will fublide by its own weight. Crofs-ploughing once 
 or twice, will reduce the ground to a ilat furface, and 
 give opportunity to form ridges at will. The fame 
 method brings down ridges in clay foil ; only let care 
 be taken to carry on the work with expedition ; be- 
 
 catifc 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 Praflicc.
 
 Part I r. 
 
 I'racSice. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 28,- 
 
 • EJfays on 
 yi^ritttlliire. 
 Vol. I. p. 
 146- 
 
 Hi 
 Inconvcni- 
 
 mcthodsof , 
 levelling. 
 
 caiife aliearty (hower,bcforc the ncwriJgcsarc form- 
 ed, would foak the ground in water, and make the far- 
 mer fjlpcnded his work for the remainder of that 
 year at lead. In a ftrongclay, wc would not venture 
 to alter the riJges, unlel's it can be done to pcrfctlioii 
 
 in one fcafon On this fu'jjeet Mr Anderfon has the 
 
 following obfcrvatioMS*. 
 
 "The difficulty of performing this operation pro- 
 perly with the common implemeutsofhulbandry, and 
 thcobvious benefit that accrues to the farmer from ha- 
 enctsinthe ving liis'fields level, has produced many new invcnii- 
 commoa p,,^ „j- ploughs, harrov/s, drags, &c. calculated for 
 fpccdily reducing the fields to that Hate ; none of 
 whicn have as yet been found fully toanfwcr the pur- 
 pofe forwhich they were intended, as they allindifcri- 
 minaiely carry the earth that was oil the high places 
 into thofe tiiat were lower ; which although it may, 
 in foiBC cafes render the furface of the ground tolera- 
 bly fmooih and level, is uAially attended witli incon- 
 veniences far greater, for aeon liderable length of lime, 
 than iliat.whicli it was intended to remove. 
 ^''Vi " ^'°^ experience fufliciently fhows, that even the 
 m'^^W^c- ^^^ vegetable mould, if buried for any length of time 
 comes inert f" f'*'' beneath tlic furface as to be deprived of the be- 
 by hcing nign influences of the atmofphere, lofes its vis vita', if 
 longburitd I may be allowed that exprcllion ; becomes an inert, 
 lifclefsmafs, little fitted for nourilhing vegetables, and 
 conftitutes a foil very improper for the purpofesof the 
 farmer. Jt therefore behoves him, as much as in him 
 lies, to preferve, on every part of his fields, an equal 
 covering of that vegetable mould that has long been 
 uppcrmoft, and rendered fertile by ihe meliorating in- 
 fluence of the atmofphcre. But, if he fudJenly levels 
 his high ridges by any cf thefc mechanical contrivan- 
 ces, lie of riecelUty buries all the good mould that was 
 on the top of the ridges in the old furrows ; by which 
 he greatly impoverilhes one partof his field, while he 
 too much inriches another ; infomuch that it isamat- 
 tcrofgrcatdificulty, for many years thereafter, to get 
 the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in dif- 
 ferent places ; which makes it inipnllible for the far- 
 mer to get an equal crop over the whole of his field by 
 any mana:;cnicnt whatever : and he has the mortifica- 
 tion frequently, by this means, to fee the cue half of 
 his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while other 
 parts of it are wesk and fickly, or one part ripe and 
 ready for reaping, while the (.thcr is not properly 
 filled ; fo that it were, on many occafions, better for 
 him to have his whole field reduced at once to the fame 
 degree of poornefs as the poorcllofit, than have it in 
 this (late. An almofl impracticable dcgvtc of attcuii- 
 on in fpreaJing the manures may indeed in fome mea- 
 fure get the better of this ; but it is' lb ditiicult to per- 
 form this properly, that I have frequently feen fields 
 that had been I h'.is levelled, in which, after thirty years 
 of continued culture and repeated dredings, the marks 
 of the old ndges could be diltin-Hy traced when the 
 corn was growing;, altho' the furface wa.- fo level that 
 no traces of thciu could be perceived when the corn 
 was off the ground. 
 
 " But this is a degree of perfrflion in levelling that, 
 cannot be ufiially attained by following this mode of 
 practice ; and, therefore, is but ftldom it t n. Kor all _ 
 ^that can be expcdcd to be done by any levelling ma- ' 
 
 ciiine, is tc^rendcr t!ic f.irface perfectly fmooth and Pnaice. 
 
 even in every part, at the time that the operation is ■ w ' 
 
 performed: but as, in this cafe, the old hollows arc 
 fuddeiily filled up with luofe mould to a great depth, 
 while the earth below the furface up<;:i the heights of 
 ihcold ridges reniainsrirm and cc-.npact.the ncw-raifed 
 earth after a liiort time lublidcs very much, while the 
 other parts of the ficid do not link at all ; fo that in 
 a lliort time the old furrows come to be agr.in bclov/ 
 the level of the other parts of the field, and the water 
 of co'jrfc is furt'ered in fome degree to /lagnatc upon 
 them ; in fo much that, in a few years, it becomes nc- 
 celfaryoncc more to repeat the fame levelling proccfs, 
 and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuflains 
 by thiS'^)erniciou.s operation. 
 
 " On thcfe accounts, if ihe farmer has not a long Ltvcllin- 
 leafc, it will be found in general to be much hisintcrclt fnmctime* 
 to leave the ridges as he found them, rather than m "ot to he 
 attempt toalter theirdirettiou : and, if he attends with attcmj'Kd.- 
 due caution to moderate the height of thefc old ridges, 
 he may reap very good crops, although perliaps at a 
 fomewhat greater exptnce of labour thaii he would 
 have been put to upon the fame field, if itliad been re- 
 duced to a proper leveifurface,anddividedintoftraight 
 and parallel ridges. 
 
 " But, whercamanisfccureofpoireflinghisgroiinJ 
 for any confidcrallc length of time, the advaniagei 
 that he will reap from having level and well laid-out 
 fields, are foconliderable as to be worth pnrchafing, if 
 it Ihould even be at a conliderable expence. But the 
 lofs that is fuftained at the beginning, b) this mecha- 
 nical mode of levelling ridges, if they arcof confidcr- 
 ablc height, is fo very great, that it is perhaps doubt- 
 ful if any future advantages can ever fully compenfate 
 it. I would therefore advife, that all this levelling 
 apparatus ihould be laid alide ; and the following more 
 eflicacious practice be fubllituted in its (lead : A prjc- 
 lice that I have long followed with fuccefs, and can 
 fat'cly recommeijj as the very bell that has yet cumc 
 to my knowledge. 
 
 " If the ridges have been raifcd to a very great p.^cime. 
 height, as a preparation for the cnfuing operations, thoj of 
 they may be firll t/si'jw, ov feal^doat, as it is callrdia Uvtllint'. 
 ditterent places ; thai is, ploughed fo as to lay the earth 
 on each ridge from the middle towards the furrows. 
 But, if they are only of a moderate degree of height, 
 this operation may be omitted. When you mean to 
 piocced to level the ground, let a nnmberofmcn be 
 collected, with fpades, more or fewer as the nature of 
 t!ie ground requires, and then fet a plough to draw a 
 furrow direClly acrol'sthc ridges of ihe whole field in- 
 tended to be levelled. Divide tiiis line into as many 
 parts as you have labourers, allotting to each one ridge 
 or two, or more or Icfs, according to their number, 
 height, and other circumilances. Let each of the la- 
 bourers have orders, as (oon as the plough has padcd 
 that part afllgued him, to begin 10 dig in the bottom 
 of the furrow that the plough hasjuA made, about the 
 middle of the fide of the old rid^^e, keeping his face 
 towards the old ("urrow, workiiig backwards till he 
 eoii.cs to the height of the rid'.;c, and thi::"turn to- 
 wards the other furrow, and repeat the f i: e on the 
 other lide of the ridge, always throwing the larili that 
 he dig^ up into the dcej) old furrow between the rid- 
 ges.
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 PartU. 
 
 gcs, iliat is directly before liim ; taking care not to dig 
 deep where be firlt i cgiiis, but to go deeper and deeper 
 asl>c advances to the hciglit or ilic ridge, fo as to leave 
 the bottom of the trench he thus makes acrofs the 
 rii'gc entirely level, or as nearly fo as pollible. And 
 ■w htn he hastinilhed that ]>art oi the furrow allotted to 
 hini that the plough has ujade in going, let him then 
 go and liiiih in the fame manner his own portion of 
 the furrow that the plough makes in returning. In this 
 manner, each man performs liisown talk through the 
 whole field, gradually railing tiic old furrows as the 
 old heights arc deprelied. And, if an attentive over- 
 leer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well 
 done, and that each I'urrow is raifcdtoa grcaici height 
 than the niiiidle of the old ridges, Ibas to allow for the 
 fubfuiiug of the loofc tarth, the operation will be en- 
 tirely rinjlhed at once, and never again need to be re- 
 peated. 
 
 ^ " In performing this operation, it will always be 
 jiropcr to make the ridges, formed for the purpufe of 
 levelling, which go acrofs the old ridges, as broad as 
 pollible ; bccaufc tlie dccj) trench that is thus m.idc in 
 each of the furrows is an impediment in the future 
 operations, as well as the height that is accumulated 
 ill the middle of each of thefe ridges ; fo that the fewer 
 there are of thefe, the better it is. The farmer, there- 
 fort, will do Well to advert to this in time, and begin 
 by foiming a ridge by always turning the plough to 
 llic right liai.d, till it becomes of I'uch a breadth as 
 jnakesit very inconvenient to turn longer in that man- 
 ner ; and then, at the diftance of twice the breadth of 
 this new-formed ridge from the middle of it, markotf" 
 a furrow for the middle of another ridge, turning 
 round it to tiie right hand, in the Cinie manner as was 
 done in the former, till it becomes of the fame breadth 
 with it ; and then, turning to the left liand, plough out 
 the interval that was left between the twonew-fonned 
 ridges. By this mode of ploughing, each ridge may 
 be made of 40, or 50 or 60 yards in breadth, without 
 any great inconvenience ; for although fome time will 
 be lofl in turning at the ends of thefe broad ridges, 
 yet, as this operation is only to be once performed in 
 this manner, thcadvantage that is repeated by having 
 few open furrows, is more than fufiicicnt to couiiler- 
 balaiicc it. And, in order to moderate the height 
 that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe 
 great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the 
 ridges, and draw the furrow that is to be the middle of 
 each fome days before you colleft your labourers to 
 level the field ; that you may, without any hurry or 
 lofs of labour, clear out a good trench through the 
 middle of each of the old ridges; as the plough at this 
 time going and returning nearly in the fame track, pre- 
 vents the labourers from working properly without 
 this precaution. 
 
 " If thefe rules are attended to, your field will beat 
 once redu ed to a proper Irvel, and the ric h earth that 
 formed the Inrfacc of the old ridges be flill kept upon 
 the Airfare of your field ; fothat the only lofs that the 
 pofleflbr of fiich ground can fuflain by this operation, 
 is merely the cxpencc of performing it." 
 
 He afterwards makes a calculation of the difTerent 
 
 cxpences ol levelling by the plough 31 d by the fpade, I'isflicc. 
 
 in which he finds the latter by far the cheapeit me- ^ ' 
 
 tliod. lit; 
 
 Let it be a rule, to direct the ridges north and rmptr di- 
 fouth, if thegrouiul will permit. In this direction the '"«<il'"n "f 
 call and welt liJes of the ridges, dividing the fun e- 'he ridjjcs, 
 qually between ihein, will ripen at the fame time. 117 
 
 It isagreat advantage in agriculture, to form ridges Narrow 
 fo narrow, and fo low, as to admit the crowns and fur- rii^tii-* an 
 rows to be changed ahcrnaiely every crop. The foil i"l^»"'agc, 
 nearcll the furtacc is the bell ; and by fuch ploughing, 
 it is always kept near the furface, and never buried. 
 In high ridges, the foil is accumulated at the crown 
 and the furrows left bare. Such alterations of crown 
 and furrow, is eafy where the ridges arc no more but 
 fevcn or eight feet broad. This mode of ploughing 
 anfwers perfcclly well in fandy and gravelly foits,and 
 even in loam j but it is not I'afc in clay foil. In thct 
 foil, the ridges ought to be 12 fcttwide,and 20 inches 
 high ; to be prefervcd always in the fame fonn by caft- 
 ing, that is, by ploughing two ridges together, bc- 
 ginningatlhc furrowthat Itparaics them, and plough- 
 ing round and round till the two ridges be tinilhcd. 
 By tliismeihod, the feparating furrow is railed aliitle 
 higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges. 
 But at the next ploughing, that inequality is correc- 
 ted, by beginningat the bounding furrows, and going 
 round and round till the ploughing of the two ridges 
 be completed at the feparating furrow. 
 
 4. Clearing Ground of Weeds. 
 
 118 
 For this purpofea newinflrument,termeda<;/r<7«//7f Cleaning 
 
 hiin ovi, has been introduced by Lord Kames, and is harrow, 
 llrongly recommended (b). It is one entire piece t'latc V. 
 like the lirll of thofe mentioned above, conlilling of f'S- *• 
 fevcn bulls, four feet long each, two and one-fourth 
 inches broad, two and three-fourths deep. The bulls 
 arc united together by Ihcths, limilar to what are men- 
 tioned above. Tlie intervals between the bulls being 
 three and three-fourths inclies, the brcailth of the 
 whole harrow is three feet five inches. In each bull 
 are inferted eight teeth, each nine inches free below 
 the wood, and dillant from each other lix inches. The 
 weight of each tooth is a pound, or near it. The 
 whole is firmly bound by an iron plate from corner to 
 corner in the line of the draught. The rell as in the 
 harrows mentioned above. The lize, however, is not 
 invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger 
 or lefs according as the foil is lliff or free. 
 
 To give this inllrument its full elfert, flor.es of fiich 
 a fize as not topafs freely between the teeth ought to 
 be carried oft, and clods of th:it li/c ought to be bro- 
 ken. The ground ought to be dry, which it commonly 
 is in the month of May. 
 
 In preparing for barley, turnip, or other fummer- 
 erop, begin with ploughing and crofs-ploughing. If 
 the ground be not fuffi . ii nily pulverized, let the great 
 brake be applied, to be followed fiKcelGvelyw it lithe ill 
 and 2d hsrrrows. In (Hflfoil, rolling maybe proper, pjjte vi. 
 or twice between tlic afls. 1 lufeupcrations w ill loofen fig, 3,4. 
 every root, and brin^ fome of them to the furface. 
 
 This 
 
 (b) In his Ciiittitnaii farmer ; to which performance the prai^ical part ef this article is matcrixily indebted.
 
 A G 
 
 IX 
 
 I C U L 'i' U R E. 
 
 This is the time for the 3d harrow, conJuclcJ by a 
 boy moimtcd on one of ihc horfcs, who trots fiuartly 
 alon^ the iielJ, ;"nJ brings all the roots to the ftirlacc : 
 there tlicy are to lie for a day or two, till pc rftdly 
 dry. If any flones or clods remain, they mufl be car- 
 ried off in a cart. And now fuccteds the operation of 
 the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a hiiglc horfc, 
 dircflcd by rtiiis, which the man at the oppOlite corner 
 puts over his head, in order to have both hands free, 
 in this corner is fi.Kf d.i rope, with which the man from 
 time 10 iir.ic raifes the harrow from the ground, to let 
 tlic \«. ceds drop. For the f ike of expedit.on, the weeds 
 ought to be dropt in a Uraight line crofs the field, 
 whether the harrow be tnll or not ; and fcidoni is a 
 field J'o dirty but that the harrow may go 30 yards be- 
 fore the teeth arc tilled. The weeds will be thus laid 
 in parallel rows, like thofe of hay raked togetlier for 
 drying. A harrow may be drawn fwiftly :ilong the 
 rows, in order to Ihake out all the dull ; and then the 
 weeds may be carried clean offthe field in carts. But 
 we are not yet done with thcfe weeds: inftead of burn- 
 ing, which is the ordinary practice, they may be con- 
 verted into iifeful manure, by laying them in a heap 
 witli a mjxlurc of hot dung to begin fermentation. 
 At firll view, this way of cleaning land will appear 
 operofe ; but upon trial, neither the labour nor ex- 
 pence will be found immodera:e. At any rate, the la- 
 bour and cxpence ought not to be grudged ; for if a 
 Held be once thoroughly cleaned, the feafons mud be 
 very crofs, or the farmer very indolent, to make it ne- 
 ceflary to renew the operation in Icfs than 20 years. In 
 the worfl feafons, a few years paflurc is always under 
 command ; which effectually deftroys triennial plants, 
 fuch as thirties and couch -grafs. 
 
 5. On the Nature of difFercn: kinds of Soils, and the 
 Plants proper to each. 
 
 I. Clay, which is in general the Iliffcft of all foils, 
 and contains an un.tuous quality. But under the 
 term cUiys, earths of ditt'erent forts and colours arc in- 
 cluded. One kind is fo oblHnate, that fcarccly any 
 thing will fub.hie it ; another is fo hungry and poor, 
 that it abforbs whatever is applied, and turns it into 
 its own quality. Some cl.iys arc fatter than others, 
 and the fattefl are the beft ; fomc arc more loft and 
 iHppery. But all of them retain water poured on 
 their furfaccs, where it ftaonates, and chills the plants, 
 without finking into the foil. The clofcneCs of clay 
 prevents the roots and fibres of plants from fpreading 
 in fcarch of nouridiment. The blue, the red, and the 
 white clay, if ftrong, are unfavourable to vegetation. 
 The ftonyand loofer fort arc lefs fo ; but none of them 
 are worth any thing till their texture is fo loofencd by 
 a mixture of other fubftances, and opened, as to ad- 
 mit the influence of the fun, the air, and frofts. A- 
 mong the manures recommended for clay, fand is of 
 all others to be preferred ; and fca-fand the bed of all 
 where it can be obtained : This moft efteflually breaks 
 the cohelion. 
 
 The reafon for preferring fca-fand is, that it is not 
 formed wholly (as moft other lands arc) of fmall ftones ; 
 but contains a great deal of calcareous matter in it, 
 fuch as, fliells grated and broken to pieces by the tide ; 
 and alfo of faJts. The fmallcr the fand is the more 
 
 287 
 
 eaUly it penetrates the clay ; but it abides Icfs time in Praaice. 
 it than the hrger. 
 
 The next beft fand is that wafhed down by rains 011 
 gravelly foil^. Thofe which are dry and light are tha 
 wor!!. Small gritty gravel has alfo been recommended 
 by the beft writers on agriculture for thcfe foils ; and 
 in many inftanccs we have found them to anfwer the 
 purpofc. 
 
 Shell-niarlc, aflies, and all animal and vegetable fub- 
 ftances, are very good manures for cl.iy ; but they have 
 been found moll beneficial when fand is mixed with 
 them. Lime has been often ufcd, but the writer of 
 this fedion would not recommend it, for he never 
 found any advantage from it fingly, when applied to 
 clays. 
 
 The crops ir.oft fuitable for fuch lands arc, wheat, 
 beans, cablages, and r>e-grafs. Clover ftldom f.ic- 
 ceeds, nor indeed any phnts whofe roots require depth, 
 and a wide f^rcad in the earth. 
 
 2. Chalk. Chalky fails ape gcncr.'.lly dry and warni, 
 and if there be a tolerable depth of niould, fruitful ; 
 producing great crops of barley, rye, pcafe, vetches, 
 clover, trefoil, buraet,andparticularly fain-foin. The 
 latter plant rtouriihcs in a chalky foil better than any 
 other. But if thefurface of mould be very thin, this 
 foil requires good manuring with clay, niarlc, lo»m, or 
 dung. As thcfe lands are dry, they may be fown ear- 
 lier than others. 
 
 When your barley is three inches high, throw in 
 10 Jb. of clover, or I y lb. of trefoil, and roll it well. 
 The ne,x"t fummcr mow the crop for hay ; iaA off. he 
 aftermath with Ihecp ;and in winter give it a top-drcf- 
 (ing of dung. This will produce a crop the Icconi 
 fpring, which fliould be cut for hay. As foon as this 
 crop is carried off, plo;jgh up the land, and in the be- 
 ginning of September fow three bjlhels of rye per 
 acre, either to feed off" the fliccp in the fpring or to 
 fland for harveft. If you feed it otF, low winter 
 vetches in Auguftor September, and make them into 
 hay the following fummer. Then get the land into 
 as fine tilth aspoflible, and fow it with fain-foin, which, 
 with a little manure once in iwo or three years, will 
 remain and produce good crops for 20 years together. 
 
 3. Light poor land, which feldom produces good 
 crops of any thing till well manured. At'ter it is well 
 ploughed, fow three bulhels of buck-wheat per acre, 
 in April or May : When in bloom, let your cattle in 
 a few days to cat off the beft, and tread the other 
 down ; this done, plough in what remains immediate- 
 ly. This will foon ferment and rot in the gro.ind ; 
 then lay it fine, and fow three buihels of rye per acre. 
 If this can be got oft early enough, fow turnips ; if 
 not, winter vetches to cut for hay. Then get it in 
 good tilth and fow turnip rooted cabbages, in rows 
 three feet apart. This plant feldom fails, if it has 
 futficient room, and the intervals be well horfc-hocd ; 
 and you will rind it the beft Ipring-teed for (hecp when 
 turnips arc over. 
 
 The horfe-hoeing will clean and prepare the land 
 for fain-foin ; for the fowing of which April is 
 reckoned the beft feafon. The ufual way is to fow 
 it broad-caft, four bulhels to an acre ; but the writer 
 prefers fowing it in drills two feet afunder ; for then 
 it may be horfc-hocd, and half the feed will be fullir 
 cicnt. 
 
 The
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 119 
 
 The horfc-hocingwill not only clean the crop, but 
 earth up the plants, and render them more luxuriant 
 and hilling. 
 
 If you low it broad-call, give it a topdreCing in 
 December or January, of rotten dung, or alhes, or 
 which is Hill better, of both iiiixcd up in comport. 
 
 From various trials, it is found that taking only one 
 crop in a year, and feeding the a<"tcr -growth, is better 
 than to mow it twice. Cut it as foon as it is in lull 
 bloom, if the weather will permit. The luy will be 
 the fweetcr, and the Ilrength of the plants lefs im- 
 paired, than if it Hands till the feed is formed. 
 
 4. Light rich land, being the mofleafy to cultivate 
 to advantage, and capable of bearing moil kinds of 
 grain, pulie, and herbage, little need be faid upon it. 
 One thing however is very proper to be obferved, that 
 fuch lands are beft adapted to the drill huAjandry, 
 cfpecially where machinesareufed, which require {hal- 
 low furrows to be made for the reception of ihe feed. 
 This, if not prone to cou^-grafs, is the belt of all 
 foils for lucerne ; which, if fown in two feet drills, 
 andkept clean, will yield an aftonifliing quantity of 
 the molt excellent herbage. But lucerne will never 
 
 . becultivated toadvantagewherecouch-grafs and weeds 
 are very plentiful; nor in the broad-caft method, even 
 where they are not fo ; becaufc horfe-hocing is clFen- 
 tial to the vigorous growth of this plant. 
 
 5. Coarfe rough land. Plough deep in autumn ; 
 when it has lain two weeks, crofs-plnugh it, and let it 
 lie rough through the winter. In March give it ano- 
 ther good ploughing ; drag, rake, and harrow it well, 
 to get out the rubbilh, and fow four buflicls of black 
 cats per acre if the foil be wet, and white oats if dry. 
 WhijU about four inches high, roll them well after a 
 /liowcr : This will break the clods ; and the line mould 
 falling among the roots of the the plants will promote 
 their growth greatly. 
 
 Some fow clover and rye grafs among the oats, but 
 tliis appears to be bad hulbandry. Ifyoudclign it for 
 clover, low it tingle, and let a coat of dung be laid 
 on in December. The fnow and rain will then dilute 
 its falts and oil, and'crfrry them down among the roots 
 of the plants. This is 'far better than mixing the 
 crops on fuch land, for the oats will exhauft the foil fo 
 much that the clover will be impovcrilhed. The fol- 
 lowing fummcr you will have a good crop of clover, 
 which cut once, and feed the after-growth. In the 
 winter plough it in, and let it lie till February: Then 
 plough and harrow it well ; and in March, if the foil 
 be moi/l, plant beans in drills of three feet, to admit 
 the horfc-hoc freely. When you horfe-hoe them a fc- 
 cond lime, fow a row of turnips in each interval, and 
 they will fuecced very well. But if the laud be flrong 
 enough for fowing wheat as foon as the beans are oflf^ 
 the turnips may be omitted. 
 
 Sect. HI. Culture aj particular Pliti.ts. 
 
 The articles hitherto infilled on, are all of them 
 preparatory to the capital olyeft of a farm, that of 
 railing plants for the nourilhmcnt of man, and of o- 
 ther animals. Thefe arc of two kinds ; culmiferous 
 and leguminous ; differing widely from each other. 
 Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-grafs, are of the lirlt 
 
 4 
 
 kind : of the other kind arc, peafe, beans, clover, cab- Prailice. 
 bage, and many others. " • ' 
 
 Culmiferous plants, Aiys Bonnet, have three fetsof „ /'? . 
 roots. The firlt ifluc from the feed, and pulh to the rou5"i>lam». 
 iurface an upright Item ; another fet ilfuc from a knot 
 in that fteni; and a third from another knot, nearer 
 the furfacc. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo 
 deep in the ground as to afford fpace for all the ftts. 121 
 
 Leguminous plants form their roots difltrently. I.epMtui- 
 Peafc, beans, cabbage, have flore of finall roots, all """sp'"""- 
 ilTuing from the feed, like the undermoft fet of culmi- 
 ferous roots ; and they have no other roots. A potato 
 and a turnip have bulbous roots. Red clover has a 
 Hrong tap-root. The difference between culmiferous 
 and leguminous plants with refpe£l to the effects they 
 I)voducc in the foil, will be inliited on afterward^ in 
 the feflion conccr;iing the rotation of crops. As the 
 prefent feftion is confined to the propagation of plants, 
 it falls naturally to be divided into three articles: firfl. 
 Plants cultivated for fruit ; fecond. Plants cultivated 
 for roots; third. Plants cultivated for leaves. 
 
 I. Plants Cultivated for Fruit. 
 I. Wheat and Rte. 
 
 Any time from the middle of April to the middle of Fallowing 
 May, the fallowing for whdut may commence. The for wheat, 
 moment Ihouldbechofcn, when the ground, beginning 
 to dry, has yet fome remaining foftiiefs : in tliat con- 
 dition, the foil divides ealily by the plough, and falls 
 into fmall parts. This is an eflcntial article, deferving 
 the Uridlefl attention of the farmer. Ground plough- 
 ed too wet, rifes, as we fay, whoh-fur, as when paflure- 
 ground is ploughed : where ploughed too dry, it rifes 
 in great lumps, which are not reduced by fubftquent 
 ploughings ; not to mention, that it requires double 
 force to plough ground too dry, and that the plough is 
 often broken to pieces. A\"hcn the ground is in pro- 
 per order, the farmer can have no excufe for delaying 
 a lingle minute. This firlt courfe of f.illow mull, it is 
 true, yield to the barley-feed ; but as the barley- feed 
 is commonly over the firil week of May, or fooner, the 
 feafon mull be unfavourable if the fallow cannot be 
 reached by the middle of May. 
 
 As clay foil requires high ridges, thefe ought to be 
 cleaved at the firlt ploughing,bc;;inningat the furrow, 
 and ending at the crown. TJiis plougliing ought to 
 be asdeep as the foil will admit : and water-furrowing 
 ought inllantly to follow; for if rain happen before 
 water-furrowing,itflagnates in the furrow, necelTarily 
 delays the fecond ploughing till that part of thf ridge 
 be dry, and prevents the furrow from being mellowed 
 and roalled by the fun. If this firft jdoughing be well 
 executed, annual weeds will rife in plenty. 
 
 About the firfl week of June, the great brake will 
 I'jofen and reduce the foil, encourage a fecond crop of 
 annuals, and raife to the furfacc the roots of v/ecda 
 moved by the plough. Give the w ceds time to fpring, 
 which may be in two or three weeks. Then proceed 
 to the fecond ploughing about the beginning of July ; 
 which mufi. be crofs the ridges, in order to reach all 
 the llips of the former ploughing. By crofs-pioughing 
 the furrows will be filled up, and water furrowing be 
 ftill more necc.Tary than before. Employ, the brake 
 again about the loih of Augufl, to dcilroy the annuals 
 
 thai
 
 Part II. A G R I C U 
 
 Praaice- that have fprung fincc tlic lafl flirring. The dertnic- 
 
 ' >■' tio;i of weeds is ;i capital article in tallowing : yet fo 
 
 blinj are people (o their interell, that nothing is mo^e 
 common than a tallow field covered with charlock and 
 wild niiiilard, all in riowcr, and lo or 12 inches high. 
 The field having now received two harrow ings and two 
 breakings, is prepared for manure, whether lime or 
 dung, which without delay ought to be incorporated 
 with the foil by a repeued harrowing and a gathering 
 furrow. This ought to be about the beginning of 
 September, and as fuon after as you pleafc the feed may 
 be fown. 
 
 As in ploughing a clay foil it is of importance to 
 prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought to be done 
 witii twohofcsin aline. If four ploughs be employed 
 in the fame field, to one of them may be allotted the 
 care of tiiiilhing the hinting furrows. 
 
 Loam, being a mcdimn between fand and clay, is 
 of all foils the fittell for culture, and the leaft fubject 
 to chances. It does not hold water like clay ; and 
 when wet, it dries fooncr. At the fame time, itismore 
 retentive than fand of that degree of moiiture whicli 
 promotes vegetation. On the other hand, itismore 
 liibjcit to couch grafs than clay, and toother weeds ; 
 todeflroy which, fallow Lng is Hill more necelTary than 
 ill clay. 
 
 Ucginniug the fallow about the firft of Afay, or as 
 foon as barlcy-fecd is over, t^ke as deep a furrow as 
 the foil will admit. Where the ridges are fo low and 
 narrow as tliat the crown and furrow can be changed 
 alternately, there is little or no occafion for wattr uir- 
 rowing. Where the ridges are fo high as to make it 
 proper to cleave them, water-furrowing ispropcr. I'he 
 fecond ploughing may beat the diflanceof five weeks. 
 Two crops of annuals may be got in the interim, the 
 firll by the brake and the next by the harrow ; and by 
 the fame means eight crops may be got in the feafon. 
 The ground mull be cleared of couch-grafs and knot- 
 grafs roots, by the cleaning harrow defcribed above. 
 The time for this operation is immediately before the 
 manure is laid on. The ground at that time being in 
 its loofcfl flate, parts with its grafs roots more freely 
 than at any other time. After the manure is fpread, 
 and incorporated with the foil by breaking or harrow- 
 ing, the feed may be fown under I'urrow, if the ground 
 hang fo as calily to carry otFthe moilhire. To leave 
 it rough without harrowing has two advantages ; it 
 is not apt to cake with nioillure, and the inequalities 
 make a fort of Ihelter to the young plants againll I'roll. 
 But if it lie flat, it ought to be fmoothcd with a lligiit 
 liarrowaf'tcr the feed isfown, which will facilitate the 
 ,j, courfe of the rain from the crown to tiie furrow, 
 nrcfliii^ a A fandy foil is too loofe for wheat. Tlie only chance 
 faiiJ) foil, for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind 
 tlie (oil ; and the inflruOlions above given for loam arc 
 applicable here. Rye is a crop mu'.li titter for fandy 
 ■foil than wheat; and, like wheat, is generally fowii 
 after a I'ummer- fallow. 
 
 Laftly, Sowwheat as ((ion in the month of Oclober as 
 the ground isre^dy. Whtnfowna monthmore early, 
 it is too forward in the Ipfing, and apt to be hurt by 
 /rod ; when fown a month later* it has not time 10 
 root before froll comes oil, and frofl fpcws it oat of 
 the ground. 
 Ssriiiig ofiuhtat, a method which is reckoned one 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ng. 
 
 L T U R E. 
 
 of the greatta improvement in hu/bandry that has ta- 
 ken place this century. It fccms to have been firlt 
 liiggclled by planting grains in a garden from mere cu- 
 rioiity, by pcrlons who had no tlfought or opportunity 
 of extending it to a lucrative purpofc. Nor was it 
 attempted on a larger fcale, till a little farmer near 
 Norwich began it al>out 1 7 years fince, upon Icfi than 116 
 an acre ot Und. For two or three years only a fcw Setting of 
 followed his example ; and thole were generally the «'"■-'• 
 butt of their neighbours merriment for adopting fo 
 lingular a praftice. They lud, however, conlidcrabi/ 
 better corn and larger crops than their neighbours : 
 tills, together with the laving in feed, engaged more 
 to follow them : while funic ingenious pcrfons, ob- 
 ferving its great advantage, recoinmenctd and pub- 
 lilhcd its n;ility in the Norwich papcis. Thefc re- 
 commendations had their cf!cd. The turiolity and 
 imjuiry of the Norfolk farmers (particularly round 
 Norwich) were excited, anil they lound futficicut rea- 
 fon to make general experiments. Among the rcit 
 was oncof thclargcft occupicrsof lands in this county, 
 \Vho fet 57 acres in one year. His fucccfs, from the 
 viable fuperiority ofhi^crop, both in quantity and 
 quality, was fo great, that the following autumn he 
 let 300 acres, and has continued the praclicc ever 
 fince. This noble experiment efliblilhcd the pradicc, a !!J,.il 
 and was the means of introducing it generally among improvc- 
 the intelligent farmers in a very large diflrid of land; mcnt m »- 
 there being few who now fow any wheat, if they can gr^cu'turc. 
 procure hands to fet it. It has been generally obfervcd, 
 that although the fet crops appear very thin during ihc 
 autumn and winter, the plants tiller and fpread prodi- 
 gioully in the fpring. i he ears arc indifputably lar- 
 ger, without any dwarfiih or fruall corn ; the grain is 
 of a larger bulk, and fpccitically heavier per bufl.cl 
 than when fown. 
 
 The landsoa which this method is particularly pro- Mcihld 
 fperous, arc either after clover ftubble, oron which 
 trefoil and grafs-fecd were fown the fpring before the 
 lalt. Thefc grounds, alter the ufual manuring, are 
 once turned over by the plough in an extended flag or 
 turf, at ten inches wide ; along which a man, wh'o is 
 called a dibbUr, with twofettiiig-irons, fomewhat big- 
 ger than ram-rods, but considerably bigger at the 
 lower end, and pointed at the extremity, ''iteps back- 
 wards along the turf and makes the holes about four 
 inches afundcr every way,and an inch deep. Into thefc 
 holes the droppers (women, boys, and girls) drop two 
 grains, which is quite fufiicicnt. After this, agate 
 bulhed with thorns is drawn by one horfc over the 
 land, and clofes up the holes. By this mode, three 
 pecks of grain is fufficient for an acre; and being im- 
 mediately buried, it is equally removed from verntinor 
 the power of frofl. The regularity of its riling gives 
 the bcflopportuniiy of keeping itclcar fro:n weed's, by 
 weeding or hand-hocing. 
 
 Whcat-fcttingis amethod peculiarly bencficialwhcnp ",' 
 corn is dear ; and, if the feafon be favourable, may be Tava. '» -c. 
 pra<ftilcd wi;h great bcnctit to the farmer. Sir Thomas ° 
 
 Bcevorof Hathtl-Hall in Norfolk, found the produce 
 to be two bulhels per acre mrre than from the wheat 
 which is fow n ; b it h..ving much Icfs faiall corn intcr- 
 nii.xcd with it, the faniple is better, and always fetch- 
 es a higher price, to the amount generally ol two 
 fliillings per (Quarter. 
 
 O o This
 
 290 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1.10 
 Propaga- 
 ting ot" 
 w hr.it by 
 dividiii;; 
 tlic rout:> 
 
 This method, too, favcs :o the farmer and to the 
 piibliclix pecks otrteJwhcati.i every acre ; which, if 
 juitioaiiiy adopted, wo^iKI ot iifclf arfbrd bread lor 
 more thau.lialf a iiiillin;i uf people. 
 
 Addiotliefe coiuiderations, ihcgrcat f;ipport given, 
 to the poor by this/c-;o/;i/ liarvcll, as it m.iy be called, 
 which enables them 10 dif. harge their rents and main- 
 tain their families without having recoiirfc to the pa- 
 riih. — The expencc of fetting by hand is now reduced 
 to about tea (hillings per acre ; which, in j^ood wea- 
 ther, may be done by one dibblcr, attended by three 
 droppers, in two days. Tliis is live fliillings per day; 
 of which, if the dibblcr gives to the cliilJrcn lixpence 
 each, he will have himfeU'ihree fliillings and lixpence 
 lor his day's work, whicli is much more than he can 
 poffibly earn b/ any other labour fo eafy to himfclf. 
 But put the cal'e, that the man has a wife who dibbles 
 with him, and two or three of liis own children to 
 drop to him, you fee his gains will tiien be prodigious, 
 and enough to enl'nrc a plenty of candidates for that 
 work, even in the Icall populous parts of the country. 
 
 It is, however, to be obfeived with regard to this 
 method, that in feafonswhen feed-corn is very cheap, 
 or the autiunn particularly unfavourable 10 theprattice, 
 it nmll certainly be Uiltncd. In light lands, for in- 
 Aance, a very dry tinie prevents dibbling ; as the iioles 
 nude with the indruments will be tilled up again by 
 the mould as fall as theiiUtrunicnt is wiiiidrawn. So, 
 again, ina very wet fc.ilc>n,oa lining and llitf clays, llie 
 feeds in tlie holes cannot be well and properly covered 
 by the bufnes drawn over them. But ihefc extremes of 
 dry and wet do not often happen, nor do they aliecl 
 lands of a moderately conlilleut texture, or both light 
 and heavy foils at the fame time, fo that the general 
 pradice is in fact never greatly impeded by them. 
 
 I ropagatiiig oj 'Mhcat by dividing and traiifplaiiting 
 its rtots. \\\ the Philofophical TranfacVions for i 76S, 
 we meet with a very extraordinary experiment, of 
 which the following is an abllract. On the 2d of June 
 1766, Mr C. Miller fowed fomegrains of the common 
 red wheat; and on the 8th of Augufl a fmglc plant 
 was taken up and feparated into 18 parts, and each 
 part planted feparaiely. Thefe plants having puilied 
 out fcvcral (idc-lhoots, by about the middle of Sep- 
 tember fomc of them were then taken up and divid- 
 ed, and the rc!l of them between that time and the 
 middle of Oftober. Tliis fecond divilion produced 67 
 plants. Thefe plants remained throagh the winter, 
 and another divilion of them, made betw^ten the middle 
 of Marcliand the i2th of April, produced 500 plants. 
 Tiiey were then divided no further, but permitted to 
 remain. The plants were in general Itroager than any 
 of the wheat in the fields. Some of them produced 
 upwards of 100 ears from a lingle root. Many of the 
 cars meafuied itvMW inches in length, and contained 
 between 60 and 70 grains. 
 
 Tlic whole number of cars which, by the procefs 
 abovementioned, were produced from one grain of 
 wheat, was 21,109, which yielded three pecks and 
 three quarters of clear corn, the weiglit of which was 
 47 lb. 7 ounces ; and from' a calculation made by 
 counting the number of grains in an ounce, tlie whole 
 luimber of grains was about 576,840. 
 
 By this account we tind, that there was only one 
 general divilion of the plaiusmadc iii the fpring. Had 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 a fecond been made, Mr Miller thinks the number of praftUe. 
 jilants would liave amounted to 2000 inltead of 500, ^— \^— ' 
 and the produce thereby nmch enlarged. 
 
 The ground was a light blackilh foil, upon a gra- 
 velly bouom ; and coulcvjuently, a bad foil for wheat. 
 One half of the ground was well duugcd, the other 
 half had no manure. 'J'here was, howevtr, not any 
 dilference difcoverablc in the vigour, or growth, or 
 produce, of the plants. 
 
 It mull be evident, that the expence and labour of 
 felting in the above manner by the hand, will render 
 it impracUcablc upon a large kale fo a. to be produc- 
 tive of any utility. A correfpondent of the Bath So- 
 ciety, therefore (Robert Bogle, Kf<,i. of Daldowiu, 
 near Glafgow), with a view to extend the practice, 
 has propofed the ufe of the harrow and roller until i^i 
 fome belter implements be invented. This method M-thnJ 
 occurred to him from attending to the j'raCtice ufual VT"'^'''')' 
 with farmers on certain occalions, of harrowing their ^'''^^""c '^• 
 fields after the grain isfprungup. I'poninvelligaiiug 
 the principles upon which thefe pradites are founded, 
 he found them confined merely to that of pnlveriling 
 the earth, without any attention to Mr Miller's doc- 
 trine. They faid, " that after very heavy rains, and 
 then excellive dry weather, the fiirface of their lands 
 were apt to be caked, the tender fibres of the young 
 roots were thereby prevented from pufliing, and of 
 courfe the vegetation was greatly obltructed ;, in fuch 
 iullances, they found very great beneiit from harrow- 
 ing and rolling." 
 
 Tiiefe principles he acknowledges to be well found- 
 ed, fo far as relates to pulveriling ; but contends, that 
 the benefit ariling from harrowing and rolling is nor 
 derived from pulveriling entirely, but alfofrom fub- 
 dividing and enabling tlic plants to tiller (as it is term- 
 ed). " The harrow (he obfcrves) certainly breaks 
 the incruflation on thefurface, and the roller crumbles 
 the clods ; but it is alfo obvious, that the harrow re- 
 moves a great many of the plants from iheir original 
 nations ; and that if the corn has begun to tiller at the 
 time it is ufed, the roots will be, in many jnllances, 
 fub.iivided, and then the application of my fy Item of di- 
 vilibiliiy comes inloplay.Tlierolk-rthen fervcs to plant 
 the roots which have been torn up by the harrow." ,..j 
 
 But on this the Society obferve, that the teeth of a oiijciftioBs. 
 harrow are too large to divide roots fo fuiall and tena- 
 cious as are ihofe of grain ; and whenever fuch roots 
 riiowever tillered) Hand in the line any tooth makes, 
 tuey will, if fmall, be only turned on one lide by the 
 earth yielding to their lateral prellure, or, if large, the 
 whole root will probably be drawn out of the ground. 
 The principal ufcs, therefore, derived from harrowing 
 and rolling thefe crops are, opening the foil between 
 the plants, earthing them up, breaking the clods, and 
 doling the earth about their roots. 
 
 In a fiibfecpient letter, Mr Hogle, without contell- 
 iag thefe points, further urges the fcheme of propaga-- 
 ting wheat by dividing and tranfplantir.gits roots. "I 
 have converled (fays lie) much with many practical 
 farmers, who all admit that my plan has tlie appearance 
 not only of being pradlical, bat advantageous. I have 
 alfo feen in the ninth numbcrof Mr Young's Annahof 
 Agriculture, the account of an experiment which 
 llrongly corroborates my theory. It was made by the 
 RcY. Mr Pike of Edmonton, from this, and other 
 
 experiments
 
 Part If. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 133 
 
 P»adlicahi 
 lity of the 
 fchcme af- 
 fertcd. 
 
 Bath Soci- 
 ety's obfcr- 
 vatiunt. 
 
 Praaice. expcrimentswhich have been made under niy own eye, 
 I forcfce clearly, that the fy Item 'is praii-ticable, and 
 will certainty be produelivc of great Uenerif, Ihould it 
 become general. Bclides the (aviiigof nine-tenths of 
 feed in the land fown broad-cart, other very important 
 advantages will attend the letting out of wheat from a 
 feed-bed, fuch as an early crop ; the certainty 'of good 
 crops J rendering a fuinmcr fallow unnecelTary ; faving 
 dung ; and having your wheat perfectly free from weeds 
 without cither hand or horfc-hociHg. Five hundred 
 plants in April produced almoll a bulhel of grain. My 
 gardener fays, he can fet one thoufand plants in a day, 
 which is contirmed by the opinion of two other gar- 
 deners. Mr Miller found no difference in the produce 
 of what was planted on lands that had dung, and on 
 what had none, except where the land was improper 
 for wheat at all." 
 
 On thislctterwc have the following note by the fo- 
 cicty : "Mr Bogle will fee, by the fociety's premium- 
 book this year, that by having offered fevtral premi- 
 ums for experiments of tlic kind he fo earnelUy recom- 
 mends, we with to have his theory brought to the teft 
 of pradice. Our reafon for this, as well as for print- 
 ing Mr B's letter, was rather to excite decilivc trials 
 by ingenious pcrfons, than from any expectation of the 
 praiiuce ever becoming a general one. General, in- 
 deed, it never can be. A fullicient number of hands 
 could not be found to do it. Unkindly leafoirs at the 
 timeof tranfplantingand dividing the roots would fre- 
 quently endanger and injure, if not dcllroy the crops. 
 But admitting the mode generally practicable, we very 
 much doubt whether all the ad van tageshe has enumera- 
 ted would be derived from this mode of culture. Why 
 lliould dividing and tranfplanting tlic roots of wheat 
 caufe the crop to be early, or attbrd a c;rta'!?!ty of its 
 being a good one P We cannot think that lefs manure 
 is neceltiry in this method, than either in drilling or 
 broad-caft ; nor can we by any means admit, that fuch 
 crops would '< be perfectly free from weeds without 
 cither hand or horfe-hoeing." Wc readily agree with 
 Mr Bogle, that by this mode of culture on a general 
 feale, an imnicnfe quantity of feed-corn wohKI be an- 
 nually faved to the nation ; and in this, we believe, the 
 advantage, were it praclicablc would principally cou- 
 fift." 
 
 Upon the fame fubjeft, and that of harrowing all 
 kinds of corn, we are informed, Mr Bogle, afterwards 
 comuniuicatcd to the Society his thoughts more at 
 large, together witli autlientic accounts which were 
 made at his inflsncc, and which were attended with 
 very great fuccefs. Thcfe, however, were received 
 too laic for publication in the laft (jd) volameof their 
 papers. But the Society, conceiving his fyllem may 
 be attended with confulerable advanta^^cs if brought 
 iiito general practice, have given, at the end of the vo- 
 lume, a few of his leading principles. Mr Bogie flatcs, 
 I. Th;ir he has known many inflances of very great 
 crops liavingbcen obtained by harrowing fields of corn 
 after th.cy were fprouted ; and therefore recommends 
 the praflicc very warmly. 
 
 2. That he has alfo received an authentic account of 
 one inftance where the fame good effects were produ- 
 ced by ploughing the field. 
 
 5. On the fyllem of tranfplaniing, he flates, that a 
 very great proponion of the feed will be faved, as a 
 
 Furthcrob- 
 fcrvatioiis 
 of Mr 
 l;o.?Ic. 
 
 farmer may have a nurfcry, or fmall pafcli of plants, 
 from which his fields may be fupplitd ; he calculates 
 that one acre will yield plants fufiicicnt for 100 acres. 
 
 4. That a very great incrcafe of crops may be ob- 
 tained by this method, probably a double crop, nay 
 perhaps a triple quantity of what is reaped cither by 
 drilling, or by the broad-cad hufbandry. 
 
 5. Tliat a great part of the labour may be perform- 
 ed by infirm men and women, and alfo by children, 
 who are at prcfent fupported by the parilh charity; 
 and that of courfe the poor's rates may be coQliderably 
 reduced. 
 
 6. That the expence will not exceed from 20s. to 
 ?os. per acre, if the work be performed by able-bodied 
 men and women ; but that it will be much lower, if that 
 proportion of the work which may be done by employ- 
 ing young boys and girls Ihould be allotted to ihem. 
 
 7. That in general he has found tiic dillancc of nine 
 inchesevery way a very proper dillance for felting out 
 the plants at ; but recommends them to be tried at o- 
 ther fpaces, fuch as fix, eight, or even 12 inches. 
 
 8. That he conceives an earlier crop may be obtain- 
 ed in this manner than can be obtained by any other 
 mode of cultivation. 
 
 9. That a clean crop may alfo be procured in this 
 way, becaufe if the land be ploughed immediately be- 
 fore the plants are fet out, the corn will fpring much 
 quicker from the plants than tlie weeds will do from 
 their feeds, and the corn will thereby bear down the 
 growth of the weeds. 
 
 10. That fuch lands as are overflowed in the winter 
 and fpring, and arc of courfe unfit for fowing with 
 wheat in the autumn, may be ;-cndered lit for crops of 
 wheat by planting them in the fpring, or even in the 
 fummcr. 
 
 , IT. That he has known inflanccs of wheat being 
 iranfplanted in September, October, November, Fe- 
 bruary, March, >^pril, and even as late as the middle 
 of May, which have all aufwercd very well. 
 
 12. That he has known an early kind of wheat fown 
 as late as the middle of May, which has ripened in very 
 good time ; and from that circumftanec he conceives, 
 if the plants fhould be taken from that early kind, the 
 feafon of tranfplanting might be prolonged at leall till 
 the firft of July, perhaps even later. 
 
 i:;. That he has reafon to think wheat, oats, and 
 barley, are not annuals, but are perennials, provided 
 they are eaten down bj- cattle and fhcep, or are kept 
 low by the fcythe or fickle ; and are prevented from 
 fpindling or coming to the ear. 
 
 14. That or.c very prevalent motive with him in 
 proff outing this plan, is, that he is of opinion it may 
 enable governmmt to dcvifc means of fupporting the 
 vagrant poor, both old and young, who are now to be 
 met with every where, both in towns and in the coun- 
 try, and who are at preftnt a burden on the commu- 
 nity : but if fuch employment coold be (truck out lor 
 them, a comfortable fubi'Ulence might be provided for 
 them by means of their own labour and indullry ; and 
 not only favc the public and private charitable contri- 
 butions, but may alfo render that clafs of people ufcful 
 and profitable fubjeds ; inltead of their remaining in 
 a ufelcfs, wretched, and perhaps a profligate and vi- 
 cious courfe of Ufe. 
 
 Laftly, Mr Bogle had hinted at a fccoadary objeA 
 O o I which 
 
 291 
 
 Praai.
 
 29* 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 I'raaic?. 
 
 Obfcrva- 
 tions of the 
 ]''.ith Soci- 
 ety. 
 
 Eff^a of 
 froll upon 
 tilled Uiid. 
 
 ij8 
 Culture of 
 oats. 
 
 which he has in view, from tliis mode of cultivation, 
 which he apprehends may in time, with a fmall degree 
 of attention, prove extremfly advantageous toagricul- 
 nire. — It is, that i;i the tirit place, the real and intiin- 
 iic Value of different kinds of grain may he more ac- 
 curately afccrtaincd by making acomparifon of it with 
 a few plants of each kind fet oat at the fame liine, 
 than can he done wlicn fown in drills or hroad-calt ; 
 and when the mofl valuable kinds of wheat, oats, or 
 l);irley, arc difcovcrcd, lit rtatcs, that in a very Ihort 
 time (not excecdiM^ four or five years) a AilHcicni 
 quantity of that valn.ible kind may be procured to fup- 
 ply the kingdom with letd from a linglc grain of each 
 kind ; for lie calculates, that 47,000 grains of wheat 
 may Ik produced by divifibiiity in two years and three 
 months. 
 
 Upon thefe proportions the Society obfervcs, " That 
 although Mr B(>;;le appears to be too fangiine in Lis 
 expciiatioiis of feting hij plan realized in tuneral prac- 
 tice, it certainly merits the attention of Cientlcnien 
 Farmers. We wifh them toniake lair cxpcrinicius, and 
 report their fuccefs. Every grand improvement has 
 been, and ever will be, progreiiive. They mult ncrt-f- 
 farily originate with gentlemen^; and thence the circle 
 is extended by almoll impcrcc;jtible degrees over pro- 
 vinces and countries. At all events, Mr Bogle isjulUy 
 intitled to the thanks of ihe Society, and of the pub- 
 lic, for the great attention he has paid to the fubjed." 
 
 2. Oats. 
 
 As winter-plonghing enters into the culture of oats, 
 we muft remind the reader of the etfed of frofl upon 
 tilled land. Frovidenr. has ncgleded no region in- 
 tended for the habitation of man. If in warm cli- 
 riai rs the foil be meliorated by the fun, it is no lefs 
 meliorated by froft in cold climates. Krofl acts upon 
 water, by expanding it into a l.irger fpace. Frofl has 
 jio etfcrt upon dry earth ; witncfs fand, upon which 
 it makes no iniprellion. But upon wet earth it ads 
 jnoft vigoroufly : it expands the moiftiire, which re- 
 ouiring more fpace puts every particle of the earth out 
 of its place, and fcparates thein from each other. In 
 that view, froll may be confidered as a ]dough fuperior 
 to any that is made, or can be made, by the hand of 
 nan : its aciion reaches the minutell panicles ; and, by 
 dividing and fcparating them, it renders the foil loofc 
 and friable. This operation is the mod remarkable in 
 tilled land, whichgivcs free accefs to froft. With rc- 
 fpect loclay-foil in particular, there is no rule in hiif- 
 handry more clfcntial than to open it before winter in 
 hopes of frofh It is even advifablc in a cl y-loil to 
 leave the flubble rank ; which, when ploughed in be- 
 fore winter, keeps the clay loofe, and admits the froft 
 into every cranny. 
 
 To apply this doflrine, it is dangerous to plough 
 clay-foil when wet ; becaufe water isa cement forclay, 
 and binds it fo as to render it unlit for vegetation. It 
 is, however, Icfs dangerous to plough wet clay before 
 winter than after. A liiccceding frofl correcHs tlic bad 
 efiefts of filch ploughing; a fuccceJing drouglit iii- 
 creafes them. 
 
 The common method is, to fow oats on new-plough- 
 ed land in the month of March, as foon as tlie ground 
 is tolerably dry. If it continues wet all the month of 
 March, it is too late to venture them after. It is much 
 
 better to fummer-fallow and to fow, wheat in the an- Prjaice. 
 tumn. But the preferable method, efpccially inclay- "—-^-^ 
 foil, is to turn over the field after harvell, and to \ij 
 it open to the intlucnccs of froll and air, which lellcii 
 the tenacity of clay, and reduce it loa free mould. The 
 farfacc-foil by this means is finelymellowed for recep- 
 tion of the feed ; and it would be a pity to bury it by 
 a I'ccond ploughing before fowing. In general, the 
 bulk of clay-foils arc rich ; and Ikilfiil plo:ighing with- 
 out dung, will probably give a belter crop, than un- 
 Ikilful ploughiii^r witii dung. 
 
 Hitherto of natural clays. We ninfl add a word of 
 carfc-clays which are artificial, whether left by the 
 fea, or Iwceped down from higlur grounds by rain. 
 The method commonly ufed of dreliing carfc-elay for 
 oats, is, not to llir it till tile ground be dry in the 
 fpring, which feldom happens before ihchrflof March, 
 and the feed is fown as loon after as ilic ground isfufh- 
 cieiuly dry for its reception. Frofl has a flronger 
 etfeft on fuch clays than on natural clay. And if the 
 field be laid open before winter, it is rendered fo loofe 
 by froll as to be foondrenched in water. The particles 
 at the lame time are fo fmall as that the firfl drought in 
 fpring makes the furface cake or criill. The dit'nculiy 
 of reducing tliiscrull into mould for covering the oat- 
 fcfd, has led farmers to delay ploughing till the month 
 of March. But we are taught by exjicricncc, that this 
 foil ploughed before winter, is fooncr dry than when 
 the ploughing is delayed till fpring ; and as early low- 
 ing isa great advantage, the objection of the fuperfi- 
 cial crullingis cafily removed by the lirll harrow above 
 defcribed, which will produce abundance of mould for 
 covering the feed. The ploughing before winter not 
 only produces early fowing, but has another advantage : 
 the fiirface-foil that had been mellowed during winter 
 by the fun, frofl, and vind, is kept above. 
 
 The drelfing a loamy foil for oats differs little from 
 drclTing a clay foil, except in the following ('articular, 
 thai being lefs hurt by rain, it requires not high ridges, 
 and therefore ought to be ploughed crown and furrow 
 alternately. 
 
 \\ here there is both clay and loam in a farm, it is 
 obvious from what is faid above, that the ploughing 
 of the clay after lurvell ought tirll to be difpatchcd. 
 If both cannot be overtaken that feafon, the loam may 
 be delayed till the Ipringwith lefs hurt. 
 
 Next of a gravelly foil ; which is the reverfc of clay, 
 as it never fufters but from want of moillure. Such a 
 foil ought tohave no ridges ; but be ploughed circularly 
 from the centre to the circumference, or from the cir- 
 cumference to tlie centre. It ought to be tilled after 
 harvefl : and the lirfl dry weather in fpring ought lobe 
 laid hold of to fow, harrow, and roll ; w liich w ill pre- 
 fcrve it in fap. 
 
 The cultureofoats is the fimnlefl of all. That grain 
 is probably a native of Britain : it will grow on the 
 worflfoil with very little preparation. For that rcafon, 
 before turnip was introduced, it was always the firft 
 crop upon land broken up from the flate of nature. 
 
 Upon fuch land, iTi.iy it not be a gnod method, 
 to build upon the crown of every ridge, in the form 
 of a wall, all the furface-earth, one lod above ano- 
 ther, as in a fold for flieep ? After flanding in this form 
 all the fimmer and winter, let the walls be thrown 
 down, and the ground prepared for oats. This will 
 
 fee arc
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Vraflicc 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Culture of 
 barley. 
 
 fecurc one or two good crops ; after which the land 
 may be dunged for a crop of barley and grafs-feeds. 
 This method may aufwcr in a farra where manure is 
 fcaaty. 
 
 3. Barlev. 
 
 This i&-a cnhniferous plain that rcqnires a mellow 
 foil. Upon that account, extraordinary careisrcqiii- 
 iitc, where it is to be fown in clay. The land ought 
 to bcilirred immediately after ihc foregoing crop is re- 
 moved, which lays it open to be metlosvid with the 
 froft and air. In that view,.! peculiar fort of plough- 
 ing lias been introduced, termed r/W'/«_g^ ; by «hich the 
 greatcd quantity of furfacc poiiible is expofcd to the 
 air and frort. The obvious oiijefiion to this method is, 
 that half of the ridge is left unmoved, i^nd to ob- 
 viate that objection, the following r.iethod is ofiercd, 
 which moves the wliole fuil, and at the fame time ex- 
 pofts the fime quantity of f;irface to the frofl and air. 
 As foon as the fornur crop is off the field, let the 
 ridges be gathered with as deep a furrow as the foil 
 will admit, beginning at the crown and ending at the 
 furrows. Tins plougliing loofens the whole foil, gi- 
 ving free accefs to the air and froft. Soon after begin 
 a lecond ploughing in the following manner. Letthc 
 field be divided by parallel linesacrjfs the ridges, with 
 intervals of 30 feet or io. Plough once round an in- 
 terval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth 
 toward the middle of the interval ; which covers a foot 
 or fo of the ground formerly ploughed. M'ithin that 
 foot plough another round limilar to the former ; and 
 .iftcr that, other rounds, till the whole interval be 
 finilhed, ending at the middle. Inilcad of beginning at 
 ihe edges, and ploughing toward the middle, it will 
 liave the fame effeet to begin at the middle and to 
 plough toward the edges. Plough the other intcrv.ils 
 in the fame manner. As by this operation the furrows 
 of the riiiges will be pretty much filled up, let them 
 be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By 
 this method, the field will be left waving like a plot 
 in a kitchen-garden, ridged up for winter. In tliis 
 form, the field is kept perfertly dry ; for befidc the 
 capital furrows that fcpirate the ridges, cv<:ry ridge 
 Jias a number of crofs farrows that carry the rain in- 
 flantly to the capital furrows. In hanging grounds 
 retentive of moiltiire, the parallel lines abovemention- 
 ed ought not to be perpendicular to the furrows of the 
 ridges, but to be dircded a little downward, in order 
 to carry rain-water the more luflily to thcfe furrows. 
 If the ground be clean, it may lie in that flate winter 
 and fpiing, till the timeof fced-furrov.ing. If weeds 
 happen to rife, they mud be deftroycd by ploughing, 
 or breaking, or both ; for there cannot be worfe huf- 
 bandry, than to put feed into dirty ground. 
 
 This method refembles common ribbing in appear- 
 ance, but is very difitrent in reality. As thcconunon 
 ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow, the 
 haUof the field is left untitled, compail as when the 
 former crop was removed, impervious in a great nica- 
 Aire to air or froft. The common ribbingat the fame 
 time lodges the rain-water on (very lidge, preventing 
 i: fron dcfcending to the furrows ; which is hurtful in 
 all foils, and poifonons in a clr.y foil. The llilchiiig 
 here dcfcribed, or nbi>i>:g, if you plcafe to call it io, 
 
 293 
 
 prevents thefc noxious cffctTs. By the two ploughing! Fraaice. 
 
 the whole foil is opened, admitting freely air and froU ; ' ' 
 
 *nd the multitude of furrows lays the furface perfectly 
 dry, giving an early opportunity for the barlcy-fced. — 
 But further, as to the advantage of this method : 
 When it is pro,cr to fow the feed, all is kid fiat with 
 the brake, which-is an ea fy operation upon the foil thai is 
 dry and pulvcri/.ed ; and tlie feed-furrow which fuc- 
 ceeds, is fo ihallow as to bury little or none of the fur- 
 face-carth : whereas the ftirring for barley is common- 
 ly done witli thedcepcllfyirrow; and confequently bu- 
 ries all the furfacc-foil that was mellowed by thcfroll . '^-^ 
 and air. Nor is this method more expenlive ; bccaufe .,,^^"1^' 
 the common ribbing muft always be followed with a f^cd in a 
 Itirring furrow, which is faved in the method recom- dry fcafon. 
 mended. Nay, ills lefs expenfivej for after common 
 ribbing, which keeps in the rain water, the ground is 
 commonly fofoured, as to make the Ilirring a labo- 
 rious work. 
 
 It is well known tint barley is lefs valuable when it 
 does not ripen equally ; and that barley svhich comes 
 up fpcedily inadulky foil, mufl gain a great advantage . 
 over feed-weeds. Therefore, firfl tike out about one- 
 third of the contents of the facks of feed barley or 
 bear, to allow for the fwelling of the grain. Lay the 
 i'acks with the grain to deep in clean water ; let it lie 
 covered wiili it for at Icalt 24 hours. Wlicn the 
 ground is fo dry as at prcfent, and no likelihood of 
 rain for 10 days, it is better to lie 36 hours. Sow the 
 grain wet from fteeping, without any addition of pow- 
 dered quick-lime, which, though often recommended 
 in print, can only poifon the feed, fuck up part of us 
 ufeful nioifiure, and burn the hands of the fower. The 
 feed will fcatter well, as clean water hasno tenacity ; 
 only the fower muft put in a fourth or a third more 
 feed in bulk than ufual of dry grain, as the grain is 
 fwclled in that proportion : harrow it in as quickly as 
 podible after it is fown ; and though not nccedary, 
 give it the benefit of frelh furrow, if convenient. You 
 may expeift it up in a fortnight at farthclL 
 
 i'he followingexperiment bya correfpondent of the 
 Bath fociety being conhdered as a very interclling 
 one, is here fubjoined. , 
 
 " Thelaft fpring (1783) being remarkably dry, I important 
 foaked my fccd-barley in the black water taken from a cipcri- 
 refervoir which conilamly receives the draining of my riicnts on 
 dung-heap and (tables. As the light corn floated on ^'^'^'^ barley 
 the top, I fkimmcd it oil, and let the reft ftand 24 
 hours. On taking it from the water, I mixed the feed 
 grain with a fuflicient quantity of fified wood-alhes, 
 to make it fpread regularly, and fowed three fields 
 with it. I began fowing the i6th, and finilhed the 
 2 ;d of April. The produce was 60 bulhels per acre, 
 of good clean barley, without any fmall or green corn, 
 or weeds at harvcft. No perfon in this country had 
 better grain. 
 
 I fowed alio fcveral other fields with the fame feed 
 dry, and without any preparation ; but the crop, like 
 thofc of my neighbours, was very poor ; not more than 
 twenty bnfluls per acre, and much mixed with .?'<■'« 
 cornand weeds when harvefted. I alfolowed fomeof 
 the feed dry on one ridge in each of my former fields, 
 but the produce was very poor in comparifon of the 
 other partsof the field." 
 
 \\lure the land is in good order, and free of weeds, 
 
 April
 
 294 
 
 AGRICULTU 
 
 R 
 
 Piailice. April is tlic montli for fowiiig barUy. Every day is 
 
 *~ - proper, from the firft to the lall. 
 
 _. '*^, The drelling loamy foil and light foil for barley, is 
 
 fowing, tlic ''^"K^ " "'i 'li^t dcfcribcd ; only that to plough dry 
 
 is not aho;rtihcr fo cllcniial as in drclling clay-foil. 
 
 Loam or land may be ftirred a little moid: better, 
 
 liowever, delay a week or two, than to (lir aloani when 
 
 nioill. Clay innft never be ploughed moid, even tho' 
 
 the feafon fliould efcapc altogether. But this will fcl- 
 
 dom be nccellhry ; for not in one year out of 20 will it 
 
 happen, but that clay is dry enough for ploughing fonie 
 
 time in May. Froll may correct clay ploughed v.et 
 
 after harvcil ; but ploughed wet in the fpring, it 
 
 unites into a hard mafs, not to be dilFolved but by very 
 
 hard labour. 
 
 On the cultivation of this grain we have the follow- 
 ing obfervations by a Norfolk farmer. 
 ^■t^ The bcfl foil, he obfcrves, is that which is dry and 
 
 ^^"'"''='"'=- healthy, rather light than flirt", but yet of fufficient 
 Tati"nsco'n- tenacity and ftrengtli to retain the moillure. On this 
 cerningthe kind of land tlic grain is always the befl bodied and 
 cultivation coloured, the nimbled in the land, and has the thin- 
 of barley, neil lind. Thefe are qualities which reconimcud it 
 mod to the maltltcr. If the land is poor, it Iliould be 
 dry and warm ; and when fo, it will often bear better 
 corn than richer land in a cold and wet fituation. 
 
 In the choice of your feed, it is needful to obferve, 
 that the bed is of a pale lively colour, and brightilh 
 cad, without any deep redncls, or black tinge at the 
 tail. If the rind be a little flirivclled, it isthe better ; 
 for that (light Ihrivelling proves it to have a thinfkiu, 
 and to have fwcated in the mow. The ncccifity of a 
 change of feed by not fowing two years together what 
 grew on the fame foil, is not in any part of hufbandry 
 more evident than in the culture of this grain, which, 
 if not frequently changed, will grow coarferandcoar- 
 fer every fucceeding year. 
 
 Ithasgcnerally been thought that feed-barley would 
 be benefited by deeping; but liming it has, in many 
 iiidances, been found prejudicial. Si>rinkling a little 
 foot with the water in which it is deeped has been of 
 great fcrvicc, as it will fecure the feed from infed:s. 
 In a very dry feed-time, barley that has been wetted 
 for malting, and begins to fprout, will come up fooner, 
 and produce as good a crop as any other. 
 
 Ifyoufow after a fallow, plough three times at lead. 
 At the lird ploughing, lay your land up in fmall ridges, 
 and let it remain fo during the winter, for tlie frolb to 
 jutUowit ; thefceond ploughing lliould be at tlie begin- 
 ning of February. In March fplit the ridges, and lay 
 the land as flat as poffiblc, at the fame time harrowing 
 it fine. But in drong wet lands (if you have no other 
 for barley) lay it round, and make deep furrows to re- 
 ceive the water. 
 
 " I have often (continues he), taken the following 
 method with fuccefs : On lands tolerably manured, I 
 fowed clover with my barley, which I reaped at har- 
 vefl ; and fed the clover all the following winter, ."nj 
 from fpring to July, when I fallowed it till the fol- 
 lowing fl'ring, and then fowed it v.'itli barley and clo- 
 ver as before. Repeating this method every year I 
 had very large crops, but would not recommend this 
 pradice on poor light land. 
 
 " We fow on our lighted lands in April, on our 
 moiillands in May ; finding that thofe lands which arc 
 
 E. Part ir. 
 
 the mod fabjcdl to weeds produce the bed crops when Praftice. 
 
 fown late. ' vr— ' 
 
 " The common method is to fow the barley-feed 
 broad-cad at two fowings ; the lird harrowed in once, 
 the fccond twi^c ; the ufual allowance from three to 
 four bulhcls per acre. But if farmers could be pre- 
 vailed on to alter thispradice, they would loon find 
 theiraccouiu in it. Were only half the quantity fowii 
 equally, the produce would be greater, and the corn 
 kl's liable to lodge : For when corn dands very clofe, 
 the Ilalks aregruwn up weak ; andon that account are 
 Id's capable of redding the force of winds, or fupport- 
 ing thcmfelves under heavy rains. 
 
 "From our great fuccefs in fctting and drilling 
 wheat, Ibme of our farmers tried thefe methods with 
 barley ; but did not find itanfwcr their expec^tations, 
 except on very rich land. 
 
 " 1 have myl'clf hadSodalks on one root of barley, 
 which all produced good and long ears, and the grain 
 was better than any other ; but the method is too ex- 
 penfivefor general pradicc. In poor laud, fow thin, 
 or your crop will be worth little. Farmers who do 
 not reafoncn the matter, will be of a dilFercnt opinion ; 
 but the fact is indifputabie." 
 
 When the barley is fowed and harrowed in, he ad- 
 vifes that the land be roiled after the fird fliower of 
 rain to break the clods. This will clofe the earth a- 
 bout the roots, which svill be a great advantage to it in 
 dry weather. 
 
 VV hen the barley lias been up three weeks or a 
 month, it is a very good way to roll it again with a 
 heavy roller, which will prevent the fun and air from 
 penetrating the ground to the injury of the roots. 
 This rolling, bcfort it branches out, will alfo caufc it 
 to tiller into a great number of dalks; fo that if the 
 plants be thin, the ground will be thereby filled, and 
 the dalks drengthened. 
 
 If the blade grows too rank, as it fometimes will in 
 a warm wet fpring, mowing is a much better method 
 tlian feeding it down with ihccp ; becaufe the fcythc 
 takts off only the rank tops, but the (liecp being fond 
 of the fweet end of the flalk next the root, will often 
 bite fo clofe as K) injure the future growth. 
 
 4. BUCIC-WHEAT. 
 
 Th e ufes of this plant have been mentioned in the Culture of 
 preceding part, n° 46. It delights in a mellow fan- inick- 
 dy foil ; but fucceeds well in any dry loofe healthy wheat, 
 land, and moderately fo in a free loamy done brafli. 
 A dirt" clay is its avirlion, and it is entirely labour lofl; 
 to fow it in a wet poachy ground. The proper feafon 
 for fowing is from the lad week of May or the begin- 
 ningof June. It has been fown, however, fo early as 
 the beginning of April, and fo late as the szdof July, 
 by way of experiment ; but the latter was rather ex- 
 treme tobechofen, and the former was in danger from 
 frod. In an experiment upon a fmall piece of ground, 
 the grain of two dificrcnt ci'ops was brought to matu- 
 rity in the fummer 1787. — After fpring feedings, 
 a crop of turnip-rooted cab'jagc, or vetches, there, will 
 be fiiffieient time to fow the land with buck-wheat. 
 Probably, in hot dry dimmers, a crop of vetches 
 might even be mown for hay early enough to introduce 
 a crop of this grain after it. 
 
 In the year 1780, about fcven acres of a fandy foil 
 
 on
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 295 
 
 14! 
 
 Advanta 
 gcs of ihi 
 croppin 
 
 rjaflice. on Brifliiigton Common (a), Inving been fir(l tolt- 
 •—>'—— jably well clcanl'cJ lioni bramble;, tiiivc, &c. received 
 out ploughiiij^. To reduce the irrcg;il<iritics of ihc 
 fiirhcc, it was rolled ; and 011 the 9lh of June in that 
 year, tsvo biilhels and a half of buck-wheat per acre 
 ibwii, llic groinid rolled again u itliout harrowing. 
 The vegetation ai^pearcd in live or iix days, as is 
 ' conllantly the cafe be the weather wet or dry. The 
 ■ growth was fo rapid, that the fern, with which this 
 land greatly abounded, was completely kept under. 
 About the middle of September the crop was mown, 
 but by realbn of a great deal of rain about that time, 
 it \\as not fecured until the beginning of Oelobcr ; 
 hence a lofs of great part of the grain l>y fliedding, as 
 well as fomc eaten by birds. However, there were 
 laved about 24 Winchcflcr bulhels per acre ; and, not- 
 withltanding its long cxpofurc to the weather, recei- 
 ved no fort of damage, only perhaps that the finell 
 and moll perfeift grain was the iirlb to fall from the 
 plant. The ground after this had almolt the appear- 
 ance of a fallow, and was immediately plouglicd. 
 
 When it had lain a moderate time tomclioratc, and 
 to receive theintluencesof the atmofpherc, it was har- 
 rowed, fown with Lammas w heat, and ploughed in 
 under furrow, in a contrary dirtelion to the tirll 
 ploughing. Thus a picje of bnd, which iu the 
 month of April was altogether in a llatc of nature, in 
 the following November was fcen under a pvomiling 
 crop of what is well llyled the king of grain, and this 
 without the aid of manure, orof any very great degree 
 of tillage. Nor was the harvcll by any means dclieicnt ; 
 for fevcral perfonsconverfant in fuch thingsclUmated 
 the produce from 26 to 50 bulhels p;-r acre. As foon 
 as the wheat crop was taken off", the ground had one 
 ploughing, and on the tirll of ScptemberfoUowing was 
 Ibwn witii turnip-feed. The turnips were not large, 
 but of an herbage fo abundant as in the following 
 fpring to fupport 120 ewes with their lambs, which 
 were fed on it by folding four weeks. After this it 
 was manured with a compolition of rotten dung and 
 natural earth, about 20 putt loads per acre, and plant- 
 ed with potatoes. The crop fold for L. 13S, belidcs 
 a conliderablc number ufed in the family, and a quan- 
 tity rcfcrvcd with which ten acres were planted the 
 ibliowing fcal'on. The enfuiug autumn it was ag:iin 
 Ibwn witn wheat, and produced an excellent crop. In 
 the fpring of i 784, it was manured and planted with 
 potatoes, as in the prcceiiing inftancc ; the crop (tho' 
 tolerably good) by nj means equal to the former, pro- 
 ducing about 100 facks per acre only. In fpring 
 I ySj, the land was now for a third time under a trop 
 of wheat, it being intended to try how far this mode 
 of alternate cropping, one year with potatoes and an- 
 other with wheat, may be carried. 
 
 From the ficcefs of the preceding and other expe- 
 riments, by Nchemiah Hartley £fq ; of IJrillol, as de- 
 lulled in the Bath Society Papers, it would feeni, that 
 the culture of this plant ought in many cafes to be a- 
 lioptcd inllead of 3 fummer-fallowing : for the crop 
 |iroduccd appears not only to be fo much clear gain in 
 refpeCl to fach practice, but alio .iffbrds a conliilcrablc 
 quantity of llraw lor fodder and manure ; belide that 
 
 4 
 
 a fummer fallowing is far from being fo advantgeous Pra.?.icc. 
 a preparation for a fucceeding crop. ' ^~" 
 
 5. Beans. 
 
 149 
 
 The propereft foil for beans isa deep and moill clay. Culture of 
 
 There was lately introduced iiito Scotland a method ^'^^^^ 
 of lowing beans with a drill-plough, and horie-hocinj'' 
 the intervals ; which, befide affording a good crop, is 
 a dreliing to the ground. But as that method is far 
 from being general, we keep in the common track. 
 
 As this grain is early fown, the ground intended for 
 it Ihould be ploughed before winter, to give accefs to 
 the froll and air ; benelicial in all foils, and neceiTary 
 in a clay foil. Take the firft opportunity after Ja- 
 nuary when the ground is dry, to loofen the foil with 
 the harrow firft defcribcd, till a mould be brought up- 
 on it. Sow the feed, and cover it with the feconj 
 harrow. The third will fmooth the furface, and cover 
 the feed equally. Thefe harrows make the very bell 
 figure in fowing beans ; which ought to be laid deep 
 in the ground, not lefs than Iix inches. In clay foil, 
 the common harrows are altogether infuflicient. The 
 foil, which has relied long after ploughing, is render- 
 ed compact and folid : the common harrows Ikim the 
 furface : the feed is not covered : and the tirll heart/ 
 lliower of rain lays it above ground. \\ here the far- 
 mer overtakes not the ploughing after harveft, and is 
 reduced to plough immediately before fowing, the 
 plough anfwers thepurpofc of the tiril harrow ; and 
 tiie other two will complete the work. But the labour 
 of the tirft liarrowisill faved ; as the ploughing before 
 winter is a tine preparation, not only for beans, buc 
 for grain of every kind. If the ground ploughed be- 
 fore winter happen by fupcrfluiiy of moillure to cake, 
 the firfl harrow goinj; along the ridges, andcrolfing 
 them, will loofen tlic furface, and give accefs to the 
 air for drying. As fooii as the ground is dry, low with- 
 out delayinga moment. If rain happenin the interim, 
 there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or twa 
 come. 
 
 Carfe-clay, ploughed before winter, feldom fails to 
 cake. Upon that accouut, a fecond ploughing is nc- 
 cclTary before fowing j which ought to be pcrformt J 
 with an ebb furrow, in order to keep the froll-mould 
 as near the furface as pollible. To cover the feed with 
 the plough is exprellcd by the phrafe to/o-iU undir jur- 
 row. The clods railed in this ploughing are a fort 
 of Ihclier to the young plants in the chilly fpring- 
 montlis. 
 
 The foregoing method will anfwer for loam. AnJ 
 as for a fandy or gravelly foil, it is altogether impro- 
 per for beans. 
 
 Though we cannot approve the horfe-hoeing of 
 beans, with the intervals that arc commonly allotted 
 for turnip, yet we would itrongly recommend the drill- 
 ing them at tlie dillanceof ten or 12 inches, and keep- 
 ing the intervals clean of weeds. This may be done 
 by hand- hoeing, taking opportunity at the fame time 
 to lay frcfli foil to the roots of the plants. But as this 
 is an expcniivc operation, and hands arc not alwaystobe 
 got, a narrow plou-j;h, drawn by a tingle horfc, might 
 be ufed, with a mould-board oa each lidc to fcatter tiie 
 
 eorilj 
 
 ( A ) A very roui^b piece of land, at that time juft i.idvfed.
 
 39^ 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 I'raiaice. earth upon the roots of the plants. This is a cheap 
 and c.\pcdilious method ; it keeps tlic ground clean ; 
 and nourilhcs the plants with frefliloil. 
 
 As beans delight in a moiit foil, and have no end 
 of growing in a nioill feafun, they cover the ground 
 totally when fown broad cart, keep in the dew, and ex- 
 clude the fun and air : the plants grow to a great 
 height ; but carry little feed, and that little not well 
 ripened. This uifplays the advantage of drilling; 
 which gives free accefs to the fun and air, dries the 
 ground, and atiords plenty of ripe feed. 
 
 153 
 
 6. Pease. 
 
 Culturr of Pease are of two kinds ; the white and the gray, 
 pcafc. The cultivation ofthelattcronly belongs to this place. 
 
 There arc two fpcciis of the grey kind, diftinguilh- 
 ed by their lime of ripening. One ripens foon,andfor 
 that reafon is termed hot fad: theother,whichis flower 
 in ripening, is termed cild f^ed. 
 
 Pcafc, a leg'iminous crop, is proper to intervene 
 between two culmiferojs crops ; lefs for the proiitof a 
 pcafc-crop, than for niclioraiing the ground. Peafe, 
 however, in a dry feafon, will produce fix or 'icve.w 
 bollseach acre ; but, in an ordinary feafon, iheyfeldom 
 reach above two, or two and a half. Hence, in a moilh 
 climate, red clover fctms a more bencticial crop than 
 pcafe ; as it makes as good winter-food aspcafe, and 
 can be cut green thrice during fummer. 
 
 A field intended for cold feed ought to be ploughed 
 in Oftober or November ; and in February, as foon as 
 tlic ground is dry, the feed ought to be lovvn on the 
 winter-furrow. A field intended for hot feed ought to 
 be ploughed in March or April, immediately before 
 fowing. But if in felled with weeds, it ought to be al- 
 fo ploughed in October or November. 
 
 Peafc laid afoot below the furface will vegetate ; but 
 the moil approved depth is lix inches in light foil, 
 and four inches in clay foil ; for which reafon, they 
 ought to be fown under furrow when ploughing is 
 delayed till fpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, 
 they are the lealt in danger of being buried, 
 
 Peafe diftcr from beans, in loving a dry foil and a 
 dry fealon. Horfc-hoeing would be a great benefit, 
 could it be performed to any advantage ; but peafc 
 grow expeditioully, and foon fall over and cover the 
 ground, which bars ploughing. Horfe-hocing has 
 little clie6l when tiie plants ?.rc new fprung ; and when 
 they arc advanced to be benelited by lliat culture, their 
 length prevents it. b'all growing at the fame time is 
 the caufe of their carrying fo little feed: the feed is 
 buried among the leaves ; and the fun cannot penetrate 
 to make it grow and ripen. The only praflicable re- 
 medy to obtain grain, is thin fowing ; but thick fowing 
 produces more llraw, and mellows tlie ground more. 
 Half a boll for an Englilh acre may be reckoned thin 
 fowing ; three firlots, thick fowing. 
 
 Notwithllanding what is faid above, Mr Hunter, 3 
 noted farmer in Berwickflurc, began fome lime ago to 
 fowall his peafe in drills; and never failed to have great 
 crops of corn as well as of flraw. He fowtd double 
 rows at a foot interval, and two feet and an hf.lt be- 
 tween the double rows, which admit horf£-hoei:ig. By 
 that method, he had alfo good crops of beans on light 
 land. 
 
 Peafe and beans mixed arc often fown together, in rraflic*. 
 
 order to catch dirtercat feafons. Jn a moill feafon, the ' >— — ' 
 
 beans make a good crop ; in a,dry fcalbn, the peafc. 
 
 The growth of plants is commonly checked by 
 drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain 
 in Augull. In July, grafsis parched ; in Auguft, it 
 recovers verdure. Where peafe are fo far advanced in 
 the dry feafon as tliat the feed begins to form, their 
 growth isindced checked, but the feed continues to fill. 
 Jf only in the bloUbni at that feafon, their growth is 
 checked a little ; but they become vigorous again in 
 Auguft, and continue growing without filling till (lop- 
 ped by froll. Hence it is, that cold feed, which is 
 carl/ fown, has the bell chance to produce corn : hot 
 feed, which is late fown, has the bell chance to pro- 
 duce llraw. 
 
 The following method is pradlifed in Norfolk, for 
 fowing peafe upon a dry light foil, immediately opened 
 from ))a(lure. flic ground is pared with a plough ex- 
 tremely thin, and every fod is laid exaclly on its back. 
 In every fod a double row of lioles is made. A pea 
 dropt ill every hole lodges in the tiay'd ground imme- 
 diately below tile fod, thrufls its roots horizontally, and 
 has fuiiicicnt moillure. This method enabled Norfolk 
 farmers, in the barren year i 740, tofurnilhwhitepeafc 
 at I2S. per boll. 
 
 II. Plants cultivated for Roots. {S:: alfo Art. JII.'] 
 I. Tu R .\ I r. 
 
 Turnip delights in a gravelly foil ; and there it can Culture uf 
 be raifcd to the greatcfl pcrfcclion, and with the leall turnip, 
 hazard of mifcarrying. At the fame time, there is no 
 foil but will bear turnip when well prepared. 
 
 No perfonever deferved belterof acountry, than he 
 who firll cultivated turnip in the field. No plant is bet- 
 ter fitted for the climate of Britain, no plant prol'pcrs 
 better in the coldeA part of it, and no plant contributes 
 more to fertility. In a word, there has not for two 
 centuries been i;uroduced into Britain a more valuable 
 improvement. 
 
 Of all roots, turnip requires the fined mould ; and 
 to that end, of all harrows froft is the bell. In order 
 to give accefs to frofl, the land ought 10 be prepared 
 by ribbingafter harvefl, as above dircdcd in preparing 
 land for barley. If the field be not fubjecl to annuals, 
 it may lie in that flate till the end of May ; oliierwilc 
 the weeds mult be dellroyed by a breaking about the 
 middle of April; and again in May, if weeds rife. 
 The firlt v/cek of June, plough ilic field with aihallow 
 furrow. Lime it if requifiic, and harrow the lime into 
 the foil. Draw lingle furrows with intervals of three 
 feet, and lay dung in the furrows. Covcrthedung fuf- 
 ficiently, by going round it with the plough, and form- 
 ing the three- feet fpaccs into ridges. The dung comes 
 thus to lie below tJie crown of every ridge. j 
 
 The feafon of fowing mufl be re(;ulated by the time Seafon and 
 intended for feeding. Where intended for feeding in method of 
 November, Uecember, January, and February, the fowing. 
 feed ought tobe fown from the ifl to the 20th ol' June. 
 Where the feeding is intended to be carried on to 
 March, April, and May, the feed muil not be fovvii 
 till the end of July, lurnip fown earlier than above 
 diredted, flowers that very fummer, and runs fall to 
 feed i which renders it in a good raeafurc unfit for 
 
 j'ooii.
 
 Part II. 
 
 A G II I C U L T U R E. 
 
 Pra<aicc. fooj. If fnwii much htcr, It docs not apple, and there 
 < is no fooj belt from the leaves. 
 
 Though by a drill-plough ihc feed may be fown of 
 any thickucf , the t'afeit way ij to low thick. Tliin 
 fowiiig is liable to many accidents, which are far from 
 being counterbalanced by ihe expence that is faveaia 
 thinning. Thick-fowing can bear the ravage of the 
 black /ly, andleavca fulhcitiit ctop behind, itisapro- 
 tcttiou againll drought, gives the i L.iits a rapid pro- 
 grefs, and cllablilhcs thtm in the ground before it is 
 ncceiiary to thin tiiem. 
 
 The (owing turnip broadcaft is uni vcrfal in England, 
 and common in Scotlawil, tlioiigb a barbarous practice. 
 Thecniiucnt advantage of turnip is, that bclide a pro- 
 fitable crop, it makes a moll complete fallow ; and the 
 latter cannot be obtained but by horfe-hoeing. Upon 
 that account, the fowing turnip in rows at three feet 
 dillanceis recommended. Wider rows anfwer no pro- 
 fitable end, (Iraiter rows attbrd not room for a liurfe 
 to wulkin. When the turnip isaboutfour inches high, 
 annual weeds will appear. Go round every interval 
 with tlie llightell furrow polhble, at the ilillance of 
 two inches from each row, moving the eartli from the 
 rows toward the middle of the interval. A thin plate 
 of iron mull be fixed on the left tide of the plough, to 
 prevent the earth from falling back and burying the 
 turnip. Next, let vvomen be employed to weed the 
 rows with their fingers ; wliich is better, and cheaper 
 done, than with the hand-hoe. The hind-hoe, bc- 
 fidc,isapt to dillu'-bthe roots of the turnip th:itareto 
 Aand, and to leave them open to drought by removing 
 the earth from them. The (landing turnip arc to be 
 at the diflance of twelve inches from each other : a 
 greater didance makes them fwell too much ; a Icfs di- 
 llanec attbrds them not fntficient room. A woman 
 foon comes to be expert in ringer-weeding. The fol- 
 lowing hint may be necelfary to a learner. To Iccure 
 the turnip that is to (land,Ut her cover it with the left 
 hand ; and with the right pull up the turnip on both 
 fides. After thus freeing the HaniUiig turnip, (he may 
 fafcly ufe botli hands. Let the ncld remain in this 
 ftate till the appearance of new annuals make a fecond 
 ploughing necclf.iry ; which mult be in the fame fur- 
 row with the former, but a little deeper. As in this 
 ploughing the iron plate is to be removed, part of the 
 loofe earth will fall back on the roots of the plants : 
 the reft will till the middle of the interval, and bury 
 every weed. When weeds begin again to appear, then 
 is the time for a third ploughing in an oppufite direc- 
 tion, which lays the earth to the roots of the plants. 
 This ploughing may be about the middle of Augud ; 
 after w hich, weeds rife very faintly. If they do rife, 
 anoiiier ploughing will clear the ground of thcin. 
 Weeds that at this tii>e rife in the row, mavbe cleared 
 with a hand-lioe, which can do little mifchief among 
 plants dirtant twelve inches from each other. It is cer- 
 tain, however, that it may be done cheaper with the 
 hand (a). And aftcrthc leavesof turnipsinarow' meet 
 Vol. '. 
 
 297 
 
 together, the hand is the only infttuincat thatcaK l>« iVa^iice. 
 
 applied for weeding. — >• 
 
 In fwampy ground, the furface of which is bcft re- 
 duced by paring and burning, the feed may be fown 
 in rows with intervals of a foot. To faveiimc, adrill- 
 plough may be ufed that fows three or four rows at 
 once. Hand-hociiig is proper for fuch ground ; bc- 
 caufe the foil under the barm Jlrafum is conur.ouiy fail 
 of roots, which digell and rot better under ground tha» 
 when brought to the furface by the plough. In the 
 mean time, while thefe arc digtfting, the alucs will fe- 
 cure a good crop. ,,, 
 
 In cultivating turnips to advantage, great earc Ihould Proptrtio 
 be taken to procure good, bright, nimble, and well- «'f '''"''"nt 
 dried feed, and of the bell kinds. ioiu.luii- 
 
 Thc Norfolk farmers generally raifethc oval v/iiite, '"''' 
 the large green-topp'd, and me red or purpLlopp'd 
 kinds, which from longcxpcrieiicc they have found to 
 be the moll proiitable. 
 
 The roots of the green topp'd will grow to a hrore 
 fize, and continue good much longer than others. The 
 redor purplc-topp'd v.'ill alio grow large, and co;!ttiiur 
 good to the beginning of f'ebruary; but the ro.Jts be- 
 come hard and llringy fooner thau the (ormer. 
 
 The green-topp'd growing more above ground, is in 
 more dangeroffullaining injury from feverc frofts than 
 t lie red or purple, wliich arc more than half covered by 
 the foil ; but it is the fofteftand fwectcll, when grown 
 large, of any kind. We havefeentheni brought tota- 
 ble a foot in diatnctcr, and equally good as garden 
 turnips. 
 
 Turnips delight in a light foil, confifling of fanJ 
 and loam mixed ; for when the foil is rich and heavy, 
 although the crop maybe as great in weight, they 
 will be rank, and run to rtowcr earlier in fpring. 
 
 Turnip-feed, like that of grain, will not do well obfcrva- 
 without frequent changing. The Norfolk feed is lent tiuoswitk 
 to moft parts of the kingdom, and even to Ireland, but rc(;ard t» 
 after two years it degenerates, Co that thotc who wilh '^"'*- 
 to have turnips in pcrfcdion Ihould procure i: frefn c- 
 vcry year from Norwich, and they will find their ac- 
 count in fo doing. For from its known reputation, 
 many of the London fecdmen fell, under that cha- 
 rafter, feed railed in the vicinity of the metropolis, 
 which is much inferior in quality. 
 
 When the plants have got five leaves, they Ihould be 
 hoed, and fet out at lead C\x inches apart. A month 
 afterward, or earlier if it be a wet feafon, a fecond hoe- 
 ing (hould take place, and the plants be left at lead 14 
 inches didant from each other, efpecially if intended 
 for feeding cattle ; for where tlic plants are left thick- 
 er, they will be proportionably finaller, unlefs the land 
 is very rich indeed. 155 
 
 Some of tjic bed Norfolk fanners fow turnips in Methods of 
 drills three feet afunder, and at a fecond hoeing leave ^'"i"^?, '" 
 them a foot apart in the rows. By this me.ms the '"''*'''■ 
 trouble and expencc of hoeing is much lelfcped, and 
 the c."op of equal weight as when fown in the com- 
 f p nion 
 
 (a) Children under thirteen may be employed to weed turnip with the fingers. We have feen them goon 
 in that work with alacrity ; and a fuiall premium will have a good cffefl. For boys and j'jris ab.ive thirteen, 
 a hand-hoe adapted to their (ize is an excellent inilruincnt : it ftrengthens the arms ama/.ing'v. In driving the 
 plough, the legs only are exerciled ; but as the arms are chiefly employed in hiifbandry, they ought to be pre- 
 pared beforehand by gentle cxcrcife.
 
 2tyS 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 riadicc. 
 
 156 
 Value as 
 food for 
 cat de- 
 
 mon method. The intervals may eafily be cleared ot" 
 weeds by the horlc-hoc. 
 
 Great (jiianiiiics of turnips are raifcd in Norfolk c- 
 very year for feeding black cattle, which turn to great 
 advantage. ' 
 
 It is well known, that an acre of land contains 4840 
 fquarc yar«!s, or 45,560 fqiiare feet ; fuppofe then that 
 every Ujuarc foot contains one turnip, and that ihcy 
 weigh only two pounds each on an average, here will 
 be ainalsoffood excellent in kind, of 46 tons per acre, 
 often worth from four to five guineas, and fomctiuies 
 more. 
 
 Extraordinary corps of barley frequently fucceed 
 turnips, efpecially when fed ofFthe land. In feeding 
 them off, the catilc fliould not be fufFcrcd to run over 
 too much of the ground at once, for in that cafe they 
 will trc:id down and fpoil twice as many as they eat. 
 In Norfolk, they are confined by hurdles to as mucli 
 as is fulUcient for them for one day. By this mode 
 the crop is eaten clean, thcfoil equally trodden, which 
 if light, isof much fervice, and equally manured by 
 the cattle. 
 
 A notion prevails in many places, that mutton fat- 
 tened with turnips is tliereby rendered rank and ill- 
 tafted ; but this is a vulgar error. The bell mutton 
 in Norfolk (and few counties have better) is all fed 
 with turnips. It is rank paJlures, and marfliy lands,^ 
 that produce rank mutton. 
 
 If the land be wet and fpringy, the beft method is 
 to draw and carry off'your turnips to fomc dry palUires; 
 for the treading of the cattle will not only injure the 
 crop, but render the land (o fliff, that you mull be at 
 an additional expence iu ploughing. 
 
 Toprcferve turjiips for latcfpriug feed, the beft me- 
 Mahod "f t]joj^ am] which has been tried with I'uccefs by (bme 
 vrefcrving ^^^j^^ ^^^^ Englifli farmers, is. To ftack them up in 
 dry llraw ; a load of wliicli is fuflicient to preferve 
 40 tons of turnips. The method is eafy, and as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 After drawing your turnips in February, cut oft" the 
 tops and tap roots, (which may be given to (lieep), 
 and let tlieni lay a' few days in the iield, as no wcail;cr 
 will then hurt them. 
 
 Then, on a layer of flraw next the ground, place a 
 layer of turnips 1 wo feet thick ; and then another layer 
 of flraw, and fo on alternately, till you have brought 
 the heap to a point. Care mufl be taken to turn up 
 the edges of the layers of ftraw,to prevent the turnips 
 from rolling out ; cover the top well with long ilraw, 
 and it will fervcas a thatch for the whole. 
 . In this method, as the llraw imbibes the nioiftare 
 exiialed from tlie roots, all vegetation will be prevent- 
 ed, and th.c turnips will be nearly as good iu May as 
 when finl drawn from the field. If ftraw be fcarcc. 
 Old haulm or flulible will anfwer the fame purpofe. 
 
 But to prevent this trouble and expence, perhaps 
 farmers in all countries would find it mofl to their in- 
 terdl to adopt the method iifcd by the Norfolk 
 fanners, which is, to continue fowing turnips to 
 the latter end of Augufl; by w-hich means their late 
 crops remain good in the iield till the latter end of A- 
 jiril, and often till the middle of May. 
 
 The advantagesof having turnips good till the fpring 
 feed is generally ready, are fo obvious and fo great, 
 ibat many of the moH intelligent farmers (although at 
 
 157 
 
 turnips. 
 
 (irll prejudiced againll the pradice) arc now come into I'riaica* 
 it, and find their account in fo doing. *^~y~~' 
 
 2. Potatoes. 
 
 The choice of foil is not of greater importance in Genrral 
 any other plant than in a potatoe. This plant in clay culture, 
 foil, or in rank black loam lying low without ventila- 
 tion, never makes palatable food, in a gravelly or 
 fandy foil, expolcd to the fun and to free air, it thrives 
 to perfection, and has a good relilh. But a rank black 
 loam, though improper tu raifc potatoes lor the table, 
 produces them in great plenty ; and the producl is, as 
 already obfervcd, a palatable food for horiied cattle, 
 hogs, and poultry. 
 
 The fpade is a proper inflrumcnt for railing a finall 
 quantity, or for preparing corners or oilier places inac- 
 celfible to the plough ; but for railing potatoes in quan- 
 tities, the plough is the only inltrument. 
 
 As two great advantages of a drilled crop are, to 
 dcllroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the fame time 
 with the crop, nojudicious farmer will think of railing 
 potatoes in any other way. in Scptcm.bcr or October, 
 as foon as that year's crop is removed, let the field have 
 a rouling furrow, a crofs-breaking next, and then be 
 cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. Form it into 
 three-feet ridges, in that Hate to lie till April, which 
 is the proper time for planting potatoes. Crofs-brake 
 it, to raifc the furrows alitile. Then lay well-digc(>ed 
 horfe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roois 
 at eight inches diilance. Cover up the roots with the 
 plough, going once round every row. This makes a 
 warm bed for the potatoes; hot dung below, and a loofe 
 covering above, that admits every ray of the fun. As 
 foon as the plants appear above ground, go round every 
 rowa fccond time with the plough, which Mill lay up- 
 on the plants an additional inch or two of niduld, and 
 ai the fame time bury all the annuals ; and this will 
 complete the ploughing of t!ie ridges. When the po- 
 tatoesarelix inches higli, the plough, with the dccpefl 
 furrow mufl go twice along the middle of each inter- 
 val in oppofitcdireclions, laying earth firil to one row, 
 and next to the other. And to perform this work, a 
 plough wilh a double mould- board will be more expe- 
 ditious. But as the earth cannot be laid clofe to the 
 roots by the plough, the fpade mull fiiccccd, with 
 wliich tour inches of the plants mull be covered, lea- 
 ving little more but the tops above ground ; and this 
 operation will at the fame time bury all the weeds that 
 have fprung fince the former ploughing. Wliat weeds 
 aril'e after mull be pulled up with the hand. A hoe 
 is never to be ufed jiere : it cannot go fo deep as to 
 dellroy the weeds wiihout cutting the fibres of the 
 plants; and if itfkim the fmiace, it only cuts off the 
 heads of the weeds, and does iiotprevent their pulliing 
 again. 159 
 
 In the Bath Society Paper'^, vie have the following particular 
 praftieal obfcrvations on the culture and ufe of poia- "'^''^'"**> 
 toc.«, given as the rifult of various experinienis made 
 for five years fucccffively oji that valuable root, the 
 growth of which caniuit be too much encouraged. 
 
 When the potatoe crop has been the only objeiEl in 
 view, the following method is the mod 1 li^iblc. 
 
 The land being weli pulverized by two or tlireegood 
 harrowingsand ploughings, is then manured with 15 
 or 20 cart-loads of dung per acre, before it receives its 
 
 lail
 
 Part ir. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Pricflicc. lafteanl). Then it is thrown on to what the Suffolk 
 
 " « ' fanners call the Tm/.c/i !'a/k,\\hichis narrow and dtxp 
 
 ridj^c-worli, about 15 inclus from the centre of one 
 riii'^c to the centre ot the oilier. VV'omcn and children 
 drop the fets in the bottom of every furrow 15 inches 
 apart ; men follow, and cover ti:cm with large hoes, a 
 foot in widih, pulling the mould down fo as to bury 
 the lets live inches deep; llicy mull receive two or three 
 h.uid-hoeinjjs, and be kept free from weeds; always 
 obfci ving todraw the earth as much as pofilble to the 
 ftems of tiie young plants. By repeated trials, thefirll 
 or fecond week in April is found the moll advanta- 
 geous time for plaining. 
 
 In the end of September or the beginning of Oi^o- 
 ber, whenthehaulm l)ecomcs withered, they Ihould be 
 ploughed up with a llroiig double brcaticd-plough. 
 The workman mult be cautioned to fet his plough very 
 deep, that he may ftrike below all the potatoes, toa- 
 void damaging the crop. The women whopick tliem 
 lip, if not carefully attended to, will leave many in the 
 ground, which will prove detrimcnt.d to any fucceed- 
 ing corn, whether wheat or barley. To avoid which 
 inconvenience, let the land be harrowed, and turn the 
 fwine in to glean the few that may be left by their ne- 
 gligence. 
 
 By this method, the fets will be 15 fquare inches 
 from each other ; it will lake 18 builiels 10 plant an 
 acre ; and the produce, if on a good mixed loamy foil. 
 Will amount to 300 bulhels. 
 
 If the potatoes are grown as a preparation for wheat, 
 it is preferable to have the rows iwo feet two in- 
 ches from each other; hand-hotingonly the fpace from 
 plant 10 plant in each row; then turning a fuiall fur- 
 row from the infide of each row by a common light 
 plough, and afterwards with a doublc-brealled plough 
 with one horfe, fplit the ridge formed by the fiift 
 ploughing thoroughly to clean the intervals. This 
 work Ihould not be done too deep thefirft time, to a- 
 void burying the tender plants, but the lafl: earth lliould 
 be ploughed as deep a polfible ; and the clofer the 
 mould is thrown to the llems of tht- planis, the more 
 advantageonsit will prove. Thus 15 bulhels will plant 
 an acre, and the produce will be about 300 bulncis ; 
 but the land, by the funinier ploiighings, will be pre- 
 pared to receive feed- wheat immediately, and almoil 
 160 enfure a plentiful crop. 
 Toprevent Thepotato-fets Ihould be cut a week before plant- 
 ing, wit!) one or two eyes to' each, and ihc pieces not 
 very fmall ; two bufiiels ot frelh llackcd lime llionid be 
 fown over the furface of the land as foon as planted, 
 wRich will eftlftually prevent the attacks of the grub. 
 
 The expencc attcndingan acre of potatoes well cul- 
 tivated in the firft method, fuppoling the rent 20 Ihil- 
 lings, lithe and town charges rather high (as in Suf- 
 folk), taking up, and every thing included, will be a- 
 bout lixponuds. In thclaftinethod, it would be fome- 
 what reduced. 
 
 " When predilections for old cuftoms are fubducd 
 (adds the author), I hope to fee the potato admitted in 
 the conflant coiiife of crops by every fpiritrd hulband- 
 nian. The moll beneficial effecls will, I am certain, 
 acciuc from fuch a fyllcm. The advantages in my 
 neighbourhood arc apparent ; I cultivated and fed my 
 own children upon them, and my poorer neighbours 
 feniibly followed the example. A great proportion of 
 
 299 
 
 the grub. 
 
 c\ry cottager's garden is now occupied by this root, rnStice. 
 
 and it forms a principal part of their diet. Potatoes "^ "^ ' 
 
 are cheap and excellent fubftitutes for peafc in foaps 
 and broths, allowing double the quantity. i6r 
 
 " Although it is nearly a tranfcript of the direc- A cht-ap 
 tions given by a very ingenious author, yet I Ihall take pr.-T"''";- 
 ihc liberty of inferting a receipt for making a potato- "" '' * 
 foup, which I have weekly diflributcd amongft the ''"*"' 
 poor to their great relief. 
 
 /. d. 
 2 
 o 
 
 An ox's head 
 
 Two pecks of potatoes 
 
 Quarter of a peck of onions 
 Three quarters of a po'ind of fait 
 An ounce and a half of pepper 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Total 5 to 
 Ninety pints of water to be boiled with the above in- 
 gredients on a flow fire until reduced to 60, which re- 
 quire one peck of coals, value threepence. I have ad- 
 ded the cxptnce of every article according to their 
 prices with me, that gcnrlemcn may nearly perceive at 
 how eafy a rate they can feed 60 of their poor i'.eigh- 
 bours. I find from experience, a pint of this foup, 
 with a fmall piece of the meat, is fufiicicnt to fatisfy a 
 hearty working man with a good meal. If vegetables 
 are plentiful, fome of every fort may be added, with 
 a fcv.- fwect herbs. 
 
 " I hope my inferting the above, will not be efteem- 
 ed improper ; though fomewhat deviating from the 
 culture of potatoes, it may polfibly be a means of ren- 
 dering them more cxtenlivcly ufcful." 
 
 A premium having been offered by the abovcmen- 
 tioned Society for the cultivation of potatoes by far- 
 mers, &c. whofe rent does not exceed 40I. per annum, 
 the following methods were communicated, by which' 
 thofe who have only a fmall fpot of ground may obtain 
 a plentiful crop. j^^ 
 
 Kirft, then, ihe earth Ilionld be dug 12 inches deep, Mcthodsof 
 if the f)il will allow of it ; after this, a hole fhould be cultivating 
 opened about fix inches deep, horfe-duug, or long lit- r"tato<rs o» 
 rcr Ihould be put therein aliout three inches thick ; f""*" ^1'°"- 
 this hole iho.ild not be more than t2 inches in diame- 
 ter ; upon this dung or litter, a potato Ihould be plant- 
 ed whole, upon which a little ir.orc dung Ihould be 
 fliook, and then earth mud be put thereon. In like 
 manner the whole plot of ground ninft be planted, ta- 
 king care that each potato be at Icafl 16 inches apart ; 
 .and when the young flioots make I heir appearance, they 
 Ihould have frefh mould drawn round them with a hoc ; 
 and if the tender flioots arc covered, it will prevent the 
 frofl from injtiring them : they Ihould again be earthed 
 when the Ihoots make a fecond appearance, but not be 
 covered, as in all probability the feafon will then bclcfs 
 fcverc. A plentiful fupply of mould Ihould be given j 
 
 them, and thcperfon who performs this bufinefs Ihould 
 never tread tipontlie phnt,or the hillock that is railed 
 round it; as the lighter the earth is, the more room 
 the potato will havt to expand. From a finnle 
 root thus planted, very near /\o pou nds weight of Liri^e 
 potatoes were obtained, and from almoft every other 
 root upon the fame plot of ground from ij to 20 
 pounds weight ; and except the foil be lloncy or 
 gravelly, 10 pounds or half a peck of potatoes m.iv al- 
 moft always be obtained from each root, by purfuing 
 P p 2 the
 
 30O 
 
 Praai«. 
 
 Mithods 
 of iTulturc 
 adapted to 
 finaU 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 the foregoing iv.cthod. But note, cuttings or finall 
 lets will iiuti;o tor this jniri'olc. 
 
 The fcconJ iiuihoil wiil l\iit the indolent, ortliofc 
 \\l)o have not time to dig their ground, and that is, 
 where weeds much ahoimd and have not been cleared 
 ia the winter, a ircnch may be oj'cned in a llraight line 
 the whole length ol'ihc ground, and about lix inches 
 deep ; in this trench the potatoes (I'.uuld be planted a- 
 b.)ut lo inches apart ; cuttings or linall potatoes 
 V. ill flo Jor this method. When they are laid in the 
 trench, the weeds that arc on the furtacc may be pared 
 ofFori each fide about lo inches from it, and be turned 
 upon the plants ; another trench lliould then be dug, 
 and the mould tliat comes out of it turned carefully on 
 the weeds. It muft not be forgot, that each trench 
 iliould be regularly dug, that the potatoes may be 
 throughout the plot to or 12 inches from each other. 
 'i'hisUovcnly method will in general raife more pota- 
 toes than can be produced by digging the ground twice, 
 and dibbling in the plants ; and the reafon is, that the 
 weeds lighten the foil, and give the roots room to ex- 
 pand. '1 hey lliould be twice hoed, and earthed up in 
 rows. And here note, that if cut potatoes are to be 
 planted, every cutting Ihould have two eyes, for 1 hough 
 fewer fcts \\ ill be obtained, there w ill be a greater cer- 
 tainty of a crop, as one eye often fails or is dcllroyed 
 by grubs in the earth. 
 
 Where a crop of potatoes fail in part (as will fome- 
 times be the cafe in a dry fealon), amends may flill be 
 made by laying a little dung upon the knots of the 
 rtraw or haulm of thofe potatoes that do appear, and 
 covering them with moidd ; each knotor joint thus or- 
 dered will, if the weather prove wet afterwards, pro- 
 duce more potat:jcs than the original roots. 
 
 From the fmallell potatoes planted whole, from four 
 10 fix pounds at a root were obtained, iiid f>me of the 
 Jingle potatoes weighed ne^r two pounds. Thefe were 
 dug in as before-mentioned, in trenches where the 
 ground wss covered, with weeds, aud the foil was a 
 lliff loamy clay. 
 
 A good crop may be obtained by laying potatoes 
 upon turf at about 12 or 14 inches apart, and upon 
 beds of about lix feet wide ; on each fide of which a 
 trench (hould be opened about three feet wide, and the 
 inrf that comes from thence Ihonld be laid with the 
 grairy fide downv/ards upon the potatoes ; a fpit of 
 !iiould lliould next be taken from the trenches, and be 
 fpread over ihc turf; aud in like manner the whole plot 
 *f ground that is dcfigned to be planted muft be treat- 
 ed. And remark, that when the young flioots appear, 
 ar.otber fpit of mould from the trenches lliould be 
 ftrev.-ed over the beds fo as to cover the flioots ; this 
 will prevent the froll from injuiing them, encourage 
 them to expand, and totally deflroy the young weeds ; 
 and when the potatoes arc taken up in the autumn, a 
 careful perfon may turn the earth again into thetrcn- 
 <!hes, fo as to .Tiake the furface level ; and it will be 
 right to remark, that from the fame ground a much 
 better crop of potatoes may be obtained the following 
 year. 
 
 For field planting, a good (if not the bell) method 
 is to dung the land, which ihould be once ploughed 
 previous thereto ; and w'hen it is ploughed a fecond 
 lime, a careful perfon lliould drop the potato plants be- 
 fore the plough in every third furrow at about eight or 
 
 ten inches apart. Plants thatare cut with twocycsarc Praiftict. 
 bell lor thispurpofc. '1 he reafon forplanting them at fo »— v— ' 
 greatadiltancc as every third furrow, is, that when the 
 Ihoots appear, a Ihorle-hoe may go upon the two va- 
 cant furrows to keep them clean ; and after they are 
 thus hoed, they flioulu be moulded u]) in ridgts ; and 
 if this crop be taken up ab ut October or November, 
 the land w ill be in excellent condition to receive acrop 
 of wheal. Lands that are full of twitch or couch-grafs 
 may be made clean by this method as the horfe-hoting 
 is as good as a fumnicr-fallow ; and if, when the pota- 
 toes are taken up, women and cliildren were to pick 
 out fuch iilth, not any traces of it would remain ; and 
 by laying it on heaps and burning it, a quantity of 
 alhcs would be produced for manure. 
 
 After ploughing, none lliould ever dibble in pot.atoes, 
 as the pcrfons who dibble, plant, or hoe them, will all 
 tread the ground; by which means it will become {o 
 bound, that the young hbres cannot cxpaiid, as has 
 been already obfcrveil.. ,^ood crops have indeed been 
 obtained by ploughing the land twice, and dropping 
 the plants in every other furrow, and by hand- hoeing 
 and earthing them up afterwards as the gardeners do 
 peafe ; but this method is notequai to the other. 
 
 Vacant places in hedge-rows iTiij,htbe grubbed and 
 planted with potatoei, .uid a good crop might be ex- 
 peClcd, as the leaves of trees, thorns, &c. are a good 
 manure, and will lurprillngly encourage their growth, 
 and gratify the willies of the-planter ; who by culliva- 
 tingfuch places, will then make ihe mollof hisground, 
 and it will be in fine order to receive a crop of corn 
 the following year. 
 
 j^couiit of the culture, expencei, and produce offx acres M.,h„d of 
 of potatoes, be'ii.g a jair part of near 70 acrci, raifed cuiiurc.&c 
 by Jukii BiUtugfl.y, F.lq ; and for which the pretniutii for^^hicha 
 ivas granted him in the year 1 784. 
 
 Exp e nc e s. L. s. d. 
 
 Ploughing on oat-flubble in Ot'iober 1 78;, at 
 
 4s. per acre ... . 14 
 
 Crofs-ploughing in March i'784 - 14 
 
 Harrowing, 2S. per acre - - 012 
 
 180 cart-loads of comport, :1. per acre t8 o 
 42 facksof feed-potatoes (each fack w^eigli- 
 
 ing 2401b.) of the white fort 
 Cutting the fets, 6d. per fack 
 Setting on ridges eight feet wide (leaving 
 
 an iiuerval of two feet for an alley) 6d. 
 
 for every 20 yards. 10 
 
 Kocing, at 5s. per acre 1 
 
 Digging up ilie two feet ^Bterval, and 
 
 throwing the earth on the plants, at 10s. 
 
 per acre - - - - 3 
 
 Digging up the crop, at 8d. for every 20 
 
 yards in Jength, the breadth being 8 feet 
 Labour and expcnce of fecuring in pits, 
 
 wear and tear of ba/kets, flraw, reed, 
 
 fpikes, &c. los. per acre 
 Rent . . . - 
 
 Tithe . . . - 
 
 premium 
 was graDt- 
 ed. 
 
 10 10 
 
 I 1 
 
 12 
 10 
 
 14 6 
 
 Profit 
 
 72 9 
 
 73 II 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 L.146 o o 
 P « o
 
 Part II 
 
 Vn<3ice. 
 
 A G R I C U L T U R E. 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 6. 
 
 1 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 165 
 
 Beft mc- 
 »hod of ta- 
 king them 
 •p. 
 
 166 
 Of prefer- 
 ring tlicm. 
 
 Produck. 
 6co facks of bcrt potatoes at 4s. 
 iro facks niiJdlc-lizcd, 3s. 66. 
 JO of fnrall, 2S. 
 
 N. B. Each fack 240 ib. 
 
 I,. 146 o o 
 
 The field on whicli the above cxpcri 11, en t was made, 
 was ?.n oai-UublJe in the autunu of 1783. la Octo- 
 ber it was ploughed, and left in a rough liatc during 
 the V. inter. In April it was crofs-ploughed and har- 
 rowed. On the 8th cf May the field \\as marked out 
 into beds or ridges ciglit feet wide, leasii.ga fpacc of 
 two feet wide lor an alley between every two ridges. 
 The manure (a compoft of liable dung, virgin earth, 
 and fcrapings of a turnpike road) wastiien broughton 
 the land and dcpoliteti in fmall heaps on the centre of 
 each ridge, in tbcpropoi tion of ab^«ut 3ocart-lo3wS to 
 e:ich acre. A trench was then opened wjtli a fpa'^e 
 breadth-way of the ridge, about four inches deep ; in 
 this trench the potato-fets were placed, at tiie diuancc 
 of nine inches from each other j the dung was then 
 fpread in a trench on ibc fets, ard a fpacc or j lit cf 
 14 inches in breadth, dug in upon them. When the 
 plants wcrcatjout lix inches high, they were carefully 
 hoed, and foon after tlic two feet intervals between 
 the ridges were dug, and the contents tiirown around 
 the young plants. This refreiliment, added to liic 
 ample manuring privoully bellowed, produced fuch a 
 luxuriance ann rapidity of growth, that no \\ ted could 
 fliow its head. 
 
 the Ihortcft and moft certain method of taking up 
 potatoes, is to plough once round every row at the di- 
 ilance of four inches^ removing the earth from the 
 plants, and gathering up witii the liand all the potatoes 
 ihatappcar. The diitance is mace fourinches, to pre- 
 vent cutting the roots, which are feldom found above 
 that diftance from the row on each Jidc. When the 
 ground is thus cleared by the plough, raife the pota- 
 toes with a fork having three broad toes or claws ; 
 which ii' better tlian a fpade, as it docs not cut the po- 
 tatoes. The potatoes thus laid above ground mull be 
 gathered with the hand. By this method fcarcc a po- 
 tato will be lei"t. 
 
 As potatoes are a comfortable food for the poor peo- 
 ple, it is of i;Dportance to have them all the year round. 
 For a long time, potatoes in Scotland were confined to 
 the kitchen-garden ; and after they were planted in 
 tiie field, it wrs not iinagincd at tirll that thiy could 
 be ufed after the rr.onih of December. Of laie years 
 they have been found toanfwer even till April ; which 
 has proved a great fupport to many a poor family, as 
 they arc eafily coo!;eii, and require neither kiln nor 
 mill. But there is no caufc for (lopping there. It is 
 cafy to pre ferve them till the next crop: Whcnt.Tkcu 
 out of the ground, lay in the ccrnerofa b.irnaquan- 
 tity that may fervc till .April, covered from froil with 
 dry draw prclfed down : bury ihc remainder in a hole 
 dug indry ground, mixed with the hufksof dried cits, 
 fand, or the dry leaves of trees, over which b-.:ild a 
 ftack of liay or corn. \\ hen the pit is opened for 
 taking out the potatoes, the eyes of what h.ive a ten- 
 dency to puQi mud be cut out ; and this cargo will 
 I'ervcallthc month of June. To be Hill more certain 
 of making the old crop meet the new, the fcttingof a 
 Iraall q^uantiiy may be delayed till June, to be taken 
 
 up at the ordinary time before froft. This cargo, ha- 
 ving not arrived to full growth, will not be forcaayto 
 pulh as w hat are fct in April. 
 
 If the old crop happen to be exhaulled before the ncvr 
 crop is ready, the interval may be fupplicd by the po- 
 tatoes of the new crop that lie next the furface, to be 
 picked up v\ ith the hand ; which, f»r from hurting ihc 
 crop, will rather improve it. 
 
 3. Carrot and Pajnip. 
 
 167 
 
 Of all roots, acaiTot requires the dccpeft foil. It Cuhuxe of 
 ought ut leall to be a foot deep, all equally good from earrot. 
 top to bottom. If fuch a fuil be not in the farm, k 
 may be made artificially by trench-ploughing, whicb 
 biings to the furface what never had any communica- 
 tion with the fun or air. W hen this new foil is fuffi- 
 cicntly improved by a crop or two with duug, it is fit 
 for bearing carrots. Beware of dunging the year when 
 the carrots arc fown ; for w ith freth dung they feldom 
 cfcapc rotten fcabs. 
 
 'i he only foils properfor that root, arc a loam and a 
 fandyfoil. 
 
 The ground niuft be prepared by the deepen furrow 
 that can be taken, the fooncr after harvcd the better ; 
 immediately upon the back of which, a ribbing ought 
 tofucceed,asdirefted for barley. At theendof /vlarch, 
 or beginning of April, whi.h is the time for lowing the 
 feed, the ground muft be fnioothcd with a brake. Sow 
 the feed in drills, with intervals of a foot for hand- 
 hoeing ; which is no cxpenfive operation where tht 
 crop is coniincd loan acre or two: but if the quantity 
 of ground be greater, the intervals ought to be three 
 feet, in order for horfc-hoeing. 
 
 In llat ground without ridgcs, it may be proper ta 
 make parallel furrows with the plough, ten feet from, 
 each other, in order to carry off any redundant moi- 
 llure. 
 
 At Parlington in YorkQiire, from the end of Sep- 
 tember to the tirll of May, 20 work-horfes, four bul- 
 locks, and lix milk-cows, were fed on the carrots that 
 grew on three acres ; and tUefc animals never tailed 
 any other food but a little hay. The milk was excel- 
 lent : and, over ;nd above, 30 hogs were fattened upon 
 what was left by the other bealls. VVc have this fact 
 from undoubted authority. jjg 
 
 The culture of parfnips is the fame with that ofParO.ip*. 
 carrots. 
 
 III. Plants cultivated for Leaves, or for both Leaves 
 
 and Koot. 
 
 There are many garden- plants oft hefe kinds. The 
 plants proper for the tield .-ire cabbage, red and white, 
 colewort plain and carled, lurnip-rooicd cabbage, and 
 ihc root of fcarcity. 
 
 t. Cabbage is an interellinganicle in hufbandry. It 
 is eaiily railed, is fiibjed to few difcafes, rclills froft 
 more thin turnip, ispalatablc to cattle, and fooner dlls 
 them than turnip, carrot, or potatoes. j^^ 
 
 1 he fe.ifon for fctiing cablujc depends on the ufc Culture of 
 it is inte:ided for. If intended for feeding in Noveni- "l>l»ge. 
 l>cr, December, and January, plants procured from 
 feed fown the end of July the preceding year mull be 
 fct in March or April. If intended tor fcciiing in 
 March, April, and M^y, the plants mall be let the tirll 
 
 week.
 
 302 
 
 V-T 
 
 R I C U 
 
 TURK. 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Pra,;lice. wf ckof the preceding July, from feed fown i;i the end of 
 "^ " Ktbniaiy or begimiiiigot. March liit l;'.ii\c year. The 
 late reitiiig or tlie j'lants retards their growth ; by 
 which means they have a vigorous growth the toUow- 
 ing fjuiiiir. And tliis crop makes an important link 
 in the chain that connects winter and liinniier green 
 food. Where cabbajjc tor fpriiig-t'ood happens tube 
 ncglefted, a few acre s ol rye, fown at Micliaelmas, will 
 fupply the want. After the rye is confunied, there is 
 lime fnfficjeucto prepare the ground for turnip. 
 
 And now to prep.ire a tield for cabbage. Where 
 the plants arc to be fct in March, the tield mult be 
 made up after Iiarvelt, in ridges three feet wide. In 
 that form let it lie all winter, to be mellowed \\ ith air 
 and frolt. In March, take the hrll opportunity, be- 
 tween wet and dry, to lay dung in the furrow s. Cover 
 the dung with a plough,' which will convert the furrow 
 into a crov, n, and confeiiuently the crown into a fur- 
 row. Set the plants upon the dung, diflant from each 
 other three iVj-. Plant them fo as to make a (Iraight 
 line acrofs the ridges, as well as along the furrows, to 
 which a gardener's line llretched perpendicularly 
 acrofs the furrows will be requifite. This will fct each 
 plant at the dillance precifely of three feet from the 
 plants that furround it. The purpofcof this accuracy 
 is to give opportunity for ploughing, not only along 
 the ridges, but crofs them. This mode is attended 
 with three fignal advantages : it faves hand-hoeing, it 
 is a more complete drel'.ing to the foil, and it lays 
 earth neatly round every plant. 
 
 If the foil be deep and compofed of good earth, a 
 trench ploughing after the preceding crop will not be 
 amifs ; in which cafe, the time for dividing the field 
 in to three-feet ridges, as above, ought tobe immedi- 
 ately before the dunging for the plants. 
 
 If weeds happen to rife fo clofc to the plants as not 
 to be reached by the plough, it will require very little 
 labour to deflroy them with a hand-hoe. 
 
 L'nlcfsthe foil be much infefted with annuals, twice 
 ploughing after the plants are fet will be a fufficicnt 
 drclling. The tirfl removes the earth from the plants ; 
 the next, at thediltance of a month or fo, lays it back. 
 
 Where the plants are to be fct in July, the field 
 mud be ribbed as directed for barley. It ought to 
 have a flight ploughing in June before the planting, in 
 order to loofcn the foil, but not fo as to bury the iur- 
 face-earth ; after which the three-feet ridges nuifl be 
 formed, and the other particulars carried on as direct- 
 ed above with refped to plants that are to be fct in 
 ijo March. 
 Cultivation 2. As to thct!iiiji/--root.'d cabbages, their importance 
 of the tur- and value feem only to have been lately afccnained. 
 nip rooted In the Bath Society Papers we have the following ac- 
 cabb.iges. count of Sir Thomas Beevor's method of cultivating 
 them ; which from experience he found to be" cheaper 
 and better than any other. 
 
 " In the fiifl or fecond week of June, I few the 
 fame quantity o( feed, hoe the plants at the fame lize, 
 leave them at the fame diftancc from each other, and 
 treat them in all refpeds like the common turnip. In 
 this method I/have always obtained a plentiful crop of 
 them ; toafccrtain the value of which I need only in- 
 forn) you, that on the 2:d day of April laft, having 
 than two acres left of my crop, found, and in great 
 
 perfetlion, I divided them by fold hurdles into three iVaAice. 
 
 parts of nearly equal diiucnlio. is. Jmo thi lirlL part ^ ' 
 
 1 put 24 fmall bullocks of about ;o Itouc weight each ,-, 
 (i^lb. to the Ihone), and 30 niiddlt,iixed fat wethers, I'h, irutili- 
 whi h, at the end of tlie tint wecK, after thty ha J ty and va- 
 eateu down the greater j'art of the leaves, and fomc '"«• 
 part of the roots, I Ihiticdinto the fecond divilion, 
 a'.id then put 70 lean ihecp into wha; was left of the 
 tirfl ; thcfe fed otf the remainder of the turnips 
 left by the fat (lock ; and lb they were Ihitted through 
 the three diviiions, the lean llo:k t'oUowiag the fat 
 as they wanted food, until the whole was coufumcd. 
 
 " The 24 bullocks and 30 fat weathers continued 
 in the turnips until thcatft of May, being exactly 
 four weeks ; and the 70 lean flieep until the 29th, 
 which is one day over four weeks: fo that the two 
 acres kept my 24 fmall bullocks and no Iheep four 
 weeks (not reckoning the overplus day of keeping the 
 lean flicep) ; the value, at llic rate ot keeping at that 
 feafon, cannot be eltimatcd in any commohyear at lefs 
 that 4d. a- week for each ihcep, and is. 6d. per week 
 for each bullock, which would amount together to the 
 fum of L. 14 : 10 : 8-: for the two acres. 
 
 " You will hardly, I conceive, think I have fet the 
 price of keeping the flock at two high a rate ; it is be- 
 neath theprice here in almoll every fpring, and in this 
 lafl it would have cofl double,.couldit have been pro- 
 cured ; which was fo far from being the cafe, that 
 hundreds of Ihecp and lambs here were lofl, and the 
 reft greatly pinched for want of food. 
 
 " You will obferve, gentlemen, that in the valua- 
 tion of the crop abovcmentioned I have claiuied no 
 allowance for the great benefit the farmerreceives by 
 being enabled to futfcr his grafs to get into a forward 
 growth, nor for the fujrerior quality of thefe turnips 
 in fattening his flock ; both which circumflancts mufl 
 ftainp new and a great additional value upon them. 
 But as their continuance on the land may feem to be 
 injurious to the fucceeding crop, and indeed will de- 
 prive the farmer totally of cither oats or barley ; fo to « 
 fupply that lofs I have always fown buck-wheat on the 
 firfi earth upon the land from which the turnips were 
 thus fed of^ ; allow'ing one bufhel of feed per acre, for 
 which I commonly receive from five to fix quarters per 
 acre in return. And that I may not throw that part 
 of my land out of the fame courfe of tillage with the 
 reft, I fow my clover or other grafs-feeds with the 
 buck-wheat, in the fame manner as with the oat or 
 barley crops, and have always found as good a layer 
 (lea) of it afterwards. 
 
 " Thus you fee, that in providing a moft incompa- 
 rable vegetable food for cattle, in that feafon of the 
 year in which the farmer is generally molt diflrefled, 
 and his cattle almofl flarved, a confldcrable profit may 
 likewife be obtained, much beyond what is ufually de- 
 rived from his former practice, by the great produce 
 and price of a crop raifcd at fo eafy an expencc as that 
 of buck wheat, which, w irh us, fells commonly at the 
 fame price as barley, oftentimes more, and but very 
 rarely for lefs. 
 
 "The land onwhich I have ufually fown turnip-root- 
 ed cabbages is a dry mixed foil, worth ijs. per acre. 
 
 To the preceding account the Society have fulijoin- 
 ed the follcviug note : " "Whetlier we regard the im- 
 portance
 
 Part II. 
 
 Praciuc. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 I7Z 
 Recoiii- 
 mcnducion 
 bylhc Bath 
 Sucicty. 
 
 173 
 To raife 
 the turni)i- 
 root^d cab- 
 bage for 
 tranlpLoc- 
 ing. 
 
 174 
 Culture of 
 the root <)f 
 fcarcity. 
 
 portaiice cf the fubjc(5t, •r the clear and pradlical iii- 
 iormation which the loregoiiig letter conveys, it may 
 be conlidcrcd as truly iniercltiug as any we have ever 
 been favoured with : and therefore it is recommended 
 in the flronge/l manner to farmersin general, that they 
 adopt a mode of practice fo decilivcly afccrtained to be 
 in a high degree judicious and profitable." 
 
 To raifc the tuniip-rooted cabbage tor tranfplanting, 
 the bell method yetdifcovercd is, to breaft- plough ai:d 
 burn as much old pallure as may be judged neccliary 
 for the feed-bed ; two perches well flocked with plants 
 will be fuiKcicnt to plant an acre. The land lliould 
 be dug as (liallow as polhble, turning the alhes in ; and 
 the feed Ihould be f <wu the beginning of April. 
 
 The land intended for tiie plantation to be cultivated 
 and dunged as for the common turnip. About Mid- 
 fummer (or fooncr if the weather will permit) will be 
 a proper time for planting, which is bell done in the 
 following manner : theland to be thrown into 'ine-bout 
 [idgts, upon the topsof svhich the plants are to be fet, 
 at about 18 inclics dillance from each other. As Toon 
 as the weeds rile, give a hand-hoeing, afterwards run 
 the ploughs in the intervals, and fetch a furrow from 
 each ridge, which, after laying a fortnight or three 
 weeks, isagain thrown back to the ridges ; if the weeds 
 rife again, it is necellary to give them another hand- 
 hoeing. 
 
 If tiie young plants in the feed-bed (hould be at- 
 tacked by the Hy, fovv wood alhcs over them when the 
 dew is on, which will cfFcilually prevent the ravages 
 they would othcrwife make. 
 
 2,-Thcraciite ded//i;tti-,orTooto{[ca.rchy,(^Beta cic/a) 
 delights in a rich loamy land well dunged. It is dired- 
 cd to be fown in rows, or broad-call:, and as foon as the 
 plants are of thcfizcof a goofe-quill, tobe tranfplanted 
 in rowsof !8 inchcsdillauce, and 18 iiichcsa part, one 
 plant from the other: care muH be taken in the fow- 
 ing, to fow very thin, and to cover the feed, wliich 
 lays in the ground about a month, an inch only. — In 
 tranfplanting, the roo: is not to be Ihortcncd, but the 
 leaves cut at the top; the pl.»nt is then to be planted 
 witii a fetling flick, fo that the upper part of the root 
 Ihall appear about half an inch outof the ground ; this 
 lall precaution is very nccelTary to be itiended to. 
 Thcfe plants will ftrike root in twenty-four hours, and 
 a man a little accullomed to planting, will plant with 
 rafc iSooor 2000 a-d.iy. In the fecil-beJ, the plants, 
 like al! others mud be kept clear of weeds: ulicn 
 ihcy arc planted out, after once hoeing, they will take 
 cart of thcmftlvcs, and fuifocate every kind of weed 
 ne.ir them. 
 
 The bcft time to fow the feed is from the bcsfiuning 
 of March to the middle of April: it is, however, ad- 
 vifcd to continue fo-.ving every month until the begin- 
 ning of July, in order to have a fuccellion of plants. 
 Both leaves and roots have been extolled js excellent 
 both for man and Lcafl. This plant is fai 1 not to be 
 liable, like the turnip, to be deflroyed by infe is, for 
 no infect louches it, nor is it affected by excellive 
 drought, or the changes of feafons. Horned cattle, 
 l-.orfes, pigs, and poultry, arc exceedingly fond of it 
 vhcn cut fmall. The Ic.ivcs may be gathered every 
 12 or ly days; thCy are from ;o to 40 incites long, 
 by 22 to 25 inches bro.id. This plant is excellent tor 
 milch cows, W'hen given to them in projicrj>roponiujis. 
 
 as it adds much to the quality as well as qhantity of 
 their milk ; but care mult be taken to proportion tlie 
 leaves with other green food, othcrwife it would abate 
 the milk, and fatten them too much, it being of fo 
 exceeding fattening a quality. To put all ihcfe pro- 
 perties beyond doubt, however, further experiments 
 arc wanting. 
 
 Sect. IV. Cu/ture ofCrafi. 
 
 J7S 
 
 The latter end of Auguft,or the beginning of Sep- of Uymg 
 tcmbcr, is the bed feafon for fowing grafs-lceds, as down field* 
 there is time for the roots of the young plants to fix '" Z^^- 
 themfelves before the Iharp trolls fet in. It is fcarce 
 necclTary to fay, that moill weather is bell for fowing; 
 the earth being then warm, the feeds will vegetate im- 
 mediately ; but if this feafon prove unfavourable, they 
 will do very well the middle of March following. 
 
 If you would have fine pafture, never low on foul 
 land. On the contrary, plough it well, and clear it 
 from the roots of couch-grafs,rcll-harrow, fern, broom, 
 and all other noxious weeds. If thcfe are futfcred to 
 remain, they will foon get above, and dcflroy your 
 young grafs. Rake thele up in heaps, and burn them 
 on the land, and fpre.id the alhes as a luanure. Thefs 
 ploughings and harrowings Ihould be repeated in dry 
 weather. And if the foil be clayey and wet, make 
 fomc undcr-drains to carry off the water, which, if fut- 
 fered to remain, will not only chill the grafs, but make 
 it four. Before fowing, lay the land as level and tine 
 as pollible. Ifyour grafs-feeds arc clean, (which fhi. u I 
 always be the cafe) three bulhels will bcfutlicient per 
 acre. When fown, harrow it in gently, and roll it in 
 with a wooden roller. When it comes up, fill up all the 
 bare fpotsby frclh feed, which, if rolled to fix it, will 
 foon come up, and overtake the rcA. 
 
 In Norfolk they fow clover with their graffes, par- • 
 
 ticularly with rye grafs ; but this ihould not be done 
 except when theland isdeligned for grafs only three or 
 lourycars,bccaufeneitherof thcfe kinds will laftlong 
 ill the land. Where you intfnd it for acontin lai-.ce, it 
 is better to mix only fiiall white Dutchclovcr, or marie 
 grafs, with your otlier grafs feed, and not more than 
 eight po'inds to an acre. ' Thefe arc abiding plants, 
 fprcad • lofe on tlie fari'acc, and make thcfwcctcft feed 
 of any for cattle. In the following iVrin^, root up 
 ihiiUes, hemlock, or any large plants that appear. 
 The doing this while the ground is foft enough to 
 permit your drawing them by the roots, and before- 
 they feed, will favc you infinite troub'e afterwards. 
 
 The common method of proceeding in laying down 
 fields to grafs is extremely injudicious. Some fow 
 barley with their gralFcs. which they fjppofe to be 
 ufeful in IliaJing them, without coniidering how much 
 the corn draws away the nourilhnicnt from the land. i-6 
 
 Others take their feeds from a foul hay-rick ; by Piffcrcnt 
 which means, belides fillin;; the land wiili'rubbilh and k'"J' "^ 
 weeds, what they intend for dry foils may have come S"'*- 
 from nioift, wlicrc it grew naturally, andt/nr rfrfa. 
 The confcq icncc is, that the groimd, ii'ftea.1 of being 
 covered with a good thick fward, is tilled with 
 plants unnatural to it. The kinds of grafs moll 
 eligible for pailure-liuds are, the annual-mcao««w, 
 creeping, and fine bear, the fo.x-tails, and crtlled 
 dog's-ta.il, the poas, the fcncues, the vernal, o't- 
 
 grifs
 
 304 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Vraclicc. grafs, and the ray, or ryc-grafs. We do not, how- 
 
 * >^ ' ever, approve of lowing all ihclc kinds tOJcthcr; for 
 
 not to mention their ripening at different times, by 
 wltich means you can never cut them all in ptrlcction 
 and full vigour, no kind of cattle are fond of all a- 
 likc. 
 
 Horfcs will fcarcely eat hay which oxen and cows 
 will thrive upon ; fhcep arc particularly fond of fonie 
 kinds, and rcfufc others. The Darnel-grafs, if not 
 cut bt fore fcvcral of the other kinds arc ripe, becomes 
 fo hard and wiiy in the llalks, that few cattle care to 
 cat it. 
 
 Such gentlemen as wifli a particular account of the 
 abovcmeniioncd graires,\\ill bcamply gratified in cou- 
 fultir.g Mr Stilling.'tcct on this fiibjcct. He has treat- 
 ed it with great judgment and accuracy, and thofe 
 who follow his directions in the choice of their graffcs 
 will be under no fmall obligation to him for the valu- 
 able information he has givca them. The fiibftancc 
 of his obfervations are given iu the article Grasses 
 in this Diclonary. 
 
 The gralFes commonly fown for pafture, for hay, or 
 to cut green for cattle, arc red clover, white clover, 
 yellow clover, rye-grafs, narrow-leaved plantain com- 
 monly called nli'uioit, fain-foin, and lucerne. 
 
 Red clover is of all the moll proper to be cut green 
 for fnmmer-food. It is a biennial plant when futfercd 
 to perfcd its feed ; but whtn cut green, it will laft 
 three years, and in a dry foil longer. At the fame 
 time the fafcft coarfc is to let it Aand but a lingle year : 
 if the fecond year's crop happen to be Icanty, it proves, 
 like a bad crop of peafe, a great encourager of weeds 
 by the Ihelter it affords them. 
 
 Here, as in all other crops, the goodncfs of feed is 
 of importance. Choofe plump feed of a purple colour, 
 becaufc it takes on that colour when ripe. It is red 
 when hurt in the drying, and of a faint colour when 
 
 177 unrips- 
 Of red do- Red clover is luxuriant upon a rich foil, whether 
 vcr. clay, loam, or gravel ; it will grow even upon a moor, 
 
 when properly cultivated. A wet foil is its only bane ; 
 for there it does not thrive. 
 
 To have red clover in pcrfeftion, weeds mull be ex- 
 tirpated, and Hones taken oS". The mould ought to 
 be made as fine as harrowing can make it; and the 
 furface be fmoothed with a light roller, if not futH- 
 cientlyfmooth without it. This gives opportunity for 
 dirtribuling the feedevcnly: which muft be covered by 
 a fmall harrow with teeth no larger than that ofa gar- 
 
 • riate V. dcn-rake,threcincheslong,andlix inchesafunder.* In 
 *S' 7- harrowing, the man Ihould walk behind with a rope in 
 
 his hand fixed to the back part of the harrow, ready 
 to difcntaugle it from I'tones, clods, turnip or cabbage- 
 roots, Wiiich would trail ihc feed, and difplace it. 
 
 Nature has not determined any precife depth for the 
 feed of red clover more than for other feed. It will 
 •TOW vi Toroullyfrom two inches deep, and it will grow 
 when bnrdy covered. Half an inch may be reckoned 
 the moit advantageous pofition in clay foil, a whole 
 inch in v.liat is lic;ht or loofe. It is a vulgar error, 
 that fmall feed ought to be fparingly covered. Milled 
 by that error, farmers commonly cover their clover- 
 fi<~< with a bnihy branch of (horn ; which not only 
 c'lvers it unequally, b;;i leaves part on the furface to 
 wither in the air. 
 
 I 
 
 Pirfll. 
 
 The proper fcafon for fowingred-clovcr, is from the Praaice. 
 
 middle of April to die middle of May. It \\ ill fpring ' <^-— 
 
 from the iirll of March to the cud of Augull ; but 
 Inch liberty luij^ht not to be taken except from necef- 
 lity. 
 
 There cannot be a greater blunder in hufbandry, than 
 to be fparing of feed Ideal writt rs talk of lowing an 
 acre with four pounds. 'J hat quanti.y of feed, fay 
 they, will i.U an acre with jilants as thick as they ought 
 to lUud. This rule may be admilted where grain is 
 the olije.'I ; biit it will not anlwer with refpecl to grafs. 
 Cr<ifs-feed cannot be fown too thick: the plants Ihel- 
 ter one another: they retain all the dew : ami they 
 mull pulh upwards, having no room laterally. Obferve 
 (he place w here a f.ick of peafe, or of other grain, has 
 been ft t down for lowing : the feed dropt there acci- 
 dentally grows more quickly than in the rell of the 
 field fown thin out of hind. A young plant of clover, 
 or of fain-foin, according to Tull, may be raifed to a 
 great lize where it has room ; but the field will not 
 produce half the quantity. When red clover is fown 
 for cutting green, there ought not to be Icfs than 24, 
 pounds to an acre. A field of clover is feldom too 
 thick : the fmaller a flem be, the more acceptable it is 
 to cattle. It is often too thin ; and when fo, the llcms 
 ten i to wood. - J . 
 
 Red clover is commonly fown with grain ; and the of Towin" 
 raofl proper grain has been found by experience to be clover wiU 
 flax. The foil mufl be highly cultivated for flax as well grain, 
 as for red clover. The proper fcafon for fowing is the 
 fame for both ; the leavesof flax being very fmall, ad- 
 mit of free circulation of air ; and flax being an early 
 crop, is removed fo early as to give the clover time for 
 growing. In a rich foil it has grown fo fall, as to af- 
 ford a good cutting that very year. Next to fla.x, 
 b.'.rley is the befl companion to clover. The foil mufl 
 be loofe and free for barley : and fo it ought to be for 
 clover : the feafon of fowing is the fame ; and the clo- 
 ver is well ellabliihcd in the ground, before it is over- 
 topped by the barley. At the fame time, barlry com- 
 monly is fooner cut than cither oats or wheat. In a 
 word, barley is rather a nurfe than a llepmother to 
 clover during its infancy. When clover is fown in 
 fpring upon wheat, the foil, which has lain five or fix 
 months without being llirred, is an improper bed for 
 it ; and the wheat, being in the vigour of growth, 
 overtops it from the bejjinning. It cannot be fown 
 along with oats, becaufc of the hazard of froll ; and 
 when fown as ufual among the oats three inches high, 
 it is over-topped, and never enjoys free air till the oats 
 be cut. Add, that where oats are fown upon the win- 
 ter furrow, the foil is rendered as hard as when under 
 wheat. — Red clover is G.nietimcs fown by itfclf with- 
 out other grain : but thi-; method, befide loling a crop, 
 is not falutary ; becaufc clover in its infant ilate re- 
 quires Ihelter. 
 
 As to the quantity of <;rain proper to be fown wiih 
 clover : In a rich foil w ell pulverized, a peck of barley 
 on an Kngliiliacre is all th.Tt ought to be ventured. Two 
 Liiilithgow firlots make "the proper quantity for an 
 acre that produces commonly lix boHs of barley ; half 
 a firlot for what prod.ices nine bolls. To thofe who 
 are governed by cullum, fo fmall a qnaniity will be 
 thou<rht ridiculous. Let them only coiiiidcr, that a 
 rich foil in perfe(ft good order, will from a fiugle feed
 
 :>artll. A G R I C U 
 
 Pri^aice. of barley proiiucc 20 or ;!o vigorous (Icnis. People 
 ~~— V ' aiay Hatter tliemfflvcs with the remedy ofcutting bar- 
 ley green for food, if it Iuppcus to opprefs the clover. 
 This is an excellent remedy inaricl.iuf an acre or two; 
 but the cutting an exrenlivc ficlJ for food mull be llow; 
 and while one part is cutting, the clover is fmoihcrcd 
 J.. in other parts. 
 Vhitc and The culture of white clover, of yellow clover, of 
 ellow do- ribwort, of rye-grafs, is the fame in general with that 
 ■er, rib- of red clover. \Vc proceed tothcir peculiarities. Ycl- 
 fort, ami j^^y dover, ribwort, rye grafs, are all of them early 
 yc-grafs, pigm^^ blooming in the end of April or beginning of 
 May. The two latter are evergreens, and therefore 
 excellent for winter pallure. Ryc-grafsis lefshurt by 
 froft than any of the clovers, 'and will thrive in amoi- 
 ller foil : nor in that foil is it much aiteded by 
 drought. In a rich foil, it grows four feet high : even 
 in the dry funimfl- 1775, it rofe to three feet eight 
 inches; butithad gained that heightbeforc thcdrought 
 came on. Thtfc graifes are generally fown with red 
 clovcrforproduci'ig a plcntifulcrop. The proportion 
 of feed is arbitrary ; and there is little danger of too 
 much. When ryc-grafsis fown for procuriitg feed, five 
 lirlots wheat-mcafure may be fown on an acre ; and 
 forprocuring feed of ribwort, 40 pounds may be fown. 
 The roots of rye-grafs fprcad horizontally : they bind 
 the foil by their number ; and tho' fmall, arcyct fo vi- 
 gorous as to thrive in hard foil. Red clover has a large 
 tap-root, which cannot penetrate any fell but what is 
 open and free ; and the largenefs of the root makes the 
 foil dill more open and free. Rye-grafs, once a great 
 favourite, appears to be difcardcd in mofl parts ot Bri- 
 tain. Thecomraonpradicehas been, tofowitwith red 
 clover, and to cut them promifcuoufly the beginning of 
 June for green food, and a little later for hay. This in- 
 deed is the proper feafon for cutting red clover, becaufe 
 at that lime it begins to flower ; but as at that time the 
 feed of the rye-grafs is approaching to maturity, its 
 growth is flopped for that year, as much as of oats or 
 barley cut after the feed is ripe. Oats or barley cut 
 green before the feed forms, will afford two other cut- 
 tings ; which is the cafe of rye-grafs, of yellow clover 
 and of ribwort. By fuch management, all the profit 
 will be drawn that thefe plants can afford. 
 
 When red clover is intended for feed, the ground 
 ought to be cleared of weeds, were itfornootherpur- 
 pofc than that the feed cannot othcrwifc be preferved 
 pure : what feeds efcape ihe plough ought to be ta- 
 ken out by the hand. In England, when a crop of 
 feed isiiitcndcd, the clover is always firft cut for hay. 
 Thisappcars to be done, as in fruit-trees, to check the 
 growth of the wood, in order to encourage the fruit. 
 This pradice will not anfwcr in Scotland, as the feed 
 would often be too late for ripening. It would do bet- 
 ter to eat the clover with Iheep till the middle of May, 
 which would allow the feed to ripen. The feed isripe 
 when, upon rubbing it between the hands, it parts 
 readily from the hulk. Then apply the fcyihc, fprcad 
 the crop thin, and turn it carefully. When perfectly 
 dry, take t':e firfl opportunity of a hot day for tlirelh- 
 ing it on boards covered with a coarfe Ihctt. Another 
 way lefs fubjed to rifle, is to flack the dry hay, and 
 to thrcih it in the end of April. /\fter the tirll threfli- 
 ing, expofethe hulks to the fan, and ihrclli them over 
 and over till no feed remain. Noihinn-is morc'cffica- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 L T U 
 
 R 
 
 E. 
 
 cious than a hot fun to make the hufiC part with its 
 feed ; in which view it may be expafcd to the fun by 
 parcels, an hour or two before the nail is applied. 
 
 White clover intended for feed, is managed in the 
 fame manner. No plant ought 10 be mixed with rye- 
 grafs that is inicuded farfecd. InSciiiland, much rye- 
 grafs feed i* hurt by tranlgreiling that n!lc. 'ihe feed 
 isripe whenit parts calily with the hulk. 'Ihcyellow- 
 nefs of the flem is ano her indication of iss ripcncfa ; 
 in which particularit rcfcmblcsoats, bailey, and other 
 culmiferous plants. The bi il manner to manage a crop 
 of rye-grafs for feed, is to bind it looicly in fmall 
 Iheaves, widening them at the bottom to make them 
 ftand ereft ; as is done with oats in inoift weather. In 
 that ftate they may ftand till fufficicntly dry for 
 threlhing. By this method iluy dry more quickly, 
 and are lefs hurt by rain, than by clofe binding and 
 putting the llieaves in Ihocks like corn. The worll 
 way of all is to fprcad ihcryc-grafsonthe moifl ground, 
 forit makes the feed malten. ihe llicaves, when fufti- 
 ciently dry, arc carried in clofe carts to where they 
 are to be threfhed on a board, as menfioned above for 
 clover. Put the llrawina rick when a hundred ftouc 
 or foarc threlhed. Carry the threlhing-board to the 
 place where anoiherrickisintended ; andfo on till the 
 whole feed be threlhed, and the ftraw ricked- There is 
 necellity for clofe carts to favc the feed, which is apt 
 to drop out in a hot fun ; and, as obferved above a hot 
 fun ought always to be chofen for threlhing. Carry 
 the feed in facks to the granary or barn, thertf to be 
 feparated from the hulks by a fanner. Spread the feed 
 thin upon a timber-floor, and turn it once or twice a- 
 day till perfedly dry. If fultercd totake a heat, it is 
 ufclefs for feed. jgo 
 
 The writers on agriculture reckon fainfoin prefer- Culture of 
 able to cloverin many refpeils: They fay, that it pro- fainfoio. 
 duces a larger crop ; that it does not hurt cattle when 
 eaten green ; that it makes better hay ; that it continues 
 four times longer in the ground ; and that it will grow 
 on land that will bear no other crop. 
 
 Sainfoin has a very long tap-root, which is able to 
 pierce very hard earth. The rootsgrow very large; and 
 the larger they are, they penetrate to the greater depth ; 
 and hence it may be concluded, that this grafs, when 
 it thrives well, receivesagreat pariof its nourillimcnt 
 from below the/(?a/>/^of the foil : of courfc, a deep dry 
 foil is befl for the culture of fainfoin. \\'hcn plants 
 draw their nourilhment from that part of the loil that 
 is near the furface, it is not of much conlc(]uence 
 whether their number be great or fmall. But the cafe 
 is very ditierent when the plants receive their food, not 
 only near, butalfo deep below, the furface. Befidcs, 
 plants thit (hoot their roots deep are often fupplicd 
 withmoiilurc, when thofc near the furface arc parched 
 with drought. 
 
 To render the plants of fainfoin vigorous, it is necef- 
 fary that ihey be fown thin. The beil method of do- 
 ing tbisisby a drill ; becaul'e, wlien fown in this man- 
 ner, not only the weeds, but alfo the fupernumerary 
 plants, can cafily be removed. It is feveral years be- 
 fore faiofoin comes to itsfuUcftllrcngth; and the I'.nm- 
 bcr of plants futficient loftock a field, while in ihisim- 
 perfeft Aate, wilt make but a poor crop for the rirft 
 year or two. It is therefore necelfary that it be fown 
 in fucli a manner as to make it cafy to take up plants 
 O q in
 
 3o6 
 
 A G R 1 C U L T U 11 E 
 
 Part I r. 
 
 I'riiflicc. 
 
 in fuch numbers, and in fi;cli order, as always to leave 
 n the field tlic proper number in their pr .per places. 
 Thiscanonly be done, with propriciy, by fowing the 
 plantsin rows by a drill. 5>n]ij)olinga (ield to be dril- 
 led in rows at ten inches dillancc, the partitions may 
 be hand-hoed, and the row. drell'td in i'licli a maniicr 
 as to leave a proper nLUuber of plants. In this lltiia- 
 tioH the field may rcu.ain two y tars j then one tourih 
 of the lows may be taken ont in pairs, in fnch a man- 
 ner as to make liie beds of tiny inches, with lix row.sin 
 each, and inttrv.ils of thirty inches, whi'-h may be 
 plonghcd. Isexc year, another fourth of the rows 
 may be taken out in the fame manner, fo as to leave 
 double rows with partiiious of ten inches, and 
 interv.ds of thirty : All of which m.iy be hoed at 
 once or akernatcly, as it may be found moll conve- 
 nient. 
 
 The (jreat quantity of tiiisgrafs which the writerson 
 thisfiibjett aliiire us may be raifcd upon an acre, and 
 the excellency and great value of the hay made of it, 
 fhould induce farmers to make a complete trial of it, 
 ."^nJ even to ufe tl.c fpaJc in place of the hoe, or hoc- 
 plough, if necell'ary. 
 
 The plants t J.kcn up from up a field of fainfoin may 
 be fet in another field ; and if the tranfplantiug of this 
 grafs fucceeds as well as the tranfplaniing ol lucerne 
 has done with Mr Lunin deChatcauvitux, the trouble 
 and cxpence will be fulficitnily rccompciifcd by tlie 
 largcnefs of the crops. In tranfplanting, it is neeef- 
 fary to cut ofFgreat part of the long tap-root : this 
 will prevent it from Itriking very deep into the I'lil, 
 and make it puih out large roots in a lloping direction 
 from the cut end of the tap-root. Sainfoin managed in 
 this manner, will thrive even on Ihallow land that has 
 a wet bottom, provided it be not overftocked with 
 plants. 
 
 Whoever inclines to try the culture of this grafs 
 llionld take great pains in preparing the latid, and 
 making it as free from weeds as polTible. 
 
 In England, as the roots flrike deep in that chalky 
 foil, this plant is not liable to be lb much injured by 
 drought as other graffcs are, whole fibres lie horizcm- 
 tally, and lie near the furface. The quantity of hay 
 produced is greater and better in quality than any 
 other. But there is one advantage attending this grafs, 
 which renders it fupcrior to any otiier ; and that ari- 
 fcs from feeding with it milch cows. The prodigious 
 incrcafe of milk which itmalces is allonilliing, being 
 nearly double that produced by any other green food. 
 The milk is alfo better, and yields more cream than 
 any other ; and the butter procured from it much bet- 
 ter coloured and ilavoured. 
 
 The following remarks by an Englifli farmer are 
 made from much' experience and obfervation. 
 
 Sainfoin is much cultivated in thofe parts where 
 on the cul- the foil is of a chalky kind. It will always fucceed 
 turc of \vj]| where the roots run deep ; the worfl foil of all for 
 it is where there is a bed of cold wet clay, which the 
 tender fibres cannot penetrate. This plant will make 
 a greater increafe of produce, by at leall 30 times, 
 than common grals or turf upon poor land. Where it 
 meets with chalk or ftone, it will extend it roots 
 through the cracks and chinks to a very great depth 
 in fearch of nourilhment. The drynefs is of more 
 
 Remarks 
 
 fainfoin in 
 Eng'Uod, 
 
 confequence than the richntfs of land for fainfoin ; al- Praitice. 
 though land liiat is b"th dry and rich vsill always pro- se- 
 duce the largtrt crops. 
 
 It is very commonly fowcd broadcall ; but it is found 
 toaiifwer beil in drills, efpecially if liie land be made 
 fine by repeated ploughing, rolling, and harrowing. 
 Much dejiends ou the depth which this feed is fovvn. 
 If it be bur:cd more than an inch deep, it will fcldom 
 grow; and if left uncovered, it will pulh out its roots 
 above ground, and ihefe will be killed by the air. 
 March and the beginniug of April arc the bell fcafcms 
 lor fowing it, asthc fevcrity of uiuter and tlie drought 
 of funimcr are equally unfavour.;ble to the young 
 plants. A buflitl of feed fown broadcall, or half that 
 quantity in drills, if good, is luificicnt for an acre. 
 The drills Ihould be 30 inches apart, to admit of horfc- 
 hocing between them. Much, however, dependson 
 the goovincfs of the feed, which maj^c belt judged of 
 by the following marks. 
 
 The hulk being of a bright colour, the kernel 
 plump, of a grey or bluilh lolour without, and, if cut 
 acrols.grcciiidi and frelh w ithiiilidc ; ii'it be ihiu and 
 furrowed, and of a yellow i 111 call, it m ill I'eldom grow. 
 When the plants lland (ingle, and have room to fprcad, 
 they produce the grcalell quantity of herbage, and 
 the feed ripens beil. But farmers in general, from a 
 millakcn notion of ail that appears to be walle ground 
 being unprofitable, plant them lb clofe, that they choke 
 and impoverilh each other, and often die in a few 
 years. Single plants run deeped and draw mofl nou- 
 rillimcnt ; they arc alfo ealieli kept free from weeds. 
 A lingle plant will often produce half a pound of hay, • 
 
 when dry. On rich land this plant will yield two good 
 crops in a year, with a moderate fliare of culture. A 
 good crop mull not be expected the firfl year; but, if 
 the plants Hand not too thick, they will increafe in 
 fize the fecond year prodigioully. 
 
 No cattle fliould be turned on the field the firlt win- 
 ter after the corn is off with which it is fown, as 
 their feet would injure the young plants. Sheep ihould 
 not come on the followiugfummer,bccaufe they would 
 bite off the crown of the plants, and prevent their 
 fliooting again. A fmall quantity of foapers allies as 
 a top-drelfing will be of great fervice, if laid on the 
 firft winter. 
 
 If the fainfoin be cut jufl before it comes into 
 bloom, it is admirable food for horned cattle ; and if 
 cut thus early, it will yield a fecond crop the fame 
 feafon. But if it proves a wet feafon, it is better to 
 let it fland till its bloom be pcrfetled ; for great care 
 muflbe taken, in making it into hay, that the flowers 
 do not dropoff, as cows are very fond of them ; and 
 it requires more time than other hay in drying. Sain- 
 foinis fo excellent a fodder for horfes, that they require 
 no oats while they eat it, although they be worked 
 hard all the time. Sheep will alfo be fattened with it 
 falter than with any other food. 
 
 ]f the whole feafon for cutting proves very rainy, 
 it is better to let the crop Hand for feed, as that will 
 amply repay the lofsof the hay ; becaufe itwlllnot only 
 fetch a good price, but a peck of it will go as far as a 
 peck and a half of oats for horfes. 
 
 The belt time of cutting the feeded fainfoin is, when 
 the grtatcft part cf the feed is well filled, the firft 
 
 blown
 
 ;i. 
 
 A G R. I C U L T U R E. 
 
 blown ripe, and ilic Idfl blown bcjjiiiniiig toopen. For 
 "" want of tills care ionic people liavc loll moll of tiicir 
 feed by letting it ftand too ripe. Seeded fainfoin 
 fhoulJ always be cit in a morning or cvciiing, when 
 tlic dews render tlic (talks lender. If cut when the 
 Am (hjncs hot, ranch of the feed will fall out and be 
 lolt. 
 
 An acre of very ordinary land, when improved by 
 this grafs, will maintain four cows very well from the 
 firftof April to the end of November ; and afford, bc- 
 fides, a fiifTicient llorc of hay to make the greater part 
 of their food the four months following. 
 
 If the foil be tolerably good, a field of fainfoin will 
 laft from ij to 20 years in prime ; but at the end of 
 fcvcn or eight years, it will be neccHary to lay on a 
 moderate coat of well rotted dung ; or, if the foil be 
 very light and faiuly, of marlc. By this means the 
 fuiure crops, and tlic duration of the plants in health 
 ajid vigour, will be greatly increafed and prolonged. 
 Hence it will appear, that for poor land there is no- 
 tliing equal to this grafs in point of advantage to the 
 anner. 
 
 Clover will laft only two years iti perfe<Jlion j and 
 often, if the foil be cold and moid, near half the plants 
 will rot, and bald patches be found in every part of 
 the field the fccond year. Bcfides, from our frequent 
 rains during the month of September, many crops 
 left for feeding are lo(>. But from the quantity and 
 excellent quality of this grafs ( fainfoin ), and its ri))cn- 
 ing earlier, and continuing in vigour lo much longer, 
 much rilk and certain expence is avoided, and a large 
 annual profit accrues to the farmer. 
 
 The writers on agriculture, ancient as well as mo- 
 dern, beftow the highcft encomiuras upon lucercne as 
 affording exec 11 en thay.and producing very large crops. 
 Lucerne remains alkali 10 or u years in the ground, 
 and produces about right tons of hay upon the Scots 
 acre. There is but little of it c'ltivated in Scotland. 
 However, it has been tried in feveral parts of that coun- 
 try ; and it is found, that, when the feed is good, it 
 comes up very well, and Hands the winter froit. But 
 the chief tiling that prevents tiiis grafs from being 
 more ufed in Scotland, is the ditRcuUy of keeping the 
 foil open and free from weeds. In a few years the fur- 
 face becomes fo hard, and the turf fo Arong, that it dc- 
 ftroys the lucerne before the plants have arrived at 
 their grcaieft perfection : fo that lucerne can fcarce*.)c 
 cultivated with fjcccfs there, unlefs fonie method be 
 fallen upon of deflroyiiig ihc natural grafs, and pre- 
 vent t lie fur face Ironi be.oming hard and im penetrable. 
 Tills annot be done cfftOltially by ;<ny other means 
 than horfc-hocing. This method was hrfl propofed by 
 Mr TuU, and afterwards pra tifed ftici efsfuUy by M. 
 de { hatcauvieux near Geneva. It may be of ufc 
 therefore to give a view of that gentleman's method of 
 cultivating lucerne. 
 
 He docs not mention any thing par-icular as to the 
 manner of preparing the land ; but only obfcrvsin ge- 
 neral, that no pains Ihould be fpare.f in pf' paring it. 
 He tried the fowl. it of lu 'crnc boih in rows upon the 
 beds where it was intended to Hand, and likcwifc the 
 lowing it ill a nn fery, snd afterwaitls tranlplantiiig it 
 into liic beds prepared for ii. He prefers tranfplant- 
 ing ; bccauft, when tranfphntcd, pan of the tap-root 
 
 is cutoff, and the plant flioors out a number of lateral 
 branches from the cut part of the root, vihicli makes 
 it fpread its roots nearer the furfacc, and confcqucntly 
 renders it more eafily cultivated : belides this circum- 
 flancc adapts it to a 1; allow foil, in which, if left ill its 
 natural Hate, it would not grow. 
 
 Thetranlplantiugofluccrneis attended with many 
 advantages. The laud may be prepared in the fummcr 
 for receiving the plants from the iiurfery in autumn ; 
 by which means the field mufl be in a much better li- 
 tuaiion than if the feed had been fown upon it in the 
 fpring. By tranfplaiiting, ihe ro.vs can be made more 
 regular, and the intended dillance more exaftly ob- 
 ferved ; and confcqucntly thehocing can be performed 
 more pcrfeclly, and w iih Icfs expcncc. Mr Chateau- 
 vicux likcwil'e tried the lucerne in fingle beds three 
 feet wide, with fingle rows ; in beds three feet nine 
 inches wide, with double rows ; and in beds four feet 
 three inches wide, with triple rows. The plants in 
 the fingle rows were fix inches afunder, and ihofe in 
 the double and triple rows were about eight or nine 
 inches. In a courfe of three years he found, that 
 a iingle row produced more than a triple row of 
 the fame length. Tlie plants of lucerne, when cul- 
 tivated by tranfplantation, Ilioiild be at Icafl f;x in- 
 ches afunder, to allow them room for extending their 
 crowns. 
 
 He further obfcrves, that the beds or ridges ought 
 to be railed in the middle ; that a fmall trench, two 
 or three inches deep, Ihould be drawn in the middle ; 
 and that the plants ought to be fet in this trench, 
 covered with earth up to the neck. He fays, that if 
 tlie lucerne be fown in the fpring, and in a warm foil, 
 it w ill be ready for tranfpl.intiiig in September ; that, 
 if the weather be too hot and dry, the tranfjilanting 
 fliould be delayed till Ocflober ; and that, if the w ca- 
 thcr be unfavourable during both thefe months, this 
 operation muft be delayed till fpring. He further di- 
 rects, that the plants fliould be carefully taken out of 
 thcnurfcry, fo as not to damage tjie roots; that the 
 roots be left only about lixor fcvcn inches long : that 
 the green crops be cut off w ithin about two inches of 
 the crown ; that they be put into w atcr at foon as taken 
 up, there to remain till they are planted ; and ihit 
 they Ihould be planted w iih a planting-lUck, in the 
 fame manner as cabbages. 
 
 He does not give particular directions as to the times 
 of horfe-hocing; but only laysin general, that the in- 
 tervals Ihould be Itirredoiicc in the month during tiie 
 whole time that the bicerne is ia a growing ftatt . He 
 likewife obfcrves, that great care ought to be taken 
 not to fuffer any weeds to grow among the plants, at 
 leaft for the firll two or three years ; ana for this 
 purpofc, that the rows, as well as the edges of the in- 
 tervals where thcplough cannot go, Uiould be weeded 
 by the hand. 
 
 B.irnet is peculiarly adap-cd to poor land : be- i- 
 fides, it provesan excellent wiri"-r-paflure,when hard- I 
 ly any thing clfe vegeiates. Other advanta^'cs are. 
 It makes good butter; it never i>'owsor fwellsc atile ; 
 it is tine paflurc for .lieep ; and will liouriili well on 
 poor, ligiit, fandy, or flony fo?iS, or even on dry chalk 
 hills. 
 
 The cuUivationof it i< neither hazardousuor cxpen- 
 Q_ q 3 Jive. 
 
 18-; 
 uiturc of 
 
 .11. tt.
 
 joS 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 Practice, five. If ilif lauJ is prtparcJas is generally done for 
 
 •^ — V— -^ (aniI))S, there is no danger of .its tailing. After the 
 
 lirll ytar, it will be attended with very little expcncc, 
 
 as, the riat circular fprca J of its leaves will keep down, 
 
 cir prevent the growth of weeds. 
 
 On the failure of turnips, ciilicr from the fly or the 
 black worm, t.nie of our farmers have fown the land 
 with burnet, and in March (oliowinj^ hadatine pallure 
 for their llieep and lambs. It will perlcft its feed twice 
 in a fumnier ; and this feed is faid to b-.- as good as 
 oats for horfes ; but it is too valuable to be applied to 
 that ufe. 
 
 It is fometiniesfown late in the fpring with oats and 
 barley, md fuccecds very well ; but it is bell to fow it 
 lingly in the beginning of July, when there is a pro- 
 fpect of rain, on a fmall piece of land, and in Oiilobcr 
 following, tranfplaut it in rows two feet apart, and a- 
 bout a foot dirtant in the rows. This is a proper dif- 
 tance, and gives opportunity for hoeing the intervals 
 in the fuccceding fpring and fummer. 
 
 After it is fed down with cattle, it fliould be har- 
 rowed clean. Some liorfcs will not cat it freely at firit 
 but in two or three d.iys they arc generally very fond 
 of it. It affords rich pleafant milk, and in great plenty. 
 
 A gentleman farmer near Maidftone fonie years 
 iincc fowed four acres as foon as the crop of oats was 
 got off, ■which was the latter end of Auguft. He 
 threw in 12 pounds of feed per acre, broadcafl ; and 
 110 rain falling until the middle of September, the plants 
 did not appear before the latter end of that month. 
 There was however a good crop, and in the fpring lie 
 fct the plants out with a turnip-hoe, leaving them about 
 a foot diJlant from each other. But the drill method 
 is preferable, as it faves more than half the feed. The 
 land was a poor dry gravel, not worth three (hillings 
 an acre for any thing elfe. 
 
 The fevcrell frufl never injures this plant : and the 
 oftenpr it is fcdthcthickerareits leaves, which fpring 
 conllantly from its root. 
 
 Sect. V. Rotation of Crops. 
 
 •> «.L ■■!>.,, f No branch of hulbandry requires more (kill and fa- 
 crops. K^cy 'nan a proper rotation ot crops, loas to keep 
 the ground aUvays in heart, and yet to draw out of it 
 the greatefl profit pollible. Some plants rob the foil, 
 others are gentle to it: fome bind, others loofcn. The 
 nice point is, to intermix crops, fo as to make the 
 greatefl profit confidently with keeping the ground 
 in trim. In that view, the natureof the plants einploy- 
 ./ cd in hufbindry muft be accurately examined. 
 Culmifc- The difference between culmiferous and leguminous 
 rousanillc- plants, is occafionally mentioned above*. With re- 
 guminous fpecl to the prefent fubject, a clofer infpeftion is neccf- 
 plants, fary. Culmiferous plants, having fmall leavesand few 
 • N Jic. j^ number, depend moftly on the foil for nouriihuient, 
 ^"' and little on the air. During the ripeningofthe feed, 
 
 they draw probably their whole nourilhment from the 
 foil ; as the leaves by this time, being dry and wither- 
 ed, muflhavelofl their power of drawing nouriihment 
 from the air. Now, as culmiferous plants are chiefly 
 cultivated for their feed, and are not cut down till the 
 feed be fully ripe, they maybe pronounced all of them 
 to be robbers, fome more, fome lefs. But fuch plants, 
 ■while young, arc all leaves ; and in that flate draw 
 
 niofl of their nourilhment from ihe air. Hence it is, Vrai5lice. 
 
 tli.it where cut green for food to cattle, a culmiferous ■ ^/— 
 
 crop is far from being a robber. A hay-crop accor- 
 dingly , even where it confiff s moftly of ry c-grafs,is not 
 a robber, provided it be cut before the feed is formed ; 
 which at any rate it ought to be, if one would have 
 hay ill perfection. And ihefoggage, excluding the 
 froll by covering the ground, keey>s the roots warm. A 
 leguminous plant, by its broad leaves, draws much of 
 its nourilhment from the air. A cabbage, which has 
 very broad leaves, and a multitude of them, owes its 
 growth more to the air than to the foil. One faft is 
 certain, that a cabbage cut and hung up in a damp 
 l>lace, preferves its verdure longer tha.i other plants. 
 At tlic fame time, a feed is that part of a plant which 
 requires the mofl nourilhment : and for that nourilh- 
 ment a culmiferous plant mufl be indebted entirely to 
 the foil. A leguminous crop, on the contrary, when 
 cut green for food, niufl be very gentle to the ground. 
 Peafe and beans are leguminous plants ; but being cul- 
 tivated for feed, they feem to occupy a middle ftation : 
 their feed makes them more fcvere than other legumi- 
 nous crops cut green ; tlieir leaves, which grow till 
 reaping, make them lefs fcvere than a culmiferous 
 plant left to ripen. 
 
 Thefe plants arc dirtinguifhed no lefs, remarkably by 
 the following circiunflance. All the feeds of a culmife- 
 rous plant ripen at the fame time. As foon as they be- 
 gin to form, the plant becomes flationary, the leaves 
 wither, the roots ceafe to pulh, and the plant when cut 
 down is blanched and faplefs. The feeds of a legumi- 
 nous plant are formed luccelfivtly : flowers and fruit 
 appear at the fame time in different parts of the plant. 
 This plant accordingly is continually growing, and 
 pufliing its roots. Hence the value of bean or peafc 
 flraw above that of wheat or oats : the latter is withe- 
 red and dry when the crop is cut ; the former, green 
 and fucculent. The difference therefore, with refpedt 
 to the foil, bet ween a culmiferous and leguminous crop, 
 is great. The latter, growing till cut down, keeps the 
 ground in conffant motion, and leaves it to the plough 
 loofc and mellow. The former gives over growing 
 long before reaping ; and the ground, by want of mo- 
 tion, turns compait and hard. Nor is this all. Dew 
 falling on a culmiferous crop after the ground begins 
 to harden, refls on the furfacc, and is fucked up by 
 t!"ie next fun. Dew that falls on a leguminous crop, is 
 fiiaded from the fun by the broad leaves, and finks at 
 leifure into the ground. The ground accordingly, af- 
 ter a culmiferous crop, is not only hard, but dry : af- 
 ter a leguminous crop, it is not only loofe, but foft 
 and undluous. 
 
 Of all culmiferous plants, wheat is the mofl fcvere, 
 by the long time it occupies the ground without ad- 
 mitting a plough. And as the grain is heavier than 
 that of barley or oats, it probably requires more nou- 
 rifliment than either. It is obferved above, that as 
 peafe and beans draw part of their nourifhment from 
 the air by their green leaves while allowed to fland, 
 they draw the lefs from the ground ; and by their con- 
 flant growing they leave it in good condition for fub- 
 fequent crops. In both refpefls they are preferable 
 to any culmiferous crop. 
 
 Culmiferous crops, as obferved above, are not rob- 
 bers when cut green; the foil, far from hardening, is 
 
 kept
 
 Part II. 
 
 Pr aft ice. 
 
 A G R I C U 
 
 kept ill conftant motion by the pulhing cf the roots, 
 and is left more tender than if it had been left ut rcfl 
 without any bearing crop. 
 
 Bulbous-rooted plants are above all fuccefsful in di- 
 viding and pulverizing the foil. Potato-roots grow 
 lix, eight, or ten inches under the fnrface ; and, by 
 their lize and number, they divide and pulvcri/.c tlie 
 foil better than can be done by the plough ; confequent- 
 ly, v/hattvcr be the natural colour of the foil, it is 
 tilack when a poiatoc-crop is taken up. The potato, 
 however, witli refpcdl to its quality of dividing the 
 foil, mult yield to a carrot or parfnip ; which arc large 
 roots, and pierce often to the depth of i8 inches. 
 The turnip, by its tap-root, divides the foil more than 
 can be done by a fibrous-rooted plant ; but as its bul- 
 bous root grows inoftly above ground, it divides the 
 foil lefs than the potato, the carrot, or the parfnip. 
 Red clover, in that refpeft, may be put in the fame 
 clafs with turnip. 
 
 AVhctherpotatoesor turnip be the more gentle crop, 
 appears a puzzling quefiion. The former bears feed, 
 and probably draws more nouriihmcnt from the foil 
 than the latter, when cut green. On the other hand, 
 potatoesdivide the foil more than turnip, and leave it 
 more loofe and friable. It appears no Icfs puzzling, 
 to determine between cabbage and turnip : the former 
 draws more of its nourilhraent from the air, the latter 
 leaves the foil more free and open. 
 
 The refult of the whole is what follows : Culmi- 
 ferous plauts are robbers; forae more, fonic lefs: they 
 at the fame time bind the foil ; fome more, fome lefs. 
 Leguminoui plants in both refpeds are oppolite ; if 
 any of thcni rob the foil, it is in a very ilight degree ; 
 and all of them without exception loofen the foil. A 
 culmifcrous crop, however, is generally the more pro- 
 fitable : but few foils can long bear the burden of fuch 
 crops, unlefs relieved by interjected leguminous crops. 
 Thcfe, on the other hand, without a mixture of cul- 
 mifcrous crops, would foon render the foil too loofe. 
 
 Thefe preliminaries will carry the farmer fome 
 length in direiHng a proper rotation of crops. Where 
 dung, lime, or other manure, can be procured in plen- 
 ty to recruit the foil after fcvcrc cropping, no rotati- 
 on is more proper or profitable in a iirong foil, than 
 wheat, peafc or beans, barley, oats, fallow. The 
 whole farm may be brought under this rotation, ex- 
 cept fo far as hay is wanted. But as fuch command 
 of manure-is rare, it is of more importance to dcicr- 
 minc what ihould be the rotation when no manure can 
 be procured but the dung colleflcd in the farm. Con- 
 lidering that culmifcrous crops are the more profitable 
 in rich land, it would be proper to make them more 
 frequent than the other kind. But as there arc few 
 foils that will admit fuch frequent culmifcrous crops 
 without fuffering, it may be laid down as a general 
 rule, that alternate crops, eulmiferous and legumi- 
 nous, ought to form the rotation. Nor arc there 
 many foils that will ftand good, even with this favour- 
 able rotation, unlefs relieved from time tu*imtby pa- 
 fluring a few years. If fuch extended rotation be art- 
 fully carried on, crops without end may be obtained 
 in a tolerable good foil, without any manure but what 
 is produced in the farm. 
 
 It isftarce necclliiry to be mentioned, being known 
 to every farmer that clay anlwcrs belt for wheat, 
 
 L T U R E. 309 
 
 moilt clay for beans, loant for barley and peafe, light Pr»flicc. 
 foil for turnip, fandy foil for rye and biickwrat j and _'~~' 
 that oats thrive betttr in coarfe foil than any o'l'tf Tlie niiurc 
 grain. Now, in directing a rotation, it is not fuffi-of foil cnn- 
 cient that a eulmiferous crop be always fuctecded by a fidcrcrcd, 
 leguminous : attention mufl alfo be given, that no crop with re- 
 be introduced that is unfit for the foil. Wheat, being K»''d 'o ''•« 
 a great Liinder, requires more than any other crop ^ '■0""''° " 
 leguminous crop to follow. But every fuch crop is " ' 
 not proper : potatoes are the greatcfl openers of foil ; 
 but they arc inij'roper in a v/hcat foil. Neither will 
 turnip anfwcr, bccaufc it requires a light foil. A very 
 loofe foil, after a crop of rye, requires rye-grafs to bind 
 it, or the treading of cattle in pafluring: but to bind 
 the foil, wheat mull not be ventured ; for it fucceeds 
 ill in loofe foil. 
 
 Another confideration of moment in 'directing tlic- 
 rotation, is to avoid crops that encourage weeds. Peafc 
 is the fittcit of all crops for fuccccding to wheat, bc- 
 caufc it renders the ground loofe and mtllow, and the 
 fame foil agrees with both. But beware of peafe, un- 
 lefs the foil be left by the wheat pcrfeftly free of weeds; 
 becaufc peafc, if not ;ai extraordinary crop, foftcr 
 weeds. Barley may be ventured after v heat, if the 
 farmer be unwilling to lofc a crop. It is indeed a rob- 
 ber ; better, however, any crop, than run the hazzrd 
 of poifoning the foil with weeds. But to prevent the 
 necelTity of barley after wheat, the land ought to be 
 fallowed before the wheat : it,clcans the ground tho- 
 roughly, and makes peafe a fecure crop after wheat. 
 And after a good crop of peafe, barley never fails. A 
 horfe-hoed crop of turnip is equal to a fallow for root- 
 ing out weeds -, but turnip does not fuit land that is 
 proper for wheat. Cabbage does well in wheat foil : 
 and a horfe-hocd crop of cabbage, which eradicates 
 weeds, is a good preparation for wheat to be fuccced- 
 cd by peafe ; and a crop of beans diligently hand- 
 hoed, isin that view little inferior. As red clover re- 
 quires the ground to be perfectly clean, a good crop 
 of it enfures wheat, and next peafc. In loam, a drill- 
 ed crop of turnip or potatoes prepares the ground, c- 
 qual to a fallow, for the fame fuccellion. 
 
 Another rule is, to avoid a frequent repetition of 
 tlic fame fpecics ; for to produce good crops, change 
 of fpecics is no lefs nccelfary than change of feed. 
 The fame fpecics returning evefy fecond or thirdyear, 
 will infallibly degenerate, and he a fcanty crop. This 
 is remarkably the cafe of red clover. Nor will our 
 fields bear pleafantly perpetual crops of wheat after 
 fallow, which is the praifticc of fome Engliih farmers. 
 
 Hithertoof rotation in the fame field. Wc add one 
 rule concerning rotation in dit!ercnt fields ; which is 
 to avoid crow^ling crops one after another in point of 
 time ; but to chcofc fuch as admit intervals fufficicnt 
 for lefurcly dreliing, which gives opportunity to ma- 
 nage all with the fame hands, and with the fame cat- 
 tle ; for example, beans in January or F'ebruary, peafc 
 and oats in March, barley and p>ratoes in Api-il, tur- 
 nip in June or July, wheat and Rye in Odobir. ,jg 
 
 Forilluflrating the foregoing rul»s, a fcwinftanccs Exception- 
 of exceptionable rotations will not be thought amifs. able rou- 
 Thefoliowiugis an ufual lotation in Norfolk. Firfl, ''>'">• 
 wheat after red clover. Secondly, barley. Third, tur- 
 nip. Fourth, barley with red clover. Fifth, clover 
 cnt for hay. Sixtii, a feconj year's crop of clover 
 3 commonly
 
 3'o 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part I r. 
 
 I'raaice. conimoiil/paflurcc!. l^ung is jrivcn to the wheat and 
 
 ' ^' ' tuniij). — ,-Vgiiall this i-otatioii itvcrdl oijcctio.is lie. 
 
 Barley ay cr wheat is iiUiiropcr. Tlie two crops of lur- 
 Icy are too near together. The fecoiiJ crop of clover 
 null be very bad, if pulliirin;; be the belt way of coii- 
 iumiiig it; and if bad it ii a great ciicoiirajrer of 
 weeds. But the llroiigell objec-tioii i:-;, that red clover 
 repeated fo frequently i:i the faiue field cauiiot fsll to 
 degenerate ; and of tliib the Norfolk farmers bc^jin to 
 be feillitik. — balioii in hall Lotliian is a ciay foil ; 
 a:id the rotation there is, Wiieat after fallow and dun;;. 
 Second, barley afier two plou;;liings ; the one before 
 winter, the other imnitdiately before the feed is fown. 
 Third, oats. Fourth, peafe. Fifth, barley. Sixth, 
 o.its : and then lallow. This rotation conlilts cliieHy 
 of robbing crops. Peafe are the only legnniinoiis 
 crop, which even with the fallow is not fiiihcient to 
 loofcn a llirf'lbil. But the foil is good, which in fome 
 
 nieafure hides the badnefs of the rotation About 
 
 Seaton, and all the way from Prellon to Gosford, ihe 
 ground is flill more feverely handled : wheat after fa! - 
 low and dung, barley, oats, peafe, u heat, barley, oats, 
 and then anoilur fallow. The foil is excellent ; and 
 it ought indeed to be lb, to fiipport many rounds of fuch 
 cropping. 
 
 In the pariilies of Tranent, Abcrlady, Dirlcton, 
 North-Berwick, and .'UhelAoncfoord, the following 
 rotations were formerly iiniverfal, and to this day are 
 imich more frequent than any other mode. 
 
 1 . .-^I'ter f.dlow with dung, wheat, barley, oats, peafe 
 and beans, barley, cats, wheat. 
 
 2. After fallow and dung, barley, oats, peafe and 
 bean?, wheat, barley, oats, peafe, wheat. 
 
 3. After fallow and dung, Vi heat oats, peafe, barley, 
 oats, wheat. 
 
 4 After fallowand<liing, barley, oats, beans, wlieat, 
 peafe, barley, oats. 
 
 In the feveral Tours of Young, the itinerant farmer, 
 are found, in the bell counties of England, examples 
 without end, of rotations no lefs exceptionable than 
 many of ihofe mentioned, 
 ot Where a field is laid down for pallure in order to 
 ft be recruited, it is commonly left in ihat Hate for many 
 in years; for it is the univerfal oi'iniun, that the longer 
 it lies, the richer it becomes for bearing cor .1. This 
 may be true ; but in order to determine the mode of 
 cropping, the impoi tani point is, what upon the whole 
 is the moll proiitiblc rotation ; not what may prodiice 
 luxuriant crops at a dii'ant period. Upon that point, 
 it may be atRrmed, that the fanner who keeps a field 
 in palture beyond a certain time, lofes tveiy year con- 
 ■(ideiv.bly ; and tliat a few luxuriant crops of corn, af- 
 ter 20 years of paflare, and Hill more after 30, will not 
 make up the lofs. 
 
 Pa!hirc-graf-.,whi'eyoung, maintains, many animals; 
 and the field i> greatly recruited by what they diop ; 
 it is even recruited by hay crops, provided he gr: is be 
 cut before fecdine. But as old grafs yiddi little pro- 
 fit, tlic field ought to be t.kcn up for corn when the 
 pail' re begins to fail ; an J after a few crops, it ou^ht 
 to be laid down again with prtls-fecds. Seduced l>y 
 a chiiutric3lnotio:;,tliatafirtd, by frequent corn-f-rops, 
 is n.i'g.ipu aid reqiiTCs veil like a 1 ibouiing i;.an or 
 animal, .-arehl fanucis give long vc''. to their fields by 
 paftur*, m. ver adverting that it aiior-Js little profit. It 
 
 i?9 
 
 Fields 11 
 to be h 
 
 too lollj 
 
 pallurc 
 
 ought to be their fludy, to improve their foil; by ma- Praflic*. 
 
 king it free, and alio reieniivc of moillure. Jf they " <^ — ■ 
 
 acconiplilh thefc ends, they need not be afraid of ex- 
 hauUing the loil by cropping. j^^ 
 
 \\ here a farmer has acccfs to no manure but what Exanii)lcs 
 is his own production, the cafe under conlideraiiou, "/ rot;i- 
 ihM-e arc various lotations of crops, all of them good, •'"!'»• 
 though perh.ips not equally fo. VV c Ihall bigiu with 
 two examples, one in clay, and one in free liul, each 
 ot the farms 90 a^res. Six acres are to be inclofed for 
 a kitchen-garjen, in which there mull be annually a 
 crop of red clover, for fumnicr-food to the working 
 cattle. As there arc annually 12 acres in hay, and 12 
 in pallure, a linglc plough with good cattle will be 
 fufiicicnt to command the remaininir 60 acres. 
 
 o 
 
 «] Rotation ill a clay foil. 
 
 £>! 1775- 
 
 1776. 
 
 1777- 
 
 1778. 
 
 1779. 
 
 17S0. 
 
 I. Fallow. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Peafe. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 2. Wheat. 
 
 Peafe. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 3.;Peafe. 
 
 IJarlcy. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 4. 'Barley. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fal low. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Peafe. 
 
 S.lH:y. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Peafe. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 6. Oais. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Wheat. Peafe. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 7. ^Pallure. 
 
 Pallure. 
 
 Pallure. 
 
 Pa flu re. 
 
 Pallure. 
 
 Pallure 
 
 M'hen the rotation is completed, the feventh inclo- 
 fure having been lix years in palture, is ready to be ta- 
 ken up for a rotation of crops which begins with oits 
 in the year 1781, and proceeds as in the lixth inclo- 
 fure. In the fame year 1781, the fifth inclofure is 
 made pallure, for which it is prepared by lowing pa- 
 llurc grafs feeds with the barley of the year 17S0. And 
 in this manner may ihe rotation be carried on without 
 end. Here the labour is equally dillributed ; and there' 
 is no hurry nor confulion. But the chief property of 
 this rotation is, that two culmifcrous or white-corn 
 crops arc never found together : by a due mixture of 
 crops, the foil is prcferved in good heart without any 
 adventitious manure. At the fame time, the land is 
 always producing plentiful crops : neiihcrhay iiorpa- 
 flure get time to degenerate. The wlude dung is laid 
 upon the fallow. 
 
 Evcrv farm that takes a grafs- crop into the rotation 
 mull be iiic'ofed, which ii peculiarly necelfary in a clay 
 foil, as nothing is more hur iful to clay than poaching 
 
 Rotation in a jree foil. 
 
 £.1 I77y. I I77f^. 
 
 1. Turnip. Barley. 
 
 2. Ifia: ley. .Hay. 
 5.. Fay. Oats. 
 4.!oats. iKallow. 
 5.!Ka'low.jWheat. 
 6.!v\'heat. Turnip. 
 
 1777- 
 Hay. 
 Cats, 
 t'allow 
 \\ heat. 
 
 1778. 
 Oats. 
 tallow. 
 Wheat, 
 rurnip. 
 
 7-i 
 
 Pailure.Pallure. 
 
 Turnip. iHarlev. 
 
 Psrley.'Hay.' 
 Pallure. 'Paflure. 
 
 1779- 
 Fallow. 
 Wheat. 
 I'uriiip. 
 Barley. 
 Hay. 
 Oats. 
 Paflure. 
 
 T7S0. 
 Wheat. 
 Fiirnip. 
 Kai icy. 
 Way. 
 Oats. 
 Fallow. 
 Paihirc. 
 
 For the next rotation rthefcvenih inclofure is taken 
 np for corn, beginning with an oat-crop, and procccd- 
 in<\; in the orri'-r of the fourth inclofure j in place of 
 wiii' h, the thir! inclofirc is l?.id down for p..Ihire by 
 fowingpa ure-gralTcs wi;h the l)il 'rrop in that inclo- 
 fure, being barley. This rotation has alltheadvnnta- 
 
 ges
 
 Part ir. 
 
 A G K I C U L T U 11 E. 
 
 3'i 
 
 I'raaicc. gesof the former. Here the Jun^; is employed oii the 
 
 >< — tur:iip-crop. 
 
 We proceed to ronfider what rotation is proper for 
 carfe clay. Tlic f.irni uc piopofc co.ilifts of 73 acres. 
 Nine irt 10 be i.iclofcd tor a kitchen (garden, affording 
 plenty of red clover to be cutgreen for the farni-caitlc. 
 The rc;naini:i5 64 acres arc divided into four inclo- 
 furei, 16 acres each, to be cropped as in the follow- 
 ing table. 
 
 I77!'- 1777- 
 
 I77>- 
 
 Beans. ' Barley, 
 buley. j Hay. 
 ILy. Oits. 
 
 Udti. I lieans. 
 
 1773. 
 
 May. '; Oats. 
 Oats, i Bc.'.ns. 
 Beans. 1 Barley. 
 Barley, j Hay. 
 
 Here the dung ouoht to be applied to tlie barley. 
 
 Many other rotations may be contrived, keeping to 
 the rules above laid down. Kallow, for exam pie, wheat, 
 peafc and beans, barley, cabbage, o 'ts, for clay. Here 
 dung nmll be given both to t'le wiieat and cabbage. 
 For free foil, drilled turnip, btrlcy, red clover, wheat 
 upon a fingle furrow, drilled potatoes, oats. Both 
 the turnip and potatoes moll have dung. Another for 
 free foil : turnip drilled and dunged, red clover, wheat 
 on a fingle furrow with dung, pcafe, barley, potatoes, 
 oats. The following rotation has proved fucccfstul in 
 a foil proper for wheat, i . Oats with red clover, after 
 fallow, without dung. 2. Hay. The clover-flnbblc 
 dunged, and wheat fown the end of October with a 
 fingle furrow. 3. Wheat. 4. Peafe. 5. Barley. rV.l- 
 low ag.iin. Oats are taken the tinl crop, tofave the 
 dung for the wheat. Oats always thriveon a fallow, 
 though without dung, which is not the cafe of barley. 
 But barley fcldom fails after peafc. In ftrong clay 
 foil, the following rotation anfwcrs. i. Wheat after 
 fallow and dung. 2. Beans fown under furrow asearly 
 as pofliblc. Above the beans, low pcafe end of March, 
 half a boll per acre, and harrow them in. The two 
 grains will ripen at the fame time. 3. Oats or barley 
 on a winter furrow with grafs-fceds. 4. Hay for one 
 year or two; the fccond growth pallured. Lay what 
 dung can be fpared on the hay Hubble, and fow wheat 
 with a fingle furrow, j. Wheat. 6. Beans or pcafe. 
 7. Oats. Fallow again. 
 
 Sect. V'I. Of Reaping Corn and Hay Crops, and 
 Storing thiin upjor up. 
 
 191 
 
 Ofripcncfs. Cclmiferous plants arc ripe when the ftcm is to- 
 tally white : they are not fully ripe if any green llrcaks 
 remain. Some fanners arc of opinion, that wh^at ought 
 to be cut before it is fully ripe. Their reafons are, 
 lird, that ripe wheat is apt to ih.ikc ; and next, that 
 the ifour is not lb good. With rcfpecl to the lall, it is 
 contrary to nature, that any feed can be better in an 
 unripe (late than when brought to perfection : nor 
 will it be found fo upon trial. With rcfpeJl to the 
 firft, wheat, at tlic point of ptrfeclion, is not more apt 
 to (hake than for fome days before : the hmk begins 
 not to open till after the feed is fully ripe ; and then 
 tlic furtcring the crop to ftand becomes ticklilh : after 
 the minute of ripening, it Ihould be cut down in an 
 inllaiu, if poUible. 2 
 
 Thii leads totiie hands tliat are connionly engaged Pr3ai..f. 
 
 to cut down corn. In ScotUnd, the univcrfal prac- ' 
 
 lice was, to provide a number of hands, in proportion q^ ^* j„ 
 to the extent of the crop, without regard to the time 
 of ripening. By this method, the reapers were often 
 idle lor want of Work; and what is much worfc, they 
 had often more work than they could overtake, and 
 ripe fields were laid open toihaking w !ids. The Lo- 
 thianshavc long enjoyed weekly ma: kcis for reapers, 
 where a farmer can provide hiuifdf with the number 
 he wants ; and this practice iscrcCfiiiigiiuo neighbour- 
 ing (hires. Where there is no opportunity of fu.h 
 markets, neighbouring farmers ought to agree inbor- 
 rowinjr and lending their reapers. 
 
 Oac liiould iiuagine, that a caution againft cutting 
 corn when \\ct is unneceifary ; yet from the impatience 
 of farmers to prevent ihaking, no caveat is more (i). 
 Why do they notconlider, that cot a Handing dries in 
 hall a day ; when, in a clofe ihcaf, the weather muft 
 be f ivourablc if it dry iu a month .' in iiioill weather it 
 will never dry. j^j 
 
 VV iih refpeci to the mUnner of rurring, we rauft pre- JViinurcf 
 mile, that barley is of all the moi; iliiicult grain to be cu't'os- 
 dried for keeping. Having no hulk, rain has eafy 
 accefs ; and it lias a tendency to maltcn when wet. 
 Where ihcgrouud is properly fmoothed by rolling, it 
 feeins belt to cut it down with the fey the. This man- 
 nerbcingmore expeditious than the fickle, removes it 
 fcoucr from danger of wind ; and gives a third more 
 ftraw, which is a capital article for dung, where a farm 
 is at a diltance from other manure. W e except only 
 corn that lia-> lodged; for ihcietlie fickle is more con- 
 venient thin the fcythe. As it ought to be dry w hen 
 cut, bind it up directly: if allowed to He any time in 
 the fwalh, it is apt to be difcolourcd. — Barley fo\v:i 
 with grafs-fceds, red clover efpecially, requires a c'if- 
 ferent management. Where the grafs is cut along 
 with it, the ditficnlty is great of getting it fo dry as 
 to be ventured in a ftack. The bell way is, to cut the 
 barley with a lickls above the clover, fo as that no- 
 thing but clean barley is bound up. Cut with a fcythe 
 the Itubblc and grafs : they make excellent wintir- 
 food. The fame method is applicable to oats ; with 
 this only difference, that when the field is expofed to 
 the fouth-weft wind, it is lefs necclfary to bind imme- 
 diately after mowing. As wheat commonly grows 
 higher than any other grain, it is difficult to manage 
 it with the fcythe ; for which rcafun the iicklcis pre- 
 ferred in England. Peafe and beans grow fo irregu- 
 larly, as to make the fickle nccellary. , 
 
 The befl way for drying pcafe, is to keep feparate Dr>- ;:.'cl 
 the handfuls that arc cut : tiioiigh in this way they wet pcafe. 
 ealily, they dry as foon. Jn the common way of heap- 
 ing pcafe together for compoling a llieaf, they wet as 
 caiily, and dry not near fofoon. With refpca tobeans, 
 the top of the handful laft cut, ought to be laid on the 
 bottom of the t'ormcr ; which gives ready accefs to the 
 wind. By this method peifc and beans arc ready for 
 the (tack in half the ordinary time. 19c 
 
 A Ihcaf commonly is made as large as can be con- Size of 
 tained in two Icngthsof thcrorn inadtinto a rope. To fb'»»t»- 
 favefrequeiu tying, thebiuder prelfesit down with !iis 
 knee, and binds it fo hard as totally to exclude the air, 
 If there bf any moillure in t lie crop, which feldom fails, 
 a proccfs of fermentation aud putrcfaCilion commences 
 
 ia.
 
 312 
 
 A G R I C U L 1' U R E. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 196 
 
 Carrying 
 
 AfTlhc 
 
 viAuaL 
 
 197 
 StacViiij 
 
 Covering 
 the iUcks. 
 
 in the fhcai" ; wliicli is pcrfcv-TcJ i.i ilic flack, totiic 
 dcrtnii-Tiion both of corn and firaw. How llupij is it, 
 to majcc tlif lizc of allicif depend on the hcigiitof tiic 
 plants ! By that rule, a ^vhcat-flicaf is conunoiily (o 
 ucigliiy, ax to be unmanageable by ordinary arms : it 
 requires an ttiort to move it, that frcqni ntly birds tlie 
 knot, and occafions lofs of grain, bcfiJt tiic trouble of 
 a fecond tying. Sheaves ought never to be larger than 
 can be contained in one length of the plant, cut clofe 
 to the ground ; without admhting any exception, if 
 the plants be above eighteen inches higii. Thebind- 
 er's arms then can coniprefsthclhcaffutficicntly, with- 
 out need of his knee. The additional hands that this 
 way of binding may require, are not to be regarded, 
 compared with the advantage of drying foon. Corn 
 thus managed may be ready for the ilack in a week ; 
 it feldom in the ordinary way requires lefs than afort- 
 iiight, and frequently longer. Of a fniall flicaf coui- 
 prelled by the arm only, the air pervades every part ; 
 nor is it fo apt to be loofcd as a large flicaf, how- 
 ever lirmly bound. We omit the gathering of Iheavcs 
 into ijtocks, becaufc the coriimon method is good, 
 which is to place ihciliocks directed to thcfouth-wcft, 
 in order to refill the force of the wind. Five llieaves 
 on each fide make a fufficient Hay ; and agreater num- 
 ber cannot be covered with two head llieaves. 
 
 Every article is of importance that haftens the 
 operation in a country, fubjecled to unequal harvcll 
 weather j for which reafon, the mofl expeditious 
 method fliould be chofen for carrying corn from the 
 field to the ftack-yard. Our carriages are generally 
 too fmall or too large. A lledge is a very aakward 
 machine : many hands arc required, and little progreis 
 made. Waggons and large carts are little lefs dilato- 
 ry, as they mull ftand in the yard till unloaded Ihcaf 
 by flieaf. The bed way is, to ufe long carts moveable 
 upon the axle, fo as at once to throw tiie whole load on 
 the ground ; which is forked up to the flack by a 
 hand appointed for that parpofc. By this method, 
 two carts will do the work of four or live. 
 
 Building round flacks in the yard is undoubtedly 
 preferable to houling corn. There it is (hut up from 
 the air; and it mull be exceedingly dry, if itcontracl 
 not a muflinefs, which is the tirfl llcj) to putrcfadion. 
 Add to this, that in the yard, a flack is preferved from 
 rats and mice, being lit on a pedeftal ; whereas no 
 method has hitherto been invented forpreferving corn 
 in a houfe from fuch dellrudivevcrmin. The proper 
 manner of building, is to make every fheaf incline 
 downward from its top to its bottom. Where the 
 Iheaves arc laid hotizontally, the flack will lakein rain 
 both above and below. The befl form of a ftack is 
 that of a cone placed on a cylinder; and the top of 
 the cone (hould be formed with three (lieaves drawn to 
 a point. If the upper part of the cylinder be a little 
 wider than the under,Jo much the better. 
 
 The delaying to cover a flack for two or three 
 weeks, thou^^h common, is, however, exceedingly ab- 
 furd ; for if much rain fall in the interim, it is beyond 
 the power of wind to dry the flack. Vegetation be- 
 gun in the external parts, fluits out the air from the 
 internal ; and to prevent a total puircfaflion, the ftack 
 muflbe thrown down, and cxpofed to the air, evciy 
 llieaf. In order to have a ftack covered the moment it 
 is fiaiflted, ftraw and ropes ought to be ready ; and 
 
 the covering ought to be fo thick as to be proof IVaifllce. 
 againil rain. " v 
 
 Scotland is fubjefl not only to floods of rain, bnt to 
 high winds. Good covering guards againft the for- 
 mer, and ropes artfully applied guard againfl the lat- 
 ter. The following is a good mode. Take a hay- 
 rope well twilled, and furround the Hack with it, two 
 feet or fo below the top. Surround the flack wiili 
 another fuch rope immediately below the caling. Con- 
 ne6l thcfe two with ropes in an up-and-down polition, 
 diftant from each other at the callng about five or fix 
 feet. Then furround the flack with other circular 
 ropes parallel to the two tirft mentioned, giving them 
 a twill round every one of thefe that lie up and down 
 by which the whole will be conncfted together in a 
 fort of net-work. What remains is, to finifli the two 
 feet at the top of the flack. Let it be covered with 
 bunches of ftrasv laid regularly up and down ; the un- 
 der part to be put under the circular rope firll men- 
 tioned, which will keep it faft, and the upper part be 
 bound by a fmall rope artfully twilled, commonly call- 
 ed the crirji'ii of thi pack. This method is preferable 
 to the common way of laying long ropes over the top 
 of theflack,andtyingthem to the belting-rope ; which 
 flattens the top, and makes it take in rain. A flack 
 covered in the way here defcribed, will Hand twoyears 
 fecure both againfl wind and rain ; anotablcadvantagc 
 in a variable climate. ,gn 
 
 The great aim in making hay is, to preferve asmuch Hay nn- 
 of the fap as poflible. All agree in this ; andyet differ king, 
 widely in the means of making that aim effeclual. To 
 defcribc all the different means would be equally tedi- 
 ous and unprofitable. We fhall confine ourfelves to 
 two, which appear preferable to all others. A crop of 
 rye-grafs and yellow clover ought to be fpread as cut. 
 A day or two after, when the dew is evaporated, rake 
 It into a number of parallel rows along the field, term- 
 ed 'vit:d-ruw!, for the convenience of putting it up into 
 fmall cocks. After turning the rows once and again, 
 make Iraall cocks w-eighing a ftone or two. At the 
 diflance of two days or fo, put two cocks into one, 
 obfcrving always to mix the tops and bottoms together, 
 and to take a new place for each cock, that the Icaft 
 damage poflible may be done to the grafs. Proceed 
 in patting two cocks into one, till fufficiently dry for 
 tramp-ricks of 100 ftone each. The eafieft way of 
 ereifling tramp-ricks, is to found a rick in the middle 
 of the row of cocks ihst aretocompofe it. The cocks 
 may be carried to the rick by two perfons joining arms 
 together. When all the cocks are thuscarricd to the 
 rick within the diftance of 40 yards or fo, the reft of 
 the cocks will be more expeditioufly carried to the 
 rick, by a rope wound about them and dragged by a 
 horfc. Two ropes are fufKcient to fccurc the ricks 
 from wind the fltort time they are to ftand in the field. 
 Intheyear i77j/ 10,000 ftone were put into tramp- 
 ricks the fourth day after cutting. Inacountry fo wet 
 as many parts of Scotland arc, expedition is of mighty 
 cosfcqiiencein the drying both of hay and corn. With 
 refpefl: to hay intended for horned cattle, it is by the 
 generality held an improvement, that it be healed a 
 little in the ftack. But we violently fufpedlthis doc- 
 trine to have been invented for exculing indolent ma- 
 nagement. An ox, it is true, will eat fuch hay ; but 
 it will always be found that he prefers fweet hay ; and 
 
 it
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 •»0I 
 Other me- 
 thods. 
 • Etjyt on 
 
 vul.l.p.i86 
 
 it cannot well be doubted, but that fach hay is the 
 moll falutary and the mod nourilhing. 
 
 The making hay conlifting chiefly of red-clover 
 requires more carci The fcal'on of tutting is the lafl; 
 week of June, when it is in full bloom ; earlier it may 
 be cut, but never later. To cut it later would indeed 
 produce a weightier crop ; but a late rirlt cutting 
 makes the fecond aUb late, perhaps too late for drying. 
 At ihe fame time, the want of weight in an early tiril 
 cutting, is amply compcnfatcd by the weight of the 
 fecond. 
 
 When the feafon is too variable for making hay of 
 the fecond growth, mix draw with that growth, which 
 will be a fubftantial food for cattle during winter — 
 This is commonly done by laying Urata of the draw 
 and clover alternately in the dack. But by this me- 
 thod, the Arata of clover, if they do not heat, turn 
 mouldy at lead, and unpalatable. The better way is, 
 to mix them carefully with the hand before they be put 
 into the dack. The dry draw imbibes moidurc from 
 the clover and prevents heating. 
 
 But the bedmeihod of hay-making feemsto be that 
 recommended by Mr Auderfon*. " Indead," fays 
 he, " of allowing the hay to lie, as ufual in mod pla- 
 ces, for fome days in the fwathe after it ii cut, and af- 
 terwards alternatelyputting itup into cocks aud fpread- 
 ingitout, and tedding it in the fun, which tends great- 
 ly to bleach the hay, exhales its natural juices, and 
 fiibjccts it very much to the danger of getting rain, 
 and thus runs a great rilkof bcinii good for little, I 
 make it a general rule, ifpofliblc, never to cut hay 
 but when the grafs is quite dry ; and then make the 
 gatherers follow clofe upon the cutters, — putting it up 
 ininiediately intofmall cocks about three feet high each. 
 when new put up, and of as fmall a diameter as they 
 can be made todand with ; always giving each of them 
 a (light kind of thatching, by drawing a few hand- 
 fu!s of the hay from the bottomof the cock all around, 
 and layingit lightly upon the top with one of the ends 
 hanging downwards. This is done with the litmod 
 cafe and expedition ; and when it is once in that date, 
 1 coniidcr my hay as in a great meafure out of dan- 
 ger: for unlcfs a violent wind fliould arife immediately 
 after the cocks are put up, fo as to overturn them, no- 
 thingclfc canhurt the hay ; as I haveofien experienced 
 that no rain, however violent, ever pen ttratesintoihefc 
 recks but for a very little way. And, if they are 
 dry put up, they never fit together fo clofcly as to 
 heat ; although they acquire, in a day or two, fuch a 
 degree of firmnefs, 'as to be in no danger ot being o- 
 verturned by wind after that time, unlifs it blows a 
 hurricane. 
 
 " In thefe cocks I allow the hay to remain, until, 
 upon infpedion, I judge that it will keep in pretty 
 large tranip-cdcks (which is ufually in one or two 
 Weeks, accordingas the wcathcris more or Icfsfavonr- 
 able, when two nitu, cich w ith a long pronged pitch- 
 Vat. I. 
 
 fork, lift up one of thefe fmall cocks between them 
 with the greated cafe, and carry "them one after ano- 
 ther to the place where the tramp-cock is to be built 
 (a): and in this manner they'procccd over the field till 
 the whole is tinilhed. joj 
 
 " The advantages that attend this method of making Advauta- 
 hay, are. That it greatly abridgesthe labour, as it does g" of this 
 not require above the one-half of the work that is nc- n>e*''oJ> 
 ceflary in the old method of turning and tedding ir : 
 That it allows the hay to continue almod as green as 
 when it is cut, and preferves its natural juices in the 
 greated perfection ; for, unlefs it be the little that is 
 expofcd to the fun and air upon the furfacc of the 
 cocks, which is no more bleached than every draw of 
 hay faved in the ordinary way, the whole is dried iii 
 the mod (low and equal manner that could bede(ircd : 
 and, laftly. That it is thus in a great meafure fecurcd 
 from almod the poflibility of being damaged by rain. 
 This lad circumilance defervcs to be much more at- 
 tended to by the farmer 'han it ufually is at prefent ; a< 
 I have feen few who are fuificicntly aware of the lou 
 that the quality of thtirhay ludains by receiving a 
 iliglit lliower alter it is cut, and before it is gathered ; 
 thegenerality of farmers fecming to be very well fatis- 
 ficd if they get in their hay without being abfolutcly 
 rotted ; never paying the leall attention to its having 
 been feveral times wetted while the hay was making. 
 But, if thefe gentlemen will take the trouble at any 
 time to compare any parcel of hay that has been made 
 perfedly dry, with another parcel from the fame tielcf 
 that has received a fliowcr while in the fwathe, or even 
 a copious dew, they will foonbe fentiblcof avcrymani- 
 feddirterence between them ; nor will their horfes or 
 cattle ever coinmitamidake in cliooling between the 
 
 two. JO- 
 
 " Letit be pariicularly remarked, that in this man- Particular 
 ner of making hay, great care mud be taken that it be "ution re. 
 dry when fird put into the cocks ; for, if it is in the q"ifi'= '" 
 lead degree wet at that time, it will tu^-n indantlv 'l","'" 
 mouldy, and lit together lo as to become totally imper- 
 vious to the air, and will never afterw:irds btcomc dry 
 till it is fpread out to the fun. For this reafon, if at 
 any time during a courlc of gooil fettled weather yon 
 fliould begin to cut in the morning before the dew is olf 
 the grafs, keep bark the gatherers till the dew is eva- 
 porated ; allowing that which was fird cut to lie till it 
 is dry before it is cocked. In this cafe, you will al- 
 mod always find that the uncut grafs '.vill dry foonr r 
 than that which has been cut when wet ; and, there- 
 fore, the gatherers may always begin to pnt up that 
 which is frefh cut betorc tlieothcr; which will Qf.ially 
 require twoor three hours to dry after tlicnew-cut hay 
 may be cocked. And if, at any time, in cafe of nc- 
 celfity,yon(hould be obliged to cut your hay before iti< 
 dry, the fame rule mud be obfcrvcd, alwMjs to alluw 
 it to remain in the fwathe till it is qiite dry : but, p^ 
 there is :i;w j\ s a great ri(k of being long in getting it 
 R r up 
 
 (a) If the hay is to be carried to any confiderahlc didancc, this part of the laboarmay be great' '., 
 
 by caufing the carriers take two long dicks of a fufiicient ftrength, and having laid them down i ::l 
 
 c<J:ks psralkl to oiic another, at the didancc of otic and a half, or two feet afandcr, let them lift t!:;".- ^r four 
 cocks, one aftcranother, and place them c.iicfully above the dicks, and then carry them ahojtthcr, :.i if rpc» 
 a hand-barrow, to the place where the large rick is to be built.
 
 314 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part II.. 
 
 rraclicf. up, aiiil iis it iitvcr ill this cafe wi/is (a) fo kindly as 
 
 — ~ ' if it had been dry cut, the farmer ought to endeavour, 
 
 if poffible, in all cafes, to cut his hay only when dry ; 
 even if it (Iwuld coll him feme additional expcncc to 
 the cutters, by keeping them employed at any other 
 work, or even allowing them to remain idle, if the 
 weather fliould be variable or rainy. 
 
 " But if there is a great proportion of clover, and 
 the weather IhoulJ chance to be clofc and calm at the 
 time, it may, on fume occafions, be nccelfary toopcn 
 up thefc cocks a little, to admit fome frelh air into 
 them ; in which cafe, after they have flood a day or 
 two, it maybe of great ufe to turn thefe cocks aiulo- 
 pen them up a little, which ought to be done in the 
 driefl time of the day ; the operator taking that part of 
 each cock which was the top, and with it forming the 
 bale of a new one; fo that the part which was moll ex- 
 pofed to the air becomes excluded from it, and that 
 which wasundcrmoflcomes to be placed upon the top, 
 fo as to make it all dry as equally as poflible. 
 
 *'\i the hay has not been damp when it was firfl 
 put up, the cock may be immediately iinilhed out at 
 once ; but if it is at all wet, ii will be of great ufe to 
 turn over only a little of the top of tiie cock at firll, and 
 leaving it in that ftate to dry a little, proceed to ano- 
 ther, and a third, and fourth, &c. treating each in 
 the fame way ; going on in that manner till you find 
 that the infide of the firfl opened cock is fuffitiently 
 tiried, when it will be proper to return to it, turning 
 over a little more of it till you come to what is Hill 
 damp, when you leave it and proceed to another, and 
 fo on round the whole ; always returning afredi till the 
 cocks arc entirely finillied. This is the beflwayoffa- 
 vingyour hay, if you have been under the neeelfityof 
 cutting it while damp ; but it is always beft to guard 
 againli this inconvenience, if polfible." 
 s. In the yard, a flack of hay ought to be an oblong 
 fijuare, if the quantity be greater than to be eafily 
 flowed in around flack ; becaufc a fmaller furface is 
 cxpofed to the air, than in a number of round flacks. 
 For the fame rcafon, a flack of peafe ought to have the 
 fame form, the Uraw being more valuable than that of 
 oats, wheat, or barley. The moment a flack is finilh- 
 cd, it ought to be covered ; bccaufe the furfacc-hay is 
 much damaged by withering in dry weather, and moi- 
 fleningin wet weather. Let it have a pavilion-roof; 
 for more of it can be covered with flraw in that lliapc, 
 than when built perpendicular at the ends. Let'it be 
 roped as directed above for corn-fl?cks ; with this dii- 
 fercnce only, that in an oblong fquare the ropes mud 
 be thrown over the top, and tied to the belt rope be- 
 low. This bclt-ropc ought to be fixed with pins to 
 the flack : the rcafon is, that the ropes thrown overthe 
 flack will bag by the finking of the ftack, and may 
 be drawn tight by lowering the belt-rope, and fixing 
 it in its new pofition with the fame pins. 
 
 The flems of hops, being long and tough, make 
 excellent ropes ; and it will be a faving article, to pro- 
 pagate a few plants of that kind for that very end. 
 
 A ftack of rye-grafs hay, ayearold, and of a mode- 
 rate fize, will weigh, each cubic yard, ii Dutch flonc. 
 
 104 
 Hay ftack 
 
 Aftack of clover-hay in the fame circumftanccs weighs Praaice, 
 fonicwhat Icfs. > '« ' 
 
 Sect. VII. Matmres. 
 
 The manures commonly ufcd are dung, lime, (hclU 
 marl, clay-marl, and flonc-marl. Many other fubllan- 
 ces are nied ; fliavings of horn, for example, refufc 
 of malt, and even old rags : but as the quantity that 
 can be procured is iiiconfidcrablc, and as their applica- 
 tion is fimplc, we fiiall confume no time upon them. 
 
 Dung is the chief of all manures ; becaufe a quan- 
 tity of it may be eollcclcd in every farm, and becaufc : 
 it makes the quickcfl return. A field fulhcicntly dung- 
 ed will produce good crops four or five years. lej . 
 
 Dung of animals that chew the cud, being more Uimj, 
 thoroughly putrefied than that of others, is fit to be 
 mixed with thefoil without needing t9 be colledcd in- 
 to a dunghill. A horfc does not chew the cud ; and 
 in horfc-dung may bepcrceived flraw orrye-grafs bro- 
 ken into fmall parts, but not dilfolved : it is proper 
 therefore thatthe putrefadion becompletcd in a dung- 
 hill. It ought to be mixed there with cool materials : 
 fohotit is, that, in a dunghill by itfelf, it fingcs and 
 burns inflead of putrefying. The difference between 
 the dung of a horfe and of a horned animal, is vifible ^ 
 in apaflure-field : the grafs round the former is wither- 
 ed ; round the latter, it is ranker and moreverdant than 
 in the rcfl of the field. A mixture of dry and moift . 
 fluff ought to be ftudied : the former attrafting moi- 
 flurc from the latter, they become equally moifl. ^^^ 
 
 To prevent fap from running out of a dunghill, its (jf ^ junj- 
 fituation fliould be a little below the furface ; and to hill* 
 prevent rain from running into it, it Ihould be fur- 
 rounded with a ring of fod. If the foil on which the 
 dunghill Hands be porous, let it be paved, to prevent ■ 
 the fap from finking into the ground. If moillurc 
 happen to fuperabound, it may be led off by a fmall 
 gutter to impregnate a quantity of rich mould laid 
 down to receive it, which will make it equal to good 
 dung. 
 
 Siraw fliould be prepared for the dunghill, by being 
 laid under cattle, and fufficiently moillened. When laid 
 dry in to a dunghill, it keeps it open, and admits too much 
 air, and prevents putrefadion. 
 
 Dung from the liable ought to be carefully fpread on 
 the dunghill, and mixed with the former dung. When 
 left in heaps upon the dunghill, fermentation and putre- 
 fadion go on unequally. 
 
 Complete putrefaction is of importance with regard 
 to the feed of weeds that are in the dunghill : if they 
 remain found, they are carried out with the dung, and 
 infell the ground. Complete putrefa(5lion is of Hill 
 greater importanceby pulverizingthe dung ; in which 
 condition it mixes intimately with the foil, and operates 
 the niofl powerfully. In land intended for barley, un- 
 digeded dunghasa very bad effect: it keeps the ground 
 open, a(imits drought, and prevents the feed from 
 fpringiiig. On the other hand, when thorouglilyrotted, 
 it mixes with the foil,andcnablesit to retain nioifture. 
 It follows, that the propcrelt time for dunging a field, 
 
 is 
 
 (a) Bywhmhig hay, is meant the operation by wliichitis brought from the fuccukntAate of grafs to that 
 ef a dry fodder.
 
 Part ir. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Ptaflicr. is in its higlieft pulverization ; at whicli time rhe earth 
 — >' — ^ mixes intimately with tiic dung. Immediately before 
 fetiing cabbage, fowing turnip, or wheat, is a good 
 time. Dung divides and fprcads the moft accurately 
 wlicn moill. Its intimate mixture with the foil is of 
 fuch importance, that hands fhould be employed to di- 
 vide and i'pread any lumps that may be in it. 
 
 Dung lliould be fprtad, and ploughed into the 
 ground without delay. ^\' hen a heap lies two or three 
 weeks, fome of the moifture is imbibed into the ground, 
 which u ill produce tufts of corn more vigorous than in 
 ire raft of the field. There cannot be aw orfe pra(;Uce 
 than to lead out dung before w inter, leaving it expo- 
 fed to froil and fnow. The whole fpirit of the dung is 
 extracted by ruin, and carried ofFwith it. The dung 
 divcftcd of its fap becomes dry in fpring, and incapable 
 of being mixed with the uiould. It is turned over 
 whole by the plough, and buried in the furrow. 
 
 As dung is an article of the utmuit importance in 
 hufbandry, one fliould imagine, that the collcding it 
 would be a capital article with an iaduflrious farmer. 
 Yet an ingenious writer, obferving that the Jamaicans 
 are in this particular much mure induflrious than the 
 Britilh, afcribes the difference to the dilhculty of pro- 
 curing dung in Jamaica. " In England, where the 
 long winter enables a farmer to raife what quantity he 
 pleafes, it is not collected with any degree of induflry . 
 But in Jamaica, where there is no winter, and where 
 the heat of tiie fun is a great obftrudion, the farmer 
 mufl be indefatigable, or he will never raife any dung. " 
 Cool intcreft is not alone a fufticient motive with the 
 indolent, to be aiMive. As dung is of great import- 
 ance in Ijufbandry, a farmer cannot be too afliduous in 
 colle(5ling animal and vegetable fubltances that will rot. 
 One article of that kind there is, to coUeft which there 
 is a double motive, and yet is ncglefted almoll every 
 where. A farm full of weeds is a nuifance to the 
 neighbourhood : it poifons the fields around ; and the 
 polTeflbr ought to be difgraced as a pelt to fociety. 
 Now the cutting down every weed before the feed is 
 formed, anfwers two excellent purpofes. Firlt, it en- 
 courages good crops, by keeping the ground clean. 
 Next, thcfe weeds mixed with other materials in a 
 dunghill, may add confiderably to the quantify of 
 dung. 
 
 Next of lime,which is a profitable raanure, and great- 
 ly fo when it can be got in plenty within a moderate 
 diftancc. The benefit of lime is fo vilible, that the 
 life of it has become general, where the price and car- 
 riage are in any degree moderate. 
 
 However people may differ in other particulars, all 
 agree, that the operation of lime depends on its inti- 
 mate mixture with thefoil ; and therefore that thcpro- 
 pcrtimc of applying it, is when it is perfecHly powder- 
 ed and tlie foil at the fame time in the highefi degree 
 of pulverization. Lime of itfclf is abfolutely b.trren : 
 and yet it enriches a barren foil. Neither of the two 
 produces any good tfFeft without the other : and con- 
 fequcntly, themoreintimately they arc mixed, the ef- 
 fect mull be the greater. 
 
 Hence it follows, that lime ought always to be lla- 
 ked with a proper quantity of water, becaufe by that 
 means it is reduced the moft effeiitually into powder. 
 Lime let't to be llakcd by a nioilt air,oraccidental rain, 
 is fcldom or never tiioroughly reduced into powder; 
 
 no 
 or lime. 
 
 ill 
 
 Its opera 
 «>un. 
 
 and therefore can never be intimately mixed with tlie 
 foil. Sometimes an opportunity offers to bring home 
 flitll-lime before the ground is ready for it ; and it is 
 commonly thrown into a heap without ctn'cr, trufting 
 to rain for llaking. The proper way is, to lay the 
 Ihcll-lime in different heaps on the ground where it is 
 to be fprcad, to reduce thefe heaps into powder by fla- 
 king it with water,and to cover the llaked lime with fod 
 fo as to defend it from rain. One however fhould avoid 
 as much as polfible the bringing home lime before the 
 ground be ready for it. Where allowed to lie longin 
 aheap, there are two bad confcquences : firfl, lime 
 attracts moillure, even though well covered, and runs 
 into clots, which prevents an intimate mixture ; and, 
 next, we know, that burnt limeftone, whether in fhelLs 
 or in powder, returns gradually into its original flaie 
 of limcftone ; and upon that account alfo, islefscapablc 
 of being mixed with the foil. And this is verified by 
 a fadl, that, after lying long, it is fo hard bound toge- 
 ther as to require a pick to feparate the parts. 
 
 For the fame reafon, it is a bad practice, though 
 common, to let fpread lime lie on the furface all win- 
 ter. The bad efTccts abovementioned take place here 
 in part : and there it another ; that rain wafhes the 
 lime down to the furrows, and in a hanging field car- 
 ries the whole away. 
 
 As the particles of powdered lime are both fmall and 
 heavy, they quickly link to the bottom of the furrow, 
 if care be not taken to prevent it. In that view, it is 
 a rule, that lime be fpread, and mixed with the foil, 
 immediately before fowing, or along with the feed. In 
 this manner of application, there being no occalion to 
 move it till the ground be Itirred for a new crop, it has 
 time to incorporate with the foil, and docs not readily 
 feparate from it. Thus, if turnip-feed is to be fow«. 
 broadcaft, the lime ought to be laid on immediately 
 before lowing, and harrowed in with the feed. If a 
 crop of drilled turnip or cabbage be intended, the lime 
 ought to be fpread immediately before forming in 
 drills. With refpeiEt to wheat, the lime ought to be 
 fpread immediately before feed- furrowing. If fpread 
 more early, before the ground be fufiicicntly broken, 
 it finks to the bottom. If a light foil be prepared 
 for barley, the lime ought to be fpread after feed-fur- 
 rowing, and harrowed in with the feed. In a flrong 
 foil, it links not fo readily to the bottoin ; and there- 
 fore, l>efore fowing the barley, the lime ought to be 
 mixed with the foil by a brake. Where moor is fum- 
 mer-fallowed for a crop of oats next year, the lime 
 ought to be laid on immediately before the laft plough- 
 ing, and braked in as before. It has fufucicnt time 
 to incorporate with the foil before the land be flirred 
 again. 
 
 The quantity to be laid on depends on the nature 
 of the foil. Upon a flrong foil, 70 or 80 bolls of 
 Ihells are not more than futlicient, reckoning four fmall 
 firlots to the boll, termed v<heat-i:iiafure ; nor will it 
 be an overdofe to lay on too bolls. Between 50 and 
 60 may fufRce upon medium foils; and upon the thin 
 or gravelly, between ;o and 40. It is nocfafe to lay 
 a much greater quantity on fuch foils. 
 
 It is common to lime a pafture-ficld immediately 
 
 before ploughing. This is an unfafc practice ; it is 
 
 thrown to tlie bottom of the furrow, from which it is 
 
 never fully gathercvl up. The proper time for litning 
 
 Rr 2 a 
 
 III 
 
 Time of li- 
 ming. 
 
 Quantity, 
 
 314 
 Liming pi- 
 tturc-ficMt.
 
 Practice. 
 
 i'5 
 Test lime- 
 
 ftoBC. 
 
 ai6 
 
 orihcii- 
 
 [i6 A G 
 
 a paRurc lulJ, iiuciided to be taken 14) for corn, is a 
 year at Icaft, or two, before ploughing. It is waihcd 
 in by rain among tlic roots of plants, and has time to 
 inc<)rj)orate with the foil. 
 
 Limeftone beat fiiiall makes an excellent manure ; 
 and fupplics the want of powdered lime where there is 
 no fuel 10 burn the limellonc. Limclloiic beat fmall 
 has not hitherto been much ufcd as a manure ; and the 
 proportioi^ciween it and powdered lime has not been 
 alcertaincd. \\ hat follows may give fomc light. 
 Three pounds of raw lime is by burning reduced to 
 two pounds of (hell-lime. Yet nothing is expelled by 
 the Hre but the air that was in the limellonc: the 
 calcareous earth remains entire. Ergo, two pounds 
 of Ihcll-lime contain as much calcareous earth as three 
 pounds of raw limellone. Shell-lime of the bell quali- 
 ty, when llaked with water, will mcalurc out to thrice 
 the quantity. But as limellone lofes none of its bulk 
 by being burnt into flicUs, it follows, that three bulli- 
 cls of raw limellonc contain as much calcareous canh 
 as fix bulhclsof powdered lime ; and confequently, if 
 powdered lime poirelsnot fome virtue above raw lime- 
 llonc, three bufliels of the httcr beat fmall fliould e- 
 qnal as a manure fix bulhclsof the former. 
 
 Shell-marl, as a manure, is managed in every rc- 
 fpcctlike powdered lime; with this only dittercnce, 
 that a fifth or a fourth part more in meafure ought to 
 be given. The rcafon is, that Ihell-marl is lefs weigh- 
 ty than lime ; and that a boll of it contains lefs calca- 
 reous earth, which is the fruftii'ying part of both. 
 Clay and ilone marls, withrefpcft to hulbandry,are 
 ;,7 the fame, though in appearance different. 
 <5f clay The goodncfs of marl depends on the quantity of 
 
 and ftouc- calcareous earth in it : which has been known to a- 
 >"*'''• mount to a half or more. It is too expenlive if the 
 quantity be Icis than a third or a fourth part. Good 
 marl is the mofl fubllantial of all manures ; becaufe it 
 improves the wcakefl ground to equal the bed bo- 
 roughaci-cs. The low part of Oerwicklhire termed 
 the AhiJ;, abounds every where with this marl ; and 
 is the only county in Scotland whtre it is plenty. 
 
 Laud ought to be cleared of weeds before marling ; 
 and it ought to be fmoothed with the brake and harrow, 
 in order'that the marl may be equally fpread. Marl 
 isafoffilon which no vegetable will grow; its efficacy 
 depends, like that of lime, on its pulverization, and in- 
 timate mixture witii the foil. Toward the former, al- 
 ternate drought and moiflure contribute greatly, as alio 
 frofl. Therefore, after being evenly fpread, it ought 
 JO lie on the furface all winter. In the month of Oc- 
 tober it maybe roufed with a brake ; which will bring 
 .10 the furface, and expofe to the air and froll, all the 
 J'.ard parts, and mix with the foil all that is powdered. 
 In that refpea it differs widely from dung and lime, 
 v/hich ought to be plo'i^hed into the ground without 
 del.'.y. Oats is a hardy grain, which will anfwer tor 
 tcin!'- the firll crop after marling better than any 0- 
 thcrT and it will fucceed though the marl be not tho- 
 roughly mixed with the foil. In that cafe, the marl 
 uught to be ploughed in with an ebb furrow immediate- 
 ly before fowing, and braked dioroughly. It is I'ck- 
 lifti to make wheat the firll crop : if fown before win- 
 ter, frofl fwells the marl, and is apt to throw the leeJ 
 out of the ground ; if fown in fpring, it wilUuffer more 
 tlian oais by v.^ant of due miAturc. 
 
 R I C U L T U R £1. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Summer is the proper feafon for marling ; bccanfc Praaicc. 
 in that feafon tlie marl, being dry, ii> not only liglucr, '^~'-'—' 
 but is ealily reduced to powder. Kroll however is not 
 improper for marling, cfpecially as in frort there is 
 liiile opportunity for any other work. 
 
 Marl is a heavy body, and links to the bottom of 
 the furrow, if indifcrectly ploughed. Therefore the 
 lirfl crop Ihould always have an ebb furrow. During 
 the growing of tliat crop, the marl has time to incor- 
 porate with the foil, and to bccon;c a part of it ; after 
 which it does not readily I'eparatc. 
 
 Sect. VIII. PrinapUs and Operations oftheNiiuor 
 Horfe-hmhig Hujbandry . 
 
 The general properties attributed to the new liuf- 
 bandry may be reduced to two, viz. the promoting the 
 growth of plants by hoeing, and the laving of feed ; 
 both of which arc equally profitable to the farmer. i,g 
 
 The advantages of tillage before lowing have al- Advanta- 
 ready been pointed out. In this place we niuft con- gcsafcribeJ 
 fine ourfclves to the utility of tillage after fowing. '° '""rfc- 
 This kind of tillage is moll generally known by tiie "°""E* 
 name of horfe-hoeing. 
 
 Land fowed with wheat, however well it may be 
 cnltivatedin autumn, links in the winter ; tjie particles 
 get nearer together, and the weeds rife ; fo that in 
 fpring, the land is nearly in the fame lituationas if it 
 never had been ploughed. This, however, is the fea- 
 fon when it fliould branch and grow with nioft vigour ; 
 and confequently flands moll in need of ploughiii_g or 
 hoeing, todcllroy the weeds, tofnpply the roots witlv 
 frclh earth, and, by dividing anew the particles of the 
 foil, to allow the roots to extend and collect nourilh- 
 ment. 
 
 It is well known, that, in gardens, plants grow with 
 double vigour after being hoed or iranfplanted. If 
 plants growing in arable land could be managed witli 
 eafe and fafcty in this manner, it is natural to expedt, 
 that their growth would be promoted accordingly. Kx- 
 perience Ihows, that this is not only praclicablc, but 
 attended with many advantages. 
 
 In the operation of hoeing wheat, though fome of 
 the roots be moved or broken, the plants receive h(» 
 injury, for this very circumllance makes them fend 
 forth a greater number of roots than formerly, which 
 enlarge their pafture, and confequently augment their 
 growth. 
 
 Sickly wheat has often recovered its vigour after a 
 good hoeing, efpecially when performed in wcailuT 
 not very hot or dry. 
 
 ^V'hcat, and fuch grain as is fown before winter, 
 requires hoeing more than oats, barley, or other grain 
 fown in the fpring; for, if the land has been well 
 ploughed before the fowing of fpiing-corn, it neither 
 has time to harden, nor to produce many weeds, not 
 having been expofcd 10 the winter's fnow and rain. 
 
 Of S o w I N c . 
 
 219 
 
 As, in the praflice of the New Hulbandry, plants Method of 
 fxow w ith greater vigour than by the ot J methtd, the fowinir in 
 land fliould be fowed thinner. It is this principle of 'j^^^^^J^ 
 the new hufbandry that has been ehieliy objeftcd to; 
 for, upon obferving the land occupied by a fmall num- 
 ber of plants, people are apt to look upon all the Va- 
 cant
 
 Part II. 
 
 Priftice, 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 cant fpace as loA. Bat this prejudice will fooa be re- 
 moved, when It is conlidtrcJ, that, in the bcft land 
 cultivate.! in the common method, and fown very thick, 
 each Iced produced but one or two ears j that, in the 
 fame land fown thinner, every feed produced two or 
 three ears ; and ihata (ingle feed fomctimcs produces 
 i8 or 21 ears. 
 
 In the common method, as there are many more 
 plants than can Hnd fufficient nourilhment,and asit is 
 impolfible toaliift them by hoeing, numbers die before 
 <hey attain maturity, the greateit part remain iickly 
 nnd drooping ; and thus part of the feed is loll. On 
 the contrary, in the new method, all the plants have 
 as much food as they require ; and as they ere, from 
 time to lime, allifled by hoeing, they become lb vigo- 
 rous as to equal in their produdion the numerous but 
 fickly plants cultivated in the common method. 
 
 Of Hoeing. 
 
 The new hufbandry is abfolutely impra<?licablc in 
 lands th^c arc not ealily ploughed. Attempting to 
 cultivate land according to this hulbandry, without at- 
 tending to this circumTlance, that it is praiilicable in 
 no land except in fuch as have already been brought 
 into good tilth by the old method, has gone far to 
 make it contemptible in many places. 
 *'^j When a lield is in good tilth, it fliould be fown fo 
 
 h ! '" ''"'•' ^* '° leave fufficient room for the plants to extend 
 inirs. their roots. After being well ploughed and harrowed, 
 
 it mull be divided into ro\Ts, at the dillance of thirty 
 inches from one another. On the lidcsof each of thcfe 
 rows, two rows of wheat mud be fowxd llx inches di- 
 Ilant from each other. By this means there will be 
 an interval of two feet wide bciwixt the rows, and c- 
 very plant will have room enough to extend its roots, 
 and to fupply it with food. The intervals will like wife 
 be fufficient for allowing the earth to be hoed or til- 
 led without injuring the plants in the rows. 
 
 The lirfi: hoeing, which fhould be given before the 
 winter, is intended to drain away the wet, and to dif- 
 pofc the earth to be mellowed by the frolls. Thefe 
 two ends will be anfwcred by drawing two fniall fur- 
 rows at a little dillance from the rows, and throwing 
 tlie earth tiken from the furrows into the middle of 
 the intervals. This lirllhoeing (hould be given when 
 the wheat is in leaf. 
 
 The fccond hoeing, which is intended to make the 
 plants brancli, fliould be given after the hard frolls are 
 over. To do this with advantage, after flirring the 
 earth a littlenear the rows, the earil) whicli was thrown 
 in the middle of the intervals (honldbc tnrned back in- 
 to the furrows. This earth, having been mellowed by 
 the winter, fupplies th e plants with excellent food, and 
 makes the roots extend. 
 
 The third hociug, which is intended to invigorate 
 the llalk, (hould be given when tiie e.irs of the corn 
 begin toQiowthemfelves. This hoeing may, however, 
 be very flight. 
 
 But the lall hoeing is of the grcateft importance, 
 as it enlarges the grain, and make the cars fill at their 
 extremities. This hoeing (hould be given when ilie 
 wheat is in bloom ; a furrow mull be drav/n in the 
 middle of the interval, and the earth thrown to tjie 
 right and left on the root of the plants. This fupports 
 the plants, prcvciui chcm fro:n Udng laid, and pre- 
 
 317 
 
 pares the ground for the next fowing, as the fccu is l>ri<5lce. 
 then to be piit in the middle of the gr<Mind that form- « '- 
 cd the intervals. 
 
 The beft feafon for hoeing is two or tiirce days af- 
 ter rain, or fo foon alter rain as the foil will quit the 
 inftrument in hoeing. Light dry foils may be hoed al- " 
 raeft any time, but this is far from being the cafe with 
 flrong clay foils : the feafon for hoeing fuch is fre- 
 quently Ihort and precarious ; every opportunity there- 
 fore (hould be carefully watched, and eagerly embra- 
 ced. The two extremes of wet and dry, arc great ene- 
 mies in vegetation in flrong clay foils. There is a pe- 
 riod between the time of clay (oils running together, 
 fo as to puddle by fuperfluous wet, and the time of 
 their cakiug by drought, that they are as iradlable as 
 need be. This is the jundlurc for hoeing ; and fo 
 much land as (hall be thus feafonably hoed, will not 
 cake or crull upon tlie furface, as it otherwife would 
 have done, till it has been foaked or drenched agaia 
 with rain ; in which cafe the hoeing is to be repeated 
 as foon as the foil will quit the indrument, and as of- 
 ten as necclfary ; by which time the growing crop will 
 begin to cover the ground, fo as to acl as a fcrcen to 
 the furface of the land againfl the intenfe heat of the 
 fun, and thereby prevent, in great meafure, the b.ad 
 etfeCls of the foil's caking in dry weather. 
 
 By this luccellivc tillage, or hoeing, good crops will 
 be obtained, provided the weather is not very unfa- 
 vourable. 
 
 But as Arong, vigorous plants arc longer before they 
 arrive at maturity, corn raifcd in the new way is later 
 in ripening than any other, and mull therefore be fown 
 earlier. 
 
 In order to prepare the intervals for fowing again, 
 fomc well-rotted uung may be laid in the deep furrows 
 made in the middle of the intervals ; and this dung 
 muft be covered with the earth that was belorethro^vn ' 
 towards the rows of wheat. But, if the land does not 
 require mending, the deep farrow is filled without any 
 dung. This operation fliould be performed immedi- 
 ately after the liar vefl, that thercmay be time togive the 
 land a flight flirring before the rows are fowcd ; whicli 
 (hould occupy the middle of the fpace which formed 
 the intervals during the lad crop. Thcintervalsof the 
 fecond year take up the fpace occupied by the ftubblc 
 of th'. firil. 
 
 Suppofmg dung to be neccflary, which is denied by 
 many, a very fniall quantity is fu.iicient ; a lingle layer, 
 put in the bottom of each furrow, will be enough. 
 
 Description of the Isetri'ments commonly ufed 
 in the New Hl'sbakdry. 
 
 Fig. r. is a marking plough. The principal ufe of (nilrumcnt 
 this plough is to llraight and regulate the ridges. The <Jtfcfil'«d- 
 firrt line is traced by the eye, by means of three poles, I^'^te VII. 
 placed in* a llraight line. The plough draws the lirll 
 liirrow in the direflion of this tine ; and at the fame 
 time, with the tooth A, fixed in the block of wood 
 near the end of the crofs-poleor Aider B B, marks the 
 breadth of the ridge at the dillance intended. The 
 ploughman next traces the fecond line or rutt made by 
 the tooth, and draws a fniall furrow along it ; and con- 
 tinues in this manner till the whole ticld is laid out in 
 flraight and equidiilaut ridges. 
 
 Fiii.
 
 3i8 A G R I C U 
 
 I'raiSice. Fig. 2. is a plough fur lireaking i\p lea, or turning 
 '~~^' ■ up the bottom of land when greatly cxhaullcd. By its 
 conllnKHion, the width and depth of the furrows can 
 PlitcVin. be regulated to a greater certainty tli.iii by any other 
 hitherto known in tliis country. Its appearance is 
 he.ivy ; but two horfes arc fuliicieut to ))U)ngh with ic 
 in ordinary free hind ; and only four are neccllary in 
 the (liffert clay-foils. This plough ib likewife ealily 
 held and tempered. A, is the fword fixed in the llzcrs 
 B, which runs through a niortoife E, at tiie end of the 
 bcamC, and reguhites the depth of the furrow by rai- 
 ling or deprciiing the beam ; it is tixcd by putting the 
 pin D thro' the beam and fword, and is moveable at £. 
 
 Fig. 5. is a jointed brake liarrowwith 24 teeth, Iha- 
 ped like coulters, and (landing at about an angle of 80 
 degrees. By this inflrumcut the land is finely pulve- 
 rized, and prepared for receiving the feed from the 
 drill. It requires four liorfes in ftilf, and two in open, 
 land. This harrow is likewife ufcd for levelling tlie 
 ridges; which isdoneby prelUngitdown by the handles 
 where the ridge is high, and railing it up when low. 
 
 Fig. 4. is an angular weeding harrow, which may 
 follow the brake when necelfary. The feven hindmolt 
 teeth fliould lland at a more acute angle than the reft, 
 in order to colled the weeds, which the holder can 
 drop .'it pleafure, by raifing the liindcr part, w hich is 
 fixed to the body of the harrow by two joints. 
 
 Fig. J. is a pair of harrows with fliafts. This har- 
 row is ufed for covering the feed in the drills, the horfe 
 going in the furrow. 
 
 Fig. 6. is a drill-plough, conflruftcdinfuch a man- 
 ner as to fow at once two rows of beans, pcafe, or 
 ivhcat. This machine is eafily wrought by two horfes. 
 A, is the hopper for containing the feed ; 15, circular 
 boxes for receiving the feed from the lioppcr ; CC,two 
 fquare boxes which receive the feed from fniall holes in 
 the circular boxes, as they turn round ; and lafbofall, 
 the feed is dropped into the drills through holes in the 
 fquare boxes, behind the coulters D. The cylinder E 
 follows, which, together with the whcolF, regulates 
 ihe depth ol the coultci-s, and covers the feed ; the har- 
 row G comes behind all, and covers the feed more 
 completely. H H, two Aiders, which, when drawn 
 out, prevent the feed from falling intothe boxes; and, 
 I, is a catch which holds the rungs, and prevents the 
 boxes from turning, and loling feed at the ends of the 
 ridges. 
 
 Fig. 7. is a fingle hoe-plough of a very fimjilc con- 
 Urudion, by which the earth in the intervals is ftir- 
 red. and laid up on both fides to the roots of the plants, 
 md at the fame time the weeds are deftroyed. A A 
 the mould-boards, which may be railed or dcprelied at 
 pleafure, according as the farmer wants to throw the 
 ■ earth higher or lower upon the roots. 
 •■Plate VII. fig- 2. is a drill-rake for peafe. This inrtrument, 
 which is chietly calculated for fmsll inclofares of light 
 grounds, is a fort of flrong plough rake, with four 
 large teeth at a,a,b, ^, alittlcincurvated. The dillance 
 from ii to <7, and from/; to i; is nine inches. The interval 
 between the two inner teeth, a and i^,is three feet lix in- 
 ches, which allows fufficient room for the hole-ploagh 
 tomovcin. To the piece of timber «, forming the head 
 of the rake, are fixed the handles d, and the beanie, 
 to which the horfe is faAened. When this inftrumcnt 
 is drawn over a piece of land made thoroughly fine, 
 
 L T U K E. Partir. 
 
 and the man who holds it bears apon the handles, four Prjflice. 
 furruws,y, g, h, i; will be formed, at the dillance de- ^—^v—* 
 tcrmincd by the conflruetionof the iiidrument. Thefc 
 dillances may be accurately preferved, provided that 
 the teeth a a return when the ploughman comes back, 
 after having ploughed one turn, in two of the channels 
 formed before, marked b b : thus all the furrows in the 
 field will be traced with the fame regularity. When 
 the ground is thus formed into drills, the pcafe may 
 be fcattered by a tingle motion of the hand at a cer- 
 tain dillance from one another into tb.c channels, and 
 then covered with the Hat part of a hand-rake, anj 
 prellcd down gently. This inftrumcnt is fo finiple, 
 that any workman may ealily make or repair it. 
 
 On Plate IX. is delineated a patent • drill 
 machine, lately invented by the Reverend James 
 Cooke of Heaton-iSlorris near Manchcdcr. A, the 
 upper part of the feed-box. B, the lower part of 
 the fame box. C, a movable partition, with a le- 
 ver, by which the grain or feed is let fall at pleafure 
 from the upper to the lower part of the feed-box, 
 from whence it is taken up by cups or ladles ap- 
 plied to the cylinder D, and dropped into the funnel 
 E, and conveyed thereby intothe furrow or drill made 
 ill the land by the coulter F, and covered by the rake 
 or harrow G. H, a lever, by which the wheel lis 
 lifted out of generation with the wheel K, to prevent 
 the grain or feed being fcattered upon the ground, 
 while the machine is turning round at the end of th« 
 land, by w hich the harrow G is alio lifted from the 
 ground at the fame time, and by the fame motion, by 
 means of the crank, and the horizontal lever h h. L, 
 a llidiug lever, with a weight upon it, by means of 
 w'liich, the depth of the furrows or drills, andconfe- 
 quently the depth that the grain or feed will be depoli- 
 tcd in the land, may be ealily afcertaincd. M, a fcrew 
 in the coulter beam, by turning of which, the feed-box 
 B is elevated or deprelfed, in order to prevent the grain 
 or feed being crulhcd or bruifcd by the revolution of 
 ilic cups or ladles. Fig. 13. a rake with iron teetli, 
 to be applied to the under fide of the rails of the ma- 
 chine, with ftaples and fcrew nuts at ;; //, by which 
 many ufeful purpofes are anfwercd, viz. in accumula- 
 ting cuitch or hay into rows, and as a fcarificator for 
 young crops of wheat in the fpring, or to be ufe J upon 
 a fallow; in which cafe, the feed-box, the ladle cylin- 
 der, the coulters, the funnels, and harrows, are all 
 taken away. 
 
 This lidc view of the machine is reprefentcd, for 
 tVe fake of perfpicuity, with one feed-box only, one 
 coulter, one funnel, one harrow. Sec. whereas a com- 
 plete machine is furniihed with five coulters, five 
 harrows, feveir funnels, a feed-box in eight partiti- 
 ons, &c. with ladles of different lizes, for dif!erertt 
 forts of grain and feeds. 
 
 Thefe machines, (with five coulters fiTttecn guineas, 
 with four coulters fifteen guineas) equally excel in fet- 
 ting or planting all forts of grain and feeds, even carrot 
 feed, to cxaAncfs, after the rate of from eight to ten 
 chain acres per day, with one man, a boy, and two 
 horfes. They depofite the grain or feed in any given 
 quantity from one peck to three bulhels per acre, re- 
 gularly and uniformly, and that without grinding or 
 bruifing the feed, and at any given depth, from half an 
 inch to half a dozen inches, in rows at tlie diilance of 
 
 twelve,
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Praiftice. tsvclve, fixteen and twenty-four inches, or any other 
 
 ' « ■ diilaiicc. They arc equally ufcful on all lands, are 
 
 durable, eafy to manage, and by no means fubjeft to 
 be put out of repair. 
 
 The ladle cylinder D is furni(hcd with cups or la- 
 dles of four different liiccs for dirfcrcnt forts of grain 
 or feeds, which may be diflinguilhcd by the numbers 
 l> 2> 3> 4- — N" I. (thcfmallclt lize)is calculated for 
 turnip-feed, clover-feed, cole-feed, rape, &c. and will 
 fow fomething more than one pound per flatute acre. 
 N" 2. for wheat, rye, hemp, riax, &c. and will fow 
 fomething more than one bulhel per acre. N*. 3 for 
 barley : and will fow one bulhel and a half per acre. 
 N» 4. for beans, oats, peafe, vetches, &c. and will 
 fow two bulhcls per acre. 
 
 Notwithilanding the above fpecified quantities of 
 grain or feeds, a greater or lefs quantity of each may 
 be fown at pleafure, by flopping up with a little clay, 
 or by adding a few ladles to each refpcflive box. The 
 grain or feeds intended to be fown,muflbe put in thofe 
 boxes, to which the cups or ladles as above defcribcd 
 rcfpeclivcly belong, an equal quantity into each box, 
 and all the other boxes empty. The ladle cylinder may 
 be rcverfed, or turned end for end at pleafure, for dif- 
 ferent forts of grain. Sec. 
 
 For fo wing beans, oats, peafe, &c. with a five coulter 
 machine, four large ladles mufl occafionally be applied 
 at equal diftances round thofe parts of the cylinder 
 ■which fubtcnd the two end boxes. And for fowing: 
 barley, eight large ones mufl be applied as above ; or 
 fourladles,No2. toeachofthcwheat-boxcs. Thefc ad- 
 ditional ladles arc fixed on the cylinder with nails,or ta- 
 ken oft' in a few minutes ; but for fowing with a four- 
 coulter machine,the above alterations are not necelfary. 
 
 The funnels are applied to their refpedive places by 
 correfponding numbers. Care fliould be taken, that 
 the points of the funnel ftand direftly behind the backs 
 of the coulters, which is done by wedges being applied 
 to one fide or other of the coulters, at the time they 
 are fixed in their rtfpedive places. 
 
 The machine being thus put together, which is rea- ■ 
 tlily and expcditioudy done, as no fcparate part will 
 coincide with any other but that to which it rcfpcc- 
 tivtly belongs, and an equal quantity of grain or feed 
 in each of the rcfpeAive boxes, the land alio being pre- 
 vioully ploughed and harrowed once or fo in a place to 
 level the furface ; but if the land be very rough, a rol- 
 ler will beftanfwcr that purpofc, whenever the land is 
 dry enough to admit of it ; and upon (Irong clays, a 
 fpiked roller is fometimes necelfary to reduce the lize 
 of large dry clods; which being done, tiie driver 
 fliould walk down the furrow or edge of the land, and 
 having hold of the lall horfc's head with his hand, he 
 will readily keep him in fnch adire(fkion,as will bring 
 the outfide coulter of the machine within three or four 
 inches of the edges of the land or ridge, at which 
 nniform extent, he Ihould keep his arm until he conies 
 to the end of t!ie land ; where having turned round, 
 he muftcomc to thcother fideof his horl'es, and walk- 
 ing upon the lad outfidc drill, having hold of the horfc's 
 head with his hand as before,hc will readily keep the 
 maohine in fuch a diredion, as will llrike the fucceed- 
 ing drill at fuch a diftance from the lall outfide one, or 
 that he walks upon, as the coulters arc dillaut from 
 each other. 
 
 The perfonwhoattcnds the machine QiouldpntdoWii praftice, 
 the lever H foon enough at the end of the land, that x ' 
 the eups or ladles may have time to fill, before he be- 
 gins to fow ; and at the end of the land, he mufl ap- 
 ply his right hand to the middle ofthc rail between the 
 handles, by which he will keep the coulters in the 
 ground, while he is lifting up the lever H with his left 
 hand, to prevent the grain being fcattered upon the 
 headland, while the machine is turning round ; this he 
 will do with great eafe, by continuing his right hand 
 upon the rail between the handles, and applying his 
 left arm to the left handle, in order to lift the coul- 
 ters out of the ground while the machine is turning 
 round. 
 
 If there be any difficulty in ufing the machine, ij 
 confifls in driving it Araight. As to the perfon who 
 attends the machine, he cannot pollibly commit any er- 
 rors, except fuch as are wilful, particularly as he fees rt 
 one view the whole procefs ofthc bufincfs,viz. that the 
 coulters make the drills of a proper depth; that the 
 funnels continue open to convey the grain or feed into 
 the drills ; that the rakes or harrows cover the grain 
 fufficieiuly ; and when feed is wanting in the lower 
 boxes BjWhichhecannot avoid feeing, he readily fup- 
 plies them from the upper boxes A, by applying his 
 hand, as the machine goes along, to the lever C. The 
 lower boxes B, Ihould not be futftred to become empty 
 before they are fupplicd with feed, but fhouldbe kept 
 nearly full, or within an inch orfo of the edge of the 
 box. 
 
 If chalk lines are made acrofs the backs of the coul- 
 ters, at fuchadiflance from the ends as the feed fhould 
 be dcpofitcd in the ground (viz. about two inches for 
 wheat, and from two to three for fpring corn), the per- 
 fon that attends the machine will be better able to af- 
 certain the depth the feed Ihould be depofited in the 
 drills, by obferving, as tlic machine goes along, whe- 
 tlierthe chalk lines are above or below the furface of 
 the land ; if above a proper weight mull be applied 
 to the^cvcr L, which will force the coulters into 
 the ground ; if below, the lever L and weight niuft 
 be rcverfed, which will prevent tJuir finking too 
 deep. 
 
 In ditFerent parts of the kingdom, lands or ridges 
 are of different fizes : where the machine is too wide 
 for the land, one or more funnels may occaiionally be 
 flopped with a little loofe paper, and the feed received 
 into fuch funnel returned at the end ofthc land, or 
 fooner if required, into the upper fced-lx)x. But for 
 regularity and expedition, lands co i/illing of fo many- 
 feet wide from outlide to outliJc.as the machine con- 
 tains coulters, when fixed at twelve inches diflance, or 
 twice or three times the number, &c. are beftcalcula- 
 ted for the machine. In wet foils or flrono- clays, 
 lands or ridges ofthc width of the machine, and in dry 
 foils, of twitethe width, arc rccommeded. I'or fow- 
 ing of narrow high-ridged lands, the outfidc coulters 
 fliould be let down, and the middle ones raifed, fo that 
 the points of the coulters may form the fame curve 
 that the land or ridge forms. And ihi loofe foil har- 
 rowed down into thefurrrows fhould be returned to the 
 edges of the lands or ridges from whence it came, by 
 a double mould-board or other plough, whether the 
 land be wet or dry. 
 
 Clover or other hays, intended to lie fown by the 
 
 ]iis.cliiae..
 
 320 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Part If. 
 
 I'raaice. machine, flioulJ be ploughed a deep ftrong furrow 
 ' w ' and well harrowed, in order to level thefjrfuce, and to 
 get as much loofe foil as pollible for the coulters 
 to work in ; and when fown, if any of tlic feed api)ears 
 in the drills uncovered by reafon of the ftirt texture of 
 the foil, or toiighnefs of the roots, a light harrow may 
 be taken over the land, once in a place, which will ef- 
 fcdUially cover the feed, without difplacingit at all in 
 the drills. For fowing lays, a coiUidcrable weight mufl 
 be applied to the lever L, to force the coulters into the 
 ground j and a fet of wrought-iron coulters, wcU-lkcl- 
 cd, and made Iharpat the front edge and bottom, are 
 recommended ; they will pervade the foil more readily, 
 confcqueuilyrcqui re lefs draugh t, and expedite buliucfs 
 more than adequate to the additional expence. 
 
 Kor every half acre of land intended to be fown by 
 the machine with the feed of (hat very valuable root, 
 (carrot) one bulhel of faw-duft, and one pound ol car- 
 rot feed, ihould be provided ; the l\:w-dull fhould be 
 made dry, and lifted to take out all the lumps and 
 chips, and divided into eight equal parts or heaps ; the 
 carfoc-fced fliould likewife be dried, and well rubbed 
 between the hands, to take otF the beards, fo that it 
 will feparate readily, and being divided into eight c- 
 qual parts or heaps, one part of the carrot-feed mull 
 be well mixed wiih one part of the faw-dull, and fo on, 
 till all the parts ofthe carrot-feed and faw-dufl are well 
 mixed and incorporated together; in which Itate it may 
 te fown very regularly in drills at twelve inches dif- 
 tancc, by the cupsorladlcsN" 2. Carrot-feed refem- 
 blig faw-duft very much initsfize, roughncfs, weight, 
 adhelion, &c. will remain mixed as above during the 
 lowing ; a ladle full of faw-dull will, upon an average, 
 contain three or four carrot-feeds, by which means the 
 carrot-feed cannot be otherwife than regular in the 
 drills. In attempting to depofit fmall feeds near the 
 fiirface, it may fo happen that fome of the feeds may 
 not be covered with foil ; in which cafe a light roller 
 may be drawn over the land after the feed is fown, 
 \\ hich will not only cover the feeds, bat "ill alfo, by 
 levelling the furface, prepare the land for an earlier 
 liocing than could otherwife have taken place. 
 
 It has alv.ays been found troublefome, fometimes 
 impraflicable, to fowany kind of grain or feeds (even 
 liroad-calt) in a high wind. This inconvenience is en- 
 tirely obviated, by placing a fcreen of any kind of 
 clotii, or a fack, fupportcd by two uprights nailed to 
 the fidesof the machine, behindthe funnels, which will 
 prevent the grain or feed being blown outof its direc- 
 tion in falling from the ladles into the funnels. Small 
 pipes of tin may alfo be put on to the ends of the fuu- 
 rels, to convey the grain or feed fonear the furface of 
 the land, that the highefl wind ihall not be able to in- 
 terrupt its defccnt into the drills. 
 
 Refpccling the ufc ofthe machine, it is frequently 
 remarked by fomc people not convcrfant with the pro- 
 perties of matter and motion, that the foil will clofe 
 after the coulters, before the feed is admitted into the 
 (drills. Whereas the very contrary is tiic cafe J for the 
 velocity of the coulters in pading through the foil, is 
 fo much greater than the velocity with which the foil 
 cjofesup thcdriilsby its own fpontanrousgravity.thit 
 the incifions or drills will be conftanily open for three 
 or four inches behind the coulters ; by which means. 
 It is morally impolSblc (if the points of the funnels 
 
 Hand dircflly behind the coulters) that the feed with Praaic«r 
 
 the velocity it acquires in falling tlirough the funnels, * ^— ' 
 
 Hiall not be admitted into the drills. 
 
 Fig. 12. is a new conllrufted liinplc hand-hoe, by Mate IX. 
 which one man will effectually hoe two chain acres per 
 day, earthing up the foil at the fame time to the rows 
 of corn or pulfe, fo as to caufe roots to ilfue from the 
 finl joint ofthe ilem, above the furface of the land, 
 \t hich otherftife would never have cxiiled. 
 
 This hoe is worked much in the fame manner as a 
 common Dutch hoe, or fcufile, is worked in gardens. 
 The handle is elevated ordeprelTed, to fuit the fize of 
 the perfon that works it, by means of an iron wedge 
 being rtfpedivcly applied to the upper or under fide of 
 the handle that goes into the fockct ofthe hoc. 
 
 The wings or moulding plates of the hoc, which are 
 calculated to earth up the foil to the rows of corn, foas 
 to caufe roots to ifluc from the firft joint of the Hem 
 above the furface, which othcrwLIc would not have 
 cxillcd, fhould never be uftd for the firfl hoeing, bu: 
 fliould always be ufed for the laft hoeing, and ufed or 
 not ufed, at the option of the farmer, when any inter- 
 mediate hoeing is performed. 
 
 SuMMARVof the Operations neceffary in executing 
 the New Husbandry with the Plough. 
 
 Hi 
 
 1. It isindifpenfably neceffary that the farmer be Summary 
 provided with a drill and hoe-plough. of the ope- 
 
 2. The new hufbandry may be begun either with f*''""'- 
 the winter or fpring corn. 
 
 3. The land muft be prepared by four good plough- 
 ings, given at ditlcrenc times, from the beginning of 
 April to tlie middle of September. 
 
 4. Thefe ploughings muft be done in dry weather, 
 to prevent the earth from kneading. 
 
 J. The land muft be harrowed in the fame manner 
 as if were fowed in the common way. 
 
 6. The rows of wheat Ihould be fov/ed very ftraight. 
 
 7. When the field is not very large, a line muft be 
 ftrained acrofs it, by which a rill may be traced with 
 a hoe for the horfe that draws the drill to go in -, and 
 when the rows are fown, 50 inches muftbc left betwixt 
 each rill. But, when the lield is large, ftakes at five 
 feet diftance from each other muft be placed at the two 
 ends. The workman mu/t then trace a fmall furrow 
 with a plough thathas no mould-board, for the horfe to 
 go in that draws the drill, direiling hiuifelf witli his 
 eye by the ftakes. 
 
 8. The fowing fhould be finifhed at the end of Sep- 
 tember, or the beginning of Oflobcr. 
 
 9. The furrows nuifl be traced the long way of the 
 land, that as little ground as polfiblc may be loft in the 
 head-lands. 
 
 10. The rows, if it can be done, fhould run down 
 the (lope of the land, that the water may get the ea- 
 lier off. 
 
 11. The feed-wheat muft be plunged into a tub of 
 lime-water, and ftirred, that the light corn may come 
 to the furface and be fkiuimedofl. ^ 
 
 12. The feed muft be next fpread on a floor, anf>^ 
 frequently ftirred, till it is dry enough to run through 
 the valves of the hopper ofthe drill. 
 
 I -i.. To prevent fmut, Uic feed may be put into a ley 
 of aflies and lime. "" 
 
 14. Good
 
 AoRir rr/ri ui<: 
 
 pi.it.- \ 111 
 
 ^^. f'r,t ..'.w^ . /it,',
 
 *v 
 
 ^•t 
 
 
 L;^- 
 
 \ 
 
 V, 
 
 ■;^ 
 
 wl^'7 
 
 m^m^ 

 
 Agriculti R 
 
 E 
 
 Plat ,• 1\ 
 
 
 ",'.. /„/ . Kt,//^., /*//,'//.-
 
 Pirt 11. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 14. Good old feed-wheat (lioiiLi be chofcn in prefe- 
 ■' rence 10 new, as it is found by cxpcj icnce not to be fo 
 fiibjeilto finut. 
 
 I). After ihe hoppers of the drill arc filled, the 
 horfc nuift go llowly along the furrow that was triced. 
 Tlidt a proper quantity of feed may be fown, the a- 
 penurc of the hopper mud lie fuiied to tlie fize of the 
 grain. 
 
 16. Asthc drill is fclJom well managed at firft, the 
 field (honld be examined after the corn has come up, 
 and the deficiencies be fupplicd. 
 
 1 7. Upon wet foils or (Irong clays, wheat Ihould not 
 be (lepohted more than two inclies deep, on any ac- 
 connt whatever ; nor lefs than two inches deep, on dry 
 foils. From two to three inches is a medium depth for 
 all fpring corn. But the cxaft deptli at which grain 
 Ihould be depolited in dilferent foils, from the ligluefl 
 fand to the llrongeil clay, is readily afcertained only 
 by obfervingat what dillancc under thefurface of the 
 land, the fecondary or coronal roots are formed in the 
 fpring. 
 
 18. Stiff lands, that retain the wet, mufl be ftirred 
 or hoed in Oftober. This Ihould be done by opening 
 a furrow in themiddleof the intervals, and afterward, 
 filling it up by a furrow drawn on each fide, which 
 will raife the earth in the middle of the intervals, and 
 leave two fniall furrows next the rows, for draining off 
 the water, which is very hurtful to wheat in winter. 
 
 19. The next flirring mud be given about the end 
 of Marcli, witli a light plough. In this ftirring the 
 furrows made to drain the rows mufl be filled up by 
 earth from the middle of the intervals. 
 
 20. Some time in May, the rows mull be evened ; 
 which, though troublefome at firft, foon becomes eafy, 
 as the weeds are foon kept under by tillage. 
 
 21. In June, jufl before the wheat is in bloom, ano- 
 ther flirring mufl be given with the plough. A deep 
 furrow mufl be made in the middle of the intervals, 
 .md the earth thrown upon the fides of the rows. 
 
 22. When the wheat is ripe, particular care mull be 
 taken, in reaping it, to trample as little as polfiblcoa 
 the ploughed land. 
 
 2;?. Soon after the wheat is carried off the field, the 
 intervals mufl be turned upwith the plough, to prepare 
 ihem for tlie feed. The great furrow in the middle 
 muft not only be filled, but the earth raifed as much as 
 podiblc in the middle of the intervals. 
 
 24. In September, the land mull be again fowed 
 with a drill, as above dircded. 
 
 2j. In Oflober, the Hubble mufl be turned in for 
 forming the new intervals ; and the fame management 
 inull be obferved as direded in the firfl year. 
 
 We pretend not to determine whether the old or 
 new hiilLandry be preferable in every country. With 
 regard to this point, the climate, the fituation of par- 
 ticular land, (kill .-tiid dexterity in managing the ma- 
 chinery, the comparative cxpence in raifing crops, 
 .md many other circumllanccs, mufl be accurately at- 
 tended to before a determination can be given. 
 
 TJie following comparative view of the old and new 
 methods of culture, was furnifhed for the editors of Mr 
 TuU'sHorfe-hoeing Hufbandry, by a gentleman who 
 forfome years prailifed both in a country where the 
 foil was light and chalky, like that from which he drew 
 Vol. I. 
 
 liii obfervaiions. It is nccclFary to remark, that in the 
 new hufbandry every article is llatcd at its full value, 
 and the crop of cacii year is four bufliels lliort of the 
 other ; though, in fcvcral years experience, it has c- 
 quallcd and generally exceeded thofe of the neigh- 
 bourhood in the old way. 
 
 " Anelliraateofthe cxpence and profit of 10 acres of 
 land in 20 years. 
 
 I. In the old %vay. 
 
 F'irft year, for wheat, cofts 33 I. js. 
 
 viz. L. s. d. L. s. 
 
 Firll ploughing, at 6s. p. acre 300 
 Second and third ditto, at 8s. 
 
 per acre 400 
 
 Manure, 30s. per acre 15 00 
 
 321 
 
 Prafli; 
 
 Compara- 
 tive view 
 of the ex- 
 pellee aiij 
 pro6cs of 
 theOldanJ 
 New Huf- 
 bandry. 
 
 22 
 
 Two harrowings, and fowing, 
 at 2s.6d. per acre I 
 
 Seed, three bufliels per acre, 
 at 4s. per bulhel 6 
 
 Weeding, at 2s. per acre i 
 
 Reaping, binding, and carry- 
 ing, at 6s. per acre 3 
 
 Second year, for barley, cofls 
 111. 6s. 8d. viz. 
 
 Once ploughing, at 63. per a- 
 cre ■ ■ 3 
 
 Harrowing and fowing, at is. 
 6d. per acre - - o 
 
 Weeding, at is, per acre o 
 
 Seed, four bufliels per acre, 
 at 2S. per buOiel 4 
 
 Cutting, raking, and carry- 
 ing, at 3s. 2d. per acre I 
 
 Grafs-feeds, at 3s. per acre i 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 o 
 
 Third and fourth years, lying ingrafs, 
 cofl nothing : fo that the expence of 
 ten acres in four years comes to 44I. 
 I IS. 8d. and in twenty years to 
 Kirll years produce is half a 
 load ofwhcatperacre,at 7I. 35 o o 
 Second years produce is two 
 quarters of barley per acre, 
 at li. - - - 20 o o 
 
 Third and fourth years grafs 
 is valued at il. los. per acre I) o o 
 
 So that the produce of ten 
 
 acres in four years is 70 o o 
 And in twenty years it will be 
 Dedutl the expence, and there remains 
 clear profit on ten acres in twenty years ■ 
 by the old way - - 
 
 II. In the new way. 
 
 Firftyearscxtraordinary expence is, for 
 ploughing and manuring the land, the 
 fame as in the old way L.22 o o 
 S f 
 
 II 
 
 II 6 8 
 
 44 II 
 
 222 i3 4 
 
 350 
 
 127 
 
 Ploughing
 
 A 
 
 Ploughing once more, at 4s. 
 per acre 
 
 Seed, nine gallons per acre, 
 at 4s. per biillicl 
 
 Drilling, at 7J. per acre 
 
 Hand- hoeing and weeding, at 
 2s. 6d. per acre 
 
 Horfe-hoc-ing fix times, at 
 I OS. per acre 
 
 Reaping, binding, and car- 
 rying, at 6s. per acre 
 
 The Handing annual charge- 
 on tea acres is 
 
 G 
 
 L. 
 
 R I C 
 
 d. L. s. 
 
 u 
 
 d. 
 
 L T L? R E. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 13 15 10 
 
 Therefore the expence on ten acres in 
 twenty years is - - 
 
 Add the extraordinariesofthefirfl year, 
 and the luui is - - 
 
 The yearly produce is at leafl two quar- 
 ters of wheat per acre, at il. 8s. per 
 quarter ; which,on ten acres in twen- 
 ty years amounts to 
 
 Thercl'ore,all things paid, there remains 
 clear profit on tea acres in 20 years 
 by the new way 
 
 27J 16 8 
 297 16 8 
 
 560 
 
 262 3 4 
 
 »*5 '<So that the profit on ten acres of land in twenty 
 
 Arguments y^j^j jj, ti,g uj^y way, exceeds that in the old 1 y 
 in favour of i ' „ , ;■ , . .■ j 1 1 
 
 the New L. i;j : I : 8, and conlcquently isconliderably more 
 
 Method, ih-in double thereof; an ample encouragement to prac- 
 tife a fchtme, whereby fo great advantage will arife 
 from fo fmall a quantity of land, in the corapafs of a 
 twenty-one years leafe ; one year being allowed, both 
 in the old and new way, for preparing the ground. 
 
 " It ought withal to be obferved, that Mr TuU'shuf- 
 bandry requires no manure at all, though we have here, 
 to prevent objeiflions, allowed the charge thereof for 
 the hrfl year ; and moreover, that though the crop of 
 wheat from the drill-plough is here put only at two 
 quarters on an acre, yet Mr TuU himfilf, by acUial ex- 
 periment and meafurc, found the produce of his drill- 
 ed wheat-crop amounted to almolt four quarters on aa 
 acre." 
 
 It appears alfo from acomparative calculation of ex- 
 pence and profit beiwecn the drill and common liuf- 
 bandry, taken from Rir Baker's report to the Dublin 
 Society of his experiments in agriculture for the year 
 I 765, that there is a clear profit ariling upon aa Irilh 
 acre of land in 15 years in the drill huibaudry of 
 L. J2 : 3 : II, and in the common huibaudry of 
 L. 27 : 19:2; and therefore a greater prolit in the 
 drilled acre in this time of L.24 : 4 : 9, which amounts 
 10 L. I ; 12 : 3', per annum. Krom hence he infers, 
 that in every 1 5 years the fee-limple of all the tillage- 
 lands of the kingdom is loll to the community by the 
 common courfe of tillage. In Hating the accounts, 
 from which their refult is obtained, no notice is taken 
 of fences, water-cutting the land, weeding and reap- 
 ing, becaufe ihefe articles depend on a variety of cir- 
 cuuiflances, and will, in general, exceed in the com- 
 mon huibaudry thofe incurred by the other. 
 
 Belidcs,thecertainty of a crop is greater in this new 
 ■way than in the old way of fowing ; for moft of the 
 
 accidents atiending wheat crops, are owing to their Praiflice. 
 
 being hue lowu, which is neccd'ary to the farmer in ^^ ' 
 
 the old way ; but in the horfe-hocing method the far- 
 mer may plough two furrows whereon the next crop 
 is to Hand immediately after the Hrll crop is ott". In 
 this manner of huibaudry, the laud maybe ploughed 
 dry and drilled wet, without any inconvenience ; and 
 the feed is never planted under the furrow, but placed 
 juflat the depth which is moll proper, that is, ai about 
 two inches ; in which cafe it is eaf'y to pret'erve it, and 
 thi re is no danger of burying it. Tims the feed has 
 all the advantage of early fowing, and none of the dif- 
 advantagcs that may attend it in the other way, and 
 the crop is much more certain than by any other means 
 that can be ufed. 
 
 The condition in which tlie land is left after the 
 crop, is no lefs in favour ot'the horfe-hoeing hufbandry 
 than all the other articles. The number of plants is 
 the great principle of the exhauding of land. In the 
 common huibaudry, the number is vatlly greater than 
 in the drilling way, and three plants in four often 
 come to nothing, after having exhaufled the ground as 
 nuich as profitable jdants ; and the weeds which live 
 to the time of harveflin the common way, exhanll the 
 land no lefs than fo many plants of corn, often much 
 more. The horfe-hoeiugmeiiioddellroysall the weeds 
 in the far greater part of the laud, and leaves that part 
 unexliaufled and pcrfedly frelh for another crop. The 
 wheat plants being alio but a third part of the number 
 at the utmofl of thofe in the fowing way, the land is 
 fo much the lefs exhaufled by them ; and it is very c- 
 vident from the whole, that it mult be, as experience 
 proves that it is, left in a much better condition after 
 this than after the common huibaudry. »aj 
 
 Thefarmerswhoarc againll this method objeftjthat Ofijeaion* 
 it makes the plants too llrong, and that they are more *"'' "" 
 liable to the blacks or blights of infcds for that rea- '*""■ 
 fon ; but as this allows that the hoeing can, without 
 the ufc of dung, give too much nourifhment,it is very 
 plain that it can give enough ; and it is the farmer's 
 fault ifhedonot proportion his pains fo as to have the 
 advantage of the nourilhmcnt without the difadvanta- 
 gcs. It is alio objeeled, that as hoeing can make poor 
 land rich enough to bear good crops of wheat, it may 
 make good land too rich for it. But if this fhould 
 happen, the fowing of wheat on it may be let alone a 
 while, and in the place of it the farmer may have a 
 crop of turnips, carrots, cabbages, and the like, whirh 
 are excellent food for ca'tle, and c.iunot be ovcr-nou- 
 rilhed : or, if this is not chofen, the land, when thus 
 made too rich, may loon be fufficienily impoverillied 
 by fowing corn upon it in the common old way. 
 
 The method of horfe-hocing hufbandry, fo lirongly 
 recommended by Mr TuU, is objected to by many on 
 accountof tlie largenefs of the intervals which are to 
 be left behind the rows of corn. Thcfe arc required 
 to be about five feet wide ; and it is thought that fuch 
 wide fpaces are fo much loft earth, and that the crop 
 is to be fo much the lefs for it. But it is to be obferv- 
 ed, that the rows of corn ieparated by thefc intervals 
 need not be lingle ; they may be double, triple, or 
 quadruple, at the pleafure of the farmer ; and four 
 rows thus flanding as one will have the five foot inter- 
 val but one-'ourth of its bigucfs as to the whole quan- 
 tity, and it will be but as lif'tecn inch intervals to plants 
 
 in
 
 Part II. 
 
 IVaaicc in finglc rows 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Corn that is fown irregularly in tlie 
 •' coiiiiuuu way, fccins iiulccd to cover the ground bec- 
 tcrtliaii that in rows: but iliis isa mere diccptit, vi/ni ; 
 for the ftalks of corn arc never (o thick as when they 
 come out ot'onc plant, or as when they (land in a row ; 
 and a hor(e-lu)cd plant of corn will have 20 or 30 
 ftalks in a piece of ground of the fameqiiaiuity, where 
 an uiihocd plant will have only two or three (talks. If 
 thcfc ftalks of the hoed plant were fcparated and 
 planted over the intervals, the whole land would be 
 better covered than it is in the common way ; and the 
 truth is, that thougli thcfc hoed fields feem to con- 
 tain a much Icfs crop tlian the common fown fields, yet 
 they in reality do contain a much greater. It is only 
 the ditfcrcnt placing iliat makes the fown crop feem 
 the larj^cr, and even this is only while both crops are 
 young. 
 
 The intervals are not loft ground, as is ufiially fup- 
 pofed, but when well iiorfe-hoed they arc all employ- 
 ed in the nourilhment of the crop ; the roots of the 
 plants in the adjoining rows fprcading themfcl ves thro' 
 the whole interval, and drawing fuch nourilhment from 
 it, that they increafe accordingly. When the plants 
 Hand in the fcattered way, as in common fowing, they 
 are too clofe to one another ; each robs its neighbours 
 of partof their nourilhment, and conftqucntly the earth 
 isfoon exhanlled, and all the plants half llarved. The 
 clofe flandingof them alio prevents tlie benefit of after- 
 tilling, as the hoe cannot be brought in, nor the 
 ground by any means fUrred between them to give it 
 a new breaking, and confequently afford them new food. 
 Experiments have abundantly proved, that in large 
 grounds of wheat where the different metliods have 
 been tried, thofc parts where the intervals were largcd 
 havcproduced the greated crops, and thofc where hoe- 
 ing was ufed without dung have been much richer, 
 than thofc where dung was uled without hocing. If it 
 were poflible that plants could Hand as thick, and thrive 
 as well over the whole furface of the ground, as they 
 do in the rows fcparated by thcfc large intervals, the 
 crops of corn fo produced would be vaftly greater than 
 any that have been heard of; but the truth is, that 
 plantsreccivethcirgrowthnot according to the ground 
 they fland on, but to the ground they can extend their 
 roots into; and therefore a lingle row may contain 
 more plants than a large interval can nourilh, and 
 therefore the fame number that Hand in that row, and 
 no more than thcfc, could be nourilhcd, if fcattered 
 over the whole interval ; and they would be much worfc 
 nourilhcd in that way ; becaufe while tlie interval is 
 void, the earth may be ftirred about them, and new 
 roots will be formed in threat numbers from every one 
 broken by the inftrumcits and new no.irilhment laid 
 before tliefc roots by the breaking the particles of 
 earth, by which the plants will have (iipplies that they 
 cannot have when fcattered over the whole furface, 
 becaulc the groi\nd is then all occupicdj and cannot be 
 moved between the plants. 
 
 All foils and all (ituations arc not equally proper for 
 this mcthud of planting in rows with large iiittrv.ils 
 and hocing between. The lightcft foils feem to be 
 bell for it, and the tough and" wet clays the word. 
 Such grounds as lie on the (ides of hills arc alfo lefs 
 proper than others for this work. 
 
 This method is not fo proper in common fields, but 
 
 21» 
 
 that not in rcfpect of the foil, but of the hufbandry of 
 thcowners, whoareufually in the old way, andchangc 
 the fpecies of corn, and make it nccellary to fallow 
 every fccond, third or fourth year. Neverthelcfs it 
 has bccnfoundby later experiments, that the intervals 
 betwixt the rows of plants, as recommended by Mr 
 Tull, were too great, perhaps double of what they 
 fliould be in the moll profitable method of culture ; by 
 which means much Icfs crops are obtained than might 
 be produced at nearly the fame cxpencc. This has 
 1 endcred the profits of the drill method much Icfs than 
 they would have been in a more judicious praclicc, and, 
 confequently, has proved a great difadvantiigc to it in 
 coniparifon with the broad-call. Mr Tull was led into 
 this, partly from the want of more perfect inftruments 
 for hoeing, and of ploughs proper for drilling. 
 
 To the preceding (latcments, the following obfcrva- 
 tions by Sir John Anflruther, publiihed among the Se- 
 lect Papers of the Bath Society, may not be imj)ropcr- 
 ly fubjouicd. 
 
 The (low progrcfs which the drill-hufbandry has ObfcrVa- 
 madc in many parts of Great Britain fmce Mr TuU's tious by Sir 
 time, he obferves, has been principally owing to the John An- 
 want of propcrdrillploughs. Before drilling can be- ''ruther. 
 come general, thcfc ploughs mull be (imple, fuch as a 
 common ploughman accullomcd to ufe Itrong inftru- 
 ments can ufe without breaking, and fuch alfo as com- 
 mon workmen can ealily make or repair. Mathema- 
 tical accuracy he conlidcrs as not required for deliver- 
 ing the feed : for it matters very little whether there 
 be a quarter of a peck more or Icfs fown, if it be deli- 
 vered with tolerable regularity. He therefore had a 
 plough made, according te his own directions, by a 
 common plough-wright, of fufficicnt ftrcngih for any 
 land made tit for turnips or wheat. It was tried on 
 very rough ground unfit for fowing, in order to afcer- 
 tain its ftrcngth ; and it had been ufed for eight years 
 without its needing any repair. It is a double drill- 
 plough, which fows two ridges at a time, the horfc 
 going in the furrow between them, and of courfe does 
 not tread upon the ground intended to be fown ; w'hich 
 with a fiuglc drill mull be the cafe, and does much 
 harm by the horfes feet linking and making holes in 
 the fine ground, which retain the water, and hurt 
 the wheat when young. 
 
 He proceeds to obfcrve, " That having read Mr 
 Forbes upon the extcnfive pradliccofthe new hufban- 
 dry, and fome other authors, who gave a more clear 
 and diftintt account of the ditt'crent operations in dril- 
 ling than had heretofore been given, I wilhed to try 
 them, and to adapt my plough to fow the quantities 
 therein dire<5le«l. It was, however, adjuftcd to fow 
 a ("mailer quantity, and the feed was not lleepcd. 
 
 " Not having ground fo proper as I willicd, it was 
 drilled on the lide of a field, the foil of which was light 
 and fandy, and in fuch bad order, that the preceding 
 crop was a very indifferent one. It was therefore ma- 
 nured with a compofl dung-hill. 
 
 " After crofs- ploughing and manuring, it was laid 
 into four and a half feet ridges, then harrowed and 
 drilled with one peck and a half of wheat on an acre 
 and a quarter, which is nearly one peck and a fifth per 
 Englilli acre. It was drilled the sythof Otlober, and 
 rolled a("ter drilling. The crop was late in its appear- 
 ance, and very backward in the fpriiig. 
 
 S f 2 " March
 
 324 A CJ R 1 C u 
 
 I'rifllce. " March 3 ill, it was liurfc-lioeJ one farrow fi'jm 
 
 ' >'— ' I'lic luWS. 
 
 '' April 8tl), it \v:i3 liaud-hocJ and wccjrd in tlic 
 rows. 
 
 " 2j"iii, liori'c-hocd -i^jJiii, Ii)''"i5 ^ furrow back to 
 tlif rows. 
 
 •' Miy istli, li;iud-lu)cd tlic fccond time. 
 
 •' June 2d, liorrt-liocdy>-6w tlie rows. 
 
 •' June i2tli, liand-hotd tlic iliird time. 
 
 " July I4tli, horiV-lioed to the rows. 
 
 " At this lafl hoeing-, as many of' the cars were 
 beaten downiaio ilie intervals by wind and rain, a man 
 went before the horfe-hoe, and turned the ears bade 
 into their proper place. 
 
 " The crop, when reaped and threflicd, yielded me 
 36 bufliels on one acre and a quarter, which is 28 
 luirtiels and three pecks per acre ; and the produce 
 from one peck and an half 96 for one. 
 
 " As the produce appeared fo great, from land in 
 fiich bad order, it was carefully n\eafiired again, and 
 found to be right. But this increafe, though great, 
 was not fo large as Mr Crake of Glafgow had without 
 dung. 
 
 " Mr Randal fays ' It is an experimented faft, that 
 on i iinc loam exquilitely prepared, 144 bullicls have 
 been produced from one acre. And, I believe, it is 
 not known what the increafe may be brought to in rich 
 land by high cultivation.' 
 
 " Some years fince, I had beans dropt alternately 
 with potatoes, at two feet dillance in the rows, which 
 were three feet apart, and ploughed in the intervals. 
 The land adjoining was fown with beans and peafc, 
 which were a good crop ; but thofe (own among the 
 potatoes a better one. I pulled one flcm of the beans 
 planted with the potatoes, which had three branches 
 rifnig from the bottom, and it produced 225 beans. In 
 all thetrials of drilled beans, moll of the ftemshad two 
 
 branches, with many pods upon each. From thefe 
 
 and other inrtances, I believe it is not yet known to 
 what increafe grain may be brought by drilling, good 
 cultivation, and manure. 
 
 " Horfe-hoeing is certainly preferable to clofe dril- 
 ling or hand-hoeing ; but the latter is fuperior to 
 broadcaft. 
 
 " Horfe-hoeing the full depth incrcafes the crop, 
 by making it tiller or branch more than it otherwife 
 Would do ; and the advantage is oiftinftly obfervable 
 every hoeing, by the colour of the grain. It prepares 
 the ground for the next crop, at the fame time that 
 it increafes the crop growing, which hand-hoeing docs 
 not, although it may dellroy the weeds. Thus drill- 
 ed ground is kept in a loofe open ftate to receive the 
 benefit of the influence of the air and weather, which 
 broadcaft has not ; and it is evident, from certain ex- 
 perience, that crops maybe drilled many years to good 
 advantage without manure. 
 
 '< Snppofe the crops only 20 bufliels per acre, what 
 courfe of broadcaft crops will give 5I. an acre for the 
 courfe ? But fuppofe they are dunged the fame as any 
 ground in the nioft approved courfe, there is the great - 
 eft reafon to expefl as much as in the above experi- 
 ment, which is 28 and three-quarters, and at 5s. per 
 bufhel amounts to 7I. 3s. 9d. 
 
 " Calculations may be of fervicc to tliofe who wiili 
 to try drilling, and have few books to dired them. 
 
 L T. U R E. 
 
 Part IF, 
 
 ' " One acre is 10 chains long, of 660 feet, or 120 IVaclicc. 
 
 yards long, and one yard broad, containing 434ofquarc '^ 
 
 yards. 'I'hen if the ridge is lour feet fix inches, this 
 makes 1 4 ridges, and three feet to fpare. Thiskngih 
 of 220 yards, multiplied by 14 (the number of ridges) 
 gives a length of yards 3080, to which add 146 fur llic 
 fj>are three feet, and it will be 3226yarils. And as 
 two rows arc drilled on a ridge, the number of rows 
 _will be in length 6452 yards ; but as a dcdufliun oC 
 172 yards mult be made for the head ridges, fu]>pofe 
 three yards each, &c. the whole length to be fown will 
 be 628oyards clear. Novvagjllon (Wincheftcr) holds 
 about 80,000 grains. The quantity recommended 10 
 be drilled by Mr Forbes and others, being fix gallons, 
 or two-thirds of a buihel per acre, is nearly 78 grains 
 to a yard, or 26 to a foot. But in my experiment, by 
 this calculation, it was only about 1 1 grains to a foot ; 
 which is quite fufficienc, if ihe feed be good, and it be 
 not deilroyed by vermin, 
 
 " Now with regard to the quantity of land this 
 drill-plougli may fow ; if a horfe walks at the rate of 
 two miles per hour, he goes 16 miles in eight hours, 
 or 28,460 yards. As he fows two ridges at once, this 
 is fcvcn lengths and two- thirds per acre, or 16S6 yards 
 to fow an acre, being nearly I 7 acres in a day. 
 
 " Four horfc-hocings arc calculated equal to two. 
 ploughings. In plain ploughing they fuppofe the ridge 
 is ploughed with four furrows, or eight for twice 
 ploughing. The four horfe-hoeings are eight fur- 
 rows, equal to two ploughings. 
 
 " Mr Tull direfts four hoeings, and Mr Forbes 
 five. Firft, In November, when the plant has four 
 blades. 2dly, In March, deep, and nearer the rows 
 than the former ; both thefe hoeings fliould be J'ram 
 the rows, jdly. Hand-hoed when it begins tofpindlc, 
 if the earth be crumbly, io the rows. 4thly, When 
 it begins to blolfoni, fro);/ the rows, but as near to 
 them as in the fecond hoeing. 5thly, When done 
 bloflbming, to ripen and fill the grain, to the rows. 
 
 " The lad; hoeing Mr Tull docs not dircdl, but Mr 
 Forbes advifesir, as being of elfential fcrvice in filling 
 the grain, and faving trouble in making the next feed- 
 furrows. They advife the patent or fowing-plough 
 for horfe-hoeing; and the expence is calculated byMr 
 Crake at one guinea per acre, reaping included. 
 
 " But let us fuppofe the following, which arc the 
 prices in the county I live in (Fife). 
 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Ploughing to form the ridges. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Harrowing, ... 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Four hoeings, equal to two ploughings. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Sowing, - - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Hand-hoeing twice, 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Seed, one peck and a half, at 5s. a bufliel. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 Whole expence per acre, - L.i 2 6" 22S 
 
 Drill hufbandry is, as a good writer has juflly defi- The drill 
 ned it, " the pradice af a garden brought into the field." ^"^ ''"= 
 Everyman of the leai't relieL^tion mufl be fenfiblc, that '^'■''^d"'^ 
 the praftice of the garden is much tetter than that of „, , „„, 
 
 ' C3 _ ni Tt: par* 
 
 the field, only a little more cxpendvc ; but if (as is the ticuhrly 
 cafe) this extra expence be generally much more than coiiijjarcd. 
 repaid by the fuperior goodnefs and value of drilled 
 crops, it ought to have no weight in comparing the 
 two modes of hufbandry. 
 
 3 Ju
 
 Part II. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Pradice. Ill tl;c broadcaft method the land is ofttiifown in 
 
 ' ^— ^ bad tilth, and always fcatlcrcd at random, fomclimcs 
 
 by very imfkili'iil hands. In drilling, the land muft 
 be in fine order; tlic'feed isfet in trenches drawn rc- 
 j^ularly, all of nearly an cqiKil dcptli, and tliat depth 
 fuitcd to tlic nature of each kind of feed. Thefe feeds 
 are alfo dillriliuted at proper diltances, xnd by bcinji; 
 cfiually and fpecdily covered, arc protected from ver- 
 min and other injuries ; fo that the pratlice of the gar- 
 den is liere exactly introduced into the llcld. 
 
 In the broadcall method the iced falls in fome pla- 
 ces too thick, in others too thin ; and being imper- 
 fcftly covered, a part of it is devoured by vermin which 
 follow the fowcr j another part is left expofcd to rain 
 or froft, or to heats, which greatly injure it. When 
 harrowed, a great part of it (fiiiall feeds efpccially) 
 is buried fo deep, that if the foil be wet, it pcrilhes 
 before it can vegetate. 
 
 Again : When thus fown there is no meddling with 
 the crop afterwards, becaufc its growih is irregular. 
 The foil cannot bebroken to give it more nourifiimcnt, 
 nor can even the weeds be dcilroycd without much in- 
 convenience and injury. 
 
 But in the drill-hulbandry the intervals between 
 the rows, whether double or linglc, may be horfe- 
 hocdjand thereby nourilhnient may rcjieatedly be given 
 to the plants, and the weeds alino/l toiuily deftroyed. 
 
 The very fame efieft.s which dig;nng lias upon young 
 flirubs and trees in a garden, wili refuli from liorfe- 
 hoeing in a field, whctiier the crop be corn or pulfe : 
 V'or the reafon of the thing is the fame in both cafes, 
 and being founded in nature and fact, cannot ever fail. 
 In drilling, no more plants arc raifcd on the foil than 
 u can well fiipport ; and by dividing and breaking the 
 ground they have the full advantage of all its fertility. 
 
 3^-5 
 
 The plough prepares the land for a crop, but goes Pra 
 no further ; for in the broadcall liufbandry it cannot " — 
 be ufed : but the crop receives greater bcnclit from the 
 tillage of the land by thehorfe-hoe, while it is grow- 
 ing, than it could in the preparation. No care in til- 
 ling the land previous to fowing can prevent weeds ri- 
 ling with the crop; and if thefe weeds be not dcilroy- 
 cd while the crop is growing, they will greatly injure 
 it. In the broadcaft hulbandry this cannot be done ; 
 but in drilling, the horfe-hoc will effect it calily. 
 
 And what adds to the farmer's misfortune is, thai 
 the mofl pernicious weeds have feeds winged v.iih 
 down, which are carried by the wind to great diltan- 
 ces; fucharc thirties, fow-thiflles, colts-foot, and fomc 
 others. 
 
 If the expcncc of horfc-hocing be objected, there 
 are two anfwers u hich may va-y properly be made : 
 The tirdis, that iliis c:*]u-ncc1.i mucii lefs than that 
 of hand-hocing were it prai^icable, or of hand-weed- 
 ing. Tile fecond is, that it is more than repaid by the 
 quantity of feed faved by drilling ; to fay nothing of 
 the extra quantity and goodnefs of the crops, which 
 are generally felf-evidcut. 
 
 Upon the whole : If the particular modes of cul- 
 tivating land by the new hufbandry fliould, after all, 
 be coniidered as perhaps too limited to be univer- 
 fally adopted ; yet it has been of great ufe in rai- 
 fmg fufpicionsconcerning the oldmethod, and in turn- 
 ing the views of philofophersand farmers towards im- 
 proving in general. Many real improvements in agri- 
 culture have been the confequcnces of thefe fufpicions ; 
 and as this fpirit of inquiry remains in full vigour, a 
 folid foundation is laid for expccling fUll further im- 
 provements in this ufcfulart. 
 
 kgrifolium 
 
 Vgrigcii- 
 tuni. 
 
 A G R 
 
 AGRI FOLIUM, or A(^_ur folium. See Ilex. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM, (anc. gcog.), a city of Sicily, 
 part of the lite of which is now occupied by a town 
 called Cirreuti from the old name. See Gircen'ti. 
 
 According to ancient authors, Dcdalus, the moll fa- 
 mous mechanician of fabulous antiquity, lied to this 
 fpot for proteiftion againll Minos, and built many won- 
 derful edifices fur Cocalus king of the illand. Long 
 after his flight, the people of Gela fcnt a colony hi- 
 ther 600 years before the birth of Chrifl ; and from 
 thenameofancighbouringfl.-cam called the new city 
 y/tragaj, whence the Romans formed their word y/gri- 
 ^i/ituM. Thefe Greeks converted the ancient abode 
 of the Siculi into a citadel to guard the magnificent 
 city, which they erecilcd on the hillocks below. 
 
 An advantageous lituation, a free govcrment with 
 all its happy effects, and an aflive commercial fpi- 
 rit, exalted their commonwealth to a degree of riches 
 and power unknown to the other Greek fettlements, 
 Syracufe alone excepted. But the profperity of Agri- 
 gcnturaappears to havebeenbutof Ihort duration, and 
 tyranny foon deftroyed its liberties. 
 
 Phalariswasthc hrll thai reduced it to llavcry. His 
 name is familiar to moll readers on account of his 
 cruelly, and the brazen bull in which he tortured his 
 enemies: (See Ph alaris.) — Phalaris met with the 
 
 A G R 
 
 common fare of tyrants, and after his death the A- Agrigcn- 
 grigentines enjoyed their liberty for i jojcars ; at . '"*"• 
 the expiration of which term Tlicro ufurpcd the fo- 
 vtreign authority. The moderation, jufticc, and va- 
 lour of this prince prcfcrvcd him from oppolition 
 while living, and have refcned his memory from the 
 obloquy of pofterity. He joined his fon-in-law Gelo, 
 king of Syracufe, in a war againfl the Carthaginians ; 
 in the courfe of which vidory attended all his ftcps, 
 and Sicily law herielf for a time delivered from her 
 African opprcfTions. Soon after his deccai'e, his fon 
 Thrafydeus wasdefpoiied of the diadem, and .Agrigen- 
 tum reflored to her old democralicalgovernnent. Du- 
 cetinsncxt dillurbed the general tranquillity. He was 
 achiefof themountainecrs, defccndantsof the Siculi : 
 and wasan overmatch for the Agrigcntincs while they 
 were unfupported by alliances, but fa'nk under the 
 weight of thtir union with the Sy racufans. Sonic tri- 
 fling altercations dilTolvcd this union, and produced a 
 war, in which the Agrigcntincs were worftcd, and 
 compelled to fubmit tohumiliating terms of peace. Rc- 
 fcntment led them to embrace wit)', joy the propofalsof 
 the Athenians, then meditating an attack upon Syra- 
 cufe. Their new friends foon made thein feel that the 
 iacrifice of liberty and fortune would be the price of 
 their protedion ; and this coulidcration brought them 
 
 fjitcdily
 
 A G R 
 
 [ 326 ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 Agripeii- fpecdily back to thtir old coiineclions. But as if it 
 turn. had been dccrted that all t'ricndlliii) Ihould be I'atal to 
 
 ■"— ^^ their rejiore, the reconciliation and its ertccts drew up- 
 on them the angir ol'thc Carthaginians, iiy this ene- 
 my their aruiics were routed, tneir city taken, their 
 r<ce almolt extirpated, and fcarcea veltige ofniagnili- 
 ccncc was Ict't. Agrigentuui lay 50 years buried under 
 its own ruins ; when I'iniuleon, alter trimnpliingover 
 the Carthagiiiians, and rcuoring liberty to Sicily, col- 
 lected the defccndauts of the Agrigeiuincs, and leiu 
 them tore-cdabiilh llit dwellings of tiieir forefathers. 
 Their exerlions were rewarded with allonilhing fuc- 
 cefs ; for Agrigeiituni rofe from its alhcs with fuch a 
 renewal of vigour, tliat in a very Ihort time we find it 
 engaged in the bold fchenic of feizinga lucky moment, 
 Nvhen Agathocles and Carthage had reduced Syracui'e 
 to the lowed ebb, and arrogating to itfelf fupremacy 
 overall the Sicilian republics. Xenodicus was appoint- 
 ed the leader of this arduous cnterprife ; and had his 
 latter operations been as fortunate as his firll campaign, 
 Agrigentum would have acquired fuch a preponderance 
 o(' reputation and power, that the rival llates would 
 not even have dared to attack it. But a few brilliant 
 exploits w ere fucceeded by a fevere overthrow j flie 
 Agrigciitiues loll courage, difagrced in council, and 
 humbly fued for peace 10 Agathocles. This common- 
 wealth afterwards took a Urong part with Pyrrhus ; 
 and when he left Sicily to the mercy of her enemies, 
 threw iil'ilf into the arms of Carthage. During the 
 lirfl Punic war Agrigentum was the head-quarters of 
 the Carthaginians, and was bcfieged by the Roman 
 confuls, who after eight months blockade took it by 
 florm. It neverthelefs changed mailers fe veral times 
 during the conted between ihofc rival llates, and in 
 every in (lance fuftcrcd moll cruel outrages. After this 
 period very little mention of it occurs in hillory, nor 
 do we know the prccife time of the dellrutlion of the 
 old city and the building of the new one. See 
 
 GiFCENTI. 
 
 The principal part of the ancient city lay in the 
 vale ; the piefent town, called Girgcnti, occupies the 
 mountain on which the ciiadel of Cocalus Hood. 
 
 It was diflicult to be more judicious and fortunate 
 in the choice of lituation for a large city. The 
 inhabitants W'ere here provided with every requifite 
 for defence, pleafure, and comfort of lite ; a na- 
 tural wall, formed by abrupt rocks, prefcnted a flrong 
 barrier againflallailants ; pleafant hills flieliered them 
 on three lidcs without impeding the circulation of air ; 
 before them a broad plain watered by the Acragas, 
 gave admittance to ilic fca-brccze, and to a noble pro- 
 fpeclof that awful clement ; the port or emporium lay 
 in view at the mouth of the river, and probably ihc 
 road acrofs the flat was lined with gay and populous 
 fuburbs. 
 
 The hofpitality and parade for which the Agrigen- 
 tines arc celebrated in hiflory were fupportcd by an cx- 
 tenlivc commerce ; by means of v/hich, the common- 
 wealth was able to re(i(l many Ihocksof adverlity, and 
 always to rife again v\i{h frelh f|lcndour. It was, 
 however.cruihcdby the general fall of Grecian liberty; 
 the feeble remnants of its population, which had fur- 
 \ived fo many calamities, were at length driven out of 
 its walls by the Saracens, and obliged to lock them- 
 
 felves up for fafety among the bleak and inacceflible Agrigen- 
 rocks of the prefent city. turn. 
 
 At the iiorih-eall an^le of the ancicHt limits, upon ^— ^/— 
 fonie foundations 01 large regular Hones, a church has 
 been erected ; a road appears hewn in the folid rock 
 for the convenience of the votaries that vilited this 
 temple in ancient days. It was then dedicated to Ce- 
 res and her daughter Prokrpinc, the peculiar patron, 
 eli'es of Sicily. Bilhup fjluifc has fucceeded to their 
 honours. 
 
 At the fouth-cafb corner, where the ground, riling 
 gradually, ends in a bold cmiueuce, which is crowned 
 with majelUc columns, are the ruins ot a temple faid 
 to have been confecr.ited to Juno. To the well of 
 this. Hands the building commonly called the Temple 
 of Concord; the lloneof which, and theother buildings, 
 is the fame as that of the neighbouring mountains and 
 clill's, a conglutination of fea-land and ihells, full of 
 perforations, of a hard and durable texture, and a deep 
 reddilh brown colour. This Doric temple has all its 
 columns, entablature, pediments, and wall entire ; only 
 part of the roof is wanting. It ow(S its prefer vat ion to 
 the piety of fomeChriUi.ins, who have covered half the 
 nave, and converted it into a church confecrated under 
 the invocation of st Gregory, bilhop of Girgenti. 
 
 Proceeding in the fame direction, you walk between 
 rows of fcpulchres cut in the rock wherever it admit- 
 ted of being excavated by the hand of man, or was fo 
 already by that of nature. Some malles of it are hewn 
 into the Ihape of colHns ; others drilled full of fmall 
 fquare holes employed in a different mode of interment, 
 and ferving as receptacles of urns. One ponderous 
 piece of the rock lies in an extraordinary polition ; by 
 the failure of itsfoundation, orthe ihock of an earth- 
 quake, it has been loofcned from the general quarry, 
 and rolled down the declivity, where it now remains 
 fupiiie with the cavities turned upwards. Only a 
 lingle column marks the confufed heaps of mofs-grown 
 ruins belonging to the temple of Hercules. It flood on 
 a projeding rock above a chafni in the ridge, which 
 was cut through for a pali'age to the emporium. 
 
 In the fame track, over fomc hills, is lituated the 
 building uiually called the tomb of Thero. It is fur- 
 rounded by aged olive-trees, which cad a wild irregular 
 Ihade over the ndii. The edifice inclines to the pyra- 
 midical Ihape, and conlills at prefent of a triple plinth 
 anda bale fupporting a fquare pcdedal : upon this plain 
 folid foundation is railed afecondorder, havinga win- 
 dow in each front, and at each angle iwo Ionic pila- 
 ders crowned with an entablature of the Doric order. 
 Its inlide is divided into a vault, a ground room, and 
 one in the Ionic dory,coninuinicaling'.vith each other 
 by means of a fmall internal llaircafe. 
 
 In the plain arc fcen the fragments of the temple of 
 Efculapitis ; part of two columns and two piladers, 
 with an intermediate wall, fupport the end of a larm- 
 houfe,and were probably the front ofthecella. Pur- 
 fiiiiig the track of the walls towards the wed, you ar- 
 rive at a fpot which is covered with the gigantic re- 
 mains of the temple of j up iter the Olympian, minute- 
 tely dcfcribed by Diodorus Siculus. It may literally 
 be faid that it hasirotone done left upon another ; and 
 it is barely pollible.w'ith the help of muchconjeiflure, 
 to dilcover the traces of its plan and dimenfions. Di- 
 odorus
 
 A G R 
 
 [ 327 ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 igrigen- odorus calls it the largell temple in the whole ilknd : 
 <:""'. but adds, that t!ie cuUiiiiticsot war caiifcd the work to 
 grimonia (j^. ^[jaiicloiicd before tlic roof could be put oil ; and 
 ' that tlic Agrigciitiiics were ever after reduced to fucli 
 a itaie of poverty and dependence, that they never hud 
 it in their power to iinilh this iuperb monument of the 
 taltc and opulence of their anecllors. Tlie lengtliof 
 this temple vvjs ;7o Greek feet, its breadth 60, and 
 its height 220, exclulive of tlie toundations orbafemcnt 
 ftory ; the extent and fulidity of its vaults and under- 
 works were wonderlul ; its Ipacious p.jrticocs and ex- 
 qnifite fculpture were fuited to the grandeur ot the 
 whole. It was not built in the ufu^l Ityle of Sicilian 
 temples with a cella of inallivc walls and a peryltile, 
 but was delignedin a mixt talte with lialf columns let 
 into the wuUs on the ontlide, the ialide exhibiting a 
 plain fur face. 
 
 The next ruin belongs to the temple of Caftor and 
 Pollux ; vegetation has covered the lower parts of the 
 building, and only a few fragments of columns appear 
 between the vines. Tliis was the point of the hill 
 where the wall llopt on the brink oi a large hlh pond 
 fpokeii of by Uiodoi us : it was cut in the folid rock 
 30 tcet deep, and water was conveyed to it from tlie 
 hills. In it was bred a great quantity of lilh for the 
 ufc of public entertainments ; fwansand various other 
 kinds of wild fowl fwam along its furface, lor the a- 
 mufcmentof the citizens, and the great depth of water 
 preventing an enemy from fnrpriung the town on that 
 iide. It is now dry and nfcd as a garden. On the 
 oppolite b.ink are two tapering columns without their 
 capitals, moll happily placed in a tuft of carob trees. 
 Monte Toro, where Hanno encamped with the Car- 
 thaginian army, befure the Roman conluls ilrew him 
 into an engagement that ruined his defenlive plan, is a 
 noble background to this picUirefque group of objects. 
 — '1 he whole fpace comprehended within the walls of 
 the ancient city abounds with traces of antiquity, foun- 
 dations, brick-arches, and little channels for the con- 
 veyance of water ; but in no part are any ruins that 
 can be prefnmed to have belonged to places of public 
 entertainment. This is the more extraordinary, as the 
 Agrigcntincs were a fenfual people, fond oflhewsand 
 Jramatic performances, and the Romans never dwelt 
 in any place long without introducing their favage 
 games. Theatres and amphitheatres fecm better cal- 
 culated than moll buildings to refill tiie outrages of 
 time , and it is furpriling that not even the veltiges of 
 their form Ihould remain on the ground. 
 
 AGRIMONIA, Agrimony : a genus of the di- 
 ginia order, belonging to the dodccaiidria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 35th order, ^I'tt/yfo/rf-. The charadcrsare thefe : The 
 calyx is a monophyllous peranthium, divided into live 
 acute fegments, perlillent, and fenced with another 
 calyx : The toro/Z^ conlills of live petals, liat.andcre- 
 nated at tlie ends : "Wicfiaimna have ten capillary (ila- 
 nients, fliortcr than the corolla, and inferted into the 
 calyx ; theanthcras arefinall,didymous,and coinpteir- 
 ed ; the />//////;/;« has a germcn beneath ; the llyli arc 
 two, fnnplc, and the length of the (lamina : There is 
 TM pcricarpiiitn ■■, the calyx is coiitraded in the neck, 
 and indurated : The feeds arc two, and roundilh. Of 
 this genus there are live fpccies enumerated by botani- 
 
 cal writers ; but none of them have any remarkable Agrimoni* 
 propel ties except the two following. I 
 
 apccics a?id prof'citics. I. 1 he enpatoria, or com- ^i" W^ 
 mon agrimony, grows naturally in fcveral parts of Uri- ' 
 
 tain by the lides of hedges and of \\o)ds. It 
 is eat by flieep and goats, but rcfufcd by horfes 
 and fwine. The Canadians are (aid to ufc an infulion 
 of the root in burning fevers with great fuccefs. An 
 infulion of lix ounces of the crown of the root in a 
 quartof boiling water, fweetcncd with hoiuy , and half 
 a pint of it drank three times a-day, is an effcdual cure 
 for the jaundice, according to l3r Hill. He advifcs 
 to begin with a vomit, afterwards to keep the belly 
 folnblc, and to continue the medicine as long as any 
 fyniptoms of the difcafe remain. It is faid to be an 
 aperient, detergent, and ftren^.thencr of the vifcera. 
 Hence it is recommended in fcorbutic diforders, in de- 
 bility and laxity of the intellines, &c. Digclled in 
 whey, it affords an ufeful diet-drink for the fpring- 
 fealon, not ungrateful to the palate or flomach. Doc- 
 tor Alllon fays, that the bell mode of adminidcring 
 this herb is in powder, when the intention is to cor- 
 roborate ; and that if thus taken in a large quantity, 
 we may cxpecl many of the etfeiits of the bark from it 
 in agues. 
 
 2. The odorata, or fwect-fcented agrimony. This 
 grows near four feet high ; the leaves have more pinnae 
 than the former ; the ferratures of the leaves are alfo 
 fliarper, and, when handled they emit an agreeable 
 odour. The leaves of this fpccies make an agreeable 
 cooling tea, which is fometimcs prefcribcd by phyli- 
 cians as a drink for people in fevers. 
 
 Culture. Both thefe fpecies may be propagated ei- 
 ther by feed, or by parting the roots in autumn when 
 tile leaves begin to decay. The feeds ought alfo to be 
 fown in this fcafon ; for if kept out of the ground till 
 fpriug, they feldom come up that year. — Agrimony is 
 a hardy perennial plant, and will thrive in almoll a- 
 ny foil or lituation ; but the plants Ihould not be pla- 
 ced nearer one another than two feet, that the roots 
 may have room to fpread. 
 
 HiTUp y^ciu.vow. See Eitatoril'M. 
 
 IVater Hemp/igri>iioi:y. See BinENS. 
 
 AGRIONIA, in Grecian antiquity, feflivals an- 
 nually celebrated, by the Bopotiaiis, in honour of 
 Bacchus. At thefe felUvals, the women pretended to 
 fcarch after Bacchus as a fugitive ; and, after fonic 
 time, gave over their inquiry, faying, that he was 
 tied to the Mufcs, and was concealed among them. 
 
 AGRIOPIIAGI, in antiq.iity, a name given to 
 thofe who fed on wild bealls. Tl\e word is Greek, 
 compounded of «5f,oc, " wild," " favage," and *«>», 
 " I eat." The name is given, by ancient writers, to 
 certain people, real or fabulous, faid to have fed alto- 
 gether on lions and panthers. Pliny and Solinus fpcak 
 of Agiiophaif! in Ethiopia, and Ptolemy of others in 
 India on this Jide the Ganges. 
 
 AGRIPPA, in midwifery, a term applied to chil- 
 dren, brought forth with their feet foremoll. 
 
 AcRiPPA (Herod), the fon of Arillobnlus and 
 Marianine, and grandfon to Herod the Great, was 
 born in the year of the world 3997, three years be- 
 fore the birth of our Saviour, and fcven years be- 
 fore the vulgar sera. After the death of Arillobu-
 
 A G 
 
 Iv 
 
 r 32B ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 Agrlppi. 1"S Iiii fjdicr, Jnlcplius iiitonns us, tint Ilerod his 
 ^^-v/ — - graiidiallicr took caie ol' his Ciiucatioii, and fciu liiiu 
 10 Rome to nuke his court 10 Tiberius. Tlic em- 
 peror conceivcil a great alledion for Agrippa, and 
 I'laced him near his loii llniUis. Agrippa very loon 
 won the graces of Driifiio, and of the emprefs An- 
 lonia. But Dr.ifus dyiHg I'udJciily, all tnol'c who 
 liad been iniuii about him were coinmanjcd by Tibe- 
 rius to withdraw from Rome, Icll the fight and prc- 
 feiicc of them l!:ould renew hii aHlicHon. Agrippa, 
 Vhohad indulged his inclination to liberality, wasob- 
 li'Tcd to leave Rome overwhelmed with debts, and in a 
 very poor condition. He did not think it fit to go to 
 Jerufalem, becaufe he was not able to make a figure 
 there fuitable to his birth. He retired therefore to 
 tlie cadle of Mallada, where he lived rather like apri- 
 \ate perfon than a prince. Herod theTctrarch, his 
 ancle, who had married Herodias his liller,a!lilted him 
 i'or fume time with great gencrodiy. He made him 
 I'riiicipal magillrate of Tiberias, and prcfented him 
 with a large Inm of money : but all this was not fuiii- 
 lient to aufwer the cxccUtve expenccs and profution 
 of Agrippa ; fo that llercd growing weary of aiTifliiig 
 him, and reproaching him with his bad oeconomy, A- 
 grippa took a rcfolution to quit Judea and return to 
 Rome. Upon his arrival, lie was received into the 
 good grace of Tiberius, and comtnanded to attend 
 Tiberius Nero the fon of Drnfus. Agrippa, however, 
 having more inclination for Caius the fon of Germini- 
 cns, and grandfon of Antonia, chofe rather to attach 
 himfelf to him : as if he had fome prophetic views of 
 the future elevation of Caius, who at that time was be- 
 loved by all the world. The great afhduity and agree- 
 able behaviour of Agrippa lo far engaged this prince, 
 / that he kept him coniinaally about him. 
 
 Agrippa being one day overheard by Entyches, a 
 r.ave whom he had made free, toexprefs his wilhesfor 
 Tiberius's death and the advancement of Caius, the 
 flave betrayed him to the Emperor ; whereupon A- 
 grippa was loaded with fetters, and committed to the 
 cuftody of an o:iicer. Tiberius foon after dying, and 
 Caius Caligula fucceeding him, the new emperor 
 heaped many favours and much wealth upon Agrippa ; 
 changing his iron fetters into a chain of gold ; fet a 
 royal diadem upon his head ; and gave him thetetrar- 
 fliy which Fhilip, the fon of Herod the Great, had 
 been poifeired ot, that is, Batanxa and Trachonitis. 
 To this he added that of Lyfanias; and Agrippa re- 
 tarned very foon into Judea to take polfeflion of his 
 new kingdom. 
 
 Caius being foon after killed, Agrippa who was 
 then at Rome, contributed much by his advice to 
 maintain Claudius in polH:rion of the imperial dignity, 
 to which he had been advanced by the army. But in 
 this affair Agrippa acted a part wherein he Hiowed 
 more cunning andaddrefs than (incerity and honelly ; 
 for while he made a fhow of being in the intcrefl of 
 the fenate,he fecretely advifed Claudiustobe rcfblute, 
 and not to abandon his good fortune. The Emperor, 
 as an acknowledgment for his kind offices, gave him 
 all Judea and the kingdon of Clialcis, which had been 
 poltelFed by Herod his brotlier. Thus Agrippa be- 
 came of a fudden one of the greatell princes of the 
 Eaft ; and waspollelfed of as much, if not more, ter- 
 ritories than had been held by Herod the Great his 
 
 grandfather. He returned to Judea, and governed it Aprlnp! 
 to the great fatisfaelion of the Jews. But the delire — -v — 
 of pleating them, and amitfaken zeal forthtir religion, 
 induced liiiii to commit an unjullactioiijilic memory of 
 which is I'rel'erved in Scripture, Attsxii. i, 2, &c. lor 
 aboutthcfcaftolilie paliover,in theycar of JelusChrift 
 44, St James major, the fon of Zebedee and brother to 
 St John the Evangelilt, was fcizcd by his order and 
 put to death. He proceeded alio to lay hands on St 
 J'etcr, and imprilbned him, waiting till the fcflival was 
 over, that he might then lia\e him executed. But 
 God having miraculoully delivered St Peter from the 
 place of his confinement, the deiigns of Agrippa were 
 fruflratcd. After the pailbver, this prince went from 
 Jerufalcni toCsfarea, and there had games performed 
 in honour of Claudius. Here the inhabitants of Tyre 
 and Sid on waited on him to fuc for peace. Agrippa 
 being come early in the morning to the tlieatre, with 
 a delign to give them audience, feated himfelf on his 
 tlironc, drelled in a robeof lilvcr- tilliie, worked in the 
 mofl admirable manner. The riling fun dartedonic 
 with its rays, and gave it fuch a luftre as the eyes oi 
 the fpetSators could not endure. When tl\erefore the 
 king fpoke to the Tyrians andSidonians, the parafites 
 around him began to lay, that it was the voice ofi 
 god, and not that of a mall. Inflead of rejedling thefe 
 impious flatteries, Agrippa received them with an 
 air of complacency ; l)ut at the fame time obferved an 
 owl above him on a cord. He had feen the fame bird 
 before when he was in bonds by order of Tiberius ; 
 and it was then told him, that he Ihould be foon fet 
 at liberty : but that whenever he faw the fame thing a 
 fecond time, he fhould not live above five days after- 
 wards. He was therefore extremely terrified ; and he 
 died at the end of five days, racked with tormenting 
 pains in his bowels, and devoured with worms. Such 
 was the death of Herod Agrippa, after a reign of feven 
 years, in the year of Chrift 44. 
 
 Agrippa II. fon of the preceding Herod, was made 
 king of Chalcide ; but three or four years after, he 
 was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave 
 him in the place of it other provinces. In the war Vef- 
 pafian carried on againfl the Jews. Herod fent him a 
 fuccour of 2000 men ; by which it appears, that tho' a 
 Jewbyreligion, yet he was entirely devoted to the Ro- 
 mans, whole afliilancc he indeed wanted, to fecurc the 
 peace of hisown kingdom. He lived to the third year 
 of Trajan, and died at Rome A. C. 100. He was the 
 fcventh andlall kingofthe familyof Herod the Great. 
 It was before him and Berenice his lifter, that St Paul 
 pleaded his caiife atCasfarea. 
 
 Agrippa (Marcus Vefpanius) fon-in-lawto Augu- 
 ftus, of mean birth, but one of the moR confiderable 
 generalsamong the Romans. Auguftus'sviftory over 
 Pompey and Mark Anthony was owing to hiscounfel : 
 he adorned the city with the pantheon, baths, aque- 
 dudls. Sec. 
 
 Agrippa (Cornelius), born at Cologne in i486, a 
 man of confiderable learning, and by common report 
 a great magician ; for themonksat that timefufpeded 
 every thingofherefyor forcery which they did not un- 
 derlland. He compofed his Trtatife on the Excellence 
 of IVon/en, to inlinuate himfelf into the favour of Mar- 
 garet of Auftria, governcfs of the Low-Countries. He 
 acceptcdof the charge of hifloriographcr to the empe- 
 ror.
 
 A G R 
 
 r 329 ] 
 
 A G R 
 
 grippioa 
 
 I 
 
 2ro 
 
 ror, which thati>riiiccfs gave him. The treatifc of ihe 
 Vanity of the Sc!:!;c:s, which he publilhed in I J 30, en- 
 rtema. raged his enemies extremely ; asdiJthatof Ocfv// Phi- 
 "'""" Icfoi'hj, whi-rh lie printed loon after at Antwerp. He 
 was imprifoncd in France for loniething he had written 
 againft Francis 1. 'smother; but was enlarged, and went 
 to Grenoble, where he died in 1534. jrlis works arc 
 printed in two volumes octavo. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, daughter of Gerraanicus, fifter of 
 Caligula, and mother of Nero j a woman of wit, b.it 
 exceifively Icud. She was thrice married, thelall time 
 to Claudius her own uncle, whom (he poifoned to make 
 way for Nero her fon, Nero afterward caufcd her 
 to be murdered in her chamber, when ihe bid the ex- 
 ecutioner ftab her tirA in the belly thai had brought 
 forth fuch a monfler. 
 
 Agrippina colonia ubiorum (anc.geog.), now 
 Coiogue : fo called from Agrippina, the daughter of 
 Germanici'.s, and mother of Nero, who had a colony 
 fent thither at her requelt by the emperor Claudius, 
 to honour the place of her birth. See Cologne. 
 
 AGIIIPPINIANS, in churchhiRory, the followers 
 of Agrippinus biihop of Carthage, in the third centu- 
 ry, who tirfl introduced and defended the pradice of 
 re-baptization. 
 
 AGROM, a uifeafc fre<iiient in Bengal and other 
 pans of the Indies, wherein the tongue chaps and 
 cleaves in fcveral placcs,bcingextremelyrough withal, 
 and fometinies covered with white fpots. The Indians 
 are very fearful of this difcafc, which they attribute 
 to extreme heat of the (lomach. Their remedy is, to 
 drink fome chalybeate liquor, or ih niiccofmint. 
 
 AGROSTK.MA, Wild Lvchn' r Campion : 
 A genus of the pentagynia order, Belonging to the de- 
 candria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method 
 ranking under the 2 2d order, CaryophytUt. The cha- 
 rafters are : The coiyx is a finglc-liavcd perianthium, 
 leathery, tubular, iiuinquedcntated, and pcrlifteiu : 
 The corolla confillsof five ungulated petals : The//^- 
 inina have ten fubulated filaments ; the antherje are 
 fimplc : The ;>///////<?« has an egg-lhaptd gcrmen; the 
 ftyli arc five, filiform, erert, and the length of the 
 llatnina ; the ftigmata arc fimple : TXxt. psricarfiinu is 
 an oblong covered capfulc, having two cells and five 
 valves : "i\\c fcedi arc numerous and kidney ihapcd ; 
 the receptacula arc as many as the feeds, the interior 
 ones gradually longer. 
 
 Species. The moil remarkable are, 1, The githago, 
 liairy wild lychnis, or common campion, which grows 
 naturally in corn-fields iu moft parts of Britain. The 
 flowers appear in June, are generally purple, fomc- 
 times white, and by cultivation yellow. 
 
 2. The corouaria, or finglc-rofe csmpion. Of this 
 fpecics there arc four varieties ; one with deep red, 
 another witli rtelh-cc)loured,a third with white Howcrs: 
 and a fort with double flowers, which has turned mofl 
 of the otliers out of the gardens. 
 
 5. The flosjovis,or umbelliferous mountain-campion, 
 grows naturally upon the Helvetian mountains. It is 
 a low plant wirh woolly leaves : the Howcr-ftem riles 
 near a foot high ; the flowers grow in umbels on the 
 top of the flalk, and are of a bright red colour. They 
 appear in July, and the feeds ripen in September. 
 
 Culture, The firrt and third fpecics arc annual 
 plants, fo muft be propagated by feeds ; bat as the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 firil is found naturally in corn-fields, it is very feldom 
 cultivated in gardens ; the third fort fliould have a 
 lliady fituation, and thrives bell in a Itrong foil. The 
 fccond fpccies is perennial, but only iliofe varieties 
 which have fingle tioweri produce any feeds ; the dou- 
 ble kind, therefore, as it produces no feeds, muft be 
 propagated by paning the roots in autumn, after the 
 rlowers arc pad. In doin^ this, every head which can 
 be liipped otf with roots (nouid be parted : thcfe (houij 
 be planted ia a border of frcfn undunged earth, at the 
 diftance of lix inches one from the other, obferving to 
 water them gently until they have taken root ; after 
 which they will require no more ; for much wet is ve- 
 ry injurious to them, as is alio dung. In :his border 
 they may remain till fpring, when they (hould be plant- 
 ed in the borders of the tiower-gardcn, where they 
 will be very ornamental during the lime of their tiow- 
 ering, which is in July and Auguil. — This plant is 
 eat by horfes, goats, and fnccp. 
 
 AGROSTIS, iJENT-cRAss, in botany: A genus of 
 the triandria order, belonging totiie digynia clafs of 
 plants; and, in the natural method, raukingunder the 
 4th order, Crumina. The characters are : The calye 
 is a one-fiowered, two-valvtd, pointed gluma, rather 
 lefs than the corolla. The corolla is two-valved and. 
 pointed. The jl a r/i i/i a hdye three capillary filaments, 
 which are larger than the corolla. Tiie anthtrx are 
 forked. The pifiilluM hasa mundiih genncn ; the fty- 
 li are tvvo, reflected, and villous ; the ftigmata hifpcd 
 longiuidinafly. The p^-ncarpiuw is the corolla grow- 
 ing to the feed, not gaping. The fitd'\% one, globu- 
 lar, and pointed at both ends. 1 here aje 15 fpccies ; 
 eight of them natives of Britain. 
 
 AGROSTOGRAPHIA, fignifies the hiftory or 
 dcfcription of gralies. Sec Grass. 
 
 AGROUND, the fituation of a Ihip whofc bottom, 
 or any part of it, hangs, or rclls upon the ground, fo 
 as to render licr immoveable, till a greater quantity of 
 water floats her oS, or till fiie is drawn out into the 
 ftream by the application of mechanical powers. 
 
 AGRYPNIA, among phylicians, implies an inapti- 
 tude to lleep ; a troublefome fymptom of fcverilh and 
 other diforders. 
 
 Agrvpn'ia, in the Greek church, implies the vigil 
 of any of the greater felUvals. 
 
 AGUE, a general name for all periodical fevers, 
 which, according to the ditFcrent times of the returns 
 of the feveriih paroxyfm, are denominated tertian, 
 quartian, and quotidian. Sec iMF.DiciNE (Index.) 
 
 AovK-Caki, the popular name lor a hard tumour 011 
 the leftfideof the belly, lower than the falfe ribs, Ciid 
 to be the cfJeCl of intermitting levers. 
 
 Aoi-K-Tnty a name given to the falTafras, on ac- 
 count of its febrifuge qualities. 
 
 AGUEPERSE, a town of France, fituated on the 
 Lyonnois, about 15 miles north of Clermont. 
 
 AGUILLANEUF, or Augi'ili.aneof, a form of 
 rcjoici.i J nfcd among the ancient Franks on the nr'.l 
 day of the year. The word is compounded of the 
 French .V '« to," »/// " milleto," and fan tnuj " the 
 ncwycar." Its origin is traced from adruid-ceremo- 
 ny : the priefts ufcdtogo yearly in December, which 
 with them was reputed afacred month, to gather miilcto 
 of the oak in great folcmnity. The prophets marched 
 iii the front, linging hymns in honour of their dcitifs;: 
 T t after
 
 A G U [ 3s 
 
 aftertlicm cainc a herald with a citUiccus in his hand j 
 tlicfc v.crc followed by ihrcs dniids a-brca(l, bearing 
 ihe tilings ncceli'ary ior i'acriticc ; lall ot' ail came the 
 chief or arch driud, acconqianied with the train ot 
 people. The chief driiid climbing the oak, cut off the 
 milleto with a golden fickle, and the other druids re- 
 ceived it in a w hite cloth ; on the lirft day of the year 
 it wasdiftributedaniong the people, sucr having blef- 
 fed and confecrated it by crying yiguij'aii tisiij, to 
 proclaim the new year. Ihis cry isllill continued in 
 Picardy, with the addition of Plantiz, Planttz, to 
 will) a plentiful year. In Burgundy and fomc other 
 parts, the children ufe tlie fame word to beg a new- 
 year's gift. Of later times the name Jgt!illa>ieuf\\3.i 
 alfo given to a fort of begging, pradifed in fome dio- 
 cefcs, for church-tapers, on new-ycar"sday, by a troop 
 of young people of both fexes, having a chief, &c. 
 It was attended with various ridiculous ceremonies, as 
 danciniMn the cluirch,&c. which occafioucd the fy nods 
 to fupprefs it. 
 
 AGUILLAll, a town of Spain, in rhe province of 
 Isavarre, about 24 miles weft of Eflella. 
 
 j^oviLL/iK DdCampo, a town of Old Caftile, with 
 the title of marquifate, about 15 leagues north of the 
 city of Burgos. 
 
 AGUILLONIUS (Francis), ajefuit, born at Bruf- 
 fels : he was reftor of the Jefuits college at Antwerp, 
 and eminent for his (kill in mathematics. He was 
 the firft who introduced that icicnce among th e Jefuits 
 in ihelow countries: he wrote a book of Optics, and 
 was employed in tinifliinghis Catoptrics and Dioptrics, 
 when death prevented him in 1617. 
 
 AGUIRRA (Jofcph Sasnz de), a Benedictine, and 
 one ofthe mod learned men in the i7;h century, was 
 born March 24. 1650. He was cenfor and fecretary 
 of the fupremc council of the inquifition in Spain, and 
 interpreter of the fcriptures in the univcrJity of Sala- 
 manca. He printed three volumes in folio upon Phi- 
 lofophy, a commentary upon Ariilotlc's ten books of 
 tthics, and other pieces. He died at Rome Augull 
 19. 1699. 
 
 AGUL, in botany, a fynonime of the hedyfarura. 
 See Hedysarum. 
 
 AGUR. The xxxth chapter of the Proverbs be- 
 gins with this title: "The words of Agur, the fon 
 ofjakeh;" which, according to the fignification of 
 the original terms, may be iranflatcd, as the Vulgate 
 has it. Verba coiigrcgahtis, filii vomcntis ; w hich tranf- 
 lation LeClerc condemns, fuppofing thefe to be pro- 
 per names, wliich ouglit no: to be tranllated. Thefe 
 words are rendered by Lewis de Dieu : " The words 
 of him who has recollected himfelf, the fon of obedi- 
 ence." The generality of the fathers and commen- 
 tators will have it, that Solomon dcfcribeshimlelt un- 
 der the name of Agur the fon of Jakeh ; others con- 
 jecture tliat Agur, as w^ell as Lemuel (iuchap. xxxi.i.) 
 were wife men who lived in the time of Solomon, and 
 were his interlocutors in the book of Proverbs ; an opi- 
 nion whicii K. Calmet thinks is without the lealf Ihew 
 of probability, this book being nothing like a dia- 
 logue. This lad expofnor thinks it probable, that 
 Agur was an infpired author difFcrenl from Solomon, 
 vhofe fentences it was thought fit to join with thofe of 
 this prince, bccaufe of tlie conformity of their mat- 
 ter. 
 
 o ] AHA 
 
 AGURAH, in Jewifh antiquity, the name of a 
 ftlvcr coin, otiierwife called ^t-r/e/j and kijhita. 
 
 AGURIUM, orAcvRiuM (aiic. geng.), a town 
 of Sicily in the Val di Demona, near the river Scme- 
 tus. The people were called Populus Agyrnieiifn by 
 Cicero j y^gyrinus by Pliny. It was the birth-place of 
 DiodorusSiculus,ashc himfelf teftifies ; but he calls it 
 Argyrium, as it is now called S. Philipfo d' Argiroiie, 
 which modern name feems toconfirm that Argyrium'is 
 the true reading. 
 
 AGUSADURA, in ancient cufloms, a fee due 
 from vall'als to their lord for the fharpening their 
 ploughing tackle. Anciently the tenants in fomc ma- 
 nors were not allowed to have their rural implements 
 fluirpened by any but whom the lord appointed ; for 
 which an acknow ledgement was to be paid, called Agri- 
 jadura, in fome places Agufagc : which fome take to 
 be the fame with what was otherwifc called Ki-illage, 
 from the ancient French reilli, a ploughdiare. 
 
 AGUTI, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies 
 of the moufc, belonging to the mammalia glires of 
 Linn-jsus. See Mus. 
 
 AGYEI, in antiquity, a kind of obelifks, facred 
 to Apollo, crcded in the vcflibles of houfcs, by way 
 of lecurity. 
 
 AGYNIANI, in church-hiflory, a fed who con- 
 demned all ufe of riefli, and marriage, as notinftituted 
 by God, but introduced at the inftigation of the devil. 
 The word is compounded of the privative « and >i<y» 
 iDonian. They are fometimes alfo called y^/««^«yji, and 
 Agynii ; zw^iXQ. faid to have appeared about the year 
 694. It was no wonder th eywereof no long continuance. 
 Their tenets coincide in a great meafure wiih thofe of 
 the Abelians.Gnoftics, Cerdonians, and other preach- 
 ers of challity and abitineuce. 
 
 AGYRT.*;, in antiquity, a kind of ftrolling im- 
 poflors running about the country, to pick up money 
 by telling fortunes at rich mens doors, pretending to 
 cure diieafcs bycharms, facrifices, and other religious 
 mylleries ; alfo to expiate the crimes of their deceafcd 
 anceflors,by virtue of certain odours and fumigations ; 
 to torment their enemies, by the ufe of magical vcrfes 
 and the like. The word is Greek A>i;f rat, formed of 
 the verb a>i/fa, 1 congregate ; alluding to the praflice 
 of Charletans, who gather a crowd about them. 
 
 Agyrta, among the Greeks, amount to the fame 
 with JErufcatores among the Latins, and differ not 
 much from Gypfies in Britain. 
 
 AHAB, fon of Omri king of Ifrael, fucceedcd his 
 father A. M. 5086, and furpafled all his predecefTors 
 in impiety and wickednefs. He married Jezebel the 
 daughter of Ethbaal king of the Zidonians, who in- 
 troduced the idols of Baal and Aftarte among the If- 
 raclites, and engaged Ahab in the worfliip of thefe 
 falfe deities. God, being provoked by the fins of 
 Ahab, feat the prophet Elijah to hioi (i Kings xvii, 
 i,feq.) who declared to him, that there wouki be a 
 famine of three years continuance. The dearth liaving 
 lafted three years, the prophet defired Ahab to gather 
 all the people 10 mount Carmel, and with them the 
 prophets of Baal : when they were thus alFcmbled, Eli- 
 jah caufed fire to defcend from heaven upon his facri- 
 fice, after w-hich he obtained of God that it fhould rain; 
 and then the earth recovered its former fertility. 
 Six years after this, Ben-hadad king of Syria (chap. 
 
 (xx.
 
 A HA [ 33 
 
 .\ht\h. XX.) laid ficge to Jcrufalcm. Bat God, provoked at 
 
 — V ' this proud Syrian, fcnc a prophet to Ahab, not only 
 
 to afliire him a vidory, but to inllrud him likcwilc 
 in what manner he was to obtain it. Ahab was order- 
 ed to review the princes of the provinces, which he 
 found to be a choice company coulilting of 252 young 
 men, who were to command the people in Samaria, 
 amounting to about 7000 men : with this fmall army 
 Ahab was directed to fall upon the great hoft of the 
 Syrians, and that at noon-d.iy, while Ben-hadad and 
 the 52 kings that accompanied him were drinking and 
 making merry. Ben-hadad having notice that they 
 were marching out of the city, ordered them to be 
 broughtbefore him alive, whatcverthcirdefigns were: 
 but the young men, followed by this fmall army, ad- 
 vanced, and killed all that oppofed them, fuch a par 
 nic feized the Syrian troops, that they began to tly ; 
 and even Ben-hadad himfelf mounted his horfe and fled 
 uiih his cavalry ; which Ahab perceiving, purfued 
 them, killed great numbers of them, and took a con- 
 fidcrable booty. After this the prophet came to Ahab, 
 to animate him with frelli courage, and to caution him 
 to keep upon his guard ; alFuring him, that Ben-hadad 
 would return againfl him the year following. Ac- 
 cording to this prediftion, at the end of the year he 
 returned and encamped at Aphek, with a refolution 
 to give the Ifraelitcs battle. Both armies being ranged 
 inordcr of battle for feven days Aiccelfively, at length, 
 upon the fcventh day, a battle cnfued, wherein the If- 
 raelites killed 100,000 of the Syrians, and the relt fled 
 to Aphek; but as they were prciling to get into the 
 city, the walls of Aphek fell upon them and killed 
 27,ooomore. Ben-hadad throwing himfelf upon the 
 mercy of Ahab, this prince received him into his own 
 chariot, and made an alliance with him. The year 
 following, Ahabdefiring to make a kitchen-garden near 
 his palace (chap, xxi.), requefted of one Naboth, a 
 citizen of Jezreel, that he would fell him his vineyard, 
 bccaufe it lay convenient for him. But being refufcd, 
 he returned in great difcontentmcnt to his houfe, 
 threw himfelf upon the bed, turned towards the wall, 
 and would cat nothing. Jezebel his wife coming in, 
 aflced the reafon of his great.concern ; of which being 
 infornied, Ihe procured the death of Naboth, and Ahab 
 took poU'eflion of his vineyard. As he returned from 
 Jezreel to Samaria, the prophet Elijah met him, and 
 laid, " Hafl thou killed and alfo taken poiiclhon ? Now 
 faith the Lord, in the place where dogs licked up the 
 blood of Naboth, (liall dogs lick thy blood, even thine. 
 As for Jezebel, of her the Lord fpakc, hying, " The 
 dogs lliall eat Jezebel by the wallof Jczrtel." Aliab, 
 hearing thefe and other denunciations, rent hisclothes, 
 putfuckcloth ikpon hisflelh, and gaveoiher indications 
 of his forrow and repentance. But his repentance was 
 neither lincerc nor perfevering. Two years after thefc 
 things, Jehollupiiat kingof Judah came to Samaria 
 to viiit Ahab (chap, xxii.) at a time uhcn he was 
 preparing to attack Ramoth-gilead, which Ben-hadad 
 king (if Syria u'juflly with-held from him. The 
 king of Ifrael invited Jchofh.iphat to accompany him 
 in his expedition; which that princi agreed 'o do, 
 but dcfired that fonic prophet mi^hl lirll be eonfiltcd. 
 AhabthtrcforeaircmbkdtheprophcisofBa.il, inn jm- 
 ber about 400; who all concurred in exhorting the'.. iiisj 
 lomarchrcfoliitelya-aiiilllUmoth-gilead. BuiMicaiah 
 
 I ] AHA 
 
 being alfo confiilted, at Jehoftiaphat's fuggeflion, pro- 
 phcficd tiic ruinof Ahab. Upon this, Ahab gave orders 
 to his people to fieze Micaiab,and to carry him to Anion 
 the governor of the city, and to Joalh the king's fon ; 
 telling them in his name, << Fut this fellow in prifon, 
 and feed him with the bread of allliction, and with the 
 water of aHliciion, until 1 conic in peace." But Mi- 
 caiah faid, " If thou return at all in peace, the Lord 
 hath not fpokcnbyme." Ahab therefore and Jeholha- 
 phat marched up to Ramoth-gilead ; and the king of 
 ifrael faiduntojcholhaphat, I willdifguife myfelf, and 
 enter into the battle, but put thou on thy robes :" for 
 he knew that the kingof Syria had commanded two and 
 thirty captains ihat had rule over his chariots, faying, 
 " FighLneither with fmall nor with great, favc only 
 with the king of Ilrack)^' Thefe officers therefore ha- 
 ving obferved that Jehofliaphat was drelFed in royal 
 robes, took him for the king of Ifrael, and fell upon 
 him with great im pet uolity: but I his prince feeing him- 
 felf prelTcd fo clofely, cried out ; and the miilake be- 
 ing difcovered, the captains of the king of Syria gave 
 over purfuing him. But one of the Syrianarmy lliot a 
 random arrow which pierced the heart of Ahab. The 
 battle lailed the wliole day, and Ahab continued in his 
 chariot with his face turned towards the Syrians. In 
 the mean time, his blood was ftill ilfuing from his 
 wound, and falling in his chariot ; and towards the 
 evening he died : whereupon proclamation was made 
 by found of trumpet, that every man fliould return to 
 his own city and country. The king of Jfrael being 
 dead was carried to Samaria and biiried ; but his cha- 
 riot and the reins of hishorfes w-ere waflicd in the H(h- 
 pool of Samaria, and the dogs licked his blood, ac- 
 cording to the word of the prophet. Such being the . 
 end of Ahab; his fon Ahaziah facceeded him, in the 
 year of the world 3107. ■ 
 
 .AH..^TULA, the trivial name of a fpecics of the 
 coluber. See Coluber. 
 
 AHASUERUS, or Artaxerxes, the hulband of 
 Efther ; and according to archbirtiopUlherand F. Cal- 
 met, the feripture name for Darius, the fon of Hy ftaf- 
 pes, kingofPtrfia ; though Scaliger will have Xerxes 
 to be the hulband of Either, or th*^ Ahafuerus of ferip- 
 ture ; and Dr Prideaux believes him to be Arta.xcrxes 
 Longinianus. See Hrltory of Persia. 
 
 AH.AZ. king of Judah, the fon of Jothani, re- 
 markable for his vices and i:npieties. One of his fons 
 he conftcratcd, by making him pals through and pc- 
 rilh by the lire, in honour of the falfe godMo'.och ; 
 and he offered facritiecs and incenfe upon the high 
 places, upon hills, and in groves. Rczin king of Sy- 
 ria and Pekah king of Ifrael invaded Judea in the be- 
 ginning of the reign of Ahaz; and having defeated 
 his army and pillaged the country, they laid liege to 
 Jtrufalem. When they found that they coidd not 
 make thcmfelves mallersof that city .they divided their 
 army, plundered the country, and made the inhabitants 
 prifiuicrs of war. Rezin and his part of the cti. fede- 
 rate army marched with all their fpoil to Damafcus ; 
 but Pckah with his divilion of -ihc army h?ving at- 
 tacked Ahaz, killed I20,coo men of his army in one 
 battle, and carried away men, women-, and childicn, 
 without diDin>.Tion, to the number of 200,00c. But 
 as they were carrying thole captives to S uraria, the 
 prophet Odcd, with the principal inhabitants of the 
 T t 3 city.
 
 AHA 
 
 [ 33^ ] 
 
 A H I 
 
 city, caiiic out to nittt thcni ; and by ihiir rtmoii- 
 ilraces pitvailcd with tiicm to fci their prilbiicrs at 
 liiicrty. Atlhcfauic liii.c, lUe l^hililtiiics antl Edo- 
 uiites invaded other p^rtsoj his land, killed multitudes 
 oi' the people, and carried ort murh b^'oty. lit tJiis 
 diftrclFed eoiidilion, Ah:vz. finding no uther remedy for 
 his atfjirs, fent ainbaiiadors to riglathpililer king.of 
 the Allyrians ; and to engage him to his intercl>, he 
 ftripped the temple and city ot' all the gold which he 
 could meet with, and fent it as a prefcnt. Accor- 
 dingly Tiglith-pilf fcr marched to the afliftance of A- 
 haz, attacked Rczin and killed iiini, took his capital 
 Damafcus, dcllroyed it, and removed the inhabitants 
 thereof to Cyrene. 
 
 The misfortunes of this prince had no influence to 
 make him better: on the contrary, in the times of 
 his greatcll alflittion, he facriliccd to the Syrian 
 deities, whom he looked upon as the authors of 
 his calamities, and endeavoured to render propitious 
 to him, by honouring them in this manner. He broke 
 in pieces the velTels of the houfe of God, Ihut up the 
 gates of the temjile, and ere(5ted altars in all parts of 
 Jerufalera. He fct up altars likewifc in all the cities 
 otjudah, with a delign to offer inccnfe on them. Ai 
 length he died, and v/as buried in Jerufalem, but net 
 ia tlic fepulchres of the kings of Judah his predccef- 
 fors ; wliich honour he was deprived of, on account 
 of his iniquitous courfe of life. Hezekiahhisfon fuc- 
 cecded him in the year of the world 3278, before Je- 
 fus Chrift 726. 
 
 AHAZIAH, the fon and fucceffor of Ahab king of 
 Ifracl, reigned two years, part alone and part with his 
 father Ahab, who ordained him his alfociate in the 
 kingdom a year before his death. Ahaziah imitated 
 his father's impieties (i Kings xxii. 52, feq.), and 
 paid his adoration to Baal and Aflarte, the worlhipof 
 whom had been introduced in Ifrael by Jezebel his 
 mother. The Moabitcs, who had been always obecft- 
 ent to the kings of the ten tribes ever fiuce their fc- 
 paration from the kingdom of Judah, revolted after 
 the death of Ahab, and refufed to pay the ordinary 
 tribute. Ahaziah had not Icifurc or power to reduce 
 them (2 Kings i. l, 2, &c.) : for about the fame time, 
 having fallen through a lattice from the top of his 
 houfe, he hurt himfelf conliderably, and fent melfen- 
 gcrs to Ekron, in order to confult Baalzebub, the 
 god of that place, whether he Ihould recover of the 
 indifpoliiiou occafiontd by this accident. But the 
 prophet Eljah went to Ahaziah, and declared that he 
 Ihould not recover from his illnefs; and accordingly 
 he died in the year of the world 5158, and Jehoram 
 his brother fuccecded to the crown. 
 
 Ahaziah, king of Judah, the fon of Jehoram and 
 Athaliah, fucceeded his father in the kingdom of Ju- 
 dah in the year of the world ^i 19. He walked in the 
 ways of Ahab's houfe, to which he was allied, his 
 mother being of that family. He reigned only one 
 year, being llain by Jehu the fon of Mnill.i. 
 
 AHEAD, a fea-term, fignifying further onward 
 than the lliip, or at ••ny diftance before her, I3 ing im- 
 mediately on that point of the conipafs to which her 
 ftem is directed. It is ufcd in oppofition to ajhrn, 
 which expreiTcs the fituatiou of any object behind the 
 (hip. Sec Astern, 
 
 AlIICCYATLI, in zoology, the Indian name of AMccy.-.tli 
 a ferpcnt reft mbliugthcratllc-fnake, only it wants the I 
 
 rattles. It is as fatal in tflc cffecl of the poifou as any Ahitui-licl. 
 known fpccies of ferpent. ' 
 
 AHIJAH, the piophtt of Shilo. He is thought 
 to lie llic perfou who fpoke twice to Solomon from 
 God, once v. liile he was building the temple ( i Kings 
 vi. II.), and which time he promifed him his protec- 
 tion ; and at anotlicr time [id. xi. 6.) after his falling 
 into all his irregularities, when God cxprell'ed his in- 
 dignation with great thrcatnings and reproaches. A- 
 hij jh was one of thoft who wrote the annals or hiftory 
 of this prince (2 Chr. ix. 29.). The fame prophet 
 declared to Jeroboam that he would ufurp the king- 
 dom (i Kings ix. 29, &c.),and that two heit'crs Ihould 
 alienate him from the Lord, meaning thegoldcn calves 
 cre(^ed by Jeroboam, one at Dan, the other at Bethel. 
 About the end of Jeroboam's reign, towards the year 
 of the world 3046, Abijah the fon of that prince fell 
 fick ; upon which Jerobo. m fent his wife to this pro- 
 phet to inquire what would become of the child. The 
 queen therefore went to Aliijah's houfe in Shilo, difgui- 
 I'cd : But thcpropliet, upon hearing the found of her feet, 
 faid, "Come in, thou wife of Jeroboam, why feigneft 
 tb'>u thyfelf tobe another? for I am fent to thee with 
 heavy tidings." Then he commanded her to go and 
 tell Jeroboam all the evil that the Lord had declared he 
 would bring upon his houfe for his impieties ; that fo 
 foon as (he would enter into the city her fon Abijah 
 fliould die, and Ihould be the only one of Jeroboam's 
 houfe that Ihould come to the grave or receive the ho- 
 nours of a burial. Ahijahiu all probability did not long 
 furvive the time of this lalf pro|)hecy ; but with the 
 time and manner of his death we arc not acquainted. 
 
 AHITOPHEL, a native of Gillo, was for fome 
 time the connfellor of king David, whom he at length 
 deferted, by joining in the rebcllionof Abfalom. This 
 prince, upon his being preferred to the crown by the 
 greateft part of thelfraclites, fent for Ahitophcl from 
 Gillo (2 Sam. xv. 12.) to atiift him with his advice in 
 the prefcnt Hate of his affairs : for at that time Ahi- 
 tophel's counfels were received as the oracles of God 
 himfelf (chap. .\vi. ult.). Nothing gave David more 
 uneafinefs than this event ; and when Hufhai his friend 
 came to wait on him and attend him in his flight, he 
 intreated him to return rather to Jerufalem, make a 
 Ihow of offering his fervices to Abfalom, and endea- 
 vour to fruflrate the prudent nieafurcs which fhould 
 be propofed by Ahitophcl. When Abfalom was come 
 to Jenifalera, he delired Ahitophcl to deliberate with 
 his other counfellors upon the meafures which were 
 proper for him to take. Ahitophcl adviftd him in the 
 firll place toabufe his father's concubines; fothat when 
 his party (liould underfland that he had diflionoured 
 his father in this manner, they might conclude that 
 there were no hopes of a reconciliation, and therefore 
 efpoufe his inttrcftmorerefniutcly. A tent, therefore, 
 being prepared for this pi.rpofe upon the tcrrafs of 
 the kings jEla-c, Abfalom, in the fight of all Ifrael, 
 lay V. ith Ms lather's concubines. The next thing A- 
 hitophcl propofed v.a in the terms following: "Let 
 ir.e now choofeoiit 12, coo men, and I v. ill arife and 
 purf :e after David thii night, and I will come upon him 
 while he is weary and weak-handed, and I will make 
 
 him
 
 A H U 
 
 r 333 ] 
 
 A J A 
 
 Alimelli liin afrai.l, and all the people tlia: arc witli him fliall 
 II tiif, and i v.'ill linitc the king only ; anii I will bring 
 Ai. Ijjj.^^ Jill the ptoiilc unto thtc ; t)ic man whom thou 
 ' *' fttktlt is as ilall returned ; foall the people Ihali be 
 in peace." Tliisadvice wasvcry agreeable to Abfalom 
 a.iddll the eldcrsof Ifracl. However, Abfalom dcfired 
 lluiaai to be called to jiave his opinion. K'ulhai being 
 come, and hearing what advice Ahitophel had given, 
 i'aid. The connfel which Ahitophel has given is not 
 good at this time ; what, for the prefcnt, in my opin- 
 ion, may do better, is this : let all Ifracl be gathered 
 u t J thee, form Dan even to Bcrflicba, as the fand that 
 is by the fra for multitude, and put thyfclf in the midfl 
 of them, and wiiercver David is, wc may fall upon 
 him, and overwhelm him with our numbers, as the 
 dew falleth upon the ground. This lalt advice being 
 rsiore agreeable to Abfalomand all the elders of Ifrael, 
 Was preferred; upon which Ahitophel fadilled hisafs, 
 went to his houfe at Gillo, hanged himfelf, and was 
 buried in the fepulchrc of his fathers. He forcTiw, 
 without doubt, all that would happen in confequence 
 of Hulhai's advice, and wasdetcrniined to prevent the 
 death which he had deferved,and which David would 
 probably have inflicted on him, as foon as he fliould be 
 jcfcttled on Iiis throne. 
 
 AHMELLA, in botany. See Bidens. 
 
 AHOLIBAH and Ah ol ah, arc two feigned names 
 inadc ufe of by Ezekicl (xxiii. 4.) to denote the two 
 kingdoms ofjudahand Samaria. Aholah and Aho- 
 libahare reprefentedas two lifters of Egyptian extrac- 
 tion. Aliolah ftands for Samaria, and Aholibah for 
 Jerufalem. The firft fignifies a tc/it ; and the fccond, 
 tny tent IS in her. They both proftituted thcmfclvcs 
 to the Egyptians and Aifyrians, in imitating their 
 abominations and idolatries : fer which rcafon they 
 were abandoned to tliofe very people for whom they 
 had lltown fo p.iflionate and fo impure an afTeftion ; 
 ihey were carried into captivity, and reduced to the 
 fevereft fervitude. 
 
 AHOUAI, in botany, a fynonimc and alfo the 
 trivial name of the fpccies of Cerbera. 
 
 A-HULL, in the fea-lai'.guage, the fiiuaiion of a 
 fliipwhen all her fails are furled on aconnt of the vio- 
 lence of theftorm, and when having lalhed hrrhclm 
 on the lec-ride,flie lies nearly with herlidctoihe wind 
 and fea, her head being Ibmewhat inclined to the di- 
 ledtioii of the wind. 
 
 AHUN, a town in France, in the Upper Marche 
 and generality of Moulins, and is a royal jiirifdi<Stion. 
 It is feated on the riverCreufe, nearaBcncdicline ab- 
 bey of the fame name, eight miles fouth-eaft of Cue- 
 ret, 50 north-eaft of Lomages, and jj fouth-eafl of 
 Woulins. E. Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 49. J. 
 
 AHL'YS, a town of Swceden. It is fmall, but very 
 ftrong by iis liiuation, and has a good port. It is in 
 the principality of Gothland, in the territory of Blec- 
 kingy, near the Balti'- fea, about iR miles from Chrif- 
 lianltadt. E. Lonj;. 14. 10. N. Lat. 56. 20. 
 
 AI, (anc.gcog.) a town in Judea, to the north of 
 Jericho, called A-rs by Jofcphus, and the inhabitants 
 Atiiatie. Jortiua h;.ving fciit a detachment of ;ooo 
 men againft Ai,God permiiicd them to be repnlfed on 
 accountof Acliaii's fin, who had viokied iheanjihcma 
 pronounced againft the lity of Jericho. But after the 
 expiation of this oti'cuct, God cummaiulcd Jolhua 
 
 (chap. \iii.> to march with the whole arrryof the If- 
 raclitcs ngainft Ai, and treat thisciiy and the kingdom 
 thereof as he had treated Jericlio,w)il) this difference, 
 that he gave the plunder of the town to the people. 
 Jodiua fcnt by nigiit 30,000 men to lie in ambulh be- 
 hind Ai ; having iirlt well inftruded thofe who had 
 the command of them in what they were to do ; and 
 the next day, early in the morning, he marched againft 
 the city witii the remainder of his army. The king 
 of Ai perceiving them, failicd haftiiy out of the town 
 witli all his people, and fell ujjon the forces of the If- 
 raclites ; who upon thciirftonfct ficd, as if they had 
 been under fomc great terror. 
 
 As foon as Jolhua faw the enemyallout of the gates, 
 he railed his Ihicld upon the top of a pike, which was 
 the (igiial given to the ambufcade ; whereupon they 
 immediately entered the place, which they found 
 without defence, and fct fire to it. The people of Ai 
 perceiving the fmoke afccnding, were willing to re- 
 turn, but difcovered thofe who had fet fire to the city 
 in their rear, while Jolhua and thofe who were wiih. 
 him turning about, tell upon them, and cut them ia 
 pieces. The king was taken alive, and afterwards 
 put to death. 
 
 The chevalier Folard obferves, that Jolhaa's enter- 
 prife on Ai, excepting in fomc particulars of military 
 an, is very like that of Gibeah, which is fcarce any 
 thing more than a copy of it. It would appear, fays 
 that writer, by the fcripture account, that Jolhua was 
 not the author of the ftratageni made ufe of by him : 
 for when God dircfts himfelf to Joftnia, he fays, ' Go 
 ' up againft Ai ; lay an ambufcade behind the town ; \ 
 ' have delivered tlic king and the people of5t into thine 
 ' hands :' yet notwithftanding this, God might leave 
 the whole glory of the invention and execution of it to 
 him, as to a great general. ' Jolliua arofe.' fays the 
 facrcd author, ' and all the people of war, to go up a- 
 ' gainft Ai (verfe 5.) ; and Jolhua chofc out 30,000 
 ' mighty mcnof valour, and fcnt them away by night.* 
 Folard remarks, that there is a manifeftcontradidion 
 between this verfe and the 12th, wherein it is faid, 
 that Jolhua chofe out joomen, whom he fent to lie in 
 ambulh, beiween Bethel and Ai. How is this to be 
 reconciled ? Calmet fays, that Malius allows but joco 
 men for the ambufcade, and 2j,ooo for the attack of 
 the city, being perfuadej that an army of 600,000 
 men could only create confufionon thisoccalion, with- 
 out any ncccffity for, or advantage in, fuch numbers: 
 but the generality of interpreters, continues Calmet, 
 acknowledge two bodioe to be placed in ambufcade, 
 both bctw^n Bethel and Ai j one of 25,000, and the 
 other of jooo men. 
 
 With regard to the fignal Jolhua made to that part 
 of his army which lay in ambufcade, the learned Fo- 
 lard cnibraccsthe opinion of the Rabbins, who believe 
 what Is called the fliicld to be too fmall to ferve for a 
 fignal : hence they make it to be the fluff of one of 
 their colours : from this, our author concludes, that 
 the whole colours were ufed on the occalion ; for in 
 the Afiatic ilyle, which is very near the poetic, the 
 part IS oftentimes to be taken for the whole. 
 
 AJALON, (anc. gfog.) a town of the tribe of 
 Dan, one of the Levitical. Another ia tlie tribe 
 of Benjamin, in whofc valley Jolhua commanded llic 
 moon to iland Hill, being then In her dccrcafe, an.l 
 
 con-
 
 A I C 
 
 [ 334 ] 
 
 A I G 
 
 conftqiiciuly to be fccii ;it die fame limc with the 
 fun. 
 
 AJAN, .1 coaft and country ot' Africa, has the ri- 
 ver ^iiilmauci on thcfovith; thrniouniainsfrom which 
 that river fprings, on the welt j Abyliinia, or Kihio- 
 pia, and the (Iraight of Babclniandel, on the nonh ; 
 and the callcrn, or Indian ocean, on the eaft. The 
 coartabounds wii hall ncceliariesof life, and hasplcnty 
 of very good horfcs. The kings of Ajan arc often at 
 war with the emi'cror ofihe Abyliincs ; and all the pri- 
 fonersihey take they ftlitothemcrchantsof Cambaya, 
 tliofe of Aden, and other Arabs, who conic to trade 
 in their harbours, and give them in exchange, colour- 
 ed cloths, glafs-beads, raifins, and dates ; for which 
 they alio take back, befidcs llaves, gold and ivory. 
 The whole fea-coaft, from Zaugnebar to the ftraiglit 
 of iiabclmandel, is called thecoall of Ajan ; and a coi'.- 
 fiderablc part of it is ftyled the Dcfert-coaft. 
 
 AjAX, the foil of Oileus, was oiieof th^principal 
 generals that went to the iiege of Troy : he raviflitd 
 CalFandra the daughter of I'riam, even in the temple 
 of Minerva, where Ihc thought to have taken fanc- 
 tuary. It is laid, he made a ferpent of fifteen feet 
 long fo familiar with him, that it eat at his table, and 
 followed him like a dog. The Locrians had a fingu- 
 lar veneration for his memory. 
 
 AjAX, the fon of Telamon, was, next to Achilles, 
 the molt valiant general among the Greeks at the (iege 
 of Troy : he commanded the troops of Salamis, and 
 performed many great adions, of which we have an 
 account in the Iliad, '\nDi£lys Cr^tenfis, and in the 23d 
 book of Ovid's Metamorphofes. He was fo enraged 
 that the amis of Achilles were adjudged to Ulylfes, 
 that he immediately became mad. The Greeks paid 
 great honours to him after his death, and creftcd a 
 magnificent monument to his memory upon tlie pro- 
 montory of Rhetium. 
 
 AjAX, inantiquity, a furious kind of dance, in ufc 
 among the Grecians ; intended to rcprefcnt the niad- 
 ncls of that hero after his defeat by Ulylfes, to wliom 
 the Greeks had given the preference in his conteft for 
 Achilles's arms. Lucian, in his treatile of Dancing, 
 
 fpeaksof dancingthc y4jiix There was alfoan annual 
 
 feart called /fjantia, Ai«tTf/«, confccrated to that prince, 
 and obfervcd with great folemnity in the illand of Sa- 
 lamis, as well as in Attica ; where, in memory of tlie 
 valour of Ajax, a bier was expofcd, fetout with a 
 complete fet of armour. 
 
 AJA7.ZO, a fea-port town of the illand of Corfi- 
 ca, in the Mediterranean, with a bifliop's fee. Long. 
 26. 35. Lat. 41. 40. 
 
 AjEzzo, a fea-port town of Natolia, in the pro- 
 vince of Caraniania, anciently Silelia, feated on the 
 coaft of the Mediterranean, 30 miles north of Antiocli 
 and 50 weft of Aleppo, where the city of IITus anci- 
 ently ftood, and near which Alexander fought his fe- 
 cond battle with Darius. Long. 33. 10. Lat. 37. o. 
 
 AICHSTAT, a town of Germany, in Franconia, 
 and capital of a bifliopric of the fame name. It is 
 remarkable for a curious piece of workmanfliip, called 
 thefunof the Holy Sacrament, which is in the church : 
 it is of malTy gold, of great weight, and is enriched 
 with 350 diamonds, 1400 pearls, 250 rubies, and o- 
 ther precious ftones. This place is moderately large, 
 and feated in a valley on the wver Akmul, 10 miles N. 
 
 of Newburgh, and 57 S. of Nuremberg. E. Lon. ri. Aicul-ouj 
 10. N. Lat. 49. o. The bilhopricis 45 milesin lengih I 
 
 and 17 inbreadih jandthc billiop is chancellor of the Aiguillon. 
 church of Mayence or Mentz. ' " ' 
 
 AICUROUS, afpecics of parrot. See Psittacur. 
 
 AID, in a general fenfe, denotes any kind of allift- 
 anee given by one perfouto another. 
 
 Aid, in law, denotes a petition made in court to 
 call in help from another perfoirwho has intcrcll in 
 land, or any other thing conteftcd. 
 
 Aio-dc-cuwp, in military affairs, an officer employ- 
 ed to receive and carry the orders of a general. 
 
 ^in, Aiixiliuni, in ancient cuftoms, a fubfidy paid 
 by vaflals to their lord on certain occailons. Such were 
 the aid of relief, paid upon the death of the Lord 
 Mefne to his heir ; the aid c'mvut, or capital aid, due 
 to the chief lord on fevcral occafons, as, to make his 
 eldelt fon a knight, to make up a portion for marry- 
 ing his daughter. See. 
 
 AIDS, in the Krenclt cnftonis, certain duties paid 
 on all goods exported or imported into that kingdom. 
 
 Court cf Aids, in France, a iovereign court efta- 
 bliflied in fcvcral cities, whickhas cognizance of all 
 caufes relating to the ta-xes, gabelks, and aids, impo- 
 fed on fcveral forts of commodities, efpecially wine. 
 
 Aids, in the manege are the fame with what fome 
 writers call cherij})iiigs, and ufed to avoid the neceflity 
 
 of correilions The inner hctl,innerlcg, inner rein. 
 
 See. are called inner aids ; as the outer heel, outer leg, 
 outer rein, &c. are called outer aids. 
 
 AIDAN, a famous Scottifli bilhop of Lindisfarnc, 
 or Holy Illand, in the 7th century, was employed by 
 Ohvald king of Northumberland in the couverlion of 
 the Engliflt, in which he was very fuccefsful. He died 
 in 651. 
 
 AIGHENEDALE, the name of a liquid meafurc 
 ufed ill Lancafliire, containing feven quarts. 
 
 AIGLE, a bailwick in the territory of Romand 
 in Swilferland, confifts of mountains and valleys, the 
 principal of which are the Aigle and Bex. Through 
 thcfe is the great road from Vallais into Italy. When 
 you pafs by Villencuve, which is at the head of the 
 lakcofGencva, you enter in to a deep valley three miles 
 wide, bordered on one fide with The Alps of Swilfer- 
 land, and on the other with thofe of Savoy, and croflcd 
 by the river Rhone. Sixmilesfrom thence you meet 
 with Aigle, a large town, feated on a wide part of the 
 valley, where there are vineyards, fields, and meadows. 
 The governor'scaftle isonanemincnce that overlooks 
 the town, and has a lofty marble tower. This govern- 
 ment has nine large parilhes ; and is divided into four 
 parts, Aigle, Bex, Olon, and Ormont. This lalf is 
 among tlie mountains, and joins to Rouegmeiit. It 
 is a double valley, abounding in pailure-land. Ivor- 
 na, in the diftriclof Aigle, was in part buried by the 
 fall ofamountain,occalioned by an earthquake in 1584. 
 
 Aic tE,a fniall town, in France, in Upper JSorman- 
 dy, twenty-three miles from D'Evereux, and thirty- 
 eight from Rouen. It is furrounded with walls and 
 ditches,has fix gates, three fuburbs,and three parilhes. 
 It trades in corn, toys,and more particularly in needles 
 and pins, E. Long. i. 5. N. Lat. 48. 35. 
 
 AIGUILLON, a fmall town in France in the pro- 
 vince ofGuienne, fituateJ at the conflux of the rivers 
 Garonne and Lot. 
 
 Ai-
 
 A I L 
 
 [ 335 ] 
 
 A 1 R 
 
 AIGUISCE, in heraldry, denotes a crofs with its 
 four ends rtiarpeiicd, but ib as to terminate in obtiifc 
 angles. — It ditl'ers from the crofs fitchcc, in as niucli 
 ' as the latter tapers by degrees to a point, and the for- 
 mer only at the ends. 
 
 AILANA, Aii.ATH, or Ahei-Oth, anciently a 
 town of Arabia Peiraea, fitiiated near the Sinus Kla- 
 liites of the Red Sea. It was alfo called Elath, and 
 Eloth, (Stephanas, Strabo, Mofcs.) The fame with 
 Elaua. 
 
 AILE, in law, a writ which lies where a perfon's 
 grandfather, or great grand-father, being feizcd of 
 lands, &c. in fee limple, the day that he died, and a 
 flranger abates and enters the fame day,anddifpofleircs 
 the heir of his inheritance. 
 
 AILESBURY, AvLESBURV, or Aif.seurt, a bo- 
 rough town in Buckinghamniirc, confifling of about 
 /jOohoufcs. Itconlirtsoffcver.il Ilreets, though the 
 houfesare not very contiguous : thcfclie round about 
 the market-place, in the middle of which is a conve- 
 nient hall, where the feffions are held, and fomctimes 
 the aflizes for the county. It fends two members to 
 Parliament: has a market on Saturdays: and three 
 fairs for cattle, viz. on the Saturday before Palm- 
 funday, June 14th, and September 25th. It is fixty 
 miles fonth-caftof Buckingham, and forty-four north- 
 wcfl of London. \V. Long. o. 40. N. lat. jr. 40. 
 
 AILMER,or j4^thelmare, Earl ofCornwall, and 
 Devonfliirc, in the reign of king Edgar. It is not 
 known of what family he was. His authority and 
 riches \verc great, and fo alfo in appearance was his 
 piety. He founded the abbey of Cerne, in Dorfet- 
 fhire; and had fo great a veneration for Eadwald, the 
 brother of St Edmund tlie martyr, who had lived a 
 hermit in that country, near the lilver well, as they 
 called it, that, with the alfillance of Archbifliop Dun- 
 flan, he tranllated his relics to the old church of 
 Cernel. In 1016, when Canute, the fon of Suane, in- 
 vaded England, and found hinifelf ftoutly oppofed by 
 that valiant Saxon prince Edmund Ironlidc, the fon 
 of Althelred, the Earl Ailmcr, with that arch traitor 
 Eadric Strcone, Earl of ]\Icrcia, and EarlAlgar, join- 
 ed the Dane againfl their natural prince, which was 
 one great caufc of the Saxons ruin. He did not long 
 furvivcthis ; and we find mentioned inhiflory onlyone 
 fon of his, whofc name was jtthelward, Earl of Corn- 
 well, who followed his father's maxims, and was pro- 
 perly rewarded for it. For in ioi8, Canute reaping 
 the benefit of their treafons, and perceiving that the 
 traitors were no longer ufeful, hecaufed the infamous 
 Eadric Strcone, and this Earl itthelward, to be both 
 put to death. 
 
 AILRED, or Ealred, abbot of Rcve/by in Lin- 
 colniliire, in the reigns of Stephen and Henry II. He 
 was born in 1109, of a noble family, and educated in 
 Scotland with Henry the fon of king David. On his 
 return to England, he became a monkof ihcCiftcrtian 
 order, in the monaftcryof Reve(by,of wliich heafter- 
 wards was made Abbot. He died on the 12th of Ja- 
 nuary 1 166, aged 57, and was buried in his mona- 
 flery. << He was (faysLeland) in great erteem du- 
 ringhislifc; celebrated for the miracles wrought after 
 his death ; and admitted into the catalogue of faints. ' 
 He was author of fcveral works ; mort of u hich were 
 pnblilhed by Gilbo the Jcfuic at Douay, 1631 ; p-irt 
 
 of them may be alfo found in tlie Bibit'AhccaCiprtiin- 
 fii and BiblUtheca Paiiiiiu. His principal work is the 
 Speculum churitatis. Lcland, Bale, and Pits, mention 
 fevcral manufcrips which were never publilhed. 
 
 AILSA, an infulaicd rock on the weflern coaft of 
 Scotland, between the Ihorcs of Airlhire and Caniirc. 
 It is two miles in circumference at the bafe, is acccf- 
 fible only atone place, and rifes to a great height in a 
 pyramidical form. A few goats and rabits pick up 
 a fublillcncc among the fliort grafs and furze ; but the 
 importance of ihcrock conlifts in the great variety and 
 boundltfs numbers of birds, by which it is frequented, 
 particularly the ganncts or folan-geefe, whofe young 
 arc ufed at the bell tables, and bring a good price. 
 Other birds are caught for their feathers. The rock 
 is rented from the Earl of Caflilis at L.jj/tr ar.nuui. 
 The depth of the water around the bafe is from 7 to 4S 
 fathoms. It is furroundcd with excellent banks, well 
 flocked with cod and other white filh. 
 
 AINSWORIH (Dr Henry), an eminent noncon- 
 formifl divine, who, about the year 1590, dirtinguifh- ' 
 cd himfelf among the Brownills ; which drew upon 
 him fuch troubles that he was obliged to retire to 
 Holland, and became minillcr of a church at Amfter- 
 dam. Hisfkill in the Hebrew language, and his ex- 
 cellent Annotations on the Holy Scriptures, which arc 
 ftill highly elleemed, gained him great reputation. He 
 alfo wrote fcveral pieces in defence of thcBrownifts, 
 and fcveral other works. 
 
 AiNswoRTH (Robert), born at Woodyale in Lan- 
 cafhirc in 1660, was mailer of a boarding-fchool at 
 Bethnal-green, from whence he removed to Hackney, 
 and to other places in the neighbourhood of London. 
 After acquiring a moderate fortune, he retired, and 
 lived privately till the time of his death, whichhappcn- 
 ed in i 745. We are indebted to him for the bc!l La- 
 tin and Englifli Dictionary extant , he publilhed it in 
 quarto i7;6 ; and in 1752, the fourth edition, under 
 the care of Doilor Ward of Grefliam, College, and the 
 Rev. William Youngc, wasenlargcd to two vols folio. 
 AIR, in natural philofophy, a thin fluid, cladic, 
 tranfpirent, ponderous, comprcflible, and dilatable bo- 
 dy, furrounding the terraqueous globe to a conliderable 
 height. See Aerology, Atmosphere, and Pnel- 
 
 MATICS. 
 
 Ivipngnatlon ef Water with Fixed Air, and with 
 Sulphureous Air. See Mineral Waters. 
 
 Air, in Medicine, &c. makes one of the fix non- 
 naturals — From obfervations on bleeding in rheuma- 
 tifms, and after taking cold, it is evident, the air can 
 enter with all its qualities, and vitiate the whole tex- 
 ture of the blood, and other juices From the palfies, 
 
 vertigocs,and other nervous alfcc'lionscaufed by damps, 
 mines, &c. it is evident, that air thus qualified can re- 
 lax and obllrucl the whole nervous fyflem. And froni 
 the colics, fluxes, coughs, and confumptions produced 
 by damp, muirt and nitrous air, it is evident it can 
 corrupc and fpoil the noble organs, &c. 
 
 Lirculatifju cf AiR in Kocvii. To render the circu- 
 lation of air fenfiblc,kt the air of a room be heated by 
 aftrong fire, whilrt theairof a contiguous room is cold j 
 then let the door betw-cen the two rooms be opened, 
 in which cafe the hot air of one room being lighter, 
 will pafs thro>igh the upper part of theopening of the 
 door into the cold room: and^ 011 the contrary, the 
 
 c»ld 
 
 Alfd 
 I 
 
 Air-
 
 A I R 
 
 [ 336 ] 
 
 A I R 
 
 A'lr. eold air of the other room being heavier, « ill pafs into 
 — >'""' the former room iliroiigU the lower part of the open- 
 ing ; accorJingly, it will be found, that applying a 
 lighted candle at the top, in the middle, and at the 
 lower part of the opening between the two rooms, i 
 flrong current of air will appear to pafs from the hot 
 into the cold room litar the top; a comrary current 
 of air will appear to pafs from liie latter into the lor- 
 mcr room near the lower part of the faid opening ; 
 whilA in the middle there is little or no motion at all, 
 as may be clearly perceived by the direction of the 
 riamc of iiie candle. 
 
 Itis forthefanie reafon that when the fireislightej 
 in a chimney, a rtrong current of air is occalioned to 
 enter tlic room, which may be felt by applying the 
 hand near the key-hole, or other fuch fnull openings, 
 if the doors and windows arc ihut; for the ajr over 
 the fire being heated, btconics lighter, and »fcends in- 
 to the chimney, confequently other Lolder air nuill 
 fiipply its place, which forces its way tlu-ough all the 
 fniall openings it can find. Were a room with a fire 
 in it to be perfectly clofed, excepting the chimney, the 
 air in it would foon become unwholclome for rcfpira- 
 tion, and the fire would be foim extinguilhed, befides 
 other inconveniences. Hence it appears, that thofe 
 perfons raillake who expe>?t to keep the air of a room 
 fweetand wholefome, efpecially forconvalcfcents, by 
 accurately flopping all the fmalleft openings that ad- 
 mit frelli air. When the current of air that enters in- 
 to a room is on fome fide of it where it falls imme- 
 diately upon the perfons who fit in the room, then it 
 juay be otfenfive, efpecially to delicate conftilutions. 
 In that cafe, fuch opening (hould be clofed : but at the 
 fame time another opening fhould be made tor admit- 
 ting frcfli air, in another more convenient part ; for a 
 circulation of air, efpecially in rooms where a fire is 
 kept, is not only falutary and ufeful, but is abfoluiely 
 necelFary. 
 
 In an ingenious publication, intitled, y/ PraSlical 
 Tnatife on Chimmys, there are the following remarks 
 relating 10 the propercll method of admitting air into 
 a room, and of expelling the contaminated-air. The 
 author, diredling to make a vent-hole near the top of 
 the room, in order to expel the heated and contami- 
 nated air, " this," fays he " might be done by means 
 of a fniall tube opening into the room, cither in or 
 near the ceiling ; which might either be carried to the 
 top of the building, or be made to communicate with 
 the external air by a fmail perforation through the 
 wall at the roof of the room ; by means nf cither of 
 which, a proper circulation would be eltabliflied, and 
 the foul air be carried oft. 
 
 " For the fire v.ould no fooner have warmed any 
 particles of air within the room, than thefc would be - 
 greatly expanded, and rife immediattly upwards, foas 
 to hll the higher parts of the room w iih rarefied air ; 
 and as other pai titles would be fucceliivily heated and 
 rarefied in their turn, by their expanltve force they 
 would prtfs upon the fides of the apartment in every 
 place, lb as to force the lightell particles through the 
 opening left for that purpofc in the top of the loom j 
 by which means the foulcft air would be gradually 
 drawn ott', without defcending again into the lower 
 regions to the annoyance of the company." 
 
 But in order to admit frclh air into tberoom, '« Let,'*- 
 fays he, " another opening be made in the ceiling of 
 the room, having a communicaiion with a fmall pipe 
 that fhould lead from thence either to the outfidc of 
 ilic wall, or to any otherpartof the building tliat might 
 be judged more convcuieiu, where it (hould be bent, 
 and condiKted downwards, till it reached the ground ; 
 where it ihould be left open, to communicate with the 
 external air. — In this fituation the cool external air 
 would be forced in at the lower opening of the tube, 
 and made to afcend into the apartment in proportion 
 to the quantity that efcaped towards the higher regions 
 by means of the ventilator. And as that weighty air 
 wo.ild no fooner enter the room, that it would tend 
 towards the floor by its own natural gravity, it would 
 gradually mix with the heated air in its dcfcent — be- 
 come, in fome meafure, warmed by that means, and^ 
 equally difperled through the room, fo as llowly and 
 imperceptibly to reach the candles and the company in 
 the room, and fupply them with a fntlicicnt quantity 
 offreQiand wholcfunieair, without the inconveniences 
 to which the company are fubjecled by the ufual way 
 of admitting frelh air (a). For if it enters near the 
 floor of the apartment, it is hurried along in a rapid un- 
 divided flreara icvards the fire-place, and flriking upon 
 the legs and inferior parts of the body, att'cds them 
 with a llrong fenfation of cold. To overcome the ef- 
 fe>;ts of this, large fires mufl be kept ; by which other 
 parts of the body are warmed to an extraordinary de- 
 gree, which is prodiiiitive of mod of thofe diforders 
 that are pernicious to the young, and often prove fa- 
 tal to the old, during the winter-feafon, in thefe cold 
 regions. 
 
 '< Thus might our apartments be kept conftantly, 
 and moderately, and equally warm, at a moderate ex- 
 pence, without cndasgcring our health on the one 
 hand, by refpiring a confined, flagnant, and putrid air, 
 or, on the other hand, by fubjeilingourfelves to fuch 
 danger of catching colds, confumptions, and rheumatic 
 complaints, by being expofed to fuch exceedingly un- 
 
 cquai 
 
 Air. 
 
 (a) Such readers as have been little accuftomed to fpeculations of this fort, will be at a lofs to comprehend 
 in what manner two heles, both of them in the roof the room, and communicating w ith the air, without any 
 ralve, or other contrivance, for opening or clofing of themfelves, lliojld yet anfwer the two very oppofitc pur- 
 pofes; one, of conftantly bringing cool air into the room without emitting any warm air — and the other, of as 
 oonftantly emitting warm and admitting no cool air. They will pleafe to advert, that the one of thefe tubes 
 communicates with the atmofphere at the bottom of the lioufe, and the other towards the top : the opening of 
 the one is beneath the level of the room, that of the other above it. Now, as the air is more denfc at the fur- 
 face of the ground than at any height above it, the warm rarefying air will naturally illue at that opening where 
 it meets with lead refinance, which mufl: invari.ibly be through that which opcnsto the external air at the great- 
 eft height ; and as the cool air will naturally be preiled into the room by that opening where the air is moft 
 tveighty, this muft invariably be by that which is neareft the farfacc of the earth.
 
 A I R 
 
 [ 337 ] 
 
 A I R 
 
 Air ciiiial degrees of heat and cold, as arc unavoiJ,;blc 
 I where our apartments are lb open as to admit a ready 
 
 Air-gun. paiiagc to the external airdnring the wintcr-feafon. 
 
 """*" " The reader v/ill eaiily perceive, that all that has 
 
 been hcrefaid hasa reference only to thofeapartnitnts 
 in cold climates, and rigorous weather, where fire to 
 warm them becomes nccciHiry. lu warmer regions, or 
 during the fummer-feafon, therccau be iioobjedion to 
 the wheel-ventilator in the window. — It is a limplc 
 contrivance, and a fafe aad ctTectoal mean of prefcrving 
 the air in our apartments iwcet and wholefome at that 
 ftafon. 
 
 It is a vulgar error among many people, to believe 
 that fire purifies the contaminated air, by dcftroying 
 the noxious particles mixed with it ; and for this rea- 
 fon they think, that the fire kept in a room where the 
 air is tainted, purities the room, by rendering the air 
 in it again fit for rcfpiration. Indeed, a fire kept in a 
 room or apartment where the air is tainted, as is the 
 cafe with hofpiials, goals, and the like, does certainly 
 purify thcapartmciu, and the pra<5tice is very ufeful ; 
 but this cifccl is only becaufc the fire promotes the 
 circulation of t lie air, and dries the dampnefs of rooms, 
 furniture. Sec. fo that it is not the infected air that is 
 purified, but is new, frelh,and wholefome air, that by 
 theactionof the fire has taken the place of the infcded 
 air ; which infc:fed air, being rarefied by the heat, 
 has been expelled from the apartment. Fire and com- 
 buftion in general is fo far from purifying contami- 
 nated air, that it actually contaminates a prodigious 
 quantity of it in a Ihort time j fo that not only a com- 
 mon fire, but even a lighted candle, when kept in a 
 wcU-clofed room, wherein the external air has not a 
 free accefs, inftead of purifying, renders the air of that 
 room noxious. 
 
 Jiijtrummt jor afccrtainirig the Purity or Whal:fume- 
 n;J'i of rifpirable Air. See Eudiometer. 
 
 AIR Balloons, a general name given to bags of 
 any light fubflance filled with inflammable air, or other 
 permanently claflic fluid, whofe fpecific gravity iscon- 
 liderablylefs than that of common atmofphcricair. The 
 confcquenceof their beingfilkd in this manneris, that if 
 they are of any cUnfidcrablc magnitude, they afcenJin 
 the air to an amazing height ; and will not only afcend 
 in this manner by theinfelves, but carry up along with 
 them great weights, and continue to rife till they at- 
 tain an height in which the circumambient air isof the 
 fame fpecific gravity with themfclves. In this litua- 
 tion thty will cither float or be driven in the direction 
 of the wind or current of air in which they arc expo- 
 fed, remaining in thefe f Icvated regions till the fluid 
 cfcapcs by the burning of the bags from the fuperior 
 clailicily of the fluid, or by its gradual evaporation 
 through the pores of the envelope. The hiflory, prin- 
 ciples, &c. of thofe machines are detailed under the ar- 
 ticle Aerostation'. 
 
 AtR-Btad.i:r^ in filhes. See Co .mparative Ana- 
 tomy, chap. iii. atul Ichthyology. 
 
 Mate X. jiiR-Ciiin, a pntutnatic machine for exploding bul- 
 lets, Src. with gnat violence. 
 
 Th« common air-gun is made of brafs, and has two 
 barrels; the inlide barrel A, fig. 8. whichisof afniall 
 liore, fromwhenccthebuUetsareexploded ; and a large 
 Ivirrcl r.CDR on the outlide oi it. There it a fyringc 
 ii.MNl' fixed in the ftock of the gun, by which the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 air is irije^ed into \.\vi cavity between the two barrels 
 ihrougli the valve £P. The ball K is put down into 
 its place in the fnuU barrel, with the rammer, as in any 
 other gun. At ii L is another valve, whi:h, being 
 opened by the trigger O, permits the air to come be- 
 hind the bullet, fo as to drive it out with great force. 
 If this valve be opened and fliut fiiddenly, one charge 
 of condcnfed air may be luiHcient for fcveral difchar- 
 gesof bullets ; but if the whole air be difchargcd oa 
 one tingle bullet, it will drive it out with a great force. 
 This difchargc if efiedcd by means of a lock, fig. 9. 
 placed here as ufual in other guns j for the trigger be- 
 ing pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever 
 O, fig. 8. which will open the valve, and let in the air 
 upofi the bullet K. 
 
 Air-guns of late years have received very great im- 
 provements in their conftrudion. Fig. 10. is a reprc- 
 fentaiion of one made by the late Mr B. Martin of 
 London, and nosv by feveral of the mathematical iu- 
 llrumcnt and gun-makers of that metropolis. For (ini- 
 plicity and perfection it exceeds any other heretofore 
 contrived. A is the gun-barrel, with the lock. Hock, 
 ram-rod, and of the lii^eaud weight of a common fow- 
 ling-piece. Under the lock, at b, is a round fteel 
 tube, having a fmall moveable pin in the intidc, which 
 ispulhedout whcnthe trigger <j is pulled, bythefpring 
 work within the lock ; to this tube b, a hollow copper- 
 ball c fcrews, perfectly air-tight. This copper-ball is 
 fully charged with condenfed air by the fyringc B 
 (fig. 7-) previous to its being applied to the tube * of 
 fig. 10. It is then evident, that if a bullet be rammed 
 down in the barrel, the copper ball fcrewed fad at b, 
 and the trigger a be pulled, that the piti in b will, by 
 theaclionof the fpring-workuithin the lock, forcibly 
 flrikc out into the copper bill ; and thereby pulhing iii 
 fuddenly a valve within the copper ball, let out a por- 
 tion of the condenfed air ; which air will ruth up thru' 
 the aperture of the lock, and forcibly ail againft the 
 bullet, driving it to the diitance of 60 or 70 yards or 
 further. If the air is ilrongly condenfed at every 
 difcharge, only a portion of the air efcapes from the 
 ball ; therefore, by re-cocking the piece, another dif- 
 charge may be made ; and this repeated to the amount 
 of 15 or 16 times. An additional barrel is lometiraes 
 made, and applied for the difcharge of ihot, inilcad oi 
 the one above dcfcribed. 
 
 The air in the copper ball is condenfed by means of 
 thefyringc B (fig. 7-), in the following manner : The 
 ball c is fcrewed quite clofe on the top of the fvrinje at 
 b, at the end of the flecl pointed rod : a is a ifout hag 
 throu;;h which paiFcs the rod k: upon this rod the feet 
 Hiould be firmly fct ; then the hands are to be ap- 
 plied to the two handles i /, fixed on the tide of the 
 barrel of the f/r.nge. Now, by moving the barrel B 
 fleadily up and down on the rod a, the ball c will be- 
 come charged with condenfed air ; and it may be ea- 
 iily ktiown when the bill is as full as polFiblc, by the 
 irrelitlible acfion that the air makes againft the pitton 
 when you are workin^f^ the fyriuge. At the endof the 
 rod k is ufually a four-i'quarc hole, which w ith the rod 
 fcrves as a key to fallen the ball c fall on the fcrcw b 
 of the gun and lyringc clofc to the orifice in the b.ili c. 
 In the iniidc is fixed a valve and fpring, which gives 
 way for the admillton uf air; bst upon its cniilllon 
 comes clofc up to the orifice, (hutiiug up the internal 
 U u air 
 
 Air-gum
 
 /\ I K 
 
 [ 33S ] 
 
 A I R 
 
 Alr-giin. iiir. The pillon-ro>l works air-iight, by a collar ot 
 
 < — ^ learhcr oil it, in liic birrtl ii ; ii is ihcrcforc jjluin, 
 
 when tlu- hirrcl is drawn up, ilic air will rulli iu al the 
 hole h. When die barrel i-.i)iilhc.l down, ihcair there- 
 in coni;'.ined will have no other way to pal\ from the 
 prclairc oftlie pillon b;u into the balUal top. The 
 barrel being drawn up, the operation is repeated, until 
 the condcnlitijn is lo itrong as to rdift the action ot 
 tlic pitlon. 
 
 Sometimes the lyringe is applied to the end of the 
 barrel C (fee tig. 11.); the lock and trigger ihnt up in 
 abrafscafe*/; and the trigger palled,ordilchargc made, 
 by pulling the chain b. In this contrivance there is a 
 round chamber for the condcnfed air at the end ot the 
 fyringc at c, and it has a valve acting in a limilar man- 
 ner to that of the copper ball. When this inllrumcnt 
 is not in ulc, the brafs cafe //is made to Hide olr", and 
 the inlbumcnt then becomes a walking-Hick ; from 
 which circumltance, and the barrel being made of cane, 
 brafs, &c. it has received the appellation of the Air- 
 cane. The head of the cane unfcrc'.vsand takes otf at 
 *,-whcre the extremity of the pillon rod in the barrel 
 is lliown : an iron rod is placed in a ring at tlie end of 
 this, and the air condcnfed in the barrel in a iimilar 
 manner to that of the gun as above; but its force of 
 aftion is not near fo Ihong and permanent as that of 
 the latter. 
 
 The Magazine JtR-gun was invented by that inge- 
 nious artill L. Colbe. By this contrivance ten bullets 
 are fo lodged in a cavity, near the place of difcharge, 
 that they may be drawn into the ihooting-barrcl, and 
 fncccinvely difcharged fo faft as to be nearly of the 
 fame ufe as fo many ditFcrcnt guns. 
 
 Kic.ia.reprefenis the prefent form of this machine, 
 where part of the Hock is cut off, to the end of the in- 
 jecting fyringe. It has its valve opening into the ca- 
 vity between the barrels, as before. K K is the fmall 
 fliooting-barrel, which receives the bullets from the 
 magazine E D, which is of a fcrpcntine form, and 
 doled at the end D when the bullets arc lodged in it. 
 The circular part a b c, is the key of a cork, having 
 a cylindric hole through it, /, k, which is equal to the 
 bore of the fame barrel, and nukes a part oi it in the 
 prefent fituation. When the lock is taken off, the fe- 
 veral parts Q,,R, T,W.&c.comeinto view, by which 
 means the difcharge is made by pulhing up the pin P/, 
 which raifes andopensa valve V,tolet in the air againtl 
 the bullet 1, from the cavity F Y ; which valve is im- 
 mediately ihut down again by means of a long fpring 
 of brafs NN. This valve V being a conical piece of 
 brafs, ground very true in the part which receives it, 
 will of itfelf befufficient to confine the air. 
 
 To make a difcharge, you will pull the trigger ZZ, 
 which throws up the iccv y a, and difengages it from 
 the notch a, upon which the ftrong fpring WW moves 
 the tumbler T, to which the cock is fixed. This, by 
 its end u, bears down the end v of the tumbling lever 
 R, which, by the other end m, raifes at the fame time 
 the flat end of the horizontal lever Q^; and by this 
 means, of courfe, the pin F />, which flands upon it, is 
 pufliedup, and th'.is opens the valve V, and difcharges 
 the b.iUet. This is all evident from a bare view of the 
 figure. 
 
 To bring another bullet to fucceed that marked I, 
 ijiflautancoufly, tiurntlic cylindric cavity of the key of 
 
 the cock, which before made part ot the barrel K K, Air-gua 
 into the litiution / k, fo that the part / may be at K ; j 
 
 and hold the gun upon your ihoulder, with [he bar- Air-pipe ».^ 
 rcl downwards and the niag.zinc upwards, by which ' 
 means that b'lUtt next the cock w lil fall into it out of 
 the maga/iiie, but go no farther into this cylindric 
 cavity than the two Utile fpriigs s s, which detain it. 
 The twocirclcs rcprcfcnt the cock-barrel, wherein the 
 key abovcmcntioncd turns upon an axis not reprefent- 
 ed here, but vilible i.i fig. 13. This axis is a I'qnare 
 piece of Heel, on w hich comes the fquarc hole of the 
 hammer H, rig. 14. by which the cyliniiric cavity men- 
 tioned is opened to the magazine. Then opening the 
 hammer, as in that figure, the bullet is brought into its 
 proper place ncarthc uifchargc-valvc,and the cylindric 
 cavity of the key of the cock again makes part of the 
 inward barrel K K. 
 
 It evidently appears how expeditions a method this 
 is of charging and dilcharging a gun ; and were the 
 force of condcnfed air equal to that of gun-powder, 
 fuchan air-gun would anfwer the end of fcveral guns. 
 
 In the air-gun, and all other cafes where the air is 
 required to be condcnfed to a very great degree, it will 
 be rcquilitc to have the fyringc of a fmall bore, viz. 
 not exceeding half an inch in diameter ; becaul'c the 
 prcllure againfl every fquare inch is about 15 pounds, 
 and therefore againfl every circular inch about 12 
 pounds. If therefore the fyringe be one inch in di- 
 ameter, when one atmofpherc is injected, there will be 
 a refinance of 1 2 pounds againfl the piflon ; and when 
 10 are injefled, there will be a force of 120 pounds to 
 be overcome ; whereas loatmofpheres acl againfl the 
 circular half-inch piflon (whole area is only one-fourth 
 pan fo big) with only a force equal to 30 pounds ; 
 or 40 atmofphcres may be injccled with fuch a fyringe, 
 as well as 10 with tlie other. In fliort, the facility of 
 working will be inverfely as the fqua»es of the diame- 
 ter of the fyringe. 
 
 AiR-Jacki-t, a fort of jacket made of leather, in 
 which are fcveral bags, or bladders, conipofed of the 
 fame materals, communicating with each other. Thefe 
 are filled with air through a leather tube, having a brafs 
 ftop-cock accurately ground at ihe extremity, by which 
 means the air blown in through the tube is confined iu 
 the bladders. The jacket mufl be wet, before the air 
 be blown into the bags, as otherwife it will immediate- 
 ly efcape through the pores of the leather. By the 
 help of thefe bladders, which arc placed near the breaft, 
 theperfon is fupported in the water, without making 
 the efforts ufed in fwimraing. 
 
 AiR-Fifics, an invention for drawing foul air out of 
 fhips, or any other clofe places, by means of fire. 
 Thefe pipes were firfl found out by one Mr Sution, a 
 brewer in London ; and from him have got the name 
 of Sutton's Air pipes. The principle on which their 
 operation depends is known to every body, being in- 
 deed no other than that air is necellary for the fup- 
 port of fire ; and, if it has not accefs from the pla.- 
 ces mofl adjacent, will not fail to come from thofc 
 that are more remote. Thus, in a common furnace, 
 the air enters through the aflt-holc ; but if this is clo- 
 fedup, and a hole made in the fide of the furnace, the 
 air will rulli in with great violence through that hole. 
 If a tube of any length whatever is inl'crtcd in this hole, / 
 
 the air will ruHithroughthe tube into the fire, and of 
 
 coo-
 
 Platr \ 
 
 E'^^/^'' ^''^ ^' 
 
 ftu 
 
 XJ^Kjf /O/m/ircir//' r/r ^^ii// 
 
 //. /,'„/ .>r„/^,./^'i/.'„/r
 
 A I R 
 
 [ 339 ] 
 
 A 1 R 
 
 A!r-plp<r«. confcqiicnce there will be a continual circulation of" 
 
 * *< air ill that pl^cc \vlr;r< tlic cxtrcmiiy ot the tui)cislaid. 
 
 Mr Suiton's contrivance then, as coniniunicalca to tlic 
 Royal Society by Do,;!or Mead, amounts to no more 
 than this. — " As, in every Ihip of any bulk, there is 
 already provided a copper or boiling-place proportion- 
 able to th.e (iicolthc vellcl ; it ispropofcd to clear the 
 bad air, by means of tlic lire already ufed under the 
 I'lid coppers or boiling places for the ncceirary ulcsof 
 the Ihip. 
 
 « It is well known, that, under every fuch copper 
 or boiler, there are placed two holes, feparated by a 
 grate , the rirfl of which is for the tire, and the other 
 for the alhes falling from the fame ; and that there is 
 alfo a flue from the lire-place upward, by which the 
 fmokc of the (ire is difchirged at fome convenient 
 place of the (liip. 
 
 " It is alfo well known, that the fire once lighted in 
 thcfe fire-places, is only prcfcrvcd by the conllant 
 draught of air through the forenicntioned two holes 
 and flue ; and that if the faid two holes are clofely flop- 
 cd up, the fire, thougli burning ever lb brifkly before, 
 is immediately put out. 
 
 " Hut if, after fliutting the abovcmentioncd holes, 
 anotlier hole be opened, coniuiunicatng with any o- 
 ther room or airy place, and with the fire: it is clear, 
 the faid fire mull again be raifed and burn as before, 
 there being a like draught of air through the fame as 
 there was before the flopping up of the hrfl holes j 
 this cafe differing only from the former in this, that 
 the air feeding the lire will now be fupplied from ano- 
 ther place. 
 
 " it is therefore propofcd, that, in order toclear the 
 holdsof lliips of the bad air therein contained, thctwo 
 holes al)ovementioncd, tlie tire-placcand alh-placc, be 
 both clofed up with fubltantial and tight iron-doors ; 
 and that a copper or leaden pipe, of fufRcient fize, be 
 laid from the hold into the alh-place, for the draught 
 of air to come in that way t ) feed the fire. And thus 
 it feenis plain, from what has been already faid, that 
 there will be, from the hold, a conftant difcharge of 
 the air therein contained ; andconfcqucntly, that that 
 air, fo dilchargcd,mufl be as conflantly fupplied by frelh 
 air down the hatches or fuch other conx:nuuications as 
 arc opened into the hold ; whereby the fame mull 
 be continually frelhened, and its air rendered more 
 whole fome and fit for rcfpiration. 
 
 " And if into this principal pipe, fo laid into the 
 hold, other pipes arelct in, coiniminicatingrcfpeciive- 
 ly either with the well or lower decks : it mull follow, 
 that part of the air,c(.nfunicd in feeding the fire, mufl 
 be refpcdively drawn out of all the places to wiiich 
 the communication Ihall be fo made." 
 
 This accoimt is fo plain, that no doubt can remain 
 concerning the cfiicacy of the contrivance ; it is evi- 
 dent, that, by means of pipes of this kind, a conflant 
 circulation of frclli air would be occalioncd thro' thofe 
 places where it would otherwifebemoll apt toflagnatc 
 and putrefy. Scvcralothercontrivanccs havebeciuifed 
 for the fame purpofc ; and Dottor Hale's ventilators, 
 by fome unaccountable prejudice, have been reckoned 
 fuperior in eflicacy and even limplicity to Mr. S' tton's 
 machine, which at its firll invention met with great 
 •See Sut-'] oppoliiioii*, and even when introduced by Dr Mead, 
 
 'en. 
 
 who u.td all Iiis iutcrcfl for that purpofc, was ihaine- Air yipt* 
 
 fully neglected. 
 
 A machine capable of anfsvering the fame purpofc 
 was invented by Mr Uelagulicrs, which he ciUcd ihc 
 Jhip'sluiig,. h conliUcdof a cylindrical box fct up o:i 
 its edge, and fixed to a wooden pedcdal. From the 
 upper edge of the box iliued a f^juare trunk open at the 
 cud, and communicating with the cavity of the box. 
 Within this box was placed a cylindrical wheel turning 
 on an axis. It was divided into r2 parts, by means of 
 partitions placed like the radii of a circle. 'i"hcle par- 
 titions did not extend quite to the centre, but left an 
 openfpacc of about i8 inches diamcterin the middle ; 
 towardsthc circumference, they extended asfar as pof- 
 fible without interfering with the cafe, fu that the 
 
 wh eel niight always be allowed to turn freely Things 
 
 being thus circumflanced, it is plain, that if the wheel 
 was turned towards that fide of the box on which the 
 trunk was, every divillon would pulh the air before it, 
 and drive it out through the trunk, at the fame time 
 that frefli air would come in through the open fpaccat 
 the centre, to fupply that which was throw n o;it thro" 
 the trunk. By turningthe wheelfwiftly,a flrongblall 
 of air would be continually forced out thro' the fquarc 
 trunk, on the fame principles on which a common fan- 
 ner winnows corn. If the wheel is turned theoppofitc 
 way, a draught of air may be produced from the trunk 
 to the centre. If this machine, then, is placed in a 
 room whereacirculationolairis wanted, and the trunk 
 made to pafs through one of the walls ; by turning the 
 wheel fwifily round, the air will be forced with great 
 velocity out of that room, at the fame time that frclli 
 air will enter through any chinks by which it can have 
 accefs to fupply that which has been forced out. 
 
 It is evident, that the circulation which is promoted 
 by this machine, is entirely of the fame kind with that 
 produced by Mr Sutton's : tiie turning of the wheel in 
 Mr Delagulier's machincbeillg equivalent to therare- 
 faclion of the air by fire in Mr Sutton's: but that the 
 latter is vaftly fuperior, as adingof itfelf, and witho.'t 
 intermilfion, requires no argument to prove. Mr Sut- 
 ton's machine has yet another convcnicncy, of which 
 no other convenience for thefjinc purpofc can boafl ; 
 namely, that it not only driws out putrid air, but dc- 
 flroys it by cauling it pafs through fire : and experience 
 has abundantly Ihown, that though putrid air is thrown 
 into a great quantity of frclli air, it is fo far from lo- 
 fing its pernicious properties, that it often produces 
 noxious difeafcs. We do not fay, indeed, that putrid 
 air becomes falutary by this means ; but it is undoubt- 
 edly rendered lefs noxious than before ; tho' w httlicr 
 it is equally innocent with the fmokc of a fire fed in 
 the common way, wc cannot pretend todcterniinc. 
 
 Beiides this machine by Mr Dcfaguliers,the venti- 
 lators of Dr Hales, already mentioned, and thofc 
 called iuiiiJ-fa\li,ix<: likewifc ufed forthe fame purpofe. 
 The formerof which is an iuiprovcmcnt of the Heiiian- 
 bcllows*:theo'her is a contrivance for throwing frelh- .g^j y^^ 
 air into thofe places where putrid air is apt to lodge ; tiiator,' 
 hut this has the lafl-mcntioned inconvenience in a 
 much greater degree than any of the others, as the 
 blaft of frefti lir throws out that which was fendered 
 putrid by itagnation, in fuch a manner as to contami- 
 nate all around it. See Wind-&j.'//. 
 
 U u 2 Air-
 
 A I R 
 
 [ 340 ] 
 
 A I R 
 
 /fir-Trui.k, is alfo a contrivance hy Doflor Hales 
 t.. prevent tlic llagnatioii ot" putriil ctfluvia in jails, 
 anJ other plates where a grctC number of people arc 
 crowdeil tootihcriu a hnall fpace. Itconiills oiiiy ot 
 a long Iquare trunk open at both ends ; one of which is 
 infcrted into the ceiling of the room, the air of which 
 is required to be kept pure ; and ihe other extends a 
 jjood way beyond the roof. 1 hrough this, trunk a 
 continued circulation is carried on ; and iliercafon is, 
 that the putrid eliiuvia which do fo much niifchi'l when 
 col'.eilcd, being much lij'hter than the pure aimof- 
 phcrc, arife to the top of the room ; and, if tliey there 
 jind a vent, will continually go out lluouj^h it. 1 litlc 
 elHuvi.i arilc v.^ very coniidcraUc quaniity, being cal- 
 culated by the late Dr Kcil at no Ids than 39 ounces 
 from one man in 24 hours. 
 
 Thefc trunks vveretirll madetrialof by Mr Yeoni?.n, 
 over the Houfc of Connr.ons, where they were nine 
 inches wide w ilhiii ; and over the t ourtofkinj'.'s-bcnch 
 in Wellminller-haU, where ihty were lix inches wide. 
 They arc f<.niclinics made w ider, and fomctimes nar- 
 rower : butthcwiJer they are the longer they o;ght 
 to be, more effectually to promote the afcent of the va- 
 pour. The reafon why vapours ot this kind afccnd 
 niorcfwiftly through a long trunk than a fliort one, is, 
 that the prclfure of lluids is always according to their 
 difltcrent depth, without regard to the diamctcrof iheir 
 balls, or of the veflel which contains them ; and, upon 
 this principle, a gallon of water may be made to fplit 
 a ftrong cafk. See Hydrostatics. When ihe co- 
 lumn of putrid cfduvia is long and narrow, the dili'er- 
 ence between thccolumnof atmofpherc pretlingon the 
 upper end of the trunk, and that which prefTes on the 
 lower end, is much greater than if the column of pu- 
 trid etlluviavvasfliortand wide ; and confequently the 
 
 afcent is much fwifter One pan of a fmgle pair of 
 
 fcales, which was two inches in diameter, being held 
 within one of thefe trunks over theHoufc of Commons, 
 the force of the afcending air made it rife fo as to re- 
 quire four grains to reftorc the equilibrium, and this 
 when there was no perfon in the houfe ; but when it 
 was full, no lets tban i 2 grains were requifite to re- 
 ftore the equilibrium ; which clearly Ihows that thefe 
 trunks mufl be of real and very great eflicacy. 
 
 AiR-Puv:p, a machine by which the air contained in 
 a proper velfel may be exhautlcd or drawn out. See 
 the article Pneumatics. 
 
 AiR-Sacks, in birds. See Comparative Anato- 
 my, chap. ii. 
 
 ^iR-Shafts, among miners, denote holes or fliafts 
 let down from the open air to meet the adits and fur- 
 iiifh frefli air. The damps, want, and impurity of air 
 which occur, when adits are wrought ;o or 40 fathoms 
 long, make itneceliary to let downair-lhafts,in order 
 to give the air liberty to play through the whole w ork, 
 and thus difcharge bad vapours, and furnifh good air 
 forrcfpiration : the cxpenceof which fliafts, in regard 
 of their vail depths, hardnefs of the rock, drawing of 
 water, fee. fomctimes equals, nay exceeds, the ordinary 
 charge of the whole adit. 
 
 Sir Robert Murray defcribcs a method, ufed in the 
 coal-mines at Liege, of working mines without air- 
 fliafts. 
 
 When the miners at Mendip have funk a groove, 
 ihcy will not be at the charge of au air-fliaft till 
 
 they come at the ore ; and for the fupply of .tir h.ive Air-threa«!< 
 boxes ol dm exactly doled, ol about tx inches in the I 
 
 clear, by which they cany it down about 20 fa- •'^" '- 
 thorns. They cut a trench a little (iiftance t'roni ' 
 
 the top of the groove, covering it with turf and rods 
 dilpoftd to receive the pipe, which tjuy contrive to 
 come in lidcways to their groove, four feet from the 
 lop; which Ci.rries down the air 10 a great depth. 
 When they conic at ore, aid i;eed an air-lhaft, they 
 link it four or five fathoms dirtant, according to the 
 cmvenicncc of the breadth, and of the fame falhion 
 w ith the groove, to draw as well ore as air. 
 
 AiR-Thriuds, in naturals hillory, a name given to 
 the lorg filaments, fo frequently fcen in autumn float- 
 ing about in the air. 
 
 Thcle threads arc the work of fpiders, cfpecially of 
 that fpccics called the Icng-Icgged tidd fpidtr ; which 
 having mounted to the fummit o( abufli or tree, darts 
 from its tail fcveralof ihtfc threai's, till one is produced 
 capable of fupporting the creature in the air : on thifi 
 it mounts in quell of prey, and frequently rifes to a. 
 very conlidcrablc height. Sec Aranea. 
 
 Air-Vlsslls, arc Ipiral dutis in ihe leaves, 8;c. of 
 plants, fuppofed to be analogous to the lungs of ani- 
 mals, in lupplyiiig the ditfcrent parts of a plant with 
 air. See the article Plants. 
 
 Air, in mythology, was adored by the Heathens un- 
 der ihe names of Jupiter and Juno ; the former rcprc- 
 fcnting the fuperior and liner part of the atmofpere, 
 and the laiterihe infeiiorand grolferpart. The augurs 
 alio drew prefages from the clouds, thunder, light- 
 ning, &c. 
 
 Air, in painting, &c. denotes the manner and very 
 life of action : or iiisthat which cxpreli'es t!ie difpoli- 
 tion of the agent. It is fom.etimes alfo ufed in a fyno- 
 nynious fcnfc with geflure or attitude. 
 
 Air, in mulic, is takui in ditferent fenfes. It is 
 fomciiuies contralled with harmony ; and, in this fcnfe 
 it is fynonynious with melody in general. — Its proper 
 meaning is, A tunc which is fet to words, or to Ihort 
 pieces of poetry that arc cMtAjongi. 
 
 In operas, we give the name of air to fuch pieces of 
 nuilic asarc formed with meafures and cadences, todi- 
 flinguifli it froiii the recitative ; and, in general, e\ery 
 piece of mufic is called an air, which is formed for the 
 voice, or even for inllruments, and adapted to ftanzas, 
 whether it forms a whole in iti'elf, or whether it can 
 be detached from any whole of which it forms a part, 
 and be executed alone. 
 
 If the fubjeft admits of harmony, and is fet in parts, 
 the air is, according their number, denominated a 
 dmtt, a trio, a quartnto, &c. We need not follow 
 Kouli'eau,and the other philologi(ls,in their endeavours 
 to invelligate the etymon of the word air. Its deriva- 
 tion, though found and afccrtained, would contribute 
 little to illullrate its meaning in that remote feiife, to 
 which, through a long continuance of time, and the 
 various vicitTitudes of language, it has now palled. The 
 curiousmay confult the fameartide in ihtDidioiiiiaire 
 de Mufl que by M. Rouli'eau, 
 
 In modern mufic, there-are feveral different kinds of 
 airs, each of which agrees to a certain kind of dancing, 
 and from thefe dances the airs thcmfelves take their 
 fpccific names. 
 
 The ain of our operas, arc, if we may be permitted 
 
 ihe
 
 A I R [ 34 
 
 Air. the expredion, the canvafs or fibftratum upon which 
 
 — ' are paiiuc<l all ihc pictures of imitative miilic ; nitlody 
 
 is the dclignjami harmony the colouring ; every pictii- 
 refqucoLjcLl Ctlcicd from thcniofl beamifiil parts of 
 ratuic, every rcriectcd Iciiiimcnt of the human heart, 
 are the models which the artill imitates; whatever 
 gains attei.tion, \vhate\er inicrctls tlie foul, whatever 
 charms the tar, or caiifes emotion in the heart, thtfc 
 are the objects of his intitaiion. Sec iMiTArion. 
 An air which delights the ear, and difcovcrs the learn- 
 ing of the com pofcr; an air invented by genius, and 
 compofcd with taflc ; is the nobled tttort of mulic : it 
 is this which explores the compafs, and difplays the 
 delicacy, of a beautiful voice ; -it is in this where the 
 charms of a well conduded fy mphony fliiiie ; it is by 
 this, that the paliions, excited and inflamed by nice gra- 
 dations, reach andagiiate the foul through ihcavenucs 
 of external fenfe. After hearing a bcauiit'ul <?/>•, the 
 mind is acquicfcent and fcrcnc : the ear is fatistied, not 
 difgulled : it remains iniprelTcd on the fancy, it be- 
 conies apart of ourelFcnce^we carry it wiih us, we arc 
 able to repeat it at pleafure : %\ iihout the ability acqui- 
 red by habit to breathe a lingle note of it, we execute 
 it in our imagination in the fame manner as we heard 
 it upon the tlieaire : one fees the fcene, tiic a^lor, the 
 theatre; one hears the accompaniments and the ap- 
 plaufcs. The real enthudaft in mufic never forgets 
 tJie beautiful airs which he has heard ; when he choof- 
 es, he caufes the opera to recommence. 
 
 1 he words to which uiis arc adapted, arc not always 
 rehearfed in regular fucecirion, nor fpokcn in the fame 
 manner with thole of the recitative ; and though, for 
 ordinary, they are very Ihou, yet they are interrupted, 
 repeated, tranfpofed, at the (leafui eof theartift. They 
 do not conllitutc a narrative, which ou'-e told is over : 
 they eiiher delineate a picture, which it is necclFary to 
 contemplate in I'ifterent points of view; or iiifpireafen- 
 timcntin which th' heart acquitfcts with pleafure, and 
 from which it is neither able nor willing to be difen- 
 gaged ; and the different phrafesofthea;r, are nothing 
 elfe but differtntnianncrsofl.fholdingthefameiniage. 
 This is the reafon why the fubici.'l of an air iliould be 
 one. It is by ihefe rcpeiiiions properly placed, it is 
 by thefe redoubled tft'orts, that an imprtlhon, which at 
 lirft was not able to move you, at length Ihakcs your 
 foul, agitates you, tranfportsyou out of yourfelf .- and 
 it is likewife upon the fame principle. that the runt ings, 
 as they arc called, or thofe long, mazy, and in^inicn- 
 lated infieftions of the vrice, whish, in patheiic ,ii i, 
 frequently feeni, though they arc net always fc, im» 
 properly placed , whilft the heart is attested with a kn- 
 timent t xquilitely moving, it often cxprcflcs iis emo- 
 tionsby inarticulate founds, more flrongly and fcnfibly 
 tlian it could do by words themfclves. 
 
 1 he (orm of airs is of two kinds. The fmall airs 
 are often compofed of two flrains, which ought each 
 ofthfm to be i'upg twice ; but the important airs in o- 
 peras are frequently in the form of roiuleans. 
 
 A I R,oryj^v'r, in geography, a town of Scotland, capital 
 of .in extenlive county of the fpnie name. It Hands on 
 the river Air, and was formerly a place of good trade, 
 and fcatof filheries ; allofwhirli have vanilhcd, and ihe 
 people now live by one another. Air appears, from lii- 
 llory and other documents, lo have been a eonlidcrable 
 placeatthetimcofthcNoni.ancotiquclt. Thcvouchcrs 
 
 I ] 
 
 A I I 
 
 of its antiquity are corroborated by an elegant build- 
 ing called the Crc/i, which has elcapcd the dcftruc- 
 livc rage of the latl and preceding century. The due 
 on this iragment of antiquity is losj, confequcntly it 
 hath flood in its place above 736 years; and it is to 
 be wilhed, that ihc majority of the inhabitants may 
 unite in preferving it from being dcftroyed by perfons 
 who have exprelied a rtrong driire to that put jiofe. In 
 1557, the tax levied upon Air was L.2j?6 Scots ; upon 
 Clafgow only L.102. In 1771, Air was airelfed at 
 15 s. Stcrl. andCLfgowat L. 18, los. Iniyji, the 
 pickled herrings exported from Air w ere 6624 barrels ; 
 (incc the year 1 777, none. Thefe revolutions appear 
 the more extraordinary, when we conlider the \ery 
 advantageous lituaiion of Air both by land and by wa- 
 ter; the fertilityofthe country ; the richesof thcfca; 
 its contiguity to the weftcrn filheries on one tide, and 
 to Glafgow on the other ; the large returns for cattle, 
 grain, and coal ; the ample revenues of the town ; and 
 particularly thcconveniency of its harbour for tilhing- 
 
 veflels of every conllruciion About a mile north from 
 
 the town there is a lazar-ho'ife, commonly called 7"^? 
 King s Chapel, which King Robert de Bruce fct apart 
 for the maintenance of lepers. 
 
 AIRA, in bt'tany : A genus of the triandria digy- 
 niaclafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 4th order, Cramii:a. The characters are : The caljx 
 is a two-flowered doubk-valvedglunic : Thec«rc//ais 
 two-valved, and no rudiment of a (lower between the 
 florets: The_/7aw///rt conlid of three capillary filaniei! IS 
 the length of the flower ; the anthcrjc are oblong, and 
 forked at both ends: The pijiillimi is an egg-lhapcd 
 gcrmen i theilyli are two, brilily, and expanding; the 
 lli;;niataarcpubcfccnt : 'ihere isuo/imfdr/>////«; the 
 including corolla grows to the feed : 'Y\itf<eJ is egg- 
 fhaped and covered. There are 14 fpecicsof theaira, 
 nine of w hich arc natives of Britain. The Kngliili 
 name is Hair-grajs, See thegencral article Grass. 
 
 AIRANI, in church-hillory, an obfcurc fectof A- 
 rians, in the fourth century, who dci.ied the confub- 
 ftantialiiy of the Holy Gholl with the rather and the 
 Son. They areothtrwife called .V/VdA.y/,r ,• and are 
 faid to have taken their name from one .iiras, w ho di- 
 flinguilhtd hinifclf at the head of this party, in the 
 reigns of Valontinian andGraiian. 
 
 AIRL, a town of Kiance, in Proper Gafcony, of 
 w hich it is the capit.il, w ith a bilh^'p's fee. It is fcat- 
 cd on the river Adour, on the declivity of a mountain. 
 £. Long. o. ;?. N. Lat. 4?. 47. 
 
 AiKK, a ftrong town in the Netherlands, in the 
 county of .Artois, with a cafilc. It was taken by the 
 French in !7io, anu was conh'rnicd to them by the 
 treaty of Uirecht. It is ftated on the River Lis, aa 
 miles foHih of Dunkirk, and communicates with St 
 Omcr's by a canal cut from the river Aa. E. L»ng. 
 2. ?i. N Lat. 50. 38. 
 
 AIR ING, a term peculiarly ufcd for the cxercifing 
 horfcsiniheopenair. It purifies the blot>d; purges the 
 body from grofs humours ; and, as tlie jockies exprefs 
 it, tenches the horfe how to make his wind rake equally, 
 and keep time wiih the other motions of his b»)dy. It 
 alfo Iharpeiis the (loniach, and keeps the creature hun- 
 gry ; w hi. h is a thing of great conftquence, as hunters 
 and racers arc very apt to have their ftomach fall otF, 
 citlicr from waut of txercile, or from the too violent 
 
 excr-
 
 A J U 
 
 r 34 
 
 Airs cy.ercifc whicli ilicy .".re oiicn cxpofeJ. i?. If the horfc 
 ll be over tat, it ii btll to air him before fun-rife and 
 
 AWs*- after fuii-fctiia{^ ; anit in general, it is allowed by all, 
 " ijial notiiing is more bcnencial to tliofc ercatures than 
 
 tally and late airings. Sonic of our modern managers, 
 however, difputc iliis : lliey lay, that ilie told of ilitfe 
 linus is loo great for the crtaiure; and iliat if, in par- 
 ticular, he is fubjeJt to catarrhs, rlitums, or the like 
 complaints, the di \vs and cold fogs, in thcfe early and 
 late airings, will be apt to iiicrealt all ihofc difor^crs. 
 Katurc, we fee, alfo points out the fun-beams as of 
 great uft to thefe animals ; thofc which arc kept hardy 
 wnd lie out all night, always running to thofe places 
 where the funlliiiie comes, as foon as it appears in a 
 morning. This lliould ftcni to recommend thole air- 
 ings that arc to be made before fuii-fet, and a little time 
 after fuu-rife. As to the caution, lb carnciijy incul- 
 cated by Markham, of uliiig tliefc early and late air- 
 ings for fat horfes, it is found unncccliary by many: 
 ior they fay, that tiie fame etfett may be produced by 
 airings at warmer times, provided only that they arc 
 jnade lorigcr ; and tliai, in general, it is from long air- 
 ings that we are to exped to bring a horfe to a perfect 
 wind and found courage. 
 
 AIRS, in the manege, are the artificial motions of 
 taught liorfcs ; as the deniivolt, curvet, capriole, &c. 
 
 AIRY, or Aery, among fporifmen, a term cxpref- 
 fing the neft of a hawk or eagle. 
 
 AiRvl ripitaty among allrologers, denotes the three 
 figns, gcmini, libra, and aquarius. 
 
 AISNE, a river of France, which rifes in Cham- 
 paign, and runs W. by Soifonsin the lilc of France, 
 falling into the river Oife, a little above Campeigne. 
 
 AIT OCZL', a coniidcrablc river of Lcllcr Alia, 
 which, arifuig in the mountain Taurus, falls into the 
 fouth pan of the Euxinc fea. 
 
 AJUGA, BfCLi;: A genus of the gymnofpcrmia 
 order, belonging to the didynaniia cLifs of plants ; and 
 in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, 
 Afpcrij'olia:. T h e charaders are : The calyx is a Ihort 
 periaiithium,monophyllousaiidpcrllflcnt : The corolla 
 is nionopetalous and grinning : The jlamiiia conlifl of 
 four crert fubulated filaments ; thcanthcraK are dimi- 
 diated : The p'tfiUhm; has a four-cleft gcrmen, a fili- 
 form flylus, and two (lender fligmata. There is nopi- 
 rknrpium ; the calyx converging, and containing the 
 feeds in its bofoni : The fliHs are four, and oblong. The 
 
 Sped.' J cnu.nerated by Linnajus are, i . The oricnta- 
 lis, with inverted liowcrs, whi( hisanativeofiheeaft. 
 2. The gcnevenfis, with woolly leaves and hairy cups, 
 is a native of Swilferland and of the fouthern parts of 
 Europe. ^. The pyraniidalis, orniouniain-bugle, with 
 afquare pyramidal fpikc and blue flowers, is a native 
 of Sweden, Germany, Swilferland, and the hilly parts 
 of Britain. Sheep and goats cat it ; cow's are not fond 
 of it ; horfes and fwine refufe it. 4. The rtptans, com- 
 mon or pafture bugle, w ith creeping fur-ktrs, and blue, 
 red, or w hite bloflbms, in long leafy fpikes, is a native 
 of the foQlhern parts of Europe, and is met with in 
 woods and moid places in many parts of Britain. The 
 roots are altringeni, and flrikc a black colour with vi- 
 triol of iron. 
 
 Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated by fowing 
 the feeds foon after they are ripe, in a pot filled with 
 loamy earth, and placed in a fhady fituation till autumn ; 
 
 2 ] A I X 
 
 when it mufl be removed under a frame, and protoflcd 
 from the f rolls. In the fpriug, after the plants are come 
 up, let them be tranllatcd each intoafcparate pot,'and 
 in funimer placed under a Ihady fituation. The other 
 fu^ts are ealily propagated by their lide-flioots, and 
 fuccccd bell in a moifl Ihady fituation. 
 
 AIUS LocoTius, the name of a deity to whom 
 the Romans ereded an altar. — The words are Latin, 
 and figiiify " a fpeaking voice." — The following ac- 
 cident gave occalion to the Romans eredling an altar to 
 the Aius Locutius. One M. Seditius, a plebeian, ac- 
 quainted the tribunes, that, in walking the flreets by 
 night, he had heard a voice over the tcniple of Verta, 
 gi\ ing the Romans notice that the Gauls were coming 
 againlt lluiu. This intimation was however negleded ; 
 but alter tiic truth was confirmed by the event, Caniil- 
 lus acknowledged tliis voice to be a new deity, and erec- 
 ted an altar to it under the name of the Ams Locutius. 
 
 AJUTAGE, or Adjutage, a kind of tube fitted 
 to the mouth of the vclfcl through whicli the water of 
 a fountain is to be played. To the diircrent form and 
 flrutture of ajutages, is owing to the great variety of 
 fountains. Sec Fountain and Hydrostatics. 
 
 AIX, a fniall but ancient town in the duchy of Sa- 
 voy, with the title of a inarquifate. It is featedon the 
 lake Bourget, at the foot of a mountain, between 
 Chamberry, Annecy, and Rumilley. There is here a 
 triumphal arch of the ancient Romans, but it is almoft 
 entirely ruined. The mineral waters bring a great 
 number of ftrangers to this place. The place was o- 
 riginally called Aqua Cratianit, from the hot baths 
 built there by the Emperor Gratian. E. Long. 7. 10. 
 N. Lat. 4J. 40. 
 
 Aix, an ancient city, the capital of Provence, in 
 France. It is an archbilhopric ; and has a parliament, 
 a court of aids, a chamber of accounts, a fenefchal's 
 jurildiction, a generality, and an univerfity. It has 
 that air of lilcnce and gloom fo commonly eh arafteri/lic 
 of places dcftitute of commerce or induftry : It is, 
 liowever, a well-built city ; and moft like Paris of any 
 place in the kingdom, as well for the largencfs of tlic 
 buildings, as in refpefl of the politenefs of the inhabi- 
 tants. It is cmbellilhed with abundance of fine foun- 
 tains, and fcveral beautiful fquares. The preacliers 
 fquare is on the fide of a hill ; it is about 160 yards in 
 length, and is furrounded with trees, and houfes built 
 w ith flone three ftories high. The town-hall is at one 
 end of the city, and is dirtributed into feveral fine a- 
 partments: ttie two lowcft are taken up by the hoard 
 of accounts, and by the fcnefchal ; that above is delign- 
 cd for the fcflions of parliament. The hall of audience 
 is adorned with the pictures of the kings of France on 
 horfeback. The hotel of the city is a handfome build- 
 ing, but hid by the houfes of the narrow flreet in which 
 it is placed. The cathedral church is a Gothic llruc- 
 ture, with tombs of feveral earls of Provence, and fomc 
 good pidures by French mailers. The Corfc, or Orbi- 
 telle, is a magniliccnt walk, above ^oo yards long, 
 formed by a triple avenue of elms, and two rows of re-, 
 gular and /lately houfes. The church of the fathers of 
 the oratory is a handfome building ; and not far from 
 thence is the chapel of the blue penitents, which is full 
 of paintings. The convent of preacherf is very fine ; 
 in their church is a lilver Aatue of the Virgin Mary al- 
 moft as big as the life. There are other churches and 
 
 buildings
 
 A 
 
 [ 343 ] 
 
 A I X 
 
 Aix. buildings wliich contain .i great number of rarities. 
 ~^^^^ The baths without the city, wliich were difcovered not 
 long liiice, have good biilJiiigs, raifcd at a vail cx- 
 pcncc, for the accommodation of thofc who drink the 
 waters. Although Aix was the tirll Roman fcttlement 
 in Gaul, it is not remarkable for ancient remains. The 
 warm fprings from which it is now known and fre- 
 quented, iiKluced Scxtus Calvinus to found a coh>i!y 
 here, to which he gave the name of j4qu<r Sextiir. 
 They were fuppofcJ to poflefs particular virtues in ca- 
 fes of debility ; and fcvcral altars have been dug up 
 facred to Priapus, the infcriptions on which indicate 
 their gratitude to that deity for his fuppofed fuccour 
 and alli(l.incc. E. Long. ?. 32. N. Lat. 43. 32. 
 
 /^tx, a fmall illand on the coa(l of France, between 
 the iHe of Oleron and the continent. It is twelve 
 miles north-well of Rochfort, and twelve fouih-fouth- 
 wellof Rochellc. W. Long i. 4. N. Lat. 46. j. 
 
 Aix la CHAPEf.LE, a tine city of Germany, in the 
 circle of Weflphalia and duchy of Julicrs. 
 
 All authors are agreed about its antiquity, it being 
 mentioned in Csefar's Commentaries and the Annah 
 of Tacitus. The Romans had colonies and fortrelfes 
 there, when they were at war with the Germans j but 
 the mineral waters and the hot bath fo increafed its 
 fame, that, in proctfs of time, it was advanced to the 
 privileges ot a city, by the nameof Aqnaegranii, that 
 is, the waters of Granius ; that whicli it has now, of 
 Aix la Chapille^ was given it by the French, to di- 
 ftingiiiih it from tlie other Aix. It is fo called, onac- 
 couiit of a chapel built in honour of the Holy Virgin 
 by Charlemagne; who having repaired, beautiticd, and 
 enlarged the city, whicii was dcflroyed by the Huns 
 in the reign of Attila, in 4J1, made it the ufual 
 place of his relidence. The town is feateJ in a 
 valley furrounded with mountains and woods, and yet 
 the air is very wholefomc. Jt may be divided into the 
 inward and outward city. The inward is incompallcd 
 with a wall about three quarters of a league in circum- 
 ference, having ten gates ; and the outward wall, in 
 whicii there arc eleven gates, is about a league and a 
 half in circumference. There arc rivulets which run 
 through the town and keep it very clean, turning fe- 
 veral mills ; befides twenty public fountains, and many 
 private ones. They have ftone-quarrics in the neigh- 
 bourhood, which furr.ilh the inhabitants with proper 
 materials for their magnificent buildings, of which 
 the fladt-houfcand tlie cathedral are the chief. There 
 arc likewife thirty parochial or collegiate churches. 
 The market-place is very fpacious, and the houfes 
 round it are (lately. In the middle, before the lladt- 
 houfc, is a fountain of blue Hones, which throws out 
 water, from fix pipes, into a marble bal'ou placed be- 
 neath, thirty feet in circumference. On the top of 
 this fountain, is placed the llatue of Charlemagne, of 
 brafs, gilt, hoUiinu a fccptre in his right-hand, and a 
 globe in his left. The (ladt-houfe is adorned with the 
 ftatucs of all the emperors lince Charleniagr.e. This 
 fabric has three llories, the upper of wiiicli is one en- 
 tire room of 162 feet \\\ length and 60 in breadth. In 
 this the new-clei5lcd emperor formerly entertained all 
 the electors of the empire 
 
 Aix la chapellc is a free imperial city, and chan- 
 ges its magiflraey every year on the eve of St John 
 Baptift. The mayor is iu the nomination of the 
 
 3 
 
 clc<Slor palatine, in the quality of tlie duke oi J 1- 
 liers, as protector of the city. This place is famo-..s 
 for leveral councils and treaties of peace concluded 
 here ; particularly thofc between France and Spain i;i 
 1668, and between Great liritain and France in 1 748. 
 The hot fulphurcous waters for which this place has 
 fo long been celebrated, aiil'e from fevcral fources, 
 which fupply eight biths conllructed in different parts 
 of the town. Thcfc waters near the fources are clear 
 and pcllucid;and have allrongfulphurcoiisfmellrefcin- 
 bling thewalhings of a foul gun ; but ihty loofe this 
 fmell by expofurc to air. Their talle is faline, bitter, 
 and urinous. They do not contain iron. They arc al- 
 fo neuiral near the fountain, but afterwards are mani- 
 fcllly and pretty llrongly alkaline, iniomuch that 
 clothes are walhed with tiiem wiihout foap. — On the 
 vaults above the fprings and aqueducts of thcfc waters 
 is found, every year, when they are opened, a quanti- 
 ty of Kne white-coloured (lowers of fulphur, which' 
 has been fubliincd from the waters. 
 
 The heat of the water of the hottefl fpring, by Dr 
 Lucas's account, rail'es the quickfilver of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer to 136 — by Monf. Monet's account, to 
 146 — and the heat of the fountain, where they com- 
 monly drink, by Dr Lucas's account to 112. 
 
 Dr Simmons has given the follo%vingacco;:nt of their 
 feveral temperatures, as repeatedly obl'crved by him- 
 felf with a thermometer conllrutted by Nairne. 
 The fpring which fupplics the Emperor's bath 
 (Bain d; I' Ewp^-reur), the New Rath (Bain 
 A^^a/Xandthe ^iieen of Hungary's bath (Bain 
 d>: la Reiiie dc Hougri:'), - - - T2T> 
 
 Si Qim'm's bsilh (Bahi d<: St Oil iriii J, - 112" 
 
 The Rofc bjth cBahi di la R''p), and the Poor's 
 bath (Bain dis Pauvres), both which are fup- 
 plicd by. the fame fpring, ... ujo 
 Charles's bath (Buin di Charlei), and St Cor- 
 
 neille's bath (Bain di St Cornulh), - - 112" 
 The fpring ufed for drinking is in the High ftrcct, 
 oppofitc to Charles's bath; the heat of it at the, 
 pump is - - 106'^ 
 
 Dr Lucas evaporated ihc water of the hotted fpring 
 (of the Emperor's Bath), and obtained 268 grains of 
 lolid matter from a gallon, compofcd of ij grains of 
 calcareous earth, 10 grainsof fclenites, and 243 grains 
 of a faline matter made up of natron and fca fait. They 
 arc at lirfl naufeous and harlli, but by habit become 
 familiar ami agreeable. At (iril drinking, alfo, they 
 generally affect the head. Their general operatioa 
 is by (tool and urine, without griping or diniinutioit 
 of llrength ; and they alfo promote pcrfpiratioii. 
 
 The quantity to be drank as an alterative is to be 
 varied accordiiigto the conllitution and other circum- 
 ftances of the patient. In general, it is bed to begin 
 with a quarter or half a pint in the morning, and in- 
 creafe the dole afterwarils to pints, as may be found 
 convenient. The water is bell drank at the fountain. 
 When it is required to purge, it (hould be drank iu 
 large and ot'ten repeated draughts. 
 
 In regard to bathing, this alio mud be determined 
 by the age, ("ex, drength, &c. of the patient, and by 
 the feafon. The degree of heat of the bath (hould like-^ 
 wife be confidcred. The tepid ones are in general the 
 bed, thougli there arc fome ca(es in which the hotter 
 ones are mod proper. But even ia thcfe, it is bed to 
 
 begin 
 
 AJI.
 
 A K E 
 
 [ 344 ] 
 
 A K E 
 
 AkciiliJc. 
 
 bf gin wi:h the temperate baths, and increafc the heat 
 
 griJaally. 
 
 Thcfc waters are efficacious in difcafes proceeding 
 from iiiiigclUon and from fo iliicfsof the ftoniach and 
 bowels. Ill rhcumatifms; in die fciirvy, fcro,liula, 
 and diltafesol ihelkinjin hyftcric and hypochondriacal 
 difordcrs ; in nervous complaints and ir.clancholy ; in 
 the Ilonc and gravel; in paralytic complaints; inihofc 
 evils which follow an iiijudicioiisufc of mcrcary; and 
 in many other cafes. They o.ight not, however, to 
 be given in hctlic cafes where there is heat and icvcr, 
 in putrid difordcrs, or where the bluud is diliolvcd, or 
 the confvitutiun much broken down. 
 
 The time of Jriiiki ig, inthefirltfeafon, is from the 
 beginuingof May till themiddle of June ; and, in the 
 latter fcafon, from the middle of Auguft to the latter 
 end of September. 
 
 There arc galleries or piazzas under which the com- 
 pany walk during the time of dri.'^king, in order to 
 promote the operaiion of the waters. — The poor's 
 bath is free for every body, and is frequented by 
 crowds of poor people. 
 
 It is fcarccly neceirary to add, that there are all 
 kinds of amufcinents common to other places of public 
 refort; but the Iharpersappearmore fplendid here than 
 elfewherc,allaniing titles, with an equipage fuitable to 
 
 them Aix la ChapcUeis 21 miles from Spa, 36 from 
 
 Liege, and 30 from Cologne. E. Long. 5. 4S. N. 
 Lat. 51. jj. 
 
 AIZOON, called by Mr 'MiWer/^-mfcrvive ; though 
 tlie name Aizooii has been by fonie writers applied to 
 the houfeleek, and alfo to the aloes : A genus of the 
 pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of 
 plants i and in the natural method ranking under the 
 13th order, Sucaileiitx. The ch?rai5ters arc : The ca- 
 lyx is a fingle leaved pcriantliium, divided into five fcg- 
 ments, and pcrfillent : There is no corolla : The/fa- 
 jiiiita confiit of very numerous capillary filaments: the 
 antherxare fimple : The ////;//«;/; has a iivc-cornered 
 gcrmen above, with five iimple (lyli; and the fligmata 
 are fimplc. The fericarpiuvi is a bellied, retufc five- 
 cornered capfule, having five cells and five valves: The 
 feeds ^XQ. many and globular. — Linnxus mentions three 
 fpecics; the canarienfe, hifpanicam, and paniculatum. 
 The firA is a native of the Canary illands, the fecond 
 of Spain, and tlie third of the Cape of Cood Hope. 
 They may all be raifcd in Britain on hot-beds ; 
 but as they are not remarkable either for beauty or any 
 other property, it appears unneceflary to take further 
 notice of them. 
 
 AKENSIDE (Mark), aphyfician, who publifhed 
 in Latin " A Treatife upon the Dyfentery," in i 764, 
 and a few pieces in the firll volume of the " Medical 
 TranfaiHions" of the college of phyficians, printed in 
 1768 : bat far better known, and to be diO.inguilhed 
 chiefly hcreafter,as a poet. He was born at NewcalUe 
 npou-Tyne, November 9.1 721 ; and after being edu- 
 cated at thegrammar-fchoolin Newcallle, was Tent to 
 the univerliiies of Edinburgh and Lcyden ; atwhich 
 lall be took his degree of Doctor iu Phy fic. He was af- 
 terwards admitted by mandamus to the fame degree at 
 Cambridge ; eleJied a fellow of the college of phyfi- 
 cians, and one of the phyficians at St Thomas's Ho- 
 fpital; and,upon tlie ellablilhmentof the queen's houfe- 
 bold, appointed one of the phyficians to her majefly. 
 
 2 
 
 That Dr Akeufide was able to acquire 110 other kind AUenSJe. 
 of cckbriiy than that of a fcholar and a poet, is 10 be » ' * 
 accounted for by the following particulars in his life 
 
 and condu.;!, related by Sir John Hawkins Mr Dy- 
 
 fonandhe were fellow-ftudents, thconeof lawaiid the 
 other of phy fic, at Leydta , where, being of conge- 
 nial tempers, a friendiliip commenced between them 
 that lalled through their hvts. They left the univcr- 
 fiiy at the fame time, and both fettled in London : Mr 
 Dyfon took to the bar, and being poiretfcd of a hand- 
 fome fortune, fupported his friend while he was endea- 
 vouring to make himlelf known as a phyfician ; but in 
 a Ihori time, having purchaled of Mr Hardinge his 
 place of clerk of the houfe of commons, he quitted 
 W'cftminllcr-hall ; and for thepurpofc of introducing 
 Akenfide to acquaintance in an opulent neighbourhood 
 near the to\yn, bougiit a houfe at North-End, Hamp- 
 Jlead ; where they dwelt together during the fumnicr- 
 feafon, frcquenciug the long-room, and all clubs and 
 aflcmblies of the inhabitants. 
 
 At thefe meetings, which, as they were not fcleft, 
 nuift be fuppofed to have confuted of fuch pcrfons as 
 ufually meet for the purpofe of golliping, men of 
 wealth, but of ordinary endowments, and able to talk 
 of littlcclfe than news, and theoccurrencesof the day. 
 Akcr.fidc was for difplaying thofc talents which had 
 acquired him the rcputatioxi he enjoyed in other com- 
 panies ; but bere they were of little ufe to him ; on the 
 contrary, they tended to engage him in difputes that 
 betrayed him into a contempt of thofe that diiicred in 
 opinion from him. It was found out that he was a 
 man of low birth, and a dependent on Mr Dyfon ; cir- 
 cuinflances that furnilhcd thofe whom he offended with 
 a ground of reproach, that reduced him to the nectf- 
 fity of alTertiiig in terms that he was a gentleman. 
 
 Little could be done at Hampftead after matters had 
 proceeded to this extremity : Mr Dyfon parted with 
 his villa at North -End, and fettled hisfriendiua fmall 
 houfe in Bloonifbury-fquare ; afligning for his fiipport 
 fuch a part of his income as enabled him to keep a 
 chariot. — In this new fituation Akcniide ufed every 
 endeavour to become popular, but defeated them all, 
 by the high opinion he every where man ifcfted of him- 
 fclf, and the little conoefcenfion he Ihowed to men of 
 inferior endowments ; by his love of political contro- 
 verfy, his authoritative ceufurcof the public councils, 
 and his bigotted notions refpeding government ; fub- 
 jefts foreign to his profelhon, and \\ ith which fome of 
 the wil'ell of it have thought it prudent not to concern 
 ihemfelves. In the winter evenings he frequented 
 Tom's coffce-houfe in Devcreux-court, then the refort 
 of fome of the moll eminent men for learning and in- 
 genuity of the time ; with fome of whom he became 
 intangled in difputes and altercations, chiefly on fub- 
 jeifts of literature and politics, that fixed on his cba- 
 ratter the llanip of haughtincfs and felf-conccit, and 
 drew him into difagreeable fituations. Hence many, 
 who admired him for his genius and parts, were Hiy of 
 becoming his intimates. 
 
 The value of that precept which exhorts us to live 
 peaceably with all men, or, in other words, to avoid 
 creating enemies, can only be clUmatcd bytherctlec- 
 tion on thofe many amiable qualities agaiiift which the 
 negled of it will preponderate. Akenfide v/as a man 
 of rcligi>ju and llrict virtue ; a phUofophcr, a fcholar, 
 
 and
 
 A K O 
 
 [ 345 1 
 
 ALA 
 
 AIlcoCJc and i fine pof t. His con verfaiion was of ihc molt de- 
 ll lightiul kind; learned, inltructivc, and v.itiiout any 
 Akond. atfcclatioiiofwit, cheerful atl<l entertaining. 
 
 *' ' DrAkcnlidedicd Ota putrid fever, June 23. 1770 ; 
 and is buried in tlie parilh-cliureliof St James's Wefl- 
 minfler. 
 
 His poems, publilhedfoon after his death in 410 and 
 Svo, conlift of "The pleafures of Imagination," two 
 books of "Odes," a "Hymn to the Niads," and 
 Ibmc " Infcriptions," The pleafures of Imagina- 
 tion," his capital work, was firfl publilhcd in i 744 ; 
 ;• d a very extraordinary production it was from a man 
 who had not reached his 23d year. He was afterwards 
 fenfible, however, that it wanted revifion and correc- 
 tion ; and lie w eat on revifing and correcting it for 
 fcveral years : but finding this talk to grow upon his 
 hands, and defpairing of ever executing it to his own 
 fatisfatition, he abandoned the purpofe of correcting, 
 and refolvcd to w rite the poem over anew upon a fonie- 
 what ditfcrent and enlarged plan. He tinilhed two 
 books of his new poem, a few copies of which were 
 printed for the ufe of the author and certain friends ; 
 of the lird book in 17J7, of the fecond in 176J. He 
 iinillied alfo a good part of a third book, and an in- 
 troduction to a fourth ; but his nioft munificent and ex- 
 cellent friend, conceiving all that is executed of the 
 new work, too inconfidcrable to fupply the place, and 
 fuperfedc the republication of the original poem, and 
 yet too valuable to be with-held from the public, hath 
 caufed them both to be inferted ia the coUedion of his 
 pocnjs. 
 
 AKIBA, a famous rabin, flourifhed a little after 
 the deftrudion of Jerufalem by Titus. He kept the 
 flocks of a rich citizen of Jerufalera till the 40th year 
 of his age, and then applied himfelf to ftudy in the 
 academics for 24 years ; and was afterwards one of the 
 grcateft mailers in Ifrael, he having 24,000 fcholars. 
 He declared for the inipollor Barcochebas, whom he 
 ownedfor theMelliah ; andiiotonlyanointedhim king, 
 but took upon himfelf the office of his raafterof the 
 horfe. The troops which the emperor Hadrian fent 
 againfl the Jews, who under the conduct of this falfc 
 Mefliah had committed horrid malTacres, exterminated 
 this faction. Akiba was taken and put to death with 
 great cruelty. He lived 1 20 years; and was buried 
 with liis wife in a cave upon a niouniain not far from 
 Tiberias, and his 24,000 fcholars were buried round 
 about him upon the fame mountain. It is imagined he 
 invented a fuppoiititious work under the name of the 
 patriarch .Abraham. 
 
 AKISSAT, the ancient Thyatira, a city in Nato- 
 lia, in Afia, fituated in a plain 18 miles broad, which 
 produces plenty of cotton and grain. The inhabitants, 
 who arc reckoned to be about 5000, arc faid to be all 
 Mahometans. The boufes arc built of nothing but 
 earth or turf dried in the fun, and arc very low and ill 
 contrived: bat there arc (ixor feven mofques, which 
 arc all of marble. There arc remarkable infcriptions 
 on marble in fcveral parts of the town, which are part 
 of the ruins i>{ ancient Thyatira. It is feated on the 
 river Hcrmus, 50 miles from Pcrgamos. £. Long. 28. 
 30. N. Lat. 38. 50. 
 
 AKOND, an officer of julticc in Pcrfia, who takes 
 cognizance of the caufes of orphans and widows ; of 
 contracts, and other civil concerns. He is the head of 
 Vol. I. 
 
 the fchool of law, and gives lectures to all the fubalfcrn 
 olHcers ; he has his deputies in all the courts of the 
 kingdom, who, with the fecond /<i</r<», make all con- 
 tracts. 
 
 AL, an Arabic particle prefixed to -.vords, and fig- 
 nifying much the fame with the Englilh pariicl(?/A:- .• 
 Thus they fay, alkermcs, alkoran, etc. i. e. the ker- 
 mes, the koran, &c. 
 
 Al, or AtD, a Saxon term, frequently prefixed to 
 the names of places, denoting their antiquity ; as 
 Alborough, Aldgate, &c. 
 
 ALA, a Latin term properly fignifying a wing ; 
 from a refemblance to which fcveral other things arc 
 called by the fame name : Thus, 
 
 ALA, is a term ufed by botaniftsfor the hollow of a 
 ftalk, which eitherthe leaf,or the pedicle of the leaf, 
 makes with it; or it is that hollow turning, orhnus, 
 placed between the (talk or branch of a plant and the 
 leaf, whence ancwoftspring ufually illues. Sometimes 
 it is ufed for thoic parts or leaves otherwife called UiiS 
 or tuiiigs. 
 
 AL/E (the plural number) is ufed to fignify tliofe 
 petals or leaves of papilionaceous flowers, placed be- 
 tween thofc others which are called the vixitium and 
 carina, and which make the top and bottom of the 
 flowers. Inflancesof riowers of this ftructureare fccn 
 in thofe of peafe and beans, in which the top leaf or 
 petal is the vcxillum, the bottom the carina, and the 
 ftde ones the i\x. 
 
 Al« is alfo ufed for thofe extremely flender and 
 membranaceous parts of fome feeds, which appear as 
 w ings placed on them ; it likcwifc fignities thole mem- 
 branaceous expanfions running along the flcms of 
 fome plants, which are therefore called atated fialh. 
 
 Ai.jt, in anatomy, a term applied to the lobes of the 
 liver, the cartilages of tlic nuiLril, &c. 
 
 Al it, in the Roman art of war, were the two wings 
 or extreme parts of the army drawn up in the order 
 of battle. 
 
 ALABA, one of the three fmalleil diftrifts of Bif- 
 cay in Spain, but pretty fertile in rye, barley, and 
 fruits. There are in it very good mines of iron, and 
 it had formerly the title of a kingdom. 
 
 ALABANDA (anc. geog.), a town in Carta, near 
 the Meander, fituate beneath eminences refemblingaf- 
 fes with pack-faddles, whicli ;;.i>c rifetothe jeft ; ar.J 
 between Amyzo to ilie wcit and Stratonice to tlic 
 raft. Under the Romans they enjoyed alFiies, or a 
 conventionof jurifdidion, by Pliny reckoned the fourth 
 in order ; hence the proverb in Stcphanus, exprerting 
 their happinefs. It was built by .Alabandns, whom 
 therefore they deemed a god. The people were called 
 Alabandi, Atabanimjls, Cicero ; and AiahanJeit, after 
 the Greek manner, in coins of Aguftus and Claudius ; 
 they were alio called Alabcndini (Livy). 
 
 AL.AB.ARCHA, in antiquity, 3 kind of msgi- 
 ftrates among the Jews of Alexandria, whom the em- 
 perors allowed them to eleit, for the fuperintendcncy 
 of their policy, and to decide dilterenccs and difputes 
 which arofc uiiinng them. 
 
 AL'\B-\STr:R (William) an Englilh divine, was 
 born at Hadley in the county of Suffolk. He was one 
 of the doctors of Tl4nity college in Cambridge; and 
 he attended the earl of ElFcx as his chaplain in tlie ex- 
 pedition to Cadiz in the reign of queen Elizabeth. It 
 
 Xx ij
 
 ALA 
 
 [ 346 ] 
 
 A L A 
 
 AlaUftcr. isfaiilj that liislii-fl r(.-rolutiotis of changing his religion 
 ^ X ». wcrcoccalioucd by liis Iccing the pomp of the churciits 
 of tlic Konian coninuinion, iuul the rcfped witji wjiith 
 llic priclls fecmed to be treated ainongll them ; and 
 appearing thus to waver in his mind, he foon I'ound 
 pti fons who took advantages of this difpolition of his, 
 andof the complaints which he made of not being ad- 
 vanttd according to his defcrts in England, in incli a 
 " manner iliat he did not fcruple to go over to the Po- 
 pifli religion, as foon as he he found that there was no 
 ground tu liope for greater encouragement in his own 
 country. However that niatteris, he joined himfclf 
 to [lie lloniilh communion, bur was difappointcd in 
 Jiis ex)'ec1:ations. He was (bondifplcalcd at this ; he 
 could liot reconcile himfclf to the difcipiine of that 
 church, which made no conllderatiun of the degrees 
 ivhicli he had taken before. It is probable too that 
 ie could not approve of the worlhip of creatures, which 
 proteftants arcufcd to look upon with horror. Upon 
 tills he returned to England, in order to rcfumc his 
 former religion. He obtained a prebend intiie catlic- 
 dral of St Paul, and after that the retlory of TiierfielJ 
 in Hertfordlhire. Me was wtll fkilled in the Hebrew 
 tongue; but he gave a V. rong turn to his genius by 
 fludying the Cabala, wiiii wjiich he was llraugely in- 
 fatuated. He gave a proof of this in a fenuou which 
 he preached upon taking his degree of dodtor of 
 divinity at Cambridge. He took for his text the be- 
 ginning of tlie tirfl book of Chronicles, Adam, Seth, 
 Enos ; and having touched upon ilie literal feiifc, he 
 turned immediately to the myftical, aliening, that 
 Adam lignifyed misfortune and mifery, and lo of the 
 rell. His verfes were greatly efteemed. He wrote a La- 
 tin tragedy, intitled Roxtiaa ; w llich,^\ lien it wasatTied 
 in acollegcat Cambridge, vas.nltended with a very re- 
 markable accident. There was a lady who was lo ter- 
 rified at the lall word of the tragedy, St'ijr/ar, Scguur, 
 which was pronounced with a very Ihocking tone, that 
 llieloflhcr fenfesall her lifetime after. Alabalkr was 
 living in i6;o. His Apparatus in Revelatio7icvi Jcfii 
 ChnJtiwiA printed at Antwerp, in 1607. As for his 
 Spiraculuii: tiiharuv: feu join Spiritiialium Expofitio>iuvi 
 ex icqiiivocis Pei:tciglotti jigiiijicalionibus, and his Ecce 
 Spoiijiis venitffeu tuba pulchrituiliiiis, hoc efl Hut/ionjlra- 
 tio guoJ ncit jit Ul'icitum >iec impoffihiU computare dtt- 
 rationeni inuiidi ir tt'7}!pus ficundi advcntus ChiiJIiylhiy 
 were printed at London. We may judge from thefe 
 titles what the tafle and genius of the author was. 
 
 Alabaster, in natural hillory, a fpccies of that 
 genus of flones whofc bafc is calcareous earth. It 
 differs from the marble in bcingcombincd, notwith the 
 aerial, butwith vitriolic acid ; therefore, when mixed 
 with any acid; no cftervcfcence appears. Itisfuluble 
 in about 500 times its weiglit of water at the tempera- 
 ture of 60. It is fnllblc alone in a long-continued 
 porcelain heat, or by the blow-pipe. Specific gravity 
 1.87. Texture granular, withlliining particles. In 
 compolition, and confequently in its chemical proper- 
 ties, it docs not differ from gypfiim, felenite, and pla- 
 fler of Paris. 
 
 There are threefpeciesofalabafter. i. Thefnotv- 
 ■white lliiiiiiig alaballer, or lygdinumof the ancients, 
 is found in Taurus, in pieces Urge enough to make 
 diflies, or the like. It cuts very freely, andis capable 
 of a fine polilli. 2. Theyellowilh alabafter, or phen- 
 
 gitcs of Pliny, is found in Greece ; and ii of a loft Alaballer. 
 
 luofe open texture, pretty heavy, and nearly of the co- ' >' ' 
 
 lour of honey. i'his fpccies has likewife been found 
 in Germany, France, and in Derbylhire in England. 
 3. Variegated, yellow, and reddilh alaballer. Thisipe- 
 cics is tlic common alaballer of the ancients, and is fo 
 foft that it may be cut with a knife : It is remarkably 
 bright, and almoll iranfp.irent ; admitsof a tine poliih, 
 and conlills of large angular fparry concretions. It is 
 not proof againll water; it ierments violently with 
 aqua-fortis, and burns to a pale yellow. The colour 
 of (his fpccies is a clear pale yellow rcfembling amb' #, 
 and variegated witli undul.ted veins ; fomc of whicn 
 are palered, others whililh,andother'sofa pale brown 
 It was formerly brought from Egypt, but is now to be 
 met with in feveral parts of England. The alabarters 
 are frequciuly ufcd by Uatuaries lor fmall ilatues, vales, 
 and columns. Alter beiuj; calcined and mixed with 
 water, tliey may be call in any mould like plallcr of 
 Paris. See GvrsuM. 
 
 Alaballer, Mr Boyle obfervcs, being finely powder- 
 ed, and thus fet in a bafon over the fire, will, when 
 hot, ulTunie the appearance of a fluid, by roiling ia 
 waves, yielding to the fmallcll; touch, and emitting 
 vapour; all which properties itlofes again on the de- 
 parture of the heat, and difcovers itfelf u mere inco- 
 herent powder. The tinenefs and clcarnefs of this 
 iloiie renders it in fome meafurc tranfparcnt ; whence 
 it has been fomeiinies alfo employed for windows. 
 There is a church at Florence Hill illamiuated by ala- 
 bafler-windows ; iullead of panes of glafs, there arc 
 II ;bs of alabafler near 15 feet high, each of which 
 forms a lingle window, through which the light is con- 
 veyed. The countries in Europe which abound luoft 
 in alaballer are Germany, toward Coblcntz ; the pro- 
 vince of Maconnois, in the neighbourhood of Cluiii 
 in France ; Italy, toward R.ome ; where that of Mon- 
 taiout is particularly I e ma rkablc not only for its whit e- 
 nefs, but alfo for the bignefs of its blocks, fome 
 of which are fo large, that flatues as big as the 
 life may eafily be cut out of them. F. Labar, in his 
 journey to Italy, obfervcs, that there are quarries of 
 alabafler in the neighbourhood of the village called de 
 la Toffa, near Civita Vecchia : there is alfo alaballer 
 to be found in fome places of Lorrain ; but it is not 
 much efleenied. A new manufacture of balTo relievos, 
 from a lingular fpccies of faftitiou; aUbailer, has been 
 fome time agoeflablilhedby M. Letapie, at the baths 
 of St Philip in Tufcany. The flream at thefe baths 
 depofites a peculiar kind of fand, which, when col- 
 le jled and condenfcd in the cavities of any body em- 
 ployed to oppole its current, acquires the nature, hard- 
 nefs, and colourof alabafter, and alfumes the forms of 
 tlipfe cavities in which it is thus lodged. 
 
 Alabaster, in antiquity, a term ufed for a vafe 
 wherein odoiiferous liquors were anciently put. The 
 rcafon of the denomination is, that veli'els fortliis pnr- 
 pofe were frequently made of alaballer-iione, which 
 Pliny and other ancients reprefent as peculiarly pro- 
 per for this purpofe. Several critics will have the box 
 mentioned in the Gofpels as made ot alaballer to have 
 been of f^lafs : And though the text fays that the wo- 
 man broke it, yet the pieces fceni mirarulouily to have 
 been united, lince we are told the entire box was pur- 
 chafed by the emperor Conllantine, and prcferved as
 
 ALA 
 
 [ 347 ] 
 
 ALA 
 
 Alabj- a relic of great price. Otlicrs will have it, that the 
 
 ftrum name alabajia denotes the I'orm ratlier llian the matter 
 
 II ollhis i)ox : In this view tl\ey define alabafter by a 
 
 llim andus i^^j^ without aliaiidlc, deriving the word from the pri- 
 
 " vativc «, and xafn, aiifa, handn. 
 
 Alabader is alfo laid to have been ufed for an an- 
 cient liquid mcafure, containing ten ounces of wine, 
 or nine of oil. In this fenfe, the alaballer was equal 
 10 half tlie fcxtary. 
 
 ALABAS'IRUM dendroide, a kind of lamina- 
 ted alab.iiter, btamifully varitjjated with the figures of 
 (lirubs, trees, &c. found in great abundance in the pro- 
 vince of Hohtnllciii. 
 
 ALADINISTS, a feft among the Mahometans, 
 aiifwering lo free-thinkers among us. 
 
 ALADULIA, a conliderablc province of Turkey, 
 in Alia, in tiiat part called Natolia, bciwctntlie moun- 
 tains of Antitaurus, whicli fcparatc il from Amalia, 
 on the nortli, and from Carimaiiia on the weft. It has 
 the Mediterranean ftaon the fouth; and (he Euphrates, 
 or b'rat, on theeaft, whicli divides it from Diarbcker. 
 It comprehends the kll'cr Armenia of the ancients, 
 and the caft part of Cilicia. Formerly it liad kings of 
 its own ; but the head of the lall king was cut oft' by 
 Selini I. emperor of iheTurks, who liad conquered the 
 country. It is now divided into two parts : the north, 
 comprehended between Taurus, Antitaurus, and the 
 Kujilirates, is a beglerbeglic, which bears the namcof 
 Maralli, the capital town ; and the fouth, featcd be- 
 tween mount Taurus and the Mediterranean, is united 
 to the beglerbeglic of Aleppo. The country is rough, 
 ragged, and mountainous ; yet there are good pallures, 
 and plenty of horfcs and camels. The people arc har- 
 dy and thievidi. The capital is Malatigah. 
 
 ALAIN (Charticr), fccretary to Charles VII. king 
 of France, born in the year 1^86. He was the author 
 of feveral works in profe and verfe ; but his moft fa- 
 mous performance was his Chronicle of king Charles 
 VII. liernard dc Girard, in his preface to the Hi- 
 llory of France, ftyles him " an excellent hillorian, 
 w-Jio has given an account of all the affairs, particulars, 
 ceremonies, fpeeches, anfwcrs, andcircumftances, at 
 which he was prefcnt himfclf, or had information of." 
 Giles Coroxet tells us, that Margaret daugliter to the 
 king cf Scotland, and wife to the da.iphin, pafTing 
 once through a hall where Alain lay allcep, fhe flop- 
 ped .and kiifed him before all the company wlio at- 
 tended : fome of them telling her, that it was llrange 
 flic lliould kifs a man who had fo few charms in his 
 pcrfon, flic replied, " I did not kifs tlie man, but the 
 mouth from whence proceed fo many excellent fayings, 
 fo many wife difcourfes, and fo many elegant cxpref- 
 lions." Mr FontcntUc, among liis Dialogues of the 
 Dead, has one upon this incident, bctuccn tiie prin- 
 tefs Margaret and Plato. Mr. Pafquier compares Alain 
 to Seneca, on account of the great number of bo.iiti- 
 fi;l feniences intcrfperfed throughout I'is writings. 
 
 AL.'MS, a conliderablc town of France, in the pro- 
 vince of Languedoc, fituaied on the river Gardon, at 
 the foot of the Cevenncs. The Jefuits had a coUfgc 
 in this place ; and a fort was b lilt here in 16S9. It is 
 ^4 miles north of Montpellier, and 340 front Pais. 
 E. Lon. 4. 20. N. Lat. 44. 8. 
 
 Al.AMANDUS (Lewis), in French .-//fw^/;, arch- 
 bifliop of Aries, and cardinal of St Cecilia, was one of 
 
 the grcatefl men of the lificcnth century. The cardi- 
 nal prelided in tlie council of IJalil, which depofed tu- 
 genius iV. and cledtcd the aniipope Fcli.x V. He is 
 much commended by AintasSylvius, asamancxtrcmc- 
 ly well formed for prcliding in fuchalfemblies.lirm and 
 vigorous, illuftrious by his vin le, learned, and of an 
 admirable memory in recapitulating all that tlic ora- 
 tors and difputants had faid. One day, when he ha- 
 rangued againll the fuperiority of the pope over the 
 council, he dillinguillicd himfelf in fuch an eminent 
 manner, tiiat feveral pcrfons went to kifs him, while 
 others prefled even to kifs his robe. They extolled to 
 the Ikies his abilities and genius, which had raifed 
 him, though a Frenchman, to a fuperiority over thr 
 Italians, notwithftanding all their natural fubtlcty and 
 finellc. There is no need of alkiiig, whether pope 
 Eugenius thundered againft the prelidcnt of a council 
 which depofed him. lie deprived him of all his dig- 
 nities, and treated him as a fon of iniquity. However, 
 notwithftanding this, Lewis Alamandus died in the 
 odour of fanclity, and performed fo many miracles af- 
 ter his death, that at the requeft of the canons and 
 Celeftinc monks of Avignon, and the folicitationofthc 
 cardinal of Clermont legate a tntsre of Clement VJI. 
 he was beatified by that pope in the year TJ27. 
 
 ALAMANNT (Lewis) was born at Florence, of 
 a noble family, on the 28th of October 1495. He 
 was obliged to tiy his country for a confpiracy againft 
 Julius dc Mc.ici, who was foon alter chofen pope un- 
 der the name of Clement VII. During this voluntary 
 banilhment, he went into France ; where Francis 1. 
 from a love to his gcniiis and merit, became his patron. 
 This prince employed him in feveral important affairs, 
 and honoured him with the collar of the order of St 
 Michael. About thf year 1540, he was admitted a 
 member of the Intiammaii, an academy newly crcctcd 
 at Padua, chiefly by Daniel Barbaro and Ugolin Mar- 
 lelli. After the death of Francis, Henry duke of Or- 
 leans, who fucceeded him in 1 J47, fliewed no Icfs fa- 
 vour to Alainanni ; and in the year 15 51, fent him as 
 his ambafladorto Genoa : this was his lafl journey to 
 Italy ; and being returned to France, he died at Am- 
 boife on the i8th of April 1556, being in the 6ill 
 year of his age. He left many beautiful poems, and 
 other valuable performances, i'l the Italian language. 
 We have alfo fomc notes ". lis upon Homer's Iliad 
 and Ody Ifey ; thofe upon the Iliad were printed in the 
 Cambridge edition of Homer in 1689, and JoHiua 
 Barnes has alfo infcrtcd them in his fine edition of 
 Homer in 1711. 
 
 ALAMODALITY, in a general fcnfc, is the ac- 
 commodating a perfon's beliaviour, drefs, and a(ftions, 
 to the prevailing tafte of the country or times in which 
 he lives. 
 
 Ala .MODALITY of writing, is defined the accommo- 
 dation of mental productions, both as to the choice of 
 tubjecland ilie manner of treating it, to the genius or 
 tafte of the times, in order to render them more ac- 
 ceptable to the readers. 
 
 ALAMODE, a phrafc originally F'rcnch, import- 
 ing a thing to be in the falhion or mode. The phrafc 
 has been adopted not only into feveral of the living 
 b.ngnagcs, as the Englilliand High-Dutch, bai f-imc 
 h^ve even taken it into the Latin. Hence we ii-eet 
 witli Aliiiuod'utii and Alamo Jatita!. 
 
 X x 2 Alamode,
 
 ALA [ 348 ] A L A 
 
 a thin gluify black lilk, SucJcii ami Fiiilaiul, fubjtd 10 the former 
 
 Ai.AMODE, 111 cuinnicrcc 
 chicliy iifcd for woniciis buoc's and intiis uioiinuiiji 
 Icarfs. 
 
 Al'AMOS (Bahhafar), a Spanilli writer, boni at 
 McJiiia del Cainpo iii Caltilc. Alter having lUiditd 
 tiic la^v at Salaiiianca, lie ciutrcd into the Itrvicc oi 
 Aiuhdiiy Fcrcz, fecrctary of Itate uiultr Philip 11. Mc 
 was in In'',^ tlletni and conlidcuce with his mailer, up- 
 on which account he was iiiijiriloncd alter liie dii'graee 
 lit this niiuilkT. He was kept inconiinciiicnt 11 years 
 when Pliilip HI. coming to the throne, let him at li- 
 berty, according to the carders given by his father in 
 his will. Alamos continued in a private capacity, till 
 the duke of Olivarcz, the favourite of Philip IV. cal- 
 led liiu) to public cinploynisnis. He was a man of w it 
 as well as judgnieiit, but his pen was fuperior to his 
 tongue. H"e died in the £8th year of his a;.i_c. His 
 Spanilhtranllation of Tacitus, and the apliorifnis which 
 he added in the 'margin, gained him griat reputation. 
 This work was publilhej at Madrid in 1614; and was 
 to have been followed, as mentioned in the king's pri- 
 vilege, with a commentary, which however hasiievcr 
 yet appeared. 1 he author compofed the whole du- 
 ring his impiifonnuni. 
 
 AL.-^N (Cardir.al \\ illiam), was born at RolTal in 
 Lancalhirc, in the year 1532. He went to Oxford 
 at the age of 15, and in 1550 was eltfted fellow of 
 Oriel college. In i 556, being then only 24yearsold, 
 he was chofen principal of Si Mary's hall, and one of 
 the proelors of the univerfity. In i 558 he was made 
 canon of York ; but, upon queen i-lizabcih's acccf- 
 fion to the throne, he left England, and fettled at Lou- 
 vain in an Englilh college, of which he became the 
 chief fupport. In 1565 he vilittd his native country ; 
 but, on account of his c.ucnie ad'tivity in the propa- 
 gation of the Koman Catholic religion, he was obli- 
 ged to fly the kingdom in 1568. He went lirll to 
 Mechlin, and then toHovvay, where he was made doc- 
 tor of divinity. Soon after, he was appointed canon of 
 Cambray, and then canon of Rheims. He was crea- 
 ted cardinal on the 28th of July 15S7, by the title of 
 St I\'!artiii 11: jMoi.til'iis ; ami obtained from the king of 
 Spain a rich abbey in the kingdom of Naples, and af- 
 icrwards the bilhopric of Mechlin. It is fuppofed to 
 have been by the advice and inlligation of this priefl, 
 tliat Philip il. ancmpied to invade England. He died 
 on the 2cth of Odober 1594, aged 63 ; and was bu- 
 ried in the Englilh college at Rome. He was a man 
 of confidcrable learning, and an elegant writer. He 
 wrote many books in defence of tbcRomilh religion. 
 The nioil remarkable are, i. A dejct:ce oj the 12 tnar- 
 tyn m one year. Tho. Alfield w as hanged for bring- 
 ing, and publifliing, this and other of Alan's works, 
 into England, in the year 1584. 2. A declaration of 
 the fentchce cj Sextui V. Sec. A work intended to ex- 
 plain the pope's bull for the excommunication of queen 
 Elizabeth, and to exhort the people of England to 
 lake up arras in favour of the Spaniards. Many thou- 
 fand copies of this book, printed at Antwerp, were 
 put on board the armada ; but the enterprifc failing, 
 they were afterwards deliroyed. 3. Of the worjhip 
 due to faints and their relUii, 1583. This treatife was 
 anfwered by lord Burlcij'Ji. and is efleemed the moll 
 elegant of the cardinal's writings. 
 
 ALAND, an illaud of the Baltic fea, between 
 
 It lies 
 beiwecii 17 and 19 degrees of E. long, and between 
 59 and 61 degrees of Lat. at the entrance ol ihe gulph 
 ofJiothnia. 
 
 ALAKAF, in the Mahometan ilieology, the parti- 
 tion wall that fejarates heaven from hell. The word 
 is plural, and properly written at araf ; in the lingular 
 il is w riileii ai arf. It is derived from the Arabic 
 verb araja, to diltinguilh. Al araf gives tliedenonii- 
 natiop. to the fevenih chapter of the alcoran, wherein 
 mention is made of this wall. Mahomet feenis to have 
 copied his al aral, either from the great gulf of fepa- 
 raiion mentioned in the New Tellanieiit, or from the 
 
 )|cwilh writers, who alio fpeakof a thin wall dividing 
 iea\cn from hell. Mahonu tan writersdiffcr extremely 
 as to the perfons who are to be found on al araf. Some 
 take il for a fort of limbus for the patriarchs, pro- 
 phets, &:c. others place here fueh whole good and evil 
 works fo cxaCrtly balance each other, that tliey aefervc 
 neither reward nor punilhnieiit. Others imagine tliis 
 intermediate fpace to be poiicilccl by thole wjio, going 
 to war w itiiout their parents leave, and lutfering niar- 
 tyrtloni there, are excluded paradife for their dilobc- 
 dicnce, yet efcape hell becaufe they are martyrs. 
 
 ALARBES, a name given 10 ihofe Ar.ibians who 
 live in tents, and diliinguilhfliemfelves by their drcfs 
 from the others who live in towns. 
 
 ALARES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet given 
 to the cavalry, on account of their being placed in the 
 two wings of the army. 
 
 ALARIC, a famous general of the Goths. He 
 entered Thrace al the head of 200,000 men, and laid 
 waftc all the country through which he palled. He 
 marched next to Macedonia and Thclialy : the Thef- 
 falians met him near the mouth of the river Peneas, 
 and killed about 3000 of his army ; ncverthelcfs he ad- 
 vanced intoGrei cc, and after having ravaged the whole 
 country, returned to Epirus, loaded with immeiilc 
 fpoils: after Ifaying here five years, he refolved to turn 
 his arms to the well. He marched through Paiiiionia ; 
 and, finding little relilfance, entered Italy, under the 
 confullh.ipof Siilichoand Aurelianus, A.D.400. After 
 various battles and treaties, he at laif took Rome by 
 treachery, and permitted hisfoldicrs to plunder it; this 
 happened A. D. 409. Alaric, having laid walfe a great 
 part of Italy, intended to pais into Sicily ; but a iiorm 
 obliging him to land again, he belieged the city of 
 Cofenza ; and having takea it, he died there in 411, 
 elev< n years after he firft entered Italy. 
 
 ALARM, in the military art, denotes cither the 
 apprehcnlion of being fuddenly attacked ; or the notice 
 thereof, lignified by firing a cannon, firelock, or the 
 like. Falfe alarms are frequently made ufc of to har- 
 rafs the enemy, by keeping them conflantly under 
 arms. Sometimes alfo this method is taken to try the 
 vigilance of the piquet-guard, and what might be ex- 
 pecf ed from them in cafe of real danger. 
 
 WtARM-Bell, that rung upon any fudden emergen- 
 cy, as a fire, mutiny, or the like. 
 
 jlLARM-Poft, or ALARM-ptace, the ground for draw- 
 ing up each regiment in cafe of an alarm. This is 
 olherwile called the rendezvous. 
 
 Alarm, in fencing, is the fame with what is other- 
 wife called an appeal, or challenge. 
 
 ALASCANI, in church-hillory, a feJl of Antilu- 
 
 thcrans.
 
 A L A 
 
 [ 349 ] 
 
 ALA 
 
 Aliifco iheranSjVvhofediftiaguilliiiigtciiet, bcfidcs thi-irticny- 
 I iiig baptil'ii, is laid to luvc been this, that the words, 
 Alaufla. jhis j, „,y body^ ill i!ie iiillilution of the ciicharift, are 
 ' not to be uadcrltood of llic bread, but of the whole 
 a(itioii, or celebration of the fuppcr. They are laid to 
 have taken the name from one Joannes a Lafco, a Po- 
 lilh baron, faperintcndant of the church of thac coun- 
 try, in Kii gland. See the next article. 
 
 AI-ASCO (John), a PoliQi uoblcnian.of the i6th 
 century, who, imbibing the reformed opinions, w.iscx- 
 pclkd his country, and became prcaciicr to a Proteltant 
 congregaiio;i at Enibden ; but forefeci.i;; perfccution 
 there, came to England about tucycar i 551, while tiic 
 reformation was carrying on nndcrEdward,ilicVl.The 
 publication ofihelnicrim driving thcProteltanls to fiich 
 places as afforded tiicm toleration, jSowcre natural- 
 ized in England, and obtained a charter of incorpora- 
 tion, by which they were creeled into an ecclclialtical 
 cftablilliment, independent on tlie church of England. 
 The Auguftine friars church was granteil them, with 
 the revenues, for the maintenance of Al ifco as fuper- 
 intcndant, witli four aliiftant minillers, w ho were to be 
 approved by the king : and this congregation lived 
 nndiilurbed until the accelfion of Queen iMary, when 
 they were all fcnt away. They were kindly received 
 and permitted to fettle at Enibden ; and Alafco at la(f, 
 after an abfcU'.e of 20 years, by the favour of Sigif- 
 mund, returned to his own country, where he died in 
 1560. Alafco WdS much cllccnied by Erafnius, and 
 the hiftorians of his time fpeak greatly in his praife : 
 wc haveof his writing, DiCxitaDot/unUiher ; EpiJhU 
 contiucm fiimmam Coutrovirfur de Catiia Domini, ire. 
 He had fome particular tenets ; and his followers arc 
 called Alafcani in church-hiftory. 
 
 ALATAMAHA, a large river of North America, 
 which, rifing in the Apalachian mountains, runs fouth- 
 eaft through the Hate of Georgia, and falls into the 
 Atlantic ocean, below the town of Frederica. 
 
 ALATERNUS, in botany, the trivial name of a 
 fpecics of the rhanmus. See Rhamni;s. 
 
 ALAVA, a diftriiJl of Spain, about 20 miles in 
 length, and 17 in breadth, containing very good iron 
 mines. Vicloria is the capital town. 
 
 ALAUDA, or Lark, in ornithology, a genus of 
 birds of the order of palFcres ; the characters of which 
 are thefe : The beak is cylindrical, fubulated, ftraight ; 
 and the two mandibles or chaps arc of equal iize. The 
 tongue is bilid, and the hinder claw is flraighr, and 
 longer than the toe. There are 28 f;'cties of the 
 alauda, of which the following are the niofl remark- 
 able. l.The arvenlis, or common (ky-hrk. This and 
 the wood-lark are the only birds that fing as ihey riy ; 
 this railing its note as it foars, and lowering it till it 
 quite dies away as it defcends. It will often foar to 
 fuch a lreij;ht, that we arc charmed with ihc raulic 
 •when we lofc light of the fonglter ; it alfo begins its 
 fong before the earlicft dawn. Milton, in his Allegro, 
 moil beautifully exprcircsthefecircumftanccs* and bi- 
 Ihop Newton obfcrves, that the beautiful fcene that 
 ^lilton exhibits of rural cheerfulnefs, at the fame time 
 gives us a fine piclurc of the regularity of his life, and 
 the innoccncyof hisown mind : thushc defcribcshim- 
 fclf as in a fitnation 
 
 To hear the lark begin his flight, 
 And iinging flartk the dull niglit, 
 
 From his wateh-tow'r in the fldes. 
 
 Till the dappled dawn doth rife. 
 It continues its harmony fcvcral months, beginning 
 early in the fpring, on pairing. In the winter ihcy 
 allemblcin vaft flocks, grow very fat, and arc taken in 
 great numbers lor the tables. Tliey build their ncll 
 ou the ground, beneath foine clod, forniiug it of hay, 
 
 dry fibres, &c. and lay four or five eggs Thcfc birds 
 
 arc taken in great quantities in tne neighbourhood cf 
 Dunllablc in England: the fcafon begins about the 
 I4:h of September, and ends the 25th of February ; 
 an 1 during that fpacc, about 4000 dozen arc are caught, 
 which fupply the markets of the metropolis of that 
 kingdom. See BiRD-Ca/t/i'/w^. V'aftly greater num- 
 bers than the above, however, are at limes caught 
 in different parts of Germany, where there is an 
 excifc upon them. Keyller fays, that the cxcilc 
 alone produces 6000 dollars every year to the city 
 of Lciptic; whofe larks are famous all over Germa- 
 ny as having the moft delicate flavour. But it is not 
 at Ltipiic only that they are taken in fuch numbers, 
 but alfo in the country about Nauniburg, Mcrle- 
 burg, Halle, and other pans. — 2. The pratenlis, or 
 tit-lark, has the two outward feathers of the wing 
 edged with white, and frequents the meadows. It is 
 found frequently in low marfliy grounds : like other 
 larks, it builds its ncft among the grafs, and lays five 
 or fix eggs. Like the wood-lark, it lits on trees ; and 
 has a moll remarkable fine note, finging in all iitua- 
 tions, on trees, oniiie ground, while it isfportiuo-in 
 the air, and particularly in its defcent. This bird, 
 with manyothers, fuch as thethrufli, black-bird, wil- 
 low-wren, &c. become lilcnt about midfummer, and 
 refumc their notes in September: hence the interval 
 is the mofl mute of the year's three vocal fcafons, 
 fpring, fiimmer, and autumn. Perhaps the birds are 
 induced to ling again as the autumnal temperament re - 
 femblcs the vernal. — ;. The arborea, or wood-lark, is 
 a native of Europe, and is dillinguifhed by an annular 
 white fillet about the head. It is inferior in fize to 
 the lky-lark,and is lifa Ihorter thicker form ; the co- 
 lours arc paler, and its note is lefs fonorous and Ids 
 varied, though not lefs fwcct. It perches on trees, 
 and whillles like the black-bird. It will ling in the 
 night ; and, like the common lark, will ling as it flics. 
 It builds on the ground, and makes its ncft on the out- 
 fide with mofs, within of dried bents, lined with a few 
 hairs. It lays live eggs, daflcy and blotched with deep 
 brown marks, darkcfl at the thicker end. The males 
 of this and the lafl areknownfrom the fcnialesby ijieir 
 fuperior Iize. But this fpecics is not near fo numerous 
 as that of the common kind. — 4. The campeftris, has 
 one half of its chief feathers of the wings brown, ex- 
 cept two in the middle which are white, and the throat 
 andbreaftarcyellowifli — 5. The trivialis,whofechief 
 feathers on the tail are brown, only half of theoutcr- 
 moflis white, and the fccondis whiteat the end, in the 
 fliape oi a wedge ; there is likewifc a double whitilli 
 line on the wings. It is a native of Sweden, and per- 
 ches on the top of trees — 6. The crillata : the chief 
 tail-feathersarc black, but the twooutcrmoft arc edged 
 with white, and the head is crefted. It is a native of 
 Europe. It fings well, like the fky-lark ; lays four 
 
 or five r^^s ; and is laid to hatch twice in a year 
 
 7. The iViiwktta: the ciiicf riil-fcathers arc black, 
 
 only 
 
 Alaudo.
 
 ALA 
 
 35' 
 
 only ihe outcrmoit two arc ol>lu|ucly half white. 
 It is 1 native of Italy — 8. The ali>c(tris : the chief 
 wing-feathers arc half wjiitc, the throat yellow, and it 
 has a blacl^ ItrcaK nniler the eyes anil on the brcalL it 
 inhabits North Anurica, \\hcre it is migratory. It 
 vilits tlie neighbourhooj ot Albany <he beginning of 
 May, bnt goes farther north to brecJ. In winter 
 it comes ill vail Hocks into Virginia aiiil Carolina, re- 
 turning North in Ipring. It feeds, Juriiig its Hay in the 
 more loutheru parts, on oats and other grain ; and 
 while at Albany, on the grafs and tlie buds of fprig- 
 ■birch. It runs into holes; whence the natives of thefc 
 lafl parts have given it the wznxc aichi-chnp-pt-fuc. Tlie 
 Englilh call it tlie o;7<//6«,and reckon it delicious eating. 
 By Ionic it is called ///oai-^/M/, as being very plenty 
 in that fcafon. It is frequently caught in great num- 
 bers by means of horlV.-hair fpriugs placed in fonic 
 bare place, the fnow being fcraped away, and a lit- 
 tle chatf ilrewcd about. It is always feen on tlie 
 ground, and has little or no foiig. This bird is not 
 peculiar to North America: we here of it in Ger- 
 many alfo ; and is in plenty throughout llulTia and 
 Siberia, going northward in fpring. — 9. The magna, 
 is yellow on the belly, with a crooked black llrcak on 
 the breall,and thctbrcc lidc-l'eathcrsofthc tail white. 
 It is a nstivc of Africa ind America. — 10. The New 
 Zealand lark (Plate XVIII.) is fevcn and a half inches 
 in length: the bill is half an inch, of a pale alh-colour, 
 wi.h the upper pa, t black : the upper partsof the bo- 
 dy are dulky, edged with pale afli-colour : the breafl 
 and belly arc white : the legs reddilli adi-colour, and 
 the claws black. It inhabits Charlotte Sound, and is 
 called kn?oo aroure. 
 
 ALAUTA, aconfiderable river of Turkey in Eu- 
 rope, uiii h, after watering the north-calt part of 
 Tranfylvania and part of M'allachia, lalls into the 
 Danube almoft oppoiite to Nicopolis. 
 
 ALAY, lignifying in the Turkiih language << The 
 Triumph," aceremony which accompanies the alLm- 
 bling together the forces of that vail empire upon the 
 breaking out of a war. It conljfls of the inofl inlipid 
 buffoonery, and is attended with ads of the nio(l 
 fhocking barbarity. That which took place upon oc- 
 cafion of the late war between the I'ortc and Ruliia is 
 ilefcribcJ by Baron Tott in his Memoirs as follows. 
 
 " It coniifts in a kind of Mafquer:iilc,in which each 
 trade fucccliively pvcfentsio the I'pcvlators ihc mecha- 
 nical excercife of iis refpedive art. The labourer 
 draws his plough, the weaverliandles his ihuttlc, tlic 
 joiner his plain ; and ihefcdirfcrent charaelers, fcatcd 
 in cars richly ornamented, commence the procelfion, 
 and precede the flaudar of Mahomet, when it is brought 
 out of the fcraglio to be carried to the army, in order 
 to infurcviftory to the Ottoman troops. 
 
 " This banner of the Turks, which they name 
 Saiidjak-Cheiiff, or the Standard of the Prophet, is 
 fo revered among them, that, notwithfianding its re- 
 putation has been fo often tarniihed, it fliil retains 
 their implicit contidcnce, and is the facred lignal unto 
 which they rally. Kvcry thing proclaims its fanclity. 
 None but the emirs are allowed to touch it ; they are 
 its guards, and it is carried by their chief. The Muf- 
 fulmen alone are permitted to look upon it. If touch- 
 ed hv other bancs, it would be defiled ; if feen by 
 
 ] ALB 
 
 other eyes, profaned. In lliort, it is enconipaflcd by 
 the moll barbarous fanaticilm. 
 
 " A long peace hi.d unfortunately caufed the ridicu- 
 loufnefs, and cfpccially the danger of this ceremony 
 to be forgotten. The L'hrillians imprudently crowd- 
 ed to fee it ; and the /urks, wlio, by the lituation of 
 their hoafes, could make money of their windows, 
 began to proiit by the advantage ; when an emir, w ho 
 prcctiied the banner, proclaimed with a loud voice, 
 « Let no inridel dare to profane with his pre fence the 
 holy Itandard of the prophet ; and let every Mulhil- 
 nian who perceives an unbeliever make it know n un- 
 der pain ot reprobation.' 
 
 " From that moment no afylum was to be found ; 
 even thofe became informers, who, by lettingout their 
 houfes, had rendered themfclvts accomplices in the 
 crime. A religious fury fcized on every mind, and 
 put arms in every hand ; the more atrocious the cruelly, 
 the more was it meritorious. No regard was paid to 
 fex or age ; pregnant women, dragged by the hair, 
 and trodden under feet by the multitude, perilhed in 
 the mofl dej)lorabIe manner. Nothing was refpecled 
 by thefc moullcrs ; and under fuch aufpices the Turks 
 commenced the war." 
 
 ALB, or Ai.BE, in the Rorailb church, a veftment 
 of white linen hangingdown tothc feet,andanfwering 
 to the furplice of the Engliih clergy. In the ancient 
 church, it was ufual, with thofe newly baptized, to 
 wear an alb, or white veftment ; and lience the Sunday 
 after Ealler was called dovmiic-i inaibis, on account of 
 the albs worn by thofe baptized on ealler-day. 
 
 Ald is alfo a name of a Tarkilli coin, othcrwifc 
 called afper. See Asper. 
 
 ALBA (anc. geog.), a town of the Marfi in Italy, 
 liiuated on the north-fide of the Lacus Fucinus, ftill 
 rciaining in its name. It (lands upon an eminence, 
 and is noted in Fvoman hillory for being the flatc pri- 
 fou where captive princes were ihut up, after being 
 barbaroully dragge.l through the greets of Rome at 
 tiic chariot wheels of a triumphant conful. Pcrfes 
 kingofMacedon terminated his wretched career in this 
 confinement, with his fon, the kill hope of an illullri- 
 ous line of kings. Syphax the Numidian, and Bitui- 
 nus king of the Averni, were alfo condemned to this 
 gaol by the particular clemency of ilie fenate, whicli 
 ibmciimes indulged itsfavage difpolition by putting its 
 captives to death. 
 
 Alba being lituatcd in the centre of Italy, amidft 
 difficult mountainous palTcs, and far from all means of 
 efcapc, was eftccmed a moll proper place for the pur- 
 pofe of guarding prifoncrs of importance. Artilicial 
 Arcngth was added to its natural fecurity by fortifica- 
 tions, which remain to this day in a Hate that proves 
 their ancient folidity. For the entertainment of the 
 garrifon, which was required in a place of fuch confc- 
 quence, an amphitheatre was creeled, of which the 
 ruins are ftill \ilible, as well as the foundations of a 
 temple, and oilier buildings of Roman times. 
 
 Lucius VitcUius, brother tot he emperor of that name, 
 had a villa near this place, famous for the variety and ex- 
 cellence of its fruit-trees, which he had brought from 
 Syria. His gardens were the nurferies where feveral 
 of thcnioft de;i'iousftone-fruits, that are now fo com- 
 mon in Europe, were firfl cultivated and multiplied. 
 
 It 
 
 Alb, 
 .'Viba.
 
 ALB 
 
 351 ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 It iTiiift have been lucciriry at Alba to fhcltcr trees 
 tranfj/laiucil Iroin Al a, and to treat them with great 
 teiuleniel:; aiul care, in order to rear them to pert'ec- 
 tioii : for the climate of this high region is extremely 
 rigorons in winter ; the cold feafon lulls long, and is 
 accompanied with violent llorms of wind and falls of 
 fnow. The lake has been often frozen entirely over. 
 
 Alba tinna, or Albuvi, in old cufloins, denoted 
 rent paid in lilvcr, and not in corn, which was cal- 
 led black-viail. 
 
 jIlba Terra, one of the numerous names for the 
 philofoplier's ftonc. 
 
 JtBA Rugalh. See Stoll Weissenburgh. 
 
 Alba Hdvioruw, or Aibmignjla, (anc. geog.), af- 
 terwards called yivariiim, now livicrs, in the fotiih- 
 caft of Langnedoc, on the Rhone. In the lower age 
 the inhabitants were called Aibfiifci, and their city 
 Child A/ />!.■'/ //!'!//, in the Notitia Gallix. £. Long. 
 4. 4J. Lat. 44. 50. 
 
 Alba Julia (anc. geog.) now Wcilfenhtrg, a town 
 of Tranfylvania, on tlic river Marilius. or Merifch, to 
 the weft of Hermanflat, fuppoftd to be called Alba 
 Jiiliir, after Julia Domna the mother of Caracalla. 
 There are, however, feveral infcriptioas found at or 
 near Weill'enburg, which bear Coi.. Ap tJL. that is 
 C'l.onia y^/'«/tv;y,,f, without the leaih mention of y/Z^a 
 7////'«, though infcribcd after Caracalla's time. Add, 
 that Ulpian, reciting the colonies of Dacia, calls this 
 colony Apiilinft, and neither Alba nor Julia. W hence 
 there is a fufpicion, that Alba Julia is a corruption of 
 Apiihiw. It was alfo called Afulunt Aiigvliuiii. E. 
 Long. 2J. o. Lat. 46. 46. 
 
 Albi Loiiga (anc. i-eog.), a colony from Lavi- 
 nium, in Latium, eftabliflicd by Afcanius the fon of 
 j^-'.neas, at the foot of the Mons Albanus : called Albn, 
 from a white fow found by /Kneas, whjch farrowed 
 gowhitc pigson thatfpnt ; which circuniftancc was in- 
 terpreted to portend the building of a city there in 
 30 years after (I'roportius). The epithet Longa was 
 added on account of its length. If was the royal rcli- 
 dence till the building of Rome, as was foretold by 
 Anchifes (Virgil) ; was dellroyed byTuUiusHoflilius, 
 all but the fane or temple ; and the inhabitants were 
 tranfplanted to Rome (Strabo). 
 
 ALHAPonpcia (anc. geog.), on the river Ceba, now 
 Ccva, in Liguria, the birth-place of the emperor Per- 
 tinax ; a rolony eitlicr ertabiilhcil at firll by Pompey, 
 orre-eflablidied by him after havingbeen before fettled 
 by Scipio. The inhabitants were called Alptiifis Pon- 
 peiaiii. At this day the town is fimply called Alba, 
 without any epithet. 
 
 ALBAHURIM, figitra fex/leciTii latjnim, a figure 
 of great importance according to allrological phyiici- 
 ans. who build their prognofties on it. 
 
 Af.BAN (St) is faid to have been the firil perfon 
 who furt'ered martyrdom for Chrillianity in Britain ; 
 he is therefore ufually llyled the pro;omartyi of that 
 idand. He was born at Vtrulam, and flourilhcd to- 
 wards the end of the third century. In his youth he 
 look a journey to Rome, in company with Amphiba- 
 lus a monk of Cacrleon, and ferved fcven years as a 
 foldier under the rmpi-ror Dioclelian. Al his return 
 home, he fettled in Venilam ; and, throush the exam- 
 ple and inllrui-^ions of .Amphibnlus, renounced the cr- 
 rurs of paganilu), in which lie had been educated, and 
 
 became convert to the Chriflian religion, it is ge- 
 nerally agreed, that Alban flittered martyrdom during 
 the great perfeciition under the reign of Dioclelian ; 
 but authors ditier as to the year wjien it happened : 
 Bede and others fix it in 286 ; fonie refer it to tiieycar 
 296 ; but UlFerius reckons it amongft the events of roj. 
 The Itory aud circumftar.ces relating to his martyr- 
 dom , according to Bede, arc as follows. Being yet a 
 pagan (or at leaft it not being known that he was a 
 Chriilian), he entertained Amphibalus in his houfc. 
 The Roman governor being informed thereof, fent a 
 party of foidiers to apprehend Amphibalus ; but Alban, 
 putting on the habit of his gucft, piefentcd hiinfclf in 
 his flead, and was carried before that magiftrate. The 
 governor having alked hira of what family he was .' 
 Alban replied, " 'I'o what purpofc do you inquire of 
 my family ; if you would know my religion, I am a 
 Chriliian." Then being alkcd his name, he anfwcr- 
 ed, " My name is Alban ; and I worfliip the only true 
 and living God, who created all things." The magi- 
 llraie replied, " If you would enjoy the happinefs of c- 
 ternal life, delay not to ficriticc to the great goi!s." 
 Alban aufwered, " the facrifices you oft'er arc made to 
 devils ; neither can they help the needy, or grant the 
 petitions of their votaries. His behaviour fo eiir;'ged 
 the governor, that he ordered him imr.'.cdiatcly to be 
 beheaded. In his way to execution, he was flopped by 
 a river, over which was a bridge fo thronged with 
 fpedtators that it was impoinble to crofs it j the faint, as 
 we are told, lifted uphis eyes to heaven, and thcftream 
 was miraculoully divided, and alforded a paifagc for 
 himfelt and a thoufand more perfons. Bede docs not 
 indeed give us the name of this river ; but, notwith- 
 flanding this oniillion, the miracle, we fuppofe, will 
 not be the lefs believed. This wonderful event con- 
 verted the executioner upon the fpot, who threw away 
 Ills drawn fword, and, falling at St Alban's feet, dcfi- 
 red he might have the honour to die with him. This 
 fudden converiion of the hcadfman occalioninga delay 
 in the execution till another perfon could be got to 
 perform the otfice, St Alban walked up to a neigh- 
 bouring hill, where he prayed for water to quench his 
 thirll, and a fountain of water fprung up under his 
 feet : here he was beheaded, on the 23d of June. The 
 executioner is faid to have been a lignal example of di- 
 vine vengeance ; for as foon as he gave the fatal flroke, 
 his eycsdropt out of his head. We may fee the opini- 
 on of Mr Milton in regard to this narrative, Ln his Hi- 
 flory of England. His words are thcfe, fpeakiiig of 
 St Alban, "The Ilory of whcfc martyrdom, lolled 
 and worfe martyred with the fabling zeal of fome idle 
 fancies, more fond of miracles than apprehenlivc of 
 the truth, dcfcrves no longer digrellion." Between 
 4 or 500 years after bt Alban's death, OfFa, king of 
 the Mercians, built a very large and ftately monaflcry 
 to his memory ; and the town of bt Albans in Hert- 
 fordfiiire takes its name from that protomartyr. 
 
 ALBAN A (anc. i:;cog.}, a fea ptu-t town of Alba- 
 nia, on the Cafpian lea. between the rivers Callus and 
 Albanus ; now called Baihi or Bu,.hy, giving name to 
 the Cafpian fea, viz. iM.ir de Babii. E. Long. 49. o. , 
 Lat. 40. o. 
 
 ALBANENSES, in church-hiftory, the fame with 
 Albigenfes, according to fome : .areording to others, 
 dillcrenf. Thcfe, however, whoarc for oillinguilhing 
 
 ihcm
 
 A L A 
 
 [ 352 ] 
 
 ALA 
 
 AlUan!. tlicp.i, attribute the Umc opinions to boiL ; only iiia- 
 
 — ^^ J>-'ng 'lii^ Albanculis to have beta prior in rcfptd of 
 
 liinc, as having bctii l'o^;nJ towards the clofc of die 
 eighth century ; whereas tlie Albigcufcs appeared not 
 tiUthc twelfth. Sec Alhioknses. 
 
 ALBANI, in Roman antiquity, a college of the 
 fain, orpriclls of Mars ; lo called Irom mount Albanus, 
 the place of their refidence. Sec Sahi. 
 
 Albani (Francis), a celebrated painter, born in 
 Bologna, March 17, 1578. His father was a lilk 
 merchant, and intended to bring up his fon to that 
 bufinefs ; hut Albani having a llrong inclination to 
 painting, when his father died, devoted him i'clf entire- 
 ly to that art, though then but twelve years of age. 
 He iirfl lludicd under Denys Calvert ; Guido Rheni 
 being at the fame time under this maflcr, with whom 
 Albani contracted a very great fricndlhip. Calvert 
 drew but one piolilc for Albani, and afterwards left him 
 entirely to the care of Guido ; under whom he made 
 great improvement, liis fcUow-difciplcinftruL'ting him 
 with the utnioll humanity and good humour. He fol- 
 lowed Guido to the fchool of the Caraches : but a little 
 after their friendlhip for each other began 10 cool ; 
 which was owing perhaps to the pride of Albani, who 
 could not bear to lee Guido furpafs him, or to the jea- 
 loufy of Guido, at rinding Albani make fo fwift a pro- 
 grcfs. They certainly endeavoured to ecliple one ano- 
 ther i for when Guido had fet upa beautiful altar-piece j 
 Albani woald oppofe to it fome fine picture of his : 
 thus did they behave for fome time, and yet fpake of 
 each other with the highcll cflcem. Albani, after ha- 
 viiiif greatly improved hirafelf under the Caraches, 
 went to Rome, where lie continued many years, and 
 married in that city ; but his wife dying in ciiildbed, 
 at the earncft requcfl q/ his relations he returned to 
 Bologna, where he entered again into the ftate of ma- 
 trimony. His fccond wife (Uoralice) was well def- 
 ccnded, but had very little fortune; which he perfect- 
 ly difrcgarded, fo llrongly was he captivated with her 
 beauty and good fenfe. Albani, befides the fatisfaftiim 
 of polfeiring an accomplilhed wife, reaped likewifc the 
 advantage of having amolT; beautiful model; fothathe 
 kad now no occafion to make ufc of any other woman 
 to paint a Venus, the Graces, Nymphs, and other de- 
 ities, whom he took a particular delight in reprefent- 
 ing. His wife anfwered this purpofe admirably well ; 
 for belides her bloom of youth, and the beauty of her 
 pcrfon, he difcovered in her fo much modelly, fo ma- 
 ny graces and i)erfedions, fo well .idapted to painting, 
 that it was iinpoHiblc for him to meet with a more fi- 
 nillied woman. She afterwards brought him feveral 
 boys, all extremely beautiful and riiiely proportioned ; 
 fo that (lie and her children were the originals of his 
 moll agreeable and graceful compofitions. Doralice 
 was fo conformable to his intentions, that flie took a 
 pleafure in fctting the children in dilFcrent attitudes, 
 holding theiu yakcd, and fomctimes fufpended by 
 Ilrings, when Albani would draw them in a thoufanil 
 different ways. It was from them, too, that the fa- 
 mous fculptors Flaniand and Argaldi modelled their 
 little Cupids. 
 
 Albani was of a happy temper and difpofuion ; his 
 paintings, fays Mai va.Ga, breathing nothing but con- 
 tent and joy. Happy in a force of mind that con- 
 quered every i;ncallnefs,his poetical pencil carried him 
 
 through the m.Jll: agreeable gardens to Paphos and CI- Albania. 
 theria : thofe delightful fcenes brought him over the * " 
 lofty P.-irnallus to the delicious abodes of Apollo and 
 the Mules ; whence what Du Frefnoy fays of the fa- 
 mous Giulio Romano may be juftly applied to Albaui : 
 
 Taught from a child in the bright Mnfes' grots. 
 He open'd all the ireaf>;rcs of Parnaihis, 
 And in the lovely poetry of painting 
 The niyU'rics of Apollo has rcvcal'd. 
 
 He died the 4th of Odobcr 1660, to the great grief 
 of all his friends and the whole city of Bologna. Mal- 
 vafiahasprefervedfome vcrfesof Francifcode Lemeiie, 
 intended for his monument ; the fenfe whereof is, 
 '• That the mortal remains of the illuftrious. Albani, 
 he who gave life to fliade, lie interred in this tomb : 
 the earth never produced fo wonderful an artill, or a 
 hand equal to his immortal one ; which gave co- 
 lours to the fo il, and a foul to colours. Prometheus 
 animated chty, and gave life by means of the fun ; but 
 Albani animated merely by the alhflance of fliade." 
 He was very famous in his lifetime, and had been vi- 
 liled by the greatefl painters. Several princes honour- 
 ed him with letters ; and amongfl the refl King 
 Charles I. who invited him to England by a letter 
 lio-ned with his own hand. 
 
 o 
 
 ALBANIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, on 
 the Gulph of Venice, bounded by Livadia on the fouth, 
 by Thelfaly and Macedonia on the cart, and on the 
 north by Bofnia andDalmatia. The people arertrong, 
 large, courageous, and good horfeinen ; but are faid 
 to be of a thievilh difpofuion : the grand feignior pro- 
 cures excellent foldiers from hence, particularly caval- 
 ry, known by the name of Arnauti. There are feve- 
 ral large towns in this province ; and the inhabitants 
 are almoil: all Chrillians of the Greek church, and de- 
 fcended from theancient Scythians. P'ormerly itw-as 
 part of the kingdom of Macedonia. Iheir chief ma- 
 nufachire iscarpets. Thcprincipalplaccsarc Dnrazzo, 
 Veiona, Antivari, Scutari, Croya, Aleffo, Dibr.i, Dol- 
 cigno, and Albanapoli. Long, from 28° to 31 b e. 
 Lat. from r^f)" to 43° N. 
 
 Albania, a country of Afia, bounded on the well 
 by Iberia ; on the eaft by the Cafpian fca ; on the north 
 by mount Caucufus ; on the fouth by Armenia, and the 
 river Cyrus, now Kur ; which, fpringing from the 
 Mofchian mountains thatfeparate Colchis from Arme- 
 nia, and watering the country of Mokan, receives the 
 Aragns and Araxcs, and falls into the Cafpian fea 
 within a fmall diftance from the fouthern borders of 
 this country. — The whole country formerly called Al- 
 liauia, now goes under the names of S/uiivaii and £a/}- 
 Cjorgia, and is extremely fruitful and pleafant. The 
 ancient hiftorians take notice of the Albanian men 
 being tall, fhrong-bodied, and, generally fpeaking, of 
 a very graceful appearance ; far excelling all other na- 
 tions in eomelinefs as well as flature. Modern travel- 
 lers take no noti;e of the appearance of the men ; but 
 extol the beauty of the women, which fecms to be un- 
 noticed by the ancients. The Albanians were ancient- 
 ly an independent and pretty powerful people ; but 
 we find no mention made of their kings till the reign 
 of Alexander the Great, to whom the king of Alba- 
 nia is faid to have prefented a dog of an extraordinary 
 
 ficrccnefs and fize It does not appear that the Alba- 
 
 :; nians
 
 ALB [3 
 
 /VUiann, nians were ever conquered by the Romans, even wlien 
 h Albans, tlirir power was at its grcalclt htiglit ; though, when 
 
 " they ventured to engage in war with thai powerful 
 
 empire, they were always defeated, as might natural- 
 ly be cxpctted. 
 
 ALBANO, a town of Italy, on a lake of the fame 
 name, in the Campagnio of Rome. It was called by 
 the ancients ylibaiium Po>//f>eii, and built out of the 
 ruins of the ancient Alba Longa, which was dcftroyed 
 by TuUus Hoftilius. It Hands within twelve miles 
 fouth-eaft of Rome, and for the pleafantncfs of its fi- 
 luaiion is the fummcr retirement of a great many Ro- 
 man princes. It is likewife the fee of a bilhop, who is 
 one of the fix fcnior cardinals. The town is famous 
 for its excellent wine, and the ruins of a maufolcum, 
 which, according to the tradition of the inhabitants, 
 ivasniadc for Afcanius. The profpeCl from the garden 
 of the Capuchins is extremely pleafant, taking in the 
 Campania of Rome, and terminating in a full view of 
 the Tufcan fca. Clofe by the town lies the Alban lake, 
 of an oval figure, and about fcvcn miles in circumfe- 
 rence, which, by reafon of the liigh mountains round it, 
 looks like the area of a great amphitheatre. It abounds 
 with excellent filh, and over againlt the hermitage it 
 is faid to be unfathomable. The mountain of Albanois 
 called M<i>iteCavo,onihetop of which was a celebrated 
 lemplededicated to Jupiter and Juno. Near the Capu- 
 chins there is another convent of Francifcans ; and not 
 far from thence the palace of Cardinal Barberini, rc- 
 jiiarkable for very pleafant gardens, with the ruins of 
 a:icient baths, and feveral old fragments of Mofaic 
 \,vor][. E. Long. 13. 10. N. Lat. 41. 45. 
 
 There is likewife another town of the fame name 
 in the Bafilicatc'of the kingdom of Naples, remarka- 
 ble tor the fertility of the f'urrounding territory, and 
 (or the nobility of the inhabitants. 
 
 ALBANS (St.), a market town of Hertford (hire, 
 is a very great thorough fare, accommodated with good 
 inns, on the north-well road from London, at the di- 
 ftance of 21 miles. This town fends two members to 
 parliament, gives the title of dute to the noble family 
 of Beauclerc, and has one of the bcfl markets for • 
 wheat in England. St Albans is feated near the ru- 
 ins of an ancient Roman city, by Tacitus called f'^e- 
 . ro/a»i; and by the Saxons IVatlingceJtcr, becaufc it is 
 feated on the road called Watlingjireet. Nothing now 
 remains of Verolam but the ruins of old walls ; in the 
 fields adjacent to which they continue to find Roman 
 coins, as they formerly found telfellated pavements. 
 Inmemoryof St Alban, Offa, kingof the Mercians. 
 ttuno 795, erefted an abbey, calling it 5/ Albans ; 
 and near it thetown o f the fame name was afterwards 
 built. The church of the abbey is remaining to this 
 day : time and the weather have made it look like 
 ftone on the out fide ; but if you break a bit off, the 
 rednefsof the brick immediately appears. When the 
 ^iiionadcries were dillolvcd, the luwnfnicn paid L.400 
 10 prevent its being levelled with the ground, and have 
 fince converted it into a parilh church, which, for its 
 largenefs, beauty, and antiquity, claims a particular re- 
 gard. It had a very noble fontof folid brafs, in which 
 the children of the kings of Scotland were ufcd 10 be 
 baptized ; and was brought from Edinburgh, by fir 
 Philip Lea, when that city was in flames ; but in the 
 limes of the late civil wars, it was taken away. Not 
 Voi. J. 
 
 SZ \ ALB 
 
 many years fince, a tomb wa-sdilcovercd in tliischnj-cli, Albn u« 
 faid to be that of Humphrey Dukeof Glouceller: when 11 
 the leaden coflin was opened, the body was pretty en Albcnmle . 
 lire, being prcfcrved in a foi t of pickle. There was ' ' 
 a flately crofs in the middle of the town, as there were 
 in many other places where queen Eleanor's bod) 
 refted when it was brought out of the north for in- 
 terment at Weflminller ; but it has been demoliihcd, 
 as fome fay, by the inhabiuius. The market-days arc 
 W^dnefdays and Saturdays. W.L.o. 12. N.L.51.44. 
 
 ALBANUS MONS (anc. gcog.), now called Mo<:t 
 Albano, 16 miles from Rome, near where Alba Longa 
 flood. 
 
 Albanus mons (anc. geog.), to the nortli of I(- 
 tria, called Albius by Strabo ; the extremity of the 
 Alps, which, together with the mountains to the call, 
 joining it, called Monies Bebii, fcparatcs the farther 
 Liburniaand Dalmatia from Panuonia. 
 
 ALBANY, a city of North America, in llie (late of 
 New-York, lituatcd upon the well lidc of Hudfon's 
 river, 160 miles north of the city of New- York, i: 
 contains about 4000 inhabitants, collected from almolt 
 all parts of the northern world. The houfes are builc 
 in the old Dutch Gothic ftile, with the gable end to 
 the flreet, and are feldom more than one llory and an 
 half high ; they are by no means elegant, but are kept 
 very clean. Albany, from its being feated on a fine 
 river, at the head of lloop navigation, furrounded with 
 a rich and extenlive back country, and the ftore-houfe 
 of the trade to and from Canada, is in a flourifliing 
 condition. It has of late, however, had a formida- 
 ble rival in the new city of Hudfon. W. Long. 44. 
 
 29. N. Lat. 42. 36. 
 ALBARAZIN, a rtrong town, and one of the moil 
 
 ancient of the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is 
 feated upon an eminence, near the river Guadalquivir, 
 a little below its fource, and on the frontiers of Valen- 
 cia and New Caflile. It is the feat of a bifhop ; and 
 produces the befl wool in all Arragon. It is about 
 100 miles call of Madrid. E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 
 40. ;?2. 
 
 ALBARII, in antiquity, properly denoted thofe: 
 who gave the whitening to earthen velFels, Sec. In 
 which fenfc they fto.xi contradilHnguilhcd from Dcal- 
 iatores, wiio whitened walls. 
 
 ALBARIUM OPUS, in the ancient building, thein- 
 cruflationorcoveringoftheroofsof houfes with white 
 plafter, made of mere lime, 'i liis is otherwife called 
 opus album. It differs from TcC}Qriuvt, which is a com- 
 mon name given to all roofing or ceiling, including 
 even that formed of lime and fand, or lime and mar- 
 ble ; whereas Alharium was reArained to that made 
 of lime alone. 
 
 ALBATROSS, in ornithology, a ipecies of the 
 diomcdca. See Diomedk.^. 
 
 ALBAZIN, a town of Greater Tartary, with a 
 flrong cartle. It is fituated upon the river Amur, or 
 Yamour, and belongs to the Miifcovites. E. Long. 103. 
 
 30. N. Lat. 54. o. 
 ALBE, a Ismail piece of money, current in Germa- 
 ny, worth only a French fol and fevcn denicrs. 
 
 ALBEMARLE, or Aumarle, a town of France, 
 
 in' Upper Normandy, and in the territory of Caux, 
 
 from whence the noble family of Kcppel takes the title 
 
 of Earl. The ferg«s of this town arc in high eltccro. 
 
 Y y It
 
 ALB 
 
 [ 354 ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 Albemarlt It 13 fcated on the declivity of u hill, on the confincsof 
 II Picardy, 55 miles N. E. of Rouen, and 70 M. VV. of 
 Albertin. pa,is, £. Long. 2. 21. N. Lat. i\<). jo. 
 
 Albemarle, the inofl norihcru part of the flatc 
 of North Carolina. 
 
 ALBENGUA, a town of Italy, in the territory of 
 Genoa. It is the fee of a bilhop ; and is a very ancient 
 handfome town, but not well peopled on account of the 
 infalubrity of the air. However, it is fcated in a very 
 beautiful plain, which iswellcuhivaied ; andthcoutlidc 
 of the town is furrnunded with olivc-trtcs. It is a ft.i- 
 port, about 38 milts S. W , of Genoa. E. Lonj;. 8. 1 3. 
 N. Lat. 44. 4. 
 
 ALI3ERNUO, a kind of camblct brought from the 
 Levant by the way of Marfcjllcs. 
 
 ALBERONI (Julius) the fon of a poor gardener in 
 the fub.irbs of Plaeentia, born in 1664; who, by his 
 yreat abilities and j^ood fortune, rofe from this low 
 original, to the employment of liril niinillcrof llate at 
 rlie court of Spain, and to the dignity of cardinal. He 
 roufed that kingdom out of the lethargy it had funk 
 intofor a century pafl ; awakened the attention, and 
 raifed tlie aftonilhmcnt,of all Europe, by his projects ; 
 one of which was lofet the Pretender on the throne of 
 Great Britain. He was at length deprived of his em- 
 ployment, and banidied to Rome. He died in 1752, 
 at the great age of 89. Kis Tcjlamcnt lolitiqui, col- 
 ledled from his incnioiis and letters, was publiihed 
 at Laufanne in 1753. 
 
 ALBERT, Margrave of Brandenburg, and the lall 
 grand maflcr of the Teutonic Order, luidalidc the ha- 
 bit of his order, embraced Lutheranilm, and conclu- 
 ded a peace at Cracow in 1525, by which he was ac- 
 knowledged Duke of the eaA part of Pruffia (forujtrly 
 called for that rcafon Ducal Fri/JJia), but tu be held 
 as a lief of Poland, and to defcend to his male heirs. 
 See Prussia. 
 
 ALBERTI (Leone Battilla), was defcended from a 
 noble family in Florence ; and wasperfectly acquaint- 
 ed with painting, fcalpture, and architeiilurc. He 
 wrote of all three in Latin; but his fludics did not per- 
 mit him to leave any thing conliderable behind him in 
 painting. He was employed by pope Nicholas V. in 
 his buildings, which he executed in a beautiful man- 
 ner ; and his work on architefture, which confifts of 
 ten books, is greatly cileemed. He alfo wrote fome 
 treatifes of morality, and a piece on arithmetic. He 
 died in 148J. 
 
 ALBERTISTS, a feftof fcholaftics, fo named from 
 their leader Albcrtus Magnus. 
 
 AL3ERTUS (Magnus), a Dominican friar, and 
 afterwards biihop of Ratiibon, was one of the molt 
 learned men and mofl famous dodtorsofthe 13th cen- 
 tury. He is faid to have afted as a man-midwife ; and 
 fome have been highly offended that one of his pro- 
 fcffion Ihoiild follow fuch an employment. A book 
 intitled De Nutnra Rerum, of which he was reputed 
 the author, gave rife to this report. In this treatife 
 there are feversl in Amnions f or mid wives, and fo much 
 ikill r.iown in their art, that one would think the au- 
 thor could not have arrived at it without having him- 
 fcif pra<51ifed : but the advocates for Albert fay he 
 was nof the writer thereof, nor of that other piece Z)f 
 Sccretis Mui'uTuvi ; in which there are many phrafes 
 and cxpreflions unavoidable on fuch a fubjed, which 
 
 gave great offence, and raifed a clamour againfl the Albcrtni 
 fuppolcd author. It mull be acknowledged, however, {| 
 th.u thereare, in his Comment upon the Maltcrof Seii- Albi. 
 ttnces, fome qucllions concerning the praftice of eon- *■ — ^ — ' 
 jugal duty, in which he has ufed fome words rather 
 toogrofs forchalle and delicate ears : but they allege 
 what he himfclf i;fed to fay in his own vindicaiion, 
 thjt he came to the knowledge of fo many monllrous 
 things at confeliion, that it was impollible to avoid 
 touching upon fuch qucllions. Albert was certainly 
 a man of a moft curious and inquilitivc turn of mind, 
 which gave rife to other accufations brought againll 
 him. They fay, that he laboured to lind out the phi- 
 lofopher'sltonc, that he was a magician ; and that he 
 made a machine in the ihape of a man, which was an 
 oracle to him, and explained all the dilnculties he 
 propofed. He had great knowledge in the mathema- 
 tics, and by liis fkill in that fciencc might probably 
 have formed ahead with fprings capable of articulating 
 founds; like to tlic machines of Boetiuj, of which 
 Calfiodorus has faid, "' Metals lowe ; the birds of Dio- 
 mcdes trumpet in braf,^ ; the brazen ferpcnt hilles ; 
 counierfeitcdfwallows chatter, and fuch as have no pro- 
 per note, friMii brafs fend forth liannonious mufic." 
 John Mattbaeus >'e Luna, in his trc.uifc Dc Rerum Jn- 
 ve/iiortbus, has i: libuted the invtiuic-n of lirc-arms to 
 All>crt ; but in this he is conluted by :saude, in his A- 
 foi^gii di'.- Ci ^„di hii.-.}, ei. \\ t a'.< lold, that Albert 
 was natlir.iliy very dull, and fo ineaj.ablc of iiillruiitioii 
 as 10 be ujion the point of quitting the cloilkr, from 
 defpair of learning what his habii required : but that 
 the I'uly Virgin appeared to him, and ail.cd him in 
 whi^'h he ciuie to excel, philufophy or divinity ? that 
 having chofm the former, ihe alfured him he would 
 become iuconjparaLlc therein ; but that, as a punilh- 
 ment for not pielerring divinity, he Ihould link, be- 
 fore he died, into hii former lluj iuity. It is added, 
 that altcrthis apparition he had an infinite dealof wit; 
 and ihat he advanced in all the fcicnces with fo quick 
 a progrefs, as utterly allonilhed his mafiers : but that 
 three years before his dca'ii, he Hopped Ihurt when 
 reading a divinity-lec'ture at Cologn ; and having in 
 vain endeavoured to recal his ideas, he found that the 
 Virgin's prediciion was acconiplilhed. " It-wouldbe 
 very unneceffary (fays Bayle, after relating thefe par- 
 ticulars) to ohferve that they are fables. Thofe who 
 would believe me need not be told this, fince they 
 would judge in the fame manner of thcirown accord; 
 and as for fuch as think otherwife, they would not 
 alter their opinion by reading here, that lam of a dif- 
 ferent way of thinking." Albert died at Co'ogn, No- 
 vember I J, 1280. His works were printed at Lyons, 
 in 1651, in 21 volumes in folio. 
 
 ALBERTUS, a gold coin, worth about 14 French 
 livres: it was coined during the adiniiiillration of Al- 
 bertus archduke of Auflria. 
 
 ALBESL4, in antiquity, a kind of fliields other- 
 wife called Decumai:a. See Decumana. 
 
 ALBI, a city of France, the capital of the Albi- 
 geois, in Languedoc, and the fee of an archbilhop. 
 The cathedral is dedicated to St. Cecilia, and has one 
 of the fined choirs in the kingdom. Here is a very va- 
 luable iilver flirine, of exquifite workmanlhip, of the 
 Mofaic kind : it contains the rcliquesof St Clair, tho 
 firilbifliopof this ciiy. The chapel of this pretended 
 
 fiiiiii
 
 ALB 
 
 [ 3SS ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 Albl, faint is magnificent, and adorned with paintings. The 
 Albigenfci. Lice is a fine Urge walk without the city : what diftin- 
 « guiflies this from all others, is a terras above a deep 
 mall svhich ferves inllead of a foifc ; it is bordered with 
 two rows of very tine trces,which are kept in excellent 
 order. There arc four gates, through which you may 
 viewall the beauties of a delightful plain. At one end 
 of this is the convent of the Dominicans. The arch - 
 bilhop's palace is very beautiful. The river walhes its 
 walls, and ferves both for an ornament and defence. 
 This city it featcd on the river Tarn, 3 j miles north- 
 by-weft of Touloufe, and 2jofouth of Paris. E. Long. 
 o. 52. N. Lat. 43. 56. 
 
 The Albigeois is a fmall territory abonc 27 miles in 
 length, and 20 in breadth, abounding in corn, woad, 
 grapes, fatfron, plums, and Diecp : and the inhabitants 
 drive a great trade in dried i)rune5, grapes, acoarfefort 
 of cloth, and wines of Gaillac. Thefe wines arc the 
 only fort hereabouts that are fit for exportation : they 
 arc carried down to Bourdeaux, and generally fold to 
 - the Britilh. They have likewifc feveral coal-mines. 
 
 ALBIGEN'SES, in church-hillory, a feet or party 
 of reformers, about Touloufe and the Albigeois in Lan- 
 gnedoc, who fprung up in the 12th century, and dif- 
 tinguilhed themfclves by their oppofition to the dil'ci- 
 pline and ceremonies of the Koniifli church. 
 
 This fci^ had their name, it is fuppofed, either by 
 reafon there were great numbers of them in the dioccfe 
 of Albi, or becaufe they were condemned by a coun- 
 cil held in that city. In etFcft, it docs not appear that 
 they were known by this name before the holding of 
 that council. The Albiginpfs were alfo called Aibuni, 
 Albigefci, yilhii, and Aibar.mfts, though fDmc diflin- 
 guilh thefe laft from them. Other names given to them 
 »re, Hinricians, Ahctard'ifii, Bulgarians, &c. fome on 
 account of the qualities they alFunied j others on that 
 of the country from whence it is pretended ihey were 
 derived ; and others on account of perfons of note who 
 adopted their caufe, as Peter de Brius, Arnold dc 
 BrelIc,Abchrd, Henry, &c. Berengarius, ifnot Wick- 
 litf himfelf, is by fome ranked in the number. T!ie 
 Aibigtnfes, are frequently confounded with the Wat- 
 ditifei ; from whom, however, they differ in many re- 
 fpeir^s, both as bein:^ prior to them in point of time, as 
 having their oritriu in 2 different country, and as be- 
 ing charged with divers hcrelies, particularly Mani- 
 chcifm, from which the Waldcnfa are exempt. But 
 feveral Protcflant writers have vindicated them from 
 that imputation. l)r Allix Ihows, that :i great num- 
 ber of Manichea A'lA fpreadovcr the weftcrn countries 
 from Bulgaria ; and fctiled in Italy, Languedoc, and 
 ether places, where there were alfo /l.biginfes ; by 
 which means, being both under the imputation oi hf- 
 nfy, they came, either by ignorance or malice, to be 
 confounded, and called by the fame common name, 
 though in reality entirely different. 
 
 Otlier errors imputed to them by their opponents, 
 the monks of thofc days, were, That ibey admitted 
 two Chrills ; one evil, who appeared on earth ; theo- 
 iher good, who has not ye; appeared: Tiiat they de- 
 nied the refurreciion of the tody ; and maintained hu- 
 man fouls tobedxnions iinpril">ned in their bodies, by 
 way of piiiiiihment for their (ins: That they conJemn- 
 rd all the facraments of the churcli ; rejciiicd baptifm as 
 
 ufclcfs ; held the eucharift in abhorrence ; excluded the Albigenfcj. 
 
 ufe of confcflions and penance ; maintained marriage ' — *" 
 
 unlawful ; laughed at purgatory, prayers for the dead, 
 images,crucifixes,&e — There were likewifefaid to be 
 two claffes of them ; the Perfcct,and the Belie vers.The 
 perfect boafled of their living in continence, of eating 
 neither flefli, eggs, nor checfe. Thebclieverslived like 
 other men, and were even loofc in their morals ; bat 
 they were pcrfuaded they Ihouldbe faved by the faith 
 of the perfect, and that none were damned who recei- 
 ved impoliiion of hands from them. But from thefe 
 charges alfo they are generally acquitted by Protc- 
 ftants ; who conlider tiicm as the pious inventions of 
 the Romilh church, whofc members deem it merito- 
 rious by any means to blacken heretics. 
 
 However this be, the A Ibigcnfcs grew fo formidable, 
 that the Catholics agreed upon a holy league or croi- 
 fadc againll them. They were at lirft fupported bj 
 Rainiond, count of Touloufe. Pope Innoc.nt lU. dc- 
 firous to put a llop to their progrefs, fent a legate in- 
 to their country ; which failing, he ftirred up Philip 
 Auguflus, king of France, and the other princes and 
 great aicnof the kingdom, to make war upon them. 
 Upon this the count of Touloufe, who had iided with 
 them, made his fubmilllon to the pope, and went over 
 to the Catholics : but foon after, finding himfelf plun- 
 dered by the croifaders, he declared war agjin ft tuem, 
 and was joined by the king of Arragon. His army 
 was defeated at the fiege of Muret, where he himfelf 
 was killed, and the defeat followed by the furrenderof 
 the city of Touloufe, and tha conqucll of the grcateft 
 part of Languedoc and Provence. His fon Uaimond 
 fucceededhim ; who agreed with the king and the pope 
 to fet up the inquilition in his ellates, and to extirpate 
 the Albigeafes. In an aifcmbly hdJ at Milan, the 
 archbilhop of Touloufe drew up articles ; .agreeable to 
 which the court made a moft ample declaration againll 
 them, which he publilhcd at Touloufe in 1 ij;. From 
 this time the Albigcnfes dwindled by little and lit- 
 tle, till the times of the reformation : when fuch 
 of them as were left fell in with the Vaudois, and 
 became conformable to the dodrinc of Zuinglius 
 and the difeiples of Geneva. 
 
 Albigenses is alfo a name fomeiimes given to the 
 followers of Peter Vaud, or Waldo ; and hence fyno- 
 nymous with wiiat we more properly call Watdiitftiy or 
 Poor Men of Lyons. In this ftnfe the word is applied 
 by Camerarius, Thuanus, and feveral other writers. 
 The reafon feems to be, thst the two parties agreed ia 
 their oppoiition to the papal imovations and incroach- 
 ments, though in divers other rcfpe^ts faid to be dif- 
 ferent enough. The Liihop of Meaiix labours hard t« 
 fupport a diiiini5tion between the two fcfls, alleging 
 that the /^/^/^f;-/Jj were hereticsandManichees; where- 
 as the WWif/.yi/ were only f-hiftfiatics, not heretics; 
 being found as to articles of faith, and only feparating 
 from the church of Rome on account of forms and 
 difcipline. Or Allix endeavours to fet afide the dif- 
 tindtion ; and fnows, that both of them hold the fame o- 
 pinions, and were equally condemned and held for lie- 
 retics: and this not for points of fai'h, but for declaim- 
 ing agaip.il the papal tyranny and idolatry, and hold- 
 ing the pope to be the Autichriil ; which laft, accor- 
 ding to M. de Meaux, conflituics nothing lefs thaa 
 Y y 3 Maixichciljn.
 
 A L ii 
 
 r 35^ ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 melium 
 
 I 
 
 Albinos. 
 
 Wanitjieji;!!. In tliis Itufe the LoilacJs and Witk- 
 liflitts in KugUdd wtrc hoc only Albigcnfcs but Mi- 
 nichus. 
 
 ALIilNTKMELIUM, Ai.bintimij.ium, (Taci- 
 tus ;) or at lull lengili, Albi um Inteme.mum, (I'li- 
 iiy, Siral)o) ; now Viiitimiglia, litiuuctl in the fi>'iih- 
 wcft oftlic tcaritory of Genoa, near (he borders ol' the 
 county of Nice, with a port on ihc Mediterranean, at 
 the mouth of the rivulet Uotta, almoft about ]ialf-way 
 betvvccn Monaco and S. F,.cuio. E. Long. 7. 40. Lat. 
 43. 17. 
 
 ALBIOECK, or Alebece, (Pliny, Strabo) ; o- 
 ihcrwifc called /^c-;/.y/'(3/////«re'/,from their fuperlUtious 
 worfliip of Apollo ; Aio Chitai Rcievjium ; now Ricz, 
 in Provence, about 18 leagues to the nurth-calt of Tou- 
 lon, on the north lide of the rivulet Verdon ; was ori- 
 ginally a Roman colony, (Infcription). It is foniclinics 
 written Reghnn. Tjie people were called Albici, (Cav- 
 iar.) E. Long. I. o. Lat. 43. 20. 
 
 ALBINI, in antiquity, the workmen employed in 
 what was called Opm Albanu7ii. They make a dif- 
 ferent profelhon from the dealbiitores or whitciien. 
 
 ALBINOS, the name by which the Portugucfe call 
 the white Moors, who are looked upon by the negroes 
 as monders. They at a c'illance might be taken fur 
 Europeans ; but, when you come near thcni, their 
 white colour appears like that of perfons afFcfted with 
 a leprofy. 
 
 In Saussure's Voyages dans les Alpes, is the fol- 
 lowing account of two boys, at Chamouni, who have 
 been called Albiuoi. " The elder, who was at the end 
 of the year i 7S5 about twenty, orone-and-twenty years 
 of age, had a dull look, with lips fomewhat thick, but 
 itothing elfe in his features to dillinguilh him from o- 
 ther people. The other, who is two years younger, 
 is rather a more agree.ihlc ligure : he is gay and fpright- 
 ly, and feems not to want wit. But their eyes are not 
 blue ; the iris is of a very dillindt rofe-colonr : the pu- 
 pil too, when viewed in the light, feems decidedly red ; 
 which feems to demonflrate, that the interior mem- 
 branes are deprived of the uvea, and of that black mu- 
 cous matter that Ihould line them. Their hair, their 
 eye-brows, and eye-laflies, the down upon their Ikin, 
 were all, in their infancy, of the moii perfcl milk- 
 white colour, and very fine; but their hair is now of 
 a reddifh call, and has grown pretty ftrong. Their 
 light too is fomewhat flrengthened ; though they ex- 
 aggerate to grangers their averfion for the light, and 
 half-Hrut the eye-lids, to give themfclvesamore extra- 
 ordinary appearance. But thofe who, like me, have 
 feen them in their infancy, before they were tutored to 
 this deceit, and when too few people came to Cha- 
 mouni to make this affedlation profitable to them, can 
 atteflthat then they were not very much offended with 
 the light of day. At that time, they were fo little de- 
 firous of exciting the curiofity of ftrangers, that they 
 hid themfelves to avoid fuch ; and it was nccelFary to 
 do a fort of violence to them before they could be pre- 
 vailed on toallow themfelves to be inf))e6lcd. It is al- 
 fo well known at Chamouni, that when they were of a 
 proper age they were unable to tend the cattle like the 
 other children at the fame age ; and that one of their 
 uncles maintained theih out of charity, at the time of 
 life when others were capable of gaining a fubliftence 
 by their labour. 
 
 " I am therefore of opinion, that wc may conlidcr Albinoii 
 
 tbcfc two lads as true albinos: for if they have not the ■> 
 
 iJiick lips and Hat nofcs of the white negroes, it i.s b«- 
 caufc they arc albinos of Europe, not of Africa. 'I'his 
 infirmity affefls the eyes, the complexion, and the co- 
 lour of the hair ; it even diiniiiinics the Urengch, but 
 does not alter tiic conformation of the features. Uc- 
 lidcs, there are certainly in this malady various de- 
 grees : fomc may have Icfs llrcngth, and be lefs able 
 to endure the light : but thtfe circumllances in chofc 
 of Chaniouiii arc marked with charafters futiiciently 
 Ih'oug to intillc them to the unhappy advantage of be- 
 ing clalled wich that variety of the human fpccies dc- 
 noniinaicd albinos. 
 
 " When nature prcfentsthc fameappearance often,, 
 and with circiimllauces varied, we may at lall difcover 
 fume general law, or fomc relation which that appear- 
 ance has \\ ith known caufcs : but when a fad is fo lin- 
 gular and fo rare, as that of thole albinos, it gives but 
 little fcope 10 conjecHures ; and it is very difficult to ve- 
 rify thofe by which we attempt to explain it. 
 
 " I at firii imagined that this difcafe might be refer- 
 red to a particular fort of organic debility; that a relax- 
 ation of the lymphatic vellcls within the eye might fuf- 
 fcr the globules of the blood to enter too abundantly 
 into the iris, the uvea, and even into the retina which 
 might occallon the rednefs of the iris and of the pupil. 
 The fame debility feemed alfo to account for the into- 
 lerance of the liglit, and for the whitenefs of the hair. 
 
 "Butalearncd phyliologill, M. Blumeubach,profef- 
 for in the univcrfity at Gottingen, who has made many 
 profound obfervations on the organs of fight, and has 
 confidered with great attention the albinos of Chamou- 
 ni, attributes their infirmity to a different caufe. 
 
 "The Audy of comparative anatomy has furniflied 
 him with frequent opportunities of obferving this phe- 
 nomenon ; he has found it in brutes, in white dogs, 
 and in owls ; he fays, it is generally to be feen in the 
 warmefl blooded animals ; but that he has never met 
 with it in thofe with cold blood. 
 
 " From his obfervations, he is of opinion, that the 
 rednefs of the iris, and of tlie other internal pans of the 
 eye, as well as the extreme fcnfibility that accompanies 
 this rednefs, is owing to the total privation of tliat 
 brown or blackifh mucus, that, about the fifth week 
 after conception, covers all the interior parts of the eye 
 in its found Hate. He obferves, that Simon Pontius, 
 in his treatife JeCo/oribus Oai/orum, long ago remark- 
 ed, that in blue eyes the interior membranes were 
 lefs abundantly provided with this black mucus, and 
 were therefore more fenfible ro the aftion of light. 
 This fenfibility of blue eyes agrees very well, fays M. 
 Blumenbach, with itorthern people, during their long 
 twilight; while, on the contrary, the deep black in 
 the eyes of negroes enables them to fupport the fplen- 
 dor of the fun's beam in the torrid zone. 
 
 " As to the connexion between this red colour of 
 the eyes and whitenefs of the Ikin and hair, the fame 
 learned phyfiologift fays, that it is owing to a fimila- 
 rity of firuflure, confenfus ex fnnilitiidhis fabrico'. He 
 aflerts, tliat this black mucus is formed only in the de- 
 licate cellular fubHance, which has numerous blood- 
 veffels contiguous to it, but contains no fat ; like the 
 infide of the eye, the fkin of negroes, the fpotted pa- 
 late of feveral domcflic animals, &c. And, laflly, he 
 
 fa^s*
 
 ALB 
 
 [ 357 ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 Albinoi. fays, iliat tli^ colour of the hair generally corrdponds 
 ^~^ with that of the iiis. Gazette litt. dc Cotingue, Oct. 
 
 1 784- 
 
 ( " At the very time that L.Blumenbach was reading 
 this memoir to ilic Royal Society of Gottingcii, M. 
 liuz/.i, fiirgeon to the liofpital at Milan, an elcve of 
 the celebrated anatomill Mojcati, publilhed, in the Q- 
 f ii/coli Sii Iti dt MiUu, 1784, lom. vii. p. 11 -a very 
 imcreftiiig iiicmoir, in which he dcnionllratcsby dif- 
 ftction what Blumcnbach had only fiippofcd. 
 
 " A pcafaiu of About ;!oyearsof age died at the hof- 
 pital of Milan of a pulmonary difordtr. His body be- 
 ing expofed to view, was exceedingly remarkable by 
 the uncommon whitencfs of the fkin, of the hair, of 
 the beard, and of all the. other covered parts of the 
 body. M. Buzzij who had long defired an oportunity 
 of dilfeding, fuch a fubjcdt, immediately fcized upon 
 this. He found the iris of the eyes perfedly white, 
 and thepupilofarofc-colour. Theeyeswere diflcfted 
 with the greatcftpoiliblc care, and were found entirely 
 deftitutc of that black membrane which anatomifls 
 call the uvea ; it was not to be feen cither behind the 
 iris, or under the rcetina: within the eye there was 
 "only found the choroid coat extremely thinand tinged, 
 of a paleredcolour, by vcllels filled with difcoloured 
 blood. W hat was more extraordinary, the (kin, when 
 detach ed from different parts of the body, feemedalfo 
 entirely diverted of the retc mucofiini maceration did 
 not difcoverthe Icaft veflige of this, nor even in the 
 wrinkles of the abdomen, where it is moll abundant 
 and mofl vifible. 
 
 " M. Buzzi likcwifc accounts for the whitenefs of 
 the fkin and of the hair, from the abfcnce of the rcte 
 mucojtnii, which, accordingto him, gives the colour to 
 the cuticle, and to the hairs that arc fcattered over it. 
 Among other proofs of this opinion, he alleges a well- 
 known faft, that if the Ikinof the blackefthorfe be 
 accidently dcftroyed in any part of the body, the hairs 
 that afterwards grew on that part are always white, 
 bccaufe the nte mucofiim which tinges thofc hairs is 
 never regenerated with the (kin. 
 
 "The proximate caufe of the whitenefs of albinos, 
 and the colour of their eyes, feems therefore pretty 
 evidently to depend on the abfcnce of the rtr/« mueo/u'it: 
 But what is the remote caufc ? 
 
 " In the firft place, it feems probable that men affec- 
 ted with this infirmity form no diftinil fpecies,for they 
 are produced from parents that have dark Ikins and 
 black eyes. What isitthcn ihatdcftroys the retemu- 
 ctfiim in fuch perfons ? M. Buzzi relates a fingular 
 fail, which feems to throw fouie lijjht in this fubjert. 
 
 " A woman of Milan, named Calcagui, had feven 
 fons. The two cldeft had brownhair, and black eyes ; 
 the three next had white (kins, white hair, and red 
 eyes ; the two laft refembled the two eldcft. It was 
 faid thatthiswoman, during the three pregnancies that 
 produced the albinos, had a continual and immoderate 
 appetite for milk, which (he took in great quantities: 
 but that when Ihe was wilh-child of the other four 
 children, Ihe had no fuch dcfire. It is not however 
 afccrtained, that this preternatural appitite was not 
 iifclf the effeft of a certain heat, or internal difeafe, 
 ■which deftroycd the rett mucofum'm the children be- 
 fore they were born. 
 , " The albinos of Charaouni are alfo the offspring of 
 
 parents with dark (kini and black tyes. They have Albinovm. 
 three lifters by the fame father and mother, who are >■■'". 
 alfo bruiitties. Ontofihcm that I faw had the eyes Alb i r.ui. 
 of a dark brown, and the hair almoft black. They '^ ' 
 arc faid, however, to be all atlliifled with a wcakncfsof 
 light. When the lads are married, it will be curi(jus 
 to obfcrvc how the eyes of their children will be for- 
 med. The experiment would be particularly dctilivc 
 if they were married to women like thenifclves. B 
 this faulty conformation feems to be more rare anionB 
 women tlian among men ; for the four of Mil.in, the 
 two of Chaniouni, the one defcribed by Maupcrtiiis, 
 the one by Helvetius, and almoft all the inrtances of 
 thefe lingular productions, have been of our fex. It is 
 known, however, that there are racesof men and wo- 
 men afretted with this difeafe, and that thefe races per- 
 petuate themCelves, in Guinea, in Java, at Panama, &c. 
 
 " Upon the whole, this degeneration does not feera 
 to be owing to the air of the mountains ; for though I 
 have traverfed the greatefl part of the Alps, and the 
 other mountains in Europe, thefe are the only indivi- 
 duals of the kind that ever 1 met with." 
 
 ALBINOVANUS, a Latin poet, whom Ovid fur- 
 named the £)(-'/'';i'. There is now nothing of his extant, 
 except an Elegy on Drufus, and another on the Death 
 of Mecasnas. 
 
 ALBINUS(BernhardSiegfred),acelcbratcdphy- 
 fician and anatomifl, was born, of anilluflrious fami- 
 ly, at Krancfort on the Oder in 1697. His father was 
 then profeifor of the praftice of medicine in the univcr- 
 fity of Francfort ; but in the year i 702 he repaired to 
 Leyden, being nominated profefTor of anatomy and 
 furgery in that univerliiy. Here his fon had an oppor- 
 tunity of fludying under the mofl eminent maflers in 
 Europe, who, from the fingular abilities which he then 
 difplayed, had no difficulty in prognoflicating his fu- 
 ture eminence. But while he was dillinguiflied in every 
 branch of literature, his attention was particularly 
 turned to anatomy and furgery. His peculiar attach- 
 ment to thefe branches of knowledge gained him the 
 intimate friendlhip of Ruyfch and Rau, who at that 
 timefioiirilhed in Leyden ; and the latter, fojuAly ce- 
 lebrated as a lithotomirt, is faid to have feldom per- 
 formed a capital operation without inviting him to be 
 prefent. Having finifhed his Audies at Leyden, he 
 went to Paris, where he attended the leftures of Du- 
 Verney, Vaillant, and other celebrated profcfTors. But 
 he had fcarce fpcnt a year there, when he was invited 
 by the curators of the univerfity of Leyden, to be a 
 lefturer in anatomy and furgery in that place. Though 
 contrary to hisown inclination, he complied with their 
 requefl, and upon that occalion was created Dr of 
 phylic without any examination. Soon after, upon the 
 death of his father, he was appointed to fucceed him 
 as profedbr of anatomy ; and upon being admitted in- 
 to that office on the 9th of November 1721, he deli- 
 vered an oration, De v(ra via ad jabricx hiimani cor- 
 poris cognitionem ducoite ; which was heard with uni- 
 verfal approbation. In the capacity of a profeifor, he 
 not only beftowed the greatcft attention upon the in- 
 llru<ilion of the youth cntrufled to bis care, but in the 
 improvement of the medical art. With this view, he 
 publifhcd many important difeoveries of hisown ; and 
 by elegant editions, turned the attention of phyficians 
 to works of merit, which might otherwife have been 
 
 neglefled.
 
 ALB 
 
 [ 358 ] 
 
 ALB 
 
 Albion ncgleflcd. By thcfc means his fame was foon cxtend- 
 I eJ over Kui-ope ; and the locieties of London, Pctcrl- 
 Albuurjf. burgh, and Harlem, clieerliilly received hiiii as an al- 
 ' — ^ fociace. In 1745, he was appointed profefTor of the 
 praaicc of medicine at Lcyden, and was fiicceedcd in 
 the anatomical chair by his brother Frid. Bern. Al- 
 binus. He was twice rector of the univerlity, and as 
 often he rcfufcd that high honour when it was volun- 
 tarily offered him. At length, worn out by long fer- 
 vice and intenfe ftudy, he died on the 9th of Scptem- 
 bcr I 770, in the 74tli year of his age. 
 
 ALBION, the ancient name of Britain. 
 
 Nc'M Jlbios, a name given by Sir Francis Drake 
 to California. 
 
 ALBIREO, (in Aflronofny) a flar of the third or 
 fourth magnitude, in the conllclhiion Cygnus. 
 
 ALBIS, (in anc. gcog.) now the Elbe, which di- 
 vided ancient Germany in the middle, and was the 
 boundary of the ancient geography of Germany, fo far 
 RS that country was known to the Fvomans : all beyond 
 they owned to be uncertain, no Roman except Drulus 
 iv.id Tiberius having penetrated fo far as the Elbe. In 
 the year of the building of the city 744, °r about (ix 
 years before Chriil, Domitius Ahcnobarbus, eroinng 
 the river with a itw, merited the ornaments of a 
 triumph ; fo glorious was it reckoned at Rome to have 
 attempted the pallage. In the following age, how- 
 ever, the river that before occupied the middle of an- 
 cient Germany, became its boundary to the north, 
 from the irruptions of the Sarmata;, who polTeffed 
 ihemfelves of the Tranfalbin Germany. The Elbe 
 rifes in the borders of Silefia, out of the Rifcnberg, 
 runs through Bohemia, Mifnia, Upper Saxony, An- 
 halt, Magdeburg, Bandcnburg, Danneberg, Lauen- 
 burg, Holftcin, and after being fwelled by many other 
 rivers, and pairing by Hamburg and Gluckftadt, falls 
 into the German, or ISIorth fca, to both which places 
 the river is navigable by large veffcls. 
 
 ALBISOLA, a fmall town belonging to the repu- 
 blic of Genoa : here is a porcelain manufatlurc, and fe- 
 veral country-houfcs of the Genoefe nobility. It was 
 bombarded in 1745 by the Englilh. E. Long. 8. 20. 
 N. Lat. 4.). IS- . . ,. 
 
 ALBOGALERUS, in Roman antiquity, a white 
 cap worn by the/^7.v.-« tlui/h, on the top of which was 
 an ornament of olive branches. 
 
 ALBORAK, amongft the Mahometan writers, the 
 bcafl on v.hich Mahomet rode in his journeys to hea- 
 ven. The Arab commentators give many fables con- 
 cerning this extraordinary vrhiclc. It is rcprefcntcd 
 as of an intermediate Hiape and fizc between an afs and 
 a mule. A place, it feems, was fecured for it in pa- 
 radife at the intercclfion of Mahomet ; which, how- 
 ever, was in fomc mcafurc extorted from the prophet, 
 by Alborak's rcfufing to let him mount him when tlie 
 angel Gabriel was come to cunduft him to heaven. 
 
 ALBORO, in zoology, a name by which the eryth- 
 rinus, a fmall red filh, caught in the Mediterranean, is 
 commonly known in the markets of Rome and Venice. 
 
 ALBOURG, a town of Denmark, in North Jut- 
 land, capital of the diocefe of the fame name, and a 
 bilhop's fee. It has this name, which lignifies eel-town, 
 on account of the great number of eels taken here. It 
 is feated on a canal, 10 miles from the fea, jo north of 
 W'iburgh, and 50 north of Arhuys. It has an ex- 
 
 change for merchants, and a fafc and deep harbour. Altriciat 
 They havea confidcrable trade in herrings and corn; 1 
 an damanu factory of guns, pillols,faddles, and gloves. . Alhugo.^ 
 E. Long. 29. 16. N. Lat. 56. 35. 
 
 ALBRICIUS, born at London, was a great phi- 
 lofopner, a learned and able phyfician, and well ver- 
 fcd in all the branches of polite literature. He lived 
 in the 11"' century, and wrote feveral works in La- 
 tin, particularly, i. Of the origin of the gods. 2. 
 The virtues of the ancients. 3. The nature of poi- 
 fon, &c. 
 
 ALBUCA, Bastard star-of-Bethlehbm: A 
 genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hcx- 
 andria dai's of plants ; and in the natural method 
 ranking under the loth ovAcr, Cnroiiaria:. The cha- 
 rafters are: The cal}x is wanting: The rofoZ/aconfifts 
 of fix oval oblong petals, which are perllllcnt : The 
 Jlamhia conllll of lix three-fided rilaments the length 
 of the corolla : Of thcfe, three arc fertile, with verfa- 
 tile anthera?; three arc barren, without antherae: The 
 piflilbnii has an oblong three-lided gcrmen; the fly lus 
 is threc-iided : The perharpium is an oblong obtufc 
 triangular capfule,havingthrec cells and three valves. 
 The/^c-.-// are numerous, flat, and incumbent. Of this 
 genus Linnicus reckons only two. 
 
 Species. I. The major, or liar-flower, with fpear- 
 fhapcd-leaves. This is a native of Canada, and fome 
 other parts of North America : the root is bulbous ; 
 from whence Ihoot up eight or ten long, narrow, fpear- 
 Ihaped leaves. In the centre of thefe arifes a flower, 
 fleni, a foot or more in height, garnifned with a loofe 
 fpike of grecnilh yellow flowers. After the flowers are 
 part, the germen fwells to a three-cornered capfule, 
 having three cells filled with with flat feeds. 2. The 
 minor, or African flar.flower, is a native of the Cape 
 of Good Hope. This hath alfo a pretty large bulbous 
 root, from which arife four or five narrow awl-fliaped 
 leaves, of a deep green colour; the flower-flem, which 
 comes from thecenterof the root, is naked, and rarely 
 rifes more than eight or nine inches high, having 
 five or lix greenifli-yellow flowers, growing almoll in 
 the form ofan umbel at top: thefe are rarely fucceedcd 
 by feeds in Britain. 
 
 Culture. The Canada albnca is hardy ; fo the roots 
 may be planted about four inches deep in a border of 
 light earth, where they will thrive and produce their 
 flowers late in the fummer : but as the feeds do not of- 
 ten ripen in Britain, and the bulbs put out icw off- 
 fcts, the plants are not common in that country. The 
 African fort generally flowers twice a-year; firfl in 
 March or Ajiril, and again in July or Auguft ; and if 
 its roots arc kept in pots tilled with light earth; fliel- 
 tcred under a hot-bed frame, tlicy will flower even in 
 winter ; but the befl method is to have a border in the 
 front of a green-houfc, or flove, where the roots of 
 moR of the bulbous flowers may be planted in the full 
 ground, and fcrcened in winter from frofl : in fnch (i- 
 tuations they thrive much better, and flower flronger, 
 than when kept in pots. 
 
 ALBUGINEA tunica, in anatomy, the third or 
 innermort coat or covering of the tefles ; it is likcwifc 
 the name given to one of the coats of the eye. 
 
 ALBUGINEUS, in anatomy, a term fometimes 
 applied to the aqueous humour of the eye. 
 
 ALBUGO, or Leuco.ma, in medicine, a diftemper 
 
 occafioncd
 
 ALB 
 
 r 359 1 
 
 A L C 
 
 Album occafioned by a wliite opaque fpot growing on the cor. 
 I n:a of the eye, and obllnidtiug vilion. See Mede- 
 Albumen. ciNE (Index). 
 
 • '^~~' ALBUM, in antiquity, a kind of white tabic, or 
 regillcr,\vhereinthcnanicsof certain niagi/lrates, pu- 
 blic tranfactions, 6cc. were entered. Ot thcfe there 
 were various forts ; as the uibitm dtcnrloniim, albutnje- 
 v.aHruvi, album judicui/!,alku)ii pTiCtoris, ijc. 
 
 Album £)ft.v;/(//;^«/, was the rcgillcr wherein the 
 names of thei/.(;.v//4«t.i were entered. This is other- 
 wile called rnutriculatio didiriuiium. 
 
 AiDVM Siiiator 147)1, the lirt of fcnators names which 
 was firtt introduced by Augullus, and renewed yearly. 
 
 Album Judicuin, that wherein the names of the 
 perfonsof thofe dicuri.c who judged at certain times, 
 were entered. 
 
 Album Pratorh, that wherein the forwul^ of all 
 ailions, and the names of fuch judges as the pra;tor 
 had chofen to decide caiifes, were written. 
 
 The high-priell entered the chief tranfaiSlions of 
 each year into an album, or table, which was hung 
 up in his houfe for the public ufe. 
 
 Album is alfo ufed, in later times to denote a 
 kind of table, or pocket-book, wherein the men of 
 letterswith whom aperfon hasconvcrfed,infcribe their 
 names with fome fcntence or motto. — The famous Al- 
 gernon Sydney being in Denmark, was by the univcr- 
 iity of Copenhagen prefented with their rt/i,v/«, where- 
 upon he wrote thefe words : 
 
 Maiius h^c hiimica /j raunh 
 
 Enfe pelit placidamfub libirtat: quietem. 
 
 Album Cracum, ■among phylicians, the white dung 
 of dogs, formerly prefcribcd lor inrianimations of the 
 throat, &c. but now jully defpifed. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, a learned Arabian aftronomcr in 
 the tenth century, who wrote a trcatife. Of thi Revo- 
 tu'.ion of the Yiars, 
 
 ALBUMEN, the white of an egg. For its nature, 
 erigin, and office, fee Egg. 
 
 The white of an egg, according to Boerhaavc, makes 
 an extraordinary mcnUruum. Being boiled hard in the 
 jheli, and afterwards fufpended in the air by a thread, 
 itrefolves and drops down into an indpid, fcentlefs, li- 
 quor, which appears to be that anamolous unaccount- 
 able menflruum fo much ufed by Paracelfus ; and will, 
 though it contain nothing Iharp, oleaginous, or fapo- 
 naceous, make a thorough folution of myrrh ; which 
 is more than cither water, oil, fpirits, or even tire 
 itfelf, can effeft. 
 
 A little putrid white of egg taken into the Ilomach, 
 occalionsa naufea,horror,fainiing,vomiting,diarr]icea. 
 and gripes ; it inflames the bile, excites heat, thirft, It- 
 »cr ; and dilfolves the humours like the plague. On 
 the contrary, the white of frclli-laid eggs, if taken 
 while warm from the hen, is extremely nourilhing to 
 the iniirm : it may be taken in hike warm milk : but if 
 any other heat is applied to it, the nutritious quality 
 ■will be dellroyed. The fredi white of egg prevents 
 burns from riling in blillcrs, if it is ufed immediately 
 after the accident : it militates inrianimations of the 
 ty£s,andprefervcsihcface from fun-burning. In phar- 
 macy, it is ufed as a medium to render balfams and tur- 
 pentines, &c. milcible with aqueous riuids ; but as it 
 difagrees with many fton)ac]is when thus taken, a mu- 
 cilage of gum arable may fupply its i>lacc, it being as 
 
 Aica. 
 
 good a medium in fimilar circumftances, and not apt to Alhu- 
 offend the tciuicrcftftomach. — Whites of cggsarc alio qucrque 
 ufcful for clarifying liquors ; to which purpofc, being I 
 mixed and incorporated with the liquors to be clari- 
 fied, and the whole afterwards boiled, tl-.c whites of 
 eggs arc by this means Irought together and harden- 
 ed, and thus carry oft' the grofs parts of the liquor a- 
 long with them. 
 
 ALBUq,UERQyE, a fniall city in Spain, in the 
 province of Ellremadura,ii featedou an eniiucnce, nine 
 miles from the frontiers of Portugal. It is command- 
 ed by ;in almoft impregnable fortrefs, built on a hio-h 
 mountain, and fcrving to defend the town. It carries 
 on a great trade in a wool and woollen nianufadures. It 
 was taken by the allies of Charles king of Spain, in 
 1705. VV. Long. 7. o. \\. Lat. 30. 53. 
 
 ALBURN, the Englifli name of a compound co- 
 lour, being a mixture of white and red, or reddiili 
 brown. Skinner derives the word, in thij fenfc, from 
 the Latin albiii, and tBc It.:lian buriio, from bruuo, 
 brown. 
 
 ALBURNUM, the foft white fubftance which in 
 trees is found between the liber or inner bark and the 
 wood, and in progrefs of time acquiring folidity, be- 
 comes itfelf the wood. From its colour and compara- 
 tive foftnefs, it has been llylcd by fomc writers the fat 
 of trees adips arhorum. 
 
 The alburnum is found in largeA quantities in trees 
 that arc vigorous 1 though in fuch as languiih, or are 
 lickly, there is a great number of beds. In an ock 
 lix inches in diameter, this fubftance is nearly equal i;i 
 bulk to the wood. In a trunk of one foot diameter, 
 it is as one to three and a half ; of two and a half feet 
 diameter, as one to four and a half, &c. but tiicfc pro- 
 portions vary according to the health and conrtiiutiou 
 of the trees. — The alburnum is frequently gnawed in 
 pieces by infeits which lodge in the fubftancc, and arc 
 nouridied from it. 
 
 ALBURNUS, in zoology, a fpecies of the c^frinm 
 of Linnaeus. See CvpiuNts. 
 
 ALCA, or Al'k, in ornithology, a genus of the 
 order of anferes. The beak of this genus is without 
 teeth, Ihort, convex, comprciTed, and frequently fur- 
 rowed tranfvcrfcly ; the inferior mandible is gibbous 
 near the bale ; the feet have generally three toes. The 
 fpecies of the alca are 12; of which the nioft remark- 
 able are, 
 
 I. The impennis, northern pengnina, or great auk, 
 with a comprclfrd bill furrowed on each tide, and an 
 oval fpot on each lide of the eyes. According to Mr 
 Martin, this bird breeds on the iilc of St Kilda ; ap- 
 pearing there the beginning of May, and retiring the 
 middle of June. It lays one egg, which is fix inches 
 long, of a white colour; funic arc irregularly marked 
 with purpliih lines crolling each other, others blotched 
 with black, and ferruginous about the thicker end : if 
 the egg is taken away, it will not lay another that fea- 
 fon. Mr Macaulay iniorms us that it does not vilit 
 that illand annually, but fometimes keeps away for fe- 
 veral years together ; and adds, that it lays its egg 
 clofe to the fca-mark, being incapable, by rcafon of the 
 fliortncfs of its wings, to mount higher. Thelcni'th 
 of this bird, to the end of its toes, is three feet; but 
 its wings are fo fnull, as to be ufclefs for flight ; the 
 length, from ihc tip of the longcll quill-fcathcrs i» 
 
 (he
 
 Alca. 
 
 A L C [36 
 
 the fii-fl joint, being only four inches and a qiiarier. 
 " ■' ' This bird is oblervcd by fcnnicn never to wander be- 
 yond foundings ; and according to its appearance they 
 direct their mcafares^beingthcnairurcdthat land is not 
 very remote. It lomctimes frequents the coalls of Nor- 
 way, the Kcrroc ilks, Iceland, Greenland, and New- 
 foundland ; and feeds much on the himp-tilh, fathcr- 
 Jalher, and other filh of that lize. The young birds eat 
 rofe-root, and other plants- The old ones are very 
 rarely feen on (liorc, tho' the young ones are not un- 
 frequenily met wiili. It is a very Ihy bird. It walks 
 ill ; but dives well, and is taken in the manner ufed 
 for the razor-bill and putfin. The (kin between the 
 jaws is blown into a bladder, and ul'ed for the darts of 
 the Grccnlanders, as is alio that of fomc other birds. 
 The fkin of the body is fuppofcd to be ufed by the 
 Efquiniaux Indians for garments. 
 
 2. The alle, little auk, or black and white diver, 
 T\ith a fmooth conical bill, a white llreak on the belly 
 and wings, and black feet. The bulk of this fpccies 
 exceeds not that of a black-bird. It is not very 
 common in Britain, being only met with now and then. 
 It feems to be nioft plentiful towards the north, being 
 met with in various parts as far as Spitzbergen. It is 
 common in Greenland, in company with the black- 
 billed fpecies ; feeds on the fame food ; and lays two 
 blueilli white eggs, larger than thofe of a pigeon. It 
 flies quick, and dives well ; and is always dipping its 
 bill into the water while fwimmiugor at rell on the 
 water. It grows fat in the (lormy feafon, from the 
 wavesbringingplenty of crabs and fmallfilh within its 
 reach ; but from its fize it is lefs fought after than the 
 others. In Greenland it is called the /tv-i^/riy, being 
 the harbinger of Ice. This fpecies iifometimes feen 
 of a pure white. 
 
 ;?. The arclica, or puffin, with a comprelfed bill 
 and four furrows ; the orbit of the eyes and temples 
 are white. The legs of this fpecies are very fmall ,- 
 and placed fo far behind as to difqualify it from fland- 
 ing, except quite ereft, refting not only on the foot, 
 • ]( attends ^^^ '^^ whole length of the leg. This circumftance * 
 every one makcs the rife of the puffin from the ground very dif- 
 ficult, and it meets with many falls before it gets on 
 wing ; but when that is eft'edcd, few birds fly longer 
 or ftrongcr. Thefe birds frequent the coafls of feveral 
 parts of Great Britain and Ireland ; but no place in 
 greater numbers thanPrieflholmille,where their flocks 
 may be compared to fwarms of bees for multitude. 
 Thefe are birds of palTage ; they refort there annually 
 about the fifth cr tenth of April, quit the place (almoll 
 to a bird), and return twice or thrice before they fettle 
 to burrow and prepare forovation and incubation. They 
 begin to burrow the firft week in May ; but fomc few 
 •fave themfelves that trouble, and didodge the rabbits 
 from their holes, taking polfeffion of them till their 
 ■departure from the ilk. Thofe which form their own 
 burrows, are at that time fo intent on the work as to 
 fufFer themfelves to be taken by the hand. This talk 
 falls chiefly to the (hare of the males ; who alfoaffift 
 in incubation. The tirft young are hatched the begin- 
 ning of July, The old ones ihow vaft atfcftion to- 
 wards them ; and fcem totally infenfible of danger in 
 the breeding feafon. If a parent is taken at that time, 
 and fufpended by the wings, it will in a fort of defpair 
 treat itfelf moll cruelly, by biting every part it can 
 
 3 
 
 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 of tht ge. 
 Jms. 
 
 reach ; and the moment i: is loofed, will never offer to 
 efcape, lut inftanily refort to its uuflegdcd young : 
 tills artcction ceafes at the Hated time of migration, 
 which is mofl punclually about the nth of Augull, 
 when they leave fuch young as cannot fly to the mercy 
 of the peregrine falcon, who watches the mouths of 
 the houfe for the appearance of the little deferted puf- 
 fins, which, forced by hunger, are compelled to leave 
 thcirburrows. They lay only one egg. The eggs differ 
 much in form: fonie have one end very acute ; others 
 have both extremely obtufe -, all arc white. Their flclh 
 is exccflively rank, as they feed on fca-weeds and filh, 
 cfpccially fprats : but when pickled and prefer ved with 
 fpices, are admired by thofe wholove high-eating. Dr 
 Caius tells, that, in his days, the church allowco them 
 in lent, inftead of fi!h : he alfo acquaints us, that they 
 were taken by means of ferrets, as we take rabits : at 
 prefent, they arc either dugout, or drawn from their 
 burrows by a hooked flick : they bite extremely hard, 
 and keep fuch fall hold on whatever they fallen, as not 
 to be ealily difcngaged. Their noife when taken, is 
 very difagrccable ; being like theertorisofaduinbper- 
 fon to fpcak. Thefe birds are alfo common in Ire- 
 land ; on the illand Sherries, three leagues N. N. W. 
 of Holyhead ; and in the S. Stack, near Holyhead, 
 theybreed in plenty. They inhabit Iceland and Green- 
 land ; and breed in the extreme parts of the illands. It 
 is alfo found in the Fcrroe ides, where it is called 
 Luiida ; and in theFarn ifles, whcreitis called Coulter- 
 vcb, from the Ihape of the bill. It goes alfo by vari- 
 ous other names; l'\ich&sG»/Jf»-hc'ad, BottU-ticfe,3.nA 
 Hslegttg, in Wales; at Scarborough, Mullet; and in 
 Cornwall, Poi>e. In America they arc laid to frequent 
 Carolina in winter ; and have been met with in Sand- 
 wich Sound by late voyagers : the natives ornament 
 the fore parts and collar of their feal-lkin jackets with 
 the beaks of them ; and thofe of Aoonalaflika wear 
 gowns of their Ikins, along with thofe of other birds. 
 On the coallof Kanufchatkaand the Kurulfchiiflands 
 they are common, even on the Penfchinlki bay,almofl 
 as far as Ochotka : thenationsof the twofirfl wearthc 
 bills about their necks fallened to llraps ; and accor- 
 ding to the fuperllition of thefe people, their Ihaman 
 or priefl mull put them on with a proper ceremony, in 
 order to procure good fortune. 
 
 4. The torda,orrazor-bill, with four furrows on the 
 bill and a white line on each fiderunningfronuhebill to 
 the eyes. Thefe birds, in company with the guillemot, 
 appear in the Britilh feas the beginning of Febru- 
 ary ; but do not fettle on their breeding places till they 
 begin to lay, about the beginning of May. They in- 
 habit the ledges of the highell rocks thai impend over 
 the fea, where they form a grotefque appearance ; fit- 
 ting clofe together, and in rows one above another. 
 They properly lay but one egg a-piece, of an extra- 
 ordinary fizefor the bulk of the bird, being three inches 
 long : it is either white, or of a pale fea-green, irre- 
 gularly fpotted with black : if this egg is dcftroyed, 
 both the auk and the guillemot will lay another ; if 
 that is taken, tlien a third; they make no nefl, dcpo» 
 filing their egg on the bare rock ; and though fuch 
 multitudes lay contiguous, by a svonderfulinflindt each 
 diflinguilhes its own. What is alfo matter of great 
 amazement, they fixtheir eggonthefmooth rock, with 
 fo exaft a balance, as tofccure it from rolling off; yet 
 
 Ihould
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 361 ] 
 
 A L cr 
 
 ftouW it be removed, and then attempted to be repla- 
 ced by the human hand, it is extremely difficult, it not 
 iiTipolIibIc, to find its former equilibrium. According 
 to Mr Latham, it is by means of a cement that the 
 bird fixes its egg. The eggs are food to the inhabitants 
 of the coalis they frequent ; which they get with great 
 hazard ; being lowered from the top by ropes, trulUng 
 to the ftrengih of their companions, whole footing 
 is often fo unliable that ihcy arc forced down the 
 precipice, and periih together. Thcfe birds are found 
 in the north of i-uropc, alio in Iceland, Grceiiland, 
 and on the coall of Labrador. In Europe they ex- 
 tend along the White Sea intothe Arflic Aliatic lliorcs, 
 and from thence to Kamifchaik^ and the gulph of O- 
 fchotka: It is the only one liiat reaches the inland 
 Bxiltic ; being found there on the Carls-Ozar illcs, near 
 Oothland, and the illand of Bondonotf Angcrmania. 
 
 5. The pica, or black-billed auk, has the bill of the 
 fame form with the torda, but is entirely black. The 
 checks, chin, and throat, arc white : in all other rc- 
 fpeds it agrees with the former fpccies. Mr Latham 
 is of opinion that it is no other than ihc young of that 
 fpccies. Mr Pennant obfcrves, that it is fomctimcs 
 found on our coafls ; but, according to Mr Latham, 
 it is in the winter fcafon only, when the common fort 
 has quitted thciii. They are faid to be met with on 
 the coafl of Candia and other parts of the Mediterra- 
 nean ; "where, no doubt (Mr Latham obfervci) the 
 complete old bird is likewifc found, as 1 have been in- 
 formed that they arc common iu the bayot Gibraltar, 
 where it is curious to fee their aftivity under water 
 when purfuing the ,ilh ; for, as the water in the bay 
 is fometinies clear for a g. cat depth from the lurface, 
 thefc birds may be otten feen as it were Hying after 
 their prey, with all the agility of a bird in the air, 
 turning 111 every dirediou aftfcr the filli, wiih fuch 
 wonderful addrefsand dexterity as fcldoni to mils their 
 aim." 
 
 6. The cirhata of Dr Pallas, or tufted auk, fome- 
 what bigger than the common putlin, and the colours 
 much the fjirc : the bill is an inch and three-quarters 
 in length, the fame in depth at the bale, and crolled 
 with three furrows : over each eye arifes a tuft of 
 feathers four inches in length, which falls elegantly 
 on each lideof the neck, reaching almoft to the back; 
 and are white as far as they arc attached to the head, 
 but afterwards of a fine buft yellow : the legs are of 
 a bright red ; the claws black. The female is princi- 
 pally diftinguiflicd by having the bill crolFcd only with 
 two furrows inflcad of three. This fpecies inhabits 
 the (liores of Kamtfchatka, the Kurilc illands, and 
 thofi intervening between Kimtfchatka and America. 
 In manners it greatly refembles the pufTi:! ; living all 
 day at fea, but at no great dillance from the rocks ; 
 it comes on Ihorc at night ; burrows a yard deep under 
 ground, and makes a nell, with feathers and fea-plants; 
 is monogamous, and lodges there the whole night with 
 its mate. It lays one white egg, the end of May or 
 beginning of June, which alone is thought fit to be 
 ratcn, the fielh of the bird itfelf being inllpid and 
 hard. It feeds on crabs, ihriraps, and fliell-filh, which 
 lart it fortes from the rocks with its lirong bill. Pal- 
 las remarks, that the Kamtfchatkan girls imiiaie the 
 tufts of theic birds, which nature ha.s fupplied thcr.i 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 with, by placing a fimilar ftrip of the white (kin of Ale*, 
 th; glutton behind each car, hanging down behind by Alcxui. 
 way of ornament ; and is a well-received preicnt from * " 
 a lover to his millrcfs. The bills both of this and the 
 common puffin were formerly held by the natives as a 
 charm, and worn by the priclls as amulets ; indeed .it 
 the prcfent thcfe have been feen fixed round their iicaj 
 drelfcs, but fuppoled now to be only ellcemed as mere 
 ornaments : the (kins are however made ufc of for 
 clothing, being ftwed together. It is called iu Kamt- 
 fchatka, Muschagatka ; and in Ofchotka, Igdma. 
 
 7. The pfittacula, or perroquct auk, of Dr Pallas, 
 is about the lize of the little auk. The bill is much 
 comprelled on the fides, in (liape convex both above 
 and below, and of a bright red colour : from the re- 
 mote corner of each eye is a very (lender tuft of fine 
 white feathers, hanging down the neck : the head and 
 upper part of the body are dulky ; the lower whitilh, 
 varied with black edges : the legs are of a dirty yel- 
 low ; and the webs dulky. This fpecies is found at 
 Kamtfchatka, in the iilcs towards Japan, and on the 
 weQern ihorcsof America. They are fometimcs fecii 
 in docks, but (cldom far from land, except driven by 
 flornis. Of nights they harbour in the crevices of 
 rocks. They lay an cggalmofl the fize of a hen's, of 
 a dirty white or yellowifli colour fpotted with brown ; 
 which they do abont the middle of June, upon the 
 bare rock or fand, for they make no neft. Like mofc 
 of the tribe, they arc ftupid birds, as may be evinced 
 by the ridiculous method of catching them : — One of 
 the natives places himfelf under a loofe garment of fur, 
 of a particular make, with large open lleeves, among 
 the rocks, at evening ; when the birds, returning to 
 their lodging places at dufk, run under the (kirts, and 
 up the arm-holes, for Ihelter during the night ; and 
 thus become an eafy prey. Their flupidity likewifc 
 occafions them to fly aboard a ihip at fuch times, mif- 
 taking it for a roofiing-p!:cu ; whereby navigators 
 have been taught to avoid the danger of falling in too 
 near with land, either of evenings, or on approaching 
 ftorms. The eggs are eftecmed good. 
 
 ALC/EUS, a famous ancient lyric poet, born at 
 Mitylcne, in the illand of Lefbos. Horace fecms ta 
 think him the inventor of this kind of poefy : 
 
 Now the Roman miife infpire, 
 
 And warm the long with Grecian fire. Francis. 
 
 He flouriflied in the 44th Olympiad, at the fame time 
 with Sappho, who was likewifc of Mitylcne. Alcxus 
 was a great enemy to tyrants, but not a very brave fol- 
 dier. He was prcfent at an engagement, wherein the 
 Athenians gained a vidory over the Lcfbians ; and 
 here, as he himfelf is faid to have confclFcd in one of 
 his pieces, he threw down his arms, and faved himfelf 
 by flight. Horace, who, of all the Latin poets, inoll 
 refcmbled Alcaeus, has made the like confclHoH : 
 
 With thee I faw Philippi's plain. 
 
 Its fatal rout, a fearful fcene ! 
 
 And dropp'd, alas ! th' inglorious (hicld. 
 
 Where valour's fclf wasforc'd to yield ; 
 
 Where foil'd in dull the vanq'ifh'd lay. 
 
 And breath'd th" indigi-.ant foul away. Franc'u. 
 
 The poetical abilities of Alca-us .\re indifpuied ; and 
 7 7 iheiigh
 
 A L C 
 
 L 36 
 
 AlcivBs, though his writings were chiefly ill the lyric drain, yet 
 Alcaics. Jiis nnifc was capable of treating the fublimcllfubjcds 
 '"—^y—^^ ^yj[l, a fuitablc dignity. Hence Horace lays, 
 
 Alcaus llrikcs the golden firings. 
 
 And fcas, and war, and exile lings. 
 
 Thi s wliilc ilicy ftrikc the various lyre, 
 
 Thegliofls the I'acrcd founds admire : 
 
 But when Alcxiis lifts the llrain 
 
 To deeds of war and tyrants (lain, 
 
 In tliickcr crowds the fliadowy throng 
 
 Drink deeper down the martial fong. Fraiicii. 
 
 Aic«us, an Athenian tragic poet, and, as fonie 
 think, the tirll compufcr of tragedies. He renoun- 
 ced his native country Milylene, and palfed for an A- 
 thenian. He left ten pieces, one of which was Pa- 
 iiphae'jiliat which he produced when he difputed witli 
 Arillophanes, in tlic fourth yearof the pytii Olympiad. 
 
 There is another Ai.c«us mentioned in Plutarch, 
 perhapsthe fame whom Porphyrins mentions as a coin- 
 pofer of fatiiical iambics and epigrams, and who 
 wrote a poem concerning the plagiarifni of Euphorus 
 ihc hillorian. He lived in the 145th Olympiad. 
 
 We are told likcwife of one Alcsus, a Melicnian, 
 who lived in the reign of Vefpalian and Titus. We 
 know not which of thefe it was who fufFcred for his 
 lewdnefs a very lingular kind of death, which gave 
 occafion to the following epitaph : 
 
 'A^xano Toilet XT©„, &C. 
 
 This is Alcjeus's tomb ; who died by a radifh. 
 The daughter of the earth, and punilher of Adulterers. 
 This punifliment inflicted on adulterers, was thrufting 
 one ofthelargcllradi flies up the anus of the adulterer : 
 or, for want of radilhcs, they made ufe of a filli with 
 a very large head, which Juvenal alludes to : 
 
 Qjiofdam mvchos ct viiigilis iiitrnt. Sat. x. 
 
 The mullet enters fonie behind. 
 
 Hence we may underfland the menace of Catullus. 
 
 Ah ! turn tc miferum, rKnHgu^fati, 
 Qjiein attrafiis pcd'tbiu, patinte porta, 
 Percuricnt raplutn'tque viagitefque. Ep'g- xv. 
 
 Ah ! wrcidicd thou, and born to lucklefs fate. 
 Who art difcover'd by the nnfhut gate ! 
 If once, alas ! the jealous hulband come. 
 The radilh or the fea-li(h is thy doom. 
 
 ALCAICS, in ancient poetry, a denomination gi- 
 ven to feveral kinds of verfe, from Alcaeus, their in- 
 ventor. 
 
 The firft kind coniifls of five feet, viz.a fpondee, or 
 iambic ; an iambic ; a long fyllable ; a dadlyle ; ano- 
 ther daftylc : fuch is the following verfe of Horace, 
 Cmtiei I eo\(!e!u cogiviur, \ oiiuitiim 
 •> Verfa\tur ur\tia\feriHS | (icyui\ 
 
 Sorj exitiira. 
 The fecond kind confifls of two daftyles and two 
 trochees : as, 
 
 Exili\:i7n impofllWi' | ij7>iba. 
 Befides thefe two, wlii-^h are called dallylic Akit'ks, 
 there is another llyled limply Aleak ; conlifling of an 
 epilrite ; a choriambus ; another choriambus ; and a 
 bacchius : the following is of this fpecies, 
 Cur timet fia\v!itn Tibcr'im tan\g':rt, air \ olivum P 
 
 2 1 A L C 
 
 Alcaic Ode, a kind of manly ode conipofed of fe- 
 veral (Irophes, each conlilling of lour verfcs ; the two 
 iirft of which are always AlcaVcs of the tirfl kind ; the 
 third verfe is a diameter hypercataltdlic, or conlill- 
 ing of four feet and a long lyllable ; and the fourth 
 verfe is an AlcaYc of the fecond kind. The following 
 ftrophc is of this fpecies, which Horace calls minaccs 
 Aicici caviciia. 
 
 Noil pojfideutem viulta vocaveris 
 Reds beatiivi ; refiiiis ocaipat 
 Nojiien bioti) qaid.cniiii 
 Muneribiis fapi enter uti, i/c. 
 
 ALCAID, Alcayde, or Ai.cai.de, in the polity 
 of the Moors, Spaniards, and Portnguefe, a niagillraic,. 
 or othcer of julticc, anfwering nearly to ilie French 
 provoft, and the Britilh julticc-of-peace. — The alcaid 
 among the Moors is veiled with fupremc jurifdidion,. 
 both in civil and criminal cafes. 
 
 ALCALA DE GuADEiRA, a fmall town of Spain, 
 ill Andalulia, upon the river Guadeira. Here are a- 
 bnndance of fprings, from whence they convey water 
 to Seville by an aquedufl. W. long. 6. 16. N. lat.. 
 
 ?7. 15. 
 
 ALCAi.A di- Heuares, a beautiful and large city of 
 Spain, in New Caflle, fcated upon the river Henarcs, 
 which walliesits walls. It is built in a very agreeable 
 plain, and is of an oval figure. The llrecls are haud- 
 fome and pretty llraight ; one of them is very long, run- 
 ning from one end of ihe city to the other. The houfes 
 arevvell built, and there are feveral fquares, thclargeit 
 ofwhich is an ornament to thecity ; itisfurronndcd on 
 alllides with piazzas, where tradei'men have thkir ihops 
 to expofc feveral forts ot commodies to fule, ofwhich 
 there is a great plenty and variety as in moll towns of 
 Spain. The univerlity was founded by cardinal Xime- 
 nes, archbiihop of Toledo, about the beginning of tlie 
 i6th century. The land about Alcala is watered by 
 the Henarcs, well cultivated, and very fruitful, while 
 that at a diflance is dry and fleriie : it yields grain in 
 plenty, very good mufcat wine, and melons of a deli- 
 cious kind. Without the walls is a fpriiig, the v.'ater 
 ofwhich is fo pure and fo well tailed, thai it is inclo- 
 fcd and fhut up for the king of Spain's own ufe, from 
 
 whence it is carried to Madrid Thisciiy is lomiles 
 
 fouth-wefl of Guadalaxara, and 13 miles eafl of Ma- 
 drid. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 40. 30. 
 
 AtcALA-Real, a fmall city of Spain, in Andalulia, 
 with a fine abbey. It is built on the top of a high 
 mountain, in a mountainous country; and the road to 
 it is incommodious, rough, and unequal ; but to make 
 am ends for this, here are feveral kinds of cxquiljte fruit 
 and wine. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 37. 18. 
 
 ALCALY, or Alcali, or Alkali. See Che- 
 mistry, Index. 
 
 ALCANIS, a town of Arragon in Spain, fcated 
 on the river GaudaJoup, twelve miles from Cafpe. Ic 
 was formerly the capital of the kingdom of the Moors; 
 but being taken from them, it was made acommendaiy 
 of the order of Calatrava. Here is a very remarkable 
 fountain, which throws up water through 42 pipes. 
 It is furrounded with gardens and fruit-trees, and de- 
 fended with a good fortrefs. W. Long. o. j; N. Lat. 
 41. o. 
 
 ALCANNA, in commerce, a powder prepared from 
 
 th«
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 363 1 
 
 A L C 
 
 fcantara the leaves of tlir F.gyptian privet, in wliicli the people 
 I of Cairo drive a coiiliiJcrabic trade. It is much ufcd by 
 
 .IcalT.ir the Tiirkilh women to give a golden colour to their 
 ^~^ nails and hair. la dyeinjr, it gives a yellow colour 
 when lleepcd with common water, and a red one when 
 infufcd in vinegar. There is alio an oil extrafted from 
 the berries of alcanna, and ufed in medicine as a 
 calmer. 
 
 ALCANTARA, a fmall, bat very Ilrong city of 
 Eftremadiira, in Spain. It gives name to one of the 
 tliree otiiers of kniglithood. It is featcd on tlie banks 
 of the Tajo, or Tagus, 21 miles from Coria, in a 
 very fruitful foil, and is celebrated for its bridge over 
 that river. This was built in the time of the emperor 
 Trajan, as appears by an infcription over one of the 
 arches, by the people of Lufitania, who were alleded 
 to fui)ply the expcnce. It is raifed 200 feet above the 
 level of the water; and though it confifls but of lix 
 arches, is 670 feet in length, and 2S in breadth. At 
 the entrance of the bridge, there is a fmall antique 
 chapel hewn in a rock by the ancient Pagans, who de- 
 dicated it to Trajan, as the Chriftians did to St Julian. 
 This city was built by tlie Moors, on account of the 
 convenience of this bridge ; which is at a place where 
 the Tajo is very deep, running between two high fleep 
 rocks : for this reafon, they called it Al-Cantara, 
 which, in their language, (iguifies the Br'uige. It was 
 taken from them in 121 4, and given 10 the knights of 
 Calatrava, who afterwards alTumed the name of Al- 
 cantara. It was taken by the Earl of Galloway, in 
 April, 1706, and retaken by the French in November 
 following. It is 45 miles from Madrid, and 125 from 
 Seville. W. Long. 7. 12. N. Lat. 39. 30. 
 
 Knighti of Alcaxtari, a military order of Spain, 
 which took its name from the abovemcntioned city. 
 They make a veryconliderablc figure in the hiftory of 
 the expeditions againft the Moors. The knights of 
 Alcantara make the fame vows as thofe of Calatrava, 
 and are only diflinguilhcd from them by this, that the 
 crofs fleur de lys, which they bear over a large white 
 cloak, is of a green colour. They pofftfs 1,1 com- 
 manderies. By the terms of the furrender of Alcan- 
 tara to this order, it wasrtipulated, that there fliould 
 be a confraternity between the two orders, with the 
 fame praJlices and oblervances in both ; and that the 
 order of Alcantara Ihould be fubjeft to be vilited by 
 the grand-mailer of Calatrava. But the former foon 
 relcafcd themlelves from this engagement, on pretence 
 that their grand-mailer had not been called to the c- 
 Icftion of that of Calatrava, as had been likcwife lli- 
 pulated in the articles. After the expulfion of the 
 Moors, and the taking of Granada, the fovereignty 
 of the order of Alcantara and that of Calatrava was 
 fettled in the crown of Caftile by F'crdinand and Ifa- 
 bella. — In 1540, the knights of Alcantara fued for 
 leave to marry, which was granted them. 
 
 ALCAREZ, a fmall city of La Mancha, in Spain, 
 defended by a pretty Ilrong cadle, and remarkable for 
 an ancient aqucduift. It Hands near the river Guarda- 
 iiiana, and the foil about it is very fruitful. They 
 have a breed of little running-horfes, which are very 
 fleet and (Irong. It is 25 miles north of tlie confines 
 of Andalufia, 108 fonth of Cucnza,and i^ofouth-by- 
 eaft of Madrid. AV. Long. i. 50. N. Lat. 38. 2S. 
 ALCASSAR DO SAL, a town of Portugal, in Ellrc- 
 
 madura, which has a caille faid to be impregnable. It Alciff^. 
 is indeed very flrong, Loth by art and nature, being Alc.^j»alli 
 
 built on the top of a rock which is exceedingly ilcep oil ' ■' 
 
 all fides. Here is a fali-wirk which produces very hue 
 white fait, from whence the town takes its name. The 
 fields produce large (juantities of a fort of rulhcs, of 
 which they make mats, which are traiifportcd out of 
 the kingdom. W. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 38. 18. 
 
 Alcassar, a ciiy of Barbary, featcd about two 
 leaguesfrom Larachc,in A(';;;a, a province of the king- 
 dom of Fez. It was of great note, and the feat of the 
 governor of this part of the kingdom. It was built * 
 by Jacob Almanzor, king of Fez, about the year ir8a, 
 ane defigned for a magizinc and place of rendezvous 
 for the great preparations he was making to enter 
 Granada in Spain, and to make good the footing Jo- 
 feph Almanzor had got fonic time before. It is laid 
 his father firll invaded Spain with 300,000 men, moll 
 of whom he was obliged to bring back to Africa to 
 quiet a rebellion that had broke out in Morocco. This 
 done, he returned to Spain again with an army, as is 
 faid, of 200,000 horfe and 300,000 foot. The city 
 is now fallen greatly to decay, fo that of fifteen mofqucs 
 there are only twothat they make ufeof. The reafon, 
 probably, is the bad fituation of the town ; for it ftands 
 fo low, that it is exceihvely hot in fummcr, and almofc 
 overflowed with water in the winter. This they affirm 
 to be owing to a curfe of one of their faints. Here 
 are a great number of ftorks, who live very familiarly 
 with the people, walking about the town, poflelfing 
 the tops of the houfes and niofques without molefta- 
 lion ; for they efleem them facred birds, and accountit 
 finful to diilurb them. At prefent, the bafliaw of Tc- 
 tuan appoints a governor to this town, which is the 
 lafl of his dominions towards Mcquincz. Near this city 
 there is a high ridge of mountains, running towards 
 Tetuan,whofc inhabitants were never brought entirely 
 under fubjc<5lion ; and whenever it was attempted, they 
 revenged themfelves by iiifclting the roads, and rob- 
 bing and deftroying the travellers. When they were 
 purfued, they retired into their woody mountains.wherc 
 none could fafVly follow them. Not far from hence is 
 the river ElmahalTen, famous for the battle fought be- 
 tween Don Seballian king of Portugal and the Moors ; 
 in which the Portuguefc were defeated and their king 
 (lain. W. Long. 12. 3J. N. Lat. 35. ij. 
 
 ALCAVALLA, in the Spanifli finances, was at 
 firll a tax of ten per cent, afterwards of fourteen per 
 cent, and is at prefent of o'ily lix per cent, upon the 
 falc of every fort of property, whether moveable or im- 
 moveable ; and it is repeated every time the property 
 is fold. The levying of this tax requires a multitude 
 of revenue-officers futlicient to guard tiic tranfportatioii 
 of goods, not only from one province to another, but 
 from one Ihop to another. It fubjefls not only the 
 dealers in fomc fort of goods, but thofe in all forts, 
 every farmer, every manufa.;lurer, every merchant 
 and ihopkecper, to the continual vilits and examina- 
 tion of the tax-gatherers. Through the greater part 
 of a country in which a tax of this kind is cllablilhcd, 
 nothing can be produced for diflant falc. The produce 
 of every part of the country mull be proportioned to 
 tlie confumption of the neighbourhood. It is to the 
 Alcavala, accordingly, thatUftaritz imputes the ruin 
 of the mauufaiflnrcs of Spain. He might have inipu- 
 Z z 3 ted
 
 ALca. 
 
 A L C [ 364 
 
 J\kazar red 10 It iikcNwfe the dedcnliou of agriculture, it be- 
 ing inipolrd not unly upon niiiuulucturcs, but iipun 
 the fuJe produce of the laud. 
 
 ALCAZAR i.EcuER, a town of Africa, in llie 
 kingdom of Fez, and in the province of ilabat. it 
 was taken by Aljihoufo, king of Portugal, in 1468 ; 
 but foon alter tliat, it was abandoned to the Moors. 
 It is feattd on the coall of the llraits of Gibraltar. 
 \V. Long. 5. 3c. N. Lat. 38. o. 
 
 ALCAZiill, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, feat 
 
 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 w hicii Ihould be carefully faved from ihofc plants whofc Alcedo. 
 
 flowers are double and of the bell colours : for though ' ' — 
 
 the duplicity of the riow ers, as well as tlicir colour, are 
 only accidental properties, yet the young plants will 
 I'roducc nearly the fame kind of tlowers with tliofc 
 Irom which the feeds are taken, provided no plantswiih 
 lingle or bad-coloured tlowers arc permitted to grow 
 near them ; and as foon as fuch ,ippcar they ouglit to 
 be removed from the good ones, that their lariiia may 
 not fprcad into the others, which would caufe them to 
 
 cd on the river Guardamana, which has a furtrefs on degenerate. The feeds ought tobegathcrcd very dry, 
 
 a high hill for its defence, and lies in a very fruitful 
 country. It is 100 miles north-well of Carthagena. 
 \V. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 38. 15. 
 
 ALC£, .-^LCEs, or Llk, in zoology, the trivial 
 name of a fpecies of the ccrvus, belonging to the order 
 of maiujnalia pccora. See Cervus. 
 
 ALCKA, the Holi.y-hock : A genus of the poly- 
 andria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of 
 plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 37tliorder, Coluinnifir^. The characters are : The 
 eal)x is a double perianthium, monophyllous and pcr- 
 fiftent ; the exterior one li >;- cleft, the interior half iive- 
 cleft : 'I'he corolla couliUs of nve petals, coalefccd at 
 the bafe, heartlliapcd inverfely, and expanding : 'I'lie 
 fiainhia conlill of numerous filaments, coalefccd below 
 into a five-cornered cylinder, loofe above, and infcrted 
 into the corolla ; the antherse arc kidney-lliaped : The 
 pifti/lurii has a roundilh germen ; a Ihori cylindric fly- 
 lus : and numeroits brifUy ftigmata the length of the 
 Itylus: The /'cT/<.v?r/i;;/OT con flits of many arilli, jointed 
 into a verticillum about a columnar deprelFcd recepta- 
 cle : Thtfii^ds are folitary, reniform, and dcprclfed. 
 
 SpccUs. Although Lii'Uius mentions two diltinft 
 fpecies of this genus, viz. the rofta a.ndJicifo/iti, he 
 thinks, that the latter may perhaps be only a varie- 
 ty of the former ; but Mr Miller affirms them to be 
 dillinift fpecies, whofe difference in ihe form of their 
 
 anj remain in their capfules until fpring; butcarcmuft 
 be taken that no wet tomes to them in winter, other- 
 wife the toverswould turn mouldy, and fpoil iheircon- 
 tents. — They fliould be fown indrills, about tlicmidtllc 
 of April, on a bed of light earth, and covered with 
 earth of the fame kind about half an inch deep. When 
 the plants have put out fix or eight leaves, they iliould 
 be tranlpfiiued into nurlcry-beds, obfcrving to w'atcr 
 them until they have taken goo J root ; after which 
 they will reijuirc no fartlicr care, but to keep them . 
 clean from weeds till October, when they lliould be . 
 iranlplanted where they are to remain. 
 
 ALCLUO, or KiNGSHSHER, in ornithology, a. 
 genus of the order of pirae. The alcedo has a long, . 
 Itrait, thick, triangular bill; with a flclhy, plain,, 
 Ihort, ;lat tongue. 
 
 Oi this gems there are a great many fpecies, with • 
 one or other of which almoft every part of the world 
 isturniihcd. Mofloi'ihcm frequent rivers, and live on 
 liih, tilt lingul irity 01 catching which is admirable : 
 fomeiimes hovering over the water, where a fltoal of 
 fmall filhes is fcen playing near the furface ; at other 
 times waiting with attention, on forae low branch 
 hanging over the water, for the approach of a Angle 
 one who is fo unlucky as to fwim that way ; in either 
 cafe dropping like a Hone, or rather Waning with ra- 
 pi jiiy onhisprey; when.feizingitcrolfwifcin his bill. 
 
 leaves always continues. The leaves of the hrfl fort it retires to a retting place to feafton it; m hichit does 
 
 are roundifli, and cut at their extremities intoangles ; piecemeal, bones and all, without referve, afterwards 
 
 thofeof the fecond are deeply cut iniolixor fcvenfeg- bringing up the indigcliible parts in pellets, like birds 
 
 ments, fo as ;o relemble a hand. Cultivation produces of prey . The wings of mofl of the genus are very Ihort ; 
 
 almoft an infinite variety of this plant, fuch as double- yet the birds fly rapidly, and with great ftrength. It 
 
 llowered, iingle-fiowered, deep red, pale red, blackilh may be remarked, that throughout thisgeniis, blue, in 
 
 red,white, purple, yellow, and tlelh-colour. The firft different Ihades, is the raoftpredominantcolour The 
 
 fpecies is a native of China, the fecond grows alio in 
 Iflria. Tho' natives of warm countries, they are hardy 
 enough to thrive in the open air in Britain, and have 
 for many years beenfome of the grcatcfl ornaments in 
 gardens, towards the end of fummer; but they have the 
 inconvenience of grow ing too large for fmall gardens. 
 
 fpecies found in the South Sea Idands are held in a 
 kind of fuperftitious veneration l)y the natives of the 
 places they feverally inhabit, perhaps on account of 
 their being fiequenily feen flying about the morals or 
 burial-placef. That which inhabits Otaheite, where 
 it is called Erooro, is acconnied particularly facred. 
 
 and requiring tall ftakes to fecure them from being and not allowed to be taken or killed 
 
 broken by Arong winds. In large gardens, however, 
 when properly difpofed, they make a fine appearance ; 
 for as their fpikcs of flowers grow very tall, there will 
 be afuceeffion of them on the famellcmsmore than two 
 months: the flowers on the lower part of the fpike ap- 
 pear in July ; and as their (lalks advance, new flowers 
 are produced till near the end of September. When 
 planted in good ground, the flalks will often rife to 
 the height of eight or nine feet ; fo that near fix feet of 
 each will be garniflied with flowers, which, when double 
 andofgoodcolonrs, make a very beautiful appearance. 
 Culture. The holly-hock is propagated by feeds, 
 
 I. The ifpida, or common kings-filher, is not much 
 largerthanafwallow ; its fiiapeisclumfy ; the bill dif- 
 proportionably long; it is two inches from the bafe to 
 the tip ; llie upper chap black, and the lower yellow. 
 But the colours of til is bird atone for its in elegant form: 
 the crown of the head and the covertsof the wings arc 
 ofadeepblackilfi green, fpotted with bright azure : the 
 back and tail are of the moft refplcndcnt azure ; the 
 whole under-fide of tlie body is orange-coloured ; a 
 broad mark of the fame pallcs from the bill beyond 
 the eyes ; beyond that is a large white fpot ; the tail 
 is fliort, and conlifls of twelve feathers of a rich deep 
 
 bine;
 
 A L C 
 
 f 365 3 
 
 A L C 
 
 blue ; the feet arc of a rcdJifli yellow, and the three 
 - joints of (he outmoft toe adhere to the middle toe, 
 while the inner toe adheres only by one. 
 
 From the diminutive (ize, the llender Ihort legs, and 
 the beautiful colours of this bird, no perfon would be 
 led to fuppofe it one of the nioft rapacious little ani- 
 mals that Ikinis the deep. Yet it is forever on the 
 wing, and feeds on fifh ; which it takes in furprifing 
 qOaniiiies.whcu we conliderits fize and figure. It takes 
 its prey after die manner of the ofprey, balancing itfelf 
 at a certain diflance above the water for a conlidcrable 
 fpace, then darting into the deep, and fcizingthe fifli 
 with ineviiablecertainty. While it remains fufpendcd 
 in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a beau- 
 tiful variety of the moft dazzling and brilliant colours. 
 This rtriking attitude did not el'cape the notice of the 
 ancients; for Ibycus, as quoted by Athenseus, ftyles 
 thefe birds «Mti,o»icT«»i/ir<irTifc/, the halcyons with ex- 
 panded wings, it makes its ncft in holts in the lides 
 of the cliffs, which itfcoops to the depth of three feet; 
 and lays from five to nine eggs, of a moll beautiful fe- 
 mitranfparent white. The female begins to lay ear- 
 ly in the feafon, and excludes her firA brood about the 
 beginning of April. The male, whofc fidelity exceeds 
 even that of the turtle, brings her large provifions of 
 fi(h while Ihe is thus employed ; and (he, contrary to 
 moft other birds, is found plump and fat at that fea- 
 fon. The male, that ufed to twitier before this, now 
 enters the nefl as quietly and as privately as polTible. 
 The young ones are hatched at the expira;ion of 20 
 days ; but are fccn to differ as well in their lizc as in 
 their beauty. 
 
 Thisfpecies is the axxi/ana^ ui©.,, or mutehalcyonof . 
 Ariftotlc, which he defcribes with more precilion than 
 is ufual with that great philofopher. After his defcrip- 
 tion of the bird follows that of its nefl ; than which 
 the moft inventive of the ancients have delivered no- 
 thing that appears at firft light more fabulous and ex- 
 travagant. He relates, that it rcfemblcd thofc con- 
 cretions that are formed by the fea-watcr ; that it re- 
 femblcd the long-necked gourd ; that it was hollow 
 within ; that the entrance was very narrow, fo that, 
 fhould it overfet, the wa;er could not enter ; that it re- 
 fifted any violence from iron, but could be broke with 
 a blow from the hand ; and that it was compofed of the 
 bones of theBa«»,orfea-needlc. The nell had medi- 
 cal virtues afcribcd to it ; and from the bird was called 
 Batcyoncuvi. In a fabulous age, every odd fubftance 
 that was rtung alhorc received that name ; a fpecics of 
 tubular coral, a fponge, a zoophite, and a mifccllane- 
 ous concrete, having;, by the ancients been dignified 
 , with that title fromthcirimaginary origin*. Yetmuch 
 • of this feems to be founded on truth. The form of the 
 neft is juftly defcribed ; and the materials which Ari- 
 ftotle fays it w'as compofed of, are nor entirely of liis 
 own invention. Whoever has feen the neft of the 
 kings-fifher, will obfcrvc it ftrewed with the bones and 
 fcales of fidi ; the fragments of the food of the owner 
 and its young. — On the foundation laid by the"philo- 
 fophtr fuccecding writers formed other tales extreme- 
 ly abfurdj and the poets, indulging the powers of i- 
 magination, drelfcd the ftory in all the robes of ro- 
 mance. Tlfis nefl was a floating one : 
 Incubat hakyoni pcndentibus aequorc nidis. 
 
 Ovid. Met. lib. xi. 
 
 It was therefore neeefTary to place it in a tranquil fca, Alccdo. 
 and to fupply the bird with charms to allay the fury ' — «^*- 
 ofa turbulent element during the time of its incubation; 
 for it had, at 4hat ftaion, jKJWer over the fcas and the 
 winds. 
 
 X aXxMOf yof»»ii,TT/ ra xi/juaTu, t»f ti -^aXaTTcn, 
 T«» TI ittil, TC» T tc/f e», et ir-j^at^ ^i.x/« tin\i 
 A Xxi/oxc, y\a\j%at.i% Kitfxr/ tai ti fj.a.\if% 
 
 Ofii^utt^i\a-3-ii. Theocrit. Idyl. vii. 1. 57. 
 
 May Halcyons finooth the waves, and calm ihcfcas. 
 And the rough fouth-eaft fink into a breeze ; 
 Halcyons, of all the birds that haunt the main, 
 Moft lov'dand hoiiour'd by the Nereid train. 
 
 Fav/kes. 
 
 Thefe birds were equally favourites with Thetis as 
 with the Nereids ; 
 
 Dilcftae Thetidi Halcyoncs. V t r c . Georg. I. 399, 
 as if to their influence thefe deities owed a rcpofe in 
 the midft of the ftorms of winter, and by their means 
 were fccured from thofe winds that difturb their fub- 
 marine retreats, andagitated even the plants at the bot- 
 tom of the ocean. 
 
 Such are the accounts given by the Roman and Si- 
 cilian poets. Ariftotlc and Pliny tell us, that this 
 bird is moft common in the feas of Sicily : that it fat 
 only a few days, and thofe in the depth of winter; and 
 during that period the mariner might fail in full fecu- 
 rity ; for which reafun they were ftylcd Halcyon days. 
 
 Perquc dies placidos hiberno tempore feptem 
 \nc\i\>dit*Halcyone pendcntibus xquorc nidis : 
 Tnm via tuta maris : ventos cuftodit, et arcet 
 iEolus egrelfu. Ovid. Met. lib. xi. 
 
 Alcyone, comprefs'd. 
 Seven days fits brooding on her watery neft, 
 A wintry queen ; her fire at length is kind, 
 Calms every ftorra, and hulhes evtry wind. 
 
 Drvden. 
 
 Irt after- times, thefe words exprefled any feafon of 
 
 profperity : thefe were the Halycjn days of the poets ; 
 
 the brief tranquillity, \.\\e feptem placidi dies , of human 
 
 lil'e. 
 
 The poets alfo made it a bird of fong. Virgil feems 
 to place it in the fame rank with the linnet ; 
 
 Littoraquc Halyconem refonant, et Acanthida dumi. 
 
 Georg. III. 338. 
 
 And Silius Italicus celebrates its mufic, and its float- 
 ing neft : 
 
 Cum fonat //ir/crtM^ cantu^nidofque natances 
 Immota gcftat fopitis fludibus iinda. LHr. xiv. 275. 
 
 But thefe writers feem to have transfertcd to our fpc- 
 
 iics, the harmony that belongs to the vocal alcedo * , ' AriU. 
 
 one of the loft birds of the ancients. HilU an. 
 
 As the ancients have had their fables coi\cerning '*' 
 this bird, fo have the modern vulgar. It is an opi- 
 nion generally received among them, that the flelh of 
 the kings-filher vill not corrupt, and that it will even 
 banilhall vermin. This has no better foundation than 
 that which is faid of its always pointing, when hung 
 up dead, with its breaft to the north. The only truth 
 which can be aflirmed of this bird when dead is, that 
 
 its
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 366 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 Alfcdo. its fledi is utterly unfit to be eaten ; wliilc its beautiful 
 
 " " plumage pitl'crvcs its lultrc longer than tliat otany o- 
 
 thcrbirJ wt know. 
 
 Tliis bird is found not only in Britain, but through- 
 out Furopc, Afia, and Africa ; as fpccinicns have been 
 received from both China, Bengal, auil Kgypt. Be- 
 lon alio remarks his having met with it in Romania 
 and Greece; and Scopoli notices it as a birdofCar- 
 niola, where he fays it reniaius the whole year as in 
 England. Indeed it bears the rigours of the colder 
 climates fo well, that amongthc Germans it lias gain- 
 ed the name of Eifzvogtl or Ic: Bird : Oliiia fpeaks 
 alio of its not regarding the ice and cold ; and Gmelin 
 allures us, that it is found even in Tariary ana Sibe- 
 tia. But, howevc r this may be, tliere are few winters 
 in wTiich many of thcfe birds do not peri(h, apparently 
 from cold alone ; as fevcral have been found frozen 
 flifFby the fides of even running water, without the 
 leail marl: of violence about them. M. D'Aubenton 
 has kept ihcfc birds for fevcral months, by means of 
 fmall tifli put into bafonsof water, on which they have 
 fed ; for on experiment they have rcfufcd all other 
 kinds of nourillimcnt. 
 
 2. The rudis, or Egyptian kings-fiflier, asdcfcribed 
 by Had'elquift, is the lize of the Royllon crow. The 
 bill is blackifli, more than half an incli broad at the 
 bafc, and two inches in length : the head, llioulders, 
 and back, are brown, marked with oblong ferruginous 
 fpots : the throat is of a ferruginous white : the belly 
 and thighsare whitifli, marked withlongitudinal broad- 
 illl cinereous fpots : upper tail coverts are quite white : 
 the quills fpotted with white on the inner webs, chiefly 
 at the tips : the tail is a(h-coloured : the legs are of a 
 pale green ; and the claws blackifli. It inhabits lower 
 Kgypt, about Cairo ; builds in fycamore and date trees ; 
 and feeds on frogs,- infefts, and fmall filh, which lull 
 it meets with in tlie fields when they are overflowed. 
 Its cry is not unlike that of the common crow. 
 
 3. Le taparara of Button is about the fize of a 
 flarling. The uppermandiblc of the bill is black; the 
 lower red : (he hind part of the neck, tlie back, and 
 fcapulars, are of an elegant blue ; the rump and upper 
 tail coverts bright beryl-blue : the under parts of the 
 body are white ; the wing coverts blue ; and the legs 
 red. Inhabits Cayenne and Guiana, at which lafl 
 place the natives call all the kings-fiflier tribe by the 
 name Tafamra. In this part of South America, which 
 contains many rivcrsfullof filh,kings-fi(hcrs,as might 
 be expefled, abound in vaft numbers : but what is re- 
 markable, they never kerd together, always being 
 found fingle, except in breeding-time, which is about 
 the month of September. They lay their eggs in the 
 holes of banks, like the kings-fifher of Europe. The 
 cry of this bird imitates the word Carac. 
 
 4. The torqneta, or cinereous kings-filher, is about 
 the fize of a magpie, and fifteen inches and a half in 
 length. The bill is three inches and a half long, and 
 brown ; the bafe of the lower mandible reddilh : the 
 head is crefled : the upper parts of the head and body 
 are blueilh a(h ; i-he upper parts chefnut : the throat 
 is whitilh, dcfcending down the neck, and pafling be- 
 hind like a collar, ending towards the bjck in a point ; 
 the under tail coverts are of a pale fulvous, xranfverfe- 
 ly ftriated with black : leflTer wing coverts varied with 
 blueiih, alh, black, and yellowifh : the kgs arc red ; 
 
 and the claws blackiih. It inhabits Martinico and Alccilo, 
 Mexico ; at which lall it is called AchalalalHi. This Alcliemilli 
 
 bird migrates into the northern partsof Mexicoat cer- " ' 
 
 tain feafons only, and is fuppofed to come there from 
 fome hotter parts. 
 
 [The jacamars are much allied to this genus, and 
 have been ranked under it by Linnasus : Their toes 
 are, however, dilferently placed ; their food alfo is 
 dirtircni, being infetls alone, and not filh ; and their 
 haunts are diifercnt, being moill woods, and not lliores 
 or tlie banks or rivers.] 
 
 J. The galbula, or green jacamar, is about the fize 
 of a lark. The bill is black, of a fquare form, a little 
 incurvated and iharp at the point : the plumage in ge- 
 neral, in the upper part of the body, is of a m oft bril- 
 liant green, gloll'ed with copper and gold in different 
 lights: the belly, throat, and vent, are rufous: the 
 tail is compofed of ten feathers, and fliaped like a 
 wedge : the legs are of a grcenifli yellow, very Ihort 
 and weak; the claws are black. This fpecies is found 
 both in Guiana and Bralil, in the nioiif woods which 
 it prefers to the more dry fpots, for the fake of infeds, 
 on which it feeds. It is feldom feen except llngle, as 
 it is a very folitary bird, keeping for the mofl part in 
 the thickell parts ; its flight quick, but fliort ; perches 
 on branches of a middling height, where it fits all 
 night, and frequently part of the day, without llirring. 
 Though thefe birds are folitary, yet they are far from 
 fcarce, as many may be met with. They are faid to 
 have a lliort and agreeable note. The natives of Gui- 
 ana call this bird Venctore and the Creoles, Cotibrides 
 grands boh. At Brazil their flefli is eaten by fome. 
 
 6. The paradifea, or paradife jacamar, is of the 
 fame fize with the former, and has a fimilar bill : the 
 throat, fore part of the neck, and under wing coverts, 
 arc white : the reft: of the plumage is of a deep dull 
 green, in fome lights appearing almoft black, in other 
 with a (light glofs of violet and copper bronze : the 
 tail is compofed of twelve feathers of unequal lengths: 
 the two middle ones longeft : the legs are black ; the 
 toes are placed two before and two behind, and pret- 
 ty much united. It inhabits Surinam ; and like the 
 others, it feeds on infefts ; and fomctimes, contrary 
 ro them, frequents open places. It flies farther at a 
 time, and perches on the tops of trees: It is frequent- 
 ly found with a companion, not being quite fo folitary 
 a bird as the other. It alfo differs in the note, having 
 a kind of foft whiftle often repeated, but not heard a 
 great way off. 
 
 Above 30 other fpecies have been defcribed by orni- 
 thologifts. 
 
 ALCHEMILLA, or Ladies-mantle; A genus 
 of the nionogynia order, belonging to the tctrandria 
 clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un- 
 der the 35th order Seiit'tc'jfa. The calyx is a lingle- 
 leav'd perianthium, tubular, and perliftent ; the mouth 
 flat, and eight-parted : There is no c^ro//.?. The fla- 
 mina confiftof four fmall ereft fubulated filaments pla- 
 ced in the mouth of the calyx ; the antherse are round- 
 i(h : The fijiitiuin has an egg- fhapcd gcrmm : Tlie fly- 
 /r/j'is filiform, the length of the ftamina, and infcrted 
 at thcbafcofthe germ : The rtignia is globular. There 
 isno perkar[tiri;i!, but the neck of tjic calyx clofcd. The 
 feedtoihzry, elliptical, and comprefled. Of this genus 
 there are three 
 
 Species.
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 
 
 species. I. The vulgaris, or common ladies-maiitlc, 
 with leaves plaited like a fan, and yellowilh-grccn 
 blollbms. It grows naturally in pallurc-lands in 
 moll countries in Europe. The leaves difcovcr 
 to the tafle a moderate aflringency ; and were 
 formerly much cfleemed in fome female weaknelf- 
 es, and in Huxes of the belly. They are now rarely 
 made ufeof,tho' both the leaves and roots might doubt- 
 Icfs be of fcrvicc in cafes where mild ?itringents are 
 required. In the province of Smolandia in Goth- 
 land, they make a tinAure of the leaves, and give it in 
 fpafmodic or convulfive difeafes. Horfcs, fhcep, and 
 goats, eat it ; cows are not fond of it ; fwinc refufe it. 
 — 2. The alpina, or cinque-foil ladies-mantle, with 
 finger-lhaped fawed leaves, and grecnilh blollbms. It 
 is a native of the mountainous parts of Europe. Goats 
 and cows eat it ; horfes, flieep, and fwinc, rcfufc it. — 
 3. The minor, or lealt ladies mantle, u ith live fmooth 
 leaves growing at a joint and cut into many fcgincnts. 
 It grows naturally in Sweden, Lapland, and other 
 cold countries. Eaten by cows and goats ; refufed by 
 horfcs, Iheep, and fwinc. 
 
 Culture. Thefe plants have perennial roots, and an- 
 nual flalks. They are eafily propagated by parting of 
 their roots, or fowing their lecds in autumn. They 
 ftiould have a moill foil and Ihady lituation, and be 
 kept clean from weeds j which is all the culture they 
 require. 
 
 ALCHEMIST, a praflitioncr in alchemy. 
 
 ALCHEMY, that branch of chemillry which had 
 for its principal objects the tranfmutation of metals 
 into gold ; the panacea, or univerfal remedy ; an alka- 
 hell, or univerfal mcndruum ; an univerfal ferment ; 
 and many other tilings equally ridiculous. 
 
 Kircher, inllrutted in all the lecrets of chemiflry, 
 has fully expofcd the artiftccs and impolhiresof alchc- 
 mills. Aw alchemill puts into a crucible the matter 
 which is to be converted into gold j this he fets on the 
 fire, blows it, Ilirsit with rods ; and, after divers ope- 
 rations, gold is found at the bottom of the crucible, 
 inilead of the matter firft put in : this there are a 
 thoul'and ways of cft'ecUng, without any tranfniuta- 
 tion. Sometimes it is done by dexteroully dropping in 
 a piece of gold concealed between the lingers, fome- 
 times by calling in a little of the dud of gold or lilver 
 difguifed under the appearance of fome elixir, or other 
 indifferent matter ; fometimcs acruciblcibufed which 
 has a double bottom, and gold put between the two ; 
 fomctimes the rod ufcd to ilir the matter is hollow, 
 and filled with the dull of the metal defircd ; at other 
 times there is metal mixed with the charcoal, the allies 
 of the furnace, or the like. Mr Harris very properly 
 tiiftinguilhes between alchemy and cheniiilry ; and de- 
 fines the former to be urs fine arte, ciijui priiici{iur,i eft 
 mentiri, 7iiedium laborare, etfitiis mendtcart ; and the 
 Italians have a proverb, noutifidiare al akhnnifta pre- 
 vent medico at/tu/ato. The ruin wliich has attended 
 this delulion has occalioucd feveral Rates to make fc- 
 vere laws againfl pretences to alchemy. The Romans 
 formerly banilhed all fuch as profelled it ; and the fa- 
 crdd canons likewife direfted the thunder of theirccn- 
 fure againfl them. Dioclelian and C.^far dirciled all 
 books which treated of this fubjcCl to be burnt. Ry- 
 mer I'urnilhesus with a licence for praailingalchemy, 
 with all kinds of metals and minerals, granted to one 
 
 367 ] A L C 
 
 Richard Carter in the year 1476 /f_ym. fuj. torn. xii. Aldat 
 Neverthelefs,wc havc'had fevcrclaws agaiiift alchemy || 
 and multiplying of metals, as much fo as againfl coin- Alcmaer 
 
 ing itfelf. " « — ' 
 
 ALCIAT f Andrew), agrcatlawyer, whofJourifh- 
 ed in the 16th century, ^jrn at Milan. He mixed 
 much of polite learning in the explication of the laws, 
 and happily drove out tiie barbarity of language which 
 rill then had reigned in the lectures and writings of 
 lawyers; for which Thuanus highly praifcs him. He 
 publifhed a great many law-books, and fomc notes 
 upon Tacitus. His Emblems have been much admired, 
 and tranllated into French, Italian, and Spanilli ; and 
 feveral learned men have written comincnurics on 
 them. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, an Athenian general. It was 
 the fate of this great man to live at a time when his 
 country was a fccneof confulion. The Greeks, grown 
 infoleut from their conquefls in Pcrlia, turned their 
 arms againfl each other, and bandied together under 
 the conduct of the twomofl oppulent flates Athens an d 
 Lacedxmon. Alcibiadcs, in the midfl of an expedition 
 he had planned againfl the enemy of his country, was 
 recalled home toanfwer fome charge of a private na- 
 ture ; but fearing the violence of his enemy, inflead 
 of going to Athens, he offered his fervices at Sparta, 
 where theywere readily accepted. By his advice the 
 Lacedsemonians made a league with Pcrlia, which gave 
 a very favourable turn to their affairs. But his credit 
 in the republic railing jealoulies againfl him, he pri- 
 vately reconciled himfelf to his country, and took a. 
 gain the command of an Athenian army.' Here vii%ry 
 waiting as it were at his command, attended all his 
 motions. The lofsof fcvcn battles obliged the Spar- 
 tans to fuefor peace. He enjoyed his iriuinphs, how- 
 over, only a lliort time at Athens. One unfucccfsful 
 event made him again obnoxious to the malice of his 
 citizens ; and he found it expedient to retire from A- 
 thens. In his abfence the Spartans again took the lead, 
 and at the fatal battle of .-Ilgos entirely fubducd the 
 Athenian pow er. Alcibiadcs, though an exile, endea- 
 voured to rellore the powerof his country , of which 
 the Spartans having intelligence, procured him to be 
 air.ilhnatcd. He was a man of admirable accomplifn- 
 ments, bin indifferently principled : of great parts; 
 and of an amazing vcrfatility of genius. 
 
 ALCINOUS, kingof the Phoenicians, in theifland 
 now called Corfu, was fon of Naulillious, and grand- 
 fon of Neptune and Pevibea. It is by his gardens this 
 king has chieiiy immortalized his memory. He re- 
 ceived Ulylfes with much civility, when a florm had 
 cart him on his coall. The people here loved plcafurc. 
 and good clieer, yet were fkilf'ul feameu; and Alcinous 
 was a good Prince. 
 
 ALcMAER, a city of thcUnited Provinces, feat- 
 ed in North Holland, about four miles from the fea, 
 1 5 from Hacrlem, and i3 from Arallerdam. It is a 
 handfomc city, and one of the cleaneft in Holland. 
 The ftreetsand houfes arc extremely neat and regular, 
 and the public buildings very beautiful. It had for- 
 merly twoparilh-churchcs, dedicated to St Mattliew 
 and St Lawrence. The latter had fo high a tower, 
 that it fervcd for afea-raark to the velltlsthat were in 
 the open fea ; but, in 1464, it tumbled down, and 
 damaged the oUicr church lb much, that they were 
 
 botlu
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 368 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 both JcinoIKhed in 1470, and one cliurcli was built in 
 theirl*cad,dcdicatcd to tlicfamefaiiits. 1 hcSpaiiiards, 
 under the command of Krcdericot' Toledo, Ion ol the 
 duke d'Alva, came to bcliej;c it, at'tcr tlicy had taken 
 Hacrlem in 1573 '• l^"' were forced to raifc the fiegc, 
 after three nioiithslyiuj; before it, as well on account 
 of the iufei5liou of the air as the (lout rclilUnce of the 
 inhabitants and foldiers ; even the women lignaliiing 
 thcm:<lvcs bravely in its defence, it is recorded i.i 
 the regiller of this city, that, in the year 1637, 120 
 tulips, with the ofi-fets, fold for 90,000 florins. The 
 town has a very good trade in butter and chcefe, of 
 which a vafl quantity is fold every year, and is elleeni- 
 ed tlie belt in Holland, £. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 
 S2. 28. 
 
 ALCIMAN, a lyric poet, who flourillied in the 27th 
 Olympiad. He was born at Sparta ; and compofed 
 feveral poems, of which only fome fragments are re- 
 maining, quotedby Athcnasiis and fome other ancient 
 writers. He \. as wery amorous : accounted the father 
 of gallant poefy ; and is faid to have been the firll that 
 introduced the culiom of iinging love-fougs in com- 
 pany. He is reported to have been one of ihc great- 
 cfl eaters of his age ; upon wbicli Mr Bayle remarks 
 that fucha quality would have been extremely incon- 
 venient, if poetry had been at that time upon fuch a 
 ■footing as it has been often fincc, notable to pro- 
 cure the poet bread. He died of a llrange difcafc ; 
 for he was eat up with lice. 
 
 ALCMANIAN, in ancient lyric poetry, a kind of 
 verfcconliflingof twodadylesand two trothces;as, — 
 
 Virgiiii\bui put \rifqii.'\caKto 
 The word is formed from Aicthan, the name of an an- 
 cient Greek poet, in great clteem for his erotics or 
 amorous tompofition. 
 
 ALCMENA, the daughter ofEledlryo king of My- 
 cenx, and wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter puttingon the 
 Ihapcof her hufband while hewas abroad in the wars, 
 begot Hercules upon her: he made that night as long 
 as three ordinary ones. 
 
 ALCOCK (John), dodor of laws and bifliop of 
 Ely in the rtign of king Henry VII. was born at Be- 
 verly in Yorklhire,and educated at Cambridge. Hewas 
 rirll made dean of Weflminrtcr, and afterwards ap- 
 pointed mailer af the rolls. In 1471, he was confe- 
 crated bilhopofRochefler . m 1476, he was tranflated 
 to the fee ofWorchcflcr ; and in 14S6, to that of Ely, 
 in the room of Dr John Morton, preferred to the fee 
 of Canterbury. He was a prelate of great learning 
 and piety ; and fo highly etleemed by king Henry, 
 that he appointed him lord prefident of Wales, and 
 afterwards lord chancellor of England. Alcock found- 
 ed a fchool at Kingfton upon Hull, and built the fpa- 
 cious hkll belonging to the epifcopal palace at Ely. 
 He wasalfo ihcfounder of Jefus-college in Cambridge 
 lor a mailer, lix fellows, and as many fcholars. This 
 houfe was formerly a nunnery, dedicated to St Radi- 
 gund : and, as Godwin tells us, the building being 
 greatly decayed, and the revenues reduced alnioll to 
 nothing, the nuns had all forfaken it except two; 
 whereupon bilhop Alcock procured a grant from the 
 crown, and converted it into a college. But Cambdcn 
 and others tell us, that the nuns of that houfe were 
 fo notoi ious for rheir incontinence, that king Henry 
 VII. and pope Julis II. confcniej to its diiTolutipn : 
 
 3 ' 
 
 Bale accordingly calls this namicry /piritualiur/ men- Alcohol 
 triciitiicaucihiuji}, " a con;uiui:ity ol ipiritual harlots. ' | 
 
 BiihopAkock wrote fcvcral pieces i araoiigil which are Alcomi. 
 the following i I. HLoht I erji.{ii<jHii. 2. In I J'uli/,<.i 
 Lcitntntiald. 3. hn/iliitt I ulgaret, 4. AJ<r/i:latio>iH 
 J ia-. He died Otlober t. 15CO; and was buried in 
 the chapel he had built at Kinglloa upon Hull. 
 
 ALCOHOL, or Alkool, in clicniillry, fpirit of 
 wine highly rectified f. It is alio ufcd for any highly t See Clf 
 redified fpirit — Alcohol is extremely light and in- '"'Ay ('"- 
 flammable : It is a Itrong antifeptic, and therefore em- ^''^^' ""'^ 
 ployed to preferve animal fubllances. Pharmacy. 
 
 Alcohol is alfo ufcd lor any fine impalpable 
 powder. 
 
 ALCOHOLIZATION, the procefs of reaifyiiig; 
 any fpirit. It is alfo ufed for pulverization. 
 
 ALCOR, in allronomy, a fmall liar adjoining to 
 the large bright one in the middle of the tail o( utfa 
 major. — The word is Arabic. It is a proverb among 
 the Arabians, applied to one who pretends to fee fmall 
 things, butoverlooks much greater : Thou canjl fee /ii- 
 cor and not yet fee the full moov.. 
 
 ALCORAN, or Al-koran, the fcripture,or bible, 
 of the Mahometans. The word is compounded 0/ ihc 
 Arabic particle a/, ixiA coranox koran, derived from 
 the verb caraa or karaa, to read. The word ikcreforc 
 properly fignities, the reading; or rather, that ■which 
 ought to be read. By this name the Mahointtaus de- 
 note not only the entire book or volume of the Koran, 
 but alfo any particular chapter or feci ion of it : Juft as 
 the Jews call either the whole fcripture, or any part o£ 
 it, by the name of Karah, or Mikra, words of the 
 fame origin and import. 
 
 Bclides this peculiar name, the Koran is alfo honour- 
 ed with ftveral appellations common to other books of 
 fcripture : as, al Farkan, from the verb Joraia, t» 
 divide or Jijtinguijh i not, as the Mahometan doitors 
 fay, becaufe thofe books arc divided into chapters or 
 fcdions, or didinguifli between good and evil ; but in 
 the fame notion that the Jews u^ the wovilerek, or 
 J'irka, from the fame root, to denote a fedlion or por- 
 tion of fcripture. It is alfo called <?/ yi/i5/^<i/", the vo- 
 lume, and al Kitah, the book, by way of eminence, 
 which anfwers to the Bibtia of the Greeks ; and al 
 Dhikr, the admonition, which name is alfo given to the 
 Pentateuch and Gofpel. 
 
 The Koran is divided into 1 1 4 larger portions of very 
 unequal length, which we call chapters ; but the Ara- 
 bians/iwar, in the Angular /ara ; a word rarely ufcd 
 on any otiicr occalion, and properly fignifying a row, 
 order, or a regular feries ; as a courfe of bricks in 
 building, or a rank of foldiers in an army ; and is the 
 fame in ufe and import with the Sura, orTora, of the 
 Jews, who alfo call the fifty-three feftionsofthe Pen- 
 tateuch Scdarim, a word of the fame lignification. 
 
 Thefe chapters are not, in the manufcript copies, di- 
 flinguilhcd by their numerical order, but by particular 
 titles, which are taken foraetimcs from a particular 
 matter treated of, or pcrfon mentioned therein ; but 
 ufually from the tirft word of note, exaiily in the fame 
 mannerasthejewshavc named theirScdarim ; though 
 the word from which fome diaptcrs are denominated 
 be very far dilhmt, towards the middle, or perhaps the 
 end, of the ch.ipter : which fccn.s ridi«.ulous. But the 
 occafion of tliis appears to have been, that the vcrfc of 
 
 paflagc
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 369 ] 
 
 A L.C 
 
 rtaiTige wherein fiich word occurs, was, in poiut of 
 "^ liuic, revealed an I comiiiit:ed to wrida^ l)ctorc tiic o- 
 tli'crvcr!csi>t ihe fame cliaptcr wiiicli precede ii in or- 
 der ; a'ld tiic tiik being given to tlic cnapter before it 
 was completed, or the pailagts reduced to their prefcnt 
 order, the verit from whei'.cc luch liilc was taken did 
 1101 always happen to begin the chapter. Some chap- 
 ters have two or more titles, occalioned by the differ- 
 ence of the copies. 
 
 Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mec- 
 cx, and others »i I>Iedina, the noting this dirfcrencc 
 makes a part of the title : but the reader will obferve, 
 that fcvtral of the chapters are faiJ to have been re- 
 vealed partly at Mecca and partly at Medina ; and, as 
 to others, it is yet a diiputc among the commentators 
 to which of the two places they belo ig. 
 
 Kvery chaptcris f ibdividcd into fmaller portions, of 
 very unequal length alfo, which we cuitomarily call 
 Vc-r/ci : but the Arabic word is a_yat, the fame with the 
 Kcbrew oto!/!, znd ligTiidus Jigi.s or r.'oriJcrs : f.ich as 
 are the fccrcts of God, his attributes, works, j^idge- 
 ments, and ordinances, d -livcred in thofe verfes; many 
 of which hive their particular titles alfo, impofed in 
 the fame nianiieras thofe of the chipters. 
 
 Belides thcfc unequal diviiions of chapter and vcrfe, 
 the Mahometans have alio divided their Koranintolix- 
 ty eq'ial portions, which they call Aiz.d, in the fin- 
 gular htzt, each lul-.divided into four equal parts ; 
 which is alfo an imitation of the Jews, who havean an- 
 cient diviiion of their iMilhna into lixty portions call- 
 ed Majpcloth. But the Korin is more ulually divided 
 into thi. ty feftions only, named Ajza, from the lingu- 
 lar Jc~, each of twice the length of the former, and in 
 the like manner fubdiviJed into four parts. Thefe di- 
 vifionsarefor the ufe if tiic readers of the Koran in the 
 royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the 
 emperors and great men are interred. There are thir- 
 ty of thefe readers belonging to every chapel, and each 
 read> his feclion every day ; fo that the whole Koran is 
 read over once a-day. 
 
 Next after the title, at the head 6f every chapter, 
 except only the nintli, is prefixed the following folenin 
 form, by the Mahometans called the BifmatUh, I.v 
 T H E N A M E OF T H E Mos T M E R c I n' r. Go r> ; wliich form 
 they conllantly place at the beginningof all their books 
 and writings in general, as a peculiar marker diflin- 
 guifliingcharacterillicof their religion, it being count- 
 ed a fortof impiety to omit it. The Jews, for the fame 
 purpofc, make ufe of th e form, /// tht name of ththo&X), 
 or, In thi nam- of thi gnat God ; and the caftern 
 Chriftians that of, In th: naine of tki Fath:r, and of 
 the San, and of thi Holy ChoJI. But Mahomet proba- 
 bly took this form, as he did many other things, from 
 iht Pcrfian Magi, who ufcd to begin their books in 
 thefe words, B-.nam Tezdaii kakjha'<jhghtr dudar ; that 
 is, //.■ thi navi! of thi moj! mtrc'ijul jujt God. 
 
 There are twenty -nine chapters of the Koran,which 
 have thij peculiarity, tliat they begin with certain let- 
 ters of the alphabet, fonie with a linglc one, others 
 Willi more. Thefe lertcrs the Mahometans believe to 
 be the peculiar m;rksofi!.e Koran, and to conceal feve- 
 V0..I. 
 
 ral profound myfteries ; the certain undcrllanding of 
 which, tht more inttUigeir, confefs, has not been cora- 
 inunicaicd to any mortal, their prophet only excepted. 
 Notwithllaiiding which, fjine will take the liberty of 
 gueiling at their meaning by that fpccics of Cabila call- 
 ed by the Jews Nitankon, and f.ippofc the letters to 
 ftand for as many words, cxprelling the names and at- 
 tributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees ; 
 and therefore thefe myllerious letters, as well as the 
 verfes themfelvcs, fccm in tlie Koran to be called lig^u. 
 Others explain the intent of thefe letters from'their 
 nature or origin, or clfe from their value in numbers, 
 according to another fjiecies of the Je widi Cabala call- 
 ed 6V/';i///-/</ : tbeuncertainty of which conjectures fuf- 
 ficicntly appears from their difagreement. Thus, for 
 example, hvc chapters, oneof which is the fecond, be- 
 gins with thefe letters A. L. M. which fomc imagine 
 .to Hand for Ai/ah latiff vuig'id, "God is gracious and 
 to hi glorified ;" or, Ana it minni, i. e. to vn and from 
 mi, viz. belongs all perfeftion, and proceeds all good ; 
 or clfc for Ana Aiiihalatn, " / am thi moji -aiifi Got," 
 taking the firft letter to in.irk the beginning of the 
 firft word, the fecond the middle of the fecond word, 
 and the third the lall of the third word ; or for Ai- 
 tab, Cabriil, AJohatnniid, the author, rcvealer, and 
 preacher of the Koran. Others fiy, that as the letter 
 A belongs to the lower part of the throat, the firft of 
 the organs of fpcech ; L to the palate, the middle or- 
 gan ; and M to the lips, which are the lall organ; fo 
 thefe letters fignify thatGod is the beginning, middle, 
 and end, or ought tobcpraifed in the beginning, mid- 
 dle, and end, of all our wordsandaction: : or, as the to- 
 tal value of thofe three letters, in numbers, is f'-vcnty- 
 oHe, they fignify, that, in tl:c fpace of f'j many years, 
 the religion preached in the Koran ihould be fi.lly ef- 
 tablilhed. The co.'jccture of a learned Chriftian is at 
 lead as certain as any of the former,who fuppofes thofe 
 letters were fei there by the iir.anuenfis, for Amar It 
 Ahhammed, i. e. at thi comwjudof Alohammid, as the 
 five letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter fecm t<> 
 be there written by a Jewilh fcribc, for Cohyaas, i. t. 
 Thus hi commanded. 
 
 The Koran is univerfallyallowed to be written with 
 the iitraoft elegance and purity of l.mguage, in the di- 
 leifl of the tribe of Koreilh, the moil noble and polite 
 ot all the Arabians, but with fome mixture, tho' very 
 rarely, of other dialects. It is confelTcdly the ftardard 
 oi the Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox be- 
 lieve, and are taught by t'le b.«)k itfelf, inimitable by 
 any human pen (though fomc feftaries have been of 
 another opinion), and therefore infifted on as a per- 
 manent miracle, greater than thatof raifing the dead, 
 and alone fufficiencio convince the world of its divine 
 original. 
 
 And to this miracle did Mahomet himfe.f chiefly 
 appeal for the confirmation of his million, publicly 
 challenging the moft eloquent men i.'i Arabia, whicii 
 was at that time (locked with thoufanus v. hole fole ftu- 
 dy and ambition it was to excel in elegance of llyle 
 and compoliiion, to produce even a finglc chapter that 
 might be compared with it (a). 
 
 •K A To 
 
 AUp 
 
 (a) As ihccjmpoiition and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, iican never be ab- 
 folutely faid that any one is the beft pjlhble. In (jlA, Harazah Bcnahmad wrote a book againil the --Mcoran 
 v>ith at lead cnual elegance; and Mofclcma another, which even furpadcd it, and occalioned a ci.rei:ion of a 
 great part of the MuUuIinaiis. Joiirn. d: Sfav. torn. xiii. p. 280. Ouvr.di Sfav. Nov. 1708, p. 404.
 
 A L C r 37 
 
 AK-oran. ' " '''"^ poiuj' anil luiittioiiy of cxpi ciTiun Come altiibc 
 ~— N- — j.U the lorcc aiui itt'cCi. oi il>c .-Vlcoiuii ; which ihcy 
 niitiilcr aia fori ol'imilic, equally lititJ withoihtr fpc- 
 i ics of iliat an lu ra\ iili ami aiuazt. In lliis Mahomet 
 fiicccciltiifo v\ tU, aiul foitraii'^ch' cajnivattd ihcniiiuls 
 1 I his amiiciicc, that fcvcial ol liis o|i|)oiicuts thought 
 ii llic cffcdof witi h'.i'aft ami <.iiciiamiiiciit,as ht hiiii- 
 iflt comi'laiub. Olhusliavc aitributcJ ihc ctrldof the 
 Alcoi.iii loihcfrcqaciii inciuioiiorrc wai\lsaiul puiiilh- 
 uK-ius ; heaven aiul hell occurring ahnoll in every page. 
 i.omc fiippofc, llut the I'enfiial plt.ifures of piirailifc, fo 
 •rcijiiently fet before the imaginations of the readers of 
 the AkoranjWcre wliaicliieiiy bevvitclud thcni. Tho' 
 \vith regard to thefc, there is a great difpute whether 
 they are to be undcrflood li;erally or fpiriiiially. Se- 
 veral have even allegorized the whole book. 
 
 The general defign of the Koran was to unite the 
 profcliui's of the three dihlreui religions, then follow- 
 ed in tiic populous country of /\ rabid ( wlio for tlie moll 
 pan lived promifcuoully, and wandered without guides, 
 thcfargreatcr nu'iibcr being idolators, and the rclijcws 
 and Chriftians nioflly of erroneous and heterodox be- 
 lief), in the knowledge and worfliip of one God, under 
 the fanJlion of certain laws, and the outward iignsof 
 ceremonies partly of ancient and partly of novel inUi- 
 tution, cnforeed by the conlidcralion of rewards and 
 punilhmcnts both temporal and eternal ; and to bring 
 them all to the obcdieixc of Mahomet, as the prophet 
 and anibalFador of God, who, after the repeated ad- 
 monitions, pmniifes, and threats, of former ages, was 
 at lall to eliaolilh and propagate God's religion on 
 earth, and to be acknowledged chief pontifFin fpiritual 
 matters, as well as fupreme prince in temporal. 
 
 The great dodrine then of ilic Koran, is the unity 
 of God ; tore/lore which point Mahomet pretended 
 was the chief end of his million ; it being laid down 
 by him as a fundamental t:' uh. That there never was, 
 nor ever can be, more tli.ui one true orthodox religion. 
 For, though the particular laws or ceremonies are only 
 temporary, and fubjeet to alteration, according to the 
 divine dircelion ; yet the fubflance of it being eternal 
 truth, is not liable to change, but continues immutably 
 the fame. And he taught, that, whenever this religion 
 became neglected, or corrupted in cllcntials, God had 
 the goodnefs to re-iuform and re-admonilh mankind 
 thereof, by feveral prophets, of whom Mofes and Je- 
 fus were the moftdiltinguilhed, till the appearance of 
 Mahomet, who is their feal, and no other to be expec- 
 Jed after him. The more eft'eclually to engage peo- 
 ple to licarken to him, great part of the Koran is cm- 
 ployed in rtlating examples of dreadful puniflimcnts 
 formerly infliefed by God on thofe who rejeftcd and 
 abufcd his melfengcrs ; feveral of which ftorics, or 
 fomc ciri.umftances of thein, are taken from the Old 
 and New Teflaments, but many more from the apocry- 
 phal books and traditions of the Jews and Chriflians of 
 thofe ages, fet up in the Koran as truths in oppofition 
 to the fcriptures, which the Jews and Chriftians are 
 charged with having altered : and indeed, few or none 
 of the relations or circnmflances in the Koran were in- 
 vented by Mahomet, as is generally fuppofcd, it being 
 cafy to trace the greatcft part of them inuch higher, as 
 the reft might be, were more of thofe books extant, 
 and was it worth while to make the inquiry. 
 
 The reft of the Aleoran is taken up in prefcribing 
 
 1 
 
 A L C 
 
 neccliary laws and diredions, frequent admonitions lo Mm 
 
 moral and divine virtues, thc.worihip and reverence of » 
 
 the Supreme lieing, and relignaiion to his will. One 
 of their moft learned commentators diftinguiilics the 
 contents or the Alcoran into allegoi :cul and iiuial ; 
 under the former are comprehended ail the obfcnrc, 
 parabolical, and enigmatical pallages, with fuch as arc- 
 repealed, or abrogated ; the latter, fuch as arc clear,, 
 and in full force. 
 
 The moil excellent moral in the whole Alcoran, in- 
 terpreters fay, is tli.it in the chapter ,-i'/ Ali^'I, vis. 
 Shew mercy, do good to all, and difjuite not with tlic 
 ignorant ; or, as Mr Sale renders it, Ufe indalgence, 
 command that which is j nil, and witlulraw far froiii the 
 ignorant. Manomet, according to tlic authors of tlic 
 K-.Jchaf, having begged of the angel Gabriel a mi-re 
 ample explication ot iLispallage, received it in the fol- 
 lowing terms : " Seek him who turns thee out, give to 
 " him who takes from thee, pardon him wiio injures 
 "■ thee ; lor God will have you plant in your fouls the 
 " roots of Ills chief perfedions." It is caly to fee 
 
 that this commentary is copied from the gofpel In 
 
 reality, the neceliity of forgiving enemies, though fre- 
 quently inculcated in the Alcoran, is of a later date 
 among the Mahometans than among the Chriftians : 
 among thofe latter, than among the heathens ; and to 
 be traced origiaaily among the Jews. (Sec Kxodus 
 xxxiii. 4, 5. j But it matters not fo much who had it 
 iirft, as who obfcrves it beft. The Caliph Haflan, fon 
 ofHali, being at table, a (lave unfonu;iately let falla 
 diih of meat reeking hot, which fcalded him fevercly. 
 The llave fell on his kiKcs, rehearlingthefe words of 
 the Alcoran, " Paradife is for thofe who rellrain their 
 " anger." I am not angry with thee, anfwered the 
 caliph — " And for thofe who forgive offences againfl 
 them," continues the llave. I forgive tliee thine, re- 
 plies the caliph — " But above all, for thofe who return 
 good for evil," adds the (lave. I fet thee at liberty, 
 rejoined the caliph ; and I give thee ten dinars. 
 
 There are alfoa great number of occafional paffages. 
 inthe Alcoran, relating only to particular emergencies. 
 For this advantage Mahomet had in the piecemeal me- 
 thod ofreceiving his revelation, that whenever he hap- 
 penedto be perplexedandgravelled withany thing, he 
 had a certain refource in fomc new morfel of revelation. 
 It was an admirable contrivance of his, to bring down 
 the whole Alcoran at once, only to the loweft heaven, 
 not to earth ; (incc, had the whole been publilhed at 
 once, innumerable objedions would have been made, 
 which it would have been impollible for him to folve : 
 but as he received it by parcels, as God faw fit they 
 fliould be publiflied for the converlion and inftrudion 
 of the people, he had a lure way to aiifwer all emer- 
 gencies, and to extricate hinifelf with honour from 
 any diiEculty which might occur. 
 
 It is the general and orthodox belief among the Ma- 
 hometans, that the Koran is of divine original : that it 
 is eternal and uncreated, remaining, as fome exprcfs it, 
 in the very elTencc of God : that the firfl tranfcript has 
 been from everlafting by God's throne, written on a ta- 
 ble of vaft bigncfs, called the prcfer-jctt tabk, in which 
 are alfo recorded the divine decrees paft and future : 
 that a copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was 
 by the miniftry of the angel Gabriel feni down to the 
 loweft heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the niglit 
 
 of
 
 [ 371 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 Atcofan. n( prixtr ; from whence Gabriel revealed it to ^la^lo- 
 
 ^ ' mci by parcels, fonic at ^jecc.1, and Ionic ut MtJiiia, 
 
 at dincrent times, during the fpacc of 23 years, as the 
 cxii^cncy ot" aftiirs iciiuircd ; giving him, however, 
 theconfolation toihovv him tlie whi>lt ^ which they tell 
 us wa-. bound in lilk, and ailorneu with gold an J pre- 
 cious floncs of paridil'e) once a-ycar ; but in the )a(l 
 year of his life lie had the favour to fee it t\\ ice. 'I'hiy 
 fiy, that few chapters were dtliv ertd entire, the suolt 
 part bcinoj revealc ' piecemeal, and written oov. n ti >m 
 tiuic to time by the p;-oi'het's amanueniis in fucii a p irt 
 of foch and fuch a chapter, till they were completed, 
 according to the directions of the angtl. The nrit 
 parcel that was revealed is generally agreed to have 
 i-ec)i the firft five verfes ot' the 96th chapter. 
 
 After the new-revealed paflaj^es had been from the 
 prophet's moutii taken down in writing by his fcribe, 
 they were publiflicd to his followers ; fe vcral of wiioin 
 took copies f 'r their private ufe, but the far greater 
 number got them by heart. The originals, when re- 
 turned, were put promifcuonlly into a chell, obfcrv- 
 ing no order of time ; for which reafon it is uncer- 
 tain when many palfages were revealed. 
 
 When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the 
 fame diforder, and not digeftcd into the method, fuch 
 as it is. in which we now tind them. This was the 
 work of hisfuccellbr Abu Beer; who, coiifidering that 
 a great number of padagcs were committed tothemc- 
 mory of Mahomet's followers, many of whom were 
 flai.i in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected, 
 not only from the palm-leavesandlkins on which they 
 had been written, and w hich w> re kept between two 
 boards or covers, but alfo from the mouths of fuch as 
 had gotten them by heart. And thistranfcript, when 
 completed, he committed to the cullody of Haifa the 
 daughter of Omar, one of the prophet's widows. 
 
 Krom tliisrelation it is generally imagined that Abu 
 Beer was really the compiler of the Koran ; though, 
 for anght appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the 
 chapters complete as we now have them, excepting fuch 
 ■p.Ufages as Ills fucceifor mi:;ht add or corrcd from 
 thofc who had gotten them by heart ; what Abu Beer 
 did elft, being perhaps no more than to range the 
 chaptersin their prefent order, which he feemstohave 
 done w'thont any regard to time, having generally 
 placed the lon^eft firft. 
 
 However, in the ;!oth year of the Hegira, Othman 
 bcinir then caliph, and obfcrving the great difagree- 
 nicnt in the copies of the Koran in the feve. '.1 pro- 
 vinces of the empire ; thofc of Irak, for example, fol- 
 lowing the reading of Abu Mufa al Alliari, and the 
 Syrians that of .Macdad Kbn Afwad : he, by the advice 
 of the oUipiinhJi.', ordered a great ninnber )f copies to 
 be traufcribed from tliat of Abu Beer, in ilalli'scare, 
 -under the iiifpeetion of Zcid Eon Tliahct, Abd'allali 
 Ebn Zobair, Said Kbn al As, and Ad'aluhi; .in Llm 
 al Hareth the Makhzumite; whop; he di.c :cJ, that, 
 wherever they difigreed abo.t any word,th:y Hii uld 
 write 'tin the dialrctof the Koreifli.in whicli 1. was at 
 firft delivered. '1 heft cojies, when made, were dif- 
 perfedinihe fcvcril provin'ts of the impire.and the 
 old ones burnt and f ii'i'vcued. Though nuny tilings 
 in Haifa's copy were corrected by ih- abovemcniioncd 
 revifcrs, yet fonie few vaiioi:s . • diu;'; •''. o -t. 
 Inrinc.thebookof the Alcoran is held m the iu 'ucfl 
 
 Cbrifliamitj 
 mrtiHt/m, 
 
 cdcei,. and reverence ai;i..rg ihc >iuffclmans. They AUnn*. 
 dare not li> raiicU <b toiicl. the Akoran without beijiT ' — " — 
 fird waliit,:,.jr leg.iily p-irilicd ; to prevent »hicl),aii 
 iiif riptioii is put >m the over or label, Lft ujiie touch 
 but tkcy 'ojhourc ch-an. Ii is read witii great care and 
 re.''pcd ; being never held bel<iw the j^irdle. They 
 fwtar by i. ; take omens irom it on all weighty occa- 
 lions ; carry it wita them to v.ar ; «. uc fcntc;ices of it 
 in their banner^ ; „di r:. it with gold a d precious 
 lloi:t.,; and knowingly futter it Mottotit inihcpoilc:;^;. II 
 of .^ny of a dittercnt religion. Some fay that it is pu- 
 ailliablc even with death, in a ChrilHan, to toucii it ; 
 oili'-rs, that the veneration of the JMuuuhuans lead-; 
 them t<rcondcmn the tranllating it into any otiier lan- 
 guage as a profanation : but thcfe fecm to be aggra- 
 vations. The Maliometans have taken care to have 
 their fcriptare trandated intotlie Perfian, tje Javan, 
 the Malayan, and other languages ; tho' out of rcfpecl 
 to the original, thefe vcrlions are generally, if not al- 
 ways, interlincated. 
 
 By the advocates of Mahometanii'm, the Koran, as 
 already obferved, has always been held forth as the 
 greatell of miracles, and equally ftupendous with the 
 ad of railing the dead. The miracles of Mofcs and 
 Jefus, they lay wxrc tranficnt and temporary ; but that 
 of the Koran is pcrmanc'.u and perpetual ; and there- 
 fore far fupafles all the miraculous events of preceding 
 ages. We will not detraft from the real merit of the 
 Koran : we allow it to be generally elegant, and often 
 fublime : but at the fame time we rejed with difdaiii 
 its arrogant pretence to any thing iupernatural ; all 
 the real excellence of the work being eafily referable 
 to natural and vilible caufes. 
 
 In the language of Arabia, a language extremely 
 loved and diligently cultivated by the people towlioni 
 it was vcrnac.ilar, Mahomet found advantages which 
 were never enjoyed by any f-r>ieror furceeding im- 
 pollor. It requires not the eye of a piiilofopher to 
 difcover in every foiland country a pi incipleof national 
 pride : and if we look back for many ages to the hi- 
 floryof the Arnbians, we Ihall ealily perceive that 
 pride among them inv.iria'.'ly to have comilled in the 
 knowledgeand improvementof their native language. 
 The Araoic, which has been juftly elkemcd tiie mod 
 copious of the eallern tongues ; which had cxiiicd 
 from the remote^ antiquity ; which hadb?en ellablilh- 
 f Q by numberlefs poets, and rclnied by the conltant e x- 
 crcifcof the natives : was tlic moll fuoccfsf il inllru- 
 mcnt whicii Mahomet employed in planting his new 
 religion among them. Admirably adapted by its un- 
 rivalled harmony, and by its cnulefs variety to add 
 painting to exprclhon, and to purfuc the imagin. tion 
 in its unbounded flight ; it hr ai ic in the hands of 
 Mahomet an irrelillible charm to Mind tht judgnienr, 
 and to captivate the fancy of his followers. 
 
 " Of that defc-iption of uu n w ho firft compofed the 
 adherents of Mahomet, and to whom the Koran was 
 aJdrelicd, lew, probably, were aolc to pafs a very ac- 
 curate judgment on the prop'riciy of the fc;.;irrcnts, or 
 on the beauties of the diction ; but all e^i Id judwc of 
 the military abilities of thrir lea Icr ; ane! in the midll 
 of their admiration it is not dilfirult tocon'-eivv 'lat 
 they would afcrib? to hii compolitions every imagina- 
 ry beauty of inipired language. 
 
 "The Ihtpherd and the foldicr, though awaietothe 
 3 A 2 cliarms
 
 A L C [37 
 
 Alcoran, tiiarms of ihofe wiKl but beautiful compoCuions, in 
 
 *- whitli were cikbiatcit their lavoiuitc Ov-cupationsof 
 
 lave or war, were yet little able tocrilicilc any other 
 works liiau ihole which were aiidrcllcd 10 their iii.a- 
 giiiatiou or the licari. To abttracl rcafouiiigs on the 
 aitributcs ami the ilifjcnrations of the Deity, to the 
 ronipjrativt cxcelkiicics ot rivil religions, to the coii- 
 liftcncyof any one religious fyAeni inalliis parts, and to 
 ilic force (>f iis various proofs, they wei e t]iiite inaticu- 
 live. In fueh a filiation, theappearanre of a work wliich 
 ])oirelIeil lonietliinglit>.e wifdoniandconliftcnce; which 
 ])rcfcribed the rules, and ilhiftrated the duties of life ; 
 and which contained the pi inciplesof anew and com- 
 jiaratively-fubl.me theology, independently of its real 
 and permanent merit, was likely to excite tlicir aflo- 
 nilhmeiu, and to become the Itaudard of future coni- 
 polition. 
 
 "In thefirft periods of the lireratiirc of every coun- 
 try, fomeihing of thiskind h;;s happened. The father 
 of Grecian poetry very obviouily iurluenced the talte 
 and imitation of hiscountrynicn. The modern nations 
 of Europe all polfefs fome original author, who, rifmg 
 from the darkucfs of lormer ages, has begun the ca- 
 reer ot compofitiou, and tiuchired wiih the charaeicr 
 of his own imaginaiiua the ftream which has lluwed 
 through ills polterity. 
 
 ♦' But the prophet of Arabia had in this refpcfl ad- 
 vantages peculiar to liimfeif. l!i.s compjlilions were 
 not to his followers the works of man, but the genuine 
 language of Heaven, which hadfcnthim. They were 
 not confined therefore to that adu.iratiou which is fo 
 liberally befiowed on the earliellproductions of genius, 
 or to that fond attachment with which men every 
 where regard the original coripulitions ot their coun- 
 try : butwiththeiradrairaii jp. tlieyilended their piety. 
 To know and to feel the licau ies of the Koran, was 
 .'n fome refpefl: to Iharc in the temper of Heaven ; and 
 he who was moll afiecled with admirati"!) in tlie peru- 
 fal of its beauties, feemed molt fitly the object of that 
 mercy which had given it to ignorant man. The Ko- 
 ran, therefore, became naurally and neceiraiily the 
 llandard of taile. With a language thus hallow cd in 
 their imaginations, they were too wellfaiishcd, either 
 todifputeits elegance or impi-ove its ftrudure. In 
 fucceeding ages, the additional faniSion of antiquity, 
 or prefer! J tion, was given toihefe conipofiiions whicli 
 their fathers had admired : and while the belief of its 
 ■ divine original continues, that admiration, w'liich has 
 thus become the tell and the duty of the faiihful, can 
 neither be altered nor diminiihed. 
 
 " When therefore we confider tliefe peculiar ad- 
 vantagesof the Koran, we have no reafon to bcf.irpri- 
 fcd at the admiration in which it is held. But if, dc- 
 fctnding to a more minute invcRigation of it, we con- 
 sider its perpetual inconfiltcnce and ablurdity, we Ihall 
 indeed have caufe for aftonilhment at that weaknefs of 
 humanity which could ever have received fuch compo- 
 sitions as the work of the Deity. 
 
 " The firll praifeof all the produ-'lionsof genius, is 
 invention ; that quality of the mind, whicli, by the ex- 
 tent and quicknefs of its views, is capable of the lar- 
 gefl conceptions, and of formingnew combinations of 
 objects the moA iiftant and nnufual. But the Koran 
 bears little imprelhon o'f tliis tranfcendant eharaftcr. 
 Its materials are wholly borrowed from the JewidTand 
 C!»rillian fcriptures, from the Talmudical Ugends anil 
 
 3 ] A L C 
 
 apocryphal gofpels then current iu the Kail, and /roin 1 
 the traditions and fables which abounded in Arabia. ~ 
 Tiic materials colleded from ihefefe%eral fources are 
 here heaped togciher, witii perpetual and needlefs re- 
 petitions, without any fettled principle or vilible con- 
 nection. 
 
 " When a great part of the life of Mahomet had 
 been fpent in preparatory mediiation on the fyllenn 
 he was about to eltablilh, its chapters were dealt 
 out dowly and feparately during the long period of 
 2:? years. Yet thus defecive in it;; lirutiture, and 
 not lels exceptionable in its doctrines, was the work 
 wiiich Mahomet delivered Lo his foUow'ers aS the 
 oracles of God. 
 
 '• rhc molt prominent feature of the Koran, tliat 
 point of excellence in which tlic parti;iiity of its admi- 
 rers has ever delighted to view v , is the lubliinc noti- 
 on it generally imprelles of the iuunre and attributes 
 of God. If its a uhor had really derived thcfcjuit con- 
 ceptions from theinfpiration of that Being whom the/ 
 atteiuj t lodcfcribe, they would not have been lurroun- 
 iled, as they now are on every lldc, with error and 
 ab.urdity. But it might eafdy be proved, that w hatever 
 it Jultiy defines of i!ie divine attributes, was borrowed 
 from our holy fcripture ; which even from its lirltpro- 
 nuilgaiion, but efpecially from the completion of the 
 New Tellanieiit, has extended the vicv.i and enliglit- 
 ened the nn^lcrl landings of mankintl; and thus fiinii (li- 
 ed them.with arms, which iiave toooften bcenincffec- 
 tually turned againlt itfelf i)y its ungeneious enemies. 
 
 " In this inflan-.epanicularly, the copv is far below 
 the great original, both iu the propriety of iis images, 
 andtiie torceof its defcriptions. Our holy iVriptures 
 arc the onlv conipofitions that can enable the dim fight 
 of mortality to penetrate into the inviiible world, and 
 to behold agliniide of the Divine perfections. Accor- 
 dingly, \s lien they would reprefent tons the happinefs 
 of Heaven, they defcribe it, not by any thing minute 
 and particular, but by fomcthing general and great ; 
 fomcwhat, that without defeending to any detci minatc 
 object, may at once by its beauty and immcniity ex-» 
 cite our w illies and elevate our affections. Though iu 
 the ]'ropheti' al and evangelical writings the joys that 
 fliall attend us in a future Hate are often mentioned 
 with a;dent admiration, they are exprelfed rather bv 
 allulion than iimilitude,rathcrby indeliniteandligura- 
 tive terms, than by any thing fixed and determinate. 
 ' Eye hath not fecn, nor ear heard, neither 1/ave en- 
 tered into the heart of man, the things which God 
 hath prepared for them that love him.' j Cor. ii 9. 
 What a reverence and aftonilhment does this pa.iage 
 excite in every hearer of tafle and piety ? ^V■hat ener- 
 gy, and a: the fame time what fnnplirity, in the ex- 
 prefTion \ How fublimc, and at the fame time howob- 
 fcurc, is the imagery. 
 
 " Different was the conduft of Mahomet in his de- 
 fcriptions of heaven and of paraoife. Unaffilled by the 
 neceffary intlnenceofvirtuousinteiiti'msaiid l-'ivincin- 
 fpiration,he was neither dclirous, nor indeed a ble.to ex- 
 alt the min;ls of men to fu bl i me concept ion s,'ir to ration- 
 al expectations. By attempting to explain what is in- 
 ctmcei vable, to defcribe what is cnetiable, and to mate- 
 rialize what in itfelf is fpiritual ; he abfnrdlyand im- 
 pioufly aimed to fenfualize the pin-iiy of tlic Divine 
 cffence. Thus he fabricated a fyltem of incoherence, 
 a religion of depravJt/; totally repugnant indeed to the 
 
 nata-
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 373 ] 
 
 A L C 
 
 Altoran, nature of tliac Being, who, as he pretended, was its 
 Alcoraniftsoiijcct ; but therefore more likely to accord with the 
 " apjictites and conceptions of a corrupt and lenfual 
 age. 
 
 " That wc may not appear to exalt our Scriptures 
 thus f?.r above tjie Koran by an unrcaionable preference 
 wc fnall produce a part of tlic Iccond chaptir ol the 
 Ijlli'r.whichisdcfcrvfdly admired by ihcMahometaiis, 
 who wear it engraved on tluir ornaments, and recite it 
 in their prayers. 'God! there is no God but he ; the 
 living, tlie felf-fub'illing : neithei' llumi)cr nor llecp 
 feizelh him : to him bclungcih whatfocvcr is in hea- 
 ven, and on earth. Who is he that can intercede with 
 him but througli his good pleafure ? He knoweth that 
 which is part, and that which is to come. His tlironc 
 is extended over heaven and earth, and the prefcrva- 
 lion of both is to him no burden. He is the liigh, the 
 mighty.' Salc'j Kor. ii. p. 30. 4to edit. 
 
 " To this defcription who can rel'ufe the praife of 
 magnificence .' J-'art of that magnificence, however, is 
 to be referred to that vcrfc of the Fl'alniifl, whence it 
 was borrowed, • He that kcepetli Ifraei, fuall neither 
 finjTibfrnor llcep.' Ifal. cxxi. 4. 
 
 " Hut if wc compare it with that otlier paiFage of 
 the fame inipired Plalmift, all its boafled grandeur is 
 at once obfcuicd, and loll in the blaze of a greater 
 light. 
 
 " O my God, take me not away in the niidfl of my 
 days ; thy years are ihrougliout all generations. Of 
 old hail thou laid the foundations ul the earth ; and 
 the heavens are the work of thy hands. They Diall 
 perilh, but thou Ihalt endure : yea all of tiiem fliall w ax 
 old, as doth a garment ; as a vefturc flialt thou change 
 them, and they Ihall be changed ; but thou art the 
 fame, and thy years Ihall not fail.' 
 
 " The Koran, therefore, upon a retrofpeclive view 
 of thcfe fcvcral circumftanccs, far from fupporting its 
 arrogant claim to a fupcrnatural work, links below the 
 lc\elof many tompolitions confcfledly of human origi- 
 jial ; and lUU lowerdoesit fall in our cflimaiion, when 
 • compared with that pure and perfeft pattern which we 
 jufUy admire in tlic fcriptures of truth. 
 
 "It isthercforr abundantly apparent, that nomiracle 
 ciihcrwas externally performed for the fupport, oris 
 internally involved in the compolition, of the Maho- 
 metan revelation." 
 
 A I.CORA N, is alfo figuratively applied to certain o- 
 ther books full of impieties and inipollurcs — In this 
 fenfc we meet with the Akortjn of the Cordeliers, 
 ■which has made a great noifc ; wherein St Francis is 
 extravagantly magnified, and put on a level with Jefus 
 Chrift The Alcoran of the Cordeliers is properly an 
 extract of a very fcarce book, intiiled, l"he conformity 
 of the lifeof the ieraphic father St Francis with the life 
 of Clirill, pubhflied in 1500, 4to ; fincc, at Bologna, 
 in folio. Krafmus Albtrtus, being by the cletlor of 
 Brandenburg appointed to vilit a monaftery ofFran- 
 cifcans, found this book ; and being llruck with the 
 extreme folly and abfurdity of it, collcc'led a number 
 of curiofities out of it, ancl publiflud them under the 
 title of the Alcoran of the FranciCcans, with a preface 
 by A!artin Liiiher. 
 
 ALCOR ANISTS, among Mahometans, thofe who 
 adhere ftriclly to the Icttcror tcxtof the alcoran, from 
 an opinion of its ultimate luflicicncy and pcrlcdion. 
 
 The Hcrfians are generally yilccranifii, as admitting Alcove, 
 the Alcortn alone lorihcirrulc of faith. The Turks, AIcujjui. 
 Tartars, Arabs, &c. beiidcb the Alcoran, admit a mul- " " ' 
 titudc of traditions. 'Ihe Alcoranills, among Maho- 
 metans, amount to much the fame with the icxtuaries 
 among the Jews. The Alcoraiiifts can rind nothing 
 excellent out of the Alcor.in ; are enemies of pbilofo- 
 phers, metaphyficians, and fcholaftic writers. With 
 them the Alcoran is every thing. 
 
 ALCOVE, among builders, a reccfs, or part of a 
 clianibcr feparated by an eilrade, or partition of co- 
 lumns, and oilier correfpouding ornaments, iu which 
 is placed a bed of (late, and fomctimcs feats to enter- 
 tain company. Thefe alcoves arc frecjuent in Spain ; 
 and the bed is railed two or three afcents, with a rail 
 at tlic foot. 
 
 ALCUINUS (Flaccus^, an ccclcfisflic of the 
 eighth century. Where lie was born, isaraatterof 
 difputc ; hut, according to the mo.l probable opinion, 
 itwasiii Yorklhire. It is pretty certain, however, that 
 he was tducitcd at York, under the direction of arch- 
 bilhop Egbert, as we learn from his own letters, .in 
 which he frequently calls that great prelate his beloved 
 raafter, and the clergy of York the companions of his 
 youthful fludies. Ashefurvived venerable Bcdc about 
 70 years, it is hardly podible that he could have re- 
 ceived any jiart of his education under him, as fomc 
 writers of literary hidoiy ha/ealiirmcd; and it is wor- 
 thy of obfcrvation, that he never calls that great man 
 his mailer, though he fpcaksrffhi.'n with the highell 
 veneration. It is not well known to what preferments 
 he had attained in the church before he left England, 
 though fonie fiy he was abbot of Canterbury. The 
 occaiion of his leaving bis native country, was his be- 
 ing fent on an embaify by Otta king of Mcrcia to the 
 emperor Charlemagne ; who contracted fo great an 
 efteeni and fricndfiiip for hini, that heearncllly folici- 
 tcd, and at length pre\ ailed upon him, to fettle in his 
 court, and became his preceptor in the fciences. Al- , 
 
 cuinus accordingly inftrufted that great prince in rhe- 
 toric, logic, maiiicmatics, and divinity ; which ren- 
 dered him one of Iiis grcatell favourites. " He was 
 treated with fo much kindncfsand familiarity (fays a 
 cotemporary writer) by the Emperor, that the other 
 courtiers called him, by way oi <:\\\\x\.ci\Qt. ,t he emperor' i 
 lijitglt." Charlemagne employed his learned favourite 
 to write feveral books againlt the heretical opinions 
 of Felix Biihop of Urgcl in Catalonia, and to defend 
 the orthodox faith againll the hereliarch, in the coun- 
 cil of Fraucfort, A. D. 894 j which he performed to 
 the entire fatisfadion oi'the Emperor and council, and 
 even to the conviction of Felix and his followers, who 
 abandoned their errors. The Emperor confulted 
 chicHy with Alcuinus on all things relating to religion 
 and learning ; and, by his advice, did many great 
 thiiigs for the advancement of both. An academy 
 was eftablilhedin the imperi.''! palace, over which Al- 
 cuinns prelided, and in which the princes and prime 
 nobility were educated ; and other academics were 
 eflablilhed iu the chief towns of Italy and France, at 
 his inlUgaiion, and under his infpeftion. "France 
 (fays, one of our bell writers of literary h'llory) is in- 
 debted to .Alcuinus for all the polite learning it boall- 
 ed of in that a:id the following ages. Theuniveriities 
 of Paris, Tours, Foldca, Soilfons, and many others, 
 
 o\v«
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 374 ] 
 
 A L D 
 
 Alcyon owe to tlicni tlicir origin and increafc ; thofcof whom 
 ■I 'jcwasiK't the liipciioraiui I'ouiuki , being at Icaft cii- 
 
 Alcyonius lighttiieil by liii doitrine and cxamiik, and enriched 
 "^ by the bcneiits he procured ior ihcm froniChaiic- 
 
 ina^nc." After Alcuinus had I'pcnt many years in tiic 
 moll intimate familiarity wiih the grtatcit prince of 
 his asjc, he at Itn^lli, with ^rcat oilii.'iliy, obtained 
 leave to retire f;o!n court to iiisabl)cy ot at Martin's 
 at Tours Here he kept up a coiillant corrcijjondciice 
 by letters with Chii icmagnc ; from which it appears 
 mat botfi till emperor and his learned iricnd were a.ii- 
 maied with the moll .irder.i love to learning ana reli- 
 gion, and conllaiitly emj'io^cd in comrivi.ig and exe- 
 cuting the ao.)lcit dcligns tor t.icir advaucenient. He 
 compofed many treatifis on a great variety of lubjccts, 
 in a llyle much fupcrior in purity and elegance to iliat 
 of the generality of writers in the age in which he Hoii- 
 rillied. Charlemagne often folicited him, w ith all the 
 warmth of a mollaifecnionaie friind, to return to court, 
 and favour him with his company and advice ; but he 
 fiill ixcnl'ed liimfcU, and nothing could draw him 
 frgm his retireinenti.i hisab'ocy of St Martin in Tours, 
 where he died A. D. 904. Kis works were coUeii^ed 
 and puMiflied by Andrew duChefnc in one volume fo- 
 lio, Paris, 1617. They con lift of, i. Traces upon fcrip- 
 ture. 2. Traits upon doiflrinc, dilciplinc, and mora- 
 lity. 3. Hiftorical treatifes, letters, and poems. Since 
 that edition, there has been pubhfnedan incredible num- 
 ber Of ira^Jls, poems, &e. afcribcd to this author, moll 
 of which, in all probability, were not his. 
 
 ALC YON, the trivial name of a fpecies of alcedo. 
 See Alcedo. 
 
 ALCYOiS'IUM, an obfolete name of a fubmarinc 
 ■{ihut. Jt is alio ufed for a kind of coral, or allroites, 
 frequently found folfilc in England. 
 
 Alcyon I U..I Siagiium (anc. geog.), a lake in the 
 
 territory of Coriiith, whofc depth was unfathomable, 
 
 anJin vaiiiaitcm|ited tobc uilcovcred by Nero. Thro' 
 
 • this Uke Bacchus is faid to have defcendcd to hell, to 
 
 bring br.ck Seuule ; (Paufanias). 
 
 ALC'iONK S (Peter), a learned Italian, who flou- 
 rifhedinthc i6th century. I'c waswell verfed in the 
 Greek and Latin. tongii;s, and wrote fome pieces of 
 eloquence which met with great approbation. He 
 was corre.ior of the prcfs a conliderable time for Al- 
 dus Mamuius, and is entitled to a lliare in the praifes 
 given to the editions o; that learned printer. He pu- 
 blilhtd a treaiifc concerning ba..illiment, which con- 
 tained fo many fine paiTages intermixed with others 
 quiie the reverfe, that it vias thought he had tacked 
 to fomewhat of his own, feveral fragments of a treatife 
 of C:cero de gloria ; and that afterwards, in order to 
 favehinifclf from being dctcflcd in this theft, he burnt 
 thcmanufript of Cicero, the only one extaiit. Pau- 
 1ns Manuiius, in his commentary upon thefe words of 
 Cicero, Libiini: i'lbi ciUnt^-r lu'Utam d: gloria, "I will 
 fpe-dily fend you my treatife on gl ry ;" has the fol- 
 lowing pallage relating to this affair : " He mc-!is, 
 (fays he) his two booksnn Glory, w! ich were handed 
 down to thea:u' of our fathers ; for ccrnard Juftinian, 
 in the index o( his boc>ks, mentions Cicero 'e I loiia. 
 This treaiifc,how(ver,when Pel uardhadlcft his whole 
 library to a r.u.V.iery, could :iot be found, though 
 fough: after with great care : nobuoy do-bted b"'P'-- 
 :cr Alcyonius, who, being phylician 10 the nunnery, 
 
 was entruAeJ wub the libiary, had baftly Hole it. Aldba- 
 And truly, in his li eatile *.>f Laniliimtiit, fome things rough 
 are tounu interfpcrfed here and there, which fttia not U 
 to favour of Alcyonius, lut of fome higher author." "^ """°: 
 1 he two orations he made aftei the taking of Rome-, 
 wherein he reprci'ented very ftrongly the injuftice of 
 Charles V. and the barbarity ol his foKliers, were ex- 
 cellent pieces. '1 here is alio an oration afcribcd to him 
 on the knights who died at thefiege of Rhodes. 
 
 ALUUOROUOH, a fea-port town in Suffolk, 
 with a market on Saturdays, it is pleafautly lituated, 
 in a d lie, between a high hill to the weltward, on 
 which its large old-built church (lands ; the fea to the 
 call, and its river running fouth-well. It is a large, 
 long, ordinary town, made up of two or three (Irects 
 ot low houfes, running parallel to each other. A quar- 
 ter of a mile to the fouth lies Slaughdcn, where they 
 liave a commodious key, with warehoufes fortilh: more 
 foutherly flill, they have conveniences for drying their 
 north-fea tifli. Their employment in the liihery is their 
 chief buiincfs, which is conliderable in the feafons for 
 catching hen ings and fprats ; and it is the only place 
 in England lor curing red fprats. It is a town corpo- 
 rate, and fends two members to parliament. Towards 
 the fea, it has fome pieces of cannon planted for its de- 
 fence. It is 88 miles north-eaft ftom London. E.Long. 
 I. 32. N. Lat. 52. 50. 
 
 Aldborough, a market-town in the wefl riJing 
 of Yorklhire,feated on the river Oufe, 15 milesuorth- 
 well of York, and 200 miles north of London. It 
 fends two members to parliament. W. Long. o. 20. 
 N, Lat. 54. I J. It was anciently a Roman city, call- 
 ed Jjhrium Brigatitiujii ; and feveral coins and rnonu- 
 meiits of the Saxons and Romans have been difcovcr- 
 ed there. 
 
 ALDEBARAN, in aflronomy, a flar of the firfl 
 magnitude, called inEnglilli the bull' 1 eye, as making 
 the eye of the conflellation 1 aurus. Its longitude is 
 6 deg. 32 min. 9 fee. of Gemini, and its latitude 5 dcg> 
 29 min. 40 fee. ibuth. 
 
 ALDER-TREE, in Botany. Sec Betula. 
 ALDERHOLM,aplcafant illand of Sweden, for- 
 med by the three arms of a river running thro'Gentle, 
 a town of Nordland, in Sweden. Here is a wharf, a 
 repolitory for planks and deals, two packing houfes, a 
 large cullomhoufe for taking toll of the fliips, an arfe- 
 nal for cannon, and a granaiy, 
 
 ALDERM.AN, in the Britiili policy, a niagillratc 
 fubordinate to the lord-mayor of a city or town-cor- 
 porate. The number of thefe magiftrates is not limit- 
 ed, but is more or lefs according to the magnitude of 
 the place. In London ihcy are 26 ; ca.h having one 
 of the wards of the city committed to his care. This 
 office is for life ; fo that when one of them dies, or re- 
 ligns, a ward-mote is called, who return two perfons, 
 one of whom thclorJ-niayor and aldermen choofc to 
 fupply th« vacancy. All the aldermen are jufliicsot the 
 peace, by a charter of 1 5 Geo. II. The aldermen of 
 London, Sec. are exempted from ferving inferior offi- 
 ces ; nor (hall ll'.ey be put upon alfizes, or ferve on ju- 
 ries, fo long as they continue to be aldermen. 
 
 Alcerman, among the ancient Saxons, wis a de- 
 gree of nobility anfwering to carl or count at prefent. 
 Ali-erman was alfo ufed, in the time of king 
 Edgar, for a judge or juflice. Thus we meet with 
 
 ihe
 
 A L D [3 
 
 Aiilc-ney, lllc lilkb of Atdartnanniti totius Aitgi:^, aldtrniamtiii 
 AldhclAi. rcgi>, cii/tilatiis, civitutis, burgi, cnJUlli, huiidredi 
 " *' y/c'e' ■>uaf:i:titch:i, it novct//dcciuiOru>ii. According lo 
 Spcliiuii, ihc alderiiianuui lotita Angii^ feems [o lijvc 
 been ihc Came officer v.ho was afterwards fly led uipila- 
 Ui jujlitiariui Aiigiiie , or chicf-julUcc of England ; the 
 alJcrmuiDiui icgis fccnis to have been an otcalional 
 III . giftratc, anfwcring to our jiUticc o( affize ; and the 
 alddirtiiannui idmitatui, a inagiflrate \\ ho held a middle 
 .ank between what was afterward called earl and 
 ihc fher,^ ; he fat at the trial of caufes with the liidlop: 
 the latter proceeding according to ecclclialiical law, 
 and the former declaring and expounding the common 
 law of the land. 
 
 ALDEIIN'EY, an idand in the Briiilli channel, fiib- 
 jcct to the crown of Great Britain. It is about eight 
 miles in compafs, and is feparated from Cape la Hoguc, 
 in Noriiiandy, by a narrow Arciglit, called the Race (J 
 Aidiriii), which is a very dangerous palFagc in (lorniy 
 weather when the two currcuts meet ; othcrwife it is 
 (afe, and has depth of water for the largeftfhips. Tiiro* 
 this flreight tlie French rtcet made their cfcapc after 
 their defeat at La Hogue, in 1692. It is a htaUhy 
 ifland, has but one church, is friiiiful buh in corn ai;d 
 pafture, and is remarkable for a fine breed of tows. The 
 inhabitants, for their greater fifcty, li\ e together in a 
 town of tlie fame name. The number of houles are 
 faid to be 200, and the inhabitants 1000. It has but 
 one harbour, called Crabby, which is at a good diltance 
 from the town ; and is only fit for fniall vclfels. To the 
 weft lie the range of rocks called the Cajkeis, fo dan- 
 gerous to mariners. \V. Long. :. 17. N.Lat.49. 50. 
 ALDHi^LM (Si), biihup of Shercburn in the time 
 of the Saxon Heptarchy. He is faid to have been the 
 fon of Kenrcd, brother to Ina, king of the Wcfl-- 
 Saxons; but, in the opinion of William of Malmlbury, 
 his father was no more than a diltant relation to the 
 king. Having received the firft part of his education 
 in the fchool which oncMacJulf, a learned Scot, hjd 
 fet up in the place where Malmftjury now flands, he 
 travelled into France and Italy for his improvement. 
 Athisrcturn home,he ftuJiedfonie tune under Adrian 
 abbotof St Augulline's in Canterbury, the moll learn- 
 ed profelforofthc fciences who had ever been in Eng- 
 land. In thefe ditFerent fcniinaries he acquired a very 
 uncommon flock of knowledge ; and became famous 
 for bii learning, not only in England, but in foreign 
 countries: whence fcvcral learned men fcnt him their 
 writings for his perufal and correction ; particularly 
 Prince Arcivil, a fon of the king of Scotland, who 
 wrote many pieces which he fent to Aldhelni, " in- 
 treating him to give them the laft polifli, by rubbing 
 off their Scots mil." He was the firlt Englilhmaii 
 who wrote in the Latin language both in profe and 
 verfe, and compofed a book for the inftrudion of bis 
 countrymen in the profoJy of that language. Belides 
 this,hc wrote feveralothertreatifcs on various fubjecls; 
 fome of which are lo!l, and others publilhcd by Martin 
 Delrioand Caniiius. Venerable Bcdr, who flourilhcd 
 in the end of this and the begining of the next cen- 
 tury, gives the following charaderof Ald!iclm: " He 
 was a man ofuniv«rfalcruuition,havii:;;an elegant llyle, 
 and being wonderfully well .cquainted with books, 
 kith on pTiilofophicaland religious fubjedls." In fad, 
 coulldchng ihc cloud of ignorance by which he was 
 
 75 J A L D 
 
 )urrouiuled,ana:bcgrcatdiiHcultyofaccjjiringkiiuw- Aldh Im 
 ledge withouT proper inftru.-tion, AlJhclin wa:. a very !■ 
 cxiriordinary man. From oa» of his letters 10 Hedda Aldred. 
 bilh'jp of \Vi:.:hc;ler, concerning the nature of his (la- " 
 dies wiulft at Canterbury, he appears to have bcci 
 iade.atigably determine j. to acquire every Ipetics of 
 learning iii his p.;wer. For a copy of this curious 
 epiiUc, fee Henry's Hillory, vol. ii. p. 320. King Al- 
 fred the Great declared, that Aldlulm was the bui i-f 
 all the Saxon poets ; and that a favourite fong, which 
 was univerlally fung in his time, near 200 years after 
 its author's death, was of his coinpufition. When he 
 wasabbo: of Malmlbury, having a fine voice, and great 
 Ikill in mufic as well as poetry, and obferxing the 
 backwardncfb of hii barbarojs countrymen to liilen to 
 grave inftructions, he compofed a number of little 
 poems, which he fung to them after niafs in the fwect- 
 eft manner ; by which they were gradually inllruaeJ 
 andciwlizcd. After tiiis excellent pcrfon had govern- 
 ed the monallery of Malmlbury, of which he was the 
 founder, about 30 years, he w.ismade biihop of Sherc- 
 burn, where he died A. D. 709 He wrote, i. De 
 
 ocivvitiis frii.cifaiihus. This trcatife is extant iji Bi- 
 blioth:ca i atrin/i of Canifius. 2. JEiiigmaticum vFrfus 
 mille. This, with fcvcral other of his poems, was 
 publillied by Martin Dclrio at Meutz, 8vo, i6ci. 
 3. A book adJrcii'cd to a certain king of Northumber- 
 land, named Alfrid, on various fubjeds. 4. De vita 
 luoiiachoium. S- De iaudc faniloiuvi. G.De aritht/ie- 
 tica. 7. De aflrologia. 8. A book againft tlic mi- 
 ftakcof the Britons concerning the celebration of Ei- 
 iler; printed by Sonius, i,-76. 9. De Uude virgi- 
 iiitath. Manufcript, in Btnact-college, Cambridge. 
 Publillied among Bedc's OptijcMla. Bcfidcs many foa- 
 ncts, epiilles, and homilies in the Saxon langua-^e, 
 
 ALUPORT, aa ancient name for Manchciler. 
 Sec Manchesi er. 
 
 ALDRED, abbot of Tavillock, was promoted to 
 the bilhopric of VVorcefttr in the year 1046. He wis 
 fo much in favour with King Edward the Confellor, 
 and had fo much power over his mind, that he obli -cJ 
 him to be reconciled with the worll of his enemies 
 particularly with Swane fon of the earl Goodwin, who 
 had revolted againft him, and came with an army to 
 invade the kingdom. Aldred alforeftored the union 
 and frieudlhip between king Edward andGrifTin kin» 
 of Wales. He took afterwards a journey to Rome*^ 
 and being returned into England, in the year 1054, 
 he was fcnt cmbalfador to the emperor Henry II. ; he 
 ftaid a whole year in Germany, and was very honour- 
 ably entertained by Herman archbilhop of Culogn, 
 from whom he learned many things relating to ccclefi- 
 3fticaldifc"ipline, which on his return he eftabliihed in 
 his own diocefc. In the year 1058 he went to Jeru- 
 falem, which no archbilhop or biihop of England had 
 ever done before him. Twoyears after he returned to 
 England ; and Kinfius archbilhop of York dyinj the 
 22d of December 1060, Aldred waselecled in hisllcad 
 on Chriftmas day following, and tbocght fit to keep 
 his bilhopric of Worcefter wi:h tiie archbilhopric of 
 Canterbury, as fome of his predecelfors had done. Al- 
 dred went foon after to Rome, in order to receive the 
 Pallium from the Pope : He was attended by T>.fton 
 earl of No: thumberland, Gilo biihop of Wells, and 
 Walter bifliop of Hereford. The pope received Tof- 
 
 toil.
 
 A L D 
 
 [ 376 
 
 1 
 
 A L D 
 
 Alilred. ton very lioiiouribly, .iiul made Iihii fit by him in (he 
 ^ — ^ — ' fynod which he liiKlagainllthcSimoiiills. He griiu- 
 cd to Gilo and Walter tlicir rciiiiclt, bccaiife they were 
 toleral)ly well learned, and not accuicd of linioiiy. but 
 Aldrtd being by liis anlwcrs found ignorant, antl;;iiil- 
 ty of iiniony, the pope deprived him very fevereiy of 
 all lionours and diguiiies; fo that he was obligcJ to 
 return without the Pallium. On his way homeheand 
 his three fellow-travellers were attacked by fonie rob- 
 bers, who took from them all that they had, though 
 they did not oticr to kill them. This obliged them to 
 return 10 Rome ; aud the pope, either out of com- 
 panion, or by the threateniugs of the c.al of Northum- 
 berland, gave ■■Mdrcd the Pallium ; but he was obli- 
 ged to rclign liis billiopric of W'orceller. Hov, ever, as 
 the archbilhoprie of York had been almoll entirely 
 ruined by the many invalions of foreigners, king Kd- 
 ward gave tiie new arehbilhop leave to keep twelve vil- 
 lages or manors which belonged to the bilhopric of 
 Worceller. Kdward the Confclfor dying in 1066, 
 Aldrcd crowned Harold his fuccellbr. He alio crown- 
 ed M'illiam the Conqueror, after he had made him 
 lake the following oath, viz. that he would proted the 
 holv church of God and their leaders , that he would 
 cllabliHi andobferve righteous laws ; that he would en- 
 tirely prohibit and fapprefs ::11 rapines and unjull 
 judgments. He was fo much in favour with the con- 
 queior, that this prince looked upon him as a fither ; 
 and, though imperious in regard 10 every body elfc, he 
 yet fubmiticd to obey this arehbilhop : John Bromton 
 gives us an inftancc of the king's fiibniiirion, which at 
 the fame time fliows the prelate's Iiaughtinefs — It hap- 
 pened one d.iy, as the .-'.rtlibilhop was at York, that 
 the deputy-govermu- or lord-lieutenant going out of the 
 city with a great number of people, met the arch- 
 bilhop's fervants, wlio came to town with feveral carts 
 and horfcs loaded with provilions. The governor afk- 
 cd them to whom they belonged ; and they having an- 
 fwercd they were Aldrcd's fervants, the governor or- 
 dered that all tl'.efc provilions lliould be carried to the 
 king's flore-houfe. The arehbilhop fcnt immediately 
 :'ome of his clergy to the governor, eonimandiug him 
 to deliver the provilions, and 10 make faiisfaflion to St 
 Peter, and to him the faint's vicar, for the injury he 
 liad done them ; adding, that if he refufed to comply, 
 the arehbilhop would make uleof his apollolic autho- 
 rity againllhim, (intimating thereby that he would ex- 
 communicate him). The governor, offended at this 
 proud mellage, ufed the perfons whom the arehbilliop 
 hadfent him very ill, and returned an p.nfwer as haugh- 
 ty as the melFage wr.s. Aldred thereupon went to 
 London to make his complaint to the king ; but in 
 this very complaint he aftcd with his wonted infolcnce ; 
 for meeting the king in the church of St Peter at 
 Weilminrter, he fpoke to him in thefe words : " Hear- 
 " ken,OWiiliam: wherahou will but aforeigner, aud 
 *' God, to punilh the lins of this nation, permitted thee 
 *' to become nialtcrof it, after having lliedagreat deal 
 " of blood, I conlecratrd thee, and put the crown 
 " upon thy head with blciihigs ; but nov/, becaufc 
 " thou halt defcrvcd it, I pronounce a eurfc over thee, 
 " jnftcad of a blefling, lincc thou art become the 
 " perfccutorofGod'schureh,;ridof hismiuirters, and 
 " liifl bro];cn the promifes and the oaths which thgu 
 
 " madtll to me before St Peter's altar." The king, 
 terrified at this difcourfc, fell upon his knees, and 
 humbly begged the prelate to tell him, by what crime * 
 he had deferved fo levere a fentcnce. The Uoblemen, 
 who were prcfcnt, were enraged agaiull the areh- 
 bilhop, and loudly cried out he deferved death, or at 
 leaft banilliment, tor having clfcrcd fuch an iujiry to 
 liis fovcreigu, and they prelled him with threateniugs 
 to raife the king from the ground. But the prelate, un- 
 moved at all this, anfwcrcd calmly, " Good men, let 
 " him lie there, for he is not at .Aldred's but at St 
 " Pcler'sfeet ; he mull feel StPtter's power, lince he 
 " dared toiujure his vicegerent." Having thus re- 
 proved thcnoblcsby his epifcopal authority, hevouch- 
 lafed to take the king by the hand, and to tell him the 
 ground of his complaint. The king humbly exeufcd 
 himfelf, by faying he had been ignorant of the whole 
 matter ; and begged of the noblemen to iutreat the 
 prelate, that he might take off the euifc he liad pro- 
 nounced, and to change it into a blelling. Aldred 
 was at lalf prevailed upon to favour the king thus far ; 
 but not without the promife of feveral prefcnts and fa- 
 vours, and ordy after the king had granted him to 
 take fuch a revenge on the governor as he thoi\ght fit. 
 Since that time (adds the hif-oiian) none of the no- 
 blcjnen ever dared to offer the leafb injury. It may be 
 qucflioned, which was more furpriling here, whether 
 tlie archbilhop's haughtinefs,».ho dared to treat hisfo- 
 vereign after fo unbecoming a manner ; or the king's 
 flupidity, who fuff'ered fuch inlblenceand audatioulncfs 
 from apricll ? — The Danes having made an inv.uionin 
 the north of England in the year 1068, under the con- 
 duft of Harold and Canute the fons of king Swane, 
 Aldred N\as fomuch alBided at it, that he died of grief 
 the 1 1 ih of September in thai fame yerj", having bc- 
 fought God that he might not fee the dcfoLtion of his 
 church and country. 
 
 ALDRICH (Robert), bifliop of CatliOe, was born 
 at Burnham in Buckinghamlhire about the year 149;, 
 and educated at Katon-fchool ; from whence, in 1507, 
 he was ckcU-d fcholar of King's College, Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree in arts, and was afterwards 
 procior of the univerlity. In 1525, he was appointed 
 niafter of Eaton fchool, then became fellow of that 
 college, and finally provofl. In 1529, he went to 
 Oxford, where, being firfl incorporated bachelor of 
 divinity, in the following year he proceeded dodor 
 in that faculty : in J S?^> ^^ was made areh-deacon of 
 CoIchclUr; in IJ54, canon of Windfor ; and the fame 
 year, regiftrary of the order of the garter. He was 
 confecratcd bidiop of Carlille in the year 1537, and 
 died at Hornci.iUein Lincolnfliire in 1556. He wrote, 
 I. EpijIoLi a.idil. Hoy2!iaiiri!i!, in Latin verfe ; printed 
 in Horman's Jnttbojpcmi, Lond. I J2i, of which book 
 Pitts erroneoully makes Aldrich the author. 2. Epi- 
 gravwiata var:a. 3. Latin vcrps, and another epiftls 
 to Horvian, prefixed to the Vulgaiia pusruriim of that 
 author, Lond. 1519,410. /\. Aiipwus th artuin que- 
 rhs concerning the abuj'cs (.f the mafs ; alfo about recti- 
 zi'-'g the fticranunt. 
 
 Alpkich (Dr Henry), an eminent Englifh divine 
 and philofopher, born at London in 1647, was edu- 
 cated at Wellr.iinder fchool under the famous Dr Buf- 
 by, and admitted of Chrill-church college, Oxford. 
 
 He 
 
 Alilrcd. 
 AUlrich.
 
 A L D 
 
 C 377 ] 
 
 A L D 
 
 Aliiricli. He had a great fliarc in t!ic controvcrfy witli the Pa- 
 •*-— V— — pills in the reign of James II. and Bilhoj) Burnet rnnl^s 
 him among thofc who examined all the points of po- 
 pery with a folidity of judgment, clearnefs of argu- 
 ment, depth of learning, and vivacity of writing, far 
 beyond any who had before that time written in our 
 language. He rendered himlelf fo confjucuous, that 
 at the rcvoluiion, v.hen Mafl'ey the poi/ifli dean of 
 Chrill-chureh HeJ, his dtanery was conferred on liini. 
 In this ftation he behaved in an exemplary nianntr,and 
 that fabric owes much of its beauty to his ingenuity : 
 it was Aldrich w ho deiigncd the beautiful Iquarc cull- 
 ed Ptrct-K'afei-Oriaiiran^lif, which is ellecmed an excel- 
 lent piece of architeilurc. In imitation of his pre- 
 deccflbr Dr Kcll, he publilhcd yearly, a piece of fomc 
 ancient Greek autiior, as a prefcnt to tlic fiujents of 
 liis houfc : he publifiicd ^'l H^JIcm (J Lcgic, with fomc 
 other pieces; and tiie reviling Clarcdon's Killoryof 
 the Rebellion was intruftcd to him and bilhop Spratt ; 
 but it doth not appear that they made any additions, 
 or conlidcrablealterations in it, as lias been allerted by 
 IVlr Oldmixon. Bclides iiis preferments aboveinen- 
 lioned, Dr Aldrich was alfo redor of Wem in Shrop- 
 
 and the other on the death of the Dnk'c of Gloaccfter. Aldrich. 
 Sir John liawkiiw hath prefcrved a humorous tran- Aldrovan- 
 flation by him of the v/dl-known Englifh ballad, , '^"'- 
 
 " A foldicr and a failor, 
 
 " A tinker and a taylor," &c. 
 
 The following epigram, intitlcd " CaufaBibendi," 
 is likcwife afcribed to Dr Aldrich : 
 
 " Si bene quid memini, Caufxfuntquinqucbibendi, 
 " ho/filij AJvci.ttit ; prajcus Sitij, ztmiejritura; 
 " Aut Vhii Btnitas : qute libet altera Cati/a," 
 
 The epigram has been thus tranllated : 
 
 " If on my theme I rightly think, 
 
 " There are five reafons why men drink : 
 
 " Good wine, a friend, becaufe I'ni dry, 
 
 " Or left I Ihould be by and by, 
 
 " Or auy other rcafon why." 
 
 The tranflation is not equal to the original. It is e- 
 vident, from the verfes cited and referred to, that Dr 
 Aldricli was of a very cheerful and plcafant tu.-n of 
 mind. Indeed, he is always fpoktii of as having been 
 
 Ihirc. He was chufcn prolocutor of the convocation a man of wit ; and as one who, to his great talents and 
 
 in 1702. This worthy perfon died at Chrill-church virtucs,joincd thofcamiablequalitics, which rendered 
 
 on the 14th ofDecember 1710. As to his character him theobjeclof gcneralalTeition, aswellasof general 
 
 he w.nsa moft univcrfal fcholar, and had .1 taftefor all efteem and refpcct. Having never been married, he 
 
 forts of learning, efpecially arehitcJturc. Sir John appropriated his income to works of hofpitality and 
 
 Hawkins has favoured the public \\ ith feveral particn- benificence, and in encouraging learning to theuimoll 
 
 lars relative to Dr Aldrich's (kill in niufic; and on ac- of his power, of which he was a moll muniiicent pj- 
 
 countofthe Dodor's eminence in this rcfped. Sir tron, as well as one of the greateft men in Kngland, 
 
 John hath given his life, with his head periixed. His if confidered as a chriltian or a gentleman. He had 
 
 abilities as a muiician rank him, we are told, among always the ir.tereftof his college at heart, whereof kc 
 
 the greatell maflersof the fcicnee. Hecoinpofcd many was an excellent go\ernor. Ani, as he was remark 
 
 fervicesfor the church, which are well known ; as are 
 alfo his anthems, nearly to the number of twenty. He 
 adapted, withgreat Ikill andjudgment, Knglidi words 
 to many of tlie notes of Paleftrina, Cariiiiiui, Vidoria, 
 and other Italian compofcrs for the church, fome of 
 which are frequently fungin the cathedrals as ant hems. 
 I3y ill chappy talent \\ hich Dr Aldrich poirclicd, of na- 
 turalizing the eompofiiions of the old Italian mafiers, 
 and accommodating tltem to an Englilh ear, he in- 
 creafed the flores of his own church. Thousrh the 
 
 able for modcfly and humility, concealing his name 10 
 thofe feveral learned tracis he publilhed, io at his death 
 hcappointcd to be buried without any memorialin the 
 cathedral ; which his tluifiy nephew complied with, 
 depoliting him on the fouth tide of bilhop Fell's grave, 
 December 22, tight days after his deccafc ; which 
 happened in the 6;d or 64th year of his ap-c. 
 
 ALDROVANDUS (Ulyll'es), profeiro"r of philo- 
 fophy and phylic at Bologna, the place of his nativity. 
 He was a inofl curious inquirer into natural hillory. 
 
 Dotlor chieliy applied liimfelfto the cultivation of fa- and travelled into the moll diflanicouniiiesoii purpol'c 
 
 crcd raulic, yet, being a man of humour, he could di- toinforni hiinfclfuftheirnaturalprodut'lions. Minerals, 
 
 vert himfelf by producing pieces of a lighter kind. met.<ls, plants, and animals, were the "hjccls of his 
 
 There are two catches of his ; the one. " Hark the curious rcfearches ; but he applied hiir.fcll'chie/ly to 
 
 bonny Chrift-church Bells," ilu- other intitlcd, " a birds, and was at great cxpcnce to have figures of 
 
 Smoking Cateli," to be fui>g by fonr men Imoking them drawn from the life. ALibert le Alire fays, that* 
 
 ' their piix:s, which ij not more riitllcult to fing than di- he gave a certain painter, famous in ih.it art, a yearly 
 
 vcrtiiig !« hear. His lo\ c of Smoki:;g was, it feems, falary of aoo crowiis, lor :o yi:'ri and iipwariis ; and 
 
 fo cxceliive as to be an entirtaining topic of dil'courfc that he employed at hisowT cxpcnce Lorcniv* Ijcnnini 
 
 in the univcrlity. Such was Dr Aldrich's regard for and Cornel ins S win tus, as well asihclauiouse^'iiravcr 
 
 the advancement of mufic, and the lio:iuur of its pro- Chriftopher Coriolanus. ThrlV expences nincd his 
 
 fcffors, that he had formed a detign of writing a hifto- fortune, and at length reduced him to the utmofl ne- 
 
 ry of the fcience ; and the materials from whi;h he cellity ; and it isfaid that he died blind in an lu.fj'ii.;! 
 
 propofed to compile it are yet extant in the library of at Bologna, at a great age, in 16c j. Mr E.:ylc ub- 
 
 his own college. It a,'pears from iljcfciiiatcrials, that fcrvcs, that antiquity does not furniih us with an in- 
 
 lie had marked down every thing which he had met ftanec of a defign fo extcnlivc and h l?bnrious as tli.-.t 
 
 with conecrni'.i^nuilic and mufiei.ins ; but that he had of Aldrovandus, with regard to natunl hillory ; ili:!t 
 
 wrought no pan of them into any kind of form. 
 
 Dr Aldrich is of fome note as a Latin jioet. In the 
 J\]iif,r Aiigiicaiijc, We find two elegant copies of verfes 
 by him J one on the acceflion of King S\ iiliam III. 
 Voi. I. 
 
 Pliny has treated of more kinds of fubjecls, but only 
 touches lightly on ihtm, faying but a little upon an/ 
 thing, whereas Aldrovandus has coUcclcd all he could 
 meet with His compilation, or that compiled upon 
 % B hi<5
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 378 1 
 
 ALE 
 
 his plan, con alls of 1 3 volamcbin folio, fcveralof which 
 were printed after his death, lie himfelf piiblilhcd 
 his Ornithology, or Hillory of Birds, in three folio vo- 
 lumes, in IJ99 ; and his fcven books Of Infects, which 
 make another volume ot the fame fizc. The volume 
 Of Serpents, three Of Qiiadnipeds, one Of Hlhcs, 
 that Of exangiiioiis Animals, the Hillory of Moulters, 
 with the Siipplcnicnt to that of Animals, the trcatife 
 Of Metals, and the Dendrology or Hillory of Trees, 
 were publilhed at icveral times after the death of Al- 
 drovandns, by the care of icveral pcrlbns; and Aldro- 
 vanJiisis the folc aiuhoronly of the tirfl lix volumes of 
 this work, the red having been tiniflied and compiled 
 by others, upon the plan of Aldrovandus : a molt ex- 
 teniive plan, wherein he not only relates what he has 
 read in iiaturalifts, but remarks alio what hilloriaiis 
 have written, legillators ordained, and poets feigned : 
 he explains alio the ditferent ufes which may be made 
 of the things he treats of, in common life, in medicine, 
 architecture, and other arts ; in Ihort, he fpeaks of 
 morality, proverbs, devices, riddles, hieroglyphics, 
 »nd many other things which relate to his fubjett. 
 
 ALDROVANDA, in botany, a genus of the pen- 
 landria order, belonging to the pentagynia clais of 
 plants ; of which there is but one fpecies. The calyx 
 is di\ ided into five parts ; the petals are five ; and the 
 capfule has five valves, with leu feeds. It is a native 
 »>f Italy and the Indies ; and has no Englilh name. 
 
 ALDUABIS (anc. gcog.), a river of Celtic Gaul, 
 which riling from Mount Jura, fcparating the Scquani 
 frsm the Hclvelii, and running through the county of 
 Burgundy, or the Franchc C'omte, environs almolt on 
 every fide the city of Bcfanj on ; and running by Dole, 
 falls into the Saone near Chalone. In Casfar it is call- 
 ed Alduufdubis ,- in Ptolemy, Duhn : now /e Dou.-:. 
 
 ALE, a fermented liquor obtained from an infulioii 
 of malt, and differing from beer chiefly in having a lefs 
 proportion of hops. (See Brewing.). This liquor, 
 the natural fubflitute of wine in fuch countries as could 
 not produce the grape, was originally made in Egypt, 
 the firfl planted kingdom, on the difperlion from the 
 cafl, that was fuppofcd unable to produce grapes. And, 
 as the Noachian coloniespierced further intothe welt, 
 they found, or thought they found, the Xcime defect, 
 and fupplied it in the fame manner. Thus the natives 
 of Spain, the inhabitantsof F'rance, and the aborigines 
 of Britain, allufcdan infufion of barley for their ordi- 
 nary liquor : and it was called by the various names 
 ofCj'/ia and Ccria in the firft country, Cerevifia in the 
 fecond, and Ctir7ui in the lafl ; all literally importing 
 only the Jiroa^ 'lOater. 
 
 " All the feveral nations (fays Pliny) virho inhabit 
 the weft of Europe, have a liquor with which they in- 
 toxicate themfclves, made of corn and water. The 
 manner of making this liquor is fonicwhat different in 
 Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and is called by 
 many various names ; but its nature and properties are 
 every where the fame. The people of Spain, in parti- 
 cn'ar, brew this liquor fo well, that it will keep good 
 a long time. So exquifite is the cunning of mankind, 
 in gratifyin* their vicious appctkes, that ihcy have 
 thus invented a metiiod to make water itfelf intoxi- 
 cate." The mctliod in M'hich the ancient Britons, and 
 other Celtic nations, made their ale, is thus defcribed 
 fcy Ifidorus aiid Orolius. " The grain is fteepcd in 
 
 water and made to germinate, by which its fpirits are 
 excited and fet at liberty ; it is then dried and grind- ^ 
 ed ; after which it is infufed in a certain quantity of 
 water ; which being fermented, becomes a pleafant, 
 warming, ftrengthcning, and intoxicating liquor." 
 Thisalewas nioltcomnionly made of barley; but fomc- 
 limei of wheat, oats, and millet. 
 
 Anciently the Welch and Scots had alfo two kinds 
 of ale, called common ale 3.r-«.\J}iccd ale ; and their va- 
 lue was thus afcertained by law : " If a farmer hath 
 no mead, he fliall pay two calks of Ipiccd ale, or four 
 calks of common ale, for one calk of mead." By 
 this law, a calk of fpiced ale, nine palms in height, 
 and i8 palms in diameter, was valued at a fum of mo- 
 ney equal in efficacy to L. 7. los. of our prefent mo- 
 ney ; and a calk of common ale, of the fame dimen- 
 fions, at a fum equal to L. 3. 15s. This is a fufiicient 
 proof, that even common ale in this period was an ar- 
 ticle of luxury among the Welch, which could only 
 be obtained by the great and opulent. Wine fecms 
 to have been quite unknown even to the kingsof Wales 
 in this period, as it is not fo much as once mentioned 
 in their laws ; though Giraldus Cambrenfis, whoflou- 
 riflied about a century after the conqueft, acquaints us, 
 that there was a vineyard in his time at Maenarper, 
 near Pembroke, in South Wales. 
 
 Ale was the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons 
 and Danes, as it had been of their anccftors the an- 
 cient Germans. Before their converfion to Chriftiani- 
 ty, they believed that drinking large and frequent 
 draughts of ale was one of the chief felicities which 
 thofe heroes enjoyed who were admitted into the hall 
 of Odin. 
 
 There are various forts of ale known in Britain, 
 particularly /Ji!/!' and brown: the former is brewed from 
 malt nightly dried ; and is efleemed more vifcid than 
 the latter, which is made from malt more highly dried 
 or roalled. 
 
 Pale ale brewed with hard waters,as thofe of fprings 
 and wells, isjudged themofl wholefome, in regard the 
 mineral particles tend to prevent the cohclions of thofe 
 drawn from the grain, and enable them to pafs the pro- 
 per fecrctions the better; fofter waters, as thofe of ri- 
 vers, and rain, feem better fuited to draw out the fub- 
 flance of high-dried malts which retain many igneous 
 particles, beft ahforbed in a fmooth vehicle. 
 
 In Statfordlhire, they have a fecret of fining ale in 
 a very (liort time. Plot conjedlures it to be done by 
 adding alum, or vinegar, in the working. 
 
 Ale is prepared various ways, andof various ingre- 
 dients, as of wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, the ber- 
 ries of the quick-bean, &c. 
 
 Some have found that the juice which bleeds from 
 the birch or fycamore is of great ufe on this occafion, 
 applied inflead of water. It makes one bufliel of malt 
 go as far as four in the common way. 
 
 Some have a method of preparing ale, fo that it will 
 keep, carried to the Eafl or \\ eft Indies. The fecret 
 is, by mafliing twice with frefh malt ; boiling twice; 
 and, after fhippingit, putting to every five gallons two 
 new-laid eggs whole, to remain therein. It is faid, 
 that, in a fortnight's time, the IliWlswill be dillblved; 
 and the eggs become like wind-eggs ; and that after- 
 wards the white will difappcar and tli? yolk remain 
 imtou.ched. 
 
 Ale 
 
 Al..
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 379 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 Ale. Ate i5 gciieiilly held m be more (iiurcl;c tliaii beer, 
 
 in regarJ ii is CniDOtlier, moie fot'teiiing, and relaxing; 
 l"o that wlitii iiriiic is to be in-onioted by facilit itiiig 
 llic pallige, ale is iiiolt liivei/ to etltil it. 
 
 Ale is liatnleiu ; and hence loineiinics produces co- 
 lics, and llic cholera morbus : it is aeefcent ; but it docs 
 not produce calcareous dil'eaies, as has been ailerted. 
 
 If malt-liquor, of any degree of llreiigtli, is be- 
 come flat and tartilli, as it is uled, it (liould be drawn 
 out of the calk into a jug, in which as many drams of 
 powdered chalk is put as there arc to be pinisof licjuor ; 
 thus a new ferment will be raifed, a fprigluly taftc will 
 be rcftored to the liquor, and its acidity will be de- 
 llroycd. Tart liquors of this kind arc apt to produce 
 a dyfury, flrangury, or a gonorrhtea ; in which cafes, 
 a fmall quantity of brandy may be taken. 
 
 The confumption of ale in Great Britain is incre- 
 dible. It was computed twenty years ago at the va- 
 lue of four inillionsycarly, intludingGrcat Britain and 
 Ireland. 
 
 The duties on ale and beer make a principal branch 
 of the revenue in Britain. They were Hrll jnipofed 
 by the 12th of Car. 11. and have been continued by 
 feveral fubfcquent atts of parliament to tirll Geo. 111. 
 which lays an additional duty of 3d. per barrel. In 
 the whole, the brewer ol ale and beer for fale fliall pay 
 8s. for every barrel of cither, above 6s. a barrel ; and 
 for every barrel of 6s. or under, the fum of is. 4d. 
 
 Medicated Ales, thofe wherein medicinal herbs have 
 been infufed, or added during the fermentation. Sec 
 Pharmacy, (Index.) 
 
 CiU-ALt., isthat in which the dried leaves of gill or 
 ground-ivy have been infufed. It is cfteemedabller- 
 five and vulnerary, and confequently good in difordcrs 
 of the breaft and obftru<f\ionsof the vifcera. 
 
 AhE-Coinisr, an officer in London, who infpefls the 
 meafures ufed in public houfes. There arc four ale- 
 conners, who are all chofcn by liverymen in com- 
 mon hall on midfummer-day. 
 
 Ale- Houfes mwd belicenfedbyjuflicesof the peace, 
 who take recognizances of the perfons licenfed, and of 
 their furetics, viz. lol. each, that they will notfufFcr 
 unlawful gaming, norothcr difordcrly praftices in their 
 houfes. Every perfon, excepting thofe who fell ale 
 in fairs, negleding to procure a licenfe, is liable to a 
 penalty of 40s. for the lirfl offence, 4I. for the fccond, 
 and 61. for the third, with all cofls. The licence is 
 granted on the firfl of September, or within twenty 
 days after, at a general meeting of the jufticcs for the 
 divifion to which lie belongs, upon his producing a 
 certificate to his character, unlefs by living in a city 
 or town-corporate, this lafl circumllancc is difpenfed 
 with, and continues in force for one year only. Ale- 
 houfc keepers, felling ale in (liort meafure, are liable 
 to a penalty not exceeding 40s. and not lefs than los.and 
 likewifc to a fine of los. for permitting tipling, &c. 
 
 By 29th Geo. II. c. 12. perfons keeping ale-honfes 
 in Scotland Ihall be licenfed as in England, and the 
 juftices there Ihallmcet annually 10 licenfe ale-houfes; 
 on each of whicli licciifes a fee of is. is payable to the 
 clerk of the peace. Magiflratcs of Royal boroughs 
 fliall meet yctrly for the like purpofc ; but where there 
 ihall not be afufficicnt number of magillratcs toat^ in 
 any royalborough, jullices may gnint liccnfcs,tobein 
 force for (Hie year only. Ibid. 
 
 Perlonsin Scotland conviftcd of keeping unliccnfcd Air 
 ale-houfcs Ihall forfeit for the firll otfeucc 5s. for the I 
 
 fccond los. for the third 20s. and to be difqu 'litird ; Alci5lor»- 
 and for every fubfcquent otfcncc 40s. to be levied by """"*_. 
 (iiflrefsand fale, one moiety to the informer, the other " ' 
 to thepoorof the parilh. Conviction to be intimated 
 to the offender, and certified to the clerk of the peace, 
 and recorded : but perfonk aggrieved may appeal to 
 the quarter feflions. Ibid. 
 
 Liccnfcs for houfes on the military roads in Scot- 
 land Ihall be iifued on payment of is. only to the clerk 
 of the peace : nuikingout liccnfes before the fame be 
 Aampcd, is a penalty of lol. and making them con- 
 trary to the intention of this ad, 5I. and the fame 
 ihall be vacated, unlefs the duty and tine be paid, and 
 the receipt produced, and licenfe ftampcd. Ibid. 
 
 AtF.-Silvcr, a tax paid annually to the lord-mayor of 
 London, by all who fell ale within the ciiy. 
 
 ALEA, in Roman antiquity, denotes in general all 
 manner of games of chance ; but, in a more reft ricled 
 Icnfe, was ufcd for a j«articuh:r game played with dice 
 and tables, not unlike ourbackgamnion. 
 
 ALEANDER (Jerome), cardinal and archbidioi* 
 ofBrindili, wasbornin r48oianddiUinguilhedliiaiftIf 
 at the beginning of the reformation, by the oppofition 
 he made to Luther: for being fcnt into Germany as 
 the pope's nuncio in i;i9j 'ic acted, as occafion ferved, 
 in the charadler both of ambalFador and dodor ; and 
 declaimed three liours together againft Luther's doc- 
 trine before the diet of Worms, but could not prevent 
 that celebrated reformer from beinghcardin that diet. 
 Hepublilhed feveral works, and died at Rome in 1 J42. 
 
 Aleander (Jerome), a learned man of tjic fevcii- 
 tecnth century, born in the principality of Friuli, of the 
 fame family with the preceding. When he went to 
 Rome, he was employed as fecretary under cardi- 
 nal Odavius Bandini, and difcharged this office with 
 great honour for almoft tw^enty years. He afterwards, 
 by the perfualion of Urban VIII. who had a great c- 
 ftcemforhim, become fecretary to Cardinal Barberini, 
 W'hom he accompanied to Rome when he went there 
 in the charader of legate <i/<»/frir, and in wliofe fer- 
 vice he died in 1631. He was one of the firll mem- 
 bers of the academy of Humorifls.wTote a learned trea- 
 tife in Italian on the device of the focicty, and difplay- 
 ed his genius on many different fubjecls. Barberini 
 gave him a magnificent funeral at the academy of Hu- 
 morifts ; the academills carried his corps to the grave ; 
 and Gafper Simeonibiis, one of the members, made hit 
 funeral oration. 
 
 ALECTO, one of the Furies, daughter of Ache- 
 ron and Night, or, as others would have it, of Pluto 
 and Profcrpine. 
 
 ALECTORIA, a ftone faid to be formed in the 
 gall bladders of old cocks, to which the ancients a- 
 fcribed many fabulous virtues. This is otherwile call- 
 ed Alifloritii Liifh ,hmcx\n\es Ah-iJorolitf^os , in Englilh 
 the cock-floue. The more modern naturalills hold the 
 nledoritn lapis to be originally fwallowed down, not 
 generated in, the ftomach or gizard of cocks and ca- 
 pons. It is known that many of the fowl-kind make 
 a pradicc of fwallowing pebbles, as it is fuppofcd to be 
 of fervicc in the bulincfsof iriturationanddi^eftion. 
 
 ALECTOi\OMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpecies 
 
 of divination performed by means of .1 cock. This is 
 
 381 other-
 
 A L E 
 
 [ 3S0 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 A-!ee otlicwil'c rcallcJ JUniyoiiiai.'cy ; of v.liich (here appear 
 II to luvc bccji (Jirtcrtnt fpecics. But iliat moll fpokeii 
 
 Alimbcrt of" by aiuliors was in (he lullowiiig nianiicr : A circle 
 '""""' being dcfcribcd on tlic ground, anil diviJeJ into twen- 
 
 ty-tbiir equal portions, in eacli of thefc I'paccs was 
 written one of tlic letters of the alphabet, and on each 
 of the letters was laidagraiaof whejt ; after whicii, 
 a cock being turned loofe in tlic circle, particular no- 
 tice was taken of the grains picked up by the cock, 
 becaul'c the letters under them, being formed into a 
 M'ord, made the anfwer delired. It was thus, accor- 
 ding to Zonarus, th it Libanius and Jamblicus fought 
 wlio lliould fuccecd the emperor Valcns ; and the cock 
 eating the grains anlVcring to the fpaces ©EOA, fc- 
 vcral whofc names began with thofc letters, as Thco- 
 dotus, Theodillcs, Thcodulous, Sec. were put to death, 
 which ciul not hinder, but promote, Theodolius to the 
 fiicceflion. But the itory, however current, is but ill 
 fupported : It has been called in quellion by fome, 
 and refuted by others, from the filencc of MarccUiuus 
 Socrates, and other hiilurians of that time. 
 
 A-LEE, in the lea-language, a term only ufed when 
 the wind, crofling or rianking the lino of a lliip's 
 courfc, prelles upon the marts and fails fo as to make 
 her incline to one fide, wliicli is called the lec-lidc : 
 hence, when the helm is moved over to tiiis lide, it is 
 •faid to be a lee, or hard a-tee. 
 
 ALEGAMBE (Philip), a celebrated Jefuit, born 
 7^. BrulFels in IJ92, diltinguilliej himfelf by publilh- 
 ingaUibliotliequeof the writers of hisorder, and died 
 at Rome in [652. 
 
 ALEGRETTE, a Imall town of Portugal, in A- 
 lentcjo, on the confines of Port Alcgre, on the river 
 • Caja, which falls into tlic Guadiana, a Utile below Ba- 
 
 jaJoz, near tlie frontiers of Spani'.li Eilremadura. It 
 is a very pretty town, and finely fituatcd ; leven miles 
 fouth-eaft of Port Alegre, and thirty miles north of 
 Elvas. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 39. 6. 
 
 ALEIUS CAMPUS (auc. gcog.), a plain in Cili- 
 cia.on this fide the river Pyramus, near the mountain 
 Chimerj, famous for Bellcrophon's wandering and pe- 
 riil'.ing there, after being thrown oft Pcgafus ; which 
 is the rcalbn of the appellation. 
 
 AL E.M.ANl A , or A l t.E m k-ais , (anc. geo^. ) a name 
 of Germany, but not known before the time of the 
 Antonines, and then ufcd only for a part. After the 
 Marcomanni and their allies had removed from the 
 Rhine, a rabble, or collcLlion of people from all pans 
 ofGual, as the term AUniaimi denotes, prompted ci- 
 ther by levity or poverty, occupied the Agri, called 
 Di'diniates by Tacitus, bccaul'e they held them on a 
 tithe ; now fuppofcd to be the iutchy o{ lVirti'?i:!>urgh. 
 Such ap;«ear to be the fmall beginnings of Alcmanii, 
 which was in af'ter-times greatly enlarged : but llill 
 it was conlidercd as a dilii net part ; for Caracalla, 
 who conquered the Alenianni, atfumed the furname 
 hoi\\ of /Junumnic.i 3.\tA Ccrmaniais. 
 
 ALEMBDAR, and oflicer in the court of the Grand 
 Signior, who bears the green flandard of Mahomet, 
 when the fulian appears in public on any folemn occa- 
 (ion. 
 
 ALEMBERT (John Ic Rnnd d'), an eminent 
 French pliilofophcr, w.is born at Paris in 1717. He 
 derived the name of {o.'m Ic Rond from that of the 
 cliurch r.car which, after his birth, he was txpofcd as 
 
 a foundling. His father, informed of this circnni- Alcmb«rt. 
 
 fiance, lillencd to the voice of nature and duty, took ■ ./ ' 
 
 meafuresfor the proper education of his child, and lor 
 his future fubflflcnce in a flate of cafe and indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 He received his firll education in the College of the 
 Four Nations, among the Janlenifls, where he gave 
 early marks of capacity anj genius. In the firll year 
 of his philofophital iludics, he compofed a Commen- 
 tary on the epiftle of St Paul to the Romans. The 
 Janfenifls confuiered this production as an omen that 
 portended to the party of Port-Royal a relloration to 
 fome part of their ancient fplendor, and hoped to 
 find one day in I\l. d'Alcmbert a fecond Pafcal. To 
 render this refcmblance more complete, they engaged 
 their rifing pupil in the Rudy of the mathematics ; but 
 they loon perceived thut his growing attachment to 
 this fcicnce was likely to difappoint the hopes they 
 had formed with refpcvl to his future defUnation ; 
 they, therefore, endeavoured to divert him from this 
 line ; but their endeavours were fruillels. 
 
 At his leaving college, he found himfelf alone and 
 unconnected in the world ; and fought an afyluni in 
 thehoufc of \\\^iiurfe. He comforted himfelf with the 
 hope, that his fortuuc, though not ample, would bet- 
 ter the condition and fubfillencc of that family, which 
 was the only one that he could confider as his own : 
 Here, therefore, he took up his refidencc, refolvingto 
 apply himfelf entirely to the fludy of geometry : And 
 here he lived, during the fpaceof forty years, with the 
 greatell limplicity, difcoveringthe augmentation of his 
 means only by eucreafingdifplays of his beneficence, 
 concealing his growing reputation and cclebrily from 
 thefc honcit people, and making (heir plain and uncouth 
 manners the lubject of good-natured plcafantry and 
 lihilofophical obtervation. His good nurfe perceived 
 hisardcntaOtivity ; heard himmentioned asthe writer 
 of many books ; but never took it into her head that 
 he was a great man, and ratlier beheld him with akind 
 of companion. " Xou 'ocill never," faid fhe to him one 
 day, " bi; any thing but a philofopher — and ivhat is a 
 philofoph^r ? — a fool, who toils and pl.igues h;?iifi;ij during 
 his lifi, that people may talk oj hi?!! wh.n HE is no more. 
 
 -rs iM. d'Alembert's fortune did not far exceed the 
 demands of necelFity, his friends advifed him to think 
 of a profeffion that might enable him fo augment it. 
 He accordingly turned his views to the law, and took 
 his degrees in that line ; but loon abandoned this 
 plan, and applied to the fludy of medicine. Geome- 
 try, however, was always drawing him back to his 
 former purfuits, and after many inelfedual efforts to 
 refifl its attractions, he renounced all views of a lucra- 
 tive pro f'cliion, and gave iiiinfelf over entirely to ma- 
 thematics and poverty. ' 
 
 In the year 1741 he was admitted member of the 
 Academy of Sciences ; for which di.Qinguiflied literary 
 promotion, at fuch an early age, he had prepared the 
 way by correlating the errors of a e;lcbratcd work*, 'The jlna- 
 ■which was deemed clajpcai in France in the line of ge- '.'/ ''"'•m- ! 
 ometry. He afterwards let himfelf to examine, with '' "' " 
 deep attention and alhduity, what mufl be the notion '^"'^"" 
 of a body which paffes from one fluid into another 
 more dcnfc, in a direiSion not perpendicular to the 
 lurface I'eparaiing ilic two fluids. Every one knows 
 tlieplicuomenoii which happens in this cafe, and which 
 
 amufcs
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 3S1 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 Alembert- amufes children under the denomination o{ Ducki and 
 — V-— Drakis ; but M. d'Alcmbert was the firfl who explain- 
 ed it in a fatiifattory and philofophical manner. 
 
 Two years after hisekttion to a place in the acade- 
 my, he publilhcd his Treat'ifi dii D) naviia . The new 
 principle developed m tins trcatifc coniiiled in eila- 
 bliUiing equality, at each inllant, between the changes 
 that tlic motion ot a body has undergone, and the for- 
 ces or powers which have occn employed to proilncc 
 them ; or to exprefs the thing otherwire,ir. I'epararing 
 \\\\o t'iuo parts the action of the moving powers, and 
 coufidcring the one as producing alone the motion of 
 the booy, in the fecond inflant, and the other as em- 
 ployed to dedroy that which it had in the firll. 
 
 Si) early as the year 1744, ^'- d'Alenjbcrt had ap- 
 plied this principle to the theory of the equilibrium, 
 ar.d the motion of huids ; and all the problems before 
 rolv(d by geometricians became, in fomc nieafurc, its 
 corollaries. The difcovery of thisnew principle was 
 followed by that of a new calculus, the firlt trials of 
 which were ^\x\>\\^\K.i\\\\iLDifcoiirJ's on the gsneratThco- 
 ry oj the Windi, to which the prize-medal was adjudg- 
 ed by the academy of Berlin in the year 1746, and 
 which was a new and brilliant addition to the fame of 
 M. d'Alcmbert. This new calculus of partial dilier- 
 enccs he applied, the year following, to the problem of 
 vibrating chords, whofe foUuion, as well as the theory 
 of the ofcillations of the air and the propagation of 
 found, had been given but incompletely by the geome- 
 tricians who preceded him, and thefc were his malters 
 or his rivals. 
 
 In the year 1749 '"^ furniflied a method of applying 
 his principle to the motion of any body of a given fi- 
 gure ; and he folvcd the problem of the preccifion of 
 the equinoxes, determined its quantity, and explained 
 the phenomenon of the nutation of the terrcftrial axis 
 difcovcred oy Dr Bradley. 
 
 In 1752, M. d'Alcmbert publ^tbeJ a trcatifc on the 
 Refijlunce oj k'lriids, to which he gave the modefl title 
 of an Effay ; but whi'.h contains a multitude of ori;;i- 
 nal ideas and new obfervations. About the fame time 
 he pnblithed, in the Memoirs of the Acaiicniy of Ber- 
 lin, Rsfearchci ci):cernii'.g the IiA-gral Calculus, \vhich 
 is greatly indebted to him for the rapid progrefsit has 
 made in the prefent century. 
 
 While the lludies of ^I. d'Alcmbert were confineJ 
 togeomttry, he was '.ittlc known or celebrated in his 
 native country. His connections were limited to a 
 fmall foriety ot fclcd friends : he had never feen any 
 man in high office except M. d'Ari:enfon. Satisfi- 
 ed with an inromc which furnilhcd him with the ne- 
 cefTaries of I'ifc, he did not afpire at'tcro;iulcncc or ho- 
 nours ; nor had they been hitherto bei'li>wed upon him, 
 as it is caficr to confer them on thole who folicit them, 
 than to look out for men who defcrvc them. His 
 cheerful con verfaiion,hisfmart and lively fal lies,. 1 hap- 
 py knack at telling a ftory, a fingular mixture of ma- 
 lice of fpeech with goodnefs of heart, and of delicacy 
 of wit wjth limplicity of manners, rendered him a plea- 
 lingand interclUng companion, and his ci^mpany coa- 
 fequently was much Ibnght at'ter in the f'alhiunablc cir- 
 cles. His reputation, at length, made its way to the 
 throne, and rendered him the objett of royal attention 
 and beneficence. He received alio a pcniion from go- 
 
 vernment, which he owed to the frjendihip of Count Alembm. 
 d'Argcnfon. ' ^ » 
 
 The tranquillity of M. d'Alcmbert was abated when 
 his fame grew more extcniivc, and when it was known 
 beyond thecirde of his friends, that a rinc and enlight- 
 cned talle for literature and philofjpby accompanied 
 hii mathematical genius. Ourauthor'sculogift alcriLci 
 to envy, detraitiou, and to other motives nearly as un- 
 generous, all the difapprobation, opp,)(ltion, and ccn- 
 liire that M. Q'-Alcmbcrt met with on account of the 
 pMolicationof the famous Encyclopedical Uiclionaryof 
 Artsaiid Sciences, in conjunction with Diderot. None 
 furcly w;i! rcfufc the well-defcrvcd tribute of applaufc 
 to the eminent difplays of geni.is, judgment, and true 
 literary tallc, with which M. d'Alcmbert has enriched 
 the great work now mentioned. Among others, the 
 Preliminary Dilcourfe he his siiixed to it, conccrnin--- 
 the rile, progrcfs, connexions, ann afiinitics of all the 
 branches of human knowledge, is periiaps one of the 
 mofl capital productions of which thcphilofophyofthc 
 prefent age can boafl. Nor will it be difputcd, that .lA./i/; 
 tlie malttr-builders of this new and flupciijous temple Rf.invftr 
 of fcicnce, for the worfhipof Naturk, had alfo really A/j'--"?*;. 
 in view the advancement of human knowledge, and 
 the improvement of the arts and fcicnccs. This, no 
 true, no candid philolbphtr, will call in queflion. But 
 that in the inner court of this temple there was a con- 
 federacy formed againft all thole who looked higher 
 than nature, for the principal object of their venera- 
 tion and confidence, is a fact too palpable, nay too bold- 
 ly avowed, to Hand in need of any proof. 
 
 .St'ine time after this, d'.-^lembcrt publilhcd his Phi- 
 lofophical, Hillorical, and Philological Mifcellaiiies. 
 Thefc were followed by the Mtuioirs of Chrillina 
 (^ueenof Sweden ; in which M.d'Alcmbcrt fliowed that 
 he was acquainted wit!i the natural rights of mankind, 
 and was bold enough to alTcrt them. His Fffay on the 
 Intercoiirfe of Men oj I.:tters -jiith perfons high in Rank 
 andOlfice, wounded the former to :hc quick, as it ex- 
 pofed to the eyes of the piiblic the ignominy of thole 
 lervile chains, which they feared 10 Ihakc off, or were 
 proud to wear. A lady of the court hearing one day 
 the author accufed of having exaggerated the defpo- 
 lifm of the great, and thcfubmillion they require, an- 
 fwcredllyly, If he had confuited ii:e, I ■nsould have tolJ 
 him jltli iiinre oj the vtatier. 
 
 M. d'A'embcrt gave very elegant fpccimens of his 
 literary abilities in his trandation of Ibme felted pieces 
 of Tacitus. But thcfeocc. pations did not divert him 
 from his mathematical iludics : fur about the fame time 
 he tnrichcd the Encyclopcdir with a multitude of ex- 
 cellent articles in tli;:t line, and compofed his Ref^arch- 
 es on fi'jeral important Fointi 0/ ti>-r it Hem of the ICortJ, 
 in which he carried to a higiier.des.''cc of perfc<51io;i 
 the foliuion of the problem of the perturbation of the 
 planets, that had fcvcral years before been prefentcd 
 to the Academy. 
 
 In I 759 he publilhcd his El.'ner.ts of rhiloff.[hy : a 
 work extolled as remarkable for its preciiion and pcr- 
 fpicuity ; in which, however, arc fome tenets relative 
 both to nictaphylics and moral fcicnce, that arc far 
 from being admitllble. 
 
 The reftiitmcnt that was kindled (and the difputcs 
 that foUovicdit) by the article C/;«?</, inrertel in the 
 
 Encyclopedic,
 
 A L E 
 
 [ 38 
 
 Alcmhroth 
 
 A'.cmlicrt Kncyclojicdie, »re well known. I\l. d'Aleiiilurt diJ 
 II not lc;ivi- il.is iitld of coiuroverfy with tlyin;!; colours. 
 ' Voltaire was an auxiliary in the contcll : but as, in 
 point ol" candour ami decency, he had no reputation 
 to lolc ; and as he weakened the blows of his enemies, 
 by throwing both them and the Ipcdators into fus of 
 lan|^luer, the ilhie of the war gave liini little uneali- 
 iiefii. It fell more heavily on d'Alcnibr rt ; and expo- 
 led him, even at home, to nuich coniradidion and op- 
 pofition. 
 
 it was on this occalion that the late Jxing of PruiTia 
 offered him an lionourabic afylum at his court, and the 
 place of prclident of iiis academy ; and was not olf'cnd- 
 edat his refnfal of thefc diflinil'tions, but cultivated an 
 intimate friendthip with him during tlie reft of his 
 lite. He had refufed, icniie time before this, a pro- 
 pofal made by the cmprefsof lliiiha to intrull him with 
 the education of the Grand Duke ; — a propofal accom- 
 panied with all ilie Haticiing offers that could tempt 
 a man, ambitious of titles, or defirous of niakinc an 
 ample fortune: but the objects of his ambition were 
 tranquillity andftudy. 
 
 In the year 1765, he publilhed h.\'^ Dilfcrtat'ion oh 
 the Dilirudiun oj th^' Jcfnits. This piece drew upon 
 him a fwarm of adverfarics, who contirmed the me- 
 rit and credit of his work by their manner of attack- 
 ing it. 
 
 Be(ide the works already mentioned, he publiflied 
 Jiine volumes of memoirs and treatifcs, under the title 
 of Opufciilis ; in which he has folved a multitude of 
 problems relative to affronomy, mathematics, and na- 
 tural philofophy ; of which our panegyrift gives a par- 
 ticularaccount, more efpecially of thofc which exhibit 
 new fubjeds, or new methods of invcfligation. 
 
 He pnbliflicd alfo Elevu-iits of Mufic; and rendered, 
 at lengili, the fyllem of Rameau intelligible ; but he 
 did not think the mathematical theory of the fonorous 
 body fufiicicnt to account for the rules of that art. 
 He was always fond of nuilic ; which, on the one 
 hand, is connected with tlie moR fubile and learned 
 refearches of rational mechanics ; while, on the otlier, 
 its power over the fenfcs and the foul exhibits to phi- 
 lofophers phenomena no lefs fingular and [till more in- 
 explicable. 
 
 In tlie year 1772 he was chofen fecretary to the 
 Krcnch academy. He formed, foon after this prefer- 
 ment, the deiign of writing the lives of all the decea- 
 fed academicians, from r 700 to i 772 ; and in the fpace 
 of three years he executed this deiign, by eompoling 
 70 eulogies. 
 
 M. d'Alcnibert died on the 29th of O^^lobcr 17S;!. 
 There were many amiable lines of candour, modelty, 
 difintereflednefs, and beneficence, in hismoral charac- 
 ter ; which are defcribed, with a difFufive detail, in his 
 culogium, by M. Condorcet, Hifi.d: i'Aad. Royalc des 
 Sciincss, 1783. 
 
 ALKMBIC, a chemical veflTel ufually made of glafs 
 or copper, formerly ufcd for dillilhtion. The bottom 
 part, which contained the fubject for diftillation, is 
 called, from its fliapc, the cucurbit ; the upper part, 
 which receives and condenfes the fleam, is called the 
 lia/i, the beak of which is fitted into the neck of a re- 
 ceiver. Retorts, an 1 the commoxViDorm-ftUl , are now 
 jnorc generally employed. 
 
 ALEMBROTH, in ilie writings of the alchcmifls, 
 
 2 ] ALE 
 
 a word I'.fed for a fort of tixed alkaline fait, which had 
 the power of the famous alkahelt, in diliblving bodies, 
 opening the pores of molt or all known fubO.anccs, and 
 theace, as well as by dedroying fulphurs, promoting 
 the feparation of metals from their ores. — It is alfo 
 ufcd for a compound of corrofivc mercury and fal am- 
 moniac. See Chemistry. 
 
 ALENIO (Julius), a Jefuit, born at Brcfcia in the 
 republic of Venice. He travelled into the caflcni 
 countries ; and arrived at Macao in 16 10, where he 
 taught mathematics. From thence he went to the 
 •jnpire of China, where he continued to propagate th* 
 Chriilian religion for thirty-lix years. He was the 
 firlt who planted the faith in the province of Xanli, 
 and he built feveral churches in the province of Kokien. 
 He died in Auguft 1649, leaving behind him feveral 
 works in the Chinefe language. 
 
 ALENTEJO, a province of Portugal, between the 
 rivers of Tajo and Guadiana : the foil is very fertile, 
 and the inhabitants laborious and indullrious. The 
 principal town is Ebora. 
 
 ALENZON, a large handfome town of France, in 
 lower Normandy, witli the title of a duchy. It is 
 furrounded with good walls, and /lanked w iih towers. 
 The callle was formerly a place of great confequence, 
 and has held out long lieges. It has but one parifh- 
 church, which has a bold and noble front. Among the 
 nunneries, that of St Clair is moll remarkable. It is 
 feated on the river Sarte, in a vaflopen plain, which 
 produces all forts of corn and fruit. Near it there arc 
 quarries of Itone lit for building, wherein are found 
 a fort like Briflol /tones. The linen made at Alenzon 
 is very good, and fells at Paris. It is 20 miles north 
 of Mans, 63 fouth-by-wefl of Rouen, and R8 fouth- 
 weft of Paris. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 48. 2J. 
 
 ALEPPO, or Halab, the capital of the Pachalic, 
 and of all Syria, and the ordinary refidence of the pa- 
 clia, is lituated in the vafl plain which extends from 
 the Orontes to the Euphrates, and which towards the 
 fouth terminates in the defart. It is built on eight 
 hills or eminences, on the highefl of which the caftle 
 is erefted, and is fuppofcd to be the ancient Bersea. 
 This mount is of a conic form, and feems in a great 
 meafure to be raifed with the earth thrown up out of 
 a deep broad ditch which furrounds it. The fuburbs 
 to the north-north-eafl are next in height to this, and 
 thofc to the wefl-fouth-wcfl are much lower than the 
 parts adjacent, and than any other part of the city. 
 The houfes are large and commodious, having terraces 
 on their tops, and generally fky-lights in form of a 
 dome 10 let the light into the rooms, which from their 
 loftinefs, the gilding on the window-fhutters, cup- 
 board-doors, &c. have at firft entrance a very grand 
 and agreeable eff edl. They are all fo equal in height, 
 that there are feldom any Iteps to afccnd or dcfcend in 
 going from one houfe to another ; while feveral large 
 vaulted flreets increafe the facility of communication, 
 by affording a pallage to every part of the city free 
 from the cmbarrallmentof the open flreets. They are 
 carefully paved ; have gutters and a foot-pavement on 
 each fide ; and the middle of the flreet is laid with 
 brick, the fmall end upwards, for the convenience of 
 the horfcs. There is alfo a cleaulinefs obferved here 
 unknown to the other cities of Turkey, and which i« 
 not attended with the trouble of fcavengers, there 
 
 being
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 383 J 
 
 ALE 
 
 being afs-dhvers who go about the city and take up 
 ' the rubbilh and duft, which each inhabitant isobligtd 
 to fwccp together ; and though the ]icat ol the climate 
 renders this labour more ealy, the fame htat obliges 
 them to greater clcanlincfs, in order to prclcrvc the 
 falubrity of the air. 
 
 The niofqucsin Aleppo arc numerous, and foinc few 
 of them magnificent. Before each of tliem is an area, 
 with a fountain in the middle, deligncd for ablutions 
 before prayers ; and behind fonie of tiie larger there 
 are little gardens. There are many large khans, or 
 caravanferas, confifting of a capacious fquare, on all 
 fides of which are a number of rooms, builtonaground- 
 iloor, ufed ocwfionally for chambers, warc-honfcs, or 
 fiables. Above ftairs there is a colonadc or gallery on 
 every tide, in which are the doors of a number of fmall 
 rooms, wherein the merchants, as well Arangers as na- 
 tives, tranfaift mod of their bufincfs. 
 
 The bazars or market-places arc long covered nar- 
 row Hreets, on each fide of which arc a great number 
 of fraall Ihops, jull fufficient to hold the tradefman and 
 his goods, the buyer being obliged to ftand without. 
 Each feparate branch of bulinefs has a particular bazar, 
 ■which is locked up, as well as the llrects, an hour and 
 a half after fun-fet : but the locks arc of wood, though 
 the doors are cafed with iron. The llaughtcr-houfes 
 arc in the fuburbs, open to the fields. The tanners 
 have a khan to work in near the river. To the fouth- 
 ward in the fuburbs they burn lime ; and a little be- 
 yond that there is a village where they make ropes and 
 catgut. On the oppofite lideof the river, to the weft- 
 ward, there is aglafs-houfe, where they make a coarfe 
 white glafs, in the winter only ; for the greatcft part 
 of this manufadure is brought from a village 35 miles 
 Weflward. 
 
 The fituation of Aleppo, befide the advanttge of a 
 rich and fruitful foil, polfcires alfo that of a ftrcam of 
 frelh water, which never becomes dry. This rividtt, 
 which is about as large as that of the Gobelins at Pa- 
 ris, or the New River near London, rifes in the moun- 
 tains of Aentab, and terminates fix leagues below A- 
 leppo, in a morafs full of wild boars and pelicans. Near 
 Aleppo, its banks, inllead of the naked rocks which 
 line them in the upper part of its courfc, are covered 
 with a fertile earth, and laid out in gardens, or ra- 
 ther orchards, which, in a hot country, and efpecially 
 in Turkey, cannot but be delightful. The city is in 
 itfelf one of the moft agreeable in Syria, and is per- 
 haps the clcancll and bell built of any in Turkey. On 
 whatever fide it is approached, its numerous minarets 
 and domes prcfent an agreeable profpect to the eye, 
 fatigued with the continued fanicnefs of the brown 
 and parched plains. In the centre is an artificial moun- 
 tain furrounded by a dry ditch, on which is a ruinous 
 fortrefs. From hence we have a fine profpccl of the 
 whole city, and to the north difcover the fnowy tops 
 of the mountains of Bailan ; and on the weft, thofe 
 which feparate the Orontes from the fca ; while to the 
 fouth and eaft, the eye can liifcern as far as the Eu- 
 phrates. In (he time of Omar, this caftlc ftopped the 
 progrefs of the Arabs for fcveral months, and was at 
 laft taken by treachery, but at prefcnt would not be 
 able to refift the fetbeft allanlt. Its llight wall, low, 
 and without a buttrcfy, is in ruins ; its little old tow- 
 ers arc ill no better condition ; and it has not four can- 
 
 not fit for fervice, not excepting a culvcrine nine Al«pp«». 
 
 feet long, uken from the Perfians at the fiege of 
 
 Baffora. Three hundred and fifty Janifaries, who 
 fhould form the garrifon, are bufy in their ftiopi, and 
 the aga fcarcely finds room in it to lodge bis retinue. 
 It is remarkable that this aga is named immediately 
 by the Porte, which, ever fufpicious, divides as much 
 as poirible the different offices. Within the walls of 
 the caftle is a well, which, by means of a fubterrane- 
 ous communication, derives its water from a fpring a 
 league and a quarter diftant. In the environs of the 
 city, we find a number of large fquare ftones, on the 
 top of which is a turban of ftonc, which are fo many 
 tombs. There are many riling grounds round it, 
 which, in cafe of a fiege, would greatly facilitate the 
 approaches of the affailants. Such, among others, is 
 that on which the lioufe of the Derviches ftands, and 
 which commands the canal and the rivulet: Aleppo, 
 therefore, cannot be efteemed a place of importance 
 in war, though it be the key of Syria to the north ; 
 but, conlidered as a commercial city, it has a diiicrent 
 appearance. It is the emporium of Armenia and the 
 Diarbekar ; fends caravans to Bagdad and into Perfia ; 
 and communicates with the Perfian gulph and India, 
 by Balfora, with Egypt and Mecca by Damafcus, and 
 with Europe by Skandaroon (Alexaiidrctta) and La- 
 takii. Commerce is there principally carried on by 
 barter. I'he chief commodities are raw or fpun cot- 
 tons, clumfy linens fabricated in the villages ; filk 
 ftuffs manufadured in the city, copper, bourcrs (coarfe 
 cloths) like thofe of Rouea, goats hair brought from 
 Naiolia; the gall nuts of the Kourdeftan, the mer- 
 chandifc of India, fuch as fliawls and muflins, and 
 piftachio nuts of the growth of the neighbourhood. 
 The articles fupplicd by Europe are the Languedoc 
 cloths, cochineal, indigo, fugar, and fome other gro- 
 ceries. The coffee of America, though prohibited, 
 is introduced, and ferves to mix with that of Moka. 
 The French liave at Aleppo a conful and feven count- 
 ing-houfes; the Englilh and the Venetians two, and 
 the merchants of Leghorn and Holland one. The 
 emperor appointed a conful there in 17S4, in the per- 
 fon of a rich Jew merchant, who (haved his beard to 
 aflume the uniform and the fword. RuiFia has alfo lent 
 one very lately. Aleppo is not exceeded in extent 
 by any city in Turkey, except Conftaniinople and 
 Cairo, and perhaps Smyrna. The number of inha- 
 bitants has been computed at 200,000; but in thefc 
 calculations certainty is impolFible. However, if we 
 obferve that this city is no' larger than Nantes or 
 INIarftillcs, and that the houfes confift only of one fto- 
 ry, we fhall perhaps not think it probable they ex- 
 ceed 100,000. The people of this city, both Turks 
 and Chriftians, are with reafon efteemed the moft ci- 
 vilized in all Turkey ; and the European merchants 
 no where enjoy fo much liberty, or are treated with 
 fo much refpeft. 
 
 The air of Aleppo is very dry and piercing, but at 
 the fame time very falubrious for all who are not trou- 
 bled with afthmatic complaints. The city, however, 
 and the environs, are fubjet't to a lingular cndcmnial 
 diforder, which is called the ringv.orm or pimple of 
 Aleppo ; it is in i^St a pimple which is at firft infiam- 
 matory, and at length becomes an ulcer of the Jize of 
 tl\c nail. The ul"a,;l dur.uion of this ulcer is one year ; 
 
 U
 
 A L E 
 
 [ 384 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 Aleppo, it commonly fixes on the lace, and leaves a fear wliicli 
 
 dibfi^iircs alinoll all ilic inhabiiaitls. It is alleged that 
 
 cveiy llran;;er who rclidcs there three months is at- 
 tacked with it; experience has tauj!;ht that the he!l 
 uiodc of treatment is to niake tsfe of r.o reniedy. No 
 reafon is alligiied lor this nialady : but iM. Voliiey fu- 
 fj)C(.Ms it proceeds from the quality of the water, as it 
 is likcwife frequent in the ncij^hbouring viliaj;es, in 
 fomc parts of the Diarhckar, and even i:i certain di- 
 AriCls near Iian;al'ci;s, where the {"oil a:;d the water 
 have the fame appearances. Of tlie Chi i;lian inhabi- 
 tants the greater number arc Greeks, next to them 
 the Armenians, then the Syrians, and lallly the Ma- 
 • ronitcs j each of whom have a church in the city called 
 JmiiJa ; in wiiieh quarter, and the parts adjacent, moll 
 of ihrni rcliJc. The common language is the vulj^ar 
 /^rabic, but the Turks of condition ulc the Turkilli. 
 Mofi of the Armenians can fpcak the Armenian, fomc 
 few Syrians uiidcrllaiu! Syriac, and many of the Jeus 
 Hebrew ; but fcarcc one of the Greeks undcrlland a 
 word of Greek. The people in general are of a mid- 
 dle ftaturc, and tolerably w ell proportioned ; but they 
 fccm neither vigorous norac^ive. Both fcxesare haiul- 
 fome when young : but the beard loon disfigures the 
 jnen : and the women, as they rome early to maturity, 
 alfo lade very foon ; females are generally married from 
 1/) to 18 years of age, and many under 14. The peo- 
 ple of rank here are polite and aftiiblc, making allow- 
 ances for that fuperiority whicli the Mahometan reli- 
 gion iuftrufls its votaries to alfume over all whohuld 
 a different faith. Their bread is geaierally of wheat 
 flour made into thin cakes, but very ill prepared, and 
 is generally eaten as foon as it comes out of the oven. 
 The principal people have fome loavcsof a liner llonr, 
 which arc well fermented and baked. Belides thcfe, 
 there are a varic ty of bifcuits, mofL of whicli are Ihew- 
 td on the top with fome kind of feeds. The Kuro- 
 }'eans have very good bread, baked and prepared in the 
 French manner. All the inhabitants of both fcxes 
 Imoke tobacco 10 great excels; even the very fervanis 
 have almoft conltantly a i>ipein their nioutlis. Coaches 
 or earriagescrenoiuled here; iherclore perlonsof qua- 
 lity ride on horltbaek in the city, with a number of 
 iVrvairts walking before them, according totluir rank: 
 ladies of the firildiftinilion are even compelled to walk 
 on foot ia the city, or 10 any place at a moderate di- 
 Aancc: in longer journeys they are carried by mules, 
 in a kind of a couch dole covered up. There arc a 
 luimber of public bagnios in this city, which are ufed 
 bypeople of all ranks, except thofeof the high ell diftinc- 
 lion, who commonly have bath:; and every other con- 
 venience in their own houfes. Aleppo is 70 miles eaft 
 ol Scandaroon, on the fea-toaft, and 1 75 nortk-by-l[;alt 
 ef Damafcus. E. Long. ;7. 40. N. Lat. 36. 12. 
 
 yith.ppo [the Vachalic of), one of the live govern- 
 nicnts into which Syria is divided. It comprehends 
 the country extending from the Euphiaies luihc .Vc- 
 diterrancan, between tvvo lines, one drawn from Scan- 
 I'aroon to Ikcr, along the mountains ; the oilier from 
 "Belcs to the fca, by Mara and the bridge of Shogcr. 
 This (pace principally coulifls of two plaiiis j that of 
 Antioch to the well, and that of Aleppo to th.e call : 
 che north and the fea coa!l are occupied by cjiifidera- 
 bly high mountains, known to the ancients by the 
 flames of Amanus and of Riiofns. In general, tlic 
 
 I 
 
 foil of this govcrnincnt is fat and loamy. The lofty 
 and vigorous plants v,hi:h llioot up every whereafter "^ 
 the winter rains prove its fertility, but its actual fruit- 
 fulnefs is but little. Tiie greatcll part of the lands lie 
 wade ; fcarccly can we trace any marks of cultivation 
 in the cnviroiisot' tin- towns and \illages. Its princi- 
 pal produce conlifs :n w heat, barley, and cotton, which 
 are found efpccially in tne flat country. In the moun- 
 tains, they rather choofe to cultivate the vine, mulber- 
 ry, olive, and lig trees. The fides of the hills towards 
 the fea-coall are appropriated to tobacco, and the ter- 
 ritory of Aleppo to piftachios. The palluragc is not 
 to be reckoned, becaufc that is abandoned to the wan- 
 dering hordes of the Turkmen and Curds. 
 
 In the greater part of the paelialics the pacha is, as 
 his title imports, at once the viceroy and farmer ge- 
 neral of the country ; but in that of Aleppo he does not 
 polfels the latter office. '1 his the Porte has bellowed 
 on a;//t7)fl/';7orcolledtor, who is immediately account- 
 able for v.hat he receives. Kis leafe is only for a 
 year. The prcfent rent of his farm is 800 purfcs 
 (above L. 40,000) ; but to this mull be added the price 
 of the babo,'.h:t (Turkilh llippers), or a prefeiu of 
 three or four thoufand pounds, to ])urchafe the favour 
 of the vilirand men in oilicc. For thcfe two Aims the 
 farmer receives all the duties of the government ; 
 which are, fi';}, The produce of import and export du- 
 ties on mercluuidifc coming from turope, India, and 
 Conliantinople, and on that exported in exchange. 
 Secondly, 'I'lie taxes paid by the herds of cattle 
 brought every year by the Turkmen and Curds from 
 
 Armenia and the Diarhckar, to be fold in Syria 
 
 Thirdly, 1 he lifth of the falt-works of Djeboul. And 
 lallly, the niiri, or land-tax. Thcfe united may pro- 
 duce about L. 60,000. 
 
 The pacha, deprived of this lucrative branch of the 
 adir.iniltration, receives a fixed allowance of about 
 L.8300. This revenue has always been inadcqiiaio 
 to the expellees ; for, belides the troops he is obliged 
 to maintain, and the reparation of the highways and 
 fortrelies, the expences of which he is obliged to de- 
 fray, he is under the neceliity of making large jirc- 
 f.nis to the miniiters, in order to keep his place ; but 
 the Porte adds to the account the contributions he may 
 levy on the ( urds and Turkmen, and his extortions 
 from the villages and individuals ; nor do the ))achas 
 come ll'.ort of this calculation. Abdi Pacha, who go- 
 verned 13 or 14 years ago, carr/i d off, at the end of 
 15 months, upwards of L.i6o,oco, by laying under 
 contribution every trade, even the very cleaners of 
 tobacco pipes; and very lately another of the fame 
 name has been obliged to ily for fimilar oppreflions. 
 '1 he former was rew-ardcd by the divan with the com- 
 .mand of an army againit the PvUlIians ; but if the latter 
 has not enriched himfelf, he will be Itranglcd as an 
 extortioner. Such is the ordinary progrefs of aflairs 
 in Turkey ! 
 
 In eo.iftqucncc of fuch wretched government, the 
 greater part of the pacliali'.s in the empire are impo- 
 veriJlicd and laid walle. This is tlie cafe in particular 
 w ith that of Aleppo. In the ancient dcfiars, or regif- 
 ters of inipoUs, upwards of 3200 villages were rec- 
 koned ; but at prefent the colic ior can fcarccly hnd 
 400. Such of our merchants as have relidcd tliere 20 
 years, have themfclvcs fcen the greater4>art of tiie 
 
 environs
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 3S5 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 environs of Aleppo bccime liepopiilaied. The travel- 
 ler meets with i!i>i!iiiiT; bjt Iioiifcs in ruins, ciftevns 
 rciulcrcii iirtlcf>', and liclds ab.uuioiicd. Thofc who 
 ciiltiv.itcd them arc Hcd into the towns, where the po- 
 ptiliitioii is aWorbed, b'lt where at Icall tlic iiidividuil 
 conceals himfcU" among ihc crowd from the rapacious 
 liand of dcfpotifra. 
 
 ALKKIA, Alalia, or Alaria, (anc. gcf-j^), a 
 town of Corfica, (ituated nc^r the middle of die calt 
 lideof the iiiand, on an cmiaencc, nenr the mouth of 
 tlie river Roianus mentioned by I'tolcniy; built by llie 
 l'hoc«ans ( Diodorns Siculus) . Afterwards Sy 11a led 
 a colony thither. It is now m ruins, and called Aiina 
 Dijtruita. 
 
 ALES (Alexander), a celebrated divine of the con- 
 feflion of Aug^bourjr, born at Edinburgh the 2?d of 
 April ijoo. Hcfoonmadca conliderablc progrtfs in 
 fchool-diviniiy, and entered the lids very early againfl 
 Jyiither, this being then the great controverfy in fa- 
 fliion, and the grand field wherein all authors young 
 and old ufed todifpliy their abilities. Soon after, he 
 had a Ihare in the difpute which Patrick Hamilton 
 maintained againfl the ecclefiaflics, in favour of the 
 new faith he liad imbibed at Marpurj;h. He endea- 
 voured to bring them back to the Catholic religion ; 
 but this he could not eficft, and even began himfdf to 
 doubt about his own religion, being much affeded by 
 the difconrfe of this gentleman, and Hill more by the 
 cunftancy he Ihowcd at the flake, when David Beton 
 archbidiopof St. Andrew's eaufcd him to be burnt. 
 Beginning thus to waver, he was himfclf perfecutcd 
 with fo much violence, that he was obliged to retire 
 into Germany, where he became at length a perlcet 
 convert to the Proteflant religion. The change of re- 
 ligion which happened in England after the marriage 
 of Henry Vm. with Anna Bullen, indueed Ales to 
 goto London in I5;;5. He was highly efteemed by 
 Cranmer arch bilhoj) of Canterbury, Latimer, and Tho- 
 snas Cromwel, 'Aw were at that time in high favour 
 with the king. Upon the fall of thefe favourites, he 
 was obliged to return to Germany ; where the elecfor 
 of Brandenburg api)ointcd him profelFor of divinity 
 at Kranefort upon the Oder, in 1540. But leaving 
 this place upon fomc difguft, he returned to Leipiic, 
 where he was chofen profelFor of divinity, and died 
 in March IJ65. He wrotca Coramcniary on St. John, 
 on the epillles to Timothy, and on the Pfalms, &c. 
 
 ALESA, Al«sa, or Halesa, (anc.geog.), a town 
 of Sicilj, on the Tufcan fea, built, accordin.g to Dio- 
 dorus Siculus, by Achronides of Hcrbita, iii the fe- 
 cond year of the 94th 01ynipi;id, or 403 years before 
 Chriil ; lituattd on an eminence about a mile from the 
 fea : now in ruins. It enjoyed impiuniiy from taxes, 
 under the Romans (Diodorus, Cicero). The inhabi- 
 tants were called HaL-fiiii {^Cicero, Pliny) ; MoAu-Jhi't, 
 and AUf'nii. 
 
 AI.ESHAM, a fmall neat town in Norfolk. It is 
 l5niil(S N. of Norwich, and 121 N. E. by N. of Lon- 
 don. E. Long. o. ;!0. N. Lat. 52. 53. The town 
 confifts of about 400 pretty good houfcs ; bjt the ftrects 
 are narrow, though well paved. 
 
 ALESLA, (anc. ^eo,^.) called y^/.'A./^ by Livy and 
 
 others; a town of the Mandubii, a people of Celtic 
 
 Gaul ; fituatcd, according; to Cxfar, on a very high 
 
 hill, w hofe foot was walhcd on two fides by two rivers. 
 
 Vol, I. ■ 
 
 1 he town was of fuch aniiipnty, thit Diodorus Siea- Aid 
 lusrclutcs it was i)uih by liereales. It is fwppofcd to 1 
 be the city of AliJ'e, in the duchy of llafundv, not Alexander, 
 far from Dijon. «. .' , 
 
 ALET, a town of Kraiice, in Lower Langucdoc, 
 with a bilhop's fee. it is remarkable for its I)at1i% and 
 for the grains of gold and lilvcr found in the llrcam 
 which runs from the Pyrencan mountains, at lije foot 
 of wjiieh it Hands. It is featcd on the river Audc, 
 1 5 miles S. of CarcalTone, and 37 N. W. of Na.bonue. 
 E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 42. 59. 
 
 ALE riUS, in botany, a genus of the raonogynia 
 order, belonging to the hcxaiulria clafs of plants, and 
 in the natural method ranking under the icth order, 
 Co'oiiaria. The charaelers arc : The ajrotla is niono- 
 pctalous, funnel fliaped,hcxangular,n)uehcorrugatcd, 
 fcniiquinquetid, and perfifteut : Thc/.'«w.-;>;<j con/ift of 
 (ix fubulatcd tilaments, the length of the eorolh, anj 
 inferted info the bale of the divilions of the corolla : 
 the anlheras are oblong and tred : The pijiiltuin Las 
 an ovate gernien ; the llylus fubulatcd, and the length 
 of thcftamiiia; the lligma ii tritid : The pericarpium 
 is an ovat-d capfule, triquetrous, pointed, and triocn- 
 lar : The/laii are numerous. Of this genus botanical 
 writers enumerate five. 
 
 Spicks. I. The farinofa, a native of Virginia, and 
 other parisof North America. 2. The capeniis, a na- 
 tive of the Cape of Good-Hope. 5. Thehyaciuthoi- 
 des, nr Guinea aloe. 4. Ti.e zcylanioa, or Ceylon 
 aloe. 5. The fragrans, or tree-aloe, a native of Africa. 
 Of thefe only the tirft is fo hardy as to outlive the win- 
 ter in Britain, unlefs placed in a (love , and even thii 
 requires to be Iheltcrcd under a frame. The Howcii 
 appear in Juneor Juiy,of a whiti'hgreen colour. The 
 third and ijfth produce line fpikes of white flowers ; 
 thofc of the third kind appearing in Jul/, of thc/ifth 
 in March or ApriL By proper inanagcm* nt the lail 
 kinJ becomes a (lately plant, riling to ihe height of 12 
 or 14 feet ; the flowers open wide in the evcnin>', an.l 
 perfume the air of the ftove. Thcle fend out one or 
 two heads, or tufts, towards their tops, which may be 
 cut off; and after they have lain a week in the (love to 
 heal the wounded parts, thty may be planted for iu- 
 crcafe. The other fpccies fcidom or never llower in 
 Britain, nor does their appearance otherwife ineritno- 
 licc. 
 
 ALETUM, or Ai.eta, (anc. geog.), a town o( 
 Celtic Gaul, now exiinft. Eroin its ruins arolo St 
 Malo, in (Jrittany, at the dilUnee of a mile. Its ruins 
 are called Ctiich .-Iflh in the Briiilh. 
 
 ALEUKOMANCY, the fume with what was o- 
 tlierwilc called alphiiomar.tia, and c> itho'iianl''\a, and 
 means an ancient kind of divination performed bj^ 
 meaiis of nu-al or Hour. 
 
 .^LEX.ANDER riiF. cheat, king of Macedonia. 
 His father Pliilip laid tlie plan <<\ that extcniive em- 
 pire, which Iiisfon afterwards executed Philip.ha- 
 
 ving made himfclf madcr of Greece, began to call hi» 
 eyes upon Perlia, w ith .a view to retaliate upon that 
 haughty empire the injuries of former times. It v.as ■ 
 the [lopulartopici.f the day. But this prince was cutoff 
 in the midAof Iiisenterprife. Suf-h, how ever, was the 
 iniluenre of Alexander in the ademblyof the Grecian ^ 
 Hates, that he was created f^cneril of their combined 
 forces ia the room of his father. Having made every 
 3 C - needful
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 3S5 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 A ii.^ijdir necdlul prcparaiion, at the head of a veteran army he 
 
 *— ^/ ' invaJcJ .'\lia. The liciitciiaius of" Darius, who \vis 
 
 then king of Peilia, oppol'cJ him at the river Granj- 
 cus, where Alexander obtained a complete victory , af- 
 ter whicli he piirfi-icd his march ihronj^h Afia. At 
 Illiis, near Scanderoon, he was met by Darius in per- 
 fon, at the liead of a prodigious army. Here he ob- 
 tained a fccoiid vidory ; and took the camp of Dari,- 
 us, together with his family, whom he treated with 
 the lunioft humanity. Contrary to all the maxims of 
 war, inllcad of pnrfuing Darius, he made an excuriion 
 into Egypt ; and, as far as appears, through no better 
 motives liian thofcof vanity. Here he was acknow- 
 ledged to be the fon of Jupiter Amnion. In the mean 
 lime Darius recruited his llrengih, and got together 
 an army fupcrlor to what he brought into the plain of 
 Iiuis. AUxandcrhavingfiniflicd his Egyptian expedi- 
 tion, traverfcd Alia, and palled the Euphrates. At Ar- 
 bella, a town in Ailyria, lie met Darius. Mere a deci- 
 llvc battle was fought, wliicli put all I'erfia into tlie 
 hands of Alexander. His ambition not being fatisiied 
 with the conqueA of that vaft country, heprojedcdan 
 expedition into India. Here he met with great oppo- 
 iition from I'orus, a gallant prince, whom in the end 
 he reduced. Beyond the Ganges lay a country flill un- 
 fnbducd. He notified it to his army, that he propofcd 
 topafs the river. Bat thei'c veterans, liaralledw ith the 
 fatio;ues, and feeing no end of their labour, mutinied, 
 andVefufcd to march further. The difappointcd chief 
 was therefore obliged to return. At Babylon he pro- 
 pofcd to receive an'badadors, appoint governors, and 
 fettle his vail monarcliy ; but his excelfes pui an end 
 to his life in the niidft of his dcfign, and in the flower, 
 ef his age. 
 
 The character of this hero is fo familiar to every bo- 
 «!y, that it is almofl needlefs labour to draw it. All the 
 world knows, fays Mr. Bayle, that it was equally com- 
 pofed of very great virtues and very .great vices. He 
 had no mediocrity in any thing but his ftaturc : in his 
 ether properties, whether good or bad, he was all ex- 
 tremes. His ambitionrofc even to madncfs. His fa- 
 ther was not at all miftaken in fuppcling the botuulsof 
 Macedon too fmall for his fon : for how could Macedon 
 bound the ambition of a man, who reckoned the whole 
 world too fmall a dominion ? He wept at hearing the 
 philofophtr Anaxarchus fay, that there was an infinite 
 number of worlds : his tears were owing to his dc- 
 fpair of conquering them all, finee he had not yet 
 bcenable to conquer one. Livy, in a (liort digrelhon, 
 has attempted to enquire into the events which might 
 have happened, if Alexander, after the conquefl of 
 Alia, had brought his arms into Italy ? Doubtlefs 
 things might have taken a very different turn with 
 him ; and all the grand projcfts, which fucceeded fo 
 Well ag-amfl an efl'eminate Pcrllanmonarcli, miglit ca- 
 £\y have mifearried if he had had to do with rough har- 
 dy Roman armies. And yet the vafl'aims ofthismighty 
 conqueror, if feen under another point of view, may 
 appear to have been confined in a very narrow com- 
 pafs ; fince, as we are told, the ntmofi; wilh of that great 
 heart, for which the whole earth was notbig enough, 
 was, afier all, to be praifed by the Athenians : for it 
 is related, that the difficulties which he encountered in 
 •rder to pafs the Hydafpes, forced him to cry out, 
 " O Athenians, could you believe to what dangers I 
 
 " expofe myfclf for the fake of being celebrated by Akxarilcr, 
 
 " you r" But Bayle affirms, that iJiis was quite eon- y—" 
 
 (i.'huL with the vail unbounded extent of his ambition, 
 as he wanted to make all luturc time his own, and bo 
 an objeJ of admiration to the laicll pollci ity ; yet did 
 not expect this from the conquelt of worlds, but from 
 bjoks. He was perfcetly in the right, fays Bayle ; 
 " for if Greece had not furnillied him with good wri- 
 " ters, he would long ago have been as much forgot- 
 " ten as the kings who reigned in Mactdon before 
 " .Amphitiyon." 
 
 Alexander has been praifed upon ihe fcore of con- 
 tinency, yet his life could not furely be quite regular 
 in that refpecJl. Indeed the iireof his early youth ap- 
 peared fo cold towards women, that h'n, mother fuf- • 
 pei-Hed him to be impotent; and, to fatisfy herfclf in 
 this point, did, with the confent of Pj.ilip, procures 
 very handfome courtezan to lie with him, w hofe car- 
 relics, however, were all to no purpofc. His behaviour 
 afterwards tothePerfian captives fliows him to have had 
 a great command over himfclf in this particular. The 
 wife of Darius was a finiflied beauty ; her daughters 
 likcwife were all beauties ; yet thisyoung prince, who 
 liad them in liis power, not only beiloweJ on thcni all 
 the lionours due to their high rank, but managed their 
 reputation with theutmolt delicacy, Tiuy were kept 
 as in a cloy Rer concealed from the world, and fecured 
 from the reach of every I'.ilhonoural'le (not only at- 
 tack, but) imputation. He did not give tltc leafl han- 
 dle to fcandal, eiilier by his vilits, his looks, or his 
 Words : and for other Perfian dames his prifoners, c- 
 qually beautiful in face and fliape, he contented him- 
 fclf with faying gaily, that they gave indeed much 
 pain to his eyes. The araazon Thaleliris could not 
 obtain from him a comi'liancc wilh her gallant rcqucll 
 lill after a delay of thirteen days. In the mean time, 
 what are we toconcl -de from his cauling his favour- 
 ite mirtrefs Pancafle to be drawn naked by Apelles, tho' 
 it is true he gave her to the painter, v.^Io fell in love 
 wilh her ? What of that immoderate love of boys, 
 which Athenaus relates of him ? What of that prodi- . 
 gious number of wives and concubines which he kept.' 
 His excelfes with regard to wine were notorious, 
 and beyond all imagination ; and he committed, when 
 drunk, a thoufand extravagancies. It was owing to 
 wine, tliat he killed Clytus who faved his life, and 
 burnt Perfepolis, one of the moll beautiful cilies of . 
 the Eall : he die) this lafl indeed at the infligation of 
 the courtezan Thais ; but this eircumflance made it 
 only the more heinous. It is generally believed, that 
 he died by drinking immoderately : and even Plutarch, 
 who afte^ls to contradid it, owns that he did nothing 
 but drink the whole day he was taken ill. 
 
 In fliort, to fum up the charafler of this prince, we 
 cannot be of opinion, that his good qualities did in a- 
 ny wife eompenfate feir his bad ones. Heroes make 
 a noife : their adions glare, and (Irike the fenfes for- 
 cibly ; while the infinite deflruiSlion and mifcry they 
 occafion lies more in the (liade, and out of fight. One 
 good legifiator is worth all the heroes ihat ever did or 
 
 willexifl. See Macedon. 
 
 ALEXANDER ah Alexandro, a Neapolitan 
 
 lawyer, of great learning, who flourilhed toward the 
 
 end of the 15th and beginning of the i6th century. 
 
 He followed the profclfion of the law firll at Naples,^ 
 
 afterwards .
 
 ALE 
 
 r 3S7^ ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 ^Tinder, aftcrwai'ds at Ro.iic: b'.it he devoted all the time he 
 — V— ' could I'parc to the ftudy of polite literature; and at 
 length he entirely left tlic b ir, that he might lead a 
 more eafy and agreeable life with liic inufcs. The par- 
 ticulars of his life arc to be gathered from his work in- 
 titled Gciiia/ium Dieruvi : We are there informed that 
 he lodged at Rome, in a houfc that was haunted ; and 
 he relates many furpriling particulars about the gholl : 
 lie fays aUb, that wiicn he was very young, he went to 
 the ledures of Philcl])hiis, who explained at Rome the 
 Tufculan qucftions of Cicero j he was there alfo when 
 Nicliolas Perot and Domitias Caldcrinus read their 
 lectures upon Martial. The particular time when he 
 died is not known ; but he was buried in the monartcry 
 " of tlie Olivets. Tiraqiieawrote a learned commentary 
 upo;i his work, which was printed at Lyons in 1587, 
 and reprinted at I-cydtn in 1675, with the notes of 
 Dennis Godfrey, Chriftophcr Colerus, and Nicholas 
 Mcrcerus. 
 
 ALEXANDER (Neckham), an eminent Englifh 
 writer in the nth and ; 3th ceniurics, born at St Al- 
 bans in Hertfordlhirc. In rai J he was made abbot of 
 Exeter, and died in 1227. He wrote fcvcral works, 
 which were never publiihed ; but they arc to be found 
 in manufcript in the libraries of England and other 
 countries. 
 
 ALEXANDER (Noel), an indefatigable writer of 
 the I 7th century, born at Roan in Normandy, 1639. 
 After finiihing his ftudies at Roan, he entered into the 
 order of Dominican friars, and was profelFcd there in 
 i655'. Soon after he went to Paris, to go through a 
 courfeof philofophy and divinity in tlic great convent, 
 where he dillinguilhed himfelf fo, that he was appoint- 
 ed to teach philofophy there, which he did for 12 
 years. Mr Colbert Ihowcd him many marks of his e- 
 flcem : and being determined to omit nothing toper- 
 feft the education of his fon, afterwards archbilhop of 
 Roan, he formed an alfembly of the n-.oil learned pcr- 
 I'ons, whofe conferences upon ecclellaflicnl hi (lory 
 mightbeofadvantage tohim. Father Alexander was 
 invited tothis allcmbly.w herehecxertcd himftlf with 
 fo much genius and ability, that he gained the parti- 
 cular fricndlliip of young Colbert, wholhowed him the 
 iitmoft regard as long as he lived. Thcfc conferences 
 gave rife to Alexander's defign of writing an ecclc- 
 liaflical history : for, being delired to reduce what was 
 material in thefeconferences to writing, he did it with 
 fo much accuracy, that the learned men who compo- 
 fed thisalfembly, advifcd him to undcrt.ikc a complete 
 body of church-hiitory. This he executed with great 
 alliduity, colleding and digefling the materials him- 
 felf, and writing even the tables with his own hand. 
 He at laft completed his work in 1686. Towards the 
 latter part of his life, he was anii(ited with the lofs of 
 liis light ; a moll incxpreflible misfortune to one whifc 
 whole pleafurc was in fludy, yet he bore it with great 
 patience and refignation. He died merely of a decay 
 of nature, 1724,111 the S6th year of his age. 
 
 Alfxander Sevr r us, emperor of R3me,fucceed- 
 cd Heliogabalus about A. D. 222, when but 16 years 
 of age. His mother's name was Mamnisi, and by her 
 advice he ina great meafure regulated his conduct. He 
 applied hinifeK to the reformanon of alnifes, the ftatc 
 having bcm grciily difordered by the vicious eonii.ict 
 wf his pre.ieceiTor ; he was a moft llriit lover ofjuftice, 
 
 an encourager of learning and leirr.cd men, and i\- iW'.^a 
 
 vourable to theChriftians. He male a fucccfsful ex- •'- 
 
 pcdition agjinft the I'crfians ; but cndcavourini; to rc- 
 lorm his troops, which had grown very licentious un- 
 der the late bad government, they my.rderedhimit the 
 inftigation of Maximinus in the 29lh year of his age, 
 together with his mother, A. D. 235. 
 
 Alexander VI. (Pope), had four baftards when 
 he was cardinal, for one of^which he had fo great af- 
 fedlion, that he ftuck at nothing to raife him. Dc- 
 ligning to poifon fomc cardiiuls, he was poifoned him- 
 felf, A. D. 1503. See Burcia. 
 
 Alexander VII. (Pope). SeeCHicr. 
 Alexander Bilhop of Lincoln in the reigns of 
 Henry I. and Stephen, was a Norman by birth, and 
 ncphe^v of the famous Roger, bilhop of Salifoury, wh* 
 lirfl made him archdeacon of Salifbury,andafterwards, 
 by his interell with tlie king, raifcd him to the mitre. 
 Alexander was confecrated at Canterbury, July 22. 
 1 1 23. Having received his education under hft nnclc, 
 the bilhop of Salilbury.and been accuftomcd to a fplcn- 
 did way of living, he affea-cd fliow and ftatc more 
 than was fuitabic to his charafler, or eonliflcnt with 
 his fortunes. This failing excepted, he was a man of 
 worth and honour, and every way qualified for his (Na- 
 tion. The year after his confccration, his cathedral 
 church at Lincoln having been accidentally burnt down, 
 he rebuilt it, and fecured it agaii;(l ilic like accident 
 for the future by a Hone roof. This prelate increafcd 
 the number of prebends in his church, and augmented 
 its revenues with fevcral manors and eftaies. In imi- 
 tation of the barons and fomc of the bifliops, parti- 
 cularly his uncle the bilhop of Salilbury, he built three 
 cartles ; one at Banbury, another at Slraford, and a 
 third at Newark. He likewife founded two mona- 
 flcrics ; oneat Haverholm, for regular canons and nuns 
 together, the other at Tame for white-friars. He went 
 twice to Rome in the years 1142 and 11 44. The firft 
 time, he came back in quality of the pope's legate, 
 for the calling a fynod, in which he publiihed feveral 
 wiiolefome and neccd'ary canons. In Angull 1147, 
 he took a third journey to the pope, who was then in 
 France ; where he fell fick through the exccilivc heat 
 of the weather, and returning with great difficulty t» 
 England, he died in the 24 year of his prelacy. 
 
 Alexander (William), earl ofStirling, an eminent 
 Scots ftatefman and poet in the reigns of James VI. and 
 Charles I. who, after travelling with the duke of Ar- 
 gylc as his tutor or companion, wrote a poetical com- 
 phint of his uufuccefsful love of fonie beauty, under 
 the title of /jnrira. He thearemoved to tlie court of 
 James VI. where he applied to the more folid parts of 
 poetry, furming himfelf ujion the plan of the Greek 
 and Romantragedians. In i6o7,hepubliihcd feme dra- 
 matic performances, intitlcd 7"/'.' 'MmiiirthicTrag.dii-s, 
 dedicated tokingjanies ; who wis fo.well pleafcd with 
 them, as tocall him his philofophical poet. After this, 
 he i': f.iid to have written yifupplimtnt to complete the 
 thirdparrof Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia ; and in i6t^, 
 he produced a poem called Doowl'day , trtht Great Dm 
 of J:t.igmc>:t. He w is made gentlcmaii-ulhcr to prince 
 Charlcs,and mafleroftherequefts ; was knighted, and 
 obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, where he projeJled 
 the fcttlcnu-nt of a colony, but afterward fold it to the 
 French. In i6::6, he was made fecretary of flatc f<Jr 
 3 C 3 Scotland;
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 38S ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 Alc»;.iiutr ScoiliiiiJ ; V.MS cr<;itcJ liill vifcouiii, and tlicii car), ot 
 I Siiilinj;; aiidilicJ in 1640. 
 
 Alexa sets. 1. (5>')> ^\ li"ii> Si Irciicus reckons tlic 
 lit'lh bilhop ot' Koaic, liicctciltd St tvurillus in ihc 
 yt;ir ICO, and I'icd iu tlic year 1 19. Tnert is no ac- 
 toiini ol iii.j lift ; and the cpilllcs which arc atiriljuicd 
 to iiiiii arc fuppoi tiiious. 
 
 AtEXrt :;DtK 11. king of Scotland, fucccedtd liis fa- 
 ther William iu 1213, at 16 years of age. He made 
 an expedition into England, 10 opjolc the tyranny of 
 king John ; whorcturntdthc vifit, and was ottered bat- 
 tle by Alexander, bat refilled it. He ti-okthc city or 
 Carlillc from Henry 111. whichwasaftcrwardsexchan- 
 ged for Berwick. Alexander died in 1349, in the sill 
 yiarof his age, and 3$lh of hisi'eigu ; and left for his 
 
 fuccclibr, hisfjn 
 
 Alkxanter 111. who was crowned king of Scotland 
 in 1249. ThcCuniiiiings,lordsof Scotland, lookarvns 
 a:;ainll him ; and taking liiin prifoner, coit*iiicd him at 
 StrivelJi»g : but he was afterwards ri leafed by his fi'b- 
 ictts. He married the daughter of Henry IJI. ki ig 
 of England ; and was at length killed by a fall from 
 his horfc, on the loih of April 1290, after having 
 rcigacd 42, or according toothers 57, years. 
 ^•ALEXANDERS, in botany. SccSmyrmium- 
 ALEXANDREA, (aiic. gcog.) a inouniain of 
 Myfia, on tlir Ica-coall, forming a part of mount Ida, 
 where Paris gave jiidgmenc on the three godJelles. 
 
 ALEXANDRE 11 A, by the Ttirks called i«/.- 
 ifinoiij a t;;un in Sytia, at the extremity of the Wc- 
 diierrancan fea. It is the port of Aleppo, from which 
 it is dillant 28 or ;o leagues. It is now, properly 
 fpcaking, nothing elfc but a village, withoM walls, in 
 uhich the ton-.bs arc more numerous than the houtcs, 
 and which cntirelyov.es its cxiltence to the road which 
 it eoinniands. Thisislheonl/road, in all Syria, where 
 vedels anchor on a folid bottom, without their cables 
 being liable to chafe : but in other rcf; cAs it has many 
 inconveniences. Itisinfe(lcil,duriiigwinier,by apccn- 
 liar wind, called by the French failorsA- A'</^'///i-; ,\vhicli 
 n:!hingl'rom the fuowy fiininiitsof the mountains, fre- 
 quently forces lliips to drag their anchors fevcral 
 leagues: And when the fuovv begins to cover the 
 mountains wl:ich furround the Gulph, tempclhious 
 windsarifc which pre veil tvclTels from entering lor three 
 (•r four months together. The road alfo to Aleppo 
 by the plain is infellcd by Curd robbers, who conceal' 
 themfelvcs in the neighbouring rocks, and frequently 
 attack and plunder the flrongcft caravans. But the 
 v.'orftcircun'.llancc i- the extreme nnwholefomcnefs of 
 the air,occalloned here b^ fiagnant waters audinephi- 
 tic exhalations. It may be affirmed, that this every 
 year carries otTonc-third of the crews of the velicls 
 which remain heredui iiig the fummerjnay, Ihipsfrc- 
 queiiily iofc all their men in two months. The fcafon 
 for thi^ epidemic difordcr is principally from May to 
 the end of September : it is an intermittiiig fever of 
 tiie mofl malignant kind ; and is accompanied with ob- 
 ^ Itruftions of the liver, %vhich terminate in a droply. 
 To this baneful epidemic, Alcxnndreiia, from its fitu- 
 aiion, fccjns to be irrcmedi<ibly co::demned : for the 
 plain on which the town is built is i'o low and flat, that 
 the rivulcts,findiiignodccliviiy,can never reach the fea. 
 AVhrn they are fwJlcd by tiie winter rains, the fea, 
 ivii-elled likcw jfc by tempclts^binders their difcharging 
 
 themfelvcs into it : hence their waters, forced tofprcad Alexaii- 
 themfelves, lorni la.kes in the plain. On the approach drctta, 
 of the fummcr, the waters becoming corrupted uythc ^"^^'"'"a 
 heat, exhale vapours equally corrupt, and which can- 
 not dil'pcrle, being conhned by the mountains that en- 
 circle the gulph. The entrance of the bay belidcs lies 
 to the welt, which in thufc countries is the moll un- 
 healthy cxpof'tire when it correfpoHds with the fe.i. 
 Thckibour iieceit.:ry to remedy this would be immenfe, 
 and after all inl'ulhcient ; and, indeed, fuch an under- 
 taking would be abfolutely impoliihle under a govern- 
 ment like that of the I'urks. A few years ago, Mr 
 Volncy informs us, the merchants of Aleppo, difgu.O- 
 ed with the numerous inconveniences of Alexandretta, 
 wiihed to abandon that port and carry the trade to La- 
 takia. They propofcd to the I'acha of Tripoli tore- 
 piiir the harbour at their own expencc, provided he 
 would grant them an exemption from all duties for ten 
 years. To induce him to comply with their rcqueft, 
 the agent they employed talked much of the ...dvaniagc 
 which would, i/i th/ie, refult to the whole country : 
 " But what lignjriesit to nie what may happen ;;/ tirz/ir, 
 replied the Facha? I was yellcrday at Slarach ; to- 
 tnorrow, perhaps I Ihall beat Djcdda : Why Ihould I de- 
 prive myl'clf of prcfcnt advantages, which jrecertifin, 
 for future benefits I cannot hope to partake .'" The 
 European factors were obliged therefore to remain at 
 Scandaroon. There arc three of thefefaflors, two for 
 the French, and one for the Englilh and Venetians. 
 The only curiolily whicii they have toanudellrangers 
 with conlills in fix or fcvcn marble monuments, fent 
 from Englmd, on which you read : B(rr^- ti:s fuch a (.in 
 carried ojf' in the fowir ij his age, hy the j'uiat cffells of 
 a eontagioiis air. 1 he light of thcfe is the more di- 
 flrelTing, as the languid air, yellow compkclion, livid 
 eyes, and dropiical bellies of ihofe who ihow them, 
 make it but too probable they cannot long clcape the 
 fame fate. It is true, they have foir.e refource in the 
 village of Bailan, the pure air and exceilciit waters of 
 which Airprifingly rellorc the lick. The aga, for 
 fome years pali, has applied the duties of the euflom- 
 houfe of Alexandretta to bis own ufc, and rendered 
 hinifelf almoft iiidepcirdent of the l'ach.i of Aleppo. 
 The Turkiih empire is full of Aich rebels, who fre- 
 quently die in peaceable poirelHon of their ufnrpations. 
 ALEX.ANDRIA, now Scanderia, by Alhenarus 
 called Xfutrii ; a city of Lower Egypt, and for a long 
 lime its capital. This city was built hy Alexanderihe 
 Great, foon after the ovtrthiow cf Tyre, about j;;; 
 years before Chrift. It is iituated on the Mediterra- 
 nean, twelve miles well of that mouth of the Nile an- 
 ciently called Cantipiann ; and lies in E. Long. 30. 19. 
 N. Lat. 31. TO. 
 
 Alexander is faid to have been induced to build this 
 city, on aeconnt of its being conveniently fituatcd for 
 a hnc port ; and fo hidden was his rcfoluiion, that af- 
 ter he had directed where every public flrut'rure was 
 to be placed, fixed the number of temples, and the dei- 
 ties to whom they IhciiM be dedicated, ?<e. there were 
 no inllruments r.t hand proper for marking out the 
 walls, according to the cuf'.om of thofe times. Upon 
 this, a workman advifcd the king to colleft whet meal 
 w'ss among the fidi'.iers, and to lift it i 1 lines upon the 
 ground, whereby the circuit of the walls would be 
 fufiiciciJtly marked out. Thi.i advice was followed ;
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 3S9 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 A'exandrii and the new method of marking o'.u chc walls was, by 
 
 ■ Ariftandcr, the kiii;^'s footiifaycr, interpreted asa prc- 
 
 fage of ihc city's abounding with all the ncccilarics of 
 life. Nor was he deceived in his prediction ; for A- 
 lexandria foon became the Aaplc not only for merchan- 
 difcjbiit alfo for all the arts and fcienccs of the Greeks. 
 Alexandria was a league and a half long, by one- 
 third in breadth, which made the circumr'crence of 
 its walls about four leagues. Lake Mareotis bathed 
 its walls on the fouth, and the Mediterranean on the 
 north. It was initrfected Icngihwife byflraight pa- 
 rallcl flreci"!. This direftion left a free paflajie to the 
 northerly wind, which alone conveys coolneis and fa- 
 lubrity into Egypt. A ftreet of 2000 fect\\idc be- 
 gan at the gate of the fca, and terminated at ilic gate 
 of Canopus. It was decorated by magniticent houfcs, 
 by temples, and by public buildings. In this extenlive 
 rangcthe cyewas nevcriired with adniiringthc marble 
 the porphyry, and the obclifks, which were dcflined at 
 fome future day to cnibellilh Rome and Conflantinople. 
 Thisilrect, thehandfomeftin thcuniverfc, wasinter- 
 /efled l>y another of the fame breadth, which formed 
 a fquarc at their jnn^fion of half a league in circumfe- 
 rence. From the middle of this great place, the two 
 gates were to be fcen at once, and vclFcls arriving 
 ttnder full fail from the north and from the fouih. 
 
 A mole of a mile in length ftrctched from the con- 
 tinent to the i!le of Pharos, and divided the great har- 
 bour into two. That whidh is to the northward prc- 
 fcrvcd its name. A dyke drawn from the ifland to the 
 rock whereon was built the Pharos, fecured it from the 
 weflcrly winds. Thcother was called £';//v;y,'i'/, or the 
 Safe return. The former is called at prcfcnt the nev/, 
 the latter the old harbour: abridge that joins the 
 Eiolc to the city, fcrvcd for a communication between 
 them. It was raifed on lofiy pillars funk into the fca, 
 and left a free paifage for ihips. The palace, which 
 advanced beyond the promontory of Lr^c^/.^j, extended 
 as far as the dyke, and occupied more than a quarter 
 of the city. Each of ihc Ptolemies added to its mag- 
 jiificence. It contained \\ iihin its inclofure, the mii- 
 fcum, anafyhnn forlcirnedmen, groves and b'iildin;;s 
 worthyof royal majclly, and a temple where the body 
 of Alexander was dcpofited in a golden cofin. The 
 infamous StlencusCibyofaclcs violated this monument, 
 carried ofFthe golden cofHn, and put a glafs one in its 
 place. In the great harbour was the little illand of 
 Anti-Rhodes, where ftood a theatre, and a royal place 
 of rcfidcnce. Within the harbour of Eunoftos was a 
 fmallcrone, called Kibot as, dug by the hand of man, 
 which commanicated with Lake Marcoti> by a canal. 
 Between thib canal and the palace wa? the admirable 
 temple of Scrapis, and that of Neptune near the great 
 place where the market was held. Alexandria extend- 
 ed likcwife along the fouthern banks of the lake. Its 
 taftern part prcienttd to view the ^yniualiuni, with its 
 porticoes of more than 600 feet long, fupportcd by fe- 
 veralrov.-s of marble );illars. Without the gate of Ca- 
 nopus was a fp..cioiis circus for the chariot races. Be- 
 yond that, the fuburb of Nicopolis ran along the fea- 
 ^ore, and ftcmed a fccond Alexandria. A fujcib 
 amphitheatre was built there with a race-ground, for 
 the celebration of the quinquennalia. 
 
 Such is the defcription left us of Alexandria by the 
 ^cients, and above all by Strabfl. 
 
 The architei.^ employed by Alexander in t!;is on- .-Uuai.ilf.j 
 dertaking was the celebrated Dinocratrs, who had ^ ■■' 
 
 acquired fo much repuution by rebuilding the tenij U 
 of Diana at Ephtfus. The city was h'rrt rendered 
 populous by Piolemy Sottr, one of Alexander's cap- 
 tains, who, after the death of the Macedonian mo- 
 narch, being appointed governor of Egypt, foon alfu- 
 med the title of king, and took up his relideace at A- 
 lexandria, about 304 years before Chrill. 
 
 In the 3o:h year of Ptolemy Soter's reign, he took 
 his fon Ptolemy Philadclphiis partner with him in th* 
 empire ; and by thisprincc ihecity of Alexandria was 
 much cmbcllillied. In the finl year of his reign the 
 fanious watch-tower of Pharos was tinilhcd. It had 
 been begun feveral years before by Ptolemy Soter ; 
 and, wiicn finiilicd, wasjookcd upon as one of the 
 wnndcrs of the world. The fame year, the i.'land of 
 Pharos iifclf, originally fcvcn furlongs di/lant frouithe 
 continent, wasjoincd to it by a c-iuftway. Tl>is wastlie 
 Work of Dexiphancs, who completed it at the fame 
 lime that his fon j'ut liie laft hand to the tower. Th« 
 tower was a large fquarc flruJiurcof white marble ; i,:i 
 the top of which fires were kept conllan:ly bnrning, 
 for the direction of failors. The building '-.•;lt 8co 
 talents; which,if Attic, amounted 10 L. i6j,ooo fieri, 
 if .'Me.xandrian, to tv^ice that fum. 
 
 The architcft employed in this famous ftrnfture 
 fell upon the following contrivance to nfurp the whole 
 glory to hiinfelr'. — Being ordered to aigravc upon it 
 the following infcription, " King Ptolemy to the 
 Gods tlie Saviours, for the benetii of Sailors j" inftead 
 of the king's name he fublUtuttil his own, and then 
 filling up the hollow of the marble with mortar, wtoic 
 upon it the abovcmcniioned inf* riinion. In prcccfs 
 of time, the moriar being wore oft, tlic following in- 
 fcripiioii appeared : " Sostratus the Cnidum, the 
 fon of Dexiph ANES, to the Gods the Saviours, for 
 the bcnciit of Sailors." 
 
 This year alfo was remarkable for the bringing of 
 the image of Scrapis from Pontus to Alexandria. It 
 was fct up in one of the fuburbs of the city called 
 Rhuoitis, where a temple was afterwards erefled to his 
 honour, fuitable to the grcatncfs of that flately me- 
 tropolis, and called, from the god worfliippcd there, 
 Serai'cuin. This llruclure, according to Animianus 
 Marcellinus, furpallcd in beauty and magnificence all 
 
 others in the world, except the capitol at Rome. 
 
 Within the verge ofthis temple was the famous Alex- 
 andrian library. It was founded by Ptolemy Sotcr, for 
 the nfc of an academy hcinilitutcd in this city ; and, by 
 continual additions by his fuccelTors, becaniea; lafl the 
 lineft library in the world, containing no fewer than 
 700,000 volun:cs. The method followed in collecting 
 books for this library, was, to ftizc all thofe which were 
 brought into Egypt by Greeks or other foreigners. 
 'I he books were tranfcribcd in the mufiumby perfons 
 appointed for ihatpurpofe ; the copies wcrcthen deli- 
 vered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in 
 the library. Ptolemy Energeies, having borrowed 
 from the .■Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euri- 
 pides, and /tTchyhis, returned them only the copies, 
 which he caufed to be tranfcribcd in as beautiful a 
 manner as polliblc ; prefcnting the Athenians at the 
 fame time with fifteen talents (upwards of L. jcco 
 Stsrlizig) for the exchange.
 
 A L D 
 
 [ 390 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 AlcvanJr'a As ihr mnfcum was at firft in iliat quarter of the 
 
 ' ^ city ciUcti Bnah')", near the royal palace, the library 
 
 was placed tlicrt lijccwifc ; .but wIrii it came to con- 
 tain 400,000 volumes, anotlicr liiirary, within the 
 Scrapciim, was crectc I by way of fiipplcuicnt to it, 
 aiiJ on tliat a.connt callcJ the jan^fucr of tJit former. 
 In this fccond library 300,000 voli.inus, in proccfs of 
 time, were Jepolitrd ; and the two together contained 
 the 700,000 volumes already mentioned. In the war 
 carried on by Julius Ca-far againll the i'lhabiiants of 
 thiicity, ihclilvraryin the Bnichion, with the 400,000 
 volumes it eoiuained, was reduced to afiics. The li- 
 brary in the Serapcum, however, ftill remained : and 
 lure Cleopatra dcpofited 2co,ooo volumes of the Pcr- 
 };amcan library, which Marc Antony prcfcnted her 
 with. Thcfc, and others added from time to time, 
 rendered the new library at Alexandria more nume- 
 rous and confiderable than the former ; and though it 
 wasoflcnplunderedduringtherevolutionsand troubles 
 «)f the Roman empire, yet it was again and again re- 
 paired, and filled with the fame number of books. 
 
 Kor29 5 years Alexandria was h.cld in fubjeflion 
 by the Ptolemies. Here is a lift of thcfc princes, \\'\l\\ 
 the d \tes of their refpedive reigns. 
 
 Ptolemy the fon of Lagus, furnamed Soter, reigned 
 J9 years, and died in the year of the world 3720. 
 Ptolemy Philadelpluis reigned 39 years, and died in 
 3758. Ptolemy Euergetcs reigned 2jyears, and died 
 in ■^t^'}. Ptolemv Philopater reigned 17 years, and 
 died in 5800. Ptolemy Epiplianes reigned 34 years, 
 and died in 3824. Ptolemy Philometcr reigned 37 
 years, and died in 3861. Ptolemy Eucrgctes, or Phyf- 
 con, reigned ?3 years, part with his brother Pliilome- 
 tcr and part alone. He died in 3888. Ptolemy La- 
 thyrus reigned 36 years fix months. He died in 3923. 
 Cleopatra, the daughter of Lathyrus and wife of A- 
 Icxander I. reigned lix months. Alexander I. the ne- 
 phew of Lathyrus, was cflablilhcd in 3924 and died 
 in 3943. Alexander II. the fon of Alexander I. was 
 difpolfeired by the Alexandrians in 3939. Ptolemy 
 Nothus, or Auletcs, the fon of Lathyrus, reigned 13 
 years, and died in 5953. Ptolemy, furnamed Dioiij- 
 fiuiox Bacchus, reigned three years eight months, and 
 died in 3957. Cleopatra reigned from 3957, and kill- 
 ed herfelf in 3974. 
 
 This city, as we have already obfcrved, foon became 
 extremely poj^ulons, and was embclliflied botli by its 
 own princes and the Romans ; but, like moft other 
 noted cities of antiquity, hath been the feat of terrible 
 inalFacrcs. About 1 41 years before Chrift, it was al- 
 mofl totally depopulated by Ptolemy Phyfcon. That 
 barbarous monfter, without the le.ift provocation, gave 
 free liberty to his guards to plunder his metropolis and 
 murder the inhabitants at their pleafure. The cruel- 
 ties pradifcd 0:1 thisoccafion cannot be exprelTed ; and 
 the few who cfcapcd were fo terrified that they tied 
 into other countries. Upon this, Phyfcon, that he 
 might not reign over empty houfcs, invited thither 
 flrangcrs from the neighbouring countries ; by whom 
 the city was repeopled, and foon recovered its former 
 fplendor. On this occalion many learned men h .ving 
 iecnobliged tofly, proved themeansof revivinglearn- 
 ingin Greece, Afia Minor, the iilands of the Archi- 
 pelago, and other places, where it was almoft totally 
 loft. 
 
 The new inhabitants were not treated with much AlexanHri* 
 more kindnefsby Phyfcon than thcold ones had been; '*—%/—' 
 for, on iheircomplainingofhistyrannical behaviour, 
 he refoUcd on a general mallacrc of the young men. 
 Accordingly, when they wereoncday .iifeuiblcd in tlic 
 gymnaliuui, or place of their public t-xercifes, he or- 
 dereil it to be fct on fire ; fu that they all perifli- 
 <:d, either in the flames, or by the fwords of his mer- 
 cenaries, wliom tlie tyrant had placed at all the ave- 
 nues. 
 
 Though Julis Caefar was obliged to carry on a 
 war for fome time againft the city, it feeins not to 
 have fufftrcd much damage, except the burning of 
 the library already mentioned. Before Csfar left 
 Alexandria, in acknowledgment of the aflillance he 
 had received from the Jews, he confirmed all their 
 privilege* there, and even engraved his decree on a pil- 
 lar ol brafs. This, however, did not prevent the maf- 
 facre ot 50,000 of them in this city about the year of 
 Chrill67. 
 
 'I he cityof Alexandriafeems tohave fallen intodc- 
 cay foon after this, and to have forfeiteJ many ofits 
 ancient privileges, tho' for whatofFence is not known; 
 but when Adrian vifitcd Egypt, about the year 141, 
 it was ahuoil totally ruined. He repaired both the 
 public and private buildings, not only reftoring the 
 in habitantsto their ancient privileges, but heaping new 
 favours upon them ; lor which they returned him their 
 folemn thanks, and conferred upon him what honours 
 they could while he was prefent; but as foon as he was 
 gone, they publilhed the moft bitter and virulent lam- 
 poons againft him. 
 
 The fickle and fatirical humourof thcAlexandrians 
 was highly dillikedby Adrian, though he inflifled no 
 punilhmcnt upon them for it ; but when they lampoon- 
 ed Caracalla, he did not let them efcape fo eafily. 
 Tliat tyrant, in the year 21 J, when he vifited their 
 city, having become the fubjccl of their foolilhfatires, 
 ordered agcneral mall'acre by hisnumcroastroops,who 
 were difperfed all over the city. The inhuman orders 
 being given, all we.re murdered, without diftindlion of 
 age or fcx ; fo that in one night's time the whole city 
 floated in blood, and every houfe was filled with car- 
 cafes. The monfter who occalioned this had retired 
 during the night to the temple of Serapis, to implore 
 the proteftion of that deity ; and, not yet fatiated with 
 flaughter, commanded the malfacre to be continued all 
 thencxtdayjfo that very fewof the inhabitantsremain- 
 ed. Asif even this had not been fufficient, he ftripped 
 the city ofall its ancient privileges ; fupprefTed the aca- 
 demy ; ordered all ftrangers who lived there to depart; 
 and that the few who remained might not have the fa- 
 tisfadlion of feeing one another, he cut off all commu- 
 nication of one ftrcctwith another, by walls built for 
 that purpofe, and guarded by troops left there. 
 
 Notwithftanding tliis terrible difafter, Alexandria 
 foon recovered its former fplendor, as Caracalla was 
 murdered a fliort time after, ft was long efteemed the 
 firft city in the world, next to Rome; and w-e may judge 
 ofits ]nagnificencc, and the multitude of people con- 
 tained in it, from the account of Diodorus Siculus, 
 wlio relates, that in his time ( 44 jears before Chrift) 
 Alexandria had on its ro!4s 300,000 freemen. To- 
 wards the middle of the fixth century, Amrou Ehii tl 
 Ajs, Omar's general, took it by ftorm, after a liege . 
 
 of
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 391 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 K-x»ndria ot' 1 4 moiulis, auJ with the lofs of 2^,000 men. He- 
 
 — radius, the emperor of Conftantiaoplc, did not fend 
 
 a (ingle Ihip to its alliftancc. This prince affords an 
 example very rare in hiftory ; he had difplayed fonie 
 vigour in the tirft year of hii reijn, and then fuffered 
 himfclf to be lulled into idlenefs and effeminacy. A- 
 wahtned fuddenly from his" lethargy by the noife of 
 the coiiquclls of Cofroes, that fcourge of the call, he 
 put himfclf at the head of his armies, diilinguilhed 
 himfclf as a great captain from his very tirft campai;jn, 
 laid wade Pcrfia for fevcn years, and returned to his 
 capital covered with laurels : he then became a theo- 
 logian on the throne, loft all his energy, and amufed 
 himfclf the reft of his life with difputing upon Mono- 
 theifm, whilft the Arabs were robbing him of the finefl 
 provinces of his empire. Deaf to the cries of the ur.- 
 fortunate inhabitants of Alexandria, as he had been to 
 thofe of the people of Jcrufalcm, who defended them- 
 fclves fortwoycars, he left themafacritice to the for- 
 tunate afcendancy of the indefatigable Amrou. All 
 their intrepid youth pcrilhed with their arms in their 
 hands. 
 
 The vidor, aftonifhed at his conqueft, wrote to the 
 caliph, " I have taken the city of the weft. It is of 
 an iinmenfe extent. I cannot defcribe to you how 
 many wonders it contains. There are 4000 palaces, 
 4000 baths, 1 2, coo dealers in frefli oil, 12,000 gar- 
 deners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 come- 
 dians," &c. 
 
 At this time according to the Arabian hiftorians, 
 Alexandria conlilted of three cities, r;r. yV/^«;i.'?,orthe 
 port, which included Pharos, and the neighbouring 
 parts; Atsxandria, properly fo called, where the mo- 
 dern Scanderia nowftands ; and Nckita, probably the 
 Necropolis of Jofephus and Strabo. 
 
 At that time John, furnamed the grammarian^ a 
 famous Peripatetic philofophcr, being in the city, and 
 in high favour with Amrou t,bn al Aas the Saracen 
 general begged of him the royal library. Amrou re- 
 plied, that it was not in his power to grant fuch a re- 
 queft ; but that he would write to the khalif on that 
 head ; lince without knowing his pleafure, he dared 
 not to difpofe of a finglc book. He accordingly wrote 
 to Omar, who was then khalif, acquainting him with 
 the rcqueftof his friend : To which the ignorant ty- 
 rant replied. That if thofe books contained the fame 
 dodrine with the koran, they could be of no ufe, fince 
 the kor.in 'contained all nccciLrry trjths; but if they 
 contained any thing contrary to that book, they ought 
 not to be fuffered : and therefore, whatever their con- 
 tents were, he ordered them to be deftroyed. Purfuant 
 to this order, they were diftributed among the public 
 baths ; where, for the I'pace of fix months, tJiey ferved 
 to fupply the fires of thofe places of which there was 
 an incredible number in Alexandria. 
 
 After the city was taken, Amrou thought proper to 
 purfue the Greeks who had tied farther up the coun- 
 try; and therefore marched outofAlexanHria, leaving 
 but a very llcndcr garrifon in the place. The Greeks, 
 who had before fled on board their (hips, being appri-- 
 fed of this, returned on a fudden, furprifed the town, 
 and put all the Arabs they found thereinto the fword : 
 but Amrou, receiving advice of what had happeiwd, 
 fuddenly returned, and drove them out of it with great 
 ilaughtcr ; after which the Greeks were foi.niiniidatcd, 
 
 that he had nothing farther to fear from them A few .Wtnn'.ni. 
 
 years after, however, Amrou being deprived of his " ' 
 
 government by the khalif Othman, the Egyptians were 
 fomuchdifplcafed with hisdifmillionthatihey inclined 
 loa revolt; andConftaniinetheGreekempfror,having 
 received intelligence oftheirdifaffcdioii, began to me- 
 ditate the reduction of Alexandria. For this purpofc, 
 he fcntone Manuel, an eunuch, and his ger.eral, with 
 a powerful army, to retake that place ; which, by the 
 ailillance of the Greeks in this city, who kept a fecrec 
 correfpondcnce with the imperial forces while at fea, 
 and joined them as foon as they had made a dcfcent, 
 he cffccled, without any conliderable effulion of Chri- 
 ftian blood. The khalif, now perceiving his millake, 
 immediately reftored Amrou to his former dignity. - 
 This ftep was very agreeable to the natives ; whoha- 
 ving had experience of the military Ikill and bravery of 
 this renowned general, and apprehending that they 
 Ihould be called to an account by the Greeks for their 
 former perfidious conduct, had petitioned Othman to 
 fend him again into Egypt. — Upon Amrou's arrival, 
 therefore, at Alexandria, the Copts or natives, with 
 the traitor Al-Mokawkas (who had formerly betrayed 
 to Amrou the fortrcfsof Mcfr) at their head, not only 
 joined him, but fupplicd him with all kinds "f provi- 
 fions, exciting him to attack the Greeks without de- 
 lay. Tliis he did ; and, after a moft obftinate difputc 
 which lafted feveral days, drove them into the town, 
 where, for fome time, they defended themfches with 
 great bravery, and repelled the utinoft efforts of the 
 belicgers. '1 his foexafpcratcd Amrou, that he fwore, 
 " If God enabled him to conquer the Greeks, he \\oulJ 
 throw down the walls of the city, and make it as eafy 
 of accefs as a bavidj-h'.ufi, which lies open to every 
 body." Nor did he fail to execute this menace ; for 
 having taken the town by ftorn., he quite difmantleJ 
 it, en tirclydcmolidiiiig the walls a:id fortifications. The 
 lives of the citizens, however, were fpared, at leaft as- 
 far as Iny in the geiL-ral's power; biit m my of them 
 were put to the fv.c; ,i by the foldierson their firft en- 
 trance. In one quarter particularly, Amrou found 
 them butchering tlie Alexandrians with unrelenting 
 tirbarity; to whicli, however, by his fcafonable in- 
 terpoliiion, he put a flop, and on that fpot erefted a 
 raofque, which he called the mo/qm of mercy. 
 
 From this time Alexandria never recovered its for- 
 mer fplendor. It continued under the dominion of the 
 khalifs till the year 924, when it was taken by the Ma- 
 grebians, two years after its great church had been 
 dcilroyed by fire. This cliurch was called by the 
 Arabs .4i Kaifaria, or Citfiiria ; and had formerly been 
 a pagan temple, erected in honour of Saturn by the 
 famous queen Cleopatra. 
 
 The city was foon after abandoned by the Magre- 
 bians ; but in 928 they again made themfelves mailers 
 of it : their deet being afterwards defeated by that be- 
 longing to the khalif. Abut Kafc!:i the Magrebian ge- 
 neral retired from AlexanJria,leaving there only a gar- 
 rifon of ;oo men ; of which Thr.ia.'l, the khalif"'s ad- 
 miral, being appril'ed, he in a few days appeared before 
 the town, and carried off the remiinder of the inhabi- 
 tants to an illand in the Nile calUd yivuka'tr. This 
 was done, to prevent Abul Kafem from meeting with 
 any entertainment at Alexandria, in cafe he ihoulJ 
 thiiik proper to return. According to Eutychius, above 
 
 30O,C0O .
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 392 ] 
 
 ALE 
 
 AleX'odrii. 2co,oooof ;hc niilcr lolciuiiabiuutsperilhcdthuycai . 
 
 — ~ What contribute J to raii'c Alexandria to I'iich a pni- 
 
 digiutis height of rpk-iidurasit enjoy cJjor a lotij; time, 
 waiits bci.'.g the centre otcommtrtc between the talS- 
 crn and weltcru parts of the world. It was with ihc 
 view of becoming inaiicrol this lucrative tr;dc, that 
 Akxaadcr built thiicity, aftir having extirpated the 
 Tyrians, who formerly cngroii'ed all the tall-India 
 traffic. Of thcimiuenfc riches which that trade attord- 
 ed, wc may form an idea, from coiilidtririg that the 
 Romans accounted it a pjint of polity ty opprefs the 
 Egyptians, cfpetial y the Alexandrians; and after the 
 defeatofZenobia, tiicrc wasa lingle merchant of Alex- 
 andria who undertook to raifc and pay an army out of 
 the profits of his trade. The Greek cmperori drew 
 prodigious tributes from Egypt, and yet the klialifs 
 found their fubjccts iafogoodcircumltancesas 10 fcrcw 
 up their revenues to three hundred millions of crowns. 
 
 Though the revolutions which happened in the go- 
 vernment of l-g)'pt, after it fell into the hands ot' the 
 MahonittanSjfrtqueatlyaSecled this city to a very great 
 degree; yet Hill tiie excellence of its port, and the in- 
 numerable conveniences refulting from the Kall-lndia 
 trade, to whomfocver were milUrsof Egypt, prefcrved 
 Alexandria from total dcitruclion, even when in the 
 hands of the moll barbarous nations. Thus, in the 
 i;[h century, when the barbarifm introduced by the 
 tioihs, &c. began to wear off from the European na- 
 tions, and they acquired a taftc for the elegancies of 
 life, the old ip.ai t of Alesandria began to revive ; and 
 the port, though far from recovering its former mag- 
 jiificcuce, grew'once r.jorc famous by becoming the 
 centre of tommerce : but having fallen under the do- 
 minion of the Turks, and the palfage round the Cape 
 of Good Hope being difcovcred by the Portuguefc in 
 1499, a fatal blow was given 10 tiie Alexandrian com- 
 jiierce, and the city has lince fallen into decay. 
 
 Atprefcnt the city of Alexandria is reckoned 10 have 
 abo.it i<i,ooo or j s.oco inhabitants ; a Ifraiige collu- 
 vics of diifcrent nations, as well as from various pans 
 of the Turkilh empire. They are in general given to 
 thieving and cheating ; and (like iheir predccelTors) 
 fcditious above all others, were they not kept in av. e 
 by the fcverity of their government. The Britilh and 
 French carry on aeonlideraMc commerce with them, 
 and Iiavc each a conful reliding here. Some Venetian 
 ■Ihips alfo fail thither yearly, but with French colours, 
 -and under the protection of France. The fubjefts of 
 thofc kingdoms v;hich k"ep no conful Ii«re, are fubjed- 
 cd to a tax by the Grand Slgnior : bi:t the Jews have 
 found oat the method of indemnifying themftlves for 
 thisdifadvanragc; namely, by fcllir-gthcirconimoditics 
 cheaper than other foreigners cm afford. They are 
 alfo favoured by ilie farmers c>i' the revenue ; who 
 know, that if they do not i ly fonie private regard to 
 them, the Jews have it their power to caufe fewer 
 nierchandi/.cs come into their port during the two 
 years that their farm lafts. 
 
 The prcfent city is a kind of peninfula fituatcd be- 
 tween the two jxirts. That of the weftward was called 
 by the ancient' the Fort.-u Eunoflus, now the CJd Fort, 
 a.nd is by fartLtbeft ; TiiikiPn vr/Tcli only are albwed 
 TO anchor theic : the other, called the A'fw fcr^, is 
 for the Chriftians; atthe e:;ircmiiy ofon« of thcarms 
 «f which ftooJ ijie famous Phiros. The New Pon, 
 
 the oiily harbour fjr the Ei-r.'pci-.as, is clogged up with Aleiaiulru 
 
 fand, iufon.uch that iii florrriy weather ihips are liable — >•'— ' 
 
 to i<il,ic ; and' the bjttom being alio rocky, the cables 
 
 lix>n chafe ami part ; fo that one vcllcl driving againll 
 
 afccoud, a:id that .'.gainil a third, tncy are pcrUaps all 
 
 lulf. OfinisiiKrc was a fataliultaiicc i6or iSycars 
 
 ago, \* hcii 42 vclicls were dalhcd to pieces on the mole 
 
 iu a gale of wind from the i:orth-v. tl>, and numbers 
 
 have been lince loll there at difFcrent times. If it be 
 
 allied, Why do they not repair the New Fort ? the 
 
 anfwcr is. That in Turkey they dcftroy <:\t.ry thii'.g 
 
 and repair noihiug. The old harbour will be dcUroy- 
 
 ed likewife, as the ballafl of vch'cis has been enntinu- 
 
 ally thrown into it for the lift 200 years. The fpirit 
 
 of the Turkilh government is to ruin the labours of 
 
 pajl ages, and dcltroy the hopes of future limes, be- 
 
 cjufc the barbarity of ignorant defpotiliu never conli- 
 
 ders to-morrow. 
 
 In time of war, Alexandria is of no imp-ortance : 
 no fortification is to be feen ; even the Farillon, witk 
 its hifiy towers, cannot be defended. It has not four 
 cannon fit for fervice, nor a gunner who knows ho\r 
 to point them. The joojanilTaries, who lliould form 
 the garrif 111, reduced to half the number, know no- 
 thing but how to fmoke a pipe. But Alcxantlria is a 
 place of which the conqucll would be of no value. A 
 foreign power could not maiinain itfelf there, as the. 
 country is without water. This murt be b:ought from 
 the Nile by the kaltdj, or canal of 12 leagues, which 
 conveys it thither c\<.iy year at the time of the inun- 
 dation. It fills the vaults or rcfcrvoirs dug under the 
 ancient city, and tliii proviiionmuft ferve till the nex.t 
 year. It is evident, therefore, that were a foreign 
 power to take poiTcCion, the canal would be lliut, and 
 all fupplits of water cut off. It is this canal alon* 
 which connefts Alexandria with Egypt ; for from its 
 iituatioa without the Delta, and the nature of the foil, 
 it really belongs to thedtfartsof Africa. Its environs 
 arc fandy, flat, and Hcrilc, without trees and without 
 honfcs ; where v\c meet with nothing but the plant 
 vvhich yields the kali, and a row of palm-trees which 
 follows the courfcof the kalidj or canal. 
 
 'I he city is governed like others in the fame king'- 
 dom. (See EcYrr.) It hath a fmall garrifon of fol- 
 diers, part of which »re Janilfariesand AlTaffs; whoare 
 very haughty and infolcnt, not only toftrangcr«, but to 
 the mercantile and indullrious part of the ptoj^le, tho* 
 ever foconfiderable anduftful. l"bc government is (o 
 remifs in favour of thefc wretches, that Mr Norden in- 
 forms us, one of them did not hclitatc to kill a farmer 
 of the culloms, for rcfuiing to take lefs of him than 
 the duty impofed, and went o/funpuniflicd ; it being a 
 common falvo among them, that what is doac cannot 
 be undone. 
 
 The prcfent condition of Alcxiiidna is very defpi- 
 ciblc, being no^vfo far ruined, that the rubbiibitJ many 
 places overtops the houfes. The famous tower of Pha- 
 ros has long lince been ricmolilhcd, and a ca/tle, called 
 Faritlcii, builtin itsplarc. The caafcway which join- 
 ed the irtaiid to the continent is broken down, and it* 
 place fupplicd by a flonc bridge of fcveral arches. 
 
 Some j-art; of the old walls of the city arc yttftand- 
 ing, and prcfent us with a malier-piecc of ancient ina- 
 fonry. They arc flanked with large towers, about 200 
 paces diiunt from each other, with Xmail ones in the 
 
 middle.
 
 ALE 
 
 L Z'ji 1 
 
 /\ L E 
 
 Alexar.dris. midJk. Below arc inagniticciu cafcmcnis, whicli may 
 
 '— ^ fcrvcforgallcrics to walk in. In ilic lower pan of the 
 
 towers is a large fquarc hall, whofc roof is lupported 
 by tbick columns of Thebaic ftonc. Above this arc 
 fcvcral rooms, over which there arc platforms more 
 than 20 paces fquarc. The ancient rcfcrvoirs, vaulted 
 with fo much art, which cxteudundcr the whole town, 
 arc almofl. entire at the end of 2000 years. 
 
 Of Csefar's palace there remain only a few porphyry 
 pillars, and the front, which is almoft entire, and looks 
 very beautiful. The palace of Cleopatra v.-as built 
 upon the walls facing the port, having a gallery on the 
 oullide, fupported by fcvcral fine columns. Not far 
 from this palace are two obelifks vulgarly called Clea- 
 patra's Nicdla. They arc of Thebaic llone, and co- 
 veredSvith hyeroglyphics. One is overturned, broken, 
 and lying under the fand ; the other is on its pcdeftal. 
 Thelc two obcliftcs, each of them of a lingle ftone, are 
 about 60 feet high, by feven feet fquarc at the bafe. 
 Towards the gate of Rofctta, are five columns of 
 marble on the place formerly occupied by the porticoes 
 of the Gymnafiura. The reft of the colonnade, the 
 dcfign of which was difcovcrable 100 years ago by 
 Maillct, has lince been dcftroyed by the barbarifm of 
 the Turks. 
 
 But what moft engages the attention of travellers is 
 the Pillar of I'ompcy, as it is commonly called, fitua- 
 ted at a quarter of a league from the fouthern gate. 
 It is compofcd of red granite. The capital is Corin- 
 thian, with palm leaves, and not indented. It is nine 
 feet high. The fliaft and the upper member of the 
 bafe are of one piece of 90 feet long, and 9 in diame- 
 ter. The bafe is a fquarc of about 15 feet on each 
 <ide. This blockof marble, 60 feet in circumference, 
 refts on two layers of ftone bound together with lead ; 
 which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from 
 forcing our fcvcral of thcm^ tofearch for an imaginary 
 treafurc. The whole column is i44feet high. It is 
 pcrfciJtly wcUpoliQied, andonly alittlelhiveredon the 
 caftern lidc. Nothing can equal the majcfty of this 
 monument ; feen from a diftance, it overtops the town, 
 and fcrvcs as a iignal for veflels. Approaching it 
 nearer, it produces an aftonilhment mixed with awe. 
 One can never be tired with admiring the beauty of 
 the capital, the length of the fliaft, nor the extraordi- 
 nary limplicity of the pedeftal. This laft has been 
 fomew liat dam.iged by the inftruments of travellers, 
 who arc curious to polfefs a rclici of this antiquiiy ; 
 and orie of the volutes of the column was immaturely 
 brought down about twelve years ago, by a prank of 
 I'ome Englilh captains, which is thus related by Mr 
 Irwin. 
 
 Thefc jolly fons of Neptune had been pufliing about 
 the can on board one of the Ihips in the harbour, until 
 a flrange freak entered into one of their brains. The 
 eccentricity of the thought occalio}icd it immediately 
 to be adopted ; and its apparent impollibility was but 
 f a fpur for the puttiiit^ it into execution. The boat 
 was ordered ; and with proper implcnienis for the at- 
 tempt, thefc cnterprifing heroes puilicd alnore,to drink 
 a bowl of punch o\\ the top of Ponipey's pillar ! At 
 the fpot they arrived ; and many contrivances were 
 propofed to accomplifli the defired point. But thiir 
 l.bour was vain ; and they began to defpair of fucccfs, 
 when ihe genius who ftruck out the frolic happily fug- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 gcfled the means of performing it. h m.in was dif- Alci.ndrii. 
 
 patched to the ci:y for a paper kite. The inhabitants ^ 
 
 were by this time appiifcd of what was goingforward, 
 and ilockcd in crowds to be wimeflcs of the adJrcfs 
 and boldnefs of the Knglilli. The governor of Alex- 
 andria was xold that thefc feamen were about to pull 
 4ov;n Ponipey's pillar. B'.rt whether he gave them 
 credit for thtir refpecl to the Uomau warrior, or to 
 the Turkifli government, he left them tothcniftlvcs ; 
 and politely anfwcrcd, that the Knglilh were too great 
 patriots to injure the rtmaias of Pompey . I Fc knew 
 little, however, of the difpofition of the people who 
 were engaged in this undertaking. Had the Turkilh 
 empire rofeinoppolition, it would not pcrhsps at that 
 moment have deterred them. The kite was brought, 
 and flown fodircclly over the pillar, that when it ftU 
 on the other lide, the (Iring lodged upon the capital. 
 The chief obflacle was now overcome. A two-inch 
 rope was tied to oncend of tlic ftring, and drav»'novcr 
 the pillar by the end to which the kite was affixed. 
 By this rope one of the feamen afccnded to the top; 
 and in lefs than an hour, a kind of Ihroud was con- 
 ftruded, by which the whole company went up, arl 
 drank their pupch amid the (houts of the aftoniflicj 
 multitude. l"o the eye below, the capital of the pii- 
 lar docs not appear capable of holding n-.orc than one 
 man upon it; but our feamen found it could comai:i 
 no Icfs than eight perfons very conveniently. It is 
 aftonilhing that no accident bcfel thefc madcaps, in a 
 fituation fo elevated, thit would have turned a land- 
 man giddy in his fobcr fenfcs. The only detriment 
 which the pillar received, was the lofs of the volute 
 beforementioned; which came down with[a thundi ring 
 found, and was carried to England by one of the cap- 
 tains, as a prefent to a lady who commiilioncd him for 
 a piece of the pillar. The difcovery which they made 
 amply compenfatcd for this mifchief; as without their 
 evidence, the world would not have known at this 
 hour, that there was originally a ftaiue on this pillar, 
 one foot and ancle of which arc flill remaining. The 
 flatue muft have been of gigantic (ize, to have appear- 
 ed of a man's proportion at lb great an height. 
 
 There arc circumllances in this ftory « hich might 
 give it an airof fi lion, were it not dcmondratcd be- 
 yond all doubt. Rcfides the tcftimonies of many cyr- 
 witneifes, the adventurers thcmfclvcs have left us a to- 
 ken of the fact, by the initials of their names, which 
 arc very legible in black paint jiill beneath the capital. 
 
 Learned men and travellers have made many t'ruit- 
 Icfs attempts to difcovcr in honour of what prince it 
 was creeled. The befl informed have concluded, that 
 it could not be in honour of Pompey, lincc neither 
 Stribo nor Diodorus Sicuhis have fpokcn of it. The 
 Arabian Abulfcda, in his c'cfcripiiou of Ej^ypt, calls 
 it the ruiar of Stvenii. And hillory informs nsf, that ^rij,!ifiar~ 
 this emperor " vifitcd the city of Alexandria : That />o«'i Li/t 
 he granted a fenate to its inhabitants, who until that 'fSntti,!, 
 time, under the fubjedion of a lingle Roman magi- ''"F- '"• 
 flratc, had lived without any national council, as under 
 the reign of the I'tolemirs, when the will of the prince 
 was their only law : That he did not confine his be- 
 nefaftions there ; he chanj;rd fcvcral laws in their fa- 
 vour." This column, therefore, Mr Savary concludes 
 to have been crcrtcd by the inhabitants ^s a mark of 
 their gratitude to Severus. And in a Greek infcrip- 
 3 D tion,
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 39+ 
 
 ALE 
 
 Alexandria, tion, now half effaced, but villblc on the weft fide 
 *~"v~~' when the fun fliincs upon it, and wliich probably was 
 legible in the time of Abulfcda, he fuppofes the name, 
 of Scverus to have been prefcrvcd. He further ob- 
 fcrves, that this was not the only monument creded to 
 him by the gratitude of the Alexandrians : for there is 
 ilill feen in the midft of the ruins of Antinoe, built by 
 Adrian, ainagniticent pillar, the infcripiion on which 
 is flill remaining dedicated to Alexander Severus. 
 
 On the louth-wcfl fide of the city, at a mile's di- 
 ftancc, are lituatcd the catacombs, the ancient burial- 
 place of Alexandria ; and although tluy cannot be 
 compared to thofc of the ancient Memphis, which the 
 Arabs will not permit to be vifitcd, in order to make 
 ihc better i;i?rkct of tlicir mummies, it is probable 
 that, the method of embalming being the fame, the 
 form of thefc catacombs can only difter in their pro- 
 portions. — The Baron dc Tott, in defcribing thefe, 
 obfcrves, " that Nature not having furnilhed this part 
 of Egypt with a ridge of rocks, like that which runs 
 parallel with the Nile above Delta, the ancient inhabi- 
 . tants of Alexandria could only have an imitation by dig- 
 ging into a bed of folidrock; and thus they formed 
 Nccropolisjor the 'City of the Dead.* The excavation 
 is from 50 to 40 feet wide, and aoortngand 25 deep, 
 and is terminated by gentle declivities at each end. 
 The two fides, cut perpendicularly, contain fcveral 
 openings, about 10 or 12 feet in width and height, 
 hollowed horizontally ; and which form, by their dif- 
 ferent branches, fubtcrraneau ftreets. One of thefc, 
 which curioliiy lias difincumbcred from tlic ruins and 
 fands that render the entrance of others difficult or im- 
 poflible, contains no mummies, but only the places 
 they occupied. The order in which they were ranged 
 is ftill to be feen. Niches, 20 incites fquarc, funk lix 
 feet horizontally, narrowed at the bottom, and fepa- 
 rated iVom each other by partitions in the rock, feven 
 or eight inche> thick, divide into checkers the two 
 walls of this fubterrancan vault. It is natural to fup- 
 pofc, from this difj ofiiion, that each mummy was in- 
 troduced with the feet forcmoft into tiit cell intended 
 for its reception ; and that new ftreets were opened, 
 in proportion as thefe dead inhabitants of Necropolis 
 increafed." This obfcrvation, he adds, which throws 
 
 water of the fea, is pure and tranfparcnt as cryflal. Alexandria 
 Seated on the ftone bench, the water rifcs a little above Alcxandri- 
 thc waift ; while the feet foftly repofe on a line fand. . ""• 
 The wavcsof the fea are heard roaringagainft the rock, 
 and foaming in the canal. 1 he fwell enters, raifesyou 
 up, and leaves you j and thus alternately entering and 
 retiring, brings a coniinnal frefli fupply of water, and 
 a coolnefs which is truly delicious under a burning 
 Iky. This place is vulgarly called the Bath of Cleopa- 
 tra. Some ruins announce that it was formerly orna- 
 mented. 
 
 Alexandria is about fifty Icauges north of Cairo. 
 E. Long. 31 15. N. Lat. 51. 12. 
 
 Alexandria, a ftrong and confidcrable city of I- 
 taly, belonging to the dutchy of Milan, with a good 
 caftlc, built in 1 1 78 in honour of Pope Alexander III. 
 This pope made it a bilhopric, with fevcral privileges 
 and exemptions. Prince Eugene of Savoy took this city 
 in 1 706 ; after three days ficge. The French took it in 
 1745 ; but the king of Sardinia, to whom it belongs 
 bythe treaty of Utreclit, retook it in 1746. The for- 
 tifications of the town are trifling, but the citadel is 
 conliderable. It is 15 miles fouth-eaft of CalTal, 35 
 iiorth-by-weft of Genoa, and 40 fouth-by-weft of Mi- 
 lan. E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 44. 53. The country 
 about this town is called the AUxandrin. 
 
 Alexandria (anc.geog.), acityof Arachofia,call- 
 cd alfo Alexandropdlis, on the river Arachotus (Ste- 
 phanus, Ilidorus Characenus) — Another Alexandria 
 in Gedroiia, built by Lconatus, by order of Alex- 
 ander (Pliny). — A third Alexandria in Aria, fituated 
 at the lake Arias (Ptolemy) ; but, according to Pli- 
 ny, built by Alexander on the river Arias — A fourth 
 in the BaClriana (Pliny). — A fifth Alexandria, an 
 inland town of Carmania (Pliny, Ptolemy, Ammian). 
 — A lixth Alexandria, or Altxaiidropolis, in the Sog- 
 
 diana (Ilidorus Characenus) A feventh in India, 
 
 at the conriuence of the Acefnies and Indus (Arrian). 
 — An eighth called alfo AUxandrctta, near the fmus 
 Illicus, on the confines of Syria and Cilicia, now Scan- 
 deroon ^fecALEXANDB ETTA),the port-town to Aleppo. 
 — A ninth Alexandria of Margiana, which being de- 
 molilhed by the barbarians, was rebuilt by Antiochus 
 the fon of Stlcucus, and called ^/;//oc/'/<i of Syria, (Pli- 
 
 a light on the catacombs of Memphis, may perhaps ny) ; watered by the river Margus, which is divided 
 likewif^e explain the vaft fizc and multitude, as well as intof ' ' - - - - . . . 
 
 the different elevations, of the pyramids in the High 
 cr and Lower Egypt. 
 
 About 70 paces from Pompey's pillar is the khalis, 
 or tlie canal of the Nile, which was dug by the ancient 
 Egyptians, to convey the water of the Nile to Alex- 
 andria, and fill the cifierns under the city. On the 
 fide of the khalis arc gardens full of orange and lemon 
 trees, and the fields are full of caper and palm trees. 
 On the top of a hill is a tower, on wliich a ccntincl 
 is a'ways pliccd, to give notice, by means of a flag, 
 of the lliips that arc coming into the port. From this 
 bill may be fc-n ihc fea, the whole extent of ilic city, 
 and the pans round it. 
 
 In going along tlie fea-coalt, there is a large bafon 
 cut out of the rock that lints the lliore. On the fides 
 cf this bafon, two beautiful faloons are hewn out by 
 the chifcl, with benches that run acrofs them. A 
 can.il made zig-zag, for the purpofe of flopping the 
 fand by its different windings, conveys into them the 
 
 feveral channels, for the puvpofes of watering the 
 country, which was called Zctale. The city was fe- 
 vcnty lladia in circuit, according to Pliny ; who adds, 
 that, after the defeat of Cralliis. the captives w ere con- 
 veyed to this place by Orodes the kingof the Parthians. 
 — A tenth, of the Oxiana, built on the Oxus by .-ilcx- 
 auder on the confines of Baftria (Pliny) — An ele- 
 venth, built by Alexander at the foot of mount Paro- 
 pamifus, which was called Caucaftis (Pliny, Arrian). 
 — A twelfth A'exandria'in Troas, called alfo Troas and 
 
 Antigtiuia (Pliny) A i'.-.;riecnthon the L.xanes, the 
 
 boundary of Alexander's victories towards Scyihia, 
 and the l.;ft that he built on that fide. 
 
 ALEXANDI11.4N, in a particular fenfe, is ap- 
 plied to all thofe who profelfcd or taught the fcienccs 
 in the fchool of Alexandria. In tiiis fenfc, Clemens 
 is denominated Atexandrinta, though boni at Athens. 
 The fan'.e may be faid of Apion, who was born at 
 Oalis ; and .'^roftarchus, by birth aSamothraci.in, The 
 chief AkxsudrJan philufophers were, Anionius, Plo- 
 
 liuus.
 
 ALE 
 
 [ 395 ] 
 
 A L K 
 
 Alexandri- tiiius, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblicus, Sopater, Maxi- 
 inus, and IJcxippus. 
 
 Alexandrian is more particularly underftoodofa 
 college of priclls, confccrated to ilic fcrvicc of Alex- 
 ander Scvcnis after bis deification. Linipridiusrchtcs, 
 that, nntwithftandiiigScvcrus was killed by Maxiniin, 
 the I'enatc profecutcd his apotheofis ; and, for regula- 
 rity of worfliip, founded anordcr of pricfls, ox fodal'ts, 
 under thccleuoniiaaiion of AUxandrin'i. 
 
 AttXASDRl AS Library . Seep, ■^^(f, ficpra. 
 
 Alrxasvuuas Maiiufcrift , a famous copy of the 
 Scriptures, coniifling cf four volumes, in a large quar- 
 to fize ; which contains the whole iiiblein Greek, in- 
 cluding the Old and New Teflament, with the Apo- 
 crypha, and foinc fmaller pieces, but not quite com- 
 plete. This nianufcript is now prefcrved in the Britilh 
 Mufeum. It was fcnt as aprtfeut to King Charles I. 
 from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Coiiflantinoplc, by 
 Sir Thomas Rowe, amballador from England to the 
 Grand Signior, about the year i623. Cyrillus brought 
 it with him from Alexandria, where probably it was 
 written. In a fchedule annexed to it, he gives this 
 account : That it was written, as tradition informed 
 them, by Thccla, a noble Egyptian lady, about i joo 
 years ago, not long after the council of Nice. But 
 this high antiqaity, and the authority of the tradition 
 to which the patriarch refers, have been difputed ; 
 nor are the mo/l accurate biblical writers agreed about 
 its age. Grabe thinks that it might have been written 
 before the end of the fourth century ; others are of opi- 
 nion, thii it was not writ till near the end of the fifth 
 century, or fomewh.it later. 
 
 ALEXANDRiAN',or^/v-.r<7«;/r;j;r, in poetry, a kind of 
 verfe conllfting of twelve, or of twelve and thirteen 
 fyllables alternately : fo called from a poem on the life 
 of Alexander, written in this kind of verfe by fome 
 French poet. Al-.xandrines are peculiar to modern 
 poetry, and feem well adapted to epic poems. They 
 are fometimes ufcd by mod nations of Europe ; but 
 chiefly by the French, whofe tragedies arc generally 
 compofed of Alexandrines. 
 
 ALEXICACUS, fomcthing that preferves the bo- 
 dy from harm or mifchief. The word amounts to 
 much the fame as alcxitcrial. 
 
 Al EX I c A c u s, in antiquity, was an attribute of Nep- 
 tune, whom the tunny-fifliers ufcd to invoke under this 
 appellation, that their nets might be prcferved from tlic 
 f /oi»:, or fword-fi(h, which ufed to tear them; and that 
 he might prevent the affiftance which it was pretended 
 the dolphins ufcd to (rive the tunnies on this occafion. 
 
 ALEXIPHARMICS, in medicine, are properly 
 remedies for expelling or preventing the ill cffcds of 
 poifon: but fome ofthe moderns having imagined, that 
 the animal fpirits, in acute diftempcrs, were affedled 
 by a malignant poifon, the term has been underftood 
 to mean medicines adapted to expel this poifon by the 
 cutaneous pores, in the form of fwcat. In this fenfe, 
 alcxipharmics arc the fame as fudorifics. 
 
 ALEXIS, a Picdr.ioptcfc. There is a book of 
 " Secrets," which for a long time has gone under his 
 name. It was printed at Bafil 1536. in'^vo, and 
 tranflated from Italian iito Latin by Wecher ; it has 
 alfo been tranllatcd into French, and printed fcveral 
 limes with additions. There is a preface to the piece, 
 wherein Alexis informs us, that he was born of a noble 
 
 .VotA- 
 
 family ; that he had from his n-.o.'t eariy years applied Aleiite.-i»I 
 himfclf to ftudy ; that he had learned th: Greek, the I 
 
 Latin, the Hebrew, the Chaldean, the Arabian, and 
 feveral other languages ; that having an extreme cu- 
 riofity to be acquainted with the fecrets of nature, he 
 had colleded as much as he could daring his travels 
 for 57 years ; that he piqued hinifelf upon not com- 
 municating his fecrets to any pcrfon ; but that when 
 he was 82 years of age, having fecn a poor man who 
 had died of a fickncfs which might have bee;; cured 
 had he coAimunicatcd his fecret to the furgcon who 
 took care of him, he was touched with fuch a remorle 
 of confcience, that he lived almod like a hermit: and 
 it was in thii folitude that he ranged his fecrets in futh 
 an order as to make them fit to be publilhcd. The 
 hawkersgenerally carry them, with other books, to the 
 country fairs. Thcfe, however, contai.^i only the fclect 
 remedies of Scignor .Alexis of Piedmont; the entire 
 collection would make too large a volume for them. 
 
 ALEXITERIAL, among phyficians, a term of 
 much the fame import with alixipharmic; thoigh fome 
 times uled in a fynonymous fenfe with amulet. 
 
 ALEYN (Charles), an Englilhpoet in the reign of 
 Charles I. In 1651, he publiihed two poems on the 
 famous vidoriesofCreffy and Poicliers. He fucccedcd 
 his father as clerk of the ordnance, and was coramillary 
 general of the artillery to the king at the battle of 
 EdgehiU. The next piece be wrote was a poem irr 
 honour of Henry VII. and the victory that gained him 
 the crown of England. In 1656, the year before he 
 died, he tranllatcd the hiftory of Eurialius and Lucre- 
 tia, from the Latin epiftles of j^neas Sylvius. 
 
 ALFANDIGA, the name of the cuftoaihoufe at 
 Lifbon. 
 
 ALFAQUES, among the Moors, the name ge- 
 nerally ufcd for their clergy, or thofe who teacii the 
 Mahometan religion ; in oppofition to the Morabitcs, 
 who anfwer to monks among Chriltians. 
 
 ALFATERNA (anc.geog.), the laft town of Cam- 
 pania, beyond Vefuvius (Diodorus) ; the fame with 
 Nocera, which fee. The inhabitants Alfatirni (Pli- 
 ny). 
 
 ALFDOUCH, a name given by the Moors to a 
 fort of vermicelli, which they make of flour and water 
 and are very fond of in their entertainments. 
 
 ALFET, in old cuftoms, denotes a caldron full 
 of boiling water, wherein an acufed perfon, by way of 
 trial or purgation, plunged his arm up to his elbow. 
 
 ALFROD, a town in LincolnQiire, with a n^arket 
 on Tucfdays for provifious and corn ; and twof^irs, 
 on Whic-Tuefday, and Novembers, for cattle and 
 Ihccp. It is featcd on a fmall brook that runs through 
 the town, and is a compact place. A lali fpri:;g was 
 difcovered herein 1670, from the pigeons which'Hcw 
 thither in great numbers to drink the water ; thofc 
 birds being known to be foi:d of fait. It contains a 
 purging fjlt, together with a portion of fca-falt. It 
 is ftrongly purgative. It is recommended as cooling, 
 cleanfnig, and attenuating. As a g<x)d remedy in the 
 fcurvy, jaundice, and other glandular obfiniclions. It 
 alfo promotes nrine and fweat, and therefore is gocd 
 in gravelly and other diforders oft he kidneys and b! id- 
 dcr ; and in complaints arifing from obftrudcd pcrfpi- 
 r.ition. .■\lford is fix milts from the fca, and 20 N. 
 ofBofto:!. E. Long. o. ij. N.Lat. j^. 50. 
 
 ^ D a 
 
 ALFRED,
 
 A L I-^ 
 
 I 396 J 
 
 A L F 
 
 a;Ii<.J, AI.KKtU, iT/fc-LHiED, ihc Gnat, king of tng- 
 
 ^ liiuiJ, w.:s ihc tilth aiut yoiuigclt li>n ol .t,ilich\olt" 
 
 ling oT the Weft Siixoiis, aiiJ was lK>rn at vv aiitagc 
 i:! Lii j-jliirc in S/',^. I'c diliinguillud liinil'tlt, Jii- 
 iiug ilic reign of hi-^ brotlicr ttlitlrcii, in fcvtrai 111- 
 g.igcmtiUi agaiiut tijc Uaucs; aiul ui)on liisittaiii luc- 
 tttdid to the crown, in the year 871, and ilie 2;d of 
 his aj>c. At hiiaitcnoinu; ilicilirone he found him- 
 
 Alfred granted thtin better terms thaa they coutJ ex- Alfred. 
 
 peCh He agreed to give lip the whole kingdom of the ■'""■ 
 
 Kaft-Aiigles toluchaswouldeiiibracc theChriltian re- 
 ligion, on condition they would oldigc the rtll of their 
 countrymen to (jiiit the iilaad, and, as much as it was 
 in their power, prevent the landing of any more fo- 
 reigners. For the performance thereof he took hofta- 
 ges i and wlun, in piirluance of the treaty, Guthrnm 
 
 feif involved in a dangerous war with the Danes, and the Danilh captain came, with thirty of his chief ofli 
 
 placed in fuch cir. iimllanccs of diKrefs as called for ccrs, to be b.ijii/.ed, Allred aniwcred for him at the 
 
 llie grcatclt \a4ui:r, rcli lutiou, and all the other vir- font, and gave him the wmwc oi JEthitJlani: ; and ctr- 
 
 lues with which he was adorned. The Danes hud tain laws were drawn up between the king and Gu- 
 
 already piiictrated inioihe heart of hiskingdoni ; and thrum for the regulation andgovernnuiit of the Danes 
 
 before he jiad been a month on the throne, he was fettled in England. In 884, a frefli number of Danes 
 
 obliged 10 take the fiilu .igainli thofe forniidable enc- landed in Kent, and laid liege to Rochclter ; but the 
 
 mies. After many batllei gained on lo'h fides,he was at king coming to the relief of that city, they were ob- 
 
 length reJiiccdiolhcgrcateUdiitrefs,and was entirely liged to abandon their dclign. Alfred had now great 
 
 abandoned by his fubjccts. In this limaiion, Alfred, fuccefs ; which was ehietiy owing to his fleet, an ad-, 
 
 conceiving himfelfr.o longer a king.laid alidc all marks vantage of his own creating. Ha\ing fccured the fea- 
 
 of Totality, and took llulter in the hoiife of one who co.dls, he fortiiied the reft ot the kingdom, w ith eaules 
 
 kept his cattle. He retired afterwards to the i!le of aiui walled towns ; and he befieged and recovered from 
 
 /Ktlulingey in Sonicrfetlliire,N\ here he built a fort for the Danes the city of London, which he refolvcdtorc- 
 
 the fecnriiy of liinifelf, his family, and a few faithful pair, and keep as a I'rontier (it), 
 fervants whorcjiaired thither to him. When he had After fonie years refpilc, Alfred was again callcu 
 
 been about a year in this retreat, having been inform- into the tield : for a body of Danes, being worftcd in 
 
 cd that I'onie of his fiibjcets had routed agreatarmyof the wellof b"rance, came v\ith a Hect of jsofail on the 
 
 the Danes, killed theirchiefs, and taken their magical coall of Kent ; and having landed, lixcd themfelvcsal 
 
 llandard (a), he ilfued his letters, giving notice where Apjile-tree : lliortly after, ar.other, fleet of 80 vcflcls 
 
 lie was, and inviting his nobility to come and confult coming up the Thames, the men landed, and built a 
 
 with him. Before they came toa final determination, fort at Middlcton. Before Alfred marched againft the 
 
 Alfred, pulling on the habit of a harper, went into enemy, he obliged the Danes, fettled in Nonhumbcr- 
 
 ilic enemy's camp, where without fufpicion, he was land and Elfex, to give him hollages for their good 
 
 every where admitted, and had the honour to play be- behaviour. He then moved towards the invaders, and 
 
 lore their princes. Having thereby acquired an exad pi tchcdhiscamp between their armies, to prevent their 
 
 knowledge of their lituation, he returned in great fe- jundion. A great body, however, moved ofi to £f- 
 
 crecy to his nobility, whom he ordered to theirrefpe- iVx ; and crolllng the river, came to Karnham inSurry, 
 
 tive homes, there to draw together each man as great where they were defeated by the king's forces. Mean 
 
 5 force as he could ; and upon a day appointed there while the Danes fettled in Northumberland, in breach 
 
 was to be a general rendezvous at the great wood, of treaty, and notwithllanding the hoftages given, e- 
 
 called Sil'iuood, in Wiltlliirc. This affair was tranfac- quipped two fleets ;and, after idundering the northern 
 
 ted fo fccretly and expeditioully, that,in a little time, and fbuthern coafts, failed to Exeter, and beiiegedit. 
 
 the king, at the head of an army, approached the The king, as foon ashereccivedintelligence, marched 
 
 . Danes, before they had the Icall intelligence of his de- againll them ; but before he reached Exeter, they had 
 
 lign. Alfred, taking advantage of the furprife and got poflVlIion of it. He kept, them, however, blocked up 
 
 terror they were in, f'ellupon them, and totally defeat- on all liuts ; and reduced them at lall to fuch extremi- 
 
 cd them at A^thcndunc, now Eddington. Thofc who 
 efcaped fled toa neighbouring cafllc, where they were 
 foon bclieged, and obliged tofurrendcr at difcretion. 
 
 ties,thatthcy wercobliged toeat thcirhorfes.and were 
 •even ready to devour each other. Being at length ren- 
 dered defperate, they made a general fally on the be- 
 
 fiegcrs ; 
 
 (a) " This (fays Sir John Spclman)was a banner with the image of a raven magically wrought by the three 
 fiftersof Hiuguarand Hobba, on purpofe for their expedition, in revenge of their father Lodcbroch's murder, 
 made, they fay, almod in aninflant,beingby them at once begun and linilhcd in a noontide, and believed by the 
 Danes to have carried great fatality with it, for which it was highly eftcemcd by them. It is pretended, that 
 being carried in battle, towards good fuccefs it would always feem to clap its wings, and make as if it would 
 fly ; but towards the approach of milhap, it would hang down and not move." Life of Atfrtd, p. 61. 
 
 (h) The Danes had poll'effcd themfclves of London in the time of his father; and had held it till now as a 
 convenient place for them to land at, and fortify themfclves in ; neither was it taken from them butby aclofe 
 fiege. However, when it came into the king's hand.s, it was in a miferable condition, fcarce habitable, and all 
 its fortifications ruined. The king, moved by the importance of the place, and the dellre of flrcngthening his 
 frontier againll the Danes, reftored it to its ancient fplendor. Andobferving, that, through the confufion of 
 the times, many, both Saxons and Danes, lived in a 1 )ofe diforderly manner, without owning any government, 
 he offered them now a comfortable eftablifliment, if they would fubmit and become hisfubjeds. This propoli- 
 tion w^as better received than he cxpeclcd ; for jnuUitudes growing weary of a wagabondkindof life,joytully 
 accepted fuch an offer. CArt/;, iS<ja:. p. 88.
 
 A L F 
 
 [ 3 
 
 ficgcrs ; but were defeated, thoiigli with great lofs on 
 ' the king's lidc. The remainder of i his body oi'Daiics 
 fled into Kllex, lo the fort they bad built tlK-re, and to 
 their Ihips. Before Alfred had time to recruit him- 
 felf, another Dauifli leader, whofe name was Laf, came 
 with a great army out of Northumberland, and dc- 
 flroyed all before hii:i, marching on to the city of 
 W'crhcal inthewelb, whichis fuppofed to bcChefter, 
 where thty rcniiincd the reft of that year. The year 
 foUowingthcy invadedNorth-Wales; andaftcrhaving 
 plundered and dellroyed every thing, they divided, one 
 body returning to Northumberland, another into the 
 territories of the Ealt- Angles ; from whence they pro- 
 ceded to Klfcx, and took pollclfioa of a fmall illand 
 called Mercjig. Here ihey did not long remain : for 
 having parted, fome failed up the river Thames, and 
 others up thchea-road ; where drawing up their fhips, 
 they built a fort not far from London, which proved a 
 great check upon the citizens, who went in a body and 
 attacked it, but were rcpulfcd with great lofs : at har- 
 veft-time the king hiinielf was obliged to encamp with 
 a body of troops in the neighbourhood of the city, in 
 order to cover the reapers from the cxcurfions of the 
 Danes. As he was one day riding by the lidc of the 
 river Lea, after forac obfervations, he began to think 
 that the Danilli l!>ips might be laid quite dry; this 
 he attempted, and fucceedcd ; fo that the Danes de- 
 ferted their fort and Ihips, and marched away to the 
 banks of the Severn, where they buiJt a fort, and win- 
 tered at a place called Quatbrig (c). Such of the Da- 
 nilli (hips as could be got otF, the Londoners carried 
 into their own road ; the relf they burnt anddeflroycd. 
 Alfred enjoyed a profound peace during the three 
 laft years of his reign, which he chieliy employed in 
 cAablifliingand regulating his government, for the fe- 
 curity of himfelf and his fuceellbrs,as well as the eafc 
 and benefit of his fubjedts in general. After a trou- 
 blelomereign of 28 years, hediedonthe aSthofOdo- 
 bcr A. D. 900 ; and was buried at Wincheller, in 
 Hyde-abbey, under a monument of porphyry. 
 
 All the hiftorians agree indiftinguilhing himasone 
 of the moft valiant, wifeft, and bell of kings that ever 
 reigned in England ; and it is alfo generally allowed, 
 that he not only digefted feveral particular laws Hill in 
 being, but that he laid the firll foundation of their pre- 
 fent happy conlUiution. There is great rcafon to be- 
 lieve that they arc indebted to this prince for trials by 
 juries ; and the doomfday book, which is prcferved in 
 the exchequer, is thought to be no more than ano- 
 ther edition of Alfred's book of Wincheller, which 
 contained a furvey of the kingdom. It is faidalfo, that 
 he was the firll who divided the kingdom into Ihires, 
 what is afcribcd to him is not a bare divifion of the 
 country, but the fettling a new form of judicature ; for 
 after having divided his dominions into Ihires, he fub- 
 divided each Ihire into three parts, called trythings. 
 There are fome remains of this ancient divilion in the 
 ridings of Yorklhire, the laths of Kent, and the three 
 
 97 ] A L F 
 
 parts of LincoUifliire. Each try tiling was divided ir.to Alfre.t. 
 
 hundreds or wapentakes; and thefe again into tythings ' " — 
 
 or dwcllingsof ten houfeliolders : eachof thefe houic- 
 holders ilood engaged to the king, as a pledge for the 
 good behaviour of his family, and all the ten were mu- 
 tually pledges for each other ; fo that if any one of the 
 tything was fufpeftcd of an otfcnce, if the head bo- 
 roughs or chiefs of the tything would not be fccurit/ 
 for him. he wasiniprifoned ; and if he made hise'cape, 
 the tything and hundred w ere lined to the king. Each 
 Ihire was undt r the government ofan earl, under whom 
 was the reive, his deputy ; fince, from bib office, cal- 
 \ti^Jhirc-rewi, or jhiriff. And fo etfedual were thefe 
 regulaiions, that it is laid he caiifed bracelets of gold 
 to be hung up in the highways, as a challenge to rou- 
 bcrs and they remained untouched. 
 
 In private life, Alfred was the moll amiable man in 
 his dominions ; of fo equal a temper, that he never 
 fuffered either faduels or unbecoming gaiety to enter 
 his mind; butappearcil always of a calm, yet cheerful 
 difpolition, familiar to his friends, jull even to his ene- 
 mies, kind and tender to all. He was a remarkaLlc 
 oeconoraill of his time, and AlTcrius has given us an • 
 account of the method be took for dividing and keep-' 
 ing an account of it : he caufed fix wax-candles to be' 
 made, each 12 inches long, and of as many ounces 
 weight; on thecandlesthcinches wereregularlvmark- 
 ed, and having found that one of them burnt jull four 
 hours, heconiniiitcdthcni to the careof the keepers of 
 his chapel, who from time to time gave him notice 
 how the hours went : but as in windy weather tlic 
 candles were walled by the impreflion of the air on the 
 flame, to remedy this inconvenience, he invented Ian- 
 thorns, there being then no glafs in his dominions. 
 
 This prince, we arc told, was 12 years of age be- 
 fore a mailer could be procured in the welleni kingdom 
 to teach him the alphabet ; fuch was the flate of learn- 
 ing when Alfred began to reign. He had felt the mi- 
 fery of ignorance; anddeterminedevcn 10 rival his co- 
 temporary Charlemagnein the encouragemcntof lite- 
 rature. He is fuppofed to have appointed perfons to 
 read ledures at Oxford, and is thence conlidercd as the 
 founderof that univerlity. By other proper cflablilh- 
 m-uts, and by a general encouragement to men of abi- 
 lities, he did every thing in his power to ditfufc know- 
 ledge throughout his dominions. Nor was this end 
 promoted more by his countenance and encouragement 
 than by his own example and his writings. For not- 
 ■withllanding the htenefs of his initiation, he had ac- 
 quired extraordinary erudition : and, had he not bee.T 
 illullrioas as a king, he would have been famous as an 
 author. His works are, i . Breviamm quaJdain collie- 
 turn exLegibui Tri,jani,riijit, Ste. lib. I. A Breviary col- 
 lecled out of the LawsofthcTrojans, Greeks, Britons, 
 Saxons, and Danes, in one Book. Lelandfaw this book 
 in the Saxon toagjc, at Chrift-church in Hampihirc. 
 3. ViffSuxoirn/i Leges, lib. I. The laws of the Weft- 
 Saxons, in one book. Pitts tells us, that it is in Ben- 
 
 nec- 
 
 \c) The king's contrivance is thought to have produced the meadow between Hertford and Bow ; for at 
 Hertford was the "Danilh fort, and from thence they made frequent excurfions on the inhabitants of London. 
 Authors are not agreed as to the method the king purfued in laying dry the Danilh Ihips : Dugdale fuppofes 
 that he did it by ftraiteniiig the channel ; but Henry of Huntingdon allcdges, that he cut fcvtra! canals, which 
 cxhauilcd its water.
 
 A L G 
 
 Alfreil nct-ColUgc library, at C JinbriJgc. ;; Injlitnta quarjjtu, 
 II lib. I. Certain Inltiiiiics, in one book. This is mcii- 
 Algcbra. lioncii by Pitts, and fceins to be tlic IcconJ capitulati- 
 " ~ on with Guthrinn. 4. Ctiiitra jtuiut's imqii'.!,, lib. 1. 
 An luveclivc againlt Unjull Judges, in one book. 5. 
 y/i'/rt Magijirutiiuvi fnoi uiii, lib. I. Acls of his Ma- 
 giftiatcs, in one book. This is Aippoled to be the 
 book of judgmcnis mentioned by Hornc ; aiiJ was, in 
 all probability, a kind of reports, intended for the life 
 of fuccccding agts. 6. Ri-gtn/i Jorlnnu- vaiij-, lib. I. 
 The various Koriunes of Kings, in one book. 7. Du- 
 tafapi^ntutu, lib. I. The Sayings of Wife Men, in 
 one book. 8. ParoboU ti falcs, lib. I. F.irablcs and 
 pleafant fayings, in one book. 9. Colleniones cfroi.i- 
 cortiM. CoUedionsof Chroni les. 10. EpiJioLcad IVi/lj- 
 fi^iiiiii Efifco/uni, lib. I. EpilUcs to Bifliop Wulfsig, 
 111 one book. II. jMuntiaL- meJitatio/im/i. A Manu- 
 al of Meditations. — Befidcs thefe original works, he 
 tranllatcd many authors froni the Latin, &c. into the 
 Saxon language, viz. i. Bcdc's Ilillory of England. 
 2. Paulinus Orofinus's Iliftory of the Pagans. 3. St 
 Gregory's Pafloral, &c. The firft of thcfc, with his 
 prefaces to tlie others, to;»eilier with his laws, were 
 printed at Cambridge, 1644. His laws arc likewife 
 infertcdin Spelnian's Councils. 4. Boithiiu de Conjoin. 
 tione,)\h. V. Boctius'sConfolaiions of Philofophy, in 
 five books. Dr Plot tells us, king Alfred tranllated 
 it at Woodftock, as he found in a MS. in the Cotton 
 Library. 5. JEfop't t\tbul,e, /Efops Fables : which he 
 is faid lohavc tranllated from the Greek both into Latin 
 and Saxon, b. r/cdtirium Davidicui/iyWU. ]. David's 
 Pfaltcr,iuone book. Tiiis was the lail work the King 
 attempted, death furpriliug him before he had finilhed 
 it ; it was however completed by another hand, and 
 publillicd at London in 1640, in quarto, by Sir John 
 Spelman. Scvcr.1l others are mentioaevi by Malnilbu- 
 ry i and the old hillory of Ely afferts, that he tranf- 
 lated the Old and New Tcftaments. 
 
 The life of this great king v>as firfl written by Af- 
 ferius Mencvcnfis : and lirft publiflied by Archbifliop 
 Parker, in the old Saxon character, at the end of his 
 edition of Hallinghaui's hiftory, printed in 1674, fol. 
 
 ALGA, in botany, the trivial name of the li- 
 chen, fucus, and feveral other plants of the crypto- 
 gamia clafs. 
 
 ALG/E, Flags ; one of the feven families or na- 
 tural tribes into wliich the whole vegetable kingdom is 
 divided by Linnaeus in his Philofil'hiaBUa'iica. They 
 are dtlintd to be plants, wliofe root, leaf, and flcni are 
 
 [ 39S ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 allone. Under this dcfcription are comprehended all the AlgigioU 
 fea-wccds, andfomeotheraquatic plants. In thcfcxual |{ 
 lyflem, they conllitute the 3d order of the 24th clafs Algebra. 
 Cryptogai.-iia ; in Tournefort, the fccond genus of the *~~"^' 
 ferondiC(5lion, Mari>i,c, aut fiuviatilii,o(\.\\i: i7tli clafs 
 yljpcrmj: iiilgt habit^r; and the 57tb order in Linnx- 
 us's Fragments of a Natural Method. The difcove- 
 ries made in this part of the vegetable kingdom are 
 unceriain and imperfect; and the attempts, in parti- 
 cular, to arrange flags by the parts of the fruttilica- 
 tion, have not been attended with great fuccels. Dil- 
 leniushas arranged this order of plants from their ge- 
 neral habit and llrufture ; Michelius from the parts of 
 frudification Each has confiderablc merit. 
 
 ALGAGIOLA, a fmall fea-port town in the illand 
 ofCorfica, fortilied with walls and ballions. It was 
 almoll dcftroyed by the mal-contcnts in 1731, but has 
 lince been repaired. E. Long. 9. 4 j. N. lat. 42. 20. 
 
 ALGAROl", in chemiftry, an Arabic term for an 
 emetic powder, prepared from regulus of antimony, 
 dilfolvcd in acids, and fcparated by repeated lotions in 
 warm water. 
 
 ALGAROTTI (Count) a celebrated Italian, was 
 born at Padua ; but the year is not metioncd. Led 
 by curiolity,as well as a dcfire of improvement, he tra- 
 velled early into foreign countries; and was very young 
 when he arrived in France in 1736. Here he oom- 
 pofcd his "Newtonian Philofophy for the Ladies;" as 
 Fontcnnellc had done hisCartelian Aftronomy, in tlie 
 work entitled, " The plurality of worlds." He was 
 noticed by the king of Pruffia, who gavehim marksof 
 the eftccm he had for him. He died at Pifa the 23d 
 of May, 1764; and ordered his own maufoleum, with 
 this infcription to be fixed upon it : Hie jacc: Alga- 
 "rottus, fednonomnis." He is allowed to have been 
 a very great connoifl'curin painting, fcr.lpture, and ar- 
 chitecture. He contributed much to the reformation 
 of the Italian opera. His works which are nume- 
 rous, and upon a variety of fubjefts, abound with viva- 
 city, elegance, and wit : a colleftion of them has late- 
 ly been made, and printed at Leghorn. 
 
 ALGARVA, a province in the kingdom of Por- 
 tugal, 67 miles in length and 20 in breadth : bounded 
 on the W. and S. by the fca, on the E. by the river 
 Guadiana, and on the N. by Alenieja. It is y^ry fer- 
 tile in figs, almonds, dates, olives, and excellent 
 wines ; bcfid&s, the filhery brings in large fums. 
 The capital town is Pharo. It contains four cities, 
 13 towns, 67parillics, and 6 r,oco inhabitants. 
 
 A 
 
 E 
 
 B 
 
 R 
 
 A, 
 
 PefinitMn A GENERAL method of computation, wiierein li^ns 
 an.tctyaio- t\. and fymbols, toiumonly llic letters of the alpha- 
 lagy. bet aremadc nfe of to rcprcfent numbers, or anyoihcr 
 
 quantities. 
 
 This fcience, properly fpeaking, is no other than a 
 kind of ihort-haud, or ready way of writing down a 
 chain of mathematic.'.! reafoningon any fubject what- 
 ever ; ib that it is applicable to ariLhmeiic, geometry, 
 aflronomy, nicr.fnrationof all kinds of folids, Src. and 
 the great advantages derived from it appear marifcitly 
 toarife fromthccoiicil'cnclipandpcrfj'icuity with which 
 
 every propofition on mathematical fubjeflscan be writ- 
 ten down in algebraic charai?tcrs,greatlyfupcrior to the 
 tcdionscirrumlocutions which would be neceHary were 
 the reafoning to be written in words at length. 
 
 Witli regard to the etymology of the word algibra, 
 it is much conteflcd by the critics. Menage derives 
 it from the Arabic alg'abarat, which fignities the 
 refliiution of any thing broken ; fuppofing that the 
 principal part of algebra is the conlidcration of broken 
 numbers. Others rather borrow it from the Spanilh^ 
 algibnjlet, a perfon who replaces diliocatcd bones ; ad- 
 ding.
 
 A L G E 
 
 ding, that algebra has nothing to do with fraflion. 
 Some, with M. d'Herbclot, are of opinion, that alge- 
 bra takes its name from Gcbar, a celebrated philofo- 
 pher, chcmiA, and mathematician, whom the Arabs 
 call Giaber, and whe is fuppaled to have been the in- 
 ventor. Others from gcjr, a kind of parchment made 
 of the fkin of a camel, whereon All and Giafcr Sakck 
 wrote, in myfticchara<5lers,the fate of Mahomctanifm, 
 and the grand events that were to happen till the end 
 of the world. But others, withmcre probability, de- 
 rive it from gcber ; a word whence, by prcfixingthe ar- 
 ticle al, we have formed algebra ; which is pure Ara- 
 bic, and properly lignities the redudion of fractions to 
 a whole number. However, the Arabs, it is to be ob- 
 ferved, never ufe the word algebra alone, to exprefs 
 what we mean by it; but always add to it the word 
 vtacabelah, which lignities oppolition and comparifon : 
 t\i\is algebra-almacabclah, is what we properly calU/- 
 
 gebra. 
 
 Some authors define algebra. The art of folving ma- 
 thematical problems ; but this is rather the idea of ana- 
 lyfis, or the analytic art. The Arabs call it. The art 
 of reflitution and comparifon ; or. The art ofrefolution 
 and equation. Lucas de Burgo, the firfl European 
 ■who wrote of algebra, calls it, Regula ret et cenfiis : 
 that is, the rule of the root and its fquare ; the root 
 with them being called res, and the fquare cenfus. O- 
 thers call it Specious Arithmetic ; and fome Vniverfal 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 rjTORT. It 'S highly probable that the Indians or Arabians 
 firft invented this noble art : for it may be reifonably 
 fuppofed, that the ancient Greeks were ignorant of 
 it ; becaufe Pappus, in his mathematical collcftions, 
 where he enumerates their. '.naly lis, makes no mention 
 of any thing like it ; and, befidcs, fpcaks of a local 
 problem, begun by Euclid, and continued by Apol- 
 lonius, which none of them could fully rcfolvc ; which 
 doubtlefs they might eafily have done, had they known 
 any thing of algebra. 
 
 Diaphantus was the firft Greek writer of algebra ; 
 who publiihed 13 books about the year 800, though 
 only fix of them were tranllated into Latin, by Xylan- 
 der, in ij7{ ; and afterwards, viz. anno 1721, in 
 Greek and Latin, by M. Buchtt and Fermat, with ad- 
 ditions of their own. This algebra of Diaphautus's 
 only extends to the folution of arithmetical indcicr- 
 niinatc problems. 
 
 Before this tranflationof Diaphantus came out, Lu- 
 cas Pacciolus, or Lucas dc Burgo, a Minorite friar, 
 publilhed at Venice, in the year 1494, an Italian trca- 
 tife of algebra. This author makes nitntioii of Lco- 
 nardusPifanus, and fomeothers,of whonvhc hadlearn- 
 cd the art ; but we have none of their writings. He 
 adds, that algebra came originally from the Arabs, 
 and never mentions Diaphantus ; which makes it 
 probable, that that author was not then known in Eu- 
 rope. Hio algebra goes no farther than finipk and 
 quadratic equations. 
 
 After Pacciolus appeared Stifclius, a good author ; 
 b.it neither did he advance any farther. 
 
 .After h\\\\ came Scipio Ktrrcus, Cardan, Tarta- 
 gilla, and fome others, who reached as f:\ras the fo- 
 lution of fome cubic equations. Bonibrlli followed 
 ihcft, and went a little farther. At lull came Nun- 
 
 I 
 
 BRA. 
 
 nius. Ramus, Schoner, Salignac, Clavius, 8rc. who all 
 of them took diiferent courlcs, but none of them went 
 beyond quadratics. 
 
 in 1 590,Vieta introduced what he called WisSpecioui 
 Arithmetic, which confifts in denoting the quantities, 
 both known and unknown, by fy inbols or letters. He 
 alfo introduced an ingenious mcihodof extracting the 
 roots of equations, by approximations ; fince greatly 
 improved and facilitated by Ralphfon, Halley, Madau- 
 rin, Sinipfon, and others. 
 
 Vieta was followed by Oughtrcd, who, in his Clavis 
 Mathematica, printed in 163 1, improved Vieta's me- 
 thod, and invented fcveral tonipendio'is charafters, to 
 fliow the furas,diftcrenc£s,rectaMglcs,fqiiares,cubes,S:c. 
 
 Harriot, another fcnglilhman, cotcmporary with 
 Ojghtrcd, left feveral trcatifes at his death ; and a- 
 niong the reft, an Analylis, or Algebra, which was 
 printed in 1631, where Vieta's method is brought in- 
 to a Hill more commodious form, and is much citcemed 
 to this day. 
 
 In 1657, DcsCartespublifhcd his geometry, where- ' 
 in he made ufe of the literal calculus and the algebraic 
 rules of Harriot ; and as Oughtred in his Clavis, and 
 Marin. Ghetaldus in his books of mathematical com- 
 pofition and refolution publilhed in 1630, applied 
 Vieta's arithmetic to elementary geometry, and gave 
 the conftruflion of fimple and quadratic equations ; fo 
 Des Cartes applied Harriot's method to the higher 
 georaetry,explainingthe nature of curvesby equations, 
 and adding the conilrudlions of cubic, biquadratic,, 
 and other higher equations. 
 
 Des Cartes's rule for coiiftruv5ling cubic and biqua- 
 dratic equations, was farther improved by Thomas Ba- 
 ker, in his Clavis Ceometrica Catholica, publilhed ia 
 1684; and the foundation of fuch conRruftions, with 
 the application of algebra to the quadratures of curves, 
 queftions de inaxiviis et minimis, the cenirobaryc me- 
 thod of Guldinus, &c. was given by R. Slutius, in 
 i663 ; as alfo by Fermat in his Opera Matheoiatica, 
 Robcrval in the Mem. de Mathem. et de Phiftpie, and 
 Barrow in his Le^.Ceot/iet. In 1708, algebra was ap- 
 plied to the lawsofchance and gaming, by R.dc Mom- 
 mort ; and lincc by dc Moivre and James Bcrnouilli. 
 
 Theelcmentsof theart wcrecor.ipilcd and publilhed 
 by Kerfcy, in 1671 ; wherein the fpccious arithmetic, 
 and the nature of equations, arc largely explained, and 
 iilulUatcdby a variety of examples: the whole fubftancc 
 of Diophantus is here delivered, and many ihiog'sad.f- 
 ed concerning mathematical compof.tion and rcfol'iiiou 
 from Ghetaldus. The like has bieii iiucc done by 
 Prcllc: in 1694, and by O/anam in 1703 : but thcfc 
 authors omit the application of algebra to geometry ; 
 which defcdisfuppliedby Giiifnec in a French ircatiic 
 cxprcfsly on the fubjeCrl publilhed in 1704, and I'Ho- 
 pitnl in his analytical treaiife of the conic fct'lions i:i 
 1707. The rules of algebra arc alfo compcndiojf'y 
 delivered by Sir Ifaac N'cwton, in his AritkwcticaU ri- 
 ver fatis, firll publidied in 1707, which abounds in fe- 
 Icct exaniples, and contains fcvcr.il rules ai.d iutihoii.s 
 invented by the author. 
 
 Algebra has alio been applied ro the confideration 
 and calculus of infinites ; frori whence a new and cx- 
 tenfivcbranth of knowledge has arifi. u, called theZJc.;- 
 trine c/ Fluxions, oiAiiatjIit iflnfnites, or the Calcu* 
 lu:DiJfer:n:ij!is. 
 
 Paut
 
 4.00 
 
 B R A. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 R r 
 
 I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 « 
 
 AQ_iANTiiv which csn be me.ifurcd, and is the 
 objed of mathematics, is of two kinds, Ntimbsr 
 and Extiiififiit. The former is treated ot in Arithnu- 
 lic ; the latter in Ceoinetr^. 
 
 Numbers arc ran;;cdin afcale, by the continued re- 
 pel ition of fomc one mmibcr, which is called the Root ; 
 and, in confcqurncc of this order, they arc conveni- 
 tntly exprelicd in words, and denoted by charafters. 
 The operations of arithmetic are cafily derived from 
 tlic cllablilhcd method of notation, andihcmoftiimple 
 rtafoningscoiiccrnino; the rtUtionsof magnitude. 
 
 InvelUgations by the common arithmetic are greatly 
 limited, troni the want of charadcrs to exprcfs the 
 (|uantitics that are unknown, and their dirfercnt rela- 
 lioris ti)()neanother,and tofuch asarc known. Hence 
 letters and other convenient fymbols hare been intro- 
 duced to fupply this defect ; and thus gradually has 
 arifen the fciencc of /^/j^ira, properly called t/«;p<T- 
 J.il ylrilhinetic. 
 
 Ill the connuon .".rithmetic too, the given numbers 
 difappeftr in l]ie courfe of the operation, fo that gene- 
 ral rules can fcKiom be derived trom it ; but, in alge- 
 bra, the known quantities, as well .-is the unknown, 
 may be cxprelTcd by letters, which, through the whole 
 operation, retain their original form ; and licnce may 
 be deduced, not only general canons for like cafes, but 
 tlie dcpendenceofihe feveralquuniities concerned, and 
 likcwifethe determination of a problem, without ex- 
 hibiting which, it is not completely refolvcd. This 
 general manner of exprclFing quantities alfo, and the 
 general rcafonings concerning theirconnedions.which 
 may be founded on it, have rendered this icicncc not 
 lefs ufeful in the demonllraiion of theorems than in 
 the rcfolution of problems. 
 
 If gcomttrical quantities be fuppofed to be divided 
 into equal parts, their relations, in refpcet of magni- 
 tude, or their proportions, may be exprelicd by luim- 
 bcrs ; one of thefe equal pans being denoted by tlie 
 f unit. Arithmetic, however, is ufed in exprelFing on- 
 ly the conelulions of geometrical propolitions ; and it 
 is by algebra that the bounds and application of geo- 
 metry have been of late fo far extended. 
 
 The proper objedsofmathematicalfciencc arc num- 
 ber and extcnfion ; but mathematical inquiries may be 
 inflituted alfo concerning any phylical quantities that 
 arc capable of being meafured or exprelicd !)y numbers 
 and extended magnitudes : And, as the application of 
 slgcbra may be equally univerfal, it has been called 
 The fcienci oj quantity in general. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 I. QiANTiTiEs which are k::ownare generally repre- 
 fcntcd by the lirft letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, 
 &c. and luch as are unknown by the laft letters, as 
 
 I. The fign -^(pliis) denotes, that the quantity be- 
 fore which it is placed is to be added. Thus 
 (T-l-ii denotes the fuin of a and ^ j 3;-J-5 denotes the 
 fum of 3 and j, or 8. When no fign isexjircU'ed, 
 -^ isunderllood. 
 
 I 
 
 3. The fign — {wiuus) denotes, that the quantity be- Ikfinition«, 
 
 fore wliich it is placed is to be fubtraiited. Tiius ' ^— ' 
 
 a — b denotes the excels of <» above ^ ; 6 — 2 is the 
 
 cxccfs of 6 above 2, or 4. Note, Tliefe cliaraders 
 + and — , from their extenlive ufe in algebra, are 
 called the figns j and the cjnc is faid to be oppojits or 
 contrary to the other. 
 
 4. Quantities which have the fign + prefixed to them 
 arc called pofitive or affirmative ; and fuch as have 
 the lign — prefixed to them are called negative. 
 
 ;. Qiiantitics which have the fame fign, cither + or 
 — , are alfo faid to have likejignt, and thofe which 
 have different lignsarc faidtohave unlike Jigns. Thus 
 -t-<»,-f-i5, have like figns, and +a, — c, are faid to 
 have unlike figns. 
 
 6. The juxiapo/ition of letters as in the fame word, ex- 
 prelles the produdof tlie quantities denoted by ihefc 
 letters. Thus ab exprellcs the product of « and b ; 
 bed cxprefl'cs the continued produd of b, c, and d. 
 The lign + alfo exprellcs the produd of any two 
 quantities between which it is placed. 
 
 7. A number prefixed to a letter is called a ntitnerable 
 coefficient, and exprcdes the produd of the quantity 
 by that number, or how often the quantity denoted 
 by the letter is to be taken. When no number is 
 prefixed, unit is underflood. 
 
 The y;/o//t^;;/ of two quantities is denoted by placing 
 
 the dividend abowc a fmall line and the <//i»;/or below 
 
 18 
 it. Thus — is the quotient of 18 divided by 3, or 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6; 
 
 — is the quotient of a divided by b. 
 
 This cx- 
 
 prelilon of a quotient is alfo called zfraSlion. 
 
 9. A quantity is faid to hefmple, w hich confiftsof one 
 part or Term, as-J-<», — abc ; and a quantity is faid 
 to be compound, when it confifts of more than one 
 term conneded by the figns -f- or — . Thus a+b, 
 a — b+c, are compound quantities. If there arc 
 two terms, it is called a binomial; if three, di.trin0' 
 niial, &c. 
 
 10. Simple quantities, or the terms of compound 
 quantities, are faid to be like, which confifl of the 
 fame letter or letters, equally repeated. Thus-)-/j^, 
 — sab, are like quantities ; but -\-ab, and +aab, 
 are unlike. 
 
 11. The equality of two quantities is exprefled, by 
 placing thclign= between them. Thus x-\-a:zI — c, 
 means that the fum of X and a is equal to the exccfs of 
 b above c. 
 
 When quantities are conlidercd abflrac^ly, then -(- 
 and — denote addition and fubtradion only, according 
 to Def. 2. and 3. and the terms poftive and negative 
 exprefs the fame ideas. In that cafe, a negative quan- 
 tity by iifcif is unintelligible. The fign + alfo is un- 
 neccilary before fimpic quantities, or before the lead 
 ing term of a compound quantity which is not nega- 
 tive ; though, when fuch a quantity or term is to be 
 added to another, -I- mufl be placed before it, to ex- 
 prefs that addition ; and hence in Uef. 2. it is faid, 
 that -f is unMerflood when no fign is txpreifed. 
 
 In geometry, however, and ia certain applications 
 
 of
 
 A 
 
 G 
 
 Fuiida- of gcotnctrjr and algebra, there may be an oppofiiion 
 (neiitalo- or coiitrancty in tlie quintities, analogous to that of 
 pcration«. addition ami fjbtradtioii -, and the fi^ns + and — may 
 " '"""^ very convtiiicnily be ufcd to cxprcfs that contrariety. 
 In fuch cafes, negative quantities arc undcrftood to 
 exill by t'lenifclves; and the fame rules take place in 
 opciarioPb into which they enter, as are iifcd with re- 
 gard 10 tiie negative terms of abftracl quantities. 
 
 CHAP. 1. 
 
 Sect. t. FundamtntMOferatlnns. 
 
 The fundamental opcraiionsiualgebraarethc fame 
 as in common arithmetic, Addition, SubtraClion, Mul- 
 tiplication, and Dtvifion ; and from the various combi- 
 nations of thcfe four, all the others arc derived. 
 
 Prob. I. To add quantitits. 
 
 Simple quantities, or the terms of compound quanti- 
 ties, to be added together, may be hkc with like 
 Jig'is, liii with unlike figns, or tlicy may be unltkt. 
 
 Cafs I. To add terms that arc like and have like 
 figus. 
 
 Rule. Add together the coefficients, to their fum pre- 
 fix ; he common fign, and fubjoin the common letter 
 or Utters. 
 
 Examp. To 
 Add 
 
 sab 
 
 Sum ^ab 
 
 ■}aa — ab 
 Taa — 2ab 
 4aa — §ab 
 
 l^a — 8ub. 
 
 Cafe 2. To add terras that are like, but have unlike 
 figus. 
 
 Rule. Subtrafl the lefs coefficient from the greater ; 
 prefix the fign of the greater to the remainder, and 
 fubjoin the common letter or letters. 
 
 Exatnp. — 4^ -f-7ic — Sab 
 -f7a — 5*c A-'i'b 
 +bc 
 
 +3>ib 
 
 +3" 
 
 +Sic 
 
 Cafe 3. To add terms that are unlike. 
 
 Kule. Set them all down, one after another, with their 
 figns and coefficients prefixed. 
 
 Examp. 2" 4- '^b 
 — JC-+-8 
 
 ^ B R A. 
 
 terms in the quantity 10 be added may fcc united, fo 
 as to render the expreffion in the fum more fmiple- 
 
 Prob. II. To SuhtraCi tlyantilia. 
 
 General Rule. Change the figns of the quantity to 
 be fubira6lcd into the contrary (igns, and then add 
 it, fo changed, to the quantity from which it was 
 to be fubtraclcd (by Prob. I.) , and the fum arifing 
 by this addition is the remaindcc, 
 
 Examp. F'rom -^^a ' ijb — xdbc 
 
 40 1 
 
 2«-t-3/l— 5T4-3 
 
 Compound quantities are added together, by uniting 
 the feveral terms of which they confift by the pre- 
 ceding rules. 
 
 (■ s^h — xxy — X'i.cd 
 Examp. The fum of^ y.v) — ab+^s 
 ( <)cd — xy — mil 
 
 is i,ab — ■3,cd-\-\'i — w/.-f-^xy 
 
 The rule for cafe 5. may be confidercd as the gene- 
 ral ruU foraddiugallalgcbraicalquantiticswhatfocver; 
 and, ' y the rules in the two preceding cafes, the like 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ■¥'ia 
 Subtrad -l-ja 
 
 lah-'rliib 
 
 Rem. +2J nib — i6bc — mi 
 
 From jfT — T!i+(fc+8 
 Subt. 2a — nb+<)c — d 
 
 Pi.era. 3a — 3w^-t-£-t-j' 
 
 Wlien a pofitive quantity is to be fibtraQcd, th^ 
 rule isobvious from Def. 3. : In order tolhowir, when 
 the negative part of a quantity is [o be fubtrafted, Ic'. 
 c — d be fubtracled from a, tiie remainder, according 
 to the rule, is a — c+d. For if c is fubtrafted from 
 a, the remainder is a — c (by Def. 3.) ; but this is too 
 fmall, becaufe c is iubtrafttd infteadof t — d, which i.; 
 lefs-than it by d ; the remainder therefore is too fmaii 
 by d ; and d being added, it is a — c+J; according to 
 the rule. 
 
 Othermife If the quantity d be added to ihefc two 
 quantities a and c — d, the difference will continue the 
 fame; that is, the cxcefs of a above c — d is equal to 
 the excefs of ^j-t-iy above c — </-+-(/; that is, tothe cx- 
 cefs of <?-!-</ above c, which plainly is (j-f,/ — c, and is 
 Therefore the remainder required. 
 
 Prob. III. To multiply Q^iantities. 
 
 Ctneral Rule for the Signj. When the figns of the 
 two terms to be multiplied arc like, the lign of the 
 product is -I- ; but, when ihc iignsarc unlike, the 
 fign of the prodod is — 
 
 Cafe I. To multiply two terms. 
 
 Rule. Find the fign of the produifl by the general rule; 
 after it place the produft of the numeral tocfficienti, 
 and then fet down all the letters one after another, 
 as in one word. 
 
 Mult, +a 
 By +b 
 
 +Si 
 
 — sax 
 
 — -jab 
 
 +ab — 1 sbc +^S''abx 
 
 Thej-eafon of this rule is derived from Bcf. 6. anci 
 from the nature of multiplication, which is a repeated 
 addition of one of the quantities to be multiplied as 
 often as there arc units in the other. Hence alfo the 
 letters in two terms multiplied together ni.iy be placed 
 in any order, and therefore the order of the alphabet 
 is generally preferred. 
 
 Cafi 2. To ranltip!/ compound quantities. 
 
 Rule. Multiply every term of the niiltiplicand by all 
 the terms ot' the muliiplicr, one sfter another, ac- 
 cording to the preceding rule, ar.r" then colccl all 
 the produds into one fum ; that fum is the produft 
 required. 
 
 3 E Exjmp.
 
 402 
 
 Fundi- ExiWip. Mult. 2<»+3^ 
 mental a Uy ^.ax — 4*r 
 
 pcr^tiont. ' 
 
 7)1- 
 
 Prod. 6atfx+9<v^.v — 8a4> — J2!>ijf 
 
 Mult. <J — / 
 By c—d 
 
 nim-\-mx 
 — mx — XX 
 
 mmif. — XX 
 
 ac — cb 
 — ad^rdb 
 
 Prod. a'-. — ib — ad-\-db 
 
 Oj th: general Rule for the Signs. 
 
 The reafon of ihat rule will appear by proving it, as 
 applied to the lall mcmioned example of <?— ^ multipli- 
 ed hy c — d, in which every cafe of it occurs. 
 
 Since multiplication is a repeated addition of the 
 multiplicand as often as there are units in the multi- 
 plier, hence, if a — b is to be multiplied by c, a — i 
 nuift be added to itfelf as often as there arc units in c, 
 and the product therefore muft be ca — ib (Prob. I.) 
 
 But this produ(5l is too {i;rcat ; for a — b is to be mul- 
 tiplied, no; by c, but by c — n'only, which is the ex- 
 cefsof f above (/; r/ times ./ — ^therefore, or (/a — db, has 
 be«n taken too much ; hence this quantity mud be fub- 
 traclcd from the former part of the produft, and the 
 remainder, which (by Prob. II.) is ca — cb — da+db, 
 will be the true product required. 
 
 Def. I ;. W iicn fcveral quantities are multiplied to- 
 gether, any of them is called a /ii^or of the product. 
 
 13. The produds arifing from the continual multi- 
 plication of the fame quantity are called the powers oi 
 that quantity, which is the root. Thus, aa,tjaa, aaaa, 
 &c. are powers of the root a. 
 
 14. Thcfc powers are cxpreffed, by placing above 
 the root, to the right hand, a figure, denoting howof- 
 icn the root is repeated. This figure is called an /'«- 
 dcx,or exponeiii, and from it the power is denominated. 
 Thus, 
 
 
 Power of the root (a' ( 
 a, and is other- j a' 
 wife exprcffed 1 a' 
 by L«% 
 
 &c. 
 
 The 2d and 3d powers are generally called the 
 fquare an&cube; and the 4th, 5th and 6th, are alfo 
 fometimes rcfpcftjvely called tiie biq!iiidralc,fiirfolid, 
 and ctiboaibe. 
 
 Cor. Powers of the fame root are multiplied by 
 adding their exponents, Thus, a' •X.a' =.1^,01 eaaX 
 aazmaaaa, b'X.b—b* ■ 
 
 Scholium. 
 
 ' Sometimes it is convenient to exprefs the multipli- 
 fation of quantities, by fetting them down with the 
 iign (x) between them, without performing the ope- 
 ration according 10 the prec eding r ules ; thus a' y.b is 
 written infteadof <!'i ; and <j— li ■>(.€— d exprelTes tlie 
 fjoducl of a—b, multiplied by c — d. 
 
 Dcf. I f . A vii^Mlum is a line drawn over any nuui- 
 
 BRA. Partr. 
 
 bcr of terms of a compound quantity, to denote thofc Fuwda- 
 which are underftood to be affeiltd by the particular mental o- 
 fign coniieded with it. pcrations. 
 
 Thus, inthc lafl example, it iliows that the terms ' ^^ ' 
 -l-aand — b, and alfo t and — ^/arc all afieclcd by the 
 lign (x). Without the vinculum, the cxprellion 
 a-—by.c. — (/would mean the cxccfs of <j above be and 
 d \ and a — hy^c — </ would i.'.can the excefs of the pro- 
 duct of a — b by c, above d. Thus alfo u^b\ ' ex- 
 prcfles the fecond power of a+b, or the produft of 
 that quantity multiplicdby itfelf ; whereas a-t-^' would 
 exprefs only the fum of w and b' ; and fo of others. 
 By fome writers aparenthclis ( ) is ufrd as a vinculum, 
 and (^a+b)' is the fame thing as a-\-i')'. 
 
 Prob. IV. To divide Qr/anti/ies, 
 
 General Rule for the Si^ns. If the figns of the divifor 
 and dividend are like, tlie (ign of the quotient is 
 -\- ; if they are unlike, the lign of the quotient is 
 
 •This rule is eafily deduced from that given in Prob. 
 III. ; for, from the nature of divifion, the quotient 
 muft be fueh a quantity as, multi))lied by the divifor, 
 fliall produce the dividend wiih its proper lign. 
 
 From Def. 8. The quotient of any two quantities 
 may be exprelTed, by placing the dividend above aline 
 and ilie divifor below it. But a quotient may often 
 be cxprelfed in a more fimple and ionvenient form, as 
 will .ippear from the following diftinftion of the ca- 
 fes. 
 
 Cafe I. When the divifor is fimple, and is a fadlor 
 of all the terms of the dividend. This is eafily dif- 
 covtrcd by infpeflion ; for then the coefficient of the 
 divifor mealurcs that of all llic terms of the dividend, 
 and all the letters of the divifor are found in every 
 term of the dividend. 
 
 Rule. The letter or letters in the divifor are to be ex- 
 punged out of each term in the dividend, and the 
 cocfticicnts of each term to be divided by the coef- 
 ficient of the divifor: the quantity rcfulting is the 
 quotient. 
 
 Ex. a) ab(b. laab) 6a'bc — ^' bdtu [^ac — 2dm. 
 
 The reafon of this is evident from the nature of di- 
 vilion, andfrom Def. 6. Note. It is obvious from co- 
 rollary to Prob. III. that powers of t]>e fame root are 
 divided by fubtrading their exponents. 
 
 Thus a' )a' (a a>)a'{a'. AUo a'b) a'b^ (ai' . 
 
 Cafe II. When the divifor is fimple, but not a fac- 
 tor of the dividend. 
 
 Rule. The quotient is expreflfed by a fraflion, aecord- 
 ino- to Def. 8. viz. by placing the dividend abovea 
 line and the divifor below it. 
 
 Thus the quotient of ■^ab' divided by 2!iibc is the 
 ■^ab' 
 
 fradion 
 
 2w be. 
 
 Such cxprefTions of quotients may often be reduced 
 to a more limple form, as Ihall be explained in the fe- 
 cond part of til is chapter. 
 
 Cafe III. When ihc divifor is compound. 
 
 HuJe.
 
 Ruti I. The term? of the JiviJciid arc to be ranged 
 according to the powers of fome one of its letters ; 
 and thofc of the divifor, according to the powers 
 of the fame letter. 
 
 Thus, if <t'+2>r^4-^^ is the dividend, and a->irb the 
 divifor, they arc ranged according to the powers of a. 
 
 a. The firfl term of the dividend is to be divided by 
 the firft term of the divifor (obfcrving the general 
 rulcof tlie ligns) ; and this quotient being fet down 
 as a part of the quotient wanted, is to be multiplied 
 by the whole divifor, and the produd fubtracled 
 from the dividend. If nothing remain, the divi- 
 Con is finilhcd : the remainder, when there is any, 
 is a new dividend. 
 
 Thus, in the preceding example, a" divided by a, 
 gives a, which is tlic firft part of the quotient want- 
 ed : and the produft of this part by the whole divifor 
 n^, viz. a'-\-ab being fubtraded from the given di- 
 vidend, there remains in this example ab-^b' . 
 
 3. Divide the firfl term of this new dividend by the 
 firfl term of the divifor as before, and join the quo- 
 tient to the part already found, with its proper fign: 
 then multiply the whole divifor by this part of the 
 quotient, and fubtraft the produft from the new 
 dividend ; and thus the operation is to be continued 
 till no remainder is left, or till it appear that there 
 will always be a remainder. 
 
 Thus, in the preceding example, -{-ab, the firfl 
 term of the new dividend divided by a, gives b ; the 
 produtt of which, multiplied by a^b, being fubtraft- 
 ed from iii-t-i", nothing remains, and a-\-bis the true 
 quotient. The entire operation is as follows. 
 
 a+b) a'+2ab+i' 
 a'^ ab 
 
 i^+b 
 
 ab+b' 
 ab+b- 
 
 ja — b) 3<J' — 12a' — a'b+ioab — 2^' («'- 
 3a' — a'b 
 
 -Ha+zi 
 
 — I2<J' 
 I2<J" 
 
 + Joab 
 
 
 +6ab—2b' 
 +6ab—2b' 
 
 I-..) 
 
 » • 
 
 I {i+a+a'+a>, Sec. 
 I — a 
 
 
 +a — «' 
 
 
 
 +a>, &c. 
 tt often happens, as in the lad example, that there 
 
 E B R A. 403 
 
 is ftiU a remainder from which the operation may be Tunda- 
 continucd without end. This cxprcflion of a quotient w"?"'*' "- 
 is called a;t infinite feria j the nature of which (hill P^'""^ 
 be coufidercd afterwards. By comparing a few of the '" 
 
 firfl terms, the law of the fcrics may be difrovered, 
 by which, without any mor« divifion, it may be con- 
 tinued to any number of terms wanted. 
 
 Of the. Central Rule. 
 
 The rcafon of the different parts of this rule is evi- 
 dent ; for, in the courfe of the operation, all the term-^; 
 of the quotient obtained by it arc multiplied by all 
 the terms of the divifor, and the produdlsarc fuccef- 
 fivcly fubtraclcd from the dividend till nothing re- 
 main : that, therefore from the nature of divifioi;, 
 mufl be the true quotient. 
 
 Note. The fign jl. is foraetimesufed to exprefs the 
 quotient of two quantities between which it is placed: 
 Thus, <j"-(-v'-i-a-t-.v, expreflcsthc quotient of <7'-4-Ar' 
 divided by a+x. 
 
 § 2. Of Fractions. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 1. When a quotient isexpreflcd by a fraiflion, tlie di- 
 vidend above the line is called the numerator ; and 
 the divifor below it is called the denominator. 
 
 2. If the numerator is lefsthan the denominator, it is 
 called z proper fraOion. 
 
 3. If the numerator is not lefs than the denominator, 
 it is called an improper fradion. 
 
 4. If one part of a quantity is an integer, and the o- 
 ther a fraiSion, it is called a mixt quantity. 
 
 5. The reciprocal of a fraction, is a fraction whofe nu- 
 merator is the denominator of the other ; and whofe 
 denominator is the numerator of the other. The 
 reciprocal of an integer is the quotient of i divided 
 by that integer. Thus, 
 
 -is the reciprocal of f ; and — is the reciprocal 
 
 a b m 
 
 of ?«. 
 
 The diftinftions in Def. 2, ;, 4, properly belong to 
 common arithmetic, from which they are borrowed, 
 and are fcarcely ufed in algebra. 
 
 The operations concerning fradions are founded on 
 the following propofition : 
 
 If the divifor and dividend be either both multiplied 
 or both divided by the fame quantity, tlie quotient is 
 the fame ; or, if both the numerator and denominator 
 of the fraflion be either multiplied or divided by the 
 fame quantity, the value of that fradion is the fame. 
 
 Thus, let-=f, then — —c. For, from the nature 
 b mb 
 
 of divifion, if the quotient- (=c) be multiplied bjr 
 
 b 
 
 the divifor^, the produ<5lmi[ll be the dividend A. Hence , 
 f T X ^ =^ ) ^c=^> anJ likewife w<i=iw3c, and dividing 
 
 both by mb, — -C. Converfely, if '—- c, then alf» 
 mb mb 
 
 3E 2 
 
 Cor.
 
 404 A L U 1 
 
 Fund*- Cor. I. Hence a frartion may be reduced to another 
 mrntal o- of tlic fame value, but of a more fmiplc furni, by Ji- 
 pcra t iuns. viding both numerator and dciiominator by any coni- 
 niou mcafure. 
 
 Thus, ?oax — J4iy._jx — 9/. 
 I2ai ~ 20 
 
 BRA, 
 
 Part. IX 
 
 4«" 
 
 2« 
 
 Cor. 2. A fraflion is multiplied by any integer, by 
 inultij'l) iujj the nuir.crator, or dividing the drr.oniina- 
 iiir by that integer: and convcrfely, a fraclion is di- 
 vided by any integer, by dividing ilie numerator, or 
 n.uliiplying the denominator by that integer. 
 
 Prop. I. To fi/id the great rO conimcn Meafurt oj tv.:: 
 Qf.-j/Jiti'!, 
 
 I. Of pnre numbers. 
 
 Ri//e. Divide the greater by the Icfs: and, if there is 
 no remainder, the lefs is the greatcll common niea- 
 iiirc required. If there is a remainder, divide the 
 lafl divilor by it ; and t!ius proceed, continually di- 
 viding the l.ifl divifor by its remainder, till no re- 
 mainder is left, and the lall divifor is the greatcll 
 common meafurc required. 
 
 The grcatefl common mcafure of 45 and 63 is 9 ; 
 the greatcft common, mcafure of 187 and 391 is 17. 
 Thus, 
 
 45)63(1 
 4S 
 
 187)391(2 
 374 
 
 I8)4J(2 
 36 
 
 7).8(: 
 18 
 
 17)187(11 
 187 
 
 From the nature of this operation, it is plain that 
 it may always be continued till there be no remainder. 
 The role depends on the two following principles : 
 
 1. A quantity which meafures both divifor and re- 
 oainder mull mcafure the dividend. 
 
 2. A quantity which meafures both divifor and di- 
 vidend muft alfo mcafure the remainder. 
 
 For a quantity which meafures two other quantities, 
 mult alfo meafurc both their fum and diftcrcncc ; and, 
 Irom the nature of divifion, the dividend conlills of the 
 tf vifor repeated a certain number of times, together 
 with the remainder. By the firft it appears, that the 
 nnmber found by this rule is a common meafure ; aad, 
 by the fecond, it is plain there can be no greater com- 
 mon mcafure : for, if there were,' it mull necefl'arily 
 meafurc the quantity already found lefs than itfelf, 
 ■which is abfnrd. 
 
 When the greatcft common meafure of algebraical 
 ^nantities is required, if either of them be llmple, any 
 common timple divifor is eafily found by infpcclion. 
 If they are both compound, any common limple divi- 
 for may alfo be found by infpcflion. But, when the 
 greatcft compound divifor is wanted, the preceding 
 rule is te be applied ; only, 
 
 2. The limple divifors of each of the quantities are Tunda- 
 to be taken out, the remainders in the fevcral opera- mental n- 
 tions arc alfo to be divided by their limple divifors, and P'"' '""-' 
 the quantities arc always lo be ranged according to the "'"" 
 powers of the fame letter. 
 
 The limple divifors in the given quantities, or in the 
 rcmaiiiJers, do not atfc^'l a compound divifor which is 
 wanted; and hence alfo, to make tlic divilionfucceed, 
 any of the dividends may be n\ul!iplicd by a limple 
 quantity. Belides the limple divifors in the remainders 
 not being found in the divifors from which rhey arifc, 
 can make no part of the common mcafure fought ; anil 
 for the fame reafon, if in fuch a remainder there be 
 any compound divifor which docs not meafurc the di- 
 vifor from which it proceeds, it may be taken out. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 j»' — b')a' — 2iit>+l>' (i 
 a' — b' 
 
 — 2ah-\-2b' Remainder which, 
 divided by — zh is a — b) a' — b' (o-)-^ 
 a' — b' 
 
 If tiic quantities given are 8a- li' — io^*'-»-2*'', and 
 <)a*b — 9a'^'-t-3a*»' — ■^ab' . The 1 mi pie divifors be- 
 ing taken out, viz. 2b' out of the tirft, it becomes 
 40- — ^ab + b', and ^ab out of the fecond, it is 
 3<j' — ^a'b.^b' — b'. As the latter is to be divided 
 by the former, it muft be multiplied by 4, to make 
 the operaiion fucceed, and then it is as follows : 
 
 4«' — 5<»M-^') 12a' — 130*^4^^' — 4^' (■}a 
 I24» — i^a'b+iab' 
 
 ■^a'b-^-ab' — 4^' 
 
 This remainder is to be divided by b, and the new 
 dividend multiplied by 3, to make the divifion pro- 
 ceed. Thus, 
 
 la'-^-ab — 4^') laa" — Ijai-j-q*' (4 
 l2d'-t-4ai — 16^' 
 
 — 19^^-1-19^' 
 
 and this remainder, divided by — I9i,gives<? — ^,Which 
 being made a divifor, divides ^a'+ab — 4b' without a 
 remainder, andtherefore a — b is the greatcft compound 
 divifor : but there is a limple divifor b, and therefore 
 a — bxb is the greateft common meafure required, 
 
 Prob. II. To reduce a FraHioii to itl Ivwefi Terms. 
 
 Rule. Divide both numerator and denominator by 
 their greateft common meafurc, which may be found 
 by prob. I. - 
 
 Thus, _Z£f_:r— , 2 5#£ being the greatcft common 
 I2ibcx sx 
 
 -b' a'+b' 
 
 meafure, . 
 
 . alfo. 
 
 a ' — a 't>' "' 
 8u-b' — loab' +2b* Sab — 2b' 
 
 common meafurc being a — OX^f by Prob. i. 
 
 Prob.
 
 Part [. 
 
 Funda- 
 mental 0- 
 perationj. 
 
 Prob. ill. To 
 
 rtJ.iCi an Iitttgtr 
 FraBion. 
 
 L G 
 
 ti thi Farm of a 
 
 B R 
 
 405 
 
 ' Ruh. Multiply the given integer by any quantity Tor 
 a numerator, and let that quantity under the pro- 
 duft for a denominator. 
 
 ma . a' — i' 
 
 Thus, azi — , a+a:z r— 
 
 in a — *. 
 
 Cor. Hence, in the following operations concerning 
 fractions, an integer may be introduced ; for, by this 
 problem, it may be reduced to the form of a fraclion. 
 The denominator of au integer is generally made i . 
 
 Prob. W.To ndutt FraCliont luith diffsreiii Dencvii- 
 iiators to Fraclio.li of equal Value, that fhall have ihi 
 fame Bc):o?>iinator. 
 
 Rule. Multiply each numerator, feparatcly taken, into 
 all the denominators but its own, and the products 
 fltall give the new numerators. Then multiply all 
 the denominators into one another, and the product 
 Ihall give the common denominator. 
 
 Example. Let the fradiotisbe-' -' -1 they are 
 
 d J 
 
 ^ „. , , adf, bcf, tide. 
 
 rcfpcawely equal to^ -i- _ 
 
 The reafon of the operation appears from the prece- 
 ding propofition ; for the numerator and denominator 
 of each fraction are multiplied by the fame quantities ; 
 and the value of the fraftions therefore is the fame. 
 
 Prob. V. To addandfubtrali Frailitni.. 
 
 Rule. Reduce them to a common denominator, then 
 add or fubtract the numerators ; and the fum or dif- 
 ference fetover the common denoriiinator is thefuni 
 or remainder required. 
 
 Ex. Add together I'i'l' the hm isf^l±fM±!±., 
 ^ b d f baf 
 
 - the diftercRce is 
 
 d id^. 
 
 From - fubt. 
 b 
 
 From the nature of diviiion it is evident, that, when 
 feveral quantities are to be divided by the fame divi- 
 for, the fum of the quotients is the fame with the quo- 
 tient of the fum of the quantities divided by that com- 
 mon divifor. 
 
 In like manner, the difference of two fractions ha- 
 vingthe fame denominator, is equal to the difference of 
 the numerators divided by that common denominator. 
 
 Cor. 1. By Cor. Prob. 3. integers may be reduced 
 to the form of fradions, and hence integers and frac- 
 tions may be added and fiibtrafted by this rule. Hence 
 alfo what is called a mixt quantity may be reduced in- 
 to the formo fa fration, by bringing the integral part 
 into the form of a fracflion, with the fame denominator 
 as the fradlional part, and adding or fubtrafting the 
 numerators according as the two parts are connected 
 by the figns -t- or — . 
 
 and <>_ "'-^.'^ 
 
 Thus, ^+P=— ^- 
 
 • — a--\-!:-_a'+/<' 
 la ~ 2« 
 
 Cor. 2. A fraction, whofe numerator is a compound FunJa- 
 quantity, may be dillinguilhcd into parts, by dividir.g m'nt'l "- 
 the numerator into fcvcral parts, and fetiing each over t^"''°g»- 
 the original denominator, and uniting the new frac- 
 tions (reduced if neceffiry) by the figns of their nu- 
 merators. 
 
 -T-i,.,,. "' — 'i^b+i' «" 2^b , i'_a , , b' 
 Thus, — i — + — = _ —^ + — 
 
 2i 2ti 2x 2 J 2 2a. 
 
 P.103. VI. To tnultiply FraCliont. 
 
 Rule. Multiply their numerators into one another, to 
 obtain the numerator of tlie produifl ;^nd the deno- 
 minators, multiplied into oncanother, tiall give the 
 denominator of the product. 
 
 a-\-b a — b a' — b' 
 
 ~r '~r~ cd. 
 
 r- a c ac 
 Ex.i-X-— — 
 b d bd. 
 
 For, if- is to be multiplied by c, the produ,^ isff . 
 
 b i 
 
 but if it is to be multiplied-only by- the former pro- 
 
 d 
 
 duftmull be divided by d, and it becomes ff (Cor. 2. 
 
 bd 
 to the preceding problem.) 
 
 Or, let-— w, and-—';. Then kzd>m, and czid/:, 
 b d 
 
 and ac-=J)dvin, and {tun— )-)<.-— -f- 
 b d bd- 
 
 Pros. VH. To div'tdt Frailiai;i. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the numerator of the dividend by the 
 denominator of the divifor ; their product Ihall give 
 the numerator of the quotient. Then r.uihiply the 
 denominator of the dividend by the numerator of 
 the divifor, and their produd Ihall give the denomi- 
 nator. 
 
 Or, Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the di- 
 vifor ; the product will be the quotient wanted, 
 
 Thus,niffi-£x* 
 bjd\ad d a- 
 
 For, if-- is to be divided by a, the quotici;t is — ; 
 a da 
 
 bat,- is to be divided, not by a, but by-; therefore 
 
 d i) 
 
 the former quotient mud be multiplied by b, and ic 
 
 . be 
 IS — 
 da. 
 
 Or, let -—rn, and-=Ar j then a^bm, and c^j/a ; 
 
 b d 
 
 alfo adzdbd/u and bi^kdii ■, thcrcfor«i 
 
 (^•lii _\ii _tc 
 \bdm~ )ti~ ad 
 
 Sciolii 
 
 By thefc problems, the four fuaJamental operations 
 may be perforp'rj, when a. y terms of the original 
 quantities, or <u iliofc which arife in the courfc of the 
 operation, arc fractional. 
 
 Ex-
 
 40 6 
 
 MiJlt. 2 — 
 
 Prod. — _ 
 
 6x' 2 
 
 •2fl' 
 
 6<*x' 
 
 
 — ax+x' 
 
 
 ilX .V ■ 
 
 
 2X' 
 
 
 2y' + 2xJ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 2X' 
 
 
 — ^^.^^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 2.V' 
 
 2X« 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 a 
 
 tf ' 
 
 + 
 
 i::,&c. 
 
 
 a' 
 
 This quotient becomes a fcrics, of which the law 
 •of continuation is obvious, without any farther opera- 
 tion. 
 
 In fuch cafes, when we arrive at a remainder of one 
 term, it is commonly fet down with the divifor below 
 it, after the other terms of the quotient, which then 
 becomes a mixt quantity. Thus the laft quotient is 
 
 2 V * 
 
 alfo expreflcd by a — x-i-—^ 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 Of Proportion. 
 
 By the preceding operations quantities of the fame 
 kind may be compared together. 
 
 The relation arifing from this comparifon is called 
 ratio or proportion, and is of two kinds. If wc confi- 
 der the difference of the two quantities, it is called 
 arithmetical proportion ; and if we confidcr their quo- 
 tient, it is called geometrical proportion. This laft be- 
 ing moft generally ufcful, is commonly called fimply 
 proportion. 
 
 I. Of Arithmetical proportion. 
 
 Definition. Whcnof fourquantitiesthe difFerenceof 
 the firft and fecond is equal to the difference of the 
 ihird and fourth, the quantities are called arithmetical 
 proportionals. 
 
 Cor. Three quantities may be arithmetically propor- 
 tional, by fuppofiDg the two middle terms of the four 
 to be equal. 
 
 Pri.p. In four quantities aritlimetically proportion- 
 al, the fum of the extremes is equal to the fum of 
 the means. 
 
 Let the four be a, k, c, d. Therefore from Def. 
 a — b^u — d; to thefe add b+d and a+dzilH-c. 
 
 BRA. Part. I. 
 
 Car. I. Of four arithmetical proponionals, any OfPropor- 
 threc being given, the fourth may be found. fio"- 
 
 Thus, let a, h, c, be the ift, 2d, and ijth icrnis, and 
 let X be the third which is fought. 
 
 Then by def. a+i.—b-\-x, and x=ui+c — b. 
 
 Cor. 2. If three quantities be arithmetical propor- 
 tionals, the fum of the extremes is double of the mid- 
 dle term ; and hence, of three fuch proportionals, any 
 two being given, the third may be found. 
 
 2. Of Geometrical Proportion. 
 
 Definition. If of four quantities, the quotient of the 
 firft and fecond is equal to the quotient of the third 
 and fourth, thefe quantities are faid to be ingeometri- 
 cal proportion. They are alfo called proportionals. 
 Thus, if a, b, c, d, arc the four quantities, then 
 
 f =1, and iheir ratio is thus denoted a : i : : c : d. 
 6 d' 
 
 Cor. Three quantities may be geometrical propor- 
 tionals, viz. by fuppoling the two middle terms of the 
 four CO be equal. If the quantities are a, b, c, thea 
 
 _=_, and the proportion is exprefled thus, a : b : c. 
 b c 
 
 Prop. I. The produiJl of the extremes of four quan- 
 tities geometrically proportional is equal to the pro- 
 dud of the means , and converfely. 
 
 Let a:b: : c: d. 
 
 Then by Def. t-=.'L 
 b d 
 
 and multiplying both by bd, adzibc. 
 
 If ad — be, then dividing by hd, -—^ that is, 
 
 b di 
 a: b : : c : d. 
 
 Cor. I. The produft of the extremesof three quan- 
 tities, geometrically proportional, is equal to thefquarc 
 of the middle term. 
 
 Cor. 2. Of four quantities geometrically proportion- 
 al, any three being given, the fourth may be found. 
 
 Ex. Let a, b, c, be the three firft : to find the 4th, 
 Let it be x, then a: b : : c ■ x, and by this propofition, 
 ax— be 
 
 and dividing both by a, x— — 
 
 This coincides with the Rule of Three in arithme- 
 tic, and may be confidered as a demonftration of it. 
 In applying the rule to any particular cafe, it is only 
 to be obferved, that the quantities muft he foconneft- 
 ed and fo arranged, that they be proportional, accord- 
 ing to the preceding definition. 
 
 Cor. 5. Of three geometrical proportionals, any two 
 being given, the third may be found. 
 
 Prop. I J. If four quantities be geometrically pro- 
 portional, then if any equimultiples whatever be taken 
 of (he firft and third, and alfo any equimultiples what- 
 ever of the fecond and fourth ; if the multiple of the 
 firft be greater than that of the fecond, the multiple of 
 the third will be greater than that of the fourth ; and 
 if equal, equal ; and if Icfs, lefs. 
 
 For, let a, b, c, d, be the four proportionals. Of 
 
 the
 
 B R 
 
 f Equa- the firft and third, ma and tnc may reprefcnt any cqui- 
 tion». multiples whatever, and alfo ub, nd, may reprefcnt 
 
 — " any equimultiples of the fecond and fourth. Since 
 
 a : b : : c : d, ad'=Jic ; and hence multiply by vin, 
 miiad'=jn>ibc, and therefore (Conv. Prop, i.) 
 ma : lib : : tiic : nd ; and from the definition of pro- 
 portionals, it is plain, that if ///a is greater than nb, 
 VIC muft be greater than ud ; and if equal, equal j and 
 if Icfs, Icfs. 
 
 Prop. III. If four quantiiics are proportionah, they 
 will alfo be proportionals when taken alternately or in- 
 verfcly, or by compofition, or by divilion, or hy con- 
 verfion. Sec Dcf. 13. 14. 15. 16. i 7. of Book V. of 
 Euclid, Simfon's edition. 
 
 By Prop. II. they will alfo be proportionals accord- 
 ing to Dcf. 5. Book V. of Euclid ; and therefore this 
 propofition is demonftratcd by propofuions 16, B. 18, 
 17, £. of the fame book. 
 
 Otherwifc algebraically. 
 
 Let a: b : : c : d, and therefore ad'^.bc. 
 Altern. a : c : : b : d 
 
 Invert. b : a : : d : c 
 
 Divid. a — b : b : : c — d : d 
 
 Comp. a+b : b : : c+d : d 
 
 Convert, a : a — b : : c : c — d 
 
 For fince ad=J>c, it is obvious, that in each of thefe 
 cafes the produfi of the extremes is equal to the pro- 
 duft of the means ; the quantities are therefore pro- 
 portionals. (Prop. I.) 
 
 Prop. IV. If four numbers be proportionals, accord- 
 ing to Def. 5. B. V. of Euclid, they will be geome- 
 trically proportional, according to the preceding defi- 
 nition. 
 
 i//. Let the four numbers be integers, and let them 
 be a, b, c, d. Then if b times a and b times c be ta- 
 ken, and alfo a times b and a times d, lince ba the 
 multiple of the firfl rs equal to ab the multiple of the 
 fecond, be the muliiple of the third, nnift be equal to 
 ad the multiple of the fourth. And fiiicc bc^ad, by 
 Prop. I. a, b, c, and d, mull be geometrical proporti- 
 onals. 
 
 idly. If any of the numbers be fraftional, all the 
 four being multiplied by the dcnonii".aiors ofthe frac- 
 tions, they continue proportionals, according to Dcf. 5. 
 B. V. huclid (by Prop. 4 ..f that book) > and the 
 four intei^er quantities produced being fuch propor- 
 tionals, they will be geometrical proportionals, by the 
 firrt part of this prop. ; and therefore, being reduced 
 by divifionto their original form, they nianifclUy will 
 remain proportionals, accoulingto ibi algebraical de- 
 finition. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Sect. I. OJ En iiaiiom in general, and oj the Solution 
 oj fitnple E.juatioiii. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 f^ An Equation may in general be defined to be a 
 proporuiou alfcrting the equality of two quantities; 
 
 407 
 
 and is cxpreflTed by placing the lign = between Of Equa. 
 them. tlont. 
 
 2. When a quantity Aands alone upon one fide of an ''""^^ 
 equation, the quantities on the other fide are faid to 
 
 be a valheoi it. Thus in the equation xz;i-|-^ d, 
 
 X ftands alone on one lide, and b-\-y — d is a value 
 of it. 
 
 3. When an unknown quantity is made to ftand alone 
 on one fide of an equation, and there are only known 
 quantities on the other, that equation is faid to be 
 TifiAved; and the value of the unknown quantity is 
 called a ro',t of the equation. 
 
 4. Equations containing only one unknown quantity 
 and its powers, are divided into orders, according to 
 the higlicrt power of the unknown quantity to be 
 found ill any of its tcrius. 
 
 IfthchighcftpowcrofTift, pThe Y.-C Simple, 
 iheuiiknownquaiui- >2d, S-quation -^ Quadratic, 
 ty in .Tuy term be the ^3d,&c. ^iscallcd(^ C .bic, &c. 
 
 But the exponents of the unknown quantity are fup- 
 pofcd to be integers, and the equation is fuppofcd to 
 be cleared of fractions, in which the unknown quanti- 
 ty, or any of its powers, enter the denominators. 
 
 Ti 3'^' — ^- ,■ , • J 
 iJius, x-^-uzz ^is a iimplc equation; ^x =I2» 
 
 when cleared of the fra(51ion by multiplying both 
 iidcs by 2.v, becomes 6.\ ' — 5=24.v a quadratic. 
 •V' — 2A*:z.v' — 20 is an equation of the fixth order, &c. 
 
 .^s the general relations of quantity which may be 
 treated of in alsjcbra, arc alnioftuniverfally either thai; 
 of equality, or fuch as may be reduced to that of c- 
 quality, the doctrine of equations becomes one of the 
 chief branches of the fcicncc. 
 
 The moft common and ufeful a^Vplication of alcebra 
 is in the inveftigation of quantities that are unknown, 
 from certain given relations to each other, and to fuch 
 as arc known ; and hence it has been called the analj' 
 tical art. The equations employed for cxpreffing ihefc 
 relations nuift therefore contain one or more unknowa 
 quantities ; and the principal bufinefsof this art will 
 he, the deducing equations containing only one un- 
 known quantity, and refolving tbeni. 
 
 The folution of the different orders of equations will 
 be fuccclTively explained. The preliminary rules in the 
 following fection are ufcfil in all orders, and arc alone 
 fufiicieut for the folution of iimplc equations. 
 
 § I. Of fiiHple Equations, and tkeir Rtfolution. 
 
 Simple equations are refolvcd by the four fundamen-" 
 t.al operations already explained ; and t!ic application 
 of them to this purpofc is contained in the following 
 rules. 
 
 Rule 1. Any quantity may be tranfpofed from one lije 
 of an equation to the other, by changing its fign. 
 
 Thus, if 3.V — 10— 2V-4-5 
 Then, 3.V — 2.v=io-(-5 or .t=i5 
 Thus alfo, J\+fc.;-|-2j; 
 By tranfp. 5.v=:a — b. 
 
 This rule is obvious from prob. i. and :. ; for it is 
 equivalent to adding equal quantises to both fides of 
 tiic equation, or to fubtrafling equal quantities from 
 boili llJcs. 
 
 Cor.
 
 LOS 
 
 of Kqua- 
 
 Ciuni. 
 
 a 
 xr:zab-\rac 
 
 A L G 1 
 
 Cor. The figns of all tlie terms of an equation may 
 be r lunge J into the contrary ligns.and ii will continue 
 to be true. 
 
 Rult 2. Any qmntiiy by which the unknown qiian- 
 iJiy is multiplied may be taken away, by dividing 
 all t'lc other quantities of the equation by it. 
 Thus, if axr=i 
 
 Alfo, if mx+nb-=:am 
 
 nb 
 
 i.H — zza 
 
 m 
 
 ■ For if equal quantities are divided by the fame 
 
 quantity, the quotients arc equal. 
 
 Rule ?. If a lerm of an equation is fraftional, its de- 
 nominator may be taken away, by multiplying all 
 the other terms by it. 
 
 .Thus, if -=^+'^ Alfo, It a—-c 
 
 ax — bzzcx 
 And by tranf. ax — cx=i 
 b 
 
 And by div. x-=. 
 
 ' a — c 
 
 ' For if all tiic terms of the equation are multiplied by 
 •. the fame quantity, it remains a true propofitiou. 
 
 Corollary to the three lajl Rules. 
 
 If any quantity be found on both fides of the equa- 
 tion, with the fante lign, it may be taken away from 
 both. (Rule I.) 
 
 Alfo, if all the terras in the equation arc multiplied 
 or divided by the fame quantity, it may be taken out 
 of them all. (Rule 2. and 5.) 
 
 Kx. If 5v-t-a3:^-i-i, then 3.v=/'. 
 
 \i 2ax-\--!,aL—ma+a\ then zxJflk—i/i+a. 
 
 -^ r 416 . 
 
 If - — — , then .V — t,— \b. 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 Any fimple equation maybe refolved by thefe rules 
 in the following manner, i//, Any fractions may be 
 taken away by R. '5. 2<i'A', All the terms including 
 the unknown quantity, may be brought to one fide of 
 the equation, and the known terms 10 the other, by 
 R. I. Lafllji, If the unknown qu.'intity is multiplied 
 by any known quantity, it may be made to ftand alone 
 J)yR. 2. and the equation wiJlthcn be refolved. Def. 3. 
 
 Examples of fimple Eqiiathvs refolved by thefe Rules,. 
 I. 
 lf3x+S=v.t-9 
 R. I. 2.v=4 
 
 B 
 
 R. 2 
 
 x^i^2 
 2 
 
 II. 
 
 If 5.v_lf-H2=^+:6 
 
 ^x e, '■ 
 R. I. 5.V— 2- =14 
 
 2 3 
 
 R. 3. 30X — 15X — Sa=:84 
 
 R A. 
 
 Or 
 
 R. 
 
 7x=84 
 84 , 
 7 
 III. 
 
 Ifi-(-?=.6 
 
 X 4 
 
 R. 3. £2-1-9=64 
 
 X 
 
 R. 3. 20-J-9v=:^^ 
 R. I. 20=iiJC 
 
 R. 2. . 
 
 _20_4 
 
 \ 2. SolutiouoJ Queftioiis producing jimpte EquaHom. 
 
 From the refolution of equations we obtain the re- 
 folution of a varie y 01 ufelul problems, both in pure 
 mathematics and pliyfics, and alio in the practical arts 
 loundcd upon thefe fcicnccs. In this place, we con- 
 lider the application of it to thofe queiiions where the 
 quantities arc cxprcfTcd by numbers, and their magni- 
 tude alone is to.be confidtrcd. 
 
 When an equation, containing only one unknown 
 quantity, is deduced from the queflion by the follow- 
 ing rules, it is fometimej called i. final equation. If it 
 be lin pie, it may be refolved by the preceding rules ; 
 but if it be of a fuperior order, it mull be refolved by 
 the rules afterwards to be explained. The examples in 
 this chapter are fo contrived, that the final equation 
 may be fimple. 
 
 The rules given in this feftion for the folution of 
 queflions, though they contain a reference to limple 
 equations only, are to be confidered as general, and as 
 applicable to queRions which produce equations of any 
 order. 
 
 General Rule. The unknow-n quantities in thequeftion. 
 propofcd mull be expreffcd by letters, and the rela- 
 tions of the known and unknown quantities con- 
 tained in it, or the conditions of it, as they are call- 
 ed, mull be exprclFed by equations. Thefe equa- 
 tions beingrcfolyed by the rules of this fciencc, will 
 give the anfwerof the queflion. 
 
 For example, if the queflion is concerning two num- 
 bers, they may be called x and^, and the conditions 
 from which they arc to be invelligated muft be expref- 
 fible by equations. 
 
 Thus, if it be required that the 
 fum of two numbers fought! 
 be 60, that condition is ex- ( 
 pre (led thus 
 • If their difference mufl be 24, then 
 If their product is 1640, then 
 
 If their quotient muit be 6, then 
 
 x-^y—(>o 
 
 xy—ib^O 
 
 y 
 
 If their ratio is as 3 to 2, then 7 
 
 x :_)-:: 3 : 2, and therefore \ ' ~^^ 
 
 Tliefe are fome of the relations which arc nioft ea- 
 fily exprcllcd. Many others occur which are lefs ob- 
 vious ; but as they cannot be dcfcribed in particular 
 rules, the algebraical cxpreflion of them is belt explain, 
 cd by examples, and mufl be acquired by experience.
 
 Part I. 
 
 A 
 
 A dirtind conception of the nature of the qucflion, 
 aiidof the relations of the feveral quantities to which 
 ' it refers, will generally lead to the proper method of 
 gating it, which in eff'edl may be conddcred only as a 
 tranflation from common language into that of alge- 
 bra. 
 Cafe I. When there is only one unknown quantity to 
 
 be found. 
 Rule. An equation involving the nnknown quantity 
 
 mull be deduced from the queftion (by the general 
 
 rule). This equation being rcfolved by the rules of 
 
 the laft; fcftion, will give the anfwer. 
 
 It is obvious, that, when there is only one unknown 
 quantity, there mud be only one independent equation 
 contained in thequeftion; for any other would be un- 
 iicccirary, and might be contradiclory to the former. 
 
 Exavtp. r. To find a number, to whicli if there be 
 
 Let his firfl; flock be 
 
 Of which he fpends the firft year L.ioo, and } 
 
 there remains j 
 
 This remainder is incrcafed by a third of it- J 
 
 fclf \ 
 
 The fecond year he fpends L.ioo, and there 1 
 
 remains J 
 
 He incrcafes the remainder by one-third of 7 
 
 it 5 
 
 The third year he fpends L.ioo, and there ) 
 remains. \ 
 
 He increafes it by one-third i 
 
 But at the end of the third year his flock is ") 
 doubled ; therefore 5 
 
 By R. 3. 
 ByR. I. 
 By R. 2. 
 
 Therefore his flock was L.i48oi which being tried, 
 anfwers the conditions of the queilion. 
 
 Cafe \\. When there are two unknown quantities. 
 Rule. Two independent equations involving the two 
 unknown quantiiics, mufl be derived from the quc- 
 flion. A value of one of the unknown quantities 
 mufl be derived from each of the equations: and 
 thefe two values being put equal to cacli other, a 
 new equation will arife, involving only one unknown 
 quantity, and may therefore be rcfolved by the pre- 
 ceding rule. 
 
 Two equations mufl be deduced from the queftion : 
 for, from one including two unknown quaiuitics, it is 
 plain, a known value of either of them cannot be ob- 
 tained, more than two equations would be unncccfla- 
 ry ; and if any ihird condition wci c adiuned at plea- 
 fure, moil prubably it would be inconlillent with the 
 otlier two, and a qucflion containing three fuch con- 
 ditions would be abfurJ. 
 
 It is to be obferved, however, that the two condi- 
 tions, and hc.tce the two equations cxprefTing them, 
 mufl be independent ; that is, the one mull not be de- 
 dncible from the other by any algebraical rcafoning : 
 for, otherwife, there would in effcift be only one equa- 
 Vet. I. 
 
 E B R A. 
 
 added a half, a third part, an.d a fourth part of it- 
 
 fclf, the fum will be 50 
 Let it be 2 
 
 then half of it is f, a third of it -, 
 3 3 
 
 &c. 
 
 Therefore, z J lI+Z— jo 
 
 2 3 4 
 242 -H 122+82-^-61=1200 
 502=1200 
 2=24. 
 If the opertaion be more complicated, it may be 
 ufeful to rcgiflcr the feveral ftcps of it, as ia the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 Exatnp. 2. A trader allows L.TOO/t";- annum for the 
 expcnces of his family, and augments yearly that 
 part of his ftock whicli is not fo expended by a third 
 of it ; at the end of three years his original flock 
 was dunbkd. What had he at firil .' 
 
 2~. — 100 
 Z I0O+- 
 
 42 — 400 
 
 I 9 
 lio 
 
 II 
 
 -TOO .43 — 4CO 
 
 3 
 
 r — 700 
 
 -100=- 
 
 3 
 ■ 700 
 
 4? — 700 162 — sSoo' 
 
 r62 — 2S00 
 
 9 
 162—57: 
 
 9 
 162—: 
 
 7CO 
 
 9 
 
 - 100= • 
 
 9 
 16.-: — 5700 64^ — 148CO 
 
 64c 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 -i4!^oo 
 
 27 
 642 — 14900=542 
 102=14800 
 2=1480 
 
 tion, under two different forms, from which no fola- 
 tion can be derived. 
 
 Exanp. 3. Twoperfons, A and R, were talking of 
 their ages : fays A to B, Seven years ago I was juR 
 three times as old as you were, and fevcn years 
 hence 1 Ihall be jufl twice as old as you will be. I 
 demand their prcfent ages. 
 
 Let the ages of A 
 
 and B be refpec- ^ i x andjp 
 
 tively _ 
 
 Seven years ago 1 
 
 they were 3 
 
 Seven years hence "; 
 
 they will be \ 
 
 Therefore by Qiie. ] 
 
 I. and 2. j 
 
 AlfobyQucft.2. ■; 
 and 3. J 
 
 By 4. and tranfp. 
 
 By 5. and traul'p. 
 
 By 6. and 7. 
 Tranfp. and 8. 
 
 By 9. and 6. or 7. 
 
 The ages of A and B then are 49 and 31, which an- 
 fwer the conditions. 
 
 5 F The 
 
 y — 7 and> — 7 
 x + ^ and> -H 7 
 4' .V— 7= 3 X^— 7= ?>— 2 1 
 
 5j x+7=2x/?7=2;+i4 
 
 6| t = 3>— 14 
 
 7| .x = 2j+ 7 
 
 8l 3_r— i4 = 2.v + 7 
 
 9|.)=2I 
 
 10 x = 49
 
 410 
 
 A L G I 
 
 Thccpcraiioii mi-^lit have been a little fliortcned by 
 fiiluiaiftiiig the 4th from 5th, and tliiis 14 = — .) + 35 ; 
 and hciice.r = 2i. ihcreferc (by 6th) x= (?) — 14) 
 = 49. 
 
 F.xa7!ip. 4. A gentleman diftiibuting money among 
 fomc poor people, found he wanted los. to be able 
 to give J s. to each ; therefore lie gives each 4 s. on- 
 ly and finds he has js. left To Hud the number 
 
 of lliillings and poor people. 
 
 If any queftioii fjch as this, in which there are two 
 qnamiiif s fought, can be refulved by means of one let- 
 ter, the folution is in general more limple than when 
 two arc employed. There muft be, however, two in- 
 dependent conditions ; one of which is ufed in the no- 
 tation of one of the unknown quantities, and ihc other 
 gives an equation. 
 
 Let the number of poor be 
 The number of fliirings will be 
 The number of fliillitigs is alfo 
 By 2. and 3. 
 Tranfp. 
 
 The number of poor therefore is i j, and the num- 
 ber of (hillings i^ (42-1-5 = ) 65, which anfwer the 
 conditions. 
 
 Exanip. 5. A courier fcts out from a certain place, and 
 travels at the rate of 7 miles in j hours ; and 8 hours 
 after, another fetsout from the fame place, and tra- 
 Ycls the fame road, at the rate of 5 miles in 3 hours: 
 I demand how long and how far the firll mull travel 
 before he is overtaken by the fccond ? 
 
 Let the number of hours 
 which the lird travelled be 
 
 Then the fecond travelled 
 
 The lirft travelled feven 
 
 miles in 5 hours, and ^ ; ( j : 7 : :j :) 7)'niiles 
 therefore in^ hours ) j 
 
 In like manner i)ie fecond J ^ /,.,.. o.^5.>■ — 1° 
 travelled in^ — 8 hours 
 
 But they both travelled the 
 
 BRA. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 independent equations may be derived from a qucflion Of Equa- 
 as there arc unknown quantities in it, thcfc quantities *'° "'- 
 may be found by the refolution of equations. '' 
 
 Exanip. 6. To find three numbers, fo that the firft, 
 with half the other two, the fecond with one third 
 of the other two, and the third with one fourth of 
 the other two, may each be equal to 34. 
 
 Let the numbers be, x,y, z, and the equations arc 
 
 y + = 
 ■V-) = 34 
 
 iz 
 
 2,,-Z to 
 
 4J=— lo=4r.f J. 
 
 fame number of miles 
 therefore by 3. and 4. j 
 
 Mult. 
 
 Tran-fp. 
 
 Divid. 
 
 The firft then travelled 
 
 (^ — 8 =) 42 liours. 
 
 The miles travelled by each 
 
 iS-.T- 
 
 (3:j::^-S:) 
 miles 
 
 IZ 
 
 5 
 
 J)— 40 
 
 3 
 
 25/ 200ZZ2TJ' 
 
 4 ) =200 
 J =50 
 
 50 hours, the fecond 
 
 (f=^-=) 
 
 70. 
 
 Cafe III. When there are three or more unknown 
 quantities. 
 
 Hu/^. When there are three unknown quantities, there 
 mud be three independtni equations arihng from the 
 quellion ; and from each of thefc a value of one of 
 llic unknown quantities mud be obtained. By com- 
 paring thefc three values, two equations will arife, 
 involving only two unki'.own quantities, which may 
 therefore Le rcfolvcd by the rule for Cafe 2. 
 In like manner may the rule be extended to fuch 
 
 qneft.ions as contain four or more unknown quantities ; 
 
 and hence it may be inferred. That, when jud as many 
 
 From the id 
 
 From tl e 2d 
 From t.ic 3d 
 
 From 4th and 5th 
 
 7rii reduced 
 
 5 = 6, and reduced 
 
 8 and 9 
 
 loth reduced 
 
 By 8 and 5 
 
 -v= 102 — 3_>' — I 
 .V = 1 36 — 42 — y 
 68— J— 2 _ 
 
 
 J' = 
 
 2 
 
 136 — z 
 
 i2— 34 
 
 = 102 — 3^—2 
 
 2 
 
 2_34_ 
 
 156 K 
 
 a 5 
 
 152 — 170=272 — 22 
 
 172 = 442 or «= 26 
 y = 22 and A =10 
 
 Examji. 7. To find a number confiding of three places, 
 whofe digits are in aritjimetical proportion j if this 
 number be di\ idtd by the fum of its digits, the quo- 
 tient will be 48 ; and if from the number be fub- 
 tratled 19S, the digits will Le inverted. 
 
 Let the 3 digits be 
 
 Then the number 
 
 is 
 If the digits be ) 
 
 inverted, itis j 
 The digits arc 
 
 in ar. prop. 
 
 therefore 
 
 By quedion 
 By quedion 
 
 From 6 and tranf 
 
 Divid. by ()<) 
 
 From 4 
 
 8 and 9 
 
 Tranfp, 
 
 Mult. 5 
 
 Tranfp. 
 
 8 and iifubdit 
 
 for .V and/ 
 Tranfp. 
 
 Divid. 
 
 \ 
 
 I OO.V -(- 1 V -\- z 
 100Z+ IC> +x 
 
 .V -f 2 = 2J> 
 
 ioo.v-t-iq)'+ ; 
 
 - = 48 
 
 .V +y +z 
 
 [OO.V -I- IO)-|-2 198= 100- 
 
 4- \oy + x 
 7;99.v = 99=4-198 
 
 S .V =2-1-2 
 
 9.v=2/— r 
 
 I O 2y — 2 = 2-1-2 
 Il')=2-t-I 
 
 12 loo.v-MOj -(-2=48.v-t-48>-t-48z 
 52x= 38/ -H 472 
 
 14 522-1- io4=-82-t- 384-472 
 
 rj 352=z66 
 
 161 ^; = (2-H=)3 
 
 (^ X = (z -H 2 =) 4 
 
 The number then is 432, v.hick fuccceds upon trial. 
 
 Ic
 
 Part I. 
 
 A L G 1 
 
 It fometimes happens, that all the unknown quan- 
 tities, when there arc more than two, are not in all 
 the equations exprclliiig the conditions, anti therefore 
 tlie preceding rule cannot be literally followed. The 
 folution, however, will be obtained by fuch fubftitu- 
 tions as arc ulcd in Kx. 7. and 9. or by fiuiilar opera- 
 lions, which need not be particularly dcfcribed. 
 
 Corollary to the preceding Rules. 
 
 It appears that, in any qucftion, riicrc muft be as 
 many independent equations as unknown quantities ; 
 if there arc not, Uicn the queftion is called iiidetintii- 
 tiate, becaufc it may admit of an infinite number of 
 aufwers ; lince the equations wautinj; may be alFumcd 
 at plcafure. There maybe other circumftances, how- 
 ever, to limit the anfwcrsto one, or aprecifc number, 
 and which, at the fame time, cannot be directly ex- 
 prelfcd by equations. Such are tlicfc, that the num- 
 bers mufl beintegers, fquares, cubes, aad manyotlicrs. 
 The folution of fcich pioblcnis, which arc alfo called 
 ttiofihaiitiiie, fliall be conlidered afterwards. 
 
 Sihotium, 
 
 On many occafions, by particular contrivances, the 
 operations by the preceding rules may be much abrid- 
 ged. Thishowcvcr, mullbe left to the fkilland praftice 
 of the learner. A few examples arc the following. 
 
 1. It is often eafy to employ fewer letters than there 
 are unknown quantities, by exprcfTing fonic of ihcm 
 from a limplc relation toothers contained in the con- 
 ditions of the quellion. Thus, the folution becomes 
 more eafy and elegant. (See Ex. 4. 5.) 
 
 2. Sometimes it is convenient to exprefs by letters, 
 not the unknown quantities thcmfelves, but fome o- 
 ther quantities conne(5led with them, as their funi, 
 difference, &c. from which they may be eafily derived. 
 (See Ex. i. of chap, j.) 
 
 In the operation alfo, circumftances will fuggefl a 
 more eafy road than that pointed out by the general 
 rules. Two of the orijjinal equations may be added 
 together, or may be fubiraiJlcd ; fometimes they mufl 
 be previoufly multiplied by fome quantity, to render 
 fuch addition or fubtradion effectual, in exterminating 
 one of the unknown quantities, or othcrwife promo- 
 ting the folution. Subflitutions may be made of the 
 values of quantities, in place of quantities themfelves, 
 and variousothcr fuch contrivances may be ulcd, which 
 will render the folution much lefs complicated. (See 
 Ex. 3. 7. and 9.) 
 
 Sect. II. dnirat Solution of Problems. 
 
 In the folutions of the quellions in the preceding 
 
 BRA. 
 
 411 
 
 part, the given quantities (being numbers) dilappear Of Equa- 
 iii the lafl conclulion, fo that no general rules for like tlons. 
 cafes can be deduced from them. But if letters arc ' '■'—~' 
 ufed to denote the known quantities, as well as tlic 
 unknown, a general folution may be obtained, becaufe, 
 during the whole courfe of the operation, they retain 
 their original form. Hence alfo the connexion of ihc 
 quantities will appear in fuch a manner as to difcover 
 the ncceflary limitations of the data, when there arc 
 any, which is cllential to the pcrfedl foliuion of a pro- 
 blem. Krom tills method, too, it is eafy to derive a 
 fynthetical demonflration of the folution. 
 
 When letters, or any other fuch fymbols, arc em- 
 ployed to exprefs all the quaniiticsi the algebra is fome- 
 times calledy^.-c/o«; or literal. 
 
 Examp. 8. To find two numbers, of which the fum 
 and diiferencc are given. 
 
 Let / be the f;ivcn fum, and d the given difference. 
 Alfo, let X aUv!/ be the two numbers fought. 
 
 -y-d 
 
 Whe 
 
 dk-y-s—f 
 
 2y=j — d 
 
 ,_s—d 
 
 And .='±L 
 
 Thus, let the given fum be 100, and the diflcrcncc 2.4. 
 Then ..(l±i=i!i.)6..,= (i:^^=| = )38: 
 
 In the fame manner may the canon be applied to a- 
 ny other values of s and d. By reverling the Aeps iu 
 
 the operation, it is eafy to fliow, that if x—1 and 
 
 2 
 
 J': 
 
 ference d. 
 
 ., the fum of x 3.\\Ay mufl be /, and their dif- 
 
 Exawp. 9. If A and B together can perform a piece 
 of work in the time «, A and C together in the 
 time b, and B and C together in the time c, in what 
 time will each of them perform it alone .' 
 
 Let A perform the work in the time x, B in/, and 
 C iu z ; then as the work is the fame in all cafes, it 
 may be reprefcnted by unity. 
 
 3 E 2 Br
 
 412 
 
 of Equa- 
 
 tio:is. 
 
 A 
 
 E 
 
 By the qucftion ^ 
 
 Mult. 7tli by 
 
 I (<! I : 
 
 I 
 2 0- : I 
 
 3(x:i 
 4U : I 
 
 Mult. 8th by ff 1 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 y/iu d days 
 
 
 s 
 
 5 in a days 
 
 :*:)* = 
 
 1^ 
 
 /!\nb days 
 
 
 
 
 C in b days 
 
 ,.oi= 
 
 tJ 
 
 B in cdays 
 
 „:)i=^ 
 
 
 
 C in c days 
 
 z: I and a/ + ax~yy 
 
 Mult. 9th by — 
 
 Add loth, 
 
 I nil, 1 2th, 
 From 13th fubt. 
 
 twice loih 
 P'loni I ;[hfubt 
 
 twice I ith 
 Kjonvi^thfiibt. 
 
 twice I2lh 
 
 12 
 
 (>■ 
 
 -+- 
 .V ^ 
 
 _-l = I and bz + ^>; = xz 
 
 — + — — I and c: + y = zy 
 y =_ 
 
 ■lie a!>c 
 
 — + — — be 
 
 ^ y 
 
 abc . aic 
 1 =<JC 
 
 X z 
 
 abc , abc 
 
 h— =''b 
 
 y 2 
 
 labc , O-abc , 2aAc 
 
 - + + zzbQ-¥ac + ab 
 
 y = 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 2 :lbc 
 
 lobe 
 
 y 
 
 2ubc 
 
 — ac+ab — be Si: — 
 
 lab: 
 
 — bc-\-ab — acScj — 
 
 ac+ub — b- 
 2abc 
 
 =bc + ac — ribSc x = 
 
 bc + ab- 
 Ijib: 
 
 -lie 
 
 Example in uumb-"'^ 
 
 54 
 «nd<r = 10; then x= 14— >> = 
 
 bc-^ ac — *'b 
 
 Let d= 8 days, i = 9 days, 
 
 2^ 7 
 
 17_^, and z — 23 — . 
 
 49 41 31 
 
 It appears likcwife that a, b, c> mull be fuch, that the 
 produft of any two of them niuft be lefs than the I'um 
 of thcfc two niiiltiiJlicd by the third. This is necef- 
 fary to give politive values of x,y, .nnd z, which alone 
 can take place in this queftion. Belides, if *,j, and = 
 be alTuined as any known numbers whatever, and if 
 values of a,b, and c be deduced from ilcps 7th, 8th, 
 and 9th, of the preceding operation, it will appcoi", 
 that a, b, and c will have the property required in the 
 limitation here mentioned. 
 
 If a, b, and t were fuch. that any of the qnantities, 
 x,y, and z, became equal to o, it implies that one of 
 the agents did nothing in the work. If the values of 
 any of thcfe quantities be negative, the only fuppofi- 
 tion which could give them any meaning would be, 
 that fome of the agents, inftcad of promoting the 
 work, cither obflrudcd it, or undid it to a certain ex- 
 tent." 
 
 Examp. 10. In qucftion 5th, let the firft courier tra- 
 vel/) miles in n hours ; the fccond r miles in j hours; 
 let the interval between their fetting out be a, 
 Then by working as formerly, 
 qra 
 
 BRA. Part I. 
 
 If particular valocs be infcrtej for thefe letters, a Of involu- 
 pariicular foluiiou will be obuincj for that cafe. Let ''o" ^"'' 
 ihcm denote the numbers in Example 5. Evolution. 
 
 ^, / <ira J X J X 8 aoo \ 
 Then< = (— i = — = = ) Jo. 
 
 \v—[" sxs — 7x3 4 ) 
 
 Here it is obvious, that yrmull be greater than^i> 
 clfc the problem is impofliblc ; for then the value of 
 y would either be infinite or negative. This limita- 
 tion appears alio from the nature of the quciUon, as 
 the fccond courier mull travel at a greater rate than 
 the firll, iu order to overtake him. For the rate of 
 
 the firft courier is to the rate of the fecond as^ to _ 
 
 ? ' 
 that is. Zips to qr ; and therefore qr mull be greater 
 
 than /J. 
 
 Schoitum, 
 
 Sometimes when there are many known quantities 
 in a general foluiion, it may (implify the operation to 
 cxprcfs certain combinations of them by new leiicrs, 
 flill to be confidered as known. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Of Involution and Evolution. 
 
 In order to refolve equations of the higher orders, 
 it is nccelTary to premife the rules of luvolution and 
 Evolution. 
 
 Lemma. 
 
 Tlie reciprocals of the powers of .i quantity may be 
 exprclTed by that quantity, with negative exponents 
 of the fame denomination. That is, the Itries a, 1, 
 
 -, J., JL, _L,&c.maybccxprcfledbya',a°,d — ', 
 a ti' a' t^ 
 a—', a— J, <7— ■", Sfc. 
 
 For the rule for dividing the powers of the fame 
 root was to fubtrafl the exponents ; if then the index 
 of the divifor be greater than that of the dividend, the 
 index of the quotient mull be negative. 
 
 Thus, —-a'—^ =a—' . Alfo, — =— . 
 -;5=<i"' — '"—a°. And, —=: i. and fo on of others. 
 
 Cor. I. Hence any quantity which multiplies either 
 the numerator or denominator of a fraction, may be 
 tranfpofed from ouc to the other, by changing the 
 fign of its index. 
 
 -,&c. 
 
 Thus, — =:a;;— ■. And— =— — 
 
 Cor. 2. From this notation, it is evident that thefe 
 negative pc-wers,zi liiey arc called, are multiplied by 
 adding, and divided by fubtraJling their exponents. 
 
 Thus, a- 
 
 Xa — ' — a — '. 
 
 Or,±x-L=-L=a_'. 
 a' a' "< 
 
 -—a' Or, — )- — =<?' 
 
 l.OJ
 
 Part I. 
 
 of Involu- 
 
 tiun and 
 
 Evolution. 
 
 B R 
 
 I. Of IliVdlutio/l. 
 
 To find any power of any quantity is the bufinefa 
 "" of involution. 
 
 Caf^ I. Wlicn the quantity is Cmple. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the exponents of the letters by the in- 
 dex of the power rtqiiircJ, and raifc the coefficient 
 to the funic power. 
 
 Thus, the 2d power of d is a" x'^a' 
 The ?d power of 2<3' is8a'x'=8<»' 
 The 5d power of 3^^' is 27a'x'^'X'=27'»'^'. 
 
 For the multiplication would be performed by the 
 continued addition of the exponents ; and this multi- 
 plication of them is equivalent. The fame rule holds 
 alfo when the figns of the exponents are negative. 
 
 Rule for the figns. If the fign of the given quantity 
 is ■\; all its powers muft be poiltive. if the fio-u 
 is — , then all its powers whole exponents are even 
 numbers are pofitive ; and all its powers whofc ex- 
 ponents arc odd numbers are negative. 
 
 This is obvious from the rule for the figns in multi- 
 plication. 
 
 The laA part of it implies the mod extenfive ufc of 
 the figns -(- and — , by fuppofmg that a negative 
 qnantity may exift by itfclf. 
 
 Cafe 2. When the quantity is compound. 
 
 R:ilc. Tlie powers muft be found by a coniinual mul- 
 tiplication of it by itfclf. 
 
 Thus, the fquarc of x-f-- is found by multiplying 
 
 it into itfclf. The product is jr'-f-a.v-|-fL The cube 
 
 4 
 
 of .r-t-_ is got by multiplying the fquarc already 
 
 2 
 
 found by the root, &c. 
 
 Fraflions arc raifcd to any power, by rai/ing both 
 numerator and denominator to that power, as is evi- 
 dent for the rule for multiplying fractions in Chap. I. 
 
 ^ 2- . . 
 
 The involution of compound quantities is rendered 
 much ealjer by the binominal theorem j for wUcU fee 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Note. The fquare ot a binominal confifts of the 
 fquares of t\ro parts, and twice the product of the 
 two parts. 
 
 II. Of Evolution. 
 
 Evolution is the rcvcrfe of involution; and by it 
 powers are rcfolvcd into their roots. 
 
 Def. The root of any quantity is cxprclTed by placing 
 before it ^ (called a raiiicut jigu) with a fmall fi- 
 gure above it, denoting the denomination of tliat 
 root. 
 
 Thus, the fquare root of a, is y/a'or -fa 
 
 The cube root of be, is ^bc" 
 
 The 4th root of «j'^ — x^, is V^ ' i>-~>^ * 
 
 The z'.th root of c" — s'.-, is -J c' J:'. 
 
 General Rulefr the Signu 
 
 1. The foot of any pofitive power may be f itlicr pofi- 
 tive or negative, if it is denominated by an cvcii 
 nuiiibcr ; if the root is denominated by an odd num- 
 ber, it is pofitive only, 
 
 2. If the power is negative, the root alfo is uegitive, 
 wjien it is denoraiii-itcJ by an odd number. 
 
 3. If the power is negative, and the denomination of 
 the root even, then no root caii be aifigncd. 
 
 This rule is cafily deduced from that given in invo- 
 lution, and fuppofcs the fame extenfive \.\(e of the figns 
 -Hand — If it is applied to abllraiil: quanii:ics in 
 which a contrariety cannot be fuppofcd, any ro<.t of 
 a politivc quantity mull be polirive only ; and any root 
 of a negative quantity, like itfclf, is unintelligible. 
 
 Ill the laft cafe, though no root can be alligiicd, ytt 
 fometinies it is convenient to fct the radical fign before 
 the negative quaniiiy, and then it is called an /«.;/> (-j7^/i 
 or imaginary root. 
 
 The rooi of a pofitive power, denominated by an 
 even number,hasofteii thclign — *— before it, denoting' 
 that it may have cither + or — . 
 
 The radical fign may be employed to exprefs any 
 rootof any quantity whatever ; but fometimes therooc 
 may be accurately found by the following rules ; and 
 when it cannot, it may often be more conveniently cx- 
 prcflcd by the methods now to be explained. 
 
 Cafe I. When the quantity is fimple. 
 
 Rtile. Divide the exponents of the letters by the in- 
 dex of the root required, and prctix the root of the 
 numeral coefficient. 
 
 1. The exponents of the letters may be multiples of 
 the index of the root, and the root of the coefficient 
 may be extra<fted. 
 
 Thus, the fquare root of a' — n'' >— /»■ 
 
 ■^Jlla' — la'' ■^.■i^a'- 
 
 ■Ja-b'-- =a' b '''==±zai'. 
 
 2. The exponents of the letters may not be mclil- 
 ples of the index of the root, and then they become 
 fradions ; and when the root of the coefficient cannot 
 be extracted, it may alfo be exprcirtd by a fradional 
 exponent, its original index being underllood to be I. 
 
 Thus, -JiGa'T^—^^i 
 
 ■i/lax' zz^'' a^x= .jTK.a'^x. 
 
 As evolution is the reverfe of involution, the reafon 
 of the rule is evident. 
 
 The root of any fraction is found by cxtraifting that 
 root out of both numerator and denominator. 
 
 Cafe II. Wlicn the quantity is compound, 
 
 I. To cxtraift the fquarc root. 
 
 Rale. I. The given quastity is to be ranged accord- 
 ing to the powers of the letters, a; \^. divifion. 
 
 Thfs, 
 
 Of IlJTnlu. 
 
 tion and 
 
 r.v<il..«ion.
 
 414 
 
 Oi' Involu- 
 
 tivii anj 
 l-.voluiion* 
 
 A 
 
 Tims, in the example a' •\-2ab+bt, the quantities 
 
 arc ra!i;)cd i:i iliis nuiiiicr. 
 
 2. The fqviarc root is to be c-xtraftcd out of the firft 
 term (by preceding rules), which gives the tint part 
 of the root fought. Subtrart its fquarc from the 
 given i|'i,iuii(y, and divide the firll term of the re- 
 mainder by double the j>art already found, and tiie 
 qnoricnt is the fecond term of the root. 
 Thus, in this exam['lc, the remainder is za!'+b' -, 
 
 and 2. li being divided by za, the double of the part 
 
 fou 
 
 F.volutiun. 
 
 E B R A. Part I. 
 
 In cvohition it will often happen, that the opera- Of Involu- 
 tion will not terminate, and the root^will be cxprcfled ''°n ^'id 
 by a fcries. 
 
 Thus, the fquarc root of «'-t-.x" becomes a fcries. 
 
 a' +x'(a-i — 
 
 a' 
 
 _ — + — - — , &c. 
 
 8a' iba' 
 
 id 2. li being divided by 2<?, the double of the part ^ 
 
 unJ, gives +l> for the fecond part of the root. 2a + 11 \ * + a:' 
 Aild this fecond part to double of the firll, and 2a 1 
 
 inukiply their fum by the fecond pan: Siibirjctthc v / _ , x< 
 
 produA from the hit ren;aindcr, and if nothing re- ^^^/ ~'^ ' "*" — ' 
 
 im 
 
 prodi 
 
 main, the fquarc root is obtained. But, if there is 
 a remainder, it nuift be divided by the double of the 
 parts already found, and the quotient would give the 
 tliird part of the rootj and fo on. 
 In the laft example, it is obvious, thai a+i is the 
 fquarc rout fought. 
 
 The entire operation is as follows. 
 
 a'+2ai-i-f 
 a' 
 
 ■ !+/^\ + 2a6+6' 
 X^v 2^6+i' 
 
 f,i+i 
 
 x> — rtV -)-fl( .V — 
 .V 4 V 
 
 2.V' — - \- 
 
 ■-0 
 
 -ax' + — 
 
 -.V + fl 
 
 The rcafon of this rule appears from the compofi- 
 tion of a fquarc. 
 
 2. To extrad any other root. 
 
 Rn/e. Range the quantity according to the dimen- 
 fionsof its letters, and extraft the faid root out of 
 the iirft term, and that (hall be the firft member of 
 the root required. Then raife this root to a dinicn- 
 fion lower by unity than the number that denomi- 
 nates the root required, and multiply the power that 
 arifcs by that number itfclf. Divide the fecond 
 terin of the given quantity by the produft, and the 
 quotient ihall give the fecond member of the root 
 required. — In like manner are the other parts to be 
 found, by confidcring thofc already got as making 
 one term. 
 
 Th'JS, the fifth root of 
 ti' + Sa'i+lOa'/,' + \0.-i'i'+S.:6'+i<(^a+l' 
 
 Sa' )>.<•* 
 
 And a-i4 raifed to the jth power is the given quan- 
 tity, and therefore it is the root fought. 
 
 2a + \* — 
 
 a Sa' I /\a' 
 
 lx_fl )=-- _!l -f-.il. 
 
 • + -!-—__., &C. 
 8rf' 64a' 
 
 The cxtradion of roots by feries is much facilitated 
 by the binomial theorem (Chap. vi. Se6I. ;?.) By li- 
 milar rules, founded on the fame principles, arc the 
 roots of numbers to be extradled. 
 
 III. Of Surds. 
 
 Def. Qiiantitics with frafliional exponents arc call- 
 eAfurds, or iiiipcrficl powers. 
 
 Such quantities are alfo called irrational ; m oppo- 
 fition to others with integral exponents, which arc 
 called rational. 
 
 Surds may becxprefTed cither by tlie fraftional ex- 
 ponents, or by the radical iign, the denominator of 
 the fraction being its index ; and hence the orders of 
 furds arc denominated from this index. 
 
 In ihefoUowingoperations, however, it is generally 
 convenient to ufe the notation by the fractional expo- 
 nents. 
 
 a'— ■J a. 'J^b' zziba'' . \lu'b' ■=.a'*h'* . 
 
 The operations concerning furds depend on the fol- 
 lowing principle : If the numerator and denominator 
 of a fradional exponent be boili multiplied or both di- 
 vided by the fame quaniity, the value of the power is 
 
 m mc m 
 
 the fame. Thus J' — O^ : for let cP — h; then 
 
 a'^'—b", and d"'—lf', and extrading the root nc, 
 
 a':t=b"S = b=a1 
 en wc n. 
 
 Levi. Arational quantity may be put into the form 
 of a furd, by reducing its index to the form of a frac- 
 tion of the fame value. 
 
 Thns a— a'' = -Ja' 
 
 a'h—a'^b'— \'a"b' 
 
 Prob. I. To rsduce furds of different denominations to 
 others of the fame value And of the fame denomination. 
 
 Rule.
 
 Parti. A L G ] 
 
 or Involu. Rule. Reduce the fraclional exponents to others of 
 tion anil the fame value and having the fame common dcno- 
 Evniution^ minaior. 
 
 3-7— ■ ,• 
 
 Ex. -Ja, y/0' or a^, *f 
 h\ita'' — a^ and b'^ =^'. 
 
 therefore V^and ^b' arc rcfpeflivcly equal to 
 •J/a' and y/b* 
 
 Prob. II. To multiply and divide finds. 
 
 I. When they arc furds of the fame rational quantity, 
 add and fubtrail their exponents. 
 
 Thus, fl'x<J^ = a^ + '=<»' ' =' V^~ 
 
 y/a'—b' 
 
 'i; 
 
 ■—a' — y'lj z:' y/j'. — b' 
 
 i^a- — b' "—l>'% 
 
 2. If they are fiirds of different rational quantities, let 
 them be brought to others of the fame denomina- 
 tion, if already they are not, by prob. I. Then, by 
 inultiplying or dividing thcfe rational quantities, 
 their produft or quotient may be fet under the com- 
 mon radical fign. 
 
 Thus, V^x '/b-a'"b-' = ,/jrpr 
 — V a+b ^ 
 
 ^la-- 
 
 \i the furds have any rational coefficients, their 
 produd or quotient mull be prefixed. Thus, 
 
 a •Jmy.b'Jn-^.ab^liKn. It is often convenient, 
 in the operations of this problem, not to bring the 
 fiirds of iimple quantities to the fame denomination, 
 but to exprefs their product or quotient without the 
 radical lign, in the fame manner as if they were ra- 
 tional quantities. Thus, the produft in Ex. i. may 
 
 be a"'^°, and the quotient in Ex. 3. a^^» 
 
 Cor. If a rational coefficient be prefixed to a radical 
 fign, it may be reduced to the form of a fard by the 
 lemiifa, and multiplied by this problem ; and convcrfc- 
 ly, if the quantity under the radical fign be divifiblc 
 by a pcrfeft power of the fame denomination, it may 
 be taken out, and its root prefixed as a cocthcient. 
 
 a^b—^ii'b; 1 X %/"= -J^a. 
 
 Coiiv. .Ja'b^ — ab .Jb ; .Ji^j' — %a'b — la^l zb. 
 
 Even when the quantity under the radical lign is not 
 divKible by a perfctt power, it may be ufeful fonic- 
 timcs to divide furds into tlicir component fadlors, by 
 revcrling the operation of this problem. 
 
 : B R A, 
 
 Prob. III. To involve or evolve Surli. 
 
 This is performed by the fame rules as in other 
 quantities, by multiplying or dividing their exponents 
 by the index of the power or root required. 
 
 The notation by negative exponents, rncn'ioncj in 
 the lemma at the beginning of this chapter, i- appli- 
 cable to fractional exponents, in the fauic UMUncr ^s 
 to integers. 
 
 Scholium. 
 
 The application of the rules of this chapter to the 
 rcfolving of equations, fhall be explained in the fuc- 
 cceding chapters, which treat of the folution of the dif- 
 ferent claflcs of them ; but fome examples of their ufe 
 in preparing equations for a folution are the following. 
 
 If a member of an equation be a furd root, then the 
 equation may be freed from any furd, by bringing that 
 member firft to ftand alone upon one fide of the equa- 
 tion, and then taking away the radical lign from it, 
 and railing the other iide to the power denominated by 
 the index of that furd. 
 
 This operation becomes a necefury flep towards the 
 folution of an equation, when any of the unknown 
 quantities are under the radical fign. 
 
 Example. If;/x' — w ^^yzza+y 
 Then jVx' — a- ■=.^^y 
 and 9x1:' — " ' —a' — 2tt\ +y • 
 
 If the unknown quantity be found on"y under tiie 
 radical fign, and only of the firfl dimcnlion, the equa- 
 tion will become Iimple, and may be rcfolved by the 
 preceding rules. 
 
 Thus Vib = V''X^i, ' y/a'b — bx- = > ./bu />.x 
 
 Of fnv.ilu- 
 tinn 3nJ 
 
 Evulurio!-, 
 
 Thus, if 'V/p-f i6-»-3 =9 
 Then V4X+T6 zi 4 
 And 4.V -)- 16 = 64 
 4.V = 48 
 And x = 12 
 
 If '"Va- X — 6' X —a 
 Then a' x—b'xzza"" 
 
 tT 
 
 a'—b' 
 
 If the unknown quantity in a final equation has 
 fraclional exponents, by means of the preceding rules 
 a new equation may be fublUtutcd, in which the ex- 
 ponents of the unknown quantity are integers. 
 
 Thus, if xT+3j:' =10, by reducing the furds to 
 
 the fame denomination, it becomes a'^ -f. i.v' =io- 
 
 and if = = X', then z'+ is* = ,0 ; and if this equa- 
 tion be rcfolved from a value of =, a value of x may be 
 got by the rules of the next chapter. Thus alfo, if 
 
 x + 2x^—i!,x^—ioo. If .v'' = ;, this equation be 
 comes 2*-»- 22 ' — iz' = ico. 
 
 In general, \ixt-\-x^ — a. by reducing the furds 
 J // " 
 
 to the fame denomination xtZ + x2I^—a, and if 
 
 »q qri 
 
 X—— -, thcu the equation is s" -»- ;"" z:^, in w'. ich 
 
 l'..0
 
 4i6 'fA L G 
 
 Kquaiions. the exponents of z arc integers ; and z being found, x 
 
 is to be found from the equation at — =3. 
 
 ?" 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Cquations were divided into orders according to 
 ihcliigliediiidtxof the unknown quantity inany icrni. 
 (chap. ;;.) 
 
 Equations arc cither pure or aJfiHed. 
 
 Def. I. A pure equation is that in which only one 
 power of the unknown quantity is found. 
 
 2. An adlelled equation, is that in which different 
 powers of the unknown quantity arc found in the ic- 
 vcral terms. 
 
 E B R A. 
 
 /;'. 
 
 b—e 
 
 ■^ = JtL: 
 
 m I- 
 
 / 1/ — t 
 
 Thus, a' +ax 
 
 quations. 
 And X' — ax — i, 
 
 zzi', ax' — i' —m' + \' are pure e- 
 
 X ' + .\ ' r: r 7, are adfcfled. 
 
 1 . Soliilion of pure Equations. 
 
 Rale. Make the power of the unknown qitantity to 
 /land alone by the rules formerly given, and then ex- 
 tract the root of tlic fame denomination out of boih 
 fides, wliich will give the value of the unJinown 
 quantity. 
 
 Ex A 
 
 ■I r L E s . 
 
 Ua' 
 
 ax' ■=!! 
 
 1 
 
 ax" — izzx"" — c 
 
 ax' =6' 
 
 — a' 
 
 ax'"—x''---b—c 
 
 The index of the power may alfo befraftional ; as 
 in the Isil example //i may be any number whatever. 
 Let OT = ^, then as before, 
 
 h-c 
 
 And.v = 
 
 Sometimes different powers of the unknown qiian- 
 tiiy are found in the equation, yet t)ie:feveral terms 
 may form on one fide a perfect power, of which the 
 root being cxtraded, the equation will become fimple. 
 
 Thus, if *' — 12*' 4-48x1398, it is eafy to ob- 
 fcrve tiiat*' — 12.»:' -I- 48jt- — 64 = 34 ; forming acom- 
 plete cube j of which the root being extraded, 
 
 .V— 4= ^34- And*=:4+. v/p,- 
 
 Exajiip. I. To find four continued proportionals, of 
 which the fumof the extremes is 56, and the fum 
 of the means 24. 
 
 To refolve the qneffion in general terms, let the fum 
 of the extremes be a, the fum of the means b, and let 
 the difference of the extremes be called r, and the dif- 
 Icrence of tlie means/. 
 
 The proportionals are 
 
 Mult, by 2 and dill 
 From the three firil 
 From the three lall 
 3d added to 4th 
 4th fubt. from 3d 
 
 6th reduced 
 
 7th fnbfl. for z in jth 
 
 Tranfp. and divide 8th by • 
 
 In numbers 
 
 Then by Ex. 8. chap. 3. 
 
 }-z /'+y 
 
 b — y _ t< 
 2 2 
 
 a-^z ■■^b-¥y '■ b—y : a- 
 ab — ay-\-bz — zy—b ' +2by+y ' 
 
 ai+ay — bz — :/nzi"- 
 2ab — 22)'— 2^ ' +2y ' 
 2*2 — 2a)=44)' 
 
 2iy+ay 
 z= -^-7 
 
 -2by+ji ' 
 
 2ab—2X 
 
 2by 
 
 'j^=2b^+,r 
 
 .tb'—b' = ^by'+ay' 
 
 ab'—i' .•^A-.-J'lEEEL 
 
 . rr^y' 2\\iy : 
 
 lb-Ira ■^2^+" 
 
 fab'—b' I I "—'' I 32 _ 
 
 12 
 
 Hence the four proportionals ars J4, 18, 6, 2 ; and 
 it appears that b mufl be greater than a, otherwifc 
 the root becomes impolfible, and the problem would 
 alfo be impoffible ; which limitation might be deduced 
 alfo from prop. 2$. V. of Euclid. 
 
 2. Solution ofa.ifeliei Quadratic Equations. 
 
 Adfcc^ed equations of different orders are refolvcd 
 by different rules, fuccelTively to be explained. 
 
 An adfcded quadratic equation (commonly called a 
 quadratic) involves the unknown quantity itfelf, and 
 alfo its fquare : It may be refolvcd by the following 
 
 ■ib 
 b 
 
 Rule. I. Tranfpofe all the terms involving the nn- 
 known quantity to one lidc, and the known terms 
 to the other ; and fo that the term containing the 
 fquare of the unknown quantity may be pofitive. 
 
 2. If the fquare of the unknown quantity is multiplied 
 by any coefficient, all the terms of the equation arc 
 to !)e divided by it, fo that the coefficient of the 
 fquare of the unknown quantity may be i. 
 
 5. Add to bo;h fides the fquare of half the coefficient 
 of the unknown quantity itfelf, and the fide of the 
 equation involving the unknown quantity will be a 
 complete fquare. 
 
 z^. Extrai5t
 
 A L G 
 
 A. ExiJail the fquiire root from both liilcs of the c- 
 
 • quaiioii, by which it becomes finijilc, and by tranf- 
 
 pufing the abovcmcntioned half coefficient, a value 
 
 of the iiuknown quantity is obtained ill liiiowu terms, 
 
 and therefore the equation is refolved. 
 
 The reafon of this rule is manifefl from the conipo- 
 fiiion of the I'quaru of a binomial, for it conliftsof the 
 fqiiarcs of the two ])arts, and twice the produA of the 
 iwa parts. [Nou, at the end of Chap. IV.) 
 
 The different forms of quadratic equations, cxprcf- 
 fcd in general terms, being reduced b/chc firitaudfc- 
 rond parts of ihe rule, are thefe ; 
 
 I . .V ■ + ax ~ i4 ■ 
 
 E B R A. 
 
 4'7 
 
 3- 
 Cafe I. 
 
 — axz: — b 
 + axzzb' 
 a' 
 
 +_=:^'+: 
 
 2 V 4 
 
 .v==t= Ib^+tL-'. 
 
 V 4 : 
 
 Cafe 2. x'—ax~b' 
 
 x'-ax+'H-b'-^t. 
 
 2 -^ J 
 
 .=z±=!= A- +11 
 
 2 V A 
 
 Cafe 3. X' — axzz — b' 
 
 X' — .JX+ — •=. — — (' 
 
 2 V 4. 
 
 2 V 4 
 
 Of thefe cafes it may be obferved, 
 7. That if it be fiippofcd, that the fquare root of a 
 )»efitive quantity may be cither pofttive or n<fj;ative, ac- 
 cording to the moll cxtcnfive ufc of the ligus, every 
 quadratic equation will have two roots, except fuch of 
 the third form, whole roots become irapoffiblc. 
 
 2. It is obvious, that, in the two firll forms, one of 
 :h? roots mufl be pofiiive, and the other negative. 
 
 3. la. tic third form, il— , or the fq^arc of half. 
 
 4 
 the coefRcieutof the unknown quantity, be greater than 
 i', tilt known qiantity, ibc two roots will be poli- 
 
 tivc. If 1- be equal to ^', the two rooi^ thca be- 
 
 come equal. 
 
 But. i£iathr» third raCc is Isfs than b', the 
 
 ouantity und«r the radical lignbccomcs negative, and 
 the two roots are therefore iuipoffiblc This may be 
 eafily (howu to arifc from an impolEble fiippoiitioii in 
 tlic urigiiul cqiiatiui), 
 
 4. If (he equation, however, cxprels the xaluion o£ 
 magnitudes a bilraaiy conliJered, where acojitririciy 
 caiinot by fjppcfcd to take place, ihe negative roots 
 cannot be of ufc, or rather there are no facli roots ; 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 for then a negative quantity by iifclf is uniutelligible, Hquatlon. 
 
 and therefore the fquare root of a pofiiive quantity " ' 
 
 nmil be pofuive only. Hence, in the two firil cafes, 
 
 there will be only one root ; but in the third, there 
 
 will be two. For in this third cafe, x' — ax=. — b' , 
 
 or ay. — x'~b', it is obvious that x may be either 
 
 greater or lefs than \a, and yet nx may be poUii^e ; 
 
 and hence « — >y.rziax — x' may alfo be pofiiive, and 
 
 may be equal to a given politive quantity b ' : therefore 
 
 the fquare root of .x' — ax-{-ia' may be cither x~-\a 
 
 or [a — X, and both thefe quantities allb politive. 
 
 Let then x 
 
 -1- 711 -: 
 2 V 4 
 
 b' and X—. 
 
 and hence. 
 
 hlL—b'. Alfo let 1—xz: I— — 1 
 V 4 2 ^4 
 
 X—- — / ^•,and thefe are the fame twopniiiive 
 
 roots as were obtained by the general rule. 
 
 The general rule isufually employed, even in quc.- 
 flions where negative numbers cannot take place, and 
 then the negative roots of the two firll forms arc nc- 
 gledcd. Somttimcsonc only even uf the politive root? 
 of the third cafe can be ufed, and the other may be 
 excluded by a particular condition in the qucitioi'. 
 When an inipolfiblc root arifcs in the lolution of a 
 qucftion, and if it be refolved in general terms, the 
 ncccflary limitation of the data will be dilcovtrcJ. 
 
 When a queflion can be fo ftatcd as 10 produce -j, 
 pure equaiioil, it is generally to be preferred to an ad- 
 feded. Thus the queftiou in the preceding feclion, 
 by the moft obvious notation, would produce an ad- 
 fefted cquatioQ. 
 
 2. Scliition oj Qu eft torn prfitludng Qvadrat'.t EqiiaU'itu. 
 
 The exprefllon of the conditions of the queftion by 
 equations, or the Haling of it, and the rcduciiuu like- 
 wife of thefe equations, till we arrive at a quailratic c- 
 quation, involving only one unknown quamity and its 
 lquare,are ctrcrtcd by the fame ruks \v hich were givca 
 for the folutioQ of fimple equations in Civip f.iL 
 
 Examp. 2. One lays out a certain futn of nionty ia 
 goods, which he (old again for L.24, arid gained as 
 much per cent, as the goods coft him : 1 demand 
 what they toft him \ 
 
 If the money laid \ 
 
 out be 3 
 
 The gain will be 
 But this gain is ~i 
 0':24— j:: 100:) j 
 Therefore by ) 
 
 qucftion 5 
 
 And by mult, and ir. 
 Completing the ~) 
 
 fquare 3 
 
 F.xtr. the roet 
 Tranfp. 
 
 24— ..>! 
 
 ; 400^ ? cq»i 
 
 ypr ofnr. 
 
 _24oo — rcoji, 
 
 .) '-Hocj rr 2 400 
 
 ^'+ icoi + 5a/=:240C+25co 
 
 : =49-0 
 
 J +5<i= ;-i=V490>^= 70 
 iS ^=:=!=:70 — 50 = 3001:— 120- 
 
 Thc anfwer is :ol which fticcceds. The other 
 root, — 120, has nu phce in this example, a negative 
 number being here uniutclliirible. 
 
 Any qiiadiatic equation may be refolved slfo by the 
 
 general canons at the beginning of this fcdiqn. That 
 
 3 G arilitig
 
 4-1 B 
 
 L 
 
 E 
 
 jDquatioct. ariiiiigfrom this qiicftion, (No. y.) belongs tu Cafe I. 
 ' and rfr: 100, i' =2400; therefore. 
 
 00 , 
 
 / ' ^^ + 2400:^:20 or — 120 as before. 
 
 Excmp. 3. What two numbers are ihofe, whofc dift'er- 
 cncc is I J, and hilf of whufc produfl is equal to the 
 cube ot the Iclfcr ? 
 
 Let the IcfTer lumiber be i 
 1 he greater is 2 
 
 By qiieftion 
 
 Divide by *and mult, 
 by 2. 
 
 4th prepared 
 Complete fquarc 
 Ext. -J. 
 Tranfp. - 
 
 .V+I5 
 
 ;r+I5=2X- 
 
 2 2 
 2 16 
 
 r _._ 
 
 2 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 I . 
 
 ■76' 
 
 .121 
 " 16 
 
 * = 3 or — i 
 
 2 
 
 Therefore by queflion i 
 Complete the fquare 2 
 
 Ext. V~ 
 
 Tranfp. 
 
 And the other number 
 
 ax. — X' =^ or X' 
 
 — ax + = * 
 
 4 4 
 
 2 V 4 
 
 2 V 4 
 
 B R. a: Partr. 
 
 By inferting numbers, y — T\ or 29 and a — .v=:29 i;.iii»tioin. 
 or 71, fothat tlie two numbers fought are 71 and 29. ' ^f—' 
 Hire it is to be obfervcil, that b imift not be greater 
 
 thanl_, clfc the roots of the equation would be im- 
 
 4 
 poflible ; that is, the given produfl muft not be great- 
 er thau the fquarc of half the given fum of the num- 
 bers fought. This limitation can eafiiy be fliown from 
 other principles ; for, the grcated poiFible product of 
 two parts, into which any number may be divided, is 
 wlien each of them is a half of it. If b l>e equal to 
 
 f_, there is only one folution, and .v = _, 
 4 2 
 
 a 
 
 alfo a — .V 
 
 Examp. J. There are three numbers in continual ge- 
 ometrical proportion : The fum of the firfl and fc- 
 condis 10, and ihe diffcrcnceof the fecond and third 
 is 24. What are the numbers \ 
 
 Let the firft be i z 
 
 2 10 — 2 
 
 3 ?4— 2 
 
 • 202-4-100 = 342 2' 
 
 The numbers therefore are 3 and 18, which anfwer 
 tkc conditions. This is aii example of Cafe 2d, and 
 tl'c negative root is negleded. 
 
 A folution, indeed, may be reprefented by means of 
 
 he negative root — i; for then the other number is 
 
 ..,+ ij = )_I+ij — i£. Andlx^ix — £, ise- 
 2 2 222 
 
 qual to the cube of — 1. Such a folution, though ufe- 
 
 lefs, and even abfurd, it is plain mud correfpsnd to the 
 conditions, if thofe rules with regard to the ligns be 
 ufed in the application ofit, by which it was itfelf de- 
 duced. The fame obfervation may be extended even 
 to impoflible roots ; which being alfumed as the anfwer 
 of aquellion, mufl, by revcrfing the (leps of the inve- 
 ftigation, corrtfpond to the original equations, by 
 which the conditions of that queflion wcreexprefled. 
 
 Examp. 4. To find two numbers whofe fum is 100, 
 and whofc produift is 2059. 
 
 Let the given fum 100 = ^, the product 2059 = 1^, 
 and let one of the nun\bers fought be x, the other will 
 be a — X. Their produd is ax — .v. 
 
 Thcfecond willbe 
 And the third 
 Since z : 10 — 2 : 
 
 34—2 
 Tranfp. 
 Divid. 
 
 -ax~ — b 
 
 ■■\ 
 
 Compl. the fquare 
 
 Extract the -J 
 Tranfp. 
 
 :ii=25 
 
 or 2. 
 
 f 22' J42= 100 
 
 6 2" — 272= — 50 
 
 2-_27=+ilT=^-50=^2 
 2I _4_ 4 
 
 ._27__j_ /529_^_23 
 2 ^4 2 
 
 2 2 
 
 But though there are two pofitive roots in this equa- 
 tion, yet one of them only can here be of ufe, the o- 
 ther being excluded by a condition in the queflion. 
 For as the fum of the tirll and fecond is 10, 25 can- 
 not be one of them : 2 therefore is the firfl, and the 
 proportionals will be 2, 8, 32. 
 
 This rcftridion will alfo appear from the explana- 
 tion given of the third form, to which this equatioa 
 
 belongs. For 2 may be lefs than iZ, but from the 
 
 2 
 firfl condition of the queftion it cannot be greater ; 
 
 hence the quantity 2* — 272-4-— can have only one 
 
 2) 
 
 27 
 fquare root, viz - — 2 ; and this being put equal to 
 
 2 
 
 J ^'1, we have by tranfpofition z=:_ — 11=2, 
 ^4 22 
 
 which gives the only juft folution of the queflion. 
 
 From the other root, indeed, a folution of the que- 
 flion may be reprefented by means of a negative quan- 
 tity. If the firfl then be 2j, the three proportionals 
 will be 2 J, — 15, 9. Tliefc alfo niufl anfwer the con- 
 ditions, according to the rules given for negative 
 quantities, though fuch a folution has no proper 
 meaning. 
 
 Befides, it is to be obfervcd, that if the following 
 queftion be propofcd, ' To find three numbers in geo- 
 metrical j)roportion, fo that the difterence of the i/l 
 
 and
 
 Parti: A L G ] 
 
 Equation* and 2d maybe 10, and the fumof the 2d and 3d may be 
 
 ' V ' 24/ the equation! : flep 6th will be produced ; tor,ii the 
 
 ift be =, the fecond is z — 10, and the third 34 — 2, and 
 therefore 343 — 2' =z' — 20^+100, the very fame c- 
 quation as in flep 4th. In this qucltion it is plain that 
 the root 25 only can be ufclul, and the three propor- 
 tionals arc 25, 15, 9. 
 
 But the nccclFary limitations of fuch a problem are 
 properly to be derived from a general notation. Let 
 the fiim of the two firll proportionals be a, and the 
 difference of the two lall h. If a is not greater than 
 t; the firfl term muft be tlic Icafl ; but h" « be greater 
 than b, the firll term mull be either the greatefl or the 
 lea ft. 
 
 When the firfl term is the leaft, the proper nota- 
 tion of the three terms is z, a — z,a-irb — z, and the 
 
 equation when ordered is 2" — — — 2 = — — 
 
 22 
 
 If the 
 
 lirfl term be the greatefl, and then a is greater than b, 
 the notation of the terms is 2, a — z, a — b — 2, and the 
 
 correfponJing equation is z* — 1 :3 — _ . 
 
 2 3 . 
 
 Of the firfl of thefe equations it may be oblerved, 
 that whatever be the value of a and b, the fquarc of 
 
 — i_, viz. of half the cotfhcient of 2, is greater than 
 
 — , and therefore the roots arc always pofTible, If the 
 
 fquare be completed, and the roots extracted, rhey be- 
 
 -lf±i-=2^ilt^l^, andil±f 
 
 4 4*4" 
 
 come 
 
 V37+A) _- 8rt' 
 
 But in this cafe 2 is the lead of 
 4 
 the three terms, and therefore a is greater than 2x, or 
 
 f is greater than 2 ; much more then is ^ . great- 
 er than z ; and therefore the fecond root only can be 
 
 admitted, and 2 — 
 
 ■ia-k-b- 
 
 ^a. 
 
 :^'—Sa' 
 
 is the on- 
 
 ly proper fohuion. 
 
 In the fecond equation, fincc a is greater than b, 
 
 ^ - muA be always pofitive, and therefore the equa- 
 
 2 
 lionisncceirarilyof ihc third form. But the roots arc 
 
 pofllble only when ■ '' I is not lefs than f-, that 
 
 4 1 2 
 
 is, when a' +b' is not Icfs than .6a6, or when /i — b is 
 
 not Icfs than 1^ ab. When the roots are poifible, 2 
 
 may be either grcatcror lefs thanlfZI-, and hence 
 
 4 
 each root g ives a proper fohition j therefore, z zz 
 
 ya — bz±:z^ 7,^— ^' — '•'■u' . 
 
 Ex. Let a=:40 and ^r:-6. The firft term in this 
 cafe may be allunied either as the grcatell or the Icall. 
 And, tirll, if z be the grcjtrfl, the roots of the equa- 
 tion will be pollible, fincc [a'-^b'—) I'f^d is greater 
 than (6<j^=:) 1440. The two values,of 2 are 32 and 
 25, and ihc proportionals arc either 32, 8, j, or 2 j, 
 15, 9. aa'/c. If 2 be alFiiined the leall of the propor- 
 
 i B R A. 
 
 tionals, (he two roots of the equation arc pofllble, but 
 one of them only can be applied; which is 17.63J 
 nearly ; and the iliree proportionals are 17.63 j, 22.36 j, 
 and 2S.365, nearly, the roots of the equation being iu- 
 comwcalurdte. 
 
 In like manner may the limitations of the other 
 quciUou abovcmentioncd be afcertained. 
 
 I hough the preceding quellions have been fo con- 
 trived that the anfwers may be integers, yet in practice 
 it will moll commonly happen that they niuft be furds. 
 When in any quellion the root of a number which is 
 not a perfect fquare is to be Ci-.tratted, it may be con- 
 tinued in decimals, by the common arithmetical rule, 
 to any degree 01 accuracy which the nature of the fub- 
 jeirt may require. 
 
 Scholium. 
 
 An equation, in the terms of which two powcr^ 
 otily of the unknown quantity are found, and fuch that 
 the index of the one is double that of the other, may, 
 by the preceding rules, be reduced to a pure equation, 
 and may ihcrelore be relblved by \ I. of this chapter. 
 
 Such an equation may generally be rcprefented 
 
 thus : 
 
 419 
 
 li<luatioo« 
 
 Andx" (=z)=:=i=zf=i=^l_=r=A' 
 
 Therefore xz 
 
 Exnvip. 15. To lind two numbers, of which the pro- 
 ducl is IQO, and the dilfercncc of their fquarc-, 
 roots 3. 
 
 Let the Icfs be x, _ 100 
 the greater is 
 
 Byqneftioil j L£_ ^J x — x 
 
 ^ X 
 
 [ o — .V = 5 vT =: 3.rT 
 
 3 2 
 
 .x = 4 or X — 25, 
 
 and .t"' = 2 or- 
 
 If A=4, the other number is 2J ; and this is the 
 proper folution, forx wasfuppofcd to be ihc Icall. Ja 
 this cafe, indeed, tlie negative root of the equation 
 being applied according to the rules tW negative quan- 
 tities, gives a pofuive anfwer to the queltiou ; and if 
 i = 2j, the other number is 4. 
 
 The fame would have been got, by fubftituiing in 
 the general theorem vi — \y az:;, and i^'nio; or, if 
 the lefs number had been called .v, the equation would 
 not have had fractional exponents. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 Of hidetervunate Prtbltms. 
 
 It was formerly obferved (Chap III. J, that if there ■ 
 arc more unknown qnantitics in a quefUoa than cqua- 
 3 G 2 tious •
 
 420 
 
 liitletcrmi- 
 
 n:.ic Vto- 
 
 hlcms. 
 
 A L G E B 
 
 lion; l»y wliiclt tnijrr rdhv:CTi>s avc <rxi»rcrt(M<, it is inde- 
 tcrniiiicd ; or h m^y idmit of an Lnfiiiiie imiuberof 
 jiiifwcr^. Other ciiCiimftaaccs, however, iiKSiy limit 
 tlic niiniUer in a certain mai'i>cr ; and titrfcnrc v.irioi>s, 
 according to the nacnic o( the prihlcm. Tlic contri- 
 vances by which (uch problems arc refolved arc (o very 
 didtrcu'iii different cafes, that they camtot becora- 
 •f rc'heiided in general nibs. 
 Exanip. I. To divide a given fqiiarc number into two 
 
 j'arts, each of which Ihall be a f.]iuire number. 
 
 There arctwo quantir'isifiiuelu iiiilusaiieftion,iad 
 there is only or. c equation cxprciliugtUoir relation ; 
 but it:is required alTu that they may be rationfA, which 
 circumftancc cannot be cxpreUed by an equation : ano- 
 ther condition therefore mult be aflumcd, in fucfc a 
 manner as to obtain a foliuioti in rational numbers. 
 
 Lot the given fqiiare be a' r let one of-thc fquares 
 fought be V, the other is «• — x'. Let r* — a aUb 
 be al!d« of rhis laft lqu»rc, therefore 
 
 r ' X ' —--irxa-^-a ' —a ' — .v * 
 Bvtranfp. r'A- -f-*'=2r*a 
 
 D'ividcby* r'x-^x-ira 
 
 Therefore *— 
 
 •R A. 
 
 I, or a numhcr dlvifiblc ly 4. 
 
 Then 
 
 J!-t-t» 
 
 aad 
 
 Pact I. 
 
 « — V ^n(^elc^nli- 
 
 r-+I 
 
 l^CI 
 
 And rx 
 therefore be 
 
 
 alTunicd at pkafure, and 
 
 2ra 
 r'+i, 
 
 r'^a — a 
 
 which muft always be rational, will be the 
 
 fides of the two fquares required. 
 
 Thus, if a' = too ; then if r=?, the fides of the 
 two fquares are 6 and 8, for 36+6 4= 100. 
 
 Alfolet <j' =64. Then if rr: 2, the fides of the 
 
 . 52 „ . 24 „„,To24, 576 1600 , 
 
 • Squares arc ;_ and _ ; and 1+- — = —64. 
 
 ' 5 J 25 25 2j 
 
 The reafon of the alTumption of rx — a as a fide of 
 the fquarc a' — *:',is that being fquared and put equal 
 to this laft, the equation manife/Uy will be fimple, awl 
 the root of fuch an equation is always rational. 
 
 Examp. 2. To find two fquare numbers whofc differ- 
 encc is_givcn. 
 
 Let X' and>' be the fquare numbers, and a their 
 difference. 
 
 Put 
 
 S-+-- 
 
 -=*> 
 
 — X 
 
 and I 
 
 ■-y 
 
 zv — {x'—y' = )^. 
 If X axi&j are required only 10 be rational, then take 
 V at pleafure, and «=:_, whence x and j" are known. 
 
 V 
 
 But if X and J' arc required to be whole numbers, 
 take for 2 and v any two factors that produce a, and 
 arc both even or both odd numbers. And this is pof- 
 frble only where a is cither an odd number greater than 
 
 i, 2 
 
 srcthe nambcrs foug;ht. 
 
 • For fh; prodii(51 -of two odd fnirabcrc Tis odd, nnd 
 that of two even aumbcrs is diviliblc by /]. ^Ifo, if 
 
 z and V arc botli odd or Loth even,' '. and 5 " 
 
 2 2 
 
 •niufl be integers. 
 
 Ex. I. IxazziT, lake = 1, tJicn z:^7; and the 
 /guarcs are 1^6 and 169. Or a may be 9 and v — ^, 
 and then the Iquarcs acc ;6and 9. 
 
 2. \( azz.12, take » = 2, and 2:::6 ; and the fquares 
 avc-i6 and 4. 
 
 Exami. 3. To find a fum of money in pounds and 
 fliilliags, whofc half is jull its rcvcrfe. 
 
 Note. The rcverfc qf a fum of money, as ■81. las. 
 .is lal. Ss. 
 
 Let X be tjie pounds and ^ the fliillings. 
 Theifum required is 20x-f-y 
 Itsireverfcis - aq)H-x 
 
 Therefore - l£ilti = 2q)+x 
 2 
 20x-j-_>'=4q>+2x 
 
 i8x=:39/ 
 x:>: : (39: 18::) 13 :6 
 
 In this equation there are two unknown quantities ; 
 and, in general, any two numbers of which the pro- 
 portion is that of 13 to 6 will agree to it. 
 
 But, from the nature of this qucflion, 13 and 6 are 
 the only two that can give the proper aiifwer, viz. 
 13I. 6s. for its reverfe 61, 13s. is juft its half. 
 
 The ratio of x and^ is expreflcd in the loweft inte- 
 gral terms by 13 and 6 ; any other cxpreflion of ii, as 
 the next greater 26 and 12, will not fatisty the pro- 
 blem, as 12I. 26s. is not a proper notation of money 
 in pounds aud Ihillings. 
 
 CHAP. vn. 
 
 Demoiifl rations of Theorems by Algebra. 
 
 Algebra may be employed for the dcmonftration 
 of theorems, with regard to all thofe -quantities con- 
 cerning which it may be ufed as an analyfis ; and from 
 the general method of notation and rcafoning, it pof- 
 fclles the fame advantages in the one as in the other. 
 The three firft feftions of this chapter contain fome of 
 the moft fimple properties of feries which are of fre- 
 quent ufe ; and the lafl, mifcellaneous crumples of the 
 properties of algebraical quantities and numbers. 
 
 I. Oj Arithmetical Series, 
 
 Def. When a number of quantities increafe or de- 
 creafe by the fame common dificrence, thty form aa 
 arithmetical feries. 
 
 naic Pro- 
 blem!. 
 
 1, ti+6, a-^i, «+3^» 6fC, X, X — b, X — 7^, 
 
 2> 3, 4; 5> *> &c. and 8, 6, 4, 2, &c. 
 
 Prof. In an aruhmctical feries, the fum of the firft 
 
 and 
 
 Thus, 
 &c. 
 Alfo, I,
 
 Parti. 
 
 O E B R 
 
 42* 
 
 I^cmoii- a.3 J :lail.t3r.a»s J3 equal .to the rt'um of any -two ir.tcrme- 
 ftrjtion of iUitc terms, c^iiatly tii'Uiu from-tlic extreme- . 
 n>e»rei>i»._ Lci-thc Arft term be ^, ilie IM'U:, aiid /' tU': com- 
 mon dilicrencc ;.tht(i a-/ri wili be tic Tccoiid, and a — 1> 
 the lad but one, Sec. 
 
 TlllJS, a, a + i, a+2^, a-^i!>, a+^i, &C. 
 X, X — ;i, X — 2^, X — ji, X — ni, &c. 
 
 Itis plain, fhattbe lerms in-thc fimc perpenciiciiUr 
 •faiik are equally dilhint fromthc c-Ktrmics ; and tiiat 
 ilie film uf any twoinit.is aj^x, the^um of the firft 
 and 'I all. 
 
 Cor. I. Hence the fum nf all the terms of an arirh- 
 <nictical fcries Ls equal to the fum of the firlt and lad, 
 taken half as often as there arc terms. 
 
 Therefore if « be the number of terms, and / llic 
 _^_ ft 
 Aim of thc.fcrics; / = rt + x Xj. \£ nzzo, then s — 
 
 e • 
 
 ■Ccrr. 2. The fame notation being underftood, fincc 
 any term in tlie feries confifts of a, the firfl term, to- 
 gether with 6 taken as often as the number of terms 
 
 preceding it, it follows, that x=a + ,, — 1x3, and 
 hence j = aT+^^oT^X - ; °^ ^y multiplication, i=. 
 
 2 
 
 2tJ!i-i-ii ' h — iii 
 
 Therefore from the firft term, the 
 
 fComroon difFereuc*, and numberof terms being given, 
 xb-C Aim msy be found. 
 
 Ex. Required the fum of 50 t«rms of the feries 2, 
 /), 6, 8, &c. 
 
 2x2x50+501x2 — 50x2 5100 
 .= =^-=2550. 
 
 Cor. 3 Of the firft terra, common dilicrcncc, fum 
 and number of terms, any three being given, the 
 fourth may be found by refolving the preceding equa- 
 tion ; a, b, s, and n, being fucceflively eonlid';r€d as 
 the unknown quantity. In the three firft cafes the 
 equation is finiple, and in the laft it is quadratic. 
 
 II. ^fCecmttrical Ssrifs 
 
 Def. When a number of quantities incrcafcby the 
 fame multiplier, or dccrcafe by the fame di\ ifor, they 
 form a geometrical feries. This common multiplier 
 or divifor. is called ihc comtnon ratio. 
 
 a 
 
 r 
 
 _, _, &c. 
 
 Thus, a, ar, ar\ &c. 
 
 y, ^, A> 8. «'c- 
 
 Fro/t.i. The product of the extremes in 9. geome- 
 trical feries is equal to the prouuft of any two terms, 
 ^quaUy diftant.from the extremes. 
 
 jLet iibe the firft ttrm,^ thcjaft, r the cooimsn ra- 
 tio : then the feries is^ 
 
 a, ar, ar' , ar' , ar* , &c 
 
 .>■ .y Jl. 2L I!, 
 ^' 7' r" r'l f' '^'^■ 
 
 It is obvious, tliat any term in the npper rank is 
 equally diftsnt from the beginning as that below it 
 
 'l;<i£ors 
 
 frorathceiid ; and ilif: (>ro«lufl(»faii])r.iwoi«ch.is;-i«.r iiemop- 
 A.H ny, the produa of ihc.firA 411 J kft. nirjuog or 
 
 I rofi. II. The fum of a p^eomctric^I f^irs wsnting 
 the firft term, is cqiil 10 the fum of all but the lafl 
 term nuihiplicd hy thcconimo;! ratio. 
 
 For, alliiming tlie preceding notation of a feries, ir 
 ■is plain, that 
 
 ar-^ar'.^.ari , Ice. 
 
 -»-— +-r+ —try — 
 
 I • r I 
 
 — ryCa-har-^-ar' , &c. . +i--f.^4.2.4.i 
 '■' '» r' r 
 
 Cor. I. Therefore /being tlie fum of the feries, 
 
 j>r — a 
 
 1 — vX.r—-' — a. Aaatzi 
 
 • r — I 
 
 Hence J can be four.d from a, y, and r ; and any 
 three of the four being given, the fourth may be 
 
 found. 
 
 C^'r. 2. Since the exponent of r in any term is cqiul 
 to the number of tcrnis preceding it ; hence in the lait 
 term its exponent will be // — i ; the laft ter.ii, ilierc- 
 
 // — t ar" — a r" — i 
 
 fore,)— ^r , andi = - ^ay. llcncc 
 
 ' I — t r — I • 
 
 of thefe four, /, a, r, ti, any three beiug given, the 
 
 fourth may be found by the foluiion of equations. If 
 
 « is not a fmall number, tlie cafes of this problem will 
 
 be moft conveniently rcfolvel by logaritlims; and of 
 
 fuch foliitions there are examples in the appendix to 
 
 this part. 
 
 Cor. 3. If thcXerics decreafes, and the number of 
 
 terms is infinite ; then, according to this notation, a 
 
 the leaft term will be o, and /=;■ ■ _ •■, a finite fum. 
 
 Ex. Required the fum or the fcries r, j, i, ;, &c, 
 
 to infinity. 
 
 1x2 
 Here_y=i,and r — 2. Therefore j j. ' — i. 
 
 "What are called in arithmetic rtpeathig and circula- 
 ting dictwa/s, are truly geometrical decresiing feriefcs, 
 and therefore may be fummed by this rule. 
 
 a ' 
 Thus. 333, Scc^ — **" 7^+' &<:• is a geometrical fe- 
 
 ric3 in which y=-i and r=ioj therefore s zz~ — - 
 ■' JO ' — ' 
 
 5XIO 
 
 lOXtO — 1 
 
 24 
 
 Thus, alfo, .2424, &c. =— , forherc^=-JLan4 
 
 3? too 
 
 r—ioo ; therefore s — 
 
 24x100 
 
 100x100 — I 99 35 
 
 III. Of InfiKitc Series. 
 
 It was obfcrvcd (Chap. I. and IV.), thr.t in miny 
 e.ifes, if the divifion and evolution of compound quan- 
 tities be actually performed, the quotients and roots 
 can only be cxpreifed by a fcries t»f terras, which may 
 be continued ad infiaitum. By comparing a fcv/ of 
 the firft teres, tie law of the progrc^ion of fuch a fe- 
 ries
 
 422 /\ L> Vj 
 
 Demon- ries will frequently be difcovcrtJ, by wliicli it may be 
 flratioiiof coniiuucii without any farther operation. When this 
 t hco rtm5. (.a„];,;t be done, the work is much facilitated by fcvc- 
 ral methods ; the chief of which Is that by the binomi- 
 al theorem. 
 
 T H F. o R E .M . y^/!j binomial ( as a^-b1 may ie raifnd !s 
 any l^f.ucr (ni) liy the folkviiiig rules. 
 
 1. From infpccting a table of the powers of a bino- 
 mial obtained by multiplication, it appears that the 
 tcrn\s without their cocliicienis, are a™, a'" '/', 
 <r—'b', a'-'—'t', &C. 
 
 2. The coefficients of thefe terras will be found by 
 the following rule. 
 
 Divide the exponent of a in any term by the cxpontiit 
 of b iiicrcafcd by i, and the quotient mullipiitd by 
 the coefficient of that term will give the coefficient 
 of the next following terra. 
 
 This rule is found, upon trial in the table of powers, 
 to hold univcrfally. The coefficient of the firft terms 
 is always I, and by applying the general rule now pro- 
 pofcd, the coefficients of the terms in order will be as 
 
 E 13 R 
 
 Part I. 
 
 follows : I, m, mx , mye.- x > S''^- They 
 
 may be more conveniently exprciTed thus: i. Aw, B>! 
 
 -I 711- 
 
 -, Cx— 
 
 . Dx ■"> S:c. the capitals denoting 
 
 ' 4 . 
 
 the preceding coefficient. 
 
 Hence a+i\'" — a' 
 m — 2 „ 
 
 Amar—'bJ^- Bx- — ixa"'— ^'+Cx 
 
 2- 3 
 
 This is the celebrated binomial theorem 
 
 b' 
 
 Sec. This is the celebrated binomial theorem. It is 
 deduced here by induction only ; but it may be rigidly 
 demonftratcd, though upon principles which do not 
 belong to this place. 
 
 Cor. I. As ;// may denote any number, integral or 
 fradional, pofuiveornegative ; hence the divifion, in- 
 volution, and evolution, of a binomial, may be perform- 
 ed by this theorem. 
 
 ■^b + l 
 
 2 
 
 X X« '^'+» ^c. This beii^ applied to the ex- 
 
 4 
 
 tradion of the fquarc roorof/j'+x' (by infertinga' 
 for a and Jt' f6r t), the fame feries rcfults as formerly 
 (Chap. IV,) 
 
 £x. 2. If is to be turned into an intinite fe- 
 
 I — J- 
 
 £x.l. Let «=^, then a + b'l =a''-{ — a~ 
 
 ries, fince 
 
 -=iXi — ''I ", Iet/J=i, b— — r, and 
 
 m— — 1 ; and the fame feries will arife as was obtained 
 by divifion (Chap. I.). 
 
 In like manner ■-= 
 
 ■J21Z — 2' 
 
 ,{zzr'y.irz—z'\ ')may 
 
 be expreffed by an infinite feries, by fuppofing a=:2rz, 
 
 ^— 2 ■ , and m— — ;, and then multiplying that feries 
 
 by/-'. 
 
 Cor. 2. This theorem is ufeful alfo in difcovering 
 the Jam of an infinite feries produced by divifion or 
 evolution. Thus, the feries exprcffing the fquarcroot 
 
 of d' +x ' , conlills o{a, ii.gctl,er with a feries of frac- Demon- 
 
 tions; in the numerators of wiiicliare the even powers Ifationof 
 
 of X, and in the ilcnominators the odd powers of a. rhcorcma. 
 
 The numeral coefficients of the lerms of the whole fe- " ' 
 
 ries, as deduced by the theorem, will be : i, + 
 ixi ixi.;! ixi ?.j 
 
 2x1 
 
 2.2X1.2 ' "^2.2.2XT2.3' 272^2.2X172.3.4' ' 
 the point being ufcd (as it often is) toexprtfs the pro^ 
 duel of the numbers between which it is placed. The 
 law oi coiuiiiuation is obvinus ; and the Itrics may be 
 carried on to any number ot terms, without uliug the 
 theorem . Hence alio the coefficicni of the nth term is 
 IXI. 5. J &c. . . (a_2 terms) 
 
 "1^=^^1.2.3.4 6:c. (/.-,; ' ^"^ " '' "^ '^ " " '*' 
 even number, and — if « is oi'd. 
 
 //o/^. If the binomial is<74-#,thcl!gusofthc termsof 
 anypowcrarcallpulitivejil it isw — ithcklteniate terms 
 arc negative, btginaing at the fecond. 'f hi.-, tlieortni 
 may be applied to quantities which confUt of more than, 
 tuopanb,by fuppoliiigihem diitiaguilhediuto tuo, and 
 then fubitituiiug for the powers of tliefc compound 
 parts their values, to be obtained alio, it required,- 
 
 from the theorem. Thus, a-\-i+ci'=u^l+^ • 
 
 Scholtia/i, 
 
 An infinite feries may itfelf be multiplied or divided 
 by another ; it may be involved or evolved : and va- 
 rious other operations m.ny be performed upon it which 
 areneccliary in tlie higher parts of algebra. The me- 
 thods for finding the fum depend upon other prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 IV. Propertits of Numbers. 
 
 TheoR. I. The fum of two quantities viultiplied by 
 their difference is equal to the difference oj their 
 fqtiares. 
 
 Let the quantities be reprcfented by a and b, then 
 a+by.a — bzza' — b' , as appears by performing the 
 operation. 
 
 Car. \i a and b be any two quantities of which the 
 fum may be denoted by i, the difference by d, and 
 tlieir produd by/, then the following propoliiioas will 
 be true. 
 
 I. <j-'-4-i'=j' — 2p -2. a' — b--=jd 
 
 3. a'+b'zzs' — ■^ps 4. a^ — b'zzs'd — dp 
 
 5. fl<4-^«=j< — 4ps'+2p' 6. a* — b*=J^d — 2sdp,&cc. 
 
 It is unnceellary to cxprcfs ihefe propofitions in 
 words, and the demonAraiions are very cafy, by rai- 
 fmg a-\-b to certain powers, and making proper fub- 
 Aitutions. 
 
 The OR. II. The fum of any number of terms (n) of 
 the odd numbers I, 3, 5. *"<;• beginning tnith I, is e- 
 qualto thefquare oj that number (n). 
 
 In the rule for fumming an arithmetical feries, let 
 a—\, fc2, and //=//, and the fum of this feries will 
 
 bci=2ff--^"-=— =^-.aE-D- 
 
 2 2 
 
 Thbor-
 
 A L G I 
 
 Th Eoa. ni. 'J'he diffcrenc; of any t'wofquari numbers 
 is equal to ths fum oj the two roots, together luith 
 twice the Juvi oj the numbers in the natural feale be- 
 tween the two roots. 
 
 Let ihc one number be />, and the other /■+/?, the 
 int-niic ii le numbers zve p+l , p+i, . . .&c. /■+// — I. 
 The ditf'crtnce of the fquares of the given numbers is 
 2pn+n • ; l..f fumof the t wo roo ts is a/' +'J, a nd twice the 
 fum of the lLG\i::sp+i-i-p-{-2 .. ■&€. /+//— I is ( by 
 Cor. I. ift Sect of this Chap.) 2/ = 2/'+//X« — i, viz. 
 the fum of the firll and lift nmliiplicd by the number 
 
 of terms, and it is plain that 2/>+;;+2/H"'-'X" — ^ — 
 3f>i+n'. Therefore, &c. 
 
 Le?ri. I. Let r be any number, and « any inte- 
 ger, j" — I is divilibicby / — i. 
 
 The quotient will be r" ' +r" *, Sec. till tie in- 
 dex of r be o, and then the lall term of it will be i ; 
 for if this ferics be multiplied by the divifor r — i, it 
 will produce the dividend r" — i . It will appear alfo by 
 performing the divilion, and infcrting for/; any number. 
 
 Lem. 2. Let r be any number, and ;; any integer 
 odd number, r"+l is diviiiblc by r+i. Alio, if « is 
 any even number, ;" — i is diviiiblc by r+i. 
 
 The quotient in both cal'cs is ;" — ' — r" — '-(- 
 r» — ' &c. till the exponent of ;- be o, and the laft term 
 r° =: I. If this feries confiftof anodd number of terms, 
 and be multipl ed by r+l the divifor, the product is 
 r"+l the dividend. If the feries conlilt of an even 
 uumbcr of terms, the produd: is i" — t ; but it is plain 
 that the number of terms will be odd only when n is 
 odd, and even only when n is even. The conclulion 
 will be manifeft by performing the divilion. 
 
 Lem. 3. If r is the root of an arithmetical fcale, 
 any number in that fcale may be rcprcfented in the fol- 
 Inwing manner, a,b, c, &c. being the coefficients or 
 digits, a-^br-^cr' +dr'-{-er' , &c. 
 
 Theor. IV. Jf from any number in the general fcali 
 now dflribeii, the fum oj its liigits be fubtraCied, the 
 remainder is divijibte by r — 1 . 
 
 The number is a+bi+cr'+dr' , &c. and the fum 
 of the digits is a^h-^-c+d, &c. Subtrading the lat- 
 ter from the former, the remainder is br — '+<■;•' — 
 ol-a'r' — </, &C. zzbxnr — i+cxr" — 1+Jx> ' — I, &C. 
 But, (by Lem. I.)r" — i is divifiblebyr — i, wh.itever 
 integer number/; maybe, and therefore any multiple 
 of r"' — I is alfo divifiblc by r — I : Hence each of the 
 terms, AX'' — i, cX'" — i, &c. is Jiviliblc by r — i, 
 and therefore the whole is diviiiblc by r — i. 
 
 Cor. I. Any number, the fum of whole digits is di- 
 vifible by r — l, is itfelf diviiiblc by r — t. Let the 
 number be called M and the fum of the digits D ; then 
 by this prop. A' — D is divillble by r — i, and D is fup- 
 pofcd to be diviiiblc by r — i ; therefore it is plain that 
 A^nnJll alfo be diviiiblc by r — i. 
 
 Cor. 2. Any number, the fum of wliofc digits is di- 
 viiiblc by an aliquot part of r — i, is alfo divifible by 
 that aliquot part. For, let TV and D denote as before ; 
 and fuirc N — D (Theor. 4.) is diviiiblc by r — i, it is 
 alfo divifible by an aliquot part of r — i ; but D is di- 
 YJIiblr by an aliquot part of r — i, therefore ^is alfo 
 diviiiblc by that aliquot part. 
 
 L B R A. 
 
 Cor. 3. This theorem, with ihc corollaries, rcl.ites 
 to any fcale wh;iiever. It includes therefore the wcli 
 known property of 9 and of 3 itsaliq'iot part, in ikc '_ 
 decimal Icalc ; for, fiiice r — io, r — 1=9. 
 
 Theor. V. In any number, if from th: fum of the o- 
 ejjicicnts of the odd [xjiutrs of x the fum oj t'lc ca^fic - 
 ents of the even powers bcfubtraOcd, and the nmum- 
 der added to the number itfclj', the fum will be divi- 
 fible by r-t- I. 
 
 In the number «-f5r-f-c/'-t-(//'-»-cr'-j-/"r>,8ic. the 
 fum of the coefficients of the odd powers of r is i-j-i 
 ■^f, &c. the fum of the coefficients of the even powers 
 of r is ^-1-c-t-f, &c. If the latter fura be fubtrafted 
 from the former, and the remainder added to the given 
 number, it makes brJrb-\rcr' — c-t-//r'+(/-f-fr' — e-irfr^ 
 
 Jrf, &c. —by.i + T->rcXr — I +;/X'-- -l-H-.'Xr' — H- 
 yX' +1. &c- B"t (by Lem. 2.) r-H, r" — r, r»-f-r, 
 &c. are each diviiiblc by r+'» ^^"^ therefore any mul- 
 tiples of them are alfo diviiiblc by r-j-i, hence the 
 whole nutnber is diviiiblc by ;--(-i. 
 
 Cor. I. If the dilferencc of the fum of the even di- 
 gits, and the fum of the odd digits of any number be 
 diviiiblc by r+i, the nunibcritlclf is divifible by r-H. 
 
 Let the fum of the even digits (that is, the coelii- 
 cients of the odd powers of r) be D, the fum of the 
 odd digits be d, snd let the number be N. Then by 
 the theorem N-k-D — (/is diviiiblc by r-n, and it is 
 fuppofcd tliat D — dis divilible by r-t-i ; therefore A' 
 is divilible by r+i. 
 
 Cor. 2. In like manner, if D — d is divifible by an 
 aliquot part of ;-j-r, A' will be divifible by that aliquot 
 part. 
 
 Cor. 3. If a number want all the odd powers of r, 
 or if it want all the even powers of r, and if the fum of 
 its digits be diviiiblc by /•+!, that number is divilible 
 by r+i. • 
 
 Cor. 4. In the common fcale r-f-i = 11, which there- 
 fore will have the properties mentioned in this theorem, 
 and the corollaries. Thus, in the number 64834, the 
 fum of the even digits is 7, the fum of the odd digits 
 is 18, and thcditfcrcncc is 1 1, a number divilible by 11, 
 the given number therefore (Cor. i.) is divilible by 11. 
 Thus alfo, the fum of the digits of 7040308 is divilible 
 by II, and therefore the number is divilible by 11. 
 (Cor. 3-) 
 
 Scholium. 
 
 Thefe theorems relate to any fcale whatever, and 
 therefore the properties of r — i in Theor. 4. would in 
 a fcale of eight belong lofevn:, and thofc in Theor. 5. 
 to nine. If twelve was the root of the fcale, the for- 
 mer properties would belong to eleven, and the latter 
 to thirteen. 
 
 APPENDIX to Part I. 
 
 Algebra may be employed in expreffing the re- 
 lations of magnitude in general, and in reafoning 
 with regard to them. It may be ufed jn deducing not 
 only the relations of number, but alfo thofc of exten- 
 fion, and hence thole of every fpecics of quantity tx- 
 prcdiblc by numbers or extended magnitudes. In this' 
 appendix arc mentioned feme examples of its applica- 
 tion to other putts of mithematics, to phylics, and to 
 
 the 
 
 42.^
 
 4^4 
 
 Appliratr 
 
 oD to Gc- 
 
 onwu-y. 
 
 A L G E 
 
 the prailkal rakiilationsof Inilincfs. Tbf j rtncipks 
 and iuppolition.s peculiar lo thti'i; fiibjcds, which Jie 
 , iiccfiikry in dirccling both liic algebraical operations, 
 and the conclr.lions to be drj'.i-ii from tbeni, ai^e bcic 
 sira'.iitd as juA and proper. 
 
 1, yipplicat'on af Algthra to Ceometrx. 
 
 Algel-ra has been fucccftfully applied to alinoft eve- 
 ry branch of mathematics j and the princi; ks of theic 
 branclKS arc often advaiiiagccully introduced into al- 
 j^ehr.iical calculations. 
 
 The application of it Ko geomrtry has been thefoarcc 
 of great improvement iri both thefc fcicncts: on ac- 
 count ol its extent and importance it is here omitted, 
 and the principle? of it arcinore particularly explain- 
 ed in the third part of thtlc elements. 
 
 In this place ihill be given an example of the i(fc of 
 logarithms in refolving certain alirebraical qiitdions. 
 
 N.fjti. Whrn logarithms arc iiicd, let (/.) de- 
 note Liie logaritiim of ary qiiautiiy before which it is 
 placed. 
 
 £.v. To find the number of terms of a {jcometrical fc- 
 ries, of wiiich the faiy is 511, the tirft term i,and 
 the commuji ratio a. 
 
 B R 
 
 A. 
 
 Part? I. 
 
 From feet 
 and ill this pi 
 be found. By reducing the equation /' = 
 
 that . =1'. 
 
 chap. 6. it appears 
 
 r — I 
 , s, r, and a are given, and « is to 
 _.<xr — l+a 
 
 But 
 
 and from the known property of logarithms 7iy(.Lr — 
 
 l.sy.r — I +a — l.a, and n-=.l.sy.r — i-\-a — /.a. 
 
 TTr 
 
 here j = 5ii, a — i, r:z2, and n— '. ^ — 
 
 /.2. 
 •J. 7(392700, 
 
 o. 3010300 
 
 =9. 
 
 In like manner may any fuch equation be refolved, 
 when the only unknown quantiiy is an exponent, and 
 when it is the exponent only of one quantiiy. 
 
 Ex. 2. An equation of the following quadratic form 
 e'-=i=:2bu'— -ztzzc may be refolved by logarithms, iil, 
 
 by fcholiumot Chap. V. ^^ >— >,— *— .y/,' -s— .■ ^nd 
 
 then X is difcovered in the fame manner as in theprc- 
 leding example. Thus, let a =: 2, ^= 10, and c — 96 
 ind the equation 2. " — 20x2?= — 96. iH, a^nio^i: 
 
 — / 8 
 
 ^4= 12 or 8. If 2* = S then A= — = 3 and 2*. — 
 
 /.2 ■ 
 ieX2'=: — 96 is a true equation. If 2*=:i2, then 
 
 _/.i2_i.o79i8i2 „ , , . , , . 
 
 .V— ^ = 3.5849, and this number being 
 
 ijfcrtcd tor .rill the given equation, by means of loga- 
 rithms, will anfwcr the conditiofli^ 
 
 £x. 3. 1 he fum of 2000I. has been out at intcreft 
 for a certain time, and 500I. has been at inttfcft dou- 
 ble of that time, the whole arrcar nosv due reckoning 
 4 ffr ct >it. compound iiitcreil, is 6000I. What were 
 the times ? 
 
 By the rules in the third part of this appendix for 
 compound intcrell, it is plaia that if V? = 1.04, and the 
 time at which the 2000I. is at intereft be x, tlie arr-ar 
 uf it will be 2oooX''f''- The arrear of the 500I. is 
 500X-S**; hence 5ooxy?'*-f2ooox^*-6ooo. This 
 
 3 
 
 2 y . , Applicali- 
 
 -=17.67,-1- nearly, <„Vt„ i..hy. 
 
 flCI- 
 
 rtfolvcd gives yf' =:2aud.T: 
 
 that is, 17 years and 8 months nearly, and the double ^ 
 is 35 years and 4 months ; which anfwcr the cciidi- 
 lioiis. 
 
 It. /Ipplicathn if jllgehra to T hyfics. 
 
 I'hyfical quantities which cm be divided into parts, 
 that have proportions to each- ether, the fame as the 
 propcriioiis of lines to Hues, or of numbers to mim- 
 btrs, may be cxprtUtd by lines ^and numbers, and 
 therefore by algtbraiu^l quantities. Hence ilicfe lua- 
 tlieiiiaiical noiaiionsniay be conlidticdas the mcafures 
 of fuch phylitalquaiitiats ; they may bt rc.iloiied up- 
 on according to tiie piiuciples of algebra, and from 
 fuc h rcafoiiiugs, row relations of the quantities which 
 ihcy reprtreni may be difcovered. 
 
 In tliufc branches of natural pliilofophy, therefore, 
 in which the circumllaiiccs of the phenomena can be 
 properly cxpreifcd by numbers, or geometrical magni- 
 tudes, algebra may be employed, both in promoting 
 thu invcitigatiou of phyllcal laws by experience, and 
 alio in deducing the neceilary conlcquences of laws 
 iuvelligatcd and prcfumed to be juft. 
 
 It i*to be obferved likewife, that if varioue hypo- 
 ihefcs bcaniimcd concerning phyfical quantities, with- 
 out regard 10 what takes place in nature, tlieir coufc- 
 qucuccs may be demonltratively deduced, and thus a 
 fcience may be eltabiilhed, which may be properly cal- 
 led viiith^vtaticat. The ufc of algebra in this fcience, 
 which is fomttimes called Thtoreticat Mechanic!, is 
 obvious from tlie principles already laid down. 
 
 In conducting tiiefe inquiries, it is to be ohfcrved, 
 that, for the lake of brevity, the language of algebrai- 
 cal operation is often ulcd with regard to phyfical 
 quantities themftlves; though it is always to be under- 
 Itood, that, in flriA propriety, it can be applied on- 
 ly to the mathematical notations of thcfe quantities. 
 
 licfore illuArating tliis application of algebra by ex- 
 amples, it may be proper to explain a method of Ha- 
 ting the proportion of variable quantities, and reafon- 
 ing with regard lo it, which Is of general ufe ia na- 
 tural philofophy. 
 
 1. Of ttn ProptrtioH of variabit QflanMies. 
 
 Mathematical quantities are often fo conncfted, that 
 when the magnitude of one is varied, the magnitudes 
 of tjie others are varied, according to a determined 
 rule, 'i hus, if two ftraighr lines, given in pofition, 
 intcrfeft each other ; and, if a ilraiglii liue, cutting 
 botlr, moves parallel to iifclf, the two fcj^mcnts of the 
 givei> lines between their inccrfeflion and the moving 
 line, however varied, M-ill always have the lame pro- 
 portion. Thus alio, if an ordinate to the diameter of 
 a parabola move pirallel to itfelf, the abfcifs will be 
 increafed or diminilhed in proportion as the fquare of 
 the ordinate is increafed or diminirtied. 
 
 In like manner may algebraical quantities be connec- 
 ted. \f x,y, E, Stc. reprefentany variable quantities, 
 \s\\\\ta, h, c, reprefent fuchas are conftaiit or invari- 
 able, then an equation containing two or more variable 
 quantities, with any number of conflant quantities, 
 will exhibit a rehtion of variable quantities, fiuiilar 
 to thofe already mentioned. Thus, liax—hy, then 
 X : y wb : a, thit is, x haa aconllant proportipn toy, 
 
 in
 
 A L G E 
 
 in whstcfvcr way thefe two quaiiriiics may be varied. 
 . Likcwife,irx>'=*'iJ, ilujn^' •.a'::b:x,ory' : -: 
 
 : i, that is, ^'^ has a conlUiit proportion to the rL-ci- 
 
 b 
 procalofx, or y' is iiicrcafed in the fame proportion 
 as X is dimirviflicd, and convtrftly. It is uccttflify to 
 jrciiiifc the following dcfiniiious. 
 
 Dtfiiiitiirns. 
 
 I.i-t there be any Tiuiiiber of variable qii.iiullics, K, 
 T, Z, V, &c. conneclcil i;i fuch a manner, that when 
 A' becomes x, T, Z, f, &c. become refpcd'.vely/, 2, 
 V, &c. And let a, /, c, &c. reprcfont any conilant 
 quantities, whether given or unknown. Titcn 
 
 1. If two variable quantities A' and 1" arc fo con- 
 acfted, tliat whatever be the vahics of .v and/, K : x 
 : : r.- ^jthisproportioniscxprcftcd thus, A'=l', and A is 
 faid to be dncfhr a ^, or fliortly, A' is faid ta be «i T. 
 
 2. If two variable qiiantities X and Tare fo connec- 
 
 Ted,thatA^: K-.-.y: r,ov A: r : :JL : ^, their relation is 
 
 tliBS cxprcffcd, A'=:-yr ; and Xis faid to be inverf.i'y, 
 
 or reciprocally as T. 
 
 5. h" X, i", Z, are three variable quantities, fo con- 
 neftedthatA':* : : YZ :>z,Thcirrclriioniifoexpreircd, 
 X—tZ, and \ is faid to be dtrc8ly ai T and Z, jointly ; 
 or if is faid to -Tic as T and Z. 
 
 4. 'If any Mtmibcr of variable qaanriiies as K, 
 
 YZ V" 
 T, Z.,V, 8cc. arcfoconneaed, that AT: xy : : rll-! 
 
 rz 
 
 tken lCY——ji^, and KY is faid wte dircftly as YZ, 
 
 and iiiverfely as 7% or more explicitly. A' and Y joint- 
 ly , are dircUly as Y and Z jointiy, and inverfely as V. 
 
 In like manner arc other c^-nibinati'ons of variable 
 qualities denoted and cxpre lltd. 
 
 It is to be obfcrved alfo, the fame definitions take 
 place, when the variable quantities arc iv.ul.iplied or 
 divided by any conftant quantities. Thus, \i aX laxx: 
 
 ■=r! - then «A —-^, &c. 
 Y y Y' 
 
 5. Let the preceding notation of proportion be 
 called a froportionat equation (a), the equation for- 
 merly treated of being in this place, for the fake of 
 diftindion, called abfotuts. 
 
 Cor. Every abfolute equation, containing more than 
 one variable quantity, may be confidered as a propor- 
 tional equation; and in a proportional equation, if at 
 any particular correfponding values of the variable 
 tjuantities, the equation becomes abfolute, it will be 
 nniverfally abfolute. 
 
 Pr(^p. I. If oiie fide of a proportional equation be 
 either multiplied or divided by any coiillant quantity, 
 
 it will continue to be true. Thus, if A'= JL, then 
 Vol. I. 
 
 X = 
 
 BRA. 
 
 "j^.. For fincc A=^V (Def. 3.) X : x : -.y-.j, 
 
 it follows, (Chap. II.) that A' : x : : fl :ll, therefore 
 
 bT tij 
 
 (De/. 4.) JC = |y 
 
 Trap. 2. If the two fides of a proponional cqnatiou 
 be both multiplied, or both divided by the fame qiiaa- 
 tity, it will continue to be true. 
 
 i//. If the quantity be coiiAant, it is iiianifefl from 
 Prop. I. 
 
 2:/, If the quantity be variable, let X~T, and Z a 
 •variable quantity, then XZ—YZ. Kor^ (ince A'^I", 
 (Def. 2.) A': x: : Y:y ; multiply the antecedents by Z, 
 and the confequcuts bv x, then XZ : xz : : YZ :yz, 
 therefore (Def. J.) XZ-YZ. la like mamier, if 
 
 'z z 
 
 Cor. Any variable q'lantity, which is a faftor of one 
 fide (3f a proportional equation, may be made to Hand 
 
 Z Z 
 
 alone. Thus, if AT=:-^, then X =— :—; alfo Z~ 
 
 XYV; and Y- 
 
 Z Z 
 
 -j-p-, and alfo F=-jj:' 
 
 F.<)u»- 
 
 &C. Hence 
 
 alfo, if one fide of a proportional eqnation be divided 
 by the other, the quotient is a conftant quaiuit/j 
 
 ViZ. I. 
 
 Prop. 3. If two proportional equations have a com- 
 mon l;de, the remaining two iiJcs will form a propor- 
 tional equation. Alfo, that common (ide will be <u 
 the fam or difference of the other uvo. 
 
 Thus, if XzzY, and Y=Z, then A=Z. For 
 X : X : : Y:y, and Y : y : : Zc, therefore multiply ingthcfe 
 ratios, XY: xy : : YZ -.^z, and by dividing antecedents 
 and confeq-)enTs,A' -.x-.-.Z : r, therefore (Ucf. 2.) .V=r. 
 
 Likewife, if X=Y, and Yz=.Z, 2 =A=i=Z. For, 
 fincc A : -x .! 1":^ : : Z : s. (Chap, il.) Y:^:: Xz:i=.Z : 
 x=±=2, therefore (Def. 5.) Y=X=i=Z. 
 
 Cor. Hence, one fide of a proporiionil equation will 
 be as the fum, or as the diftcrciice of the two fides ; 
 and the fum of the twa fides will be as their diffcren.c. 
 Thus, if A=r-j-Z, then A^A'+r-i-Z and A=A: 
 —Y—Z, and alfo A-<-2 +Z=A'— 2"— Z. 
 
 Prep. 4. If the two fides of a proportional equation 
 be refpci'lively multiplied or divided by the two fides 
 of any other proportional equation, the produds or 
 quotients will form a proportioual equation. 
 
 Thus, if X-Y, and Z-/', then XZ-YV. For 
 fmceA':.v: : r:.)',and Z : r : : /':f,by muliiplyingthefc 
 proportions (Chap. I. II.) AZ -.xz:: YV -.yv, ihtrc- 
 fore {Def. 5.) AZ=r/'. In ILke manner in the cafe 
 of divifion. 
 
 ^'"■- '-.y^f two fides of a proportional equation 
 may be railed to any power, or any root may be e.\- 
 trafted out of both, and the equatioa will continue to 
 be true. 
 
 Thus, if A=}', then XTzi.Y'' -, for fince A"-7", 
 3 H A : V 
 
 (a ) Thefe terms arc ufed only with a view to give more precifion to the ideas of beginners. In order to 
 avoid the ambiguity in the meaning of the fign - fome writers employ the charader a, to den.-te condattt 
 proportion ; but this is fcldom neccilary, as the qDaiuitics compared are generally of different kinds, and the. 
 relation cxprefled IS fulficicntly obvious. Sec Emcrfon's MaOicnutics, vol I
 
 ia6 
 
 ( f Ei^tia- 
 tii>r.5. 
 
 A L- C', 1:. 
 
 .\ : .N : : 3' :/,an J therefore A'" : .v" : : T"' ■.)"■ ; ilwrrefoix 
 
 ' X-zzT". And, if A'-r, alfo A"::!'*. 
 
 C'r. 2. If two proportional equations have a com- 
 mo:i liJc, that I'lite vmU he as the fqiiare root of the 
 prodiiifl cfthc other two. Thus if X—Y, aiiil J— Z, 
 hy this Prop. I'-XZ, and (Cor. i.) T-y/xZ- 
 Hcnrc alfo, in this c«fc, ^/A2=A==Zj for (I'rop. 
 J.) 7=A'=!=Z. . 
 
 Cor. ;. If one fide of a proportional equation be a 
 (z&.or oV ii fide of another proponional equation, the 
 rcma'tnino lideof the former niny he iiifertedin theLr- 
 tcr, ill place of that laftor. Thus, if X—ZY, and 
 
 Z-^, thtn X— J-, as appears by multiplying tlie 
 
 two equations, and dividing by Z. 
 
 Vi ri''. 5. Any proportional equation may be made ^ 
 sbfoluie, by nmlliplying one fide by a coaliaut quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Thus, if A'=r, then let two particular correfpond- 
 intivaluesofthcfc variable qiiantiticf bcafltinied ai,con- 
 ilant, and let them be a and !>, then X : a: -.Y : b, and 
 
 Xhzz-iY, or A=rx-, 5" abfoliitc equation. 
 
 b 
 
 Scboliu?!!. 
 
 1. If there be two variable phyfical quantities, ci- 
 ther of the fame, or of dirtcrent kinds, which arc fo 
 ' wiiutiflcd, that when the one is iiicreaftd or diininilh- 
 
 cd, the other is incrcafcd or diminilhcd in the fame 
 proportion ; or, if the magiiitudcs of the one, in any 
 two fuuatiuns, have the fame ratio to each other, as 
 the magnitudes of the other in the corrcfponding litua- 
 tions, the relation of the mathematical meafurc oi ihcfc 
 quantities may be exprcli'cd by a proportional equa- 
 tion, according to Dcf. i. 
 
 2. If two variable phyiical quantities be fo connec- 
 ted, that the one incnafts in the fame proportion as 
 thcothcrisditiiinilhed, aiidconverfcly ; or, if [hcniag- 
 iiiiudcs of the one, in any two fitnaiions, be rtcipro- 
 lally proportional to the magnitudes of the otiur, in 
 tlic coi refponding fitnations, the relation cf tiicir iiua- 
 furcsmay be exprtfltd by a proporiional equation, ac- 
 cording to Def. 2. 
 
 ^. If three variable phyfical quantities are fo connec- 
 ted, that one of them is incrcafcd or diminillicd, in 
 proportion as both thtothers are increafcd ordimiiiilh- 
 td ; or, if the magnitudes of one of them, in any two 
 iituations, have a r^uio which is compounded of tlric ra- 
 tios of the magniiudcs of the other two, in the corrc- 
 fponding fitnations ; tJie relation cf the mcafurcs of 
 ihcfc three may be cxpref;ed by a proportional equa- 
 tion, according to Dcf. 3. 
 
 4. In like manner m:iy the relations of other com- 
 binations of pliylicpl quantities be exprelfed according 
 M Dcf. 4. And when thcfe proportional eqdations 
 are olitaincd, by rcifoning with regard to thcin, ac- 
 i-ordingto the preceding propofitions, new relations of 
 the phylical quantities may, be deduced. 
 
 2. Examplit- of Fhjfcal Problems. 
 
 The ufc of algebra, in natural philofophy, may be 
 properly illullratcd by fome examples of phyfical pro- 
 tltms. Tbefolutionoffuch problems muA be derived 
 irom kuowu pliylicil laws, which, though ultimately 
 
 11 A. 
 
 I';irt r, 
 
 f jju Jtil on experience, ai e here a/Tained as principles. Of Equa- 
 anJreafoncditpou raathcmaticajly. Thecxperiments tions. 
 by which the principles are afccrtained admit of vari- ^ 
 
 oui dcj^recs of accuracy ; and on the degree of phyfical 
 •accuracy in the principles will depend the phyfical ac- 
 curacy of the conclulions mathematically deduced from 
 them. If the principles are inaccurate, the conclufions 
 intift, in like manner, be inaccurate ; and, if the limits 
 of inaccuracy in ihci>rinciplcscan be afccrtained, t!ie 
 corrtfponding limits, in the contlufiona derived from 
 them, may likcwife be calculated. 
 
 Exttvrp. I. Let agUfstiibc, ao inches («) long, be 
 filled with mercury, excepting P inches (^b) ; and let 
 i: be invericd as in the Toricelliin cxpcririicnt, fo 
 that the 8 inches of common air may ri.fc to the 
 top : It is required to find at what height the mer- 
 cury will remain fufpcnded, the mercury in the ba- 
 ronietcr being at that time 28 inches [d] high. 
 
 The folution of this problem depends upon the fol- 
 lowing principles : « 
 
 I. 'liic preifure of the atmofpherc is meafarcd by 
 the column of mercury in the barometer ; and the eli- 
 flic force of the air, iu its natural llatc, which refills 
 this prcffure, is therefore lueafurcd by the f:.mc co- 
 lumn. 
 
 2 in different flatcs, the elafiic force of the air is 
 reciprocally as the fpaces which it occupies. 
 
 3. In this experiment, the mercury which remains 
 fufpcnded in the tube, together with the elaftio force 
 of the air in the 'top of it, being a counterbalance to 
 the prcfiurc of the atmofpherc, may therefore be cx- 
 prelFcd by the column of mercury in the barometer.' 
 
 Let the mercury in the tube be .v inches, the air in 
 
 the top of it accupics now the fpacc a^x ; it occupied 
 
 -formerly b inches, and its elafiic force was d inches of 
 
 mercury: Now, tlicreforc,tht force mull bc(<7 — x:b::d:) 
 
 inches. (2.) Therefore {3.) x+- ~- 
 
 .-d. 
 
 a — X 
 
 This reduced, and putting a+J-=:2m the equation is 
 X' — imy.zzibd — ad. 
 
 This rcfolvcd ^vit% xzz,ii-=±=.^m'-\-bd — ad. 
 
 In numbers - - >crr/'i4 or 14. 
 
 One of the roots 44 is plainly excluded in this cafe, 
 and the other, 14. is the true anfwcr. If the column 
 of mercury .v, fufpcnded in the tube, were acounterba- 
 hnce to the preifure of the atmofpherc, cxprefl'cd by 
 the height of the barometer*/, tOj;etherwith the mea- 
 fure of the elafiic force of ^ inches of common air in 
 
 the fpace x — a, that is, if .vz:fi'-f — : — , or x — ^ 
 
 * — u .V — a 
 
 d, the equation will be the fame as before, and the root 
 44 would be the true anfwt r. But the experiment in 
 this quedion does not admit of fuch a luppofilion. 
 
 Lxavip. 2. The diflance of the earth and moon (r/), 
 
 and their quantities of matter (/, l\, being given, to 
 
 find the point of equal attraftion between them. 
 
 Let the diflance of die point from the earth be x: 
 
 Its diflance from the moon will be therefore </ — a-. But 
 
 gravitation is as the matter dirediy, and as the fquare 
 
 ofthediflaiiec//;»<;r/(^/)'; thcreforethe tarth'sattrsclion 
 
 is as ; and the moon's attraction is a:; ^ . But 
 
 X ' d — xj ' 
 
 theft are here equal ; therefore,
 
 Part I. 
 
 Of Fqua- 
 tionii. 
 
 ■-y-vl" 
 
 and ' 
 
 y/t _i// 
 
 d—x 
 
 Tills equation reduced irivcs x-=. ,- . . — 
 
 Or mult, numerator and dtnomiuator 1 _<!t — Jy/il. 
 \^-^ /T—yjT \ T—t 
 
 In roiuui numbers, let i/rr6o ftniidiamctcrs of the 
 eiirth, /=4o, /=:r, then jr=j2 femidiamcters nearly. 
 There isaiiother point beyond the moon at which tjie 
 attrattions .ire equal, and it would be foundby inittiiig 
 the fquarc root of d — .'|* to be x — d, which, in this 
 
 cafe, would be a pofitive quantity; andthenx~. — 
 
 — 72 nearly. If the quantities had been multiplied 
 before extrading the fqaarc roots, the a 'fedcd quadra- 
 tic would have given the fame two roots. 
 
 Examp. 3. I^ft a flonc be dropt into an empty pit; 
 and let the time from the droppingof it to the hear- 
 ing the fodud from the bottom be given : To find 
 the depth of the pit. 
 
 Let the given time be a.- let the fall of a heavy body 
 in the ill ftcond of time (16.122 feet) he i : alfo, let 
 the motion of found in a feoon'j (1142 feet) he c. 
 Let the time of the Hone's fall be - ilx 
 The time in which the foundof it moves 
 
 to the top is - - Tit — X 
 
 The dcfcciit of a falling body is as tht 
 
 fquare of the time, therefore the 
 
 depth of the pit is ( t ' : x" : : 1^ : ) J&x" 
 The depth from the motion of found is 
 
 alfo . . . ij ca — ex 
 
 Therefore 3 and 4 - - '.bx'—ca- 
 
 Tliis equation being refolvcd, gives the value of r, 
 and from it may be got bx' or ai — ex, the depth of the 
 pit. 
 
 If the time is 10', then x— S.S'j nearly, and the 
 depth is 127? feet. 
 
 There arc fevcral circumflances in this problem 
 which render the conclufion inaccurate. 
 
 r. 'I'he v dues of c and Ir, on which the folntinn is 
 founded, are derived from experiments, which arc 
 fubjeiSt to confiderable inaccuracies. 
 
 2. The rcfiltancf of the air lias a great efFeft in re- 
 tarding the defccnt of heavy bodies, when the velocity 
 becomes fo great as is fuppofcd in this qiicflion ; and 
 this circumliance is not regarded in the foluiion. 
 
 3. A fniall error, in making the experimeiu to 
 which thisqucftion relates, produces a great error in 
 the conclufion This circuniAance is particularly to 
 be attended to in all pliyli:al problems; and, in the 
 prefcnt cafe, witliout TioiiJng the preceding imper- 
 fei^iohs, an error of hilf a fecond, in eilimating the 
 time, makes an em r of above too ftet in the cxprcf- 
 fion of the depth of the pit. 
 
 III. Of'L.iereft and Annuities. 
 
 The application of algebra to the calculation of in- 
 tcvefls and annuities, will furuilh proper examples of 
 its ufc in bufinefs. Algebra cannot determine the pro- 
 priety or jullicc of the common fuppofitions on which 
 thefc calculations arc founded, but only the ncccflary 
 conclulions rcfulting from thcni. 
 
 E B R A. ■ 
 
 Notation. 
 
 In the followingthcoremslct/ denote ar.y principil 
 fum of which il.is the unit, / tiic lime during wliich 
 it bears intcrell, of which one year ihallbc the unit, r 
 the rate of in:crell of il. for one year, and let she the 
 amount of the principal fum/ with its intcrell for thn 
 lime / at the rate r. 
 
 I. Of Simple Intircft. 
 
 i:=f-\-ptr, and of thefe four, /, p, t, r, any three be- 
 ing given, the fourth may be found by refolving a fiiii- 
 plc equation. 
 
 The foundation of the canon is very obvious ; for 
 the intereil of 1 1. in one year is r, for / years it is tr, 
 and for p pounds it is pir ; ihe whole itnount of prin- 
 cipal and iutercft muft therefore be p+ptrzzs. 
 
 II. Of Compound iiiteyep. 
 
 V/hen the (implc intereftat the end of every year is 
 fuppofcd to be joined to the principal fiim, and both 10 
 bear intcreft for the following year, money is faid to 
 bear compound intereft. The fame notation being 
 ufcd, let i-\.!—R. Then s—'Rt. 
 
 For the liniple intcrcfl of il. in a year is r, and tli; 
 new principal fum therefore which bears interefl di:- 
 ring the I'econd year is ( i+i — ) R ; the inttrert 01 A' 
 for a year is rR, and the araojnt of pvincip.-d and in- 
 tereftat theend of the 2dyear, isR+'-R-=R-A\+-—R' ■ 
 In like manner, at the end of the *d year it is A », at; J 
 at the end of/ years it is A'-', and for the fnm p it is 
 />/?'=/. 
 
 Cor. I. Of tiicfc four/, ^, ^, J, any three being gi- 
 ven the 4th may be found. Wlifn / is not very fmali, 
 the folution will be obtained moll conveniently by lo- 
 garithms. "When A is known r may Lc found, and 
 converfely. 
 
 Ex. If jool. has been at.intereC for 21 years, the 
 whole arrear due, reckoning 4; per cent, compound 
 intereft, is 1263.121. or 1260I. 2s. jd. In this cafe 
 pzz^oo, A=:i.o4J and /=2i and s—xi'to \2, and 
 any one of thcfe may be derived by the theorem front 
 the others being known. Thus, to find s -, I Rt:^!^: 
 /./(■= 21 X0.0191 163 =0. 401442':, therefore A' — 
 2.520242 and i—{pR'=i) 500x2.520242=1260.121. 
 
 Cor. 2. The prefent worth of a fum (s) in revcrr;on 
 that is payable after a certain time / is found thus. Let 
 the prcfc 't worth be v, then this money improved by 
 compound intereft during / produces xRt, which mull 
 
 be equal to /, and if xK* = s, x^ — 
 
 A'» 
 
 Cor. 3. The time in which a fum is doubh d at com- 
 pound intereft will be found thus. pRtrzip and Rt—2 
 
 I 2 
 and / = J ; thus, if the rate is 5 per cent. ;:=:.o j and 
 
 /.A 
 
 0.30I05CO 
 
 = 14.2066, that is 14 years and 
 
 /. 1.05 C.021 1893 
 75 days nearly. 
 
 S,:/)o/iti//t. 
 
 Many other fuppofitions might be made with regard 
 
 to the improvement of money by compound intereft. 
 
 The intereft might be fuppofcd to be joined to thr cx- 
 
 pit.-;!, and along with it to bear inttreft at ihe cud of 
 
 3 H 3 every
 
 4^3 A L G E 
 
 Of Ecjui- ev«ry month, at the end of every djy, or even at the 
 tio""! end wi every iiiftant, and f'litablc calciilaiioiis niighi 1)C 
 " " 'forincil; but thefc fappoliiious, being fcldoni uled in 
 practice, arc omitted. 
 
 III. Of Annuities. 
 
 An annuity is a payment made annually for a cer- 
 tain term of years, and the chief problem with regard 
 to it is, ' lodcirnnine its prefent worth.' Tlie fiip- 
 polition on which the fohuion proceeds is, that the 
 money received by the feller, being improved by liiiu 
 in a certain manner during, the coniiiiu.iiicc ot the an- 
 nuity, amounts to the famefum as the fcvcnilpiyracnts 
 received by the ptirchafer, improved in the lame man- 
 ner. The fuppolitions with regard to the improve- 
 ment may be various. What is called the vnthoi of 
 fmpic ititerejl, in which finiplc iiucrcft only is reckon- 
 ed upon the parch.ife-nioncy, and fimple intercft on 
 each annuity from the time ofpaymcnt, is lb minifcll- 
 ly unequitable, as to be univerfally rejected ; and tiie 
 fuppoiition which is now generally admitted in prac- 
 tice, is the highcll improvement poLlible on both tides, 
 viz. by compound intercll. As the taking compiumd 
 intercll is prohibited by law, the realizing of this fup- 
 pofed improvement requires punctual payment of in- 
 rereft, and therefore the intcreft in fuch calculations 
 is ufually made low. Even with this advantage, it 
 can hardly be rendered cffcdualin its full extent ; it 
 is however univerfally acquiefccd in, as the moP. pro- 
 per foundation of general rules, and when peculiar 
 circumftanccs require any different hypothclis, a fuit- 
 ible calculation may be made. 
 
 Let then the annuity be called n, and let/ be the 
 prefcnt worth of it or purchafe-money, t the time of 
 its continuance, and let the oihcrlctters denote as for- 
 merly. 
 
 The ftllrr, by improving the price received />, at 
 compound intercfh, at the time the annuity ceafcs, has 
 pHt. 
 
 The pnrchi.fer is fuppofed to receive the firft annu- 
 ity a at the end of the firil year, which is improved by 
 him for / — i years; it becomes therefore (Th. 2.) 
 
 He receives the 2d annuity at tlie end of the 2d 
 year, and when improved t — 2, it becomes aKt — '. 
 
 Tiie third annuity becomes aRt — ^, &c. 
 
 The Lift annuity is fimply a, therefore the wliole 
 amount of the improved annuities is the geometrical 
 I'eries a+aK-^ali ' , &c. . . aRt — ' . The fum of this 
 
 -I. 
 
 feries, by Chap. VI. Sccl. 2. is a:X-!:Zl=ax— 
 
 R — I 
 
 But, from the nauire of the problem,/ ^'n^x 
 
 Ri~\ I 
 
 — — =axi — _ 
 
 A/- 1, 
 
 and hence /> = <-/ X- 
 
 The fame ccmclyfion rcfults from calculatin;^ the 
 prefcnt v.'orth of the fcvcral annuitic:, confidered as 
 funis payable in reverllon. 
 
 Cor. I. Of the four;*, a, R, t, aiiy three being gi- 
 ven, the fourth may be found, by the folution of equa- 
 tions ; / is found caiily by logarithms, .ft or r can be 
 
 BRA. Part I. 
 
 found only by refolving an adfcftcd equation of the Of Equ*- 
 
 t order. tioiiB. 
 
 Cor. 2. If an annuity has been unpaid for the term " ^ 
 
 t, the arrcar, reckoning compouud iiucreft, will be 
 
 • Rt—i 
 
 ay. 
 
 I" 
 
 Cor. 2. The prefcnt worth of an annuity in rever- 
 
 fion, that is to commence after a certain time ('.), and 
 
 then to continue / years, is found by iubtracting the 
 
 prefcnt worth for n years from the prefeiu worth for 
 
 r;+f years, and then 
 
 At — I I 
 
 /> = axtL-.Lz:aXl — ~ 
 ri\l+n A I 
 
 TF"- 
 
 Alfo of R, t, u, a, p, any four being given, t&c fifth 
 may be found. 
 
 Cor. 4. If tlic annuity is to continue for ever, then 
 Ri — I a:ul Kt may be conlidcrcd as the fame ; aud 
 *_ A'— !=<» 
 rAt r 
 
 Cor. 5. A perpetuity in revcrfion ^hy Car. 5.) fince 
 
 R'—i = Rt, hpzzJf—. 
 
 ' ' rK" 
 
 T roh. When 12 years of a leafe of 21 were expired, 
 a renewal for the fame term was granted for loool. ; 
 8 years are now expired, and for what fum nuift a cor- 
 refponding renewal be made, reckoning 5 per cetti. 
 compound intercfl ? 
 
 From the firft ti'anfa<5lion the yearly profit rent inuft 
 be deduced ; and trom this the proper iinc in the fe- 
 cond may be computed. 
 
 In the firft bargain, an annuity in reverfion for 12 
 
 years, to commence 9 years hence, was fold for loool. 
 
 the annuity will therefore be found by dr. :;. in which 
 
 rR" 
 all the quantities are given, but<;=:/'-i- . 
 
 I 
 
 and by inferting numbers, viz. p—\ooo, tzz\2, »=:<), 
 rzz.os, and ^=1.05; and working by logarithm;) 
 '!zzx 75. 029:1:1751. — 7d. 
 
 Next, having found a, the fccond renewal is made 
 by finding the prefcnt wnrih of tlie annuity « in rever- 
 hon, to commence 1 3 years hence, and to lall 8 years. 
 In the canon [Cor. 3.) iiifcrt fur a 17J.029, and kt 
 /=S, /.=I3, and r—.os as before, />=599. 93=599!. 
 18s. 6id. The fine required. 
 
 .^s tJiefe computations often become troublcfomc, 
 and arc of frequent ufc, all the common cafes are cal- 
 culated in tables, fiomvvhich the value of any annuity 
 for any time, at any intcrtft, may eafily be found. 
 
 It is to be obfervcd alfo, that the preceding rules 
 are computed on thefuppofitiun of the annuitiesicing 
 paid yearly ; and iherel'orc, if they be fuppofed to be 
 paid half yearly, or quarterly, the coijclulions will bo 
 fomcv/hat diftercnt, hat they maybe eallly calculated 
 on the preceding pri;uiples. 
 
 The calculations of life annuities, depend partly np- 
 cn the principles now explained, andpanlyoii pliyii- 
 cal principles, from the probable iluration of humaa 
 life, as (Udactd from bills of mortality. 
 
 PART
 
 Part II. 
 
 L 
 
 B II 
 
 4-9 
 
 R 
 
 11. 
 
 Of the General Properties and Refolutions of Equations of all Orders. 
 
 c H A P. 1 
 
 Of the Origin and Compofition of Equations ; and oj the 
 Signs and Cotjficiints oj' their teims. 
 
 IN order to rcfolve the higher orders of equations, 
 and to invcllii^ate their general afre«$lions, it is pro- 
 per firfl to conlidcr their origin from the toinbination 
 of interior equations. 
 
 As it would be ioipoffible to exhibit particular rules 
 for the foUition of every orderot equations, their num- 
 ber being indefinite ; tiicrc is a ncccinty of deducing 
 rules from their general properties, which may be c- 
 qually applicalile to all. 
 
 In the application of algebra to certain fuljccls, and 
 cfpccially lo geometry, there may be an oppofition in 
 the quaniiiies, analogous to that of addition and fub- 
 tradion, which may therefore be exprelled by the ligns 
 -1- and — . Hence thtfc figns may be nndcrllood by 
 abftraiftioii, to denote contrariety in general ; and 
 therefore, in this method of treating of equations, ne- 
 gative roots are admitted as well as podtivc. lu many 
 cafes the negative will have a proper and determinate 
 meaning ; and when the equation relates lo magnitude 
 only, where contrariety cannot be fuppofed to exift, 
 thefe roots are neglected, as in the cafe of quidratic 
 equations formerly explained. There is bclides this 
 advantage in admitting negative roots, that both the 
 properties of equations from which their ref)hition is 
 obtained, and ulfo thofe which are ufcful ia the many 
 cxteufive applications of algebra, become more fiuiple 
 and general, and are more calily deduced. 
 
 Ill thi? general method, all the terms of any equation 
 arc broui'lit to one fide, and the equation is cxpreiled 
 by making them equal to o. Therefore, if a root of 
 tile cijiuuiou be inferted iurtead of (v) ilie unknosvn 
 quantity, the pofiave terms will be equal to the nega- 
 tive, and liic wliole mud be equal to o. 
 
 Dil. When any equation is put into tliis form, the 
 lerin in which (v) the unknown quantity, is of ihc 
 highcrt: power, is called the Firfi; that in which the 
 index of .V is lefs by i, is the Second, and fo on, till the 
 Lift, into which the unknown quantity does not enter, 
 and which is called the Abfotiitt Term. 
 
 Pi-op. I. If any number of equations be multiplied 
 together, an equation will be produced, of v. hich the 
 tiimenfion (a) is equal to the fiini of thcdiincniions of 
 the equations mulliplicd. 
 
 If any number of fimple equations be inuliiplied to- 
 gether, as v — <T^o, ■■< — I'zzo, X — <,=", &c. it is obvi- 
 ous, that the product will be an equation of a dimcn- 
 
 fian, containing as many units as tlicrc are fimplc eqia- 
 tious. In like manner, if higher equations are multi- 
 plied togetlicr, a< a cubic a:!d a quadratic, oneof tkc 
 fifth order is produced, and fo on. 
 
 Conveifily. An equation of any dimcnfion is coiili- 
 dcrcd as compounded either of fimple equations, or cf 
 others, fuch that the fum of their dimeniions is equal 
 to the dimcnfion of the given one. By the refolution 
 of equations thcfe inferior equations are difcuvcred, 
 and h'j invclligaiing the coiupoiicnt limplc equations, 
 the roots of any higher cqi'.ation arc found. 
 
 Cor. I. Any equation admits of as many folutions, 
 or has as many roots as there are limple equations 
 which compofc it, that is, as there arc units in the di- 
 mcnfion of it. 
 
 Cor. ^• And convcrfely, no equation can have tr.orc 
 roots than the units in its dimcnfion. 
 
 Cor. 3. Imaginary or impollible roots tnuA cnccraii 
 equation by ]>airs ; for they arifo from quadratics, in 
 whicli both the roots arc fuch. 
 
 Hence alfo, an equation of an even dimcnfion may 
 have all its roots, or any even numbcrof them impof- 
 fible, but an equation of an odd dimcnlion mufl at icail 
 have one polfiblc root. 
 
 Cor. 4. The roots are cither pofitive or negative, 
 according as the roots of the fimple equations, from 
 which they are produced, are politivc or negative. 
 
 Cor. 5. When one root of an equation is difcovcrcd, 
 one of the fimple equations is found, from which the 
 given one is compounded. The given co'iation, there- 
 fore, being divided by this limplc equation, will give 
 an equation of a dimenfiou lower by i. Thus, any 
 equation may be depreflcd as many degrees as there 
 are roots found by any method whatever 
 
 I rop. II. To explain the general properties of the 
 figns and coefficients of the terms of an equation. 
 
 I.ct .V — arzo, x — fco, .x — c=o, x — dzzo, &e. be 
 fmiplc equations, of which the roots are any politivc 
 quantities +a, -f-*, +c, -hJ, &c. and let x+r/.=o, 
 x+"~o, &c. be fimple equations, of which the roots 
 are any negative quantities — k, — n, &c. and let any 
 number of thefe equations be multiplied together, iS in 
 the following table : 
 
 X-v — C-=0 
 
 -ex 
 -tix+:ip 
 
 =0, a Qiiadraiit. 
 
 yy—r=o 
 
 f a) The term dimenficn, in this tveaiifc, is ufed in fenfcs fonuv iiat different, Ian fo as not to rrcale iinjr 
 atnUiguity. lu this chapter it means either the order of an equation, or the number deno'tini! that rrdrr, 
 wl.kh was formerly defined to be the'' *" ^ . . 
 
 (iou. 
 
 ----- . -^ , _. .... ..vw. ......v..!.^ ...... -.--., 
 
 ligncfl exponent of the unknown quantity in any term of the cqu*-
 
 43'=' 
 
 Of Eqna- —x' — a 
 tioiis. — -' 
 
 E 13 R A. 
 
 X-V — uoci/,—0, i 
 (liiijiiaJraiic, 
 
 from this table it is plain, 
 
 1. i hut in a cuiii)iletceciiuiioiulie number of terms 
 is always greater by unit than ilic dimcnlion of ihc 
 equation. 
 
 2. Tlie coeflicicnt of the firll term is i. 
 
 Th« coctiiciciit of liie iecond term is the fum of all 
 the rootj {a, b, c, w, &c.) with their ligns changrd. 
 
 The coefficient of I lie third term is the fum of all 
 the producls that can be made by multiplying any two 
 of the roots together. 
 
 The coeilicicnt of the fourth terra is the fum of all 
 the products which can be made by multiplying tou;c- 
 thcr any three of the roots with ihiir ligns changed; 
 and fo of o'.hcis. 
 
 The laft term is the product of all the roots, with 
 their figns changed. 
 
 3. Yxom induction it appears, that in any equation 
 (the terms being regularly arranged as in the prece- 
 ding example) there arc as many politivc roots as there 
 are changes in the fignsof the terms from + to — , 
 and from — to -(- ; and the remaining roots arc nega- 
 tive. The rule alfo may be dcmonilrated. 
 
 Note. The impolliblc roots in this rule. are fuppofed 
 to be either pofitivc or negative. 
 
 In this example of a numeral equation x'— lox^-l- 
 5;x- — 5Oi-|-24=:0, the roots are, -fi, +2, +5, -4-4, 
 and the preceoingobfervations with regara to the figns 
 and coefficicnis take place. 
 
 Cor. If a term of an equation is wanting, the pofi- 
 tive and negative parts of its coefficient muft then be 
 equal. If there is no abfolute term, then fomc of the 
 roots mull be =0, and tb.e equation may be dcprelftd 
 by dividing all the terms by the lowell power of tiic 
 unknown quantity in anyof tliem. In this cafe alfo, 
 
 X 0=0, X — 0=0, &c. may be confidered as fo many 
 
 of the component fimple equations, by which the given 
 equation being divided, it will be dcprclFcd fo many 
 degrees. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Cfth: Trainformation of Equations. 
 
 There arc certain transformations of equations ne- 
 ceffary towards ihcir folution ; and the moftufefulare 
 contained in the following proportions. 
 
 Prop. I. The affirmative roots of an equation be- 
 come negative, and t!ie negative become affirmative, 
 by changing the figns of the alternate terms, begin- 
 ning with the fecond. 
 
 Thus the roots of the equation x* — x' — \()%'-^e.^x 
 
 Part II. 
 
 — 5, wheress the roots of of Equa- 
 — 49X — l^—o, ai c — I, — t'fr.s- 
 
 — ;o=9 arc +1, +2, -f: 
 the equation x'-f*' — 19 
 
 2, —3. +J- 
 
 The rcafini of this is derived from^hc eompofiiion 
 of the coefficients of thcfc terms, which confifl of 
 ciinibinaiions of odd iiunibcrsol the rooir,, as explain- 
 ed in the preceding C ha^^tcr. 
 
 Pr:f. 1. An equation may be transformed into 
 another that fliall have iis roots greaicr or Uisih.iti the 
 roots of the given equation by fome given diiierence. 
 
 Let X be the unknown quantity of the equation, 
 and e the given ditfc rcncc ; te t j ~.v —*—!:, the. 1 rzzyzi^c; 
 aiulif for x and itspoAcr in the given equation, _y=Jz:f 
 and its powers beinfcrttd, a new equation will arilc, 
 in which the unknown quaiiiiiy is/, and its value will 
 ;.f 1 — *—' : that is, its roots will diftiir from the roots 
 of the given equation by r. 
 
 Let the equation propofcd be x' — px'+qx — »~o. 
 of w hich the roots mult be diminilhcd by e. By in- 
 fertiug for x and its powers _y-f-^ and its powers, ilic 
 cquaiioii required is. 
 
 + 'jy + ?'■ C 
 
 Cor. t. From this transformation, the fecond, or 
 any oilier intermediate term, m..y be taken away; 
 granting the refoLuion of equations. 
 
 Since the coefficients of ;dl the terms of the tranf- 
 formcd equation, except the firft, involve the posvers 
 of f and known quar.iities only, by putting the coef- 
 ficient of any term equal to o, and refolving that cquar 
 tion, a value of c rajiy be determined ; which being 
 fubdituted, will make that term to vaniih. 
 
 Thus, in ihis example, to take away the fecond 
 term, let its coefficient, j.- — /-^o, and f::z^/>, which 
 being fubftitutcd for e, the new equation will want 
 tlic fecond term. And univerfally, the coefficient of 
 thelirA term of a cubic equation being i, and x being 
 the unknown quantity, the fecond term may be takerl 
 away by fuppoling xzz) -z^zi'p ,z:±^p being the coeffici- 
 ent of that term. 
 
 Cor. 2. The fecondjerm m»y be taken away by the 
 folutiwi of a fimple equation, the. third by the folution 
 of a quadra^iic, and fo on. 
 
 Cor. 3. if the fecond term of a quadratic equation, 
 be taken away, it will become a pure equation, and 
 thus a folution of qudratics will be obtained, which 
 coincides with the folution already given in Part I. 
 
 Cor. 4. The lalt term of the transformed equation 
 is the fame with the given equation, only having e in 
 place of X. 
 
 Prop. 3. In like manner may an equation be trans- 
 formed into another, of which the roots ffiall be equal 
 to the roots of the given equation, multiplied or di- 
 vided by a given quantity. 
 
 Let * be the unknown letter in the given equation, 
 and )■ that of the equation warned ; alfo let i: be the 
 given quantity. 
 
 To multiply tlic roots let s.-^y and x -zlZ-, 
 
 To divide the roots let — —j, and x~ye. 
 
 e 
 
 Then
 
 Pait II. ' A L C I: 
 
 Of Tqua- yijen fubftituic fur x anJ its powers, Z_ or re and 
 
 t:or», f * 
 
 ^ *' ' i:s powers, and the new equation of which j> is the 
 uiikno'.i-n quantity will have the property rtquired. 
 .. Cor, I By this propofiiion an equation, in which 
 the coefficient di the firfl term is any known quanti- 
 ty, as a, may be trar.sformed into another, in whith 
 tiic coefficient of tlic (^rll term Ihall be unit. Thus, 
 let the equation be nx' — p'+jx — rzro. Suppnlc 
 
 }—jx, or xzz-L, and for x and its powers iiitcrt-_ 
 
 and its powers, and the equation becomes- li— + 
 
 a' a' 
 
 iL — 1—0, or/' — p)'-i-^a_\ — a'l—o. A!fo, let the 
 
 eq'jati>>n be 5.t' — 6.t* + 7.v — jc^ojaad U xzz-, then 
 
 7>— 6/'+3J>— 7JC=0. 
 
 Cor. 2. If the two transformations in Prop. 2. and 
 ?. be both required, they may be performed either 
 fejiaratcly or together. 
 
 Thus, if it is required to transform the equation 
 ax' — pxf+(jx — r=o into one wliich (hall want the 
 focond term, and in which ihe coefficient of the lirit 
 
 y 
 term fliall be I ; let x—-, and lhen>' — py'-\-qaji — 
 
 a'rz=o as before; then let >=2+5/', and the new 
 equation, of which 2 is the nnknown quantity, will 
 want the fccond term, and the cuffficicr.t o{ z- , the 
 
 highefl; termis I. Or, if x=^^ — —, the fame equa- 
 tion as the laft found will arife from one operation. 
 £x. Let the equation be 5x" — Gx' + yx — jo=:o. 
 
 If.\='l, then _)' — 6)*+35j' — 750=0. And if j~ 
 
 5 
 =+2, z'+2^z — 696=0. Alfo, at once, let x= 
 
 - — , and the equation properly reduced, by bring- 
 ing; all the terms to a common denominator, and then 
 calling it off, will be z'+2'}z — 696=0, as before. 
 
 Co'-. 3. If there are fraftions ii*. an equation, they 
 may be taken away, by multiplying tl-.e equation by 
 the denominators, and by ibis propofition the equa- 
 tion may then be transformed into another, without 
 fraftions, in which the coefficient of the Urd term 
 is t. In like manner may a furd coefficient be taken 
 away in certain cafes. 
 
 Cor. 4. Kencc alfo, if the coefficient of the fcccnd 
 term of a cubic equation is not diviiible by 3, the 
 fra^ions thence ariling in the transformed equation, 
 wanting ihe fccond term, may be taken away by the 
 preceding corollary. But the fecond term alio may be 
 taken away, fo that there Ihall be no fuch fractions in 
 
 the transformed equation,by fuppofing v~ " ' <'~*~p 
 
 3 
 being the coefficient of the fecond term of il-.e given 
 equation. And if the equation ax' — px'-\-,jy. — r=o 
 be given, in which /5 Is not Jivii.blt by ,, by fuppcfuig 
 
 xzi — '-> the transformed equation reduced is z> — 
 
 I> K A. 
 
 term, and tlic eoefficientj of the other tet 
 
 inicgcrs, tlic coemci.r.ts >>f the givci t. 
 alio luppofcd integers. 
 
 ;/ -t-<j..y.X2 — 2/*>-f9c/o — 27''''=0: wanting the 
 fccond term, having one for the ccctEci'jDt of the firfl 
 
 C'l-mra/ Coroi'/arjr tq Prop. I. 2. ^.. 
 
 If ihe roots cf any of iLefc transformed tqnalioiis 
 be found Ly" any mtihod, tlie roots of the orij;ii.ui 
 _cquat!(m, from v.hich they were derived, wtil e :(:!y 
 be found from the liriplceqiaiions expreinng their re- 
 lation. Thus, if 8 is fouiid to be a root of the trans- 
 formed equation z'+z^z — 696=0 (Cor. 2. prop. 3.) 
 
 Since x—1 , tlie correfponding root of the given 
 
 equation ^x' — Gx'+ix — 3o = on;uflbe — 1^=2. It 
 
 is to be obfcrved alfo, that tlie reafor.ing in Prop. 2. 
 and 5. and the coroliaries, may be extended to any or- 
 dcr of equations, thoiigh in them it is ap^jlicd chiefly 
 to cubics. 
 
 C H .\ P. III. 
 
 Of the Refofutior: of Equation, 
 
 From the preceding principlcsand operations, rules 
 may be derived for rcTolving equations of all orders. 
 
 I. Cardan's Rule fur Cubic Equation. 
 
 The fccond term of a cubic equation being taken 
 away, and the coefficient of the fi-ft: term being midc 
 I, (by Cor. I. Prop. 2. and Cor. i. Prop. 3. Chap. 11.) 
 it miy be generally reprcfcnted by x',+3j7v-f-2' =0 j 
 the lign -H in all terms denoting the addition of tlicai, 
 with their proper figns. Let x=7/7-f//, and alfo mn 
 = — q ; by the fub.titution of thefe values, an equa- 
 tion of the 6th order, but of the quadratic form', is 
 deduced, which gives the values of m and n \ and 
 hence, 
 
 (.T.-i-n = ) .V = V— r-H V' ' +y ' -f ^yJ—r—J?^^' ; 
 
 _ 9 
 or .-= ;,_,+ ^,._^^,_ ^_^_^^-=== 
 
 Cor. I. In the given equation, if 37 is negative, and 
 if r= islefsthan y', this exprcffion of the root involves 
 impoffiblc roots ; while, at the fame time, ail the roots 
 of th.1t equation arc poffible. The reafon is, that in 
 this method of folution it is ncccflary to fuppofc that 
 X the root may be divided into two pans, of which 
 the produift is q. But it is eafy to fiiow, that in this, 
 which is called the irreducitli cafe, it cannot be done. 
 
 For example, the cquaiion (Ex. 3. Sedl. 3. of this 
 Chapter), x' — 156-^560=0, belongs to the irredu- 
 cible cafe, and the three roots are -4-4,-1-10, — 14 ; 
 and it is plain that none of thefe roots can be divided 
 into two parts [m and >:), ef which the proJu^ can 
 
 for the greateft pro- 
 
 duft from the divifiun of the greateft root — :.;, is 
 — 7X — 7=49 Icfs than 52. 
 
 If (lie cube root of the compound furd can be cx- 
 tratteu, the impoffible parts baUuce each tthcr, and 
 the true root is obtained. 
 
 Tilt geometrical problem of the trifcflion of an 
 
 arch 
 
 be equal to ( — cj—)ll^— 52 
 3
 
 ^32 A L Li J 
 
 of E>vj» arc'n is reiolvird .li^r'oriiCilly, I'y a cubic eqiiaiion of 
 tions ihii form; and hence the foundation of the ru'.e for 
 ■' ' rrfolvii'.^ ;ia equation belonging to this cafe, by a ts.- 
 bl: of lujirs. 
 
 Cor. 2. Kitqusilratic eqiiarioriS may be reduced to 
 <-'jbies, and may therefore bt le'olvcd by thisri.U'. 
 
 Soivi* oihef cljircs of eqn.itions, too, n.ay be rclol- 
 vtd by par: i-ular rules; butthtfc, and every o:her or- 
 >Vr of ffjijalions, arc toinmonly rtijivc J by the gene- 
 ral r'llc., which inuviir tqiully applied io all. 
 
 B R A. 
 
 Pait II 
 
 H. S: 
 
 F„/e 
 
 
 are conimenfu- 
 
 iile I. Al! the terms <»f tlir et^uatian being brought 
 to one (it!r, find all the divifors of the abfolutc term, 
 ftnU fubftitaie ihcra fiiccciTivcly in the equation for 
 the unknown <jnanti;y. That divifor which, Tab- 
 ftitiUtd in this manner, gives the refuit =o, fliaU 
 be X. root of the equation. 
 
 Ex. \. X' — 5iJx' + 2a'.v— ?<»'(i 1 _ 
 
 The fimple literal divifors of — 2a'l> arc a, b, 2^, 
 ;i, any of which may be infcrtcd for x. Suppofing 
 y~-\-a, the tquation becomes 
 
 -»_j«»4.2i'-2«''^ ^vhich isobviou!ly=o. 
 Ex.2. x^—2x' — 33x+90=o. 
 
 The divifors of 90 are i, I, 3, 5, (>, 9, 10, r J, iS, Of Equs- 
 
 30, 45, 00. HOBS. 
 
 The firftof thefc divifors, which being infcricd for ~ 
 X, will make (he rcfult =0, is + 3 j + 5 is another ; 
 {.lul it is plain the laft 4'ooi mud be negative, and it is 
 — 6. 
 
 When 3 is difcovered to lie a root, <hc given equa- 
 tion may be divided by .v — 5=0, and the rcfult will 
 be aqnadraiic, which liciu^rcfolved willgivc tiieotlier 
 two roots, + J and — 6. 
 
 The reafou of the ttile appcTrs fr«:n ihe property 
 of the abfolutc term formerly dcfincti, viz. ihat it it 
 the produft of all the roots. 
 
 To avoid the inconvenince of trying many divifors, 
 this method i.s flwrtencd by the following 
 
 Uti/i 2. Snbflitntc in place of the unknown qumtrTjr 
 fucceilively three o^rinore ;ernis of the progrellioa, 
 1,0, — I, &c. and find all the divifors of the Aims 
 that rcfuU ; then take out all the ai ithm<!iicai pro- 
 grelfions that can bc-foiind^mongthcfcdiviforswhorc 
 common diflcrence is i, and th-c values nt x will te 
 among thofc terms of the prngruSons which art tfec 
 divifors of the rcftik ariling from the fibfUturion of 
 .v = o. When the fcries increases, the rootswifi be 
 pofuive J and when it iJccreafes, chc roots will -bt 
 negative. 
 
 Examp. Let it be required to find a root of the equa- 
 tion x> — X' — ioa:4-6 = o. 
 
 The operation is thus ; 
 
 Sufpij:: 
 
 ktjiiit. I Divifnrs. 
 
 x-=. I 
 
 X' — X' — TOy-l-6 
 
 'AI 
 
 41, 2, 4, 
 
 + 14 
 
 i> 2, 3,6, 
 
 '. 2, 7, 1 4. 2 
 
 Ar. fro'. 
 
 In this example there is only one progrcliion, 4, 3, 
 2 ; and therefore 3 is a root, and it is — 3, iiuce the 
 ferits dccrcafes. 
 
 It is evident by the rules for transforming equa- 
 tions (Chap. II.), that by infertingfor x, -^ i (=4-;) 
 the refult is the abfolutc term of an equation of which 
 the roots are let's than the roots of the given equation 
 by I (=:•). Cor. 4. Prop. 2. When jc=o the refult 
 is the abfohue term of the given equation. When for 
 X is infcrted — i (= — :) the refult is the abfolutc 
 term of an equation whole roots exceed the roots of 
 the given equation by i (=<)• Hence, if the terms 
 of the fcries 1,0, — i, — 2, &c. be infcrted fucccf- 
 llvciy for X, the refults will be the abfolute terms of 
 fo many equations, of which the roots form an incr«a- 
 ling arithmetical ferics with the dllfcrence i. Butas 
 the commenfiiratc roots of thcfc equations muft be a- 
 mong the divifors of their abfolute terms, hence they 
 mull be among the aritlimctical progreflions found by 
 this rule. The roots of the given equation therefore 
 are to be fought for among the terms of thefe progrcf- 
 iions which are divifors of the refult, upon the fuppo- 
 fition of x — o, becaufe that refult is its abfolute term. 
 
 It is plain that the progreffions niufl always be in- 
 crealing, o.-ly it is to be obfervcd, that a dccreafing 
 ferics with the lign -f- becomes incrcafing with the 
 .'scrw — . Thus, in the preceding example, — 4, — 3, 
 
 — 2, is an increafing fcries, of which — 3 is to be 
 tritd, and it fucceeds. 
 
 If, from the fubflilutten of three terms of the pro- 
 gredion, r, o, — l, &c. there arifc- a number of arith- 
 metical fcricfes. by fubftitiiting more terms of that 
 progreflion, fome of the feriefes will break oft, and, 
 of courfc, fewer trials will be nccelfary, 
 
 III. Esamflis oj Qutfliom producing the higher Equtt' 
 tionj. 
 
 Eanp. I. It is required to divide 16 1. between two 
 perfons, fo that the cube of the one's fliarc may ex- 
 ceed the cube of the other's by :86. 
 
 Let the gi-catcr-iliarc be x pounds, 
 And the Icfs will be 16 — x ; 
 
 By thequeftion, .v' — 16 — .v|»=386 
 And by Inv. 2x5 — 48.V'' 4-768): — 4096=386 
 Tranfp. and di vide x= — 24x'+384v — 2241=0. 
 
 Suppof. ReJitUs. Diviforj, 
 
 Ifx= I; - iSSo - 1,2,4,5,8,10,20. 
 
 *■= o; - 2241 - 1,3,9,27,83. 
 
 X——1 : - 26J0 - I, 2, 5, lo, 2j, J3. 
 
 Where 8, 9, 10, differ by i ; therefore -t-9is to be 
 tried; and being infcrted for v, the equation is=o. 
 The two liurcs then arc 9 and 7 which fuccccd. 
 
 Since
 
 BRA. 
 
 433 
 
 Of Equa- Since j^=:9 ; x—^—o, is one of the limple equa- 
 tions, tions from which ihis cubic is produced, therelore 
 
 «— 9 
 
 -—X' — i5x-{-249:=0. And the 
 two roots of this quadratic arc impofllble. 
 Examp. 2. What two numbers are thofe whofc pro- 
 diia niiiUipliedby the greater will produce 435, and 
 their difference multiplied by the lefs 20 ? 
 
 Le{ the greater number be x, and the Icfs^. 
 Then by quell. \\— _\ ._,^ 
 
 x'^- 
 
 ;'+4q>*+40O 
 
 >' 
 
 40J 
 
 ^•*+4q>i '4-400 40 J 
 
 Therefore 
 And - - 
 Alfo - - 
 Therefore 
 
 y > 
 
 Mult, and tranfp._)'<+40)" — 40^+400=0. 
 
 This biquadratic, refolved by divifors, give?/=3 : 
 
 and therefore .v=9. Alfo< i^ —i — -^—j ' 
 
 J—S 
 
 This cubic equation has one pofitivc incommenfurate 
 root, viz. 1. 1 1 4, &c. which maybe found by the rule 
 in the next fedlion, and two impofTible. The incom- 
 menfurate root/=i ^11 4, &c. gives .r =19.067, &c. and 
 thefe two anfwer th'e conditions very nearly. 
 
 Examp. 3. The fum of the fquares of two numbers 
 208, and the fum of their cubes 2240 being given, 
 to find them. 
 
 Let t he gre at er be '- \-y, and the lefs x — y. 
 Then .v+j ) +x — }]'=2x'+2y ' = 208 
 Hcn cc ^ '=10 4 — X ' 
 
 Alfo X-4-/1' +v— /)' = 2X'+6.v_)''=2240 
 
 •Subflitutc for/" its value and 2v'+624v — 6x'=:2240. 
 
 This reduced gives x> — i j6x-f-56o=o. 
 
 The roots of this eqiiation are -4- 10, + 14, — 14. If 
 szz 10, then/=2 ; and the numbers fought are 12 and 
 8, which give the only jufl lolution. Ifx=:4, then 
 j'=:S8 and )='v'88. The numbers fought arc there- 
 fore 4+ VgS and 4 — VSS. The la/l is negative, but 
 th«y anfwer the conditions. Laflly, if x= — 14, then 
 
 y'— — 92, hence / =:V^^^^^, is impoffible ; but Hill 
 the two numbers — T4-(-V — 92, — 14 — ^ — 92, be- 
 ing infertcd, would anfwer the conditions. But it has 
 been frecjucntly obfcrved, that fuch folutions arc both 
 ufelcfs and without meaning. 
 
 IV. Solution of Equations by Approximation. 
 
 By the former rules, the roots of equation, when 
 they arc commcnfurate may be obtained. Thcfc, 
 however, more rarely occur ; and when they are in- 
 commenfurate, wccan find only an approximate value 
 of them, but to any degree of exaftnefs required. 
 There are various rules for this purpofc ; one of the 
 moft fimplc is that of Sir Ifaac Newton, which Ihail be 
 now explained. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Livima. If any two numbers, being iafened for Of E<ia»- 
 the unknown quantity (x) in any equation, give re- , ""^' , 
 fults with oppoiite ftgns, an odd numl>er of roots mull 
 be between thcfc numbers. 
 
 This appears from the property of the abfoKite 
 term, and from this obvious maxim, that if a number 
 of quantities be multiplied together, and i*' tlie fi;^ns 
 of an odd number of them be changed, the lign of the 
 product is changed. For, wiien a potitivc quiutily is 
 infertcd for x, the refult is the abfolutc ■. ; m of art 
 equation whofc roots are lefs than the re '-i jf the gi- 
 ven equation by that quantity (Prop. 2. Lor. 3. Chap. 
 II.) If the refult has the fame fign as the gi/en ab- 
 folutc term, then from the property of the abfo'ute 
 term (Prop. 2. Chap. I.) either none or an even num- 
 ber only of the pofiiive roots, have had their figns 
 changed by the transformation ; but if the refult has 
 an oppofite fign to that of the given abfolutc term, the 
 figns of an odd number of the pofitive roots mull have 
 been changed. In the firfl cafe, then, the quantity 
 fubllitutcd muft have been either greater th«n each of 
 an even number of the politive roots of the given equa- 
 tion, or lefs than any of them ; in the fecond cafe, it 
 mull have been greater than each of an odd number of 
 the politive roots. h\\ odd number of the pofitive 
 roots, therefore, mufl lie between them when they 
 give rcfuhs with oppofite figns. The fame obfervatioa 
 is to be extended to the fubllitution of negative quan- 
 tities and the negative roots. 
 
 From this lemma, by means of trials, it will not be 
 difficult to find the neareft integer to a root of a given 
 numeral equation. This is the firfl Hep towards the 
 approximation ; and both the manner of continuing it, 
 and the reafon of the operation, will be evident from 
 the following example. 
 
 Let the equation be at' — 2x — 5=0. 
 
 1 . Find the ncarell integer to the root. In this cafe 
 
 a root is between 2 and 3 -, for thefe numbers being 
 iufcrted for x, the one gives a pofitive, and the other 
 a negative, refult. Either the number above the root, 
 or that below it, may be affumcd as the firll value ; 
 only it will be more convenient to take that which ap- 
 pears to be nearefl to the root, as will be manifell from 
 the nature of the operation. 
 
 2. Suppofe x-=.2-¥f, and fubllitute this value of >■ 
 in the equation. 
 
 X'- 8+i2f+6ff+J' 
 
 — 2V=— 4—2/ 
 
 X' — 2x— 5= — i+icj+6J-+/'=o. 
 
 Asyis lefs than unit, its powers/"' and/"' may be 
 neglcftcd in this firll approximati .11, and \of=.i, or 
 f—o.i nearly, therefore x = 2.i nearly. 
 
 ;. As /=o.i nearly, let f=.i+g, and inferi 
 value ofy in the preceding equation. 
 
 /'= o.ooi-J- o.o-^£+o.^g'+6j^' 
 6f'-= 0.06 + i.2^-|-6j' 
 lofc I +10^ 
 
 thi.>; 
 
 + iof — 1= C.OOI-I-I I.2-! -1-6. 
 
 and ncgleding^' and ^'as very fniall o.6i-t-ii.25|^ 
 ? I =0,
 
 434 
 
 A 
 
 G 
 
 E B R A. 
 
 ^pplica- ^j. ^_— o.o5r_ — ^^ ,jj,jj.j.^ fzzo.l+r- 
 
 t.on to (;c- 11.2^ 
 
 omeirj-. _ ,^ neirly, and .\=i.0946 nearly. 
 
 4. This operation may be coniiuucJ to any length, 
 as by fiippoiM'.g ^— — ooi4+A, and fo on, and the 
 value of .'c=2.C94J5i47 nearly. 
 
 By tbc firft opcraiioii a nearci- value of x may be 
 found tiius ; lince/=. t nearly and — i + loj'+fi/' + 
 
 f'=o,J= J—^-rr> t-'^i ", y= _ , '^ _ ..=.094 
 
 1*.+')/+/' 10+.6+.01 
 
 true to the lail ligure, and x = 2.094. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 In the fame manner may the root of a pure eipiaiion AppUca- 
 be feund, and this gives an eafy method of approxi- •'''■i to 0«- 
 mating to the roots of numbers whicii are not perfect onctry, 
 powers. ^ ' 
 
 This rule is applicable toniimtral eqij.itions of every 
 order; and, by Jlliiming a general equation, general 
 rules may be deduced for appro.ximatiiio; to the roots 
 of any propofed equation, iiy a fimilar method \vc 
 may approximate to the roots of litei-al cqaaiious, 
 which will be cxprclfed by intinitc ferics. 
 
 R 
 
 III. 
 
 OftKe Application of Algebra to Geometry. 
 
 C II A i>. I. 
 Ctnerat Princifl:i. 
 
 GEOMETRY treats both of the magnitude aiid 
 P',>!itioiicf extcanon, and their conncflions. 
 
 /\lj;el)ra treats only of magnitude j therefore, of 
 the relations which fubfift in geometrical figures, thofe 
 of magnitude only can be immcJiatcly cxpreiFed by al- 
 gebra. 
 
 The oppofiie pofiiioti of ftraight lines may indeed 
 be exprcilcd (imply by the Itgn-. 4- and — . But, in 
 order to exprcfs the various otlur politions of geome- 
 trical (igares by algebra from the principles of geome- 
 try, fome relations, of magnitude mull be found, which 
 depend upon ihefe pofitions, and which can be exhi- 
 bited by t()Uations: And, convcrfcly, by the fame 
 principles may the polilionsof figures be inferred from 
 the equations denotin:; fuch relations of their parts. 
 
 Though this application of algebra appears to be 
 indireet,^yet fnch i^ the fimplicity of the operations, 
 and the ptncriil nature of its theorems, that invclliga- 
 tions, clpeeially in the higher p:;rt3 of geometry, are 
 generally caller and more expeditious by the alge- 
 braical method, though Itfs elegant thin by what is 
 purely geometrical. The connedioiis alfo, and ana- 
 logies of the two fciences eftabliUied by this appli- 
 cation, have given rife to many curious fpcculations. 
 
 Geometry has been rendered far more cxtcnfivc and 
 ufeful, and algebra itfclf has received conlidcrabU im- 
 provements. 
 
 I. Of (hi Algibra'ical Exbnjjiton oj Geometrical Mag- 
 iiilti.iei. 
 
 A If Hi, whether known or unknown, is reprefcnted 
 by a linglc letter : a lidang'.t is properly expretfcd by 
 the product of the two letters reprefeiuing it3 lidcs : 
 raid a rcBunp/jlar faraUel<i('iped by the producl of three 
 letters; two of which reprcfent the lidesofany of its 
 re^l iiigular Lafcs, and the third the altitude. 
 
 Thti'c are the mofb (imple exprclllons of geometrical 
 ma,Tnitudes ; ^nd any other which has a known pro- 
 portion to thefe, may in like manner becxprcircd al- 
 gebraically. ConvcrfJy, the geometrical magnitudes, 
 reprefcnted by fuch algebraical quantities, jnay be 
 found, only thealgebrnical dimenllons above the third, 
 not having any correfponding geometrical dimenlions, 
 mad be exprciic-d by proportionals (a). 
 
 The oppodte pofnion of Uraight lines, it has been 
 remarked, may be exprelfcd by the iigns -i- and — . 
 
 Thus, let a point A be given in the line 
 
 P 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 B 
 
 AP, any fegnient AP taken to the right hand being 
 confidered as politive, a fegment Ap to the left is pro- 
 perly 
 
 (a) All algebraical dimcnfions abcve the third mufl be exprelfed by inferior geometrical dimcnfions ; and 
 though any algebraical quantities of two or three dimcnfions may be immcJiutely exprefTed by furfaces and 
 lolids refpeftivcly, yet it is generally necellary to exprcfs them, and all fuperi<ir dimenlions, by lines. 
 , If, iii any geometrical inveftigation by algebra, each line is exprelfed by a lin.;le letter, and each furface or 
 folid by an algebraical quantity of two or three dimenlions rcfpeftively, then whatever legitimate operations 
 are performed with reg .rd to them, the terms in any equation derived will, when properly reduced, be all of 
 the fame dimenfion ; 'and any fuch equation may be calily expreiTed geometrically by means or proportionals, 
 as in the following examp'e. 
 
 Thus, if the algebraical equation a- ■^b'—c'' —d*, is to be exprefled geometrically, a, b, c, d, being fup- 
 ofed to reprefent ilaight lines; let a : * : e:J -.g/m continued proportion, the 1 a* : i" : : a:g and a* : a«-f- 
 ' : ta-.a+a ; then let a : c : f> : i : /, 3r.d a' : c' : : a : / ; alfo, let c :</:«:«: />, andt' : d* : : c :/>, ore* : c* 
 
 pof( 
 
 : a : a^g ; then \ci a : c : h : k : i, and a' : c* : : a : I -, alio, letc : n : m : n : p, ana t- : a- : 
 
 d* : : c: c — p. By combining the two former proportion s (C hap. II. Part I.), c' : a* +i * : : t -jf+g, and 
 
 combining the latter with this lalt found, c'— i'- a' -[■ b' : : c—pY.! ■ fX •'+.?: '-iccfore c—px!=-cy.a+j, and 
 c : c—p : : I : a+g. ^^
 
 Part I If. A L G 
 
 Applica- j'crly rcprefciitcci by i n.-g.iiivx qi.mtily. If a and i 
 
 tion toCc- npicfcni two lines; ai'd ir, upon the iiuc ABfroiii 
 
 "'"<• "•>• (lie |inirit A, AP be fikcii towarJs the rigiir equal :o 
 
 ^ a, it may i^c cxj>rclTcd by +a ; then PM taken to the 
 
 left an(lc([u.'il to ^, willbt properly rcjrcfeutcd by — />, 
 
 for AM is equal to a — ^. It a—h then M \.ill fail 
 
 upon A, anj a — /'=:o. By the fauic noiation, if i 
 
 is greater than a, M v. ill fall to the lei't of A ; ant! ia 
 
 this cafe, if 2tf=:i,.and if Pp be taken equal to i, then 
 
 (« — ^=) — a will reprcfcni Ap, which is equal to a, 
 
 unJ fituatcii to tlic left of A. Thii iilcof the iigns, 
 
 lio'.vcvcr, ill particular cafes, may b: prccladtd, or in 
 
 fon>c mcafurc rcftr.'.incd. 
 
 The pofitions of ^c-cnietricarfigurcs are fo varions, 
 that it is impoinblc to give general rules for the alge- 
 biai'.al expreliion of thcai. The foriov.i:;garc a tew 
 examples. 
 
 An angle is exprcifcd by the ratio of its fine to the 
 radius ; a rigi'.t angle in a triangle, by putting the 
 Iquarcs of the two tides iqual to the Iqiiarc of the hy- 
 pothenufc ; the polition of points is afcertaincd by the 
 perpendiruUrs from them on lines given in polition ; 
 the pofition of lines by the angles which they make 
 with given lines, or by the perpendiculars on them 
 from given points; the fimilarity of triangles by the 
 proportionality of their fides which gives an equation, 
 
 &.C. 
 
 Thcfeand other geometrical principles nnifl be em- 
 ployed both in the denionihation of theorems and in 
 the folurion of problems. The geometrical propofition 
 muft firft be exprcii'cd in the algebraical nianncr, and 
 the refult after the operation muft be exprcllcci gee- 
 mctrically. 
 
 II. Th Demonftratiqn of Thtorems. 
 
 All propofuions in which the proportions of mag- 
 nitudes only arc employed, alfo all propolitions expref- 
 ling the relations of the fegments of a ftraigiu line, of 
 their fquarcs, redangles, cubes, and parallelepipeds, 
 are deinonftratcd algebraically with great eafc. Such 
 demonltrations, indeed, may in general be conllde'red 
 as an abridged noiation of what arc purely Geome- 
 trical. 
 
 This is particularly the cafe in thofe propofitions 
 which may be geometrically deduced withoMt any con- 
 (Irudion of llie fquares, rectangles. Sec. to which they 
 refer. From the firfl propofition •-•f the fecond book 
 of Euclid, the nine following may he eafily derived in 
 this manner, as they may be conli'li'Ted ss proper ex- 
 amjilcs of this uiofl obvious application of algebra to 
 gtumccry. 
 
 If certain pofitions arc either fuppofed or to bi in- 
 ferred in a theorem, we inuA find, according to the 
 preceding obiervations, the connc~iion between thefe 
 portions and firh relations of magnitude as can be rx- 
 ptelTcd and rcafoned upon by algebra. Tl;c algcbrai- 
 
 B 11 A. 
 
 43: 
 
 cil dtiiK'iifiraiior.s of the li'.h and ijiii propofitions Applici- 
 iif the 2d book of Jt'uclid, require only the 47th of the t;<'rito Ge- 
 1. LI. TIic jjthand ;6thofihc 3J book reqairecnly /""" O" 
 
 the ?. III. iA. and 47. 1. LI. ' "" ' 
 
 From a few (.imple gcometricjl princij^les alone, a 
 number of concliidoi.s, v.ith regard to lig.ires, may be 
 deduced by algebra ; and to this in a great meafurc 
 is owing the extenlivc ufe of this fcicnce i". gcotreiry. 
 If other more remote geoinetiic.".! prir.ci^Iciarc occa- 
 fionally introduced, the algebraical calcula;ions may be 
 much abridged. The fame is to be obfcrvcu in the 
 f<ilutiuu of problems ; but f ich in general arc Ids ( b- 
 vious, 2iid more propcriy belong to the ftrifl geo;r.c- 
 trical method. 
 
 III. Of Ih: Solufun ofFroblsvn. 
 
 I'pon the fame principles are geometrical problems 
 to be fcfolvcd. Theprolkmis fuppofed to be con- 
 fiructcd, and propcralgcbriicalnoiationsofthe known 
 and unkr.own magniiiides are to be fought for, by 
 means of which their connexions nay be ixprcfled by 
 equations. It may firft be remarked, as was done in 
 the cafe of iheorems, that in thofe problems which re- 
 late to tbedivifioirs cf a line and the proportions of its 
 parts, the expreilion of the quantities, and the dating 
 their relations by equations, are fo eafy as not to re- 
 quire any particulardirections. But when various po- 
 litions of geometrical ilguresar.d ihtir prtj-crtics are 
 introduced, the folution requires more atteraion and 
 Ikiil. No general rules can be given on this fnbjccl, but 
 the following obfervations may beof ufc. 
 
 I. The conflrutiion of the problem being fuppofe-f, 
 it is of:en farther ncceffary to produce fom.e of the 
 lines till they meet ; to draw new lines joining remark- 
 able points ; to draw lines from fuch points perpendi- 
 cular or pirallel to other lines, and luch other opera- 
 tions as fcem conducive to the finding of equations; 
 and for thispurpofe, thofe efpecially are to be employ- 
 ed which divide the fchemc into triangles ih.at are gi- 
 ven, riglit angled or finiilar. 
 
 z. It is often convenient to denote by letters, rot 
 the qjantjties particularly fought, bill fouie otbeisfroir. 
 which they can eafily be deduced. The fame may be 
 obfcrved of given quai:tiiies. 
 
 '. The proper notation hcing made, the recefiary 
 equations are to be derived by the iifc of the moft fim- 
 pie geometrical principles; fuch as tlie addition and fab- 
 iraftion of lines or of fquares, the proportionality of 
 lilies, particularly of the fides of limilar triangles, &c. 
 
 •l- Tlieie mil!', be as ir.any independent equations as 
 thtrc are unknown quaniiiies aiTr.nied in tiic invefliga- 
 lion. and from ihcfe a f.nal equation may be inferred 
 by the rules of Part I. 
 
 Jf the final equation from the problem be refolved, 
 
 the roots may often be exhibited geometrically ; but 
 
 the gconictrii..il conllruftion cf problems mav be ef- 
 
 ; 1 2 ■ fcclcd 
 
 If any known line is alfnmed as i, as its powers do not appear, tiie terms of an equation, including any ot 
 them", may be of very dificrcnt dinu-nli-ms ; and before it can be pnperly exprefTed by georietflcsl magriiiides, 
 the deficient dimcnfiuiis miif! b; lupplied l.y' powers of the i. When an equation has been derived from .:cu- 
 r'ctrical relations, the line rlcnotini* i is kliown ; and wlicn ai;2lhinicd cquxiiuu is to be exprcifed by the rela- 
 tions of geometrical ivagniludes, the i is 10 be alfnmed. 
 
 In this maniirr may any finglc power be cxpreffcd by a line. }f it is x' , then to \,x find four q^uantities in 
 continued pro,-ovtion ; f) t'lj* i : v : ;;.■ : r: : p -.ij, ihca I : r. 1 : I ' = x" , or f=.v' : and fo of others.
 
 L G 
 
 E 
 
 13 R A. 
 
 Part lir. 
 
 i.ca- fic'lrd alfo without rifolviiig the equation, and even 
 . O*- wiilioai dcJucing a final equation, by the methods at- 
 
 • icrwards to be txplaincd. 
 
 ^ If the liiial equation is liraplc or quadratic, the roots 
 being obtained by the common rules, may be geome- 
 trically exiiibitcd by the lindmg of proportionals, and 
 the addition or fubtraition of fquares. 
 
 By infertinj; numbers for the unl^nown quantities, a 
 numeral expreliion of the quantities fought will be ob- 
 tained i'y refolvinsi the equation. But in order to de- 
 termine l'j;nc particulars of the problem belidcs finding 
 the unknown quantities of the equation it may be far- 
 ther necellury to make a fimplc conlirudion ; or, it it 
 is required that every thing be cxprelfed in numbers, 
 to fubllitutc a new calculation in place of that con- 
 ftrudion. 
 
 Pros. I. To divide a given (Iraight tine AB into two 
 parti, fo that the reCiaugU contained by the -whale tine 
 and one of the parti tnay be equal to thefqiiare of the 
 other part. 
 
 This is prop, nth II. B. of Eucl. 
 
 C 
 
 li 
 
 Let C be the point of divifion, and let AB=i», 
 AC:::r, and then CB=a — x- From the problem 
 
 a' ax—x' ; and this equati on be ing rcfolvcd (Chap. 
 
 V. P. II.) gives x—.::t^^T'+-iJ-a 
 4 2 
 
 The qiantity Va'-f^. is the hypothcnufc of a 
 
 4 
 right-an,;Ud triangle, of which the two fides are a and 
 
 t, and is thcrctorc calily found ; - being taken from 
 2 2 . 
 
 trbis line, gives x=AC, which is the proper folution. 
 But if a line AC be taken on the oppofitc fide of A, 
 andcqualtothcabovementioned hypothcnufc, tog ether 
 
 with!l, it will rcprcfent the negative root— "' +^' 
 2 4 
 f, and will give another folution ; for in this cafe 
 
 2 
 
 alfo ABxBC=AC'. But C is without the line ABj 
 and therefore, if it is not confuiered as making a divi- 
 fion of AB, this negative root is rcjefted. 
 
 This fohitiou coincides with what is given by Eu- 
 clid. For y/u^+a- is equal (fee the fig. of Prop. 1 1 th 
 
 4 
 II. B. Eucl. Simfon's edit.) to EB or EF, and there- 
 fore x=v/^^+^f = EF— EA=AF = AH; and 
 
 4 2 
 the point H correfponds to C in the preceding figure. 
 
 Bcli.les, if on (EF+EA=) CF (inftead of EK— 
 EA=FA) a fquarc be defcribed on the oppoiite fide 
 ofCF from AG, BA produced will meet a fide of it 
 in a point ; which if it be called K, will give KBxBA 
 =KA'. K correfponds to C, and this folution will 
 corrcfpond with the algebraical folution by means of 
 the neg^ative root. 
 
 If CB had been called x, and AC=/i — x, the equa- 
 tion would be axzza' — 2ax^x' , which gives x— 
 
 folutions derived from them coincide with the prcce- Applica- 
 ding. If the folution be confined to a point within »'"" to G«- 
 thc line, then one of ihcfc poliiivc roots mull be re- """try. 
 jcitcd, for one of the roots of the compound fquarc 
 
 from wliich it is derived, x — ^, is a negative quantity 
 
 2 
 
 which in this llrift hypothcfis is not admitted. In 
 fuch a problem, however, both conflruftionsare gene- 
 rally received, and confidcred even as necell'ary to a 
 complete folution of it. 
 
 If a folution in numbers be required, let AB=io, 
 thcu.v::;^:=y/i25 — J. It is pl.iin, whatever be the 
 value of AB, the roots of this equation arc incommen- 
 furate, though they may be found, by approximation, 
 to any degree of exac'tncfs required. In this cafe, a=: 
 — <— t i.x»r,3 — 5, nearly ; that is At=6.i8o3,ncarly-j 
 and AC = l6. 1803, nearly. 
 
 Prob. II. In a given Triangle ABC to infcribe a 
 Square. 
 
 Suppofe it to be done, and let it be EFHG. From 
 A let AD be perpendicular on the bafc BC, meeting 
 EF in K. 
 
 Let BC=a, 
 
 and AD=/>, both 
 of which are gi- 
 ven bccaufc the 
 triangle is given. 
 Let AK be allu- 
 med as the un- 
 known quantity, 
 becaufe from it 
 the fquare can 
 calily be conflruc- 
 tcd ; and let it be _ 
 called X. Tlicn ;g 
 ( KD=:EG=) EF 
 -p~x. 
 
 On account of the parallels EF, BC, AD : BC : : 
 AK • EF ; that is, /> : a : : .v : p — x, and p' — pxziax, 
 
 which equation being rcfolved, gives x=-.£ 
 
 Therefore x or AK is a third proportional to />-(-/» 
 and /I, and may be found by 11. VI. El. The point 
 K being found, the conllrudion of the fquarc is fuf- 
 ficiently obvious. 
 
 Prob. 111. Jn the right-angled Triangle ABC, the 
 Bafc BC, and the Sum of the Perpendicular and 
 Sidei BA-t-AC-t-AD being given, to find the Trian- 
 gle. 
 
 Such parts of 
 thistriangleareio 
 be found as arc 
 neceffary for de- 
 fcribing it : The 
 perpendicular.AD 
 will be fufficient 
 for this purpofe ; ^ 
 and let it be call- C 
 cd x: Let AB-f- 
 
 lill, in which both roots arc pofitivc, and the ^^^ p^^ ^Qx^^b ; therefore Bh-¥hC-a-x. 
 
 Let
 
 Part II f. 
 
 A 
 
 G 
 
 B R 
 
 A. 
 
 437 
 
 Applicati- Let BA— AC be denoted by^, then BA=:1±Z_J1, 
 
 oit to ue- ' 2 
 
 ometry. 
 
 'and AC=. 
 
 ^ni. But [47. I. El.] BC' = BA- 
 2 
 .+AC ' , which being cxprefled algebraically, becomes 
 
 i>- = 
 
 _a+) — X.' 
 
 -)■,' 
 
 Like- 
 
 3 1 2 I 2 
 
 wife, from aknown propertyof rigbt-angledtriangles, 
 
 BCxAD = BAxAC; that is, !)x-( ' ! ^^~ -y. 
 
 a — y — X _ N" ■ — 2ax-\-x ' — y ' 
 
 •-)- 
 
 V 
 
 This 
 
 laa 
 
 equation 
 
 2^4 
 being multiplied by 2, and added to the former, gives 
 b'+2bx — a' — 2ax-\-x' , which being rcfolvcd accord- 
 ing to the rules of Part I. Chap. V. gives x—a+b — 
 
 Toconflrua this : a+^is the fum of t he perimet er 
 and perpendicular, and is given; -J 2ab-\-2b' ■= 
 
 ^ a-^by.2h is a mean proportional between a-\-b and 
 lb, and may be found ; therefore, from the fum of the 
 jierimetcrand perpendicular fubiract the mean propor- 
 tional between the faid fum and double the bafc, and 
 the remainder will be the perpendicular required. 
 
 From the bafe and pependicular the right-angled 
 triangle is eafily conftructcd. 
 
 In numbers, let BA-|-AC-f-AD= i8.8 = « j BC = 
 10 = *; then AD = a-H^— V2ai-H(;' =28.8 — Vjy^ 
 =:4.8=>r, and BA-f-AC = f4. By either of the tirft 
 equations ^ ' =2^ " +'iax — a ' — * ' —4 and ^=;B A — AC 
 = 2; therefore BA=8, and ACziS. 
 
 The geonietricalexj'relfionof the rootsof final equa- 
 tions ariling from problems may be found without re- 
 folving them by the interfedion of geometrical lines. 
 Thus, the roots of a quadratic are found by the in- 
 terfeftions of the circle and ftraight line, thofe of a 
 cubic and biquadratic, by the interfeiflions of two co- 
 nic feciions, &c. 
 
 The folution of problems may be effeded alfo by 
 the interfedions of the /oci of two intermediate equa- 
 tions without deducing a final equation. But thefc 
 two lad methods can only be underilood by the doc- 
 trine of the loci of equdtions. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 Of the Definition of Lines by Equations. 
 
 Lines which can be mathematically treated ofmuft 
 be produced according to an uniform rule, which de- 
 termines the pofitijii of every point of them. 
 
 This rule conllitutes the .iefir.iiwn of any line from 
 which all its other properties arc to be derived. 
 
 A ftraight line has been conliderej as fo limple as 
 to be incapable of definition. The curve lines here 
 treated of ire fuppofcd to be in a plane ; and are de- 
 fined eithi r from the fcdion of a iolid by a plane, or 
 more univcrfally by fomc continued motion in a plant. 
 
 according 10 particular rules. Any of the properties Aij.!icati. 
 which are (hown to belong peculiarly to fuch a line, '^^ '•* Ge- 
 may lie alFumeu alfo as the definition of it, from which . °°"^ "y- 
 all the others, and even what upon other ocrafionsniay 
 have been conlidered as the primary definition, may be 
 demonllratcd. Kence lines may be defined in various 
 methods, of which the inoft convenient is to be deter- 
 mined by the purpofc in view. The fiinpliciiy of a 
 definition, and the eafc with which the other proper- 
 ties can be derived from it, geiicrally give a prefe- 
 rence. 
 
 Definitions, i. When curve lines are defined by e- 
 quations, they are fuppofed to be produced by the ex- 
 tremity of one flraight line, as PM moving in a given 
 angle along another llraighi line AB given in polition, 
 which is called the bafe. 
 
 -^ 
 
 2. The ftraight line PM moving ilor.g the ether, is 
 called an O'din.^!:, and is ufually denoted by _). 
 
 3. The fegment of the bafe AP between a given 
 point in it A, and an ordinate PM, is called an Ahfcifs 
 with refpecl to that orcinate, and is denoted by x. 
 The ordinate and abfcifs together are called Co-^rd.- 
 nates. 
 
 4. If the relation of the variable abfcifs and ordi- 
 nate AP and P.M, be cxprelfcd by in equation, which 
 befides .v and y contains only known quantities, the 
 curve MO defcribed by the extremity of the ordinate, 
 moving along the bafc, is called the L^j.-.j of that e- 
 quation. 
 
 5. If the equation is finite, the curve is called A!- 
 geiraicat (a). It is this elafs only whiciiis herecoc- 
 iidered. 
 
 6. The (//V//e?/y7o;.'j of fuch equations are cAimatcd 
 from the highelt fura of the exponents of* and^ ii 
 any term — According to this difinition, the terr'S 
 X*, x'y, x-y , xy>,y' are all of the fame dimenfior. 
 
 7. Curve lines are divided into ordni from the J;- 
 menfions of their equations, when freed from fratli- 
 ORS and fuids. 
 
 In ihcfe general definitions, the ftraight line is fup- 
 pofed to be comprehended, as it is the iocus of fiiiiplc 
 equations. The loci of quadratic equations arc ihowii 
 
 to 
 
 (a) The f-rras Ceometrici/ und Aigibra-ca!, as appl ed to curve lines, are ufed in different fenfes, by dif- 
 fcre.it v.. iters; there are feveral othrrclaffes of curves belides whar is here called alircbraica), v/bich can be 
 treated of mathematically, and even by means of algebra. Sec Scholium at the en<!.
 
 I'll toGe- 
 
 (■mrtry. 
 
 A 
 
 ]. C K 
 
 to he ilie ror.ic fcflioiis, \\l^:;h arc iitiitc cii-J liias 
 cf the ficoiul orJcr, ftc . 
 
 It is CuHlciriul)' I'Uiin from ilic iiiiturc of an cqua- 
 rion, cont^iuiiig two vaiiul)lc qnj. :iiiiti;, llial it UiUjl 
 (kuriiiiuc the iioliiion ol every p lir.t I't' the (.rrvc, ilc- 
 ilrift) vy ii in ihf inaiiiKr uou (.itfcilbtd : 1""J iiaiiy 
 ]'::nicii!:ir kr.mvn \aiuc- of one "f the variabli; qiuiui- 
 lics as X l)c afliinicd, ilic ei](i3iioii will then have one 
 unknown qiiaDtiiy only,;i'.id being rervJlved, will give a 
 prccife luimberof eorrcl'jionding v allies of_>,\\ hie h dr- 
 tcrniiiic io many points of the curve. 
 
 As every ]>oiiit of the locus of an cqiiaiion has tl:C 
 fame general property, it niilftbc one curve only, and 
 from this equation all i:s properties may be derived. 
 It is plain alfo, that ;iny rtirvc line dchncd from the 
 inoijun of a point, according to a fixed rule, mufl ci- 
 ther return into itfclf, cr be extended nd iiifiitiium 
 \\\\\\ a continued curvature. 
 
 The cqu.-!lion, however, is fuppofcd to be irrcdu- 
 ci'jlc J bccanfe, if it is no:, the locus v.ill be a combi- 
 nation of inferior lines : but the combination will pof- 
 fcfs lj;e general properties of the lines of the order of 
 the given cquaiior.. 
 
 It is to be obfcrvfd all along that the pofitivc va- 
 lues of the ordinate, asPM, being taken upwards, the 
 negative Pin will be p!:ccd downwards, on the oppofitc 
 (i.lc of tlie bifc : and if pofiiive values of the abfcifs, 
 ss /M', be aliiimcd to the right from its beginning, 
 the negative valurs. A/' will be upon the left, and 
 from ihefe i!ie points of the curve M, k, on that lidc 
 are to be determined. 
 
 In the general definition cf curves it is nfual to fup- 
 . pofe tlie co-ordinates to be at right angles. If the 
 iocus of any equation be dcfcribed, and if tlie abfcifs 
 bf ailhmcd on another bafe, and the ordinate be pl.iccd 
 at a diiiercnt angle, the new equation exprcfling their 
 relation though of different form, will be of the fame 
 orderas the ori;;inal equation ; and likcwife will have, 
 in common with it, iholc inopcnics which diliinguilh 
 the equations of that particular curve. 
 
 This method of defining curves by equations inay 
 not be the fitt- A for a full inveftigation of the proper- 
 lies of a particular curve ; but as thtirnumber is with- 
 out limit, fiich a minute inquiry concerning all, would 
 l.c nut only ufclcfs, but impoflible. It has this great 
 advantage, however, that many of the general atfec- 
 tions of all curves, and of the diflincl orders, and alfo 
 fome of the moll iifcful (v.operiics of particular ciirvts, 
 may be eafily derived from it, 
 
 J . The Dttsrm'mation of the Figure of a Curve from 
 lis EquatUn!. 
 
 The general figure of the curve may be fouiid by 
 r.;bf;ilutiiig fucrcliively particular values of .v the ab- 
 fcifs, and iinding by the reiolution of thefe equations 
 the correfpouding values of V the crdiiiate, andcf con- 
 fequence fo many points of the curve. If numeral va- 
 lues be fublliiutcd for v, and alfo certain numbers for 
 the knov.'U letters, the refolution of the equation gives 
 i'.uireral exprcllions of the ordiuates ; and irom ihcfc, 
 by means ofr-alcs, a mechanical dcfcription of the curve 
 wili be obtained, which may often be ufeful, boih in 
 pointing out the general nifpofition of the figure, and 
 aifo in the prai."ical applications of geometry. 
 
 or.iftr^. 
 
 13 R A. Part III. 
 
 Some more general fuppofitions nir.y be I'f iifc in .\ppUcati- 
 dcieniiiiiingilic figure ; but thefe can be (iiggcAc.i on- <ii to Gc- 
 ly fioui the particular form of the equaiiou in view. "''""■'" 
 Ky fupi oiing x to have certain rehitions to the known 
 (]u.i:ititics, the values ofv may become more fimplc, 
 and tiic equation may be reduced to fuoh a form as lO 
 f.iow the c'irct^iion of the curve, and fome of its obvi- 
 ous properties. 
 
 The following general obfcrvations may alfobcliid 
 down : 
 
 1. If in any cafe a value of_)i vaniflies, then the curve 
 nuets the bafe in a point determined by the corre- 
 fpouding value of X. Hciicc by putting .tso, the 
 roots of the equation, wliich in ihat fitu.ition are va- 
 lues of x, will give the diflanees on the b.ife from the 
 point allumcd as t!ie beginning of .v, at which the 
 curve meets it. 
 
 2. If at a particular value of x, y bfcomes infinite, 
 the curve has an iitlinite arc, and the ordinate at ihat 
 point becomes an afymptote. 
 
 3. If when X becomes infinitely great, ^' vaniflies, the 
 bafe becoi'.ies an afymptote. 
 
 4. If any value of J bi comes impolliblc, thenfoma- 
 jiy interfections of tlic ordinate and curve vaiiilh. If 
 at any v^liie of .v all the values of v become impo/fiblc, 
 the ordinate does not there meet the curve. 
 
 5. If two values of v ijtcome equal and have the 
 fame fign, the ordinate in iImi (ituation either touches 
 the curve, or partes through an iiitirfet'lion of two of 
 its branches, which is called a pm.lltim duplex, or 
 through an oval become intinitcly little, called i fuiic- 
 turn C0!:jugalu>/i. 
 
 In like manner is a puunum triplex, &c. to be de- 
 termined. 
 
 Tlie following example will illultratx; this Joflrinc : 
 Let the equation be ay — xy"^x'^-\-bx' : 
 
 Ldff:audj==tz r> 
 
 Therefore,^' —'. 
 
 i'+bx 
 
 = ^Jl 
 
 -X.v. 
 
 Let AB be affiimcd as a bafe on which the abfciflcs 
 are to be taken from A, and the ordinates pcrpelidi- 
 cjlar to it. 
 
 Since the two values of y arc equal, but have oppo- 
 lite figus ; PM, and Pm which reprefcnt them, inuft 
 be taken equal to each other on oppofitc fides of 
 AB; and it is plain that the parts of the curve on 
 the two lidcs of AH, mull be every way fireilar and 
 equal. 
 
 If X is made equal to a, then j— .v ' + '' 
 
 "^ o 
 which is an algebraical expreflion for infinity ; there- 
 fore if AC is taken equal to u, the perpendicular CD 
 will become an afymptote to t^e curve, v'hich will 
 have twointiuiic arcs (Obf. 2.). L x is greater than 
 a, the quantity under the raoical fign becomes nega- 
 tive, and the values cf^ are impofliblc ; that is, no 
 part of the curve lies beyond CD. (4.) 
 
 Both bianche* of il^e curve pafs through A, fince 
 j~o, whenxno. (i.) Let x be negative, andj— r±=x 
 
 the valQcs of j will be I'ofliblc, if x is not 
 
 greater than b; bi.t if i— ^, thcn_>=o, and if xisgieat-
 
 II. 
 
 E B R 
 
 A. 
 
 439 
 
 er thai ^, the values of;- becoms inipoiKIble ; that is, 
 -it the abl'cifs A/' be tnkcu to the left of A, a:id Icfs 
 than J, tliere will be two real cqijal values of_y, viz. 
 PM, tm on the oppniitc fiJes as before; if AE be 
 taken ei^jnl to i tlie curve will pafs thrpugh E, and no 
 pare of ii is beyond E. (r. and 4.) 
 
 T-B 
 
 The portion betweeh A and E is bailed a Nodus. 
 
 Ify be put =0, then the vilues of v arc o, o, — i. 
 *rhat is, the curve paflcs twice through A, or A is a 
 punftiiin duplex, and it pafTes alfo throuj^h E as be- 
 fore, (r.) 
 
 The mechanical dcfcriptiou of curves mcr.tioned in 
 the beginning of this fection, may be ilhlflrared by the 
 ■preceding example. For this purpofe, kt any nume- 
 ral values of a and b he allunied ; and if ficcciltve nu- 
 meral values of r be infcited, coriefpondiufj numeral 
 values of y will be obtained, by which io many points 
 in the curve may be conflrutted. 
 
 LetACr:*r:io; A £ = :'=: 12; and, firfllct.\ = i,£hcn 
 
 . /.Y +-/' Vi^ , , . • , 
 
 y — -:±=.xj — — —zzi=. — — =±=^1.2 nearly, which 
 ^ a — >: 3 
 
 gives the length of the ordinates when the abfcifs is i; 
 
 and in the fame nianmr sre the ordinates to be found 
 
 when Y is 2, •;, or n:\y other number. Thus, if .\r:6, 
 
 thcn^' = =±=6x — =12.73 nc.irly ; and if AP be 
 
 taken from the fcale of equal parts (according to which 
 A Band A E are Hrppofcd to be laid down) and equal 
 to6, thcnPM, Pw, btiuT taken fro -1 the lame fcale, 
 each equal to 1:73, will give the points of the curve 
 
 
 M, m. In like manner 
 
 3.58, nearly; and if Ar=9, then I'M, /"'/« being 
 taken from the fan^c fcale equal to 3.58, will give the 
 points M, 7/1. In the fame manner may any number 
 of points be found, and ihefc being joined, will give 1 
 rcprcfentationof the curve, which will be more or icfs 
 jufl, according to the ni'mbcr of points found, and the 
 accuracy of the fevcral operations employed. 
 
 By the fame methods the locus of any other eqaa- 
 titni is to be traced : Thus, by varying t!ie former e- 
 quation, the ligurc of its lo:us will be varied. If ,^=:o, 
 ilun ihc point A and E coincide, the nodus vanillies, 
 and A is called a cu/ph. 
 
 If ^ is negative, then Eiitoilic right of A, ^vliicli Ai-plics- 
 v/ill now be a puuctuui cu;iju;i;a;um. The reft of the «•<»• to G-- 
 curve will be between E and C, ind CD becomes an "■•"f'-y.^ 
 aflyuiptote. 
 
 Ifii— othcn — r)"r:<' — bx' or ji"=.i^ — x' , wbitli 
 is an equation to the circle of which ^=A£ is the c:ia- 
 nietcr. 
 II, General Propeitifs of Ctiivei fitm ikcir Eiiuathm. 
 
 The general properties of equations lead to the g.- 
 neral aflet'lions of curve lines. For Exim^/lc, 
 
 A rtraight line may niccia curve in ai n^ary point; 
 as there are unif; in the dimenlioii of its equiti jn ; fc- 
 fo many roots may th.it equation have. An afyiii;'- 
 totc may cut a curve line in as many points, excepiin;j 
 two, as it has dimcniions, and no more. The fame 
 may be obfcry'cd of the tangent. 
 
 Impoliil Ic loots enter an equation by psirs ; t-lu re- 
 forc the intcrfeclioiisof the ordinate and crr.-e muit 
 vanilli by pairs. 
 
 The cui vcs of which the number exprclTmg the or- 
 der is odd, mrid l.avc at leaft two iniinitc arcs ; for ih-: 
 abfcifs may b« foafluuied, that, for ever/ value of it, 
 cither poj'iiivc ir negative, there mult be at leaft one 
 value of 7, &c. 
 
 The praportics of the coellicieno of ihc terms of 
 equations, mcniicncd Part H. Chap. I. furnilh a great 
 number of the curious and univerfal properties of curve 
 lines. For example, the Iccond term of an equation is 
 the fum of the roots with ilic figns changed, and if tlic. 
 fccond tennis win.iing.the poli<ivc and negative rout;; 
 muft be equal. From this it is eafy to dcrvonflratc, 
 " That if cich of t>vo parilkl (^raight lines meet .'t 
 curve line in as many points as it has dimcniions, and 
 if a ftraight line cut thefe two parallels, fo that the fum 
 of the ftgments of each on one (Ide be equal to the 
 fuui of the fegmciits on the other, this flriigiit line 
 will cut any o'thcr line parallel to thefe i.i the fame 
 manner." Analogous properties, with many otiur 
 confequcnees from ihem, may be deduced from the 
 coHipolition of the coeflicicnts of the other terms. 
 
 r.hny properties of a particular order of curves may 
 be ir.ferred from the properties of equations of that or- 
 der. TIius, " If a ;;raight line cut a curve of the 
 third order in ihrce points, and if another ftraight line 
 be drawn, making a given angle with the former, and 
 cuttipgihc curve alfo in tlirec points, the parallelopipcd 
 by the fegments of oneof thefe lines between its inier- 
 feetion with the other, and the points where itmctts 
 the cnrvc, will be to the par-llclopip'-d by the like feg- 
 ments of the other line in a given ratio." This de- 
 pends upon the compoliiion of the abfolute term, aud 
 may be extended to curves of any order. 
 
 III. Th; Subdiviftit if Curves. 
 
 As lines arc divided into orders from thedimenfions 
 of their equations, in like manner, fromthc varictiesof 
 the tnuitioiis of any order, may ditfijrent ^g-^/.vrj and 
 //>■ f.f/ of that order be uiftin;;uilhed. an.! fro;'- the pe- 
 culiar propcrti>-s of thefe varieties, may the afTedio.-.s 
 of the parii'-ular curves be difcovcred. 
 
 For this purpofe a complete general equation is af- 
 fumed of that ordc r, and all the varieties in the terms 
 and coefficients v.hich canatfe.'l the figure of the locus 
 are tnumeraicj. 
 
 Ic
 
 iiix-try. 
 
 440 A L G E B R 
 
 Applia- It wa> formerly cbfcrvcj, ilut the equations belong- 
 ion to Ge- i;Tg to any one curve, may be of various forms, accord- 
 ing; to ibe jiDlidon of t ;e baff, a:ul the arj,^le which 
 the or.liiiatc makes witii it, though they bcallof tlic 
 f.imc oviicr, and have jllo ctrtiiii properties, w liich di- 
 lii:igiiiih ihem from tlic other cquiions of that or- 
 lier. 
 
 The locus of fimple equations is aPrai^^ht lim. There 
 are tki ;c fpccics of lines of llic fccoud order, which 
 arc calily liiowii to be the c'inicf:8ions, reckoning the 
 cirdcanJ tU'pfc robe one. iS;'f«/;--/g^/fliecii shave ■ 
 been niimbcreJ of the third order : And as the fiipc- 
 rior orders become too numerous to be particularly 
 reckoned, it is nfual only to divide them into certain 
 general claflcs. 
 
 A complete arringcraent of the curves of any order 
 would fiirni'ih canons, by wliich the fpccies of a curve 
 whofe equation is of that order might be found. 
 
 IV. Of th: place of Curva difir.:d from other priii- 
 ciplii ill thi Aigtbiakal S\ficm. 
 
 If a curve line be defined from the fec'lion of a folid, 
 or from any ruledirt'erent from what has been here fup- 
 pofed, an equation to it may be derived, by which its 
 order nvA fpecies in the algebraical fydem may be 
 found. .And, for this purpofc, any bafe and any angle 
 of the co-ordinates may be afliimed, from which tnc 
 equaiio.i may be mod ealily derived, or may be of the 
 mofl liraple form. 
 
 Tlic three Conic SeHioiu are of the fccond order, as 
 their eq;ialions are univcrfilly quadratic ; the Ci{foiJo{ 
 the ancients is of tlie third ordcV, and the 42d fpecies, 
 accordingtoSirlfaacNewton'senumeration ; thisis the 
 curve defined by the equation in page 459, col. l.par.ult. 
 when t=o. The curve dclincaied above in the fame 
 page, is the 4Tfl fpccics. When t is negative in that 
 eq.iation, the locus is the 4;d Ipecies. The Conchoid 
 of Nieomedes is of the fourth order; the Cajfniiaii 
 curve is alfoof the fourth order, &c. 
 
 It is to be obferved, that not only the firll definition 
 of a curve may be exprefled by an equition, but like- 
 wife any of thofe theorems called loci, in which fonie 
 property is demonflrated to belong to every point of 
 the curve. The cxprclRon of thefepropolitions by c- 
 quations, is fomeiimcs difficult ; no general rules can 
 be given , and it muftbelefttoihe fkilLand experience 
 of the learner. 
 
 Scholium. 
 
 This method of treating carve lines by equations, 
 befidcs the ufes already hinted at, has many others, 
 which do not belong to this place ; fuch are, the find- 
 ing the tangents ofcurvcs, their curvature, their areas 
 and lengths, S;c. The fohition of thefe problems has 
 been acconiplilhed by means of the equations to curves, 
 though by employing, concerning them, a method of 
 rcafoning dijTcrent from what has been here explained. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 I. Coiiflrriftioii of the Loci of Equations. 
 
 The dcfcriptio". of a curve, according to the defini- 
 tion of it, is affjmed in geo ■.■.•. ;r/ a:; ^ populate. 
 
 If the properties of a piirticular curve arc invefti- 
 gatcd, it willuppcar that it maybe defcribcd from s 
 
 Part rir. 
 
 variety of data d fFcrent from thefe afTumeJ in th'" po- Applici- 
 llulate, by demonflrating the dependence of th; for- ''"" '• '''" 
 nier upon the latter. omttry. ^ 
 
 As the definitions of a curve may be various, foalfo 
 may be the poflulatcs, and a definition is frequently 
 chofenfrom themode ofdcfcription conneCled with it. 
 The particular objtft ia view, it was formerly remark- 
 ed, mufl determine the proper choice of a definition ; 
 the ilmplicity of it, the eafe with which the other pro- 
 perties of the figure may be derived from it, and fome- 
 times even the cafe with which it can be executed me- 
 chanically, may be conlidcred as important circuui- 
 flances. 
 
 In the flraight line, the circle, the conic fedlions, 
 and a few curves of the higher orders, the mofl conve- 
 nient definitions, and the poftulates connected with 
 them, are generally known and received. An equation 
 to a curve may alfo be allumed as a definition of it ; 
 and the defcription of it, according to that definition, 
 may be cotifidered as a populate : but, if the geome- 
 trical condruiSlion of problems is to be invefligated by 
 means of algebra, it is often ufeful to deduce from the 
 equation to a curve, thofe data which, from the geo- 
 metrical theory of the curve, arc known tobenecef- 
 fary to its defcription in the original pofliilatc, or in 
 any problem founded upon it. This is called C(/«y?r2/f- 
 ting the locus of an equation, and from this method are 
 generally derived the moll elegant conftruflions which 
 can be obtained by the ufe of algebra. In tlie follow- 
 ing fcclion, there is an example of a problem rcfolved 
 by fuch couftruflions. 
 
 Sometimes a mechanical defcription of a curve line 
 defined by an equation is ufeful ; and as the exhibition 
 of it, by fuch a motion as is fuppofcd in that definition, 
 is rarely pra(5hicable, it generally becomes necelfary to 
 contrive fome more fimple motion which may in effc6l 
 correfpond with the other, and may dcfcribe the curve 
 with the degree of accuracy which is wanted. Fre- 
 quently, indeed, the only method which can be conve- 
 niently praclifed, is the finding a number of points in 
 the curve by the rcfolution of numeral equations, in 
 the manner mentioned in Se..^. i. of this Chapter, and 
 then joining thefe points by the hand ; and though this 
 operati(m is manifeftly iinpcrfeil, it is on fome occa- 
 fions ufeful. 
 
 II. Soluti'iit of Problems. 
 
 The (nlution of geometrical problems by algebra is 
 much promoted, by dcfcribing the loci of the equati- 
 ons arifing from thefe problems. 
 
 For this purpofc, equations are to be derived accor- 
 ding to the methods formerly defcribed, and thentobe 
 reduced to two, containingcach the fame two unknown 
 quantities. The loci of thefe equations are to be de- 
 fcribed, the two unknown quantities being confidered 
 a« the co-ordinates, and placed at tlie fame angle in 
 both. The co-ordinates at the interfedion of the loci, 
 will be common to both, and give a folution of the 
 problem. 
 
 The (implicity of a conftruiSion obtained by this 
 method, will depend upon a proper notation, and the 
 choice of tl.e eqiations of which the loci are to be 
 defcribed. Tbei'c will frcqu'.ndy be different from 
 what would be proper in a different method of folu- 
 tion. 
 
 Pros.
 
 Part III. 
 
 A L G 
 
 Prob. IV\ To fir.i Point Y in the Baf: of the given 
 'Triangle ABC, fo thai the Sunt of the Squarei of 
 F£, VO'dia-vii f'ro7>i it perfendiciilar upon the two 
 Sides, may be equal to a given Space. 
 
 Draw BH, CG perpendicular on the two fiJes, and 
 IptFD-v, F£=v, 
 BK=z, BC= 'b, 
 BH=/., CGz: r, 
 an<lilicgiven fpacc 
 FD'+KE ~m'. 
 From lirailar tri- 
 angles 2 : .V : : b:r, 
 
 and z— — 
 r 
 Alfo* — z:y wb-.p 
 
 and z'=.b — — 
 
 therefore — = b — 
 
 r 
 
 ^L Thatis>=/. 
 
 — — , an equation tea ftraight line. 
 
 But v+^'r^w^ ofwhich the locus is acirclc, ha- 
 ving m for the radius. By conflrucling theft loci, 
 their intcrfcdion will give a folution of the problem. 
 
 Let KL=CG (rr^r) be at right angles to LM=: 
 BH (=/>), join KM 
 to which let LN be 
 parallel; LN is the 
 locus of the equation 
 
 )—t — lI; for let any 
 
 r 
 line OPQ,be drawn 
 parallel to LM, if KP 
 
 -V, then PQ,= ^' 
 
 andQP=LM=^, 
 therefore PO=)'=/- 
 
 r. 
 
 About the centre 
 K, with a dillancee- 
 qiial to the line ra, let 
 arirclchcdcfcribed ; 
 that circle willbe the 
 locus of the equation 
 m^—x'-\-y' i for it is 
 plain that if OP be 
 any perpendicular from the circumference upon KL, 
 KP being -v, OP will be_>'. Either of the points, 
 therefore, in wiiich ihefe two loci interfccl each other, 
 as O, will give OP an ordinate in both equations, KP 
 being the common abfcifs ; therefore KP, OP are the 
 two perpendiculars required, from which the point F 
 is eaiily found. ' 
 
 The conftruction might have been made on figure i ft, 
 witli fewer lines. Il the circle touches LN, there is 
 only one folution which is a minimum; and if the circle 
 docs not meet LN, the problem becomes impoljiblc. 
 
 When the circle touches LN, the radius in mud be 
 equal to the perpendicular from K on LN, or frcm L 
 Vox. \. 
 
 E B R A. 
 
 •n KM. This perpendicular is equal to. 
 
 1'r 
 
 ^p'+r' 
 
 a fourth proportional to MK, KL, and LM, and its 
 fquare therefore is the leafl fum of the fquares of the 
 perpendiculars from a point in the bafe on the two 
 lides. 
 
 It i.-.ay be remarked alfo, that the pointwhich gives 
 the fum of the fquares a minimum, is found by dividing 
 the bafe, in the proportion of the fquares of the two 
 fides of the triangle ; and this is cafily demonftrated 
 from the preceding conftruftion, 
 
 PaoB. v. Betvieen two given Lines to find tvo mean 
 Proportionals. • 
 
 Let the lines be a and b, and let the two means be 
 >rand_>; therefore a : .V :_>: i, and hence <y=jf, and 
 by=.y' , which arc both equations to the parabola, and 
 are eafily conftrudled. The co-ordinates at the inter- 
 feiflion of thcfc two loci will be the means required. 
 
 If one unknown quantity only is alTumed, or if it is 
 convenient to deduce a final equation containing only 
 one, the conftruclion of the roots is to be obtained b/ 
 the method mentioned in the next fedion. 
 Scholium. 
 
 The conftrudlionsof the twopreceding problems arc 
 geometrical ; but it is fometimesconvcnicRt to have a 
 practical folution, by the mechanical defcription either 
 of the algebraical lines employed in the geometrical fo- 
 lution, or of other geometrical lines by which it can 
 be efFeifted. But few of thefe are tolerably accurate ; 
 fo that, in general, by means of calculatien, the prac- 
 tical operations are all reduced to what may be per- 
 formed by a ruler and acompafs. 
 
 III. CotiPruOion of Equations. 
 
 The roots of an equation, containing only one un- 
 known quantity, may be found by the inierfe(5tion of 
 lines, the produd of whofe dimenllons is equal to tlie 
 dimcnfion of that equation. And hence problems arc 
 refolvcd withoutan algebraical folution of the equation 
 arifing from them. 
 
 Thus cubic and biquadratic equations may be con- 
 llruded by the interfedions of two conic fedions as 
 the circle andparabola, whichare generally aflumed as 
 being mofl eaiily dcfcribed. 
 
 In order to find thefe conftrudions, a new equation 
 is to be afiiimcd, containing two variable quantities, 
 one ofwhich is the unknown quantity of the^iven c- 
 quation, and the other by fubllitiition is to beinfcrtcd 
 alfo in the given equation ; the intcrfcdion of the loci 
 of thefe equations will exhibit the roots required. 
 
 Canons may be devtfcd for the conllrudion of par- 
 ticularorders, without afniming the r.ew equaticn. 
 
 The final equatjim from prob. 5. would be x'-=a' !•, 
 which being conftrudcd according to the rules, exhi- 
 bits the common geometrical folution of that problem 
 by the circle and paralxila. 
 
 if an equation be afliimed, as a)~\', the other by 
 fubftitution becomes xy=iiib ; tlic locus of the former is 
 a parabola, and of die latter an hyperbola, one ot'iis 
 aliyniptotcs being the bafe, and tiic co-ordinates at 
 their intcrfcdion will rcprcftnt rand) ; the firltotihc 
 two means is v, anJ in this cafej? is the other. 
 
 3 K Equ-
 
 443 A I. G E 
 
 Api'lici- Equaiions alfo ini^ht be ailiimcd fo as to give a fo- 
 tioo >o Gj- lutioaot'this jiroblcm by other combinations of two of 
 omttry. [|i£. conic fcclions, oncot'ihcm not being the circle. 
 '^ As geomcti -cal magnitudes may be rcprtlcntcd by 
 
 algebra, fo algebraical (^nantiiies and numbers may be 
 reprcfcnted by lines. Hence this conftrnciion of equa- 
 tions has fonietimcs been ii'fcd as an cafy method of 
 approximation to the roots of numeral equitions. Kor 
 this purpofe, the iiccelfary ftraight lines mult be laid 
 down by means of a fcale of equal parts, and the curve 
 lines, on whofcinterfcction the condruction depends, 
 mud be aiflually dcfcribed ; the linear roots being mea- 
 fured on the fcale will give the numbers required. 
 Thcfc operations may be performed with fufHcicnt ac- 
 curacy for certain purpofci ; buF as they depend on 
 mechanical principles, the approximation obtained by 
 them cannot be continued at pleafure ; and hence it is 
 
 li 
 
 R. A. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 feldopi ufed, except in finding the lirft ftep of an ap- Applica- 
 proxiniation, which is to be carried on by other nic- 'i"" '" Ge« 
 thods. civ.ttry. 
 
 Scholitivi. 
 
 If the rtlation between the ordinate and abfcifsbo 
 fixed, but not cxprciri'ile by a. finite equation, the curvt 
 is called AL-cbii/iiia/ (a) or Traiifccr.dintui, This clafs 
 is alfo foraetimes defined by equations, by. fuppoling 
 eitlicr X or y in a finite equation to be a curve line, of 
 which the relation to a liraight line cannot be exprcf- 
 fed in finite terms. 
 
 If the variable quantities x or^' enter the exponents 
 of any term of an equation, the locus of that equation 
 is called an Exponential Curve. 
 
 Many properties of thtfc two clallts of curves may 
 be difcovcred trom their equations. 
 
 Aljedo 
 
 I 
 
 Algiabarii 
 
 A L G 
 
 ALGEDO, the running of a gonorrhoea (lopping 
 fuddcnly after it appears. When it thus ftops, a pain 
 ', reaches to the anus, or to the tefticles, without their 
 being fwellcd ; and fometinies this pain reaches to tlie 
 bladder ; in which cafe there is an urging todifcharge 
 the urine, which is with difficulty palFcd, and in very 
 fmall quan:i;ici at a time. The pain is continued to 
 the bladder by the urethra ; to the anus, by the acce- 
 Jcratory luufclcs of the penis ; and to the tefliclcs, by 
 the vafa ilet'crentia, and vcficulje feminales. In this 
 cafe, calomel repeated fo as to purge, brings back 
 the rujHiiiig, and then all diliiculty from this fymptom 
 ccafcs. 
 
 ALGENEB,,! fixed ftar, of the fecond magnitude, 
 in Perfeus's right (ide ; its longitude is 27' 46' 12" 
 of Taurus, snd its latitude 30° 05' 28" north, ac- 
 cording to Mr Klamftead's catalogue. 
 
 ALGEZIRA, a town of AndahUia in Spain, with 
 a port on the coafl; of the Straits of Gibraltar. By 
 this city the Moors entered Spain in 713 ; and it was 
 taken from them in 1 544, after a very long liege, re- 
 markable for being the fir ft in which cannon were made 
 ufc of. It was called Old Gibraltar, and is about four 
 leagues from the New. W. Long. 5. 2. N. Lat. 
 36. o. 
 
 ALGHIER, or A LGERi, a town in Sardinia, with 
 a biihop'sfee, upon the weAern coalt of the illanj, be- 
 tween Safleriand Bofa. Though it is not large, it is 
 well peopled, and has a commodious port. The coral 
 Allied for on this coafl is in thehighelt efteemof any in 
 the Meditcrrantan. \V. Long. 4. 2. Lat 36. o. 
 
 ALGIABARII, a Mahometan fciSt of predeftinari- 
 ans, whoattribute all the aftions of men, good or evil, 
 to the agency or ititiuence of God. The Algiabarii 
 Hand oppofed to the Alkadarii. They hold abfo- 
 lute degrees and phyfical premotion. For the juftice 
 <f God in punilhing the evil he has caufed, they re- 
 folvc it wholly into liis abfolute dominion over the 
 creatures. 
 
 A L G 
 
 ALGIERS, a kingdom of Africa, now one of the Algiers. 
 
 llates of Barbary According to the latcfl and bell >— v— — 
 
 computations, it extends 460 miles in length from eafl 
 to well, and is very unequal in breadth ; fome placcsbe- 
 ingfcarce 40 miles broad, and others upward of 100. Ic 
 lies between Long. l. o. and 9. 37. W. and extends 
 from Lat. o. o. to 36. 50. N. — It is bounded on the 
 north, l)y the Mediterranean ; on the call by the river 
 Zaine, the ancientTufca, which divides it from Tunis; 
 on the well, by the Mulvya, and the mountains of Tra- 
 va, which feparatc it from Morocco ; and on the fouth 
 by the Sahara, Zaara, or Numidian dcfcrt. 
 
 The climate of Algiersisinmofl places fo moderate, climate 
 that they enjoy a conflant verdure ; the leaves of the and folk, 
 trees beingiieitherparchcd up by heat in funimer, nor 
 nipped by the winter's cold. They begin to bud in 
 February ; in April the fruit appears in its full bigncfs, 
 and is commonly ripe in May. The foil, however, is 
 exceflively various ; fome places being very hot, dry, 
 and barren, on which account they are generally fuf- 
 fered to lie uncultivated by the inhabitants, who arc 
 very negligent. Thefe barren places, efpccially fuch 
 as lie on the fouthern fide, and arc at a great dillance 
 from the fea, harbour vail numbers of wild creatures, 
 as lions, tigers, buffaloes, wild boars, ftags, porcupines, 
 monkeys, oflriches, &c. On account of their barren- 
 nefs, they have but few towns, and thofe thinly peo- 
 pled ; though fome of them are fo advantageoully litu- 
 ted for trading with Bildulgerid and Ncgroland, as to 
 drive aconfiderable traffic with them. 
 
 The Algerine kingdom made formerly a confidcr- 
 able part of the Mauritania Tingitana (See Mauri- 
 tania), which was reduced to a Roman province by 
 Julius Caefar, and from him alfo called Mauritania 
 Cttfarienfii. — In the j^eneral account of Africa, it has 
 been noticed, that the Romans were driven out of 
 that continent by the Vandals; thefe by Belifarius, 
 the Greek emperor Judinian's general; and the Greeks 
 in their turn by the Saracens. This lafl revolution 
 
 happened 
 
 (a) The term Mechanical, in this place, is ufed merely as the name of a particular clafs of curves, without 
 implying that they have any more dependence on the principles of Mechanics or Phyfics than the algebraical 
 curves wkicli hare been treated of.
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 4-13 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 Algieri. liipi»cnc<i about ihc middle of the fcvcntli cciuury ; 
 ' — -' — and the Arabs coiuiiuicd maltcrs of the country, di- 
 vided inio a great number of petty kingdoms or iUtts, 
 3 uiidei'ciiicfsof thtir o'vn choolijig, till the year 1051. 
 AhuTcie- This year, one Abubckcr-bcn-Omar, or, as the Spa- 
 5enfubduc» niQi authors call him, /^bu Tex;jian, an Arab of the 
 the Arab Zinhagian tribe, being provoked at ihc tyranny of 
 priHces. tiiofe defpots, gathered, by the help of his marabouts 
 or faints, a molT powerful &rniy of malcontents, in the 
 fouthtrn provinces of NumiJia and Libya. His fol- 
 lowers were nicknamed Marabitei or Mdiabitis ,- by the 
 Spaniards, AhnoraviHes ; probably from their being 
 allembled principally by the faints who were allocallcd 
 Hlorabitei. The khalif of Kaycm's forces were at 
 this lime taken up with quelling other revolts in Syria, 
 Mefopotaniia, &c. and the Arabs in Spain engaged in 
 the moft bloody wars ; fo that Tcxcficn having nothing 
 to fear from them, had all the fucccfs he could wilh 
 againft the Arabian cheyks or pctiy tyrants, w horn he 
 defeated in many battles, and at laft drove them not 
 only out of NumiJia and Libya, but out of all the 
 wedern parts, reducing the whole province of Tingi- 
 tania under his dominion. 
 
 Texefien was (uccecded by his fon Yufef, or Jofeph, 
 a brave and warlike prince. In the beginning of his 
 reign, he laid the foundation of the city of Morocco, 
 which he defigned to make the capital of his empire. 
 While that city was building, he fent fome of his ma- 
 rabouts ambalfadors to Trcmecen (now a province of 
 Algiers), at that time inhabited by a powerful and 
 infolcnt fc6l of Mahometans called Zeueii. The de- 
 fign of this cmfcafly was to bring them back to what he 
 called the tniejaith ; but the Zeneti, defpiling his of- 
 fers, alfemblcd at Amaf, er Amfa, their, capital, mur- 
 dered the ambafladors, and invaded JofcpU's dominions 
 with an army of jo,ooo men. 
 Zcnelide- Tht king hearing of their infamous proceedings, 
 ftroyed. fpcedily muftered his army, and led it by long marches 
 into their country, deflroying all with hrc and fword ; 
 while the Zeneti, inftead of oppoling his progrtfs, re- 
 tired as faft as poflible towards Fez, in hopes of recei- 
 ving alfiftancc from thence. In this they were miferably 
 deceived : the Kezzans marched out againll them in a 
 hoftilc manner ; and coniiug up with the unhappy Ze- 
 neti, encumbered with their families and baggage, and 
 ready to expire with hunger and wearinefs they cut 
 them all to pieces, except a fmall number who were 
 inoltly drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs a river, 
 and ionie others who in their flight perifhcd by 
 falliugfrom the high adjacent rocks. In the mean lime 
 Jofeph reduced their country to a mere dcfart : which 
 was, however, foon peopled by a numerous colony of 
 Ffzzans, who fettled there under the proieclionof the 
 reigning kings. In this war it is computed that near 
 a million of the Zeneti, men, women, and children, 
 loft their lives. 
 
 The refllcfs and ambitions temper of Jofeph did not 
 iet him remain long at peace. He quickly declared 
 war againft the Fez/au«, reduced them to become his 
 tributaries, and extended his conquefts all along the 
 Mediterranean. He next attacked fome Arabian cheyks 
 who had not yet fubmiltcd lohisjurifdidion ; and pur- 
 fiied thrm with fuch fury, that neither the Libyan dc- 
 farts, nor ridges of the moft crag<>y rocks, could fhel- 
 terthem from his arms. He attacked them in fuch of 
 
 4 
 Sharift of 
 Hafcen 
 who. 
 
 AJgerinei 
 in lianjrer 
 from the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 theirretrciti, caftUj, and fortrcHci, as svcrc till then A'gKn. 
 
 ciecmcd imprcguablt ; aiul at laft fubdued them, to the ' 
 
 great grief 01 the other African n;itions, who were 
 greatly annoyed by the ravages committed by his na- 
 mcrous forces. 
 
 Thus was founded the empire of the Morahiies : 
 wliich, however, was of no long duration ; that race 
 being in the 12th century driven out by Mohavcdi t, 
 a marabout. '1 his race of ])riefts was expelled by Ab- 
 dulac governor of Fez ; and he, in the 13th century, 
 ftripprdof his new conquefts by the Sliarifsof Haf.en, 
 the defcendants of thole Arabian princes whom Abu- 
 Texehcn had formerly expelled. 
 
 The better to fecurc their new dominions, the Sha- 
 rifs divided them into feveral little kingdoms or pro- 
 vinces ; and among the reft the prefent kingdom of 
 Algiers was divided into four, namely, Trii/iece/i,Ti:- 
 iiez, Aighis proper, and Diij<:}tih. The four rirft mo- 
 narchs laid fo good a foundation for a lafting balance 
 ofpowerbetween theirlitilekingdoms, that they con- 
 tinued for fome centuries in mutual peace and amity ; 
 but at length the king of Tremeccn having ventured 
 to violate fome of their articles, Abul-Farez, king of 
 Tenez, declared war againft him, and obliged liim t'> 
 becom.e his tributary. This king dying foon after, and 
 having divided his kingdom among his three for.s, new 
 difcords arofe ; wliich Spain taking advantage of, a 
 pow'crfulfteet and army was fent againft Barbary, un- 
 der the Count of Navarre, in 1505. This commander 
 foon made himfelf maftcr of the important cities of 
 Oran, Bujeyah, and fome others ; which fo alarmed 
 the Algeriucs, that they put themfcl vcs under the pro- 
 tettion of Selim Eutcmi, a noble and warlike .■\rabiaii 
 prince. He came to their afliftancc with a great num- 
 ber of his braveft fubjects, bringing with him his wife 
 Zaphira, and a fon then about 12 years old. Thiis 
 however was not fuflicicnt to prevent the Spaniards 
 from landing a number offerees near Algiers that fame 
 year, and obliging that metropolis to become tributary 
 to Sjiain. Nor could Prince Sclim hinder them from 
 building a ftrong fort on a fmall illand oppolitc to riic 
 city, which tctrilied their corfairs from failing either 
 in or out of the harbour. 
 
 To this galling yoke the Algerincs were obliged to 
 fubmit till theyear 1516 ; when, hearing of the death 
 of Ferdinand king of Spain, they fent an embalfy to s 
 Aruch Barbarojfay who was at this time no lefs dread- Invite l'..-u- 
 ed for his valour than his furprili.ig fucccfs, and was I'arofl*. 
 then fent on a cruize with a fquadrou of galleys and 
 barks. The purport of the embalfy was, tint he IhoulJ 
 come and free them from the Spaniih yoke ; for which 
 they agreed to pay him a gratuity anfwcrablc to (o 
 great a fcrvice. Upon this lUrbaroda imuteJiitdy 
 difpatched 18 galleys and ;?o barks to the afliftancc of 
 the Algerincs ; while he himlVlf advanced towards ihe 
 ciiy withSooTurks, ;ooo Jigclitts, and 2ocoMoorilh 
 volunteers. luftead of takijig the iicareft road to Al- 
 giers, he direiftcd his courfc towords .'•/•^rJJ^:^/, where 
 Hajfcn, another itvacA corfair.had fettled hinifi If. Him 
 he furprifed, and obliged tofurrendcr ; not wi ho.it a 
 previous promifc of friendfliip : bat iiofoontr had Bar- 
 barolla got him in his power, than the cut offhis head ; 
 and obliged all H^llan's Turks to follow hi;n in his 
 new expedition. 
 
 On Birbarofla's approach to Algiers, lieM'asmetby- 
 3 K 2 prince
 
 A L C 
 
 [ 444 ] 
 
 y\ L G 
 
 Algiert, 
 
 7 
 Hi< ircach 
 try aiiU 
 cruelty. 
 
 prince Kuiemi, autiiilcil by all ihc I'coj'lc of iliat me- 
 inpolis, jrvcal an J liuall ; wlio looked for deliverance 
 from tliii abandoned villain, wlioni liicy accouiucd in- 
 vincible. He was conducted into the city amidll tl\c 
 acclamations of the people, and lodged in one of the 
 lioblcfl apartnicMts of prince Kuiemi's place, where 
 he was treated \vjih the j;reatell marks of dillincHun. 
 Elated beyond nicafurc with this kind reception, Bar- 
 biroli'a formed a dcfign of becominj;!; kin^ of ^Ij^icrs ; 
 and fearing fomc oppoliiion from the inhabitants, on 
 account of tiic excelles he fiitfered his foldiers to com- 
 jnit, murdered prince Kiitcmi,andcaufed hinifclf tobe 
 proclaimed king ; his Turks and Moors crying out as 
 lie rode along ihc Ihetts, " Long live King Arnch 
 Barbaroll'a, the invincible king of Algiers, the chojln 
 of God to deliver the people from the opprclilonof the 
 Chriiiians ; and dcdrucfion to all that liulloppofe, or 
 rcfiifc to own him as their lawful fovcreign." Thefc 
 lall tlireatcning words fo intiniiJatcd the inhabiiants, 
 already apprehen live of a general mall'acre, that he was 
 jmnic.iiatcly acknow ledged king. The unhappy prin- 
 cefs Zaphira, it is faid, poifoncd hcrfelf, to avoid tlie 
 brutality oft !iis new king, whom (he uufucccfsfullyin- 
 deavourcd to flab with a dagger. * 
 
 Barbarolfa was no looncr feaiej on the throne, than 
 he treated his fubjeOils with fucli cruelty, that theyufcd 
 tolhut up their houfes and hide thcmfelvcswhen he ap- 
 peared in public. In confcquence of this, t; plot was 
 foon formed againll him ; but beingdifcovercd, he eau- 
 fcd twenty of the principal confpirators to be behead- 
 ed, their bodies to be buried in a dunghill, and laid a 
 heavy fine on thofe who furvived. This fo terri.'ied the 
 Algerines, that they never afterwards durlt ratempt 
 any thing againll either Barbarolfa or his fuccelfors. 
 
 In the mean time, the fon of prince Eutenii having 
 fled to Oran, and put himfelf under thcprote<5lion of 
 the marquis of Gomarez, laid before that nobleman a 
 plan for putting the city of Algiers into the hands of 
 the king of Spain. Upon this, young Selim Eutcnii 
 was fcnt to Spain, to lay his plan before cardinal Xi- 
 mcncs ; who having approved of it, fcnt a fleet with 
 J 0,000 land forces, under the command oiDoi FrnKcif- 
 CO, or, as others called him, Z)<!« D'ngo de I 'era, to drive 
 out the Turks, andrcftore the young prince. But the 
 fleet was no fooncr come within fight of land, than 
 it was difpcrfed by a llorm, and the greatcfl part of 
 the fliips dalhcd againll the rocks. Mofl of the Spa- 
 niards were drowned; and thefewwhoefcapcd toiliore 
 were cither killed by the Turks or made Haves. 
 
 Though Barbarolfa had nothing to boafl on this oc- 
 tafion, hispride and infolcncc were now fwclledtofuch 
 a degree, that hciniagined himfelf invincible, and that 
 the very elements confpired to make him fo. The A- 
 rabians were fo much alarmed at his fucccfs, that they 
 implored the ainflance of Hamidcl Abdes king of Tc- 
 ncz, to drive the Turks out of Algiers. That, prince 
 readily undertook to do what was in his power for this 
 purpofe, provided they agreed to fettle the kingdom 
 on himlclf and his dcfcendants. This propofil being 
 accepted, he immediately fct out at the heid of 10,000 
 Moors ; and, upon his entering the Algcrinc domini- 
 ons, was joined by all the Arabians in tiie country. 
 Barbarolfa engaged him, only with 1000 Turkilli nuif- 
 qneteers and ?oo Granada Moors; totally defeated his 
 Humerous army ; purfucd him to the very gates of his 
 
 capital, wliicli lie ealilymaue himlVIf mafltr of ; and, Algien. 
 
 having given it up to be jdundered l) I'.is Turks, obli- ' 
 
 gcd the inhabitants to acknowledge him as their fuve- 
 reign. This victory, however, was chieHy owing to 
 tile advantage which his troops had from their hrc- 
 arins ; the enemy having no other weapons than ar- 
 rows and javelins. 
 
 Nofooner was Barbarolfa become maflerof the king- 
 dom of lenez, than he received an embally from the 
 inhabitantsof Tremecen;inviting him tocome to tiie ir 
 allillanceagainfl their then reigning prince, with whom 
 they were diliatisricdon account of his having dethro- 
 ned his nephew, and forced him to fly to Oran: ottcr- 
 iug him even the fovercignty, in cafe he accepted of 
 their propofal. The kingof I'rcmeccn, not fufpecling 
 the treachery of his hibjcfts, met the tyrant with an 
 nrmy of 6000 horfc and 3000 foot : but Barbarolfa's 
 artillery gave him Inch an advantage, that the king 
 was at length forced to retire into the capital ; which 
 he had no fooner entered than his head was cut (iff",and 
 lent to Barbarolfa, witha frcdi invitation to come and 
 take poircllion of tlie kingdom. On his approach, he 
 wasmctby thcinhabitanis,whomhcreceived withgreac 
 complaifance, and many fair proniifes ; but beginnint; 
 to tyranni/.e as ufual, his newfabjccts foon convinced 
 him that they were not fopallivc as the iniiabitantsof 
 Algiers. Apprehending, therefore, that his reign 
 might prove unenfy and precarious, he entered into an 
 alliance with the king of Fez ; after which, he took 
 care lofccurc thercfl of the cities in his new kingdom 
 by garrifoning them with his own troops. Some of 
 thcfe, however, revolted foon after ; ivpon whicli he 
 fcnt one of bis corfairs, named f.fcaiidir, a man no Icfs 
 cruel than himfelf, to reduce them. ThcTremcccni- 
 ans now began to repent in good earncll of their ha- 
 ving invited (uch a tyrant to their allillance; and held 
 confultations on the mofl proper meansof driving hini 
 away, and bringing back their lawful prince Abnclien 
 Men ; but their cabals being difcovf red, a great nuni- 
 berof the confpirators were mallacrcd in the mofl cruel 
 manner. The prince had the good luck to efcape to 
 Oran, and was taken under the protedion of the mar- 
 quis of Gomarez, who fcnt immediate advice of it to, 
 Charles V. then lately arrived in Spain, with a power- 
 ful fleet and army. That monarch immediately order- 
 ed the young king a fuccour of 10,000 men, under the 
 command of the governor of Oran ; who, under the 
 guidance of Abuchen Men, began his march towards 
 Trcraccen;,and in their way they were joinedby prince 
 Selim, with a great number of Arabs and Moors. The 
 firft thing they refolved upon was, to attack the im- 
 portant fortrefs of C.^/^v, fiiuated between Trcmecen 
 and Algiers, and commanded by the corfair Efcander 
 at the iiead of about joo Turks. They inverted it 
 clofely on all (ides, in hopes Barbarolfa would come out 
 of Trcmecen to its relief, which would give the I're- 
 mecenians an opportunity of keeping him out. That 
 tyrant, however, kept clofc in his capital, being ein- 
 barraflcd by his fears of a revolt, and the politicdclays 
 of the king of Fez, who had not fent the auxiliaries 
 he pron-.ifed. The garrifon of C'alau, in the mean 
 time, made a brave defence; and, in a fally they made 
 at night, cut off near 300 Spaniards. This encouraged 
 them to venture a fecond time ; but they were nowre- 
 pulfcd with greatlofs,and Efcander himfelf wounded: 
 
 foon
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 445 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 foon after which, they furrciidcrcd upon honourable 
 ■' terms; but were all mallacred by the Arabians, cxcci)t 
 16, who clung clofe to the ftirrups of the king, anduf 
 the Spauilh general. 
 
 Barb.irofla being now informed that Abnchcn Men, 
 with his Arabs, accompanied by the Spaniards, were 
 in full march to lay fiegc to Tremcccn, thought pro- 
 per to come out, at the head of 1 500 Turks and 5000 
 Moorifli horfc.in order to brtak his way ihrough the 
 enemy ; but he had not proceeded far from the city, 
 before his council adviftd him to return and fortify 
 hinifelf in it. This advice was now too laic ; the in- 
 habitants bcingrefolved to keep him ont,and open their 
 gates to their own lawful prince as foon as he appear- 
 ed. In this diflrcfs Barbaroffa faw no way left but to 
 retire to the citadel, and there defend hin-.ftlf ;iU he 
 could find an opportunity of flealing out with his men 
 and all his trcafure. Here he defended hinifelf vigo- 
 Toully ; but his provifions failing him, he took advan- 
 tage of a fubtarraneous back- way, which he hadcaufcd 
 10 be digged up for that purpofc, and, taking his im- 
 mcnfe treafurc with him, flole away as fecretly as he 
 could. His riight, however, was foon difcovcred : and 
 he was foclofcly purfi;cd, that toamufe, as hehopcd, 
 the enemy, he caufedagreatdeal of his money, plate, 
 jewles. Sec. to be fcatterej all the way, thinking 
 they would not fail to Hop their purfait together it up. 
 This ftratagcm, however, failed, through the vigilance 
 ofcheSpanilh com mander.who being hi uifclfat the head 
 of the purfuers, obliged them to march on, till he was 
 come up clofe to him on the banks of the Hucxda, a- 
 bout eight leagues from Tremecen. Barbirolfa had 
 juflcroffed the river with his vanguard, when the Spa- 
 niards came up with his rcaron thcothcrlide, and cut 
 them all off; and thencroinng the water, overtook him 
 ata fmall diftancefrom it. Here a bloody engagement 
 enfued, in which the Turks foughtlikeas many lions; 
 but, being at length overpowered by numbers, they 
 were all cut to pieces, and Barbarofla among the reft, 
 in the 44ihyear of hisage, and four years after he had 
 raifcd himfelf to the royal title of Jigel of the adja- 
 ■ cent country; two years after he had acquired ihe fo- 
 vercignty of Algiers, and fcarcc a twelvemonth after 
 the reduction of Tremecen. His head was carried to 
 Tremecen, on the point of a fpear; and Abuchcn Men 
 proclaimed king, to ihejoy of all the inhabitants. A 
 few daysafter the light, the kingofF'ez made his ap- 
 pearance at the head of 20,000 horfe, near the field of 
 battle ; but hearing of Barbaroffa's defeat and death, 
 inarched off with all poflible fpced, to avoid being 
 attacked by the enemy. 
 
 The news of Barbirofla's death fpread the utmoll 
 conllcrnation among the Turks at Algiers ; however, 
 they caufed his brother Hayradin to be immediately 
 proclaimed king. The Spanifli commander now fent 
 back the emperor's forces, without making any at- 
 tempt upon Algiers ; by which liclolt theopportunity 
 of driving the Turks out of tliat country ; while Hay- 
 radin, juflly dreading the confequencesof the tyranny 
 of his officers, fought the protei^ionof the Grand Sig- 
 nior. This was readily granted, and hinifelf appointed 
 balhaw or viceroy of Algiers ; by which means he re- 
 ceived fuch confiderable reinforcements, that the un- 
 happy Algirines durfl not make the lead complaint ; 
 and fuch numbers of Turks rcfortcJ to him, that he 
 
 was not only capable of keeping ihe Moors and i*rabs A'igicn, 
 in fubjcclion at home, but of annoying ilic ChriAians '' '■'~~' 
 at fea. His firft ftep was to take the Spanilh fort Hc uVr* 
 abovemcntioned, which was agrtat nnifanrc tolas me- thcSpaiifii 
 tropolis. Tiie Spaniards held uut to ibe lalt cxtrcnii- fort. 
 ty ; but being all llain or wounded, Hayradin cafily 
 became mailer of the place. 
 
 Hayradin next fet about building a ftrongmole for 
 the fafciy of his, fliips. In this he employed 3o,oco 
 Chriiiian llaves, whom.hc obliged to work without in- 
 termiflion for threeyears i inwhichiiaie theworkwas 
 completed. He then caufed the fort he had taken 
 from the Spaniards to be repaired, and placed a ftro:;^ 
 garrifon in it, to prevent any foreign vellcls from en- 
 tering the harbour without giving an account of thcni- 
 fclvcs. By thefc iv/o important works, Hayradin loon 
 became (ireaded not only by the Arabs and Moors, but 
 alfo by tiiC maritime Chriftian powers, efpecially the 
 Spaniards. The viceroy failed not to acquaint the 
 Grand Signior witii his fucccfs, anriobtaincd from him 
 a frelh fiipply of money, by which he was enabled 10 
 build aflronger fori,and to erect batteries on all places 
 that migiu favour the landing of an enemy. All ihefc 
 havclince rcceivedgreater improvements from time to 
 time, as often as there was occafion for tliem. j, 
 
 In the mean ti:iic theSiltan, either out of a fenfe of succeeded 
 the great ferviccs Hayradin had done, or perhaps out bj- Hafiaa 
 of jcalonfy lell he fliould make tiimfclf independent,' '^S*- 
 raifcd Haynidin to the dignity of balhaw of the em- 
 pire, and appointed Hafl'an Aga, a Sardinian rcne- 
 gado, an intrepid warrior, and an experienced officer, 
 to fuccecd him as balhaw of Algiers. Halfan had no 
 fooner taken polTeffionof his new government, than ha 
 began to purfiie his ravages on the Spanilh coaft with 
 greater fury than ever; extending them to the ecclcli- 
 aftical ftate, and other parts of Italy. Bat Pope 
 Paul 1 11. being alarmed at this, exortcd the emperor 
 Charles V. to fend a powerful fleet to fupprefs thofe 
 frequent and cruel piracies; and, that nothing might 
 be wanting to render the intcrprifc fuccefsful, a bull 
 was publilhed by his holinefs, wherein a plenary ablo- 
 lution of fins, and the crown of martyrdom, wjs pro- 
 mjfcd to all thofe who either fell in battle or were 
 made flavcs ; the emperoron his part needed no fpur; i» 
 and therefore let failat the head of a powerful fleet Charle* 
 confiftinsi of 1 20 fliips and 20 gallics, having on board ^' , ' '^" 
 30,000 chofen troops, an immente qt:antity of money, j,jj,|(t 
 arms, ammunition, &c. In this expedition many Al<'iers. 
 young nobility and gentry attended as volunteers, and 
 among thefe many knights of Malta, fo remarkable 
 for their valour againll the enemies of Chriiiianity. 
 Even ladies of birth and charai5tcr attended Charles in 
 his expedition, and the wives and daughters of the of- 
 ficers and foldiers followed them with a dcllgn to fettle 
 in Barbary al'ter the conqucft was linilhed. All thefc 
 meeting with a favourable wind, foon appeared before 
 Algiers; every (hip difplaying the Spanifli colours on 
 the Hern, and another at the head, with a crucitix to 
 ferve them for a pilot. tj 
 
 By this pro^'igious armament, the Algerincs were Algiers m 
 thrown into the utmoft conflcrnation. The city was Rreatcon- 
 furroundcd only by a W'all with fcarce any outworks, fltrnation. 
 
 The whole garrifon conlillcd of8ooTurksand6oco 
 Moors without fire-arms, and poorly difciplined and 
 accoutred ; the rcil of their forces being difperfed in 
 
 the
 
 A L c; 
 
 [ 446 1 
 
 A L G 
 
 14 
 
 I'revcntcd 
 hy a mad 
 priiphct 
 iVom f'lr- 
 rcQJer.ng. 
 
 Spaiiifh 
 fleet <i:- 
 ftroycd by 
 a Uorm. 
 
 :6 
 Siege of 
 Algiers 
 Tailed. 
 
 I he n;;ui [v i\ i^';c■^. ul ihc l,iii^ik>i\i, to k vy llic iifual 
 cribiic on ihe Arabs aiiJ Muor^. JlicSpjuiarUbliiiid- 
 rd V. iiliouC u;i:ioii[iuii, and iiiiiiicdialily Lutilc a lurt, 
 uiidciibccaiiiioiiotv/iiith ilifycncampcd).ind divcritd 
 ihcco-.iile oi'j Ipring which lujjplicd the city witit \va- 
 li-r. Bciiig now reduced lotlic utinoll diltrcfi, Haf- 
 laii received a (;iii\mons to I'urrciuler at dilcretioii, on 
 j'.iia of being put to the ('word with all the g-irriion. 
 The herald wasordirred to extol the vail power ot' the 
 cnij>eror both by Ic.i and hnd, and to exhort him to 
 return to the Chiiltiau religion. But to this llail'in 
 only replied, that he nuill be a madman who would 
 pretend loadvile an enemy, and that the advil'td nuilt 
 llill ael n-.orc madly wiio would takecounlclol luchan 
 advil'er. lie was, however, on the point ot furrendcr- 
 iiig the city, when advice was brought him that the 
 lorces belonging to the wcftern govcninienl were in 
 full march towards the place; upon which it was refol- 
 ved to defend it to the uunolt. Charlei, in the mean 
 lime, rcfolvuig upon a general allault, kept a conltant 
 hringupon the town j wijich, from the weak defence 
 made by the gaaifoti, he looked ujion as already in his 
 hands. But while the dou-waii, or Algerine fenate, 
 were deliberating on the mofl proper means of obtain- 
 ing an honorable capitulation, a mad prophet, attend- 
 ed liy a niuhiludeof people, entered the ali'embly, and 
 foretold the fpecdy delhuction of the Spaniards before 
 the end of the moon, exiriing the inhabitants to hold 
 out till that time, 'lliis prediction was foon accom- 
 j>lilhedina very liirprifing and niiexpce'ted manner: for, 
 on the 2Sth of October 1541,3 dreadful llorm of wind 
 rain, and hail, arofc from the north, accompanied with 
 violciu fliocks of earthquakes, and a difmal anduni- 
 vcrfal darknefs botli by fca and land ; fo that the fun, 
 moon, and clcnicuts,ftemcd to combine together for the 
 dcftrudion of the Spaniards. In that one night, fonie 
 f jy in Icfs than half an hoar, 86 Ihi, 3 and i 5 galleys, 
 .wcredeftroyed.with all their crews and military llores; 
 by which the army on Ihore were deprived of all means 
 of fubfiiting in thefe pans. Their camp alfo, which 
 fpread itfelf along the plain under the fort, was laid 
 quite underwater by the torrents which defccnded from 
 the neighbouring hills. Many of the troops, by try- 
 ing to remove into fomc better fituation, were cut in 
 pieces by the Moors and Arabs ; while fevcral galleys, 
 and other ve(rels,cndeavouringtogain fomc neighbour- 
 ing creeks along the coa(ls,\vere immediately plunder- 
 ed, and their crews malfacred by tlie inhabitants. 
 
 The next morning Charles beheld the fea covered 
 with the fragments of fo many lliips, and the bodies of 
 men, horfes, and other creatures, fwimming on the 
 waves ; at which he wasfo dilheartned, that abandon- 
 ing his tents, artillery, and all his heavy baggage, to 
 the enemy, he marched at the head of his army .though 
 in no fniall diforder, towards cape Malnbux, in order 
 to reimbark iii thofe few vellcls which had outwcath- 
 ercd the llorm. But Hailan, whohad caufcd his moti- 
 ons to be watched, allowed him jufl time to get to the 
 Ihore, when he fallied out and attacked the Spaniards 
 in the niidll of their hurry and eonfuiion to get into 
 their Ihips, killing great numbers, and brinoingaway 
 a llill greater number of cajitives ; after which he re- 
 turned in triumph ro Algiers, where Jie celebrated 
 with great rejoicings his happy deliverance from 
 fuch diflrefs and danger. 
 
 Soon after this, the prophet r,-//}/, who had f jretoLl Alglcn. 
 thcdeflratlioiiof the Spaniards, was not only declared — ■'—' 
 the deliverer of his country, but had a confiJcrable The'' A 
 gratuity decreed him, with the liberty of c.\erciliug proph" 
 his prophetic function uumolelled. It was not long, rewarded, 
 however, before the marabouts, and fome interpreters 
 of the law, made a Itrong opp >;uion again il Jtim ; rc- 
 monllrating to the balhiW, how ridiculous and fcan- 
 dalous it was tothtirnation, loafcribe the deliverance 
 of it to a poor fortune-teller, which had been obtained 
 by tlie fervent prayers of an eminent faint of their 
 ownprofcliion. But though thebathawand his douwan 
 feemed, out of policy, to give into his lail notion, yet 
 theimpreflion which Yufcf's prediiitions and their late 
 accomplilhpients had madeujion the minds of the com- 
 mon people, proved too flrong to be eradicated ; and 
 the fpirit of divination and conjuringhas lince got in- 
 to fuch credit among them, that not only their great 
 llatefmen, but their priefls, marabouts, and fantoons, 
 have applied thcmfelvcs to that lludy, and dignified it 
 with the name Mjh'jt/t.-t'i Revelations. ig 
 
 The unhappy Spaniards had fearcc reached their Frelh cala» 
 fliips, when they were attacked by a frefli llorm, inn>'t'5»of 
 which fevcral more of them perilhed ; one fliip in par- ^h'Span- 
 ticular, containing 700 foldiers, belides failors, funk ' '" 
 in the ctnperor's light, without a polliiiility of faving 
 a lingle man. At length, with much labour, they 
 reached the port of Bujeyah, at that lime poUcired by 
 the Spaniards, whither Hallan king of Tunis foon af- 
 ter repaired, with a fupplyof provilionsfor the empe- 
 ror, who received him gracioully, with frelh all'urances 
 ol his favourand protection. Here he difmilFed the few 
 remains of the Maltcfe knights and their forces, who 
 ' embarked in three Ihattered galleys, and with much 
 dirticulty and danger reached their own country. 
 Charles himfelf flaid no longer than till the i6ih of 
 November, when he fet fail for Carthagcna,and reach- 
 ed it on the 25th of the fame month. In this unfortu- 
 nate expedition upwards of laolhips and galleys were 
 loll, above 300 colonels and other land and fea officers, 
 8coo foldiers and marines, belides thofe dcllroyed by 
 the enemy on the reimbarkation, or drowned in the 
 laft llorm. The number of prifoners was fo great, that 
 the Algerincsfold forac of them, by way of contempt, 
 for an onion per head. it 
 
 HalTan, elated with this viflorv, in which he had Haffanre. 
 very little fhare, undertook an expedition againft the '^""* ^'^ 
 king of Tremccen,who, being now deprived of the af- '"'"*°* 
 liflance of the Spaniards, was forced to procure apeace 
 by paying a vail fum of money, and becoming tributary 
 to him. The balhaw returned to Algiers, laden with 
 riches ; and foon after died of a fever, in the 66th year 
 of his age. ... jo 
 
 From this time the Spaniards were never able to g„:jyai, 
 annoy the Algerines in any conliderablc degree. In taken from 
 1555, they lofl the city of Bujeyah, which was taken the Sjiani- 
 by Sathu Rati,¥.3.SAn't(\.\cct:Sor; who next year fet out ards. 
 on a new exi'edition, which he kept a fecret, but was 
 fufpefled to be intended againll Oran : but he was 
 fcarcely got fourleagues fiom Algicrs.w hen the plague 
 which at that time raged violently in the city, broke 
 out in his groin, and carried him off in 24 hours. HalTanCor- 
 
 Immediately after his death the Algerine foldicry („ chofen 
 chofc a Corlican renegado, HalFan Corfo, in his room, balhaw by 
 till they fliould receive further orders from the Porte, the Jani- 
 
 jje farics.
 
 21 
 Soperfedcd 
 by Tckclli, 
 ■who puts 
 l)im to 3 
 cruelUcath. 
 
 A L G [4, 
 
 Algiers. Hedid iiocacccpt of the badiawfliip v.ithoiit agood deal 
 
 >/ ' of difficulty ; b-.it imnudiately proiccuted the intended 
 
 expedition ag;i:.Il Cran, dilpatching a racirengcr to 
 acquaint the Porte wiili whnt had happmed. They 
 had hardly begun their hollilitics againll the place, 
 whcnordcrscanic from tlie Porte, cxprcfilyforbidd^wi; 
 Haflaii Ccrfo to begin the liege, or, it he had begun it, 
 ei.joining him to raifc it iinnicdistcly. This news was 
 received with great grief by the whole fleet and army, 
 as they thought ibenifelves furcoffucccfs, thegarrifoii 
 being at that time very weak. Nevcrthclcfs, as they 
 dared not difobey, the liege was immediately raifed. 
 Corfo had hardly enjoyed his dignity four months, 
 before news came, that eight galleys were bringing a 
 new bafiiaw to fuccecd him ; one Tskilli, a principal 
 Turk of the Grand Signior's court : upon which the 
 Algerines unanimoully rclblved not to admit him. By 
 tlie treachery of the Levantine foldicrs, however, he 
 was admitted at lafl, and the unfortunate Corfo thrown 
 over a wall in which a ntiniber of iron hooks were fix- 
 ed ; one of which catching the ribs of his right lide, 
 he hung three days in the moft exquifitc torture be- 
 fore he expired. 
 
 Tckelli was no fooner entered upon his newgovern- 
 ment, than he behaved with fuch cruelty and rapaci- 
 oufncfs, that he was airaflinatcd even under the dome 
 of a faint, by Yufcf Calabres, the favourite renegado 
 of HalTan Corfo ; wlio for this fcrvicc was unani- 
 moudy chofcn balhaw, but died of the plague fix days 
 after his election. 
 
 Yufef was fncceeded by HalTan the fon of Hayra- 
 din, who had been formerly recalled from his balhaw- 
 fhip, when he was fuccceded l)y Sclha-Rais ; and now 
 had the good fortune to get himfclf reinflated in his 
 employment. Immediately on liis arrival, he engaged 
 in a war with the Arabs, by wliom he was defeated 
 with great lofs. The next year, the Spaniards under- 
 took an expedition againll Moftagan, under the com- 
 mand of the count d'Alcandela ; but were utterly de- 
 feated, the commander himfelf killed, and 12,000 ta- 
 ken prifoners. This difailer was owing to the incon- 
 fiderate raflmefs, or rather madnefs, of the comman- 
 der ; which was fo great, that, after finding it impof- 
 fible to rally hisfcattered forces, he rndied, fword in 
 hand, into the thickellof the enemy's ranks, at the 
 head of a fmallnumber of men, crying out, "St Jago ! 
 St Jago ! the victory isours, the enemy is defeated ;" 
 foon after which he was thrown from bis horfe, and 
 trampled to death. 
 
 HalFan having had the misfortune to difobligc his 
 fubjefls by allowing the mountaineers of Cuco to buy 
 ammunition at Algiers, was fent in irons to Conftan- 
 tinople, while the aga of the Janifarics, and general 
 HafTan fcnt °f '1"^ land forces, fupplicd his place. — HalTau eafily 
 in irons to found means to clear himfclf ; but anew bafliaw wasap- 
 Coiiftinti- pointed, called Achmet ; who was no fooner arrived, 
 ""P'"-'- than he fent the twodcinity-ba'iawstoConllantinople, 
 where their heads were iirui.kotf. — Achmet was a man 
 of fuch infatiablc avarice, that, upon his arrival at Al- 
 giers, all ranks of people came in Ihoals to make him 
 prcfcnis ; which he the more greedily accepted, as he 
 had bought his dignity by the money he had amafied 
 while head gardener to the Sultan. He enjoyed it, 
 however, only four months ; and after his death, the 
 ftate was governed other four mor.ths by his lieutenant; 
 
 3 
 
 HalTan 
 rcinllated. 
 
 24 
 Spaniards 
 defeated 
 with great 
 Daughter. 
 
 17 ] A L C} 
 
 when Halfen was a third lime fent viceroy to Algiers, Algicr«. 
 
 where he was received with ilic grcatcll demouftra- ' >^ — ' 
 
 tions of joy. o • ^n 1 
 
 rr-i ■ -r ■ . .... /I- • RfinUateJ. 
 
 The nrit enttrpiife in whrcli HalTan eng.iged, was j^ 
 
 the liege of Marfalquivcr, fiiiiatcd near ihc city Oran, sieve of 
 which he dcligucd to invert imnicdiatcly after. The Marfilqai- 
 army etnphiytd in this liege confilicd of 26,oco foot"""- 
 and 10,000 horfe, belides which he had a ricct conlift- 
 ing of 32 galleys and galliots, together with three 
 French vellclsl;idcn with bifcuit, oil, and other provi- 
 fmns. The ciiy was defended by Don Martin dc Cor- 
 dova, brotherof the Count d'Alcandela, who had been 
 taken prifoner in the battle where ihat nobleman was 
 killed, but had obtained his liberty from the Algerincs 
 with immenle funis, and now made a moll gallant de- 
 fence againft the Turks. The city was attacked with 
 the utmoft fury by fea and land, fo that fevcral breaches 
 w ere made in the walls. The Turkilh llandards were 
 fcveral times planted on the walls, and as often dif- 
 lodged ; but the place mufl have in the end fubniiited, 
 had not flalTan been obliged to rnife the liege in hallc, 
 on the news that the famed CJcnoefc admiral Doriawas 
 approaching with confiderable fnccours iror.i Italy. 
 The fleet accordingly arrived foon after ; but milling 
 the Algerinegallies, bore away for Pennon de Vclcz, 
 where they were fhamefuUy rcpulfed by an handful of 
 Turks who garrifoned that place ; which, however, 
 was taken the following year. jg 
 
 In 1567, HalTan was again rec.iUcd to Conftanti- Haflan 
 iioplc, where he died three years after. He was fuc- ap^'" f*' 
 cceded by Mahomet, Avho gained the love of the Al- "lied, 
 gcrines by fcveral public-fpiritej a<5lions. He incor- 
 porated the Janiiariesand Levantine Turks together, 
 and by that mcuis put an end to their dilTcnli)ons,which 
 laid the foundation of tiie Algerine independency on 
 the Porte. He likewifc added feme confiderable for- 
 tifications to the city and caftlc, which he de'igned to ij 
 render impregnable. But w'hi'e he was thus fludying John Gaf- 
 the intercl: of'.nlgiers, one John Gafcon, a bold Spa- con's hold 
 nifli ailventurer, formed a delign of furpriling the whole ^'''T' 'o 
 piratic navy in the bay, and fetting them on fire in the '"■'^.''''= ■■^'_- 
 night-time, when they lay defcncclcfs, and in their ^'""' "'" 
 firfl fleep. For this he had not only the pcrmiffion of 
 king Philip II. but was furnilhed by him with proper 
 verfcls, marincri, and fireworks, for tlie execution of 
 his plot. With thcfehcfct fail for Algiers in the molt 
 proper fea'on, viz. the beginning of O.-tobcr, when 
 moft, if not all the lliips lay at anchor there ; and ea- 
 fily failed near enough, unfiifpctlcd, to view their man- 
 ner of riding, in order to catch them nappinp, at a 
 time when the greater part of their crew were diiperfcd 
 in their quarters. He came accordingly, unperceivcd 
 by any, to the very mole-gate, and difperfed his men 
 with their fire-works ; but to their great furprifc, they 
 found them fj ill n-.ixed, that they could not with all 
 their art make them take fire. In theraean time, Gaf- 
 con took it iiuo his head, by way of bravado, to go to do at'thr 
 the mole-gate, and give three loud knocks at it with city^atc. 
 the pommel of Iiis d.aggcr, and to leave it fixed in the 
 gate by its point, that the Algerincs might have caufc 
 to remember him. This he had the good fortune to do 
 without meeting with any diiiurbance or oppolition : 
 but it was not fo with bis men ; for no fooner did they v 
 findiheirendcavoursunfucccfsful, thanthey ni.:dc fuch 
 a bufilc as quickly ak-.nv.cd tlic guard p.-^fted 0:1 tlic ad- 
 
 jaien: 
 
 Hisbrav.
 
 A L G 
 
 I 
 
 3> 
 I» takcu 
 and put to 
 death. 
 
 Ali'ieH. jaccnibaftion, from whicli the uproar qiiickl}[ fjircaJ 
 itftlfihro' the whole garrifon. Gaftoii, now findinfr 
 himfcUin the utmod danger, failed away wiihallpol- 
 (iblc hafle : but he was piirlued, overtaken, and brought 
 back a prifoncr to Mahomet ; wfio no fooner juji hiin 
 into his power, than he iinmedialcly cauCcd a gibbet 
 of conlitlcrable heiglu to be erected on the fi)ot where 
 Gafcon had landed, ordering him to lit hoided up, and 
 hung by the feet to a hook, that he might die in ex- 
 quilite torture j and to fliow his refentir.ent and con- 
 tciTiptof the king hjs mafter, he ordered hiscommiliion 
 »o be tied to his toes. He had not, however, hung 
 long in that ftate, wlien the captain who took him, ac- 
 tonipanicd by a numberof other corfairs, interceded fo 
 llron;;ly in his behalf, that he was taken down, and 
 put under the care of fomcChrillian furgeons ; but two 
 days after, fonie Moors reporting that it was tlie com- 
 mon talk and belief in Spain, that the Algerines durfl 
 not hurt a hair of Gafcon's head, i!-c. the unfortu- 
 nate Spaniard was hoifted up by a pulley to the top 
 of the execution-wall, and let down again upon the 
 Jiook, which in his fall catched him by the belly, and 
 f;<!vc him fueh a wound, that he expired without a 
 groan.— — Thustnded the expedition of John Gafcon, 
 which has procured him a place among the Spanifli 
 martyrs ; while, on the other hand, the /Mgcrines look 
 npon hisdifappointment to have been miraculous, and 
 owing to the efficacious proteilion of the powerful 
 faint SidiOvtededJa, whule prayers had before raifed 
 fuch a terrible ftorm againfl the Spanilh tieet. 
 
 Mahomet, being foon after recalled, was fuccced- 
 cd i)y the famous rencgado Ochali, who reduced the 
 kingdom of Tunis ; wliich, however, remained fub- 
 jcit to the viceroy of Algiers only till the year 1586, 
 when a balhaw of Tunis was appointed by the Porte. 
 
 The kingdom of Algiers continued to be governed, 
 till the beginning of the fcvcnieenth century, by vice- 
 roys or bafiiaws appointed by the Pone ; concerning 
 whom we \\x\i\ nothing very remarkable, further than 
 that their avarice and tyranny was intolerable both to 
 the AltTcrines and the Turks thenifelves. At lafl, the 
 Tiirkiih Janifaries and militia becoming powerful c- 
 iiongh to fiipprcfs the tyrannic fvvay of thtfe bafiiaws, 
 .nnd the pcc'ple being aliiiort txhaullcd by the heavy 
 taxes laid upon them, the former rcfolvcd to depofe 
 ihefc petty tyrants, and fet up fomc officers of their 
 own at the head of the realm. The bcter to fucceed 
 in this attempt, the miliiiafenta deputation of fomc of 
 iheir chief members to the Porte, to complain of the 
 avarice and oppreflion of thcfe bafhaws, who funk both 
 the revenue of the ftate, and the money ren'.i: ted to it 
 from Conftantinople, into their own coffers, which 
 ihould have been employed in keeping up aad paying 
 the foldicry : by which means they were in continual 
 danger of being overpowered by the Arabians and 
 Moors, who, if ever fo little ofTifled by any Chriilian 
 power, would hardly fail of driving all the Turks out of 
 the kingdom. They reprefented to the Grand Vizir 
 how much more honourable, as well as c^.ficr and 
 cheaper, it would be for the grand Signior to permit 
 them 10 choolV their own dcy, or governor, from among 
 thcnifcIvcs, whofc intereflit would then be to fee that 
 the revenue of the kingdom was ri;^htly applied in 
 keeping up its forces complete, and in fupplying all 
 other cxigcncicsoftheflatc,wiihout any farther charge 
 
 2 
 
 4S ] A L G 
 
 or trouble totlic Porte than that of allowing them its 
 protci^lion. On their part, they engaged always to 
 acknowledge the Grand Signiors as their fovcreigns, 
 and to pay ihem their ufual allegiance and tribute, to 
 rcfpeil their balhaws, and even to lodge and maintain 
 them and their retinue, in a manner fuitable to their 
 dignity, at their own charge. The bafliaws, however. 
 Were, for the future, to be excluded from aflifting at 
 any but general douwans, unlefs invited to it ; and 
 from having the liberty of voting in them, unlefs when 
 their advice wasafked.ortheintcreft of the Porte was 
 likely tofuifer by their lllence. All otiicr concerns, 
 which related to the government of Algcrics, were to 
 be wholly left under the diredlon of the dey and his 
 douwan. 
 
 Thcfe propofals having been accepted by the Porte, 
 the deputies returned highly fatisScd ;and having noti- 
 fied their new privileges, the great douwan immediate- 
 ly proceeded to the tlcflion ef a dey from among 
 thenifelves. They compiled a new fet of laws, and 
 made feveral regulations for the better fupport and 
 maintenance of this new form of government, to the 
 obfcrvalion of which they obliged all their fubjeets to 
 fwear -, and the militia, navy, commerce, &c. were all 
 fettled pretty nearly on the footing upon which tlicy 
 now are, and which Ihall be afterwards defcribed ; 
 tho' the fubfequent altercations that frequently hap- 
 pened between the bafhaws and dcys, the one endta- 
 vouring to recover their former power, and the other 
 to curtail it, caufcd fuch frequent complaints and dif- 
 contents at the Ottoman court, as made them fre- 
 quently repent their compliance. 
 
 In the year 1601, the Spaniards, under the com- 
 mand of Doria the Gcnotfc admiral, made another at- 
 tempt upon Alj^iers, in which they were more fortu- 
 nate than ufual, their fleet being only driven back by 
 contrary winds, fo that they came off without lofs. 
 In 1609, 'h^ Moors being expelled from Spain, flock- 
 ed in great numbers to Algiers ; and as many of them 
 \Verc very able failors, they undoubtedly contributed to 
 make the Algerine fleet io formidable as it became 
 foon after ; tho' it is prob.iblc the frequent attempts 
 made on their city would alfo induce them toincreafe 
 their fleet. In 1616, their fleet confifted of 40 fail of 
 fliips between aooand 400 tons, their admiral 500 tons. 
 It was divided into two fquadrons, one of 18 fail, be- 
 fore the port of Malaga ; and the other at the Cape of 
 Santa Maria, between Lifbon and Seville ; both of 
 which fell foul on all Chriflian (liips, both Englifli and 
 French, with whom they pretended to be in friend- 
 lliip, as well as Spaniards and Portugucfe, with whom 
 they were at war. 
 
 The Algerincs were now become very formidable to 
 the European powers. The Spaniards, who were moft 
 in danger, and Iraft able to cope with them, folicited 
 the ailiiiance of England, the pope, and other ftaies. 
 The French, howcvci;, were the firft who dared to 
 fhow their rcfcntmcnt of the perfidious behaviour of 
 thcfe n.ifcreants ; in 161 7, M. Beaulieu was fent 
 againfl: them with a fleet of 50 men of war, who de- 
 feated their fleet, took two of their vefFels, while I heir 
 admiral funk his own fliip and crew, rather than fall 
 into his enemies hands. 
 
 In 1620, a fquadron of Englifh men of war was 
 fcni againfl Algiers, under the touduil of Sir Robert 
 
 Manfcl : 
 
 Algitrs. 
 
 Alpcrinci 
 allowed to 
 chufc their 
 own dcys. 
 
 .■?3 
 They grow 
 formidable! 
 to the Eu- 
 ropeans.
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 449 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 34 
 An Englilh 
 fquadrua 
 'cm a^ainfl 
 the rflge- 
 riaei. 
 
 Manfel : but of this expedition we hive no other ac- 
 count, than that it returned without doing any thing ; 
 and tlieAlgcrincs, becoming more and more infolciit, 
 openly defied all the European powers, the Dutch on- 
 lycxccptcd ; to whom, in 162J, ihcy lent apropolal, 
 dircc'lcd to the prince of Orange, that in cafe they 
 would lit out 20 fjil of fhips the foUowingyear, upon 
 any good fcrvicc againll the Spaniards, they would join 
 them with 60 fail ot their own. 
 
 The next year, tkc Coulolies, or Cologlits (thcchil- 
 dren of fuch Turks as had been permitted to marry at 
 Algiers), who were enrolled in the militia, having 
 fcized on the citadel, had well nigh made themfelves 
 mailers of the city ; but were attacked by the Turks 
 and renegadoes, who defeated them with terrible 
 llaugbtcr. Many fcores of them were executed ; and 
 their heads thrown in heaps upon the city-walls, with- 
 out the caftern gate. Part of the citadel was blown up; 
 and the remaining Coulolies were difmilTed from the 
 militia, to which they were not again admitted till long 
 after. 
 
 In 162;, the Algerines and other Hates of Barbary 
 threw oft their dependence on the Porte altogether, and 
 fct up for themfelves. What gave occalion to this was 
 the 25 years truce which Sultan Araurath IV. was o- 
 bliged to make with the emperor Ferdinand II. to pre- 
 vent his being overmatched by carrying on the war a- 
 gainfl him and the fophi of Perlla at the fame time. As 
 this put a ftop to the piratical trade of the Algerines, 
 they proceeded as abovementioned ; and rcfolvcd, that 
 whoever delired to be at peace with them, murt, di- 
 
 Itinflly and fcparately, apply to their government 
 
 No fooner was this refolution taken, than the Alge- 
 rines began to make prizes of feveral merchant fliips 
 belonging to powers at peace with the Porte. Nay, 
 having feizcdaDutchlhipand poleacrc atScanderoon, 
 they ventured on Ihore ; and finding the town abandon- 
 ed by the Tnrkilh aga and inhabitants, they plunder- 
 ed all the magazines and warehoufcs, and fct them on 
 
 fire About this time Lewis XIII. undertook to build 
 
 a fort on their coalls, inftead of one formerly built by 
 the Marlilians, and which they had deniolilhed. This, 
 after fome difficulty, heaccomplillicd ; and it was call- 
 ed the Btiftion of France : but the lltuation being after- 
 icrwards foand inconvenient, theKrcnch purchafed the 
 port of La Calle, and obtained liberty to trade with 
 the Arabians and Moors. The Ottoman court, in the 
 mean time, was fo much embarralTed with the Perliaii 
 war, that there was noleifure to check the Algerine 
 piracies. Thisgave an opportunity to the vizir anJo- 
 thcr courtiers tocompound matters with thcAlgcrines, 
 and to get a Iharc of their prizes, which were very con- 
 liderable. However, for form's fake, a fcvcre repri- 
 mand) accompanied with threats, was f«nt them ; to 
 which they replied, that "thcfe depredations deferved 
 to be indul'^cd to them, feeing they were tlieonly bul- 
 wark againil the ChriAian powers, efpccially againft 
 theSpaniards,the fworu cnernies of the Mollem name." 
 Adding, that " if they iTiould pay a puniftiUous regard 
 to all that would purchafc peace, or liberty to trade 
 with the Ottoman empire, they would have nothing to 
 do but fct fire to all their iiiipping, and turn camel-dri- 
 vers for a livelihood." 
 
 In the year 165 y, four younger brothers of a good 
 iamily in France, entered into an undertaking fo de- 
 Iperate, that perhaps the annals of knight-errantry can 
 Vol. I. 
 
 fcarce furnifh its equal — This was no lefs than to re- 
 tort the piracies of the Algerines upon theinfclvi.j .aad 
 as they inJilcriminatcly took the lhip.i jf all natiom, 
 fo were thefe heroes iiidifcriminatcly to take the Qiips 
 belonging to Algiers ; and this with a fmall frigate of 
 ten guns ! — In this ridiculous undertaking, 100 volun- 
 teers embarked ; a Maltefc commiiiion was procured, 
 
 together with an able mailer, and 36 mariners They 
 
 had the good fortune, on their f.rii fttiingout, to take 
 a fliip laden with wine, on the Spauilh coalh : wi;h 
 which they were fo much elated, that three days after 
 they madlycncounteredtwolargeAlgcrinecorfairs, one 
 of 20 and tiic other of 24 guns, both well manned, 
 and commanded by able otficcrs. Thefe two large vcf- 
 fels having got the fmall frigate between them, plied 
 her fnrioully with greet Ihot, which loon took oifher 
 main mall: notwithllanding which, the French made fo 
 dcfpcrate a rclillance, that the pirates were notable 
 to take them, till the nolle of their tire brought tip five 
 more Algerines; when the French veifel, being almoll 
 torn to pieces, was boarded and taken. The ysung 
 knighis-crrant were punilhed for their temerity by a 
 dreadful captivity, from which they redeemed them- 
 felves in 1642 at the price of 6000 dollars. 
 
 The Algerines profccuted their piracies with im- 
 punity, to the terror and difgrace of the Europeans, 
 till the year 1652; whena French fleet beingacciden- 
 tally driven to Algiers, the admiraltook it intohis head 
 to demand a rcleafe of all the captives of his nation, 
 without exception. This being refufed, the French- 
 man without ceremony carried otf" the Turkiih vice- 
 roy, and his cadi or judge, who werejull arrived from 
 the Porte, with all (heir equipage and retinue. The 
 Algerines, by way ofreprifal, furprifed the Baflionof 
 France already mentioned, and carried off the inha- 
 bitants to the number of 600, with all their etfecls ; 
 which fo provoked the admiral, that he fesit them word 
 that he would pay them another vilit the next year 
 with his whole fleet. 
 
 The Algerines, undifmayed by the threats of the 
 Frenchadmiral, fitted out a fieetof 1 6 galleys and gal- 
 liots, excellently manned and equipped, under the com- 
 mand of Admiral Hali Pinchinin. — The chief delign 
 of this armament was againd the trcafure of Loretto ; 
 which, however, they were prevented by contrary 
 winds from obtaining. Upon this they made a defcent 
 on Puglia in the kingdomof Naples ; where they rava- 
 ged the whole territory of Necotra, carrying ofFa vail 
 number of captives, and among them fome nuns. From 
 thence fleering towards Dalmatia, they fcoured the 
 Adriatic; and loading themfelves with immcnfe plun- 
 der, left thofc coalls in the utraoll conilernitiou and 
 refentmcnt. 
 
 At ialt the Venetians, alarmed at fuch terrible de- 
 predations, equipped a fleet of 28 fail, under the com- 
 mand of admiral Capcllo, with exprcfs orders to burn, 
 link, or take, all tlie Barbary corl'airs he met with, ei- 
 ther on the open feas, or even in the Grand Si^jnior's 
 harbours, purfuani to a late treaty of peace with the 
 Porte. On the other hand, the cajitain baihatv, who 
 had been lent out with the Turkifli ticet to chafe the 
 Florentine and Maitele crullers out of the .-Archipe- 
 lago, undcrllanding that the Algerine fquadrouwas To 
 near, fent t.xprcfs orders to the admiral to come to his 
 alfitlancc. Pinchinin readily agreed ; but having tirll 
 refolvcJ on a defcent upon the illami of LiiTa, or Lili- 
 3 L na. 
 
 UffjJtrnc 
 •iKilcrtl- 
 kingof f«ut 
 y«iung-r 
 brother-. 
 
 J7 
 A French 
 admiral 
 curies of 
 thcTurkilh 
 balhiw, 
 
 38 
 TheAIje- 
 rincs&t out 
 a fornit'ia. 
 hie flee, 
 
 J9 
 
 Which is 
 
 totiUy 
 denroyed 
 by ihe 
 Veiiitiin!.
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 450 1 
 
 A L G 
 
 Algiers. 
 
 40 
 Algiers in 
 he utnioft 
 cunfuCon 
 at the 
 
 41 
 Thoy ftt 
 out 3 QC w 
 fleet. 
 
 n.i, belonging to the Venetians, he was overtaken by 
 Capclli), t'rom whom he retirej to Valona, a ica-porc 
 belonging to the Grand Signior, w hither the Venetian 
 admiral purliicil him ; but the rnrkilh governor rctn- 
 iiiigtoejert the pirates according to the articles ot tiie 
 peace between the Ottoman coiiriand Venice, CapcUo 
 was obliged to content liiiurdt' with watchiiigtheiu tor 
 foiuc time. I'iiichinin wasl'ooa weary of rcitraiiit, and 
 ventured out ; wlieu an engagement immediately cu- 
 fued, in which the Algeriaes were defeated, and live 
 ot their vcllels difablcd ; with the lofs of i 500 men, 
 Turks, and Chrillian Haves; beUdesi6oo galley-ilaves 
 who regained their liberty. Pinciiinin, after this de- 
 feat, returned to Vallona, where he was again watched 
 byCapello; but the latter had not lain long at his old 
 anchorage before he received a letter from the fenate, 
 deiiring him to'make no fartlier attempt on the pirates 
 at that lime, for tear of a rupture with the Pone. This 
 was followed by akttcrfrom the governor of Valona, 
 deliring him to take care leA he incurred the Sultan's 
 difplcafure by luchinfults. The brave Venetian was 
 forced to comply ; but, rtfolving to take fuch a leave 
 of the Algerines as he thought t!iey dclcrvcd, obferved 
 how they had reared their ten ts, and drawn their booty 
 and equipage along the ll>ore. He then kept tiring a- 
 mong their tents, while Ibme well-manned galliots and 
 brigantincs were ordered among their lliippiiig, who 
 attacked them with fuch bravery, that, without any 
 great lofs, they towed out their 16 galleys, with all 
 their cannon, lloies, &c. — In this lalt engagement, a 
 ball from one of the Venetian galleys happening to 
 Jlrike a Turkilh mofque, the whole adion was conli- 
 dcred as an infult upon the Grand Signior. To conceal 
 this, Capcllo was ordered to fink all the Algcrine 
 Jhipshe had taken, except the admiral j which was to 
 be conducted to Venice, and laid tip as a trophy. Ca- 
 pello cameoff'with a fevere reprimand ; but the Vene- 
 tians were obliged to buy, with joo,ooo ducats, a peace 
 from the Porte. ThcGrandSignioroffered to repair the 
 lofsof the Algerines by building ten galleys for them, 
 upon condition that they fliould continue inhisfcrvicc 
 till the end of the enfuingfummer ; but Pinchinin, who 
 knew how little the Algerines chofc to lie under obliga- 
 tions to him, civilly declined the offer. 
 
 In the mean time, the news of this defeat and lofs 
 filled Algiers with the utmoft grief and confulion. The 
 whole city v.'ason the point of a general infurrcdion, 
 when thebadiawanddouwan iil'uedout a proclamation, 
 forbidding, not only complaints and outcries, under the 
 ft vertfl penalties; but all perfons whatever to take their 
 thumbs from-wUhin their girdles, while they were de- 
 libenuing on this important point. In the mean time, 
 they applied to the Porte for an order, that the Vene- 
 tians fettled in the Levant Ihonld make up their lofs. 
 But with this the Grand Signior refufed to comply, 
 and left them to repair their lolfes, as Well as build new 
 Ihips, in the belt manner they could. It was not long, 
 however, before they had the fatisfaflion to fee one of 
 iheir corfairs land, with a frelli fupply of 600 Haves, 
 whom he had brought from the coail of Iceland, whi- 
 ther he had been directed by a mifcreant native taken 
 on board a Danilh Uiip. 
 
 Our pirates did not long continue in their weak and 
 defcncelefs flate ; being able, at the end of two years, 
 to appear at fca with a fleet of 65 fail. The admiral 
 
 Pinciiinin equipped four galliots 2.1 his own expence ; Argim. 
 
 with wiiich, in conjuucUoii with liie Chiayai;, or fc- " >< *" 
 
 crctary of t lie balhaw of 1 ripoli, he made a fccouJ cx- 
 curlioii. This I'mall fqiiadron, confilling of hve gal- 
 leys and two briganiines, fell in with an Eiigluh ihip of 
 40 guns; which, however, Pinchinin's captlins rtiu- 
 fcd to engage; but being afterwards reproachcj by 
 him for tlicir cowardice, they I'worc to attack the next 4. 
 Chrillian ihip which came in their way.T his happened Fivcofiheirr, 
 to be a Dutch merchantman, of 28 guns and 40 men, galleys de- 
 deeply laden, and unable to ufe h r I'ails by reaf.m of ''^^"='^ ''y * 
 a calm. Pinchinin immediately fuminoncd her to fur- '■'''"!' 
 render ; but receiving an ironical anl\vcr,drcw up Ins ^^^^^ 
 fquadron in form of an halt-moon, that they might 
 pour their Ihot all at once into their aJverfary. This, 
 however, the Dutchman avoided, by means of a breeze 
 ofwind which fortunately fprung up and enabled hint 
 to turn his ihip; upon which the gallays ran foul of 
 cacli other. — Upon this, Pinchinin ran liis own galley 
 along iidc of the merchantman, the upper deck of 
 which 70 Algerines inimcdiaiely took polfcifton of, 
 foine of them cutting the rigging, and others plying 
 the hatches with hand-grenadocs : but the Dtitchmeu 
 having fecured themfelves in their clofe quarters, be- 
 gan to tire at the Algerines on board, from two pieces 
 of cannon loaded with fmall Ihot ; by which they were 
 all foon killed, or forced to fubuiit. Pinchinin, in the 
 mean time, made fevcral unfuccefsful attempts to re- 
 lieve his men, as well as to furround the Dutchinaa 
 with his other galleys : but that ihip lay fo deep in the 
 water, that every Ihot did terrible execution among the 
 pirates ; fo that they were obliged to remove fanher 
 off. At lalf the Dutch captain, having ordered his 
 guns to be loaded with cartouches, gave them fuch a 
 parting volley as killed 200 of thcDi, and fent the reft 
 back to Algiers in a moll difmal plight; 
 
 But iji'ugh Pinchinin thus returned indifgrace, the 
 reft of the tiet t quickly came back with vail numbers- 
 of llaves, and an immenfe quantity of rich fpoils; info- 
 much that the Englilh, french, and Dutch, were o- 
 bliged to cringe to the mighty- Algerines, who foir.c- 
 timcs vouchfafed to be at peace with them, but fwore 
 eternal war againft Spain, Portugal, and Italy, whom 
 they looked upon as the greatcft enemies 10 the Maho- ^, 
 metaii name. At laft Lewis XIV. provoked by the Prcpara. 
 grievous outrages committed by the Algerines on the tions 
 coafts of Provence, andLaiigiiedoc, ordered, in i68i,>i ^o'""'^ 
 conliderable fleet to be fitted out againft them, under f^'*'"'^t^v- 
 the Marquis du Q_iiefne. vice-admiral of France. His "** 
 firftexpediiion wasagainft a numberof Tripolitan cor- 
 fairs ; who had the good fortune to outrow him, and 
 ihelter themfelves in the iiland of Scio belonging to 
 the Turks. This did not, however, prevent him from 
 purfuing them thither, and making fuch terrible Hrc 
 upon them as quickly dedroyed 14 of their velFcls, bc- 
 fidcs battering the walls of the caftle. 44 
 
 This feverity feemcd only to be deligncd as a check Algiers 
 to the piracies of the . Jgerines ; but, finding they ftill bombarded 
 continued their outrages on the French coaft, he failed i°''f'"'?. 
 to Algiers in Auguft 1682, cannonading and bombard p^i'jV " 
 ing it fo furiouily, that the whole town wasin rianics ill 
 a very little time. The great mofque was b.iitercd 
 down, and moft of the houfes laid in ruins, infomuch 
 that the inhabitants were on the point of abandoning 
 the place ; when on a fuddcn the wind turned about, 
 
 aiii
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 451 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 Algicri. 
 
 45 
 AlgTlnts 
 comi'.rt 
 (Irtadful 
 ravai,'cs in 
 France. 
 
 46 
 
 The .ity a- 
 eaiii bnm- 
 oarded. 
 
 47 
 Set on fire 
 and alniofl 
 dtftroyed. 
 
 and obliged Du Quefiie to return to Toulon. The 
 Algcrincs immediaitly made rcprifals, by fending a 
 nuinbcrof galleys ano galliots tothc coaftsof Provence, 
 where they coniraitttJ the moil dreadful ravages, and 
 brought away a val> nu; ber of captives : upon which 
 a new arman:ent was ordered to be got ready at loii- 
 lon and Marleillcs againft the next year; and the Al- 
 gerincs, having received timely notice, put thcmfelvts 
 into as good a Itatc of defence as the time would allow. 
 
 In May 1685, Du Qiiefnc with his fquadron call 
 anchor before Algiers ; where, being joined by the 
 Marquis D'Affranville, at the head of five Aout vcf- 
 fcls, it was refolvcd to bombard the town next day. 
 Accordingly too bombs were thrown into it the lirft 
 day, which did terrible execution; while thebclicged 
 made fome hundred difchargesof their cannon againft 
 them, without doing any conlider^blc damage. The 
 foliowingnightb the bombs were apain thrown into the 
 city in fuch numbers, that the dcy's palace and other 
 great edifices were almofldertroycd; fonieofthcir l)at- 
 icries were difmountcd, and feveral velfelsfunk in the 
 port. The dey and Turkith balhaw, as well as the 
 whole foldiery, alarmed at this dreadful havock, im- 
 mediately fued for peace. As a preliminary, the im- 
 mediate furrenderwas infilled on of j11 ^hriflian cap- 
 tives who had been taken fighting under the French 
 flag ; which being granted, 14a of them were imme- 
 diately delivered up, with a promife of fending him 
 the remainder as foon as they could be got from the dif- 
 ferent parts of the country. Accordingly Du Qiiefnc 
 fcnt his commiifary-general and one of his engineers 
 into the town ; but with cxprefs orders 10 infift upon 
 thecielivery of all the French captives without excep- 
 tion, together with the etJedls they had taken from 
 the French ; and that Mezomorto their then admiral, 
 .ind Hali Rais one of their captains, fliould be given 
 as hoflages. 
 
 This lafl demand having embarraffed the dey, he af- 
 fembled the douwan, and acquainted them with it: 
 upon which Mezomorto fell into a violent palFion, and 
 told the airenibly, that the cowardice of tliofe who fat 
 at the helm had occafioned the ruin of Algiers ; but 
 that,forhispart.he would never confint todelivcr up 
 any thing that had been taken from the French. He 
 immediately acquainted the foldicry with what had 
 paiTed; which fo exafparated them, that they murdered 
 the dey that very night, and on the morrow chofe 
 Mezomorto in his place. This was no fooner done, 
 than he cancelled all the articles of peace which had 
 been made, and hoililities were rencv.cd with greater 
 fury than ever. 
 
 The French admiral now kept pouring in fuch vol- 
 leys of bombs, that, in lefs than three days, the great- 
 eft part of the city was reduced to aflies, and the fire 
 burnt w ith fuch vehemence, that the fea was enlight- 
 ened with it for more than twoleagues round. Mezo- 
 morto. unmoved at all thefedifafters,and the vaflnum- 
 ber of the (lain, whofe blood ran in rivulets along the 
 ftrccts ; or rather, grown furious and defpcrate, fought 
 only howto wrciik his revenge on theeiiemy; and, not 
 content with cauling all the Frencli in the city to be 
 cruelly murdered, ordered their conful to be tied hand 
 and foot, and faftened alive to the mouth of a mortar, 
 from whence he was (liut away againfl thcirnavy — 
 By this piece of inhumanity Du Qiicfnc was fotxjl'- 
 
 pcrated, that he did not leave Algiers till he had ut- Al;;«ri. 
 tcrly dcflroyed all their fortificatio.is, Ihipping, almoft •' ' 
 
 all the lower part, and aliove two thirds of the upjcr 
 part, of the city ; by which means it became little clfc 
 than a heap of ruins. ^g 
 
 The haughty Algerines were now thoroughlf con- Algcnnet 
 vinced that they were not invincible ; and, therefore, fue for 
 immediately fcnt an embalfy into France, begging in r""* 
 the moft abjeft terms for peace ; which Lewis imme- 
 diately granted, to their inexprelliblt joy. They now 
 began to pay fome regard to other nations, and to be 
 a little cautious how they wantonly incurred their dif- 
 pleafure. The tirft bombardment by the French had 
 fo fir humbled the Algerines, that they condcfcendcd 
 to en tcr into a treaty with England; which was renew- 
 ed, upon terms very advantageous to the latter, in 1686. 
 It is not to be fuppofed, however, that the natural per- 
 fidy of the Algerines would difappcar on a fiddcn ; 
 notv.ithftanding this treaty, therefore, they lofl no 
 opportunity of making prizes of the Engliih fliips 45, 
 when they could con /cnicntly come at them. Upon Seven of 
 fome infringementof this kind. Captain Beach drove thc.rOiiin 
 adore and burnt fcvenoftheir frigates in 1^.95; v.hich '""^"^.''^, 
 produced arenewal of the treaty five years after : but '^^ ''" ' 
 it was not till the raking of Gibraltar and Port Ma- 
 hon, that Britain could have a fuflicient check upon 
 them to enforce the obfervation of treaties : and thefc 
 have fince proved fuch reftraints upon Algiers, that 
 they flill continue to pay a greater deference to the 
 Englifh than to any European power. 5° 
 
 The prcfent century furniflies no very remarkable c- F^»p""'o= 
 vents with regard to Algiers; except the takingofthe ^Jj^f^j^ 
 famed cityof Oran from the Spaniards in i 708 (which bafluw. 
 however they regained in 1737), and the expuWionof 
 the Turkilh balliaw, and uniting his office to that of 
 dey in i7fo. This introduced the form of govern- 
 ment which Aill continues in Algiers. 51 
 
 The dey is now abfolute mon:irch ; and pays noo- Rc»en««*. 
 ther revenue 10 the Porte, than that of a certain num- *'<^-°' ''"•* 
 ber of fine boys or youths, and fome other prefents '^•' 
 which are fent thither yearly. His own income, pro- 
 bably rifcsand falls according to the opportunities he 
 hath of fleecing both natives and foreigners; whence it 
 is varioufly computed by different authors. I')r Shaw 
 computes the taxcsofthe whole kingdom to bring into 
 the treafury nomorethan 300,000 dollars; but fjppofes 
 that the eighth part of the prizes, t!ic efJefls of thofc 
 perfons whodie without cliildren, joined to the yearly 
 contributionsraifcd by tlic government, prefents from 
 foreigners, fines and opprcflions, may bring in about 
 as much more. Both the dey, and officers i;nder hici, 
 enrich themfclves by the famelaudahle methods of ra- 
 pine and fraud ; which it is no wonder to find the com- 
 mon people praftifing upon one another, and efpecially 
 upon flrangers, feeing they themfclves are inipoverifh- 
 ed by heavy taxes and the injufUcc of thofe who arc 
 in authority. 
 
 We have already hinted, that the firft dcys were c- 
 Icdled by the militia, 'vho were then called the dcurj^i: 
 or common-council. This elcflivc body was at firil 
 conipofed of 800 militia-officers, without whofe con- 
 fent the dey could 'o nothing : and upon fome urgent 
 occalions, all the officers rcliding in Algiers, amount- 
 ing to above ijco, were fummoned to alfil^^. But 
 (ince the dcys, who may be compared to the Dutch 
 3 L 3 Stallholders,
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 4^ ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 Algiers. 
 
 Strin<;e 
 
 the dou 
 wan. 
 
 Stadilioldcrs, have become more powerful, the dou- 
 wan is principally compofcd of 50 chiak-bafliaws, or 
 colonels, with now and then the nuifti and cadi upon 
 fonic emergencies ; and on the election of a dey, the 
 whole foldiery are allowed to come and give their votes. 
 All the regulations of (late ought to be determined by 
 that all'cmbly, before they pals into a law, or the dey 
 Tiaih power to put them in execution : but, for many 
 years back, the douwan is of fo little account, that it 
 is only convened out of formality, and to giveaflent 
 to what the dey and his chief favourites have concerted 
 beforehand. The methodof gathering the votes in this 
 nuthod of augnft allcnibly is pcrfedly agreeable to the charaiUr 
 patlicring of thofc who conipofc it. The aga, or general of the 
 tli<r votesof janifarics, or the prelidcnt />ro wm/'o/\r, lint propofes 
 thcqueRion.wliich is immediately repeated with a loud 
 voice by the chiak-balliaws, and from them echoed a- 
 gain by four officers called haJJjaldalas, from thcfe 
 the qiieflion is rcpc;ncd from one member of the dou- 
 wan to another, with flrange contortions, and the mofl 
 hideous growlings, if it is not to their liking. From 
 the loudnefs of this growling noifc, the aga is left to 
 gutfs as well as he can whether the majority of the af- 
 fcmbly are plcafed ordifplealed with the queftion; and 
 from Inch a prepoderous method, it is not furprifing 
 that thefe airemblits lliould fcklom end without fome 
 tumult or difordtr. As the whole body of the militia 
 is concerned in the elcdlion of a new dey, it is feldom 
 carried on without blows and bloodlhed : but when 
 once the choice ismade, the pcrfon elefted is faluted 
 with the words Ali-a Barick, " God blefs you, and 
 profpcr you ;" and the new dey ufually caufcs all the 
 officers of the douwan who had oppofcd his election to 
 be (Iranglcd, tilling up their places with thofe who 
 had been moll zealous in promoting it. From this ac- 
 count of the elcclion of the deys, it cannot be expec- 
 ted that their govermcnt IhouUl be at all fecurc ; and 
 as TJiey arrive at the throne by tumult, difordcr, and 
 Woodllied, they arc generally deprived of it by the fame 
 means, fcarcely one in ten ofthcin having the good 
 fortune to die a natural death. 
 
 In this country it is not to be cxpefted that juftice 
 will be adminillcrcd with any degree of impartiality. 
 The Mahometan foldiery, in particular, arc fo much 
 favoured, that tiicy arc feldom put to death for any 
 crime, except rebellion; in whith cafe they arc either 
 flrangled with a bn\v-llring,or hanged to an,irun hook. 
 In Idler oif'enccs, they arc fined, or theirpay flopped; 
 and if officers, they are reduced to the Ration of com- 
 mon foldiers, from whence they may gradually raife 
 ihcmfelvcsto their former dignity. Women guilty of 
 •adultery, have a halter tied about their necks, with the 
 other end fallened to a pole, by which they are held 
 under water till they are fiiflbcated. The baflinado is 
 likewife infiiclcd foriuiall offences; and is given either 
 i.pou the belly, bick, or fulcs of the feet, according to 
 ilie plcafure of the e.uli ; who alio appoints the num- 
 ber of flrokes. Thefe fomctimes amout to 200 or ?oo, 
 iccording to the indulgence the ofTcnder can obtain 
 cither b,» bribtiy or friends ; and hence he often dies 
 under this puni!hmcnt, for wmt of powerful enough 
 advocates. Bi.t the moll terrible puniflimeuts are thefe 
 illflicicd upcn thejcws orChrillians who fpcak agaiiill 
 Mahontet or his religion; in which cafe, they mnfl ci- 
 ther tarn Mahometan, or be impaled alive. If they 
 
 .'J 
 Piitiilh- 
 mcnis, Ac, 
 
 iffice»«- 
 
 afterwards aportatize, they are burned or roafled all vf, Algier». 
 
 or clfc thrown down from the top of the city-walls * ' 
 
 upon iron hooks, where they are caught by different 
 parts of their body, according as they happen to fall, 
 andlbmetiraesexpircin thcgreatcfttorinents ; though 
 by accident they may be put out of pain at once, as we 
 have already related of the Spanilh adventurer John 
 Gafcon. This terrible punilhment, however, begins 
 now to be difufed. ,4 
 
 The officer next in power to the dey is the aga of Ag»of the 
 the janifaries, who is one of the oldeft officers in the iinti»ric» 
 army, and holds his poll only for two months. He is and other 
 
 then iuccecded by the chiah, or next fenior officer n>il'»T 
 
 During the two months in which the aga enjoys h is dig- ' 
 nity, the keys of the metropolis arc in his hands ; all 
 military orders arc illucd out in his name ; and the fen- 
 tence of the dey upon any otiending foldier, whether 
 capital or not, can only be executed in the court of 
 
 his palace As foou as he is gone through this fhort 
 
 office, he is confidercd as mazoul, or fupcrannuatcd i 
 receives his pay regularly, like the reft of the militia 
 every two moons; is exempt from all other duties, ex- 
 cept when called by the dey to affift at the grand coun- 
 cil, to which lie hath, however, a right to come at all 
 times, but hath no longer a vote in it. — Next to the 
 again dignity, is the fccretary of Hate, whoregiftcrs 
 all the public ails ; and after him are the 30 chiahs 
 or colonels, who litucxt to the aga in the douwan, 
 and in the fame gallery with him. Out of this clafs 
 are generally chofen thofe who go embafladors to fo- 
 reign courts,or who difpcrfc the dey 's orders through- 
 out the realm . — Next to them are Sooballuck-baffiaws, 
 or eldeft captains, who arc promoted to that of chiah- 
 bafhaws, according to their fcniority. The oldack- 
 baffiav/s, or lieutenants, arc next; whoamonnt to 400, 
 and are regularly raifed to the rank of captains in their 
 turn, and toother employments in the ftate, according 
 to their abilities. Thefe, by way of diftinclion, wear 
 a leather flrap, hanging down to the inidle of their 
 back. One rule is ilrictly obfcrved in the rotation of 
 thefe troops from one deputy to a higher; viz. the right 
 of fcniority ; one fingle infringement of which would 
 caufe an iufurrcftion, and probably cofl the dey his 
 life. Other military officers of note are the vekelards, 
 or purveyors of the army ; the peys, who arc the four 
 oldcil foldiers, and confequcntly the nearefl to prefer- 
 ment ; the foulacks, who are the next in fcniority to 
 them, and arc part of the dey's body-guard, always 
 marching before him when he takes the field, and dif- 
 tinguiflied by their carbines and gilt fcymiters, with a 
 brafs gun on their caps ; tlie kayts, or Turkilh fol- 
 diers, each band of wlioni have the government of one 
 or more adowars, or itinerant villages, and collcdl their 
 taxes for the dey ; and the fagiards, or Turkiffi lance- 
 men, 100 ofwhom always attend the army, and watch 
 over the water appointed for it. To thefe we may add 
 the beys, or governors of the three great provincesof 
 the realm. All the abovcnieiuioned officers ought to 
 comj'ole the great douwan orcoujicil abovemeutioncd; 
 but oiily the jochiah-bafliaws have a right tofit in the 
 gallery next .".jtcr the dey ; the rcll are obliged to 
 Hand on the Hoor of the hall, or council-chamber, 
 with their armsaerofs, and, asiiuich as poJiible, with- 
 out motion ; neither are they permitted to enter with 
 their fwords on, for f»ar of a tumult. As for thofc 
 
 Mho
 
 A L G 
 
 t 453 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 Algieri. 
 
 the king- 
 
 56 
 Rivirs, 
 
 who have any matters to tranfacl with the douwan, 
 ihey mull flaiid without, let tlie weather be ever fo 
 bad; and there they are commonly prcfcnted with c«/- 
 fee by fomc of the interior officers, till they are dil- 
 . iniflcd. 
 DIvlQon of The kingdom of Algiers is at prefent divided into 
 three provinces or diflridts, viz. the caftcrn, wellcrn, 
 andfouthern. The caftcrn, or Levantine wovernracnt, 
 which is by far the nioft conliderablc of the three, and 
 is alfocalledjB?)//cif,containsihc towns of Boano,Con- 
 Aantina, Gigcri, Bujeyah, Stcifa, Tcbef, Zanioiira, 
 Bifcara, and Necanz, in all which the Turks have 
 their garrifons : befides which, it includes the two an- 
 cient kingdoms of Cuco and Labcz, though indepen- 
 dent of the Algerinc government, to whofe forcas 
 their country is inaccclUble ; fo that they ftill live un- 
 der their own cheyks chofcn by each of their adowars 
 or hords. To thefe we may add a French failory at 
 Cailo, under the direftionofthe company of the French 
 BaAion. — The wcftern government hath the towns of 
 Oran, Trcmecen, Moflagan, Tcnez, and SccrcUy 
 with its caftle and garrifon. — The fouthcra govern- 
 ment hath neither town, village, nor even a houic, 
 all the inhabitants living in tents, which obliges the 
 dey and his forces to be always encamped. 
 
 The moft confiderable rivers of Algiers are the Zha, 
 or Ziz, which runs acrofs the province of Trcnicccn, 
 and the dcfert of Anguid, falling into the Mediterra- 
 nean near the townof Tabccrita,v.'hcre it hastlic name 
 of Strut. (2.) The Haregol, fuppofcd the Sign of Pto- 
 lemy, comes dov/n from the great Atlas, crofles the 
 dcfart of Anguid, and falls into the fea, about five 
 leagues from Oran. {3.) The Mina, fuppafed the C^_;- 
 Unuitii of Ptolemy, a large river, which runs through 
 the plains of Bathala, and falls into the fea near the 
 town of Arzcw. Tliis river hath lately received the 
 name of Cena, who rebuilt the town of Bathalah af- 
 ter it had been deftroyed. (4.) The Shclif, Zilef, or 
 Zilif, dffccndiiig from the mount Gnancxen's, runs 
 through fomc great dcfarts, the lake Titteri, the fron- 
 tiers of Trcnitccn and Tenez, falling into the fea a 
 little above the city of Mollagan. (5.) The Celcf, 
 fuppofcd to be ihc Carthena of the ancirnts, falls into 
 the fea al>oiit three leagues well of Algiers, after a 
 Jhort courfe of 18 or 20 leagues. (6.) Tlic Hued-al- 
 quivir, fuppofcd to he the Nalahata, or Najaha, of the 
 ancients, and culled by ihe Europeans Zitiganir, runs 
 down with a fwifi courfe, through fomc high moun- 
 tains of Cuco, and falls into the fta near Bujeyah. 
 Harbour of "^^''"Ift 'lie city of Bujcvali was in the haiid^ of the 
 Uujcyah Chriftians, the mouth 01 tiiis river was fo thojkcd up 
 will) fand, llial no vefftl could come up into 11 : but i;i 
 1555> very foon after it was taken by the Moors, the 
 great rains fwellcd it to fuch a degree, that all the fand 
 and mud was carried off ; fo that galleys, and other 
 veflcls, have ever fincc entered it with cafc.v.liert they 
 lie fiiff from florms,and all winds, but that which blows 
 from the north. (7.) .Suf-Gemar, or Suf-Ginimar al 
 Rumnicl, fuj'pofed to be the v^w/v/a^a of l'tokmy,haih 
 its fourcc on mount Auras, on the confines of rttlas ; 
 thence runs through Tome barren plains, and the fri;it- 
 ful ones of Conftantina. where its ftrcam is greatly 
 increafcdby fomc other rivers it receives ; from tlicnce 
 running northward, along the ridges of fomc liii'h 
 mouTitains, it falls icto the fea a liiiic caft of Gijci i. 
 
 57 
 
 cleared by 
 accident. 
 
 ^8.) The Ladag, or Ludeg, runs down frem mount Algi'erf. 
 
 Atlas through part of ConUantina, and falls into the ^ ^" — 
 
 fea a little eaftward of Bona. (9.) Guadi, or Gaudcl 
 Barbar, fprings from the head of Orbus, or Urbs, in 
 Tripoli, runs through Bujeyah, and falls into the fea 
 
 near Tabarea. 
 
 J8 
 
 Bcfides thefe there are many others of lefs note ; of Account of 
 which, however, we do not find that the Algerines a- ihecoifjirt, 
 vail themfclves as they might do, their genius leading C'^imcr". 
 them too much to the piratical trade to mind any real 
 ad\ antagc that might be derived from their own coun- 
 try. The corfairs, or pirates, form each a fmall re- 
 public, of which the rais or captain is the fuj)rerae 
 balhaw ; who, with the officers under him, forma kind 
 of douwan, in which nvtry matter relating to the vcf- 
 fcl is decided in an arbitrary way. Thefe corfiirs arc 
 chiefly inftrumental in importing whatever commodi- 
 ties arc brought into the kingdom either by wsy of 
 uicrchandifc or j'rizes. Thcle con lift chiefly of gold 
 and (ilver ftufFs, danialks, cloths, fpices, tin, iron, jHa- 
 ted brafs, lead, quick lilvcr, cordage, fail-cloth, bullets, 
 cochineal, linen, tartar, alum, rice, fugaV, foap, cot- 
 ton raw and fpun, copperas, aloes, brazil and log. 
 Wood,vcrmilijn,&c. Very fcwconimodiiies, however, 
 are exported fro;u this part of the world : the oil, wax, 
 hides, pulfc, and corn produced, being but barely fufri- 
 cicnt tofupply the country ; though, before the lofs of 
 Oran, the merchanis have been knownto (hip oft from 
 one or other of the ports of Barbary fcveral thoufand 
 tons of corn. The confumption of oil, though here in 
 great abundance, is likewife fo conliderablc in this 
 kingdom, that it is fcldom permitted to be fliipped off 
 for Europe. The other exports confift chiefly in oft- 
 liches feathers, copper, ruggs, lilk fallies, embroide- 
 red handkerchiefs, dates, and Chriftiin flives. Some 
 manufaiihires in filk, cotton, wool, leather, &c.are 
 carried on in this country, but moftly by the Spaniards 
 fettled here, cfpecially about the metropolis. Carpets 
 are alfo a manufaflure of the country, which, though 
 much inferior to thofe of Turkey, both in beauty and 
 fincnefs, are preferred by the people 10 lie upon, on 
 accountof their briii? both chca|>cr and fofter. There 
 Were alio, at Al,;icrs, looms for volvct, ufuiies, and 
 other wrought lilks ; and a co.->rfe fort of linen is liiic- 
 wife made in moft parts of tjie kingdom. The country 
 furniflics no materials for (hip-building. Tliey h.ivc 
 neither ropes, tar, fail.';, anchors, nor even iron. 
 When they can procure enough of new wood to form 
 the main timbers of a fliip, they f ipply the rrft from 
 the materials of prizes which iltey have m^de ; and 
 thus find the fecret of projucini' new and fwifi fail- 
 ing vcUlIs from the ruins of tiie nid. Of all the ftaics 
 oil the coall of Barbary, the Algerines are the ftrong- 
 clt St fea. 
 
 The inhabitants along the fra-coafts are a mixture . , ^f 
 o( ilifFercnt nations ; but chiefly Moors and Morefcos 
 driven out of Catalonia, Arragon, and other parts of 
 Sp-iin. llcie arc alfo great numbers of 'lurks, who 
 conic from the Levant lofcek thtsir fo'cune ; cs well as 
 multitudes of j( ws and Chrifijaus takea'at fea, who 
 nrc brought liiiher to be (old for llavcs. The Hc.-e- 
 bcrs are ("onic of the moft ancient inh.;lJr.4Ltt oi' the 
 country ; and are fuppofei to be derccticcd froi;! the 
 ancient Subeans, who came hi:::cr from Arabia ftlix, 
 under '.he condnfl of one o; iJ.iir prir.ees. 0:l)crs bc- 
 
 58
 
 A L G 
 
 I 454 ] 
 
 A L G 
 
 A'-Kirri. lifvf ihcm 10 be fomeofthc'Canaaniccs driven out of 
 
 ^ ■ I'alclHiic by Jolluia. 'J'liefe arc difperlcJ uUovcr Bar- 
 
 baiy, and divulcJinio a multitude of tribes under their 
 rt.pcdivt rliicfs: molt of them inhabit the moantaiiious 
 parts, fonic range from place lo place, and live in iciits, 
 or portable huts, oihcrsin fcutiere.l villagcsahiy liavc, 
 nevcrthcicl's, kept thenilelvesfor the inoft part trom 
 intermixing with other nations. The Bcrcbcrs arc 
 reckoned the richcllof all, go belter cloatheJ, and car- 
 ry on a much larger tralHc of cattle, bides, \\ ax, ho- 
 ney, iron, and other commodities. They have alfofomc 
 artitictrs in iron, andfonie nianufadurers in the wca- 
 
 * ving branch. — The name oi Binbir n fuppofed to 
 
 have been oiiginally given tliem on account of their 
 being firfl fettled in fojne defart place. Upon their in- 
 creafmg in proccfs of time, they divided thcmfclvcs 
 into live tribes, probably on account of religious dif- 
 firciiccs, called l\\c Zinhagians, Mufa7nidini , Zeiuti, 
 Hoiires, and Covttres : and thcfc having produced 600 
 f.unilies, fubdividcd thcmfclves into a great number 
 
 of petty tribes To thcfe we may add the Z-Moviahs, 
 
 by European authors called Azuagms, or Alfagues, 
 who arc likcwife dilpcrfed over moll parts of Barbary 
 and Nuniidia. Great numbers of thcfe inhabit the 
 mountainous parts of Cuco, Labez, &c. leading a wan- 
 dering paltoral life. — But the moll numerous inhabi- 
 tants arc the Moors and Arabians. The former are ve- 
 ry (lout and warlike, and Ikilful horfemcn ; but fo ad- 
 dicted to robbing, that one cannot fafcly travel along 
 the country at a dillancc from the towns without a 
 guard, or at Icall a marabout or faint for a fafcguard. 
 For as tlicy look upon thcmfclves to be the original 
 projirietorsof the country, and not only as difpoirelfed 
 by the rcll of the inhabitants, but reduced by them to 
 the lowcfl flatc of poverty, they make no fcruple to 
 plunder all they meet by way of rcpriGil. The inhabi- 
 tants, in general, have a pretty fair complexion ; they 
 .Tre robulland well proportioned. People of diflinflion 
 wear their beards ; they have rich clothes made of iilk, 
 embroidered withtlowersof gold, and turbans enrich- 
 ed with jewels. The Turks, who compofe the milita- 
 ry force, have great privileges, pay no taxes, are ne- 
 verpublidy punilii' d, and rarely in private. The low- 
 cfl foldicr domineers over the mod diflinguilhed Moors 
 at plcafurc. If he finds them better mounted than him- 
 fclf, he exchanges horfes without ceremony. The 
 Turks alone have the privilege of carrying fire-arms. 
 Many good qualities, however, dillinguifli them in 
 fpite of this exccfs of dcfpotifm. They never game 
 for money, not even for trifles ; and they never pro- 
 fane the name of the Ueity. They foon forget their 
 private quarrels ; and after the firfl paroxyfm of re- 
 fcnimeiu is over, it is infamy for a Turk to keep in 
 remembrance the injuries he has received. In this re- 
 fpecil certainly they are Icfs barbarous than other na- 
 tions that boall of their civilization. See Moors. 
 
 ALGIERS, a city, the capit.;! of the above king- 
 dom, is probably the ancient h'jfium : by the Arabians 
 called Algczair, or rather Al-Jdzier, or Al-'Jizerjh, 
 i. e. the ijlaiid, becaufe there was an idand before the 
 city, to which it hath been lince joined by a niolc. It 
 is built on the declivity of ;i hill b\ the fca-llde, in the 
 form of an amphitheatre : at fea, it looks like the top- 
 fail of a fllip. The tops of the houfes are quite fiat and 
 white ; infomucb, that when it is firft difcovered, one 
 
 would take it to be a place where they bleach linen. Algiers. 
 One houfe riles above anoiher in fuch a manner that X 
 ihcy do not hinder each other's profpedl. The llreeis 
 areio narrow, that they will fcartc admit two perfons 
 to walk a-buaA, and the middle part is lower than 
 the fides. When any loaded bcalls, fuch as camels, 
 horfes, mules, or all'es, pais along, you arc forced to 
 iland up dole to the wall to let them pafs by. There 
 is but one broad llreet, which runs through the citjr 
 from call to welt, in which arc the fliopsot the prin- 
 cipal mcrchants,and the market for corn andothcr com- 
 modities. The lower part of the walls of the city ar<: 
 of hewn llone, and the upper part of brick : they arc 
 30 ftct hi;jh on the land (ide, and 40 towards the fi-a < 
 the follcs or ditches are twenty feet broad, and fcvcn 
 deep. 'I'herc is no fweet water in the city ; and tho' 
 there isa tankorciitern in every houfe, yet they often 
 want water, becaufe it rains but feldoin : the chici I'up- 
 ply is from a fpring on a hill, the water of which is 
 conveyed by pipes to above a hundred fountains, at 
 which a bowl is fallened for the ufe of palfeiigcrs. The 
 common refcrvoir is at the cndof tJie mole, where the 
 Ihips take in their water. Every one takes his turn at 
 thefe places, except the Turks, who are firft, and the 
 Jews lafl.Thcre are five gaies.which arc open fromfun- 
 rifing tillfun-fctting ; and feven forts, orcallles, with- 
 out the walls,the grcattll of which is on theniole with- 
 out the gate, all of which are well fupplicd with great 
 guns. There are ten large mofques, and fifty Imall 
 ones ; three great coUcgesor public fchools,and agreat 
 number of petty ones for children. The houfes are 
 fquare,and built of llone and brick, with a fquare court 
 in the middle, and galleries all round. There arc faid 
 to be about 100,000 inhabitants iit the city, compre- 
 hending 5000 jcwiflt families, belidcs Chriftians. 
 There arc fourfundics, or public inns, fuch as are in 
 Turkey ; and fix cazcrnes, or barracks, for the unmar- 
 ried Turkilh foldiers, which will hold 600 each. There 
 are no inns for Chriftians to lodge at ; but only a few 
 tippling huts kept by (laves, for the accommodation of 
 Greeks and the poorer fart of travellers;, where any 
 thing may be had for money. Here arc bagnios, or 
 public baths, in the fame manner as in Turkey, at a 
 very moderate rate. The women have baths of their 
 own, where the men dare not come. Without the city 
 there are a great number of fepulchres, as alfo cells or 
 chapels, dedicated to marabouts, or reputed faints, 
 whichthewomen goto vilit every Friday. ThcTurkilh 
 foldiers are great tyrants ; for theynotonly turn others 
 out of the way in the (Ircets, but will go to the farm- 
 houfes in the country for twenty days together, living 
 on free quarters, and making ufe of every thing, not 
 excepting the women.TheAlgerinescai,as in Turkey, 
 fitting crofs-legged round a table about four inches high, 
 and ufe neither knives nor fork ; before they begin, c- 
 very one fays Be ijmc Allah, " in the name of God." 
 When they have done, a Have pours water on all their 
 hands as they fit, and then they walli their mouths. 
 Their drink is water, Iherbet, and coffee. Wine is not 
 allowed, though drank immoderately by Ibme. The pro- 
 fpef; ofthe country and fea from Algiers is very beau- 
 tiful, being built on the declivity of a mountain : but 
 the city, though for fcveral ages it has braved fome of 
 the rrtateft powers in Chritlciidom, itisfai;!, could 
 make but a faint defence againft a regular liege ; and 
 
 that
 
 A L G 
 
 [ 455 ] 
 
 A L H 
 
 Algol, (hat three Eiiglifli fiuy-gun ihips might baitcrit about 
 Algon-juins the cars of its imubitaiitj from tii- harbour. Iffo, 
 
 ' -^ ' the -Spaniards mull have been very deficient cither in 
 
 courage or conduct. They attacked it in the year 
 1 775, by land and by fea, but were repulfcd with great 
 lols ; though they had near 20,OwO foot and 2000 
 horfe, and 47 king's Ihips of dittercut rates and 346 
 tranfports. In the year \ 783 and 1 784, they alio re- 
 newed their attacks by lea to deltroy the city and gal- 
 leys ; but, alter fpcndiug a quantity of ammunition, 
 bombs, 6cc. were torctd to retire without cither its 
 capture or cxiiuttion. The mole of tlie harbour is 
 500 paces in length, extending from the continent to 
 a im;ill iilaud where there is a calUc and large battery. 
 E. Long. 3, 30. N. Lat. 36. 40. 
 
 ALCjOL, a fixed liar of the third magnitude, call- 
 ed Midufa's head, in the conltellation Pcrfeus ; its 
 longitude is 21'' 50' 42" of raurus, and its latitude 
 238 23' 47" north j according to Klanulead's cata- 
 logue. For an account of its changes, period, and o- 
 ther circumflances, fee Astronomy (Indi^x.) 
 
 ALGONQUINS, a nation in North America, who 
 formerly poilelFcd great trads of land along the north 
 fliore of the river St Lawrance. For a lOng time they 
 had no rivals as hunters and warriors, and w«re long 
 in alliance with the Iroquois ; whom they agreed to 
 protect from all invaders, and to let them have a (hare 
 of their venifon. The Iroqiiois,on theotjjer hand, were 
 to pay a tribute to their allies, out of the culture of the 
 earth ; and to perform for there all the menial duties, 
 fuch as flaying the game, curing the fleih, and dreliing 
 the Ikius. Bydcgrces, however, tlic Iroquois alTociated 
 in the hunting matchcsand warlike expeditions of the 
 Algonquius ; fo that they foon began to fancy them- 
 felvesaswell qualified, either for war or huniii.g, as 
 their neighbours. One winter, a large detachment of 
 both nations having gone out a-hunti;ig,and (ecured,as 
 they thought, a vait quan iiyofgame, fix young Al- 
 go :quinsand as many Iroquois were lent out to begin 
 the Uaughter. The Algouq-iini, probably became a 
 little jealousof their alTociatrs, upon fteiag a few elks, 
 defiled the Iroquois to return on pretence that they 
 would have futlicient employment in liaying the game 
 they Ihould kill; but after three Jays hunting, having 
 killed none, the Iroquois exulted, and in a day or two 
 privately fct out to hunt for ihcnifelves. The Algon- 
 quius were fo exafperated at feein^ their rivals return 
 laden with game, that the) murdered all tlie hunters 
 in the night-time. The Iroquois diifembled their re- 
 fcntment ; but in order to be revenged, applied theni- 
 fclves to fiudy the art of war as pradifed among thofe 
 favage nations. Being afraid of engaging with the 
 Algouquins at firll, thev iricd their prowefs on other 
 inferior nations, and, when they thought thenifclves 
 fuliiciently expert, attacked the Algonquins with fuch 
 diabolical fury, aslhowed they could be fatisned with 
 nothing lefs than the extermination oi the whole race; 
 which, had it not been for the interpolition of the 
 French, they would have accompliflied — The few Al- 
 gonquin nations that are now to be feen. feem entirely 
 ignorant of a:>;ritulture, and fubiirtby filhingaud hunt- 
 ing. They allow themfelves a plurality .of wives . n it- 
 withftandingwhich,theydailyi!ecreaft in populoufnefs, 
 few or none of their nations containing above 6000 
 fouls^ and many of them uoi 2000. Their language is 
 
 one of the three radical ones in North America, being Algor 
 underflood from the river St Lawrance to the Miliif- I 
 fippi. Alhambra. 
 
 ALGOR, with phyficians, an unufaal coldncfs in ' ' 
 
 any part of the body. 
 
 ALoORITHM, an Arabic word exprelllve of nu- 
 merical computation. 
 
 ALGUAZIL, in the Spanifli polity, an ofEcer 
 whofe bufinels it is to fee the decrees of a judge exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 ALHAGI, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies 
 of hedyfarum. See Hedysarum. 
 
 ALHAMA, a very pleafant lown of the kingdom 
 of Granada, in Spain, lituatcd in the midll of fome 
 craggy mountains, about 2J miles S. W. of Granaila, 
 on the banks of the Rio Frio, in W. Long. i. jo. 
 N. Lat. 36. J9. and having the finefl w^rm baths in 
 all Spain. It was taken from the iVIoors in 1481. — 
 The inhabitants, though furprifcd, and the town with- 
 out a garrifon, made a gallant defence: but being at 
 length forced to fubmit, the place was aba.idoned to 
 the pillage of the Lhriftian foldiers ; who, not fatisficd 
 with an immenfe quantity of gold and jewels, made 
 llavesof upwards of 3000 of the inhabitants. 
 
 ALH.'^MBRA, the ancient fortrel's and refidencc 
 of the Mooriih monarchs of Granada. It derives its 
 name from the red colourof the materials which it was 
 origi'ia:ly built with, Alhambra lignifying a red hoiife. 
 It appears to a traveller a huge heap of as ugly build- 
 ings as can well be feen, all huddled together, fcem- 
 ingly without the lead intention of forming orn habi- 
 tation out of them. The walls are entirely unorna- 
 mented, all gravel and pebbles, daubed over with pla- 
 llcr by a very courfe hand : yet this is the p^ilace of 
 the Mooriih kings of Granada, indifputably the mofl 
 curious place within that exifls in Spain, perhaps ia 
 the world. In many countries may be feen excellent 
 modern as well as ancient architecture, both entire and 
 in ruins; but nothing to be met with any where elfc 
 can convey an idea of this edincc, except the decora- 
 tions of an opera, or tlie talcs of the genii. 
 
 Palling round the corner of the emperor's palace, 
 one is admitted at a plain unornamentcd door in a cor- 
 ner. On my firft vilit, fays Mr Swinburne, I conicfs Tr^.!.'i i.^ 
 I w-as ftruck with amazement, as 1 rtept over the Sfjia. 
 threlliold, to find myfclf on a fudJen iranfported into 
 a fpecies of fairy land.' The firll place you come to 
 is the court called the commu/ja or J^I mcyhcar, th^t is 
 the ct!/i:uo>i baths , an oblong fquarc, with a deep ba- 
 fon of clear water in the middle ; twoflightsof marble 
 fleps leading down to the bottom ; on each fide a par- 
 tc-rc of tiw vc rs, and a row of orangc-trces. Roun.l 
 the couic runs a perillyle paved with marble ; the 
 arches bear upon very (light pillars, in proportions 
 and ilyle ditferent from all the regular orders of ar- 
 chitecture., i hecieliugsaiid walls are incrullated with 
 fret-work in llncco, fo minute and intricate, tliat the 
 moll pa;iciit draughtfman would find it diiEcult to 
 followit, unlets be made himfelfmaller of the gene al 
 plan. This would facilitate the operation exceedingly ; 
 for air Mils work is frequently and regularly rcpcatcJ 
 at certain dill.inces, and has Dcen executed by means 
 of fquare mould b applied fuccelTivcly, and the parts 
 joined togetlier witli (he utnioil nicety. In every di- 
 vilion arc Arabic fcntcuccs of diflercut lengths, mofl 
 
 ot
 
 A L II 
 
 [ 45<3 3 
 
 A L H 
 
 Alb»mbra. of ihrin cxpreffivf of the following moaiiings : "Tnerc 
 ' — ■' is no conqiicior bill Ood ;" or, " Obedience and ho- 
 nour to our Lord Abouabdouli." The ceilings arc 
 gilt or painted, and time has caufed no diminution in 
 the frclhncfs of their colours, though conflantly expo- 
 fed to the air. The lower part of the Walls is luofaic, 
 dilpolcd in faniartic knots and fclloons. A work io 
 novel, io cxquifitcly tinilhed, and fo ditfcrent from all 
 that he had ever fetn, muft attord a llranger the molt 
 agreeable fcafations while hctreadsthisinagic ground. 
 The porches at the ends are more like grotio-work 
 than any thing cU'e to whicli they can be compared. 
 That on the right hand opens into an oftagon vault, 
 under the emperor's palace, and forms a perfcdt whif- 
 pcringgallery, meant to be a communicstion between 
 the othcts ol both houfes. 
 
 Oppoiite to the door of the communa through which 
 you enter, i^ another leading into the quarto di los 
 liones, or apartment of the lions ; which is an oblong 
 court, 100 feet in length and so in breadth, environ- 
 ed with a colonnade 7 feet broad on the iides and lo 
 at the end. Two porticoes or cabinets about 15 feet 
 fquare, projeft into the court at the two extremities. 
 The fquare is paved with coloured tiles ; the colonnade 
 with white marbl'.-. The wallsare covered five feet up 
 from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, difpofed 
 chcqucrwife. Abov'c and below is a border of fmall 
 cfcutchtons, enamelled blue and gold, with an Arabic 
 motto on a bend ; llgnifying, <' No conqueror but 
 God." The columns that fupport the roofand gal- 
 lery arcof white marble, very llender,andfantaftically 
 adorned. They are 9 feet high, including bafe and 
 capital, and Si inches diameter. They are very irre- 
 gularly placed ; fomctiaits fingly, at others in groups 
 of three, but more frequently two together. The 
 width of the horfe-ftioe arches above them is four feet 
 two inches for the hirge ones, and three for the fmaller. 
 The citling of the portico is finilhcd in a much finer 
 and more complicated manner than that of the coni- 
 mana, and the ftucco laid on the walls with inimitable 
 delicacy ; in the ceiling it is fo artfully frolled and 
 handled as to exceed belief. The capitals are of va- 
 rious dcfigns, though each delign is repeated fcveral 
 limes in the circumference of the court, but not the 
 leall attention has been paid to placing them regularly 
 or oppofite to each other. Not the fmalleft reprefcn- 
 tation of animal life can be dilcovered amidft the va- 
 rieties of foliages, grutefques, and ftrange ornaments. 
 About each arch is a large fquare of arabcfqnes, fur- 
 rounded with a rim of charatlers, that arc generally 
 quotations from the Koran. Over the pi!l.-.rs is ano- 
 ther fquare of delightful filligrcc work. Higher up 
 is a wooden rim, or kind of cornice, as much enriched 
 with carvin;; as the llucco that covers the part under- 
 neath. Over this projet^s a roof of red tiles, the 
 only thing that disfigures this beautil'ul fqaare. This 
 ugly covering is modern, put on by ordtrof Mr Wall, 
 the late prime miniller, whoa few years ago gave the 
 Alh.-.mbra a thorough repair. In Moorilh times, the 
 building was covered with large painted and glazed 
 tiles, of which feme few are flill to be fcen. In the 
 centre of the court arc twelve ill-made lions muzzled, 
 their fore parisfmooih, their hind parts rough, which 
 bearuponihcir backs an enormous bafon, outofwhich 
 a Icikr rifts. W hile the pipes were kept in good or- 
 
 I 
 
 dcr, a great volume of water was thrown jp, that fall- .-Mhambri, 
 
 ing down into the bafons, paffed through the bcalls, ^— ^^ ' 
 
 and ifliied out of their mouths into a large refervoir, 
 where it communicated by channels with the jet d'eaus 
 in the apartments. This fountain is of white marble, 
 embcUiilicd with many fefloons and .'Arabic dillichs, 
 thus tranOated : 
 
 " Sceil thou not how the water flows copioufly like 
 the Nile?" 
 
 " This rcfembles a fea walhing over its fliores, 
 threatening (hipwreck to the mariner." 
 
 "This water runs abundantly, to give drink to the 
 lions." 
 
 " Terrible as the lion is our king in the day of 
 battle. 
 
 " The Nile gives glory to the king, and the lofty 
 mountains proclaim it." 
 
 " This garden is fertile in delights : God takes care 
 that nonoxious animal (hall approach it." 
 
 " The fair princcfs that walks in this garden, co- 
 vered with pearls, augments its beauty fo imich, that 
 thou may'ft doubt whether it be a fountain that flows, 
 or the tears of her admirers." 
 
 Pairing along the colonnade, and keeping on the 
 fouth fide, you come to a circular room ufcd by the 
 iven as a place for drinking cofFce and forbets in. A 
 fountain in the middle refrethcs the apartment in fum- 
 mer. The form of this hall, the elegance of its cu- 
 pola, the cheerful diftribution of light from above, and 
 the exquifite manner in which the ftucco isdefigned, 
 painted, and finilhed, exceed all powers of defcription. 
 Everv tiling in it infpires the moll pleafing, voluptu- 
 ous ideas ; yet in this fweet retreat they pretend that 
 Abouahdoulah alTembled the Abencerrages, and cau- 
 fed their heads to be ftruck ofFinto the fountain. Con- 
 tinuing your walk round, yon arc next brought to z 
 couple of rooms at the head of the court, which are 
 fuppofed to have been tribunals, or audience-chambers. 
 Oppofite to the Sata dc los Abcncerragt: is the en- 
 trance into the Terra di las dos hermaiias, or the tower 
 of the two (illers ; fo named from two very beautiful 
 pieces of marble laid as flags in the pavement. This 
 gale exceeds all the reft in profulion of ornaments, 
 and in beauty of profpedt which it affords through a 
 range of apartments, where a multitude of arches ter- 
 minate in a large window open to the country. In a 
 gleam of funlhine, the variety of tints and lights 
 thrown upon this enfilade are uncommonly rich. The 
 firft hall is the concert room, where the women fat; 
 the mulicians played above in four balconies. In the 
 middle is ajet d'eau. The marble pavement is equal 
 to the fincllexifling, for the fizeof the flags and even- 
 nefs of the colour. The two fifters, which give name 
 to the room, are liobs that mcafure ij feet by 7^, 
 without flaw or ftain. The walls, up to a certain 
 height, are mofaic, and above are divided into very 
 neat compartments of ftucco, all of one dcfign, which 
 isalfo followed in many of the adjacent halls and gal- 
 leries. The ceiling is a fretted cnvc. To prcfervc 
 this vaulted roof, as wellasfomeof the other principal 
 cupolas, the outward walls of the towers are raifed 10 
 feet above the top of the dome, and fupport another 
 roof over all, by which means no damage can ever be 
 caufcd by wet weather or excelfive heat and cold. 
 From this hall you pafs round the little myrtle-garden 
 
 of
 
 A L H 
 
 I 457 ] 
 
 A L I 
 
 Al»rabr~ of Llndaraxa, into an additional building made to the 
 
 ' " ' cult end by Ciiarlcs V . The rooms arc fmall and lo.v. 
 
 His dear motto, P/ui ulna, appears on every beam. 
 Tliis leads to a little tower, projcdling from the line of 
 tlic north wall, called Ettocador, or the drciling room 
 of the fiiltana. It is a fmall fquare cabinet, in the 
 niiJdleof anopcn gallery, from which it receives light 
 by a door and three windows. The look-out is charm- 
 ing. In one corner is a large marble rtag, drilled full 
 of holes, through which thcfmoke of perfumes afcen- 
 ded from furnaces below ; aud here it is prefumed, the 
 Moorilh queen was W'ont to lit to fumigate and fwetten 
 her pcrfon. The emperor saufed this pretty room to 
 he painted wiihrepreleutationsof his wars, and a great 
 variety of grotefques, which appear to be copies, or 
 at Icaft imitations, of thofe in the loggie of the Vati- 
 can. From hence you go throu'gh a long paliagc 
 to the hill o( amballadors, which is magniticently de- 
 corated with innumerable varieties of mofaics, and the 
 niottosofall the kings of Granada. This long narrow 
 antichambcr opens into the communa on the left hand, 
 and on tlic right into the great audience-hall in the 
 towerof Comarcs ; a ivoble apartment, 36 feet fquare, 
 36 high up to the cornice, and i3 from thence uutotije 
 centre of the cupola. The walls on three fides are 15 
 feet thick, on the other 9 ; the lower ringe of win- 
 dows 13 feet high. The whole wall is inlaid with 
 juofaic of many colours, difpofcd in intricate knots, 
 flars, and other figures. In every part various Arabic 
 fcntences arc repeated. 
 
 Having thus completed the tower of the upper a- 
 partments, which are upon a levelwith the oliiccs of the 
 tjie new palace, you dcfcend to the lower rioor, which 
 conlilled of bedchambers and fummer-rooms : the back 
 ftairs and paflagcs, that facilitated the intercourfc be- 
 tween ihcm, are without number. The mod remark- 
 able room below is the king's bedchamber, which 
 communicated by means of a gallery, with the upper 
 flory. The beds were placed in two alcoves, upon a 
 laifed pavement of blue and white-tiles ; but as it was 
 repaired by Philip V. who palled fome time here, 
 it cannot be faid how it may have been in former 
 times. A fountain played in the middle, torcfrclh 
 iTic apjriinent in hot weather. Behind the alcoves 
 arc fmall doors, that conduct you to the royal baths. 
 Thefe confift of one fmall cloftt wiih marble ciflerns 
 for walhing children, two rooms for grown upperfons 
 and vaults for boilers and furnaces that fupplied ihe 
 batlis v.ith water .ind the (loves with vapours. The 
 troughs are formed of large ll^bs of white marble; the 
 walls are bciutilicd with party coloured earthenware; 
 light is admitted by holes in the coved ceiling. 
 
 Hard by is a w hifperinggallcry, and a kind of laby- 
 rinth, faid to have been made for the reception of the 
 women and children. One of the pail'ages of commu- 
 nication is fenced off" with a ilrong iron grate, and 
 called the pTifoii cftbe Jultana; but it feems more pro- 
 bable that it was put up to prevent any body irom 
 climbing up into t!ie women's quarter. 
 
 Under the council-room is a long ilip, called thi 
 king's ji lids i and adjoining to it are fcvcral vaults, faid 
 to be the place ol bjrial of the royal family. In the 
 year iS7-ii fo'ir fcpulchrcs were opened; but as they 
 contained nothing but bones ar.d alius, were i:iiu:edi- 
 ately clofcd again. 
 Vei.. 1. 
 
 The dcfcription-of the Alharabra may be fioifiicd 
 by obfcrviug how admirably every thing was planned 
 and calculated for rendering this palace the raoll vo- 
 luptuous of all retirements; what plentiful fupplies of 
 water were brought to refrcQi it iu the hot months of 
 fumnier ; what a freecireulationef air was contrived, 
 by the judicious difpoihion of doors and windows ; 
 what fliady gardens of aromatic trees ; what noble 
 views over the beautiful hills and fertile plains ! No 
 wonder the Moors regretted Granada ; no wonder 
 tlicy flill otf'er up prayers to God every Friday for the 
 recovery of this city, which they elleem a terreftrial 
 paradife. See Granada. 
 
 ALI, gives denomination to a feft, or divilion, 
 among the Mahometans, who adhere to the right of 
 fuccemon of Ali the fourth calijjh or fiiccelTor of Ma- 
 homet,and to the reform of Muifulmanifm introduced 
 by him. The fectaries of Ali are more particularly 
 called Schiitis ; and flan J oppofcd to the Stntnitss, or 
 fed of Oniar, who adhere to the law as left by Maho- 
 met, Abubeker, and Omar. Ali was eoufin of Maho- 
 met, and fon-in-law of that prophet, having married 
 his daughter Fatimah. After Mahomet's death, great 
 difputesarofe about the fucceiTion. Many ilood for All; 
 but Abubeker was preferred, and cleded the firft kalif. 
 Ali took his turn, after the death of Othraan — The 
 Perilansare the chief adherents to the feet of Ali, w hom 
 they hold to havefceen the legitimate fucceflbrof Maho- 
 met, and Abubeker, an ufurpcr. On the contray, the 
 Turks are of the fcct of Omar; and hold Ali in execra- 
 tion, having raifcd a furious civil war among the Muf- 
 fulmans. The dilUnguilhing badge of the followers of 
 Ali is a red turban, which is worn by the Perfians, who 
 are hence called in derilion, by the Turks, Kiflbachi, 
 q. d. nd-hiads. Ali is reputed the author ot feveral 
 works, particularly a Ccntiloq aiura, in great efteem 
 among the Arabs and Pcrlians, part of which has been 
 publiihed in Englifli by Mr Ockley. 
 
 ALJAMEIA is a name which the Morifcoes in 
 Spain give to the language of the Spaniards. Among 
 other articles agreed on by the junto, which was ap- 
 pointed by the emperor Charles V. in 15:6, in favour 
 of the Morifcoes, this was one. That the Morifcoes 
 Iliould no longer fpeak Algavarcia, i. e. Moorilh or 
 Arabic ; but iliould fpeak Aijamcia, i. e. Spani;h, as 
 it was called by the Moors, and all their writings and 
 contracts ihould be in that language. 
 
 ALIAS, in law, a fecond or farther writ iffued from 
 the courts of Weltminfter, after a capias, &e. fued 
 out with lint effect. 
 
 ALIBI, in law, denotes the abfcnce of the accufed 
 from the place where he is charged with having com- 
 mitted a crime ; or his being f^it'A^r.', as the word 
 imports, at the time fpecitied. 
 
 ALICANT, a large fea port town in the province 
 of Valencia and territory of Segura. It is feate.' be- 
 tween the mountains and the fea, and has a calUe 
 deemed impregnable. The port is dctended by three 
 baftionsfuruillied with artillery. Toprcvent thcviiits 
 of the Algcrine pirates, watch-towers were built to 
 give notice of the approach of an encmy'4 lliip. It 
 was taken from the Moors in 1264. The calile was 
 taken by the E'lgliih in 1 706; and held out a fici;e or' 
 twoyearsbetore it was retaken by thcKrcnch and Spa- 
 niards, aadat kit furrendered upon honourable terms, 
 ;M ■■•>'■':■
 
 A L I 
 
 [ 4S8 1 
 
 A L I 
 
 after part of the rock was blown up on which the 
 csfllc flool, and thegovcriior killed. The hoafcs arc 
 high, and will built ; and a very great trade is carried 
 oil htic, panic iilarly in uinc and fruit. It is fcatediu 
 the Mediterranean, on a bay of the fame name, 57 
 miles rorth-e.ift ofMurcia, and 75 fouth of Valencia. 
 W. Long. o. 36. N. Lat. 38. 34. 
 
 ALICrtTA, a mountain of Si :ily, near the valleys 
 Mazara and Noto, upon which was lituaied (at is gc- 
 neral'v thouj_flit) the fanioiis Dcdalion, where the ty- 
 rant Phalaris kept lu;> brazen buil. 
 
 Alicata, a town of Sicily, rtniBrkablf for corn and 
 good wine. It was plundered by the Turks in i J43 ; 
 and is fcated on a fort of pcninfida near the fea, twcn- 
 ry-t\vo milts S. E. of Girgenti. £. Long. 15. 20. 
 jN. Lat. 37. II. 
 
 y/LJCfTTA Chiavtys, was a fort of vcfl with llceves, 
 worn by the Roman boys till the age of thirteen, at 
 wliicli time they put 0:1 \.\\c ptieuxtu. 
 
 ALIEN, in law, implies a perfon born in a flraagc 
 country not within the king's allci^iap.cc ; in conira- 
 diftinc.'ion 10 a denizen, or natural ftibjcc^. The wurd 
 is formed from the Latin ahui , •♦anoiiitr ;" q. d.one 
 born in another country. An alien is incapable of in- 
 heriting lands in Britain till naiiirclized by an a<St of 
 parliament. No alien is iiititlcd to vote at the elec- 
 tion of nienibcrs of piirliament ; nor can he cnjuy any 
 otiicc, or be returned on any jury, uulefs where an 
 alien is party in a caufc, when iheinqucft iscoir.pofed 
 of an equal number of denizens and aliens. Tlie rca- 
 I'oRS for eftablilhing thefc laws were, that every man 
 is prcfumed to bear faith and love 10 that prince und 
 country where he recivcd protedlion during his infan- 
 cy ; and that one prince might not frttlc fpies in ; no- 
 iher's country ; but chiclly that the rents and revenues 
 of the country might not be drawn to the fubjecU of 
 another. Some have thought that tiie laws agiinft a- 
 licns were introduced in the reign of Henry II. v. hen 
 a law was mxde at tlie parliament of Walling ford, for 
 the expulUou of grangers, in order to drive away the 
 Flemings and Ficards introduced into the kingdom by 
 the wars of king Stephen. Others have thought that 
 the origin of this law was more ancient ; and that it 
 is an original branch of the feudal law : for by that 
 law no man can purchufe any lands but he mufb be obli- 
 ged to do fealty to the lords of whom the lands arc 
 holdcn ; fo that an alien who owed a previous faith to 
 another prince, could not take an oath of ndelity in 
 another fovertign's dominions. Among the Romans, 
 only the Ci-j.s Komani were cflecmed freemen; but 
 when their territories increafed, all the Italians were 
 made free, under the name of LaUin, tho' tliey had 
 not the privilege of wearing gold rings till the time 
 of Jultiiiian. Afterwards all born within the pale of 
 the empire were confidercd as citizens. 
 
 ji.it:H-Duty,z\\ impoft laid on all goods imported 
 by aliens, over and above the cnfloms paid for fuch 
 goods im}orted by Ameri-ans.md on An.erican bottoms. 
 Aut^n^-Duty in Britianis called />■.■/// cufloms, and 
 navigatkn-diiiy. — Kilh dried or faked, and cod-tifli or 
 herring not caught in BriiilTivelTtls and cured by llri- 
 lilh,pay a double alunsclhty. — On what footing aliens 
 )»re permitted to import foreign connnodities into 
 Great Britain, fee Duty. 
 
 jiuc.'i-Priorics, akind of inferior monaftcrics, for- 
 
 merly very numerous in England, and fo called from AlJcnatmn 
 their belonging to foreign abbeys. Aliment. 
 
 ALIENATION, in law, denotes the aft of making •' ' 
 over a man's property in land, tenements, die. to an- 
 other perfon. 
 
 Ai.iBNATiON in mortmain, is making over lands, 
 tenements, &c. to a body-politic, or to a religious 
 hoiifc, for which the king's lice nee muft tirll be obtain - 
 ed, tJihcrwife the lands, &c. alienated will be forfeited. 
 ^'ii.it.NATios in fee, is the felling the fee liniple or" 
 any land, or other incorporeal right. All perfons 
 W'ho have a right to lands may generally alien them 
 to others ; but fomc alienations are prohibited : fuch 
 as alienations by tenants for life, &c. whereby they in- 
 cur a forfeiture of their eftate. By the flatuti; of Ed- 
 ward I. a bar was put to alienations by what we call 
 entails, which is an expedient for procuring perpetui- 
 ties in families ; but counter expedients were devifed 
 to defeat this intent, and a practice was introduced of 
 cutting olt entails by ■finci, and of barring remainders 
 and reverfions by recoveries. The Itatute for aliena- 
 tions in Henry Vll's tin'.e had a great etfeit on the 
 conllitution of England ; as, among other regula- 
 tions of that reign, it tended 10 throw the balance of 
 power more into the hands of the people. By the 
 flat. 12 Car. II. cap. 24. fines for alienations 'are ta- 
 ken away. Crown lands are only alienable under a 
 faculty of perpttuiil redemption. The council of La- 
 teran, held in 11 23, forbids any clerk to alienate his 
 benefice, prebend, or the lii\e. By thelawsof the 
 ancient Jews, lands could only be alienated for the 
 fpace of 50 years. At each return of the jubilee all 
 returned again to the primitive owners, or their dc- 
 fcendants, to v. lion! the lands were originally allotted 
 at the firfl diftribiition of Canaan. 
 
 y4l.lEKATi<^.\-0ipce, is an office to which all writs of 
 covenants and cr.try, upon which tines are Icvii'd, and 
 recoveries fuftercd,arc carried, 10 have fincsfor alie- 
 nation fet and paid thereon. 
 
 /\LIMENT, (from alo to nonrifh), implies food 
 both folid and liquid : from v.hich, by theproeefsof 
 digellion, is prepared a very mild, fwcct, and whitiih 
 liquor refemblini^ milk, and di/linguiflied by the name 
 of chyle ; which being abforbed by the lafleal veins, 
 by them conveyed into the circulation, and there affi- 
 milated into the nature of blood, aflbrds that fupply 
 of nutrition which the continual wafte of the body is 
 found to require.— Next tn air, food is the mofb nccef- 
 fary thing for the prcftrvation of our bodies: and as 
 on tiie choice thereof our health gre?tly depends, it is 
 of great importance to undcritand in general, what 
 is the properefl for our nourilhment ; and in particular 
 deviations from health, what is the befl adapted to re- 
 ftore us. Our blood and juictsnaturally incline to be- 
 come putrid and acrimonious: frefri chyle, duly recei- 
 ved, prevent this defliuO-iivc tendency, and prefcrvcs 
 the in in that mild ftate which alone confjfls with health. 
 An animal diet affords themofl of this bland nutritious 
 mucilage : watery finidsdilute the too grofs parts, and 
 carry off what is become unfit forufe. It is only the 
 fmall portion of jelly which is feparatcd from liie fa- 
 rinaceous parts of vegetables, that, after being much 
 elaborated, is converted into the animal nature ; yet 
 the ufe of vegetables prevents both repletion and a 
 too great tendency to a putrcfcent scrimony of the 
 
 blood
 
 A L I 
 
 [ 459 ] 
 
 A L I 
 
 Aliment, blood. In hot climates, as well as againll the coulli- 
 
 ^ V ' tutioiial hcdt of particular pcrfoiis, vegetables arc ilc- 
 
 niandcd in the krgclt I'roponioii ; animal fubllanccsaf- 
 ford the highcit rclilh while our appetite continues ; 
 but will fate the aj)pctitc before the Itoniach is duly hi- 
 ed. Vegeiablcs iv.ay be eaten after either ilelh or 
 tiih : few herbs or Iruits Ltiate fo much as that the 
 i'loraach may not be filled with them, when it is alrea- 
 dy fatisfied with flelh orfilh; whence it may be ob- 
 (crvcJ, that no diet which is very nourilhig can be 
 eat tofulr.efs, bccaufe its nutritious parts arc oily and 
 filiating. — Health depends almoft wholly on a proper 
 crafis of the blooJ ; and to prefervc this a mixtuj"e of 
 vegetables in finnc degree is always required, for a 
 l"Jthiiig is foon the conftquence of animal food alone. • 
 hut acrid habits, tjn^ receive from milk and vegetables 
 what is .needti'.l for correding their exceu^js ; but in 
 cold.pituitous, and nervous habits, who want mofl nou- 
 riliinicnt from Icalt digellion, and from the fmallell 
 quantity of food, animal diet is to be ufcd inure 
 freely. 
 
 Thus much btiiigofTcrtd as general principles with 
 refpedt to tkemattcrand quality of ouralinieni, tiic va- 
 letudinarian may cafily regulate his diet with fome ad- 
 vantage to hJmfclf by an attention to the few enfuing 
 particulars. In winter, catfreely, but drink fparingly: 
 roail meat is to be preferred, and what is drank Ihould 
 be rtrongcr than at other feafons. lufummer, Ictthinl 
 determine the quantity to be drunk ; cold llomachs ne- 
 ver require much : boiled meats and vegetallcs, if not 
 otherwife contradicted, n-;ay now be more freely ufcd. 
 Laxhabits require the winter's diet to be continued all 
 the year, and rigid ones fnould be confined to that of 
 I'lmmer. Kat people fnould laft at times, but the lean 
 iliould never do lb. Th»fe who arc troubled with e- 
 ruft.itions occafioncd by tliiir food, iliould drink but 
 little, and ufc fomc unaccuflonieilcxercilc. Thcthirfly 
 Ihould driiik freely, but eat fparingly. In general, let 
 moderali n be obfervtd ; andtho' wodinncr hath been 
 had, a light fupper is at all times to be preferred. Af- 
 ter very high-feifoned meats, a glalsof wateraciduln- 
 ted with the acid tlixir of vitriol, or in very weak 
 flomaclis the fweet elixir of vitriol, is far more allid- 
 aut to thi work of digellion than the common method 
 of taking brandy. See further Food and Drikk. 
 
 Obligaiio'i ofAuMEST, in Scots law, the natural obli- 
 gation on parents to provide theirchildreii with the ne- 
 celiaries of life, &c. See Law, Part III. N°clxxiii. 4. 
 
 ^i/.wtA"T/<R;// //fr/,5:c.wercfertaiii children main- 
 tained and educated by the munificence of the empe- 
 rors, iua fortof public places, not unlike our hofpitals. 
 — Trajan was the lirll that brought up any of thefe a- 
 Jn/ientary boys. He was imitated by .Adrian. Anto- 
 ninus Pius did the fame for a number of maids, at 
 tbc folicitation of Faufiina ; and hence, in fomc me- 
 «lalsofihatemprcfs,wereadpvELi.AE kavstini.wae. 
 — Alexander Sevcrus did the like at the requcll of 
 Maminxa ; and the maids thus educated were called 
 Maminaianx. 
 
 j^uiKE.\r.4Ry DuO ox Canal, is a name given by Dr 
 Tyfon and f'>'.ne others to that part of the body thro' 
 which the food palfes, from its reception into the 
 mouth to its exit at the anm ; including \\\cgHla, fto- 
 mach, and intc.lines. See Anatomy. 
 
 This dud has been faid to be the true diorafteriftic 
 
 the jargon of t'ae fciiools) in pro- Alioitcta- 
 
 I 
 
 AM'313. 
 
 of an animal, or (i 
 
 priinn quarto modo ; there b°ing no animal wi'thouit, 
 and whatever has it being properly enough ranged un- 
 der the clafs of animals. Plant-, receive their uoi-,ri::i- 
 mcnt by the numerous fibres of their roots, but iuvc 
 no common receptacle for digeiling the <ood re ccivcd, 
 or for carrying olfthe recrements. But ia ill, eveti 
 the lowed degree cv animal life, we nay cbferve a 
 ftoniach and iiitcUiRcs,cven where we cannot perceive 
 the lend formation of any organ of the fcnfes, unlefs 
 that common one of feeling as in oy iters. Phil.Tra:,f. 
 rv« 269, p. 776, fcq. 
 
 Dr VVallis brings an argument from tlie ftruSure of 
 the alimentary tube in man, to prove that he is nat 
 naturally carnivorous; to which DrTy foil makes fomc 
 objections. V. Phil. Tranf. N» 169, p. 777. 
 
 yfuMUxr^iKr Lav.', Lx alhncntaria, was an old law 
 amoug the Komans, v. hereby children were oLligcd 
 to h'lid fullenancc for tlieir-parcnts. 
 
 ALIftlON Y, in law, implies that allowance which 
 a married woman faes for, and is iniitkd to, r.pon any 
 occalional feparaii.ui from her huibaad. Sec Liw. 
 Part 111. N-cIx. 13. 
 
 A LIPIL ARIL'S, or Anpuus, ia Roiran anti- 
 quity, a fcrvant belongingto the baths, whofc bufincfs 
 It was, by means of waxen plafters, and au inftrumcnt 
 cjUcd volj'cllu, to take utf the hairs from ihearv<-pits, 
 and even arms, legs, Sec. this being deemed a point ot 
 cUanlinels. 
 
 ALIP ri.RlUM, oxnTTBffOT, in antiquity, a place 
 in the ancient faicjtr^t, where the athl-.t^ we're anoint- 
 ed before their excrcifes. 
 
 ALl(^UANT PART, in arithmetic, is that number 
 which cannot meafureany other exaftly wiiliout fomc 
 remainder Thus 7 is an aliquant part of 16 ; for 
 twice 7 wants two of 16, and three limes 7 exceed* 
 16 by J. 
 
 ALI()^LJOT TART, isthatpartofa number orquanii- 
 ty which will exactly nicafure it without any rcmaiu- 
 dcr. Thus 2 is an aliquot part of 4; 3 of 9; 4 of 16, 
 Sec. 
 
 ALISANDLRS, or Alexanders, in botanv. Sec 
 Smvrnium. 
 
 ALISMA, or Water-Plantain: A getiiisof the 
 polygynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 Sth Older, Tcirapetakidea-. The charadcrsarc : The 
 calyx is a thrce-Ieaved ptrianthium : The corolla c!\n- 
 (ifts of three roundilh, large, rt.t, expanding petals : 
 T he flaijj'tiia conlift of lix fabulatcd fihmcnts Ihortcr 
 than the corolla ; the anther* arc roundifli : 1\\cpif- 
 t'lUum conlifts of more than fiveocrmina j the flyli arc 
 fimplc, the ftignuta obiufc : The pcrajvpiuvt coiifuls 
 of comj^relled capfulce : 1\\t ftcdi arc fmall and foU- 
 tary. Of this genus there are eight 
 
 Species, viz. The plantago, or great water-plaintain 
 which grows in all tlic marlliy parts of a- itain ; 
 the ranunculoides, or Icilcr water-plantain ; the nataiis 
 or creeping water-plantain ; the damafonium, or fiar- 
 hcadcd water-plantain ; all which are natives of Hri- 
 lain. The others, t//«. the fi-^-va, cordift)li3, fulni- 
 lata, and parnaliifolia, are natives of America, where 
 tlicy arc generHlly found in ilagnaiing wstcrs. and o- 
 ther fwampy places: fo that it would be diiiicuk to 
 prelcrvc them in Britain, for they will no: live ia the 
 
 open 
 
 M;
 
 A L K 
 
 Alifonti* open uir, and they require a bo^ to make them thrive : 
 I bat as tliey are j^lants of no great beauty or ufc, it is 
 Alk aU. fcarccly worth while to cultivate them. 
 
 " ' ALlbO.N'l'LA, or ALiiUNTiA, (anc. geog.) ; a 
 river of Belgic GauJ, now ,•/_/./-• ; u hich riling on the 
 borders of Lorrain, and running through the ducliy, 
 waters ilie city of Luxemburg, and, fwelkd by other 
 rivulets, falls into the bur. 
 
 ALITKS, in Roman antiquity, a dcfignation gi- 
 ven" to fuch birds as afforded matter of auguries by 
 their riight. 
 
 ALKAD.XRII, a feet among the Mahometans who 
 deny any eternal, fixed, divine decrees, and are af- 
 r^irters of free will. The word is formed from the 
 Arabic alkadar, which lignilies " decree." TheAlka- 
 darii are a branch of Mota.:alit; s, and ftand oppofcd to 
 the Algiabarii. See Alg iabarii. 
 
 ALKAHEST, or Alga h est, in chemiflry, an 
 nniverfal mcnftruum capable of relolvingall bodies in- 
 to their Hrll prir.ciples. Van Hclmont pretended he 
 was polTelicd of fuch a men/lnuim ; but, liowevcr cre- 
 dulous people might be impofed ou in his days, the no- 
 tion is now become as ridiculous as the philofopher's 
 llonc, the ptrpetuum mobile, &c. — It is likewife ufed 
 b; fome authors for all fixed falts volaiilizeid. 
 
 ALKALI, in chemillry, one of the general di- 
 vilions of falts, comprehending ihat clafs of chemical 
 elements which, by their union with acids, form /•irr- 
 fed neutrals, in oppoJition to the falts formed of acids 
 with metals or earths, which are called imperfeCi. 
 
 Alkaline falts are divided into two kinds, the fixed 
 and volatile ; and the former into two fpecics, vege- 
 table, and mineral or fofhl. All of thefc podefs fonic 
 J properties in common, and fomc peculiar to each. 
 P.'orerties Thofe which they have in common are, i. An acrid 
 common to and pungent tafte, which, whenthc falts are verypure 
 all the al- and ftrong, degenerates into abfolutc caHfticity, and 
 kalinefalti. ^voQid ejitirely dcftroy the organ of fenfation if long 
 applied to it. 2. A tendency to dilfolve animal fubftan- 
 ces, and reduce them to a gelatinous fubflance, which 
 allof them will do when very flrong. 3. An attrac- 
 tion fof acids, with a power of feparating earths and 
 metals from them, though prcvioufly combined with 
 the fame. 4. They change the blue vegetable juices to 
 green ; the green to yellow ; the yellow to orange ; the 
 orange to red ; and the red to purple. 5. They unite 
 with oils, and deftroy or caufc to fadealmoft all kinds 
 of colours that can be put upon cloth, whence their 
 ufe in bleaching, &c. 
 
 The properties common to both kinds of fixed alk.i- 
 tommon to lis are, i. They relifl the aflion of fire to a great de- 
 thc two gree, fo that they can calily be reduced to a folid form 
 by evaporating any liquid in which they happen to be 
 dillolvcd. 2. By an intenfe fire, they flow into a liquid 
 which concretes into an hard and folid mafs in the cold, 
 g. When mixed in certain proportions with thofe earths 
 or flones called vitrifiable, they melt, in a heat Hill 
 more intenfe, into glafs. 5. Mi.xed with anunoniacal 
 falts, with animal fubftances, or with foot, they extri- 
 cate a volatile alkali. 
 
 The volatile alkali differs from the other two in be- 
 ing unable to redft the fire, and being entirely rcfol- 
 vable into an invifible and permanently elaftic fluid, 
 called by Dr Prieflley alkaline air. In confequence of 
 this volatility, it always affeils the olfaftory nerves 
 
 1 
 Propenies 
 
 fixed al' 
 kalis. 
 
 Of the vo- 
 latile al- 
 kali. 
 
 460 ] A L K 
 
 very perceptibly, .and its fmcll is the general criterion 
 by w lijch its Arcngih may be judged of. Its attra^lion 
 for acids, power of changing colours, &e. arc alfo con- 
 Itderably weaker tlian thoi^c of the fixed alkalis. 
 
 '1 hough two forts of voLtile alkali are commonly 
 fold under the names of fpirits of h irtiliorn and of fal 
 ammoniac, the one differs from the other only in its 
 degree of purity. The former is fo called from its being 
 originally made from the horns of deer ; but this ma- 
 terial has long been laid alide, and the bones of hor- 
 fcs, the/;'//j, as they are called, of the horns of cat- 
 tle, the parings of hoofs, &c. have been fubftituicH in 
 their (lead. This kind, however carefully prepared 
 always contains a portion of animal oil, the fniell of 
 which is very perceptible ; the other, prepared from 
 pure fal ammoniac, is totally free of any empyrcunia- 
 tic fmell, and is as pure as it cin be obtained by any 
 means whatever. 
 
 Etfervefcence with acids was formerly fuppofed to 
 be a dillinguiiliing property of alkalis, though it was 
 always known that by a mixture with quicklime they 
 might be dejirived of this property. Dr Black, how- 
 ever, has fhown, that the effcrvefcing with acids is no 
 property of pure alkali, but is occalioned only by the 
 cfcape of fixed air from it : of confequence, when 
 quicklime is added, which attracts the whole or great- 
 cfl part of the fixed air, no ctfervefcence can be per- 
 ceived. In the ftate in which the fixed alkalis arc 
 commonly met with, indeed, eftervefcence with acids 
 may be faidtobc an efTeniial property ; but this is en- 
 tirely owingto the caufe ju.Q; mentioned, viz. a quan- 
 tity of fixed air, to which they are united during the 
 proccfs by which they were originally formed. Th"; 
 quantity of this air, however, is never fo great as to 
 faturaie them entirely ; on the contrary, their alkaline 
 properties are always very perceptible, and they arc 
 commonly faid to be in a Ji/ild Hate. But the truth 
 is, that now they are in a kind of intermediate flate 
 between what may be called perfeclly mild and per- 
 fe<5fly cauftic. In their perfcftly mild Hate, they are 
 united with fuch a large quantity of fixed air as en- 
 tirely overpowers theiralkaline properties ; and there- 
 fore they arc no more entitled to the name of alkalis 
 in this flate, than when combined with the marine, ni- 
 trous, or any other acid ; in which cafe the compounds 
 are called neutral falts. But it is a much more labo- 
 rious and tedious procefs to faturate an alkali com- 
 pletely with fixed air than with any other acid ; nor 
 does it very eafily retain the aerial acid after it has 
 once been combined with it. Hence the caullic taftc 
 and properties of t!; c alkali almoft always predominate, 
 and thefalt contains a poriion of pure and cauftic alka- 
 li, to which alone its virtues are to be afcribed. 
 
 Vegetable alkali is obtained in its greateft purity by 
 deflagrating nitre with charcoal, provided we make ufc 
 of no more of the latter t h an -is barely fufficient 10 de- 
 ftroy the nitrous acid. It is, however, a very dilhcult 
 matter to adjull this proportion with fu/Ticient ac- 
 curacy ; for if we employ too mucli charcoal, the fait 
 will be conlidcrably phlogiflicated ; if toolittle, fomc 
 part of the nitre will remain iindecompofed. Burnt 
 tartar therefore, purified by folution and filtration, may 
 be looked upon as the heft alkali we have. The com- 
 mon alkalis, or ajhcs as they are called, and faid to be 
 obtained from the afhes of vegetables, arc always mix- 
 ed 
 
 Alkali. 
 
 4 
 Effervef- 
 Cciicc witli 
 acids not a 
 charafieri- 
 ftic of al- 
 kali. 
 
 J 
 Prepara- 
 tion uf the 
 vegetable 
 alkali.
 
 A L K 
 
 [ 461 ] 
 
 A L K 
 
 filkali. e<\ with much plilogifton, and fonietimcs with lime, 
 
 " •' — fait, croilier heterogeneous matters J for which rca- 
 
 foii they arc not to be employed in the nicer chemi- 
 cal experiments, without being purified by fohiiionin 
 water, by h'ltration, and cryltailizatioii. The purefl 
 of all thcfe falts is that called :he blue fearl, impor- 
 6 ted from Hungary. 
 Ittpeculii>r The vegetable alkali when thus purified, and con- 
 propcttica. taining near one half its weight of fixed air, is of a 
 w hire colo\Tr when dry, with a very hot and caultic 
 taftc, polTclIi'.igin an eminent degree all tliofe q;jalitics 
 which have been afcribcd to the alkaline falts in ge- 
 neral, it T.v^i^pir dciiquium when expofed to the air ; 
 and is nfiially incapable of being eryftallizcd, though 
 i: acq'jircs this property after being employed in the 
 reftirication of ardent fpirit. It adheres more clofc- 
 ly to acids than any fubflancc hitherto difcovered ; 
 thougli.tVom fome experiments, Bergman was induced 
 to believe that pure terra ponderofa attracted acids ftill 
 more powerfully. But this has been difcovered to be 
 a niirtake by Dr Withering, who, in a paper publilhcd 
 in the 74th volume of the Philofjphical Tranfitlions, 
 Ihows, that iinlcfs w iiere the earth is united with vi- 
 triolic acid, not only the vegetable, the foflil, but even 
 the volatile alkali in its pure or cauftic ftate, will fepa- 
 rute it from any other with w"hich it may be combined. 
 Terra ponderofa, tlierefore, will always deconipofc vi- 
 triolated tartar, Glauber's fait, or vitriolic ammoniac ; 
 whence the mirtake of this celebrated cheniifl probably 
 has proceeded. After this alkali has been once united 
 with marine acid, it appears to have undergone fomc 
 change; for the fait then produced, by combining it 
 with the vitriolic acid, refembles Glauber's fait almoft 
 as much as it does vitriolaied tartar, it feenis there- 
 fore to have made fome approach towards the nature 
 of fofni alkali ; but chemifls have not inquired what 
 would be the eonfequence of repeated combinations of 
 ■) this kind. 
 Of the fof- The follil alkali differs from the vegetable in having 
 CJ alkali, a fmaller attraflioii for acids, in being nioreeafily fu- 
 fible by itfelf. and forminr^ a more foluble compound 
 with the vitriolic acid. It is alfo eafily cryftallizable, 
 even without the addition of more fixed air than it 
 naturally contains : and experience has determined it 
 to be more proper for glafs or foap maiiufadures than 
 the vegetable alkali ; for which reafon the demand for 
 g it is very conliderable. 
 This alkali The folTil alkali was anciently called »<j//on or <;.'/'■■", 
 and is fpoken of by Pliny and Tacitus as an ingredi- 
 ent in glafs, &c. and the fcriptures inform us that ir 
 was ufed in baths. The knowledge of this fait was 
 lofl in the general obfcuration of fcicrce which took 
 place on the decline of the Roman em ire ; nor do we 
 find it mentioned till the time of 'he Hon. Robert 
 Boyle ; and, even fincc that time, though M. d'l Ha- 
 niel gave an accurate account of it in a memoir for 
 the year 1 736, little farther notice was taken of it till 
 very lately. 
 
 We are no^v certainly informed that the foffil alkali 
 is found native in many parts of the world, which ne- 
 ny partj of y^ ^ jj (^j ^3(j ^^ j(], (1,^ vegetable alkali. The places 
 the wuild. where it ab^inHs moll are, Egypt, the country of Tri- 
 poli in Rai'biry, the peak of TeneritFc in one of the 
 C mry iflani's, Hungary, feveral of the provinces of 
 Ruflia, fome parts of Afia, particularly the neighbour- 
 
 knuwn to 
 tho an- 
 cicuts. 
 
 Found na- 
 tive in ma 
 
 hood of Smyrna, &e. though it has not hitherto teen Alkali, 
 found in any of the weftern eounrrics of Europe, e.\- ^ •j—' 
 ccpiing in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, or in mi- 
 neral waters ; and in thcfc laft only in \zx-j fmall quan- 
 
 tity- , lo 
 
 The great fourceof the mineral alkali, however, and ijthebsCj 
 from whence it is not improbable that the places al- of common 
 ready mentioned have been fupplicd by fome unknown '^'t. 
 natural operation, is the water of the ocean. Follil 
 alkali is the n.uural bilis of fea-falt ; and could any 
 method of readily procuring it from this fait be fallen 
 upon, it would no doubt be a molt valuable fecret. 
 Hitherto, however, alithc methods ufed with any fuc- 
 ccfs by the c'^emills may be reduced to two. i. By 
 mixing the nitrous acid v.ith fea-falt in a retort, in the 
 proportion, according to Dr Vogcl, of four of the 
 acid to one of the fait, and diftilling off the muriatic 
 acid, or rather aqua regia, which will be produced in 
 the proccfs. The reliduum will afford a cubical nitre 
 by cryllallization, from whence the alkali may beob'- 
 tained pure by deflagrating with charcoal. 2. By ad- 
 dition of vitriolic acid the fpirit of fea-falt will be ex- 
 pelled much more eafily, and at a cheaper rare, than 
 by the nitrous acid. The retiduum atfords Glauber's 
 fait in great plenty : this being melted in a crucible 
 with a fufiicienc quantity of charcoal-daft, forms a 
 hcparfulphuris ; which being decompofcd by means of 
 i!ie vegetable acid, the Utter may be deflroyed by force 
 of tire, and the alkali obtained in purity. For a fur- 
 ther explanation of both thefc methods, fee the arti- 
 cle Ch emistrv. Index. 
 
 The demand in England for foflil alkali is fi;p- 
 plied from the afiies of kali and other fca plants, from 
 which it is feparatcd in the fame manner as the vege- 
 table alkali from the alhesof other plants. The pureit 
 kind of alhes containing this fait is called yo.-/rt or ba- 
 rilla, and is imported chietlyfrom foreign countries ; 
 that which is obtained from the lea- weed growing on 
 their own coafts, and known by the name oi kelp, is 
 excelTively impure, and fearce admits of being tho- 
 roughly analyfed according to the rules of chemiftry. ,j 
 
 Both thcfe alkalis may be deprived of their fixcil Proprrtlrs 
 air, and thus rendered pure and cauftic, by the addi- of Soth fix- 
 tion of quicklime. In this ftate the difference between "1 alkalis 
 them is much lefs perceptible than in any other, though ™.''''^" '^•"'' 
 the addition of fixed air, or any other acid, always 
 Ihows that no cllcnnal change has taken place in either. 
 In iliis highly cauftic ftate they deftroy the parts of 
 animals in a manner fimilar to that of fire : whence 
 they are called potmtial cauteries, as the former is 
 called the afhtti cautery. M. Aiorveau informs us, 
 that on digcfting a piece of beef in a folution of cau- 
 ftic vegetable alkali, the liquor foon became red, and 
 the flefli affiimed the form of a fcmitranfparent jelly, 
 in which, however, one could ealily perceive the ra- 
 mifications of the fmalltft fibre ; and, after (lauding 
 fome months, it emitted bnt very little fmell. The 
 vegetable alkali is commonly made ul'c of as the mate- 
 rial for the common caoilic or lapis inJ^riLiHt of th- 
 (hops; for the preparation of vvhich, fceCuF. mistrv. 
 IrJex. Both alkalis attrad moifture from the air when 
 reduced to .1 f'lid form in their cauftic ftate, though 
 neither the folfil alkali nor its combinations do fo'in 
 any other cafe. In their cauftic ftate alfo thev only 
 nniie with oils, or diirolve in fpirit of wine ; which lail 
 
 they
 
 A L K 
 
 [ 462 ] 
 
 Alkai: 
 
 mil<l and 
 
 CfiuHic 
 
 Daes. 
 
 ihey liAvc been fuppofcd to piiiify, though it is raoic 
 
 " ^^ ■ than piobi lie tha tht-y decompofe and commuakaic 
 
 II difagrtcaUle qualiiics to it. 
 Volatile a^ The volatile alkali, when procured immediately by 
 kali in its the ditUUatiou of any ral.flaucc capable of yitking it, 
 is obt:;ined in a (iate fimilar to that iu which the alka- 
 lis are iifiially met with, viz. half mild and half can- 
 flic, by expcling the liipiid alkali to a great quantity 
 of iixcd air, we may at ialt have it periecily mild and 
 nentraliled ; in wliich ftate it appears as a white fait 
 extremely volatile, though lefs i"o than the pure CLiuftic 
 alkali. It dillblvcs very readily in water ; but nnlefs 
 fi)nie caullic fpirit, or lonie lime or fixed alkali he add- 
 ed, in order to abltraft part irf the fixed air, it will 
 fearcely exhibit the characterirticofvolatilealkali, viz. 
 a pungent and urinous linell. T!ie addition of fixed air, 
 however, makes very little diifercncc with regard to 
 the chemical combinations of this fait ; for as fixed 
 ;ar has a very llcndcr power of acidity, it is expelled 
 by every oilier acid with the greatcft eafe, and the 
 fame combinations formed as though it had not been 
 prefent. The only difl'f rcr.ce is, that wjien a mild al- 
 kali is added to an acid, a flrong etFcrvcfccnce takes 
 place by rcafon of the efcapcof the fixed air through 
 the liquid, while with the cauflic alkali the mixtuic is 
 made quietly and without cliflurbancc. 
 
 The various combinationsof the alkaline falts with 
 the different acids, and the neutral compounds thence 
 refulting, arc exhibited in the following table. 
 
 I. Vegetable fixed alkali combined with 
 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 Marine acid 
 Acetous acid 
 Acid of tartar 
 Acid of borax, 
 Aci 
 
 1 
 
 \cidofphofphnrus C i 
 iaccharincacid,?;c.j 1 
 Atrial acid J 
 
 ' Vitriolatcd tartar. 
 
 Nitre. 
 
 Sal digcflivus. 
 
 Terra foliata tartari. 
 ^ Soluble tartar. 
 I r Anomalous falts, whofe 
 I i properties have not 
 I (- been afceriaincd. 
 l_Mild or aerated alkali. 
 
 2- Fofiil or mineral fixed alkali combined with 
 
 1 
 
 Vitriolic acid 
 Nitrous acid 
 Marine acid 
 Acetous acid 
 
 Acid of tartar 
 Acid of borax 
 
 Acid of phofp horns, 
 Saech'.rineacid.Scc. 
 Aerial acid 
 
 J 
 
 f Glauber's fait. 
 
 Cubical nitre. 
 
 Common fait. 
 
 A fait refcmbling terra 
 foliata tartari, but w liich 
 does not deliquate. 
 
 Rochelle f^lt. 
 
 Borax. 
 
 \ Unknown falts. 
 Mild foffil alkali. 
 
 3. Volatile alkali combined with 
 Vitriolic acid "] 
 
 Nitrous acid 
 
 Marin* acid 
 Jicetous acid 
 
 fVitricJlic ammoniac, or 
 
 ( Glauber's fecret fal 
 
 i ammSniac. 
 
 J^ Nitrous ammoniac, or 
 
 I volatile nitre. 
 
 ] Common fal ammoniac 
 
 [^Spiritus mindcreri. 
 
 A L K 
 
 Volatile alkali combined with 
 
 Alltali. 
 
 Acid of tartar 
 
 Acid of borax 
 Acid of pholphorus 
 
 1 
 
 I 1 
 
 Saccharine ; 
 Aerial acid 
 
 xid, &c. 
 
 f A fait whofe properties 
 I have not been i:..c;li- 
 1 gated ; which liioots 
 into fine long cryitals, 
 and does not dtliquate 
 j ia the air. 
 I An anomalous fait. 
 ) Microcofiuic fait, or cf- 
 I fcntial Ialt uf urine. 
 ( Anomalous falts. 
 
 Volatile fal ammoniac, or 
 [_ fait of hartlhorn. 
 
 13 
 
 Befides their attradion for acids, the alkalis have Attnilioiu 
 alfo an atti'action for oils, fulphnr, and fpirit of wine, oi the ai- 
 in the nn ill way, when tTie falts are deprived of their k^li' for 
 fixed air j and in this, as well as the dry way, with vmousfub. 
 feveral metals, and vitriiiable earths and floncs, as has """"•• 
 been already mentioned. 
 
 With oil t!ie vegetable fixed alkali forms a foap, 
 though Ids perfect than tliat made witli the cauflic mi- 
 neral alkali. When combined with fi.xed air they 
 fcarcely unite with oils. Boiled with f\ilphur,or melt- 
 ed with it in their dry flate, they unite into a very fe- 
 tid compound ci\\cAb-:par Jhl/'huns, whicll is folnblc 
 in water, but totally and very quickly decompofed by 
 the contaft of air. Vegetable alkali unites v,ith iron, 
 tin, and zinc ; corrodes copper, and runs with it into 
 a liquor of a deep blue colour, and joins with lead iu 
 fufion. It docs not adt upon gold in its metallic flate ; 
 but if afufficient quantity be added toafmall folution of 
 gold iu aqua regia, the calx of the metal will be firH 
 precipitated and afterwards diflolved. 
 
 Vegetable alkalis a principal ingredient in the pow- 
 ders called/c/vc/, nfed for the fuiion of metalline ores. 
 It promotes thefnlion of earths, and forms glafs with 
 tlie cryibilline kind. It is foluble in an equal weight 
 of diflillcd water J and, when expofcd to tlieair, it 
 foor. attracts nioifturc from it and riows into a liquid. 
 In its cauflic flate it dilfolves in fpirits of wine, and 
 forms with it a red tinfture called Van HilmonC'i 
 tm&iire oj fait of tartar, formerly ufed Ixnh as an in- 
 ternal and external remedy, but now fallen iniodif- 
 repute. 
 
 FofTil alkali in its eanftic flate unites with oil into 
 an harder foap than that made with vegetable alkali. 
 With fulphur it forms a heapcr fulphuiis iu the fame 
 manner as the vegetable alkali, and yields a tinsJlure 
 with fpirit of wine, which ditfr.'ves part of the fait 
 whilft hot, but lets it fall again in a eryftalline form 
 when cold. Gold, filvcr, or quicklilver, are not af- 
 fefted by a folution of this fait ; but copper and tin 
 are dilVolved by it in the open air. It affects tin, lead, 
 regulus of antimony, and cobalt, (lightly; but aeis 
 powerfually upon zinc, and forms a kermes mineral 
 with crude antimony. Copper, iron, bifmuth, zinc, 
 antimony, and regulus of cobalt, fnfed with two parts 
 of folTil alkali, are almofl entirely dilfolvcd in aver/ 
 flrongheat; but tin, lead, and regulus of antimony, 
 treated in the fame manner, only fuller a partial fuln- 
 tion. 
 All the alkalis are of conliderablc iife in medicine, 
 
 thougli
 
 A L K 
 
 [ 463 ] 
 
 A L K 
 
 14 
 VIcdicjl 
 jrtucs (if 
 
 15 
 )o not aft 
 s 3utir«p- 
 ics wlicn 
 akcn into 
 he human 
 JOjly. 
 
 thongh tlie particular virtues ofvcpef-tle and fcilil al- 
 kali iiavf not hitherto been propel ly alcertaincd. It 
 h probable, however, that there i;)iill be a condder- 
 ablr diveiiity in their operations on tiic iiunian body, 
 as the vcgciable alkali Ihcws iUclf fotr.iicli more acrid 
 and powcikil than the folUl. As boiU of them unite 
 immediately with acids, and change liuni inio mild 
 neutral falts ; hence, if any of the ftrong mineral acids 
 iliould fall upon any part of the human body, and be- 
 gin 10 corrode and give pain, the imincdiaic applica- 
 tion of the lixivium tart^ti, or of a folution of any of 
 thole aUalinefaltsin waitr, orofiiie fajts ihenifclves 
 in powder, will deP.roy their caullicity, and prevent 
 their doing further mil'chief : Or if any of thcfc acids 
 (liould drop on clothes, linen, or other lubflanccs, and 
 alkaline (alts arc immediately applied, llicy will neu- 
 tralize l he acid, and prevent its fui ibcrcurrolion : Or 
 if a pcrfon (liould, through miltaiic, f\\ illow any other 
 corroiling fait which an alkali will dtcompoie, the 
 taking down into the llomach ibluticns of the alkaline 
 lilts, or the ialts tiicmfclves in proper doles, arc the 
 inoll likely mcansofallbrding relief, if not given too 
 late (a). 
 
 Uoili the vegetable and foflil alkali applied exter- 
 nally in a caufiic Hate, firll irritate and inflame the 
 fkin, and afterwards act as fire in mortifying and dc- 
 fivoyingit ; and therefore liavc been much uled by fur- 
 geons for opening buboes and other abf.eflts, and f»r 
 caiing away proud or fungous flefli that fprouts out 
 from fores. Various formul.c of caufiic alkalis have 
 been employed forthefc purpofes, of which an account 
 is given under Chemistry and Phar?!acy. 
 
 The alkaline falls, when much diluted v.ith water, 
 have been ufed as wafhcs for removing pimples from 
 the face ; but if fucii walhes are continued long, they 
 are apt tofpoil the fkin. The ancients often ul'ed to 
 dillolve natron (the foflil alkali) in their baths, and 
 tftcenied fuch baths ufeful for removing itchings of 
 the (kin, ihe fcab, tlic impetigo, leprofy, and almoft 
 all forisof cutaneous eruptions; and they employed 
 li.itlis of the fame kind for promoting fwcat, a,Td for 
 curing various diforders. They mixeditlikcwifcwith 
 turpentrnc, with oils, and with fluffs of various kinds, 
 and rubbed or applied fuch conipolitioris to the fkin, 
 for removing different complaints, to heal fores, to 
 flrengthcn v.-eak orr;bxed parts, to deflroy thepoifon 
 of the bite of a mad dog, and of ferpents ; and they 
 cflceiiud it as an amidol? againfl many other poifons. 
 It has been proved that alkaline falts prcf r\ e animal 
 fubftattccs from putrefadion ; on which account fome 
 praftitioners have concluded that they 2(51 as ftrong 
 antifeptic remedies v.hcn Iwallowed as medicines, and 
 arc taken up by the ladcal vcifcls, and by them car- 
 ried to the fubclavian vein to be nixed with the blood. 
 Jixperience, however, hasfhown that they nave cfFciJls 
 dirc(ftly opjiolite, and that by liiraulatiiig the vefTcls 
 and ijuickcning the ci/ci!;.ition,thcy contribute towards 
 
 the difToI'.ition of the vital fluid .-•of which Dr Morro AW-.':, 
 fays he has fern fcvcral in fiances. "" — ^'~~' 
 
 /.Ikalis promote the fccretions in general partici* 
 hrly by th-r kidneys ; but by the help oiWanii liquors 
 and bcd-cloihcs, their operation may be dirccled to- 
 wards the (kin. They have alfo been employed in cafes 
 of htariburn, and others whcreanacid jirevails in the 
 flomach and bowels, or wheie thcfc orpins ire loaded 
 with vifcid phlegm. Tiicy are likewifc given v^-iih a 
 view to aflifl the operation of tlic bile whe.i ii is too 
 weak and inert, either by theinfelves, or mixed with 
 I'urgative or other medicines. 'J lie foflil alkali has 
 been alleged to be a more powerful folvent of the hu- 
 man calculus than the vegetable, though perhaps with- 
 out anyjufl foundation. It is given from 5 to 20 grains 
 three times a-day ; and in foinc cafes even to do .lie 
 iliat quantity. It may be taken in any conii^un li- 
 ijuor, or in clear broth made of lean meat, from which 
 the fat has been fkimmcd off; or the powdered filts 
 may be nude up into pills or bolufes mixed with li- 
 quorice powder, by means of mucilage of gnm Arabic 
 or conferve. ,5 
 
 The vegetable alkali has been long ufed asa diuretic Age ofcoa- 
 in d.-oplics with great fuccefs ; end i)T Monro informs TiSenb\c 
 us, that he has fcena number of cafes of anafarca in ufcindroi'- 
 which the water was «rried off by it. As diuretics, *"'*'■ 
 it may be taken from ten grains to half a drachm, or 
 more, two or three times a-day, mixed with fome di- 
 flillcd water, fyrup, broth, or water-gruel, or with twu 
 ouncesofwhitewine,which partly neutralizes the fait. 
 When added to inl'ulionsofjunipcr berries, broom tops, 
 horfc-radiih, muflard-feed,winter's-bark, &c. in wine 
 Slid beer, they prove powerful diuretics; and Dr 
 Monro gives the following formula. 
 
 " Take broom-tops, horfe-radilh, and juniper-ber- 
 ries, of each an ounce J bruife them in a flone or marble 
 mortar; put them into a large wide-mouthed bottle, 
 and add to them an ounce of fait of tartar, and two 
 quarts of Rhenilh wine. Infufc them for four days; 
 decant oti" the wine, and filter it through paper for 
 ufe. Two or three ounces may be taketi three or four 
 times a-day." 
 
 Or, " Take an ounce of cancUa alba, and as mucU 
 muflard-fced and juniper-berries ; bruife them wellia 
 an iron mortar, and add an ounce of puriticd vco-ctablc 
 alkali with two quarts of porter; infufe for four days, 
 and filter the liquor thioogh paper; let the patient 
 take a wine glafs-full every four or fix hours." 
 
 The diuretic powers of thcfc medicines arc fome- 
 timcs increafed by opium, and they have been fucccfs- 
 fully joined with ellential oils and balfams. i^ 
 
 The moll remarkable property of thcfc f;iUs, how- Aa excel- 
 ever, is that of diifolving the human calculus; for the lent fi-lveiit 
 difcovery ofwliich, Mrs Stephens, in the year 1740, "'''"'''"" 
 obtained a parliamentary reward of joool. At that 
 time Dr jurins being afllided with the Aone, tried a 
 numberofexperiiMcntson thcfc medicines; from which 
 he concluded, that their efficacy depended entirely on 
 
 the 
 
 (a) With regard to the mineral acids, aa exception fecms totake place if oil of vitriol in its concentrated 
 ft;ite Iho'ild happen to be fwallowed ; for this contracts fuch a degree of heat on the contatt of any aqueous 
 fluid as would deflroy the patient, independent of another caufc. An inflance we have fecn where a perfoii 
 tinhappily miflook a bottle of oil of vitriol for water in the night-time. He recovered by fwallowing inlhnily 
 a great quantity of milk. Ano;hcr recovered by drinking a bottle of t'lorcnccoil.
 
 A L K 
 
 [ 464 ] 
 
 A L K 
 
 Alkali, tlie alkaline files and lime which they contained : and 
 
 — « ' therefore he began to try wliat eftci5ls a foaplcy would 
 
 have on himfelf. At fiill he took only a fc.v dro^^s, 
 but gradually increafcd his dofc till he came to an 
 ounce, and fomciimcs an ounce and a hall', in a proper 
 vehicle, in 24 hours. This produced the diichargc of 
 fomefniall calculi, and relieved him of the fyitiptoms 
 ofthellone. Dr Hartley, iikcwife, laboured under 
 this complaint : and believing that the efficacy of Mrs 
 Stephens's medicines depended on the foap, lime, and 
 alkaline falts whicli they contained, ordered a paile to 
 beprepared for himfelf, made of eight ounces of foap, 
 one of oy(ler-llielllinie,a drachm of fait of tartar, and 
 as much water as formed the whole into a foft niafs ; of 
 «'hich he took largd quantities, and found himfelf 
 greatly relieved, though not cured, asallonewas found 
 in his bladder after his death. Thefc and other in- 
 flances of fuccefs, foon brought the medicines into ge- 
 neral ufe : but though many found relief from them, 
 others, particularly thofc who were aftliificd with the 
 ftojie, had all the fymptoms of their dillenipcr aggra- 
 vated, by the falts rendering the blood, and other li- 
 quors of the body, p.irticularly the urine, fiiarpand a- 
 criJ, fo as to irritate and infiamc the bladder, which 
 was already in too irritable r. ftate, from the conflant 
 frirtion of the calculus lodged within it. The late ex- 
 periments of Mr Scheele and Sir Torbtrn Uergman, 
 liowevcr, have made it evident, that the human calcu- 
 lus is coDipofed of a concrete acid joined to a fmall por- 
 tion of animal earth. Mofl people, therefore, who are 
 afiliflcd with the floae or gravel, wilh to try the effi- 
 cacy of thefc remedies, rather than fubmit to the dan- 
 gerotis operation of lithotomy ; we fhall therefore fub- 
 join, from Dr Monro, the foUowingdireftions for ma- 
 king and ufing the foap-lcy. 
 
 <' Take of fait of tartar, eight ounces; of frelh quick- 
 lime, four ounces ; of diftillcd water, a quart: mix 
 for waking them all well together in a Kirgc bottle, and let them 
 Hiid ufing i^and for 24 hours; then pour ofFthe ley and liltfr it 
 the foap- tJijough p..pcr, keeping it in well-flopped vials for ufe. 
 Of this the t!ofe is from ;!0 drops to three or four 
 drachms, which istobe rtpcatcd two or three timesin 
 the day. 
 
 " One of the bell methods of taking this ley is, to 
 mi;cthc quantity to he ufcd in the day with three pints 
 of plain broth, which has been made wilh the lean part 
 of veal, \>'ith r.ll the fat or oily parts feparatcd from it, 
 by puttingit, when made, into a large bowl, andikim- 
 miiig them oif wilh a fpoon when cold, and to drink, 
 within an hour, a pint of this broth three times in the 
 day — eailyin the morning — at noon — sndin the even- 
 ing; aud to continue the ufe of this medicine for three 
 four, or more months ; and, during this courfe, to live 
 on fuch things as IcaA comueraft the operation of the 
 iTieditine : to take forbreakfaft fomc plain broth, fuch 
 as has been dtfcriliedjWith dry toafled bread or bifcut: 
 or a dilh or two ot tea or co'.fee in place of the broth: 
 for dinner, to eat the lean part of plain boiled or roaft- 
 ed meat, or a fowl, with their own gravy or jiice for 
 fauce ; and to eat only of vegetables which contain but 
 little acid, fuch as potatoes, &e. and to ufe for drink 
 toaft and water, or water with a very fmall portion of 
 fpirit in it , and to ab:t.iin from e^.ting fruit and acef- 
 fceut vegetables, fat meat, butter, or oil ; and from 
 drinking wine, beer, cyder, punch, and in fliort from 
 
 18 
 Monro's 
 dire^ions 
 
 uy 
 
 taking any thing which i*lik(.ly to coanteraft or de- Alkali, 
 ftroy ilic ertects 01 ihc icy." > v — 
 
 \\ith leg'.r- to the ufe of the fjap ley, our author 
 obfcrvcs, " t.Tut he has fccn a numuer or people viho 
 have taken it, ba.h lor gravellilh complaints and tor 
 the (lone ; that many of thofc who had gravel were 
 relieved, and fume or tlicm fcemcd to be cured ; that 
 fonic few of thole who hail the conhrmcdilone,rcccived 
 coiilidersblerclief lor atime frowiiti ufe :butthe com- 
 plaints afterwards re turned;nor can he fay that one com. 
 plete cure was made ; though from the accounts given 
 by the late Dr W hytt of Edinburgh, and others, it 
 ihould appear that this had fometimcs happened: that 
 in many cafes of flone the ley occalioned pain and ir- 
 ritation, and mtreafed the violence of the fymptoms fo 
 much, that the patients were obliged to lay it alide ; 
 and that this happened moll frequently where the 
 bladder feenied already to be difeafed from the irrita- 
 tion of the Itoue : that at all times it is advifablc to lay 
 aficle this medicine, atleaflfora time, whciicvcrit 
 irritates and occafions pain, or where there are appear- 
 ancesof it" continued ufe having broken down the crafis 
 of the blood. ,x 
 
 In/lead of the foap-ley, the following folution of Aerated 
 vegetabk alkali, fully faturatcd with lixeu air,has been vegetablt 
 lately recommended as apowcrful folvent ol the flone. alkali re- 
 " Take two ounces of fait of ta:tdr, and diiiolvc it in V'T"""*' 
 two quarts of ttiftillcd water, and then faturatc it fully 
 with tixed air ; and let the patient take tight ounces 
 of it every eight hours. But though many cafes have 
 been related in which this medicine is faid to have been 
 ferviceabIe,oilT author fayshe hisfccnonly dliegentle- 
 man who had taken it, and who had found confider- 
 able relief from it. Soap-ley has likewife been recom- 
 mended as a folvent of bilious calculi, and has fomctimes 
 been of fervice ; but this has probably arifca more from 
 its property of dillolving thick and vifcid humours, 
 and affilling the adion of the bile, than by ading on 
 the calculi thcnifelvcs. 
 
 The volatile alkali has many of the virtues of the M^dicsl 
 lixed^but affects anim^^l fubltances, particularly in its virtues ol 
 cauflic (late, lefs powerlully than they do. It gives a the volati 
 brilk and ftrong iliniulus to the nerves and fibres of li- alkali. 
 ving animals ; and is therefore cmpl<)yed in difeafes 
 where the pulfcis lov/and the circulation too languid ; 
 in low fevers, where the patient is in danger of link- 
 ing ; in apoplectic and lethargic dilbrdcrs of elderly 
 people of phleginatic habits, in paralytic cales, faint- 
 ing fits, &c. w hert a brilk and Itiiuulating remedy is 
 wanted. It is often ufed as diaphoretic and fudorilic 
 in cafes of rheumaiifni, in the end of fevers, catarrhs, 
 and other difeafes, where a plentiful diaphorcfis or 
 fweat is required ; and, according to our author, it is 
 principally owing to this quality that the alkalis have 
 obtained their reputation ofbeing etiicacious remedies 
 againll the bites of l>rpents aud other venomous ani- 
 mals. It is equally cihcacious againft mineral acid 
 poifons with the tixed alkali. 
 
 It now remains only to give fome accwint of the o- Qfi„jn j,f 
 rigin i>f the alkalis, or lliat procefs by which they arc alkaline 
 naturally produced. This fubjeft, however, is very falts. 
 much involved in obfcurity ; nor has the origin of fix- 
 ed alkalis, at leall, beeuinveliigated with fuch diligence 
 and fuccefs as that of the acids. Chcniifts have been 
 dividedin thciropinions, whether alkaline falts be na- 
 tural
 
 A L K 
 
 [ 46/ ] 
 
 A L K 
 
 iural boilkSjOrlorracdbythc force of lire, uniting the 
 " principles of which they confill in the burning or liif- 
 tiUing the fubllances from which they arc got. Jt is 
 generally fuppofed that they are formed by the force 
 of Hrc iiuimatcly uniting an earth, an acid, and an ia- 
 flammable matter together, fo as to form an alkaline 
 fait, which is fuppofed to be compofcd of thefc prin- 
 ciples. Infupportof this opinion, it has been alleged, 
 i . That the fixed vegetable alkali is produced by burn- 
 ing vcgetablcswhich contain,the principles fit for form- 
 ing thcfc falts ; though no veftige of an alkali can be 
 uifcovcrcd in thcfe vegetables in their natural flate. 
 2. That the ell'cntial falts of vegetables, which contain 
 an acid and an earth, on being calcined in a crucible 
 with charcoal, yield an alkaline fait. 3. That by al- 
 ternately allowing tlie vegetable alkali to run periJili- 
 c]uium, and drying it again, it precipitates a quantity 
 of earth, every time it is dillolved ; fo that the whole 
 of the fait is at lall reduced tothiskind of earth, while 
 " the acid, phlogiflon, &c. have evaporated, or been de- 
 ilroycd by the rcpeatedapplication of heat for drying 
 the fait. 4. In like manner the volatile alkali is pro- 
 duced by dilhlling animal fubftanccs which contain the 
 prinrjples tit for producing it, thougii no marks of a 
 volatile alkalicould be difcovcred in ihefc fubflances 
 while they were frefh. 
 
 On the other hand, it has been alTerted that the al- 
 kaline falts obtained by burning vcgeti;blcs,ordiliil'ing 
 animal fubAances, exifled origina.ly in the materials 
 from which they are procured ; that they were gene- 
 rated in the plants by the procefs of vegetation, and 
 freed by the tire from the other principles which dif- 
 guifed them. In fupport of this opinion the following 
 arguments arc made ufc of by MelFrs \V eiglcb, Rofen- 
 ftiel, Morveau, &c. i. That they had not been able to 
 procure an alkaline fait by mixing earths, oil, and acids 
 together, and fubjeiJling them to the moll intenfe tire. 
 a.Thccrjrftals of tartar,which were formerly believed 
 to be pure acid falts, have been found by late experi- 
 ments to contain avcgetable alkali. 3. The vegetable 
 alkaline fait, whrn purified is always of the fame na- 
 ture, from whatever fubftance it is procured ; and 
 therefore mud have been an original principle or body 
 exiftingin the vegetables from which it is procured : 
 for had it been produced by art, it would have varied, 
 and we fhould have had different fpecics of it, accor- 
 ding to the principles which the plants contained. 
 And, 4. The neutral falts which have been found mix- 
 ed with the afhes of plants, as vitriolated tartar, nitre, 
 .ind fi-a-falt, are likewifcflrong proofs of the original 
 exillcnce of alkali in vtgetables. 
 
 On this fubjed Dr Monro obferves, that hitherto 
 we have not fufiicient evidence to determine pclitivcly 
 whether the vegetable alkali be produced by the force 
 offire, or if it cxilledoriginally in the fubflances from 
 which it is prepared, though he is inclined to favour 
 the former opinion. With regard to the volatile al- 
 kali, however, we have abundant evidence ofitsbiiiig 
 produced from fubflances which could not poffibly be 
 fuppofed to contain it originally. Dr Stahl alfures us, 
 that if any dry fixed alkaline fait be well rubbed in a 
 mortar with fuch a quantity of oil of turpentine, as is 
 fufiicient to make it of the conlillencc of a pulp, and 
 digeficd for fome weeks in a cucurbit orfciort, we ob- 
 tain a volatile alkali. MrGeoflroy relates, that having 
 Vol. I. 
 
 placed a l.'.rge retort in a fanj furnace, and adiptej a A;i»Ti 
 tubulated receiver to it, afterwards heating the bot- » 
 toni of the retort red-hot, he put into it, by means of Alt-Siim* 
 a long tube riling from the upper pirt of the neok, a ' ' 
 powder conipofed of etjuarparis of nitre and charcoal 
 on which tlicre came over into the receiver a liquor 
 highly impregnated with volatile alkaii. Carthcufer, 
 in the fir A volume of his Materia Mcdica, tells us, that 
 if two parts of fait of tartar be mixed with one of ful- 
 phur, and be afterwards dillilled, they yield a volatile 
 alkaline fait and fpirit. Boerhaavc and Macqucr have 
 both aflirmed, that the vegetative procefs itfclf produ- 
 ces a volatile alkali ; and that the juices got by bruiiing 
 nuiflard.fecd and other alkalefcent vegetables, as they 
 are called, contain a volatile alkali which etTcrvefces 
 with acids : but this is denied by Carihcurcr and Vo- 
 gtl, who afhrm that they could difcover no traces of 
 volatile alkaiiin their juices by any experiments the/ 
 made. 
 
 But whatever may be concluded from the exptricnee 
 of former chemi lis, the latedifcovcrics of Dr PricfUey 
 and Mr CavenJilh havedccilively fhewn, that the vola- 
 tile alkali is by no means a fimplc element or natural 
 principle, but a compound, and which may be ariiti- 
 cially prepared. Dr Prieflley informs us, that by the SeeAcroIo- 
 union of nitrous air with iron, a volatile alkali is gene- gy. n" 149- 
 rated; and Mr Cavendifh, that by the adion of ;be 
 electric fluid, or pure elementary tire, upon phlogifli- 
 catcd air, the nitrous acid is produced : the volatile al- |'* ^^ ' 
 kali, therefore, muftbe fuppofed to conliil ultimately ° '' 
 of phlogifticatcd air united to a great quantity of ele- 
 mentary lire. In like manner, if we can fuppofe this 
 fubtile element to enter into the fubllanccof any kind 
 of earth in fuch a manner as to exert its peculiar aelion 
 when that fubftance is applied to any other, we may 
 reafonably conclude that the fixed alkalis alfo are not 
 fimple and permanent principles, but capable of artifi- 
 cial compolition and decompolition. It iscenain that 
 the aftion of alkaline falts is extremely fimilar to that 
 offire ; and as we know that this element is combined 
 ilia /aU'.-t Hate with fluids, there can be no abfurdity 
 in fuppoling it capable of combiningalfowithfolids. 
 
 Alkali, or Sal K'aJi, in botany. Sec Salicor- 
 
 NIA. 
 
 ALKANET, in botany. SeeAscHusA. 
 
 ALKtKENCI, in botany, the trivial name of a 
 fpccies of phyfalis. Ste Physaiis. 
 
 ALKtNNA, in botany. See Lawsonia. 
 
 ALKERMKS, in pharmacy, a compound cordial 
 medici'ie made in the form of a confcflon, deriving its 
 name from the kcrmes-berries ufcd in its compolition, 
 
 ALKORAN. See Alcoran-. 
 
 ALL-Hallows. See WLJ.-Sai)ili. 
 
 y^LL-CijoJ. SeeCHF-NoroDiuM. 
 
 /tuL-H.al. See Heracleum andSxACHTs. 
 
 AtL-Saintt, in the kalendar, denotes a fcflival ce- 
 lebrated on the lint of November, in commemoration 
 of all the faints in general ; which is othen,vife called 
 ^Likalhu-i, The number of faints beinj fo exceffive- 
 1 yuiultiplied, it was found tooburdcnfomc to dedicate 
 a feall-day tn e.-.ch. In reality, there are not oays 
 enough, fcarce hours enough, in the year, for this 
 purpofe. Mcnce an expedient was had rccourfe to, by 
 comincmorcting fuch in the lump as had not their own 
 days. Boniface IV. in the ninth century, introduced 
 3 N the 
 
 /
 
 A L L 
 
 [ 466 ] 
 
 A 1. 
 
 II 
 Albtiut 
 
 thf (Vafl of .i' ; Sr:/.tj i:i Ii^ly, which vvas foon a('u;r 
 adoj-'.ed Jiiio the other chir/tacs. 
 
 ALi.-i>Ai.\T!> Bii) , i l\y,:'aMi harbour near St Sal- 
 vador iu timW, ill b. America, on the AtLiuic ocean. 
 \V. Long. 4o». S. Lat. 12". 
 
 y^LL-^onis, iu the calendar, deiKitcs a fcaft-day, 
 hfld on the I'ccoiid of November, in coiu-.nciiioratioii 
 ol' all the fai'.htul dcccaled. — The fea(t of ftll-Souls 
 washrlliriroJuctJ in the eleventh century, by CiJiloti 
 abbot of CK:iiy, who enjoined it on his own order : 
 but it was not long i>el'ore it bccaiiic adopted by the 
 miiTlibouring chiii clics. 
 
 rtl.L-SPICE. Sec MvRi us and Calycanthi's. 
 
 ALLA, or .^i.lah, the name by which the pro. 
 feilbisof Mahonict-inifm call the Supreme Being. 
 
 The ternirf//'jis Arabic, derived from the verb <»/«/', 
 to adore. It is the fame with the Hebrew £/orf^, 
 which iigniiics the /idurubU Being. 
 
 ALL.'^MANDA, in botany; a genus of the nio- 
 liogyi'.ia order, bclonj^ing to the pentandria clal's of 
 plants. The eharatterbarc : The catyx is a tive-lcav'd 
 perianthium : The csrcZ/.TConllftsof one fuuuel-lhap'd 
 petal ; the tube cylindric ; the border ftmiquinqactid 
 aiid veniricofe ; the divifions expanding and obiufe : 
 The //a»/;//ji? have fearce any filaments; the atitherx 
 sre five, arrow-fliaped, converging, in the ihioatofthe 
 tube : The fijliUum has an oval gcrmen, girt at the 
 bafe with an annular margin ; the Itylus is filiform, the 
 length of the tube ; the rtigma is headed, and contrac- 
 ed in the middle: \\\t i>irkarpiujn\% an orbicular, 
 compreilcd, brilUy capfule, containing one cell with 
 two valves : 1 \itj'icds arc imbricated, orbr:ular, flat, 
 with a membranaceous wing on the margin, and are 
 very numerous. There is but one fpecies, the cathar- 
 tica, a native of Surinam. 
 
 ALLANTOIS, or Allantoides, a gut-fhapcd 
 velicle invefling the fa?ius of cows, goats, Iheep, &e. 
 filled with an urinous liquor conveyed to it from the 
 urachus. — (See Comparative Anattviy). Anatomifls 
 are not agreed whether the allantois has any exill- 
 cnce in the human fpecies or not. 
 
 ALLATIUS (Leo), keeper of the Vatican library, 
 a native of Scio, and a celebrated writer of the i 7th 
 century. He was of great fervice to the gentlemen of 
 Port Royal in the controverfy they had with M. Claude 
 touching the belief of the Greeks wiiji regard to the 
 cucharill. No Latin was ever more devoted to the fee 
 of Rome, or more inveterate againfl the Greek fchif- 
 niatics, than Allatius. He never engaged in matri- 
 mony, nor was he ever in orders ; and pope Alexan- 
 der VTI. havingafkedhim one day, why he did not en- 
 ter into orders ? he anfwered, " Becaufe 1 would be 
 free to marry." The pope rejoined, <' If fo, who do 
 you not marry?" "Becaufe," replied .'Allatius, " I 
 would be at liberty to take orders." Thus, as Mr 
 Bayle obfervcs, he paffcd his whole life, wavering be- 
 twixt a parilh and a wife ; forry, perhaps at his death, 
 for having chofenneitherof them ; when, iflie had fix- 
 ed upon one, he might have repented his choice for ;;o 
 
 or/oyears If ue believe John Patricius, Allaiius 
 
 had a very extraordinary pen, w iih which and no o- 
 iher, he wrote Greek for 40 years ; and we need not 
 be furprifcd, that, when he loll it, he was fo grieved, 
 that he could fcarcc forbear crying. He publilhcd fcve- 
 ral mannfcripts, fevcral traullaiions of Greek authors, 
 
 Allay 
 
 and Icvcral pieces of his own compoting. In his coni- 
 poliiions he is thought to ihow more cruJicion than 
 judgnicnt: he ufed alio to make freqiknt digrellions Allccia 
 
 troinoiieiubjcd toanothcr. HediedacKomt in 1669, ' "'" 
 
 aged 83. 
 
 ALLAY. SecAiLOY. 
 
 ALLtGAl A, a svord anci-ntly fubftribcd at the 
 bottom of refcripts and eoiillitutijiisof the emperors; 
 isj'g'iata, or ujlatti, was under other inlhuaicnts. 
 
 ALLEGEAS, or Ai.legias, a (birt'maiuil'acturcd 
 in the Eaft-Indies. There arc two fojts of tjiem : 
 fomc are of cotton, andoihersoi feveralkindsof herbs, 
 which arefpiin like tlixand htmp. Ihcirlcngih and 
 breadth are of eight ells, by rive, fix, or feven-cighths, 
 and of twelve ells, by three-fourths, or five-eighths. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE, in law, is t he tic, or /.Vjw://, which 
 binds the liibjcrt to the government, in return for that 
 protection uiiich government affords the fubject. The 
 thing itlllf, or fubitaniial part of it, is foutidtd in rca- 
 fon and the nature of government ; the iiame and the 
 form arc derived to us from ancient Gothic ufagc. Un- 
 der the feudalfyflem,evcry owntrof land held tiicm in 
 fubjcction to fojne fuperior or lord, from whom or from 
 whole anceftors the tenant or vadil had received ihcm: 
 and there was amutuaUruit or confidence fubfilling be- 
 tween the lord and valial,lhatihelord ihouldprotett ihc 
 valial in the enjoyment of the territory he had grunted 
 h im ;an d on the other hand, that the valTallhould be faith- 
 ful to the lord, and defend him againfl all his enemies. 
 This obligation on thepartof the valial was called his 
 fijibtas or fealty: and an oath of fealty was required by 
 the feudal l,->w to be tjken by all tenants to their land- 
 lord, which is couched in almolt the fame terms as the 
 ancient oath of allegiance; except that, in the ufualoa-th 
 of fealty, tliere was frequently a favingor exception of 
 the faith due to a hiperior lord by name, under whom 
 the landl'Td himfclf was perhaps only a tenant or vaf- 
 fal. But when the acknowledgment vvas made 16 the 
 abfohite fuperior himfclf, who vvas vaflal to no man, it 
 was no longer called the oath of fealty, but the oath of 
 allegiance , and therein the tenant fwore to bear faitii 
 to his fovercign lordjin oppolition toall men, without 
 any faving or exception. Land held by this exalted 
 fpecies of fealty, was czWtAfeudi/rn ligiuvi, a liege fee, 
 the vafialSi^cOT//;^///^/;, or liege men ; and the fovereign 
 their dominus ligius, orliege lord. And when fovereign 
 princes did homage to each other for lands held under 
 their refpci^tivefovereignties, adiilinftion vvas always 
 made between fimpl: homage, which was only an ac- 
 knowledgment of tenure ; and AV^f homage, which in- 
 cluded the I'ealty before-mentioned, and the fervices 
 confcquent upon it. In Britain, it becoming a fettled 
 principle of tenure, that all lands in the kingdom are 
 holden of the king as their fovereign and Ic-d para- 
 mount, no oath but that of fealty could ever be tak^n 
 to inferior lords ; and the oath of allegiance was ne- 
 ceffarily confined to the pcrfon of the king alone. By 
 an calyanalogy, the term allegiance wiS foon brought 
 to fignify all other engagements which arc due from 
 fubjefts to their prince, as well as thofe duties which 
 were fimply and nicrely territorial. And the oath of 
 allegiance, as adniiniilercd in England for upwards of 
 600 years, contained a promife " to be true and faith- 
 " ful to the kin J anil his heirs, and truth and faith to 
 <' bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to 
 
 " know
 
 A L L 
 
 L A^n 1 
 
 A I. L 
 
 'ackJJcne 
 
 illcgianre " know or licar of nny ill or d^r.agc iiittnJt liim, 
 
 — ^ ' " v.'irlio'jt defending him lhtrcfi.,ji." Buc, at llic rc- 
 
 vol'vioii, ihc terms of this oaili being thoitj^ln j'crhaps 
 to favour too much the notion of uoii-rcliltancc, tiie 
 prcff lit form was introduced by the convcniion parlia- 
 ment, which is more general and iiidcrcrn.inaic than 
 the former; the fiibjetlonly proniiiing " tliat he will 
 " be faiihfijl and bear true slUjiiance to the king." 
 without mtiiiioiiin;; " his heirs," orfpecifying in the 
 Icalt wherein that allegiance conlifts. The oath of fu- 
 premaey is pi incipally calculated as a renunciation of 
 the poj.c's pretcmled authori:y : and the oath of abja- 
 ration, introduced in the reign of King William, viry 
 amply fupplics the loofc and general texture of the oath 
 of allegiance ; it recogi.iziiig the right of his majedy, 
 derivid under the aft of fcf.lcmcni ; engaging to fnp- 
 port him to the utmofbof the jtiror's power ; proraifing 
 to difdofe all traitcrous confjiiracits againlt him; and 
 (Txprcfsly renouncing any claim of the dcfceiidants of 
 the late pretender, in as clear and explicit terms asthc 
 Engliih language can furnilli. This oath mull be ta- 
 ken by all perfonsin any olJice, truft, or employment ; 
 and may be tendered by tuo julliccs of the peace lo 
 any perfon whom they Ihall fulpcdofdifaffcdion. And 
 the oath of allegiance may be tendered to all pcrfons 
 above the age of twelve ye.-.rs, whether natives, deni- 
 zens, or aliens. 
 
 But, beiidts thefe exprefs engagements, the lawalfo 
 holds that there is an /ra/)//!^!/, original, and virtual i\- 
 legiance,owing from every AibjecUohis fovereign, an- 
 tecedently to any exprefs promifc, and although the 
 fubjeft never fwore any faith or allegiance in form. 
 Thus Sir tdward Coke very jufllyobferves, that " ail 
 fubjefls are equally bounden to their allegiance as if 
 they had taken the oath ; bceaufc it is written by the 
 linger of the law in their hearts, and the taking of the 
 corporal oath is but an outward declaration of the 
 fame." 
 
 Allegiance, both cxprcfs and implied, is however di- 
 ftinguiihcd by the law into two forts or fpecies, the one 
 natural, the other local ; the former beinjj alfo perpe- 
 tual, the latter temporary. 
 
 A'd/firij/allcgiance isfuchasisduc from all men born 
 witliin the king's dominions iininediatcly upon their 
 birth. Kor ininicdiately upon their birth, they are un- 
 der the king's protection ; at a time too, when (during 
 their infancy) thty are incapable of protecting tnem- 
 felves. Natural allegiance is, therefore, adebt of gra- 
 titude ; which cannot be Ibrfcited, cancelled, or alter- 
 ed, by any change of time, place, or circumftance, nor 
 by ai'y thing but the united concurrence if tbclcgi.la- 
 ture. A Driton who removes to Krance, or to China, 
 owes the fame allegiance to the king of Britain there 
 as at home, and twenty years henceas well as now. For 
 it, is a principle of univcrfal law,That the natiral-born 
 fubjciiof one prinre cannot by any a>51 of his own, no, 
 not by fwcaring allegiance to another, put otf or dif- 
 cl)arge his natural allegiance to the former : for this 
 natural allegiance wa^intrinfic, and priniiiive, and an- 
 tecedent to the other; and cannot be divcAed without 
 the concurrent acl of that pripcc to whom it svas firft 
 due. 
 
 Local allegiance is Aich as is due from an alien, or 
 flrangtr born, for fo long imc a; he eoniiniies within 
 the king's dou.inioii and proteCiiotJ : and \\ ccafes the 
 
 ii. il.il. t l-.;!i nij:.^<r iranifersliiiiifi Jl Tn... unit king- All«K^r)'. 
 
 dom to another, ixaiural ailcginncc is ihcrelore per- *~ — >^ ' 
 
 petu:il, and local /tv/y.s»<»;_) oi;ly ; and th:'t for t!-.i« rca- 
 loa, cvidciiily founded upon the nature ofgoverninem, 
 'J'hnt allegiance is a debt due from the fu! ;ect, irpou art 
 implied contract \sith the prince ; that fo long a.s the 
 one atflirds protection, fo long the other will demean 
 himftlf faithfully. 
 
 The oath of allegiance, or rather the alli-g'i.ti:cc ir- 
 ftlf, is hild to l)c applicable, iiui only to the political 
 capacity of the king, orreg..l otiicc, bat to his natural 
 ptrfon and blood royal: and for the niifappiication of 
 their allegiance, viz. to ihc regal capacity or crown, 
 excluliveof the perfon of the king, were the Spencers 
 banifliedin the reign of Edward 11. Awi from hence 
 arofc tb.it priucij'le of perfonal attachment and atr'cc- 
 tionate loyalty, \\hich induced Eng'iihmeu informer 
 times (and if oceafion reqiired, would doubtlefs in- 
 duce their fons) lo hazard all that was dear to ihcin, 
 lite, fortune, and family, in defence and fupport of 
 their lif gc lord and fovereign. 
 
 It is to be obferveJ, however, in explanation of this PiWiMt- 
 alicgiance. That it docs not preclude refillance'to the '"[ ""'' •'"'- 
 king, when his niifconducl or weakncfs is fuch as to '•"•'"''■•• 
 make refiftance bcnefirial to the community, ft fccins ^'^{-^l rj 
 fairly prcfunicablc, that the convention parliament, „. i4i| 
 which introduced the oath of allegiance in its prefcnt 
 form, did not intend to exclade all rcfiftance; fincc 
 the very authority by w hich the members fat together, 
 w as itfclf the efted of a fuccefsful oppofition to an ac- 
 knoulcdged fovereign. 
 
 Again : The allegiance above defcrihed can only be 
 underllood to fignify obedience to lawful commands. 
 If, therefore, the king (hould ilUiea proclamation, le- 
 vying money or impofmg any ferviceor reftraint upon 
 the fubjed, beyond what the la\v authorifcd, there 
 would cxift no fort of obligation to obey fuch a pro- 
 clamation, in confcqnenccof having taken the oath of 
 allegiance. 
 
 Neither can allegiance be fuppofcd to extend to tlic 
 king after he is actually and abfolutcly depofed, driven 
 into exile, or othcrwifc rendered incapable of exercif- 
 ing the regal office. The promife of allegiance implies, 
 iliat tlie ptrfon to whom the promife is made continues 
 king : that is, continues to cxercife tiit power, and 
 afford the protection, which belong to the office of 
 king : for it is the poflcnion of thefe which makes 
 fuch a particular perfon the objcd of the oath. 
 
 ALLEGORY, in compofition, confills in choodno- 
 a fccondary fiibjrCt, having all its properties and cir- 
 cumftanccs refcmbling thofcof the principal fubjcft, 
 and defcribing the former in fuch a manner as to rc- 
 prcfcnt the latter. The principal fubjcCt is thus kept 
 out of view, and we arc left todifcover it by refleclion. 
 In other words, an allegory is, in every rcfpecl, fi- 
 milar to an hicroglyphical painiing, excepting only 
 that words are ufcd inflcad of colours. Their efFcds 
 are precifcly tlie fame: An hieroglyphic railcs two 
 images in the mind; one I'ecn, that rcprcfents o:ie that 
 is not fecn : An allegory docs the fsme ; the reprefcn- 
 tative fubjcd isdcfcribcd, and the refcmblance leadsus 
 to apply the defcription to the fubjeift reprefented. 
 
 Ther t cannot be a finer or more corred allegory than 
 the follow ing, in which a vineyard is made to7eprcfcnt 
 God's own p'.(y'c the Jews : 
 
 3 N 2 '« Thoii
 
 A L L 
 
 [ 46« ] 
 
 ALL 
 
 />l'rpri. " Tlioii hafi brought a vine i-ih of Ejrypt ; iliou 
 •"-^ — ■■ " hafl call out the heathen, and planted it. Thoudidft 
 " ciuiic it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The 
 " hills were covered with its IhaJow, and the boujjhs 
 '« thtrcof wcrclike the goodly cedars. Why halt thou 
 *' then broken down her hedges, To that all that pals 
 " doplnck her ? The boar out of the wood doth wallc 
 <• it, and the wild brail doth devour it. Return, wc 
 " beftech ihec, O God of hofts: look down from hea- 
 " veil, and behold, and vilit this vine and the vineyard 
 "thy lighi-hand hath planted, and the branch thou 
 " niidell llrong for thyfelf." l^fal. Ixxx. 
 
 Notliing gives greater plcafure than an allegory, 
 when tiie reprefcntative fnbjeft bears a llroiig analogy, 
 in all its circunil'tances, to that which is reiircfciited. 
 But nioft writers arc unliuky in their choice, the ana- 
 logy being generally fo faint and obfcure, as raihcj- to 
 puzzle then to plcafe. Allegories, as well as meta- 
 phors and (iniilies, are unnatural iu exprelling any le- 
 verc palHon which totally occupies the niiad. Kor this 
 reafoM, the following fpcech of Macbeth is judly con- 
 demned by the learned author of the Elements of Cri- 
 licifui : 
 
 Metho;ight I heard a voice cry, Sleep no more ! 
 Macbeth doth murder Sleep; the innocent lleep ; 
 Sleep that knits vp the ravell'd llecve of Care, 
 The birth of each day's life, fore labour's bath, 
 Bah:i of hurt minds, great Nature's I'econ.l courfe. 
 Chief liourilher in life's feaft. Ail ii. Si:. 5. 
 
 But fee this fubjeft more fully treated undcrthc article 
 JVI E T A r n O R a/iii Allegory . 
 
 ALLEGRI (Antonio), called Corregio from the 
 place of his birth, an cmineij^iillorical painter, was 
 born in the year 1494. Being defccnded of poor pa- 
 rents, and educated in an obfcnre village, he enjoyed 
 iioncof thofe advantages which contributed to form 
 ihc other great painters of that illulbious age. He 
 law none of the ftaiues of ancient Greece or Rome ; 
 nor any of the works of the eflablillicd fehools of 
 Home and Venice. But Nature was his guide ; and 
 Corregio was one of her favourite pupils. To exprcfs 
 the facility with which he painteJ, he ufcd to fay that 
 he always had his thoughts ready at the end of his 
 
 pencil. 
 
 The agreeable fmilc, and the profulion of graces 
 which he gave to his madonas, faints, and children, 
 iiavc been taxed with being fometimes unnatural ; but 
 ftill they are amiable and feducing : An eafy and flow- 
 ing pencil, an union and harmony of colours, and a 
 pcrfc<flintelligcnceoflightandlhade,gaveana(loni(li- 
 ing relief to all his piduies, and have been the admi- 
 ration both of his colemporarics and his fucceffors. 
 Annibal Caracci, who flourilhed jo years after him, 
 fludied and adopted his manncn n preference to that 
 •of any other maftcr. In a letter to his coulin Louis, 
 4»e exprclies with great warmth the impreffion which 
 •was made on him by the firfl light of Corregio's paint- 
 ings:" Every thing which I fee here {fayshe)afloni{h- 
 es mc ; particularly the colouring and the beauty of the 
 children. They live — they breathe — They fniile with 
 fo much grace and fomuch reality, that it isimpodible 
 CD refrain from fmiling and partaking of their enjoy- 
 ment. My heart is ready to break with grief when I 
 think on the unhappy fate of jioor Corregio — thatfo 
 wondtrfnl atnan (if he ought not rather tobc called au 
 
 angel) IhouldtinJIh his days fo mifcrably, in a country Alkgr 
 where his talents were never known !" ' >/- 
 
 From want of curiolity or of rcfolutioii, or from 
 want of patronage, Corregio never vilitcd Rome, but 
 remained his ^^ hide life at Parma, where the art of 
 painting waslitllcellcemed,and ofcoufci^uence poorly 
 icwardtd. This concurrence of unfavourable circum- 
 Itanccs occalioned at lall his premature death at the 
 age of 40. He was employed to paint the cupola of 
 rile cathedral at Parma, the fubjecl of which is an af- 
 funi|Hionof the Virgin ; and having executed it in a 
 manner that has long been the admiration of every j>er 
 foil of good tafle, for the grandeur of delign, and cfpc- 
 cially for the boldnefs of the fore-lhortenings (an 
 art which he tirfl and at once brought to the utmoft 
 perfection), he went to receive his payment. The 
 canons of the cliurch, either through ignorance or 
 bafenefs, Ibuiid fault with his work ; and although the 
 price originally agreed upon had been very uioiieratc, 
 they alltdgei#tliat it was far above the merit of the 
 artiil, and forced him to accept of the paultry fuin of; 
 20olivres ; which, to add to ihe indignity, they paid 
 hiin in copper money. To carry home this unwcriliy 
 load to his indigent wile and children, poor Corregio 
 had to travel fix or eight miles from Parma. Ihc 
 weight of his burJen, the heat of the weather, and 
 his chaj^rin at tliis vil'ain.'us treatment, immediately 
 threw him iyto apicurify, whicli in three days put an 
 end to his lile and his misfortunes. . 
 
 Kor the jirefervation of this magnificent work the 
 world is indebted to Titian. As he palled through 
 Parma, in the /////(^ of Charles V. he run iiillantly to 
 fee the c/)c-/W//j"t^ of Corregio. Wliilc he was at- 
 tentively viewing it, one of the principal canons of the • 
 church told hinuhat fuch agroiefque performance did 
 not meritliis notice, and that they intended foon tohave 
 the whole defaced. " Have a care of what you do 
 (replied the other), if I were not Titian, I would cer- 
 tainly with 10 be Corregio." 
 
 Corregio's exclama.ion upon viewing a pifture by 
 Raphael is well known. Having long been accuftom- 
 ed to liear the moll unbounded applaufc bellowed on 
 the works of that divine painter, he by degrees be- 
 came lefs delirous than afraid of feeing any of them. 
 One, however, he at laA had occallon to fee. He 
 examined it iittentively for fonie minutes in profound 
 filcnce ; and then with an air of fatisfaclion exclaim- 
 ed, / am ftill a pnhJer. Julio Romano, on feeing 
 fomc of Corregio's pidures at Parma, declared they 
 were fuperior toany thing in painting he had yet be- 
 held. One of thefc no doulit would be the famous 
 Virgin and Child, with Mary Magdalene and St Jc- 
 rora : But whether our readers are to depend npon his 
 opinion, or upon that ot Lady Millar, who in her 
 Lfttirs from Italy gives a very unfavourable account of 
 it, we fhall not prefume to determine. This lady, 
 however, fpeaks in a very different flyleof the no lefs 
 famous hiotte or Night of Corregio, of which Ihe faw 
 only a copy in the Duke's palace at Modena, the ori- 
 ginal having been fold for a great fum of money 10 
 the king of Poland. " It furprifcs me very much . 
 (fays flic), to fee how different the characters are in 
 this piflure from that which I already have defcribcd 
 to yon. The fubjefb is a Nativity ; and the extraor- 
 dinary beauty ol this picture proceeds from the clair 
 
 obfcure r
 
 ALL 
 
 r 469 ] 
 
 ALL 
 
 AUegro obfctrt : there arc two different lights introduced, by 
 I nicans of which the pcri'onagcs arc viliblc ; iumcly,thc 
 AUeluiih. jjgi^j proceeding froiuthe body ol" the child, and the 
 ' " ' moon-light. Thcfe twoare [irclerveddilUncl, aadpro- 
 tUice a mod wonderful ctfctl. The cliild's body is lo lu- 
 minous, that the fuperticies is neatly tranlpareiit, and 
 tlic rays of light emitted by it arc vcrihcd in tlie ctfcCt 
 they produce upon the furroundingobjciits. They arc 
 not rays dillin.t and fcparate, like liiofc round tlie 
 face of a fun that indicates an infuraucc-oriicc ; nor 
 linear, like thole proceeding from the man in the al- 
 manack ; but of a dazzling brightnefs : by their lignt 
 you fee clearly the face, neck, and hands, of tiic Vir- 
 gin (the reft of the perfon being in llrong lliadow), 
 the faces of ihc pajl an who crowd round the child, 
 and particularly one woman, who liolds her hand be- 
 fore her face, led her eyes ihould be fo dazzled as to 
 prevent her from beholding tlie Infant. 'J'his is a 
 beautiful natural adlion, and is moll ingenioully intro- 
 duced. The draw on which the chila is laid appears 
 gilt, from the light of his body lliiniiig on it. Tlic 
 moon lights up tlie back-ground of the picture, which 
 rcprtfcnts a landfcape. Every object is diiliiicl, as in 
 a briglit moon-light night ; and there cannot be two 
 ligjusin nature moieilirtcrcnt than thole which appear 
 in the fame picture. The virgin and the cliild are of 
 the luoft pertecl beauty. There is a great variety of 
 characJter in thcJift'erent perfoiis preleiit,yet that uni- 
 formity common to j11 hcrdfincn and i)eafants. In 
 fliort, this copy is fo admirable, that I was quite lorry 
 to be obliged to lolV light of it fo foon ; but I never 
 lliall forget it. The duke of Modena, for whom Cor- 
 regio did the original pioUire, gave him only 6oolivres 
 of France for it ; a great fuin in thofe days : but at 
 prcfent, what ought it to cod ?" This great painter's 
 death happened in 1534. 
 
 ALLKGRO, in mulic, an Italian w-ord, denoting 
 that the part is to be played in a fprightly, briik, live- 
 ly, and gay manner. 
 
 Pir/ /Illecro, lignilies, that the part it is joined to 
 fhould be fung or played quicker ; as 
 
 I'oco pill Allegro intimates, that the part to which 
 it refers ought to be played or fung only a little more 
 bri/kly than allegro alone requires. 
 
 ALLEIN (Jofeph), the foil of Tobias AUein, was 
 born in the Devizes, in Wiltlhirc, in 163:!, and edu- 
 cated at Oxford. In 1655, he became allidant to Mr 
 Newton, in Taunton-Magdalcn, inSomcrlctihirc ; but 
 was deprived for non-conformity. He died in 1668, 
 3ged 35. He was a man of great learning, and greater 
 charity; preferving, though anon -con form id and afe- 
 vere fuflerer on that account, great refptcl for the 
 church, and loyalty to his fovcreign. He wrote levc- 
 ral books of piety, which arc highly cdccmed; but 
 his Aiarvi to iiticoiiveiteil fiiiiiers is more famous than 
 the red. There have been many editions of this little 
 pious work, the falc of which has been very great ; of 
 the edition 1 6 72, there were 20,000 foldjof that of 1675, 
 with this title, ^4 poe guide to heaven, 50,000. There 
 wasalfoa large impreflion of it with itsfirdtitlcin 1720. 
 
 ALLELUIAH, or Halleluiah, a word (igni- 
 fying, praife the LortJ, to be met with cither at ihe 
 beginning or end of foine pfalms : fuch is plalm cxlv. 
 and ihofe that follow, to the end. Alleluiah was fung 
 upon folcmn days of rejoicings, Tobit xiii. 12. St John 
 
 in the Revelations (xix. i,3,4,6.)fays, that he" heard AIIcm»aJ 
 a great voice of much peojilc in heaven, who faid, Al- II 
 
 Icluiah ; and the four and tvventy elders, and the four ■^^''"- 
 beads, fell down and worfhippcd God tliat fat ou the * 
 throne, faying /lllcluiah.'" This hymnof joy and prai- 
 fcs was trantferrcd from the fy nagoguc to the church. 
 St Jerom tells us, that at the fuucial of tabiola fevc- 
 ral pfalnis were fung with loud alltluiahs ; and that 
 the monks of I'aledinc were awakened, at their mid- 
 night watcliings, with ihc linging of alleluiahs. So 
 much energy ha= been obftrvcd in this lerui, that the 
 ancient church thought proper to prefervc it, without 
 tranllating it cither into Greek or Latin, for fear of 
 impairing the genius and foftnefs of it. The fourth 
 council of Toledo has prohibited the ufe of it in tinics, 
 of Lent, or other days of fading, and in the ceremo- 
 nies of mourning : and, according to tlie prcfent prac- 
 tice of the Romilli church, this word is never repeated 
 ill Lent, nor in the obfequics of the dead ; nutwith- 
 daadi g which, it is ufed in the niafs for the dead, 
 according to the mofarabic ritual, at the introit, wh.tu 
 they fing, Tu cs part.o mea, Domine, AlUUiia, inter- 
 raviViiitium, j^ilUiiia, AUetuia. The finging alleluiali 
 was oftentimes an invitaiory or call to each other to 
 praife the Lord. 
 
 ALLEMAND a fort of grave folcn;n mufic, with 
 
 good meafure, and a llow movement It is alfo a brifk 
 
 kind of dance, very common in Germany and Swit- 
 zerland. ^ 
 
 ALLEMANNIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any 
 thing belonging to the ancient Germans. Thus, we 
 meet witli /\lleniannic ]iidi.ry, Ajlcmannic language, 
 Allemannic law, S:c. 
 
 ALLEN (John) archbiihop of Dublin in the reign 
 of king Henry VIII. was educated in the univcrlity 
 of Oxford ; from whence removing to Cambridge, he 
 there took the degree of ba- hclor of laws. He was 
 fenr by Dr Waih.m, archbilliop of Canterbury, to 
 the pope, about certain matters relating to the church. 
 He continued at Rome nine years, and was created 
 dodtor of laws ; either there or in fome other uiiivtr- 
 fity of Iialy. After his return, he was appoinict! 
 chaplain to Cardinal Wolfcy, and was conimill'ary or 
 judge of his court as legate a lulere ; in the execution 
 of which office he was iufpccted of great diflionedy, 
 and even perjury. He aflilted the cardinal in viliting, 
 and afterwards fupprefiing, 40 of the fmallcr nionade- 
 ries, for the ereiition of his college atOxfordand that 
 at Ipfwicii. The cardinal procured for him the living 
 of Dalby in Leiccderlhire, though it belonged to the 
 madcr and brethren of the hofpital of Biirion Lazars. 
 About the Litter end of the year ijij he was incor- 
 porated doctor of laws in the univerlity of Oxford. 
 On the i?ih of March i 52S he was confccrated arch- 
 biihop of Dublin, in tlie room of Dr Hugh Inge de- 
 ccafed ; and about the fiurn; time was made chancellor 
 of Ireland. He wrote, 1. E^-i/lo/a tie I\i//ii fignifie^- 
 tioneaflipa ei pajfiva ; penned by Liui at the lime when 
 he received the archicpifcopal pall. 2. De ctHCiietuJi- 
 nibiii ac patniis in tuitoriij canjii olferi' audit. He • 
 wrote alfo fcvcral other pieces rel.iting to tlic church. 
 His death, which happened in J.ily 1554, w'as very 
 tragical: for being taken in a time of rebellion l-y 
 Thomas Fitzgerald, cldcd fon to the carl of Kildare, 
 he was by his command mod cruelly murdered, being 
 
 briir.ed
 
 ALL [ 47 
 
 Allen biaine J like an ox, at Tariaii'.e in Ireland, in il:c 58ih 
 J year of iiis age. The phcc where tlic murder w,iS 
 /■'.L rioii. c.rar.iiiitd was aturwarus hedged ia,ov<r^rowii, atid 
 ' ^ ua.rcqucnted, in detella'iioii ottiic fact. 
 
 A^LEN (Thoiius), a t'amousmathcinaticiaii of ihc 
 T6:h ctiujry, born at Ltoxeitr in Statt'ordlhire the 
 2IU of December 154;. He was adr.iitted fchoUr 
 of Trinity-college Oxford the 4th of June 1561 ; and 
 in 15A7 tooli Li.-> dcgric of mailer of arts. In 1570 
 he quitted liio college and fcUowlhip and rciircd to 
 Gloncelter-hall ; where he lladicd very clcifcly, and bi-- 
 ian>c famous for his knowledge in antiquity, philofo- 
 phy, and mathematics. Having received an invitation 
 from Henry earl of Nortiiiiniberland, a great Iriend 
 and patron of the mathematicians, he fpent fome time 
 at the carl's hoiife, where he became acquainted with 
 t!iofccckbratedmathtmaticiausihoraas Harriot, John 
 Dee, VV alter Warner, and Naihanicl Torpoi ley. Ko- 
 licrt carl of Lticertcr had a particular eftecui for Mr 
 -■Mien, and would have conferred abilhopric upon him, 
 biit hii love of folitudc and retirement made him de- 
 cline the oiler. His great Ikill in the mathematics 
 made tl:e ignorant and vulgar look upon him as a ma- 
 j',iciiin or conjurer : the author of a book iniitlcd Lei- 
 c:Jlei 's CoK:f!jo/!U'ea7i/!,liasa.ccording\y accufed him with 
 iifmg the art of figuring, to procure the carl of Lci- 
 celler's unlaw fuldeligus.and endeavouring by the black 
 art to bring about a match betwixt him and Queen 
 Elizabeth. But without pretending to point out the 
 abfurdity of (he charge, it is certain tliat the earl pla- 
 red fuch confidence in Allen, that noihing material in 
 the flate was tranfaclcd without liis knowledge; and the 
 earl had conrtant information, by letter, from Mr Al- 
 len, of what palled in the univcrlity. Mr Allen was 
 very cniiousand indefatigable in collefling fcattered 
 inanufcripts relating to hiflory, antiquity, allronomy, 
 philofophy, and mathematics : thtfe collections have 
 been quoted by fcveral learned authors, Sec. and uien- 
 tioned to have been isi the Bibliotheca Alleniana. He 
 publilhed in Latin the fecond and third books of Clau- 
 dius Ptolemy of Pelulium, Couch iiii:g the "judgment 
 if ikc Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Qjja- 
 Jripaitile Cctifiruflioii, with an cxpolition. He wrote 
 alfo notes on many of Lilly's books, and fome on Jolin 
 Bale's work De icr/ftoi ii.is Al. Bnta/i/iite. Having 
 lived to a great age, he died at Gloucefler-hallon the 
 30th of September 1652. 
 
 ALLENDORF, a fmall town in the circle of the 
 Upper Rhine, and in the landgravaie of HclFc-CalTel, 
 remarkable for its lalt-works and three flonc-bridges. 
 It is feated on the river Wefcr, i 5 miles eafl of Cali'el ; 
 E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51. 26. 
 
 ALLEU, a river which runs through the duchy of 
 Lunenburg, and falls into the Wcfcr a little below 
 Verdcn. 
 
 Ali.ep., £00.'/, in ancient writers. The word 
 uliir fervcs to make the exprelTion of fuperlative figni- 
 lication. So, a//t)-^(/C(./is the greatcit good. Some- 
 times it is written atJer. 
 
 ALLERION, or Alerion, in heraldry, a fort of 
 eagle without beak or ftct, having noihing perfect but 
 the wings. They ditler from martlets by having their 
 wina;scxp'.nded, whereas thofe of thema'ile tare dole; 
 and denote imperialifls vanquilhed and difarmed ; for 
 which rcafou they arc more common in French than in 
 German coats of arms. 
 
 2 
 
 ] 
 
 ALL 
 
 AI.LESTRY (Richard, D. D.) an eminent di\i:-.c, 
 bor:'. it Uppiiigtou in Shroplhirein March i6i9,\\as 
 educated in the gramlnar-lchool at Covciiiry, ai:d af- 
 tcrwardsatChriii-church in Oxford. Hi5parts,\\hich 
 \\c re extraordinary, were improved by anolcfs extra- 
 ordinary iiiduftry. He took up arms for king Charles I. 
 and was fometimcs fcen with his mulket in one hand 
 and his book in the other. He was very active in the 
 fcrvice of king Charles II. before his reHoration, and 
 was employed by the royalills in tranfiiiting bufincfj 
 with tt;at prince during his exile j but was atlall feized 
 at Dover by a party of foldicrs, and cummittcd pri- 
 foucr to Lam-bcth hoi.fc, where he was confined lixor 
 eight weeks: but foon after the relloraiion he was 
 made canon of Chrift-church, created dodor of divi- 
 nity, and appointed chajdain in ordinary to the king, 
 and rcgius profcifor of divinity. In 1665 he was ap- 
 pointid j)r()Voll of Eton college, where he railed the 
 Jchool, which he found in a low condition, to an un- 
 common pitch of reputation. The we/l lide of the 
 outward quadrangle of that college was built from the 
 ground at his cxpence. 'I he excellent Dr Hamn'ond, 
 who was his intimate friend, left him his valuable 
 library, %vhich he I'.imfelf afterwards bequeathed tohis 
 fucceli'brs in the divinity chair. He was eminent for 
 his piety, benevolence, and integrity; for the fmcerity 
 01 his fiicndihip, and his dilinterefled temper. He 
 wrote fcveral books ; and a colledion of his fernions 
 were printed after his dcceafe by Dr Fell bilhop of 
 Oxford. He died Anguft 28. 1680. 
 
 Allestry (Jacob), an Englilh poet of the lall 
 ceritury. He was the fon of James Allellry, a book- 
 fdlcr of London who was ruined by the great fire in 
 1666. Jacob was educated at VVedminiicr fchool, 
 entered at C'hrifl-church Oxford, in the act term 1671 
 at the age of 18. and was eledled ftudent in 1672. 
 He took the degree in arts; was mufic-reader in 1679, 
 and terrje tilius in 16.S1 ; both which offices he exe- 
 cuted with great applaufc, being cdeemed a good phi- 
 lologift and poet. He had a chief hand in the verfcs 
 and paftoralsfpokcn in ihe theatre at Oxford May 21. 
 168 1, by Mr. W illiam Savile fecond fon of the Mar- 
 quis of Halifax, and George Cholmonddey fecond 
 fon of Robert vifcount Krlls (both of Chri/l-church), 
 before James dukeof Yoik, his duchefs, and the laJy 
 Anne; which verfes and pallorals were afterwards 
 printed in the " Examen Poeticum." He died October 
 15. 1686, and was buried in St Thomas's church-yard. 
 
 ALLEV EURE, a fmall brafs Swcdilh coin, worth 
 about ^d. Englifh money. 
 
 ALLEVl.'^ TION, denotes the making a thing 
 li>;hter, and eaficr to bear or endure. It ftands oppo- 
 fed to aggravation. 
 
 ALLEY (William), bifliop of Exeter in the reign 
 of queen Elizabeth, was born at Great Wycomb in 
 Buckinghamlhire. From Eton fchool, in the year 
 1 528, he removed to king's-coUege Cambridge, where 
 he took. the degree of liichelor of arts. He alfo flu- 
 died fome time at OxlV.rd; afierwards he married, was 
 prefentcd to a living, and became azealuus reformer. 
 Upon queen Mary 'sacceifion he left his cure and reti- 
 red into the north of England; where he maintaiiicd 
 his wife and himfelf by teaching aft hooi, and piacli- 
 fmg phyfic. Queen Elizabeth afcending :hc throne, 
 he went to London, where he acquired great reputa- 
 tion by reading the diviniiylcQure at St Paul's, and 
 
 in
 
 ALL 
 
 [ AV J 
 
 A L L 
 
 Alley 111 July 1560 was co.'ifccnj'.ctl bilhop ofE;;tcr. He 
 II was cicutcd dodor of divinity at OxforJ in November 
 Allcyn. ij6r. He died on the ijth of April 1J70, and was 
 b.iricd at Lxtcr in the cathedral. He wrote, i. Tht 
 poor man' i library, 2 vol. fol. LoiiJ. IS7I. Thclc vo- 
 lumes contain twelve leclurcs 011 the hrft epiftle of 
 St Peter, read at Si Paul's. 2. A H^bnw grammar, 
 ^V'llc^hcrit v.asevcrpublilhcd i> u'lccrtain. He iraiif- 
 htcd ilic Pcnratciich,in tiie verlionof the Bible which 
 was unccrtikcn by queen Elizabeth'^ coinn):uid. 
 
 All£Y, in gardening, a (Iraij^ht p»<-allel wa'k, 
 bounded on both fides with trees, llirubs, 8;c. and 
 ufaally covered v. ith gravel or turf. 
 
 Alley, anung builders, denotes a narrow paiTage 
 leading from one place to another. 
 
 Alley, in pcrlpciftive, that which, in order to h:ivc 
 a greater appearance of Icngtii, is made wider at tlie 
 crhtrance than at the termination. 
 
 Alley, in the new hufbanJry, implies the vacant 
 fpacc between the outcrmofl row of corn on one bed 
 and the ncarefl row to it on the next parallel bed ; and 
 it is iifuaily about four feet in breadth, txthifivf of 
 the partitions between the rows of corn in tlie beds. 
 The firfl hoeing of wheal is performed in the begin- 
 ning of winter, and the earth is ploughed away from 
 tiie r>-)ws into the intervals, which forms fmall ridges 
 in the middle between the double rows. The fccond 
 hoeing is in the fpring, which turns it back to the 
 rovvs,lcavinga furrowin the middle of the alley. The 
 tliird hoeing is from the rows, after the wheat has 
 bloifomed ; this turns the earth into the intervals, 
 forming fmall ridges there, as at the firft hoeing. The 
 fourth hoeing return^ the earth to the ridges, which 
 is performed a month or more after the thiid liocing. 
 This commonly finilbes the horft-hoeingS; it' the land 
 is in good heart ; othtrwifc one or two more hoei.igs 
 are necclFary. 
 
 ALLEYN (Edward), a celebrated Englilh adlor 
 in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and king James, and 
 founder of the college at Dulwich in Surry, was born 
 at London, in the parilliof St Gotolph, Sept. i. 1566, 
 as .ippears from a memorandum of his own wriung. 
 Dr Fuller fays, that he was bred a Uage-p'ayer : and 
 that bis father would have given him a liberal educa- 
 tion, but that he was not turned for a ferious courfc 
 of life. He was, however, a youth of an excellent 
 capacity, a cheerful temper, a tenacious memory, a 
 fwect elocution, and in his pcrfonof a flately port and 
 afpeCtjill which advantages might well induce a young 
 jnan to take to the theatrical profeflion. By feveral 
 authorities wc find he niufl have been on the llage fome 
 time before 1592 ; for at this time he was in high fa- 
 vour with the town, and greatly applauded by the bcfl 
 judges, particularly by Ben Johnfon. 
 
 Haywood, in his prolo.rae to Marloc's Jew of Mal- 
 ta, calls him Proteus for fliapcs, and Rofcius for a 
 tongue. He ufually played the capital parts, and was 
 one of the original aolors in Shakefpcare's plays ; in 
 fome of Ben Johnfon's he wasalfoa principal perfor- 
 mer : but wh.u charatfters he pcrfonated in either of 
 thefc poets, it is dirticult now to determine. This is 
 owing to the inaccuracy of iheir editors, who did not 
 print the names of the players oppoiite to the charac- 
 ters they pcrfiirmed, as the modernciltomis.but gave 
 ope general lill of aclors to the whole fct of plays, as 
 
 in the old folio edition of Shal.cfpearc ; or divided one 
 from the other, fctting the dramatis perfonss before 
 the play;, anil the catalogucof performers after them, 
 as in Johnfon's. 
 
 It uiay appear farpriruig how one of Mr Allcyn's 
 profcfllon Awald be enabled to erc^t fu:h an cdiSce as 
 Dulwich College, and liberally ciJow it for the main- 
 tenance of fo many ])erlo.is. But it niutl be obfervcJ 
 that lie had fume paternal fortnne, which, though 
 finall, might hy a foundation for hi, future afflucnct- ; 
 and it is to be prcfumed, that the profits he receiv-.d 
 from ading, to one of his provident and managing 
 difpolition, and o.;c who by h.is excellence in phyin* 
 drew at'icr him fuch crowds of fpcctator-!, mufl have 
 coniiJcrably improved his fortune : belidcs, he was not 
 only an aJtor, but mailer of a playhoufc, built at his 
 own cxpence, by which he is fiiJ 10 have araafTcd con- 
 fiderablc wcaUh. He was alfo keeper of the ki.ig'i 
 wild beafts, or miller of the royal bear-garden, whicli 
 was frequented by vail crowds of fpcclators ; and the 
 proritsariiingfrom thefc fportsarefiid to havt 3inounr>- 
 ed to 500 1 per annum. He was thrice mirricd ; and 
 the poriijns of his two firil wives, they leaving him 
 flo iifae to inherit, might probably contribute to this 
 bencfaolion. Such kind of donations have been fre- 
 quently thought to proceed more from vanity and of- 
 tentaiion than real piety; but this of Mr All-yn has 
 bccnafcribed to a very (inguUr cau'e, for the devil has 
 been laid to be the lirft promoter of it. Mr Aubrey 
 mentions a tradition, " That Mr Alleyn playing a dc- 
 " mon with fix others, in one of Shakcfpeare's plays, 
 " was, in the mi.id of the pby, furprifcJ by an ap- 
 " parition of the devil ; which fo worked on his f m- 
 " cy, tliat he made avow, which lie performed by 
 " building Dulwicli College" He began the foun- 
 dation of this college, under the direc'lioa of Inigo 
 Jo;ies,ii» 161 4 , and the buildings, gardens, &c. were 
 ti'nilhed in 161 7, in which he is faid to have expended 
 about io,ocol. After the college was built, he met 
 with fome ditficulty in obtaining a charter for fettling 
 his lands in mortmain : for he propofed to endow it 
 with 8000 1. per annum for tlie nuintcnince of one 
 maflcr, one warden, and four fellows, three where jf 
 were to be clergymen, and the fourth a (kilful orga- 
 nid ; alfo fix poor men, and as many women, belides 
 twelve poor boys to be educated till the age of four- 
 teen or fixtcen, and then put o it to fome trade or call- 
 ing. ThcobHrut'lion he met with arofcfromthe lord 
 chancellor Bacon, who wilhed kingjames to fettle pan 
 of thofe lands for the fupport of two academical lec- 
 tures; and he wrote a letter totheMarquiiof Buck- 
 ingham, dated Auguft iS. 1618, intrcating hl.n to 
 ufe his intcreft with his M ijcfly for that purpofe. Mr 
 Alley n'sfolicitation was however at lafl complied witli, 
 and he obtained the royal li:ence, giving him tullpow. 
 er to lay his foundation, by liis M..jefty's letter- patent, 
 bearing date the 2iflof June, 1619 by virtue whereof 
 he did, in the chapel of the fatil new hofpiial at Dul- 
 wich, called " The College of Gol's Gift," on the 
 I 3th of September following, publicly read and pub- 
 liHicd a quadripartite writing in parchment, whereby 
 he created and eftabliihed the faid college ; he then 
 fubfcribedit wiili his name," and fixed his feal to fe- 
 veral parts thereof, in prefence of feveral honourable 
 pcrfons, and ordered copies of the writings to four 
 
 different 
 
 AUe
 
 ALL 
 
 [ 472 
 
 A L L 
 
 AUeyti difForent pnriflies. lie was binilVff ;iic firft mafler of 
 
 II 
 
 Ailiuitco. 
 
 hii colk-ne i fo tl1.11 to make lUc oi" the words of Mr 
 Haywood, one of his conicaiporarics, " He was fo 
 " ini:i>'ltd with luiiiiility aaJ ch.iri y, that he became 
 " his own pciuioiier, humbly fubumtiug hinifelf to 
 " thiit proportion of diet and clothes which he had 
 " bellowed on others." We have no reafon totliink 
 heever repented of thisdidi ibiuiou of his fubllancc; 
 but on the contrary, that he was entirely fatisfied, as 
 appears from the following mcinorial in his own wri- 
 ting, found amongil his papers : " May 26, 1620 — 
 '< My wife and 1 acknowleiJf;,td the tine at the com- 
 " nion picas bar, of all our lands to the college : blef- 
 <' fed be God that he has given us life to do it." His 
 wife died in the year 1623 ; and about two years af- 
 terwards lie married Conflance Kinchtoe, who furvived 
 hini, and rccilvcd remarkable proofs of his aftedtion, 
 if at Icait we may judge of it by his will, wherein he 
 left her coniiderably. He died Nov. 2;. 1626, in the 
 6i(t year of his age, and was buried in the chapel of 
 his new college, where there is a tomb-llone over his 
 grave, with an infcription. His origir.al Diary is alfo 
 there prefervcd. 
 
 The fubjoined anecdote is entertaining in itfelf, and 
 Ihows the high efietin in which Mr .-Mleyn was held as 
 an adtor-: ' Edward Alleyn, the Garick of Shake- 
 ' fpear's time, had been on the moll friendly footing 
 ' with our poet, as well as Ben Johnfon. They nfed 
 ' frequently to fpend tluir evenings together at the 
 ■■ lign of tlie Globe, fomewhcre near Black Kriars, 
 ' where the playhoufe then was. The world need not 
 ' be told, that the convivial hours of fuch a triunivi- 
 ' rate mud be pleafing as well as prohtablc, and may 
 ' truly be faid to be fuch pleafures as might bear the 
 •< refleilllions of the morning. In confequence of one 
 ' of thefemceiings.the following letter was written by 
 •< G. Peel, a Fellow of Chrill-chnrch college, Oxford, 
 ' and a dramatic poet, wh < belonged to the Club, to 
 ' one Marie, and intimate of his : 
 " Friend Marie, 
 " I inuA defyr that my fyflcr hyr watch, and the 
 "■ cookerie book you proniyHd, may be fente bye the 
 
 " man. 1 never longed for thy company more than 
 
 -" latt night : we were all very mcrrye at the Globe, 
 " when Ned Alleyn did not fcruple toafFyrme plea- 
 <' fauntely to thy Friendc Will, that lie had ftolen his 
 " fpeech about the Qjialitycs of an actor's excellencye 
 " in Hamlet hys Tragedyc,from converfations many- 
 " fold whych hud palled between them, andopiuyons 
 
 " given by Alleyn touching the fubjede. Shake- 
 
 " fpcarc did not take this talke in good forte ; but 
 " Johnfon put an end to the flrife with wittylye re> 
 " markingc. This aff'aire iieedeth no Coiiti-ntion ; you 
 " p.oli it from NeJ, 110 doubte ; do not marvtl : Have 
 "yon not pin him a^ tyviei out oj number ? — Believe 
 •" me moll fyncerilie, yours, C. Pesl." 
 
 ALLI.\, a river of Italy, which running down a 
 very fleep channel from the mountains of Crnflumi- 
 iium, mixes with the Tiber at 40 miles from Rome ; 
 famous for t!ie great fiaui^hter of the Romans by the 
 Gauls, under Breiinus ; hence Ailienfn dies, an un- 
 lucky day, (Virgil, Ovid, Lucan.) Our anceflors, 
 fays Cicero, deemed tlio day of the tight of yf//».-j more 
 fatal than tliat of taking the city. 
 
 ALLIANCE, in the civil and canon law, the rcla- 
 
 3 
 
 tion coiuraiTicd between two perfouj or two families /ilU.incc 
 by marriage. II 
 
 Alliance is alfo nfed for a treaty entered into by Alligation. 
 fovereign princes and dates, for their mutual fafety and " ' 
 
 defence. — In this fcnfe, alliances may be dillinguilhcd 
 into fuclii as are offcnlive, whereby the coniradling 
 parties oblige themfelves jointly to attack fonie other 
 power; and into delcnlivc ones, whereby they bind 
 themfelves to Hand by and defend each oilier in cafe 
 they are attacked by others Alliance, with the an- 
 cient Romans, though a fort of fervitude, was much 
 coveted. Ariarathes, we are told by Poly bius, offered 
 a facriticc to the gods by way of thankfgiving for ha- 
 ving obtained alliance. The reafon was, that thencc- 
 forvvards people were fure not to receive any injuries 
 except from them. — There vv-ere different iorts of al- 
 lies : fome only united to them by a participation of 
 the privileges of Romans, as the Latiiii and Hernici; 
 others by tht-ir very foundation, as the colonics; others 
 by the benefaiUonsihcy received from them, as Maf- 
 llniira, Eumcncs, and Attains, who owed tlicir king- 
 doms to Rome ; others by free treaties, which lad by 
 a long alliance became fubjctt.'^, as the kings of Bithy- 
 iiia, Cappadocia, Egypt, and mod of the cities of 
 Greece : ladly, others by compullive treaties, and the 
 law of fubjedlion, as Philip and Antiochus. For they 
 never granted peace to an enemy, without making an 
 alliance with him ; that is, they never fubdued any 
 people without uli:ig it as a means of fubduing others. 
 The forms or ccremoniesofalliances have been va- 
 rious in different ages and countries. At prefent, lign- 
 ingandfwearing,fometimcsat the altar, are the chief,- 
 anciently eating and drinking together, chietly otfer- 
 ingfacriiices together, were thecudomary rite of rati- 
 fying an alliance. Among the Jews and Chaldeans, 
 heifers or calves ; among the Greeks, bulls or goats ; 
 and among the Romans, hogs were facrificedon this 
 occafion. Among the ancient Arabs, alliances were 
 confirmed by drawing blood outot the palms of the 
 hands of the two contracting princes with a (harp 
 Hone, dipping herein a piece of their garments, and 
 therewith fmcaring feveii Hones, at the fame time in- 
 voking the gods Vrotalt and Alilat, /. e. according to 
 Herodotus, Bacchus and Urania. Among the people 
 of Cholchis, the confirmation of alliances is faid to be 
 efieiTted by one of the princes offering his wife's breafls 
 to the other to fuck, which he was obliged to do till 
 there ilFued blood. 
 
 Alliance, in a figurative fcnfe, is applied to any- 
 kind of union or connection ; thus we fay, there is an 
 alliance between the church and date. 
 
 ALLIGATI, in Roman antiquity, the bafeft kind 
 of Haves, who were ufually kept fettered. The Ro- 
 mans had three degrees, or orders, of Haves or fer- 
 vants ; the fird employed in the iianagement of their 
 edates ; thefecnnd in the medial or lower funclions 
 of the family j the third called alligati, abovemen- 
 tioncd. 
 
 ALLIGATION, the name of a method of folving 
 allqueftions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient 
 with another. Though writers on arithmetic general- 
 ly make alligation a branch of that fcience ; yet, as it 
 is plainly nothing more than an application of the 
 common properties of numbers, in orderto folve a few 
 qnellions that occur in particular branchesof bufinefs, 
 
 wc
 
 ALL [47 
 
 HigMion wc clioorc rather to keep it difliiiftfrom the fciencc of 
 
 — ' ' arithmetic. 
 
 Alligation is generally divided into rttcdial or allcr- 
 7iatc. 
 
 j^LLKATios Medial, from the rates and quantities 
 of the liraplcs given, difcovers the rate ofthemixturc. 
 Rule. As the total (]>i:iniity of the fimples, 
 To their price or value ; 
 So any quantity of the mixture. 
 To the rate. 
 Examp. A grocer niixcih 30 lb. of currants, at 
 4d. per lb. with 10 lb- of other currants, at 6d. per 
 lb. : What isihe value of i lb. of the mixture .' jinf. 
 
 4id- 
 
 lb. d. d. 
 
 30, at 4 amounts to 120 
 
 3 3 
 
 ALL 
 
 10, at 6 
 
 60 
 
 40 J 80 
 
 li. d. lb. d. 
 If 40 : 180 : : I : 4| 
 Note I. When the quantity of each fimple is the 
 fame, the rate of the mixture is readily found by adding 
 the rates of the fimples, and dividing their fum by the 
 number of fimplts. Thus, 
 
 Suppofeagroccrmixes ftveral fertsoffugar, and of 
 each an equal quantity, viz. at Jos. at 54s. and at 
 60s: per cft't. the rate of the mixture will be 54s. £d. 
 per cwt. ; for 
 
 /. h d. 
 50+54+60=164, and 3)164) 54 8 
 Note 2. If it be required to increafe or diminifh the 
 quantity of the mixture, fiy, As the fum of the given 
 quantitiesof the(imples,to the fevcral quantities given; 
 fo the quantity of the mixture propofed, to the quan- 
 tities of the limples fought. 
 
 Note 3. If it be required to know how much of 
 each fimple is an afligned portion of the mixture, fay, 
 , As the quantity of the mixture, to the fcveral quan- 
 tities of the limples given ; fo the quantity of the af- 
 figned portion, to the quantities of the fimples fought. 
 Thus, 
 
 Suppofe a grocer mixes 10 lb. of raifins with 30 lb. 
 of almonds and 40 lb. of currants, and it be demanded, 
 how many ounces of cacli fortare found in every pound 
 or in every 16 ounces of the mixture, fay, 
 Oz. 
 80 : 10 : : 16 : 2 raifins. 
 So : 50 : : 16 : 6 almonds. 
 
 40 
 
 f6 : 3 currants. 
 
 Proof 16 
 
 Note 4. If the rates of two fimples, with the total 
 value and total quantity of the mixture, be given, the 
 quantjiy of Mch limplc may be found as follows, viz. 
 Slultiply the Idler rate into the total quantity, fub- 
 trait the producl from the total value, and the remain- 
 der will he equal to the produifl of the cxccfsofthe 
 hither rate above the lower, rniltiplied intoihc quan- 
 ;;ty of the highcr-pricedlimplc ; and confcqurutly the 
 fiid remainder, divided by the difference of the rates, 
 will quote the faid quantity. Tlius^ 
 
 Suppofe 1 grocer has a mixture of 400 lb. weight, 
 th.itcoft him 7I. los. confiftiiigt>f raifins at 4d. per lb. 
 Vol.. 1. 
 
 and almonds at 6d. how many pounds of aliiiondsArerc AlliTatina 
 in the mixture.' 
 
 /. d. 
 io=iSoo 
 i6co 
 
 400 
 4 
 
 6d, 
 4d. 
 
 1600 d. 2d. 
 
 2)2oo(icolb. of almonds at 6 d. is 
 And 30olb. of raiiins at 4 d. is 
 
 L. 
 2 
 5 
 
 /. 
 
 10 
 
 o 
 
 Total 400 Proof 7 to 
 
 Alucation j^itcrnaif, being the convcric of alliga- 
 tion medial, from the rates of the fimples, and rate of 
 the mixture given, finds the quantities of the limples. 
 
 Rules. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the 
 left (ide of a brace, as the root ; and on the right fide 
 of the brace fct the rates of the fcveral limples, under 
 one another, as the branches. II. Link or alli^ate the 
 branches, fo as one greater and another Icfs than tlift 
 root may be linked or yoked together. III. Set the 
 difference betwixt the root and the fcveral branchcj 
 right againll their refpeffive yoke-fdlows. Thefe al- 
 ternate ditferencesare the quantities required. Note I. 
 If any branch happen to have two or more yoke-t'. 1- 
 lows, the difference between the root and thefe yoke- 
 fellows mull be placed right againft the faid branch, 
 one after another, and added into one fum. 2. In fomc 
 qucftions, the branches may be alligated more ways 
 than one ; and a qucftion will always admit of fo many 
 anf.vcrs as there arc different ways of linking the 
 branches 
 
 Alligation alternate admits of three varieties, viz. 
 I. The quertion may be unlimited, with rcfpeft both 
 to the quantity of the fimples and ihat of the mix- 
 ture. 2. The qucftion may be limited to a certain 
 quantity of one or more of the fimples. 3. The quc- 
 ftion may be limited to a certain quantity of the mix- 
 ture. 
 
 Variety I. When the qucftion is unlimited, with 
 rcfpeft both to the quantity of the fimples and thai of 
 the mixture, this is called Allfgati'.n Siwfle. 
 
 Exanip. A grocer would mix fngars, at 5 d. yd. 
 and lod. per lb. fo as to fell the mi.^tturc or compound 
 at 8d. per lb. : What quantity of each muA he take ,' 
 
 lb. 
 ■ 5-^ 2 
 
 (; ic-c/ 3,1 
 
 Here the rate of the mixture 3 is placed on the left 
 fide of the brace, as the root ; and on the right lidc of 
 the fame brace arc fi.t the rates of the fevcral fimples, 
 viz. 5, 7, 10, underoae another, as the branches; ac- 
 cording to Rule I. 
 
 The branch 10 being greater than the root, is alli- 
 gated or linked with 7 and 5, both thefe being Icfs 
 than the root ; as direiflcd in Rule II. 
 
 The difference between the root 8 and the branch 5, 
 viz. 3, isfetrightagainftthisbranch'syokc-fcllow 10. 
 The difference between 8 and 7islikewilc fet right a- 
 gainft the yoke-fcIlow to. And the ditlcrence betwixt 
 8 and fo, viz. 2, is fet right againft the 'wo yoke-fel- 
 lows 7 and 5 ; as pnfcribed by Rule III. 
 
 As the braitch lo has two differences on the right, 
 3 O viz. 
 
 8.
 
 A L L 
 
 [ 47+ ] 
 
 ALL 
 
 Alliaafion. viz. ; and r, they arc adJfd ; and ihe anfvver to the 
 
 ^ • qiicftioii is, that ilb. at 5J. 2lb. at 7J. and ^Ib. at loJ. 
 
 V. ill make the mixture required. 
 
 The truth and rcaion of the rules will appear by coii- 
 (idering, that whatever is loft upon any one branch is 
 gained upon its yoke-fellow. Thus, in the above ex- 
 ample, by felling 41b. of lod. fugar at 8d. per lb. 
 there is 8d. loll: but tin like Uim is gained upon its 
 two yoke- fellows i for by felling 2lb. of 5d. fugar at 
 8d. per lb. there is 6d. gained ; and by felling 2lb. of 
 7J. fugar at Sd. there is 2d. gained; and 6d. and 2d. 
 make 8d. 
 
 Hence it follows, that the rate of the mixture nuift 
 always be mean or middle with re(pcv-t to (he rates of 
 the liniples ; that is, it nuift be Id's than the greatcll, 
 and greater than the leall ; otherwife a fohuion would 
 be inipolllble. And the price of the total quantity 
 mixed, computed at the rate of the mixture, will al- 
 ways be equal to the fum of the prices of the fevcral 
 quantities call up at the refpeclivc rates of the fimplcs. 
 
 Variety II. When the qucftion is limited fo a cer- 
 tain quantity of one or iiiorcof the iimplcs, this is call- 
 ed Alligation i artial. 
 
 If the quantity of one of the fimples may be limited, 
 alligate the branches, and take thdr differences, as if 
 there had been no fuch limitation ; and then work by 
 the following proportion : 
 
 As the difference right ag.iinft the rate of the fimple 
 whofe quantity is given, 
 
 To the other differences refpeclively ; 
 
 Jio the quantity given. 
 
 To the feveral quantities fought. 
 
 Examp. h diftiller would, with 40 gallons of brandy 
 at 1 2S. per gallon, mix rum at 7s. per gallon, and gin 
 at 4s. per gallon : How much of the rum and gin muft 
 he take, to fell the mixture at 8s. per gallon ? 
 Cal. 
 5 40 of brandy. ") 
 4 q2 of rum. > Aiif. 
 4 52 of gin. ) 
 
 Theopcration gives foranfwer, j gallons of brandy, 
 4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the queftion limits the 
 quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore fay. 
 If 5 : 4 : : 40 : ?2. 
 
 The quantity of gin, by the operation, being alfo 4, 
 the proportion needs not to be repeated. 
 
 Variety III. When the qneftion is limited to a 
 certain quaiuiiy of the mixture, this is called Alliga- 
 tion Tot ill. 
 
 After linking the branches, and taking the differ- 
 ences, work by the proportion following : 
 As the fum of the diilcrcnces. 
 To each particular ditferenec ; 
 So the civen total of the mixture. 
 To the rcfpcAivc quantities required. 
 
 F.vamp. A vintner hath wine at ^s. per gallon, and 
 would mix it with water, foastomakea compofition of 
 144 gallons. Worth 2S. 6d. per gallon : How much 
 ;vine, and Low much water mufl he take ? 
 
 CjI. 
 
 8 
 
 C 4V 4 
 
 ,^ iS^\3"l 1 20 of wine. 1 , . 
 3°{ o) 6 I 24 0fw.ier. f^">'- 
 
 36 I 1 44 total. 
 
 I iox 36=4520 
 
 24+ 0= o 
 
 Proof 144)4:520(3 J 
 As 36 : 30 : : 144 : 120 
 As 36 : 6 : : 144 : 24. 
 
 There being here only two liniples, snd the total of 
 the mixture limited, the queftion admits bat of one an- 
 fwer. 
 
 ALLIGATOPi, in zoology, a fynonyine of the la- 
 certa crocodilus. Sec Lacerta. 
 
 Ai.uaroR Pear. SeeLAURos. 
 
 ALLiONIA, in botany, a genus of the nionogy- 
 nia order, belonging to the tctrandria elafs of plants ; 
 and in the natur.d method ranking under the 4iili m-- 
 dtr, Aggr€gat,r. The charafters are : The common 
 calyx is oblong, limple, three-do wcrcd, five-parted, and 
 perlillent ; the properonc, obfcu!e,aix)ve: TIic proper 
 coi oUa is monopetaluus and iunncl-lliaped ; the mouth 
 quiiiquclld and ercft : The Jjatiiinu conful of four 
 brirtly filaments, longer than the corolla, and bending 
 to one iide ; the anthera; are roundilh : The pi/lillum 
 has an oblong gernien beneath; the //)•//// is brift!y,and 
 longer than the llamina ; thelligmata are multitid and 
 linear: There is no pericaipniw : 'I'he feeri are foli- 
 tary, oblong, and naked : The rcceptaeiilum is naked. 
 There arc two fpecies, the violcacea and incarnata, 
 both natives of America. 
 
 ALLIOTH, a liar in the tail of the greater bear, 
 much ufc for finding the latitude at fca. 
 
 ALLITERATION, an oriia:?ient of language 
 chiefly ufed in poetry, and conliiting in the repetition 
 of the fame letter at certain intervals. Wc do not re- 
 member to have ever feen any fatisfaftory account of 
 alliteration in the writings of the critics. They feem 
 to have palled it over in contemptuous filence ; cither 
 as a fall'c refinement or as a mere trille. It perhaps 
 deferves a better fate. Many chapters have been com- 
 pofed on quantity, on the exprclTion refulting from 
 diti'crent arrangements of long and lliort fyllables, and 
 on the pov.'ers of paufes as they are varioufly placed, 
 without a word of alliteraiion. This is the more ex- 
 traordinary, as one fliould think i: impolUble for any 
 man to examine minutely, and, as it were, diffeet a 
 number of verfes, without perceiving the valt abund- 
 ance of this ornament. It is as if an an .tomift fliould 
 publifli a complete table of the arteries in the human 
 body, and affect never to have feen a vein nor a nerve: 
 for it may be afiirmcd, with fmall danger of miftake, 
 that if you examine any numberof verfes, remarkable 
 cither for fweetnefs or for energy, they will be found 
 in fome degree alliterative. We do not pretend to 
 iiy, that the fweetnefs and energy of verfificaiion de- 
 pends chiefly on this circumllanee, yet we cannot help 
 believing that it may claim fome ihare: for it is a con- 
 fiant appearance, as far as we have ever obferved, that 
 the poets whofe fame is higheft for verfilication, arc 
 mod extcnlive dealers in this article. 
 
 The trifling poor appearanceof the ornamen: itfelf, 
 
 upoa
 
 ALL 
 
 [ 
 
 Aliitcra- Upon .1 fnpcrficial view, and the frequent abiifc of it 
 t«n arc circiui! fiances i II Jcfdwl'.iclijrive no ciicouragcmetic 
 
 ' toa lerioiisi'.iqiiiry into its nature and operation. How 
 
 common is ittor writers, wlioalfe^t to be comic, when 
 ia wunt of oilier nicans i'or vhum]^ a fmilc, lo ufc af- 
 ffrtcd alliteration with fucccfi. but, in the Jincarts, 
 no beauty nor grace is beyond the power of ridicnlc. 
 The noblell anitiiJcs in painting have been rendered 
 laiigliable by caricatura. t>t I'aul preaching at Athens, 
 in the dcfign of Raphael, appears eleg;ant, nobl-, and 
 in fonic degree awful. The lame apoltle, reprcfented 
 by Hogarth in nearly the fame attitude, pleading be- 
 fore the governor Felix, fcems altogether ridicuiou:i. 
 iio the language and vcrliticaiion of Milton ia the I'a- 
 radil'e Loll appear only proper for the moll elevated 
 fubjciSs. In the* Splendid Shilling of Philips, they 
 appear equally proper for the lowcit. So fares it alfo 
 with alliteration. Nor ought wc to be mortified at the 
 difcovcry, that much of the delight afforded by verfi- 
 lication arifes from a caufc fo pitiful as the repetition 
 of the fame letter twice, oroftncr, on the accer.tcd 
 parts of a verfe j for there are many other caufes of 
 plcafurc, which, when thus detected and taken to 
 pieces, feem equally contempiule. 
 
 We apprehend the principal operation of this orna- 
 ment to be quite mechanical. It is eafier for the or- 
 gans of fpecch to refume, ai fliort intervals, one cer- 
 tain conformaiion, than to throw themfclves into a 
 number of dilTerent ones, uneonnefted and difcordaiit. 
 For example, a fucctflion of labials, interfperfcd at 
 regular diflances with dentals and gutturals, will be 
 more ealily pronounced than tiic fucceffion of all the 
 three at random. Sounds of which the articulation is 
 ea(iefl,arc molt completely in thcpowerofthc fpcaker. 
 He can pronounce them llowly or rapidly, fofily or 
 with force, at pleafure. In this wc imagine the 
 power and advantage of alliteration is founded : for 
 we would not lay any flrefs on the pleafure which 
 can refult to the ear from the repetition of the fame 
 letter. It has been compared to the frequent returns 
 of the key-note in amulical ftrain ; but that analogy 
 is extremely faint. 'J"he car, we prefume, can be 
 pleafed with alliteration only in fo far as it contributes 
 to ihefupperioreafmcfsof recitation ; forwhat is^reei- 
 tcd with cafe muft be heard with plcafurc. 
 
 Thefe remarks might be confirmed and illuftrated 
 by numberlefs palTages from the beft poets. Some few 
 lines will fufiice, taken from Gray, who fcems to have 
 pjid particular attention to this grace. He profcllcd 
 to have learned his vcrdtTcation from Dryden,as Dry- 
 den did from Spencer; and thefe three abound in 
 alliteration above all the Knglilh poets. We choofe 
 Gray for another rcafnn, in proof of what we men- 
 tioned before, that allitcmtion contributes not only to 
 l\\c f-dicet>:cfi, but alio to the ?7/."r?^, of vcrfification ; 
 for he ufcs it chicHy when he aims at flrength and 
 buldnefs. In the Sifl^r OJei (as Dr Johnfon flylcs 
 them), almort every ilrophe con:picnccs and concludes 
 with an alliterative line. The poet, wc fuppofe, wifh- 
 ed to begin wkh force, and end with dignity. 
 
 " ^uia fcize thee, ruthlefs king." 
 
 " To/ngh-born A'oel's Aarp, or foft /,lewe/]yn's /ay." 
 
 " Weave the warp, and meave the tiooi." 
 
 *' Stamp weourvenj;caucc Aep, and ratify hisi/oom." 
 
 75 J ALL 
 
 " llcgardlcfb of thc/weeping whirlwind's /w?y." 
 "That hufh'd in grim rr/oic, e,\ cc.s biscv'ning 
 /rey.'. 
 
 It muft Le cblcrvcd here, that wc hold a verfe all:- 
 icraiivc which has a letter rcpeatcj on its acctn'.cd 
 parts, ahhoUj;h thofc parts do nvt begin words ; the 
 repealed letter bearing a flrong cnxlogy to the bars in 
 a uiufical phrafc. Gray feems to have had a partiju- 
 lir liking loihcfc fort of balanced \c:fc3, which divide 
 equaily, and of which the oppolUc fides have an alli- 
 terative rcfcniblance. 
 
 '' Eyes that^flow, and fangs that^rin, 
 
 " Thoughts that (Jreathc, a:id words that ^arn." 
 
 ■" A'auberk cralh, and helmet ring." 
 
 All thefe lines appear to us to have a force and 
 energy, arifing from alliteration, which rendcrj them 
 cafy to be recited ; or, if tiie reader pleafes, miuthtd. 
 For the fame reafon the following pa.Tage appears fal 
 and folcmn, by the repetition of the labial liquid. 
 
 " /Ifcuntains, ye wourn in vain." 
 " jt/odred whole w^agic," — &c. 
 
 If alliteration thus contributes to enforce the ex- 
 prcfTton-of a poetical fentimeni, its ad vantages in poetry- 
 mull be confidcrablc. It is not, therefore, unworthy 
 a poet's regard in the aft of eompolition. If two 
 Words offer of equal propriety, the one alliterative the 
 other not, we think the firlt ought to be chofcn. We 
 would compare this to the practice of fuguing in mu- 
 'jc. A coinpofcr who aimsat exprellion will not hjr.t 
 after fugues ; but if they of!er, if they feem to arlfe 
 fpon tan eoudy from the fubje£t,he will not rejeft them. 
 So a good poet ought not to feleft an epithet merely 
 for beginning with a certain Ic'.ter, unlc fs it fuit his 
 purpolc well in every other relpeft ; for the beauty cf 
 alliteration, when happy, is not greater than its de- 
 formity when affected. \ couplet from Pope will ex- 
 emplify both ; the firft line being bad, and the fecond 
 
 good : 
 
 " Eternal beauties grace the /hiniog/ccne, 
 
 " /"iclds every i-elh, and proves for evergreen." 
 
 ALLIUM (from ix«», " to avoid or flinn," bccaufe 
 many ihun the fmellof it). Garlic : A genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of 
 plants; and in the natural method ranking in the 9th 
 order, Spathacer. The characters are : iLc caijx is 
 a common fpatba, roundilh, withering, and multi- 
 florous: The corolla coniifts oi lix oblong petals : The 
 jlaiij-na have II.K fubulatcd filaments, often the length 
 of the corolla; the anibcra; are oblong and creel : The 
 fif.illiim has a gcrmen above, (liorter, nearly three- 
 cornered, with angles engra\ e J w ith a line ; the fly li 
 arc fimi'le, the fliginata acute : The pericar/-iutn is a 
 very fliort, broad, tltree-lobedcapfulc, with three cells 
 and three valves : The/rftij are many and roundilh. 
 Of this genus no fewer than 40 different Ipecies arc 
 enumerated by Linns:us,anung which he iacladcs the 
 cepa and porrum, or onions and leeks. 
 
 I.' The fativum, or garlic, has a bulbous root, of 
 
 an rrregnlar roundilli Ihape, with I'cvernl fi'jresat the 
 
 bottom ; each root is compofed of a ntimbcr of IciTer 
 
 bulbs, called c.'fff.'/ of garlic, inclofcd in one common 
 
 ^ O 2 n'cmb';;ncus 
 
 /.Ilifira 
 
 lion. 
 Allium,
 
 ALL 
 
 [ 476 3 
 
 ALL 
 
 Allium, latmbjar.ous c-u;ii,:!nd cafily fcjMrablc from one anot'icr. 
 ' •■f—^ h\\ ihc parts ol ibis plant, but more cfpcci.lly ibc 
 roots, have an acrimonious, and almollcaullic tallc, 
 \vith a llrong oit'cnllvc lincH, wliicli lalt lias induced 
 iJioft who prcfcrved Ionic of the fpccics in gardcn^on 
 account of tlitir yellow ilowcrs, to eradicate tlieiii. 
 
 This pungent root warms and llimiilatts the folids, 
 and attenuates tenacious juices ; for which it is well 
 adapted, on accoiint of its being very penetrating ; in- 
 foniuch that, when applied to tlic feet, its f;;ent is 
 foon difcovcrcd in the breath ; and, when taken inter- 
 nally, its linell is conununicaicd to the urine, or the 
 matter of an ilfuc, and pcrfpircs through the pores of 
 ihcfkjn. Hence, in cold Icucophlegmaiic habits, it 
 proves a powerl ul expectorant, diuretic, and tuimena » 
 gognc ; and, if the patient is kept warm, fudoriiic. 
 it is alfo of great fervice i.i humoral aUhmas and ca- 
 larrhousjdifordcrsot the breall, a; din other difonlers 
 proceeding froniaiaxiiy of the folids, and cold llug^ilh 
 indiipolitions of the Hiiids. It is alfo frequently ot ler- 
 viccir. thcdropfy ; in the beginning of which it is par- 
 ticularly recommended by Sydenham, as a warm 
 Jtrengthening medicine : we have even many examples 
 where it acts lo powerfully as a aiuretic, as to eai ry otF 
 all the water ot dropfies. It may be taken the length 
 of a dramor two in fubllancc for a dofe. — There is a 
 lyrup and oxyaicl made with it, which may be em- 
 ployed for the fame purpofes as the garlic in fub- 
 llancc; but they are inoilly ufed in pulmonic difirders. 
 — Externally applied, it inrtamcs and ulccrites the 
 Ikin, and is fomeiimes employed for this u(e in fina- 
 piims. Ii has alfo been recommended by Sydenham 
 as a mull powerful revcUcnt; forvvhich purpofc he was 
 led to make ufe of it in the confluent final 1-pox. His 
 method was to cut the root in pieces, and apply it, 
 tied in a linen cloth, to the foles of the feet, about the 
 eighth day of the difeafc, after the face began tofvvcll ; 
 renewing it once a day till the danger was over. — 
 When made into an unguent with oils, and apjilied 
 externally, garlic is faid to rcfolve and difcufs cold 
 tumours, and has been by fome greatly celebrated in 
 cutaneous diforders. 
 
 The acrimonious qualities of this root, however, ren- 
 der it manifeflly improper on many occalions. Its li- 
 beral ufc is apttooccalion head-achs,Matuleiitics,thirll, 
 febrile heats, inflammatory diilempers, and fometimrs 
 difchargcs of blood from the hemorrhoidal veUcls. In 
 hot bilious con liitutions, where there is already a degree 
 of irritation, where the juices arc too ihin and acrimo- 
 nious, or the viiccra unfound, it never fails to aggra- 
 vate- the diftcmper. 
 
 In Kajntfthatka, the allium nrfini m, orwild garlic, 
 is very common and ufeful in medicine as well as food. 
 Both Rulhans and natives gather it in great quaiuiiics 
 for winter fervice. They rteep ii in water, then mix 
 it with cabbage, onions, and other ingredients, and 
 form out of them a ragout which they eat cold. It is 
 alfo the principal remedy for the fcurvy. As foon as 
 ibis plant appears above the fnow, they feem to put 
 this dreadful dil'irder at defiance, and find a cure 
 ajmoft initsworll flages. 
 
 Garlic is very hardy, and will thrive in almofl any 
 foil or liiuation. It is cafily propagated either by the 
 roots or feeds. ' If from the roots, they ought to be 
 planted in autumn, that they may take good root in the 
 ground before the fpring, which is nccclTary to make 
 
 ihcni flower filling the following fupimir. Ifiltty arc /vlllui 
 
 propagated by feeds, liny nuy be lown on a border of "^ ^^ 
 
 coraiiion earth, either in autumn foon alter the (ecds 
 arc ripe, or in the fpring loilowingj and will require 
 no farihi r care than to keep them iltar from w ceds. 
 In the following autun.n, iluy may be iranfplantcd 
 into the bordtra where they ere to remain. 
 
 2. 1 be afcaluiiicinii, ortfchalot, was found wild in 
 Pdlcitiue by Dr ll.iiielquill. 1 he root ii conglobate, 
 toniilliiig ot many ol long roots bouiu' together by tliii'. 
 membranes. £aeh of tlufc fmall rons fends forth 
 two or three tiltulous, long, awl Ihujcd leaves, iiiuin^; 
 from aflituih, and aic nearly like thofe 01 the com no;; 
 onion. The fiower-ilem Ihoots iron) a nitmbraDacecu.: 
 Iheaih ; is round, ahi.olt naked, and ternjinated by :i 
 globular umbelof flowers, which hatccreCt, purplilh, 
 
 laiice- Ihaped petals, 01 the length of the iU.m ilia The 
 
 root ol' this fjtcits is very pungent, has a llrong bni 
 not unpleafiiu fmcU, and tiieielorc is generally pre- 
 ferred to the onion for making- high-flavoured fouj'j 
 and gravies. It is alfo put into pickles, and in the haft 
 Inditsthcy ufe an abundance of it lor this purpofc. 
 
 3. 1 he fcortkioprofuin, or rokambole, grows natu- 
 ally in Denmark and Sweden. It halh a liea; t-fliapcd 
 folid root, which Hands iidcwilV of the Ualk. The 
 leaves are bioad, and arc a. little crenaied wi their 
 edges. The flowers are of a pale purple colour, and 
 colletted into a gU bular head. The roots arc ufed 
 for the lame purpofc as the former. 
 
 4. The fchanoprtfum, or civcs, is an inhabitant of 
 Siberia, and is a very lin.ill pl.-.nt compared wiih llie 
 former, the leaves and liemsftljom exceeding fix in- 
 ches in Icngtli, and the roots never producing any 
 bulbs. The leaves are aw 1-fliaped, hollow, and the ilem 
 naked. It was formcily in great requell for mixing 
 with falads in the fpring, but has beenliltle regarded 
 lately. Its tallc, lincU, and virtues, are much the fame 
 as thofe of the common onion. It is propagated liy 
 parting the roots. 
 
 5. The ccpa, or common onion, differs from the 
 garlic only in the fwclli-ng pipy ilalk, which is much 
 larger in the midle than at either end. — From whence 
 this was firll brought into turope is not known ; but 
 that it is natural to Africa is beyond a doubt, it 
 beingevident that onions were eaten by the Egyptians 
 al)Ovc 2C00 years before Cbrifl ; and they make a 
 great part of their conflant food to this day in Egypt. 
 JJr Haflclquift fays it is not to be wondered at that 
 the Ifraclites fliould long for themaftcr ihty had left 
 this place ; for whoever had tailed onions in Egypt 
 mull allow, that none can be had better in any part of 
 the univcrfe. f!ere, he obferves, they arc fweet, in 
 other countries they are naiifeous and llrong. Here 
 they are foft ; whcress in the north and other parts 
 they are hard, and their coats focompatfl that they are 
 diflicult to digell. They eat them roaftcd, cut into 
 four pieces, with fome bits of roafted meat, which 
 tjie Turks call kibab ; and with this difli they are fo 
 delighted, that they vvilh toenjuy itin paradife. They 
 likewife make a fnipof them in Egypt, which Haf- 
 felquifl fays is one of the befl dilhes he ever eat. The 
 many ways of dccfling onions in Britain are known to 
 every family : bjt in regard to w holefomenefs, there 
 is certainly no method equal to boiling ; as thus they 
 are rendered mild, of eafy digellion, and go off with- 
 out leaving thofc heats in the flomach and bowels 
 
 v.'hjcli
 
 ALL 
 
 f 477 ] 
 
 ALL 
 
 AliiuB. wliich 1I1C7 are apt to do any Oilier way. Tlicir na- 
 "■^"^v— mix is to attenuate thick, vil'cid juices , confcqucniiy 
 a pltmit'ul ulcof [hem in cold plikgnialic conlli'.utions 
 mull prove beneficial. .>.any people fliun them on ac- 
 count of the (Irong, dilagrteable Imcll they commuiii- 
 ca;c to the breath. I'liis may be rcmeJicd by eating 
 a lew raw parlley leaves immediately alter, which will 
 effcciually overcome the fceiit ot the onions, and caulc 
 ihcm 10 li: more eafy on the lioraach. 
 
 The vaiieties arc, the Srafburgh, the Spanifli, and 
 the Egyptian onion. They arc propagated by feeds, 
 which Ihould be fown the latter end of b'.cb'uary, or 
 the beginning of IMarcii, on good, light, rich ground, 
 Well dug and levelled, and cleared frcr;i weeds. They 
 fliou.d alio be fown at a time when the furface of ihc 
 ground is no. moid ; and where they are intended for 
 a winter crop, they mull not be fown too thick. The 
 common allowance is lix pounds of feed to an acre ; 
 though fomc allow more, in order to have a crop 10 
 draw out, which they call aiUmgs. In about lix 
 weeks after, the onions will be up and forward enougii 
 10 hoe ; at which limc the weeds Ihould be ligh ly cut 
 up with a fmall hoe about two inches and a hjlf broad, 
 as alfo the onions thcmfclves where th' y gro-.v tno clofc 
 in bunches, leaving them jt this rirll tin.c ai leal! two 
 or three inches apart. ; his, if propcily performed, 
 and in a dry fcifon, will prefervc tnc g. our.d clear ot 
 weeds at leafl a montii, when they mult be hoed over 
 again, leaving them at tins time about four or live 
 inches afunder. In ivs. weeks aficr they mull be hoed 
 a third lime. The weeds are now to be carefully cut 
 up, and the oni mis linglcd out fo as to leave them 
 about lix inches fquare; by which means they will 
 grow much larger thiU if left loo clofe. This, if well 
 performed, in cafe ihe weather proves dry, will keep 
 the oniohs \.'u\ they are fit to pull : but if the wcaihcr 
 ihould prove moill, and any of ihe weeds take root 
 again, the weeds mull be pulled out with the hand ; 
 for thc-ouions having now begun to bulb, mull not be 
 dillurbtd with a hoc. Towards the middle of Augull 
 the, onions will have arrivcJai their full growth, which 
 may be known by their blades falling to the ground 
 and Ihrinking. At this time, therefore, before tlitir 
 necks or bladcsare withered oti', they Qiould be drawn 
 OUT of the ground, the extreme part of the blade cut 
 off, and the onions laid upon a dry fpot of ground, 
 obfcrving to turn thcra every other day at Icail, to 
 prevent them from taking root again; which in moifl 
 W'ca'.herthey would be apt to d;). M any rrte, they 
 are very apt to grow in the lofts where they are kept all 
 ■wiiuer ; the moll effectual method of preventing which 
 is, with a hot iron, (lightly to touch their beards or 
 roots, which will etlctlually prevent their fprouting ; 
 but in doing this, great c.ijliofi mull be uled not to 
 fcorch the pulp, for that will caufc tliem loperilh foon 
 aftti-. In order to favc feeds, you mult iu the fpring 
 make choice of fome of the largeft, firmeftand teil 
 Ihaped onions (in quantity proportionable to the feed 
 you intend to lave), and having prepared a piece of 
 good groiftd, which fhoujd be well dag, and laid out 
 Ju beds about three feet wide, the onions mull be 
 planted in the beginning of March, in the following 
 manner : Having drained .I'line of abont four inches 
 within the tide of the bed, you mull with a fpaJc 
 lirow ovu an opening fix inches deep,. :he length of 
 
 the bed, iJto which y.u fnould place the onions with Alliaci, 
 iheir roots downward, at about nine inches didaiicc Allix. 
 
 from each other ; and with a rake draw the earth iuio ' " — 
 
 the opening again 10 cover the bulos : then proceed 
 to remove the line again about a foot farther back, 
 where you uiuft wake an opening as before, and fo 
 again, till the whole is linilhcd, by which you will 
 have fotir rows iu cachbcU; between each bed ycu 
 mult allow the fpacc of two feet for an alley to go 
 among them. In a month's time the leases will ap- 
 pear above ground, and many of the roots will pro- 
 duce three or four lUlks each. About the beginning 
 of June, when the riowers begin to appear, the ft-ilki 
 mull be tied to Hakes to prevent them from being 
 broke by their own weight. About the end of Au- 
 gull the feeds will be ripe ; which may be known by 
 the opening of tiie cells which contain it, and it., 
 changing to a br.Avn colour. When the beads arc 
 cut off, they DioulJ be fi>read abroad upon coarfc 
 cloths in the fun,obferving 10 keep it under Ihclter ia 
 the night, as alfo in w tt weather. U hen the heads 
 arc quite dry, the fecdslliould be beat out from tlicni ; 
 and alter being cliared troni the hufl-js, and cxpofed 
 one day to the tun to Sxf, they may be put up in bags 
 for ufe. 
 
 Bclidcs the abovemeniioned forts of onions, the 
 fc.illions or efcallions, and Wellh onions, were for- 
 merly in great repute. The former is a fort which 
 never forms any bulbs at the roots, aud was chiefly 
 ufed in the fpriiig for green onions ; b. t is now be- 
 come fo fcarte as hardly to be known. Some gar- 
 der.rrs, inftcad of the fcallion,fub;iiiu:efjch onions as 
 decay and f, rout in the houfc. I hefe they plane i.T 
 a bed early in the fpring, and in a Ihort time they be- 
 come larjie enough for nfe. The true fcallion is eafily 
 prop.i gated by parting the roots either in the fpring or 
 autumn; but the latter is preferable. The roois ihould 
 be planted three or four in a hole, and about lix iu- 
 chesdjftance every way — ThcWeMh onions are pro- 
 pagated only for fpring ufe; they never make any bulbs, 
 a-id arc ihereforc l;t only to be ufcd green for laiads. 
 Thry a.'-e fown in the end of July, in beds about three 
 feet and a half wide. In a fortnight's time they ap- 
 pear above ground ; Lm in October ihcir blades die, 
 and the ground be-romt s ej^uitc naked, in Jariuary, 
 however, they wiUag.iin appear very flroug, and in 
 March w ill be tit to draw for young onions. 
 
 6. The porrum, or leek, has been fo long cuhiTa- 
 ted, that its native place of grow ih tannct be traced. 
 It is und<:ubted!y the fame as that mentioned in the 
 clcvcr.:h Ch.'.p of Numbers, where it is faid the If- 
 raeliies longed for leeks hi conjunction with onions. 
 The leaves arc much of the fame nat Teas thofe of the 
 latter, and they arc yet a ce>nllant dilh at the tables of 
 the Egyptians, who chop then fmall and then eat 
 them with theirmcat. T.hcy are in great ellecm, too, 
 with the \Vcl!h, and their generil ufe as x pot herb is 
 well known — The culture is the fame with that of 
 the onion. 
 
 .ALLIX (Dr Peter), a learned Fre-Th ?roteflanc 
 divine, boru at A!r:r<->t» ii» ♦r4i. He became mini- 
 ftcr of the reformed church at Houcn, where he pub- 
 liflied many learned and curious pieces ; the credit of 
 which induced the reformed 10 call him foCharenton, 
 abru: a leagu; from Pr-ris, beii'g the principal charch 
 
 they
 
 A L L 
 
 [ 47^ ] 
 
 A L L 
 
 Alloa, ihcy had in France. On thr revocation (•{ ilu ciiicl ol' 
 
 — -' ' iN-tntz, he rcliicJ to Knglaiiti j wlicre he (ludiccl the 
 
 language with fo much luccd's, as to pu'ulilh a work, 
 intillcd Ri-Jicitions on the Books in the Holy &ci !jturi:s, 
 to (jlahttjh the Truth of the Chiijiiaii reli^ir, 2 vc.ls ; 
 which he dedicated to Janits II. aclitiowlcdging his 
 obliijaiion to that jniiicc, and his kind bcluiviour to 
 the diih-tll'ed refugees in general. He svivte Icvcral 
 otiicr triatilcs relating to eccleli^Ilicilliillory ; wliicli 
 rendered him as iainous in England as in France, tor 
 his ingenious and folid defences of the ret'onntd reli- 
 gion. He wa;> coiMpliuicnied with the degree of 
 D. D. and in 169c was made treafurerof the church 
 ofSalilbury. He died in i 71 7. 
 
 ALLOA, or Ali.o\v.\y, a fea-port town in Scot- 
 land, featcd on the Forth, about 20 miles higher up 
 the river than Leith, and five miles call of Stirling. 
 It is a populous place ; has two market days in the 
 week ; and is remarkable for its line calUc the feat of 
 the earl of Mar, and for the coal-mines near it. The 
 harbour is extremely commodious, \\ ith great depth 
 of water ; and vcilels are expeditioully loaded with 
 coals from the pits by an uncommon waggon-way, on 
 which one horfc draws with cafe three wa'4gons at 
 once, each waggon containing a tun and a lialf. An 
 excellent dry dock has alio been lately ercCUd here, 
 capable of receiving Ihips of the greatell burden. 
 There is likcwife a large glafs-houfe for blowing- 
 bottles, of which vclFils are fupplied with any quau- 
 lity upon the ihortefl notice. 
 
 Tl'c tower and lands of ^Alloa were exchanged by 
 David II. king of Scots, amio 1^65, with Thomas 
 Lord Erlkine, for the lands andcllate of Strathgart- 
 ncy in Pcrthihire ; and iincc that time the cartle of 
 Alloa has been the favourite relidenceof the family of 
 Mar. The fituation is uncommonly beautiful. The 
 gardens here were the hril that were laid out on a 
 great fcale in Scotland ; and, with the advice of Le 
 Nsutrr, were indebted to the talle of Joliii the late 
 Earl of Mar, who began to plant them in the year 
 1706. They cout.iin about 40 acres ; and would have 
 exhibited to Ur Johnfon, had he travelled that way, 
 as line timber of lourfeore yiars growth as bis favou- 
 rite Eiigland can produce. 
 
 The tower of Alloa is 89 feet in htight, with walls 
 of 1 1 feet in thicivUcfs ; and was built iil the end of 
 the 13th century. In this refidence of the family of 
 Erfkinc, many oi the Scottilh princes received their 
 education, having been for more than two centuries 
 the wards of the Lords Erlkine and Earls oi' Mar ; 
 whohcld generally tlic cadle of Stirling, and frequent- 
 ly the three piincipal fortrclfesin that kingdom, Edin- 
 burgh, Stirling, and Dunbarton. The laft heir of 
 the Scottifli monarchy who was nuriured there was 
 Henry Prince of Wales ; whofe cradle, golf-clubs, and 
 other infantine and youthful remains, are prcfervcdby 
 the heirs of the carls of Mar, in renicn;brance of that 
 ipirited and promifing prince ; of whom Dr Birch has 
 vrcfcrved feveralanccdotes connected withtheErfkines 
 
 and \i\i rC'idcnce at Allo.i Among other remains of 
 
 antiquity preferved :« Alloa. ir. remembrance of the 
 coiitidcncc and afieftion which fubfiiled always betwixt 
 the Stu.trt£ and tlie ErfKines, is the private lignet of 
 the unfortunate Mary, which flic gave to the regent 
 Mar, after flic was obliged by ihc treaty of Edinburgli 
 
 to dt fill froinv.'e-rir.g the arms of England ill the f;rfi. AUo'roges 
 quarter : the child's-chair of James VI. her fon ; and II 
 the fcllivc-chair of Thomas Lord LrikiJiethc ftcond . All oy. 
 Earl ot Mar of the name, with the falhioi:able grace 
 carved oii it, SoU D<:o Hoi.or ctCloi/a. 
 
 ALLOUKOGES (Infcripiions, Livy, Vdkius, 
 Florus) ; fioni ^'llobrox (Morace) : a people of G,;liia 
 Narbonenlis,fituated between the rivers Ifara and Rho- 
 dauLis, and the Lacus Lcmauub ; conimend<d by Ci- 
 cero for their fidelity, difcommcndtd by Horace on 
 account of their fondncfs for novelty. 
 , ALDOCATION denotes the admitting or allow- 
 ing of an article of an account, efpccially in the ex- 
 chequer. Kl:iCC, 
 
 ^LLOcATiosE Fucknda, is a writ direftcd lothc lord 
 treafurcr, or barons of tlie exchequer, commanding 
 ihcmto allow an accountant fuch fums as lie haslaw- 
 lally expended in tlie execution of his office. 
 
 ALLOCUTIO, an oration or fjjccch of a general 
 addrelfed to his fuldicrs, to animate then to fight, to 
 appcafe fedilion, or to keep them to their du'y. A 
 mount of earth was railed upon the occafion, as it 
 w ere a kind of tribunal of turf. From this tlic gene- 
 ral pronounced his harangue 10 the army, wiiich was 
 ranged in fcveral fquadrons round him, with their cap- 
 tains at their head. When the time and circumllances 
 Would not admit of a formal harangue, the general 
 Went through the ranks, and called each by his name, 
 putting them in mind of tlicir courage upon former 
 oecalions, mentioning the victories they had won, and 
 making promifcs of plunder. 
 
 ALLOUIUM, or Alleud, denotes lands which 
 are tlie abfohuc property of theirowner, without being 
 obliged to pay any fervice or acknowledgment what- 
 ever to a fupcrior lord. See Fee and Fevdal Syjlem, 
 
 ALLOPHYLLUS, in botany : a genus of the 
 inonogynia order, belonging to the oftandria-clafs of 
 plants. The charadlers of which are : the calyx is a 
 fonr-leaved perianihium, with orbicular leaflets, the 
 oppofiie ones lefs : Tlie corolla condds oi four or- 
 bicular equal petals, lefs than the calyx ; the claws 
 broader, the length of the fmallcr leaves of the calyx : 
 The Jiamhui confiil of eight llendcr filaments, the 
 length of the corolla ; the antheras are roundilh : The 
 pijltthnn has a round didymous germen above ; the 
 llylus is filiform, and loiigcr than the flamina ; and 
 the Itigma is bifid, with revolutc divitions. There 
 is but one fpecics, the zeylanicus, a native of Cey- 
 lon. 
 
 ALLOTTING, ox y^i.uirxr.^T of Goods, in mat- 
 ters of commerce, is when a (hip's cargo is divided in- 
 to feve: al parts, bouglu by divers pcrfons, whofe names 
 are written on as many pieces of paper, which are ap- 
 plied bvan indifferent perfon to the feveral lots or par- 
 cels ; by which means the goods are divided without 
 partiality, every man having the parcel which the lot 
 ■with hi^ name on is appropriated. 
 
 ALLOY, or Allay, properly fignifies a propor- 
 tion of a bafer metal mixed with a finer one. The al- 
 loy of gold is eltimatcd by carats, that of filver by 
 penny-weights. (See Gold, &c.) IndifFcrent nations, 
 different proportijns of alloy are afed ; whence their 
 moneys are faid to be ofdiflerent degrees of finenefs or 
 bafenefs, and arc valued accordingly in foreign ex- 
 changes. — The chief reafons alleged for the alloying 
 
 in
 
 A L M [ 479 ] A L M 
 
 of coin are: i. The mixture of ihe raetals, which, and lix or feven in brjiJth. They are exceedingly 
 
 when fnicUed from the mine, arc not pcrfeflly jnirc. fwifc, and are otherwife called caihuri. 
 ^''"'' 2. The fa\in^ the cxpc:icc it mull oihcrwife coll if ALMAGliST, ia matters of liieratjrc, is particu- 
 
 thcy wcr^ to bs refined. 3. The necellity of render- larly ufed for a collcctioa or book conipufcd by Ptole- 
 
 ini; them harder, by mixing fome pirts of other me- my, coniaiiiinjj various problems of the ancients both 
 
 tals with them, to prevent tiic diminution of weight in gcoHutry and aAro'nomy. 
 
 by wearing in palling from hand to hand. 4. ihe Al).iagE5T is allj ihe title of other colledions of 
 
 melting ot foreign goid or coin which is alloyed. 5. this kind. Thus Riccioli has pnblilhed a book of a- 
 
 The charges of coinage, which mull be made good by ftrononiy, which he calls the Ni-io Aiinage ji ; and Pluc- 
 
 ihe profit arilin;^ from the money coined. 6. and lalt- Kcnct, a book which he calls .4h»a^:j!niii: Boiauiciini. 
 ly, The duty belonging to the fovercign, on account ALMAGRA, a fine deep red ochre, with feme ad- 
 
 of the power he has to caufc money to be coined in his mixture of purple, very heavy, and of a denfe yet fri- 
 
 doniinioiis. able ffnicture, and rough dulty furfacc. It ailheres 
 
 In a more general fcnfe, the word is employed in very firmly to the tongue, melts eafily and freely in tlic 
 
 chemiftry tolignify theanionofdifTcrcntmetallicmat- mouth, is of an auitcre and llronj^ly aftringent taflc, 
 
 tcrs — As an infinity of different combinations may be and flainsthefkin in touching. It is t!ic Sil /itt.cum oi 
 
 made according to the nature, the number, and the 
 proportions of the metallic matters capable o( being al- 
 loyed, we (liall not here enter into the detail of the 
 particular alloys, all which are not yet nearly known. 
 Thofe which are ufed, as Brc/iz.-, Tombac, Brafs, 
 IVhiti Copper, &c. may be found under their particular 
 names; and what is kni)wn concerning other alloys 
 may be found under the names of the different metals 
 and fcmimetals. 
 
 AI.LUM. See Alum. 
 
 ALLU MINOR, from the French aluiner, " to 
 lighten," is ufed for one who coloureth or painieth 
 
 upon paper or parchment ; and the rcafon is, becaufe when the fortrcfs was bedcgcd by an army of jocr 
 
 he gives light and ornament by his colours to the let- horf;; and foot, under the command of a Monriih ohi- 
 
 ters oroihcr figures. Such ornaments are fiyled ;////- cer of great reputation; but the prelate, its founder, 
 
 7/ihiatioi;:. The word is ufed in flat. i. R. III. cap. took care to fupply thofe within v.ithfucil plenty of ne- 
 
 9. Bui now fuch a pcrfon is called A!.;itner. celFaries, that at length the enemy found thenfelves 
 
 ALLUSH, (anc. gcog.) The Ifraelites being in obliged to raife the liege and retire with great lofs. 
 
 the wildernefs of Shur, departed from Dophkah, and ALPIANACK, a book, or table, containinT a ca- 
 
 went to Allufli, from whence they proceedcdtoRcphi- Icndar of Jays and mouths, the riling and fettiiig of 
 
 dim ; Num. xxxiii. 13, 14. tufcbins and St Jcrom 
 fix AlluHi in Idiimxa, about Gabalaor Pctra, the capi- 
 tal of Arabia Petrara. In the accounts of the empire, 
 it is fituated in the third Palcfline ; and by Ptolemy, 
 among the cities of Idumxa. 
 
 ALLUSION, in rhetoric, a figure by which fonic- 
 tliing is applied to, or underflood of, another, on ac- 
 count of fome limilitudc between them. 
 
 ALLUVION, in law, denotes the gradual increafe fon derives it from the Arabic particle a/, and th 
 
 of land along the fca-lliore, or on banks of rivers 
 
 ALLY, in matters of polity, a fovereign prince or 
 ftate that has entered into alliance with others. Sec 
 Alliance. 
 
 ALMACANTARS. See Almucantars. 
 ALM.^CARRON, a fia-port town of Spain, is the 
 province of Miirci.i, at the mouth of the river Guada- 
 lantin. It is about twenty miles well of Carthagena, 
 and is remarkable for the prodigious quantity of ahim 
 found in its territory. W. Long. i. 15. N. Lat. 37. 
 40. 
 
 as the richell lilver mines in Europe 
 
 ALMADIF,, a kind of canoe, or fmall veflel, about 
 four fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and ufed 
 by the negroes of Africa. 
 
 Almadie isalfo the name of a kind of long-boats, 
 fitted out at Calicur, which arc eighty feet in length, 
 
 the ancients : it ferments very violciitly with acid 
 menllruums ; by whi- h lingle quality, it is f ifiieien:- 
 ly diAi-iguilheJ from the Sil Syr'unm, to which.it iias 
 in many rdpeds a great alRnity. It is found in iir.- 
 menfe quantities in many parts of Spain ; and in An- 
 dilulia there are in a manner whole mountains of ir. 
 It is ufed in painting, and in medicine as an aftringrnt. 
 ALMAGIIO, a fortrefs of Spain, the capital of 
 one of the dillriiits of La Mancha. It w s bjilt by 
 the archbilhop Roderic of Toledo, who fiiiilhcd it in 
 1 214, and put a conlidcrable garrifon into it to rcflrairi 
 the incurlions of the Moors. This was h.irdly do:u-, 
 
 the fun, the age of the moon, the cclipfes of both lu- 
 minaries, &c.— Authors are di\ided witli regard tothc 
 etymology of the word ; fome deriving it from thcA- 
 rabic particle al, and viBnack, to count ; fome from al- 
 manah, new-year's gif'ts, becaufe the Arabian artrolo- 
 gers ufed at the beginning ofthe year to make prefcnts 
 of their ephemcridcs ; and others, from the Teutonic 
 a/wfl;v/-<i<:^f:',obfervationsona!l the mouths. Mr John- 
 
 Greek fjLw, a month. But the mofl limple etymology 
 appears from the common fpelling ; the word lieiii.; 
 compofcd of two Arabic ones, Al Manack, which 
 fignify //jcDwrj-. All the claflcs of Arabs arc com- 
 monly much given to the Ihidy of aflronomy and aflro- 
 logy ; to both which a pafloral life, and a fort of huf- 
 bandry, not only incline ihcm, but give them lime and 
 Icifure to apply themfelves to them. They never fow, 
 reap, plant, travel, b lyor fell, or undertake any expc- 
 ditionormaitcr.withoutprcvioully confultingtheflars, 
 or,in other words, their almanacks, or fome of the ma- 
 ALMADE, a town of Spain, in the province of La kers of them. From ihcl'c people, by their vicinity m 
 Mancha, in the kingdom of tallilc, fituated upon the Europe, this art, no lei's ufcful in one feiife than flnpid 
 top of a mountain, where are the moll ancient as well and lidiculous inanohcr.hath palfcd over thither: and 
 
 thofe ailronomical compolitions have llill every where 
 not only retained their old Arabic name ; but were, 
 like theirs for a long while, and llill are among many 
 European nations, interfperfed with a gre.-.t number of 
 allrological rules for planting, fowing, bleeding, pur- 
 ging, &c. down to the cutting of the Ini- and paring; 
 
 of
 
 A L M 
 
 [ 48 
 
 Ainianack oftlic nails. —Ileg'oiiiontauusaYcnrs :o have In en the 
 
 ■■ — ^ Jin! ill Eiiropc, however, who re Jr^ed almanacks into 
 
 their prel'ciu t'orni and mcth ni, gavctlic charadtcrs of 
 each year anil month, foretold the ecHpfcs anu other 
 phafcs, cahnlatedthc motions of the planets, &c. His 
 iirit ahi'.anack w^s lirfl piilliflird in 1474. 
 
 Almanacks differ from one another, chiefly, incon- 
 taininu' feme more, otlicrs fewer, particnlars. 
 
 The clli nti.l part is the calendar of months and ^iays, 
 with the rill;!gs and ftttings of the fun, age of the 
 moon, &c. To thefc are'addcd various parerga, aftro- 
 noniical, meteoroloi>;ical, clironologicai, political, ru- 
 ral, &c. as calculations and accounts of cclipfcs, folar 
 in^'tlles, pro^rnoUi s of the weather, tables of tlic 
 tides, terms, &c. lilts of polls, offices, dignities, pub- 
 lic infiitutions, with many other articles political as 
 well as local, and diilering in different countries.— 
 Agrc.it variety arc annually publillied in Britain ; fome 
 for biijdiii;;, which may be denominated ho'A-altua- 
 riach : others in h)oi"c papers, cdWeAJhsit-aimaKacks. 
 
 The modern almanack anfwcrs 10 the FaJH of the 
 ancient Romans. .Sec Kasti. 
 
 Coi/irt.'fiid'i o/'Almanacks. The firft thing to be 
 donc'is, (o compute the fun's and moon's place for 
 cacl- day of the year, or jt may be taken from fomc 
 I'-phcmeridesanil entered into the almanack; next, find 
 ■ rhc dominical letter, and, by means thereof, diflribute 
 the calend-ir into weeks ; tl/cn, having computed the 
 rime ofeallcr, by it fix theother moveable fcalls ; ad- 
 ding the immoveable ones, with the names of the niar- 
 ^ tyrs; the rilingand fcttingof each luminary, the length 
 
 'if day and night, the alpcfts of the planets, the pha- 
 j'esof the moon, and the fun's entrance into the car- 
 dinal points of the ecliptic, /. e. the two equinoxes and 
 follUces. (See Astronomy, /'«^?;/.) By the help 
 o! good aftronomical tribles or ephcmerides, the con- 
 ftruaion of almanacks is extremely eafy. 
 
 In Britain almanacks for one year prnted on one 
 fide of the paper, pay of the duty 2d. ; thofc for more 
 years pay for three years id. ; but perpetual almanacks 
 are to p;iy only for three years at ^d. Out of the du- 
 liesby this airl there fiiall be paid to each univerfuy 
 L. SCO /'fr ai:/i. half yearly, at ^lidfummerand Chrift- 
 mas, and the fiirphis Ihall be paid into ihe exchequer 
 tog.) to the linking fund. Selling unihimped almanacks 
 incurs the fame penalty as for felling unilamped nevvf- 
 papcrs. Almanacks in biblesand common prayer books 
 are exempted. 
 
 Ai.M.'iNACK, among antiqnaries, is alfo the name 
 given to a kind of iiillrument, ulually of wood, in- 
 fcribed with various figures and R-unic characters, and 
 reprefcniingtlie orderof tlie feads. dominical letters, 
 daysof the week, and golden number, with other mat- 
 !ers iiecefTary to be known tliroughont the year ; ufed 
 by the ancient northern nations, in their computations 
 of lime, both civil and ecclefiaftical. Almanacks of 
 this kind are kn»wn by varions names, amongthe dif- 
 ferent nations wherein they have been ufed j as riin- 
 ftocks. primrtaries, riinllocks, runflafis, Sc:/!!ones Ru- 
 Ktci, Bucc-ili Ai'valcs, clogs, &c. They appear to 
 have been ufed only by the .Swedes, Danes, and Nor- 
 wegians. From the fecoiul of thcfe people, their ufe 
 v.-as introduced into England, whence divers remains 
 of them in the counties. Dr Plot has given the de- 
 fcription and figure of one of thcfe clogs, found in 
 
 3 
 
 o ] A L M 
 
 StjfFordfliire", under the title of The perpttnxl Siajoid- Almarza, 
 Jhirc Aiwanack. The external figure and matter of Hcrcfy uf 
 ihtfc calendars appear to have been various. Some- Alm anc. 
 times they wefc cut on one or more woodeji leaves, 
 b'jund together after the manner of bocks ; fometimes 
 on the fc.ibbardsof fwords, or even on daggers ; fome- 
 times on tools and implements, as portable ileelyards, 
 hammers, the helves of hatchets, flails, &c. Some- 
 times they were'made of brafs or horn ; i'ometimesof 
 the fhiifis of eels, which, being drawn over a Aick pro- 
 perly iiifciibed, retained the impreflu>ns of it. Bu: 
 the molt ufual form was that of walking flaves, or 
 flicks, which they carried about wiili them to church, 
 market, See. Kach of thcfe Haves is divided into three 
 regions ; whereof the firft indicates the llgns, the fe- 
 cond the days of the week and year, and the third the 
 golden number. Thecharadersengravenon tliem arc, 
 in fome, the ancient Runic : in others, the later Gothic 
 charaftcrs of Ullilus. The faints days arc exprelfcd 
 in hieroglyphics, lignificative either of fome endow- 
 ment of the faint, the manner of his martyrdom, or 
 the like. Thus, againft the notch for the firlt of 
 March, or St David's day, is reprefentcd a harp ; a- 
 gainft the 2Jth of October, or Crifpin's day, a pair of 
 llioes.; againft the loth of Augufl, or St Lawrence's 
 day, a gridiron ; and, laftly, againft New-year's day, 
 a horn, the mark of good drinking, which they gave 
 a loofe to at that feafon. 
 
 AL.MANZA, a little town of New-Caftile, on the 
 frontiers of the kingdom of VdlenciainSpain, fituatcd 
 in W. Long. i. 19. N. Lat. 38. 54. it is remarkable 
 for thcdefeat of the allies in 1707, under the Marquis 
 de las Minasand the Karl of Galway. In the begin- 
 ning of thisaflion, the Englilh troops penetrated thro' 
 the center of the Spanidi army ; but the Portugucfe 
 cavalry being broken by the Spanilh,and the French in- 
 fantry making a dreadful fire on their flanks, the allied 
 army wasat laft broken, and began their retreat when 
 ft was almoft dark. Colonel Hill carried off the re- 
 mains of thirteen battalions towards the river Xncar, 
 which, if they could have pafled, they might have 
 been fafe : but being very much fatigued, they were 
 obliged to halt ; by which meansthey were furround- 
 ed, and forced to furrender prifoners of war. In this 
 battle, the allies loft 120 ftandards, together with all 
 their artillery and baggage ; a great number were kil- 
 led, and fevcralthoufands taken prifoners. The Mar- 
 quis de las Minas was dangeroully wounded ; and his 
 miftrefs, in the garb of an amazon, killed by his lide. 
 The Carl of Galway had two cuts crofs the face, 
 which, though not dangerous, had preveiited him 
 from feeing, or giving orders properly. 
 
 Heresy of ALMARIC, a tenet broached in 
 France by one Almaric, in the year 1209. It eonlift- 
 cd in aflirming, that every Chriftian was actually a 
 member of Chrift ; and that without this faith no one 
 coidd be faved. His followers went fartlier, and af- 
 firmed, that thcpowcrof the Father lafted only during 
 tiic continuance of the Mofaic law ; tliat the coming 
 of Chrift introduced a new law ; that at the end of this 
 began the reign of the Holy Ghoft ; and that now 
 confelRon and the facraments were at an end, and that 
 every one is to be favcd by the internal operations of the 
 Holy Spirit alone, witliout any external act of reli- 
 gion. — Their morals were asinfamous as their doftrine 
 
 was
 
 A L M 
 
 [ 481 ] 
 
 A L M 
 
 Almc was abfurd. Their tenets were condemned by apublic 
 
 — V ' decree of the council ot'Sens, in the year 1209. 
 
 ALME, or Alma, finging and dancing girls in 
 Egypt, who, like the Italian Improvifatari, can occa- 
 Iloually pour fourth " unpremeditated vcrfe." They 
 arc called Ahiit, from having received a better edu- 
 cation than other women. 'I'hey form a celebrated 
 focicty in this country. To be received into it, ac- 
 cording to Mr Savary, it is nccclfary to have a good 
 voice, to underlland the language wcil, to know 
 the rules of poetry, and be able to compofe and ling 
 couplets on the fpot, adapted to the circumftances. 
 The Aime know by heart all the new fongs. Their 
 memory is furnilhed with the moll beautiful talcs. 
 There is nofeltival without them ; no entertainment 
 of which they do not conllitute the ornament. They 
 are placed in a roltruni, from whence they ling during 
 the rcpaft. They then defcend into th» faloon, and 
 form dances whichhavenorcfemblance to ours. They 
 arc pantomime ballets, in which they rcprefent tiie 
 ufual occurrences of life. Thcmyfterics of love too, 
 generally furnifli them with fcenes. The fupplenefs of 
 their bodies is inconceiveable. One is aftonilhedat the 
 mobility of their features, to which they give at plea- 
 furc the imprelfion fuitcd to the charaflers they play. 
 The indecency of their altitudes is often carried to cx- 
 cefs. Their looks, their gellures, every thing fpeaks, 
 but in fo cxprelllve a manner, that it is impollible to 
 miflakc them. At the beginning of the dance, they 
 lay aiide with their veils the modelly of their fcx. A 
 long robe of very tiiin (ilk goes down to their heels, 
 which is llightly fallcneJ with a rich girdle. Long 
 black hair, plaited and perfumed, is rtowing on their 
 Uioulders. A lliift, tranlparent as guaze, fcarctly hides 
 their bofom. As thty put themfelves in motion, the 
 fhapes, the contours of their bodies, feem to develope 
 themfelves fuccelhvely. Their fteps are regulated by 
 the found of the flute, ofcaftancts, the tambour de 
 bafque, and cymbals, which accelerates or retards the 
 meafurc. Tliey are flill further animated by words 
 adapted to fuch fcenes. They appear in a (late of in- 
 toxication. They are the Bacchants in a delirium. 
 It is when they are at this point, that throwing ort all 
 referve, they abandon themfelves totally to the difor- 
 dcr of their fcnfes ; it is then that a people far from 
 delicate, and who like nothing hidden, redouble their 
 applaufes. Thefe Almc arc lent for into all tfie ha- 
 rams. They teach the women tlie new airs ; they a- 
 mufe them with amorous tales, and recite in their pre- 
 fcnce poems, wliich are fomuch the more interclli:ig, 
 as they furnilli a lively pidlurc of their manners. They 
 initiate them into the mvRcriesof their art, and tench 
 ihcm to contrive lafcivious dances. Thefe girls, who 
 have a cultivated undcrllanding, are very agreeable in 
 convcrfation. They fpcak their language with puri- 
 ty. The h.ibit of dedicating themfelves to poetry ren- 
 ders the foftellaud moft fouorous cxprcyFions familiar 
 10 them. Tliey repeat with a great deal of grace. In 
 fniging, nature is their only guide. Sometimes two 
 of them ling together, butalwayswith the fame voice. 
 It is the fame with an orchertri, where all theinllru- 
 ments playing in unifon execute the fame part. 
 
 The Alnit alFift at the marriage ceremonies, and 
 march before the bride, playingon inilruments. They 
 make a figure likewifc at fimcrals, and accompany the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 procellion, fingmg forrowfulairs. They break forth Almcdij 
 into groans and lamentations, and give every fign of n 
 griet and defpair. Thefe women are paid Mcry high, Almcn>. 
 
 and fcldom appear but aniongll the grandees and rich ' " 
 
 men. 
 
 The common people have alfo their Alme. They 
 arc girls of the fecond clafs, who try to imitate the 
 former; but they have neither their elegance, their 
 graces, nor their knowledge. They arc every where 
 to be met with. The public places and the walks about 
 Grand Cairo are full of them. As the populace re- 
 quire allufions Hill more llrongly marked, decency will 
 net permit the relation to what a pitch they carry the 
 licentioufnefsof their gellures and attitudes. 
 
 ALMEDIA, a frontier-town of Portugal, in the 
 province of Tralos Montes, on the confines of Leon, 
 where there was a very brilk aclion between theFrench 
 and Portuguefe in 1663 j 17 miles N. W. of Cividad 
 Rodrigo. W.Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 40. 41. 
 
 ALMEHR.AB, m the Mahometan culloms, a nich 
 in their inofques, pointing towards the kebla or temple 
 of Mecca, to which they are obliged to bow in pray- 
 ing. See Kebla. 
 
 ALMEISAR, a celebrated game among the anci- 
 ent Arabs, performed by a kind of calling of lots 
 with arrows, llridly forbid by the law of Mahomet, on 
 account of the frequent quarrels occalioned by it. 
 
 The manner of the game was thus : A young camel 
 being brought and killed, was divided into a number 
 of parts. The adventurers, to the number of feven, 
 being met, 1 1 arrows were provided without heads or 
 feathers ; feven of which were marked, the firflwith 
 one notch, the fecond with two, the third with three, 
 &c. the other four hid no marks. Thefe arrows were 
 put promifcuoully into a bag, and thus drawn by an 
 inditfercnt perfon. Thole to whom the marked ar- 
 rows fell, won Iharcs in proportion to their lot ; the 
 rell to whom the blanks fell, were entitled to no part 
 of the camel, but obliged to piy the whole price of it. 
 Even the winners tailed not of the flelli themfelves 
 more than the loofers, but the wliole was dillributed 
 to the poor. 
 
 ALMENE, in commerce, a weight of two pounds 
 ufed to weigh latfronin feveral parts of the continent 
 of the v.. Indies. 
 
 ALMEKIA, a fea-port town in the kingdom of 
 Granada in Spain, plcafantly lituated in a fine bay at 
 the mouth of the river Ahncria, on the Mediterranean : 
 \V. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 36. 51. This town is by 
 fome thought to have rifen upnn ii;c ruins of the an- 
 cient Abdera, and was formerly a place of great con- 
 fequcnce. It was taken from the NIoors in 1147, by 
 the emperor Conrad III. in conjundion with the 
 French, Genocfc, and Pifans — It was at that time the 
 flrongell place in Spain, held by the infidels; from 
 which their privateers, whien were exceedingly nume- 
 rous, not only troubled the fea-coalls inhibited by the 
 Chrillians, but gave equal diilurbancc to the maritime 
 provinces of Prance, Italy, and the adjacent illinds. 
 The city being well fortified, having a llrong calllc, 
 a numerous garrifon, and being cxccllcnrly provided 
 with every tiling necclfary, made a vigorous relillaiicc ; 
 but was at lall taken by ilorin, when tlicviclorpui t" 
 the fword all the inhabitants who were found in arms, 
 dillributing the belt part of ilie plunder among his .il- 
 3 V lies.
 
 A L M 
 
 [ 482 ] 
 
 A L M 
 
 Almiffa lies, whom lie lent asvsy ilioroughly laiisiicd. llie 
 \ Gcnocfe, panicukrly, ac4uired liere that emtiald vcf- 
 Almuner. f^ 1 „ i,ici, jtin remains iu their iieafuiy, and is deemed 
 " invaluable. 
 
 Uponiis icdiiflion by the Chriljians' Almcria be- 
 came a bilhoprtc ; but is at prtfeiu very little better 
 than a village, indifttrcuily iii!wbited,andhas nothing 
 to tcltit'y fo much as the probjbi'iity of its former great- 
 nefs, except certain circumllances which cannot he 
 effaced even by the indolence of the Spaniards ihcm- 
 fclves. What ihefe are,Udal ap Rhys, a Wellhman, 
 thus defcribes, in his tour through Spain and Portugal. 
 «' Its climate (fays he) Is fo peculiarly bltlfcd, that 
 one really wants words to r xprcfs its charms and excel- 
 lence. Its fieKIs and meads arc covered with tfower« 
 all the year round ; they are adorned alfo with palms, 
 itiynles,plane-trces,oranges,andolives; and the moun- 
 tains and promontories near it are as noted for their 
 producing a great variety of precious lloncs, inlomuch 
 that the next promontory to is is called the C.'/c- oj 
 Cstii, which is a corruption from the word agates, the 
 hills thereabouts abounding in that fort of precious 
 Hones, as well as in emeralds and amethyfls, granites 
 or coarfe rubies, and extreme curious alabafler in the 
 mountains of Filaurc.s." 
 
 ALMISSA, a fmall but flrong town at the moulh 
 of the Cctina, in Dalmatia, famous for its piracies ; 
 len miles eaft of Spalatro. E. Long. 39. 33. N. Lat. 
 43. 56. 
 
 ALMOND, the fruit of the alraond-tree. See 
 Amygdalus. 
 
 Alm OND, in commerce, a meafure by which die Por- 
 (uguefe fell their oil ; 26 almonds make a pipe. 
 
 Aj-monds, inanatoniy, a name fometimcs given to 
 two glands, generally called the toiifh. 
 
 Almonds, among lapidaries, fignjfy pieces of rock- 
 cryflal, iifed in adorning branch-candleflicks, &c. on 
 account of the refemblanee they bear to the fiuit of that 
 name. 
 
 ALMOND-Furnace,v.no\\g\cfintr^i\\A\ in which the 
 flags of litharge, left in rehning fdvcr, are reduced to 
 lead again by the help of charcoal. 
 
 ALMONDBUKY, a village in England, in the 
 weft-riding of Yorklhire, fix niiksfrom Halifax. 
 
 ALP/'.ONKR, in its primitive fcnfe, denotes an of- 
 ficer in religioushoafes,towhonibelonged themanage- 
 iTiCnt and diftribution of ihcalms ofthehoule. By the 
 ancient canons, nil monaftcries were tofpend at lc;!fta 
 tenth pan of their income in alms to the poor. The 
 almoner of Si Paul's is to difpofe of the monies left for 
 chanty, accordiiig to the appoinimsnt of the donors, 
 to bury the ptxir who die in the neighbourhood, and 
 to breed up tight boys 10 linging, for the ufe of the 
 choir. By an ancient canon, all bilhops arc required 
 to keep almoners. 
 
 Lor J JfiKOXFS, or Lord High ^lmonf.R, of Eng- 
 land, is an eccleliafticalofiicer, generally a biHiop, who 
 has the forfeiture of all deodands, and the goods of 
 /t/oj dc fe. which he is to diftribute among the poor. 
 He has.alio, by virtucof an ancient cuflom, the power 
 of giving the firfl dilh from tlie-king's table to what- 
 ever poor prvfon he pleafcs, or, inflead of it, an alms 
 ^1 money. 
 
 •QrAatj^LHtosEK, Clra/id ^vMOi\iER, in France, is 
 
 the higheft cccle/iaflical dignity in that kingdom. To Alo»er.«r 
 him bolongs the fuperintendency of all iiolpitals and II 
 
 houfcs of lepers. The king receives the facramcnt AlmuciuBi. 
 from his hand ; and he fays mafs before the king in " 
 
 all grand ceremonies and folemnities. 
 
 Almoner is alfo a more falhionable title given by 
 fome writers to chaplains. In this fcnfe we meet with 
 almoner of a reginiv-nt. 
 
 ALMONRY, or Aumbry, the office or lodgings 
 of the almont-r ; alfo the place where alms arc given. 
 Sec AuMBRT. 
 
 ALMS, a general term for what is given out of cha- 
 rity to the poor. 
 
 In the early ages of Chriftianity, the alms of the 
 charitable were divided into four parts ; one of which 
 was allotted 10 the bilhop, another to the pricfls, and 
 a third to the deacons and fubdeacons, which made 
 their whole fubliftcnce ; the fourth part was employed, 
 in relieving the poor, and in repairing the churches. 
 
 No religious fyftem is more frequent or warm in its - 
 exhortations toalms-giving than the Mahometan. The 
 Alcoran reprcfcnts alms as a neccllary means to make 
 prayer be heard. Hence that faying of one of their 
 khalifs : " Prayer carries us half-way to God, farting 
 brings us to the door of his palace, and alms irurodiiccs 
 us into the prefcnee-chamber." Hence many illuftri- 
 ous examples of this virtue among the Mahometans. 
 Hafan, the fon of Ali, and grandfon of Mohammed, 
 in particular, is related to have thrice in his life divided 
 his fubftance equally between himfelf and the poor, and 
 twice to have given away all he had. And the gene- 
 rality arc fo addifted to the doing of good, that they 
 extend their chariiy even to brutes. 
 
 Alms, alfo denotes lands or other effefts left to 
 churches or religious houfes, on condition of praying 
 for the foul of the donor. Hence, 
 
 Free y^LMS was that which is liable to no rent or 
 fervicc. 
 
 RcafoiiabU j4lms was a certain portion of the eflates 
 ofinteflate pcrfons, allotted to the poor. 
 
 Alms-Box, or Chejl, a fmall cheft, orcoffir, called 
 bytheGreeksK;i3»Tjoy,wherein anciently the alms were 
 colleftcd, both at church and at private houfcs. 
 
 The alms- chc ft in Englilh churches, isaftrongbox, 
 with a hole in the upper part, having three keys, one 
 to be kept by the parfon or curate, the other two by 
 the ciriuch-vvardcns. The eredlingof fucb alnis-chcfl 
 in every church is enjoined by the book of canons, as 
 alfo die manner of diftributing what i-s thus collected 
 among the poor of the parilh. 
 
 ALMi-Hotifi:, a petty kind of hofpital, for the main- 
 tenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or difabled 
 pcojile. 
 
 ALMUCANTARS, in aftronomy, an Arabic word 
 denoting circles of the fphtrepafling through the cen- 
 tre of the fun, or a ftar, parallel to the horizon, being 
 the fame a^Parallels of Altitude.. 
 
 ALMVCAKTARS-Staff, is an inftrument ufually made 
 of pear-tree or box, havingan arch of 1 5 degrees ; ufed 
 to take obfervations of the fun, about the time of its 
 rifing and fetting ; in order to find the amplitude, and 
 confequently the variation of the compafs. 
 
 ALMUCIUM, denotes a kind ©f cover forthe head, 
 worn chieriy by monks and ccclctiaftics: It was of 1 
 
 f^^uaM
 
 A L M 
 
 [ 4«3 J 
 
 A L O 
 
 Almugi™ fquarc form, and fccms to have given rife to the bon- 
 I nets of the f inie fhapc ftill retained in univerliiics and 
 Alnwick, cathedrals, 
 
 ■'* — ^^ ' ALMUGIM, or Almuc-tree, a certain kind of 
 
 wood mentioned in the firfl book of Kings, (x. it.) 
 which the viilgatc tran.lates ligna thyina, and the Sep- 
 tuagcnt luroiighfwoofl. The Rabbins generally render 
 II coral ; others, f^owy, brazU, ox pine. Bmitisob- 
 fcrvcd, that the almug-trce can by no means be coral, 
 becaufe that wood is not fit for the purpofcs that the 
 Scripture tells cis the almug-trce was ufcd, fuch as mu- 
 lical inllruments, ftair-cafcs, &c. The word thyinum is 
 a name for the citron- tree, known lotlic ancients, and 
 very much cflccmcd for its fweet odour and great 
 beauty. It came from Mauritania. The almug-tree, 
 or almugim, algumim, or fimply gummim, taking <?/ 
 for a kind of article, is therefore by the bell commen- 
 tators underftood to be an oily and gummy fort of 
 wood ; and particularly that fort of tree which pro- 
 duces the gum ammoniac, which is alfo thought to 
 be the fame with the fliittim-wood, whereof there is 
 fuch frequent mention made by Mofcs. 
 
 ALMUNECAR, a fea-port town in the kingdom 
 of Granada, feated on the Mediterranean, witha good 
 harbour, defended by a flrong caftle, 30 miles fouth 
 of Alhama. W. Long. ?. 4J. N. Lat. 36. 50. 
 
 ALNAGE, orAuLNAGE, the meafuring of wool- 
 len manufa&ures with an ell. It was at firll intended 
 as a proof of the goodnefs of that commodity, and ac- 
 cordingly a feal was invented as a mark that the com- 
 modity was made according to the flatutc -, but, it be- 
 ing now polTiblc to purchafe thefe fcals, they are affix- 
 ed, whenever the venderplealcs, toalldoathsindifcri- 
 minately, to the great prejudice of the Britilh wool- 
 len manufaflurcs. 
 
 ALNAGER, Alneger, orAui.NEGER,q. i.mea- 
 furer by the ell ; (ignities a fworn public officer, who by 
 himielf, or deputy, is to look to the alfizc of woollen 
 cloth made throughout the land, i.e. the length, width, 
 and work thereof; and to the feals for that purpofe 
 ordained. The office of king's alnagcr fecms to have 
 been derived from the ftatute of Richard I. A. D. 
 1197, which ordained, tliat there fliould be only one 
 weight and one nieafure throughout the kingdom ; and 
 that the cufloc'y of the afllzc, or ftandard of weights 
 and mcafnres, Ihould be committed to certain perfons 
 in every city and borough. His bufmcfs was, for a 
 certain fee, to meafure all cloth made for fale, till 
 the office was aboliflied by the ftaiatc 11 and 12 W. 
 III. cap. 30. 
 
 ALNUS, the Alder-trke, a fpecics of bctula. 
 See Betula. 
 
 Alnus, ifi the ancient theatres, that part which 
 was moft dittant from the ftagc. 
 
 ALNWICK, a thoroughfare town in Northumber- 
 land, on the road to Scotland. Here Malcolm, king 
 of Scotland, making an inroad into Northumberland, 
 was killed, with Edward his fon, and hiaarmy defeat td 
 by Robert Mowbray, earl of this county, az/wo 1092. 
 Likewife William, king of Scotland, in 1 T 74, ir.va- 
 ding England with an army of So.ooo mc.T, was here 
 encountered, his army routed, and himfclf made pri- 
 foner. The town is populous, and in general well 
 built; it Ljj a largetown-houfe, where the quarter- 
 fcflioDS aad county-court* arc held, and members of 
 
 parliament defied. It has a fpaciouffquare, in which 
 a market is held every Saturday. Alnwick appears 
 to have been formerly fortified, by the vcftiges of a 
 wall ftill vilible in inany parts, and tliree gates which 
 remain almofl entire. It is governed by four chamber- 
 lains, who arc chofen once in iwoytars out of a com- 
 mon council, conlilling of 24 members. It is orna- 
 mented by a ftatcly old Gothic caftle, which has been 
 the feat of the noble family of Piercy, earls of North- 
 umberland. As ilie audits for reccijit of rents have 
 ever been ia this caftle, ii has always been kept in to- 
 lerable repair ; and not many ycarsago, it was repaired 
 and beautified by the duke of Northumberland, w ho 
 made \zr^ conlidcrablc alterations, upon a moft elegant 
 plan, with a view to rcfide in it fome part of the funi- 
 mer-fcafon. The mannerof making freemen is pecu- 
 liar to this place, and indeed is as ridiculous as lingu- 
 lar. The perfons who are to be made free, or, as the 
 phrafc is, leap the v/cll, aflfemblc in the market-place, 
 very early in the morning, on the 2Jth of April, being 
 St Mark's day. They appear on horfe-bick, with e- 
 very man his fword by his fide, drefled in « bite, and 
 with white night-caps, attended by the four chamber- 
 lains and the caftle-bailitf", mounted and armed in the 
 fame manner ; from hence they proceed, with mulic 
 playing before them, to a large dirty pool, called /^rirr- 
 titan'i-vjitl, wiiere they difmount, and draw up in a 
 body, at fome diflance from the water ; and tiien rulh 
 into it all at once, and fcramble through the mud a3 
 fall as they can. As the water is generally very foul, 
 they come out in a dirty condition ; but taking a dram, 
 they put on dry clothes, remount their horfes, and 
 ride full gallop round the confines of the diftrid ; 
 then re-enter th* town, fword in hand, and are met 
 by women drelled in ribbons with bells and-garlands, 
 dancing and (inging. Thefe are called iimba-xoafls. 
 The houfes of the new freemen are on this day diftin- 
 guifhed by a great holly-bufh,as a fignal for their friends 
 to afTemble and make merry with thera-fter their re- 
 turn. This ceremony wasowingtoking John, who was 
 mired in this well ; and who, as a punilhmcnt for not 
 mending the road, made this a part of their charter. 
 Alnwick is 310 miles north by weft from London, 53 
 north ofNewcaftle, and 29 fouth of Berwick. W. 
 Long. I. 10. Lat. $5. 24. 
 
 ALOA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival kept in ho- 
 nour of Ceres by the hulbandmen, and fuppofed to re- 
 femblc our harvcll-home. 
 
 ALOE, in botany, a genus of tiie monopynia or- 
 der, belonging to the hexandriaclafs of plants , anil, in 
 the natural method, ranking under the loth order, 
 C'jroiiariic. The characlers arc : There is no calyx : 
 The aroJla is monopetalous, crert, iix-cleft, and ob- 
 long ; the tube gibbous ; the border fprcading, and 
 fniall; with a ntdlary-bcaring bottom: The flawrra 
 confift ol fix fubulatcd filaments, rather furpatiing ihc 
 corolla in length, and infcrtcd into the receptacles; the 
 anthcra: arc oblong and incumbent : The ftjlilli,i/i has 
 an ovate gcrmen ; the ftylus is (imple, the length of 
 the ftamina ; the fligma is obtufc and trifid : The pc 
 ricarpiuhi is an oblong capfule, three-furrowed, three- 
 celled, ihrce-valved : ThcfeiJi are many and angular. 
 Of this genus, botanical writers cnuntcrate ten Ipe- 
 cies ; of which the moft remarkable are, 
 
 1. The difticha, by fome called theyij/ ala, by 
 s P 3 others
 
 A L O [ 4S4 ] A L O 
 
 This fcldom rifcs above two in an airy glafs-cafe, in which there is a (love, to make 
 
 Aloe, others cabalime aloe. 
 '^~~' /cct high. The leaves arc very broad at the bale, 
 where they clofcly embrice the Halk, and gradual- 
 ly decreale to a point. The edges are let with 
 Iharp fpincs, and the under leaves fprcad open horizon- 
 tally every way. Thefe are of" a dark green coloiir 
 fpottcd with white, fonicwhat refembling the colour 
 of foft foap, from whence tlic plant got ilie name of 
 foap-ake. The flowers grow in unibcls on the tops of 
 the Aalks, are of a beautiful red colour, and appear 
 in Autfuft and September. 2. The variegate, or 
 partridge-brealt aloe, is a low plant, fcldom riling 
 above (fight inches high. The leaves of this arc trian- 
 gular, and curioudy veined and ipotted, fomewhat like 
 the feathersof a partridge's breaif. The liowcrs grow 
 in very loofc fpikes, and are of a fine red colour tip- 
 ped with green. %. The vifcofa, with funncl-fliaped 
 llowers, grows near a foot high, with triangular 
 leaves of a dark green colour. The flowers grow 
 thinly upon very llender footflalks, are of an herba- 
 ceous colour, and their upper part turns backward. 
 4. The fpiralis, with oval crenatedflowcrs, grows fome- 
 what like the former : only the flowers grow upon tal- 
 ler flalks, which branch out and grow in very long 
 clofe fpikes. J. The linguisformae, or tongue-aloe, 
 has itsleavcs about fix inches inlengtli,aad fliapedlike 
 a tongue. The flowers grow in llender loofe fpikes, 
 each hanging downward, of a red colour below, and 
 green at the top. 6. The margaritifera, or pearl 
 aloe, is a very beautiful plant. It is fmaller than mofl 
 of the aloe kind. The leaves are fliort, very thick, 
 fharp pointed, and turning down, with a large thick 
 end, appear there trianguhr. The colour of the leaves 
 is a line green, flrippcd in an elegant manner with 
 white, and frequently tipped with red at the point. 
 The flower-Ilalk, which riles in the midft of the leaves, 
 is round, fniooth, of a purple colour, and generally 
 -about eight inches high. When the plant has been 
 properly cultivated, the flowers are Itriped with green 
 and white ; and fometimes they are entirely white. 
 This aloe is lingular in not having the bitter relinous 
 juices with which the leaves of moll others abound ; 
 when a leaf of this fpecics is cut, what runs from it is 
 watery, colourlcfs, and perfectly iniipid. 7. The 
 pcrfoliata, or focotorine aloe, hath long, narrow, fuccu- 
 Icnt leaves, which come out without any order, and 
 form large heads. The ftalk grows :hree or four feet 
 ' high ; and has i\W), three, and fometiiTies four,of thefe 
 heads l)ranching out from it. The flowers grow in 
 long fpikes, each (landing on a pretty long footflalk ; 
 they arc of a bright red colour tipped with green, 
 and generally appear in the winter feafon. 8. The 
 retuia, or cufhion aloe, hath very flwrt, thick, fucculent 
 leaves, comprclftd on the upper (ide like a cufliion. 
 This grows very clofe to the ground ; the flowers grow 
 on (lender italks, and are of an herbaceous colour. 
 
 Culture. The J roper earth for planting thefe vege- 
 tables in, is, one half frelb light earth from a com- 
 mon, and the reft an equal mixture of white fca-fand 
 and lifted lirae-robbilh. This mixture Ihou Id be al- 
 ways made fix or eight months before the plants are to 
 be fet in it. The common aloe will live in a dry green- 
 houfe in winter ; and may be placed in the open air in 
 f imincr, in a Qieliered lituation, but mull have very lit- 
 tle water. Moll of the other aloes are bed preferved 
 
 Aloe. 
 
 a little fire in very bad weather. The tendered kinds 
 require a greater Iharc of heat to prcfervc them in win- 
 ter, and (liould be kept in a good dove, in a degree of 
 heat ten degrees above temperate. Many otlier kinds 
 may alfo be kept in this heat ; but the greater the 
 heat, the more water they always require. About the 
 beginning of June, it is ufual in England to fet the 
 pots of aloes out of the houfe : but they lliould be fet 
 under the Ihelter of hedges or trees, to keep them from 
 the violence of the fun ; the rains alfo, which ufually 
 tall in this and the following month, are apt to rot 
 them. It is therefore bed to keep thera under cover 
 the greaied part of the year. The bed time to Ihift 
 thefe plants is the middle of July. They are, on this 
 occalion, to be taken out of the pots, the loofe earth 
 to be picked from about their roots, and the decayed 
 or mouldy parts of them cut olf ; then a few dones 
 are to be put at the bottom of the pot, and it is to be 
 filled with the compolition already dcfcribed, and the 
 plants carefully put in, the roots being fo difpol'ed as 
 not to interfere with one another. I'hey are to be 
 carefully watered after this, at times, for three weeks, 
 and fet in a Ihady place. The common kind will bear 
 the open air from May till Oclobcr, and Ihould be fhif- 
 ted every year. All the aloes are propagated by ofF- 
 fets, or by planting the leaves. The off-lets ijiouldbc 
 taken from the mother plant, at the time when it is 
 fliifted : they are to be planted in very fraall pots of 
 the proper mixed earth ; and if that part of them 
 which joined to the mother-plant be obferved to be 
 moid when taken off, it (hould lie on the ground in a, 
 fliady place two or three days before it is planted, o- 
 therwife it will rot. After planting thefe, they Ihould 
 remain in a fliady place a fortnight ; and then be re- 
 moved to a very moderate hot bed, plunging the pots 
 therein, which will help their drikingnew roots. To- 
 wards the end of Augud they mud be, by degrees, 
 hardened to the open air, by taking off the glalTes of 
 the hot-bed ; and in September they may be removed 
 into the grecn-houfe. 
 
 Propertici, 8e.c. The aloe is a kind of fymbolic 
 plant to the Mahoraetants, efpecially in Egypt, and 
 in fome meafure dedicated to the offices of religion ; 
 for whoever returns from a pilgrimage to Mecca, 
 hangs it over his drcet-door, as a token of his ha- 
 ving performed that holy journey. The fuperditioas 
 Egyptians believe that this plant hinders evil fpirits 
 and apparitions from entering the houfe ; and on this 
 account, whoever walks the llreets in Cairo, will find 
 it over the doors both of Chridians and Jews. From 
 the fame plant the Egyptians didil a water, which is 
 fold in the apothecaries fliops at Cairo, and recommen- 
 ded in coughs, hydcrics, and adhmas. An unexpe- 
 rienced French furgcon, fays HalTclquid, gave a Cop- 
 tite, 40 years old, afliicted with the jaundice, four tea- 
 cups full of the didilled water of this fpecies of aloe, 
 and cured him in four days. Thisremedy, unknown 
 to our apothecaries, is not difficult to be obtained, as 
 the plant might ealily be raifed in the warm foutheru 
 parts of Europe. The Arabians call mfabbara. 
 
 Of the leaves of the Guinea aloe, mentioned by Mr 
 Adanfon in his voyage to Senegal, the negroes make 
 very good ropes, not apt to rot in the water. 
 
 Dr Sloanc mentions two f</rts of aloe j one of which 
 
 i&
 
 A L O 
 
 [ 485 ] 
 
 A L O 
 
 isufcd for fifhing-lines, bow-ftrings, /lockings, and 
 ' liammocks ; ihe other has leaves which, like thofe of 
 the w ild-piiic and banana, hold rain-water, and there- 
 by aiibrd a very neccll'ary rc)'rc(l)n>ent to travellers in 
 hot countries, where there is generally a fcarcity of 
 wells and water. 
 
 Ill Mexico, the magnet, a fpecies of aloe, yields 
 almoft every thing neceii'ary to the lite of the poor. 
 Befidcs making excellent hedges for their fields, its 
 trunk fcrved in place of beams for the roofs of their 
 houfcs, and its leaves inllczd of tiles. From thofe 
 leaves they obtained paper, thread, needles, clothing 
 fhoes, and {lockings, and cordage ; and from its co- 
 pious juice tJiey made wine, honey, fugar, and vine- 
 gar. Of the trunk, and thickcft pan of the leaves, 
 when well baked, they made a very tolerable dilh of 
 food. LaAly,it wasavery powerful medicine in fevcral 
 diforders, and particularly in thofe of the urine. It is 
 alfo at prcfcni one of the plants the mod valued and 
 moll profitable to the Spaniards. 
 
 The medical fubllance known by the name of ahes 
 is the infpillated juice of feme of the abovcmentioned 
 fpccies. The ancients diftinguiflied twoforts of aloes: 
 the one was purcandof a ycllowifli colour, inclining to 
 red, refembling the colour of a liver, and thence na- 
 med hepatic; the other was full of impurities, and 
 hence fuppofed to be only the drofsof the better kind. 
 At prtfeni, various forts are met with in the Ihops ; 
 which arc diflinguifhed either from the pi ices, from 
 thcfpecies of the plants, orfrom fome difference in the 
 juices themfelves. Thcfc may be all ranged in three 
 clafTes ; 
 
 I j4loe Perfoliata, focotorine aloe, brought from 
 the illand Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapt in Ikins ; 
 it is obtained from the 5th fpccies abovcmentioned — 
 This fort is the pureft of the three : it is of a gloily 
 furfacc, clear, and in fome degree pellucid : in the 
 lump, of aycllowilh red colour, with a purple caft ; 
 when reduced to powder, of a bright golden colour. It 
 is hard and friable in the winter, fomewhat pliable in 
 fummcr, and grows foft betwixt the fingers. Its tafle 
 is bitter, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but 
 infufficient to prevent its b'ing difagreeablc : the fmcU 
 is not very unpleafant, and fomewhat refcmbks that of 
 myrrh. 
 
 2. y^LOE Hepatica, hepatic, Barbadoes, or common 
 aloes(ihe juice of a variety of the former) , is not fociear 
 and bright as the foregoing fort ; it is alfo of a darker 
 colour, more compaiJt texture, and for the moft part 
 drier. Its fn.cll is much llronger and more difagrce- 
 able ; the tafle intenfely bitter and nafcous, wiili lit- 
 tle or nothing of the fine aromatic fiavourof the foco- 
 torine. — The bell hepatic aloes come from Barbadoes 
 in large gourd-lhells; an inferior forrof it (which is ge- 
 nerally loft and clammy) is brought over in calks. 
 
 Of the cultivation and preparation of he;iaiic aloes 
 in the idand of Bardadocs, we have the following ac- 
 count in the LondoniVIcdical Journal*. '<Thc lands in 
 the vicinity of the fea, that is, from two to three 
 miles which are rather fubjcft to drought than other- 
 wife, and are fo ftony and Ihallow as not to admit of 
 the planting of fugar canes with any profpeft of fuc- 
 cefs, are generally found to anfwer befl for the aloe 
 plant. The Hones, at lead the larger ones, are firft 
 picked upland either packed iu heaps, upon the moft 
 
 I 
 
 Ihallow barren fpots, or laid round the field cs a dry AIo«. 
 
 wall. The land is then lightly ploughed, and very " ■> — 
 
 carefully cleared of all noxious weeds, lined at one foot 
 dillance from row to row, and ihe young plants fet, 
 like cabbages, at about five or fix inci.es dillance from 
 each other. This regular mode of lining and felting the 
 plants ispradlifcd only by the moil exact planters, in 
 ord-crto facilitate the weeding of them, by hand, very 
 frequently; bccaufc, if they are notkejt pcrfedily 
 clean and free from weeds, the produce will be but 
 very fmall. They will bear being jdanted in any fea- 
 fon of the year, even in the drielt, as they willlive on 
 the furfacc of the earth many weeks without a drop 
 ofrain. The mod general time, however, of planting 
 them, is from April to June. 
 
 •« In the March following, the labourers carry 4 
 parcel of tubs and jars into the field, and each lakes a 
 dip or breadth of it, and begins by Upiug hold of a 
 bunch of the blades, as much as he can conveniently 
 grafp in one hand, while \\ itb the other he cuts it 
 jail above the furfaceof the earth, as quickly as poIS- 
 ble (that the juice may not be wafted), and then pla- 
 ces the bhdes in the tub, bunch by bunch, or handlul 
 by handful. When the. firft tub is thus packed quite 
 full, a fecond is begun (each l.ibourer having two) ; 
 and by the time the fecond is filled, all the juice is 
 generally drained out of the blades in the firll tub. 
 The blades are then lightly taken out, and thrown o- 
 vcr the landby way of niaaur* ; and the juice is pour- 
 ed out into a jar. The tub is then filled again with 
 blades, and fo alternately till the labourer has produ- 
 ced his jar full, or about four gallons and an half of 
 juice, whichis often done in fix or fcven hours, and he 
 has then the remainder of the day to himfclf, it being 
 his employer's interell to get each day's operation as 
 quickly done as polliblc — It may be oi.,fervcd, that al- 
 though alses are often cut in nine, ten, or twelve 
 months after being planted, tliey are not in perfeclioii 
 lill the fecond and third year ; and that ihey will be 
 produ<5livc for a length of time, fay 10 or 12 years, 
 or even for a much longer time, if good dung, or ma- 
 nure of any kind, is ftrewed over the field once i.T 
 three or four years, or oftner if convenient. 
 
 " The alocjjice will keep forfeveral weeks without 
 injury. It is therefore not boiled till a fufficient quan- 
 tity is procured to make it an objetl for the boilir.ir- 
 houfe. In the large way, three boilers, either of iron 
 or of copper, are placed toone fire, though fome have 
 but two, and the Iniall planters only one. Ti;e boiler* 
 are fille : with the juice ; and, as it ripens or Lccomei 
 more iiifpilfated, by a conflant but regular f^re, it is 
 ladled forward from boiler to boiler, and frc ill juice i» 
 rddcd to that fariheA from the fire, till ihc juice ia 
 that nearefl to the fire (by much the fmalieft of the 
 three, and commor.ly called by the name oitjtih, as 
 in the manufaftory of fu;;ar) becomes of a proper con- 
 fii:e icy to be ikipped or ladled o it into gourds, or o- 
 ther finall vellcls, uftd for its final reception. The 
 proper time to (kip or Udle it out of the tatch, is wl>en 
 it is arrived at what is termed a refin height, or when 
 it cuts freely ,or in thin flakes, from thecdgesof afniall 
 wooden lliee, that is dipptd'from time to time into the 
 tateh for that purpofe. A little lime-water is ufcd by 
 fome aloe-boilers, d*'.ring the protefs, v. hen ihc ebulli- 
 tioa is too great.
 
 A L O 
 
 L 486 1 
 
 A L O 
 
 Aloe. " As to the fiin-dricd aloes (which is moft appro- 
 
 — >/— ' vcd for medicinal piirpofcs), very litlkis made in Uar- 
 badoes. The proccfs is, liowcvcr, very limplc, though 
 extremely tedions. 1 he raw juice is cither put into 
 bladders, left quite open at top, and fufpcndcdin the 
 fun, or in hroad Ihallovv trays of wood, pewter, or tin, 
 cxpofed alfo to the fun, every dry day, uniilalllhc 
 fliud parts arc exhaled, and a perfcrt re(in formed, 
 wl'/ich is then packed up for ufc, or for cxporiaiion." 
 The Barbadoes aloes is f.iid to be common alfo in 
 the other Well India iilands ; and the following ac- 
 count of the manner of preparing it in Jamaica is gi- 
 ven by Dr ^\' right in the fame volume of the Medical 
 Journal, art. i . " The plant is pulled up by the roots, 
 and carefully clcanfed from the eartiior oiher impuri- 
 ties. It is then diced and cut in pieces into fniall 
 hand-baikets or nets. Thefe nets or baikcts arc put 
 into large iron boilers with water, and boiled for ten 
 minutes, when they arc taken out, and freQi parcels 
 fnpplied till the liquor is llrong and black. At this 
 period the liquor is tiirown througii a flraincr into a 
 deep vat, narrow at bottom, to cool, and to depolite 
 itsfaculer.c parts. Next day the clear liquor is drawn 
 offby a cock, and again conimirted to the large iron 
 vcffel. Atfirft it is boiled brilkly : but towards the 
 end of the evaporation is (low, and requiresconftanily 
 ftirring to prevent burning. When it bcco«)|f of the 
 conlidancc of hcney, it is poured into gourds or cala- 
 bailies for file. This hardens by age." 
 
 3. WLOi.-Cai.>//h;a {cl'\ii,cih-Minc, or horfe-aloc, is 
 fuppofed to be a coarfer fort obtained from the fame 
 fpccies with the foregoing ; according to others, it is 
 the produce of the dillicha. It is chiefly dillinguidi- 
 cd by its ftrong rank fmcll. 
 
 All thediffcrentkindsarcgum-rciins, which contain 
 more gummous than refmous parts. Water, when of 
 a boiling heat, diffolves all the foluble parts of aloes ; 
 but if let lUnd till it grows cold, it lets drop moll 
 ofits relin. A flrong fpirit dilTolves and keeps fufpend- 
 cdalmoftthe whole of aloes, though it contains fnch a 
 large portion of gummous p.irts ; hence it is evident, 
 that aloes contains fonu- principle, faline or other, 
 which renders water capable of diilblving relin, and 
 fpirit capable of dilfolving gun. 
 
 Aloe is a ftimulating rtomarhic purge, which jjivcn 
 in fmall quantity, operates mildly by Hool ; but in large 
 dofes acTs roughly, and often occalionsan irritation a- 
 bout the anus, and fometiiiies a difchargc of blood. It 
 is a good opening medicine, to pe<>]'le of a lax li..bit,or 
 •who live a fedcntary life ; and tothofc whofc flomach 
 and bowels arc load :d witlv phlegm or mucus, or who 
 are troubled with worms, or are debilitated ; beeaufeat 
 the fame rime that it cirrics offthofc vifcid humours 
 which pal! the appetite, and overload the iii:c(lines, 
 it fervcs asa flreiigthenerand bracer. In Sn.alldofes, 
 repeated from time to tin^e, it not only deanfes the 
 prima vix, but likewifc tends to proinotc, the mcnftrnal 
 difcharge in women ; and therefore it is frequently 
 employed in chlorofis, or wliere the menflrua arc ob- 
 flrU('led. It is a good flomachic purge, and is given 
 in all cafes where fuch a one is wanted ; but it is look- 
 ed npon as a heating medicine, and not properin bilious 
 habits, or where there is much heat or fever ; and its 
 continued afe is apt to bring on the piles. 
 
 It is given in fubftancc from five grains to a fcrnple, 
 
 though formerly itufcd to be prcfcribed in dofes of two 
 or three times that quantity ; but thefe large dofes 
 fomctimes brought on troublefomc fymptoms. As it 
 is a llow working purge, it is generally taken at bed- 
 time, and it operates next day. 
 
 With regard to this, as well as toall other rcfinous 
 purges, it ought to be obfervcd, that when they are 
 given in fubllancc without any.mixturc, they arc apt 
 to adhere to the coats of the intedines, and to occafion 
 griping and unealinefs;for thefe reafons aloes are gene- 
 rally mixed with fome faponaccous or rcfolvent body, 
 to deftroy its vifcid tesacity, before it is given in fub- 
 flancc. The fubftances which are moll ufed for this 
 purpofearc, a fmall quantity of the fixed alkaline falts ; 
 foap ; the yolk of an egg ; and gummous vegetable ex- 
 tracts. Mr Harton alleges*, that by triturating aloes 
 with a fmall quantity of alkaline falts, its tenacity was 
 more effcrtually.dcltroycd than by any other thing he 
 tried :" that Caftile foap and the yolk of an egg an- 
 fwcrcd bed, next to it : that manna, fugar, and honey, 
 were far inferior to them ; and that gummous, or mu- 
 cous vegetable extracts, fuch as the extrai.^s of gen- 
 tian, or of liquorice root, triturated with the aloes, in 
 the proportion of one part of the cxtraft to two of the' 
 aloes, and then made up into pills with a fufficient 
 quantity of fyrup, dcflroyed the vifcidity of the aloes, 
 and rendered its operation mild. 
 
 Socotorine aloes contains more gummy matter than 
 the hepatic ; and hence it is likcwife found to purge 
 more and with greater irritation. The firft fort there- 
 fore is mofl proper where a ftimulus is required, as for 
 promoting or exciting the menftrual dux ; whilft the 
 latter is better calculated to aft as a common purge. 
 Kor the aloetic preparations, fee Pharmacy- Judex. 
 
 j^LOEH-Wood. See Xrut- Aloes. 
 
 American Aloe. See Agave. 
 
 ALOGIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of ancient 
 heretics, who denied that JefusChrift was the Logos, 
 and confequcntly rejected the gofpel of St John — The 
 word is compounded to the primitive* andx«>ec, q. d. 
 wiikoiit Logos or Word. — Some afcribe the origin of 
 the name, as well as of the feifl of .Alogians, to Theo- 
 dore of Byzantium, by trade a currier ; who having 
 apoftatized under the prefccution of the emperor Seve- 
 rus, to defend himfelf again ft thofe who reproached 
 him therewith, faid, that it was not God he denied, 
 but only man. Whence his followers were called in 
 Greek «xe>.ii;, becaule they rcjciflcd the Word. But 
 other", with more probability, fuppofe the name to 
 have been firll given them by Epiphanius in the way 
 of reproach. Theymade their appearance toward the 
 clofeof the fccond century. 
 
 ALOGOTROPHIA, among phyficians, a term 
 fignifying the unequal growth or nourilhmcnt of any 
 part of the body, as in the rickets. 
 
 ALOOF, liis frequently been mentioned as a fea- 
 tcrm ; but whether juflly or not, we fliall not prcfume 
 to determine. It is known in common difcourfe to im- 
 ply «/ (7 (////awe--; and the refemblanccof ilitphrafe^ife^ 
 a tnof, and keep a luff ox keep the luff, in all probability 
 gavcrifetothisconjeiflure. If it wasreally afea-phrafc 
 originally, it fcems to have referred to the dangers of 
 a lec-fliore,in v.hich fituation the pilot might naturally 
 apply it in the fcnfc commonly undcrflood, viz. keep 
 all off, or quite off: it is, however, never exprcffed in 
 
 that 
 
 'Trealift 
 of the Ma. 
 nufuUurt of 
 
 I747'
 
 A L O 
 
 r 4-^1 ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Al»pcce that maimer by fcamcn now. Sec Lukk. It may not 
 
 I oc improper tooblcrvc, that belidcs uling lliis plirafe 
 
 ^' ""' . in the lame fcnfc witli us, the French alfo call the 
 
 weather- fide ofalliip, andtlic wcaihcr-clucuf a courfc, 
 
 // /of. 
 
 ALOPECE, Alopecia (aiic. gcog.), an ifland 
 placed by Ptolemy at the mouth ot the fanais, and 
 called the ilhnd Tanaii : xvo'f/ i' Ijle d.i Renardi (Bau- 
 drand). Alfu aa iilaiid of the Bofphoras Cimnierius 
 (Pliny); and another in the Kgcaa fca, over againll 
 Smyrna. 
 
 ALOPECIA, a term ufed among phylicians to de- 
 note a total falling otF of the hair trom certain parts, 
 occalioncd either by the defect of nutritious juice, or 
 by its vicious quality corroding the root-sofit, and lea- 
 ving the fkin rough and colourlcfs. 
 
 The word is formed from aXMimg, viilpes, "a ioyi.;" 
 whofe urine, it is laid, will occaiiou baldncfs ; or be- 
 caufe it is a difeafc which is common to that creature. 
 It is directed to wafli the head every night at going to 
 bed with a ley prepared by boiling the aflics of vine 
 branches in red wine. A powder made by reducing 
 hermodaiJlyls to fine flour, is alfo recommended for the 
 fame purpofc. 
 
 In cafes where the baldncfs is total, a quantity of 
 • the finell burdock roots arc to be bruifed in a marble 
 mortar, and then boiled in white wine until there re- 
 mains only as much as will cover them. This liquor, 
 carefully ftrained off, is faid to cure baldnefs, by walh- 
 ing the head every night with fome of it warm. A 
 ley made by boiling afliesof vine branches in common 
 water, is aJfo recommended ■Aith this imcntioii. A 
 frefti cut onion, rubbed on the part uiitil it be red and 
 itch, islikewife faid to cure baldncfs. 
 
 A multitude of fuch remedies are every where to be 
 found in the works of Valefcus de Taranta, Rondclc- 
 tius, Hollerius, Trincaveliius, Celfus, Senertay, and 
 other prailical phylicians. See alio Buxus. 
 
 ALOPECURUS, or Kox-tail grass, in botany" : 
 Agenusofthe triandriadigyniaclafs ; and in the na- 
 tural method ranking under the 4ih order, Cramina. 
 Thecharadcrs are : The c<j.>.visa fingle flowered bi- 
 valve glume : The corolla iswne-valved : 'Xhejiamina 
 conlill of three capillary filaments ; the antherae bifur- 
 cated at both ends : The /!/fttllu>» ha roundilh germcn; 
 there are two llyli ; and the fligmaia are iimple : The 
 perkarpium is a corolla doathing the feed ; and the 
 feed is (ingle and roundilh. There are eight fpccics, 
 viz. the pratenlis, or meadow fox-tail grafs ; the bul- 
 bofus, or bulbous fox-tail grafs ; the geniculatus, or 
 flotc fox- tail grafs ; and the myofuroides, or field fox- 
 tail grafs; ihcfefour grow wild in Britain : iheagrellis, 
 ihemonfpelienlis, the paniceus, and the hordeiformis, 
 arc all natives of France and the font hern partsof Eu- 
 rope, except the laft, which is a native of India. Sec 
 Gras;!. 
 
 ALOPEX, in zoology, a fpecies of the canis, with 
 a Arait tall and black tip. It is commonly called tiie 
 fiddfox. 
 
 ALOSA, the (bad, or mother of herring*, a fpecies 
 oftheclupca. SccClupfa. 
 
 ALOST, a town in FlanJers, belonging to the 
 houfe of Aullria, fcated on the ri\tr Deader, in the 
 midway between BrBllels and Ghent. It has but one 
 fariik; but the church is collegiate, and has a ptovoft, 
 
 \ 
 
 a dean, and twelve canons. Here is a coflrent of Car- Alphi^ 
 mclites, another of capuchins, another of bare-footed Aipbiijct. 
 Ciruiclitts, three nunneries, an liofpital, and a coarcot " '* * 
 of Guilkmins, in which is the tonibof Theodjrc Mar- 
 tin, who brought ihe art of printing oat of German/ 
 into the Losv Countries. He wasafiiend of Erafiuui, 
 who wrote his epitaph. E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 49. 
 
 5 J. 
 
 ALPHA, the name of the firft letter of the Greek 
 alphabet, anfwcring toour A, — Asa numeral, it flanils 
 for one, or the firrt of any thing. It is piriicularl/ 
 ufed, amongancient writers, todcnote the chief or lirll 
 man of his clafs or rank. Inthisfeufe, the word Hand* 
 co;iiradiilinguiIhed from b^ta, which denotes the fc- 
 cond perfon. Plato was c.iUcd the Alpha of the wits : 
 Eratoflhents, keeper of the Alexandrian library.vi honi 
 fome called a Second Plaio, is frequently named Bet.'. 
 
 AtPHAis alfoufcd todcnote the beginning of an/ 
 thing. In which fenfe it (lands oppofed :j t,;iegu, 
 which denotes the end. And thtfe tuo letters were 
 made the fymbolof Chriftianiiy ; andaccordingiy were 
 engravcnon the tombs o( the ancient ChriAians, to di- 
 ftinguilh tlieni from tliofcof idolaters. Wora'.cz,a Spa- 
 nilli writer, imagined that this curtoni or.ly commen- 
 ced lince the rife of Arianilai ; and lliatit was peculiar 
 to the orthodox, who hereby made cor.feliion of ihc 
 eternity of Ciuill : but there are tombs prior to the age 
 ofConflaniine whereontlie two letters were found, be- 
 lidcs that the emperor ju(l mentioned bore them on his 
 labarum before Arius appeared. 
 
 ALPHABET, the natural or cuflomary ferics of 
 the feveral letters of a language (fee Language ani 
 Writing). The word is formed fromatpha aiui b.ta, 
 the firft and fecond letters of tiicGrcck alphabet. The 
 number of letters is different in the alphabets of differ- 
 ent languages. The Engliih alphabet contains 24 let- 
 ters; to wliich if wc aid j and v confonant, the fum 
 \\illbe26: the French contains 23 ; the Hebrew, 
 Clialdcc, Syriac, and Samaritan, 22 each ; the Arabic 
 28 ; the PerJian 31 ; the Turkiih 13 ; the ''icorgiaa 
 56 i the Coptic 33 ; iheMufcovitc 43 ^the Greek 24 ; 
 the Laiia 22 ; the Scalvonic 27 ; the Dutch 26 ; the 
 tpanilh 27 ; the Italian 20 ; the Eihiopic and Tarta- 
 rian, eacli 202 ; the Indians of Bengal 21 ; the Bara- 
 n)cfc 19. The Chincfe have, properly (peaking, no 
 alphabet, except we call their whole language by that 
 name ; llicirlcttcrsarc words, or raihcrhicroglyphics, 
 : mounting to about 80,000. 
 
 It has been a matter of confidcrabledifpute whether 
 the method of exprclTing our ideas by vilible fymbols, 
 called /fVc/v, be reilly a hum.iii invention; or whether 
 we ought to sliributc an art fo txcecdiUf^ly iilcful, to 
 an immediate revelation from ihe Deity. — Infavoarof 
 the latter opinion it has been urged, r 
 
 1. I'iic five books of Mofes are univcrfally acknow- .Aigum;i,t» 
 ledged to be the moll ancient compodtions as well aj-fc^ writing 
 the moft early fpecimcns of alphabetical writing wc "^ *. _ 
 have. If, tiicrefore, we fiippofe writing to be the re- ijtiou. 
 fult of human ingenuity, it luuft be ditiercnt from all 
 other .trts, having been brought toperfcdion at once ; 
 as il feems impolfible to make any real improvement on 
 the Hebrew alphabet. It iiiay indeed be replied, that 
 aiphabeticalcharaiiUrs perhaps have cxi;!ed many ages 
 before the wri'.ings«jf Mofcs, though the more ancient 
 fpecimcns have perilbed. This, however, being a 
 - mere
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 488 ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Alphaliet mere Hul.ipportcJ aflcnion, without any liiftorjcal tc- 
 ' — V—' Itimony to corroboraie it, cannot be admitted as a 
 proof. Again, fctting alide the evidence to be deri- 
 ved from Scripture on this fubjeft, the limplicity of 
 manners predominant in the early ages, the fmall ex- 
 tent of the inttllcihial powers of manlcind, and tlic 
 little intercoiirfc which nations had with one another, 
 which would fecm more parucul.irly to render wriiing 
 iieccllary, car. fcarce allow us to fuppofe that fuch a 
 com pleK and cnrioiis contrivance as alphabetical writing 
 could be invented by a race of men whofe wants were 
 'fj few, their advantages fo circumfcribcd, and their 
 i.ieas fo limit'Cd. 
 
 2. If alphabetical writing were a mere human in- 
 vention, it might be expected that diflcrcnt nations 
 would have fallen upon the fameexpedient independent 
 of each other during the compafs of fo many ages. 
 But no fuch thing has taken place ; and the writing of 
 every people on earth may be referred to one common 
 originil. If this can be proved, the argument from 
 fucceffive derivation, without a finglc initance of in- 
 dependent difcovery , mull be allowed to amount fo the 
 very hinliell degree of probability in favour of our hy- 
 pothefis, which will now rcil on the evidence for or 
 againft this faft ; and which may be fummed up in the 
 following manner. 
 
 Among the European nations we find none who 
 can pretend any right to the difcovery of letters. All 
 of them derived the art from the Romans, excepting 
 only the Turks, who had it from the Arabians. The 
 Romans never laid claim to the difcovery ; but con- 
 feflfed thn they derived their knowledge from the 
 Greeks, and the latter owned that they had it from 
 the Phosniciins ; who, as well as their colonills the 
 Carthiginians, fpoke a dialed of the Hebrew fcarcely 
 varying from the original. The Coptic, or Egyptian, 
 refembles the Greek in moft of its charaftcrs, and is 
 therefore to be referred to the fame original. The 
 Chaldec, Syriac, and latter Samaritan, arc dialeds of 
 the Hebrew, without any confulerable deviation, or 
 many additional words. The Ethiopic differs more 
 from the Hebrew, but lefs than the Arabic ; yet 
 thefe languages have all illued from t-iie fime flock, as 
 the limiliarity of their formation, and the numberlefs 
 words common to them, all fufliciently evince ; and the 
 Perfic is very nearly allied to the Arabic. Alterations 
 indeed would naturally be produced, in proportion to 
 the civilization ofthe feveral nations, and their inter- 
 courfe with others ; which will account for the fuperior 
 copioufncfs of fom: above the reft. It appears then, 
 that all the languages in ufc amongft men that have 
 been conveyed in alphabetical charii/ters, have been 
 the languages of people connei^led ultimately or im- 
 mediately with the Hebrews, who have handed down 
 iheearlicll fpecimens of writing to poflcrity ; and we 
 have therefore the grcateft rcafon lobelicve, that their 
 jncrhod. of wriiing, as well as ihcir language, was de- 
 rived from the fauic fource. 
 
 This propofiiiou will befanhcrconfirmed from cou- 
 fidering the famenefs of the artificial denominations 
 ofthe letters in the Oriental, Greek, and Latin lan- 
 guages, accompanied alfo by a li.iiilar arrangement, 
 a% alpha, b:t:i, Z^c. It may (1:11 be objcilcJ, hov/- 
 cvcr, that the characters employed by the ancicnis to 
 difcriminate their letters are entirely dilUmilar. Why 
 
 Ihould not one nation, it may be urged, adopt from Alphabet. 
 
 the other the modeof cxprefling the art as well as the " >^~~ 
 
 art itfclf ? To what purpofc did they take the trouble 
 of inventing other charartcrs .' To this objettion it 
 may be replied, i. From the inftauce of our own lan- 
 guage we know what divcrlitics may be introduced in 
 this rcfpeft merely by length of time and an intcr- 
 courfc with neighbouring nations. And fuch an ctFed: 
 would be more likelj to take place before the art of 
 printing had contributed to cflablilli an uniformity of 
 charafter: For when every work was tranfcribcd by 
 the hand, we may ealily imagine how many variations 
 would arife from the fancy ofthe fcribe, and the mode 
 of writing foconflantly different in individuals. 2. This 
 diverlity might fometlmes arife from vanity. When 
 an individual of another community had become ac- 
 quainted with this wonderful art, he might endeavour 
 to recommend himfelf as the inventor ; and, to avoid 
 detection, might invent other charaders. g.Thecha- 
 raiflers of the alphabet might fometimes be accommo- 
 dated as much as poflible to the fymbolical marks al- 
 ready in ufe amongft a particular people. Thefe ha- 
 ving acquired a high degree of fandity by the ufe of 
 many generations, would not be eafily fuperfeded with- 
 out the aid of fomc fuel; contrivance. 4. This is fup- 
 ported by the tellimony of Herodotus ; who informs 
 us, that " thofe Phocuicians who came with Cadmus 
 introduced many improvements among the Greeks, 
 and alphabetical writing too, not known among them 
 before that period. At firfl they ufed the Phoenician 
 charafter ; butinprocefsof time, as the pronunciation 
 altered, the ftandard of the letters was alfo changed. 
 The Ionian Greeks inhabited at that time the parts 
 adjacent to Phcenicia : who having received the art of 
 alphabetical vvritingfrom the Phoenicians,;ufedit, with 
 an alteration of fome few charaders, and confcffed 
 ingenuoully, that it was called Phoenician from the in- 
 troducers of it." He tells us that he had himfelf feen 
 the charadcrs of Cadmus in a temple of Ifmcnian 
 Apollo at Thebes in Boeotia, engraven upon tripods, 
 and very much refembling the Ionian charailers. 5. The 
 old Samaritan isprecifcly the fame as the Hebrew lan- 
 guage ; and the Samaritan Pentateuch does not vary 
 by a linglc letter in twenty words from the Hebrew : 
 but ihe characlers are widely different i for the Jews 
 adopted theChaldaic letters during their captivity at 
 Babylon, inllead of the characlers of their forefa- 
 thers. 
 
 3. What we know of thofe nations who have con- 
 tinued for many centuries unconueifled with the reft of 
 the world, llrongly militates againft tiie hypothecs of 
 the human invention of alphabetical writing. The 
 experiment has been fairly made upon the ingenuity of 
 mankind for a longer jicriod than that which is fup- 
 pofcd to have produced alphabetical writing by regu- 
 lar gradations ; and this experiment determines pe- 
 remptorily in their favour. The Chincfe, a people 
 famous for their difcoveries and mechanical turn of 
 genius, have made fome advances towards the deline- 
 ation of their ideas by arbitrary figns ; but havcnever- 
 thelcfs been unable toaccomplifh thiscxquilite device; 
 and after fo long a trial to no purpofe, we may rea- 
 fonably infer, tliat their mode of v;riting, which is 
 growing more intricate and voluminous every day, 
 would never terminate in fo clear, fo comparativel/ 
 
 firaple.
 
 A L P 
 
 [ 489 ] 
 
 A L P 
 
 )!ul)cticalc!iaiaflers. 
 of 
 
 ■ V '^'J he RicxicaMi, I'o, liid ir.a.ic iiy.nc riidc aiicinpti o 
 
 tlie fiinckiuJ ; bu; with led I'licccfs tliaii ilicCliiiicfc 
 \V'ckii'nva!f>>, that hieroglyphics were i:i ulc a.iioiig 
 the Kgyptiaiis po.lciiar to ihc pnitticc of alph.;be;ical 
 wri:i ig by ihc Jews; b'.ii whether 1 he cpifto!)ji;i^hy, 
 ai it is cailcJ, of the furnicr people, which wai i;i 
 vogue dating ihe co:iiiiii!ancc of the hieroglyphics, 
 niiu-ht 1101 pofTtbly be a.iother n.imc for alphabetical 
 writing, cannot be decided. 
 
 4. We (liall couCider the argument on which the 
 commonly rcctivcd fuppofitior. entirely depends : thit 
 is, the natural gradation ilirongli the fevcral fpcciesof 
 fynibols acknowledged to have bccnin nfe with various 
 j-eople, termimting at lull by an eafy trandiion, in 
 ilie detedioiiofalphab;iic;il charafters. Thellixngth 
 of ti)is argument will be belt iindcrllood from tliefol- 
 It'wing reprefentation. 
 
 "I. The firfl method of embodying ideas would 
 be by drawing a rcprcfcnt.ition of the objei51s them- 
 ftlvcs. The impcrfcttioniif this metiiod is very ob- 
 vious, both on account of its tedioufnefs and its iaa- 
 bility of going beyond external appearances to the 
 abflrad ideas of the mind. 
 
 " 2. The next inetiiod would be fomcwhit more 
 f^eneral, and would fub.litutc two or three principal 
 circumftanccs for tlie whole tranfaclion. Sotwo kings, 
 for example, engaging each other with milit.iry wca- 
 I'ons, might fcrve to convey the idea of a war between 
 the two narions. This abbreviated method vi'ould be 
 nioreexpediiious than the former; but whatit gained 
 in eoncifencfs would be loft in perfpicuity. It is a 
 defcri|'tion more compendious indeed, but ftill a de- 
 fcription of outward objcds alone, by drawing tiicir 
 refcmblance. 'I'o this iuad may be referred the pic- 
 ture-writing of the Mexicans. 
 
 " 3. The next advance would be to the ufc of fym- 
 bols : the incorporation, as it were, of abflrafl and 
 complex ideas in figures more or lefs generalized, in 
 proportion to tiie improvement of it. Thus, in the 
 earlier (tages of this device, a circle might ferve toex- 
 prcfs the fun, a feniicircle the moon ; which is only a 
 contraflion of the forej^oing method. This fymbt>l- 
 writing in its advanced ftate would become more re- 
 fined, but c^'.iginaiical and myflcrious in proportion to 
 its refincntent. Hence it would become lefs lit fur 
 common ufc, and therefore more particularly ai>pro- 
 priatcd to the myfleries of philofophy and religion. 
 Thus, two feet Itanding upon water fcrved to cxprcfs 
 .in impolfiiiility i a ferpent denoted theoblique trajec- 
 tories of the heavenly bodies; and the beetle, on ac- 
 count of foine fuppolcd properties of liiat infect, fcrv- 
 ed to reprefent the fun. The Egyptian hieroglyphics 
 were of this kind. 
 
 " 4. This method being Aill too fubtilc and com- 
 plicated for common ule, the only plan to be purfued 
 was a redurtion of the iirlt (tagc of the preceding 
 method. Thus a dot, inflead of a circle, might 
 lland for the fin ; and a limilar abbreviation might be 
 extended to all the fymbols. On this fchemc every 
 objed and idea woulil have its appropriated mark : 
 thcfe marks therefore would have a multiplicity pro- 
 portionable to the works of nature and the operations 
 of the mind. Tliis method was likewife praftifed by 
 the Egyptians ; but has been carried to yraicr pcr- 
 
 VCL. I. 
 
 A.lditional 
 remark* ia 
 confimia- 
 tion of 
 tlirfe ar^u» 
 meets 
 
 f- .-I ion by tlie Cl.inefe. The voca'.''^i.ir_v ot ;:;e iifc Alj.r.jb;!. 
 
 is therefore iufiuiic, or at k-all capjb'cof b^'i.^j ex- ' ■^ ' 
 
 fended to any imaginable length. iJut if ue co;uu.ir4 
 this tedious andaukwird contrivance with thca'.l^'ii'h- 
 i^ig brevity and perfpicuity of alph ibcticil wiitirig, 
 vc mufl be perfuadcd that no two thi<ig? can be more 
 diiiimilar; and that the tranlition from a f. beniccon- 
 ftantly enlarging itfelf, andgrowi g daily more intri- 
 cate, to the expreflim of every poiiible i ica by the 
 nioditied arrangement of four-and-twenty marks, is 
 not fo very e^fyand pcrccptibl •asfomchav'-iip.agined. 
 I'.ideed this fcems (till to be rather an exprclii^'n of 
 things in a manner limihr to the fccond flage of fym- 
 bol-writiu^ than the tiotitication of ideas by arbitrary 
 %ns." , 
 
 To all this we Ihall fubjoin the following remarks, 
 which fccm to give additional force to the foregoing 
 rcafoning. 
 
 " 1. Pliny alTerts the ufeof letters tohave been eter- 
 nal ; which (hows the antiquity of the practice to ex- 
 te;id beyond the arra of authcniic hiltory. 
 
 " 2. The eabaliftical doctors of the T vs maintain, 
 that alphabetical writing was one of * e ten things 
 which God created on the evening 0/ tile Sabbath. 
 
 " 3. Moll of tlie profane authors of antiquiiy afcribe 
 the firfl ufe of alphabetical chara;ters to the Egyp- 
 tians ; who, according to fome, received them from 
 ]\Icrcury ; and, according to others, from their god 
 Teuth. 
 
 " 4. There is very little rcafon to fjppofe that even 
 language itfelf is the c<fe<5t of hiimaii ingenuity and 
 invention." , 
 
 Thus we have ftated the arguments in favour of the AnfMcrttu 
 revel ition of alphabetical writing ; which are anfwer- the above 
 ed, by thofc who take the contrary lidc, in the fol- areumetiu. 
 lowing manner. 
 
 I. INIofes no wliere fays that the alphabet was a 
 new thing in his time ; nor does he give the lead hint 
 of his being the inventor of it. The firft mention we 
 find of ■writing is in the 17th chapter of Exodus ; 
 where Mofes is commanded to r.ir/.v ;;.• a iooi ; and 
 which took place before the arrival of the Ifraelitei 
 at Sinai. This Ihows that wri;ing did not com- 
 incnce with the delivery of the two tables of the 
 law, as f.;mc have fuppofcd. Neither are we ti 
 conclude that the invention had taken place only a 
 lliorl time before ; for the viriti'i^ in a book, is coia- 
 jr.anded as a thing commonly uiiderilood, and witll 
 which Mofes was well acquainted. It is plain, from 
 the command to engrave the names of the twelve tribes 
 of Ifrael upon flones liki th: oi^raviiigt oj a fgint, 
 that wriiing had bcetj known and practifed among 
 thein, as Well as other natiuns, long bef>>re. We null 
 alfo remember, that the people were co.TimmdcJ to 
 write the law on their donrpofls, Sec. fo tliat the art 
 feems not only to have been known, bat univcrf^lly 
 pra^tifed among them. Unt had writing beet: a new 
 difcovery in tlie time of Mofes, he would probably 
 have commemorated it as Well as the other inventions 
 of mufic, &c. : Nor is there any rcafon to fjppofe 
 that God was the immediate rcvealer of the art ; for 
 Mofes would never have omitted to record a circum- 
 flancc of fucli iinporiance, as the nieniory of it would 
 have been rne of the flrongcft barriers againft idola- 
 latry. 
 
 ; Q, Again
 
 Alohabet. 
 
 A L P [ 490 ] ALP 
 
 Again, tliough l'c\cral profane wriitrs at tribuic tJic The former was called thcciirioUgic, the laucr tIie//«- Alrliabet. 
 
 oriuin of Icucrs 10 the goJs, or 10 fonic divine perfoii, fun/ liicroglyphic ; w liichlafl was a gradual improve- *— v ■ 
 
 yei this is no proof uf its being adually revealed ; Lut nunt on the lormcr. 'liiefc ahcralitns in tlxmanncr 
 
 only that the original inventor was unknown. The of delineating hieroglyphic figures produced and pir- 
 
 Icarncd bilhop ol Olouccllcrobferves, that the ancients feded another character, called the ruiimiig-ka/jtl of 
 
 gave nothing to the gods of whofe original they had /A^/);t70ff;V//'/cj,refenibliiJgtheChii.efc writing jwhich 
 
 any records ; but where the memory of the invention having been tirlt lormcd by the outlines ot each figure, 
 
 was lofl, as of feed-corn, wine, wrjling, civil focicty, became at length a kind of ti.nik! ; the natural cItclHs 
 
 S:c. the gods feized the property, by tliatkind of riglit of which were, that the conllant ufc of ihcm would 
 
 which gives flr.iys to the lordof the manor. take off the attciuion from the fymbol and fix it on 
 
 As neither the facrcd nor profane hillori.ms, there- the thing lignilicd. Thus the fludy of fyniLolic' wri- 
 
 fore, have determined any thing concerning the in- ting would be much abbreviated; becaulc the writer 
 
 veniion of letters, we are at liberty to form what con- or decyphcrer would then have little to do but to re- 
 
 jcdures we think molt plaiUiblc concerning the origin member the poweruf the fymbolic mark ; whereas bc- 
 
 ofthem; and this, it is thought, might have taken fore, the properties of the thing or animal delineated 
 
 place in the following manner. were to be learned. This, together with the other 
 
 <' I. Men in their rude uncultivated flate, w^ould marks by inflitution, to denote mental conceptions, 
 
 have neither leifnre, inclination, nor inducement, to would reduce the characters to a limilar Itate with the 
 
 cultivate the powers of the mind to a degree futficient prcfent Chincl'e ; and thefc were properly what the 
 
 tor the formation of an^alphabet : but when a people ancients called /;/t/-6g-/)7>/i<.vj/. We arc informed by Dr 
 
 arrived at fuch a pitch of civilization as required them Robert Huiitingdon, in his account of the Porphyry 
 
 torcprefent the conceptions of the mind which have pillars, that there are fome ancient monuments of this 
 
 no corporeal j rms, neceffity would occafion further kind yet remaining in igypt. 
 
 exertions, and urge them to tind out a more expcdi- The facrcd book or ritual of the Egyptians, ac- 
 tions manner of tranfaCting their bufmcfs than by pic- cording to Apuleius, was written partly in lymbolic 
 ture writing. and partly in thcfe hicroglyphiccharaders, in the fol- 
 " 2. Thefc excriions would take place whenever a lowing manner: " He (the hierophant) drew out cer- 
 nation began to improve in arts, manufadures, and tain books from the fecret repolitories of the fanilu- 
 commcrce ; .md the greater genius fuch a nation had, ary, written in unknown characters, which contained 
 the more improvements would be made inthe notation the words of the facred formula compendioufly ex- 
 of their language ; whilfl thofe people who had made prefled, partly by figures of animals, and partly by 
 Icfs progrcfs in civilization and fcience, would have a certain marks or noies intricately knotted, revolving 
 lefs perfect fyflem of elementary characters ; and per- in the manner of a wheel, crowded together,and curled 
 haps advance no farther for many ages than the marks inward like the tendrils of a vine, fo as to hide the 
 or charafters of the Chinefe. Hence we may fee, meaning from the curiolity of the profane." 5 
 that the buhnefs of princes, as well as the manufac- But though letters were of^reat antiquity in Egypt, Letters not 
 turesand commerce of each cnuniry, would produce there is reafon to believe that they were not firit in- mventcdio 
 the neceility of deviling fome expedilious manner of vented in that country. Wr Jackfon, in his Chrono- Ee)T'> 
 communicating information loone another." logical Antiquities, has endeavoured to prove, that they 
 The art of writing, however, is of fo great ami- were not invented or carried into Egypt by 7"<j<??// or 
 quity, and the early hiftory of moll nations fo full of Tholh, the firff Hermes, and fun of Milraim, who lived 
 fable, that it mud be extremely difficult to determine about 500 years after the deluge ; but that they were 
 what nation or people may jnllly claim the honour of introduced into that country by the fecond Hermes, 
 llie invention. 13ut as it is probable that letters were who lived about 400 after the former. This lecond 
 
 Hermes, according to Diodorus, was the inventor of 
 grammar and nnilic, and added many words to the E- 
 gyptian language. According 10 tlie fame author alfo, 
 he invented letters, rythm, and the harmony of founds. 
 
 the produce of a certain degree of civilization among 
 mankind, we mull therefore have rccourfe to the hil- 
 tory of thofe nations who feem to have been firlt civi- 
 lized. 
 
 Claim of 
 Ihc Egyp 
 
 lians toth 
 invention 
 uf letters 
 
 The Egyptians have an undoubted title to a very This was the Hermes fo much celebrated by the 
 
 early civilization ; andmanylcarnedmenhaveaitiibu- Greeks, who knew no other than himfelf. On the 
 
 e tea the invention oflcttcrs to them. The late bilhop of other hand, Mr Wife alTerts that Mofes and Cadmus 
 
 Gloucefler contends, that Egypt was the parent of all could not learn the alphabet in Egypt ; and that the 
 
 the learning of Greece, and was refortcd to by all the Egyptians had no alphabet in their time. He adduces 
 
 Grecian Icgillators, naturalifls, and philofophers ; and feveral reafons to prove tliat they had none till they 
 
 endeavours to prove that it was one of the firft civilized received what is called the Ccftic, which was introdu- 
 
 countries on the globe. Their writing was of four ced either in the time of the Ptolemies or under Pfam- 
 
 kinds : 1. Hieroglyphic; i. Symbolic ; ■^. Efiflolic ; mitichus or Amalis ; and the oldell alphabetic letters 
 
 and, 4. Hierograiiivtaiic. In the moft early ages they which can be produced as Egyptian, appear plainly to 
 
 wrote like all other infant nations, by pictures ; of have been derived from the Greek. Herodotus con- 
 
 which fome traces yet remain amongfl the hierogly- felffs, thatallhe relates before the reign of Pfammiti- 
 
 phics of Horapollo, who informs us, that they repre- chus is uncertain ; and that he reports the early tranf- 
 
 feined a fuller by a man's two feet in water ; fire, by anions of that nation on the credit of the Egyptian 
 
 fmoke afeending, &c. But to render this rude inven- priells, on whicii he did not greatly depend ; and Ijio- 
 
 tion lef-s incommodious, they foon deviled the method dorus Siculus is faid to have been greatly impofed upon 
 
 of puuing one ihingof limilar qualities for another, by theiu. Manctho, the oldclt Egyptian hiiloriau, 
 
 uraiiflaccii
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 49^ ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Alphabet, tranflatcd ihe facred regiflcrs our of Egyptian into 
 ' " Greek, which are fai J by Syncclhis to have bcciT writ- 
 ten in the facred letters, and to have been laid up by 
 the fccond Mercury in ihc Kgypiian temples. He al- 
 lows the Egyptian gods to liavc been mortal men : but 
 his liillory was very much currupred by the Greeks, 
 and hath bccncalled inqucftion by fevcral writersfrom 
 the account wliicli lie hinifcll gave of it. After Cani- 
 byfes had carried a.vay the Egyptian records, the 
 jirieds, to fupply ilicir lofs, and to keep up their pre- 
 leiidons to antiquity, began to write new records ; 
 wliercin they not only unavoidably made great mif- 
 takes, but added mucli of their own invention, efpc- 
 6 cially a; to didaiit limes. 
 Clann of Tlic Fhocnieians have likcwife been fuppofed the 
 
 tlic Phccni- inventors of letters ; and we hive ihc flrongefl proofs 
 nicians, of the early eivili/^ation of this people. 'I heir mofl 
 ancient hillorian, Sanclionialho, lived in the time of 
 Abitjalus, father of Hiram king of Tyre. He informs 
 us, thatlctters were invented by Taaul, who lived in 
 Phoenicia in the 12th and 1 3tl) generations after the 
 creation. " Mifor (fiys he) was the fon of Hamyn ; 
 the fon of Mifor was Taant, who invented the lirfl 
 letters for writing." The Egyptians call him Thoth ; 
 the Alexandrians Thoyth ; and the Greeks Hirmes, 
 or Mercury. In the time of this Taaut or Mercury 
 (the grandfon of Ham the fonofNoali), Phoenicia 
 and the adjacent country was governed by Uranus, 
 and after him by his fon Saturn or Cronus. He in- 
 vented letters either in the reign of Uranus or Cronus ; 
 and flaid in Phoenicia with Cronus till the jad year of 
 his reign. Cronus, after the death of his fatlicr Ura- 
 nus, made fevcral ftltlemcnts of his family, and tra- 
 verfed into other parts ; and when he came to the fouth 
 country, he gave all Egypt to the god Tarutus, that 
 it fliould be his kingdom. Sanclionijtlio began his 
 hillory with the creation, and ended It with placing 
 Taautus on the throne of Egypt. He does not men- 
 tion the deluge, but makes two more generations in 
 Cain's line from Protagonus to Agrovenus (or from 
 Adam to Noah) than IVIofes. As iiauchoniatho has 
 not told us whether Taaut invented letters either in 
 the reign of Uranus or Cronus, " we cannot err much 
 (fays Mr Jackfon) if we place his invention of them 
 550 years after tiie Hood, or 20 years after the difper- 
 fion, and 2619 years before the Chrillian sera, and (ix, 
 or perhaps ten years, before he went into Egypt." 
 This prince and his poflerity reigned at Thebes in 
 Upper Egypt for 15 generations. 
 
 Several Roman authors attribute the invention of 
 letters to I lie Phoenicians. Pliny fays (a), the Phoeni- 
 cians were famed for the invention of Icticrs, as well 
 as for agronomical obfervationsand novel and marti-il 
 arts. Cunius informs us, that the Tyriaii nation arc 
 related to !)C ihc lirll who either tauglu or learned let- 
 ters ; and Lucan fays, that they were the iirft who at- 
 tempted to cxprefs founds or words by letters. Eti- 
 fcbius alfo tells us froui Porphyry, that " Sanchonia- 
 tho fludicd with great application the writings of 
 Taaut, knowing tlut lie was the lirfl who invented 
 letters." 
 
 The Greeks, as we have already obfcrvcd, knew r.o .Hi|i!iai,cc. 
 
 older Hermes than the fecond, who lived about 400 ' ^— 
 
 years after the Mezrite Taaut or Hermes. This fe- 
 cond Hermes is called by Plato Thcuth, and counfcllor 
 or facred feribe to king Thanius ; but it is not fiiJ 
 that he ever reigned in Egypt : but the former Taaut, 
 or Athothes, as Manttho calls him, was the immedi- 
 ate fucecllbr of Mcnes the lirft king of Egypt. 1 his 
 fecond Mercury, if we may believe Malttho, compo- 
 fed fevcral books of the Egyptian hiflory ; and having 
 improved both the language and letter^ of that nation, 
 the Egyptians attributed the arts and inventions of the 
 former to the latter. 'I'he Plioenician language is ge- 
 nerally allowed to have been adi.ilettof the Hebrew ; 
 and tho' their alphabet does not entirely agree witii the 
 Samaritan, yet there is a great fimilarity between them . 
 Aflrononiy and arithmetic were much cultivated among 
 them in the molt eai ly ages : their fine linen, purple, 
 and glafs, were much fuperior to thofc of other na- 
 tions; and theirextraordinary Ikill in architecture and 
 other arts was fueh, that whatever was great, elegant, 
 or pleafing, whether in buildings, appirel, or toys, 
 wasdirtingiiilhedbytheepitlietofTyrianorSidonian; 
 thefe being the chief citiesof Phoenicia. Thcirgreat 
 proficiency in learning and arts of all kinds, together 
 with their cngrolfing all the commerce of the welkrn 
 world, are likcwife thought to give them ajuflclaim 
 to the invention of letters. 
 
 The Chaldeans alfo have laid claim to the invention of the 
 of letters; and with rcgar^! to this, there is a trndiiion thaldtaiu. 
 among the Jews, Indians, and Arabians, that the E- 
 gyplians derived tlieir knowledge from Abraham, who 
 was a Chaldean. This tradition is in fomc degree 
 confirmed by moft of the wefteni writers, who afcribe 
 the inventions of ari:hmetic and aUronomy to the 
 Chaldeans. Jofephuspofitivcly aiferts, tl)nt the Egyp- 
 tians were ignorant of the fciences of arithmeiic^and 
 artronomy before they were inllrudcd by Abraham ; 
 and Sir Ifaac Newton admits, that letters were known 
 in the line of that patriarch lor many centuries before 
 Mofes. The Chaldaic letters appear to have been de- 
 rived from the Hebrew or Samaritan ; which src ihc 
 fame, or nearly fo, with the old Phoenician. Ezra is 
 fuppofed to have exchanged the old Hebrew chara>;lers 
 for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldce, which 
 are flill in ufe. Berofus, the xioft ancient Chaldean 
 hiftorian, who was born in the minority of Alexander 
 the Great, does not fa) that he believed his country- 
 men to have been the inventors of letters. g 
 
 The Syrians have .alfo laid claim to the invention of Of the S). 
 letters. It is certain, irJced, that they yielded to "■'»•"• 
 no nation in knowledge and fkill in the fine arts. 
 Their language is faid to have been the vernacular of 
 all the oriental tongues, and was divided into three 
 dialects, i. The Aramean, ufed in Mefopotamia, and 
 by the inhabitants of Rolu and Edefa of Harram, anj 
 the Outer Syria. 2. The dialed of Paleftine ; fpoken 
 by the inhabitants of Damafcus, Mount Libanus, and 
 the Inner Syria. ;. The Chaldce or Nabathcan dia- 
 leiH:, the moll iinpolillicd of the three ; and fpoken in 
 the mountainous pans of Allyria, and the villages of 
 ~ Q. 2 Irac 
 
 (a) See above, n° 2. where he fays that the knowledge of letters was eternal. What dependence can \vc 
 |-Mit in the tcflimony of fuch a writer ?
 
 A L i' 
 
 [ 492 ] 
 
 A 
 
 Alphabet. 
 
 Irac oi 13,'.lyloiiia, It lias b'.eii gt.u r.aly bclitvc.l, v.ords; ihc funih.ir.cntal ]i;ut bcjn;^bcii)j^ iliviUcc! ii:lo 
 
 t iial no nation of equal uniii|iiilyluil unioic ton lidtrublc three clali'ts, viz. i. /."'/;««/, tr roots of vcibs; 2.iihubd, 
 
 iraJc than the Syrians: ihcy arc I'nppoffd to have or orijjinal nouns ; 3. £r;v j, or j'articlts. Tlitir al- 
 
 tirlt brought the commodities ol I'crlu and India iiiio phabct contains 50 Utters ; viz. 34 confonantsand 16 
 
 the weft of Alia ; and tlxy fctni to have carried on an vowels. They alTcrt that they were in j^'clicllion of 
 
 inland trade by cn{?,ri)lJing the n ivi^aiion of the Eu- Iciiers before any oihtr nation in the world : and iV!r 
 
 i hiites, w hilit the PhiKiiitians traded to the moil di- Halhcd conjcdurcs, tliat the long-boaikd orii^inal ci- 
 
 Alphabt 
 
 Of the 111- 
 
 (taut countries. Notwitlillanding thefe LircnmlUnccs, 
 hov.-cver, whi'.i might fccm to favour the claim of the 
 iyriansj theoldcll charaders ihty have are but about 
 three centuries before Chrift. Their letters arc of two 
 iorts. I. Tlie Eftrangelo, which is the more ancient ; 
 and, 2. The Klhito, ilie linii'Ic or common character, 
 which is the more e.X[<cdiiious and beautiful. 
 
 We miiA next cxiiniine the claims of the Indians, 
 whofc j-retenfions to antiquity yield to noothcr nation 
 on earth. ^\x Halhed, who has written a grammar of 
 the Shaiifcrit language, informs us, that ii is not only 
 the grand fource if Indian literature, but the parent 
 
 \iliicationof the Egyptians may llill be a maltcrof dii- 
 pute. The Rajah of Killiinagur affirms, that he has 
 in his polTelfion Shanfcrit books, where theKgyptians 
 arc conrtanily dcfci ited as difciples, notasinJlruelors ; 
 and as letkiiig ia lliiidollan that liberal education, and 
 ihofe ftienccs, which none of their own coiinirymen 
 had fiiilicicnt kriowledge to impart. Mr Halhcd hints 
 alio, that the learning of Hindollan might have been 
 tranfplanted into Kgypt, and thus have become fami- 
 liar to Moles. Scveri.1 auih irs, however, are of opi- 
 nion, that the anciclit f^gyptians polFciIcd thcmfelves 
 of the trade of the E^all by the Red Sea, and that they 
 of alTnoil every dialed from ilie Perlian gulph 10 the carried on a conlidcrable traffic with the Indian na- 
 Chir.efe feas, and w hiv h is laid to be a language of the lions before the time of Scfoflris ; whom they luppof.' 
 
 moft venerable antiquity. Al prefent it is appropri 
 aredtothe religious records of the iiramins,aiid tl crc- 
 fore lliiit in their libraries ; but formerly it appears 
 10 have been current ever tlie greatcll part of ihe 
 eadcrn world, asiraccs of its extent may be found ia 
 almi'rt every dillrid of Alia. 
 
 Mr H<ilhect informs us, that " .here is a greax limi- 
 laritv between the Shanfcrit words and thofe of the 
 Perl-an and Arabic, and even of Latin and Greek; 
 and thefe not in technical or metaphorical terms, but 
 in the main ground-works of language ; in monofylla- 
 b'.es, the names of numbers, and tlic appellations of 
 fuch things as would be iirfbdifcriminatcd on the im- 
 mediate dawnof civilization. Thercfemblancc which 
 may bcfeenofthe characlcrson thcmcdalsand llgnets 
 of different pans of Alia, the light they reciprocally 
 throw upon one aiKithtr,3nd the general analogy which 
 
 to have been cotemporary with Abraham, though Sir 
 Ifaac Newton conjcclures liim to have been theShilliak 
 who took Jcrufalem in the time of Rchohoam. 
 
 In the year 1769, one of the facrect books of the 
 Gcnioos called Baga-jadavi, tranllated by Meridas 
 Poule, a learned man of Indian origin, and chief in- 
 terpreter to the fupreme council of Pondicherry, was 
 fcnt by him to M. Benin in France. In his preface 
 he fays, that it was compofed by Viaflcr the fon ot 
 Bralima, and is of facrcd authority among the worlhip- 
 pers of Vifchnow. This book claims an antiquity of 
 5000 years ; but M.de Guines has Ihi.wn, that its prc- 
 ttnlions to fuch extravagant antiquity arc entirely in- 
 concliilivc and unfaiisfaclory : whence we may con- 
 clude, fays Mr Aftle, that though a farther inquiry in- 
 to the literature of the Indian nations may be laudable, 
 
 yet we mufl by no means give too eafy credit to their 
 
 they all'bear to the grand prototype, affords another relations concerning the high antiquity of their ms- 
 
 ample field for curiolity. The coins ofAllam, Na- nufcripts and early civilization. ,3 
 
 paul, Calhmiria, and many other kingdoms, are all It is not pretended that the Perlians had any great letters not 
 
 llaniped with Shanfcrit letters, and moltly contain ^1- harning among them till the time of Hyllafpes the invcmetl in 
 
 lulious to the old Shanfcrit mythology. The fame con- father of Darius. The former, we are told, travelled r'crlia ; 
 
 formiiy may t>eobfcrvcdin theimpreliioiisoffcals from into India, and was inftruerled liy the Bramins in the 
 
 Bootan and Thibet. 
 
 The country between tlie Indus and Ganges Aill 
 preferves the Shanfcrit language in its original purity, 
 and offers a great number of b 'oks to the perufal of 
 the curious; many of which have been handed down 
 from the earlicft periods of human tradition. 
 
 There are feven different forts of Indian hand-wri- 
 tings, all com pri fed under the general term of AVra^orft', 
 which may be interpreted ■mritiug. The Bramins fay 
 that letters were of divine original ; and the elegant 
 Shanfcrit is flyled Dacb-tiaagorce, or the writings of 
 die Immortals, which might not improbably be a re- 
 jfinenient from the more limple Nuagorce of former 
 ages. The Bengal Utters are another branch of the 
 fame flock. The Braniins of Bengal have all their 
 Shanfcrit books copied in their national alphabet, and 
 they tranfcribe into them all the Dacb-naagorcemann- 
 fcripts for their own jicrufal. The Moorilli dialed is 
 that fpccies of ITir.doflanic which we owe to the con- 
 quedsof the Mahometans. 
 
 The ibinfcrit language contains about 700 radical 
 
 fciences for which they were famed at that time. The 
 ancient Perlians defpifed richcsand commerce, nor had 
 they any money among them till after the conquellof 
 Lydia. It appears by feveral infcriptions taken from 
 the ruins of the palate of Perfepuljp, which wms builc 
 near 700 years lefiirt theChriftian xra, that the Pcr- 
 fians fomclimes wrote in perpendicular columns like 
 the Chinefe. This mode of writing was tirft ma.'e life 
 of on the Hems of trees, pillars, or obelilks. As for 
 thofe limple characters found on the weft lide of the 
 ftair-cafe of Perfepolis, foniehave fuppofed them to be 
 alphabet icjfome hieroglyphic, an dot hers antediluvian, 
 DrHyde pronounces them to have been mere whim- 
 fical ornaments, though the author of Conjectural Ob- 
 fervationson Alphabetic Writing fuppofes them to be 
 fragments of Egyptian antiqiity brought by Cambyfcs 
 from ihcfpoils of T lubes. The learned are generally 
 agreed, that the Perlians were l..ter in civilization than 
 many of their neighbours ; and they are not fuppofed 
 to have any pretenlions to the invention of letters. 
 As the Arabians have been in poffcISon of the coun- 
 try
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 493 J 
 
 A L P 
 
 K 
 
 Nor by the 
 Arabians. 
 
 oyiliey now iiiivabit for upwards ol' 3 700 years, wiih- 
 out being iiiicrniixcd with foreign naiions, or fabjugi- 
 tcJ by any oilur power, ihcir language mull be very 
 ancient. T he two principal dialeds of it were that 
 fpokcn by the Hamyariics and other genuine Arabs ; 
 and that of the Koreifli, in which Mahomcl wrote the 
 Alcoran. The former is named by oriental writers 
 the Arabicof Hiivnar I the XiXX.v.t ,thi pun fix d^j;catid 
 Arabic. iMr Ki harjlbn obferves, as a proof of the 
 richnefs of ti.ii language-, that it coiilills of 2000 radi- 
 cal words. I'ncrnitians and hgypiians, ail bordered upon each 
 The old Arabic characters are faid to have been of other; and as the Pha-nicians, were ihcgreatcltas well 
 very high antiquity ; for EbnHafliem relates, that an ilic moll ancient commercial nation, it is very probable 
 
 their calculations; and v.e havelhown, that ihtle were Alphabi: 
 
 the parents of letters. Tl'is circumftancc greatly fa- ' ^ — 
 
 vours their claim to the invention ; becaulc Chaidea, 
 and the countries adjacent, arc allowed by all authors 
 both facrcd and prolane, to have been p:opled before 
 Egypt ; and it is certain that many nations faid to 
 be ciefcended from Shem and Japhcr, had their let- 
 ters from the Phcenicians, who were dtfccndcd fruu 
 Ham. ' 
 
 " It is obfervaUe, that the Chaldeans, rhe Syrians, 
 Phcrnitians and hgypiians, ail bordered upon each 
 
 infcription in it wjs found in Yanian as old as the days 
 of Joleph. Hence fome have fuppofcd that the Ara- 
 bians were the inventors of letters ; and hi r Ifaac New- 
 ton is of opinion, that Mofcs learned the alphabet from 
 the Midianitcs, who were Arabians. 
 
 The alphabet of ihc Arabs confills of 28 letters (i- 
 milar to the ancient Culic, in v/hich the tirll copies of 
 the Alcoran were written. The prcfcnt Arabic cha- 
 racters were formed by tbn Moklah, a learned Ara- 
 bian, who lived about 300 years after Mahomet. 1 he 
 Arabian writers themfelvcsinform us, that their alpha- 
 bet is not very ancient, and that they received it only 
 a Ihort time before the introduction of Illaniifm. 
 
 On this account of the prctendons of different na- 
 tions to the invention of letters, Mr Aftle makes 
 the following reflections. " The vanity of each na- 
 tion induces thrm to pret(md to the molt early civili- 
 zation ; butfuch is the uncertainty of ancient hiflory, 
 that it is difficult to determine to whom the honour is 
 due. It (hould fcem, however, that the contell may 
 be confined to the Egyptians, the l'hoc?iiicians, and the 
 Chaldeans. The Greek writers, and moll of ihofc 
 who have copied them, decide in favour of Egypt, be; 
 caufe their information is derived f'rom the t.gyptians 
 tljcmlelves. The politiveclaimoflhe Phoenicians does 
 not depend entirely u; on the teftiniony of Sanchonia- 
 tlio ; the eredit of his liillory is fo well fipponcd by 
 Philo of Byblus his tranllator. Porphyry, Pliny, Cur- 
 tius, Lucan, and other ancient writers, .who might 
 have fecn his works entire, and whole relations defer ve 
 at lead as much creiiit as thofe of the Ej;ypiian aid 
 Greek writers. It mull be allowed, that Sanchonia- 
 tho's hiflory contains many fabulous .nccoants ; but 
 docs not the ancient hillory of the Egyptians, the 
 Greeks, and mod other nations, abound witli them to 
 a much greater degree ? The fragmrnis which we 
 have of this mofl ancient hiflorian are chiefly fun: ill; ed 
 by Eufebius, who took all polfiblc advaniages to rc- 
 prefcnt the Pagan writers in the worfl light, anti to 
 render their theology abfurd and ridiculous. 
 
 " The Phoenician and Egyptian langtt..ges are very 
 fiDiilar ; but the latter is faid to be more large aird full, 
 which is an indication of its bciiiii of a later date. Tlie 
 opinion ofMr 'Wife, however, thai the ancient Egyp- 
 tians had not the knowledge of letters fcenis to be 
 erroneous ; as ihey had commercial intcrcourfc wi.h 
 their neighbours the Phoenicians, they probaLly had 
 the knowledge of letiers, if ihcir policy, like thai of 
 
 that they comn.unicaied letters to the Egyptians, the 
 j)orts i)f Tyre and Sidon being not far diflant from 
 each other. 
 
 " Mr Jatkfon is evidently mifiakcn when he favs, 
 that letters were invented 2619 years before the bink 
 of Cbrift. The driugc recorded by Mufcs was 23491 
 years before that event: and if letters w< re not invent- 
 ed till 550 years after, as he aliens, we muJt date 
 their difcovtry only 1799 years before the ChrilHau 
 aera, which is 410 years after the /cign of Menes the 
 firll king of Egypt, who, according to Svncellus and 
 others, is faid to have been the fame pcr'tbn with the 
 Mifor of Sanchoniatho, the Mizraim of the Scriptures 
 and the Oliris of the Egyptians : but whethcrihis be 
 true or not, Egypt is frequently called in Scripture r/i.- 
 laud of IMlzruim. 
 
 " This Mizraim, the fecond fon of Amyn or Ham 
 feated hinifelf near the ejurance of Egypt at Zoan, in 
 iheyear before Chrilt 2188,. and 160 years after the 
 flood. He afterwards built TlicLcs, and fome fay, 
 Meinphis. Uefore the time that he went into Egypt, 
 his fon Taaut had invented Utters in Pha'nicia; and 
 if this invention took place ten years before the migra- 
 tion of his father into Egypi, as Mr Jackfon iuppofes, 
 we II ay trace letters as far back as the year 21 72 be- 
 f re Chi ill, or 150 years after the deluge recorded by 
 Mofts : and beyond this period, the written ann.'ls of 
 mankind, which have I een hitherto tranfmiitcd lo us, 
 will not enallt i:s to trace the knowledge of them ; 
 though this want of materials is no proi.f that Itticri 
 were not known inuil a century and an half afrer the 
 deluge. As for the pretenlionsof the Indian nations 
 we muftbe better acquainted with theirrerorc's before 
 we. can adniitof their claim to the tirll jfe of letters ; 
 efpecially as none of their manufcripts of any great 
 antiquity have ^syet appeared in turi^pc. 1 iiat the 
 A rabinis were not I he inventors ollcttcrs, has appesrca 
 by their own confelfion. — Plato fomewhere n^eniions 
 Hyperborean letters very ditierent fre»m the Greek ; 
 ihefe might have been the charadcrs ufed by the Tar- 
 tars or ancient Scythians. 
 
 " It may be exneJled that fomeihing Ih'.uld be fiid '"»''" "• 
 concerning thofe b^oks ineir.ioucd by fome authors to "''"■ 
 inve l^ecn written before liiedeluge. Amongiiohers, 
 Dr Parfons, in his Remains of Japhet, p 3^'.. ;;9. 
 fiippofcs letters to have been known to Adam ; and 
 the Sabeans produce a book which they pretend w.-.s 
 written by Adam. But concerning thefe we have 1; 
 
 t.i 
 Ofanudi 
 
 [he Chinefc at this day, did not prohibit the ufc of guide to civeJl us any more than concerning the fii;' 
 
 'l*'^"''- pofed boe>ks of Enoch ; fome of which, Orij-^in tci's 
 
 " The Chaldeans, who cultivated aflronomy in the rs, were found in Arabia ?\lix, in the don't'iion of 
 
 aioU rtmote ages, \xM fymbols or arbiirrry nnrkf in the quee;; of S;'bn, Tcrialliia affirjis, that he faw
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 494 ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Aljilialiet. 
 
 14 
 
 All the al- 
 phabet.- in 
 the ' orld 
 canri'it he 
 jiroved to 
 ^rife from 
 one orijji- 
 i:al. 
 
 and red fcvcral pagrs of tbcm ; and in his treatifc De 
 Habitii Mulieriiiii, lie places lliofc books among the 
 canonical : biu St Jcrom and St Auflin look iipom 
 tlicm 10 be apocryphal. William Poflclliis pretended 
 to compile his book D; Originikus from the book of 
 Enoch : and Thomas Bangius publilbed at Copenha- 
 gen, in 1656, a work which coiiiains many lingular 
 velatioMSConcerning the manner, of writingamongthe 
 antediluvians, which contain feveral plcafant ftories 
 concerning the books of Enoch. 
 
 "With regard 10 this patriarch, indeed, St Judc 
 informs ns, that \\c profhejial, hat he docs not fay that 
 he wrote. The writings, therefore, attributed to the 
 antediluvians, mufl appear quite uncertain ; ibonghit 
 might be impropcrtoaircrtihat letters were unknown 
 before the deluge recorded by Mofcs." 
 
 Our author proceeds to Ihow, that all the alpha- 
 bets in the world cannot be derived from one origi- 
 nal ; bccaufe there area variety of alpiialiets ufed in 
 different parts of Afia, which vary in name, number, 
 figure, order, and power, from the Phoenician, ancient 
 Hebrew, or Samaritan. Jn feveral of thefe alphabets 
 alfo, there are maj-ks for founds peculiar to the lan- 
 guige of the eafl, which are not necellary to be em- 
 ployed in the notation of the languages of Europe. 
 
 None of the alphabets of the eaft of Perlia have any 
 conne(5tion with the Phoenicianor its derivatives, ex- 
 cept where the Arabicletters have been introduced by 
 thcconqueltsof the Mahometans. The foundation of 
 all the Indiui characters are thofe c:i\\edjha/i/ait, or 
 fuiigfkrit. This (ignihesfomething brought toperl'ec- 
 tion, in contradiflinftion to jiakrit which fignities 
 vulgar or unpolilhed. Hence the refined and religious 
 language and charaders of India are called Siingjkrit, 
 and the more vulgar mode of writing and expreflion 
 Prakrit. From this Shanfcrit are derived the facrcd 
 charafters of Thibet, TheCadimirian, Bengalefe.Ma- 
 labric, and Tamoul; the Singalefe, Sianicfc, Maharat- 
 tan, Concanee, ';c. From the fame fourcc we may 
 derive the Tang^uic, or Tartar characters, which are 
 fimilar,in their grcaioutlines, to the Shanfcrit; though 
 it is not ealily detirniined which is derived from tlie 
 other. The common Tartar is generally read, like the 
 Chincfc, from top bottom. 
 
 There arc, however, feveral alphabets ufed in diffe- 
 rent parts of .^fia, eiitirily diiTerent not only from the 
 Shanfcrit and all thofe derived I'rom it, but alfo from 
 the Phopnicianatid thofe v/hich proceed from it. Some 
 of thefe arelhealphabet ofPegu, the 5.;//JchaMfters 
 nfed in the Illind of Sumatra, and the Ba^inau or Bo- 
 man charafters ufed in fome parts of Pegu. Tiie 
 names and powersof the letters of which thefe alpha- 
 bets are compofed, differ entirely from the Pliccniciaii, 
 or thofe derived from them. It is impollildc toalfiiVii- 
 latc their forms, and indeed it is by no means eafy to 
 conceive howth? jolettersofthe Schanfcrit language 
 could be derived from the Phcenician alphabet, which 
 coEfifted originally only of I 5 ; though it is certain, 
 that by far the greater number of alphabets now in 
 ufe are derived from the ancient Hebrew, Phoenician, 
 or Samaritan. 
 
 Mr A Ale next proceeds to confidcr what alphabets arc Alphabet. 
 
 derivedfrom the Phoenician. Thcichefuppofcsiohave ' 
 
 been immediately the ancient Hebrew or Samaritan ; a , I'l^,, 
 the thaldaic ; the Baflulian (a) or Spanifli Photui- j^^^^j 
 c ian ; the Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian ; and the irom the 
 Pelafgian. From the ancient Hebrew proceeded the I'hocnician, 
 Chaldaic or fquare Hebrew ; the round Hebrew ; and 
 what is called the runniig hui.d 'J the Rabbhis. The 
 Pelafgian gave birth to the Ktrufcan, Eugubian, or 
 Umbrian, Ofcan, Samnite, and Ionic Greek, written 
 from the left. From the Chaldaic or fquare Hebrew 
 are derived the .Syriac, and the ancient and modern 
 Arabic. The Syriac is divided into the Ertrangclo 
 and Mendajan, and the modern Arabic has given rife 
 to the Pcr/ian and Turkifli. From the ancient Arabic 
 arc deriveil the Kiific or Oriental, the Mauritanic or 
 Occidcut.il ; the African or Saracen, and the Moorifli. 
 The Ionic Greek gave rife to the Arcadian, Latin, 
 ancient Gaulifli, ancient SpaniHi, ancient Gothic, Cop- 
 tic, Ethiopic, Ruffian, lUyrian or Sclavonic, Bulga- 
 rian and Armenian. From the Roman are derived 
 the Lombardic, V'ifigothic, Saxon, Galilean, Franco- 
 Gallic or Merovingian, German, Caroline^ Capetian, 
 and modern Gothic. 
 
 The Punic letters are alfo called Tyrian, and were 
 much the fame with the Carthaginian or Sicilian. The 
 Punic language was at firfl; the fame with the Phoeni- 
 cian ; it is nearly allied to the Hebrew, and has an 
 affinity with the Chaldee and Syriac. Some remains of 
 it are to be met with in the" Maltefe. To make a com- 
 plete Punic, Carthaginian, or Sicilian alphabet, we 
 mufl admit feveral pure Phoenician letters. 
 
 The Pelafgi were likewife of Phoenician original ; 
 and, according to Sanconiatho, the Diofcuriand Ca- 
 biri wrote the firff annals of the Phoenician hiftory , by 
 orderofTaaut the inventor of letters. They made 
 fliips of burthen, and being cart upon the coaft near 
 mount Calius, about 40 miles from Pelufium, where 
 they built a temple in the fecond generation after the 
 deluge related by Mofes, they were called Pelafgi 
 from their palling by fea, and wandering from one coun- 
 try to another. Herodotus informs us, that the Pe- 
 lafgi were defcendants of the Phoenician Cabiri, and 
 that theSamoihracians, received and pra(;tifcd the Ca- 
 biricmyfleriesfrom them. The Pelafgic alphabctprc- 
 vailed in Greece till the time of Deucalion, when the 
 Pelafgi were driven out of ThelFalyor Oenotria by t lie 
 Hellenes; after which fome of them fettled at the 
 mouth of the Po, and others at Croton, now Cartona 
 in Tufcany. 1 heir alphabet confilled of 16 letters, 
 and the Tyrrhenian alphabet, brought into Italy before 
 the reiirn of that prince, confifledof no more than 13. 
 Deucalion is faid to have reigned about S20 years af- 
 ter the deluge, and 1529 before the Chriftian aera. 
 
 That the Tyrrheni, Tyrfeni, or Hetrufci, fettled in 
 Italy long before this period, appears from the tefti- 
 mony of Herodotus, who informs us, that a colony 
 went by fea from Lydia into Italy under Tyrrhenus ; 
 and Dionyflus of Halicarnallus proves that many au- 
 thors called them Pelafgi. He then cites Hellanicus 
 Lefbicus, an author fomewhat more ancient than He- 
 rodotus, 
 
 (a) The Baflali are faid to have been a Canaantifh or Phoenician people vvho fled from Jolhua, and fettled 
 afterwards in Spairi. I
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 495 ] 
 
 A I, P 
 
 rodotas, to prove, that they were firft called I'elafyi 
 7}irhtiu; and when they paircdinto Italy, they fettlcrf 
 ill that part of it called £truria. Their emigration 
 took place about I he year ot" the world 2011, or 1993 
 years before thcChriflian aera, which is jjoyears be- 
 fore the Pelaf^i left Greece. Biihop Cumberland ad- 
 duces many proofs tofhow that the Tyrrhenians origi- 
 nally came out of I-ydii into It.ily. Several Roman 
 authors alfo fpeak of this Lydian colony ;and Horace 
 compliments his patron Moecenas upon his Lydian 
 dcfccnc : 
 
 Lydortim quiciqiiid Etru/cos 
 hitoluit fines, nemo pmerojior cjl t;. 
 
 The Etrufcan letters are Peljfgic, and fevcral of the 
 Etrufcan infcriptions arc written in the I'elafgic lan- 
 guage. '1 he Roman letters arc Ionic. The Ofcan 
 language was a dialett of the Etrufcan ; their charac- 
 ters are nearer the ionic or Roman than the Etrufcan. 
 There is alio very little dirfcrence between the Felaf- 
 gian, Etrufcan, and moftar.cicnt Greek letters, which 
 are placed from right to left. The Arcadians were an- 
 cient Greeks, and iifcd the Ionic letters ; but at what 
 time they began to write from left to right is not 
 known,as their chronology is very uncertain. The E- 
 trufcan, Ofcan, and Samnitc alphabets,are derived from 
 the Fclafgic ; they differ from each other more in name 
 than in form, but a far greater number are derived from 
 the Ionic Greek ; namely, the Arcadian, the Latin or 
 Roman, and the others already enumerated. The Ru- 
 nic is immediately derived from the Gothic. 
 
 According to Dionylms of Halicarnalfus, the firft 
 Greek colony which came into Italy conlilled of Ar- 
 cadians under the conduct of Oenotrus the fon of Ly- 
 caon, and fifth in defcent from Phoroneus the firrt 
 king of Argos, who reigned about 566 years before 
 the taking of Troy, and i 750 years before the Chri- 
 Aian jera. Thefe Oenotrians were called Aboriginei ; 
 and after they had been engaged for many years in a 
 war with the Siculi, entered into an alliance with a 
 colony of the Pelafgi, who came out of Thellaly into 
 Italy, after having been driven from the fomer conn- 
 try — About 1476 B.C. another colony of the Pelafgi, 
 who had been driven out of ThclTaly by the Curcies 
 and Leleges, arrived in Italy, where they aflifted the 
 Aborigines to drive out the Siculi ; poirclling thein- 
 folvts of the grcatell part of the country between the 
 Tiber and the Liris, and building fevcral cities. So- 
 linus and Pliny tell us, that the Pelafgi firil carried 
 letters into Italy ; and the latter diflinguiihes between 
 the Pelafgi and the Arcades : fo the letters firll car- 
 ried into Italy were not the Ionic Greek, but thofe 
 moi e ancient Pclafgiccharaderswhich i he Pelafgi car- 
 ried with them before Deucalion and Cadmus are faid 
 to have come into Boeoiia and Thelfaly. The flory 
 of Cadmus is much involved ia fable ; but it is agreed 
 by mod of the ancients, that the children of Agenor, 
 viz. Cadmus, Europa, Phoenix, and Cilix, carried 
 with them a colony compofed of Phtcnicians and Sy- 
 rians, into Afia Minor, Crete, Greece, and Lybia, 
 where they introduced letters, mulic, poetry, and 
 other arts, fciences, and cuftoms of the Pha-nicians. 
 
 Dionyfius enumerates the following Greek colonies 
 which came into Italy : i. The Aborigines under Oe- 
 notrus from Arcadia. 2. The Pclafgic colony which 
 came from Hoeinonia or Thelfaly. ;. Another Arca- 
 
 dian colony T,Iiicli camcwiiii EvanJcrfiom PaUntium. 
 4. Thofe who came from Pclopunnifus with Hercules ; 
 and, J. Thofe whocamewi: h. -Eneas from Troy. It is 
 not eafy todifcover whe:: thelonic way ofwritingfroui 
 left to right was introduced into Italy ; but it fs cer- 
 tain, that it did not univerfally prevail even in Greece 
 till feveraLiges after it was found out. ThcAthenians 
 did not comply with it till the year of Rome 3 jo ; nor 
 was it practiced by thcSamniics even in the 6th century 
 of that city, or 250 years before Chrift : for M. Gx- 
 bciin. Vol. VI.pl. 2. gives us thcSamnite alphabet of 
 thatccntury, wherein the Icurrs are placed from right 
 to left, although the Ionic way of writing prevailed 
 in fome parts of Italy in the third century of Roir.c. 
 " In time (faysPliny), the tacit co:;fent of all nations 
 agreed to ufe the louic letters. The Romans eonfcnt- 
 ed to this mode about tlie time of Tarquinius Prifcus 
 their fifth king." The letters brought by Damaratus 
 the Corinthian,the father of Tarqiiin, Mr Wife thinki, 
 murt have been the new or Ionic alphabet, and not the 
 fame with that brought by Evander joo years before. 
 After the Pioinaus had elhblilhed the ufe of the Ionic 
 leucrs, they feem not to have ac^suowledged the Pe- 
 lafgian and Etrufcan to have been Gieek°alphabcts : 
 the mod learned of them knew none older than the I- 
 onic, as appears from the Greek Parnefe infcriptions 
 of Herodes Atiicus. This learned man, out of a re- 
 gard to antiquity, caufed the oldeft orthography to 
 beobferved in the writing, and the letters to be deli- 
 neated after the moll antique forms that could be 
 found ; and they are plainly no other than the Ionic 
 or right-handed characlers. 
 
 The ancient Gauliih letters are derived from the 
 Greek, and their writing approaches more nearly to 
 the Gothic than that of the Romans : this appears by 
 the monumental infcriptionof Gordi.ui, med'cnger tf 
 the Gauls, who fuff'cred martyrdom in the third cen- 
 tury with all his family. Thefe ancient Gauliih cha- 
 radtrs were generally ufcd by that people before the 
 conqneft of Gaul by Cxfar : but after that time the 
 Roman letters were gradually introduced. The anci- 
 ent Spaniards ufed letters nearly Greek before their 
 intercourfe with the Romans. The ancient Gothic 
 alphabet was very fnnilar to the Greek, and is attribu- 
 ted to Ulphilas, bidiopof iheGoths, who lived in Mx- 
 lia about 570 years after Chriil. He tranflated the Bi- 
 ble into the Gothic tongue. This circumftance might 
 have occalioned the tradition of his having invciuc.l 
 thefe letters ; but it is probable that thefe characiers 
 were in ufe long before this lime. The Runic alpha- 
 bet is derived from the ancient Gothic. 
 
 The Coptic letters are derivedinimcdiaiely from the 
 Greek. Some have confounded thei^iwith the ancient 
 Egyptian ; but there is a szTy material difference be- 
 tween them. The Ethiopic alphabet is derived from 
 the Coptic. 
 
 The alphabet proceeding from that of the Scythians 
 cftablidied in Europe, is the fame with what St Cyril 
 calls the Strvkn. The Ruffian, Illyrian or Sclavonic, 
 and the Bulgarian, are all derived from the Greek. 
 TheArmenianletters differ very much from the Greek, 
 from which they are derived, as well as from the 
 Latin. 
 
 With regard to the alph.ibets derived from the La- 
 tin, the Lom birdie relates to ther.ianufcripts of iialy ; 
 
 the 
 
 Alphabrt. 
 
 See PIitt» 
 XIandXII. 
 for fpeci- 
 metx.f the 
 aiicioic 
 alphabets 
 here eniu 
 merited. 
 
 16 
 
 Alphabets 
 derived 
 from the 
 I.aun.
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 496 ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Ali'lrt'ji-t. tlic V'ill^.itViC tp thofc of SpilLl ; lite Saxoti t'l thofc 
 
 — of Kii,;l.iiul ; liie Ga lituu and l"ra:ic.'-G lUic or Mc- 
 
 rovi.ig'.m to the nuiuifciijns of Kr-incc ; chc Gcrm.ui 
 I J tli.ifeolih.il C'jmr.ry ; atid the Caroline Capctian, 
 aiiJ Mod''rii Goihk, in ah the coivini.-i of Europe 
 nlio rciJ Laii:i. The firit !ix of ihcfc ali'Ixibets are 
 licforctheagc of Ch.i.rk-ms'jiic, liicl.dl tlirce puftcrior 
 1.1 it. They are more diltinguiihtd by their iiaiiics 
 ilimthe forms of ilicir characters, aaJ the former 
 iniiicute allof them to have been of Koinan cxtradion. 
 Each nation, in adopting the letters of the Romans, 
 added thereto a nllc and manner peculiar to iifclf, 
 ^\ hi:li obvioudy dittingiiiihed it from tlic wriiings of 
 all other people ; \\ hence arofe the Jiircrencesbciwcen 
 l!ic wriiings of the Loniliards, Spaniards, Krencli, Sax- 
 ons, Germans, andCJotlis, and all the llrange terms 
 obfervcable in the writings of the t'rancic Gauls or Me- 
 rovingians ; and thofc of the Carlovingians their fuc- 
 cclli)rs may be traced from the fame fonrce. t'roni 
 thefc dillinftions the nxmt: oi H.ilioiial ivntiug was de- 
 ilvcd. 
 
 The wri.ing of Italy was uniform till the irruption 
 of the Go.hs, who disfigured it by their barbarous 
 t tile. In 569, the Lombards, basing polielTed them- 
 felvcsof all Italy, excepting Home and Ravenna, in- 
 troduced that form of writing which goes under their 
 name ; and as the I'opes nfcd the Lombardic manner 
 in their bulls, the n imc of Rtinan was fometimes gi- 
 ven to it in the nth century; and though the domini- 
 (r-n of the Lombards coiuinued no longer than 206 
 vears, the name of their writing continued in Italy 
 i'rom the 7th to the i^th century, and thenceafed ; 
 when learning, having declined in that as well as in 
 (<ther countries, the manner of writing degenerated 
 into the modern Gothic. 
 
 The Vifigoths iuiroJuced their form of wriiinginto 
 Spain, after having over-run that country ; but it was 
 abolilhed in a provincial fyuod held at Leon in 1091, 
 whenthe Latin characters were eftablilhed for all pub- 
 lic iaflruraents, though the X'ifigothic were ulcd in 
 private writings for three centuries afterwards. 
 
 The Gauls, oa being Oibjccled by the Romans, a- 
 dopied their manner of writing; but, by fubfequent 
 ;idditions of their own, theircharaclers were changed 
 into what is called the Gallican or Roiuan Gallic mode. 
 This was changed by the Franks into the Frauco-Cal- 
 l:c oi Muroviiigian \n<di,K. of \vri;ing, being pradifed 
 under the K'rfigs of the Merovingian race. It took 
 place to'.vards the clofc of the lixtii century, an'j con- 
 tinued till (he beginning of the ninth. 
 
 The German mode of writing was improved by 
 Charlemagne, and this improvement occafioned ano- 
 ther diftiiiiflion in writing by introilucing thealpiiabet 
 named Caroinn, which declined in the 12th century, 
 and was fuccceded In ihc 13th by the modcr]i Gothic. 
 In Fr.ince it had degenerated by the middle of the 
 10th century, but was reflored in 987 by Hugh Ca- 
 pet, whence it obtained the nan.e tj( Capitian. h was 
 iifed in England as well as Germany and France. 
 
 The modern (iothir, which fpread itfclf all over 
 Europe in the 12th and rqtli centuries, is improperly 
 named, as not deriving its origin from the writingan- 
 ciently ufcd by the Goths. It is, however, the worft 
 and rioft barbarous way of writing, and originated a- 
 roong the fchoolmen in the cecliiicof the arts ; being 
 
 "V 3 
 
 indeed nothing elfe than Latin wriiinr dejcncratcJ. 
 'It began in l!i>; i2-.h century, and was in general ufc, 
 , f fpceijUy among monks and fchoolaien, in all pjrts of 
 Europe, till the rclloraii on of arts in the i jth ccntrry, 
 and continued 1 >nger in Germany and the nortbcra 
 nations. The llatuie b loks arc l:ill printed in Gothic 
 letters. The moll barbarous writing of the f<;veni!i, 
 eighth, and ninth centuries, was preferable to the mo- 
 dern Gothi'. It is divetiitied in fach a m inner as can 
 fcarce admit of defcription ; and the abbreviations ufed 
 by the writers were fo numerous, that it became very 
 dilficuk to read it ; which was one of the great caufes 
 of the ignorance of ihofe times. Along with this, 
 however, the Lombardic, Gothic, Roman, Caroline, 
 and Capeiian modes of writing, were occafionally ufcd 
 by i.i'Jiviiiuals. 
 
 The ides that all the alphabets abovemeutioned arc 
 derived from the Roman, tends to prove the dillinftion 
 of national w'riting, and is of great ufe in difcovering 
 the age of manufcripts : for lliough we may not be 
 able exac5lly to determine the time when a manufcript 
 was written, we may be able nearly to afcertain its age. 
 For example, if a writing is Merovingian, it may be 
 declared not to be pop.erior to the ninth, nor prior to 
 the fiftli, century. If another be Lombardic, it may 
 beaftirmed to be poflerior to the middle of the 6th, 
 and prior to the 13th. Should it be Saxon, it cannot 
 be of an earlier date than the 7th, nor later than a- 
 bout the middle of the 12th. 
 
 Having conlidered whence the alphabets now in ufc 
 throughout the various nations ofthc world are derived, 
 it remains tofiy fomething concerning them as the ele- 
 ments of words, or how fir they are capable of ex- 
 prefling thofe founds, which, by proper combination 
 and arrangement, conflitute articulate language. The 
 number of funple founds in any language cannot be 
 very numerous ; and it is plainly th'. fc limple founds a- 
 lonc that we have occalion to reprefcnt by alphabetical 
 charadcrs. Hence the perfon whofirft invented let- 
 ters, muft have been capable of analyfing language in 
 a nianner whicii fcems by no means eafy to do, and 
 concerning which even the learned among ourfelves 
 are not yet agreed. It is this dilHculty which has pro- 
 duced the great diverlity in the number of alphabetical 
 characters ufcd by different nations ; and where we fee 
 a vafl number of them ufed, we may account the wri- 
 ting not the better, but much the worfe for it ; and 
 whoever tlie pretended inventor was, it is more rea- 
 I'onable to fuppofe that he disfigured ?.n alphabet al- 
 ready invented, by nnnecciFary additions, than been 
 the author of one himfelf. 
 
 VV lien we couiider alphabetical characters as thus rc- 
 ful ting from an analyfis of language, it will by no means 
 appear probable that it was derived from a gradual and 
 progrelliveopcraiion of the human mind through many 
 ages. There is not the lead affinity betwixt reprefent- 
 ing any objec't by a pidure and finding cut the founds 
 which compofe the word by which it i t xprefTed ; nor, 
 though a nation had been in nfe to reprefent things ei- 
 ther in this method, or by any kind of arbitrary marks, 
 for thoufands of years, could the one ever have led to 
 the other Arbitrary marks mufl always be the fame 
 with piciurss in this refpeft, that they mull always be 
 fixed to particular objefts, and thus be incrcafedaa' //;//- 
 tiiiurii. Letters, on the other hand, are indifterciit to 
 
 all 
 
 /.Inhabit. 
 
 17 
 Letters 
 couM not 
 take plice 
 but from 3 
 decompofu 
 tion of lau* 
 guage. 
 
 18 
 Probably 
 not the re- 
 fult of a 
 progretUve 
 evolution 
 of the hu- 
 man pOWj 
 ers.
 
 
 — ■ 1 — - 
 
 fejj/.vwj w*i<^^/. B,;ylfM/r 
 
 £fru^///t 
 
 GneruM Gma/jn^ 
 
 /.ahiv/m 
 
 /^untrum 
 
 Cioliirum Ci^At/im 
 
 T^uAmtiam 
 
 I A X 
 
 t 
 
 X / 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ V 
 
 A 
 
 2 H ^9 
 
 5 J 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i ^ 
 
 B 
 
 B B b 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 ", C 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 i 
 
 ~1 r c > ■ 1 ' r 
 
 1 
 
 r. 
 
 7 
 
 4 D 
 
 1 
 ^ i 
 
 <\ 
 
 9 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 x: 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 i: 
 
 r 
 
 I, 3 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 3 :' 
 
 r 1 E ^ e 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 6 o,- \ 
 
 7 I 
 
 ' 
 
 X 
 
 Z "^ 
 
 
 8 
 
 ^ i 
 
 ■~ -1 J - 
 
 
 .0 
 
 55 
 
 \ 
 
 f 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 1 
 
 / 
 
 8 K 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 b 
 
 D 
 
 A 
 
 K. 
 
 K 
 
 
 FL 
 
 ^ 
 
 9 I- 
 
 A 
 
 A^A 
 
 £■, X v* 
 
 J ; 
 
 AL-^: 1, r i A 
 
 X 
 
 ^w 
 
 10 "Nl 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 7 
 
 > M 
 
 -^X ! 
 
 ^M 1 M V H 
 
 u. 
 
 ^M 
 
 11 N 
 
 > 
 
 !? y 
 
 > 1 S 
 
 "X 
 
 > KT rr 1 r ~^ H t-T 
 
 y? 
 
 I'i 
 
 17 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 , <^ \ 
 
 C t ^ 1 WuVdi o 
 
 1 
 
 © 
 
 1 
 
 n r 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 1 "7 '' r n 
 
 1 'i 
 
 P- f^(F 
 
 f 
 
 (1 
 
 J^ 
 
 H R 
 
 ^ 
 
 q 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 1 A • P ^ 
 
 R R 
 
 A 
 
 f ' 
 
 2 
 
 15 S 
 
 VV 
 
 w 
 
 / 
 
 2 
 
 
 ^/ 
 
 ^ 'S . ^ 
 
 % 
 
 16 T /? 
 
 X V 
 
 ^ / 
 
 1 r ; -e T 
 
 T 
 
 >^ T r 
 
 ^_^ 
 
 Qj y 
 
 > 
 
 P 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 9 
 
 |a^^9l 'i 
 
 1 1 . 
 
 — 
 
 s • ' '. 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 ' 
 
 o 
 
 i ; C 
 
 ' ! i' 
 
 ( 
 
 ^ f 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ■ ' ' 
 
 -1 ?^ :: s 
 
 «ij ^j^??;-v5<h 
 
 Xrs, r- 
 
 <2;o;^w ^^tc-^L-uJo: 
 
 ■•^- '—
 
 4LPHABE TA ^1^-7' J q r/A 
 
 Plate XIJ 
 
 J^///u7/m 
 
 /?////gu/// 
 
 O/ra/? 
 
 .^fTf/f/yc/M f. 
 
 r'/////'./rrff7'r^. 
 
 
 ^nrm2£'fru/^oru//t 
 
 3 X 
 
 ^ ? 
 
 D 4 
 
 : ^ 
 
 ^ ^^ 9 y 
 
 >; 
 
 © o 
 9 
 
 2 7 > 
 
 9\in /I 
 
 a 
 
 CH>{ 
 c > 
 
 y 8 
 a a 
 
 A '\ i 
 
 ^ ] 
 
 C^ ( 
 
 o o ] 
 
 E^ ] 
 
 V \f I 
 
 G 
 
 H T 
 
 B 
 
 cf 4 T ^ y ^ t^ 
 
 ^ > f % K'A X) X 
 
 ajj, g ^ H^ 0^ iq u/ 
 
 t^y A^^ J33<5 
 •^^ TYC?o/vpp 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Gh 
 D 
 E 
 
 z 
 
 H 
 E 
 Th 
 
 I 
 
 K 
 I. 
 M 
 N 
 S 
 
 
 p 
 
 Is 
 Q 
 
 R 
 Sd 
 
 -»- 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Gh 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 V 
 
 z 
 
 H 
 
 Th 
 
 I 
 
 K 
 L 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 S 
 
 X 
 
 R 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ts 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 Sch 
 T 
 
 
 © © e o o 4-^ 
 
 Ti 1 1 ' \\\ m ^^ 
 
 xi J Si^o 
 
 xQ99dc 
 
 >' /^ -T^ I >- 
 
 : CC C 
 
 E €6 6 
 
 h O 
 
 [ m-T 
 
 . ,\\ ^ 
 
 J rr ^ 
 
 ) OO UJ 
 
 > rj rr 
 ^ ? 
 
 L rr 
 
 ' -f TT 
 
 ^ 3^ 
 
 V V 
 
 G O 
 O 
 
 \ V 
 
 XT 2 
 
 »< 1 
 
 / • I 
 C I 
 
 vz :^ 
 
 ^"^ I 
 
 O C 
 
 Z' P E 
 
 <; 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 T r 
 
 (] ^ a 
 
 2 
 
 T 
 
 

 
 A L P [ .1Cy 
 
 Mrliul)ct. alloljccls; tind llicrtforc, by ilieircoir.liinat'foiis, which 
 
 v/ ■ are more aiinurou.; than as many arl>iirary marks as 
 
 \vc could rciiiciiiber, may cxin-clsall ihcobjcits in na- 
 ture. This might I'lirnilh an argument of Cunic Urtii^^th 
 for the divine revelation of writing, were it not lliat 
 other arts fceraingly as nfctul, anci as diiKcult to be in- 
 vcirtcd, hvc been cxprefsly afcribcj to particular 
 pcrlons whom we cannot foi>po{c to have been divinely 
 inlpired. Thus metallurgy, mnlic, the keeping of 
 cattle, and ufe of tents, arc all afcribed to a finglc fa- 
 mily ; and though writing i)e not cxprcfsly mentioned 
 as an invcation in Scripture, there is no re.ifon to have 
 rrcourfe to a revelation for it as long as tlit human fa- 
 culties are known to have becnfudicicnt for the inven- 
 tion of it. Nevcrthclcfs, if \vc ii'ke a review of the 
 different arts which mankind hive invented, we fliall 
 find, that few of them rcfuUsd from any gradual pro- 
 grefs or cvoUitioii of the po-.vers of the iiuman mind, 
 but rather by fome fuddcn and alraofl unaccountable 
 turn of thought in an individual. Thus, the art of 
 printing, little inferior iu its utility to that of writing, 
 liy hid for a^cs, and was at iall invcHted we fcarce 
 know how ; fo that if one inclined to fuppofc this a 
 divine revelation, he could be .-'l little lofs for argu- 
 ments to fupport his hypothelis. This was v.hai all 
 the inventions and evolutions of human powers lince 
 the creation had never been able to acconiplilh ; yet 
 nobody believes that it required fupernatural abilities 
 to be the author of this art, bccaufe we fee plainly 
 that it might have occurred to the human mind from 
 various fourccs, and arc furpriled that it did notoccnr 
 long before. In like manner, the method of account- 
 ing for the cclclliil motions by the united forces of 
 pr..jedion and gravitation, was no refultofthe pro- 
 grcfs that mankind had made in fdence, but luckily 
 occurred to Mr Horrox, without any thing that we 
 know 10 dirciSt him, or perhaps from caufcs almoit un- 
 known to himftlf. Thus alio, the llcam-engiue, aero- 
 flalion, &c. were fuddenly invented only by a (light re- 
 view of principles well known before, and which had 
 been a thoufuud times overlooked by thofe who might 
 have invented botli. Alphabetic writing, therefore, 
 might have been no deduftion from hieroglyphic or 
 picture writing, from which it iscll'enti.iUy ditftrent; 
 and it feems to be fomc confirmation of this, that all 
 nations whoever pretended to the invcnSion of letters, 
 have afcri'.cd it to the labours of one particular pcr- 
 fo;i, without taking notice of the progrcfs made to- 
 j, wards it in preceding ages. 
 )f the c'.e- The learned author of Hermes informs us, ihiit to 
 ncntriry about 20 plain elementary founds, we owe that variety 
 uunils of of articulate voices which have been fafficicnt to ex- 
 angu'K^- plain the fenii\uents of fuch an innumerable multitude 
 as all the pafl and pre ft nt generations of men. Mr 
 <iheridan fays, that the number of fiuijde founds in our 
 tongue are 2'i ; while Dr Kcniick f.iys, that wc have 
 onl/ n diftinii fpccies of articulate iounds, which e- 
 ven by coiitraition, prolongation, and compolilion, arc 
 increafed only to the nun-.bcr of 16 ; every fyllible or 
 articulate found in our languagt bcinp, one of the num- 
 ber. Kifnop Wilkiiis aud i)r William Holder fpcak 
 of ^■^ didiuel founds. 
 
 /•ftcr the analylis or dcfon^poHtion oflangua.;e in- 
 to lite elementary founds, the ntxt towards the nota- 
 tion of it by a,.hibctical charaiicrs, would he the dt- 
 Voi.. 1. 
 
 7 ] ALP 
 
 lineaiionofa fcparate mark or letter to reprefenr each 
 found ; which marks, though lew in nu'iibcr, would 
 ;'.lmit of fuch a variety of arrangements an J combina- 
 ii:>ns, as might be capable of producing that iudiiity of 
 articulate founds wl.icii conipofc language, 'i he ini^c- 
 nious Wachler, in his Nature et Scnft„ra Co>icori/ia, 
 p. 64, endeavours to Ihow, that ten marks or charac- 
 ters arc fufficicnt for this purpufc His fcheinc is as 
 
 follows : 
 
 .A!i)!>j|i«t. 
 
 Genus 
 
 tikiura. 
 
 iii.-Jlus. t 
 
 Vocal. 
 
 
 
 a. e. i. (1. i:. j 
 
 Guttural. 
 
 9 
 
 k. c. ch. 1 
 q.g. h. ! 
 
 Lingual. 
 
 /I 
 
 '• ! 
 
 Lingual. 
 
 11 
 
 d.t. 1 
 
 Liiguil. 
 
 ~) 
 
 '■ ! 
 
 Dental. 
 
 n 
 
 f. 
 
 Labial. 
 
 3 
 
 b.q. 
 
 Labial. 
 
 (J\ 
 
 m. 
 
 I Labial. 
 
 \=^ 
 
 s. ph. v. w. j 
 
 Mafal. 
 
 A 
 
 1 .. 
 
 If this is the cafe, then the moll limplc alphabet, 
 which conlilled only of 13 letters, mult have been a- 
 bundintly lufiicieut to anfwer all the purpofcs of mau- 
 kind, and much ofour twenty-four letter alphabet may 
 appear fuperlluous. That able mathematician Tacquct 
 has calculated the various combinations of the 24 let- 
 ters, even without any repetition, to amount to no 
 fcxvrr than62o,448,40i,73:?,2;9,4J9r?6o,ccOiWhilc 
 C lavius makes them only 5,852,6 16, 733, 497, 664, oco. 
 Either of thcfc numbers, however, arc htfinitc to 
 the human conceptions, and much more than fufti- 
 cieni to cxprefs all the founds that ever were articula- 
 ted by man. As there arc more founds in fomc Ian- vumbcrof 
 guages than in others, it follows of courfc, that tiic ictrcrs in 
 nuuibcrof tknientary characlcrs, or letters, mufl vary d.ftcreiit 
 ia the alphabets of different languages. The Htbrcw, aiiihibcis. 
 Sara iriian, andSyriaealp'.iajcis, have 22 letters ; the 
 Arabic 28, the Perfian and Egyptian, or Coptic, 32 j 
 the prefent Ruiiian 41 ; the hhanfcrit 50; v.hile the 
 CaflimJrianand iMalabaricare dill more numerous. The 
 following is the fchcme of the Kngilh alphtbc: as gi- 
 ven by Nir Sheridan iu hisRhciorical Grammar, p. 9. 
 
 Number of iiuiplc founds in our tongue :3. 
 
 9 vimea. a a a t o o c j u 
 
 hail hat hate btcr note noofc bet fit but 
 
 w 
 Ihort 00 
 
 y 
 
 .fiiort cc 
 
 .^ r r . / fb ed cf eg ck tl cm en ep cr cs 
 ' ■■ ' i ct ev ez eth eth tlh ezh ing. 
 
 2 Srifirfi :io 1.1 y r, which has the power of t-i or e/s ; 
 II, \\\axofei Lcfore a. 
 
 I R 2 CctittounJ,
 
 ALP 
 
 Alphabet. 
 
 21 
 Impcrfec- 
 ticm in tlie 
 F.nglifh al- 
 phabet. 
 
 iT, 
 Of the 
 forms of 
 Icttcre. 
 
 2 Com/iound, j, which Hands for eiizh : 
 
 X, lor ks or gz. 
 I TJo Inter, A, merely a niarkof ^sfpiration. 
 
 498 ] ALP 
 
 Nine more may be made by adding a point to each, Alpl-.a 
 
 'II, 
 
 and Semivoiuils, 
 
 cp 
 cd 
 
 efs ev cz eth cth 
 
 ct, 
 et. 
 
 Alphery. 
 
 Coiifonants divided into Mtitts 
 
 6 Milt a, cb ed eg ek 
 3 Pure Mutei, ek 
 3 J/itpur;, eb 
 
 1 3 Semivoweh, 1 ef el em en er 
 or liquids, 3 cfti c/.h ing. 
 9 V'jial, cl em en cr cv cz eth czh ing. 
 4 Ajfirated, efflsethelh. 
 
 Divided again into. 
 
 4 Labial, cb ep cv ef. 
 
 8 Dental, ed ct eth cz efs eth czh cfii. 
 
 4 Palatine, eg ek el er. 
 
 3 NaJ'al, em en ing. 
 
 Mr Sheridan obferves, that our alphabet is ill calcu- 
 lated for the noiation of the Englilh tongue, as there 
 are many founds for which we have noletters or marks : 
 and there ought to be nine more charafters or letters 
 to make a complete alphabet, in which every fimple 
 found ought to have a mark peculiar to itfcif. The 
 leafon ot the deficiency is, that the Roman alphabet 
 was formerly adopted lor the notation of the Englilh 
 language, though by no means fuited to the purpofe. 
 
 It now remains only to take fome notice of the forms 
 of the ditfcrent letters ; fome knowledge of wliich is 
 abfohitely neccflbry, for afcertaining the age and au- 
 thenticity of infcriptions, manufcripts, charters, and 
 ancient records. Many authors are of opinion that 
 letters derive their forms from the pofitions of the or- 
 gans of fpcech in their pronunciation. Van Helmont 
 has taken great pains to prove, that the Chaldaic cha- 
 rafters are the genuine alphabet of Nature ; becaufe, 
 according to him, no letter can be rightly founded 
 without difpoliug the organs of fpeech into an uniform 
 pofition with tbc figure of each letter ; and in fupport 
 of tliisfyfltm, he has anatomifed the organs of arti- 
 iuhition. 
 
 Wr Nclniehascndcavouredto(how,thatallelemen- 
 tury charartcrsorlettrrs derive their forms from the 
 line anil the circle. His alphabet conlifls of 1 3 radical 
 .letter'!, four diminilhcd, and four augmented. — The 
 radicals arc D, O, S, A, B, C, D, N, U, I, E, M, 
 
 K. H, ac( oidin;r to him, is derived from A ; P from 
 
 B ; T from D ; .and K from U : ihcfc are all called di- 
 minilhed letters. The augmented ones are Z from S; 
 G from C ; \V from U : and Y from I. He proves 
 ihat his charafttrs are very fnnirar to thofe of the an- 
 < lent Etrufcans : but all charaili^ers are compofed either 
 of lines and circles of the former, and of pans of the 
 latter. — MrGcbelin deduces them from hieroglyphic 
 rcprefentations, and has given fcveral delineations of 
 human figures, trees, &c. in confirmation of this hypo- 
 thefis. 
 
 One of the mod fimple alphabets has been formed, 
 by making two perpendicular and two horizontal lines : 
 
 a|b|c 
 thus, dlTf frorf which may be de- 
 g|h;i 
 duced nine different characters or letters ; _thus 
 _a| |_b I |c T| IJi [L 11 1^1 I '■ 
 
 and as many more as '_' 1 ° | P may be fufficicnt 
 
 \\ 
 
 23 
 
 for the notation of any language, by adding two or more 
 points to each character. 1 hough thefe fquare cha- 
 rciters arc not calculated for difpatch ; yet they may 
 be made as expe itioully, or more lo, than the Tartar, 
 the Bramin, the Calliniirian,or many others. Writing 
 compofed of thefe characters, is at firft fight fomcwhat 
 like the Hebrew — Mr Dow, author of the Hiltory of NevTIan- 
 Indoltan, lately formed a new language and alphabet, guage in- 
 This language, and the charatlcrs formed for us nota- vented by 
 tion,werc fo eafy, that a female of his acquaintance ac- Mr Dow. 
 quired a knowledge of them in three weeks, and cor- 
 rcfponded with him therein during their intimacy. 
 
 ALPfl^-ENlX, white barley-fugar, to which is gi- 
 ven an extraordinary name, to render it more valuable. 
 This fugar, which is thought good tor colds, is made 
 of common fagar, which is boiled until it becomes eafy 
 to crack, when they pour it upon a marble tabic, grca- 
 fed with oil of fweet almonds, and mould it into va- 
 rious figures with a brafs crotchet. It is ealily falli- 
 fied with Itarch. 
 
 ALPHERY (Mikiphcr), born in Rudia, and of 
 the Imperial line. When that country was torn to 
 pieces by inteflinequarrels, in the latterend of the i6th 
 century, and the royal houfe particularly was fo fe- 
 verely perfecuicd by inipoltors, thisgcntleman and his 
 two brothers were lent over to England, and recom- 
 mended to the care of Mr Jofeph Bidell, a Rullla mer- 
 chant. Mr Bidell, when ihcy were of age fit for the 
 nniverlity, fent them all three to Oxford, where the 
 fmall-poxunhippily prevailing, twoof them died of it. 
 We know not whether this furviving brother took 
 degrees or not, but it is very probable he did, fmce he 
 entered into holy orders ; and in the year 1618, had 
 the rcitory of \V ooley in Huntingtonihire, a living of 
 no very confiderable value, being rated at under L.io 
 iu the king's books. Here he did his duty with great 
 checrfulncfs and alacrity i and although he was 
 twice invited back to his native county by fome who 
 would liavc ventured their utmofl to have fet him on 
 the throne of his anceflors, he chufc rather to re- 
 main with his flock, and to fcrve God in the humble 
 ftaiion of a parilh prielt. Yet in 1643, he underwent 
 the feverefl trials from the rage of the fanatics ; who, 
 not fatishcd with depriving him of his living, infultcd 
 him in the moll barbarous manner ; for having procu- 
 red a file of mufqueteers to pull him out of his pulpit, 
 as lie was preaching on a Sunday, they turned his wife 
 and fmall children into the ftreet, into which alfo they 
 threw his goods. The poor man in this diflrefsraifed 
 him a tent under fome trees in the church-yard, over 
 againfl his houfe, where he and his family lived for a 
 week. One day having gotten a few eggs, he picked 
 up fome rotten wood and dry flicks, and wi'h thefe 
 made a fire in the cuurch-porch in order to boil them ; 
 but fome of his advei farics, to Ihow how far they could 
 carry their rage agaiuft the church, for this poor man 
 v.'as foharmlefs^theycould have none againit him, came 
 and kicked about his fire, threw down his fkillet, and 
 broke his eggs. After this, having Aill a little money, 
 he made a fmall purchafe In ihat neighbourhood, built 
 
 him
 
 ALP 
 
 him al'.oufe, and lived there fomc years 
 couragcd to this by a I'rcdyicriaii niinifler who came 
 in his room, svlio lioocftl/ paid hiin the fifth part of 
 ' the annuitl income of tht Jiving, which was the allow- 
 ance made by parliament to ejcttcd ininiftcrs, treated 
 him with great humanity, and did Jiim all the fcrviccs 
 in his power. It is a great misfortune ihatthis grntle- 
 nian'snamcis not prcferved, his cond«tt<n this rcfped 
 being the more laudable, bec«tufe it was not a little lin- 
 gular. Afterwards, probably on the death or removal 
 of this getitlcniazi, Mr Alpheryicft Huntingdonlliire, 
 and came and rcfided at Hamuicrfuuth till the RcfJo- 
 raiion put him in polFellion of his living again. He 
 returned on this occalion to Huiuingionlhire, w here 
 he did not (tay long ; for being upwards of 80, and 
 withal very intirm, lie could not perform the duties 
 ot his function. Having, therefore, fettled a curate, he 
 ) ctircd to his eldeft fou'shonfe at Hammcrfmith, where 
 fliortly after he died, full of years and of honour. 
 
 ALPHEUS, ^Strabo) ; Alpheui, (Ptolemy); a 
 noted and large river of the Peleponncfus ; which, ri- 
 ling in, and after feveral windings running through, 
 Arcadia, and by Olympia in Elis, with a louth-wcll 
 courfc, pours into the Sinus Chelonitcs, aLout ten miles 
 to the fouth of Olympia. It has a common fpring with 
 the turotas, at the foot of mount Parthenius, near the 
 village Afea, (Strabo.) The Alpheus and Eurotas 
 mix and run together for 20 ftadia ; after which, they 
 enter a futjcerrancouspaiTagc atMantinea ; then again 
 emerge, the Eurotas in Laconica, and the Alpheusin the 
 lerritoryof Megalopolis, (Paufanias.) Thepoets fable 
 flrangc tilings of this river ; particularly, that, out of 
 love to the nymph Arcthufa, it runs under the fea to 
 Sicily, and burfls out at the fountain of that name in 
 Syracufe, (Virgil). Its waters are reckoned good in 
 the leprofy, which is called Ax^^n by the Greeks; and 
 
 hence the name Jliheus Paufanias adds, that the 
 
 Eleans had a law, which condemned any woman to 
 death that ihould either appear at the Olympic games, 
 or even crofs this river during that folcmnity : and the 
 Eleans add, that the only woman who tranlgrelfed it, 
 liaddifguifed herftlf in the habit of a matter or keeper 
 of thefe games, and conduftcd her fon thither; but 
 ■when Ihefaw him come off viflorious, her joy made 
 her forget her difgiiife, fo that her fcx was dilcovered. 
 She was pardoned, bin from that time a law was made 
 that the keepers fliould appear there naked. 
 
 ALPHONSIN, in furgery, an inftrument for ex- 
 trafiing IniUets out of jun-fhot wounds. This iiiftru- 
 meni derives its name from the inventor A Iphonl'iisKcr- 
 rier, aphyfician of Naples. Iteoitiiftsof three branch- 
 es, which are clofed by a ring. When clofcd and in- 
 troduced into the wound, the operator drawsback the 
 ring towards the handle, upon which the branches o- 
 pcningtake hold of the ball ; and then the ring is pulh- 
 *d from ilic haft, by which means the branches grafp 
 the ball fo tirmly, as to extraft it from the wound. 
 
 ALPrONSLSX. king of Leon and Callilc, fur- 
 named the A\' ifc, was author of the aftronouiical tables 
 caWcA yllphonfine. Reading of Quintus Ciiriius gave 
 him fiich dclight,that it recovered himout of a danger- 
 ous illncfs. He read the Bible fourteen times, wiih fe- 
 veral comments on it. He is faid to have found fault 
 with the llrudurcof the mundane fyftem, and has been 
 
 [ 499 ] ALP 
 
 He was en- charged w ith impiety on that ftrore ; bet unjaflly, f >r 
 he only found fault with the involved fyltcm 01 forac 
 adronomers. He was dethroned by his fon Suicho; 
 and died of grief, A. D. 1284. 
 
 ALPINI (Profpcro), a famous pliyfician and bo- 
 tanilt, born in the Venetian territory, ijn. He 
 travelled in Egypt to acquire a knowledge of exotic 
 plants, and was the (ir(l who exphincd tlic fruclilica- 
 tion and generation of plants by the fcxujl fyltfm. 
 Upon his return to Venice, in i jS6, Andrea ivoria, 
 prince of .Melli, appointed him his phylician: and he 
 diftinguilhed hiinfelf fo much in this capacity, that h^- 
 was eltecmcd the tirll phylician of his age. The re- 
 public of Venice began to be uncaf/, that a fubject ot 
 theirs, of fo great merit as Alpioi, iho'ilJ continue at 
 Genoa, when he might be of fo much ferv !ce and ho- 
 nour to their Hate : they therefore recalled him in 
 159?, to fill tlic profellorihip of botsny at Padua, 
 and he had a falary of 200 tiorins, which was after- 
 wards raifed to 750. He difcharged this olfice with 
 great reputation ; but his health became very precari- 
 ous having been much broke by the voyages he had 
 made. According to the regiftcr of ihc uuivcr/ity of 
 Padua, he died the 5th of February 1617, in the b^th 
 year of his age ; and was buried the day aft«r, without 
 
 any funeral pomp, in the church of St Anthony Al- 
 
 piiii wrote the following works in Latin : i. Of the 
 phyficofthe Egyptians, in four books. Printed at Ve- 
 nice, iJ9i,in4to. 2. A treatife conceraingthe I'lants 
 of Egypt. Printed at Venice, IJ92, in 410. 3. A 
 dialogue concerning balfams. Printed at Venice, IJ92, 
 in 4to. 4. Seven books concerning the method of lorm- 
 ing ajudgment of the life or death of patients. Piiat- 
 cd at Venice, 1691, in 410. j. Thirteen Books con- 
 cerning methodical Pliylic. Padua, 161 1, folio ; Ley- 
 den, 1 719, in 4to. 6. A Difputation held in the fchool 
 at Padua, concerning the Raphontieum. Padua, 1612, 
 and 1629, 4to. 7. Of exotic plants, in two books. Ve- 
 
 Alpiilf, 
 Alpinia. 
 
 nice, 1699, in 410. He left feveral other works, w hich 
 have never been printed ; particularly,8.Thc fifth bcok 
 concerning the phyficofthe Egypiians. 9. Fivebook^ 
 concerning the natural biflory of things obierved in E- 
 gypt, adorned with a variety of draughts of plants, 
 Roues, and animals. 
 
 ALPINIA, in botany: A genus of the monogy- 
 nia order, belonging to the inouaudria clafs of plants ; 
 and in the natural method ranking under the Sth or- 
 der, ^c.7<jTO;«e<r. The charaetcrs are : The f<7/».v is a 
 periinthiuni above, fuiall, and trilid : The lorolla is 
 uiouoprtalous, unequal, and as if doubled : They/<.;;ii- 
 iia coniiftof one filament, with linear anth^raejoining 
 to the margin : The />///.'/««. has a roundilbgcrn-cn, 
 beneath ; thcflylus fimj Ic, andihefiiginaobiufcly tri- 
 gonous : The ferica< piiiv: is a tlclliy ovate trilociilar 
 capfule, with three valves : The /I !./■ are ovate, an.l 
 very numerous ; the rccept.iculuu) is pulpy and vcrv 
 large. Ofthisgrnus there is but one fpecics which 
 is a native of the Weft Indies, where itgrows natur.Tlly 
 in moft places. The leaves decay every w inter, and 
 are puflted out from the roots in the fj'ri^'g, likr the 
 ginger and maranta ; fo m';ft be managed in the f;i!iic 
 m inner as dirccled for thefe two plants, and may be 
 propagated by parting the roots when the leaves de- 
 cay. 
 
 3R2 ALPiSTE,
 
 Alpiftc, 
 
 Alps. 
 
 A L P [ 
 
 .Lri'.ir., or -Alima, a fort <i Iced iiliil to l'< 
 
 id 
 
 birds vviiii, cl'pccihlly wlicii they arc to be iionrillud 
 
 ' for brceoiiig. TJit .ili^iltc fctrdisof all oval tigiire, of 
 
 a palt: yellow, ir.iliniiii; to an ilabtl colour, briulit and 
 
 ^gloify. Jt is an article of the coni-cliandkrsaiid fccdf- 
 
 iiieiis tric'.e. 
 
 ALFii (anc. gcog.),:i range ofliigli nicuiituiriS, fc- 
 p.'.rjtiug Italy lioii\ ».>aul aiul Oi rmaiiy, in ilic ionn of 
 a crcfcciit. J hey ukc their nit Ivom the Vada Sab.i- 
 tia, or SavoHa -, ami rcnch to the biaus r'lanaticus (now 
 Golfu di Carnaroof the Adriatic), and the firings of 
 the river Colapis (now the Kulpe); exttnoing, accord- 
 ing to Livy, 21.0O ihidii in lengih.or 250 milts: they 
 are divided ijito federal ('arts, and accorningly have 
 liiiTcrent names. FroinSavoiiato thcfpriugsot tiie Va- 
 rus, where the Alps lie aj;ai:ift the fca of o^noa, they 
 arc called Alai itii/.a , now le JMoniii^iii: di '/ tv/r/rt.rbclc 
 cxtesul from I'ouihto north, between Gaul to the well, 
 and Genoa to the eall, beginuinj; at Monacooii the Me- 
 diterranc.?«i ; then running out tluo" theeaflof the 
 county cf Nice, and between thst and the inarquifaie 
 ofSaluzzo, terminate atltngth at mount Vila, bilwceii 
 Dauj-'iine and Piedmont. He.icc toSufarun the v^//>*/ 
 Ccttiic (Sue<oi) ) ; Ci'.tar,^ (Ta-.itus) ; mountains ex- 
 tremely hig;i,l;paraungDau(ihiiie from rieumont,ajui 
 extending from inoiiiu Vifo to Mount Cciiis, between 
 the /llfcs M<f-t:n:.t to the fouth, and the Gra'tx to 
 the north. The /ii['Ci Citii.r (Pliny), fu called from 
 tacpa(rageofHerculcs,btgin from mount Cenis, where 
 the Coit!ie terminate ; and runout between Savi;y ar.d 
 thcTarcniefctoihewell, and Piedmont and the Dr.che 
 d'Aoiirtc to the eaft, quite to the Great St Bernard, 
 where the ^-Jlpes Penui/nt begin. Tlicy arc alio called 
 by fome Crai.e Aifci, and Grains Mons ( I acitus) ; 
 which extend frc^n weft to eaft, between St Bernard 
 and the Aduh, or St Godart ; and tlius they run cut 
 between the Valefc to the north, and the Milanefe to 
 the fouth. With thefe are conliaucd the A^pes Klae- 
 tic.e, to the head of the river Piave ; part of which 
 arc the ^ipfs Triikntiiur, to the north of Trent. To 
 thefe join ihe Alpti .^oric^, reaching to Uoblaeh in 
 Tyrol, to the nurth of the river Tajamcnto: ihcncc 
 begin the W/p^j Cartuca, or of Ciirmr.iit, extending to 
 thefpriiiii^ofthc Savt;: and tlie la:^, called, /Jipcs t an- 
 r:5;;/f<r,r.lid jv/;.r, extend to the firings of the Kulie. 
 Some, however, extend ihcAlps to the north of Dal- 
 matii ; others, again, to Tlirace and the Euxine. fjut 
 their termination at the Kulpc, as above, i? more ge- 
 nerally received. They were formerly called yiV^;>j, and 
 yjlpiiniu (Sirabo). Through ihcfc mountains Hannibal 
 forced his palfagc into Italy, by pouring vinegir on 
 the rock, heated by burning liri^e piles of wood on 
 them, by which means they bceo.nie crumbled (Livy). 
 They arc covered with perpetual fnow. 
 
 The Alps arc the higheft mountains in Europe ; 
 being, according to fome geometririnns, about two 
 miles in perpcndi'-ular hcig.'t. They begin at the Me- 
 diterranean i and ftretching northward, feparatePied- 
 nont ;ind Savoy from the adjacent couiurits; whence 
 dirciliiig tlieir courfc to :he eaft, they form the boun- 
 dary between Switzerland and Italy, and terminate 
 near the extremity of the Adriaic Sea, r.orth-eafl of 
 Venice. It was over the weftcrn part of tbofe moun- 
 tains, tov^ards Piedmont, that Hannibal forced his 
 palfagc into Ita'y. 
 
 o ] A L P 
 
 The jirofpeel from many parts of tl.is nicnncns 
 range of mount. ins is exireniely romanti:, cfpecially ' 
 towards ihc uortii-well. One ol the moll eclcbraicd 
 is thcGrande Charirtui'c, wLtre is a inotu.;ery found- 
 ed by St Bruno abmit the year io':'4. I'rai;! Lchellc."!, 
 a little \illjge iii the mo'jmaiii.s of Savoy, to the top 
 of the Charirtufc, the diitaiicc h lix miles. Along this 
 courfe the road runs winding up, lor the niuit pait 
 not fix feci bro^d. On one hand is the rock, with 
 woods of pine trees hanging over hcid ; on the other 
 a prodigious precipice alniod pcrpcnditular ; at thi 
 bottom of which rolls a torrent, tk.ir, funictimcs iiim- 
 biing among the fragments i^f (tone which hive talieu 
 from on high, and Ijiiittinies precipitating iifelf down 
 vail defccnts with a noifc like thunder, rendered yet 
 more tremendous by the echo from the r.:ountains on 
 each fide, concurs 10 form one of the moll fuiemn, ihc 
 moll romantic, and molt allonifiiiiig fccnesin nature. 
 To thii dcfcription may be added ihc llrange view* 
 made by the craggs and cliffs, and the numerous caf- 
 cades which throw themfelvcs from the very fuw^mit 
 down into the vale. On the tup of the moutain is 
 the convent of St Bruno, which is the fiperior of the 
 whole order. The inhabitants confiliof too fathers, 
 with 300 fervants, who grind thiir corn, prefs their 
 wine, and perform every domellic oirice, even to tlic 
 making of their cloilies. In the AUuim of the fathers 
 is admired an alcaic ode, wriuen by the late ingeniou's 
 Mr Gray when he vilitcd the Ch ntrcufe, and wh.icli 
 has lince been publilhed among his works. 
 
 The glaciers of Savoy arcalfojufllyreckonedamong 
 the nioft flupendous works of naiurc. Thefe are ini- 
 menfe maliesot ice, lodged upon the geniler declivities 
 amidll the Alps, and exhibiting reprtfciuatioiis be- 
 yond coiKcption fantaltic and piiturefqnc. In the 
 extraordinary narrative ofMrBourrit's journey hither, 
 V. e meet w iih the follow ing account of the Prieure, in 
 the valliy of Cliamouni. V\ e had, fays he, the mag- 
 niriccnt prolpedl of a cliain of muumains, equally in- 
 acccllible, and covered with ice ; and above the reft 
 that of Mount Blanc, whofe top fecir.cd to reach, and 
 even pierce, the highell region df the clouds. The 
 chnin upon v/hich this mountain looks down like a 
 giant, is compofed of n-.aii'esof rocks, which tern:inatc 
 in pikes or l"i)ires, called the At-cZ-t-j, and which are 
 ranged like ttnisin a camp. Their fidesappear lighter 
 and more airy, from the ornament of feveral hollow 
 breaks and furrow s fretted in the rock itftlf, as well 
 as from tlie different llreaks and ))anesiif ice and fnow, 
 which, withoutehanging (he general tharaCler of their 
 form, or the majefty of their appearance, give them a 
 piciurefque variety. Lower down, the eye furveys 
 witli ravilhment the hills of ice, and the feveral gla- 
 ciers, extending almofl into the plain, whiill this ap- 
 pear? like an artificial garden, en'.bellillied with the 
 mixture of a variety of colours. Wc IiavcapiOturtfque 
 oppolition to this chain, which is formed by innumer- 
 able mountains at the dillance of near 50 leauucs, be- 
 tween whofe tops we have a glimplc of thofe feveral 
 plains which ihey environ. 
 
 M. de Sauliure, who h.id vifiied thofe mountain."; 
 about two months before M. Kourrit, felt hiir.fclf na- 
 turally clei-iriiied in this place. This extraordinary 
 phenomenon fccms not to have been experienced by 
 the latter or hisconipany ; but they heard a loii'g-eon- 
 
 nued
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 501 J 
 
 A L P 
 
 Alp*, tinucd riimbling^noife, like tli^t of thunder, which 
 
 — >.( 'was rendcrffl ir.orc iwful by the filence oftiie place 
 
 ^vlicrc tiicy ftocJ. '1 his iioilt procecdcj froni iht f'J)- 
 fequcnt csufcs, viz. thcaval.inchtsof fiiow, v^hich le- 
 paratcd from the tops of the n\our.tai.i, and rolled 
 down to the bottom ; confidcrAble frao;mcnis of tlic 
 rocks which followed thcm.ovcnurnin<; others in tScir 
 fall ; ami mally blocks of ice, which precipitsicd ironi 
 -the fdiiinii s. * 
 
 The Villey of Montanv<rt appears to be peculiarly 
 romantic. Here, fays M. Bourrit, webchclJ aipici- 
 ous icy plain entirely level'. Upon this there role a 
 moiiui ill all of ice, with fteps afcentii.ig to the top, 
 wiiicli fecincd the ihroncof foinc diviiii:y. Itlikcwii'c 
 ■took the lorm of a j);ra;id cafcade, whofc tinire was be- 
 yond coiicepiioQ bcaiuiful ; and the fun, which (lioiie 
 upon it, {);svca fpjrkling brilliance to the svholc. Tlie 
 viUcy on our right hand was ornamented with proui- 
 gioiis glaciers, that, Ihaoiinu up to an immeafurable 
 height between the mountains, blend their colours 
 with the Ikics, whichihey appear to reach. 
 
 Alps, befidcs its proper (io;nilicaiion, by which it 
 denotes a certain chain of mountains which feparatc 
 It.ly froiu Krance and Germany, is frequently ufed as 
 an appcll.uive to denote any moimtaiiis of cxtr^orc'i- 
 nary height or extenfive range. In thii feufc, Aufo- 
 niiis and others call tlic Pyrenean mbuntains, Aipt ; 
 and Gcllius the Spanilh Alps, Aipmi Il'fiaii'.. 
 
 Kcnrc alfo wc fay, the Biitijh Aips, the jifaitc 
 jlips, the j^ips of America. 
 
 The ici^yZ' ////*/ terminate in a moil fiiLHre and 
 abrupt manner, at the great promint.iry the /'.ItaRipa 
 of Ptolemy, the Ci/i/or .7frd,i.e. ihc hc.-gh.ofCuitfuie/i. 
 Theupptrpart iscoverci,'. withgloomy licath;thelow- 
 erisa liiipendous pre ipice. excavated into vaftcavcrns 
 the haunt of feal.'iudditfercntfca fowl. Onthccaftern 
 fide of the kingdom, this lithe itrikii'g termination of 
 the vail motiniai. s of i>co land which ironi its High- 
 lands, the habitation of the ori;jinal inhabitans, driven 
 from their aiitieni fetts ov the anreilors of Lowland 
 Scots, dcfcendants of baxons, French, and Norman* ; 
 congenerous with the tngUfli, yet abfuriily and ir.\i- 
 dioiidy dillinguiDicd from them. Lan^ua^e, as well 
 as flriking natural boundaries, mark their place. Their 
 mountains ficeon tiie weilthe Ailan^c ocean ; winda- 
 Icngthe weft of Caithnefs, amougwhivli Mcrvcrnaiul 
 Sc?.raben,Ben-Kop a:id Ben-l.ng:il,arife pre-eminent. 
 Sutherland is entirely Alpine, as arc Rofslhire and In- 
 vcrnefslhire. Their 6.'//,',/«.< Aipes are,McalFoiirvou- 
 nich, the Coryarich,Benewilh,and Bcncvidi iiearFort- 
 Wdliamjthe laftof which is reported to be 14,-0 yards 
 in height. Gre.it part of Abcrdeenfiiire lies in this 
 traiil. It boafts of another Morvern, foaring far be- 
 yond the others. This is the centre of the Grampian 
 iiills, and perhaps the higheft from the fea of any in 
 Great Britain. They a^sin comprehend the eallern 
 part ofPcrLhlhir6,and linilhonthe magniiicient ihnres 
 of Lochlomond, on the eaO.crn- lide of which Fcn- 
 lomonj rifes, diding'iiihed among its fellows. From 
 hence the relief north Brit^iin forms a chain of hum- 
 bler hills ; but in Ciunbcrl.'.nd, part of Wcftmorchnd, 
 Yorklhire, Lancailiire, and Uerbydiirc, the .^Ips rc- 
 fnme their former majcfty. .\longand tame interval 
 fucceeds. The longfuHime crack of Wales arifcs. the 
 ancient poflelfionof the ancic.-jr BritiCiracc. From the 
 
 Ord, the gnat mountains recede inland, and Icivc a A:ii. 
 
 vaft fiat baween their bafes and the fea, f roiiiing the ^- 
 
 ,w^vc5 with a fcries of lolly rocky precipices, as tar as 
 jhc little creek cf Staxigo ; the whole a bold, but 
 mofl inbofi-iiabic fliorc for Ciippi:'g. Wick and Max- 
 igo h.ivc i.)dccd their creths, or rather chafms, w bieh 
 open between the cllrfs, and may accidentally prove 
 a reticat, uiiiefsi;; an c;-.jlcrn gilc. 
 
 Tb e /Ijiatie y-ZZ/j arc delcribc under the articles Al- 
 TAIQ ij/ij/nand Wkktvrias hlour.tuins. 
 
 The Amtruan Aipt arc, The An des or CordHUras, 
 in South nuicrica; a.iJthc Ap.aiaciuas or .^//ir^a/y 
 juountains, ia North America. 
 
 The highfrll gi..ui:dia North Amcri-ais placed!/ 
 Captain Carver in lat. 57^ v,c/t loug. from Lond 9*^'^ 
 bctwce.ia like from which the Oregon flows, and a- 
 nother called IVJuH-lnur Lakcy from which jrifes the 
 Aijiiiiippi. 
 
 This exal:ed Ctuation is pa .tof ihe .Slvining Moun- 
 tains, which arc branchesof the vail ch.»i;i which per- 
 vades the v.liolc coi;linent ot America. It may bi; 
 fairly taken from :ht foiithernexircmity,whereSt.iten 
 Laud and Terra del Fuego rife out of the fea as infu- 
 lated liiiks to ar. i:i.i::cnfc hciglit, black, rocky, and 
 marked withrug'^ed Ipiry toj's, freq leiitly covcreJ 
 with fnow. New Geor^;!.! m.iy be adJed as another 
 horriblycongen;al,ri!iiig detached farther to theeai>. - 
 The !nount.iir.s about tlie Tiraits of Magrllaii fear to 
 an amazing height, and indr.itely fjpericr to taofc of 
 the northern hemifphcre under the fame degree of K- 
 titudc. From the north lidc of the Str.:its of Mr.- 
 gtllan, they form acontinued chain through ihelut!^- 
 doms of Chili and Peru, prefervinga courfe net re- 
 mote from tlie Pacific Orean. The fumn^'ts, in n;any 
 places, are the highcil Li the world. There are not 
 lefs than 12, which are from j-jootoifcs high toabove 
 3000. Pichincha, wich impends over (Xiito, is about 
 35leagues from the fea; and itsfummitii 24:o:oircs 
 above the furface of the water. Cayambe, immedi- 
 ately under the eq Jator, is above 3C00 ; and Cbimbo- 
 Tizo higher than the lall by 200. Mo/l of them have 
 been vokaiiic, andin diflcrcntages marked with erup- 
 tions farmorc horiible than have been known inothc- 
 quarters of thcg!obc. They cx'end from the equator 
 through Chiii; in which kingdom is a range of volca- 
 noes, from lat. 26. fouth, to 4J. :o. and poinbly from 
 thcneeintoTerra del Fuegoiifelf: which, formingthc 
 Straits of Magellan, may have been rent from :he con- 
 tinent by fonie great convullio:i, occafioned by their 
 hbourings; and .New Georgia forced up from the fame 
 caufe. An unparalleled extent of pi lin appears on 
 their eallern lidc. The river of Amazons runs along 
 a level clojihcd with forells, after it burfts from its 
 conrincment at the Pongo of Borjas, till it reaches its 
 fca-!ikc difcharge into the Atl»ntic Ocean. 
 
 Inthenortnern hemifphere, the Andes pafs through 
 the narrow lllhnuis of Darien into the kingdom of 
 Mexico, aud prcfcrve a msjerti'.- height and their vol- 
 canic diffoiiiioa. The nioimtain Popocatcpec mcdc 
 a violent eruption during the expcdiiionof Coricz, 
 whichismoftbeautifuilydcfcribedby his hillorian An- 
 tonio de Soils. This, polFibiy, is the fame with the 
 volcano obfcrved by the ."^bbe d'Au:erochc, in his way 
 from Vera Cruz to Mexico ; which, fron» the nakcd- 
 nefs of the lav-ts, he coajeftjreJio have been b ut late- 
 ly
 
 ALP 
 
 [ 502 ] 
 
 ALP 
 
 Alps, ly extinguilhcd. From the kin|^joni of Mexico, ihis 
 Alpuxarras chain is continued northward, niid to ihc cafl; of Cali- 
 '' V— foriiia ; then verges i\> gieutly towards the weft, as to 
 lrs\ c a very inconlidcrablt (pace between it and the 
 Pacific O can , and frequently dctaclied branches jut 
 into the fea, and form promontories ; which, with 
 parti of I he chain itfclf, were often fecu by our navi- 
 gators in tlic courfe of their voyage. Some branches, 
 as we have before obfcrvej, extend towards the eaft, 
 but not to any great dillanee. A plain, rich in woods 
 and favannas,! warming with blloasorbutialoes, ftags, 
 flttd Virgiivian deer, with bears, and great variety of 
 game occupies an amazing trad, from the great lakes 
 of Canada, as low as the Oulph of Mexico ; and caft- 
 ward to the other great chain of mountains, the Apa- 
 la-hiau, which are the Alps of that tide of northern 
 America. Its comnienccincnt is fuppofed to be about 
 Lake Champlain and Lake Gtorge, with branches 
 pointing obliquely to the river Sc Laurance calhvard, 
 and riling en its oppolitc coafts ; others extending 
 with lowering progrcfs, even into Nova Scotia. The 
 main chain palfcs through iheilatc of New York, 
 where itisdidinguiflied by the name of the Highhiidt, 
 4nd lies within 40 miles of the Atlauiic. From 
 ihcnce it recedes from the fea, in proportion as it 
 .advances, fouthward ; and near itscxtreniiiy in fouth 
 Carolina is 300 miles dilhntfrom the water. It con- 
 iills of fcveral parallel ridges, divided by mofb in- 
 chanting vallies and generally cloathcd with a vari- 
 ety of woods. Thefe ridges rile gradually from the 
 call, one above the other, to the central , from uhich 
 they gradually fall to the well, into the vail plains 
 of the Aliihffippi. The middle ridge is of an enor- 
 mous bulk and height. The whole extends in breadth 
 about 70 miles ; a'-d in many places leaves great 
 chafms for the difcharges of the vailand numerous 
 rivers which rife in the bofmns of the mountains, 
 and empty themfelves into the AtlantieOcean, af- 
 ter yielding a matchltl's navigaiion to the provinces 
 they water. 
 
 JJeyond the branch of the Apalachian mountains 
 called Thi Endhfi, is another of amazing extent, 
 nearly as high as the mountains themfelves. This 
 plain (called the Upper Jiaiui) is exceedingly rich 
 land ; begins at the Mohock's River ; reaches to 
 ■wi;hin a fmall uillauce of Lake Ontario ; and to 
 the weftward forms part of the cxienlive plaip.s of 
 the Ohio, a id reaches tn an unknown diftance be- 
 yond the Miallippi. Vail rivers take their rife, and 
 fall toevery puintof the compafs ; into Lake Ont;irio, 
 into Hudfon's River, and into the Delaware and Suf- 
 quehanna. The tideof the Hudfon's River flows thro' 
 its deep-worn bed f,\r up, even to within a fmall di- 
 ftance of the hc.'d of the Delaware; which, after a fu- 
 ijous courfe down a long de fccnt, intcrrui>tfd with ra- 
 pids, tr-.eeis the tide not very remote froniiisdil'charge 
 into the o'jcan. 
 
 ALPUXARRAS, or Ai.paxares, mountains of 
 Spain, in ihe Province of Granada, on the Coaftof the 
 Mediterranean fea. They arc about 17 leagues in 
 kn;jth, and 11 in breadth, reaching from the city of 
 Veiez toAlmeria. They are inhabited by Moors, who 
 are the remains of the difperiion and ruin of their em- 
 pire. I hey embraced the Chriftiau religion ; biitper- 
 icrve their^own manner ofliving, and their language. 
 
 though much corrupted. Here is a rivulet between 
 PitrosandPortugos, which dyes linen tiiat is dipped in 
 it.blackin aninllant. Near this rivulet is a cavern, from 
 which proceeds fo malignant a fleam, that it deflroys 
 fuch animals as come near it. The Morifeos culti- 
 vate the foil extremely well, and plant fruit-trees, fomc 
 of which grow to a prodigious licight and thicknefs, 
 and give the mouniains a very agreeable afpett. 
 
 ALQUIER, a liquid mcafurc, nfcd Ln Portugal 10 
 mcafurc oil, two of which make aa aliuoiij. Hce 
 Almond. 
 
 ALQjUlKOU, or Ar(j_uifoi', is a fort of lead ore, 
 which, when broken, looks like antimony, it is ufed 
 by the potters to give a green varnilh to their works, 
 and thence is called potter's ore. It is met with in 
 Cornwall,&c. Thcpottersmix a fmall portion of nian- 
 ganefe with the alquifou, and then the varnilh of gla- 
 zing on their ware is of a blackilh hue. 
 
 ALREDUS, Alurf.d, or Alurepus, of Bever- 
 ley, one of the moftancicnt andbeft i-ngliflibiftorians. 
 He wrote in the reign of Henry I. 1 here are no eir- 
 cumflances of hi:) life known with any degree of cer- 
 tainty. It is generally believed that he was educated 
 at Cambridge, and that he aftrrwards became one of 
 the canons and treafurerof St John's at IJevcrley. And 
 we learn in a noteof billiop Tanner's, that, lor the fake 
 of improvemen.he travelled through Prance and Italy; 
 and that at Rome he became domel'tic chaplain to car- 
 dinal Othoboni. He died in the year 1 1 2S or 1 1 29 ; 
 leaving behind him the following works : i. T/>e ^«- 
 7:als of y^iured ijf Biverley. Oxford, 1726. Publilhed 
 by Mr Hearne, from a manufcript belonigng to Tho- 
 mas Rawlinfon, Elq. It contains an abridgment of the 
 hiftory from Brutus to Henry I. written in good La- 
 tin ; and with great accuracy. 2. Libertata ecclejix 
 St Johaiinis de Beverlac, &c. a manufcript in the Cot- 
 ton library. It is a eoUeftion of records relative to 
 the church at Beverley, tranflated by our author from 
 the Saxon language. The BiographiaBritannica evi- 
 dently proves thefe to be all that were written by Aire* 
 dus. 
 
 ALRESFORD,atownof Hampfliire, featedon the 
 road from London to Southampton, clofe by the river 
 Itching, which feeds a great pond to the left of the 
 town. Part of a Roman highway runs from thence to 
 Alton. It is areftory, with the mciiety of Old Aires- 
 ford, of L./19: 12: 8 in the king's books. It conlifls of 
 about 200 houfes; has one church, two principal llrects, 
 which are large and broad; and a fmall manufadure 
 of linfcys. 
 
 ALSA,ariverof Carniola(Pliny),nowthey//(/</; run. 
 ningby Aquileia with a fliort courfe from north to fouth, 
 into the Adriatic ; where Conflantine, the fon of Con- 
 flantine the Great, fighting againft ConftansbisbrQ- 
 ihcr, loil his life. 
 
 ALSACE, a province of France, bounded on the eaft 
 by the Rhine, on ihe fouth by Swiflerland, onthcweft 
 by Lorrain, and on the north by the palatinate of the 
 Rhine. It was formerly a part of Germany, but was 
 given to France by the treaty of Munder. It is one of 
 the mofi: fruitful and plentiful provinces of Europe, 
 abounding in corn, wine, wood, tiax, tobacco, pnlfe, 
 fruits, &c. The mountains which divide it from Lor- 
 rain arc very bigb.andgenerally covered with tirbeech, 
 oak, and horn beam. Tbofeon the lide of Swifferland 
 
 are
 
 A L S 
 
 [ 503 J 
 
 A L S 
 
 are lefs MgL ; and funiiflicd with all forts of wood, as 
 wcllfor fuel as building. The country iifclf is di vcrliticd 
 with rifmg hills and fertile v^lcs, bclidcs Urge forells ; 
 but that between the rivers 111, Han, and the Rhine, as 
 farasStrafburgh.is inferiorto the rcll,oii account of the 
 frequent over/lowing of the Rhine. In High Alfacc 
 there are mines of 111 ver, copper, and lead. 'Ihcy how- 
 ever vvork none but thole of (jiroinaiiy, from which are 
 annually drawn i6oonurksof filver, each niarkbcing 
 eight ounces; and 24,ooopouuds of copper: but the ex- 
 pence of working them is alinoA equal to the profit. 
 There are iron-works in fcveral parrs of Alfacc, and 
 particularly at Bctford. There is a mineral fpringai 
 Sultlbach, near Muiiltcr, in High Alface ; which is in 
 great reputation for the palfy,weaknefs of the ..erves, 
 and the gravel. — 1 he original iwhabitantsot Alfacc arc 
 lionelt and good- uatureoi but wedded tu their own man- 
 ners and cuuonis. The Jruitlulnefs of their country 
 renders them indolent and inactive ; forthebwifsmakc 
 their hay and reap their corn, as well as manage the 
 vintage of High AUace, which fends a great deal of 
 money out of the province. The common language is 
 the German : however, the better foi t of people fpeak 
 French in the towns ; and even in the country, they 
 fpeak French well enough to be uudcrllood. 
 
 ALSEN, an iiland of Denmark in the leiTcr Belt, 
 or entrance into the bilticfia, be.ueen Slefwick and 
 Funen. It is remarkable for nothing except two caftles, 
 and producing large crops of aniiceds, a carminative 
 much ufed in feafoning the foo.i and mixing with the 
 bread all over the Danilh Dominions. E. Long. 10. 12. 
 N. Lat. 55. 12. 
 
 ALSb'IKLD, a town of Germany, in the landgra- 
 viatc of Helfe Caftle, ten miles north-weft ofMarpurg, 
 and 35 fouth of Hellc Caftle. it is an ancient town, 
 and well built ; and tlic inhabitants were the firft of 
 this country who embraced the Reformation. E. Long. 
 9. 5. N. Lat. 50. 40. 
 
 ALSHASH, a very beautiful city in Bucharia, 
 fuppofed to be the fame with that which is now called 
 Tajhcaiit, the capital of the eaftcrn part of Turkeltan, 
 poUcfTed by the KalTals. It is lituatcd on the river i/- 
 huii, now Sir, and had a well watered garden for every 
 houfc ; but was ruined by Jcnghiz Khan, who took 
 ihe city, and caufed a great number of its inhabitants 
 to be matfacred. 
 
 ALSHEDA, a pari(h of Swede;;, in the province 
 of Smaland, where a gold mine was difcovcrtd in 
 
 173>- 
 
 ALSINA, in botany, a fynoniiwe of the theligo- 
 num. Sec Theligosmjm. 
 
 ALSINASTRUM, in botany, the trivial name and 
 •ilfo a fyiionimc of the elatiye. Sec Elatine. 
 
 ALSINE, or Ch ickwked: A genus of the trigynia 
 order, belonging toihe pentandria cl.u's of plants ; and, 
 in the natural method, ranking under the 22d order, 
 Gaiyoph)lid. The characUrs arc : The calyx is quin- 
 quephyllous : The corolia conlifts of live equal petals, 
 longer than the calyx : The pamina confift of five ca- 
 pillary filaments ; the antherae arc roandilh : Thc/>/- 
 Jlilluvt has an oval gcrnicn, three tiliforni lly li, and ob- 
 tufe (ligmata : The fencui fium is an ovate unilocular 
 capfulc, with three valves : The fecdt art roundilh and 
 numerous. Of this genus a grrut number of Ipecics 
 are enumerated by fouje botanical writtrs ; but none 
 
 I 
 
 of them poflcfs any remarkable properties, except the 
 media, or common chickwecd, with white blollbn.s, 
 which is fo well known as to need no particular de- 
 fcription. — Tliis fpecics aifurds a jiotable inftance of 
 what is called \.\\t p-if i,j flauis : for, every niglu, 
 the leaves approach in piirs, fo as to include withiu 
 tlieir upper iurlaccs the tender ruJinicnis of tlic new 
 Ihoots ; and the uppermoft pair but one at the end of 
 tlie ftalk are furnilhed with longer leaf-ftalks than the 
 others; fo that they can clofe upon the terminatiug 
 pair, and protect the end of the branch. The yojng 
 Ihoots and leaves, when boiled, can hardly be diitin- 
 guilhed from fpringfpinacb. They are dtcnicd refri- 
 gerating and nutritive, and an excellent food for per- 
 fons of a confuniptive habit of body Swine arc ex- 
 tremely fond of chickvvced ; cows and horfcs eat it ; 
 ihecp are iuditfcrent to it ; and goats re/ufc it. 
 
 ALSlRAT, in the Mahometan theology, denotes 
 a bridge laid over the middle of he.l, finer than a hair, 
 and Iharpcr than the edge of a fword, over which peo- 
 ple are 10 pafs, after their trial, o;i ihc day of judge- 
 ment. To add to the difficulty of the palTage, Ma- 
 homet allures, that the allirat, narrow ai it is, is be- 
 fet with briars and thorns ; none of which, however^ 
 will be any impediment to the good, who Ihall fly over 
 it like the wind ; Mahomet and his mulfulmen lead 
 the way ; whereas the wicked, by the narrownefsof 
 the path, the entangling of the thorns, and extindion 
 of the light whicii direfted the former to parauifc, 
 will foon mifs their fiuiting^ and tumble headlong into 
 htU, which is gaping beneath to receive ihcm. 
 
 ALSlUM, a city of ancient Etruria, occupying 
 (according to Culvtrius) the Ipot on which /<?/« now 
 ftands. We arc told by Dionylius Halicarnali'cnfis, 
 th;t Alfiura was bi/ilt by the Aborigines, long before 
 the Tyrfcniansiuvaded Italy. In this cafe it muft have 
 been founded not long after the difperfion in the days 
 of Pelcg. Its founder is faid to have been one yjl-rfiu, 
 Al(fus, or Atifa ; whom fomc conjec^ifnrc to have been 
 Alifah, or Eliilia, the fon ot Javan mentioned iu fcrip- 
 turt. 
 
 ALSOP (Anthony), a divine and poet, was edu- 
 cated at \S eftminfter-fchool, and thence elccfcd to 
 Chriil-church, Oxford, where he took the degree of 
 M. A. in March 1696, and of B. D. in Decern. 1706. 
 On his coming to the aniverfity, he was very foon di- 
 fliugnilhcj by Dean .'Mdrich, and publilhed Fabula- 
 ru)ii Ej'^picutuin DciiOiis, Oxon. 1698, 8vo. with a 
 poetical i.ici.;ication to lord vifcount Scj^'amorc, and a 
 preface in which he look part agaiiift Dr Bentlcy in 
 the famous dil'pute with Mr Boyle. He paiTed through 
 the ufual otHces in Lis college 10 that of cer.for witjj 
 conliderablc reputation; and for fome years had the 
 principal noblemen and gentlemen belonging to the fo- 
 cicty committid to hii care. In this employment he 
 continued till his mirit rc-ommendcd him to Sir Jona- 
 than Trtlawncy, bilhopof %V inch efter, who appointed 
 him his chaplain, ar.d foon alter gave him a prebend in 
 his own cathedral, together with the rectory of Bright- 
 well in the county ot Berks, which atiorded him ample 
 proviiirn for a learned retirement, from which he couKl 
 notbcdra. n by the repeated folicitatioiu of thcfc who 
 thought him qualified for a more public ch.iractcr and 
 a hiiihcr ilaiion In 171 7. in a^'tion was bnnight a- 
 gainll bim by Mr; Elizabeth Allrey of OxtVrd, for .1 
 
 kreacl^
 
 A L 
 
 o 
 
 [ so^ J 
 
 A L S 
 
 .Mfup. b:caci'. oi a ri,ini,:j'c-c'jiurat:l ; au J i v:i Jicl obt'.iiifi) a.iJ (.kg::!'.! v.'i iliiig';. Of thcfr llic mofl rcmi: kablc, AlfteJius 
 
 -- agaiiiil him for aouol. which probably O' calioncd hiai 
 lo icn\c tht king. !c)iu for fo:nc time. KiSiksih, \vhl-:h 
 luppcucd [ui!c lo^ I 726, wasoccaiioiicd by Ills fjlli.i^ 
 jiiio ;i tiitch that led to his gardtii-door. A quarto vo- 
 lume was publidied in ly^j, under the title of yf/i- 
 tourii A-f-jpi, JEdis Chrijti .ilim Aiuniut Odarfiii i.bri 
 eino. Koi:r EngHih poems of his r.rc in DoLlley's Col- 
 kcHoiis, one in I'carch's, feveral in (h*^ early volumes 
 oi'ibc Gentleman's Magazine, and fomein "The Stu- 
 dent." Mr Alfop \z rcfp:ctf.;i!y mentioned by the f.i- 
 cctious Dr King of the Commons (vol. I, p. 236), as 
 having eiirichtil the coniiuonwealth of 1-jarning, by 
 " Tranllations of Fables from Greek, Hebrew, and 
 ^Arabic;" 3!:d not kfs dctraciingly by Dr Bcntky, 
 under tlie name of " Tony Alfop, a late editor of the 
 ^tfopcan Fables." 
 
 Ajlsop (Vincent), an cmlner.t divine, was educated 
 !;i St Joh'.i's College in Cambridge, where he took the 
 degree of Matter of Arts. He received deacon's or- 
 ders from abini<>p,;fter whicli he w-ent down into Ilut- 
 hndliiire, andfetiled at Oakham, where he was an af- 
 fillant to the mafler of tlic frce-fchool. As iic w^s a 
 man of a fprigliily mrn, he fell there into indiiF rent 
 company ; bat was recl.iimed by ihc frequent admoni- 
 tions of ths reverend >'r Beiiiamin King. He after- 
 wards married that gentleman's daughter, and beco- 
 ming a convert to his principles, received ordination 
 in tiie Prclbyterian way, not being fatistieil with that 
 which hs had from the bilhop. He was fettled at 
 Wilbec in the coimty of North impion, whence he was 
 fjcdedin 1662, for nonconlormiiy. After this he ven- 
 tured loprcach.fomeiimcsat Oakham, and at Welling- 
 borouj^h where he lived, and was once fix months in 
 prifon for praying 'oy a (i;k pcrfon. A book he wrote 
 againll Drbhei lock in a humorous (lyk, inideiiim well 
 known to the world, and induced Mr Cawton, an cnii- 
 iient nonconformifl in Weftminfter, to recommend him 
 10 his congregation for his fucrelTor. On receiving 
 ibis c;ill, l^c quitted Northamptoiilhire and c;'me to 
 London, where he preached couftanily, and wrote Ic- 
 veralpieceswhich wereextremely wellieccivedbyilie 
 pui)lic. His iiving in the neighbourhood of ihc court 
 cxpofcd him to many inconve inccs ; but thcfc ended 
 with the reign of Ciurles II, or at leaft in the begin- 
 ningoftlieiicxt reign, when MrAlfop's fon engaging 
 in trcafonablc praclices was freely pardoned by king 
 jaincs. After this our divine wen t frequently to court, 
 and is generally fuppofed to have been the perf-m who 
 drew the Pre/bytcrian's addrefs to that prince for his 
 general ir.du'gence. After the revolution, Mr Alfop 
 gave very public teiiimoniesof bis afFeftion for thcgo- 
 vernriert -.y ct upon all occalaons he fpoke very rcfpeCt- 
 fully of king James, and retained a very high fen e of 
 his <:kniency in foaring his only fan. ']"he remai;!der 
 of his life he fpcnt in the txercifc of his iriniflry, 
 preaching once every Lord's day; 1. elides v/hichhe had 
 aThurfday leAurc^anu was one of the lecturers at Pin- 
 ner's ball. He lived to he a very old man, and pre- 
 fcrved hisfjdrits tothelaft. Cngi .vc fuLjcdlshcv/rorc 
 v.iiha beet n-.ingferio'lV.els ; but wiicrewit niigiit pro- 
 j'crly be (hown, he difplayed his to i-rcat advantage. 
 His funeral fcrrr.on preached by Mr Slater, and his 
 nicraory will be always prcferved by his own learned 
 
 betides liis fcrmons, are, i. ^Jntijoszo ; in vindicailon 
 ol fome great truihs oppofcd Dr uy William Sherlock, , 
 8vo, 167J. 2. I\ie/ius Jii(j!iir^):di:in ; in nnfwtrtoDr 
 Goodman's Companionate Inquiry, 8vo, 1679. j.Th.e 
 ^^ifchi€lof inipofuions; inanlwer to Dr Siilliiigrieet's 
 Mifchief of Separation, 16S0. 4. A haithful Ke- 
 proof to a Falfc Report, with rcl'trence to the Littc- 
 rcnccs among the United ^iiuillers in London, 8vo. 
 
 /VLsTKDiuS (John-Henry), a German I'rote- 
 flant divine, anJ one ofthc molt indefatigable writers 
 of the 17th century. He wj.» fonic time profcllbr of 
 philofophy and aiviiiity at Hirborn in the county oi 
 Nalfau : from tnence he went into Iranfylvania, to be 
 profelibr at Alba Julia : where he continued till his 
 death, which happtncdin 1638, being then 50 years 
 olage. YWsLiic^c.opcJi.ihZi been much cllccmcdcvcn 
 by tnelioman Catholics; it was printed at Lyons, and 
 fold very well throughout all France. His Th^faurus 
 thrciKoici^icuiiihy fome efleenicd oneof his bell works, 
 and has gone thro' feveral cilitions. He alfo wrote 
 7ri!i7i'i.h:,s B Hi. en J, to Hiow that the principles of all 
 arts and fcicnces a re to be found in the Scriptures; but 
 he gained very few to his opinion, lie was a Millena- 
 ri.iu ; andpubhihed, in 1627,3 ircaiife/^f intlle aii!:is, 
 in wliich he ailertcd that the reign of the faints on 
 earth was to begin in 1694. 
 
 ALSlON-MOl'iK, a town in Cumberland, kateJ 
 on a hill, ;.t the bottom of which runs the river i ync, 
 with a Itoae bridge over it. Near this place is plenty 
 of lead-ore. W. Long. 2. 4. N. Lat. 54. 45. 
 
 ALSTONIA, in b-jiaay ; a genus of the mono- 
 gynia order, belonging to the hcxaiuiria clafs of plants . 
 I'he charaifers are: The ca:yx is a pcriauthium be- 
 neaih, imbricated : The corciih is monopetalous, and 
 Iliorter than the calyx ; the border expanding, eight 
 or ten parted, with alterna:-j divilions : The Jla)iiii:a 
 conlill 01 numerous (liort filaments, the exterior ones 
 longer ; the antherae areoibicularanJ farrowed : The 
 ptjliiitim has a fmall ovate germe;; above ; a liinple fty- 
 lus the length of the corolla, filiform and cre(^t; the 
 lligraa invcrie egg-headed. There is but one fpecies, 
 the tiieal'ormis, a native of America. 
 
 ALSlTiOhMERlA, in botany: A genus of tlie 
 monogynii order, belonging to the hcxandria clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the 
 I ithorder, San/ieiittiua-. Thccharaftersarc : There 
 is no caij'x : The corolla is nearly bilabiated ; and con- 
 iilis of fix petals, the two inferior tubular at the bafe : 
 Thc/Z-Jw/weonliflof lixfubulatcd filaments, declining 
 and iinequil ; the antherae oblong : 'i'hc pifltlim/i has 
 an hexangular germcn beneath ; the ftylus declining, 
 filiform, the length of the (iannna , and three oblong 
 bifid ftigmata: i'he. firtcatfuutJi is a roundifli hexan- 
 gular capfule, with three cells and :hrce valves : I'hc 
 feids are globular and numerous. There arc five fpe- 
 cies, natives of Italy .ind Peru. 
 
 ALT, in mulic, a term applied to the high notes 
 in the fcale. 
 
 Ai> TAIC Ch,»in, a range of mcnrtains which 
 bounJs .-ilia en the fonth. It begins at the vafl moun- 
 tain Bogdo, pallcs above the hcod of the Irtifch, and 
 then ftkes a conrfe rugged, prccipiious, clothed wfth 
 fnow, and rich in minerals, between the Irtifch and 
 • ' • * - Ob'; 
 
 Altaii
 
 A L T 
 
 Cb f tIien<)rocc«!i by the like TcUzkoi, the rife of 
 theOb i aficrwhichiiretircs, in onlcr tocomprchcnJ 
 the (;rc2t rivers which form the Jcucfcij and ai c locked 
 up in ihefc high ir.ountaiiis ; duzWy, under ihe name 
 of the Saiti/iei, is uaiiuciruj tcdl/ cciitinucd to the 
 lake of Baikal. A branch inliuiiatcs itfcif between 
 ihc fourccs of ibe rivers Ouon and Ingoda, and thofc 
 of Ichikoi, accompanied wiih very high mountains, 
 running without interruption to the north-eaft, and 
 dividing the river of Amur, w hich difthargcs iti'clt 
 intoilie cart, in thcChincfedoniinicns, from ihcrivtr 
 Lena and Lake Baikal. Another branch (Irctchts along 
 the Olecnia, crolfcs the Lena bcluw JakoutfrC, and is 
 continued between the two rivers Tojgoulka to the 
 Jencfti, where it is lort in wooded and moralfy plains. 
 rhe principal chain, rugged with fliarp pointed rocks, 
 approaches and keeps near the Ihores of the fca of 
 Ockho2t,and paflingby tlie fourccs of the rivers Oiitli, 
 Aldan, and Maia, is diftributcd in final Ibranches, which 
 range between the eaftern rivers which fall into the 
 Icy Sea : belidcs two principal branches, one of which, 
 turning fouth, runs through all Karatfchatka, and is 
 broken, from the cape Lopatka, into the numerous 
 Kurilc iiles,and to the eall forms another marine chain, 
 in thcillands which range from Kanufchatka to Ame- 
 rica ; mort (if them, as well as Kanufchatka itfelf, di- 
 ftinguillied by tierce volcanoes, or the traces of volca- 
 nic tires. The laft chain forms chiefly the great cape 
 Tfchutiki, with its promontories and rocky broken 
 mores. 
 
 ALTAMONT, a very handfome town in Italy, in 
 the kingdom of Naples, and in Calabria Citerior, ij 
 iiiilcs north- weft of Baligniano. E. Long. 16.22. N. 
 Lat. 30. 40. 
 
 ALT.^MURA, a town of Naples, in the territory 
 of Bari, with the title of a principality, feated on the 
 foot of the Apcnnine mountains. E. Long. 16. 54. 
 N. Lat. 41.0. 
 
 ALTAR, a place upon which facrifices were an- 
 ciently offered to fome deity. 
 
 The heathens at firft made their altars only of turf ; 
 afterwards they were made of Hone, of marble, of 
 wood, and even of horn, as that of Apollo in Delos. 
 
 Altars ditiered in figure as well as in materials. Some 
 were round, others fquare, and others triangular. All 
 of ihcm were turned towards the eall, and rtood lower 
 thantheflatutsof the gods; and were generally adorn- 
 ed with fculptnre.reprcfcnting cither the gods to whom 
 they were ercfted,or their fymbols. See the Pagan 
 Altars rtprefcnted on Plate XI. Upon the lides of 
 X" I. a trident and two dolphins are exhibited, which 
 denote it to have been dedicated to Neptune. N" 2. 
 a four fquare altar, was dedicated to the nymphs, as 
 the infcription import?. N" 3. exhibits a Bacchanal 
 holding a thyrfus in his hand, a mark of the altar's br- 
 ing built to Bacchus : it had tw'o other tides, which 
 made itappcir triangular. Of N" 4. which was alfo 
 triangular, each face or fide exhibited a genius, one of 
 whom (on the fide reprcfcnted)caries an oar upon his 
 neck, which fccir.ed to denote it an altar of Neptune, 
 K" J. an altar of a round Ihape, is infcri'ued /Ira N^p- 
 tiiKi : the god himfdf is there reprrl'cnted, all naked, 
 favinj; the pallium upon his Ihoulder ; and holding in 
 his left hand a trident, and in his right a dolphin. 
 
 The height of altars alfo uitFcred according to the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 L 5^5 1 
 
 ALT 
 
 uifi(.re.:t gods to whon they facriilced. Aicordinjjto 
 i,er;iu!i, thofc alt-rs Ut spurt for the hono.ir of :!:s 
 cdeftial guJs, and god) of the higher clafs, were pli- 
 ecd on fonie pntiy tail pile of butiding t a.id for thac 
 reafon were cilled ^llaria, from ihc wo: d> tiUj -nd ai .», 
 " a l,i;^h elevated altar." Thife appointed for the 
 tcrreftrial gods were laid on the furf^icc of the tarth, 
 and called ar<r. And, on the contrary, they dug into 
 the earth and opened a pit for thofc of t!ic iafcriial 
 gods, which they called ^»5f«( /mho/,, " fcrobiculi." 
 But this diflinc^ion is not every where obfcrved : the 
 bcft authors frequently ufe ar.i as a general word, ujj- 
 dcr which are included the altars of the celcAial and 
 infernal, as well as thofc of the tcrrcftri.:l, gods. Wit- 
 nefs Virgil, Eel. 5. 
 
 Eh quatnor aras. 
 
 Where ara plainly includes altaua ; for whatever \\t 
 make of Daphuis, Phoebus was certainly a celelli.*! 
 god. So Ciceio, pro Qiiint. Ardt delttbruqai Hicata 
 in Cttccta vidimus. The Greeks alfo diflinguilhed twx) 
 forts of altars ; that whereon they facrificcd to f!.e 
 gods was called ;Sa/«of, and was a real altar, different 
 from the other whereon they facrifi-. cd to the heroes, 
 which was fmaller, and called t»x«.=«- Pollux makes 
 this dilUnflion of altars in his Onoinafticon ; he adds, 
 however, that fonic poets ufed the word i5-p;»f<« for the 
 altar whereon facritice was offered to the gods. The 
 Srptuagiut verfion docs femetimcs alfo ufe the word 
 i»-;(.«f« lor a fort of little low altar, which may be c.x- 
 prtfird in Latin by catinla ; being a hearth rather 
 than an altar. 
 
 Before temples w.<re in ufe, altars were creeled fome- 
 tiiucsjn groves, fi-metiraes in the highways, and fomc- 
 times on the tops of mountains ; and it w as a cuilotn 
 to engrave upon them the name, enfign, or charafler, 
 of the deity to whom they were confeeratcJ. 
 
 In the great temples of ancient Rome there were 
 ordinarily threcaltars : The firfl was placed in the fanc- 
 tuary, at the loot of the llatue of the divinity, upon 
 which incenfe was burnt and libations offered ; the U- 
 cond was before the gate of the temple, anj upon ic 
 they fhcriliccd the vietinis; and the third wasa portable 
 altar, upon which \vas placed the olicring and thrfa- 
 cred velfels. 
 
 Befides thefe ufes of altars, the anciens fworc upon 
 iheni, and fwore by thcin, in nuking alliances, eon- 
 firming treaties of peace, anJ other filcmn occafions. 
 Altars alfo ferved as places of refuge to ;.!l thofc who 
 fled to them, whatever crime they h.-d committed. 
 
 Altars are doubtlefs as ancient as facrifices thcm- 
 ff Ives ; c-infcquently their origin is net much later than 
 th.1t of the world ; Gen. ch. iv. Some attribute their 
 origin to the Egyptians ; others to the Jews ; others 
 to the patriarchs before the tlor.d. Some carry them 
 as far back as ,'\d.in), whofc altar is much fpoken of 
 byJewilh,andevenChrirtian writers. Others arc con- 
 tented to make the patriarch Enoch the firft who con- 
 fecrated a public altar. Be this as it will, the ear'icll 
 altars we tind any cxprcfs teftiuiony of arc thole creel- 
 ed by Abraham. 
 
 Altars, in the patriarchal times, were very rude. 
 
 The altar which Jacob fet up at Bch-cl was lioihing 
 
 but a llone, which fcrvcd himinftead of abolftcr ; that 
 
 ofGidecai, allonc be^rehishonfc : and the tirft which 
 
 3.S Gc-J 
 
 Anf
 
 ALT 
 
 [ 506 ] 
 
 ALT 
 
 Aliar. Goil conuiianJcd Mofcs to crcdt was probably of carili, 
 
 — ^ ■ or un[ioliilicd ftoiics, without any iron ; for if any ufc 
 
 was made of thai iiiLtal, the altar was declared im- 
 pure. - 
 
 The piinci'j'ai.altars of the Jews were, The altar of 
 iiic.nl'!'; xXvilui b:initoJj'cr:iig ; and the altar, or labk, 
 for ih: jljctv-biiad, 
 
 . The altar bf tr.ciiifc was a fmall tabic of fhittim- 
 wood, covtrtd vith plates of gold, of one cubit iir 
 length, another in width, and two in height. At 
 the foiir corners, were four kinds of horns, and all 
 found a little border or crown over it. Tliis was the 
 altar hidden by Jeremiah before the captivity ; and 
 upon it the ofiiciaiing prieft offered, every morning 
 and evening, incenfc of a particular compoiiiion. Sec 
 Plate XI. 
 
 The altar of burnt-offerings was made of fliittim- 
 wood, and carried upon the flioulders of the priefls by 
 ._ flaves of the fame wood overlaid with brafs. In the 
 lime of Mofcs, this altar was live cubits fquarc nnd 
 ijirce high ; but in Solomon's temple it was much lar- 
 ger, being 20 cubits fqnare and 10 in height. It was 
 covered with brafs ; and at each corner was a horn or 
 fpire, wrought out of the fame wood with tlie altar, to 
 which the facrificcs were tied. Within the hollow 
 was a grate of brafs, on which the fire was made; 
 through it fcl! the a(hcs, and were received in a pan 
 below. At the four corners of the grate were four 
 rings and four cliains, which kept it up at the horns. 
 This altar was placed in the open air, that the fmoke 
 of the burnt-ori'crings might not fully the infide of the 
 tabernacle. See Plate XI. 
 
 The altar, or tabic, for they7^itu-^r^«</, was likewifc 
 of fliittim-wood, covered with plates of gold, having a 
 little border round it, adorned with fculpture. It was 
 two cubits long, one wide, and one and an half in 
 height. Upon this table, which flood in the holy of 
 * holies, were put, every fabbath-day, 12 loaves, with 
 fait and inccnfe. 
 
 The Jewifli altars, after their return from the capti- 
 vity, and the building of the fecond temple, were in 
 fome refpcfts ditfirent from thofe defcribed above. 
 That of burnt-offerings was a large pile, built of un- 
 hewn ftone, 52 cubits fquare at the bottom, and 24 
 fquare at the top. The afcent was by a gentle riling, 
 52 cubits in length, and 16 in breadth. 
 
 Altar, is alfo ufcd among Chriftians for the com- 
 munion-table. 
 
 In the primitive clnirch, the altars were only of 
 wood ; as being frequently to be removed from place 
 to place. But the council of Paris, in 509, decreed 
 th.1t no altar fliould be built but of flonc. — At firft 
 there was but oire altar in each church ; but the num- 
 ber foon increafcd ; and from the writings of Gregory 
 the Great, who lived in the lixth century, we learn, 
 that there were fometimcs in the fame church 12 or 
 I ?. In the cathedral of Magdeburg there are no lefs 
 than 49 altars. 
 
 The altar is fometimesfuftained on a fingle column, 
 as iiuhe fubtcrraneous eliapels of St Cecilia, at Rome, 
 8fc. ; and fometimcs by four columns, as the altar of 
 St Sebaflian of Crypta Arcnaria ; but the cuftoniary 
 from is, to be a m;'.lfive of ftone-work, fuflaining the 
 ilar-tahlc. Thcfe altars bear a rcfcniblauce to tombs : 
 
 in tills piirpofc, we read in church hifiory, that tlie Altar-thaia 
 priniilive Chriflians chicfiy held their meeting at the I 
 
 tombs of the martyrs, and celebrated the myftcries of Altcnburg. 
 r^cligion upon them for which reafon, it is a Handing ' 
 
 rule to liiis day in the church of Rome, never to build 
 an altar, without iiicloiing the relics of fome faint 
 in it. 
 
 ALTAR-TH.^NE, or Altarist, in old law-books, 
 aji appellation given to the priefl or parlon of a parilh, 
 towhoin the altarage belonged. See Altarage. 
 
 ALTARAGK, in law, altars erected in virtue of 
 donations before the Rclormation, within a parocliial 
 church, for the purpofe of finging of mafs for dc- 
 ctafed friends. 
 
 Altarage likewifc (ignifies the profits arifing to 
 the priefl on account of tl-.e altar. 
 
 AL-TAY£FK, a town of Hajaz, a dillricl of Ara- 
 bia Felix. It is fituated about 60 miles eall of Mecca, 
 behind mount Gazwan, where the cold is more intenfc 
 than in any other part of the dillrid, but the air very 
 wholefome. Its territory abounds in fountains, and 
 produces excellent raifms. The town is furrounded 
 with a wall but is not very large. 
 
 ALTDORK, a large handfoine town in SwiiTerland, 
 and the chief of the canton of Uri. It is fituated below 
 the lake of the four cantons, in a plain, at the foot of 
 a mountain, whofe palfagesare difiicult, and ferve in- 
 flead of fortifications. It has four churches and two 
 convents : St Martin's church and that of the Holy 
 Crofs arc the fineft. The town-houfe, and the arfenal 
 are alfo worth feeing. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 46. 
 50. 
 
 ALTEA, a fea-port town of Valencia, in Spain 
 It was taken in 1705, in favour of the archduke 
 Charles ; but loll after the battle of Almanza.W. Long, 
 o. 15. N. Lat 46. 34. 
 
 ALTEMBURG, a town of Tranfylvania, 17 miles 
 S. W. of Wifemburg, and 35 S. of Claufenbourg. E. 
 Long. 23. 5. N. Lat. 46. 25. 
 
 ALTENA, a fca-port town of Germany, in the 
 duchy of Holflcin, in Lower Saxony. It is a modern 
 town, built by the king of Denmark, and was burnt 
 by the Swedes in i 712 ; but has (Ince been beautifully 
 rebuilt. The merchandife brouglit from Alia, by 
 tlieDanilh Eaft-lndia company is fold here. E. Long. 
 10. o. N. Lat. 53. ji. 
 
 ALTENBERG, an ancient town in Germany, fi- 
 tuated on the river Pleifs, with a good caftle placed on 
 a rock, in Mifuia, in the circle of the Upper Saxony. 
 It was formerly an Imperial city, bur a prefent belongs 
 to the lioufe of Saxony. Here is a college which has 
 always been in a Hourifliing condition. In 1 705, there 
 was a nunnery founded for women of high rank, who 
 are Protcflants. E. Long. 15. 8. N. Lat. ;o. J9. 
 
 ALTENBURG, a fmall fortified town of Huij- 
 gary, in the territory of Mofon, near the Danube, a- 
 bout J 5 miles fri-m Vienna. E.Long. 35. 30. N. Lat, 
 
 48. 15- 
 
 Altenburg, or Owar, a fmall but rtrong town of 
 Hungary feated in a marlh, with wide ftrcets. It is 
 near the river Danube, and is furrounded with deep 
 ditches. It is ij miles fouth of Prelburg, 40 fouth- 
 eall of Vienna, and 65 fouth-wefl of Buda. E. Long. 
 17. 56. N. Lat 44. o. 
 
 ALTE-
 
 /fit///>tlj'J'AliS 
 
 . ..^riiitcxin 
 
 ALIAH i>//iur„/ 0//rfi,/// 
 
 . ■'.'.. >!iv , '«*^. . ^i/:,.
 
 1I»
 
 ALT r 507 
 
 ALTtRANTS, or /iLrER^rtvp. Medicines, fuch 
 as coricft the bad qiialiiics of the hlood and other hu- 
 mours, without occafioning any fciiliblc evacuation. 
 
 ALTKIIATION, in phyllcs, the ad of changing 
 ilie circuindanccs and manner of r thing ; its general 
 nature and aiipearance remaining the fame. Or, it is 
 an accidental and partial change in a body ; without 
 jirocccdingfo far as tomakethcfubjcd quite unknown, 
 or to take a new dcnominition thereupon. — Or, it may 
 bcdelintd, the acquifitlon or lofs of fuch qualities as 
 are not eirentia! to the form of the body. Thus, apiece 
 of iron, whicli before was cold, is faid to be altered, 
 when it is made hot ; fince it may flillbe perceived to 
 be iron, is called by that name, and has all the proper- 
 tics thereof. By this alterauon is dillinguilhed from 
 gciieri'tion 3,ni\ corruption ; thefe terms exprelllng an 
 
 aequililion or lofs of the efTential qualities of thing 
 
 The modern pliilofophcrs, after the ancient chemills 
 and corpiilcularians, hold all alteration to be effeftcd 
 by means of local motion. According to them, it al- 
 ways. confifts either in the emiihon, acccllion, union, 
 reparation, or tranfpofition, of the component par- 
 ticles. 
 
 ALTERCATION, a debate or contea between 
 two friends or acquaintance. The word comes from 
 alterctiri, which anciently fignitied toconvcrfe or hold 
 difcourfe together. — Thus, we fay. They never come 
 to an open quarrel, but there is continually fomc little 
 altercation orotjier. 
 
 ALTERN-BASE, in trigonometry, a term ufed in 
 contradidiadlion to the true bafe. Thus in oblique 
 triangles, the true bafe is either the fum of the iides, 
 and then the dij/'erence of the fides is called the altern- 
 ta/'e ; or the true bafe is the difference of the fides, and 
 then iht/iim of the iides is called the aitern-bafe. 
 
 ALTERNATE, in a general fenfc, a term applied 
 
 3 
 
 A L T 
 
 to fuch perfons or things as fuccced each otiier by 
 turns. Thus, two who command each his day, are 
 faid to have an alternate command, or to command al- 
 ternately. 
 
 Alternate, in heraldry, is faid in rcfpcfl of the 
 fituation of the quarters. Thus the firll and fourth 
 quarters, and the fecond and third, areufnally of the 
 fame nature, and are called alternate quarters. 
 
 Alternate, in botany, when the leaves or branch- 
 es of plants arifc higher on oppoiite fides alternately. 
 
 ALTERNATION, in its primary fen fe, denotes 
 1 fucccflion by turns. 
 
 Alternation is fometimes ufed to cxprcfs the 
 difterent changes or alterations of orders in any num- 
 ber of things propofed. This is alfo called />!'/ 7/;//- 
 tation, &c. and is eafily found by a continual multi- 
 plication of all the numbers, beginning at unity. Thus, 
 if it be required to know how many changes or altcr- 
 nfltions can be rung on fix bells, multiply the numbers 
 I) 2, 5, 4, J, 6, continually intoone another ; and the 
 laft produft gives the number of changes. 
 
 ALTERNATIVE, is particularly ufed 
 choice of two things propofed. In this fenfc 
 to take the alternative of two propofitions. 
 
 ALTHj^lA, Marshmallow : A genus of the po- 
 lyandria order, belonging to the monodclphia clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the 
 37th order, C'Jun.niJer.^. The charaders are : The 
 cijljx is a double pcriamhium, the exterior one niut- 
 
 for tlic 
 
 we (ly. 
 
 cleft : The corollj confifts of five petals, coakfceJ at A'<\-xil. 
 
 ihc bafe : The Jiamina confill of numerous riUmt-urs ~^ 
 
 iiiftrtedinto the corolla; the antherac are kidney du- 
 ped. The pij/illr/fn has an orbicular gcrmcn ; a ihoit 
 cylindrical ftyius ; and numerous brillly fiigiuata, the 
 length of the llylus : The pericarpvim coiifilts of nu- 
 merous arilia; : The feeds are folitary, and kidney- 
 lliapcd. There arc- three 
 
 Species. I. The vulgaris, or common marflimallow, 
 is a native of Britain, and liatli a perennial root, and 
 an annual rtalk, which perifncs every autumn. The 
 ftalks grow ereft to the height of four or five feet. 
 Thefe arc garnilhcd with leaves which are hoary, fofc 
 to the touch, and placed alternately on the branches. 
 The (lowers conic out fnun under the wings of the 
 leaves, like the mallow, andareof a purp'.ifli while. 2. 
 Thehirfuta, er hairy mar<hmallow, is a native of Spain 
 and Portugal. It is alow plant, v/iiofc brandies trail 011 
 the ground, unlcfs they are fupporicd by flakes. The 
 leaves and llalksare befet with (Irong hairs, the llower< 
 come out like tliofe of the common fort, but are finall- 
 er, and have purplilli bottoms. 3. The cannabina, or 
 Ihrubby marfhmallow, is a native of Hungary and If- 
 tria. It has a woody (lem, which rifes to the Juighiof 
 fouror five feet ; and puts out many (ide-branehes. The 
 flowers come out in the fame manner as in the others, 
 but are of a deeper red colour. Tiiis fort fcldom flow- 
 ers the firft year, unlefs the fummer proves warm ; but 
 when the plants live through the winter, ihcy will 
 flower early in the following fummer, and produce good 
 feeds. 
 
 Culture. Though the firft fort is found naturally in 
 fait marlhes, it will thrive when tranfplantedinto any 
 foil, or in any lituaiion ; however, it will always grow 
 larger in moill than in dry foil. It may be propagated 
 cither by parting the roots in autumn when the ftalks 
 decay, or by fowing the feeds in the fpring. If the 
 fcedsof the fecond fpecies are fown in April, the plants 
 will flower in July, and carry ripe feed in September. 
 They ought to be fown in the places where they are v> 
 remain, as the roots (I'oot deep in the ground; lb that 
 unlefs the plantsare removed vcryyoung, they fcldoni 
 furvive it. The feeds of the cannabina ought alfo to 
 be fown where the plants are to remain, for the rcafbii 
 juft now given. They fliould have aflieJicrcd htuaiioii 
 and dry fi.il, otherwife they will not live through 
 the winter. Indeed they fcldoni continue in Britain 
 above two years, with all ihe care that can be ta- 
 ken of them. 
 
 Medicinal Ufis. The firft is the only fpecies ufed in 
 medicine. The whole plant, efpccially the ro.>t, a- 
 bounds with a mild mucilage. It has the general vir- 
 tues of an emollient medicine; and proves ferviceablc 
 in a thin acrimonious ilaie of the juices, and whcrethe 
 natural mucus of the intellines is abraded. It is chief- 
 ly recommended in fliarp dcHuftions upon the lungs, 
 hoarfcnefs, dyfcnieries ; and likcwifc in nephritic and 
 calculous complaints : not, as fomc have fuppofed, that 
 this medicine has any peculiar power of diiTolving or 
 expelling the calculus ; but as, by lubricating and re- 
 laxing thevcflcls, it procures a more free and cafy paf- 
 fage. The root is fometimes employed cxicrnaliy for 
 foftening and maturating liard tumours ; chewed, it is 
 faid to give cafe in difficult dentition of cjiildren. 
 
 This root gave name 10 au officinal fyrup, dccoc- 
 5 S 2 lion.
 
 A L r 
 
 [ 5^3 ] 
 
 ALT 
 
 Al'Vaa liorij ano ■uirifrif ni j iiui was likcwifc an ingredient in 
 II tlif coir.po;ind powder of gum tiagacanth and the oil 
 Alrinp. 3„d plilicr of mucilages. Biit of all ttcft fi)rniulj» the 
 '^ " ' fy rupalor.c is now retained. 
 
 ALrH.V-A Fruiex. Sec Hibiscus. 
 ALTIMKTRY, the art of meafiiring altitudes or 
 liiights, whether accclfiblc or iuacccinblc. Sec Geo- 
 
 MFTRY. 
 
 ALTIN, a money of account in Mnfcovy, worth 
 ihrcc oficcs ; one hnndrcd of which make a rnble, 
 worth about 4s. 6>1. lUrling. 
 
 ALTIN, a lake in Siberia, from whence iiuies the 
 river Ob, or Oby, in N. Lat. 52.0. E. Long. 85°.J5'. 
 This lake is called by the Rulhans Tclolko'i O/iro, from 
 the Telelfi, a Tartarian nation, who inhabit theborders 
 of it, and who give it tlie mmcoi Altiii-Ktil. By the 
 Calnuicks it is called AJtimior. It is near ninety miles 
 lung and 50 broad, with a rocky bottom. The north 
 jiart of it is fometimes frozen fo hard as to be pafllible 
 on foot, but the fontliern part is never covered with 
 ice. The water in the Aliin hke,as well as in theri- 
 vcr.s which run throigliihe adjacent places, only rifes 
 ill the middle of'I'iimnicr, when the fuows on the moun- 
 tains arc niclicd by the heat of the fun. 
 
 ALTINCAR, among niiucralills, a fpc-ries of fac- 
 titious faltufed in the fulion and purification of metals. 
 
 The altincar is a fort of dux powder. Divers ways 
 of preparing it are given by Libavius. 
 
 ALTING (Henry), profelfor of divinity at Hei- 
 delberg and Groiiingen, was born at Enibden in 
 1 ;8?, of a family which Iiadbeen long confpicuous ia 
 ?"rifcland. His father, Menf)Aliing, wasthcfirfl:, 
 v.ho, with two others, preached the reformation in the 
 territory of Groningen, about the year 1566, under 
 the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva ; and 
 the firit that preached in the great church of Gronin- 
 gen, after the reduftion of that town by the States Ge- 
 neral in 1594. Henry was chofen, in 160J, preceptor 
 to the three youTig counts of Nalfau, Solms, and Izen- 
 berg. After various difiicultics, he fettled at Groiiin- 
 gen, where he continued till his death, Augull 2J. 
 1644. He was a fiund protellant divine, a pious 
 tliriflian,a ufcful member of focicty in many refpefts, 
 and one who futi'tred much for the truth. l\!ofl of his 
 works were never publidied ; thofe which hayebecn 
 .ire the following : hot it in d t casein fi'oblcjnattim J. 
 Behm, l6i5. Loci comfHnnes ixplicatio catechffeos r a- 
 latitiie, 1646, in 7, vols. F.x:geJ:s j^tignjlciiice cofif<-f. 
 1647, Mcthodiis iheoiogiir , 1650. It ap]icars from the 
 catalogue of his works annexed to lit) life, that the 
 MtJiilia hij\. prophaiKf, publiflied by Dr Parens, was 
 compnfed by Ahing. The mofl remarkable piece a- 
 inorg Alting's MS. is. The ecrlefiallical hiliory of 
 the Palatinate, fron the reformation to theadminiitra- 
 tii>n of John Caliniir. 
 
 Alting (James), fon of the former, was born at 
 Heidelberg in 161S. He travelled into England in 
 1640, where he was ordained by the learned Dr Pri- 
 deaux, bifnop of Worceder. He afterwards accepted 
 of the profellbrfhip of Groningqn, vacant by the dcarh 
 ofGomarus; but his lituation was rendered verydif- 
 agreeablc by the continual difputcs which he had with 
 h'scoileagneSam.dcsMarets, who favoured thefchool- 
 cfiviniiy. He died in 1697. He recommended the edi- 
 lioiiof liis works to Menfo Alting (author of A'^///;j 
 
 G:ttnat:. ],:f/r. A>.Uqu.r, fol. Aiiift. 1679); but liiey A'.titui* 
 were publiihcd in 5 vols, folio, with his life, by Mr 1 
 
 Btkkerof AmRcrdam. They contain various analy- -A''"' 
 lical, cxcg. lical, praihcal, problematical, and philofo- * 
 
 phical irat^ts, which ihow his great iiuluflry and know- 
 ledge. Alting was a divine greatly addicted to the text 
 of the fcripturc, to Cocceianifm, and Rabbinifin. He 
 preached well in German, Dutch, and Englilk. 
 
 ALTITUDE, acccffible, and inaccelliblc. Sec 
 Geometry. 
 
 The method of taking conliderablc terreftriul alti. 
 ludcs, of which thofe of mountains are the greatell, by 
 nicansof the barometer, is very eafy and expeditious. It 
 isdoncby ol>ferving. on the top of the mountain, how 
 much the mercury has fallen below what it was at the 
 foot of the mountain. See Barometer. 
 
 V/.r/rt'Dt oj'the Eye, in perfpeclive, is a right line 
 let fall from thj eye, perpendicular to the geometrical 
 plane. 
 
 Altitude, in aflronomy, is the dillancc of a ftar, 
 or other point, in the mandane fpliere, from the ho- 
 rizon. 
 
 This altitude may be cither true or apparent. — If it 
 be taken from the rational or real horizon, the altitude 
 is fiiid to be true or real ; if from the apparent or fen- 
 fiblc horizon, the altitude isapparent. — Or rather, the 
 apparent altitude is fuch as it appears to our obferva- 
 lion; and the true is that from which the refradion 
 has been fubtraiSed. 
 
 The truealtitudesoftliefun,fixedftars, and planets, 
 differ but very little from their apparent altiiudes ; be- 
 caufc of their great dillante from the centre of the 
 earth, and the fmallnefs of the earth's femidiameter, 
 when compared thereto. But the difference between 
 the true and apparent altitude of the moon is about 
 52. This fubjeft is further explained under Astro- 
 no mt. 
 
 ^LTiTVOK hiftrnment, or E^ual Jititade Jnflrii- 
 nieiit, is that ufed to obferve a celeflial objeft when it 
 lias the fame altitude on the cad: and velf fides of the 
 meridian. See Astronomy, the lafl feftion. 
 
 ALTKlRK, a town of Alfice in Germany, fitua- , 
 ted on the river 111, in N. Lai. 47. 40. and E. Long. 
 
 7- 15- 
 
 ALTMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of 
 Tyrone, and province of Ulficr, fituated in N. Lat. 
 54. 54, and W. Long 7. 2. 
 
 ALTON, a town in Hamplliire, feated on the ri- 
 ver Wey ; W. Long. o. 46. N. Lat. Ji. 5. It is go- 
 verned by a conllable ; and conlilfs of about sOO hon- 
 fes., indifferently buiii, chiefly laid out in one pretty 
 broad flrett. It has one church, a Prefbyterian, and 
 a Qi.iaker meeting, a famous frecfchool, a large ma- 
 nnfatture of plain and figured baragons, ribbed drug- 
 gets, and ferges de Nifines ; and round the town is a 
 large plantation of hops. 
 
 Alton, or Avflton, a village in Staffbrdlhire, 
 five miles north of Utoxeter. There are the ruins of 
 a caftle here, which fome would have lobe built before 
 the Norman eonqucrt ; but DrPlottis pretty certain 
 that it was erecrled by Theobald de Verdun, in the be- 
 ginning of the reign of Edward II. A great part of 
 the walls are flill flanding, but they are in a very rui- 
 nous condition. 
 
 ALTO et Basso, or in Jlto ir in Basso,- in law, 
 
 lignitica
 
 A L V 
 
 fignities the abfulule refrrencc of all ilitfercaccs, fmiill 
 and great, bigh and low, to fomc arbitrator or indif- 
 ferent jierf'in — Fateat iinherfii ptr prttfuitu, qiad 
 Wiiiiehnus Tjlar di Tetlon, & T/:tmas Cq-jut di Alvit- 
 Jlre, fiofueruiit ft in Alto ir in Baffo, in arliitri'i quatu- 
 vr honiinum ,- viz. de quadam querela pendente iiilir eoi 
 in curia. — Not ir terram nojiram t\ie Si. haKi/Jirii do- 
 mini Regis f:ippofuiniUi voluutati. 
 
 Alto- Relieve Sec Relievo. 
 
 ALTo-Ripienc, in miilic, the tenor of the great 
 chorus which fings and plays only now and then in 
 fome particular places. 
 
 ALTORF, a town of the circle of Franconia, in 
 Germany. It has a phyfic garden, with 2000 differ- 
 ent plants ; a theatre for i^iircdions, which has many 
 curioiities in the anatoK'.ical way ; and a handfonic li- 
 brary. It is fubjcft to the houfcof Brandenburg ; and 
 is fcated on the confines of Bavaria, i j miles from Nu- 
 remberg. E. Long. 9. 3). N. Lat. 47. 46. 
 
 ALT-RANSTADT, a town in Saxony, famous 
 for the treaty between Charles XII. king of Sweden 
 and Auguflus eleclor of Saxony, in i 706, wherein the 
 latter rerio;ned the kingdom of Poland. 
 
 ALTRINGHAM, a tawn of Chcfliirc in England, 
 upon the borders of Lancafliirejfcve n miles from Man- 
 chefter. W. Long. i. 30. N. Lat. 55. 25. 
 
 ALTZEG, a town of Germany in the Lower 
 Palatinate, the capital of a territory of the fame name, 
 with an old caflle. W. Long. 7. 2J. N. Lat. 49. 44. 
 
 ALVA DE ToRMES, aconliderable town in Spain, 
 in the kingdom of Leon, and territory of Salamanca, 
 with a very handfome calHe. It is fcated on the north 
 bank of the river Tormcs. \\'. Long. 6. i. N. Lat. 
 41. c. 
 
 ALVAH, the wood wlierewith Mofes, fwceter.ed 
 ih« waters of Marah, Exod. cli. xv. ver. 2j. — The 
 name of this wood is not found in Scripture ; but the 
 Mahometans give it that of ahah, and pretend to trace 
 Its hiflory from the patriarchs before the flood. Jo- 
 fcphiis, on the contrary, fays, that Mofes ufcd the 
 -Wood which he found next lying before him. 
 
 ALVARES DE LUNA, or as fome call him Alva- 
 RC. is a charaiJler too ccfifying to be omitted in this 
 work. He was the favourite of John II. king of Ca- 
 flile : was famous for the prodigious afccndancy he 
 gaincdover thisprincc, and for the puniHiment which 
 at length overtook him. lie was natural fon of Don 
 Alvaro de Luna, lord of Cancte in Arragon, aiid of a 
 woman infamous for unbounded lufi. He was born in 
 1 588 and named, Peter; but Pope Bcnrdi,51 Xill. who 
 was charmed with his wit tho'yet a child, changed Pe- 
 ter to Alvarcs. He was introduced to court in 1408, 
 and made a gentleman of the bedch.imber to king 
 John, with whom hegrcw intothc higlicflfcvour. In 
 1427 he was obliged to retire : the courtiers exerted 
 all their endeavours to ruin him : ihty cemplained, 
 that a man of no military (kill, af no virtues whatever, 
 Uiotild.by mere artifice and diliinrulation, be advanced 
 to the highcft authority ; and they couUI not bear that, 
 by the alfi(la"cc of a few iipflart men, whom he had 
 raifed and fixed to his interell, he fltould reign as ab- 
 lohitely s% if he were king. 
 
 They prevailed againft him, and Alvares was banilli- 
 ed from court a year and an half: but this was the 
 f,reate(l afllidiou imaginable to the king ; who lliow- 
 
 [ iC'9 ] 
 
 A L V 
 
 cd all marks of Jirtrtfb the moment he was rcn.o- AJvv"- 
 vcd from his prtfcnce, and now tUought and fpoke of ^— v^ — ' 
 nothing but Alvarcs. He was therefore recalled; and, 
 being inverted with his ufual authority, re\ tngedhiui- 
 fclf fcvercly upon hif enemies, by pcrfuading the king 
 to banilh them. Of the 4 j years he f/ent at cf'.iri, 
 he enjoyed for 70 of them fo entire an aftendaticy n- 
 ver the king, that nothing could be done without his 
 cxprcfs orders : nay, it is related t.y Mariana, th.ai :l,c 
 king could not change an oiliccr or firvant, or even 
 his clothes or diet, without the approbation of Alv.i- 
 rcs. In fliort, he wanted nothing 10 complete his 
 grandeur but the name of king : he had all tlie places 
 in the kingdom .it hisdifpofU ; he was maficr of the 
 treafury, and iy bounties had fo g.iincd the liearts of 
 the fubjefti, that the king, though his eyes now were 
 opened, and his afFctfions fuSiciently turned againll 
 him, durfi not comidain. 
 
 But the day of reckoning was approaching, zfid at 
 length he was fcized : yet not directly, openly, 3T>d vio- 
 lently, but with fome of that management which up- 
 on a limilar occafion was formerly cm.ployed by Tibe- 
 rius againfl Sej anus. During his confinement, he made 
 feveral attempts to fpeak to the king in perfon ; but 
 not being able to effed this, he fent the follow ing let- 
 ter, from wliich, as well as from the reil of Al- 
 varcs's hiflory, all court favouritcsmay draw abundant 
 matter for edification and inflruclion. «' Sir, it is five- 
 " and forty years (ince I was admitted into your fer- 
 " vice. I do not complain of the rewards I have re- 
 " ceived : they were greater than my merits or cxpec- 
 " tation, as I fliall not deny. There was but one 
 " thing wanting to complete my happtncfs ; and that 
 " was to have fixed proper limits in time to this great 
 '•' fortuncof mine. VVhife, inftcad of choofing rttirc- 
 " ment, after the example of the greatcfl men, I f:ill 
 " continued in the employment, which I ihouglirnot 
 "only my duty, bat ncccll'jry for your interefl, I fell 
 " into this mistort.inc. It is very hard that 1 IhoulJ 
 " be deprived of liberty, when 1 have ri/ktd iii'e and 
 " fortune more than unee to reflorc it to you. Grief 
 *•■ prevents me from faying more. I kiiow that the 
 " l")eity is provoked agaiaii me by my (ins ; but it will 
 '' be furficient for mc, if his anger is appeafcd by the 
 "calamities! now f uifer. I can no longer bear that 
 " prodigious mafs of riches, which it uas wnmg in 
 " me to have heaped together. I fhould wilhngly 
 " rcfigu them, but that every thing 1 have is in your 
 " pov,cr ; and I am denied the opportunity of fliowing 
 " mankind, tliatyouhavc raifed a pe:f(«nto-the height 
 " of greatncfs,wlio can contain wcyilili as v.cllas |iro- 
 " cure it, and give it lack to hiin from whom he re- 
 " ceived it. But I defire you in the /Irosgefl tern s, 
 " that, as I was oLligeJ ly ^he^«'wnefs of the trea- 
 " futy to raife io,coo or 13, occ crowns by methods 
 " I ougjit not to have taken, you wilt reflorc thera to 
 " the pcrfons from whom they were ex'orttd. !f you 
 " wi;i not grant thisonaccouui of the fervices i have 
 " done, yet I thiik it ncccljary to be done from the 
 " rcafon of the thing." 
 
 . This letter, however, produced no .efied in his fa- 
 vour: Alvareswas trie J.andcondeniiTcd loloofe his head. 
 After condemnation, he was ren.oved to Vo!lad..lid j 
 and, having confelfcd hin-.felf, and received the facra- 
 nicnt, he was carried upon a mule to the m-iket-place, 
 
 ill
 
 ALU 
 
 [ 5'o ] 
 
 A L V 
 
 in the middle of which a large fcafFold was crcfled. 
 Mounting the fciffuM, he paid reverence lo ihe crofs, 
 and prcfcuily gave his hat and ligntt lo his page, fay- 
 ing, " Thcfe are the laft gifts you will ever receive 
 "froinmc." He tlicn fubmitted hinifclf to the axe 
 with the utmoll iiil rapidity. Dr Geddcs relates, that 
 he was executed the 4ih of June, others the 5th of 
 Jily, 145^- 
 
 ALUDELS, in chcniiflry, are earthen pots with- 
 out bottoms, infertcd into eacli other, and ufedin fub- 
 limations. 
 
 ALVEARIUM, in anatomy, the bottom of the 
 concha, or hollow of the outer car. 
 
 ■Ai. vEARiuM alio ligiiifics a bee-hive. The word is 
 formc&oi ahem, a " channel or cavity ;" inallufion 
 to tlie alveoli, or cells in bee-hives. 
 
 Some of the ancients ufe alfo the word ahcariiim 
 for abee-houl'e, more uftially called among ns apiary. 
 
 Alvearium is fomelimes alfo ufed ligiiratively, to 
 dcnotcaeolledion. In which fenfe, aU'tariut/i&moaxns. 
 to much the fame with what we otherwife call thcfau- 
 rus, cornucopia, or the like. Vine. Ijorcns has publifli- 
 cd analveariuin of law. 
 
 ALVEOLUS, in natural hillory, the namc.ofthe 
 waxencclls iiibee hives. Alfo the nsmeof a fca-foilil 
 of a conic figure, compofed of a number of cells, like 
 bee-hives, joined into each other, with a pipe of com- 
 munication. 
 
 Alveolus, in anatomy, the fockcts in the jaws 
 wherein ijie teeth are fixed. — Some writers fpeak of 
 teeth growitig without alveoli. Pliny mentions a pcr- 
 fo.T who had a tooth in jiis palate. Eiifiacliiiis relates, 
 that he faw a man who at 50 had a tooth growing out 
 oftlic middle of his fatices. Holler gives an inftance 
 of a peiibn, whofe teeth wcreof a piece with his jaws, 
 without any infcrtion into alveoli. 
 
 ALUM, in chemiflry, a clear and tranfparent fa- 
 line matter, ufually fold in large maflcs, of a very 
 auftere and aftringent talle, ufeful in medicine and in 
 various arts. 
 
 Mod of the alum to be met with is artificially pre- 
 pared by il;e methods related in their proper place un- 
 der the article Chemistry, or by others fimilar to 
 them ; though fonietimcs a fmall quantity is produced 
 naturally. This native alum is mixed with heteroge- 
 neous matters, or efflorefces in various forms upon the 
 ores during calcination. It rarely occurs in acryflalliz- 
 cd Hate, though thus it is faid to be met with in Egypt, 
 Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, and other places. It is alfo 
 found in the waters, iinpregnated v,-ith fixed air, but 
 very feldom in fountains or hot medicated waters. 
 
 There are feveral kinds of alum to be met with ; 
 but thefc differ from one another only in being mixed 
 with fomefalts which are not of the aluminous kind. 
 That called the Roman alum has been conddered as 
 preferable to any other. This is ufually met with in 
 fmall cryflals, and has a redidi colour, mod probably 
 owing to a fmall quantity of calx of iron, which, how- 
 ever, does not in the leaft impair its qualities. The 
 other kinds of alum contain a portion cither of viirio- 
 lated tartar or fal ammoniar, according to the nature 
 of the alkali ufed in its preparatio;). Mr Bergman in- 
 forms us, that the vegetable alkali, if pure, docs not 
 hurt the alum, though it be added in the preparation; 
 but that the volatile alkali, by adulterating it with a 
 
 portion of vitriolic fal ammoniac, renders it unfit for 
 forne purpofcs. The alum, made by adding a portion 
 of tlay to the liquor at tlie beginning ot>the boiling, 
 he conlidersas equal,' it not fu])crior, to Roman alum. 
 He informs us alio, that a kind of alum fome time ano 
 began to be manufaiflured at Brnnfwick, which was 
 equal in quality to the Roman alum. On a chemical 
 analylis of (his alum he found it mixed with cobalt. 
 
 This fall i^ extremely ufeful in the art of dyeing; as 
 by means of it a great number of colours are fixed ai>d 
 rendered permanent upon cloth, which other wife would 
 either not adhere in any degree, or only for a very fliort 
 time. In what manner this is acconipliHicd we are 
 very much ignorant ; the conjeftures and theories on 
 this fubjecl arc related under the article Dyei no. It 
 eouflitutcb the bafis of crayons, which generally confifl 
 of the earth of alum finely powdered and tinged for 
 the purpofe. In the preparation of Pruliian blue, it 
 prevents the bafis of martial vitriol, which is folublc 
 iu acids, from being precipitated by the fuperfluous al- 
 k;Ji employed in the preparation of that pigment ; that 
 is, the alkali which is not faturated by the colouring 
 matter. As this bads adheres more rtrongly than the 
 clay to the vitriolic acid, and would form a green by 
 the mixture of itsyellovvnefs, the white eartli of alum 
 likewifc, according to its quantity, dilutes the darker 
 colours, even black itTclf, and produces an infinite 
 number of (hades. It is alfo of ufe in the making of 
 candles; for being mixed with the tallow, it gives it 
 an hardncfs and confiflence v;hich ithas not naturally. 
 Wood fuflicicnily foaked in a folution of aluin does not 
 eafily take fire, and the fame is true of paper impreg- 
 nated with It ; which for that reafon is very properly 
 employed in prefervinggun-powder,asitalfo excludes 
 the moifture of the air. Paper iinpregnated with alum 
 isuleful in whitening(ilver,andiilveringbrals without 
 heat. Alum is alfo of ufe in tanning, where it aflifts 
 in relloring the cohefions of thelkins almofl entirely 
 deftroycd by the lime. Vintners Sue down their 
 wines, &c. with alum -, filliers ufe it to dry codfirti 
 with ; and bakers have mixed it with the flour to make 
 their bread compait and white : to this lafl ufe of it 
 great objeclions have been made, but unjullly, for it 
 is entirely innocent, and now feldom ufed. 
 
 In medicine it is of confidcrablc ufe as an aflringent 
 and tonic. It is reckoned particularly ferviceable for 
 retraining hemorrhagies, and immoderate fecretions 
 from the blood ; but lefs proper in intellinal fluxes. In 
 violent hemorrhagies, it may be given iu dofes of rj 
 or 20 grains, and repeated every hour or half hour till 
 the bleeding abates : in other cafes, fmaller dofes are 
 more advifable ; large ones being apt to naufeate the 
 ftomach, and occafion violent conftipations of the 
 bowels. It is ufed alfo externally, in aflringent and 
 repellent lotions and collyria. Burnt alum taken irt- 
 tcrnally has been highly extolled ia cafes of colic. In 
 fuch inftances, when taken to the extent of a fcruple 
 for a dofe, it has been faid gently to move the belly, 
 and give very great relief from the fevere pain. Irs 
 officinal preparationsare, for internal nfo, pulvis flyp- 
 tictii, and aqua flyptica for external applications, 
 the aqua atuiitiiiis, and cnagulum aluviivis and aluihen 
 uflmn ; which lafl; is no other than the alum dried by 
 fire, or freed from the watery moiflure, which, like o- 
 thcr falts, it always retains in its cryflallineform. By 
 
 this 
 
 Alum.
 
 A L Y 
 
 [ 511 ] 
 
 A M A 
 
 AJuni. tliislol's of its water it becomes Hiarpcr, foas to aft as 
 Alj/Tiini. a (light ci'cliaiotic ; and it is chicliy with this intcu- 
 '— ^< ■ tion tliat it is employed in medicine, being very rare- 
 ly taken internally. For thefc preparations, lee Phar- 
 macy. 
 
 ■ j4li'm mines are faid to have been firfl found in 
 Italy in the year 1460; and in ijo6 king Henry VII. 
 made a monopolizing grant of this commodity to A\i- 
 guflinc Chigi, a merchant of Sienna. In tiie year 
 1608 the maniifadnre of almn was liril invented, and 
 fucccfsfully pradlifed in England, meeting with great 
 encouragement in Yorkfl'.ire, where it was iiril nude, 
 from Lord Sheffield, and other gentlemen of that 
 county. King James I. by advice of his miniflry, af- 
 fumed the monopoly of it to himftlf, and therefore 
 prohibited the importation of foreign alum ; and in 
 162J the importation of it was further prohibited by 
 the proclamation of Charles 1. 
 
 /iuuM-vj/iiki, places where alum is prepared, and 
 matiufaiSlurcd in quantities for fale. They differ from 
 ahim-mines, as in the former an artificial alum, and 
 in the latter natural alum, is produced. 
 
 ALUNTIUM, Alontium, (anc. geog.) a town 
 in the north of Sicily, lituated on a flcep eminence, at 
 the mouth of the Chydas j faid to be as old as the war 
 of Troy. Now in ruins ; from which arofe the ham- 
 let St FUadclJo, in the V'al di Demona. The inha- 
 bitants were callcil Haluutnii, 
 
 ALVUS, in anatomy, a term ufed for the belly in 
 general, but more frequently applied to the bowels. 
 
 ALWAIDII a feft of Mahometans who believe 
 all great crimes to be unpardonable. — The Alwadii 
 (landin oppolUion to the Morgii. They attribute lefs 
 efficacy to the true belief in the falvation of men than 
 the rell of the Mulfelmans. 
 
 ALYSSUM, ALLV5oN,orALLYsoiDES,Madwort; 
 (from axus-s-M, to be mad ; becaufc it was believed to 
 have the property of curing madnefs) : A genus of the 
 filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynaniia clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the 
 ;9th order, Silicjuofa. The char.ifters are : The calyx 
 is an oblong four-Ie.ived pcrianthium : The coro//a con- 
 fifts of four cruciform petals ; with claws the length 
 •>f the calyx, the petals Ihorter : The fiamhia conlilt of 
 fix filaments, the length of the calyx, twooftliem ra- 
 ther fhorter and denticulated ; the antherse arc erefl 
 and expanding: The pijlilltii/t has an ovate germca; 
 the flylus is I'lmple, and the length of the ftamina ; the 
 Aigma is obtule : The pericardium is a fub-globular 
 cmarginated filicle, furniflied with a bilocular flylus, 
 having an elliptic partition : xXml fcedi arc few, orbi- 
 cular, and affixed to filiform receptacles. 
 
 Species. Of this genus, Linnaeus enumerates 19 
 fpccies ; but none of them arc remarkable either for 
 beauty, or any other property, except the luMmifo- 
 lium, or rnaihvort with whole fpcar-lhapcd leaves. 
 This fprcads itfelf upon the ground, and never riles 
 to any height. It produces, at tjie extremity of its 
 branches, very pretty tufts of fmall white flowers ; of 
 which it is fcldom dcrtituic for fix or fevcn months 
 luccellivcly j for which reafon it well deferv£S a place 
 in the gardens of the curious. 
 
 Cuitiire. Though thefc plants are natives of the 
 foutbern parts of Europe ; yet, if planted on a dry, 
 lean; or nibbilhy foil, ihcy will civdurc the fcvereil win- 
 
 ters in the open air. — The halimifolium felJom conti- Alj-tirdia 
 nues above two or three years, and muft therefore be \ 
 
 often fown to prcfcrvc it ; or if the feeds are futFercd An... la'.ar. 
 to fill, the plants will rife without any trouble. It " 
 may alfo be propagated by cuttings, which ought to 
 be planted in April or May, and arc very apt to take 
 root, if kept fliadcd in the beat of the day, and gently 
 refrelhcd with water. 
 
 Tliis jilant, as already obfcrved, was tliought to 
 cure fome kinds of madnefs ; but the prcfent prafticc 
 has entirely rejcftcd it for iliis or any other ptirpol'c. 
 ALYTARCHA, a priefl of Antioch iu Syria, who, 
 in the games inflituted in honour of liic grids, prclidej 
 over the officers who carried rods to clear away the 
 crowd and keep order. 
 
 In the Olympic games, the Aly larches ludthc Ikmr, 
 command, and obliged every pcrfon to prcfcrvc ordti' 
 and decency. 
 
 ALZIRA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of 
 Valcntia, feaicd on the river Xucar, E. Long. o. 20. 
 N. Lat. 39. 10. 
 
 AMA, in ccclcliafiical writers, denotes a vcfTcl 
 wherein wine, water, or the like, were held, for the. 
 ferviccof the cucharift. In this fenl'e the wordisalfU 
 written aniula ; fonietimes alfo hama, and hamula. 
 
 Am A is fonietimes alfo ufcd for a wiac-mcafure, as 
 a ca(k, pipe, or the like. 
 
 AMABYR, a barbarous cuflom which formerly 
 prevailed in feveral parts of England and Wales, being 
 afum of money paid to the lord when a maid was mar- 
 ried within his lordfliip. The word is old Britilh, and 
 fignifics "the price of virginity." 
 
 AMADABAT, a corruption from Ahmed abad 
 or Ahmed's city, (fo'callcd from a king of that name) ; 
 a large and populous city ot Indoflan, and the capirel 
 of the province of Guzcrat. It is fituatcdin £. Long. 
 72. 12. N.Lat. 2;. o. Amadabat was formerly called 
 Cuzcrat ; and by Slnh Jehan nicknamed Cherdakdd, 
 or <' the habitation of duft," becauf^ it was much in- 
 commoded thcrew iih. It n\ as the feat of the Guzcrat 
 kings, as it is now of the Mogul governor. The city 
 Hands in a Leauiikil plain ; and is watered by the little 
 river Sabrimetti, which, though net deep, in time of 
 rains overflows the pl.iins prodigiouliy. The Wills 
 are built with rtonc and brick, flanked at certain di- 
 ftauces with great roi;nd towers and Laiilctr.ents. It 
 has twelve gates ; and, including the fuburbs, is about 
 four miles and an half long. The Arrets are wide. 
 The meyddn Jhah, or king's fquarc, is 700 paces 
 long and 400 broad, planted round witii trees. On 
 the weft (idc is the caltic, well wailed wi:h free Ilenc, 
 and as fpicious as a little city ; but its inward appear- 
 ance is not conformable to its external magnificence. 
 The caravanfera is on the fouth of the Iqiiare, and ii j 
 chief ornament. Near the mcydan alfo is the king's 
 palace, whofe apartments are richly ornEnientcd: tad 
 in the midll of the city is the Englilh factory, where 
 they purchafc fine chintz, callicots, and Jther Indian 
 merchandize The place is fo full of g.ir.'ens ftorcd 
 with fruit trees, that from an eminence it looks like a • 
 wood. The Hindoos have here an Iiofpital for lii k 
 bealls, and another for fick birds, which they take 
 great care of. According to fome Uie accounts, this 
 city is little inferior to the bcfi in Curope, a.Td is 
 thought 10 yield tcu times .is much ;cvcnuca-s Surat. 
 
 AM.-\D.\>7.
 
 A M A 
 
 [ 5'2 ] 
 
 A iM A 
 
 AMADAN, or Ham ADAN, a towu of J'cvii<i, be- 
 tween Taurus, and Ifpalian, K. Lon;j. 47. 4. N. Lat. 
 35. ty. It is Icaicd at the foot of a mountain, where 
 tlicre area f>Tr;it many fpringt, whicli water the adj:;- 
 ccnt country. The extent of the city is very 'a'.gc ; b .t 
 iberearc a great many w:ifte I'pots wiihin it, as well as 
 cultivated land. The honfcs are bnil: ol" brick harden- 
 ed in the fun, and have but a very indiftcreiit afpctt. 
 There is but one tolernble ftreet ; and that is where 
 fluffs, garments, and the like, are cxpofcd to falc : it 
 isllraight, long, and wide ; and the (hops are very well 
 fnrnilhed. The adjacent parts are fruitful in corn and 
 rice, irfomu-h that ihcncighbouri"g provinces are fup- 
 plied from h-ii'-e. It is l.iid 10 enjoy a very fahibrious 
 air, but the cold in winter is intenfe. The Armenians 
 have a church in this town, Inu it is a very ill-contrived 
 rmcturc. The Jews have a fynagoguc near a tomb, 
 where they pretend Efther and Mordecailic interred. 
 To this ]darc they come in pilgrimage from ftveral 
 parts of the Levant. About a league from Amadan, 
 tliereisamoinitain called yVa//'.;'.'", which abounds with 
 all forts of curioi's herbs. In the ff ring, people flock 
 to this mountain from all parts to recover their 
 health, by fucking in the f li.tary efiluvia with their 
 breath. 
 
 Ainadan is a very ancient city. It is faid to have 
 been dtflroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and rebuilt by 
 Darius, v.ho brought hither all his riches. The kings 
 of Pcrtia frequently retired to this place on account of 
 Its dclighti'ul fitiiation ; for which reafon it olitained 
 llie name of the Royn! city. It was conquered by th« 
 khalif Othman, and narrowly efcapcd being deftroycd 
 by Jenghiz Khan iii 1220. It had then flrong walls 
 and a good caflle, which arc now in ruins. Its prefent 
 beauty confiils in its gardens and fprings. 
 
 AMADANAGEU, a town in the liither pcninfu- 
 la of India, in the province of Decan. E. Long. 74. 
 ]>". N. Lat. 18. 10. — It was taken by the Moguls in 
 I J93, after a fr/je of fix months ; being at that time 
 defended by a flrong eaftle, fituatcd on an eminence, 
 and furrounded with deep ditches, into which fevaral 
 fprings difrharged their waters. 
 
 AMADIA, a trading town of Alia, in Curdiflan, 
 belonging to the Turks ; fcated on a high mountain. 
 E. Lon^. 4^. I N. Lat. 36. 2y. 
 
 AMADOW, a kind of blaek-ntatcL, tinder, or 
 touch-wood, which comes fromGermany. It is made 
 of a fort of large mulhrooms, or fpungy excrefcences, 
 which commonly grow on old trees, efpecially oaks, 
 afli, and firs. Tliis fubflance being boiled in conimon 
 water, and afterwards dried and well beaten, is then put 
 into a llrong lye prepared with falt-petre, after which 
 it is again put to dry in an oven. The druggiftsfell 
 this match wholcfale in Franc «-,.ind feveral hawkers re- 
 tail it. Some give to the amadow the naine of Pyre- 
 lichnical Spuiiyi, bceavrfe of its aptnefs to take fire. 
 
 A^^ABOW I\Y, akind of cotton which comes from 
 Alexandria, by the way of Marfcillcs, 
 
 AM.AIN, in the fea-languagc, a term importing 
 to lower forp.cthing at once. Thus, 10 Jliike arnahi, is 
 to lower, or let fall, the top- fails r xowitve an/aiii, is to 
 make a fignal, by waving a drawn fword, or the like, 
 as a demand that the enemy (\r\Vc their top-fails. 
 
 AMAC, a fmail illand in the Baltic fca, near Co- 
 penhagen, from which 't.js feparatcd by a canal, 
 '" .3 
 
 over which there is a driw-bridge. Aniak is about Air«l, 
 four miles long and two broad j and is chlelly peopled Arualclt. 
 by the dcfcendaiits of a colony from tall t'riellaKd, to """^ 
 whom tile illand was eontignid by Chrifti.in II. at the 
 rtq^Rll of liiswilc Llizabcili, liderof Charles V. for 
 the purpofc of lupplying her wiih vegetables, cheefe, 
 and butter. From the intermarriages of thcfe colonies 
 with the Danes, the prefent inhabitants arc chiefly dt- 
 fccnded J but as they wear their own drcfs, and enjoy 
 peculiar privileges, they appear a diftiiict race from 
 the natives. The illand contains about lix villages, 
 and between 3000 and 4000 fouls. It has two church- 
 es, in which the niiniflerspreachoccafionally in Dutch 
 and Danifli. The inhabitants have theirown inferior 
 tribunals ; but in capital offences are amenable to the 
 king's court of jullice at Copenhagen. The old na- 
 tioniil habit, brought by the original colony when they 
 firfl 'migrated to the illand, is Itillin ufe amongll thcni. 
 It refemblcsthe habit of the ancient quakers, as repre- 
 fcnied in the pictures of the Dutch and Fleniilh paint- 
 ers. The men wear broad-brimmed hats, blackjac- 
 kets, full glazed breeches of the fame colour, loofe at 
 the knee, and tied round the waift. The women were 
 drelTed chiefly in black jackets and petticoats, with a 
 pieceofbluc glazed cloth bound round their heads. The 
 i'.land is laid out in gardens and paflures ; and ftill, ac- 
 cording to the original defign, fupplies Copenhagen 
 with milk, butter, and vegetables. E. Long. 12. 10. 
 N. Lat. 55. 20. 
 
 AMAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Da- 
 land, feated on the river Wefer. It nas a good har- 
 bour ; and carries on a great trade, efpecially in timber, 
 deals, and tar. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 58. 50. 
 
 AMALEK, the fon of Eliphaz, by Timna his con- 
 cubine, and the grandfon of Efau. Gen. xxxvi. 12. 
 and I Chri i. 36. Amalek fucceeded Gatam in the go- 
 vernment of Edom. He was the father of the Ania- 
 lekites ; a powerful people who dwelt in Arabia Pe- 
 traea, between the Dead Sea and the Red fea, or be- 
 tween Havilaand Shur (i Sam. xv. 7.) ; fometimesin 
 one canton, and fotnetimes in another. It does not 
 appear that they had cities : for there is no mention 
 of any but one in the Scriptures [id. ii $.) ; they li- 
 ving generally in hamlets, caves, or tents. 
 
 The Ifraelites had fcarcepalfed the Red Sea on their 
 way to the wildernefs, before the Amalekites came to 
 attack them in the defarts of Raphidim (Ex. xvii. 8, 
 S:c.); and put thofe cruelly to the fword who were ob- 
 liged, either through fatigue or weaknefs, to remai» 
 behind. Mofes, by divine command, direrted Jolhua 
 to fall upon this people ; to record the acl of inhumanity 
 which they had committed in a book, in (U'der to have 
 it always before his eyes ; and to revenge it in the mofl 
 remarkable manner. Jofliua therefore fell upon the 
 Amalekites, and defeated them while Mofes was upon 
 the mountain with Aaron and Hur in company. Mo- 
 fes, during the time of the engagement, held "p his 
 hands, to which the fuccefs of the battle was owing ; 
 for as often as he let them down, Amalek prevailed. 
 But Mofcs's hands being tired, Aaron and Hur fup- 
 ported l*is arms, and held them exiended, while the 
 battle lafted, which was from morning till the approadi 
 of night, when the Amalekites were cut in pieces. 
 This happened in the year of the world 2513, before 
 Chrift 1491. 
 
 The
 
 A M A 
 
 [ 
 
 kn^altk. T!ic gron:;d of the enmity ol'thf AranltXires agiiiifl 
 
 -^ • liic IlVaclites is jjriicrally ('ipjxjfcd to liivt bcrii an in- 
 
 iiaie iiaircd t'roin tlic rciiiciiUxMU'c of Jacob's <;cpii- 
 viiig tlitir progenitor both <>{ his binh; i^ht aao Llcf- 
 ling. Their falling upon them, however, anJ that 
 w iihomaiiy provocation, when •.he/fa'.v theinrc.liiciil 
 t.> fo low a condition by the latigMc of tlieir march 
 and tiie cxccffivc droiiT;htthcy laboured under, was an 
 inhnniin action, and jui'tly dcfervcdihc defeat »vliich 
 Jodiua gave thcni. Under the Jm'jjf s (v. 3.), v/c ice 
 the Amalckites united with the jMi.iiaiiitesand Moab- 
 ites; in a dcli;^n to opprcfs Ifracl ; but Ehud delivered 
 the Ifracliies from K^lonkin^jof the Moabiics (JuJj;cs 
 iti.), and Gideon (chap. vi:i.) delivered them from the 
 Midianites and Amalckitcs. About the year oi' the 
 world 1930, Saul marched againfltlic Anialekites, ad- 
 vanced as far as their capital, and pnt all the people 
 of the country to the ("word ; but fyarcd the bcft of all 
 the cattle and moveaMes, contrary to a divine coin- 
 mandi whichaclof difobcdicncc was the caufe of Saul's 
 future misfortunes. 
 
 After this war, the Amalekites fcarce appear any 
 more in hiltsry. However, about the year of the 
 world 2949, a troop of Amalckitcs came and pillaged 
 Ziklao;,whiciibelonged to David (i Sam. xxx.), where 
 he had left his two wives Ahiuoani and Abigail ; but 
 he returning from .^n txpeditionwhich he had made in 
 the company of Acliidi into the valley of Jezrccl, pur- 
 fjed them, overtook and difperfed thciii,aud recover- 
 ed all the booty which they had carried off ironi Zik- 
 lag. 
 
 The Arabians maintain Amalek to have been the 
 fonof Ham and grandfon of Noah ; that he was the 
 father of Ad and grand father of Stliedad. Calmct 
 thinks that this opinion is by no means to be rejected ; 
 as it is not very probable that Amalek the fon of Eli- 
 phaz, and grandfon of Efau, fliould be the father of a 
 fcDple fo powerful and numerous as the Amalekites 
 wtrewheii the Ifraeliies departed out of Egypt. Mofes 
 in ilie IxHjk ofGenefis (xiv. 7.) relates, that in Abra- 
 him's lime, long before tlie birth of Amalek, the fon 
 of Eliphaz, the five confederate kings carried the v.-ar 
 into Amalek's country, about KadcQi ; and into ih^t 
 of the Amorites, about Hazczontaniar. The fame 
 Mofes (Numb. xxiv. ao.) relates, that thedivintr Ba- 
 laam, obfervingat a diftance the land of Amalek, fai<i, 
 in his prophetic flyle, "Amalek is the fiiil, the head, 
 tlvc original of the nations ; but his latter end Ihall be 
 liiat lif perilh forever." Oiir commentator obfervcs, 
 that this epiihetof (he firftof nations caiiiict certainly 
 agree 'vith the Amalckitcs dciccnded from the fon of 
 EJiphaz, becaufc the gcacration then living was but 
 the third from Amalek. Befidcs, Mofes never re- 
 proaches the ."Amalekites with attacking their brethren 
 rhe Ifraelites j an aggravating circumftance which he 
 Would not have omiiicd were thf Amalekites defcc need 
 from Lfau ; in wl;ich cafe they biA been the breihrt n 
 ".'the Ifraelites. Ladly, vve fccihe Amalekites alnioll 
 always joined in the Scriptf.rr with the Canaanitrsaud 
 rhiliflints, and never with the Edomitcs ; and wl.cn 
 Saul madr war upon the Amalekites. and almoll utterly 
 rirOroytd I'oeni.wedonot find that the Edon. ties maJc 
 the lead motion tovv.Trdsthciraitiltancf, nor lorevtr.iic 
 them aficrwardr. Thence it istiioupht )jrpl>^l>le. lh:!t 
 *hc Ainalckitts wiio are (imfteu ;ueiilitJt»cd in Strlp- 
 
 VuL. :. 
 
 13 ] A M A 
 
 lure were a free people JefcenJcd (rom Canaan, and 
 devo'.cd to the curfc as well as the otiier Anioritcs, and 
 very dincrent fro,;i ibc defcciiu.a:ti of Amaick iht 
 graadfuii of Efau. 
 
 The acciiuncs'which the Ar;ibians give us of the 
 Anialc):::cs dcrtroyed by Saul arc as lolluw. An.»l;k. 
 was the father ofa.n ancient triLc in Arabia, extermi- 
 nated in the rci;;n of Saul. This tribe contained only 
 I'ne Ar;'! ianswhoarc aWcdiure ; tiic remain j where- 
 of were mingled with the posterity of Juktaii and Ad- 
 naa, and fo became Moi'arabesor i\loilaarabcs ; that i.. 
 to fay, Arabians blended with foreign nation;. They 
 farther believe, that Ooliah, who was overcome by 
 David, was king of the Amalekites ; and that the 
 giants who inLabired I'alcllinc in Jolhua's time were 
 of the fame race. That at lalt part of the Amalekites 
 retired into Africa while JoIl;;ia was yet liviiig.and fet- 
 tled upon the coafts of Hiibiry, along the Mediterra- 
 nean fca. The fon of Amalek was Ad, a celelratcd 
 j>rincc among the Arabians. Some make him the foi' 
 of Uz, and grandfon of Ararii the fonof Shcm. Lef 
 this be as it v.iil, the Mahometans fay that Ad was 
 the father of an Arabian tribe called yH:tti ; who were 
 externiinaicd, as they tell us, for not hearkening to 
 the patriarch Eber, Tv-ho preached the unity of OoJ 
 to the.ni. Ad had two fons, Schedad and Seh.edid. 
 
 AMAL'rl, an ancient city of Italy, lituated in E. 
 Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 40. ;j — Itisfaid to have de- 
 rived its origin tVom 2 number of Roman familics,who, 
 about the middle of the fourth century, either from 
 private views of emolument, or in confcquencc of com- 
 pulfory orders from the emperor, had left Rome and 
 emlJarked for Co.-iftantinoplc : but meeting with florms 
 on ihcir pail'agc, were call away on ihc Ihores of Sa- 
 lerno, and deprived of the means of purfuing their 
 voyage. In this ftate of perplexity they long remain- 
 ed, but at laft came to the rcfolution of fcttliag on the 
 prdcnt fite of Amalfi, where they expcclcd to enjoy 
 iVcurity and A'-fncient plenty of the ncceiFaricsof life. 
 The carlieft notice of them ii; this fcitlcnient dates no 
 higher than the latter end of the fixrh centary. Im- 
 pervious niouiuaias and inacceffiblc coalls prcfervcJ 
 their infant ilate'froui the lirll fury of the Loir.birds. 
 who fcldom attempted the toraiucft of a marjiinjc 
 people. 
 
 In the year 825, when this liiile republic h.id, under 
 the patronage of the cafiirn emperors, atiaiticd a de- 
 gree of wealth and reputation fufticient to excite tha 
 ambition of its neighbours, Sico, prince of Salerno, 
 niarchcd a body of troops by night ; furprifed Air.al;". ; 
 and, carrying orf the grcatefl part of the ir.hs'oitants, 
 compelled them to fix at Salerno, which hsj lately 
 fuffcred a great lofs of peojilc by sn epidemical difor- 
 dcr. But before tiie fourth ye-r of their captivity was 
 expired, the Amalfians tool; aiivantageof the abicucc 
 of the Salemian chiefs, who w c-c than carrying 0:1 a 
 war with the Eeneventai'i ; armed ilienifelvcs ; snd, 
 after burning and plnndcring Salerno, marciicdin 11 i- 
 uiiiph back to their ov/n country. 
 
 Here they framed » better lyflcm of govcrnnien:, 
 and reformed many abufc& in tiitir lorincr legislation : 
 adcptjiig various ineafurcs that wcrclikelv 10 ;'rti:io;e 
 internal concord and defeat the c\il in" ' fu- 
 
 r'iojncnituics. Their (:rtl plan was 10 vei ■.-.t.l 
 
 aii.hority in a ainiHirary prcle\:l ; Uit iht c:.^pc.'■;^nce 
 
 3 r of
 
 A M A 
 
 [ SH ] 
 
 A M A 
 
 Aniaia of a lew years caiifcd them to prefer lodging iliat 
 pancr in the hands of a diikc elected for the term of 
 his jiatiiral life. Under ihefe governors Amalfi at- 
 laincil the funiniit of litr military and commercial glo- 
 ry. It extended its territory, which reached eaftward 
 from Vice Vccchio, and wellw.ird to the proniouiury 
 f'f Minerva, inehiding likcwifc the illand of Caprea, 
 and the two illands of the Galli. Towards the north 
 it comprehended the cities of Lettcre, Gragnans, l-"!- 
 montio, and Capule di Franchi ; towards the foiitli, 
 thofe of Scala, RavcUi, Minori, Majuri, Atrani, Tra- 
 monii, Agcriila, Citara, Prajano, and Rolilano. 
 
 Leo IV. found the Amalhans an ufcful ally in his 
 ■wars with the in fidels,3nd honoured the commonwealth 
 with the title of Defender of the Faith. The Neapo- 
 lit.ins, with whom, as Greek valliils, they were uni- 
 ted in flri^t bonds of friendlhip,expericjiccd many lig- 
 nal favours a: their hands ; and the Mnllulraeu theni- 
 felvts found it expedient to court their alli.ince, and to 
 ^entcr into treaty with them. Their lituation had from 
 the beginning given tJiem a turn to commerce, and 
 their attention to naval affairs fo much confcqucnce in 
 the eyes of their protector, the emperor of Conflanti- 
 nople, that by his orders a court was cllabliflied at 
 Amalli for the decilion of all coiitroverfics arifing in 
 maritime tranfa>."tions. Its code and reports became the 
 general rule in thofe cafes throughout this part of Eu- 
 rope ; its precedents and decrees were allowed to be 
 good authority tofoundjudgment upon even in foreign 
 tribunals. — To crown the mercantile and naval glory 
 of the republic, it was referved to the lot of an Amal- 
 tian to make, or at Icalt to perfeft, the moll import- 
 ant difcovtry ever made for the improvement of navi- 
 gation. Palitano, a village which llands on thelhore 
 a few miles weft of Amaiti, boafts of having given 
 birth to Flavius Gioia, the inventor of the jiiariner's 
 compafs. 
 
 The merchants of this town engrolTed the trade of 
 the Levant, and tranfadtd the commercial bufinefsof 
 the world in a lucrative and ex. lulive manner. The 
 Pifans, Venetians, and Genoele, rofeupon iheir ruin ; 
 and after monopolizing the emoluments of trade for 
 fome ages, made way for the more comprehenfive and 
 daring fpirit of the prefen: maritime powers. 
 
 At prcfent Amalfi is fubject to Naples, and is the 
 fee of an archbilhop. It is but a Ihadow of what it 
 was in its flourilliingftate, when it extended over the 
 Ihipcndous rocks that hungon eacfi fide, flill crowned 
 with battlemented walls and ruined towers. Its build- 
 ings, Mr Swinburne fays, are not remarkable for ele- 
 gance or fize ; and contain at mofl 4000 inhabitant.s, 
 who feem to be in a poor line of life. The cathedral 
 is an uncouth building. Under the choir is the cha- 
 pel and tomb of the apoflle St Andrew -, to whofe 
 honour the edifice was dedicated, when Cardinal 
 Capuano in 1208 brought his body from Conftanti- 
 nople. 
 
 AMALGAM, mtrcury united with fome metal.- 
 
 AMALGAMATION, the operation of making an. 
 amalgam, or mixing mercury with any metal. 
 
 For the combination of one metal with another, it 
 is generally fufficicnt that one of them be in a flate of 
 jflnidity. Mercury being always fluid, is therefore 
 '.apable of amalgamation with other metals without 
 
 Amaii 
 
 heat i nevcnhclcfs, licat coniidcrably facilitates the Aniiilt) 
 operation. 
 
 Toamalganiaic without heat requires nothing more 
 than rubbing tiie two metals together in a mortar ; 
 but the metal to be united with tlie mercury Ihould be 
 previoully divided into very thin plates or grains. 
 Wlien heat is ufed (which is always moll ett'ettua!, 
 and with fome metals indifpenfably necelFary), the 
 mercury (liould be heated till it begins to fmoke, and 
 the grains of metal made red-hot before they are 
 thrown into it. If it be goldor (ilver, itis fufficicnt to 
 flir the fluid with an iron rod for a little while, and 
 then throw it into a velfel filled with water. This 
 amalgam is ufed forgilding or lilvcring on copper, 
 which is afterwards expofed to a degree ol heat fuffici- 
 cnt to evaporate the mercury. 
 
 Amalgamation with lead or tin is effefted by pour- 
 ing an equal weight of mercury into either of thefe 
 metals in a Jlateof fulion, and rtirring with an iron 
 rod. Copper amalgamates with great difficulty, and 
 iron not at all. 
 
 AMALTILI'IA, the name of the Cumasan Sibyl, 
 who ofl'ered to Tarquinius Superbus nine books, con- 
 taining the Roman deftinics, anddemand'rd 300 piece.'' 
 of gold for them. He derided her ; whereupon fiie 
 threw threeof them intothe fire; and returning, alked 
 the fame price for the other fix ; which being denied; 
 file burnt three more ; and returned. Hill deniandiiig 
 the fame pricj. Upon which Tarquin confulting the 
 pontiffs, was advifed to buy them. Thefe books were 
 infuch efteem, that two magillrates were created to 
 confult. them upon extraordinary occafions, ■ 
 
 Amalthea, in pagan mythology, the daughter of 
 MelilTus, king of Crete, and the nurfc of Jupiter, 
 whom ihe fed with goat's milk and honey. Accord- 
 ing to others, Amalthea was a goat, which Jupiter 
 tranllated into the iky, with her two kids, and gave 
 one of her horns to the daughters of MelilRis, as are- 
 ward for the pains they had taken in attending him. 
 This horn hadthe peculiar propertyoffurnilhingthem. 
 with whatever they wifliedfor ; and was thence called 
 the coniticof'u:, or horn of plenty. 
 
 AMALTH.-EUS (Jerome, John Baptifta, and Cor- 
 nielle), three celebrated Latin poets of Italy, whoflou- 
 rifhed in the i6th century. Their compolitions were 
 printed at Anillerdam in 1685. One of the prettiell 
 pieces in that coUcdlion is an epigram on two childrcH, 
 whofe beauty was very extraordinary, though each of 
 them was deprived of an eye : 
 
 ' Lumine Aeon dextro, captaefl Leonfflafiniflro ; 
 
 ' Et poterat forma vincere nterque deos. 
 'Parvc puer, lumen quod habes concede forori ; 
 
 ' Sic tu cjecus Amor, lie erit ilia Venus.' 
 
 AMAMA(Sixtinus),profcirorof the Hebrew tongue 
 in theunivcrfity of Franeker, a raanof great learning, 
 was born in Frielland, and hadlfudied under Dru-lius. 
 He publiflied a criticifm upon the tranllation of the 
 Pentateuch ; collated the Dutch tranllation of the Bi- 
 ble with the original and mod accurate tranllations ; 
 and wrote a cenfure of the Vulgate trandation of the 
 hiftorical booksof theOld Tellament, Job, the Pfalms 
 and Canticles. It is impolfible to anfwer the reafons 
 whereby he Ihows thenccellity o/confultingthe origi- 
 nals.
 
 A M A [5 
 
 iir.swc nals. This he rccoinnieiidcdfo eariicflly, that Come 
 
 II fyiioJs, being influenced by his rcafons, decreed, that 
 
 mamcx. j^^^j Hiould be admitted into the miniftry but fuch as 
 
 " had a competent knowledge of the Hebrew and Greeic 
 
 t-extof the Scripture. He died in 1A29. 
 
 AMANCE, a town in the duchy of Lorrain, upon 
 a rivulet of the fame nam*;. E. Long. 6. 10. N, Lat. 
 
 4S. 4J. 
 
 AMAND (Mark-Anthony-Gerard, ficur dc St.), a 
 French poet, was born at Roan in Normandy in i J94. 
 In the cpiltle dedicatory to the third part of his works, 
 he tells us, that his father commanded a fquadron of 
 ■ fliips in the fervice of Elizabeth queen of England for 
 32 years, and that he was for three years prifoner in 
 ihc Black Tower at Conllantinople. He mentions al- 
 fo, that two brothers of liis had been killed in ati en- 
 gagement againfl the Ttirks. His own life >vas fpcnt 
 inacoatinual fucceflion of travels, which was of no ad- 
 vantage to his fortune. There arc mifcelhneous poems 
 of this author, the grcatcil part of which are of the 
 comic or burlefque, and the amorous kind. Though 
 there are many blemilhes in his poems, yet he had the 
 talent of reading thein in fo agreeable a manner, that 
 every one was charmed with them. In i6jo, he pu- 
 bliflied " Stances fur !a grolfcire dc la reinc dc l-'ologne 
 et de Seude." There arc fix flanzas of nine verfes 
 each. In i6j5, he printed his " Moife fauve, idyle 
 heroiquc." This poem had at firft many admirers : 
 Monf. Chapelain called \r.zf[>eakhig pifture ; but it has 
 finec fallen into contempt. Amand wrote alfo a very 
 devout piece, intitled "Stances aM. Corneille, furfon 
 imitation de Jefus Chrifl," which was printed at Paris 
 in 1656. Mr BrolTettc fays that he wrote alfo a poem 
 upon the moon, wherein he paid a compliment to 
 Lewis XIV. upon his (kill in fwininiing, in which he 
 ufcd often toexercife himfelf when he was young, in 
 the river Seine ; but the king could not bear this poem 
 to be read to him, which is faid to have affecled the 
 author to fuch a degree, that he did not furvive it long. 
 He died in i66r, being 67 years of age. He was ad- 
 mitted a member of the French academy, when it was 
 rirfl founded by cardinal Richlicu, in the year 1633, 
 and Mr Pelilfon informs us, that, in 1637, at his own 
 Jefire, he wasexcnfcd fromthe obligntion of niakinga 
 fpeech in his turn, on condition that he would compile 
 the comic part of the diclionary which the academy 
 had undertaken, and collect the burlefque terms. This 
 was a talk well fuitcd to him ; for it appears by his 
 writings that lie was extremely convcrfant in thefe 
 terms, of which he feems to have made a complete col- 
 lection from tiie markets and other places v.'hcre the 
 lower people re fort. 
 
 Amand (St.), a city of France, in Bcurbonois, on 
 the confines of Berry, fcatcd upon the river Cher. It 
 vvas built in r4io on the ruins of Orval. E. Long. 3. 
 ?o. N. Lat. 46. 52. 
 
 Amand (St.), a city of the Low Countries, in the 
 earldom of Flanders, fcatcd upon the river Scarpe. It 
 contains about 6co houfes, and 3000 or 4000 iiihabi- 
 lants. The abbot of the place is the temporal lord, 
 i'.nd difpofes of the magiftracy. It was given to France 
 by the treaty of L'trccht. E. Long. 2. 3J. N. Lat. 
 SO- 27. 
 
 AMANICii! pYi .T., (Ptolemy); Amanides Pv- 
 
 15 ] A M A 
 
 I*, (Strabo) ; Ama>jiPort«, (Pliny): ftruightsor .\u;jiiu-j 
 dclilcs in mount Amainis, through which Uaiius en- 
 tered Cilicia ; at a greater dillancc from the fea than 
 the PylaE Cilicia; or Syria:, through which Alexander 
 palled. 
 
 AMANTEA, a /ca-port town and bilhop's fee of 
 the kingdom of Naples, lituated near the bay of En- 
 pheniia in the province of Calabria, in E. Long. 16. 
 20. N. Lat. 39. I J. 
 
 AMANUS, a mountain of Syria, feparating it from 
 Cilicia ; a branch of mount Taurus, (Cicero, Strabo, 
 Pliny) ; extending chietiy eaflward, from the fea of Ci- 
 licia, to the Euphrates : now called Monti Nigra, or 
 rather Moiitagna Ncrcs, by the inhabitants ; that is, 
 the watery mountain, as abounding in fpringsand ri- 
 vulets. 
 
 AMAPALLA, a city and port-town of North A- 
 nicrica, in the province of Guatimala, feated on the 
 gulph of the fame name, in the Pacilic ocean. W. 
 Long. 63. 20. N. Lat. 12. 30. 
 
 AMARANTE, an order of knighthood, inftituted 
 in Sweden by queen Chriftina, in 163J, at the clofc 
 of an annual feaft, celebrated in that country, called 
 Wiiifchaft. This feaft was folemnized with entertain- 
 ments, balls, mafquerades, and the like diverlicns, and 
 
 continued from evening till the next morning That 
 
 princels, thinkingthename too vulgar, changed it into 
 that of ihefeajl of the gods, in regard each perfon here 
 rcprefentcd fome deity as it foil to his lot. The queen 
 allumed the name of Arnarante ; that is, unfading, or 
 immortal. The young nobility, drelfed in the habit of 
 nymphs and Ihepherds, ferved the gods at the table. — 
 At rlic end of the feaft, the queen threw oif'her habit, 
 which was covered with diamonds, leaving it to be 
 pulled in pieces by the mafqucs ; and, in memory of fo 
 gallant a feaft, founded a military order, called in Swe- 
 dilli Cefchilfchafft, into which all that had been prefcnt 
 at the fcall were admitted, including 16 lords and as 
 many ladies, befides the queen. Their device was the 
 cypher of Aviarautc, coinpofcd of tw'o A's, the one c- 
 rert, theother inverted, and interwoven together ; the 
 whole inclofed by a laurel crosvn, with Uiis motto, 
 Dolce tielta mcmoria. 
 
 Bulftrodc Whitlock, the Engliili ambairador from 
 Cromwell to the court of Sweden, was made a knight 
 of the order of Amarar.te : on which account it feems 
 to be, rhat we fomeiimes find him ftyled Sir Btiiflrode 
 Whitlock. 
 
 AMARANTHOIDES, in botany, the trivial name 
 of a fpecifs of illeccbrum. See Ii.lecebxpm. 
 
 AMARANTHUS (of < privative, and fiafaui, ti 
 'bilker, becaufe the flower of this plant when cropped 
 does not foon wither). Am ab ant h, or n ower-qes- 
 tle : A genus of the pentandria order, belonging to 
 the montecia clafs of plants ; and, in the natural me- 
 thod, ranking under the y4th order, Mifalhucx. The 
 characters are : The mat; calyx is a five or three Icav'J 
 pcrianthium, ercft, coloured, and pcrfiilcnt : There is 
 no c'.rolla : The jlamitia confift of five or three erett 
 capillary fil.iments, the length of the calyx : the an- 
 thers are oblong and verfatilc : 1\\e fev'jtc calyx the 
 fame as the male, ar.d no corolla : The pillilhvt has an 
 ovate germen ; the ftyli are three, fliort, and fubulated ; 
 the ftigmata limple and perfiftent : T\\c perictirpiuni is 
 3 T 2 an
 
 A M A 
 
 [ 5»6 ] 
 
 A M A 
 
 Amarau- an nv;.te cp.pfjlc, ilircc-beakcd, uiiilacular, and cut 
 tlms rojud : The _/Vi</ ii one, globiiLu', couiprciTtJ, aiiJ 
 Amityllis. ] ,; j^.^ 
 
 '"~'^' ' Sffci.t. Of iliis geniis Litinaeus cmiiiieiaits 19 
 fpttics ; the niofl rcinaikablc ot' which are tlic t"oll»\v- 
 i.i?. I. 'l"':c rricolor, or ihrte colo.ircd aiiiaraiulius. 
 This has been long cuUivaicM in gardens, on account 
 of the bcaaiy of its variegated leaves, which arc of 
 ihrce col'i.irs, grccii, yellow, and red ; and very ele- 
 gantly mixed. Wlien the pl;*ais are in full vigour, 
 tile leaves are larjjc, and cloftly fet from ihe bottom 
 to the top of the ll-tlks, and the bianchcs from a fort 
 of pyramid ; fo that there is not a more beantiful plant 
 than this when it is in full lullre. 2. The nielancho- 
 licus, bicolor, or two-coloured aniaranthus. This 
 greatly refcmblesthe former in its manner of growth ; 
 bur live leaves have only two colours, which are an 
 obfeurc purple, and a b'ijjht crimfon. 1 Jicfe arc fo 
 blended as to ft t olfeich other, and, when the plants aac 
 vigorous, make a fine appearance. 3. The caudata, 
 with very long hanging cylindrical fpikcs. T his fpr- 
 cies if. a native of America. It hath an upright flem 
 three feet high ; ihc leaves and P.alks are of a pale 
 gretii colour. Tin- fpikes of (lowers are produced 
 from the wings of llic (talks, and alfo at the txire- 
 Diiiies of the branches. They are of a bright purple 
 colour, and hann; downward, fomctimes to the length 
 of two feet and an half, fo that many of them to.icii 
 the ground. 4. The niaximus, or tree-like amarar- 
 thus, grows with a ftrong (Icni, to the height of 
 fcven or eight feet. Towards the top it fends forth 
 many horizontal branches, garniihed with obloiig 
 rough green leaves. At the extremity of every (hoot, 
 the cylindrical fpikes «f fiowers are produced. They 
 are of a purple colour, and hang downward like tlic 
 lafl ; but are feldoni half tbc length, the' much tliick- 
 er than the former. 5. The fanguincus, with com- 
 pound fpikes, and oblong oval leaves. This is a na- 
 tive of the Bahar.ia illands. It is an efculcnt plant, 
 and bears fine liosvers. Itgrowsto the height of three 
 feet, with purple Aalks and leaves. The fpikes are fliort 
 and cylindrical, of a bright purple at firll, but after- 
 wards fade to a darker colour. They are f. equtntly 
 produced from the wings of the ftalks ; but at the ex- 
 tremity of the ft ilk arifes a large clufltr of fpikes, 
 which are placed crofs-wifc, with one upright (lalk 
 in the middle. 6. The olcraccus, with obtufe indent- 
 ed leavfi. This has no beauty j but it is ufcd by the 
 Indians as a fubftituie to cabbage. 
 
 Ctiiture. The two firil of tbefe f,-'Ccies being ten- 
 der, require fome art and care to bring them to per- 
 fedlion in Britain, by a fucceluon of hot-bed, with 
 proper waterings, airings, and fhadings. 
 
 Where people are curious in having ihefc annual 
 plants in great pericciion, there (houhi be a glafs-cale 
 erected, with upright and (loping glaifcs on every fide, 
 with a pit in the bottom for tan, in which the pots 
 ihould t-'c plunged. I( this is rsifed eight or nine feet 
 uuhe ridge, and the upright glaflcs arc rive feet, there 
 win be room enough to raifc thefe and otlicr annual 
 plaats to grrat perfe-.. ion j and in fuch a building, 
 many tender vegetable^, wliich rarely pcrfccl their 
 feeds in a cold climaic, m.-;y be every year brought for- 
 v.ard fo as to ripen their feeds. 
 /.M.-iRYLLIS, LiLY-.-iSPHCPEL : A genus of the 
 
 monogynia order, Ulonging to the htxandriaclafs of Amarylli*. 
 
 plants; and in the natural method ranking under the '' 
 
 9lh order, Sp^thu.e^. The ciiaraclers are : The calj;x 
 is an oblong oblcrfc fpatha, eciarginattd, and wither- 
 ing : The t'/r'///./ confifts of l:x petals, breed: The 
 JIaniina conlift of fix fubalated tilaments ; ihc anlhrrae 
 oblong, incumbent, and .iRenLlin;'; : The ^//.'/.V//to has 
 arouudifli fulcated gcrmen beneath ; a f.lit'orm flyljs, 
 nearly the length of the ftatniua , the (lignja tiitid and 
 iknder : The /"t-f.-crfryi/i-Misati ovate irilocular capfalc, 
 with three valves: The/Ii-ij arc many. 
 
 / riKcipeJSp'CK'i. l.Thc li tca,orautmT!n3lnarcil!iis. 
 ThisisufuallyfoKtby gaTdcncrs.alongwith colchicums^ 
 forat:iumnal or;. amen ts to gardens, t'orthisporpofc it 
 is very proper, ^s it will keep rioweri;igfroni the begin - 
 ningof Scpterr/bcrtothc middle of November, proviucil 
 the frort is not fo fcvere as to dcf roy the flowers. A\- 
 though there isbut one dower in csch cover, yet there 
 is a fucccliion of flowers from the fame root, cfpcciailf 
 when 'they are fiiffcred t.o remain three or foar years 
 unrcnoved. The flowers feldom rife above thiee or 
 four Inches high. They arc fnapcd fojnewhat like the 
 flowers of the yellnw crocus ; th e green leaves come uf 
 at the fame tiuje, like the faffron ; and, after the flow- 
 ers are paft, the Icsvisincreafc all the winter. The 
 roots art bulb^ius, and ihaped like thofe of the narcif- 
 fus ; fi are proper ornaments for fuch liordcrs as are 
 planted with cyclamens, falfron, antainnal crocus, col- 
 chicums, and fuch low autumnal flowers. 2. The 
 formolilTima, or jacobaca lily, produces its fiowei-s 
 two or three times in a year, without being regu- 
 lar to any feafon. The flowers are cf a deep red, the 
 under petals very large, and the v.hole flower ftand.s 
 nodding on one fide of the llalk, making a beautiful ep- 
 pearancc. The ftems of the flowers nre produced from 
 the lidcs of the bulbs ; io that when the flowers produ- 
 ced on one fide are decayed, another flalk arifes from 
 the other fide of the bulb ; but there is no more than 
 <me flower produced on the fame ftalk. When the 
 roots are in vigour, flowers will be produced from 
 March to the beginning of September. 3. The far- 
 niej'.lis, or Guernfey lily, is i'uppofed to h.ive come ori- 
 giti.r.lly from Japan, but has l>cen many years cultivated 
 in the gardens of Guernfey and Jerfey ; in both which 
 places ihey fcem to thrive as wtll as if it was their na- 
 tive country,, and from thefe iflaiids their roots arc 
 fent annually to the curious in moft pans of Kurope. 
 The flowers of thisfpcciesare admired for the richnels 
 cf their colour, v. hid; is commonly red, though they 
 have no fcent. They appear towards the end of Sep- 
 tember ; and, if properly managed, will continue a 
 month in beauty. T];c roots of thefc plants do not 
 flower again the fuc<rtcding year, as is the cafe with 
 many other bulbs : but if their bulbs contain two buds 
 in thcirecntre, which isofttn the cafe, they frequent- 
 ly flower twice in three years: afterwhich the fame in- 
 dividual root docs net flower a^ain in fevcral years, but 
 only the offsets from it. 4. The regina, or belladon- 
 na lily, is a native of Portugal, where it was formerly 
 cultivated in great pkntv ; but of late it has been fup- 
 planted by the jaeobiea lily, fo that the roots which 
 iiavc been taken from that country for fome tiir.c 
 paft for the belladonna, have generally proved the ja- 
 cobuea lily. This kind, if properly managed, will 
 fomctimes put out two or three ftcms, gi-o\\ ing near 
 
 three
 
 A M A 
 
 [ S 
 
 Amaryllis, thrcc fcctlii;^h, and produce man/ flowers in each tiin- 
 
 Aniaryii- bcl, w hicli make .1 tine appearance daring :hc raouih 
 
 ilius- ofOilobcr. J. The zcylanica, or Ceylon ]iiy, is a 
 
 ^ ' nutivcof ihc Wift Indie., and uCiiUy Hoiversii June. 
 
 Sonieiinics the fiiiicrooi will .'Ijwtr again in a I'-uuiii, 
 bjt the ri )v.'ers arc of no long daraiio.i. 6. Tlieori- 
 ent;iits,orlily tjaif >dil, witii leaves ihape J liiie a tong.:c. 
 This is a njtivc of the Cape of Good Hope. Tlr- b.iiJS 
 of the root arc large and aliii').! roand ; tiic leaves 1 j;)^, 
 broad, and roii:iJcd at their extremities ; thcfc f,»ri3i 
 two w.iyson tlic furfaec of the j^roand.anddano: co.nc 
 tip till after tlic iio-.Tcr-ftcfii appears, which is gene- 
 rally in Novembtr. After ilic (lowers arc pafc, the 
 leaves incrcaf- till fpring, and in May they br^iii to 
 decay ; fo that from the middle of j;ine to Ocioljcr 
 the roofs are entirely dcUitute of leaves. 
 
 Crittire. Thcfirft fori is very h^rdy, and will thrive 
 in alnioft af.y foil or iircaci'jn ; bat willfucceed br(l in 
 tfrcfh light dry foil, and uot t-o ne?.r the dripping of 
 trees, vr too near walls. Itiiicicafcs very fait by off- 
 ■fcts, by which all the other fpccics arc alfo to be pro- 
 ■pagatcd. Thcfc roots may ise tranfpknted any ti.uc 
 from May to thccndof"Ji;ly j nf:er which it will be too 
 late to remove them. — "I'hcjicobataoughttobekcpti la 
 tnodcvate ftove,illwiuter;i i which Cafeirwi!! fend forth 
 T^letuy of Offsets, that will prod^;ce vigorous plants. — 
 The roots of i!-.c Guirnfcy li'.y are generally brought 
 (jvcr in Jtine and July ; bjt the foontr tliey arc taken 
 ont of the ground after the leaves dt'.;iy, tlic better : for 
 aitho' ihc roots whi.h are taken up when their dowcr- 
 ftcms'begin toa]>pe3r,\\ill flower ;yet their flowers will 
 not be fo large, nor will their roots be ncarfo good af- 
 Ter,as thofe wlii -h wire removed before they fcnt forth 
 frefii li'brcs. When tlitfe roots come fvtr they iiioud be 
 yilantcd.in pors filled with frelh.lightlandy cnrth.niixtd 
 wrth art tic very rotn n dimg.aiidplaccdina warnilitu- 
 ation,obfervinj; new and then lo refrcfh tijecarth with 
 water : liat by nomcins I.t them have too much m et, 
 which wonl I rottrcirroots.cfpecially before they coine 
 «p. AWodtrhc mifiSlc of Scplcnbci', fuel' of the tools 
 as arc It rong enough to flower will be;;in to (how the 
 b-.id ofihcrr rtmverWVtmi :thcrtfore thcfc pots onglii to 
 "be removed rmo a Ifn.fftiou where they may have tlie 
 'benefit of the fan, and tic Iheltered from ftrong winds 
 When the ftowcrs begin open, the j-cts (hmild be 
 removcdmider(h-dn-r,toprivent injury from toonuich 
 -vrct. — .A'ficr the tlov/crs arc decayed, the green leaves 
 will begin to (hoot forth in Icngih ; and, if (lielter- 
 cd from feverc cold, uill continue growing all win- 
 ter : biTt'thcy muil have as much free air as polablc 
 . in mild weather, and arc to be covered only in great 
 rains or trolls. For i!iis pnrpofc, a common hoi-l.ed 
 frame is the mod proper flieltcr for them ; the giaifes 
 of which may be taken ofTcvery day in dry open wea- 
 ther, which will enco;iragc the leaves to grow llrong 
 •and broad. Th<* roots (liould be tr.'infplantcd every 
 fourth or fifth year, tov.-ard the end of June or begin- 
 ning (if July ; the offsets alfo fhould be taken oiF and 
 -planted in pots, where in three years ttr.ic they will 
 produce tiovvtrs. The other fpecies of' the aniaryllis 
 may eafily be raifed by taking care to Iheltcr them in 
 a (love from the winter's coll. 
 
 AMARYNTHUS (anc. gcog.), a hamlet of Ere- 
 trias, in the iiland oi Enbopa, about fevcn Itadia dilUnt 
 from its v.alls. Kcre Diana was worfhipped by an 
 
 17] A M A 
 
 annual folcmniiy, at wljich thofc of Caryflus sliiilcd ; AtriS:^ 
 h^nce the title of the goddcfs was AsHaryntkit, and II 
 
 A'na'y (-..t. Amarouii, 
 
 AMASIA (an:, gcog.), nnv.- Marpurg, a city in 
 tbe hndgraviaie of Hcric, on the Lah:i. According 
 toothers, it is iimbicn i.i U'cilphalia. 
 
 AMi^siA, an ancient town of Turkey, i:i Nacolia, 
 remarkable for the birth of Strab.i the geographer. 
 It is the reliJeucc of a balhaw, and gives its name to 
 the province it fiands in, where there-are the bt:t 
 wines and the befc fruits in Natolia. Iiiifeated tiear 
 the ri/er Iris or Cafalmack ; and was auriently the 
 rcfi.lencc of the ki.igscf Cappadocia. E.Long. 36. 
 10. N. Lar. ^9. ^5. 
 
 Am ASIA, the name of the r.ort'.icr.J divifion of Lef- 
 fcr Alia, lying on tlic foath (bore "f the Euxiiic fei 
 it Nuti'lii. It-takes its name from AmalJa the capi- 
 tal, nreniiiiiicd in the precctti;!g article. 
 
 AM.-^SONIA, in botany: S. genus of the EUgio- 
 fpermia orders belonging to the Uidycamia clais of 
 plants ; the charattcrs of which arc : The culjx is a 
 tripartite monophylious perianthiura, bell-thaped and 
 perfiftent : The c':ro!la is monopctalous and t-.ihular; 
 the border quinnuetid, expanding, and fni?ll : 'I he/?*- 
 vfiiia eoiilift of fo'ir filaments longer that: tbe corolla ; 
 the anther* oval and i:icunibent: The pijiMum has 
 an ovate germen ; the ftyliis the length of the Aarii- 
 na ; the (iig.-nlta two, acute: There is no fieruarpi- 
 urn: The /Ir J is an ovate unilocular nut, die ienglli 
 of the calyx. 
 
 - AMATIIUS, a very ancient rount in the foi-tb oi 
 Cyprus (Strabo, Ptolemy) : fo called from A:rajhi:t; 
 the founder ; or, according to others from Am.''.th, a 
 Phoenician town facred to Venus, nith a very ancicr.t 
 temple of .Adonis and Venus : and hence Venus ii de- 
 nominated Amatijufia (Tacitus). According to Ovid, 
 it v.as a place ricli iu copper-ore, and where the ir- 
 habitants became Cerajia, or horned. Now called 
 Lim.-fFo. 
 
 AM^T H L's (anc. geog.), a town of the tribe of Gad, 
 beyond Jordan ; but whether at a greater or lefs dif- 
 tance from it, is not fo eafy to dererminc. Eiifcbius 
 places it in the Lower Perxa ; Rcland, in Ramoth- 
 Giicad. Gabinius, proconful of Syria, cflabtiAedrive 
 juridical corventiuns i:i lii'Jea ; two of which were 
 on the oilier fide Jordan ; one at Gadara, the other 
 at Amathns (Jofcphns). 
 
 AM.ATORII Mrsci'Lii, in anatomy, a term fome- 
 times ufcd fur the obliquus fuperior atid obliquos in- 
 ferior mnfc'.es of the eye, as thcfc niaft.tc$ atlift in 
 ogling or drawing the eye fideways. 
 
 AM.Ai RICE, a city of the kingdom of Naples, in 
 the farther Abruzzo, upon tbe confines of the pope's 
 territories, and the raarqiiifate of Anconi. 
 
 AM.AUROSIS, in medicine, a deprivation of fight, 
 the eye remaining fair, and fecminsjlr unatrceled. .^ 
 pcrfcA amaurofis is when the blindnefs is total ; when 
 there is rtill a power of difiitigiiif!,i;\g light t'rom dark- 
 iicfs, the difeafe is called by N!. de St Ives an hi,p:rf:H 
 ainauriifii. There is a periodical fort which conic; 
 on inflantancoully, continaes for hours, or days, and 
 then difappears. Mr Hay, furgeon ai Leeds, menti- 
 ons fcveral caf..'s of patients alflicted w iih the amauro- 
 fis who were relieved by being cleflriiirt!. 
 
 AMAZONIA, or the country of the Aciericar.
 
 A M A [51 
 
 AcmrottVi. A.WAZONi, is liiuate between jo and 70 degrees of 
 w.c/i longitude ; and between t"he equator aad 15 de- 
 grees ot' I'outh latitude ; being bounded on the I'outli 
 by La 1'l.iia, on the well by Peru, on the north by 
 the pro\ incc of Terra Firaia, and on the call by 
 Brazil. 
 
 With refpcft to the Amazons faid to have given 
 name to this territory, they have been rcprefented as 
 governed and led to war only by their queen. No men 
 were futiercd to live among them ; though thofe of 
 {bine ncigiibouring nations were fufFercd to vifit them, 
 at a certaiu fcafon, for the fake of procreation. The 
 females ilfuing from this commerce wtre bred up with 
 care, and inilruded in w hat relates to war and govern- 
 ment ; as to the Hialcs, they wtrc (ent away into the 
 country of their fathers. But no fuch nation is at 
 prefcnt to be found, any more than the giants and ca- 
 nibals mentioned by the firft adventurers thither. 
 
 Amazonia is generally a flat region, abounding in 
 woods, lakes, rivers, bogs, and niora'Tcs. The chief 
 liver, and one of the largcft in the world, is that call- 
 td ihe river of Amazons, or the Ore'.lana, which is 
 formed by two large rivers, the one riling in the pro- 
 vince of Quito, a little louth of the equator, in 7; 
 degrees of well longitude, and the other,naaied Xauxa, 
 rifiiig in the Uke of Bourbon, near the Andes, in ten 
 <ic<^iccs of fojth latitude. Thofe two rivers uniting 
 on the coiilines of Peru and Amazonia, in three de- 
 grees odd minutes of fou'.h latitude, afRime the name 
 of Amazon ; whence running eallward upwards of 2Co 
 n.ilcs, and afterwards incliiuiig to the north, they fall 
 into the Atlantic ocean by 84 channels, which in the 
 rainy fcafon overHow the adjacent country. Bclides the 
 !^vo llrcams mentioned, a mahitude of others, both on 
 fhcnoniianJ fouth fide, contribute to the formation of 
 •liis extraordinary river. As it runs almoft acrofs the 
 broadeft part of South America, it is computed to be 
 iietwecn four and live thoufand miles in length, in- 
 cludiiig all its w indings. Its channel from Junta de los 
 Rcyos, about 60 degrees from its head, to the rivtr 
 Maranhon, is from one to two leagues broad ; it then 
 widens from three to four, and becomes gradually 
 i)roadcras it approaches the ocean. Between the places 
 lafl mentioned, its depth is from five 10 ten fathom ; 
 but from Maranhou to Rio Negro it incrcafcs to ao 
 f.ithoms ; af;er\\hith it is fomttimcs jo^-and fome 
 limes JO fathoms, or more, fill it coracs near to the 
 end of its courfc. It has no fand-banks, nor does the 
 fnorc lliclve fo as to render it dangerous for veffels. 
 The manetu and tortoifc abound both upon the banks 
 ' { this and the other rivers; and the fifliermen mull 
 •be upon their guard againft the crocodiles, alligators, 
 ^iid water ferpents, which alio fwanu here. 
 
 The air, as in the countries under the fame parallel, 
 .s obltrved to be nearly as cool ur.Jcr the equator as 
 Jmm the tropics, on account of tlie rains continuing 
 longer, and the Iky in that feafon being clouded. Bc- 
 ■ lidcs, an eallerly wind fcts from the Atlantic up the 
 river fo ftrong, that vcllcls arc carried by it againfl 
 ilie rtrcam. 
 
 The produce of the coun.'ry is Indian corn and the 
 
 calTavi root, of which tluy make flour and bread ; to- 
 
 iacco, cotton, fugar, farfaparilla, yams, potatoes, and 
 
 -otiicr roots. They have alfo pknty of venifon, fi(h, 
 
 «.id fowl. Among the latter are vail flocks of parrots 
 
 8 ] 
 
 A M A 
 
 of all colours, the flelh of which ferves for food and Am znui*, 
 tiie feathers for ornament. AH the trees here are ever- Anuzom. 
 greens i and fruits, flowers, and herbage, arc in per- ' ' ' 
 le<?tion all the year round. The principal fruits arc 
 cocoa-nuts, ananas or pine-apples, guavas, bananas, 
 and fuch others as are ufually found between the tro- 
 pics. The forefl and timber trees are cedar, Brazil 
 wood, oak, ebony, logwood, iron-wood, fo eallcdfrom 
 its weight ^nd bardiicfs, and fcvcral forts of dyeing 
 wood. 
 
 The natives are of the common flaturc, with go«d 
 features, a copper complexion, black eyes and hair. 
 It is computed tAiat there arc of them about 150 dif- 
 ferent tribes or nations, and the villages are fo nume- 
 rous as to be within callof one another. Among thofe 
 the Homague-s, a people near tlie head of the river, 
 arc famous for their cotton nianufaftures ; the Jurines, 
 who live between Ave and ten degrees of latitude, for 
 theirjoiners works ; and theWroliflaresforthcirearth- 
 cn ware. The Topinambcs, who inhabit a large illand 
 in the river, are remarkable for their flrength. Some - 
 of thefe nations frequently make war upon each other. 
 Their armour conliils of darts, javelins, bows and ar- 
 rows, and they wear targetsof cane, orfifli-Ikin. They 
 make Haves of their prifoners, whom they otherwifc 
 ufe very well. Every tribe is governed byitsrcfpeftive 
 chief or king, the marks of whofc dignity are a crown 
 of parrots feathers, a chain of lions tecthor claws hung 
 round his neck, or girt about his waift, and a wooden 
 fword, which he carries in his hand. 
 
 Mofl of thofe nations, except the Homagues, go 
 naked. The men thrull pieces of cane through their 
 ears and under lips, as well as thtough thefkinof the 
 pudenda. At the griftle of their nofes they alfo hang 
 glafs beads, which wag to and fro when they fpeik. 
 They arc fuch Jkilful markfmen, that they will flioot 
 filh as they fwim ; and what they catch" they eat with- 
 out either bread or fait. They worfhip images, which 
 theyalways carry with them on their expeditions ; 
 but ihey neither have temple; nor any order of priefts; 
 and permit both polygamy and concubinage. 
 
 The country affords neither gold nor filver mines; 
 only a fmall quantity of the former is found in the ri- 
 vulets which fall into the Amazon near its fourccs in 
 Peru. While the Spaniards ima^ned that it contained 
 thofe metals, they made great efforts from Peru tore- 
 <iuce this territory to fubjeflion ; till being at length 
 undcceivd, they abandoned the defign. 
 
 AMAZONS, in antiquity, a nation of female war- 
 riors, who founded an empire in Afia minor, upon the 
 river Thermodoon, along the coafls of the Black Sea. 
 They are faid to have formed aftate out of which men 
 were excluded. What commerce they had with that 
 fex, was only with flrangcrs; they killed all their male 
 children ; and they cut off the right bread of tlicir fe- 
 j^iales, to make them more fit for the combat. From 
 ^'hich lafl circumflance it is, that they are fuppofed to 
 <ake their name, viz, from the primitive «, and /-i«^e^ 
 irtav.ma, " breaA.". But Dr Bryant, in his AnaJyfis 
 of ancient mythology, explodes this account as fa- 
 Inilous ; and obfervts, that thc-y were in general Cu- 
 thite colonies from K.gypt and Syria, who formed fet- 
 tlements in different cour.trics, and that they derived 
 their name from zcf:, the "fun," which was the na- 
 tional objed of worlhip. Vol, iii. p. 463. — It has in- 
 deed
 
 A M A 
 
 L 5^ 
 
 Amazons, deed been coutroveried even amcng ancient writers, 
 
 ' ^ ' whether ever there really were I":ich a nation as that 
 
 of the Amazons. Strabo, Palaephatus, and others, de- 
 ny it. On the contrary, Herodotus, Paulaniiis, Dio- 
 donis Siculus, Trogus Fonipciiis, JuiUn, Pliny, Mela, 
 Plutarch, &c. expicfsly allcrt it. 
 
 M. Petit, a French pliylician, pnblilhcda Latin dif- 
 fertation in i68j, to prove that there was really a na- 
 tion of Amazons ; it contains abjHdance of curious in- 
 quiries, relating to their habit, their arms, the cities 
 built by them, &c. Others of the moderns alio main- 
 tain, that their exiflcntc is fufficicntly proved by the 
 teftimony of fuch of the hiftoriins of antiquity a*s arc 
 moft worthy of credit ; by the monuments which many 
 of them have mentioned ; and by medals, fome of which 
 arc lUUremaining ; and that tlicrc is not the leaft room 
 to believe that what is faid of them is fabulous. 
 
 The Amazons are mentioned by the mod ancientof 
 the Greek writers. In the third book of the Iliad, 
 Homer reprefents Priam fpeaking of himfelf as ha- 
 ving been prefent, in the earlier part of his life, in a 
 battle with the Amazons : and fome of them after- 
 wards came to the alTilUnce of that prince during the 
 fiege of Troy. 
 
 The Amazons are particularly mentioned by Hero- 
 dotus. That hillorian informs us, that the Grecians 
 fought a battle with the Amazons on the river Ther- 
 modoon, and defeated them. After their victory, they 
 carried off all the Amazons they could take alive, ia 
 three Ihips. But whilll they were out at fca, thefe 
 Amazons confpired againft the men, and killed thcin 
 all. Having, however, no knowledge of navigation, 
 nor any Ikill in the ufe of the rudder, fails, or oars, 
 they were driven by wind and tide till they arrived 
 at the precipices of the lake Maeotis, in the tcrriiories 
 of the Scythians. Here the Amazons went afliore, 
 and marching into the country, fcizcd and mounted the 
 firfl horfes they met with, and began to plunder the 
 inhabitants. The Scythians at firft conceived them 
 to be men; but after they had had (kirmiihes with 
 them, and taken fome prifoners, they difcovered them 
 to be women. They were then unwilling to carry on 
 hoQilitics againfl them ; and by degrees a number of 
 the young Scythians formed connctt ions with them,Tnd 
 were defirous that thefe gentle dames Ihould live with 
 them as wives, and be incorporated with the reft of 
 the Scythians. The Ama2«)ns agreed to continue their 
 connection with the Scythian hufbands, but refufcd to 
 aflbciate with the reft of the inhabitants of the coun- 
 try, and efpecially with the women of it. They af- 
 terwards prevailed upon tlieir hii (bands to retire to Sar- 
 matia, where they fettled. "Hence," fays Herodo- 
 tus, " the wives of the Sannatians ftill continue their 
 ancient way of living. They hunt on horfeback in the 
 company of their hu(bands,and fometinies alone. They 
 march with their armies, and wear the fame drcfs with 
 the men. The Sarmatians ufe the Scythian language, 
 but corrupted from the bcginnitig, bcc.iufc the Ama- 
 zonsneverlearned tofpeakcorridlly. Their marriages 
 arc attended with this circumftance : no virgin is per- 
 mitted to marry till ilie has killed an enemy in the 
 field ; fo that fome always grow old before they can 
 qualify thenifclvcs as the law requires." 
 
 Diodorus Siculus fays, " Ihere was formerly a na- 
 tion who dwell near the river Thermodoon, which was 
 
 3 
 
 9 J A M /\ 
 
 fabjcclcd to the government of women, aud in whic'a Aaatont, 
 
 the women, like men, managed all the military affairs. " ^ — ' 
 
 Among thele female warriors, it is faid, was one who 
 excelled the reft in ftrcngth and valour. She alleniblcd 
 together an army of women, whom llie trained up in 
 nulitary difciplinc,and fubducdfi'mcofthcncighboor- 
 ing nations. Afterwards, having by her valour in- 
 crcjfcd their fame, the led her army againit the reft ; 
 and being fuccel'sful, ihc wasfo puticd up, that Ihe fty- 
 Icd herfelf the daughter of Mars, and ordered the men 
 to fpin wool, and do the work of the women within 
 coors. She alfo made laws, by which the women were 
 enjoined to go to the wars, and tl:c men to be kept at 
 home in afcrvilc ftatc, and employed in the meaneft 
 oificcs. They alfo debilitated the arms and tliighsof 
 thole male children who were born to them, that they 
 might be thereby rendered unlit for war. They fear- 
 ed the right breafts of their girls, thit they might be 
 no hindranc; to them in tigliiing : from whence ihcy 
 derived the name of Amazons. Their queen, having 
 become extremely eminent for (kill and knowledge ia 
 military affairs, at length built a large ciiy at the 
 moutli of the river Thermodoon, and adorned it with 
 a magniticent palace. In her cnterpri/.rt ihe exav'lly 
 adhered to military difcipline and good order ; and (he 
 added to her empire all the adjoining nations, even to 
 the river Tanais. Having ptrionned thefe exploits, 
 ihe at laft enced her days like a hero, falling in a bat- 
 tle, in which Ihe had fought courageoully. She was 
 facceeded in the kingdom by her daughter, who imi- 
 tated the valour of her mother, and in fome exploits 
 excelled her. She caufed the girls fro.n their very in- 
 fancy to be exercifcd in hunting, and to be daily train- 
 ed up in military exercifcs. She inftituted folemn fe- 
 (livals and facritices to Mars and Diana, which were 
 named Tauropo'.i. She afterwards carried her arms 
 beyond the river Tanais, and fubdued all the people 
 of thofe regions even unto Thrace. Returning then 
 with a great quantity of fpodls into her own kingdom, 
 (he cauled magnificent temples to be erefted to the 
 deities before n\ent:oned ; and llie gained the love of 
 her fubjecls by her mild and gentle government. She 
 afterwards undertook an expedition againft thofe wh» 
 were on the other lide of tlie river, and fubjcded to 
 her dominion a great pirt of Alia, extending her arms 
 as far as Syria." 
 
 Diodorus alfo mentions another race of Amazons 
 who dwell ill Africa ; and whom he fpcaks of as being 
 of greater antiquity than thoie \v ho lived near ilie ri- 
 ver Thermodoon. " Inihe wcftcrn parts<'f Lybia," 
 fays he, " upon the borders of thole tr..i:s that arc 
 habitable, there was anciently a nation un('cr the go- 
 vernment of women, and whole manners and mode of 
 living were altogether different from ours. It was the 
 cutlom for thefe women to manage all military affairs; 
 and for a certain tinie, during which they prefcrved 
 their virginity, they went out as foldiers in the tield. 
 After fome years employed in this manner, w hen the 
 tinve appointed for this purpolc was expired, they allb- 
 ciatcd them (elves with men, inordcr to obtain children. 
 But the magiftracy, and all public oiHces, they kept 
 entirely iu tbeir own hands. The men, as the women 
 are with us, were employed in houfchold affairs, fub- 
 i«iiiiug thcmfclves wholly to the authority of their 
 wives. They were not permitted to take any part in 
 
 military
 
 A M A 
 
 s^- 
 
 Aii'iizocr. ii.ili;.uj' ;:ti;;iis, or to hnvcany ii1v,m;uid, or any pi:b- 
 
 ' ■^ ' lie iiiulioiiiy, whi-;h might h.:ive a ccnciciicy locn- 
 
 fuiir;:'.'f tliciii to cai'i <"il tlic yoke of ilicir wivts. As 
 f(:o:i ns ;!iiy cliiUl wp.s i orn, ii was ddivcicd to the fa- 
 ther, to be fed vi:ii ivilk or iuch other (loo as wm 
 fi'.itablc to its age. If fcmaJcs were born, they feared 
 ilieir breads, thct they might not be Lurdm funic to 
 thoiii wlicn iluy grew up; lor ilicy confidtred iheiiiai 
 gre;'.t hindrances in fi^i-.tiiij^." 
 
 Juf'ini.ii! rcpr«f«iiis tlit rtir.azor.ianripiiblic to have 
 taken its rife iu Scythia. 1 iit Scythians had a great 
 part of Alia under their domiiiiou upwards ot 4C0 
 years, till they were conquered by J>iiius^ the founder 
 of the Allyrian emi'irc. After his death, which hap- 
 j-er.cJ .-ilnuit n 50 years before the Chriljiau a:ra, and 
 riiat of Scmiraniis and their ion Niiiias,llinus and Sco- 
 lopitcs, princes of the royal blood of Scythia, were dri- 
 ven froni their coniitry by oihcrprinces, who lil\c them 
 ;.f|iircd to the crown. They departed with their wives, 
 children, and friends; and bcin}; followed by a great 
 miniber of young |eoplc of both fexcs, they pafl'ed in- 
 to .'\liaiic Sarm:-.tia, beyond mount Canialihs, where 
 they formed an eltablilhrnent, fapplying thenifilvcs 
 with the riches they wanted, by making exturlions 
 into the countries bordering on the Euxine Sea. 1 he 
 people tif thofe countries, cxafjicraied by the incurfions 
 of their new neighbours, united, furprifcd, andinali'a- 
 cred the men. 
 
 The women then refulving to revenge their dcatli, 
 and at t!ic fame time to provide for their own fecuriiy, 
 refolvcd to form a new kind of government, to choofc 
 s queen, cnael laws, and maintain themfclves, without 
 men, even againft the men themftlves. This delign 
 was not fo vf.ry furprifing as at firfl light appears : lor 
 the grcatell number of the girls among the Scythians 
 had been inured to the fame txercifes as the boys ; to 
 craw the bow, to throw the javelin, to manage other 
 srnis ; to rilling, hunting, and even the painful labours 
 that fteni rcfcrvcci for men ; and many of iheni, as a- 
 nong the Sarniatians, arcompanicd ihc men in war. 
 l-Ienec they had iiofooncr formed their rtfolution, than 
 ihty prepared to execute it, and c.xercilcd thcnifelves 
 in all military operations. They foon fctiired the peace- 
 able polfcilicn of the country ; and not content with 
 (howing tilt ir neighbours that all their efforts to drive 
 them tlience or lubdue them were inctfeftual, they 
 made \v.7r upon them ,and extended ihtir own frontiers. 
 They had hitherto r.iade ufe of the inftruelions and af- 
 fiftanceof. I lew men that remained in the conntry; but 
 finding at liii;',lh that they couhl (land their ground, 
 and ai:;;randi/,e themfilves, without ihcm, they killed 
 ill tliofe w lioni Hight or chance had favcd from the fury 
 cf the Sarinaiians, and forever rcniT.inccd marriage, 
 which they now conlidtredasaninfitpportaMe (lavery. 
 Hut as they could only fecure the duration of their new 
 kin;;doni by propagrstion, they trade a law to go eve- 
 ry year to the Ivontirrs, to invite the men tb coinc 
 to them ; to deliver thenifclves up to their embraces, 
 w'ithout choice on their part, or the leafl attachinent; 
 and to leave them as foon a.> they were pregnant. All 
 thofcwhoni age rendered lit for propagation, and were 
 willing to fervc the ftatc by breeding girls, did net ^o 
 at the fame time in fearch of men : f';r in order to ob- 
 tain a riglic to promote the mukij'Hc-.iiion of the fpc- 
 cics, ihcy muftfirflliavc contributed to its dcftrutlion ; 
 
 , ] AM A 
 
 nor was any thoiight worthy of giving Linh to chii- /\ rr.axons. 
 dren till 11. e had killed three n;en. ' ^ ' 
 
 If from this conunercetheybiojght forth girls, they 
 educaicd them; l.iit with rcfpecl to the boys, if we 
 may believe juftin, they llranglcd them at the moment 
 of their birii) : according to Uiodorus Siculiis, they 
 twilled their legs and arms, fo as to render them unt t 
 for military excrcil'es; but Qiiintus Cunius, Vhilo- 
 llr^tus, Mill! Jordarus, fay that tl.e Ida favage lent ihcr.i 
 to their fatliers. It isprob.ible, that attirlt, when their 
 furyagainflthc men u. is carried to the greatcil height, 
 they killed the boys : that when tliis tury abated, and 
 rioft of the mothers were tilled with horror at dcpi i- 
 ving the little creatures of the lives they had jull re- 
 ceived from them, tl;cy fulfilled the firft diiiie? of a 
 mother; but, to prevent their cauling a revolution in 
 the ilate, maimed them in fiich a manner as to rcndtv 
 thcnt incapable of war, and employed them in the mesu 
 offices which thcfc v/arlikc women thought beneath 
 them : in fliort, that, when their conqnclls had confir- 
 med their power, their ferocity fui)liaing, they enter- 
 ed into political engagements with their neighbours; 
 and the number of the males they hati prelerved be- 
 coming burthcnfonie, they, at the deiirc of thofc who 
 rendered them pregnant, fcnt them the boys, and 
 ciiiiinned Hill to keep the girls. 
 
 As foon as the age of the gills permitted, they took 
 away the right brcalt, that they might draw the bow 
 with the greater force. The common opinion is, that 
 they burnt that breafl, by applying to it, at eight 
 years of age, a hot brazen inllrument, which iufcnlibly 
 dried up ihc librcs and glands: fonic think that ihcy 
 did not make life of fo much ceremony, but that when 
 the part was formed they got rid of it by amputation : 
 fomc, again, with much greater probabiliiy,alferc,!hat 
 they employed no violent mcafures ; but, by a continu- 
 al coniprcllion of that part from infancy, prevented its 
 growth, at leall fo f.ir as to hinder its ever being iu- 
 commodious in war. 
 
 Plui?reh, ireatingof the Amazon? in hislife of The- 
 feus, eonfidt rs the accounts ^hich had been prefervcd 
 concerning them as partly fabulous and partly true. 
 He gives fomc accourK of a battle which had been 
 fought between the Athenians and the Amazons at A- 
 thens ; and he relates fomc particulars of this battle, 
 which had been recorded by an ancient writer named 
 Clidemus. Kc fays, " That the left wing of the A- 
 mazons moved towards the place which is yet called 
 Aniazonium,and the right lo a place called Pryx, near 
 Chryia ; upon which the Athenians, ilfuing from be- 
 hind the temple of the mufcs, fell upon them ; and 
 that this is true, the graves of thcfc thnt were flain, to 
 be fren in the (Ireets that lead to the gate Pirsica, by 
 the tcmpleof the hcroChalcodue, areafufiicientproof. 
 And hcic ii was that the Athenians were routed, and 
 fiiamcfully turned their backs to women, as far as to 
 the temple of ihc Furies. But frelli fupplics coming 
 in from Palladium, Ardettus, and Lyceum, rliiigtd 
 their right wing, and beat them back into their very 
 tents ; In which action a great number of the Ama- 
 xons were flain." In another place he l«; s, •' it ap- 
 pears that the pafl'age of tlic Amazons througli Thcf- 
 faly was not without oppofition ; for there arc yet to 
 brfccii manvof their f pulchrcs n^ar Scotufaraaad Cy- 
 noccphalai." And in ius life of Peinpry, fpcaking of 
 
 the
 
 A M A [5 
 
 Amazonj. the Amazons,Plutarch fays," They inhabit thofe parts 
 
 •*^ of mount Caurafus that look towards the Hyrcanian 
 
 fca (not bordering upon the Albanians, for the terri- 
 tories of the Gctae and the Leges lie betwixt): and 
 with thcfe people do they yearly, for two months only, 
 accompany and cohabit, bed and board, near the river 
 Thcrniodoon. After that they retire to their own ha- 
 bitations, and live alone all the reft of the year." 
 
 Qiiintus Curtiusfays, "The naiionof the Amazons 
 is (ituated upon the borders of Hyrcania, inhabiting the 
 plains of Thcrmifcyra, near the river 1 he ruiodoon. 
 Their queen was named Thalcitris; and (he had under 
 her fuhjc;Jllon all the country thnt licsb'^twccn mount 
 Caucafus and the river Phalis. Tiiis cjuceii came out 
 of her dominions, in confcquencc of ,1:1 ardeiit dcllrc 
 ^le had conceived to fee AIexandcr;and being advanced 
 near the place where he was, flic prcvioufly ftiit nief- 
 fcngcrs to acquaint him, that the queen was come to 
 have tlicfaiisfaJlion of feeing and convcrfaigwith him. 
 Having obtained permiluon to vi(it him, flie advanced 
 Mith jooofhcr .Amazons, leaving the relief her troops 
 behind. As foon as {he came within fight of the 
 king, fhe leaped from her horfc, holdi.ig two javelins 
 in her right hand. Tlie app.irclof the .Amazons does 
 not cover all the body; for their left lidc is naked down 
 to the flomach, nor does the Ikirts of their garments, 
 v.hich they tie up in a knot, reacli below their knees. 
 They prefcrve theirlcft brcall entirc,thatlhey may be 
 able tofuckle their female offspring ; and they cut off 
 and fear tjicir right, that they may draw their bows, 
 and cad their dirts, with the greater eafc. Thaleflris 
 looked at the king with an undaunted countenance, 
 and narrowly examined his pcrfon ; which did not, ac- 
 cording to her ideas, come up to the fame of his great 
 exploits: For the barbarians have agrcatvencrationfor 
 a nnjeftic perfon,efteemingthofc only tobe capableof 
 performing great aClious, onwhom nature hasconfcr- 
 redadignificdappearancc. The king havingalkcd her 
 whether flie li.id any thiugtodcfireof Iiiin, ihe replied, 
 without fcruplc or htlitaiiou, that (he was come with 
 a view to have children by him, Ihe being worthy to 
 bring him heirs to his dominions. Their offspring, if 
 of the female fcx, fhe would retain herfelf ; and if of 
 the male fex, it fhould be delivered to Alexander. He 
 then afrccd her, n hcthtr Ihe would accompany him in 
 his wars? Bat thii li.c J ccliiud, alleging, That ilie had 
 left nobody to take care of her kingdom. She conti- 
 nued to folicit Alexander, that he would not fend her 
 back withouf conforming toher wiflics ; but it was not 
 till after a delay of 1 5 days that he complied. She 
 then returned to her own kingdom. 
 
 JnftinaK'orcpcatedly mcniious this vi lit of Thaleflris 
 to Alexander ; and in one place he fays, that (he made 
 a march of 25 days, in order to obtain this meeting 
 with him. Tlie interview between Alexander and 
 Thaleflris is likcwifc mentioned by Diodonis Si- 
 Ciilus. The learned O'oropius, as he is quoted by Dr 
 Petit, laments, in very pathetic terms, the hard fate 
 of Thalcllris, who was obliged to travel fo many miles, 
 and to encounter many hardlhips, in order ta procure 
 this interview with the Macedonian prince, and, from 
 thecircumfl-inccs, is led 10 conlldcrthe whole account 
 as incredible. But Dr Petit, with eqnal erudition, with 
 equal eloquence, and witli fupcrior force of rcafoning, 
 at length determines^ that her journey was not founded 
 Vol. I. 
 
 11 } 
 
 A M A 
 
 upon irrational principles, and that full credit is due to Asmmd*. 
 
 thofe grave and venerable hiilorians by whom thii " ' 
 
 tranfaition has been recorded. 
 
 The Amazons arc rcprefented as beinp armed with 
 bows and arrows, with javelins, and alio with an axe 
 of a particular conftrudion, which was denominated 
 the axe of the Amazons. According to the elder 
 Pliny, this axe was invented by Penthifilca.onc of their 
 queens. On many ancient medals are reprefentations 
 of the Amazons, armed wi'.Iithcfe axes. They arc al- 
 fofaid to have hadbucklcrsin the fhapc of a half-moon. 
 
 The Amazons arc mcnii jned by many other ancient 
 authors belidcs thofe which have bcjn enumerated ; 
 and if any credit be due to the .-.ccounts concerning 
 them, they fubiii'.cd through fcvcral ages. They arc 
 rcprefented as having rcnJcred the!'!ifelvcs extrcir4cl/ 
 formidable; as having founded cities, enlarged th: 
 boundaries of their dominions, and conquered fcvcral 
 other nations. 
 
 That at any period there H-.oald have been women, 
 who, without tlie afiillaucc ot men, built cisies and 
 governed them, raifcd armies and commanded theni, 
 adminiftcrcd public affairs, and extended their domi- 
 nion by arms, is undoubtedly fo cortrary to all chat 
 we have fceu and known of human affairs, as to appear 
 in a very great degree incredible; but that women may 
 have cxilled fufiicicntly robnll and fufficieatly coura- 
 geous to have engaged in warlike enterprifes,and even 
 to have been fucccfsful in them, is certainly not im- 
 poUible, however contrary to the ufaal courfc of things. 
 In fupport of this (idcof the qucfli'jn, it may be urged, 
 that women who have been early trained to warlike 
 exerciffs, to hunting, and to an hard and laborious 
 mode of living, may be rendered more ftrong, and ca- 
 pable of more vigorous exertions, than men who hare 
 led indolent, delicate, luxurious lives, and who 
 have feldoin been cxpofcd even to the inclemencies of 
 the weather. The limbs of women, as well as of met}, 
 areftrengthened and rendered morcrobuflby frequent 
 and laborious excrcife. A nation of women, therefore, 
 brought up and difciplincd as the ancient Amazons arc 
 rcprefented to have been, would be fupcrior to an c- 
 qual number of cflcminatc men ; though they might 
 be much inferior to an equal number of hardy raea 
 trained up and difciplincd in the fame manner. 
 
 That much of wjiat is faid of the .^.mazons is faba- 
 lous, there can be no rcafonaMe .ioubt ; bat it does 
 not therefore follow, that the whole is withotit foun- 
 datiiin. The ancient medals and monuments on which 
 they are reprct'cnted are very numerous, as arc alio the 
 teftimonics of ancient writers. It fi-ems not rational 
 to fuppofe that all this originated in fiflion, though ii 
 nvay be much blended with it. The Abb& Guyoii 
 fpeaks of the hillory of the Amaz'^ns as ha-.nug been 
 regarded by many perfons as fabulous, *« rather from 
 prejudice than from any real and folid examination ;" 
 and it mull be acknowledged, that the arguments m 
 favour ofthcirexille.icc.from ancient hiflory, and from 
 ancient monuments, arc extremely powerful. The fafl 
 fccms to be, that truth and fiftion have been blended 
 in the narratioTis concerning thefe ancient heroines. 
 
 Inllanccsof hcroifmin women havcoccallonally oc- 
 curred in niovlcrn times, lomewhat rel'cmblii;g that of 
 the ancie:it Ama-roas. The times and the manners of 
 ckivjlryin pai-ticuJar^ by bringing great cnitiprifes, 
 U 7. bold
 
 A M A 
 
 [ -5" ] 
 
 A M A 
 
 Amflx<ni». bi'Ui.i<JvculmfS, ar.d extravagant hercifiu, into lalliiou, 
 
 ' ^ ' iiifijircd ihc women with tiic l:imeiafte. The vvoiiieii, 
 
 ill conltqiicncc of the prcvailiii); palTioii, were now 
 fctJi in the midJlc of camps and of arniies. Tlicy 
 quitted the foft and ttndcf iiicliiialions, and the deli- 
 cate o/Ticcs of ihcir own fcx, for the toils and the toil- 
 foiuc occupation of ours. During the crufadcs, ani- 
 mated by the double cnthufiafm of religion and or" va- 
 lour, they often performed the moll rom;intit exploits ; 
 obtained indulgences on the lielJ of battle, and died 
 with arms in their hands, by the lidcof their lovers or 
 ortbcir hulbands. 
 
 In Europe, the women atuekcJ and defended for- 
 tilicaiions ; princellcs commanded their armies, and 
 nbtaincd vi«.^lories. Such was the celebrated Jpan de 
 Moatfort, difpiiting,for her duchy of Brctagnc, and 
 tij^hling in pti Ion. Sucli was that Itill more celebrated 
 Margaret of Aiijou, ai:tivc and tutrepid general and 
 foldier, whofe genius fupportcd a long time a feeble 
 huiband ; <\hith taught him to conquer ; whicii repla- 
 ced him upon the throne ; whicli twice relieved him 
 from prifon ; and, opprellcd by fortune and by rebels, 
 which did not bend till after (he had decided in perfon 
 twelve battles. 
 
 The warlike fpirit among the women, confident 
 with ages of birbarifra, when everything is impetuous 
 bccaufc nothing is fixed, aad when allexcefs isihc ex- 
 cels of force, continued in Europe upwards of 400 
 years, fiiowiug itfelf from time to time, and always in 
 the middle of convullions or on the eve of great revolu- 
 tions. But there were seras and countries in which 
 that fpirit appeared with particular luftrc. Such were 
 thedifplays it made in the 15th and i6tli. centuries In 
 Hungary, and in the illands of the Arcliipelago and the 
 Mediterranean when they were invaded by the Turks. 
 
 Among the flriking inllanccs of Amazonian conduit 
 in modern ladies, may be mentioned that of Jane of 
 Belleville, widow of Monf. de CliiFon, who was be- 
 headed at. Paris in the year 1345, on a fufpicion of 
 carrying on a correfpondcncc with England anif the 
 Count de Montfort. This lady, filled with grief for 
 the death of her late hufband, and exafperated at the 
 ill ircatmer.t which flieconlidercd him as having recei- 
 ved, fen: ofi"" her fon fecretly to London ; and when 
 her apprehenlions were removed with refpecfl to him, 
 Ihe fold her jeweb, fitted out three Ihips, and put to 
 fea, to revenge the death of her hufband upon all the 
 French with whom llie ihould meet. This new cor- 
 fair made feveral defccnts upon Normandy, where Ihe 
 llormed cafilcs, and the inhabitants of that province 
 were fpcflators more than once, whilft their villages 
 were all in a blaze, of one of the fineft women in Eu- 
 rope, with a fword in one hand and a torch in the 
 other, urging the carnage, and eyeing with pleafur* 
 all the horrors of war." 
 
 We read in Mezeray, under the article of the Croi- 
 fadc, preached by St Bernard in the year 1 1 47, "That 
 many women did not content thcmfelves with taking 
 the crofs, but that they alfo took up arms to defend 
 it, andcompofed fquadrons of females, whicli render- 
 ed credible all that has been faid of the prowefs of the 
 Amazons." 
 
 In the year IJ90, the League party obtained fome 
 troops from the king of Spain. Upon the news of 
 their being difembarked, Barri de St Aunez, Henry 
 IV. 's governor at Lciacatc, fee out to communicate a 
 
 lihemc to the Diikcdc Montmorcnci, comnisiuHti in /.roazort. 
 
 that province. He was taken ou his w.iy by fome of "■ ^^ ' 
 
 the troops of the League, who were alio upon th'.'vr 
 march with the Spaniards towards Lcucaie. They 
 were perfuaded, ihjt by thus having the governor in 
 their hands the gates of that place would be immedi- 
 ately opened to them, or at kail would not hold out 
 long. But Condautiade Cecelli, his wife, after ha- 
 ving alTcmbled thegarrifon,puiherfclf forefohitcly at 
 their head, pike in hand, that llieiiifpired the wcaktfl 
 with courage ; and the bcliegers were rcpulftd where- 
 cvcr they prelentcd thcmfelves. Shame and their great 
 lofs bavingrcndcrcd than defpcrate, they fcnt a mef- 
 fagc to this courageous woman, acquainting her, liut 
 if Ihc continued to defend hcrfc'f they would haiigher 
 hufband. She replied with tears in her eyes, " 1 hav« 
 riches in abundance : I liavc offered them, and I do 
 ftill oflcr them, for his ranfom ; but I would not igno- 
 miiiioudy purchafe a life which he would reproach mc 
 with, and which he would be afliamcd to enjoy. I 
 will not diflionour him by treafon agaiaflmy kingand 
 country." The bcliegers having made a frefh attack 
 without fuccefs, put her huiband to death, and raifcd 
 the liege. Henry IV. afterwards fent to this lady the 
 brevet of govcrncfs of Lcticate, with the revcrfioii 
 for her fon. 
 
 'l"he famous Maid of Orleans, alfo is an example 
 known to every reader. 
 
 The Abbe Arnaud, in his Memoirs, fjieaks of a 
 Countefs of St Balmont, who ufcd to take the field 
 with her huiband and fight by his iide. She fent fe- 
 veral Spanilh prifoners of her taking to Marflial Feii- 
 quiers ; and what is not a little extraordinary, this A- 
 niazon at home was all affability and fweetucfs, and 
 gave herfelf up to reading and n&s of piety. 
 
 Dr Johnfon feems to have given fome credit to the 
 accounts which have been tranfmitred down to us con- 
 cerning <he ancient Amazons ; and he lias cndavoured 
 to fliow, that we ought not haflily to rejeft anciciu 
 hiitorical narrations bccaufe they contain faiSs repug- 
 nant to modern manners, a;id exhibit fctnes to which 
 nothing now occnring bears a refcmblancc. " Of 
 what we know not (fays he), we can only- judge by 
 what we know. Every novelty appears more wonder- 
 ful as it is more remote from any thing with which ex- 
 perience or teftimony have hithertoacquainted us: and 
 if it palTcs farther, beyond the notions that we have 
 been accuflomed to form, it becomes at lafl incredible. 
 We feldom conlider, thai hum.m knowledge is very 
 narrow ; that national manners are formed by chance; 
 that uncommon conjunctures of caufes produce rare 
 effeAs ; or that what is impoffible at one time or place 
 may yet happen in another. It is always ea/ier to de- 
 ny than to enquire. To refufc credit confers for a 
 niomentan appearance cffuperiority which every little 
 mind is tempted to alliimc, when it may be gained fo 
 cheaply as by withdrawing attention from evidence, 
 and declining the fatigue of comparing probabilities. 
 Many relations of travellers have been lliglited as 
 fabulous, till more frequent voyages have confirmed 
 their veracity; and it may reafonably be imagined, thai 
 many ancient hiftorians are unjuftly fufpefled of falfe- 
 hood, bccaufe our own times afford nothing that re- 
 fembles what they tell. Few narratives will cither to 
 men or women appear more incredible than tlie hiflo- 
 rics of the Amazons ; of female nations, of whofe con- 
 
 AituiioQ.
 
 A M B 
 
 [ S^2> ] 
 
 A U P. 
 
 rtiiniion it 'was the ejlential and fnudameiual l.i\v, lo 
 exclude men from allpaiticipaiion cither of public af- 
 fairsor doniellicbuliiicls; where female armies march- 
 ed under fcuialc captains, female fanners gathered the 
 harveft, female panniers danced together, and fctnale 
 wits diverted one another. Yet fcveral ages of anii- 
 q^uity have trinfinitted accounts of the Amazons of 
 Caucafus ; and of the Amazons of America, who have 
 gi-ven tiieir name to the greatefl river in the world. 
 Condaniine lately found fiich memorials as can be ex- 
 pefled among erratic and unlettered nations, where 
 events arc recorded only by tradition, and new fwarms 
 fettling in the country from time to time confute and 
 cllice all traces of former times." 
 
 No author has taken fo much pains upon this fub- 
 jcft as Dr Petit. But in the courfc of his work, he 
 has given it as his opinion, that there is great difficul- 
 ty in governing the women even at prefent, though 
 they are unarmed and unpraililcd in the art of war. 
 After all his elaborate inquiries and difculFions, there- 
 fore, this learned writer might probably think, that 
 it is not an evil of the firll magnitude that the race of 
 Amazons now ccafcs to cxift. 
 
 Ronffeau fays, " The empire of the woman is an 
 empire ef foftncfs, of addrefs, of complacency. Her 
 Commands arc earefles, her menaces arc tears." But 
 the empire of the Amazons was certainly an empire of 
 a very different kind. Upon the whole, we may con- 
 clude withDr Johnfon : "The charaftcr of the an- 
 cient Amazons was rather terrible than lovely. The 
 hand could not be very delicate that was only employed 
 in drawing the bow and brandifliing the battle-axe. 
 Their power was maintained by cruelty, their courage 
 was deformed by ferocity ; and their example only 
 Ihows, that men and women live bed together." 
 
 Amazons (the river of), in America. See Ama- 
 zonia. 
 
 Amazonian Habit, in antiquity, denotes a drefs 
 formed in imitation of the Amazons. Marcia, the fa- 
 mous concubine of the emperor Commodus, had the 
 appellation of Aiiiaz',niaii, becaufe Ihe charmed him 
 mod in a habit of 4-Ius kind. Hence alfo that prince 
 himfelf engaged in combat in the amphitheatre in an 
 Amazonian habit ; and of all titles the Amazortiui was 
 one of thofe he mod deli;;hted in. — In honour either 
 of the gallant or his midrcfs, the month of December 
 was alfo denominated j^nuizonius — Some alfo apply 
 /iinazttiian kab'rt to the hunting-drefs worn by many 
 ladies among us. 
 
 AMB.A, an Abyfilnian or Ethiopic word, fignify- 
 ing a rtck. The Abyfllnians give names to each of 
 their rocks, s.s Arnba-Dorkri, the rock of a hen, &c. 
 Someof thcfe rocks are faid to have the nameof .■/orwf ; 
 and are of fuch i dupendous height, that the Alps and 
 Pyrenees arc but low hills in comparifon of thera. A- 
 mongd the mountains, and even frequently in the plains, 
 of this country, arifc deep and craggy rocks of various 
 forms, fome refembling towers, others pyramids, &c. 
 fopcrpendicularand fmoothonthe (ides, that they feem 
 to be worksof art ; infomuch, that men, cattle, Stc. are 
 craned up by the help of ladders and ropes : and yet 
 the tops of thcfe rocks are covered with woods, mea- 
 dows, fountains, fiiliponds, &c. which very copioully 
 fupply the animals feated thereon with all the conve- 
 niences of life. The mod remarkable of thefe rocks 
 is called Amba-Ctflien. U is prodigioudy deep, in tie 
 
 iorm of acaftle built of free done, and iiinoftlmprtg- 
 nablc. Its funimit is about half a Poruignefe league 
 in breadth, and the drcnmfcrciicc at the bcrtom about 
 half a day's journry. 1 he afcent at firdiscafy ; bii 
 grows afterwardsfo deep, that ihcAl.yffincoxtn,v.hich 
 will othcrwifc clamber like goats, mud be craned up, 
 andlct down with ropes. Here the princes of the blood 
 Were formerly confined, in low cottages aniongd Ihrubs 
 and wild cedars, with an allowance barely futhcient to 
 keep them alive. There is, according to Kirchcr, in 
 this country, a rock fo curioudy hollowed by nature, 
 that at a didanceit refemblcs a lookii-g-glafs ; and op- 
 pofite to this another, on the top of which nothing 
 can be fofofily wliifpercd, but it may be heard a great 
 way oft'. Between many of thtfc rocks and mountains 
 are vad abylfcs, which appear very dreadful to the 
 eye. 
 
 AMB.ACHT, in topography, de-notes a kind c^ 
 jurifdiclion or territory, tlic poiiciror v, hereof has the 
 idminidration of juftice both in altti and balfo ; or of 
 what is cilled in the Scots law a ftower oj p.t ana gal- 
 lov>i, i. c. a power of drowning and hanging — In 
 lome ancient writers, ambacht is particularly uled for 
 the jurifdiclion, government, or chief raagidracy of a 
 ciiy. The word is very ancient, though ufed origi- 
 nally in a fcnfe fomev.-hat ditfcrcnt. Knnius calls a 
 mercenary, or (lave hired for money ai/ibjfiui ; and 
 Cxfar gives the fame appellation to a kind of depend- 
 ents among the Gauls, who, without being (laves, were 
 attached to the fervice of great lords. 
 
 AMBAGKS. Sec Circumlocution. 
 
 AMBARVALIA, in antiquity, a ceremony among 
 the Romans, when, in order to procure from the gods 
 an happy liarved, they conducted the vidiims thrice 
 round the corn fields in proceffion, before facrificing 
 them. — Ainbarvalia were either of a private or public 
 nature : the private were performed by the mader of a 
 family ; and the public by the prieds who officiated at 
 the folemniiy,calledyrfl/»-.-/oftf/c/.Thepraycr preferred 
 on thisoccafion, the formula of which we have in Cato 
 de Re Ktiptca, cap. cxlii. was called carmen ambcrvalc. 
 At thefe feads they facrificed to Ceres a fow, a Oieep, 
 and a bull or heifer, whence they took the name of 
 fitovetaiirilia. The method of celebrating them was, 
 to lead a vidim round the fields, while the peafants 
 accompanied it , and one of their number, crowned with 
 oak, hymned forth thepraifes of Ceres, in verfcscom- 
 pofcd on purpofc. This fedival was celebrated twice 
 a-year ; at the end of January, according to fomc, or 
 in April, according toothers ; and for the fecond time, 
 in the month of July. 
 
 AMBASSADOR, or Embassador, a public mini- 
 der feni fent from one lovereign prince, as a reprefcn- 
 tativc of his perfon to another. 
 
 AmbalFadors are cither ordinary or extraordinary. 
 Ambalfador in ordinary, is he who condantlv relidcs 
 in the court of another prince, to maintain a good un- 
 derdanding, and look to the intered of his madcr. 
 Till about two hundred hears ago, ambalTadors in or- 
 dinary were not heard of: all, rill then, were ambaf- 
 fadors extraordinary ; that is, fuch as arc fent on fomc 
 extraordinary occalion, and who retire as foon as the 
 affair is difpatcV.ed. 
 
 By the law of nation?, none under the qu.ility of a 
 
 fovereign prince can fend or receive an ambalFador. At 
 
 Athens, ambaifadors mounted the pulpit of the public 
 
 3 U 2 orators, 
 
 AmbKh: 
 
 f 
 
 An'.b.lT.. 
 dor.
 
 A M B 
 
 [ 5^4 ] 
 
 A M B 
 
 orators, a:iJ there o,u-!icJ ihcir commifTxon, ic-nuiiit- 
 iug iht j)c»[lc vviih ihcir crrar.d. At Rome, ihcy wtrc 
 iiurojuctil to the feiiate, .nij dtlivercii iktii- couimiffi- 
 o/s to the fathers. 
 
 AmbiilaJors Ihould never attend any public folcnini- 
 ries, as marriages, liinerals, &c. uiilcfs their mailers 
 Jiavc Ibnis in tercit therein luornuift they go into niour II- 
 uigon any occalions of their own, becaufc iheyrcjic- 
 lent the perfjn of their prince. By the civil law, the 
 moveable j;oods of an ainballador, Nvliich arc accounted 
 an acctlllon to his perfon, cannot be feizcdon, neither 
 as a iil.cdj';e, nor for payment of a debt, nor by order 
 ur txcciitlonof jtidj;meiit, nor by thclving'sor Hate's 
 leave where he relides, as fomc co.ictive ; for all actions 
 oiijjht to be far trom an anibalfador, as well that wliich 
 louchethhisneccirarics.ashispcrlon : if, thereiore, he 
 Inth contraclcd any debt, he is to be called upon kind- 
 ly ; and if he rcfufcs, then letters of rcqiielt arc to go 
 to his maAer. Koi- can r.ny of the ambaiiador's dorac- 
 flic fervanis th.at are re;:iltered in the fccretarics of 
 Hate's office be arreftcd in perfon or goods , if they are, 
 the procefs fiiallbe void, and the parties fating out and 
 executing it ihall futier and be liable to fiich penalties 
 and corpi)ral pnniflimcnt as the lord chancellor or ci- 
 ther of the chief julUccs lliall think fit to intliCl. Yet 
 ambail'adors cannot be defended when they com niit any 
 (hingagainftthat ftate,or the perfon of theprince, with 
 whoin they relide ; and if ihcy arc guilty of trcafon, 
 felony, &c. or any other crime .igainll tlielaw of na- 
 tions, they lofe the pi ivilcgc of an amballador, and may 
 be fubjetl to punilhment as private aliens. 
 
 AMBK, 'n\ fiirgery , the name of an inllrumcnt for 
 reducing diiiocaccd bones. In aiuit {,>//)•, a term lur the 
 liipcrtieial jutting out of a bone. 
 
 AMBl'.R fSmcim/mJ, in natural hiflory, a folid, 
 hard, femipc-lUicid, bituminous fubilance of a parti- 
 cular nature, of ufc in medicine and in fevcral of the 
 arts. It has been called aMi'm by the Arabians, and 
 cliihuiii by the Greeks. 
 
 Amber lias been of great repute in the world from 
 the earlieft times. Many years before Chrill it was in 
 cllccm as a medicine ; and Flaco, Arillotlc, Hero- 
 dotus, y*;fthyliis, and others, have commended its vir- 
 tues. Ill the times of the Romans it became in high 
 tileem as a gem ; and in tlic luxurious reign of Nero, 
 immcnfc quantities of it were brought to Rome, and 
 nfcd for ornamenting works of various kinds. 
 
 The moll remarkable property of this fubllance is, 
 that, when rubbed, it draws or attrafts other bodies to 
 it : and this, it is olfcrved, it does, even to thofc 
 fjbdances which the ancients thought it had an anti- 
 pathy to ; as oily bodies, drops of water, human fweat, 
 &c. Add, that by the triclion is is brought to yield 
 "light pretty copioudy in the dark ; wlience it is rec- 
 koned among the native phofpliori. 
 
 The proptTtyv.'hich amber poireilesofattracliuglight 
 lindics, w,is very anciently obferved. Thales of Miletus, 
 i^oo years before Chrill, concluded from hence that it 
 was animated. But the Crft pcrfm who cxprefsly men- 
 (i.^ns this fub(iance,isTheophraftus, about the year ;oo 
 before Chritl. The attradive property of amber is 
 l^kewifc occafionally taken notice of by Pliny, and 
 t.ihcr latcrnaturaliils, particulnrly byGalTcndus, Ke- 
 nelm Digby, and Sir Thomas Brown ; but it was ge- 
 iicrally a^'preb^ndcj tliat tliis u u'ity was peculiar to 
 
 amber and jet, and perhaps agate, till Gilbert p'.'.ulillied 
 liis treatifc Di Mjgit.-H, in the year 1600. From 
 »xixTf«T, the Greek name for amber, is derived liie term 
 EliOricity, which is now very extcnfivcly applied not 
 only to the power of .Mt ratling light bodies, inherent in 
 amber, but to other limilar powers, and their varioii* 
 clFccts, in whatever bodies they relide, or to whate- 
 ver bodies they may be communicated. 
 
 Amber alVumes all figures in the ground ; that of a 
 pear, an almond, a pea, &c. In amber there have bcca 
 laid to be letters found very well formed ; and even He- 
 brew and Arabic charailers. — Within fonie lueces, 
 leaves, infei:ls,&c. have likewife been found included . 
 which fccins to indicate, ei:her that the amber was ori- 
 ginally in a lluiil llatc, or that having been expofcd ta 
 the fun, it was oncefjflened, and rendered fiifceptible 
 of the leaves, infcdl:;, S:c. which came in its way. The 
 litter of thefe fuppofitions fccins the more agreeable to 
 the phenomenon, becaufc thofe infe.is, &c. are never 
 found in the centre uf the pieces of amber, but always 
 near the furfacc. It is obfervcd by the inhabitants of 
 thofe places where amber is produced, that all animals, 
 whether ttrrtlbial, aerial, or aquatic, are extremely 
 fond of it, and that pieces of it arc frequently found 
 in their excrements. The bodies of infcds, founil bu- 
 ried in amber, arc viewed with admiration by all the 
 world ; but of the moil remarkable of thefe, many arc 
 to be fufpeded as counterfeit, the great price at which 
 Ueautifni fpeeimcns of this kind fell, Iiaving tempted 
 ingenious cheats to introduce animal bodies in I'uch 
 art/'ul manners into fccmingly whole pieces of amber, 
 that it is not cafy todeted tiie fraud. 
 
 Of thofe infeiils whlcli have been originally inclofed 
 in amber, fomc are plainly fcen to have (Iruggled hartl 
 for their liberty, and even loh.ive left their limbs be- 
 liind them in the attempt ; it being no unufnal tiling 
 to fee, in a mafs of amber that contains a flout beetle, 
 the animal wanting one, or perhaps two of its legs ; 
 and fhofe legs left iiuliti'crent places, nearer tliat part 
 i>i the mafs from which it has travelled. This alfo 
 may account for the common accident of finding legs, 
 or wings of rties, without the reil of their bodies, in 
 piecesof amber; the iufecls having, when cntanglediii 
 the yet foft and vifcid matter, efcaped, at th* expencc 
 of leaving thofc limbs behind them. Drops of clear 
 water arc fomctiines alfo prefervcd in amber. Thefe 
 have doubtlcfsbcen received in toit while foft, and pre- 
 fervcd by its hardening round tlicm. Beauiiful leaves 
 of a pinnated (Irudure, refembling fomcof tlic ferns, 
 or maidenhairs, have been found in fomc pieces ; but 
 thefe arc rare, and fpccimens of great value. Mi-; 
 ncral fubilanccs arc alfo found at times lodged in maf- 
 fes of amber. Somcof the pompous coUci'iions of the 
 German princes boa/1 of fjiecimcns of native gold and 
 filver in maflcs of amber ; but as there are many fub- 
 flances of the marcalltc, and other kinds, that liavc all 
 the gliltering appearance of gold and filver, if is not 
 to be too haPiily concluded that tbcle metals are really- 
 lodged in thefe beds of amber. Iron is found in vari- 
 ous fliapts immcrfed in ,-vmber ; and as it is often fcen 
 erotitd, and lomctimcs in the Hate of vitriol^ it is not 
 impofiiljle but that copper, and the other metals, may 
 be alfo fometimcs immcrfed in it in the fame ilate : 
 hence the bluilh andgnciiilhcaltrar';, frequcrilly foiiiul 
 in the recent piecesof amber, may be owing, like the 
 
 particki 
 
 Amber.
 
 A M B 
 
 [ S^S ] 
 
 A M B 
 
 Aml)cr. panicles of the gem colours, to ibofc mcnh ; bat as 
 
 V — ' [lie f;ems, by tlitir ilcnfe texture, always retiiu their 
 
 fi'lours, this lighter and more lax biiuuicii ufually lo- 
 fcs what it gets of thii kind, by keeping fomc time. 
 Small pebbles, graiiio of faiid, and fragiucnis of other 
 flones, arc not unfrcquenily alfo found iu;i;ierfed in 
 amber. 
 
 Naturalifts have been greatly divided as to the ori- 
 gin of this fubllince, atid what clafs of bodies it be- 
 longs to; fomc referring it to the vegetable, others 
 to the mineral, and fomc even to ilic animal ki:igdoni. 
 I'liny dcfcribes it as " a rcfmous juice, oozing from 
 " aged pines and firs (others (ay horn poplars, wherc- 
 " of there are whole forefts on thecoaits of Sweden), 
 " and difcharged thence into the fea, where, iiuder- 
 " going fomc alteration, it is thrown, in this form, 
 " upon the Jhores of PruUla, which lie very low : he 
 " adds, tliat it was hence the ancients gave it the de- 
 " nomination y//a;«.vw; {\u\n/ucc:is, juice." 
 
 Some fiippofc amber a compound fubllance. Pru.''- 
 fia, fay they, and the other countries which produce 
 amber, are nioiflened with a bituminous juice, which 
 mixing with the vitriolic falts abounding in thofe pla- 
 ces, the points of thofe falts iixits fluidity, whence it 
 congeals; and tlie rcfult of that congelation makes 
 what we call am'jer ; which is more or Icfs pure, tran- 
 fparcnt, and lirm, as thofe parts of fait and bitumen 
 arc more or lefs pure, and are mixed in this or that 
 proportion. 
 
 Mr Brydone, in his tonr to Sicily and Malta, fays, 
 that the river Gearetta, formerly celebrated by the 
 poets under the name of Simct:!S, throws up near its 
 mouth'grcat quanticies of amber. Ke mentions alfo 
 a kindof artificial amber, not uncommon there, made, 
 as he was told, from copal, bat very different from 
 the natural. 
 
 According to Hartman, amber is formed of a bitu- 
 men, niixed with vitriol and other falts. But though 
 tlijs were allowed him in regard to the folfile amber, 
 jnany difpute whether the fea-amber be fo produced. 
 It is, I'.owever, apparent, that all amber is of the 
 lame origin, and probably that which is found in the 
 ita. has been waflicd thither out of the cliffs ; though 
 Hartman thinks it -^try poliible, tint fomc of it may 
 be formed in the earth under the lea, and be waihed 
 up thence. The fca-ambcr is ufually finer to the eye 
 than the folFilc ; but the reafon is, that it is diverted of 
 that coarfc coat with which the other is covered 
 while in the earth. 
 
 Upon the whole, it fcems generally agreed upon, 
 that amber is a true bitumen of fofTile origin. — In a 
 laie volume of the 'Journal de I'l.yfiqiie, however, we 
 find it alferted by Dr Girtanncr to be an animal pro- 
 dud, a fort of honey or wax formed by a fpccits of 
 large ant called by lAinxxwijormicii rufa. Tbefc ants, 
 our author informs us, inhabit the old pine fortlls, 
 where they fometimes form liills about fix feet in dia- 
 meter; and it is generally in tliefe ancient forells, or 
 in plicfs where they have been, that JoUile amber is 
 iound. This fi bftancc is not hard as thit which is ta- 
 i.ca up in the lea at Pruiiia, ai:d w hicii is well known 
 «o iiaturalifts. It has the confifiencc of honey or of 
 halt melted w.ix, but it is of a ytlow colour like com- 
 jnon amber; it gives tlie fame proiluft by chemical 
 ar.al} iis, and it h.irdens like the other when it is fuf- 
 /ired to remain feme lime in a folution of comnion 
 
 fait. This accouuti fur the iiife(5ls thit arc fo often 
 found inclofcd in it. Among thcfc infers anis are ?.l- ' 
 ways the mofl prevailing : which tends farther, ^!r 
 Girtanncr thinks, to the confirmaiiun of his hyi)othe- 
 fis. Ambir then, in his opinion, is nothing b'jt a ve- 
 getable oil re!:dered concrete by the acid of ants,juft 
 as wax is nothing but an oil hardened by ihe acid cf 
 bees ; a i.iCt incontellably proved, wc arc told, liijcc 
 Mr Mctheric has been able to make artificial wax by 
 mixing oil of olives with the nitrous acid, and whieli 
 wax is not to be dillinguifiicd from the natural. 
 
 Tlirrc are fcveral indications wiiich difcover where 
 amber is to be found. The furfacc of the earth is there 
 covered wi:h a fift fcaly flone; and vitriol in particu- 
 lar always abounds thtrc, which is fometimes iouwA 
 white, fometimes reduced into a matter, like melted 
 glafs, and fometimes figured like petrified wood. 
 
 Amber of the fined Kind has been found in Eng- 
 land. It is I'rcqucntly thrown on the fhorcs of York- 
 fhire, and many other })lices, and found even in the 
 clay-pits ; the pits dug for tile-clay, between Tyburn 
 and Kenfington gravel-pits, and that behind Sc 
 George's Hofpital at Hyde-park corner, have afford- 
 ed line fpecimens. 
 
 Poland, Silelia, and Bohemia, arc famous for the 
 amber dug up there at this time. Germany affords 
 great quantities of amber, as well dug up from the 
 bowels of the earth, as toffed about on the lliorcs of 
 the Tea and rivers there. Saxony, Mifnia, and Sweden, 
 and many other places in this tra>.1 of Kuropt, abound 
 witji it. Denmark has afforded, at different times, fc- 
 veral quantities of folfdc amber ; and the Ihorssofihc 
 Baltic al'ound with it. But the countries lying on the 
 Baltic afford it in the greatefl abundance of all ; and of 
 ihcfe die mofl plentiful country is Pruiiia, a :ul the next 
 is Pomcrania. Pruiiia was, as early as tiie times of Thc- 
 odoric the Goth, famous for ainbcr ; for this fubftancc 
 coming iiiiogrcat repute with that prince, Ibinc natives 
 of Prulfia, who were about his court, clfered their fcr- 
 vice to go to their own country, where that fubflancc, 
 they faid, was produced, and bring back great (lores of 
 it. Tlicy accordingly did fo ; and from this time Prulfia, 
 hul the honourtobe called the Country of Amber, :n- 
 flcad of Italy, which had before undefcrvedly that ti- 
 tle. This article alone brings hisPruflianMajeflyarc^ 
 venue of 26, ooodollars annually. The amber of Frullia 
 is not only found on the fea-coafl, but in digging ; and 
 thougli that of Pomcrania is generally brought from 
 the fiiores, yet people who dig, on ditFcrent occalions, 
 in the very heart of the country, at times find amber. 
 
 Junker defcribes, after Neumann, the Pruffuu am- 
 bcr-niines, which are the richefl known. — Fitfl,at the 
 furface of the earth, is found artratum of fand. Imme- 
 diately under this fand is a bed of clay, filled wiili fmslt 
 flints of about an inch dianuiereach. Under thisclay 
 lies a flraturaof black earth, or turf, filled with follilc 
 wood, half dcconipofcd, and bituminous; this flratu:u 
 is extended upon a bank of minerals, containing little 
 metal, except iron, which are confequently pyrite.-;. 
 Lallly, under this bed the amber is found, feattcreJ 
 about in pieces, or fometimes accumulated in heaps. 
 
 Aniber has a fubacrid relinou.i talle, and fragra"t 
 aromatic fniell, efpecially when diiFolved. It cifTeri 
 from the other bituminous fubftanccs in this, that it 
 yields by diftilLuion a volatile acid fait, which ncncof 
 the others do i otl\tiwifc it afrbrds the fame fort of 
 
 principles 
 
 A:nbc
 
 A MB 
 
 [ 526 ] 
 
 A' M 13 
 
 prir.cij'lfj ^s them, viz. an acid phlegm, an oil wliicli 
 grjduilly becomes iliickcr as the diltillation is conti- 
 nued; and when the operation is finilhcd, tlicrc rc- 
 
 iiMias a black caput mortmim in the retort When 
 
 boiled in water, it neither foftens, nor undergoes any 
 fonfiblc alteration, txpofed to the fire in an open 
 vcllcl, it melts into a black mafs very like a bitumen : 
 It is partly folablc in I'pirit of wine, and likcwifc in 
 foaic ellcntial oils ; but i: is with difficulty that the 
 e-xprcile J ones are brought to aft upon it ; the ftrong- 
 er forts of fixed alkaline lixivia alnion. totally dif- 
 folvc if. 
 
 This fubftancc is principally of two colours, white 
 and yellow. The white is the mod cllecmed for nic- 
 di:inal pnrpofcs, as being the mod odoriferous, and 
 containing the greatcft quantity of volatile fait j tho' 
 the yellow is molt valued by thofc who manufafturc 
 beads and other toys with it, by rcafon of its tranf- 
 parcncy. 
 
 Amber is the balls of all varnilhes, by folution in 
 the ways defcribed under the article Vakkish. 
 
 Amber, when it has once been incited, irrecovera- 
 bly lofcs its beauty and hardnefs. There have been 
 fome, howcve-r, who pretend they had an art of melt- 
 ing fome fmall pieces of amber into a mafs, and con- 
 ilituting large ones of them : but this fcems fuch ano- 
 ther undertaking as the making of gold ; all the tri- 
 als that have yet been made by the mod curious expc- 
 rimenicrs, proving, that the heat which is necelFary 
 to melt amber, is fullicient to deftroy it. Phil. Tranf. 
 N° 248. p. 25. 
 
 Could amber indeed be dilTolvcd without impairing 
 its iranfparcncy, or one large mafs be made of it by 
 uniting fcvcr.^1 fmall ones, it is cafy to fee what would 
 be the advantages of fuch a procefs. The art of em- 
 balming might pollibly be alfo carried to a great height 
 by this, if wc could prcferve the human corpfe in a 
 tranfparcnt cafe of amber, as the bodies of flies, fpi- 
 dcrs, graflioppers, &c. arc to a great pcrfeftion. 
 SD.r.cthing of a fubflitute of this kind we have in fine 
 rofin J which bci:ig diflolved by heat, and the bodies 
 (if Dnall animals fcvcral times dipped in it, they arc 
 thus coated wiih colophony, that in fome degree rc- 
 fcmbles amber ; but this mufl be kept from dufl. 
 
 ..Amljcr in fubllancc has been much recommended 
 as aucrvousand cordial medicine ; tndalledgcd to be 
 very rincacious in promoting the menllrual difcharge, 
 .'.nd the exclufion of the fosius snd fccnndincs in la- 
 bour; but as in its crude ftate it is quite infoUible by 
 oar juices, it certainly can have very little etfedt on 
 the anim.tl fy/lem, and therefore St is now fcldom 
 given in fubllancc. The forms in which amber is pre- 
 pared are, A tinfture, a fait, and an oil ; the prcpa- 
 tion and nfes of which arc defcribed in the proper 
 place under the article Pharmacy. 
 
 A.\'KER'Tri;, the Englilh name of a fpecies of 
 Anthospermum. 
 
 AMBERG, a city of Germany, the capital of the 
 palatinate of Bavaria, with a good caftlc, ramparts, 
 balHons, and deep ditches. It is fcated near the con- 
 iines of Kranconia,on the rivcrWils. It drives a great 
 trade in iron and other metals, fmind in the ncigli- 
 bouriih,r mountains. E. Long. 12. 4. N. Lat. 20. 46. 
 
 AMBKRGRISE, Ameergreasf, or Gkev Am- 
 ber, in natural Iiiilory, is a loljd, opakc, alh-colourcd, 
 
 3 
 
 fatty, innummaWc fubftancc, variegated like marble, 
 remarkably light, rugged and uneven in its furfacc, 
 and has a fragrant odour v/hen heated. It does not 
 ctfcrvcfcc vvitii acids ; it melts freely over the fire, 
 into a kind of yclluw rofin ; and is- hardly folablc in 
 fpirit of wine. 
 
 It is found fwiniming upon the fea, or the fea-coaft, 
 or in the fan J near the fea-coaft ; efpccially in the At- 
 lantic ocean, on the fca-coall of Bralil, andthatof Ma- 
 dagafcar ; on the coaft of Africa, of rhc Ka(l Indies, 
 China, Japan, and the Molucca iP.ands ; but moll af 
 the ambergrife which is -brought to England comes 
 from the Bahama itlands, from Providence, &c. where 
 it is found on the coaft. It is alfo fometimcs found in 
 the abJomcnof whales by the whale-filhcrmen, always 
 in lumps of various Ihapes and fizes, weighing from 
 half an ounce to an hundred and more pounds. The 
 piece which the Dutcli Eaft India Company bought 
 Irom the kingofTydor, weighed 182 pounds.' An 
 American filhcrman from Antigua found fome years 
 ago, about 52 leagues fouth-eaft from the Windward 
 iHaUds, a picceof ambergrife in a whale, which weigh- 
 ed about I ;!o pounds, and fold for 500 I. Sterling. 
 
 There have been many different opinions concern- 
 ing the origin of this fubilance. 
 
 It has been fuppofed to be a foflilc Intumen or naph- 
 tha, exuding out of the bowels of the earth in a fluid 
 form, and diftilling into the fea, where it hardens and 
 floats oil the furface. But having been frequently 
 found in the belly of whales, it has by others been 
 confidcred as entirely an animal prodaition. 
 
 Clufius alfertcd it to be a phlegmatic recrement, or 
 indurated indigeftiblc part of the food, colleded and 
 found in the llomach of the whale, in the fame man- 
 ner as the Bezoars arc found in theftomaehs of other 
 animals. 
 
 In an account communicated by Paul Dudley, Efq; 
 ill the 23d volume of the Philofophical Tranfaflions, 
 the ambergifc found in whales is reprefcnted as a kind 
 of animal produel, like inulk, and caftoreum, &c. fc- 
 ertted and colleded in a peculiar bag orbladder, which 
 is furiiiflied with an excretory du6l or canal, the fpout 
 of which runs t.ipering into and dirough the length of 
 the penis ; and that this bag, which lies juft over the 
 ttfticlcSjis almoft full ofade^-p orange-coloured liquor, 
 not quite fo thick as oil, of ttic fame fmell as the balls 
 ofambergrife, which float and fwira loofe in it : which 
 colour and liquor nrsy alfo be found in the canal of the 
 penis ; and that therefore ambergrife is never to be 
 found in any female, but in the male only. But thefc 
 circumftances arc not only deftitute of truili, but alfo 
 contrary to the laws of the animal oeconomy : For, in 
 the firft place, ambergrife is t'requently found in females 
 as well as males ; although that found in females is 
 never in fuch large pieces, nor of fo good a quality, as 
 what is found in males. Secondly, No perfon who has 
 the leaft knowledge in anatomy orphyfiology, will e- 
 vcr believe that organ ifed bodies, fuch as the beaks of 
 the Sepia, which are fo conftantly found in amber- 
 grife taken out of the whale, can have been abforbed 
 from the intcftines by the lafleals or lymphatics, and 
 colledled with the ambergrife in the precluded bag a- 
 bovementioned. 
 
 Kaempfer, wlio has given us fo many other faithful 
 accounts in natural hiftory, feems to come nearer the 
 
 truth 
 
 AiiiT.tr- 
 
 yrift.
 
 A M B 
 
 L 5^7 1 
 
 A M B 
 
 Ac-.Ur- tniih with regard to the origin of arabergriff, when he in the fpcrinaccti whale ; and they arc foccn-. inccdot' Amb-r- 
 
 grifc. f;iys, that it is the dung ot the whale ; and that the 
 ■ Japancfc, for this reafo.i, call it i :fura no Jtni, i. c. 
 whale's clung. This account, however, though found- 
 ed oil obfervation, has never obtained credit, but has 
 been conliJered rather as a fabulous flory, with wliich 
 the Japancfe iinpofed upon him, who had himfclf no 
 direct obf-rvation to prove the fad. 
 
 Tliis matter, therefore, remained a fubjc<5t of great 
 doubt ; and it was generally thought to be more pro 
 
 this fact, that whenever they hear of a place where 
 ambergrife is found, they always conclude that the feas 
 in that part are frequented by this fpecics of whale. 
 
 The perfons who arc employed in the fpcrmactii 
 whale lilhery, confine iheir views to the Phyfeter ma- 
 crocephulus. They look for ambergrife in all the fpcr- 
 maceti whales they catch, but it feldom happens that 
 they find any. Whenever they hook a fpcrmaceti 
 whale they obfcrve, thai it conflantly not only vomits 
 
 grife. 
 
 bable, that ambergrife, after having been fwallowed up whatever it has in its flomach, but alfo generally 
 and fomehow or other changed in the Ilomach and difcharges its faeces at the time ; and if this latter 
 
 bowels of the whale, was found among its excrements 
 But the nioll iatisfaclory account of the real origin 
 of ambergrife, is that given by Dr Swcdiar in the 7jd 
 volume of the Philofopiiical Tranladions, art. i j. 
 ' We are told by all wriiers on ambergrife, that fomc- 
 timesclawsandbeaksof birds, feathers c>f birds, parts 
 of vegetables, (licUs, iilh, and bones of fifli, are found 
 in the middleof it,or varioully mixed with it. Of a very 
 large quantity of pieces, however, which the Doftor 
 examined, he found none that contained any fuch 
 thing ; though he allows, that fuch fubftances may 
 fometimcs be found in it : but in all the pieces of any 
 Gonfiderablc fize, whether iound on the fea or in the 
 whale, he conftantly found a conlldcrable quantity of 
 black fpots, which, after the mofl careful examination 
 appeared to be the beaks of the Sepia OdojioJia ; and 
 ihefe beaks, he thinks, might be the fubftances which 
 have hitherto beenalwaysmiftaken for claws or beaks 
 of birds, or for fliells. 
 
 The prefence of thcfe beaks in ambergrife proves e- 
 vidently, that all ambergrife containing them is in its 
 origin, or raufl have been once, of a very foft or liquid 
 nature, asothcrwife thole beaks could not fo conftantly 
 be intermixed with it throughout its whole fubftancc. 
 
 That ambergrife is found either upon the fea and 
 fea-coaft, or in the bowels of whales, is a matter of faft 
 univerfally credited. But it has never been examined 
 into and determined, whether the ambergrife found 
 upon the fea and fea-coaft is the faiirc as that found in 
 the whale, or whether they are different froinonc ano- 
 ther ? Whether that found on the fea or lea-coaft has 
 fome properties, orconftitucnt parts, v.-hich that found 
 in the whale has not ? And lailly, Whether that found 
 in the whale is fuperior or inferior in its qualities and 
 value to the former ? 
 
 It is likevvifeamaitcr ofconfequfuce tokn0W,Whe- 
 thcrambcrgrifc is found in all kinds of whales, or only 
 in a particularfpeciesof them ? Whether it is conftant- 
 ly and always to be met with in thofe animals ? And, 
 if fo, in what part of their body it is to be found ? 
 
 All thcfe cfucftions we find very fatisfaflorily dif- 
 cullcd by Dr Swediar. 
 
 According to the beft inforniatiun that he could ob- 
 tain from fevcral of the moft intelligent -perfons cm- 
 ployed in the fpcrmaceti whale-fillicry, and in procu- 
 ring and felling ambergrife, it appears, that this fub- 
 ftancc is fometimcs found in the billy of the whale, 
 
 but in that particular fpccies only which is called the agreeable fmcH, and, when krpt for a certain length of 
 fpcrmaceti luhale , and which from its dcfcription and time, acquires thepcculiarodourwhich is fo agreeable 
 delineation appears to be the Pur^iuTER Macrocephatns to moft people. 
 Linnxi. Thcgentlcmen thcDoiftor converfcd with confirflcd, 
 
 TJ\c New England fidiermcn, according to their ac- that if they knew not from experience that ambergrife 
 count, have long knosvuiiiat ambergrife is to be found thus found will mtime ac^luire the abovementioned 
 
 arge 
 circumftances takesplacc, they are generally difappoin- 
 ted in finding ambergrife in its belly. But whenever 
 they difcover a fpcrmaceti whale, male or female, which 
 feems torpid and iickly, they arc always pretty furc to 
 find ambergrife, as the whale in this (late feldom voijs 
 its fxces upon being hooked. They likewifc generally 
 meet with it in the dead fpcrmaceti whales, which they 
 fomctimes find rtoatingon the fea. It is obfcrvedalfo, 
 that the whale, in which they find ambergrife, often 
 has a morbid protuberance ; or, as ilicy exprtfs it, a 
 kind of gathering in the lov/er part of its belly, in 
 which, if cut open, ambergrife is found. It isobfer- 
 vtd, that all thofe whales, in whole bowels ambergrife 
 is found, fccm not only torpid and (ick, but are alfo 
 conftantly leaner than others ; fo that, if we may judge 
 from the conftant union of iliefe two circumftances, it 
 would fccm that a large collciflion of ambergrife in the 
 belly of the whale is a fourcc of difeafe, and probably 
 fonieiimes the caufc of its death. As fooii as they 
 hook a whale of this dcfcription, torpid, lickly, ema- 
 ciated, one that docs not dung on being hooked, 
 they immediately citlier cut up the abovcmeniioned 
 protuberance, if there be any, or they rip open its 
 bowels from the orilice of the anus, and find the am- 
 bergrife, fo;re times in one fometimesin different lumps, 
 of generally from three to twelve and more inches in 
 diameter, and from one pound to twenty or thirty 
 ppunds in weight, at the dift.incc of two, but vr.ov. 
 frequently of about fix or fcvciifcct from the anus, and 
 never higher up in tiic inteftinal canal ; which, accord- 
 ing to their dcfcription, is, in all probability, the inte- 
 ftiniim cscnm, hitherto niiftakcn for a peculiar bag 
 made by nature for the fccreiion and colleiflion of this 
 fingular fubftancc. Tliat the part they cut open to 
 come at the ambergrife is no other than the inteftinal 
 canal is certain, bccaul'c they conftantly begin their in- 
 ciliouattheanus, and find the cavity every where filled 
 with the fA;ces of the whale, which from their colour 
 and fmcll it is impoffiblc for them to iniftake. The 
 ambergrife found in the inteftinal canal is not fo hard 
 as that which is found on the fea or fea-coaft, but foon 
 grows hard in the air : when firft taken out it has 
 ncai'ly the fame colour, and thefamc difagreeable fmcll, 
 though not fo ftrong, as the more liquid dung of the 
 whale has ; but, on expoling it to the air, it by degrees 
 ■ not o'nly grows grey idi, and its fir^tace is covered with a 
 greyilh dull like old chocolate, but it alfo Infcs its dif-
 
 A M B 
 
 [ 528 3 
 
 ABM 
 
 Amber- qvialiiies, tlif y woiilil by no means be able to diftinguii'h 
 grife. ambcrgrifc I'rom hard iiidiiiatcj fxccs. This isfo true, 
 *~~^' that whenever a whale voids its f*ccs upon being hook- 
 ed, tlicy look carefully to fee if they cannot dif.ovcr 
 among the inorc liqiiid excrcuicius(oi"\vliich tiic whale 
 di (charges fcvcral barrels) fomc pieces lioaiingoii the 
 fea, of a more compatt lubflance than the ie(l; thcfc 
 tlicy tike up and walh, knowing them to be ambcr- 
 griie. 
 
 In confidcring whether there be any material diffe- 
 rence between ambcrgrifc found upon tlie fca or fea- 
 coaft, and that found in the bosvch or among the dung 
 of the w'halc> the Doctor refutes the opinion, that all 
 anibergrifc found in whales is of an inferior quality, 
 and thcrefcrc much lefs in price. Anibergrifc, he e!)- 
 fcrves, is only valued for its purity , llghtnefs, conipait- 
 nefs, colour, and fmcll. There are pieces of ambcr- 
 grifc found on diifcrcni coafls, which arc of a very in- 
 terior quality; whereas there arc often found in wlialca 
 picccsof it of the tirll value ; nay, fcvcral pieces fouiui 
 in the fame w hale, according to the abovcmcntioncd 
 qualities, are more or lefs valuable. All amiiergiife 
 found in whales hasat fiiilwhcn taken out of the iriicf- 
 tines very near the fame fmcll as the liquid cxcrc- 
 mcnis of that animal have ; it has ilicn alfo nearly the 
 fame blackilh colour : they lind it in tlie whale fonic- 
 times quite hard, fomctimes rather foftifli, but never fo 
 liquid as the natural fiKces of that animal. And it is 
 a matter of fart, tliat, after being taken out and kept 
 in the air, all ambcrgrifc grows not only harder and 
 whiter, but a'.fo lofes by degrees its fmell, and alluaus 
 filch an agreeable one, as that in general has which is 
 found fwimming ui)on tlic fca ; therefore thegoodncfs 
 of ambeigrift fecms rather to depend on its age. By 
 being accumulated after a certain length of time in the 
 iniefiinal canal, it fecms even then to become of a 
 whiter colour, and lefs ponderous, and acquire its a- 
 grecable fmell. The only rcafon why ambcrgrifc found 
 floatingon the fca generally poirclTcstheabovemention- 
 tioncd qualities in a fuperior degree, is bccaufe it is 
 commonly older, and has been longer expofed to the 
 air. It is more frequcuily found in males than females; 
 the pieces found in females are in general fmaller, and 
 t hofe found in males feem conllantly tobc largcrand of a 
 better quality ; and therefore the high price in" pro- 
 portion to the lizc is not merely imaginary for the ra- 
 Tity-fikc, but in fonic refpetl: well founded, becaufe 
 fuch large pieces appear to beof a grcatcragc, and'^uif- 
 fcfs the abovcmcntioned qualities in gencralin a high- 
 er dc.'ree of perfeflion than fmaller pieces. 
 
 It is known, that the Sepia oclopodia, or cuttlc-fifli, 
 is the conflant and natural food of the Ipcrmaccti 
 whale, or Phyfctermacrocephalus. Of iJiis the finiers 
 are fo well pcrfuadcd, that whenever they difcoverany 
 recent relics ol it fwimnnng on the fca, they conclude 
 that a whileof this kind is, or has been, in that j'art. 
 Another circumflance which corroborates the fart is, 
 that the fpermacett whale on being hooked generally 
 vomits up fome remains of the Sepia. Hence it is cafy 
 10 account for ihe many beaks, or pieces of beaks, of 
 the Sepia found in all ambcrgrifc. The beak of the 
 Sepia is a black horny fubflanee, and therefore paflcs 
 Hndigefted through the flomach into the intcrtinal ca- 
 nal, where it is mixed with the fxccs; after which it is 
 either evacuated with ihem, or if thcfe latter be prctcr- 
 
 natur.ilIyrcraliicJ.forins concretions with them, which 
 render the animal fick and torpid, and produce an ob- 
 Itipatioii, which ends either in anabfccfsof the abdo- ' 
 men, as has been frequently obfervcd, or becomes fatal 
 to the animal ; w heace in botii the cafes, on the burll* 
 ing of its belly, that hardened fubllance, know n nndcr 
 the name of awbifrgrijc, is iouiid fwimming on the fea, 
 or thrown upon the coaft. 
 
 From the preceding account, and his having con- 
 flanily found the abovcmcntioncd beaks of the Sepia 
 in all pieces of ambergrifc of any con full rablelize, Dr 
 Swcdiir concludes with great probability, that all am- 
 bcrgrifc is generated in the bowels of the Phyfcter 
 inacroccphalus, oi- fpermaccii whale ; and there mixed 
 with the beaks of the Sepia ortopodia, which is the 
 principal food of that whale. He thcreforedctines am- 
 bergrifc to be the prctcrnaturally hardened dung or 
 fasces of the I'hyl'cter macrocephalus, mixed with 
 fome indigelUlilc relics of its food. 
 
 'I'he ufc of ambcrgrifc in Europe is now nearly con- 
 fined topcrfumcry, tho'it has formerly been recommen- 
 ded inmedicinc by fcvcral eminent phylicians. Hence 
 the KlFcntia Ambra; Hoffmanni, Tinrtura Regia Cod. 
 I'arifmi, Trochifci dc Ambra Ph. Wurtcmberg, &c. 
 
 If wc widi to fee any medicinal effeifts from this fub- 
 flancc, the Dortor obfcrvcs, we mull certainly not ex- 
 pert them from two or three grains, but give rather 
 as many fcruplesofit for a dofe : though even then, he 
 thinks, there would nut be rcafon to expert much ef- 
 fert from it, as he had hinifelf taken of pure unadul- 
 terated ambergrifc in powder 50 grains at once, with- 
 out obfcrving the Ic.nfi; fciillble cfi~crt from it. A failor, 
 liowever, wlio had the ruriulity to try the effcrt of re- 
 cent ambergrifc upon himfclf, took half an ounce of 
 it melted upon the lire, and four.dit a good purgative; 
 which proves that it is not quite an inert fubflaace. 
 
 In Afiaand part of Africa ambcrgrifc is not only 
 nfed asa mcditine and as a perfume ; but coniidcrabic 
 ufc is alfo made of it in cookery, by adding it to fevcral 
 dilhes as a fpice. A great quantity of it is alfo con- 
 llantly bought by the pilgriu's who travel to Mecca ; 
 probably to offer it there, and make ufc of it in fumi- 
 gations, in tJie fame manner as frankincenfc is nfed ill 
 Catholic countiics. The Turks make ufc of it as ati 
 aphrodiilac. Our perfumers add it to fccntcd pillars, 
 candles, balls or bottles, gloves, and hair powder ; 
 and its cireucc is jnixed with pomatums for the face 
 and hands, either alone or mixed withmufk, &c. tho' 
 its I'mell is to fome perfons extremely off'cnfive. 
 
 Ambcrgrifc may be known to be genuine bv its fra- 
 grant fcent when a hot nci die or pin is thrufl. into it, 
 and its melting like f^t of an uniform conliflence ; 
 whereas the counterfeit will nntyield fuch a fmell, nor 
 prove of fuch a fat texture.— One thinj;-, however, is 
 ^ery remarkable, that this drug, whicii is the mo/t 
 fwcet of all the perfumes, fliould be capable of being 
 rcfemblcd in fn'cll by a preparation of one of the mcfl 
 odious of all flinks. Mr Monibcrg fn\ind, thai a vefli:! 
 in which he iiad made a long digefiion of the human 
 faeces, acquired a very flrong and perfert fmell of am- 
 bergrifc, infomuch that any one would have thought 
 a great quantity of ciTcncc of ambcrgrifc had been 
 made in it. The perfume wa.s fo ilrong and ofFcnfivc, 
 that the veffcl was forced to be removed, out of the 
 claboraiory. 
 
 AMBERT
 
 A M 13 
 
 [ 5^9 3 
 
 A M B 
 
 Amljcrt AMBER.T, a fmall toivn of France, in lower Au- 
 I vergnc, thecl'.icf place of a fmall territory called Liv- 
 ^.Ttibigeiial radi:s. It is remarkable for its paper manufactory and 
 " caniblets. Ji. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 45. 28. 
 
 AMBKTTUWAY, in botany, a barbarous name 
 of a tree, the leaves of which, when boiled in wine, arc 
 faici to create an appetite, and is ufed by the people in 
 H^uinea with that intention. 
 
 AMBlANI.or Ambianensis civitasiHow y///;/<^;/j, 
 a city of I'ic.irdy. It is called Saniarobi iva by Casfar 
 and Cicero; which, according to Valc(iiis,fignitics the 
 bridge of tJic Sj'nara or Somme. Aihbiam is a later 
 tianic, taken from that of the people, after the ufnal 
 manner of the lower a^^c. 
 
 AMBIDKXTEn, a perfon who canufc both hands 
 with the I -:ine facility, and fur the fame purpofcs, ihar 
 .tl;e generality of people do their ri;!;ht hands. — As 
 to the natural ccnfe of this faculty, ionic, aslloefer, 
 attribute it to an extraordinary fuppiy of blood and 
 fpirits from the heart and brain, which furnidiboth 
 hands with thencccdary firtngth and agility : others, 
 as Nichalas .Matfa, roan trcCt fituaiion of the heart, 
 Inclining neither to the ri!!;ht hand nor left ; and o- 
 
 thers to the right and left lubclavian arteries In ingof its fanclity extended 
 tiie fiinie height and the fame diflance from the he:irt, grum pedes tot 
 by which the blood is propelled with equal force to 
 both hands. — But thefc arc o:,ly eon jcclurcrs, or rather 
 chimeras. Many think, that, were it I'.oc for educa- 
 tion and hab't, all mankind would be ambidexters ;and 
 in fact, we frrqut.-jtly find nurfcs obliged to be at a 
 good deal of pains before they can bring children to 
 forego the nfe of their left hands. How far it may be 
 an advantage to be deprived of half our natural dex- 
 terity, maybe doubled. It is certain, there are in- 
 finite occafions in life, where ic would be better to have 
 the equal ufc of both hands. Surgeons and oculifts 
 are of neccllity obliged to be ambidexters ; bleeding, 
 &c. in the left-arm or kft-anclc, and operations on 
 the left-eye, caniiot be well performed but with the 
 
 left-hand Various inflances occur in hiilory, where 
 
 the left hand has been exccrciied preferably to tlie 
 right. But by the lawsof the ancient Scythians, people 
 were enjoined toexcrcKc both hdnds alike ; and Plato 
 enjoins ambidexterity to be obferved and encouraged 
 in his rcpiblic. 
 
 Ambidexter, among Knglifli lawyers, a juror or 
 embracer, who accepts money of both parties, for gi- 
 ving his verdict; an oifence for which lie is liable to be 
 Jniprifoned,for ever excluded fromajury, and to pay 
 icn times the fum he accepted of. 
 
 AMBIENT, a term ufed fm-fuch bodies, cfpeeially 
 fluids, ascncompals others on all lidcs : thus, the airis 
 frequently called an ambient fluid, bccaufe itis ditlufed 
 round ih-: earth. 
 
 AMlilGEN.^ ovEs, in the heathen facrifices, an 
 appellation given to fuch ewes as, having brought 
 forth twins, were facrificcd together with their two 
 lambs, one on each fide. We find them mentioned 
 among other facriticcs to Juno, 
 
 AMBIGENAL hyperhola, a name given by Sir 
 Ifiac Newton to one of the triple hyperbolas of the 
 fecondordcr,havingonc of its infinite legs falling with 
 
 AMBIGUITY, a defeat of language, v.jicreby Ambiguitj 
 words arc rendered ambiguous. See the next article. ( 
 
 AMBIGUOUS, a term applied to a word or ex- Amb itus. 
 prcllion which may be taken in different fcnfes. — An * ' 
 anonymous writer has publillied a didionary of ambi- 
 guous words : Ltxicon ihilofophicum d; Ambiguitate 
 yocabulonim, Francof. 1597. /,to. — The rcfponfes of 
 the ancient oracles were always ambiguous. 
 
 AMBIT, in geometry, is the fame with what i;> 
 otherwifc called the perimeter of a figure, bee Peri- 
 met e k . 
 
 Ambit was particularly ufed, in antiquity, to de- 
 note a fpace of ground to be left vacant bctv.ixt ouc 
 building and another. By the laws of the twelve ta- 
 bles, houfcs were not to be built contiguous, but an 
 ambit or fpaec of 2^- feet was 10 be left about each 
 for fear of tire. — The ambitus of a tomb or monu- 
 ment denoted a certain numbe; of feet, in length and 
 breadth, around the fame, within which the lanit ty 
 adigned to it was limited. Tiic wliole ground wherein 
 a tomb was eiedtcd was not to be fccrcted from ihc 
 common ufes ; for this reafon, it was frequent to in- 
 fcribe the ambit on it, that it might be known how far 
 tjius, in j route pedes l'>t, in a- 
 
 AM'BITION {ambitio), is generally ufed in a bad 
 fenfe, for an immoderate or illegal purfuit of power. 
 
 In th« drift meaning, however, of the word, it fig- 
 nilies the f^me with the ai/.lntui of the Romans. Sec 
 the next article. 
 
 Ambition, in the former and more ufual fenfc, is 
 one of thofc paflions that is never to be faiisried. It 
 f\^clls gradually with fucccfs, and every acquifiiioii 
 fcrves but as a fpur to further attempts. 
 
 " If a man (it has been well obferved), could at once 
 acconiplilhallhisdefires, he would be amiferable crea- 
 ture : for the chief plcafure of this life is to with and 
 deiire. Upon this account, every prince who afpires 
 to be defpotic afpires to die of wcarinefs. Searching 
 every kingdom for the man who has the lealf comfort 
 in life. Where is he to be found f — In the royal pa- 
 lace. — What! hismajedy? Yes; cfpeeially if he be 
 defpotic." 
 
 AMBITUS, in Roman antiquity, the fctting up 
 for fome magillracy or office, and formally going round 
 the city to folicit the intercll and votes of the people. 
 
 Ambitui different from at/ibitio, as the former lies 
 in the aft, the latter in the mind. 
 
 Ambitus was of two kinds; one lawful, the other 
 infamous. The fird, called alfo aribilus papillaris, 
 was when a pcrfon offered his fervice to the republic 
 frankly, leaving it to every body to judge of his pre- 
 tcnlions as they found rcaioiiable. The means and in- 
 llruments here made ufe of were various, i. A;::ici, 
 or friends, under different relations, including cJgKnti, 
 (.fines, luctijarii, j'amiliares, vicini, tribtiles, ciiintes, 
 r/fiuicipei, fodaies, colleger. 2. Nor.'enc/iilnr^, or the 
 calling and faluting every perfon by liis name ; to which 
 purpofe, the candidates were attended with an oSiccr, 
 under the denomination of intepres, or nQi:i:rt:lelor, 
 3. Btanditl.i \ or obliging pcrfons; by fervin* thcm,or 
 tbcir friends, p.itrons, or the like, with their vote and 
 
 in an angle forincd by the aflj'mptotcs, and the other intercll on other occafions. 4. Prenfiin ; the fhaking 
 
 withont. every perfon by the hand, offering hiin his fervice, 
 
 Vol. I. 5 X friendlhip,
 
 A M 13 
 
 [ 
 
 JO J 
 
 A M li 
 
 Amble fricndfiiii'. Sec. — Thtfccoud kind was ili.ii wherein 
 
 I Ibrcc, cajDliag, money, or other extraordinary intic- 
 
 Amtioliitf- ciicc, v.'as niidc life ol. This was htlJ infamous, and 
 
 ""••"<'• icvt-rrly puuiftitd, as a faiirce ol'torrui'tion and other 
 
 iDJfchicls. 
 
 Ambitus wjs praiSlifcd not only at Rome and in the 
 fonim, hut ill the nitetings and allfinblii.!. ot otiur 
 towns in Italy, where numbers otciti/.cris were ufually 
 found, on account of trade and bulincl?. — 'Ihe prac- 
 tice celled in the city Ironi tlic time oftiie Emperors 
 by reaTon polls were not tlicn to be had by courting 
 the people, b'lt by favour from the prince. 
 
 I'tifjns who had caufcs depending praclifed the 
 fame, going about among the judges to imphirc iluir 
 lavour and mercy. They wliopraCtifcd tliii were call- d 
 A»'l>itiol:. Hence wc aUo meet witli avtbitwfa dicrcta, 
 and avibitiofa jiiffa, ii fed for fucli fentenccs and de- 
 crees as were thus procured from the judges, coiiirary 
 to rcafoii and equity, either gratuitoully or for mo- 
 ney. 
 
 AMBLE, in horfemanfliip.a peculiar pace by wliieh 
 a horfc's two legs of the fime lidc move at the fame 
 lime. See Ho USE. MANS HIT. 
 
 AMUI.LblDK, a town in Wcftnioreland, featcd 
 at one end of \\ inandermcer, W. Long. o. 49.N. l.it. 
 
 AiMBLETKUSE, a fea-port town of b ranee, in 
 Picardy, di fended with a battery of cannon. £. long. 
 I. :o N. hit. 49. 40. 
 
 AiMBl.YGON, in geometry, denotes an obtufe- 
 angled triangle, or a triangle oncof whofc angles con- 
 lillsof more tlian 9odcgreis. 
 
 AMBLYOPY, among phyficians, ligniiies an ob- 
 fcuration of the light, fo that objeds at a diflancc can- 
 not be clearly dillinguilhcd. 
 
 AM BO, or AwnoN, a kind of pulpit or defk, in 
 the ancient churches, were ihc prielh and deacons 
 Hood to read or ling part of the fervice, and preach to 
 the people ; called alfo Anaiagiuvi. 'Ihc term is de- 
 rived from arafaivi.v, " to mount." — 1 he ambo was 
 mounted upon two lidcs ; whence iome alf>) derive the 
 appellation trom the Latin av.bo, " both." 
 
 The ambo was afcendcd by llcps; which occafioned 
 that part of the office performed there to be called 
 \\\c Gr:iiiual. See Gradual 
 
 Bcfides thegofpel, which was read at the top of the 
 ambo, and the cpiflle, which was read a Hep lower, 
 they likcwifc publiflied from this place the acts of the 
 martyrs, the comnumoraiion of departed faints, and 
 the letters of pcaceand communion lent by one church 
 10 another : here, too, converts made a public profef- 
 Jlon of their faiih ; .Tiid bifliops, their defence, when 
 accufed : treaties alfo were fometimes concluded, and 
 .the coronations of emperors and kings performed, in 
 .the fame place. 
 
 The modern rcading-defks and pulpits have been 
 cenerally fubliltulcd 10 tiie ancient Amhos ; though, 
 in fomc churches, remains of the ambos arc ftillfeen. 
 In that of St John dc Laicran at Rome, there arc two 
 .moveable ambos. 
 
 AMBOHITSMENE, or \'oh itsangho.mbe, a 
 province of the ifland of MaJagafcar, fo called from 
 fatnerf4 niountains of the fame name, lying in S. Lai. 
 io". Thefe Eountiiir.s are very high, refcmbling the 
 
 Tafclburg of liie tape of Good Hope On one fide of An.boiff 
 this rdge the (ea txuiids into tlie country lor fifteen I 
 leagues ; on the other is it llat country abounding in Amliuyi^a. 
 ponds and marlhes. Here isalfo alakc liftcen leagues 
 in length, and the fame in breadth, coniaining many 
 fmall illands. The inhabitants of the mountains .^rc 
 called Z«/frtf«ff/.'^j ; and have plenty of gold, iron, 
 cattle, lilk, &c. ^ 
 
 ANIBOISE, a town of France, in Touraine, featcd 
 at the coniiuence of the rivers Loire and Maflee. The 
 town is mean and ill built ; but lias been rendered fa- 
 mous in hillory by the eonfpiracy of the Froteftanis 
 i:i 1560, w!ii(h opened (tie fatal wars of religion in 
 France, 1 he calllc is (iiuated on a craggy lock, ex- 
 tremely dillieult of accefs, and the fides ol which arc 
 almofl perpendicular. At its foot Hows the Loire, 
 which is oividcd into two lircams by a fmall illand. 
 To tl'.is fortrtl's the duke of Guife, w hen he cxjicticd 
 an infurretlioii among the Hugonois, nmoved hiiu- 
 cis II. as to a place ol perfed fccurity. Only two de- 
 tached pans of the ancient cafllc now rci;iain, one of 
 which was conllruilcd by Ch.ules VHl. and the other 
 by Frances I. The former of ihofc princes was born 
 and died at Amboife. The town is lituaied E. Long. 
 I. po. N. Lai 47, 2 J. 
 
 AMBOULE, a proviiice of Marfagafcar, fomcwhat 
 to the northward cf S. Lat 23°. It is a feriile and 
 agreeable country, watered by the river Manampani, 
 whofe mouth lies in S. Lat. 23. ;o. The country pro- 
 duces plants and fruits in'plcnty. Iron mines are alfo 
 found here. The black cattle are extremely fat, and 
 their ficfli excellent. In this province ftands a large 
 town of the fame name ; near which is a foutain of 
 hot water, within 20 feet of a fmall river whcfe faiid 
 is a!>:ioll bui niiig. The water of the fountain is faid 
 to boil an egg hard in two hours ; and the inhabitants 
 aflirm it to be a (ovcreign remedy againll the gout. 
 The people here are employed indifferent prej'arai ions 
 of iron and flccl.whieh they have from iheirown mines, 
 and forge fcveral inftnimcnts with tolerable Ikill. 
 Their governor is honoured with ilic tile o\' Kabsrlaii, 
 or CrciJt Lord He exrrcifcs fovereign authority and;:b- 
 folulc power ; but is frequently, in times of diftrefs, 
 furprifcd by his fubjedls, who aU'cmble in great num- 
 bers, fei/e his I erfoii, and tlircstcn him with death un- 
 lefs they are relieved. To extricate himfelf from this 
 dilemma, he is inflantly obliged to iliue orders for di- 
 flribining provilionsamong them; but is ufually repaid 
 with iiuerefl, a quadruple return being made in a plen- 
 tiful harveft. The people of Amboiilc live in great li- 
 centioufnefs with their fuperiors, and their country is 
 generally a retreat for the roguidi and lazy. 
 
 AMUOYNA. one of the INlohicca illands, in the 
 Eaft Indies. It lies in S. Lat. 3. '^6. and E.Long. 126. 
 20. and is remarkable for being thcrentreof the com- 
 merce for nutmegs and cloves, which is entirely mo- 
 nopolized by the Dutch Eall-India company. It is 
 about 24 leagues in circumference. Bilides cloves, 
 it likcwifc abounds in molt of the tropical fruits and 
 fidi ; nor is there here any deficiency of good water ; 
 but fifh is very fcarce. This fcarciiy, however pro- 
 ceeds more from the policy of the Dutch than eilhcr- 
 the intcmiicraturc of the climate or tlic barrennefs of 
 the foil : For, excepting clovcs,they liaveinAmbcy-
 
 A M 13 
 
 [ s:^' J 
 
 A M B 
 
 Amlxiyna. na, as well as the Moluccas, indtillrioufly (iiftourigcd 
 "^^ ' the cuhivation of every ercultiit conimodiry, wiih tJic 
 vitwof vviih-holdiiiij rubliftcuccfrom ihofc who might 
 be tempted to invade ihem. 
 
 Of the natives, the men wear hrgc vvliifl:crs, but 
 leave liiilc hair upon their cliiii ; and h?ve only a (light 
 piece of ft;, ff wrapped round their middle. The wo- 
 men tie tlieir hair in kno;s : the maids are b.)uj;ht of 
 their fathers before llicy are married ; and if tiic wife 
 proves barren, the marriage is diili>lved. Sor.ic of the 
 iiitivcs are Mahumcians, and lo.ne Ciiriflians : hut 
 they are all laid to be l:i/y, deceitful, and treacherous. 
 1 hey make war wi;h fmall fwift vellVls, in ihapc like 
 dragons willi regard to the iiead and tail. Their hou- 
 fcs arc built of bamboo-canes and fago-trecs. They 
 llecp on mats. Their weapons are bows and arrows, 
 javelins, fcymitars, and targets. 
 
 Aniboyna was iirfl difcovcred by the Portuguefe, 
 who br.ilt a fort upon it, whicli was taken from iheni 
 by the Dutch iu 1605. They did not, however, be- 
 come maftersof the whole illand at once. The Englilli 
 had here five fadories, which lived under the pro- 
 tection of the Dutch cafllc ; holding themfclvcs fife, 
 in rcfpeft of the frienjlhip between the two nations. 
 Great diilerences had arifen between the Dutch and En- 
 glilli colonilts in this part of the world ; till at lad, the 
 Englilh Eafl-India company applying to king James, a 
 treaty was concluded in 1619, by which the concerns 
 both of the Englifli and Dutcli were regulated, and 
 certain meafures agreed upon for preventing future dif- 
 putcs. This was an additional fecurity to the Knglilh ; 
 ami, by virtue of the treaty, they continued iwoyears 
 in Amboyna, trading with the Dutch. During this 
 time, however, fcveral difputes happened ; which oe- 
 calioning un\tual difcontcnts, the complaints were Cent 
 to Jaccaira, in the iliand of Jiva Major, to the coun- 
 cil of defence of both nations there refuling : but they 
 not agreeing, a ftaie of the niat'tr was fent over to 
 Europe, to be decided by ihe Eaft- India companies of 
 bi)th nations ; or, in cafe they could not agree, by the 
 King of England and the States of Holland, accord- 
 ing to an article in the treaty of 1619. — Hut before 
 ilicfe difpules eould be decided in a legal way, the 
 Dutch, in order to give the more fpecious cokuriug 
 to the violent feizurc which they meditated of the 
 iiland of Amboyna, made ufe of the Itale pretext 
 of a eonf)>iracy being formed by the Englilh anjja- 
 panefc to diljiolVefs them of one of iheir forts in this 
 place. The plot, it was alleged, had been confeifcd 
 by a J;;pa:;tfe and Portuguefe in the Englilh fervice, 
 who were nioft inhumanly tortured till ihey Ihould 
 anfwer in the affirmative fuch interrogatories as might 
 favour the fccret delign of thofe cruel incj. ill tors. Upon 
 the injurious evidence of tliis conllrained declaraiioa, 
 they immediately accufed the Englilh factors of the 
 j>retendcd confpiracy. Sonic of them they iuipiifon- 
 !■(.], and others ihey loaded with iro:is and lent ou board 
 ihcir (liips; fci/inn; at ilic fauie time all the Englilh 
 merehandi/e, with thtir writings and books. 
 
 Ihefe acts of violence were followed by a fcenc of 
 horror unexemplcd in tlie puuilhment of the u;oil atro- 
 cious oft'cudcrs. Some of the factors ih;y lotureJ, 
 by compellin:!; tliem to fwallow water till their bodlts 
 Were diflcnded to ihe uiuioll pit:;h ; then tikin!» the 
 ir.iftr.ible viiJtimsdown from the boards to which ihcv 
 
 liad been fadene.l, and caufing ihcm 10 difgorjc the Aaiborn*. 
 
 water ; if they did not aekuov ledge the imputed guilt, ' v 
 
 the procefs of torjure was repeated. Others or the 
 Englilli they confuuicd by buniingtlieni giadually from 
 the feet upwards, iu order to cxton the coiifcllion of 
 a confpiracy, which was only prttcnilcd by the infer- 
 nal policy of ihofc favage tormentors. Some had the 
 nails of the finjicrsand toes torn o;t ; and iu fomc they 
 male holes in thcirbrealls, filliug the cavities with in- 
 ilammable materials, to which they afterwards put 
 fire. Thofe w ho did not expire unrftr the agonies of 
 torture were conligncd to the hands of the execu- 
 tioner. 
 
 The allegation of this pretended confpiracy was 
 equally void of pri^babiliry and truth. The Dutch 
 had a garrifon of gco nun in the fort, bcliJes the 
 burghers in the town, and fcveral other forts and gar- 
 rifons in the iiLind, while the numbers of the Engiifli 
 did not amount 10 20 men ; nor were even thofe pro- 
 vided with arms or ammunition to etfcft i'uch adefign 
 as that v.ith vvhich they were charged. There like- 
 wife was not one Englilh velfel in the harbour, where- 
 as the Dutch had eight (liips riding near the town: 
 neither, when the Dutch broke open the defies and 
 trunks of the fadors, were there found a lingle paper 
 or letter which could be conflrued into the molt diftant 
 relation to any confpiracy. Add to all this, that fuch 
 of tlie unhappy fuffcrers as could fpeak to be heard, 
 declared in the moftfolemn manner their innocence of 
 the plot with which they were charged. 
 
 The whole of the tranfattion aHijrds the niofl irre- 
 fragable- teflimony that it was founded entirely upon 
 a political iicHon of the Hollanders, who had them- 
 frlves formed the delign of monopolizing the trade of 
 the Spice Iilands ; for the accomplilhmcnt of which 
 tiicy perpetrated, about the fame'iime,a fmiiiar tra- 
 gedy at Poolcron, where they put to the torture 162 
 of the natives, whom they likewife charged v.ith a 
 jirctcnded confpiracy. It may juftly be reckoned lin- 
 gular in the fortune of this commercial republic, that 
 they have ever fince been pcrmit^d to enjoy in peace 
 thofe invaluable iilands, which were originally obtain- 
 ed by fuch atrocious infringements of humanity and 
 the hws of nations as will (lain the Dutch annnls, to 
 tlie lateft ages, with indelible infamy. 
 
 The more effeftually to prcferve this trade, the Dutch 
 have had all the clove-trees in the adjacent iilands grub- 
 bed up. Sometimes aifo, when the h.irveft is very 
 large, part of the produce of And'oyna iifrlfis burn:. 
 — 1 o prevent the rcai ingof cloves in any of the neigh- 
 bouring iilands, or ihc inhabitants from felling them 10 
 flranjiers, the govcrnorof Amboyna makes tlie tourof 
 Jiis govi rnment with a tlectof eurricurrics, eonlifting 
 fouuiiines of 20, and at others of ^o, 40, or jo fail. 
 Thisexiudition is made with all the pomp imaginable, 
 in order lo gratify the pride and folly of the Indian 
 chiefs. The true reafon of their ukiiigall this pains 
 is, becaiife experience ha* fliown, that lio coinraifls, 
 however folemii, <an prevent the inhabiianis of thofe 
 iilands frotn fel!i:i« tliiir fpi.e to ftrangers ; and even 
 now, frmds a-e fo f,-c(]U(n!]y prartifed by the J)utch 
 themfelves, t'ongh the eompnny is inexorble in pn- 
 iiilhing them, that the common people call tlic cloves 
 gtilitii'k- rii-l, thai is, the gnllow -(pic. 
 
 Eelid;s the (.loves, tolFee is alfo cultivated here by 
 
 X 2 
 
 the
 
 A M B 
 
 [ 532 ] 
 
 A M B 
 
 ilnihrjcri. li.c Dutcl), and s gold mine lias been lately found out. 
 
 ' 1 hiswasiiifcovo-cd by the quantities ot" gold-dull that 
 
 were wafiicd from funic mountains by the toniius. 
 Here alio grow feveral kinds of valuable wood, of 
 which tlicy made tables, chairs, cfcritoirs, &c. for the 
 principal perfons in the government ; and the rell rs 
 ibid all over the Indies at a very extravagant r.ite. 
 
 Auiboyna is divided into two parts, vi^. a greater 
 and Iclier peuiufiiU. The fornur, called Niton, is 1 2 
 liagues in length, and two and a half broad. In this 
 the Dutch have no Ids than live forts, orrather flrong 
 redoubts, mounted with canon. The other is called 
 Liytiiiior, live leagues in length, and one and a half 
 broad, which is the fouthcrn part of the illand ; on this 
 Hands the fort of Vidoria, which is the relidencc of 
 the governor, and his council, compofedof 15 gentle- 
 men or merchants. The fortrefs is a fquare, the ram- 
 parts mounted with 60 pieces of brafs cannon, and the 
 
 • garrifon ufually compofed of 600 men. It is fo llrong 
 
 by nature and art, as to be in a manner impregnable ; 
 iiid fo ctfcL'tually docs it command the harbour, that no 
 vclTel could come in or go out without being funk by 
 tkc canon, if the governor chofe. The inhabitants of 
 Amboyna are computed at 70 or 80,000, of whom 
 but a fmall number arc Dutch ; and this obliges the 
 latter to be coiuinually upon their guard, and to keep 
 a competent number of troops in each of their forts, 
 particularly in that of Middleburgh, u Inch (lands up- 
 on the iilhmus thatconnecls thcfe pcuinfulas. There 
 arc alio redoubts and garrifons in all the illands of this 
 governmcnr. 
 
 AMBRACIA; one of the moft conlidcrablc cities 
 of ancient Epirus, lituated on the river Araiilhus, at a 
 fnialldillance from the fca. At lirflit was a free ciiy ; 
 but was afterwards reduced by the^acidxkingsof Epi- 
 rus, who chofe it for the place of their relidencc. In 
 j'rocefsof time, the/Etoliansmade themfclvcs maftcrs 
 of it, and held it till the year before Chrift 189, when 
 ii fell into the hands of the Romans. 
 
 At this time Ambracia was a place of great flrength. 
 ]t was defended on one fide by the river Aradhus, and 
 on the other by deep and craggy hills ; and furrouud- 
 ed with an iiigh and thick wall, above three miles in 
 coaipafs. 7hc Roman conful Kulvius began the liege 
 by forming two camps, fcparatcd by the river, but with 
 ;i communication between them ; the Romans were 
 pofted in one, and the Epirots their allies in the other. 
 I-Ie then threw up two lines, one of circumvalation, 
 nnd the other of contrsvallation ; and built a wooden 
 lower, in form of a caftle, over againft the citadel, 
 which flood on a hill. The A'tolians, however, be- 
 fore the lineswereqiiitc tiiiilhed, found means to throw 
 about icoo men into the place. 
 
 The lines being completed, the city was attacked in 
 five diiTcrcntplicesatimce. The battering-rams fliook 
 ihewallsonalllides ; and the Romans, from their move- 
 able tpwcrs, pulled Jnwn the battlements with a kind 
 I'f fcythes whichthey fallened to longbeams. Thebe- 
 ricgcd made a vigorous defence. They were night and 
 day on the wall>, and indefatigable in preventing the 
 rlfedsof the rams and fcythes. The (Irokcs of thefor- 
 iT.erthey deadened, bylettingdown beams, large flones, 
 biBipsof lead, Sfc.by meansof pullics, upon thcni when 
 '.hey were i:i motion ; tlie others diey rendered iifelefs, 
 
 by pulling the beams which they were fafitncd into Ambncia. 
 
 the city with hooks contrived for ihe purpofe. ' •> ' 
 
 While Fulvius was carrying on the liege, Nicander 
 the /Jholiiin prA'tor found means to throw 500 men in- 
 to the city, under the command of one Nicodauius, with 
 whom Nicander agreed to attack the Roman caiupiu 
 thciiight-timc ; not doubting, that, ifthegarrifonlroui 
 within, and tiic army from witiioui, fell upon them at 
 the fame time they would be obliged to raife tlie licgc. 
 Nicodamus narrowly watched the time at which he was 
 ordered to fall/ ; and though Nicander did not appear, 
 innrchcd out at the head of tlie garrifon, armed with 
 fire-brands and torches. The Ri^aaii ceiuinels, fur- 
 prifcd at this light, ran to wake the legionaries, and 
 loon f|)read a general alarm all over the camp. The 
 legionaries niarciicd in fmall bodies as they happened 
 to meet, to repulfe the enemy, whom tliey engaged in 
 tlircc difftrtnt j laces. Two parties of the garrifon 
 were driven back: but the third, commanded by two 
 jttolian generals, made a great llaiigbler of [he Ro- 
 mans ; and, not lindingihemfelves fccouded by Nican- 
 der, retired in good order into the city. 
 
 Though the btlitged were thus abandoned, and bad 
 no hopes of aflillance, they continued to defend ihcm- 
 felves \\ ilh incredible vigour and rcfolulion. The Ro- 
 mans had no fooncr made a breach in the wall, but it 
 was repaired, and a new one built behind it. The con- 
 ful, therefore, altered his meafures ; and, inlUad of ma- 
 king breaches with the rara, began to undermine the 
 wall, in hopes of throwing down great part of it at 
 once, and entering the city before the belleged could 
 have time to rebuild a new w.ill. The miners being co- 
 vered, were notobfcrved by the garrifon, till the great 
 quantities of earth brought out of the mine gave the 
 alarm. Thc/EtoJians immediately began a countcr- 
 miue; and having dug a trench of the depth theyfup- 
 pofcd the mine to be, they carried it along the wall 
 where they heard the llrokes of the pick-axes of the 
 Romans. When the two mines met, a battle enfucd, 
 firfl with pick-axes and fpadcs, and then with f.vords 
 and fpears : but this attack did not lafl long, each par- 
 ty maldng thcmfelvcs a kind of rampart with the loofe 
 earth. The jl^tolians, in order to drive their enemies 
 quite out of the mine, invented a machine, which they 
 brought to the place where the two mines met : this 
 was an hollow vefl'cl with an iron bottom, bored through 
 ill many places, and armed with fpikes at proper di- 
 llanccslo prevent the enemy from approaching it : this 
 velfel they filled with feathers, which they frt on lire, 
 and with bellows driving t!ie fraoke on the befiegers, 
 obliged them to leave the mine, half-futfoeated. This 
 interval the /Etolians made ufcol inicpairing thefoun- 
 dations of the wall. 
 
 The vigorous rcfifl'nee made by the Ambracians, 
 however, did not raife tlie courage of the nation in ge- 
 neral, who were determined on a peace with Rome at 
 all events. Fulvius, in the mean time, being defirous 
 of getting poUetllon of Ambracia before the conclufion 
 of the peace, employed Aniynander, king of the Aiha- 
 niancs, to perfuade the inhabitantsto furrcnder. AsA- 
 mynander hadgreat iniereft in Ambracia, having long 
 rclided there, heealily pcrfnadcd them to capitulate on 
 the following terms, viz. That the yEtolian garrifon 
 flioiild have leave to march cut of the city ; that tlw 
 
 LabftbitaailS'
 
 A M B 
 
 [ S33 ] 
 
 A M B 
 
 Amtresda, inhab'tants lliould pay 500 talents, joodov/n, and the 
 
 II rcll at fix equal payments ; and that they fliould deliver 
 
 Amlirofi; to the conful all the prilbncrs and defcritrs that were 
 
 * " ' in the city. The gates were then opened tu Kulviiis ; 
 
 and he was prcfenied with a crown of gold, together 
 
 with many fine ftatues and pidlurcs, of which there 
 
 •Were great numbers in the city, it having been the 
 
 capital of Pyrrhus, who had enriched it with many 
 
 valuable nionuincnts. 
 
 From this time the city of Ambracia made no figure 
 in hiftory. It is fcarcc known at prefent where the 
 city Hood; but that called j4r/)a, in upper Albania, 
 fccms bell to agree with what is faid of the ancient 
 fituation of this city. The river Arafthus, on which 
 Ambracia wns iituatcd, is now called, by ihc natives, 
 Sp.ig)/iagmurifi. 
 
 AMBRF.ADA, thus they call the falfc or faditiaus 
 amber, which the Europeans ufc in their trade with 
 the negroes on the coaft of Africa, and particularly on 
 the river Senegal. There are fome Ir.rge and red 
 pieces of it, a thoufand of wiiich maicing twenty rop? s 
 or firings, weigh three pounds. There arc others finall, 
 and slfo red, which weigh but two pounds and an half. 
 
 AMBRESBERRY, a market-town in Wiitfnire, 
 about lix miles north of Salilbtiry, and fttuated in \V. 
 Long. I. 40. and N. Lat. 51. 20. 
 
 AMBRONES, a Gaulilb people who lived near the 
 foot of the Alps, between Sv.'itzcrland and Provence. 
 They iuvuded the Roman territories in conjunftion 
 ■with theCimbriandTcutoncs ; but were defeated with 
 great (laughter by Marius, about loi years before 
 Chrifl. Their women, who had ftaid during the en- 
 gagement in a kind of fortification made with their 
 carts, on feeing tlicir huibands flying, and the Romans 
 at their heels, armed themfelvcs with axes, and gnafli- 
 ing with tlieir teeth, fell with fury on the purfucrs 
 and thepurfued. Theirfirft rage being fpcnt, they dc- 
 lircd to fiirrender themfelves, upon the (ingle condi- 
 tion, that their chaltityfnouldnot be violated : but this 
 cijuiiable requefl being denied, they tirfl killed their 
 children, and then themfelvcs, not one remaining a- 
 live out of the whole multitude. 
 
 AMBROSE-ISLAND, a fnull idand laid down in 
 fome of the mofl approved charts, and particularly 
 mentioned in MrRobertfon's Elements of Navigation, 
 as lying in S. Lat. 25. ?o. \V. Long. 82. 20. It was 
 fearched for, however, in 1767, by Captain Carteret, 
 with fuch diligence, that he concludes it to have no 
 cxiftence, as he could not difcover land any where 
 ucar that place. 
 
 AMBROSE (St), bilhop of Milan, one of the raoft 
 rrainont fathers of the fourth century, born in Gaul 
 in the year j?^, according to DrCave, or i:i 540, as 
 Mr Du Pin aftirms. His father was at this time ['f.e- 
 fiBiis fraioric in Gaul ; and rcluled at Aries, the capi- 
 tal of Gallia Narbonends. The birth of Ambrofc is 
 faid to have been followed with a remarkable prefage 
 of his future cUiquencc ; for we are told, that a fwarm 
 of bets came and fttded upon his mouth as he l.iy in 
 his cradle. He foon made birifelf raaftcr of the fcve- 
 ral parts of fecnlarUarningi a ud pleaded caufcsbrforc 
 Probus with fo ninch eloquence, that he was appointed 
 his aiielTor, an 1 foon aftir governor of the provinces 
 of Liguria r.nd A-'milis. He fettled at Milan ; where, 
 in the year 3 74, upon the death of Auxentius biGiop of 
 
 that city, ikcre being agrcatcontcft between thcCat ho- 
 lies and Arians concerning the choice of a new biihop, 
 Ambrofc thought it hii duty, as governor, to go to the 
 church, in order to compofe the tumult. He accord- 
 ingly addrefled himfelf to the people in a gentle pathe- 
 tic I'peech, exhorting them to proceed to their choice 
 in a calm and friendly manner: while he was fpeak- 
 ing to them, tho \yhole alFembly c.-icd out witii one 
 voice, " Let Ambrofc be bill'.op!" Such a fuJden and 
 nnexpcded incident furprifcd him extremely ; fb that 
 he retired immediately, and nfed every method to di- 
 vert them from theirrcfoluiionof choolinghim : butat 
 lafl he was obliged to comply ; and w?.s baptifcd (being 
 but a catechumen before), a;;J ord:uncd bifliop, to- 
 wards the latter end of they e2rj74,or beginning of 5 7;. 
 About the year 377, the barbsrous nations making an 
 incurfion into the Roman empire, he fled tolUyricum, 
 and afterwards to Rome. In the year 5?4, he was 
 fcnt to the tyrant Maximus,v.ho had ufjrpcd the em- 
 pire, ar.d prevailed upon him not to pals over into 
 Italy. The heathens being encouraged by thefc inte- 
 llinc commc;ions in the empire, attempted to rctlorc 
 their religion, and employed Q-AurcliusSymmachus, 
 prefeft of Rome, a man of great eloquence, to plead 
 their caufe. This gave rife to the famous contcft be- 
 tween St Ambrofc and him, about repairing the altar 
 of Vidory. But Synimachus having loll his caofe, was 
 expelled thecity, and commanded not toapproach with- 
 in an hundred miles of it. The petition wSich he prc- 
 fented to the emperor Valcntinian the younger, is ilill 
 extant; we find in it the ftrongeft figures of rhetoric 
 and the grcatefl force of eloquence. St Aaibrofe wrote* 
 a confutation of this petition ; but he has been thought 
 guilty of many paralogifnis: and yet he prctcfts, "that 
 lie cndeavouredonly after the folidity of rcafoning, lea- 
 ving Synimachus all the glory of eloquence and polite- 
 nefs ; it being (fays he) the peculiar privilege of the 
 pagan philofophcrs toamufe the mind with colours as 
 falfc as their idols ; and to fay great things, not being 
 capable of faying true ones." Ambrofc met with a good 
 dealofoppolition from the Arians, againft whom he 
 afted with great fpirit and intrepidity. Jullina the em- 
 prefs and mother cf Valcntinian, who was an .^rian, 
 refolvingto reflore Arianifin at Milan, began with de- 
 mandi.igof St Ambrofc one of the churches, whicli 
 was called the Portian church : bat he refufcd if ; and 
 the people furrounding the palace in a body, fl;c was- 
 obliged to leave him in pofTcflion of his church, and 
 even defire him to pacify the people. 
 
 Ambrofe was a fccond lime fent to the tyrant Max- 
 inius, for Valentiniau found no perfon fo proper to ne- 
 goiiate with him. He fjjoke to him with great cou- 
 rage and boldnefsjbrtt could obtain nothing ; for Max- 
 imus foon after marched into Italy, and made himfdf 
 mailer of the weftern cmi'irc : fo that Valentini.in was 
 obliged til retire, with his mother Jullina and his fif- 
 ter Galla, toTheirulonicu iu Illy ricum, in order to de- 
 fire Thcodofins's alfift.incc; who defeated Maximus, 
 and reftorcd Valeniiuian to the empire. 
 
 Wkile Theodolius continued in Italy, after the de- 
 feat of Maxiuiiis, an infnrrcclion happened atThelfa- 
 lonica, in which itveralof themagip.rates were (toned, 
 and their bodies dragged along the flreets. Thcodofi- 
 us bring informed of this.ralhly commanded a certain 
 niuubei of the inhabitants to be put to death promif- 
 
 CUOUl!'.' ; 
 
 Ambrofei
 
 A MB [53 
 
 AmWofc. ciioiilly; by which iticans ihf city \v;is filled with 
 
 *' *< tilt bUiod ol" mauy iiiiiocciu pcrfons, aiul ,iiii(>ii;;ll the 
 
 rtlt ftvcr.il ihangt-rs wlio hail hiii jiill come tticic: 
 no rcg.irJ was had to any ililliiictiou ot ptrfuus, no 
 furni of' trial was obftrvcj ; but they were cut doNVil 
 like corn in the harvtft, as Thcoilorct ixpreircs it, to 
 the uunibef of 7000. At this time an alFcnibly of bi- 
 litops was held at Milan, who all exprelled an abhor- 
 renccof fucli 'cruelty in the tnipeior. Ambrolc wrote a 
 letter to him, in whicii he rcprcfcnicd the eiioniiiiy of 
 his crime, and exhorted liim to make fatisfaclion by a 
 lincerc fuhmilFiDn and repcMtauLC. Some time alter, 
 'i'heojolius coining to Milan, v. cut to receive the fa- 
 crament at the great church ; where Anibrofc meeting 
 liim at the door, lieiiieJ him entrance, and reprcfentcd 
 his guilt in ihc moll forcible and pathetic terms. The 
 emperor was (truck with his words, and with great 
 unenlhufs of mind returned to his palace ; but about a 
 year .alter, An:brofe, being convinced of the lincerity 
 111 liis rcpenta:".ce, admitted him into the churcl). 
 
 In 592, Valcntinian the emperor being airalfinated 
 by the contrivance of Argobaflcs.and Eugeniusuuirp- 
 ing the empire, Anibrof= was obliged tokave Milan : 
 but he returr.ed the year lollowing, when Eugcnius 
 Mas defeated. * He died at Milan the 4th of April 
 797; being 57yearsot age, according to Mr Du Pin 
 and fonie other writers ; Ijiit Dr Cave and Olcarius fay 
 that lie w as 64 years old at his death. lie was buried 
 in the great church at Milan. He wrote ftvcral works, 
 the moll conliderable of which is that D~' Officiis. He 
 isconcife and fententioiisin hismanoer of writing, and 
 ^full of turnsof wit ; his terms are well chofen, and his 
 txprcilions noble : he divcrlilics liis fubjecl by an aJ- 
 niirabk copioufncfs of thought and language; he is 
 very ingenious in giving an eafy and natuial turn to 
 every tiling which he treats of, and is not without 
 ftrength and pathos when ili/?re is occalion for it. This 
 is part of the characlcr which Du Pin gives him as a 
 writer; but Krafnius obfcrveslhat he has many quaint 
 •nnd alfccled ftntcnces, and frequently very obfcurc 
 ones; and it is ccrtaia that his writings are intermix- 
 ed V ith ni.iny ftrangc and peculiar opinions. Faulinus 
 wrote his life, and dedicated it to St Augullin: this 
 life is prefixed to St Anibroft's works , the befl editi- 
 on of w bijh is r^-koncd to be that imblilhed by the 
 f^ciudii?iinc mb;.ks, in two volumes in folio, at Paris, 
 in 1686 and i^'90. 
 
 Ambrose (Ifaac).an eminent prcftiyterian niiniflcr, 
 was educated at l>az"n-iiofe college Oxford, where he 
 tonk i!ie degree ofbichdor of arts, and becaine mini- 
 ller of Preflon, and afterwards of Garilan in Lanca- 
 fiiirCjWhtrehe wai;ini6f 2 rjcdcd lor non -conformity. 
 ]t was nfua' with him to retire every year for a month 
 into a litilc hut in a wood; where he fhuiincd all fo- 
 ciety, and devoted himftlfto rc'igious conteniplalion. 
 Dr ( alaniy o'. frrves, that he had a ve;y ftronginipnlfc 
 on his ni'nd of the approjch of death, and took a for- 
 mal leave of his fi ieiid.'s at their ho'ife a little before his 
 departure ; an ■ ihf laft nighi of his life he fcnt bis dif- 
 co'irfc f oiirrrmng tf«f:7j to the prefs. The next day 
 he fl'.iit hin'feU up in his parlour, where, to the great 
 fiirprifeard re;'r< I 01 all whofawhiu'.he was f-mnd juil 
 expirirg. ledied in 166^-4 in he 72'' year of his 
 age. He wrotcfcveral other books, as the I rima,!\Ii:- 
 
 + ] 
 
 A M B 
 
 dica, ctVilima, or the Firft, Middle, and laft Tilings ; Ambrofia 
 \Var willi dc\ils ; Looking unto Jcfus ; &c. II 
 
 Ambkose, or St Ambkose itnhc I'/ood, an order of -^'"'"■°'"""'' 
 religious, who ufe the Ambrolian ollicc, and wear an 
 image ot that faint engraven on a litilc plate : in other 
 refpeds, tliey conform to the rules of the Augulliiis. 
 Sec AmiikosIan Office, and Algustins. 
 
 AMlillOSlA, in heathen antiquity, denotes the 
 folid food of the gods, in contradillintiion from the 
 drink, whicli was called ncOar. It had the appellation 
 avibiofa (compounded of the particle a, anj fiftrQ,, 
 imworla/,) as being fuppofed to render tliofc immorial 
 who fed on it. 
 
 Ambkosia is alio a fplendid kind of title, given by 
 foiiic phylicians to certain alcxipharmic conipoiitions, 
 of extraordinary virtue. The name was particularly 
 given to a famous antidote of Philip of Macedon, a- 
 gainll all puifons, bites, and flings of venomous crea- 
 as well as many internal diftafcs. 
 
 Am BROS I A ; A genus of the pentandria order, be- 
 longing to the niona-cia clafs of plants , and, in the 
 natural method, ranking under the 49th order, CuKpo- 
 Jitj:-iiiicamc>!iticca-. The charadcrs arc : — The Male 
 flowers are compound : The common caljx is a (Inglc- 
 lca\cd perianthium, the length of the florets: The 
 compound coiotla is uniform, tubular, flat, and hemi- 
 fj>hcrical ; the proper is monopctalous, funncl-fiiaped, 
 and quinquetld : Thc//tfw//;^conlill of live very fniall 
 filaments ; the anthera: arc crcft, parallel, and pointed: 
 The /'//?/////» has a filiform flylus, the length of the 
 flamina ; the fligmaorbiculir and membranous : The 
 
 rcccptaculum is naked Female flowers below the 
 
 male ones, on the fame plant, iloabled : The c:ilyx is a 
 lingle leaved perianthium, entire (with the belly quin- 
 qiudentated), one flowered, and perfiflent: '1 here is 
 no corolla: The pijiiilriw has an ovate gerinen in the 
 bottom of the calyx ; a filiform Ay lus, the length of the 
 calyx ; and two long brillly fligniata : 'Vht pt-ricarpi- 
 um is an ovale nnilocular nut: The feed is lingular 
 ar.d roundifh. Ot this genus five fpecies are enumc- 
 nicrated ; but having no properties worthy of notice, 
 we omit any lurthcr account of thcin. 
 
 AMLROSIAN ok) ice, or RiTF.,in cluirch-hiftory, 
 a particular fornuila of vorfiiip in the church of Milan, 
 which takes its name from St Ambrofc, whoinftituted 
 that oflice in the fourth century. Each church origiu:illy 
 had its particular office ; and when the Pope, in after- 
 times, took upon him to impofc the Roman ofHce up- 
 on all the wefiern chorchcs, that of Milan flieltered 
 itfclf under ihe name and authority of St Ambrofc; 
 from which time the Ambrofian ritual has prevailed. 
 
 AMBROSIN, in middle-aged writers, denotes a 
 coin flruck by the lords or dukes of Milan, whereon 
 was rcpiefenied St Ambrofc on horfeback with a 
 whip in his right hand. The occafion of this coin- 
 age is faid to have been a vilion of that faint, who 
 appeared to the Milanefc general in I3;9, during the 
 lime of a battle. 
 
 AMBROSIMA, in botany; a genus of ihe poly- 
 andri.i order, belonging to the gynanjria clafs of 
 plants; the characters ofw'hit.h are: The c/ilyy is a 
 linglc-Ieav rd Ipatha, divided by a partition into two 
 celh : There is no corolla: The fhu/uiiti confill oJ a 
 finglc tilameiu in the interior cell ; the anthcras are 
 
 nu IT. ere us.
 
 x\. 
 
 M B 
 
 f SSS J 
 
 A M B 
 
 Ani'hrofius. miiiiertMis,wjih iworouiidifh concave ncftariesai ihcir 
 
 ^~~~-' ' bafc : The pijlillum is in the interior cell ; the grrmcn 
 
 roundilh ; the ftylus cylindrical, and fliortcr ciiaii the 
 fpatba : the ftigma o'jlufe : Tlic percarpium (a cap- 
 luk- ?) roundilli and uiiilocuhr, 'Ihcre is bat one Ipc- 
 cics, a iiscive of Turkiy. 
 
 AMtJKO.^lLS AcRELiANVs, or Aurelil-s A.m- 
 BRosius, a famous general ot the ancient Biituus, of 
 Roman extraction. He was educated at the court of 
 Aldrocn of /.morica ; wiio, at the rcqiieil of the Dri- 
 loni, fdii him over with ten thoufir.d men, to aflift 
 them agai:ifl the Saxons, whom Vortigern had invited 
 into Britain. Ambroiius had fuch fuccefs a^jainll the 
 .Saxons that the Uritons choofc him fortheirking, and 
 compelled Vorti;^crn logivcup to hiniull theucuern 
 part of the kingdom divided by the Uonun highway 
 cjUed WatliHg-linet. Some time after, the iiri.ons 
 being difcontciited with Vortigtrn, and having with- 
 drawu their allegiance from him, he retired toacaltic 
 ill Wales, whcie being befieged by AnibrofiuSj and 
 the laftje taking fire, he pcrilhcd in the llarats, and 
 left bis rival fole monarch of britain ; who now took 
 upon him the imperial purple, aftcrthe manner ofthc 
 Roman emperors. Geott'rey of Monmouth tells ns, that 
 Ambrofms built Stonehcnge near Salilbury in \\'ilt- 
 lliire. Anibroiius, according to this hilforian, coniiHg 
 to a monallciy near Cacrcaradoc, now Saliibury, where 
 three hundred Britilh lords, malfacred by Ilcngell, lay 
 buried, and refolving to perpetuate the memory of this 
 aflion, he ordered his workmen to prepare a large 
 quantity of floncs and other materials. But having, 
 rt the iuftiguuion og Tremonus archbifhop ofCaer- 
 Icon, confulied the famous Merlin, this magician ad- 
 vifcd him to fend over to Ireland for certain great 
 floncs, ca'ilcd cho> cagigaiittim, the giant's dance, placed 
 in a circle on a hilt called Killair, hnving been brought 
 thither by giants from the farthefl borders of Afri- 
 ca. A body offerees were accordingly fent into Ire- 
 land, under PenJragon, Ainbroiius's brother, to fetch 
 thefe llones; but were oppofed in their attempt by Gil- 
 liomaiuis king of the country, who derided the fully 
 of the Britons in undertaking fo ridiculcjs an e.\ptdi- 
 lion. Nevcrthelefs, the Britonshaviiig vanquillicdthis 
 prince in battle, brought away the ftones ; and by the 
 diredion and aliiflance of Merlin, who had accompa- 
 nied them, thcfe wonderful Hones, by order of Am- 
 brofms, w ere placed over the graves of the Britiili 
 lords, and are now what is called Stoinhinge. Alex- 
 ander Mechan celebrates this fable in his poem De di- 
 vhia fapieiitia laudibu. . Polydore Virgil affigns ano- 
 ther originof Stonchcn^e : he tells us it was crei^led by 
 ilie Britons as a niotuiment to their general Anibroiius, 
 on the place where he fell in battle, to perpetua:c the 
 memory of his glorious actions and fcrvires done to his 
 country. Both thefe ftories are rcjetked by the beft 
 antiquaries ; who, however, are by no means agreed as 
 t<» the true origin of this famous piece of antiquity. 
 
 See SlONEHENGE. 
 
 After ihe Britons had defeated the Saxons, and ob- 
 liged them to retire northward, Ambrofms is faid to 
 liave convened the princes and great men at York, 
 where he gave orders for repairing the churches dcHroy- 
 cd oy the Saxons, and refioring thecxercireofreligijn 
 to its forii er luflrc. This is eontirmed by Matthew of 
 Wellminftcr ; who highly applauds the great zeal of 
 
 2 
 
 Ambrohusinrcpairing the churches, cncouragiugthc Ambry 
 clergy, and re/loring the honour of religion. Tiic i' 
 Monmouth hiilorian gives this prince a very high cba- Auibury. 
 
 rader. " He was a man (fays he) of fuch bravery and ' " ' 
 
 courage, tliat when he was in Gaul noo.icdurll c:ucr 
 the lilts with him; for he was.furc lounhorfc his an- 
 tJgonifl, or to break his fpear i.'ito fliivcrs. He v.as, 
 moreover, generous in bellowing, careful in perform- 
 ing religious duties, nioJerate in all things, and more 
 ciprcialiy abhorred a lie. He was Itrong on too:, 
 ftrojger on horfeback, and pcrfe^ily qjalir.cd to com- 
 mand an army." The fame author tells us he was 
 poifoncd atW'incheiler l>y one EopiaSaxon, difguifcri 
 as a phylician, and hired for that purpofe by Palter. - 
 tius one of the fons of Vortigern : but the generaliy 
 received opinion is, iha: he was killed in a battle wi;i'.ii 
 he loLi in the year 508, agtinft Ccrdric, one of the 
 Sa.xon generals. 
 
 AMBR\ , a place in whi h aredcpofiit-dall the uten. 
 fits nectlFary for houfe-kecping. In the ancient ab- 
 beys and priories, tlierc wasanoflicc under thi-> deno- 
 mination, wherein were laid up all charities for the poor. 
 
 AMBUBAJ.4^, inPvoman iintiquity, were immodell 
 women, who came from Syria to Rome, where they 
 lived by proititution and by phyingon the (lute : the 
 word is derived from the Syiiac aiui, which lignitics 
 a flute; aliho' others make it to come from at» and 
 i?a/x, becaiife thefe proditutes often retired to Baix. 
 According to Cruquius, thefe women ufed likcv.ifc to 
 fell paint for ornamenting the face, 6<c. 
 
 AMBULANT, or AMbULATOKV. They give in 
 France the name of aa.eiilaiit ci^tiimijftaiurs to thofe 
 commiflions, or clerks of the king's farms, who have 
 no fettled olfice ; but vilit all the offices within a cer- 
 tain djllrid, to fee that nothing be done in them agaihil 
 the king's right, and intcrclt oi the f.irm. 
 
 Ambi'lant is alio ufed to denote thofe brokers at 
 Amfterdam. or exchange agents, who have not beeti 
 fworn before the magillrates. They tranfaft broker- 
 age bafinefs, but their teltimony is not received in the 
 courts of jullice. 
 
 AMBULATORY, a term anciently applied to 
 fuch courts, &c. as were not fixed to any certain place ; 
 but held fometimesinone place, andforaetimes in a'.io- 
 ther. In oppolition to ftationary courts. — The court 
 of parliament was anciently ambulatory j fo alio v\'erc 
 the court of king's bench, &c. 
 
 AMBURBIUM, in Roman antiquity, a procefuon 
 make by the Romans round the city and pomoeriuni, 
 in which they led a viclim, and afterwards facriticed 
 it, in order to avert fome calamity that threatened the 
 city. 
 
 AMBURY, or Anbury, among farriers, denotes a 
 tumor, wart or (welling, which is folt to the touch, 
 and full of blood. 
 
 This diforder of horfcs is cured by tying a horfc- 
 hair very hard about its root ; and, when it has fallen 
 off, which commonly happens in al)oiit eight days, 
 firewing fon'e powder of verdigris upon the part, to 
 prevent the return of the complaint. Ifthetamor be 
 fo low that nothing can be tied about it, tluy cut it 
 out with a knife, or clfe burn it oft' with a Iharp hot 
 iron ; and, in linewy parts, where a hot iron is impro- 
 per, they eat it away with oil of vitriol, or white fa- 
 blimatc. 
 
 ALav
 
 A M E 
 
 [ S2(^ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 An-.ediii!9. 
 
 Anibufeade M.uiyofoiir fanicrsboiftof a Iccrcc wliichinfiJiicly 
 cures all kinds of protuberances of thiskiiul ; tlicprc- 
 paraiioii oi which is iliii , 'lake ihrce ounces ofgiccn 
 vitriol and one ounce of white arlcnic i beat theui to 
 acoarfc iiowdcr, and put thcni iutu a crucible ; piicc 
 tlic crucible in the niidit of a charcoal tire, llirring tlic 
 fubllaacc, but carefully avoiding ihc pcifonousltcams i 
 when the whole grows reddilii, take the cruciLleojt 
 of the ftre, and when cool, break it and take out the 
 matter at the bottom ; beat this to powder in a mortar, 
 and add to four ounces of this powder five ounces of 
 album rhofs : make the whole into an ointment, ai.d 
 let it be applied cold to warts ; rubbing ihein \\ith it 
 every day. They will by this means fall oif gtnily 
 and eafiiy, without leaving any fwcUings. It is belt 
 to keep the horfc quiet, and without ■working, during 
 the cure, ^^'hat fores remain on the pa' ts which t!ie 
 fwellings fall off from, may be cured with the com- 
 mon application called the countifi's o'tuti-init. 
 
 AMBUSCADE, or Ambush, in the military art, 
 properly denotes a place where foldicrs may lie con- 
 cealed till they find an opportunity to furprife the c- 
 nemy. 
 
 In the language of Scripture, ihefe terms arc not 
 always taken in their proper fignitication, for laying 
 ambulhcs for any one, attacking him in fccret, laying 
 fnares for hin\. They fometinus fignify no more than 
 attacking a man who has no dillrull of fuch a thing : 
 attacking one behind, concealing one's fclf in feme 
 particular place in order to furprife any one. See the 
 book of Judges, ch. ix. 2J. 52- 34) :?5- Abimckch, 
 who lay lurking with his people in the heights of Si- 
 cheni, fo, however, as to rob and treat thofc who 
 palled that way very ill, came and attacked the city 
 of Sichcm with his troops divided into three bodies : 
 "Tetittdit injidias jixta Sichiumm in quatitor kcii. Li- 
 terally, according to the Hebrew, " They prepared 
 ambufcadcs againll Sichem in four heads or compa- 
 nies." And a little farther, vcrfc 43. Abimckch 
 being informed that the Sichcmitcs were marched, took 
 his army and divided it into three bodies, and laid wait 
 for them in the iield." Itfeems certain, that in ihtfc 
 palTages, ambulhes, properly fo called, were not the 
 things in qucftion. In the rirft book of Samuel, Saul 
 complains that David laid ambufcades for him : hijiJi- 
 titor iij'jue hodie pirinansns. Now nothing could be 
 worfe grounded than this accufaiion, if we undcrlland 
 the word injidiari in its proper iignification ; but he 
 mio-ht fay, though nnjuftly, that David was his fccret 
 *i:emy. And in the Chronicles it is laid, that God 
 turned the ambuihes laid by the enemies of Ifrael upon 
 ihcmfelves ; that is to fay, their endeavours, their ma- 
 lice, their arms, he turned agaiiiftthemfelves : for the 
 enemies thiT'. uientioned came not in private or by llra- 
 tagem ; they marched openly in arras againft Ifrael. 
 AMI>Y,atown of the Auftri^n Netherlands, in the 
 province of T imburg, iituated oppofite to Maerflricht, 
 on the rail fide of the river Maefe, in E. Long. 5. 
 45. >: >at. 50. J7. 
 
 A^ILDI.'.NS, in chnrch-hiftory, a congregation 
 of religious i:' Italy, fo called from their profelFing 
 themfclves lantcs De"?u, ''lovers of God ;" orrathcr 
 amati Vco, " beloved of God." They wore a trey 
 habit and woode. ihoes, had no breeches, and girt 
 
 iheinfolves with a cord. 
 
 Thty had 2S coiivents ; and 
 4 
 
 were united by Pope Pius V. partly with the CiAerci- Amdia. 
 an order, anu partly with that ot the Soccolanti, or An«-lln'- 
 woodcn-ilioc wearers. ' ^'~~' 
 
 AMELIA, an cpifcopal city of Italy, in the ftate 
 of the church, I't.ited on a raounuin, jo miles N. E. 
 of Home, and 25 miles S. VV. of Spolctto. E. Long. 
 13. 20. N. Lat. 42. 33. 
 
 AMELLUS, Starwort: A genus of the polyga- 
 r.iia fuperilua order, belonging to the fy ngciielia dalsof 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 4 2th order, 6' •);v/>oyr^<c-o/'/'(i/////(i/;rf'. The characters are: 
 The common cuijx is iniiiricated and roundilh: The 
 compound coiolid'is, radiated ; the htriuaphroditc torol- 
 Icts numerous in the dilk; the female numerous in the 
 ray: fr'/yvr corolla of the hermaphrodites are tubular 
 and quinquelld ; of the females, tongued, luol'c, and 
 twoorthrce toothed : The JUi»!tja in the heruiaphm- 
 ditcs coufifc of rive (hort capillary lilamcnts ; the antbc- 
 raecylindric and tubular : 'i'hc piji ilium has an ovate 
 germen ; a filiform Aylus the length of the llamina ; 
 and two filiform ftigmata: There is no pcricarpiu/u, 
 but the calyx unchanged : Thcfuds arc ovate and fo- 
 litary ; i\\c papptii is hairy ; the reaptaculum chif,y . — 
 Of this there arc two. 
 
 Specits. I. The lynchiiis, with one flower on each 
 footflnlk. This is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 It is a perennial plant, riling abcit three feet high, 
 fending out many branches en each fide, fo as to form 
 a buihy pla-.u ; the branches are garnilhed v/ith obtufc 
 fpcar-lhapcd leaves placed oppofite, and arc terminated 
 by lingle naked flower- flalks, each fupporting one vio- 
 kt-coluurcd riowcr, hiving a yellow di!k, whi-.h is fuc- 
 ceeded by oblong feeds. 2. The umbtlkuus, wi.h 
 iiowers growing in timbi;i>, is a native of Jamaica; and 
 riles from two to three fti:t high, fending out many 
 branches cloaihed with oppofite leaves, which are ter- 
 minated by fmall flower- in umbels. 
 
 Cuitiiic. The iirfl is calily propagated, either by 
 cuttings planted in the fummer-monihs, or by feeds 
 fown on a moderate hot-bed in ihc fpring, but the 
 plants require a (light llicher in winter. The fecond is 
 much more tender, and therefore requires to be prc- 
 ferved in a (love during the v.inter feafon. 
 
 AMELOT DF. Li HoussAi (Nieholas),born at Or- 
 leans in i634,"vasmueh cHeemcdatthc court of France, 
 andappoiiitcd fecrctary of an cnibairy which that court 
 fent to the common wealth of V'lnice, as appears by the 
 title of hi.<! tranflation of Father I'aul's Hirtory of the 
 Council of Trent ; but he afterwards pubKlhed writings 
 which gave fuch oficncc th:it he v,as imprifoncd in the 
 Baftile. The firft works lie printed were the Hiliory 
 of the Government of Venice, and that of the Ufcocks, 
 a people of Croatia. In 16S; lie puhlifiied his tranlla- 
 tions into French of Machiavcl's Trincc, and Fatlicr 
 Paul's Hiftory of the Council of Trent, and Political 
 Difcourfesofhisowii upon Tacitus. Thcfe pcrfonn- 
 ances were well received by the public. lie did not 
 prefixhisown name to the two Lift mcniioned works, 
 but concealed himfclf under that ofLaMoii.c Jorteval. 
 Ims tranllation of Fatlicr Paul was attacked by the 
 pariifans of the pope's unbounded power and autho- 
 rity. In France, however, it met with great fucccfs 5 
 all the advocates for the liberty of the Gallican church 
 promoiingthefuccefsofit to the uiuu'fl of their power, 
 though at the fame lime there were ihree memorials 
 
 prefcntcd
 
 A M E 
 
 L 537 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 prcfciucd to have it fupprcllcd. When the fecond edi- 
 tion of this tranllation was publiQied, it was violently 
 ' attacked by the Abbe St Real, in a letter he wrote to 
 Mr Bayle, dated Oftober 17, 1685. A mclot defended 
 himfeif, in a letter to the fame gentleman. In 1684, 
 he printed at Paris a French tranllation of Baltafar 
 Grici3.n'sOraculo manual, \\\i\\ the title of /'//owwr d.; 
 Ccur. In 1 636, he printed La Morale di Tacit: de la 
 fiateric : in which workhe coUcfted fcveral particular 
 fails and maxims, which reprcfentin a ftronglight the 
 artifices of court-flatterers, and the niifchievous effect 
 of their poifonons difcourfes. Frederick Leonard, a 
 bookfellcr at Paris, having propofed, in the year 1693, 
 to print acoUetflion of all the treaties of peace between 
 the kings of France and all the other princes of Eu- 
 rope, fince the reign of Charles VII. totheyear 1690, 
 Anielot publilhed a fmall volume in duodecimo, con- 
 taining a prclimiuary difcourfc upon thefe treatifes ; 
 wherein he endeavours to (how, that mod princes, 
 when they enter into a treaty, think more how to e- 
 vadc than how to perform the terms they fubfcribe to. 
 He publiflied alfo an edition of Cardinal d'Olfat's Let- 
 ters in 1697, with feveral obfcrvations of his o'vn ; 
 which, as he tells us in his advertifement, may fcrve 
 as a fupplement to the hiltory of the reigns of Henry 
 III. and Henry IV. kings of France. He wrote fcve- 
 ral other works ; and died at Paris in 1 706, being then 
 almoft 75 years of age. 
 
 AMELOT (Denis), a celebrated French writer, 
 w^as born at Saintonge in 1606. He maintained a clofc 
 correfpondencc with the fathers of the Oratory, a 
 congregation of priefls founded by Philip of Neri. He 
 wrote the life of Charles de Gondren, fecond fuperior 
 of this congregation, and publilhcdit at Paris in 1643. 
 In this piece he fa-.d fomething of the famous Abbot 
 of St Cyran, which greatly difpleafed the gentlemen 
 of Port Royal; who, to be revenged of him, publifh- 
 ed a libel againft him, intitled Idee gener-ale I'efprit et 
 de livre de P. Af/telote. He was lo much provoked by 
 this fatire, that he did all in his power to injure them. 
 They had finiQied a tranflation of the New Teftament, 
 and were delirous to have it publilhed ; for which pur- 
 pofe they endeavoured to procure an approbation trom 
 the dodors of the Sorbonne, and a privilege from ihc 
 king. But Amelot, by his influence with the Chan- 
 cellor, prevented them from fuccccdirg. In ihis he 
 had alfo a view to his own intereft ; for he was about 
 to publilh a tranflation of his own of the New Tclla- 
 ment. Amelot's tranllation with annotations, in 4V0IS. 
 oftavo, was printed in the years 1666, 1667, and 1668. 
 It is not very exaft, according to F. Simon, who tells 
 us that it contains fome very grofs blunders. Amelot 
 wrote alfo an Abridgement of Divinity, a Catechifm 
 for the Jubilee, and a kind of Chriilim Manual for 
 every Day. Towards the end of his life, he entered 
 into the congregation of the Oratory in i6jo ; and 
 continued amongft thcra till hisdeath, which happened 
 in 1678. 
 
 AMEN, TiJK, fignities true, faithful, certain. It is 
 made ufe of likewife to affirm any thing, and was a 
 fort of affirmation ufed often by our Saviour: A,u»*, 
 Aixm \ty<» vjjtn. i.e. P'eril) , verily, I fay unto you. 
 Laftly, it is underftoodasexprclCnga wifti ; as Amen, 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Soke it. Numb. V. 22. or an affirmation, Ainei:, )es, I 
 believe It, I Cor. xiv. 16. The Hebrews end the five 
 books of Pfalms, according to their way of diftribu- 
 ting them, with the words amen, aimn ; which the . 
 Septuagint have tranllated >n(iiT», itmTo \ and the La- 
 tins /'<?/, fiat. The Greek and Latin cliurches have 
 preferved this word in their prayers, as well as allehii- 
 ah and h»Janr:a ; bccaufe they obferved more energy in 
 them than in any terms which they could ufe in their 
 own languages. At the conclulionof the pnblic pray- 
 ers, the people anfwered with a loud voice. Amen ; 
 and St Jerom fays, that at Rome when the people an- 
 fwered Amen, the found of their voices was like a clap 
 of thunder : In jimiiitudmem Citlejlu tonitrui Amen re- 
 boot. The Jews alfert that the gates of Heaven are 
 opened tohim whoanfwers Amen\\\\\i all his might. 
 
 AMEND, or Amende, in the French culloms, a 
 pecuniary punilhment impofed by a judge for any crime, 
 falfe profccuiion, or groundlefs appeal. 
 
 Amesdf. Honourable, an infamous kind of p uniili- 
 ment inflicted in France upon traitors, parriciiles, or 
 facrilegious perfons, in the following manner : The of- 
 fender being delivered into the hands of the hangman, 
 his Ihirtis llripped otf, a rope put about his neck, and 
 a taper in his hand ; then be islcdintocourt, where he 
 mull beg pardon of God, the king, the court, and Ms 
 country. Sometimes the punilhment ends here ; but 
 fomctimes it isonlj^a prelude to death, or baaifhment 
 to the galleys. 
 
 AMt,soE Honourable, is a term alfo ufed for making 
 recantation ia open conrt, or in prefcnce of the perfoii 
 injured. 
 
 AMENDMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes fomc 
 alteration or change made in a thing for the better. 
 
 Am e n d m e NTjin law, the corredlion of an error com- 
 mitted in tlie procefs, which may beamtndcd after judg- 
 ment, iinlefs the error lies in giving judgment ; for in 
 that cafe it is not amendable, but the party mufl bring 
 a writ of error. A bill may be amended on tlie file ai 
 any time before the plea is pleaded ; but notafterwards, 
 without motion and leave of the court. 
 
 j4me.\dme.\t of a Bill, is fome alteration made 
 in the firll draught ot it. 
 
 AMENTUM, in botany, the name of a fpecics of 
 calyx, confifting of valves, and hanging down in diffe- 
 rent dircdions from the caulis. Common oats afford 
 a good example of the amentum. 
 
 Amentum, in Roman antiquity, a thong tied about 
 the middle of ajavelinordart,andfallcncd to the fore- 
 finger, in order to recover the weapon as fooa as it 
 Was difcharged. The ancients nude great ufe of the 
 amentum, thinking it helped to enforce the blow. It 
 alfo denotesa latchct that bound their fandals. 
 
 AMERADE, a kind of officers among ihe Sara- 
 cens, anfwering to the governors of provinces among 
 the Europeans — The name is originally the f.imcwith 
 that of emir. 
 
 AMERCEMENT, or Amerciament, in law, a 
 pecuniary punifliment impofed on offenders at the mer- 
 cy of the court. It differs from a fine in being impo- 
 fed arbitrarily in proportion to the fault ; whereas a 
 fine is a certain punilhraent fettled exprefsly by fome 
 ftatute. 
 
 3 Y AME-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 53^ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 North and 
 tiouth coil' 
 tiuciit. 
 
 Amcriia. AMERICA ; one of the four qiuitdsof ilit world, 
 
 ' probably ilic largift of the whole, and from its late dii- 
 
 rovcry frequcnily dciiomiiiatcd tlit A'^a; li'orlj, or 
 - AV-o) Hctntfphire. 
 
 Bouiidark. This va(t caiiiiiry extends from the Sotli degree of 
 north, to the 561 h degree of font h,Utitiidc ; .r.id where 
 its breadth is known, from the 3Sth to the i;6th de- 
 gree well longitude from London ; ftretehiiig between 
 «ooo and 9000 miles in Itnglh, and in its grcatclt 
 breadth 3690. It fees both hcmifphcres, has two 
 fiimmers and a double w inter, and enjoys almoll all the 
 variety of climates w iiich the eavih affords. It is wafli- 
 cd by the two great ocealis. To thecallward, it has the 
 Atlantie, which divides it from Enrope and Africa ; to 
 the weft it has the Pacific or Great South-Sea, by which 
 it is fcparated from Alia. By thcfe feas it may, and 
 docs, cany on a dircft commerce wiih the other three 
 parts of the world. 
 ' America is not of equal breadth throughout its whole 
 
 extent ,- but is divided into two great continents, call- 
 ed North, and South, Amertca, by an illhmus ijoomilcs 
 long, and which, at Darien, about Lat. 9" N. is only 
 60 miles over. Thisifthmus forms, with the northern 
 and fouthern continents, a vafl gulph, in which lie a 
 great number of illands, called the Wejl-hirftes, in 
 contradillini,^ion to the caflern parts of Alia, which 
 are called the EaJ)- Indies. 
 
 ** Next to the extent of the New- World, the gran- 
 Grand ob- dcur of the objcrts w hich it prefents to view, is mod 
 jcdswhith apt to llrike the eye of an obfcrvcr. Nature feems 
 America \-icre to have carried on her operations upon a larger 
 prtfcms to fcaieand wiih a bolder hand, and to havediiUnguilhed 
 *"'"''^ the features of this country by a peculiar magnificence. 
 The mountainsof America are much fuperior in height 
 to thofe in the other divifions of the globe. Even ihc 
 plain of Qiiiio, whiehmay be confideredas the bafe of 
 the Andes, is elevated fanhcr above the fea than the 
 top of the Pyrenees." The moil elevated point of the 
 Andes, according to Don Ulloa, is twenty thoufand, 
 two hundred, and eighty feet, which is,atleafl, fcven 
 thoufand, one hundred, and two feet above the Peak of 
 Tcneriffc, which is the highcllknow-n mountain in iht 
 ancient continent. (See the article Andes.) 
 Its riven From the lofty and cxtcndve mountains of America 
 
 defcend rivers with which the llrcams of Europe, of 
 Afia, or of Africa, are not to be compared, cither for 
 length of courfe, or for the vafl volumes of water which 
 they pour into the oceans. The Danube, the Indus, 
 the Ganges, or the Nile, in the ancient Hemifphere, 
 are not of equal magnitude with the St Laurence, the 
 Miirourijor the Millilfipi'i, in North-America ; or with 
 the Maragnon, the Orinoco, or the Plata, in South- 
 America. The rivers in the latter of thefc American 
 continents are like vaft arms of the fea. (See the ar- 
 5 tides St Laurence, Missouri, &c. f.c.) 
 Its lakes. " The lakes of the New- World are no lefs confpi- 
 cuous for grandeur than its mountains and rivers. There 
 is nothing in other parts of the globe which rcfcmbles 
 the prodigious chain of lakes in North-America. They 
 may be properly termed inland feas of frefh water ; 
 and even thofe of the fecond or third clafs of magni- 
 tude, are of a largcrcireuit (theCafpianfca excepted) 
 than the greateft lake of the ancient continent." (Sec 
 the articlesSuPERioR, Huron, Erie, &c.) 
 The luxuriance of the vegetable ercation in the New- 
 
 Its moun- 
 taius. 
 
 World is cxircr.icly grear. In the fouthern provinces, 
 whcie the n.oidure of tlic tJimate is aided by the 
 warmth of the fwi, the woods arc almoll impervious, 
 and the furfaee of the groirud is bid from the eye, un- 
 der a thick covering ot ilirubs, o^ herbs, and weeds. 
 In the northern provinces althoni^h the foreftsarenot 
 fi'.ciimbcied with the fame wild luxuriance of vegeta- 
 tion, the trees of vaiious fpccics are generally more 
 lofty, and ol'ten much larger, than are to be fecu in 
 any other parts of the world. 
 
 One of the moft remarkable circuniftances, or fea- 
 tures, of tile New- World, is the general ])redonii- 
 nancc of cold, throughout the whole extent of this 
 great continent. Though we camiot, in any country, 
 determine the prccife degree of heat merely by the 
 diltancc of the equator, becaufc the elevation above the 
 fea, the nature of the foil, &c. all atf'rft the climate ; 
 yet, in the Ancient Continent, the heat is much more 
 in proportion to the vicinity to the equator than in any 
 part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid zone 
 extends over half that which Ihould be temperate by 
 its polition. Even in thofe latitudes where the winter 
 is fcarccly felt in the Old-Continent, it reigns with 
 great fcverity in America, though during a lliort peri- 
 od. Nor docs this cold, prevalent in the New-World, 
 confine itfelf to the temperate zones; but extends its 
 influence to the torrid zone alfo, confiderably mitiga- 
 ting the excefs of its heat — Akng the eallern coaft, 
 the climate, tho' more firailar to that of the torrid 
 zone in other parts of the earth, is ncverthelcfs con- 
 fiderably milder than in thofe countries of Aiia and 
 Africa which lie in the fame latitude. From the fouth- 
 ern tropic to (he extremity of the American continent, 
 the cold is faid to be much greater than in parallel 
 northern latitudes even of America itfelf. 
 
 For th is fo remarkable difference between the climate 
 of the New-Continent and the old, variouscaufcs have 
 been afligned by different authors. 'I he following is 
 the opinion of the celebrated DrRobertfonon this fub- 
 jecl. " Though the utmofl extent of America to- 
 wards the north be not yet difcovercd, we know that 
 it advances nearer to the pole than either Europe or 
 Afia. The latter have large feas to the norih, which 
 are open during part of the year ; and even when co- 
 vered with ice, the wind that blows over them is lefs 
 intenfely cold than that wiiich blows over land in the 
 fame latitudes. But, in America, the land llretches 
 from the river St Laurence towards the pole, and 
 fpreads out immcnfely to the well. A chain of enor- 
 mous mountains, covered with fnow and ice, runs thro' 
 all this dreary region. The wind palling over fuch an 
 extent of high and frozen land, becomes fo impregna- 
 ted with cold, that it acquires a piercing kcenefs, which 
 it retains in its progrefs through warmer climates ; and 
 is not entirely mitigated until it reach the gulpli of 
 Mexico. Over all the continent of North-America, a 
 north- wcfterly wind and exceffive cold are fynonymous 
 terms. Even in the moll fultry w eather, the moment 
 that the wind veers to that quarter, its penetrating in- 
 fluence is felt in a iranlition from heat to cold no lefs 
 violent than fuddcn. To this poweriul caiifc we may 
 afcribe the extraordinary dominion of cold, and its vi- 
 olent inroads into the fouthern provinces in thai part 
 of the globe. 
 
 '< Other caufes,nolefs remarkable, dimiiiilhthe ac- 
 tive 
 
 .America. 
 
 7 
 Itscxcidlvc 
 luxurianci: 
 
 of VcgCU- 
 
 tion. 
 
 S 
 
 Remarka- 
 ble preva- 
 lence of 
 cold ill 
 America. 
 
 Dr Robert- 
 fon's rea- 
 fons for this 
 fuperior 
 degree of 
 cold. 
 Hijlory of 
 A met /V*7, 
 vol.11. p.IO. 
 II, 12,, & 
 JJ-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 539 J 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, live power of 4icat in thofc parts of the American con- 
 ' ' tineiit which lie between the tropics. In all that por- 
 tion of the globe, the u ind blosvs in an invariable di- 
 redion from eall to well. As this wind holds its courfe 
 acrofs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries 
 which Ib'ttch along the weftern Ihore of Africa, infla- 
 med with all the ricry particles which it hath coUedcd 
 from the fultry pLins of Afia, and the burning fands 
 ill the African defarts. The coaft of Africa is, accord- 
 ingly, the region of the earth which feels the moft fer- 
 
 from St Antonia fouthwards, and from the bay of St Americi. 
 
 Julian to the llraits of Magellan its dinicafwns arc much ^^— ' 
 
 contracted. On the eaft and weft fides, it is walhed 
 by the Atlantic and Paciiic oceani. From its fouth- 
 crn point, it is probable that a great extent of fca, 
 without any confidcrable trad of lajid, readies to 
 the Antarctic pole. In whichever of thefe dire j-lioiis 
 the wind blows, it is cooled before it approaches the 
 Magellanic regioiis, by pafling overa valt body of wa- 
 ter ; nor is tiic land there of fjch extent, that it can 
 
 vent heat, and is cxpofed to the unmitigated ardour of recover any confidcrable degree of heat in its progrcfs 
 
 the torrid zone. But this fame wind, \\ hich brings fuch 
 an acceflion of warmth to the countries lying between 
 the river of Senegal and Cafraria, traverfcs the Allan- 
 tic Ocean, before it reaches the American ihorc. It is 
 cooled in its palfagcover this vaft body of water ; and is 
 felt as a rcfrefhing gale along the coalts of Bralil and 
 Guiana, rendering thefe coujitrics, though among the 
 warmcll in America, temperate, when compared with 
 thofc which lis oppofite to thcui in Africa. As this 
 wind advances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets 
 with ininienfe plains, covered with impenetrable fo- 
 relis ; or occupied by large rivers, marlhes, and ftagna- 
 ting waters, where it can recover no conliJcrab'e de- 
 gree of heat. At length it arrives it the Andes, which 
 run from north to fouth through the whole continent. 
 In pafling over their elevated and rrozen fummilsit is 
 fo thoroughly cooled, that the greater part of the coun- 
 tries beyond them hardly feel the ardour to which they 
 Ceeui expofcd by their lituation. In the other provin- 
 ces of America, from Tierra-Kernie wtftward to the 
 Mexican empire, the heat of the climate is tempered 
 ia fome places, by the elevation of the land above the 
 fea ; in others, by their extraordinary humidity ; and 
 in all, by the enormous mountains fcattered over this 
 trad. The iilands of America in the I'orrid Zone are 
 either fmall or mountainous, and are fanned alteriiate- 
 ly by refrelhing fca and land breeze^. 
 
 " The caufesof the extraordinary cold towards the 
 fouthern limits of America, ana in the fcas beyond it, 
 cannot beafccrtained in a manner equally latisfying. It 
 was long fuppofcd, that a vaft continent, dillinguilhtd 
 by the name of Tirra Aiijlrjl:s Incognita, lay betsvecn 
 the fouthern extremity of America and the Antarctic 
 pole. The fame principles which account for the ex- 
 traordinary degree of cold in the northern regions of 
 America, were employed in order tocxplain that w hich 
 is felt at Cape-Horn and the adjacent countries. The 
 im'iienfc extent ofthe fouthern continent, and the large 
 rivers which it poured into the ocean, were mentioned 
 and admitted by philofophcrs as caufes fufficicnt to oc- 
 calion the unufual fcnfation of cold, and the fti.l more 
 uncommon appearances of frozen feas in that region 
 of the globe. But the imaginary continent to which 
 fuch intlucnce was afcribed having been fcarchedforin 
 vain, and ihr fpacc which it was fippofcd tooccupy ha- 
 ving been found to be an open fea; new conjectures 
 niuft be formed with rcfpe -t to the caufcs of a tempe- 
 rature of cliniAe, i'^ extremely different from that 
 which we experience in countries removed at the fame 
 dillance from the oppofne pole. 
 /<('rf.p.4i4, " The moft obvious and pro!)ablc caufe of the fu- 
 A'-'i neitVl. pcrior degree of cold towards the Ibuihcrn extremity 
 of America, feems to be the form of the continent 
 there, lis breadth gradually dccrcafes as it ftrctchcs 
 
 trcnie 
 
 over it. Thefe circumftanccs concur in rendering the 
 temperature ot the air in thisdiftrict of America, more 
 fimilar to that of an infular, than to that of a continen- 
 tal climate ; and hinder it from acquiring the fame de- 
 gree of fumn\cr-heat, with places in Europe and Afia, 
 in a Qorrcfponding northern latitude. The north wind 
 is the only one that reaches this part of America, after 
 blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten- 
 tive furvcy of its pofition, this will be found to have a 
 tendency rather to diminifti than augment the degree 
 of heat. The fouthern extremity of America is pro- 
 perly the termination of the iramenferiJge of the .An- 
 des, which ftrctches nearly in a direct line from north 
 to fouth through the whole extent of the continent. 
 The moft fultry regions in South America, Guiana, 
 Bralil, Paraguay, and Fucuman, lie many degrees to 
 the eaft of the Magellanic regions. The level coun- 
 try of Peru, which enjoys the tropical heats, isfituatcd 
 conlidcrably to the well of them. The'north wind, 
 then, though it blows over land, docs not bring to the 
 fouthern cxireir.ity of America an increafe of heat 
 collected in its palFagc over torrid regions ; but be- 
 fore it arrives tl-.erc it muft h^vc fwcpt along the fum- 
 mitsof theAndes,aBdcoiDes impregnated witb;hc cold 
 of that frozen region." 
 
 Another peculiarity in the climate of America is its ,-xtr 
 exceifive moifture in general. In fome places, indeed, moKlure of 
 on the weftern coaft, rain is not known ; but, in all 'he .imeri- 
 other parts, the moiftncfs of the climate is as remark- ^^° chroite 
 able as the cold. — The forefts wherewith is it is every 
 where covered, no doubt, partly, occalion the moif- 
 ture of its climate ; but the moft prevalent and obvi- 
 ous caufc is the vaft quantity of water in the Atlantic 
 and Pacific Oceans, with which America is environed 
 on all fides. Hence, thofe places where the continent 
 is narrowcft are deluged with alnioft perpetual rains, 
 accompanied with violent thunder and lightning, by 
 which fome ot (hem, particula: ly Porto-bcUo, are rpn- 
 dcrcd in a manner uninhabitable. , 
 
 From the coldncfs and the moifture of America, an ^r^IleI„•t. 
 extreme malignity ofc'imatc has been inferrid. and af- of -Imuie 
 fcrted by M. de Pauw in his Rtchirch^s Philof.fktqua uujuJy »- 
 fur lei Aiiicricahis. Hence, according to the hypothe- '^^fOed to 
 lis of this author, the fmallncfs and irregularity of the '^""=^'"* 
 nobler animals, and the fize and enormous multiplica- 
 tion of reptiles 2nd infects. 
 
 But the fuppofcd fmallnefs and Ids ferocity of the fj.3.^ ,f 
 American animals, the .Abbe Cl.;vigero obfcrvcs, in- M.-xi'n, 
 fteadof (he malignity, dcmonftratei the mildnefs and vol. II. 
 bounty of the clime, if we give credit to Bulfon, at P- *ii"- 
 whofe fountain M. de Pauw has drank, and of whofc 
 lertimony he has availed himfclfagainfl Don Pcruetty. 
 Buffon, who in many places of his Natural Hiilory 
 produces (he Giiallnefs of the American aniuials as a 
 ? Y J certain.
 
 A M E 
 
 t 540 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Airfiicii. certain avgnmciu otilio nialigiiuy of the cliiinue of A- 
 ^ — ^ — inerita ; in treating afterwards of favagc animals, in 
 Tom. II. ij'Caks thus : " As all things, even the moll 
 irce creatures, arcfubjci^ to natural laws, and animals 
 as well as men arc fiibjeiiltd to the influence of climate 
 and foil, it appears that the fame caufcs which have 
 civilized and jiolillic J the human I pecics in our climates, 
 may have likewifc produced limilar ertcds upon other 
 fpecics. The wolf, which is perhaps the tierccfl of all 
 the quadrupeds of the temperate zone, is however in- 
 comparably lefs terrible than the tyger, the lion, and 
 the panther of the torrid zone ; and the white bear and 
 hyena of i\\c frigid zone. In America, where the air 
 and the earth are more mild than thofe of Africa, the 
 tyger, tlie lion, and the panther, are not terrible but in 
 the name. They have degenerated, if tierccnefs, join- 
 ed to cruelty, nude their nature ; or, to fpeak more 
 properly, they have only futfered the influence of the 
 climate : under a milder (ky their natnre alfo has be- 
 come more mild. Krom climes which are immoderate 
 in their temperature arc obtained drugs, perfumes, poi- 
 fons, and all thofe plants whole qualities are llrong. 
 The temperate earth, on the contrary, produces only 
 things which are temperate ; thcmildell herbs, the moil 
 ■wliolefome piilfe, the fweeteft fruits, the mofl quiet 
 animals, and the moll humane men, are the natives of 
 this happy clime. As the earth makes the plants, the 
 earth and plants make animals ; the earth, the plants, 
 and the animals make man. The phylical qualities of 
 man, and the animals which feed on other animals, de- 
 pend, though more remotely, on the fame caufcs wliich 
 influence their difpolltions and culloms. This is the 
 greaielt proof and demonftration, that in temperate 
 climes every things becor.ics temperate, and that in in- 
 temperate climes every thing isexcellive ; and thatiize 
 and form, which appear ahixed and determinate quali- 
 ties, depend noiwithllauiJiug, like the relative quali- 
 ties, on the influence of climate. The fize of our 
 quadrupeds cannot be compared with that of an ele- 
 phant, the rhinoceros, or fea-horfe. The largell of 
 our birds are but fm.ill if compared with the ollrich, 
 the cor.dore, and cafnan." So far M. Burton, whofe 
 text we have copied, becaufe it is contrary to what 
 M. dcPa\iw writes againll the climate of America, and 
 to Biifton himfclf in many other places. 
 
 " Ifthelarge and herce animals, fays Clavigero, are 
 nntivesof intemperate climes, and fmall and tranquil 
 animals of temperate climes, as M. Buffon has here 
 cftabliflied ; if mildnefs of climate influences the dif- 
 pofition and culloms of animals, M. dc Pauw does not 
 well deduce the malignity of the climate of America 
 from the finallcr fize and lefs fierccnefsof its animals ; 
 he ought railicr to have deduced the gcntlenefs and 
 fweetncfs of its climate from this antecedent. If, on 
 the contrary, the fmaller lizcandlefs fierccnefs ofthe 
 American animals, with rcfpeft to thofe of the old 
 continent, are a proof of their degeneracy , arifing from 
 the malignity of the clime, as M. de Pauw would have 
 it, we ought in like manner to argue the malignity of 
 the climate of Europe from the fmailer fize and lefs 
 fierccnefsof its animals, com pared with thofe of Africa. 
 If a philofopher of the country of Guinea fliould under- 
 take a work in imitation of !\!. de Pauw, with this title, 
 Rechcrchei Philcfophiijuesfiir Ui Europsetu, he might 
 avail himfelf of the fame argument which M. dc Pauw 
 
 nfes, todcmonrtratc the malignity of tlie climate of Eu- America. 
 rope, and the advantagcsof that of Africa. The cli- ^— v— ' 
 mate of Europe he would fay, is very unfavourable to 
 the production of quadrupcdk, which are found incom- 
 parably fmaller, and more cowardly than ours. What 
 are the horfe and the ox, the largefl of its animals, 
 compared with our elephants, our rhinocerofes,our fea- 
 horlcs, and our camels ? What are its lizards, cither in 
 fize or intrepidity, compared with our crocodiles .' Its 
 wolves, its bears, the moll dreadful of its « ild hearts, 
 when beiidc our lions and tigers .' Its eagles, its vul- 
 tures, and cranes, if compared with our ollricbcs, ap- 
 pear only like hens. g 
 
 As to the enormous fize and prodigious mtiltiplica- America 
 tion of the infefls and other little noxious animals, "The not more 
 furface of the earth (fays M. de Pauw), infeilcd by 'nf<-''^f<' 
 putrefaClion, wasovcr-run with lizards, ferpcnts, rep- "'""o'""'. 
 tiles, and inicdls monflrous for fize, and the aftivity of „itji infeai 
 their poifon, which they drew from the copious juices andnoaioui 
 of this uncultivated foil, that was corrupted and aban- animali. 
 doned toitfelf, where thenutritivejuicebecamcfharp, 
 like the milk in the bread of animals which do not 
 cxercifc the virtue of propagation. Caterpillars, crabs, 
 butterflies, beetles, fpidcrs, frogs, and toads, were for 
 the mofl part of an enomious corpulence in their fpe- 
 cies, and multiplied beyond what can be imagined. 
 •Panama is infelled with ferpents, Carthagena with 
 clouds of enormous bats, Porto-bello with toads, Suri- 
 nam with kakerlacas or cucarachaj, Gaudaloupe, and 
 the other colonies of the illands, with beetles, Quito 
 with niguas or chegoes, and Limawith lice and bugs. 
 The ancient kings of Mexico, and the emperors of 
 Peru, found no other means of ridding their fubjcdls 
 of thofe infcdls which fed upon them, than the impo- 
 fition of an annual tribute of a certain quantity oflice. 
 Ferdinand Cortes found bags full of them in the palace 
 of Montezuma." But this argument, exaggerated as 
 it is, proves nothing againfl the climate of Ame- 
 rica in general, much lefs againft that of Mexico. 
 There being fome lands in America, in which, on ac- 
 count of their heat, their huinidity, or want of inhabi- 
 tants, large infeds are found, and exceilively nmlti- 
 plied, will prove at mofl, that in fome places the fur- 
 face of the earth is infc6led, as he fays, with putrefac- 
 tion ; but not that the foil of Mexico, or that of all 
 America, isflinking, uncultivated, vitiated, and aban- 
 doned to itfelf. If fuch a deduftion were jufl, M. de 
 Pauw might alfo fay, that the foil of the old continent 
 is barren and fetid ; as in many countries of it there 
 are prodigious multitudes of monflrous infers, noxious 
 reptiles, and vile animals, as in the Philippine Ifles, in 
 many of thofe of the Indian archipelago, in feveral 
 countries of the fouth of Alia, in many of Africa, and 
 eveuinfomeof Europe. The Philippine Ifles are in- 
 felled with enomious ants and monflrous butterflies ; 
 Japan with fcorpions ; South of Afia and Africa with 
 ferpcnts ; Egypt with afps ; Guinea and Ethiopia with 
 armies of ants ; Holland with field-rats ; Ukrania with 
 toads, as M. de Pauw himfelf affirms. In Italy, the 
 Campagna di Roma (although peopled for fo many a- 
 ges),is infefled with vipers ; Calabria witli tarantulas ; 
 the Ihores of the Adriatic fea with clouds of gnats ; 
 and even in France, the population of which is fo great 
 and fo ancient, whofe lands arc fo well cultivated, and 
 whofe climate is lo celebrated by the French, there ap- 
 peared,
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 54' ] 
 
 A M L 
 
 America, pcarcd, a few years ago, according to M. Bufibn, a 
 
 * * ' new fpccies of ficld-niicc, larger than the common 
 
 kind, called by him Sunnuloti, which have multiplied 
 exceedingly, to the great damage of the fields. M. 
 Bazin, in his Compendium of the Hiflory of Infcds, 
 numbers 77 fpecics of bugs, whicli are all found in Pa- 
 ris and in its neighbourhood. That large capital, as Mr 
 Bomarc fays, fwarms with thofe difgultful infcfts. It 
 is true that there are places in America, where the 
 multitude of infefts, and filthy vermin, make life irk- 
 fome ; but we do not know that they have arrived to 
 fuch excefs of multiplication as to depopulate any 
 flacc, at Icaft there cannot be fo many examples pro- 
 duced of this caufe of depopulation in the new as in 
 the old continent, which arcattefted by 'Iheophraftus, 
 Varro, Pliny, and other authors. The frogs depo- 
 pulated one place in Gaul, and the locufls another in 
 Africa. One of the Cyclades was depopulated by 
 mice ; Amiclas, near to Taracina, by fcrpcnts ; ano- 
 ther place, near to Ethiopia, by fcorpions and poifon- 
 ous ants ; and another by fcolopendras ; and not fo di(- 
 tant from our own times, the Mauritius was going to 
 have been abandoned on account of the extraordinary 
 multiplication of rats, as we can remember to have read 
 in a Fench author. 
 
 With refped to the fize of the infefts, reptiles, and 
 fuch animals, M. de Pauw makes ufe of the teftimony 
 of M. Dumont, who, in his Memoirs on Louiliana, 
 fays, that the frogs are fo large there that they weigh 3 7 
 F'rench pounds, and that their horrid croaking imitates 
 the bellowing of cows. But M. de Pauw himfelf fays 
 (inhis anfwer to Don Pernetty,cap. 17.), thatallthofe 
 who have written about Louiliana from Henepin, Le 
 Clcrc, and Tonti, to Dumont, have contradiifled 
 each other, fometimes on one and fometimcs on ano- 
 ther fubjeft. In faft, neither in the old or the new 
 continent are there frogs of 37 pounds in weight (fee 
 the article Ran a); but there arc in Afia and in Africa 
 ferpents, butterflies, ants, and other animals of fuch 
 Bionftrous fize, that they exceed all iliofe which have 
 been difcovered in the New-World. We know very 
 well, that an American hiftorianfays, that a certain 
 gigantic fpccies of ferpents is to be found in the woods, 
 which attraifb men with their breath, and fwallowthem 
 up ; but we know alfo thatfeveral hiftorians, both an- 
 cient and modern, report the fame extravagant and in- 
 credible thing of the ferpents of Afia, and even fome- 
 thing more. Megafthenes, cited by Pliny, faid, that 
 there were ferpents found in Afia, fo large, that they 
 fwallowcd entire flags and bulls. Mctrodorus, cited by 
 the fame author, affirms, that in Afia there were fer- 
 pents which, by their breath, atiraiflcd birds, however 
 high they were or quick their fii>;ht. Among the 
 moderns, Gcmelli, in Vol. V. oi\i\^ Giro del Mundo, 
 when he treats of the animals of the Philipine illts, 
 fpeaksthus: "There are ferpents in thcfei Hands of im- 
 moderate fize ; there isone called Ibint'w, very lono;, 
 which fufpending itftlf by the tail from the trunk of a 
 tree, waits till Aags, bears, and alfo men pals by, in or- 
 der to attraiSl them with its breath, and devour them 
 at once entirely :" from whence it is cvidcni, that this 
 very ancient fable has been common to both continents. 
 Further, it may be aiked. In what country of Ame- 
 rica could M. de Pauw find ants to equal thofe of the 
 Philippinc-illands called 5«/»w;,rcfpe<fiing which Her- 
 
 nandez aflirms, that they are fix fingers broad in length .An rr.cj. 
 
 and one in breadth .' Who has ever fecn in Auiciica " ' 
 
 butlcrriies fo large as thofe of Bourbon, Ternaic, the 
 Phiiippine-illes, and all the Indiin-archiptlago ? The 
 largcli bat of America (naiivc 10 hot fliady countries), 
 which is that called by iiulfun Wavifirij, is, according 
 to him of the fizc ofa pigeon. La Jioitgnte, one of ihc 
 fpccies of Alia, is as large as a raven ; and the Rwf.lte, 
 another fpecics of Afia, is as big as a large hen. Its 
 wings, when extended, nieafure from tip to tip three 
 Parilian feet, and according to Gcmelli, who meafured 
 it in the Philippine-illes, fix pslms. M. Kuffon ac- 
 knowledges the excefs in fize of the Aliatic bat over 
 the American fpccies, but denies it as to number. 
 Geinelli fays, that thofe of the illandof Luzon were fo 
 numerous that they darkened the air, and that the noife 
 which they made with their teeth, in eating the fruits 
 of the woods, was heard at the diftanceof two miles. 
 M. de Pauw fays, in talking of ferpents, " it cannot be 
 affirmed that the new world has ihown any ferpents 
 larger than thofe which Mr Adanfon fawinthcdeferis 
 of Africa." The greatcftfcrpent found in Mexico, af- 
 ter a diligent fearch made by Hernandez, was 18 feet 
 long : but this is not to be compared with that of the 
 Moluccas, which Bomare fays is 33 feet in length ; 
 nor with ihc Anacandaja of Ceylon, which the fame 
 author fays is more than 3 3 feet longjnor with others of 
 Alia and Africa, mentioned by the fame author. Lart- 
 ly, the argument drawn from the multitude and lizc 
 of the American infccls is fully as weighty as the ar- 
 gument drawn from the fmallnefs and fcarcity of 
 quadrupeds, and both deted the fame ignorance, or 
 rather the fame voluntary and ftudied forgetfulnefs, 
 of the things of the old continent. 
 
 With refpedtowhatM.de Pauw, has faid of the tri- 
 bute of lice in Mexico, in that as well as many other 
 things he difcovers his ridiculous credulity. It is true 
 that Cortes found bags of lice in the magazines of the 
 palace of king Axajacatl. It is alfo true, that Mon- 
 tezuma impofed fuch a tribute, not on all his fubjeds 
 however, but only on thofe who were beggars ; not on 
 account of the extraordinary multitude of thofe in- 
 feds, as M. de Pauw affirms, but bccaufe Montezuma, 
 who could not futfer idlenefs in hii fubjcds, refolved 
 that that miferable fet of people, who could not la- 
 bour, (hould atleaft be occupied inloulingthcmfelvcs. 
 This was the true reafon of fuch an extraordinary tri- 
 bute, as Torquemada,Betancourt, andotherearly hifto- 
 rians relate ; and nobody ever before thought of that 
 which M. de Pauw affirms, merely hecanfc it fuited his 
 prcpofterous fyftem. Thofe difgufiing infcdspoflibly 
 abound as much in the hair and cloaihs of American 
 beggars, as of any poor and uncleanly low people in 
 the world : but there is not a doubt, that if any fove- 
 rcign of Europe was to exad fiich a tribute from the 
 poor in his dominions, not only bags, but great velFtls 
 might be filled with them. „ 
 
 It isnowtime to tumour attention to the /Itorigiiifs, Gcocnt>'.e- 
 or natives, of the New-Wo'ld. At the time when this fcription of 
 great continent was made more generally known to the '*"= nativet. 
 Europeans by the difcoveriesol Chriftophcr Columbus, 
 and nf the illullrious navigators who imbibed the fpirit 
 and cnthuliafm of that great man, it was found inha- 
 bited by various tribes and nations of men, who dif- 
 fered, in many refpeds, from moft of the people in the 
 
 three
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 542 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Aimriia. three Other quarters of the world, lu their phylkal 
 ' •'~~ hillory, however, the^'reatcrt peculiarity in tlic Ame- 
 ricans is their complexion, and the litlic ditt'ercncc 
 whicli is obferved, in this rcfped, throughout llic 
 wliole extent of the American continent. In turopc, 
 and in Afu, the people whoiuhabit the northern coun- 
 tries arc of u fail cr complexion tlian thofe who dwell 
 more to the foutliward. In the torrid zone, both in 
 Africa and Ali.i, the natives are entirely black, or the 
 next thing to it. This, however, mull be undcrflood 
 with fomc limitation. The people oi' Lapland, w ho 
 inhabit the moll northerly part of Europe, are by no 
 incans fo fair as the iuliabiiantsof Britain ; nor are tiie 
 Tartars fo fair as the inhabitantsof Europe, who lie 
 under the fame parallels of latitude. Neverthelefs, a 
 Laplander is fair wlieu compared with an Abyliinian, 
 and a Tartar if compared with a native of the Moluc- 
 ca illands. — In America, this dillindionof colour was 
 not fo dilliutHly, r,nd fo prominently, marked. In the 
 torrid zone there were no negroes, and in the tempe- 
 rate and frigid /.ones there were no white people. Moll 
 of them were of a kind of red copper-colour, which Mr 
 Korller obferved, in the Pelierais of Tierra del Kuego, 
 to have fomcthing ofaglofs rcfembling that metal. It 
 does not appear, however, that thismatter has, hither- 
 to been inquired into with fufticient accuracy. I he 
 inhabitants of the inland partsof South America, where 
 that continent is widell, and confequently the in- 
 fluence of the fun mod powerful, have never been 
 accurately compared with thofe of Canada, or more 
 northerly parts, at leafl as far as we know. Yet this 
 ought to have been done, and that in many inllances 
 too, before it could be ad'erted fo pofitively as moll au- 
 thors do, that thive is not the I-Jiiji difference of complex- 
 ion atno'ig the natives of Ajiierica. Indeed, fo many fy- 
 flems have been formed concerning thefe fingular peo- 
 ple, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know- 
 ledge of the moft iimple facls, even from the bed 
 and mod unprejudiced writers. — If we may believe tlic 
 Abbe Raynal the Califnruians are fwarthier than the 
 Mexicans ; and fo poliiiveis he in this opinion, that he 
 gives a rcafon for it. " Thisdiffercnce of colour," fays 
 he, " proves, that thccivili/.ed life of fociety fubvcrts, 
 or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, fiuce 
 we find, uuderthe temperate zone, a favage people that 
 are blacker tlian the civilized nations of the torrid 
 zone." — On the other hand, Dr Robcrti'on clalfes all 
 the inhabitants of Spanilh America together with re- 
 gard to colour, whether they are civilized or uncivili- 
 zed ; and when he fpeaks ot California, takes no notice 
 of any peculiarity in their colour more than others. — 
 The general appearance of the indigenous .Americans 
 in various dillriflsis thus defcribed by the clievalier 
 Pinto : " They are all of a copper colour, with fome di- 
 verlity of fiiade, not in proportion totheir dillance from 
 the Equator, but according to the degree of elevation 
 ofthc territory in which ihey rcfide. Tliofc wholive in 
 a high country arc fairer than ihofe in themarlhy low 
 lands on the eoafl. Their face is round ; farther re- 
 moved, perhaps, than that of any people, from an oval 
 Ihapc. Their fore-head is fmail ; the extremity of their 
 ears far from the face ; their lips thick ; their nofe rtat ; 
 their eyes black, or of a chefnut colour, fmall, but ca- 
 pable of difcerningobjcdls at a great dillance. Their 
 
 hair is always thick and lleek, and without sny ten- 
 dency to curl. At the (iril afped, a South-American 
 appears to be mild and innocent ; but, on a more at- 
 tentive view, one difcovers in his countenance fomc- 
 thing wild, dillrullful, and fullen." 
 
 The following account of the native Americans is 
 given by Don Antonio Ulloa, in his late work entitled 
 Meiiioiiei phtlofuphiquti, hijloriqties, et phyjigues, con- 
 cernitnt la decoiiverte de I' Aminque. 
 
 The American Indians arc naturally of a colour bor- 
 dering upon red. Their frequent cxpofure to the fun 
 and wind changes it to ihiirordinary dufky hue. The 
 temperature of the air appears to have little or no in- 
 fluence in tiiis refpcct. J'here is no perceptible diffe- 
 rence in complexion between the inhabitants ofthc 
 high and thofe of the low parts of Peru ; yet the cli- 
 mates are of an extreme dilt'crencc. Nay, the Indians 
 who live as far as 40 degrees and upwards fouth or 
 north of the equator, are not to be diftinguiflied, in 
 point t)f colour, from thofe immediately under it. 
 
 There is alio a general con formation of features and 
 perfou, whicli, more or lefs, charafterizcth them all. 
 Their chief dillinClions in thefe refpedtsare a fmall fore- 
 head, partly covered with hair to the eye-brows, little 
 eyes, the nofe thin, pointed, and bent towards the up- 
 per lip ; abroad face, large ears, black, thick, and lauk 
 hair; the legs well formed, the feet fmall, the body 
 thick and mufcular; little or no beard on the face, and 
 that little never extending beyond a fmall part ofthc 
 chin and upper lip. It may eafily be fuppofed that this 
 general defcription cannot apply, in all its parts, to e- 
 very individual ; but all of them partake fo much of it, 
 that they may be eafily diflinguillicd even from the mu- 
 lattoes, who come ncarell to the 11 in point of colour. 
 
 The refemblance among all the .*.nierican tribes is 
 not lefs remarkable in rel'pcCl totheir genius, charac- 
 ter, manners, and particular culloms. The mod dif- 
 tant tribes are, in thcle refpefts, as fimilar as thoagli 
 they formed but one nation. 
 
 All the Indian lutions have a peculiar pleafure in 
 pain ting their bodies of a red colour, with a certain fpe- 
 cies of earth. The mine of Guancavelica was former- 
 ly of no other ufe than to fupply them with this ma- 
 terial for dyeing their bodies ; and the cinnabar cx- 
 traelcd from it was applied entirely to this purpofe. 
 The tribes in Louiliana and Canada have the iamc 
 pallion ; hence minium is the commodity moAiu de- 
 mand there. 
 
 It may, perhaps, fcem fingular that thefe nations, 
 whofe natural colour is red, fliould affed the fame co- 
 lour as an artificial ornament. But it may be obferved, 
 that they do nothing in this rcfpcdl but what corref- 
 pondstofhe pradice of Europeans, who alfodudy to 
 heighten and difplay to advantage the natural red and 
 white of their complexions. The Indians of Peru have 
 now indeed abandoned the cudom of painting their bo- 
 dies : but it was commoi! among them before they were 
 conquered b/ the Spaniards ; and it dill remains the 
 cudom of all thofe tribes who have preferved their li- 
 berty. The northern nations of America, belides the 
 red colour which is predoniinant, employ alfo black, 
 white, blue, and green, in pjinliiig their bodies. 
 
 The adjuduient of tiiefc colours is a matter of as 
 great conlidcration with the Indians of Louiliana and 
 
 the 
 
 America.. 
 
 14 
 
 DonUUoa'i 
 
 71 
 
 Peculiari- 
 ties ill re- 
 gard to or- 
 iiamciit 
 and drcfs.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 5^3 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 ilie vail regions extending to the north, as ihc orna- 
 ments of dicfs among the rnofl polillicJ iiatior.s. Tli^ 
 buliiicrsitfelf they call Maflnher, and they do not fsil 
 to apply all their talents and allidiiily to accompjlli it 
 in the molt iiiiilhed nianticr. No lady of the grcated 
 falhiotievcr confiilttd her mirror with more anxiety, 
 than the Indians do while paintinj; their bodiis. The 
 colours are applied w ith the iitmoll accuracy and ad- 
 drefs. Upon the eye-lids, precifely at the root of tlic 
 cye-lafl-.es, they draw two lines as fine as tiie fniallcft 
 thread; the fame upon thelips, the openings of tlie no- 
 Ilrils, thecyc-brows, and the ears ; of which lad tlicy 
 even follow all the inflexions and fintiolitics. As to ill e 
 reft of the face, they dillribute various figures, in all 
 which the red predominates, and the other colours are 
 alfortcd fo as to throw it out to the bell advantage. 
 The neck alfo receives its proper ornaments ; a thick 
 coat of vermilion commonly dirtinguilhes the cheeks. 
 Five or lixhoursare requilite foraccomplilhingall this 
 with the nicety which they aifct'l. As their Hrft 
 attempts do not always fucceed to their \vi(h, they 
 efface them, and begin a-new upon a better plan. 
 No coquette is more faftidious in her choice of orna- 
 ment, none more vain when the important adjuftment 
 isfiniflted. Their delight and felf-fatisfadion are then 
 fo great, that the mirror is hardly ever laid down. 
 Aninilian, Madahcd, to his mind, is the vaineflof all 
 the human fpecies. The other parts of the body arc 
 left in their natural flate,and, excepting what is called 
 a cachecul, they go entirely naked. 
 
 Such of them as have made themfelves eminent for 
 bravery, or other qualifications, are diilinguilhed by fi- 
 gures painted on their bodies. They introduce the 
 colours by making punftures on (heir fkin, and the ex- 
 tent of furface which this ornament covers is propor- 
 tioned to the exploits they have performed. Some 
 paint only their arms, others both their arms and legs ; 
 others again their thighs, while thofewho have attain- 
 ed the fummit of warlike renown, have their bodies 
 painted from the waifl upwards. This is the heraldry 
 of the Indians ; thedevicesof which are probibly more 
 exaJlly adjufted to the merits of the perfons who bear 
 them, than thofe of more civilized countries. 
 
 Belides thefe ornaments, the warriors alfo carry 
 pUnnesoffeathersontheirheads,theirarms,and ancles. 
 Thefe likewife are tokens of valour, and none but fuch 
 as have been thus diftinguiflied may wear then-. 
 
 The propenfity to indolence is equal among all the 
 tribes oflndians, civilized or favage. The only em- 
 ployment of thofe who have preferved their indepeii- 
 <1cnce is hunting and fiiliing. In fome diflricls the 
 women exercife a little agriculture, in railing Indian 
 corn and pompions, of which they form a fpecies of 
 aliment, by bruiling them together : they alfo prepare 
 the ordinary beverage in ufcamongthem, takingcare, 
 at the fame time, of the children, of whom the fathers 
 lake no charge. 
 
 The female Indians of all the conquered regions of 
 South America practice what is called the urcu (a word 
 which among them lignilics elevation'). It conlills in 
 throwing forward the hair from the crown ol the head 
 upon the brow, and cutting it round from the cars to 
 above the eye ; fo that the )t)rehead and eye-brows are 
 entirely covered. The fame cuftom takes place in the 
 Northern countries. The female inhabitants of both re- 
 
 2 
 
 gions tic the reft of their hair behind, fo cxafily in the Ameri.-j. 
 
 lame falliion, that it might be fuppoftd the tttccl of ' ^ ' 
 
 mutual imitatiun. Thiahowcvtrbcingimpoiriblc, from 
 the vaft diftance that fcparates ihem, is thought 1 1 
 countenance the f.ippoiition c.f the whole of America 
 being originally planted with one race of people. 
 
 This cviiioni does not take place a.nong tlie males. 
 Thofe of the higher parts of Peru wear long and tlow- 
 inghair, which they reckon a great ornament. Inihc 
 lower parts of the (amc country they cut it (hort, on 
 account of the heat of the clima:c ; a circumftancc in 
 whicli they imitate the Spaniards. The inhabitants of 
 Louiliana pluck out their hair by the root, from the 
 crown of the head forwards, in order to obtain a large 
 forehead, otherwife denied them by nature. The relt 
 of their hair they cut as fiiort as pollible, to prevent 
 their enemies from feizing them by it in battle, and 
 alio to prevent them from ealily getting their fcalp, 
 Ihould they fall into their hands as prifoncrs. 16 
 
 According to Don U Uoa, the w hole race of the Ame- R'n'^rk- 
 rican Indians is diilinguilhed by an uncommon thick- *'''^/'Jr 
 nefs of Ikin, and by an hardnefs of their fibres ; cir- [^ "'ji'^''^ 
 cumftances thefe, which in the opinion of this learned 
 Spanifli writer, contribute to that infcnfibility to bodily 
 pain for which thefe fingular people are fo remarka- 
 ble. Our author adduces an inltancc in fupport of this 
 infenlibility, in the Americans, in the cafe of an In- 
 dian who was under thenccellity of fubmitting to becnt 
 for the Hone. This operation, it is well known, fcldoin 
 lafls above four or five minutes. Unfavourable cir- 
 cumftanccs, in his cafe, prolonged it to the uncommon 
 period of 27 minutes. Yet, all this time, the patient 
 gave no tokens of the extreme pain, commonly attend- 
 ing this operation : he complained only as a pcrfondncs 
 who feels fomc flight uneafinefs. At laftthe ftonewas 
 extracted. Two days after he exprclfed a dcilre for 
 food, and on the eighth day from the operation he 
 quitted his bed, free from pain, although the wound 
 was not yet thoroughly clofcd. The fame want of 
 fenlibility, he fays, is obferved in cafes of fractures, 
 wounds, and other accidents of a (imilar nature. In all 
 thefe cafes their cure is ealily cffeticd, and they feem 
 to fuffer lefs prefent pain than any other race of men. 
 The fkuUs which have been taken up i n their ancient bu- 
 ry ing-grounds are of a greater thicknefs than that corn- 
 pages of bones is commmonly found to be ; being from 
 lix to fe ven lines from the outer to the inner fupcrticies. 1 7 
 
 It is natural to infer from hence, faysUlloa, that Andtothe 
 their comparative infenlibility to pain is owing to a 'ndcmen- 
 coarfer and ftronger organiz4iion, than that of other ''"°f*<^*" 
 nations. The cafe with which they endure the feve- 
 ritics of climate is, bethinks, another proof of this. 
 The inhabitants of the higher parts of Peru live amidll 
 perpetual froll and fnow. Although their clothing is 
 very flight, tliey fupport this iuclement temperature, 
 without the leafl inconvenience. Habit, it is to be 
 confclicd, m;!y contribute a good deal to this, but much 
 alio is to be afcribed to the compact texture of their (kin, 
 which defends! hem from the imprclTion of cold through 
 their pores. We mutl confefs, however, notwithlland- 
 ing the aficiiioiisand conjectures of an author fo re- 
 fpe^able as Don Ulloa, that we 3 re not very confident, 
 that cither the (kins, or the IkuUs of the Americans 
 are thicker than thefkius and IkuUsof many other na- 
 tions of mankind. But we do not w ilh, in this place, 
 
 to
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 544 
 
 A M E 
 
 AmfTica. to espati.tte on this fubjeft, which can only be redu- 
 
 ' ' ceii to certainty by the iavcftigitious of the anatomiA, 
 
 or iiamrjlill. 
 
 The northern Indians refcmblc them in thisrefpeft. 
 The utmoll rigoursofthr winter feafon do not prevent 
 thera from following the chacc almoft naked. It is 
 true, they wear a kind of woolen cloak, or fomciinics 
 the Iktn of a wild bead, upon tlicir ihoulders ; but be- 
 fides th.1t it covers only a finall part of their body, it 
 woiild iippcar that they ul'e it rather for ornament than 
 warrath. In fact, they wear it iadilcriminatrly, in 
 the fcverities of winter and in tlic fiiltricll heats of 
 fiininicr, w lien neither Europeans nor Negroes canfnf- 
 fcr any but the (ligluell cloathing. They even fre- 
 quently ihrow aliiic this cloak svhcn they go a-hunt- 
 iag,that it may not cmbarrafs them in travcrling their 
 forclls, wlicre they fay the thorns and undergrowth 
 would take hold of it ; while, on the contrary, they 
 ilide fu'.ojthly over the furface of their naked bodies. 
 At all times they go with their heads uncovered, with- 
 out futfcriug the leaft inconvenience, cither from the 
 cold, or from thofc coups difoltti, which in Louilian.i 
 are fo often fatal to the inhabitants of other climates. 
 
 The Indians of South America dillinguilh them- 
 fclves by modern dreffes, in which they atlett various 
 taftes. Thofc of tiie high country, and of the valleys 
 in Peru, drefs partly in the Spanilh fafliion. Inflead 
 of hats they wear bonnets of coarfe double cloth, the 
 weight of which neither fecms to incommode them 
 when they go to warmer climates, nor docs the acci- 
 dental want of them feem to be felt in fituations where 
 the mod piercing cold reigns. Their legs and feet are 
 always bare, if wc except a fort of fandals made of the 
 fkins of oxen. The inhabitants of South America, 
 compared with thofe of North America, arc defcribed 
 as generally more feeble in their frame i lefs vigorous 
 in the efforts of their mind ; of gentler difpolitions 
 more addicted to plcafure, and funk in indolence. — 
 This, however, is not univcrfally the cafe. Many of 
 ig their nations are as intrepid and cnterprifing as any 
 Terrible others on the whole continent. Among the tribes on 
 trials un- the banks of the Oronooko, it a warrior afpires to the 
 '^"^"^^ f^ port of captain, his probation begins with a long faft, 
 ihcirchicfs. j^^^j r\g\A than any ever obferved by the inoft abfte- 
 mious hermit. At the clofe of this the chiefs af- 
 fcmble ; and each gives him three lathes with a large 
 whip, applied fo vigoroully, that his body is almoll 
 Hayed. If he betrays the lead fymptom of impatience, 
 orevenof fenlibility, he isdifgraced forever, aiad is re- 
 jeded as unworthy of i\c honour. After fomc inter- 
 val, his condancy is proved by a more excruciating 
 trial. He is laid in his hammock with his hands bound 
 fad; and an innumerable multitude of venomous ants, 
 whofe bite occafions a violent pain and inflammation, 
 are thrown upon him. The judges of his merit dand 
 around the hammock; and whild thefe cruel infedls 
 faden upon the modfenfible parts of his body, a figh, 
 a groan, or an involuntary motion exprcflive of what 
 he fuffcrs, would exclude him from the dignity of 
 which he is ambitious. Even after this evidence, his 
 fortitude is not deemed to be fufficiently afceriained, 
 till he has ftood another ted more fevere, if poffible, 
 than the former. He is again fufpended in his ham- 
 mock, and covered with the leaves of the palmetto. A 
 fire of ftiaking herbs is kindled underneath, fo as he 
 
 3 
 
 may feel its heat, and be involved in fmokc. Though 
 fcorched and almoft fnffocated, he mull coniinnc tu 
 endure this with the fame patient infenlibility. Many 
 pcrilh in this clfay of their Hrmnefs and courage ; but 
 fuch as go through it with applaufe, receive the cnligus 
 of their new dignity \vith much loleninity,and arc ever 
 after regarded as leaders of approved rclolution,whofc 
 behaviour, in the mod trying fituations, will do honour 
 to their country. In North America the previous 
 trial of a warrior is neitlier fo formal nor fo fevere : 
 Though, even there, before a youth is permitted to 
 bear arms, his patience and fortitude are proved by 
 blows, by lire, and by infults, more intolerable to a 
 haughty fpirit than cither. 
 
 Ot the manners and cudoms of the North Ameri- 
 cans more j'articularly, the following is the mod con- 
 fident account that can be coUeftcd from the bed in- 
 formed and mod impartial writers. 
 
 When the Europeans tird arrived in America, they 
 found the Indians quite naked, except thofe parts 
 which even the mod uncultivated people ufually con- 
 ceal. Since that time, however, they generally ufe a 
 coarfe blanket, which they buy of the neighbouring 
 planters. 
 
 Their huts or cabbins are made of dakes of wood 
 driven into the ground, and covered with branches of 
 trees or reeds. They lie on the door cither on mats 
 or thelkins of wild-bcalf s. Their dilhes are of timber, 
 but their fpoons are made of the Ikulls of wild oxen; 
 and their knives of flint. A kettle and a large plate 
 conditute almod the whole utcnlils of the family. 
 Their diet confids chiefly in what they procure by 
 hunting ; and fagamite, or pottage, is likewife one 
 of their mod common kinds of food. The mod ho- 
 nourable furniture amongd them is a coUedlion of the 
 fcalps of their enemies ; with thofe they ornament 
 their huts, which are edeemed in proportion to the 
 number of this fort of fpoils. 
 
 The charaderof the Indians is altogether founded 
 upon their circumdances and way of life. A people 
 who arc condantly employed in procuring the means 
 of a precarious fubfidcnce, who live by hunting the 
 wild animals, and who are generally engaged in war 
 with their neighbours, cannot be fuppofed to enjoy 
 much gaiety of temper, or a high flow of fpirits. The 
 Indians therefore are in general grave even to fadnefs ; 
 they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to 
 fome nations of Europe, and they dcfpife it. Their 
 behaviour to thofe about them is regular, moded, and 
 reipedful. Ignorant of the arts of amufement, of 
 which thatof faying trifles agreeably is one of the mod 
 confldcrable, they fcldom fpeak but when they have 
 fomething important to obferve ; and all their actions, 
 words, and even looks, art attended with fome mean- 
 ing. Thisisextremely natural to men who arcalmofl 
 continually engaged in purfuits, which to them arc of 
 the higheli importance. Their fublidence depends en- 
 tirely on what they procure with their hands ; and 
 their lives, their honour, and every thingdear to them, 
 may be loll by the fmalled inattention to the deligns 
 of their enemies. As they have no particular objed 
 to attach them to one place rather than another, they 
 go wherever they expedl tofind the neccllaries of life 
 in greated abundance. Cities, which are the effefls of 
 agriculture and arts, they have none. The different 
 
 tribes 
 
 AmericB. 
 
 '9 
 Cuftoms 
 and difpo- 
 litions of 
 the North- 
 Amcricaui, 
 more parti- 
 cularly. 
 
 20 
 Their re' 
 markable 
 penfiTcnefe 
 and taci- 
 turnity.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 545 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America- tribes or nations, are, for the fame reafon, extremely dances too, though, like thofc of the Greeks and Ro- AiMrica- 
 
 ^^ — V ' linaH, when compared wiih civi.izcj locietics, in mans, they are chiedy of the military kind j and their ' — ^ 
 
 which indullry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have mulic and dancing accompany every fcafl. j. 
 
 united a vail number ot individuals, whom a compli- To affifl their memory, they have belts of fmall Wampuia 
 
 Cited luxury renders nfeful to one another. Thcfe IhcUs, or beads, of ditfcrcnt colours, each reprefentiug or b«ki. 
 fraalltriocs livcatanimmenfe diilance ; they are fepa- a particular object, which is marked by their colour 
 rated by a defcrt frontier, and hid in the bolom of and arrangement. At the conclulion of every fubjcd 
 impenetrable and almoll boundlcfs forells. on which they difcourfc, when they treat with a fo- 
 
 1 here is eftablilhid in each fociety a certain fpecics reign Uatc, they deliver one of tbofc belts ; for ifthij 
 
 ceremony ihould be omitted, all that they have faid 
 pauses for nothing. Thofe bciti are carefully dcpofit- 
 cd in each town, as the public records of the nation; 
 
 Torni of 
 guvcrn- 
 ir.tnt 3- 
 (Qoiig them 
 
 ofgovernment.which prevails over the whole continent 
 of America, with exceeding little variation ; becaufe 
 over the whole of this continent the niaunersanJ way 
 
 of life are nearly finiiUr and uniform. Without arts, and to them they occafioually have recourfe, when any 
 
 riches, or luxury, the great inftrumentsof fubjcction public coniell happens with a neighbouring tribe. Of 
 
 in poliihtd focicties, an American has no method by l.ite, as the materials of which thofe belts arc made, 
 
 which he can render himfelf coniidcrable among his h.ive become fcarce, they often give fomc (kin in place 
 
 companions, but by fuperiority in pcrfonal qualities of of the wampum (the nims of the beads), and receive 
 
 body or mind. But, as nature has not been very Uviih in return prefcnis of a more valuable kind from the 
 
 in hcrperfonal didindions, where all enjoy the fame 
 education, all are pretty much upon an equality, and 
 will dcfirc to remaiu lb. Liberty, therefore, is the pre- 
 vailing palFion of the Americans; and their govern- 
 ment, under the in riicnce of this fen timent, is, per haps, 
 better fecured tiian by the wifefl political regulations. 
 They arc very far, however, from defpiling all fort of 
 authority; they are attentive to tlie voice of wifdora, 
 which experience h is conferred on theaged, and they 
 cnlilhindcr I he bannersof the chief in whofe valour and 
 militiry addrefsthey have learned torepolc ajull and 
 merited confidence. In every fociety, therefore, there 
 istobcconfidered the power of the chiefs and of the el- 
 ders. Among thcfe tribes whicii are moll engaged in 
 war, the powerof the chief is, naturally, predominant; 
 becaufe the idea of havijig a military leader was the 
 firll fource of his fuperiority, nd the continual exi- 
 gencies of the Hate rcq tiring fu'.h a leader, will con- 
 tinue to fupport, and even to enhance it. His power, 
 however, is rather perfualive th^n coerc;vc ; he is re- 
 verenced as a father, rather than feared as a monarch. 
 He has no guards, no prifons, no officers of judice, and 
 one act of ill-judged vielence would puilhinifrom his 
 humble throne. The elders in the other form of go- 
 vernme;u which may bcconfidered as a w;/rfand ;/«v/f- 
 itiij arillocracy, have no more power. In mofl 
 countries, therefore, age alone is fufficient f-)r ac- 
 quiring refpecl, influence, and authority. It is age 
 which teaches experience, and experience is the only 
 fouroe of knowl'dge among a barbarous people. A- 
 niong thofe pcrfons bufinels is conducted with the ut- 
 
 »4 
 
 Their p.ili 
 lie alTcm- 
 t>li». 
 
 commiirioacrs ; for they never coniider a treaty as of 
 any weight, unltfs every article in it be raiidcd hj 
 fucb a graiilncaiion. 
 
 It often happens, that thofe different tribes or nati- 
 ons, fcattered as they arc, at an imnienfc diilance from 
 pne another, meet i i their excurlions aft r prey. If 
 there fublilis no aiiimolity between them, which fel- 
 dom is the cafe, they behave in the mod friendly antJ 
 courteous manner ; but if tliey happen t» be in a (late of 
 war, or if there has been no previous intercourfe be- 
 tween them, all who are not friends are deemed ene- 
 mies, and they fight with the mn;l favage fury. J4 
 
 If we except huntingandtilliing, war is the princi- Thewwanj 
 pal employment ofthe Indian men ralmofl every other 
 concern, but in particular the little agriculture which 
 tlieyenjuy.isconligned to the women. The moll com- 
 mon motive of the Americans for entering into war, 
 when it does not arifc from an accidental reiicounter,or 
 interference, is either to revenge themfelvcs for the 
 death of forac loft friends, or to acquire priforvers, who 
 mayaffifltiiem in their hunting, and whom they adopt 
 into their fociety. Thcfe wars arc cither undertaken by 
 fomc private advenmrers, or at the inllance of the 
 whole community. In the latter cafe, ail the yonng 
 men who arc difpofed to go out to battle (for no one is 
 compelled contrary to his inclination), give i bit of 
 wood to the cliicf, as a token of their defigu to ac- 
 company him ; for every thing among thefe people is 
 tranfadcd with a great deal of ceremony ai.d with many jj 
 forms. The chief %vho is to conduft them falls fcvc- Cersmo- 
 ral days, during which he converfcs with no one, and "i" before 
 
 nioft limplicity, and which may recal to thofe who arc is particularly careful to obfervc his dreams; vrhrch the f^tusgo", 
 
 acquainted witlt antiq'iity,a piclure of the moll early 
 ages. The heads of families mecttoojethcr in ahoufc 
 or cabin appointed for the purpofe. Here the bufinefs 
 is ("ifculled ; and here thofe of the nation, diftingnifh- 
 cd for their eloquence or wifdom, have anopportuni- 
 
 prcfuinption natural to favagcs generally renders as fa- 
 vourable as he could delirc. A variety of other fupcr- 
 ftitions and ceremonies are obferved. One of the raoft 
 hideous is fctting the wir-kettle on the tire, as an em- 
 blem that they are going out todevtHir their enemies; 
 
 ty of difplaying thofc talents. Their orators, like thofe which, amongthcfenatiorts.itis probable, was former- 
 of Homer, exprcfsthemfclves in a bold figurative (tyle, ly the cafe, lincc they fiill continue to esprtfsit in 
 ftronger than refined, or rather foi"tened, nations can clear terms, and ufc an emblem ligniiiciitt nf the an 
 
 ■wellbicar, and with gcfl.ires equally violent, but often 
 extremely natural and cxpret5ve. When the bufinefs 
 is over, and thty happen to be well provided with 
 food, they appoiiua fcall upon thcoccalion, of which 
 3i;no.t the whole tMiioo partakes. The fcaft is accom- 
 panied with a fong, in which the real or fabulous ex- 
 jiloits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have 
 Vol. I. 
 
 cicnt ufage. Then they dilpatch i porcelaae, or large 
 (hell, to their allies, inviting them to come along, «ud 
 drink the blood of their enemies, for with the Ame- 
 ricans, as with the Greeks of old, 
 
 " A generous friendfliip no co'.d meJium Jciiovrs ; 
 " But with cue love, wuh onerffcntmcntji glows." 
 
 32 They
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 546 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 Ain«ka. They think that ihofe in their alliance muft not only 
 ^— ^— adopt their enmities, but that they mull alfo have their 
 rclciiiment woand iiptotheUmeiiitchwiih thcmfdves. 
 Anti, indeed, no people cairy their frieiidlhips or their 
 refentmcnts lb far as they do ; and this is what ihoiilJ 
 be cxpeded from their peculiar circiimllances : that 
 ])rinciplc in human nature which is ihc fpring of the 
 I'ociul artetHons, arts with fo much the greater force 
 the more it is rcllraincd. Tlie Americans, who live 
 in fmall fociclies, who fee few objeCls and few perfons, 
 become wonderfully attached to ihofe olijecls and per- 
 fons, and cannot be deprived of them wiiiiout feeling 
 thenifelvts mil'erable. Their ideas arc too confined 
 to enable them to entertain jull ftntiments of hu- 
 manity, or univerfal benevolence. But this very 
 circumllancc, while it makes them cruel and lavage 
 CO an incredible degree, towards thofe with whom 
 they arc at war, adds a new force to their particular 
 friendlhips, and to the common tie which unites the 
 members of the fame tribe, or of thofe difterent tribes 
 which are in alliance with one another. M'ithout 
 attending to this reflcftion, fonie facls we are going 
 to relate would excite our wonder without informing 
 our reafon, and we would be bewildered in a num- 
 ber of particulars, feeniingly oppolite to one another, 
 without being fenfible of the general caufe from which 
 they proceed. 
 
 Having finilTied all the ceremonies previous to the 
 war, and the day appointed for their fctling out on 
 the expedition being arrrivcd, they take leave of their 
 friends, and exchange their clothes, or whatever mo- 
 veables they have, in token of mutual fricndlhip ; after 
 which they proceed from the town, tlieir wives and 
 female relations walking before, and attending them 
 10 fomc dillance. The warriors march all drell'cd in 
 iheirfincll apparel and moft Ihovvy ornaments, without 
 any order. The chief walksllowly before them, fnig- 
 iug the war-fbng, while the rell obferve the moft pro- 
 found filcncc. When they come up to their women, 
 they deliver them all their tine ry, and putting on their 
 worft clothes, pro-.eed on their expedition. 
 
 Every nation has its peculiar enfigh or flandard, 
 which is generally a reprcfentation of fome beall, 
 bird, or filh. Thofe among the Five Nations are 
 the bear, otter, wolf, tortoifc, and eagle ; and by 
 thofe names the tribes arc ufually diflinguillied. 
 They have the figures of thofe animals pricked 
 and painted on fevcral parts of their bodies ; and 
 when they march through the woods, they com- 
 monly, at every encampment, cut the reprcfenta- 
 tion of their enfign on trees, efpecially after a fue- 
 cefsful campaign : marking at the iame time the 
 number of fcalps orprifoners they have taken. Their 
 military drefs is extremely fingular. They cut olf or 
 pull out all their hair, except a fpot about the breadth 
 ■of two EnPjlilh crown-pieces, near the top of their 
 heads, and entirely ileftroy their eye-brows. The lock 
 left upon their heads is divided into fevcral parcels, 
 each of which is ftiH'encd and adorned with wampum, 
 beads, and feathers of various kinds, the whole being 
 twilled into a form mucli refembling the modern 
 pompoon. Their heads are painted red down to the 
 eye-brows, and fprinkled over with white down. The 
 griftles of their ears are fplit almoft quite round, and 
 diftended with wires or fplintcrs, foas to meet and tie 
 •together on the nape of the neck. Tliefe arc, alfo. 
 
 16 
 InHgnsi 
 
 27 
 Military 
 habits, 
 
 hung with ornaments, and, generally, bear the reprc- 
 fentation of fume bird, or beall. '1 heir nofcs are like- 
 wife bored and luing with trinkets of beads, and their 
 faces painted, with various colours, fo as to make an 
 awful appearance. Their brealls are adorned with a 
 gorget, or medal, of brafs, copper, or fome other me- 
 tal; and that dreadful weapon the fcalping-knifc hangs 
 by a llring from the neck. 
 
 The great qualities of an Indian war are vigilance 
 and attention, to giveand avoid a furprife ; and, in- 
 deed, in thefc they are fuperior to all nations in the 
 world. Acculiomed to continual wandering in the 
 forelts ; having their perceptions fliarpened by keen 
 neceinty, and living, in every refpciit, according to na- 
 ture, their external lenfes have a degree of acutnefs 
 wiiich, at firll view, appears incredible. They can 
 trace out their enemies, at an immenfc dillance, by tlic 
 fmokc of their llres, whicli they fmell, and by the 
 tracks of their feet upon llie ground, imperceptible to 
 an European eye, but whieli they can count and dif- 
 tinguifli with the utmoll facility. It is faid, they can 
 even dilliuguilh the ditt'erent nations with whom they 
 are acquainted, and can determine the precile time 
 when they palled, where an European could not, with 
 all his glalfes, diUinguilh footlleps at all. Thefe cir- 
 cumltances, however, are of lefs imj'ortance, becaufe 
 their favage enemies arc equally well acquainted with 
 tlicm. \V hen they goout, therefore, they take care 
 to avoid making ul'c of any thing by which they might 
 run the danger of a difcovery. 'J hey light no fire to 
 warm thcmfelvcs, or toprcpare their vii:tuals: they lie 
 clofc to the ground all day, and travel only in the night; 
 and marching along in files, he that clofes the rear di- 
 ligently covers with leaves ihe trads of his own feet 
 and of theirs who preceded him. When they halt to 
 refrelh thcmfelvcs, fcouts are lent out to reconnoitre 
 the country and beat up every place w here they fufpect 
 an enemy to lie concealed. In this manner they enter 
 unawares the villagesofilieirfoes; and while tiie fiow- 
 er ol the nation are engigcd in hunting, mallacrc all 
 the children, women, and helplefs old men, or make 
 prifoHcrs of as many as they can manage, or have 
 ilrength enough to be ufcful toiheir nation. But when 
 the enemy is apprifed of their defign, and eomingon 
 in arms agaiud tlieni, they throw themfelves fiat on 
 the ground among the withered herbs and leaves, 
 which their faces are painted to refemblc. They 
 then allow a part to pal's unmolelled, when, all at 
 once, with a tremendous fl)out, riling up from their 
 anibufti, they pour a llorm of mulket-bullcts on their 
 foes. The party attacked returns the fame cry. Eve- 
 ryone Ihelters himfclf wiih a tree, and returns the lire 
 of the adverfe party, as foon as they raife thenifelves 
 from the ground to give a fecond fire. Thus does the 
 battle continue until the one party is fo much weak- 
 ened as to be incapable of farther rclillance. Bui if 
 the force on each fide continues nearly equal, the fierce 
 fl)irits of the fivages, inflamed by the lofs of liuir 
 iriends, can no longer be reflrained. They abandon 
 their dillant war, they rufli upon one another, v\itli 
 chilis and hatchets in their hands, magnifying their 
 own courage, and infuliing their enemies witli the bit- 
 tercft reproaches. A cruel combat enfues, death appears 
 in a thoufand hideous different forms, which would 
 congcjl the blood of civilized nation to behold, but 
 which roufcs the furyof favages. They iramplf, they 
 
 infult, 
 
 Amerlo. 
 
 Qiiickncft 
 of their 
 l'ciifc9. 
 
 Vigilance 
 and cir- 
 cumfpec- 
 tioQ. 
 
 30 
 Manner uf 
 fighting.
 
 A M E 
 
 r ^47 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, infult, over the dead bodies, and tear the fcalp from 
 
 — V ' tlic head. The Hame rages oii till it meets with iio 
 
 refinance; then the prifoiicrs arc fecurcd, thofe un- 
 happy men, whofc fate is a thoufand times more dread- 
 ful than theirs who have died in field. Tlie conquer- 
 ors let up a hideous howling, to lament the friends tliey 
 havcloR. They approach, in a melancholy and ievere 
 gloom to their own village ; a mellcnger is lent to an- 
 nounce their arrival, and tlic women, with frightful 
 flirieks, come out to mourn tlieirdead brothers, oi their 
 hufbands.When they are arrived, the cliief relates, in a 
 low voice, to the elders, a circumflantial account of 
 every particular of the expedition. The orator pro- 
 claims aloud this account to the people ; and as he 
 ■mentions the names of thofe who have fallen, tiie 
 Jlnieks of the women are redoubled. The men, too, 
 join in thefe cries, according as each is moll conneclcd 
 with the deceafed by blood or frienfhip. I'he hlL 
 ceremony is the jiroclamation of the victory; each in- 
 dividual tiien forgets his private misfortunes, andjoins 
 ■in the trhimph of his nation ; all tears are \\ iped from 
 tluir eyes, and, by an unaccountable tranlliion, they 
 pal's, in a moment, from the biitcrncfs of forrow to an 
 extravagance of joy. But the treatment of the prilon- 
 ers, whofe fate remains all this time undecided, is 
 wlvat chiefly characlerifes tiie lavages. 
 
 We have already meniicned theflrength of thciraf- 
 /edions, or refentmcnts. United, as they are, in fmall 
 • focietics, connefted, within themlelves, by the firmell 
 ties, their friendly attedions, which glow with the 
 moll intenfe warmth within tiie walls of their own vil- 
 lage, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing 
 for the enemies of their nation ; and their refcntment 
 is eafdy extended, from the individual who has injured 
 then), to all others of the fame tribe. The prilbncrs, 
 \vho have themfelves the fame feelings, know the in- 
 tenlionsoftheircoMquerors,and are prepared for them. 
 The perfon who has taken the captive attends him to 
 the cottage, wliere, according to the diftribuiion made 
 by the elders, he is lo be delivered to fupply the lofs 
 of a citizen. If thofe who receive him have their fa- 
 mily weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt 
 the captive into the family, of which he becomes a 
 member. But if they have no occalion for him, or 
 their refentment for the lofs of their friends be too 
 high to endure the fight of any connccled with tliofe 
 who were concerned in it, tlicy fentence him to death. 
 All thofe who have met with the fame fevere fentence 
 being coUerted, the whole nation is aQcmbled at the 
 execution, as for fume great fblemnity. A Icaffold is 
 erected, and the priConers are tied to the flake, where 
 they commence their death-fong, and prepare for the 
 cnfuing fcene of cruelty with the uiofl undaunted cou- 
 rage. Their enemies, on the other lide, arc determi- 
 ned to put it 10 the proof, by the nioft refined and ex- 
 quilite tortures. They begin at the extremity of his 
 body, and, gradually, approaeli the more vital parts. 
 One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by one ; 
 another takes a linger into his nioulh, and tears off the 
 Hcih with his teeth ; a third ihrufls the finger, mangled 
 as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red-hot, whicli he 
 fmokes like tobacco ; then they pound his toes and fin- 
 gers topiceesbctween two lloues jtheycut circles about 
 his joints, and galhes in the flelhv parts of his limbs, 
 which they fear immediately with red-hot irons, cut- 
 
 31 
 Treatment 
 •f their pri- 
 lontrs. 
 
 S4 
 Shocking 
 tortures. 
 
 ting, burning, and pinching them, alternately ; they America. 
 
 pull off his tiefh, thus mangled and roafted, bit by bit, ' ' 
 
 devouring it with greedinefs, and fmearing their faces 
 with the blood, in an enthufiafm of horror and fury. 
 When ihey have thus torn off the Hefli, they twifl the 
 bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and 
 fnapping ihem, whilll others are employed in pulling 
 and exicHding his limbs in every way that can in- 
 creafe the torment. This continues, often, five or fix 
 hours ; and fometimes, fuch is the flrength of the fa- 
 vages, days together. Then they frequenily unbind 
 him, to give a breathing to their fury, to ihiiik what 
 new toruients they fhall intfiit, audio micllithc 
 flrength of the fuflerer, who, wearied out w ith fuch a 
 variety ofuniieard of torments, often falls into fo pro- 
 found a llecp, that tliey arc obliged to apply the tire to 
 awake him, and renew his futtcrings. He is again 
 faflcned to the (lake, and again they renew their cru- 
 elly ; they flick him all over with fmall matches of 
 wood that ealily takesfire, but burns (lowly ; tluy con- 
 tinually run lliarp reeds into every part of his body ; 
 they drag out his leelh with pincers, and thurfl out his 
 eyes ; and, lafUy, after having burned his flc(h from 
 the bones with (low fires ; after having fo mangled the 
 body that it is all but one wound ; after having mutila- 
 ted his face in fuch a manner as to carry nothing hu- 
 man in it ; after having peeled the Ikin from the head, 
 and poured a heap of red hot coals or boiling water on 
 the naked fkull — they once more unbind the wretch ; 
 who, blind, and daggering with pain and weeknefs, 
 ali'aulted and pelted on every (ide with clubs and floiies, 
 now up, now down, falling into their fi.-eS at every 
 flcp, runs hiiher and thither, until one of the chiefs, 
 w iiether out of compaflion, or weary of cruelty, puis an 
 end to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then 
 put into a kcitle, and this barbarous employment is 
 fuccceded by a feafl as barbarous. 
 
 The women, forgetting the human as well as the 
 female nature, and transformed into fomething worfc 
 than furies.are faid tofurpafsevcn the men in this fcene 
 of horror ; while the principal perfonsof the country 
 lit round the (take, finoking and looking on, without 
 the lead emotion. What is moll extraordinary, the 
 futfcrerhimfclf, in the little intervalsof his torments, 
 fmokes too, appears unconcerned, and converfes with ,. 
 his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during Conftiicy 
 the whole time of his execution, there feemsaeonteft oftfiefu-f 
 which flull exceed, they in inflieting the mofl horrid ferers. 
 pains, or he in enduring them witha firmnefs and con- 
 flancy almoil above human: not a groan, not a (igh, 
 not a diflortionof countenance, efcapes him : hepof- 
 fclles his mind cniirely in the midil of his torments : 
 he recounts his own exploits : he informs them what 
 cruelties he has iiiHicTicd upon their countrymen ; and 
 threatens them with the revenge that will attend his 
 death ; and, though his reproaches exafperatc them to 
 a perfect madnels of rage and fury, hccontini.es his 
 infults even of their ignorance of the art of torment- 
 ing, pointing out himlcif more exquidtc methods, and 
 more fcndble pans of the body to be atflicled. The 
 women have this part of courage as well as the men ; 
 and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otlicrw ife as 
 it would be for any Europoaa to l\ifi"cr as an Indian. 
 Such is the wonderful power of an early inflitution, 
 and a ferocious thirft of glory ! " 1 am brave and in- 
 3 Z a trepid
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 548 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 .14 
 Surprifiii^ 
 coocrall in 
 the Anieri- 
 c;>n charac- 
 ter. 
 
 «i. trepiJ (cxcl.iinis tliefivagc in the lace of his tormen- 
 — lors) ; 1 do not tear death, iior any kind vt tortures ; 
 iholc wiio Icar them arc cowards ; ihcy ire Icls than 
 women ; life is nothing to thoi'c that have courigc. 
 Miy iny enemies be coiit'ouiidcd with defjiair and rage ! 
 Oh ! that i could devour liicm, and driuk their blood 
 toilic l.ill drop." 
 
 But neither the intrepidity, on one fide, nor the in- 
 flexibility, on the other, arc ainoiij; thcmlelves matter 
 of aftonilhment : for vengeance, and fortitude, inlhc 
 
 3S 
 
 Tre-jtment 
 ol chcir 
 dead 
 iricnds. 
 
 midlt of torment, are duties which they conlidcr as 
 facred ; they arc the clfccls of their earlicll education, 
 an d depend upon pr ijici pics iniiillcd in to ih cm from their 
 infancy. On all other occafions they arc humane and 
 coinp-iliionatc. Nothing can exceed the warnitli of their 
 atfcdion towards their friends, wlio conllll of all ihofe 
 who live in the fame village, orare in alliance with it : 
 among thefc all things arc common ; and this, though 
 it may in part, and among fome of the tribes, arife 
 fromthcir not polFeffing very diliincl notions of fcparate 
 property, is chietiy to be attributed to the flrengch of 
 their attachment : becaufe, in every thing eHe, with 
 tbeirlivcs as well as their fortunes, they are ready to 
 fcrve theirfrieads. Tlicir houfes, theirprovifion, even 
 their young women, are not enough to oblige a gnell. 
 Has anyoneof thefe faccceded ill in his hunting ! Has 
 his harvell failed ? or is his houfc burned ? He feels no 
 othcreffcdt of his misfortunes, than that it gives him an 
 opportunity to experience the benevolence and regard 
 of his fellow-citizens. On the other hand, to the ene- 
 mies of his country, or to thofe w ho have privately of- 
 fended, the American is implacable. He conceals his 
 fcntiments ; heappearsreconcileduntil by fome treach- 
 ery or furprife he has an opportunity of executing an 
 horrible revenge. No length of time is fufficient to 
 allay hisrefcntment ; no diiUnce of place great enough 
 to protect the objcCl ; he crolfes (he Iteepeft mountains ; 
 lie pierces the moft impraelicablc forcAs, and traverfes 
 the inoft hideous bogs and defarts, for feveral hundreds 
 of miles ; bearing the inclemency of the feafon, the 
 fatigue of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and 
 thirlf, with patience and checrfulnefs, in hopes of fur- 
 jirifing his enemy, on whom he exercifes the moll 
 ihocking barbarities, even to the eating of his flefli. 
 To fuch extremes do the Indians pulh their friendlhip 
 ©r their enmity ; and fuch indeed, in general, is the 
 charaiicr of all flrong and uncultivated minds. 
 
 But what we have faid refpefting the Indians would 
 be a faint piiflure, did wc omit obferving the force of 
 their friendlhip, which principally appears bythetreat- 
 ment of their dead. When any one of the fociety is 
 cut off, he is lamented by the whole : on this occafion 
 a variety of ceremonies arc praclifcd,'denotingthemoft 
 lively forrow. Nobufinefs is tranfactcd, however prelf- 
 ifig, till all the pious ceremonies due to the dead arc 
 performed. The body is waQied, anointed, and paint- 
 ed. Then, the women lament the lofs with hideous 
 howlintjs, intermixed with fongs which celebrate the 
 great aftions of the deccafed and his anceAors. The 
 men mourn alfo, though in a lefs extravagant manner. 
 The whole village is prefentat the interment, and the 
 corpfe is habited in their moA fumptuous ornaments. 
 Clofc to the body of the defunft are placed his bows 
 and arrows, with whatever he valued moft in his life, 
 and a (quantity of proviAon for his fubfiilcncc on the 
 4 
 
 journey wliich he is fuppofcd to taJte. Thisfolemnity. Aii!«ic»- 
 
 like every other, is attended with fcafti.g. The fuiic- " ' ' 
 
 ral being ended, the relations of the dcceafcd confine 
 themlclves to their huts, fur a coaAdcrablciime, to in- 
 dulge their griff. After an interval of fome weeks, 
 they vilit the grave, repeat their forrow, new-clotbc 
 the remains of the body, andadt over again all the fu- 
 Icmnities of the funeral. 
 
 Among the various tokens of their regard for their 
 deccafed friends, the moft remarkable is the ceremony 
 w hich they call ihcjcafi of tke dsad, or the \eajt of 
 fouls. The day for the ceremony is appoiniej in the 
 council of their chiefs,who give orders forevery thing 
 which may enable thcin to celebraie it with pomp and 
 magniticcnce ; and the neighbouring nations are invi- 
 ted to partake of the entertainment. At this time, all 
 who have died lincc the preceding feaAof the kind 
 are taken out of their graves, tven thofe who have 
 been interred at the greateA diAancc from the villages, 
 are diligently fought for, and conduced to this rendez- 
 vous of the dead, which exhibits a fcene of horror be- 
 yond the powerofdefcription.WheiithefeaAiseoncli:- 
 ded, the bodies arc drcA in the fincA ikins which can 
 be procured, and after being expofed for fome time in 
 this pomp, arc aguin committed to the earth, with 
 great folemnity, w hich is fuccccded by funeral games. ,g 
 
 Their lafte for war, which Airms the chief ingrcdi- SuperAiu.- 
 ent in their charaftcr, gives a Arong bias to their re- uns. 
 ligion. Arejkoui, or the god of battle, is revered as 
 the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke be- 
 fore they go into the field ; and according as his dif- 
 polition is more or lefs favourable to them, they con- 
 clude they will be more or lefs fucccfsful. Some nations 
 feem to do a kin.l of homage to the fun, as a fyrabol, or 
 miniAer of the beneficence and power of the Great 
 Spirit : others pay a fimilar homage to the moon and 
 planets; among others, there is a number of tradi- 
 tions, relative to the creation of the world and the 
 hiAory of the gods : traditions which refemble the 
 Grecian fables, but W'hichareitill more abfurd andin- 
 confiAent. But religion is not the prevailing character 
 of the Indians ; and except when ihty have fome im- 
 mediate occaAon for the alFiAance of their gods, they 
 pay them no fort of worlhip. Like all rude nations, 
 however, they are Arongly addided to fuperAition. 
 They believe in the exiAencc of a numberof good and 
 bad genii, or fpiriis, who interfere in the affairs of 
 mortals, and produce all our happinefs, or mifery. It 
 is from the evil genii, in particular, that our difcafes, 
 they imagine, proceed ; and it is to the goo<l genii wc 
 are indebted for a cure. The minillers of t!ie genii 
 are the jugglers, who are alfo the chief phyficians a- 
 mong the lavages. Thefc jugglers are fuppofed to be 
 infpired by the good genii, moA commonly in their 
 dreams, with the knowledge of future events: they 
 are called in to the ailiAar.ce of ihc Ack, and arc fup- 
 pofed to be informed by the genii whether they will 
 get over the difeafc, and in what way they muA be 
 treated. But thtfe fpiritsarc extremely Ample in their 
 fyAem of phyfic, and, in almoA every difeafc, direil 
 the juggler to the fame remedy. The patient is inclo- 
 fcd in a narrow cabin, in theriidft of which is a Aonc 
 red-hot ; on this they throw water, until he is well 
 foaked with tlic warm vapour and his own fweat. Then 
 they hurry him from this bagnio^ aad plunge him Aid-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 549 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amerifa. 
 
 XTS. pfnes 
 l)r 1). S, 
 Barton. 
 
 denly into the next river. Thiscoarfc incthoj, which 
 • cofts many their livts, often performs very extraorji- 
 nary cures. " Some of ihcirrcincdics, ho-.\cver, \vhi:h 
 arc almoft eniircly <lciivc-d from the vegetable king- 
 dom, arc certainly very powerful and crficacious, ia 
 their opcraiion. 'Ihc principal of thefc arc a fpecics 
 offiillingia (perhaps acroion), fcvcral fpccies of iris, 
 panicukrly the vcrlicoior, and the vcrna, the liigiio- 
 riacrncigcra, &c." — Thefe arc principally enip.i>yid 
 by the jugglers, and old women ; but r.iolt. of the fa- 
 ■vages are more or lefs dextrous incuring wounds, and 
 difcafcs. But the powcrot their rcnieoicsis generally 
 attributed by the favages to the magical ceremonies 
 ■with which they are adniinillered. 
 
 Although the Indian women generally bear the la- 
 borious pariof thcdomeftic oeconomy, their condition, 
 atleall among many of the f. ibes, is far from being fo 
 wretched, foilavilh, anddeprcUcd, as has been repre- 
 femed, byDr Robcrifon, and by many other writers. 
 We do not mean, in this place, to engage in an enquiry 
 concerning the comparative refpectability and impor- 
 tance of the female charader in the various llagcs of 
 fociety and improvement : an inquiry this which has 
 employed the pens of fome of the molt learned and e- 
 loqiient writers of the prefcnt age, and concerning 
 which there are flill various.and very oppolite opinions. 
 This, however, we think we may confidently and fafely 
 aflert, that thccoudiionof the women among many of 
 the American tribes is as refpectablc and as important 
 as it was among the Germans, in the days of Tacitus ; 
 or as it is among any other nations, with whom we are 
 acquainted, in a fimilar Ilage of improvement. "Their 
 bufinefs, or employment, " fays the ingenious MrWil- 
 liamBartram, " is chiclly in their houfes, except at thofc 
 feafons when their crops of maize, &c. are growing, at 
 ■which times theygeneraliyturn out with their hufbands 
 and parents ; but theyare by no means compelled to do 
 this, and one feldom fees a third as many females as 
 males at work, in their plantations." " You may de- 
 pend on my affertion," fays the fame gentleman, who 
 had ample opportunities of ftudying the cultoms and 
 manners of the fouthern Indians, of whom he isfpeak- 
 ing, in this place, " that there are no people, any 
 ■where, who love their women more than thefe Indians 
 do, or men of better undcrllanding in dillingnilhing 
 the merits of the oppolite fex; or men more faithful in 
 rendering fuitable compenfation. They arc courteous 
 and polite to their women, — gentle, tender and fond- 
 ling, even to an appearance of effeminacy. All Indian 
 man feldom attempts to ufe a woman, of any dcfcripti- 
 on, with indelicacy, either of aftion, or of language. 
 
 "In the hunting fcafons, that is, in autumn, and in 
 winter, when themen arc generally out in the forefts, 
 the whole care of the houfe or family devolves on the 
 women : at thefe times they arc obliged toundergoca 
 j^reatdeal of labour and fatigue, fuch as cutting wood, 
 &c. But this labour is, in part, alleviated by the affiil- 
 ance of the old men, who are pall their hunting days, 
 or who are no longer capable of fcrving in- war." 
 But nothing more clearly ihows the importance and 
 refpcflability of the women among the Indians than 
 ihiscircumftanee, that, among fomcof the tribes, they 
 are permitted toprelide in the councils of their cour.- 
 iry : to this we m-ay add, that feveral of the Florida 
 rations have, at different times, been governed by the 
 •wifdom, and the prudence of female cacic^ues. 
 
 Po!yg.;5iy is pradlifcd by fome nations, b-Jt it is not Amtric*. 
 general, in mou, they content thenifclves with one ' ^~^ 
 wife ; but a divorce is admitted of in cafe of adultery. 
 No nation of the Americans is without a regular mar- 
 riage, in which there are many ceremonies; the prin- 
 cipal of which is, the bride's prcfentii\T; the bride- 
 groom with d pbic of their corn. The women, though, 
 before incontinent, are reniarkcLle for chaftity after 
 fiiarriagc. 38 
 
 Liberty, in its full extent, being the darlingpaflion Their ar- 
 of the Indians, their education is dircftcd in fuch a dent love 
 manner as to chtrilh this difpolitiou to the utmoft. "'^^'''"T- 
 Heucc children are never upon any account chaftifcd 
 with blows, and they are feldom even reprimanded. 
 Reafon, they fay, will guide their children when they 
 come to the ul'e of it, and before that time their faults 
 cannot be very great : but blows might d.inip their 
 free and maniul fpirits.by the habit of a (la villi motive 
 to action. When grown up, they experience nothing 
 like command, dependence, or fubordination ; even, 
 ftrong pcrfualion is indu/lriouiiy withheld by thofc 
 who have inriuence among them. — No man is held in 
 great eftecm, ulcfs he has incrcafed thi ftrength of 
 his country with a captive, or adorned his hut with a 
 fcalpof one of his enemies. 3^ 
 
 Controverlies among the Indians are few, and quick- Crimes and 
 ly decided. When any criminal matter is fo flagrant pumfh- 
 as to become a national concern, it is brought under ■»«■"'• 
 the jurifdiction of the great council ; but in ordinary 
 cafes, the crime is either revenged or compromifed by 
 the parties concerned. If a murder be committed, the 
 family which has loft a relation prepares to retaliate 
 on that of the offender. They often kill the murderer ; 
 and when this happens, the kindred of the lall perfon 
 (lain look upon themfclves to be as much injured, and 
 to have the fame right to vengeance, as the other par- 
 ty. In general, however, the offender abfents himfelf; 
 the friends fend compliments of condolence to thofc of 
 the perfon who has been murdered. The head of the 
 family, at length, appears with a number of prefents, 
 the delivery of which he accompanies with a formal 
 fpeech. The whole ends, as ufual,in mutual feaftings, 
 in fongs, and in dances. If the murder is committed 
 by one of the fame family, or cabin, that cabin has the 
 full right of judgment within itfelf, cither to puniib 
 the guilty with death, or to pardon him, or to oblige 
 him to give fome rccom pence to the wife or children 
 of the flain. Inftancesof fuch a crime, however, very 
 feldom happen ; for their attachment to thofc of the 
 fame family is remarkably ftrong, and is laid to pro- 
 duce fuch friendlhips as may vie with the nioft cele- 
 brated iu fabulous antiquity. 40 
 
 Such, ingeneral, arc the manners and cuftomsofthe Peculiar 
 Indi.in nations ; bat almoft every tribe has fomething manners 
 peculiar to itfelf. Among the Hurons, and the Nat- of JifureD( 
 chez, the dignity of the chief isfaidtobc hereditary, ''*''^'°*' 
 and the right of fucccCion in the female line. When 
 this happens to be extiu'^l,thc moft refpertable matron 
 of the tribe, we are informed, makes choice of whom 
 /he pleafes to fjcceed. 
 
 TheCheerake are governed by feveral fachems, or 
 chiefs, elc;lcd by the different villages ; as are alfo 
 the C recks, and the Chaftaws. The two latter ponilh 
 adultery in a woman by cutting off her hair, which 
 they will not fuffcr to grow till the corn is ripe, the 
 
 nc.\t
 
 A M E 
 
 [ SSo ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 :i;t fame crime, cut 
 
 Longevity 
 of tlic In- 
 dians- 
 
 America, next fcjfpn ; but the .lliiiois, for 
 
 ^~~^ ' oti the women's nofes ami cars. 
 
 The Iiuiians on the Lakes arc formed into a fort of 
 empire; and the emperor is elcdcd from the cUlcd 
 tribe, \vh!c'i is that of ilic Ottowawas. This autho- 
 rity is very confidirable. A few yearsago,the perfoii 
 wiio held this rank formed a dcfi-jn of uiiiiing all tlic 
 Indian nations, under his fovcrci^nty ; but he uiifcar- 
 litd in the bold attempt. 
 
 In general, the American Indianslive to a great age, 
 although it is not cjfy to know from themlelves the ex- 
 act jitimbcr of their years. It was alked of an Indian, 
 who appeared to be extremely old, what age he was of.' 
 I am above twenty was his reply. Upon putting the 
 qucllion in a different form, by reminding himof cer- 
 tain cireumftances, in former times, my viachu, faid 
 he, fpoke to me, when i was young, of the Incas ; and 
 he had fcen thefe princes. According to this reply, 
 tlicrc mull have clapfed, from tlie date of his machu's 
 (his grandfather's) remembrance to that time, a pe- 
 riod of, at leaft, 232 years. The man who made this 
 reply, appeared to be 120 years of age : for, bclides 
 tlie whitentfs of his hair and beard, his body was al- 
 mofl bent to the ground ; without, however, fhowing 
 any other marks of debility, or futfcring. This happen- 
 ed in 1764. This longevity, attended in general with 
 uninterrupted health, is thought, by fome writers, to 
 be the confcqucncc in part of their vacancy from all 
 ferious thought and employment, joined alfo with the 
 robull texture and conformation of their bodily organs. 
 If the Indians did not dcftroy one another, in their al- 
 moll perpetual wars, and if ihcir habits of intoxication 
 were not fo univcrfal and incurable, they would be, of 
 all tlie races of men who inhabit the globe, the mofl 
 likely to extend, not only the bounds, but the enjoy- 
 ments, of animal life to their utmoll duration. 
 
 Other pic- Let us now attend toother pidlures which have been 
 turcs of the given of the aboriginal inhabitants of the New- World. 
 Amcritans. The vices and dcfetls of the American Indians have 
 l)een,by feveral writcrs.mofl unaccountablyaggravated, 
 and every virtue and good quality denied them : Their 
 cruellies have been already defcribcd, and accounted 
 for. The following anecdote of an Algonquin woman 
 we find adduced as a remarkable proof of their innate 
 4j thir/l of blood. That nation being at war with the 
 Anecdote Iroquois, ilie happened to be taken prifoner, and was 
 of an Al- cmiitj toone of the villages belonging to them. Here 
 Hie wasftripped naked, and her hands and feet bound, 
 with ropes, in one of their cabins. In this condition 
 flic remained ten days, the favages deeping round her 
 every night. The eleventh night, while they were 
 afleep, llie found means to difengage one of her hands, 
 with which flie immediately freed herfclf from the 
 ropes, and went to the door. Though fliehad now an 
 opportunity of cicaping unperceived, her revengeful 
 tcmpercould not let Ilip fo favourable an opportui^iiy of 
 killingoiic ofhcrenemies. The attempt was manifefl- 
 ly at the hazard of her own life; yet, fnatching up a 
 hatcl'.ct, flic killed the favagc that lay next her : and, 
 fpriiiging out of the cabin, concealed herfclf in a hol- 
 low tree, which lliehad obferved the day before. The 
 groans of the dying perfon foon alarmed the other fa- 
 vages, and the young ones immediately fet out in pur- 
 fuit of her. Perceiving, from her tree, that they all 
 
 gonquin 
 woman. 
 
 directed their courfe one way, and that no favage was America. 
 
 near her, ilie left her fancluary, and flying by an op- ' <'"~^ 
 
 pofite dircftiou, ran into a forcft without being per- 
 ceived. '1 lu fccond day after this happened, her foot- 
 flcps wcrcdifcovered J and they purfued lier with fucli 
 expedition, that the third day Ihc dilcovered her ene- 
 mies at her heels. Upon this, Ihe threw herfclf into a 
 pond of water ; and diving among fome weeds and 
 bulruflics, llie could jud breathe above water without 
 being perceived. Her purfuers, after making the moll 
 
 diligent fcarch, were forced to return For 3) days 
 
 this woman held on her courfe through w'ooils and de- 
 fart?, without any other fullcnance than that which 
 roots and wild berries afforded her. When Ihe came 
 to the river St Lawrence, flie made, with her own 
 liands, a kind of wicker raft, on which Ihc crolfed 
 it. As flie went by the French fort Trois-Riviers, 
 without Well knowing w here die was, flic perceived a 
 canoe full of favages ; and fearing they might be Iro- 
 quois, ran again into the woods, where flie remained 
 till funfet. — Continuing her courfe foon after, flie faw 
 Trois-Riviers ; and was then difcovered by a party 
 whom flic knew to be Hurons, a nation in alliance 
 with the Algonquins. She then fquatted down, behind 
 a bufli, calling out to them that Ihe was not in a con- 
 dition to be feeii, becaufe flic was naked. They imme- 
 diately threw her a blanket, and then conducted her 
 to a fort, where flie recounted her dory. ^^ 
 
 Perfonal courage has beeu denied them. In proof of Reproach- 
 their pulilanimiiy, the following incidents arc quoted cilwithpu- 
 fromCharlcvoixby lord Karnes, in his 6/5c/c,6.'/ o///)^ '''^"'""'!^' 
 Hiflon of Mail. " The fort de Verchcres, in Cana- 
 da, belonging to the French, was, in the year 1690, 
 attacked by the Iroquois. Tliey approaclied filently, 
 preparing to fcale thepalafadc, when fome muflcct-lhot 
 made them retire. Advancing a fecoiid time, they were 
 again repulfed, wondering that they could difcover none 
 but a woman, who was fcen every where. This was 
 Madame de Vercheres, who appeared as rcfolute as if 
 fupported bya numerous garrifon. The hopes ofllonn- 
 ing a place without men to defend it, occalioned rei- 
 terated attacks. After two days liege they retired, 
 fearing to be intercepted in their retreat. Two years 
 after a party of the fame nation appeared before the 
 fort fo iincxpededly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter 
 of the proprietor, had but time to fliut the gate. With 
 the young woman there was not a foul but one raw 
 foldier. She Ihowed herfclf, with her aflidant, fome- 
 timcs in one place, and fometimcs in another ; chang- 
 ing her drefs frequently, in order to give fome appear- 
 ance of a garrifon ; and alw'ays firing opportunely. The 
 faint-hearted Iroquois decamped without fucccfs." 
 
 Thcreis noinfl;ance,it is faid, cither of a linglc In- 
 dian facing an individual, of any other nation, in fair 
 and open combat, or of their jointly venturing to try the 
 fate of battle with an equal number of any foes. Even 
 with the greatcd fuperiority of numbers, they dare not 
 meet an open attack. Yet, notvvithflanding this wane 
 of courage, they arellill formidable ; nay, it has been 
 known, that a fmall party of them has routed a much 
 fuperior body of regular troops : but this can only hap- 
 pen when they have furprifed them in the fadneifes 
 of their forefls, where the covert of the wood may 
 conceal them until they take tlieir aim with the utnioit 
 certainty. After one fuch difcharge they immediately 
 
 retreat,
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 55^ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 45 
 Accufcd of 
 fcrfuly, 
 
 /.merlca. retreat, wiihoiu leaving the fmallefltrace oftlicir route. 
 
 ^ ■ It may ealily be fuppolcd, tl.at an onfct of this kind 
 
 imift produce confiilion even among the AtadjcA troops, 
 when they can neither know the number of their ene- 
 mies, norperccive the place where they lie in ambufli. 
 Perfidy combined with cruelty has been alfo made a 
 partof tlicircharafler. DonUlloa relates, That theln- 
 dians called N.itchcs, in Louiliana, laid a plot of maC- 
 facrinj.', in one night, every individual belonging lo 
 the Krench colony eftablilhcd there. This plot they 
 afUially executed, iiotwithftandiiig the feeming good 
 underflanding that fublifled between them and thefe 
 European neighbours. Such was the fccrecy which 
 they obfervcd, that no perfon had the leaft fuipieion of 
 their delign until the blow was ftrack. One french- 
 man alone efcaped, by favour of the darknefs, to re- 
 latethe dif.ifter to hiscouirymen. The conipalhonof 
 a female Indian contributed aU'o, in I'ome incafurc to 
 his exemption from the general malFacre. The tribe 
 of Natches had invited the Indians of other countries, 
 even to a confidcrable dillance, to join in the fame con- 
 fpiracy. The day, or rather the night, wasJixedon 
 which they were to make an united attack on theKrench 
 colonills. It was intimated by fending a parcel of rods, 
 more or Icfs numerous according to the local dillance 
 of each tribe, with an injunftion to abilrait one rod dai- 
 ly ; the day on which the laft fell to be taken away be- 
 ing that fixed for the execution of their plan. The 
 women were partners of the bloody fccret. The par- 
 cels of rods being thufi difhibuted, that belonging to 
 the tribe of Natclies happened to remain in ihe cullody 
 of a female. This woman, either movcdby her own 
 feelings of companion, or by the commiferation expref- 
 icd by her female acqiuiiniances, in the view of the 
 propoied fcene of bloodlhed, abflradcd one day three 
 or four of the rods, and thus anticipated the tei'm of 
 her tribe's proceeding in the execution of the general 
 confpiracy. The confcquence of this was, that the 
 Natches were the only actors in the carn?^c ; their di- 
 ilaiit allbciateshaving flillfcvcralrodsremainingat the 
 lime when the former made the attack. An opportu- 
 nity was thereby given t(<the colonifls in thofe quar- 
 ters, to take meafures for their defence, and for pre- 
 venting a more extenlive execution of the dtiign. 
 
 It was by confpiracies fimilar to this that the In- 
 dians of the province of Maeas, in the kingdom of 
 Q_uito, deftroycd the opulent city of Lagrogno, the 
 colonyof Guambaya, and its capital Scvilla del Oro ; 
 and that fo completely, that it is no longer known in 
 what place thefe fettlcments cxilled, or where that a- 
 bundancc of gold was found from which the lall-men- 
 tioncd city took the addition to its name. Similar ra- 
 vages have been committed upon I'lmpcrial, in Chili, 
 the colonies of the .Millions of Chuncas, thofe of Da- 
 rien, in Tierra Ferme, and many other places, which 
 have afforded fcenesof this barbarous ferocity. Thefe 
 confpiracies are always carried on in the fame manner. 
 The fccret is inviolably kept, the actors alfemblc at 
 the prccifc hour api'oiiued, and every individual is 
 animated with the fame fanguinary purpofes. The 
 males who fall into their hands are put to death, with 
 every Ihocking eircumllance that can be fuggeUed by 
 a coofand determined cruelty. The females arc car- 
 ried oft and preferved, as monuments of their viclory, 
 10 be employed as their occafions rcqmre. 
 
 Nor can this odious cruelty and treachery, !t is faid, Amcrio. 
 
 be juflly afcribed to their fubjcclion to a loreigu ' ^— ' 
 
 yoke, feeing the fame character belongs equally to ail 
 the original inhabitants of this vail continent, even to 
 thofe who have preferved their independence moll "^ 
 completely. Certain it is, continues UUoa, that ihefc' 
 people, with the mofl limited cap3»-ities for every thing 
 clfc, difplay an alionilhing degree of penetration and 
 fubtlety, with rcfpect to every objeit ihae involves 
 treachery, bloodllied, and rapine. As to thefe, they 
 feem to have been all educated at one fchool ; and a fe- 
 crct, referring to any fuch plan, no confideraiion on 
 
 earth can extort from them. 
 
 46 
 
 Their underllandings alfo have been reprefenfcd asTheirun- 
 not lefs contemptible than their manners are grofs and dcrftand- 
 brutal. Many nations, it has been faid, are neither ca- '"8 "P"- 
 pableof forming an arrangement for futurity, nor does ''"'f'^ *' 
 their foliciludc or fordight extend fo far. Theyfetno 
 value upon thofe things of which they are not in fonie 
 immediate want. In the evening, fays father La- 
 bat, when a Carib is going to rell, no confideratioa 
 will tempt him to fell his hauimoch ; but in the morn- 
 ing he will part with it for the llighlell tritie. At the 
 clofe of winter, a North-American, mindful of what 
 he has fuffcred from the cold, fftshimfelf with vigour 
 10 prepare materials for ereding a comfortable hut, to 
 protett him againll the inclemency of the fucceeding 
 feafon ; but as foon as the weather becomes mild, he 
 abandons his work, and never thinks of it more till .^ 
 
 the return of the cold compels him to refume it In Alleged in- 
 
 fliort, to be free from labour feems to be the utmoAdoleuccan.i 
 wifliof an American. They will continue, whole days,*^^'''''?' 
 ilretched in their hammocks, orfeated on ihe earth, 
 without changing their pollure, raifing their eyes, or 
 uttering a lingle word. They cannot compute ihefuc- 
 celTion of days, nor of weeks. The difTcrent afpcds of 
 the moon alone engage their attention, as a meafure of 
 time. Of the year they have no other conception than 
 what is fuggefted to them by the alternate heat of fum- 
 mer, andby the cold of winter; norliavc they the leaft 
 idea of applying to this period the obvious computation 
 of the months which it contains. \\'hen it is afked of 
 any old man, in Peru, even the mofl civilized, what 
 age he is of? the only anfwer he can give is the num- 
 ber of caciques he has feen. It often happens, too, that 
 they only recoiled the moll diftant of thefe princes, in 
 wkofc time certain circumftances had happened pecu- 
 liarly memorable, while of thofe who lived in a more 
 recent period they have loll all remembrance. 
 
 The fame grofs flupijity is alledged to be obfervablc 
 in tiiofe Indians who have retained their original li- 
 berty. They are never known to fix the daies of any 
 events in their minds, or to trace the fucceliionof cir- 
 cumilances thai have arifen from fuch events. Their 
 imagination takes in only the prtfait, and in that 
 only what intimately concerns themfelves. Nor can 
 difcipiineor inflruiition overcome this natural defed 
 ofa)>prehenfion. In faa, the fubjeeted Indians in Pe- 
 rUjWhohaveacontinualintercourfe with the Spsniards, 
 who are furnilhed with curates perpetually occupied iu 
 giving them h lions of religion and morality, and 
 who mi.\ with all ranks of the civilized fociety efta- 
 blilhcd among tliem, are almod as flupid and barbarous 
 as their coautry men who have had no fuch advantages. 
 The Pcruviaus, while they lived under the govern- 
 ment
 
 A M E 
 
 [ SS 
 
 Ancrlci. 
 
 48 
 
 'I'Keir va- 
 nity anJ 
 wnceit. 
 
 Their elo- 
 qnciice dif 
 panged. 
 
 All thcfe 
 viewf par^ 
 tial,3ndDot 
 free from 
 nuirtpre- 
 fcDtatioDi 
 
 went of their Incas, pitlcrvcJ the records of certaui 
 
 rein:»rkabK- cvcnis. Tiuy haJ alio a i^iiid 01 regular 
 ;;i.vcinii.cuc dclciibcd by ibe hiltoriauiul iiic to.iijjLlt 
 ot' I'cru. i liis govcniiiient originateJ tiuirtly irom 
 the atu-niiou aiiii ahiliticsof their piiiiccs, and lr»in 
 the re Jiih.HJiis rnaacd by tbc:ii lor directing 'iic /•""- 
 duct oflhcir lubjccV. 'litis aucicnt degree ot tivili- 
 zatioii among them (jives oroiiiid to prtliiiiie that ihcir 
 legiliatiires ijiruHg tVom lonie raec more enli^hleiicj 
 than ibc other trities of Indians ; a race, ol which no 
 individual fcenis 10 rcmai;i in ihe prelcnt limes. 
 
 Vanity and conceit arc faid to be bleuJcd with ihcir 
 igi;orance, and treachery. Notwiihftanding all they 
 fatter from Euroj.eans, ibcy Hill, it is faid, conUder 
 thcnilelvcs as a race of men far fupcrior to their con- 
 querors. This proud belief, aii(ing trom their pervert- 
 ed ideas ofcxceilcnccisuniverfal over the whole known 
 continent of America. They do not think it poifiblc 
 that any people can be fo intelligent as themlclvcs. 
 When they are detc^ed in any of ihcir plots, it is their 
 common obfervation, that t!ie Spaniards, or yvjihocoj, 
 want to Ij: as knowing as ihey arc. '1 hofe of Loiii- 
 liana and the countri.s adjacent, arc equally vain of 
 their fupcrior underftand'n^, confounding that quality 
 wi:h the cunning whi.h they tliemfdvcs coailantly 
 praetife. The whole object of tncir tranfaftions is 10 
 over-reach ihofc with whom they deal. Yet tliough 
 faithlefs themfelves, thry never forgive the breach of 
 pronrfe on the part of others. While the Europeans 
 feek their ami.y by prefcnts, they give themfelves no 
 concern tofecure a reciprocal frienifnip. Ileare, pro- 
 baby, arifcs thci- idea, that ih-:/ mull be a f jperior 
 race of men, in ability and intel.igcncc, to thole who 
 are at f ick paitis to court their alliance, and avert their 
 enmity. 
 
 th' ir natural eb)quciice has alfo been decried. The 
 free tribes of fav.i.;es who enter into conven ions with 
 the Luropea IS, it isobfervcd, arc a-cuilonied to make 
 lon-T, pmipous, and, accoruing o their own notions, 
 fubiime haragucs, b it without any mctnod, or connec- 
 tion. The whoU is a collccU.Mi of di jointed meta- 
 phor;, and comparifons. I he light, heat, and courfe 
 of thefun, form iheprinripj tiyic of thri,- difcouife ; 
 and thefe unintelligible reafonings are a'w^'y 3 accom- 
 panied with violent and ri.iicuhms gelVnrcs. Nuniber- 
 Icfs repetitions prolong the oration, which, it not in- 
 terrupted, would lad whole d;<ys : at the fame time, 
 they meditate very accurately, l>efore hanl, i.i order to 
 avoid mcationi g any thing but wliot tliey are deiirous 
 to obtain. This pompous faculty of making fj->ccches 
 is alio snc of the grounds on which they conceive 
 them<'elves to be fupcrior to the nations of Eur.pe : 
 they inaginc that it is their eloqi-nce ihai procures 
 ihcm I he' favours they afk. 1 he fabjcacd Indians 
 convcrfe precifely in the fame ftyle. Prolix and tedi- 
 ous, they never know when to ftop ; fo that, except- 
 ing by the difference in language, it would be iinpof- 
 /ible, in this refpc'-l:, to dillinguifh a civilized Peru- 
 vian from an inhabitant of the mod favage diftricts to 
 the northward. 
 
 Bnt fa-h partial and detached views, as tl.e above, 
 were they even free from n.irreprefentaiion,areiaot the 
 ju't ground upon which to form an eftimateof thci cha- 
 racter. Their qualities,goodaJ5a bad (for they certainly 
 
 2 ] A M E 
 
 podcfs both), their way of life, the fiate of fociety a- 
 mong thcin, with all the circumllances of their con- 
 diuuii, ought to be conlideied iu caiimdion, and iu 
 regard to uieir mutual uihuence. 5>uch a view has 
 been given in the preceding part of this article ; troin 
 which, it is hoped, thLir real charaittr may be ealily 
 deduced. 
 
 Many of the difagreeable traits exhibited in the a- 
 necdotts jull quoted, are, indeed, extratled from i.)oa 
 LUoa ; an author of credit and reputation : luit a Spa- 
 niard, and evidcnll/ bialJed, in fomc degree, by a de- 
 lire to palliate theenoriuilic.ofhis eoantrymcn in that 
 quarter of the globe. And, with regard to the worll 
 and Icalb equivocal parts of the American character, 
 cruelly and revenge ; it may be fairly quellioned, whe- 
 ther the inilanccs oi thefe, cither in refpcd of their 
 caufc or their atrocity, be at all comparable to thofe 
 exhibited iu European hiftory, and llainiiig the an- 
 nals of Chrillendom : — to thofe, for inllancc, of the 
 Spaniards themfelves, ai their firlt difcovery of Ame- 
 rica ; to thofe indicated by the engines found on board 
 their mighty Armada, in 1 j88 ; 10 th jfe which, in cold 
 blood, were perpetrated by the Dutehat Amboyna ; to 
 the dragoouings of the French; to their religious malla- 
 cres : or,even, to the^f«</frCTtrc/«of the Inquilltion? 
 Still harlhcr, however, are the dcfcriptious given by 
 B//j/onMid di /^tf.va;, of the natives of this whole coii- 
 tincnt, in which the moll mortifying degeneracy of the 
 human race, as well as of all the inferior animals, isaf- 
 ferted to be coafpicuous. Againll thefe philofophcrs, or 
 rather theorilts, however, the Americans hive found 
 an able advocate in the MokCiavi^era ; an hiilorian, 
 who, not only from his being a native of America, bnt 
 alfo from his litaalion, and long rcliJence in Mexico, 
 has been enabled to obtain the bell means of informa- 
 tion, and who, though hinifelf a fubjeft of Spain, ap- 
 pears fupcrior to prejudice, and difdains iu his de- 
 fi-ription jh^lolfcs of policy. 
 
 ConccriOTgthc ftaturc of the Americans, M. dc 
 Pauw fays, that although, in general, it is not equal 
 te the llaiurc of the Calli ians, there is but little differ- 
 ence bciwcen them. But the Abbe Clavigeroevinces, 
 that the Indians who inhabit thofe couniricb lying be- 
 tween 9 and 40 degrees of north latitude, which arc 
 the limiisof the dilcovcriesof ihe Spaniards, are more 
 than rive Parilim feel in height, and that thofe who do 
 not reach th it llatnrc,a!C3sfcwin number amongft the 
 Indians as they are amongll the Spaniards. It is be- 
 fidcs certain, that many of the American nations, fuch 
 as the Apach s, the Hi.iqiup, the VnmJ'e, and Cochi- 
 n/i:s, are at leall as tall as the tallcll Europeans ; and 
 that, in all ihevaft extent of the New- World, no race 
 of people has been found, except the Efqi;iinanx, in the 
 north, and well, and the Yacana-cunnces, and Pelhc- 
 rais, &c. in thefouth, fo diniir.alive in flature as the 
 Laplanders, the SatiiojtJi, and Tartars, in the north 
 of the Old-Continent. In this refpert, therefore, the in- 
 habitants of the two continents are upon an cqnality. 
 
 Of the Ihapcand charafterof the Mexican Indians, 
 the ."^bbegives a mod advantageous ilcfcription ; which 
 heairerts.noone, whorcidsit, in America, will contra- 
 diel,nnltfs he views them with the eye of a prejudiced 
 mind. It is true, that Ulloa fiys, in fpcaking of the 
 Int!iins of ^lito, he had obfervcd that "imperfeel 
 people abounded among them ; that they were either 
 
 irregularly 
 
 Ameriei.' 
 
 5t 
 
 The phyfi- 
 esldefcrip- 
 tion> of 
 Viufibn and 
 de Pauw 
 refuted. 
 
 Hijl.of 
 v.ll.p.328, 
 
 Stature, 
 (haiic, &9
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 55} ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amcrfca. rfgiilarly diminutive, or nioii (Irons in fome oihtr rt- 
 '*~~^'~— iyicci i dial tiiey became cilhcr iiifcnlil)!c, tlunib, or 
 blind ; or warned fome limbof ihcir bojy." Haviiiir, 
 thercforc.madc fome inquiry rtfptitingtliisdngiilarity 
 of llie ^iiitans, the Abbe found, tliat fuch defects 
 vcrencitiier caufcd by what lie calls bad humours, nor 
 by the climate, but by the niiiiakcn and blind huma- 
 nity of their parents, who, in order to free their chil- 
 dren from the hardfliips and toils to which the healthy 
 Indians arc fubjeded by the Spaniards, fix fome defor- 
 mity or weaknefs upon them, that iliey may become 
 ufelefs : acircumllance of mifery which docs not hap- 
 pen in other countries of America, norinthofe places 
 of the fame kingdom of Qiiito, where the Indians arc 
 under no fuch oppreflion. M. de Pauw,and in agree- 
 ment with him, DrRobertfon, fays, that no dctorm- 
 ed perfons arc to be found among the lavages of Ame- 
 rica ; becaufc, like the ancient Lacedaemonians, they 
 put to death thofe children which are born luinch- 
 backed, blind, or defective in any limb; but that in 
 thofe countries where they are formed into focieties, 
 and where the vigilance of their rulers prevents the 
 murder of fuch infants, the nuraberof their deformed 
 individuals is greater than it is in any country of Eu- 
 rope. This would make an exceedingly good folution of 
 rhe difficulty if it were true : but if, pollibly, there has 
 been in America a tribe of favages who have imitated 
 the barbarous example of the celebrated Lacedaemoni- 
 ans, it is certain that thofe authors have no groundsto 
 impute fuch inhumanity to the rellof the Americans ; 
 and it has not been the pradice, at Icalt with the far 
 greater part of thofe nations, as may be deraonlf rated 
 from the atteflations of authors who are the befl ac- 
 quainted with their cuftoms. 
 
 No argument againfl the New- World can be drawn 
 from the colour of the Americans ; for ihtir colour is 
 lefs diftantfrom the white of the Europeans than it is 
 from the black of the Africans, and a great part of the 
 Afiatics . The hair of the Mexicans, and of the great- 
 er part of the Indians, is as we have already faid, coarfe 
 and thick : on their faces they appear to have little, and 
 in general none on their arms and legs : but it is an er- 
 ror to fay, as M. de Fauw does, that they arc entirely 
 dcAitute of hair in all the other parts of their body. 
 5j This is one of the many palfages in the Philofophical 
 
 Errorscon- RefearclHs,iX. which the Mexicans, and all the other 
 ccrning nations, mufl fmile, to find an European philofopher fo 
 their want egp-grto jiyej^ them of the drefs they had from nature. 
 5.£_ Don UUoa, indeed, in the defcription which he gives 
 
 of the Indians of (^uito, fays, that hair neither grows 
 upon the men nor upon the women when they arrive at 
 pubcrty,asitdoesontlic reftofniankind ; but whatever 
 Angularity may attend the Q^iitans, or occalion thiscir- 
 cumllance, there is no doubt that amongthe Americans 
 in gener.il, the period of puberty is accompanied with 
 the fame fymptoms as it is among other nationsof the 
 world. In fact, with the North-Americans, it is dif- 
 gr.iceful to be hairy on the body. They fay it likens 
 them to hogs. They, therrfore, pluck the h;'.ir as 
 fall asirappcjrs. But the traders who marry their 
 women, and prevail on them to difcontinue this prac- 
 tice, fay, that nature is the fame with thcni as with 
 the whites. As to the beards of the r.'.cn, h.id Buf- 
 fon,or de I'auw, known the pains and trouble it cofts 
 them to pluck out by the roots the hair that grows on 
 Vol. I. 
 
 thtir fa:cs, they would have fecn tint ivatufe had not Amtrlci. 
 
 been deficient in that refi'ccl. Kvcry nation lias its " >- ' 
 
 cuftoms. " I have fcen an Indian beau, with a look- 
 
 ing-glafs in his hand (fay Mr JcJferfjn), examining 
 
 his face, for hours together, and plucking out, by ihe 
 
 roots, every hiir he could difcovcr, with a kind of 
 
 tweezer m^dc of a piece of fine brafs wire, that had 
 
 been twifted round a flick, and wliioh he ufcJ with 
 
 great dexterity." 
 
 The very afpedt of an Ango! in, a Mandingan, or a Their form 
 
 Congan, would have fliocked M. de Pauw, and make and afpicl 
 
 him rccal the cenfurc which lie palTcs on the colour, ccntrafted 
 
 the make, and hair of the Americans. What can be ""hthpfe 
 
 imatrined more contrary totheidcawchaveofbcsutv, , "* 
 
 11 f 1- r u • c i_ other Da- 
 
 and the perfection of the numan frame, than a man, .ji,^^ 
 
 whole fkin is black as ink, whofc head a:;d face are 
 covered wjth black woal, inflcad of hair, whofe eyes 
 arc yellow and bloody, whofe lips are thick and black- 
 illi, and whofc nofeis fi^: .' Such are the inhabitants of 
 a very large portion of Africa, and of many idandsof 
 Alia. What men can be more imperfect than ihofe 
 who meafiire no more tlian four feet in ftature, whofc 
 faces are long andriar, thcnofecomprciTed, the iridcs 
 yellowilh black, the eye-lids turned back towards the 
 temples, the checks extraordinarily elevated, their 
 mouths monftroufly large, their lips thick and promi- 
 nent, and the lower part of their vifages extremely 
 narrow .' Such, according to Count de Buffon, arc the 
 Laplanders, the Zemblans, the 6orandincs, the Samo- 
 jeds, and the Tartars, in the Eaft. What objefts more 
 deformed than men whofe faces are too long and wrin- 
 kledcven in their youth, their nofes thick and com- 
 prelTed, their eyes fmall and funk, their checks very 
 much raifed, the upper jaw low, their teeth long and 
 difunited, eye-brows fo thick that they (hade their eyes, 
 the eye-lids thick, fome briflles on their faces inflead 
 of beard. Urge thighs and fmall legs ? Such is the pic- 
 ture Count de BufFon gives of the Tartars ; that is, of 
 thofe people who, as he fays, inhabit a trad of land in 
 Afia 1200 leagues long and upwards, and more than 
 7J0 broad. Amongft thefe, the Calmucks are the moft 
 remarkable for their deformity: which is fo great, 
 that according to Tavcrnier, they arc the mofl brutal 
 men of all the univerfe. Their faces are fo broad that 
 there is a fpace of. five or fix inches between their 
 eyes, as Count de BufTon himfelf affirms. In Cali- 
 cut, in Ceylon, and in other countries of India, there 
 is, fay Pyrard, and other writers, on thofe regions, a 
 raccofmen who haveone, or both, of their legs as thick 
 as the body of a man ; and that this deformity among 
 them is almoft hereditary 
 
 If we were, in like manner, to go through the na- 
 tions of Alia and Africa, we fhoiild hardly find any ex- 
 tcn(ivc country where the colour of men is not darker, 
 where there arc not greater irregularities obfervcd, 
 and grollcr defects to be found in them, than even the 
 penetrating eye of de Pauw could difcover in the Ame- 
 ricans. The colour of the latter is a good deal clearer 
 than that of almoft all the Africar.s and the inhabitants 
 of fouth Ada. Kven their allegcii I'cantinelsof beard is 
 common to the inhabitants of the Philippine-Illands, 
 and of all the Indian-Archipelago, tothe famons Chi- 
 nefe, Jap.innefc, Tartars, and ifiany other nations of 
 the Old-Continent. Theimpcrfedions of the Aincri- 
 cans, however great they may be rcprcfcnted to be, 
 4 A are
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 554 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 55 
 Their con- 
 ftitutlon 
 and corpo- 
 raUbilities. 
 
 56 
 Their la- 
 bour and 
 iuduftry. 
 
 are, certainly, not comparable with the HcfctSls of that 
 iniinciirc people, whole charadcr we have ikeichcd, 
 and othtTi wliom wc omit. 
 
 M.dc Pauwrcprcients tlie Americanstobea feeble 
 and dilcafcd (ct of nations ; and, in order to demon- 
 ftrate the weaknels and diforder of thcirphy (ical con- 
 llitiition, adduces fcvcral proofs equally ridiculous and 
 ill-founded, and which it will not be cxpciiUd we lliould 
 cnnnieratc. Heallegcs,amongothcrpaniciilars, thtt 
 they were overcome in wrelilingby all the Europeans, 
 and that they funk under a moderate burthen ; that by 
 a computation uiade, 200,000 Americans were found to 
 luvc pcriilicd, in one year, from carrying of baggage. 
 Willi rcfi'ciH to the tirrt point, the Abbe Chivigcroob- 
 fcrvcs, it would be neceiFary that the experiment of 
 wreilling was made between many individuals of each 
 continent, and that the victory lliould be attelled by the 
 Americans, as well as by the Europeans. It is nor, how- 
 ever, meant to inlift, tliat the Americans are ftronger 
 than the Europeans. They may be lefs Ilrong, without 
 the human fpccieshave degenerated in them. The Swifs 
 areftronger than the Italians; and Hill we do not believe 
 the Italians arc degenerated nor do wc tax the climate 
 of It.ily. The inllance of 200,000 Americans having 
 died, inone year, under the weiijht of baggage, were 
 it true, would not convince us, fo much of the weaknefs 
 of the Americans, as of the inhumanity of the Euro- 
 peans. Inthe fame manner that thefe 200.0=0 Ame- 
 ricans perilhed, 200,000 Prullians would alfo have pe- 
 rilhed, liad tlicy been obliged to make a journey of 
 between ;!00 and 400 mHcs, with too pounds of bur- 
 den upon their backs : if they had collars of iron about 
 their necks, and were obliged to carry that load over 
 rocks and mountains ; if ihofe who became exhaulled 
 with fatigue, or Vv'oundcd their feet fo as to impede 
 their progrefs, liad their heads cut otF that they might 
 not retard the pace of the rcfl ; and if they were not 
 allowed but a fmall morfcl of bread to enable them to 
 fupport fo fcvere a toil. Las Cafas, from whom M. de 
 I'auw got the account of the 200,000 Americans, who 
 died under the fatigue of carrying baggage, relates, 
 alio, all tiie abovcmcntioncd circumftancts. Ifthai 
 author, therefore, is to be credited in thclaft, he is alio 
 to be credited in the tirft. But, a philofoplicr who 
 vaunts the phylicaland moral qualities of Europeans, 
 over thofc of the Americans, w-ould have done better, 
 we think, to have fupprcired fails fo opprobrious to 
 the Europeans themfclves. 
 
 Nothing, in fact, dcmonflrates fo clearly the rnbufl- 
 nefs of the Americans as tkofe various, and lafliiig, fa- 
 tigues in which they were continually engaged. M. de 
 Pauwfays, that when the New- World wasdifcovered, 
 nothing was to be feen but thick woods ; that, at pre- 
 feiu, there are fome lands cultivated, not by tiie Ame- 
 ricans, however, but by the Africans, and Europeans ; 
 and th;it tlic I'oil in cultivation is to the foil whicli is 
 uncultivated as 2000 to 2,000,000. Thefe thrceallcr- 
 tions the Abhe Clavigcro demonftrates to be precifely 
 fo many errors. Since the couqueft, the Americans 
 alone have been the people who have fupportcdall the 
 fatigues of agriculture in all the vafl countries of the 
 
 Americans, are very few in number in the kingdom of 
 New-Spain, are charged witli the culture of thcfugar- 
 cane, and tobacco, and the making of fugar ; bur the 
 foil dellincd for the cultivation of thofc j)lants is not, 
 with rcfpeft 10 all the cultivated land of that country, 
 in the proportion of one to two thoufand. The Ame- 
 ricans are the people who labour on the foil. They 
 are the tillers, the fowcrs, the weeders, and the reap- 
 ersof the wheat, of thcmaizc, of tlicri'.e,of the beans, 
 and other kinds of grain or pulfc, of the cocoa, of the 
 vanilla, of the cotton,of the indigo, and all other plants 
 uftfulto the fudenance, the cloathing, and commerce 
 of thofc provinces ; and without them fo little can be 
 done, that in the year 1762, the harvefl of wheat was 
 abandoned, in many places, on account of a (ickncfs 
 w-hich prevailed, and prevented the Indians from reap- 
 ing it. iJut this is not all ; the Americans are they who 
 cut and tranfport all the iiccellary timber from the 
 woods ; who cut, tranfport, and work the ftones : who 
 make lime, plafler, and tiles : who conllruft all the 
 buildings of that kingdom, except a few places where 
 none of them inhabit ; who open and repair all the loads, 
 who make the canals and lluices, and clean the cities. 
 They work in many minesof gold, of filvcr, of copper, 
 &c. : they are the Ihepherds, herdfnien, weavers, pot- 
 ters, baiket-makers, bakers, curriers, day-labourers, 
 &c. : in a word, they are the pcrfons who bear all the 
 burden of public labours. Thefe, fays our jullly in- 
 dignant author, arc the employments of the weak, 
 daftardly, and ufelefs Americans ; while the vigorous 
 M. de Panw, and other indefatigable Europeans, are 
 occupied in writing invectives againft them. 
 
 Thefe labourp.in which thelndians are con tinuallyeni- 
 ployed, certainly, attcflthcirhealthinefs and ftrength; 
 forif they are able to undergo fuch fatigues, they can 
 not be dilcafcd, nor have an cxhauflcd flream of blood 
 in their veins, as M. de Panw infniuates. In order to 
 make it believed that their conftitutions are vitiated, 
 he copies whatever he finds written by hiflorians of A- 
 mcrica, whether true or falfc, refpccting the difcafcs 
 which reign in fonie partictilar countries of that great 
 continent. It is not to be denied, that in fome coun- 
 tricsin the wide compafs of America, menarcexpofed, 
 more than elfcwhere,tothediftcmpers whicli are occa- 
 fioned by the intemperature of the air, or the perni- 
 cious quality of the aliments j but it is certain, accor- 
 ding to the ali'crtion of many rcfpctlablc authors, ac- 
 quainted with the New- World, that the American 
 countries are, for tlie mofl; part hetlthy ; a,nd if the 
 Americans were dipofed to rct.iliatc on M. de Paitw, 
 and other European authors, who write as he does, they 
 would have abundant f d>jc<ft of materials to throw dif- 
 credit on the clime of the Old-Continent, and the 
 conftitiition of its inhabitants in the endemic dillcm- 
 pcrs which prevail there. 
 
 Laftly , the fiippofcd feeblenefs and unfound bodily 
 habit of the Americans do not correfpond with the 
 length of their lives. Among tliofe Aniencaiis wliofc 
 great fatigues and exccf?ivc toils do not antitipatc their 
 death, there are r.ot a few who reach the age of 80, 
 90. and too, or moi e years, as formerly mentioned ; 
 
 America. 
 
 57 
 Thefe a 
 fufficient 
 proof of 
 their hcaU 
 thinefs and 
 ftrength. 
 
 continent of South- America, and in the greater part of and, what is more, without there being obfcrved in thein 
 thofc of North America fubjcrt to the crown of Spain, iliat decay which time commonly produces in the hair. 
 No European is ever to Ik feen employed in the labours in tJie teeth, in the fkin, and in the mufcles of the hu- 
 of tlic field. The Moors who, in coinparifoii of the wan body. This phenomenon, fo much admired by 
 
 the
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 555 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 58 
 
 Theirmen- 
 lalqualiliet 
 
 the Spani.irds who rcliJc in Mexico, cannot be afcri- 
 ed 10 any other caufe than the vigour oi'ihiir co.ilUtii- 
 tions, tiie temperance of their diet, and the liilubri:y of 
 their clime. Hilloiians, and other pcrioiis who have 
 fojournt-d there for many years, report the fame thing 
 of ottui coiint ies of the New-World. 
 
 As to the mental qualities of the Americans, M. de 
 Pauwhasnot bccna'olc todiff-overanypthcr characters 
 than a memory fo ftcUc, that to-duy tliry do not re- 
 member what they did ycitcrJay ; a capacity fo blunt, 
 that they arc incap.iblc of thinking or ptittmg their 
 ideas in order ; a difpolition fo col.', that they feel no 
 excitement of love ; adaftard'y fpirit,and a genius that 
 is torpid, and indolent. Many other Europeans, in- 
 deed, and \\ liat is flill more wonderful, many of tiiofc 
 children or dtfccndaius ot turopeans who are born in 
 America, think as M. de Fauw docs; fonie from igno- 
 rance, fome from want of rciicclion, and others Irom 
 hereditary prtjidicc and prepolfcirion. But all this, and 
 much more,woa;d not be uiihcicnt to invalidate the te- 
 ftimonies of other Europeans, whofe authority has a 
 great deal more weiglit, both becaufc they were men 
 of great judgment, learning and knowledge, of thefe 
 countries, and becaul'e they give their teftimony in fa- 
 vour of (Irangers, againrt their own countrymen. In 
 particular, AcoRa, whole Natural and Moral Hijlory 
 even de Fauw commends as ayt txcclkitt work, employs 
 the whole lixth book in demonftrating the good fenfeof 
 the Americans, by an explanation of their ancient go- 
 vernment, their laws, their hiftories in paintings and 
 knots, calenders, &c. M.dt Pauw thinks the Ameri- 
 cans arc bellial ; Aco:'a, on the other hand, reputes 
 thofe perfons weak and pref;imptuous who think them 
 fo. M. de Pauw fays, that the mod acute Americans 
 were inferior in indnftryand fagacity to the rudelt na- 
 tions of the Old-Continent ; Acolla extols the civil go- 
 vernment of the Mexicans above many republics of 
 Europe. M. de Pauw finds, in the moral and political 
 condu(51of the Americans, nothing but barbarity, ex- 
 travagance, and brutality; and Acolla finds there, laws 
 which are admirable, and worthy of being nreferved 
 for ever. 
 
 M. de Pauw denies them courage, and alleges the 
 conqueft of Mexico as a proof of their cowardice. 
 " Cortes (fays he), conquered the empire of Mexico 
 with 4;ovagabonds,and 15 horfes, badly armed: hismi- 
 ferable artillery confided of (ix falconets, which would 
 not at the prefent day be capable of exciting the fears 
 of a fortrefs defended by invalids. During his abfence, 
 the capital was held in awe by the lulf of his troops. 
 What men ! what events ! — It is confirmed by the de- 
 pofitionsofallhiflorians.thattheSpaniards entered, the 
 firlltime, into Mexico without making one fingle dif- 
 charge of their artillery. If the titleof hero is appli- 
 cable to him who has the difgrace to occafion the death 
 of a great number of rational animals, Ferdinand Cor- 
 tes might pretend to it ; othcrwife I do not fee wliat 
 true glory he lias acquired by theovertlirowofa totter- 
 ingmonarchy, which mi;;ht havcbecn dcdroyed.in the 
 fame manner, by any other airalfin of our continent." 
 Thefe palTages indicate either M.de Pauw's ignorance 
 of the hiflory of the conqucfl of Mexico, or a wilful 
 fupprcffion of what would openly contradid his fyftem ; 
 fince all who have read that hiftory know well, that 
 ikc conqucfl of Mexico was not made with 4)0 men. 
 
 bit « ith more than 2oo,ccx5. Cortes himfrif, :o v.hoin .\mcrici. 
 
 it was of more importance liun to M. dc Pauw to make ' ' ' 
 
 his bravery confpicuous, and his conqucfl appear y\n- 
 rio rs, conielfes the exceliive iMmber of the alius who 
 were under his command, at the fiege of the capital, 
 and combated with more tury againit the Mexicans 
 tlian the Spaniards ihtmftlvcs. Accordiu j to the ac- 
 count which Cortes gave to the emperor Charles V.thc 
 fieffc of Mexico began with 87 horfes, 848 Spanilh in- 
 fantry, armed with guns, crofs-bows, fwords, and lan- 
 ces, and upwards of 75,000 allies, of 1 lalcala, Huexo- 
 t/inco, Cholula, and Chalco, equipped \utlj various 
 fortsof arms; with three large pieces of cannon of 
 iron, 15 fmall of copper, and i ; brigantines. In the 
 courfcofthe ficge were alfembled the numerous nations 
 of the Otomies, the Cohuixcas, and Mailazinkas, and 
 the troops of the populous cities of the lakes ; fo that 
 the army of the befiegcrs not only exceeded 200,000, 
 but amounted to 400,000 according to the letter froiii 
 Cortes; and belides thefe, 3000 boats and cauoes came 
 to their aflidancc. Did it betray cowardice to have 
 fudained, for full 7j days, the licge of an open city, 
 engaging, daily, with an army fo large, and in pare 
 piovided with arms fofuperior, and at the fame time 
 having to withdand the ravages of famine ? Can they 
 merit the charge of cowardice, who, after having lod 
 feven of the tight parts of their city, and about jo,ooo 
 citizens, part cut off by the fword, part by famine and 
 (icknefs, continued to defend tliemfelves until they 
 were furioully allaulted in the lad hold which was left 
 them .' See the article Mexico. f 
 
 According to M. de Pauw, " the Americans at firft Rcmarti- 
 " Were not believed to be men, but rather fatyrs, orblcinaanfe 
 " large apes, which might be murdered, without re- "f cilumnf 
 " morfe, or reproach. At lad, in order to ai'd infult '" ^ ^' 
 " tothcopprelfion of thofe times, a pope made an ori- ''*""'• 
 " ginal bull, in which he declared, that being defirous 
 " of founding bilhoprics in the riched countries in A- 
 " merica, it pleafed him and the Holy- Spirit, to ac- 
 " knowledge the Americans to be true men : in fo 
 " far, that without this decilion of an Italian, the in- 
 " habitants of the New-World would have appeared, 
 '< even at this day, to the eyes of the faithful, a race 
 " of equivocal men. There is no example of fucli a 
 " decifion fince this globe has been inhabited by men 
 " and apes." Upon this paifage the Abbe Clavigcro 
 animadverts, as being a lingular indance of calumny 
 and mifreprcfentation ; and gives tlie following hidory 
 of the decifion alluded to. - ,, 
 
 " Soinc of the fird Europeans who edablifhed them- Occafionuf 
 fclves in America, not Icfs powerful than avaricious, the fimout 
 delirousofenrichingthenifelves tothedctrimentofthe bull of 
 Americans, kept them continually cm ployed, and made P"P<= P*"' 
 ufe of them as llaves ; and, in order to avoid the re- '"• 
 proaches, which were made them, by thebidiops and 
 miinonaries, who inculcated humanity, and the giving 
 liberty to thofe people to get themfelves indrurtrd in 
 religion, that they might do their duties towards the 
 church,andtheirfamilies,alleged,thatthc Indians were 
 by nature (laves and incapable of being indrnc^cd ; and 
 many other falfchoodsof w hich the Chronicler Herreri 
 makes inention againd them. Thefe zealous ecclcfia- 
 dics being unable, either by their authority, or preach- 
 ing, to free thofe unhappy converts from the tyranny 
 of fuch uiilcrs, had recourfc to the Catholic kings, and, 
 6, .\ 2 at
 
 A M E 
 
 [ sso ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, at kft, obtained from llicir jufticc and clemency, thofc 
 
 '— ^^ ' laws, as favourable to the Amcricuiis as honourable to 
 
 the court of Spain, that conipofc the Iadia\i code, 
 which were chiefly due to the indefatigable zeal of tlie 
 Mlhop dc las Cafas. On another lidc, Garces, bilhop 
 ot Tlafcala, knowing that thofc Spaniards bore, not- 
 witlillanding their pervcriity,agreatrcfpei:t tothe dc- 
 cifionof the vicar of Jefiis Chrill, made application, in 
 the year 1586, to I'upc Paul 111. by that famous let- 
 ter, of which we have made mention ; reprefeniing to 
 him the evils which tlic Indians fuffercd from the wick- 
 ed Chriftians, and praying liim to iuteipofc his autlio- 
 rily in their behalf. The pope, moved by fuch heavy 
 rcmonllrances, difpatchcd, the next year, the original 
 bull, a faitliful copy of which we have here fiibjoin- 
 ed (a), which was not made, as is manifell, to declare 
 the Americans true men ; for fuch a picceof weaknefs 
 was very diflant from that or any other pope : but 
 folely to fupport the natural rights of the Americans, 
 againlltheattcmptsof thciropprellbrs, and to condemn 
 the injafticc and ininimanity of thofc, who, under the 
 pretence of fuppoling tliofc people idolatrous, or inca- 
 pable of being indrucUd, took from them tlieir pro- 
 perty and their liberty, and treated tliem as Haves and 
 hearts." 
 
 But if, at firfl, the Americans were cflecmed fatyrs, 
 nobody can better prove it than Chriftophcr Columbus, 
 their difcoverer. Let us hear, llierefore, how that ce- 
 lebrated admiral fpeaks, in his account to Ferdinand 
 and jfabella, of tlie firll falyrs he faw in tlie illaud of 
 Haiti, or Hifpaniola. " I fwear," he fays, " to your 
 majefties, that there is not a better people in the world 
 than thefe, more afiedionate, atfible, or mild. They 
 liTve their neighbours as themfelves ; their language is 
 the fweetefl, the foftclt, and the moll cheerful ; for 
 they always fpcak fmiling ; and although they go na- 
 ked, kt your majertics believe me, their euftoms are 
 very becoming; and their king, wlio is ferved with 
 great majefty, has fuch engaging manners, that itgives 
 great plcafure to fee him, and alio to confider the great 
 rcieniive faculty of that people, and their delirc of 
 knowledge, which incites them to aik the caufes and 
 the efFcds of things." 
 
 63 
 Reprcfen- 
 tatiou of 
 Columbus 
 
 " We have had intimate commerce virith the Ame- 
 ricans (continues the Abbe): have lived,for feme years, 
 in a feminary delfined for their inftrudion ; faw the 
 erection and piogrcfs of the royal college of Guada- 
 loiipe founded, in Mexico, by a Mexican J efuit, for the 
 education of Indian children; had, afterwards, fome In- 
 dians among our pupils ; had particular knowledge of 
 many American redors, many nobles, and numerous 
 artilis ; attentively, obferved their charade r, their ge- 
 nius, their difpoiition, and manner of thinking ; and 
 have examined, belides, with the utmofldiligence, their 
 ancient hi(lory,theirreligion, theirgovernment, their 
 laws, and their culloms. After fuch long experience 
 and lludy of them, from which we imagine ourfclves, 
 enabled to decide, without dangcrof erring, we declare 
 to M. de Fauw, and to all Europe, that the mental qua- 
 lities of the Americans are not in the leall inferior to 
 thofe of the Europeans ; that they are capable of all, 
 even the moll abrtrad, fciences ; and that if equal care 
 was taken of their education, if they were brought up 
 from childhood in feminarics, under good ma/lers,wcrc 
 protedcd and llimulated by rewards, we Ihould fee rife 
 among the Americans, philofophers, mathematicians, 
 and divines, who would rival the tirft in Europe." 
 
 But, although we (hould fuppofe, that, in the torrid 
 climates of the New-World, as well as in thofe of the 
 Old, cfpccially under the additional dcprefTion of lla- 
 vcry, there was an inferiority of the mental powers ; 
 the Chilefc,and the North-Americans,havedifcovercd 
 higher rudiments of human excellence and ingenuity 
 than have, perhaps, ever been known among tribes in 
 a limilar Hate of foeiety, in any part of the world. 
 
 M. de Pauw affirms, that the Americans were nnac- 
 quainicd with the ufeof money, and quotes the follow- 
 ing well-known pallage from Montefquieu : <' Imagine 
 to yourfclf that, by fome accident, yoa arc placed in 
 an unknown country ; if you find money there, do not 
 doubt that you arc arrived among a poliflied people." 
 But, if by money wc arc to underlland a piece of metal 
 with the Ilamp of the prince, or of the public, the want 
 of it in a nation is no token of barbarity. The Athe- 
 nians employed oxen for money, as the Romans did 
 llieep. The Romans had no coined money till the time 
 
 of 
 
 America. 
 
 Conclufi.. 
 ons con- 
 cerning the 
 "iiacities 
 of the A- 
 mcricani. 
 
 65 
 Their in- 
 genuity, 
 &c.affcrt- 
 
 (a) Prvulus papa III. univcrfis Chrilli Fidelibus prefcntes Literas infpcduris Salutem & Apoflolicam Bene- 
 dittioiiem — " Veritas ipfa, qux nee falli, nee fallere potell, cum Prxdlcatores Fidci ad oflicium predicationis 
 dcllinaret, dixlJfe ilignofcilur : Eiint.s docete omnss gmtes : omnes, dixit, abfque omni deledu, cum omnes Fidei 
 (lifcipliua capaces cxiltant. (Jjiod vidtns & invidens i|)luis humani generis azmulus, qui bonis operibus, ut pe- 
 rcant, ftmprradverfutur, moduni excogitavit hudcnus iaauditum, quo impediret, nc Verbum Dei Gentibus, u: 
 falva; fiereut, prxdicarctur : ut quofdam fuos fatcllites commovit, qui fuam cupiditatem adimplere cupientes. 
 Occidentales& Meridionalcs Indos, & alias Gentes, qux tcmporibus illis ad nollram notitiam pervenerunt, fub 
 pra;textu quod Fidei Catholicx experics txillant, uti bruta animalia, ad noflra obfcquia redigendos elFe, pallim 
 alfercre pra;fumant, & co; in lervituteui redigunt taiitis affliOlionibus illos urgentcs, quantis vix bruta animalia 
 illis fcrvientia urgeant. Nos igitur, qui ejufdcm Domini nollri vices, licet indigni, gcrinius in terris, & Oves 
 grcgis fui nobis commilTis, qua; extra ejus Ovile fuat, ad ipfum Ovilc toto nixu exquiiimus, attendcntts Indos 
 ipfos, lit potc veros homines, iion folum Chriilianje Fidci capaccs exillerc, fed, ut nobis innotuii, ad Fidem ip- 
 fim prom pti liim e currcre, ac volentcslupcr his congruis rem cdiisprovidcre.prsedidos Indos & omnes alias gcn- 
 ics ad notitiam Chriilianorum in polleruni deventuras, licet extra fidcm Cluilli exillant, fua libertate & domi- 
 I'.io liujuf;nodi uti, & po;iri, & gauderc libere, & licete polfe, nee in fcrvltuteiu rcdigi dcbcre, ac quicquid fc- 
 cu5 fieri contigcrit irritum Sc inane, ipfofquc Indos, & alias Gentes Verbi Dei pracdicatioue, & cxemplo bonse 
 vitaead diclam Fidcm Chrilli invitandosfore. Audoritatc Apoflolica per prxfentcs literas decernimus, & dc- 
 claramus, noa obflaniibus prosmillis, easterifque contrariis quibufcunque." Datum Romns anno ts?1- JV. 
 Non. lun. Pontilicatus nollri anno lil. Oiia:fla, c iion altra e •■luclla famofa bolla, per la quale s' efatto uii fi 
 grande fchiamazzo.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ S57 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 66 
 
 Tokens of 
 fcience. 
 
 America, of Scrvius Tullius, nor had the Perlians until the rtigii 
 of Darius Hyftafpcs. But, if by money is underllood a 
 lign reprcfcnting the value of nierchandifc, tlie Mex- 
 icans, and other nations of Anhuac, employed money 
 in their commerce. The cacao, of which ilicy made 
 conftant ufc in the market to purchafe whatever they 
 wanted, was employed for this purpofc, as fait is in A- 
 bylfinia. 
 
 It has been affirmed.that ftonc bridges were unknown 
 in America, when it was lirfl. difcovercd ; and that the 
 natives did not know iiow to form arches. But, thefe 
 allcrtions are erroneous. The remains of the ancient 
 palaces of Tezcucco,and,riill more, their vapour baths, 
 fhovv the ancient ufe of arches and of vaults among the 
 Mexicans. But the ignorance of this art would have 
 been no proof of barbarity. Neither the Egyptians nor 
 Babyloiiiaus underllood the conllruclion of arches. 
 
 M. de Fauw afiinns, that the palace of Montezuma 
 was nothing elfc than a hut. But, it is certain, from 
 the affirmation of all the hiftorians of Mexico, that the 
 army under Cortes, conliiling of 6, 400 men, were ail 
 lodged in the palace ; and there rcmainej ftill fuffici- 
 ent room for Montezuma and his attendants. 
 
 The advances which the Mexicans had made in tlic 
 noble fcience of aftronomy, is, perhaps, the mod fupri- 
 fing proof of their attention and fagacity : for it appears, 
 from Abbe Clavigero's Hiftory, that they not only 
 counted 365 days to the year, but alfoknew of the ex- 
 ccfs of about fix hours in the folar over the civil year, 
 and remedied the difference, by means of intercalary 
 days. See Astronomy, n" 5. 
 
 Of American morality, the following exhortation of 
 a Mexican to his fon may ferve as a fpecimen. " My 
 fon, who art come into the light from the womb of thy 
 mother like a chicken from the egg, and, like it, art 
 preparing to fly through the world, we know not how 
 long Heaven will grant to us the enjoyment oi hat 
 precious gem which we polFcfs in thee ; but however 
 fhort the period, endeavour to live exadly, praying 
 Cod continually toalfill tliee. He created thee : tliou 
 art his property. He is thy father, and loves thee ftill 
 more than I do : repofc in him thy thoughts, ?,nd d.iy 
 and night dirciS tliy fighs to him. llcvcrcuce and fa- 
 luietliy elders, and hold noone in contempt. To the 
 poor and dillreiled be not dumb, but raiiier ufe words 
 of comfort. Honour all perfons, particularly thy pa- 
 rents, to whom thou owed obedience, refpcct and fcr- 
 vice. Guard againll iinitatiug the example of thofc 
 wicked fons, who, like brutes that are deprived of rea- 
 fon, neither reverence their parents, liftcn to their in- 
 flru(^ion, nor fubmit to their correction ; bccaufe who- 
 ever follows their flcps will liave an unhappy end, 
 will die in a defperatc or fuddcn manner, or will be 
 killed, and devoured by wild bealls. 
 
 " Mock not, my fon, the aged or the imperfcifl. 
 Scorn not him whom yovi fee fall into fome folly, or 
 tranfgrelTion, nor make liim reproaches ; but rellrain 
 thyfelf, and beware left thou fall into the fime error 
 which otFcnds thee in another. Gonot where thou art 
 not called, nor interfere in that wh'ch does not concern 
 thee. Endeavour to manifeil thy good breeding, in all 
 thy words, and actions. In converfation, do not liy 
 thy hands upon another, nor fpeak too much, nor in- 
 terrupt or didurb another's difcotirfe. When any one 
 difcourfcs with thee, hear liim, attentively, nnj hold 
 
 67 
 Specimen 
 of their 
 morality 
 
 thyfelf in an cafy attitude, neither playing with thy Amen.k. 
 
 feet, nor puitingthy mantle to thy m JUth, uor fpitting ^ ' 
 
 toooltcn, nor looking about you liere and there, nor 
 riling up frequently if thou art (iltiug ; forfuchadions 
 arc indications of levity and low-breeding." — The fa- 
 ther proceeds to mention fcvcral particular vices which, 
 are to be avoided, and concludes — " Steal not, nor give 
 thyfelf to gaming ; otlierwife thou wilt be a diffracc 
 to thy parents, whom thououghtell rather to honour for 
 the education they have given tiiec. If thou wilt be vir- 
 tuous, thy example will put the wicked to Ihame. No 
 more my fon ; enough hath bcenfaidindifcliargc of the 
 dutiesofa father. With thefe counfcls I with to fortify 
 thy mind. Rcfufe them not, nor ac^ in contradiclion 
 to them ; for on them thy life, and all thy happiucfs 
 depend." 
 
 As ranging on the fame fide with the Abbj; Ckvi- 
 gero, our countryman Mr Jeiferfondcfervcs particular 
 attention. This gentleman, in his Notes on tk: Ltati 
 of Virginia, 5;c. has taken occalion to combat the o- 
 pinions of Bulfon ; and fec.r.s, in many inllances, to 
 have fully refuted them, both by argument and by facts. 68 
 The Krcnch philofopherall'erts, "Thitlivingnature is Notions of 
 lefsa(!;five, Itfs energetic, in the New-World than in ^'' ''* ^'^' 
 the Old." He affirms, i. That ihe aniui^ls common to °" ^°"'. 
 both continents are linaller jn America. 2. 1 hat thole Ocgcneracr 
 peculiar to the New arc on an inferior fcale. 3. That of suimal 
 thofe which have been domedicated in both have dcjc- naturi; in 
 neratcd in America , and, 4. That it exhibits fewer •■^'""■"=»- 
 fpecies of living creatures. The caufc of this he af- 
 cribcs to the diminution of heat in America, and to 
 the prevalence of humidity from the cxtenlion of its 
 lakes and waters over a prodigious furfacc. • In other 
 words, he affirms that heat is friendly, and iin^ijlun 
 adverfc, to the production and devclopcmcut of the 
 larger quadruped.'?. 69 
 
 Thchypothefis that moiftureisnnfricndiy to animal The hfps. 
 growth, Mr JelFerfoii Ihows to be contradicted by ob- thcfisthat 
 fcrvation, and by experience. It is by the affidanceof """9"" '* 
 heat and inoidure that vegetables arc clabor.ited from toan^mal 
 the elements. Accordingly, we lind that the more hu- growth, 
 mid climates produce plants in greater profulion than coLlidcrcd. 
 t'le dry. Vegetables arc iniraediately, or remotely, the 
 food of cvc.y animal ; and, from the unilorui opera- 
 tion of nature's laws, we difccrn, that, in propor- 
 tion to the quantity of food, animals are uotonl. multi- 
 plied in thtirnumbcrs, but improved in their lizc. Of 
 this lid opinion is the Counidc Bntibn himfclf, in ano- 
 ther part of his work : " En general, il paroit <\.\i Ics 
 pays un peu Jroids conviciinent micux a nos bofufs 
 que les pays chauds, ct qu'ils font d'autant plus gros 
 ct plus grands que le climat cd plus hjvuj; et plus 
 abondans en paturagrs. Lcs boeiifs de Dauemarck, 
 de la Podolie, de I'Ukraine, et dc laTartarie qu'habi- 
 tent les Calmouques, font lcs plus grands dc- tons." -□ 
 Here, then, a race of animals, and one of the larged The con. 
 too, has been increafed in its dimcnfions by cold and trarjmaicu 
 moidure, in dirci;! oppofition tothe hypoibelis, which "'"t^d'>y 
 fnppofcs that thefe two circumllancts diminiih animal ^^'■J«°"=''- 
 bulk, andthat it is their contraries, heat and drynefs, 
 whi:h eiil.'.rge it. But, to try the quedionon more 
 general ground, let us take two portions of the earth, 
 Europe and America forindance, fufficieuily exieali\c 
 to give operation to general ciufcs : Ic: us conlider the 
 circumdauces peculiar to each, and obfcrve their cf- 
 
 Icds 
 
 fon.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ sss ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Americi. fefls on animal nauirc. Amtrica, running iliroiijrh the 
 ' ^' ' torrid, as \ve:las icnipcraic, zone, has more heat col- 
 le^iivtly taken, than Kuro|)c. Jiiit Eiiroj'c, acconlir.g 
 toourhypolhtlis, isthcdricft. They arc equally a>'aiit- 
 cd, then, to animal productions ; each being endowed 
 \vithone of thofe caufcswhich befriend animal growth, 
 and with one which oppolcsit. Let ns, then, take a 
 comparative view of ilie quadrupeds of Europe and of 
 America, prcfeniing them totiiecye in three different 
 rabies ; in one of which fliall be enumerated thofe 
 found in both countries; in a fecond, thofe found in 
 one only ; in a third, thofe which liave been domclli- 
 cated in both. To facilit.ite the coniparifon, let thofe 
 of each table be arranged in gridaiion, according to 
 their fizes, from the greateft to the fiiiallcll, fo far as 
 their lizes can be conjcdurcd. The weights of the 
 large animal Ihall be exprelfed in the Englilh avcrdu- 
 jioifc pound and its decimals ; thofe of the fmallerin ilic 
 ounce and i:s decimals. Thofe which are marked 
 thus*, are aclual weights of particular fubjefts, deem- 
 ed among the lareieft of their fpecies. Thofe marked 
 thusf, are furnifhed by judicious pcrfons, well ac- 
 quainted with the fpecies, and laying, from conjeclurc 
 only, what the largefl individual they had fccn would 
 probably have weighed. The other weights arc taken 
 from Mclfrs BuflTon aHd D'Aubenton, and are of fuch 
 fubjcds as came cafually to their hands for dillcclion, 
 
 '* A Comparative View of the Quadrupeds of Europe 
 and of America. 
 
 TabI-E II. A/}ori£i/ja/s of th^ out ouly. 
 EUROPE. AMERICA. 
 
 An.ericl. 
 
 Table I. Aboriginals oj both. 
 
 Mam mouth (b) 
 
 Buffalo. Bifon 
 
 White- bear. Ours blanc 
 
 Carribou. Renne 
 
 Bear. Ours 
 
 Elk. Elan. Original, palmated 
 
 Red-deer. Cerf 
 
 Fallow-deer. Daira 
 
 Wolf. Loup 
 
 Roe. Chevreuil 
 
 Glutton. Glouton. Carcajou 
 
 Wild-cat. Chat fauvagc 
 
 Lynx. Loupcervicr 
 
 Beaver. Caftor 
 
 Badger. Blaircau 
 
 Red-fox. Rcnard 
 
 Grey-fox. Ifatis 
 
 Otter. Loutre 
 
 Monax. Marmotte 
 
 Vifon. Fouinc 
 
 Hedgehog. HcrilTon 
 
 Martin. Martc 
 
 Water-rat. Rat d'eau 
 Wefel. Bclette 
 Flying-fqiiirril. Polatouche 
 Shrcw-moufe. Mufaraigne 
 
 Europe. 
 
 lb. 
 
 153-7 
 
 288.8 
 
 167.8 
 
 69.8 
 
 56.7 
 
 25- 
 18.J 
 13.6 
 I3-J 
 
 8.9 
 6. J 
 
 2.8 
 2.2 
 1.2 
 oz. 
 7-5 
 2.2 
 2.2 
 I. 
 
 America. 
 Jb. 
 •1800 
 
 • 410 
 *273 
 
 t30 
 
 '4J 
 
 ti2 
 
 t6 
 
 oz. 
 
 t4 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Sangiitr. Wild boar 280. 
 
 Tapir 
 
 534. 
 
 Mouilin.Wild Ihecp 
 
 S6. 
 
 Elk, round horned 
 
 1450. 
 
 Uonqiietin. W ild goat 
 
 Puma 
 
 
 Liivrc. Hare 
 
 7.6 
 
 Jaguar 
 
 218. 
 
 Lapin. Rabbit 
 
 ?-4 
 
 Cabiai 
 
 109. 
 
 Putois. Polecat 
 
 3-? 
 
 Tamanoir 
 
 109. 
 
 Genette 
 
 3-> 
 
 Tamandua 
 
 65.4 
 
 Defnian. Mnfkrat 
 
 oz. 
 
 Cougar ot N. Amer 
 
 • 75. 
 
 Ecnreuil. Squirrel 
 
 12. 
 
 Cougarof S. Amer. 
 
 59-4 
 
 Herniinc. Ermiu 
 
 8 ; 
 
 Ocelot 
 
 
 Rat. Rat 
 
 7-5 
 
 Pecari 
 
 46.3 
 
 Loirs 
 
 3-' 
 
 Jaguarct 
 
 43.6 
 
 Lcrot. Dontioufc 
 
 i.F 
 
 Alco 
 
 
 Taupe. Mole 
 
 I.: 
 
 Lama 
 
 
 Hamftcr 
 
 •9 
 
 Paco 
 
 
 zifa 
 
 
 Paca 
 
 32.7 
 
 Leining 
 
 
 Scrval 
 
 
 Souris. Moufc 
 
 .6 
 
 Sloth. Unau 
 SaricGvienne 
 Kincajou 
 
 2 7i 
 
 
 
 Tatou Kabafliiu 
 
 21.8 
 
 
 
 Urfon. Urchin 
 
 
 
 
 Racoon. Raton 
 
 16.J 
 
 
 
 Coati 
 
 
 
 
 Coendon 
 
 16.3 
 
 
 
 Sloth. AV 
 
 13- 
 
 
 
 Sap.ijou Ouarini 
 
 
 
 
 Sapajou Coaita 
 
 9.8 
 
 
 
 Tatou Encubert 
 
 
 
 
 Tatoa Apar 
 
 
 
 
 Tatou Cachica 
 
 7. 
 
 
 
 Little Coendou 
 
 6.5 
 
 
 
 Opoffum. Sarigue 
 
 
 
 
 Tapeti 
 
 
 
 
 Margay 
 
 
 
 
 Crabicr 
 
 
 
 
 Agouti 
 
 4-2 
 
 
 
 Sapajou SaY 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 
 Tatou Cirquin^on 
 
 
 
 
 Tatou Tatonatc 
 
 3-3 
 
 
 
 Mouffctte Squaflt 
 
 
 
 
 Mouffcttc Chinche 
 
 
 
 
 Moutfettc Conepate 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 Seunk 
 
 
 
 
 Mouffettc. Zorilla 
 
 
 
 
 Whabus. Hare. Rab- 
 
 
 
 bit 
 
 
 
 
 Aperea 
 
 
 
 
 Akonchi 
 
 
 
 
 Ondatra. Mufl<rat 
 
 
 
 
 Pilori 
 
 
 
 
 Great grey-fqiirrcl 
 
 t2-7 
 
 
 
 Fox (quirrel, of Vir 
 
 
 
 
 ginia i-2.625 
 
 
 
 Surikate 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 Mink 12. 
 
 
 
 Sapajou. Sajou 
 
 1.8 
 
 (b) Theboncsof the Mammouth, or, as it has been called, by Dr Hunter, and by other writers, I J'eii,h- 
 £/«■//!■<?«/, appear to be r early ofihefan e fizc, and wti);ht, vhcihtr they are found in Europe, in ."Ava, t,r in 
 America. In thefe three portions of the earth, the animal, to wiiich tliefc exuvise belonged, was, no doubr, 
 fpecifically the fame. Sec the article Mammouth.
 
 Amcrtci. 
 
 A M E r 559 J 
 
 Tablt II. continued. 
 EUROPE. AMERICA. 
 
 A M E 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Indian pig. Cochon 
 d'liidc 1.6 
 
 
 Sapajou.Saimiri 1.5 
 Phalungcr 
 
 
 Coqiiallin 
 
 
 Lcli'crgrcyifqiiirrelf r.j 
 Black iViuirrcl 1.5 
 
 
 Red fqiiirrcl 10. oz. 
 
 
 Sagoin Saki 
 Sagoiu Piache 
 
 
 Sagoin Taniarin oz. 
 
 
 Sagoin Ouiftiti 4.4 
 Sagoin Marikinc 
 Sagoin Mico 
 CayopoUin 
 
 
 Kourraillier 
 
 
 Marmofc 
 
 
 Sariguc of Cayenne 
 Tucan 
 
 
 Red Mole oz. 
 
 
 Ground fquirrcl 4. 
 
 TAiJ.S.lU. Domefticated i/i ioti. 
 
 
 Europe. 
 
 America. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Cow 
 
 Horfe 
 
 763 
 
 *2500 
 
 *I366 
 
 Afs 
 
 
 
 Hog 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Goat 
 
 
 *I20O 
 *.25 
 
 *8o 
 
 Dog 
 
 Cat 
 
 
 67.6 
 7. 
 
 
 71 " The refiilt of this view is, that of 26 quadrupeds 
 
 Rcfuit of common to both countries, feven arc faid to be larger 
 
 the firft j,j America, feven of equal lizc, and 12 not fuiiicicnt- 
 
 " '■ ly examined. So that the lirll tabic inipeaclies the tirll 
 
 member of the affcrtion, that of the animals common 
 
 to both countries the American are fmallcfl, " Et 
 
 cela fans aucune exception." It ihows it not juft, in 
 
 all the latitude in which its author has advanced it, 
 
 and probably not to fuch a degree as to found a diftiiic- 
 
 ^2 tion between the two couiurics. 
 
 Fxplanati- " Proceeding to the fecoiul table, which arranges the 
 
 (in and re- animals found in one of the two countries only, M. dc 
 
 fult of the ijiijfon obfervcs, that the tapir, the elephant ofAme- 
 
 "^^l'I" rica, is but the (ize of a fuuill cow." To prtfcrve the 
 
 comparifon, Mr Jetferfun flates the wild boar, the ele- 
 
 pliant of Europe, as little more than half that fize. He 
 
 has made .sn elk, with round or cylindrical horns, an 
 
 animal of America, and peculiar to it; becaufe lie has 
 
 feen many of them hiuifelf, and more of their horns ; 
 
 and becaufe, from tlic bell information, it is certain 
 
 tiiai, in Viri^inia, this kind of elk has abounded much, 
 
 and Hill exifts, in fuiiller nirnbcrs. He makes the 
 
 American hare,orrabbit, peculiar, becaufe he belirvcs 
 
 it to be different froiiibotii thel-jirc'.ican animalsofthofc 
 
 dcnominatio[is, and calls it, therefore, by its AU-on- 
 
 q lin name, ll'h.ili:ti, to keep it dilliutl from tjiefe. 
 
 Kaliu is of the famcopiiiion. The fquirrels arc dtiio- 
 
 4 
 
 minated from a knowledge derived from daily fight of Americt. 
 
 them, becaufe with thattlic European appellations and >'~~' 
 
 dcfciiptions fecm irreconcilable. Thcfc arc the only 
 inllanccs in which Mr JefFerfon departs f;om the au- 
 thority of M.de Buffbu, in ihe conllruttion of this ta- 
 ble ; whom he takes for his ground-work, becaufe he 
 thinks him the bell informed of any naturalid wiiohas 
 ever written. The refult is, that there arc 18 quadru- 
 peds peculiar toEurope ; more than four times as many, 
 to wit, 74, peculiar to America ; that the firll of thtfe 
 74, the tapir, the largeft of the animals pcculi.ir to 
 America, weighs more than the whole column of Eu- 
 ropeans; and confcquciuly this fecond table difjirovcs 
 the fecond member of the allertion, that the animals 
 peculiar to the New World are 011 a fmallcr fcalc, fo 
 far as that affcrtion relied on European animals for fup- 
 port : and it is in full oppuiition to the theory which 
 makes the animal volume to depend on the circum- 
 Hances of heat and moillure. 
 
 The third table comprehends thofcquadrnpcdsonly ofthcthird 
 which are domellic in both countries. That fomcoftaole, 
 tliefc, in fome parts of America, have become Icfs 
 than their original (lock, is doubtlefs true ; and the 
 rcafon is very obvious. In a thinly-peopled country, 
 the fpontancous produdlions of the foreft and wallc 
 fields arc fufficicnt to fupport inditferently the domellic 
 animals of the farmer, with a very little aid from him 
 in thcfeverertand fcarceft feafon. He, therefore, finds 
 it more convenient to receive them from the hand of 
 nature in that inditi'crent flatc, than to keep up ihcir 
 fize by a care and nouriilimcnt which would cod him 
 much labour. If, on this low fare, ihefe animals 
 dwindle, it is no more than they do in thofe parts of 
 Europe where the poverty of the foil, orpovcrty of the 
 owner,reduces them to the fame fcanty fubfiltcnce. It 
 is the uniform cffe(fl of one and the fame caufc, whe- ' • 
 
 ther ading on this or that (ide of the globe. It would 
 be erring therefore again ft that priucipleofphilofophy, 
 which teaches us to afcribe like etfccts to like caufcs, 
 fliould we impute this diminution of lize in America to 
 any imbecility or want of uniformity in the operations 
 of nature. It may be allirmed, with truili, that in thofc 
 countries, and with thofc individuals,ofAmerica,whcre 
 nccelilty or curiofity has produced equal attention as in 
 Europe to the nourifhment of anitnals, the horfcs, 
 cattle, lhecp,and hogs of the one continent arc as large 
 as thofe of the other. There arc particular inftanees, 
 well aticilcd, where individuals of America have im- 
 ported good breeders from England, and have improv- 
 ed their (ize by care, in the courfe of fome years." 
 And the weights achially known and Hated in tlie 
 third table, will fuffice to ihow, that we may conclude, 
 on probable grounds, that with equal food and care, 
 the climate of America will prefcrve the races of do- 
 mcftic animals as large as the European ftock from 
 which they are derived; and, confcqucntly, that the 
 domellic animals arc fubjeCl to degeneration froni the 
 climate of America, is as probably wrong as the firll 
 and fecond are certainly fo. 
 
 That the lad; part of it is erroneous, which affirms, 
 that the fpecies of American quaJrupcis are compara- 
 tively few, is evident from the tables taken alt'->getiicr; ' 
 to wliicii may be added the proofs adduced by thcAbbc < 
 Clavigero. According to BufTon'sLuell calculation, in 
 his Efoqiiti ,!<: la Nairtreflliere are 30c fpecies of qua- 
 
 ilrupcda i
 
 A M E 
 
 L 560 1 
 
 /\ M E 
 
 Aniftica. 
 
 Tlichumin 
 inhabitants 
 coniprc- 
 hcoded in 
 the fimc 
 Itypothtfis 
 of degcuc- 
 lacy. 
 
 75 
 Obfcrvati- 
 ons by Mr 
 Jcffcrfon. 
 
 76 
 Seeming 
 coKIncfs of 
 the Ameri- 
 cans to the 
 fci ac- 
 countcdfor. 
 
 JvnptJs ; ind An-crica, tliougli it does not make mure 
 than a third part of the gli>bc, rouiaiiis, according to 
 Clavi^cro, almoll ojic lult i>( the diti'crciit fpecics of 
 thcfc aiiimal.i. 
 
 Of the human inhabitantsof America, towhnmthc 
 fame hypojhclisof degeneracy is extended, M. Burton 
 gives the follow iugdclcriptiou : "Though the Aiueri- 
 can favagc be nearly of the fame ftaturc with men in 
 polilhtd focieiies ; yet this is not a fiilncicnt exception 
 to the general contraction of animated nature through- 
 out the whole continent. In the lavage, the organs of 
 generation arc Imall and feeble. He has no hair, no 
 beard, no ardour for the ftmale. Though nimbler than 
 the hiiropean, bccaufe more accuilonicd to running, 
 his flrcn^th is not lo great. His fcnfations arc lefs a- 
 ciite ; and yet he is more timid and cowardly. He has 
 no vivacity, no afliviiy of mind. The adiviiy of his 
 body is not fo much an exercifc or fpontancous moti- 
 on, as a neccllary aition produced by want. Dellroy his 
 appetite for vidlualsand drink, and you will, at once, 
 annihilate the active principle of all his movements : 
 he remains in Ihipid rcpofc, on his limbs, or couch, for 
 whole days. It is caly 10 difcovcr the caulc of the 
 fcattered life of favagcs, and of their eftrangement 
 from fociety. They h.-ve bccnrcful'cd the moft pre- 
 cious fpark of Nature's tire : they have no ardour for 
 women, and of courfe, no love to mankind. Unac- 
 quainted with the moft lively and the moft tender of 
 all attachments, their other fcnfations of this nature are 
 told and languid. Their love 10 parents and children 
 is extremely weak. The bonds of the molt intimate 
 of all fotietics, that of the fame family, are feeble ; 
 and one family has no attachment to another. Hence 
 no union, no republic, no focial iLite can take place 
 among them. The phylical caulc of love gives rife to 
 the morality of their manners. Their heart is frozen, 
 their fociety cold, and their empire cruel. They regard 
 their families as fcrvants deflined tolabour, or asbeafts 
 of burden, whom they load unmercitully with the pro- 
 tiuce of their huniina;, and oblige, without ]iity or gra- 
 titude, to perform labours which often exceed their 
 ilrengih. They have few children, and pay little at- 
 tention to them. Every thing muft be referred to the 
 tirft caufe uhey are inditFercnt becaufe they arc weak; 
 and this inJitference to the fex is the original ftain 
 which diff^races Nature; prevents her from expand- 
 ing, and by deProying the germs of life, cuts the root 
 of fociety. Hence, man makes no exception to what 
 has been advanced. Nature, by denying him the fa- 
 culry of love, has abufcd and ccntrattcd him more 
 than any other animal." 
 
 An humiliating picture, indeed! but than which, Mr 
 Jefferfon affures us, never was one more unlike the o- 
 riginal. M. Buflbn grants, that their ilature is the 
 fame as thnt of the men of Europe, and he might have 
 admiited, that the Iroquois were larger, and the Le- 
 nopi, or Dclawarcs, taller, than people in Europe ge- 
 nerally are. But, he fays, their organs of generation 
 are fmallerand weaker thanthofeof Europeans: which 
 isnot;J/;r-/-.f/;,atleafl,tobe a fact. And as to their want of 
 beard,lhis error has been already noticed (n°5;.///^r«^. 
 <'Thcy havcnoardour forthcir females. "--It istrue, 
 they do not indulge thofe excelTcs, nor difcovcr that 
 fondncfs which are cuftomary in Europe ; but this is not 
 
 o«iugtoadcfefti;jnaiure, but to manners. The foul of America. 
 
 the Indian is wholly bent upon war. 1 his is what pro- * >/— — ' 
 
 cures him gWy among the mcn,and makes him the ad- 
 miration of the women. To this he is educated, from his 
 earliell youth. When he purlues game with ardour, 
 when he bears the fatigues of the chace, when he fuf- 
 lains and fudcrs patiently hunger and cold ; it is not fo ' 
 much for the fake of the game he purlues, as to con- 
 vince his parents and the council of the nation, that he 
 is fit to be enrolled in the number of the warriors. The 
 fongsof the women, the dance of the warriors, the 
 fage counfcl of the chiefs, the tales of the old, the tri- 
 umphal entry of the warriors returning, with fucccfs, 
 from brittle, and the rcfpcct paid to thofe who diflin- 
 guilh thenifclvcs in battle, and in fubduing their ene- 
 mies; in fliort, every thing he fees or hears tends tq 
 infpire the Indian with an ardent defire for military 
 fame. If a young man were to difcover a fondncfs for 
 women before he has been to war, he would become 
 the contempt of the men, and thefcorn and ridicule of 
 the women ; or were he to indulge himfelf with a cap- 
 tive taken in war, and much more were he to ofl'er vi- 
 olence in order to gratify hislufl, he would incur in- 
 delible difgrace. The leeming frigidity of the Ame- 
 rican, therefore, is the effeft of manners, and not a 
 defeat of nature. He is neither more dcfeftive in ar- 
 dour, nor impotent with the female, than a white man 
 reduced to the fame diet and excrcife. yj 
 
 " They raifc few children." — They, indeed, raife Why they 
 fewer children than we do ; the canfesof which are to h>ve few 
 be found not in a difTercnce of nature, but of circum- children, 
 fiance. The women very frequently attending the 
 men in their parties of war and of hunting, child-bear- 
 ing becomes extremely inconvenient to them. It is 
 faid, therefore, that they have learned the praAicc of 
 procuring abortion by the ufeofcertain vegetables; and 
 that they even tend to prevent conception for a con- 
 fiderablc time after. During thcfc panics they arc 
 cxpofed to numerous hazards, to exccfflve exertions, 
 to the greatefl extremities of hunger. Even at their 
 homes, the nation depends for food, through a certain 
 part of every year, on the gleanings of the forefl; that 
 is, they experience a famine once in every year. With 
 all animals, if the female be badly fed, or not fed at 
 all, her young perifli ; and if both male and female be 
 reduced to like want, generation becomes lefs aftivc; 
 lefs produftive. To iheobflacles, then, of want and 
 hazard, which nature hasoppofed to the multiplication 
 of wild animals, for the purpofc of reftraining their 
 numbers within certain bounds, thofe of labour and of 
 voluntary abortion are added with the Indian. No 
 wonder, then, if they multiply lefs than we do. Where 
 food is regularly fupplied, a fingle farm will (how more 
 of cattle than a whole country of forefts can of buffa- 
 loes. The fame Indian women, when married to 
 white traders, who feed them and their children plen- 
 tifully and regularly, who exempt them from cxceiFive 
 drudgery, who keep them flationary and unexpofed to 
 accident, produce, and raifc, as many children as the 
 white women. Inftances are known, under thefe cir- 
 cumftances, of their rearing a dozen children. ^j^ 
 
 Neither do they feem to be " deficient in natural of their 
 affeftion." On the contrary their fenlibility is keen, fcnfibility 
 even the warriors w'ceping moll bitterly on the lofs of &c- 
 
 their
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 561 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 Americi. their children, though, in general they endeavour to 
 
 ^ * ' appear luperior to human events. 
 
 Their fritndlhips arc ftrong, and faith fui, to the ut- 
 termoft extremity. A remarkable inllancc of this ap- 
 peared in thecafe of the late Col. Byrd, of Virginia, 
 who wasfcnt to the Chcerake nation totranfacl fome 
 bufincfswith them. It happened that fome of our dif- 
 orderly peoplo had ju(t killed one or two of tiiat na- 
 lion. It was therefore propofcd in the council of the 
 Cheerakc, that Col. B,yrd Ihould be put to death in re- 
 venge for the lofs of their countrymen. .Among them 
 was a chief called Siloiicc, who on fome former occa- 
 fion, had contracted an acquaintance and frienddiip 
 with Col. Byrd. He came to him every night, in his 
 tent, and told him not to be afraid, they Ihould not kill 
 him. /Vftcr many days deliberation, however, the de- 
 termination was, contrary to bilouce's expedlation, 
 that Byrd flioiild be put to death, and fome warriors 
 were difpatchcd as executioners. Silouee attended 
 them ; and when they entered the tent, he threw him- 
 felf between them and Byrd, and faid to the warriors, 
 " This man is my friend, before you ^et at him, you 
 jnufl: kill me." On which they returned ; and the 
 council refpedted the principle fo much as to recede 
 from their determination. 
 
 That " they are timorous and cowardly" is a cha- 
 racter with which there islittle region tocharge them, 
 when we recoiled the manner in which the Iroquois 
 
 met Monf. , who marched into their country; 
 
 in which tiie old men, who fcorned to fiy, or to furvivc 
 the capture of their town, braved death, like the old 
 Romans, in the time of the Gauls, and in which they 
 foon after revenged themfelvcs by f.ickingand dcflroy- 
 Of their ing Montreal. In ihort, the Indian is brave, when 
 courage, an enterprife depends on bravery ; education with him 
 (Sec alio makingthc pointof honour to conlifl in the dcflrui'lion 
 n°i9>60} of an enemy by ftratagtm, and in the prefervation of 
 ''/".) , hisownperfon free from injury ; or,per)iapsthisis na- 
 ture, while it is education which teaches us to honour 
 forcemore ihantinclle. He will defend himfelf againll 
 an hofl of enemies, always choofing to be killed rather 
 than to furrcnder, though it be to the whites, who, he 
 knows, will treat him well. In other lituations alio, 
 he meets deatli with more deliberation; and endures 
 tortures with a tirmnefs unknown almofl to religious 
 enthufi.Tfm among us. 
 
 Much Icfsare they to be charaiflerized as a people of 
 no vivacity, and who are excited to action or motion 
 only by the calls of hunger andthiril. Their dances, 
 in which they fo much delight, and which to a Euro- 
 pean would be the moll fcvcre excrcifc, fully coniradift 
 this ; not to mention their fatiguing marches, and the 
 toil iliey voluntarily and cheerfully undergo in their 
 military expeditions. It is true, that when at liome 
 lliey do not employ themfelvcs in labour or the culture 
 of the foil: but this,ag;iin, is the effccl of culloms and 
 manners which have alfigncd that to tlie province of 
 the women. Butit is faid, " they areaverfetofocieiy 
 and a Ibciallife." Can any thingbe more inapplicable 
 than this, toa people who always live in towns, or in 
 clans ? Or can they be faid to have no npubliqui, who 
 conduct all their atiiurs in national councils ; who pride 
 themfelvcs in their national chara(fler ; who conlider 
 an infult or injury, done to an individual by a ftranger, 
 as done to the whole, and rcfent it iccordinirly ? 
 Vol. I. 
 
 To form a juft eflimate of their genius and men- America. 
 
 tal po-vcrs, Mr Jeftcrfon obferves, more fails are ^^ ' 
 
 wanting, and great allowance is to be made for ihdfc 
 circumdances of their fituation which call for a dif- 
 play of particular talents only. This done, we (hall 
 probably find that the Americans are formed, in 
 mind as well as in body, on the fame model with the 
 hoviofapiiiis Europ^tis. The principles of their fociety 
 forbidding all compullion, tiiey arc to be led to duty 
 and to enterprife by perfonalinducnce and perfuahon. 
 Hence eloquence in council, bravery and addrefs in 
 war, become the foundations of all confcquence with 
 them. To thefc acquirements ail their faculties arc 
 directed. Of their bravery andaddrels in war we have 
 multiplied proofs, becaufe v/e have been the fubjefts 
 on which they were exercifed. Of their eminence in 
 oratory we have fewer examples, becaufe it isdifplayed 
 chierty in their own councils. Some, however, we 
 have of very fuperior luflrc. \Vc may challenge the 
 wholeorationsof Demofthcnesand Cicero, and of any 
 more eminent orator, if Europe has furnilhed more 
 eminent, to produce a fingle padage fuperior to the 
 fpeech of Logan, aMingcchief,toLordDunmorc, when g^ 
 governor of Virginia. The ftory is as follows; of which Stor)- of 
 and of the fpeech, the authenticity is unquclHonable. l.ogia. 
 In the fpring of the year 1 774, a robbery and murder 
 were committed on an inhabitant of the frontiers of 
 Virginia by two Indians, of the Shawanae tribe. The 
 neighbouring whites, aecordingtotheircuftom, under- 
 took to punilh this outrage, in a luminary way. Colo- 
 nel Crefap, a man infamous for the many murders he 
 had committed on thofe much-injured people, coUcd- 
 cd a party, and proceeded down the Kanhaway, in 
 qucflof vengeance. Unfortunately a canoeof women 
 and children, with one man only, was feen cojnir.g 
 from the oppofitc fhore, unarmed, and unfufpeciing- 
 any hoftile attack from the whites. Crefap and his 
 party concealed themfclves on the bank of the river ; 
 and the moment the canoe reached the Ihore, linirled 
 out thcirobjerts,and, at one fire, killed every perfon in 
 it. This happened to be the family of Logan, who 
 had long been dillinguilhed as a friend of the whites. 
 This unworthy return provoked his vengeance. He 
 accordingly fignalizedliimfelfin.the war whichenfued. 
 In the autumn of the fame year, a dccifive battle was 
 fought at the mouth of the Great-Kanhaway, between 
 the collected forces of the Shawanaes, Mingocs, and 
 Delawares, and a detachment of the \'irginia militia. 
 The Indians were defeated, and fued for peace. Logan, 
 however, difdained to be feen among the fuppliants; 
 but, lell the liuceriiy ofa treaty fliould be dillruftcJ 
 fromwhicli fo dillinguilhed a chief abfented himfelf, 
 he fcnt, by a mcdcnger, the following fpeech, to be dc- %i 
 livercd to Lord Danmorc : — " 1 appeal to any white Specimen 
 man to fay if ever he entered Logan's cabin hungry, of inJiso 
 and he gave him not meat ; if ever he came cold and eloi^""- 
 naked, and hcchnhed him not. During the courfe 
 of the laft long and bloody war, Logan remained idle 
 in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my 
 love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as 
 they palled, and faid, Logan is thi f'rienJ nfwkiie tmn. 
 I had even thought to have lived with you, but for 
 the injuries of one man. Col. Crefap, the laft 
 fpring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all 
 the relations of Log.in, not fparing even my women 
 4B and
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 56. ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Aiucriea. 
 
 8i 
 Other 1- 
 uecdoccs. 
 
 i'olittiKfa 
 aii>! civility 
 of the A- 
 njeric^ 
 l^iliaDs. 
 
 and children. There runs not a droj) of my blood in 
 the veins of any living creature. This called on mc 
 for revenge. I have fought it ; 1 have killed many ; 
 I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country, 
 1 rejoice at the beams of peace ; but do not harbour a 
 thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never 
 felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to fave his life. 
 Who is tlicre to mourn for Logan ? Not one." 
 
 To the preceding anecdotes, in favour of the .'Ame- 
 rican charader, may be added the following, by Dr 
 Benjamin Franklin. — The Indian men, when young, 
 are hunters and warriors ; when old, counfellors ; for 
 all their government is by the counfel oradvice of the 
 fagcs. Hence, they generally lludy oratory ; the bell 
 fpeakers having the moll inliucncc. The Indian wo- 
 men till the ground, drefs the food, nurfe and bring 
 up the children, and prefcrveand hand down topoftc- 
 rity the memory of public tranfadions. Thcfe em- 
 ployments of men and women are accounted natural 
 and honourable. Having few artificial wants, they 
 have abundance of leifure for improvement by conver- 
 fation. Our laborious manner of life, compared with 
 theirs, they efteem flavifh and bafe j and the learning 
 on which we value ourfclves, they regard as frivolous 
 and ufelefs. 
 
 Having frequent occafions to hold public councils, 
 they haveacquiredgreatorderand decency in conduc- 
 ing them. The old men fit in the foremofl rank, the 
 warriors in the next, and the women andcliildren in 
 the hindmofl. The bulinefs of the women is to take 
 cxai5t notice of what palfes ; imprint it in their memo- 
 ries, for they have no writing, and communicate it to 
 their children. They arc the records of the council, 
 and they prefervc tradition of the ftipulations in trea- 
 ties a hundred years back ; which, when we compare 
 with our writings, we always find cxaft. He that 
 would fpeak, rifes.Thcrellobfervc a profound filence. 
 When he has finilhed, and fits down, they leave him 
 five or llx minutes to recollcft, that if he has omitted 
 any thing he intended to fay, or has any thing to add, 
 he may rife again and deliver it. To interrupt ano- 
 ther, even in common converfaiion, is reckoned high- 
 ly indecent. 
 
 The politenefs of thefe lavages in converfation is, 
 indeed, carried to excefs ; fince it does not permit 
 ihem to contradia, or deny, the truth of what is af- 
 fertedin their prcfence. By ihefe means they, indeed 
 avoid difputes ; but then it becomes difficult to know 
 their minds, or what imprclhonyou make upon them. 
 The miffionaries, who have attempted to convert them 
 to Chridianity , all complain of this, as one of the great 
 difficulties of their miliion. The Indians, hear, with pa- 
 tience, the truths of the gofpel explained to them, and 
 give their ufuat tokens of alfcni and approbation ; but 
 thisby no means implies conviction : it is mere civility. 
 When any of them come into our towns, our people 
 are apt to croud round them, gaze upon them, and in- 
 commode them when they defire to be private ; this 
 they eftecm great rudencfs, and the cti'cii of the w.-»nt 
 of inllrudion in the rules of civility and good manners. 
 " We hav«," they fay, " as much curiofity as you ; 
 and when you come into our towns, we vvilh for op- 
 porrunilits of looking at you ; but for this purpofe we 
 iiideourfelves behind bulhes where you arc to a pafs, 
 and never intrude ourfclves into your company." 
 
 Their manncrof entering one another's villages has America. 
 
 likcwife its rules. It is reckoned uncivil in travelling ' — ■^ ' 
 
 Itrangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving ^|^ irliof 
 notice of their approach. Therefore, as foonas they pitaijtT. 
 arrive within hearing, they ftopand hollow, remaining 
 there till invited to enter. Two old men ufually come 
 out to them, and lead them in. There is in every vil- 
 lage avacantdwelliiig, called ihcjlrangcri-houfc Here 
 they are placed, while the old men go round from hut 
 to hut, acquainting the inhabitants that llrangcrs arc 
 arrived, who arc, probably, hungry and weary ; and 
 every one fends them w iiat he canfpare of viduals, and 
 Ikins torcpofe on. When the Grangers arerefreflied, 
 pipes and tobacco are brought ; and then, but not be- 
 fore, converfation begins, with inquiries who they arc, 
 whither bound, what news. Sec. and it ufually ends 
 with offers of fervice ; if the ftrangcrs have occafion 
 for guidcc, or any neceffaries, for continuing their 
 journey ; and nothing is exacted for the entertainment. 
 
 The fame hofpitality, cflecmed among them as a 
 principal virtue, is praflifed by private perfons; of 
 which Conrad Weifer, a celebrated interpreter of the 
 Indian languages, gave Dr Franklin the followingin- 
 flancc. He had been naturalized among thetiix Nations, 
 andfpoke well the Mohock language. Jn going through, 
 the Indian country, to carry amcliagc from our gover- 
 nor to the council at Onondaga, he called at the habita- 
 tion of Canalfetego, an old acquaintance, who embraced 
 him, fprcad furs for him to fit on, placed before him 
 lomc boiled beans and venifon, and mixed fome rum. 
 and water for his drink. When he was well refrefh- 
 ed, and had lit his pipe, Canailetcgo began toconverfc 
 with him : afked how he had fared the many years 
 fince they had feen each other, whence he then came, 
 what had occafioned the journey, &c. Conradanfwcr- 
 cd all his queflions ; and when the difcourfe began to 
 flag, the Indian, to continue it faid, " Conrad, you 
 have lived long among the white people, and know 
 fomtthing of their cufloms : I have been fometimesat 
 Albany, and have obfervcd that once in feven days they 
 fhut up their Ihops, and afTeniblcallin the great houfc^ 
 tell me wliat it is for ? — What do they do there t 
 " They meet there," fays Conrad, " to hear and 
 \c:\xn good things." " 1 do not doubt," fays the Indi- 
 an, " that they tell you fo ; they have told me the 
 fame : but I doubt the truth of what they fay, and I 
 will tell you my reafons. I went lately to Albany to 
 fell my fkins, and buy blankets, knives, powder, rum, 
 &c. You know I ufed generally to deal with Hans 
 Hanfon ; but I was a little inclined, at this time to try 
 ibmc other merchants. However, I called firfl upon 
 Hans, and aiked him what he would give for beaver. 
 He faid he could not give more than 43. a pound ; but 
 (fays he) I cannot talk on bufinefs now; this is the 
 day when we meet together to \ea.n'\ good things, and 
 I am goinr; to the meeting. So, I thought to niyfelf, 
 fince I cannot do any bulinefs to-day, I may as well go 
 to the meeting too ; and I went with him — There 
 flood up a man in black, and began to talk to the peo- 
 ple, very angrily. I did not nnderfland what he faid ; 
 but perceiving that he looked much at me and Han- 
 fon, I imagined he was angry at feeing me there ; fo 
 I went out, fat down near the houfe, flruck fire, and 
 lit my pipe, waiting till the meeting (liould break up. 
 I thought too, that ihe man had mentioned foniething 1 
 
 af
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 5^3 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 of beaver, and I fufpefted that it might be the fubjeJl 
 -" of their meeting. So when they came out, I accolkd 
 
 my merchant Well, Hans, (fays 1) 1 hope you liavc 
 
 agreed to give more than 4s. a pound ?""No,(fays he) 
 I cannot give fo much, I cannot give more than 3s. 6d." 
 *' I then fpoke to feveral other dealers, but they all 
 fung ihe fame fong, three and lix-pence, three and fix- 
 pence. This made it clear to me that my fufpicion 
 was right: and that whatever they pretended of meet- 
 ing to learn good things, the real purpofc was, to con- 
 fult how to cheat Indians in the price of beaver. Con- 
 fider but a little, Conrad, and you mufl be of my opi- 
 nion. If they met fo often to Xamgood tlimgi, they 
 certainly would have learned fomc before this time. 
 Bui they are ftill ignorant. You know our pra(5lice. 
 If a white man, in travelling through our country, 
 enters one of our cabins, wc all treat him as I treat 
 you ; we dry him if he is wet, we warm him if he is 
 cold, and give him meat and drink, that he may allay 
 his third and hunger ; and we fpread foft furs for him 
 to reft and lleep on : wc demand nothing in return. 
 But if I go into a white-man's houfe at Albany, andafk 
 for viduals and drink, they fay. Where is your mo- 
 ney .' And if I have none, they fay, Get out, you In- 
 dian dog. You fee they have not yet learned thofe lit- 
 i\c good things that we need no meeting to be inftructed 
 in ; becaufe our mothers taught them to us when we 
 were children ; and, therefore, it is impofliblc their 
 meetings fliould be, as they fay, for any fuch purpofe, 
 er have any fuch effect ; they are only to contrive the 
 cheating tf Indians in the price of beaver." 
 
 The next queftion which offers itfelf to our notice, 
 is, Whether the peculiarities of the a^or/^/z/rt/^w^r/- 
 catis, or the difparity between them and the inhabi- 
 tants of the Old- World, afford fufficient grounds for 
 determining thevi, as many eminent writers liavc 
 done, to be a race of mm radically different jrom all 
 ethers ? 
 
 In this queftion, to avoid being tedious, we fliall 
 confine ourfelves to what has been advanced by Lord 
 Karnes ; who is of opinion, that there are many dif- 
 ferent fpecies of men, as well as of other animals ; and 
 gives an hypothefis, whereby he pretends his opinion 
 may be maintained in a confiftency with Revelation. 
 "It (fays he) theonly rule aflorded by nature forclaf- 
 fing animals can be depended on, there are different 
 races of men as well as of dogs : a maftiff differs not 
 more from a fpaniel, than a white man from a negro, 
 'or a Laplander from a Dane. And, if wc liave any 
 faith in Providence, it ought to be lb. Plants were 
 created of different kinds, to fit them for ditfercnt cli- 
 mates ; and fo were brute animals. Certain it is, ihat 
 all men are not fitted equally for every climate. There 
 is fcarce a climate but what is natural to fonie men, 
 where they profper and fiourilh : and there is not a 
 climate, but where fome men degenerate. Doth not 
 then analogy lead us to conclude, that, as there arc 
 different climates on the face of this globe, fo there are 
 different races of men fit ted for thefcditiercnt climates? 
 
 " M. Buffon, fromthe rule, That animals which can 
 procreate together; and whole progeny can alfo pro- 
 create, arc of one fpecies ; concludes, that all mcnare 
 of one race or fpecies ; and endeavours to fupport that 
 favourite opinion, by afcribing to the climate, to food. 
 
 or to other accidental caufes, all (he varieties that are 
 found among men. But is lie feriourty of opinion, that 
 any operation of climate, or of other accidental caofc, 
 can account for die copper colour and fmooth chin uiii- 
 verfal among the Americans ; the prominence of the 
 pudenda univerfal among the Hottentot women, or the 
 black nipple no lefs univerfal among the female .Samoir- 
 des ? — It is in vain to afcribe to the climate, the low 
 ftatureof the Efquiniaux, the fmallnefs of their fcer, 
 tlicovergrown lizc of their heads. It is equally in vain 
 to afcribe to climate the low ftature of the Laplanders, 
 or their ugly vifagc. The black colour of negroes, 
 thick lips, flat nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell, 
 diftinguilh them from every other race of men. The 
 Abylfinians, on the contrary, are tall and well made, 
 their complexion a brown olive, features well-propor- 
 lioned, eyes large and of a fparkling black, thin lips, 
 a nofe ratlicr high than flat. There is no f^uch differ- 
 ence of climate between Abyffinia and Negro-land as 
 to produce thefe ftriking differences. 
 
 " Nor fliall our author's ingenious hypothefis con- 
 cerning the extremities of heat and cold, purcliafe him 
 impunity wiihrefpeifl to the fallow complexion of the 
 Samoiedes, Laplanders, and Greenlanders. The Fin- 
 landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate 
 not lefs cold than that of the people mentioned ; and 
 yet are fair beyond other Europeans. I fay, more, 
 there are many inftances of races of people preferving 
 their original colour, in climates very ditferent from 
 their own ; but not a (ingle inftance of the contrary, 
 as far as I can learn. 1 here have been four complete 
 generations of negroes in Pennfylvania, without any 
 vifible change of colour ; they continue jet black, as 
 originally. Thofe who afcribe all to the fun : ought to 
 conlider how little probable it is, that the colour it im- 
 prefles on the parents lliould be communicated to their 
 infant children who never faw the fun : I fliould be as 
 foon induced to believe, with a German naturalift, 
 whofe name has efcaped nie, that the negro colour is 
 owing to an ancient cuftom in Africa, of dyeing the 
 flvin black. Let a European, foryears, expofe him- 
 felf to the fun, in a hot climate, till he be quite brown; 
 the children will, ncvcrthclcfs, have the fame com- 
 plexion with thofe in Europe. From the adlion of the 
 fun, is it poflible to explain, why a negro, like a Eu- 
 ropean, is born with a rudily flan, which turns jet 
 black, the eighth, or ninth, day .'" 
 
 Our author next proceeds to draw fome arguments 
 for the exiftencc of diftcrent races of men, from the 
 various tempers and difpofitions of different nations ; 
 which he reckons to he fpectfic differences, as well as 
 thofe of colour, ftature, &c. and having fummed up 
 his evidence, he concludes thus : " Upon fummingup 
 the whole particulars, mentioned above, would one he- 
 liiate a moment, coadopt the following opinion, were 
 there no counterbalancing evidence, viz. < That God 
 ' created many pairs of the human race, differing 
 • from eacii other, both cxiernally and internally; that 
 ' he fitted thofe pairs for different climates, and placed 
 ' each pair in its proper climate ; that the pcculi- 
 ' ariiies of the original pairs were prcfervcd entire 
 ' in their dcfccndants ; who, having no afliftance but 
 ' their natural talents, were left to gather knowledge 
 ' from experience ; and, in particular, was left (each 
 < tribe) to form a languge for itlclf ; that figns were 
 4 B 2 ' fufficient 
 
 ACK
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 564 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America- 
 
 86 
 His hypo- 
 
 thcfis con- 
 cerning the 
 origin of 
 the diffe- 
 rent fpc- 
 cies. 
 
 87 
 Incom- 
 
 fietc. 
 
 ' fuflicieiit for the original pairs, without any language 
 ' but what nature fuggefts : and that a language was 
 ' form eil gradually, as a tribe increafcd in numbers, 
 ' and in dilicrcnt occupations, to make fpccch ncctf- 
 ' fary ?" But this opinion, however plauliblc, \\ c arc 
 not permitted to adopt ; being taught a dittcrent leilbn 
 by Revelation, viz. That God created but a Jingle 
 j'.iir of the human fpccits. Though \\c cannot doubt 
 the authority of Mofes, yet his account of the crea- 
 tion of man is not a little puzzling, as it fccms to con- 
 tradict every one of the facts mentioned above. Ac- 
 cording to that account, diti'crent races of men wxrc 
 not formed, nor were men formed originally for diffe- 
 rent climates. All men mufi have fpoken the fame lan- 
 guage, viz. That of our Hrft parents. And what of 
 all Items the mofl contradidory to that account, is the 
 favage flate : Adam, as Mofesinformsus, was endued 
 by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge; 
 and he certainly was an excellent preceptor to his chil- 
 dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many 
 generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men 
 unto the favage flate ? To account for that difnial ca- 
 laftrophc, mankind mufl have fuffered fonie terrible 
 convuUton. That terrible convuUion is revealed to us 
 in the hillory of the tower of Babel, contained in the 
 nth chapter of Gencfis, which is, ' That, for many 
 ' centuries after the deluge, the whole earth was of one 
 'language, and of one fpecch ; that they united to 
 ' build a city on the plain in the land of Shinar, with a 
 ' tower whofe top might reach unto heaven ; that the 
 * Lord, beholding the people '.o be one, and to have 
 'all one language, and that nothing would be re- 
 ' flrained from them which they imagined to do, con- 
 ' founded their language, that they might not under- 
 ' ftand one another, and fcattercd them abroad upon 
 ' the face of the earth.' Here, light breaks forth in 
 the midfl of all darknefs. By confounding the language 
 of men, and fcattering them abroad upon the face of 
 all the earth, they were rendered favages. And to 
 harden iheui for their new habitations, it was nccef- 
 fary that they fliould be divided into different kinds, 
 dtted for ditlcrent climates. Witliout an immediate 
 change of conflitution, the builders of Babel could not 
 pofiliily have fubfifted iu the burning region of Guinea, 
 nor in the frozen region of Lapland ; houfes not being 
 prepared, nor any other convenience to proud them 
 againll a delliut^ive climate." 
 
 We may, tirit, remark on his lordfliip's hypoihefis, 
 ' that it is evidently incomplete : for, allowing the hu- 
 man race to have been divided into different fpecits, at 
 the confufiou of languages, and that each fpecics was 
 adapted to a particular climate : by what means were 
 they to get to the climates proper for them, or how 
 were ihey to know that fuch climates exiftcd? How was 
 an American, forinllance, when languifhing in an im- 
 proper climate at Bable, to get to the land of the Ama- 
 zons, or, the banks of the Oroonoko, in his own coun- 
 try ? Or how was he to know that thefc places w ere 
 more propcrfor him thauothers f — If, indeed, we take 
 thefcripture phrafe, " The 'LoxifcaltiredlhefiiatroaJ 
 upon the face of all the earth," in a certain fcnfe, wc 
 may account for it. If we fuppofc that the different 
 fpecifs were immediately carriedoffby a whirlwind, or 
 other fupcrnatural means, to their proper coun ries, 
 
 the difficulty will vauilh : but if this is his Lordfliip's A mcricai. 
 interpretation, it is certainly a very fingular one. "^r""* 
 
 Before entering upon the conlidcration of the parti- Q^n^ral 
 cular arguments ufed by our author for proving the di- principles 
 vcrfity of fpccies in the human race, it will be proper to be kept 
 to lay down the following general piinciplcs, whicli '■> view in 
 may ferve as axioms. ( 1 ). When wc alfert a mulli- r<;af<"""g 
 plicity of fpecics in the human race ; wc bring in a fu- p"*"" '" 
 pernalural caufe to folve a natural phenomenon ; for' 
 thefc fpecics are fuppofcd to be the immediate work of 
 the Deity. (2). No pcrfon has a right to call any 
 thing the immediate cflcdt of omnipotence, unlefs by 
 cxprefs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain- 
 ty that no natural caufe is fuilicient to produce the effed. 
 The reafonis plain. The Deity isinvifible, and there 
 are many natural caufes : when wc fee an effedl, there- 
 fore, of whicli (he caufe does not manifeft itfelf, we 
 cannot know whether the immediate caufe is the Deity, 
 or an invifibic natural power. An example of this wc 
 have in the plienoniena of thunder and earthquakes, 
 wliich were olten afcribed ijuniediately to the Deity, 
 but arc now difeovered to be the effcds of eledricity. 
 (;?). No pcrfon can alFcrt natural caufes to be infulH- 
 cicnt to produce fuch and fuch clieds, unlefs lie per- 
 fectly knows all thefe caufes, and the limir<; of their 
 pow er in all polliblc cafes ; and this no man has ever 
 know n, or can know. 
 
 hy keeping in view tliefe principles, which we hope 
 are fclf-evidciu, wcwilleafily fee lord Kame's ar- 
 guments (o conlifl entirely in 2. pet it 10 principn. — In 
 fubllance, they are all reduced to this fingle fcntcnce : 
 " Natural philofophers have l)een,hitheno,unfaccefs- 
 ful in their endeavours to account for the diflcrenccs 
 obfrrved among mankind, therefore thefe differences 
 cannot be acc(uintcd for from natural caufes." 80 
 
 His Lordlhip, liowever, tells us in the paflages al- Incoonft- 
 ready quoted, that " a maitiff differs not more from a "ify '" 
 fpanicl, than a Laplander from a Dane ;" that " it is ^•"■^'^ , 
 vain to afcribe to climate the low llaiure of the Lap- J^^""-'" 
 
 landers, or their ugly vifage Yet, in a note on the ^ 
 
 Word Laplanders, he fubjoins, that, " by late accounts 
 it appears, that the Laplanders arc only degenerated 
 Tartars , and that they and the Hungarians originally 
 fprung from the fame breed of men, and from the fame 
 country." — The Hungarians are generally handfome 
 and w ell-made, like Danes, or like other people. The 
 Laplanders, he tells us, dilier as much from them as a 
 malliff from a fpaniel. Natural caufes, therefore, ac- 
 cording to Lord Karnes himfelf, may caufe two indivi- 
 duals of the fame fpccies of mankind differ from each 
 other as much as a maftiffdoes from a fpaniel. 
 
 While we arc treating this fubjed of colour, it may Remark- 
 not be amifs toobfcive, that a very remarkable diffe- ablcdifle- 
 rencc of colour may accidentally happen to individuals rcnce of co 
 of ilic fame fpecics. In the iflhmus of Darien, afingu- '""f from 
 
 lar race of men have been difeovered They arc of *'^'^'?*"'^' 
 
 low flaturc, of a feeble make, and incapable of endu- 
 ring fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk white ; not 
 refembling that of fair people among Europeans, but 
 without any blufli or fanguine complexion. Thcirlkin 
 i:. covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ; 
 tliehairof their heads, their eye-brows, and cyc-laflies, 
 are of the fame hue. Their eyes are of a fingular 
 form, and fo weak, that they can hardly bear the light 
 
 of
 
 A M E 
 
 L 565 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, 
 
 91 
 Colour no 
 char <5lcri- 
 ftic ofa dif- 
 ferent fpe- 
 cics. 
 
 91 
 Nor na- 
 ture. 
 
 • See Pata- 
 
 93 
 Diffcri nt 
 caufcs con- 
 tribute to- 
 wards an 
 alteration 
 in colour. 
 
 94 
 
 Habit capa. 
 blctif alter* 
 ing the in- 
 ftiiidof 
 animals* 
 
 iGund the 
 IVorlJ, 
 Vol. I. 
 
 of the fun ; but they fee clearly by moon-light, and are 
 iiioftaiflive and gay in the night. Among the nsgroes 
 of Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian iflands, 
 a fmall number of thofe people arc produced. They 
 arc called Albinos by the Portugucfe, and Kackerlakis 
 by the Dutch. 
 
 This race of men is not indeed permanent ; but it 
 is fuflicieni to fliow, that mere co/o/zr is by no means the 
 charafteriiUc ofa certain fpeciesof mankind. The dif- 
 ference of colour in thefc individuals is undoubtedly 
 owing to a natural caufc. To conftitutc, then, a race 
 of men of this colour, it would only be neccfl'ary th\t 
 thiscaufc, which atprefent is merely accidental, Ihould 
 become permanent, and we cannot know but it may be 
 fo in fome parts of the world. 
 
 If a difference of colour isnocharacleriflic of a dif- 
 ferent fpeciesof mankind, much lefs can adifftrence in 
 future be thought fo. In the fouthcrn parts of Ameri- 
 ca, there are Taid to be a race of men exceeding the 
 common lize in height and (Irength*. This account, 
 however, is doubted of by fome ; but be that as it 
 will, it is certain that the Efquimaux are as much un- 
 der the common fize, as the Fatagoniuns are faid to be 
 nbove it. Neverthelefs, we are not to imagine, that ci- 
 ther of thefc are fpecilic differences ; feeing the Lap- 
 landers and Hungarians are both of the fame fpecies, 
 and yet the former are generally almoft a foot ihorter 
 than the latter ; and if a difference of climate, or other 
 accidental caufes, can make the people of one country 
 a foot fhorier than the common lize of mankind, un- 
 doubtedly accidental caufes ofa contrary nature may 
 make thofe of another country a foot taller than other 
 men. 
 
 Though the fun has, mod undoubtedly, a Iharc in 
 the production of [he fwarthy colour of thofe nations 
 which are expofed to its influence ; yet the manner of 
 living to which people are accuftomed ; their food, 
 their employment, and many ot her circumllances, mull 
 alfo con tribute, not a lit tie, to a difference of complexion. 
 The more full examination, however, of ihtfe feveral 
 circumflances we rcfervc for another article. See 
 the article Complexiok. 
 
 It is allowed on all hands, that it is more eafy to work 
 a change upon the body of ,•; man, or any other ani- 
 mal, than upon his mind. A man who is naturally 
 choleric, may, indeed, learn to prevent the bad effects 
 of his paffion by rcafon, but the pillion itfclf will re- 
 main as immutable as his colour But, to rcafon in a 
 
 manner limilar to Lord Karnes ; though a man ihould be 
 naturally choleric, or fubjedl to any other paffion, why 
 Ihould his children be fo ? — This way of rcafoning, 
 however plaulible, is by no means contlulive, as will 
 appear from the following palfage in Mr Korllcr's 
 Voyage. 
 
 June 9th. " The officers who could not yet rclifli 
 their fal t prov i lions aftcrt he rcfrclhm en ts of New-Zea- 
 land, liad ordered their black dog, nientioned p. i;j, 
 to be killed : this day, therefore, we dined, for the tirll 
 time, onalcgofitroadtd ; which tailed focxaclly like 
 mutton, that is was ablblutely undiflinguilhablc. In 
 our cold co;in:ries, where animal foo<l is fo niucli ufed, 
 and where to be carnivorous, perhaps, lies in the nature 
 of men, or isindifpcnfably neccliiiry to the prefcrvaiion 
 of their health and ftrength, it is ftrangc that there 
 fliould cxilla Jewilh averliou todogs-flelli, when hogs. 
 
 the mo/1 uncleanly of all animals, are eaten without Araerira. 
 
 fcruple.Naturcfccmsexprefsly to have intended them ''~~' 
 
 for this ufe, by making tluir offspring fo very nume- 
 rous, and their increafe fo quick, and frequent. It may 
 be objected, that the exalted degree of inllinc'l which 
 we obfcrve in our dogs, infpires us with great unwil- 
 lingnefs to kill and eat them. But it is owinc to the 
 time we fpend on the education of dogs, that they ac- 
 quire thofe eminent qualities, which attach them fo 
 much to us. The natural qualities of our dogs may 
 receive a wonderful improvement ; but educition mult 
 give its aJIirtance, without which the human mind it- 
 felf, though capable of an immenfc expanlion, remains 
 in a very con;rao^cd Hate. In New-Zealand, and (ac- 
 cording to former accounts of voyages) in the tropical 
 illcs ot the South-Sea, the dogs are the m )ft Ilupid, dull 
 animals imaginable, and do not feem to have the leall 
 advantage in point of fagacity over our Ihccp, which 
 are commonly made the emblems of tillincfs. In the 
 former country they are fed upon tilh, in the latter on 
 vegetables, and both thefc diets may have fervcd to al- 
 ter their difpolition. Education may, perhaps, like- 
 wife, graft new inllinas : the New-Zealand dogs are 
 fed on the remains of their maftcrs meals ; they eat 
 the bones of other dogs ; and the puppies become true 
 cannibals from their birth. We had a young New- 
 Zealand puppy onboard, which had certainly had no 
 opportunity of tailing any thing but the mother's milk 
 before we purchafed it ; however, it eagerly devour- 
 ed a portion of the tlefli and bones of the dog on which 
 we dined to-day ; while fcvcral others of the Europe- 
 an breed, taken on board at the Cape, turned from ic 
 without touching it. 
 
 " On tiie 4th of Auguft, a young bitch, of the terrier Itii. p 143. 
 breed, taken on board at the Cape of Good-Hope, and 
 covered by a fpaniel, brought ten young ones, one ot 
 which was dead. The New-Zealand dog mentioned a- 
 bove, which devoured the bones of the roalleddog.now 
 fell upon the dead puppy, and cat of it with a ravenous 
 apjictite. This is a proof how far education may go in 
 producing, and propagating, new inilindlsin animals. 
 European dogs are never fed on the meat o{ tlicir own 
 fpecies, but rather feem to abhur it. The New-Zea- 
 land dogs, in all likelihood, are trained up from their 
 earliellagc, to eat the remains of their mailer's meals : 
 they are, therefore, ufed to feed upon iilh ; their own 
 fpecies ; and, perhaps, lunuan ficfli ; and what was on- 
 ly owing to a habit, at lirll, may iiavc become inllinifl, 
 by length of time. This was remarkable in our canni- 
 bal dog ; for he came on Iward fo young, that he coulJ 
 not have been weaned long enough to iiavc acquired 
 a habit of devouring his own fpecies, and much lefs of 
 eating human tielh ; however, one of our fearaen ha- 
 ving cut his linger, held it oat to the dog, who fell to 
 greedily, licked it, and then began to bite it." 
 
 From this account it appears, that even the inftin<51s 
 of animals are not unchangeable by natural caufes ; and 
 if thefe caufes are powerful en'uigh to chan^-e the dif- 
 politions of fucceeding general ions, much more may we 
 fuppofe them capable of making any polfiblc alteration 
 in tlie external appearance. 
 
 We are not here neceff.tatcd to confine ourfelves to cnnfirme-l 
 obfcrvaiions made on brurc animals. The Fr.mks arc byir.obrer- 
 an example of ihcproduclion of one general character, vation on 
 formed by fome natural caufe from a mixture of many the Fnnls; 
 
 differcnc
 
 A M E 
 
 Aii-erica. different nations — They were a 
 
 " ' confifting of various German nations dwelling beyond 
 the Riiiiie ; who, uniting in defence of their common 
 liberty, took thence the name of Franks ; the word 
 Jraiik fignifying in their language, as it Itill does in 
 fjiei. Among them (he following nations were 
 
 mentioned, viz. ihc Aduarii, Chamavi, Brnclcri, Salii, 
 Krilii, Chaufi, Amfwsrii, and Catti. We cannot fiip- 
 j)ofe one character to belong to fo many ditfcrent na- 
 tions ; yet is it certain that the Franks were, nation- 
 ally, characterized as treacherous. It is in vain, then, 
 to talkof dirt'ercnt races of men, cither from their co- 
 lour, (i/.e, or prcv.iiliiig dif['<)|itions, feeing we have 
 undeniable proofs that all thefe may be changed, in 
 the molt remarkable manner, by natural caufes, with- 
 out any miraculous intcrpoiition of the Deity. 
 
 .96 
 01 the pco- The queftions wliich now prefent thcmfelves to our 
 rl'"K of notice are, From what part of the Old- World America 
 Aintnca. jj^j^ „,ojj probably, been peopled ? — And how was this 
 peopling accomplilhed ? — 
 
 Yew quefltoiis in the hiflory of mankind have been 
 more agitated than thcfc. — Philofophcrs, and men of 
 learning and ingenuity, have been fpeculating upon 
 them, ever fince the difcovery of the Amcrican-lllands, 
 by Chriflopher Columbus. — But notwiihftanding all 
 the labours of Acofta, of Grotius, and of many other 
 writers of eminence, the fubjcft flill affords an ample 
 field for the refearchts of the man of fcience, and for 
 the fancies of the thcorilL 
 
 Difcovcries, long ago made, inform us, that an 
 intcrcourfc between the Old-Continent and America 
 might be carried on, with facility, from the north-weft 
 extremitiesof Europe and tlie north-eaft boundaries of 
 Afia. In the ninth century the iNorwcgians Jifcovcred 
 Greenland, and planted a colony there. The commu- 
 nication with that country, was renewed in the laft 
 centuryby Moravian miliionaries, in order to propagate 
 their doctrine in that bleak and uncultivated region. 
 By them we arc informed that the north-weft coaft of 
 Greenland is fcparatcd from America by a very narrow 
 ftrait ; that at the bottom of the bay it is highly pro- 
 bable that they are united it hat the Klquimaux of Ameri- 
 ca perfectly refemblc the Greenlandcrs, in their af- 
 97 pcci, drefs, and mode of living ; and that a Moravian 
 A comn-.u- niillionary.well acquainted with the language ofGreen- 
 mcationbc- ij,,^^ having vilitcd the country ot the Kfquimaux, 
 Old and "^ f<"^"'''> '" his aftonilliment, that they fpoke the fame 
 Niw-Con- lai'gnage with the Greenlandcrs, and were, in every 
 tiiicnt'i, by rcfpecfl, the fame people. The fame fpecics of animals, 
 two ways, too, arc found in the contiguous regions. The bear, 
 the wolf, the fox, the hare, the deer, the roebuck, the 
 elk, frequent the forefts of North-America, as well 
 as thofe in the north of Europe. 
 
 Other difcovcries iiave proved, that if the two con- 
 tinents of Afia and America be feparated at all, it is 
 only by a narrow ftrait. From this part of the Old- 
 Continent, alfo, inhabitants may have palftd into the 
 New ; and the reicir.blaiice between the Indians of A- 
 mcrica and the eaftern inhabitants of Afia, would in- 
 duce us to conjeflure that they have a common origin. 
 ' Hijhry i/This is the opinion adopted by Dr Robertfon, in his 
 Anitn^j, Hiftory of America*, where we find it accompanied 
 Vol. II. with the following narrative. 
 p. 273. << While thofe iniHicnfe regionswhich ftretched eaft- 
 
 [ 566 ] . A M E 
 
 motley muhitude, ward from the river Oby to the fea of Kamtfehatka America. 
 
 were unknown,or imperfectly explored, the north- eail " v ' 
 
 extremities of our hcmifphcrc were fuppofed to be fo 
 far diftaiit#from any part of the New-world, that it 
 wasnoteafy to conceive how any communication IhoulJ 
 have been carried im between them. But thcRutiians, 
 having fubjeiltcd the wcftern part of Siberia to their 
 empire, gradually extended their knowledge of that 
 vail country, by advancing towards the ealt into un- 
 known provinces. Thefe wcredifcovered by huntersiti 
 their excurfions aftergame, or by foluitrs employed in 
 levying the taxes ; and the court of Mufcow cftiniatcd 
 the importance of thofe countriesonly by the fniallad- 
 dition which they made to its revenue. At length, Pe- 
 ter the Great, afceiidcd the Rulliaii throne : His en- 
 lightened, comprehenlive mind, intent upon every cir- 
 cumftancc that could aggraudi^.e his empire, or render 
 his reign ill ullrious.dikcrnedconfcquciu es of thofe dif- 
 covcries, which had efcaped the obfcrvation of his ig- 
 norant prcdecellbrs. He perceived, that, in proportion 
 as the regions of Alia extended towards the eaft, they 
 inuft approach nearer to America ; that the communi- 
 cation between the two continents, which had long 
 been fearchcd for in vain, would probably be found in 
 this quarter ; and that, by opening this intercourfe, 
 fome part of the wealth and commerce of the weftcrn 
 world might be made to flow into his dominions by a 
 new channel. Such an objeft fuited a genius that de- 
 lighted in grand fchemes. Peter drew up inftruftions 
 with his own hand for profecuting this delign, and gave 
 orders for carrying it into execution. 
 
 "His fuccellbrs adopted his ideas, and purfucd his 
 plan. The officers whom the Ruffian court employed 
 in thisfervicc, had to ftruggle with fo many difficulties, 
 that their progrcfs was extremely llow. Encouraged 
 by fomc faint traditions among ihe people of Siberia 
 concerninga fuccefsful voyage in the year 1648 round 
 the north-eaft promontory of Afia, they attempted to 
 follow the fame courfc. Velfels were fitted out, with 
 this view, at different times, from the rivers Lena anil 
 Kolyma ; but in a frozen ocean, which nature feems 
 not to have deftined for navigation, they were expofcd 
 to many difafters, w ilhout being able to accomplifti 
 their purpofe. No velfel fitted out by the Ruffian court 
 ever doubled this formidable cape ; we are indebted for 
 what is known of thofe extreme regions of Alia, to the 
 difcovcries made in excurfions by land. In all thofe 
 provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great 
 extent and fertility lie at no conlidcrable diftancc from 
 their own coafts. Thefe the Ruffians imagined to be 
 part of America ; and fcveral circumftances occurred 
 not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per- 
 fuading them that fome portion of that contiuent could 
 not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknown 
 in thofe naked regions of Afia, are driven upon the 
 coaft by an eaftcrly wind. By the fame wind floating 
 
 ice is brought ihitiier in a few days ; flights of birds 
 arrive annually from the fame quarter ; and a tradition 
 obtains among the inhabitants, of au intcrcourfc for- 
 merly carried on with fome countries lituatcd to the 
 eaft. 
 
 " After weighing all thefe particulars, and compa- 
 ring the pofition of the countries in Afia which they 
 haddifcovcred, with fuch parts in thenorth-weft of A- 
 mericaas were already known; the Ruffian court form- 
 ed
 
 America- 
 
 Rcafnn for 
 fuppoling 
 the two 
 cuntincnts 
 to have 
 licen once 
 joined. 
 
 99 
 Probable 
 
 caafe of 
 their fubfc' 
 ijucnt fcpa' 
 cation. 
 
 A M E [567 
 
 ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any 
 nation Icfs accuflomed to engage in arduous underta- 
 kings, and to contend with great difficulties. Orders 
 were ilTucd to build two vclTcls at Ockotz, ia the 
 fea of Kamtfchatka, to fail on a voyage of difcovery. 
 Though that dreary uncultivated region furnilhcd no- 
 thing that could be of ufe in conllructing them but 
 fonie larch-trees ; though not only the iron, the cor- 
 dage, the fails, and all the nunicrous articles rcquifite 
 for their equipment, but the provilions for victualling 
 them, were to be carried through the immcnfe Jefarts 
 ofSiberia,alongriversofdifficult navigation, and roads 
 almoflimpallable, the mandate of the fovcrcign, and 
 the perfeveranceof the people, at lallfurmountcd eve- 
 ry obftacle. Two vcflcls were tiuilhcd; and, under the 
 command of captains Behring and Tfchirikow, failed 
 from Kamtfchatka in queft of the New-World, in a 
 quarter where it had never been approached. They 
 fliaped their courfe towards the eafh ; and though a florm 
 foon feparatcd the veflels, which never rejoined, and 
 many difalters befel them, the expeftations from the 
 voyage were not altogether fruftrated. Each of the 
 commanders difcovered land, which to them appeared 
 to be part of the American continent ; and, according 
 to their obfcrvations, it feems to be lituatcd within a 
 few degrees of the north-weft coatt of California. Each 
 ftt fome of his people afliore : but in one place the in- 
 habitants fled as the Ruffians approached; in another, 
 they carried offthofc wholanded, and deftroyed their 
 boats. The violence of the weather, and the diitrefsof 
 their cresvs, obliged bothioquit this inhofpitablecoaft. 
 In their return they touched at feveral illands, which 
 flrctch in a chain from eaft to weft between the country 
 which they had difcovered and the coaftof Alia. They 
 had fome intercourfe with the natives, who feemcd to 
 them to referable the North-Americans. They pre- 
 fented to the Ruffians the calumet, or pipe of peace, 
 which is a fymbol of friendlhip univerfal among the 
 people of North-America, and an ufage of arbitrary 
 inftitution peculiar to them." 
 
 The more recent and accurate difcoveries of that il- 
 Uiftrious navigator Cooke, and of his fucceflbr Gierke, 
 have brought the matter ftill nearer to certainty. The 
 fea, from the fouth of Beh ring's Straits to the crefccnt 
 of ides between Afia and America, is very ffiallow. It 
 deepens from thefc flraits (as the Britilh feas do 
 from thofe of Dover) till foundings arc loft in the Pa- 
 cific-Ocean ; but that does not take place but to the 
 fouth of the iiles. Between them and ilie Jlraits is 
 an increafe from 1 2 to 54 fathoms, except only off St 
 Thaddeus-Nofs, where there is a channel of greater 
 depth. From the vulcanic dil'pofition, it has been 
 judged probable, not only that there was a feparation 
 of the continents at the ftraiis of Behring, but that 
 the whole fpace from the illes to that fmall opening 
 had once been occupied by land ; and that the fury of 
 the watery element, actuated by that of tire, had, in 
 mofl remote times, fubvcrtcd and overwhelmed tlie 
 traft, and left the illands to ferve as monumental 
 fragments. 
 
 Without adopting all the fancies of Buffon, there 
 
 can be no doubt, as the Abbe Clavigero obferves, that 
 
 ■our planet has been fulijed to great viciffitudes fincc 
 
 ■ the deluge. Ancient and modern hiftories contirm the 
 
 truth whichOvid has fung in the name of Pythagoras : 
 
 ] 
 
 A M £ 
 
 FiJi ego quodfuirat quondam fotidij/ima tillui, 
 Effi jrituin ; -jidiJraHas SK trquorc terras. 
 
 At prefent, they plough thofe lands, over which (hips 
 formerly Lilcd, and now they fail over lands which 
 were, formerly, cultivated : earthquakes have fwaliow- 
 ed fome lands, and fubterraneous fires have thrown up 
 others : the rivers have formed new foil with their 
 mud : the fea, retreating from theIhores,has lcni»then- 
 cd the land in fome places, and advancing inotlicrs has 
 diminiffied it ; it has feparated fome territories which 
 were formerly united, and formed new flraits and 
 gulphs. We have examples of all thefc revolutions in 
 the paft century. Sicily was united to the continent 
 of Naples, as Eubca,now the Black-Sea, was to BcEoiia. 
 Diodorus, Strabo, and other ancient authors, fay tlic 
 fame thing of Spain, and of Africa, and affirm, that by 
 a violent eruption of the ocean upon the land between 
 the mountains Abyla and Calpe, that communication 
 was broken, and the Mediterranean-Sea was fojrmed. 
 Among the people of Ceylon there is a tradition that 
 a fimilar eruption of the fea feparated their illand from 
 the peninfula of India. The fame thing is believed by 
 thofe of Malabar with refpectio the illes of Maldivia, 
 and with the Malayans with rcfped to Sumatra. It 
 is certain, fays tlie count de BatFon, that in Ceylon 
 the earth has loft 30 or 40 leagues, which the fea has 
 taken from it ; on the contrary, Tongres, a place o£ 
 the Low-Countries, has gained 30 leagues of land from 
 the fea. The northern part of Egypt owes its exift- 
 ence to inundations of the Nile. The earth which 
 this river has brought from the inland countries of A- 
 frica, and depolited in its inundations, has formed a 
 I'oil of more than 25 cubits of depth. In like manner, 
 adds tlic above author, the province of the Yellow- 
 River in China, and that of Louifiana, have only been 
 formedof the mud of rivers. Pliny, Seneca, Diodorus, 
 and Strabo, report innumerable examples of limilar 
 revolutions, which we omit, that our dilfertation may 
 not become too prolix ; as alfo many modern revolu- 
 tions, which are related in the theory of the earth of 
 the Count de Butfon and other authors. In South-A- 
 merica, all thofe who have obferved with philofophic 
 eyes the peninfula of Yucatan, do not doubt that that 
 country has once been the bed of the fea ; and, on the 
 contrary, in the channel of Bahama, many indications 
 Ihow the illand of Cuba to have been once united to 
 the continent of Florida. In the ftrait which fcparates- 
 America from Alia many idandsare found, which pro- 
 bably were the mountains belonging to that traft of 
 land which we fuppofc to have been fwallowed up by 
 earthquakes ; which is made more probable by the 
 multitude of volcanoes which we know of in the penin- 
 fula of Kamtfchatka. It is imagined, liowever, that 
 the finking of that land, and the feparation of the two 
 continents, has been occafioncd by thofe great and ex- 
 traordinary earthquakes mentioned in the hiftories of 
 t he Americans, which formed an a-raalmort as memora- 
 ble IS that of the deluge. The hiftories of the Toltecas- 
 fix fuch earthquakes in the year I Tecpatl ; but as we 
 know not to what century that belonged, we can form 
 no conjccUirc of the time that great calamity happened. 
 If a great earthquake (hould ovcrvvliclm theirthniusof 
 Scuz, and there Qionld be at die fame time as great a 
 fcarcity of hiftorians as there were in die firft ages 
 
 afxr 
 
 America.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 56S ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 100 
 ?e|iarat<;d 
 only by a 
 narrow 
 ftrai:. 
 
 lOI 
 j^nrmcfs of 
 t!iL p-ifTige 
 brtwicii 
 them. 
 
 <\njcc- 
 tUri^l coii- 
 cerninjc the 
 fiirt migra- 
 tions into 
 the Ncw- 
 Coutiiicnt. 
 
 in.! 
 iMr Pen- 
 nant's 
 nion. 
 
 ")•'■ 
 
 104 
 
 Thelvj'U of 
 i;s inha1)i- 
 fants pre. 
 !)3bly firft 
 received 
 from liie 
 eallern part 
 of ACa, 
 
 after tlif deluge, it would be doubted, in 300 or 400 
 years after, whether Alia had evti' been united by that 
 part to Afiita , and many would lirnily deny it. 
 
 \\ lielhcr that gixn event, the feparation of the 
 continents, took |il.icc before or after the population 
 of America, it is inipollible for us to deteriiui\e : but 
 we are indebted to the abovenieiuioned navigators for 
 fettling the lonj; difpuie about the point from which it 
 was eif'eiiteil. Their obfcrvaiions prove, that in one 
 place the dillance between continent and continent is 
 only 39 milts, not (as the author of the Rcchirch.s 
 Philo/uJ-hiqius fur la Atixricaim would have it) 800 
 leagues. This narrow ftrait lias alfo in the middle 
 twoillands, which would greatly facilitate the migra- 
 tion of the Afiatics into the New- Woiid,fuppofnig tliat 
 it took place in canoes after tlic convuUion which rent 
 the two continents afundcr. Belides, it may be ad- 
 ded, that thefe llraits are, even in the fumnier, often 
 filled witii ice ; in winter, often frozen. In either 
 cafe, mankind might find an eafy palfage ; in the lail, 
 the way was extremely ready for quadrupeds to crofs 
 andilock the continentof America. But where, from 
 the vafl expanfc of the north-eaUcrn world, to fix on 
 the firft tribes who contributed to people the New- 
 Continent, now inhabiied alinoll from ei;d to end, is .1 
 matter that baffles human reafon. Tiic learned may 
 make bold and ingenious conjciftures, but plain good 
 fenfe cannot always accede to them. 
 
 As mankind iucreafed in numbers, they naturally 
 protruded i>:ie another forward. Wars might be an- 
 other caufe of migrations. There appears no reafon 
 why the Aliatic north might not be an ufficina vtrorum, 
 as well as the European. The overteeming country, 
 to the eaft of the Ripha;an Mountains, mull find it ne- 
 celfarytodifcharge its inhabitants : the firft; great wave 
 of people was forced forward by tlie next to it, more 
 timiid and more powerful than itfclf : fuccellive and 
 new impulfescontinually arriving, fiiort rcll was given 
 to that which fprcad over a more eallern trad ; dinurb- 
 cd again and a^ain, it covered frelh regions ; at length, 
 reaching the fartlieft limits of the Old-World, found a 
 new one, with amjile fpace to occupy unmolcftcd for 
 ages ; till Columbus curled them by a difcovcry, which 
 brought again new lins and new deaths to both worlds. 
 
 " The inhabitants of the New-World (Mr Pennant 
 obfcrves), do not confill of the offspring of a fingle na- 
 tion: different people, at ft veral periods, arrived there, 
 a:id it is inipollible to I'ay, that any one is now to be 
 found on the original fpot of its colonizaiion. It is 
 inipolFible, with the ligjits which we have fo recently 
 received, to admit that .'\merica could receive its in- 
 habitants (at Icaft the bulk of them) from any other 
 place than Eaftcrn-Afia. A few proofs may be added, 
 taken from cnftoms or drelfcs common to the inhabi- 
 tants of both worlds : fome have been long estinc."! in 
 the old, others remain in both in full force. 
 
 " The cnftom of fcalpiug was a barbarifin in ufe 
 with thcScythians,whocarriedabout lhem,atall times, 
 this fav.ige mark o! triumph : they rut a circle rour.d 
 the neck, and ftrippcd off the fkin, as they would that 
 ofanox. A little image, found among the Kalmucs, 
 of a Tartarian deity, mounted on a liorfc, and fitting 
 on a human fkiu, with fcalps pendant from the brcafl, 
 fully illuftratcsihc cuflom of theScyihian progenitors, 
 asdcferibed by the Greek hillorian. Tliis ufagc, as 
 
 we well know, by horrid experience, is continued 
 to this Csi^'j in America. The (erocity of the Scythi- 
 ans to their prifoncrs extended to the reniotcll jiart of 
 Alia. The Kanufcliatkans, even at the time of their 
 difcovcry by the Ivuliians, put their prifoners 10 death 
 by the mofh lingering and excruciating inveniioiis ; 
 a pratticc in full force to this very day among the abo- 
 riginal Americans. A race of the Scythians were fty- 
 led /'liilhi iipoph.igi, from their feeding on human flelh. 
 The people of Noolka Sound Hill make a repafl on 
 their fellow-creatures; but what is more wonderful, 
 the lavage allies of the Britilliarmy have been known 
 to throw the mangled limbs of the French prifoncrs 
 into the horrible cauldron, and devour them with the 
 fame relilh as thofc of a quadruped. 
 
 " Tiic Scythians were laid, for a certain time, an- 
 nually to transform themlelves into wolves, and again 
 to refinic the human Ihape. The new difcovered A- 
 mericans about Nootka-Sound, at this time, difguife 
 themfelvcs indreifcs made of the (kins of wolves, and 
 oriier wild beads, and wear even the heads fitted to 
 their oun. Thefe habits they ufe in the chace, to 
 circumvent the animals of the field. But would not 
 ignorance or fuperllition afcribc to a fupernatural me- 
 tainorpholis thefe temporary expedients to deceive 
 the brute creation ? 
 
 " In tlicir marches, the Kanitfchatkans never went 
 abreaft, but followed one another in the fame track. 
 The fame cullom is e.xadH? obfcrvcd by the Ame- 
 ricans. 
 
 "■ The Tungufi, the molt numerous nation rcfidcnt 
 in Siberia, prick their ficcs with fniallpunclnres, with 
 a needle, in various fliapes ; then rub into them char- 
 coal, fo that the marks become indelible. This cullom 
 is Aill obferved in feveral parts of America. The In- 
 dians on the back of Hudfon's Bay, to this day, per- 
 form the operation c.xadly in the fame manner, and 
 punflure the fkin into various figures ; as the natives 
 of New-Zealand do at prefent, and as the ancient Bri- 
 tons did with the herb glaftuni, or woad ; and tlic 
 Virginians, on the firfl difcovcry of that country by 
 the Engliflt. 
 
 " The Tungufi ufe canoes made of birch-bark, di- 
 flendcd over ribs of wood, and nicely fowed together. 
 TIic Canadian, and many other American nations, nfe 
 no other fort of boats. The paddles of the Tungufi, 
 are broad at each end ; ihofc of the people near Cook's 
 river, and of Oonalafclia, arc of ihe fame form. 
 
 " In burying of the dead, many of the .American 
 nations place the corpfe ai full length, after preparing 
 it according to their cufioms ; others place it in a fit- 
 ting pofture, and lay by it the mofl valuable cloaih- 
 ing, wampum, and other matters. The Tartars did 
 the fame : and both people agree in covering the 
 whole with earth, fo as to form a tumulus, barrow, 
 or caruedd. 
 
 "Some of iiic American nations hang their dead 
 in trees. Certain of the Tungufi obferve a (imilar 
 cuflom. • • 
 
 " We can draw fome analogy from drcfs ; convcni- 
 ency in that article niuft have been confulted on both 
 continents, and originally the materials niufl have been 
 tlie fame, the fkius of birds and beafls. It is fingular, 
 that the conic bt-nnct of the Chincfe fhoukl be found 
 among the people of Nootk,). I cannot give into the 
 
 notion. 
 
 America. 
 
 105 
 Proofsfrom 
 a fimilarity 
 of culloir«, 
 &c. 
 
 IS6 
 
 Ciiftoius 
 and drclTcs 
 ciimmon to 
 the eiftern 
 Afiatic3 & 
 the Amcri- 
 cans.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 569 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 108 
 
 tie brute 
 nation 
 igrateJ 
 the fame 
 ute. 
 
 intion, tliat the Chincfe contributed to tlie population 
 ' of the New-World ; but we can readily admit, that a 
 Oiipwrcck might furnifli thofc Americans with a pat- 
 tern tor that part of the drcfs. 
 
 " In reffcit to the features and form of the human 
 body, almo/l every tribe fojiad along the wcflern coall 
 has fomc limilitude to the Tartar nations, and, ftill, 
 retain the little ryes, fmall nofcs, high cheeks, and 
 broad faces. They vary in lize, from the Infly Cal- 
 jnucs to the little Nogniana. The internal Ameri- 
 cans, fiich as the Five-Indian nations, wlio are tall of 
 body, robuil in make, and of oblong faces, are deri- 
 ved from a varictyaniong tiie Tartars themfrlves. The 
 fine race of Tfchutiki fccms to be the flock from which 
 thofc Americans are derived. The Tfchut*ki, again, 
 from that line race of Tartars the Kabardiniki, or in- 
 habitants of Kabarda. 
 
 " But, about Prince William's-Soand begins a race 
 chiefly dillinguilhed by their drcfs, their canoes, and 
 their inftrumcnts of the chace, from ihc tribes to the 
 fouth of them. Here commences the Efquimaux peo- 
 ple, or the race known by that name in the high lati- 
 tudes of the eaftcrn fide of the continent. They may 
 be divided into two varieties. At this place, they arc 
 ofthclargcfl (ize. As they advai*rc northward, they 
 deereafc in height, till they dwindle into the dwsrfilh 
 tribes which occupy fome of the roalls of the Icy-Sea, 
 and the maritime pans of Hndfon's- Bay, cf Greenland, 
 and Terra de-Labrador. The famous Japanefc map 
 places fomc illands fremingly within the flraiis of Behr- 
 ing, on which is beftowcJ the title of Ta-Zue, or the 
 Kingdom of the Dwarfs. Does not this in fome man- 
 Ker authenticate the chart, and give us reafon to fup- 
 pofc thst America was not unknown to the Japanefe ; 
 and that they had (as is meniioncd by Kirmpfcr and 
 Charlevoix) made voyages of difcovcry, and, accord- 
 ing to the hft, aflually wintered on the continent ? 
 That they might have met with the Efquinianxisvery 
 probable ; whom, in compsrifon of themfclves, they 
 might judly diflinguifh by the name ol diuarfs. The 
 reafon cf their lev/ Aature is very obvious : thefe 
 dwell in a mofl fcvcre climate, amidft penury of food ; 
 the former in one much more favo'irable, abundant in 
 provilions ; circumflances that trnd to prevent the de- 
 generacy of ihc human frame. At the ill ind of Oona- 
 lafcha,a dialeftofthc Kfquimaux is in ufc, which was 
 continued along the whole coaft from thence north- 
 ward." 
 
 The continent which ftocked America with the hu- 
 man race, is fuppofed, by Mr Pennir.t, to have pour- 
 ed in the brute creation, throu;;h the fan-e paliage. Ve- 
 ry few quadrupeds continued in thepeninfula of Xamt- 
 fchatka ; Mr Pennant enumerates only 75 which are 
 inhabitants of land : all the reft perlifled in their mi- 
 gration, and f xed their rclldcncc in the New-World. 
 Seventeen "f the Kanufchatkan qnadrupeils arc found 
 in America : others arc common only to Siberia, orTar- 
 tary, having, for unknown caufcs, entirely evacuied 
 Kamifthaika, and divided themfclves between America 
 and the parts of Afia above cited. Multitudes, again, 
 have dcfcned the OK'-World, even to an individual, 
 and rixed their feats at dillances mofl remote from the 
 f|H.tfrom which they took theirdepariurc ;frommourt 
 Ararat, the rrfting-place of the srk, in a cerural part 
 of tlie OKI-World, and excellently adapted furthedif- 
 V'oi.. I. 
 
 perlion of the animal creation, 10 all its parts. "We .'Vtrerit*. 
 
 need not be flartled (fays Mr Pennant) at the vail « 
 
 journeys many ofthe quadrupeds took 10 arrive at their 
 prefents feats. Might not numbers of fpccies liave 
 found a convenient abode in the vafl alps of Afia, in- 
 ftead of wandering to the Cordilleras of Chili ? or 
 might not others have been contented wiih the bound- 
 lefs plains of Tartary, inftead of travelling ihoufands 
 of miles to the extenlive flats of Pampas ? To endea- 
 vour to elucidate common difficulties is certainly a trou- 
 ble worthy of the philofopher, and of the divine ; not 
 to attempt it would be a criminal indolence, a nc- 
 gleft to 
 
 Vindicate the ways of God to man. 
 
 But there arc multitudes of points beyond the human 
 ability to explain, and yet arc truths undeniable : the 
 facls are indifputable, notwiihftanding the caufe? arc 
 concealed. In fuch cafes, faith mult be called in to 
 oar relief. It would, certainly, be the height of folly 
 to deny to tliat Being who broke open the great foun- 
 tains of the deep to effeft the deluge — and aftcr- 
 v.-ards, to compel the difpcrfion of mankind to peo- 
 ple the globe, direfled the confufion of languages — 
 powers iiifcrior in their nature to thefe. Af'cr ihefc 
 wondrous proofs of omnipotency, it will be sbfurd to 
 deny the polTibility of infufing infiinct into iLc brute 
 creation. Deui ejt anima bmt:ri;- ; " God himfelf is 
 the foul o'f brutes :" hispUafurc mull have dtteniiincd 
 their will, anddiredled feveral fpccies, ard even whole 
 genera, by impulfe irrefiflible, to move by (low pro- 
 grcffion to their deHined regions. But for that, the lla- 
 ma and the pacos might Hill have inhabited ihc heights 
 of Armenia, and fcnne more mijihbouring Alps, in- 
 f^cad of labouring to gain ihediHaiit Peruvian-Andes; 
 the whole genus of armadillos, (low of fgot, would 
 never have quitted the torrid-zone of the Old-World 
 for that of the New; and the v\ hole tribe of monkeys 
 would have gamboled together in the forefts of India, 
 inilead of dividing their re/idcnce between the fliades 
 of Indoftan, and the deep forcfls of theBrafds. Lioni 
 and tigers m'ght have infefled the hot parts of the 
 New- World, as the firft do the deflirtsof Africa, and 
 ilic lall the provinces of Afia ; orthc pantlerine ani- 
 mals of South-America might have remained addition- 
 al fcourges with the'favagc beallsof thofc ancient con- 
 tinents. The Old-World would have bet n ovcrfiock cd 
 wiihanimals; the Newrcmainrd an unaniniated wade! 
 or both have contained an equal portion of every beall 
 of the earth. Let it not be objcvTcd, that animals 
 bred in a fouthern climaie, after the dcfcent of their 
 parents from the ark, would be un;bletobcar thefro/l 
 and fnow of the rigorous north, before they readied 
 South-America, the place of their final dellinaiion. It 
 muft be confidercdj that the migration nnift have been 
 the work of ages; that in the courfe ofiheir progrefs 
 each generation grew hardened to the climate it had 
 re;'ched; and that, aftertheirarrival in America, they 
 would again be gradually a(;cuflomed to warmer and 
 warmerclimatcs, in their removal from north to fouth, 
 as they had in the revcrfe, or from fouth to north. 
 Pr.rt of the tigers Ilill inhabit the eternal fnows of A- 
 rarat, and multitudes of the very fame fpecics live, 
 Ihu with cx.iltcd rage, beneath the line, in the burn- 
 ing foil of Borneo, or Sumatra ; but neither lions or 
 4 C tigers
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 570 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, tigcrs ever migrated into the New-World. A few of 
 
 >- — u tiic firfl art lound in iudia and Pcrlla, but they ai*c 
 
 found in luinibt rs only in Africa. The tiger extends 
 as far norih as weflcrn Tartary, in lat. 40. 50. but 
 never lias reached America." 
 
 In line, the coiijcfturesof the learned rcfiieftingthc 
 vicinity of tlic Old and New-World are now, by the 
 difcovci its erf late great navigators, loft in conviction ; 
 and, in tlic place of imaginary hypotlicfcs, the real 
 place of migration is almodiucontrovertibljipointc J out. 
 ionie (from a pallage in I'lato) have extended over the 
 AtLntic, from the (Iraits of Gibraltcr to the loafl of 
 North and South -America, an illand equal in lizetothc 
 continents of Alia ajid Africa ; over which had paffed, 
 as over a bridge, from the litter, men and animals ; 
 wool-htaded negroes, and lions and tigers, none of 
 which ever exiftcd in tlie Ncw-\\'orld. A mighty fea 
 arofc, and, in one day and night, eiigulphed tliisftu- 
 pcndous nii\, and with it every being which liad not 
 completed its migration into America. 'I'hc whole ne- 
 gro race, and almoft every quadruped, now inhabi- 
 tants of Africa, periflied in this critical day. Fiveeuily 
 are to be found, at prtfcnt, in America ; and of thcfc 
 only one, the bear, in Sonth-America: Not a fingle 
 cuftom, common to tlie naiives of Africa and America, 
 to evince a common origin. Of the quadrupeds, the 
 bear. Hag, wolf, fsx, and weefcl, are the only ani- 
 mals which we can pronounce, with certainty, to be 
 found on each continent. The ftag, the tux, and the 
 ivecfel, have made, alfo, no farther progrefs in Africa 
 than the north ; but on the fame continent the wolf is 
 fpread over every part, yet is unknown in South-Ame- 
 rica, as arc the foxand weefel. In Africa and in South- 
 America the bear is very local, being met with only 
 in the north of the firft, and on the Andes in the laft. 
 Some eai)fe unknown arrcifed its progrefs in Africa, 
 and impelled the migration of a few into the Chilian- 
 Alps, and induced them to leave unoccupied the vaft 
 trad from North-.'\mcrica to the lofty Cordilleras. 
 
 n '°.' r AUafions have often been made by travellers and 
 Remains of , , • • a • 1 • u j 
 
 antinuit' ill Others, to fonie remains 111 America which appeared to 
 America, owe their original to a people more intimately acquaint- 
 ed \.ith the arts of life than \\ic favagt tribes which 
 inhabited this continent on its firft difcovery by the 
 Europeans, or than thofc which are,at pn. fen t, feat ter- 
 tdthrough various parts of its extent. Inafmallwork, 
 ]>':blilhcd in London, in 1 73?, entitled Ol'fervat.oiii on 
 fovie farts oj natural hijhry ; to which is fnfixed, an 
 account of ftveral rentarkabU vejiigcs oj an ancimt 
 date, -which have he:n difcovered in different farts of 
 jimerica. I'art I. the author has cuUce^ed the featter- 
 td hints of Kalin, of Carver, of Kilfon, and fome o- 
 ther travellers, and writers ; and has added a plan and 
 defcription of a regular work, whicli he fuppofes to 
 liave been a i'ortificution, that has been difcovered near 
 the eonflnencc of the rivers Ohio and Mufkinguni. 
 The remains deferibed, or alluded to, in this publica- 
 tion, are eh rraftcrs, or fingular marks, which were 
 f.ippofcd by fome JefuitSj who examined them, to be 
 Tartarian ; furrows, as if the land had been plouglied ; 
 a fioncwall ; mounels of earth, of difi'trent forms and 
 fizcs ; earthen walls, and ditches, &c. 
 
 The mounds of earth are fuppofed, by the author, to 
 have been defigncd for different purpofes: i\\ti fvialUr 
 ones arc, evidently, tumuli, or repofitories of the dead ; 
 
 and, he thinks, the larger ones, as that at Grave Creek Ar 
 (a branch of tbc Ohio) ; many which are to be fcen in ^- 
 AUxico, and in other parts of America, were intend- 
 ed to fervc as the bafcs of temples. 
 
 The nioll curious pan of tliis little work is the de- 
 fcription, together with the plan, of the fuppofed for- 
 tification, above alluded to. It is lituated on the eaft 
 fide of the river Mulkingum, about half a mile above its 
 juniflion with the river Ohio, nearly in the latitude of 
 39. 21. and about i 70 miles below Fort-Pitt, at the 
 confluence of the rivers Alleghany an 1 Monangahe- 
 la. The town, as it has been fonictimes called, is a 
 large level, encompail'ed by walls of a tetragon form ; 
 occupying a piece of ground about one quarter of a 
 mile fquare. Thefe walls arc from fix to ten feet in 
 height, and from twenty to forty feet in thicknefs. 
 They arc, at prcfcnt, overgrown with vegetables, of 
 different kinds, and, amongothcrs, with trees, fome of 
 which are of a very conliderable diameter. Each fide 
 of the walls is divided, by tliree chafms, or openings, 
 intofour, nearly equal, parts : thefe ehafnis are diredtly 
 oppofitc to each other. Within the walls there arc 
 three elevations ; the largeft of thefe is of an oblong 
 form, 74 yards long, 44 yards broad, and 6 feet in 
 heiglit : the fecond is nearly of a iimilar form, jo 
 yards long, and 40 broad : the third is, alfo, an oblong 
 mount, but much fmaller. Belidcs thefe three eleva- 
 tions, there is a finall circular mount, placed nearly in 
 the centre of four fmall caves ; and a " femi-circular 
 parapet," which, it is not improbable, may have been 
 defigncd to guard one of the chafms, or openings: tiiis 
 parapet has a fmall mount. The author obferves, that 
 the three elevations " confiderably refemblc fome of 
 '•■ the eminences which have been difcovered near the 
 " river Millifiippi," of which he has given an ac- 
 count in his publication. 
 
 The fortifications (for a diftinflion has been made 
 between them a)id the tcnvn, but we cannot fee with 
 w hat great propriety )are nearlyof the fame form as the 
 town. The walls have here, alfo, openings : and at 
 each of ihcfe openings there is one, or more of the 
 fmall circular mounts. 
 
 The pyramid is one of the inoft confpicuous parts of 
 thefe lingular remains. It is of a circular form ; 50 
 feet in height; 390 feet in circumference ; and is fur- 
 rounded with a ditch, 5 feet deep, and i j feet wide : 
 externally to the ditch there is a )'arapet, which is 759 
 feet in circumference. " The pyramid, as well as 
 «' the eminences and walls, is now covered wiih gralfes, 
 " andother kinds of vegetables." Bcfides thcfc, there 
 are ftveral other eminences, of which we do not think 
 it ncceilary to take any notice, in this place. 
 
 The author's opinion concerning thefe remains is 
 this ; that they owe theirorigiual to " iheToltecas,or 
 fome other Mexican nation," and that thefe people 
 were, probably, the dcfcendants of the Danes. The 
 firll member of this lO/.y-fl/z/cappears not improbable, 
 ifweconlider the fimilarity of the Mexican mounts and 
 fortification?, deferibed by Torquemada, by the Abbe 
 Clavigcro, and by oiher authors, to thofe of which our 
 author has publil):cdan account ; and, alfo, if we confi- 
 dcr the tradition of the Mexicans, that they came from 
 the north-weft, in which trael great numbersof iJiefe 
 remains have been difcovered. As to the fecond mem- 
 ber of this corjciflure, wc think it but feebly f>ipportcd ;■ 
 
 aUhougli
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 57' J 
 
 A M E 
 
 no 
 The anci 
 
 although we are not ignorant tint Grotins and oilitr 
 writers have endeavoured to prove, tiiat ilic northern 
 nations of Europe had, aiSinlly, foinc intcrcourfc with 
 America, long before the time of Columbjs. See n* 
 112. itijra. 
 It is believed, by many, thst the ancients had fotne 
 ents I'uppo- iiTiperfcrt notion of the New- World ; andfcveral anci- 
 feil to have ^.^^ authors are quoted in confirmation of this opinion. 
 'm /"A Inabjok, afcribed to thcphilolopher Ariftotle, we arc 
 not on of a ^°^'^ '^at the Carthaginians difcovered an i'land, far be- 
 new world, yond the pillars of Hercules, lar^e, fertile, and finely 
 watered, with navigable rivers, but uninhabited. This 
 ifland was diflant a few days failing from the conti- 
 nent : its beauty induced the difcovercrs to fettle there ; 
 but the policy of Carthage dillodgcd the colony, and laid 
 ftrict prohibition on all the fubjccfs of the Hate not to 
 attempt any future cllablilhment. This account is 
 alfo confirmed by an hillorian of no mean credit, who 
 relates, that the Tyrians would have fettled a colony 
 on the newly-difcovcred illand, but were oppofed by 
 the Carthaginians, for Hate rcafons. The following 
 pairage has been quoted, likewife, from Seneca's Me- 
 d:a^ in confirmation of this notion. 
 
 Venlint annis 
 
 Sxculajeris, quibiis oceanus 
 Vircula rtruin laxet, ir higfiis 
 Pattat telliii, Typhtfqus /lovts 
 Delegat orbes : iicc jit terrii 
 
 Ultima Tkuh. 
 
 Act. iii. ver. 375. 
 
 I'retcnfions The \VcI(h, fondly, imagine tbattheircountry con- 
 jf the tributcd, in 1170, to people the New-World, by the 
 A'elfli to adventure of Madoc, fon of Owen Gwyuedd, who, on 
 he difco- tj^g jfjti] of his father, failed there, and colonized part 
 'try o A"oft]jg country. It is pretended that Madoc made two 
 
 he I it-h 
 entury, 
 
 voyages : that failing well, he left Ireland fo far to 
 the north, that he came to a land unknown, where he 
 faw many ftrange things ; that he returned home, and, 
 making a report of the fertility of the newly-dilcovcred 
 country, prevailed on numbers of the Wellh, of each 
 fcx, to accompany him, on a fecond voyage, from which 
 he never returned. The favourers of this opinion af- 
 fcrr, that feveral Wellh words, (viz\\isg'jiraiido, " to 
 hearken, or liflen ;" the ille of (7ro<yo,or "welcome;" 
 Cape' Breton, from the name of the Brililh-i(hnd ; 
 g-uiyiina'ivr, or " tlie white water ;" and />//;^':y///, or 
 " the bird with a white head ;" are to be found in the 
 American language. But likentfs of found, in a lew 
 words, will not be deemed fumcicnttoellabiilhthcfacl ; 
 efpccially if t!ie meaning his been evidently pervert- 
 ed : frr example, (he whole piiiguin tribe have, unfor- 
 tunately, not only black heads, but arc not inliabilants 
 of tiie northern hemifphcre ; the name was alfo bellow- 
 ed on them by the Dutch, <i/)/«(^.v."(/;/.f, from thtlr ex- 
 cellive fatnefs. It may be added, that the Wellh were 
 never a naval people ; thst the age in which Madoc li- 
 ved was peculiarly ignorant in n-.'vi;;aiici;i ; and the 
 mofl which ihey could have attempted mull have been 
 a mere coaQing voyage. 
 
 The Norwegians pat in fori fliare of the glory, on 
 groundsrathcrbetterthan (he Wellh. By ihtir lettlc- 
 uHshcttcr ]j,rn,s in Iceland, and in Greenland, they had arrived 
 wiihui fofmalladillaaccof the New- World, that there 
 
 112 
 
 'hole of 
 he NorwC' 
 
 is a probability of its having been toicbcd at by a people Airerifi. 
 
 foverfedin maritime affairs, and fo adventurous, asthc ' " 
 
 ancient Nortmans were. The proofs are much mor; 
 numerous than thofe produced by the Britilhhillvrians; 
 forthedifcovcry is mentioned in feveral of the Iceland, 
 ic manufcripts. The period wasabout the year 1002, 
 when it was vilitcd by one Biorn ; and the difcovery 
 purfued to greater efFeclby Leif,thefonof Eric,thc dif- 
 coverercfGrcenland.lt does not appear that they reach- 
 ed farther than Labrador; on which coaft they met wit li 
 Efquimaux, on whom they beftowed the mmtoi Skrx- 
 lingiiei, or dwarfilli people, from their fmall flaiure. 
 They were armedwiih bows and arrows, and had leath- 
 ern canoes, fucii as tiiey have at prtfeut. All this i« 
 probable; nor fliould the tale of the German, called 
 Turktl, one of the crew, invalidate the account. He 
 was, one day, milling ; but foon returned, leaping and 
 Tinging, withall the extravagant marks of joy a btnvi- 
 p<7/.'r could Ihow, on difcovering ihe inebriating fruit of 
 his country, the grape : Torf<Kus even fays, that he 
 returned in a Ilaie of intoxication. To convince hi* 
 commander, he brought feveral bunches : and the 
 country, from that circumflance, was named ^//.7a/v./. 
 There appears no reafon to doubt of the difcovery; 
 it is thought probable, however, that thcfe peAplj 
 reached no farther than the barren country of Labra- 
 dor. In fhort, it is from a m.uch later period that w c 
 muil date the unequivocal difcovery of America. 
 
 Towards the clofc of the i jih century, Venice and -j-jj^ pf,. 
 Genoa being rivals in commerce, in which tl e former jc<a. of 
 had greatly ihefiipcriority.ChrillopherColon.nrColum. ei rifio- 
 bus, a native of Genoa, conceived a project of iViling to P^er Cj- 
 ihe Ealt-Indies by directing hiscourfewellward. This '"'"b'^'- 
 delign "vas founded upon a miflakeof the geographer?, 
 of thole days, who placed the eaHcrn parts of Alia im- 
 menfcly too far to ihe eaftward ; fo that had they been 
 in the right, the fliortefl way would have been to 1^:1 
 directly weilward. Columbus applied, Hril, to his o\\ .1 
 countrymen ; but being rejected by thcni, he applied 
 to Portugal, where he met with no better fuccefs. 
 Spain was his next refourcc : here, after eight yeari 
 attendance, he obtained, in 1^93, a ilcet oftlireelhij -. 
 The largeft, a ihip <f noconliderable burthen, was con:- 
 mandcd by Columbus, as admiral, whogaveit the nan-.c 
 of Santa Maria, outof refpcift for the bltlfed Virgin, 
 whom he honoured with lingular devoiio:i. Ofihe fe- 
 cond, called the /'//7/<7, Martin Piiizon wascipr^in.an J 
 his broiher Francis pilot. The third, named the A'/^/:-', 
 was under the command of Vincent Yanez Finzon. 
 Thefe two were light velTcls, hardly fuperiorin bur- 
 den, or force, to large boats. This fquadron,ifit nieriu 
 th.1t name, was viclualled lor i j months, and had o;i 
 board 90 men, moftly failors, together with a few ad vcr- 
 turers.who followed the fortune of Columbus, and fome 
 gentleman of Ifabella's court, whom ihe appointed to ac- 
 company him. Though the cxpence ofthe iindertakin ; 
 wasoncof the circumllances which chief'y alarmed the 
 court of Spain, and retarded, fo Ion g, the iiegociaiio'i 
 with Columbus, the funi employed in fitting out this 
 fquadroii did not exceed 4C00I. As C< lunibus wr,s 
 deeply imprelTed w ith fentimcnts of religion, he would 
 not fet out upon an expedition fo arduous, and i)f which 
 one greatobjcil was to extend the knowledge ofthc 
 Chriflian faith, without imploring, publicly, thegui- 
 4 C 2 dance
 
 A M E 
 
 [ ST- ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. Jaiice and protct^ioii of Heaven. With this view, 
 
 '~~~^ he, togcthtr wiijiall the pcrluiis under liis command, 
 
 marched, in I'oknni proctllioii, to the moualUry ollla- 
 bida. .Alur cuiittlling their lins, and obtaining ab- 
 ibhition, they reccivcU the hjly fucrament I'rom ilic 
 hands of liie guardim, who joined liis prayers to 
 tlicii s for the fuccefs of an euicrprifc which he had fo 
 zcaloufly patronized. 
 
 Next Uioruing, being Friday, the third day of Aii- 
 giift, in the year I.t92, Columbus fet f.iil, a little bc- 
 114 fore fun-rife, in prtfcnce of a vaR crowd of fpcclators. 
 Ills voyage who fent up their fupplications to Heaven for the pro- 
 fperous ilfuc of the voyage, which ihcy wiflied, rather 
 tliaiiexpcded. Columbus Ilccred, dircdly, fortheCa- 
 iiary-Illa!:ds, and arrived there without any occurrence 
 that would have deferveil notice on any other occafion : 
 but, ill a voyage of fuch cxpcftation and importance, 
 every circumftance was the objccf of attention. The 
 rudderof the l^inta broke loolc, the day after (lie left 
 the harbour, and that accident alarmed the crew, no 
 Iffs fuperditious than unikilfiil, as a certain omen of 
 the unfortunate delVmy of the expedition. Even in 
 the Ihort run to the Cauuics, the Ihips were found to 
 be fo crazy, and ill appoiiued, as 10 be very improper 
 for -a navigation which was cxpedlcd to be botli long 
 and dangerous. Columbus refitted them, however, to 
 the bellof his power; and having fiipplicd himfelfwith 
 frefh provilions, he took his departure from Gomera, 
 one of themofl weftcrlyof the Canary-lllands, on the 
 lixth day of September. 
 
 Here the voyage of difcovcry may properly be faid 
 to begin ; for Columbus, holding his courfe due well, 
 left, immediately, the ufual track of navigation, and 
 flretchcd into unfreciucntcd and unknown fcas. The 
 lirlt day, as it was very calm, he made but little way ; 
 but on the fecond he lofl ligiit of the Canaries; and 
 many of the failors, already dejcftcd and difmaycd, 
 wheii they contemplated the boldnefs of the underta- 
 king, began to beat their brcafts, and to (lied tears, as 
 if they were never more to behold land. Columbus 
 comforted them with alfuranccs of fuccefs, and the 
 profpecl of vail wealth, in thofe opulent regions whi- 
 ther he was conducing them. He regulated every 
 thing by his fole authority ; he fuperintended the exe- 
 cution ofcvcry order; and, allowing himfelf or.ly a few 
 liours tor flecp, he was at all other times upon deck. 
 As his courfe lay through feas which had not, formerly, 
 been vilited, the fouuding-linc, orinllruments for ob- 
 fcrvation were continually in his hands. After the 
 example of the Portuguefc difcoverers, he attended to 
 the motionof tides and currents, watched the tiight of 
 birds, the appearance of filhcs, of fca-weeds, and of c- 
 very thing that floated on the waves, and entered eve- 
 ry occurence, with a minute exaflncfs, in the journal 
 ■w hicli he kept. As the length of the voyage could not 
 fail of alarming failors habituated only to fliortexcur- 
 fions, Columbus endeavoured to conceal from ihcm 
 the real progrefs which they made. With this view, 
 though they ran 18 leagues the fecond day, after 
 tliey left Gomera, he gave out that they had advanced 
 only I 5, and he, uniformly employed the fame artilite 
 of reckoning (liort, during the whole voyage. By the 
 J 4lh of September, tlie fleet was above 2co leagues to 
 the wcftoftheCanary-lllcs. There they were ftruck 
 viih oR appearance, no Icfs allonilhing than new. 
 
 They obfervcd that the magnetic needle, in their com- Amciiia- 
 pall'cs, did not point exactly to the polar liar, but vari- ' ^j* ' 
 cil towards the well ; and, as they proceeded, this va- /i^Hunfu,. 
 riation increafed. This appearance, v;hich is now n„.nt occa- 
 familiar, though it flill rcm.iins one of the myllerics Goiieil hy 
 of nature, into the caufc of which the fagacity of man cblcrving 
 hath not been able to penetrate, (illcd the companions ''" vani.- 
 of Columbus with terror. They were now in a bound- "°'' " , 
 lels, unknown, ocean, far from the ulual courleot navi- 
 gation ; nature itfelffcemed to be altered, and the only 
 guide which they had lel't was about to fail them. C(<- 
 lumbua, with no lefsquicknefs than ingenuity, inven- 
 ted a rcafon for this appearance, whicl , though it did 
 not fatisfy himfelf, feenird fo plaufible to them, that it 
 difpelled their fears, or lilenced tlicir murmurs. 
 
 He Hill coniiinied to fleer due weft, nearly in the 
 fame latitude with the Canary-lllands. In this courft, 
 he came within the fpherc of the tradr-wind, which 
 blows, invariably , from t aft to wefl,brtwecn tli c tropics, 
 and a few degrees beyond them. He advanced before 
 this fleady gale with fuch uniform rapidity, that it was 
 feldom ncceliary tofhit'ta fail. When about 400 leagues 
 to the weft of the Canaries, he found the fea fo covered 
 with weeds, that it refembled a meadow of vail extent; 
 and in fomc places they were fo thick, as to retard the 
 motion of the velfels. 'Ihis ftrange appearance ocea- 
 lloncd new alarm and difquiet. The failors imagined 
 that they were now arrived at the utmofl boundary of 
 the navigable ocean ; that thefe floating weeds would 
 obftruct their farther progrefs, andconcealed dangerous 
 rocks, or fome large traft of land, which had funk, 
 they knew not how, in that place. Columbus en- 
 deavoured to pcrfuade them, that what had alarmed, 
 ought rather to have encouraged them, and was to be 
 confidered as a lign of approaching land. At the fame 
 time, a brifk gale arofc, and carried them forward. 
 Several birds were fcen hovering about the fliip, and 
 direfted their flight towards the weft. The defpond- 
 ing crew refumcd fome degree of fpirii, and began to 
 entertain frefii hopes. 
 
 Upon the firft of Odtober they were, according to 
 the admiral's reckoning, 770 leagues to the well of 
 the Canaries : but, left his men fliould be intimidated 
 by the prodigious length of the navigation, hcgaveout 
 that they had proceeded only 584 leagues ; and, fortu- 
 nately for Columbus, neither his own pilot, nor thofe 
 of the other fliips, had Ikill fuflicient to corrcft this 
 error, and to difcover the deceit. Tjiey had, now, been 
 above three weeks at fea : they had proceeded far be- 
 yond wh.it former navigators had attempted, or deemed 
 poflible : all their prognoftics of difcover) , drawnfrom 
 the riiglit of birds, and other circumftances, had prov- 
 ed fallacious: the appearances of land, with which their 
 own credulity, or the artificeof their commander, had, 
 from time to time, flattered andanuifed them, had been 
 altogether illulivc, and their i>rofpc6l of fuccefs feemed 
 now to be as diftant as ever. Thefe refledlions occur- 
 red often to men, \\ ho had no other objeft, or occupa- 
 tion, than to reafon and to difcourfe concerning the in- 
 tention and eircumftanccs of their expedition. They 
 made imprellion, at firft, upon the igjiorant and timid, 
 and extending, by degrees, to fuch as were better in- 
 formed, or more refolute.t hccontagion iprcad, at length, 
 from (hip to Jhip. From feeret whifpers and murnuir- 
 jngs, they proceeded to open cabals and public com- 
 plain::;.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ S72, ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 ii6 
 
 Perilous 
 fituation 
 
 America, plaints. They cnxcd their fovercigiiwiihiiiconfidcr.ite 
 
 ' ^^— ' crcduHty, in paying fiich rc};in.l to the v:iiii proniifcs 
 
 and rafli conjedurcs of "an indigent foreigner, as to ha- 
 zard the lives of i"o many of her own Uibjc(5ts, in profc- 
 cuting a chimerical fcliemc. They affirmed that they 
 had fully performed their duty, by venturing fo far in 
 f^n unknown and hopdefs courfe, and could incur no 
 Llaine, for refuting to follow, any longer, a dcfpcratc 
 advcuturer to certain deftrudion. They contended, 
 :hat it was necelfary to think of returning to Spain, 
 while theircrazy velfels wercftill ina condition to keep 
 the fca,but expreflcd their fears that thcattiyppt would 
 prove vain, as the wind, which had hitherto been fo 
 favourable to tlieir courfe, muft render it inipofliblc to 
 fail in tlie oppofiic dircclion. All agreed that Colum- 
 bus Ihould be compelled by force to adopt a nieafurc on 
 which their common fafcty depended. Some of the 
 more audacious propofcd, as tlic moll expeditious and 
 certain method for ^^ettingrid, at once, of liis remon- 
 flrances, to throw him into the fea ; being perfuaded 
 that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an un- 
 fuccefsful projcdor would excite little concern, and 
 be inquired into with no curiofity. 
 
 Columbus was fully fcnfible of his perilous fituation. 
 He had obferved, with great unealinefs, the fatal ope- 
 ration of ignorance, and of fear, in producing difaffcc- 
 r tion, among liis crew ; and faw that it was now ready 
 Columbus, to burll out into open mutiny. He retained, however, 
 perfed prefencc of mind. He afFeded to feem igno- 
 rant of their machinations. Notwithflanding tlic agi- 
 tation and folicitude of his own mind, he appeared 
 with a ehcarful countenance; like a man fjtisRcd wi:h 
 the progrefs whicli he had made, and confident of fuc- 
 cefs. Sometimes he employed all the arts of infiiiu- 
 ation tofoothc his men. Sometimes he endeavoured to 
 work upon their ambition, or avarice, by magniticent 
 defcriptions of the fame and wealth which they were 
 about to acquire. On other occafions, he aii'umed a 
 toneofaut]iority,and threatened them v;ith vengeance 
 from their fovereign, if, by their daftardly behaviour, 
 they ihould defeat this noble effort to promote the glo- 
 ry of God, and to exalt the Spanilh name, above that 
 of every other nation. Even with feditious failors,the 
 words of a man, whom they had been acciiflomtd to 
 reverence, were weighty and perfuafive ; and not only 
 reftrained them from thofe violent excelfes which tlicy 
 meditated, but prevailed with tliem to accompany 
 their admiral for fome time longer. 
 
 As they proceeded, the indications of approaching 
 land fecincd to be more certain, and excited hope in 
 proportion. The birds began to appear in flocks mak- 
 ing towards the fouih-wcit. Columbus, in imitation 
 of the Portuguefc navigators, who had been guided in 
 feveral of tlicir di'fcoveries by the motion of birds, al- 
 tered his courfe from d'jc weft to'.vards that quarter 
 whither thry pointed their flight. But after hoKliiig 
 on for feveral days in this newdiredion without any 
 better fuccefs than formerly, having fecn no object 
 during ;o days but the fca and the fky, the hopes of 
 his companions fubliJtd faftcr than they Iiad rifenj 
 their fears revived with additional force ; impatience, 
 rage, and defp.iir, appeared in every countenance. All 
 fenfeof fuboidiiiation was loft. The officers, who had 
 liithcrto concurred with Columbus in opinion, and fu|i- 
 ported his authority, now took pan with tl.'e private 
 
 "7 
 His crew 
 
 ready to 
 iiiutiiiy, 
 
 men: they ailemblsd, tumultuoully, on the Jcck, ex- America. 
 
 populated v/ith their com;nandcr, mingled tlircats witli * •' ' 
 
 their cxpoilulations, and required hi.v. i.Tila.itly to tack 
 about, and to return to Europe. Coluaibus perceived 
 tliat it would be of no avail to have recoarfc to any of 
 his former arts, which having been tried fo often had 
 loft their cfieii ; and that it v.'as inipofliblc to re-kindlc 
 any zeal for the fuccefs of the expedition among men 
 in whofc breafts fear had cxtiiiguiihed every generous 
 fcntiment. He faw tliat it was no Icfs vai:i to think 
 of employing either gentle or fevcrc meafures, toqjcll 
 a mutiny fo general and fo violent. It was ncceflary, 
 on all thcfe accounts, to foothe pafl'ions which he could 
 no longer command, and to give way to a torrent too 
 impetuous to be checked. lie proniifed, foltmnly, to 
 his men, that he would comply with their rcqueft, jiro- 
 vided they would accompany him, and obey his com- 
 mands for three days longer, and if, durin^^ that time, 
 land were not lilfcovercd, he would then abandon the 
 entcrprife and direct his courfe towards Spain. 
 
 Enraged as the failors were, and impatient to turn 
 their faces ag^in towards their native country, this 
 ))ropolition did not appear to them unreafonable. Nor 
 did Columbus hazard much in confining himfclf toa 
 term fo Ihort. The prefages of difcovcringland were 
 luiwfo numerous and promiling, that he deemed ihcm 
 infallible. For forne days the founding li.ie had reach.-d 
 the bottom, and the foil which it brought up indicated 
 land to be at no great diftance. The flocks of birds 
 increafed; and were compofed not only of fea fowl, 
 but of fuch land-birds as could not be fuppofed to Ay 
 far from the (liore. The crew of the I'inta obferved a 
 cane floating which fcemed to be newly cut, and like- 
 wife a piece of timber artilicially carved. Tlie failors 
 aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree, with 
 red berries, perfectly frelh. The clouds around tiic 
 fetting fun alFumed a new appearance ; the air was 
 more mild and warm; and, during night, the wind , 
 
 became unequal and variable. Kroni ail tliefc fymp- 
 toms, Columbus was fo eonfidi nt of being near land, 
 that, on the evening of the nth of October, after pub- 
 lic prayers for fuccefs, he ordered the fiils to be fur- 
 led and the ihips to lie by, keeping ftricl watch, left 
 tliey iliould be driven alhore in the night. During 
 this interval of fufpence and expectation, nomanlhut 
 his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards 
 that quarter where they expeded to difcover the land, 
 which had been fo long the objed of their wil'ies. 
 
 About two hours before midnight, Columbus' ftand- j,g 
 ing on the forccaftle, obferved a light at a diilance. Their joy 
 and privately pointed it out to Pedro Gulticrcz, aondefcry- 
 pagcof the queen's wardrobe. Guiticrcz perceived it ; ''E '^ud. 
 and calli ng to Salcedo.comptroUer of the iicei, all three 
 faw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to 
 place. A little after midniglit, the joyful found of 
 Land! land! was heard from the Pinta, which kept al- 
 ways a-head of the other Clips. But having been fo 
 often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man 
 was now become llowof belief ; and waited, in all the 
 anguilh of uncertainty and impatience, for the return 
 of day. As foon as morning dawned, all doubts and 
 fears were difpclled. From each ihip, an iilaiid was 
 fcen about two leagues to the north, whofe Hat and 
 verdant titlds,well ftored w ith wood, and watered with 
 many rivulets, prcfeiucd the afpcct of a dilightful 
 
 country.
 
 A M E 
 
 AtiK ri-i. counrry. Tkc crew of ihc Pima inftanily begun die 
 ' " ' Ti D-rnm, as a hyiuii of tluuikfj^iving to GuJ ; aiij 
 were joined by ihofc of tlie other ihips, with tears of 
 joy anJ tvaiiijiorts of congratulaliuii. This office of 
 gruriiiiJe to Heaven was follow eJ by an aclof juflicc 
 tothtircommanilcr. They threw iheinftlvcsat the feet 
 of Columbus, with feelings offrlfcon<icmi!alion ining- 
 leJ wi'.li riverciicc. Thty inijilorcd him to pardon 
 their ignorance, incrcdiiliiy, and iiifolcnce, which had 
 created liini fo much unncceilary difquict, and had (o 
 often obllruc'led the profccution of his wcll-conccrtej 
 \Ai'M and palfing, in the warmth of their admiration, 
 from one extreme to another, they now pronounced 
 the man whom they had fj lately reviled, and threat- 
 ened, to be a perfon infpired by Heaven, with fagact- 
 ty and fortiuide more than human, in order to accom- 
 pli.h a dtlign fo far beyond the ideas and concepiion 
 of all former ages. 
 
 Asfoon as the fun arofe, all their boats were man- 
 ned and armeil. They rowed towards the iiland with 
 their colours difplaycd, with warlike mulic, and other 
 narlial poinp. As they approached the coafl, they 
 faw it covered with a multitude of people, whom tiic 
 Thcv'l'nd "°^<^''y o' 'li* fpedlaclc had drawn together, whofc 
 in one of attitudes and gelhircs fxprclfed wonder and aftonilh- 
 the :flanJ5 nicrt,?.t the flrangeobjetts which prefented thcn)ftlvcs 
 oft he N't w- to till ir view. Columbus was ihc firfl European who 
 World. f([ foot in the New- World, which he had difcovered. 
 He landed in a rich drefs, and with a naked fword in 
 his hand. His men followed ; and, kneeling down, 
 they all killed the ground which they had fo long de- 
 (Ired to fee. They, next, eredled a crucifix ; and,pro- 
 (traliiig ihcmfelves before it, returned thanks to God 
 for ronduiJiing their voyage to fuch an happy iinie. 
 
 Theabovc was oneofthe Baliama-Illands ; to which 
 
 he gave the name of San Salvador, and took pollcllion 
 
 of ir, in the name of their Catholic majcfiies. In this 
 
 Jirll voyage he difcovered feveral other of the Lncayo, 
 
 or Bahama-Iilands, with thofcof Cubaand Kifpaniola. 
 
 The natives conlidered the Spaniardsas divinities, and 
 
 the difcharge of the artillery their thunder : they fell 
 
 prollrate at the found. The women, however, offered 
 
 their favours, and courted the en.braces of their new 
 
 guellsasinen. 1' heir hulLands were notjcalousofihem; 
 
 li'.d in the arms of thofe wantons the companions of 
 
 Cilumbiisare faid.by fjmeauthorSjto have caught that 
 
 malai'y which dirccis its poifon to the fprings of life. 
 
 In a fecond voyage, many new iilands were difcovered. 
 
 In a third, he attained the great ohjecT: of hisambiiion, 
 
 1:0 l^y difcovcring the coninent of America, near the 
 
 Thcconti- mouth of the river Oronooko, on the tirftday of Au- 
 
 ni-iit iftir- guft 1498. His fucccfs produced a crowd of adventur- 
 
 wards dif- j-rs, from all nations; but the year before this, the 
 
 eovtrcd, northern continent had been difcovered by Scbaflian 
 
 Cabot, in the fcrvicc of Henry VII. of England. 
 
 Notwithrtanding the many fettleinents of the Euro- 
 peans in this coi.tir.eiit, great part of America remains 
 f.ill unkmnvn. The northern con. inent contains the 
 III Briiilh colonies of H>idfon*s-Bay, Canada, and Nova- 
 OiviHon of Sco.ia ; the .Vcw- England flatcs,fs'tw- York, New- Jer- 
 Aai.rica, ^^j^ Penifylvania, Maryland, Virgir.ia, North and 
 South, Carolina, and Georgia. It contains, alfo, the 
 Spanifll terri torics of Eall, an J Weft, Florida, Louiliana, 
 New-Mexico, California, and Mexico. Befidcs thcfc, 
 there are inimenfe regions 10 the wefl, and north, the 
 
 [ 574 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 boundaries of which have ne very ct been difcovered. In .Amcrici. 
 
 fuch asarc in any degree known, dwell the Efqiiitn.iiHC, ' •■'—' 
 
 thcAlgonquins,theHurons,thcIroquois,thcCliccrake, 
 tiieChickafaws, and many other tribes of Indians. In 
 the fouthern continent lie the Spanilh provinces of Ti- 
 erra-Firme, Ciuiana.Ptru, Paraguay, and Chili ; toge- 
 ther with that of Bralil, belonging to the I'ortiiguefc ; 
 and the country of Surinam, belonging to the Dutch. 
 Vart tracts, however, in the inland parts, are iinknowi;, 
 beingcomprehended under the general name of .Ima- 
 zo/iia. A large didrid, alfo, laid to be the relidencc of 
 a gigantic race of men, lies on the eafl fide of the con- 
 tinent, between the (Iraitsof Magellan and the pro- 
 vince of Paraguay. Seethe article Patagonia. 
 
 This vail country produces many of the metals, mi- jij 
 nerals, plants, fruits, trees, and wood, to be met with its produc- 
 in the oilur parts of the world, and many of them in tions. 
 greater quantities, and in high perfeclion. The gold 
 and (ilver of America have fupplied Europe with fuch 
 immenfe quantities of tliofc valuable metals, that they 
 are become vaftly more common ; fo that the gold and 
 lilvcr of Europe now bear little proportion to the high 
 price fet upon them before the diftovery of America. 
 
 It alfo produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, aine- 
 thyfts, and other valuable llones, which, by being 
 brought into Europe, have contributed, likewifc, to 
 lower their value. To thefe, which are chiefly the 
 produflions of Spanilh America, may be added a great 
 number of other commodities, which, though of left 
 price, are of much greater ufe. Of thefe are the plen- 
 tiful fuppliesof cochineal, indigo, anatto, logwood, bra- 
 zil, fuflic, pimento, lignum vit«, rice, ginger, cocoa, 
 or the chocolate nut, fugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas, 
 red-wood, the balfams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that 
 valuable article, in medicine, thejefuit'sbark, inecho- 
 acan, fair.ifras, farfaparilla, callia, tamarinds, hides, 
 furs, ambergrifc, and a great variety of woods, roots, 
 and plants ; to w hich, before thedifcovcry of America, 
 the Europeans were either entire flrangers, or which 
 they were forced to buy at an extravagant rate from 
 Alii and Africa, through the hands of the Venetians 
 and Gcnocfe, who then cngrolled the trade of the 
 Eaflern-World. 
 
 On this continent there grows alfo a variety of ex- 
 cellent native fruits ; as pine-apples, citrons, lemons, 
 oranges, malicatons, figs, grapes, great numbers of 
 culinary, medicinal, and other herbs, roots, and plants, 
 with many exotic productions, which are nourilhcd 
 in as great perfcdlion as in tlicir native foil. 
 
 Although the Indians llill live in t'le quiet pofTcfrion .j-j,^ diffcr- 
 ofinany large trails,. ■America, fo far as known, is chief- ^m polTcf- 
 ly claimed, and divided into colonies, by three Euro- fors of A- 
 pean nations, the Spaniards, Englifli, and Portnguefe. incrii-a. 
 The Spaniards, as they tirfl difcovered it, have the 
 hrgefland richeft portion,extendingfromNew-]\!exi- 
 coand Louifiana, in North- America, to the firaits of 
 Magellan, in the Souih-Sea, excepting the large pro- 
 vince of Bralil, which belongs to Portugal ; for though 
 the French and Oitcii have fome forts upon Surinam 
 and Guiana, they fc.ir'ely deferve to be confiJercd as 
 proprietors of any part of the fouthern continent. 
 
 Next to Spain, the moft conlider^ble proprietor of 
 America was Great Britain, who derived her claim to 
 North-America from the fird difcovcry of that conti- 
 nent by Sebaflian Cabot, in the name of Henry VII. 
 
 filH.O
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 575 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, anno li,^'), about fix years aficr the the difcovcry of 
 
 ■*— ^^ South-America by Cohiinbus, in the name of the king 
 
 of Spain. This country was in geiicrjl called Nc^u- 
 loundiar.d ; a name which is now appropriated foltly to 
 an illand upon its coaft. It was a long time before the 
 Englilh made any attempt to fettle in this country. Sir 
 Walter Halcigh, an uncommon genius and a brave com- 
 niander, firft ihowed the way, by plantinga colony in 
 the fouthcrnpart, which he culled / /--^////a, in honour 
 of his virgin miflrefs Qutcn Elizabeth. 
 
 The French indeed, fioni this period until the con- 
 clulionof the war before lafl, laid a claim to, and ac- 
 tually poirelfed, Canada and Louiliana ; comprehending 
 all that extenlivc inland country reaching from Hud- 
 fon's-Hay, on the north, to Mexico and the gulph of 
 the fame name, on the fouth. But, in that war, they 
 were not only driven from Canada and its dependen- 
 cies, but obliged torclinquifhall that part of Louiliana 
 ,1^ lying on the eail lide of the MillUIippi, as related under 
 Vaft extent the Htjlnry oj Brit/IIs. And thus the Britilli colonies 
 of the Bri- were prcfcrved, fecured, and extended fofar,as to ren- 
 tifh poflVf- dcr it difficult toafccrtain theprecife boundsof empire 
 C.ms before jn Is'orth America. To the northward they migh t have 
 volution. " extended their claims quite to the pole itfilf, nor did 
 any nation fccni inclined to difpute the property of this 
 iiothernmoft country \\ ith them. From that extremi- 
 ty they had a territory extending, fouthward, to Cape 
 Floridaiu the Gulph of Mexico, N. Lat. 35°, and con- 
 sequently near 4000 n.iles long in a dircifk line. And 
 to the wcftward, their boundaries reached to nations 
 , unknown even to the Indians of Canada. 
 
 Of the revjl'.uion that has fince taken place, by 
 i\hich a great part of thofc territories has been torn 
 from the Britifli empire, the hillory foUowsin thcncxt 
 article. 
 
 IJ5 
 Rife of the 
 American 
 republic, 
 
 126 
 
 Sta:e and 
 charader 
 ef the uri- 
 tidicolonies 
 at the end 
 of the war 
 
 j^MERtc/i, {United States of). Of the rife and efta- 
 blilhment of this republic, which has given a new face 
 to the weftexn world, a fuccinct and impartial narrative 
 Ihallinthisartidebeattempted ; in which, however, we 
 cannot hope entirely to avoid errors, as they arc per- 
 haps unavoidable. The accounts from which the hif- 
 torian muft derive his information are not yet cleared 
 from the niillakcsof prejudice and the fabrications of 
 j'arty ; when liiey diti'er, their comparative authenti- 
 city is with dilficuliy afcertained ; and they want, a- 
 bove all, that foftening which they can receive from 
 time atone. 
 
 The beginnings, even of the mofl celebrated poli- 
 tical inftitiiiions oftheold world, are generally invol- 
 ved in fable and obfcurity : T he barb runs manners of 
 favagf tribes in the early and iincultivatt^J Aate of fo- 
 ciety, renders the reftarchcs of the liiiiorian painful 
 and unfatisfaftory. V ery different were the circum- 
 ftanccs which gave birth ta this new rcp.iblic, which 
 at a future period, bids fair tofurpafs even thefplendor 
 of Rome. 
 
 The Hate of the Hriilli colonies at the conclufion of 
 the war in 1 76;,w.is fuch as attraiJt<rd theattention of 
 all the politicians in iiuropc. Their ihmrilliiug condi- 
 tion at that period was remarkable and ftrikiui; ; their 
 trade had profpered inthc niidll of all the ditfi.nilties- 
 and di ftrclTcs of a wir in which they were fo near 
 ly and fo immediaitly cinccrned. Their population 
 continued oil the iucreafc,notwithllaii(ling the ravages 
 
 and depredations that had been fo fiercely carried on Amerce 
 
 by the French, and the native Indiansiu theiralliancc. ' ^'— 
 
 They abounded with fpiritcd and aftive individuals of 
 all denominations. They were flufiicd with the un- 
 common profperity that had attended them in their 
 commercial atfairi and railitary tranfaflions. Hence 
 they wcrcready for all ki.id of undertakings, ildfavv 
 no limits to their hopes and cxpcftations. 
 
 As they craertained the highcftopinioaof their va- 
 lue and importance, and of the inimcnfc benefit that 
 Britain deiivtd from iiS connctijii with them, their 
 notions were adequately high in their own favour. 
 They deemed themfclves, not without reafm, entitled 
 to every kindncfsand indulgence which the raothcr- 
 cojntry could be flow. 
 
 Although thfcir prctenfuns did not amount to a 
 perfe(S equality ofadvantagcs and privileges in matters 
 of commerce, yet in thofc of g .vernmeiit they thou/ht 
 themfelves fully competent to the tafi: of coiidujtiig 
 their domeftic concerns, with little or no interference 
 from abroad. Though willing to admit the fuprcmacy 
 of Great Britain, they viewed it with a fifpicioas eye, 
 and with a marked defirc to rcllrain it within its firici 
 conftiiutional boundaries. 
 
 Their improvements ia all the neceflary and ufeful 
 arts did honor to their indullry and ingenuity. Though 
 they did not live in the luxury of Europe, they had all 
 the folid and fiibllantial enjoyments of life, and were 
 not unacquainted with many of its elegancies and re- 
 finements. 
 
 A circnmftance much tothcir praifc is,thit notwith- 
 ftanding their peculiar addiction to thofc occupations of 
 which lucre is the fole object, they were duly attentive 
 to cultivate the fieldof learning ; and they have, ever 
 fince their firft foundation, been particularly careful to 
 provide for the education of the riling progeny. 
 
 Their vafl augmentation of internal trade and exter- 
 nal commerce, w'as not merely owing to their pofition 
 and facility of communication with otiicr parts; it 
 arofc alfo from their natural turn and temper, full of 
 fchemesand projects ; ever aiming at new difcoveries, 
 and continually employed in thcfcarch of the means 
 of improving their condition. 
 
 Their conjition carried them into every quarter 
 from whence profit could be derived. There was 
 fcarcely any port of the American hcmifphere to which 
 they had not extended their navigation. They were 
 continually exploring new fources of trade, and were 
 found in every fpot where buliiicfs could be tranfafled. 
 
 To this extcnl'ive and inceliant application to com- 
 merce, they added an equal vigilance in theadniiaillra- 
 tion of their affairs at home. AV'hatevcr cojld conduceto 
 theanieliorationof thcfoiltheypoifeJcdito the pro<rrefs 
 of agriculture, or to the improvement of their domeftic 
 circumftances, wasattended to withfomuch labourand 
 care, that it may be ftriilly faiJ that Nature had "iven 
 them nothing of wliich they did not roa\c the mjll. 
 
 In the midfl of this foUr-itudc an J toil in matters of 
 bufinefi, the affairs of govrrn'ncnt were conduiled 
 with fteadincfs, prudence, .ind lenity, feldoni experi- 
 enced, and never exceeded, in the bed regulated couu- 
 tiies of Europe. 
 
 Such was the fituation of the Britilh- colonies in ge- 
 neral throughoat North America, and of the Ncw- 
 Englandprwinces in particular, when the pacihenion 
 
 ibovc-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 57^ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 "7 
 liitrigiici of 
 tlu French 
 fuppofcilly 
 
 writers to 
 be the ori- 
 gin of tlic 
 yVmctican 
 war. 
 
 128 
 Taxes laid 
 ou goods 
 ioi ported 
 into the 
 colonics, 
 and other 
 obnoxious 
 aift J fram- 
 ed; 
 
 above-meiuionrJ opcncJ oucof I'.ie mofl remarkable 
 fcciu-stliatcvcrcoininaniUJtIieattcinioiiofilicworld. 
 
 In treating of tlu- Amcricau revolution, it has be- 
 come a fafliiau with the Eiiglilh writers to al'tribc tiiat 
 event to the fiicccfsful intrigncs of the French go- 
 vernment. Infteadof contemplating jt.with the cha- 
 radteriwlc philofophy of their country, as the rtlult 
 of aeonteft between the de fire of power, and the ab- 
 horrence of opprellion, they have fought the origin of 
 the evil in any fource rather than their own niilcon- 
 dntt ; ajid liavc endeavoured at once, to huili the re- 
 proaches of their political confcience, and to gratify 
 the cravings of their national animofity, in wild coii- 
 jcaiucs of a fchc'.r.e formed by their neighbours to di- 
 vide the Briiiih Empire, and in declamatory invcaives 
 againrt the Gallic faith and liononr. Thus it has been 
 repcatCLlIy all'erted, that the French havinglong view- 
 ed, with eiiual envy and appreher.lion, the rtourilhiiig 
 ftatc of the colonics which Britain had founded in 
 America, began immediately after the peace of Paris 
 to carry into execution their projcA for ftparatiiig 
 thofe colonies from the moiher country. Secret emil- 
 faries, it is faid were employed in fpreading dilfatif- 
 failion among the colonills ; and the effects proi'.uccd 
 by thefc maebinaiingfpiritsarc defcribed to have been 
 a rapid diminution of that peculiar warmih of attach- 
 ment, which the inhabitants of North-.^merica had 
 hitherto demonftrated for the mother country ; the ex- 
 citement of ajealoufy which led them to view her ra- 
 ther in the light of a fovcreign than of aparcri ; and 
 the introdudion of a. hoftile policy which taught them 
 to examine, with a fcrupulous nicety, the nature of 
 thofeticsthat rendered them parts of hcrcniplre. That 
 fuch cmill'aiies were ever empl'iycd, is a faft unfup- 
 ported by any document which the juriiy of hillcrical 
 truth can admit ; and althoHgh the effeds here de- 
 fcribed, have certainly appeared, it mud be remember- 
 ed that thcirappcarance followed, but did not precede, 
 the attempts of Britain upon the rightsand liberties o[ 
 America. By mere aniticeand addrcfs tohave aliena- 
 ted the affet'lionsof the colonifls from their mother 
 country, at the clofc of a war in which their inrerefls 
 and feelings had been interwoven with more than ufual 
 flrength and energy, was a talk of infinite difficulty j 
 not furely to be accompliihcd in '.he lliort period be- 
 tween the declaration of peace in 1761, and the pro- 
 mulgation of the lirft obnoxious ncls of the Pritilh par- 
 liament in 1764. But,if wetraccihcfe effcas 60 an- 
 other caufe, to a love of liberty, and a quick fenfe of 
 injury, theirappearance will be naturaland jufl ; con- 
 fiftent with the American charadcr, and corrcfpon- 
 din« with the condua which was difplayed in all the 
 vicilRtudcs that attended the revolt. 
 
 In March, 1 764, a bill was pp.fled, by which heavy 
 duties were laid on goods imported by the colonills 
 from fuch We.l- India I flands as did not belong to Great 
 Britain ; at tlic fame time that thcfe daties were to be 
 paidiniotheeXLhciiifriiifpecietandinthefamcfenion, 
 another bill was fratr.cd to rettrain the currency of pa- 
 per-morey in the colonies themfelves. Not only ihe 
 principle of taxation, but the mode of colkaion was 
 conlideredasanunconftitationHlandorpreffivcinnovar 
 lion ; for the penalties incurred by an infraaion ot the 
 actsof parliament, inight be recovered in the courts of 
 
 aduiiraltyjbiforea (ingle judge (whofc falary was the 
 fruit of the forfeituns he decreed) without u'n\ by 
 jury, or any of the other bcnelits of common law jiirif- 
 prudeuce. Thefe aCts coming fo clofc to eacli other 
 threw the whole continent into the utmoft ferment. 
 Vehement renionllrances were made to the niinillry, 
 and every argument made ufe of that reafon ^r inge- 
 nuity could fuggcU, but to no purpofc. 'J heir reafun- 
 ing, however, convinced a great number of people in 
 Britain ; and thus the American caufe came to be cou- 
 fidered as the caufe of liberty. 
 
 The Americans, finding all arguincntation vain, at 
 lafl united iu an agreement to import no more of the 
 nianufaaures of Great Britain, but to encourage to 
 the utmolt of their power every thing of that kind a- 
 mung themfelves. Thus the Britilh manufadurers alfo 
 became a parly againfl the niinillry, and did not fail 
 to exprcfs their refentment in the fircngell terms; 
 but the minirtry were not to be fo ealily daunted, and 
 therefore proceeded to the lafl flcp of their iiucnded 
 plan, v. hith was to lay on llamp duties '.Iroughout the 
 continent. Previous to this, indeed, fcvcral regula- 
 tions were palled in favour of the commerce of the co- 
 lonies ; but they had now imbibed fuch nnfavonrsble 
 feniiincntsof the Briiifli niinillry, that they psid very 
 little regard to any thing pretended to be done in their 
 favour ; or if thefe aa.s made any favourable impre.Tion, 
 it was quiekly obliterated by the news of the ftanip- 
 aa. The reafon given for thisad, fo exceedingly ob- 
 noxious, was, that a fnm might be raifed fuflicient for 
 the defence of the colonies againft a foreign enemy ; 
 but this pretence was fofar from givingany fatikfadion 
 to the Americans, that it excited their indignation to 
 the utnioil degree. They not only allerted that they 
 were abundantly able to defend themfelves againll any 
 foreign enemy, but denied that the Britifii parliament 
 had any right to tax them at all. 
 
 It would be fupcrduous to enter into any arguments 
 ufcd by the contending parties on this important oeca- 
 fion. It was evident that the matter wr.s not to be 
 decided by argument, but by force of arms ; and the 
 Britilh minillry, too confident of the authority and 
 power of that country, determined to carry on matters 
 with an high hand, to terrify the colonifls into an im- 
 plicit fubjedion, or, if that would not do, to compel 
 them to it by force. The flamp-ad, after a violent 
 oppolition in parlinmcnr, was palfr J, and its reception 
 in America was fuch as might have been expeded. 
 The news, and the ad itfclf, firfl arrived at Bollon, 
 where the bells were niuflled snd rung a funeral peal. 
 The ad was firl hawked about the flrcets with a 
 Death's head, affixed to it, and llyled the " Folly of 
 F.ngl?nd,and the Ruin of America ;" and rftcrwards 
 publicly b'.'.rnt by the enraged I'opulacc : The (lamps 
 tliemfclves were ftized and deftroyed, unltfs brouglit 
 by men of war, or kept in fortified places ; thofe who 
 were to receive the (lamp duties were compelled to rc- 
 fign their offices : and fuch of the Americans as fided 
 with government on this occalion, had their houl'es 
 plundered and dcflroyed. 
 
 Though thefe ouiriges were committed by ihem-:!- 
 tit'ide, they were firll connived at by thofe of fuperior 
 rank, and the principles on which they were founded 
 afterwards openly patronized by them ; and the doc- 
 trine 
 
 Amcr 
 
 1J9 
 
 Which ex- 
 afpcrate 
 the ADicri- 
 caon, 
 
 The (lamp 
 awl friunej. 
 
 Received 
 
 with unU 
 vcrlal in- 
 dignation 
 iii.Auicrica.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 577 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 Repealed. 
 
 •33 
 Opinion of 
 Dr Frank- 
 lin uD this 
 fubjsA. 
 
 ilicm ; and the dodtriiic became general and openly 
 avowed, that Britain had no right \v hatcvcr to tax the 
 colonics without ihtirowii confcnt. 
 
 It was now found abloluicly ncccirary either to yield 
 to the Americans, by repealing the obnoxious llatutes, 
 or to enforce tliem by arms. 'I'he ferment had difFufcd 
 itfclf univcrfally throughout the colonies. Virginia 
 firll, and after dut all the rellofthcprovinces,dcclared 
 againfl the ri ht of Britain lo lay on taxes in Ame- 
 rica ; and that every attempt to veil others with this 
 power bciides the king, or the governor of the pro- 
 vince and his general ail'cmbly , was illegal, uncouflitu- 
 tioual, andunjull. Non-importation agreements were 
 every where entered into ; and it was even refolved to 
 prevent the fale of any more Brililh goods after the 
 piefcnt year. American manufactures, though dearer, 
 as well as inferior in quality to the Britilh, were uni- 
 vcrfally preferred. An allbciation was entered into 
 againit eating of lamb, in order to promote tlie growth 
 of wool ; and the ladies with chearfulnefs agreed to 
 renounce the ufe of every fpecies of ornament manufac- 
 tured in Britain. Such a general and alarming confe- 
 deracy determined the miniilry to repeal feme of the 
 moll obnoxious ilatutes ; and to this they were themore 
 inclined by a petitionfrom the tirft American congrefs, 
 held at New York in the beginning of October 1765. 
 
 The flamp-adt was therefore repealed, to the uni- 
 verfal joy of the Americans, and indeed to the general 
 fatisfaclion of the Englilh, whofc manufaftarts had 
 begun to fuftcr very fcvcrely in confcquence of the A- 
 merican aflbciation againfl them. The difputes on the 
 fiibjeft without doors, however, were by no means 
 filenced, but each party continued to argue the cafe as 
 violentlyasever. The celebrated DrBenjarain Frank- 
 lin was, on this occafion examined before the Houfc 
 of Commons; and his opinion was in fubllance as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " That the t?x in queflion was imprafticable and 
 ruinous. The very attempt had fo far alienated the 
 afFeclion of the colonies, that they behaved in a lefs 
 friendly manner towards the natives of England than 
 before ; confidering the whole nation as confpiring 
 againft their liberty, and the parliament as willing ra- 
 ther to opprefs than to fupport and aflift them. Ame- 
 rica, in fad, did not ftand in any need of Britifli ma- 
 nnfafturcs, having already begun toconftrucl fuch as 
 might be deemed abfohitely necellary, and that with 
 fuch fuccefs, as left no doubt of their arriving in a (hort 
 time at perfection. The elegancies of drefs had al- 
 ready been renounced for manufaclurcs of the Ameri- 
 can kind, though much inferior i and the bulk of the 
 people, conlifting of farmers, were fuch as could in no 
 way be afl'edcd by the want of Brililh comuiodities, as 
 having every necclFary within themfelves. Materi- 
 als of all kinds were to be had in plenty : the wool was 
 fine; riax grew in great abundance; and iron was 
 cTcry where 10 be met with." 
 
 The Doctor alio inlilled, That" the Americans had 
 been greatly niilreprcfented ; that they hid been tra- 
 duced as void of gratitude and atfeflion for the parent 
 lla'e ; than which nothiu;^ could be more contrary to 
 truth. In the war of 1755 thry had, at theirowu ex- 
 pence, raifed an army of 2?, coo men ; and in that of 
 1 759, they aTifted the Britilh expeditions agai nil South- 
 Ameri'ra with fevcral thoufaud uicu, and had made 
 Vol. I. 
 
 many brave exertions againft the French in North- AmeriL-.. 
 
 America, it was faid that the war of i 755 bad been ^—~' 
 
 undertaken in defence of the colonies ; but the truth 
 was, that it originated from a contell about the limiti 
 between Canada and Nova-Scotia, and in defence of 
 the Englilh rights to trade on the Ohio. The Ame- 
 ricans, however, would ftill continue to act with their 
 ufual fidelity ; and, were any war to break oijt in which 
 they had no concern, they would Ihow themfelves as 
 ready as ever to affift the parent ftate to the utmoil of 
 theirpower,and would never fail to manifell their rea- 
 dinefs in contributing to the emergencies of govern- 
 ment, when called to do fo in a regular and conllituti- 
 onal manner." 
 
 The Uiiniftry were Confeions, that in repealing this 
 obnoxious acl, they yielded to the Americans; and 
 therefore, to fupport, as they thought, the dignity of ^, 
 Great Britain, it was judged proper to publiih a decia- UecUn- 
 ratory bill, fetting forth the authority of the mother- tory bill 
 country over her colonies, and her power to bind them P"* of- 
 by laws and ftatutes i/i ali caf^s ■mhattver. This much '^"''" '." 
 diininiihed the joy with which the repeal of the ftamp- America, 
 act was received in America. It was cotilidercd as a 
 proper reafon to enforce any claims equally prejudicial 
 with the llanip-ael, which might hereafter be fct up ; 
 a fpirit of jealoufy pervaded the whole continent, and 
 a ftrong party was formed, watchful on every occafion 
 to guard againft the encroachments of the Britiih pow- 
 er. ,.^ 
 
 It was not long before an occafion offered, in which AiTcmhiy 
 the Americans manifefled a fpirit of independency ; of New 
 and that, inftead of being bound by the Britith Ic- Yorkdifo- 
 gidarure in all cafes, they would not be controuled by '*'^' '° ^^ 
 it in the mod trivial affairs. The Rockingham mi-°^f"''*" 
 nillry had palfed an aft, providing the troops' ftaiion- 
 ed in different parts of the colonies with fuch ac- 
 commodations as were nccelfary for them. The alfem- 
 bly of New York, however, took upon them to alter 
 the mode of execution prelcribcd by the acl of parlia- 
 meiu, and to fublHtute one of their own. This gave 
 very great offence to the new niiniftry, and rendered 
 them, though compofed of thofe who had been aclivc 
 againft; the llamp-bill, lefs favourable to the colonies 
 tiian in all probability they would o:!icrwife have been. 
 An unlucky circumftance at the fime time occurred, 
 which threw every thing once nore into con fufion. ,,j 
 Oneofthenewminiftry, Mr Charles Townlhend, ha- Mr rown- 
 ving declared that he could tine a way of taxing the fliend's 
 Americanswithoutgivingthemorfence, wascallednp- P'»n to tax 
 on topropofehis plan. This was "ly impoiingaduty up- America, 
 on tea, paper, painters colours, aid glafs imported into 
 America The condud of the New York alFonbly, 
 refpciHing the troops, and that of Boftnn, which had 
 proceeded in a limilar manner, caufcd this bill to meet 
 with lefs oppofition thanotherwife it might have done. 
 As apuniflinient tothercfrartory ailemblics, the legif- 
 lativc power was taken from that of New York, until 
 it fliould fully ctimply with she terms of the aft. That 
 of Bofton at laft fubmittcd with reluftance. The bill 
 for the new taxes was quickly palfed, and femtoAmc- 1^7 
 rica in 176?. Isreccivd 
 
 A ferment much greater than that occa(ioned by the •''"■' ^^'"'> 
 ftamp aft now took place throughout the continent. I^'''.^''".'"' 
 The populace renewed their outrages, and thofe of fu- ',hilf"v '*"' 
 perior ftation catered into regular aiTociatious againft the a»mp. 
 4 IJ it aa.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 57« 3 
 
 A M E 
 
 MalTucliU' 
 fctts-lJay 
 aiid their 
 governor. 
 
 >\merica. it. Circular letters were ftiil iVoni MalTacliufcus ca- 
 *"~^' loiiy to ail till rcil, f>;uing fortii the iiijulUcc and im- 
 propriety ot' lilt behaviour of the Uritilli Icgillaiiirc. 
 Meltings were hclJii. all the principal to\viis,iii which 
 it \va!> propol'ed tokfltnthc coiirumptioiiol'torcifti! iiia- 
 j.g uut'aCturts, by giviii_g proper ciicouragemtnt lo tluir 
 Quarrilbc- own. Coiilinu.il difputtscnlucJ betwixt the governors 
 twtcn the and general alFtniblics of their provinces, wiiirh were 
 pi-ojijc of much heightened by a letter from lord Shelburiic to 
 governor Ijtrnard of Mallacluifetts-Bay, containing 
 complaints of the people he governed, 'i he alitnibly 
 txafjieraicd tothehighcrt degree, charged thcirgover- 
 nor wiih having milrcprefcntcd them to tlic court of 
 Britain, rcijuired him to produce copies of the letters 
 lit had feiu ; and, on his rcfufal, wrote letters to the 
 Knglilh luiiiillry, acculing him of mifrtprtfcntation 
 and parti.ility, complaining at the fame time mod 
 grievoully of the procttding^i of parliamtnt, as utterly 
 fubveriive of the liberties of America, and the rights 
 of Britilh fubjcirls. 
 
 The governor, aialofs how to defend himfelf, pro- 
 rogued the aifembly ; and, in his fpcech on the occa- 
 fion, gave a k»>fc to his refcntment, accufmg the mem- 
 bers of ambitious dtligns, incompatible with ihufc of 
 dutiful and loyal ful jecls. To counterailit the circular 
 Ictier of the province of Martachufctts-Bay, Lord 
 Hillfborough,<ecretary for the American department, 
 fent another to the governors of the different colonies, 
 reprobating the other as fuUof niilreprefcntation, and 
 tending to excite a rebellion againll the authority of 
 the parent Hate. , 
 
 Matters now haftened to a crifis. The governor had 
 
 been ordered to proceed with vigour, and by no means 
 
 to (how any difpolition to yield to the people as for- 
 
 Hercquires merly. In particular, they were required to rcfcind 
 
 the aiUm- that refolution by which they had -written the circular 
 
 blytore- letter abovernentioned ; and, in cafe of a rcfufil, it 
 
 fond their ^y^j (old them that they would be dilTolved. As this 
 
 iirculir letter had been framed by the refolutions of a former 
 
 ' Houfc, they defircd, after a week's confultaiion, that 
 
 a rectfs miglit be granted to coufult with their confti- 
 
 Whiththey tuents ; but this being rcfufcd, they came to a deter- 
 
 refuff. jnination, 92 againft 17, to adhere to the refolution 
 
 which produced the circular letter. At the fame time 
 
 a letter was fent to Lord HilHborough, and a mefl'age 
 
 to the governor, in juflilication of their proceedings. 
 
 In both they expreifed thcmfelvcs with fuch freedom as 
 
 was by no means calculated to accord with tin; fcnti- 
 
 mentsof thofe in power. They inliflcd that they hadai 
 
 right to communicate their ftniimcnts to their fellow- 
 
 fubjcds upon matters of fuch importance ; complained 
 
 of the rcquifiiion to refcind the circular letter as un- 
 
 conftitutional and unjuft ; and particularly inlr(led,t^iat 
 
 they werereprcfented as harbouring feditioitsdefigns, 
 
 when they were doing nothing but what was lawful 
 
 and right. At the fame time they condemiied the late 
 
 aijls of parliament as highly oppreffive, and fubverfive 
 
 of liberty. The whole was concluded by a lifl of ac- 
 
 Tcrnor.and cufations againll thtir governor, reprcfenting him as 
 
 petition for unfit to continue in his ftation, and petitioning the 
 
 hisreino- j^j„g f^r his removal from it. 
 
 " I I Thefe proceedings wcrefoUowedbyaviolenttumult 
 
 A tumult ^' Bollon. A vefFel belonging to a capital trader had 
 ac liofton. been feized in confcq^uencc of liis having neglected 
 
 139 
 
 140 
 
 Accufc 
 their go- 
 
 fomc of the new regulations ; and bciiig taken under 
 the protcaioaof a niaiiof war at that linre lying in the 
 harbour, die populace attacked the houfcs of ilit toin- 
 uiiliioners oltxeile, broke their windows, deftroycd 
 the coileclar's boats, and obliged the cullumhoule ol- 
 licers to take refuge in Callle William, iituated at liie 
 entrance of the harbour. 
 
 The governor now took the lift ftep in his power to 
 put a Hop to the violent proceedings of his all'cnibly, 
 by dill'olving it entirely ; but this was of little moment. 
 Their behaviour had been highiy approved by the 
 o:licr colonies, who hud written letters to thcni txpref- 
 live of their approbation. After the dill'olutionof the 
 allemb^y, frtijuent meetings of the people were held 
 in Bolton, which ended in a remoullrance to tiie go- 
 vernor, to the fame pur}iofe as fome of the former ; but 
 concluding with a requell, that he would lake upon 
 him to order the king's lliips out of the harbour. 
 
 While ilie difpolition of the Bollonians was thus 
 more and more irritated, news arrived that the agent 
 for the colony had not been allowed to deliver their 
 petition to the king ; it having been objected, that the 
 allenibly without the governor was not fuflicicnt au- 
 thority. Thisdid not contribute to allay the ferment ; 
 and it was further augmented by the news that a num- 
 ber of troops had been ordered to repair to Boflon, to 
 keep the inhabitants in awe. 
 
 A dreadful alarm now took place. The people called 
 on the governor to convene a general alFcmbly, in or- 
 der to remove their fears of the military ; who, they 
 faid, were to be alfcmbled tooverthrovv their liberties, 
 and force obedience tolaws towhich they were entire- 
 ly averfe. Thegovernor replied, it was no longer in his 
 power to call an alTembly ; having, in his laft inftruc- 
 tions from England, been required to wait the king's 
 orders, the matter being then under coniideration at 
 home. Being thus refufed, tlie people took upon thcm- 
 fclves the formation of an alTcmbly, which they called 
 a convention. The proceedings and refolutions of this 
 body naturally jiartook of the temper and difpolition of 
 the late aflcmbly ; but they went a ftcp farther, and 
 having voted " that there is apprehenlionin the minds 
 of many of an approaching rupture with France," re- 
 quefted the inhabitants to put thenifclves in a pofture 
 of defence againfl any fudden attack of an enemy ; and 
 circular letters were direiiled to all the towns in the 
 province, acquainting them with the refolutions that 
 had beicn taken in ihe capital, and exhorting them to 
 proceed in the fame manner. The town of Hatfield 
 alone refufed its concurrence. The contention, how- 
 ever, thought proper to alTure the governor of their 
 pacific intentions, and renewed their rcqucft that an 
 alTembly might be called ; but being refufed any audi- 
 ence, and threatened with being treated as rebels, they 
 at lafl thought proper to dilfolve of themfclvcs, and 
 fent over to Britain a circuiTiflantial account of their 
 proceedings, with the rcafon of their having alTem- 
 blcd in the manner already mentioned. 
 
 The expected troops arrived on the very day on 
 which the convention broke up, and had fome houfcsin 
 the town fitted up for their reception. Their arrival 
 hadaconfiderablcinfluenceon the people, and for fome 
 time f«emed to put a flop to the difturbancts ; but the 
 fpirit of the people was now fo much roufed, that it 
 
 was 
 
 America. 
 
 Mi 
 The iflcm- 
 bly Jifl'ol- 
 vcd. 
 
 M.! 
 The diltur- 
 banccs f^ill 
 intreafe. 
 
 144 
 Some 
 troops or. 
 dcrid to 
 Bollor.. 
 
 145 
 
 The people 
 form an af- 
 fembly call- 
 ed a Con- 
 vrnlipn i 
 
 T46 
 Which dif- 
 folvcs. and 
 vindicates 
 its owrn 
 conduct.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 579 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 mcNt ad- 
 drcf» the 
 king a- 
 gaind A- 
 Bicrica, 
 
 Amsrica. Was iiTiponiblc to quench the flame. Tlic late outra- 
 
 ' ' gcous behaviour in Boftoii had given thegreatelt of- 
 
 B thvJ {• ''^"'^^ ■" England ; and, notwichitanding all tlie efforts 
 ofparlia- of oppoliiion, an addrcls from both houfes of parlia- 
 ment was prefented to the king ; in which the beha- 
 viour of the colony of Madachiiletts-Iiay was fct forth 
 in the mod ample manner, and the moft vigorous nica- 
 furcs recommended for reducing them to obedience. 
 The Americans, however, continued ftedfaft in the 
 ideas they had adopted. Though the troops had for 
 fome time quieted the difturbances, yet the calm con- 
 tinued nolongcr than they appeared rcfpedablc on ac- 
 count of their number; but as foon as this was dimi- 
 iiillicd by the departure of alarge dctjchment, the re- 
 mainder were treated with contempt, and it was even 
 rtfolved to expel them altogether. The country peo- 
 ple took up arms for this purpofe, and were to have 
 alfifted their friends i." Boflon ; but before thisdefign 
 could be put in execution, an event happened which 
 put an end to every idea of reconcr}iatJou betwixt the 
 contending parties. 
 
 On the 5th of iMar'slf 17Y0, a (Tuflle happened be- 
 tween the foldiers and a'party of the town's people. 
 The inhabitants poured in from all quarters to the af- 
 fillancc of their fellow-citizens : a violent tumult en- 
 
 148 
 Some peo- 
 ple killcl 
 b^the fol- 
 Oiers in a 
 
 149 
 
 All the du 
 tics excep- 
 
 niobit iiof- fued, during which the military fired upon the mob, 
 ton, killing and wounding fcveral of them. The whole 
 
 province now rofe in arms, and the foldiers were 
 obliged to retire to Ca (lie William to prevent their be- 
 ing cut in pieces. Let it be remembered, however, to 
 the praifeof American virtue, that, on the trial, not- 
 withftanding popular prejudice and apprehcniion, the 
 captain and fix of the men were acquitted, two men 
 only being found guilty of manllaughter. In other re- 
 fpeds the determinations of the Americans continued, 
 tingthat'oD if poffiblc, more firm than ever, until at lafl govern- 
 tca taken nient, determining to ad with vigour, and at the fame 
 "ffi time to behave with as much condefccnlion as poflible, 
 
 without abandoning their principles, repealed all the 
 duties lately laid on, that of tea alone excepted. This 
 was left on purpofe to maintain the dignity of the 
 crowu of Britain j and it was thought that it could not 
 be produftive t)f any difcoutent in America, as being 
 an affair of very little moment, the produce of which 
 was not expct-ted to exceed L. 16,000. The oppo- 
 fition, however, were llrcnuous in their endeavours 
 to get this tax likewifc abrogated; inlilling that the 
 Americans would conlidcr it only as inlet toothers; and 
 that the repeal of all the reft, without this, would an- 
 j.^ fwer no good purpofe.* The event fhewcd that tlieir 
 Which is a» opinion was well founded. The Americans opp^jfcd 
 violently the tea-tax with the fame violence as they had done all 
 «Ppofea =1 the reft : and at lart, on the news that falaiies had been 
 allthcrcll. ftttled on thejuflices of the fuperior court at Bofton, 
 the governor was addrelTed on the fubjet^; the mea- 
 furc was condemned in the !f rongeft terms ; and a com- 
 mittee felcclcJ out o("i!ie fcveral diflridls of the colo- 
 ny appointed to inq.iirc into it. 
 
 The newalTtmbly proceeded in the mofl formal man- 
 ner tod ifav'osvth; fuprcniacy of theBritilh legi:lature ; 
 and aceufcd the parliarrcnt of Britain of having violated 
 tlie natural rights of the .Americans in a number of 
 inftances. Copies of the tranfad oifb of tiiis aifcmbly 
 were tranfmittedto every town in Mafl'achufctts, cx- 
 
 i5« 
 
 Affembly 
 CI Maffi- 
 chufttts- 
 Bay for- 
 mally de- 
 nies the 
 Brftifh 
 right of 
 taxation. 
 
 borting the inhabitants to r^'ufc themfelvcs, and cxetc 
 every nerve in oppolition to the iron hand of opprcliion, 
 which was daily tearing the choiceft fruits from the 
 fair tree of liberty. The dillutbanccs were alfo great- 
 ly heightened by an accidental difcovcry iha Mr 
 Hutchinfon, governor of Maflachufctts-Bay, had writ- 
 ten fevcral confidential letters 10 people in pov.cr in 
 England, complaining of the behaviour of the pro- 
 vince, recommending vigorous meafurcsagiinll them, 
 and, among other things, averting, that " there mult 
 be an abridgement of what is cal;ed Britilh liberty." 
 Letters of this kind had fallen into the hands cfibc 
 agent for the colony at London. They were immedi- 
 ately tranfmitted to Boflon, where the ailcmbly was 
 fitting, by whom they were laid before the governor, 
 who was thus reduced to a very mortifying lituation. 
 Lofing every idea of refpecc or friendfhip for him as 
 their governor, they ir.ftaiitly difpatchcd a petition to 
 the king, requeuing him to remove the govcrnorand 
 deputy- governor from their places, but to this they 
 not only rcceive'd no favourable anfwer, but the peti- 
 tion itfclf was declared groundlefs and fcandaloas. 
 
 Matters were now ripe for the utmofl extremities op. 
 the part of the Americans ; and ihey were brought on 
 in the following manner. Though the colonies had 
 entered into a non-importation agreement againfb tea 
 as Veil as all other commodities from Britain, it had 
 neverthelefi found its way into America, though in 
 fmaller quantities than before. This was fenlibly felt 
 by the Eaft-India Company, who had now agreed to 
 pay a large fum annually to government in recompcncc 
 for which compliance, and to make up their loifes in 
 other refpcifls, they were empowered to export their 
 tea free from any duty payable in Britain ; and in con- 
 fequenceof thispremifhon.feveral ihips freighted with 
 the commodity were fent to North-America, and pro- 
 peragents appointed for difpo(ingof it. The Ameri- 
 cans now perceiving tliat the tax was thus likely to be 
 enforced whetlier they would or not, determined to 
 take every po{Iible method to prevent the tea from be- 
 ing landed, as Well knowing that it would be inipofTi- 
 blc to hinder fhcfale, (hould the commodity once be 
 brought on Ihore. For this purpofe the people ailcm- 
 bled in great numbers, forcing thofe to whom the tea 
 was conligned to relign their offices, and to promife fo- 
 lemnly never to refume them ; and comniitiecs were 
 appointed to cxa:iiinc.the accounts of merchants, and 
 make public tefls, declaring Inch as would not talic 
 them enemies to their country- Nor was this behavi- 
 our confined to the colony of Malfachufetts-Kay ; the 
 refl of the provinces entered i.ito thecontelt with the 
 fame Warmth, and m-inifefled the fame refolution to 
 oppofe this invalion of their rights. 
 
 In the midflofthisconfulion. three fliips laden with 
 tea arrived in Boflon ; bit fo much were the capains 
 alarmed at the difpofiiioii which feemed to prevail 
 among the people, ih.it thry offered, providing they 
 could obtain the proger cifchargcs from the tea con- 
 fignces, cufloin-ho'ilc, and governor, to return to Bri- 
 tain without landing their cargoes. The parties con- 
 cerned, however, though they durfl not order the tea 
 to be landed, rcfurcd to grant the difch.irges required. 
 The Ihips; therefore, would have been obliged to re- 
 main in the harbour ; but the people apprchcnfive 
 4 D 3 that 
 
 America. 
 
 Gov.Httt- 
 chii.lbn'i 
 Utters to 
 the Britifli 
 miniitry 
 difcsTccct!. 
 
 '53 
 
 The (^^cti- 
 tionagiiolt 
 him rega- 
 led.
 
 «.?4 
 
 Croycd at 
 Bolluii. 
 
 155 
 
 other 
 
 places. 
 
 A M E [58 
 
 America, tli.it if they remained there, llie tc.i would be Uiidcii 
 
 ' '■'—-' in fniill qi.uimitics and dilpolcd ol'iii fpitc of every tii- 
 
 dcavoitr 10 prevent it, rcfolvcd id dellroy it at once. 
 This refointion was executed with equal fpecd and fe- 
 crefy. The very evening after the abovenientioncd 
 dilcharges had been rctiilcd, a number of people drtil- 
 ed like Mohawk Indians boarded the Ihips, and threw 
 into the fca their whole c.irgocs^ coniilting of 342 
 cheRsof tea; after which they retired without making 
 any further dilturbalicc, or doing any other damage. 
 No teaAvas dellroyed in other places, though the fame 
 And rcfuf- fpirit was every where nunifelled. At Fhiladelphia 
 ed admit- the pilots Were enjoined not to conduct the vcli'els up 
 ta-icc in the river; and at New-Yoik, though the governor 
 caufed fome tea to be landed under the protcttion of 
 a man of war, he was obliged to deliver it up to the 
 cujlody of the people to prevent its being fold. 
 
 The deflruction of the tea at Bollon, which hap- 
 pened in November 1773, was the immediate prelude 
 to the difafters attending civil difcord. Government 
 finding themfclves every where intuited and dcfpilcd, 
 rcfolvcd to enforce their authority by all pofliblc means; 
 andasBoflon had been the principal fcene of the riots 
 and outrages, it was determined to puniQi that city in 
 anexen<plary manner. Parliament was acquainted by 
 a mellage from his m-ijefty with the undutiful behavi- 
 our of the city of Bollon, as well as of all the colo- 
 nies, recommending at the fame time the moll vigo- 
 rous and fpirited exertions to reduce them to obedi- 
 ence. The parliament in its addrefs promifed a ready 
 compliance; and, indeed, the Americans fcemed now 
 to have lafl many of their partifans. It was propofcd 
 to lay afinc on the tO'Wn of Bollon equal to tbeprice of 
 the tea which had been dellroytd, .t;id to ihut up its 
 port by armed vell'els until the refradory fpirit of the 
 inhabitants fliould be fubdued ; which, it was thought, 
 muft quickly yield, as a total flop would thas be put to 
 their trade. The bill was ftrongly oppofcd on the fame 
 grotinds that the other had been ; and it was predielcd, 
 that, in rteadofliaving any tendency to reconcile or fub- 
 due the Americans, it would infallibly exafperate them 
 beyond any polTibility of a reconciliation. The petitions 
 againfl it, prcfented by the colony's agent, pointed out 
 the fame confequencc in the ftrongell terms, and in 
 the mod politive manner declared that ihe Americans 
 never would fubmit to it ; but fuch was the infatuation 
 attending every rank and degree of men, that it ne- 
 ver was imagined the Americans would dare to refill 
 the parent (late openly, but would in the end fubmit 
 Andforthe implicitly to her commands. In this confidence, a 
 impartial third bill Was propofcd for the impartial axlmiiiillra- 
 sdniiniftra- ^j^j^ pf j;,f^[ce on fuch perfons as might be employed 
 in the fupprelfion of riots and tumults in the province 
 of Mallachufetts-Bay. By this aft it was provided, 
 that flionld any perfons atling in that capacity be in- 
 dialed for murder, and not able to obtain a fair trial in 
 the province, they might be fent iiy the governor 10 
 England, or to fome other colony, if necell'ary, to be 
 tried for the fuppofed crime. 
 
 Thefe three bills having palfed fo cafily, the mini- 
 flry propofed a fourth, relative to the government of 
 Canada; which, it was faid, had nut yet been fettled 
 on any proper plan. By this bill the extent of that 
 province was greatly enlarged ; its atfairs were put un- 
 der the direclion of a council in which Romaa Catho- 
 
 156 
 
 Funifti- 
 mcnt ofBo- 
 (lon rcfol- 
 vcd on, 
 
 157 
 Argu- 
 ments and 
 petitions 
 n^uiull it. 
 
 liS 
 
 lion of ju- 
 fiicc. 
 
 »59 
 
 Qtiebec 
 bill. 
 
 o 1 A M E 
 
 lies were to be admitted; the Roman Catholic clergy 
 were fecured in tlieir polfcllions and the ufual pcrqui- 
 iitc3 from thole of ihcir own profcllion. The coun- 
 cil abovementioned were to be appointed by the 
 crown ; to be rcmoveablc at its plcafurc ; and to be 
 inveUcd with every legidativc power, excepting that 
 of taxation. 
 
 No fooner were thefe laws made known in America, 
 than they cemented the union of the colonies almoit 
 beyond any polfibiliiy of diifolviug it. The alic'mbly 
 of MalfachufcttsBay had palled a vote againfl the 
 judges accepting l.darics from the crown, and put the 
 qutllion. Whether they would accept them as ufual 
 from the general allembly ? tour anfwercd in the af- 
 firmative ; but Peter Oliver, thechief-jullite, refufed. 
 A petition againll him, and an accufatioii, were brought 
 before the governor ; but the latter refufed the accu- 
 falion, and declined to interfere in the matter ; but 
 as they IHU inlillcd for jullice againll Mr Oliver, the 
 governor thought proper to put an end to the matter 
 by didblving the allembly. 
 
 In this lituation of affairs, a new alarm was occa- 
 lioned ly the news of the port-bill. Tiiis had been 
 totally uilexpcctcd, and was received witli the mofl 
 extravagant exprelhons of difpleafure among the po- 
 pulace, and while thefe continued, the new governor, 
 General Gage, arrived from England. He had been 
 chofen to this olilce on account of his being well ac- 
 quainted in America, and generally agreeable to the 
 people ; but human wifdom could not now point out 
 a method by which the flame could be allayed. The 
 firll act of his ofnce as governor was to remove the 
 alftnibly to Salem, a town 17 iniles difiant, in confe- 
 quencc of the late adl. When this was intimated to 
 the affembly, they replied by requeuing him to ap- 
 point a day for public humiliation for deprecating the 
 wrath of heaven, but met with a refufal. When met 
 at Salem, they palfcd a refolution, declaring ihc necef- 
 fity of a general congrefs compofed of delegates from 
 all the provinces, in order to take the affairs of the 
 colonies at large into confideration : and five gentle- 
 men remarkable for their oppofition to the Britilli 
 meafures, were chofen to rcprefent that of Malfachti- 
 fetts-Bay. They then proceeded with all expedition 
 to draw up a declaralion, containing a detail of the 
 grievances they laboured under, and the necellity of 
 exerting themfclves againfl lawlcfs power; they fet 
 forth the difregard fliown to their petitions, and the 
 attempts of Great Britain to dcftroy theirancient con- 
 flitution; and concluded with exhorting the inhabi- 
 tants of the colony, to obflrucl, by every method in 
 their power, fuch evil dcfigns, recommending at the 
 fame time a total renunciation of every thing imported 
 from Great-Britain, till a redrcfs of grievances could 
 be procured. 
 
 Intelligence.of this declaration was carried to the 
 governor on tlje very day that it was completed; on 
 which he diifolved the aifembly. This was fono\ved 
 by an addrefs from the inhabitants of Salem in favour 
 of thofe of Boflon, and concluding with thefe remark- 
 able words : " By lliutting up the port of Boflon, 
 fome imagine that the courfc of trade might be turn- 
 ed hither, and toour benefit ; but nature, in the for- 
 mation of our harbour, forbids our becoming rivals in 
 commerce with that convenient mart; and were it 
 
 otlicrwife. 
 
 .'\merics. 
 
 160 
 Thefe afls 
 exafperate 
 the Anieri- 
 cani. 
 
 161 
 
 Refcnt- 
 mcnt occa. 
 fiuncd by 
 the port- 
 bill. 
 
 i6x 
 Proceed- 
 ings of the 
 general af- 
 fembly met 
 at Salem. 
 
 I«3 
 Generofity 
 of the pco- 
 plinf Salem 
 to thofe of 
 Uofton.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 581 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, otlurwifc, we niufl be dead to every idea of jullicc, 
 ^*~"^^ — loll to all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one 
 thought to fcizc on wealth, and raife our fortunes on 
 the ruin of our fufFcring neighbours." 
 
 It had been fondly hoped by the niiniflcrial party 
 at home, that the advantages which other towns of 
 tlie colony might derive from the annihilation of the 
 trade of Boflon, would make them readily acquiefce in 
 the mcafure of ihutiing up that port, and rather re- 
 joice in it thanotherwifc ; but the words of the add rcfs 
 abovemcntiuned fecmed to preclude all hope of this 
 kind ; and fubfequent tranfadions foon manifeiled it 
 164 to be totally vain. No fooner did intelligence arrive 
 Thecaufc of tlve remaining bills palfed in tiie fcilion of 1774, 
 ofBofton than the catifc of Bofton became the caufc of all the 
 efpouledby colunics. Tlic port-bill iiad already occalioned violent 
 all the reft commotions throughout ihem all. It had been rcpro- 
 
 01 tile coio- , , . ..,''. 1 ,- ,\ 1 
 
 „ij,_ bated in provincial meetings, andrciillance even to the 
 
 lad liad been recommended againll fuch oppreirion. 
 In Virginia, the firfl of June, the day on which the 
 port of Kofton was to be ihut up, was held as a day 
 of humiliation, and a public interccllion in favour of 
 America was enjoined. The flyle of the prayer en- 
 joined at this time was, that " God would give the 
 people one heart and one mind, firmly tooppofe every 
 invafion of the American rights." The Virginians, 
 however, did not content tnemfelvcs with ac'ts of re- 
 ligion. They recommended in the ftrongell manner 
 a general congrcfs of all the colonies, as fully perftia- 
 dcd that an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary 
 manner was in reality an attack upon them all, and 
 mufl ultimately end intiic ruinof them all. 
 
 The provinces of New- York and Penfylvania, how- 
 ever, were lefsfanguine than the refl, being fo clofe- 
 ]y connefted in the way of trade with Great Britain, 
 that the giving it up entirely appeared a matter of the 
 moft ferious magnitude, and not to be thought of but 
 ifif after every other mctliod had failed. The intelligence 
 TheAme- of the remaining bills rcfpc(5ling Boflon, however, 
 ricansfirm-fpreada frefli alarm throughout the continent, andfix- 
 ly united gj thofe who had feemed to be the moll wavering. 
 The propoful of giving up al! commercial iiitcrcourfc 
 with Britain was agiin propofed ; contiibutionsforllie 
 inhabitants of Bofton were raifed in every quarter ; 
 and they every day received addrelfcs commending 
 them for the heroic courage with which they fuilained 
 their calamity. 
 
 The Bollonians on their part were not v/aniing in 
 
 their endeavours to promote tlie general caufe. An 
 
 agreement was framed, wliicb in imitation of former 
 
 times, they called a Solemn League and Covenant. 
 
 ^'aEueand ^Y ''''^ ''^' fubfcribers moll religioudy hound them- 
 
 cHvenant fclvcs to break ort all communication \\iih Britain af- 
 
 fornicd at tcr the expiration of the month of Augufl enfuing, 
 
 Bufton. until the obnoxious aifls were repealed ; at the fame 
 
 time they engaged neither to purchafe nor ufe any 
 
 goods imported after that lime, and to renounce all 
 
 conncilion with thofe who did, or whorefufed to fub- 
 
 ,67 fciibe to this covenant; ihreatening to publifli the 
 
 Thcro- names of the refractory ; which at this time was apu- 
 
 vcriior at- nifliment by no means to be dcfpifcd. Agreements of 
 
 tempts lu ^ finiilar kind were almoft inflaiitaneoufly entered into 
 
 *^'".'° jn. throuirhoui all America. General Gage indeed at- 
 
 :ouiiterai!l " , ^ , i_ i ■ 
 
 it by pro- tempted to counteract the covenant by a proclamation, 
 ilamjtion, whacui it wasdctlarcd an illegal and traitcrous com bi- 
 
 in ihcir 
 oppofition 
 to liritain. 
 
 166 
 Solemn 
 
 nation, threatening with the painsof la%v fuch as fr.b- America, 
 
 fcribcd or countenanced it. But matters were toofar ^ — v ' 
 
 gone for his proclamations to have any elFetl. The 
 Americans retorted the charge of illegality on his own 
 proclamation, and infilled tliat the law allowid fub-- 
 je£ls to meet in order to conlider of their grievances, 
 and aifociaie for relief from opprcllion. 
 
 Preparations were now made for holding the gene- 
 ral coiigrefb fo often propofed. Philadelphia, as be- 
 ing the niofl central and conlider able town, was pitch- 
 ed upon for the place of its meeting. The delegates, 
 of whom it was to be coinpofed, were chofen by the 
 reprcfcntativcs of each province, and were in number 
 from two to fcven for each colony, though no province ,0 
 had more than one vote. The lirft cor.grefs, which CoiiRrcfs 
 met at Philadelphia, in the beginning of September meets at 
 1774, conlillcd ofjr delegates. The novelty and I'hiladcl- 
 iniportance of the mectingexcitedand univerfal alien- P''"- 
 tion ; and their tranfactions were fuch as could not 
 but tend to render them refpeftable. i^^ 
 
 The lirll act of coiigrefs was an approbation of the Account of 
 conduct of Mail'achufctts-Bay, and an exhortation to 't»<f»Dfac- 
 continuein the fume fpiritwith which they had begun. "<">«• 
 Supplies for the fuiicring inhabitants (whom the ope- 
 ration of the port-biU had reduced to great dillrefs) 
 were (Irongly reci3i!iinended ; and it was declared, that 
 in cafe of attt^llpts to enforce the obnoxious acts by 
 arms, all America Ihould join to affill the town of Bof- 
 ton ; and, ihould the inhabitants be obliged, diiring the 
 courfe of hoftilities, to remove further up the country, 
 the lodes they might fullain ihould be repaired at the 
 public cxpence. 
 
 They next addreflTcd General Gage by letter ; in 
 wliich, having Hated the grievances of the people of 
 Mallachufetts colony, they informed hiiii of the tixcj 
 and unalterable determination of all the other provin- 
 ces to fupport their brethren and to oppofe the Britilh , 
 acts of parliament ; that they themfclvcswere appoint- 
 ed to watch over the liberties of America ; and intrcat- 
 cd him to defill from military opcration.s, lelt fuch lio- 
 ililities might be brougli t on as would frullratc all hopes 
 of reconciliation with the parent Hate. 
 
 The next (lep was to publilh a declaration of their 
 rights. Thefe they fummed up in the rights belong- 
 ing to Englilhmen ; and particularly inlirted, that as 
 their diflancc rendered it impoHible for them 10 be re- 
 prefented in the Britilh parliament, their provincial 
 alfemblics, with the governor appointed by the king, 
 conAitutcd the only legillative power within each pro- 
 vince. They would, however, conl'ent to fuch arts of 
 parliament as were evidently calculatediiierely for the 
 regulation of commerce, and fecuring to the parent 
 ftate the benefits of the American trade ; but would 
 never allow that they could impofc any tax on the co- 
 lonics, for the purpofe of railing a revenae, without 
 their confent. They proceeded to reprobate the in- 
 tention of each of the ne\V aifls of parliament ; and 
 infilled on all the rights they had enumerated as being 
 unalienable, and what none could deprive them of. 
 The Canada aifl they particularly pointed out as being 
 extremely inimical to the colonics, by whole alTiflance 
 it liad been conquered ; and they termed it " An aft 
 for eftablidiing the Roman Catholic religion in Cana- 
 da, abolifhing the equitable fyflem of Engliih laws, 
 and cftablifliinga tyranny there." They lurthcr de- 
 clared
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 5«2 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, cljrcil ill favour of a p.on-iiiiiiurtatiuii ;inj iiou-con- 
 
 * '' ' fuinplion of Jirililli gooJs, luilil the atls were repealed 
 
 by which duties were iinpofed upon tea, coffee, wine, 
 fuf;ar, and moUncs, imported into America, as well 
 as tlic Uollon port-act, and the three others palfcd in 
 the preccdinj; fellion of parliament. 1 he new rtgu- 
 htions againll the importation and confinnpiion of 
 Brititli comincditics were then drawn up with great fo- 
 )'-inniry;aiidihey concluded with returning tlic warm- 
 ell thanks to thofc members of parliament who had, 
 with r<) much zeal, tiiough without any fucccfs, op- 
 pofcH the obnoxious acts of parliament. 
 
 Tlieir next proceedings w ere, to frame a petition to 
 the king, an addrels to the Britilhnatio?i, and another 
 to tlic colonies ; all ot which were fo much in the ufual 
 fpirited Orjin of Aintrican language for fome time paft, 
 that it is ntcillefs to cuter into any particular account 
 of them. It isluilicitiu to fay, that tliey were all drawn 
 up in a mafU rly manner, and ought, to have iniprellcJ 
 the people of KnghnJ with a more favourable idea of 
 the Aincricans than they could at that time be induced 
 to entertain. 
 
 All this time the difpofition of the people -had cor- 
 refpoiukd with the warmelt wiflles of congrcfs. The 
 firll of J'lne had been kept as a fafl, not only through^ 
 out Virginia, where it was firll propofcd, but through 
 the whole continent. ContributioLis for the diflrelics 
 of Boflon had been raifcd throughout America, and 
 people of all ranks feenicd to be particularly touched 
 with them. Even thofewho feemcd to be moft likely 
 to derive advantage from them, took no opportunity, 
 ,Q as has been already inllanced in the cafe of Salem. 
 ■CencroOi/ The inhabitants of Marblehead alfo fliowed a noble 
 oftheinha- example of nr.ignaniuiity in the prcfent cafe. Thouglt 
 kitantsof fuuattd in the neighbourhood of Kollcn, and mod 
 likely to derive benclit from their dillrelles, they did 
 not attempt to take any advantage, but gcneroully of- 
 fered the ufe of their harbour to ilic Boflonians, as 
 well as their wharfs and warchoufcs, free of all ex- 
 pence. In the mean time the Hritidi forces at Boflon 
 were continually incrcaling ia nuirbcr, which greatly 
 augmented th; general jcaloufyar^diilaiisfac'lion ; the 
 country were ready to raifc a: a moment's warning ; 
 and the experiment was inaJc by giving a falfe al irm 
 iireme ^j^_^^ ^j^^ co:nmiinicalion between the town and country 
 of thecoun- "'^^ to be cut off, in order to reduce the former by 
 try people famine to a compliance with the arts of parliament. 
 On this intelligence, thcconntr/ people aliembleil in 
 great nambcrf,ai".d could not be fatislied until they had 
 fent jnclTengcrs in to the city to enquire into the truth of 
 the report. Thcfcmeflengers were enjoined to inform 
 the town's people, that if they Ihould be fo pufillani- 
 nious as to make a furrendcr of ihtirliberiics, the pro- 
 vince would not tl'.ink iifcif bound by fuch exarrples ; 
 .•ind that Britain, l.y breriking their original charter, 
 had annulled the contract fublilling between thtm, and 
 Icffthem to aft as they thought proper. 
 
 The people in every other rcfpcct manifeftcd their 
 inflexible dtttrnunatioii to adhere to thf plan they had 
 fo long followed. The new ronrfellors and judges 
 were obliged torefign their rdice s, inordcr to prcfcrvc 
 their lives and prf^penies from the fury of the multi- 
 tude. In fonie places they fliut up the avenues to the 
 court-houfes ; and, when n quired to make way fcr the 
 judges, replied, that they knew of noijc but fuch as 
 
 Marble- 
 head Ui 
 tofton. 
 
 17« 
 £itreme 
 
 to the Bu- 
 llonians. 
 
 jiro- 
 
 W'crc appointed by the ancient ufagc and cuftom of the Americi. 
 
 province. Every where they maiiifcl'led the moll ar- ' v ' 
 
 dent defire of learning the art of war ; and every indi- 
 vidual who could bear arms, was moll alliduous in pro- 
 curing them, and learning their cxcrcifc. j.j 
 
 Matters at lall proceeded to fuch an height, that cen. Gage 
 General Gage thought proper to fortify the neck of fortificsUo- 
 land which joins the town of Boflon to the continent, fton Neck, 
 This, though undoubtedly a )irudent meafurc in his 
 fituation, was exclaimed againll by the Americans in 
 the moft vehement manner ; but the General, inftead 
 of giving ear to their rcmonllrances, deprived them of j.. 
 all power of afling againfl liimfelf, by-Jeizing the pro- a„(1 fijzj, 
 vincial powder, ammur.ition, and military florcs at the irilita- 
 Cambridge and Charlcllown. This excited fuch in- ry ftorcs 
 dignation, that it^ was with the utmoll difficulty the '"='°"8'''? 
 people could be rcflraincd from marching to Boflon '" f'° 
 and attacking the troops. Even in the town itfelf, the 
 company of cadets tliat ufed to attend him difbandcd 
 themfelves, and returned the llandard he had as ufual 
 prcfented themwithonhisaccelliontothcgovernmcnt. 
 'Phis was occalioned by his having deprived the cele- 
 brated patriot John Hancock, afterwards prclidcnt of 
 the congrcfs,of his cominilfion as colonel of the cadets. 
 A fimilar inflancc happened of a provincial colonel 
 havingaccepted a feat in the new council ; upon which 
 24 officers of his regiment refigncd their conimiilioiis 
 in one day. i^^ 
 
 In the mean time a meeting was held of the princi- OppoCfion 
 pal inhabitants of the towns adjacent to Boflon. The 'p ^^'"^ ^f'- 
 purport of this was publicly to renounce all obedience ' ^n\i' 
 to the late afts of parliament, and to form an engage- "n!^,jf,. 
 nient to indemnify fuch as fhould be profccutedontnat 
 account ; the members of the new council were decla- 
 red violators of the rights of their country ; all ranks 
 and degrees were exhorted to learn the ufe of arms ; 
 and the receivers of the public revenue were ordered 
 not to deliver it into the treafury, but to retain it in 
 their own hands till the conflitution Ihould be reflorcd, 
 or a protincial congrcfs difpofe of it otherwifc. 
 
 A remonftrance againfl the fortifications on Boflon 
 Neck was next prepared; in which, however, they ftill 
 declared their unwillingncfs to proceed to any hoflile 
 mcaTurcs ; alfertingonly as ufual their firm determina- 
 tion not to fubmit to the a6ls of parliament they had 1J5 
 already fo much complained of. The governor, to A genera) 
 reflore tranquillity, ifpofiiblc, called ageneral alfein- afltmbly 
 biy ; but fo many of the council had religned '''cir "ll^f' *""' 
 
 feats, ihat he was induced to countermand its flttinu.' "'"', 
 I 1 • T-i • ,-1, 1 '' "T procli- 
 
 by proclamation. I Ins mealurc, however, was deem- mition. 
 
 ed illcg.nl ; ihcafTcnibly met at Salem ; a»l, afterwait- 
 
 ing a day f<5r the governor, voted themfelves into a 
 
 provincial congrefs, of which Mr Hancock waschofen 
 
 prelidcnt. A committee was inftanily appointed, who 
 
 waitedon the governor with a remonllraiicc concerning 
 
 thcfortificaiions on Eofton Neck ; but nothing of con- 
 
 fcqucncc took place, both parties mutually criminating 
 
 each other. The winter was now coming on, and the 
 
 governor, to avoid quartering the foluier? upon the in- jw 
 
 habitants, propofcd to cred barracks for them ; but the Gen. Gage. 
 
 feleft-men of Bollon compelled the workmen to dcfifl. meets with 
 
 Carpenters were fcnt for to New-Vor'k,biit they were g«»' <i''l^- 
 
 refnfed ; and it was with the utmofl difficuliy that he f"'"'* '" 
 
 could procure wintcr-lodjiinjrsfor his troops. Kor was "™"""?' 
 
 the difticulty kfs in pro-..uring clothes ; as the nier- ,,c„pj. 
 
 cbants
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 5^3 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 liollon. 
 
 America, chants of New- York told liiiii, that tlify would nc- 
 
 ' -' ' vtr fupply any article for the Lcncfit of men fciit as 
 
 177 ciiemits 10 their country." 
 TheAme- This difpolition, known to be almoft univcrfal 
 ricano throughout the coniinent, was ill ihc liigheft degree 
 make pre- fjtisfailcry 10 congrcfs. Every oncfaw that the tu- 
 paratiotu f^j^g fpring was to be the fcafon of commenci;i;; ho- 
 for war. ^jjitij,^^ ^uj (jje mofl indefatigable liiligtncc was ufcd 
 by the ceicfr.ics to be well provided againll fuch a fur- 
 midablc enemy. A lift of all thefcnliblc men in each 
 colony was made out, andefpccially of thofc who had 
 ferved in the former wv ; of whom tliey had the fitis- 
 fattion to lind that two-thirds were Hill alive and fit 
 to bear arms. Magazines of arms were coUcfled, and 
 money was provided for the payment of troops. The 
 governors in vain attempted to put a (top to tlicfe pro- 
 ceedings by proclamations ; the fatal period was now 
 arrived : and the more the fervants of government at- 
 tempted to reprefs the fpirit of the Americaiis, the 
 j.g more determined it appeared. 
 Dillrefsof In the mean time the inhabitants of Bofton wercre- 
 the inhabi- duced to great, dillrefs. The Britilh troops, now dif- 
 tant»of tinguiihcdbythc name of the f/.'i,-w>', wereabfolutely in 
 pofleflion of it ; the inhabitants were kept as prifoncrs, 
 and might be made accountable for the coiiduft of 
 the whole colonies ; and various meafures were con- 
 trived to relieve the latter from fuch a difagrceable 
 lituation. Sometimes it was thought expedient to 
 remove the inhabitants altogether ; but this was im- 
 prafticable witliout the governor's confent. It was 
 then propofed to fet fire to the town at once, after 
 valuing the houfes and indemnifying the proi>i ietors ; 
 but this being found equally iniprailicable, it wasrc- 
 folved to wait fonie other opportunity, as the garrifon 
 T\cre not very numerous, and, not being fupplied witii 
 ncccfl'aries by the inhabitants, might foon be obliged 
 to leave the place. The friends of Britifli government 
 indeed attempted to do fomething in oppofition to the 
 general voice of the people ; bui after a few incfFeftual 
 meetings and refolulions, they were utterly filenced, 
 and obliged to yield to the fuperior number of the 
 patriots. 
 
 Matters had now proceeded fofjr that the profpeiSt 
 of reconciliation or friendfliip with Britain became 
 daily morcand more dirtant. The Americans, there- 
 fore, began to feize on the military ftores and am- 
 munition belonging to government. This firfl com- 
 menced at New-port in Rhode-Illand, where the in- 
 habitants carried oft' 40 pieces of cannon appointed 
 ed by the j-^^. ^j^^ protcilion of the place ; and on being alked 
 the reafon of this proceeding, they replied, that the 
 people had fciztd them left they fliould be made ufe of 
 againrt thcmfetvcs. After i!i is the alfembly met, and 
 refolvcd that ammunition and warlike ftorcs ftiould be 
 purchafcd with the public money. 
 
 New-Hamplliire followed the ex.imple of Rhodc- 
 Ifland, and fcized a fmall fort for the fake of the pow- 
 der and military ftorcs it contained. In Pcnnfylvania, 
 however, a convention was held, which exprclfcd an 
 carneft delire of reconciliation with the mother-coun- 
 try ; though, at the fame time, in the ftrongeft manner 
 declaring, that they w ere refolved to take up arms in 
 defence oftheirjuft rights, and defend to the laft their 
 oppolilion to the late arts of parliament ; and the peo- 
 ple were exhorted to apply themfclvcs with tbrgreai- 
 
 3 
 
 179 
 
 Military 
 ftorcs ftiz 
 
 tft alliduiiy to the profecution of fuch maaufaClures as America. 
 
 were ncceii'ary for their defence and fubUftencc, fuch ' "^ ' 
 
 as fait, fah-petrc, gunpowder, ftcel, &c. This was 
 the univcrfal voice of ihc colonies, Ncv/-York only 
 excepted. The aflembly of that province, as yet igno- 
 rant of the fate of their laft remonftrance, refufedto 
 concur with the other colonies in their determination 
 to throw off the Britifii yoke : their attachment, how- 
 ever, was very faint, and by the event it appeared that 
 a perfevcrencc in the meafures which the miniftry had 
 adopted was fu.Ticient to unite them to the reft. 
 
 As the difturbances had originated in the province 
 of Mailiichtifctis-Bay, and thin; continued all along 
 with the greatcft violence, fo tliis was the province 
 where the iirft hoftilities were formerly commenced. ,gg 
 In the b-jginning of February the provincial co:;grcfs Maflachu- 
 met a: Cambridge; and as from every appeariucc ii f:tu affem- 
 became daily more evident, that arms mull ultimately '^'y recom- 
 decide the conteft, cxpertnefs in military difcipliae "''"''. P"' 
 was recommended in the ftrongeft manner, and fevc- P"""'^'' 
 ral military inllitutions cnaded ; among which that 
 of the iniitiite-v:cu was one of the moft remarka- 
 ble. Thcfe were chofen from the moft ailivc and ex- 
 pert among the militia ; and their bufiucfswas to keep 
 themfelves in conftant rfcadincfs at the cajlof their of- 
 ficers ; from which perpetual vigilance they derived 
 
 their title It was nov/ eafily feeu that a llight occa- 
 
 lion would bring on hoftilities, which could not but be 
 attended with the moft violent and certain deftruclion 
 to the vani^uiflied party ; for both werefo much exaf- 
 peratcd by a long courfe of reproaches and literary 
 warfare, that tliey feemcd to be filled with the uiraoft 
 inveteracy againit each other. 
 
 On the 36th of February General Gage having been 
 informed that a numbcrofiicld-pieces bad been brought 
 to Salem, difpatched a party to fcize them. Their • 
 road was obftrucfed by a river, over which was a 
 draw-bridge. This the people had pulled up, and re- 
 fufcd to let it down : upon which the foldiers feized a 
 boat to ferry them over ; but the people cut out her 
 bottom. Ilo.'lilitics ■.vould immediately have commtn- 
 ced, had it not been for the interpofaion of a clergy- 
 man, who reprtftnted to the military, on the one hand, 
 the folly of oppoling fuch numbers ; and to the people, 
 on the other, that as the day v/as far fpcnt the military 
 could not execute tIieirdelign,lo that they migiit with- 
 out any fear leave them the quiet polFellion of the draw- 
 bridge. This was complied with ; and the foldiers, af- 
 ter having remained lor fomc time at the bridge, re- 
 turned wilhout executing their orders. ,j- 
 
 The next attcmpt,howevcr,wasaticnded with more Skirniilb tt 
 ferious coufequences. General Gage having been in- Lexiugtuii. 
 formed that a lirge quantity of ammunition and mili- 
 tary ftores had been collccUd at Concord, about ;o 
 miles from Bofton, and wlicre the provincial congrefs 
 was fitting, fcnt a detachment, under the coniitiandcf 
 Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, todcftroy the ftorcs, 
 and, as was reported, to feize Mclfrs. Hancock and 
 Adams, the leading men of the congrefs. They fe: 
 out before day-break, on the 19th of April, marching 
 with the utmoft liUnce, and feeuring every one they 
 met on the road, that they might not be ilifcovcrcd. 
 But notwithllanding all their care, the continual ring- 
 ing of bells and firing of guns as ihey went along, 
 foon gave them notice that the country was alarmed. 
 
 About
 
 A M E 
 
 r sH J 
 
 A M E 
 
 Usfluii. 
 
 Amcrici. About tivcin the morningtliey had reached Lexington 
 
 " ' 1 5 miles from Bofton, where the militia of the place 
 
 were cxerciling. Major Pitcairn called out to tkem, 
 dilfiirj'i y{,u rebels : throvi dawn your arms and difpJife : 
 but, as they lliil continued in a body, he advanced, 
 difchargcd his pillol, and ordered his Ibldicrs to tire ; 
 who inllantly obeyed, and killed and wounded fcveral 
 of the miliiia : a difperlion of the militia was the cun- 
 fequcnce. The detachment then proceeded to Concord, 
 where, having deltroycd the Uores, they tired upon 
 the Americans ; and < fcuffle ciifucd^in which fcveral 
 fell on both tides. The purpofe of their expedition 
 being thus accomplilhfd, it wasnccelTary for the king's 
 troops to retreat, which ihcy did through a continual 
 tire kept up on them from Concord to Lexington. 
 Here their ammunition was totally expended ; and 
 they would have been unavoidably cut off, had not a 
 conliderable rcinforccmentcommanded by Lord Percy 
 met them. The Americans, however, continued 
 their attack witli great fpirii ; and the Briiilh would flill 
 have been in the utincll danger had it not been for 
 two tield-picccs which Lord Percy had brought with 
 him. By thefe the impetuolit) of the Ajnericans was 
 checked, and the Brit Ih made good their retreat to 
 Bolton, with ihclofs of 273 killed wounded and made 
 prifoncrs : that of the Amcricans.wasabu.it 50 killed, 
 182 38 wounded and milTing. 
 A great ar- From the commencement of hoftilities, the difpuce 
 my aflcm- between great Britain and the colonics took anew di- 
 blcsbcfore region. By this engagement the fpirits of the Ameri- 
 cans were raifcd ; a coniiderable army wasalTemblcd, 
 who formed a line of encampment from Roxbury to 
 Myllic, through a fpace of ai-iout :io miles ; and here 
 they were foon after joined by a large body of Con- 
 necticut troops, underGencral Putnam, an old officer 
 of great bravery and exprrience. By this formidable 
 /orce was the town of Bofton now kept blocked up. 
 General Cage, however, had fo llrongly fortified it, 
 that the army powerful as they were, durft not make 
 an attack ; while on the other hand, his force was by 
 far too infiguificant to meet fuch an army in the tield. 
 J5ut towards the end of May, a coniiderable reinforce- 
 nicnihavingarrived, with Generals Howe, Burgoyne, 
 and Clinton, he was foon enabled toaticmpifomething 
 of confc(]uence. Some Ikirniiihcs in the mean time 
 .l^appcned in the illauds lying otf Bofton harbour, in 
 which the Americans had the advantage, and burnt 
 an armed fchooner,\\hich her people had been obliged 
 to abandon after (lie was left aground by the tide. 
 Nothing dccilive, h-jwever, took place, till the 17th 
 of June. In the neighbourhood of Charleftown, a 
 place on the northern ftiore of tlie peniufula on which 
 Bofton ftands, is an high ground called Bmikir's Hill, 
 which o\erlooks and commands the whole town of 
 Bofton. in the night of the 1 6ih the provincials took 
 jioficfrion ofthisplice : and worked with fuch inde- 
 fatigable diligence, that, to the aftouirtiment of their 
 enemies, they had before iluy-lighi, almoft couiplcied 
 a redoubt, with a ftiong ciurenchnient reaching 
 half a mile eaftward, as tar as the river Myftic. Af- 
 ter tliis they were obliged to fuftain a heavy and inccf- 
 fant fire from the fhips and floating batteries with 
 which Charleftown neck was furrounded, as well as 
 the cannon that could reach the place from Boftun ; 
 infpite of which, however, they coutinuedtheir work, 
 and finilhed it before mid-day. A coniiderable body 
 
 183 
 
 r-Mtle at 
 Sunker'9 
 Hiil. 
 
 offoot was then landed at thcfootof Bunker's Hill, un- Amcrict. 
 der the command ofGenerals Howe and Pigot ; the for- *"— ^^^ 
 mer being appointed toattack the lines.aad the latter the 
 redoubt. The Americans, however, having the advan- 
 tage of the ground, as well as of their intrcuchmcnts, 
 poured down fuch incellaut volleys, as threatened the 
 whole body with dellruction ; and General Howe was for 
 a little time left almoft alone, ail his ofiicers being kil- 
 led or wounded. The provincials in the mean time 
 had taken poiiellion of Charleftown, fo that General 
 Pigot was obliged to contend with them in that place 
 as well as in the redoubt. The confequcnce was, 
 that be was overmatched ; his troops were thrown 
 into diforder ; and he would in all probability have 
 been iiefeattd, had not General Clinton advanced tohis 
 relief: upon which the attack was renewed with fuch 
 fury, that the provincials were driven beyond the 
 neck that leads to Charleftown. In the heat of the 
 engagement the Britilh troops, in order to deprive the 
 Americans of a cover, fet fire to Charleftown, which 
 was totally confumed ; and, eventually, the Americans 
 were obliged to retreat over Charleftown neck, and 
 was raked by an incclTant fire from the Glafgow man 
 of war, and fcveral floating batteries. The lofs on 
 the Briiilli fide amounted to about 1000, among whom 
 were 19 officers killed and 70 wounded ; that of the 
 Americans did not exceed 139 killed, and 9i4Wound- 
 ed. 
 
 The Britifh troops claimed the viftory ofthis en- 
 gagement ; but it muft be allowed that it was dearly 
 bought ; and the Americans boafted that the real ad- 
 vantages were on their tide, as they hadfo much weak- 
 ened the enemy that they durft not afterwards venture 
 out of their entrenchments. Although this was the 
 firft time the provincials had been in actual fervice, 
 they behaved ihemfelves with the fpirit of veterans, 
 and by no means merited the appellation oi cowards, 
 with which they were fo ol'ten branded in Britain. J84 
 
 In other places the fame determined fpirit of rcfift- The Ame- 
 ance appeared on the part of the Americans. Lord ricans be- 
 North's conciliatory fcheme was utterly rtjeifled by "'"' """"^ 
 the affembliesofPennfylvaniaand New-Jcrfey, and 5", ".'''. 
 afterwards in every other colony. The commence- ;„ ,1,^;^ 
 meiitofhoftilitiesat Lexingtoii determined the colony oppoliiion. 
 of New-York, which had hiihertocontinued towaver, 
 to unite with the reft ; and as the fituation of New- 
 York renders it unable to refift an attack from the fea, 
 it was, refolved, before the arrival of a Britilh fleet, 
 to fecure the military ftores, fend off the women and 
 children, and fet fire to the city if it was ftill found in- 
 capable of defence. The exportation of provilions was 
 every where prohibited, particularly to the Britifli 
 fifliery on the Banks of Newfoundland, or to fuch co- 
 lonies of America as ftiould adhere to the Briiilh in- 
 tereft. Congrefs refolved on the cftabliftiment of an 
 army, and of a large paper currency in order to fap- frown- 
 port it. In the inland northern colonics, colonel pojnt and 
 Eafton and Ethan Allen, without receiving any orders Ticondcra- 
 froin congrefs, or comniunicating their defigus to any gotak'.i.by 
 body, with a party of only 3 5omen,fiirpiifcd the forts '^* Ame- 
 of Crown-Point, Ticonderago, and the reft that form '■"^'' 
 a communication betwixt the colonies and Canada. 
 On this occallon aoo pieces of cannon fell into their 
 hands, befides mortars, and a large quaniity of military 
 ftores, together with two armed vellcls, and materials 
 for the conftruclion of others. 
 
 After
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 
 
 rQ - 
 
 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Antwica. 
 
 i86 
 Troops in 
 ](aa<>n di- 
 ftrcffcd. 
 
 1S7 
 Arti.lo« of 
 
 After the battle of Bunker's Hill, the provincials 
 crcfled ftirtificationsbn theliiights which comiiiaiidc-d 
 Charlellown, and ftrcngthencd the red in fuch a man- 
 ner that there was no hope of driving them from 
 thence ; at the fame time that their a(5liviiy and bold- 
 nefs aftonifiied the Britiih officers, who had been ac- 
 cuftomcd to entertain a mean and unjiill opinion of 
 their courage. 
 
 The troops, thus Ciat up in Boflon, were foon re- 
 duced to diRrcfs. Their necefliiies obliged them to 
 attempt the carrying off the American cattle on the 
 illands before Boflon, which produced frequent fkir- 
 milhcs ; but the provincials, better acquainted with the 
 navigation of thcfe ihorcs, landed on the illands, dc- 
 ftroy cd or carried off whatever was of any ufc, burned 
 tlic li^ht-houfe at the entrance of the harbour, and 
 took prifoiicrs the workmen fent to repair it, as well 
 as a party of marines who guarded them. Thus the 
 garrifon were reduced to the necelfity of fending out 
 armed vedcls to make prizes indifcriminately of all 
 that came in their way, and of landing in different 
 places to plunder for fubfiftencc as well as they could. 
 Thecongrcfsin the mean time continued to aft with 
 union be- all the vigour which its conflituents had expeflcd. 
 twctn the Articles of confederation and perpetual union were 
 colonics, drawn up and folcmnly agreed upon ; by which they 
 bound ihenifdvcs and their polterity for ever. Thefc 
 were in fubllance as follows. 
 
 1. L'ach culony was to be independent within itfclf, 
 and to retain an abfolutc fovercignty in all domeftic 
 affairs. 
 
 2. Delegates to be annually eleftcd to meet in con- 
 grefs, at fuch time and place as fliould be enadled in 
 the preceding congrefs. 
 
 3. This alfembly fhould have the power of deter- 
 mining war or peace, making alliances; and in fliort 
 all that power which fovereigns of dates ufually claim 
 as their own. 
 
 4. The expcnces of war to be paid out of the com- 
 mon treafury, and raifed by a poll-tax on males be- 
 tween 16 and 60; the proportions to be determined 
 by the laws of the colony. 
 
 J. An executive council to be appointed to aft in 
 place of the congrefs during its rccefs. 
 
 6. No colony to make war with the Indians with- 
 out confent of congrefs. 
 
 7. The boundaries of all the Indian lands to be feeu- 
 red and afcertaincdto them ; and nopurchafcsoflands 
 ■were to be made by individuals, or even by a colony, 
 without confent of congrefs. 
 
 8. Agents appointed by congrefs fliould refide a- 
 niong the Indians, to prevent frauds in trading with 
 them, and to relieve, at the public expenfe, their wants 
 and diflrclfrs. 
 
 9 This confederation to lafl until there (liould be 
 a reconciliation with Britain ; or, it that event fliould 
 not take place, it was to be perpetual. 
 
 After the aftion of. Bunker's Hill, however, when 
 the power of Great Britain appeared lefs formidable in 
 the eyes of America than before, congrefs proceeded 
 formally to jullify thtir proceedings in a declaration 
 drawn up in terms more expreflivc, and well calculated 
 to excite attention. 
 
 "Were it pofFible (faid they) for men who exer- 
 cife their re.ifon, to btlieve that the divine Auiiior of 
 Vol. I. 
 
 188 
 
 Dccla[3tl 
 on on ta- 
 king up 
 arwa. 
 
 our exifltncc intended a part ofthc human race to hoy Amrr.>». 
 
 an abfolutc property ia and unbounded jiov/er over ' ^- — 
 
 others, marked out by His infinite goodncfs and wif- 
 dom as the objects of a legal domination, never right- 
 fully rcfiflible, however fcvereandopprclfivc ; the in- 
 habitants of thefc colonies might at lead require fro;n 
 the parliamentofGreat- Britain fonic evidence that this 
 dreadful authority over them had been granted to that 
 body : but a reverence for our Great Creator, princi- 
 ples of humanity, and the diftatcs of common feufc, 
 mud convince all thofc who rcHtitl upon the fubjcct, 
 that government was infiituted to promote the welfare 
 of mankind, and ought to be adminidcred for the at- 
 tainment of that end. 
 
 " The Icgillaturc of Great-Britain, however, f.i- 
 mulatcd by an inordinate paflion for power, not only 
 unjudifiablc, but which they know to be peculiarly re- 
 probated by the \cry conditution of that kingdom; 
 and defpairingof fuccefsin any mode of contcd where 
 regard fliould be had to law, truth, or right ; have, at 
 length, deferting thofc, attempted 10 eficft their cruel 
 and impolitic purpofe of cnllaving thefc colonies by vi- 
 olence, and have thereby rendered it neceflary for us 
 to clofe with their lad appeal from rtafon to arms. 
 Yet, however blinded that alfembly may be, by their 
 intemperate rage for unlimited domination, fo to flight 
 juftice in the opinion of mankind, we eftecm ourfeh cs 
 bound by obligations to the reft of the world to make 
 known the juftice of our caufe." 
 
 After taking notice of the manner in which their 
 anceftors left Britain, the happinefs attendingthemu- 
 tual friendly commerce betwixt that country and her 
 colonics, and the remarkable fuccefs of the late war, 
 they proceed as follows : " The new miniftry, fimding 
 the brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeated, 
 yet ftill contending, took up the unfortunate idea of 
 granting them a hafty peace, and of then fubduing her 
 faithful friends. 
 
 " Thefc devoted colonies were judged to be in fuch 
 a date as to prefent viftories without bloodllied, and 
 all the eafy emoluments of ftaiutablc plunder. The 
 uninterrupted tenor of their peaceable and rtrpeclful 
 behaviour from the beginning of their colonization ; 
 their dutiful, zealous, and ufcful fervices during the 
 war, though fo recently and amply acknowledged in 
 the moft honourable manner by his majedy, by the 
 late king, and by parliament, could not favc them 
 from the intended innovations. Parliament was inrtu- 
 enced toadopt the pernicious projecl ; and alfuming a 
 new power over them, has in the courfe of eleven 
 years given fuch decifive fpccimens of the fpirit and 
 confcquenees attending this power, as to leave nu 
 doubt of the effefts of acquiefcence under it. 
 
 " They have undertaken to give and grant our mo- 
 ney without our confent, though we have ever excr- 
 cifed an exclulivc right to difpofe of our own proper- 
 ty. Statutes have been patfed for extending the iurif- 
 diftion of the courts of admiralty and vicc-admjralty 
 beyond their ancient limits ; for depriving us of the 
 accuftomed and incdinublc rights of trial bv jury, in 
 cafes affcfting both life and property ; for (ufpcndiiig 
 the legillaiure of one of our colonics; far interdiciing 
 all commerce to ihecapital of another; and for alter- 
 ing fundamentally the form of government cdabliflied 
 by charter, and fecured by afts of its own Icgillaturc ; 
 4 £ and
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 586 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, and iolcmnly confirmed by the crown ; for exempting 
 ^—^<^—' the murderers of coloiiilts Iroin legal trial, and in ef- 
 fect from punil>liiiciu ; for creeling in a iicighbonring 
 province, acquired by the juini arms of Grcii-Britaiii 
 and America, adel'potifm dangerous to our very exill- 
 ence ; and for quartering foldicrs upon the colonilh in 
 time of a profound peace. It has alfo been rcfolved 
 in parliament, that coloni(ls,charged with committi'.ig 
 certain otFenccs, Ihall be tranfportcd to England to be 
 tried. 
 
 " But why llionld we enumerate our injuries in de- 
 tail ? — By one llatuie it was declared, that parliament 
 can of right make laws to bind us in all cafes \\ liatc- 
 ver. What is to defend us againll fo enormous, fo 
 unlimited a po»vcr '. Not a fingle perfon who aliumes 
 it is cliofcn by us, or is fubjeft to our controal or in- 
 fluence , but, on the contrary, they are all of them ex- 
 empt from the operation of fuch laws ; and an Ameri- 
 can revenue, if not diverted from the odenhble 
 purpofes for which it is raifed, would actually 
 lighten their own burdens in proportion as it increafcs 
 ours. 
 
 " We faw the mifcry to which fuch defpL'tifm would 
 reduce us. We for ten years incell'antly and ineffec- 
 tually bcfiegcd the throne as fupplicants ; we reafoned, 
 we remonlf rated with parliament in the moll mild and 
 decent language ; but adminiflration, fenfiblc that we 
 liiould regard ihefe mcafures as freemen ought to do, 
 fent over fleets and armies to enforce them. 
 
 " We have purfaed every temperate, every refpeft- 
 ful meafure ; we have even proceeded to break off all 
 commercial interconrfe with our fellow-fubjeds,as our 
 lall peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no 
 nation on earth would fupplant our attachment to li- 
 berty ; this we tiatteredourfelves was the ultimate Hep 
 of thecontroverfy ; but fubfequent events have Siown 
 how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our 
 •neroies ! 
 
 " The Lords and Commons, in their addrefs in the 
 month of February, faid, that a rebellion at that time 
 aftually exillcd in the province of Mailachufetts-Bay; 
 and that thofe concerned in it had been countenanced 
 and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engage- 
 ments entered into by hismajcfly's fubjeds in feveral 
 »)f the colonics ; and therefore they befought his ma- 
 jefly that he would take the moft etfeftual meafures to 
 enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the 
 fupreme legillature. Soon after the commercial inter- 
 courfcof whole colonics with foreign countries was cut 
 off by an a6l of parliament ; by another, feveral of 
 them were entirely prohibited from the fidicries in 
 the feas near their coafts, on which they always de- 
 pended for their fubliflence ; and large reinfor;:ements 
 of fhips and troops were immechately fent over to Ge- 
 neral Gage. 
 
 " Fruitlefs were all the intreaties, arguments, and 
 «loquenccof an illunrious band of the moll diftinguifli- 
 cd peers and commoners, wlio nobly and flrenuoufly 
 afferted the jullice of our caufe, to flay, or even to mi- 
 gate, the heedlefs fury with which thefe accumulated 
 outrages were hurried on. Equally fruitlefs was the 
 interference of the city of London, of Brillol, and 
 of many other refpeftable towns in our favour." 
 
 After having reproached parliament, General Gage, 
 and the Briiilh government in general, they pro€ccd 
 
 thus: "Weare reduced to the alternative of choofing Amtriea. 
 
 an unconditional I'ubmiirion to tyranny, or refillanccby ' " ' 
 
 force. The latter is our choice. We have counted 
 the coll of this contcll, and find nothing fo dreadful 
 as voluntary llavery. Honour, jullice, and humanity, 
 forbid us tamely to furrender that freedom which we 
 received from onr gallant anccllors, and which our in- 
 nocent poftcrity have a right to receive from us. Our 
 caufe is juH ; our union is perfect , our internal re- 
 fources are great; and, if nccefl'ary, foreign aililiance 
 is undoubtedly attainable. We fight not for glory or 
 conquefl; we exhibit to mankind the remarkable 
 fpeftacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies. 
 They boall of their privileges and civilization, and ycL 
 proffer no milder conditions than fervitude or death. 
 In our native land, in defence of the freedom that 
 is our birthright, for the proteiilion of our property 
 acquired by the honell indullryof our forefathers and 
 our own, againfl violence actually offered, we have 
 taken up arms ; we fhall lay them down when hofli- 
 lities fliall ceafe on the part of our aggreflbrs, and all 
 danger of their being renewed fliall be removed — 
 and not before." 
 
 Thefe are fome of the moft ftriking paffagcs in the 
 declaration of congrefs on taking up arms againfl 
 Great-Britain, and dated July 6th, 1775. The de- 
 termined fpirit which it fliows, ought to have convin- 
 ced the people of Britain, that the eonquefl of Ame- 
 rica was an event fearce ever to be cxpefled. In 
 every other refpeft an equal fpirit was fliown ; and 189 
 the rulers of the Britifli nation had the mortification Quebec bill 
 
 to fee thofe whom they ftyled rel'^h and traitors, fuc- 'i'%""- 
 
 , . .•'■',.,, , , , ' blc to thole 
 
 ceed in negociations m which they theinlclves were ^),„ni it 
 
 utterly foiled. In the paifing of the Qiiebec-bill, mi- wasintend- 
 niflry had flattered themfelves that the Canadians ed to 
 would be fo much attached to them on account plcafe. 
 of rcfloring the F'rench laws, that they would very 
 readily join in any attempt againfl the colonifts who 
 had reprobated that bill in fuch flrong terms : but in 
 this, as in every thing elfc indeed, they found them- 
 felves miflaken. The Canadians having been fubjefl 
 to Britain for a period of i 5 years, and being thus ren- 
 dered I'enlible of the advantage of Britifli government, 
 received the bill itfelf with evident marks of difap- 
 probation ; nay, reprobated it as tyrannical and op- 
 prefTive. A fchenie had been formed for General 
 Carleton, governor of the province, to raife an army 
 of Canadians wherew ith to aft againfl the Americans ; 
 and fo fanguine were the hopes of adminiflration in 
 this refpeft, that they had fent 20,000 Hand of arms, 
 and a great quantity of military flores, to Quebec for 
 the purpofe. But the people, though they did not 
 join the Americans, yet were found immoveable in 
 their purpofe to fland neuter. Application was made 
 to the bifliop ; but he declined to intcrpofe his influ- 
 ence, as contrary to the rules of the Popifh clergy : 
 fo that the utmofl efforts of government in this pro- 
 vince were found to anfwer little or no purpofe. X90 
 The Britifli adminiflration next tried to engage the Miniftry 
 Indians in their caufe. But though agents were dif- attempt in 
 perfed among them with large prefents to the chiefs, »»>•' «" f nv 
 they univcrfally replied, that they did not underfland* ' " '" 
 the nature of the quarrel, nor could they diflinguifh 
 whether thofe who dwelt in America or on the ijther 
 iidc of the ocean were in fault : but ihey were fur- 
 
 prifed
 
 191 
 
 Speech of 
 the com- 
 luilBoiicrs 
 
 A M E [58 
 
 America, prifcd to fee Englilhmcn afk their affiftance againfl 
 '•'~~~' one another ; and adviicd chem to be reconciled, and 
 not tothinkof lliedding the blood of their brethren. — 
 To the reprcfcntations of congrcfs they paid morcre- 
 fpefb. Thcfc fet forth, that the Englifti on the other 
 fide ot the ocean, had taken up arms to cnflavc, not 
 only their countrymen in America, but the Indians 
 alfo ; and if the latter fliould enable them to overcome 
 the colonifts, they thcmfelves would foon be reduced to 
 a ftate of flavcry alfo. By arguments of this kind thefe 
 lavages were engaged to remain neuter ; and thus the 
 colonifts were freed from a moftdangerous enemy. On 
 this occalionthe congrefs thought proper to hold afo- 
 lemn conference with the different tribes of Indians. 
 The fpeech made by them on the occafion is curious, 
 but too long to be fully inferted. The following is a 
 fpecimeu of the European mode of addrcffing thefe 
 people. 
 
 " Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors! 
 
 " ^^'c the delegates from the Twelve United Pro- 
 vinces, now lit ting in general congrefs at Philadelphia, 
 from con- ^cnd their talk to you our brothers, 
 grefsto the " Brothers and Friends, now attend ! 
 Jndiaus. <' When our fathers crolled the great water, and 
 
 came over to this land, the king of England gave them 
 atalk,airuringthem that they andtheir children Ihould 
 be his children ; and that if they would leave their na- 
 tive country, and make fettlements, and live here, and 
 tuy and fell, and trade with their brethren beyond the 
 ■water, they (hould ftill keep hold of the fame cove- 
 nant-chain, and enjoy peace ; and it was covenanted, 
 that the fields, houfes, goods, and pofTefnons, which 
 our fathers Ihould acquire, Ihould remain to them as 
 their own, and be their childrens for erer, and at their 
 folcdifpofal. 
 
 " Brothers and Friends, open an ear ! 
 
 " We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the 
 <:ounfellors of KingGeorgc and the inhabitants and co- 
 lonics of America. 
 
 <' Many of his counfellors have perfuaded him to 
 break the covenant-chain, and not to fend us any more 
 good talks. They have prevailed upon him to enter 
 into a covenant againft us, and have torn afunder, and 
 call behind their backs, the good old covenant which 
 their anccftors and ours entered into, and took ftrong 
 hold of. They now tell us they will put their hands 
 intoour pocket without a/king, as though it were their 
 own ; and at their pleafure they will take from usour 
 charters, or written civil conftitution, which we love 
 as our lives ; alfo our plantations, our houfes, and 
 our goods, whenever they pleafe, without alking our 
 leave. They tell us that our vcflels may go to that or 
 this illand in the fea, but to this or that particular illand 
 we (hall not trade any more ; and in cafe of our non- 
 compliance with ihcfc new orders, they Ihut up our 
 harbours. 
 
 " Brothers, we live on tlvc fame ground with you ; 
 the fame ifland is our common birth-place. Wc dcfire 
 to fit down under the fame tree of peace with you : 
 let us water its roots, and chcrilh the growth, till the 
 large leaves and flourifliing branches fliall extend to 
 the fetting fun, and reach the fkies. If any thing dif- 
 agreeablc Ihould ever fall out between us, the Twelve 
 United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound 
 our peace, let as immediately feck mcafures for hcal- 
 
 7 ] A M E 
 
 ing the breach, from the prcfent fituation ©'oura/- Anuri^i. 
 fairs, we judge it expedient to kindle up a fmall fire at *-~^'— ' 
 Albany, where wc may hear each other's voice, and 
 difclofc our minds fully to oi;e another." 
 
 The other remarkable tranfaclions of this congrcfs 
 were the ultimate refufal of the conciliatory propofal 
 made by Lord North, of which fuch fangitine expcola- 
 tions had been formed by the Englifli miniftry ; and 
 appointing a generaliflimo to command their armies, 191 
 which were now very numerous. The pcrfon chofen Genenl 
 for this purpofe was George Washington: a man ^^"^ °E- 
 fo univerfally beloved, that he wasraifed tofjcha high '"" *PjJ 
 flation by the unanimous voice of coagrtfs ; and his['^^j^j^_ 
 fubfcqucnt conduft fliowed him every way worthy of jerincjurf. 
 it. Horatio Gates and Charles Lee, two Englilh 
 officers of confiderable reputation, were cliofen ; the 
 former an adjutant-general, the i'econd a niajor-gcre- 
 ral. Artemu; Ward, Philip Schuyler, and Ifracl Put- 
 nam, were liken ifc nominated major-generals. Seth 
 Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Woofter, 
 William Heath, Jofeph Spencer, John Thomas, John 
 Sullivan, and Nathanacl Green, were chofen briga- 
 dier generals at the fame time. 153 
 
 Congrefs had now alfo the fatisfaclion to receive dc- Georgia 
 puties from the colony of Georgia, exprefling a dcfire i^cedc* to 
 to join the confederacy. The reafons they give for re- ^' "nfc- 
 nouncing their allegiance to Britain was, that the con- '*'^*'y- 
 dufl of parliament towards the other colonics had been 
 oppreffive ; that though the obnoxious afls had not been 
 extended to them, they could vicwthis only asanomif- 
 fion, bccaufe of the feeminglittle confcquencc of their 
 colony ; and therefore looked upon it rather to be a 
 flight than a favour. At the fame time they framed a 
 petition to the king, fimilar to that fent by the other 
 colonies, and which met with a fimilar reception. 
 
 The fuccefs which had hitherto attended the Ameri- 
 cans in all their meafures, now emboldened them to 
 think not only of defending thcmfelves, but likewifc 
 of acting offenfivcly againft Great-Britain. 1'hc con- 194 
 queft of Canada appeared an objci.^ within their reach. The Arre- 
 andone that would be attended with many advantages ; ""»» »'- 
 and as an invafion of that province was already facili- '^""P' ''^"^ 
 
 tated by the taking of Crown-Point and Ticonderoga, """1"/'^ «^ 
 
 /- 1 1 ■? /.'I t . .° Canada- 
 
 It was refolved if poffible to penetrate that way into 
 
 Canada, and reduce Qiiebec during the winter, before 
 the fleets and armies which they were well alTured 
 would fail thither from Britain fliould arrive. By or- 
 der of congrefs, therefore, ;ooo men were put under 
 the command of Generals Montgomery and Schuyler, 
 with orders to proceed to Lake Champlain, from whence 
 they were to be conveyed in flat-bottonied boats to the 
 mouth of the river Sorcl, a branch of the great river 
 St. Lawrence, and on which is (ituatcd a fort of the 
 fame name with the river. On the other hand, they 
 were oppofed by General Carleton, governor of Cana- 
 da, a man of great aiflivity and experience in war; 
 who, with a very few troops, had hitlierto been able to 
 keep in awe the difaftcc^ed people of Canada, notwith- 
 ftanding all the reprcfcntations of the colonifts. He 
 had now augmented his army by a confiderable number 
 of Indians, and promifed, even in his prcfent fituati- 
 on, to make a very formidable reliftance. 
 
 As foon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown- 
 Point, he received information that feveral armed vef- 
 fels were ftaiioued at St. John's, a ftrong fort on the 
 4 E 2 Sorcl,
 
 America. 
 
 '95 
 Chaniblee 
 
 196 
 Cen. Carle, 
 ton defeat' 
 cd. 
 
 197 
 .■*t John's 
 toic taken 
 
 198 
 
 And like- 
 wife Mont 
 xcal. 
 
 199 
 •Col. Ar- 
 nold pene- 
 trates into 
 
 Canada. 
 
 A M E [ jS 
 
 Sard, wiih a \iewto prevent his crolfiiig the lake ; on 
 which he look polfeiriou ot' an illand which conimanJs 
 the mouth of tlic Sortl, and by which lie could prevent 
 them from entering the lake. In conjiin<;lion with 
 CJeneral Schuyler, lie next proceeded to St John's : 
 but findinj; that place too flrong, it was agreed in a 
 councilof war,joretire tolllc aux Noix, where General 
 Schuyler being taken ill, Montgomery was left to com- 
 mand alone. Kis tirlUlcp was to gain over tjic Indians 
 whom Gen. Carleton had employed, and this he in a 
 great nieafure accomplilhed ; after which, on receiv- 
 ing the full number of troops appointed for his expedi- 
 tion, he dctcru'.ined to lay fiege to St John's. In this 
 he was fatilitatcd by the reduction of Chamblec, a 
 fmall fort in the neighbourhood, where he found a 
 large fupply of powder. An attempt Vvas made by 
 General Carkton to relieve the place ; for which pur- 
 pofe he witii great pains collcrted about 1000 Canadi- 
 ans, while Colonel Maclean propofed to raifc a regi- 
 nientof the Highlanders who had emigratcdfrom their 
 own country to .-\nicrica. 
 
 But while Gen. Carleton was on his march with 
 thcfc new levies, he was attacked by the provincials, 
 and utterly defeated ; which being made known to an- 
 other body of Canadians who had joined Colonel Mac- 
 lean, they abandoned him witliout llrikinga blow, and 
 he was obliged to retreat to Qiiebec. 
 
 The defeat of General Carleton was a fufficient re- 
 compence to the .Americans for that of Colonel Ethan 
 y\llen, which had happened fomc time before. The 
 fuccefs which had attended this gentleman againfl 
 Crown-Point and Ticonderago had emboldened him 
 to m.ike a fimilar attempt on Montreal ; but being 
 attacked by the militia of the place, fupported by a 
 detachment of regulars, he was entirely defeated and 
 taken prifoner. 
 
 As the defeat of General Carleton and the defertion 
 of Maclean's forces left no room for the garrifon of St 
 John's to hope for any relief, they now confented to 
 Surrender thcmfclves prifoners of war; but were in 
 otkcr refpeds treated with great humanity. They 
 , were in number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians, 
 among whom were many of the French nobility, who 
 had been, very aftive in promoting the caufe of Britain 
 among iheir countrymen. 
 
 General Montgomery next took meafures to prevent 
 the Briiilh (hipping from paffing down the river from 
 Montreal to Qiiebec. This he accomplilhed fo ef. 
 feiflually, that the whole were taken. The town it- 
 felf was obliged to furrender at difcrction ; and it was 
 . with the utmoft difficulty that General Carleton efca- 
 pcd in an open boat by the favour of a dark night. 
 
 No further obftacle now remained in the way of the 
 Americans to the capital, except what arofe from the 
 nature of the country ; and thcfc indeed were very 
 conliderablc. Nothing, however, could damp the ar- 
 dour of the provincials. Notwithltanding it was now 
 the middle of November, and the depth of winter was 
 £t hand, Colonel Arnold formed a Jefign of penetra- 
 ting through woods, niorail'es, and the mofl frightful 
 folitudcs from New-England to Canada by a nearer 
 way than that which Montgomery had chnfcn ; and 
 this he accompliflied in fpite of every difficulty, to the 
 aftonifhment of all who faw or heard of the attempt. 
 A third part of his men under another colonel had been 
 
 8 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 obliged to leave him by the way, for want of provifi- Americi. 
 ons ; the total want of artillery rendered his prefcncc — '^~~~' 
 inlignilicant before a place ihongly fortilied ; and the 
 fmallnefs of his army rendered it even doubtful whe- 
 ther he could have taken the town by furprife. The 
 Canadiansiiidccd were auia;ied at the exploit, and their 
 incli.ialion to revolt from Britain was fomewhat aug- 
 mented ; but U'.'ue of them as yet took up arms in be- 
 half of America. The conllernatiou into which tiic 
 lownof <)iicbec was thrown proved detrimental rather 
 than otherv.'iie to the expedition; as it doubled llic 
 vigilauceandactiviiy of the inhabitants to prevent any 
 furprife ;and the appearance of common danger united 
 all parties, who, before the arrival of Arnold, were 
 conieiidiugmoll violently with one another. He was 
 therefore obliged to content himfelf with bloekingup 
 tiie avenues to the town, in order to diflrefs the garri- 
 fon for want of provilions ; and even this he was una- 
 ble to docMeiitually, by reafoaof the fmall number of 
 his men. 
 
 The matter was not much mended by the arrival of 
 General Montgomery. The force he had with him, 
 even when united to that ot Arnold, was too iiUigniti- 
 cant to attempt the reduction of a place fo llrongly 
 fortilied, cfpecijlly with the alliflance only of a few 
 mortars and tield-pieces. After the fiege Ind conti- 
 nued through the month of December, General Mont- 
 gomery, confcious that he couldaccomplilh hisendno 
 otlier way than by furprife, rcfolved to make an at- 
 tempt on the lafl day of the year 1 775. The method Attempt to 
 he took at this time was perhaps the beft that haman furprile 
 wifdom could dcvife. He advanced by break of day, Quebec, 
 in the midfb of an heavy fall of fnow, which covered 
 his men from the light of the enemy. Two real at- 
 tacks were made by himfelf and Colonel Arnold, at 
 the fame time that two feigned attacks were made oa 
 two other places, thus to diflradl the garrifon, and 
 make them divide their forces. One of the real attacks 
 was made by the people of New-York, and the other 
 by thofc of New-England under Arnold. Their hopes 
 of furpriling the place, however, were defeated by the 
 fignal for the attack being through forae miflakc given 
 too foon. General Montgomery himfelf had the moft 
 dangerous place, being obliged to pafs between the ri- 
 ver and fomc high rocks on which the Upper Town 
 flands ; fo that he was forced to make what hafle he 
 could to clofe with the enemy. His fate, however, jg, 
 was now decided. Having forced the firfl barrier, a General 
 violent difcharge of mufketry and grape-lhot from the Montgo- 
 fecond killed him, his principal officers, and the moll mery kil- 
 of the party he commanded ; on which thofe whore- '?^'i"^ 
 mained immediately retreated. Colonel Arnold, in the ^\^^^^^ 
 mean time, made a defperate attack on the Lower fjj,jj, - 
 Town, and carried one of the barriers after an obfli- 
 nate reliftaneeforan hour ; but in theaftionhe himfelf 
 received a wound, which obliged him to withdraw. 
 The attack, however, was continued by the officers 
 whom he had left, and another barrier forced ; but the 
 garrifon, now perceiving that nothing was to be fear- 
 ed except from that quarier, collefted their whole 
 force againfl it ; and, after a defperate engagement of 
 tliree hours, overpowered the provincials, and obliged 
 tliem to furrender. 
 
 In this aftion, it muft be confelTed that the valour 
 of the provincial troops could not be exceeded. They 
 
 had
 
 A M E 
 
 L 589 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 201 
 Arnold 
 created a 
 IJrigadicr- 
 Gencral. 
 
 Difputcs of 
 lx)rd Dun- 
 more with 
 his pro- 
 vince of 
 Virginia. 
 
 104 
 He fends 
 his family 
 aboard a 
 manofwar. 
 
 had foiiii-ht under as great diladvantagcs as ihol'c 
 which attended the Briiilh at Bunker's Hill, and had 
 behaved equally well. Such a terrible difafter left no 
 liopc remainingof the accomplithmeii t ot ilitir pur[iofe, 
 as General .Arnold could now fcarcc nuniber !<oo ef- 
 fective men under his command. He did not, how- 
 ever, i: handout he province, ore vcn remove to a greater 
 difluiice than three miles from Qiicbec ; and here lie 
 ilill found means to annoy the garrifon very confider- 
 ably by intercepting their provilions. The Canacians 
 notwiihilanding the bad fuccefs of ihc American arms, 
 P.ill continued friendly ; and thus he was enabled to 
 fullain the hardlhips of a winter-encampment in (hat 
 moft fcvcrc climate. The eongrefs, far from palling 
 any cenfurc on him for his misfortune, created him a 
 brigadier-general. 
 
 While hollilitieswerethus carried on with vigourin 
 the north, the flame of contention was gradually ex- 
 tending itfclf in the fouth. Lord Dunmore, the go- 
 vernor of Virginia, was involved in difputes (imilar to 
 thofc which had taken place in other colonies. Thefc 
 had proceeded fo far that the alFembly was diffolved ; 
 whic h in this province was attended with a confequence 
 unknown to the reft. As Virginia contained a great 
 number of flaves, it was necellary that a miliiia fhculd 
 be kept conflantly on foot to keep them in awe. Du- 
 ring the dilFolution of thcail'embly the militia-laws ex- 
 pired ; and the people, after complaining of the danger 
 they were in from the negroes, formed a convention, 
 whicli enacted that each county Ihould raife a quota 
 for the defence of the province. Dunmore, on this, 
 removed the powder from Williamfburg; which created 
 fuch difconients, that an immediate quarrel would pro- 
 bably have enfued, had not the merchants of the town 
 undertaken to obtain fatisfadtion for the injury fuppo- 
 fed to be done to the community. This tranquillity, 
 however, was foon interrupted ; the people, alarmed 
 by a report that an armed party were on their way 
 from the man of war where the powder had been de- 
 poliied, aflembled in arms, and determined to oppofc 
 by force any farther removals. In fomcofthe confe- 
 rences which paflcd at this time, the governor let fall 
 fome unguarded cxprciTions, fuch as thrcateningthem 
 with fctting up the royal ftandard, proclaiming liber- 
 ty to the negroes, dcilroying the town of Williamf- 
 burg, &c. which were afterwards made public, and 
 contributed greatly to incrcafe the public ferment. 
 
 The people now held frequent allemblies. Some of 
 them took up arms with a defign to force the governor 
 toreftorethc powder, and to take ihe public money 
 into their own poireflion : but on their way to Wil- 
 liamft)urg for this purpofe, they were met by the re- 
 ceiver-general, who became fecurity for the payment 
 of the gun-powder, and the inhabitants promifed to 
 take care of the magazine and public revenue. 
 
 By thefe proceedings the governor was fo much in- 
 timidated, that he fcnt his family on board a man of 
 war. He himfcif, however, illued a proclamation, in 
 which he declared the bchavionr of the perfon who 
 promoted the tumult trcafonable, accufed the people of 
 diiratisfadion,&c.On ilicir part they were by no means 
 deficient in recriminating ; and fome letters of his 10 
 Britain being about the fame time difcovered, confe- 
 quences enfued extremely fimilar to thofe which had 
 been occalioncd by thofe of Mr Hutchinfonsat Boilon. 
 
 In this ftatc of confuficn the governor tliought It America. 
 
 neccli'ary to fortify his palace with artillery, and pro- ^ ^ ' 
 
 cure a party of marines to guard it. Lord North's r„J^s"',i,-- 
 conciliatory propofal arriving alio about the fame tunc, piijct. 
 he ufed his uiiuoll endeavours to caufc the people com- ao6 
 ply with it. The arguments he ufed were plauliblc ; Hl« argu- 
 and, had not matters already gone to fuch a pitch of ""^"" fi-' 
 dillradio!!, it is higlily probable that fome attention ^" '!',?"'' ' 
 would have been paid 10 them. " The view (he fjid) """^i^"' 
 in which the colonies ought to behold this conciliatory 
 propofal, was no more than an earncft admonition from 
 Great-Britain to relieve her wants : that the utraoll 
 condefccndence had been ufed in tlie mode of applica- 
 tion ; no determinate lum having been fixed, as it was 
 thought moftworthy of Britilhgenerofity to take wluc 
 they thought could be conveniently fpared, and like- 
 wife to leave the niodeof raifing it to themfclves,"&c. 
 But the clamour and dilfatisfadlion were now fo univer- 
 fal, that nothing elfc could be attended to. The go- 
 vernor had called an alfcmbly for the purpofe of laying 
 this conciliatory propofal before them ; but it had been 
 little attended to. The alfembly began their fcllion by 
 inquiries into the ftate of the magazine. Jt had been 
 broken into by fome of the townfmen ; for which rca- 
 fon fpring-guns had been placed there by the gover- 
 nor, which difcharged themfclvesnpon theoffcndersat 
 their entrance : thefe circumllanccs with others of a 
 fimilar kind, raifed fuch a violent uproar, that, as foon 
 as the preliminary buiincfs of ihe fcllion was over, the jq. 
 governor retired on board a man of war, informing the Thegovcr- 
 iil'emhly that he durft no longer trull himfcif on (hore. nor rciires 
 This produced along courfcof difputation, which end- "" board a 
 ed in a politive refufal of the governor to truft himfcif"*" "^ 
 again in WilliamlLurg, even to give his alFent to the "^ ' 
 bills, which could not be palled v.iihout it, and though 
 the allembly offered to bind iheinfclves for his perfonal 
 fafety. In his turn he requcfted them to meet hirj on 
 board the man of war, where he then was; but his 
 propofal was rejedled, and all further correfpondcncc 
 containing the leafl appearance of friendiliip was dif- 
 coniinued. 20* 
 
 Lord Dunmore, having thus abandoned his govern- Attempts 
 nient, attempted to reduce by force thofe whom he '" '■'=<ii'<^« 
 could no longer govern. Some of the moll llrenuous •'" 'o'""! 
 adherents to the Britilh caufc, whom their zeal hid ^ ""' ' 
 rendered obnoxious at home, now repaired to him. He 
 was alio joined by numbers of black flaves. With 
 fhcfc, and the adiftanccof the Britilh lliipping, he was 
 for fome time enabled to carry on a kind of predatory 
 war fufTicient to hurt and exafpcrate, but not to fubdue. 
 After fome inconliderable attempts oji land, proclaim- 
 ing liberty to the Haves, and letting up the royal ftan- 
 dard, he took up his relldence at Norfolk, a maritime 
 town of fome confequence, where the people were bet- 
 ter affeded to Britain than in moll other places. A 
 confidcrablc force, however, was colledcd againft 
 him ; and thcnaturalimpetuolity of his tempcrprompt- 
 ing him to aft againft them with more courage than 
 caution, he was entirely defeated, and obliged tore- "^^, j^_ 
 tire to his Ihipping, which was now crowded by the fcjtcd. 
 number of thole who had incurred the rcfcntmcnt of 
 the provincials. **" 
 
 In the mean time a fcheme of the utmoft magnitude ^ , Conol- 
 and importance was formed by one Mr Conollv,a Ptnn- f^^ rt<ju- 
 fylvanian, attached to the caufc of Britain. "The tiril cing Virgi- 
 
 llep oia. 
 
 109 
 
 Hut is en-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 590 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 folic r. 
 
 An>fri(ii. Acp nf tills plan \v:is to ciucr into a league with the 
 " ' Ohio Indians. Tiiis lie coniniunicalcd lo Lord Dun- 
 iiiorc, and it received liis approbation : Upon which 
 Conolly ict out, and aifliially Uiccccdcd in his dcfign. 
 (^n his rctnrn he was dilpatched to General Cage, 
 from whom he received a colonel's conimiliioa, and 
 fct out in order to accomplilh the remainder of his 
 i'chemc. The plan in general was, that he Ihonld re- 
 turn to the Ohio, where, by the alliftancc of the Bri- 
 lilh and Indians in thcfe parts, he was to penetrate 
 through the back fcttlcments into Virginia, and join 
 ,,, Lord Dunmore at Alexandria. But by an accident ve- 
 Hci«Jifco-ry naturally tube expeclcd, he was dil'covercd, taken 
 vcrciland prifoncr, and confined. 
 
 taken ;)ri- After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from Norfolk, 
 
 that place was taken pollVirion of by the provincials, 
 
 who greatly dillrcifed thole on board Lord Dunmore's 
 
 Hcet, by refiifing to fupply ihcin with any ncccllarics. 
 
 This proceeding drew a remondrancc from his Lord- 
 
 ihip ; in which he inliftcd that the fleet Ihould be fur- 
 
 nilhed with necelVarics ; but his requcfl being denied, 
 
 a refolution was taken to fct fire to the town. After 
 
 ..., "" giving the inhabitants pioper warning, a party landed, 
 
 «!' Norfolk "'"'cr cover of a man of war, and fct lire to that part 
 
 • -•ftroycd. wliich lay nearsll the lliore ; but the flames were ob- 
 
 ferved at the fame time to break forth in every other 
 
 quarter, and the whole town was reduced to allies. 
 
 This univerfal deftrudion, occafloned a loi's of more 
 
 than L. 300,000. 
 
 213 In the fouthcrn colonies of Carolina, the governors 
 Tlie gover- were expelled, and obliged to take refuge on board of 
 nors of [jien of war, as Lord Dunmore had been ; Mr Martin, 
 South and governorof North Carolina, on a charge of attempting 
 To\iD3 ex- ''■^ '■''''^'^ the back-fettlers, confiding chiefly of Scots 
 relied. Highlanders, againft the colony. Having fccured 
 
 thcmfelves againll any attempts from ihel'c enemies, 
 Jiow'evcr, they proceeded to regulate their internal 
 concerns in the fame manner as the reft of the colo- 
 Jiies ; and by the end of the year 1775, Britain beheld 
 the whole of America united againft her in the moft 
 determined oppolition. Her vafl polltfliojis of that 
 trad of land (fince known by the name of the Thiiteeii 
 United States) were now reduced to the fingle town of 
 Bofton ; in which her forces were bcflegcd by an 
 army with whom they were apparently not able to 
 cope, and by whom they muft of courfc expedin a ve- 
 ry fhort time to be expelled. The lituaiion of the in- 
 
 214 -liabitants of Boflon, indeed, was peculiarly unhappy. 
 Mifcrable After having failed in their attempts to leave the town, 
 Ctuation of General Gage had contented to allow them to retire 
 
 with their crtccfs ; but afterwards, treacheroully re- 
 fufed to fulfil his promife. When he religned his 
 place 10 General Howe in Oftober I77>, the latter, 
 apprehenfive that they might give inielligenee of the 
 lltuation of the Brilifli troops, ftriflly prohibited any 
 perfon from leaving the place under pain of military 
 ■execution. Thus matters eoniinued till the mouth of 
 March 1776, when the town was evacuated. 
 
 On the ad of that month. General Walhington 
 opened a battery on the veil fide of the town, from 
 vtrcly can- whence it was bombarded, \vi:h a heavy fire of cannon 
 uonadedby ^x.\\\c fame time ; and three days after, it was attacked 
 diTu"^'"' hy another battery from the eallernlhore. This terri- 
 ble attack continued for 1 4 days without intermiflion ; 
 •when General Howe, finding the place no longer te- 
 
 BoUoo. 
 
 *I5 
 FoftoD fe 
 
 nablc, determined if poffible to drive the enemy from 
 their works. Preparations were therefore made for a 
 moft vigorousattack,on an hill called Dorchefter Neck, 
 which the Americans had fortified in fuch a manner 
 as would in all probability have rendered the entcr- 
 prifc next to defperate. Nodifficuliies, however, were 
 fuflicient to daunt the Ipirit of the general j and 
 every thing was inreadinels, whenafuddenllorm pre- 
 vented an exertion which muft have been produiitivc 
 of a dreadful wafle of blood. Next day, upon a more 
 clofe infpedion of the works they were to attack, it 
 was thought advifable to deiiil from the cnierprifc al- 
 together. The fortifications were very flrong, and 
 extremely well provided with artillery ; and, befides 
 other implements of detlrudion, upwards of 1 00 hogf- 
 hcads of ftones were provided to roll down upon the 
 enemy as they came up ; which, as the afcent was ex- 
 tremely rtecp, muft have done prodigious execu- 
 tion. 
 
 Nothing therefore now remained but to think of a 
 retreat ; and even this was attended with the utmoft 
 difficulty and danger. The Americans, however, know- 
 ing that it was in the power of the Briiilh general to 
 reduce the town to allies, which could not have been 
 repaired in many years, did not think proper to give 
 the leaft moleftation ; and for the fpace of a fortnight 
 the troops were employed in the evacuation of the 
 place, from whence they carried along with them 2000 
 of the inhabitants, who durft not ftay on account of 
 their attachment to the Britilh caufe. From Bofton 
 they failed to Halifax ; but all their vigilance could 
 not prevent a number of valuable Ihipsfrom falling into 
 the hands of the Americans. A conl'iderable quantity of 
 cannon and ammunition had alio been left at Bunker's 
 Hill and Bofton Neck ; and in the town, an immenfc 
 variety of goods.principally woollen andlinen.ofwhicJi 
 the provincials ftood very much in need. The eftates 
 of thofe who fled to Halifax were confifcated ; as 
 alfothofe who were attached to government, and had 
 remained in the town. As an attack was expeftcd as 
 foon as the Britifh forces fliould arrive, every method 
 was employed to render the fortifications already very 
 ftrong, impregnable. For this purpofc fome foreign 
 engineers were employed, who had before arrived at 
 Bofton ; and fo eager were people of all ranks to ac- 
 complish this bufinefs, that every able-bodied man in 
 the place, without diftinftion of rank, fct apart two 
 days in the week, to complete it the fooner. 
 
 The Americans exafperatcd to the utmoft by the 
 proceedings of parliament, w'hich placed them out 
 of the royal protection, and engaged foreign merce- 
 naries in the plan for fubduing them, now formally 
 renounced all connection with Britain, and declared 
 thcmfelves independent. This celebrated declaration 
 was pnblilhed on the 4th of July 1776. Previous to 
 this a circular letter had been feiit through each colony, 
 ftating the reafons for it ; and fuch was the animolity 
 nowevery where prevailingagainft Great- Britain, that 
 it met with univerfal approbation, except in the pro- 
 vince of Maryland alone. It was not long, however, 
 before the people of that colony, finding thcmfelves 
 left in a very dangerous minority, thought proper to 
 accede to the meafuresof the reft. The manifefto it- 
 felf was in the ufual nervous ftyle, ftating a long lift 
 of grievances, for which redrcfs had been often applied 
 
 .\mer!e«. 
 
 216 
 The place . 
 evacuMed. 
 
 217 
 Its fortifi- 
 cations 
 ftrengthcn- 
 
 2lg 
 Congrefi 
 declare the 
 States of 
 America 
 indepen- 
 dent.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 59 
 
 119 
 The ficge 
 •r Quebec 
 ilill conti- 
 nued. 
 
 no 
 Canadians 
 defeated 
 by the 
 provin- 
 cials; 
 
 America, in vain ; ani for tliefe reafons they determined on a 
 
 — V ' final feparaiion ; to hold the people of Britain as the 
 
 rcftofniankiiid, "cnemiesin war, in peace friends." 
 
 After thus publicly throwing olt all allegiance and 
 hope of rcconciliition, the coloiiills foon found that an 
 exertion of all their ftrength was required in order to 
 fuppon their pretcnfions. Their arms, indeed, had 
 not, during this fcafon, being attended with fucccfs in 
 Canada. Reinforcements had been promiled to Colonel 
 Arnold, who lliil continued the blockade of Quebec ; 
 but tliey did not arrive in time to fccond his opera- 
 tions. Being fcnfible, however, that he mull cither 
 delifl from the enterprife, or finilh it fuccefsfuUy, he 
 recommenced in form ; attempting to burn the Ihip- 
 ping, and even to ilorm the town itfelf. They were 
 unfuccefsful, however, by reafon of the fmallnefs of 
 their number, though they fuccceded fo far as to burn 
 a number of houfes in the fuburbs ; and the garrifon 
 were obliged to pull down the remainder, in order to 
 prevent the tire from fprcading. 
 
 As the provincials, though unable to reduce the 
 town, kept the garrifon in continual alarms, and in a 
 very difagreeable fituation, fome of the nobility col- 
 leftcd themfelvcs into a body under the command of 
 one Mr. Beaujeu, in order to relieve their capital ; but 
 they were met on their march by the provincials, and 
 fo entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards 
 able to attempt any thing. Their want of artillery at 
 laft convinced them, that it was impracticable in their 
 Jituation to reduce a place fo ftrongly fortified ; the 
 fmall-pox, at the fame time made its appearance in 
 their camp, and carried off great numbers ; intimida- 
 ting the reft to fuch a degree, that they deferted in 
 crowds. To add to their misfortunes, the Britifli re- 
 inforcements unexpectedly appeared, and the fliips 
 made their way through the ice with fuch celerity, 
 that the one part of their army was feparated from 
 Who are in the other ; and General Carleton fallying out as foon 
 their turn 35 jj^g reinforcement was landed, obliged them to fly 
 rf/""f with the utmoft precipitation, leaving behind them all 
 ' "'" their cannon and military ftores ; at the fame time that 
 their (hipping was entirely captured by velTels fent up 
 the river for that purpofe. On this occalion the 
 provincials fled with fuch preciptation that they could 
 not be overtaken ; fo that nunc fell into the hands of 
 the Britilh, excepting the fick and wounded. Gene- 
 ral Carleton now gave a iignal inftancc of his hu- 
 manity : Being well apprifed that many of the pro- 
 vincials had not been able to accompany the rell in 
 their retreat, and that they were concealed in woods, 
 &c. in a very deplorable lituation, he generoully iflued 
 a prodajnation, ordering proper perfons to feck them 
 out, and give them relief at the public cxpcnce ; at 
 the fame time k«!l, through fear of being made prifon- 
 ers, they fliould retufe thefe offers of humanity, he 
 promifed that, as foon as their Utuation enabled them, 
 they fhould be at liberty to depart to their refpedivc 
 homes. 
 He purfues The Britifli general, now freed from any danger of 
 the pro- an attack, was foon enabled to act otfcnfively againft 
 the provincials, by the arrival of the forces deftined for 
 that purpofe from Britain. By ihcfe he was put at 
 the head of 1 2,000 regualar troops, among whom were 
 ihofc of Bruufwick. With this force he inftanily fct 
 «ut to the Three Rivers, where he expeftcd that Ar- 
 
 an 
 
 General 
 Carleton. 
 
 aiz 
 Humanity 
 •f the Uri- 
 tifli gene- 
 ral. 
 
 viociaU. 
 
 1 ] A M E 
 
 nold would havemadeaftind; but he had retired to So- Ara-rlca. 
 
 rcl, a place i 50 miles diftant from Quebec, where he ' ^ ' 
 
 was at lall met by the reinforcement ordered by con- 
 grefs. Here, though tlie preceding events were by 
 no means calculated to infpire much military ardour, a 
 very daring enterprize was undertaken ; and this was, 
 to furprife the Britilli troops ported here under Gene- 
 rals Krafer andNcfbit ; of whom the former command- 
 ed ihofe on land, the latter, fuch as were on board of 
 tranfportsand svcre but a little svay diftant. The en- 
 terprife was undoubtedly very hazardous, both on ac- 
 count of the llrengthof the parties againft whom they 
 were toad, and as the main body of the Britilli f:r- 214 
 ces were advanced within jomilesofthcplace; belldes General 
 that a number of armed vcffels and tranfports with r*"'"''"" 
 troops lay between them and the Three Rivers. Two def'^*'=<l 
 thoufand chofen men, however, under General Thom 
 
 and taken 
 prifoner by 
 
 fon, engaged in this enterprife. Their fuccefs was by General 
 nomeansanfwerable totheirfpirit and valour. Though Frafcr. 
 they paflej the (hipping without being obferved, Ge- 
 neral Krafer had notice of their landing ; and thus be- 
 ing prepared to receive them, they were foon thrown 
 into difordcr, at the fame time that General Nefbit, 
 having landed his forces, prepared to attack them in 
 the rear. On this occalion fome field-pieces did pro- 
 digious execution, and a retreat was found to be un- 
 avoidable. General Nelbit, however, had got between 
 them and their boats , fo that they were obliged to 
 take a circuit through a deepfwamp, while they were 
 hotly purfucd by both parties at the fame time, who 
 marched for fome miles on each fide the fwamp, till 
 at laft the unfortunate provincialswere (heltcred from 
 further danger by a wood at the end of the fwamp. 
 Their general, however, was taken with zcoof his 
 men. 
 
 By this difafter the provincials loft all hopes of ac- 
 coraplilhing any thing more in Canada. They de- 
 molilhed their works, and carried off their artillery j,- 
 with the utmoft expedition. They v.-ere purfued, The pro- 
 howevcr, by General Burgoync ; who on the 18th of vincials 
 June arrived at Fort St John's, which he found aban- purfued by 
 doned and burnt. Chambleehad fiiarcd the fame fate, ^'"- ''"" 
 as well as all the vcffels that were not capable of being ^°''^°*' 
 dragged up againft the current of the river ; and the 
 provincial troops had retreated acrofs the lake to 
 Crown-Point, whither they could not be immediately ^^g 
 followed. Thus was the province of Canada entirely gut cfcane 
 evacuated by the Americans, who had thus fecured to Crown- 
 the frontiers of ihc adjiccnt ftates from invafion on Poinu 
 the part of the Britilh ; the objed of a campaign in 
 which 13000 men were employed, and near a million 
 of money expended, was rendered in a great mcafure 
 abortive. General Sullivan, who conducleJ this re- 
 treat after the afiair of General Thompfon, had great 
 merit in what he did, and received the thanks of con- 
 grefs accordingly. 
 
 This was followed by fume tranfaftions in the 
 fouthern colonies, which farther ev luced their rcfolu- 
 tion, and raifed the fpiritsof the Americans — \Vt have 
 formerly taken notice that Mr Martin, governor of 
 North-Carolina, had been obliged to leave his pro- 
 vince and take refuge on board a man of war. Not- 
 withftanding this he did not dcfpair of reducing it 
 again to obedience. For this purpofe he applied to 
 the regulators, a daring fct of banditti, who lived in a 
 
 iiud
 
 A M E 
 
 [ sr^ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Air.erica. 
 
 An infur- 
 rcdion iii 
 North-Ca- 
 rolina in 
 favour of 
 Britain. 
 
 12S 
 The royal- 
 ifts entire!/ 
 -defeated. 
 
 219 
 Lord Dmi- 
 more final- 
 ly driven 
 out of Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 kinJ of indcpeiiJciu llite ; anJ though confiJcicd by 
 govcinnif.it as rebels, yet had iicve:- been iiioItlUd, 
 on account of their nnuibcrs and know ii (kill in ihc 
 life of iirc-arnis. To the chiefs ot thefc jicoplc coui- 
 miilions were fent,in order to raifc fonic regiments ; 
 and .1 Colonel Macdonald was appointed to command 
 them. In the month of February he crcClcd the king's 
 flandard, iiliied proclamations, &c.and collected fomc 
 forces, expedling to be foon joined by a body of regu- 
 lar troops, who were known to be lliipped from Britain 
 to aft againfl the foiithern colonics. The Amcricaiis, 
 fcnliblc of their danger, difpatched immediately what 
 ■ forces they had to act agaiult the royalilts, at the fame 
 timethat tiicy diligently exerted ihcmfclves to fnpport 
 thefc with fuitablc reinforcements. Their prcfcnt force 
 was commanded by General Moore, whofc numbers 
 were infei'iorto Macdonald ; for which rcafon the lat- 
 ter fiiinmoned him to join the king's flandard under 
 pain of being treated as a rebel. But Moore, being 
 wtll provided with cannon, and confcious that nothing 
 could be anempicd jgainllhim, returned the compli- 
 Incnt, by acquaiiuing Colonel Macdonald, that if he 
 and his party would lay down their arms, and lubfcribc 
 an oath of lidelity tocongrefs, they Ihould be treated 
 as friends ; but if they perfiftcd in an undertaking for 
 which it was evident they had not fullicient Itrength, 
 they could not but expect the fcvcrelt treatment. In 
 a few days General Moore found himfelf at the head 
 of Socomtn, by reafon of the continual fupplies which 
 daily arrived from all parts. The royal party amount- 
 ed only to 2CCO, and they were delHtute of artillery, 
 which prevented them from attacking the enemy while 
 they had the advantage of numbers. They were now 
 therefore obliged to have recourfc to a defpcratc exer- 
 tion of perfonal valour ; by dint of which they effeftcd 
 a retreat for near 80 miles to Moore's Creek, within 16 
 miles of Wilmington. Could they jiave gained this 
 I'lace, they expected to have been joined by governor 
 Martin and general Clinton, who had lately arrived 
 with a conlidcrable detachment. But general Moore 
 with his army purlucd them fo clofe, that they were 
 obliged to attempt the palfage of the creek itfclf, tho' 
 a confidcrable body of the .Americans, under the com- 
 mand of Colonel Cafwell, with fortifications well plan- 
 ted with cannon, was pofled en the other. On attempt- 
 : ing the creek, however, it wa: found not to be forda- 
 ble. They were obliged therefore to crofs over a 
 wooden bridge, which the provincials had not time 
 to deftroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling 
 up part oftlic planks, andgrealing the rciiainder in or- 
 der to render them llippcry, made tlie palfage fodifli- 
 cult, that the ro/alifls could not aitcmpt it. In this litu- 
 ation they were, on the 27th of February, attacked by 
 j;encral Moore with his fuperior army, and totally de- 
 feated with the lofs of their general and moflof their 
 leaders, as well as the bell and bravefl of their men. 
 Thus was the powcrof the Americans cflabliflied in 
 North-Carolina. Nor were they Icfs fucccfsful in the 
 pravince of Virginia ; where Lord Dunmore having 
 long continued an ufelefs predatory war, was at laft dri- 
 ven I'rora every creek ;;nd road in the province. The 
 people he had on board were dillrellcd to the highcft 
 degree by confinement in fmall vcfltls. The heat cf 
 the feafon, and the nambcrs crowded together, pro- 
 duced a peAilcntial fever, which made great iiovock, 
 cfpecially among the blacks. At lal^, finding ihcm- 
 
 3 
 
 felves in the utmoft'hazard of pcrilhing by famine as America. 
 
 well as difeafc, they fet lire to the kail valuable of ' ' 
 
 their vcllcls, referving only about 50 tor tliemfclves, 
 in which they bid a final adieu to Virginia, fume fail- 
 ing to Florida, fomc to Bermuda, and the reft to the 
 Well-Indies. 
 
 In South-Carolina the Americans ha-d a more for- 
 midable enemy to deal with. At Cape-Fear a junc- 
 tion was formed between Sir Henry Clinton, and 
 Sir Peter Parker, the latter of whom had failed with 
 his fquadron dircdly from Europe. Ihcy concluded 
 to attempt the rcdudion of Charlcfton as being, of 
 all places within the line of their iiiflructions, tlic 
 objcft at which they could ftrike with the grcatcfl 
 profpeft of advantage. They had 2,800 laivd forces, 
 which they hoped, with the co-operation of their fhip- 
 ping, would be fully fufficicnt. ^.^ 
 
 For fomc months pafl every exertion had been made Britifh ar- 
 to put the colony of South-Carolina, and efpccially its manicnt 
 capital Charlelton, iv. a refpeftable pofliire of defence, fcntsgainft 
 In fubferviency to this view, works had been creded *-'''»''''^('""> 
 oa Sullivan 'si (land, which isfituated fb near the chan- ^-^{'^ ' 
 nel leading up to tlic town, as to be a convenient poll VoTr' 
 for annoying vcll'els approaching it. p. agg, 
 
 SirPetcr Parker attacked the fort on thatilland with 289. 
 two fifty gun Ihips, the Briftol and Experiment, four 
 frigates, the A<5tive, AiTeon, Solebay and Syren, each 
 of 28 guns. The Sphynx of 20 guns, the Friendfliip 
 armed vcllcl of 22 guns. Ranger floop, and Thunder 
 boiub, each of 8 g.ms. On the fort were mounted 26 
 cannon, 26, 18 and 9 pounders. The attack commen- 
 ced between ten and eleven in the forenoon, and was 
 continued for upwards of ten hours. The garrifon 
 ccnfiliing of ^75 regulars and a few militia, under the 
 command of colonel Moultrie, made a moll gallant de- 
 fence. They fired deliberately, for the moll part took 
 aimandfeldom milTed theirobjedl. The Ihips were torn 
 almofl to pieces, and the killed and wouruled on board 
 exceeded 200 men. The lofs of the garrifon was only 
 ten men killed and 22 wounded. The fort being built 
 of palmetto was little damaged. The fliot which llruck 
 it were ineffcftually buried in its foft wood. General 
 Clinton had fomc time before the engagement, landed 
 with a number of troops on Long-llland, and it was ex- 
 pected that he would have co-operated with Sir Peter 
 Parker, by crolTingovcrthe narrow palfage, which di- 
 vides the two idands, and attacking the fort in its un- 
 finifliedrear ; but the extreme danger towhich hemufl 
 unavoidably have cxpofed his men, induced him to de- 
 cline the perilous attempt. Colonel Thomfon with 7 
 or 800 men was flationed at the cafl end of Sullivan's 
 illand to oppofe their crolTing. No ferious attempt was 
 made to land either from the fleet or the detachment 
 commanded by Sir Henry Clinton. The firing ceaftsd 
 in the evening, and foon after the Ihips flipped their 
 cables Before morning they had retired about two 
 miles from the illand. Within a few d lys more the 
 troops re-cmbarkcd and failed from New- York. The 
 thanks of congrcfs were given to General Lee, uho 
 had been fcnt on by congrefs to take the command in 
 Carolina, and alfo to colonels Moultrie and Thomfon, 
 for their good conduft on this memorable day. In 
 compliment to the commanding ofiiccr the fort from 
 that time was called Fort Moultrie. 
 
 Thisyearalfo, theAmcricans, havingfo frequently 
 made trial of their valour by land, became dclirous of 
 
 trying
 
 A M E 
 
 [ S'jZ ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amfrica. 
 
 53* 
 ArmaBicnt 
 fcnt at;ain(l 
 New-York. 
 
 «33 
 General 
 Homelands 
 on i>taten 
 lOnnd. 
 
 »34 
 General 
 WaOilng- 
 ton rcfufcs 
 a letter 
 from Lord 
 Huwei 
 
 trying it by feaalfo, and of forming a navy that miglu 
 in fonie mcafiire be able to proteft their trade, and do 
 ellcntial hurt to the enemy. In the beginning of 
 Marih, Commodore Hopkins wasdifpatched with live 
 frigates to the Bahama illands, where he made himfelf 
 mafter of the ordnance and military (lores ; but the 
 gunpowder which had been the principal objedt, was 
 removed. On his return he captured fcveral velFels ; 
 but was foiled in his attempt on the Glafgow frigate, 
 w hich found means to efcape notwichftanding the ef- 
 forts of his whole fquadron. 
 
 The time, however, was now come when the forti- 
 tude and patience of the Americans were lo undergo a 
 fevere trial. Hitherto ihcy had been on the whole fuc- 
 cefsful in their operations: but now they were doomed 
 to experience misfortune, mifcry, and diftppoiiitment ; 
 the enemy over-running their country, and their own 
 armies notable to face them in the Held. The province 
 of New-York, as being the moll central colony, and 
 mofl accellible by fea, was pitched upon f t the objecSt 
 of the main attack. 1 he force fent againfl it coniilled 
 of 6 (hips of the line, 30 frigates, belides other armed 
 ved'cls, and a vaft number of tranfports. The fleet was 
 commanded by Lord Howe, and the land forces by 
 his brother General Howe, who was now at Hali- 
 fax. The latter, hosvever, a confidcrable time before 
 his brother arrived, had fet fail from Halifax, and 
 Jay before New-York, but without attempting to com- 
 mence hodilities until he fliould be joined by his bro- 
 ther. The Americans had, according to cuitom, for- 
 tified New-York and the adjacent iilands in an extra- 
 ordinary manner. However, General Howe wasfuf- 
 fered to land his troops on Staten llland, where he was 
 foon joined by a number of the inhabitants. About the 
 middle of July, Lord Howe arrived with the grand ar- 
 mament; and being one of the commiirioners appoint- 
 ed to receive the fubmilhonof the colonids, he publilh- 
 cd a circular letter to thispurpofe to the fevcral gover- 
 nors who had lately been expelled from their provinces, 
 dcfiring them to make the extent of his commilTion, 
 and the powers he wasinvelted witli by parliament, as 
 public as poflible. Here, however, congrefs faved him 
 trouble, by ordering his letter and declaration to be 
 puhliflicd in all the newfpupers, " That every one 
 might fee the inhdioufnefs of the Briti(h miniftry, and 
 that they had nothing to trull to belides the exertion of 
 their own valour." 
 
 Lord Howe next fent a letter to General W'afhing- 
 ton ; but as it was direded " To George Wafliington, 
 hfq." the General refufcd to accept of it, as not be- 
 ing direftcd in theftyle fuitable to his llation. To ob- 
 viate this objeftion. Adjutant-general Patterfon was 
 fent with another letter, directed " To George Walli- 
 ington, Stc. &c. &c." But though a very polite recep- 
 tion was given to the bearer. General Walhington ut- 
 terly refufed the letter ; nor could any explanation of 
 the adjutant induce him to accept of it. The only in- 
 tereding part of the converfation was that relating to 
 the powers of the com midioners, of whom Lord Howe 
 was one. The adjutant told him, that thcfe powers 
 were very extenlive: that the commillioners were de- 
 termined to exert themfclves to the utmoft, in order to 
 bring about a reconciliation ; and that he hoped the Ge- 
 neral would conlider this vifit as a fttp towardsit. Ge- 
 neral Wafliington replied, that it did not appear that 
 Vol. 1. 
 
 tlufe powers confifted in any thing elfc than granting 
 pardons ; and as America had committed no offence, 
 Ihe alked no forgivencfs, and was only defciidiug her 
 unqucftionable rights. 
 
 I'he decilion of every thing being now by confent 
 of both parties left to the fword, no time was loft, 
 but hodilities commenced as foon as the Briii(h troops 
 could be coUeCled. This, however, was not done be- 
 fore the month of Auguft ; when they landed without 
 any oppolition on Long-Ifland, oppofite to the Ihorc of 
 Siaten-Ifland. General Putnam, with a large body of 
 troops, l.iy encamped and (Irongly fortified on a peniu- 
 Cula on tiie oppofite (hore, with a range of hills be- 
 tween the armies, theprincipalpafsof which was near 
 a place called t'lat-bujh. Here the centre of the Bri- 
 tith army, confiding of Heffians, took pod ; the left 
 wing, under General Grant, lying near the ilwre ; 
 and the right, confiding of the greater part of the Bri- 
 ti(h forces, lay under Lord Percy, Cornwallis, ani 
 GeneralClinton. Putnam had ordered the pafles to be 
 fccurcd by large detachments, which was executed aS' 
 to thofe at hand j but one of the uimod imporiaiice, 
 that lay at a dillance, was entirely neglected. This 
 gave an opportunity to a large body of troops under 
 Lord Percy and Clinton to pals the mountains aj.d at- 
 tack the Americans in the rear, while tliey were en- 
 gaged with the Hoflians in front. Through tins piece 
 of negligence their defeat became inevitable. Ihofe 
 who were engaged with the Hellians lint perceived 
 their millake, and began a retreat tov.ards tlicir camp ; 
 but the pallage was intercepted by the Britilh troops, 
 who drove them back into the woods. Here they 
 were met by the Hellians ; and ilius they were for ma- 
 ny hours ilaughtered between the two parties, no way 
 of efcape remaining but by breaking tiirough the Bri- 
 tifh troops, and thus regaining their camp. In this at- 
 tempt many perilhed ; and the right wing, tng.'.ged 
 with General Grant, fliared the fame fate. The vic- 
 tory was complete ; and the Americans loft on this fa- 
 tal day (Augud 27th) conlidcrably upwards of 1000 
 men, and two generals : feveral olKcers of difliac- 
 tion were made prifoners, with a number of pri- 
 vates. Amongthe flain,a regiment couliding of young 
 gentlemen of fortune and family in Maryland, was ?.l- 
 mod entirely cut in pieces, and of the furvivers not one 
 efcapcd without a wound. 
 
 Tlie ardour of the Britifh troops was now fo great, 
 that they could fcarcc be rellrained from attacking the 
 lijies of the provincials ; but for this there \s as iiow no 
 occalion, as it was certain they could not be defended. 
 Of the BritiQi and Hcdians about 450 were loll in this 
 engagement. 
 
 As none of tlic American commanders thought it 
 proper to rilk another attack, it was refolved to aban- 
 don their camp as foon as poliible. Accordingly, on 
 thenightof the 29th of Augud, the wliole of the eon- 
 tint ntal troops were ferriedover with the utmall fecre- 
 cy and filencc ; fothat in the morning the Britilli had 
 nothing to do but take pofleflion of the camp and wiiat 
 artillery they had abandoned. 
 
 This vidory, though complete, was very far from 
 being fo decilive as the conquerors imai'jned. Lord 
 Howe, fuppoling that it would be fufficicnt to iiiiimi- 
 datc the congrefs into fome terms, fent General Sulli- 
 van, who had been taken prifoner in the late aflion, to 
 4 K congref* 
 
 Amcrita. 
 
 i35 
 Ho(liliiie< 
 coDMncrce. 
 
 J36 
 Situation of 
 ihc IJritifn 
 and Ani«- 
 ricaii ar- 
 iT.ics. 
 
 ^37 
 The Ame- 
 ricans de- 
 feated with 
 great 
 daughter. 
 
 »38 
 They aban- 
 don their 
 camp in the 
 night* 
 
 '3!> 
 Lord Howe 
 
 i-i^'' to con*
 
 A M E 
 
 L 594 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 ■140 
 And is 
 waited on 
 \y a com- 
 micicc. 
 
 1*1 
 The coa- 
 Icrencc t«r- 
 inin^itcs in- 
 
 14a 
 New- York 
 ilb<indoncil 
 hy the pro- 
 vuicials. 
 
 »4.1 
 Situation of 
 ilie BritiRi 
 ■*nd /\nic- 
 lican ar- 
 >pics> 
 
 congiefs, widi a iiielljgt, importing, that thou^li he 
 could not condrtenily ticat with liicm :is a legal all'cm- 
 bly, yet lie would be very gUJ to confer with any of 
 the members in their private capacity ; letting forth at 
 the fame time the nature and extent of his powers as 
 commi'.Iioner. \iui the congrtfs were not fo humbled 
 as to derogate in the leall (rom the dignity of character 
 they had aiituned. They replied, that the congrcfsof 
 the free and indcpendclit dates of America could not 
 confillenily fend any o( its members iaanother capaci- 
 ty tlian that which they had publicly allnmcd ; but as 
 they were extremely delirousof reltoring peace to their 
 country upon equitable conditions, they would appojnt 
 a committee of their bovly to wait upon liim, and leani 
 what propiifiis he had to make. 
 
 This produced a new conference. The committee 
 appointed by coiigrcfs was compofi.'d of Dr Kranklinj 
 Mr Adams, and Mr Rutledgc. They were very po- 
 litely received by his Lordlhip ; but the conference 
 proved as fruiilefs a-> before independency had been de- 
 clared J and the linal anfwer of the deputies was, that 
 they were extremely W!llin:Tto enter into any treaty 
 ■with Great Britain that might conduce to the good of 
 toih nations, but that they would not treat in any 
 other character than that of independent Hates. This 
 politive declaration inllantly put an end to all hopes of 
 reconciliation ; andit wasrifolvcd toprofccute the war 
 with the ntmoft vigour. Lord Howe, after publilhing 
 a maiiifcllo, in which he declared the refufal of con- 
 grefs,aiid that he himfelfwas willing to confer with all 
 well difpofedperfons about the means of re (loring pub- 
 lic tranquilliry, fet about the nioft proper methods for 
 reducing the city of New-York. Here the provincial 
 troops were ported, and from a great number of batte- 
 ries kept continually annoying the Britilh ihipping. 
 The Eaft River lay between them, of about 1300 
 yards in breadth, which the Britilh troops were ex- 
 tremely defirous of palling. At lill, the fliips having, 
 after au inccllant cannonade of fevcral days, lilcnced 
 the mort troublcfome batteries, a body of troops was 
 fciit up the liver to a bay, about three miles dillant, 
 where the foriitications were Icfs (Iroiig than in other 
 places. Here, having driven off the provincials by the 
 cannon of the fieet, they marchcil dire.tly towards the 
 city ; but the Americans Hnding that they Ihould now 
 be attacked on all lides, abandoned the city, and re- 
 tired to the north of the iiland, where their principal 
 force was colledeJ. In thcirpalTagc thither they (kir- 
 Jiiilhed with the Britilh, but carefully avoided a gene- 
 ral eng.ageincnt ; and it wasobferved that they did not 
 behave with that ardour and impetuous valour which 
 had hitherto marked their charader. 
 
 The Briiilh and provincial armies were not now 
 above two miles dilfant from each other. Tlie former 
 lay encamped from (hoic to ftiorc for an extent of two 
 niilc.>, being the breadth of the in,)nd, which, thcigh 
 1 5 miles long, exceeds not two in any part in breadth. 
 The provincials.wliolay dire<5llyoppolite,had flrcngth- 
 cned their camp with many fortifications ; at the fame 
 time being maltersof al^the palles and defiles betwixt 
 liie twocamps, they were enabled todefend themfelvcs 
 again II an army much more numerous than their own ; 
 and they had alfo flrongly fortified a pafs railed King^ s- 
 Bridgc, whence they could fecure a palTagetothe con- 
 tinent in cafe of any misfortune. IIcr<;Gcneral Wash- 
 
 ington, in order to inure the provincials to aiflual fcr- Amcrfta. 
 
 vice, and at the fame time to annoy the enemy as much •j—* 
 
 as poiiible, employed his troops in continual (kirmilh- 
 cs ; by which it wasobferved that they foon recovered 
 their fi)irits, and behaved with their ufual boldncfs. 
 
 As the lituation of the two armies was now highly 
 inconvenient for the Britilh generals, it was relblved to 
 make fuch movements as might oblige General Walh- 
 ington torelinquilh his Urong lituation. The polfelliott 
 of New-York had been lefs beneficial than was ex- 144 
 pedcd. A few days after it was evacuated by the A- New- York 
 mericans, a dreadful lire broke ont, occalioncd, proba- ''^ "° S"'** 
 bly, by the licentious condud of foinc of its new maf- 
 tcrs, and had it not been for the active exertions of the 
 failors and foldicry, the whole town might have been 
 confumed, the wind being high, and the weather re- 
 markably dry. About a thoufand houfes wercdcftroy- 
 cd. General Howe having left Lord Percy with fuf- 
 licicnt force to garrifon New- York, he embarked his 
 army in flat-bottomed boats by which they were con- 
 veyed throughlhe dangerous paiTagccalled Mell-Catf, 
 and landed near the town of Well-Chcftcr, lying ou 
 the continent towards Connefticut. Here having re- 
 ceived a fupply of men and provisions, they moved to 
 Ncw-Rochclle, fituated on the found which fcparatcs 
 Long-I!land from the continent. After this receiving 
 ftill frclh reinforcements, they made fuch movements 
 as threatened to diftrefs the provincials very much by 
 cutting off their convoys of provilions frc/m Connefti- 
 cut, and thus force them to an engagement. This, 
 howevcr,Gencral Walhington determined at all even cs 
 toavoid. He thcreforecxtcnded hisforcesintoalong ,.- 
 lineoppoiitc to the way in which the enemy marched, General 
 keeping the Brnnx, a river of confiderable magnitude, Wafliing- 
 betwecn the twoarmies, with the North-River on his ton obliged 
 rear. Here again the provincials continued for fome J° "'""'^ 
 time to annoy and (kirniifli with the royal army, until r"L'^M,_. 
 at lafl, by fome other manoeuvres, the Britiih |eiicrdl York, 
 found means to att-ack them advantagcoully at a place 146 
 called the IVhitc-P/aim, and drove them from fome of Is defeated 
 tlieir ports. The fucccfs on this occafion was much "' '^"^ 
 lefs ccmplete than the former : however it obliged the yj .'" 
 provincials once more to ihift their ground, and to re- *'"*■ 
 treat farther up the country. General Howe pnrfiicd 
 for fouic time ; but at laft finding all his endeavours 
 vain to bring the Americans toa pitched battle, he de- 
 termined to give over fuch an ufelcfs chace, and em- 
 ploy himfelfin reducing the forts which the provincials 
 Piili retained in the neij;hbourlu.od of New- York. In 
 tliishe met with the moftcomplctc fnccefs. The Ame- 
 ricans, on thcapproach of the king's forces, retreated 
 from King's-Bridgc into Fort-Wafhington ; and this, 
 as well as Kort-Lcc, which lay in the neighbourhood, 
 was quickly reduced, though the garrifon made their ^ 
 cfcapc. Thus the Jcrfcys were laid entirely open to xi,^ y^. 
 the incurlions of the Briiifli troops, and fo fully were feys eutire- 
 thcfe provinces taken poircinon of by the royal army, ly over-run 
 that its winter-quarters extended from New-Brunf- ^y'^"^ '•'"" 
 wick to the river Delaware. Had any number of boats '""P** 
 been at hand, it was thought Philadelphia would have 
 fallen into their hands. All thefe, however, had 
 been carefully removed by the Americans. In lieu of „ 
 
 this enterprife. Sir Henry Clinton, undertook an ex- R),(,dj. 
 pedition toRhodc-Iiland, and became mailer of it with- ifl.,nd ta- 
 ont lolini' a man. His cxpcdiiion was alfo attended km. 
 
 Tvjih
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 595 J 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amtt'iet- 
 
 t49 
 ThcBritifti 
 convey vcf- 
 fcls tip the 
 lakeCham- 
 plaia, 
 
 with iliis further advantage, that the American fleet 
 under commodore Hopkins was obliged to fail as far as 
 pofiibic up tlie river Providence, and thus remained 
 entirely ufelcfs. 
 
 The fame ill fiiccefs continued to attend the Ame- 
 ricansin otiicr parts. After their cxpullion ironi Ca- 
 nada, they had eroded the Lake Chaniplain, and taken 
 up their quarters at Crown-Point, as we have already 
 mentioned. Here they rtniaincd for fomc time in 
 fafety, as the Britilh had no vcffels on the lake, and 
 confeqnently general Burgoyne could not purfue them. 
 To remedy this dchcitncy, there was no [M>flible me- 
 thod, but cither to conflruct vellcls on the fpot, or take 
 to pieces (ome vellcls already conftrufted, and drag 
 them up the river into the lake. This, however, was 
 effcfted in no longer a fpace than three monllis; and 
 the Britifli general, after incredible toil and didiciilty, 
 faw himfelf in poirtilion of a great number of vcf- 
 fels, by which means he was enabled to purfiic his 
 enemies, and invade them in his turn. The labour 
 undergone at this time by the fea and land forces mufl 
 indeed have been prodigious ; iincc there were con- 
 veyed over land, and dragged up the rapids of St Law- 
 rence, no fewer than thirty large long-boats, 400 bat- 
 tcaux, befides a vaft number of Hat-bottomed boats, 
 and a gondola of 30 tons. The intent of the expedi- 
 tion was to pu(h forward, before winter, to Albany, 
 where the army would take up its winter-quarters, 
 and next fpringefFct'l a jundlion with tliat under Gene- 
 ral Howe, w hen it was not doubted tliat the united 
 force and fKill of thefe twocommandcrs would fpecdi- 
 ly put a termination to the war. 
 
 By reafon of the difficulties with whicli the equip- 
 ment of this fleet had been attended, it was tlie be- 
 ginning of Oilober before tlic expedition could be un- 
 dertaken. It was now, however, by every judge, al- 
 lowed to be completely able to anfvver the purpofe for 
 whichit wasiutcnded. It conlillcdofone large vellel 
 with three marts, carrying 18 twelve, pounders ; two 
 fchooners,thcone carrying 14, theother 12 fix poun- 
 ders ; a large flat bottomed radeau with fix twenty- 
 four and 6 twelve pounders ; and a gondola with 8 nine 
 pounders. Befidcs thefe, were 20 vellcls of a fmallcr 
 lize, called gun-boati, carrying each a piece of brafs 
 ordnance from nine to twenty-four pounders, or how- 
 itzers. Several long-boats were lilted out in the fame 
 manner ; and befidcs all thefe, there was a vail num- 
 ber of boat's and tenders of various lizcs to be ufed as 
 tranfports fur the troops and baggage. It was manned 
 by a number of fclcift feamen, and the guns were to be 
 fcrveii by a detachment from the corps of artillery ; 
 thcofiicers ami foldicrs appointed for this expedition 
 Wcrealfo chofen out of the whole army. 
 
 To oppofc lliis formidable armament the Americans 
 had only a very inconliderable force, commanded by 
 general Arnold ; who, after engaging part of the Bri- 
 tifli licet for a whole day, took advantage of the dark- 
 nefs of the night to let fail without being perceived, 
 and the next morning was out of light : but he v as fo 
 hotly purfiied by the Britilh, that on the fecoiul day 
 a Iter, he was over taken, and forced to a lecond engage- 
 ment. In this he behaved with great gallantry ; but 
 his force being very inferior to that of the enemy, he 
 waaobligcd to run hislliips aflioreand let them on lire. 
 A few only cfcaped to lake George ; and the garrifou 
 
 of Crown-Point having dcllroycd or carried oft'every 
 thing of value, retired to Ticotidtrago. Tliithcr ge- 
 neral Carleton intended to hav« purfued them ; but 
 the difficulties he had to encounter appeared fomany 
 and f) great, thatit wasthought proper to march bicJc 
 into Canada, and dclill from any further opcratious 
 till next fpring. 
 
 Thus the affairs of the Americans feeincd every 
 where going towreck;cven thofc who had been moil 
 fanguinc in their caufe began to waver. The time, 
 alfj, for which the foldicrs had cnlifted thcmfclves 
 was now expired ; and the bad fuccefs of the pre- 
 ceding campaign had been fo very difcouraging, that 
 no pcrfpn was willing to engage himfelf during the 
 continuance of a war of whicli the event fcemed 
 to be fo doubtful. In confeqiiencc of this, there- 
 fore. General WaQiington found his army daily de- 
 crealing in (Ircngth ; lo that, from 30,009, oi wliich 
 it conlilted whengeneralHowelandedonStatcnIlland, 
 fcarcc a tcntii partcoidJ now bcmuftered. To aliilt 
 the chief commander as much as polSblc, general Lee 
 had collefted a body of forces in the north ; but on hii> 
 way fouthsvard, havingimprudently taken up hiilodg-. 
 ing at fome dillance from his troops, information was 
 given to colonel Harcourt, who happened at that time 
 to be in the neighbourhood, and Lee was made prifoner. 
 The lofsof this general was much regretted, the more 
 efpecially as he wasoffuperior quality toauy prifoner 
 in the polfelhon of the colonills, and could not there- 
 fore be exchanged. Six litld-oflicers were oilcred in 
 exchange for him, and refufed; and the congrels was 
 highly irritated at its bring reported that he was to 
 be treated as a dcferter, having been a halt-pay olh- 
 cerin the Britilh fcrvicc at the commencement of the 
 war. In confeqiiencc of this they ilUied a procl inu- 
 tion, threatening to retaliate on the prifoncrs in their 
 polfeinon whatever punilhiueiit would be inllicted on 
 any of thofc taken by the Britilh, and efpecially that 
 their conduit (hould be regulated by the treatment of 
 general Lee. 
 
 In the meantime they proceeded with the moft i;;- 
 dcfatigablc diligence to recruit their army, and bound 
 their foldicrs 10 ftrve for a term of three years, or 
 during the continuance of the war. Tlie array de- 
 figncd for tlie enfuing campaign, was to conliil of 83 
 battalions ; of which each province was to contribute 
 its quoia; and 20 dollars were offered as a bounty fo 
 each foldicr, bclides anallottmcut of lands at tiie end 
 of the war. No lands wcre])romifed to thofc wlio cn- 
 lilled only for three years. All otiiccrs or Uddicr* 
 dilablcd through wounds received in the fcrvicc were 
 to enjoy half-pay during life. To defray the cxpence, 
 congre fs borrowed rive millions of dollars at five per 
 cent. ; for the payment of wliich the Uniud States be- 
 came furcty. At the fame time, in order to animate 
 the people to \igorous exertions, a declaration wa^ 
 pjblilhcd, in which they iVt forth the necelhiy ihcic 
 was for taking piojicr nieihoik 10 infurc fuccrfs in 
 their caufe: they cndtavotired to palliate as much *< 
 poTible the misfortunes which had already happened ; 
 and lepreUiucd the luie caufe of ihcirtfcnt Ji:lrif^ 
 to be the (lion term of enliilmeut. 
 
 Thisdcclarjiion, together with the imminent din- 
 ger of Pliiladrluliia, detcrmi.ied the .Americans to ex- 
 ert thrmftlvcs to the iitmoil In order m reinforce ge- 
 4 l" 2 neral 
 
 .'Vmcno^. 
 
 »5f 
 The Amc- 
 ricai:s :il- 
 moll ci;- 
 tircljr dif- 
 perfcd. 
 
 »5» 
 
 Lee tjlurn 
 prifoner. 
 
 »5.^ 
 Coniiiifit- 
 tal arniy- 
 for !••-•
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 596 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, 
 
 254 
 The HcfTi- 
 ans defeat- 
 ed at Tren- 
 
 155 
 Gen.Wifli- 
 
 ingtoh 
 marches 
 his army to 
 Priaceton. 
 
 Hfral Wafiiineton's army, who, even in this time of 
 dcprcHion anil difcouragcniem, formed the bold dcfign 
 of rccro:Ii'.ig the Delaware, and attacking that part 
 ol riic ciieiiiy which was polled at Trenton. As the 
 R'lyal army extended in diirercnt cantonments for a 
 great way, general Wallungton, perceiving the im- 
 minent danger to which Pniladclphia was cxpofed, 
 refolved to ni.ilte fome attempt on thofe divifions of 
 the enemy which lay ncarell that city. Thcfe hap- 
 pened to be the Hcliians, who lay in three divifions, 
 the lad only jo miles dillant from Philadelphia. On 
 the 251I1 of December, having coHedcd as confi- 
 derable a force as lie could, lie fet out with an intent 
 to furprifc that body of the enemy which lay at Tren- 
 ton. His army was divided into three bodies ; one 
 of which lie ordered to crofs the Delaware at Tren- 
 ton Kerry, a little below the town : the fccond at a 
 good diltance below, at a place called BorJeiitowri, 
 xihere the fccond divilion of HelFians was placed ; while 
 he himfelf, with the third, directing his coiirfe to a 
 ferry fome miles above Trenton, intended to have paf- 
 fed it at midnight, and attack the Hcliians at break 
 of day. But by rcafoii of various impediments, it was 
 eight in the morning before he could reach the place of 
 hisdclUnution. The enemy, however, did not perceive 
 his approach till they were fuddenly attacked. Colonel 
 Halle, who commanded them, did all that could be 
 •expected from a brave and experienced officer ; but 
 every thing was in fuch confulion, that no efforts of 
 valour or ikill could now retrieve matters. The Colo- 
 nel himfelf was mortally wounded, his troops were 
 entirely broken, their artillery fcizcd, and about 1000 
 taken prifoncrs. After this gallant exploit. General 
 Walhington again returned into Pennfylvania. 
 
 This action, though feeniingly of no very decifive 
 nature, was fufHcient at that time to turn the fortune 
 of war in favour of America. It tended greatly to 
 leflcn the apprehenfions which the provincials had of 
 the Hellians, at the fame time that it equally abated the 
 confidence which the Britilh had till now put in them. 
 
 Reinforcements came in from feveral quarters to Ge- 
 neral \V'alliington, fothat he was foon in a condition 
 once more to pafs the Delaware, and take up his quar- 
 ters at Trenton, where he was emboldened tomaintain 
 his Ration, notwithllanding the accounts that were re- 
 ceived of the enemy's rapid advance towards him. 
 LordCornwallis, accordingly, made his appearance in 
 full force ; and, on the evening of his arrival, the lit- 
 tle town of Trenton contained the two hoflile armies, 
 feparated only by a fmall creek, wliich was fordable 
 in many places. This was, indeed the crifis of the .^- 
 merican revolution ; and had his Lordlhip made an im- 
 mediate attack, in purfuanceofwhai is reported to have 
 been the advice of Sir William Erikine, General Wa(h- 
 ington's defeat fecms to have been inevitable : but a 
 night's delay turned the fate of the war, and produced 
 an enterprifc, the magnitude and glory of which, can 
 only be equalled by its fuccefs. General WaQiington 
 having called a council of war, ftated the calamitous fi- 
 tuation to which his army was reduced , and having 
 heard thevariousopinionsofhisofficers, finally propo- 
 fed a circuitous march to Princeton, as the means of 
 avoiding, at once, the imputation of a retreat, and the 
 dan<Ter of a battle, with numbers fo inferior, and in a 
 fituation fo ineligibk. The idea was unanimoudy ap- 
 
 proved ; aud,as foonasitwas dark, the neccfTary mea- Americi. 
 
 furcs were taken for accomplilhiug it. A line of tires * v ' 
 
 waskindled, which ferved to give light to the Ameri- 
 cans, while it obl'curcd them from the oblervation of 
 the enemy : and by a providential interpolition, the 
 Weather, which had been for fome time pall warm, 
 iiioift, and foggy, fuddenly changed to a hard froil ; 
 and, in a moment ai. it were, rendered the road, which 
 had been deep and heavy, firm and fmooth as a pave- 
 ment. At break of day General Walhington arriving , 
 near Princeton, was difcovered by a party of Britilh BritUh de- 
 troops, confifting of three regiments under the com- fcatcd at 
 mand of Col. Mawhood, who were on their march to I'rinccton; 
 Trenton. With thefe the centre of the Americans en- 
 gaged, and after killing 60, wounding many, and ta- 
 king 300 prifoncrs, obliged the reft to make a precipi- 
 tate efcapc, fome towards Trenton, and others in a re- 
 trograde routto Brunfwick. Thelofsof the Americans 
 was inconlidcrablc in point of numbers ; but ihefall of 
 the amiable General Mercer rendered it important. ^\nd re- 
 Thc Briiifli afloniihed and difcouragcd at the fuccefs treat to 
 and fpirit of thcfe repeated enterprizes, abandoning iiruniwick- 
 both Trenton and Princeton, retreated to Brunfwick ; 
 while the triumphant Americans retired to Morris- 
 town. General Walhington, however, omitted no op- 
 portunity of recovering what had been loll ; and by 
 dividing his army into finall parties, which could be 
 reunited on a few hours warning, he in a manner en- 
 tirely covered the country with it, and repoll'elicd 
 himfelf of all the important places. 
 
 Thus ended the campaign of 1776, with fcarce 
 any other real advantage than the acquifnion of the 
 city of New York, and of a few fortreflcs in its neigh- 
 bourhood ; where the troops were conllrained to aft 
 with as much circumfpetlion as if they had been be- 
 fieged by a viiflorious army, inAcad of being them- 
 fclves the conquerors. « 
 
 The army at New- York began in 1777 to exercif* £,<;„, fiom 
 a kind of predatory war, by fending out parties to de- of the Uri- 
 ftroy magazines, make incurlions, and take or deftroy tifli from 
 fuch forts as lay on the banks of rivers, to which their New York, 
 great command of [hipping gave them accefs. In this 
 they were generally fuccefsful : the provincial maga- 
 zines at Peek's Hill, a place about 50 miles dillant 
 from New-York, were deflroyed, the town of Dun- 
 bury in Conneflicut burnt, and lliat of Ridgefield in 
 the fame province was taken poflcUionof. In returning 
 from the laft expedition, however, the Britifli were 
 greatly harraffed by the Americans under Generals Ar- 
 nold, Wooftcr, and Sullivan; but they made good their 
 retreat, though with the lofs of above ioo killed and 
 wounded. On the American fide the lofs was con- 
 fiderable ; General Woofter was killi ', and Arnold 
 in the moll imminent danger. On the other hand, 
 the Americans dellroyed the flores ui blagg-harbonr, 
 in Long-Kland, and made prifonef^ ol all who defen- 
 ded the place. 
 
 As this method of making war, i'.owever, could an- 
 fwer but little purpofe, and favoured more of the bar- 
 barous incurfions of lavages than 01 a war car: .-.J on by 
 a civilized people, it was refolved to make ..u .itempc 
 on Philadelphia. At firfl; it was ihoug':t liut this 
 could be done through the Jeiftys ; but -lie cruelties 
 exercifedbythe Britifli plundering panics bad excited 
 fo general an abhorrence, and General Walhington 
 
 had
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 597 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 2S9 
 
 Geni-ral 
 Vrefcot ta- 
 ken pri- 
 foncr. 
 
 a6o 
 The fleet 
 fciltfur 
 Fhiladel- 
 ptiia. 
 
 56l 
 The army 
 laodtat the 
 head of the 
 Elk, 
 
 had received fuch large reinforcements, and ported 
 him rcUT<>ftrongly,tliatic was found to be ini practicable. 
 Many ftratagems wereufed to draw him from his flroiig 
 fituation, but without fiicccfs ; fothat it was found nc- 
 celfary to make the attempt on Philadelphia by fea. 
 While the preparations neccirary for this expedition 
 were going forward, the Americans found means to 
 make amends for the capture of General Lee by that 
 of General Prefcot,who wasfcizcdin his quarters with 
 his aid dc camp, in much the fame manner as General 
 Lee had been. This was exceedingly mortifying to 
 the General himfelf,ashehad not long before fetapricc 
 upon General Arnold, by ottering a lum of money to 
 any one that apprehended him ; which the Utter an- 
 fwered by fetting a lower price upon General Prcfcot. 
 
 The month of July was far advanced before the pre- 
 parations for the expedition againfl Philadelphia were 
 completed ; and it was the 23d before the rieet was 
 able to fail from Sandy Hook. The force employed 
 in this expedition conliftcd of 36 battalions of Britifli 
 and HelFians, a regiment of light horfe, and a body of 
 loyalillsraifcdat New-York. Theremainderof thcfe, 
 with I 7 battalions, and another body of light horfe, 
 were (lationcd at New- York under Sir Henry Clinton. 
 Seven battalions were flaiionedat Rhodc-llland. Af- 
 ter a week's failing they arrived at the mouth of the 
 Delaware ; but there having received certain intelli- 
 gence, that the navigation of the river was fo effedual- 
 ly oblirufted, that no poflibility of forcing a palTagc re- 
 mained ;or more probably that Gen. Wafliington had 
 marched withinafliortdirtanceof Philadelphia; itwas 
 refol ved topreceed further fouth ward to Ch cfapcak Bay 
 in Maryland, fromwhcnce thediftance to Philadelphia 
 was not very great, and where the provincial army 
 would find Icfs advantage from the nature of the coun- 
 try than in the Jerfeys. 
 
 The navigation from Delaware to Chefapeak took 
 up the bed part of the month of AuguA, and that up 
 the bay itfelf was extremely ditficult and tedious. At 
 lafl, having failed up the river Elk, as far as was prac- 
 ticable, the troops were landed withoutoppoiition, and 
 fet forward on their intended expedition. On the 
 newsof theirarrival at Chelapeak, General Wafliing- 
 ton left the Jerfeys, and haftened to the relief of Phi- 
 ladelphia ; and in the bcginningof September met the 
 royal army at Brandy-wine Creek about mid- way, be- 
 tween the head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here 
 he adhered to hisformer method of fkirmilliingandha- 
 raffing the royal army on its march ; but as this pro- 
 ved inl'ufficient to ftop its progrcfs, he retired to that 
 fide of the creek next to Philadelphia, with an intent 
 to difpute the palfagc. This brought on a general en- 
 gagement on the nth September. The royal army 
 advanced at day break in two columns, commanded 
 by lieutenant general Knyphaufcn, and by lord Corn- 
 wallis. The firll took the dired road to Chadd's Ford, 
 and made a (hew of palTing it, in front of the main bo- 
 dy of the Americans. At the fame time the other 
 column moved up on the weft fide of the Brandywine 
 to its fork, and crolfedboth its branches about 2 o'clock 
 in the afternoon, and then marched down on the ea(l 
 fide thereof, with the view of turning the right wing 
 of their adverfaries. 
 
 This ihcy etfected and compelled them to retreat 
 with great lofs. -General Knyphaufcn amufed tic A- 
 
 mencanswith the appearance of crofling the ford, but Amerie». 
 
 did not attempt it until lord Cornwallis having crolf- ' •- ' 
 
 ed above and moved down on the oppofitc lide, had 
 commenced bis attack. Knyphaufcn then crolFed the 
 ford, and attacked the troops polled for its defence. 
 Theie, after a feverc conflia, were compelled togive 261 
 way. The retreat of the Americans foon became American* 
 general, and was continued to Chcfter, under cover of <l<:f"«d- 
 general Weeden's brigade, which came off in good 
 order. The final ilTuc of battles often depends on fmall 
 circumftances, which human prudence cannot con- 
 trol---one of thefe occurred here, and prevented gene- 
 ral Walhington from executing a bold dclign, to efTecl 
 which, his troops were adually in motion. This was 
 to have crolfed the Brandywine, and attacked Knyp- 
 haufcn, while general Sullivan and lord Stirling, Ihould 
 keep earl Cornwallis in check. In the mofl critical 
 moment, general Walhington received intelligence 
 which he was obliged to credit, that the column of lord 
 Cornwallis had been only making a feint, and was re- 
 turning tojoin Knyphaufcn. This prevented the exe- 
 cution of a plan, which, if carried into effeCl, would 
 probably have given a dittisrcnt turn to the events of 
 the day. The killed and wounded in the royal army, 
 werenearlix hundred. The lofs of the Americans was 
 twice that number. The celebrated Marquis de la Kay- 
 eite here firftbled in ihecaufc ot liberty , which he had 
 efpoufed with enthufiadic ardor. His wound was (light,, 
 but it endeared him to the Americans. 
 
 The lofs of this battle proved alfo the lofs of Phi- 
 ladelphia. General Walhington retired towards Lan- 
 cafter, tofave the flores which had been depolitcd at 
 Reading. But though he could not prevent the lofs 
 of Philadelphia, lie (till adhered to bis original plan of 263 
 diftreiring the royal party, by laying ambulhes and An Am«- 
 cutting oft detached parties; but in tins he was lefsfuc- "can J<;- 
 cefsful than formerly ; and one of his one detachments tachmert 
 which lay in ambufli in a wood were thcmfclvesfurpri- ^"TV'^'* 
 fed and entirely defeated, with the lofs of 300 killed ^j ,,^1^"" 
 and wounded, befides 70 or 80 taken, and all their great 
 arms and baggage. flaughter. 
 
 General Howe now perceiving that the Arafricans 
 would not venture another battle even for the fake of *"*, 
 their capital, took peaceable poUefTion of it on the f^°^l 
 26th of September. His firfl care was then to cuttatespof- 
 off, by means of flrong batteries, the commnnication fcffion ot 
 between the upper and lower parts of the river; which Phila.ld^ 
 was executed, noiwithflanding the oppofitionof fomc P*^'*- 
 American armed velfels ; one of which, carrying 36 
 guns, was taken. His next talk was to open a com- 
 munication with it by fea ; and this was a work of 
 no fmall difnculty. A vaft number of batteries and 
 forts had been erefled, and immenfe machines formed 
 like chivaux di frize, from whence they took their 
 name, funk in the river to prevent its navigation. As 
 the fleet was fcni round to the mouth of the river in 
 order to co-operate with the array, this work, how- 
 ever difficult, was accompliflied ; nor did the provin- 
 cials give much oppolition, as well knowing that all 
 places of this kind were now untenable. General i^j 
 Walhington, however, took the advantage of the royal Royal ai^. 
 army being divided to attack the camp of the princi- my "tack- 
 pal divifion of it that lay at German town, in the ncigk- "* " ^"- 
 bourhood of Philadelphia. In this he met with very """W^- 
 link fucccfs ; for though he reached the place of defli- 
 
 nation
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 598 ] 
 
 A M 
 
 pulled. 
 
 Hnwfty'i 
 
 V..1. ii. 
 p. 17. 
 
 Amer!c>, ngtion \3J clircc o'clock in the morning, the patrolcs 
 
 " '■' ' had time to call the troops to arms. The Americans, 
 
 notwiihrtanding niadeavcry rcfolutc attack : b.itthcy 
 were received with fomuch bravery, that they were 
 _, *, compelled to abandon the attempt, and retreat in ijrcat 
 ricans re- li'loro" • With the advantage, however, ot carryingort 
 their cannon, though pnrlUed for a conlidcrablc way, 
 after having upwards of 200 killed, and about 500 
 •wounded, and upwards of 400 taken prifoners, among 
 whom were 54 oHicers. On the Britilh fide, the lols 
 amounted to 450 wounded and prifoners, and 70 killed 
 hut among the lall were General Agnew and Colonel 
 Bird, w it hfonie other excellent officers. 
 
 TheUriiilliwerc well apprizcd.that without the com- 
 mand of the Delaware, t heir polleflion of Philadelphia 
 would be of no advantage. They therefore Itrained 
 every nerve, to open the navigation of that river, ---to 
 this end lord Howe had early taken the moft eft'edual 
 ineafures for conducting the fleet and tranfports round 
 from the Chefapcak to the Delaware, and drew them 
 up on the Pcnnfylvania (hore, from Rcedy-llland to 
 New CalUe. Eirly in Otlobcr, a detachment from the 
 Britilh army crollcd the Delaware, with a view of dif- 
 lodging the Americans from Billingfport. On theirap- 
 proath, the place was evacuated. Asthe feafon ad- 
 vanced, more vigorous meafures for removing tlic ob- 
 llrudions were concerted between the general and the 
 admiral. Batteries were erected on the Pcnnfylvania 
 Ihorc to alhft in dillodf;ing the Americans from Mud- 
 Idand. At the fame lime Count Donop with 20ooracn, 
 having trolfcdinto New-Jerfcy, oppolite to Philadel- 
 phia, marched down on the eallern fide of the Dela- 
 ware, to attack the redoubt at Kcd-Bank. This was 
 defended by about 400 men under tlie command of 
 colonel Greene. The attack immediately commenced 
 by a fmart cannonade, under cover of which the Count 
 advanced to tlic redoubt. This place was intended for 
 a much larger gariilon than was then in it. It had 
 therefore become necclfary to run a line in the mid- 
 dle thereof, and one part of it was evacuated. That 
 part was ealily carried by the ad'ailants on which they 
 indulged in loud huzzas for their fuppofed vidlory. 
 The garrifon kept up a fcvcre well directed fire on the 
 allailants by which they were compelled to retire. 
 Theyfjffered n»t only iniheaffault, but intheapproach 
 to, and retreat from the fort. There whole lofs in 
 killed and wounded was about 400. Count Donop was 
 mortally wounded and taken prifoncr. Congrefs re- 
 folved toprcfent colonel Greene with a fword for his 
 good conduct on this occafion. An attack made about 
 the fame time on fort Mifflin by men of war and 
 frigates, was not more fuccefsful than the alfault on 
 Red-Bank. The Augufta man of war of 64 guns, 
 and the Merlin, two of the veifels which were enga- 
 war buxae. ged in it, got a ground. The former was fired and 
 blew up. The latter was evacuated. 
 
 Though tlic firft attempts of the Britilh, for open- 
 ing the navigation of the Delaware, were unfucccfs- 
 ful, they carried their point in another way that was 
 unexpected. The chevaux de frife, having been funk 
 fomc confidcrable time, the current of the water was 
 diverted hy this great bulk into new channels. In 
 eonfcquence thereof the palfage between the iltands 
 and the Pcnnfylvania fliore was fo deepened as to ad- 
 mit vefTels of fomc confidcrable draught of water. 
 
 i67 
 BritiOi 
 fliips of 
 
 Through this paffage, the Vigilant, a Iirgc fiiip, ctit Amtric*. 
 down fo as to draw but little water, mounted witli 24 v • 
 pounders, maile her way 10 a poiuion from which Ihc 
 might enfilade the works on Mud-liland. This gave 
 the Britidi fuch an advantage, that tiic poll was no 
 longer tenable. Colonel Smith, wlio had with great 
 gallantry defended the fort from the latter end of 
 September, to the i ith of November, being wound- 
 ed, was removed to the main. Within five days af- 
 ter his removal, major Thayer, who as a volunteer 
 had nobly ofiered to take charge of this dangerous 
 poll, was obliged to evacuate it. 
 
 This event did not take place till the works were 
 entirely beat down---evcry piece of cannon difmoun- 
 tcd, and one of the Britilh Ihips fo near that flic thrcNT 
 granadoes into the fort, and killed the men uncover- 
 ed in the platform. The troops who had fo bravcljr 
 defended fort Mifflin, made a fiife retreat to Red- 
 Bank. Congrefs voted fwords to be given to lieute- 
 nant colonel Smith and Commodore Hazlewood, for jgg 
 their gallant defence of the Delaware. Within three All the 
 days after Mud-Iiland was evacuated, the gariifon fort« near 
 was alio withdrawn from Red- Bank, on the approach l^h'ladcl- 
 of lord Cornwallis, at the head of a large force pre- ^^^ "'^"- 
 pared to allault it. Someof the American gallics and 
 armed vefl'els cfcapcd by keeping clofe in with the 
 Jerley Ihorc, to places of fecuriiy above Philadelphia, 
 but r 7 of them were abandoned by their crews, and 
 fired. Thus the Britilh gained a free communica- 
 tion between their army and fliipping. This event 
 was to them very dtiirable. They had bven prcvi- 
 oudy obliged to draw their provilions from Chcfter, 
 a dillance of fixteen miles, at fomc rifque, and a cer- 
 tain great expence. The long protraitcd defence of 
 the Delaware, deranged the plans of the Britilli, for 
 the remainder of the campaign, and confequently 
 favcd the adjacent country. 
 
 Thus the campaign of 177 7, in Penfylvania, conclu- 
 ded, upon the whole, fuccclsfuUy on the part of the 
 Britilh. In the north, however, matters wore a difFc- s6j 
 rent afpect. The expedition in that quarter had been E»pcditio« 
 projected by the Briiilh miniflry as the moft ell'eiflual projc^ed 
 method thai could be taken to erufli the colonies at once. !?^'" ^ 
 The four provinccsof New -England hadorigiually be- \^^^' ' 
 gini the confederacy agaiuft Britain, and were ftill 
 coiilidered as the moft active in the continuation ot it ; 
 and it was thought, that any impreflion made upon 
 them, would contribute in an cfieChial manner t« tjic 
 reduction of all the reft. For this purpofe, an army of 
 4000 chofcn Britifli troops and 5000 Germans were 
 put under the command of General Burgoyne ; Gene- 
 ral Carlcton was direCled to ufe his interell with the 
 Indians to perfuade them to join in this expedition ; 
 and the province of ^iicbcc was to furnilh large par- 
 ties to join in the fame. The officers who command- 
 ed i;nder General Burgoyne were, General Philips of 
 the artillery. Generals Frafer, Pow ell, and Hamilton, 
 with thcGcrinan officersCencralReidefel andSpcccht. 
 The foldiers, as has already been obferved, were all 
 excellently difciplined, and had beenkcpt in their win- 
 ter-quarters with all imaginable care, in o: dcr to pre- 
 pare them for the expedition on which they were go- 
 ing. To aid the principal expedition, another was 
 projected on the Mohawk River under Colonel St Lc- 
 gcr, who was to bcaffifted by Sir John Johnfon, fon to 
 
 the
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 599 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 »7I 
 rcncral 
 Urgoyne 
 nucd by 
 
 America, the famous Sir William Johnfoii who had fo grcutly 
 
 ■ — dillingiiilhcd himfclf in the war of lyjj. 
 
 > ^^.° , Onthcaiftof Tune 1777, the army encamped on 
 lefcitcd by 'hc weftern lidc of the Lake Champlain ; where, being 
 and and joined by a conlidcrable body of Indians, General Bur- 
 rater, goyne made a fpeech, in which it is faid he exhorted 
 thcfe new allies, but inelfetlually, to lay afide their fe- 
 rocious and barbarous manner of making war; to kill 
 only fuch as oppofed thein in arms ; and to fparc pri- 
 foiiers, with fuch women and children as Ihould fall 
 into their hands. After iffuing a proclamation, in which 
 the force of Britain, and that which he coniniandcd, 
 was fet forth in very oftentatious terms, the campaign 
 opened with the fiegeof Ticonderago. The place was 
 very firong, and garrifoned by 6000 men under Gene- 
 lal St Clair ; ncvcrthelefs, the works were fo cxten- 
 iclodiins, five, that even this number was fcarcc fufficient to de- 
 fend them properly. They had therefore omitted to 
 fortify a rugged eminence called Sngar-Hul, the top 
 of which overlooked and efFcdually commanded the 
 whole works ; imagining, perhaps, that the difficulty 
 of theafcent would be fufficient to prevent the enemy 
 from taking polFeflion of it. On the approach of the 
 lirft divilion of the army, the provincials abandoned 
 and ftt fire to their outworks ; and fo expeditious were 
 the Britilh imops, that by the 5th of July every poft 
 wasfccured which was judged nccelTary for inverting 
 il completely. A road was Ibon after made to the very 
 fuinmit of that eminence which the Americans had 
 fuppofed could not be afcended ; and fo much were they 
 now dilhearicncd, that they inflanily abandoned the 
 fort entirely, taking the road to Skenciborough, a place 
 to the fouth of Lake George ; while their baggage, 
 with what artillery and military ftores theycould carry 
 off, were fent to the fame place by water. But the 
 Briliih generals were determined not to let them pafs 
 J.J focalily. Boih were purfued and both overtaken. Their 
 icoiidera- armed velFcls conlilled only of five galleys ; two of 
 ihcfiegcd which Were taken, and three blown up ; on which 
 d taken, they fet fire to their boats and fortifications at Skenef- 
 borough. On this occafion the provincials loft 200 
 boats, 1 70 pieces of cannon, wiih all their provilions 
 and baggage. Their land-forces under Colonel Fran- 
 cis made a brave defence againft General Krafer ; and 
 fuperiorinnun'ber.hidalmoft overpowered him, when 
 General Reidefel with a large body of Germans came to 
 his alfiftancc. The provincials were now overpowered 
 in their turn; and their commander being killed, they 
 Hcd on all fides with great precipitation. In this ac- 
 tion 200 Americans were killed, as many taken pri- 
 foncrs, and above 600 wounded, many of whom pe- 
 rilhcd in the woods for want of allillance. 
 
 During the engagement General St Clair was at 
 Caftlcton, about lix miles from the place ; but inftead 
 of going forward to Kort Anne, the next place of 
 flrength, he repaired to the woods which lie between 
 that fortrcfsand New-England. General Burgoyne, 
 however, detached Colonel Hiil with ihe ninth regi- 
 ment, in order to intercept f.ich as Ihould attempt to 
 retreat towards Kort Anne. On his way he met with 
 a body of [he Americans more numerous than his own ; 
 but after an engagement of three hours, they were 
 n Aaat. "^igcd to retire with great lofs. After fo many dif- 
 allers, defpuiring of being able to make any Aand at 
 Fort Aunc, ihcy fet lire to U andfciired to Fort Ld- 
 
 »73 
 ity are 
 kin dc- 
 (cd, and 
 
 lUdi'M 
 
 ward. In all thefe engagements the lofs of killed Araci.^a. 
 
 and wounded in the royai army did not exceed 100 men. ' >< ' 
 
 General Burgoyne was now obliged to fufpcr.d his 
 operations for fonie lime, and wait at Skencitorough 
 for the arrival of hii tents, provilions, &c. but employ- 
 ed this interval in making roads through the country 
 about St Anne, and in clearing a palDgc for his troops j,. 
 to proceed againft the Americans. This was attended General 
 with incredible toll -, but all obflades were furmountcd Burgoyne 
 with equal patience and refoluiiun by the army. In raakc* hi* 
 fhort, after undergoing the utniofl difliculty and ma- '"'"°'^''" 
 king every exertion, iic arrived with his army before 
 
 hdward 
 nith (:rcat 
 
 cult). 
 
 i-J 
 
 Fort Edward about the end of Jul/. Here General JiJ^', 
 Schuyler had been for fome time ende3vour:ng 10 re- 
 cruit the Ihattered .American forces, and ]iad been join- 
 ed by General St Clair with the remains of Iiis army ; 
 the garrifunof Fort George alio, lituated on the lake of 
 that name, had evacuated the place and retired to Fore 
 Edward. 
 
 But on the approach of the royal army, they re- Amcricsu- 
 tired from thence alio, and formed their head-quar- «'''- toSi- 
 lers at Saratoga. Notwithllaading the great fuccefs "-"S*- 
 of the Briiifli general, they Ihowed not the leaR dif- 
 polition to fubmit, but feemed only to confidcr how 
 they might make the moft effcclual reliilance. For 
 this purpofc, the militia was e\cTy where raifed and 
 draughted to join the army a: Saratoga ; and fuch 
 numbersof volunteers were daily added, that ihey foon 
 began to recover from the alarm into which they h»4 
 been thrown. That they might have a commander 
 whofe abilities could be relied on. General .^rnoU was 
 appointed, who repaired to Saratoga with a conlidera- 
 ble train of artillery j but receiving intelligence that 
 Colonel St Legcr was proceeding with great rapidity 
 in his expedition on the Mohawk River, he removed to 
 Still water, a place about half-way between Saratoga 
 and the jundion of the Mohaw-k and Kudfon's Kivcr. j.g 
 The Colonel, in the mean time, had advanced as far Fort Stan- 
 as Fort Stanwix ; the (iege of which he prelTed with wix bciieg- 
 grcat vigour. On the 6th of Augult, underftanding ed. 
 that a fupply of provilions, efcorted by 800 or 900 men, 
 was on the way to the fort, hedifpatchedSirJohnJohn- 177 
 fon with a ftrong detachment to intercept it. This he A dctach- 
 did fo efTedually, that, beiides intercepting the pro- """"of •^- 
 vilions, 400 of its guard were ilain, 200 taken, and '"e'7'^*"» 
 the reft efcaped with great difficulty. The garrifon, 'V "* 
 however, were not 10 be intimidated by the threats or P""*" 
 reprefentationsof the Colonel: on the contrary, they 
 made feveral fuccefsful failles under Colonel \Villet, 
 the fecond in command ; and this gentleman, in com- 
 pany with another, even ventured outof the fort, and, 
 eluding the vigilance of the enemy, palled ihrouhg 
 them in order to haftcn the march of General ArHold 
 to their alTiftance. ^.e 
 
 Thus the affairs of Colonel St Lcger ftcmed to be The I'udi- 
 in no very favourable fituation notwithftanding his late ao< dcfert 
 fuccefs, and ihcy were foon totally ruined by the defer- ""d f"'" 
 tionof the Indians. They Lad been alarmed by the re- '•" coloi;cl 
 port of General Aruold's advancing with 2000 men ^*'. " 
 to the relief of the fort ; and while the Colonel was 
 atttuiptingtogivcibemencouragcmeni,anothcr report 
 was fpread, that General Burgoyne had been defeated 
 with great flaughter, and was now flying before the 
 provincials. On this he was obliged to do as they 
 thought proper : and the retreat could not be ctl'eded 
 
 wiihoHt 
 
 fic^e.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 600 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 179 
 GciutM 
 Uurgiiyne 
 dittrclTcd 
 for want of 
 provilions. 
 
 280 
 Makts an 
 jitlempt on 
 <hc provin- 
 cial maga- 
 zincs at 
 i'enniug- 
 ton. 
 
 28 1 
 Colonel 
 i.laum ut- 
 terly dc- 
 fejti.d and 
 t alien pri- 
 foncr. 
 
 Colonel 
 
 jjreyman 
 
 defeated. 
 
 wiiliout the lofs of the tents, the artillery anJ milita- 
 ry llores. 
 
 General Burgoync, in the mean lime, noiwithfland- 
 ing all the dithculiics he had already fulUiucd, tonnd 
 that he mull llill encounter more. The roads he had 
 made with fo much labour and pains were deltroyed, 
 citlier by thcwetnersofthcfeafouorby thcAmcricansj 
 fo that the provilions he brought from Kort George 
 could not arrive at his camp without the mofl prodigi- 
 ous toil. On hearing of the licgc of Kort Slanwix by 
 Colonel St Legcr, he determined to move forward, in 
 hopes of incloling the enemy betwixt his own army 
 and that of St Lcger, or of obtaining the command of 
 all the country between Fort Stanwix and Albany ; or, 
 at any rate, a jundion with Colonel St Lcger would be 
 cf!c(5led, which could not but be attended with the moft 
 happy confcquenccs. The only difficulty was the want 
 of provilions; and this it was propofed to remedy by 
 reducing the provincial magazines at Bennington. 
 For this purpofe. Colonel Baum, a German officer of 
 great bravery, was chofen with a body of 500 men. 
 Tlie plice was about 20 miles from Hudlbn's Kiver; 
 and 10 fupport Colonel Baum's party, the whole army 
 marched up the river's bank, and encamped almoft 
 oppolite to Saratoga, with the river betwixt it and 
 that place. An advanced party was ported at Batten 
 Kill, between the camp and Bennington, in order to 
 fupport Colonel Baum. In their way the Briiilh feiz- 
 cd a large fupply of eattle and provilions, which were 
 immediately fent to the camp; but the badnefs ot the 
 roads retarded their march fo much, tliat intelligence 
 of their defign was fent to Bennington. Underlland- 
 ing now that the American force was greatly fupe- 
 rior to his ow n, tlie Colonel acquainted the General, 
 ^ ho immediately difpatclied Colonel Breyman W'ith a 
 party to his allillance ; but through the fame eaufes 
 that had retarded the marcli of Colonel Baum, this af- 
 lillance could not arrive in time. General i>tarke who 
 commanded the American militia at Bennington, en- 
 gaged with them before the junition of the two royal 
 detachments could beetftcleJ. On this ocealion about 
 Sooundilcipliacd militia, without bayonets, or a fin- 
 gle piece of artillery, attacked and routed 500 regu- 
 lar troops advantageoully ported behind entrenchments 
 — furnilhed with the belt arms, and defended with 
 two pieces of artillery. The held pieces v^'ere taken 
 from the party commanded by Col. Baum, and the 
 greateft part of his detachment was either killed or 
 captured. Colonel Breyman arrived on the fame ground 
 and on the fame day, but net till the attion was over. 
 Inftead of meeting his friends, as heexpeftcd, he 
 found himfclf brilkly attacked. This was begun by 
 colonel Warner, (who with his continental regiment, 
 which having been fent for from Manchefter, came 
 opportunely at this time J and was well fupported by 
 Stark's militia, which had juft defeated the party 
 commanded by colonel Baum. Breyman's troops, 
 tliough fatigued with their preceding march, behaved 
 with great refolution, but were at length compelled 
 to abandon their artillery and retreat. In thefe two 
 aftions the Americans took four brafs field pieces, 
 twelve brafs drums, 250 dragoon fwords, 4 ammuni- 
 tion waggons, and about 700 piifoners. The lols of 
 the Americans, inclulivc of their wounded, wasabout 
 100 men. 
 
 General Burgoyne, thus difappointed in his attempt Amen'ci 
 on Bennington, applied hiuifelf with indefatigable diii- » - 
 
 gence to procure provilions from Fort George ; and ha- 
 ving at length amalicd a fufficient quantity to lall for a 
 month, he threw a bridge of boats over the river Hud- 
 fon, which he crolkd about the middle of September, jg^ 
 encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga. As The Am 
 foon as he approached the provincial army, at this ricans at- 
 time encamped at Still wat«r under General Gates, he ""^'' '*" 
 determined to make an attack ; for which purpofe he '^"y^' 
 put himfclf at the head of the central divilion of his '^' 
 army, having General Frafer and Colonel Breyman on 
 the right, with Generals Reidefel and Philips on the 
 left, in this poiition he advanced on the 19th of 
 September. But the Americans did not now wait to 
 be attacked: on the contrary they attacked the cen- 
 tral divilion w:th the utmort violence ; and it was not 2S4 
 until General Philips with the artillery came up, and ^|"' '" 
 at eleven o'clock at night, that they could be induced 
 
 with 
 
 gr« 
 
 difficuit^r 
 rcpuUcd. 
 
 to retire to their camp. On this occafion, the Britilh 
 troops loll about 500 in killed and wounded, and the 
 Americans about ■^ig. The former were very much 
 alarmed at the obltinute refolution Ihown by the Ame- 
 ricans, but this did not prevent them from advancing, 
 and porting themfelvcs the next day within canon- 
 (liot of their lines. But their allies the Indians began _, ^ ,■ 
 to dcfert in great numbers ; and at the fame time the ansdafer 
 general was in the liighelt degree mortified by having 
 no intelligence of any aliirtance fiom Sir Henry Clin- ^o^ 
 ton, as had been ftipulated. He now received a let- ^^ |j„5r 
 ter from him by which he was informed that Sir Hen- from Sit 
 ry iiitei\ded to make a diverlion on the North River Henry 
 in his favour. This afforded but Utile comfort : how- <-'llnton, 
 ever, he returned an anfwer by fcveral trufty perfons "'"" t'='' 
 whom hedifpatched different ways, rtating his pre- L^,yn"''j"i 
 fent dirtrell'ed lituation, and mentioning that the pro- f„„. 
 villous and other necelfarics he had would only ena- 
 ble him to hold out until the 12th of October. ^j. 
 In the mean time the Americans, in order to cut Expcditi( 
 off the retreat of the Briiilh army in the mortcffedual of the pr 
 manner, undertook anexpeditionagainrtTiconderago; vinciaU i 
 but were obliged to abandon the entcrprife after ha- f*'"'^ ^' 
 ving fiirprifedall the out-ports, and taken a great num- '**" '"^ 
 ber of boats with fome armed veilels, and a number of 
 prifoners. The army under general Burgoyne, how- 
 ever, continued tolabour under the greatell dillrelles; 
 fo that in the beginning of Oelober he had been obli- 
 ged to diminilh the foldiers allowance. On the 7th of 
 that month he determined to move towards the enemy. 
 For this purpofe he fent a body of i joo men to recon- 
 noitre their left wing; intending, if poffible, to break 288 
 through it in order to effect a retreat. The detach- They ma 
 ment, however, had not proceeded far when a fpirit- 3 bold 
 cd attack was made upon the left wing of the Britiffi at"<:k on 
 army, which was w ith great difficulty preferved from ' ' '"^ 
 being entirely broken by a reinforcement brought up ^g. 
 by general Frafer, who was killed in the attack. Af- Rill Uer 
 ter the troops had with the moft defperate efforts re- ral Frafti 
 gained their camp, it was moft vigoroully alfaulted by 
 general Arnold ; who, notwiihllanding all oppofition, 
 would have forced the entrenchments, had he not re- ipo 
 ceived a dangerous wound, w hich obliged him to re- And dcfi 
 tire. Thus the attack failed on the left, but on the '•'« Get- 
 right the camp of the German referve was forced, '"''"" "' 
 Colonel Breyman killed, and his countrymen defeat- l^^gbtei
 
 A M E 
 
 f 6oi J 
 
 A M E 
 
 191 
 
 The roy»l 
 army in 
 
 rounded. 
 
 192 
 Attempts 
 a retreat 
 without 
 fucccit. 
 
 America, ej with great (laughter, and the lofs of all their artil- 
 
 " " ' lery and baggage. 
 
 This was by far the heaviefl lofs the Briiifli army 
 had fuftaincd iiiice the action at Bunker's Hill. The 
 lift of killed and wounded amounted to near 1 200, cx- 
 clufive of the Germans ; but the greatell misfortune 
 was, that the Americans had now an opening on the 
 danger of right andrcarof the Britilh forces, fo thatthearmy was 
 being fur- threatened with entire dellruflion. This obliged Ge- 
 neral Burgoyne once more to fliift his pofition, that the 
 Americans might alfo be obliged to alter theirs. This 
 was accomplilhedon the night of the 7th, without any 
 lofs, and all the next day he continued to offer the Ame- 
 ricans battle; but they were now too well afllircd of 
 obtaining a complete victory, by cutting oft all fupplies 
 from the Britilli, to riik a pitched battle. Wherefore 
 they advanced on the right fide, in order toinclofe him 
 entirely ; which obliged the General to diredt a retreat 
 towards Saratoga. But the Americans had now ftation- 
 cd a great force on the ford at Hudfon's river, fo that 
 the only poffibility of retreat was by fccuring a paflagc 
 to Lake George ; and to effeft this, a body of work- 
 men were detached, with a flrong guard, to repair the 
 roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As foon 
 as they were gone, however, the Americans feemed to 
 prepare for an attack ; which rendered it necclfary to 
 recal the guard, and the workmen being ofcourfe left 
 cxpofed, could not proceed. 
 
 In the mean time, the boats which conveyed provi- 
 fions down Hudfon's river were expofed to the conti- 
 nual fire of the American niarkfmen, who took many 
 of them; fo that it became neceflary to convey the 
 provilions over land. In this extreme danger, it was 
 refolved to march by night to Fort Edward, forcing 
 the palFagcs at the fords either above or below the 
 place ; and, in order to eff'efl this the more eafily, it 
 was refolved that the foldicrs lliould carry their provi- 
 fions on their backs, leaving behind their baggage and 
 every other incumbrance. But before this could be 
 executed.intelligencc was received that the Americans 
 had raifedftrong entrench mentsoppofite to thefe fords, 
 well provided with cannon, and that tiiey had likewile 
 taken polfcirion of the riling ground between Fort 
 George and Fort Edward, which in like manner was 
 provided Kith canon. 
 
 All this time the American army was incrcadng by 
 fituationof the continual arrival of militia and volunteers from all 
 the royal parts. Their parties extended all along the oppofite 
 army. bank of Hundfon's River, and fome had even palled it 
 
 in order to obfcrve the leaft movement of the Britilh 
 army. Every part of the Britilh camp was reached 
 by the grape, and ritie-iliot of the Americans, bclides 
 a difcharge from their artillery, which wasalmoft in- 
 cciraiu. In this ftate of extreme dillrcfs and danger, 
 the aiiny continued with the greateft conllancy and 
 pcrfeverance till the evening of tlie 13th of October, 
 when an inventory of provifions being taken, it was 
 found that no more remained than what were fuffici- 
 jp4 ent to ferve for three days ; and a council of war be- 
 lt itobliged ing called, it was unanimoully determined that there 
 «o capita- was no method now remaining but to treat with the 
 '*"• Americans, in conlequcnce of this, a ncgociation 
 
 was opened next day, which Cpeedily terminated in 
 a capitulation of the whole Britifli army ; the arti- 
 cles of which were I. The troops under lieut. gen. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 293 
 Diftreffed 
 
 Burgoyne, to march out of their camp with the ho- Anaerici. 
 
 nours of war, and the artillery of the intrenchmenti «' ' 
 
 to the verge of the river where the old fort flood, 
 where the arms and artillery are to be left. — The arms 
 to be piled by word of command from their own offi. 
 cers : — 2. A free palfage to be granted to the army 
 underlict. gen. Burgoyne to Great-Britain, upon con- 
 dition of not ferving again in North-America during 
 the prefent conteft; and the port of Bofton to be af- 
 figned for the entry of tranfports, to receive the troops 
 whenever gen. Howe ihall fo order: — 3. Should any 
 cartel take place, by which the army under lieut. gen. 
 Burgone, or any part of it, may be exchanged, the 
 foregoing article to be void, as far as fuch exchange 
 lliall be made : — 4. The army under lieut. gen. Bur- 
 goyne to march to Maflachufeus-Bay, by the caficft, 
 andmoft expeditious and convenient route ; and to be 
 quartered in, near, or as convenient as poffible to Bof- 
 ton, that the march of the troops may not be delayed 
 when tranfports arrive to receive them : — The troops 
 to be fupplied on the march, and during their being 
 in quarters, with provifions, by major general Gates's 
 orders, at the fame rate of rations as the troops of his 
 own army ; and, if poiTiWe, the officers horfes and 
 cattle are to be fupplied with forage at the ufual 
 rates : — 6. All the officers to retain their caraiages, 
 bat-horfes and other cattle, and no baggage to be mo- 
 lefted or fearched ; lieut. gen. Burgoyne giving his 
 lionour, that there are no public llores contained there- 
 in. Major gen. Gates will ofcourfe take the necefla- 
 ry meafures for the due performance of this article: 
 fliould any carri.iges be wanted during the march, for 
 the tranfportation of officers baggage, they are, if 
 poffible, to be fupplied by the country at the ufual rates : 
 — 7. Upon the march, and during the time the army 
 Ihall remain in quarters, in the MalTachufctts-Bay, 
 the officers are not, as far as circumllances will admit, 
 to be feparated from their men — The officers are to 
 be quartered according to their rank, and are not to 
 be hindered from their aflembling their men for roll- 
 callings, and otlier necelfary piirpofes of regularity : 
 — 8. All corps whatever of lieut. gen. Burgoyne's 
 army, whether compofcd of failors, batteau-men, ar- 
 tificers, drivers, independent companies, and follow- 
 ers of the army, of whatever country, fliall be includ- 
 ed in the fulleft fenfe and utmoft extent of the above 
 articles, and comprehended in every refpect as Bri- 
 tilh fubjects: — 9. All Canadians, and perfons belong- 
 ing to the Canadian eftabliHimen t, coulifting of failors, 
 batteau-men, artificers, drivers, independent compa- 
 nies, and many other followers of the army, who 
 come under no particular defcription, are to be per- 
 mitted to return there : they are to be conducted im- 
 mediately, by the fliorteft ro.ite, to the firft Britilh 
 poll on Lake George, are to be fupplied with provi- 
 fions in the fame manner as the other troops, and to 
 be bound by the fame condition of not ferving during 
 the prefent conteft in Nonh-Aineriea: — 10. PalTports 
 to be immediately granted for three officers, not ex- 
 ceeding the rank of captains, who Ihall be appointed 
 by lieut. gen. Burgoyne, to carry difpatches to Sir 
 Wm. Howe, Sir Guy Carleton, and to Great-Britain 
 by the way of New-York; and major general Gates 
 engages the public faith, that thefe difpatches (lull 
 not be opened. Thefe officers are to fct out immedi- 
 4 G ately
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 602 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 Ancric:. atcly afier receiving their difpatchcs, and arc to tra- 
 ■ " ' vel by the flioncft route, and in the moft expeditious 
 manner: — 11. During tlie itay of the troops in the 
 IVlaiiachufctis-Bay, the officers arc to be admitted on 
 parole, and arc to be permitted to wear their iidc arms: 
 — i;. Should the army under lieut. gen. Burgoyne, 
 rind it neccil'ary to fend for their cloathing and other 
 baggage from Canada, they are to be permitted to do 
 it in the moll convenient manner, and ncccifary pall- 
 ports to be granted for that purpol'c : — i 3. Thefc ar- 
 ticles are to be mutually ligned and exchanged co-mor- 
 row morning at nine o'clock ; and the troops under 
 licui. gen. Burgoyne, are to march out of their in- 
 irenchmcnts at three o'clock in the afternoon. Camp 
 at Saratoga, Oelober 16, 1777. 
 
 HORATIO GATES, Major-General. 
 
 To prevent any doubts that niiglit arife from lieut. 
 gen. Burgoyne's name not being mentioned in the 
 above treaty, major general Gates hereby declares, 
 that he is underltood to be comprehended in it, as 
 fully as if his name had been fpecitically mentioned. 
 
 HORATIO GATKS. 
 
 Such was the impatience of fome of the militia to 
 return home before the royal army had been brought 
 to furrender, and fo little their concern to be fpceta- 
 lors of the event, that one of the Northampton regiments 
 went off the day before tlie liag came out from Bur- 
 goyne. Another regiment took iiftlf away wliile the 
 treaty was in agitation. But the fate of the army will 
 confirm the truth of what its commander wrote to 
 lord George Germain, Aiigiill the 20lh, " the great 
 bulk of tilt country is undoubtedly with the congrefs 
 in principle and zeal." When after the convention 
 the oiRcers went into the American camp, they were 
 furprifed ; and fome of them faid, that of all the camps 
 they had ever fecn in Germany, or elfewhere, they 
 never faw any better difpofcd and fecured. 
 
 The return (igncdhy gen. Burgoyne, of the foreign- 
 ers at the time of the convention, amounted to 2412. 
 The Brililh coiilifled, according to him, of 10 officers 
 prefent — 145 commilfioncd — the ftatf 26 — fergeants 
 and drummers 297 — rank and file 2901 — in all 3^79: 
 this added to the Germans, makes 5791. The Ame- 
 rican acco*ir.t, to lliow what was the fum total of the 
 royal army aJling in the northern department againfl 
 the country, goes on to reckon, the fick taken 928 — 
 the wounded 528 — prlfoncrs of war before the con- 
 vention 400 — defertcrs 3C0 — lofl at Bennington 1220 
 — killed between the i 7th of September and the i8th" 
 of October 600 — taken at Tyconderoga 41 3 — killed 
 in gen. Herkimer's battle about 300— makini^ in all 
 4689. According to this way of reckoning, the royal 
 force was 10480. It was probably full 10,000 llrong, 
 including Canadians and provincials, and excUilive of 
 Indians, drivers, futilcrs, &c. Among the prifoners 
 taken were fix members of parliament. 
 
 The train of brafs artillery was a fine acquifition ; 
 it conlilled of 2 twenty-four pounders — 4 twelves — 
 20 (ixes — 6 threes — a eight inch howitzers — 5 five 
 and a half royal ditto — and three five and a half inch 
 royal mortars — in all, 42 pieces of ordnance. There 
 were alio 4''47 mulkcts — 6coo dozen of cartridges, 
 befidc Ihot, carcalles, cafes, fiiells, &c. 
 
 Burj^oyne. was dclirous of a general return of the 
 army commanded by Gates at the time of the conven- 
 
 tion. The latter underftood him, and was careful 
 not to leilcn the return by fupprclling a fingle man. 
 The contijicntals, all ranks included, were 9093 ; the 
 militia 4129, in all 132-22 ; but of the former, the lick 
 and on furlough were 2103; and of the latter, 561. 
 The number of the militia was continually varying ; 
 and many of them were at a conlidcrable dillancc 
 from the oamp. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had failed up 
 tlie North River, and dellroycd the two forts called 
 Montgomery and Clinton, with Fort Conftitution, and 
 another place called Continental Village, where were 
 barracks for 2000 men. Seventy large cannon were 
 carried away, belides a number of fmaller artillery, 
 and a great quantity of floreii and ammunition ; a large 
 boom and chain reaching acrofs the river from Fort 
 Montgomery to a point of land called St Anthony's 
 Nofe, and which cofl not Icfs than L. 70,000 Ster- 
 ling, were partly deftroyed and partly carried away, 
 as was alfo another boom of little lefs value at Fort 
 Conftitution. The lofs of the Britilh army was but 
 fmuU in number, though fome officers of great merit 
 were killed in the dittcrcnt attacks. 
 
 Another attack was made by Sir James Wallace with 
 fome frigates, and a body of land-forces under Gene- 
 ral Vaughan. The place which now fuffcred was 
 named Efopus : the fortifications were deftroyed, and 
 the town iifelf was wantonly reduced to aflves, as that 
 called Continental Village had been before. Thus 
 the Brililh armament fpent their time in wafting the 
 adjacent country, when by pulhing forward 136 miles 
 in lix days they might have effedually relieved 
 Burgoyne. 
 
 But thefe fucceflcs, of whatever importance they 
 might be, were now difrcgarded by both parties. They 
 ferved only to irritate the Americans, flulhed with 
 their fnccels ; and they were utterly infufficient to 
 raife the fpiritsof the Brililh, who were now thrown 
 into the uimofl difmay. 
 
 On the i6thof March 1778, Lord North intimated 
 to the houfe of commons, that a paper had been laid 
 before the king by the French ambailador, intimating 
 the conclufion of an alliance between the conrt of 
 France and the United States of America. The pre- 
 liminaries of this treaty had been concluded in the 
 end of the year 1 777, and a copy of them fcnt to con- 
 grefs, in order to countcraiS any propofals that might 
 be made in the mean lime by the Britilh miniftry. 
 On the 6th of February 1778, the articles were for- 
 mally figncd, to the great fatisfaftion of the French 
 nation. They were in fubftance as follows: 
 
 1. If Great-Britain fliould, in confequencc of this 
 treaty, proceed to boftiliiics againft France, the two 
 nations (hould mutually affiil one another. 
 
 2. The main end of the treaty was, in an effedual 
 manner to maintain the independency of America. 
 
 3. Should thofe places of North-America ftill fub- 
 je<5t to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they ftiould 
 be confederated with them, or fubjcded to their jurif- 
 
 4. Should any of the Weft India iflands be reduced 
 by France, ihey ffiould be deemed its property. 
 
 J. No formal treaty with Great Britain ffiould be 
 concluded cither by France or America without the 
 coHfenc of each other ; and it was mutually engaged 
 
 that 
 
 Amerreav 
 
 »95 
 
 SucccUful 
 expedition 
 of Sir Hen- 
 ry CUntoB. 
 
 196 
 Crtit d»- 
 jcdion on 
 account of 
 13urgoyne*5 
 capture. 
 
 «97 
 Treaty be- 
 tween 
 France and 
 America.
 
 A M E 
 
 r 603 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Ame»ici. that they flioulJ not lay down their arms t'll the in- 
 "^ >'— — ' dependency of the States had been formally acknow- 
 ledged. 
 
 6. The contrafting parties mutually agreed to invite 
 thofe powers that had received injuries from Great 
 Britain to join the common caufe. 
 
 7. The United Slates guaranteed to F'rance all the 
 poflcflions in the Well Indies Wliich flic fliould con- 
 «iucr ; and France in her turn guaranteed the abfulute 
 independency of the States, and their fupremc autho- 
 rity over every country they polTcired, or might ac- 
 
 t^8 quire during the war. 
 Bcbamoc- The notification of fuch a treaty as this could not 
 caGoncd by [jm [jc looked upon as a declaration of war. On its 
 the treaty, bejng announced to the houfc, every one agreed in an 
 addrefs to his niajcfty, promifing to Hand by him to 
 the utmofl in the prefcnt emergency ; but it was warm- 
 ly contended by the members in oppolition, that the 
 prefcnt miniftry ought to be removed on account of 
 their numberlefs blunders and mifcarriages in every 
 inllance. Many were of opinion, that the only way 
 to extricate the nation from its trouble was to acknow- 
 ledge the independency of America at once ; and thus 
 they might ftill do with a good grace what mull ine- 
 vitably be done at lad, after expending much more 
 blood and treafure than had yet been lavilhed in this 
 unhappy conteft. The minifterial party, however, 
 entertained different ideas. Inftigated by zeal for the 
 national honour,it was determined at once to refent the 
 arrogance of France, and profccute hofliiities againft 
 America with more vigour thancvcr, fliould the terms 
 jno now offered them be rcjedlcd. 
 Americani The Americans in the mean time afllduoufly em- 
 fend agcntj ployed their agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna, 
 to different Pruflia, and Tufcany, in order, if pofliblc, to conclude 
 Gonrti. alliances with them, or at kaft to procure an acknow- 
 ledgment of their independency. As it had been report- 
 ed that Britain intended to apply for aififlancc to Ruf- 
 iia, the American commilhoners were enjoined to ufe 
 their utmoft intiuence with the German princes to 
 prevent fuch auxiliaries from marching through their 
 territories, and to endeavour to procure the rccal of 
 the German troops already fent to America. To 
 France they offered aceihonof fuch Weft India iflands 
 as fliould be taken by the united ftrength of France 
 and America; and ihould Britain by their joint en- 
 deavours bcdifpofle fled of Newfoundland, CapeBreton, 
 and Nova Scotia, thofe territories ftiould be divided 
 betwixt the two nations, and Great Britain be totally 
 excluded from the hlhery. Tiie propofals to the Spa- 
 nifti court were, that in cafe they fliould think pro- 
 per to efpoufe their quarrel, the American ftates 
 Jiould afllll in reducing I'enfacola under the domini- 
 on of Spain, provided their fubjeds were allowed the 
 free navigation of the river Mifliflippi and the ufe of 
 the harbour of Penfacola; and they further offered, 
 that, if agreeable to Spain, they would declare war 
 againft Portugal, (liould that power expel the Anieri- 
 2o<3 can fliips from its ports. 
 r.encral In the mean time the troops under General Bur- 
 
 liurgoync's goyne were preparing to embark for Britain accord- 
 troops de- ing to ihc convention at Saratoga ; but congrcfs having 
 taint in j-eceivcd information, that many articles of animuni- 
 tion and accoutrements had not been furrcndercd 
 agreeably to the ftipulated terms, and fiudiug fome 
 
 caufe to appreliend, that fiuiftcr dcfigns were h.ir- America. 
 
 bourcd on the part of Great Britain to convey tlufc ^ ' 
 
 troops tojoin the army at Philadelphia or New-York, 
 pofitively refufed to let them embark, until an expli- 
 cit ratification of the convention Ihould be propcrl/ 
 notified by the Britilli court. 
 
 The feafon for aftion was now approaching ; and 
 congrcfs was indefatigable in iis preparations for a new 
 campaign, which it was confidently faid woul J be the 
 laft. Among other methods taken for this purpofe, it 
 was recommended to all the young gcnilcmcn of ihc 
 colonics to form thcmfclvcs into bodies of cavalry to 
 fcrve at their own expence during the war. General 
 Wafliington at the fame time, to remove all incum- 
 brances from his army, lightened the baggage as muck 
 as pofhble, by fubrtituting facks and portmanteaus in 
 place of cheils and boxes, and uflng pack-horfcs in- 
 ftead of waggons. On tlie other hand, the Britifli ar- 
 iny,expefting to be reinforced by 20,000 men, thought 
 of nothing but concluding the war according to their jct 
 wiflies before the end of the campaign. It was with Cor.ciiiato- 
 the utmoft concern, as well as indignation, therefore, T liill rc- 
 that they received the news of Lord North's concili- 5"^* ^}'^ 
 atory bill. It was univerfally looked upon as a national ""^K"^"- 
 difgracc ; and fome even tore the cockades from their j^I 
 hats, and trampled them under their feet as a token of 
 their indignation. By the colonifts it was received 3** 
 with indifference. The Britifli commifrioners endea- ^<:fp''<^<"»r 
 voured to make it as public as polhble ; and the con- * .« '" "" 
 grefs, as formerly, ordered it to be printed in all the 
 newfpapers. On this occalion Governor Tryon in- 
 clofed fevcral copies of the bill to General Wafliington 
 in a letter, intreating that he would allow them to be 
 circulated ; to which the General returned for anfwer 
 a copy of a ncwfpaper in which the bill was printed, 
 with the refolutions of congrcfs upon it. Thcfewere, 
 That whoever prefumed to make a feparaie agree- 
 ment with Britain fliould be deemed a public enemy ; 
 that the United States could not with any propriety 
 keep correfpondencc with the commiinoncrs until 
 their independence was acknowledged, and the Bri- 
 tifh fleets and armies removed from America. At the 
 fame time, the colonies were warned not to futter 
 themfclvcs to be deceived into fecurity by any offers 
 that might be made ; but to ufe their litmoft endea- 
 vours to fend their quotas with all diligence into the 
 field. The individuals with whom the commiflioncrs 
 converfed on the fubjedl of the conciliatory bill, gene- 
 rally returned for anfwer, that the day of reconcilia- 
 tion was pail ; and that the haughtinefs of Britain had 
 extinguilhed all filial regard in the brcaiU of Amc- 
 cans. 
 
 About this time alfo Mr Silas Dean arrived from 
 France with two copies of the treaty of commerce 
 and alliance to be ligncd by congrcfs. Advices of the 
 moft agreeable nature were alfo received from varieus 
 parts, rcprefentiiig in the moft favourable light the 
 difpofitionsof the European powers ; all of whom, it 
 was faid, wi(hed to fee the independence of America 
 ftttled upon the moft permanent bafis. Conlidering p,<i fuccels 
 the fituation of matters with the colonifts at this time, of ihc co-n- 
 thcreforc, it was no wonder the commifrioners found miiConcrs. 
 ihemfelves unable to accomplilh the errand on which 
 they came. Their propol'als were utterly rejcftcd, 
 themfclvcs treated as fpies, and, after a vain attempt 
 4 G 2 bf
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 604 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 A:oerica. by governor Joliiiftonc, one of the commiirioiiers, to 
 
 ^ bribe fcvcral members of congrefs, all intercoiirfc 
 
 30^ with them was interdi<5led. 
 rhlladel- But before any tinal aiifwer could be obtained from 
 phia evacu- congrefs, Sir Henry Clinton had taken the refoluiion 
 -■■■-"''■ of evacuating Philadelphia. Accordingly, on the loth 
 
 of June, after having made all nccelTary preparations, 
 the army marched out of the city and crolled the De- 
 laware before noon with all its baggage and other in- 
 cumbrances. General Wafliington, apprifcd of this 
 defign,haddifpatchcd exprclfcs into the Jerfeys with 
 orders to collert all the force that could be affcmblcd 
 in order to obflrui5l the march of the enemy. After 
 various movements on both fides, Sir Henry Clinton, 
 with the royal army, arrived on the 27th of June at a 
 place called Freehold j where, judging that the ene- 
 my would attack him, he encamped in a very ftrong 
 (ituation. Here General Wafliington determined to 
 make an attack as foon as the army had again begun 
 its march. The uight was fpent in making the nc- 
 cellary preparations, and General Lee with his divi- 
 liuu was ordered to be ready by day-break. But Sir 
 Henry Clinton, apprehending that the chief object 
 of the Americans was the b.iggage, committed it to 
 the care of General Knyphaufen, whom he ordered to 
 fctout early in the morinng, while he followed with 
 the rell of the army- The attack was accordingly 
 made ; but the Britilh general had taken fuch care to 
 arrange his troops properly, and fo eftcftually fupport- 
 cJ iiis furces w hen engaged with the Americans, that 
 the latter not only made no imprclFion, but were witii 
 diificulty prefcrved from a total defeat by the advance 
 of General Waihingtoii with tlie whole army. The 
 Britidi troops effected their retreat in the night with 
 the lofs of 300 men, of whom many died through 
 mere fatigue, without any wound. In this aftion Ge- 
 neral Lee was charged by General Walhington with 
 difobcdiencc and mifcoiulua in retreating before the 
 Britilh army. He was tried by a court-martial, and 
 fcntenccdtoa temporary fufpenlion from his command. 
 After they had arrived at Sandy-Hook, a bridge of 
 boats was by Lord Howe's directions thrown from 
 thence over the channel which feparated the illand 
 from the main land, and the troops were conveyed 
 aboard the fleet ; after which they failed to New-York. 
 After fending fomc light detachments to watch the 
 enemy's motions. General Walhington marched to- 
 wards the North-River, where a gseat force had been 
 collefled to join him, and where it was now expeited 
 that fome very capital operations would take place. 
 
 In the mean time France had fet about her prepa- 
 rations for the alfillauce of the American!. On the 
 14th of April Count d'Eftaing had failed from Toulon 
 with a ftrongfquadrou of Ihipsof theline and frigates, 
 and arrived on the coaft of Virginia in the beginning of 
 July, whilft the Briiidi fleet was employed in convey- 
 ing the forces from Sandy-hook to Ncsv-York. It 
 confided of one (hip of 90 guns, one of 80, fix of 74, 
 and four of 64, belides feveral large frigates ; and, ex- 
 chifiveof its complement of failors, had 6000 marines 
 and foldiers on board. To oppofe this the Britifli had 
 only fix dips of 64 guns, three of 50, and two of 
 40, with fome frigates and (loops. Notwithftanding 
 this inferiority, however, the Britifh admiral polled 
 himfclf fo advantagcoudy, and fiiowed fuch fupcrior 
 
 305 
 
 Vrcncli 
 fleet ar- 
 rives in 
 America. 
 
 fkill, that d'Kllaing did not think jropcr to attack Amcric«. 
 
 him ; particularly, as the pilots informed him that it ' ■^—' 
 
 was iinpra(5licablc to carry his large fliipsover the bar 
 into the hook, and General Walhington prclfcd liini 
 to fail for Newport. He therefore remained at anchor 
 four miles off Sandy-liook till the 22d of July, with- 
 out effecting any thing more than the capture of fomc 
 vellcls, which, through ignorance of his arrival, fell 
 into his hands. ^26 
 
 The next attempt of the French admiral was, in Attempt! 
 conjunftion with the Americans, on Khode-Illand. It Rhode- 
 was propoftd that d'Eflaing, with the 6000 troops he IHand 
 had Willi him, fliould make a dcfceni on the (buthern p'"*'out 
 part of the illand, while a body of the Americans fliould " '' 
 take pollcdiou of the north ; at the fame time the 
 French fquadron was to enter the harbour of Newport, 
 and take and dellroy all the Britilh fliipping. On'thc 
 8th of Auguft the French admiral entered the harbour 
 as \Vas propofcd, but found himfclf unable to do any 
 material damage. Lord Howe, however, inflantly 
 fet fail for Rhode-Kland ; and d'Eftaing, conliding in , 
 his fuperioriiy, immediately came out of the harbour 
 toattack him. A violent ftorm parted the two fleets, 
 and did fo much damage that they were rendered to- 
 tally unfit for action. The French, however, fuffered 
 molt ; and feveral of their Ihips being afterwards at- 
 tacked fingly by the Britilh, very narrowly efcaped 
 being taken. On the 20th of Augufl he returned to 
 Newport in a very (battered condition ; and, not think- 
 ing himfclf fafe there, failed two days after for Bof- 
 tou. General Sullivan had landed in the mean time on 
 the northern part of Rhode-Kland with 10,000 men. 
 On the 17th of Augufl they began their operations 
 by erefling batteries, and making their approaches to 
 the Britifh lines. But General Pigot, who command- 
 ed in Newport, had taken fuch effectual care to fccure 
 himfclf on the land-lide, that without the alhftancc 
 of a martne force it was altogether inipoflible to attack 
 him with any probability offuccefs. The conduct of 
 d'Eflaing, therefore, who had abandoned them when 
 mafler of the harbour, gave the greateft difgufl to the 
 people of New-England, rind Sullivan began to think 
 of a retreat. On perceiving his intentions, the gar- 
 rifon fallied out upon him with fo much vigour, that it 
 was not without difficulty that he effefted his retreat. 
 He had not been long gone when Sir Henry Clinton 
 arrived with a body of 4000 men ; which, had it ar- 
 rived fooner, would have enabled the Britilh comman- 
 der to have gained a decifive advantage over him, as 
 well as to have deftroycd the town of Providence, 
 wliich, by its vicinity toRhode-Ifland, and the cnter- 
 prifes which were continually projefled and carried on 
 in that place, kept the inhabitants of Rhode-Iflandin 
 continual alarms. 307 
 
 The tirfl Britilh expedition was to Buzzard's- Bay, The coafls 
 on the coafl of New-England and neighbourhood of of America 
 Rhode-Illand. Here they dcftroyed a great number of invaded by 
 privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with ftore- '"eBntia 
 houfes, &c. ; whence proceeding to a fertile and pe- " ' 
 pulous illand, called Martha's-Vineyard, they carried 
 off 2000 (heep and 500 black cattle. Another expe- 
 dition took place up the North-River, under Lord 
 Cornwallis and General Knyphaufen ; the principal 
 event of which was, the deliruftion of .a regiment of 
 American cavalry knowa by the name of Wafliing- 
 
 ton's
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 605 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 toil's Li;;ht Horfe. A third expedition wasdircftcd to 
 Little Egg-Harbour in Ncw-fcrfcy, aplacc noted for 
 privateers, the denruclion of which was its principal 
 intention. It was conducted by Captains F'crgufon and 
 Collins, and ended in the dcftruction of the American 
 vcircls, as well as of the place itfelf. At the fame 
 time part of another body of American troops, called 
 Piilafki's legion, was furprifed, and a great number of 
 them put to the fword. 
 
 Tlic Americans had in the beginning of the year 
 projected the conqucftnf Weft-FJoridi ; and one Cap- 
 tain Willing, with a party of rcfoliitc men, had made 
 a fuccefsfuliiicurfion into the country. This awaken- 
 ed the attention of the Britilh to the fouthern colotiics, 
 and an expedition againil them wasrefolvedon. Geor- 
 gia was theplace of deflination ; and the more efFcdlu- 
 iilly to enfurc fucccfs, Colonel' Campbell, with a fuf-. 
 ficieni force, under convoy of fomefliips of war, com- 
 niauded by Commodore Hyde Parker, embarked at 
 Ncw-York ; while General Provoft, who commanded 
 in Eart-Florida, was dircded to fct out with all the 
 force he could fpare. The armament from New- York 
 arrived oft' the coaftof Georgia in the month of De- 
 cember ; and though the Americans were very flrong- 
 ly ported in an advantageous fituation on the fliore, the 
 Britiih troops made good their landing, and advanced 
 towards Savannah the capital of the province. That 
 very day they defeated the force of the provincials 
 ■w^ich oppofed them ; and took poffelTion of the town 
 with fuch celerity, that the Americans had not time to 
 execute arefolutionthey had takenof fettingit on lire. 
 In ten days the whole province of Georgia was reduc- 
 ed, Suubury alone excepted ; and this wasalfo brought 
 under fubjefiion by General Prevoft in his march 
 northward. Every proper method was taken to fecure 
 the tranquillity of the country ; and rewards were of- 
 fered for apprehending committee andalTcmbly men, 
 or fuch as they judged moA inimical to the Britifli in- 
 lerefts. On the arrival of General Prevoft, the com- 
 mand of the troops naturally devolved on him as the 
 fenior officer ; and the conquefl of Carolina was next 
 proje(5lcd. 
 
 In this attempt there was no fmall probability of fuc- 
 cefs. The country contained a great number of friends 
 to government, who now eagerly embraced the oppor- 
 tunity of declarin;;; thcmfelves ; many of the inhabi- 
 tants of Georgia had joined the royal (landard ; and 
 there was not in the province any condderablc body of 
 provincial forces capable ofoppoling the efforts of 
 regular and well-difcipllned troops. On thcfirft news 
 of General Prevoil's approach, the loyalifts aflcnibled 
 in a body, imagining themfclves able to ftand their 
 ground until their allies (hould arrive ; but in this 
 they were difappointed. The Americans attacked 
 and defeated them with the lofs of half their number. 
 The remainder retreated into Georgia ; and after un- 
 dergoing many difficulties, at lall eifeded a jun<^ion 
 with the Britifli forces. 
 
 In thcmean time. General Lincoln, withaconfider- 
 able body of American troops, had encamped within 
 20 miles of the town of Savannah ; and another ftronj; 
 party had polled thcmfelves at a place called Briar's 
 Creek, farther up the river of the fame name. Thus 
 the extent of the BritilTi government was likely to be 
 circurafcribeJ within very narrow bounds. General 
 
 Prevoft therefore determined to diilodge the party at Amcrin. 
 
 Briar's Creek : and the latter, trufling to their flrong ' — ;;"• ' 
 
 fituation, and being rcmifs in their guard, fuflercd /^mtri'cans 
 thcmfelves to be furprifcdon the jotli of March 1779 ; defeated 
 when they were utterly routed with the lofs of mere 
 than 300 killed and taken, btlidcs a great number 
 drowned in the river or ihc fwamps. The whole ar- 
 tillery, flores, baggage, and almofl all thearmsof thi^ 
 unfortunate party were taken, fo that they could no 
 more make any ftand ; and thus the province of Geor- 
 gia was once more freed from the Americans, and a 
 communication opened with thofe places in Carolina 
 where the royalilb chiefly relided. 
 
 The vidory at Briar's Creek proved of confiderable 
 fervice to the Britilh caufe. Great numbers of the 
 loyalifls joined the army, and conliderably incrcafcd 
 its force. Hence he was enabled to flretch his polls 
 further up the river, and to guard all the principal 
 palFes : fo that General Lincoln was reduced to a flatc 
 of inaction ; and at lafl moved off towards Augufta, in 
 order to protect the provincial aifembly, which was 
 obliged to lit in that place, the capital being now in 
 the hands of the Britilh. 
 
 Lincoln had no fooner quitted his port, than it was 
 judged a proper time by the Britifh general to put in 
 execution the grand fcheme which had Leen meditated 
 againft Carolina. Many difficulties indeed lay in his 
 way. The river Savannah was fo fwelled by the ex- 
 celTive rains of the feafon, that it feemed impaffable ; 
 the oppolite fhore, for a great way, was fo full of fwamps 
 and marllies, that no army could march over it without 
 the greateft difficulty ; and, to render the palFagc flill 
 more difficult. General Moultrie was left with a confi- 
 derable body of troops in order to oppofe the enemy's jn 
 attempts. But in fpite of every oppolition, the con- The Britilh 
 ftancy and perfeverance of the Britilh troops at lall "<«>?• ad- 
 prevailed. General Moultrie was obliged to retire to- I*°"j '° 
 wards Charlefton ; and the purfuing army, after hav- ^'"'■''"'"'• 
 ing waded through the marlhcs for fome time, at laft 
 arrived in an open country, through which they pur- 
 fued their march with great rapidity, towards the capi- 
 tal ; while General Lincoln made preparations to 
 march to its relief. 313 
 
 Certain intelligence ofihc danger to which Charlef- General 
 ton was expofed, animated the American general A Lincoln 
 chofen body of infantry, mounted on horfeback for the ="•"""» 
 greater expedition, was difpatched before him ; while """" 
 Lincoln himfclf followed with all the forces he could 
 coUedl. General Moultrie too,.with the troops he had 
 brought from Savannah, and fome others he had 
 colleclcd lincc his retreat from thence, had taken pof- 
 feiHon of all the avenues leading to Charlellon, and 
 prepared for a vigorous defence. But all oppofition 
 proved inefTeclual ; and the BritiQi army was allowed 
 to come within cannon fhoi of Charlefton on the 12th 
 of May. 
 
 Thctown was now fummoned to furrender, and the 
 inhabitants would gladly have agreed to obfcrve a neu- 
 trality during the rcll of the war, and would have en- 
 gaged alfo for the rell of the province. But thefc 
 terms not being accepted, they made preparations for 
 a vigorous defence. It was not, however, in the pow- 
 er of the Britiili commander at this time to make an ,j 
 attack with any profpcd of fuccefs. His artillery was xhe'at- 
 not of fufScient weight ; there were no Ihips to fup- tempt on it 
 
 port abarJcntd-
 
 A M E 
 
 L 606 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, port liis attack by land ; and General Lincoln advan- 
 ■ " cing rapidly with a rupenor army, threatened to in- 
 dole him between his own force and the town; fo that 
 (hould he fail in his firit attempt, certain deftruC^ion 
 would be the confequcncc. For thefc rcafons he with- 
 drew his forces from before the town, and took polief- 
 fion of two illjnds, called St Jama's and St John's, ly- 
 ingtothefoiithw^ard ; where having waited ibmctime, 
 his force was augmented by the arrival of two frigates. 
 With thefe he determined to make himfclf niaUcr of 
 Port-Royal, another illand poUclfed of an excellent 
 harbour, and many other natural advantages, fnun its 
 fituationalfo commanding all the fca-coaft from Charlcf- 
 ton to Savannah River. The American general, 
 however, did not allow this to be accomplilhcd with- 
 out oppolition. Perceiving that his opponent had oc- 
 cupied an advantageous pod on St John's ifland prcpa- 
 315 ratory to his enterprifcagainll Port-Royal, he attempt- 
 Thc Ame- cd, on the iothof June, to dillodgc them from it ; but, 
 ricansde- after anobllinate attack, the provincials were obliged 
 fcated. to retire with confiderablclofs. On thisoccafion the 
 fucccfs of the Briiifli arms was in a great meafure ow- 
 ing to an armed float, which galled the right flank 
 of the enemy fo effcdually, that they could direft 
 their efforts only againft the ftrongeft part of the lines, 
 which proved impregnable to their attacks. This dif- 
 appointraent wasinflantly followed by thclofsof Port- 
 Royal, which General Prevoft took polfeffion of, and 
 put his troops into proper Rations, waiting for the ar- 
 rival of fuch reinforcements as were necelFary for tl* 
 intended attack on Charleiton. 
 
 The profligate conduft of the refugees, and the of- 
 ficers and foldiers of the Britilh, in plunderirig the 
 houlcs of individuals, during their incurlion, is incre- 
 dible. Negroes were feduced or forced from their 
 raallers ; furniture and plate were fcized without de- 
 cency or authority ; and the mofl infamous violations 
 of every law of honour and honcfty were openly per- 
 petrated. Individuals thus accumulated wealth, but 
 tlie reputation of the Britifli arms incurred au ever- 
 u6 lailing Higma. 
 D'Eftaing's In the mean time Count d'Eftring, who, as we 
 prodauia- ),jve already obferved, had put into Bofton harbour to 
 refit, had ufed his utmoll efforts to ingratiate himfelf 
 with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous alfo in the 
 caufc of his mafter, he had publilhed a proclamation to 
 be difperfed through Canada, inviting the people to 
 return to their original fricndlhip with France, and 
 declaring that all who renounced their allegiance to 
 Great Britain (hould certainly find a protedor in the 
 king of France. All his endeavours, however, pro- 
 ved infufficieni at this time to produce any revolution, 
 or ever to form a party of any confequence among the 
 Canadians. 
 
 As foon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, 
 he took the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron 
 Weft Indies bad been fluttered by a ftorm, of failing to the Well- 
 Indies. During his operations there, the Americans 
 •■"^ having reprcfented his conduft as totally unfcrviccablc 
 to them, he received orders from Europe to aflift the 
 colonics with all pofTible fpeed. 
 
 In compliance with thefc orders, he directed his 
 courfe towards Georgia, with a defign to recover that 
 province out of the handsof the enemy, and to put it, 
 as well as South Caroiinaj in fuch a pollurc of defence 
 
 klon 
 
 3»7 
 n'Eftaing 
 
 fails to the 
 
 D'Eftaiii^'s 
 expedition 
 againft 
 Georgia. 
 
 as would cffeftually fecure them from any futuf-o at- Anierie<< 
 
 tack. This fecmed to be an eafy matter, from the * ■■'—' 
 
 little force with which he knew he Ihould be oppofed ; , 
 
 and the next objcft in contemplation was no lefsthan 
 the dcltrudlioH of the Britilh fleet and army at New, 
 York, and their total rxpullion from the continent of 
 America. Full of thefe hopes, the French command- 
 er anived off' the coall of Georgia with a fleet of 22 
 fail of the line and 10 large frigates. His arrival was 
 fo little expeded, that feveral velFcls laden with pro- 
 vilions and military llorcs fell into his hands ; the Ex- 
 periment alio, a velfcl of 50 guns, commanded by Sir 
 James Wallace, was taken after a Aout refiflance. 
 On the continent, the Britifli troops were divided. 
 General Pre voll, with an inconliderable part, remained 
 at Savannah ; but the main force Was under Colonel 
 Maitland at Port Royal. On the firll appearance of 
 the French fleet, an cxprefs was difpatched to Colonel 
 Maitland : but it was intercepted by the Americans ; fa 
 that before he could let out in order to join the com- 
 mander in chief, the Americans had fecured moll of 
 the partes by land, while the French fleet efFcflually 
 blocked up the palFage by fea. But, by taking advan- 
 tage of creeks and inlets, and marching over land, he 
 arrived juft in time to relieve Savannah. .^g 
 
 D'Ellaing had allowed General Prevofl 24 hours to Conduiflof 
 deliberate whether he fliould capitulate or not. This the French 
 time the general employed in making thebeflprepara- coniman- 
 lions he could for a defence ; and during this time It ^"' 
 was that Colonel Maitland arrived. D'Ellaing's fum- 
 mons was now rejedled. The garrifon now confifled 
 of 3000 men, all of approved valour and experience, 
 while the united force of the French and Americans 
 did not amount to 10,000. The event was anfwera- 
 ble to the expedations of the Britilh general. Havings 
 the advantage of a flrong fortification and excellent 
 engineers, the fire of the allies made fo little impref- 
 fion that D'Eflaing rcfolved to bombard the towij, 
 and a battery of nine mortars was crcfted for the pur- ,jg 
 pofc. This produced a requeft from General Provoft, The French 
 that the women and children might be allowed to re- a»d the A- 
 tire to a place of fafety. But the allied commanders, nieriean ge- 
 from motives of policy, refufed compliance ; and they nefa'srefufa 
 rcfolved to give a general alfault. This was accor- 'o P""""' 
 dingly attempted on the 9th of Oftober : but the af- ^^ ^^j,. 
 failants were every where repulfed with fuch flaugh- draw; 
 ter, that 1200 were killed and svounded ; among the 311 
 former were Count Pulalki, the celebrated confpira- They are 
 tor againfl the reigning king of Poland, and among <l'f'*"^* 
 the latter was D'Eflaing himfclf. 
 
 This difaftf r entirely overthrew the fanguine hopes 
 of the Americans and French ; but fo far from re- 
 proaches or animofity arifing between them, their 
 common misfortune feemed to increafe their confi- 
 dence and efleem for each other ; acircumflance fairly 
 to be afcribed to the conciliatory conduft of General 
 Lincoln upon every occafion. After waiting eight 
 days longer, both parties prepared for a retreat ; the 
 French to their iliipping, and the Americans into 
 Carolina. -it 
 
 While the allies were thus unfuccefsfully employed Succefsful 
 in the foutliernculonics, theirantagonifls were nolefs expedition* 
 afliduous indiflrclfing them in the northern parts. Sir agamft the 
 George Collier was fent with a fleet, carrying on board ""'"g^ 
 General Matthews, with a body of land forces, into •' 
 
 the
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 607 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, the province of Virginia, Their firil attempt was on 
 
 >"~~ the town of Ponfniouth; where though tlie Americans 
 
 had dellroycd forac Ihips of great value, the Britilh 
 troops arrived in time tofave a great nnmbcr of others. 
 On this occafion about 120 veiTels of different lizcs 
 were burnt, and jo carried oft'; and an immcnfe quan- 
 tity of provilions defigned for the ufe of General Wafli- 
 iiigton'sanny was cither deflroyrdor carried otf, togc- 
 tlicr with a great variety of naval and military ftores. 
 The fleet and army returned with little or no lofs to 
 ^!ew-York. 
 
 The fuccefs with which this expedition was attend- 
 ed, foon gave encouragement to attempt another. 
 The Americans had for fome time been employed in 
 theere{flion of two ftrong forts on the river ; the one 
 . at Verplanks Neck onthe cart, and tlie oherat Stoncy 
 Point on the weft lidc. Thcfc when completed would 
 ' have been of the utmoft fervice to the Americans, as 
 commanding the principal pafsjcallcd the King' s Firry, 
 between the northern and fouthern colonies. At pre- 
 fent, however, they were not in a condition to make 
 any cffeflual defence ; and it was therefore determined 
 to attack them before the works Ihould be completed. 
 The force employed on this occafion was divided into 
 two bodies ; one of which dire^ed its courfe againft 
 Verphnks, and the other againft Stoney Point. The 
 former was commanded by general Vaughan, the lat- 
 ter by General Patterfon, while the fliipping was under 
 the direftion ef Sir George Collier. General Vaughan 
 met with no re/iftancc,thc Americans abandoning their 
 works, and fettingfirc to every thing conibuftible that 
 they could not carry ofJ. At Stoney Point, however, 
 a vijiorous defence was made, though the garrifon was 
 at laft obliged to capitulate upon honourable conditions. 
 To fecurc the pofieffion of this laft, which was the 
 more important of the two. General Clinton remov- 
 ed from his former fitaation, and encamped in fuch a 
 manner that General Wafhington could not give any 
 afliftance. The Americans, however revenged them- 
 felves by diftreffing, with their numerous privateers, 
 the trade to New- York. 
 
 This occafioned a third expedition to ConneAicut, 
 where thcfc privateers were chiefly built and harbour- 
 ed. The commaBd was given to Governor Tryon and 
 to General Garth, an officer of known valour and ex- 
 perience. Under convoy of a confidcrable number of 
 armed vefTcls tlicy landed at Newhaven, where they 
 demolilhed the batteries that had been ereflcd to op- 
 pofc them, and deftroycd the (hipping and naval ftores 
 but they fparcd the town itfelt, as the inhabitants had 
 abftaincd'fromtiringoutof their houfes upon the troops. 
 From Newhaven they marched to Kairfield.whcrc they 
 proceeded as before, reducing the town alio toaflies. 
 Morwalk was next attacked, which in like manner was 
 reduced to alhcs ; as was alfo GreenficKI, a fmall fea- 
 port iu the ncit^hbourhood. Such repeated conflagra- 
 tions, wantonly and cruelly fpread, fcrved only to in- 
 creafe the difguft which was felt by every friend to 
 the American caufe. 
 
 Thefe fuccellcs proved very alarming as well as de- 
 trimental to the Americans ; fo that General Walhing- 
 ton determined at all events to drive the enemy from 
 Stoney Point. For this purpofe he lent Gen. Wayne 
 ■with a detachment of chofcn men, direfting him to 
 attcmiit the recovery of it by furprilc. On this occa- 
 
 fion the Americans fliowd a fpirit and refolution ex- Air.erU*. 
 ceeding any thing cither party had performed during ~ " ' 
 the courfe of the war. Though after the capture of it 
 by the Britiih the fortifications of this place had been 
 completed, and were very ftrong, they attacked the 
 enemy with bayonets, after palling through a heavy- 
 fire of mufquetry and grape (hot j and, in fpite of all 
 oppolition, obliged the furviving part of the garrifon, 
 amounting to 500 men, to furreuder themfeivcs pri- 
 foners of war. 
 
 Though the Americans did not at prefent attempt to 
 retainpoirellionof Stoney Point, the fuccefs they had 
 met with in the entcrprife emboldened them tomakea 
 fiinilar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified poll on the 
 Jcrfty fide, oppolite to New- York ; but, although the 
 licroifm of the intcrprife and the fpirit with which it 
 was executed defcrves applaufe, after having com- 
 pletely furprifed the pofls, the American commander. 
 Major Lee, tinding it impoHihlc to retain them, made 
 an orderly retreat, with about i6i prifoners, among 
 whom were fcven officers. „, 
 
 Another expedition of greater importance was now Unfucceft- 
 projcfted on the part of the Americans. This was f"' eipcdi- 
 again-ftapoft on the river Penobfcot, on the borders of ''"" "'''"•= 
 Nova Scotia, ot which the Britilh had lately taken pof- ^"""i""' 
 feffion, and where they had begun to erefl a fort which nobfcL '" 
 threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the co- 
 lonirts. The armament deftined againft it was fo foon 
 got in readinefs,that Colonel Maclanc,thecoramanding 
 officer at Pcnobfcot, found himfclf obliged to drop the 
 execution of pan of his fchemc; and inftcad of a regular 
 fort, to content himfclf with putting the works already 
 conftrufted in as good a pofturc of defence as poffible. 
 The Americans could not cffctft a landing without a 
 great deal of ditiiculry, and bringing the guns of their 
 largeft vellels to bear upon the Ihore. As foon as this 
 wasdone, however, they erededfcveral batteries,and 
 kept up a briik fire for the fpace of a fortnight ; after 
 which they propofed to give a general alfault : but be- 
 fore this could be eifcaed, they perceived Sir George 
 Collier with a Britilh fleet failing up the river to at- 
 tack them. On this they inftantly embarked their ar- 
 tillery and military Qores, failing up the rircrasfaras 
 polfible in order to avoid him. They were fo clofely 
 purfued, however, that notafingle vclfol could efcape, 
 fo that the whole fleet, con lifted of 19 armed velTels 
 and 24tranfports,wasdcrtroyed; moft of them indeed 
 being blown up by themfeivcs. The foldicrs and fail- 
 ors were obliged to wander through immenfe dcfari!, 
 where they futfered much for want of provilions ; and 
 to add to their calamities, a quarrel broke out between 
 the foldiers and feamen concerning the caufe of their 
 difafter, which ended in a violent fray, wherein agreat 
 number were killed. 
 
 To add to the diftrefs of the Americans, the Indians, indiinlind 
 accompanied by a number of refugees, attacked the refugees 
 back fettlemenrs of Pennfylv.inia. No efFec=lual mea- »'"•='' 'f"' 
 fares being taken to reprtfs the hoftile fpirit of the *'"'' '^='- 
 Indians, numbers joined the tory refugees, and with 'J'^""^'"' "^ 
 thefe commenced their horrid depredations and ho a\i 
 ftililies upon the back fctilers, being headed by coL 
 Butler and Brandt, an half blooded Indian, of dcfpc- 
 ratc courage, ferocious and cruel beyond example. 
 Their expeditions were carried on to great advantage, 
 by the exaft knowledge which the refugees poiFcired 
 
 .->f
 
 A M E 
 
 [ Go8 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Aniciua, ol'every obje(?lof ilicir iiucrpiifc, and the iiiimcJiate 
 
 ' •J~~' intelligence they receivcil (roni their tViends on the 
 
 fpot. The weight of their hoUilities fell iijion the 
 fine, new and rioiirilliing feitlemeiu of Wyoming, 
 litaatcd on the eallern branch of the .Snfqiiehanna, 
 in a moll beautiful country and delightful cliniate. It 
 was fettled and cultivated with great ardor by a num- 
 ber of people from Connerticut, which claimed the ter- 
 ritory as included in i.s original grant from Charles 
 II. The fettlemeiu confided of eight towiilhips, each 
 live miles fquare, beautifully placed on each lidc of 
 the river. It had increafed fa by a rapid population, 
 that they fent a thoufand men to ferve in the conti- 
 nental army. To provide againftthe dangers of their 
 remote fituation. Four forts were conflrudcd to co- 
 ver them from the irruptions of the Indians But it 
 
 was their unhappinefs, to have a coniiderable mix- 
 ture of royalills among them ; and the two parties 
 were afttiated by fentimeius of the moil violent ani- 
 niofity which was not confined to particular families 
 or places : but creeping within the roofs and to the 
 hearths and floors where it was leafl to be expe<5led, 
 ierved equally to poifon the fources of domeflic fccuri- 
 ty and happinefs, and to cancel the laws of nature and 
 humanity. 
 
 They had frequent and timely warnings of the dan- 
 ger to which they were expofed by feuding their belt 
 men to fo great a dillauce. Their quiet had been in- 
 terrupted by the Indians, joined by marauding parties 
 of their own countrymen, in the preceding yoar ; and 
 it was only by a vigorous oppolition, in a courfc of 
 fuccefsful ikirniillies, that they had been driven off. 
 Several tories, and others not before fufpcded, had 
 then and fincc abandoned thefettlcment : and befide a 
 perfcil knowledge of all their particular circumflan- 
 ccs, carried along with them fuch a (lock of private 
 refcntnient, as could not failof dirciSing the fury, and 
 even giving an edge to the cruelty of their Indian and 
 other inveterate enemies. An unufual number of 
 flrangcrs had come among them under various preten- 
 ces, whofe behaviour became fo fufpicious, that upon 
 being taken up and examined, fuch evidence appeared 
 againfl feveral of them, of their acting in concert 
 with the enemy, on a fcheme for the dellruition of 
 the fettlcments, that about twenty were fent off to 
 Connedlicut to be there imprifoucd andtricil fur tlicir 
 lives, while the remainder were expelled. Thefc 
 nicafures excited the rage of the tories in general to 
 tile moll extreme degree ; and the tlircats formerly 
 denounced againlt the fettlers, were now renewed 
 with aggravated vengeance. 
 
 As the time approached for the final cataftrophe, the 
 Indians pra6liftd unul'ual treachery. For feveral 
 weeks previous to the intended attack, they repeated- 
 ly fent fmall parties to the fcttlement, charged with 
 the flrongell profeliions of fricudlhip. Thcfe parties, 
 befide attempting to lull the people into feeurity, an- 
 fwered the purpofcs of communicating v\ith their 
 friends, and of obferving the prcfent ftate of affairs. 
 Tlic fettlers, however, were not infendble to the dan. 
 gcr. They h.id taken the alarm, and col. Zcbulon 
 Butler had feveral times written letters to congrefs 
 and gen. Wafliington,p.cquainiing them with tiie dan- 
 ger the fettlement was in, and reqnefling adiftancc ; 
 but tlic letters were never received, having been iu- 
 
 Treachery 
 of the 
 Indians. 
 
 CCS on the 
 Sufijuehi- 
 iia. 
 
 teiccpted by the Pennfylvania tories. A little before Araciici, 
 the main attack, fome fmall parties made fudden ir- *^ — ^'~~' 
 rnptions, and committed feveral robberies and mur- 
 ders ; and from ignorance or a contempt of all ties 
 wliatcver, mallacred the wife and five children of 
 one of the pcrfons fent for trial toConncfticut in their 
 own caufe. ^^g 
 
 At length, in the beginning of July, the enemy Ci.l. Joh» 
 fuddenly appeared in full force on the Sufquehanna, L-utlcrap- 
 headed by col. John Butler, a Conneclicnt tory, and pears with 
 coutin to col. Ztb. Butler, the fecond in command in "" '"' ^°^' 
 the fettlement. He was alliflcd by moft of thofe lea- 
 ders, w lio had rendered themfelves terrible in the prc- 
 fent frontier war. Their force was about 1600 men, 
 near a lourth Indians, led by their own chiefs ; the 
 others w ere fo difguifed and painted as not to be diflin- 
 guilhed from the Indians, excepting their officers, 
 who being drefied in regimentals, carried the appea- 
 rance of regulars. One of the fmallcr forts, garrif- 
 oned cliicriy by tories, was given up or rather betray- 
 ed. Another was taken by llorm, and ail but the wo- 
 men and children malfacred in the mofl inhuman 
 manner. 
 
 Colonel Zeb. Butler, leaving a fmall number to 
 guard fort Wilkelborough, eroded the river with 
 about 400 men, and marched into Kingflon fort, 
 \\ hither the women, children and dcfcncelefs of all ^j^ 
 forts crowded for protection. He fufFcrcd himfelf to Col. Zeb, 
 be enticed by his coufin to abandon the fortrefs. He i'utlcreQ- 
 agrecd to march out, and hold a conference with the •'^"' '" 
 enemy in tlie open field fat fo great a diflancc from i?"'** " '°°* 
 the fort, as to llmt out all pollibility of protection from „[,(, [,,» 
 it) upon their withdrawing according to their own coufin, and 
 propofal, in order to the holding of a parley for the betrayed, 
 conclulion of a treaty. He at the fame time marched 
 out about 400 men well armed, being nearly the whole 
 flrcngth of the garrifon, to guard his perfon to the 
 place of parley, fuch was his diflru(.t of the enemy's 
 dellgns. On his arrival he found no body to treat 
 with him, and yet advanced toward the foot of the 
 mount:iin, where at a diflancc he faw a flag, the hol- 
 ders of which, fcemingly afraid of treachery on his 
 fide, retired as he advanced ; whilft he, endeavouring 
 to remove this pretended ill-impreflion, purfued the 
 flag, till his party was thoroughly endofed, when he 
 was fuddenly freed from his delufion, by finding it at- 
 tacked at once on every fide. He and his men, not- 
 Milhllanding the furprife and danger, fought with rc- 
 folutio)! and bravery, and kept up fo continual and hea- 
 vy a fire for three quarters of an hour, that theyfeem- 
 ed to gain a marked iuperiority. In this critical mo- 
 ment, a foldier, through a fuddca impulfe of fear, or 
 I'remeditated treachery, cried out aloud, " the colo- 
 nel has ordered a retreat." The fate of the party was 
 now at once determined. In the ftate of confulion 
 tliat cnfued, an unrelirted (laughter commenced, while 
 the enemy broke in on all fides without obflrudlion. 
 Col. Zeb. Butler, and about fevcnty of his men efca- 
 ped ; the latter got acrofs the river to fort Wilkefbo- 
 rough, tlie colonel made his way to fort Kingflon ; 3^8 
 which was inverted the next day on the land fide. Fort King- 
 — The enemy, to fadden the drooping fpirits offtoninveft- 
 the weak remaining garrifon, fent in for their con- "^"5"''* 
 tcmplation the bloody fcalps of one hundred and nine- ' ^' 
 ty-lix of their late friends and comrades. — They kept 
 
 up
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 609 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, up a continual fire upon the fort the whole day. In 
 
 ' " ' the evening the colonel quitted the fort and went down 
 
 the river with his family. He is thought to be theon- 
 .j. ly officer that cfcaped. 
 Diftrcflcd Colonel Nathan Dennifon, who fiicceedcd to the 
 Ctuation of command, feeing the impollibility of an effectual de- 
 thc garri- fence, wcntoutwith a flag to col. John Butler, 10 know 
 *""■ what terms he would grant on a fiirrcndcr ; to which 
 
 application Butler anfwered with more than lavage 
 
 phlegm in two Ihort words — i/ie hatchet. Ucnnifon 
 
 having defended the fort, till moll of the garrifon 
 were killed or difablcd was compelled to lurrender at 
 difcretion. Some of the unhappy perlons in the fort 
 were carried away alive ; but the barbarous conque- 
 rors, to fave the trouble of murder in detail, fliut up 
 the refl promifcuoudy in the houfes and barracks ; 
 which having fet on fire, they enjoyed the favage 
 plcafurc of beholding the whole confunied in one ge- 
 neral blaze. 
 
 They then crolTed the river to the only remaining 
 fort, Wilkesborough, which in hopes of mercy fur- 
 rendered without demanding any conditions. They 
 found about fevcnty continental foldicrs, who had 
 been engaged merely for the defence of the frontiers, 
 whom they butchered with every circumftance of hor- 
 rid cruelty. The remainder of the men, with the 
 women and children, were fhut up as before in the 
 houfes, which being fet on fire, they pcriflied altoge- 
 ther in the flames. 
 
 A general fcene of devaflation was now fpread 
 through all the townfliips. Fire, fword, and the other 
 different inflruments of deftruftion alternately trium- 
 phed. The fettlcments of the tories alone generally 
 cfcaped, and appeared as illands in the midll of the 
 furrounding ruin. The mercilefs ravagers having 
 deflroyed the main objefls of their cruelty, dircded 
 their animofity to every part of living nature belong- 
 ing to them ; Ihot and deflroyed lome of their cattle, 
 and cut out the tongues of others, leaving them lUU 
 alive to prolong their agonies. 
 
 Thus the arms of America and France being alinofl 
 every where unfuccefsful, the independency of the 
 former feemed yet to be in danger, notwithflanding the 
 330 afliflance of fo powerful an ally, when farther cncou- 
 Spain joins ragemcnt was given by the acccllion of Spain to the 
 ihcconfc. confederacy againfl Britain in thcmonthof June 1 779. 
 . .-.^- The firfl etfeft of this appeared in an invalion of Well 
 Florida by the Spaniards in September 1 779. As the 
 country was in no Hate of defence, the enemy eafily 
 made themfelves mafters of the wliolc, almoft without 
 oppofition. Their next ciucrprife, was againfl the 
 Bay of Honduras, where the Britilh logwood-cutters 
 were fettled. Thefe finding themftlvcs too weak to 
 rcfifl, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief, 
 who fcnt them a fupply of men, ammunition, and mi- 
 litary flores, under Captain Dalryniplc. Before the 
 arrival of tliis detachment, the principal fcttleincnt in 
 thofe parts, called St George's Key, had been taken by 
 the Spani.-irds and retaken by the Brililli. In his way 
 Captain Dalrymple fell in with a fquadron I'rom Ad- 
 miral Parker in fearch of fume rcgirter lliips richly 
 laden ; but which, retreating into the harbour of Omoa, 
 were toollrongly protected by the fort to be attacked 
 with fafety. A project was then formed, in coi.junc- 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Jcracy 
 igaiiid 
 Britain. 
 
 lion with the people of Honduras, to reduce this fort. 
 The defign was to firprife it ; but the Spaniards ha- 
 ving difcovered them, they were obliged to tight. 
 Victory quickly declared for the Britilli ; but the for- 
 tifications were fo flrong, that the artillery they had 
 broughtalong with liiem were found too light to make 
 any imprcllioii. It was then determined to try the 
 fucccfs of an efcalade ; and this was executed with fo 
 much fpirit, that the Spaniards Rood alloaiilicd with- 
 out making any rellllance, and, in fpite of all the ef- 
 forts of the ofliccrs, threw down their arms and fir- 
 reudcrcd. The fpoil was ir.imcnfe, being valued at 
 three millions of dollars. The Spaniards chiefly la- 
 mented tile lofs of 250 quintals of quicklilvcr ; a coui- 
 modity indifpenl'ably neccffary in the working of their 
 gold and lilver mines, fb that they offered to ranfoni 
 it at any price ; but this was refufcd, as well as the 
 ranfom of the fort, though the governor ofi'crcd 
 500,000 dollars for it. A fmall garrifon was leftrfor 
 the defence of the place : but it was quickly attacked 
 by a fuperior force, and obliged to evacuate it, though 
 not without deflroying every thing that could be of 
 ufc to the enemy ; fpiking the guns, and even locking 
 the gates of the fort and carrying off the keys. All 
 this was done in light of the bcfiegers ; after which 
 the garrifon embarked without the lofsof anian. 
 
 As no operations of any confequcnce took place this 
 year in the province of New-York, the congrefs made 
 ufc of the opportunity to difpatch General Sullivan 
 with a confiderablc force, in order to take vengence on 
 the Indians for their ravages and depredations. Of 
 this the Indians were apprifed ; and colleclingall their 
 flrength, refolved to come to a dccifivc engage- 
 ment. Accordingly they took a flrong poll in the 
 moH woody and mounianious part of the country ; 
 ereding abreafl-work in their Iront, of large logs of 
 wood extending half a mile in length, while their right 
 flank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of 
 difficult accefs. This advantageous polition they had 
 taken by the advice of the refugees who were among 
 them, and of Vv'hom 200 or 300 were prefent in the 
 battle. 
 
 Thus ported, the Indians waited the approach of 
 the American army : but the latter having brought 
 fomc artillery along with them, played it agaiuft the 
 bread-work of the enemy with fuch fucccfs, that in 
 two hours it was almoll dellroycd ; and at the fame 
 time a party having reached the top of the hill, they 
 became apprehenfive of being furroundcd, on which 
 they inltanily tied with precipitation, leaving a great 
 nunil .r of killed and wounded behind them. The A- 
 niericaiis after this battle met with no further refill- 
 ance of any confequence. They were fuflered to pro- 
 ceed without interruption. On entering the country 
 of the Indians, it appeared that they had been ac- 
 quainted with agricidture and the arts of peace far be- 
 yond what had been fuppoled. From General Sulli- 
 van's account it was learned, that the Indian houfes 
 were large, convenient, and c\en elegant; their 
 grounds were exccUeiuly cultivated, and their gar- 
 dens abounded in fruit-trees and vcg-etablcs of all 
 kinds tit for loud. The whole of this fine country 
 would now have been ccnvcrtcd into a defart, had it 
 not been for the !•.; mane forbearance of Gc.eral Ihnd 
 4 II and 
 
 America, 
 
 Ten Omcl 
 taken by 
 the Briufli ■ 
 
 L'ut are 
 obliged to 
 evacuate it. 
 
 i3i 
 Americans 
 take venge- 
 ance on the 
 Indians,
 
 Americi. 
 
 334 
 Expedition 
 of Sir H« Il- 
 ly Clinton 
 againd 
 Charlef- 
 
 tOD. 
 
 335 
 The town 
 defended 
 by Lincoln. 
 
 A M E [ 6i 
 
 arid Colonel Durbin. The dcfolation, however, was 
 cxtenlivc, and only lo be jufUtied by the favage cha- 
 laiScr and example of their enemy. 
 
 We mull now take a view of the tranfaflions in the 
 fouthcrn colonies ; to which the war was, in theytar 
 1780, fo tft'cdiially transferred, that the operations 
 there became at lall decifivc. The fiiccefs of Central 
 Prcvod in advancing to the very capital of Soiuh-Ca- 
 rolina has been already related, together with the ob- 
 ftaclcs which prevented him from becoming maflcr of 
 it at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, 
 however. Sir Henry Clinton fet fail from New- York 
 with aconfiderablc body of troops, intended for the at- 
 tack of Charlcllon, iioiuh-Carolina, in a Hect of Ihips 
 of war and tranfports under the command of Vice-ad- 
 miral Arbiithnot. They had a very tedious voyage; 
 the weather was uncommonly bad ; feveralof the tranf- 
 ports were loft, as were alio the greater part of the 
 horfes which they carried with them, intended for ca- 
 valry or other public uies ; and an ordnanccrlliip like- 
 wife foundered at fca. Having arrived at Savannah, 
 where they eni:cavoured to repair the damages fuf- 
 taincd on their voyage, they proceeded from thence 
 on the loth of February, 1780, to North Kdillo, 
 the place of debarkation which had been previoully 
 appointed. They had a favourable and fpccdy pallage 
 thither: and though it required time to have the bar 
 explored and the channel marked, the tranfports all 
 entered the harbour the next day ; and the army took 
 polfcliion of St John's iiland, about 30 miles from 
 Charleflon, without oppofition. Preparations were 
 then made for palFing the fquadron over Charleflon 
 bar, where the higli-watcr fpring-tides were only 19 
 feet deep : but no opportunity ofl'ered of going into the 
 harbour till the 20ih of March, when it was etfedled 
 without any accident, though the American galleys 
 continually attempted to prevent the Englifli boats 
 from founding the channel. The Britilh troops had 
 previoully removed from John's to James's iiland ;and 
 on the 29th of the fame month they effedled their land- 
 ing on CharlcUon neck. On the ift of April they 
 broke ground within 800 yards of the American works ; 
 and by the 8ih the bclicgers guns were mounted in 
 battery. 
 
 As foon as the army began to ereft tlicir batteries 
 againft the town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the 
 lirft favourable opportunity of palling Sullivan's iiland, 
 upon which there was a ftrong fort of batteries, the 
 chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on tlic 
 9ih, with the Roebuck, Richmond, and Romulus, 
 Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sandwich armed iliip, 
 the Renown bringing up the rear ; and, paffing thro' 
 a fevere fire, anchored in about two hours under 
 James's iiland, with the lofs of 27 feamen killed and 
 wounded. The Richmond's forc-top-mafb was fliot 
 away, and the fliips in general fuflained damage in 
 their marts and rigging, though not materially in 
 their hulls. But the Acetus tranfport, having on 
 board fonie naval flores, grounded within gun-fliot of 
 Sullivan's iiland, and received fo much damage that 
 ihe was obliged to be abandoned and burnt. 
 
 On the 10th, Sir Henry Clinton (having received 
 a reinforcement of ;;coo men from New York) and 
 Admiral Arbuthnot fummoncd the town to furrcnder 
 to his majcfty's arms: but Major-general Lincoln, 
 
 ] A IM E 
 
 who commanded in Charleflon, returned them an an- 
 fwer, declaring it to be his intention to defend the 
 place. The batteries were now opened againfl the 
 town ; and from their etf'etl the fire of the American 
 advanced works conlidcrably abated. It appears that 
 the number of troops under the command of Lincoln 
 were by far too few for defending works of fuch ex- 
 tent as thofe of Chsrlellon ; and that many of thefc 
 were men little accullomed to military fcrvice, and 
 very ill provided with clothes and other neceflarics. 
 Lincoln had been for fome time expedling rcinforce- 
 nunts and fupplies from Virginia and other places : 
 but they came in very llowly. Earl Cornwallis, and 
 Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton under him, were alfo ex- 
 tremely adtivc in intercepting fuch reinforcements 
 and fupplies as were fent to the American general. 
 They totally defeated i conliderable body of cavalry 
 and militia which was proceeding to the relitf of the 
 town ; and alfo made themfclves mafters of fomc pods 
 which gave them in a great degree the command of 
 the country, by which means great fupplies of pro- 
 vilions fell into their hands. Tarleton was himfelf, 
 however, defeated in a rencounter, with Lieutenant 
 Colonel Wafliington, at the head of a regular corps 
 of horfe. 
 
 Such was the (late of things, and Fort Sullivan had 
 alfo been taken by the king's troops, when on the 
 1 8th of May General Clinton again fummoned the 
 town to furrcnder ; an offer being made, as had been 
 done before, that if they furrendered, the lives and 
 property of the inhabitants fliouldbeprefervedto them. 
 Articles of capitulation were then propofed by Gene- 
 ral Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by Ge- 
 neral Clinton. At length, however, the town being 
 clofely invcfled on all fides, and the preparations to 
 florm it in every part being in great forwardnefs, and 
 the ihips ready to move to the ailault, General Lin- 
 coln, who had been applied to for that purpofe by the 
 inhabitants, furrendered it on fuch articles of capitu- 
 lation as General Clinton had before agreed to. This 
 was on the 4th of May, which was one month and 
 two days after the town had been firfl fummoiied to 
 furrcnder. 
 
 A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammuni- 
 tion, was found in Charleflon ; and, according to 
 Sir Henry Clinton's account, the number of prifoners 
 taken in Charleflon amounted to 5618 men, exclu- 
 five of near a ihoufand failors inarms; but accord- 
 ing to General Lincoln's account tranfmitted to (he 
 congrefs, the whole number of continental troops ta- 
 ken prifoners amounted to no more than 197. The 
 remainder, therefore, included in General Clinton's 
 account, confifted of militia and inhabitants of the 
 town. Several American frigates were alfo taken 
 or deftroyed in the harbour of Charleflon. 
 
 The lofs of Charleflon evidently excited a conli- 
 derable alarm in America : and their popular writers, 
 particularly the author of the celebrated performance 
 entitled Common Senfe, in fome other pieces made ufe 
 of it as a powerful argument to lead them to more vi- 
 gorous exertions againfl Great Britain, that they might 
 the more effetbually and certainly fecure their inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 While Sir Henry Clinton was employed in his voy- 
 age to Charleflon, and in the fiege of that place 
 
 the 
 
 America; 
 
 336 
 
 Several re- 
 inforce- 
 ments in- 
 tended for 
 his relief 
 intercepted. 
 
 337 
 The place 
 furrcnderfc 
 
 338 
 Apprclien. 
 fions at 
 New York.
 
 ABieric*. 
 
 J39 
 forward- 
 ■cfi of ths 
 inhabitants 
 to be inrol- 
 Icd for it> 
 defence. 
 
 340 
 The pro- 
 »inciaU at- 
 tack Staten 
 maud ; 
 
 341 
 But are in- 
 duced to 
 make a 
 precipitate 
 retreat. 
 
 A M E [61 
 
 tliegarrifon at New- York feem not to have been whol- 
 ly free from apprchcnlions for their own fafcty. An 
 iiucnfc frort, accompanied with great falls of fnow, 
 began about the middle of December 1779, and fhut 
 up the navigation of the port of New-York from the 
 fca, wiihin a few days after the departure of Admiral 
 Arbuthnot and General Clinton. The feverity of the 
 weather incrcafed to fo great a degree, that towards 
 the middle of January all communications with New- 
 York by water were entirely cut off, and as many new 
 ones opened by the ice. The inhabitants could fcarce- 
 ]y be faid to be in an infular flatc. Horfes with heavy 
 carriages could go over the ice into the Jcrfcys from 
 one illand to another. The pallage on the North Ri- 
 ver, even in the widefb part from New- York to Paulus 
 Hook, which was aooo yards, was about the 19th of 
 January prafticable for the hcaviclt cannon : an event 
 which had been unknown in the memory of man. 
 Provifions were foon after tranfportcd upon (ledges, 
 and a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice 
 from New- York to Staten-Illand, which was a diftancc 
 of I r miles. 
 
 The city of New- York being thus circumftanced, 
 was confidered as much expofed to the attacks from 
 the continental troops : and it was Arongly report- 
 ed that General Walhington was meditating a great 
 flroke upon New-York with his whole force, by 
 different attacks. Some time before this. Major- 
 general Pattifon, commandant at New- York, having 
 received an addrefs from many of the inhabitants, 
 offering to put themfelves in military array, he 
 thought the prefcnt a favourable opportunity of trying 
 the fincerity of their profelhons. Accordingly he if- 
 fued a proclamation, calling upon all the male inhabi- 
 tants from 16 to 60 to take up arms. The rcquifition 
 was fo readily complied with, that in a few days 40 
 companies from the fixwardsof the city were inrolled, 
 officered, and under arms, to the number of 2600, 
 many fubflantial ci'izcns ferving in the ranks of each 
 company. Other volunteer companies we re for medjand 
 the city was put into a very ftrong pollure of defence. 
 
 No attack, however, was made upon New-York, 
 whatever defign might originally have been medi- 
 tated ; but an attempt was made upon Statcn-Ifl- 
 and, where there were about iSoo men, under the 
 command of Brigadier-general Sterling, who were 
 well intrenched. General Wathington, whofc army 
 was hutted at Morris-Town, fent a detachment of 
 2700 men, with fix pieces of cannon, two mortars, 
 and fome horfes, commanded by Lord Sterling, who 
 arrived at Staten-Illand early in the morning of the 
 1 jth of January. The advanced ports of the Britifli 
 troops retired upon the approach of the Americans, 
 who formed the line, and made fome movements in 
 the courfc of the day ; but they withdrew in ihc night 
 after having burnt one houfc, pillaged fome others, 
 and carried off with them about 200 head of cattle. 
 Immediately on tiic arrival of the Americans on Sta- 
 ten-Illand, Lieutcnat-general Knyphaufcn h.id em- 
 barked 600 men to attempt a pafTage, and to fupport 
 General Sterling : but the lloatingicc compelled them 
 to return. It is, however, imagined, that the appjar- 
 ance of ihefc tranfpoits, with the Hritilli troops on 
 board, which the Americans could fee towards the 
 
 J A M E 
 
 clofc of theday, induced the latter to make fopre:i- Am-r.ci. 
 
 pitate a retreat. "■ ^ 
 
 After Charlefton had furrendcrcd to the king's proclar-..(- 
 troops, General Clinton ifTued two proclamations, and ti.un bv 
 alfo circulated a hand-bill among the inhabitants ofGciitril 
 South-Carolina, in order to induce them to return to Clinton, 
 their allegiance, and to be ready to join the kino-'s 
 troops. It was faid, that liie helping hand of every 
 man was wanted to re-eftablilh peace and good go- 
 vernment ; and that as thccommandcrin chief wilhcd 
 not to draw the kings friends into danger, while any 
 doubt could remain of their fucccfs ; fo, now, ihat this 
 was certain, he truftcd that one and all would heartily 
 join, and by a general concurrence giveettefl to fuch 
 necefl'ary meafures for that purpofe as from time to 
 time might be pointed out. Thofe who had families 
 were to form a militia to remain at home, and occa- 
 fionally to alfcmblc in theirown diftrifts, when requi- 
 red, under officers of their own chnofing, fcr the 
 maintenance of peace and good order^ Thofe who 
 had no families, and who could conveniently be fpareJ 
 for a time, it was prefumed, would cheerfully aliill his 
 majefty 's troops in driving their oppreflbrs, ading un- 
 der the authority of congrefs, and all the mifcries of 
 war, far from tliat colony. For this purpofe it wss 
 faid to be nccclfary that the young men ihould be ready 
 toaii'emble when required, and to ferve with the kind's 
 troops for any fix months of the enfuing twelve that 
 might be found requilite, under proper regulations. 
 They might choofe officers to each company to com- 
 mand them ; and were to be allowed, when on fcrvicc, 
 pay, ammunition, and provifions, in the fame manner 
 as the king's troops. When they joined tlic army, 
 each man was to be furniflied with a certiticate, decla- 
 ring that he was only engaged to ftrve as a militia-man 
 for the time fpecified ; that he was not to be marched 
 beyond North-Carolina and Georgia ; and that, when 
 the time was out, he was freed from all claims what- 
 ever of military fervicc, excepting the common and 
 ufual militia-duty where he lived. He would then, 
 it was faid, have paid his debt to his country, and be 
 inlitled to enjoy undilhirbcd that peace, liberty, and 
 property, at home, which he had contributed to fe- 
 cure. The proclamations and publications of General 
 Clinton appear to have produced fome cffcil in South 
 Carolina ; though they probably operated chiefly upon 
 thofe who were before not much inclined to the caufc 
 of American independence. Two hundred and ten of 
 the inhaliitants of Charlefton figned an addrefs to 
 General Clinton .ind Admiral Arbuthnot, folicitin j^ to 
 be readmitted to the charadcr and condition of Bri- 
 tifli fubjcds, the inhabitants of that city having been 
 hitherto confidered as prifoners on parole ; declaring 
 their dif.ipprobaiion of the dortrine of American in- 
 dependence J and cxprelling their regret, that after 
 the repeal of thofe flatuics which gave rife to the 
 troubles in America, the overtures made by his ma- 
 jcfty's commiirioners hid not been regarded by tlic 
 congrefs. Sir Henry Clinton, in one of the procla- 
 mations ilfucd at this lime, declared, that if any pcr- 
 fons fliould thenceforward appear in arms in order to 
 prevent the cftablilhmcntof his majcfly's government 
 in that country, or Ihould, under any pretence or a«- 
 thority whaifocvcr, attempt to compel any other per- 
 4 H 2 foa
 
 A M E 
 
 f 612 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amcr'ca. 
 
 343 
 Proceed- 
 ings of 
 congrcfs. 
 
 344 
 Bifliciiltics 
 ^rifing 
 from the 
 »lepreci:i'i- 
 t>n of the 
 paper- cur- 
 nncy. 
 
 fun or pcrfons to do fo, or who Ihoiild hinder or inti- 
 jiiidjtc thckiiig's t'aiiliUil and loyal fiibjecls from join- 
 ing his forces or othcrwifc pcrforniinjr tliofr diilics 
 their allegiance required, fuch perfons ihouldbe treat- 
 ed with the uinioll fcvcrity, and tlicir cllatcs be im- 
 medi.itely feizcd in order to be contifcatcd. 
 
 JVIean time the ravages of war did not prevent the 
 Americans from paying fonie aiteniion to the arts of 
 peace. On the 4th of Mayan art palled by the coun- 
 cil and hoiifc of r'.'prcfcni.uives of Mallachnfctts-Bay 
 for incorporating and cilablilhinga focicty for the cul- 
 tivation and promotion ot the arts and fcienccs. Sec 
 Academy, p. 43. col. 2. 
 
 Some doubts having arifen in the congrtfs, towards 
 the dole of the preceding year, about the propriety 
 of their ali'cmbling in the city of Philadelphia, it was 
 now rcfolved that they Ihoiild continue to meet there : 
 and a committee of liiree members was ajipointed, to 
 report a proper place \\hcrc buildings might be provi- 
 ded for the reception of the congrcfs, together wilh 
 an ellimatc of the expence of providing fuch build- 
 ings, and the nectliary offices for the feveral boards. 
 Jl was alfo rcfolved by the congrefs, that a monument 
 Ihould be crcrted to the memory of their late general 
 Richard Montgomery, wiio fell at Q_ucbcc, in telli- 
 inony of his (ignal and important fervices to the United 
 States of America, with an iufcriiuion exprellivc of 
 his amiable chararter and lieroic atchicvements ; and 
 that the continental treafurcrs Ihould be dirertcd to 
 advance a fum not exceeding L.300 to Dr Franklin 
 to defray the expence ; that gentleman being dclired 
 loeaufethe monument to be executed at Paris, or in 
 fome other part of France. It was likewife rcfolved 
 by the congrefs, that a court fliould be eAablilhed 
 for the trial of all appeals from the court of admi- 
 ralty of the United States of America, in cafes of 
 capture ; to confill of three judges, appointed and 
 commiffioned by congrefs, and who were to take an 
 oath of office ; and that the trials in this court ffiould 
 be determined by the ufagc of nations. 
 
 The difficulties of the congrefs and of the people of 
 America had been greatly increafed by the deprecia- 
 tion of their paper currency. At the time when the 
 colonics engaged in a war with Great Britain, they 
 had no regular civil governments ellabliffied among 
 them of fufficicnt energy to enforce ihe colledion of 
 taxes, or to provide funds for the redemption of fuch 
 bills of credit as their ncceffities obliged them to illuc. 
 In confequcnce of this ftate of things, their hills in- 
 creafed in quantity far beyond the fum nccellary for the 
 purpofeof a circulating medium : and as they wanted 
 at the fame time fpecilic funds to rcfl on for their re- 
 demption, tlicy law their paper-currency daily link in 
 value. The depreciation continued, by a kind of gra- 
 dual progrelhon, from the year i 777 to i 780 : fo that, 
 at the latter period, the continental dollars were parted, 
 by common confent, in mofb parts of America, at ihc 
 rate of at leafl ijths below their nominal value. The 
 irapodibility of keeping up the credit of the currency 
 to any fixed fiandard, occalioned great and almofb in- 
 furmountable embarradmcnts in afcertaining tlic value 
 of property, or carrying on trade with any fufficient 
 certainty. Thofe who fold, and ihofe who bouglit, 
 were left without a rule whereon to form a judgment 
 of their profit or their lofs ; and every fpecies of com- 
 
 merce or exchange, whether foreign or domeftic, was Americ», 
 
 cxpolcd to numbcrlefs and increafuig difficulties. The *■ « 
 
 confequences of the depreciation of the paper currency 
 were alfo felt with peculiar fcvcrity by fuch of the A- 
 
 niericansas were engaged in their niilitaryferviccs, and 
 greatly augmented their other hardlhips. The rcquifi- 
 tions made by the congrefs to tlie fevcral colonies for 
 fupplies, were alfo far from being always regularly 
 complied with : and their troops were not unfrc- 
 quently in want of the moll common nccefTarics ; 
 which naturally occafumcd complaints and difcontcnt 
 among them. Such difficulties, refulted from their 
 circumOances and lituation, as perhaps no wifdom 
 could have prevented. The caufe of the Americans 
 appears alfo to have fuffcred fomewhat by iheir de- 
 pending too much on temporary enlillmcnts. But the 
 congrefs endeavoured, towards the clofc of the year 
 1 7S0, to put their army upon a more permanent loot- 
 ing, and to give all the futisfaciion to their officers 
 and foldiers which their circumflances would permit. 
 They appointed a commiltee for arranging iheir fi- 
 nances, and made fome new regulations refpeding 
 the war-ollice and trcafury-board, and other public 
 departments. 
 
 iSotwithflanding the difadvantages under which Ai..iivcr- 
 thcy laboured, tlic Americans fecmed to entertain nofary of A- 
 doubts but that they fhotild be able to maintain their '"'■'''^""'n- 
 independency. The 4th of July was celebrated this ^"^P'n'lfnci 
 year at Philadelphia with fome pomp, as the anni- jf ph^"'' 
 verfary of American independence. A commence- dclpfii'a," 
 mcnt for conferring degrees in the arts was held the 
 fame day, in the hall of the univerfity there ; at 
 which the prelident and members of the congrefs at- 
 tended, and other perfons in public offices. The 
 Chevalier de la Luzerne, miniUcr plenipotentiary 
 from the French king to the United States, was alfo 
 prefent on the occalion. A charge was publicly ad- 
 drell'ed by the provofl of the univerfity to the flu- 
 dents; in which he laid, that he could not but con- 
 gratulate them " on that aufpicious day, which, a- 
 midll the confulions and defulations of war, beheld 
 learning beginning to revive ; and animated them 
 with the plealing profpcdt of feeing the facred lamp 
 of fcicnce burning wilh a Aill brighter flame, and 
 fcaitering its invigorating rays over the unexplored 
 dcfarts of this extenfive continent; until the whole 
 world ffiould be involved in the united blaze of know- 
 ledge, liberty, and religion. When he flretehed his 
 views forward (he faid), and furveyed the rifing 
 glories of America, the enriching confequcnees of 
 tlieir determined flruggle for liberty, the extcnfivc 
 fields of intclleflual improvement and ufeful inventi- 
 on, in fciencc and arts, in agriculture and commerce, 
 in religion and government, through which the un- 
 fettered mind would range, with increaling delight, 
 in quefl of the undifcovered treafure which yet lay 
 concealed in the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 kingdoms of the new world ; or in the other fertile 
 fourccs of knowledge wilh which it abounded, — his 
 heart Iwelled wilh thcplcafing profpeft, that thefons 
 of that iuflitution would diflinguiffi themfelves, in 
 tlie different walks of life, by their literary contri- 
 butions to the embelliffiments and increafc of human 
 happinefs." 
 
 On the loth of July, M. Tcrnay, with a fleet con- 
 
 fifling
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 6 
 
 America, fifting of fcTen (hips of the line, bcfides frigates, and 
 '■""^'7 — a large body of Krencli troops, commanded by the 
 , ,^''^g Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhodc-Illand ; and 
 body of the following day 6000 men were landed there. A 
 French committee from the general aflcnibly of Rhodc-Ifland 
 troops land was appointed to congratulate the Krench general iip- 
 it Rhode- Q^ ]ijs arrival : whereupon he returned au anfwcr, in 
 Ifland. which he infornied them, that the king his mailer had 
 fcnt him to the aliiflance of his good and faithful al- 
 lies the United States of America. At prefent, he 
 iaid, he only brought over the vanguard of a much 
 greater force deflined for their aid ; and the king had 
 ordered him to affurc them, that his whole power 
 Ihould be exerted for their fupport. He added, that 
 the French troops were under the ftriilcftdifcipline ; 
 and, adling under the orders of General Walhington, 
 ■would live with the Americans as their brethren. 
 
 A fcheme was foon after formed, of making a com- 
 bined attack with Englilh Ihips and troops, under the 
 command of Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Arbulli- 
 not, againfl the French tieet and troops at Rhode- 
 Ifland. Accordingly a confidcrable part of the troops 
 at New-York were embarked for that purpofe. Ge- 
 neral Walhington having received information of this, 
 palTed the North River, by a very rapid movement, 
 and, with an array increafed to 12,000 men, proceeded 
 with celerity towards King's Bridge, in order to attack 
 New- York ; but learning that the Britilh general hid 
 changed his intentions, and difembarked his troops on 
 the 3iftof the month. General Walhington recrolTcd 
 the river and returned to his former ftation. Sir 
 Henry Clinton and the Admiral had agreed to rclin- 
 qui(h their defign of attacking the French and Ameri- 
 cans at Rhode-llland as impradicable for the prefent. 
 An unfuccefsful attempt was alfo made about this 
 time in the Jerfeys by General Knyphaufen, with 
 tion m the 7000 Briiifli troops under his command, to furprifc 
 Jerfcyi, jj^^ advanced po.'ls of General Wafliington's army. 
 TheyproceededveryrapiJlytowardsSpringfield, meet- 
 ing little oppofition till they came to the bridge there, 
 which was very gallantly defended by l 70 of the con- 
 tinental troops, for 15 minutes, againft the Britilh ar- 
 my : but they were at length obliged to give up fo 
 Tinequal a conteft, with the lofs of 37 men. After fe- 
 curing this pafs, the Britilh troops marched into the 
 place, and let fire to moft of the houfes. They alfo 
 committed fonie other depredations in the Jerfeys ; bot 
 gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about 
 the beginning of July without cfFetling any thing ma- 
 terial. 
 
 But in South-Carolina the royal arms were attended 
 ■with more fuccefs. Earl Cornwallis, who commanded 
 the Britilh troops there, obtained afignal victory over 
 General Gates on the i6thof Auguft. The Aftion be- 
 gan at break of day, in a fituation very advantageous 
 for the Britilh troops, but very unfavourable to the A- 
 .,g mericans. The latter were much more numerous; but 
 Viaory the ground on which both armies flood was narrowed 
 ohiaincdby by fwamps on the right and left, fo that the Americans 
 Lord Corn-(-oulil not propCTly avail thcmfclvcs of their fiiperior 
 walln oTcr numbers. The attack was made by the Britidi troops 
 g'"' with great vigour, and in a few minutes the aiflion was 
 
 general along the whole line. It was at this time a 
 dead calm with a little hazinefs in the air, which pre- 
 venting the fmokc from riling, occalioncd fo thick a 
 
 AiRccua. 
 
 .U9 
 
 13 ] A M E 
 
 darkncfs, that it was difficult to fee the efTcit of a ve- 
 ry iieavy and well fupportcd fire on both (ides. The 
 Briiifli troops cither kept up a court int tire, ormarfc 
 life of bayonets, as opportunities offered ; and after aa 
 obftinate reliftancc during three quarters of an hour, 
 threw the Americans into total confulion, and forced 
 tiiem to give way in all quarters. The continental 
 troops beiiavcd remarkably well, b.it tiic militia were 
 foon broken, and left the former tooppofc the whole 
 force of tlie Britilh troops. General Gates did all in 
 his power to rally the militia, but witho'.it effect : the 
 continentals retreated in fome order ;but the rout of the 
 militia was fo great, that the Britilh cavalry arc faid 
 to have continued the purf.iit of them to the diftance 
 of 22 miles from the place where the action happened. 
 The lo(s of the Americans was very conliderablc : 
 about 1000 prifoners were taken, and more are faid to 
 hive been killed and wounded, but the number is not 
 very accurately afcertained. Seven pieces of brafs can- 
 non, a number of colours, and all the ammunition-wag- 
 gons of the Americans, were alfo taken. Of the Bri- 
 tilh troops, the killed and wounded amounted to 21;. 
 Among the prifoners taken was Major-general Baron 
 de Kalb, a PrulFian officer in the American fcrvicc, 
 who was mortally wounded, having exhibited great 
 gallantry in the courfe of the adion, and received 1 1 
 woun.ls. The Britilh troops by which this vidory was 
 atchicvcd, did not much exceed icco, while the Ame- 
 rican army is faid to have amounted to 6000 ; ofwliich 
 liowever, ihegreateft part was militia. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who had greatly di- AoliTity of 
 ftinguiflied himfelf in this aftion, was detached the Lieut. Co. 
 following day, with fome cavalry and light infantry, Tarleton. 
 amounting to about 350 men, to attack a corps of 
 Americans under General Sumptcr. He executed this 
 fcrvicc with great activity and military addrcfs. He 
 procured good information of Sumptcr's movements ; 
 and by forced and concealed marches came up with 
 .and furprifed him in the middle of the day on the 
 l8th, near the Catawba fords. He totally deflroyed 
 or difpcrfed his detachment, which conllfled of 700 
 men, killing 150 on the fpoc, and taking two pieces of 
 brafs cannon, 300 prifoners, and 44 waggons. ^-^ 
 
 Not long after thefe events, means were found to General 
 detach Major-general Arnold, who had engaged fo ar- Arnold d«- 
 denily in the caufe of America, and who had exhibit- •«■"' '•>« 
 cd fo much bravery in the fupport of it, from the inte- ^"'•'■'^'' "^ 
 reds of the congrcfs. Major Andre, adjutant-gene- ""«"■*''• 
 ral to the Britilh army, was a principal agent in this 
 tranfai'Uon : or, if the overture of joining the king's 
 troops came lirfl from Arnold, this genilcinm was the 
 perfon employed to concert the alfair with him. Mo-.-c 
 muft have been originally comprehended in the fcheme 
 than the mere dtfcrtionof the Anicrican caufe by Ar- 
 nold : The furrenderof Wcft-Poi:it into the hands of 
 the royal army, was the probable objcl ; but whate- 
 ver deligns had been formed for promoting the views 
 of the Briiilh government, they were fnillratcd by 
 the apprehending of M.ijor Andre. He was taken in 
 difguil'e, after having alfamed a falfc name, on the 
 23d of September, by three American fnldicrs, to 
 whom he ottered conliderablc rewards if ihcy would 
 have fuftcrcd him to efcape, but without etfc^^^. Se- 
 veral p ipers written by .Arnold were found upon him ; 
 and when Arnold had learnt that Major Andre wjk 
 
 fciwd^
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 6 
 
 America, feizcd, lie found means to get on board a barge, and 
 " to el'capc tooneof the king's lliips. General Wailiing- 
 
 Unhappv '°" rtl'crrcd the cafe of Major Andre to tiic exami- 
 fatcof Ma- nation and dccifion of a board of general officers, con- 
 jor Andre, filling of Major-general Green, Major-general Lord 
 Stirling, Major-general the Marquis dc la Kayette, 
 Major-general the Baron de Steuben, two other major- 
 generals, and eight brigadier-generals. Major An- 
 dre was examined before them, and the particulars of 
 his cai'c inquired into ; and they reported to the Ame- 
 rican commander in chief, that NIr Andre came on 
 lliore from the Vulture lloop of war in the night, on 
 an interview with General Arnold, in a private and 
 fecrct manner ; that he changed his drcfs within the 
 An)erican lines ; and, under a feigned name, and in 
 a difguifed habit, palled the American works at Sioney 
 and Verplank's points, on the evening of the 22d of 
 September ; that he was taken on the morning of the 
 23d at Tarry-town, he being then on his way for New 
 York : and that, when taken, he had in his j olfcHion 
 fevcral papers which contained intelligence for the 
 enemy. They therefore determined, that he ought 
 to be confidered as a fpy from the enemy ; and that, 
 agreeable to the law and ufage of nations, he ought 
 to fuffcr deaih. Sir Henry Clinton, Lieutenant-ge- 
 neral Roberlfon, and the late American gener;il Ar- 
 nold, all wrote preiiing letters to General Walhington 
 on the occalion, in order to prevent the decilion of the 
 board of general officers from being put in force : But 
 their applications were ineffectual. Major Andre was 
 hanged at Tappan, in the province of New-York, on 
 the 2d of Otlobcr. He met his fate \^ith great tirm- 
 ncls ; but appeared lomewhat hurt that he was not al- 
 lowed a more military death, for which he had foli- 
 ciied. He was a gentleman of very amiable quali- 
 ties, had a tafle for literature and the fine arts, and 
 poireflcd manyaecomplilhments. His death, therefore, 
 was regretted even by his enemies; and the feeming 
 feverity of the determination concerning him was 
 much exclaimed ajiainfl in Great Britain. It was, how- 
 ever, generally acknowledged by impartial pcrfons, 
 that there was nothing in the execution of this unfor- 
 tunate gentleman but what was perfei'lly conlbnant to 
 the rules of war. 
 
 Arnold was made a brigadier-general in the king's 
 fervice, and publilhed an addrcfs to the inhabitants of 
 America, dated from New- York, October 7, in which 
 he endeavoured tojullify his defenion of their caufe. 
 Motivcsaf- He faid, that when he firfl engaged in it, he concei- 
 figncd by vcd the rights of his country to be in danger, and that 
 Arnold for j|,jy g,,^ j,onour called him to her defence. A rcdrcfs 
 '""" of grievances was his only aim and objefl ; and there- 
 fore he acquiefccd unwillingly in the declaration of in- 
 dependence, becaufe he thought it precipitate. But 
 what now induced him to defert their caufe was the 
 difgull he had conceived at the French alliance, and 
 at the refufal of Congrcfs to comply with the lafl terms 
 offered by Great Britain, which he thought equal to 
 all their expcitaiions and all to their wilhcs. 
 
 Thi Americans, however, accounted for the con- 
 duS of Arnold in a different and in a more probable 
 and falisfadory manner. They allcdged that he had 
 fo involved himfelf in debts and difficulties by his ex- 
 travagant manner of living in America, that he had 
 rendered it very inconvcnicut for him to continue 
 
 351 
 His amia 
 ble qualii 
 ties. 
 
 353 
 
 14 ] A M E 
 
 there : that after the evacuation of Philadelphia by 
 the Britilh troops, Arnold, being invelled with the 
 command in that ciiy, had made the houfe of Mr Penn, 
 which was the belt in the city, his head-quarters. 
 This he had furnilhcd in an elegant and cxpenfive 
 manner, and lived in a ftyle far beyond his income. It 
 was manifeft, they faid, that he could at firll have no 
 great averlion to the French alliance, becaufe that 
 when M. Gerard, miniller plenipotentiary from the 
 court of Prance, arrived at Philadelphia in July 1 778, 
 General Arnold early and earneftly folicitcd that mi- 
 nilter, with his whole fuite, to take apartments and 
 bed and board at his houfe, until a proper houfe could 
 be provided by the order of the congrefs. This offer 
 M. Gerard accepted, and continued with him fomc 
 weeks. The French minifler rellded upwards of 14 
 months in Philadelphia; during which time General 
 Arnold kept up the moft friendly and intimate ac- 
 quaintance with him, and their was a continued inter- 
 change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts : fo that 
 M. Gerard mufl have believed, that in General Arnold 
 he had found and left one of the warmefl friends the 
 court of France had in America. He was alfo one of 
 the firfl in congratulating the Chevalierde la Luzerne, 
 the fecond French niinifter. About this time com- 
 plaints and accufitions were exhibited againfl him by 
 the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-pradi- 
 ces ; among which charges were, the appropriation of 
 goods and merchandifc to his own ufe, which he had 
 feized as Britilh property in Philadelphia in July 1 778. 
 It was determined by a court-martial that his condud 
 was highly reprehenliblc ; but he was indulgently 
 treated, and was therefore only reprimanded by the 
 commander in chief General Walhington. It was in 
 thcfc circumltances, the Americans faid, bankrupted 
 in reputation and fortune, loaded with debts, and hav- 
 ing a growing and expenlive family, that General 
 Arnold firfl turned his thoughts towards joining the 
 royal arms. 
 
 After the defeat of General Gates by Earl Cornwal- 
 lis, that nobleman exerted himfelf to the utmoft in 
 extending the progrefs of the Britifli arms, and with 
 conliderable effeCl. But one enterprife, which was 
 conducted by Major Fergufon, proved unfuccefsful. 
 That officer had taken abundant pains to difcipline fomc 
 of the Tory militia, as they were termed ; and with 
 a party of thefe, and fome Britilh troops, amounting 
 in the whole to about 1400 men, made incurfions into 
 the country. But on the 7th of Odober he was at- 
 tacked by a fuperior body of Americans, at a place 
 called King's-mountain, and totally defeated. One 
 hundred and fifty were killed in the aflion, and 810 
 made prifoners, of which 1 50 were wounded. Fifteen 
 hundred (lands of arms alfo fell into the hands of the 
 Americans, whofe lofs was inconliderable. But the fol- 
 lowing month Lieuienant-Colonel Tarleton, with a 
 party of 1 70, chiefly cavalry, attacked General Sump- 
 ter, who is faid to have had 1000 men, at a place 
 called Black- Stocks, and obliged him to retire. Sump- 
 ter was wounded, and about 120 of tlie Americans 
 killed, wounded, or taken. Of the Britifli troops 
 about 50 were killed or wounded. 
 
 On the 5d of September, the Mercury, a congrefs 
 packet, was taken by the Veflal, Captain Keppel, near 
 Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr Lau- 
 rens, 
 
 America. 
 
 354 
 Different 
 rcafons al- 
 leged by the 
 American la 
 
 3SS 
 Aiflions !* 
 South-Ca- 
 rolina. 
 
 35 fi 
 Capture of 
 Mr Lau- 
 rens.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 615 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 . 357 
 Difcon- 
 tcnts 
 
 anions ttic 
 American 
 truops. 
 
 358 
 Revolt of 
 the Pcnn- 
 fylviaia 
 line. 
 
 359 
 Incfl'edual 
 attempts tu 
 ioJucc 
 them to 
 ](tin the 
 Toy^l army. 
 
 rens, late prefident of the congrefs, who was bound 
 on an embairy to Holland. He bad thrown his papers 
 overboard. but great partof them were recovered with- 
 out having received much damage. He was brought 
 to London, and examined before the privy-council ; in 
 confequcncc of which be was committed clofc prifoner 
 to the Tower on the 6th of O£lober, on a charge of 
 high treafon. His papers were delivered to the mini- 
 ftry, and contributed to facilitate a rupture with Hol- 
 land, as among them was found the Iketch of a trea- 
 ty of amity and commerce between the Republic of 
 Holland and the United States of America. 
 
 At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair hap- 
 pened in America, from which expectations were 
 formed by Sir Henry Clinton, that fome conliderablc 
 advantage might be derived to the royal caufc. The 
 long continuance of the war, and the difficulties under 
 which the congrefs laboured, had prevented their 
 troops from being properly fwpplied with necclFaries 
 and conveniencies. In confequcncc of this, on the tirfl 
 of January, the American troops that were hutted at 
 Morris-town, and who formed what was called the 
 i'innjyhania line, turned out, being in number tjoo, 
 and declared, that they would fcrve no longer, unlefs 
 their grievances were redrelTed, as they had not re- 
 ceived their pay or been furniOied with the necelfary 
 clothing or provifions. It is faid that they were fome- 
 what inflamed withliquor, inconfequenccof rum hav- 
 ing been diftributed to them more liberally than ufual, 
 new year's day being confidered as a kind of fellival.' 
 A riot enfucd, in which an officer was killed, and four 
 wounded; five or fix of the infurgents were alfo 
 wounded. They then coUcded the artillery, (lores, 
 provilions, and waggons, and marched out of the 
 camp. They palled by the quarters of GcneralWayne, 
 who fcnt ameflage to them, requeuing themtodelift, 
 or the confequences would prove fatal. They refufed, 
 and proceeded on their march till the evening, when 
 they took pofl on an advantageouspieceof ground, and 
 cleded officers from among themfelves. On the fc- 
 cond day they marched to Middlebrook, and on the 
 third to Princetown, where they fixed their quarters. 
 On that day a flag of truce was fent to them from the 
 officers of tiie American camp, with a melTage, delir- 
 ing to know what were their intentions. Some of 
 them anfwered, that they had already ferved longer 
 than the time for which they were enlilled, and would 
 ferve no longer; and others, that they would not re- 
 turn, uulefs their grievances were redrelFed. But at 
 the fame time they repeatedly, and in the flroni;efl 
 terms, denied being influenced by the lead difaffcclion 
 to the American caufe, or having any intentions of 
 deferting to the enemy. 
 
 Intelligence of this tranfadlion was foon conveyed to 
 New-York. A large body of Britilh troops were im- 
 mediately ordered to hold themfelves in readincfs to 
 move on the Ihortell notice, it being hoped that the 
 American revoliers might be induced tojoin the royal 
 army. MelFcngerswcrc alfo fent to them fromGeneral 
 Clinton, acquainting them that they (hould directly be 
 taken under the protection of ihe Britilh government ; 
 that (hey (hould have a free pardon for all former of- 
 fences ; and that the pay due to them from the con- 
 grefs (hould be faithfully paid them without any ex- 
 pedation of military fervice, unlefs it ihould be volun- 
 
 tary, upon condition of their hying d jwn their arms, Americr. 
 
 and returning to their allegiance. It wasaKb rccom- ' •'—^ 
 
 mended to them to move beyond the South River ; and 
 they were alTuicd, that a body of Britilh troops ihoulJ 
 be ready to protect them whenever they delired it. 
 Thefc propoiitions were rejected with difdain ; and 
 they even delivered up two of Sir Henry Clinton's 
 melFcngcrs to the congrefs. Jol'eph ReiJ, Efq: pre- 
 lident of the (late of I'ennfylvania, afterwards repair- 
 ed to them at Princeton, and an accommodation took 
 place : fuchofthcm as had ferved out their full terms 
 were permitted to return to their own homes, and 
 others again joined the American army, upon receiv- 
 ing Fatisfaclory aflurances that their grievances fhould 
 be redrelFed. 
 
 On the nth of January Lord Cornwallis advanced Exertion, 
 towards North Carolina. He wiffied to drive Gen. of Lord 
 Morgaii from his ftation, and to dcier the inhabitants ComwalUi 
 from joining him The execution of thisbuliiicfs wa! '■> Nor.h- 
 intrulled to Lieut. Col. Tarlcton ; who was detached Carolina 
 with the light and legion infantry, the fufileers, the 
 firll battalion of the 71ft regiment, about 3J0 cavalry, 
 two field pieces, and an adequate proportion of men 
 from [he royal artillery, upward of 11 00 in the whole. 
 This detachment, after a progrefs of fome days, by 
 fatiguing marches, at about ten o'clock on the even- 
 ing of the 16th of January, reached the ground which 
 Morgan had quitted but a few hours before. The 
 purfuit recommenced by two o'clock the next morn- 
 ing, and was rapidly continued through marlhes and 
 broken grounds till daylight, when the Americans 
 were difcovered in frant. Twoof their videttes were 
 taken foon after, who gave information that Morgan 
 had halted and prepared for aiflion, at a place called 
 the Cowpens, near Pacolct river. The Britilh, be- 
 lide their field pieces, had the fuperiority in infantry, 
 in the proportion of five to four, and in cavalry of 
 more than three to one. BeFidc, nearly two thirds 
 of the troops under Morgan were militia. Morgan 
 had obtained early intelligence of Tarleton's force 
 and advances ; and had drawn up his men in two 
 lines. The whole of the North and South Caroli- 
 na militia prefent was put under the command of 
 Col. Pickens, and formed the fir(t line ; which was 
 advanced a few hundred yards before the fecond, with 
 orders to form on the right of the fecond when forced 
 to retire. The fecond line conlilied of the li;jht in- 
 fantry under Lieut. Col. Howard, and the \'Trginia 
 riflemen. Lieut. Col. Waihington, with his cavalry, 
 and about forty-five niiliiia men, mounted and equip- 
 ped with fwords, under Lieut. Col. M'Call, were 
 drawn up at fome diftance in the rear of the whide. 
 The open wood in which they were formed, was nei- 
 ther fecured in front, flank or rear. Without the de- 
 lay of a (ingle moment, and in defpite of extreme 
 fatigue, the light legion infantry and fufileers were 
 ordered to form in line. Before the order was exe- 
 cuted, and while Major Newmarlh, who commanded 
 the latter corps, was poRing his officers, the li::c, 
 though far from coir.plctc, was led to the attack by 
 Tarlcton himfclf. The Britilh advanced with a iho.u, 
 and poured in an incelFant fire of niufquetry. Col. 
 Pickens dircfted the militia not to fire till the Bririih 
 were within forty or i^hy yards. This order, ihoa ^h 
 executed with great firmnefs and fuccefs, was not 
 
 fuiRcienc
 
 A M E 
 
 America. fufRcient to repel the enemy 
 
 [ 6i6 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 The American militia 
 gave way on all quarters. The Brililh advanced ra- 
 pidly, and engaged the lecond line. The continen- 
 tals, after an obltinatc confli(ft, were compelled to re- 
 treat 10 the cavalry. Col. Ogili/c, with his troop of 
 forty men, had been ordered to charge the right flank 
 of ilie Americans, and was engaged in cutting down 
 the njililia ; but being expofed to a heavy lire, and 
 charged at the fame time by Wafliington's dragoons, 
 was forced to retreat in confulion. A great number 
 of the Britilh infantry otiicers had already fallen, and 
 nearly a proportionable number of privates. The re- 
 mainder being too few and loo much fatigued, could 
 not improve the advantage gained over the continen- 
 tals ; and Tarlccon's legion cavalry Handing aloof in- 
 Atad of advancing, Lieut. Col. Howard fci/ccd the fa- 
 vourable opportunity, rallied the continentals, and 
 charged with fixed bayonets, nearly at the fame mo- 
 ment when Walhingiou made his fuccefsful attack. 
 The example was inllantly followed by the militia. 
 ISoihing could exceed the allonilhment of the Britilh, 
 occaiioued by thcfe uncxpcfted charges. Their ad- 
 vance fell back, and communicated a panic to others, 
 which foon became general. Two hundred and fifty 
 horfe which had not been engaged, tied through the 
 woods with tlie utmoll precipitation, bearing down 
 fuch officers as oppofcd their flight ; and the cannon 
 were foon feized by the Americans, the detachment 
 from the train being either killed or wounded in their 
 defence. The greatcil confulion now followed among 
 the infantry. In the moment of it Lieut. Col. How- 
 ard called to them to lay down their arms, and promi- 
 fcd them good quarters. Some hundreds accepted 
 the otier, and furrendered. The firll battalion of the 
 71 ft regiment, and two Britilh light infantry compa- 
 nies laid down their arms to the American militia. 
 The only body of infantry that efcaped, was a detach- 
 ment left at fomc dillance to guard the baggage. Early 
 intelligence of their defeat v.as conveyed to the offi- 
 cer commanding that corps by fome royalifls. What 
 part of the bag-gage could not be carried off he imme- 
 diately dcllroyed ; and with his men mounted on the 
 wai'gon andfpare horfes, hexetreatcd to Lord Corn- 
 waflis. The Britilh had 10 commillioncd officers, 
 and upward of too rank and file killed. Two hundred 
 wounded, 29 commiCioned officers, and above 500 pri- 
 vates prifoners, fell into the hands of the Americans, 
 befiJc two piecesof artillery (firll taken from the Bri- 
 tilh at Saratoga, then retaken by them at Camden, 
 and now recovered by the Americans) two ftandards, 
 800 mulkets, 35 baggage waggons, and upward of ico 
 dragoon h.orfes. Walhington purfued Tarleton's ca- 
 valry for feveral miles ; but the far greater part of 
 them efcaped. They joined their army in two fepa- 
 rate divifions. One arrived in the neighbourhood of 
 the Britilh encampment upon the evening of the lame 
 day ; the other under Tarlcton appeared tlie next 
 morning. Although Tarleton's corps had waged a 
 mod cruel warfare, and their progrefs had been mark- 
 ed with burnings and devallations, not a man of them 
 •was killed, wounded, or even infulted after he had 
 furrendered. The Americans had only twelve men 
 killed and lixty wounded. 
 
 This defeat of the troops under Tarleton, while it 
 reanimated the dcfponding friends of America, and 
 
 4 
 
 brightened their hopes, was a fcverc ftroke to Lord America, 
 Cornwallis, as the lofs of his light infantry was a great — v— ' 
 difadvantagc to him. The day after the event he em- 
 ployed in coUciiling the remains of Tarleton's corps, 
 and in endeavouring to form a junction with General 
 Lcllic, who had been ordered to march towards him 
 with a body of Britilh troops from Wynnefborough. 
 Conliderable exertions were then made by part of the 
 army, without baggage, to retake the prifoners in the 
 hands of the Americans, and to intercept General 
 Morgan's corps on its retreat to the Catawba. But that 
 American officer,after his defeat of Tarleton, had made 
 forced marches up into the country, and eroded the 
 Catawba the evening before a great rain, which fwcUed 
 the river to fuch a degree, as to prevent the royal ar- 
 my from crolfing for feveral days ; during which time 
 the Britiffi prifoners were got over the Yadkin ; 
 whence they proceeded to Dan River, which they alfo 
 palled, and on the 14th of February had reached 
 Court-houfc, in the province of Virginia. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two days in col- 
 le(fling fome flour, and in dellroying fuperfluous bag- 
 gage and all his waggons, excepting thofe laden with . 
 hofpital ftores, fait, and ammunition, and four referve- , ?^' 
 ed empty in rcadinels for f\ck or wounded. Being ^jUj, 
 thus freed from all unnecellary ineumbrancec, he niarcho 
 marched through N.;rth-Carolina with great rapidity, through 
 and penetrated to the remotell extremities ofihatpro-Nonh-Ci- 
 vince on the banks of the Dan. His progrefs was'"'""*' 
 fometimes impeded by parties of the militia, and lomc 
 fkirmilhes enfucd, but he met with no very confidcra- 
 ble oppolition. On the flrft of February the king's 
 troops crolFed the Catawba at M'Cowan'sFord, where 
 General Davidfon, with a party of American militia, 
 was polled, in order to oppofe their paflage ; but he 
 falling by the firll difchargc, the royal troops made 
 good their landing, and the militia retreated. When 
 Lord Cornwallis arrived at Hillfborough, he crefted 
 the king's (landard, and invited, by proclamation, all 
 loyal fubjeifs to repair to it, and to fland forth and take 
 an adive part in allilling his Lordfliip to reflore order 
 and government. He had been taught to believe that 
 the king's friends were numerous in that part of the 
 country : but the event did not confirm the truth of 
 the reprefcntations that had been given. The Roy- 
 alifls were but few in number, and fome of them too 
 timid to join the king's ftandard. There were, in- 
 deed, about 200 who were proceeding to Hillfborough, 
 under colonel Pyle, in order to avow their attachment 
 to the royal caufe ; but they were met accidentally, 
 and furrounded by a detachment from the American 
 army, by whom mofl of them were cut in pieces. 
 Meanwhile General Greene was marching with great 
 expedition with the troops under his command, in or- 
 der to form a jundion with other corps of American 
 troops, that he might thereby be enabled to put fome 
 cffeclual flop to the progrefs of Lord Cornwallis. 
 
 In other places foutc conliderable advantages were 362 
 obtained by the royal arms. On the 4th of January, Large 
 fome ffiips of war with a number of tranfports, on quantities 
 boardwhich was alarge body of troops under thecom-"' '^""^r** 
 mand of Brigadier-general Arnold, arrived at Well- ^^J^^.*^"'^'^' 
 over, about 140 miles from the Capes of Virginia, |,y ^^^y^ 
 where the troops ininiediitcly landed and marched to 
 Kichmoitd ; which ihey reached without oppofition, 
 
 the
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 617 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, the militia that was collected having retreated on their 
 
 ■*—' approach. Lieuicnant-coloncl Sinicoc marched from 
 
 hence with a dctachmentof the BritiJh troops to Weft- 
 ham, where they dc/iroj-cd one ofthehiicll foun- 
 derics lor cannon in /-'inciita, and a large quantity of 
 llorcs and cannon. Central Arnold, on his arrival at 
 Richnioni , found there large quantities ot"falt, rum, 
 fail-cloih, aiid tobacco, the lail of which be dellroyed 
 to a stfj great amount. The britiih troops afterwards 
 attacked and difpcrfcd feme imall panics of the Ame- 
 ricans, took fonie lloresand a few pieces of cannon, 
 and on the 20th ol the fame month marched into Ponf- 
 inouth. Oa the 25th, Captain Barclay, with fevtral 
 Clips of svar, anda body ot tioops under the command 
 of Major Craig, arrived in Cape-Kear Kivcr. The 
 troops landed about nine miles Irom Wilmington, and 
 on the aSth entered th.it town. It was unJcntood thit 
 their having policffion of ihat town, and being mailers 
 of .Cape-Kear River, would be productive of veiy bc- 
 nelicial cifeols to Lord Loriiwallii's army. 
 
 General Greene having< fleeted a junction about the 
 10th of March with a continental regiment of what 
 were called eighteen Vitnths men, and two large bodies 
 of militia belonging to Virginia and North-Carolina, 
 formed a refolution to attack the Britiih troops uidec 
 the command of Lord C^ rnwallis. i he American 
 army marched from the High Rock Ford on the lath 
 of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford. 
 Lord Cornwallis, from the inforniaiion he ha<i received 
 of the motions of the American gc.icral, concluded 
 g what were his dcligns. As they apjiroai hed more 
 Different nearly to each other, a few Ikirmilhes eufued between 
 kinuithci* lome advanced panics, in which the advantage was 
 fometimes gained by the Americans ana fometim-s by 
 the Britiih. On the niorningof the 15th, Lord Corn- 
 wallis marched w ith his troops at diy-bi eak in order 10 
 meet the Americans or to attack them in their encamp- 
 ment. About four miles from Guildford, the advanced 
 guard ot the Britiih army, commanded by Lieutenant- 
 colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of the Ameri- 
 cans, conlifting of Lic>itcnant-cjlonel Lee's legion, 
 fome Back-Mountain rne nand Virginian militia, with 
 whom he had a fcvcre Ikirmilh, and was, at length, 
 obliged to retreat. 
 
 The greater part of the country in which the adlion 
 happened is a wildcrnefs, with afew cleared fields in- 
 tcrfperfed. The American army was ported on a 
 riling ground about a mile and a half from Guildford 
 court houfe. It was drawn up in three lines : the front 
 line was compofcd of the North-Carolina militia, un- 
 der the command of the generals Builer and Katon ; 
 the fecond line, of Virginian militia, commanded by 
 the generals Stephens and Lawfon, forming two bri- 
 gades ; the third line, confuting of two brigades, one 
 of Virginia and one of Maryland continental troops, 
 commanded by General Huger and Colonel Williams. 
 Lieutenaiu-colond Walhington, with the dragoons of 
 thefirft and third regiments, a detachment of light in- 
 fantry compofcd of continental troops, and a regiment 
 of riflemen under colonel Lynch, formed a corps of 
 obfcrvation for the fccurity of their right flank. Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detachment of 
 light infantry, and a corps of rillemen under Colonel 
 Campbell, formed a corps of obfervation for the fccu- 
 rity of their left flank. The a:tack of the American 
 Vol. I. 
 
 artfiy was direfled to be made by Lord Cornwallii in Americi. 
 
 the loUowing order : On the right, the rej^imeut of -^ ' 
 
 Bofc and the 7ilt regiment, led by Major-general 
 Lcllie, and fupported by the firll battalion of guards ; 
 on the left, the 23d and 33d regiments, led by Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel Wcblier, and fupported by the grena- 
 diersand fecond battalionofgiuriisconimandeii uy Bri- 
 gadier-general O'Hara ; the Yagers and light ii:f«nt- 
 ry of the guards remained in a wood on the left of 
 the guns, and the cavalry in the road, ready to act as 
 circumftances might require. j^^ 
 
 About half an hour alter one in the afteinoon, the Uait'e it 
 adion commenced by a cannonade, which lallcd abou: Gudd/ord. 
 twenty minutes ; when the Britiih troops advanced in 
 three columns and attacked the North-Carolinian bri- 
 gades with great vigour, and foon obliged partof ihtfc 
 troops to quit the field : but the Virginia militia gave 
 them a warm reception, and kept up a heavy tire lor 
 a long time, till, being beaten back, the action became 
 general almoft every where. The American corps 
 under the lieutenant-colonels Walhington and Lee 
 were alfo warmly engaged, and did conliderablc ex- 
 ecution. Lieutcnant-coljnel Tarleton had directions 
 to keep his cavalry compact, and not to charge with- 
 out politive orders, excepting to protect any of the 
 corps from the moll evident danger of being defeated. 
 Thecxcelfive thicknefsof the woods rendered the Bri- 
 tiih bayonets of little ufe, and enabled the broken corps 
 of .-Americans to make frequent Hands with an irregu- 
 lar tire. The fecond battalion of the guards tirrt gain- 
 ed the clear ground near Guihiford coart-houfe, and 
 found a corps of continental infantry, fuperier in num- 
 ber, formed in an open field on the left of the road. 
 Deliroiis of (ignalizing thenifelves, they immediately 
 attacked and foon defeated them, taking two fix poun- 
 ders : but as they purfued the .-Americans into the wood 
 with too much ardour, they were thrown into cont'ulion 
 by a heavy fire, and inftantly charged and driven back 
 into the field by Lieutenant-colonel W a Ihington's dra- 
 goons, with the lofs of the tw'o fix pounders they had 
 taken. But the .American cavalry were afterwards rc- 
 pulfed, and the two lix pounders again fell into the 
 handsof the Britiih troops. The Britiih troops having 
 at length broken the fecond Maryland regiment, and j<^ 
 turned the left flank of the An;ericans, got into the The Arae. 
 rear of the Virginia brigade, and appeared to begain- rican». 
 ing their ri^ht, which would have encircled the whole defeated- 
 of the continental troops, when Gen. Greene thought 
 it prudent to order a retreat. AJiny of t!ie American 
 militia difpcrfed in the woods; but the continental 
 troops retreated in good order to Recc'vl''ork River, 
 and eroded at the ford about three miles fri>ai the field 
 of ailion, and there halted. When they had colled- 
 ed their llragglers, they retreated to the iron-works, 
 ten miles diftant from Guildford, where they encamp- 
 ed. They loft their artillery and two waggons laden 
 with ammunition. It was a hard fought action, and 
 lafted anhourand ah.ilf. Of the Bri:ilh ircKjps, the 
 lofs, as Aated by Lord Cornwallis, was J52 killed, 
 wounded, and miffing. General Greene in his ac- 
 count of the action tranfmitted to the Congrefs, ftatcii 
 the lofsof the continental troops toamountto 339 kill- 
 ed, wounded, and milGng ; but he made nocftimaie of 
 the lofs of the militia, which was feme what ninie ihar 
 100. Lieutenant-colonel Stuart was killed in the ac 
 4 I I'-on;
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 6i8 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 Amnick. 
 
 366 
 
 Hardthips 
 endured by 
 the liritilh 
 U-oopt- 
 
 3*7 
 Cencral 
 Grtcnc at- 
 tacked in 
 hh camp 
 by L .rd 
 Rawdon, 
 and defeat- 
 ed. 
 
 lion ; and Lieutenant-colonel Webftcr, and the cap- 
 tains Scluu/;, Mayuard, and Goodriche, died of the 
 wounds th.u they had rcccivcd-in it. Brigadicr-gcncial 
 O'Hara, Brigadier-general Howard, and Liciucnaiit- 
 coloncd Tarleton, were alfo wounded. Of the Ame- 
 ricans the principal ofliccr killed was Major Andcrlon 
 of the Maryland line, and the generals Stephens and 
 Hiigcr were wounded. 
 
 ThcBriti(h troops underwent great hardfliips in the 
 courfe of til is campaign ; and in a letter of LordCorn- 
 wallis's to Lord George Germain, dated March 17th 
 he obf;rvcd, that " the foldiers had been two days 
 without bread." His lordlliip quitted Guildford three 
 days after ilie hattle which was fought in that place ; 
 and on the 7ih of April, after a retreat marked with 
 proofsof great alarm and precipiiatioti, arrived in the 
 nci.4hbj irhood of Wilmington. Soon after, General 
 Greene, notwitliftauding his late defeat, endeavoured 
 to make fome vigorous attempts againft the king's for- 
 ces in South-Carolina. Lord Kawdon had been ap- 
 pointed to defend the poft of Camden, with about 800 
 iiritirti and provincials ; and on the r9th of April Ge- 
 neral Greene appeared before that place witlialarge 
 body of coutinentjls and militia. lie found it, l-.ow- 
 cvcr, impollible to attempt to liorin the town with any 
 profpeCt of fucccfs; and therefore endeavoured to take 
 fuch a polltion as Ihould induce the Britiih troops to 
 fally from their works. He polled the Americans 
 about a mile from the town, on an eminence which 
 was covered with woods, and flanked on tiic left by an 
 impalFaUle fwamp. But on the morning of the 2 5th, 
 Lord Rawdon marched out of Camden, and attacked 
 General Greene in liiscamp. The Americans made a 
 vigorous reliftaiice, but were at length compelled to 
 give way ; and the purfuit is faid to have been conti- 
 nued three miles. Kor fimie time after the a>.'tion com- 
 menced, GcneralGrccne entertained great hopes of de- 
 fe.lting the liriiillt troops ; in which, as the Americans 
 were fuperior in poiut of numbers, lie would probably 
 have fucceeded, had not fome capital military errors 
 been committed by one or twoof theofficers who ferv- 
 ed under him. On the American fide Colonel Walh- 
 ington had behaved extremely well in this adtion, 
 having made upwards of 200 of the Englifh prifoners, 
 with 10 or 12 oflicers, before he perceived that the 
 Americans were abandoning the field of b.ittle. The 
 lofsof the Englilh was about 100 killed and wounded. 
 Upwards of 100 of the Americans were taken prifon- 
 ers ; and, according to tlie account publilhed by Gene- 
 ral Greene, they had 126 killed a^id wounded. After 
 this aflion, Greene retreated to Riigeley's mills, 12 
 niles from Canideu, jn order to colled his troops and 
 wait for reinforcements. 
 
 •Nor with (landing the ad vantage which Lord Rawdon 
 had obtained over General Greene at Camden, tliat 
 nobleman foon after found it necelPary, having burned 
 the goal, mills, many private houfes, and a part of his 
 own bagga 'e, to quit that pofl ; and the Americans 
 made tlieinfelves mafters of fevcral other poAs that 
 were occupied by the k-i fig's troops, and the garrifons 
 of which were obliged to furrendcr theinfelves prifon- 
 ers of war. Thefe troops were afterwards exchmged 
 under a cartel which took pjjce between Lord Corn- 
 wallis and General Greene for the releafe of all pri- 
 foners of war in the fouihern didrid. After thcfc 
 
 events, General Greene laid clofc liege to Ninety-fix, America; 
 
 which was confidcred as tlie mod commanding and ' '^^~~' 
 
 important of all the polls in the back country -, and on , ^ . 
 the I9tli of June he attempted to (torin the garrifon, i,ys(\t„t.t„ 
 but was repulfcd by the gallantry of the Britiih troops, {.jinety lU ; 
 with the lofs of about 1 50 killed, wounded, and inif- but is re- 
 fing. General Greene then raiftd the ficge, and re- pulfed. 
 tired with his army behind tlie Siiuda, to a Itroiig l\ia- 
 ation, within 16 miles of Ninety lix. 
 
 On the i8th of April a large body of Britidi troops, 
 under the command of Major-general I'liilips and Bri- 
 gadier-general Arnold, embaiked at Poitfnioiuh in 
 Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the 
 purpofeof dcflroyingfomc of the ."Imerican Aorei. A 
 party of light-infantry were fent 10 or 12 miles up the 
 Chickahomauy ; where they dellroyed fcveral armed 369 
 fliips.fundry ware-houfes,aiid the American Hate (Itip- DcOruai- 
 yards. At Pctcrfburg, the Knglilh deilroyed 4J00 """^ '^^■"'' 
 hoglheads of tobacco, one Ihip, and a number of fmall ■■"*°""''" 
 vell'cls on the flocks and in the river. At Chefterficld « 
 court-houfc, they burnt a range of barracks for 2000 
 men and ^00 barrels of flour. At a place called 
 Ojboni'i, they made tlicnifelves maflers of feveral vcf- 
 fcls loaded with cordage and flour, and dellroyed about 
 2000 hoglheads of tobacco, and fundry vell'els were 
 funk and burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a maga- 
 zine of 500 barrels o( flour, fome tine mills belonging 
 to Colonel Carey, a large range of public rope-walks 
 and flore-houfes, tan and bark houfes full of hides and 
 bark, and great quantitiesof tobacco. A like dellrnc- 
 tion of (lores and goods was made in other parts of 
 Virginia. 
 
 From the account already given of fome of the prin- 
 cipal military operations of the prefent year in America, 
 it appears, that though advantages had been gained by 
 the royal troops, yet no event had taken place from 
 wliich it could rationally be expeiled that the final ter- 
 mination of the war would be favourable to Great-Bri- 
 tain. It was alfo a difadvantageous circuinflance, that fj.-?^°. 
 there was a mifundcr/landins; between Admiral Ar- a .• " 
 buthnot and Sir Henry Clinton, and a mutual dilappro- between 
 bation of each other's conduel. This was manifcfl the I'lritifli 
 from their difpatches to government, and efpecially admiralaiu 
 from thofc of General Clinton, whole exprclTions rcf- general. 
 pe<5ling the conduit of the admiral were by no means 
 eq\iiv6cal. 
 
 On the i6th of March i7Sr,a partial a<5lion happen- Aaionbi. 
 ed ortthe Capes of Virginia, between the fleet under twecn the 
 Admiral Arbuthnot,coiiii(liiigof feven fliipsof theline Iritilh anc 
 and one fifty-gun niip,anila French Apiadron eonfifling French 
 of the f me number of fliipsof the line, and one forty- ""'* """ 
 gun rtiip. Someof thefliips in both fleets received con- ','\,^''^j"- 
 lid' rabie damage in the ae^ion, and the lufs of the En- ^' 
 
 glifli was ;o killed and 75 wounded ; but no fliip was 
 taken on either fide. The Britiih fleet, however, 
 claimed the advantage ; as the French were obliged to 
 retire, and were fuppofcd lobe preventcel* l-y this ac- 
 tion from carrying troops upon theChefapeak, in order 
 to attack Gem ral Arnold and impede the progrefs of 
 Lord Cornwallis. But it was thought an unfortunate 
 circunUlance, that fome time before this engagement 
 the Romulus, a fliip of 44 guns, was capiured by the 
 French off' the Capes of Virginia. 
 
 Lord Ccrnwallis, aficr his vidlory over General 
 Greene at Guildford, proceeded, as wc have fecn, to 
 
 Wil-
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 619 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 372 
 Prochiiia- 
 tiuii by 
 Lordl-'orn 
 
 373 
 Difftrcnt 
 Anions. 
 
 374 
 General 
 Grcciic <!«■ 
 fcan Col. 
 
 Stuart- 
 
 Wilmington, where he arrived on the 7th of April. 
 But before he reached that place, he publilhcd a pro- 
 clamation, calling upon all loyal fiibjtcti to Hand forih 
 and take an adive part in rtllorini^ good order and 
 government ; and declaring to all ptrl'ons who had en- 
 gaged in the prclent rebellion againit his nujelly's au- 
 thority, but who were now convinced of their error, 
 and dclirous of returning to their duty and allegiance, 
 that if they would furrendcrthemiclves with their arms 
 »nd ammunition at head quarters, or to the officer com- 
 manding in the dilhi,.'ts contiguous to their rcfpeitive 
 places of rclidcnce, on or before the 20th of tliat 
 month, tliey lliould be permitted to return to their 
 homes upon giving a military p.irolc ; they would be 
 protected, in their perfons and properties, from all 
 forts of violence from the Briiilh troops ; and would 
 be rellored, as foon as polfiblc, to all the privileges of 
 legal and conilitutioii.il government. But it does not 
 appear that any conliderable number of the Americans 
 were allured by thefe proniifcs to give any evidences of 
 their attachment to the royal caufe. 
 
 On the 20th of May, his Lordlhip arrived at Pcterf- 
 burg in Virginia, where he joined a body of Britilh 
 troops that had been under the command of Major- 
 general Philips ; but the command of which, in coii- 
 fcquencc of the death of that officer, had devolved up- 
 on Brigailicr-general Arnold. Before this juncUon he 
 had encountered conliderable inconveniences from the 
 difficulty of procuringprovilions and forage ; fo that in 
 a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him, that 
 his cavalry wanted every thing, and his infantry eve- 
 ry thing but ffiocs. He added, that he had experien- 
 ced the diflrelles of marching hundreds of miles in a 
 country chiefly hoflile, without one adive or ufcful 
 friend, without intelligence, and without communica- 
 tion with any part of the cotmtry. 
 
 On the 26th of June, about fix miles from Willi- 
 amiburg, Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of the 
 queen's rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were at- 
 tacked by a much fuperior body of the Americans; 
 but whom they repulfed with great gallantry and with 
 equal fuccefs, making four officers and twenty private 
 men prifoncrs. The lofs of the Americans in this ac- 
 tion is faid to have been upwards of 120, and that of 
 the Britilh troops not more than 40. 
 
 On the 6th of July an acbion happened near the 
 Green Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitring 
 party of the AmericansunderGencral Wayne, amount- 
 ing to about Soo, and a large part of the Britiffi army 
 under Lord Cornwallis ; in v.-hich the Americans had 
 127 killed and wounded, and the lofs of the royal 
 troops is fuppofed to have been conlidcrably greater. 
 It was an action in which no fmall degree of military 
 ■flcill and courage was exhibited by the American?. In 
 a variety of Ikirmiffies, the Marquis dcla Fayette very 
 mncli diflinguilhcd himfelf, and difplayed the utmoft 
 ardour in the American caufe. 
 
 In South-Carolina, an adlion happened on the 9th 
 of Septcm ber near the Eutaw Springs, between a large 
 body of Britilh troops under the command of Lieute- 
 nant-colonel Stuart and an equal body of Americans, 
 under the command of General Greene. It was an ob- 
 ftinate engageijientt and lafled near two hours. The 
 Britilh, with a conliderable lofs, were in the tirll partof 
 the battle routedin all quarters, but fouic having taken 
 
 pod in a piquetted garden, and others tbrow'n them- Ameti,-*. 
 
 felvesintoa brick houfe, the cigernefs of the Ameri- ' * ', 
 
 can purfuit was conlidcrably checked, and gave Colo- 
 nel Stuart an opportunity on the evening of the next 
 day.toabandonthe Kutaw.and march tosvards Charles- 
 ton, taking a number of his wounded, and about one 
 thoufand lland of arms. 375 
 
 In the courfe of the fame month. General Arnold Expcditien 
 was fent on an expedition againft New-London, in ?P'° , 
 Connedicut, where he delkoyed a great part of the ^ ""' "*' 
 lliipping, and an immenfe quantity of naval ftores, Eu- 
 ropean manufacburcs, and Eaft and Weft India com- 
 modities. The town itfclf was alfo burnt, which is 
 faid, but untruly, to have been unavoidable, on accoont 
 of the explolions of great quantities of gun-powder 
 which happened to be in the ftorc-houfes that were fet 
 on fire. A fort, of which it was thought neceflary to 
 gain pofll-ffion in this expedition, was not taken with- 
 out conliderable lofs. This was Fort Grifwold ; which 
 was defended by the Americans with great gallantry, 
 and the alTault vvras made by the Engliffi with equal 
 bravery. The Britiffi troops entered the works with 
 fixed bayonets, and wcreoppofed with great vigour by 
 the garrifon with long fpears. After a mofl obftinatc 
 defence of near forty minutes, the allailants gained 
 poflcffionofthefortjin which 85 Americans were found 
 dead, and 60 wounded, nioft of them mortally ; but of 
 the killed, it is paiirful to obfervc, that the greater 
 number fell after the Britiffi entered the fort, and when 
 refinance had ceafed. Of the Britiffi troops Major 
 Montgomery was killed by a fpear in entering the 
 American works ; and 192 men were alfo killed and 
 wounded in this expedition. ,.5 
 
 Notwithftanding the advantages that LordCornwal- Criticil fi- 
 lls had obtained over the Americans, his fituation in tuition of 
 Virginia began by degrees tobe very critical ; and the lordi."or«- 
 rather becaufehe did not receive thofe reinforcements '^'^'• 
 and fupplics from Sir Henry Clinton, of which hchad 
 formed expeftations, and v hich he conceived to be 
 neccll'ary to the fuccefs of his operations. Indeed, the 
 commander in chiefwas prevented from fending ihofc 
 reinforcements to Lord Cornwallis which he otherwifc 
 might have done, by his fears refpefting New-York, 
 againft which he entertained great apprehenfions that 
 General Waffiington intended to m.kc a very formi- 
 dable attack. In faft, that able American general 
 had this objedl in view ; and while the attack was iu 
 ferious contemplation, a Ictttrfrom him dctaiingthc 
 particulars of the intended operations of the campaign, 
 being intercepted, fell into the hands of Sir Henry 
 Clinton. After the plan was changed, the royal com- 
 mander was fo much under the imprcffion of the ia- 
 tclligence contained in the intercepted letter, that lie 
 believed every movement towards Virginia to be a 
 feint, calculated to draw otT his attention from the de- 
 fence of New- York. Under the influence of this 
 opinionhe bent his whole force toftrengthedthat port, 
 aud fiiffered the French and American armies to pafs 
 without any moleftation. When the firft opportuni- 
 ty of ftriking at them was clapfed, then for the firft 
 time he w.'.s brought to believe that the allies had fix- 
 ed on Virginia, for the theatre of their combined ope- 
 rations. As truth may be made to anfwer the pur- 
 pofes of deception, fo nofeintof attacking New-York, 
 could have been more fuccefsful than the real inten- 
 4 I 3 tion.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 620 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, tion. At the fame time Gen. Wafiiington, by a variety 
 "■ — ' ofjuilicioiis military manoeuvres, in which he com- 
 pletely out-gencrallcd the Britilh commander, incrcaf- 
 cJ his apprchcnlions about New-York, and prevent- 
 ed him trom fending proper ailiPiance to Lord Corn- 
 wallis. Having for a conliderdblc time kept Sir Henry 
 Clinton in perpetual alarm in New- York, though with 
 £n army much inferior to the garrifon of that city. Ge- 
 neral Walhington fuddenly quitted his camp at White- 
 Plains, crolicd the Delaware, and marched towards 
 Virginia, apparently with a defign to attack Lord Corn- 
 wallis. Sir Henry Clinton then received information, 
 that the Count dc Gralfe, with a large French fleet, 
 was expedtd every moment in the Chcfapeak, in or- 
 der to co-operate with General Wafhingion. In the 
 mean time, Lord Cornwallis had taken poileffion of 
 the pofls of Y'ork-Town and Gloucefler in Virginia. 
 He applied himfclf with the utmoft diligence to for- 
 tify thefc pods, and to render them equally refpeifla- 
 bic by land and water. His whole force amounted to 
 about yoooexcellent troops. Before his lordlhiphad 
 lixed himfclf and army in thefc pods, a feries of ma- 
 roeuvres had taken place between him and the Marquis 
 de la Fayette ; in which the Britilh general difplayed 
 the boldnefs of cnterprife, and the marquis the judg- 
 ment of age, blended with the ardor of youth. Fay- 
 ette, under various pretences, fent the Pennfylvania 
 troops to the fouth fide of James River ; collefted a 
 force in Gloucefler county ; and made fundry excel- 
 lent arrangements, which he early communicated to 
 .yj Count de Gralfe by an officer. 
 Allied ar- The French and American armies continued their 
 ni7 arrive march from the northward, till they arrived at the 
 at Head of Head of Elk : within an hour after, they received an 
 ^ cxprefs from Count de Grade, with the joyful account 
 
 of his arrival and lituation. This circumllance will 
 appear the more remarkable, when we conlider the 
 original dillance of the parties, as well from the fcene 
 ofattion as from each other, and the various accidents, 
 diffiruhies, and delays, to which they were all liable. 
 The greateib harmony fublifled between Walhington 
 and Rochambcau, which Itlfcned fome of the difficul- 
 ties attending theirjoint operations. The former be- 
 ing without a fufficiency of money to fupply his troops, 
 applied to the count for a loan, which was inllantly 
 granted. In order to haftcn the arrival of the allied 
 troops, de Gralfe fclec^ed fcvcn velfels, drawing the 
 lead Witer, to iranfport them down the Chcfapeak 
 Bay. But the moment they were ready to fail on this 
 ferviee, the count was obliged to prepare for repelling 
 the Britilh fleet. When Mr de Barras arrived, he 
 fent up thofc tranfports he brought with him for the 
 troops : de Grufle after that added to them as many 
 frigates as he could. By the asth of September all the 
 troops were arrived and landed at Williamiburg, and 
 preparations were made with all polfible difpatch for 
 putting the army in a lituation to move down towards 
 York Town. General Walhington and Count de Ro- 
 thambeau, with their fuitcs and other officers, jiad 
 reached Williamfburgby hard travelling, on the 14th, 
 eleven days fooncr. Here the general found a vcf- 
 fel waiting to convey him to the Capes of Virginia, 
 fent by Count de Gralle, as be could not with propri- 
 ety leave his fleet. The commander in chief and the 
 Countde Rochambcau, accompanied by GcneralsChaf- 
 
 tellux, Du Portail, and Knox, immediately proceeded Americ*. 
 
 to vifit the count on board the Ville de Paris. A coun- * v ' 
 
 cil was held, and the Count de Grafle detailed his en- 
 gagements to be in the Well Indies at the latter end 
 of Oftobcr or beginning of November. But he finally 
 agreed to continue in the Chcfapeak until the opera- 
 tion againd Lord Cornwallis Ihould be decided. After 
 which the company returned. g 
 
 All the American and French troops formed a June- Number of 
 tion at Williamlburg. The Marquis de la Fayette had force*, 
 been joined by 3000 under St Simon fome days before 
 the 25th of September. The whole regular force thus 
 collected amounted to between 11 and 12,000 men. 
 The militia of Virginia were alfo called out to ferviee, 
 and were commanded by Gov. Nelfon. On the 27tli 
 Gen. Wafli ington gave out in general orders — < ' If the 
 enemylhould be tempted to meet the army on its march, 
 the general particularly enjoins the troops 10 place 
 their principal reliance on the bayonet, that they may 
 prove the vanity of the boafl vihich the BritiJ}} 7iiake of 
 ihiir peculiar prowifs in deciding battlet with that wea- 
 pon." The next morning the army marched, and 
 halted about two miles from York Town juJl before 
 fun fet. The officers and foldicrs were ordered to lie 
 on their arms the whole niglu. On the 30th, Col. 
 Scammel (being officer of the day) in approaching the 
 enemy's outer works, to fee if they had really left 
 them, was mortally wounded and taken prifoner by a 
 party of the enemy's horfc, which lay fecreied. This 
 day Lord Cornwallis was clofely inveded in York 
 Town. The French extended from the river above 
 the town to a morafs in the centre, where they were 
 met by the Americans, who occupied the oppofite fide 
 from the river to that fpot. The poll at GlouceAer 
 Point was, at the fame time, inveded by the Duke dc 
 Lauzun with his legion, and a number of Virginia 
 militia under General Weeden. 
 
 Before the troopsleft Williamfburg, Gen. Wafliing- 
 ton received a letter from the Count de Gralfe, inform- 
 ing him, that in cafe of the appearance of a Britilh 
 fleet, the count conceived it to be his duty to go out and 
 meet them at fea, inftead of fighting in a confined fitu- 
 ation. This information exceedingly alarmed the ge- 
 neral, who inllantly faw the probability of the Britifli 
 fleet's manoeuvring in fuch manner, as to reinforce or 
 withdrawLordCornwallis. To prcventameafure preg- 
 nant with fo much evil, his excellency wrote to the jy„ 
 count on the 26th : "lam unable to defcribe the painful Gen. Wa- 
 anxiety under which 1 have laboured fince the recepti- ftiington's 
 on ofyour letter of the 23d inflant. It obliges me warm- '^t'<;" to 
 ly to urge a perfeverence in the plan agreed upon. The ^°""' de 
 attempt upon York, under the proteftion ofyour (hip- 
 ping is as certain of fuccefsas a fuperior force and a fu- 
 periorityof meafures can render any militaryoperation. 
 Thccaptureof the Britifli army isamattcrfo important 
 iu itfelf and in its confequences, that it raufl gre.itly 
 tend to bring an end to the war. — If your excellency 
 quits the Bay, an accefs is open to relieve York, of 
 which the enemy will indantly avail themfelves. The 
 confcquence of this will be, not only the difgrace, 
 but the probable difbanding of the whole army ; for 
 the prefent feat of war being fuch, as abfolutely pre- 
 cludes the ufe of waggons, from the great number of 
 large rivers which iiitcrfci5l the country, there will 
 be a total want of proviliong. This province has been 
 
 fo 
 
 Graffc.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 6 
 
 ^Vnierica. fa cxhaufted, that fubfiftcncc muft be drawn from a 
 
 ^■^ ' diftance, and that can only be done by a fupcrior Hcct 
 
 in the Bay. I carncftly beg your excel. cncy to con- 
 fidcr, that if by moving your tieet from the lituation 
 agreed upon, \vc lofe the prefcnt opportunity, we 
 fliall never hereafter have it our power to llrike fo 
 decilive a flroke, and the period of an honorable peace 
 will be further diftant than ever. Suppofing the force, 
 faid to have arrived under Adm. Digby, to be true, 
 their whole force united cannot be fach as to give 
 them any hope of fucccfs in the attacking your fleet. 
 I am to prcfs your excellency to perfevcre in the 
 fchcme fo happily concerted between us. Permit me 
 to add, that the abfence of your fleet from the Bay 
 may fruftrate our dciign upon the garrifon at York. 
 For, in the prefent iituation, Lord Cornwallis might 
 evacuate the place with the lofs of his artillery, bag- 
 gage, and a few men — facrifices, which would be 
 highly juftifiablc, from the defirc of faving the body 
 of the army. — The Marquis de la Fayette carries 
 this. He is not to pafs the Cape for fear of accident, 
 in cafe you fliould be at fea." This letter, with the 
 Marquis's perfuafions, had the dcfired cfFcfl ; and the 
 fame hour when the combined army appeared before 
 York-Town,thc French fleet was brought to the mouth 
 of York river, and by their pofition cfFedually covered 
 allfubfequent military operations, and prevented either 
 the retreat or fuccour of Lord Corn wallis's army by wa- 
 ter. The poRs of York and Gloucellcr were the 
 mofl favourable of any in the country for beficging 
 the Britifh, and preventing their efcapc, when the 
 fiegc was fupported by a fuperior land and naval 
 force. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis was fufficiently flrong for fighting 
 the Marquis de la Fayette, even after he had been 
 joined by St Simon ; and is thought to have been mif- 
 takcn in not engaging them eiiher feparately or toge- 
 ther. The moment he heard that the allied troops 
 were at the Head of Elk, and that de GralTe was ar- 
 rived with fo powerful a fleet at the Chefapeak, his 
 lordfhip Ihould have pufhed off for Charlefton. There- 
 fore it was that Gen. Greene wrote to Baron Steuben 
 on the 17th — " Nothing can fave Cornwallis but a 
 rapid retreat through NorthCarolina to Charlellown." 
 His lordlhip's conduil was influenced by an expedta- 
 tion of a reinforcement from Sir Henry Clinton, and 
 a full perfuafion that thofe exertions would be made 
 at New-York, and fuch a naval ftrength would arrive 
 from thence in time, as would efteftually relieve him. 
 This may be gathered from his wriiing on the 16th : 
 " If I had no hopes of relief, I would rather rifle an ac- 
 tion than defend my half-finilhed works. But as you 
 lay, Adm. Digbyis hourly expelled, and have promifcd 
 exertions to aflift me, 1 do not think myfelf jullitiable 
 in putting the fate of the war upon fo dcfperate an 
 attempt." He inufl have meant that of fighting Fay- 
 ette and St Simon, for the troops of Generals Wafh- 
 ington and Rochambtau did not arrive till afterward. 
 T'ayeitc had taken a flrong polition : but the at- 
 tempt would not have appeared fo defperate to his 
 lordlhip, had he known the real number of the enemy. 
 The trenches were opened by the combined armies 
 on the 6ih of Oc'ober, at 600 yards diftance from 
 Cornwallis's works. The night being dark and rainy 
 was well adapted to the fcrvice, in which there was 
 
 21 ] A M E 
 
 not a man hurt. In tMe afternoon of the 9th, the re- Arerrici. 
 
 doubts and batteries being completed, a general dil- '' " ' 
 
 charge of 34 and t8 pounders and of 10 inch mortars 
 commenced by the Americans on the right, and con- 
 tinued all night without intcrmilfion. 1 he next 
 morning, the French opened their batteries on the 
 left, and a tremendous roar of canon and mortars was 
 continued for fix or eight hours without cealr.ig. 
 There was an incelFant tire through the fuccee iiiig 
 night. By one of the French fliells, the Charon of 
 44 guns and a tranfport fliip were fct on fire and 
 burnt. The following morning, the enemy's other 
 guard {hip was fired by one of the American (hells 
 and confumed. At night, the befiegers opened their 
 fccond parallel, 200 yards from the works of the be- 
 fieged. The Americans had 3 men killed and i 
 wounded by a French cannon, whiih fired too low. 
 On the 14th in the evening, an American battalion 
 was ordered into the fccond parallel, and to begin a 
 large battery in advance on the right. A few minutes 
 before they began to break ground, the enemy kept 
 a conftant fire upon them : one of their iliells burft in 
 centre of the battalion, and killed a captain and one 
 private, and wounded a fccond. 1 he fire of the be- 
 Jieged was very great through the night ; and it was 
 thought that the befiegers lofl as many men within 24 
 hours at this period, as they had done nearly the 
 whole fiege before. 381 
 
 Two redoubts, which were advanced about 200 Britifli re- 
 yards on the left of the Britilh, greatly impeded ihe doubt* t*. 
 progrefsof the combined armies. An attack on thefe 
 was therefore propofed To excite a fpirit of emu- 
 lation the reduction of the one was comniiucd to the 
 French, of the other to the Americans. The light 
 infantry of the latter were commanded by ihe Mar- 
 quis de la Fayette ; and the fervice was allotted to a 
 fcleift corps. The Marquis faid to General Walhing- 
 ton — " The troops fliould retaliate on the Britilh, for 
 the cruelties they have praftifcd." The general an- 
 fwered — " You have full command, and may order as 
 you pleafe." The marquis ordered the party to re- 
 member New London, and to retaliate, by putting the 
 men in the redoubt to the fword after having carried 
 it. The men marched to the aflault with unloaded 
 arms, at dark on the night of the 1 4th, palled the aba- 
 tis and palil'ades, and attacking on all fides carried 
 the redoubt in a few minutes, with the lofs of 8 kill- 
 ed and 28 wounded. Lieut. Col. Laurens perfonally 
 took the commanding officer. The cdoncl's huma- 
 nity and that of the .'\mericans fo overcame their re- 
 fentments, that they fpared the Britilh. When bring- 
 ing them off as prifoners, they faid among themfelves 
 — "Why! how is thi-> f We were ordered to put 
 them to death." Being afked by others why they 
 had npt done it, they anfwered — " We could not, 
 when they begged and cried fo upon their knees for 
 their lives." About five of the Britilh were killed, 
 and I major, I captain, and I enfign, and 20 privates 
 captured. Col. Hamilton, who conduced the enter- 
 prife with much addrefs and intrepidity, in his re- 
 port to the marquis, mentioned, to the honor of his 
 detachment — " that, incapable of imitating examples 
 of barbarity, and forgetting recent provocations, they 
 fpared every man that ceafcd to rcfift." The French 
 were equally fucccfsf'.'.l on their fide. They carried 
 
 ihc
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 622 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, the redoubt comniiticil to them with ripidity, but loll 
 
 * ^ a conlidcrablc number of men. Thefc two works 
 
 being taken into the lecond parallel facilitated the 
 fublcqutr.t operations. 
 
 The Britilh were To weakened by the lire oftlic 
 combined armies, but chietiy by lickncfs, that Lord 
 Cornwallis could not venture any conliderable num- 
 ber in the making ot' lallies. Thcprclciit cmcrgeney 
 however was I'uch, thai a little before day break of 
 the morning of the i6ih he ordered a fortie of about 
 400 men, under Lieut. Col. Abercroniby, to attack 
 two batteries which appeared to be in the grcaicll for- 
 wardnefs, and to fpike the guns. Two detachments 
 ■were appointed to the fervice ; and both attacks were 
 made with fucli impetuoiity, that the redoubts which 
 covered the batteries, were forced, and eleven pieces 
 of cannon ipikcd. The French troops, who had the 
 guard of that part of the iatrcnchniciu, fuffered con- 
 lidcrably. This fuccefsful iiVion did honor to the 
 officers and troops engaged, but produced no cil'cntial 
 benefit. The cannon, being haftily fpiked, were fooa 
 rendered again fcrviccable ; and the combined forces 
 were fo indullrious, that they finilhcd their batteries, 
 opened tlieni about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and 
 tired brifkly. Their feveral ba;terics were now co- 
 vered with near too pieces of heavy ordnance ; and 
 the Britilh works were fo dcftroyed, that they could 
 .jj fcarcely Ihow a lingle gun. 
 Briti(h at- Thus was Lord Cornwallis reduced to the necefllty 
 tempts an of preparing for a furrender, or of attempting an cf- 
 rfcape. cape. He determined upon the latter. Boats v, ere 
 prepared under ditf'ercnt pretexts, for the reception 
 of the troops by ten at night, in order to pafs them 
 over to Glouceller Point. The arrangements were 
 made with the utnioll fccrecy. The intention was 
 to abandon the baggage, and to leave a dciachment 
 behind to capitulate for the towns people, and for the 
 iick and wounded, his lordlhip having already prepa- 
 red a letter on the fubjecl, to be delivered to Gen. 
 Walhington after his departure. The firft embark- 
 ation had arrived at Glouceflcr Point, and the greater 
 part of the troops were already landed, when the wea- 
 ther, which was before moderate and calm, inflantly 
 changed to a niofl violent florm of wind and rain. 
 The boats with the remaining troops were all driven 
 down thcriver, and the delignof paffing was not only 
 entirely frnflrated, but the abfencc of the boats ren- 
 dered it impolfible to bring back the troops from 
 Gloucefler. Thus weakened and divided, the army 
 was in the mofl. imminent danger. The boats how- 
 ever rcuirncd : and the troops were brought back 
 without much lofs in the courfc of the forenoon. 
 
 Matters were now hafteningto a crifis, which could 
 not be longer averted. The Britilh works were link- 
 ing under the weight of the American and French ar- 
 tillery. The continuance of the allied fire, only for 
 a few more hours, would reduce them to fuch a con- 
 dition that it would be raflinefs to attempt their de- 
 fence. — The time for expecting relief from New York 
 was elapfed. The ftrengih and fpirits of the royal 
 troops were worn down by con Qaut watching, and unre- 
 mitting fatigue. Lord Cornwallis therefore fent out a 
 flag at loo'clockin the morning of the 17th with alet- 
 tcr to General Walliington, rcqneAing a ceflation of 
 arms for twenty-four hours, and that commilfioncrs 
 
 383 . 
 
 Cornwallis 
 capitulatcE. 
 
 might be appointed for digcAing the terms of capi- Amerioa. 
 
 tulation. An anfwcr was given ; and a reply for- <^—* 
 
 warded in the afternoon ; to which Gen. Walhington 
 rejoined the next day, declaring the general baits oi\ 
 which the capitulation might take place. Commilli- 
 oncrs were appointed — on the fide of the allies Vif- 
 count de Noailles, and Lieut. Col. Laurens, whofe fa- 
 ther was in clofc confinement at the tower, while the 
 fon was drawing up articles by which an LnglKh no- 
 bleman and a Britilh army became prifoners. %\hile 
 fettling the terms, the vifcount willied his lordfliip to 
 flate, upon his honor, the yalue of the military chert. 
 His lordlhip declared it to be about iSool. rterling» 
 The vifcount obferved that the fum was fo trilling, 
 that it was not worth bringing into the account, and 
 therefore was for leaving it entirely at Cornwallis's 
 difpofal. Laurens interfered, and obferved to his col- 
 league, that tliongh it was natural for a fubjei?t of on« 
 of tlie grcateft monarchs in the world to think 1800I. 
 an inconliderable fum, yet, for his part, being a fub- 
 jecl of an infant flate, llruggling with infinite incon- 
 veniences, and where money was very rare, he mud 
 deem it a very conliderable lum ; and therefore he in- 
 lilled that it fliould be accounted for. This was ac- 
 cordingly done ; and afterward it was paid into the 
 hands of Timothy Pickering, tfq; American quarter 
 mailer general, to the amount of 2113I. 6s. llerling, 
 efiimating the dollar at 4s. 8d. — There being a mani- 
 fclt impropriety in the Americans flipulaiing for the 
 return of the negroes, while they themfeltcs were 
 avowedly fighting for their own liberties, they co- 
 vered their intcniion of repoifeiring them, under thefc 
 general terms with which the fourth article clofed — 
 " It is underptood, that any property obvioully belong- 
 ing to the inhabitants of thcfe (lates, in the polFcflion 
 of the garrifon, Ihall be fnbjed to be reclaimed." jg^ 
 
 The polls of York and Glouceflcr were furrendered Surrender 
 on the 19th. The honorof marchingout with colours of York 
 flying, which had been denied Gen. Lincoln, was ^"^ Glou- 
 now refufed to Lord Cornwallis ; and Lincoln was ap- """■• 
 pointed to receive the fabmilFion of the royal array at 
 York Town, prccifely in the fame way his own had 
 been condudled about 18 months before. The troops 
 of every kind that furrendered prifoners of war, ex- 
 ceeded 7000 men ; but fuch was the number of lick 
 and wounded, that there were only 3800 capable of 
 bearing arms. The officers and foldiers retained 
 thei» baggage and effefls. Fifteen hundred feamea 
 partook of the fate of the garrifon. The Guadaloupe 
 frigate of 24 guns, and a number of tranfports were 
 furrendered to the conquerors: about 20 tranfports 
 had been funk or burnt during the liege. The land 
 forces became prifoners to congrcfs ; but the feamea 
 and Ihips were aUigned to the French admiral. The 
 Americans obtained a numerous artillery, 75 brafs 
 ordnance and 69 iron cannon, howitzers and mortars. 
 Lord Cornwallis endeavoured to obtain pcrmilTion 
 for the Biitifli and German troops to return to their 
 refpeclive coinitries, under engagements not to ferve 
 againfl France or America j and alfo an indemnity 
 f(jr thofe who had joined him : but he was obliged to 
 confent, that the former fliould be retained in the go- 
 vernments of Virginia, Pennfylvania and Maryland ; 
 and that the latter, whofe cafe lay with the civil au- 
 thority of the rtatcs, ihould be given «p to the uncon- 
 ditional
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 623 1 
 
 A M E 
 
 385 
 
 Thankf. 
 
 Amerifa. ditional mercy of their countrymen. His lord(hip 
 — ■^——' however obtained pcrmiflion for ilie Jionctta Hoop ot 
 war to pals unexamined, which gave aa opportunity 
 of fcrecniag thofc of the royalills who were inoft ob- 
 noxious to the refcniments of the Americans. He 
 tooic care alfo to have it ftipulatcd, that no article of 
 the capitulation Ihould be infringed on pretext of re- 
 prifal. His lordihip, with all civil and military offi- 
 cers, except thofc of the latter who were ncceliarily 
 left behind for the proteflion and government of the 
 foldiers, were at liberty to go upon parole, cither to 
 Great Britain or New York. He acknowledged in 
 his public letter, that the treatment which he and 
 the army had received after the furrendcr, was per- 
 feftly good and proper. His lordlliip fpake in thefc 
 warm terms of the kindnefs and attention Ihown to 
 them, by the French ofliccrs in particular — " Their 
 deliberate fenfibility of our lltuation, their generous 
 2nd preffing otfcrs of money, both public and private, 
 to any amount, has really gone beyond what 1 can 
 poflibly dcfcribe." 
 
 On the 29th of Oilobcr, the American commander 
 giving np- jn chief, congratulated in general orders the army on 
 pointed by [),j glorious event of the preceding day j and tendcr- 
 thcgciicral. ^j ^^ j|^g g(.[jcrals, ofEcers and privates, his thanks in 
 the warmcll language. He with gratitude returned 
 his finccre acknowledgments to Gov. Nclfonof Vir- 
 ginia, for the fuccours received from him and the mi- 
 litia under him. To fpread the general joy in all 
 hearts, he commanded that thofc of the army, who 
 were under arrcft, ihould be pardoned and fct at li- 
 berty. The orders clofed with — Divine I'crvice Ihall 
 be performed to-morrow in the different brigades 
 and divifions. The commander in chief recommends, 
 that all the troops that are not upon duty, do alfifl at 
 it with a fcrious deportment, and that fenfibility of 
 ieart which the recollection of the fiirpriling and 
 paiticular intcrpofuion of Providence in our favor 
 claims." 
 
 The BiitiHi fleet and army deftincd for the relief of 
 Lord Cornwall:s, arrived off the Chcfapcak on the 
 24th ; but on receiving authentic accountsof his fur- 
 render, they returned to New York. A few days af- 
 ter their rirll return, the rieet was incrcafed by four 
 fllips of the line : but fuch was the fuperiority of the 
 French byJcBarras's junflion with theCountde Grade, 
 that nothing lliort of defperatc circumllances could juf- 
 tifyattcmpiingafrclh engagement. ThcfecircumrtaH- 
 ccs however exifting, ihe Britiih naval commanders 
 ufcd all polfiblc expedition in refitting the Ihips, with 
 the dclign of extiicatiug Cornwallis and his army. 
 The delay occafioncd by this bulincfs feemed to be 
 compcnfatcd by the arrival of the Frince William and 
 Torbay men of war from Jamaica. It was determin- 
 ed that every exertion Iho^iid be ufcd both by the fleet 
 and army, to form ajundion with the Biitiih force in 
 Virginia. Sir Ileniy Clinton embarked with about 
 7000 of his heft forces. It was neverthelcfs the iQih of 
 Odobcr before the Hcct could fall down to the Hook. 
 They amounted to 25 Ihips of the line, afifties, and 8 
 frigates. When they appeared off the Chcfapcak, the 
 French made no manner of movement, though they 
 had 56 thiiisof the line, being fitisfiej wall their 
 prcf'-nt Uicccfs. The main error, which paved the 
 way 10 the capture of the Britilh array, appears to be 
 
 the omjffion of fending a larger force from the Weft Amerii», 
 
 Indies than that which was difpatchcd under Sir Sa- ' -' ' 
 
 muel Hood. A few more lliips in the Jjrft inftance 
 might have prevented tuat molt woful diftppoiatmcnt 
 with wliich both Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Corn- 
 wallis have been painfully exercifed. 386 
 
 livery argument and pcrfualion was nfed with the De GralTe 
 Count de Grade to induce him to aid the combined ar- '^i'' f'"' i*" 
 my in an operation againll Charlellown ; but the ad- '^'''^-'n- 
 vanccd feafon, the orders of his court, and his own**'"* 
 engagements to be pundual to a certain time lixed 
 for his ulterior operations, prevented his compliance. 
 His inftrudions had fixed his departure even to the 
 15th of October ; he however early engaged to Aay 
 longer. Could he have extended his co operation 
 two months more, there would moft probably have 
 been a total extirpation of the Britifh force in the Ca- 
 rolinas and Georgia. On the 27th, the troops under 
 the Marquis St Simon began to embark for the W'efl 
 Indies ; and about the 5th of November the Count 
 de Gralfc failed from the Chcfapcak. 
 
 The Marquis de la Fayette being about to leave 
 America, ;Iie foUouing expreliions made a part of the 
 orders ilTued by him previous to his departure from 
 York Town— "' Orders for the firft brigade of light 
 infantry, ilfued by major general the marquis de la 
 Fayette, Oa. 31, 1781. In the moment the major 
 general leaves this place, he wiihcsoncc more to ex- 
 prefs his gratitude to the brave corps of light infan- 
 try, who for nine months pall have been the compa- 
 nions of his fortunes. He will never foruct, that 
 with them alone of regular troops, he hadthe good 
 fortune to manoeuvre before an army, which aficr all 
 its reduffions, is Uill fix times fupcr'ior to the regular 
 force he had at the time." Four days after, this bri- 
 gade embarked for the Head of Elk; the invalids «>f 
 the American troops dtllined (or the norihv;ard hav- 
 ing previoully done it. The New Jerfey and part of 
 the New York lines marched by land, and were to 
 join the troops which went by water, at the Head of 
 tlk. Such cavalry as were wanted by General Greene 
 marched feveral days before ; and on the jth of No- 
 vember a reinforcement marched under Gen. St 
 Clair, in order to ftrengthen him for further offen- 
 five operarations in South Carolina. The feafon of 
 the year was unlavorable for the return of the troops 
 to the North river, fo that they fufiered much in do- 
 ing it. But they and their comrades had been blcflcd 
 with a feries of the moft delightful weather from the 
 beginning of their march toward York Town, until 
 the reduction of the place. j 
 
 No fooncr had congrefs received and read General Con^rcf* 
 Waihington's letter, giving information of the reduc- «ppoii.t a 
 tionof the Briiiih army, than they refolved, onthc'^yf 
 24th of October, that they would at two o'clock go in t'-'nl-'b'^- 
 proccllion to the Dutch Lutheran Church, and return '"S" 
 thanks to Almighty God, for crowning the allied arms 
 of the United States and France, with fuccefs by the 
 furrenJer of the whole Britilh army under the com- 
 mand of Earl Cornwallis. This army had fpread 
 Waftc and ruin over the face of \'irginia for 400 miles 
 on the fca-coaft, and for 200 to the weftward. Their 
 numbers enabled them to go where they plcafcd ; and 
 their rage for plunder difpofed them to take whate- 
 ver they cftcemed moft valuable. The reduction of 
 
 a fuch
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 6a4 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America. 
 
 ,;ir Guy 
 Carleton 
 arrivti at 
 New- 
 
 York, with 
 powers to 
 ertat of 
 peace. 
 
 fucli in array occadoned iranfports of joy in the bread 
 of every American. But th.it joy was incrcafed and 
 maintained, by the further conlidcration of the intiu- 
 cnce it would hjvc in procuring fuch a peace as was 
 delircd. Two days after, tht; congrefs ilfiicd a pro- 
 cliniaiiou (or rcligioudy oblcrving throughout the 
 United States, the I3tli of Uccembcr, as a day of 
 thankfgiviiig and prayer. On the 29th of October 
 they relolvcd, that thanks fltould be prefcnte J to Gen. 
 Waitington, Count dc Rochanibcau, Count de Grallc, 
 and the officers of the different corps, and the men 
 under their command, for their ferviccs in the reduc- 
 tion of Lord Cornwallis They alfo refolvcd to erect 
 
 in York Town a nuirble column, adorned with em- 
 blems of the alliance between the United States and 
 his Moll Ciirirtian Majcfty ; and infcribed witii a 
 fuccinit narrative of the furrender of the Britilh ar- 
 my. Two (lands of colours taken from the royal 
 troops, under the capitulation, were prcfcntcd to Gen. 
 Wall'.iiigton in the name of the United States in Con- 
 grcfs allemblcd ; and two pieces of field ordnance fo 
 taken, were by a refolve of Congref^, to be prefented 
 by Gen. Walhington to Count de Rochambeau, with 
 a Ihort memorandum engraved (hereon, " that Con- 
 grcfs were induced to prefcnt them from coni'dcra- 
 tionsof the illuftrious part which he bore in etf'eftu- 
 atingthc furrender " It was further refolvcd to re- 
 queft the Chevalier de Luzerne, 10 inform his moil 
 Chriflian Majclly, that it was the wilh of Congrefs, 
 that Count de GralFe might be permitted to accept a 
 tcftimony of their approbation, limilar to th.it which 
 was to be prefented to Count dc Rechambeau. Le- 
 gilLitivc bodies, executive councils, city corporations, 
 and many priv.ite focictics, prefented congratulatory 
 addrcli'ts to Gen. Wafliiugton, accompanied with the 
 v.armell acknowledgments to Count dc Rochambeau, 
 Count de Grallt and the other officers in the fcrvice 
 of his Moft Chriftian Majcfty. Places of public wor- 
 fhlp refounded with grateful praitcs to the Lord of 
 Holl.T., the God of batlles, before, at, and after the 
 dny of thankfgiving. The lingularly inicrelliiig event ■ 
 of captivating a fccond royal army, produced fuch 
 ftrong emotions in numbers, both of miniflers and 
 people, that they could not wait the arrival of the 
 day. 
 
 As no rational expeftation now remained of a fubju- 
 gaiionofthc colonies, the military operations that fuc- 
 cceded in America were of little confcquencc. Some 
 inconfidcrable aftions and fkirmiffies did indeed take 
 place after that event ; in which the refugees chiefly 
 diltinguiihcd themfelves, and difcovered an inveterate 
 inimolity againft the Americans. On the 5th of May 
 17S2, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New- York, being 
 api dinted to the command of the Britith troops in A- 
 mcrica in the room of sir Henry Clinton. Two days 
 after hisarrival, he wrotealcticr toGencral Wafhing- 
 tou, acquaintinghim, that Admiral Digby was joined 
 with himfeif in a commilTion to tre it of peace with 
 the people of .America ; iranfmitting to him, at the 
 fame time, fomc papers tending to manifcft the pacific 
 difpoffion of the government and people of Britain 
 towards ihofc of Ameri-ra. He alfo deiircd a paflTport 
 for Mr Morgan, who was appointed to trinfmit a li- 
 Jnilir letter of compliment to ihe congrefs. General 
 Walhington declined figning any paflport till he had 
 
 taken the opinion of congrefs upon that meafure J and Air.orisa, 
 
 by them he wasdiretled torclufeany palTport for fuch ' ' 
 
 a purpofc. However, another letter was feiit to Ge- 
 neral Walhington, dated the adof Auguft, ligncd by 
 Sir Guy Carleton and Rear-admiral Digby, in which 
 they informed him, that they were acquainted liy au- 
 thority thatnegociations fora general peace had alrea- 
 dy commenced at Paris J that Mr Grcnvillewasiiivcft- 
 td with full powers to treat wilh all the parties at war j 
 and was then at Paris in the execution of hiscommif- 
 iion.Thcy farther informed him, that his Britannic ma- 
 jefty, in order to remove all obllaclcs to that peace which 
 hefoarJently wilhed to rellorc, had commanded his mi- 
 nillers to dired Mr GrcnviUt, that the independency 
 of the thirteen provinces Ihoulo be propofcd by him, in 
 the tint inllancc, inftead of making it the coiuiiiion of , j. 
 a general treaty. But fome jcalouiics were entertain- Rcfolutiont 
 ed by the Americans, that it was the uclign of the ofcongrcft 
 Britilh court cither to difunite them, or to bring them '" ""U- 
 to treat of a peace fcparately from their ally the king ''/"""'^'j. 
 of France : they therefore refolvcd, that any man, or "^'"''*" 
 body of men, who fhould prefume to make any fcpa- 
 rate or partial convention or agreement with the king 
 of Great-Britain, or with any conimiHioner or com- 
 milfioners under the crown of Great-Britain, ought to 
 be conlidcred and treated as open and avowed enemies 
 of the United States of America j and alfo that thofe 
 ftatcs could not w ith propriety hold any conference or 
 treaty with any commillioners on the part of Grear 
 Britain, unlefs they fliould, as a preliminary thereto, 
 either withdraw their tieets and armies, or elfc, in po- 
 fitivc or cxprcfs terras, acknowledge the independence 
 of the faid flates. They likewife refolvcd, that any 
 propoiitions which might be maile by the court of 
 Great Britain, in any manner lending to violate the 
 treaty fubliiting between them and the king of France, 
 ought to be treated with every mark of indignity and 
 conteinpt. 300 
 
 In the month of June, the town of Savannah, and Difftrcrt 
 the whole province of Georgia, were evacuated by the r'="^<^« '**» 
 Britilh troops; as was alio CharleUon, South-Ca- '^"'"'^'^. *!' 
 rolina, about the (lofc of the year. In the mean time, ' "^ ^j""* 
 the negociaiions lorpeaccbtingcontinucd, provifional ' 
 
 articles of peace were ligned at Paris on ihc 50th of 
 Movembtr by the comniillioner of his Britannic Ma- ,.. 
 jelly and the American commiinoncrs, in which his indcpcn- 
 Majcily acknowledged the united colonics of New- dcrcy of 
 Hamplhirc,^ialfachuretts-Bay,Rhode-llland,andPro- America 
 vidcnce Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, New- "^""w* 
 Jerfty, Pcnfylvaiua, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, ''''S'"- 
 North-Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, to be 
 " free, fovcrcign, a d independent flates." They had 
 conftituted themfelves fuch on the 4th of July 1776 ; 
 they had been acknowlet'gedfuch by the French king 
 on the joth of January 1)78, when he concluded with 
 them a treaty of amity and commerce j Holland had 
 acknowledged them as fuch April 19th 1782; Sweden 
 acknowledged them as fuch Februaiy 5th 1785 ; Den- 
 mark the 25ih February, Spain in March, and Riiffia jpj 
 in July, the fame year. The Ame- 
 
 Thc Definitive Treaty was figned on the tjjof Sep- rk-iu army 
 tercber 1785 ; and in Ang. Sir Guy Carleton had re- dilbandcd, 
 ceived his final orders for the eva( u.iiion of Ncw-York. w /v*^"' 
 Tucfday, No\ ember the 2jih, was the day agreed £„„ r|.'|^?jj, 
 upon for this evacuation. To prevent every dilorder his com- 
 
 which miilioii.
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 625 ] 
 
 A M E 
 
 America, which might otherwife enlue from fucli an eveut, the 
 
 '^- — w ' American croops under the command of Gen. Knox 
 
 marched from Hacrlcni to the Bowery. laiic in the 
 morning. They remained thereiill aboutoue o'cloci^, 
 when the Britilh forces left the ports in the Bowery, 
 and the Americans marched lor ward and took puiitl- 
 Aoa of the city. This being cffcclcd, Gcu. knox and a 
 number of citizens on iiorfcback rode to the Bowery to 
 receive their excellencies Gen. Walhington and Go- 
 Ytrnor Clinton, who, with their fuites, made their 
 p'.iblic entry into the city on horlcbick ; followed by 
 ihe lieui. governor and the members of council, for 
 the temporary government of the fouthcrndillricl, four 
 abrcuft — Gen. Knox and the officers of ihcarniy tight 
 abreall — citizens on horfeback, eight abrcalh — the 
 fpeakcr of the alfembly and citizens on foot, eight a- 
 brcait. The proccilion ccafed at Cape's t.ivern. The 
 governor gave a public dinner at Frances's tavern ; at 
 which the commsnder in chief and other general of- 
 ficers Were prci'cnt. The arrangements for the whole 
 buliaefs were fo well made and executed, that the 
 moll admirable tranquillity fucceeded through the day 
 and night. Soon after this e^-ent, the foldiers of ihc 
 American army, chcarfully refuming the charadcr of 
 citizens, returned peaceably to their rcl'pec^ive 
 homes ; while their ijeloved and ever-honoured com- 
 mander, having takena pathetic leave of his officers, 
 repaired to Annapolis, and, on the ijdof December, 
 at an audience with Congrefs (perhaps the mofl lin- 
 gular and interelling that ever occurred) riling with 
 great dignity, he, delivered this addrefs. 
 
 <'_Mr. Prelident, The great events on which ray 
 refignation depended having at length taken place, I 
 ton rcfigns have now the honour of offering my linccrc Congratu- 
 hi5 com- lations to Congrefs, and of prefcnting myfelf before 
 them, to furrender into their hands the truft commit- 
 ted tome, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from 
 the fervice of my country. 
 
 " Happy in the confirmation of our independence 
 and fovereignty, and pleafed with the opportunity 
 afforded the United States, of becoming a refpeftable 
 nation, I refign with fatisfaclion the appointment I 
 accepted with diffidence — a diffidence in my abili- 
 \ tics to accompliffi io arduous a talk ; which however 
 was fuperfedcdby a confidence in the reditude of our 
 caufe, the fupport of thefupreme power of the union, 
 and the patronage of Heaven. 
 
 '< The fuccefsful termination of the war has veri- 
 fied the moft fanguinc expeftations ; and my grati- 
 tude for the intcrpolition of Providence, and tiic afli- 
 flance 1 have received from ray countrymen, increafes 
 with every review of the momentous contefl. 
 
 " While I repeat my obligations to the army in 
 general, I ffiould do injuftice to my own feelings not 
 to acknowledge in this place, the peculiar fervices 
 and dillinguilhed merits of the gentlemen who have 
 been attached to my perfon during the war. Itwasim- 
 poflible (he choice of confidential officers to compofc 
 iny family Ihould have been more fortunate. Permit 
 me. Sir, to recommend in particular thofe who have 
 continued in the fervice to theprefentmoment,as wor- 
 thy of the favorable notice and patronage of Congrefs. 
 
 " I conlider itas an indifpenfable doty to clofe this 
 lall ad of my official life by commending the intcrclls 
 of our dcareft country to the protcftion of Almighty 
 Vol. h 
 
 393 
 Gen. 
 Walhir 
 
 million to 
 congrefs. 
 
 God, and thofe who have the fupcrinceadence of them America. 
 to his holy keeping. ' " ' 
 
 ' ' Having now riniflied the work affigned me, I retire 
 from the great theatre of a6liou,jand bidding an affecti- 
 onate farewcl to this augallbody, under whole ordere 
 1 have fo long aclcd, I lure offer my comniiiiion, and 
 take my leave of all the employ mtnti of public life." 
 
 The general was fo powerfully inipreifed, with the 
 great and interelHng fccncs that crowded in upon his 
 imagination while fpraking, that he would have bcea 
 fcarce able to have uttered more than the clofing pe- 
 riod. He advanced and delivered to the prcfident 
 his commiffion, with a copy of his addrefs. Having 
 rcfumed hi« place, he received in a ftanding pollure 
 the following anfwer of Congrefs; which the preli- 
 dent delivered wiih elegance ; but not without fuch 
 a fcnlibiliiy as changed, and fprcad a degree of pale- 
 nefsover his countenance. 
 
 " Sir, The United States in Congrefs aflembled re- 
 ceive, with emotions too affcdling for utterance, the 
 folemn refignation of the authorities under which 
 you have led their troops with fuccefs through a 
 perilous and a doubtful war. Called upon by yoar 
 country to defend its invaded rights, you accepted 
 the facred charge, before it had formed alliances, and 
 whilft it was without funds or a guvernraent to Aip- 
 port you. You have conduced the great military 
 conrcft with wifJomand fortitude, invariably regard- 
 ing the rights of the civil power through all difafters 
 and changes. You have by the love and confidence of 
 your fellow-citizens, enabled them to difpby their 
 martial genius, and tranfiuit their fame to poitcrity. — 
 Y'ou have perfevered, till thcfe United States, aided 
 by a magnanimous king3i;d nation, have been enabled 
 under a jull Providence, to clofe the war in freedom, 
 fafcty, and independence ; on which happy event we 
 fmcerely join yoa in congratulations. 
 
 " Having defended the ftandard of liberty in this 
 new world : having taught a lellon ufeful to thofe who 
 intlii5tand to thofe who feel oppreffion, you retire from 
 the great theatre of aftion, with the bleffings of your 
 fellijw-citizens — but the glory of yoar virtues will not 
 terminate with your military command, it will comi- 
 ng c to animate rcmotcft ages. 
 
 '< We feel with you our obligations to the army in 
 general, and will particularly charge ourfelvcs with 
 the intcrclls, of thofe conlidcniial officers, who have 
 attended your perfon to this affecting moment. 
 
 " We join you in commending the intercrts of oar 
 deareft country to the protection of Almighty God, 
 bcfceehing him to difpofe the hearts and minds of its 
 citizens, to improve the opportunity afforded them, 
 of becoming a happy and refpeclable nation. And 
 for you we addrefs to him our earnell prayers, that 
 a life fo beloved, may be foftered with all his care ; 
 that your days may be happy as they have been illuf- 
 trious ; and that he will finally give you that reward 
 which this world cannot give." 
 
 Having thus religned his commiffion into the hands 
 of the prefident of that honoarablc body, he retired 
 from public life amidll the acclamations of his grate- 
 ful and admiring countrymen. 
 
 According to the report of the eoniniiitee appoint- . ^" t 
 ed for that purpofe, the t'cnig;: D^.->f »'" the United n,^n "od 
 States incurred by tlic war, amounted to 7,885,085 ,reafure by 
 4 K dollars, the war.
 
 A M E L 32 
 
 Aatrlfi. Jollars, snd the DomcJIic Debt to ^4,115,290, total, 
 
 ~ V- al 4s. 6J. each, equal to 9,450,084 1. Sterling, the 
 
 imcrcll ot which at 6/'eT. c.'«/. is $67,0051. But the 
 coft to Orcat Biiiaiii is moderately computed at 
 t i>/'54>9i4l- *'"' ''" addiiioual annual burthen by 
 Jt 4,5577575 1- li'ice January i 77J. As to (he lufs ot 
 men durinj^ the war, the Sutes et' America, it is fup- 
 pofed, loft by the fword and in prifon near 80,000 
 men ; and by the Britifli returns at New-York, the 
 number of loldicrs killed iu the fcrvice amounted to 
 
 Ot the extent of territory, population, commerce, 
 revenues and wealth of this growing empire ; and, al- 
 fo, of the rife, progrcfs, and eftablilhment of the pre- 
 fent happy form of government, a particular account 
 fliall be given, under the article Usitf.d States- 
 
 AMERICAN NIGHT-SHADE. See Phytolacca. 
 
 AMERICAN CROUND-Ntrr. See Ar rag his. 
 
 AMERICUS Vespucius, aKlorentine gentleman, 
 from whom America derived its name — The mer- 
 chantsof Seville having obtained peruiillion to attempt 
 difcovcries as private adventurers, lent out four Ihips in 
 1499, under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda (who 
 had accompanied Columbus in his fecond voyage), af- 
 iiftcd by AuicricuE Vcfpucius, who was known to be 
 deeply (killed in the fcif nee of navigation. This fleet 
 touched on that part of the vvellern continent already 
 difcovercd by Columbus, whofe track Ojeda followed ; 
 and Americus, who was a man of much addrcfs, as well 
 as pollcired of confiderable literary talents, by publilh- 
 in<T the firft voyages on the fubjeCt, and other artful 
 means, gave his name tothe New- World, in prejudice 
 to the illuftrious Genocfe. ThcimpoUure, though long 
 detected, has been fan(5lified by time : and the fourth 
 divilion of the globe, fo long unknown to the inhabi- 
 tants of Europe, Alia, and Africa, ftill continues to be 
 diftinguidied by the name of America. 
 
 AMERSKORT, a city in the Netherlands, in the 
 province of Utrecht, fcatedtmthc river Ems, E. Long. 
 J. 20. N. Lat. 52. 14. The moft remarkable things 
 are, thetown-houfe ; the grand palace, which ii trian- 
 gular ; the public walk, planted with trees ; and the 
 great church, dedicated to Si George. The land to she 
 eaft and fouth of this city is very fruitful ; on the north 
 there is nothing but paihire-ground, and on the weft 
 it is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain called 
 Amersjort-bsrg, on which they have planted a villa of 
 trees, which reaches to Utrecht. 
 
 AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, a market- 
 town in BuckinghamQiire, confifting of about 200 
 houfes, with afree-lchool, and four alms-houfes. It 
 fends two members to parliament, and has a market 
 onTuefday. It is a reftory rated at 48I. 16s. 8d. in the 
 king's books. The market-Jioufe is a very handfome 
 ftrufture. W. Lons. o. 15. N. Lat. 51. 47. 
 
 AMES {Willirim, D. D.) a learned independent di- 
 vine, famous for hiscontroveriial writings, was born in 
 1 576, and educated at Chrift's college, in Cambridge. 
 In the reign of King James I. he left the univerfity, 
 .ind loon after the kingdom, on account of his being 
 unwilling to conform to the rules of the church ; and 
 retired to the Hague, where he had not been long be- 
 fore he was invited 10 accept of tlie divinity-chair in 
 ihenniverlityofFrantkcr,inFrielland, which he filled 
 with admirablcabilities for above twelve years ; during 
 
 6 1 A M E 
 
 which his fame was fo great, that many came from re- Amenrah^ 
 mote nations to be educated under him. He from Amcthyft. 
 thence removed to Rotterdam for a change of air, which ' " ' 
 his health demanded; and here hecontinucd during the 
 remainder of his life. His conirovcrfial writings,whicli 
 compofe the greateft part of his works, are chiefly 
 againft Bellarmine and the Arniinians. He alio wrote, 
 I. A frefli Suit againft the Ceremonies. 2. Lcdiones 
 in Pfalmos Davidii. 3. Medulla Theologitt t and fc- 
 vcral pieces relative to the fcicnces. He died of an 
 afthma, at Rotterdam, in Nov. 1633. 
 
 AMESTRATA, a town of Sicily, "(Cicero) ; Ame- 
 flratos, (Stcphanus) j Avtajira (Silius Italicus) ; Mul- 
 tiftratot, (Poly bins) : Now iMiJInlta, in the Val di De- 
 mona,on the river Halcfus. It wasa very llrongfortof 
 the Carthaginians, belieged in vain by the Romans for 
 feven months with conlldcrable lofs ; at length, after 
 another fiege taken and razed (Diodor. Siculus). 
 
 AMETHYST, a tranfparent gem of a purple co- 
 lour, which fccms compofcd ol a (hong blue and a 
 deep red , and, according as cither of thole prevails, af- 
 fording diticrcnt tingesof purple, foinctimcs approach- 
 ing to violet, and fometimts even fading to a pale-rofc 
 colour. Though the aniclhyll is generally of a purple 
 colour, it is neverthclcfs fomciiincs found naturally co- 
 lourlefs, and may at any time be eahly made ("0 by pul- 
 ing it into the fire; in which pellucid or colon rlefs (late, 
 it fo refembles the diamond, that its want of hardnefs 
 feenis the only way of diftinguilhing it. Some derive 
 the name antcthyji from its colour, which refembles 
 wine mixed with water; whilft others, with more 
 probability, think it got its name from its fuppofed 
 virtue of preventing drunkennefs ; an opinion which, 
 however imaginary, prevailed to that degree among 
 the ancients, that it was ufual for great drinkers to 
 wear it about their necks. Be this as it will, the 
 amethyft is fcarce inferior to any of the gems in the 
 beauty of its colour; and in its pureft ftatc is of the 
 fame hardnefs, and at leaft of equal value, with the 
 ruby and fapphire. It is (bund of various fizes, from 
 the bignefsof a fmall vetch, (to an inch and an half in 
 diameter, and often to much more than that in length. 
 Its (hape is extremely various, fometinies roundilh, 
 fometimes oblong, and at others flatted, at kaft on 
 one (ide ; but its moft common appearance is in a 
 cryftalliform figure, confiding of a thick column, 
 compofcd of four plants, and terminated by a flat and 
 ihort pyramid, of the fame number of (ides ; or elfc, 
 of a thinner and longer hexangiilar column ; and 
 fometimes of a long pyramid, without any column. It 
 makes the gayeft figure in the laft of thefe dates, but 
 is hardeft and moft valuable in the roundilh and pebble- 
 like form. The amethyft is found in the Eaft and 
 Weft-lndics, and in feveral parts of Europe ; tho 
 oriental ones, at leaft fomeof the finer fpecimcns, be- 
 ing fo hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured 
 gems in value. However, by far the greater number 
 of ameihyfts fall infinitely (liort of thefe ; as all the 
 the European ones, and not a few of thofc brought 
 from the Eaft and Weft-Indies, are very little harder 
 than common cryftal. 
 
 Counteijeit or faBhiouf Amethyst. Spars and 
 cryftals tinged red and yellow, &c. are fold for ame- 
 thyfts. The falfc ones come from Germany, are ting- 
 ed by vapours in the mines, and contain fome lead. 
 
 AniethyUs may be counterfeited by glafs, to which 
 
 ihs
 
 A M E 
 
 [ 627 ] 
 
 A M I 
 
 Amtthyft the proper colour or /lain is given. There were fine 
 
 U ones made in France about the year 1690, which may 
 
 Amhar. even impofc on connoiireurs, unlefs the ftonc be taken 
 
 ' ^ 'out of the collet. — The method of giving this colour 
 
 to glafs is diredcd as follows: Take chryflal-frit, 
 made with the moft perfect and fine tarfo : Then pre- 
 pare a mixture of mangancfc in powder, one pound; 
 and zafFcr prepared, one ounce and a half: Mix thefe 
 powders well together ; and add to every pound of the 
 frit an ounce of this powder. Let it be put into the 
 pots with the frit, not into the already made metal. 
 When the whole has Hood long cnougli in fulion to 
 be perfcftly pure, work it into vefTcls, and then will 
 rcfeniblc the colour of the amethyit. 
 
 Amethyst in heraldry, a term for the purple co- 
 lour in the coat of a nobleman, in ufc with thoi'c who 
 blazon with precious ftoncs, inftead of metals and co- 
 lours. This, in a gentleman's efcutchton, is called 
 Purpura ; and in thofc of fovcreign princes. Mercury. 
 
 AMETHYSTEA, Amethyst : a genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under, the 
 /i2d order, Fertici/Iat^e. The characters arc : The ca- 
 (>*confiflsofafinglc-leavcdpcrianthium,bcll-lhaped, 
 angular, femiquinquefid, and perliftent : The orolla 
 is nionopctalous ; the border quinquepartite, the low- 
 cft divifion more expanding : The fiam'tna confift of 
 two (lender filaments approximated ; the antherae are 
 fimple and roundilh : the />///;//«;« has a four-cleft ger- 
 men ; flylus, the fize of the ftamina ; Iligmata, two, a- 
 cute : no corolla: the feeds, four, gibbous, and (horter 
 than the calyx : — there is only one known fpecies. 
 
 This plant is a native of Siberia, from whence the 
 feeds were fcnt tothe imperial garden at I'eterlburgh, 
 and thence carried to Britain. It is an annual plant, 
 Mith an upright llalk, which rifcs about a foot high. 
 Towards the top it puts forth two or three fmall late- 
 ral branches, garnilhcd with fmall trifiJ leaves, fawed 
 tin their edges, of a very dark green colour. Tlic 
 flowers appear in June or July, and are produced in 
 fmall umbels at the extremities of the branches. They 
 are of a fine blue colour, as are alio the upper part of 
 tlic branches, and the leaves immediately under the 
 umbel, fo that they make a fine appearance. 
 
 Culture. The feeds of the amethyftea (hould be 
 fown in autumn, as tliey are apt to remain a whole 
 year in the ground,if kept till thefpring. When the 
 plants come up, nothing elfe is necclFary than to keep 
 ihcm clear of weeds, and to thin them where ihey are 
 loo clofe. They ought to be fown where they are to 
 remain, as they do not thrive when traufplanted. 
 
 AMETHYSTINE is applied, in antiquity, to a 
 kind of purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyft. 
 In this fcufe amethyflinc differed from 'Tyrian as well 
 as from hyiicinthine purple, being a kind of medium 
 between both. 
 
 AMH.AR, or Amhara, a province of Abyllinia, 
 faid to extend 40 leajv'cs from eafl to wefl. It is con- 
 fidcrcd as the mod nobk in the whole empire, b uh on 
 account of its being the ufual refidence of the Abylfi- 
 ni.in monarchs, and liaviiig a particular dialed diffe- 
 rent from all the reft, which, by reafon of the empe- 
 rors being brought up in this province, is become the 
 language of the court and of the politer people. Here 
 h the fame J rock Amba-gclhen, where the young mo- 
 narchs were formerly coiiliucd. Sec A.mba. 
 
 Amida. 
 
 AMHUPiST (Nicholas), an Englifli poet and poii- Anihurft 
 lical writer, was born at Marden in Kent, and entered 
 of St John's college Oxford j from whence he was ex- 
 pelled for irregularity of conduct and libertine princi- 
 ples. Retaining great refentmentagainflthc univcrfity 
 on this account, he abufed its learning and difcipliue, 
 and fome of the mod refpcijtable charatlcrs i.i it, in a 
 poem publiihcdin 17^4, called Ocului Britumtia, and 
 in a book iatitled Terra t'lliui. He publiQied a Mifcel- 
 lany of Poems, facred and profane ; and. The Con- 
 vocation, a poem in five cantos, which was a facire on 
 the Bilhop of Bangor's antagonifts. But he is belt 
 known for the Ihare he had in the political paper call- 
 ed Tlie Craftfman : though, after having been the 
 drudge of his party for near 20 years, he was as much 
 forgot in the famous compromifc of 1 742 as if he had 
 never been born ; and, when he died in that year of 
 a broken heart, was indebted to the charity of his 
 bookfeller for a grave. 
 
 AMIANTHUS, or Earth-flax, in natural hif- 
 tory, a fibrous, flexile, elallic, mineral fubftance, con- 
 fiding of fliort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It 
 is found in Germany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fome- 
 timcsformingveinsof an inch in diameter. Its fibres 
 are fo flexible that cloth has been made of them, and 
 thefhorter filaments that feparatc in the wafliingof the 
 done may be made into paper in the common manner. 
 For the method of its preparation for manufacture into 
 cloth, fee Asbestos. 
 
 Amianthus is clafTed by Mr Kirwan in the muriatic 
 genus of earths, becaufe it contains about a fifth part 
 ofmagnefia. Its other condituents, are, fiint, mild 
 calcareous earth, barytes, clay, and a very fmall pro- 
 portion of iron. It is fufiblc per fe in a ftrong heat, 
 and alfo with the common fluxus. It diflcrs from af- 
 bedos in containing fome ponderous earth. 
 
 AMICABLE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing 
 done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace. 
 
 AMic-iBLK-Bench:s, in Roman antiquity, were, ac- 
 cording to Piiifcjs, lower and lefs honourable feats al- 
 lotted for \.htj:id'tcei pedaiui, or inferior judges, who, 
 upon being admitted of the emperor's council, were 
 dignified by him with the title am'tci. 
 
 '^MiciRLE-r^uiniirs, fuch as are mutually equal to 
 thcfumof one another's aliquot parts. Thus the num- 
 bers 2S4and 220 are amicable numbers: for the ali- 
 quot parts, I, 2, 4, J, 10, II, 20, 22, 44, jj, no, of 
 220, are together equal to the other number 2S4; and 
 ilic aliq^tot parts i, 2, 4, 71, 1 42, of 2S4, are together 
 equal to 220. 
 
 AMICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper 
 garment worn over the tunica. 
 
 Amictus, among ecclelladical writers, the upper- 
 moft garment anciently worn by the clergy ; the other 
 five being the alba, finguUim, ftola, manipulus, and 
 plancta. Theainic^us was a linen garment, of a fquarc 
 figure, covering the he^d, neck, and Ihouldcrs, and 
 buckled or clafped before the bread. It is dill worn 
 by the religious abroad. 
 
 AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman's up- 
 per garment, wlujh diirered from the pala. It was 
 worn both by matrons and courte/,aus. 
 
 AMICUS cuKix, a law-term, to denote a by- 
 dander who informs the court of a matter in law that 
 is doubtf.il or midaken. 
 
 AMID.A, a god worfliippcd by tlic Japancfc, who 
 4 K 2 has
 
 A M I 
 
 f 6aS J 
 
 A M I 
 
 Am;<1a, has many temples creeled to him ia the ifland of Ja- 
 Amitm. pan, of which the principal is at Jedo. Thejapanefe 
 ^""^"^ hnve fuch a confidence in their idol Amida, that they 
 hope to obtain eternal felicity by the frequent invoca- 
 tion of his name. One of the figures of this idol is 
 reprefe-.KcJ at Rome, 
 
 Amida (anc. geog.), a principal city of Mefopo- 
 tamia (Liber Notitix) ; .-iinvi.ta (Ptolemy) ; lituated 
 on a high mountain, on the tordcrs of AHyria, on the 
 Tigris, where it receives the Nymphius. — It was ta- 
 ken from the Romans, in the time of the emperor 
 Conftans, by Sapores king of Perha. The lifge is 
 faid to have cod him 30,000 men ; however, lie re- 
 duced it to fuch ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept 
 over it. According 10 Amniiaiius MarccUinus, the 
 city was razed ; the chief officers were crucified ; and 
 the reft, with the f(jldicrsand inhabitants, either put to 
 the fword or carried into captivity, except our hillori- 
 au himftlf, and two or three more, who, in the dead of 
 the night, cfcaped through a pollern unperccivcd by 
 the enemy. The inhabitants of Nifibis, however, 
 being obliged to leave their own city by Jovian's trea- 
 ty with the Pcrfians, foon rcftored Amida to its for- 
 mer ftrength ; but it was again taken by Cavades in 
 501, but was rcftored to the Romans in 503. On the 
 dcclcnfion of the Roman poAcr, it fell again into the 
 hands of the Periians ; but was taken from them by 
 the Saracens in 899. It is now in the poiftllion of the 
 Turks. Here are above 20,000 Chriftiaus, who are 
 better treated by the Turks than in other places. A 
 great trade is carried on in this city, of red Turkey 
 leather, and cotton cloth of the fame colour. The 
 Arabian name of Amida is Diarbiktr, and the Turkilh 
 one Kara Anted. K. Long. 39. o. N. Lat. 36. 58. 
 
 AMIENS, a large hanJfomc city of France, the 
 capital of Picardy. It is agreeably iituated on the ri- 
 ver Somme, and faid to have received its Latin name 
 Ambiaiium from being every where cncom palled with 
 water. It is a place of great antiquity ; being men- 
 tioned by Cxfar as a town that had made a vigorous 
 refinance againft the Romans, and where he convened 
 a T;eneral alfembly of the Gauls after having made him- 
 felf maftcr of it. The emperors Antoninus and Mar- 
 cus Aurcliiis enlarged it ; and Conftantine, Conftans, 
 Julian, and fcveral others, refidcd here aconfiJerable 
 time. The town is encompafled with a wall and other 
 fortifications ; and the ramparts are planted withtrees, 
 which from a delightful walk. The river Somme en- 
 ters Amiens by three different cliannels, under as many 
 bridges; and thefe channels, after walhing the town in 
 fcveral places, where they are of ufe in its different 
 manufadures, unite at the other end by the bridge of 
 S. Michael. Here is a quay for the boats that come 
 from Abbeville with goods brought by fea. At the 
 j;atc of Noyon there is a fuburb remarkable for the 
 abbey of S. Achen. Next to this gate you come to 
 that of Paris, where they have a lung mall between 
 two rows of trees. The houfes arc well built ; the 
 flreets fpacio-.is, eaibcliiflied with handfome fquares 
 and good buildings ; and the number of inhabit.uits 
 between 40 and 50 thoufand. The cathedral, dedica- 
 ted 10 our Lady, is one of the largcll and moft mag- 
 nificent churches in France ; adorned with handfome 
 paintings, fine pillars, chapels, and tombs; particu- 
 larly the nave is greatly admired. The other places 
 
 worth feeing arc the palace of the baiiiwic, the town- 
 boufe, the iquare det Fkurs, and the great market- 
 place. 
 
 Amiens was taken by the Spaniards, Ln 1597, by 
 the following ftratagem : Soldiers, difguiftd like pia- 
 fants, conducted a cart laden with nuts, and let a bag 
 of them fall juft as the gate was opened. While the 
 guard was billy in gathering up the nuts, the Spaniards 
 entered and became raaftersof the town. It was re- 
 taken by Henry IV. who built a citadel there. 
 
 Thistown is the feat of abilhop,fiiftraganof Rhcims, 
 as alfo of a prefidial, baiiiwic, vidani, a chaniber of 
 accounts, and a generality. The bilhop's revenue is 
 jo.ooolivres. They luvefome linen and woollen ma- 
 nufactures, and they alfo make a great qviautity of 
 black and green foap. It lies in £. Long. 2. 30. 
 N. Lat. 49. 50. 
 
 AMILCAR, the name of fevcral Carthaginian cap- 
 tains. The moft celebrated of them is Aniikar Barcas, 
 the father of Hannibal, who during five years in- 
 fefted the coaA of Italy ; when the Romans, fending 
 out their whole navalltrength, defeated him near Tra- 
 pani, 242 years before C hrift ; and thus put an end to 
 the firft Punic war. Aroilcar begin the fccond, and 
 landed in Spain, where he fubducd the moil warlike 
 nations ; but as he was preparing for an expedition 
 againft It;tly,he was killed iu battle, 228"ycars bclore 
 the Chriftian aera. He left three fous, w horn he had 
 educated, as he faid, like three lions, to tear Rome in 
 pieces ; and made H.innabcl, his cldeft Ion, fvvcar an 
 eternal enmity againft the Romans. 
 
 AMILIC'I 1, in the Chaldaic theology, denote a 
 kind of intellectual powers, or perfons iu the divine 
 hierarchy. The Amilicti are reprel'ented as three in 
 number ; and couftitute one of the tryads, in the third 
 order of hierarchy. 
 
 AMIRANTK, in the Spaniih polity, a great officer 
 of ftaie.anf'.verin^ to the lord high-admiral in England. 
 
 AMiSUS, the chief city of the ancient kingdom of 
 Pontus. It was biiilt by the Milcilans, and peopled 
 partly by them, and partly by a colony from Athens. 
 It was at firft a free city, like the other Greek cities in 
 Afia; but afterwards fubducd by Pharnaccs king of 
 Ponius, who made ii liis metropolis. It was taken by 
 Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, who rcftored it to its 
 ancient liberty. Clofc by Amifus ftood another city 
 called Eupitiria, from Mithridatcs Enpator its foun- 
 der. This city was likewife taken by Lucullus, who 
 levelled it with the gri>und ; but it was afterwards re- 
 built by Pompcy, who united it with Amifus, giving 
 them the r\&Taeof Pcnpciopoiis. It was taken during 
 the war between Cxixt and Pompcy, by Pharnaces 
 king of Pontus, who put moft of its inhabitants to the 
 fword ; butCajfar, having conquered Pharnaces, made 
 it again a free city. 
 
 AMITKRNUAl, a town of the Sabines, in Italy, 
 (Livy, Pliny); now extinct : The ruins are to be feen 
 on the level ridgt of a irountain, near S. Vittorii;o, 
 and the Springs oi the Aternus ; not far from Aquila, 
 which rofe out or the ruins of Aniiiernum. 
 
 AMITTERE legem terrx, among l.nwyers, a 
 phrafe importing the lofs of liberty of fwearing ia any 
 court : The puniOiment of a champion overcome or 
 yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a writ of 
 attaint^ and of apcrfon outlawed. 
 
 AM-KAS
 
 A M K 
 
 [ 629 ] 
 
 A M M 
 
 Am-ta», AM-KAS, in hiilory, a name given loaf^jacious fa- 
 ll loon ill the palace of the Grcat-Wogul, where he gives 
 ^ ■Arn mi. audience to his fubjcfts, and where he appears on fo- 
 ^ ' lemn ftftivals wiih extraordinary magnilicence. His 
 throne is fupiJoncd by fix large fleps of niaflTy gol.l, 
 let with rubies, emeralds^ and diamonds, cftiiuaied at 
 60,000,000! . 
 
 AMIVIA, among ccclefiailical writers, a term ufcd 
 lodcnote an abbtfs, or fpiritual mother. 
 
 AMMAN, or Ammant, in the German or Bclgic 
 policy, a judge who lias the cognifaucc of civil catilcs. 
 — his alfoufed among the French for a public notary, 
 •r officer who draws up inliruments and deeds. 
 
 AMWANIA : A genus of ihenionogyniaorder, be- 
 longing to the tetrandris clafs of plaiits ; and iii the 
 natural method rankingundcrihc 1 7th order, 6'a/vfa/;- 
 thevict. The chara<5lcrs are : The calyx is an oblong, 
 txi-Sl, bell-fliapcd perianthium, with eight lbi«, qua- 
 drangulatcdjoilodentatcd, andperlillcnt : The corolla 
 is either wanting, or it conliflsof fourovate expanding 
 petals iiiferted in the calyx : The jlamina confift of 
 four briftly tihsncnts the length of the calyx ; the an- 
 thera; arc didymous : The pijlillum has a large ovate 
 get men, above ; the ftylus iimplc and very fnort ; the 
 fligma headed : The Fericarpium is a roundifli four- 
 celled capfnle, covered by the calyx: the feeds are nu- 
 merous and fuiall. — Of ihisgcnus there are three fpe- 
 ciescnumeraLed ; allof tluin nativesof warm climates. 
 They liaveno beauty or other remarkable property. 
 
 AMMI, bishop's weed : a genus of the digynia 
 erdcr, belonging to thepentandriaclafs of plants ; and 
 ranking, in the natural method, under the 45th order, 
 Vmbellata. The .characters "are : Of tlie fa/>.v the 
 uaiverfal umbel is manifold ; the partial one ihort and 
 crowded ; theiavolucra arepinnatifid, with numerous 
 leariets : The ciroUa are radiated, and all hermaphro- 
 dite : The Jl-amitia confifl of five capillary filaments ; 
 ihcantherae roandith : 'The fijlillutnha a gcrmen be- 
 neath : the ftyli are two, and retlecled ; and the ftig- 
 niata are obtufe : There is no perkarpiuin ; the fruit is 
 roundifli, polilhcd, flriaied, fmall, and partible : The 
 feeds are two, plano-convex, and flriated. Of :..is 
 there are three 
 
 Species. I. The majus, or common biiliop's-weed, 
 the feeds of which are ufed in medicine. The glau- 
 cifolium, with all its leaves cut in the fhapeof a fpear. 
 3. The coplicum,or Egyptian bilhop's-wccd. 
 
 Culture, Sec. Thefirftis an annud plant ;and there- 
 fore is to be propagated by feeds fown in the autumn, 
 in the place where the plants are to remain. They 
 will flower in June, and the feeds will ripen in Augult. 
 This plant will grow in any open fituation, but thrives 
 bed in a light fandy foil. The fecond fort is peren- 
 nial, and very hardy. It thrives bell in a moill foil, 
 • and may be propjgatcd by feeds in the fame manner 
 as the former. 
 
 The third fpecies is now nootlicrwife known than 
 by the figurcof its feeds, which were formerly ufcd in 
 medicine, but have long fmce given place to thofc of 
 the common kind. The feeds of the ammi-copticum 
 are fmall, ftria:ed,of a redJiih brown colour, and have 
 a warm pungent talle, and apleafant fmell approaching 
 to that of origanum. They are recommended as llo- 
 machic, carminative, and diuretic ;but have long been 
 Grangers to the (hops. The feeds of the ammi-majus, 
 
 which arc ufed in their place, are much weaker both Ammianw 
 in taftc and fmell, and without thc^origanum flavour || 
 of the other, Amnion. 
 
 AMMIANUS (Marccllinus), a Grecian and a fol^ ' " ' 
 
 dier as he calh hiniftlf, was born at Antioch, and flou- 
 rilhed under Conllantiusand the preceeding emperors 
 as late as Theodofius. He fcrved under Julian in the 
 eaft ; and wrote in Latin an inierefting hiftory, from 
 the reign of Xerva to the death of Valtns, in 31 books 
 of which only 18 remain. Though a Pagan, he fpeaks 
 with caJidour and moderation of the Chriflian religion, 
 and even praifcs it : his hero is the emperor Julian. 
 He died about the year 590. The bed edition of hi3 
 hiftory is that of Gronovius, in 1693. 
 
 AMMIRATO (Scipio), an eminent Italian hiftori- 
 an, born at Lecca in Naples in 1531. After travel- 
 ling over great part of Italy, without fettling to his ' 
 faiijfadion, he was engaged by the great duke of 
 Tufcany to write Thi HiJIory of Florence ; for which 
 he was prefented to a canonry in the cathedral there. 
 He wrote other works while in this ftation ; and died 
 in 1 600. 
 
 AMMOCHRYSOS, from «</«x. fatid, and i;p<-»«, 
 gold, a name given by authors to a Aone very common 
 in Germany, and fceniing to be compofcd of a golden 
 fand. It is of a yellow golv-like colour, and its par- 
 ticks are vtry glofly, being all fragments of a colour- 
 ed talc. It is ufually fo foft as to be ealily rubbed to a 
 powder in the hand ; fomctimesit requires grinding to 
 powder in a mortar, or otherwife. It is ufcd only as 
 fand to ftrew over writing. The Germans call it. (a/=;/.-- 
 gold. There is another kind of it, lefs common, but 
 much more beautitul, confifting of the fame fort of 
 glolly fpangles, but thofe not of a gold colour, but of a 
 bright red, like vermilion. 
 
 AMMODYTES, or sanc-eel, in ichthyology, 
 a genus of fiflies belonging to the order of apodes. 
 This tiih refembles an eel, and feldom exceeds a foot 
 in length. The head of the ammody tes is compreired 
 and narrower than the body ; the upper jaw is lai'ger 
 than the under ; the body is cylindrical, with fcales 
 hardly perceptible. There is but one fpecies of the 
 ammodytes, viz. the tobianus, orlaunce, a native of 
 Europe. Tliis fifli gathers itfelf into a circle, ar.d pier- 
 ces the fand with its head in the centre. It is found 
 inmoftof the fandy iliores during fome of the fummer- 
 months; it conceals itfelf, on the recefs of the tides, 
 beneath the fand, in fuch places where the water is 
 left, at the depth of about a foot ; and is in fomc places 
 dug out, in others drawn up by means of a hook con- 
 trived for that purpofc. They arc commonly ufcd as 
 baits for other (ifli, but they are alfo very delicate eat- 
 ing. Thcfe fi(h are found in the ftomach of ihePcr- 
 pefs : an argument that the laft roots up the fand with 
 its nofe, as the hogs do the ground. 
 
 AM.MON,ancient ly a city of M?.rmarica (Ptolemy). 
 Arrian calls it 3.placf, not a city, in which ftood the 
 temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there was no- 
 thing but fandy waftes. Pliny fays, Thattlie oratic 
 of Ammon was 12 days journey from Memphis, and 
 among the Nomi of Egypt he reckons the Nokos j^h:- 
 t/ioiiiac is: Diodorus Siculus, That the dillricl where the 
 temple Hood, though furronnded with dcfaris, was wa- 
 tered by dews which fell nowhere elfc in all that coun- 
 try. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees and 
 
 fprings
 
 A M M 
 
 [ 630 ] 
 
 A M M 
 
 Amnion, fprings, and full of villages. In the middle Hood the 
 • — yr—- acropolis or citadel, ciicompa(rcd vvith a triple wall ; the 
 firll and iiimofl of which contained the palace ; the 
 others the apartments of the women, the relations and 
 children, as alio the temple of the god, and the facrcd 
 fountain for luilrations. Without the acropolis llood, 
 at no great diftance, another temple of Ammoii, lliad- 
 cd by a number of tall trees : near which there was a 
 fountain, called that of the fun, or Solis Fous, bcciiifc 
 fubjcck to extraordinary changes according to the time 
 of the day ; morning and evening warm, at noon cold, 
 at midnight extremely hot. A kind of foffil fdt was 
 faid to be naturally produced here. It was dug out of 
 the earth in large oldong pieces, fometimcs tjircc fin- 
 gers ill length, and tranfparent as cryflal. It was 
 thought to be a prcfent worthy of kings, and iifed by 
 the Egyptians in their facrifices. — From this our fal- 
 ammoiiiac has taken its name. 
 
 Ammon, or Hammon, in heatlien mythology, the 
 name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worlliipped under the 
 figure of a ram. 
 
 Bacchus having fubdued Afia, and pafling with his 
 army through the dcfartsof Africa, was in great want 
 of water: but Jupiter, his father, allhming the fliape 
 of a ram, led him to a fountain, where he refreflied 
 himfelfand his army; in gratitude for which favour, 
 Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title 
 of Amvion from the Greek ««,uo©.,, which fignifies 
 fjiid, alluding to the fandy defart where it was built. 
 in this temple was an oracle of great note, which 
 Alexander the Great confultcd, and which laded till 
 the time of Theodofms. 
 
 Hammon the god of the Egyptians, was the fame 
 with the Jupiter of the Greeks; for which reafon 
 thefc latter denominate the city which the Egyptians 
 call No- Hammon, or the habitation of Ammon, Dlof- 
 folis, or the city of Jupiter. He is thought to be the 
 fame with Ham, who peopled Africa, and was the fa- 
 ther of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyptians. 
 
 Ammon, or Ben-Ammi, the fon of Lot, begot by 
 that patriarch upon his yoiingeft; daughter (Gen. xix. 
 38.) He was the father of the Ammonites, and dwelt 
 to the eaft of the Dead Sea, in the mountains of Gi- 
 lead. Sec Ammonitis and Ammonites. 
 
 Ammon (Andreas), an excellent Latin poet, born 
 at Lucca in Italy, was fent by Pope Leo X. to England, 
 in the characters of prothonotary of the Apoftolic See, 
 and colleftor-general of the kingdom. Being a man 
 of lingular genius and learning, he foon became ac- 
 quainted with the principalliteratiofihofc times; par- 
 ticularly with Erafmus, Colct, Grocin, and others, 
 for the fake of whofc company he relided fome lime at 
 Oxford. The advice wliich Erafmusgivcs him, in re- 
 gard to pudiinghis fortune, has a good deal of liumour 
 in it, snd was certainly intended as a fatirc on the art- 
 ful methods generally prattifcd by the fcltilh and am- 
 bitious part of mankind: " In the firfl place (fays he), 
 throw otf all fenfeof fliame ; thrufl yourfclf into every 
 one's bufinefs, and elbow out whomfoever you can ; 
 neither love nor hate anyone ; meafure every thing by 
 your own advantage; let this be the fcope and diift 
 of a'l your ailions. Give nothing but what is to be 
 re;urned with ufury, and be complajfant to every body. 
 Have always two firings to your bow. Feign that you 
 are folicited by many froui abroad, and get every thing 
 
 ready for your departure. Show letters inviting you Ammonijt 
 
 elfewhcre, with great promifes." Ammon was Latin « ■ 
 
 fecretary to Henry VIII. but at what time he was 
 appointed does not appear. In 1512 he was made 
 canon and prebendary of the collegiate chapel of St 
 Stephen, in the palace of Wcrtminller. He was like- 
 wife prebendary of Wells ; and in 15 14 was prefcnted 
 to the rertory of Dychial in that diocefc. About the 
 fame time, by the king's fpccia! recommendation, he 
 was alio made prebendary of Salifbury. He died in 
 the year IJ17, and was buried in St Stephen's chapel 
 in the palace of Wcftminfler. He was efteenied an 
 elegant Latin writer, and an admirable poet. The 
 cpilUesof Erafmus to Amnion abound with encomiums 
 on his genius and learning. — His works arc, i. Epif- 
 tola: ad Erafmiim,\\\>. \. 2. Scotici confiifliis hijioria, 
 lib. I. 3. Bttcolicx vcl echgie, lib. i. Brafil IJ46. 4. 
 De rebus nihil, lib. I. 5, Panegyrkus quidavi, lib. i, 
 6. Varii gtiierii epigramviata, lib. i. 7. Poemata di- 
 verfa, lib. i. 
 
 AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy refmous juice, 
 brought from the Eall-Indics, ufually in large mafl'es, 
 compofed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour, 
 but foon changing, upon being expofed to the air, of a 
 yellowifli hue. We have no certain account ol the 
 plant which affords this juice ; the feeds ufually found 
 among the tears, refemble thofe of the umbelliferous 
 clafs. It has been, however, alleged, and not without 
 fome degree of probability, that it is an exudation 
 fromafpeciesofthc ferula, another fpecics of which 
 produces the aflafoetida. The plant producing it is faid 
 to grow in Nubia, AbyfTinia, and the interior parts of 
 Egypt. It is brought to the weflern part ©f Europe 
 from Egypt, and to England from the Red-Sea, by 
 fome of the fhips belonging to the Eaft-India Com- 
 pany trading to thofe parts. Such tears as are large, 
 dry, free from little flones, feeds, or other impurities, 
 Ihould be picked out, and preferred for internal ufe : 
 the coarfer kind is purified by folution and colarure, 
 and then carefully infpid'ating it ; unlefs this be art- 
 fully managed, the gum will lofe a confiderable deal of 
 its more volatile parts. There is often vended in the 
 /hops, under the name of ftraincd gum-ammoniacum, 
 a compofition of ingredients much inferior in virtue. 
 
 Ammoniac has a naufeousfweet tafle, followed by a 
 bitterone ; and a peculiar fmcll, fomewhat like that of 
 galbanum, but more grateful : it foftens in the mouth, 
 and grows of a whiter colour upon being chewed. 
 Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in flame : it is 
 ill fome meafure foluble in water and in vinegar, with 
 which it affumes the appearance of milk ; but therc- 
 finous part, amounting to about one half, fubfides on 
 Aanding. 
 
 Ammoniac is an ufcful deobllruent, and frequently 
 prcfcribed for opening obftruclions of the abdominal 
 vifcera, and in hyflerical diforders occafioned by a 
 deficiency of the mcn.lrual evacuations. Itislikewife 
 .•"uppofed to deterge the pulmonary vciTels ; and proves 
 ofconfiderablefervicein fome kinds of aflhmas, where 
 the lungs arc opprcflcd by vifcid phlegm : in this inten- 
 tion, a folution of gum-ammoniac in vinegar of fi;uills 
 prove;: a medicine of great efhcacy, though not a little 
 uiipleafant. In long and obflinate cholics proceeding 
 from vifcid matter lodged in the inteflines, this gummy 
 refiahas produced happy efFecls, after the purges and 
 
 tlic
 
 A M M 
 
 ADimoniac the common carmiiiitives had been ufcJ in vain. Am- 
 
 II moniac is raoflcommodiouny taken in the form of pills; 
 
 Aninio- about a fcruplc may be given every night, or oftencr. 
 
 °" '^' Externally, it foftens and ripens hard tumours : a folu- 
 
 ^~"^' lion of it in vinegar Hands recommended by fomc for 
 
 rcfolving even fchirrous fwellings. A pladcr made of 
 
 it and fqaill- vinegar is recommended by fomein white 
 
 fweUings. A dilute mixture of the fame is likcwife 
 
 rubbed on the parts, which are alfo fumigated wiili the 
 
 fmoke of juniper-berries. In tlie Ihops is prepared a 
 
 folution of it in pennyroyal water called from its milky 
 
 colour lac-amm^ntaci. It is an ingredient alfo in the 
 
 fquill pills. 
 
 Sal- Ammoniac, a volatile fait, of which there arc 
 two kinds, ancient and modern. The ancient fort, 
 defcribed by Pliny and Diofcoridcs, was a native fait, 
 generated in thofe large innsor caravanfcras wlicrethe 
 crowd of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupiter 
 Amnion, ufed to lodge ; who, in thofe parts, travel- 
 ling upon camels, and thofe creatures when in Cy rene, 
 a province of Egypt, where that celebrated temple 
 flood, uriningiii the ft;ables,or(fay forae) in the parch- 
 ed fands, GUI of this urine, whicli is remarkably Itrong, 
 arofe a kind of fait, denominated fometimes (from the 
 temple) Ammoniac, and fometimes (Irom the country) 
 Cyriniac. Since the celfation of thefe pilgrimages, no 
 more of this fait is produced there ; and, from this de- 
 ficiency, fome fufpecl there never was any fuel) thing : 
 But this fufpicion is removed, by the large quantities 
 of a fait, nearly of the fame nature, thrown out by 
 mount jttna. The charaiShers sf the ancient fal- am- 
 moniac are, that it cools water, turns aqua-foriis into 
 aqua-regia, and confequcntly dilfolves gold. 
 
 The modern fal-ammoniac is entirely faditious : for 
 which, fee Chemistry-//;i3'i'.v. 
 
 AMMONTAN PHiLosorHY. SccAmmonius. 
 
 AMIMONIT.*;, in natural hiflory. Sec Corkv 
 Amyiionis. 
 
 AMMONITES, a people defcended from Ammon 
 the fon of Lot. The Ammonites deflroyed thofe 
 giants which they called Zamzummims (Deut. ii. 19 
 — 21.), and feizcd upon their country. God forbad 
 Mofes, and by him the children of Ifracl {id, 19.), 
 to attack the Ammonites ; becaufe he did not intend 
 to give their lands unto the Hebrews. Before the If- 
 raelites entered the land of Canaan, the Aniorites had 
 by conquefl got great part of the countries belonging 
 to the Ammonites and Moabites. This Mofes retook 
 from the Amorites, and divided between the tribes of 
 Gad and Reuben. In the time of Jepluha, the Am- 
 monitcsdeclaredwaragainft the lfratlites(Judgesxi.) 
 under pretence that they detained a great part of the 
 country which had formerly been theirs before the 
 Amorites polfelfed it. Jcphtha declared, that as this 
 was an acquifition whicn the Ifraclites had made in a 
 jullwar, and what they had taken from the Amorites, 
 who had long enjoyed it by right of conqucft, he was 
 under no obligation to rellore it. The Ammonites 
 were not fatislied with thisreafon ; wherefore Jcphtha 
 gave them battle and defeated them. The Ammonites 
 and Moabites generally united whenever there was any 
 defign fct a-foot of atiacking tlie Ifraclites. After 
 the death of Othniel {id. iii.), the Ammonites and 
 Amalekitcs joined with Eglon king of Moab 10 op- 
 prefs the Hebrews ; whom they fubducd and governed, 
 lor the ipace of 18 years, till they were delivered by 
 
 4 
 
 [ 631 1 A M M 
 
 Ehud the Son of Gera, who flew Eglon king of Moab. .\mnio- 
 Somc timcaftertliis, the Ammonites made waragainA n^"- 
 
 the Ifraclites, and greatly dillreficd them. But thcfc 
 
 were at laft delivered by the handsof Jcphtha ; who ha- 
 vingattacked the Ammonites.raadea very great daugh- 
 ter among them (chap. xi.). In the beginning of 
 Saul's reign (i. Sam. xi.), Naalh king of the Am- 
 monites havingfat down before Jabelh-gilead, reduced 
 the inhabitants to the extremity of demanding a capi- 
 tulation. Naalh anfwercd, that he would capitulate 
 with ihcin upon no other conditions than ihtir fub- 
 mitting every one to have his right eye plucked out, 
 that fo they might be made a reproach to Kracl : buc 
 Saul coming feafonably to the relief of Jabclh, deli- 
 vered the city and people from the barbarity of the 
 king of the Ammonites. David had been ihe king of 
 Amnion's friend ; and, after the death of this prince, 
 he fent amball'adors to make his compliments of con- 
 dolence to Hanun his fon and fucctlfor ; who, ima- 
 gining that David's ambafladors were come as fj'ies to 
 obfcrve his flrength, and the condition of his king- 
 dom, treated them in a very injurious manner (2 Sam. 
 x. 4.). David revenged this indignity thrown upon 
 his amballadors, by fubduing the Ammonites, the 
 Moabites, and the Syrians, their allies. Ammon and 
 Moab continued under the obedience of the kings 
 David and Solomon ; and, after the feparaiion of the 
 ten tribes, were fubje(5l to the kings of Ifracl till tha 
 death of Ahab in the year of the world 5107. Two 
 years after the death of Ahab, Jehoram his fon, and 
 fucceiror of Ahaziah, defeated the Moabites (2 Kiujjs 
 iii.) : but it does not appear that this victory was fj 
 complete as to reduce them to his obedience. At tlie 
 fame time, the Ammonites, Moabites, and other peo- 
 ple, made an irruption upon the lands bclongiiio- to 
 Judah ; but were forced back and routed by Jeholha- 
 phat (2 Chr. xx r, 2.). After the tribes of Ueuben, 
 Gad, and the half-tribe of Manalfeh, were carried in- 
 to captivity by Tiglath-pilefcr in tlie year 5264, the 
 Ammonites and Moabites took poUtliion of the cities 
 belonging to thcfc tribes. Jeremiah (xlix. i.)reproach- 
 es them for it. The amballadors of the Ammouitts 
 were fome of thofe to whom this prophet (chap, xxvii. 
 2 — 4-) prefented the cup of the Lord's fury, and di- 
 reded to make bonds and yokes for themfdves ; ex- 
 horting them to fubmit themfelves to Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and threatening them, if they did not, with captivity 
 and llavcry. Ezekiel (xxv. 4 — 10.) denounces thtir 
 entire dellruilion ; and ttlls them that God would 
 give them up to the people of the call, who Ihould fct 
 their palaces in their country, fo that ihcre Ihuuld bo 
 no more mention of the Ammonitesaiiiong the nations. 
 It is believed that thcfc misfortunes h.^ppened to the 
 Ammonites in thetifth yearafter the taking of Jarnfa- 
 lein, when Nebuchadnezzar made waragainft all the 
 people that dwelt upon the contincs of judea, in the 
 year of the world 3420. 
 
 It is alio thought probable, that Cyrus gave the 
 Ammonites and Moabites the liberty of returning i:i:o 
 their own country, from whence they had been rcn:o- 
 ved by Nebuchadnezzar : for we fee them, in ihi- place 
 of their former ftttlement, expofed to thofe revolu- 
 tions which were common to ihc people of Syria and 
 ralcrtine ; l.ibjeds foniciimcs to the kings of Kgypr, 
 and at other limes to the kii;gs of Syria. We a.c 
 told by Poly bins, that Autiochus the Great took Rab- 
 
 both.
 
 A M M 
 
 [ ^3^ ] 
 
 A M M 
 
 Ammonirisbotli, or riiiladdphia, thtir capujl, JcmoliflicJ tlic 
 Aninioiiiji walls, and put a garrifon in it in 3806. Diiriiitr the 
 
 * ** ' pcrfccutionsof AiuiochusEpiphantSiJofcphiisinioriiis, 
 
 that the Ainmonitcs lliowcd their iiatrcd 10 ilic Jews, 
 and cxcrcifcd grcit cruelties aj!;ainll Inch of thtm as 
 lived about their country. Jiilhii Martyr iays, Tliat 
 in his time there were Aill many Ammonites remain- 
 ing ; but Origcn allures us, that when he was living 
 they were known only under the general name ot 
 Arabians. Thiiswasthcpredi(i:1ionofE7,ekicl(xxv. 10) 
 acconiplilhcd ; «hofaidthat the Ammonites Ihoiild be 
 deftroyc.i in fuch a manner as not to be remembered 
 among the nations. 
 
 ANMONITIS (anc. gcog.), a country of Arabia 
 Petr;:ea, occupied by the children ef Amnion, whence 
 the appellation. Itslimits, partly coihe wcii, andpart- 
 Ij' to the north, where the river Jabbok,whofecourfe is 
 no where determined ; though Jofephus fays, that it 
 runs between Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadelphia, and 
 Cerafa, and falls into the Jordan. 
 
 AMMONIUS, firnamed Saccas, was born in 
 Alexandria, and floiirilhed about the beginning of the 
 third century. He was one of the moll celebrated 
 philofophcrs of his age ; and, adopting with altera- 
 tions the Eccleaic philofophy, laid the foundations 
 of that feft which was dillinguiflied by the name of 
 new Neii) riatonks. Sec Ecclectics and Pi.ato- 
 N I s M . 
 
 This learned man was born of Chriftian parents and 
 educated in their religion ; the outward profcliion of 
 which, it is faid, he never entirely defertcd. As his 
 genius was vafl and comprchen live,fo were his projcfts 
 bold and fingular : For he attempted a general coali- 
 tion of all feiHs, whether philofophical or religious, by 
 framing a fyftem of doftrincs which he imagined cal- 
 culated to unite them all, the Chriftians not excepted, 
 in the moftperfccl harmony. In purfuance of tliisdc- 
 lign, he maintained, that the great principles of all 
 philofophical and religious truth were to be found e- 
 qiially in all feels j that they differed from each other 
 only in their method of exprclFrng them, and in fomc 
 opinions of little or no importance ; and that, by a 
 proper inierpretation of their refpeftivc fentiments, 
 they might eafily be united into one body. Accord- 
 ingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the ChriAian, 
 Were to be illuflratcd and explained by the principles 
 of this univcrfal philofophy ; and the fables of the 
 priefls were to be removed from Paganifm, and the 
 comments and interpretations of the difciplcsof Jcfus 
 from Chrilliaiiity. In conformity to this plan, he in- 
 firted.that all the religious fyftcms of all nations fliould 
 be reftorcd to their original purity, and reduced to 
 their primitive Aandard, viz. the ancient philofophy 
 of the Eaft, prefervcd uncorruptcd by Plato : and he 
 affirmed, that this project was agreeable to the inten- 
 tions of Jcfus Chrift ; whofc folc view in defcending 
 upon earth was to fet bounds to the reigning fuperfti- 
 tion, to remove the errors that had blended them- 
 felves with the religion of all nations, but not to abo- 
 lifli the ancient theology from which they were deri- 
 ved. He tlicrefore adopted the doftrines whicli were 
 received in Egypt concerning the nniverfe and the 
 Deity, confidercd as conftituting one great whole ; 
 concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of 
 
 fouli, the empire of Providence, aud thegorcrnmrnt Ammoniu 
 of the world by daemons. He alfo ellabliilicd a fyttcm 1 
 of moral dikipline ; which allowed the j<coplc in gc- ■^" ' °'- 
 ncrrl to live according to the laws of their country and ' 
 
 the dictates of nature ; but required the wife to exalt 
 tlieir minds by contemplation, and to mortify the body, 
 fo that they might be cipablc of enjoying the prclencc 
 and aflillaiice Ci the damons, and ol afeenduig after 
 death to the prcfencc of the Supreme Parent. In or- 
 der to reconcile ihcpopular religions, and particularly 
 the Chriftian, with this new fyltcm,hc madcthc whole 
 hillory of the Heathen gods an allegory ; maintaining 
 tiiatthcy were only cclcftial minilters, intitled to ati 
 inferior kind ot worlhip. And he acknowledged that 
 Jefus ChriAwas an excellent man, and the friend of 
 God ; but alleged that it was not his dclign entirely 
 to aboliili the worlhip ofdsemons, and that his only 
 intention was to purify the ancient religion. Thisfy- 
 Aem, fo plaufible in its firA rife, but fo comprehen- 
 five and complying in itsprogrefs, has been the fourcc 
 of innumerable errors and corruptions in the ChriAian 
 church. At its firA cAabliflinient it is faid to have 
 had the approbation of Athenagoras, Panta;nus, and 
 Clemens the Alexandrian, and of all who had the care 
 of the public fchool belonging to the ChriAians at A- 
 Icxandria. It w-as afterwards adopted by Longinus 
 the celebrated author of the treaiife on the Sublime, 
 Ploiinus, Herennius, Origcn, Porphyry, Jamblichus 
 the difcipleofPorphyry,Sopatcr, Edilius, EuAathius, 
 Maximusof Ephefus, Prifcus, Chryfanthius thcniailcr 
 of Julian, Julian the ApoAate, Hicrocles, Proclus, 
 and many others, both Pagans and ChriAians. 
 
 Theabove opiiiionsof Ammoni.is arecollcCled from 
 the writings and difputations of his difciples, the mo- 
 dern Platonics; for he himfclfleft nothing in writing 
 behind him ; nay, he ivnpofcdalaw upon his difciples 
 not to divulge his doftrincs among the multitude ; 
 which injunction, however, they made nofcruple to 
 ncglefl and violate. 
 
 Am MO NIL'S, furnamed I.ithotome, a celebrated 
 furgcon of Alexandria ; fo calledfrom hisinventingthe 
 operation of cxtrafting the Aone from the bladder. 
 
 AMMUNITION, a general name for all w^arlike 
 provifions ; but more particularly powder, ball, &c. 
 
 Ammunition, arms, utcnfils of war, gun-powder, 
 imported without licence from his Maje Ay, are, by the 
 laws of England, forfeited, and triple the value. And 
 again, fuch licence obtained, except for furnilhinghis 
 Majefty's public Aorcs, is to be void, and the offender 
 to incur a premunire, and to be difabled to hold any 
 office from the crown. 
 
 A.v.vuNnios Bread, Shoes, &c. fuch as are ferved 
 out to the foldiers of an army or garrifon. 
 
 AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a pardon 
 granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjefls, ufually 
 with fome exceptions : fuch was that granted by 
 Charles II. at his rcAoration. — Tiic word is formed 
 from the Greek «^TiirT;«, the name of an edi<5lof this 
 kind publithcd by Thrafibulus, on hisexpulfion of the 
 tyrants out of Athens. 
 
 AMNIOS, in anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane 
 which furronnds the foetus in the womb. See Poe- 
 
 TUS. 
 
 AMOEBjEUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem 
 
 repre»
 
 A M O 
 
 [ ^33 3 
 
 A M O 
 
 AmoT, 
 
 Imamtim 
 
 reprefentlng a difputc between two perfons, who arc 
 maile to anlwer each other aUernatcl/ ; fuch are the 
 third and fcvcnth of Virgil's eclogues. 
 
 AMOL, a town of Alia, in the country of the Uf- 
 becks, fcated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30. 
 N. Lat. 39. 20. 
 
 AMOMUM, Ginger : A genus of the monogynia 
 order, belonging to the monaudriaclafsof plants. The 
 charaflers are : The ca/yx is an obfcure three-toothed 
 perianthium, above : The corolu is inonopetalous, 
 the tubus Ihort, the limbus tripartite : The Jtamina 
 is an oblong filament, with the anthcras adjoining : 
 The pijlilluin has a roundifti germen, bencaih ; the 
 flylus is filiform, the ftigmaobtufc : The pcrtcarpi- 
 um is leathery, fubovate, trigonous, trilocular, and 
 threc-valvcd : The ftsdi are numerous. — Of this 
 genus there arc four 
 
 Species. I. The zingiber, or common ginger, is a 
 native of the Eaft, and alio of fome parts of the Weft 
 Indies; whercit grows naturally without culture. The 
 roots are jointed, andfpreadin the ground : they put 
 out many green reed-like ftalks in the fpring, which 
 arife to the height of two feet and an half, with nar- 
 row leaves. The tlower-ftems arile by the lideofthcfc, 
 immediately from the root ; thefe arc naked ; ending 
 with an oblong fcaly fpikc. From each of thefe fcalcs 
 is produced a fingle blue llower, whofe petals are but 
 little lower than the fquamous covering. 2. The ze- 
 rumbet, or wild ginger, is a native of India. The 
 roots arc larger than thofc of the lirft, but arc jointed 
 in the fame maimer. The ftalks grow from three to 
 near four feet high, with oblong leaves placed alter- 
 nately. The flowcr-ftems arife immediately from the 
 root : thefe arc terminated by oblong, blunt, fcaly 
 heads; out of each fcale is produced a fmglc white 
 flower, whofe petals extend a confiderable length be- 
 yond the fcaly covering. 3. The cardaniomum, or car- 
 damom, is likcwife a native of India ; but is little 
 known in Kurope except by its feeds, which arc ufcdin 
 medicine. Of this there is a variety,with fmaller fruit, 
 which makes the diftinftion into cardamoraum majus 
 and minus. The firft, when it comes to us, is a dried 
 fruit or pod about an inch long, containing, under a 
 thick fkin, two rows of fmall triangular feeds of a 
 warm aromatic flavour. The cardamomum minus is a 
 fruit fcarce half the length of the foregoing, but con- 
 liderably ftronger both in fmell and tafte. 4. The 
 grana paradili fpecies is likcwife a native of the Eaft 
 Indies. The fruit containing the grains of paradife is 
 about the lizeof afig, divided into three cells, in each 
 of which are contained two roots of fmall feeds like 
 cardamoms. They are fomewhat more grateful, and 
 conlidcrably more pungent, than cardamoms. 
 
 Culture. The firft two fpecies are tender, and 
 require a warm rtove to prcfcrve them. They arc 
 calily propagated by parting the roots in the fpring. 
 Thefe ihould be planted in pots filled with lij^lit rich 
 earth, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner's-bark, 
 where they muft conftantly remain. If we may be- 
 lieve the Abbe Raynal, cardamoms propagate thcm- 
 felves, in thofc countries where they are natives, 
 witliout either fowing or planting. Nothing more is 
 required than, as foon as the rainy feafon is over, to 
 fct fire to the herb which has produced the fruit. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Vfes. The dried roots of the firft fpecies are of great Ahwmoj* 
 ufc in the kitchen, as well as in medicine. They fur- II 
 nilh a confiderable export from fomc of the American Amorit«. 
 iflands. The green roots, prefcrvcd as a fweet-meat, ' " ^ 
 arcprefcrable to every other kind. The Indians mix 
 them with their rice, which is their common food, to 
 corre(ft its natural infipidity. This fpice, mixed with. 
 others, gives the dilhes fcafoned with it a ftroug taftc, 
 which is extremely difagreeable to ftrangcrs. The 
 Europeans, however, who come into Alia without fur- 
 tunes, arc obliged to conform to it. The others a- 
 dopt it out of complaifance to their wives, wlio arc ge- 
 nerally natives of the country Giugeris a very ufc- 
 
 ful fpice, in cold flatulent colics, and in laxity and dc- 
 bilityof theinteftines ; it docs not heat fo much as thofc 
 of the pepper kind, but its effefls arc much morcdura- 
 ble. The cardamoms and grains of paradife have the 
 fame medicinal qualities with ginger. — In Jamaica, the 
 common people employ it in baths and fomentations 
 with good fuccefs, in complaints of the vifcera, in 
 plcurilics, and inobftinate and continued fevers. 
 
 ^MomuM Ferum, or True Amoniiaii, is a round 
 fruit, about the fize of a middling grape ; containing, 
 under a membranous cover, a number of fmall rough 
 angular feeds, of a blackilh brown colour on the out- 
 iidc, and whitilh within : the feeds are lodjied in three 
 diflincl cells ; thofc in each cell are joined clofcly to- 
 gctlitr, fo as that the fruit, upon being opened, ap- 
 pears to contain only three feeds. Ten or twelve of 
 thefe fruits grow together in a cluftcr ; and adhere 
 without any pedicle, to a woody ftalk about an inch 
 long ; each linglc fruit is furrounded by fix leaves, in 
 form of a cup ; and the part of the ftalk void of fruit is 
 clothed witii leafy fcalcs. — The hulks, leaves, and 
 ftcms, have a light grateful fmcll, and a moderatcl/ 
 warm aromatic taftc : the feeds, freed from the hulks, 
 are in both rcfpeds much ftronger ; their fmell is 
 quick and penetrating, their talle pungent, approach- 
 ing to that of camphor. Notwithftanding amomum. 
 is an elegant aromatic, it has long been a ftranger ta 
 the fhops. 
 
 Amomum Vulgare. Sec Si son. 
 
 A MONTONS( William), an ingenious experimen- 
 tal philofopher, was born at Paris in 1665. Wliile 
 he was at the grammar-fchool, he by fickncfs contrac- 
 ted adeafnefs that almoft excluded him converfation. 
 In this frtuation, he applied himfclf to mechanics and 
 geometry ; and, it isfaid,refufcd to try any remedy for 
 hisdiforder, either becaufe he deemed it incurable, or 
 becaufc it increafed his attention. He ftudicd the nature 
 of barometers and thermometers with great care ; and 
 wrote Oi/ervat'ions and Experiuieiits coitc:rni>ig a new 
 Hour-glaji, and concerning Barometers, Thcrmome- 
 {lTs, and Hygrofcopes ; which, with fomc pieces ia 
 the Journal des Sfavans, are all his literary works. 
 When the Royal academy was new-regulated ini 699 
 he was admitted a member ; and read his ne-ai Theory of 
 Fridion, in which he happily cleared up an imporiaac 
 objec't in mechanics. He died in 1 70J. 
 
 AMOR-^ANS, a fcft or order of gcmaric doftors, 
 or commentators on the Jeruf.ilem Talmud. The A- 
 morxans fuccceded the Mifchnic dodors. They fub- 
 fifted 250 years ; and were fuccceded by the Sebu- 
 rxans. 
 
 4 L AMORGOS,
 
 A M O 
 
 [ 634 ] 
 
 A M O 
 
 Amorgos AMORGOS, or AmurGUS (anc. gcog.), now 
 
 II Morgo, not far Iroin Naxus to the cart, one of the Eu- 
 
 Amorpha. j-ppcan SporaJes ; tlie cotintry of Simonidcs the lain- 
 
 ^ ' bic poet. To this illinJ criminals were banilhcd. It 
 
 was famous for a tine flax called Emorgis. 
 
 AMORITES, a people defccndcd from Amorrhas- 
 ns, according to the Septuagint and Vulgate; Emorae- 
 us, according to other expolitors ; Hxmori, according 
 to the Hebrew ; or Emorite, according to our verliou 
 of the Bible ; who was the fourth fon of Canaan, 
 Gen. X. 16. 
 
 The Amorites firft of all peopled the mountains ly- 
 ing to the weft of the Dead Sea. They had likewifc 
 cftabliflimcnts to the eaft of the fame fca, between the 
 brooks of Jabbock and Arnon, from whence they for- 
 ced the Ammonites and Moabitcs. Num.xiii. 30. xxi. 
 29. Jofli. V. I. and Judges xi. 19, 20. Mofcs made a 
 conquell of this country from tlicir kings Sihon and 
 Og, in the year of the world 2555. 
 
 The prophet Amos (ii. 9.), fpeakingof the gigan- 
 tic ftatureand valour of the Amorites, compares their 
 height with that of cedars, and their ftrength with 
 that of an oak. The name Amoritc is often taken in 
 Scripture for all Canaanitcs in general. The lands 
 which the Amorites poilelFcd on this lide Jordan were 
 given to the tribe of Judah, and thofe which they had 
 enjoyed beyond this river were diflributcd between 
 the tribes of Reuben and Gad. 
 
 AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the 
 river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia — It was 
 taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but 
 foon after retaken by the Romans — A war break- 
 ing out again between thcfe two nations in 837, the 
 Roman emperor Thcophylus deftroyed Sozopetrathe 
 birth-place of the khilif Al' Motafcm, notwithlland- 
 ing his eainefl intrcatics to him to fpare it. Tliisfo 
 enraged the khalif, that he ordered every one to en- 
 grave upon his lliicld the word A/tiorium, the birth- 
 place of Theophylus, which he refolved at all events 
 to deftroy. Accordingly he laid liege to the place, 
 but met with a vigorous rcfiflance. At length, after a 
 liege of J5 days, it was betrayed by one of iheinha- 
 l^iants who had abjured the Chriftian religion. The 
 khalif, cxafperatcii at the lofs he had fuftained during 
 the fiege, put mofl of the men to the fword, carried 
 the women and children into captivity, and levelled 
 the city with the ground. His forces being diflreflcd 
 for want of water on their return home, the Chriftian 
 prifoncrs rofe upon fomc of them, and murdered them; 
 upon which the khalif put 6000 of the prifoncrs to 
 
 death .According to the eaftern hirtorians, 30,000 
 
 of the inhabitants of Amoriura were (lain, and as many 
 carried into captivity. 
 
 AMORPHA, False Indigo : A genus of the de- 
 candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 ^2d order, /'■;;> /7;o«<'c.'.r. The charaflers are : The 
 talyx is a fiuglc-leaved periantbium, tubular and per- 
 fiftent : The corolla conliflsof an ovate, concave, erect 
 petal, fcarccly larger than, and placed on the upper 
 iide of the calyx : The //aw/A.-J conlill of ten eredl 
 nnequal tilamtnts, longer than the corolla; the an- 
 cherse are limple : The ;>;/?/////?// has a roundilh ger- 
 mcn ; the ftylus fubulated, and the length of the ila- 
 
 Anioi. 
 
 raina ; the ftigma fun pic : The pericarpium is a luna- Amortiza. 
 ted unilocular legumcn, reliecled, larger than the ca- tion, 
 lyx, and tuburculatcd : The Jitfdj arc two, and kid- 
 ney-ihapcd. By the corolla alone this genus may be ' 
 dillinguilhed from all the known plants in the uni- 
 verfe : The petals are the banner ; the wings and 
 keel are wanting, which is very fingular in a papili- 
 onaceous corolla. 
 
 Of this there is only one known fpccies, a native of 
 Carolina, where the inhabitants formerly made from 
 it a coarie kind of indigo, whence the plant took its 
 name. It rifcs, with many irregular items, to the 
 height of 12 or 14 feet. The leaves arc late in the 
 fpring before their loliage is fully difplayed. The,cndg 
 of their branches are generally deftroyed by the froft; 
 or, if they recover it, they have the appearance of be- 
 ing dead; whilft other plants teftiiy the cffeifls of the 
 reviving montlis. But, notwithftanding thefc defctSs, 
 this tree has fome other good properties that in pare 
 make amends for them, i'he leaves, when out, arc 
 admired by all. They are of a pleafant green colour; 
 arc very large, beautifully pinnated, the lolioles being 
 arranged along the ftalk by pairs, and terminate by an 
 odd one. The flowers are of a purple colour ; they 
 grow in fpikes, fe ven or eight inches long, at the ends 
 of the branches, and are of a lingular ftrudure. In 
 order to make iliis tree have its bcft cffcit, it fliould 
 be planted among others of its own growth, in a well- 
 flieltered lituation ; by which means the ends will not 
 be fo liable to be deftroyed by the winter's frofts ; the 
 branches will not fuffer by the violence of the winds; 
 and, as itis fubjedl to put out many branches near the 
 root, thefe indelicacies and imperfeiiUons will be con- 
 cealed ; whilft the tree will Ihow itfelf to the utmoft 
 advantage when in blow, by elevating its purple-fpiked 
 flowers aniongft the others in a pleating view. 
 
 Cutturc. The amorpha is moll readily propagated 
 by feeds. It may alfo be propagated by laying down 
 iheyoungbranclies, wliich in one year will makegood 
 roots ; and may then be taken oft, and planted cither 
 in the nurfcry, or in tlic jilaces where they are defign- 
 ed to remain. If lliey arc put into a nurfery, they 
 lliould not remain there more than one year ; for as 
 the plants make large flioots, they do not remove well 
 when they have remained long in a place. 
 
 AMORTIZATION, in law, ihe alienation of lands 
 or tenements to a corporaiion or fraternity, and their 
 fucccffors. See Mortmain. 
 
 AMOS, the fourth of the fmall prophets, who in 
 his youth had been a herdfman in Tekoa, a fmall towa 
 about four leagues fouthward of Jcrufalcm, was fent to 
 the kine of Balhan, that is, to the people of Samaria, 
 or the the kingdom of Ifracl, to bring them back to re- 
 pentance, and an amendment of their lives ; whence it 
 is thought probable that he was born within the terri- 
 tories of Ifracl, and onl)^rciircd to Tekoa on his being 
 driven from Bethel, by Amaziah the pricft of the gol- 
 den calves at Bcihcl. 
 
 The prophet being thus retired to Tekoa, in the 
 kingdom of Judah, continued to prophefy. He com- 
 plains in many places of the violence otf'eicd him, by 
 endeavouring to oblige him to lilcnce. He boldly re- 
 nionftr.''.tcs againft the crying llns that prevailed among 
 the Ifraelitcs, as idolatry, opprtllion, wantonncfs, and 
 
 obftinacy.
 
 A M O 
 
 [ (>iS ] 
 
 A M O 
 
 obftinacy. He likewifc reproves thofc of Jndah, fucli 
 as their carnal fccurity, fcnfualijy, and injiiAicc. He 
 ' terrifies them both with frequent thrcatcnings, and 
 pronounces that their lins will at lafl end in the ruin 
 of Judah and Ifrael, which he illuArates by the vifions 
 of a plumb-line and a balkct of furamer-fruit. It is 
 obfervable in this prophecy, that as it begins with de- 
 nunciation of judgment and deftruftion againft the Sy- 
 rians, Phillftines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the 
 Jews, foit concludes with comfortable promifcs of jc- 
 itoring the tabernacle of David, ami erefiing the king- 
 dom of thrift. Amos was chofen to the prophetic of- 
 fice in the timeof Uzziah king of Judah, and Jero- 
 boam the fon of Joafii, king of Ifracl, two years be- 
 fore the earthquake (Amosi. i.), which happened in 
 the 24th or 2 jth year of Uzziah, according to the rab- 
 binsand mod of the modern commentators; or the year 
 of the world 32 i9,whcn this prince ufurpcdthepricll's 
 office, and attempted to oiFer inceufe to the Lord : 
 but it is obfcrved, that this cannot be the cafe, be- 
 caufe Jotham, the fon of Uzziah, who was born in 
 3221, was of age to govern, and confcquenily was be- 
 tween I J and 20 years of age, when his father under- 
 took to ofrer incenfe, and was ftruck with a leprofy. 
 The firft of the prophecies of Amos, in order of time, 
 are thofe of the 7th chapter : the reft he pronounced 
 in the town of Tekoa, whither he retired. He fore- 
 told the misfortunes whiclithe kingdom of Ifrael (hould 
 fall into after the death of Jeroboam 11. who was then 
 living ; he foretold the death of Zechariah, the inva- 
 fionof the lands belonging to Ifracl by Phul andTig- 
 lath-pilefer kings of AlTyria ; and he fpcaks of the cap- 
 tivity of the ten tribes, and their return. 
 
 The time and manner of thisprophct'sdcath arc not 
 known. Some old authors relate that Amaziah, prieft 
 of Bethel, provoked by the difcourfes of the prophet, 
 had his teeth broke in order to filence him. Others 
 fay, that Hofcaor Uzziah, the fon of Amaziah, ftruck 
 him with aftakeupon the temples, knocked him down, 
 and wounded him much ; in which condition he was 
 carried to Tekoa, where he died, and was buried with 
 his fathers ; but it is generally thought that he prophe- 
 ficd a long time at Tekoa, after the adventure which 
 he had with Amaziah ; and the prophet himfclf taking 
 no notice of the ill treatment which he is faid to have 
 received, is an argument that he did notfulfcr in the 
 manner they relate. 
 
 St Jcrom obferves, that there is nothing great or 
 fublime in the ftyle of Amos. He applies the words 
 of St Paul (2 Cor. xi. 6.) to him, ' rude in fpeech 
 though not in knowledge.' And he farther obferves, 
 that he borrows his comparifonfrom thcftateandpro- 
 feflion to which he belonged. 
 
 AMOY, an illand in ihe. province of Fokien, in 
 China, Long, i 36. o. Lat. 24. 30. It has a fine port 
 that will contain many ihoufand velTcls. The emperor 
 has a garrifon of litre 7000 men. 
 
 AMPELlS, the vine, in botany. Sec Viris. 
 
 Ampelis, the Chaturer, in zoology, a genus of 
 birds belonging to the order of palferes ; the diftin- 
 g\iifliing characters of which arc, that the tongue is 
 furnilhcd with a rim or margin all round, and the bill 
 is conical and ftrait. There are feven fpecies all na- 
 tives of foreign countries, except the garrulus, which 
 is a native both of Europe and of Weft ladies. In 
 
 the former, the native country of ihefe birds is Bohe- Ampelitn 
 mia : from whence they wanoer over the reft of Eu- II 
 
 rope, and were once fupcrftitioully confidered as pre- Amphi»r»- 
 fages of a pcllilcnce. 1 hey appear annually about E- 
 dinburgh in February ; and feed on the berries of the 
 inountain-a(h. They alfo appear as far fouth as North- 
 umberland ; and, like the field-fare, make the berries 
 of the white-thorn their food. It is but by accident 
 that they ever appear farther fouth. They arc grega- 
 rious; feed on grapes, where vineyards are cultivated ; 
 are eafily tamed; and are efteemed delicious food. This 
 fpecies is about the fize of the black-bird : the bill is 
 fliort, thick, and black ; on the head is a fliarp point- 
 ed creft reclining backwards : the lower part of the 
 tail is black ; the end of a rich yellow ; the quill-fea- 
 thers are black, the three firft tipt with white ; the 
 fixnext have half an inch of their exterior margin edg- 
 ed with fine yellow, the interior with white. But what 
 diftinguillies this from all other birds, arc the horny 
 appendages from the tips of feven of the fecondary 
 feathers, of the colour and glofs of the beft red wax. 
 
 AMPELITES, CANNEL-coAL, or candle-coax., 
 a hard, opaque, folTile, inflammable fubftance, of a 
 black colour. It does not efFcrvefce with acids. The 
 arapelites, though much inferior to jet in many re- 
 fpetts, is yet a very beautiful folfile ; and, for a body 
 offocompadla ftruilurc, remarkably light. Examined 
 by the mifcrofcope, it appears compofed of innumera- 
 ble very fmall and thin plates laid clofcly and firmly 
 onone another ; and fuUofvery fmallfpecksofa black- 
 er and more Ihining matter than the reft, which is c- 
 vidently a purer bitumen than the general mafs. Thefe 
 fpecks are equally difFiifed over the ditfercnt parts of 
 the malTes. There is a large quarry of it near Alen- 
 fon in France. It is dug in many parts of England, 
 but the fineft is in Lancaihire and Chefliire ; it lies 
 ufually at confiderable depths. It makes a very brilk 
 fire, flaming violently for a lliort time, and after that 
 continuing red and glowing hot a long while ; and fi- 
 nally is reduced into a fmall proportion of grey aflics, 
 the greater part of its fubftance having flown off in 
 the burning It is capable of a very high and ele- 
 gant polilli ; and, in the countries where it is produc- 
 ed, is turned into a vaft number of toys, as fuff-boxes 
 and the like, which bear all the nicety of turning, and 
 are made to pafs for jet. — Hufbandmen fmcar their 
 vines with it, as it kills the vermin which infefts 
 them. It is likewifc ufcd for the dycingof hair black. 
 In medicine it is reputed good in colics, agaiuft worms, 
 and of being in general an emoUicut and difcuticut; 
 but the prefeiit pradlicc takes no notice of it, 
 
 AMPELUSIA, (anc.geog.) a promontory of Mau- 
 ritania Tingitana, called Cottcs by the natives, which 
 is of the fame fignification with a town of the fame 
 name not far from the River Lixus, near the ftraits 
 of Gibraltar : now Capc-Sfartel. W. Long. 6. 30. 
 N. Lat. 36. o. 
 
 AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veDels where- 
 in the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one 
 with the right hand and the other with the left. 
 
 AMPHIATHROSIS, in anatomy, a term for fuch 
 jundures of bones as have an evident motion, but dif- 
 ferent from the diathrolis, &c. See Diathrosis. 
 
 AMPHIARAUS, in pagan mythology, a cclebrat- 
 
 cd prophet, who poffcflcd part of the kingdomof Ar- 
 
 4 L 2 gos.
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 636. ] 
 
 AMP 
 
 Amphibia. 
 
 • Dr far- 
 fun I ; in a 
 paper read 
 licforc the 
 Royal So- 
 ciety. 
 
 f See the 
 article fbf 
 ta. 
 
 gos. ric was believed to excel in divining by dreams, 
 and is faid to be the tirfl who divined by fire. Am- 
 phiaraiis knowing, by the fpiiit of prophecy, that he 
 would lofc his lite in the war again/l Thebes, hid him- 
 fcll'in order to avoid engaging in thai expedition ; but, 
 his wife Eiiphyle, bting prevailed upon by a prcfcut, 
 difcovercd the place in which he had concealed him- 
 fclf ; I'o that he was obliged to accompany the other 
 princes who marched jgainJl Thebes. This proved fa- 
 tal to him i for the earth being fplit afundcr by a thun- 
 der-bolt, both he and his chariot were fwallowed up in 
 the opening Aniphiaraus, after his death, was rank- 
 ed among the gods ; temples were dedicated to him ; 
 and his oracle, as well as the fports inftitnted to his ho- 
 nour, were very famous. 
 
 AIStPHlBl.A, in zoology, the name of Linnaeus's 
 third tlal's of animals ; iiicKuiing all thofe which live 
 j)anly in w-ater and partly on laud. This clafs he fub- 
 divides into four orders, viz. The amphibia reptiles ; 
 the amphibia ferpcntesj the amphibia names; and the 
 amphibia meantes. See Zoology. 
 
 It has been a quclVion whether the animals common- 
 ly called awphibiotii, live molt in the water or on land. 
 If we conlider the words «/*?/ {utriiiq:ie, both ways), 
 and ySiot [vita life), from whence the term ampkibious 
 is derived ; we ihouldinuierfland, that animals, having 
 this title, ihould be cap.able of living as well by land, or 
 in the air, as by water ; or of dwelling in either con- 
 ilantly at will : but it will be difficult to find any ani- 
 mal that can fultil this derinilion, as being equally qua- 
 lified for either. An ingenious naturalift,* therefore, 
 from confidering their oeconomy refpedively, divides 
 them into two orders, viz. l. Such as enjoy their chief 
 funilions by land, but occafionally go into the water. 
 2. Such as chieriy inhabit the water, but occafionally 
 go afliorc. What he advances on this fubjeeb is cu- 
 rious, and well illuftrates the nature of this clafs. 
 
 I. Of the firll order, he particularly confiders the 
 phocae ; and endeavours to Ihow, that none of them 
 can live chiefly in the water, but that their chief en- 
 joyment of the fun(5lions of life is on (liorc. 
 
 Thefeanimals(hcobferves)arcreallyquadrupedst; 
 but as their chief food is fifli, they are under a nccef- 
 lity of going out to fca to hunt their prey, and to great 
 dillances from (liore ; taking care that, however great 
 the dirtance, rocks or fmall illands are at hand, as 
 refting-places when they are tired, or when their bo- 
 dies become too much macerated in the water ; and they 
 return to the places of their ufual rcfort to llcep, copu- 
 late, and bring forth their young, for the following 
 xcafons, \i/.. It is well known, that the only effential 
 difference (as to the general ilruc'hirc of the heart) 
 between amphibious and mere land animals, or fuch as 
 never go into the water, is, that in the former, the o- 
 ■yal hole remains always open. Now, in fuch as are 
 ■without this hole, if they were to be immerfed in water 
 for but a little time, r. fpiration would ceafe, and the 
 animal muft die ; bccaufe a great part of the mafs of 
 blood partes from the heart by the pulmonary artery 
 through the lir.igs, and by the pulmonary veins returns 
 10 the heart, while the aorta is carrying the greater 
 part of the mafs to the head and extremities, &c. 
 
 Now, the blood palfes through the lungs in a conti- 
 nual uninterrupted ftrcam, while rcfpiration is gentle 
 aud moderate : but when it is violent, then the circu- 
 
 lation is interrupted, forinfpirationand exfpiration are Amphibir.. 
 
 now carried to their extent ; and in thi< (late the dood v^— ' 
 
 cannot pal's through the lungs either during the total 
 iufpiraiion or total exfpiration of the air in breathing : 
 for, in the former cafe, the inflation comprellcs the re- 
 turning veins; and, in the latter, by ihc coUaplion of 
 the lungs, thcfc veins are interrupted alfo ; fo that it is 
 only between thcfc two violent actions that the blood 
 can pafs : and hence it is, that the lives of animals arc 
 fliortened and their health i 1 p.iired, when they arc 
 fubjcded to frequent violent relpiralion ; and thus it is, 
 that when animals have once breathed, they mufl con- 
 tinue to refpire ever after, for life is at an end when, 
 that ceafes. 
 
 There arc three neccfTary and principal nfes of rcfpi- 
 ration in all land-aniuials, and in tlmfc kinds that are 
 
 counted amphibious The fir/t is that of promoting 
 
 the circulation of the blood through the whole body 
 and extremities. In real fillies, the force of the heart 
 is alone capable offending the blood to every part, as 
 they are not furniilied with limbs or extremities ; but 
 in the others mentioned, bein;^ all furnilhed with ex- 
 tremities, rcfpiration is an allilhint force to the arte- 
 ries in fending blood to the extremities ; which, being 
 fo remote from tlie heart, have need of fuch alllllance, 
 otherwileihccirculaiion would be very languid in thefe 
 parts : thus we fee, that in perfonsfubjeiit to afihmatic 
 complaijits, the circulation grows languid, the legs 
 grow cold and eodematous, and 01 her parts fufTer by the 
 defeft in rcfpiration. — A fccond ufe of breathing is, 
 that, in infpiration, the variety of particles, of different 
 qualities, which float always in the air, might be 
 drawn into the lungs, to be infinnatcd into the mafs of 
 blood, being highly neccflary to con temperate and cool 
 the agitated mafs, and to contribute refined pabulum 
 to the finer parts of it, which, meeting with the daily 
 fupply of chyle, ferves to affimilatcand more intimate- 
 ly mix the mafs, and render its conflitution the fitter 
 for fiipporting the li'e of the animal. Therefore it is, 
 that valetudinarians, by changing foul, or unwholefonic 
 air, for a free, good, open uir, often recover from lin- 
 gering difeafcs. — A tliird principal ufe of rcfpiration 
 is, to promote the exhibition of voice in animals ; 
 which all thofc that live on the land do according to 
 their fpecific nature. 
 
 From thefe conliderationsit appears, that the phocas 
 of every kind arc under an abfolutc neccfiiiy ot mak- 
 ing the land their principal refidence. But there is 
 another very convincing argument why they refide on 
 fliore the greatefl part of their time ; namely, that the 
 fiefli of thefe creatures is analogous to that of other 
 land animals: and therefore, byover-long maceration, 
 added to ilie fatigue of their chafing their prey, they 
 would fuffer fuch a relax.ition as would deftroy them. 
 It is well known, that animals which have lain long 
 under water, arc reduced to a very lax and even pu- 
 trid ftatc ; and the phoca mufl bafkin the airon fhoie : 
 for while the folids arc at rcfl, they acquire their for- 
 mer degree of trnllon, and the vigour of the animal is 
 reflorcd; and while lie has an uninterupted placid rc- 
 fpiration, his blood is refreflicd by the new fupjily of 
 air, as explained above, and he is rendered fit for his 
 next cruife: for aiflion wafies the moA exalted fluids of 
 the body, mere or lefs, according to its duration ani 
 violence ; and thcrcllorative reflmult continue along- 
 
 tr
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 637 ] 
 
 AMP 
 
 Amphibia, er Or fliorter time, according to the quantity of the 
 '*' " previous fatigue. 
 
 Let us now examine by what power thefe animals 
 ttrc capable uf remaining longer under water than land- 
 animais. 
 
 All thefe have the oval liolc open b«ween the right 
 and left auricles of the heart ; ami, in many, the ca- 
 ralis arteriofusalfo : and while the phoca remains under 
 Water, which he may continue an hour or two more or 
 lefs, his refpiration is flopped ; and the blood, not 
 finding the palfage through the pulmonary artery free, 
 ruflics through the hole from the right to the left au- 
 ricle, and partly through the arterial canal, being a 
 fliort palFagc to the aorta, and thence to every part of 
 the body, maintaining the circulation ; but, upon rifing 
 to come afliore, the blood finds its paflage again thro' 
 the lungs the moment he rcfpires. 
 
 Thus the foetus in utero, during its confinement, 
 having the lungs compreired,anJconfcquently the pul- 
 monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula- 
 tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and 
 the arterial canal. Now, fo far the phoca in the water, 
 and the foetus in utero, are analogous ; but they differ 
 in otlier material circumflances. One is, that the foetus 
 having never refpired, remains fufficiently nouriflied 
 by the maternal blood circulating through him, and 
 continues to grow till the time of his birth, without 
 any want of refpiration during nine months confine- 
 ment: the [fiioca, having refpired the moment of his 
 birthy cannot live very long without it, for tlie reafons 
 given before ; and this hole and canal would bcclofed 
 in tliem, as it is in land-animals, if the dam did not, 
 foon after the birth of the cub, carry him fo very fre- 
 quently into the water to teach him ; by which pr.ic- 
 ticc thefe palfagesare kept open during life, oiherwifc 
 they would not be capable of attaining the food dc- 
 figned for them by Providence. 
 
 Another difF. rence is, that the phoca, as was faid be- 
 fore, would be relaxed by maceraiiou in remaining too 
 long in the w ater ; whereas the foetus in utero fuffers 
 no injury from continuing its full number of months 
 in the fluid it fwims in : the rcafon is, that water is a 
 powerful folvent, and penetrates the pores of the fkins 
 of land-animals, and in time can dilTol vet hem ; where- 
 as the ItftiQr amnii is an indpiil foft fluid, impregnated 
 with particles more or Icfs mucilaginous, and utterly 
 incapable of making the leaft alteration iu the cutis of 
 the foetus. 
 
 Otters, beavers, and fomc kinds of rats, go occafion- 
 ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain 
 very long under water. " I have often gone to flioot 
 etters (fays our author), and watched all their mo- 
 tions : I have feen one of them go fofily from a bank 
 into the river, and dive down ; and in about two mi- 
 nutes rife, at 10 or 15 yards from the place he went 
 in, with a middling falnion in his nioutli, which he 
 brougJt on lluTc. 1 flioi him, and faved the hlh 
 whole." Now, as all foeitifeihave ihe!'e pail'agcsopen, 
 if a whelp of a true watcr-f|ianicl was. immediately af- 
 ter its birch, ferved as the phoca does her cubs, and 
 immer'cd in w;itfr, to ftcp refpiration for a little time 
 every day, it is probable that the hole and canal would 
 be kept open, and the dog be made capable of remain- 
 ing a> loiijr under water as the phoca. 
 
 frogs, how capable focvcr of remaining in the wa- 
 
 ter, yet cannot avoid living on land, for they refpire ; Amphibia, 
 
 and if a frog be thrown into a river, he makes to the ' f—' 
 
 fliorc as fall as he can. 
 
 The lizard kind, fuch as may be called water-liz- 
 ards (fee Lacerta), are all obliged to como to land, 
 in order to depolite their eggs, to refl, and to llccp. 
 Kven the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, deep 
 and lay their eggs on (hore ; and, while in the water, 
 are compelled to rife to the I'urface to breathe ; yet, from 
 the texture of his fcaly covering, he iscapable of remain- 
 in;; in the water longer by far than any fpccies of the 
 phoca, whofclkin is analogous to that of a horfe or cow. 
 
 The hippopotamus (See Hippopotamus), who 
 wades into the lakes or rivers, is a quadruped, and re- 
 mains under the water a confidcrablc time ; yet his 
 chief refidence is upon land, and he mufl come on fhors 
 for refpiration. 
 
 Thcteftudo, or fcatortoife (fee Testo do), though 
 he goes out to fea, and is often found far from land ; 
 yet, being a refpiring animal, cannot remain longun- 
 der water. He has indeed a power of rendering him- 
 felf fpecifically heavier or lighter than the water, and 
 therefore can let himfclf down to avoid an enemy or 2 
 florm : yet he is under a necedity of rifing frequently 
 to breathe, for reafons given before; and hismoflufual 
 fituation, while at fea, is upon the furface of the water, 
 feeding upon the various fub!>ances that float in great 
 abundance every where about him ; thefe animals deep 
 fccurely upon the furface, but not under water ; and 
 can remain longer at fea than any other of this clafs, 
 except the crocodile, becaufe, as it is with the latter, 
 his covering is not in danger of being too much mace- 
 rated ; yet they mufl go on Ihorc to copulate and lay 
 their eggs. 
 
 2. The confidcration of thefe is fufficient to inform 
 us of the nature of the tirftorder of the clafs of amphi- 
 bious animals ; let us now fee what is to be faid of the 
 fecond in our divifion of them, which are fuch as chief- 
 ly inhabit the waters, but occaConally go on Ihore. 
 
 Thcfc are but of two kinds: the eels, and water fer- 
 pents or fnakes of every kind. It is their form that 
 qualifies them for loco-motion on land, and they know 
 their way back to the water at will ; for by their flruc- 
 tiire they have a flrong periflaltic motion, by which 
 they can go forward at a pretty good rate : whereas all 
 other kinds of filh, whether vertical or horizontal, are 
 incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on fhore ; and 
 therefore, as foon as fuch hfh are brought out of the 
 water, after having flounced a while, they lie moiion- 
 lefs, and foon die. 
 
 Let us now cxamifie into the reafon why thefe ver- 
 micular filh, the eel and ferpent kinds, can live a confi- 
 dcrablc lime on land, and the vertical and horizontal 
 kinds die almofl immediately when taken out of the 
 water : and, in this rcfcarch, we Ihall come to know 
 what analogy there is between land animals and thofc 
 of the waters. All land-animals have lungs, and can 
 live no longer than while thefe arc inHared by the am- 
 bient air, and alternately comprcfl'ed for its expullion; 
 that is, while refpiration is duly carried on, ly a re- 
 gular infpiration and exfpiration of air. 
 
 In like manner, the filli in general have, infte-.dof 
 lungs, gills or branchia: : and as in l.ind-animals the 
 lungs have a large portion of the mafs of blood cjrcu- 
 Uting through them, which mull be flopped if die air 
 
 ba5
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 638 ] 
 
 AMP 
 
 Airi)hibia. has not a free ingrefs and egrefs into and from them ; 
 
 * ^ ■ fo, in filh, there is a great numberof blood-vclFcls iliat 
 
 pal's through the branchix,andagrcat portion of their 
 blood circulates through them, which mufl in like iiian- 
 jicr be totally flopped, if the branchix are not perpe- 
 tually wetwithwatcr. Sothat, as the air is to thehings 
 in land-animals a conftant aliiftant to the circulation ; 
 fo is the water to the branchix of thofe of the rivers 
 and ftas: for when thefc are out of the water, the bran- 
 chiae very foon grow crifp and dry, the blood-veficls are 
 flirnnk, and the blood is obflrntted in its paflage ; fo 
 when the former are inimerfed in water, or otherwifc 
 prevented from having rclpiration, thecirculationcea- 
 fes and the animal dies. 
 
 Again, as land-animals would be deflroycd by too 
 much maceration in water ; fo fillies would, on tlieoihcr 
 hand, be ruined by too much exficcation ; the latter 
 being from tiicir general flrutfure and conftiiution, 
 made fit to bear, and live in, the w-ater ; the former, 
 by their conftitution and form, to breathe and dwell in 
 the air. 
 
 i3ut it may be aflced, why eels and water-fnakes are 
 capable of living longer in the air than the other kinds 
 of ti(h ? Thisisanfwcred, by confidering the providen- 
 tial care of the great Creator for thefc and every one 
 of his creatures: for fince they were capable of loco- 
 motion by their form, which they need not be if they 
 were never to goon lliore, itfeemed necelTary that they 
 fliould be rendered capable of living a conficlerable time 
 on lliorc, othcrwifetheir loco-motion would bein vain. 
 How is this provided for ? M'hy, in a moll convenient 
 manner ; for this order of filhes have their branchiaj 
 well covered from the external drying air ; they arealfo 
 furniflied with a lliiny mucus, which hinders their be- 
 coming crifp and dry for many hours ; and their very 
 fkins always emit a mucous liquor, which keeps them 
 fupplc and moift for along time : whereas the branchiae 
 of other kinds of filh are much expofed to the air, and 
 ■want the (limy matter to keej) them moifl. Now, if 
 any of thefc, when brought out of the water, were laid 
 in a velTcl w ithout water, they might bepreferved alive 
 a conlidcrable time, by only keeping the gills and fur- 
 face of the Ikin conllantly w et, even without any water 
 to fwim in. 
 
 It has been advanced, that r/zari may, by art, be ren- 
 dered amphibious, and able to live under waier as well 
 as frogs. As the foetus lives //; ttteio without air, and 
 ihe circulation is there continued by means of tl:e fora- 
 men ovale ; by prefcrving the palTagc open, and the 
 otherparts in flat;/ qi.n, after the birth, the fame facul- 
 ty would ftill continue. Now, the foramen, it is al- 
 leged, would be prcferved in its open ftaie, were peo- 
 ple accuflomcd, from their infancy, 10 hold their breath 
 a conlidcrable time once a-day, that the blood might 
 be forced to refumc its priftine pnliage, and prevent its 
 drying up as it ufu lly docs. This conjefture frems, 
 in fome mcafure, fupported by the practice of divers, 
 \vho arc taught from their childhood to hold their 
 breath, and keep long underwater, by w liich means the 
 ancient channel is kept open. — A Calabrian monk at 
 Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making 
 an offer to the king of Spain, 10 continue twice twen- 
 ty-four hours under Water, without ever coming up to 
 t.ike breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian, 
 named \.htfiJJ}Colai, who, by a long habitude from his 
 
 youth, had foaccuflomcdhimfelf to live in water, that Amphibo- 
 his nature feemed to be quite altered ; fo that he lived '"B7 
 rather after the manner of a filh than a man. II . 
 
 AMPHIBOLOGY, in grammar and rhetoric, ^ ^l^'^' 
 term ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two differ- w2-^^_l-> 
 ent interpretations. Amphibology arifesfrom the or- 
 der of the phrafe, rather than from the ambiguous 
 meaning of a word. 
 
 Of I his kind was that anfwer which Pyrrhus received 
 from the oracle : ^-lio tc, JEaada, Romuncs vtnarc pof- 
 fc ; where the amphibology conliils in this, that the 
 Words /.'and Romanes, may cither of them precede, or 
 either of them follow, the \iOiA% fojj'ivincerc, indiffe- 
 rently. See Oi^CLE. 
 
 Tlie Englifli l^guagc ufually fpeaks in a more na- 
 tural manner, and is not capable of any amphibologies 
 of this kind : nor is it fo liable to amj'hibologies in the 
 articles, as the French and mofl other modern tongues. 
 
 AMPHIBRACHYS, in ancient poetry, the namcof 
 a foot confiding of three fyllabks, whereof that in 
 the middle is long, and the other twolliort; fuchisthc 
 word [a hire]. 
 
 AMPHICOME, in natural hiftory, a kind of figu- 
 red flone, of a round fliape, but rugged, and befet with 
 eminences, celebrated on accouRt of its ufe in divina- 
 tion. The word is originally Greek ct/jifucufih, g. d. 
 utrinque cot)iata,ox " hairy on all fides." ThisAoneis 
 alfo called Erotylos, Ep«Ti/>,ot, Amatorit, probably on 
 account of its fuppofcd power of creating love. The 
 amphicomc is mentioned by Dcmocritus and Pliny, 
 though little known among the moderns. Mercatus 
 takes it for the fame \s'\\.\x\\\c ta^is lumbrkaius, of 
 which he gives a figure. 
 
 AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an alTem- 
 bly compofed of deputies from the different flates of 
 Greece: and refembling, in fomemeafure, the diet of 
 the German empire. Some fuppofe the word A/x^/ktiotic 
 to be formed of a/i<f /, " about," and «Ti(/y or trs^m, in 
 regard the inhabitanssof the country around about met 
 here in council: others, with more probability, from 
 Amphifljof!, fon of Deucalion, whom they fuppofe to 
 liavebeen the founderof this affembly ; though others, 
 will have Acrilius, king of the Argives, to have been 
 the firfl who gave a form and laws to it. 
 
 Authors give different accounts of the number of the 
 Amphittyons, as well as of the flates who were enti- 
 tled to have their rcprefentatives in this council. Ac- 
 cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they 
 were twelve from their firft inflitution, fent by the 
 following cities and flates ; the lonians, Dorians, Per- 
 rhasbians, Boeotians, Magnclians, Acha;ans,Phthians, 
 Meiians, Dolopians, yl-^nianians, Delphians, and Pho- 
 cians. jtfchines reckons no more than eleven ; in- 
 flead of the Achseans, j+^nianians, Delphians, and 
 Dolopians, he only gives the Theifalians, Oetians, 
 and Locrians. Lcflly, Paufanias's lift contains only 
 ten, viz. the lonians, Dolopians, ThefTalians, j^lnia- 
 nians, Magn elians, Meiians, Phthians,Dorians,Phfci- 
 ans, and Locrians. 
 
 In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians 
 were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the 
 Delphian temple, and the Lacedaeironians were ad- 
 mitted in their place ; but tlie Phocians, 60 years af- 
 ter, having behaved gallantly againfl Brennusandhis 
 Gauls, were reflored to their feat in the Amphidyonic 
 
 council.
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 639 J 
 
 AMP 
 
 Amphidro- admitted into the body; and to make room for it, the 
 
 «nia Magnefians, Mclians, Plithians, and ytnianians, who 
 
 ''. .. till then had diilincl voices, were ordered to be iiura- 
 
 ^^ °" bered with the Thcllalians, and to have only one com- 
 
 • nion reprefcntative. Strabo fpeaks as if this council 
 
 were cxtind in the times of Auguftus and Tiberius : 
 
 but Paufanias, who lived many years afier, under 
 
 Antoninus Piu3, allures us it remained entire in his 
 
 time^ aiid that the number of Amphii^tyons was then 
 
 30. 
 
 The members were of two kinds. Each city fent 
 two deputies, under different denominations; one called 
 *ltfi/xtii^n, whole bufmcfs fcems to have been more im- 
 mediately to infpei^ what related to lacritices and cere- 
 monies of religion ; thcotiier nc-xaj-ojiat, ciiarged with 
 hearing and deciding of caufes and dirfcrenccs between 
 private perfons. Both hau an equal right to deliberate 
 and vote, in all that related to the common intcrclls 
 of Greece. The hn^romntmon was elected by lot; the 
 fylagoras by plurality of voices. 
 
 Though the Aniphiftyons were firft inftituted at 
 Thermopylae, M. de Valois maintains, that their lirll 
 place of relidence was at Delphi ; where, for fonie 
 ages, the tranquillity of the times found them noother 
 employment than that of being, if wc may fo call it, 
 church-wardens of the temple of Apollo. In aftcr- 
 tiracs, the approach of armies frequently drove them 
 to Thermopylae, where they took their llation, to be 
 nearer at hand tooppofe the enemies progrefs and or- 
 der timely fuccour to the cities in danger. Their or- 
 dinary relidence, however, was at Delphi. 
 
 Here they decided all public ditFerenccs and dffputes 
 between any of the cities of Greece ; but before they 
 entered on bufinefs, they jointly facriliced an ox cut 
 into fmall pieces, as a fymbol of their union. Their 
 determinations were received with the grcatell vene- 
 ration, and even held facrcd and inviolable. 
 
 The Amphiclyons, at their admiiFion, took afolemn 
 oath never to divert any city of the right of deputa- 
 tion ; never to avert its running waters ; and if any at- 
 tempts of this ivind were made by others, to make mor- 
 tal war againft them : more particularly, in cafe of any 
 attempt to rob the temple of any of its oruanicnis, that 
 they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole 
 power to rcvenj;c it This oath was backed with ter- 
 rible imprecations againll fuch as ihould viol uc ii ; e.g. 
 May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Disna, 
 Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives 
 bring forth nothing but monllers, Sec. 
 
 The llatcd terms of their meeting was in fpring and 
 autumn ; the fpring meeting was called E<ifit» Tiuxaua 
 that in autumn MircTUfita. On cxtraordiniry occali- 
 ons, however, they met at any time of the year, or 
 even continued lltiing all the year round. 
 
 Philip of Maccdonufurped the right of prcliding in 
 the ailembly of the Amphyclions, and of riril confulc- 
 ing tlie oracle wl\ich was called nfo^»tTi/«. 
 
 AMPHIDIIOMIA, a fcaft cekbraicd by the anci- 
 ents on the tifth day after the birth of a child. 
 
 AMPHIDRYON, i.i ecclclialiical writers, denotes 
 the veil or curtain which wa> drawn betorc the door 
 of the bema in ancient churches. 
 
 AMi'HlLOCHlA (anc.gcog.), the territory cf the 
 city of Argos in Arcanania ; .■!r,tphi:ichtum, (Thuci- 
 dydcs) ; called Ai'ifkitacht (from ihc people,) in the 
 council. Under Augullus, the city of Nito^'olis was 
 
 lower age, (Stephanus). A town alfo oi Spain, in Amphilu- 
 Gallicia, built by Teuccr, and denominated from Am- chiut 
 philochusoneof hiscompanions, (Strabo): now Gr;///^. II 
 
 W. Long. 8. 20. Lat. 42. 36. Ainphifl>«- 
 
 AMPHILOCHIUS, bilhopoflconium, in the fourth . "*' 
 century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazianzen, and 
 St Balil. He ainftedat thefirrtgcncralcouncilof Con- 
 rtantinoplcin38i ; prelided at the council of Sidae; and 
 was a rtrenuous oppofer of the Arians. He died in 
 394, and his works were publilhcd in Greek and La- 
 tin at Paris 1644, by Francis Conibelis. 
 
 AMPHILOCHUS, fon ofAmphiaraus and Eriphyle, 
 was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar ereetcd 
 to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Cilicia, 
 which city was founded by him and Mopfus. The an- 
 fwers of this oracle were given by dreams ; the party 
 inquiring ufed to pafs a night in the temple, and that 
 night's dream was the anfwer. Dion Callius mentions 
 apicture done by orderof Scxtus-Condianus, reprcfent- 
 ing the anfwer he received of the oracle, in the rciga 
 of the emperor Conimodus. 
 
 AMPHIMACER, in ancient poetry, a foot confifl- 
 ing of three fyllablcs, whereof the tirft and laft arc 
 long, and that in the niidolc Ihort ; fuch is the word 
 [Caiiius.] 
 
 AMPHION, fon of Jupiter and Antiope ; who, ac- 
 cording to the potts, made tiie rocks follow his mulic ; 
 and ai his harp the (tones of Thebes danced into walls 
 and a regular city. 
 
 AMPHIPOLES, in antiquity, the principal magi- 
 rtratcs of SyracuCe. They were ert .l.liihed ly Timo- 
 leoninthc 109th Olympiad, after theexpullion of the 
 tyrant Dionylius. They governed Syracufe for the 
 fpace of 300 years : and Diodorus Siculus adures us, 
 that they fublilted in his time. 
 
 AMPHlPOLlS, a ciiy of Macedonia, an Athenian 
 colony, on the Strymoii, but on which fide is not fo 
 certain ; Pliny places it in Macedonia, on this lidc ; but 
 Seylax, in Thrace, on the other. The name of the 
 town, A»;phipolis, however, fecms to reconcile their 
 difference ; becaufe, as Tliuciiiydcs obfcrvcs, it was 
 walhed on two (ides by the Strymon, which dividing 
 iifelf into two channels, the city Hood in the mi.ldlr, 
 and on the lide towards the fta there was a w.ill built 
 from channel to channel. Its ancient name was £>;<• 
 0/0;, the Ni'ti IVayj, (Thuci^iydes, Herodotus.) The 
 citizens were called yV////>^/.«/;/j/,i, (Livy.) It Mas 
 afterwards called Chrijlopilij ; now Ctn/cpoO, or Chi' 
 fofoit, (Holftcnius.) 
 
 A.MPHiroLis, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates, 
 built by Scleucus, called by the Syrians Turmeda, 
 (Stephanas) : the fame with Thapfacui, (Pliny) ; and 
 luppofed to have been only renewed and adorned by 
 Seleucus, becaufe long famous before his time, (Xe- 
 nojihon.) 
 
 AMPHIPPIJ, in Grecian auiiquity, foldicrs who, 
 in war, ufed two horles without faddles, and were 
 dextrous eno.igh to leap from one to the othrr. 
 
 AMPi:lPROR/E, in the naval affairs of tlie anci- 
 ents, vellcls with :i prow at each end They were 
 ufed chieiiy in rapid rivers and nairow channels, 
 where it was not cafy to tack about.. 
 
 AMPHIPROS rVLE, in the architeJtureof the an- 
 cients, a temple wliich had four . olumi s in the front, 
 anJ as many in ihc alptA bchinj. 
 
 AMPH.SB.-tN.-^, ill zoology, agenuso/ ftrpents 
 
 belong^-
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 640 1 
 
 AMP 
 
 Ampliif- belonging 10 the order of amphibia ferpents, fo called 
 bxna, from (be (Me notion of its having two heads, bccaufe 
 Aniphiffa. „ gloves with eitlitr end foremoU. 
 
 The bead of the amphiibina is fraall, fmooih, and 
 blunt i the nollrils are very fmall ; the eyes are minute 
 and blackilh ; and the mouth i^ furnilhcd with a great 
 cumber of fmall teeth. The body is cylindrical, about 
 a foot long, and divided into about 200 annular convex 
 fegmcnts like thofe of a worm ; and it has about 40 
 longitudinal (Ireaks, of which 12 on each lidc are in 
 the form of fmall crolTes like the Roman X ; the anus 
 is a tranfverfe Ilit ; and the laft ring or fegment of the 
 belly has eight fmall papillx, forming a tranfverfe line 
 before the anus ; the tail, i. e. all the fpace below the 
 anus, isfliort, coniifting of goanrmlar fegmcnts, with- 
 out being aiarked with the crofs-lines, and is thick 
 and blunt at the point. The colour of the whole ani- 
 mal is black, variegated with white ; but the black 
 prevails moll on the back, and the white on the belly. 
 It has a great refeniblance to a worm, living in the 
 earth, and moving eijually well with either end fere- 
 moll. There are but two fpecies, viz. i. The fuligi- 
 nofa, which anfwers exaflly to the above defcription, 
 and is found in Libya and in different parts of Ame- 
 rica, a. The alba, which is totally white, is a native 
 of both the Indies, and is generally found in ant-hil- 
 locks. The bite of the amphilbaena is reckoned to be 
 mortal by many authors ; but as it is not furnilhcd 
 with dog-fangs, the ufualinftruments of conveying the 
 puifon of ferpents, later writers efteem it not to be poi- 
 lonous. They feed upon ants and earth-worms, but 
 particularly the latter. See Plate XVlll. 
 
 j4MPHiiBMSAj4quatica,3.azme.gi\cii\hyBtrX.rM.n\i, 
 Albertus, and feveral other authors, to that long and 
 /lender infect, called by others ihcfcta aijuatica, and 
 verviisjctarius. It has the name ainfhijbittia, from its 
 going backwards or forwards with equal eafe and cele- 
 rity. The ufual fize is four er live inches long, and 
 the thicknefs of a large hair. 
 
 Dr Liitcr accidentally found out the origin of this 
 worm, in his refcarchcs into the hiftory of a very dif- 
 ferent fort of infcci. Diil'efling one of the common 
 black beetles dug up in a garden, he found in its belly 
 twoof thefe hair worms, or amphilbsenae ; and renew- 
 ing theexperimcnton othcrbeetles of the famefpccies, 
 he found that they ufually contained, one, two, or three 
 of thefe worms. As foon as the body of the beetle is 
 opened, they always crawl out. When put into wa- 
 ter they will live a conliderable time, and fwim nimbly 
 about ; but often pnt up their heads above water, as if 
 endeavouring to make their efcape, andfometiines fa- 
 ftening themfelves by the mouth to the lides of the vcf- 
 fel, and drawing their whole bodies after them. Thefe 
 creatures are not only found in the waters, but buried 
 in earth, and fometimes on the leaves of trees, in 
 gardens and hedges. Phil. Tranf. N° 83. 
 
 AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied 
 to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am- 
 phLfcii, as the word imports, have their (hadows one 
 part of the year towards the north, and the other to- 
 wards the foutb, according to the fun's place in the 
 ecliptic. They are alfo called yi^c;/. SecAscii. 
 
 AMPHISSA, (anc. gcog.), the capital of the Locri 
 Oxolas, laoftadia (or 15 miles) to the weft of Delphi, 
 (Paufanias.) So calicd, bccaufe furrouudedouallhauds 
 
 by mountains, (Stephanus.) Hence Amphif^aiy the in- Amphlfaae 
 habitants ; who plundered the temple at Delphi, (De- Amphithe- 
 mollhenes.) — Alloa town of Magna Graecia, at the 
 mouth of the Sagra, on the coaft of the Farther Cala- 
 bria, fituated between Locri and Cauluna ; now called 
 Roiella. Amfhiffiui the epithet, (OviJ.) 
 
 AMPHITANE, among ancient naturalifts, a ftone 
 faid to attrad gold as the loadftonc docs iron. Pliny 
 fays it was found in that part of the Indies where the 
 native gold lay fo near the furface of the earth as to 
 be turned up in fmall malfes among the earth of ant- 
 hills ; anddefcribes it to have been of a fquare figure, 
 and ofthe colour and brightnefsof gold. The defcrip- 
 tion plainly points out a well-known foffil, called, by 
 Dr Hill, fjricubium : this is common in the mines of 
 moft parts of the world ; but neither this nor any other 
 flonc was ever fiippofed, in our times, to have the 
 power of attrafting gold. 
 
 AMPHI THEATRE, in antiquity, a fpacioiis edifice, 
 built either round or oval, with a number of riling 
 feats, upon which the people ufed to behold the com- 
 bats of gladiators, of wild beafls, and other fports. 
 
 Amphitheatres were at firft only of wood ; audit was 
 not till the reign of Auguftus, that Sutilius Taurus 
 built one, for the firit time, of ftone. The lower part 
 wis of an oval figitre, and called art'wa, becaufe, for the 
 convcniency of the combatants, it was ufually ftrewed 
 with fand; and round the arena were vaults llyled j/j- 
 ■oeje, in which were confined the wild bcafts appoint- 
 ed for the Ihews. 
 
 Above the caveae was erefted a large circular pc- 
 riflyle, or podium, adorned with columns. This was 
 the place of the emperors, fcnators, and other pcrfont 
 of diflindlion. 
 
 The rows of benches were above the podium. Their 
 figure was circular ; and they were entered by avenues, 
 at the end of which were gates called vomitorix. 
 
 This theatre was built in form of a femicirtle, only 
 exceeding a juft femicircle by one fourth part of the 
 diameter; and the amphitheatre was nothing elfe but 
 a double theatre, or two theatres joined together : fo 
 that the longcfb diameter of the amphitheatre was to 
 the fliorteft as if to i. 
 
 There are amphitheatres ftillft.inding at Rome, at 
 Pola, at Nifmes, S:c. The amphitheatre of Vefpa- 
 fian, called the Colifettm, and that at Verona in Italy, 
 are the mofl celebratednowremainingof all antiquity. 
 Remains of amphitheatres are (hown alfo at Aries, 
 Bourdeaux, &c. The amphitheatre at Pola, an ancient 
 republic of Iflria, is very entire : it confills of two or- 
 ders of Tufcan pillars, one over the other. The lower 
 have pedeflals, which is extraordinary; this order 
 having fcarce ever more than bafes to fupport them. 
 The amphitheatre of Vefpallan is computed to have 
 been capable of holding 87,000 fpeftators. That of 
 Verona is the bell prefcrved : for though raofl of the 
 great and beft. ftones of the outfide are picked out, 
 yet the great vault, on which the rows of the feats 
 are laid, is entire; the rows alfo (which are 44 in 
 number) arc entire. Every row is a foot and a half 
 high, and as much in breadth; fo that a man fits con- 
 veniently in them ; and allowing for a feat a foot and 
 a half, the whole will hold 23,000 perfons. Pliny 
 mentions an amphitheatre built by Curio, which turn- 
 ed on large iron pivots ; fo that of the fame amphithe- 
 a atr«
 
 ^/«//V// ///K. I TliKS. 
 re/jka/ta/iLi • f/n/i/i/V/uotir, // ///r// , 
 
 J'lHtcWl. 
 
 n>lfm/lW f/n/ifu.)ft f/i //ii'ii.irr/u^ .)/ift/i///'r.j. £j
 
 AMP 
 
 [ 641 ] 
 
 AMP 
 
 tnipHthe- atTC two fcvcral theatres were occafionally made, 
 atrc whereon different entertainments were Ibmctimcs 
 II. prefcnted at the fame time. Mr Brydonc (vol. i. 295), 
 Amplia- jnctions an amphitheatre at Syracufc, the theatre of 
 '""' . which is fo entire, that the gradini for feats ftill re- 
 main ; but it isa fraall theatre, he fays, in comparifon 
 of the others. See Plate XVI. 
 
 Amph IT HEATRE, in gardening, certain difpofitions 
 of trees andflirubson the fides of hilly places, which, 
 if the hill or rifing be naturally of a circular figure, 
 always have the belt effeft. They are to be formed of 
 evergreens, fuch as hollies, phillcreys, lauruflines, 
 bays, and fuch plants, obfcrving to plant the fliortell 
 growing trees in the front, and thofe which will be 
 the tallcfl behind, fuch as pines, firs, cedars of Leba- 
 non, &c. 
 
 Amphitheatres are alfo fometimes formed of flopes 
 on thcfidcsofhills, covered only with turf ; and when 
 well kept, they are a great ornament to large gardens. 
 
 AMPHITRITE, (a/^ifiTfiTii, from circumj'ereiido), 
 in the heathen mythology, the wife of Neptune, and 
 goddefs of the fea, fometimes taken for the fea. 
 
 AMPHITRYON, fon of Alcseus, lefs known by his 
 own exploits than from his wife Alcmena's adventure. 
 See Alcmena. 
 
 AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid meafure among 
 the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con- 
 tained 48 fcxtaries, equal to about feven gallons one 
 pint Englifh wine-meafure ; and the Grecian or Attic 
 amphora contained one-third more. 
 
 Amphora was alfo a dry meafure ufed by the Ro- 
 mans, and contained about three bulhels. 
 
 Amphora, among the Venetians, is the largell 
 meafure ufed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts, 
 
 AMPHORARIUM vinum, in antiquity, denotes 
 that which is drawn or poured into amphora or pitch- 
 ers; by way of diflinflion from vinum doliare, or cafk 
 wine. — The Romans had a method of keeping wine 
 in amphorae for many years to ripen, by faflening the 
 lids tight down with pitch or gypfum, and placing 
 them either in a fituation where the finoke came, or 
 under ground. 
 
 AMPHOTIDES. in antiquity, a kind of armour or 
 covering for the cars, worn by the ancient pugilcs, 10 
 prevent their advcrfarics from laying hold of that part. 
 
 AMPHRYSUS, or Amphryssvs, (anc. geog.) a 
 river of Phthiotis, a diilrid of Thclfaly, running by 
 the foot of mount Othrys, from fouth to north, into 
 the Enipcus at Thebes of Tiielfaly ; where Apollo 
 fed the herds of king Admetus (Virgil, Lucan). Ano- 
 ther Amphryfiis in Phrygia, renderiu^; women bar- 
 ren, according to Pliny: Hence the epithet Awp/nyjia- 
 c:is (Statins). Alfo a town of Phocis, at the foot of 
 mount Parnaflus, enconipalFed with a double wall by 
 the Thebans in the war with Philip (I'aufanias) ; 
 ^mphryfiaVatis, in Virgil, ('enotes the Sibyl. 
 
 AMPHTHILL, a town in Bcdfordlliire, fcatcd 
 pleafantly between two hills, but in a barren foil. W. 
 Long. o. 29. N. Lat. 52. 2. 
 
 AMPLIATION, in a general fcnfc, denotes tjie aft 
 of enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing. 
 
 On a medal of the'enipcror Antoninus Pius, we find 
 
 the title j^mpiiator civiuiu given him, on account of 
 
 his having extended the jus civitatii, or right of ciii- 
 
 zcnthip, to many ftatcs and people before excluded 
 
 Vol. L 
 
 from that privilege. In effcfl, it is generally fuppof- 
 ed to have been this prince that made the famous 
 conflitution, whereby all the fubjeds of the emjJirc 
 were made citizens of Rome. 
 
 Ampliation, in Roman antiquity, wasthedefer- 
 ringtopafsfentence in certain caufcs. This thcjudg-c 
 did, by pronouncing the word amplius ; or by writing 
 the letters N. L. for iion liquet; thereby fignifying, 
 that, as the caufe was not clear, it would be uecelfary 
 to bring further evidence. 
 
 AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric, part of a dif- 
 courfe or fpcech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a 
 praife or commendation hcightened,ora narration en- 
 larged, by an enumeration of circumftances ; fo as to 
 excite the proper emotions in the fouls of the auditors. 
 Such is the palTage in Virgil, where, inftcad of fay- 
 ing merely that Tiirnus died, he amplifies the cir- 
 cumHanccs of his death. 
 
 — Afl iltifolvuntur Jrigore membra, 
 
 Vitaque cum getnitu fugit indignatafub umbrai. 
 
 The mafters of eloquence made amplification to be the 
 foul of tLfcourfe. See Oratory, n° 39. 
 
 AMPLITUDE, in aflronomy, an arch of the hori- 
 zon intercepted between the eafl or weft point and 
 the centre of the fun, or a planet, at its riling or fct- 
 ting; and fo is cither north and fouth, or ortivc and 
 occafive. 
 
 Mtignetical Amputvde, the different riling or fet- 
 ting of the fun from the call or well points of the com- 
 pafs. It is found by obfcrving the fun, at its rifing and 
 fctting, by an amplitude-coinpafs. 
 
 AMPSAGA, a river of ancient Numidia. Sec 
 Algiers, n° yy. 
 
 AMPSANCTI Valus, or Ampsancti Lacus, a 
 cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Principato 
 Ultra,nearthecityTricento (Cicero, Virgil, Pliny); 
 it is now called Moffctta, from Mephitis, the goddefs 
 of flench, who had a temple there. The ancient poets 
 imagined that this gulph led to hell. The Moffetta is 
 thus defcribed by Mr Swinburn : "We were led into 
 a narrow valley, extending a confiderable way to the 
 fouth-weft, and preffed in on both fides by high ridges 
 thickly covered with copfes of oak. The bottom of 
 the dell is bare and arid : in the loweft part, and dole 
 under one of the hills, is an oval pond of muddy alh- 
 coloured water, not above jo feet in diameter : it boils 
 up in fcveral places with great force in irregular tits, 
 wjiich are always preceded by a hiffing found. The 
 water was feveral times fpouted up as high as our heads 
 in a diagonal direftion, a whirlpool being formed round 
 the tube, like a bafon, to receive it as it fell. A large 
 body of vapour is continually thrown out with a loud 
 rumbling noife. The flones on the riling ground that 
 hangs over the pool are quite yellow, being AaiueJ 
 with the fumes of fulphur and fal-ainmoniac. A moll 
 naufcous fmell rifing with the fleam obliged us to watch 
 the wind, and to keep clear of it, to avoid fuflbcation. 
 The water is quite infipid both at to tafte and fmell ; 
 the clay at the edges is white, and carried into Pug- 
 lia to rub upon fcabby fliecp, on which account the 
 lake is farmed out at 100 ducats a-year. On a hill 
 above this lake flood formerly a temple dedicated to the 
 goddefs Mephitis; but I perceived no remains of it." 
 
 AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round big-bcllicd vef- 
 4 M fcl.
 
 A M R 
 
 [ 642 ] 
 
 A M S 
 
 fcl which the ancients ufcd in their baths, to contain 
 oil for anointing their bodies. — Alio ihc name ol a 
 cup tor drinking out ot" at table. 
 . Ampulla, among tcclcliallical writers, denotes one 
 of the facred velitls ufed at the altars. Ampulla: were 
 alfo ufcd for holding the oil ufed in clirifmation, con- 
 fccration, coronation, &c. Among the ornaments of 
 churches we find frequent mention made of ampuls or 
 vials. In the inventory of the cathedral of Lincoln 
 we meet with ampuls of chryllal, varioully enriched 
 with fiWcr feet and covers j one containing a tooth of 
 St Chrillopher, another a tooth of St Cecily, another 
 a bone of the head of St John Baptift. 
 
 K/iighti (// St Ampvi.L4, belong to an order infti- 
 tuted by Clovis I. king ol Krancc ; at the coronation 
 xhcy bear up the canopy, under which the ampulla is 
 carried in procellion. 
 
 AMPURA, a province of the kingdom of Peru, 
 before itsconqucft by the Spaniards. Here the inha- 
 bitants worlliipped tw'o lofty mountains from a princi- 
 ple of gratitude, bccaufe of the defcent of the water 
 from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is 
 faid to have been conquered by Virachoca, the eighth 
 iiica. 
 
 AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of A m- 
 purdan, in Catalonia, fcated at the mouth of the river 
 Fluvia, in E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 42. 5. The land 
 about it is barren, full of briars and bulruflics, except 
 infome places which produce Hax. 
 
 AMP UTATION, in furgery, the cutting ofFa limb, 
 or any part from the body. See Svv.c^v.\-Iiidiix. 
 
 A.MRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or. Babylonia, 
 confederated with Chcdorlaomer,kingof the Elamites, 
 and two other kings, to make w ar againft the kings 
 of Peiitapolis; that is to fay, of Sodom, Gomorrah, 
 and the three neighbouring cities. The kings who 
 were in league with Amraphel worfled ihofc of Pen- 
 lapolis, plundered their city, and carried off abundance 
 of captives, among whom was Lot, Abraham's ne- 
 phew : but Abraham purfued them, retook Lot, and 
 recovered all the fpoil. See Abraham. 
 
 AMRAS, a flrong caftle of Germany, feated in Ti- 
 rol ; by fome German writers called /^rx Anibiofiaiia, 
 ■which was the houfe of pleafurc for the archdukes 10 
 retire to in the heat of the fummer. By others this 
 fort is called Oinhrafs ; a name derived from the defign 
 of it, which was to be a Ihady fummer-houfe. It is 
 moft delightfully fituated at the foot of a mountain, 
 but has no great external beauty. All the furniture 
 of ordinary nfe has been carried away; yet it is ftill 
 Tcmarkable for its galleries, which contain a very large 
 collertion of antiquities, and both natural and artifici- 
 al curiolities. It excels all others in its curious col- 
 Iccftion of armour and coats of mail, many of which be- 
 longed to very great men. There is alfo a great col- 
 Icftion of gold medals, %vhich weigh, as they affirm, 
 about 16 pounds ; there are alfo 3000 cameos and in- 
 taglios, but few of them very fine. A great part of 
 thcfc antiquities were fent to this place by Charles V. 
 On the walls and cieling there are fome very good 
 paintings ; and, among the rcfl, they have an admira- 
 ble pidlure of Noah's ark, done by Balfano, for which 
 ihc grand duke of Tufcany is faid to have offered 
 100,000 crowns. They have a library, which is not 
 in very good order ; and a gallery full of Lufts and 
 
 other pieces of antiquity, bcfides many other apart- 
 ments adorned w ith pictures of great value. E. Long. 
 II. 40. N. Lat. 47. o. 
 
 AMS.'\NC'l I. Sec Ampsancti. ^ 
 
 AMSBURY, or A.meersbury, a town in Wilt- 
 fliire, lying in W. Long. i. 20. N. Lat. ji. 29. It 
 is the I agus Aii.bri, famous for a uionaflery built by 
 one Ambrus, and afterwards for a nunnery of noble 
 women. There is a nobleman's feat here built by 
 Inigojones, to which new works svere added under the 
 direction of Lord Burlington. It is 80 miles welt of 
 London, and fix miles north of Saliibury. 
 
 AMSDOREIANS, in church-hillory, a fcft of 
 Proteflants in the i6ih century, who took their name 
 from Amfdorf ihtir leader. They maintained, that 
 good works were not only unprofitable, but were ob- 
 Aaclcs to falvation. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province 
 of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is feated 
 on the river Aniflel and an arm of the fca called the 
 Wye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the 
 marlhes that furround it, and render the city almoll 
 inacceflible : but this inconvenience is abundantly rc- 
 conipeiifed by the utility of its commerce, which the 
 port ferves greatly to promote ; for it will contain 
 above a ihouiand large lliips. 
 
 In 1204, it was nothing but a fmall caflle, called 
 Avijiilixom the name of the river, which its lords 
 made a retreat for riflurmcn, who at firfl lived in huts 
 covered with thatch : but it foon became confiderable, 
 and had a bridge and towers built about it, inforauch 
 that it rofe to a fmall city ; though, till the year 1 490, 
 it was furrounded with nothing but a weak pallifado. 
 The walls were then built with brick, to defend it 
 from the incurfionsof the inhabitants of Utrecht, with 
 whom the Hollanders were often quarrelling; but fome 
 months afterwards it w as almoft reduced to a.Oics. In 
 1512, it was befieged by the people of Guelderland; 
 who, not being able to take it, fet fire to the Ihips in 
 the harbour. In 1525, an Anabaptift leader, with 600 
 ofhis followers, got into the city in the night-time, at- 
 tacked the tow'n-houfe, and defeated thofe that made 
 any refinance. At length they barricaded, with wool 
 and hop-facks,the avenues to the market-place, where 
 thefe enthuliaflswere pofted ; and fo put a flop to their 
 fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell 
 upon them on all fides, and forced them to retire into 
 the town-houfe, where mofl of them were cut to pieces. 
 About ten years after, there was anoihertumult raifcd 
 by a parcel of fanatics, conlifling of men and women, 
 who ran about the ftrcets flark naked, and had a de- 
 fign of nuking thenifclves mailers of the town-lioufe. 
 Their ilirieks and crirs, which were dreadful enough, 
 foon alarmed the inhabitants, who icized the grcatefl 
 partof theui, and gave them the chaftifcmcnt they de- 
 ferved. 
 
 Amflerdam was one of the laft cities that embraced 
 the reformed religion. It was befieged by the Holian- 
 dersin 1578, and fubmi;ted al'ter aliegcof ten months. 
 One article of the capitulation was, a free excrcifc 
 of the Roman-catholic religion : but this was not ob- 
 ferved by the Proteflants ; for they foon drove the ec- 
 clefiaflics, monks, and nsns, out of the city, broke the 
 images, and demolilhed the .iltars. From this time it 
 became the general rendezvous of all nations and of 
 
 every 
 
 Amfanftl 
 
 It 
 
 Amfter- 
 
 dani.
 
 A M S 
 
 [ 643 ] 
 
 A M S 
 
 Amftcfdam every te&, which raifed it to that degree of grandeur 
 *■ " and opulence it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of- 
 ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their ciiy, and in 
 167 J it was incrtafed to its prefcnt extent. It was fur- 
 rounded with a brick w^ll, and a large ditch, 80 feet 
 broad, full of running water. The walls were fortified 
 with 26 baftions, on cachof which there is nowawiud- 
 tnill. Thrrc are eight gates towards the land, and 
 one towards the water. 
 
 Amrterdini being fcated on a marfliy foil, is built on 
 piles of wood ; for which reafoii no coaches are allow- 
 ed, excejit to great men and phyficians, who pay a tax 
 for that privilege j and all kinds of goodsare drawn on 
 fledges. It Hands fo low, that they would be expofed 
 to inundations, if they did not fccure theniftlvcs by 
 dikes and iliiiccs. The linell jftrectsarc, the keyfar's 
 Graft, or Emperor's Canal ; the HeerGraft, or Lord s 
 Canal ; The Cingcl ; and the itrcet 01 Haerlem. The 
 principal canal is remarkable tor its houfes, which are 
 magnificent ftructures of an equal height. Here are 
 three prodigious lluices, and a great number of canals, 
 whichcrofs the city in many parts,and render the flreets 
 clean and plcafant. The canals arc deep, their fides are 
 lined with hewn flone, they have generally rows of 
 trees planted on each lide, and many (lone bridges over 
 ditlerent parts of them. 
 
 The fincll is that called the ^niniarack, which is 
 formed by the waters of the Amftel, into which the 
 lide comes up, and on the iides of which are two large 
 quays. This canal has fcveral bridges. The principal 
 is that next the fea, called Po>it-Ner,f, or the Niw- 
 Bridgi : it is 600 feet long, and 70 broad, W'th iron 
 balullradcs on each lidc ; it has ;6 arches, of which 1 1 
 are very high, and eight arc (hut up to inclofe the 
 yachts. From this bridge there is a mod charming 
 profpedl of the city, port, and fea. The port is a 
 mile and a half in length, and about looo paces in 
 breadth. It is always lillcd with a multitude of vef- 
 fels, which look like a foreft, or rather a floating city. 
 Tlic ftrcets in general are well paved, and the houfes 
 built of brick or ftone. Towards the (ides of the ha- 
 Yciv, I he city is inclofcd with great poles driven into 
 the ground, which are joined by large beams placed 
 horizontally. There are openings to let the (hips in 
 and out, which arc (hut every night at the ringing of a 
 bell. 
 
 Amfterdam is computed to be half as big as Lon- 
 don, including the fortifications, and almoft as popu- 
 lous in proportion. There are people here of almoft 
 every nation and religion in Europe, who are all tole- 
 rated in their refpedivc pcrfixalions ; but none admit- 
 ted toany (hare in the government except the Calvinirts. 
 There are eleven churches for the Dutch of the cfta- 
 blilhed or Calviniftical rclig on, with two French and 
 one High Dutch. Tiic Englilh have alfo three church- 
 es in this city ; one for the Prclbyterians, whofe mini- 
 Acrs are paid by the magidrates ; a ferond for thofc of 
 the church of Enghnd, who(e minillcr is paid by his 
 Britannic majeliy ; and a third for the Brownilis, who 
 maintain their own miiiiftcrs. None but the Calrinifts 
 are allowed to have bells, and their nii.iirtcrsare main- 
 tained by the inagiftrates. All tliefe churches or con- 
 gregations make up only a third part of the inhabi- 
 tants of the city. The Roman Catholics, who have 
 a? houfes or chapels, for their worlhip, form another 
 
 third part. Here they have a long fqaare of houfes An-.fterdM 
 
 for their beguines (a kind of nuns) to live in ; who are ^ ' 
 
 not (hut up in cloyfters as other nuns in Pioman-Catho- 
 lic countries, but have liberty to walk abroad, and :tiaf 
 even marry when they are tired of thii kind of life. 
 Thefe chapels ofihe Roniaii-Catholicshave no bells 
 allowed them, being looked upon as conventicles, and 
 may be (hut up and opened acgorJing as the govern- 
 ment pleafes. The other third part of the city is 
 made up of Jews, Lutherans, Arminians, Aua'aaptills, 
 &c. none of whom, as was faid of the Roman-Catho- 
 lics, are allowed to have bells in their churches. Thofe 
 who marry, and are not of the ertabliihed religion, are 
 obliged to be joined lird by tiie inagiftrates, and then 
 tliey may perform the ceremony in their own atfem- 
 blies. The Jews, wlio are very confidcrablc in this 
 place, have two fynagogues ; one of which, namely, 
 the Portuguefe, is thelargellin Europe. Within the 
 court-yard, where their fyiugogue (lands, they have 
 fcveral rooms or fchools, where their children arc 
 taught Hebrew, and very carefully inArucled in the 
 Jewilh religion. 
 
 The molt remarkable of the religious building"! is 
 the New Church, dedicated to St Catharine. It was 
 begun in the year 1408, others fay 1414; and was 
 100 years a-building. It had the misfortune of being 
 burnt in the year 1645, but was in a (liort time af- 
 ter built in a more magnificent manner. The foun- 
 dation of a fleeple is laid before this church, whicii 
 was deligiicd to be very higli. The piles on which it 
 was to be erected are not above 100 feet fquare, and 
 yet they are 6334 in number, and thofe very large. 
 Neverthelefs it was thought that thefe vail piles, or 
 rather the ground, were not able to fupport the pro- 
 digious weight they intended to lay upon it 1 for which 
 rcafon the fteeple remains unfinithed. The pulpit is a 
 maiierpiece of the kind, where the four evangelills anu 
 many other curious pieces of fculpture are rcprefented. 
 Theglafs-windowsare adorned with paintings, among 
 which the emperor Maximilian is defcribcd,prefenting 
 an imperial crown to the burgomallers of Amlferdara 
 for the crert of the arms oi this city. The organ is 
 very large, and reckoned one of the bed in the world. 
 It has a fet of pipes that counterfeit a chorus of voices, 
 and has 52 whole ftops, belides half flops, with two 
 rowsof keps for the feet, and three rows of keys for 
 the hands. Thefe u ho hear it play for the li r(l time, 
 imagine they hear a human voice. The grate dividing 
 the chanctl from the body of the church is all of Co- 
 rinthian brafs. The branches of candleflicks are the 
 richeft in the Seven Provinces. There is a very fine 
 marble monument ereded to Admiral Ruyter, who 
 was killed at Mcffina. 
 
 The public buildings of a civil nature are very mag- 
 nificent. The ftadi-houfc was founded in 1648. It is 
 built upon i4,oco wooden piles ; and its front is 282 
 feet long, its (ides 2J5 feet, and its height to the roof 
 116. There is a marble pediment in the front, whereon 
 a woman is carved in relievo, holding ihe arms of the 
 city ; (lie is feated in a chair, fipported by two lions, 
 with an olive branch in her right hand ; on each fide 
 are four Naiads, who prefcnt her w iih a crown of palm 
 and laurel, and two other matine goddrfles prefent her 
 with different forts of fruit ; belides, there is Neptune 
 with his trident; accompanied with Tritons, a fea-uni- 
 4 M 3 com,
 
 A M S 
 
 r 
 
 AmftcrJaai corn, and a fea-horfe. On the top ftaiiJ three (latucs 
 
 ^■' — * ■ in bronze, reprefenting Jufticc, Strength, and Plenty. 
 
 On the top of the Ilrudurc is a round tower, 50 feet 
 ajjovc the roof, adorned with llatues, and an harmoni- 
 ous chime of bells, the biggeft of which weighs about 
 7000 pounds, and the next 6000. Tiicy arc made to 
 play different tunes every month. It has not one 
 liandfomc gate, but only i'cven doors to ajifwcr to the 
 number of the United Provinces. On the Hoorof the 
 great hall arc two globes, the celeftial and tcrreftria!, 
 which are 22 feet in dianuter and69in circumference. 
 They arc made of white and black marble, and arc in- 
 laid with jafper and copper. In general all the cham- 
 bers are enriched with paintings, carvings, and gild- 
 ings. \\'hilc this ftadt-houfc was building, the old 
 one was fct on lire, and confumcd with all the archives 
 and regiflers. 
 
 Under the ftadt-houfc is a prodigious vault, where- 
 in is kept the bank of Amfterdam, where there is a 
 vaft quantity of ingots both of gold and (ilver, as alfo 
 b.igs, which arc fuppofed to be full of money. The 
 doors are proof againft petards, and are never opened 
 but in the prefence of one of the burgomafters. The 
 prifons for debtors and criminals are likewifc under 
 the ftadt-houfc : as alio the guard-room for the citi- 
 zens, wherein the keys of the city are locked every 
 night. At the end of the great hall is the fchepens 
 or aldermen's chamber, where civil caufes are tried. 
 Bcfides thefe, there are the chambers of the fenate and 
 council, the burgomafters chamber, the chambers of 
 accounts, &c. In the fecond ftory is a large maga- 
 zine of arms ; and on the top of the building are lix 
 large ciftcrns of water, which maybe conveyed toany 
 room in the houfe in cafe of fire ; to prevent which 
 the chimnics are lined with copper. 
 
 The bourfe, or exchange, where the merchants 
 alfemble, is all of frec-ftone, and built upon 2000 
 wooden piles. Its length is about 250 feet and its 
 breadth 1 40. The galleries arc fupported by 26 mar- 
 ble columns, upon each of which are the names of the 
 people that arc to meet there. They are all numbered; 
 and there is a place affixed for every merchandize un- 
 der fome one of thefe numbers. On the right hand 
 «f the gate is a fuperb ftair-cafc which leads to the 
 galleries ; on one (ide of which tlierc are feveral fhops, 
 and on the other a place to fell clothes. It is not un- 
 like the royal exch.inge in London. 
 
 The ac'niiralty-oflice, is in a houfe which belonged 
 formerly to the princes of Orange. The arfenal for 
 their men of war is in the harbour. This is a very 
 handfome building, 20ofeet long and 22 broad. The 
 groiMid floor is filled with bullets ; the fecond floor 
 contains the arms and cordage ; the third their fails, 
 pulleys, flags, &c. This arfenal contaias a great many 
 curiolities ; among the reft an Indian canoe brought 
 from the ftraits of Davies,andaconfervatory of water 
 en the top of the houfe that holds 1600 tuns of water. 
 Which may be diftributcd in cafe of fire into 16 difl^er- 
 ent parts by leaden pipes. Hard by this edifice you 
 f«c the dock or yard where they build their men of 
 "war. This dock is jo8 feet long, and contiguous to it 
 are houfes for lodging the fhip-carpenters. The dock 
 is plentifully fopplied with every thing neceflary for 
 the conftruftion of (hips. 
 
 The Eaft-India company occnpy a large building 
 
 644 J A M S 
 
 divided into feveral offices or apartments. In fome AmfterJam 
 
 of thofe they have great ftores of packed goods, and ^-^ ' 
 
 likewifc a room wiih all forts of drugs, tea, wax, 
 ambcrgrife, and niuflc. Here they have a magazine 
 full of medicaments for furgcons chefts, to furnilh the 
 company's fliips and garrifons in the Indies ; as alfo 
 large magazines of nutmegs, cloves, mace, and cinna- 
 mon. In the court-yard thercisaguard-chamber, where 
 every night the houfe-kecper has a watch ; and on the 
 other fide of the gate, there is a chcmift, who with his 
 men prepares medicines for the Indies ; and adjoining 
 to this court-yard is their warehoufe and packhoufe for 
 pepper and grofs goods. In the new part of the city 
 they have a magazine or palace, which may properly 
 be called an ar fatal. The ground on which the build- 
 ing ftands is 2000 feet, and fquare every way, reckon- 
 ing the moats or burgwall about it. The two rope- 
 alleys are 1800 feet long, on the backfide of which is 
 a ftore of joo large anchors befides fmall ones. In 
 this arfenal they build the lliips belonging to the India 
 chamber of Amfterdam; for which reafon they have 
 all fortsofworkhoufes here for the artificers that ferve 
 the company. 
 
 The academy, called the Illuflrious School, is like- 
 wife a very fine building. It vvas formerly a convent 
 belonging to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach 
 Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philofophy, 
 hiftory, &c. The lawyers and phylicians have like- 
 wife their fchools. 
 
 Belldes thefe, there are feveral hofpitals,or houfes 
 for orphjns, for poor widows, for Tick perfons, and for 
 mad people ; all which are regulated with much pru- 
 dence. The Rafp-houfe, which was formerly a nun- 
 nery, is now a fort of a work-houfc for men that be- 
 have ill. They are commonly fet to faworrafp Brafil 
 wood ; andif they will not perform their taflc, they are 
 put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if 
 they do not almoft conftantly ply the pump, they run 
 the rilk of being drowned. There is likewifc a fpin- 
 houfefor debauched women, where they are obliged to 
 fpin wool, flax, and hemp, and do other work. All 
 the hofpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned 
 with pictures. They are maintained partly by volun- 
 tary contributions, which are raifed by putting money 
 into the poor's boxes fixed up all over the city ; and 
 partly by taxing all public diverfions, as well at fairs 
 as ellewhere. Likewifc every perfon that paiTes 
 through any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny 
 for the fame ufcs. Thefe charities are taken care of 
 by certain officers called deacons. The governors arc 
 nominated by the magiftratcs out of the moft confider- 
 able men in ihc city. 
 
 The common fort have places of diverfion called 
 Spile -houfes, where there are mufic and danci ng. They 
 are much of the fame kind as the hops which were fo 
 frequent about London. If ftrangers go there, they 
 rouft take care not to make their addreffes to a woman 
 that is engaged to any other man. 
 
 There are two fuburbs to this city ; one at the gate 
 of the regulars: and the other goes as far as Ovcrtoon, 
 a village a little way from Amfterdam, where boats 
 which conic from Ltyden arc rolled over land upon 
 wooden rollers. There is likewifein this city an hof- 
 pit.ilfor thofe thai are infected with the plague ; which 
 was built in the year 1630, and lias 360 windows. 
 
 The,
 
 A M S 
 
 t 645 ] 
 
 A M T 
 
 Amflcrdaoi The city is governed by a fciiatc or council, which 
 
 *■ "^ ' coniifts of 36 perfons called a Vrosdjhaf, who enjoy 
 
 their places for life ; and when any of them dies, the 
 remainder choofc another in his Aead. This fcnatc 
 cledls deputies to be fent totlic States of Holland, and 
 appoints the chief magiftratcs of the city, called £«rgo- 
 t/iajlers or Echevins, who are like our aldermen. 1 he 
 number is twelve ; out of which four arc chofcn every 
 year to execute the office, and are called Burgomajlert- 
 regent. Three of thofe are difcharged every year, to 
 make room for three others. One of the four is kept 
 in to inform the new ones of the ftate of affairs, and 
 alfo prefides the three tirft months in the year, and the 
 others, three months each ; fo that, when they are in 
 this office, they may be compared to the lord-mayor of 
 the city of London. Thefc alterations and appoint- 
 ments are made by their own body. They dil'pofe of 
 all inferior offices which become vacant during their 
 regency. They have likewifcihc dircdionof all pub- 
 licworks, which regard the fafety,tranquilli[y,and cm- 
 bcllifliment of the city. The keys of the famous bank 
 of this city are in the hands of thefe magiftrates. 
 
 The college confiftsof new burgomallersor echevins, 
 who are judges in all criminal affairs, without appeal ; 
 but in civil caufes they may appeal to the council of the 
 province- There are two ireafurers, a bailiff, and a 
 penfionary. The bailiff continues in his office three 
 years ; and fearchcs after criminals, takes care to pro- 
 fecutc them, and fees their fentcnce executed. The 
 penfionary is the minifler of the magiftracy, is well 
 verfed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is 
 the defender of the interefts of the city. The city of 
 Amflerdam contributes to the public income above 
 50,000 livres per day, befides the excife of beer, fleffi, 
 and corn; which, in all, amounts to above i,6oo,oool. 
 a-year. This is more than is paid by ail the rell of 
 the provinces put together ; and yet Amflerdam bears 
 but the fifth rank in the alTembly of the Hates of Hol- 
 land, with this diflin(Sl;ion, that whereas other cities 
 fend two members, this fends four. 
 
 The militia of Amflerdam is very coniiderablc. They 
 have 60 companies, each of which has from 200 to 
 300 men. Jews and Anabaptifts are excluded from 
 this fervice, not being admitted to bear arms : But they 
 arc obliged to contribute to the maintenance of the 
 city-guard, which confiils of 1400 foldiers ; as alfo to 
 the night-watch, who patrole about the ftrects and 
 proclaim the hour. Beiides thefe, there arc trum- 
 peters on every church ftecple, who found every half 
 hour ; and if there happens afire, they ring the fire- 
 bell, and (how where it is. The inhabitants have ex- 
 cellent contrivances to cxtinguilh it fpeedily. 
 
 The trade of Amflerdam is prodigious : for almofl 
 the whole trade of theEafl India company centres in 
 this city, which befides carries on a commerce with all 
 the refl of the world, infomuch that it may be called 
 the magazine or ftorc-houfe of Europe. They import 
 a vafl deal of corn from the Baltic, not fo much for 
 prefcnt confuraption, as to lay up againll times of fear- 
 city. The richell fpices are entirely in the hands of 
 the EaA-India company, who furnifli all Europe thcrc- 
 ■with. They have vaft quantities of military (lores, 
 with which they fupply feveral nations ; which is ow- 
 ing to [heir cngrolEng, mod of the iron-works on the 
 Rhine and other great rivers that run into Holland, 
 
 The longitude of Amflerdam is 4. 30. E. ; the lati- AmCcrrtam 
 
 tude, 52. 25. N. ' » ' 
 
 A.MSTERDAM, is alfo thc name of an idand in the 
 fouth-fea, faid to have been difcuvered by Tafman, a 
 Dutch navigator. It was vifncd by Captain Cook in 
 his late voyages. Its greatefl extent from caft to weft 
 is about 21 miles, and from north to fouth about 13. 
 It is broad at thc cafl end, and runs taper towards the 
 wefl, where it turns, and runs to a point due north. 
 It is about fix leagues to the wed of Middlcburgh. 
 The fliore is furrounded by a coral rock, and its moft 
 elevated parts are not above fix or eight yards above 
 the level of thefea. S. Lat. 21. 11. W. Long. 175. 
 It is wholly laid out ia plantations, in which arc culti- 
 vated fome of the richefl produflions of nature. 
 
 Here are bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, plantains, ba- 
 nanas, (haddocks, yams, and fome other roots, fugar- 
 cancs, and a fruit like a nedlaiiuc, called by the na- 
 tives ^_^/itf^<7. There did not appear an inch ofwaftc 
 ground : the roads occupied no more fpaec than was 
 abfolutely neceflary : the fences did not take up above 
 four inches each ; and even thefc were not wholly loft, 
 for in many grew fome ufeful trees or plants : it was 
 every where the fame, change of place altered not the 
 fcene : nature, affified by a little art, no v liere appear- 
 ed with more fplendour than on this illand. Water is 
 not fo plentiful here as at the Society-illands ; but thc 
 chief pointed out a pool of frelh water unafked, to fup- 
 ply the (hips with that necefTary article. Cafuarinas, 
 pandangs, and wild fago-palms, appear here with their 
 various tints of green, and barringtoniac as big as 
 the loftiefl oaks. The bread-fruit docs not, however, 
 thrive here with the fame luxuriance as at the Sociciy- 
 illands; the coral rock, which compofcs the bafisof 
 this fpot, being much more thinly covered with mould. 
 Both men and women are of the common fize of 
 Europeans, and [hcircolouristhatofalighti(h copper ; 
 they are well-fliapcd, have regular features, are ac- 
 tive, brifk, and lively. They have fine eyes, and in 
 general good teeth, even to an advanced age. The 
 women are the merricfl creatures imaginable, and in- 
 ccdant talkers. In general, they appear to be niodefl ; 
 although there was no want of thofe of a different 
 damp. Among the natives, who fwam about the (liip 
 very vociferoufiy, were a conCderablc number of wo- 
 men, who wantoned in the water like amphibious 
 creatures, and were eafily perfuadeJ 10 come on board 
 perfedly naked ; but none of them ventured to day 
 there af'tcr fnni'ct, but returned to the (hore to pafs the 
 night, like the greater part of the inh.ibitanis, under 
 thc fhade of thc wild wood which lined the coad. 
 There they lighted great fires, and were heard con- 
 verling almoU the whole night. The hair of both 
 fexcs in general is black, but cfpecially that of thc 
 women j both fexcs wear it fliort, except a fingle lock 
 on thc top of the head, and a fniall quantity on each 
 fide. The men cut or (have ihcir beards quite clofc, 
 which operation they perform with two (hells. The 
 hair of many wasobfcrved to be burnt at the ends, and 
 Hrewed with a wliite powder, which was found, on. 
 examining it, to be lime made of fhell or coral, which 
 had corroded or burnt thc hair ; fome made u('e of a 
 blue powder, and others, boih men and women, of an 
 orange-coloured powder made of turmeric. 
 
 The drcfs of both fexcs conljds of a piece of cloth
 
 AMU 
 
 [ 646 ] 
 
 AMU 
 
 Amulet. %r matting wrapped round the waift, and hanging 
 
 ^" — " down btlow tht knees, from the waill upwards ihcy 
 
 arc generally naked, and it fecnis to be a cuilom to 
 anoint thcl'c parts every morning. Tlie practice of 
 tatiowing, or piuitUuiiig tlie ikin, likewile prevails. 
 The iiien are tatiowcd Ironi the middle of the thigh to 
 above the hips ; tiic women have it only on their arms 
 and lingers, and on thole parts but very liightly. Their 
 ornaments arc anmlcts, necklaces, and bracelets, the 
 bone, lliclls, and beads o(' mother-of pearl, tortoifc- 
 Ihell, 6cc. which are worn by men as well .is women. 
 The women alfo wear on their lingers neat rings made 
 of tortoile-lhell, and pieces in their cars about the 
 fizeof a fmall quill ; but here ornaments are not com- 
 monly worn, though all have their cars pierced. 
 They have alfo a curious apron, made of the cocoa- 
 nut flicll, and compoftd of a number of fmall pieces 
 fewed together in fueh a manner as to form liars, 
 half-moons, little fquares, &c. ; it is ftudded with 
 beads and fliells, and covered with red feathers, fo as 
 to have a plcaling ettcft. They make the fame kind 
 of cloth, andof the fame materials, as at O- Taheiiee, 
 though they have not fuch a variety, nor do they 
 make any fo fine ; but, as they have a method of gla- 
 zing it, it is more durible, and will rclifl rain forfonie 
 time, which the other cloth would not. Their colours 
 are black, brown, yellow, purple, and red ; all made 
 from vegetables. They make various forts of mat- 
 ting, fome of a very fine texture, which is generally 
 iifed for cloiJiing ; and the thick and ftrongcr fort 
 ferves to lle«^ upon, and to make fails for their canoes, 
 &c. Among other ufeful uienfils, they have various 
 forts of bulkcts, fome made of the fame materials as 
 the mats, and others of the twilled fibres of cocoa- 
 nuts. Thefe arc not only durable, but beautiful, being 
 generally compofed of different colours, and ftuddcd 
 with beads made of fhells or bones. They have many 
 little nicknacks among them, which fliow that they 
 neither vv.int tafle todelign, nor fkill to execute, wliat- 
 ever tlity take in hand. Their fifning implements 
 are much the fame as in other illauds : here was pur- 
 chafed a filh net made like our calling-nets, knit of 
 very firm though (lender threads. 
 
 Notwithllanding their very friendly difpofition, 
 thefe people have very formidable weapons ; fome of 
 their fpears have many barbs, and mufl be very dan- 
 gerous weapons when they take efl'eft. A large flat 
 fliell orbreafl-jilate was purchafcd, made of a roundifli 
 bone, white and polifhed like ivory, about 18 inches 
 in diameter, which appeared to have belonged to an 
 animal of the whale tribe. 
 
 AMULET, a charm, or prcfervative againft. mif- 
 chief, witchcraft, or difeafes. 
 
 Amulets were made of flone, metals, ffmples, ani- 
 mals, andinaword, of every thing that imagination 
 fuggcfled. 
 
 Sometimes they confifled of words, c'larafters, and 
 fentences, ranged in a particular order, and enj^ra- 
 ved upon wood, &c. and worn about the neck, or 
 Jbmc other part of the body. See Abracadapra. 
 
 At other times they were neither written nor en- 
 graved ; but prepared with many fuperflitious cere- 
 monies, great regard being ufually paid to the inilii- 
 ^ ence of the (lars. The Arabians have given to this 
 
 Ipccics of amulet tlic name of talisman. 
 
 All nations have been fond of amulets: tlie ]e\V5 
 were extremely fuperiliiious in the ufe of them, 
 to drive away difcalcs ; and the Mifna forbids them, ' 
 unlcfs received Irum an approved man « ko had cured 
 at kail three pcrfons before by the fame means. 
 
 Among the C hriflians of the early times, amulets 
 were made of the wood of the crofs, or ribbands with 
 a text of fcripture written in them, as prefcrvaiives a- 
 gainll difeafes. Notwilhilandiugthe progreG of learn- 
 ing and refinement, there is not any country in Europe, 
 even at this day, who do not believe in fome charm or 
 other. The pope is fuppofed to have the virtue of 
 making amulets, which he exertifes in the confecrat- 
 ing ot A^/irts D<:is,&c.c. The fpunge which has wiped 
 liis table, was formerly in great veneration as a pre- 
 fcrvative from wounds, and from death itfelf : on this 
 account it was fent with great folemnity by Gregory II. 
 to the duke of Aquitain. 
 
 Anuilcts arc now much fallen from the repute they 
 were anciently in: yet tlie great Mr Boyle alleges 
 them as an inftanceof the increafc of external effluvi* 
 into the habit, iu order to fliow tlie great poroliiy of 
 the human body. He adds, that he is perfuadcd fome 
 of thefe external medicines do anfwcr ; for that he 
 bimfelf, havingoncebeen fubjeft tobleed at the nofe, 
 and reduced to ufe feveral remedies tocheck it, found 
 the inofs of a dead man's ikull, though only applied 
 fo astotouch the Ikin till the inofs was warm thereby, 
 the moft cffedual of any. The fame Mr Boyle (hows 
 how the effluvia, even of cold amulets, may, in traft 
 of time, pervade the pores of a living animal ; by 
 fuppoilngan agreement between the pores of the (kin 
 and the figure of the corpufcles. Bellini has demon- 
 ftratcd the pollibiliiy of the thing in his laft propoll- 
 tious Dir Fcbribi(S ; and the like is done by Dr Wain- 
 right, Dr Ktill, &c. 
 
 AMUKAT, or Amurath, I. the fourth emperor 
 of tht Turks, and one of the greattll princes of the 
 Ottoman empire, fucceed Solyman in i;56o. He took 
 from tjic Greeks, Gallipoli, Thrace, and Adrianople, 
 wiiicli laft he cliofe for the place of his rtlidence. He 
 defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Mifnia, 
 clnftifed his rebellious bjfltawi, and is faid to have 
 gained ;6 battles. This prince, in order to form a bo- 
 dy of devoted troops that mijfht fcrveas the immediaic 
 guards of his peribn and dignity, ap])oiiited his offi- 
 cers to feize annually, as the imperial property, the 
 fifth part of tlic Chrillian youth taken in war. Thefe, 
 after being inlirudcd in tlie Mahometan religion, in- 
 ured to obedience by fevere diff ipline, and trained to 
 warlike exercifes, vvcreforniedintoa body dillinguifli- 
 cd by the name of JaiiijfariiS, ox N w Soldiers. E- 
 very leniiuicnt which e:ithu(iafra can infpire, every 
 mark of dillinc-lion tiiat ilie favour of the prince could 
 confer, were employed in order to animate this body 
 with martial ardour, and with a confcioufnefs of its 
 own pre-eminence. The Janiflariesfoou became the 
 chief ilrcngth and pride of the Ottoman armies, and 
 Were diftinguilhtd above all the troops whole duty it 
 was to attend on the perfonof the Sultan. — At length 
 the death of Lazarus, defpot of Servia, who had en- 
 deavoured in vain 10 flop the progrcfs of Amurath's 
 arms, touched Milo, one of his fcrvants, in fo fcnfi- 
 ble a manner, that, in revenge, he ftabljcd the fultan 
 in the midft of his troops, and killed liim upon the 
 
 fpot. 
 
 Amulet, 
 Amurat.
 
 AMY 
 
 [ 647 1 
 
 AMY 
 
 Amycla, fpot, 
 Amygdalus years, 
 
 A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 
 
 A/'.URAT H. the loth cniperorof the Turks, was 
 tlic cUtil foil of Malioiiict I. and fuccceded his father 
 in 1 42 1. He btlicged Conllaiiiiiioplc and Belgrade 
 willioiit fucccfs ; but he took 1 hclfalonica from the 
 Venetians, and compelled the prince of Bofnia and 
 John Callrioc prince of Albany to pay him tribute. 
 He obliged the latter to fend his three fons as hofla- 
 ges ; among whom was George, celebrated in hillory 
 by tlie name of Hdniderbig. John Hunniadcs de- 
 feated Aniurat's troops, and obliged him to make 
 peace with the Chrillian princes, in 1442. Thefe 
 princes afterwards breaking the peace, Amurat de- 
 feated them in the famous battle of Varna, November 
 loth, 1444, whicii proved fo fatal to the Chriftians, 
 and in which Ladidaus king of Hungary was killed. 
 He afterwards defeated Hunniades, and killed above 
 20,oooof his men ; but George Caftriot, better known 
 by the name of Scandcrbig, being re-eflablilhcd in the 
 citatesof his father, defeated the Turks feveral times, 
 and obliged Amurat to raife the fiege of Croia, the ca- 
 pital of Albany. Amurat died, chagrined with his 
 ill fuceefs, and infirm \\ 'th age, February i ith, 1451, 
 at Adrianople. It is obfervcd to this prince's honour, 
 that heahvayskept his treatieswith ihegreatefl fidelity. 
 
 AMYCLyE, a city of Laconia, dillant about 18 
 miles from the metropolis, founded by Aniyclas the 
 fon of Lacedsenion, and famed afterwards forthe birth 
 of Caflor and Pollux the fons of Tydarcus, eighth 
 king of Sparta. It was afterwards famed for fending 
 a confidcrable colony of its own inhabitants into Up- 
 per Calabria, who built there a city which they called 
 by the fame name. This laft city was fituated between 
 CaietaandTerracina, and gave its name to the neigh- 
 bouring fea. According to Pliny and Solinus, the 
 territory of Amyclx was fo infcfted with vipers and 
 other ferpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to 
 
 abandon rhcir dwellings and fettle elfewherc A- 
 
 jDong the ancient poets, the Amyeli, or inhabitants 
 of this city, obtained the epithet of taciti or fitent. 
 The reafon of this was, either bccaufe it was built by 
 the Laccdxmonians, who, as they followed the doc- 
 trine of Pythagoras, were always inculcating the pre- 
 cept of filenee, and thence called taciti: er bccauicof 
 a law which obtained in this place, forbidding any 
 enc, under fevere penalties, to mention the approach 
 of an enemy. Before this law was made, the city 
 was daily alarmed by falfe reports, as tiie enemy had 
 been already at the gates. From terrorsof this kind 
 the abovemcntioiicd law indeed delivered them : but 
 in the end it proved the ruin of the city : for the 
 Dorians appearing unexpeftedly under the walls, no 
 one ventured to tranfgrefs the law ; fo that the city 
 vas ea/ily taken. They reduced it to an inconfider- 
 able hamlet ; in which, however, were fecn fume of 
 the remains of its ancient grandeur. One of the finefb 
 buildings that cfcapcd the common ruin, was the 
 temple and flatuc of Alexandra, whom the inhabit- 
 ants pretend to be the fame with Cadhndra the daugh- 
 ter of Priam. 
 
 AMYGDALUS, the Almond and Peach : Age- 
 Bus of the monogynia order, belonging to the icofin- 
 dria dafs of plants ; and, iuiiie natural UKihod rank- 
 
 ing under the 36th order, Pomacea. The chara^ers Ai»ygdiliii 
 
 are : The calyx is a linglc-leaved perianthium beneath, ' ■^~~' 
 
 tubular, and quinquefid ; The corolla confuls 0/ five 
 oblong petals, which arc infcrtcd into thccalyx: Tho 
 patiiiiiu conlift; of 30 (lender credt filaments, half the 
 length of the corolla, and inferted into the calyx ; the 
 antlier«are fimple : The pijiiilum has a round villous 
 germen above ; a fimple ftylus, the length of the fta- 
 mina ; and the ftigma headed : The piricarpium is a 
 large roundifli villous drupa, with a longitudinal fur- 
 row : the feed is an ovate compreflcd nut, perforated 
 in the pores. 
 
 Species. I. The Communis, or Common Almond, a 
 native of Africa, will grow to near 20 feet high ; and 
 whether planted fingly in an open place, or mixed 
 with others in clumps, llirubbcry-quarters, &c. fliows 
 itfelf one of the fincfl flowering trees in nature. 
 Thofe whonevcryct fawit,may eafily conceive what a 
 noble appearance this tree mud make, when covered 
 all over with a bloom of a delicate red, which will be 
 in March ; a time when very few trees arc ornamen- 
 ted either with leaves or flowers. No ornamental 
 plantation, therefore, of what fort or kind foever, 
 Ihould be without almond trees. Neither arc the 
 beauties of the flowers the only tiling defirable in this 
 tree : The fruit would render it worthy of planting, 
 were there no other motive. It ripens well, and its 
 goodncfs is well known. — The white-flowering al- 
 mond is a variety of this fpccies, and is cultivated for 
 the fake of the flowers and the fruit, though the flow- 
 ers are inferior to the others. 
 
 2. The Nana, Dwarf Almond, is a native of Afia 
 Minor. Of this flirub tliere are two forts, the fingle 
 and the double. Both grow to about four or five feet 
 high, and are in the firfl eftecm as flowering flirubs. 
 The fingle fort has its beauties ; but the double kind is 
 matchlcfs. In both, the flowers are arranged the whole 
 length of the laft year's flioots ; their colour is a deli- 
 cate red ; and they Ihow theinfelves early in the 
 fpring, which Aill enhances their value. 
 
 3. The Pcrfica, or Peach, is faid to be a native of 
 Europe ; but of what place is not known. Cultivation 
 has produced many varieties of this fruit ; of whicb 
 the following arc the mofl efteemed. 
 
 1. The White Nutmeg 15. The Bellegardc 
 
 2. The Red Nutmeg 16. The Bourdinc 
 The Early Purple 17. The Rolfanna 
 The Small Mignon 18. The Admirable 
 The White Magdalen 19. The Old NewingtoB 
 The Yellow Albcrge 20. The Royal 
 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 10. 
 
 II. 
 12. 
 
 14 
 
 The Large French 
 
 Mignon 
 The Beautiful Chev- 
 
 rcufe 
 
 The Red Magdalen 
 The Chancellor 
 Smith's Newingion 
 The Montauban 
 
 The Malta 
 The \'iiuufe 
 
 21. The Rambouillet 
 
 22. The Portugal 
 2?. The Late Admirable 
 24. The Nivette 
 2 J. Venus's Nipple 
 36. The Late Purple 
 
 27. The Perifque 
 
 28. The Catharine 
 
 29. The Monftrous Pavy 
 50. Tlie Blooi'y Peach. 
 
 The ^^■hitc Nutmeg is the firfl peac h iu feafon, it 
 being often in perfection by the end of July. The 
 leaves are doubled ferratcd, the flower large, and of 
 a pule colour ; the fruit is white, iiuall, and round : 
 
 the
 
 AMY 
 
 [ 648 J 
 
 AMY 
 
 AmrgJalut tlie flcdi, too, is white, parts from the ftone, and has 
 V a fugary, mulky flavour. 
 
 The Kcd Nutmeg hath yellowifli green leaves, with 
 ftrpcntine edges, which are flighily fcrrated. The 
 flowers arc large, open, and of a deep bliiilh colour. 
 The fruit is larger and rounder than the former, and 
 is of a bright vermilion next the fun, but more yellow 
 on the other fide. The flclh is white, except next 
 the llonc, freni which it feparates, and has a rich 
 mulky flavour. It ripens jull after the white nut- 
 meg. 
 
 The Early Purple hath fmooth leaves, terminated 
 in a (harp point. The flowers are large, open, and 
 of a lively red. The fruit is large, round, and co- 
 vered with a fine deep red coloured down. The flcfli 
 is white, red next tlie flone, and full of a rich vinous 
 juice. Ripe about the middle of Augufl. 
 
 The fniall Mignon hathleavcsflightly ferratcd, and 
 the flowers fmall and contracted. 'Fhe peach is round, 
 of a middling fize, tinged with darkilh red on the fun- 
 fide, and is of a pale yellowilh colour on the other. 
 The flelh is white, parts from the ftone, where it is 
 red, and contains plenty of a vinous fugary juice. Ri- 
 pens rather before the former. 
 
 The\VhiteMagdalcnhaililong,(hining, pale-green 
 leaves, deeply ferrated on the edges, and the wood is 
 moftly black at the pith. The flowers are large and 
 open, appear early, and are of a pale red. The fruit 
 is round, rather large,of ayellowilh-white colour, ex- 
 cept on the funny iide, wiiere it is flightly flreaked 
 with red. The flelh is while to the llone, from which 
 it feparates, and the juice is pretty well flavoured. 
 Ripe at the end of Augufl. 
 
 The Yellow Alberge hath deep red, niiddle-fized 
 flowers ; the peach is fmallcr than the former, of a 
 yellow colour on the Ihady fide, and of a deep red on 
 the other. The flelh is yellow, red at the flone, and 
 the juice is fugary and vinous. 
 
 The great French Mignon hath large, finely fer- 
 rated leaves, and beautiful red flowers. The fruit is 
 large, quite round, covered with a fine fatiny down, 
 of a brownilh red colour on the funny iide, and of a 
 greenidi yellow on the other. The flelli is white, ca- 
 lily parts from the Ikin, and is copioully flored with a 
 fugary high-flavoured juice. Ripe near the middle of 
 Aiigurt. 
 
 The beautiful Chevreufe hath plain leaves,and fmall 
 contrafted flowers. The fruit is rather oblong, of a 
 middling fize, of a fine red colour next the fun, but 
 yellow on the other fide. The flclh is yellowilh, parts 
 from the llonc, and is fall of a rich fugary juice. It 
 ripens a little after the former. 
 
 The Red Magdalen hath deeply ferrated leaves, 
 and large open flowers. The fruit is large, round, and 
 of a fine red next the fun. The flelh is firm, white, 
 feparates from the flone, where it is very red ; the 
 juice is fugary, and of an exquifite rich flavour. Ripe 
 at the end of Auguft. 
 
 The Chancellor hath large, flightly ferrated leaves. 
 The peach is about the fize of the Beautiful Chev- 
 reufe, but rather rounder. The Ikin is very thin, of 
 a fine red on the fanny fide; the flclh is white and 
 melting, parts from the flone, and the juice is very 
 rich and fugary. It ripens with the former. 
 
 The leaves of Smith's Newington are ferrated, and 
 
 the flowers are large and open. The fruit is of a mid- Amygdalw 
 
 die fize, of a fine red on the funny fide ; the flelh white ' ^— ^ 
 
 and firm, but very red at the flone, to which it flicks 
 clofcly, and the juice has a pretty good flavour. Ri- 
 pens with the former. 
 
 The Montauban hath ferrated leaves, and largfe 
 open flowers. The fruit is about the fize of the for- 
 mer, of a pur^'lifli red next the fan, but of a pale one 
 on the fliady lidc. The flelli is melting, and white 
 even to the ftone, from which it feparates. The 
 juice is rich, and well flavoured. It ripens a little 
 before the former. 
 
 The Malta hath deeply ferrated leaves, and the flow- 
 ers are large and open. The fruit is alinofl round, of 
 a fine red next the fun, marbled with a deeper red, but 
 the Ihady fide is of a deep green. The flelh is fine, 
 white, except at the flone, from which it parts, where 
 it is of a deep red ; the juice is a little mulky, and a- 
 greeable. It ripens at the end of Augufl;, or begin- 
 ning of September. 
 
 The Viueufe hath large deep green leaves, and full 
 bright red flowers. The fruit is round, of a middle 
 fize ; the Ikin is thin, all over red ; the flclh fine and 
 white, except at the flone, where it is very red, and 
 the juice is copious and vinous. Ripe in the middle 
 of September. 
 
 The Bellegarde hath fmooth leaves, and fmall con- 
 tra.5led flowers. The fruit is very large, round, and 
 of a deep purple colour next the fun. The flelli is 
 white, parts from the flone, where it is of a deep red, 
 and the juice is rich and excellent. It ripens early 
 in September. 
 
 The Bourdine hath large, fine green, plain leaves, 
 and fmall flefli-coloured contraftcd flowers. The fruit 
 is round, of a dark red next the fun ; the flelli white, 
 except at the flone, where it is of a deep red, and the 
 juice is rich and vinous. Ripens with the former. 
 
 The RoiTana hath plain leaves, and fmall contract- 
 ed flowers. The fruit is rather longer than the al- 
 berge, and lome count it only a variety of the latter. 
 The flefli is yellow, and parts from the flone, where 
 itisred; the juice is rich and vinous. Ripecarlyin 
 September. 
 
 The Admirable hath plain leaves, and fmall con- 
 tracted flowers, which are of a pale red. The fruit 
 is very large and round ; the flelli is firm, melting, 
 and white, parts from the flone, and is there red ; and 
 the juice has a fwect, fugary, high vinous flavour. 
 Ripe early in September. 
 
 The Old Newington hath ferrated leaves, and large 
 open flowers. The fruit is large, of a fine red next 
 the fun ; the flelli is white, flicks clofe to the flone, 
 where it is of a deep red, and the juice has an excel- 
 lent flavour. It ripens juft after the former. 
 
 The Royal hath plain leaves, and fmall contracted 
 flowers. The fruit is about the fize of the admirable, 
 and rcfcmbles it, except that it has fometimts a few 
 knobs or warts. The flelli is white, melting, and full 
 of a rich juice ; it parts from the flone, and is there of 
 a deep red. Ripe about the middle of September. 
 
 The Rambouilltt hath leaves and flowers like tile 
 royal. The fruit is rather round than long, of a mid- 
 dling fize, and deeply divided by a furrow. It is of a 
 bright yellow on the Ihady fide, but of a fine red on 
 the other. The flelh is melting, yellow, parts from 
 
 I the
 
 AMY l[ 649 
 
 Amygdalas the flone, where it is of a deep red, undthcjuice is 
 ' " ' rich and vinous. Ripe with the former. 
 
 The Poniiga) hath plain leaves, and hrgeopen flow- 
 ers. The fruit is large, fpotted, and of a beautiful red 
 on the funny lidc. The flclh is firm, white, flicks to 
 the (lone, and is there red. The llone is fmall, deep- 
 ly furrowed, and the juice is rich and fugary. Ripe 
 towards the end of September. 
 
 The late Admirable hath ferrated leaves, and 
 brownilh red fuiall contrafted flowers. The fruit is 
 rather large and round, of a bright red next the fun, 
 marbled with a deeper. The fiefli is of a greenilh- 
 white, and (licks to the ftone, where it hath feveral 
 red veins ; thejuice is rich and vinous. Ripeabout 
 the middle of September. 
 
 TheNivettehathferratedleaves.andfmalleontraft- 
 ed flowers. The fruit is large and roundilh, of a bright 
 red colour next the fun, but of a pale yellow on the 
 fliady-lide. The fle(h is of a greenilh yellow, parts 
 from tlie ftone, where it is very red, and is copioufly 
 flored with a rich juice. Ic ripens about the middle 
 of September. 
 
 Venus's Nipple hath finely ferrated leaves, and 
 rofe-coloured, fmall contrafted flowers, edged with 
 carmine. The fruit is of a middling fize, and has a 
 riling like a breaft. It is of a faint red on the funny- 
 fide, and on the ihady one of a ftraw-colour. The flefli 
 is melting, white, feparatcs from the ftone, where it 
 is red, and the juice is rich and fugary. Ripens 
 late in September. 
 
 The Late Purple hath large, ferrated leaves, which 
 arc varioully contorted, and the flowers are fmall 
 and contrafted. The fruit is round, large, of a 
 dark red on the funny fide, and yellowilh on the 
 'other. The flcdi is melting, white, parts from the 
 ftone, where it is red, and the juice is fweet and 
 high-flavoured. Ripens with the former. 
 
 The Perfique hath large, very long indented leaves, 
 and fmall conira(Sled flowers. The fruit is large, ob- 
 long, of a fine red next the fun ; the flelh firm, white, 
 but red at the ftone, juicy, and of a high plcafani fla- 
 vour. The ftalk has frequently a fmall knot upon it. 
 Ripe late in September. 
 
 The Catharine hath plain leaves, and fmall flow- 
 ers. The fruit is large, round, of a very dark red 
 next the fun. The flelh white, firm, fticks chife to 
 the ftone, and is there of a deep red. The juice is 
 rich and pleafant. It ripens early in Oftober. 
 
 The Monftrous Pavy hath large, very llightly fer- 
 rated leaves, and large, but rather contrailed flow- 
 ers. The fruit is round, and very large, whence its 
 name. It is of a fine red on the funny-fide, and of a 
 grecni(h-whiie on the other. The flefli is white, 
 melting, fticks clofe ro the ftone, and is there of a 
 deep red. It is pretty full of juice, which in dry fca- 
 f( ns is fugary, vinous, and agreeable. Ripe towards 
 the end of Oclobrr. 
 
 "The Bloody Peach hath rather large, ferrated 
 leaves, which turn red in autumn. The fruit is ot' 
 a middling fize, the (kin all over of a dull red, and 
 the flclh is red down to the ftone. The fruit is but 
 dry, and thejuice rather Iharp and bitierilh. It is 
 well worth cultivating notwithftanding, for the fruit 
 bake and preferve extremely well. 
 
 The ptach-tree has hiiLeno been planted againft 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ] 
 
 AMY 
 
 walls for the fake of the fruit : " but, (faysHanbury), AmypdiUi. 
 
 as I hardly ever knew a perfon wlio was not ftruck * •■' ' 
 
 with the beauty of the flowers when in full blow 
 againft a wall, why lliould it not have a ftiare in wil- 
 dernefs quarters, and flirubberies, amongft the forti 
 of almonds, &c. .' It may be Jcept down, or permit- 
 ted to grow to the height of the owner's fancy : and 
 the flowers are inferior to none of the other forts. 
 Add to this, they frequently, in well-lhcltered places, 
 produce fruit which will be exceeding well-flavour- 
 ed ; and thus the owner may enjoy the benefit of a 
 double treat." The above obfervations refpeft the 
 fingle peach ; with regard to the double-flowered, it 
 is generally propagated for ornamental plantations, 
 and is univerfally acknowledged to be one of the 
 fineft flowering-trees yet known. Againft a wall, 
 hosvever, thefe trees are always the faireft ; and if 
 they have this advantage, they arc fucceedcd by very 
 good fruit. 
 
 The Nectarine, according to Linnasus, is only« 
 variety of the peach, its having a fmooih coat being 
 only an accident originally. Of this alfo many varie- 
 ties are now cultivated ; and the following are forac 
 of the moft efteemed : i.ThcElruge. 2. The Ncw- 
 ington. 3. The Scarlet. 4. The Roman. 5. The 
 Murrey. 6. The Italian. 7. The Golden. 8. The 
 Temple's. 
 
 The Elruge hath large ferrated leaves, and fmall 
 flowers. The fruit is of a middling fize, of a dark 
 purple colour next the fun, and of a greenilh yellow 
 on the ft)ady fide. The flelli parts from the ftone, and 
 has a foft, melting, good flavoured juice. Ripe early 
 in Angnft. 
 
 The Ncwington hath ferrated leaves, and large 
 open flowers. The fruit is pretty large, of a beauti- 
 ful red on the funny-fide, but of a bright yellow on 
 the other. The fle(h fticks to the ftone, is there of a 
 deep red colour, and thejuice has an excellent rich 
 flavour. Ripe towards the end of Auguft. 
 
 The fcarlet is rather lefs than the former, of .-» 
 fine fcarlet colour next the fun, but fades to a pale 
 red on the Oiady fide. It ripens near the time of the 
 former. 
 
 The Roman, or clufter red neftarine, hath plain 
 leaves, and large flowers. The fruit is large, of a 
 deep red towards the fun, but yellowilh on the (hady 
 fide. The flclh is firm, fticks to the ftone, and is 
 there red ; the juice is rich, and has an excellent 
 flavour. Ripe about the end of Auguft. 
 
 The Murrey is a middling-fizcd fruit, of a dirty 
 red colour on the funny fide, and yellowilh on the 
 (hady one. The flelh is firm, and tolerably well fla- 
 voured. It ripens early in Septcnibei . 
 
 The Italian Neflai ine hath fmooth leaves and fmall 
 flowers ; the fruit is red next the fun, but yellowilli on 
 the other fide ; flefli firm, adheres to the ftone, where 
 it is red, and when ripe, which is early in Septem- 
 ber, has an excellent flavour. 
 
 The Golden Ncftarinc has an agreeable red colour 
 next the fun, bright yellow on theoppolite fide ; flefh 
 verv yellow, fticks to the ftone, where it is of a pale 
 red, lias a rich fl 'vour, and ripens in September. 
 
 Temple's Neiflarine is of a middling fize, of a fair 
 
 red next the fun, of 3 yellowilh green on the other 
 
 fide ; flelh white near the ftone, from which it fepa- 
 
 4 N rates
 
 AMY 
 
 [ 65 
 
 Ainrg<^alus rates ; ripens in September^ and has a liigh poignant 
 ' '' ' tiavoiir. 
 
 Propagation, &c. All the above fpecies are propa- 
 gated by inoculating tlicni into plum llocks in Avigali. 
 The ftocks ihould be lirll planted in the nurfcry when 
 of the lize of a ftraw ; and the firft or iVcond I'limmcr 
 after they will be ready to receive the bud. The ufual 
 method of inoculation mull be obfcrved, and there is 
 no danger of fuccefs ; though it may be proper to ob- 
 ferve, that the double-bloiromed peach lliould always 
 be worked into the ftocks of the inuH'cl-pKim. The 
 two forts of dwarf-almond may alfo be propagated by 
 layers, or from the fuckers, which they fometimts 
 lend forth in great plenty. 
 
 The varieties of the peach are produced like thofc 
 of the liner flowers, by lowing the feeds ; and though 
 many raifed this way will be of little value, as is alio 
 ihe cafe of flowers, yet probably among a parcel of 
 lloncs, faved from the hner kinds of peaches, there 
 would be'fome new kinds produced. The bed method 
 of faving the flones is, to let fome of the fined peaches 
 of the bell kinds hang till they drop of thcmfclvesfrom 
 the tree, and then the Aones lliould be immediately 
 planted on a bed of light dry earth, planting them 
 about three inches deep in the earth, and at about four 
 inches afundcr. The beds Ihould be covered to pre- 
 ferve them in the winter ; and in fpring, when the 
 plants come up, they mull be cleared of weeds, and 
 well watered. The next fpring they ihould be care- 
 fully taken up, and planted in the nurfery, in rows 
 three feet afunder, and one foot diflant from each o- 
 thcr ; laying a little mulch upon the furface of the 
 ground about their roots, and in a dry fpring watering 
 them once in a week ; and after one or two years Hand- 
 ing here, they may be removed to the places where 
 they are to remain ; or they may, at that time, when 
 the condition of their fruit is known, be grafted on 
 other flocks. 
 
 There are two general rules given for the pruning 
 of peach and nectarine trees ; viz. I. Always to have 
 enough of bearing wood ; and, 2. Not to lay in the 
 branches too clofe to one another. All peach trees 
 produce their fruit from the young wood cither of the 
 fame, or at the mofl of the former year's (hoot ; for 
 which reafon the branches are to be fo pruned, as to 
 encourage them to throw out new flioots in every part 
 of the tree : and this is to be done in May ; when by 
 pinching, or ftopping the flrong Ihoots, there may be 
 new wood forced out in any part of the tree. This is 
 the method of the funimer pruning : the winter pru- 
 ning is ufually done in February or March ; but is 
 much better done at Michaelmas, as foon as their 
 leaves begin to fall ; and the wounds will then have 
 time to heal before the fevere frofls coire on. 
 
 In pruning of thefe trees it mud always be obfcr- 
 ved alfo, that it is beil done under a wood bud, not a 
 blolTom bud ; which may be didinguiftied by ilie \rood 
 bud's being Icfs turgid, and longer and narrower than 
 the blo/Tom bud ; for if the {hoot have not a leading 
 bud where it is cut, it will commonly die down to the 
 leading bud. In nailing the Ihoots to the wall, they 
 fhould be placed at as equal diflances as polliblc ; and 
 fo far apart that the leaves may have room ; and iliey 
 mufl always be trained as horizontally as pofliblc, that 
 
 o ] AMY 
 
 the lower part of the tree may be well wooded, which AmygdJ 
 
 it will not be if the branches are fuffcred to run up- *■ v — 
 
 right. When the fruit is fct and grown to the fize of 
 a fmall nut, it Ihuuld be thinned, and Icf: live or fix 
 inchei afundcr : by this management the fruit « ill be 
 laiger and better tailed, and tlic trees iti a condition 
 to bear well the fuccecding year. The quantity of 
 fruit to be left on large full grown trees fliould never 
 be greater than live dozen upon each ; but on middling 
 trees, threeor four dozen will be enough. If the fea- 
 fon ihould prove hot and dry, it will be proper to draw 
 up the earth round the Hem of each tree, to form a 
 hollow bafon of about fix feet in diameter, and cover 
 the furface of the ground in this bafon with mulch ; 
 and once in a week or fortnight, according to the 
 drought of the fcafon, 10 pour down eight or ten gal- 
 lons of water to the root of each tree ; or the water 
 may be fprinkled by an engine over the branches of 
 the trees, which, fluking down to the roots, will pro- 
 mote the growth of the fruit and prevent it falling olF 
 the trees. This, however, lliould be coniinucd on- 
 ly while the fruit is growing. 
 
 Th e peach-tree, as w ell as t'le rofc-tree,are very fub- 
 jeft to be over-run with the aphides ; which may be 
 deftroyed by fumigating the houfe in which the plants 
 arc kept with tobacco, or, which is faid to be the 
 moll etfcdual method, by fleam raifed from water 
 poured over the flues*. — Soap-fuds are faid to dcdroy . see Jf / 
 cffcftually the different fpecies of infedls that itfell nfcrdng 
 fruit-trees growing againd walls, and pariicularly x\\t fcadci, &. 
 peach, cherry, and plum. For this purpofe, a pcr- 
 ibn on a ladder, fliould pour them from a watering- 
 pot over both trees and wall, beginning at the top of 
 the wall, and bringing it on in courfes from top to 
 bottom. The fuds contribute likewifc, it is faid, to 
 prefervc the wood of the delicate and tender kinds pf 
 peaches. 
 
 Vfcs. Sweet almonds are reckoned to afford little 
 nourilhment; and, when eaten in fubllance, are not 
 eafy of digcllion, unlefs tiioroughly comminuted : 
 Peeled, and eaten lix or eight at a time, they forr.e- 
 times give prefent relief in the heart-burn. But in 
 medicine they are inodly ui'td for making cmulfions ; 
 and they abound nor only with an oil, but likewifc 
 with a mucilage fit for incorporating oil and water 
 together. 
 
 Emnlllons are commonly prepared from almonds, by 
 beating an ounce of them, after being blanched, into 
 a fine pulp, in a marble or done mortar ; and tritura- 
 ting them well with half an ounce (more or lefs) of 
 fine fugar ; and then adding by little at a time, a 
 quart of water; taking care to continue grinding 
 them while the water is poured on ; after which the 
 white milky liquor is drained through a cloth, and put 
 into a quart bottle. Some people add a drachm of 
 blanched bitter almonds to an ounce of the fvvcct, 
 which they think make the emullions more agreeable. 
 Such emullions have been much ufcd as drink in acute 
 difeafes, for diluiing and blunting acrimoniousjuices 
 in the fird palfages, and acrid falinc particles in the 
 blood ; and for foftening and hibricating the fibres and 
 membranes. 
 
 It has been a common praflice to difiblve from half 
 an ounce to an ounce, or more, of gum-arabic in tli« 
 
 wate?
 
 AMY 
 
 L 651 1 
 
 AMY 
 
 Amyliceoui ^^atcr ufed for making ihf emulfions ; and to make 
 
 I p.iticms drink freely of them, while blilkrs arc ap- 
 
 Amyntor . pijcd to the body, in order to prevent ftrangiiry ; and 
 
 "" " to order them 10 be ufcd in cafes of gravel, and of 
 
 inriammation of the bladder or urethra ; and in heat 
 
 of urine from virulent gonorrhcua or other caufcs. 
 
 Camphor, refm of jalap, and other refinous fub- 
 Aances, by being triturated with almonds, become niif- 
 ciblc with water, and more mild and plcafant than 
 they were before ; and therefore they are frequently 
 ordered to be rabbed with them, and made up into 
 pills or bolufcs, with the adJiiion of fomc confcrvc 
 or gum-aribic mucilage ; or they are incorporated 
 ■with watery liquors into the form of an emullion. 
 
 Formerly the feeds of the lettuce, of the cucumber, 
 of the white poppy, and of a number of other plants, 
 were employed for making emulfions ; but now the 
 fweet almonds fiipply the place of ail the reft. 
 
 The bitter almonds are not fo much ufed as they 
 were formerly; becaufe they have been found to de- 
 flroy fomc forts of animals : this tfted was related by 
 the ancients, but believed to be fiftitious ; becaufe 
 when eaten by men they appear to be innocent, and 
 to produce no deleterious etfctts. However, the facts 
 related by Wepfcr in his Treatife di; Cicuta Aquatica, 
 having been confirmed by latter experiments ; and it 
 having been difcovered that a water drawn from them 
 had deleterious effefts, and that the dillilled water 
 from tbc lauro-cerafus leaves, which have a bititer 
 tafte rcfenibling that of bitter almonds, was ftill more 
 puifonous ; it raifed a fufpicion of the wholefomcnefs 
 of thofe bitter fubftances,and has made phylitians more 
 cautious of uling them, though they have been em- 
 ployed for making orgcatc and other liquors, without 
 producing any bad cffeils. 
 
 As to the peach and ncdarine, they are fufficicntly 
 \ nown as delicious fruits. Peach-flowers have an a- 
 grccable fnicll, and a bitterilh ta(le : dirtilied, with- 
 out any addition, by the heat of a water-bath, they 
 yield one-fixth their weight, or more, of a whitilh li- 
 quor, which, as Mr Bolduc obferves, communicates 
 to a large quantity of other liquids a flavour like that 
 of the kernels of fruits. An infulion in water of half 
 an ounce of the frefli gathered flowers, or a dram of 
 them when dried, fweclened with fugar, proves for 
 children an ufeful laxative and anthelmintic : the 
 leaves of the tree are, with this intention, foracwhat 
 more cfiicacious, tliough lefs agreeable. The fruit 
 has the fame quality with the other fweet fruits, that 
 of abating heat, quenching thirft, and gently loofcn- 
 ing the belly. 
 
 AMYLACKOUS, from aruylum " ftarch ;" a term 
 applied to the fine flour of farinaceous feeds, in which 
 confifls their nutritive part. See Bread. 
 
 AMYNTA, in literary hiftory, a beautiful paftoral 
 comedy, corapofed by TalFo ; the model of all drama- 
 tic pieces wherein fhcpherds arc aftors. The Pajlor 
 Fido, and Filli di Scire, are only copies of this cxcel- 
 Jcnt piece. 
 
 AMYNTOR, a,ui/7Ta.f, formed of the verb «.avTf, / 
 defend, or avenge, properly denotes a perfon who de- 
 fends or vindi-ates a caufe. In ibis fcnfe, Mr Toland 
 inlitlcs his dcfenre'of Milton's life, /t/.'v«^5r. as being 
 a vindication of that work agaiuft Mr Blackball and 
 others, who liad charged him with queftioning the au- 
 
 thority of fomc of the books of the New Tcftamcnt, 
 and declaring his doubt that fcvtral pieces under the 
 name of Chrift and his apoiUcs, received now by the 
 whole Chriilian church, were fuppolititious. 
 
 AMYOT (James), bifliop of Aiixcrrc and great al- 
 moner of f'rance, was born of an ebfcurc family at 
 Wclun, the 30th of October 1514, and ftudied philo- 
 fophy at Paris, in the college of cirdinal Le Moinc. 
 He was naturally dull and heavy ; but diligence and 
 application made amends for thcle natural defects. He 
 left Paris at the age of twenty-three ; and went to 
 Bourgcs with the Sieur Colin, who had the abbey of 
 St Ambrofe in that city. At the recommendation of 
 this abbot, a fecrctary of ftatc took Amyot into his 
 houfe to be tutor to his children. The great Lm- 
 provcmcnts they made under his direction induced tiic 
 fecrctary to recommend him to ilie princcfs Margaret 
 duchcfs of Berry, only liller of Krancis I. and by- 
 means of this recommendation Amyot was made pub- 
 lic profelFor of Greek and Latin in the Univerfity of 
 Bourgcs. It was during this time he tranflated into 
 French the " Amours of Thcagines and Chariclea," 
 which Francis I. was fo pleafed with, that he confer- 
 red upon him the abbey of Bellofane. He alfo tranf- 
 lated Plutarch's Lives, which he dedicated to the 
 king ; and afterwards undertook that of Plutarch's 
 Morals, which he ended in the reign of Charles IX. 
 and dedicated to that prince. Charles conferred up- 
 on him the abbey of St Cornelius dc Compiegnc, and 
 made him great almoner of France and bilhop of Au- 
 xcrre. He died in 1595, aged 79. 
 
 AMYR,'\LDISM, a name given by fomc writers 
 to the doctrine of univerfal grace, as explained and af- 
 ferted by Amyraldus, or Mofes Amyrault, and others 
 his followers, among the reformed ia France, towards 
 the middle of the i 7[h century. 
 
 This doctrine principally conllftcdof the following 
 particulars, viz. that God dtfirei the happinefs of all 
 men, and none arc excluded by a divine decree ; that 
 none can obtain falvation without faith in Chri.'l ; that 
 God refufes to none the [-ovjcr oi beliiviiig, though he 
 docs not grant to all his alfiitance, that they may im- 
 prove this power to faving purpofes ; and that many 
 perilh through their own fault. Thofe who embraced 
 thisdodtrine were aWdUiiherfatili t ; though it iscvi- 
 dent they rendered gra.cc unwtrfal in words, hai far- 
 tial in reality, and arc chargeable with greater incon- 
 fiftencics than the Supralaffarians. 
 
 AMYRAULT (Mofes), an eminent French Pro- 
 teftant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in I J96. 
 He ftidied at Saumur, where he was ehofcn piofeifor 
 cf thcolo^'iy J and his learned works gained him the 
 eftecm of Catholics as well as Protcltanrs, particular- 
 ly of Cardinal Richelieu, who confukcd him on a plan 
 of re-uniting their churches, which, however, as may 
 well be fuppofed, came to nothing. He publiOicd a 
 piece in which he attempted to explain the myftery 
 of predcftination a;id grace, v. hich occalioncd a con- 
 troverfy between him and forae other divines. He 
 alfo wrote. An Apology for the Protcftants ; a Para- 
 phrafc on the New-Tcftatnent ; and fevcral other 
 books. This eminent divine died in 1664. 
 
 AMYRIS : A genus ofthcmonogynia order, belong- 
 ing to the decandria cljfs of plants. The charafters 
 are : The calyx is a fmall llnglc-leavcd perianthium, 
 4 N 2 foar-
 
 AMY 
 
 [ 652 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Amyfis. lour-tootheJ and pcrfiftent : The coroUa confiRs of four 
 ^~—>^—^ oblong petals, concave and exiuuiiing : The Jh/miua 
 couliit of eight crciit fiibnlitcd tilamcnts ; the aiitlicrac 
 arc oblong, crcc^t, and the length of the corolla : The 
 f'ijlilliiin h;is an ovate gcrmcn, above ; a thickilh Uylus, 
 the lcni;th of the llaniina ; and a fonr-corncrcd Itig- 
 lua : The i>ericari<:i!ii is a round drupaceous berry : 
 Thcyiri'fl' is a globular glolly nut. — The uiolt rcniark- 
 I'lateXVII- able fpecicsare : i.The eltniifera,orlhrub which bears 
 the gum-clcnii, a native of South-America. It grows 
 10 the height of about lix feet, producing trifoliatcd 
 lliff" Ihining leaves, growing oppolite to one another 
 on footdalks two inches long. At the ends of the 
 branches grow four or live flendcr ftalks fet with many 
 very Hnall white tlowcrs. 2. The giliadenfis, or opo- 
 balfanium, is au evergreen ihrub, growing fpontane- 
 onlly in Arabia-Kelix, from whence the opobalfani, 
 or balm of gikad, is procured. 3. Toxifera, or poi- 
 fon-wood, is a fmall tree, with a fmooth light-coloured 
 bark. Its leaves are winged ; the middle rib is feven 
 or eight inches long, with pairs of pinnae one againfl 
 another on inch-long footflalks. The fruit hangs in 
 .bunches, is (liapid like a pear, and is of a purple co- 
 lour, covering an oblong hard llonc. From the trunk 
 of this tree diliils a liquid as black as ink. Birds feed 
 on the fniit : particularly one, called Vat purple grafs- 
 baik, on the mucilage that covers the Hone. It grows 
 iifually on rocks, in Providence, Ilathcra, and others 
 of the Bahama illands. 4. The balfamifcra, or rofe- 
 wood, is found on gravelly hills in Jamaica and others 
 of the Weft India illands. It rifcs to a confiderable 
 height, and the trunks arc remarkable for having large 
 protuberances on them. The leaves are laurel-lhaped ; 
 the fmall blue Jlowcrs are on a branched fpike ; and 
 the berries are fmall and black. 
 
 Properties. From the tiril fpecies, which is called 
 by the natives of the flralils icicariha, is obtained the 
 rclin improperly called^«w-c7<rw/, or gum-lemon. This 
 drug is brought to us from the Spanifli Weft Indies, 
 and Ibmctimes from the Eaft Indies, in long roundifli 
 cakes, generally wrapped up in flag leaves. The bed 
 fort is foftiili, fomcwhat tranfparcnt, of a pale whitifli 
 yellow colour, inclining a liitle to green, of a ftrong 
 not nnplcafaiu fmell. It almoft totally dillblves in pure 
 fpirit, and fends over fome part of its fragrance along 
 with ihis menftruum in diftillalion : dillilled with wa- 
 ter, it yields a conlidcrable ([uantity of pale-coloured, 
 chin, fragrant, elfentialoil. This rclin gives name to 
 one of the ofEciual unguents, and is at prefcnt fcarcc 
 any othcrv/ifc made ufe of; though it is certainly pre- 
 ferable, for iniernal purpofes.tofome oihcrswhich are 
 held in greater cfkcem. The fecond fpecies yields the 
 balfani of Mecca, of Syria, or of Gilead, which is 
 iljc mofl fragrant and pleafant of any of the balfams. 
 The true balfaui treeis found near to Mecca, which is 
 lijuated about a day's journey from the Red Sea, on 
 the Ali iiic fide. It has a yellowifh or greenilh yellow 
 colour, a warm bitterilh aromatic tafte, and an acidu- 
 lous frag'-ant fmell. It has long been held in great 
 eileem. The Turks, who arc in poflellion of the coun- 
 try in which it grows, value it much as an odoriferous 
 nnjTiient and ccfmetic, and fet fuch a high price upon 
 rt. that it is adulicrated when it comes into the hands 
 of the dealers, fo that it is very difficult to get genu- 
 iflc fpecimensof it. Ithasbccurcconimcadetl in great 
 
 tiftt. 
 
 variety of complaints ; but now it is generally believed An*, 
 that the Canada and copaiva balfams are equally cffi- || 
 cacious, and will an fwcr every purpofc for which it can Anabap. 
 be ufed. Dr Alllon fays, that the fureft mark of this 
 balfam being pure and unaduherated is, its fpreading 
 quickly on the furfacc of water when dropped into it ; 
 and that if a llngle drop of it is let fall into a large 
 faucer full of water, it immediately fpreads all over 
 its furfacc, and as it were dillblves and dilapjiears : 
 but in about half an hour it becomes a tranfparcnt pel- 
 licle covering the whole furfacc, and may be taken up 
 with a piu, having loft but its fluidity and colour, 
 and become while and foft, cohering, and communi- 
 cating its fniell and tafte to the water. This teft, he 
 fays, all the balfant he fa\\- in Holland bore, though it 
 is rare to get any from London that anfwers it. The 
 balfaniifera, or rofe-wood, affords an excellenttiniber : 
 it is alio replete with a fragrant balfam or oil, and re- 
 tains its flavour and folidity though expofed to the wea- 
 ther many years. Hy fubjedling this wood to diftilla 
 tion, Dr VV'right thinks, a perfume equal to the oleum 
 rhodii may probably be obtained. 
 
 ANA, among phylicians, denotes a quantity equal 
 to that of the preceding ingredient. It is abbrevia- 
 ted thus, aa, or a. 
 
 Ana, in matters of liscrature, a Latin termination, 
 adopted into the titles of feveral books in other lan- 
 guages Altai, or books in ana, are colledf ions of the 
 
 memorable fayings ofperfons of learning and wit ; 
 much the fame with what weotherwife call table-talk. 
 
 Wollius has given the hiftory of books in ana, in 
 the preface to the Cafanboniana. He there obferves, 
 that though fuch titles be new, the thing itfelf is ve- 
 ry old ; that Xenophon's books of the deeds and fay- 
 ings of Socrates, as well as the dialogues of Plato, are 
 Socratiana ; that the apophthegms of the philofo- 
 phers collefted by Diogenes Laertius, the fentenccsof 
 Pythagoras and ihofe of Epiftetus, the works of Athe- 
 nxus, Stobeus, and divers others, are fo many anas. 
 Even the Gemara of the Jews, with feveral other ori- 
 ental writings, according to Wolfius, properly be- 
 long to the fame clafs. To this head of ana may like- 
 wife be referred the Orphica, the Pythagorasa, jtfo- 
 pica, Pyrrhonea, &c. 
 
 Scaligerana was the firft piece that appeared with 
 a title in ana. It was compofed by Ifan dc Vaflfan, a 
 young Champanois, recommended to Jof. Scaligcr 
 liy Cafaubon. Being much with Scaligcr, who was 
 daily vilited by the men of learning at Leydcn, De 
 Vallan wrote down whatever things of any moment 
 he heard Scaligcr fay. And thus arofc the Scaliger- 
 ana, which was not printed till many years after, at 
 Geneva, in 1666. Patln. Let. 431. — Soon after came 
 the PerroHiana, Thuana,Nandaeana,Patineana, Sorbe- 
 riana, Menigiana, Anti-Meuagiana, Knretiana, Chev- 
 rasana, Leibnitziana, Arlequiniana, Poggima, &c. 
 
 ANABAPTISTON, the fame with Abaptiston. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, a name which has been indif- 
 criminatcly applied to Chriftians of very different 
 principlesand prafticcs ; though many of them objeft 
 to the denomination, and hold nothing in common, 
 befidesthe opinion that baptiifm ought always to be 
 performed by immerlion, and not adminiftered before 
 the age of difi.retion. 
 
 The word Anabaptiflis compounded of «»«, "new," 
 
 ana
 
 ri.M, ,\\ II 
 
 '^*>iiii^ii^ hitti/.r:.^ 
 
 J- ./•<.-.,- N
 
 ANA 
 
 [ (>SZ ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anabap' 
 
 tiftv 
 
 and^«»T/c»t, " a baptiH ;" and in this fcnfe the No- 
 vatians, theCataphrygians, and the Donatifts, may 
 be conlidcred as a kind of AnabapiilU in the carlicr 
 ages, though not then denoted by this name; for they 
 contended, that thofe Chriflians of the Catholic 
 church who joined thcmfclves to ihtir refpcdivc par- 
 ties Ihould be rebaptized. Uut we mull not clal's un- 
 der the fame denomination thofe bithops of Alia and 
 Africa, who, in the third century, maintained, that 
 baptifm adminillered by thofe whom they called here- 
 tics was not valid, and therefore that Aich as returned 
 into their churches ought to be rcbaptizcd. Nor do 
 the Englilh and Dutch Baptifts conlidcr the denomi- 
 nation as at all applicable to their fe£t : by whom ihe 
 baptifm appointed by Chrillis held to be " nothing 
 (holt o{ h/t>/ierfio>i, upon a [>:rffjnat prrijelpon oj Jaitl: :" 
 of which profeffion infants being incapable, and fprink- 
 ling being no adaquate fymbol of the thing intended, 
 the baptizing of profclytes to their comminiion, who 
 in their Lnfancy had undegone the ceren\ony of Iprink- 
 Jing, cannot, it is urged, be interpreted a repetiti- 
 on of the baptifmal ordinance. 
 
 Anabaptifls, in a (Iriii^ and proper fcnfe, appear to 
 be thofe who not only rebaptize, when they arrive at 
 an adult age, perfons that were baptized in their in- 
 fancy, but alfo, as often as any pcrfon comes from 
 one of their feds to another, or as often as any one is 
 excluded from their communion and again received in- 
 to the bofom of their church, they baptize him. 
 And fuch were many of the German Baptifts. But 
 the iingle opinion common to all tlic feels to which the 
 name of yiO/a^/j/i/fy/jhasbeenindifcriminately applied, 
 is that of the invalidity oiinjtint iapti/nj, in whatever 
 way adminiftercd : And hence the general denomina- 
 tion of Antipadcbaptijh ; which includes Anabapiifts, 
 Baptifts, Mennonites, Waterlandians, &c. as dillin- 
 guiflicd by their rcfpcftive peculiarities : though Ana- 
 tapiifis feem to have been adopted by mod writers as 
 the general term. 
 
 To the above peculiar notion concerning the baptif- 
 mal facranient the Anabaptifts added principles of a 
 different nature, depending upon certain ideas which 
 they entertained concerning a perfect church-ella- 
 blifliment, pure in its members, and free from the 
 inftitutions of human policy. 
 
 The Anabaptifts appear to have made little noife, or 
 to have been little noticed before the time of the re- 
 formation in Germany. The moft prudent and rati- 
 onal part of them confidercd it poliible, by human 
 wifdom, induftry, and vigilance, to purify the church 
 from the contagion of the wicked, provided the man- 
 ners and fpirit of the primitive ChriiUans could but 
 recover their loft dignity and liiftrc ; and feeing the 
 attempts of Luther, feconded by feveral perfons of 
 eminent piety, prove fo fucccfsful, they hoped that 
 the happy period was arrived in which the reftoration 
 of the church topurity was to be accomplilhed, under 
 the divine protei^ion, by the labours and coiinfclsof 
 pious and eminent men. Others, far from being fa- 
 lisfied with the plan of retormaiion propofed by Lu- 
 ther, looked upon it as much beneath the fublimity of 
 their views ; and confequer.tly undertook a more per- 
 it6t reformation, or, to exprefs more properly their 
 ^ifionary enterprife, they propofed to found a uew 
 church, entirely fpiritual, and truly divine. 
 
 Thisfcfft was foon joined by great numbers, and (as Aoabapu 
 ufually happensinfuddenrevolutionsofihisnaturc) by "ft»- 
 many perfons whofc characters and capacities were ' ""^^ 
 very ditfcrtnt, though their views fccmcd to turn 
 upon the fame objedt. Their progrefs was rapid ; for, 
 in a very Ihort fpacc of time, their difcourics, vili- 
 ons, and prcditlions, excited comnioiious in a great 
 part of huropc and drew into their communion a pro- 
 digious multitude, whofc ignorance rendered them 
 eafy vidinis to the illuiions of cnthuiiafm. The moft 
 pernicious faction of all thofe which compofed this 
 motley multitude, was that which pretended that the 
 founders of the new and /•t'r/t'if/ church, already men- 
 tioned, were under the dircL^tion of a divine impulfe, 
 and were armed againft all oppoliiion by the power 
 of working miracles. It was this fa>;iion that, in the 
 year 1521, began their fanatical work, under the 
 guidance of Munzer, Stubner, Siorck, &c. 
 
 Thefc perfons were dilciplesof Luther : but well 
 knowing that their opinions were fuch as would receive 
 nofandion froinhini, they availed themfclvesof hisab. 
 fence to dillirminatc them in \V ittcmhurgh, and had 
 tJie addrefs to over-reach the piety of Mclancthon. 
 Their principal purpofe was to gain over the populace, 
 and to form a conliderable pariy. To etf'edt this, fays 
 Bayle, they were induftrious and a<Sive, each in his 
 own way. Storck, wanting knowledge, boaftedofin- 
 fpiration ; and Stubner, who had both genius and e- 
 rudition, laboured at commodious explications of Scrip- 
 ture. Not content with difcrediting the conrt of 
 Rome, and decrying thcauthorityofconliftories, they 
 taught. That among Chriftians, who had the precepts 
 of the gofpel to direct and the Spirit of God to guide 
 iliem, the office of magiftracy was not only unnecef- 
 fary, but an unlawful encroachment on their fpiritual 
 liberty ; that the diftini.ioiis occafioncd by birth, or 
 rank, or wealth, being contrary to the fpirit of the 
 gofpel, which confiders all men as equal, fliould be 
 entirely aboliihed ; that all Chriftians, throwing their 
 polTcffions intoone common (lock, fliould live together 
 in that llatc of equality which becomes members of 
 the fame family ; that, as neither the laws of nature 
 nor the precepts of the New Tcftament had placed 
 any reftraint upon men w^ith regard to the number of 
 wives which they might marry, they Ihould ufe that 
 liberty which God himfelf had granted to the patri- 
 archs. 
 
 They employed at firft the various arts of perfuafion 
 in order to propagate their doctrine. They preached, 
 exhorted, adnioniihcd, and rcafoned in a manner that' 
 feeincd proper toimprefs the muliitude , and related a 
 grtfat number of vilions and revelations with which 
 they pretended fohavc been favoured from above. But 
 when they faw that thefc methods of making profc- 
 lytes were not attended with lucii a rapid fuccefs as 
 they fondly expected, and that the miniftry of Lu- 
 ther and other eminent reformers were detrimental 
 to their caufe, they then had recoufe to more expedi- 
 tious meafures, and madly attempted 10 propagate 
 ihcir f;Miatical doctrine by force ol arras. Munzer and 
 his alTociatcs, in the year 152}, put themfelves at the 
 head of a numerous army, compofed for the moft part 
 of the pcafants of Suibia, Thuringia, Franeonia, and 
 Saxony, and declared war igainlt all laws, govern- 
 iHcnt, and ia.ij^illrates of every kind, under tlie chi- 
 merical
 
 ANA 
 
 L 654 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 tllU. 
 
 Arabap- mcrical prf text that Chrift was now to take the reins 
 '•'*• of civil and cccltliiillical goveriinicnt into his own" 
 ' hands, and to rule alone over tlic nations. But this 
 fcditioiis crowd was routed and dilpcrfcd, ■without 
 much difiiculty, by the Eiedor of Saxony and other 
 princes ; and Munzcr their ringleader ignoniiniouily 
 put to death, and his factious counlcllors fcattered 
 abroad in dittcrent places. 
 
 Many of his followers, however, furvived, and pro- 
 pagated their opinionsthroughGerniaiiy,Switzerlaiid, 
 and Holland. In the ye.ir I533i a party of ihcni fet- 
 tled at Miuiftcr under the direction of two Anabaptiil 
 prophets, John Matthiasa bakcrof Haerlcni, and John 
 Bockholdi a journeyman-taylor of Leyden. Having 
 made thcmftlvcs mailers of the city, they depofed the 
 magillratcs, conlifcatcd the eftatcsof fuch as hadefca- 
 ped, and dcpoliicd the wealth they amalfcd together 
 in a public treafury for common ule. They made prepa- 
 rations of every kind for the defence of the city ; and 
 fent out cmillaries to the Anabaptifts in the Losv Coun- 
 tries, inviting them loali'cmble at Munfter, which was 
 now dignified with the name of Mount Sion, that from 
 hence they might be deputed to reduce all the nations 
 ot the earth under iheir dominion. Matthias, who was 
 the livllin command, wasfooncutofFin anadoi phren- 
 iy by the bilhopot Munftcr'sarmy ; and was fucceedcd 
 by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed by a fpecialdcfig- 
 nation of Heaven, as he pretended, king of Sion, and 
 inverted with Icgillativc posvcrs like thofc of Mofes. 
 The extravagancesof Bockholdt were too numerous to 
 be recited : it will be fuffitient to add, that the city of 
 Munllcr was taken after a long fiege and an obfti- 
 nate refillance ; and Bockholdt, the mock monarch, 
 was puniflicd with a moll painful and ignominious 
 death. 
 
 It mull, however, be acknowledged that the true 
 rife of the numerous infurrcftions of this period 
 ought not to be attributed to religious opinions. The 
 lirft infurgents groaned under the moft grievous op- 
 prclfions ; they took up arms principally in defence 
 of their civil liberties ; and of the commotions that 
 took place. The An.:baptift leaders abovenientioned 
 feem rather to have availed themfelves, than to have 
 been the prime n\overs. Sec the article Rekorma- 
 
 TioN That a great part of the main body, indeed, 
 
 confided of Anabaptids fcemsindifputablc ; and what- 
 ever fanaticifni exillcd among them would naturally 
 be called forth or be inflamed by the fitiialions that oc- 
 curred, and run riot in its wildeft fhapes. At the 
 fame time it appears from liiftory, that a great part 
 alfo confuled of Roman-Catholics, and a flill greater 
 of pcrfons who had fcarccly any religious principles 
 at all. Indeed, when we read of the vaft numbers 
 that were concerned in ihofe infurrcctions, of whom 
 it is reported ihnt 100. oco fell by the fword, it ap- 
 pears reafunable to conclude that a great majority of 
 them were not Anabapiiils. 
 
 Before concluding this article, it muft be remark- 
 ed, that the Baptifts or Mennonites in England and 
 Holland are to be conlidered in a very different light 
 from the enlhufiafts we have been dcfcribing : and it 
 api cars equally uneaudid and inviuious, to trace up 
 tlic'r diftinguifliing fentiment, as fomc of their adver- 
 faiics have done, to thofc obnoxious characters, and 
 
 there to flop, in order as it were to aflbciate with it Antbifil 
 the ideas of turbulence and fanaticifm, with which it II 
 certainly has no natural connection. Their coinci- Anacilyp. 
 deuce with fome of thofc opprelfed and infatuated . "'"*' , 
 people in denying baptifm to infants, is acknowledged 
 by the Baptifts : but they difavowthc praiJtice which 
 the appellation of A/iaiaptiJh implies; and their doc- 
 trines feem referable to a more ancient and refpefta- 
 ble origin. They appear fupportcd by hillory incon- 
 lidering themfelves as the defcendants of the Wal- 
 denfes.who were fogrievoullyopprelTedandperfecuted 
 by the defpotic heads of the Romilh hierarchy ; and 
 they profcfs an equal avcrlion to all principles of re- 
 bellion on one hand, and to all fuggefiions of fanati- 
 cifm on the other. See Baptists. — The denomin- 
 ation of /l/iviwowz/w, by which they are dirtinguifhcd 
 in Holland, they derive from Menno, the famous man 
 who latterly gave conliftencc and liability to their fedt. 
 Sec Mennonites. 
 
 ANABASII, in antiquity, were couriers who were 
 fent on horfcback, or in chariots, with difpatches of 
 importsnce. 
 
 ANAB.ATHRA, in ancient writers, denote a kind 
 of f!cp5; or ladder whereby toafcend to fome eminence. 
 In this fenfe we read of the anabathra of theatres, pul- 
 pits, Sec. Anabathra appears to have been fomctimes 
 alfo applied to ranges of feats riling gradually over 
 each other. 
 
 Anabathra is more particularly applied toa kind 
 of Itone blocks raifed by the high-way (ides, to aflifl 
 travellers in nionnting or alighting, before the ufe of 
 llirrups was invented The firfl author of this con- 
 trivance among the Romans wasC. Gracchus brother 
 of Tiberius. 
 
 ANABLEPS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a 
 fpecies of cobitis. SeeCoBiTis. 
 
 ANABOA, a fmall iiland liiuated near the coaftof 
 Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 9°. N. Lat. 1°. Here 
 are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of 
 bananas, oranges, pine apples, lemons, citrons, ta- 
 marinds, cocoa-nuis, Sec. together uith vafl quanti- 
 ties of cotton. In this idand are two high mountains, 
 which, being continually covered wiih clouds, occa- 
 fion frequent rains. 
 
 AN ABOLyJ'UM, or ANABOLE,in antiquity, akind 
 of great or upper coat, worn over the tunica. 
 
 ANABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given 
 to grooms of the ftaWe, or equerries, who allifted 
 their mailers in mounting their horfes. Ai the anci- 
 eiits had no ftirrups, or inftrumcnts that are now in 
 ufc for mounting a horfc, they either jumped upon his 
 back, or were aided in mounting by anabolei. 
 
 ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, were 
 prefcnts made to the bride by her huiband's relati- 
 ons and friends when fhe firfl uncovered her face and 
 (bowed herfelf to men. Thefe prefents were alfo 
 called iT«u)i«i«: for among the Greeks, virgins be- 
 fore marriage were under Itrift confnement, being 
 rsrely permitted to appear in public, or converfe with 
 the other fex ; and when allowed that liberty, wore 
 a veil over their faces termed Kax:/irTf«y, or Kawvrfa, 
 which was not left ofFin the prefencc of men till the 
 third day after marriage ; whence, according to He- 
 fychius, this was alio called aiiacalyptirion. 
 
 ANA-
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 655 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 ADacan>p- 
 fcros 
 
 ANACAMPSEROS, in botany, a fynonimc of the 
 portulaca and fcvcral ether plants. 
 
 ANACAMFTERIA, in ecclcliadical antiquity, a 
 kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, dc- 
 iigned for the entertainment of flrangers and poor 
 pcrfons. 
 
 ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancjcuts to 
 that part of optics which treats of reflexion, being the 
 fame with what is now called Catoptrics- 
 
 ANACARDIUM, or cashew-nut tree : A ge- 
 nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan- 
 dria clafsof plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the 12th order, Holoraate. The characters 
 are: The calyx is divided into five parts, the divifi- 
 ons ovate and deciduous: The coro//*/ confifts of five 
 reflected petals, twice the length of the calyx : The 
 flaviuia confillof ten capillary filaments Ihorter than 
 the calyx, one of them caftrated ; the antherae are 
 fmall and roundiOi : Thcpijliiltim has a roundilh ger- 
 men : the flyliis is fubulatcd, inflected, and the length 
 of the corolla ; the fligma oblique : There is no peri- 
 carfium ; the rcccptaculum is very large and flclhy : 
 The/frrfis a large kidney- (hapcd nut, placed above 
 the receptaculum. 
 
 Of this only one fpecies is as yet known to the bo- 
 tanills, viz. the occidentale. It grows naturally in 
 the Weft Indies, and arrives at the height of ao feet 
 in thofc places of which it is a native. The fruit of 
 this tree is as large as an orange ; and is full of an 
 acid juice, which is frequently made ufc of in making 
 punch. To the aptx of this fruit grows a nut, of the 
 fizc and fliape of a hare's kidney, but much larger at 
 the end which is next the fruit than at the other. 
 The fliell is very hard ; and the kernel, which is 
 fwcet and pleafant, is covered with a thin film. Be- 
 tween this and the fliell is lodged a thick, blackifli, 
 inflammable liquor, of fuch a caullic nature in thcficili 
 nuts, that if the lips chance to toucli it, bliftcrs will 
 immediately follow. The kernels are eaten raw, or 
 pickled. The cauftic liquor juA mentioned is efteem- 
 ed an excellent cofmciic with the Weft India young 
 ladies, but they muft certainly fuffcr a great deal of 
 pain in its application ; and, fond as our females are 
 of a beautiful face, it is highly probable they would 
 never fubmit to be flayed alive to obtain one. When 
 any of the former fancy thcmfelvcs too much tanned 
 by the fcorching rays of the fun, they gently fcrape 
 off file thin outfide of the ftone, and then rub their 
 faces all over with the ftone. Their faces immedi- 
 ately fwcU and grow black; and the (kin being poi- 
 foned by the cauftic oil abovementioncd, will, in the 
 fpacc of five or fix days, come entirely oft' in large 
 flakes, fo that they cannot appear in public in Icfs 
 than a fortnight ; by which time the new Ikin looks 
 as fair as that of a new-born cjjild. The negroes in 
 Brazil cure thcnil'clves eftettually of difordcrs in the 
 ftomach by eatingof the yellow fruit of this tree ; the 
 juice of which, being acid, cuts the tough humours 
 which obftructcd the free circulation of the bhiod, 
 and thus removes the complaint. This cure, howe- 
 ver, is not voluntary : for their maftcrs, the Portu- 
 guefe, deny them any other fuftcnancc ; and letting 
 them loofe to the woods, where the caflicw nuts grow 
 in great abundance, leave it in their option to periih 
 
 by famine or fuftain thcmfclves with this fruit. The Anlce[>^^,. 
 milky juice of this tree will Itain linen of a good black, liofi* 
 which cannot be walhcd out. See Plate XVIII. li 
 
 Cutiure. This plant is eafily raifcd from the nuts, AnacUCk . 
 which fliould be planted each in a feparatc pot filled 
 w ith light fandy earth, and plunged into a good hot- 
 bed of tanners i.ark j they mull alfo be kept from moi- 
 fturc till the plants come up, othcrwifc the nuts arc 
 apt to rot. If the nuts arc frcfli, the plants will come 
 up in about a month. 
 
 ANACEPHAL.tOSIS, in rhetoric, the fame with 
 recapitulation. See Recapitulation. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a famous Scythian philofopher, 
 convcrCcd with Solon, and lived an aufterc life. Upon 
 his return from his travels through Greece, he at- 
 tempted to change the ancient cuftoms of Scythia, and 
 to eftablilh thofc of Greece; which proved fatal to 
 him. The king fliot him dead in the wood with an 
 arrow. A great many ftatucs were erected to him af- 
 ter his death. He is faid to have invented tinder, the 
 anchor, and the potter's wheel ; but the latter is men- 
 tioned by Homer, who lived long before him. Ana- 
 charfis flourilhcd in the time of Croefus. 
 
 ANACHORET, in church hiftory, denots a her- 
 mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the fociety of 
 mankind into fome defart, with a view to avoid the 
 temptations of the world, and to be moreatleifjre for 
 meditation and prayer. Such were Paul, Anthony, 
 and Hilarion, the firft founders of monaflic life ia 
 Egypt and PalcftiHC. 
 
 Anachorets, among the Greeks, conilft principally 
 of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave 
 of the abbot, and an allowance from the monallery ; 
 or who, weary of the fatigues of the monaftery, pur- 
 chafe a fpot of ground, to whicli tncy rttrcat, n^vcr 
 appearing again in the monaftery, unlcfs on folenm 
 occafions. 
 
 ANACHRONISNf, in matters of literature, an er- 
 ror wiih refpci^ to chronology, whereby an event is 
 placed earlier than it really happened. — The word is 
 compounded of «r«, '< higher," and xt"®'i " time." 
 Such is that of Virgil, who placed l5ido in Africa at 
 the time of /Eneas, though in reality flic did not come 
 
 there till 500 years after the taking of Troy An 
 
 error on the other fide, whereby a fa^^ is placed later 
 and lower than it fliould be, is called zfarathronifm. 
 
 ANACLASTIC glasses, a kind of fonorous phi- 
 als or glailes, chiefly made in Germany, which have 
 the property of being flexible ; and emitting a vehe- 
 ment noife by the human breath. — They arealfocall- 
 ed vixing giiijfii by the GtrmvAi (vcxier glaftr ),a-a. 
 account of the fright and difturbancc they occafion by 
 their rciilition. — The anaclaftic glalTesarca Jowkind 
 of phials, with flat bellies, rcfcmbling inverted fun- 
 nels, w hofe bottoms are very thin, fcarcc forpafllng 
 the thicknefsof an onion peel: this bottom is not quite 
 flat, but a little convex. But upon applying the mouth 
 totheorificc,3nd gently infpiring, oras it were fuck- 
 ing out the air, the bottom gives way with a prodgi- 
 ous crack, and of convex beronies concave. On the' 
 contrary, upon cxfpiringor breathing gently into the 
 orifice of the fame glafs, the bottom with no lefs noifo 
 Ixjunds back to its former place, and become gibbous 
 as before — The anaclaftic glallcs firft taken notice ot 
 
 were
 
 A N yV 
 
 [ 656 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Ana;lsftic« were in the caflle of Goldbach ; where one of tlic aca- 
 
 II ilciiiills Nattira CiirioJ'oriitii, having fciii and m».<ic 
 
 Anacrcon. rxpci inicius on them, piibiilhcd a lucxc cxprdsiy on 
 
 ' " ' thiir hiftory and phcnonici'.a. They arc all luaoc of 
 
 a liiic white glufs. It is to be obfcrvcd ot dufe, 
 
 I. That if the doitom be concave at the time of iulpi- 
 
 raiion, it will burll ; and the like will happen if it be 
 
 convex at the time of cxfpiraiion. 2. A Itrong breath 
 
 will have the fame etfccf even under the contrary cir- 
 
 cinnllanccs. 
 
 ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which confi- 
 dcrs the refraction of ligiit, and is commonly called 
 Dioptrics. Sec Dioptrics. 
 
 ANACLEThRlA, in antiquity, a folemn feftival 
 celebrated by the ancients when their kingsor princes 
 came of age, and allumed the reins of government. 
 It was fo called, becaufe proclamation being made of 
 this event to the people, they went to fahue tiieir 
 prince during the anaclctcria, and to congratulate 
 him upon his new dignity. 
 
 AN.'\CLET1CUM, in the ancient an of war, a 
 Articular blaft of the trumpet, whereby the fearful 
 and flying foldiers were rallied and recalled to the 
 combat. 
 
 ANACLINOPALE, A»«x.ro4»«x«, in antiquity, a 
 kind of wreftling, wheixin the champions threw 
 themfelves voluntarily on the ground, and continued 
 the combat by pinching, biting, fcratching, and other 
 Dicihods of offence. The Anadinopale was contra- 
 dillingiiilhcd from the Orthofuilc, wherein the cham- 
 pions flood ereft. In the jinaciuibpale, the weaker 
 combatants fometimes gained the viilory. 
 
 ANACLINTERIA, in antiquity, a kind of pillows 
 on the dining-bed, whereon the guelfs ufed to lean. 
 The ancient triciiuiary beds had four pillows, one at 
 the head, another at the feet, a third at the back, 
 and a fourth at the breafl. That on which the head 
 lay, was properly called by the Greeks ovanx/Tiifjcv, 
 or «Taitx/tTfov; by the Romans y«/<:rttw, fometimes 
 f lutein. 
 
 ANACOLLEMA, a compofition of aftringent pow- 
 ders, applied by the ancients to the head, to prevent 
 dcfluiftions on the eyes. 
 
 ANAtONDO, in natural hiftory, is a name given 
 in the ille of Ceylon 10 a very large and terrible rat- 
 tlefnakc, which often devours the unfortunate travel- 
 ler alive, and is itfclf accounted excellent and deli- 
 cious fare. 
 
 ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city 
 of Ionia, tlouriflicd about 532 years before li.e Chrif- 
 tian acra. Polycrates, tyrant of Stimos, invited him 
 <ohis court, and made him Iharc with him in his bu- 
 finefs and his plcafurcs. He had a delicate wit, as 
 may be judged from the inexprefRblc beauties and 
 graces that fiiine in his works: but he was fond of 
 plcafure, was of an amorous difpofition, and ad<ii<Sed 
 10 drunkennefs : yet, notwithftanding his debauche- 
 ries, he lived to the age of 85; when, we are told, 
 he waschoakcd by a grape-ftone which fluckhi his 
 throat as he was regaling on fome new wine. 
 
 There is but a fmall part of Anacreon's works 
 that remain ; for, bcfides his odes and epigrair-s, he 
 compofcd elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems 
 which arc extant were refcued from oblivion by Hen- 
 
 ry Stephens, and are nniverfally admired. Tbeverfes Am*e««« 
 of Auacreon are fweeter, lays Scaliger, than Indian *'' 
 fugar. Mis beauty and chicl excellence, fays Madam '| 
 Dacier, lay in imitating nature, and in following rea- " ""*•. 
 fon i fo tiiat he prefcuied to the mind no images but 
 what were noble and natural. The oAzs of Auacre- 
 on fays Rapin, arc flowers, beauties, and perpetual 
 graces : it is tamiliar to him to write what is natural 
 and to the life, he having an air fo delicate, fo eafy, 
 and gracclul, that among all the ancients there is no- 
 thing comparable to the method he took, nor to that 
 kind of writing he followed. He flows foft and ea- 
 fy, every where ditfuling the joy and indolence of hh 
 mind through his vcrfe, and tuning his harp to the 
 fniooth and plcafant temper of his'foul. But nont 
 has given a jufler charafter of his writings than ilit 
 God of Love, as taught to fpeak by Mr Cowley : 
 
 All thy vcrfe is foftcr far 
 Than the downy feathers arc, 
 Of my wings, or of my arrows. 
 Of my mother's doves and fparrows: 
 Graceful, cleanly, fmooth, or round, . 
 All with Venus' girdle bound. 
 
 ANACREONTIC verse, in ancient poetry, a 
 'kind of vcrlc fo called from its being much ufed by the 
 poet Anacreon. It confills of three feet and an half, 
 ufually fpondces and iambufes, and fometimes ana- 
 pells : Sucli is that of Horace, 
 
 hydia, die per omnes. 
 
 ANACRISIS, among the ancient Greeks, is ufed 
 ■for a kind of trial or examination, which the archons, 
 or chief magiflratcs of Athens, were to undergo be- 
 fore their admilFion into that office. The Anacrifit 
 ftands didiuguilhed from the docimafia, which was a 
 fecond examination, in the forum. The anacryfis 
 was performed in the fenate-houfe. The quellions 
 here propofed to them were concerning their family, 
 kindred, behaviour, eftate, &c. Some will have it 
 that all magiftratcs underwent the anacrifis. 
 
 Anacrisis, among civilians, an inveftigation of 
 truth, interrogation of witnefTes, and inquiry made 
 into any fact, efpecially by torture. 
 
 ANACROSIS, in antiquity, denotes a part of th-o 
 Pythian fong, wherein the combat of Apolk) and Py- 
 thon-are defcribed The anacrofis was the firft part, 
 
 and contained the preparation to the fight. 
 
 ANACYCLUS, in botany : a genus of the polyga- 
 mia fupcrfluaordcr, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs 
 of plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under 
 the 49th order, Ccjupofitit-difcoides. The characters 
 are : The ealyx is hemifpheric and imbricated : The 
 corolla is radicated : The Jlamiia conlift of fine very 
 fliort capillary-filaments , the anthera cyliudric and tu- 
 bular : The pijiitliaii has an oval germen : a filiform 
 ftylus ; a bifid (ligma in the hermaphrodites, twu 
 (lender reflected ftigmata in the females : There is 
 r\Q pericarpiiitu; but ihc calyx unchanged : The feeds 
 are folitary, with membranous wings ; the recefta- 
 ciiluvi is chaffy. 
 
 ANADAVADjEA, in ornithology, a barbaroui 
 name of a fpecies of alauda. See Al/uda. 
 
 ANADEMA, among the ancients, denotes an or- 
 
 «ament
 
 nn1./\ III 
 
 ^-i ./Uy-
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 6 
 
 Anadiplofu nament of the head, wherewith vidiors at the facred 
 
 D games had their temples bound. 
 Anagalr.. ANADIPLOSIi>, in rhetoric and poetry, a rcpeti- 
 * " ' tion of the la/l word of a line or claufc of a fentencc, 
 ia the beginning of the next : Thus, 
 
 Pierides, vos hxcjacietis maxima Callo : 
 Callo ctijut amor, &c. 
 Et matuttnis accrcdiila vocibus inftat, 
 Vociiui iHJ\at, {r ajfiduas jtiat ore querelas. 
 
 ANADROMOUS, among ichthyologifts, a name 
 given to fuch fiflies as go from the fca lo tlie frefh wa- 
 ters at dated fcafons, and return back again ; fuch as 
 the filmon, &c. Sec Salmo. 
 
 ANADUOMENE Venus, in the Grecian mytho- 
 logy, anfwered to the Sea- Venus in the Roman, and 
 was the appellation given to one of the chief deities of 
 the fca. The moft celebrated piclurc in all antiquity 
 was that of this goddefs by Apelles ; and the famous 
 Venus of Medici is a Sea- Venus. 
 
 AN/EDEIA, in antiquity, a denomination given to 
 a filver ftool placed in the Areopagus, on which the 
 defendant, or perfon accufed, was feaicd for exami- 
 nation. The word is Greek, A>««(fii«, which imports 
 imprudence; but according to Junius's corredion, it 
 Ihould rather be A»a;Tj«, q. d. innocence. The plain- 
 tiff, or accufer, was placed on an oppolitc ftool called 
 hybris, or injury ; here he propofed three qucftions to 
 the party accufed, to which poiitivc anfwers were to 
 be given. The tirft, Are you guilty of this fact .' The 
 fecond, How did you commit the fad ? The third. 
 Who were your accomplices ? 
 
 ANif^STHESIA, fignifiesa privation of the fenfcs. 
 
 ANAGALLIS, pimpernel: A genus of the mo- 
 nogynia order, belonging to the pcntandria clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under the 
 20th order, Rotacia. The characters are : The calyx 
 is aquinqucpartitc perianthiura, which is perfiftcnt : 
 The corolla confifls of one rotated petal : The fiamiua 
 confiftof five creel filaments Ihorter than the corolla ; 
 the anthers are I'lmple : The pijlilluni has a globular 
 germcn ; the ftylus llightly declinated, the ftigma 
 headed : The piricarpium is a globular capfule, unilo- 
 cular and circumcifed : The /jv.^j are numerous and 
 angled ; the receptaciilum globular and very large. 
 Of this there are four 
 
 Species, r. The arvenfis, or common pimpernel, 
 with a red flower. 2. The faemina, with abluc Hower. 
 3. The monelli, or narrow-leaved pinij>ernel. 4. The 
 latifolia, or Spanith pimpernel — The hrft fort is very 
 common in corn-fields, and other cultivated places in 
 Britain. The fecond is fometimes found wild in the 
 fields, but is not fo common as the firft. The third 
 is a beautiful fmall perennial plant, and produces num- 
 bers of fine blue flowers. The fourth is a native of 
 Spain, and likewife produces blue flowers. 
 
 The plants are very cafily propaga(ed by feeds; 
 and if fuffcred to remain till their feeds fcattcr, they 
 become troublcfome weeds. — The arvenfis is not un- 
 frequcntly taken as food ; it makes no unplcafant fa- 
 lad, and in fome parts of Great Britain is a common 
 pot-herb. .All the fpecies are eat by cows and goats, 
 but refi-.fcd by Ihcep ; fmall birds arc greatly dcli:;ht- 
 ed with the feeds. — Great medicinal virtues were for- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 37 ] ANA 
 
 raerly expected from the firft two fpecies; but they Aoigai* 
 arc nowjufily difrcgarded. I 
 
 ANAGNlA, (anc. gcog.), a town of Latium, capi- A'^P^-*"; 
 tal of the Hernici ; which altera faint rcliftance, fub- 
 niitiiug to the Romans, was admitted to the freedom 
 oftheciiy, yet without the right of futiragc, (Livy). 
 It wis afterwards a colony of Drufus Csefar, and wall- 
 ed round, and its territory afTigntd to the veterans, 
 (Frontinus.) Here Antony married Cleopatra, and 
 divorced Otlavia. Now Aiiagni, 56 miles to the call 
 of Rome. E. Long. 13. 4J. Lat. 42. 48. 
 
 ANAGNOSTA, or A.sagnostes, in antiquity, a 
 kindofliteraryfervani, retained in the families of pc: - 
 fons of diftindlon, whofc chief bunnefs was to read to 
 them during meals, or ac any other time when they 
 were at leifure. Cornelius Nepos relates of Atticut, 
 that he hadalwaysananagnoftesat his meals. He ne- 
 ver fupped without reading ; fo that the minds of bis 
 guefts were no lefs agreeably entertained than their 
 appetites. The fame cuftcm, Eginhard obferves, was 
 kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the hiflorics 
 and acts of ancient kings read to him. This cuftom 
 feems to have been a relic of that of the ancient Greeks, 
 who had the praifes of great men and heroes fung to 
 them while at tabU. The ancient monks and clergy 
 kept up the like ufage, as we are informed by St Au- 
 guftin. 
 
 ANAGOGICAL,fignifiesmyflerious, tranfporting; 
 and is ufed to exprcfs whatever elevates the mind, not 
 only to the knowledge of divine things, but of divine 
 things in the next life. This word is feldom ufed, 
 but with regard to the different fenfcs of Scripture. 
 The anagogical fenfc is, when the facred text is ex- 
 plained with a regard to eternal life, the point which 
 Chriflians ihould have in view: for example, the rell 
 of the fabbath, in the anagogical fcnfe, lignilies the 
 rcpofe of cverlafting happinefs. 
 
 ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among ecclefiaftical 
 writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeflial 
 
 and eternal It is particularly ufed, where words, w 
 
 their natural and primary meaning, denote lomething 
 fenfible, but have a further view to fomcthiug fpirituai 
 or invifiblc 
 
 Anagogt, in a more particular fenfe, denotesthc 
 application of the types aud allegories of the Old Te- 
 ftamcnt tofubjeifts of the New; thus called, becaufc 
 the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden, is 
 expofcd to open fight. 
 
 ANAGRAM (from the Greek «« iar/Ki-ar./r, and 
 y;aiJt.iA!t letter), in matters of literature, a tranfpofition 
 of the letters of fome name, w hereby a new word is 
 formed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the 
 perfon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus, 
 the anagram of Galenus is angtlui; that of Logic.-., 
 caligo ; that of Alftedius,/?!//////^/ ; that of Loraine is 
 alericn, on which account it was that the family of Lo- 
 raiue took alcrions for their armoury — Calvrn, in the 
 title of his /«y?;fttf/o«J, printed at Strafbiirg in 1 5:9, 
 calls himfclf Alcuinus, which is the anagram of Cal- 
 vinu-;, and the name of an eminently learned perfon 
 in the time of Charlemagne, who contributed greatly 
 to the reftoration of learnini; in that age. 
 
 Thofe who adhere llriiidy to the definition of an 
 
 anagram, take no other librriy than that of omitting 
 
 4 O or
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 658 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anagram- 
 Di;itill 
 
 I) 
 Anagyrit. 
 
 or retaining the letter h, at pleafure j whereas others 
 make no fcruple to ul'c e for s., v forw, s forz, and 
 c for K ; and vice vcrj'a. 
 
 Bclidcs anagrams formed as above, we meet with 
 another kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a 
 linglc word into feveral ; thus/n/ tinea mus, arc for- 
 med out of the wox&fuflineavius. 
 
 Anagrams arc fomctimes alfo made out of feveral 
 words : fuch is tliat on the queftion put by Pilate to 
 our Saviour, Qiiid eft vcritas? whereof we have this 
 admirable anagram, viz. Efl vir qui adejl. 
 
 The Cabalifts among the Jews are profefTed ana- 
 grammatifts ; the third part of their art, which they 
 call th;t)iuru, i. e. " changing," being nothing but ihc 
 art of making anagrams, or of finding hidden and my- 
 Jlical meanings in names ; which they do by chang- 
 ing, tranfpofing, and differently combining, the let- 
 ters of thofe names. — Thus, of ru the letters of Noah's 
 name, they make p^rac^; oi\wiitheMeffiah,{.\i^Y 
 make r^rsn^ he /hall rejoice. 
 
 ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compofer of 
 anain-ans. Thomas Billon, a provincial, was a ce- 
 lebrated anagrammatift, and retained by Lewis XIII. 
 with a penfion of 1200 livres, in quality of anagram- 
 niatift to the king. 
 
 AN'AGROS, in commerce, a meafure for grain ufed 
 in feme cities in Spain, particularly at Seville ; 46 ana- 
 gros make about loi quarters of London. 
 
 ANAGYRIS, STINKING bean-trekoil : A ge- 
 rus of the monogynia order, belonging to the dccan- 
 dria clafs of plants ; and, in the natural method, rank- 
 ing under the 32d-order, Papilionaceir. The charac- 
 ters are : The calyx is a bcll-lhaped perjanthium : 
 Tht corolla is papilionaceous ; the vexilUim cordated, 
 flraight, emarginated, and twice as long as the calyx ; 
 the alae ovate and longer than the vexillum ; the ca- 
 rina ftraight and very long : The jiavtina confill of 10 
 fiijments ; the antherx (imple : The /i;y?///;/w hasan 
 oblong germen, a finiple ftylus, and a villous fligma : 
 The fericarpiuin is an oblong legumen : The/esds arc 
 fix or more, and kidney-fhaped. 
 
 Of this genus there is but one Ipecics, the fetida, 
 •which grows naturally in the fouthern parts of Europe. 
 It is a flirub which ufually rifes to the height of eight 
 «r ten feet, and produces its flowers in April or May. 
 Thefe areof a bright yellow colour, growing in fpikes, 
 fomewhat like tlie labrunum. 
 
 Culture. This plant may be propagated either by 
 feeds, or by laying down ihe tender branches in the 
 fpring ; but tlic tirit method is preferable. The feeds 
 fhonld be fown towards the end of March in pots filled 
 with light earth, and plunged in a gentle hot-bed. 
 The plants ufually appear in a month, when they 
 Ihould be gradually inured to the open air, that they 
 may be hardened before winter. In the autumn and 
 winter, they muft be fheltered under a hot-bed 
 frame : the fpring following, ihey mnft be tranf- 
 planted, each into a feparate fmall pot, placed in a 
 fheltered fituation, and again removed into a frame 
 to fhclter them during ihe following winter. The 
 fecond fpring after the plants come up, fome of them 
 may be taken out of the pots, and planted in a border 
 near a fonth wall, where, if they arc protected in 
 winter, they may remain. 
 
 Anacyris or Anacyrus, the name of a place Anak 
 in Attica, of the tribe Erechthcis, where a fetid || 
 plant, called Anagyris, probably the fame with the Ana logy, 
 foregoing, grew in great plenty, (Diofcorides, Pli- ^ ^ ' 
 ny, Stephanus;) and the more it was handled, the 
 ftronger it fmelled : hence commovere anagyrin (or 
 anagyruDi"), is to bring a misfortune on one's felf, 
 (Ariftophanes.) 
 
 ANAK, the father of the Anakims, was the fon 
 of Arba, who gave his name to Kirjaih-arba, or He- 
 bron, Jodi. xiv. ij. Anak had three fons, Shefliai, 
 Ahiman, and Talmai, (chap. xv. 14. and Numb. xiii. 
 22.) who, as well as their father, were giants, and 
 who, with their pofterity, all terrible for their 
 fiercenefs and extraordinary flature, were called the 
 Anakims ; in comparifon of whom the Hsbrews, 
 who were fent to view the land of Canaan, reported 
 that they were but as grafshoppcrs. Numb. xiii. ult. 
 Caleb, afliflcd by the tribe of Judah, took Kirjath- 
 arba, and deltroyed the Anakims, (Judges i. 20. and 
 Jofli. XV. 14.) in the year of the world 2559. 
 
 ANALECTA, or Analectes, in antiquity, a 
 fervant whofe employment it was to gather up the 
 oft"- falls of tables. 
 
 Anai.ecta, Aiialcfls, in a literary fenfe, is ufed 
 to denote a collcdlion of fmall pieces ; as clTays, re- 
 marks, &c. 
 
 ANALEMMA, in geometry, a projeftion of the 
 fphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographical- 
 ly made by flraight lines and ellipfes, the eye being 
 fuppofed at an infinite diffance, and in the caft, or 
 wefl, points of the horizon. 
 
 Analemma, denotes likewife an inflrument of 
 brafs or wood, upon which this kind of projeftion is 
 drawn with an horizon and curfor fitted to it, where- 
 in the foiriitial colure, and all circles parallel to it, 
 will be concentric circles ; all circles oblique to the 
 eye, will be ellipfes ; and all circles whofe planes 
 pal's through the eye, will be right lines. The ufc 
 of tills inllrument is to fliow the common agronomical 
 problems ; which it will do, though not very exait- 
 ly, unlefs it be very large. 
 
 ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or putrition of an 
 emaciated body. 
 
 ANALEPTICS, reflorativc or nouriflting medi- 
 cines. 
 
 ANALOGY, in philofophy, a certain relation and 
 agreement between two or more things, which in 
 other rcfpc6ls are entirely different. 
 
 There is likewife an analogy between beings that 
 have fome conformity or rcfeniblance to one another ; 
 for example, between animals and plants j but the 
 analogy is flill f^ronger between two different fpecies 
 of certain animals. 
 
 Analogy enters much into all our reafouing, and 
 ferves to explain and illuflrate. A great pan of oar 
 philofophy, indeed, has no other foundation than ana- 
 logy. 
 
 It is natural for mankind to judge of things lefs 
 known, by fome limilitude, real or ima<jiiiary, between 
 them and things more familiaror better known. And 
 where the things compared have really a great fimi- 
 litude in their nature, when there is reafon to think 
 (hat they arc fubjeft to the fame laws, there may be 
 
 a
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 6jj9 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 XelJinllc I 
 JnlclUaual 
 Foivtri, Ef- 
 fay I. ch. 
 iv. p. SI, 
 
 Aii»logy * confiderable degree of probability in conclulions 
 
 ' ^ ' drawn from analogy. Thus wc may o'jfcrvc a very 
 
 jjreat fimiliuidc between tiiis eartli wliich wc inhabit, 
 and theotlier planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, 
 and Mercury. They all revolve round the fun, as 
 the earth does, although at different dillances, and 
 in different periods. They borrow all their light 
 from the fun, as the earth does. Several of them 
 arc known to revolve round their axis like the earth, 
 and, by that means, niufl have a like fucc«ffion of 
 day and night. Sonic of them have moons, that ferve 
 to give them light in the abfence of the fun, as our 
 moon docs to us. They are all, in their motions, 
 fubjcft to the fame law of gravitation, as the earth 
 is. From all this liinilitude, it is not unrcafonablc 
 to think, that thofe planets may, like our earth, be 
 the habitation of various orders of living creatures. 
 ■ There is fomc probability in this conclufion from ana- 
 
 But it ought to be obferved, that, as this kind of 
 reafoiiing can afford only probable evidence at beft ; 
 fo, unlefs great caution be ufed, we arc apt to be led 
 into error by it. To give an inftance of this : Ana- 
 tomifts in ancient ages, feldom dilTcded human bo- 
 dies ; but very often the bodies of thofe quadrupeds 
 whofe internal (Irufture was thought to approach 
 nearefl to that of the human body. Modern anato- 
 mifls have difcovcrcd many niilUkes the ancients 
 were led into, by their conceiving a greater fnnili- 
 tudc between the ftruflure of men and of fome beafts 
 than there is in reality. 
 
 Perhaps no author has made a more jufl and a more 
 happy ufe of his mode of rcafoning, than Bifliop But- 
 ler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Reveal- 
 ed, to the ConlUiution and Courfe of Nature. In that 
 excellent work, the author does not ground any of 
 the truths of religion upon analogy, as their proper 
 evidence. He only makes ufe of analogy to anfwer 
 obje6lions againft them. When objeflions are made 
 againfl the truths of religion, which may be made 
 with equal Arength againft what we know to be true 
 in the courfe of nature, fuch objedions can have no 
 weight. 
 
 Analogical reafoning, therefore, may be of excel- 
 lent ufe in anfwering objeftions againft truths which 
 have other evidence. It may likewife give a greater 
 or a lefs degree of probability in cafes where we can 
 find no other evidence. But all arguments drawn 
 from analogy are flill the weaker, the greater difpari- 
 ty there is between the things compared ; and there- 
 fore mud be weakeft of all when we compare body 
 with mind, bccaufe there arc no two things in nature 
 more unlike. 
 
 There is no fubjeifl in which men have always been 
 fo prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind, 
 as in what relates to the mind. We form an early ac- 
 quaintance with material things by means of our fenfes, 
 and arc bred up in a couflant familiarity with them. 
 Hence we are apt to mcafure all things by them ; and 
 to afcribe to things moil remote from matter the qua- 
 lities that belong to material things. It is for this rea- 
 fon that mankind have, in all ages, been fo prone to 
 conceive the mind iifelf to be fome fubtle kind of mat- 
 ter : That they have been difpofcd to afcribe huuiau 
 
 figure, and human organs, not only to angels, but AnaLgy; 
 even to the Deity. " ■■' ' 
 
 To illultrate more fully that analogical reafoning 
 from a fuppofcd fimilitude of mind to body, which ap- 
 pears to be the nioft fruitful fourceofcrror with regard 
 to the operations of our minds, the following infuncc 
 may be given. When a man is urged by contrary 
 motives, thofe on one hand inciting him to do fomc 
 aflion, thofe on the other to forbear it ; he deliberates 
 about it, and at lafl rcfolves to do it, or not to do it. 
 The contrary motives arc here compared to the 
 weights in the oppolite fcalcs of balance ; and there 
 is not perhaps any inAancc that can be named of a 
 more flrikinganalogy between body and mind. Hcnco 
 the plirafcs of weighing motives, of deliberating upon 
 aftions, are common to all languages. 
 
 From this analogy fome philofophers draw very im- 
 portant conclulions. They fay, that as the balance 
 cannot incline to one fide more than the other, when 
 the oppofite weights are equal ; fo a roan cannot polli- 
 bly determine himfclf if the motives on both hands arb 
 equal ; and as the balance raufl neccflarily turn to that 
 fide which has moft weight, fothe man mufl neceifa- 
 rily be determined to that hand where the motive is 
 ftrongefl. And on this foundation fome of the fchool- 
 men maintained, that if a hungry afs were placed be- 
 tween two bundles of hay equally inviting, the beafl 
 nuift fland ftill and flarve to death, being unable to 
 turn to either, becaufe there are cqualniotives to both. 
 This is an inftanccof that analogical reafoning, which, 
 it is conceived, ought never to be truflcd ; for the ana- 
 logy between a balance and a man deliberating, though 
 one of the flrongcA tliat can be found between matter 
 and mind, is too weak to fupport any argument. A 
 piece of dead inaflive matter, andanaclive intelligent 
 being, arc things very unlike ; and becaufe the one 
 would remain at reft in a certain cafe, it does not fol- 
 low that the other would be inactive in a cafe fome- 
 what fimilar. The argument is no better than this, 
 that, becaufe a dead animal moves only as it is pulhed, 
 and, if pufhed with equal force iu contrary diredions, 
 muil remain at reft; therefore the fame thing mufl 
 happen to a living animal ; for furely the fimilitude 
 between a dead animal and a living, is as great as 
 that between a balance and a man. 
 
 The derivation of the word Analogy indicates, as 
 profelfor Caftillon of Berlin* obferves, a refemblancc • fjj^rUm 
 difcernible by reafon. This is confirmed by the fenfc Mnnin 
 in which the term is ufed in geometry, where it fig- fur 1786, 
 nifies an equality of ratios. — In explaining this fub- <" *<''• ''"• 
 jeft, it is obferved, there may be a refemblancc be- 
 tween fenfations and a refemblancc between percep- 
 tions : the former is called phyficul nfcnibtancc, be- 
 caufe it ads upon the phyfical or fciifitivc faculty ; the 
 latter wi!r/2/rir/?w^/^/;c<r, becaufe it affeds the moral or 
 rational faculty of man. 
 
 Every refemblancc maybe reduced toan equality in 
 fenfations orpcrceptions ; but thisfuppofes fome equa- 
 lity in their caufes : we fay ftmt iquality, becaufe the 
 dilpofition of the organs, or of the foul, mull necclfa- 
 rily affeifl the fenfations or perceptions; but this can 
 jnriuenee only their degree, and not their nature. 
 
 The charadcr of one perfon rcfemblcs that of ano- 
 ther only whca ibey both fpeak audad fo as to excite 
 4 O a equal
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 66 
 
 Analogy, equal preccptious, or, to fpcak more ftriftly, the lame 
 AiialyGi. perception : when they buth diCplay vivacity or in- 
 ■" difference, anger or nicekiicfs, on the fame occalions, 
 
 and both excite in the foul of the obfcrver identical 
 perceptions, or rather the fame perception of vivaci- 
 ty or indift'crence, of anger or meekncfs. Thcfe 
 identical perceptions, the degree of which will de- 
 pend much on the difpolition of the obfcrver's mind, 
 niufl have identical caufcs, or, in other words, the 
 fame caiifc; whichis the vivacity or indiffercncc.thc an- 
 ger or meekncfs, dil'played by eachof thefccharaders. 
 
 Every phylical rcfcmblance may therefore be redu- 
 ced to one or more equalities ; and every moral rcfcm- 
 blance to one or more identities. Wherever there is 
 moral rcfcmblance there is analogy. Analogy may 
 therefore be reduced to identity, and always fuppofes 
 compurifon. 
 
 Two objects arc faid to have an analogy to each 
 other, or arc caWcA analogous, when fonie identity is 
 difcovercd upon comparing them. An ai:atogtcal con- 
 clufion, is a conclufion deduced from fomc identity. 
 
 The principles of analogy are a comparifon of two 
 objeds ; and one or more identities refultiiig from 
 their being thus compared. The charat'ters of ana- 
 logy are — that two objifts be compared — that there 
 be one or more identities between tlicfe objects — and 
 that this is (lifcerniblc only by rcafon or intcllcft. 
 
 rinfcal tfjhnl'iai.ce IS la the fenfes what analogy 
 
 is to the underttanding The former, when perfect, 
 
 becomes equality ; but the latter identity. 
 
 Rcfcmblance and analogy are the foundations both 
 of probability and of certainty. When we are not fa- 
 tistied that the refemblancc or the analogy is com- 
 plete, we (lop at probibility ; which becomes certain- 
 ty when we are, or think we are, aifured that the re- 
 femblancc or the analogy is perfcdl. 
 
 In reafoning by analogy, we Ihould be careful not 
 to confound it with rcfcmblance ; and alfo not to de- 
 duce from the identity or identities, on which the 
 analogy is founded, a conclulion, whicli has cither no 
 relation, or only a partial relation, to thcfe identities. 
 
 The principal ufe of analogy in the inveftigaiion of 
 phyficaland moral truth, according to our author, may 
 DC reduced to the four following : i. By means of our 
 fenfes to improve, firft, our own judgment, and after- 
 wards that of others, with refpect to intclleflual fub- 
 jedls. 2. To deduce a general from a particular truth. 
 Having difcovercd and proved the truth of a propo- 
 sition with refpct'l to any particular objcc'l, exaiiiinc 
 •whether this truth flows from a quality peculiar to 
 this fingleobjeft, or common to feveral objct'ts. In the 
 latter cafe all tliefe objcfls may be comprehended un- 
 dcrone general idea, founded on their common qua- 
 jiiy. Suliftitute this general idea inllead of the parti- 
 cular object, and the propofition will become general, 
 •without ceafnig to be true ; becaufe whatever evident- 
 ly and fokly rcfulis from the identity, on which ana- 
 logy is fiundcd, nuifl necelfarily be true with refpect 
 to all thofc objects in which the analogy is the fame. 
 3. To prove the truth or falfthoodofpropoiitions whicIi 
 cannot be otherv/ife dcnionftratcd. 4. To difcover 
 new truths in both natural and moral philofophy. 
 
 AxAi-OGY, among grammarians, is the correfpon- 
 dcncc which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and 
 received forms of any language. 
 
 ANALYSIS, in a general fcnfc, implies the refolu- 
 
 o ] ANA 
 
 tion of fomething compounded, into its original and Analyfii. 
 
 conftituent parts. The word is Greek, and derived " *< 
 
 from mai^uu, to refolve. 
 
 Analysis, in mailiematics, is properly ihemeihod 
 of refolving problems by means of algebraical equa- 
 tions ; hence we often lind that thcfe two words, aiia- 
 lyfu mdalgilrra, arc ulcd as fynonymous. 
 
 Analyiis, under its prcfcnt improvements, mull be 
 allowed the Apex or height ot all human learning : it 
 is this method which furnilhes us with the mod pcr- 
 feft examples of the art of reafoning ; givts the mind 
 an uncommon readincfs at deducing and difcovering, 
 from a few data, things unknown; and, by ufnig 
 figns for ideas, prefents things to the imagination, 
 which otherwifc fecmed out of its fphere : by this, 
 geometrical demonftrations may be greatly abridged, 
 and a long fcries of argumentations, wherein the 
 mind cannot without the utuioit cttort and attention 
 difcover the connetlion of ideas, arc hereby conver- 
 ted into fcnfible iigns, and the feveral operations re- 
 quired therein efredted by the combination of thofe 
 Iigns. Bui, what is more extraoruinary, by means 
 of this art, a number of truths are frequently expreil- 
 cd by a linglc line, whicli, in tlie common way of 
 explaining and demonllrating things, would fill whole 
 volumes. Thus, by mere contemplation of one (in- 
 gle line, whole fcienccs may be tomctimes learnt in 
 a few minutes time, which otherwifc could fcarcc be 
 attained in many years. -| 
 
 Analysis is divided, with regard to its objecl, in- 
 to that oi fi/iiti's and tnfihites. 
 
 AtiAUSisoj Fitittc Quantities, is what we otherwifc 
 
 call fpccious arithmetic or algebra. Sec Algebra. 
 
 AsAUSi's oj Infinites, called alfo the New Analyfts, 
 
 is particularly ufed for the method of tluxions, or the 
 
 differential calculus. See Fluxions. 
 
 Analysis, in logic, (ignilits the method of tracing 
 things backward to tlicir fotirce, and of refolving 
 knowledge into its original principles. This is alfo 
 called the method of refolution ; and Hands oppofed to 
 
 the fynthctic method, or that of con/pofition The 
 
 art of logical analyfis confirts principally in combi- 
 ning our perceptions, claffing them together wiih ad- 
 drcfs, and contriving proptr cxprellions for convey- 
 ing our thoughts, and rcprcfcnting their feveral di- 
 vilions, clailcs, and relations. 
 
 Analysis, in rhetoric, is that which examines the 
 coniif-dions, tropes, figures, and the like, inquiring 
 into the i>riipo(ition, divilion, pallions, arguments, and 
 other api);iratus of rhetoric. 
 
 Scvt ral authors, as Krcigius and others, have given 
 analyfes of Cicero's Orations, wherein they reduce 
 them to their grammatical and logical principles ; 
 llrip them of all the ornaments and additions of rheto- 
 ric which otherwife difguifc their true form, and con- 
 ceal the conneflion between one part and another. The 
 dcfign of thefe authors is to have thofe admired ha- 
 rangues jull fuch as the judgment difpofed tlicm, with- 
 out the help of imagination ; fo that here we may 
 coolly view the force of each proof, and admire the 
 ufe Cicero made of rhetorical ligurcs to conceal the 
 weak part of a caufe. 
 
 A collection has been made of the analyfes formed 
 by the moll celebrated authors of the i6ih century, in 
 
 3 vols, folio. 
 
 Analysis is alfo ufed, in chcmiAry, for the de- 
 compounding
 
 iV. N A 
 
 [ 66i ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Analytic, compounding of a mixed body, or the reparation of the 
 
 »— — V ' principles and conftitucnt parts of a compounded fub- 
 
 ilancc. 
 
 To analyze bodies, or refolvc them into their compo- 
 nent parts, is indeed the chief objeitof the art of chc- 
 miftry. Chcmiftry furnifhcs fc vcral means for the de- 
 compodtion of bodies, which arc all founded on the 
 differences of the properties belonging to the ditfcrtnt 
 principles of which the body to be analyzed is compof- 
 ed. If, for example, a body be compofcd of fcveral 
 principles, fomc of which have a great, and others a 
 moderate degree of volatility, and, lafUy, others arc 
 fixed, its mod volatile parts may be at firlt fcparated by 
 a gradual heal in difllUing vefl'els ; and then the parts 
 which arc next in volatility will pafs over in dillilla- 
 tion ; and laftly, thofe pnrts which are iixed, and ca- 
 pable of refifling the adion of tire, will remain at 
 the bottom of the vcflcl. 
 
 Analysis is alio ufed for a kind of fyllabiis, or ta- 
 ble of the principal heads or articles of a continued 
 <!ifcourfe,difpofcd in their nataral order and dependen- 
 cy. Analyfcs are more fcicntifical ihanalphabcticjl in- 
 dexes ; but they are lefs ufed, as being more intri- 
 cate. 
 
 Analysis is likewife ufed for a brief, but metho- 
 dical, ilhillratiim of the princijiles of a llicnce ; in 
 in which fenfe it is nearly fynonymous with what we 
 otherwife call 3.fynopjii. 
 
 ANALYTIC, or Analytical, foniething that 
 belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of anilylis. — 
 Thus we fay, an analytical demonftration, analytical 
 procefs, analytical table or fchcme, analytical method 
 of inveftigaiiou, &c. 
 
 The analytic method ftands oppofcd to the fynthc- 
 tic. In natural philofophy , as in math, niatics, the in- 
 vefligation of ditficult things by the analytic method 
 eught to precede the method of compofuion. This a- 
 nalyfis confifts in making experiments and obfervaii- 
 ens, and in drawing general concUUions therefrom by 
 indnilion ; and admitting of no objections againll the 
 conclufions, but fuch as are drawn from experiments, 
 and other certain truths : and though the reafoning 
 from experimcntsandobfcrvations by induction be no 
 ilemonflration of general conchilions, yet it is the bell 
 method of reafoning which the nature of things admits 
 of ; and may be ellecmed fo much the ftronger, as tlie 
 indurtion is more general ; and, if no exception occur 
 from phenomena, the conclufion may be pronounced 
 general. By this way of analylis, we may proceed 
 from compounds to their ingredients ; from motions to 
 the forces producing them ; and, in general, from 
 effefts to their caufes, and from particular caufcs to 
 more general ones, until vvc arrive at thofe which are 
 the mod general. This is the analytic method, ac- 
 cording to the illuflrious Newton. 
 
 The fyntlictic method confifts in alTuming thecan- 
 fesdifcovered and received as principles: and by them 
 explaining the phenomena proceeding from them, 
 and proving the ex|)lanations. See Synthests. 
 
 ANALYTICS, Airalyttai, the fciencc and ufc of 
 analylis. The great advantage of the modern mathe- 
 matics above the ancient is in point of analytics. 
 
 Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe- 
 matical CoUcilions, enumerates the authors on the an- 
 cient analytics ; being Euclid, in his Data and Porif- 
 
 tnata ; ApolioBius, de Sedtone Rationii, and in his C«- 
 >iia; Arillaeus, di Loch SoliJh : and Eratoflhcnes, de 
 Mediis I roportioiialiius. But the ancient analytics 
 were very different from the modern. 
 
 Tothe modcrnanaly tics principally belong algebra ; 
 an hiilorical account of which, with the fcveral au- 
 thors thereon, fee under the article Algebra. 
 
 ANAMABOA, a populous town in the kingdom 
 of Kantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great 
 cheats, and mud be carefully looked after in dealing 
 with them, and their gold well examined, for it is 
 commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon ol 
 an Englilh cadlc. The landing is pretty difficult on 
 account of the rocks ; and therefore thofe that conic 
 here to trade are forced to go alliore in canoes. The 
 earth here is very proper to make bricks ; the oyders, 
 when burnt, afford good lime ; and there is timber in 
 great abundance ; fo that here arc all the materials for 
 building. The country at Anamaboa is full of hills, 
 beginning at a good didancc from the town, and af- 
 fording a very pleafant profped. Indian corn and 
 palm-wine are in great plenty. They have a green 
 fruit cdWcA papal , as big as a fmall melon, and which 
 has a tade like cauliflower. Anamaboa is much fre- 
 quented by the Englilh fliips and others for corn .<!nd 
 Haves, which lad are fometimes to be had in great 
 numbers. The Englilh fort is built on the foundation 
 of a large old houfe, which fubfided entire in i6''y. 
 It is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and forti- 
 fied towards the fea with two badions ; the whole of 
 brick and done cemented with lime. It dandsupona 
 rock, at the didance of 50 paces from the fea. it is 
 mounted with 1 2 pieces of cannon and 1 2 patererocb ; 
 and defended by a garrifon of 12 whites and iS blacks, 
 under the command of the chief fador. 
 
 The natives treat the garrifon of this fort with great 
 infolence, infomuch as often to block them up, and fre- 
 quently, if they diflike the governor, fendhimoliin 
 a canoe to Cape Coad with marks of the utmod con- 
 tempt. Far from being able tooppofe them, the Eng- 
 lifh are glad to obtain their favour with prelcnts. In 
 I 701 , thev declared war againd the Englilh ,- and hav- 
 ing alfemblcd in a tumultuous manner before the fort, 
 they fet fire tothe exterior buildings, and went on with 
 their outrages, till they were difperfed by a difchargc 
 of the cannon from the batteries. The night following 
 the Englidi took their revenge, by letting tire to the 
 town of Anamaboa; and thus hodiliiies continued 
 for 20 days, till at lad the natives were obliged to 
 fue for peace. This lort was abandoned in 1 753 ; but 
 has been rcfiimed by the Englifh, who have continued 
 in it ever lincc. 
 
 ANAMELECH, an idol of the Scpharvaites, who 
 are faid in Scripture to have burned their children in 
 houourof Adrammelcch and Anamclcoh. — The fe idols 
 probably figniiied the fun and moon. Some of the 
 rabbins rcprefeut AnamcUch under the figure of a 
 mule, others under that of a quail or pheafant. 
 
 .^NAMIM, thefecondfonof Mizraim (Gcn.x. i;.) 
 Anamini, if we may credit the paraphrall Jonathan 
 the fouof Uzziel, peopled the Marcotis ; or the I'cn- 
 tapolis of Cyrene, according to the p ;raphrall ot Jc- 
 rufalcm. Bochart is of opinion th it thcfe .■\naTnii;is 
 were the people that dwelt in the parts adjacent tothe 
 temple of Jupiter Amnion, and in the Nafamonitis. 
 
 Calmct 
 
 Anamaboa 
 
 il 
 Anaaiim.
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 662 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Ammor- 
 pSofis 
 
 n 
 
 Anarchy. 
 
 Calmct thinks the Amanians and Garmantes to be 
 defcen>!cd from Anamini. 
 
 ANAMORPHOSIS, in perfpeftive drawings, is a 
 dcfoniic J or dillortcd portrait or ligiirc, generally con- 
 futed and uninttUigiblc to the common unallillcdvicw ; 
 but when feen at a certain diltancc and height, or 
 as rciietted from a plain or curved mirror, will appear 
 regular and in right proportion. Sec Optics (the 
 IiiJex), and Perstective. 
 
 ANANAS, in botany, the trivial name ofa fpccies 
 of bromclia. Sec Bromelia. 
 
 ANANCITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured 
 ftone, otherwile called _/)/;»<:*(/«, celebrated for its 
 magical virtue of raifing the fliadows of the infernal 
 gods. 
 
 ANANI.'\S, a Sadducee, high-prieft of the Je«'s, 
 who put to death St James the brother of our Lord, 
 and was dciiofed by Agrippa. 
 
 ANAMSABTA, or Ananijapta, a magical 
 word frequently found infcribed on coins and other 
 amulets, fuppofed to have a virtue of preferving the 
 wearer from the plague. 
 
 ANAP^tST, in ancient poetry, afoot confiftingof 
 two (hort fyllables and one long : Such is the word 
 fcopiilos. It is juft the rcvcrfc of the daftyl. 
 
 ANAP.t;STlC VERSES, thofe conlifting wholly or 
 chiefly of anapeds. 
 
 ANAPHE (anc. geog.), an idand fpontaneoufly 
 emerging out of the Cretan fea, near Thera (Pliny, 
 Strabo) ; now called Nanfio. Its name is from the 
 fuddcn appearance of the new moon to the Argo- 
 nauts in a Rorm (Apollonius), Aiiaphaus, an epithet 
 of Apollo, who was worlliipped there. Anapha:\, the 
 people. 
 
 ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, the repetition of the 
 fame word or worc's in the beginning of a fcntence or 
 vcrle : Thus Virgil, 
 
 Panetiam Arcadia tiitcum fi jtidict cert it, 
 Pan el'tam Arcadia dieat fi jiidice vifliim. 
 
 Anaphora, among phyficians, the throwing off 
 purnlent mattcrby the mouth. 
 
 ANAPHRODISIA, iignifies impotence, or want 
 ef power to procreate. See Impotence. 
 
 ANAPLASIS, fignities the replacing or fetting a 
 fraftured bone. 
 
 ANAPLORETICS, medicines that promote the 
 growth or granulation of the fleAi in wounds, ulcers, 
 &c. 
 
 ANARCHI, Avafyti, in antiquity, a name given 
 by the Athenians to four fupernumcrary days in their 
 year, during which tliey had no magiflrates. The At- 
 tic year was divided into ten parts, according to the 
 number of tribes, to whom the precedency of the fe- 
 nate fell by turns. Each divifion conlillcd of 35 days ; 
 what remained after the expiration of thefe, to make 
 the lunar year complete, which according to their com- 
 putation conlifled of 554 days, were employed in the 
 creation of magiflrates, and called gtntx'" ff' and 
 
 ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation, 
 where no fuprerae authority is lodged, cither in the 
 prince or other rulers ; but the people live at large, 
 and all things are in confufion. The word is derived 
 from the Greek privative «, and ufx', command prin- 
 
 cipality. Anarchy is fuppofed to have reigned after AnarrhieM 
 
 the deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We ' « ' 
 
 flill find it obtain in fcvcral parts, particularly of Afri- 
 ca and America. 
 
 Anarchy is alfo applied toctrtain troublefome and 
 diiorderly periods, even in governments otherwifc 
 regular. In England, the period between the death 
 of Cromwell and King Charles's rclloration is com- 
 monly reprcfentcd as ^n anarchy. Every month pro- 
 duced a new fcheme or form of government. Enthu- 
 fiafts talked of nothing but annulling the laws, abolilh- 
 ing all writings, records, and regiflers, and bringing 
 all men to the primitive level. No modern nation is 
 more fubjedt to anarchies than Poland ; where every 
 interval between the death of one king and theclefti- 
 on of another is a perfcdt pidure of confufion, info- 
 much that it is a proverb among that people, Poland 
 is governed ty conftijion. The Jewilh hiftory prefents 
 numerous inflances of anarchies in that flate, ufually 
 denoted by this phrafe, that in thofe days there ■U'as nt 
 king in Ijrael, but every man did that •which was right in 
 his own eyes ; which ajuft piiflure of an «/;^ri/y . 
 
 ANARRHICAS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies 
 of the order of apoJcs. There is but one fpecies of 
 this genus, viz. the anarrhicas lupus, orfca-wolf; 
 which fcems to be confined to the novthern parts of 
 the globe. We find it in the fcas of Greenland ; ia 
 thofe of Iceland and Norway ; on the coafts of Scotland 
 and of Yorklhire ; and laftly, in that part of the Ger- 
 man ocean which wa(hes the fhorcs of Holland, the 
 moft fouthern of its haunts that wc can with any cer- 
 tainty mention. 
 
 It is a mofl ravenous and fierce fifh, and, when ta- 
 ken, faflens on any thing within its reach ; the fifhcr- 
 nien, dreading its bite, endeavour as foon as pofhblc 
 to beat out its fore-teeth, and then kill it by flriking 
 it behind the head. Schonevclde relates, that its bite 
 is fo hard, tliat it will fieze on an anchor, and leave 
 the marks of its teeth in it ; and the Daniih and Ger- 
 man names oi j\e;}:bidtr and Jleinheilfer, exprefs the 
 fenfe of its great flrength, as if it was capable of 
 crulhingcven flones with it jaws. 
 
 It feeds almoft entirely on cruflaceous animals ani 
 fhell-fifli, fuch as crabs, lobflers, prawns,mufcles, fcol- 
 lops, large whelks, &c. thefe it grinds to pieces with 
 its teeth, and fwallows with the lelfcr fliells. It does 
 not appear they are difTolved in the ftomach, but arc 
 voided with the fasces ; for which purpofe the aperture 
 of the anus is wider than in other filhof thefamellze. 
 
 It is full of roe in February, March, and April, and 
 fpawns in May and June. 
 
 This tifli has fo difagreeable and horrid an appear- 
 ance that nobody at Scarborough, except the fifher- 
 men, will eat it, and they prefer it to holibut. They 
 always, before drefTing, take of the head andfkin. 
 
 The fca-wolf grows to a large fize : thofe on the 
 Yorklhire coaft are fometimes found of the length of 
 four feet ; according to Dr Gronovius, they have been 
 taken near Shetland feven feet long, and even more. 
 
 The head is a little flatted on the top ; the nofe blunt; 
 the noflrils are very fniall ; the eyes fmall, and placed 
 near the end of the nofe. 
 
 The teeth are very remarkable, and finely adapted 
 to its way of life. The fore-teeth are ftrong, conical, 
 diverging a little from each other, ftand far out of the 
 
 jaws,
 
 ANA 
 
 [ (^^i ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Aniropia, jaws, and are commonly iix above and the fame below, 
 Anas, thouglifometimes they are only five ill each jaw: thcfe 
 * * ' are fupported within-iide by a row of leilcr teeth, 
 which makes the number in thcupper jaw lyor i8, in 
 the lower ii or 12. The (ides ofthe under jaw are 
 convex inwards, which greatly adds to their ftrength, 
 and at the fame time allows room for the large mufcles 
 with which the head of this filli is furnilhed. The 
 denies molares, or grinding-tecth of the under jaw, 
 are higher on the outer than the inner cJgcs, which 
 inclines their furfaces inward : they join to the ca- 
 nine teeth in that jaw, but in the upper are feparatc 
 from them. In the centre are two rows of flat ftrong 
 teeth fixed on an oblong bafib upon the bones of the 
 palate and nofe. 
 
 The teeth of the anarrhicas arc often found fofTil ; 
 and in that flate called bujonita, or toad-Jionei : thefe 
 were formerly much cftecmed for their imaginary 
 virtues, and were fet in gold, and worn as rings. 
 
 The two bones that form the under jaw are united 
 before by a loofe cartilage ; which mechanifm admit- 
 ting of a motion from fide to fide, moftevidently con- 
 tributes to the dcfign of the whole, viz. a facility of 
 breaking, grinding, and comminuting, its teftaceous 
 and crullaceous, food. At the entrance of the gullet, 
 above and below, are two echinated bones : thcl'c are 
 very fmali, being the lefs necelfary, as the food is in a 
 great meafure comminuted in the mouth by aid of the 
 grinders. 
 
 The body is long, and a little comprefFed fidcwife ; 
 the Ikin fmooth and flippery : it wants the lateral line. 
 The pciJloral fins conlilt of 18 rays. The dorfal fin 
 «xtends from the hind-part of the hcadalmofl to the 
 tail ; the rays in the frelh fifh are not vilible. The anal 
 fin extends as far as the dorfal fin. The tail is round 
 at its end, and confifts of 1 3 rays. The fides, back, 
 and fins, are of a livid lead colour ; the two firft mark- 
 ed downwards with irregular obfcure dulky lines: tliefe 
 in differentfifh have different appearances. The young 
 areofagreeni(hcafl,rcfemblingthcfea-wreck,amongft 
 which they rcfide for fome time after their birth. 
 
 ANARROPIA, among phyficians, a tendency o{ 
 the humours to the head or fuperior parts. 
 
 ANAS (anc. geog.), a river of Spain, rifing in 
 the territory of Laminium, of the Hither Spain, and 
 naw fpreading into lakes, again reftraining its waters, 
 or, burrowing itfelf entirely in the earth, is plcafed 
 often to reappear ; it pours into the Atlantic (Pliny); 
 iw\v Cuadiana, riling in ihc fouth-eafl of Ncw-Caf- 
 tile, in a diftrid commonly called Campo de Monticl, 
 not far from the mountain Confucgra, from the lakes 
 called las Lagtinas de Cuadiana, and then it is called 
 Rio Roydera ; and, after a courfe of fix leagues, bury- 
 ing itltlf in the eanh for a league, it then rifes up 
 again from three lakes, called hs Ojn deCuadiana, 
 near the village Villa Harta, five leagues to the north 
 of Calatrava, and direds its courfe weilward througli 
 New Caflile, by Medelin, Merida, and Badajox, 
 where it begins to b-nd its courfe foiuhwards, be- 
 tween Portugal and Andalufia, falling into the bay 
 of Cadiz near Ayamonte. 
 
 Anas, in orinthology, a genus of birds belonging 
 to the order of anfcres. The beak of this genus is a 
 little obtufc, covered with an epidermis orlldn, gib- 
 
 bous at the bafe and broad at the apex : the tongue is An.* 
 obtufe and ficlhy ; the feet are webbed and fitted for * " » '' 
 fwimming. The fpecies are, 
 
 I. The cygnus,y>ri// ir manruttus. 
 
 «. Thejerus, with a femicylindrical black bill, yel- 
 low wax, and a white body, ii the whiftliug or wild 
 fwan of Engli.'h authors, and is lefs than the tame or 
 mute fpecies, being about five feet in length. Thefe 
 birds inhabit the northern world as high as Iceland, 
 and as low as the foft climate of Greece or of Lydia, 
 the modern Anatolia, in Afia Minor : it even defceudi 
 as low as Egypt. They fwarm, during fummer, in 
 the great lakes and marlhcs of the Tartarian and Si- 
 berian defarts ; and refort in great numbers to winter 
 about the Cafpian and Euxine feas. Thofe of the 
 eaftern pans of Siberia retire beyond Kamtfchatka, 
 either to the coafts of America, or to the illes north 
 of Japan. In Siberia they fpread far north, but not ' 
 to the Arftic circle. They arrive in Hudfon's Bay 
 about the end of May, where they breed in great 
 numbers on the (hores, in the illands, and in the inland 
 lakes ; but all retire to the fouthern parts of North- 
 America in autumn, even as low as Carolina and Loui- 
 liana. In Carolina they are faid to be of two forts ; 
 the larger, called from its note the Trum[>ster, arrive 
 in great flocks to the frefli rivers in winter, and in Fe- 
 bruary retire to the great lakes to breed : tlie lelfcr 
 are called Hoopers, and frequent moftly the fait water. 
 The Indians of Louiliana wear the ikins, with the 
 down attached to them, fewed together by way of co- 
 vering; andof the larger feathers they make diadems 
 for their chiefs, as well as weave the fmaller on 
 threads, as barbers do for their wigs, with which they 
 cover garments, which arc worn only by women of 
 the higheR rank. In Auguft thcfe birds lofe their 
 feathers, and are not able to fly ; when the natives 
 of Iceland and Kamtfchatka hunt them with dogs, 
 which cacch them by the neck, and eafily fecure their 
 prey. In the lad place they are alfo killed with clubs. 
 The eggs arc accounted good food ; and the flefli, ef- 
 pecially that of the young, is much efteemed by th« 
 inhabitants. The afcs of the feathers are manifeft 
 to every one j and the Ikins of the body arc worn by 
 the inhabitants ; belides which, that of the legs, tak- 
 en off whole, is ufcd for purfes, and appears not un- 
 like (hagreen. W ild fwans, Linnaeus fays, frequent- 
 ly vifit Sweden after a thaw, and are caught with ap- 
 ples in which a hook is concealed. The wild fwan 
 frequents the c«alls of Great Britain, in hard winters, 
 in large flocks, but does not breed there. Martin • ac- • TSeftrSp*. 
 quainis us, that fwans come in 0&. >ber in great num- '*'»'• -fr^'i 
 bcr to Lingey, one of the Wcilern illes ; and conti- ?'• 
 nuc tiiere tiU March, when they return northward to 
 breed. A few continue in Mainland, one of the Ork- 
 neys, and breed in the little illes of the frefli-water 
 lochs: but the multitude retires at the approach of 
 fpring. On that account, fwans are there the coun- 
 tryman's almanack: on ibeir quieting the iilc, they 
 prcfage good weather; on their arrival, they an- 
 nounce bad. Thefe, as well as moll other water- 
 fowl, prefer, for the purpofe of incubation, thofe places 
 that are leaA frequented by mankind : accordingly 
 we find that the lakes and forclls of the diflant Lap- 
 land arc filled daring fummer with myriads of v.-ater- 
 
 fowl;
 
 ANA 
 
 r 664 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Asa*, fowl ; and there fwans, gecfc, the duckttribe,goofaii- 
 — ^ dcrs, divers, &c. pals thai iVufon ; but in autumn re- 
 turn 10 other, more liofpitablc, llwrcs. 
 
 Tiiis fpecies has fcvcral dilUnctions from the fpecics 
 which in Britain is called the tame fwaii. In KulFia 
 this Ipccics more tidy claims the name, it licing the 
 kind mod commonly tamed in that empire. The 
 whiiUing fwan carries its neck quite erect, the other 
 fwims with it arched. This is far inferior in fize. 
 This has twelve ribs on a fide, the mute only eleven. 
 Bat the moft remarkable is the llrange figure of the 
 windpipe ; which fails into the chcii, then turns back 
 like a irumpcc, and afterwards makes a fecond bend to 
 join the lungs. Thus it is enabled to utter a loud and 
 Ihriil note. The other fwan, on the contrary, is the 
 mortlilent of birils: it can do notiiing more than hit's, 
 which it docs on receiving any provocation. The 
 vocal kind emits its loud notes only when flying or 
 calling. Its found is, -whooh, whooh, very loud and 
 fhrill, but not dilagreeable, when heard far above one"s 
 head and modulated by the winds. The natives of 
 Iceland compare it to the notes of a violin. In facf, 
 they hear it (fays Mr PcnnantVat the end of their 
 long and gloomy winter ; when the reiurn of the 
 fwans aniwuncts the return of fummer; every note 
 mull be therefore melodious which prcfages the fpeedy 
 thaw, and the relcafefrom their ledimis continement. 
 
 It is from this fpecics alone that the ancients have 
 given the fable of the fwan being endued with the 
 powers of melody. Embracing the Pythagorean doc- 
 trine, they made the iiody of this bird the manlion of 
 the fouls of departed poets ; and after that, attributed 
 to the birds the fame faculty of harmony which their 
 inmates polfclfcd in a pre-exillcnt llatc. The vulgar, 
 not dillinguilhiug between fweetnefs of numbers and 
 melody of voice, thought that real which was only 
 intended tigurativcly. The mute fwan, Mr Pennant 
 obferves, never frequents the Padus, nor is ever ftcn 
 on the Cayfter in Lydia ; each of them Ilreams cele- 
 brated by the poets for the great refort of fwans. 
 
 In time, a fwan became a common trope igr a bard. 
 Horace calls V\ni\a.\- Dire a tnu Cygnu7n j and in one ode 
 even fuppofcs himfelf changed into a fwan. Virgil 
 I'peaks of his poetical brethren in the fame manner : 
 
 A'arc-, tuum nomen 
 
 Cantantes fublime fcrent ad fidera cygni. Eclog. ix. 
 When hefpeaksof them figuratively, he afcribes to 
 them melody, or the power of mufic ; but when he 
 talks of them as birds, he lays afide fiftion, and, like 
 a true naiuralift, gives them their real note : 
 
 Dant fonitumraftc/ per flagna loquacia cygni. 
 
 Mil. Lib. xi. 458. 
 
 It was alfo a popular opinion among the ancients, 
 that the fwan foretold iis own end. To explain this, 
 we muft confidtr the twofold chara<fler of the poet, 
 vat^s T^w^pbL-ta, which the fable of the tranfmigration 
 continues to the bird, or they might be fuppofed to 
 derive that faculty from Apollo their patron deity, the 
 god of prophecy and divination. 
 
 As to their being fuppofed to fing more fwectly at 
 theapproach of death, the caufe is beautifully explain- 
 ed by Plato, who attributes that unufual melody to 
 the fame fort of ecftafy that good men are fometimes 
 faid Co enjoy at that .•'wful hour, forefc'-ing the joys 
 that arc preparing for them on putting oft'mortality. 
 
 ^, The inniijuetus, or mate fwan, is the largcd of 
 the Britilh birds. It is diftinguilhed externally from *■ 
 the wild iwan ; firfl, by its lize, being much larger ; 
 lecondly, by its bill, which in this is red, and the tip 
 and fides black, and the (kin between the eyes and bill 
 is of the fame colour. Over the bafe of the upper man- 
 dible, projects a black callous knob ; the whole plu- 
 mage, in old birds, is white ; in young ones, alh-colour- 
 ed till the fecond year : the legs are dulky ; but Dr 
 Plott mentions a variety found on the Treat near Ru- 
 gely, with red legs. 
 
 The fwan is found wild in RufTia and Siberia, mod 
 plentiful in the lalt. It arrives later from the fouth, 
 and docs not fpread fo far north. Thofc about the 
 foutlicrn part ol the Cafpian Sea arc very large, and 
 much clleemed for the ufe of ihe table. The fwan is 
 held in high veneration by the Mahometans. It is a 
 very flrong bird, and fometimes exceeding fierce : has 
 not unfrequcntly been known to throw down and 
 trample under feet youths of fifteen or (ixteen years 
 of age, and an old one to break the leg of a man with 
 a llroke of the wings. It is faid to be very long-lived, 
 and frequently to arrive at the hundredth year. The 
 young are not perfed in plumage till the fecond year. 
 The fwan lays the (irll egg in February, and conti- 
 nues laying every other day to the amount of fix, fe- 
 ven, or eight eggs ; thele it places on a bed of grafs 
 near the water, and fits fix weeks. It feeds on both 
 filli and herbage. 
 
 No bird, perhaps, makes fo inelegant a figure out 
 of the water, or has the command of fuch beautiful 
 attitudes on that element, as the fwan : almoll every 
 poet has taken notice of it ; but iione with that juft- 
 nefs of defcription, and in fo piiilurefquc a. manner, 
 as Milton : 
 
 The fwan, with arched neck 
 
 Between her white wings mantling, proudly rows 
 
 Her llate with oary feet. I'ar.Lofl, B. vii. 
 
 In former times, it was ferved upat everygreat fcaft, 
 when the elegance of the table was meafured by the 
 fize and quantity of the good cheer. Cygnets are to 
 this day fattened at Norwich about Chriflmas, and arc 
 fold for a guinea a-piece. 
 
 Swans were formerly held in fuch great eflecm in 
 England, that by an act of Edward IV. c. 6. " no one 
 that poil'efTed a freehold of Icfs clear yearly value than 
 five marks, was permitted to keep any, other than the 
 Jon ofonrfovereign lorduhs king." And by the eleventh 
 of Henry VII. e. 17. the punilhment for taking their 
 eggs was imprifoninent for a year and a day, and a 
 fine at the king's will. Though at prefent they arc 
 not fo highly valued as a delicacy, yet great numbers 
 arc preferved for their beauty; multitudes are to be 
 fcen on ihe Thames and Trent, but no where greater 
 numbers than the falt-water inlet of the fea nearAb- 
 boifbury in Dorfetfliire. 
 
 2. The cygnoides, with a fcm icy lindrical bill, gib- 
 bous wax, and tumid eye-brows. It is the fwan-goofe 
 of Ray, from Guinea. There is likewifc a variety of 
 this fpecies, of alcfs fize, called the ^oo/tr of Mufcovy . 
 They are found wild about the Lake Baikal in the 
 eaft of Siberia, and in Kamtfchatka. They are alfo 
 kept tame in mofl parts of theRulIian empire. Thefe 
 birds likewifc inhabit China, and are common at the 
 Cape of Good Hope. This is no doubt the fpecies 
 
 mentioned
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 665 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Aon. memionedhy Ko\hen, ciWcd cro/i-gcc/e ; who fays, that 
 
 ^—•^— the failors make tobacco-pouches and jiurfcs of the 
 
 membrane which hangs beneath the throat, as it is 
 
 fufficiently tough for Inch jmrpofcs, and will hold two 
 
 pounds of tobacco. 
 
 They are (ufiicienily common in Britain, and rea- 
 dily mix witli the common goofe ; the breeds uniting 
 as freely, and continuing to produce as certainly, as if 
 no fuch mixture had taken place. They arc much 
 more noify than the common tame geefe, taking alarm 
 at the leaft noife ; and even without diftiirbance will 
 emit their harlli and difagreeable fcream the whole day 
 through. They walk very ere<Jt, with the neck much 
 elevated ; and as they bear a middle line between that 
 of the fwan and goofe, they have not improperly been 
 ailed ^waii-geeji. 
 
 ■i. The tadorna, orfhelldrake,hasa flat bill, a com- 
 prclled forehead, a grcenifli black head, and the body 
 is variegated with white. This fpccies is found as far 
 as Iceland to the north. It vilits Sweden and the Ork- 
 neys in the winter, and returns in fpring. It is found in 
 Alia about the Cafpian Sea, and all the fait lakes of 
 the Tartarian and Siberian defarts, as well as inKamt- 
 fchaika. Late voyagers, if right in the fpecies, have 
 alfo met with it at Falkland llles and Van Diemcn's 
 Land. It breeds in deferted rabbit holes, or occupies 
 them in the abfencc of the owners, who, rather than 
 make an attempt at dillodgiiig the intruders, form 
 others ; though, in defect of ready-made quarters, 
 thefc birds will frequently dig toles for ihemfclves. 
 They lay fifteen or lixteenroundilh white eggs. Thcfe 
 are placed at the farther end of the hole, covered with 
 down fupplied from the breart of the female, who tits 
 about 50 days. She is very careful of her young, and 
 will often carry them from place to place in her bill : 
 " This we arc certain of (fays Mr Latham), from a 
 young one having been dropt at the foot of an intelli- 
 gent friend unhurt, by the mother flying over his 
 head." When a perfon attempts to take their young, 
 the old birds fliow great addrefs in diverting his at- 
 tention from the brood : they will fly along the ground 
 as if wounded, till the former are got into a place of 
 fecurity, and then return and collctl them together. 
 From this inllindive cunning, Turner, with good rca- 
 fon, imagines them to be the chenaiopex or Jox-goofe, 
 of the ancients. The natives of the Orkneys to this 
 day call them il\c fiy-goofi, from an attribute of that 
 quadruped. 
 
 Tlie young, as foon as hatched, take to the water, 
 and fwim furprilingly well ; but do not come to their 
 full plumage till the fccond year. This fpecies, Mr 
 Latham informs us, may be hatched under a tame duck, 
 and the young readily brought up ; but are apt, after a 
 few years, to attempt the maflery over the rcll of the 
 poultry. In a flate of nature their food fcenis cliierty 
 to be fmall lifli, marine infcds, and lliclls ; herbage has 
 likewife been found in their flomachs. In a tame flate 
 will cat bread, grain, and greens. Their great beauty 
 wouldtemptus tocndcavouratdomellicatingthcrace ; 
 but it will not thrive completely, except in the neigh- 
 bourhood of fait water, which fomchow feems elfcn- 
 tial to its well-being. The flelli likewife is rank and 
 unfavoury, though the eggs have at all times been 
 thought very good. 
 
 4. The fpedabilis, has a comprcifcd bill, gibbous at 
 Vol. I. 
 
 the bafe, a black feathery carina, and a hoary head. 
 It is the grey-headed duck of Edwards, and the king- 
 duck of Pennant. This beautiful fpecies is found at 
 Hudfon's Bay, at Churchill River, and (though f^arce) 
 at York Fort ; in winter it is met with as far fouth as 
 New- York. It is pretty frequent in the north of Si- 
 beria and Kamtfcliatka J it is found alfo on the coad 
 of Norway, and has been killed in the Orkneys. It is 
 common in Greenland ; where the fiefli is accounted 
 excellent, and the crudcgibbous part of the billa great 
 delicacy. It produces a down equally valuable as the 
 eider. The fkins arc fcwcd together, and make warm 
 garments. The natives kill them with darts, andufc 
 the following method to fuccced ; — A number of men 
 in canoes falling in wi;h a flock while fsviming, on a 
 fudden let upa fliouting,making as much noife astlicy 
 can ; on which, the birds being too much frightened 
 to fly away, dive under the water ; but as the place at 
 which they are to rife again is known by the bubbling 
 of the water above, the hunters follow them up as clofc 
 as may be ; and after adting this three or four times 
 over, the birds become fo fatigued as to be eafily kill- 
 ed. — This fpecies builds on the fides of ponds and ri- 
 vers, making its nefl of flicks and mofs, and lining it 
 with feathers from the breafl. It lays four or tivc 
 whitifli eggs, as large as thofe of the goofe. The 
 young fly in July. '1 he food confiAs chiefly of worms 
 and grafs. 
 
 5. The fufca, or velvet duck; is of ablackifhcolour, 
 has a white fpot behind the eyes, and a white line on 
 the wings. The male of this fpecies is diflinguiflied 
 by a gibbohty at the bafe of the bill. It is the black 
 duckofRay, and is in length about 20 inches. This 
 fpecies frequents Hudfon's Bay in fummer, where it 
 breeds. The ncft is compofed of grafs ; in which it 
 lays from four to fix white eggs, and hatches in July. 
 It feeds on grafs, and is known by the names of cwj 
 Clip ^ua turn. It retires fouth in winter : when it is 
 frequently feen as far fouth as New- York. Late 
 navigators met with it at Aoonalafhka. It is now and 
 tlien feen on the coails of England, but is not com- 
 mon. It is more frequent on the continent, inhabit- 
 ing Denmark and Rulfia. In fome parts of Siberia it 
 is very common ; and it enters the lift of thofe found 
 at Kanufchatka. In breeding-time, it goes far inland 
 to lay the eggs ; which are eight or ten in number, 
 and while. After the fcafon is over, the males arc 
 laid to depart; the females ftaying behind till the young 
 arc able to tiy, when the two lalt go likewife off, but 
 to what part is not certain. It is in great plenty at 
 Ochotfka, cfpccially about the equinox. Fifty or 
 more of the natives go in boats and furround the whole 
 flock, driving them into the flood of the river Ochot- 
 fka ; and, as foon as it ebbs, the whole conipany fill 
 on them at once with clubs, and often knock fo many 
 of them on the head that each man has 20 or 30 for 
 his Iharc. 
 
 6. The nigra, or fcoter, is totally black, and has a 
 gibbofity at the bale of the bill ; the tail refemblcs a 
 wedge ; the female is brownilh. It is the lefler black 
 diver of Ray, and meafures in length 22 inches. Thefc 
 birds arc found on the northern coafls of Englanil and 
 thofe of Scotland in the winter feafon ; but no where 
 fo common as on the French coafts, where they arc 
 feen in prodigious numbers from November to March, 
 4 P cfpecially 
 
 Am
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 666 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Ami. erpecially if the wind be to the north or north-weft. 
 Their chief food is a glalfy bivalve Ihell, near an inch 
 long, called by the Vrcnch vnD/ieaux. Thcfc they are 
 perpetually diving after, frequently to the depth of 
 fome fathoms ; and an iifiial method of catcliing them 
 is by phcing nets under the water in fuch places as 
 the Ihclls arc moft numerous ; by which means 30 or 
 40 dozen of ihem have been taken in one tide. The 
 day fecins to be fpent by thel'e birds between diving 
 and flying to fmalldillances over the water, v.hichit 
 does fo low as frequently to diji the legs therein. It 
 fwallows the food whole, and loon digells ihcOiells, 
 which are found quite crumbled to powder among the 
 excrements. It has been kept tame for fome time, 
 and will feed on foaked bread. The ilcfli talles filhy 
 to an extreme ; on which account is allowed by the 
 Roman-Catholics to be eaten on fall days and in lent ; 
 and indeed nuift be a futiicient mortification. — Thel'e 
 birds abound in all the northern parts of the contiuciit, 
 Lapland, Sweden, Norway, andRuflia ; and are found 
 in great plenty on the great lakes and rivers of the 
 north and eaft of Siberia, as well as on the fca (hores. 
 Jt likcwife inhabits North-America ; being met with 
 at New-York ; and in all probability much more to 
 the north on tiiis continent and thai of Alia, O/beck 
 having met with them in 30 and 34 degrees fouth la- 
 titude, between the illand of Java and St Paul, in the 
 month of June. 
 
 7. The MiCer, feres ft tnatiftietns ; or gray lag, and 
 tame goofe. The^'rc-^' lag or ivild gor.fc, is two feet 
 nine inches in length, and five feet in extent. The 
 bill is large and elevated ; of a Heih colour, tinged with 
 yellow ; the head and neck cinereous ; brcall and bel- 
 ly whiiifli, clouded with grey or adi colour ; back, 
 grey ; the legs of a Helh colour. This fpccics rcfides 
 in the fens the whole year ; breeds there, and h.itches 
 about eight or nine young, which are often taken, ea- 
 fily tamed, and efleemed moll excellent meat, fupcrior 
 to the domeftic goofe. Towards winter they coUeft 
 in great flocks, but in all feafons live and feed in the 
 fens. On the continent they are migratory, changing 
 place in large flocks, often 500 or more : in this cafe, 
 the flock is triangular in fliSpe, with one point fore- 
 moft ; and as the goofe which is firfl is tired foonert, 
 it has been fcen to drop behind, and another to take 
 his place. In very fmall flocks, however, they are 
 fomctimcs fecn to follow one another in a dired line. 
 Geefe fceni to be general inhabitants of the globe. 
 
 The nianfuetns, is the grey lag in a llateof dome- 
 ftication, and from which it varies in colour, though 
 much lefs fo than either the mallard or cock, being 
 ever more or lefs verging to grey ; though in all cafes 
 the vvhitenefs of 'he vent, and upper tail covcrts,is nia- 
 nifcft. It is frequently found quite white, cfpecially 
 the males ; and doubts have arifen, which of the two 
 colours Ihould have the preference in point of eating.- 
 Tamc geefe are kept in great multitudes in the fens of 
 Lincolnlhirc, in England ; a fingle perlbn will have 
 1000 old geefe, each of which will rear feven ,- fo that 
 towards the end of the feafon he w ill become poHclled 
 of 8000. During the breeding- feafon thcfe birds are 
 lodged in the fame houfcs with the inhabitants, and 
 even in their very bed-chambers : in every aparimenr 
 are three rowsofcoarfc wicker pens, placed one above 
 laothcr; each bird has its feperate lodge divided from 
 
 the other, which it keeps polTeflionof during the time 
 of fitting. A pcrfon c^WzA^gtz-^ard, i. c. gooje-herd, * 
 attends the flock, and twice a-d,ay drives the w hole to 
 water ; then brings them back to ihcir habitatious.help- 
 ing thofe that live in the upper llories to their ncfts, 
 w ithout ever mifjilacing a linglc bird. The geefe arc 
 plucked Ave times in the year: the tirll plucking is at 
 Lady day, lor feathers and quills ; the fame is renew- 
 ed, for leathers only, four times niore between that 
 and Michaelmas. The old geefe fubmit qnittly to the 
 ojieration, but the young ones are very noify and un- 
 ruly. If the feafon proves cold, numbers ol them die 
 by this barbarous cullom. Vaft numbers of geefe are 
 driven annu-illy to Londim, to fiipply the markets ; 
 among them, all the fuperannuated geefe and ganders, 
 which, by a long eourfe of plucking, prove uncom- 
 monly tough and dry. 
 
 The goofe in general breeds only once in a year ; 
 but will frequently have two hatches in a feafon, if 
 well kept. The time of littingis about 3odays. 'I'hcy 
 will alfo produce eggs futiicient for three broods, if 
 they are taken away in fuccclhon. It is faid to be ve» 
 ry long-lived, as we have authority lor tlieir arriving 
 at no lefs than ico years. 
 
 8. 'The bcaii-goffe is twofect feven inches in length ; 
 in extent four feet eleven. The bill, which is the chief 
 diltinciion between this and the former, is fmall, much 
 comprelFcd near the end, whitilh, and fomcwhat pale 
 red in the middlr, and black at the bafe and nail : the 
 head and neck are cinereous brown, tinged with ferru-- 
 ginous; breafl and belly dirty white, clouded with ci- 
 nereous; the back of a pale afli colour ; feet and legs 
 of a faffron colour: claws black. This fpecies arrives 
 in Lincolnlhirc in autumn ; and is called the bean-guofey 
 fronnliclikenefsof the nail of the bill to a horfe-bcan. 
 They always light on corn-fields, and feed much on the 
 green wheat. They never breed in the fens ; but all 
 difappear in May. They retreat to the fcqueftcred 
 wilds of the north of liurope ; in their migration they 
 fly a great height, cackling as they go. They prcfcrvc 
 a great regularity in their motions ; (bmetimes forming 
 aflraiglitline;atiothers,airuming the Ihape of a wedge, 
 which facilitates their progrefs, for they cut the air 
 readier in that form than if tlicy flew pell-mell, 
 
 9. The crythropus, or laughing goofe of Edwards, 
 is a native of Europe and America. The length of 
 this fpecies is about two feet four, the extent four feet 
 fix ; the bill is elevated, of a pale yellow colour, with a 
 white ring at the bufc ; the forehead is white ; the 
 brcaft and belly are ofa dirty white, marked with great 
 fpotsof black ; and the legs yellow. Thefc vilit the 
 fens and other parts of England during winter, in fmall 
 flocks ; they keep always in raarfliy places, and never 
 frequent the corn-lands. They difappear in the ear- 
 lieft fpring, and none are feen after the middle of 
 March. Linnaeus makes this goofe the female of the 
 beriiach ; but Mr Pennant thinks his opinion not well 
 founded. 
 
 The ber>iacle (erythropns mas Lin.) is two feet one 
 inch in length, the breadth four feet five inches : the 
 bill is black; the forehead and cheeks are white ; from 
 the bill to the eyes, there is a black line ; the hind 
 part ofthe head, the whole neck, and upper part of the 
 breaft and back, are of a deep black ; the tail is black, 
 the legs are of the fame colour, and fmall. Thcfe birds 
 
 sppcas
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 667 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anaj. appear in. vail flocksduriiig v inter, on the north-wtft 
 *"~^' coalls of Grcat-Butaiii ; they are very lliy and wild ; 
 but on being taken, grow in a few days as familiar as 
 the tame geefe. In February tJiry retire as far as Lap- 
 land, Greenland, and even Spiizbergen, to bieed. 
 They live to a great age : the Rev. Dr Buck worth of 
 Spaltiing, had one which was kept in the family above 
 32 years, l)ut was blind during the two laft ; what its 
 age was when fird taken, was unknown. 
 
 Thefe are the birds itiat about 200 years ago were 
 believed to be gencr ited out of wood, or rather a fpe- 
 cies of IhcJl that is often found flicking to the bottoms 
 of lliips, or fragments of them ; and were called tr,;e- 
 'SteLefat.geifi *• Theie were alfo thought by fome writers to 
 have htcnihc chenalopcces of Pliny ; they fliould have 
 faid chcnerotci, for thofe were the birds which that na- 
 turalift faid were found in Britain : but as hehasfcarcc 
 left us any defcription of them, it is difficult to fay 
 which fpecies he intended. Mr Pennant imagines it 
 to be the Ibllowing; which is far inferior in fize to the 
 wild-goofe, and very delicate food, in both rcfpedts 
 fuiting his defcription of the cheneros. 
 
 10. Therace-horleor loggerheadgoofe,isin length 
 32 inches, and weighs from 20 to 30 pounds. The 
 bill is three inches long, and of an orange colour : the 
 irides arc orange, furrounded with black, and then 
 with orange : the head, neck, and upper parts of the 
 body are of a deep afh-colour ; the outer edge of the 
 fecondaries white, forming a band of the fame on the 
 wing : the under parts of the body dufky down the 
 middle ; over the thighs cinereous blue ; vent white ; 
 quills and tail black : the wings are very Ihort, not 
 reaching to the rump: on the bend of the wing is a 
 yellow knob, half an inch in length ; the legs arc 
 brownilli orange, the webs dulky, and the claws black. 
 Thefe inhabit Falkland lllands, Staaten Land, &c. and 
 were molliy feenin pairs, though fometimes they were 
 obfcrved in large flocks. From the (hortnefs of their 
 wings they were unable to fly ; but they made confi- 
 dcrable ufe of them when in the water, on which they 
 feemed as it were to run, at lead they fwam, with the 
 afliftance of the wings ufed as oars, at an incredible 
 rate, infomuch that it was a moll difficult thing to Ihnot 
 them while on that element : to catch them, the fai- 
 lors ufed to fui round a flock with boats, and drive them 
 on ffiorc ; where, unable to raife themfelves from the 
 ground, they ran very fail, but foon growing tired, 
 and fquatting down to reft, were readily overtaken, 
 and knocked on the head. Their flcfli was fometimes 
 eaten by the failors, in defed of that of the bullard 
 goofe ; but it was not much relilhed, being rank and 
 fiffiy, and thought more flt for the hogs, which ate it 
 greedily, and fatted well upon it, boiled. 
 
 11. The fnow-gonfe is in length two feet eight inch- 
 es, and weighs between five and lix pounds. The bill 
 is fomewiiat fcrrated at the edges : the upper mandible 
 fcarlct, the lower whitiffi : the general colour of the 
 plumage is fnow white, except the firft ten quills, which 
 arc black, with white iliafts : the legs are of a deep 
 red. The young arc of a bhic colour, till they arc a 
 year old. Thefe arc very numerous at Hudfon's-Bay, 
 and called by the natives IVjy-wav and lVa/>j whr whs. 
 They vilit Severn River in May, and ftay a fortnight ; 
 but go farther north to breed : they return to Severn- 
 Fort the begiuuing of September, and Ihy to the mid- 
 
 dle of 0(5lober, when they depart for the fuuth, and 
 are obfcrved to be attended with thtir young, in flocks 
 innumerable. At this lime many thoufands arc killed 
 by the inhabitants ; who pluck them, and take out the 
 entrails, and putting the bodies into holes dug in the 
 ground cover them with earth, which freezing above 
 then), keeps them pcrfccUy fwcet throughout the fe- 
 vere feafoii ; during which there is no more to do than, 
 occalionally to open one ot ihofe llorehoufcs,when they 
 find them Iweet and good. They feem to occupy alfo 
 the weltern (ide of America. In the fummer months, 
 they are plenty on the ardic coaft of Siberia, but ne- 
 ver migrate beyond longitude 130. They are fuppofcd 
 to pafs the winter in more moderate climes, as the/ 
 have been fcen flying at a great height over Silefia ; 
 probably on their pallage to fome other country, as it. 
 does not appear that they continue there. In like man- 
 ner, thofe of America pafs the winter in Carolina. 
 Here they arrive in valt flocks ; and feed on the roots 
 of fage and grafs, which they tear up like hogs. Ic 
 ufed to be a common pradlicc in that country to bum 
 a piece of a marffi, which enticed the geefe to come 
 there, as they could then more readily get at the roots, 
 which gave the fportfman opportunity of killingasma- 
 ny as he pleafed. This fpecies is the moA numerous 
 and the moft ftupid of all the goofe race. They feem 
 to want the inftinel of others, by their arriving at the 
 mouths of the Ardic Aliatic rivers before the feafon 
 in which they can poffibly fublllh They are annually 
 guilty of the fame millake, and annually compelled to 
 make a new migration to the fouth in quell of food, 
 where they pafs their time till the northern eftuaries 
 are freed from the bonds of ice. They have fo little 
 of the (hynefs of other geefe, that they arc taken in 
 the moll ridiculous manner imaginable about Jakut, 
 and the other parts of Siberia, which they frequent. 
 The inhabitants tirft place, near the banks of the ri- 
 vers, a great net, in a ilraight line, or elfe form a ho- 
 vel of [kins fewcd together. This done, one of the 
 company dreflcs hiinlelf in the Ikins of a white rein- 
 deer, advances towards the flock of geefe, and thca 
 turns back towards the net or the hovel ; and his com- 
 panions go behind the flock, and by making a noifc 
 drive them forward. The iiniple birds miltake the 
 man in white for their leader, and follow him withiu 
 reach of the net, which is fuddenly pulled down anj 
 captivates the whole. When he choofes to conduiit 
 them to the hovel, they follow in the fame manner ; he 
 creeps in at a hole left for that purpofe, and out at ano- 
 ther on the ojipolite fide, which he clofes up. The 
 geefe follow him through the lirll ; and as foon as they 
 are got in, he p-ilfts round, and fccurcs every one. 
 
 12. The great goofe is of a very large lizc, weigh- 
 ing near 2J or 30 Rullian pounds. The bill is black ; 
 bafe of it tawny: body duiky ; the under parts arc 
 white ; the legs fcarlct. It is found on the call of Si- 
 beria, frem the river Lena to Kamtfchatka; and is 
 taken in great numbers. 
 
 1 3. The rulicolis, or rcd-brcafteJ goofe, is in length 
 21 inches; weight three pounds tr^y. The bill is 
 fmall and brown; the tail black ; the irides are yel- 
 low brown ; round the eyes fringed wi h brown ; fore 
 part of the head and crown bl ick, palUiiJ backwards 
 in a narrow llripc quite to ihc back ; on the breaft is 
 a narrow baud of white feathers with black ends form- 
 al P 2 ing 
 
 Aiun.
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 668 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 An»». ing a band of white and another of black : the iiJes 
 ■ v ■■' arc ftripcd with black : back and wings black, the laft 
 even with the tail : legs black. This moll elegant of 
 geefc is found tobrccd from the month of the Ob, along 
 the coafts of the ley fea, to that of the Lena. Its 
 winter quarters arc not certainly known. Small flocks 
 arcobftrved in the fpring flying from the Cafpian fca 
 along the Volga northward ; and arc fcen about Zari- 
 zyn, between the (ixth and tenth of April. They reft 
 a little time on the banks of the Sarpa, but foon rc- 
 fiime their arflic coiirfe. Their winter retreat is pro- 
 bably in Perfia. They are highly eftecmcd for the ta- 
 ble, being quite free from any tilhy tafte. 
 
 14. The cafarca, or riiddy-goofe, is larger than a 
 mallard, and fecms even larger tjian it really is, from 
 the length of wing, and ftanding high on its legs. The 
 bill is black : the iritics are yellowifli brown : forehead, 
 cheeks, and throat, yellowilh: fore part of the neck 
 ferruginous, encircled with a collar of black, inclining 
 to deep rufous on the throat : the breaft and fide are 
 pale rufous ; the belly is obfcurc : the back is pale ; 
 the lower part is undulated, hoary, and brown, not ve- 
 ry diftinft ; the rump and tail are grcenilh black ; the 
 legs long and black. This fpecics is found in all tlie 
 fouthcrn parts of RulTia and Siberia in plenty. In win- 
 ter it migrates into India, and returns northward in 
 fpring. It makes the ncft in the craggy banks of the 
 Wolga and other rivers, or in the hollows of the de- 
 ferted hillocks of marmots ; making it after the man- 
 ner of the flulldrake, and is faid to form burrows for 
 itfclf in the manner of that bird. It has been known 
 alfo to lay in a hollow tree, lining the neft with its own 
 feathers. It is monogamous: the male and female fit 
 in turns. The eggs arc like thofe of the common 
 duck. When the young come forth, the mother will 
 often carry them from the place of hatching to the wa- 
 ter with her bill. They have been attempted to be do- 
 mefiicated, by rearing the young under tame ducks ; 
 but without fuccefs, as they ever are wild, effefling 
 their efcape the firil opportunity: or, if the old ones 
 are taken and confined, they lay the eggs in a difperfed 
 manner, and never lit. The voice is not unlike the 
 note of a clarinet, while flying; at other times they 
 cry like a peacock, efpccially when kept tame ; and 
 now and then cluck like a hen. It is very choice of 
 its mate ; for if the male is killed, the female will not 
 leave the gunner till (he has been two or three times 
 Jhot at. The flcfh is thought very good food. 
 
 ly. The bernicla is of a brown colour ; with the 
 head, neck, and breaft, black ; and a white collar. 
 Thefe birds, like the bernacles, frequent the Britilh 
 coafts in winter ; and are particularly plenty, at times, 
 on thofe of Holland and Ireland, where they are taken 
 in nets placed acrofs the rivers. In fome dry feafons 
 they have reforted to the coafts of Picardy, in Fniuce, 
 in fuch prodigious flocks, as to prove a peft to the inha- 
 bitants, efpccially in the winter of the year i 740, 
 when thefe birds deftroyed all the corn near the fea- 
 coaHs, by f^aring it np by the roots. A general war 
 for thisreafon was declared againft them, and carried 
 on in earneft, by knocking them on the head with 
 clabs ; but their numbers were lo prodigious, that this 
 availed but little : nor were the inhabitants relieved 
 from this fcourge till the north wind which had 
 brought them ccafed to blow^, when tliey took leave. 
 
 They eafily become tame; and, being fatted, arc 
 thought to be a delicate food. They breed pretty far 
 north,rcturningfouthwardin autumn. Theyiiy iathc 
 Ihapc of a wedge, like the wild geefe, with great cla- 
 mour. They are called in Shetland, Horra gecje, from 
 being found in that found. They arc common alfo in 
 America : breeding in the illands, and along the coall, 
 and feed about high-water mark. Their food coniifls 
 of plants, fuch as the fmall billort, and black-berried 
 heath, fea-worms, berries, and the like. They arc 
 apt to have a fifliy tafte, but are in general thought 
 good food. The fame fable has been told of this bird 
 as of the bernacle, in refpeft to its being bred front 
 trees. Called at Hudfon's-Bay, IVctlta via) pa tue'jj. 
 16. The canadenfis is brown; its head and neck arc 
 black, and the throat is white. It meafures three and an 
 half feet in length. It is found durisg the fummeriii 
 Hudfon's-Bay, and pares beyond ; alfo in Greenland ; 
 and, in the fummer months, in various parts of North» 
 America, as far as Carolina. Numbers breed at Hud- 
 fon's-Bay, and lay fix or feven eggs; but the major 
 part retire flill farther north. Their firft appearance 
 in the Bay is from about the middle of April to about 
 the middleof May, when the inhabitants wait for them 
 with impatience, being one of the chief articles for 
 food, and many years kill 3000 or 4000, which arc 
 faltcd and barrelled. Their arrival is the harbinger 
 of fpring, and the month is named by the Indians the 
 goofi-moon. The Britilh feud out their fervants, as well 
 as Indians, to Ihoot thefe birds on their palFage. It is 
 in vain to purfuc them ; they therefore form arowof 
 huts made of boughs, at mufkct-lliot diftancc from each 
 other, and place them in a line acrofs the vaft marfhes 
 of the country. Each hovcl,or,as they are called, //am/, 
 is occupied by only a (ingle ptrfon. Thefe attend the 
 flight of the birds, and on their approach mimic their 
 cackle fo well, that the gccfe will anfwer, and wheel, 
 and come nearer the ftaud. The fponfman Iteeps mo- 
 tionlefs, and on his knees, with his gun cocked, the 
 whole time ; and never iircs till he has fccn the eyes 
 of the geefc. He fires as they arc going from him, 
 then picks up another gun that lies by him, and dif- 
 charges that. The geefc which he has killed he fcts 
 upon flicks as if alive, to decoy others ; he alio makes 
 artificial birds for the fame purpofe. In a good day 
 (for they fly in very uncertain and unequal numbers) 
 3 (ingle Indian will kill 200. Notwithflanding every 
 fpecics of goofc has a dificrent call, yet the Indians are 
 admirablein their imitation of every one. In thisfport, 
 however, they mull be very careful to fecrcte thein- 
 felves ; for the birds arc very Ihy, and on the Icaft mo- 
 tion fly ofFdircAly. On their return fouth, which is 
 from the middle of Auguft to the middle of Oclober, 
 much havoc is made among them ; but thefe arc prc- 
 ferved frefli for winter ftore, but putting ihem, fea- 
 thers and all, into a large hole dug in the ground, and. 
 covering them with mould; and thefe, during the 
 whole time of the froft's lading, are found pcrfe<5lly 
 fweet and good. The Indians at Hudfon's Bay call 
 ihcmjipiftifiijh. This fpecics is now pre; ty common, 
 in a tame (late, both on tiie continent and in Er;gl.ind ; 
 on the great canal of Verfailles hundreds are fcen mix- 
 ing with the fwans with the greateft cordiality ; and 
 the fame at Chantilly. In England, likewife, they 
 are thought a great ornament to the pieces of water 
 
 ia 
 
 Aaai.
 
 ANA 
 
 r 669 J 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anas, ill many gentlemcns feats where they arc very famili- 
 w ar, and breed freely. The flefli of the young birds 
 is accounted good ; and the feathers equal to thofc of 
 other gccfe, in fo mucli as to prove an article of com- 
 merce much ill the favour of thofe places where they 
 are in fufficient numbers. 
 
 17. The molliHima, or eider-duck, is double the 
 fizc of the common duck, has a cylindrical bill, and the 
 wax is divided behind, and wrinkled. The feathers 
 which are very loft and valuable, fall off during incu- 
 bation. The male is white above, but black below and 
 behind: the female is grecnilh. This fpecics is found 
 in the Weflern 1 lies of Scotland, particularly on Oran- 
 fa, Barra, Rona, and Heiiker, and on the Karn Illcs ; 
 but in greater numbers in Norway, Iceland and Green- 
 land ; from whence a vail quantity of the down, known 
 by the name of cidsr or eddcr, which thffc birds fur- 
 nifh, is annually exported. Its remarkably light, ela- 
 ilic, and warm qualities, make it highly eilccmcd as a 
 ftufting for coverlets, by fuch whom age or infirmities 
 render unable to fupport the weight of common blan- 
 kets. This down is produced from the bread of the birds 
 in the breeding fcafon. It lays its eggs among the ftoncs 
 or plants near the Ihore ; and prepares a foft bed for 
 them, by plucking the down from its own brtuft; : the 
 natives watch the opportunity, and take away both eggs 
 and neft : the ducks lays again, and repeats tlie pluck- 
 ing of its brcafl : if Ihe is robbed after ihat, ihc will 
 ftill lay ; but the drakes muft fupply tlie down, as her 
 flock is now exhaulled : but if iier eggs are taken a 
 third time, fhe wholly defcrts the place. See Down. 
 Thcfe birds are not numerous on the illes ; and it is 
 obferved that the drakes keep on thofc niofl remote 
 from the fitting places. The ducks continue on their 
 nells till you come almofl dole to them ; and when they 
 rife, are very flow liiers. The number of eggs in each 
 nefl are from three to five, warmly bedded in the 
 down; of a pale olive colour ; and very large, glofly, 
 and fmooth. They nosv and then, however, lay fo 
 many as eight ; for Van Troll informs us that no lefs 
 than i6 have been found in one nefl, with two females, 
 whoagrcereniarkably well together. — InAnurica.this 
 bird is found as far I'outh as New-York, and breeds on 
 tlie defart illes of New-England ; but moll common 
 every where to the north. Thty are faid to be con- 
 llaiu to the fame breeding places, and that a pair has 
 been obferved to occupy the fame nefl for 20 years to- 
 gether. They take their young on their backs iu- 
 Jl.uuly to fea ; then dive, to fhakc thein ofFand teach 
 them to fliift for themfelves. It is faiJ, that the males 
 ;i.re five ycarsold before they come to their full colour ; 
 ihat they live to a great age, and will at length grow 
 quite grey. Their food is lliells, for which they dive 
 to great depths. They are very numerous in the Ef- 
 <]uimaux lands, where, and in Greenland, they arc cal- 
 led tiiettck. The natives kill them on the water with 
 darts, flriking them the moment they appear after di- 
 ving i and know the place from thrir being preceded 
 by the rifing of bubbles. The rtcfli is faid to be much 
 valued. 
 
 18. The maula, or fcaup-duck, is lefs than the com- 
 mon duck. The bill is broad, flat, and of a grcyilh 
 uUie colour; the head and neck are black, gloll'ed with 
 green; the breafl is black ; the back, the coverts of 
 the wings, and the fcapulars,arc liucly marked \\ itii nu- 
 
 merous narrow tranfverfc bars of black and grey ; the 
 legs are dufky. Mr Willoughby acquaints us, that 
 ihcfe birds take their name from feeding on fcaup, or 
 broken Ihell-filh; they differ infinitely in colours, fo 
 that in a flock of 40 or jo there are not two alike. 
 19. The mufchata, or Mufcovy duck of Ray, has a 
 
 naked papillous face, and is a native of India. It is 
 
 bigger than the wild duck, being in length two feet. 
 This fpecics is pretty common in a domellicatcd ftate 
 in almoll every nation ; and the breed ought to be en- 
 couraged, as there is more (lelh on it than on the com- 
 mon duck, and of a very high flavour. The eggs 
 are rounder than thofe of a duck, and in young birds 
 frequently incline to green. They lay more eggs, and 
 lit oitener than other ducks. In an unconfined flatc, 
 they make the nefl on the flumps of old trees, and 
 perch during the heat of the day on the branches of 
 fuch as are well clothed with leaves. When kept tame, 
 they are fufhciently docile ; and the male will not un- 
 frequently alfociate and produce a mongrel breed with 
 the common ducks. The nameof Mufcovy duck was 
 given to them from their exhaling a mulky odour, 
 which proceeds from the gland placed on the rump in 
 common with other birds. 
 
 20. Tlic clypeata, or fhovelar of Ray, has the end 
 of its bill broad, rounded, and furnifhcd with afmall 
 hook. It is in length 21 inches ; the female a tritic 
 fmaller. Both fexes are apt to vary much in colour: 
 the male like wife differs from the female inwardly, ha- 
 ving jurt above the divarication of the windpipe where 
 it palfcs into the lungs, an enlargement, or, as it is 
 called by fome, a lubyriiitk. — This bird is now and 
 then met with in England, though not in great num- 
 bers. It is faid to come into France in Kcbruary, and 
 fome of them to flay during the fummcr . It lays 10 
 or 12 rufous-coloured eggs, placed on a bed of rufhcs, 
 in the fame places as the funimer-teal , and departs in 
 September, at leaft the major part of them, for it is 
 rare that one is fcen in winter. The chief food of this 
 bird is infeils, for which it is continually muddlino- in 
 the waier with its bill. It is alfo faid dcxtcroufly to 
 catch flics which pafs in its way over the water. 
 Siirimps, among other things, have been found in its 
 llomach on dilleclion. This fpecics is alfo found in 
 moll parts of Germany ; throughout the Rulfian do- 
 minions, as far as Kamtfchatka ; and in North-Ame- 
 rica, in New-York and Carolina, during the winter 
 feafon. It is accounted pretty good food. 
 
 1 1 . The flrepera, or gad-wall, has the wings varie- 
 gated with black, white, and red. It inhabits England 
 in the winter nioiuhs, and is alio found at the lame 
 fealbn in various pans of Krance and Italy. It nii- 
 gratcsas far as Sweden, as fummcr advances, in order 
 to breed ; and found throughout Rulfia and Siberia, 
 except in the eaflern partof the laft, and Kamtfchatka. 
 Being a very quick diver, it is difficult to be fhot. It 
 feeds morning and evening only, being hid among the 
 reeds and rufhes during the day. The noife it makes 
 is not unlike that of a mallard, but louder. The flelh 
 is good. 
 
 22. The clangula, or golden eye of Ray, is varie- 
 gated with black and white, and the head is interfper- 
 fed with blackilh green feathers : it has a white fpot 
 near the mouth ; and the eyes arc of a Ihining gold co- 
 lour. It is not uiilrequcut on the f'ea-coafls in winter, 
 
 and 
 
 Aaai.
 
 ANA 
 
 [ 670 J 
 
 ANA 
 
 A nis. and appears in fni-11 flocks ; but pafles to the north in 
 — >' fi'ring in order to breed. It inhabits Sweden and 
 Norway during the I'umnicr. It is an excellent diver, 
 and t'cedson fnuil lliells. It is nioftly fcen in the wa- 
 ter, as it is very awkward in walking. It has been 
 sitemptcd to be domcllicated, but fcenis out ot its cle- 
 ment on land. Witli ditliculty it can be brought to 
 cat any tiling but bread ; and the feet loon grow in- 
 jured, inlouiuch as at lall to hinder it from walking, 
 riic rtelh is much cftecnicd, and tiie birds arc often 
 fccn in the market at the proper leafon. This fpecies 
 is found in America ; in winter as low as New- York ; 
 in fummtr, at Hudfon's bay, where it frtiiuents the 
 frcfli-water lakes, and makes in hollow trees a round 
 nclt of grafs lined w ith feathers from its breaA ; lays 
 from feven to ten white eggs. 
 
 23. The nicrfa, or Uraliiutk of Pallas, is fomewhat 
 bigger than the common leal. The bill is large, broad, 
 very tumid above the nollrils, and bilid in the adult 
 bird, the end marked with diverging (Irix ; colour 
 blue : the head, and part of the neck, are white ; on 
 the crown is a large patch of black : the middle of the 
 neck is black : the fore-parts of the body are a ycllow- 
 illi brown, undulated with black : the back is clouded 
 withacinerousand pale yellow, powdered with brown : 
 the wings are fmall ; the tail longilh, wcdge-thjpcd, 
 and black : the legs are brown, on the fore-part blnilh, 
 and placed as far back as in the diver genus. This fpe- 
 cies is not unfrcquent in the greater lakes of the Ural 
 mountains, and the rivers Ob and Inifch. It is not 
 feen on the ground, for from the lituation of its legs it 
 is unable 10 walk ; but it fwims very well and quick : 
 at which lime the tail is immcrfed in the water as far 
 as the rump, ferving by way of rudder, contrary to 
 the common method of a duck's fwimming. Thenefl 
 is formed of reeds, and floats, fomething like to that 
 of the grebe. 
 
 24. The American wigeon (/^ canard jeitfen of Buf- 
 fon),is rather bigger than the European wigeon. The 
 bill is of a lead colour: the crown and forehead of ay el- 
 lowifli white: the hind-part of the neck and head is 
 black and white, fpccklcd ; and behind the eye is a 
 black mark, changing in fome lights to green : the back 
 and fcapulars areof a pale rull-colour, waved with tranf- 
 verfe black lines ; in the middle of the W"ing coverts 
 there is a large bed of white : the quills and tail arc 
 deep brown : the legs dulky. It inhabits North-Ame- 
 rica, from Carolina to Hudfon's Bay ; but is no where 
 a common bird. It is called at New- York \\\ePheafaiit 
 Duck. It is more plenty at St Domingo and Cayenne, 
 where it is called i;//;^<ro'; or ^;«^'co//. At Maninico 
 great flocks of them often take fliort flights from one 
 rice plantation to another, where they make much ha- 
 voc, particularly during the rainy feafon. They arefaid 
 to perch on trees. They feed in company and have a 
 centinel on the watch like fome other birds. They arc 
 feldom feen during the day, lying hid in places fliadcd 
 from the fun : but io foon as that luminary difappears, 
 they come forth from their hiding-places to feed ; and, 
 during this, make a particular kind of noife, by which 
 the fportfman is diredcd in his fearch after them : at 
 other times their Hote is a kind of foft whiftle, which 
 is often imitated in order to decoy them within reach 
 of the gun. They fit in January ; and in March the 
 young arc fccn running about. They lay many eggs. 
 
 Sometimes thefe arc hatched under hens; in which 
 ca(e they are, while young, familiar, though when ^ 
 grown up exceedingly quarrclfome with other ducks ; 
 their rielliisinollexcellent.efpeciallyfuchasare brought 
 up tame. They appear upon the coafl of Hudfon's Bay 
 in May, as foon as the thaws come on, chiclly in pairs : 
 they lay there only from lix to eight eggs j and feedoa 
 flies and worms in the fwaiiips. They depart in flocks 
 in autumn. They arc known by the name of alhetkimo 
 ajhcep. 
 
 25. The acuta, pin-tail, or fea pheafant ofRay,hasa 
 long acuiuiuatcd tail, black below, with a white line oil 
 cacii fide of the back part of the head. It is a native of 
 Europe. MrHartlib, in the appendix to his Lc^ay, tells 
 us, tjiat hel'e birds are found in great abundance ia 
 Connaughi in Ireland, in the month of Kebruary only ; 
 and that they are much efleemed for their delicacy. 
 
 26, The glaci.ilis, or long-tailed duck, is inferior in 
 fi/.c to the former. The bill is Ihort, black at the tip 
 and bafe, orange-coloured in the middle ; the checks 
 are of a pale biown ; the hind part of the head, and 
 the neck boili before and behind, arc white , the bread 
 and back are of a deep chocolate colour ; the four mid- 
 dle feathers of ihc tail are blat k, and two of them 
 near four in hes longer than the others, which arc 
 white ; the legs dufky. Thefe birds breed in the mofh 
 northern parts of the world , and only vilit the Britifli 
 coafts in the fevered winters. It breeds in Hudfon's Bay 
 and Greenland, among the ilones and grafs, making 
 its nefl, like the eider, with the down of its own 
 breafl, which is equal in value 10 that of the eider, if 
 it could be got in equ.d quantity ; but the fpecies is 
 fcarcer. It lays five eggs ; fwims and dives admira- 
 bly ; and feeds on Ihcll lilh, which it gets in very deep 
 water. It flics irregularly, fometimes fliowing its 
 back, fometimes its belly. It continues in Greenland 
 the whole year, in unfrozen places ; but there are fea- 
 fons fo very fevere, as at times to force them towards 
 the fouth. Thofc which breed between Lapland and 
 the polar circle, are often driven into Sweden and 
 the neighbourhood of Petcrfburgh : tliofe from the 
 coafl of the Icy fea, aslowaslat. 55; but on the fet- 
 ting in of frort, they retire dill further fouth, unlefs 
 where fome open fpots remain in the rivers. They vi- 
 fit the freflt-watcr lakes in the Orkneys, in Oflobcr, 
 and continue there till April. At fun-fet they arc 
 feen, in great flocks, returning to and from the bays, 
 where they frequently pafs the night, and make fucli 
 a noife as to be heard fome miles in frofly weather. 
 
 27. The fcrina, pochard, or red-headed wigeon of 
 Ray, has a lead-coloured bill : the head and neck arc 
 of a bright gay colour : the bread and part of the 
 back where it joins the neck are black : the coverts of 
 the wings, the fcapulars, back, and iidcs under the 
 wings, are of a pale grey, elegantly marked with nar- 
 row lines of black : the tail confifts of twelve fliort fea- 
 thers of a deep grey colour : the legs arc lead colour- 
 ed ; and the irides of a bright yellow, tinged with red. 
 The head of the female is of a pale reddilh brown. 
 In England thefe birds frequent the fens in the win- 
 ter feafon, and are carried to the London markets 
 fometimes in confiderable numbers, where they arc 
 known by tlie name of Dun Birds, and are edeemcd 
 excellent eating. In winter, they pafs pretty far 
 to the fouth, being found in Egypt, about Cairo. 
 
 They 
 
 Abm.
 
 ANA 
 
 [ <57i ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anai. They come into France the end of Oflobcr in fniall 
 ^^' ' flocks, from 20 to 40 ; and arc found in Carolina in 
 winter. They feed on fniall rifli and ihtlls. Their 
 flight is rapid and flrong ; but the flocks form no par- 
 ticular fhapc in flying. 
 
 28. The fjuerquedula, gargancy, or firft teal of Al- 
 drovandus, has a green fpot on the wings, and a white 
 line above the eyes. It frequents the frelh waters of 
 Europe. In many places it is called \\\K.f:ivn'iir-teal. 
 
 29. The crcca, or common teal, has a green fpot 
 on the wings, and .1 white line both above and below 
 the eyes. It is of a fniall lize, only 14 inches in 
 lengiji. The teal is frequent in the London markets 
 along with the wild duck. It is met with in Dud- 
 dingllon-loch, a frelh-water lake, within a mile of K- 
 dinburgh. In France it flays throughout the year, 
 and makes a iicU in April among the ruflies, on the 
 edges of ponds ; it is compofed of the tenderefl Aalks 
 of thcni, with the addition of tlie pith, and a quantity 
 of feathers. The nefl is of a large (ize, and placed 
 in the water, fo as to rife and fall with it. The eggs 
 are tlie lizeof thofe of a pigeon, of a dirty white, mark- 
 ed with fmall hazel fpots. It is faid tofeedon thegrafs 
 and weeds which grow on the edges of the ponds which 
 it frequents, as well as the feeds of the rulhes ; it will 
 alio eat fmall filh. The flcfli is accounted excellent. 
 It is found to the north as high as Iceland ; and is 
 mentioned as inhabiting the Cafpian fea to the fouth. 
 
 30. The hillrionica, or dufky fpotted duck of Ed- 
 wards, is of a brown colour, variegated with white and 
 blue ; it has a double line on the cars and temples ; 
 the collar is white, and there is a white llreakoii the 
 neck. It inhabits from Car<ilina to Greenland : inthc 
 laft it frequents, during fummer, the rapid rivers, 
 and the moll Ihady parts ; neflling on the banks, a- 
 niong the low fhrubs. It fwimsand dives admirably. 
 In winter it feeksthe open lea, flies high and fwift- 
 ly, and is very clamorous. It feeds on ihell-rilh, fpawn, 
 and the larv* of gnats. Is found in Iceland, and as 
 low as Sondmor. It is common from the lake Baikal 
 to Kamtfchatka ; and breeds there, as well as every 
 where elfe, about the mofl: rocky and rapid torrents. 
 
 31. The minuta, or little white and brown duck of 
 Edwards, is of a greyilh colour, with white ears, and 
 the prime feathcrsof the wings blackilh. This and the 
 former, according to Latham, are found both on the 
 Old and new continents. On the flrfl, it is fecR as far 
 fouth as the lake Baikal, and from thence to Kamt- 
 fchatka, particularly up the river Ochotlka ; alfo in 
 Iceland, and as low as Sondmor. In America, it is 
 found from Carolina to Newfoundland, and Hudfon's 
 Bay ; alfo in Greenland, where it frequents, during 
 fummer, bays and rivers, efpeeially near their mouths, 
 and is a very noify fpecies. It is fond of ihady places, 
 and makes its lufl on the fltorc among the flirubs. 
 Its food is fmall flicUs, eggsof filhes, and particularly 
 the larvx of gnats. It fwims well, even in the moll 
 rapid flreams; and dives to admiration : it likewifc 
 flies fwifi, and to a great height : from whicli cir- 
 cumflanccs, it is not ciily taken. Late navigators 
 met with it at Aoonala'llika. It is pretty frequent in 
 the fmall rivulets of Hudfon's Hay, about 90 miles in- 
 land ; Icldom in large rivers. It lays loor more white 
 eggs, like thofc of the pigeon, on the grafs ; and the 
 young brood fpcckled in a very pretty maimer. It 
 migrates fouth iu autumn. 
 
 32. The bofchas, common wild-duck of Ray, or 
 mallard; the intermediate tail-feathers of the drake arc 
 turned backward, and the bill is flrait. It frequents 
 the lakes of different countries, and feeds upon frogs 
 and feveral forts of infcets — The wild-ducks pair in 
 the fpring : build their ntlls among rufhcs near the 
 water, and lay from 10 to 16 eggs. The female is a 
 very artful bird ; and does not always make the nefl 
 clofc to the water, but frequently at a good dillancc 
 from it ; in which cafe the duck will take the young 
 in its beak or between its legs. It is known fometimes 
 to lay the eggs in a high tree, in adefcrted magpie's 
 or crow's nelt. Atmoultiiiff-iime, when they cannot 
 fly, they are caught in gra^c numbers. They abound 
 greatly in Lincolnlhire, the great magazine of wild- 
 fowl in Great Britain ; where prodigious numbers arc 
 taken annually in the Decoys. Birds with flat bills, 
 that find their food by groping, have three pair ot 
 nerves that extend to the end of their bills : thefc 
 nerves are remarkably confpicuoiis in the head and bill 
 of the wild-duck, and, are larger than thofeof agoofc 
 or any other bird yet known : this is the reafon they 
 
 grope for food more than any other bird whatever 
 
 The common tame fpecies of ducks take their origin 
 from thefc, and may be traced to it by unerring cha- 
 rafters. The drakes, howfoevcr they vary in colours, 
 always retain the curled feathers of the tail, and both 
 fexes the form of the bill, of the wild kind. Nature 
 fports in the colours of all domeflic animals ; and for 
 a wife and ufeful end, that mankind may the more 
 readily diftinguifh and claim thcirrefpcdivc property. 
 
 In France this fpecies is not often fcen, except in 
 winter; appearing in Oiflobcr, and going north in 
 fpring. They are caught in various manners ; among 
 the rcfl, in decoys, as in England ; the chief place for 
 which is Picardy, where prodigious numbers arc ta- 
 ken, particularly on the river Somme. It is alfo cuf- 
 tomary there to wait for the flocks palFingover certain 
 known places, and tiie fportfman, having a wicker 
 cage, containing a quantity of tame birds, lets out one 
 at a time, at a convenient feafon, which enticing the 
 palFcngers within gunlhot, five or lix are often killed 
 at once by an expert markfman. They arc now and 
 then taken alio by a hook baited with a bit of iheep's 
 lights, which fwimming on the water, the bird fwal- 
 lows the bait, and with it the hook. Various other 
 means of catching dneksand geefe are peculiar to cer- 
 tain nations ; of which one feems worth mentioning 
 from its fingularity : The perfon wifliing to take thefc, 
 wades into the water up to the chin, and having his 
 head covered with an empty calabaih, approaches the 
 place where the ducks are ; when they, not regard- 
 ing an objeill of this fort, fuft'er the man freely to mix 
 with the flock ; after which he has only to pull them 
 by the legs under the water, one after anoiher, till 
 he is fatislicd ; returning as unfufpeded by the re- 
 mainder as when he tint came among them. This 
 method is frequently put into praclice on the river 
 Ganges, ufmg the earthen velfcls of the Gentoos in- 
 llead of thecalabalhes : thefc yeifclsare what thcGcn- 
 toos boil their rice in, and are called Kiitcharce pots 
 (they likewife make a dilh for the tables in them, 
 w-liich goes by the fame name) : after thefc are once 
 ufcd tliey look upon them as denied, and in courfc 
 throw them into the river as ufclcfs ; and the duck- 
 takers find them convcaicut for their purpofe, as the 
 
 ducks. 
 
 Am
 
 ANA 
 
 L 672 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Anat. ducks, from conftaiitly feeing the vcffcls float down the 
 * ' lUcani, look upon thcni as objetls of lull as little re- 
 gard as a calabalh. The above, or funic luch nicihod, 
 is alfo praetifcd in China as well as in India. 1 he 
 Chinefc, however, tlioiigh they make great ufe of 
 ducks, do not prefer the wild fort, being in general 
 extremely fond of tame ones : and it is faid that the 
 major part of thefc are hatched by artificial heat ; the 
 eggs, being laid in boxes of fand, arc placed on a brick 
 hearth, to which is given a proper heat during the 
 time required for hatching. The ducklings arc fed 
 with little craw-fiflics and cr.'.bs, boiled and cut fniall, 
 and afterwards mixed with boiled riie ; and in about a 
 fortnight Ihift for thcnifelves, when the Chinefe pro- 
 vide them an old flepniother, who leads (hem where 
 ihey arc to find provender for themfelves ; being firll 
 put on board a fampane or boat, which is dellined for 
 their habitation, and from which the whole flock, oft- 
 teii to the amount of 300 or 400, go out to feed, and 
 return at command. This method is uled nine months 
 out of the twelve (for in the colder months, it does not 
 fucceed ; and is fo far from a novelty, that it may be 
 every where fccn ; but more efpecially about the time 
 of cutting the rice and gleaning the crop, when the 
 mafters of the duck fampanes row up and down the ri- 
 ver according to the opportunity of procuring food, 
 which is found in plenty, at the tide of ebb, on the 
 rice plantations, as they are overflowed at high water. 
 It is curious to fee how the ducks obey their mafter ; 
 for fome thoufunds, belonging to ditierent boats, will 
 feed at large on the fame fpot, and on a fignal given 
 will follow their leader to their rcfpcdive famp-ines, 
 
 OjhtcXj y;\^\■^Q^^^ a ftransrer beiup; found amontrthem*. This 
 
 y»yage, i. 
 
 is flill more exiraordinary, if wc conlidcr the number 
 
 I94.ii.255. of inhabited fampanes on the Tigris, fiippnftdto beno 
 Icfs than 40,000, which arc moored in rows clofe to 
 each other, with a narrow pad'age at intervals for boats 
 topafsupand down the river. TheTigris,atCanton, 
 is fomewhat wider than the Thames at London, and the 
 whole river is there covered in this manner for the ex- 
 tent of at Icafl a mile. Sec Cook's laft toyagt',m. 443. 
 
 53. The galcriculata, or Chinefe teal of Edwards, 
 has a hanging creft ; and on the hinder part of the 
 back, on both lidcs, there is a crooked, fiat, elevated 
 feather ; the crefl is green and red ; and the back is 
 brown, and fpotled with blue ; the ereft feathers on 
 the back arc red and blunt ; one edge of the inmofl 
 wing-feather, when the wings arc flint, is railed over 
 the back, and is red, and like a fickle before. This 
 moft lingular and elegant fpecies is a native of China 
 and Japan, where it is kept by the inhabitants for the 
 fake of its beauty. It is not near fo common in China 
 as many other kinds, or perhaps they are politically 
 held dear to the European purchal'crs ; they are fre- 
 quently expofed 10 falc at Canton in cages, and the 
 common price is from fix 10 ten dollars per pair : they 
 are not unfrequcntly carried to England alive ; but 
 require care, as they ftem more tender than our fpe- 
 cies. Attempts have been made to breed them in 
 England, but without faccefs, though they are familiar 
 enough. The bird is known in Japan by the name of 
 K'lmnodfui. The Englifli in China give it the name 
 oimandarhi d:ick. 
 
 34. The fponfa, or fummer-duck of Catefliy, is a 
 moft elegant fpecies. It has a depending green crcll, 
 variegated witli blue and while ; the back is likewife 
 
 variegated with blue and white ; the breaft is grey, and 
 fpottcd with white ; and the throat is white. It in- 
 habits ^iCxico, and fomcofthe Weft-India illcs, mi- 
 grating in the fumnier feafun as far north as 40 de- 
 grees, or a little beyond. It appears at New-York ear- 
 ly in the fpriiig, and breeds there ; making its ueit in 
 the decayed hollows oftrccs,orfuchashavc been made 
 by woodpeckers, and often between the forks of the 
 branches , and when the young arc hatched, the mo- 
 ther takes them on her back to the water. The defli 
 is much ellccmed. This is the fpecies, the neck of 
 which the natives of Louiliana ufe to ornament their 
 pipes or calumets of peace with ; and at the laft- 
 named place it is found throughout tlie year. 
 
 3J. The aborea, or black-billed whiUling duck of 
 Edwards, is of a reddifli brown colour, with a fort of 
 crefton the head ; the belly is fpottcd wiih black and 
 white. It isa native of America. Sloane informs us, 
 that this duck perches on trees ; that it is about 20 
 inches long from the end of the bill to the point of 
 the tail ; and that it makes a kind of whiftling noifc, 
 from which circumftance it has received its name. 
 
 36. The fuligiila, or tufted duck of Ray, has a 
 hanging creft, a black body, and the wings and belly 
 fpottcd with white. This fpecies is found in Europe 
 as far as Norway. In the winter months it is not un- 
 frequent in England ; being met within the markets 
 in that feafon, and is much efteemed. It is common 
 alfo throughout the Ruffian empire, going northward 
 to breed. Is frequent in Kanufchatka. The male dif- 
 appears during the incubation of the female. 
 
 There are 62 other fpecies enumerated by orintho- 
 logifts ; the whole number hitherto dcfcribed being 
 98. 
 
 ANASARCA, a fpecies of dropfy. See Medi- 
 cine. 
 
 ANASSUS, or An ax us (anc. geog.), ariver in the 
 territory of Venice, (Pliny); wow the i iave, which 
 riling from the mountains of Tyrol, not far from the 
 borders of Carinthia, runs from north to fouth, thro' 
 the territories of Cadorina, Belluno, Feltre, and, af- 
 ter running from weft to eaft, through Trevigi, falls 
 into the Adriatic, 13 miles to the iouth-eaft of Ve- 
 nice. 
 
 ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyficians, 
 for a riling up to go tollool. It alfo lignities the paf- 
 fage of any humour, when expelled from one part, 
 and obliged to remove to another. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. emperor of the eaft, fuccceded 
 Zcno in theyear 491, and was inaugurated that fame 
 year on April the nth. The Manichcans and Arians 
 were greatly in hopes of being fupported by the new 
 emperor; the fornur becaufc his mother was their 
 friend, and favoured their feet ; the latter becaufc 
 the emperor's uncle wab of theiropinion : butif Ana- 
 ftalius did not perfccute them (as we do not find he 
 ever did), yet it does not appear ihjt he fupported ei- 
 tlicrof thefc fee^s. But in order to maintain the peace 
 of the church, upon which the tranquility of the Hate 
 very much depended, he declared, that fuch bilhops 
 orothcr clergymen whofliould diftiirb the public tran- 
 quility, by maintaining with too much heat cither fide 
 of the qucllion for or againA the Council of Chalcedon, 
 fliould be deprived of their benefices. Accordingly 
 the difputes concerning Eutychianifm running to a 
 very great height, and Euphemius being deeply con- 
 cerned
 
 ANA [6 
 
 A'laftafius. eerncd in them, the emiicror expelled him from his fee, 
 
 ' ^ ' and chafe Maccdoniiis in his Itcad. Tht liaired which 
 
 theditfcrciu parties eiittfrtaincd againll one another oc- 
 calioiicd often fuch tiitnults and fcdiiions at Conftanii- 
 noplc, as threatened the life of the emperor himfclf; 
 who, to keep tlic people in awe, onlcrcd that the go- 
 vernor of the city (hould be prcfcii at all church-af- 
 fcmbliesand p.ibiic proceliions. This was foniiich the 
 niorenecclkry, bcca.ifc thcfe tumults were chiefly oc- 
 cadoncd by a kind of doxology or fliort hymn which 
 ufed to be fung at divine fervice. This doxology con- 
 iifled only of the following words, «>/•.( o 0«ot, *yii>t 
 (;^c/foc, «>-/o,- a3-avaToe, ihatis, '* Holy God, holy the 
 powerful, holy iheinnuortal ;" forwhich reafonit was 
 cMcd Tfi(rxyi<,<,Tri/iigt//i, " three times holy ;" be- 
 caufc the word hojji was therein three times repeated. 
 The orthodox ufed to ling that hymn without any ad- 
 dition, or by adding only to it, a-yix Tfi«c, o.oitof >i/nat, 
 i. e. " Holy Trinity, have mercy upon us :" But Pe- 
 ter the Fuller, bilhop of Antioch, pretended to add 
 thefe words to it, viz. o tiufad-ut /< »/x«, i. e. " who 
 haft been crucified for us ;" and as it was fuppofed that 
 the firft holy related to the Father, the ftcond to the 
 Son, the third to the Holy Ghoft, and adding thcfe 
 words, w.ho kajl ban crucified for us, fecmcd to infi- 
 nuate that the whole confubllaniial Trinity had fufter- 
 ed ; for which reafon the orthodox were rcfolved not 
 to admit this addition. Anaftafius dcfiring to have 
 thofe fatal words added to that hymn vvlicnever i t fhould 
 be fung at Conllantinople, this occalioncd a terrible 
 fcdition in the city, as though the very fundamentals 
 of Chriflianity had been overthrown. Maccdoniusand 
 his clergy are faid to have raifcd that fedition, which 
 came to fuch a height that the emperor himfelf was 
 obliged to come, without his crown on his head, and 
 in a very humble manner, to the Circus, where he de- 
 clared to the people that he was very williing to quit 
 the imperial throne j but he told them at the fame 
 time, that they could not all enjoy the fovereign power, 
 which docs not admit of a panncrihip ; and that one 
 perfon ftill muft govern them if he refigned the crown. 
 This difcourfc had fuch a power over the raging mul- 
 titude, that, as if they had been divinely infpircd, 
 they immediately requcfted the emperor to take up his 
 crown, promifing that they would be quiet and obe- 
 dient for the future. Anaftafms is by the Popilh wri- 
 ters reprefenied as a great perfccutor of the orthodox, 
 becaufe he banilhed and deprived Euphemius and Ma- 
 ccdonius ; but they (hould prove that thefe two pre- 
 lates had been unjuftly banilhed, which is a very hard 
 tafk. As to his civil government, it is confelfcd that 
 at the beginning of his reign he (lie wed himfelf a very 
 good prince ; he eafed the people of a very heavy tax 
 called Chryfargyrtim, under which they had groaned 
 for a long time ; he prohibited the fighting with wild 
 lieafls ; he raifcd fcvcral buildings ; he avoided being 
 involved in dangerous wars as much as lay in his power. 
 Aiiaftalius reigned 27 years three months and tjiree 
 days, or, according to F. Pagi, wanting three days ; 
 and died July the 10th, A. C. 518, in the 88ih year 
 «)f his age. 
 
 Anastasios, furnamed 5/W/o/A<fMr/K/, a Roman 
 abbot, library-keeperof the Vatican, and one of the 
 moft learned men of the ninth century, alEAcd in 
 VoJ- I. 
 
 73 J A N A 
 
 i!i09 at the fo'.uth general council, the afts and ca- 
 nons of which he tranflitcd from the Greek into La- 
 tin. He alfo co3ipofcd the lives of Ctverjl popes, and 
 other works ; the belt edition of which is that of the 
 Vatican. 
 
 ANASTATICA, the rose of Jericho : A genus 
 of the filicalcfa order, beloi.ging to the tciradyiiaiuia 
 clafs of plants j and, in tin natural niethod, ranking 
 under the 39th order, SUiqu'.f^ . The charaders are : 
 The calyx is a pcrianthium confiding of four Icavei, 
 and perfillent : The Cjrclla ccniifts of four cruciform 
 petals : The ftamu:a confUl of lix fubulated filaments 
 the length of the calyx ; the anthera arc roundilh : 
 Thepijfillum has afmall bifidgermcn ; thcftylus u\u- 
 cronaccd and oblique ; tht llignia headed : The peri- 
 carpi:tvi\s 3 Ihort bilocular filicle, retufe, and crowned 
 on on the margin with valvulae twice as long as :hc 
 partition : The feeds arc folitary and roundilh — Of 
 this genus there arc two 
 
 Species. 1. The fyriaca, a native of Syria, is not 
 cultivated or known in Britain. 2. The hierochun- 
 tica is anative of the fandy parts of Paleftinc and the 
 Red Sea. It is a low annual plant, dividing into many 
 irregular woody branchesnear the root. Ateach joint 
 is placed a (ingle, oblong, hairy leaf ; and at the fame 
 places comeout fmall Jingle rio\vcrs,ofa whitiih green 
 colour, compofcd of four leaves placed in the form of 
 acrofs. Thefe are fucceeded by (hort wrinkled pods, 
 having four fmall horns ; thefe open into four cells, in 
 each of which is lodged a (ingle brown feed — When 
 the feeds of this plant are ripe, the branches will draw 
 up andcontraft ; fo that the whole plant forms a kind 
 of ball or globular body, which will expand on laying 
 it a fliort time in warm water. This property it retains 
 for many years, on which account it is prefcrved as a 
 curiofity by fome people. From this property the 
 monks have given it the name of Rofa Maria, pre- 
 tending that the flowers open on the night in which 
 our Saviour was born. 
 
 Culture, This plant is propagated by feeds, which 
 fliould be fown in the beginning of March, in a mode- 
 rate hot-bed in pots, in which the plants are deftgned 
 to remain. When they come up, the plants diouldbc 
 thinned, leaving them about fix inches afunder, and 
 obferving to keep them clear of weeds, which is all 
 the care they require. If the feafsn proves favourable 
 they will flower in Augull ; but unlefs the autumn 
 proves warm and dry, they will notperfeft their feeds 
 in Britain. 
 
 ANASTOMOSIS, in anatomy, the opening of the 
 mouths of velTels, in order to difcharge their contain- 
 ed fluids. It is likewife ufed for the communication of 
 two veffels at their extremities ; as the inofculatioti 
 of a vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or 
 of an artery with a vein. 
 
 ANASTOMATICS,. medicines fuppofed to have 
 the power of opening the mouths of the velfcls, and 
 promoting the circulation ; fuch as dcobftrucnt, ca- 
 thartic, and fudoritic medicines. 
 
 ANASTROPHE, inrhetoricandgrammar,denotes 
 the invcrlion of the natural order of the words : fuch 
 \S,faxa per etfcopulos, for per faxa et fcopulos. 
 
 ANASUS, or Anisus (anc. geog.) now the Ent, 
 
 a river ef Germany; which, riling on the borders of 
 
 4 0. the 
 
 !\i,-.n-,.,, 
 
 An;iliis.
 
 ANA 
 
 f 674 ] 
 
 ANA 
 
 Askthema. the territory of Saltzburg, then feparating Upper Sti- 
 
 ^— V ' ria from Upper Auflria, andwalliing the town of Ens, 
 
 lalls, at the diflance of a mile below it, into tlic Da- 
 nube, in a coiirfc from fouth to north. 
 
 ANATHEMA, among cccleltaflical writers, im- 
 ports whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided ; 
 but is mofl ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a 
 pcrlbn from the privileges of Ibcicty and communion 
 with the faithful. 
 
 The anathema differs from excommunication in the 
 circumllances of being attended with curfes and exe- 
 crations. It was praiitifed in the primitive church a- 
 gainll notorious offenders; and the form of that pro- 
 nounced by Synecius againft one Andronicus, is as 
 follows: " Let no church of God be open to Andro- 
 nicus, but let every fanduary be flnit againft him. I 
 adnionilh both private men and magiftratcs, to receive 
 him neither under their roof nor to their table ; and 
 pricrts more efpccially, that they neither converfc with 
 him living, nor attend his funeral when dead." 
 
 Sever. 1 councils alfo have pronounced anathemas a- 
 gainft fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the 
 faith ; and their decilions have been conceived in the 
 following form : Si quisdixtrit, ire. auathivia Jit. 
 
 There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judici- 
 ary, and the other abjuratory. The former can only 
 be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bilhop ; the 
 latter makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the 
 convert being obliged to anathematize the herefy he 
 abjures. 
 
 Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering Aoatliotk 
 or prcfent made to fomc deity, and hung up in the II 
 temple. Whenever a perfon left off his employment, '^"* "'*'*' ^ 
 it was ufual to dedicate the tools to the patron-deity of 
 the trade. Perfons, too, who had efcapcd from im- 
 minent danger, as Ihipwreck and the like, or hud 
 met with any other remarkable inftanceof good for- 
 tune, fcldom failed to teftify their gratitude by fomc 
 prcfent of this kind. 
 
 ANATHO IH, a hamlet of Paleftine, very near 
 Jerufalem (Jofcphus), about three miles and a half to 
 the north ; the ruins of which are ftill 10 be feen. It 
 was the birth-place of the prophet Jeremiah, and one 
 of the Levitical towns in the tribe of Benjamin. 
 
 ANATIFERA concha, the trivial name of a fpc- 
 cics of the lepas, a tellaceous animal. See Lepas. 
 
 ANATOCISM, Anatocismus, an ufurious con- 
 traft, wherein the interefts arifing from the principal 
 fum arc added to the principal itlclf, and inicrell cx- 
 artcd upon the whole. The word is originally Greek, 
 but ufed by Cicero in Latin ; whence it has dcfcended 
 into mo/l other languages. It comes from the prcpo- 
 lition wa, which in compofition lignifies r:i<etithn or 
 duplication, and touc, ufury. Anatocilm is what wc 
 properly called interejl ufon intircji, or comi'oiind inle- 
 rejl. This the worll kind of ufury, and has been fe- 
 verely condemned by the Roman law, as well as by 
 the common laws of molt other countries. See In- 
 
 terest. 
 ANATOLIA. 
 
 Sec Natolia. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y, 
 
 nPHE art of diffcifling, or artificially feparating and 
 •*■ taking to pieces, the differentparts of the human 
 body, in order to an cxad difcovery of their fituation, 
 flructure,and oeconomy. — The word isG reck, «v«Tiijuiii 
 derived from ««T(jav«, to diffcd, or feparate by cutting. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5 I. Hiflory of Anatomy , 
 
 This art feems tohavc been very ancient ; thongh 
 for a long time, known only in an imperfed manner. 
 — The firfl men who lived muft have foon acquired 
 fome notions of the ftrufture of their own bodies, par- 
 ticularly of the external parts, and of fome even of 
 the internal, fach as bones, joints, and fine ws, which 
 are expofed to the examination ofthefenfes in living 
 bodies. 
 
 This rude knowledge muft have been gradually im- 
 proved, by the accidents to which the body is expofed, 
 by the neccflitics of life, and by the various cuftoms, 
 ceremonies, and fuperfiitions, of different nations. 
 Thus, the obfervance of bodies killed by violence, at- 
 tention to wounded men, and to many difeafes, the 
 various ways of putting criminals to death, the fune- 
 ral ceremonies, and a variety of fuch things, muft have 
 fliown men every day more and more of themfelves ; 
 cfpecially as curiofity and felf-love would here urge 
 ihem powerfully to obfcrvation and reflci^ion. ' 
 
 The brute-creation having fuch an affinity to man 
 in outward form, motions, fenfcs, and ways of life ; 
 the generaiio 1 of the fpecies, and the etfcd of death 
 upon the body, being obfcrvcd to be fo nearly the 
 fame in both ; the conclufion was not only obvious, but 
 unavoidable, that their bodies were formed nearly upon 
 the fame model. And the opportunities of examining 
 the bodies of brutes were fo calily procured, indeed fo 
 neceffarily occurred in the common bufinelsof life, that 
 the huntfman in making ufc of hii prey, the prieft in 
 facriticing, the augur in divination, and, above all, the 
 butcher, or thofe who might on toft uriofity attend upon 
 his operations, muft have been daily adding to the little 
 ftock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly we find, 
 in faift, that the South-fea-illanilers,whohave been left 
 to their own obfcrvation and reafoi.ing, without the 
 affiftance of letters, have yet a confidcrable (hare of 
 rude or wild anatomical and phyfiological knowledge. 
 Dr Hunter informs us, that when Omai was in his 
 niufeum with Mr Banks, though he could not explain 
 himfelf intelligibly, they plainly faw tliat he knew the 
 principal parts of the body, and fimcthiujriikcwifc of 
 their ufcs ; and manifcfted a great curiolity or defirc. 
 of having the fun(flionsof the internal parts of the bo- 
 dy explained to him ; particularly therelaiive funclions 
 of the twofexes, which with him feemed tobethemoft 
 interefting object of the human mind. 
 
 Wc may further imagine, that the philofophers of 
 
 the
 
 Hiftoiy. 
 
 N 
 
 clic mod early ages, that is, the men of curiolity, ob- 
 fcrvation, experience and rcfiedion, could not over- 
 look an inftance of natural organization, which was fo 
 intcrclling, and at the fame time fo wonderful, more 
 cfpecialiy fuch of ihcni as applied to the fludy and 
 cure of diftafc^. ^\'e know that phyfic was a branch 
 of philofupjiy till the age of Hippocrates. 
 
 Thus the art mull have been circumflanccd in its 
 beginning. We fiiall next fee from the teftimony of 
 hillorians and other writers, how it aitually appeared 
 as an art, from the time that writing was introduced 
 among men ; how it was improved and conveyed down 
 to us through a long ferics of ages. 
 
 Civilization, and improvements of every kind, would 
 naturally begin in fertile countries and healthful cli- 
 mates, where there would be Icifurc for refiedion, and 
 an appetite for amufement. Accordingly, writing, 
 and many other ufefuland ornamental inventions and 
 arts, appear to have been cultivated in the eaftern parts 
 of Alia long before the earlieft times that are treated 
 of by the Greek or other European writers ; and that 
 the arts and learning of thofe eaflern people were in 
 fubfequent times gradually communicated to adjacent 
 countries, cfpecialiy by the medium of traffic. The 
 culloms, fuperftiiions, and climate of eaflern coun- 
 tries, however, appear to havi; been as unfavourable 
 ta pradical anatomy, as they were inviting to the flu- 
 dy of aftronomy, geometry, poetry, and all the fofter 
 arts of peace. 
 
 Animal bodies there, run fo quickly into naufeous 
 putrefaction, that the early inhabitants mufl have 
 avoided fuch offcnlive employments, as anatomical in- 
 quiries, like their poflerity at this day. And, in Tadl, 
 it docs not appear, by the writings of the Grecians, 
 or Jews, or Pho-nicians, orof other eaflern countries, 
 thatanatomywasparticularly cultivated by any of thofe 
 eaflern nations. In tracing it backwards to its infan- 
 cy, we cannot go farther into aniiquity than the times 
 of the Grecian philofophers. As an art in the (late 
 of fome cultivation, it may be faid to have been 
 brought forth and bred up among them as a branch of 
 natural knowledge. 
 
 The jicra of philofophy, as it was called, began 
 with Thales the Milcfian being declared by a very 
 general confent of the people, the moil wife of ail 
 the Grecians, 480 years before Chrift. The philo- 
 fophers of his fchool, which was called the Ionian, 
 cultivated principally natural knowledge. Socrates, 
 the fevcnth in fuccelFion of their great teachers, in- 
 troduced the ftudy of morals, and was thence faid to 
 bring down philofophy from heaven, to make men 
 truly wife and happy. 
 
 In the writings of his fcholar and fuccclTor Plato, 
 we fee that the philofophers had carefully confidercd 
 the human body, both in its organization and func- 
 tions ; and though they had not arrived at the know- 
 ledge of the more mi'iute and intricate pans, which 
 required the fucceirive labour and attention of many 
 ages, they had made up very noble and comprehenfive 
 ideas of the fubjeil in general. The anatomical de- 
 fcripiionsof Xenophonand Platohave had t!ie honour 
 of beina; quoted by Longiniis (j xxxii.) as fpccimcns 
 of fuMiinc writing : and ihe extract from Plato is Hilt 
 more remarkable for its conuining the rudiments of 
 the circulation of the blood. "The heart (fays Plato) 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 is the centre or knot of the blood veflcls ; the fpriug 
 or foitntaia of the blood which is carried impetuoully 
 round J the blood is ihc (mbutum or food of the Hcfli ; 
 and, for the purpofcof nourilhment, the body is laid 
 out into canals, like thofe which are drawn through 
 gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a 
 fountain, to every part of the pervious body." 
 
 Hippocrates was nearlycontcmporary with the great 
 philofophers of whom we have been fpeaking, ab'iut 
 400 years before the Chrillian aera. He is faid to 
 have feparated the profcflion of philofophy and phyfic, 
 and to have been the firll who applied to phyfic alone 
 as the bulinefs of his life. He is likewil'e generally 
 fuppofed to be the firll wJio wrote uponanatomy. Wc 
 know of nothing that was written exprefsly upon the 
 fubjed before ; and the firfl anatomical dilfedion 
 which has been recorded, was made by his friend De- 
 mocritusof Abdera. 
 
 If, however, we read the works of Hippocrates with 
 impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to what 
 we now know of the human body, we mufl allow hi? 
 deferiptions to be imperfeft, incorrect, fometimes ex- 
 travagant, and often unintelligible, that of the bones 
 only excepted. He fecms to have lludied thefc with 
 more fuccefs than the other parts, and tell us that he 
 had an opportunity of feeing an human fkeleton. 
 
 From Hippocrates to Galen, who Hourilhed toward* 
 the end of the fecond century, in the decline of the 
 Roman empire, that is, in the fpace of 600 years, ana- 
 tomy was greatly improved ; the philofophers Hill con- 
 fidcriiig it as a moft curious and interelling branch of 
 natural knowledge, and the phyficians, as a principal 
 foundation of their art. Both of them, in that inter- 
 val of time, contributed daily to the common ftock, 
 by more accurate and extended obfervations, and hj 
 the lights of improving philofophy. 
 
 As thcfe two great men had applied very particu- 
 larly to the fludy of animal bodies, they not only 
 made great improvements, cfpecialiy in phyfiology, 
 but raifed the credit of natural knoivledge, and fpreaj 
 it as wide as Alexander's empire. 
 
 Fcwof.Ariftotle's writings were made public in his 
 lifetime. He atfecled to fay that they would be un- 
 intelligible to thofe who had not heard them explained 
 at his lectures: and, except the ufe which Theophraf- 
 tus made of them, they were loft to the public for 
 above 130 years after the death of Theophraftus ; and 
 at laft came out defedive from bad prcfervatioii, and 
 corrupted by men, who, without proper qualiKcati- 
 ons, prefumed to corred and fiipply what watloil. 
 
 From the time of Theophraftus, the lludy of natu- 
 ral knowledge at Athens was forever on the decline ; 
 and the reputation of the Lyceum and Academy was 
 almofl confined to the ftudies which are fubfervient 
 to oratory and public fpeaking. 
 
 The other great inllituiioii for Grecian education, 
 was at Alexandria in Egypt. The firll Ptolemies, bo-!i 
 from their love of literature, and to give true and per- 
 manent dignity to their empire, and to Alexander's 
 favourite city, fct up a grand fchool in the palace itfclf, 
 with a mufcum and library, which, we may fay, has 
 been the moll famed in the world. Anatomy, among 
 other fciences, was publicly taught ; and the two dif- 
 tinguilhed anatomills were Eralillratus the pupil and 
 friend of Theophrallus, and Herophilas. Their vo- 
 ^ ^2 luminoui 
 
 675
 
 676 
 
 H ATOM Y. 
 
 lamii'.oos works ai'c <11 loA ; but ilicy lie quoted by 
 Galen ilnioft in every f^ge. rhcfcpiotclFors were pro- 
 bably liie firft who were auchorized to diflcdl human 
 bodies ; a peculiarity which marks ftrongly the philo- 
 fopliitil uiagr.ariiiiity of fhc lirJt Ptolemy, and (ixcs 
 a great xn in the hiHory of anatomy. And it was, 
 no douUt, from this panicular advantage which the 
 Alcxaniirians had above all others, that their fchool 
 not only gained, but for many centuries preferved, the 
 firft reputation for medical ei'.ucation. Ammianus Mar- 
 ccllinus, who lived about 650 years after the fchools 
 were let up, fays, they were fo famous in his time, 
 that it was enough to Iccun; credit to any phylician, if 
 he could fay he had fluditd at Alexandria. 
 
 Hcrophilus has been laid to have anatomized 700 
 bodies. We mud allow for exaggeration. Isay, it 
 was faid, that both he and Jiraliltratus made it a coni- 
 mon pradice to open living bodies, that they might 
 difcover the more fecrct fprings of life. But this, no 
 doubt, was only a vulgar opinion, riling from the pre- 
 judices of mankind ; andaccoroingly, without any good 
 reafou, fuch tales have been told of modern anato- 
 inifts, and have been believed by the vulgar. 
 
 Among the Romans, though it is probahle they had 
 phyl'iciansand furgeons from the foundation of the ci- 
 ty, yet we have no account of any ol ihcfc applying 
 thenifelves to anatomy for a very long time. Archa- 
 gathus was the firft Greek phylician eilablift-cd in 
 Rome, and he was baniflicd the city on account of the 
 fcverity of his operations — Alclcpiades, who flourilh- 
 cd in Rome loi years after Archagathus, in the time 
 of Fompey, attained fuch a high repuiation as to be 
 ranked in the lame clafs with Ilijipocratcs. He fcem- 
 ed to have fomc notion of the air in relpiration aifting 
 by its weight ; and in accounting for digeftion, he fup- 
 pofed the food to be no farther changed than by a com- 
 minution into extremely fmall parts, which being dif- 
 iributcd to the feveral parts of the body, isafTimilated 
 tothenaiureof each. One Csllius, commonly thought 
 to be a difciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the right 
 fide of the body becoming paralytic on hurting the 
 left fide of the brain, in the fame manner as has been 
 done by the modems, viz. fron\ the croffing of the 
 nerves from the right to the left (ide of the brain. 
 
 From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond century, 
 pliyficians fecm to have been greatly encouraged at 
 Home ; and, in tlie writings of Cclfus, Rufus, Pliny, 
 Coclius, Aurelianus, and Ar£ttcus,wc find feveral ana- 
 tomical obfervations, but molily very fuperficial and 
 inaccurate. Towards the end of the fecond century 
 lived Claudius Gallenus Perganuis, whofc name is fo 
 well known in the medical world. He applied himfelf 
 particularly to tlie ftudy of anatomy, and did more in 
 that way than all that went before him. He feems, 
 however, to have been at a great lols for human fub- 
 jec^s to operate upon ; and therefore his defcriptions of 
 the parts are moflly taken from brute animals. His 
 works contain the fullcft hiftory of anatomifts, and 
 the moft complete fyftcm of the fcicncc, to be met 
 with any where before him, or for feveral centuries 
 after; fo that a numberof paflagcs in them were reck- 
 oned abfoluttly unintelligible for many ages, until ex- 
 plained by the difcoveries of fucceeding anatomifts. 
 
 About the end of the fourth century, Nimefius, bi- 
 (liep of Emifla, wrote a treajife on the nature of man. 
 
 Hiftory, 
 
 iu which it is faid were contained two celebrated mo- 
 dern difcoveries ; the one, the ufcs of the bile, boafl- 
 cd of by Sylvius de la Boe ; and the other, the circu- 
 lation of the blood. This laft, however, is proved by 
 Dr Friend, in his Hiftory of Phyfic, p. 229. to be 
 falfcly afcribcd to this author. 
 
 The Roman empire beginning now to be opprcffed 
 by the barbarians, and funk ingrofsfuperftitioii, learn- 
 ing of all kinds decreafed ; and when the empire was 
 totally overwhelmed by ihofc barbarous nations, every 
 appearance of fcicncc \\as almoft cxtinguill'.td in Jiu- 
 rope. The only remains of it were among the Ara- 
 bians in Spain and in Afia. — The Saracens who came 
 into Spain, deli roycd at Mrft all the Greek books which 
 theVandals had Ipared : but though their government 
 was in a conllant ftruggle and tlut'tuation during 800 
 years before thty V ere driven out, they received a 
 tafte lor learning from their countrymen of the call; 
 feveral of their princes encouraged liberal lUidies ; 
 public fchools were let up at Cordova, Toledo, and 
 other towns, and tranllations of the Greeks into the 
 Arabic, were univerlally in the hands of their teachers. 
 
 Thus was the learniiigol the Grecians transferred 
 to the Arabians. But thoiij;h tluy had fo good a foun- 
 dation to build upon, this art was never improved 
 while they were mallei;s of the world : for they were 
 fatisfied with commenting upon Galen ; and fecm to 
 have made no diliti5tions of human bodies. 
 
 AbdoUdiph, who was himfelf a teacher of anatomy, 
 a man eminent in his time (at and before 120;?) for his 
 learning and curiofity ; a great traveller, who had been 
 bred at Bagdad, and had fecn many of the great cities 
 and principal places for lludy in ilie baraccn empire ; 
 who had a favourable opniionof original obfcrvaiion, 
 in oppodtion to book learning ; who bololy correcled 
 fome of Galen's errors, and was perfuaded that many 
 more might be detedfed ; this man, we fay, never 
 made or faw, or feemed to think of a human dilFec- 
 tion. He difcovered Galen's errors in the ofleology, 
 by going to burying-grounds, with his fludents and 
 others, where he examined and demonftrated the 
 bones j he earneftly recommended that method of ftu- 
 dy, in preference even to the reading of Galtn, and 
 thought that many farther improvements might be 
 made ; yet he feemed not to have an idea that a frefli 
 fubjeft might be dilTcdcd with that view. 
 
 Perhaps the Jewifli tenets, which the Mahometans 
 adopted, about unclcanlincfs and pollution, might pre- 
 vent their handling dead bodies ; or tlitir oj-iuion of 
 wiiat was fuppofcd to pafs between an angel and the 
 dead perfon, might make them think difturbing the 
 dead highly facrilegious. Such, however, as Arabian 
 learning was, for many ages together there was hard- 
 ly any other in all the weftcrn countries of Europe. It 
 was introduced by the cftablilTiment of the Saracens in 
 Spain in 711, and kept its ground till the reftoration 
 of learning in the end of the i{th century. The ftate 
 of anatomy in Europe, in the times of Arabian influ- 
 ence, may be fecn by readiuga very lliort fyftcm of ana- 
 tomy drawn up by Mundinus, in the year 1515. It 
 was extracted principally from what the Arabians had 
 preferved of Galen's dodrine ; and, rude as it is, in 
 that age, it wasjudged to be fomaftcrly a performance, 
 that it was ordered by a public decree, that it Ihouid 
 be read in all the fchools of Italy; and it actually con- 
 
 linucd
 
 Hiftory. ANA! 
 
 tiaued to be almod the only book which wts read up- 
 on the fubjcit for above 200 years. Cortefius gives 
 him the credit of bciiijj the great rcllorcr of anatomy, 
 and the tirlt who dilicctcd human bodies among the 
 moderns. 
 
 A general prejudice a;^ainftdiirc(?tion, however, pre- 
 vailed till the i-jth century. The emperor Charles V. 
 ordered a coiil'ultaiiou to be held by the divines of Sa- 
 lamanca, in order to determine whether or not it was 
 lawful in point of confciencc to diliect a dead body. 
 In Mufcovy, till very lately, both anatomy and the 
 ufe of Ikcletons were torbidden, the hrft as inhuman, 
 and the latter as fubfcrvient to witchcraft. 
 
 In the l)ejrinuingof the 15th century, learning re- 
 vided confidcrably in Europe, and particularly phyfic, 
 by means of copies of the Greek authors brouy,ht from 
 thefack of Conllantinople; after which ihc number of 
 anatomills and anacomical books increafed to a prodi- 
 gious degree. — The Europeans becoming thus polFef- 
 fedof the antient Greek fathers of medicine, were for 
 along time fo much occupied in correcting the copies 
 they could obtain, ftudying the meaning, and com- 
 nicniiug upon them, that they attempted nothing of 
 ihcir own, cfpecially in anatomy. 
 
 And hire the late Dr Hunter introduces into the 
 annals of this art, a genius of the hrll rate, Leonardo 
 da Vinci, who had been formerly overlooked, becaufe 
 he svas of another profelCoa, and becaufe he publilhed 
 nothing upon the fubjeil. He is confidered by the 
 Dortor as by far the bell anatomiftanu payliologill of 
 his time ; and was certainly the tirll man we know of 
 who introduced the practice of making anatomical 
 drawings. 
 
 Vaflare, in his lives of the painters, fpcaksof Leo- 
 nardo thus, after telling us that he had compofed a 
 book of the anatomy of a horfe, for his own Ihidy : 
 " He afterwards applied himfclf with more diligence 
 to the human anatomy; in which fludy he reciprocally 
 received and communicated aflillance to Marc. Anto- 
 nio della Torre, an excellent philofopher, who then 
 read leifturcsin Favia,and wrote upon thisfubjcijf; and 
 who was the tirfl, asl have heard, who began to illul- 
 trate medicine from the doctrine of Galen, and to give 
 true light to anatomy, which till that time had been 
 involved in clouds of darkncfs and ignorance. In this 
 he availed himfclf exceedingly of thegenius and labour 
 of Leonardo, who made a book of iiiidies, drawn with 
 red chalk, and touched with a pen, with great diligence, 
 of fuch fubjecis as he had himfelf diifcded ; where he 
 made all the bones, and to ihofe he joined, in their or- 
 der, all the nerves, and covered tliem with theniufcles. 
 And concerning ihofc, from part to part, he wrote re- 
 marks in letters of an ugly form, wliich are written by 
 the left hand, backwards, and not to be underliood but 
 by thofe who know the method of reading them ; for 
 they are not to be read without alooking-glafs. Of 
 thtfc pnpcrs of the human anatomy, there is a great 
 part in the poflellion olM. Francefcoda Melzo, a Mi- 
 lanefc gentleman, who, in the time of Leonardo, was a 
 moll beautiful boy, and much beloved by him, as he is 
 now a beautiful and genteel old man, who reads thofe 
 writings, and carefully preferves them, as precious re- 
 li6ls. together with the portrait of Leonardo, of happy 
 memory. It appears impoinble that that divine fpirit 
 ihould rcafon fo well upon the arteries, andmulclcs, 
 
 ' o M y. 
 
 and nerves, and veins; and with fuch diligeucc of 
 every thing, &c. Uc." 
 
 Thofe very iLiawings and the writings are happily 
 found to be prefcrved in his Britannic Majcfly's great 
 collection of original drawings, where the Doctor was 
 permitted to examine them ; and his feiitimeius upon 
 the occalion he thus exprelies : •' I cxpcdcd to fee lit- 
 tle more than fuch defigns in anatomy, as might be 
 iifeful to a painter in his own profeflion ; but I favv, 
 and indeed with afloniriiment, that Leonardo had been 
 a general and a deep Andeni. When 1 conlider what 
 pains he has taken upon every part of the body, the 
 fuperiority of his univerfal genius, his particular ex- 
 cellence ill mechanics and hydraulics, and the aiteiui- 
 on with which fuch a man would examine and fee ob- 
 jeifs which he was to draw, I am fully perfuaded that 
 Leonardo was the bcft anatomill at tliat time in the 
 world. We mud give the 15th century the credit of 
 Leonardo'^ anatomical iludies, as he was Si years of 
 age at the clofe of that century." 
 
 In the beginning of the 1 6th century, Achillinus and 
 Benediftus, but particularly Bcrengarius and Mada, 
 followed out the improvement at anatomy in Italy, 
 where they taught it, and publilhed upon the fubjed. 
 Thcfc hrfl improvers made fome difcoveries horn 
 their own dilFeitions ; but it is not iurprifing that they 
 Ihould have been dilfident of themfclves, and have 
 followed Galen alnioit blindly, when his authority 
 had been fo long cflablilhed, and when the enihuli- 
 afm for Greek authors was riling to fuch a pitch. 
 
 Soon alter this, we may fay about the year i J40, 
 the great Vefalius appeared. He was ftiuiious, labo- 
 rious, and ambitious. Kroin BrnlTcls, the place of his 
 birth, he went to Louvain, and thence to Paris, where 
 anatomy was not yet making aconliderablc hgure, and 
 then to Louvain to teach ; from which place, very for- 
 tunately for his reputation, he was called to Italy, 
 where he met with every opportunity that fuch a ge- 
 nius for anatomy could dclire, that is, books, iubjetls, 
 and excellent draughifmcn. He was e<|ually laborious 
 in reading the ancients, and in diiieciing bodies. And 
 in making the comparifon, he could not but fee, that 
 there was great room for improvement, and th.ii many 
 of Galen's licfcripiions were erroneous. When he was 
 but a young man, he publilhed a noble fyllem of ana- 
 tomy, ilhillrati'd with a great number of elegant Ji- 
 gures. — In this work he found fo many occaiions of 
 coirecfting Galen, tliat his contempoiftrics, partial to 
 antiquity, 3ndjealousofliisrepiii3liuM,eoni;)laincd (hat 
 he carried his turn for improvement auvl criticifiiis to 
 licentioufnefs. The fpirit of oppolitioii and cniulaiion 
 was prtfently roufcd ; and Sylvius in Kraiict, Cohim- 
 bus, Fallopius, and Euftachius in Italy, who were all 
 in high anatomical reputation about the middle of (lii^ 
 l6th century, endeavoured to defend Galen at the ex- 
 pence of Vefalius. In their difputes iliey made their 
 appeals to the human body : and thus in a ffw years 
 thcart was greatly improved. And Vefalins bcingde- 
 tectcd in the very fault which he condemned in Galen, 
 10 wit, dcfcribing from the dilleCifions of brutes, and 
 not of the iiuman body, it expofed fo fully that blun- 
 der of ilie older anatomiAs, that in fuccceding times 
 there has been little rcafon for fuch compl.iini — Be- 
 fides the alvive, hr publilhed feveral otbcr anatomical 
 treatjfes. He has been particularly ferviceablc by im- 
 
 poiiiig 
 
 677
 
 678 
 
 A N A 1 
 
 pofing names on the mufclcs, moft of which arc retain- 
 ed to this day. Formerly they were diftinguilhcd by 
 numbers, which were diti'crcnily ajijilicd by alinoll 
 every author. 
 
 In 1 56 1, Gabriel Fallopius, profefTor of anatomy 
 at Padua, publillied a ircatifc of anatomy under the 
 tnXc oiOhfirvatio'iis /inatotitic^t. This was dcligncd as 
 a fupplcmcnt to Vclalius ; many of whofe dcfcripiions 
 he correiils, though he always makes mention of him 
 in an honourable manner. Kallopius made many great 
 difcoverics, and his book is well worth the pcrufal of 
 every anaiomift. 
 
 In 156;, bartholomaeus Enftachius publiflicdhisO- 
 ptifciila j4iiatoviicazi Venicc.which have ever fince been 
 juilly admired for the exact ncfs of the defcriptions, and 
 the difcoverics contained in them. He publiflied after- 
 wards fomc other pieces, in which there is little of ana- 
 tomy ; but never publiflied the great work he had pro- 
 mifed, which was to be adorned with copperplates 
 reprefenting all the parts of the human body. Thcfe 
 plates, after lying buried in an old cabinet for upwards 
 of I JO years, were at lall difcovercd and publilhed in 
 the year 171 4, by Lancifi the pope's phyfici»n ; who 
 added a fliort explicatory text, becaufc Eullachius's 
 own writing could not be found. 
 
 From this time the lludy of anatomy gradually dif- 
 fufcd itfclf over Europe ; infomuch that for the lafl 
 hundred years it has been daily improving by the la- 
 bour of a number ofprofelled anatomiils almoll in 
 every country of Europe. 
 
 Wc may form a judgment about the ftateof anatomy 
 even in Italy, in the beginning of the 17th century, 
 from the information cfCortcfius.Hc had been profeflor 
 of anatomy at Bologna, and was then profelTor of medi- 
 cine at Maifana ; where, though he had a great dclire 
 to improve himfclf in the art, and to finifli a treatife 
 which he had begun on praftical anatomy, in 24 years 
 he could twice only procure an opportunity of diire(5l- 
 ing a human body, and then it was with difficulties 
 and iu hurry ; whereas he had cxpeJled to have done 
 fo, he fays, once every ysar, according to the cujlomin 
 th: famous academics of Italy. 
 
 In the very end of the i6th century, the great Har- 
 vey, as was the cuftom of the times, went to Italy to 
 fludy medicine ; for Italy was flill the favourite featof 
 the arts : And in tlic very beginning of the 1 7th cen- 
 tury, foon after Harvey's return to England, hisma- 
 fter in anatomy, Fabricius ab Aquapendcnte, publilh- 
 ed an account of the valves in the veins, which he had 
 difcovcred many years before, and no doubt taught in 
 his Icflures when Harvey attended him. 
 
 This dilcoveryevidenilyaffeiflcd the eftablifhed doc- 
 trine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from 
 the liver to all parts of the body for nourifliment. It 
 fct Harvey to work upon the ufe of the heart and vaf- 
 cular fyflcms in animals ; and in the courfe of fome 
 years he was fo happy as to difcovcr, and to prove be- 
 yond all poflibility of doubt, the circu/ation of the bUod. 
 He taught his new dodrine in his lectures about the 
 year i6i6, and printed it in 1628. 
 
 It was by far the moft important Hep that had been 
 made in the knowledge of animal bodies in any age. 
 It not only relleded ufeful lights upon what had been 
 already found out in anatomy, but alfo pointed out the 
 means of further iuvefligation. And accordingly wc 
 
 ' O M Y. Hiftory. 
 
 fee, that from Harvey to the prcfent time, anatomy 
 has been fo much improved, that we may rcafonably 
 qucllion if the ancients have been further outdone by 
 the moderns in any other branch of know ledge. From 
 one day to another there has been a conliaiii fuccellion 
 of difcoverics, relating either to the Ihucturc or func- 
 tions of oar body iand new anatomical proctlles, both 
 of invelligationanddemonftration, havebcen dailyin- 
 vented. Many parts of the body, which sserc not 
 knownin Harvey's time, have (ince then been brought 
 to ligiit : and of thole which were known, the inter- 
 nal compolition and funClions remained unexplained ; 
 and indeed nuifl have remained unexplicable without 
 the knowledge of the circulation. 
 
 Harvey's do^rine at tii ft met with confidcrablc op- 
 polilion : but in the fpacc of about 20 years it was fo 
 generally and lb warmly embraced, that it was imagi- 
 ned every thing in phylic would be explained. But 
 time and experience have taught us, that we Hill arc, 
 and probably muftlong continue to be, very ignorant; 
 and that in the fludy of the human body, and of its 
 difeafes, there will always be an cxtenlivc field for the 
 exercife of fagacity. 
 
 After the difcovery and knowledge of the circula- 
 tion of the blood, the next qucllion would naturally 
 have been about the paflage and route of the nutritious 
 part of the food or chyle from the bowels to the blood- 
 vclfels : And, by good fortune, in a few years after 
 Harvey had made his difcovery, Afcllius, an Italian 
 phyiician found out the ladcals, or vclfels which car- 
 ry the chyle from the intcllines ; and printed his ac- 
 count of them, with coloured prints, in the year 1627, 
 the very year before Harvey's book came out. 
 
 For a number of years after thefc two publications, 
 the anatomiils in all parts of Europe were daily open- 
 ing livingdogs, either to fee the laifleals or to obfervc 
 the phenomena of the circulation. In making an ex- 
 periment of tfcis kind, Pecquet in France was fortu- 
 nate enough to difcovcr the thoracic duft, or common 
 trunk of all the lafleals, which conveys the chyle into 
 the fubclavian vein. He printed his difcovery in the 
 year 1651. And now the laClcals having been traced 
 from the inteflines to the thoracic dud, and that dudt 
 having been traced to its termination in a blood-veflcl, 
 the palFagc of the chyle was completely made out. 
 
 The fame pradicc of opening living animals furnifli- 
 edoccalionsofdifcovcring the lymphatic vellels. Tliis 
 good fortune fell to the lot of Rudbec firft, a young 
 Swcdifhanatomifl; and then to Thomas Bartholine, a 
 Danilh anatomift, who was the firll who appeared in 
 print upon the lymphatics. His book came out in the 
 year 1653, that is two years after that of Pecquet. 
 And then it was very evidc.ir that they had been feen 
 before by Dr Higmore and others, who had miftaken 
 them for lai5leals. But none of the anatomiflscf thofe 
 times could make out the origin of the lymphatics, and 
 none of the phyfiologills could give a fatisfaiftory ac- 
 count of their ufe. 
 
 The circulation of the blood and the paflage of the 
 chyle having been fatisfaftorily traced out in full-grown 
 animals, the anatomifls were naturally led next to con- 
 fidcr how thcfe animal procelfts were carried on in the 
 ciiild while in the womb of the mother. Accordingly 
 the male and female organs, the appearances and con- 
 tents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated egg, and 
 
 every
 
 Hiflory. 
 
 N 
 
 every phenomenon which could illuftrate generation, 
 became the favourite fubjed, for about 30 years, with 
 the principal anatomills of Europe. 
 
 Thus it would appear to have been in theory : but 
 Dr Hunter believes, that in fadt, as Harvey's maAcr 
 Fabricius laid the foundation for thcdifcovery of the 
 circulation of the blood by teaching him the valves of 
 the veins, and thereby inviting him to confider that 
 fubject; fo Fabricius by his ledlures, and by his ele- 
 gant work Dcjormatofxlu, at deformation! ovi et puiti, 
 probably made that likewife a favourite fubjcdl with 
 Dr Harvey. But whether he took up the fubjed of 
 generation in confequencc of his difcovery of the cir- 
 culation, or was led to it by his honoured mailer Fa- 
 bricius, hcfpcntagreatdealof histime in the inquiry ; 
 and publiihed his obfervations in a book De generati- 
 ong animalium, in the year 1651, that is lix years be- 
 fore his death. 
 
 In a few years after this, Swammerdam, Van Horn, 
 Stcno, and Dc Graaf, excited great attention to the 
 fubjccl of generation, by their fuppofcd difcovery that 
 the females of viviparous animals have ovaria, that is, 
 cluHcrs of eggs in their loins, like oviparous animals ; 
 which, when impregnated by the male, are conveyed 
 into the uterus : fo that a child is produced from an 
 egg as well as a chick ; with this difference, that one 
 is hatched within, and the other without, the body of 
 the mother. 
 
 Malpighi, a great Italian genius, fome time after, 
 made confiderablc advances upon the fubject oi gene- 
 ration. He had the good fortune to be the firft wlio 
 ufed magnifying glalfes with addrefs in tracing the firfl 
 appearances in the formation of animals. He likewife 
 made many otberobfervations and improvements in the 
 mlniitta of anatomy by his microfcopical labours, and 
 by cultivating comparative anatomy. 
 
 This diitingiiilhed anatomill gave the firftpublic fpc- 
 cimen of his abilities, by printing a difltrtation on the 
 lungs anno 1661 ; a period fo remarkable for the Hudy 
 of nature, that it would be injuflicc to pafs it without 
 particular notice. 
 
 At the fame time flouri(hed Laurentius Bellinus at 
 Florence, and was the firft who introduced mathemati- 
 cal reafoning in phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli pub- 
 Lfhcd .! treatife De aihandis o/fibus. He had long been 
 admired for the white (keletons he prepared ; and at 
 laft difcovercd his method, which was by expofing the 
 bones all winter to the weather. 
 
 Johannes Swammerdam of Amfterdamalfopnbliflied 
 fome anatomical trejtifcs ; but was moft remarkable 
 for hisknowledgc ofprcferviiigthe parts of bodies en- 
 tire tor many ytirs, by injecting their vclTels. He al- 
 fopablilhcd a treatife on refpirition ; wherein he men- 
 tioned his having figures of all the parts of the body as 
 bi^asthe life, cut in copper, which he dcfigtied to pub- 
 lifli, w ith a complete fyllem of anatomy. Thefe, how- 
 ever, were never made public by Swammerdam; but 
 in 1 68 3, Gothrofridus Bidloo, pro/elTor of anatomy at 
 Leyden, publiflied a work entitled ^nati/tnia corporis 
 hutnani, where all the parts were delineated in very 
 large plates almoA as cig as the life. Mr Cowpcr, an 
 Englilhfurgeon,bought ^00 copies of thefe figures; and 
 in 11^93, puLli red them with an Englilh text, quite 
 ditfcrcnt from Bidloo's Latin one ; to which were ad- 
 4cd letters in Bidloo's figures, and fome few figures 
 
 2 
 
 ' O M Y. 
 
 of Mr Cowper's own. To this work Cowper's name 
 was prefixed, without the leall mention of Bidloo, ex- 
 cept on purpofe to confute him. Bidloo immediately 
 publiflied a very ill-natured pamphlet, called Culiilmut 
 CoTupsrus citatui coram tribunali ; appealing to the 
 Royal Society, how far Cowper ought to be punilhcd as 
 a plagiary of the worft; kind, and endeavouring to prove 
 him an ignorant deceitful fellow. Cowper anfwcred 
 him in his own ftyle, in a pamphlet called his Vinduia • 
 endeavouring to prove, either that Bidloo did not un- 
 dcrAand his own tables, or that they were none of his. 
 It was even alleged that thofe were ihe tables proniif- 
 ed by Swammerdam, and which Bidloo had gotfiora 
 his widow. This, however, appears to have been only 
 an invidious furmife, there being unqueftionable evi- 
 dence that they were really the performance of Bidloo. 
 
 Soon after, Ifbrandus Diembroeck, profefTor of ana- 
 tomy at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His 
 work contained very little original ; but he was at great 
 pains to colleft from others whatever was valuable in 
 theirwritings, and hisfyftem was the common ftandard 
 among anatomical lUidenis for many years. 
 
 About the fame time, Antonius Liewenhoeck of 
 Delft, improved conliderably on Malpighi's ufe of mi- 
 crofcopes. Thefe two authors took up anatomy where 
 others had droptit; and, by this new art, they brought 
 a number of amazing things to light. They dilcover- 
 ed the red globules of the blood ; they were enabled 
 to fee the adual circulation of the blood in the tranf- 
 parent pans of living a.nimals, and could mcafure the 
 velocity of its motion ; they difcovered that the arte- 
 ries and veins had no intermediate cells or fpungy fub- 
 ftance, as Harvey and all the preceding anatomifla, 
 had fuppofed, but con.municated one with the other 
 by a continuation of the fame tube. 
 
 Liewenhoeck was in great fame likewife for his dif- 
 covery of the animalcnla in the femen. Indeed there 
 was fcarcely a part of the body, folid or fluid, which 
 efcaped his examination ; and he almoll every where 
 found, that what appeared to the naked eye to be rude 
 undigefled matter, was in reality a beautiful and re- 
 gular compound. 
 
 Alter this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of 
 the abforbcnt fyllem already mentioned, by his injec- 
 tions of the lymphatic glands ; Ruyfch,by hiidelcrip- 
 tion of the valves of the lymphatic vclTels ; and Dr 
 Meckel, by his accurate account of the whole fyilcm, 
 and by tracing thofe velTels in many parts where they 
 had not before been defcribed. 
 
 Befides thefe authors, Drs Hunter and Monro luvc 
 called the attention of the public to this part of anato- 
 my, in their controvcrfy concerning the difcovery of 
 the office of the lymphatics. 
 
 When the lymphatic vellc'.s wcrefirAlcen and trac- 
 ed into the thoracic dud, it was natural for anatomills 
 to fufped, that as the ladeals abforbcd from the cavi- 
 ty of the intellines, the lymphatics, which are limilar 
 in figure ond (Irudure, might pofTibly do the fame of- 
 fice with refped tu other parts of the body : and ac- 
 cordingly, Dr GlilPjn, who wrote in 1654, fuppofes 
 thefe velFcls arofc fiom cavities, and that their ufe was 
 to abforb ; and Frederic Hctiman has very explicitly 
 laid down the di -anic of the lymphatic velfels being a 
 fyllem of ablbrbents. But anatomills in general have 
 been of a contrary opinion ; for,from experiments, par- 
 lie olarly 
 
 679
 
 56o 
 
 ANA! 
 
 ;icUi5'."ly fucli as were niiJc by iiijeiSiotrs, they have 
 been pcrluaJcd tlui the lympiiaiic veUelsdid not arilc 
 from cavities, and did not ablorb, but were increly con- 
 tinuations from finall arteries. The doctrine, there- 
 fore, that the lymphatics, like the ladcals, were ab- 
 ibrbcnts, as hati been fuggcllcd by Glillbii and by Hotf- 
 nian, has been revived by Dr Hunter and Dr Monro, 
 •who have controverted the ex^'eriments of their prc- 
 decelFors in anatomy, and have endeavoured to prove 
 that the lymphatic vclli-ls arc not coutiuued from ar- 
 teries, but arc abforbeats. 
 
 To this doilrine, however, fcveral objeftions have 
 been Ilaried, particularly byliallcr(tlcm. Phyf. I. 24. 
 § 2, 3.); and it has been found, that before the doc- 
 trine of the lymphatics being a fyftem of abforbents 
 can be cllabliihcd, it mull firll be detcnuincd whether 
 ihis fyftem is to be found in other animals befides man 
 and quadrupeds. Mr lievvfon claims the merit of ha- 
 ving proved the affirmative uf this queftion, by difco- 
 vering the lymphatic fyftem in birds, filh, and amphi- 
 bious animals. Sec P^i/. Tranf. vol. Iviii. and lxi,\ — 
 And latterly, Mr Cruiklhank has traced the ramifica- 
 tions of that fyftem in almoft every part of the body ; 
 atid from his dilfeCtions, figures have been made and 
 lately publi(hed to the world. To Mr Sheldon alfo we 
 arc much indebted for his illuftration of this fyftem, 
 ■which promifcs to give great fatisfadlion, but of which 
 only a part has yet been publilhed. 
 
 The gravid uterus isa fubjedllikewifc which has re- 
 ceived conliderable improvements, particularly relat- 
 ing to one very important difcovery ; viz. that the 
 internal membrane of the uterus, which Dr Hunter 
 has named dccdua, conllitutcs the exterior part of the 
 fccundines oraf tcr-birth, and feparates from the reft of 
 the uterus every time that a woman cither bears a child 
 or fuifcrs a mifcarriage. This difcovery includes ano- 
 ther, to wit, that the placenta is partly made up of 
 an excrefcence or efllorcfcencc from the uterus itfelf. 
 
 Thefe difcoveries are of the utmoft confequence, 
 both in the phyfiological queftion about the conuettion 
 between the motherandchild, and likewifein explain- 
 ing the phenomena of births and abortions, as well 
 «s in regulating obftctrical pradice. 
 
 The anatomills of this century have improved ana- 
 tomy, and have made the ftudy of it much more cafy, 
 by giving us morecorrc<5l as well as more numerous fi- 
 gures. It is amazing to think of what has been done in 
 that time. We have had four large folio books of fi- 
 gures of the bones, viz. Chefelden's, Albinus's, Sue's 
 and Trcw's. Of the mufcles, we have had two large 
 folios i one from Cowper, which is elegant ; and one 
 from Albinus, which, from the accuracy and labour of 
 ihe Work, we may fuppofe will never be outdone. Of 
 the blood-vcflels we have a large folio from Dr Haller. 
 We have had one upon the nerves from Dr. Meckel, 
 and another by Dr Monro junior. We have had Al- 
 binus's, Roederer's, Jenty's, and Hunter's works 
 upon the pregnant uterus; Wciibrechi and Leber on 
 the joints and I'relh bones ; Socmerring on the brain ; 
 Zin on the eye ; Cotunnius, Mckel junior, &c. on 
 the ear; Walterus on the nerves of the thorax and 
 abdomen ; Dr Monro on the biirfas mucofae, &c. 
 
 It would be endlefs to mention the anatomical figures 
 thaihavebeenpubliHiedin this century ,of particular and 
 
 O M Y, Hiftory, 
 
 fmallcr parts of the body, by Morgagni, Ruyfeh, Val- 
 filvj, Sauttoriia, Htilicr, V'atcr, Cant, Zimmerman, 
 Walterus, and others. 
 
 Thofe elegant plates of the brain, however, juft 
 publilhed by M. Vicq. d'Azyr, mull not pals without 
 notice, cfpccially as they form part of an univerfal fyf- 
 tem of anatomy and phyiiology,both human and com- 
 parative, propolcd to be executed in the lame fplendid 
 llylc. Upon the brain aionc 19 folio plates arc em- 
 ployed ; of which fevcral are coloured. I'lie figures 
 arc Ucliueatcd wiihaccuracy andclcarncfs ; but the co- 
 louring is rather beautiful than correct. Such parts of 
 this work as may be publilhed, cannot fail to be equal- 
 ly acceptable to the anatumift and the philofopher ; but 
 the entire dclign is apparently too cxtenlive to be ac- 
 complimcd within the pcriodofalinglc life. In Great 
 Britain, alfo, a very great anatomical work is carrying 
 on by Andrew Bell, t' . S. A. S. engraver to his Roy- 
 al Highncfs the Prince of Wales, with the appro- 
 bation of Dr Monro, and under the infpcition of his 
 very ingenious alhlUut My Kyfe. It is to compofc a 
 complete ill-iftratioa, both general and particular, of 
 the Human body, by a fclection from the beft plates 
 of all tnc greaieit anatomills, as well foreign as 
 Butilh, exliiuitmg the lateft difcoveries in the 
 fcieace, and accojiipauicd with copious explanations. 
 The whole number of plates mentioned in the Pro- 
 fpeclus is 240, of which i J2 are already done ; all in 
 royal folio. 
 
 To the foreign treatifes already mentioned may be 
 added thofe recently puulilhedby Sabbaticr and Plenck 
 on anatomy in general. In Great Britain, the writ- 
 ings of Kcil, Douglas, Chefelden, the tirfl Monro, 
 Winilow, &c. are too wellknown to need defcription. 
 The lall of thefe ufed to be recommended as a ftandard 
 for the ftudents of anatomy : but it has of late given 
 place to a more accurate and comprehenlive fyftem, 
 in three volumes, publilhed by Mr Elliot of Edin- 
 burgh, upon a plan approved of by Dr Monro, and 
 executed by Mr r'yfc. DrSimmonsof London has al- 
 fo obliged the world with an excellent fyftem of ana- 
 tomy ; and another work, under the title of " Ele- 
 ments of Anatomy and the Animal Oeconomy : in 
 which the lubjeds are treated with uncommon elegance 
 and perlpicuity. 
 
 In the latter part of the laft century, anatomy made 
 two great Heps, by theinvention of injections, and the 
 methodof making what wecommonly aW /repartition j. 
 Thefe two modern arts have really been of infinite ufe 
 to anatomy ; and befides have introduced an elegance 
 into our adminiftrations, which in former times could 
 not have been fuppofed to be pofTible. They arofe in 
 Holland under Swammerdani and Ruyfeh, and after- 
 wards in England under Cowper, St Andre, and 
 others, where they have been greatly improved. 
 
 The anatomills of former ages had no other know- 
 ledge of the blood-velTcls, than what they were able 
 to coUeft from laborious diircclions, and from examin- 
 ing thefmaller branches of them, uponfome lucky oc- 
 cafion.when they were found more than commonly load- 
 ed with red blood. But filling the vafcular fyftem with 
 a bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large 
 ve (Pels with great eafe, renders the fmaller much more 
 confpicuous, and makes thoufands of the very minute 
 
 ones
 
 Introd. A N A 1 
 
 oncsvilible, which from their delicacy, and thctraiif- 
 y>:.ccncy ot' their natural contents, arc othcrwife im- 
 perceptible. 
 
 The modern art of corroding the fltfhy parts with 
 a mendruiim, and of leaving the moulded wax entire, 
 is fo exceedingly ufcful, and at the fame time fo orna- 
 mental, that it does great honour to the ingenious in? 
 ventor Dr. NichoUs. 
 
 Tlie wax-work art of the moderns might dcferve 
 notice in any hilluryot anatomy, if the mailers in that 
 way had not been focarelcfs in their imitation. Many 
 of the wax-tigurcs are fo tawdry with a (liow of unna- 
 tural colours, and In very incorreft in the circuniftances 
 of figure, fituation, and the like, that though they 
 llrike a vulgar eye with admiration, they mull appear 
 ridiculous to an anatomift. But thofc ligurcs which 
 arc call in wax, plafter or lead, from the real fubjctt, 
 and which of late years have been frequently made, 
 are, of courfe, very correct in all the principal parts, 
 and may be conlidered as no infignilicant acquifition 
 to modern anatomy. The proper, or principal ufe 
 of this art is, to prefer ve a very perfett likenefs of 
 fuch fiibjcds as we but fcldom can meet with, or can- 
 not well prefcrve in a natural ftate ; afubjed in preg- 
 nancy for example. 
 
 The modern improved methods of prcferving animal 
 bodies, or parts of ihem, has been of the greatefl fer- 
 vicc to anatomy ; efpecially in faving the time and la- 
 bour of the anatomiil in the nicer dilTedlions of the 
 fmall parts of the body. For now, whatever he has 
 prepared with care, he can preferve ; and theobjcft is 
 ready to be fecn at any time. And in the fame man- 
 ner he can preferve anatomical cuviolities, or rarities of 
 every kind ; fuch as, parts that are uncommonly form- 
 ed ; parts that are difeafed ; the parts of the pregnant 
 uterus and its contents. Large coUedions of fuch cu- 
 riofities, which modern anatomills arc Ariving almoft 
 every where to procure, are of infinite fervice to the 
 art, efpecially in the hands of teachers. They give 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 riofity of people of tafte, as a brancli of phiiofophy ; 
 fmcc, if it is plealing to be acquainted with the rtructiirc 
 of the body, it is certainly more fo todifcovcr all the 
 fprings which give life and motion to the machine, 
 and to obfervc the admirable mcchanifm by which fo 
 many different fuuAionsarc executed. 
 
 Aftronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after Fon- 
 tcnelle, obfervcs,are the lUidies which prefent us with 
 the moll llriking view of the two greatclt attributes of 
 the Supreme Being. The (irll of thcfe fills the mind 
 with the idea of his immcnlity, in the largencfs, dif- 
 tances, and number of the heavenly bixlits ; the lall^ 
 alloniflics with his intelligence and art in the variety 
 and delicacy of animal mcchanifm. 
 
 The human body has been commonly enough known 
 by the name of 7iikroc(/iijus, or the little world ; as if 
 it did not ditler fo much from the univerfal fyllcm of 
 nature in the fymmetry and number of its parts as in 
 their lizc. 
 
 Galen's excellent treatife De ufu partiunt, was com- 
 pofed as a profe hymn to the Creator ; and abounds 
 with as irrefiftiblc proofs of a fuprcme Caufc and go- 
 verning Providence, as we find in modern phyfico- 
 thcology. And Cicero dwells more on the Itrutlure 
 and osconomy of animals than on all the produclions 
 of nature belides,whcn he wants to prove the exillence 
 of the gods from the order and beauty of the univerfc. 
 He there takes a furvey of the body of man in a moft 
 elegant fynopfis of anatomy, and concludes thus: 
 " (.hiibus rebus cxpofitus, fatis docuiife videor, homi- 
 nis natura, quanta omncs antcirct animantes. Ex quo 
 debet intelligi, ncc figuram lituuique membrorura, ncc 
 ingciiii mentifque vimtalcmetnci potuiifc fortuna." 
 
 The fatisfadion of mind which arifes from the lludy 
 of anatomy, and the influence which it mud naturally 
 have upon our minds as philofophtrs, cannot be better 
 conveyed than by the following palfage from the fame 
 author : " Qiise contuens animus, accepit ab his cog- 
 nitionem deorem, ex qua oritur pietas: cui conjunda 
 
 68i 
 
 fludcnts clear ideas about many things which it is very jullitia ell, rcliqu.tque virtutes: ex quibus vita beata 
 
 clfential to know, and yet which it is impolTible that 
 a teacher fltould be able to fhow otherwile, were he 
 ever fo well fupplied with frefli fubjcds. 
 
 \ 2. View of the Siibjed in General, and Plan of 
 thefolloiuing Treatife. 
 
 The etymology of the word (Jwa/oMy, as above gi- 
 ven, implies fimply Jilfeilion ; but by this term fomc- 
 thing more is ufually underflood. 
 
 It is every day made ufe of to cxprefs a knowledge 
 of the human body ; and a perfon who is faid to un- 
 derlland anatomy, is fuppofed to be convcrfant with 
 the flrudure and arrangement of the different folid 
 parts of the body. 
 
 It is commonly divided into Anatomy, properly fo 
 called ; and Comparative Anatomy : thcfirllofthefeis 
 confined folely to the hi;man body ; the lattcrincludes 
 all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their Ilrudurc 
 may tend to perfcd our ideas of the human body. Sec 
 Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 The term anatomy mayalfo have another and more 
 extenfive lignification : it may be employed to cxprefs 
 not only a knowledge of the flrudure and difpolition of 
 the parts, butlikewife of their oeconomy and ufe. Con- 
 lidered in thislight, it will feldom fail to excite the cu- 
 
 VOL.I. 
 
 exdllit, paretlimilcs dcorum, nulla alia re niliimmor- 
 talitatc, qux nihil ad bene vivendum pcrtinct, ccdens 
 ctrleJlibus." 
 
 It would be endlefs to quote the animated palTages 
 of this fort which are to be found in the phyncians, 
 philofophers, and theologills, who have conlidered the 
 llruftureand fundions of animals with a view towards 
 the Creator. It is a view which mull llrike one with 
 a moll awful convidion. Who can know and conlider 
 the thoufand evident proofs of the aftonilliing art of 
 the Creator, in forming and fuilainingan animal body 
 fuch as ours, without feeling the inollpleafant enthu- 
 iiafm ? Can we ferioully rcHed upon tliis awful fub- 
 jcd, without being almoft loll in adoration ? without 
 longing for another life after this, in which we may be 
 gratified with the highefl enjoyment, which onr facul- 
 ties and nature fccm capable o{, the feeing and com- 
 ]»rchending the whole plan of the Creator, in forming 
 the univerfe and in dircding all its operations ? 
 
 But the more immediate purpofcs of anatomy con- 
 cern thofe who are to be the guardians of health, as 
 this ftudy is ncccifary to lay a foundation for all the 
 branches of medicine. The more we know of our 
 fabric, the more rcalbn we have to believe, that if our 
 fcnfcs were more acute, and our judgment more enlar- 
 4 R gcd.
 
 68a ANA' 
 
 gcd, we (hoiild be able to trace many fprings of life 
 which arc now hidden fromus : by tiicfamc fagacity 
 we iliould difcovcr ihc true caufcs and nature of dil- 
 tafcs ; and thereby be enabled to rellorc the health 
 of many, v.'ho arc now, from our more contined know- 
 ledge, faid to labour under incurable diforders. By 
 fucn an intimate acquaintance with the occonomy ot 
 our bodies, we fliould difcover even the feeds of dil- 
 cafes, and dcflroy them before they had taken root in 
 the conllitution. 
 
 That anatomy is the very bafisof furgcry every body 
 allows. It is dill'cdion alone that can teach us, where 
 we may cut the livingbody with freedom and difpatch; 
 and where wc may venture with great circumlpeclion 
 and delicacy ; and where wc mult not, upon any ac- 
 count, attempt it. This informs the/;t'dt/, gives dex- 
 terity to the />ti/id, and familiarizes the /icurt with a 
 fort of necelfary inhumanity, the ufe of cutting-in- 
 flrumcnts upon our fellow-crcaturcs. 
 
 Belides the knowledge of our body, through all the 
 variety of in flriUiure and operations in 3. found Aate, 
 it is by anatomy only that wc can arrive at the know- 
 ledge of the true nature of molt of the difcafes which 
 afflia humanity. The fymptoms of many diforders 
 areoften equivocal ; and difeafestliemfclvesarc ihcncc 
 frequently miltaken, even by fcufiblc, experienced, 
 and attei.tive phylicians. But by anatouiical examin- 
 ation after death, we can with certainty find out the 
 miftake, and learn to avoid it in any I'lmilar cafe. 
 
 This ufe of anatomy has been fo generally adopted 
 by the moderns, that the cafes already publiihed are 
 almoft innumerable : Mangctus, Morgagni, indeed ma- 
 ny of the bell modern writings in phylic, are full of 
 them. And if we look among the phylicians of the 
 bed charadler, and obfcrve thofe who have the art it- 
 fclf, rather than the craft of the profclfion at heart ; 
 we Ihall find them conllantly taking pains to procure 
 leave to examine the bodies of their patients after death. 
 
 After havingconfidcrcd the rife and progrcfs of ana- 
 tomy ; the various difcoveries that have been made in 
 it, from time to time ; the great number of diligent 
 obfervers who have applied themfelves to this art; 
 and the importance of the llndy, not only for the pre- 
 vention and cure of difcafes, but in furnilhing the 
 liveliefl proofs of divine wifdom ; the following quef- 
 tions fccm naturally to arife : For what purpofe is there 
 fuch a variety of parts in thehumanbody ? Whyfuch 
 a complication of nice and tender machinery .' Why 
 was there not rather a more fimplc, Icfs delicate, and 
 lefs expenfive frame (a) ? 
 
 In order to acquire a faiisfaflory general ideaofthis 
 fubject, and find a folution of all fuch quellions, let 
 lis, in our imaginations, make a man : in other words 
 letusfuppofe that the ot/«(/, or immaterial part, is to be 
 placed in a corporeal fabric, in order to hold a corre- 
 fpondencewith other material beings by the interven- 
 tion of the body ; and thenconfuler, a priori, what will 
 be wanted for her accommodation. In thisinquiry, we 
 iliall plainly fee the neceflity or advantage, and there- 
 fore the final caufe, of moft of the parts which wc ac- 
 
 r O M Y. Introd. 
 
 tually find in the human body. And if we confidcr 
 that, in orderto anfwer fome of the recjuiiitcs, human 
 wit and invcniion would be very iiifullicicnt : wc need 
 not be furpril'ed if we meet with fome parts of the bo- 
 dy whole ufe we cannot yet perceive, and wich fome 
 operationsand functions which wcc.innot explain. Wc 
 can fee that the whole bears the molt linking charac- 
 ters of excelling wifdom and ingenuity : but ihe im- 
 perfect fcnfes and capacity of ?/ian cannot pretend to 
 reachevery partof amachiue, whichnothiiig Itfs than 
 the intelligence and power of the Suprmit Being could 
 contrive and execute. 
 
 Firft, then, the mind, the thinking, immaterial a- 
 gent, nuift be [rovided with a place of immediate rc- 
 iidcnce, which ihall have all the lequilitcsfor thcunioifc 
 of fpirit and body; accordingly die is provided with 
 the brain, where Ihe dwells as governor and fuperin- 
 tendant of the whole fabric. 
 
 In the next place, as flic is to hold a corrcfpondcncc 
 with all the material beings around her, flic niuft be 
 fupplied with organs tilted to receive the different 
 kinds of imprcflions which they will make. In faift, 
 therefore, wc fee that Ihe is provided with the organs 
 of fenfe, as wccall them: the eye is aJ.Tptcd tolipii; ; 
 the ear to found ; the nofe tofmtU ; thcmouihtotalte; 
 and the Ikin to touch. 
 
 Further: She mufl be furnifiied with org-ps of 
 communicalion between herlclf in the brain and thofc 
 organs of fenfe, to give her information of all the im- 
 preliions that arc made upon them : and flic mull have 
 organs between hcrfelf in the brain and every other 
 part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and in- 
 fluence over the whole. For thefc purpofes the nerves 
 are adually given. They are chords, which rife from 
 the brain, the immediate relidence of ihe mind, and 
 difperfe themfelves in branchcsthroughall parts of the 
 body. They convey all the different kinds of fenfa- 
 tions to the mind, in the brain ; and likcwife carry 
 out from thence all her commands or influence to the 
 other parts of the body. They are iniended to be oc- 
 calional monitors againft all fuch imprelTions as might 
 endanger the well-being of the whole, or of any par- 
 ticular part ; which vindicates the Creator of all 
 things, in having aftually fubjetted us to thofe many 
 difagrceablc and painful fenfations which wc arc ex- 
 pofed to from a thoufand accidents in life. 
 
 Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal fyflem, muft 
 be endued with the power of moving from place to 
 place, that llic may have intercourfe with a variety of 
 objefts ; that fhc may fly from fuch as are difagrceablc, 
 dangerous or hurtful, and purfue fuch as arc pleafant 
 or ufeful to her. And accordingly Ihe is funiilhed 
 with limbs, and with mufclcsand tendons, theinftru- 
 ments of motion, which are found in every part of the 
 fabric where motion is necelfary. 
 
 But to fupport, t» give firmncfs and fliapc to the 
 fabric ; to keep thefofter parts in their proper places; 
 to give fixed points for, and the proper direction to 
 its motions, as well as to protetl fome of the more 
 important and tender organs from external injuries ; 
 
 there 
 
 (a) The following beauiifulreprefenuiion is taken from ihclate Dr Hunter's Introduilary Ledure in An* 
 tiny.
 
 Introd. 
 
 N 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 there mufl be fome firm prop-work interwoven thro' 
 the whole. And, in fad, for fuch purpofes the bones 
 arc given. 
 
 The prop- work muft not be made into one rigid fa- 
 bric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there 
 arc a number of bones. 
 
 Thcfe pieces mull all be firmly bound together, to 
 prevent their Jillocation. And tliis end is perfectly 
 well anfwertd by (he ligaments. 
 
 The extremities of thefe bony pieces, where they 
 move and rub upon one another, muft have fmooth 
 and llippery furtaces for eal'y motion. This is nioft 
 happily provided far, by the cartilages and mucus of 
 the joints. 
 
 The iRterftices of all thofc parts mud be filled up 
 with fome foft and dudtile matter, which Ihall keep 
 them in their places, unite them, and at the fame time 
 allow them to move a little upon one another. And 
 thcfe purpofes are anfwered by the cellular membrane 
 or adipofc fubftance. 
 
 There muft be an outward covering over the whole 
 apparatus, both to give it compaftnefs and to defend it 
 from a thoufand injuries : which, in faft, are the ve- 
 ry purpofes of the fkin and other integuments. 
 
 Laftly, the mind being formed for fociety and in- 
 tercourle with bcingsof her own kind, flie mull be en- 
 dued with powersot expreflingandconimunicating her 
 thoughts by fonic fcnfible marks or figns ; which Ihall 
 be both eafyto heri'clf, andadmitof great variety ; and 
 accordingly (lie is provided with the organs and faculty 
 of fpeech, by which fiie can throw out ligns with ama- 
 zing facility, and vary them without end. 
 
 Thus we have built up an animal body which would 
 fcem to be pretty complete ; but as it is the nature of 
 matter to be altered and worked upon by matter j fo 
 in a very little time fuch a living creature muft be dc- 
 flroyed, it there is no provilion for repairing the inju- 
 ries which Ihe muft commit upon hcrfclf, and thofe 
 which llie muft be cxpofed to from without. There- 
 fore a treafure of blood is actually provided in the heart 
 and vafcular fyftem, full of nutritious and healing par- 
 ticles, fluid enough to penetrate into the niinuttft parts 
 of tlic animal ; impelled by the heart, and conveyed 
 by the arteries, it wafhes every part, builds up what 
 was broken down, and fweeps away the old and ufelefs 
 materials. Hence we fee the neceflity or advantage of 
 the heart and arterial fyftem. 
 
 What more there was of this blood than enough to 
 repair the prefcnt damages of the machine, muft not be 
 loft, but lliould be returned again to the heart ; and for 
 this purpofe the venous fyftem is actually provided. 
 Thefe requilitcs in the animal explain, a prion, the 
 circulation of the blood. 
 
 The old materials which were become ufelefs, and 
 arc fwcpt off by the current of blood, muft be fcpara- 
 ted and thrown out of the fyftem. Therefore glands, 
 the organs of Secretion, are given for ftraining what- 
 ever is redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the mafs 
 oflilood ; and when ftrained, they are thrown out by 
 eroundorics, called organs or Excretion. 
 
 But now, as the machine muft be conftantly wear- 
 ing, the reparation muft be carried on without intcr- 
 niiirion, and the ftr^iners muft always be employed. 
 Therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of 
 the blood, and the fecrctions are always going on. 
 
 Even all this provifion, however, would not bj fuffi- 
 cicnt ; for that ftorc of blood would foon be confumed, 
 and the fabric would break down, if there were not a 
 proviiion made for frelh fupplies. Thefe we obferve, 
 in fact, are profulcly fcattcred round her in the ani- 
 mal and vegetablekiugdoms ;and Iheiifurniihedwith 
 hunds, the fitteft inftrurocnts that could have been con- 
 trived, for gathering them, and for preparing them 
 in a variety of ways for the mouth. 
 
 But thefe fupplies, which wccall food, muft be con- 
 fidcrably changed ; they muft be converted into blood. 
 Therefore Ihe is provided with teeth for cuttiug and 
 bruifing the food, and with a ftomach for melting it 
 down : In (hort, with all the organs fubl'ervient to di- 
 geftion. — The finer parts of the aliments only can be 
 ufcful in the conftitution: thefe muft be uken up and 
 conveyed into the blood, and the dregs muft be thrown 
 off. With this view the inteftinal canal is adually gi- 
 ven. It feparatcs the nutritious part, which we call 
 chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the fyftem of 
 abforbent veflcls ; and the fxccs pafs downwards, to 
 be condufted out of the body. 
 
 Now we have got our animal not only furniftied with 
 what is wanted for its immediate exiftence, but alfo 
 with the powers of protracting that exiftence to an in- 
 finite length of time. But its duration, we may pre- 
 fume, muft neceilarily be limited : for as it is nouriih- 
 ed, grows, and is raifcd up to its full ftrength and ut- 
 molt perfection ; fo it muft, in time, in common with 
 all material beings, begin to decay, and then hurry on 
 to final ruin. Hence we fee the necefilty of a fchcmc 
 for renovation. Accordingly wife Providence, to per- 
 petuate, as well as prefcrve his work, befides giving a 
 ftrong appetite for life and fclf-prefervation, has made 
 animals male and female, and given them fuch organs 
 and pallions as will fecure the propagation of the fpc- 
 cics to the end of time. 
 
 Thus we fee, that by the very imperfcd furvejr 
 which human reafon is able to take of this fubjeCl, 
 the animal man muft neceilarily be complex in his 
 corporeal fyftem, and in its operations. 
 
 He muft have one greatand general fyftem, the vaf- 
 cular, branching through the whole for circulation : 
 Another, the nervous, with its appendages the organs 
 of feiife, for every kind of feeling : And a third, for 
 the union and connection of all thofe parts. 
 
 Belides thefe primary and general fyftems, he re- 
 quires others which may be more local or confined : 
 One for ftrcnglh, fuppori, and protection ; the bony 
 compages : Anuther for the rcquiiite motions of the 
 pans among thenifclves, as well as from moving from 
 place to place ; the mufcular part of the body : An- 
 other to prepare nouriftinuni for the daily recruit of 
 the body i the digeftivc organs : And one for propa- 
 gating the fpecics ; the organs of generjtion. 
 
 And in taking this general furvey of what would 
 appear, a priori, to be neceifary for adapting an animal 
 to the lituationsoflife, we obferve, with great fatisfac- 
 tion, that man is accordingly made of fuch fyftems, 
 and for fuch purpofes. He has ihcm all ; and he has 
 nothing more, except the iTgans cf refpiration. Brea- 
 thing it feemed ditficult to account for a priori : we 
 only knew it to be in faCt cll'ciuially jiecclfary to 
 life. Notwithftaudingthis, whf n w c f^iwall the other 
 parts of the body, and their functions, fo well ac- 
 4 R 3 counted 
 
 683
 
 684 
 
 N 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 Introd. 
 
 coLinteil for, aiul fo w il'tly adapted to their Teveral pur- 
 pofes, liurc could Lc no doubt that rcl'piratiou was fo 
 likcwift : And accordingly, the difcovcrics of Dr 
 Pricfllcy have lately thrown light upon this fundion 
 alfo, as will be (liown in its proper place. 
 
 Of all the different fyllcnisin tlie liunian body, the 
 life and nccelTity arc not more apparent, than the wif- 
 doni and contrivance whicli lias been exerted in putting 
 lhen^allinto the moft compact and conveiiicntform : in 
 difpofing them fo, that they lluU mutually receive, and 
 give helps to one another ; and that all, or many of the 
 parts, Ihall not only anfwer their principal end or pur- 
 pole, but operate fuccefsfully and ufefully ina variety 
 of fccondary ways. 
 
 If we confider the whole animal machine in this 
 light, and compare it with any machine in which hu- 
 man art has exerted its utmolt ; fuppofe the bell con- 
 flrufted ihip that ever was built, we Ihall be convinced 
 beyond the pollibility of doubt, that there are intelli- 
 gence and power far furpafling what humanity can 
 boall of. 
 
 One fuperiority in the natural machine is peculiarly 
 Uriking. — In machines of human contrivance or art, 
 ihereis no internal power, no principle in the machine 
 itfclf, by which it can alter and accommodate itfclf to 
 any injury which it may futier, or make up any injury 
 which admits of repair. But in the natural machine, 
 the animal body, this is mofl wonderfully provided for 
 by internal powers in the machine itlclf ; many of 
 which are not more certain and obvious in their ef- 
 Icds, than ihey arc above all human compreheniionas 
 to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a 
 wound heals up of itfclf ; a broken bone is n\ade firm 
 again by a callus ; a dead part is fcparateJ and thrown 
 off; noxious juices arc driven out by fome of the 
 emunclories ; a redundancy is removed by fome fpon- 
 taneous bleeding; a bleeding naturally Hops of itfclf ; 
 and a great lofs of blood, from any caufe, is in fome 
 meafure eompenfated, by a contraL'ling power in the 
 vafcular fyflem, which accommodates the capacity of 
 the veli'els to the quantity contained. The ftoinach 
 gives information when the fupplics have been expend- 
 ed ; reprefents, with great exadnefs, thcquantity and 
 the quality of what is wanted in the prefent Hate of 
 the machine ; and in proportion as flie meets with ne- 
 gleft, riles in her demand, urges her petition in a loud- 
 er tone, and witli more forcible arguments. For its 
 protedion, an animal body refifts heat and cold in a 
 very wonderful manner, and preferves an equal tem- 
 pecature in a burning and in a freezing atmofphere. 
 
 A farther excellence or fuperiority in the natural 
 machine, if pollible, Hill more aftonilhing, more be- 
 yond all human comprehcnfion, than what we have 
 been fpeakiug of, is the following. Befidcs thofe in- 
 ternal powers of felf-prcfervation in each individual, 
 when two of them co-operate, or ad in concert, they 
 are endued with powers of making other animals or 
 machines like themi'"elves, which again are pollelTed 
 of the fame powers of producing others, and fo of 
 anultiplying the fpecies without end. 
 
 Thefe are powers which mock all human invention 
 or imitation. They are charadcrifligs of the divine 
 Archited. 
 
 Having premifcd this general account oftheXubjed, 
 
 we Ihall next confider the method to be obfcrvcd in 
 treating it. 
 
 The fludy of the human body, as already noticed, 
 is commonly divided into two parts. The lirll, which 
 is called Anatomy, relates to the matter and llruiturc 
 of its parts; the fccoud, P/njlo/ot;^ iui Aniinat aco- 
 iioviy, relates to the principles and laws of its inter- 
 nal operations and fundions. 
 
 As the body is a compound of folidsand fluids, AnU' 
 totiiy is divided into, 
 
 1. The Anatomy of the foliJs, and 
 
 2. The Anatomy of tlic fluids. 
 
 I. The Solids, by which we mean all parts of our 
 body which are not fluid, are generally divided into 
 two clalTes, viz. 
 
 1 . The hard folids or bones. This part of anatomy 
 is called Ojie»logy ; which liguifies the dodrine of the 
 bones. 
 
 2. The fofter folids ; which part is called Sarcohgy, 
 viz. the dodrine of tieni. 
 
 This divifion of the folids, we may obferve, has pro- 
 bably taken its origin from the vulgar obfervation, 
 that the body is made of bone audflcfli. And as there 
 arc many different kinds of what are called foft or 
 rielhy parts, Sarcology is fubdivided into, 
 
 (i.) Angilotogy, or the dodrine of velFels ; by 
 which is commonly underllood blooi-vejfch : 
 
 {lA AiicHology, of glands: 
 
 (;!.) Neurology, of nerves : 
 
 (4.) Myology, ofmufcles: and, 
 
 (5.) S/'/iiwt/v/o/ci^,^, of the vifccra or bowels. There 
 is, belides, that part wliich treats of the organs of 
 fcnfe and of the integuments. 
 
 This divifion of the folids lias been here mentioned, 
 rather for the fake of explaining fomany words, which 
 arc conflantly ufed by anatomilts, than for its import- 
 ance or accuracy. For befidcs many other objections 
 that might be urged, there are in the body three fpe- 
 cies of folids, viz. griftle or cart'lagc, hair, and nails ; 
 which are of an intermediate nature between bone and 
 tlcfli; and tlierefore cannot fo properly be brought into 
 the ofleology or the farcology. The cartilages were 
 clafTcd with the bones ; becaufe thcgrcaicft numberof 
 them arc appendages to bones: and for ihe like rea- 
 fon the hair and the nails were clafTcd with the inte- 
 guments. 
 
 II. The KiuiDs of the human body may be divided 
 into three kinds, which Dr Hunter calls the crude, the 
 general or perfei}, and ihe local or fecreted fluid. 
 
 1. By the crude fluid is meant the chyle, and what- 
 ever is abforbcd at the furfaces of llie body ; in other 
 words, what is recently taken into the body, and is not 
 yet mixed with or converted into blood. 
 
 2. The general or l>erfL{l fimd is the blood itfelf; 
 to wit, what is contained in the heart, arteries, and 
 veins, and is going on in the round of tlic circulation. 
 
 3. The local or fecretcd, are thofe fluids peculiar to 
 particular parts of the body, which are Ihaincd off from 
 the blood, and yet arc \ cry different in their properties 
 from the blood. They are commonly c:^\\cA fecrcttons; 
 and fome arc ufeful, others excrenientiiious. 
 
 In treatingof the Phyfiology,\x. is very difficult to fay 
 wliat plan fhould be followed; forcvcry method wliich 
 has been yctpropofed, is attended with manifefl in- 
 convenience.
 
 Introd. 
 
 A N A 1 
 
 convenience. The powers and operations of the ma- 
 chine have fach a depciidcHcc upon one another, fuch 
 connexions and reciprocal influence, that they cannot 
 well be undcrftood or explained fcparatcly. In this 
 fcnfcour body may be compared to a circular chain of 
 powers, in which nothing is firft or lail, nothing foli- 
 tary or independent; fo that wherever we begin, we 
 find that there is fomething preceding which we ought 
 to have known. If we begin with the brain and the 
 nerves, for example, we ihall find that thefc cannot 
 
 ' O M Y. 
 
 exifl, even in idea, without the heart : if we fet cut 
 with the heart and vafcular fyftem, we fliallprcfcnily 
 be fcnfible, that the brain and nerves mull be fuppcf- 
 ed : or, fliould we take up the mouth, and follow the 
 courfcof the aliment, we Ihould fee that the very tirft 
 organ which prefcnted iiftlf, fuppofed the cxiflence 
 of both the heart and brain : Wherefore we Ihall in- 
 corporate the Phyliology wiih the Anatomy, by at- 
 tempting to explain the functions after we Lave de- 
 monftrated the orqians. 
 
 685 
 
 Part I. OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 WE begin with the bones, which may be confider- 
 cd as the great fapport of the body, tending to 
 give it fliape and firmncfs — But before we enter into 
 the detail of each particular bone, it will be neceffary 
 to defcribe their compofition and conncttions, and to 
 explain the nature of the different parts which have 
 an immediate relation to them ; as the cartilages, liga- 
 ments, periofleum, marrow, and fynovial glands. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Bouet in general, with ihiir jlppeu' 
 dagesy &c. 
 
 Dfthe m- The bones areof afirmand hard (b) fubftance, of 
 
 3oCtion of" ^ white colour, and pcrfciftly infcnlible. They are 
 
 :hc bones, the niofl compact and folid parts of the body, and 
 
 fcrve for the attachment and fupport of all the other 
 
 parts. 
 
 Three different fubftances are ufually dKlinguiflied 
 in them ; their exterior or bony part, properly fo call- 
 ed ; their fpongy cells ; and their reticular fubftance. 
 Thefirft of thcfe is formedof many laminae or plates, 
 compofing a firm hard fubftance — The fpongy or cel- 
 lular part is fo called on account of its refemblance to 
 a fponge, from the little cells which compofe it. This 
 fubftance forms almofl the whole of the extremities 
 of cylindrical bones. The reticular part is conipofed 
 of fibres, which crofs each other in different directi- 
 ons. This net-work forms the internal furface of 
 thofe bones which have cavities. 
 
 The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are compofed 
 only of the laminae and the cellular fubftance. This 
 laft is ufjally found in the middle of the bone dividing 
 it into two plates, and is there called dipidi. 
 
 Gagliardi, who pretended to have difcovered an in- 
 finite number of claviculi (c),orbonyproceires, which 
 he dcfcribesastravcrrmg the laminae to unite them to- 
 gether, has endeavoured to fupport this pretended dif- 
 covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees, 
 in which certain woody nails have been remarked; 
 but this opinion feems to be altogether fanciful. 
 
 Some writers have fuppofed, that the bones arc 
 formed by layers of the perioftcum, which gradually 
 ollify, in the fame manner as the timber is formed in 
 trees by the hardening of the white fubllaiicc that is 
 found between the inner bark and the wood. M. Dh- 
 
 hamel, who has adopted this opinion, fed different 
 animals with ma Meraiid their ordinary food alternate- 
 ly during a certain time; and he aflerts, that in dif- 
 fecUng their bones, he conftantly obfervcd diftind lay- 
 ers of red and white, which correfponded with the 
 length of time they had lived on madder or their 
 ufual aliment. But it has lince been proved by Det- 
 leff, that M. Duhamel's experiments were inaccurate, 
 and that neither the periofteum nor the cartilages arc 
 tinged by the ufe •f the madder, which is known to 
 affect the bones only. 
 
 We ufually confider in a bone, its body and its ex- 
 tremities. The ancients gave the name of diaph} lis to 
 the body or middle part, and divided the cxtreniitits 
 into apophyfis and epiphyfis. An apophylis, or jto 
 cefs, as it is more commonly called, is an eminence 
 continued from thcbodyoftheboucwhcrcas an epiphy- 
 fis is at firft a fort of an apcndage to the bone, by mtaus 
 of an intermediate cartilage. Many epipliyfes, which 
 appear as diftincl bones in the foetus, afterwards l)c- 
 come apophyfes ; for they are at length fo completely 
 united to the body of the bone as not to be diftinguiih- 
 able from it in the adult ftate. It is not unufual, how- 
 ever, at the age of 18 and even 20 years, to find the 
 extremities of bones ftill in the ftate of epiphyfis. 
 
 The names given to the procelTes of bones arc ex- 
 preffive of their fliape, fize, or ufe ; thus if a proccfs 
 is large and of a fpherical form, it is called caput, 
 or head i if the head is flatted, it is termed condyle. 
 Some procelTes, from their refemblance to a ftiletto, 
 a breart, or the beak of a crow, are called /?>//o<y, niaf- 
 toid, or coracciid : others are [iy\td ridges or /pines. 
 The twopreceflcs of the os femoris derive theirnamc 
 oi trochanters from their \\(c. 
 
 A bone has its cavities as well as procelTes. Thcfc 
 cavities either extend quite through its fubftance, or 
 appear only as depreflions. The former are called yo- 
 ratnina or holes, and thefe foramina are fometimes term- 
 ed canals or conduits, according to their form and ex- 
 tent. Of the dcpredions, fome are ufcful in articula- 
 tion. Thcfe are called cotyloid when they arc deep, 
 as is the cafe with the os innominatum, where it re- 
 ceives the head ot the os femoris ; or^/r/;6/"(/ when they 
 are fuperficial, as in the fcapula, where it receive* the 
 OS humeri. Of the dcprcllions that arc not dcfigned 
 
 for 
 
 ^b) Mr Schcelc has lately difcovered that bones contain the phofphoric acid united with calcareous eartli ; 
 and that to this combination they owe their firmncfs. 
 
 (c) In his Anat. Ojfium nov. invent, illuflr^t. he dcfcribcs four kinds of thefe claviculi or nails, viz. tjj« 
 perpendicular, oblique, headed, and crooked
 
 686 
 
 N 
 
 O M 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Oncology, for aniculatioli, thofe which have fniall ai>crtures are 
 
 ^ ^ ' called fmtifes ; others tliac are large, and not equally 
 
 fiirrounded by high brims, arc AyXdj olfa ; fuch as are 
 
 long and narrow,yK/ro'm/; or if broad and fiipcrticial 
 
 without brinot, fiririojitiei. Some arc called digital hh- 
 
 frejjloiis, from their rcfemblai;ce to the traces of a fin- 
 
 j ger on loft bodies. 
 
 CoRnefli- We (hall abridge this article, which is excecding- 
 
 on of the ly diftufc in the generality of anatomical books, and 
 
 boact. ^vjii endeavour to defcribe it with all the clcarnefs it 
 
 will allow. 
 
 The bones coin poling the fkcleionare foconftrui5led, 
 that the end of every bone is perfeftly adapted to the 
 extremity of that with whicli itisconnetled, and this 
 co-.iiic(flion forms wliat is called their articulation. 
 
 Arliculuion is divided into<//;7rMr(iy7/,/»«a/Ar<!///, and 
 atnphifiithrofis, or moveable, immoveable, and mixed 
 articulation. Each of the two firll has its fubdivilions. 
 Thus theDM/M/-o//j,ornioveablc articulation, includes 
 1 . The cnarthrolis, as it is called, when a large head 
 is admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articulation 
 of the OS fcmoris with theos innoniinatum. l. Arthro- 
 dia, when a round head is articulated with a (uperli- 
 cial cavity, as in the cafe of the os humeri and fcapu- 
 la. 5. Ginglimns, or hinge-like articulation, as in the 
 connection of tlie thigh bone with the tibia. The 
 cnarthroiii and arthrodia allow of motion to all iides ; 
 the ginglimus only of flexion and cxtenfion. 
 
 The fynarthrofis, or immoveable articulation, in- 
 cludes, 1. The future, when the two bones are in- 
 dented into each other, as is the cafe with the parie- 
 tal bones. 2. Gomphofis, when one bone is fixed in- 
 to another, in the manner ihc teeth are placed in 
 their fockets. 
 
 The term avifhiarthrofs is applied to thofe articula- 
 tions which partake both of the fynarthrofisand diar- 
 throljs, as is the cafe with the bones of the vertebrse, 
 uhich are capable of motion in a certain degree, al- 
 though they are firmly connected together by inter- 
 mediate cartilages. 
 
 What is called fyrnphyfs is the union of two [bones 
 into one ; as in the lower jaw, for inftance, which in 
 the foetus confifls of two dilli.. ft banes, but becomes 
 one in a more advanced age, by tjie ollification of the 
 uniting cartilage. 
 
 When bones are thus joined by the means of carti- 
 lages, the union is dyXci fynchondrofs ; when by li- 
 gaments, ^nfr/rcy//. 
 Of the Car- Cartilages arc white, folid, fmooth, and elallic fub- 
 tilagcs. fl.>Ticcs, between the hardnefs of bones and ligaments, 
 and feemingly of a fibrous texture. We are not able 
 to trace any velfels into their fubflance by injciflion, 
 nor are they ever found tinged in animals that have 
 been fed with madder. 
 
 They may be diftinguifhed into, ift, Thofe whicli 
 are connected with the bones ; and, adly, Thofe which 
 belong to other parts of the body. The firft fervc ei- 
 ther to cover the ends and cavities of bones intended 
 for motion, as in the articulations, where by their 
 fnioothnefs they facilitate motions, which the bones 
 alone could not execute with fo much freedom ; or 
 they fcrve to unite bones together, as in the fmphy- 
 fis pubis, or to lengthen them, as in the ribs. 
 
 Many of them offifying as we advance in life, their 
 number is lefs in the adult than in the foetus, and of 
 
 conrfe there are fewer bones in the old than in the Oftcology. 
 young fubjed. ^~ — ^— ' 
 
 Of the fecond clafsof cartilages, or thofe belonging 
 to the foft parts, we have inllances in the larynx, 
 where we find them ul'eful in the formation of the 
 voice, and for the attachment of mufcles. . 
 
 The periofleum is a tine membrane of a compafl eel- of the Pe. 
 lular texture, reflected from one joint to another, and riuftcum. 
 fcrving as a common covering to the bones. It has 
 fanguiferous and lymphatic vcllels, and is fupplicd with 
 nerves from the neighbouring parts. It adheres very 
 firmly to their furlace, and by its fmoothnefs facilitates 
 the motion of mufcles. It likewil'c fupports the vellels 
 that go to be diftributed througli the fubftance of the 
 bones, and may fcrve to flrtngthen the articulations. 
 At the extremities of bones, where it is found cover- 
 ing a cartilage, it has by fomc been improperly conli- 
 dered as a diltindl membrane, and mmcd piTic/rcnJri- 
 um. This, in its ufe and ftructure, rciembles the 
 periofleum. Where it covers the bones of the Ikull, 
 it has gotten the name oi piricraniutn. 
 
 The periofleum is not a produftion of the dura ma- 
 ter, as the ancients, and after them Havers, imagin- 
 ed ; nor are the bones formed by the offification of this 
 membrane, at leaft when it is in a found ftate, as fomc 
 late writers have fuppofcd. 
 
 The periofleum is deficient in the teeth above the 
 fockets, and in thofe parts of bones to which liga- 
 ments or tendons are attached. . 
 
 The marrow is a fat oily fubflance, filling the cavi- of the 
 ties of bones. In the great cavities of long bones it Marrow, 
 is of a much firmer conlillencc than in the cells of 
 their fpongy part. In the former it inclines fonie- 
 whal to a yellowifh tinge, and is of the conlifttncc of 
 fat ; in the latter it is more fluid, and of a red colour. 
 This difference in colour and coniiflence is owing to 
 accidental caufes : both kinds are of the fame nature, 
 and may both be defcribed under the common name of 
 marrow, though fome writers give the name only to 
 the fat-like fubflance, and call the other the medulla- 
 ry juice. 
 
 The marrow is contained in a very fine and tranfpa- 
 rent membrane, which is fupplied with a great num- 
 ber of blood vcllels, chiefly from the pcrioAcum. This 
 niembrana medullaris adheres to the inner furface of 
 the bones, and furnilhes an infinite number of minute 
 bags or veficles for ineloling the marrow, which is 
 likewife fupportcd in the cavities of the bones by the 
 long filaments of their reticular fabflance. 
 
 Befides the veiTels from the periofleum, the mem- 
 brana medullaris is furniihed with others, which in the 
 long bones may be fcen palling in near the extremi- 
 ties of the bone, and fending off numerous branches 
 that ramify through all the veficles of this membrane. 
 
 The bones, and the cells containing the marrow, 
 are likewife furniflied with lymphatics. By their 
 means the marrow, like the fat, may be taken up in 
 a greater quantity than it is fecreted ; and hence it is 
 that fo little is found in the bones of thofe who die 
 of lingering difeafes. 
 
 It is flill a matter of controverfy, Whether the mar- 
 row is fenfibleor not ? We are certainly not able to 
 trace any nerves to it ; and from this circumflance, 
 and its analogy to fat, Haller has ventured to conlider 
 it as infenfible. On the other hand, Duvcrncy affertsj 
 
 that
 
 Part I. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Ciftcology. that an injury done to this fubftancc inaliving animal 
 ''' * was attended with great pain. In this difputc phyli- 
 ologifts do not fecm to have fufficiently dii'criminated 
 between the marrow itl'elf and the mcmbranons ceils 
 in which it is contained. The former, like the fat, 
 being nothing more than a fecrcted, and of coiirfc an 
 inorganizcd, matter, may with propriety be ranked a- 
 inong the inftnfible parts, as much as inl'piiratcd mu- 
 cus or any other fecrcted matter in the body ; where- 
 as the mcnibrana medullaris being vafcular, though it 
 poflcU'es but an obfcure degree of feeling in a found 
 itate, is not perfeftly infenlible. 
 
 The marrow was formerly fuppofcd to be intended 
 for the nourilhmcnt and renewal of the bones j but 
 this dodlrine is now pretty generally and defervedly 
 exploded. It feenis probable that the marrow is to 
 the bones what fat is to the foft parts. They both 
 ferve for fome important purpofes in the animal oeco- 
 iiomy ; but their particular ufe has never yet been 
 clearly afccrtaincd. The marrow, from the tranfuda- 
 tion of the oil through the bones of a Ikelcton, is fup- 
 pofcd to diminifh their brittlenefs ; and Havers, who 
 has written profeil'edly on the bones, defcribes the ca- 
 nals by which the marrow is conveyed through every 
 part of their fnbflance, and divides them into longi- 
 tudinal and tranfverfe ones. He fpeaks of the hrll 
 as extending through the whole length of the bone ; 
 and of the latter, as the palfage by which the longi- 
 tudinal ones communicate with each other. The limi- 
 larity of thefc to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and 
 the tranfudation of the oil through the bones of the 
 Jkcleton, feems to prove that fome fuch palFages do 
 adually exift. 
 
 The fynovial glands are fmall bodies (d), fuppofcd 
 to be of a glandular ftructure, and exceedingly vafcu- 
 lar, fecreting a fluid of a clear mucilaginous nature, 
 %vhich ierves to lubricate the joints. They are placed 
 in fmall cavities in the articulations, fo as to be ca- 
 pable of being gently coniprcircd by the motion of 
 the joint, which exprelfes their juice in proportion to 
 the degrceof frielion. When the fynovia is wanting, 
 or is of too thick a confillence, the joint becomes fliff 
 and incapable of flexion or extcnfion. This is what 
 •J is termed anchvlofss. 
 Ofthellgj. Ligaments arc white, gliftening, inelallic bands, 
 mcnts. ofacompafl fubftance, more or lefs broad or thick, 
 and fervingto conncft the bones together. They are 
 diftinguiflied by different names adapted to their diffe- 
 rent forms and ufes. Thofe of the joints are called 
 either round or burfal. The round ligaments are white, 
 iendinous,and inelaftic. They are ftrongandflexible, 
 and are found only in the joint of the knee, and in 
 the articulation of the os femoris with the os innomi- 
 natum. The burfal, or capfular ligaments, furround 
 the whole joint like a purfe, and are to be found in 
 the articulations which allow motion every way, as 
 J in the articulation of the arm with the fcapula. 
 Of the Of thofe facs called Burf^ mucofx, a few were 
 
 BMrfs mu- known to former anatomifts, but by nsuch the greater 
 cofx, number have been fince I'ifcovercd by Dr Monro ( e ), 
 
 who obferves, that ihey arc to be met with in the ex- 
 
 687 
 
 tremities of the body only ; that many of them are Ofltology. 
 
 placed entirely on the inner liJcs of the tendons, be- ^^ « ' 
 
 twecn thefc and the bones. Many others cover not 
 only the inner, but the outer iidc:> of the tendons, or 
 arcinterpofed between the tendons and external pan^, 
 as well as between thofe and the bones. 
 
 Some are fituated between the tendons and external 
 pans only or chiefly, fome between contiguous ten- 
 dons, or between the lenc'ons or the ligamtiiti and the 
 joints. A few fuch facs are obfcrvcd where the procci- 
 fes of bones play upon the ligaments, or where one bone 
 plays upon another. Where two or more tendons are 
 contiguous, and afterwards feparate from each other, 
 we generally find a common burfa divided into branch- 
 es, with which it communicates ; and a few burfse of 
 
 contiguous tendons communicate with each other. 
 
 Some, in healthy children communicate with the ca- 
 vities of the joints ; and in many old people he hi<s 
 feen fuch communications formed by ufe or worn by 
 fricUon, independent of difcafc. 
 
 Their proper membrane is thin and tranfparent, but 
 very denfe, and capable of confining air or any other 
 fliud. It is joined to the neighbouring parts by the 
 common cellular fubftance. Between the burfaand the 
 hard fubHance of bone, a thin layer of cartilage or of 
 tough membrane is very generally interpofed. To the 
 cellular fubftance on the outlidc of the burfa, the adi- 
 pofc fubftance is conneded ; except where the burfa 
 covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, much expofcd to 
 preihire or fridion. 
 
 In feveral places a mafs of fat, covered with the con- 
 tinuation of the membrane of the burfa, projc.;ls into 
 its cavity. The edges of this are divided into fringes. 
 The inner iide of the membrane is fuiooth, anJ is 
 extremely llippery from the liquor fecrcted in it. - 
 
 Theftruetureofiheburfxbearsaftrongrefemblance Their 
 to the capfular ligamentsof the joints, i. The inner 1"i>3"re 
 layer of the ligament, like that of the burfa:, is thin ""''P*''':'' 
 and denfe. 2. It is connected to the external ligaments *?'!' '''" 
 by the common cellular fubftance. 3. Between itand the f„|„'ii~r" 
 bones, layers of cartilage, or the articular cartilages, ments of 
 arcinterpofed. 4. At the tides of the joints, where it ii the joiiu*. 
 not fubjeded to violent prefl'urc and friction, the adi- 
 pofe fubftance isconneded with thecetlular membrajic. 
 5. Within the cavities of the joints we obferve maifes 
 of fat projeding, covered with limilarblood-veirels,and 
 with limilar fimbriae hanging from their edges. 6. In 
 the knee the upper part of fuch a mafs of fat forms 
 what has been called the 7nucilag\nous gland of the inint , 
 and the under part projeds into the burfa behind the 
 ligament which ties the patella to the tibia. 7. The 
 liquor which lubricates the burfx has the fame colour, 
 confiftence, and properties as that of the joints, and 
 both are affcded in the fame manner by heat, mineral 
 acids, and ardent fpirits. 8. In fome places the burfae 
 conftantly communicate with the cavities of the joints, 
 in others they generally do fo ; from which we isay 
 infer a famcnefs of ftrudure. 
 
 When we examine the fimbria: common to the fatty- 
 bodies of the joints and burfjt, and which have been 
 fuppofcd to be the duds of glands lodged within the 
 
 niaiFes 
 
 (d) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances iu the joints, which arc ufually called 
 glanJi, arc any thii.g more than alfemblages of fat. 
 
 (e) \ictDiftriftiQn of the Burfa Mucf^t, &c.
 
 6BS 
 
 Oileolngy. 
 
 to 
 OfthcSkc- 
 Ictna. 
 
 II 
 
 Of the Of 
 •ccipitls. 
 
 A N A ^ 
 
 niail'csof fat, wc arc not able to Jifcovcr any glan^lu- 
 lar appearance within tliem. And alihongh \re ob- 
 fcivc many vcllcls difpcrlcd upon the membranes of 
 the fatty bodies and fimbrix ; and that wc cannot doubt 
 that thefc finibrixconlill of duds which contain a hi- 
 bricaiing licjuor, and can even prcfs fuch a liquor from 
 tlicni J yet their cavities and orifices are fo minute, 
 that thty are not dtfcovcrable even by the alliftancc o+' 
 iiiagnifying-glall'cs. Thtfc fimbria; appear, therefore, 
 to be duds like thofe of the urethra, which prepare a 
 mucilaginuus rujuor without the aliillanccof any knot- 
 ty or glandular organ. 
 
 Upon the whole, the fynovia feems to be furniflicd 
 by iiiviliblc cxhalent arteries by the duds of the fim- 
 brire, and by oil exuding from the adipofc follicles by 
 pallagcs not yet difcovcred. 
 
 The word Ikclcion, which by its etymology implies 
 finiply a dry preparation, is ufually applied to an :if- 
 fcmblage of all the bones of an animal united toge- 
 ther in their natural order. It is faid to be a natural 
 fkelcton, when the bones arc conncfted together by 
 theirown proper ligaments ; and an artificialone.when 
 they are joined by any other fubftancc, as wire, &c. 
 
 The (keleton is generally divided into the head, 
 trunk and extremities. The firfl divilion includes, 
 the hones of the cranium ami face. The bones of the 
 trunk are the fpine, ribs, fternum, and bones of the 
 pelvis. 
 
 The upper extremity on each fide confills of the 
 two bones of the flioulder, viz. the fcapula and cla- 
 vicle ; the bone of the arm, or OS humeri ; the bones 
 of the fore-arm, and thofe of the hand. 
 
 The lower extremity on each fide of the'trunk con- 
 fifls of the thigh-bone and the bones of the leg and 
 foot. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Bonis of the Head. 
 
 The head is of a roundilli figure, and fomewhat 
 oval (f). Jts greatcft diameter is from the forehead 
 to the occiput ; its upper part is called vertex, or 
 crown of the head ; its anterior or fore-part the face ; 
 and the upper part of this /;;/<;//'«/, or forehead; its 
 iides the temples ; its pofterior, or hind-part, the oc- 
 ciput; and its inferior part the bafu. 
 
 Tlie bones of the head may be divided into thofe 
 of the cranium and face. 
 
 § I. Bones of the Cranium and Face. 
 
 There are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the 
 coronal bone, or os frontis ; the two parietal bones, 
 or olla bregiiiatis ; the os occipitis ; the two temporal 
 bones ; the fphcnoid bone ; and the os ethmoides, or 
 cribriforme. 
 
 Of thefe, only the os occipitis and offa bregmatis 
 arc confidered as proper to the cranium ; the reft being 
 common both to the cranium and face. 
 
 O M 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Thefe bones arc all harder at their furface than in Ofteology. 
 
 their middle ; and on this account they are divided ^~ — ■^ ' 
 
 into two tables, and a middle fpongy fubllance called 
 diploe. ,j 
 
 In this, as in all the other bones, we fliall confider of the Os 
 its figure, llruclure, procefTcs, dcprcfiions, and cavi- Frontis. 
 tics ; and ihe manner in which it is articulated with 
 the other bones. 
 
 The OS frontis has Ibmc refcmblance in fhape to the 
 fliell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its con- 
 cave fide being turned towards the brain. This bone 
 in the places where it is united to the temporal bones, 
 is very thin, and has there nodiplije. It is likcwife 
 exceedingly thin in that part of the oibit of the eye 
 which is ncarefl to the i\ofe. Hence it is, that a 
 wound in the eye, by a fword or any other pointed 
 inflrument.isfomctimesprodudiveofimmcdiatedeat.'i. 
 In thefe cafes, the fword palling through the weak 
 part of tlie bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the 
 nerves at their origin ; or perhaps opens fome blood- 
 veifel, the confequences of which arc foon fatal. 
 
 We obfervc on the exterior furface of this bone five 
 apophyfcs or procelics, which are cafily to be dilUn- 
 guilhed. One of thefc is phced at the bottom and 
 narrowcll part of the bone, and is called the nafal 
 procefs, from its fupporting the upper end of the 
 bones of the nofc. The four others are called angu- 
 lar or orbitar proceflcs. They alFifl to form the orbits, 
 which are the cavities on which the eyes are placed. 
 In each of thefe orbits there are two proceflcs, one at 
 the interior or great angle, and the other at the exte- 
 rior or little angle of the orbit. They are called the 
 angular procelFcs. Between thefe a ridge is extended 
 in form of an arch, and on this the eye-brows arc 
 placed. It is called the orbitar or fupcrciliary ridge, 
 and in fome mcafure covers and defends the globe of 
 the eye. There is a hole in this for the pailage of the 
 frontal vclTels and nerves. This arch is interrupted 
 near the nofc by a fmall pit, in which the tendon of 
 the mufculus obliquus major of the eye is fixed. From 
 the under part of each fupcrciliary ridge a thin plate 
 runs a conliderable way backwards, and has the name 
 of orbitar ; the external and fore-part of this plate 
 forms a finuolity for lodging the lacrymal gland. Be- 
 tween the orbitar plates there is a large difcontinuatioii 
 of the bone, which is filled up by the cribriform part 
 of the os ethmoides. 
 
 On examining the inner furface of this bone at it^ 
 under and middle part, we obferve an elevation in form 
 of a ridge, which has been called ihe fpi'ious procefs ; 
 it afccnds for fome way, dividing the bone into two 
 confidcrable folfae, in which the anterior lobes of the 
 brain arc placed. To a narrow furrow in this ridge 
 is attached the extremity of the falx, as the membrane 
 is called, which divides the brain in tot wo hemifpheres. 
 The furrow becominggradually wider, is continued to 
 the upper and back part of the bone. It has the falx 
 
 3 fixed 
 
 (>■) The bones of the foetus being perfedly diflind, and themufclesin young perfonsnot afting much, the 
 lliape of the head has been fuppofed to depend much on the management of children when very young. Vc- 
 falius, who has remarked the difference in people of different nations, obferves, for inftance, that the head of a 
 Turk is conical, from ihe e.Tly ale of the turban ; whilft that of an Englilhman is flattened by the chin-flay. 
 Some of the hteff phyt'iologifts fnppofc, with good reafon, that this difference is chiefly owing to certain na- 
 lural caiifes with which we are as yet unacquainted.
 
 Part I. 
 
 ANA 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 6So 
 
 13 
 
 Of the 
 
 pirietul 
 booei> 
 
 ideology, fixed to it, and part of the loagitudinal finus lodged in 
 
 V ' it. BcliJcs the two follas, there arc many deprcliions, 
 
 which appear like digital imprcllions, and owe their for- 
 mation [o the prominent circumvoUuions of the brain. 
 In the fuetus, the forehead is conipofcdof two dif- 
 tinit bones ; fo that in them thcfagittal future reaches 
 from the os occipiiis to the nofc. This bone is almofl 
 every where compofed of two tables and a diploe. 
 Thefe two tables fcparating from each other under the 
 eyes, form two cavities, one on each fide of the face, 
 called the frontal llnufcs. Thefe finufcs arc lined 
 with a foft membrane, called vtembrana pituitaria. In 
 thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is conftantly 
 palling through two fmall holes into the nollrils, which 
 it ferves to nioiflen. 
 
 The OS frontis is joined by future to many of the 
 bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, maxillary, and 
 temporal bones ; to the os ethmoides ; os fphcnoidcs ; 
 OS unguis ; and olfa nafi. The future which connefts 
 it with the parietal bones is called the coronal future. 
 The parietal bones are two in number ; they are ve- 
 ry thin, and evcH tranfparent in fome places. The 
 particular figure of each of thefe bones is that of an 
 irregular fquarc, bordered with indentations through 
 its whole circumference, except at its lower part. It 
 will be eafily conceived, that thefe bones which com- 
 pofe the fuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and 
 cover the greatcft part of the brain, form a kind of 
 vault. On their inner furface we obfcrve the marks 
 of the veflTcls of the dura mater ; and at their upper 
 edge the groove for the fuperior longitudinal iinus. 
 
 The oUa parietalia are joined to each other by the 
 fagittal future ; to the osfphenoidcs and olTa temporum 
 by the fquamoiis future ; tothcosoccipitisby thelamb- 
 <loidal future ( o ), fo called from its rcfemblancc to the 
 Greek letter lambda ; and to the os frontis by the co- 
 ronal future. 
 
 In the foeiui, the parietal bones are fcparated from 
 the middle of the divided os frontis by a portion of the 
 cranium then unoinfied. 
 
 The occipital bone forms the poflerior and inferior 
 cipitalbone parts of the IkuU ; it approaches nearly to the Ihape of 
 a lozenge, and is indented throughout three parts of 
 its circumference. 
 
 Thereisaconliderablc hole in the inferior portion 
 of this bone, called the Joramen viagnum, through 
 which the medulla oblongata pall'es into the fpinc. — 
 The nervi accefforii, and vertebral arteries, likcwife 
 pafs through it. Behind the condyles arc two holes 
 for the paflagc of cervical veins into the lateral finu- 
 fes ; and above them are two others for the pallagc of 
 the eighth pair and accelTory nerves out of the head. 
 At the fides, and a little on the anterior part of the 
 foramen magnum, are two procelfes, called the con- 
 dyles, one on each lidc ; they are of an oval figure, and 
 are covered with cartilage. 
 
 The external furface of this bone has a large tranf- 
 verfc arched ridge, under which the bone is very irre- 
 gular, where it aftbrds attachment to fcveral mufclfs. 
 On examining its inner furface, wc may obfcrve two 
 ridges in form of a crufs ; one afcending from near the 
 foramen magnum to the top of the bone j the upper 
 Vol. I. 
 
 14 
 
 Of the oc- 
 
 end of this in which the falx is fixed, is hollow, for Ofteolo^ry. 
 
 lodging the fuperior longitudinal fmus, and the under "' ' 
 
 end has the third procels of the dura mater fixed to it. 
 The other ridge, which runs horizontally, is likewifc 
 hollow for containing the lateral finufcs. Four folia 
 are formed by the crofs, two above and two below. In 
 the former arc placed the pofleriur lobes of the brain, 
 and in the latter the lobes of the cerebellum. 
 
 At the bafis of the cranium, wc obferve the cunei- 
 form procefs (which is the name given to the great 
 apophyfis at the fore part of this bone) ; it ferves for 
 the reception of the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The os occipitis is of greater llrcnth and thicknefs 
 than cither of the other bones of the iiead, though ir- 
 regularly fo ; at its inferior part, where it is thinitcA, 
 it is covered by a great number of mufcles. 
 
 This bone, from its fituation, being more liable ta 
 be injured by falls, than any other bone of the head, 
 nature has wifely given it the greatefl ftrcngth at its 
 upper part, where it is moll expofed to danger. 
 
 It is joined to the parietal bones by (he lambdoidal 
 future, and to the olTa temporum, by the additamen- 
 tum of the temporal future. It is likewife connettcd 
 to the os fphenoides by the cuneiform procefs. It is 
 by means of the os occipitis that the head is united to 
 the trunk, the two condyles of this bone being con- 
 nefted to the fuperior oblique procelfes of the firft ver- 
 tebra of the neck. li 
 
 There arc two temporal bones, one on each fide. — OfthetciUf 
 We maydillinguilh in them two parts ; one of which P""' 
 is called x\\tfquamous ox fcaly part, and the other pan '""'*•' 
 petrofa from its hardnefs. This lad is Ihapcd like a 
 pyramid. 
 
 Each of thefe divifions affords proceffes and cavities? 
 externally there are three procelfes ; one anterior, 
 called the zygomatic procefs ; one poftcrior, called the 
 majhid 01 7namillary procifs, from its rcfemblancc to a 
 nipple; and one inferior, called ihc jlyhifiproccfi, bc- 
 caufe it is Ihaped like a ftiletto, or dagger. 
 
 The cavities are, i. The meatus auditorius cxtcr- 
 iius. 2. A large folfa which ferves for the articulation 
 of the lower jaw; it is before the meatus auditorius, 
 and immediately under the zygomatic procefs. 3. The 
 ftylo-maftoid hole, fo called from its fituation between 
 the ftyloid and maftoid procelfes ; it is likcwife ftyled 
 the ai]uaedu6l of Fallopius, and affords a palfage to the 
 poriio dura of the auditory, orfeventjj pair of nerves. 
 4. Below, and on the fore-part of the lalf foramen, wc 
 obferve part of the jugular folTa, in which the begin- 
 ning of the internal jugular vein is lodged. Anterior 
 and fuperior to this folia is the orifice of a foramen, 
 through which palfes the carotid artery. This foramen 
 runs firft upwards and then forwards, forming a kind 
 of elbow, and terminates at the end of the os pctro- 
 fum. — At this part of each temporal bone, wc may ob- 
 fcrve the openingof the f^uflachian tube, a canal whii h 
 palfes from the car to the back part of the nofc. 
 
 In examining the internal furface of ihcfe bones, wc 
 may remark the triangular figure of tlieir petrous pnrt 
 which fcparaies two foll'^ ; one fuperior and anterior, 
 the other inferior and pollcrior: the latter of t'.ul'e 
 compofcs part of the folfa, in which the cercbelliini i^ 
 4 S placed ;■ 
 
 (g) The lambdoidal future is fometimcs very irregular, being compofed of many fmall futures, whi:h furro . 
 fo many little bones called C'lfa tr;^u:tra, though perhaps improperly, as they arc not always iriang'Jar,
 
 6go 
 
 A N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 i6 
 Of the OS 
 fphcaoidcs 
 
 oncology, placed ; and the former, a portion of the leafl folFa for 
 
 ' ^ the bads of the brain. On the podcrior fide of the 
 
 parspctrofa, wcobfcrvc the meatus auditoruoiiitcrnus, 
 into which enters the double nerveof the fcvenih pair. 
 On the under lide of this proccfs, part of a hole ap- 
 pears, which is common to tlic temporal and occipital 
 bones ; through it the lateral fmus, the eighth p.iir, 
 and acccllbry nerves, pafs out of the head. 
 
 The pars petrofa contains fcveral little bones called 
 the bones of the car ; which, as they do not enter into 
 the formation of the cranium, Ihall be defcribcd when 
 we are treating of ihe organs of hearing. 
 
 The olfa temporum arc joined to the offa malaruni, 
 by the zygomatic futures ; to the parietal bones, by the 
 fquamous futures ; to the os occipitis, by the lambdoi- 
 dal future ; and to the fphenoid bone, by the future of 
 that name. 
 
 This bone, from its fituation araidfl the other bones 
 of the head, has been fomctimes called curitifortue. It 
 is of a very irregular figure, and has been compared to 
 a bat with its wings extended. 
 
 It is commonly divided into its middle pan or body, 
 and its fides or wings. 
 
 The forepart of the body has a fpinc or ridge, which 
 makes part of the feptuni narium. The upper part of 
 each wing forms a Iharc of the temple. The fore part 
 of tliis belongs to the orbit; while the under and 
 bacJc part, termed Jphior/s frocefi, is lodged in the bafe 
 of the ikull at the point of tlie pars petrofa. But two 
 uf the moll remarkable procell'es are the pterygoid or 
 aliform, one on each fide of the bodyjof the bone, and at 
 110 great dillancc from it. Each of thefcproccifes is di- 
 vided into two wings.and of th cfc the exterior one is the 
 wideft. The other terminates in a hook-like proccfs. 
 
 The internal furface of this bone affords three foflae. 
 Two of thefe are formed by the wings of the bone, 
 and make part of the lelfer folFas of the bafis of the 
 cranium. The third, which is fmallcr, is on the top 
 of the body of the bone ; and is called ce//a turcica, 
 from its refemblance to a Turkifli faddle. This foifa, 
 in which the pituitary gland is placed, has poUeriorly 
 and anteriorly procelles called the cttnoid proci^es. 
 
 There are twelve holes in this bone, viz. fix on each 
 fide. The firfl is the palTage of the optic nerve and 
 ocular artery ; the fecond, or large (lit tranfmits the 
 third, fourth, fixih, and firfl part of the fifth pair of 
 nerves with the ocular vein ; the third hole gives paf- 
 fage to the fecond branch of the fifth pair ; and the 
 fourth hole to the third branch of the fifth pair of 
 nerves. The fifth hole is the pafTage of the artery of 
 the dura mater. The iixth hole is fituated above the 
 pterygoid proccfs of the fphenoid bone; through itare- 
 jfcded branch ofthefecoud part ofthe fifth pairpaifes. 
 
 Within the fubflance of the os fphenoides there are 
 two finufcs feparated by a bony plate. They are lined 
 with the pituitary membrane ; and like the frontal fi- 
 nufcs, feparate a mucus which palfcs into tlie nollrils. 
 
 The OS fphcBoidcs is joined to all the bones of the 
 cranium ; and likcwife to the oll'a maxillaria, offa ma- 
 larum, olla palati, and vomer. 
 
 This bone makes part ofthe bafis of the fkull, af- 
 fifls in forming the orbits, and affords attachment to 
 feveral mufcles. 
 
 The os ethmoides is fituated at the fore part of the 
 fcafis of the cranium, and is of a very irregular figure. 
 
 Fromthegreatnumberofholcswith which it is pierced, oftfology; 
 it is fomeiimes called os cribrijarvic or fievc-likc bone. ' ^-^ ' 
 
 It confills of a middle part and two fides. The mid- oftheoi 
 die part is formed of a thin bony plate, in which are ethmodiet 
 an infinite number of holes that afford a paifage tofila- or cribri- 
 mentsof the olfadory nerve. From the middle of this forme, 
 plate, both on theoutlidc and from within, thereriles 
 up a proccfs, which may be ealily diflinguifhed. The 
 inner one is called crijla galti, from its fuppofcd refem- 
 blance to a cock's comb. To this proccfs the falx of 
 the dura mater is attached. The exterior proccfs, 
 which has the fame common bafis as the crifia galli, is 
 a fine lamella which is united to the vomer ; and di- 
 vides the cavity of the noftrils, though unequally, it 
 being generally a little inclining to one fide. 
 
 The lateral parts of this boncare compofedof a cel- 
 lular fubflance ; and thefe cells are fo very intricate, 
 that their figure or number cannot be defcribcd. Ma- 
 ny writers have on this account called this part of the 
 bone the labyrinth. Thefe cells are externally covered 
 with a very thin bony lamella. This part of the bone 
 is called the oi planum, and forms part of the oribt. 
 
 The dilTereni cells of this bone, which are nume- 
 rous, and which are every where lined with the pitui- 
 tary membrane, evidently fcrve to enlarge the cavity 
 of the nofe, in which the organ of fmelling refides. 
 
 This bone is joined to the os fphenoides, os frontis, 
 offa maxillaria, olfa palati, oifa naii, offa unguis, and vo- 
 mer. 
 
 The ancients, who confidcred the brain as the feat 
 of all the humours,imagined that this vifcusdifcharged 
 its redundant nioiflure through the holes ofthe ethmoid 
 bone. And the vulgar Hill think, that abfceffes of 
 the brain difchargethemfelves through the mouth and 
 cars, and that fnuffis Jiable to get into the head ; but 
 neither fnufFnor the matter of an abfcefs are more ca- 
 pable of palling through the cribriform bone, than the 
 ferofity which they fuppofcd was difcharged through 
 it in a common cold. All the holes of the ethmoid bone 
 are filled up with the branches of the olfactory nerve. 
 Its innei; part is likewife covered with the dura ma- 
 ter.anditscellsare every where lined with the pituitary 
 membrane ; fo that neither matter nor any other fluid 
 can pofTibly pais through this bone either externally 
 or internally. Matterisindeed fomctimes difcharged 
 through the noflrils : but the feat of the difeafc is in 
 the finufcs of the nofe, and not in the brain ; and im- 
 poflhumatians are obfcrvcd to take place in the ear, 
 which fuppurateand difchargethemfelves externally. 
 
 Before we leave the bones ofthe head, we with to 
 make fome general obferv.-'tions on its ftruiJlure and fi- 
 gure. — As the cranium might have been compofed of 
 a lingle bone, the articulation of its feveral bones be- 
 ing abfolutely without motion, it may be afked per- 
 haps, Why fuch a multiplicity of bones, and fo great 
 number of futures ? Many advantages may polfibly « 
 
 arife from this plurality of bones and futures, which 
 may not jret have been obferved. Wc are able, how- 
 ever, to point out many ufeful ends, which could only 
 be accompliihed by this peculiarity of flrudlure — In 
 this, as in all the other works of nature, the great 
 wifdom of the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail ta 
 excite our admiration and gratitude. 
 
 The cranium, by being divided into feveral bones, 
 grows much fafter andwith greater facility, than if it 
 
 was
 
 Part I. ANA' 
 
 Oftcologjr. was compofedof one piece only. In the fcrtus, the 
 " ^ ' bones,as we have before obferved, are perfectly dirtinft 
 from each other. The oilification begins in the middle 
 of each bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfe- 
 rence. Hence the oililication, and of courfe the in- 
 crcafc of the head, is carried on from an infinite num- 
 ber of points at the fame time, and the bones confc- 
 qiiently approach each other in the fame proportion. 
 To illuftratc thisdodrine more clearly, if it can want 
 ftirther illullration, fuppofe it necelFary for the parietal 
 bones which compofe the upper part of the head, to 
 extend their offification, and form the fore part of the 
 headlikewifc. Is it not evident, that this procefs would 
 be much more tedious than it is now, when the os 
 frontis and the parietal bones are both growing at the 
 fame time ? Hence it happens, that the heads of young 
 people, in which the bones begin to touch each other, 
 increafc (lowly ; and that the proportionate increafe 
 of the volume of the head is greater in three months 
 in the foetus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four months 
 at the age of fourteen or fifteen years. 
 
 The futures, cxclii/ive of their advantages in fu- 
 fpcnding the procelles of the dura niatcr, are evident- 
 ly of great utility in preventing the too great extent 
 
 of fractures of the (kull Suppofc, for inllance, that 
 
 by a fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium be- 
 comes fraflured. The fifllire, which in a head compo- 
 fed of only one bone, would be liable to extend itfclf 
 through the whole of it, is checked, and fometimes 
 perhaps flopped by the firll future it meets, and the 
 cfFcds of the injury are confined to the bone on which 
 the blow was received. Ruyfch indeed, and fome 
 others, will not allow the futures to be of any fuch 
 ufe ; but cafes have been met with where they feemed 
 to have had this effect, and in young fubjefls their uti- 
 lity in this refpe(5l mufl be ftill more obvious. 
 
 The fpherical fliape of the head feems likewifc to 
 render it more capable of refifting external violence 
 than any other fliape would do. In a vault, the parts 
 mutually fupport and ftrengthen each oihcr, and this 
 happens in the cranium. 
 
 § 2. Proper Bones of the Fact. 
 
 THEface, which coniiflsof a great number of bones, 
 is commonly divided into the upper and lower jaws. 
 The upper jaw coniifts of thirteen bones, exclufive of 
 the teeth. Of thefe, Iix are placed on each lidc of 
 the maxilla fupcrior, and one in the middle. 
 
 The bones, which are in pairs, are the offa mala- 
 
 rum, olfa maxillaria, oUa nafi, ofla unguis, olla palati, 
 
 and oifa fpongiofa inferiora. The fingle bone is the 
 
 ,- vomer. 
 
 Of the olTa ,. Thefc are the prominent fquare bones which are 
 
 nialarum, placed under the eyes, forming part of the orbits and 
 
 the upper parts of the checks. Earh of them affords 
 
 three furfaccs ; one exterior and a little convex ; a fe- 
 
 cond fupcrior and concave, forming the inferior part 
 
 and fides of the orbit ; and a third pofterior, irregular, 
 
 and hollowed for the lodgement of the lower part of 
 
 the temporal mufcle. 
 
 The angles of each bone form four procelFes, two 
 of which may be called orhitar proce[fes ; of thefe the 
 upper one is joined by future to the os frontis, and 
 that below to the maxillary bone. The third is con- 
 nciSled with the oafphenoije* by means of the tranf- 
 
 r O M Y. 691 
 
 vcrfc future ; and the fourth is joined to the zygoma- 0!Ico!o;jt. 
 
 tic procefs of the temporal bone, with which it forms ' ^ — ' 
 
 the zygoma. j„ 
 
 Thefe bones, wliicli are of a very irregular figure. Of the offi 
 are fo called becaufc they form the mod conliderable maxilbrii 
 portion of the upper jaw. They are two in number, ''"per'or"' 
 and generally remain dillinft through life. 
 
 Of the many procclTcs which are to be fecn on thefe 
 bones, and which arc connected w ith the bones of the 
 face and fkull, we iliall defcribe only the moft remark- 
 able. 
 
 One of thefc proceffes is at the upper and fore part 
 of ihe bone, making part of the fide of the nofe, and 
 called the nafai procefs. Another forms a kind of cir- 
 cular fwecp at liic inferior part of the bone, in which 
 are the alveoli or focktts for the teeth : this is called 
 the alveolar procefs. A third procefs is united to the 
 OS malas on each ilde. Between this and the nafal 
 procefs there is a thin plate, which forms a Ihare of 
 the orbit, and lies over a paflagc for the fupcrior max- 
 illary velfcls and nerves The alveolar procefs has 
 
 poftcriorly a conliderable tuberofity on its internal 
 furface, called the maxillary tuberofity. 
 
 Behind the alveolar procefs we obferve two hori- 
 zontal lamella;, which uniting together, form part of 
 the roof of the mouth, and divide it from the nofe. 
 The hollownefs of the roof of the mouth is owing to 
 this partition's being feaied fomew hat higher than the 
 alveolar procefs — At the fore part of the horizontal 
 lamellae there is a hole callcd/ortfw?«i/;<r//;"faTO,throng!i 
 which fmall blood-velfels and nerves go between the 
 mouth and nofe. 
 
 In viewing thefe bones internally, we obferve a foffa 
 in the inferior portion of the nafal procefs, which, 
 with the OS unguis and os fpongiofum inferius, forms 
 a palTage for the lachrymal duft. 
 
 Where thefe two bones are united to each other, 
 they projeft fomewhat upwards and forwards, leaving 
 between them a furrow, into which the lower portion 
 of the fcptum nail is admitted. 
 
 Each of thefe bones being hollow, a confiderable 
 finus is formed under its orbitar part. This cavity, 
 which is ufually named after Highmore, though it 
 was dcfcribed by Fallopius and others before his time, » 
 
 is lined with the pituitary membrane. It is intended 
 for the fame purpofes as the other finufesof the nofe, 
 and opens into the noflrils. 
 
 The oiTa maxillaria are conneded wi[h the greater 
 part of the bones of the face and cranium, and aflifl in 
 forming not only the cheeks, but likewife the palate, 
 nofe, and orbits. j, 
 
 The olfa nafi form two irregular fquares. They arc Of t>!c offa 
 thicker and narrower above than below. Externally '"'"'• 
 they arc fomewhat convex, and internally lligluly 
 concave. Thefe bones conftitutc the upper part of tiic 
 nofe. At their fore part they are united toeach other, 
 above to the os frontis, by their fides to the olfa max- 
 illaria fupcriora, pofleriorly and interiorly to the fep- 
 tum nariiim, and below to the cartilages that compofe 
 the reft of the noftrils. ,, 
 
 Thefe little tranfparent bones owe rlieir name to of the off* 
 their fuppofcd refemblance to a finger-nail. Sometimes uiiguh. 
 they are called offa lachrytnalia, from their concurring 
 with the nafal procefs of each maxillary boneinform- 
 ind a lodgement for the lachrymal fac and duft. 
 
 4 S 2 The
 
 692 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 ■O&toh-gj, The oiTa unguis are of an irregular figure. Their 
 
 *~~^' ■ cxieriKil furfacc conlins of two liiiouth parts, dividtJ 
 
 by a middle ridge. One of thcfc parts, which is coii- 
 cayc and luartlt to ihc iiofc, I'ervcs to fupport the la- 
 ciiryuial fac and part of the lachrymal diift. The 
 other, whicli is Hat, forms afuiall part of the orbit. 
 
 £ach of thcfc bones is connecled with thcosfrontis, 
 es ethnioidcs, and os maxillare ftipcrius. 
 Of the ofTa Thtfc bones, which arc fituaicd at the back part of 
 
 paUti 
 
 »4 
 
 Of the vo- 
 
 the roof of the mouth, between the os fplienoidcs and 
 the olla maxillaria fiipcricra, arc of a very irregular 
 ftiape, and fcrvc t . form the nafal and maxillary folfa, 
 and a fniall portion of ihc orbit. Where they arc uni- 
 ted to each other, they rife tip into a fpiae on their 
 internal furface. This fpinc appears to be a continua- 
 tion of that of the fuperior maxillary bones, and helps 
 to form the fcptum narium. 
 
 Thefc bones are joined to the oiia maxillaria fupc- 
 riora, os ethmoidcs, os fphenoides, and vomer. 
 
 Tills bone derives its name from its refeniblance to 
 a. plonghlhare. It is a long and liat bone, foniewliat 
 thicker at its back than at its fore part. At its upper 
 part wc obfcrve a furrow extending through its whole 
 lengtli. The pofberior and laigeft part of thi; furrow 
 receives a procefs of the fphcnoid bone. From this 
 the furrow advances forwards, and becoming narrow- 
 er and fliallower, receives fonic part of the nafal la- 
 mella ethmoidea ; the reft fcrvcs to fupport the mid- 
 dle cartilage of the nofe. 
 
 The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the 
 nafal fpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which 
 we mentioned in our dcfcription of the oila palaii. 
 
 The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os etli- 
 moides, olfa maxillaria fuperiora, and olTa palati. It 
 forms part of the feptum narium, by dividing the bsck 
 part of the nofe into two noflrils. 
 
 The parts which are ufually defcribcd by this name, 
 do not feciu to defcrve to be diftinguilhed as dillinct 
 bones, except in young fubjeds. They confilt of a 
 fpoiigy lamella in each noflril, whicli is united to the 
 fpongy lamina of the ethmoid bone, of wkich they arc 
 by fome conlidered as a part. 
 
 Each of thefc lamellae is longcll from behind for- 
 wards ; with its convex furface turned towards the 
 feptum narium, and its concave part towards the max- 
 illary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal 
 dud, into the nofe. 
 
 Thefc bones are covered with the pituitary mem- 
 brane ; and, befides their conneiJlion with the ethmoid 
 bone, arc joined to the ofla maxillaria fuperiora, olfa 
 palati, and olfa unguis. 
 
 The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which in its 
 msxiUa in- '^^P^ rcfembles a horfe-llioe, confills of two diftinct 
 feiior. bones in the foetus ; but thefe unite together foon af- 
 ter birth, fo as to form only onebone. Theupperedgc 
 of this bone, like theos maxillare fupcrius, has an al- 
 veolar proceis, furniflicd wilhfockets for the teeth. 
 
 On each fide the pnfterior part of the bone rifes al- 
 moft perpendicularly into two procelles. Tlie highcft 
 of ihtfe, calhd the coronoid procefs, is pointed and 
 thin, and ferves for iheinfcrtion of the temporal nuif- 
 cle. The other, or condyloid procefs, as it is calkJ, 
 is fhorter and thicker, and ends in an oblong rounded 
 head, which is received into a folfa of the temporal 
 hone, and is formed for a moveable articulation witli 
 
 Of tha ofTa 
 
 fpongiol'a 
 
 hJttioTi. 
 
 i6 
 
 dfthe 
 
 the cranium. This joint is furnifhed with a moveable Ofteolojy. 
 
 cartilage. At the bottom of each coronoid procefs, ^— ~ 
 
 on its inner part, we obfcrve a foramen extending un- 
 der the roots of all the teeth, and terminating at the 
 outer furfate of the bone near the chin, tach of 
 thefe canals tranfmiis an artery, vein, and nerve, 
 from which branches arc fcnt ott to the teeth. 
 
 The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of mo- 
 tion. Ly lliding the condyles from the cavity towards 
 the eminences on each tide, we bring it horizontally 
 forwards, as in biting ; or we may bring the condyles 
 only forward, and tilt the rell of the jaw backward, 
 as in opening the mouih. We art likewife able to 
 l!i,;c the condyles alternately backwards and forwards 
 from the cavity to the eminence, and vUe verfa, as in 
 grinding the teeth. The cartilages, by adaptingthem- 
 felves to the ditttrent inequalities in thefe fcveral mo- 
 tions of the jaw, ferve to fecure the articulation, and 
 to prevent any injuries trom friction. 
 
 The alveolar procelTes are compcfcd of an outer and 
 inner bony plate, united together by thin partitions, 
 whiirh at the fore part of the jaw diridc the procelfei 
 into as many fuckets as there are teeth. But at the 
 back part of the jaw, where the teeth have more iha« 
 one root, wc find a diflind cell for each root. In 
 both jaws thefe procelles begin to be formed with the 
 teeth ; they likewife accompany them in thcirgrowth, 
 and gradually difappear when the teeth are removed. 
 
 \ 3. Of the Teeth. 
 
 17 
 
 The teeth areb' iiesot a particular flrnflure, form- Of the 
 ed for the purpofes of mallication and the articulation teeth< 
 of the voice. It will be ncctffary to confider their 
 compolition and figure, their number and arrange- 
 ment, and the time and order in which they appear. 
 
 In each tooth wc may dillinguilh a body, a neck, 
 and a root or fangs. 
 
 The body of the tooth is that part which appears 
 above the gums. The root is fixed into the focket, 
 and the neck is the middle part between the two. 
 
 The teeth are compofed of two fubftances, viz. ena- 
 mel and bone. The enamel, or the vitreous or corti- 
 cal part of the tooth, is a white and very hard and 
 comp.icl fubltance peculiar to the teeth, and appears 
 fibrous or llriated when broken. This fubllance is 
 thickeft on the grinding furface, and becoming gradu- 
 ally thinner, terminates inftnfibly at the neck of the 
 tooch. Ruyfch * affirmed, that he could trace the • Ttt/tur 
 arteries into the hardefl part of the teeth ; Licwen- 10. no. 17. 
 hoeck \ fufpetied the fibres of the enamtl to be fo t '*'■'•'"'• 
 manyvelfels; and Monro f fays, he has frequently ^'•''"■- ""- 
 injeded the vcirds of the teeih in chibiren, fo as to*^"^""'' '^" 
 make the infidc of the cortex appear ptrfcdly red. * ^„at. ,f 
 But is certain, that it is not tinged by a madder diet, <i, Humcn 
 and that no injection will ever reach it, fo that it has Bcna. 
 no appearance ot being vaftular \. § Hunur 
 
 The bony part, which com pofcs the inner fubftance on /i< T«/4. 
 of the body, neck, and root of the tonih, rcfembles 
 other bones in its (Iructure, but it is much harder than 
 the moft compaft part of bones in general. As a 
 tooth when once formed receives no tinge from a mad- 
 der diet, and as the minutefl injcdlions do not pene- 
 trate into its fi:bflancc, this part of a tooth has, like 
 the enamel, been fuppofcd not to be vafcular. But 
 when we confider that the fangsof a tooth are invefted 
 
 hy
 
 Part I. ANA' 
 
 Ofttolo^. by a periofteum, and that the fwellings of ihcfc fangs 
 
 "^ ^ ' are analogous to the fwcliings of other bones, we may 
 
 reafonably conclude, that there is a limilariiy of ftriic- 
 ture ; and that this bo-iy part has a cirrulation through 
 its fiibftancc, although (roiii its bardncfs we arc un- 
 able to denionftratc lis vcllicls. 
 
 In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into which 
 enter an artery, vein, anii nerve. This cavity begins 
 by a finall opening, and becoming Lrger, teruiinates 
 in the body of the tooth. In advanced life this hole 
 fomeiimes clofcs, and the tooth is of courfe rendered 
 infenlible. 
 
 The perioftenm furrounds the teeth from their 
 fangs to a little beyond their bony fockets, where we 
 find it adhering to the gums. This membrane, while 
 it inclofes the teeth, iervcs at the fame time to line 
 the fockets, fo that it may be confidered as common 
 to both. 
 
 The teeth are likewifc fecured in their fockets by 
 means of the gums ; a red, vafcuhr, firm, and elaftic 
 fubftance, that pofleflcs but little fenlibility. In the 
 gums of infants we find a hard ridge extending thro' 
 their whole length, bat no fuch ridge is tobcfecnin 
 old people w^ho have loft thtir teeih. 
 
 The number of the teeth in both jaws at full matu- 
 rity, ufually varies from twi nty-cight to thirty-two. 
 They arccomm nly JividcJ into three dalles, viz. in- 
 ciforcs, canini, and grinders .-^r mo'arcs ( h ) . The in- 
 ciforcs arc ihc four teeth in the fore part of each jaw. 
 They have each of ihcmiwo furfaccs ; oneanteriorand 
 convex, the other pofterior and (lighily concave, both 
 of which terminate in a (liarp edge. They are called 
 tnclfor(s from their ufc in dividing the food. 1 hey 
 are ufnalty broader and thicker iiithe upper than in the 
 under jaw ; and, by being placed fomewhat oblique- 
 ly, generally fall over ihe latter. 
 
 1 hecani'iidci ive thtir name from their refemblance 
 to a dog's tufks, being the longefl of all the teeth. 
 We find one on each (idc of the inciforcs, fo that there 
 are two . anini in each jaw. Their fang refembles that 
 of the incifores, but is much larger ; and in their (hape 
 they appear like an incifor wiili its edge Worn off, fo 
 as to terminate in a narrow point. 
 
 Thefetecih not being calculated for cutting and di- 
 viding the food like the incifores, or for grinding it 
 like the molares, feem to be intended for laying hold 
 of fnbllances (i). 
 
 The molares or grinders, of which there are ten in 
 each jaw, are fo called, beca .fc from their (hape and 
 fize ihey are fitted for grinding the food. Kach of 
 the incifores and canini is furniihed only with one 
 fang ; but in the mohrcs of the under jaw we con- 
 flantly find two fangs, an 1 in thofc of the upper jaw 
 three fangs Thelc fan^s arc fonictinies feparatcd 
 into two points, an! ea^h of ihefe points has fomc- 
 times been defcribed as a diflinot fan£. 
 
 O M 
 
 693 
 
 The two firflof the molares, or loofc ntartft toihe oacolopy. 
 canine teeth on each tide, differ from the other three, ^ ' 
 and are with great propriety named bicufpidct by Mr 
 Hunter. They have fometiraes only one roor, and 
 feem to be of a middle nature between the incifores 
 and the larger molares. The two next arc much lar- 
 ger. The fifth or lafl grinder on each lidc is fmaller 
 and fhorter than the reft ; and from its not cutting the 
 gum till after the age of twenty, and fometimesHot till 
 much later in life, is called iiiiis/a^ieiiti.t. 
 
 There is in the llrufture and arrangement of all 
 thefe teeth an art which cannot be fnfiiciently admired. 
 To underftand it properly, it will be necclfary to con- 
 fidcr the under jaw as a kind of lever, with its fixed 
 points at its articulations with the temporal bones : — ic 
 will be right to obferve, too, that its powers arife from 
 its different mufcles, but in elevation chiefly from the 
 temporalis and maflccer ; and that tiie aliment confti- 
 tutes the objeft of rtfiftance. It will appear, then, 
 that the molares, by being placed neareft the centre of 
 modoii, are calculated to prefs with a much greater 
 force than the other teeth, independent of their grind- 
 ing powers which they pofTefs by means of the ptery- 
 goid mufcles ; and that it is for this rcafon we put be- 
 tween them any hard body we willi to break. 
 
 The canini and inciforesare placed farther from this 
 point, and of courfe cannot exert fo much force ; but 
 they are made for cutting and tearing the food, and 
 this form feems to make amends for their deficiency 
 in ftrength. 
 
 There are examples of children who have come into 
 the world with two, three, and even four teeth ; buc 
 thefe examples are very rare ; and it is feldom before 
 the fcventh, eighth, or ninth month after birth, that 
 the incifores, which are the firft formed, begin to pafs 
 through the gum. The fymptoms of dentition, how- 
 ever, in conlequence of irritation from the teeth, fre- 
 quently take place in the fourth or fifth month ,\- 
 
 boLit the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, the canini 
 and two molares make their appearance. 
 
 The dangerous fymptoms that fomeiinies accompany; 
 dentition, are, owing to the prelTure of the teeth on 
 the gum, which they irritate fo as to e.xcitc pain and 
 indamniation. This irritation feenis ro occalion a gra- 
 dual wafling of the gum at the part, till at length the 
 tooth makes its .appearance. 
 
 The fymptoms are moreor lefs aUrniing, in propor- 
 tion to the re:ii!unce wiiich the gum affords to the 
 teeth, and according co the number of tecih which 
 may chance to feck a paliagc at the fane time. \N'erc 
 they all to appear at once, children would fjll viflinis 
 to the pain and exceilive irritation ; but Nature has fo 
 very wifely difpofid them, that they ufuiUy appear 
 one af;er the other, with Ibme diltanec of time be- 
 tween each. The firft inciforthr.t appears is genera.ly 
 in the Iswer jaw, and is followed by one iii the up- 
 per 
 
 (h) Mr Hunter has thought proper to vary this divilion. He retains the old name of inc-forej to the four 
 fore teeth, but he diftinguiihes the canine teeth by the name of the i/tfiUnti. The two tccih which are next 
 to thefe, and which have been nliiilly ranked with the molares, he cilh the biciiffiJ:i ; and he ^ivcs the name 
 of gini.^i^rj only to the three IjII teeth on each lidc. 
 
 (1) Mr Hunter remarks ot ihife iceih, that we may trace in ihf ra a fimilarity in (hape, fituation, and ufe, 
 from the nioft imperfectly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be the hnman fpccics, to the lioa, which is 
 tke iuoit pcrlcclly carnivorous.
 
 694 ANA! 
 
 Oftcology. perjnw. Someiiines the canini, but more cominoiily 
 
 '" ^ ' one of the luolarcs, begins to pafs through ihc gum 
 
 Crll. 
 
 Tliefc 30 teeth, viz. eight inciforcs, four canini, 
 and eight molares, arc called t^inpomry or tmtk teeth, 
 bccaufc ilicy arc all (hed between the age of fcven 
 and 1 4, and arc fucccedeJ by what arc called the pcr- 
 Maiicnt or adult teeth. The latter arc of a firmer tex- 
 ture, and have larger fangs. 
 
 Thcfe adult teeth being placed in a diftinft fet of 
 alveoli, the upper fockcts gradually difappear, as the 
 under ones increafein fize, till at length the tempora- 
 ry, or upper teeth, having no longer any fupport, 
 confcijuciuly fall out. 
 
 To thcfe 20 teeth, which fucceed the temporary 
 ones, 1 2 others arc afterwards added, viz. three ino- 
 larcs on each fide in both jaws : and in order to make 
 room for this addition, we find that the jaws gradually 
 lengthen in proportion to the growth of the teeth ; fo 
 that with 20 teeth, they feem to be as completely filled 
 as they are afterwards with 32. This is the rcafou 
 why the face is rounder and flatter in children than in 
 adults. 
 
 With regard to the formation of the teeth, we may 
 obferve, that in a foetus of four months, the alveolar 
 procefs appears only as a fliallow longitudinal groove, 
 divided by minute ridges intoa number of intermediate 
 deprefhons ; in each of which we find a fmall pulpy 
 fubflance, furrounded by a vafcular membrane. This 
 pulp gradually ofTifies, and its lower part is lengthened 
 out to form the fang. When the bony part of the 
 tooth is formed, its iurface begins to be incrufled with 
 the enamel. How the latter is formed and dcpolited, 
 we are not yet able to determine. 
 
 The rudiments of fome of the adult teeth begin to 
 be formed at a very early period, for the pulp of one of 
 the inciforcs may generally be perceived in a foetus of 
 eight months, and the oflification begins in it foon af- 
 ter birth. The firfl bicufpis begins to olTify about the 
 fifth or fixth, and the fecond about the feventh year. 
 The firfl adult grinder cuts the gum about the 12th, 
 the fecond about the iSth, and the third, or dens fa- 
 fieiitite, ufually between the 20th and 30th year. 
 
 The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be afFedled 
 by difcafc. Their removal is likewife the natural 
 confequence of eld age; for as wc advance in life, 
 the alveoli fill up, and the teeth, efpecially the inci- 
 forcs, fall out. When this happens, the chin pro- 
 jefts forward, and the face is much ihortened. 
 
 § 4. Of the Os Hyoides. (k.) 
 
 jg_ The OS hyoides, which is placed at the root of the 
 
 tongue, was fo called by the ancients on account of its 
 fuppofcd refcmblance to the Greek letter i/. 
 
 It will be necefTary to diftinguifli in it, its body, 
 horns, and appendices. 
 
 The body, which is the middle and broadcfl part of 
 the bone, is fo placed that it may be eaiily felt at the 
 fore part of the throat. Atucriorly it is irregularly 
 
 / 
 
 O M Y. Parti. 
 
 convex, and its inner furfacc is unequally concave. Its Ofteology. 
 
 cornua, or hums, which are flat and a little bent, be- ' •^—~' 
 
 ing much longer than the body part, may be defcribcd 
 as forming the fides of the u. The appendices, or lit- 
 tle horns, as they are called by M. Winllow, andfomc 
 other writers, are two procelfes which rife up from 
 the articulations of the cornua with the body, and arc 
 ufually connedlcd with the flyloid procefsoa each fide 
 by means of a ligament. 
 
 The ufes of this bone are to fupport the tongue, and 
 af!'ord attachment to a great number of mufcles ; fome 
 of which perform the motions of the tongue, while 
 others ad on the larynx and fauces. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the BtnesoJ the Trunk. 
 
 The trunk of the fkelctonconfifts of the fpine, the ty, 
 thorax, and the pelvis. 
 
 § I. Of the Spine. 
 
 The fpine is compofed of a great number of bones j». 
 called vertebra, forming a long bony column, in figure 
 not much unlike the lettery. This column, which ex- 
 tends from the head to the lower part of the body, may 
 be faid to conlift of two irregular and unequal pyramids, 
 united to each other in that part of the loins where the 
 lafl lumbar vertebrajoins the os facrum. 
 
 The vertebra: of the upper and longefl pyramid arc 
 called true vertebra, in contradiflinftion to thofc of the 
 lowermoft pyramid, which, from theirbeing immove- 
 able in the adult, are Hyltilfalfe vertebra. It is upen 
 the bones of the fpine that the body turns ; and it is to 
 this circumflance they owe their name, which is de- 
 rived from the Latin verb vertere, to turn. 
 
 The true vertebras are divided into three clafTci 
 of cervical, dorfal, and lumbar vertebras. — The falfc 
 vertebrae confifl of the os facrum and os coccygis. 
 
 In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be necef- 
 fary to remark the body of the bone, its proccfTes, and 
 cavities. 
 
 The body, which is convex before, and concave be- 
 hind, where it alhfis in forming the cavity of the 
 fpine, may be compared to part of a cylinder cut off 
 tranfverfcly. 
 
 Each vertebra affords feven proccfTes. The firfl is 
 at the back part of the vertebra, and from its fhape and 
 direftion is named the fpinoni procefs. On each fide of 
 this are two others, which, from their fituation with 
 refpeft to the fpine, are called //aw/l'fr/^/irocf^v. The 
 four 01 hers are fly led oW/ffwf or ar//a//dr/)rocc^!rj. They 
 are much fmallcr than the fpinous or tranfverfc ones. 
 Two of them are placed on the upper, and two on the 
 lower partof each vertebra, rifing from near the bafis 
 ofeachtranfverfeprocefs. They have gotten the name 
 o{ oblique proccffes, from their fituation with refpecf to 
 the procelfes with which they are articulated; and they 
 arc fomctimesflylcd aiticular precedes, from the man- 
 iicrin which they are ariiculated with eachother ; the 
 two fupcriorproceflcsof one vertebra beingariiculated 
 
 with 
 
 (k ) This bone is very feldom preferved with the fkeleton, and cannot be included among the bones oi the 
 head, or any other divilion of the fkeleton. Thomas Bartholin has perhaps very properly defcribcd it among 
 parts contained in the mouth ; but the generality of anatomical writers have jilaccd it, as it is here, after 
 the bones of the face.
 
 A N A "J 
 
 with the two inferior proceflcs of the vertebra above 
 
 ' '^—^ it. Each of thcfe procclfcs is covered with cartilage 
 
 at its articulation, and their articulations with each 
 other are by a fj)ccics of ginglimus. 
 
 In each vertebra, between its body and its procefles, 
 we find a hole large enough to admit a finger. Thefe 
 holes or foramina, correfpond with each otlicr through 
 all the vertebrae, and form the long bony channel in 
 which the fpinal marrow is placed. We may likewife 
 obferve four notches in each vertebra. Two of thcfe 
 notches arc at the upper, and two at the lower part of 
 the bone, between the oblique procefTcsand the body 
 of the vertebra. Each of thefe notches meeting with 
 a fimilar opening in the vertebra above or below it, 
 forms a foramen for the paflagc of blood-vellcls, and 
 of.the nerves out of the fpine. 
 
 The bones of the fpine are united together by means 
 of a fubflance, which in young fubjetts appears to be 
 of a ligamentous, but in adults more of a cartilaginous 
 nature. This intervertebral fubflance, which forms 
 a kind of partition between the fevcral vertebras, is 
 thicker and more flexible between the lumber verte- 
 brae than in the other parts of thefpine, the moft con- 
 fiderable motions of the trunk being performed on tliofe 
 vcrtebrse. This fubflance being very elaftic, the ex- 
 tenfion and flexion of the body, and its motion back- 
 wards and forwards, to either /ide, areperformed with 
 great facility. This elafticity fceftis to be the reafon 
 why people who liave been long Handing, or have 
 carried a confiderable weight, are found to be Ihorter 
 than when they have been long in bed. In the two 
 firfl inftances the intervertebral cartilages (as they are 
 ufually called) are evidently more expofed tocompref- 
 fion than when weareinbed in an horizontal polture. 
 
 In advanced life thcfe cartilages become fhrivelled, 
 and of courfe lofc much of their elafticity. This may 
 ferve to account for the decreafe in flature and the 
 ftooping forward which are ufually to be obfcrvcd in 
 old people. 
 
 Befides the connecflion of the feveral vertebrae by 
 means of this intervertebral fubftance, there are like- 
 wife many ftrong ligaments, both external and in- 
 ternal, which imite the bones of the fpine to each 
 other. Their union is alfo ftrengthened by a variety 
 of flrong mufcles that cover and furround the fpine. 
 
 The bonesof the fpine are found todiminilhin den- 
 fity, and to be lefs firm in their texture in proportion 
 as they increafe in bulk ; fo that the lowcrmoft verte- 
 bra, though the largeft, are not fo heavy in proportion 
 as the upper ones. By this means the lize of thefe 
 bones is increafed without adding to their weight : a 
 circumflancc of no little importance in a part like the 
 fpine, which, befides flexibility and fupplencfs, feems 
 to require lightnefs as one of its efTential properties. 
 
 In very young children, each vertebra conlifts of 
 three bony pieces united by cartilages which aftcr- 
 wards oflify. 
 Vcrtebrx There are fe ven vertebrae of the neck — they are of a 
 •fthr nttk, firmer texture than the other bones of the fpine. Their 
 tranfvcrfc procelfcs are forked for the lodgement of 
 mufcles, and at the bottom of each we obferve a fora- 
 men, through which pafs the cervical artery and vein. 
 The firfl and fccoud of thcfe vertebras muft bcdcfcri- 
 bed more particularly. The firll approaches almodto 
 an oval lliape — Oa its fuperior forfacc it has two cavi- 
 
 4 
 
 \ O M Y. 6gs 
 
 ties which admit the condyles of the occipital bone odtbUry ■ 
 
 with which it is articulated. This vertebra, which is ^ 
 
 called at/at from its fupporting the head, cannot well 
 be dcfcribed as having cither body or fpinous proccfs, 
 being a kind of bony ring. Anteriorly, where it is ar- 
 ticulated to the odontoid procefs of the fecond verte- 
 bra, it is very thin. On its upper furface it has two 
 cavities which admit the condyles of the occipital bone. 
 By this connexion the head is allowed to move for- 
 wards and backwards, but has very little motion in any 
 other diredion. 
 
 The fecond vertebra has gotten the namtof dmtata, 
 from its having, at its upper and interior part, a pro- 
 cefs called ihcoilontoidoT tooth-lik: pmcefs, which is ar- 
 ticulated with the atlas, to which this fecond vertebra 
 may be faid to ferve as an axis. This odontoid procefs 
 is of a cylindrical Ihape, fonicwhat flattened, however, 
 anteriorly and pofteriorly. At its fore-part where it is 
 received by the atlas, we may obferve a finooth, con- 
 vex, articulating furface. It is by means of this arti- 
 culation that the head performs its rotatory motion, 
 the atlas in that cafe moving upon this odontoid pro- 
 eels as upon a pivot. But when this motion is in any 
 confiderable degree, or, in other words, when the head 
 moves much either to the right or left, all the cervical 
 vertebrae fcem to afTift, otherwife the fpinal marrow 
 would be in danger of being divided tranfverfcly by the 
 firfl vertebra. 
 
 The fpinous procefs of each of the cervical vertebrse vertcbn 
 is (horter, and their articular procelTes more oblique, ofthebark^ 
 than in the other bones of the fpine. 
 
 Thefe 1 2 vertebras are of a middle fize between thofc 
 of the neck and loins. At their fijes we may obferve 
 two depreffions, one at the upper and the other at the 
 lower part of the body of each vertebrae ; which unitino- 
 with fimilar depreffions in the vcrtebr.t above and be- * 
 
 low, form articulating furfaces, covered with cartila- 
 ges, for receiving the heads of the ribs ; and at the 
 forepart of their tranfverfe procefs (excepting the 
 two laft) we find an articulating furface for receiving 
 the tuberofity of the ribs. 
 
 Thefe five vertebras differonly from thofeof the back ^ b*r 
 in their being larger, and in having their fpinous pro- v«ubr». 
 ceiTes at a greater diftance from each other. The moll 
 confiderable motions of the truk are made on thcfe 
 vertebrx ; and thcfe motions could not be performed 
 with fo much eafe, were the procelTes placed nearer to 
 each other. 
 
 The OS facruta, which is compofcd of five or fix ^* 
 pieces in young fubje«5ls, becomes one bone in more ^* f«™™» 
 advanced age. 
 
 It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior portion 
 being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part has two 
 oblique procefles which are articulated with the lull of 
 the lumbar vertebra; ; and it has likewife commonly 
 three fmall fpinous procclfcs, which gradually become 
 ihorter, fo that the lowcrmoft is not fo long as the fe- 
 cond, nor the fecond as the upperinoft. Its tranfvcrfc 
 proccircsare formed intooneoblong procefs, which be- 
 comes gradually fmaller as it defccnds. Its coucave or 
 anterior fide is ufually fmooth, but its pofterior convex 
 fide has many prominences (the moft remarkable of 
 which are the fpinous procelles juft now mentioned), 
 which arc filled up and covered with the mufcular and 
 tendinous parts behind. 
 
 This
 
 696 
 
 A N 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 35 
 
 O5 coccyx, 
 
 QUeo logy. This boiic has five pair of holes, wliich afford a paf- 
 ' ^' ' (age to blood- veirds, an J 1 ikcwifc to the nerves that are 
 derived from the fpinal ii\arrow, which is contituicd 
 even here, being lodged in a triangular cavity, that bc- 
 co:nes rmalicr as it dcfceuds, asid at length terminates 
 obliquely at the lower part of tiiis bone. Htlow the 
 third di\ifiou of the os facruni, this canal is not com- 
 pletely bony as in the rcliof the fpine, being fccured 
 at its back part only by a very ftroug membrane, fo 
 that a wound at that part mull be extremely dange- 
 rous. 
 
 The OS facrum is united laterally to the ofla inno- 
 minata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx. 
 
 The coccyx, which, like the os facrum, is in young 
 people made up of three or four diftinct parts, ufually 
 becomes one bone in the adult ftate. 
 
 It ferves to fupport the inteftinum redlum ; and, by 
 its being capable of fome degree of motion at its arti- 
 culation with the facrum, and being like that bone 
 bent forwards, we are enabled to fit with eafe. 
 
 This bone is nearly of a triangular Hiape, being 
 broadeft at its upper part, and from thence growing 
 narrower to its apex, where it is not bigger than the 
 little finger. 
 
 It has got its name from its fuppofed refemblance to 
 a cuckow's beak. It differs greatly from the verte- 
 brae, being commonly without any procelTes, and ha- 
 ving no cavity for the fpinal marrow, or foramina for 
 xhe tranfmiffion of nerves. 
 
 The fpine, of which we have now finiQied the ana- 
 tomical defcription, is deftined for many great and im- 
 portant ufes. The medulla fpinalis is lodged in its 
 bony canal fecure from external injury. It ferves as a 
 defence to the abdominal and thoracic vifcera, and at 
 the fame time fupports the head, and gives a general 
 tirmncfs to the whole trunk. 
 
 We have before compared it to the letter/, and its 
 tlifferent turns will be found to render it not very unlike 
 the figure of that letter. In the neck we fee it projecting 
 fomewhat forward to fupport the head, which without 
 thisaffiflance would require a greater number ofniuf- 
 cles. — Lower down, in the thorax, we find it taking a 
 <urved direction backwards, and of courfe increaiing 
 the cavity of the cheft. After this, in the loins, it 
 again projects forwards in a direction with the centre 
 of gravity, by which means we are ealily enabled to 
 keep the body in an erec't pofture, for otherwife we 
 iliould be liable to fall forward. Towards its inferior 
 extremity, however, it again recedes backward, and 
 rhus aflifis in forming the pelvis, the name given to 
 the cavity in which the urinary bladder, intellinum 
 redlum, and other vifcera are placed. 
 
 If this bony column had been formed only of one 
 piece, it would have been much more eafily fractured 
 than it is now : and by confining the trunk to a lliff 
 fituation, a variety of motions would have been altoge- 
 ther prevented, which are now performed with eafe by 
 the great number of bones of which it is compofed. 
 
 It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is added a 
 perfetl flexibility. If it be required to carry a load 
 upon the head, the neck becomes ftiff with the afiill- 
 ance of its mufcles, and accommodates itfelf to the 
 load, as if it was compofed only of one bone — In 
 stooping likcwii'e, or in turning to either fide, the fpine 
 
 3 
 
 Part I. 
 
 turns itfelf in every dircaion, as if all its bones were Ofteology. 
 fcparatcd from each other. — -v — 
 
 In a part of the body, like the fpine, that is made 
 up of fo great a number of bones, and intended for 
 fuch a variety of motion, there mull be a greater dan- 
 ger of dillocation than fradlurc ; but we fhall find, that 
 this is very wifely guarded againll in every diredioii 
 by the procelfes belonging to each vetrcbra, aud by 
 the ligaments, cartilages, &c. by which thtfe bones 
 are conncdcd with each other. 
 
 § 2. Of tht Bcriei ofthi Thorax. *' 
 
 The thorax, or chefl, is compofed of many bones, 
 viz. the (Icrnum which is placed at its anterior part, 
 twelve ribs on each fide which makeup itslateral parts 
 and the dorfal vertebrae which conflitute its poilerior 
 part. Thefelafl have been already defcribed. 37 
 
 The AeniHra is the lung bone which extends itfelf Of the (kjr- 
 from the upper to the lower part of the brcafl anteri- •"""• 
 orly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles are arti- 
 culated. 
 
 In children it is compofed of feveral bones united by 
 cartilages j but as we advance in life, moft of theft 
 cartilages olTify, and the fternum in the adult Hate is 
 found CO conlifl only of three pieces, and foraetimes 
 becomes one bone, his however generally defcribed 
 as being compofed of three pans — one fuperior, which 
 is broad, thick, and ihort ; and one in the middle, 
 which is thinner, narrower, and longer than the 
 other. 
 
 It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, which 
 is called the xyphoid, or fiucrd-tike cartilage, from its 
 fuppofed refemblance to the blade of a fword, and be- 
 caufe in young fubj eels it is commonly in a cartilagi- 
 nous Hate. 
 
 We have already obfervcd, that this bone is articu- 
 lated with the clavicle on each fide. It is likewifejoin- 
 ed to the fourteen true ribs, viz. feven on its right 
 
 and feven on its left fide. 
 
 3« 
 
 The ribs arc bones ihapcd like a bow, forming the Of thcribt. 
 fides of the chefl. There arc twelve on each fide. 
 They are diftinguidied into true and falfe ribs : The 
 feven upper ribs svhich are articulated to the llcrnum 
 arc called trm ribs, and the five lower ones that arc 
 not immediately attached to that bone are ciWcd J,iifc 
 ribs. 
 
 On the inferior and interior furface of each rib, we 
 obferve a f'lnuolity for the- lodgement of an artery, vein, 
 and nerve. 
 
 The ribs are not bony through their whole length, 
 their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar- 
 ticulated with the vcrtel;rae and flernum. tvcry rib 
 (or at leaft the greater numberof them) has atitspofl- 
 rior part two procefTes ; one at its extremity called the 
 head of the rib, by means of which it is articulated 
 with the body of two vertebrx ; and another,callcd its 
 tuberofity,by which it is articulated with thctranfverfe 
 procefs of the lowcflof thcfe iwovcrtcbrx. Thefirfl 
 rib is not articulated by its extremity to two vcrtcbrse, 
 being fimply attached to the upper part of the firfl ver- 
 tebra of the back. The feven fuperior or true ribs are 
 articulated anteriorly with t'lc flernum by their carti- 
 lages ; but the falfe ribs are fupporied in a different 
 manner — the eighth, which is the liril of thcfe ribs, 
 
 .being
 
 Part I. 
 
 Ofteology. 
 
 V- 
 
 40 
 O] ilium. 
 
 ANA' 
 
 being attached by its cartilage to the fcvcnth ; ilie 
 ninth to the eighth, &c. 
 
 Thp two lowcrmoflribs differ likewife from all the 
 rell ill the following particulars : They are articulated 
 only with the body ot' the vertebra, and not with a 
 tranfvcrl'c procefs ; and anteriorly, their cartilage is 
 loofc, not being attached to tlie cartilages of the otiier 
 ribs ; and this I'cems to be, bccaufc the moll conlider- 
 ablc motions of the trunk are not performed on the 
 lumbar vertebras alone, but likewilc on the two lall 
 vertebrae of the back; fo that if thcfe two ribs had 
 been confined at the tore part like the other ribs, and 
 had been likcwifc articulated with the bodies of two 
 vertebra;, and with the tranfverfe procclFcs, the moti- 
 on of the two lall vertebrae, and confequcutly of the 
 ■^holc trunk, would have been impeded. 
 
 The ribs help to form the cavity of the thorax; 
 they afford aiiachmcnt to different mufcles ; they are 
 ufcful in rcfpiratioii; and they fcrve as a fccurity to 
 the heart and lungs. 
 
 ^ 3. Of the Bonis of thi Pelvis. 
 
 The pelvis is compofed of the os facrum, os coccy- 
 ^is, and two ofla innominata. The two lirft of thefe 
 bones were included in the account of the fpine, to 
 l^■hich they more properly belong. 
 
 In children, each os innominatura is compofed of 
 three dillind bones ; but as we advance in life the in- 
 termediate cartilages gradually offify, and the marks 
 of the original feparation difappear, fo that they be- 
 come one irregular bone ; lUU however continuing 10 
 retain the names of ilium, ifchium, and pubis, by which 
 their divifions were originally dillinguilhed, and to be 
 defcribed as three different bones by the generality of 
 anatomifls. The os ilium forms the upper and mod 
 confiderable part of the bone, the os ifchium its lower 
 and pofterior portion, and the os pubis its fore part. 
 
 The OS ilium or haunch bone, is articulated poAeri- 
 orly to the os facrum by a firm cartilaginous fubflance, 
 •nd is united to the os pubis before and to the os ifchi- 
 um below. Its (uperior portion is thin, and termi- 
 nates in a ridge called the crifta or fpine of the ilium, 
 and more commonly known by the name of the 
 haunch. This crifta rifes up- like an arch; being 
 turned fome what outwards, fo as to refemble the wings 
 of a phaeton. 
 
 Externally this bone isunequally prominent and hol- 
 lowed for the lodgement of mufcles; internally we find 
 it fmooth and concave. At its lower part there is a 
 conliderablc ridge on its inner furface. TLis ridge 
 extends from the os facrum, and corrcfponds with a 
 fimilar prominence both on that bone and the ifchi- 
 um ; forms with the inner part of the olfa pubis what 
 in midwifery is termed the brim of the pelvis. 
 
 Thccrifta, or fpine, which at iirll is an epiphyfis, 
 has two conlidcrsblc tubcrofnies ; one auttriorly, and 
 the other pollcriorly, which is the largcll of the two : 
 Thcfe, from their projecting more than tiie pans of 
 the bones below them, have gotten the name of fpinal 
 proceflts. From the anterior fpinous procefs, the far- 
 torius and tenfor vaginjc fenioris mufcles have their 
 origin; and below the porttrior procefs we obfervc a 
 conlidcrable niche in the bone, which, in the recent 
 fubjct?t,is formed into a large foramen, by means of a 
 flrong ligament that is llrttched oyer its lower part 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 697 
 
 from the OS facrum 10 the fliarp-poinied proccGofibe Ortcdogy. 
 ifchium. This hole atfords a palfige to the great l:i- ' ^r—-' 
 atic nerve, and to the pofterior crural veiTcli under 
 the pyriform mufcle, part of which iikeuife palTcs out 
 here. 4r 
 
 The OS ifchiHm, or hip-bone, which is of a very ir- OiiTchiuni. 
 regular figure, conftitutes the lower htcrsl parts of the 
 pelvis, and is commonly divided into its body, tubero- 
 iity, and ramus. The body forms the lower and moft 
 confiderable portion of the acetabulum, aud fenJs a 
 fliarp-pointed procefs backwards, called the fpine of 
 the ifchium. To this procefs the ligament adheres, 
 which vvasjuftnowfpokenof, asformi igaforaraealor 
 
 the palTagc of the fciatic nerve The tuberofity which 
 
 is the lowed part of the trunk, and fupports us when 
 we fit, is large and irregular, aft'ording origin to feve- 
 ral mufcles. From this tuberoiity we find the bone 
 becoming thinner and narrower. This part, which has 
 the name of ramus or branch, palTes forwards and up- 
 wards, and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis, to 
 form a large hole called ihz foramen magnum if chit, or 
 thynideuvi, as it is fometimes named, from its refem- 
 blance to a door orfliield. This hole, which in the 
 recent fubjcct is clcfed by a flrong membrane called 
 the obturator ligament, affords through its whole cir- 
 cumference attachment to mufcles. At its upper part 
 where we obfcrve a niche in the bone, it gives pallagc 
 to the obturator velfcls and nerves, wliich go to the 
 inner part of the thigh. Nature feeras every where to 
 avoid an unnecelTary weigh tofbone, and this foramen, 
 no doubt, ferves to lighten the bones of the pelvis. 4* 
 
 The OS pubis or fhare-bone, which with its fellow Os i>ubi». 
 forms the fore-part of the pelvis, is the fniallefl divi- 
 fion of the os innominatum. It is united to its fellow 
 by means of a ftrong cartilage, which forms what is 
 called the fymphyfis pubis. 
 
 In each os pubis we may diflinguifh the body of 
 the bone, its angle, and ramus. The body or outer 
 part is united to the os ilium. The aiigie ceracs for- 
 ward to form the fymphyfis, and the ramus is a thin 
 procefs which unites with the ramus of the ifchium, 
 to form the foramen thyroideum. 
 
 The three bones we have defcribed as compofing 
 each OS innominatuui, all aflill in forming the acetabu- 
 lum, in which the head of the os femoris is received. 
 
 This cavity is every where lined with a fmooth car- 
 tilage, excepting at its inner part, where we may ob- 
 ferve a little foifa, in which are lodged the mucilagi- 
 nous glands of the joint. We may likcwife notice 
 the pit or depreflion made by the nmud ligament, as 
 it is improperly called, which, by adhering to this 
 cavity and to the head of the thigh-bouc, helps to fc- 
 cure the latter in the fockct. 
 
 Thcfe bones, which are united to each other and 
 to the fpine by many very ftrong ligaments, ferves to 
 fupport the trunk, and to conntcl it with the lower 
 extremities ; and at the fame tiuie to form the pelvis 
 or baton, in which are lodged the inteflines and uri- 
 nary bladder, and in women the uterus ; fo that the 
 ftudy of this part of oileology is of the utmoft import- 
 ance to midwifery. 
 
 It is worthy of obfervation, that in women the os 
 facrum is ufually fhorter, broader, and more hollowed, 
 the oila ilia more expanded, aud the inferior opening 
 of the pelvis larger than in men. 
 
 4 T Sect.
 
 43- 
 
 44- 
 
 AS' 
 
 46 
 
 Of the cU^ 
 vicula. 
 
 47 
 
 Of the fca 
 }iula. 
 
 ANA 
 
 Sect. IV. Cf the Extremities. 
 
 These partsof thcfkcletonconlillof the upper ex- 
 iremity ^iiii the lower. 
 
 5 I. Of the Upper Extremity. 
 
 This coiifills of the fliouldcr, the arm, anil the 
 hand. 
 
 I. Of the Shoulder. 
 
 The fhoulder confills of two bones, the clavicula 
 and the I'capuli. 
 
 The former, which is fo named from its rcfemblance 
 to (he key in ufc amongft the aucienis, is a little cur- 
 ved at both its extreniiiies like an italic/". It islike- 
 w'lie ciWiiCi jrigr/lum, or collar-bone, from its fituation. 
 It is about the fize of the little linger, but longer, and 
 being of a very fpongy fubftance is very liable to be 
 Iraftured. In this, as in other long bones, we may 
 dillinguifli a body and two extremities. The body is 
 rather flattened than rounded. The anteiior extre- 
 mity is formed into a (lightly convex head, which is 
 nearly of a triangular Ihapc. Tlie inferior furfacc of 
 the head is articulated with the Ikrnum. The polle- 
 rior extremity, which is flatter and broader than the 
 other, is conue^Hed 10 a procefs of the fcapula, called 
 acromioiu Both thcfc articulations are fccurcd by li- 
 gaments, and in that with the fternum we meet with 
 a moveable cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric- 
 tion. 
 
 The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions of the 
 fcapula, by preventing it from being brought too nmch 
 forwards, or carried too far backwards. It attbrds ori- 
 gin to fcveral mafcles, and helps to cover and protect 
 the fubclavian vclfels, which derive their name from 
 their fuuation under this bone. 
 
 The fcajHila, or Ihoulder-bladc, which is nearly of 
 a triangular ihape, is fixed to the pofterior part o( the 
 true ribs, fomewhat in the manner of a buckler. It 
 is of a very unequal thickuefs, and like all other broad, 
 flat bones, is fomewhat cellular. Exteriorly it is con- 
 vex, and interiorly concave, to accommodate itfclf to 
 the convexity of the rii)s. We obferve in this bone 
 three une<i'iaUides, which are thicker and llronger than 
 the body of the bone, and arc tlierefore termed its 
 cojut. The largeft of the three, called alfo the bafis, 
 is turned towards the vertcbrs. Another, whicli is 
 Icfs than the former, is below this; and the third, 
 which is the Ic.ift of the three, is at the upper part of 
 the bone. Externally the bone is elevated into a con- 
 fiderablc fpine, which rifing fmall at the bafis of the 
 fcapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, and 
 divides the outer furfacc of the bone into two foilas. 
 The fuperior of thefe, which is the fmalleft, ferves to 
 lodge the fupra fpinatus mufclc ; and the inferior fof- 
 fa, which is much larger than the other, gives origin 
 to the infra fpinatus. This fpine terminates in a broad 
 and flat proccfs at the top of the Ihoulder, called the 
 frocejfiis acroviion, to which the clavicle is articulated. 
 This proccfs is hollowed at its lower part to allow a 
 paJage to the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles. Tlie 
 fcapula has likewife another confulcrable proccfs at its 
 »ipper part, which, from its refemblance to the beak 
 •f a bird, is called the corasoid proccfs . From ihe on- 
 
 4«. 
 
 49* 
 
 r O M Y. Part /. 
 
 ter fide oftliJs coracoid procefs, a flrong ligament paf- Oftealogyi 
 
 fcs to the proceffus acromion, which prevents a luxa- ^ v^— ' 
 
 lion of the OS humeri upwards. A third procifs be- 
 gins by a narrow neck, and ends in a cavity called 
 g/iiioid, for the connection of tlie os humeri. 
 
 The fcapula is articuLitcd with the clavicle and 03 
 humeri, to which la(t it ferves as a fulcrum ; and by 
 varying its polition it affords a greater fcope to the 
 bones of the arm in their dilFercnt motions. It like- 
 wife gives origin to fcveral mufclcs, and polleriorljr 
 ferves as a defence to the trunk. 
 
 2. Bones of the Arm. 
 
 The arm is commonly divided into two parts, which 
 are articulated to each other at the elbow. The up- 
 per part retains the n»me of arm, properly fo called, 
 and the lower part is ufually called the fore-arm. 
 
 The arm is compofcd of a fmgle bone called os l.it- 
 Meri. This bone, which is alniofl of a cylindrical 
 fliapc, may be divided inio its body and its extremi- 
 ties. 
 
 The upper extremity begins by a large, round 
 fmooth head, which is admitted into the glenoid ca- 
 vity of the fcapula. Oa the upper and fore part 01 the 
 bone there is J groove for lodging the long head of the 
 biceps mufde of the arm ; and on each tide of the 
 groove, at the upper end of the bone, there is a tu- 
 bercle to which the fpinata mufclcs areixcd. 
 
 The lower extremity has feveral procefles and cavi- 
 ties. The principal proccll'csare its two condyles, one 
 exteriorand the other interior, and of thefe the lull is 
 the largeft. Between thefe two we obferve two Lite- 
 ral proiuberanees, which, together with a middle ca- 
 vity, form as it were a kind of pully upon which the 
 motions of the fore-arm are chieliy performed. At 
 each fide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interi- 
 orly, there is another eminence which gives origin to 
 feveral mufclcs of the hand and fingers. Poltcriorly ) 
 
 and fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpett to the condyles, 
 wc obferve a deep folia which receives a conliderable 
 procefs of the ulna; and anieriorly and oppoliie to 
 this foifa, we obferve another, which is muchlefs and 
 receives another proccfs of the fame bone. 
 
 The boiiy of the bone has at its upper and anterior 
 part a furrow which begins from behind the head of 
 the bone, and ferves to lodge the tendon of a mulcle. 
 The body of the os humeri is hollow through its wjiole 
 length, and, like all other long bones, has its marrow. 
 
 This bone is articulated at its upper part to the fca- 
 pula. This articulation, which allows motion every 
 way, is furrounded by a capfular ligament ; that is 
 fonietimes torn in luxation, and becomes an obllaele to 
 the eafy reduction of the bone. Its lower extremity 
 is articulated with the bones of the fore-arm. 
 
 The fore-arm is compofcd of two bones, the ulna ofthcJb**- 
 and radius. arm. 
 
 The ulna or elbow-bone is much lefs than the os 51 
 humeri, and becomes gradually fmaller as it defcends Of the ul- 
 to the wrilt. At its upper part it has two procelFcs, "^• 
 and two cavities. Of the two procelfes, the largeft, 
 which is lituated poltcriorly, and called the olecranon, 
 is admitted into the poilerior folfa of the os humeri. 
 The other procefs is placed anteriorly, and is called 
 the coroiioid frocefs. In bending the arm it enters in- 
 to the afltcrior folTa of the os humeri. This proccfs 
 
 beiflg
 
 5» 
 Of the ra- 
 dius. 
 
 Parti. ANA' 
 
 Ofttology being much fnwller than the other, permits the fore- 
 
 ' " una CO bend iuwaros ; w hcrcis the olecranon, which 
 
 ii ihspctl tike a hook, reaches the bouoin of iis t'oH'a 
 in the OS humeri as fooii as the arm becomes llrai;rht, 
 aud will not permit the fore-arm to be beut backwards. 
 The lii^amciitj likcvvifc oppofc this moiio:i. 
 
 iSeiween the twoproccucswc havcdcfcribed, there 
 is a coiilidcrable cavity called the fygmoid cavity, di- 
 ridcd into twofoUx by a fmall eminence, which palTes 
 from one procefs to the other ; it is by means of this 
 cavity and the two procclTes, thst the ulna is articu- 
 lated with the OS humeri by jjinglinms. 
 
 At the bottom of tiie coronoid jjroccfs interiorly, 
 there is a fmall fygmoid cavity, which fcrves for the 
 •rticiilktion of the ulna with the radius. 
 
 The body of the ulna is of a triangular fliape : Its 
 lower extremity terminates by a fmallhead and a little 
 llyloid procefs. The ulna is articulated above to the 
 OS humeri — both above and below to the radius, and 
 t9 the wrift atitslowcr extremity. All thefe articula- 
 tions are fecured by means of ligaments. The chief 
 ufc of this bone fecms to be to fupport and regulate the 
 motions of the radius. 
 
 The radius, which is fo named from its fuppofed re- 
 fcmblance to die fpokc of a wheel, is placed at the in- 
 fidc of the fore-arm. It is fomewiiai larger than the 
 ulna, but not quite fo long as that bone. Its upper 
 part is cylindrical, hollowed fuperiorly to receive the 
 outer condyle of tlie os humeri. Laterally it is ad- 
 mitted into the little fygmoid cavity of the ulna, and 
 tTie cylindrical part of the bone turns in this cavity in 
 the motions of pronation and fupiiiation (l). This 
 bone followsthe ulna in flcxionanJ cxtcniion, and may 
 likewifc be moved round its axis in any direction. The 
 lower extremity of the radius is much larger and 
 ftronger than its upper part ; the ulna, on the contra- 
 ry, is Imaller and weaker below than alwve ; fo that 
 they fervc to fupply each others deticieiicics in both 
 thofe parts. 
 
 On the external fide of this bone, we obfcrvc a fmall 
 cavity which is defined to receive the lower part of the 
 ulna ; and its lower extremity is formed into a large 
 cavity, by means of which it is articulated with tiie 
 bones of the wrill, and on this account it is fomeiinics 
 called maiiubrium vtamts. It fupports the two tirll 
 bones of the wrift on the lide of the thumb, whereas 
 the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wrilt 
 which corrcfponds with the little finger. 
 
 Through the wholelength both of this bone and the 
 ulna, a ridge is obferved, which affords attachment to 
 aiiinteroireous ligament. This ligament fills up the 
 fpace between the two bones. 
 
 3. Bones of the Hand. 
 
 The carpus or wrift confifts of eight fmall bones of 
 an irregular ihape, and difpofed in two uncipial rows. 
 Thofe of the upper row are articulated wiih the bones 
 of the fore-arm, and thofe of the lower one with the 
 metacarpus. 
 
 The ancient anatomifts defcribcdthcfe bones nume- 
 rically ; Ly ferus feems to have been the hrfl who gave 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 699 
 
 53- 
 
 54 
 or tlic car- 
 pus. 
 
 to each of them a particular name. The names he Ofteology. 
 
 adopted are founded on the figure of the bones, and arc — ^ ' 
 
 now pretty generally received, except the firll,which 
 inflcad of x'.TKXoi/rfit (the name given to it by Ly ferus, 
 on account of its finu^, that admits apariof the os mag- 
 num), has by later writers been named Scaphoidis or 
 Naviciilare. This, which is the outennoftof the upper 
 row (conlidcriug the thumb as the outer fide of the 
 hand), is articulated with the radius ; on its inner lidc 
 it is connected with theoslunarc, and below to the tra- 
 pezium and trapczoides. Next to this is a fmallcr bone 
 called the os luuure : becanfe its outer fide, which is 
 coiuiec\cii with the fcaphoides, is Ihaped like a cref- 
 cent. This is likcwife articulated with the radius. On 
 itsinner fide it joins the os cuneiformc,aad anteriorly, 
 the OS magnum and os unciformc. 
 
 The OS cuneiform, which is the third bone in th« 
 upper row, is compared to a wedge, from its being 
 broader above, at the back of the hand, than it is be- 
 low. Polleriorly it is articulated with the ulna, and 
 anteriorly with the os unciformc. 
 
 Thefe three bones form an oblong articulating fur- 
 face, covered by cartilage, by which the hand is con- 
 nected with the fore-arra. 
 
 The OS pififorme, or pea-like bone, which is fmallcr 
 than ih« three jull now defcribed, though generally 
 claifed with the MSlSesof the upper row, does not pro- 
 perly belling lofllllcr fcries, being placed on the un- 
 der i'urface of the os cuuciforme, fo as to project into 
 the palm of the hand. The four bones of the fecund 
 row corrcfpond with the bones of the thumb and lin- 
 gers ; the lirft, fccond, and fourth, are from their 
 lliapes named traptzium, trapizoid:s, and nucifoniiei 
 the third, from its being the largcft bone of the car- 
 pus, is ftyled os magnum. 
 
 All thefe bones are convex towards the back, and 
 nightly concave towards the palm of the hand ; their 
 articulating furfaces are covered w ith cartilages, and 
 fecured by many llroug ligaments, particularly by two 
 ligamentous cxpanlions, called the external and inter- 
 nal annular ligaments of the wrift. The former ex- 
 tends in an oblique direclion from the os pififorme to 
 the ftyloid procefs of the radius, and is an inch and an 
 half in breadth ; the latter or in;erual annular liga- 
 ment is ftretched from the os pififorme and os unci- 
 formc, to the OS fcaphoides and trapezium. Thefe an- 
 nular ligaments likewifc ferve to bind down the ten- 
 dons of the wrill and fingers. .. 
 
 The matacarpus confifts of four bones, which fup- of the mt- 
 port the fingers ; externally they arc a little convex, tacarput. 
 and internally fomewhat concave, where they form 
 the palm of the hand. They arehollow, and of a cy- 
 lindrical ihape. 
 
 At each extremity they are alitile hollowed fiir their 
 articulation; fupcriorly with the bones of the carpus, 
 and infcriorly wiih the rirft phalanx of the fingers, 
 in the fame manner as the feveral phalanges of the 
 fingers are articulated with each other. , 
 
 Tlic five fingers of each hand are compofed of hfteen of t!ie fia« 
 bones, difpofed in three ranks rilled phalanges : The gcrs, 
 bones of the lirft phalanx, which arc articulated with 
 4 T 2 the 
 
 (i.) The nioiiiins of proniti.in and fupiiiatiou may be cufily dclcriiicd. If the palm of the iianJ, for inftaiice, 
 is placed in the fiirfacc of a tabic, the hand may be (aid to be in a ftate of prontiion ; but if the back part of 
 tke hand is turned towards the table, the hand will be clicn iua Aatc of fupination.
 
 yoo 
 
 Ofttology. 
 
 57. 
 
 Of the o» 
 
 A N A -■ 
 
 the meiacarpns, are the largeft, and thofe of the laft 
 phalanx the fmallcft. All thefe bones are larger at 
 their extremities than in their middle part. 
 
 Weobfervc at the extremities of the bones of the 
 carpus, metacarpus, and lingers, fevcral incciualiiics 
 that ferve for their aniculation with edch other; and 
 thefe articulations are ftrengthened by means of the 
 ligaments which furround them. 
 
 It will be eafily underflood that this multiplicity of 
 bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand) is 
 elFential to the different motions we wifli to perform. 
 If each finger was compofcd only of one bone iaftead 
 of three, it would be inipoflible for us to grafp any 
 thing. 
 
 § 2. C/Mf Lower Extremities. 
 
 Each lower extremity is divided into four parts, 
 tiz. the OS fcmoris, or thigh bone : the rotula, or 
 knee-pan ; the leg ; and the foot. 
 
 I. Of the Thigh. 
 
 The thigh is compofed only of this bone, which is 
 the largeft and ftrongcfl we have. It will be necellary 
 to diftinguifli its body and extremities : Its body , which 
 is of a cylindrical (hape, is convex before and con- 
 cave behind, where it fcrves tolodgefeveralmufcles. 
 Throughout two-thirds of its kngtK wc obfcrve a 
 ridge called /hiea afpera, which originates from tlie 
 trochanters, and after running for fome way down- 
 wards, divides into two branches, that terminate in 
 the tuberofities at the lower extremity of the bone. 
 
 At its upper extremity we muft defcribe the neck 
 and (mooth head of ihe bone, and likewife twoconfi- 
 derable procelfcs: Tlichcad, which forms the greater 
 portion of a fphcre unequally divided, is turned in- 
 wards, and received into the great cotyloid cavity of 
 the OS innominatum. At this part of the bone tliere is 
 a little foifa to be obfcrved, to which the round liga- 
 ment is atiachcd, and which we have already dcfcribed 
 as tending to fccure the head of this bone in the great 
 acetabulum. The neck is almoft horizontal, confidercd 
 withrefpeft to its fituation with the body of the bone. 
 Of the two proccfTes, the external one, which is the 
 laigefl,iscal!ed trochanter major; and the other, which 
 is placed on the iufide of the bone, trochanter minor. 
 They both afford attachment to mufcles. The articu- 
 lation of the OS fcmoris with the trunk is flrengthened 
 by means of a capfular ligament, which adheres eve- 
 ry where round the edge of the great cotyloid cavity of 
 the OS innominatum, and furrounds the headofthe bone. 
 
 The OS femoris moves upon the trunk in every di- 
 reftion. 
 
 At thelosver extremity of the bone are twoprocef- 
 fcs called the condyles, and an intermediate fmooth 
 cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the 
 leg by giuglimus. 
 
 All round the under end of the bone there is an ir- 
 regular furface where the capfular ligament of the joint 
 has iisorigin, and where blood-vcffels go intothe fub- 
 llance of the bone. 
 
 Between the condyles there is a cavity pofteriorly, 
 in which the Llood- vtlfcls and nerves are placed, fc- 
 cure from liie comprclfion towhich they would other- 
 wife be expofcdin the ai5lion of benJingthe leg, and 
 xrhich would not fail to be hurtful. 
 
 ' O M Y. Parti. 
 
 At the fide of each condyle externally, there is a Oftcology. 
 
 tubcrolity, from whence the lateral ligaments origi- ^ ^ '■ 
 
 nate, which are extended down the tibia. 
 
 A ligament likewife arifcs from each condyle pofte- 
 riorly. One of thefe liganienis palTes from the right 
 to the left, and the otiier from the left to the right, 
 fo that they interfeii each other, and for that rcafon 
 are called the crofs Ugainenti. 
 
 The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg 
 upon the thigh to the right or left ; and the crofs liga- 
 ments, which are alfo attached to the tibia, prevent 
 the latter from being brought forwards. 
 
 In new-born children all the procell'es of this bone 
 arc cartilaginous. 
 
 2. The Rotula, or Knee-pan. 
 
 The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is differently Of the ro- 
 called, is a flat bone about fouror five inches in circum- 'u'^* 
 ference, and is placed at the fore-part of the joint of 
 the kitce. In its fliape it is fomewhat like the common 
 figure of the heart, with its point downwards. 
 
 It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part ; at 
 its fore-part it is fmooth and fomewhat convex ; its 
 pofterior furface, which is more unequal, affords an 
 elevation in the middle which is admitted betweenthe 
 two condyles of the os femoris. 
 
 This bone is retained in its proper fituation by a ftrong 
 ligament which every where furrounds it, and adheres 
 both to the tibia and os femoris ; it is likewife firmly 
 conneded with the tibia by means of a ftrong tendi- 
 nous ligament of an inch in breadth, and upwards of 
 two inches in length, which adheres to the lower part 
 of the patella, and to the tuberofity at the upper end 
 of the tibia. On account of this connexion, it is very 
 properly confidered as an appendage to the tibia, 
 which it follows in all its motions, fo as to be to it what 
 the olecranon is to the ulna. There is this difference, 
 however, thatthe olecranonisa fixed procefs; where- 
 as the patellais moveable, beingcapable of Hiding from 
 above downw-ards and from below upwards. This mo- 
 bility is elfcntial to the rotatory motion of the leg. 
 
 In very young children this bone is entirely carti- 
 laginous. 
 
 The principal ufe of the patella feems to be to de- 
 fend the articulation of theknce from external injury; 
 itlikewife tends toincrcafe the powerof the exienfor 
 mufcles of the leg, by removing their direction farther 
 from the centre of motion in the manner of a pulley. 
 
 3. Of the Leg. 
 
 60, 
 
 The leg is compofed of two bones : Of thefe the in- 
 ner one, which is the largeft, is called tibia ; the other 
 is much fmaller, and named fibula. gj 
 
 The tibia, which is fo called from its refemblance to of the \ih\x 
 the mufical pipe of the ajicients,has three furfaccs,and 
 is not very unlike a triangular prifm. Its pofterior fur- 
 face is the broadcft ; anteriorly it has a confidcrabic 
 ridge called the fhin, between which and the (kin there 
 are nomufcles. .At the uppcrexircmity of ihisbone are 
 twofurfaces, a little concave, and fepara ted from each 
 other by an intermediate elevation. The two little ca- 
 vities receive the condyles of the "S femori?, and the 
 eminence between thcni is admitted into the cavity 
 which we fpokeofas bcingbetwecnthc two condyles; 
 ib that this articulation affords a fpecimcn of the com- 
 
 flctc
 
 Part I. 
 
 Oftcology. 
 
 61 
 Of the fi. 
 bula. 
 
 63. 
 
 64 
 
 Of the tar- 
 
 fU9. 
 
 Of the a- 
 ilragalus. 
 
 66 
 Of the OS 
 calcis. 
 
 ('7 
 Of (he 05 
 uuvicularc 
 
 ANA! 
 
 pletc gingliimis. Under the external edge of the up- 
 per end of this bone is a circular flat furface, which 
 receives the head of the fibula. 
 
 At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we ob- 
 ferve a conliderable procefs called malleolus intinius. 
 The bans of the bone terminates in a large tranfvcrfe 
 cavity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoft 
 bone of the foot. It has likcwil'c another cavity at its 
 lower end and outer lide, which is fomewhat oblong, 
 and receives the lower end of the fibula. 
 
 The tibia is hollow through its whole length. 
 
 The fibula is a fniall long bone fituated on the out- 
 fideof the tibia. Its fupcrior extremity does not reach 
 quite fo high as the upper part of the tibia, but its 
 lower end defcends fomewhat lower. Both above and 
 below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the 
 lateral cavities we noticed in our defcripiion of that 
 bone. 
 
 Its lower extremity isflretchedout into a coronoid 
 procefs, which is flattened at its infidc, and its convex 
 externally, forming what is called the malleolus exter- 
 ntis, or outer ancle. This is rather lower than the 
 malleolus internus of the tibia. 
 
 The body of this bone, which is irregularly triangu- 
 lar, is a Utile hollow at its internal furface, which is 
 turned towards the tibia, and it affords like that bone, 
 through its whole length, attachment to a ligament, 
 which from its fiiuationis called the interofleous liga- 
 ment, 
 
 4. Of the Foot. 
 
 Thefootconfiftsof the tarfus, metatarfus, and toes. 
 
 The tarfus is compofed of feven bones, viz. the a- 
 ftragalus, 03 calcis, os naviculare,os cuboides, and three 
 others called cuneiform bones. 
 
 The aflragalus is a large bone with which both the 
 tibia and fibula are articulated. It is the uppermoft 
 bone of the foot ; it hasfcveral furfaccs to be confider- 
 ed ; its upper, and fomewhat pofterior part, which is 
 fmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavity of the 
 tibia. Its lateral parts areconnefted with the malleoli 
 of the two bones of the leg ; below, it is articulated 
 with the OS calcis, and its anterior furface is received 
 by the os naviculare. All ihefe articulations are fecu- 
 red by means of ligaments. 
 
 The OS calcis, or calcaneum, which is of a very irre- 
 gular figure, is the largcft bone of the foot. Behind, 
 it is formed inio a conliderable tubcrofi'y called the 
 heel ; without this tubcrolity, which fuppons us in an 
 ereft pofture, and whcfi we walk, vvc fhould be liable 
 to fall backwards. 
 
 Oil the internal furface of this bone, we obfervc a 
 confuierablc llnuolity, which atiords a paffagc to the 
 tendon of a niufclc : and to the poUerior partofihc 
 os calcis, a llrong tendinous cord called x\\ctcHdo acHllis 
 (m) is attached, which is formed by the tcndonsof fe- 
 vcral muclcs united together. The articulation of this 
 with the other bones is fecurtd by means of ligaments. 
 
 Theos navicularc,orfcaphoides,( for ihel'c two terms 
 have the fame fignitication),is ii^ called on account of 
 its rcfemblance to a little bark. At its poftcrior part, 
 >vhich isconcave,itreccivcsthcaIlragslus ; anteriorly 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 701 
 
 it is articulated with the cuneiform bones, and late- Ofteology. 
 rally it is connected with the os cuboides. vc — ' 
 
 The OS cuboides forms an irregular cube. Pofteri- of the ot 
 orlj it is articulated with the os calcis ; anteriorly it cuboides. 
 fuppons the two laft bones of the metatarfus, and la- 
 terally ii joins the third cuneiform bone and the os na- 
 viculare. 69 
 
 Each of the olTa cuneiformia, which are three in Of the oCa 
 number, refcrablcsa wedge, and from this limiliiude """^'f"- 
 thcir name is derived. They are placed next to the ""'*" 
 metatarfus by the (ides of each other, and are ufually 
 diflinguilhed into os cuiieittr?nc externum, medium or 
 minimum, and internum or maximuvi. The fuperior 
 furface of thefe bones, from their wedge-like (hapc, is 
 broader than that which is below, where ihey help to 
 form the fole of the foot ; pofteriorly they are united 
 to the OS naviculare, and anteriorly they fupport the 
 three liri^ metatarfal bones. 
 
 When thefe feven bones compofing the tarfus are 
 viewed together in the Ikcleton, they appear convex 
 above, where they help to form the upper part of the 
 foot ; and concave underneath, where they form the 
 hollow of the foot, in which the vefl'cls, tendons, and 
 nerves of the foot are placed fecure from prefTure. 
 
 They are united to each other by very llrong liga- 
 ments, and their articulation with the foot isfecured 
 by a capfular and two lateral ligaments ; each of the 
 latter is covered by an annular ligament of conliderable 
 breadth and thicknefs, which fcrvcs to bind down the 
 tendons of the foot, and at the fame time to flrength- 
 en the articulation. 
 
 The OS cuneiforme externum is joined laterally ta 
 the os cuboides. 
 
 Thefe bones complete our account of the tarfus. 
 Though what we have faid of this part of the ofteolo- 
 gy has been very llmple and concife, yet many rea- 
 ders may not clearly underfland it : but if they will 
 bepleafcd to view thefe bones in their proper fituati- 
 on in the fkeleton, all that we hare faid of them will 
 be ealily underftood. 
 
 The metatarfus is made up of five bones, whereas cf themf- 
 the metacarpus conliftsouly of four. The caufe of tatarfus. 
 this difference is, that in the hand the Lift bone of the 
 thumb is not included among the metacarpal bones ; 
 whereas in the toot the great toe has only two bones. 
 The firfl of thefe bnnes fupports the great toe ind is 
 much larger than the reil, which nearly refemblc 
 each other in fize. 
 
 Tliefe bones are articulated by one extremity with 
 the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, and by their 
 other end with the toes. ^i 
 
 Each of the toes, like the fingers, confifls ofthree Of the toe». 
 bones, except tlie great toe, which is formed of two 
 bones. Thofe of the other four are diflinguilhed into 
 three phalanges. Although the toes are more con- 
 fined in their motion than the fingers, yet tlicy appesr 
 to be pcrfcdly fitted for the purpofcsthey are delign- 
 ed for. In walking, the toes brin;r the centre of;;ra- 
 viiy perpendicular to the advanced foot ; and as the 
 folcs of the tect arc naturally concave, we can at plci- 
 furc incrcalc this concavity, and form a kind of vault, 
 wliichadjullsiil'clf to the different ineviiuliiies I hat oc- 
 cur 
 
 (ji) This icudoa isfomctimes ruptured by junijMr.g, dancing, or other violent ciTorts.
 
 yi. 
 
 A N A T 
 
 ciir to lis in walking ; and which, without this mode 
 ol' arraugcmciit would incommode lis CKCcedingly, 
 efpccially when burc-lootcd. 
 
 §4. Of theOjfa Sesahoix>£A. 
 
 BssinEs the boneswchavcalrcadydifcribcd, there 
 SIX ievcral I'mall ones that are met with only in the 
 adult Ikclcton, and in perl'ons who arc advanced in. 
 life ; which, rrom their fuppofcd general relcinblancc 
 to the feeds of the fefamutn, arc called ojjafi/ai/ioidca. 
 They are commonly to be fccn at the firft joint of the 
 great toe, and foinctimcs at the joints of the tluiinb ; 
 duy arc likewife now and then to fee found at the 
 lower extremity of ilie fibula, upon the condyles of 
 lie thigli-bonc, under the os cuboiJcs of the tarfiis, 
 
 O M Y. Partr. 
 
 and in other parts of the body. Their fizc and num- Ofteolugy. 
 ber fecni cohflantly to be iiicrcafed by age and hard 
 labour ; and as they are generally found iii fitiiations 
 where tendons and ligaments are moil cxpol'cd to the 
 adion of inufrlcs, th<y are now generally confidercd 
 as oHilicd portions of lii;:!mcnts or tendons. 
 
 The upper furfacc of thefe bones is ufually convex, 
 and adherent to the tendon that covers it ; the lidc 
 which is next to the joint is fmooth and Hat. Though 
 their farmation is accidentil, yei they fcem to be of 
 fomc life, by raifingthc tendons farther from the cen- 
 tre of motion, and confequcntly increaliiig the power 
 of the anilclcs. In the great loe and thumb they arc 
 likwifc ufeful, by forming a groove for the fiexor 
 tendons. 
 
 EXPLANATION of the PLATES of OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 Fig. I. A Front-view of the Male Skeleton. 
 A, The OS frontis. B, The os parietalc. C, The 
 coronal future. D, The fquamous part of the tempo- 
 ral bones. K, The fquamous future. V, The zygoma. 
 G, The malloid proccfs. H, The temporal procefs of 
 the fphenoid bone. I, The orbit. K, Theosmals. L, 
 The OS maxillarc fuperiiis. M, Its nalil procefs. N, 
 The oll'a nafi. O, The os unguis. 1', the maxilla in- 
 ferior. Q^, The teeth, which are fixteen in number in 
 each jaw. R, The fevcn cervical vertebra;, with their 
 iiiterraediatc cartilages. S, Their tranfvcrfeproceires. 
 TjThctwelvedorfiil vert ebrcB, with their intermedi- 
 ate cartilages. U, The five lumbar vertebra;. V, 
 Their tranfverfe proeelfes. W, The upper part of the 
 OS facrum. X, Its lateral parts. The holes I'ccn on 
 its fore part are the pallages of the undcrmofl fpinal 
 nerves and fmall vcfTcls. Oppofitc to the holes, the 
 marks of the original divifions of tlie bone are feen. 
 Y , The OS ilium. Z, Its creft or fpine. a. The an- 
 terior fpinons proeelfes. b. The brim of the pelvis. 
 c, The ifchiatic niche, d, The os ifchiuni. e. Its 
 tnbcrolhy. f, Itsfpinous procefs. g, lis crus. h, The 
 foramen ihyioideum. i, The os pubis, k, The fym- 
 phyfis pubis. 1, The crus pubis, m, The acetabulum. 
 II, The feventhor lall true rib. o. The twclflhor lafl 
 talfe rib. y. The upper end of the flernum. q. The 
 middle piece, r. The under end, or cartilage enfi- 
 formis. s. The clavicle, t. The internal furface of 
 the fcapula. u. Its acromion, v. Its coracoid pro- 
 cefs. w, Its cervix, x. The glenoid cavity, y, The 
 OS humeri, z. Its head, which is conneftcd to the 
 glenoid cavity, i, Its external tubercle. 2, Us in- 
 ternal tubercle. ;, The groove for lodging the long 
 head of the biceps mufcle of the arm. 4, The inter- 
 nal condyle. J, The external condyle. Between 4 
 and J, tlie trochlea. 6, The radius. 7, Its head. 
 8, Its tubercle. 9, The ulna. lo, Its coronoid pro- 
 cefs. II, T2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The carpus ; 
 compofed of os navicularc, os lunare, os cuneiforme, 
 OS pififormejOS trapezium, os trapczoides, os magnum, 
 osunciforme. 19, The five bones of the metacarpus. 
 20, The two bones of the thumb. 21, The three 
 bones of each of the fingers. 22, The os femoris. 
 23, Its head. 24, Its cervix. 2J, The trochanter 
 major. 26, The trochanter minor. 37, The inter- 
 
 nal condyle. 28, Tl;c external condyle. 29, The 
 rotula. ;o, The tibia. 51, Its head. 52, Its tu- 
 bercle. 33, Its fpine. ;".(, The malleolus intcrnus. 
 35-, The fibula. 36, Its head. 37, The malleolus 
 cxternus. The tarfus is compofed of, 38, The allraga- 
 lus ; 39, The OS calcls ; 40, The os navicularc ; 
 41, Thrccoilacuneiformia.and tlicoscuboidcs, which 
 is not fccn in this fi,":i!re. 42, The five bones of the 
 meiai.'rfus. 43, The two bones of the great toe. 
 44, The three bones of each of the fmall toes. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Front-view of the Skull. 
 A, The OS frontis. B, the lateral part of the os 
 frontis, which gives origin to part ot the temporal 
 niurdc. C, The fupcrciliary ridge. D, The fupcr- 
 ciliary hole through which the frontal vellclsand ner- 
 ves pais. KE, The orbitar procelles. F, The middle 
 of the traniVcrfc future, G, The up^ier part of the or- 
 bit. H, I'hc foramen opticum. 1, The foramen 
 lacerum. K, Tiie inferior orbitar fifiiire. L, Thcos 
 unguis. M, The oiVa nali. N, The os maxillarc fu- 
 perius. O, Its naful procefs. P, The external orbi- 
 tar hole through which the f«pcrior maxillary velftls 
 and nerves pals. i)_, The osmala;. K, A pallage for 
 fmall vcllels into, or out of, the orbit. S, The under 
 jiart of the left noftril. T, The feptum narium. 
 U, The OS fpongiofuin fuperius. V, The os fpongio- 
 fnm infcrius. W, The edge of the alveoli, or fpongy 
 fockcts, for tlie teeth. X, the maxilla inferior. Y, The 
 paffagefor the inferior maxillary vclfcls and nerves. 
 
 Fig. 3. A Side-view of the Skull. 
 A, The OS frontis. B, The coronal future. C, The 
 OS parietalc. 1), An arched ridge which gives origin 
 to the temporal niufclc. E, The fquamous future. 
 F, The fquamous part of the temporal bone : anJ 
 fartlier forw-trds, the temporal procefs of the fphenoid 
 bone. G, The zygomatic procefs of the temporal 
 bone. H, The zygomatic future. I, The mafloid 
 procefs of the temporal bone. L, The meatus audi- 
 torius externus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal 
 bone, under which is feen the tranverfe future. 
 M, The pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The o» 
 unguis. O, Therightosnafi. P, The fuperior max- 
 illary bone. Q_, Its nafal procefs. R, The two den- 
 ies incifores. S, The dens caninus. T, The two 
 fmall molares. U, The three large molares. V, Th« 
 osmalae. W, The lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The, 
 
 coroiioid 
 
 /
 
 Pl.M. \1V 
 
 .^^-'^. 
 
 , /.V,' , f^^!/a^'
 
 Parti. A N A T 
 
 Ofteologf. coronoid procefs. Z, The condyloid procefs, by wliich 
 *— ^< the jaw is articulated with the temporal bone. 
 
 Vic. 4. The pollcrior and right fule of the Skull. 
 A, The OS frontis. B B, The oiTa parietalia. C, 
 The fagittal future. D, the parietal hole, through 
 ■which a fmall vein runs to the fuperior longitudinal 
 finus. E, The lambdoid future, f F, Olfa triquctra. 
 G, The OS occipitis. H, The fquamous part of the 
 temporal bone. I, The tnalloid procefs. K, The 
 zygoma. L, The os malse. M, The temporal part 
 of the fphcnoid bone. N, The fuperior maxillary 
 bone and tceih. 
 
 fic. 5. The external Surface of the Os Frontis. 
 
 A, The convex part. B, Part of the temporal 
 foffa. C, The external angular procefs. D, The 
 internal angular procefs. E, Tlie nafal procefs. F, 
 The fuperciiiary arch. G, The fuperciliary hole. 
 H, The orbitar plate. 
 
 Fig. 6. The Internal Surface of the Os Frontis. 
 
 A A, The ferratcd edge which affifts to form the 
 coronal future. B, The external angular procefs. 
 C, The internal angular procefs. D, The nafal pro- 
 cefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, The cells which cor- 
 refpond with thofe of the ethmoid bone. G, The paf- 
 fage from the frontal liiius. H, The opening which 
 receives the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. 
 I, The cavity which lodges the fore part of tlie brain. 
 K, The fpine to which the falx is fixed. L, The 
 groove which lodges the fuperior longiiuJinal linus. 
 
 Plate XX. 
 
 Fic. I. A back view of the Skeleton. 
 A A, The oda parietalia. B, The fagittal future. 
 C, The lambdoid future. D, The occipital bone. 
 E, The fquamous future. F, The maftoid procefs of 
 the temporal bone. G, The os malx. H, The pa- 
 late plates of the fupcrier maxillary bones. I, The 
 maxilla inferior. K, The teeth of both jaws. L, The 
 fcvcn cervical vertebrae. M, Thtir fpinous procclfcs. 
 N, Their tranfverfc and ob'.ique procefles. O, The 
 laftofthe twelve dorfal vertebrae. P, The fifth or lad 
 lumbar vertebra. Q_, The tranl'verfc proccffes. R,Thc 
 oblique proccffes. S, The fpinous proceifes. T, The 
 upper part of the os facruni. U, The pofterior holes 
 ■which tranfmit fmall blood-vefTclsand nerves. V.The 
 under part of the os facrum which is covered by a 
 membrane. W, The oscoccygis. X, The os ilium. 
 Y, Its fpineor crcfl. Z, The ifchiatic niche, a. The 
 osifcliium. b, Its tubcrofity. c, Itsfpine. d. The 
 OS pubis, e, The foramen hydroidcum. f, The fc- 
 venth or lufl true rib. g, The twelfth or laft falfe rib. 
 h, The clavicle, i, The fcapula. k, Its fpine. 1, Its 
 acromion, m, Its cervix, n. Its fuperior cofla. o, Its 
 podcrior colla. p, Its inferior coda, q, The os hu- 
 meri, r, The radius, s, Iheiilna. t, Its olecranon, 
 u, All the bones of the carpus, excepting the os pili- 
 forme, which is fcen in Plate XIX. fig. i. v, The 
 five bones of ihc niatacurpus. w. The two bones of 
 the thumb, x, The three bones of each of the fin- 
 gers, y. The tw'o fcfamoid bones at the root of the 
 left thumb, z, The os femoris. i, The trochanter 
 major. 2, The trochanter minor. 3, Tlie linea af- 
 pcra. 4, The iatcrual condyle. 5, The external 
 
 O M Y. 703 
 
 condyle. 6 6, The limilunar cartilages. 7, The li- ofteologTr. 
 bia. 8, The malleolus intcruus. 9, The fibula. 10, ^~*'^'~~^ 
 The malleolus externus. 11, The tarfus. 12, The 
 metatarfus. 1 3, The toes. 
 
 Fig. 3. The External Surface of the Left Os Fa- 
 
 RIETALE. 
 
 A, The convex fmooth furfacc. B, The parietal 
 hole. C, An arch iHade by the beginning of the tciH- 
 poral mufclc. 
 
 Fig. 3. The internal furfacc of the fame bone. 
 
 A, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other, 
 forms the fagittal future. B, The anterior edge, which 
 afilfts in the formation of the coronal future. C, The 
 inferior edge for the fquamous future. D, The pofte- 
 rior edge for the lambdeid future. E, A depreflioa 
 made by the lateral fiaus. F F, The prints of the ar- 
 teries of the dura mater. 
 
 Fig. 4. The External Surface of the Left Os Te:<- 
 
 PORUM. 
 
 A, The fquamoas part. B, The mafloid procefs. 
 C The zygomatic procefs. D, The llyloid procefs. 
 E, The petrofal procefs. F, The meatus auditorius 
 externus. G, The glenoid cavity forthe articulatioa 
 of the lower jaw. H, The foramen ftylo-maftoidcum 
 for the portio dura of the fcvcnih pair of nerves. 
 I, Paffages for blood-velfels into the bone. K, The 
 foramen maftoidcum through which a vein goes to the 
 lateral finus. 
 
 Fig. s- The Intertialfurface of the Left Os Tr.M- 
 r o K u .M . 
 
 A, The fquamous part ; the upper edge of which 
 afTills in forming the fquamous future. B, The ma- 
 ftoid procefs. C, The llyloid procefs. D, The pars 
 petrofi. E, The entry of the fcvcnth pair, or audi- 
 tory nerve. F, The folfa, which lodges a part of the 
 lateral linus. G, The foramen maftoidcum. 
 
 Fig. 6. The External Surface of the Osseous Circle, 
 which terminates the mc.itus auditorius externus. 
 A, The anterior part. B, A fmall part of the 
 groove in which the niembrana tympani is fixed. 
 N. B. This, with the fubfequent bones of the ear, 
 are here delineated as lar*: as the life. 
 
 F'iG. 7. The Internal Surface ofthe Osseous CiRC LI. 
 A, The anterior part. B, The groove in which 
 the membrana tympani is fixed. 
 
 Fig. 8. The Situation and Conneclion of the Small 
 Bones of the Ear. 
 A, The malleus. B, The incus. C, The os or- 
 bicularc. D, The ftapes. 
 
 Fig. 9. The Malleus, with its Head, Handle, and 
 Small Procefles. 
 
 Fig. 10. The Incus, with its Body, Superiar and 
 Inferior Branches. 
 
 Fio ii.The Os OBRict;LARB. 
 
 Fig. 12. The States, with its Head, Bafe, andtwo 
 Crura. 
 
 Fig. I?. An Internal View of the Labyrinth of 
 the Ear. 
 A, The hollow part ef the cochlea, which forns a 
 
 iiur*
 
 704 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Oftcology. fliarc of tlie meatus audiioriusintcrnus. B,ThevcAi- 
 ' ^— ' biihiin. C C C, Tlic feinicircular canals. 
 
 Fig. 14. An External View of the Labyrinth. 
 
 A, the feniicirciilir caiiils. 13, The fcneftraovalis 
 which leads intothc vcftibiiUim. C, The fcncftra ro- 
 iiiudu which opens intothc cochlea. D, The iliffcrent 
 turns of tlie cochKa. 
 
 Fig. 15. Tlie Internal SurfaccofthcOsSp HE NO IDES. 
 A A, The temporal proccll'cs. B B, The pterygoid 
 procelfes. C C, The fpinous proccdes. D D, 1 he 
 anterior clinoid proccllcs. E. The pollerior clinoid 
 proccfs. F, The anterior proccfs which joins the eth- 
 moid bone. G, the fclli tuicica for lodging the 
 j^landuli piiniiaria. 11, The foramen opticiini. 
 K, The foramen laccrum. L, The foramen rotun- 
 d'lm. M, The foramen ovale. N, The foramen 
 fpinalc. 
 
 Fig. 16. The External SurfaccofthcOsSpHENo ides. 
 A A, The temporal procelfes. BB, The ptery- 
 goid proccllcs. C C, The fpinous procelfes. D, The 
 procelfus azygos. E, The fmall triangular procelfes 
 which grow from the body of the bone. FF, The 
 orifices of the fphcnoidal fuiufes. G, The foramen 
 lacerum. H, The foramen rotiindura. I, The fora- 
 men ovale. K, The foramen pterygoideura. 
 
 Fig. 17. Tlie External V'iewof the Os Ethmoides. 
 A, The nafal lamella. B B, The grooves between 
 ihcnafal lamella andolfafpongiofa fiiperiora. CC,The 
 olla fponginfa fuperiora. D D, The fphenoidal cor- 
 nua. Sec Fig. 16. E. 
 
 Fic. 18. The Internal View of the Os Ethmoides. 
 A, ThccrilUgalli. B, Thccribriform plate, with 
 the different palTages of the olfartory nerves. C C, 
 Some of the ethmoidal cells. D, The right os planum. 
 £ E, The fphenoidal corntia. 
 
 Fig. 19. The right Sthenoidal Cornu. 
 
 Fio. 20. The left Sphenoidal Cornu. 
 
 Fig. 21. The External Surface of the Os Occipitis. 
 
 A, The upper p i*t of the bone. B, The fuperior 
 arched ridge. C, The infcriorarchcd ridge. Under 
 the arches are prints made by the inufcles of the neck. 
 DD, The two condyloid procefles which articulate the 
 head with the fpine. E, The cuneiform proccfs. 
 F, The foramen magnum through which the fpinal 
 marrow palfcs. GG, The pollerior condyloid fora- 
 mina which tranfmit veins into the lateral ilnufcs. 
 HH, The foramina lingualia for the palfage of the 
 nine pair of nerves. 
 
 Fig. 22. The internal Surface of the Os Occipitis. 
 A A, The two fides which affift to form the lamb- 
 doid future. B, The point of the cuneiform procefs, 
 where it joins the fphcnoid bone. C C, The prints 
 made by the pollerior lobes of the brain. DD, Prints 
 made by the lobes of the cerebellum. E, The cruci- 
 form ridge for the attachment of the procefles of the 
 dura mater. F, The courfe of the fuperior longitudi- 
 nal finufcs. GG, The courfe of the two lateral li- 
 nufes. H, The foramen magnum. 1 1, The po.lerior 
 condyloid foramina. 
 
 I 
 
 Plate XXI. 
 
 Part T. 
 
 Oftcolo^y. 
 
 Fig, I. A Side-view of the Skeleton. 
 A A, The olfa parictalia. B, the fagittal future, 
 C, The OS occipitis. D D, The lainbdoid future. 
 E, The fquamous part of the temporal bone. F, The 
 maltoi j procefs. G, The meatus auditorius cxtcrnus, 
 H, The OS frontis. I, Tlie os malas. K, The os niax- 
 illare fupcrius. L, The maxilla inferior. M, The 
 teeth of both jaws. N, The feventh, or laft cervical 
 vertebra. O, The fpinous proccllcs. P, Their tranf- 
 vcrfe and oblique proccdes. Q_, The twelfth or lall 
 dorfal vertebra. K, The fifth, or la(l lumbar vertebra. 
 S. Tlie fpinous proceifcs. T, Openings between the 
 vertebra; for the pail'age of the fpinal nerves. U , The 
 under end of the os facrum. V, The os coccygis. 
 W, The OS ilium. X, The anterior fpinous procelfes. 
 Y, The pollerior fpinous procelfes. Z, The ifchiatic 
 niche, a, The right os ilium, b, The olfa pubis. 
 c, The tubcrofity of the left os ifchium. d, The fca- 
 pula. c, Its fpine. f, The os humeri, g, The ra- 
 dius, h. The ulna, i. The carpus, k. The nieta- 
 carpdl bone of the thumb. 1, The metacarpal bones 
 of the fingers, in, The two bones of the thumb, 
 n. The three boues of each of the fingers, o, The os 
 femoris. p. Its head, q, The trochanter major, r, The 
 external condyle, s, The rotula. t, Tlie tibia, u, The 
 fibula. V, The malleolus externus. w, The aflraga- 
 lus. X, The OS calcis. y, The os navicularc, z, The 
 three olfa cunciformia. i. The os cuboidcs. 2, The 
 five mctatarfal bones. 3, The two boius of the great 
 toe. 4, The three bones of each of the fmall toes. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Vicwof the Internal Surface of the Bafe of 
 the Skull. 
 AAA, The two tables of the fkull with thediploc. 
 B B, The orbitar plates of the frontal bone. C,Thc 
 crilla galli, with cribriform-plate of the ethmoidal 
 bones on each fide of it, through which the firfl pair 
 of nerves pafs. D, The cuneiform procefs of the oc- 
 cipital bone. E, The cruciform ridge. F, The fo- 
 ramen magnum for the paffage of the fpinal marrow. 
 G, The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo- 
 matic procelfes of the os temporum and os malae. 
 H, The pars fqnamofa of the os temporum. I, The 
 pars mammillaris. K, The pars petrofa. L, The 
 temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. MM, The 
 anterior clinoid proceffes. N, The pollerior clinoid 
 proccfs. O, The fella turcica. P, The foramen op- 
 ticum, for the palfage of the optic nerve and ocular 
 artery of the left fide. Q_, The foramen lacerum, for 
 the third, fourth, fixth, and firll of the fifth pair of 
 nerves and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum, 
 for the fecond of the fifth pair. S, The foramen 
 ovale, for the third of the fifth pair. T, The foramen 
 fpinalc, for the principal artery of the dura mater. 
 U, The entry of the auditory nerve. V, Thepaffagt 
 for the lateral finus. W, The paffage of the eighth 
 pair of nerves. X, The paffage of the ninth pair. 
 
 Fig. 3. A View of the External Surface of the Bafc 
 of the Skull. 
 A, The two dcntcs incifores of the right fide. B, 
 The dens caninus. C, The two fmall molares. D,The 
 three large molires. E, The foramen incifivum, vvhich 
 gives paffage to fmall blood-vefrels and nerves. F, The 
 
 palate-
 
 r\ 
 
 X. 
 
 Anatomy 
 
 
 ' -4/7 T 
 
 
 \f// 
 
 , v.. K^ , 'm^ .'/v^:^'
 
 It '^ 
 
 .yiQ.iB 
 
 W 1*|1 C) » 7 lO U 6 > 4 » « 1 l•^ 11 n 
 
 / ^y/.;-
 
 Parti. ANA! 
 
 Olleologjr. palate-plates of the oHa maxillaria and palati, joined 
 
 " ^ ' by the longitudinal and tranfvcrfe palate futures. G, 
 
 The foramen palatimim poflerius, for the palatine vef- 
 felsand nerves. H, The os maxillare fupcrius of the 
 right fide. I, The os mala:. K, The zygomatic pro- 
 cefs of the temporal bone. L, The pofterior extremi- 
 ty of the olfa fpongiofa. M, The pofterior extremity 
 of the vomer, which forms the back-partof the fcptura 
 nafi. N, The pterygoid procefs of the right fide of the 
 fphcnoid bone. OO, The formina ovalia. PP, The 
 foramina fpinalia. Q^, The paflTagesof the internal 
 carotid arteries. R, A hole between the point of each 
 pars petrofa and cuneiform procefs of the occipital 
 bone, which is filled up with a ligamentous fubftancc 
 in the recent fubjedt. S, The palfage of the left late- 
 ral finus. T, The poflerior condyloid foramen of the 
 leftiide. U, The foramen mafloideum. V, The fora- 
 men magnum. \V,The inferior orbitar fiflure. X,The 
 glenoid cavity, for the articulation of the lower jaw. 
 Y, The fquamous part of the temporal bone. Z, The 
 maftoid procefs, at the inner fide of which is a folia 
 for the poflerior belly of the digaftric mufclc a. The 
 ftyloid procefs. b, The meatus auditoriusexternus. c. 
 The left condyle of the occipital bone, d. The per- 
 pendicular occipital fpine. e c. The inferior horizon- 
 tal ridge of the occipital bone, f f. The fuperior hori- 
 zontal ridge, which is oppofite to the crucial ridge 
 where the longitudinal finus divides to form the late- 
 ral finufes. ggg. The lambdoid future, h, The left 
 fquamous future, i. The parietal bone. 
 
 Fig. 4. The anterior furfaceof the Ossa Nasi. 
 
 A, The upper part, which joins the os frontis. B, 
 The under end, which joins the cartilage of the nofc. 
 C, The inner edge, where they join each other. 
 
 Fig. j. The poflerior furfaceof the Ossa Nasi. 
 
 AA, Their cavity, which forms part of the arch of 
 the nofc. B B, Their ridge or fpine, which projefis 
 a little to be fixed to the fore-part of the feptuin na- 
 
 rium. 
 
 Fig. 6. The external furface of the Os Maxillake 
 SuPERius of the left fide. 
 A, The nafal procefs. B, The orbitar plate. C, 
 The unequal furface which joinstheosmal.B. D, The 
 external orbitar hole. E, The opening into the noflril. 
 F, The palate-plate. G, The maxillary tuberofity. 
 H, part of the os palati. I, The two dentes incifores. 
 K, The dens caninus. L, The two fmall dentes mo- 
 larcs. M, The three large dentes molares. 
 
 FiG. 7. The internal furface of the Os Maxillare 
 SupERius and Os Pai-ati. 
 A, The nafal procefs. BB, Eminences for the con- 
 nexion of the OS fpongiofura inferius. D, The under 
 end of the lachrymal groove. E,The antrum maxillare. 
 F, The nafal fpine, between which and B is the cavity 
 of the noflril. G, The palate-plate. H, The orbitar 
 part of ihc os palati. I, The nalal plate. K, The 
 future which unites the maxillary and palate hones. 
 L, The pterygoid procefs of the palate bone. 
 
 Fig. 8. The external furfaceof ibe right Os Unguis. 
 A, The orbitar part. B, The lachrymal part. C, 
 The ridge between them. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 703 
 
 Fig. 9. ThcinternalfurfaceoftherightOs Unguis. Ofteoiopy. 
 This lidc of the bone has a furrow oppofite to the • — 
 external ridge ; all behind this is irregular, where it 
 covers part of the ethmoidal cells. 
 
 Fig. 10. The external furface of the left Os Mai«. 
 A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior 
 orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy- 
 gematic procefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, A paf- 
 fagc for finall vcfTels into or out of the orbit. 
 
 Fig. II. The internal furface of the left Os Mai«. 
 A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior 
 orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy- 
 gomatic procefs. E, The internal orbitar plate or pro- 
 cefs. 
 
 Fig. 12. The external furfaceof the right Os Spon- 
 giosum ISFERIUS. 
 A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like procefs 
 for covering part of the antrum maxillare. C, A 
 fmall procefs which covers part of the under end of 
 the lachrymal groove. D, The inferior edge turned a 
 little outwards. 
 
 Fig. 1 3. The internal furface of the OsSpoNCOsinM 
 Inferius. 
 A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper edge 
 which joins the fuperior maxillary and palate bones. 
 
 Fig. 14. The poflerior and external furface of th« 
 right Os Palati. 
 A, The orbitar procefs. B, The nafal lamella. C, 
 The pterygoid procefs. D, The palate procefs. 
 
 Fig. I j. The interior and external furface of the right 
 Os Palati. 
 A, The orbitar procefs. B, An opening through 
 which the lateral nafal veffels and nerves pafs. C, 
 The nafal lamella. D, The pterygoid procefs. E, The 
 poflerior edge of the palate procefs for the connexion 
 of the velum palati. F, The inner edge by vihich the 
 two olTa palati are connetled. 
 
 Fig. 16. The right fide of the Vomer. 
 A, The upper edge which joins the nafallamella of 
 the ethmoid bone and the middle cartilai;e of the nofe. 
 Ji, The inferior edge, which is connected to the fupe- 
 rior maxillary and palate bones. C, The fuperior and 
 poflerior part wliich receives the procclTus azygos of 
 the fphenoid bone. 
 
 Fig. 17. The Maxilla Inferior. 
 A, The chin. B, The bafe and left fide. C, The 
 angle. D, The coronoid procefs. E, The condyloid 
 procefs. F, The beginning of the inferior maxillary 
 canal of the right fide, for the entry of the nerve and 
 blood-velTels. G, The termination of the left canal. 
 H, The two dentes incifores. I, The dens caninus. 
 K, The two fmall molares. L, The three large nio- 
 jares. 
 
 Fig. 18. The different clafFes of the Teeth. 
 
 I, 2, A fore and back view of the two anterior 
 
 dentes incifores of the lower jaw. 5, 4, Similar teeth 
 
 of the upper jaw. 5, 6, A fore and back \iew of the 
 
 dentes canini. 7, 8, The anterior dentes molares. 
 
 9, 10, II, The poflerior dentes molares. 
 4U 
 
 '2, Ij, 
 
 14.
 
 706 
 
 Oftcolojry. T J, i6, Unulual appearances in the Ihapc and fize of 
 
 ^~~>' ' the teeth. 
 
 Fic. 19. The external furface of the Os Hvo IDES. 
 
 A, Tlic body. 13 B, The cornui. C C, The ap- 
 pendices. 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 Fig. I. A PoAerior View of the Sternum and Cla- 
 vicles, with the ligament conuediuj; the clavi- 
 cles to each other. 
 a. The pofterior furface of the flernuin. bb, The 
 
 broken ends of the clavicles, c c c c. The tubercles 
 
 near the extremity of each clavicle, d. The ligament 
 
 conncding the clavicles. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Fore-view of the Left Scapula, and of 
 a halfof the Clavicle, with their Ligaments, 
 a, The fpinc of the fcspula. b. The acromion, 
 c. The inferior angle, d, Inferior colU. e, Cervix. 
 f, Glenoid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm- 
 tionc. gg, The capfiilar ligament of the joint, h, 
 Coracoid procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle, 
 k, Itscxtremity joined to the acromion. 1, A liga- 
 ment coming out lingle from the acromion to the co- 
 racoid procefs. m, A ligament coming out fingle from 
 the acrominon, and dividing intotwo, wliich are lixed 
 to the coracoid procefs. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Joint of the elbow of the Left Akm, 
 with the Ligaments. 
 a, The os humeri, b, Itsinternal condyle. cc,The 
 two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through 
 the capfular ligament, d, The ulna, c. The radius, 
 f. The part of the ligament including the head of the 
 radius. 
 
 Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right-Hand, with the 
 Palm in view. 
 a. The radius, b, The ulna, c. The fcaphoid bone 
 of the carpus, d. The os lunare. e. The os cunei- 
 forme. f. The os pififorme. g, Trapezium, h, Tra- 
 pezoides. i, Capitaium. k. Unciforme. 1, The four 
 metacarpal bones of the fingers, m, The firft phalanx, 
 n, The fecond phalanx, o. The third phalanx, p. The 
 metacarpal bone of the tliumb. q. The lirll joint. 
 r. The fecond joint. 
 
 Fig. 5. The Pofterior Viewof the Bonesof the Left 
 Hand. 
 The explication of Fig. 4. fervesfor tliisfigure ; the 
 fame letters pointing out the fame Tjones, though in a 
 different view. 
 
 Fig. 6. Tlie Upper Extremity of thcTiBi a, with the 
 Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of the Knee, and 
 fome Ligaments. 
 
 a. The ftrong ligament which conne(fts the rotula to 
 the tubercle of the tibia, b b, The parts of the extre- 
 mity of the tibi.i, covered with cartilage, which appear 
 within the fcmilunar cartilages, c c, The femiliinar 
 cartilages, d. The two parts of what is called the 
 crofs ligament. 
 
 Fig 7. The Pofterior Viewof the Joint of the Right 
 Knee. 
 a, The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle. 
 c, Its external condyle, d, The back-part of the tibia. 
 
 ANATOMY. Part I. 
 
 e. The fuperior extremity of the fibula, f. The edge Oftcology. 
 
 of tiic internal fcmilunar cartilage, g. An oblique li- * » ' 
 
 gamcnt. h, A larger perpendicular ligament, i, A 
 ligament conncding the femur and tibula. 
 
 Fig. 8. The Anterior Viewof the Jointof the Right 
 Knee. 
 b. The internal condyle, c. Its external condyle. 
 d. The part of the os femoris, on which the patella 
 moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, f f. The two 
 parts of the crucial ligaments, g g. The edges of the 
 two moveable fcmilunar cartilages, h, The tibia. 
 i, The flrong ligament of the patella, k. The back part 
 of it where the fat has been dilFcded away, 1, The 
 
 The internal one. n. The 
 
 external deprellion. 
 cut tibia. 
 
 Fig. 9. A View of the inferior part of the Bones of 
 the Right Foot. 
 a. The great knob of the os calcis. b, A promi- 
 nence on itsoutfide. c. The hollow for the tendons, 
 nerves, and blood-vefTcls. d. The anterior extremity 
 of the OS calcis. e. Part of the aftragalus. f. Its 
 head covered with cartilage, g. The internal promi- 
 nence of the OS naviculare. h. The os cuboides. 
 i, The OS cunciforme internum ; k, — Medium ; 1, — 
 Externum, m. The metatarfal bones of the four lef- 
 fer toes, n, The firfl — o. The fecond — p. The third 
 phalanx of the four Icfl'er toes, q. The metatarfal 
 bones of the great toe. r. Its lirll — s, Its fecond 
 joint. 
 
 Fig. 10. The Inferior Surface of the two large Sesa- 
 moid Bones, at the firAjoint of the Great Toe. 
 
 Fig. 1 1. The Superior View of the Bones of theRicHT 
 Foot. 
 a, b, as in Fig. 9. c. The fuperior head of the allra- 
 galus. d, ire. as in Fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 12. The Viewof the Sole of the Foot, with 
 its Ligaments, 
 a. The great knob of the OS calcis. b. The hollow 
 for the tendons, nerves, and blood-veiFels. c. The 
 flieaths of the flexorcs pollicis and digitorum longi 
 opened, d. The ftrong cariilaginousligament fupport- 
 ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h. Two ligaments 
 which unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarfal 
 bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob 
 of the OS calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe. 
 g, A ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the 
 bones of the tarfus. i, The ligaments of the joints of 
 the five metatarfal bones. 
 
 Fig . 13. a, The head of the thigh bone of a child, 
 b. The Ilgamentum rotundum connedingit to the ace- 
 tabulum, c. The capfular ligament of the joint with 
 its arteries injefted. d. The numerous veffels of the 
 mucilaginous gland injefted. 
 
 Fig. 14. The Back-view of the Cartilages of the 
 Larvnx, with the Os Hyoides. 
 a. The pofterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides. 
 bb. Its cornua. c, The appendix of the right fide. 
 
 d, A ligament fent out from the appendix of the left 
 fide, to the flyloid procefs of the temporal bone. 
 
 e, The union of the bafe with theleft cornu. f f, The 
 pofterior lidcs of (g) the Uiyroid cartilage, h h. Its 
 
 fuperior
 
 Anatomy: 
 
 PlateXJ^ll 
 
 . fftt .■¥XUJ'
 
 Part 11. ANA 
 
 Ofteology. Aiperior cornua. i i. Its inferior cornua. k. The cri- 
 ^" — " ' coid cartilage. 1 1, The arytenoid cartilages, in, The 
 
 entry into the lungs, mmcd g/ottij. n, The epiglottis. 
 
 00, The fuperior cartilages of the trachea, p, Its li- 
 
 ganicQtous back-part. 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 Fig. I j. The Superior Concave Airface of the Sesa- 
 moid Bones at the firft joint of the Great Toe, 
 with their Ligaments. 
 a. Three fcfanioid bones, b. The ligamentous fub- 
 
 ftancc in which they arc formed. 
 
 Part II. Of the SOFT PARTS in General; 
 
 Op the common INTEGUMENTS, with their App£ndages ; 
 
 And of the MUSCLES. 
 
 ANATOMICAL writers ufaally proceed toade- 
 fcription of the mufcles after having finiflied the 
 ofteology ; but we (liall deviate a little from the com- 
 mon method, with a view to defcribe every thing 
 clearly and diftindly, and to avoid a tautology which 
 would otherwife be unavoidable. All the parts of the bo- 
 dy are fo intimately connected with each other, that it 
 fccms impoflible to convey a jufl idea of any one of 
 them, without being in fome meafure obliged to fay 
 fomething of others ; and on this account we wifli to 
 mention in this place the names and fituation of the 
 principal vifceraofthe body, that when mention is here- 
 after made ofany one ofthem in the courfe of the work, 
 the reader may at leall know where they are placed. 
 After this little digrelIIon,the common integuments, 
 and after them the mufcles will be defcribed ; we then 
 propofe to enter into an examination of the fevcral vif- 
 cera and their different funftions. In defcribing the 
 brain, occafion will be taken tofpeak of the nerves and 
 animal fpirits. The circulation of the blood will fol- 
 low the anatomy of the heart, and the fecrctions and 
 other matter will be introduced in their proper places. 
 The body is divided into three great cavities. Of 
 thefe the uppermoft is formed by the bones of the cra- 
 nium, and inclofes the brain and cerebellum. 
 
 Thefecond is compofed of the vertebrae of ihe back, 
 the (lernum, and true ribs, with the additional alii (lance 
 of mufcles, membranes, and common integumen ts, and 
 is called the thorax — It contains the heart and lungs. 
 
 The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdomen. It 
 is feparatcd from the thorax by meansof the diaphragm, 
 End is formed by the lumbar vcrtcbrx, the os facrum, 
 the offa innominata, and the falfc ribs, to which we 
 may add the pcritonium, and a variety of mufcles. 
 This cavity inclofes the flomach, intcflines, omentum 
 or cawl, liver, pancreas, fplcen, kidneys, urinary 
 bladder, and parts of generation. 
 
 Under the divifion of common integuments are ufu- 
 ally included the epidermis, or fcarf- (kin, the reticu- 
 lum mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis, or true Jkin, and 
 the mcmbrana adipofa — The hair and nails, as well as 
 the febaceous glands may bcconfidcrcd as appendages 
 to the (kin. 
 
 Sect. I. Of th Skis. 
 
 § I. OJ t/;e ScAKF-fllht. 
 
 The epidermis, cuiicula, or fcarf-lkin, is a fine, 
 tranlparent, and infen(ible pellicle, dcftitutc of nerves 
 and blooJ-vtirds, which inverts the body, and every 
 
 where covers the true Ikin. This fcarf-Ikln, which 
 feems to be very fimple, appears, when examined with 
 a microfcope, to be compofed of feveral laminse or fcalej 
 which are incrcafcd by prelTure.as we mayobfcrve in the 
 hands and feet, where it is frequently much thickened, 
 and becomes perfeftly callous. It feems to adhere to 
 the cutis by a number of very minute filaments, but 
 may ealily be feparated from it by heat, or by macera- 
 tion in water. Some anatomical writers have fuppofed 
 that it is formed by a moiflure exhaled from the whole 
 furface of the body, which gradually hardens when it 
 comes into contad with the air.They were perhaps in- 
 duced to adopt this opinion,by obfcrving the fpecdy re- 
 generation of this part of the body when it has been by 
 any means dcftroyed, it appearing to be renewed on all 
 parts of the furface at the fame time ; whereas other 
 parts which have been injured, are found to dired their 
 growth from their circumference only towards their 
 centre. But a demonftrative proof that the epidermis 
 is not a fluid hardened by means of the external air, it 
 that the foetus in utcro is found to have this covering. 
 Lieuwenhoeck fuppofed its formation to be owing to 
 the expanfion of the extremities of the excretory vef- 
 fels which are found every where upon the furface of 
 the true (kin. Ruyfch attributed its origin to the 
 nervous papillx of the fkin ; and Hcifter thinks it 
 probable, that it may be owing both to the papilla: and 
 the excretory veifcls. The celebrated Morgagni, on 
 the other hand, contends*, that it is nothing more ' /ij^,„r„ 
 than the furface of the cutis, hardened and rendered An^t. ii. 
 infcnfible by the liquor amnii in utero, and by the A^iim^J- 
 preffure of the air. This is a fubjeJl, however, on '■"•• *• 
 which we can advance nothing with certainty. 
 
 The cuticle is pierced with an infinite number of 
 pores or Utile holes, which afford a palTage to the hair^, 
 hveat, and infenfible perfpiration, and likcwife to 
 warm Water, mercury, and whatever elfe is capable of 
 being taken in by the abforbents of the ftdn. The lines 
 which we obfcrve on the epidrrmis belong to the true 
 fkin. The cuticle adjufls iifclf to them, but does not 
 form them. 
 
 § 2. OJ the Rett Mucofum. 
 
 Between the epidermis and cutis we n^eet with an -^^H^^^ 
 appearance to which Malpighi. who firfl defcribed col^n"! 
 it, gave the name of r:tt muctfum, fuppcling it to be 
 ofamembranousftruflure, and pierced with an infinite 
 number of pores ; but the fad is, that it feems to be 
 nothing more than a mucous fubftance which may be 
 dilfolved by macerating in water, while :h* cuticle 
 and cutis prcfcrvc their texture. 
 
 4 U a 11««
 
 &c. 
 
 76 
 
 Cutis. 
 
 708 ANA! 
 
 Of the In- The colour of the body is found to depend on the 
 tcgumcnta, colour of this rcte mucofum ! for in negroes it is ob- 
 fcrvcd to be pcrfeflly black, whilft the true fkin is of 
 the ordinary colour. 
 
 The blifters which raifc the (kin when burnt or 
 fcalded, have been fuppofed by fomc to be owing to a 
 rarefadion of this mucus ; but they are more proba- 
 bly occafioned by an increafed action of the veflcls of 
 the part, togctlier with an afflux and cfFufion of the 
 thinner parts of the blood. 
 
 § 3. Of the CvTis, or True Skin. 
 
 The cutis is compofcd of fibres clofcly compacted 
 together, as wc may obfcrvc in leather, which is tiic 
 prepared fkinof animals. Thcfc fibrcsformathick uct- 
 vvork.which every where admits the filament sof nerves, 
 and an infinite number of blood- veflcls and lymphatics. 
 
 The cutis, when the epidermis is taken ctf, is found 
 to have, throughout its whole furface, innumerable 
 papills, which appear like very minute granulations, 
 and fccm to be calculated to receive the impreirions of 
 the touch, being the moft eafily obfcrved where the 
 fcnfc of felling is the moll delicate, as in the p.ilms of 
 the hands and on the fingers. 
 
 Thefe papillas are fuppofed by many antomical wri- 
 ters tobe continuationsof the pulpy fubflanceof nerves, 
 whofe coats have terminated in the cellular texture 
 of the fkin. The great fciilibility of thefe papilla; evi- 
 dently proves them to be exceedingly ncrvtus ; but 
 furely the nervous fibrilki: of the fkinareof themfelvcs 
 fcarcely equal to the formation of thcfc papilla;, and if 
 feems to be more probable that they are formed like 
 the reft of the cutis. 
 
 Thefe papilla; being defcribcd, the ufes of the epi- 
 dermis and the reticulum mucofum will be more ealily 
 underllood ; the latter ferving to keep tliem conflant- 
 ly nioift, while the former protcdts them from the ex- 
 ternal air, and modifies their too great fenfibility. 
 
 5 4. 0//*<; Glands of tht Skin. 
 
 In different pans of the body we meet, within the 
 fubftance of the ikin, with certain glands or follicles, 
 which difcharge a fat and oily humour that fcrvcs to 
 lubricate and foftcn the Ikin. When the fluid they fe- 
 crctc lias acquired a certain degree of thicknefs, it ap- 
 proaches to the colour and confiflence of fuet ; and 
 from this appearance they have derived their name of 
 ftbaccous glands. Tliey are found in the greateft num- 
 ber in the nofe, car, nipple, axilla, groin, fcrotum, 
 vagina, and prepuce. 
 
 Befides thefe fcbaceous glands, we read, in anatomi- 
 cal books, of others that are defcribed as fmall fpheri- 
 cal bodies placed in all parts of the (kin, in much great- 
 er abundance than thofejuft now mentioned, and nam- 
 ed miliary, from tluir fuppofed refemblance to millet- 
 feed. Steno, who firft defcribed thefe glands, and Mal- 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 77 
 
 The fc- 
 baceous 
 (lands. 
 
 pighi, Ruyfch, Verheyen, Winflow, and others, who 
 have adopted hisopinionson this fubiei;t,fpcak of them 
 as having excretory duds, that open on the furface of 
 the ciuicle, and dillil the fwcat and matter of infciifi- 
 ble pcrfpiration ; and yet, notwithftanding the pofitive 
 manner in which thcfc pretended glands have been 
 fpokcn of, we are now fafficicntly convinced that 
 their exiftence is altogether imaginary. 
 
 5. Ofthi Insensible Perfpiraton and Sv/ZAi. 
 
 The matter of infenfible pcrfpiration, or in other 
 words, the fubtilc vapour that is continually exhaling 
 from the furface of the body, is not fecrctcd by any 
 particular glands, but feems to be derived wholly from 
 the extremities of the minute arteries that are every 
 where difperfed through the (kin. Thefe exhaling 
 velfcls are eafily demonftrated in the dead fubjed, hy 
 throwing water into the ar;eries; for then fmall drops 
 exude from all parts of the (kin, and raife up the cu- 
 ticle, the pores of which are clofed by death ; and in 
 the living fubjecl, a looking-gtafs placed againft the 
 fkin, is loon obfcured by the vapour. Bidloo fancied 
 he had difcovcred ducts leading from the cutis to the 
 cuticle, and tranfraitiing this fiuid ; bat in this he was 
 miftaken. 
 
 When the pcrfpiration is by any means increafed, 
 and fevcral drops that were infcniible when fcparatc, 
 are united together and condcnfeJ by the extern.il air, 
 they form upon the fkin fmall, but vifible, drops called 
 fuiat (.v). This particularly happens after much ex- 
 ercifc, ot whatever occafions an increafed determina- 
 tion of fluids to the furface of the body ; a greater quan- 
 tity of pcrfpirablc matter being in fuch cafes carried 
 through the pali'agcs that are deftincd to convey it off. 
 
 It has been difputcd, indeed, whether the infcniible 
 perfj iratiun and fweat are to be conlidered as one and 
 the famcexcretion.differing only in degree jorw-hether 
 they are two diftindl excretions derived from different 
 fourccs. In fupport of the latter opinion, it has been 
 alleged, that the infcniible pcrfpiration is agreeable to 
 nature, and efTcntial to health, whereas fwcat may be 
 conlldtred as a fpecies of difcafe. But this argument 
 proves nothing ; and it feems probable, that both the 
 infenfible vapour and the fweat are exhaled in a (imi- 
 lar manner, thougli they differ in quantity, and proba- 
 bly in their qualities ; the former being more Hmpid, 
 and fecmingly lefs impregnated with falts than the lat- 
 ter , at any rate we may conlider the (kin as an emunc- 
 tory through which theredundantwater.and fometimes 
 the other more Inline parts of the blood, arc carried off. 
 But the infenfible pcrfpiration is not confined to the 
 fkin only — a grcut part of what we are conftantly 
 throwing ort in this way is from the lungs. The quan- 
 tity of fluid exhaled from the human body by this in- 
 f(?nfible pcrfpiration is very con liderable.S3nftorius(o) 
 an Italian phyfician, whoindefatigably palled a great 
 
 many 
 
 78 
 Infenfible 
 pcrfpira- 
 tion. 
 
 79 
 Whether 
 thcfc are 
 one and the 
 fame ordif> 
 ferent ex- 
 crctiooi. 
 
 80 
 Their ufes. 
 
 (n) Licuwenhoek afferts that one drop of fweat is formed by the conflux of fifteen drops of pcrfpirablc 
 vapour. 
 
 (o) The infenfible pcrfpiration is fometimes di(lingui(hed by the name of this phyfician, who was born in 
 the territories of Venice, and was afterwards a profelTor in the univerfity of Padua. After ellimating the ali- 
 ment he took in, and the fenfiblefecretionsand difcharges, he was enabled to afcertain with great accuracy the 
 '\rightor quantity of infcniible pcrfpiration by means of a (latical chair which lie contrived for this purpoCe ; 
 
 and
 
 Part II. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Of the lo-many years in a fcriesofflatical experiments, demon* 
 teguments, flratcd long ago what has been confirmed by later ob- 
 _ fcrvations, that the quantity of vapour exhaled from 
 ' the (kin and from the furfacc of the lungs, amounts 
 nearly to y-8ths of the aliment we take in. So that if 
 in the warm climate of Italy a perfon cats and drinks 
 the quantity of eight pounds in the courfe of a day, 
 five pounds of it will pafs off by infenliblc perfpira- 
 tion, while three pounds only will be evacuated by 
 Aool, urine, faliva, &c. But in countries where tlie de- 
 gree of cold is greater than in Ituly, the quantity of 
 perfpired matter is Icfs ; in fomc of che more no: ihern 
 climates, it being found not to equal the difch^rge by 
 urine. It is likewife obfcrved to vary according to 
 the feafon of the year, and according lo tiie conftitu- 
 lion, age, fex, difcofcs, diet, cxercife, pallions, &c. 
 of dilfcrent people. 
 
 From whai has been faid on this fubjeft, it will be 
 cafily coac'Jved, that ibis evacuation caunoi be either 
 much incrcaled or diniinilhed in quantity without af- 
 feding the health. 
 
 The ptrfpirablc matter and the fweat are in fome 
 mcafurc analogous to the urine, as appears frm their 
 lafte and faliac nature (p). And it is worthy of ob- 
 fervation, that when either of the fccreiions is in- 
 crcafcd in quantity, the other is diminill:cd ; io that 
 they who perfpirc the Icaft, ufually pafs the grcatefl 
 quantity oi urine, and vice verfa. 
 
 \ 6. Of the Nails. 
 
 The nails are of a compact texture, hard and tran- 
 fparentlih; horn. Their origin is ftill a fubjcd of dif- 
 pute. f»lil;M^hi fippofcd them to be formed by a con- 
 tinuation of the papillae of the rtdn : Ludwig, on the 
 oilier haw !, maintained, that they were compofed of 
 the extremities of blood-vclFcls and nerves; both 
 thefe opinions arc now delervedly rtjefted. 
 
 They fcem to poflcfs many properties in common 
 with the cuticle ; like it they are neither vafcular nor 
 fenfible, and when the cuticle is fcparaied from the 
 true Ikin by maceration or other means, the nails come 
 away with it. 
 
 They api'car to be compofed of different layers, of 
 unequal li^c, applied one over the other. Each layer 
 fcems to be formed of lungitudinal fibres. 
 
 In each nail we may diftinguilh three parts, viz. 
 the root, the body or middle, .-ind the extremity. The 
 root is a foft, thin, and white fubftance, terminatingin 
 the form of a crelcent ; the Cj-idcrmis adheres very 
 
 709 
 
 Arongly to this part ; the body of the nail is broader. Of the in- 
 redder, and thicker, and the extremity is of fUU great- legumcntj, 
 er firmnefs. *'■ 
 
 The nails incrcafc from their roots, and not from ^ 
 their upper extremity. 
 
 Their principal ufe is to cover and defend the ends 
 of the fingers and toes from external injury. 
 
 § 7- Of the Hair. 
 
 The hairs, which from their being generally known The hair, 
 do not fcem to require any definition, arife from di- 
 Aincl capfulcs or bulbs feated in the cellular membrane 
 under the ikin (q.). Some of thefe bulbs inclofe feve- 
 ral hairs. They may be obfcrved at the roots of the 
 hairs which form the beard or whifkers of a cat. 
 
 The hairs, like the nails, grow only from below by 
 a regular propulfion from their root, where they re- 
 ceive their nourifhment. Their bulbs, when viewed 
 with a microfcope, are found to be of various fliapes. 
 In the headandfcrotum they arc roundilh ; in the eye- 
 brows they are oval ; and in other parts of the body 
 they are nearly of a cylindrical fiiape. Each bulb feenis 
 to conliA of two membranes, between which there is a 
 certain quantity of moillure. Within the bulb the 
 hair feparatesinto three or four fibrillas; the bodies of 
 the hairs, which are the parts without the (kin, vary i:i 
 foftnefsand colour according to the dilference of cli- 
 mate, age, or temperament of body (r). 
 
 Their general ufe in the body docs not fcem to be 
 abfolutely determined ; but hairs on particular parts, 
 as on the eye-brows and eye-lids, are deflined for par- 
 ticular ufcs, which will be mentioned when thofe 
 parts are defcribcd. 
 
 § Of the Cellvlar Membra.n'e <»'.'</ Fat. 
 
 83 
 
 The cellular membrane is found to invert the mofl Cdluur 
 minute tibrts wc are able to trace ; fo that by modern membrane, 
 phyliologills, it is very properly coniiiiered as theuni- 
 vcrfal conncfting medium of every part of the body. 
 
 It is compofed of an infinite number of \iiinjte cells 
 united together, and conmiunicating with each other. 
 The two dilcafcs peculiar to this membrane arc proofs 
 of fachacoinmnnication ; lor in the eviphyfetnu all its 
 cells are filled with air, and in the anafarca tliey arc 
 univerfally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs 
 of communication from difcafe, a familiar indance of 
 it may be obfcrved among butchers, who ufually punc- 
 ture this membrane, and by inflating it with air add 
 to the good appearance of their meat. 
 
 The 
 
 »nd from his experiments, which were conducted with great indullry and patience, he was led to detcrmiue 
 what kinds of folid or liquid aliment iucrcafed or diminilhcd it. From thefe experiments he I'ormed a fyflcm, 
 which hepublifliedat Venicein 161 4, in the form of aphorifms, under the title of " Ars dc Medicina Statica." 
 
 (p) Minute chryltals have been obfcrved to liioot upon ihc cloaths of men who work in glafs-houfcs. Hal- 
 lir Elem. F hf 
 
 (q_) Malpighi,and after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fuppofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves, being 
 of opinion that they originated from the papilla; of the fVdn, which they cunlidtred as nervous; and as a corro- 
 borating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain wc feel in plucking them out ; but later aiiaio- 
 mifts fcem to have rejected this doctrine, and confidcr the hairs as particular bodies, not arihng from the pa- 
 pillx for in the parts where the papillae abound moft there are no hairs), but from bulbs or eapfules, which 
 are peculiar to them. 
 
 (r) The hairs likewife differ from each other, and may not improperly be divided into twoclalTes; one 
 of which may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillae ; and the otiier, the fofter hairs, which 
 are to be obferved almofl every where on the furfice of the body.
 
 Fjt. 
 
 710 A N A T 
 
 Of th« In. The cells of tliis membrane feive as rcfervoirs to the 
 trgumcmt, £,i)y pji-t of the blood or Fat, which fcems to be depo- 
 . • fue J ill them, cither by traiil'iidation through the coats 
 
 84 of the arteries, that ramify through thcfc cells, or by 
 particular vclfels, coiuinucj from the end of arteries. 
 Thcfc cells are not of a gl.indular ftruilure, as Malpi- 
 ghi and others after him have fuppofed. The fat is 
 abforbcd and carried back into thefyflem by the lym- 
 phatics. The great wade of it in many difeafes, par- 
 ticularly in the confumption, is a fufficient proof that 
 hich an abforpiion takes place. 
 
 The fulncfsand lizcof the body are in a great mea- 
 fure proportioned to ihc quantity of fat contained in 
 the cells of this membrane. 
 
 In the living body it fcems to be a fluid oil, which 
 concretes after death. In graminivorous animals, it is 
 found to be of a firmer conliRcnce than in man. 
 
 The fat is not confined to the ikin alone, being met 
 v/iih every where in the intcrllices of mufcles, in the 
 omentum, about the kidneys, at the bafisof the heart, 
 in the orbits, &c. 
 
 The chief ufes of the fat feems to be to afFord inoi- 
 fture to all the parts with which it is connedled ; to 
 facilitate the aftion of the mufcles j and to add to the 
 beauty of the body, by making it every where fmooth 
 and equal. 
 
 •5« Sect. II. 6///;^ Muscles. 
 
 Th e mufcles are the organsof motion. The pans 
 that are ufually included under this name confift of di- 
 i.\\n&. portions of fledi, fufccptible of contradion and 
 relaxation; the motions of which, in a natural and 
 healthy ftate, are fubjed to the will, and for this rea- 
 fon they arc called voluntary mufcles. But befides 
 thefc, there are other parts of the body thatowe their 
 power of contraftion to their mufcular fibres ; thus the 
 heart is of a mufcular texture, forming what is called 
 a hollow raufcle ; and the urinary bladder, flomach, 
 inteflines, &c. are enabled to aft upon their contents, 
 merely becaufe ihey are provided with mufcular fibres. 
 Thcfe are called involuntary mufcles, becaufe their 
 motions are not dependent on the will. The mufcles 
 of refpiration, being in fome meafure influenced by 
 the will, are faid to have a mixed motion, 
 
 The names by which the voluntary mufcles are di- 
 ftingulflicd, are founded on their fize, figure, fituation, 
 ufc, or the arrangement of their fibres, or their origin 
 and infcrtion. Butbcfideslliefcparticulardiftinflions, 
 there arc certain general ones that requu'e to be noti- 
 fied. Thus, if the fibres of amufcle are placed paral- 
 lel to each otlier in a flraight direftion, they form 
 wliat is ftyled a rfBilinear mnfele ; if the fibres crofs 
 and interfeft each other, they eonflitutc a com/^ounil 
 mufclc; a radiated one, if the fibres are difpofed in 
 the manner of rays; or a. pcmiifonii mufcle, if, like 
 the plume of a pen, they are placed obliquely with 
 rcfpeft to the tendon. 
 
 Mufcles that aft in oppofition to each other, arc 
 called aiitagonifla: ; thus every extenfor or mufcle has 
 a flexor for its antagonift, and vie; verfa. Mufcles that 
 concur in the fame aftion are flyled corigineres. 
 
 The mufcles being attached to the bones, the latter 
 may be conhdered as levers that are moved in differ- 
 ent dircClious by the contraftiou of ihofe organs. 
 
 O M Y. Part \X, 
 
 The end of a mufclc wliich adheres to the moft fix- Of ihc in- 
 ed part is ufually called the origin, and thatwhich ad- tegumenti, 
 heres to the more moveable part, the infertion, of the f"' 
 mufclc. 
 
 In every mufcle we may diftingnilh two kinds of 
 fibres ; the one foft, of a red colour, fenfible, and irri- 
 table, called /cy^v fibres ; the other o, a firmer tex- 
 ture, of a white glidening colour, infenlible, without 
 irritability or the power of contrafting, and named ten- 
 dinous fibres. They are occafionally intermixed ; but 
 the flefhy fibres generally prevail in the belly or mid- 
 dle part of a mufcle, and the tendinous ones in the 
 extremities. If thefe tendinous fibres are formed in- 
 to a round llender chord, they form what is called the 
 tendon of the mufclc ; on the other hand, if they arc 
 fpread into a broad flat furface, the extremity of the 
 mufcle is flyled aponeurofu. 
 
 Theiendonsof many mufcles, efpecially when they 
 are long and expofed to preflure or friftion in the 
 grooves formed for them in the bones, are furrounded 
 by a tendinous flieath ovjtfcia, in which we fometimes 
 find a fmall mucous fac or bur fa mucofa, which obviates 
 any inconvenience from friftion. Sometimes we find 
 whole mufcles, and evenfeveral mufcles, covered by a 
 fafcia of the fame kind, that affords origin to many of 
 their fibres, dipping down between them, adhering to 
 the ridges of bones, and thus preventing them from 
 fwelling too much when in aftion. The mofl; remark- 
 able inflance of fuch a covering is xhe. fafcia lata of the 
 thigh. 
 
 Each mufcle is inclofed by a thin covering of cellu- 
 lar membrane, which has been fometimes improperly 
 confidered as peculiar to the mufcles, and defcribed 
 under the name oi propria mcmbrana mufculofa. This 
 cellular covering dips down into the fubftance of the 
 mufcle, connefting and furrounding the moft minute 
 fibres we are able todemonftrate, and .affording a fup- 
 port to their velicls and nerves. 
 
 Lieuwenhoeck fancied hehaddifcovcred,by means 
 of his microfcope, the ultimate divifion of a mufcle, 
 and that he could point out the fimple fibre, which ap- 
 peared to him to be an hundred times lefs than a hair ; 
 but he was afterwards convinced how much he was 
 miftaken on this fubjeft, and candidly acknowledged, 
 that what he had taken for a fimple fibre was in faft 
 a bundle of fibres. 
 
 It is eafy to obferve feveral of thefe fafculi or bun- 
 dles in a piece of beef, in which, from the coarfenefs 
 of its texture, they are very evident. 
 
 The red colour which fo particularly diftinguifhes 
 the mufcular or flcfliy parts of animals, is owing to an 
 infinite number of blood-veflcls that are difperftj 
 through their fubftance. When we macerate the fi- 
 bres of a mufcle in water, it becomes of a white co- 
 lour like all other parts of the body divefted of their 
 blood. The b'.ood-vciTcls are accompanied by nerves, 
 and they are both diftributcd in fuch abundance to 
 thefe parts, that in endeavouring to trace the courfc 
 of the blood-velfcls in a mufcle, it would appear to be 
 formed altogether by their ramifications ; and in an at- 
 tempt to follow the branchesof its nerves, they would 
 be found to be equal in proportion. 
 
 If a mufclc is jiricked or irritated, it immediately 
 contrafts. This is called its irritable principle ; and 
 
 this
 
 Part II. 
 
 A N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Of the this irritability is to be confidered as the charaftcriftic 
 
 Mufcles, of mufcular fibres, and may fcrvc to prove their cxift- 
 
 ^ *' ' encc ill pans that are too niiiiiitc to be examined by the 
 
 eye. This power, whicli difpoles the niufclts to con- 
 
 86 traftvvhcn (limulated, independent of the will, isfiip- 
 
 Of the vis pofed to be inherent in them ; and is therefore named 
 
 infita. yjj i/ijiia. This property is not to be confonndcd with 
 
 cladicity, which the membranes and other parts of the 
 
 body polltfsina greater or lefs degree in common with 
 
 thcmufcles; nor with fen fibiliiy, for the lieart, though 
 
 the mofl irritable, feenis to be the Icafl fenfible of any 
 
 of the mufcular parts of the body. 
 
 Afteramufeular fibre has contraded, ii foon returns 
 to a ftate of relaxation, till it is excited afrelh, and 
 then it contrafts and relaxes again. We may likewifc 
 produce fuch a contradion, by irritating the nerve 
 leading to a nuifcle, although the nerve iifclf is not 
 affcacd. 
 
 This principle is found to be greater in fmall than in 
 large, and in young than in old, animals. 
 
 In tlie voluntary mufcles thcfc eff'cds of contradion 
 and relaxation of the flcfliy fibres are produced in obe- 
 dience to the will, by what may be called the vh ner- 
 vo/a, a property that is not to be confounded with the 
 vii iiijita. As the cxiflence of a vis infita diflerent front 
 a vis nervca, was the dodlrine taught by Doftor Hal- 
 ler in his Etem. Phyf. but is at prefent called in que- 
 flion by feveral, particularly Dr Monro, we think 
 it nccelfary to give a few objedions, as ftated in his 
 Obfcrvations on the Nervous Syflcm : 
 
 " The chief experiment (fays the Dodor), which 
 fecms to have led Dr Hallcr to this opinion, is the well- 
 known one, that the heart and other mufcles, after be- 
 ing detached from the brain, continue to aft fponia- 
 neoully, or by Aimuli may be roufed into aftion for a 
 conliderable length of time ; and when it cannot be al- 
 ledged, fays Dr Haller, that the nervous fluid is by 
 the mind, or otherwife, impelled into the mufcle. 
 
 " That in this inflance, we cannot comprehend by 
 what power the nervous fluid or energy can be put in 
 motion, mufl perhaps be granted : But has Dr Haller 
 given a better explanation of the manner in which his 
 iuppofed vis infita becomes aftive ? 
 
 " If it be as difHcult to point out the caufe of the 
 aftion of the vis infita as that of the aftion of the vis 
 nervea, the admillion of that new power, inllead of 
 Tclicving, would add to our perplexity. 
 
 " We Ihould then have admitted, that two caafes of 
 a different nature were capable of producing exaftly 
 the fame effccf ; which is not in general agreeable to 
 the laws of nature. 
 
 " Wefhould find otherconfeqncncesarifefrom fuch 
 an hypoihefis, wliich tend to weaken the credibility of 
 it. For inflance, if in a found animal the vis nervea 
 alone produces the contraftion of the mufcles, we will 
 alk what purpofc the visinlita fcrvcs I If both operate, 
 are we to fuppofe that the vis nervea, impelled by the 
 mind or living principle, gives the order, wliich the 
 vis infita executes, and that the nerves are the intcr- 
 nuntii ; and^fo admit two wife agents employed in 
 every the nioft limple aftion ? But inftead of ("pecula- 
 ting farther, let us learn the ctfeft of experiments, and 
 endeavour from thcfe to draw plain conclufions. 
 
 711 
 
 " 1. When I poured a folution of opiam in water Of the 
 under the Ikin of the leg of a frog, the mnfclei, to the Mufcles. 
 furfaceof which it was applied, were very foon depri- ' ' 
 
 ved of the power of contraftion. In like manner, 
 when I poured this folution into the cavity of the 
 heart, by opening the vena cava, the heart was aj- 
 moft inflantly deprived of its power of motion, whe- 
 ther the experiment was performed on it fixed in its 
 place, or cut out of the body. 
 
 " 2. I opened the thorax of a living frog; and then 
 tied or cut its aorta, fo as to put a /lop to the circulati- 
 on of its blood. 
 
 " I then opened the vena cava, and poured the folu- 
 tion of opium into the heart ; and found, not only that 
 this organ was inflaiuly deprived of its powers of ac- 
 tion, but that in a few luiniites the mofl dillant muf- 
 cles of (he limbs were extremely weakened. Vet this 
 weaknefs was not owing to the want of circulation, 
 for the frog could jump about for more than an hour 
 after the heart was cut out. 
 
 '* In the firfl of thefe two experiments, weobferv- 
 ed the fuppofcd vis infita deflroycd by the opium ; in 
 the lattar, the vis nervea ; for it is evident that the 
 limbs were affcftcd by the fympathy of the brain, 
 and of the nervous fyftem in general, svith the nerves 
 of the heart. 
 
 " 3. When the nerve of any mufcle is firft divid- 
 ed by a tranfverfe feftion, and then burnt with a 
 hot iron, or punftured with a needle, the mufcle in 
 which it terminates contrafts violently, exaftly in the 
 fame manner as when tlic irritation is applied to the 
 fibres of the mufcle. But when the hot iron, or 
 needle, is confined to the nerve, Dr Haller himfelf 
 niufl have admitted, that tlie vis nervea, and not the 
 vis infita, was excited. But here I would afk two que- 
 flions. 
 
 •' Firft, Whether we donot as well underAand how 
 this vis nervea is excited when irration is applied to 
 tlie mufcle as when it is applied to the trunk of the 
 nerve, the impelling power of the mind fecniing to be 
 equally wanting in both cafes ? 
 
 " Secondly, If it appears that irritation applied to 
 the trunk of a nerve excites the vis nervea, w hy fliould 
 we doubt that it can equally well excite it when ap- 
 plied to the fmall and very f'cniiSle branches and i«r- 
 minations of the nerve in the ninfcle ? 
 
 " As, therefore, it appears that the fuppofcd vis 
 inlita is deflroycd or excited by tlie f:me means as the 
 vis nervea ; nay, that when, by the application of o- 
 pium 10 the heart of a fro;;, after the aorta is cut and 
 the circulation interruitcd, we have deflroycd thevjs 
 infita, the vis nervca is fo much extinguilhed, that the 
 animal cannot aft wiili the dillant mufcles of the 
 limb ; and that thefe afterwards grow very torpid, or 
 lofe much of their fuppofcd vis infita ; it feems clearly 
 to follow, that there is no jufl ground for fuppofmg 
 that any other principle produces the contraftion of a 
 mufcle." 
 
 The vis iicrvcfii, or oper.ition of the mind, if wc 
 may fo call it, by whicli a mufcle is brought into con- 
 traftion, is not inherent ill tlie mufcle like the vis tit- 
 Jita ; neither is it perpetual, like tliis latter property. 
 After long continued or violent cxcrcife, for example, 
 
 the
 
 712 
 
 Of the In- 
 
 ■rguincnti 
 
 A N A 1 
 
 the vohiutary mufclcs become ^lainful, and at length 
 incapable of further aftloii ; whereas the heart and o- 
 thcr InvoliHuary niufdcs,ihc moiions of which depend 
 folely on the vu infita, continue through life in a con- 
 AantAate of adion, without any incouvenicuceorwaflc 
 of this inherent principle. 
 
 Tlic adion of the vis iicrvofaon the voluntary muf- 
 des, conftitutes what is called viufcular motion ; a fub- 
 jcft that has given rife to a variety of hypothefis, ma- 
 ny of them ingenious, but none of them fatisfaftory. 
 
 Borelli and fome others have undertaken to explain 
 thccaufc of contraiflion, by fuppol'ing that every muf- 
 cular fibre forms as it were a chain of very minute 
 bladders, while the nerves which are diftributcd 
 through the siufclcs, bring with them a fupply of ani- 
 mal fpirits, which at oar will fill tiiefc bladders, and by 
 increafing their diameter in width, fliorten them, and 
 of conrfe the whole fibre. 
 
 Borelli fappofes thefe bladders to be of a rhomboi- 
 dal fhape ; Bernouilli on the other hand contends that 
 they are oval. Our countryman, Cowpcr, fancied he 
 had filled them with mercury ; the caufc of this mif- 
 take was probably owingtothc mercury's infinuating 
 itfelf into fome of tlie lymphatic veflcls. The late in- 
 genious Mr Elliot undertook to account for the phe- 
 nomena of mufcular motion on principles very diffe- 
 rent from thofejufl now mentioned. He fuppofed that 
 a dephlogiHicated ftatc of the blood is requifite for 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 mufcular aflion, and that a communication of phlogi- Of the In- 
 fton to the blood is a neccflary crlcct of fuch aQion. tegumenti, 
 
 Wc know that the mufcular fibre is fliorlcned, and . '• 
 that the mufcic itfelf (wells when in a£tion ; but how 
 tliefc phenomena arc produced, we arc unable to de- 
 termine. We likewife know that the nerves are elfcn- 
 lial to mufcular motion ; for upon dividing or making 
 a ligature round the nerve leading to a mufcic, the lat- 
 ter becomes incapable of motion. A ligature made on 
 the artery of a nuifcle produces a fimilar eftcd ; a proof 
 this, that a regular fupply of blood is alio equally ne- 
 ccflary to mufcular motion. The caufe of palfy is 
 ufually not to be fought for in the mufcic afleded, but 
 in the nerve leading to that mufcie, or in that part of 
 the brain or fpinal marrow from which the nerve de- 
 rives its origin. 
 
 Oj the particular Mtifdes. 
 
 As the enumeration and difcription of ihe particlar 
 mufcles mull bcdry and unentertaining to the genera- 
 lity of readers, yet cannot be altogether omitcd in a 
 work of this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this 
 part of the fubjefl into the form of a table ; in whi^h 
 the name, origin, infertion, and principal ufe of each 
 niufcle, will be found dcfcribed in few words, and oc- 
 cafionally its etymology when it is of Greek derivation 
 or difficult to be underilood. 
 
 A TABLE of the MUSCLES arranged according to their Situation. 
 
 [N. U. This table does rot include all the mufcles of the body ; thofe belonging to the eyes, internal ear, intcflinum reflum, 
 and the male and female organs of generation, being dcfcribed in other parts of the work. 'I he reader wi.I be plcafcd to 
 obferve likewife, that although all the mufcles (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mcntioa is here made only »i the mufclo 
 •f one Gde.] 
 
 Muscles fituated Name. 
 
 under the integu- 
 ments of the cra- 
 nium - - - I. Occipito frontalis. 
 
 2. Corrugator fuper- 
 cilii. 
 
 Ori, 
 
 tgm. 
 
 Infertion 
 
 Vfe. 
 
 From the tranfverfe Into the (km of the To pull the fkiii of 
 
 ridge of the os oc- 
 cipitis. 
 
 From above the join- 
 ing of the OS fron- 
 tis, OS nafi, and os 
 maxillarc. 
 
 eye-brows. the head back- 
 
 wards, and to r.iifc 
 the eye-brows and 
 ikin of the fore- 
 bead. 
 Into the inner part To draw the eye- 
 of the occipito- brows towards each 
 frontalis. othes, and to wrin- 
 
 kle the forehead. 
 
 of the 
 eye-lids - I. Orbicularis palpe- 
 
 brarum. 
 
 2. Levator palpebrae 
 fuperioris. 
 
 -of the 
 
 From around the edge Into the nafal pro- To fliut the eye. 
 
 of the orbit. ces of the os 
 
 raaxillare. 
 From the bottom of Into the cartilage of To open the eye. 
 
 the orbit, near the the upper eye-lid. 
 
 optic foramen. 
 
 external ear - I. Altolens auri- 
 
 culam. 
 
 From the tendon of Into the upper part To raife the ear. 
 the occipito fron- of the car. 
 talis near the os 
 temporis. 
 3. Anterior auricula:. From near the back Into an eminence be- To raife this emi- 
 partof the zygoma, hind the helix. nencc, and topull 
 
 it forwards. 
 
 3. Re-
 
 Part II. 
 
 or the 
 Mufclei. 
 
 A N 
 
 Name. 
 3.Rctrahcntcs($)aU' 
 riculx. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 7'3 
 
 Muscles of the car- 
 tilages of the car I. Tragicus. 
 
 t. Anci-tragicas. 
 
 3. Tranfverfus-auri- 
 culas. 
 
 4. Helicis major. 
 
 5. Helicis minor. 
 
 -ofthenofe, i. Compreffor (t) 
 naris. 
 
 of the 
 mouih and lips^ i. Levator labii fupe- 
 rioris, alsquenafi. 
 
 a.Levator anguli oris. 
 
 5. Zygomaticus ma- 
 jor. 
 
 4. Zygomaticus mi- 
 nor. 
 
 5. Buccinator. 
 
 6. Dcprcflbr labii fu- 
 perioris, alseque 
 nafi. 
 
 Origin. Infertion. Vfc. Of ihe 
 
 From the outer and Into the convex pan To ftrctch the con- Mi.fdci. 
 back part of the of the concha. cha, and pull the ^" '" ' 
 
 root of the madoid car backwards, 
 
 procefs. 
 
 From the outer and 
 middle part of the 
 concha, near the 
 tragus. 
 
 From the root of the 
 inner part of the 
 helix. 
 
 From the upper part 
 of the concha. 
 
 From the upper, ante- 
 rior, and acute part 
 of the helix. 
 
 From the lower and 
 fore partof the he- 
 lix. 
 
 From the outer part 
 of the root of the 
 ala naii. 
 
 From the outer part 
 
 of the orbitar pro- 
 cefs of the OS niax- 
 illare, and from the 
 nafal procefs of 
 that bone, where 
 itjoinstheosfron- 
 tis. 
 
 From the os maxil- 
 larc fuperius, be- 
 tween the orbitar 
 foramen and the 
 firll dens molares. 
 
 From the os malse 
 near the zygoma- 
 tic future. 
 
 Into the upper part To deprefs the con- 
 
 of the tragus. cha, and pull the 
 
 point of the tragus 
 
 a little outwards. 
 
 Into the upper part To dilate the mouth 
 
 of the auti-tragus. of the concha. 
 
 Into the inner part 
 of the helix. 
 
 Into the cartilage of 
 the helix, a little 
 above the tragus. 
 
 Into the helix, near 
 the filfure in its 
 cartilage. 
 
 Into the nafal pro- 
 cefs of the OS max- 
 illare, and anterior 
 extremity of the OS 
 nali. 
 
 To ftretch the conclii 
 and fcapha, and 
 likewifc to pull the 
 parts it is conneifl- 
 ed with towards 
 each other. 
 
 To deprefs the upper 
 part of the helix. 
 
 To contraJl the fif- 
 fure. 
 
 Toftraighten the nof- 
 trils, and likewifc 
 to corrugate the 
 Ikinof thcnofe. 
 
 Into the upperlip and To draw theupper lip 
 ala of the nofc. and fkin ofthenofe 
 
 upwards and out- 
 wards. 
 
 Into the orbicularis To raife the corner of 
 oris at the angle of the mouth, 
 the mouth. 
 
 Immediately above 
 the origin of the 
 zyg. major. 
 
 From the alveoli of 
 the dentcs molares 
 in the npper and 
 lower jaws. 
 
 From the os maxill. 
 fupcr. immediately 
 above the gums of 
 thedentesinciforcs. 
 
 Into the angle of the To raife the angle of 
 mouth. the mouth, and 
 
 make the check 
 prominent, as in 
 laughing. 
 Into the angle of the To raife the angle of 
 mouth. the mouth oblique- 
 
 ly outwards. 
 Into the angle of the Tocontraclthcmouth 
 mouth. and draw the angle 
 
 of it outwards and 
 backwards. 
 Into the root of the To Jraw the ala naii 
 ala nali and upper andupperlipdown- 
 lip. wards. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 4 X 
 
 7. Depreflbr 
 
 (s) Thcfe are three fmall (lender mufclcs. The inferior one is fometimcs wanting. 
 (t) Thenofe is afteded by tibresof the occipi to frontalis, andby fcvcralmufclcs of thcfacc ; but this pair, 
 the comprcllbrcs, is the only «uc that is proper to it.
 
 
 A N 
 
 A T 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 rip ill. 
 
 
 ^. Depreflbr auguli At the lide of the 
 
 
 oris. 
 
 chin from thelow- 
 ercdgeof the max- 
 illa inferior. 
 
 
 8. Depreflbr labii in- 
 
 From the lower and 
 
 
 ferioris. 
 
 anterior part of 
 the maxilla infe- 
 rior. 
 
 
 9. Levator labii infc- 
 
 From near the gums 
 
 
 rloris. 
 
 of the inciforcsand 
 caninus of the max- 
 illa inferior. 
 
 
 10. Orbicularis O" 
 
 
 
 ris (u). 
 
 
 MusciEs of the low- 
 
 
 er jaw. 
 
 I. Temporalis. 
 
 From part of the os 
 
 M Y. Part 11. 
 
 lufert'ion. Up. Of the 
 
 Into the angle of the To draw the corner Mufdes. 
 mouth. ofthe mouth down- * * ' 
 
 wards. 
 
 Into the under lip. 
 
 To draw the under 
 lip downwards and 
 fomewhatoutwards 
 
 fitnatcd at 
 thcforepart of the 
 neck. 
 
 brcgnwtis and os 
 frontis ; fquamous 
 part of the os tem- 
 poris ; back part of 
 the OS malsB, and 
 tJic temporal pro- 
 cess of the os fphe- 
 noidcs ( v) 
 3. MalFcter (w). From the malar pro- 
 cefsof the OS max- 
 illare, and the low- 
 er edges of the os 
 mala:, and of the 
 zygomatic procefs 
 of the OS temporis. 
 
 3, Pterygoideus in- From the inner furface 
 ternus. ofthe outerwing of 
 
 the pterygoid pro- 
 cefs of the OS fphe- 
 noides, and from 
 the procefs of the 
 OS palati that helps 
 lo form the ptery- 
 goid foffa 
 
 4. Pterygoideus ex- From the external ala 
 ternus. of the pterygoid 
 
 proccfs,a fmall part 
 of the adjacent os 
 maxillare, and a 
 ridge in the tem- 
 poral procefs ofthe 
 OS fphenoides. 
 
 Into the under lip and To raife the under 
 Ikiii of the chill. lip and fldii of the 
 
 chin. 
 
 To fhut the mouth by 
 conflringingihelips. 
 
 Intothccoronoidpro- Jq ^love the lower 
 cefs of the lower ja^y upwards, 
 jaw. 
 
 Into the bafis of the To raife and Hkewifc 
 
 coronoid procefs, 
 and that part of the 
 jaw which fupports 
 that and the con- 
 dyloid procefs. 
 
 to move the jaw a 
 little forwards and 
 backwards. 
 
 Into the lower jaw on To raife the lowerjaw 
 its inner fide and and draw it a little 
 near its angle. to one fide. 
 
 Into the fore part of To move thejawfor- 
 thc condyloid pro- wards and to the 
 
 cefs of the lower 
 jaw, and like wife 
 of the capfular li- 
 gament. 
 
 oppofite fide (x) ; 
 andat the fame time 
 topreventthe liga- 
 ment of the joint 
 from being pinch- 
 ed. 
 
 i.Latiili]Buscolli(Y). 
 
 From the cellular 
 membrane covering 
 
 Into the fide of the To draw the cheeks 
 chiu and integu- and fkin of the face 
 
 (u) This mufclc is, in a great mcafure, if not wholly, formed by the buccinator, zygomatici, depreflbres, 
 and other mufcles that move the lips. Its fibres furround the month like a ring. 
 
 (v) Some of its fibres likcwife have their origin from a ftrong fafcia that covers the mufcle and adheres to 
 the bone round the whole circumference of its origin. When wc remove this covering, we find the mufclc of 
 a feniicircubr Ihape with its radiated fibres, converging and forming a flrong middle tendon. 
 
 (w) So called from its ufe in chewing, its derivation being from /i«j/<rao/x«i, vianduco, "toeat." 
 
 (x ) This happens when the mufcle adls fingly. When both 3&, the jaw is brought horizontally forwards. 
 
 (y) This broad and thin mufcular txpanlion, which is fituated immediately under the common integuments, 
 is by Window named mufcicius cutaneus. Galen gave it the name of arxaT^s-^a ixuaiti (Platyfjna-myoidis ) i the 
 etymology of which is from «r?.«i7t7«tt, dilatatit, and ui/t, mufculus, zad nim, Jtrvia.
 
 Partn. 
 
 of the 
 
 Mufclet. 
 
 A N 
 
 a.Maftoideus (z). 
 
 ATOMY. 
 
 Origin, Jnfirtion. 
 
 the pcdoral, del- meats of chc check, 
 toid, and trapezius 
 luulcles. 
 
 From the upper part Into the maftoid pro- 
 of the Aernum,and ccfs, and as far 
 from the uppcrand back as the lamb- 
 fore part of the doidai future. 
 clavicle. 
 
 MtJSCtBs firaattd 
 between the trunk 
 andthcoshyoides. 
 
 i.Omo-hjroidcus{A) From the upper cofla 
 of the fcapula near 
 itsniche;fronipart 
 of a ligament chat 
 extends acrofs this 
 niche, and forae- 
 timcs by a few fi- 
 bres, from the co- 
 racoid procefs. 
 
 From the cartilage of 
 the firftrib,the in- 
 ner and upper pare 
 of the llernum,and 
 a fmall part of the 
 clavicle. 
 
 From part of the bi- 
 fis and horn of the 
 OS hyoides. 
 
 Into the bafis of the 
 OS hjoidcs. 
 
 downwards ; ind 
 when the mouth is 
 lhut,todraw all that 
 part of the (kin to 
 which icisconned- 
 ed below the lower 
 jaw upwards. 
 To move the head to 
 one fide, or when 
 both mufclesad, ta 
 bend it forwards. 
 
 To draw the os hyoi» 
 des in an oblique di- 
 redion downwards. 
 
 B. Stcrno-hyoideus. 
 
 3. Hyo-thyroideus. 
 
 4. Sterno-thyroidcus From between the 
 cartilages of the i ft 
 and 2d ribs at the 
 upper and inner 
 partofihefternum. 
 
 J. Crico-thyroidcus. From the anterior 
 partandlideof the 
 cricoid cartilage. 
 
 Into the bafis of the 
 OS byoidcs. 
 
 Into a rough oblique 
 line at the tide of 
 the thyroid carti- 
 lage. 
 
 Immediately under 
 the hyo-thyroideus. 
 
 Into the lower part 
 and inferior horn 
 of fhe thyroid car- 
 tilage. 
 
 i^ituaied be- 
 
 tween the OS hyoi- 
 
 desand lowerjaw, i. Diagrafticus (b) 
 
 From a fofia at the Into the lower and 
 root of the raaftoid anterior panof the 
 procefs, and like- chin, 
 wife from the os 
 hyoides. 
 2.Stylo>hyoidcus(c) From the bafis of the Into the fide and fore 
 ftyloid procefs. part of the os hy- 
 
 eides near its bafc. 
 4X2 
 
 To draw theos hyoi' 
 des downwards. 
 
 To raifc the thyroid 
 cartilage, or deprefs 
 the OS hyoides. 
 
 To pull the thyroid 
 cartilage down- 
 wards. 
 
 To pull the cricoid 
 cartilage upwards 
 and backwards, or 
 the thyroid for- 
 wards and down« 
 wards. 
 
 To draw the |lower 
 jaw downwards. 
 
 To draw the os hy- 
 oides obliquely up- 
 wards. 
 
 5. jMylo. 
 
 Of 
 
 Mu 
 
 7»i 
 
 the 
 fcJei. 
 
 (z) This, on account of its two origins, is by Albinus deforibcd as two diftinft mufdcs, wliich he names 
 flerno-tuaftoideus and cl:ido-mafloid(us. 
 
 (a) This mufcle does not always arife from the coracoid procefs, it Items to have been improperly named 
 Mrfl<:o-*>(i;</fj by Douglas and Albiuus. Window calls it tmo./-joid(ui, on account of its general origin from 
 the fcapula. • . , 
 
 (b) From /.c and v«j-.p {hivenler), bccaufc it has two fleOiy bellies with a middle tendon. This tenuon 
 paffes through the ftylo-hyoideus. 
 
 (c) III Ibmc fiibjefts we meet withanother mufcle, which from its haviffg nearly the fame origin, inlertion, 
 anduic as this, has been nasacil fij /o-kjoidfus alttr.
 
 'i6 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mufclet. 
 
 A N A T O 
 
 N^me. Origin. 
 
 3. Mylo-hyoideus(D) From the iiifidc of 
 
 the lower jaw, be- 
 tween thclaftdeus 
 molaris and the 
 chin. 
 
 4. (E)Gemo-hyoidc- Fromtheinfidcofthe 
 us. chin. 
 
 5. Genio-glofliis. Fromtheinfidcofthe 
 
 chin. 
 
 6. Hyo-gloffus (f) From the horn,bafis, 
 
 and appendix of the 
 OS hyoides. 
 
 7. Lingualis. Laterally from the 
 
 root of the tongue. 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 8. Stylo-gloflus. 
 
 9. Stylo-pharyiigae- 
 us. 
 
 10. Circumflexus- 
 pakti. 
 
 II. Levator palati. 
 
 Muscles fituated a- 
 bout the fauces, i Palato-pharyn- 
 gaeus. 
 
 From the flyloid pro- 
 cefs,and fometimes 
 alfo from a liga- 
 nieat that extends 
 from thence to the 
 angle of the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 From the bafis of the 
 ftyloid procefs. 
 
 From near the bony 
 part of the Eufta- 
 chian tube, and 
 from the fpinous 
 procefs of the os 
 fphenoides. 
 
 From the membra- 
 nous part of the 
 Euftachian tube, 
 and the extremity 
 oftheospetrofum. 
 
 From the lower and 
 anterior part of the 
 cartilaginous extre- 
 mity of the Eufta- 
 chian tube (h); the 
 tendinous expan- 
 fion of the circum- 
 flexus palati ; and 
 the velum pendu- 
 lum palati near the 
 bafis and black part 
 of the uvula. 
 
 I life rt ion. 
 
 Ufc. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Into the bafis of the To move theoshyoi- Mufdes. 
 
 OS hyoides. 
 
 des to cither tide, " 
 
 
 forwards 
 
 or up- 
 
 
 wards. 
 
 
 Into the bafc of the 
 
 To move the 
 
 os hy- 
 
 OS hyoides. 
 
 oides forwards or 
 
 
 upwards. 
 
 
 Into the tongue and To move the 
 
 tonguc 
 
 bafis of the os hy- 
 
 in various 
 
 direc- 
 
 oides. 
 
 tions. 
 
 
 Into the tongue late- 
 
 To draw the 
 
 tongue 
 
 rally. 
 
 downwards 
 wards. 
 
 and in- 
 
 Into the extremity of 
 
 To fliorten tl 
 
 lie ton- 
 
 the tongue. 
 
 gue and d 
 backwards. 
 
 raw it 
 
 Into the fide of the 
 
 To move the 
 
 tongue 
 
 tongue from the 
 
 backwards 
 
 and to 
 
 root to near its tip. 
 
 one fide. 
 
 
 Into the fide of the 
 pharynx and pofte- 
 rior part of the thy- 
 roid cartilage. 
 
 Into the femilunar 
 edge of the os palati 
 and the velum pen- 
 dulum palati (g). 
 
 To raife the thyroid 
 cartilage and pha- 
 rynx, and likewife 
 to dilate the latter. 
 
 To dilate and draw 
 the velum oblicjuely 
 downwards. 
 
 Into the velum pen- 
 dulum palati. 
 
 Into the upper and 
 pofterior part of the 
 thyroid cartilage. 
 
 To pull the velum 
 backwards. 
 
 To raife the pharynx 
 and thyroid carti- 
 lage, or to pull the 
 velum and uvula 
 backwards and 
 downwards. 
 
 a. Conftridor 
 
 (d) So named from its arifing near the dentes molarf s (iuOvf), and its being inferted into the os hyoides. 
 
 (e) From ynun, me/ituvi, the " chin." 
 
 !f) From x»f«c, cornu, and >x»i5-5-«, lingua, " the tongue." 
 g) This mufcle in its courfe forms a round tendon, which, after pafllng over a kind of hook formed by the 
 inner plate of the pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone, expands into a tendinous membrane. 
 
 (h) The few fibres that arife from the Euftachian tube are defcribcd as a diftind mufcle by Albinus, un- 
 vlcr the name of Salpingo ^haryngem. They fervc to dilate the mouth of ilie labc.
 
 'art II. 
 
 of the 
 Mufclc). 
 
 N 
 
 O M 
 
 l^ame. Origin. hiftrtion. Ufe. 
 
 Conflriaor iftlimi From near the bafis Into the velum pen- To raifc the tongne 
 
 faucium. 
 
 3. Azygos iivul«. 
 
 of tiie tongue late- 
 rally. 
 
 and draw the ve- 
 lum towards it (i). 
 
 dulum palati, near 
 
 the balls and fore 
 
 part of the uvula. 
 
 From the end of the Into the extremity of Tolhorten the uvula, 
 
 future that unites the uvula. and bring it for- 
 
 the oITa palati. wards and upwards. 
 
 Muscles at the back 
 part of the pharynx i.Con(lri<ftorpharyn. 
 gis fupcrior. 
 
 2.Conflric^orpharyn- 
 gis medius (l). 
 
 -about the 
 
 glottis 
 
 3,Conftrj£l;orpharyn. 
 gis inferior (m). 
 
 I. Crico-arytaenoide- 
 us lateralis. 
 
 3. Crico-arytxnoide- 
 us poflicus. 
 
 3. Arytaenoideus ob- 
 liquis. 
 
 4. Arytaenoideus 
 tranfverfus. 
 
 5. Thyrco-arytaenoi- 
 deus. 
 
 6. Arytaeno-cpiglot- 
 tideus. 
 
 7. Thyreo-epiglotti- 
 deus. 
 
 From the cuneiform 
 proccfs of the oc- 
 cipital bone ; the 
 pterygoid procefs 
 of the OS fphcnoi- 
 dcs, and from each 
 jaw near the lafl 
 dens molares (k). 
 
 From the horn and 
 appendix of the os 
 hyoides, and from 
 the ligament that 
 unites it with the 
 thyroid cartilage. 
 
 From the cricoid and 
 thyroid cartilages. 
 
 From the fide of the 
 cricoid cartilage. 
 
 From the cricoid car- 
 tilage pofleriorly. 
 
 From the bafis of one 
 of the arytaenoid 
 cartilages. 
 
 From one of the ary- 
 taenoid cartilages 
 laterally. 
 
 From the pofterior 
 and under part of 
 the thyroid carti- 
 lage. 
 
 From the upper part 
 of the arytaenoid 
 cartilage laterally. 
 
 From the thyroid car- 
 tilage. 
 
 Into the middle of To move the pharynx 
 the pharynx. upwards and for- 
 
 wards, and to com- 
 prefsitsupperpart. 
 
 Into the middle of To draw the os hyfti- 
 theprocclTuscunei. dcs and pharynx 
 
 upwards, and to 
 comprefs the latter. 
 
 formis of the occi- 
 pital bone, about 
 its middle and be- 
 fore the great fo- 
 ramen. 
 Into the middle of To comprefs part of 
 the pharynx. the pharynx. 
 
 Into the bafis of the To open the glottis, 
 arytasnoid carti- 
 lage laterally. 
 
 Into the bafis of the To open the glottis, 
 arytaenoid carti- 
 lage pofleriorly. 
 
 Nearthe extremityof 
 the other arytx- 
 noid cartilage. 
 
 Into theotheraryta:- 
 noid cartilage late- 
 rally. 
 
 Into the arytxnoiJ 
 cartilage. 
 
 To draw the parts it 
 is connected with 
 towards each other. 
 
 To fliut the glottis. 
 
 . To draw the arytae- 
 noid cartilage for- 
 wards. 
 
 Into the fide of the To move the epiglot- 
 epiglottis. tis outwards. 
 
 Into the fide of the To pull the epiglot- 
 epiglottis. tis obliquely down- 
 
 wards (n). 
 
 Mufcles 
 
 (i) This mufcle, and the palato-pharyngaeus, likewife fervc to clofe th« paflage into the fauces, and to 
 carry the food into the pharynx. 
 
 ( K ) The three orders of fibres here mentioned, with a few others derived from the tongue, have given occa- 
 fion to Douglas to defcribc them as four diftinift mufcles, under the names oi cephalo-fharyngteui, myU-fhar^n- 
 gxui, ptery-pharyiigxtis , diwA gloffo-pharyngaus. 
 
 (l) Douglas makes two mufcles of this, the hyo-pharytigitui ^xnifyndefmo-pharyiigirus. 
 
 (m) The crico-pharyngacus and thyro-pharingseus of Douglas. 
 
 (k) When either this or the preceding mufclc ads with its fellow, the epiglottis is drawn dtreflly dowa- 
 warde upon the glottis.
 
 of the Muscles at the fore 
 Mufdcs. part of the neck, 
 * ^ ' clofc to the vcrtc- 
 brx - - - - 
 
 N 
 
 Name. 
 I. Redlus capitis in- 
 tcruus major. 
 
 . Reftas capitis in- 
 ternus minor. 
 
 . Redlus capitis la- 
 teralis. 
 
 4. Longus colli. 
 
 — at the fore 
 of the abdo- 
 
 part 
 men !■ 
 
 Obliquusextcrnus. 
 
 Origin. 
 
 From the anterior ex- 
 tremitics of the 
 tranfvcrfc proceflcs 
 of the five lower- 
 mod cervical ver- 
 tebra:. 
 
 From the anterior 
 and upper part of 
 the firfl cervical 
 vertebras. 
 
 From the anterior 
 and upper part of 
 the tranfverfe pro- 
 cefs of the firft cer- 
 vical vertebra. 
 
 Within the thorax, 
 laterally from the 
 bodies of the three 
 uppermofl dorfal 
 vertebras; from the 
 bafis and fore part 
 of the tranfvcrfc 
 proceflesofthefirll 
 and fecond dorfal 
 vertebrae, and of 
 thelaft cervical ver- 
 tebra ; and, laftly, 
 from the anterior 
 extremities of the 
 tranfverfe proceflcs 
 ofthe6th,5tb,4th, 
 and 3d cervical 
 vertebrse. 
 
 From the lower edges 
 of the eight infe- 
 rior ribs, near their 
 cartilages. 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Inftrtion. 
 Into the fore part of 
 the cuneiform pro- 
 cefs of the os occi- 
 pitis. 
 
 Near the bafis of the 
 condyloid proccfs 
 of the OS occipitis. 
 
 Into the OS occipi- 
 tis, oppofite to the 
 flylo-maftoid fora- 
 men. 
 
 Into the fecond cer- 
 vical vertebra an- 
 teriorly. 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mufcle*. 
 
 Ufc. 
 To bend the head 
 forwards. 
 
 To afiifl; the laft dc- 
 fcribed mufde. 
 
 To move the head ta 
 one fide. 
 
 To pull the neck ta 
 one fide (o). 
 
 Into the linea alba 
 ( r),ofra pubis (q_), 
 and fpinc of the 
 ilium (it). 
 
 2. Obliquus intcrnus. From the fpinouspro- Into the cartilages of 
 cefs of the three all the falfe ribs, 
 lowcrmofl lumbar linea alba (s), and 
 
 To comprefs and fup- 
 portthevifccra, af- 
 iifl in evacuating 
 the fasccsand urine, 
 draw down the ribs, 
 and bend the trunk 
 forwards, or ob- 
 liquely to one fide. 
 
 To aflift the obliquus 
 externus. 
 
 (o) When both mufcles aiJl, the neck is drawn dircftly forwards. 
 
 (r) The linea alba is that tendinous cxpanfion which reaches from the cartilage enfiformis to the os pubis. 
 It is formed by the interlacement of the tendinous fibres of the oblique and tranfverfe jnulcics, and 011 tiis ac- 
 count fome anatomifls have confidered thefe as three digaftric mufcles. 
 
 (q.) A little above the pubis the tendinous librcs of this mufcle feparate from each other, fo as to form an 
 opening called the ring of the obliquus externus, and commonly, though improperly, the ring of the abdomi- 
 nal mufcles, there being no fuch aperture either in the tranfverfalis or obliquus externus. This ring in the male 
 lubjcil artbrdsa palfage to the fpermatic velTels, and in the female to the round ligament of the uterus. 
 
 (r) Kroin the anterior and upper fpinous procefs of the ilium, this mufcle is ftretchcd tendinous to the os 
 pubis, and thus forms what is called by fome Fallopiui's, and by others Poupart's UgavKtit. The blood-vef- 
 fcls pafs under it to the thigh. 
 
 (s) The tendon formed by the upper part of this mufcle in its way to the linea alba is divided into two lay- 
 ers. The pollcrior layer runs under, and the anterior one over, the reiflus mufcle.
 
 Part II. 
 
 Of the 
 Mufcles. 
 
 N A 
 
 O M 
 
 Name. Origin. 
 
 vertebra:, the back 
 part of the os fa- 
 crum, the fpinc of 
 the ilium, and back 
 part of Fallopius's 
 ligament (t). 
 
 3. Tranfverfalis. From the cartilages 
 
 of thefevcn inferi- 
 or ribs ; the tranf- 
 verfc procefles of 
 the lali dorfal, and 
 I four upper lumbar 
 
 vertebrae ; the in- 
 ner part of Fallo- 
 pius'sligamentand 
 the fpinc of the i- 
 lium. 
 
 4. ReAus abdominis. From the upper edge 
 
 of the pubis and 
 the fymphyfis pu- 
 bis. 
 
 Infcrlion. 
 fore part of 
 pubis. 
 
 the 
 
 U/c. 
 
 Into the linea alba 
 and canilago cnli- 
 formis. 
 
 Tacomprefs the ab- 
 dominal vifccra. 
 
 J, Pyramidalis (v). 
 
 Muscles at the fore 
 part of the thorax- i. Pcfloralis Major. 
 
 2. Subclavius. 
 
 From theanterior and 
 upper part of the 
 pubis. 
 
 From the cartilagi- 
 nous ends of the 
 5th and 6th ribs ; 
 the fternum, and 
 anterior part of the 
 clavicle. 
 
 From the cartilage of 
 the firft rib. 
 
 Into the cartilages of 
 the 5th, 6th, and 
 7ih ribs, and the 
 edge of the cani- 
 lago enriformis(u). 
 
 Into the linea alba 
 and inner edge of 
 the rectus, com- 
 monly about two 
 inches above the 
 pubis. 
 
 Into the upper and 
 inner part of the 
 OS humeri (w). 
 
 Into the under fur- 
 face of the cla- 
 vicle. 
 
 Tocomprefsthc fore 
 part of the abdo- 
 men, and (o bend 
 the trunk forwards. 
 
 To aflift the lower 
 portion of the rect- 
 us. 
 
 To draw the arm for- 
 wards or oblicjuc- 
 ly forwards. 
 
 To move the clavicle 
 forwardsanddown- 
 wards and to ailill ill 
 railing the fint rib. 
 
 5. Pedoralis minor From the upper edges Into the coracoid pro- To move the fcapuU 
 
 (x). of the 3d 4th and cefs of the fca- forwardsand down- 
 
 5th ribs. pula. wards or to elevate 
 
 the ribs. 
 4. Serratns Ma^us. From the eight fupe- Into the bafisof the To bring the fcapiila 
 rior ribs. fcapula. forwards. 
 
 WlSCLES 
 
 (t) From this part it detaches fome fibres which extend downwards upon the fpermatic chord, and from 
 what is defcribed as the cremafter mufclc. 
 
 (u) The fibres of the redlus are generally divided by three tendinous interfeAions. The two upper thirds 
 of this nuifcle palling between the tendinous layers of the obliquus intern us, arc inclofed as it were in a Iheath -, 
 but at its lower part we find it immediately contiguous to the peritonxum, the inferior portion of leudon of 
 the tranfverlalis paffingover the redus, and adhering to the anterior layer of the obliquus internus. 
 
 (v) This mufclc is fometimes wanting. 
 
 (w) The fibres of this m«fclepafs towards the axilla in a folding manner, and with thofe of the latifiim us 
 dorfi from the armpit. 
 
 ( X ) This and fome other mufcles derive their name oijerratus, from their arifing from a uumbcr of tendinous 
 «r flefhy digitations, refcmbling the teeth of a faw {ferra).
 
 720 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mufilcf. 
 
 Mirsci.ES that coti- 
 cur in forming the 
 thorax, 
 
 A 
 
 Name. 
 
 N 
 
 T 
 
 Origin. 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Jnfertitii, 
 
 Part ir. 
 
 Ufi. 
 
 1. Diaphragma (v). 
 
 2. Lcvaiorcs cofla- From the iranfverfc Into the upper fide of To move the ribs up- 
 rum, preccllcsof thclall each rib, near its wards and outwards. 
 
 cervical and the tubcrofity. 
 elevtn upper dor- 
 fal vcricbrae. 
 3.Intercoftalesextcr- From the lower edge Into the fuperioredgs To elevate the ribs, 
 ni. of each upper rib. of each lower rib. 
 
 at the back 
 
 part ot the neck 
 and trunk. - - 
 
 4. Intercoftales in- 
 terni (a). 
 
 5.Stcrno-cofhlcs(B). Fronuhecartilagoen- 
 fiformis,and lower 
 and middle part of 
 the flcrnum. 
 
 Into the cartilages of 
 the 2d, ■3,A, 4th, 
 5ih, and 6th ribs. 
 
 To deprcfs the carti- 
 lages of the ribs. 
 
 I. Trapezius (c), or From the middle of Into the pofterior To move the fcapula. 
 cucullaris. the os occipitis, half of the clavicle, 
 
 part of the acro- 
 mion, and the fpine 
 of the fcapula. 
 
 a. Rhomboideus (e). 
 
 3. LatUIimus dorfl. 
 
 the OS occipitis, 
 and the fpinouspro- 
 cefles of the two 
 inferior cervical, 
 and of all the dor- 
 fal, vertebrx (d). 
 
 From thefpinouspro- 
 cclfes of the three 
 lowcrmoflcervical, 
 and of all the dor- 
 fal vertebrae. 
 
 From part of the 
 fpine of the os i- 
 lium, the fpinous 
 proceflcs of the os 
 facrum and lumbar 
 vertebra: ,and of fix 
 or eight of the dor- 
 ^ fal 
 
 Into the bafisof the 
 fcapula. 
 
 Into the OS humeri, 
 at thcinnercdgc of 
 the groove for lod- 
 ging the long head 
 of the bicepsmufcle. 
 
 To move the fcapula. 
 upwards and back- 
 wards. 
 
 To draw the os hu- 
 meri downwards 
 and backwards,and 
 to roll it upon its 
 axis. 
 
 ( Y ) For a defcription of the diaphragm, fee Part IV. Seft.IV. 
 
 (a) The origin, infertion, andufeofthc internal intercollals, are fimilar to thofe of the external. The 
 reader, however, will be pleafed to obfcrve, that the intercoftales externi occupy the fpaces between the ribs 
 only from their fpine to their cartilages ; from thence to the ftcrnuni, there being only a thin membrane, which 
 is fpread over the intercoftalcs interni ; and that the latter, on the contrary, extend only from the fternum to 
 the angles of each rib. 
 
 The fibres of the external mufcles run obliquely forwards ; thofcof the internal obliquely backwards. This 
 difference in the dircdion of their fibres induced Galen to fuppofc that they were intended for different ufes; 
 that the external iiiiercoflals, forinflance, ferve toelcvate, and the internal ones to deprefs the ribs. Fallopius 
 fecmsto have been the tirft who ventured todifpiitc the truth of this dodtrines, which has llnce been revived by 
 Boyle, and more lately ftill by Hamberger, whofe theoretical arguments on this fubjedl have been clearly refu- 
 ted by the experiments of Haller. 
 
 (b) Thefc confifl of four, and fometimes five diftinft mufcles on each fide. Vefalius, and after him Dou- 
 glas and Albinus,confider them as forming a fingle mufcle, wliich, on account of its Ihape, they name /r/<7«^«- 
 iaris. Verheyen, Winllow, and Haller, more properly defcribe them as fo many feparatc mufcles, which, on 
 account of their origin and infertion ihey name Jlerfic-cofta/ei. 
 
 (c) So named by Riolanus, from Tf.T.^u, on account of its quadrilateral ihape. Columbus and others gave it 
 the name o( ciicultarei, from its refemblance to a monk's hood. 
 
 (d) The tendinous fibres of this mufcle, united with thofe of its fellow in the nape of the neck, from what is 
 called the liga}>i:ntum cclli. 
 
 (e) This mufcleconfifts of two diftincl portions, which arc dcfcribed as feparatc mufcles by Albinus, under 
 the nzxaaoi rho}/iboideus minor and rhomboideut t/mjir.
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 A W 
 
 4. Serracus inferior 
 poflicus. 
 
 ;. Levator fcapulx. 
 
 k. Scrratus fuperior 
 poAicus. 
 
 y. Splenius (r). 
 
 8. Complcxus (g). 
 
 ^ T O 
 
 Origin. 
 fal vertebrae ; alfo 
 from the four infe- 
 rior falfc ribs near 
 tJieir cartilages. 
 
 From thcfpinouspro- 
 celfcs of the two 
 lowcrmoft dorfal, 
 and of three of the 
 lumbar vertebras. 
 
 h'rom the tranfverfe 
 procclTes of the four 
 uppermoft verte- 
 bra: colli. 
 
 From the lower part 
 of the ligamentum 
 colli, the fpinous 
 procefs of the low- 
 ermoft cervical ver- 
 tebra, and of the 
 two fuperior dorfal 
 vertebrae. 
 
 From the fpinous pro- 
 ceffes of the four 
 or five uppermoft 
 vertebrae of the 
 back, and of the 
 lowermoft cervical 
 vertebra. 
 
 From the tranfverfe 
 proceflcsof the four 
 or five uppermoft 
 dorfal, and of the 
 fix lowerraoft cer- 
 vical vertebrae. 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Inferiitn. 
 
 Vf.. 
 
 Into the lower edges To draw the ribs oui- 
 ofthe three or four wards, downwards, 
 lowerraoftribsnear and backwards, 
 their cartilages. 
 
 Into the upper angle To move the fcapul* 
 of thefcapula. forwards, and up- 
 
 wards. 
 
 Into the 2d, ;d, and To expand the tho- 
 4th ribs. rax. 
 
 Into the tranfverfe To move the head 
 proceffes of the two backwards, 
 rirft cervical verte- 
 bras, the upper and 
 back part of the 
 mafloid procefs.and 
 a ridge on the os 
 occipitis. 
 
 Into the OS occipitis. To draw cha head 
 backwards. 
 
 9, Trachelo-malloi- 
 dcus (h). 
 
 ro. Re(5lus capitis po- 
 flicus major. 
 
 1 1 . Rectus capitis po- 
 fticus minor. 
 
 1 2. Ohliquus fuperior 
 capitis. 
 
 13. Obliquus inferior 
 capitis. 
 
 From the tranfverfe 
 procefles of the firft 
 dorfal vcrtebra^nd 
 four or five of the 
 lowermofl, cervi- 
 cal vertebras. 
 
 From the fpinous pro- 
 cefs of the fecnnd 
 cervical vertebra. 
 
 From the firft verte- 
 bra of the neck. 
 
 From the tranfverfe 
 procefs of the firft 
 cervical vertebra. 
 
 From the fpinous pro- 
 cefs of the fccond 
 cervical vertebra. 
 
 Into the mafloid pro- 
 cefs. 
 
 To draw the 
 backwards. 
 
 head 
 
 Into the OS occipitis. To extend the head 
 and draw it back- 
 wards. 
 
 Into the OS occipitis. To alfift the rcdui 
 major. 
 
 Into the OS occipitis. To draw the head 
 backwards. 
 
 Into the tranfverfe To draw the face to- 
 proccfs of the firft wards the flioulder, 
 
 cervical vertebra. 
 
 4 Y 
 
 andtomovethefirll 
 vertebra upon the 
 fecond. 
 
 14. Sa- 
 
 (f) According to fomc writers, this mufcle has gotten its name frop' its relcmblaace to the fplcea ; other* 
 derive it (torn fpleiiiuvi /pliiit. 
 
 (c) So named on account of its complicated ftru.5lurc. 
 
 (h) So named from its origin from the neck {^-tfmi^»\%i() and its inferiion into th* mafloid procefs.
 
 ANATOMY. Partir. 
 
 Name. Origin. Infertioii. U/e. Of the 
 
 14. Sacro-lumbalis From the back part Into the lower edge To draw the ribs Mufclc», 
 (ij of the OS facrum, of each rib. downwards, move* -/— '. 
 
 fpiiie of the ilium, the body upon its 
 
 fpinous proccffes axis, alfift in ercft- 
 
 and roots of the ing the trunk, and 
 
 ' tranfverfeprocclTes turiuhencckback- 
 
 of the vcrtebrx of wards, or to one 
 
 the loins. fide. 
 
 15. Longifliinus dor- The fame as that of Into the tranfverfe To ftrctch the verte- 
 fi (k). thcfacro-lumbalis. procclfesofthcdor- brx of the back, 
 
 fal vertebras. and keep the trunk 
 
 ercit. 
 i6. Spinalis dorfi. From the fpinons pro- Into the fpinous pro- To extend the vcrtc- 
 ceflies of th« upper- celFes of the nine br«. 
 mod lumbar and fupcriordorfal ver- 
 lowermoft dorfal tebra: 
 vertebrae. 
 l7.Semi-fpinalisdor- From the tranfverfe Into the fpinous pro- To extend the fpin« 
 ti. proceiresofthe7th, ceiTts of the four obliquely back- 
 
 8th, 9th, and icth uppcrmofl dorfal, wards, 
 vertcbrx of the and lowcrraoll of 
 back. the cervical verte- 
 
 brse. 
 
 18. Multifidus Spi- From the os facrum, Into the fpinous pro- To extend the back 
 uae (l). ilium, oblique and ceflcs of the lum- and draw it back- 
 
 tranfverfeproceires bar, dorfal, and fix wards, or to one 
 
 of the lumbar ver- of the cervical vcr- fide, 
 
 tebrse, tranfverfe tcbrje. 
 procelfcs of the dor- 
 fal, and four of the 
 cervical vertebras. 
 
 19. Semifpinaliscol- From the tranfverfe Into the fpinons pro- To flretch the neck 
 li. proceffesoftliefive ceilcs of the 2d, obliquely back- 
 er fix uppermolt 3d, 4th, jth, and wards. 
 
 dorfal vertebrae. 6th cervical ver- 
 
 tebras, 
 ao. Scalenus (m). From the tranfverfe Into the upper and To move the neck 
 proceflesofthelive outer part of the forwards, or to one 
 inferior cervical firft and fccond ribs- fide, 
 vcrtebrse. 
 
 21. Inter- 
 
 (l) Several thin fafculi of flefliy fibres arife from the lower ribs, and terminate in the inner fide of this 
 mufcle. Steno names tlicm muftuli adfacro luvibalem accejforii. The facro-himbalis likewifc fends off a flelliy 
 Hip from its upper part, which by Douglas and Albinusis defcribed as a diftinft mufcle, under the name cer- 
 vicatii dcfcendens. Morgagni has very properly confidered it as a part of the facro-himbalis. 
 
 (k) At the upper part oTthis mufcle a bread thin layer of flefliy fibres is found crolfing, and intimately ad- 
 hering to it This portion, which is defcribed by Albinus, under the name of tranfvcrfalis cervicii, may ve- 
 ry properly be conlidered as an appendage to the longilTimus dorfi. It arifes from tlie tranfverfe procellcs of 
 the five or fix fuperior dorfal vertcbrse, and is infertcd into the tranfverfe proceifes of the fix inferior cervi- 
 cal vertebra;. Sy means of this apppendage the longilhmus dorfi may fcrve to move the neck to one iide, or 
 obliquely backwards. 
 
 (l) Anatomifls in general have unneccfTarily multiplied the mufcles of the fpinc. Albinus has, the merit of 
 having introduced greater fimplicity into this part of myology. Under the name o( multifiJui fpiii<r , he has 
 very properly included thofc portions of mufcular flelh intermixed with tendinous fibres, fituaied clofe to the 
 back part of the fpine, and which are defcribed by Douglas under the name oi tranfverfales colli, dorfi, & 
 lumboriim. 
 
 (m ) The ancients gave it this name from its refemblance to an irregular triangle (^^zaxnmt). It confifls of 
 three flediy portions. The anterior one affords a pallage to the axillary artery, and between this and the mid- 
 dle portion we find the nerves going to the upper extremities. The middle is in part covered by the poAerior 
 foriion, which is the longcll and thinnefl of the three
 
 F^t ir. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mufdet. 
 
 A N 
 
 Namt. 
 3[l.Intcr-Q)in3lis(K). 
 
 o M y. 
 
 83. Inter-traafTcrf*- 
 ics (o). 
 
 MtrscLES within the 
 cavity of the abdo- 
 men, on the ante- 
 rior and lateral 
 pans of die fpinc, i. pfoas parras (p). 
 
 Origin. 
 
 From the upper part 
 of each of the fpi- 
 noiis proceffcs of 
 the fix inferior cer- 
 vical vertcbrse. 
 
 From the upper part 
 ofeachofthetranf- 
 verlc proccfles of 
 the vertebrx. 
 
 7«J 
 
 Inftrtion. Vfi, of.h. 
 
 Into the underpart of To draw the fpinous Mufck». 
 
 eachof the fpinous proccfles towards" ' ' 
 
 procelTesofthevcr- each other, 
 tcbras above. 
 
 Into the nnder part of To draw the tranf- 
 each of the tranf- vcrfc proccfTes to- 
 verfe proceflcs of wards each other 
 the vcrtcbraeabovc. 
 
 A. Pfoas magnus. 
 
 3. Iliacus internus. 
 
 4. Quadratus ltunbo< 
 rum (q,). 
 
 From the fides and 
 tranfvcrfc proceil'es 
 of the uppermofl 
 lumbar vertebra, 
 and fometimes of 
 the lowcrmoft dor- 
 fal vertebra. 
 
 From the bodies and 
 iranfvcrfe procefles 
 of the laft dorfal, 
 and all the lumbar 
 vcrtcbrx. 
 
 From the inner lip, 
 hollow part, and 
 edge of the os 
 ilium. 
 
 From the pollcrior 
 part of the fpine 
 of the ilium. 
 
 Into the brim of the 
 pelvis, at thcjunc- 
 tion of the os pubis 
 with the ilium. 
 
 Into the OS fcmoris, a 
 little below the tro- 
 chanter minor. 
 
 To bend iheloins for- 
 wards. 
 
 To bend the thigk 
 forwards. 
 
 In common with the 
 pfoas magnus. 
 
 y. Coccygaeus. 
 
 From the poAerior 
 and inner edge of 
 the fpine of the 
 ifchium. 
 
 ■ ■ on the fcapu- 
 la and upper part 
 •f the OS humeri, 
 
 Into the tranfrerfe 
 proceiTesof the four 
 Uppermofl lumbar 
 Vertebrr, the Infe- 
 rior edge of the laft 
 rib, and tlic tide of 
 the lowcrmoll dor- 
 fal vertebra. 
 
 Into the lower part 
 of the OS facrum, 
 and alraoft tiie 
 Whole length of the 
 OS coccygis late- 
 rally. 
 
 To affift the pfoa« 
 magnus. 
 
 To fupport the fpine, 
 or to draw it to on* 
 fide. 
 
 To draw die os coc- 
 cygis forwards ani 
 inwards (r) 
 
 Deltoides (s). 
 
 8. Supra-fpinatus. 
 
 From the clavicle, Into the anterior and To raife the trim 
 
 procell'us acromion, middle part of the 
 
 and fpine of the os humeri. 
 
 fcapula. 
 From the bafis, fpine, Into a large tuberofi- To raife the arm; 
 
 and upper cofta of ty at the head of 
 
 the fcapula. the os humeri. 
 
 4 Y 2 ?. Infra- 
 
 f n) In the generality of anatomical books we find thefe mufclcs divided into iiittr-fpinalis ceroids, dorfit 
 and liimberum, but wc do not find any fuch mufclcs cither in the loins or back. 
 
 (o) Thefe miifcles are to be found only in the neck and loins ; what have been dcfcribed, as the inttr- 
 tranfvcrfalis dorfi being rather fmall tendoi»s than mufcles. 
 
 (p) This and the following pair of mufclcs derive their name of />/*/7» from 4e<, lumhui, on accoiuit of their 
 fituation at the anterior part of the loins. 
 
 (q_) So called from its Ihape, which is that of an irregtilar fquare. 
 
 ( r) Some of the fibres of this mufclc are united with thofe of the levator sni, fo that ir aflifls in clofin^ t^e 
 lower part of the pelvis. 
 
 (s) So named from its fuppofcd rcfcmblance to the Greek j^revcrfeJ.
 
 ANA 
 
 o M y. 
 
 Name. 
 %, Infra-fpinatus. 
 
 4. Teres minor (t) 
 
 5. Teres major. 
 
 6. Subfcapularis. 
 
 7. Coraco-brachia- 
 lis (u) 
 
 Muscles on tlie os 
 humeri, - - i. Biceps flexorcubi- 
 ti. 
 
 a.Brachialis internus 
 
 3. Triceps extenfor 
 ciU>iti. 
 
 on the fore- 
 
 I. Supinator longus. 
 
 2. Extenfor carpi ra- 
 dialis longus. 
 
 3. Extenfor capri ra 
 dialis brevis. 
 
 4. Extenfor digito- 
 rum communis. 
 
 Origin. 
 From the bafe and 
 
 fpiiic ot the I'capu- 
 
 la. 
 From the inferior co- 
 
 flaof the fcapwk. 
 From the inferior 
 
 angle, and inferior 
 
 colla of the fcapu- 
 
 la. 
 
 From the bafis, fupc- 
 riorand inferior co- 
 ftaof thcfcapula. 
 
 From the coracoid 
 procefs of the fca- 
 pula. 
 
 By two heads, one 
 from the coracoid 
 procefs, and thco- 
 ther, or long head, 
 from the upper and 
 outer edge of the 
 glenoid cavity of 
 the fcapula. 
 
 From the OS humeri, 
 below, and at each 
 lide of the tendon 
 of the deltoides. 
 
 By three heads : the 
 firfljfroni the infe- 
 rior colla of the 
 fcapula; thefecond 
 from the upper and 
 outer pan of the os 
 humeri ; and the 
 third, from the 
 back part of that 
 bone. 
 
 From the outer ridge 
 and anterior furface 
 of the OS humeri, a 
 little above its out- 
 er condyle. 
 
 Immediately below 
 the origin of the 
 fupinator longus. 
 
 From the outer anJ 
 lower part of the 
 outer condyle of 
 the OS humeri, and 
 the upper part of 
 the radius. 
 
 From the outer con- 
 dyle of the OS hu- 
 meri. 
 
 Infertion. 
 Into the upper and 
 
 middle part of the 
 
 lubcrolity. 
 Into the lower part of 
 
 the tuberofity. 
 Into the ridge at the 
 
 inner fide of the 
 
 groove formed for 
 
 the long head of 
 
 the biceps. 
 Into the upper part of 
 
 a fmall tuberofity 
 
 at the head of the 
 
 OS humeri. 
 Into the middle and 
 
 inner fide of thcos 
 
 humeri. 
 
 Vfc. 
 To roll the OS humeri 
 outwards. 
 
 To afliftthe infra fpi- 
 natus. 
 
 To afllft in the rota- 
 tory motion of the 
 arm. 
 
 To roll the arm in- 
 wards. 
 
 To roll the arm for- 
 wards and upwards. 
 
 Partir. 
 
 Of the 
 Mufclei. 
 
 Into the tuberofity at To bend the fore-' 
 the upper end of arm. 
 the radius. 
 
 Intoa fmall tuberofity To affift in bending 
 at the (ore part of the fore-arm. 
 the coronoid pro- 
 cefs of the ulua. 
 
 Into the upper and To extend the fort- 
 outer part of the arm. 
 olecranon. 
 
 Into the radius near 
 its flyloid procefs. 
 
 Into the upper part 
 of the metacarpal 
 bone of the fore- 
 finger. 
 
 Into the upper part 
 of the metacarpal 
 bone of the midd.c 
 linger. 
 
 To afllfl in turning 
 the palm of the 
 hand upwards. 
 
 To extend the wrifl. 
 
 To affill the extenfor 
 longus. 
 
 Into the back part of To extend the fingers 
 
 all the bones of the 
 fore finger. 
 
 5. Extenfor 
 
 (t) This and the following pair are called teres, from their being of a long and round Ihape. 
 (u) This mufcle aflords a paflage to the mufculo-cutancous nerve.
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 ^f*|" Natiii. Origin. Iiifcrtion. t%. 
 
 Mufdci. j_ Extcnfor niinimi From the outer con- Into the bones of the To extend the little 
 
 digiti, ilyle of the os hu- little finger. finger, 
 
 mcri. 
 
 6. Extcnfor carpi ul- From the outer con- Into the metacarpal To alfifl in cxtendir.c 
 naris. dylc of the os hu- bone of the little the wrift. " 
 
 nieri. finger. 
 
 7. Anconasiis (v). From the outer con- Into the outer edge To extend the fore- 
 
 dyle of the os hu- of the ulna. arm. 
 meri. 
 
 8. Flexor carpi ulna- From the inner con- Into tlie os pififurmc. To aflift in bendine 
 ris. dylc of the OS hu- the hand. 
 
 mcri, and interior 
 edge of the olecra- 
 non (w). 
 
 9. Palmaris longus. From the inner con- Into the internal an- To bend the hand. 
 
 dylc of the OS hu- nular ligament, and 
 mcri. aponcurofis palma- 
 
 ris (x). 
 
 10. Flexor carpi ra- From the inner con- Into the metacarpal To bend the hand, 
 dialis. dylc of the os hu- bone of the fore 
 
 meri. finger. 
 
 11. Pronator radii From the outer con- Into the anterior and To roll the hand in- 
 teres. dylc of the os hu- convex edge of the wards. 
 
 meri, and coronoid radius near its 
 proccfsof theulna. middle. 
 
 12. Flexor fublimis From the inner con- Into the fecoiid bone To bend the fecond 
 perforatus (y). dylc of the os hu- of eath finger. joint of the fingers. 
 
 meri, inner edge of 
 the coronoid pro- 
 cefs of th; ulna, 
 and upper and an- 
 terior part of the 
 radius. 
 
 13. Supinator radii From the outer con- Into the anterior, in- To roll the radius 
 brevis. dylc of the os hu- ner, and upper part outwards. 
 
 mcri, and poflcrior of the radius, 
 furfacc and outer 
 edge of tj'ic- ulna. 
 
 14. Abdudlor poUi- From the middle and By two tendons into To /Iretch the firft 
 cis longus. back par; of the the os trapezium, bone of the thumb 
 
 ulna, intuofTeous and firft bone of outwards. 
 
 ligament, and ra- the thumb. 
 
 dius. 
 
 15. Extcnfor minor From the back part Into the convex part To extend the fecond 
 pollicis. oftheulna, andin- of the fecond bone bone of the thumb 
 
 tcroifcous ligament of the thumb. obiiqueJyouiwarJs. 
 and radius. 
 
 16. Extcnfor major From the back of the Into the third and Toftretch the thui'.b 
 pollitis. ulna and intcroffc- lafl bone of the obliquely b.'.tk- 
 
 ous ligament. thumb. wards. 
 
 17- Indicator. From the middle of Into the metacarpal To extend the fore- 
 
 the ulna. bone of the fotc- finger, 
 
 finger. 
 
 18 Flexcr 
 
 (\) So called from afitMt, cubitus. 
 
 ( w) Between the two origins of this mr.fcle we find the ulnor-ncrve going to the fore-arm. 
 
 (x) The aponeurolis palmaris is a tendinous membrane that extends over the palm of the hand. Some ana- 
 tomids have fuppofcd it to be a produi5>ion of the tendon of this nuifcle, but without fufScicnt grounds ; for 
 in imne fubjefls wc find the palmaris longus inft rtcd wholly into the annular ligament, fo as to be pcrfedl^t 
 dilliiicl frum this aponcurofis ; and it now and then happens, that no palmaris longus is to be found, whereas 
 this cxpanlion is never deficient. 
 
 (y) This mufclc is named firforatus, on account of the four tendons in which it terminates, beinj pcrfo. 
 Iratcd by thofe of another mufclc, the perforans.
 
 725 
 
 A N A T O M Yrf P«tIL 
 
 tilt Namt. Origin. InfcrlioTt. U/e. Of the 
 
 Mufclet. i8. Flexor profundus From the upper and Into the fore part of To bend the laft joint Mufdci. 
 
 — " ' perforans. fore part of t4ie the laft bone of of the fingers. " • 
 
 ulna, and interof- each of the fingers, 
 fcous ligament. 
 19. Flexor longus From the upper and Into the laft joint of To bend the laft joint 
 pollicis. fore part of the the thumb. of the thumb, 
 
 radius, 
 io. Pronator radii From the inner and Into the radius, op- To rollthe radius in- 
 quadratus. lower part of the pofitc to its origin. \vards,andofcourf« 
 
 ulna. to afiill in the pro- 
 
 nation of the hand. 
 MuscLESomhchandi l. Lumbrlcales (z). From the tendons of Into the tendons of Tobendthe firft,an(l 
 
 the perforans. the extenfor digi- to extend the two 
 
 torum communis. laft joints of the 
 fingers (a). 
 c. Abdu<Jtor brevis From the fore part Into the outer fide of To move the thumW 
 pollicis. of the internal an- the 2d bone of the from the fingers, 
 
 nular ligament, os thumb, near its 
 fcaphoidcs, andone root, 
 of the tendons of 
 the abdudtor lon- 
 gus pollicis. 
 
 3. Opponcns pollicis. From the inner and Into the firft bone of To move the thumb 
 
 anterior part of the the thumb. inwards.andtotura 
 
 internal annular li- it upon its axis, 
 
 gament, and from 
 the OS fcaphoides. 
 
 4. Flexor brevis pol- From the os trapezoi- Into tlie oflTa fefamoi- To bend the fecond 
 licis. des, internal annu- dea and fecond joint of the thumb. 
 
 lar ligament, os bone of the thumb. 
 
 magnum, and os 
 
 unciforme. 
 
 5. Abduftor pollicis. From the metacarpal Into the bafis of the To move the thumb 
 
 bone of the middle fecond bone of tlie towards the fingers 
 finger. thumb. 
 
 6. Abdu(flor indices. From the inner fide Into the firft bone of To move the fore fin- 
 
 of the firft bone of the fore finger po- ger towards th» 
 the thumb, and ftcriorly. thumb, 
 
 from the os trape- 
 zium. 
 
 7. Palmaris brevis. From the internal an- Into the os pififorme. To contra(5l the palm 
 
 nular ligament, and and the fkin cover- of the hand, 
 aponeurofis palma- ing the abdudor 
 ris. minimi digiti. 
 
 t. Abductor minimi From the internalan- Into the fide of the To draw the little 
 digiti. nular ligament and firft bone of the fingerfromthcreft' 
 
 OS piliforme. little finger. 
 
 9. Flexor parvus mi- From tlie os uncifor- Into the firft bone of To bend the little fin- 
 nimi digiti. meandintcrnalan- the little finger. ger. 
 
 nular ligament. 
 
 10. Abduftor meta- From the os uncifor- Into tlie metacarpal To move that bona 
 carpi minimi digiti. meandintcrnalan- bone of the little towards the reft. 
 
 nular ligament. finger. 
 
 ti. Intcrofleiintcrni. Situated between the Into the roots of the To extend the fingers 
 metacarpal buncs. fingers. and move them to- 
 
 wards the thumb 
 
 12. InteroiTei 
 
 (7.) So named from their being (haped fomewhat like the lumbricus or earth-worm. 
 
 (a) Fallopius was the firft who remarked the two oppofitc ufes of this mufcle. Their extending power 
 is owing to their connection with the extenfor communis. 
 
 (b) The third interofleus internus (for there are four of the extcrni and three of the interni) differs front 
 iLe reft iu drawing the middle finger from the thumb*
 
 Part II. ANATOMY. 727 
 
 Of the Name. Origi,,. Tnfirmn. V/e. w^'l"" 
 
 Mufdcj. is.IntcrolTcicxtcrni. Situated between tke Into the roots of the To extend the fin- ^'"^""-^ 
 
 •^^ x~^ matacarpal bones lingers. gers ; but the firft 
 
 on the back of lh« draws the middle 
 
 Jjaiid. finger inwards, the 
 
 fccond draws itout- 
 wards,andthe third 
 draws the ring fin- 
 ger ill wards. 
 Muscles at the back 
 pare of the pelvis, 
 and upper part of 
 
 thethigh, - - i. Gluteus (c) max- From thefpineof the Into the upper part To extend the thigh 
 inius. illiuni,pofteriorfa- of the linea afpcra and draw it out- 
 
 cro ifchiatic liga- of theos femoris. wards, 
 ments, os facrHm, 
 and OS coccygis. 
 3, Glutjeus medius. From the fpinc and Into the outer and To draw the thigh 
 fuperior furfacc of back part of the outwards and a lit- 
 thc ilium. great trochanierof tie backwards, and 
 
 the OS femoris. when it is bended, 
 
 to roll it. 
 
 3. Gliitseus minimus. From the outer fur- Into the upper and To affift the former. 
 
 face of the ilium anterior part of the 
 • and the border of great trochanter, 
 its great niche. 
 
 4. Pyriformis (d). From the anterior Into a cavity at the ToroU the thigh out - 
 
 part of the os fa- rootofthe trochaii- wards. 
 • cram. ter major. 
 
 5. Gemini (e). By two portions, one Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out- 
 
 from the outer fur- as the pyriformis. wards.and likewife 
 
 face of the fpine to confine the ten- 
 
 of the ifchium ; don of the obtiira- 
 
 the other from the tor internus, when 
 
 tubcrofity of the the latter is in ac- 
 
 ifchium and pofte- tion. 
 rior facro-ifchiatic 
 ligament. 
 
 6. Obturator intemus. From the faperior Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out- 
 half of the inner with the former. wards, 
 border of the fo- 
 ramen thyroideum. 
 
 7. Qiiadratus (f) fe- From the ruberofity Into a ridge between To move the thigh 
 
 moris. of the ifchium. the trochanter ma- outwards. 
 
 jor and trochanter 
 
 , ... minor. 
 
 ■ ■-- ■ on the thigh 
 
 (°)' - - - I. Biceps flexor cru- By two heads; one into the upper and To bend the le^r. 
 ris. from the tuberolity back part of the fi- " 
 
 of the ifchium, bula (h). 
 
 (c) From -j-xsitoc, 7'.atci (d) So named from its pear- like (hape. 
 
 (e) The two portions of this mufcles having been defcribed as two diftind mufcles by fome anatomifts, 
 have occafioned it to be aamtd gemi/ii. The tendon of the obturator internus runs between thefe two por- 
 tions 
 
 (k) This mufcle is not of the fquare (hape its name would feem to indicate. 
 
 (g) The mufcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called fa/cia fata, that 
 furrounds them in the manner of a flicath. It is feiitoff from the tendonsof the glutei and other mufcles, and 
 dipping down between the mufcles it covers, whereas to the linca afpera, and fpreading over the joint of the 
 knee, gradually dilappcars on the leg. It is thickcfl: on the infide of the thigh. 
 
 (h) The tendon of this mufcle forms the eut.'r ham-^ri>:g
 
 728 
 
 •of th« 
 Mufclfa. 
 
 A N 
 
 Namt, 
 
 t. Scmi-tcndiaofus. 
 
 3, Semi-mcmbrano- 
 fus (I). 
 
 4. Tcnforvaginxfc- 
 moris. 
 
 5. Sartorias. 
 
 4. Rcaas. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Origin. 
 the other from the 
 linea afpera near 
 thcinfertionof the 
 gluiaeus m.iximus. 
 From the tubcrofity 
 of the ifchium. 
 
 From the tuberofity 
 of the ifchium. 
 
 From the fupcriorand 
 anterior fpinouspro- 
 ccfs of the ilium. 
 
 JnftrtioH. 
 
 ¥fc. 
 
 Part If. 
 
 Oftha 
 
 Mufclei; 
 
 7. Gracilis. 
 8.Va(luscxternus(L) 
 
 9. Vaftus internus. 
 
 10. CruratQS (m). 
 
 II. Pcfliiialis. 
 
 From the fuperior 
 and anterior fpinoiis 
 proccfs of the ili- 
 um. 
 
 By two tendons ; one 
 from the anterior 
 and inferior fpi- 
 nous procefsof the 
 ilium ; the other 
 from the pofterlor 
 edge of the coty- 
 loid cavity. 
 
 From the fore-part 
 of the ifchium an.l 
 pubis. 
 
 From the anteriorand 
 lower p-irt of the 
 great trochanter, 
 and the outer edge 
 of the linea af- 
 pcra. 
 
 From the inner edge 
 of the linea afpcra, 
 begiuningbetwecn 
 the forc-partof the 
 OS fcmoris and the 
 root of the lefTer 
 trochanter. 
 
 From the outer and 
 anterior part of 
 the lefTer trochan- 
 ter. 
 
 From the anterior 
 edge of the os pu- 
 bis, or pcdinis, as 
 Jtisfometiracscall- 
 cd. 
 
 Into the upper and Tobend and draw tht 
 
 inner part of the leg inwards. 
 
 tibia. 
 Into the upper and To bend the leg. 
 
 back part of the 
 
 head of the tibia. 
 Into the inner hde of Toflrctch the fafcias 
 
 the fafcia lata, 
 
 which covers the 
 
 outlidc of the 
 
 thigh. 
 Into the upper and in- To bend the Iegin« 
 
 ncr part of the ti- wards (k). 
 
 bia. 
 
 Into the upper and To extend the leg. 
 fore-par of the pa- 
 tella. 
 
 Into the upper and To bend the leg. 
 
 inner pare of the 
 
 tibia. 
 To the upper and To extend the leg. 
 
 outer part of the 
 
 patella. 
 
 Into the upper and To extend the leg. 
 inner part of the 
 patella. 
 
 Into the upperpart of To extend the leg. 
 the patella. 
 
 Into the upper and To draw the thigh 
 fore part of the li- inwards, upwards, 
 ncaafpera. and to roll it a little 
 
 outwards. 
 
 12. Abdudlor 
 
 (i) So named on account of its origin, which is by a broad fiat tendon three inches long. 
 
 ( k) Spigclius was the firfl whogavc this the name oifartoriui, or the taylor's raufdc, from iisufe in crofling 
 the legs. 
 
 (t) The yaflus externus, vaflus internus, .tnd crurajus, are fo intimately connefled with each other, that 
 fome anatomills have been induced toconfider them as a triceps, or finglc niufclc with three heads. 
 
 _(m1 Under the crurasus we fometimes meet with two fmall mufclcs, to winch Albinus has given the name 
 oi fttb-crurai. They terminate on each lidc of the patella, and prevent the capfular ligament from being 
 pinched. When they arc warning, which is very often the cafe, fome of the fibres oi the crurasus are 
 found adhering to the capfula.
 
 Part II. A N 
 
 Of the Name. 
 
 Mufcles. 12. Abdnftor longiis 
 
 '''—•J—' fcmoris (n). 
 
 13. Abdudor brcvis 
 I'emoris. 
 
 14. Abdudlor mag- 
 nus fcmoris. 
 
 I J. Obturator cxter- 
 nus. 
 
 MusctEs on the kg, i.Gaftrocnemius(o) 
 extcrnus. 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 729 
 
 2. Gaftrocnemius (p) 
 interims. 
 
 3. Plantaris (q,) 
 
 4. Poplitcus (r) 
 
 5. Flexor longus digi- 
 torum pedis (s) 
 
 6. Flexor longus pol- 
 licis pedis. 
 
 Origin. 
 
 From the upper .ind 
 fore part of the os 
 pubis. 
 
 From the fore part of 
 the ramus of the os 
 pubis. 
 
 From the lower and 
 fore part of tho ra- 
 mus ot the OS pu- 
 bis. 
 
 F'rom part of the ob- 
 turator ligament, 
 and the inner half 
 of the circumfe- 
 rence of the fora- 
 men thyroideum. 
 
 By two heads ; one 
 from the inner con- 
 dyle,theotherfrom 
 the outer condyle 
 of the OS fcmoris. 
 
 By two heads ; one 
 from the back part 
 of the head of the 
 fibula, the other 
 from the upper and 
 back part of the 
 tibia. 
 
 From the upper and 
 polleriorpartofthe 
 outer condyle of 
 the OS fcmoris. 
 
 From the outer con- 
 dyle of the thigh. 
 
 From the upper and 
 inner part of the 
 tibia. 
 
 Jnfertion. 
 
 Near the middle' 
 and back part of 
 the linca afpera. 
 
 Into the inner and 
 upper part of the 
 linea afpera. 
 
 Into the whole 
 length of the li- 
 nca afpera. 
 
 UA. 
 
 To draw the thigh 
 inwards, upwards, 
 and to roll it a little 
 outwards. 
 
 Into the OS femoris To move the thigh- 
 near the root of outwards in an ob- 
 
 thc great trochan- 
 ter. 
 
 From the back part, 
 and a little below 
 the head of the fi- 
 bula. 
 
 lique direction, and 
 likcwife to bend 
 and draw it in- 
 wards. 
 By a great round ten- To extend the foot 
 don, common to 
 this and the follow- 
 ing mufcle. 
 
 By a large tendon To extend the foot. 
 
 {lYittendo achillis) 
 
 common to this and 
 
 the former mufcle, 
 
 into the lower and 
 
 back part of the os 
 
 calcis. 
 Into the infideof the To aflill in extending 
 
 back part of the os the foot. 
 
 calcis. 
 
 Into the upper and To aflift in bending 
 inner part of the the leg and rolling 
 tibia. it inwards. 
 
 By four tendons, To bend the lall joint 
 which, after paffing of the toe, 
 tlirough the perfo- 
 rations in thofe of 
 the flexor digito- 
 rumbrevis, are in- 
 fcrted into the lall 
 bone of all the toes 
 except the great 
 toe. 
 
 Into the laft bone of To bend the great 
 the great toe. toe. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mufclc«. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 4 Z 
 
 7. Tibiali 
 
 (n) This and the two following mufcles have been ufually, but improperly, confidered as forming afingU 
 mufcle with three heads, and on that account named tricepsjet/toris, 
 
 to) Ta^fmin/xix, /nra, " the calf of the leg." 
 
 (p) Tills mufcle is by fome anatomifts named /o/f«i, on account of its being iliaped like the folc-filh. 
 
 (q_) This mufcle has gotten the name o( plantaris, from its being fuppofed to furnilli the aponeurofis that 
 covers the foleof the foot; but it docs not in the Icaft contribute to the formation of that tendinous cx- 
 panfion. 
 
 f r) So called on account of its fituation at the ham (poplcs). 
 
 (s) This mufcle, about the middle of the foot, unites with a flelhy mals^ which, from its having lirft been 
 defcribed by Sylvius, is ufualy called majfa car/ua Jacob i Sylvii.
 
 73° 
 
 Of the 
 
 Mulclfs, 
 
 A N 
 
 Name. 
 7. Tibialis pofticus. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 8. Peroiuus lon;rus. 
 
 9. Peroncuibrevis. 
 
 10. Extenfor lougus 
 digitorum pedis. 
 
 II. Pcroaeus cenius. 
 
 ftl. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 13. Extenfor proprius 
 pollicis pedis. 
 
 MusctESonthcfoot, i.Extenrorbrevis di- 
 gitorum' pedis. 
 
 Origin. 
 
 From the back part 
 and outer edge of 
 the tibia, and like- 
 wife from the in- 
 tcroffeous ligament 
 and adjacent part 
 of the tibula. 
 
 From the outer fide 
 of the head of the 
 tibia> and alfo from 
 theupper, anterior, 
 and outer part of 
 ihi perotie or fibu- 
 la, to which it ad- 
 heres for a confi- 
 derable way down. 
 
 From the outer and 
 fore-part of the fi- 
 bula. 
 
 From the upper, out- 
 er, and fore part 
 of the tibia, inter- 
 ofleous ligament, 
 and inner edge of 
 the fibula. 
 
 From the fore-part 
 of the lower half 
 of the fibula, and 
 from the interof- 
 feous ligament. 
 
 From the upper and 
 fore part of the ti- 
 bia. 
 
 From the upper and 
 fore part of the ti- 
 bia. 
 
 From the upper and 
 anterior part ©f the 
 OS calcis. 
 
 Jnfertion. 
 
 Into the inner and To move the foot in- 
 upper part of the wards. 
 OS naviculare and 
 fide of the os cu- 
 nciforme medium. 
 
 Into the metatarfal Toinove thefootout- 
 bone of the great wards, 
 toe. 
 
 Of the 
 Mufclci. 
 
 Into the metatarfal Tg aflift the lafl dc- 
 
 bonc of the little fcribed mufclc. 
 
 toe. 
 By four tendons into To extend the toes. 
 
 thefirfljointof the 
 
 iinalkr toes. 
 
 Into the metatarfal To bend the foot, 
 bone of the little 
 
 toe. 
 
 1. Flexor brevis digi- 
 torum pedis. 
 
 From the lower part 
 of the 06 calcis. 
 
 3. Abduftor pollicis 
 pedis. 
 
 4. AbduAor minimi 
 djgiti. 
 
 Into the OS cunci- To bend the foot. 
 forme internum. 
 
 Into the convex fur- To extend the great 
 face of the bones of toe. 
 the great toe. 
 By four tendons ; one To extend the toes, 
 of which joins the 
 tendon of the ex- 
 ternus longus polli- 
 cis, and the other 
 three the tendons 
 of the extenfor di- 
 gitorum longus. 
 By four tendons. To bend the fecond 
 which, after af- joint of the toes, 
 fording a paffage 
 tothofcof the flex- 
 or longus, are in- 
 
 ferted into the fe- . 
 
 cond phalanx of 
 each of the Ihiall 
 toes. 
 From the inner and Into the firfl joint of To move the great 
 
 lower part of the the great toe. toe from the other 
 
 OS calcis. toes. 
 
 Fromthcouter tuber- Into the outer fide To draw the little toe 
 
 cle of the os calcis, of the firft joint of outwards. 
 
 the root of the me- the little toe. 
 
 tatarfal bone of the 
 
 little toe, and alfo 
 
 from the aponeuro- 
 
 fisplantaxis. 5- Lumbricale*
 
 Part II. 
 
 of the 
 MufclM. 
 
 A N 
 
 Name. 
 5. Lumbricalisf edis. 
 
 6. Flexor brevis pol- 
 licis pedis. 
 
 7. Adduftor pollicis 
 pedis. 
 
 8. Tranfvcrfalei pe- 
 dis. 
 
 9. Flejftr breivii mi- 
 nimi digici pedis. 
 
 10. InterofTei pedis 
 interni (t). 
 
 exter- 
 
 ni(u). 
 
 O M 
 
 Origin. 
 From the tendons of 
 the flexor longus 
 digitorura pedis. 
 
 From the inferior and 
 anterior part of the 
 OS calcis, and alfo 
 from the inferior 
 part of the os cu- 
 nciformecxtenuim 
 From near the roots 
 of the metatarfal 
 bones of the 3d, 
 3d, and 4th toes. 
 From the outer and 
 under part of the 
 anterior end of the 
 metatarfal bone of 
 the little toe. 
 From the bafis of the 
 metatarfal bone of 
 the little toe- 
 Situated between the 
 metatarfal bones. 
 
 Infirtioii. Vfe. 
 
 Into the tendinous To draw the loes in- 
 
 expanlion at the wards. 
 
 upper part of the 
 
 toes. 
 By two tendons into To bend the firfl joint 
 
 tlie firft joint of of the great toe* 
 
 the great toe. 
 
 Into ttie outer OS fe- To draw the great toe 
 famoidcum, or firft nearer to the reft, 
 joint of the great and alfo to bend it. 
 toe. 
 
 Into the inner os fe- To contradt the fuut. 
 famoideum,and an- 
 terior end oi the 
 metatarfal bone of 
 the great toe. 
 
 Into the firfl joint ef To bend the little t«c, 
 the little toe. 
 
 of ihe 
 
 MufJo*. 
 
 EXPLANATION ok PLATES XXIII. ako XXIV. 
 
 Plate XXIII. 
 
 Fig. I. ThcMuscLEsimmediately undcrthecom- 
 nion teguments on the anterior part of the body are 
 reprefcntedon the right lidc ; and on the left fide the 
 Muscles are feen which come in view when the ex- 
 terior ones arc taken away. 
 
 A, The frontal mufclc. B, The tendinous aponeu- 
 rofis which joins it to the occipital ; hciicc both named 
 occipiio-J'rontalis. C, Attolens aurcm. D, The ear. 
 E, Anterior auris. F K, Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 G, Levator labii fuperioris aliequc nafi. H, Levator 
 liiguli oris. I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zygomaticus 
 major. L, Malictcr. M, Orbicularis oris. N, De- 
 prclfor labii iufcrioris. O, Dcpreflbr anguli oris. 
 P, buccinator. Q^Q_, Platyfma myoidcs. R R, Ster- 
 no-clcido-maltoidajus. S, Part of the trapezius. T, 
 Part of the fcaleni. 
 
 Superior Extremitv U, Deltoidcs. V, Pefto- 
 
 ralis major. W, Part of the latilliniufi dorfi. X X, Bi- 
 ceps flexor cubiti. Y Y, Part of the brachialis extcr- 
 nus. Z Z, The beginning of the tendinous aponeu- 
 rofis (from thcbiceps), which is fpread over the niuf- 
 cles of the fore-arm. a a. Its flrong tendon inferled 
 into the tubercle of the radius, b b, Part of the bra- 
 chialis intcrnus. c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor 
 carpi radialis. e, Part «f the flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 f, Palmaris longus. g, Aponeuroiis palmaris. 3. Pal- 
 iiaris brevis. i, Liganiciitum carpi annulare. 2 2, Ab- 
 duclor minimi digiti. h. Supinator radii longus. 
 
 i. The tendons of the thumb, k, Addudor poUiciiL 
 1, Flexor pollicis Iwngus. m m, The tendons of th* 
 flexor lublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and 
 lurabricalcs. — The flieaths are entire in the right 
 hand, — in the left cut open to ihow ihc tendons of the 
 flexor profundus perforating the fiblimis. 
 
 Muscles not referred to — iiithclelt fuperior extre- 
 mity. — n, Peftoralis ttiinor, feu fcrratus amicus minor. 
 o, The t\so heads of (x x) the biceps, p, Coraco 
 brachialis. q q, The long head of the triceps exteufor 
 cubiti. r r, Teres major, f f, Subfcapularis. 1 1, Ex- 
 tenfores radiales. u, Spinator brevis. v, The cut 
 extremity of the pronator teres, w. Flexor fubli- 
 mis perforatus. x. Part of the flexor profundus, 
 y, Flexor pollicis longus. z. Part of the flexor polli- 
 cis brevis. 4. Abduiifor minimi digiti. 5. Tlie four 
 lumbricales. 
 
 Trunk. — 6, Serrated extremities of the ferratos 
 anticus major. 7 7, Obliquus e.xtcrnus abdominis. 
 8 8, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus. 10. Pyra- 
 midalis. 11 11, The fpcrmatic cord. On the left 
 lide it is covered by the cremaller. 12 12, RcJlus 
 abdominis. 13, Obliquus internus. 1414, Sec. In- 
 tercoftal mnfcles. 
 
 Inkf.rior Extre.mities. — a a. The gracilis. l>6, 
 Parts of the triceps, cc, Pei51ialis. </</, Pfoas mag- 
 nus. <• e, lliacus iniernus. /, Part of the glutccus 
 medius. g, Part of the glutxus minimus, /r, Cut 
 extremity of the rciitus cruris. / /, \'aftut extcrnus. 
 ;♦, Tendon of the rcclus cruris. / /, \'aflus iniernus. 
 4 Z 2 * Sartorius 
 
 (r) The interolfei interni are three in number; their ufe is to draw the fmallertoes towards the great toe. 
 (u) The interoifei exttrni are four in number ; the firft fervesio move the fore-toe towards the great tec : 
 the reft moves the toes outwards. All the intcroffci affift in extending the toes.
 
 73* 
 
 of the 
 
 Mufcles, 
 
 N A T O M 
 
 * Sartorius miifclc. •* Flcfliy origin of the tenfor 
 va^^iiias fjKmoiisurinembraiU'Uis. Its tciidiiioiis apo- 
 iiturofiscovrrsf/^ the valhis cxtcrnusoiuheright lidc. 
 mm, Pittlla. « «, Ligaiiiciu or tendon from it to ilic 
 tibia. 0, Reftus cruris, f, Cruraeus. q q. The 
 libia. r r. Part of the Gemellus orgallrocncniius cx- 
 teriius. ///, Part of the folcus or gadrocneniius 
 intcrnus. /, Tibialis anticus. //, Tibialis poUicus. 
 V V, Pero!ia;i mufcles. w iv, Extenfor longus digi- 
 loruin pedis, x x, Extenfor longus poUicis pedis. 
 y, Abduilor pollicis pedis. 
 
 i"ic.2. TheMiscLES, Gr.ANDs, &c. of the Left Side 
 of the face and neck, after the common Teguments 
 and Platyfma myoides have been taken offT 
 a, The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and tempo- 
 ral artery, c. Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levator 
 labii fupcrioris aldso^'.ii na/i. e, Levator anguli oris, 
 f, Zygomaticus. g, dcprellbr labii infcrioris. h, Dc- 
 prelfur anguli oris, i, Buccinator, k, Maflcter. 
 11, Parotid-gland, m. Its duift. n, Sterno-clcido- 
 maftoidieus. o, Part of ihe trapezius, p, Sterno- 
 hyoidaeus. q, Stcrno-thyroidseus. r, Omo-hyoidasus. 
 
 f, Levator fcapulae. t t, Scakni. ii, Part of the fplc- 
 nius. 
 
 Fic. 3, The Muscles of the Face and Neck in view 
 after the exterior ones arc taken away, 
 a a, Corrugator fuperr ilii. b. Temporalis, c, Ten- 
 don of the levator palpebrae fupcrioris. d, Tendon 
 cftheorbicularis palpebrarum, e, Mali'eter. f. Buc- 
 cinator, g. Levator anguli oris, h, Dcprelfor labii 
 fupcrioris alaeijuc nafi. i. Orbicularis oris, k, Depref- 
 for anguli oris. 1, Mufcles of the os hyoides. m, Stcr- 
 no-cleido-mailoidseus. 
 
 Fig. 4. Some of the MrscLES of the Os Hyoides 
 
 and Submaxillary Gland. 
 
 a. Part of the malVeter nuifcle. b, Poflerior head 
 
 •f the digaftric. c. Its anterior head, d d, Sterno- 
 
 hyoidscus. e. Omo-hyoidxus. f, Stylo-hyoidseus. 
 
 g. Submaxillary gland in fitu. 
 
 Fig. j. The Submaxillary Gland and Duft. 
 a, Mufculusmylo-hyoidxus. b, Hyo-glolTus. c,Sub- 
 ■laxillary gland extra litu. d, Its duct. 
 
 PtATE XXIV. 
 
 Fig. I. The Muscles immediately under the com- 
 mon tegumenis on the poflerior part of the body, are 
 reprcfentcd in the right fide ; and on the left fide the 
 Muscles are feen which come in view when the ex- 
 terior ones are taken away. 
 
 Head A A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attollens 
 
 aurem. C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 D, MafTcter. E, Pterygoidaeus internus. 
 
 Trunk Right fide. F F F, Trapezius feu cucul- 
 
 laris. GGGG, Latilhmus dorfi. H, Part of the 
 obliquus externus abdominis. 
 
 Trunk.— Left fide. I, Splcnius. K, Part of the 
 complexus. L, Levator fcapulx. M, Rhomboides. 
 N N, Seratus poflicus inferior. O, Part of the lon- 
 giflimus dorfi. P, Partof the facro-lumbalis. Q^ Part 
 ef the fcmi-fpinalls dorfi. R, Part of the fcrratus an- 
 
 ticus major. S, Part of the obliquus internus abdo- 
 minis. 
 
 SurFRioR Extremity Right fide. T,Dtltoides 
 
 U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V, Supinator longus. 
 W W, Extcnfores carpi radialis longior and brcvior. 
 X X, Extenfor carpi ulnaris. Y Y, Extenfor digito- 
 rum communis. Z, Abdudor indicis. 123, Extcn- 
 fores pollicis. 
 
 Superior Extremity. — Left fide, a, Supra fpi- 
 naius. b, Infra-fpinatus. c. Teres minor, d. Te- 
 res major, c, Triceps extenfor cubiti. i(, Extcn- 
 fores carpi radiales. g, Supinator brevis. h, Indica- 
 ter. 12?, Extcnfores pollicis. i, Abdu(5lor minimi 
 digiti. k, InterolTei. 
 
 Inkekicr Extremity. — Right fide. 1, Gluteus 
 maxinuis. m. Part of the Glutseus niedius. n, Ten- 
 for vagina; fcmoris. o. Gracilis, p p. Abductor fc- 
 moris magnus. q. Part of the vaftus intcrnus. r, Se- 
 mimembranofus. s, Semitendinofus. t, Long head 
 of the biceps flexor cruris, u u, Gaflrocnemius ex- 
 ternus feu gemellus. V, Tendo Achillis. w, Soleus 
 feu gaflrocnemius internus, xx, Peronasus longus and 
 brevis. y. Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum 
 pedis ; — and under them * flexor brevis digitorum pe- 
 dis, z, Abduftor minimi digiti pedis. 
 
 InkeriorExtremity. — Left fide, vi, n, 0, pfi, q, 
 r, s, t, V, w w, X X, y, z, Point the fame pans as in 
 the right fide, a, Pyriformis. b b, Gemini, oc, Obtu- 
 rator internus. d, (^uadratus femoris. e, Coccygxus. 
 y. The Ihort head of the biceps flexor cruris. ^^,Plan- 
 taris. /', Poplitijeus. /, Flexor longus pollicis pedis. 
 
 FiG. 2. The Palm of the Left Hand after the com- 
 monTeguments are removed, to Ihow the Muscles 
 of the Fingers. 
 
 a. Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b. Tendon 
 of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor 
 fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans and lunibri- 
 calcs. d, Abdu(5tor policis. e c. Flexor policis lon- 
 gus. f. Flexor policis brevis. g, Palmaris brevis. 
 h, Abduflor minimi digiti. i, Ligamcntum carpian- 
 nulare. k, A probe put under the tendons of the flexor 
 digitorum fublimis ; which are performed by 1, the 
 flexor digitorum profundus, m m m m, Lumbricales. 
 n, Abduclor pollicis. 
 
 Fig. 3. a fore-view of the foot and Tendons of the 
 Flexores Digitorum. 
 a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, Upper 
 part of the aflragalus. c, Os calcis. d. Tendon of 
 the tibialis amicus, e. Tendon of the extenfor polli- 
 cis longus. f, Tendon of the peronasus brevis. g. 
 Tendons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the no- 
 nus Vcfalii. h b. The whole of the flexor digitorum 
 brevis. 
 
 Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus, 
 a a. An out line of the buttocks, and upper part of 
 the thighs, b, The telles contained in the fcrotum. 
 c c, Sphinfter ani. d, Anus, e, Levator ani. ff, 
 Ereftor penis, g g. Accelerator urinas. h. Corpus 
 cavernofum urethx. 
 
 Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis, 
 a a, b, d, e e, f f, h, point the fame as in fig. 4. 
 c, Sphinftcr ani. g g, Tranfverfalis penis. 
 ' PART 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Of tbc 
 
 Mufclci.
 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Pl-c.fr Wll 
 
 x.-.^:- .>c^_-.-*jO-
 
 r/ufO ^^ 
 
 Anatomy / 
 
 ^ 'it 
 
 
 PlatcWW 
 
 v.. /Xrf . '«,^ . /^Ai/iv-
 
 Part in. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 733 
 
 Ol till- 
 Al>(iumi:n. 
 
 Part III. Of the A B D O M E N or LOWER BELLY. 
 
 88- 
 
 »9. 
 
 THE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from the 
 lower extremity of the fternum, or tlic hollow, 
 iifiially called the pit of the floiiiach, and more pro- 
 perly fcrobicuhii cordii, to the lower part of the 
 trunk. 
 
 It is di/linguiflicd into three divilions called regions ; 
 of thcfc the tipper one, which is called the ipigajiric 
 region, begins immediattly under thcflcrnuin, and ex- 
 tends to within two fingers breadth of the navcl/vherc 
 the middle or untbilical region begins, and reaches to 
 the fame diftance below the navel. The third, which 
 is called the hypogajiric, includes the reft of the abdo- 
 men, as far as the os pubis. 
 
 Each of thefe regions is fubdivided into three others; 
 two of which coinpofe the fides, and the oihcr the 
 middle part of eacli region. 
 
 The middle part of the upper region is called epi- 
 gajlriiofi, and its two fides hji'Ockondria. The middle 
 part of the next region is the umbilical region, proper- 
 ly fo called, and its two (ides are the flanks, or iliac 
 regions. Laflly, the middle part of the lower region 
 retains the name of hypogaftrium, and its I'ldcs are 
 called iiiguina or groins. The back part of the abdo- 
 men bears the name uf lumbar region. 
 
 Tiicfe are the divifions of the lower belly, which 
 are neceflfary to be held in remembrance, as they fre- 
 quently occur in fiirgical and anatomical writing. Wc 
 will now proceed to examine the contents of the abdo- 
 men ; and after having pointed out the names and ar- 
 rangement of the fevcral vifcera contained in it, de- 
 fcribe each of them feparatcly. 
 
 After having removed the ikin, adipofe membrane, 
 and abdominal mufcles,we difcover the pcritonseum or 
 membrane tliat envelopes all the vifcera of the lower 
 belly. This being Ojicned, the tirll part thatprefents 
 jtfelf is the omentum or cawl, floating on the furfacc 
 of the inteftines, which are likewifc fecn every where 
 loofc and nioill, and making a j^rcat number of cir- 
 cumvolutions through the whole cavity of the abdo- 
 
 covcring from the fime membrane, which fceras to l)e 
 a part of the cellular membrane we have already de- 
 fcribcd. 
 
 The pcritona:um, by its productions and reduplica- 
 tions, envelopes tlic grciteft part of the abdominal 
 vifcera. It is foft, and capable of confiderablcexten- 
 fion ; and is kept fmooth and moift by a vapour, 
 which is conflantly exhaling from its inner furfacc, 
 and is returned again into the circulation by the ab- 
 forbents. 
 
 This moifture not only contributes to the foftncfs 
 of the pci-itonaeuni, but prevents the attrition, anJ 
 other ill cffeds which would otherwife probably be 
 occalioned, by the motion of the vifcera apon each 
 other. 
 
 When this fluid is fupplieJ in too great a quantity, 
 or the abforbents become incapable of carrying it off, 
 it accumulates, and conflitulcs an afcitcs or dropfy of 
 the belly J and when by any means the exhalation is 
 difcontiuued, the peritonasum thickens, becomes dif- 
 cafed, and the vifcera arc fomctimes iouudadhering to 
 each other. 
 
 Theperitonxum is not a very vafcular membrane. 
 In a found ftate it fcems to be endued wiih little or no 
 feeling, and the nerves that pafs through it appear to 
 belong to the abdominal mufcles. 
 
 Sect. II. Of thi Omentum 
 
 The omentum, epiploon, orcawl, is a double mem- 
 brane, produced from the periionxum. It is inter- 
 larded with fat, and adheres to the ftomach, fplecn, 
 duodenum, and colon ; from thence hanging down 
 loofe and floatingon the furfacc of the intellines. Its 
 fize is different in ditferent fubjccls. In fomc it dc- 
 fcends as low as the pelvis, and it is commonly longer 
 at the left fide than the right. 
 
 This part, the fituation of which we have jufl now 
 defcribcd, was the only one known to the ancients un- 
 
 nien. The ftomach is placed in the cpigaltrium, and dcr the name oiepipUun -, but atnrcfcnt we diftineuilh 
 
 under the ftomach is the pancreas. The liver tills the 
 right hypochondriuin, and the fplecn is (ituated in the 
 left. They kidneys are fcen about the midille of the 
 lumbar region, and the urinary bladder and parts of 
 generation are feaicd in the lower divifion of the 
 belly. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Peritonaru.7.: 
 
 The peritonxum is a ftrong fimple membrane, by 
 which all the vifcera of thea'odomen are furrounded, 
 and in fome mcafure fupportcd. Many anatomical 
 ■writers, particularly Window, havedefcribcd itas be- 
 ing compofcd of two diftinof membranous laminx ; 
 but their defcription fccms to be erroneous. What 
 perhaps appeared to be a fecond lamina, being found 
 to be (imply a cellular coat, which fends oti' produc- 
 tions to the blood-veifcls palfing out of the abdominal 
 
 cavity, ^hc .aorta and vena cava likewife derive a through which the whole pouch may ealily be dirtend 
 
 cd 
 
 three omenta, viz. o>nentum magnum colicogajhiaint, 
 ovientuvi parvutn hepatict gjjlricum, and omentum co- 
 licum. They all agree in being formed of two very 
 delicate laminae, fcparated by a thin layer of cellular 
 membrane. 
 
 The omentum magnum colico gnftricum, of which 
 wc have already fpoken, derives its arteries from the 
 fplenic and hepatic. Its veins terminate in the vena 
 ports. Its nerves, which are very few, come front 
 the fplenic and hepatic plexus. 
 
 Theomcntumparvum hcpatico gaftricum, abounds 
 lefswith fat than the great epiploon. It begins at the 
 upper part of the duodenum, extends along the leiTcr 
 curvature of the ftomach as far as the oefophagus, and 
 terminates about the neck of the gall-bladder, and be- 
 hind the left ligament of the liver, fo ihat it covers 
 the Icdcr lobe ; near the beginning of which wc may 
 obferve a finall opening, firft defcribed by Window, 
 
 90.
 
 734 
 
 ANA r O M 
 
 Part II Ir 
 
 Of the eJ with air (.x). The veffclsof the onicniumiiarTum 
 Abdomen- arc derived chiefly from the coronaryAomachicartcrics 
 
 ' •^^^ and veins. 
 
 The amentum colicuni begins at thcforcpartof tlie 
 ccpcum and right fide of the colon. It appears as a 
 hollow conical appervdage to thefc inteflincs, and ufu- 
 ally terminates at the back of the omentum maguuiu. 
 It iccms to be nothing more than a membranous coat 
 of the coecum and colon, allUniing a couical (hapc 
 when diftcnded with air. 
 
 The ufes of the omentum are not yet faiitfaftorily 
 determined. Perhaps by its foftnefs and loofcnefs it 
 may ferve to prevent thole sdheiions of the abdominal 
 vifcera, which have been found to take place when the 
 fat of the omentum has been niuclj walled. Some au- 
 thors have fuppofed, that it alTifts in the preparation 
 of bile ; but this idea is founded merely on conjedure. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Stomach. 
 
 91 
 
 The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular bag, 
 in rtiape not unlike a bagpipe, lying acrofs the upper 
 part of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to the 
 left than the right fide. 
 
 It has two orifices, one of which rcCeircs the end 
 of the oefophagus, and is called the cardia, and fome- 
 tinies the left and iii>per orifice of the ftomach ; though 
 its lituation is not much higher than the other, which 
 is Ily led the right and inferior orifice, and more com- 
 monly the pylorus ; both thefc openings are more ele- 
 vated than the body of the llomach. 
 
 The aliment palFes down the oefophagus into the 
 floinach tlirough the carJia, and after having under- 
 gone the nccell'ary digeftion, pallesout at the pylorus 
 where the intellinal canal commences, 
 
 The ftomach is compofcd of four tunics or coats, 
 which arc fo iniiniately connefted together that it re- 
 quires no little dexterity in the anatomift to dcmon- 
 Itraic them. The exterior one is membranous, being 
 derived from the peritonccum The fecondisa muf- 
 cular tunic, compofcd of flefliy fibres whicli arc in the 
 greatcfl number about the two orifices — The third is 
 called the nervous coat, and within this is the villous 
 or vclvci-like coat which compofcs the infidcof the 
 flomach. 
 
 The two Ull coats being mmc exten five than the 
 iwofirft, form the folds, which are obfcrved every 
 where ia the cavity of this vifcus, and more particu- 
 larly about the pylorus ; where they feem to impede 
 the too hafly exclulion of the aliment, making aeon- 
 fldcrable plait, called valvuta pylori. 
 
 The inner coat is conftantly nioiftened by a mucus, 
 which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and is 
 called the gaflric juice ; this liquor has been fuppofed 
 to be fecrcied by certain minute glands (v) feated in 
 the acrvous tunic, whofe excretory duds open on the 
 furfacc of the villous coat. 
 3 
 
 I'hc arteries of the ftomach called the gaftric arte- Of the 
 rica arc principally derived from the cocliac ; fome Abdomen, 
 of its veins pafb to the fplenic, and others to the ve- 
 na portx j and its nerves arc chiefly from the eighth 
 pair or par vagum. 
 
 The account given of the tunics of the ftomach may 
 be applied to the whole alimentary canal j for both 
 the crfTphagus and inteflines are, like this vifcus, 
 compofed of four coats. 
 
 Before we defcribc the courfc of the aliment and 
 the ul'cs of the llomach, it will be nccelTary to fpcak 
 of other parts which adifl in the procefs of digellioa. 
 
 Sect. TV. Of the Oefophagus. 
 
 Tub cefophagus or gullet is a membranous and 
 mufcular canal, extending from the bottom of the 
 mouth to the upper orifice of the ftomach. — Its upper 
 part where the aliment is received is fliaped fomewhat 
 like a funnel, and is called the fharptx. 
 
 From hence it runs down dofe to the bodies of the 
 vcrtebrce a"; far as the diaphragm, in which there is 
 an opening through which it palFes, and then termi- 
 nates in the llomach about the eleventh or twelfth 
 vertebra of the back. 
 
 The a?fophagus isplentifully fupplied with arteries 
 from the external carotid, bronchial, and fupcrior in- 
 tcrcollal arteries ; its veins empty themfelves into 
 the vena azygos, internal jugular, and mammary 
 veins, Sec. 
 
 Its nerves arc derived chiefly from the eighth pair. 
 
 Welikewife meet with a mucus in the oefophagus, 
 which every where lubricates its inner furface, and 
 tends to aflift in deglutition. — This mucus fcems to be 
 fecreted by very minute glands,like the macus in other 
 parts of the alimentary canal. 
 
 Sect. V. Of the Intefiiues. 
 
 The inteflines form a canal, which is ufually fix 
 times longer than the body to which it belongs. This 
 canal extends from the pylorus, or inferior orifice of 
 the llomach, to the anus. 
 
 It will be eafily underllood, that a part of fuch great 
 length nnifl ncccllarily make many circumvolutions, 
 to be confined with fo many other vifcera within the 
 cavity of the lower belly. 
 
 Although the inteflincs are in faft, as wc hate ob- 
 fcrved, only one long and extenlive canal, yet dilTcr- 
 ent parts have been dillinguiAicd by different names. 
 
 The inteflines are firft diflinguiflied into two parts, 
 one of which begins at the llomach, and is called ihe 
 thin, or ftnallDitejIinei, from the fmall fizcof the canal 
 when compared with the other part, which is called 
 the large iritejlines, and includes the lower portion of 
 the canal down to the anus. 
 
 Each of thefe parts has its fubdivifions. — The fmall 
 
 in- 
 
 »» 
 
 S-l 
 
 (x) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin and tranfparent, 
 ry, thr 
 
 is found capable of lupportingmercu- 
 irown into it by the fame channel, 
 (v) Heifler, fpeaking of thefe glands, very properly fays, " in porcis facile, in homine raro obfervaniur ;" 
 for although many anatomical writers have dcfcribed their appearance and figure, yet they do not feem to have 
 been hitherto fatisfaclorily demonflrated in the human ftomach ; and the gaftric juice is now morfl^en orally 
 believed to be derived tVoui the exhalaiic arteries of the llomach.
 
 Part III. A N A T 
 
 Of the inteftincs being diftinguiihcil iiuo duoifenum, jcju- 
 ^bdomen. num, and ilium, and the larger portion into coecura, 
 ~~^ ' colon, and rcfluni. 
 
 The fmall intcftiiics fill the middle and fore parts of 
 the btlly, while the large intcflincs fill the (ides and 
 both the upper and the lower parts of the cavity. 
 
 The duodenum, which is the firft of the fniall in- 
 teftines, is fo called, bccaufe it is about 12 inches long. 
 It begins at the pylorus and terminates in the jejunum, 
 which isa part of the canal obfcrvcd to be ufually more 
 empty than the other intcAines. — This appearance 
 gives it its name, and likcwife ferves to point out where 
 i: begins. 
 
 The next divifion is the ilicvm, which of itfelf ex- 
 ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum, 
 and has received its name from its numerous circumvo- 
 lutions. The large circumvolution of the iliiun co- 
 vers thefirfl of the large intellinescallcdthec^caw(x), 
 which fcems properly to belong to the colon, being a 
 kind of pouch of about four fingers in width, and near- 
 ly of the fame length, having exteriorly a little ap- 
 pendix, called afpindix caci. 
 
 The caecum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium 
 on the right fide, and terminates in the colon, which 
 is the largefl of all the inteflines. 
 
 This iuteftine afccnds by the right kidney to which 
 itisattachcd, palFes under the hollow part of the liver, 
 and the bottom of the flomach, tothefpleen, to which 
 it is likcwife fecured, as it is alfo to the left kidney ; 
 and from thence pafles down towards the os facruin, 
 where, from its ftraight courfc, the canal begins to 
 take the name of re{lum. 
 
 There are three ligamentous bands extending thro' 
 «hc whole length of the colon, which, by being Hiorrcr 
 than its two inner coats, fervc to increafc the plaits on 
 the inner furfacc of this gut. 
 
 The anus which terminates the intcflinum rciflum, 
 is furnilhed with three mufcles ; one ot ihcfc is com- 
 pofcd of circular fibrcs,and from its ufc in fljutiing the 
 palTage of the anus is aWc^ fp hinder ani. 
 
 Thi oihcr two are the livatorn aul, fo called, bc- 
 caufe they elevate the anus after dcjeifliun. When 
 thefc by palfy, or any other difeafc, lofe the power of 
 contrading, the anus prolapfcs ; and when the fphinc- 
 ler is affctled by fimilar caiifes, the fje'ces are voided 
 involuntarily. 
 
 It has been already obfcrved, that the inteAinal ca- 
 nal is conipofed of four tunics ; but it remains to be re- 
 marked, that here, as in the f.oinach, the two inner tu- 
 nicsbeing more extcnfivethaji the other two, from the 
 plaits which arc 10 be fecn in the inner fiirface of the 
 inteHines, ued arc calkd vaJvitlt conn'i-.i.tis. 
 
 O M Y. 731 
 
 Someaathorshavc contidcred tlicf* plaits as 'tending Of the 
 to retard the motion of the fxces, in order to atford AWomcu. 
 more time for the reparation of the chyle ; but there 
 are others who attribute to them a ditferent ufe : they 
 contend, that thcfe valves, by being naturally inclined 
 downwards, cannot impede the defcent of the faiccs, 
 but that they arc intended to prevent their return up- 
 wards. 
 
 They are probably dedined for both thefc ufes ; for 
 although thele folds incline to their lower fide, yet the 
 inequalities they occafion in the canal are fufficient to 
 retard, in fome meafure, the progreflive motion of the 
 faeces, and to afford a greater furface for the abforp- 
 lion of chyle, and their natural pofition fcems to op- 
 pofe itfelf to the return of the aliment. 
 
 Befides thcfe valvule connivent:s, there is one more- 
 conliderable than the reft, called the valve of the colon ; 
 which is found at that part of the canal where the in- 
 teftinum ilium is joined to the colon. This valve per- 
 mits the alimentary pulp to pals downwards, but ferves 
 to prevent its return upwards ; and it is by this valve, 
 that glyfters are prevented from pafling into the fraall 
 intcftines (v). 
 
 Of the little vermiform appendix of the coecum, it 
 will be fufficient to fay, that its ufes have never yet 
 been afccrtained. In birds we meet with two of thefc 
 appendices. 
 
 The intcftines are lubricated by a conftant fupply of 
 mucus, which is probably fccreted by very minute fol- 
 licles (z). Thismucuspromotcsihcdefccntoftheali- 
 mentary pulp, and in foinc meafure defends the inner 
 furface of the intcftines from the irritation to which it 
 would, perhaps, othcrwife be continually cxpofcd from 
 the aliment; and which, when in a certain degree, 
 excites a painful diforder called olic, a name given to 
 the difeafe, becaufc its luoft ufual feat is in theintefti- 
 num colon. 
 
 The intcftines are likcwife frequently diftendcd * 
 with air, and this diftcntion fometimes occaftons pain, 
 and conftitutcs the Hatulcnt colic. 
 
 The arteries of the intcftines arc continuations of 
 the mcfenteric arteries, which are derived in two con- 
 
 fiderable branches from the aorta The reduadanti 
 
 blood is carried back into the vena portarum. 
 
 In the rectum the veins are called h.-morrhoiital, and 
 are there diftinguilhtd into internal and external : the 
 firft are brandies o( the inferior mcfenteric vcjn, but 
 the latter pals into other veins. Some times thcfe veins 
 are diftendcd with blood fronn b.'lrucl'ons, from weak- 
 nefs of their coats, or from other caufes, and u bit wc 
 call the hjemorrhoids takes place. In this difcjfc they, 
 are fometimes ruptured ; and the difcharge of blood 
 
 which 
 
 (x) AnatoBiifts have differed with rcfpecl to this divifion of the intcftines The method here followed is 
 
 now generally adopted ; but there are authors \i Ito allow the name oicitcuin only to the little appendix, which 
 Las likcwife been called the lunuijlru. appendix, from its rcfemblance to a worm in fizc and length. 
 
 (v) This is not invari;biy the cafe, for the conicntsof a glyftcr have been found not only to reach the fmall 
 inteftincs, but to be voided at th« mouth. Such inftances, however, arc net couiinon. 
 
 (z) Some writers have diliinuuilhcd thefc glands into miliary, lenticular, &c Brunncrand Pcycr were the 
 
 firft anatoniills who defcribcd the glands of the intcftines, and their defcriptions were cbietly taken from ani- 
 mals, thele glandular appearances not Iceming tuli.ivc been hitherto faiisfaClorily pointed oiit in liie hum.infiib- 
 jct^ — It is now pretty generally believed, that the mucus which every where lubricates the alimentary canal, 
 is exhaled from the minute ends of arteries ; and that thcfe extremities firft open into a hollow vclicle, fr^Mn 
 ^fhencc *c dcpofitcd juice of fcvcral branches flows out through one common orifice.
 
 736 ANA 
 
 Of Hie whicli conrcqiieiitly follows, has probably occafioncJ 
 Abdomen, [hcni to he called iKeViorrhoiiial veins. 
 " ^' ' Tit nerves of tlic inteftincs are derived from the 
 eighth pair. 
 
 Sect. VI. Of the Mrf cilery. 
 
 94, The name of the viefeiitcry implies its fituation 
 
 aniidlt the intcltincs. It is in fact a part of the pcriio- 
 nxiim, beinj5 a reduplication (a) of that membrane 
 from each lidc of the lumbar vencbrx, to w hich it is 
 firmly attached, fo that it is formed of two laminas, 
 connected to each other liy cellular membrane. 
 
 The inteftincs, in their different circnmvoUitions, 
 form a great number of arches, and the mefcntery ac- 
 companies liiem thronj;h all thcfe tnrns ; but by being 
 airaclied only to the hollow part of each arch, it is 
 found to have only a third of the extent of the intef- 
 tincs. 
 
 That part of this membrane which accompanies the 
 fmall inteftines is the nufentery, properly focallcd ; bat 
 ihofc parts of it which are attached to the colon and 
 rectum are didinguillicd by the namcsof w^5-co/o«and 
 viefo-reBuvi. 
 
 There arc many conglobate glands difperfed thro' 
 this double membrane, through which the laclealsand 
 lymphatics pafs in their way to the thoracic dudt. The 
 blood-velielsof the mefcntery were defcribed in fpcak- 
 ingof the inteftincs. 
 
 This membrane, by its attachment to the vertebrae, 
 ferves to keep the inteftincs in their natural fituation. 
 The idea ufually formed of the colic called mijcrere, is 
 perfectly erroneous; it beiHg inipoiiible that the in- 
 teftincs can be twifted, as many fuppofe they arc, in 
 that difeafe, their attachment to the mefcntery effec- 
 tually preventing fuch an accident — but a difarrange- 
 nientfometimes takes place in the in tcftinal canal itfelf, 
 which is prodnrtive of difagreeablc and fomctimes fatal 
 confequenccs. — This is by an introfufceptionof thein- 
 teftine, an idea of which may be eafily formed, by 
 taking the finger of a glove, and involving one part of 
 it wifhin the other. 
 
 Ifinrianimation takes place, the ftrictiirein this cafe 
 is increafed, and tlicperiftaltic motionof the inteftines 
 ( by which is meant the progrellive motion of the faeces 
 downwards) is inverted, and what is called the ii'tac 
 falfioii takes place. The fame clfcifts may be occaftoned 
 by a defcentofthc inteftinc, or of the omentum cither 
 with it or by itfelf, and thus conftituting what is called 
 an hernia or rupture; a term by which in general is 
 meant the falling down or protrullon of any part of the 
 inteftinc or omentum, which ought naturally to be 
 co.ntained within the cavity of the belly. 
 
 2 
 
 TOM 
 
 Part 
 
 To convey an idea of the manner in wliitli fuch a Of 1 
 dcfcenttakes place, it will be rieccifary toobfcrve, that AMo 
 the lower edge of the icndon of the mufculus obliquus """^ 
 externusjisltrctchedfrom the fore-part of the os ilium 
 or haunch bone of the 03 pubis, and coiift.itiues w hat is 
 called Poiipart'j or Fal:oj)iiii'i ligav.eiit, forming aif 
 oj)cning, through which jiafs the great crural artery 
 and vein. Near the os pubis the fame tendinous fibres 
 are fcparated from each other, and form an openingon 
 each fide, called the abJoinhtal ring, through which 
 the fpcrmatic vcflels pafs in men, and the ligamenta 
 uteri in women, in confequence of violent effbrts, or 
 perhaps of natural canfcs, the inteftincs arefound fomc- 
 times to pafs through thcfe openings j but the pcrito- 
 na;um \\hich inclofcs then; when in their natural ca- 
 vity, ftill continues to furround them even in their 
 defcent. This membrane does not become torn or 
 lacerated by the violence, as might be eafily imagin- 
 ed i but its dilatability enables it to pafs out with the 
 vifcus, which it inclofcs as it were in a bag, and thus 
 forms what is called the herniul Jac. 
 
 If the hernia be under Poupart's ligament, it is call- 
 eAfei/ioral ; if in the groin, inguinal (b) ; &ni/cro- 
 tal, if in the fcrotum. Different names arc likcwife 
 given to the hernia as the contents of the fac differ, 
 whether of omentum only or inteftinc, or both : — but 
 thefe definitions more properly belong to the province 
 of furgcry. 
 
 Sect. VII. Of the Pancreas. 
 
 The pancreas is a conglomerate gland placed be- 
 hind the bottom of the ftomach, towards the firft ver- 
 tebra of the loins ; fhaped like a dog's tongue, with 
 its point ftretched out towards the fplcen, and its other 
 end extending towards the duodenum. It is about 
 eight fingers breadth in length, two or three in width, 
 and one in thicknefs. 
 
 This vifcus, which is of a yellowifh colour, fome- 
 what inclined to red, is covered with a membrane 
 which it derives from the pcritonainiH. Its arteries, 
 which arc rather numerous than large, arc derived 
 chiefly from the fplenic and hepatic, and its veins pafs 
 into the veins of the fame name. — Its nerves are de- 
 rived from the intcrcoftal. 
 
 The many little glandsof which it hasbeenobfcrved 
 the pancreas is compofcd, all f'erve to fccrete a liquor 
 called the pancreatic juice, w hich in its colour, conlifl- 
 encc, and other properties, does not feem to differ from 
 the faliva. Each of thcfe glands fends out a little ex- 
 cretory dufl, which, uniting with others, help to form 
 larger dufls ; and all thefe at lafl terminate in one 
 common excretory duel (firft difcovered by Virifungus 
 
 ia 
 
 (.■\) He who only reads of the reduplication of membranes, will perhaps not cafily under/land how the peri- 
 tonseiim and pleura arc refle(ftcd over the vifcera in their feveral cavities ; for one of thefe ferves the fame pnr- 
 pofes in the thorax that the other does in the abdomen. This difpolilion, for the difcovery of which we arc 
 indebted to modern anatomifts, conftitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge : but the fludent, unaided 
 by experience, and afliftcd only by what the limits of this work would permit us to fay on the occafion, would- 
 probably imbibe only confufcd ideas of the matter ; and it will perfcdtly anfwer the prefent purpofe, if he con- 
 fiders the mefcntery as a membrane attached by one of its fides to the lumbar vertebras, and by the other to 
 the inteftines. 
 
 (u) The hernia congenita will be confidercdwith the male organs of generation, with which it isintiraately 
 councdedt 
 
 95.
 
 in. 
 
 N 
 
 Of the in 1642), wbichrunstliroagh the middle of the gland, 
 ^b<^oracn• and isnowufually csXlcA duilus pancreaticutVirtfungi. 
 '~~^''~~' This canal opens inco the inteAinum duodenum, fomc- 
 dmcs by the fame orifice with the biliary du£t, and 
 fometimes by a diftindl opening. The liquor it dif- 
 charges being of a mild and infipid nature, fcrves to 
 dilute the alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more 
 ealily with the bile. 
 
 Sect. VIIl. Of the Liver. 
 
 '"• The liver is a vifcusof confiderable fize, and of a 
 
 rcddifli colour; convexfuperiorly and anteriorly where 
 it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and ot an 
 unequal furface pofteriorly. It is chieriy fituated ia 
 the right hypochondrium, and under the falfc ribs ; 
 buiitlikewifecxtcndsintothecpigaftric region, where 
 it borders upon the (lomach. It is covered by a pro- 
 dudion of the peritonaeum, which fervcs to attach it 
 by three of its reduplications to the falfc ribs. Thcfe 
 reduplications itccaMidligaments, though very differ- 
 ent ill their texture from what are called by the fame 
 name in other parts of the body. The umbilical cord, 
 too, which in the foetus is previous, gradually becomes 
 a limple ligament after birth ; and, by palling to the 
 liver, ferves likesvife to feciire it in its fiiuation. 
 
 At the pofterior partof this organ where the umbi- 
 lical yelfels enter, it is found divided into two lobes. 
 Of thefe, the largeft is placed in the right hypochon- 
 drium ; the other, which covers partof the llomaeh, 
 is called the little lobi. All the vellels which go to 
 the liver pafs in at the filTure we have mentioned ; and 
 the production of the peritonaeum, which invells the 
 liver, was dcfcribed by Glilfon, an Englifli anatomiil, 
 as accompanying them in their palfage, and furround- 
 ing them like a glove ; hence this production has been 
 commonly known by the name of capfula ofClilfou : 
 but it appears to be chiefly a continuation of the cellu- 
 lar membrane which covers the vena porta ventralis. 
 The liver was conlidcred by the ancients as an organ 
 dcftined to prepare and perfeifl the blood ; but later 
 difcoveries have proved, that thisopinion was wrong, 
 and that the liver is a glandular fubftance formed for 
 the fecretion of the bile. 
 
 The blood is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic 
 artery and the vena porta. This is contrary to the 
 mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only 
 ferve to carry oft the redundant blood : but in this vif- 
 cus the hepatic artery, which is derived from the cae- 
 liac, is principally deftined for its nourishment ; and 
 the vena porta, which is formed by the union of the 
 veins from moil of the abdominal vifcera,furnilhes the 
 blood from which the bile is chiefly to be feparated ; 
 fo that thcfe two feries of velfels ferve very diflin(5t 
 purpofcs. The vena porta, as it is ramified through the 
 liver, performs the ofhce both of a vein and an artery ; 
 for like the former it returns the blood from the ex- 
 tremities of arteries, while as the latter it prepares it 
 for fecretion. 
 
 The nerves of the liverarebranches of the interco- 
 llalaiidpar vagum. The bile, after being feparated 
 Voi. I. 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 from the mafs of blood, in a manner ot which mention 
 
 737 
 
 Of the 
 
 Will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this AbJomcn. 
 
 organ by very minute excretory dufts, called foribi- ' • — ^ 
 
 liarii ; thefe uniting together like the excretory duds 
 in the pancreas, gradually form larger ones, which at 
 length terminate in a confiderable canal called dudui 
 hepaticus. 
 
 Sect. IX. Of the Call-Bladder. 
 
 The gall-bladder is a little membranous bag.fhaped V' 
 like a pcjr, and attached to the poAerior and aUiofl 
 inferior part of the great lobe of the liver. 
 
 It has two tunics ; of which the exterior one isa pro- 
 dudtion of the peritonaeum. The interior, or^villous 
 coat, is fupplied with a mucus that defends it from the 
 acrimony of the bile. Thefe two coverings are inti- 
 mately conneaed by means of cellular membrane, 
 which from its firm gliflening appearance has gene- 
 rally been fpoken of as a mufcular tunic. 
 
 Thegall-bladderis fupplied with blood-vefTclsfroin 
 the hepatic arteries. Thefe branches are called the 
 cyjlic art:riei, and the cyflic veins carry back the 
 blood. 
 
 Its nerves are derived from the fame origin as thofc 
 of the liver. 
 
 The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in the 
 form of a canal called dudus cyjikus, which foon unites 
 with the dudus hepaticus we defcribed as the excrc- 
 tory duct of the liver ; and forming one common canal, 
 takes the name of dufliu coledochus communis, through 
 which both the cyAicand hepatic bile are difcharged 
 into the duodenum. This canal opens into the intc- 
 flinein an oblique direclion, firA pafTing through the 
 exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats after 
 running between each of them a very little way. This 
 (Economy ferves two ufefuj purprfes; — to promote the 
 difcharge of bile and to prevent its return. -g 
 
 The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid foap, of Uic bile- 
 fomewhat unctuous and biiicr, and of a yellowilh co- 
 lour, which ealily mixes with water, oil, and vinous 
 Ipirits, and is capable of dilfolving refinous fubAances. 
 From fome late experiments made by M. Cadet*, it • Mem', d, 
 appears to be formed of an animal oil, combined with VA<^d'jez 
 the alkaline bafe of fea-falt, a fait of the nature of *''«'■•'• 
 milk, and 1 calcareous earth which is flightly ferru. '7*'* 
 giaous. 
 
 Its definition feemsfufficiently to point out theufos 
 for which it is intended (c). It blends the alimenta- 
 ry mafs, by dividing and attenuating it ; correds the 
 too great difpolition to acefcency, which the aliment 
 acquires in the Aomacli ; and, finally, by its acrimo- 
 ny, tends to excite the periAaliic motion of the in- 
 teAines. 
 
 After what has been faid, it will be conceived that 
 there are two forts of bile ; one of which is derived 
 immediately from the liver through the hepatic dua, 
 and the other from the gall-bladder. Thefe two biles, 
 however, do not clTentially ditler from each other. 
 The hepatic bile indeed ismilder,and more liquid than 
 the cyAic, which is conAantly thicker aud yellosver ; 
 S A and 
 
 (c) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the real ufc of thclivei , confidercd t]ic bile as an cxcrc- 
 meutitious and ufclefs Auid.
 
 738 A N A T 
 
 Of ihe and by being I)itterer, feems to polTefs greater aftivi- 
 
 Abdoiren. ly than the other. 
 
 ^*~~^' ' Kvcry body knows ihc fourcc of the hcpaiic bile, 
 liiat it is fttrcltd from ihc niafs of blood by the liver; 
 but the ori;;in of the cy (He bile lias occafioiird no little 
 controvci fy amongll anatoniical writers. There are 
 foMie whocoiitciid, that it is feparatedin the fiibllaucc 
 of the liver, from whence it palics intothc gall-bladder 
 through particular vefl'els. In deer, and in fome other 
 quadrupeds, as well as in fcvcral birds and lidies, there 
 is an evident comminiicaiion, by means of particular 
 vcifels, between the liver and the gall-bladder. Kian- 
 chi, WiHdow, and others, have alfertcd the exigence 
 of fuch velFcls in the human fubjeft, and named them 
 h;faticyj\ii: diiCli ; but it is certain that no fuch dut^s 
 exill In obllru(5lions of the cyftic duft, the gall- 
 bladder has been found flirivelled and empty : fo that 
 we may confider the gall-bladder as a refervoir of he- 
 patic bile ; and that it is an ellablilhed facl, that the 
 whole of the bile contained in the gall-bladder is de- 
 lived from the liver ; thatitpaflcs from the hepatic to 
 the cyftic dudl, and from that to th<; gall-bladder. 
 The ditFerence in the colour, confidence, and taflcof 
 the bile, is merely theconfeqtience of ftagnation and 
 •bforption. When the llomach is diftcnded with ali- 
 ment, this refervoir undergoes a certain degree of 
 ^ compreffion, and the bile paifes out int» the intcllinal 
 canal; and in the efforts to vomit, the gallbladder 
 feems to be conftantly affcfted, and at fuch times dif- 
 charges itfelf of its contents. 
 
 Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall bladder, fo 
 as to form what are czWcd gall Poucs (d). When 
 thefe concretions pafs into the cyflic duft, they fome- 
 limesoccafion exquifite pain, by diftending the canal 
 in their way to the duodenum ; and by lodging in the 
 du(5lus choledochus communis, and obltruding the 
 courfe of the bile, this fluid will be abforbcd, and by 
 being carried back into the circulation occafion a tem- 
 porary jaundice. 
 
 Sect. X. Of the Spleen. 
 
 99. Th e fpleen is a foft and fpongy vifcus, of a bluilh^ 
 
 colour, and about five or fix fingers breadth in length, 
 and threein width, fituatedintheleft hypochondrium, 
 between the ftomach and the falfe ribs. That fide of 
 it which isplacedon the lide of the ribs is convex ; and 
 the other, which is turned toward the ftomach.. is 
 concave. 
 
 The fplenic artery, which is a branch from the cse.- 
 liac, fupplies this vifcus with blood, and a vein of the 
 fame name carries it back into the vena porta. 
 
 Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus called 
 iht fplenic, which is formed by branches of the inter- 
 coftal nerve, and by the eighth pair, or par vagum. 
 
 The ancients, who fuppofcd two forts of bile, confi- 
 dered the fpleen as the receptacle of what they called 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part IirJ 
 
 <j/rfli///j. Havers, who wrote profeircdlyonilie bones,,, Ofthe 
 determined iisufc to be that of ftcrcting the fynovia ; Abdomen,! 
 
 and the laic Mr Hew fun imagined, that it concurred * w— ^ 
 
 with the thymus and lymphatic glands of the body in • 
 
 forming the red globules of the blood. All thcfc opi- j 
 
 nioiis fccm to be cfnuiUy fanciful. The want of aii , 
 
 excretory duct has occalioned the real ufe of this vilcus \ 
 
 to be IHU doubtful. Perhaps the blood undergoes I 
 
 foMic change in ir, which ni:'.) allift in the preparation i 
 
 of the bile. This is the opinion of the generality of 
 modern pliydologifls ; and the great quantity of blood i 
 
 with which it is fupplied, together with thecourfcof I 
 
 its veins into the vena porta:, feem to render this no- 
 tion probable. 
 
 Sect. XI. Of theClanduU Renalei, Kidney t, and 
 Ureters. 
 
 The glandulx renalcs, which were by the ancients if- 
 fuppofed to fecrcte the atra bills, and by them named 
 cnffula; atrabilarcs, are two riat bodies ol an irregular 
 figure, one on each fide between the kidney anJ the 
 aorta. 
 
 In the fcrtus they arc as large as the kidneys : but 
 they do not increafe afterwards in proportion to thofe 
 parts ; and in adults and old people they are generally 
 found Ihrivellcd, and much walled. They have their 
 arteries and veins. Their arteries ufually arife from 
 the fplenic or the emulgent, and fomciimes from the 
 aorta ; and their veins go to the neighbouring veins, 
 or to the vena cava. Their nerves are branches of 
 the iiuercoftal. 
 
 The ufe of thcfe parts is not yet pcrfe(5lly known. 
 In the i'atus the fccrction of urine muft be in a very 
 fmall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps 
 then pafs through thcfe channels, which in the adult 
 is carried to the kidneys to fupply the matter of urine. 
 
 The kidneys are two in number, fituaied one on the loi 
 right and the other on the left fide in the lumbar re- Kidney*, 
 gion, between the lall falfe rib and the os ilium, by 
 the fides of the vertebrx. P^ach kidney in its figure 
 rcfembles a fort of bean, which from its (hape is called 
 kidniy-beati. The concave part of each kidney is 
 turned towards the aorta and vena cava afcendens. 
 They arefurronnded by a good deal of fat, and receive 
 acoatfrom theperitonajuni; and when (his is removed, 
 a very fine membrane is found inverting their fubftance 
 and the vcflcls which ramify through them. 
 
 Each kidney has a conliderable artery and vein, 
 which are called the emulgent. The artery is a brancii 
 from the aorta, and the vein palfesinto the vena cava. 
 Their nerves, which every where accompany the 
 blood-vefl'els, arife from a conliderable plexus, which 
 is derived from the intercollal. 
 
 In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty 
 firm texture, there are three fubftances to be diftin- 
 guilhed (e). The o«ter part is glandular or conical, 
 
 beyond 
 
 (d) Thefe concretions fometimes remain in the gall-bladder without caufing any uneafinefs. Dr Hcberden 
 relates, that a gall-llone weighing two drams was found in the gall-blJdder of the late Lord Bath, though he 
 had never complained of the jaundice, nor of any diforder which he could attribute to that caufe. Med. 
 Tranf. Vol. ii. 
 
 (e) The kidneys in the foetus arc diAinftly lobulated ; but iu the adult they become perfc(!lly firm, fmooth. 
 and regular.
 
 Part 111. ANA 
 
 Of the beyond this is the vafcahr or tubular fubftance, and 
 Abdomtn. the inner part is papillary or membranous. 
 
 >< It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fe- 
 
 cretion is carried on ; the urine being here received 
 from the minute extremities of the capillary arteries, 
 is conveyed out of this cortical fubftancc by an infinite 
 number of very fmail cylindrical canals or excretory 
 vclTcls, which conftitute the tubular part. Thtfc 
 tubes, as they approach the inner fubflance of the kid- 
 neys, gradually unite together ; and thus forming lar- 
 ger canals, at length terminate in ten or twelve little 
 protuberancescalled/'tf/>///<«-, the orifices of which may 
 be fecn without the alUftance of glalfes. Thefe pa- 
 pillae open into a fmall cavity or rcfervoir called the 
 pelvis of thi kidiiiy, and formed by a diftinft membra- 
 nous bag which embraces the papillae. From this pel- 
 vis the urine is conveyed through a membranous canal 
 which palFcsout from the hollow fide of the kidney, a 
 ,oj little below the blood vclFels, and is called ureter. 
 Ureters, The ureters are each about as large as a common 
 
 writing-pen. They arc fomewhat curved in their 
 courfefrom thc"kidneys, like the letter/", and at length 
 terminate in the pollerior and almoft inferior part of 
 the bladder, at fome dillance from each other. They 
 pafs into the bladder in the fame manner as the duftus 
 choledochus communis pafTes into the inteftinum duo- 
 denum, not by a direft paflage, but by an oblique 
 courfc between the two coats ; fo that the difchargc 
 of urine into the bladder is promoted, whilft its return 
 is prevented. Nor does this mode of flrufture prevent 
 the pafTagc of fluids only from the bladder into the 
 ureters, but likewife air : — for air thrown into the 
 bladder inflates it, and it continues to be diflcnded if 
 a ligature is pafTed round its neck ; which fecms to 
 prove fufficiently that it cannot pafs into the ureters. 
 
 S E C T . X 1 1 Of the Urinary Bladder. 
 
 103. The urinary bladder is a membranous and mufcular 
 
 bag of an oblong roundiih fliapc, liiuated in the pelvis, 
 between the os pubis and intellinum reftiim in men, 
 and between ihe os pubis and uterus in women. Its 
 upper .ind widefl part is ufually called the bottom, its 
 narrow part the neck ofihe bladder ; the former only 
 is covered by the peritonaeum. 
 
 The bladder is formed of three coats, connected to- 
 gether by means of cellular membrane. The exter- 
 nal or peritonosal, is only a partial one, covering the 
 upper and back part of the bladder. The middle, or 
 mufcular coat, is compofed of irritable, andofcourfe 
 mufcular fibres, which arc mofl collcfled arounj the 
 neck of the bladder, but not fo as to form a diflin.ft 
 mufcle, or fphinfter, as the generality of anatomifts 
 have iiiihcrto fuppofed. 
 
 The inner coat, though mnch fmoother, has been 
 faid to rcfemblc the villous tunic of the inteftines, and 
 like that is provided with a mucus which defends it 
 againd the acrimony of the urine. 
 
 It will be ealily conceived from what has been faid, 
 that the kidneys are two glandular bodies, thro' which 
 a faline and cxcrementitious fluid called urine is con- 
 lUntly filtering from the mafs of blood. 
 
 while only a fniall quantity of urine is collefted in 
 ilie bladder, it excites no kind of uneafincfs ; but when 
 a greater quantity is accumulated, fo that the bladder 
 
 TO M Y. 73,^ 
 
 is diftendcd in a certain degree, it excites inns a cer- Of the 
 tain fcnfation, which brings on as it were a voluntary Abdomen. 
 
 contradtionof the bladder to promote its difchargc ' """^ 
 
 But this contraction is not effcaed by the mufcular 
 fibresof the bladder alone: for all theabdominalmufcles 
 contradl inobedicncc toour will, and prefs downwards 
 all the vifcera of the lower belly; and thefe powers 
 being united, at length overcome the reliftance of the 
 fibres furrounding the neck of the bladder, which di- 
 lates and affords a paflagc to the urine through the 
 urethra. 
 
 The frequency of this evacuation depends on the 
 quantity of urine fecretcd ; on the degree of acrimony 
 it poflclfes; on the fize of the bladder, and on its de- 
 gree of fenfibility. 
 
 The urine varies much in its colour and contents, 
 Thefe varieties depend, on age, fex, climate, diet, and 
 other circumftances. In infants it is generally a clear 
 \yatery fluid, without fmcil or tafle. As we advance in 
 life, it acquires more colour and fmell, and becomes 
 more impregnated with falts. In old people it becomes 
 ftill more acrid and fetid. 
 
 In a healthy Aate it is nearly of a ftraw colour. 
 
 After being kept for fome time, it depofites a tarta- 
 rous matter, which is found to be compofed chiefly of 
 earth and fall, and foon incrufts the fides of the veiFel 
 in which it is contained. While this feparation is ta- 
 king place, appearances like minute fibres or threads 
 of a whitifli colour may be feen in the middle of the 
 urine, and an oily fcum obferved floating on its furface. 
 So that the moll common appearances of the urine 
 are fufficicnt to afcertain that it is a watery fub- 
 Aance, impregnated with earthy, faline, and oily par- 
 ticles. 
 
 The urine is not always voided of the fame colour 
 and confillencc ; for thefe are found to depend on the 
 proportion of its watery part 10 that of its other con- 
 llituent principles. — Its colour and degree of fluidity 
 feem to depend on the quantity of faline and inflam- 
 mable particles contained in it: fo that an increa- 
 fed proportion of thofe parts will conrtanily give the 
 urine a higher colour, and add to the quantity of Ic- 
 diment. 
 
 The variety in the appearance of the urine, depends 
 on the nature and quantity of folid and fluid aliment 
 we take in ; and it is likewife occalioned by the diffe- 
 rent ftate of the urinary vefTcls, by which we mean the 
 channels through which it is feparated from the blood, 
 and conveyed through the pelvis into the ureters. The 
 caufcs of calculous concretions in the urinary palfagcs, 
 are to be looked for in the natural conftitution of the 
 body, mode of life, &c. 
 
 It having been obferved, that after drinking any 
 light wine or Spa water, it very foon paded olf by 
 urine, it has been fuppofed by fome, that the urine is 
 not altogetherconveyed to the bladder by the ordinary 
 courfe of circulation, butthat there mull certainly c.\- 
 ift fome other fliortcr means of communication, per- 
 haps by certain velfels between the ftomach and the 
 bladder, or by a rctrogmde motion in the lymphatics. 
 But it is certain, that if we open the belly of a dog, 
 prefs out the urine from the bladder, pafs a ligature 
 round the emulgent arteries, and then few up the ab- 
 domen, and give him even the mofl diuretic liquor to 
 drink, the ftomach andother channels will be diftend- 
 ; A 2 ed
 
 105 . 
 
 A N A T 
 
 ed with it, but not a drop of urine will be found to 
 have pafl'id into the blajiiti" ; or the fanit thing hap- 
 pens when a ligature is ilirown rouiul the two ureters. 
 This experiment then feenis to be a lutlicicnt proof, 
 that all the urine we evacuate, is conveyed to the kid- 
 neys through the cinulgent arteries, in the manner wc 
 
 havedefcribcd It is true, that wine and other liquors 
 
 promote a fpccdy evacuation of urine : but the dif- 
 charge ftems to be merely the ctfed of the llimulus 
 they occalion ; by which the bladder and urinary p?rts 
 arc folicited to a more copious difchargc of the urine, 
 which was before in the body, and not immediately 
 of that which was lafl drank ; and this incrcafcd dif- 
 charge, if the fupply is kept up, will continue: nor 
 will this appear wonderful, if wc confider the great 
 capacity of the vcU'els that go to the kidneys ; the con- 
 ftant fupply of frelh blood that is elFcntial to health j 
 and the rapidity with which it is incelfantly circula- 
 ted through the heart to all parts of the body. 
 
 Sect. XIII, OJ Digeflion. 
 
 We are now proceeding to (^(.^kof digeflion, which 
 feems to be introduced in this place with propriety, 
 after a defcription of the abdominal vifcera, the greater 
 part of which contribute to this funflion. By dige- 
 fiioti is to be underflood, the changes the aliment un- 
 dergoes for the formation of chyle: — thefc changes 
 are effeftcd in the mouth, ftomach, and fmall in- 
 teftines. 
 
 The mouth, of which every body has a general 
 knowledge, is the cavity between the two jaws,formcd 
 anteriorly and laterally by the lips, teeth, and cheeks, 
 and terminating pofteriorly in the throat. 
 
 The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and mufcles, 
 covered by the cuticle, which is continued over the 
 whole inner furface of the mouth, like a fine and deli- 
 cate membrane. — Belide this membrane, the infide of 
 the mouth is furnifhed w ith a fpougy and very vafcular 
 fubflance called the giiius, by means of which the 
 teeth are fecurcd in their fockets. A fimilar fubftance 
 covers the roof of the mouth, and forms what is called 
 the velum pendulum palati, which is fixed to the ex- 
 tremity of the arch formed by the ofFa maxillaria and 
 olTa palati, and terminates in a foft, fmall, and coni- 
 cal body, named uvula; which appears, as it were, 
 fufpended from the middle of the arch over the balls 
 of the tongue. 
 
 The velum pendulum palati performs the office of a 
 valve between the cavity of the mouth and the pha- 
 rynx, being moved by Icveral mufcles (r). 
 
 The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles ( g ) which 
 enable it to perform a variety of motions for the arti- 
 culation of the voice ; for the purpofesof maflication; 
 and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx. Its 
 upper part is covered with papilla, which conftitutc 
 the organ of taftc, and are eafily to be diAinguilhed ; 
 it is covered by the fame membrane that lines the in- 
 
 O M Y. Part III. 
 
 I 
 
 fide of the mouth, and which makes at its inferior of the 
 part towards its bafis a reduplication callcdy;-.(/;//w. Abdomen. ; 
 Pollcriorly, under the velum palati, and at the balls "■— v— -^ i 
 of the tongue, is the pharyx : which ib the beginning j 
 
 of the oefophagus, llretchedout every way, foas tore- 1 
 
 femble the top ol a funnel, through which the alimeni I 
 
 pallcs into the ftomach. 
 
 The mouth has a communication with the noftrils at 
 its pollerior and upper part ; with the ears, b> the Eu- ] 
 
 llachian tubes ; with the lungs, by means of the la- 
 rynx ; and with the ftomach, by means of the ocfo- i 
 phagus. : 
 The pharynx is conftantly moiflened by a fluid, fe- I 
 cretedby twocouliderablc glands called the ton fli, one ! 
 on each tide of the velum palati. Thefe glands, from i 
 tiuir fuppolcd rcfcmblance to almonds, have likewile 
 been called amygdalus. 
 
 The mouth is moiftened by a confiderablc quantitjr ; 
 
 offaliva. This fluid is derived from the/ars/jr/^/awi/j; ; 
 
 a name which by its etymology points out their litua- 
 tion to be near the ears. They are two in number, one 
 on each lide under the osmalje : and they areof the con- 
 glomerate kind ; being formed of many fmallerglands, '. 
 each of which fends out a very fmall excretory duft, \ 
 which unites w ith the reft, to form one common chan- ( 
 nel, that runs over the cheek, and piercing the bucci- 
 nator mufcle, opens into the mouth on each fide, by J 
 an orifice into w liich a brilUe may be ealily introduced. ] 
 — belides thefe, themaxillary glands, which are placed j 
 near the inner furface of the angle of the lower javy 1 
 on each fide ; the fublingual glands, which are litua- 
 ted at the root of the tongue i the glands of the pa- ; 
 late, which aie fi .lied in the vcluui palati ; and tholo ' 
 of the checks, lips, &c. together with many othei Icls ; 
 confiderablc ones, — pour the faliva into the mouth, 
 through their feveral excretory duds. 
 
 The faliva, like all the other humours of the body, ' 
 
 is found to be different in diflirrent people : but in ge- 
 neral, it is a limpid and inlipid fluid, without fniell in 
 healthy fubjec^s ; and ihefe properties would feem to , 
 
 prove that it contains very few faline or inflammable 
 particles. I 
 
 The ufts of the faliva feem to be to moiflcn and 
 lubricate the mouth, and to alTift in reducing the ali- i 
 
 ment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed into the fto- j 
 
 mach. ie6 ' 
 
 The variety of funflions which are conftantly per- of hunger 
 formed by the living body, mull necelTarily occalion a and thirtt. i 
 continual wafte and diflipation of its feveral parts. A | 
 
 great quantity is every day tlirown ofl^by the infcn- • 
 
 fible pcrfpiration and other difcharges ; and were not 
 thefe lolfes conftantly recruited by a frefli fupply of I 
 
 chyle, the body would foon effect its own diilbluiion. 
 But nature has very wifely favoured us with organs fit- 1 
 
 ted to produce fuch a fupply : and has at the fame time ! 
 
 endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirft, that i 
 
 our attention may not be diverted from the necelTarjt ' 
 
 bufincfs of nutrition. Thefcnfationof hunger is uni- 
 
 verfally 
 
 (f) Thefe are the circumflexus palati, levator palati mollis, palato-pharyngxasconftridor ifthmi fauciuia. 
 and azygos uvulae. See page 714. 
 
 (g) Thefe are, the gcnio-glolTus, hyo-gloffus, lingualis, and ftylo-gloflus. Sec page 714.
 
 Part III. ANA' 
 
 Of the verfally known ; bat it would perhaps be difficult to 
 Abdomen, defcribe it perfectly in words. It may, however, be 
 ' * ' defined to be a certain uneafy fenfation in the ftomach, 
 which induces us to wilh for folid food ; and which 
 liktwife fcrvcs to point out the proper quantity, and 
 time for taking it. In defcribing the flomach, men- 
 tion was made of the gaflric juice, as every where lu- 
 bricating its inner coat. This humour mixes itfelf 
 with the aliment i:i the ftomach, and helps to prepare 
 it for its paifage into the inteftincs ; but when the Ho- 
 mach is pcrleftly empty, this fame fluid irritates the 
 coats uf the ftomach itfelf, and produces the fenfation 
 of hunger. 
 
 A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required 
 to affift in the progrefs of digcftion, and to afford that 
 moifture to the body, of which there is fuch a conftant 
 
 diflipation Thirll induces us to take this neceflary 
 
 fupplyof drink ; and the feat of this fenfation is in the 
 tongue, fauces, and oefophagus, which from their 
 great fenlibiiity arc required to be kept moift : for 
 though the fauces are naturally inoiftcned by the mu- 
 cus and falival juices ; yet the blood, when deprived of 
 its watery part or rendered acrimonious by any natural 
 caufcs, iievcrfails particularly toaffecl thcfe pans, and 
 the whole alimentary canal, and to occafion thirft. — 
 This is the common effedt of fevers and of hard labour, 
 by both which too much of the watery part of the blood 
 is diffipated. 
 Ofmaftica- ^' ^^^ been obferved, that the aliment undergoes 
 tion und fome preparation in the mouth before it palTes into the 
 deglutition, ftomach ; and this preparation is the effci\ of maftica- 
 tion. In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men- 
 tion was made of the number and arrangement of the 
 teeth. The upper jaw was defcribcd as being immove- 
 able ; but the lower jaw was fpoken of as being ca- 
 pable of elevation and deprtllicn, and of a grinding 
 motion. The aliment, when tirft carried into the 
 mouth, (_s prelFcd between the teeth of the two jaws 
 by a very ftrong and frequent motion of the lower 
 law; and the tongue and the cheeks aiufting in this 
 procefs, continue to replace the food between the 
 teeth till it is perfectly divided, and reduced to the 
 confiftence of piilp. The inciforcs and canini divide 
 it firft into fmalicr pieces, but it is between the fur- 
 faces of the dcntes molares by the grinding motion of 
 the jaw that the maftication is completed. 
 
 During this procefs, the falival glands being gently 
 comprelTed by the contraiJtion of the mufclcs that 
 move the lower jaw, pour out their laliva : this helps 
 to divide and break down the food, which at length 
 becomes a kitul of pulp, and is then carried over the 
 bafis of the tongue into the fauces. Buttoelfetl this 
 palTage into the oefophagus, it is neccfTary that the othcr 
 ^ openings which were mentioned as having a commu- 
 nication with the mouth as well as the pharynx, (houlj 
 be clofed ; that none of the aliment, whether folid or 
 liquid, may pafs into them, whilft the pharynx alone is 
 dilated to receive it : — And fuch a difpoliti'in aA'ially 
 takes place in a manner we will e lulcavour to Jelcribe. 
 The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through which 
 the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed before the 
 oefophagus — in the act of fwallowing ; therefore, if 
 {.ht larynx (for lb the upi^cr part of the trachea is call- 
 ed) is not clofed, the aliment will pafs into it in its 
 way to the oefophagus. But this is prevented by. a . 
 
 O M 
 
 741 
 
 fmall and very elaftic cartilage, called ifigUttis, which Of the 
 is attached only to the fore-part of the larynx ; fo that Abdocien. 
 
 the food in itspalTage to the oefophagus preifes down ' '""' 
 
 thiscartilagc, which then covers the gloitis or opening 
 of the larynx ; and at the fame time the velum palati 
 being capable of fome degree of motion, is drawn 
 backwards by its mufcles, and clofes the openings in- 
 
 tothenofeand the Euftachian tubes This, however, 
 
 is not all. The larynx, which being compofed of car- 
 tilaginous rings, cannot fail in its ordinary ftatc to 
 comprcfsthe membranous canal of the oefophagus, is 
 in the a(ft of deglutiiion carried forwards and upwards 
 by mufcles deftined for that purpofe ; and confequent- 
 ly drawing the fore-part of the pharynx with it, that 
 opening is fully dilated. When the aliment has reach- 
 ed the pharyx, its defcent is promoted by its own 
 proper weight, and by the mufcular fibres of the oefo- 
 phagus, which continue to contrad from above down- 
 wards, until the aliment has reached the ftomach. That 
 thefe fibres have noinconfijerablelhare in deglutition, 
 any perfon may experience, by fwallowing with bis 
 head downwards, when the defcent of the aliment can- 
 not polRbly be etfcclcd by its weight. 
 
 It isnecelhry that the noftrils and the lungs (hould 
 communicate with the mouth, for the purpofesoffpcech 
 and refpiration : but if the moft minute part of our 
 food happens to be introduced into the trachea, it ne- 
 ver fails to produce a violent cough, and fometimes the 
 moft alarming fymptoms. This is liable to happen 
 when we laugh or fpeak in the ait of deglutition ; 
 the food is then faid to have palTed the wrong way. 
 And indeed this is not improperly exprelied : for 
 death would foon follow, if the quantity of aliment 
 introduced into the trachea fliould be fulficient to ob- 
 ftrud the refpiration only during a very ihorttime ; or 
 if llie irritating particles of food fhould not foon be 
 thrown up again by means of a cough, which in thefe 
 cafes very fcafonably incrcafes in proportion to the de- 
 gree of irritation. 
 
 If the velum palati did not clofe the palTage to the 
 noftrils,deglutition would be performed with difficulty, 
 and perhaps not at all ; for the aliment would return 
 through thenofe, as is fometimes the cafe in drinking-. 
 Children, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have 
 been feen to die a few hours after birth ; and they who 
 from difeafc or any other caufes have not this pan per- 
 fect, fwallow with difficulty. 
 
 The aliment, after having been fufficiently divided 
 by the action of the teeth, and attenuated by the fali- 
 va, is received into the ftomach, where it is deftinct' ■ 
 to undergo a more conliderable change. 
 
 The properties of the aliment not being muchalter- 
 edat its firft entrance into the ftomach, and before it 
 is thoroughly blended with the gaftricjuice, is capable 
 of irritating the inner coat of the ftomach toa certain 
 degree, and occafions a contraction of its two orifices 
 — In this membranous bag, furrounded by the abdo- 
 minal vifcera, and <l'iih a certain degree of natural 
 heat, the aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by 
 means of the abdominal mufcles and of the diaphragm, 
 and likewile by a certain contraction or expan/ionof 
 the mufcular fibres of the ftomach itfelf. By this mo- 
 tion, every part of the food is expofed to the action of 
 the gaftric juice.which gradually divides and attenuates 
 it, and prepares it for its palLtge into the inteftincs. - 
 
 Soma
 
 742 ANA! 
 
 Of the Some obfervations lately publilhcd by Mr liiin- 
 Abaonicii. tcr in the Phitolbphical Tranfaifbions, tend to throw 
 " conlidcrabklightonthepriiiciplcsofdigeflioii. There 
 
 are few dead bodies in which the llomach, at its great 
 end, is not found to be in fome degree digefted (h). 
 Animals, or parts of animals, pollelFed of the living 
 principle, when taken into the ftomach, are not in the 
 leafl atfcrted by the aAion of that vifcus ; but the mo- 
 ment they lofc the living principle, they become fub- 
 jed to its digcAivc powers. This feems to be the cafe 
 with the ftomach, which is enabled torefiftthe aClion 
 of itsjiiices in the living body : but when deprived of 
 the living principle, it is then no longer able to rclift 
 the powers of that menflruum, which it bad itfclf for- 
 med for the digcftion of its contents ; the procefs of 
 digcftion appearing to be continued afterdcath. This 
 is confirmed by what happens in the ftomachsof filhes: 
 They frequently fwallow, without maflication, filh 
 which are larger than the digefling parts of their fto- 
 mach can contain ; and in fuch cafes, that part which 
 is taken intothcftomach is more or Icfsdiflblvcd, while 
 that part which remains in the oefophagus is perfeftly 
 found ; and here, as well as in the human body, the 
 digelling part of the ftoraach is often reduced to the 
 fame ftate as the digcflcd part of the food. Thcfc ap- 
 pearences tend to prove, that digeflion is not cfFcded 
 by a mechanical power, by contraftions of the Ao- 
 mach, or by heat ; liut by a fluid fecretcd in the coats 
 of the ftomach, which is poured into its cavity, and 
 there animalizes the food, or affimilates it to the na- 
 ture of blood. 
 
 • HlJI. d, 
 
 i* Academic 
 royal dit 
 
 From fome late experiments by M. Sage,* it ap- 
 
 aicoi. 15. 
 
 pearSjihat inflammable air has the property of deftroy- 
 ing and dilTblving the animal texture : And as we fwal- 
 S«Vn«/ \:fc. \Q^y with the fubftances which fervc us for food a great 
 pour 1784. quantify of atmofphcrical air, M. Sage thinks it pof- 
 iiblc, thatdephlogiilicated, which is its principle, may 
 be converted in the llomach into inflammable air, or 
 jnay modify into inflanunablc air a portion of the oily 
 fubflance which is the principle of aliments. In 
 this cafe, would not the inflammable air (he alks), 
 by diflblving our feod, facilitate its coverfion into 
 chyle ? 
 
 Be this as it may, the food, after having remained one, 
 two, or three hours in the ftomach, is converted intoa 
 greyifh pulp, which is ufualiy called t^^w//^, awordof 
 Greckciyniology.fignify ing j.v;f^,and fomefew milkyor 
 chylous panicles begin to appear — But the term of its 
 refidencc in this bag is proportioned to the nature of the 
 aliment, and to the ftate of the ftomach and its juices. 
 The thinner and more perfetflly digefted parts of the 
 food pafs by a little at a time into the duodenum, 
 through the pylorus, the fibres of which relax to af- 
 ford ita palTage ; and the grolTer and lefs digefted par- 
 
 O M Y. Part III. 
 
 tides remain in the ftomach, till they acquire a fuffi- of the 
 cient fluidity to pafsinio tlie inteftiiics, where the na- Abdomen, 
 
 ture of the cn/wftj is perfetlly changed. Thebileand ' "'""' 
 
 pancreatic juice which flow into the duodenum, and 
 I he mucus, wh^ch is every where diftillcd from the fur- 
 face of the inteftincs, mix themfclves with the alimen- 
 tary pulp,which they ftill farther attenuate anddiflolve, 
 and into which they feem to infufe new properties. 
 
 Two matters very different from each other in their 
 nature and deftination, are the refult of this combina- 
 tion. — One of thefe, which is compofed of the liquid 
 parts of the aliment, and of fome of its more folid par- 
 ticles, extremely divided and mixed with thcjuices we 
 have defcribed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and 
 whitilh fluid, refembling milk, and diftinguiihed by the 
 name of chyls. This fluid is abforbed by the ladeal 
 veius, which convey it into the circulation, where, by 
 being alfimilated into the nature of blood, it affords that 
 fupply of nutrition, which the continual wafte of the 
 body is found to require. — The other, is the remains 
 of the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nutritious 
 particles, and containing only fuch parts as were rejec- 
 ted by the ablbrbing mouths of the ladeals. This 
 groflTer part, called the faces , pafTes on through the 
 courfe of the inteflines, to be voided at the anus, as 
 will be explained hereafter; for this procefs in the ce- 
 conomy cannot be well undcrftood till the motion of 
 refpiration has been explained. But the ftruiture of 
 the inteftines is a fubjeft which may be properly de- 
 fcribed in this place, and deferves to be attended to. 
 
 It has been already obfcrved, that the inteftinal ca- 
 nal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that it 
 forms many circumvolutions in the cavity of the abdo- 
 men, which it traverfes from the right to the left, and 
 again from the left to the right ; in one place defcend- 
 ing, and in another extending itfelf upwards. It was 
 noticed likewife, that the inner coat of the inteftines, 
 by being more capacious than their exterior tunics, 
 formed a muhitucle of pkits placed at a certain dif- 
 tancc from each other, and called vatvuttt connivfntti. 
 Now this difpofition will be found to afford a farther 
 proof of that divine wifdom, which the anatomift and 
 phyfiologift cannot fail to difcover in all their purfuits. 
 — Vox if the inteftinal canal was much Ihorter than it 
 naturally is; if infteadot the prefent circumvolutions 
 it pafled in a direct courfe from the ftomach ; and if 
 its inner furface was fmooth and deflitute of valves ; 
 thealiment would confequently pafs with great rapidity 
 to the anus, and fuflicient time would be wanting to 
 afTimilate the chyle, and for the neceffary abforption 
 of it into the ladeals : fo that the body would be de- 
 prived of the fupply of nutrition, which isfo effential 
 to life and health ; but the length and circumvolutions 
 of the inteftines, the inequality of their internal fur- 
 face, 
 
 (h) The Abbe Spallanzani, who has lately written upon digeflion, finds, from a variety of experiments, 
 made upon quadrupeds, birds, and filhes, that digcftion goes on for fome time after death, though far lefs con- 
 fiderable than in living animals; but heat is neceifary in many animals, or at leaft promotes it in a much great- 
 er degree. He found alfo, that when the ftomach was cut out of the body, it had fomewhat of the power of 
 digcftion, though this was trifling wheo compared with that which took place when the ftomach was left in the 
 body. In not one of the animals was the great curvature of ihe ftomach diflblved, or much eroded after death. 
 There was often a little erofion, efpecially in different fifhes ; in which, when he had cleared the ftomach of 
 its contents, the inierual coat was wanting. la other animals there was ooly a flight excoriation ; and the in- 
 
 ju^r
 
 Part III. 
 
 Of the 
 Abdomen. 
 
 ■cS. 
 
 ANA 
 
 face, and the conrfe of the aliment through them, all 
 concur to perfect the reparation of the chyle from the 
 faeces, and to afford the neceflary nouriihment to the 
 body. 
 
 SECr. XIV. Of th: Courfi oj the Chyle, and cj 
 the Lymphatic Syjlem. 
 
 Ah infiiiite number cf very minute velTels, called the 
 laCltalveins, arife like net-work from the inner furface 
 of the inteflines,(but principally from ihejej/oiuM and 
 ilium), which are delUned to imbibe the nutritious 
 fluid or chyle. Thefc veflels, wliich were difcovercd 
 , by Afellius ill 1624 (i), pafs obliquely through the 
 coats of the intcftine, and running along the mefente- 
 ry, unite as tliey advance, and furm larger branches, 
 all ot which pals through the mcfcnteric or conglobate 
 glands, which are very numerrus in the human fubjeft. 
 As they run between the intcftines and thefe glands, 
 ihey arc ftyled fc-«<r ladea primii ginerij : but after 
 leaving thefe glands, they are found to be Icfs nume- 
 rous, and being increafed in fize, are then called ven.e 
 laEiex fecHtidi gemris, which go to dcpolite their con- 
 tents in the thoracic dud, through which the chyle is 
 conveyed into the blood. 
 
 This thoracic duCt begins about the lower part of the 
 firA vertebra lumborun), from whence it palfes up by 
 the fide of the aorta, between that and the vena azy- 
 gcs, clofe to the vertebrae, being covered by the pleura. 
 Sometimes it is found divided into two branches ; but 
 they ufually unite again into one canal, which opens 
 into the left fubclavian vein, after having run a little 
 way in an oblique courfc between its coats. The fub- 
 clavian vein communicates with the vena cava, which 
 paHes to the right auricle of the heart. 
 
 The lower part of this dud being ufually larger than 
 
 any other part of it, Xw^ been mmcAreceptaculum chy- 
 
 li, or Pecguet's receptacle, in honour of the anatomift 
 
 who firft difcovered it in 1651. In fome quadrapeds, 
 
 • ITnr/ii>'tin turtle and in fi(h, this enlargement • is more conli- 
 
 £xf. Jnj. derable in proportion to the lize of the duel, than it 
 
 Part 11. 
 
 T O M Y. 743 
 
 ufually is in the human fubject, where it is not com- Of the 
 nionly found large enough to merit the name of rir- Abdo men.^ 
 ctptaculuTu. ^~~^ 
 
 Opportanitiesofobferving the laSealsin the human 
 fubjeddo not often occur ; but they may be eafily de- 
 monltrated in a dog or any other quadruped that is 
 killed two or three hours after feeding upon milk, 
 for then they appear filled with white chyle. 
 
 But thefe laBeali which we have defcribed, as paf- 
 fing from the inteftines through the mefcntery to the 
 thoracic dai\, compofe only a part of a fy ftem of vef- 
 fels which perform the office of a'jforption, and which 
 conllitute, with their common trunk the thoracic duiS, 
 and the conglobate glands that arc difpcrfed through 
 the body, what may be flyled the lymphatic fyjievi. So 
 that >shat is faid of the ftru(5ture of one of thefe feries 
 of veffels may very properly be applied to that of the 
 
 other. 
 
 109 
 
 The lymphatic veini (k) are minute pellucid tubes. Lymphatic 
 which, like the lafteals, direcl their courfe towards TclTeli. 
 the centre of the body, where they pour a colourlefs 
 fluid into the thoracic duel. The lymphatics from 
 all the lower parts of the body gradually unite as they 
 approach this duft, into which they enter by three or 
 four very large trunks, that feem to form the lower 
 ejctremity of this canal, or receptaculum chyli, which 
 may be confidered as the great trunk of the lymphatic 
 fyftem. The laflcals open into it near the fame place ; 
 and the lymphatics, from a large (hare of the upper 
 parts of the body, pour their lymph into different parts 
 of this duiS as it runs upwards, to terminate in the 
 left fubclavian vein. The lymphatics from the right 
 fide of the neck, thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate 
 in the right fubclavian vein. 
 
 As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the large 
 blood-velfels, a ligature palled round the crural artery 
 in a living animal, by including the lymphatics, will 
 occafion a diilenlion of thefe vclfels below the ligature, - 
 fo as to demonftrate them with eafe ; and a ligature 
 paflcd round the thoracic duel, inftantly after killing 
 an animal, will, by Hopping the courfe of its contents 
 
 into. 
 
 jury in all of them was at the inferior part, or great curvature. The coats of the ftomach fuffer lefs after death 1 
 than flclli, or part of the floraach of limilar animals put into it: The author aUignsasareafon for this, that thefe ■ 
 bodies are invetled on all tides by the gaftric Jluid, whereas it only aiSs on the internal furface of the llomach. 
 
 (i ) We are informed by Galen, that the laclcals had been feen in kids by trafiflratus, who conlidered them 
 as arteries carrying a milky fluid : but from the remote time in which he lived, they do not feem to have been 
 noticed till they were difcovercd in a li.ing dog by Afellius, who denominated them IjBcjIs, and conlidered. 
 them as fcrving to convey the chyle from the intellines to the liver ; for before the difcovcry of the thoracic 
 duel, the ufe of the liver was univerfally fuppofed to be that of converting the chyle into blood. But the dif- 
 covcry of the thoracic duA by Pecquet, not long after, correded this error. Pecquet very candidly confelfes, . 
 that this difcovcry accidentally arofc from his obferving a white tluid, mixed with the blood, ilowingout of the 
 vena cava, after he had cut offthe heart of a living dog ; which he fufpefled to be chyle, and afterwards traced 
 to its fource from the thoracic dud : This duft had been feen near an hundred years before in a horfe by. 
 Euflachius, who fpeaks of it as a vein oi a particular ftrudture, but without knowing any thing of iis termi- 
 nation or ufe. 
 
 (k) The arteries in their courfc through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules 
 of the blood, have then been flyled f J/ ///.(r^ or lymphatic artetics. The velTcls which are here defcribed as 
 conrtituting the lymphatic fyllem, were at firil fuppofed to be continued from thofc arteries, and to convey 
 back the lymph, either into the red veins or the thoracic dud ; the office o( abforption having been attributed ' 
 10 i\\c red veins. But We know that the lymphatic veins are not continuations of the /)w/Aj//f "/■/^r/*'/, but- 
 that they conftitute the abfurbrnt fyflem. There are ftill, however, fome very rcfpedable names among the 
 anatomifls of the prefent age, who contend, that the red veins ad likewife as abforbents : — but it feems to have, 
 been clearly proved, that the red veins do abforb no where but in the cavernous cells of the penis, thc.crcc-- 
 tion of which is occafioncd by a diQcnhon of thofc cells with arterial blood.
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 «w, 29". 
 
 into (lie iubclavian vein, dillciid not only the lafteals, 
 ■ but alfo the lyiii|)Iiatics in the abdomen and lower ex- 
 tremities, witli their natural fluids (l). 
 
 The coais of thefc vcirds are tix> thin to be fcpara- 
 ted from each other ; but the mercury ihey are capable 
 of fullaining, proves them to be very (Irong ; and their 
 great power of contraciioii, aft tir undergoing conlider- 
 able didcniion, together with the irritability with 
 • Sur U which Baron Haller found them to be endued,* fecms 
 mrvtKHitdaxo rcndcr it probable, that, like the blood- velFels, 
 fang. tx. (ijjy iiavg a mufcular coat. 
 
 The lymphatics are nourillied after the fame man- 
 ner as all the other parts of the body. For C7cn the 
 niofl minute of thefe vclTels are probably fupplied with 
 iHll more minute arteries and veins. This feems to 
 be proved by the intlammation of which they are fuf- 
 ceptible; and the painful fwellings wliich Ibmetimes 
 take place in lymphatic vellels, prove that they have 
 nerves as well as blood-vetfcls. • 
 
 Both the lafteals, lymphatics, and thoracic dud, 
 arc furnilhed with valves, which arc much more com- 
 mon in thefe velfels than in the red veins. Thefc 
 valves are ufually in pairs, and ferve to promote the 
 courfe of the chyle and lymph towards the thoracic 
 dud, and to prevent its return. Mention has been 
 ntadc of the glands, through which the ladleals pafs 
 in their courlc through the mefcntery ; and it is to be 
 obfcrved, that the lymphatics pafs through fimilar 
 glands in their way to the thoracic duft. Thefe glands 
 are all of a conglobate kind, but the changes which 
 the chyle and lymph undergo in their palTage through 
 them, have not yet been afccrtained. 
 
 The lymphatic Vijfi/s begin from furfaces and cavities 
 in all parts of the body as ahforbents. This is a fadl 
 now univerfally allowed ; but how the fluids they ab- 
 forb are poured into thofe cavities, is a fubjeft of con- 
 troverfy. The contents of the abdomen, for inflance, 
 were defcribed as being conftantly moidened by a very 
 thin watery fluid. The fame thing takes place in the 
 pericardium, pleura, and all the other cavities of the 
 body, and this watery fluid is the lyinph. But whe- 
 therit is exhaled into thofecavities through the minute 
 ends of arteries, or tranfuded through their coats, are 
 •the points in difpnte. We cannot here be permitted 
 to relate the many ingenious arguments that kavc been 
 advanced in favour of each of thefe opinions ; nor is it 
 perhaps of confequcnce to our prefent purpofe to enter 
 into the difpute. It will be fufficient if the reader can 
 form an idea of what the lymph is, and of the manner 
 in which it is abforbed. 
 
 The lymph, from its tranfparency and want of co- 
 lour, would feem to be nothing but water ; and hence 
 3 
 
 the firft difcoverers of thefe vellels ftilcd them du(\us Of the 
 aquoji : bat experiments ])rovc, that the lymph of an Abdomen. 
 
 healthy animal coagulates by being expofed to the air, ' " ' 
 
 or a certain degree of heat, and likewifc by being fuf- 
 fcred to rell ; Teeming to agree iti this property with 
 that part of the blood called the coaqtdabic lymph. — 
 This property of the lymph leads to aeterminc its ufe, 
 in moillcning and lubricating the fe veral cavities of the 
 body in %\ hich it is found ; and fur which, by its ge- 
 litinousprinciplc, it fccnis to bcmuch better calculated 
 than a pure and watery fluid would be, for fuch it has 
 been fuppofcd to be by fome anatomills. 
 
 The moutlis of the lymphatics and ladeah, by afting 
 aj capillary tubes, feem to abfoib the lymph and chyle 
 fomewhat in the fame manner as a capillary tube of 
 glafs, when put into a bafon of water, is enabled to 
 attract the water into it to a certain height ; but it is 
 I'robable that they likewifc poffefs a living power, 
 which alUlls in performing this office. In the human 
 body the lymph, or the chyle, is probably conveyed up- 
 on tliis principle as far as the firA pair of valves, 
 which feem to be placed not far from the orifice of the 
 abforbing velTel, whether lymphatic or IjHeal ; and the 
 fluid will then be propelled forwards, by a continuation 
 of the abforptioii at the orifice. But this docs not 
 feem to be the only inducement toitsprogrefs towards 
 the thoracic dud ; thefe vellels have probably a muf- 
 cular coat, which may ferve to prefs the fluid forwards 
 from one pair of valves to another ; and as the large 
 lymphatic veflels and the thoracic duct are placed clofe 
 to the large arteries, which have a conliderable pnlfa- 
 tion, it is reafonablc to fuppofc, that they derive fome 
 advantages from this lituation. 
 
 Sect. XV. Of the Centrat'ive Organs -, of Con- 
 aption, &c. 
 
 § I. The Mate Organs. 
 
 The male organs of generation have been ufually no, 
 divided into the parts which ferve to prepare the fc- 
 men from the blood, and thofe which are dirtcndcd to 
 convey it into the svomb. But it feems to be more 
 proper to diftinguilh them into the preparing, the con- 
 taiiiing, and the expelling pins, which are the diifer- 
 ent offices of the tejies, the zejicr/l.r/eminales, and the 
 penis ; and this is the order in which we propofe to 
 defcribe them. 
 
 The tefles arc two glandular bodies, ferving to fe- 
 crete the femen from the blood. They are originally 
 formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen ; 
 and it is not till aftei the child is born, or very near 
 that time, that they begin to pafs into the groin, and 
 from thence into the fcrotum (m). By this difpofition 
 
 they 
 
 (l) In thedeadbody they may beeafily demonftrated by opening the artery ramifying through any vifcus, 
 as in the fpleen, for inftance, and then throwing in air; by which the lymphatics will be diftended. One of 
 them may then be punftured, and mercury introduced into it through a blow-pipe. 
 
 (m) It fometimes happens in diifcding ruptures, that the inteftine is found in the fame fac, and in contad 
 wit!) the teftis. This appearance was at flrfl attributed to a fuppofcd laceration of the peritonaeum ; but later 
 obfervations, by pointing out the fituationof the teftidcs in the foetus, have led to prove, that the teflis, as it 
 defcends into the fcrotum, carries with it a portion or elongation of the peritonaiura, which becomes its tunica 
 vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the teflicle is lodged, as will be explained in the courfe of this fection. 
 The communication between this fac and the cavity of the abdomen, is ufually foon cut off; but in fome fub- 
 
 jeds
 
 Part III. 
 
 N 
 
 Of the they are very wifely protcftcd from the injuries to 
 Abdomen, which they Would l)c liable to be expofed, from the dif- 
 ■'" " fcrent politioiis of the child at the time of parturition. 
 
 The tefticles in this due are loofely attached to the 
 pfoas raufcles, by means of the peritonaeum by which 
 they are covered ; and they are at this time of life 
 conneifled in a very particular manner to the parietcs 
 of the abdomen, and likewife to the fcrotum, by means 
 of a fubftance which Mr Hunter calls the tigaT/unt or 
 gubeniaculum teflis, becaufc it connefls the telHs with 
 the fcrotum, and diretls its courfe in its defcent. This 
 gubernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with its bulbous 
 head fixed to the lower end of the teftis and epididy- 
 mis, and lofes its lower and (lender extremity in the 
 cellular membrane of the fcrotum. It is difficult to 
 afcertain what the ftruclure and compofition of this 
 gubernaculum is, but it is certainly vafcular and fi- 
 brous ; and, from certain circumftances, it would feem 
 to be in part compofed of the cremafler mufcle, run- 
 ning upwards to join the lower end of the teftis. 
 
 We are not to fuppofe that the tcllicle, when de- 
 fcended into the fcrotum, is to be feen loofe as a piece 
 uf gut or omentum would be in a common hernial fac. 
 We have already obferved, that during its relidence in 
 the cavity of the abdomen it is attached to the perito- 
 neum, which defcends with it; fo that when the fac 
 is completed in the fcrotum, the tefticle is at firft at- 
 tached only to the poflerior part of it, while the fore 
 part of it lies loofe, and for forac time affords a com- 
 munication with the abdomen. The fpermatic chord, 
 which is made up of the fpermatic artery and vein, 
 and of the vas deferens or excretory dufl of the teftis, 
 is clofely attached behind to the pofterior part of tliis 
 elongation of the peritoneum. But the fore part of 
 the peritoneal fac, which is at firft loofe and not at- 
 tached to the tefticlc, clofes after a certain time, and 
 becomes united to the pofterior part, and thus perfeftly 
 furrounds the tefticle as it were in a purfe. 
 
 The tefticles of the foetus differ only in their fizc 
 and fituation from thofe of the adult. In their pafTagc 
 from theabdomenthey defcend through the abdominal 
 rings into the fcrotum, where they are fupported and 
 defended by various integuments. 
 
 What the immediate caufe of this defcent is, has 
 not yet been fatisfaftorily determined. It has been 
 afcribed to the etfeft of refpiration, but the tefticles 
 have fometimes been found in the fcrotum before the 
 child has breathed ; and it does not feem to beoccafi- 
 oned by the action of the cremafter mufcle, becaufe 
 the fame cffeft would be liable to happen to the hedge- 
 hog, and fomcotherqnadrupeds,whofetefticlesremain 
 in the abdomen during life. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 r O M Y. 745 
 
 The fcrotum, which is the external or common co- Of the 
 veringof both tefticles, is a kind of fac formed by the Abdo men, 
 common integuments, and externally divided into two 
 equal parts by a prominent line called raphe. 
 
 In the inner part of the fcrotum we meet with a cel- 
 lular coat called </ar/5/ (n), which by its duplicature 
 divides the fcrotum into two equal parts, and forms 
 what is aWzA feptumfcroti, which correfponds with 
 the raphe. The collapfion which is fo often obferved 
 to take place in the fcrotum of the healthy fubjed, 
 when excited by cold or by the ftimulus of venery, 
 feems to be very properly attributed to the contractile 
 motion of the Ikin, and not to any mufcular fibres, as 
 is the cafe in dogs and fome other quadrupeds. ' 
 
 The fcrotum, then, by means of its feptum, is 
 found to make two diftind bags, in which the tefti- 
 cles, inveftcd by their proper tunics, are fccurely 
 lodged and feparated from each other. Thefe coats 
 arc the cremafter, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica 
 albuginea. The firft of thefe is compofed of mufcular 
 fibres, and is to be confidered only as a partial cover- 
 ing of the teftis ; for it furrounds only the fpermatic 
 chord, and terminates upon the upper and external 
 parts of the tunica vaginalis teftis, ferving to draw up 
 and fufpend the tefticle (o). The tunica vaginalis te- 
 ftis has already been defcribed as being a thin produc- 
 tion of the peritoneum, loofely adhering every where 
 to the tefticle, which i: includes as it were in a bag. 
 The tunica albuginea is a firm, white, and very com- 
 pad membraneof a gliftening appearance, which im- 
 mediately invefts the body of the teftis and the cpidi- 
 dymus ; ferving in fomc meafare to conned them to 
 each other, but without extending itfelf at all to the 
 fpermatic chord. This tunica albuginea ftrvcs to con- 
 fine the growth of the teftis and epididymus within 
 certain limits, and by giving them a due degree of 
 firmncfs, enables them to perform their proper func- 
 tions. 
 
 Having removed this laft tunic, we difcover the fub- 
 ftance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears to be made 
 up of an infinite number of very elaftic filaments, 
 which may be beft diftinguilhed after macerating the 
 tefticle in water. Each tefticlc is made up of the fper- 
 matic artery and vein, and the excretory velTclsor tu- 
 bull feminiferi. There are likewife a great number of 
 abforbent velfcls, and fome branches of nerves to be 
 met with in the tefticles. 
 
 The fpermatic arteries arifc one on each fide from 
 the aorta, generally about an inch below the cmul- 
 gents. The right fpermatic vein commonly palfes into 
 the vena cava ; but the left fpermatic vein uluallyr 
 empties itfelf into the eraulgent on that fide ; and it is 
 5 B fuppofed 
 
 jcds it continues open during life; and when an hernia or defcent of the inttftine takes place infuch a fubjcd' 
 it does not pufli down a portion of the peritoneum before it, as it muft otherwife neccffarily do, but palles at 
 once through this opening, and comes in contad with the naked tefticle, conftituting that particular fpecies 
 of rupture called hernia congenita. 
 
 (n) The dartos has ufually been confidered as a mufcle, and is defcribed as fuch both by Douglas and 
 Window. But there being no part of the fcrotum of the human fubjcd which can be faid to confift of mufcular 
 fibres, Albinusand Hallcr have very properly omitted to defcribe the dartos as a mufcle, and confider it merely 
 as a cellular coat. 
 
 (o) The cremafter mufcle is compofed of a few fibres from the obliquus internns abdominis, which uniting 
 with a few from the tranfverfalis, defcend upon the fpermatic chord, and arc infculibly loft upon the tunica 
 vaginalit of the tefticlc. It fcrvcs to fufpend and draw up the tefticle.
 
 746 ANA 
 
 Of the pofcd to take this courfc into the eniulgcnt, that it 
 Abdomen. ji,3y avoid paffing over the aorta, which it would be 
 ' obliged to do in its way to the vena cava. 
 
 The blood is circulated very llowly through the 
 fpcrmatic artery, which makes an infinite niiiiibcr of 
 circumvolutions in the fubflance of the tcflicle, where 
 it dcpofites the femen, which pallcs through the tubu- 
 li fcminilcri. Thefe tubuli feminifcri arc fcea running 
 in Iliort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis of 
 the telHclc ; and are divided intodiflinft portions by 
 certain thin membranous productions,which originate 
 from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and 
 by an infinite number of convolutions form a fort of 
 appendix tothetcflis called epidiJjm'is (r), which is 
 a vafcular body of an oblong fliape, lituate upon the 
 fuperior part of each tefticle. Thele tubuli of the 
 epididymis at length form an excretory duiit called vas 
 dc-fireiu, which al'cciuis towards the abdominal rings, 
 with the other parts that make up the fpcrm.itic chord, 
 and then a fcparaiion takes place ; ihe nerves and 
 blood velTels palFing on to their feveral terminations, 
 and the vas deferens going to depolit its fcmen in the 
 Teficulasfeminalcs, which are two foft bodies of a white 
 and convoluted appearance externally, (Ituated ob- 
 liijucly between the rectum and tlie lower part of tlie 
 bladder, and uniting together at the lower extremity.. 
 From thefe refervoirs (q.), which are plen-ifuliy fup- 
 plied with blood-velFcls and nerves, the fcmen is occa- 
 iionally difcharged through two Iliort pafl'ages, which 
 open into the urethra clofe to a little eminence called 
 ^eruviOKtaniDH, 
 
 Near this eminence we meet with the prollate. 
 
 T O M Y. 
 
 Part HI. 
 
 which is fituated at the neck of the bladder, and is Of the 
 dcfcrihed as being of ;i glandular ftruiiturc. It is Abdomen, 
 fliapcii Ibmcwhat like a heart with its fmall end fore- ' " ' 
 moll, and invelh the origin of the urethra. IntcrnaJly 
 it appears to be of a firm fubflance, and compofed of 
 f'cvtral follicles, ftcrciiug a whitilli vifcid fiuitl, that is 
 difcharged by ten or twelve excretory ducts into the 
 urethra, on each fide of the openings of the vclicalaE 
 fcminalcs at the fame time, and from the fame caufes 
 that tlic fcmen is expelled. As this latter fluid is 
 found to be exceedingly limpid in the veliculas fcmi- 
 nalcs of the dead fubjecl, it probably owes its white- 
 ncfs and vifcidity to this liquor of the proftaie. 
 
 The penis, which is to be confidcred as the vehicle 
 or aili ve organ of procreation, is compofed of two co- 
 lumns, the corpora cavernofa, and corpus fpongiofum. 
 The corpora cavcrnola, which conlhtute the grcatefl 
 part of the penis, may be defcribcd as two cylindrical 
 ligamentous tubes, each of which is compofed of an 
 infinite number of minute cells of a fpongy texture, 
 which communicate with each other. Thefe two bo- 
 dies are of a very pliant texture, and capable of conli- 
 derablc diflention ; and being united laterally to each 
 other, occafion by this union a fpace aboye and ano- 
 ther below. The uppcrmofl of thefe fpaccs is filled 
 by the blood veffcls, and the lower one, which is larger 
 than the other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongio- 
 fum. Thefe two cavernous bodies are at tirft ordy fe- 
 parated by a partition of tendinous fibres, which allow 
 them to communicate with each other ; but they after- 
 wards devaricate from each other like the branches of 
 the letter Y, and diminifhing gradually in fize, are at- 
 tached. 
 
 (p) The tcflicles were named didymi by the ancients, and the name of this part was given to it on account 
 •fits lituation upon the tcllicle. 
 
 ((^) That the bags called vcfiaiLt fcmliiales are refervoirs of femen, is a circumflance which has been by 
 anatouiifls univerfally believed. Mr J. Kunter, however, from feveral circumflances, has been induced to 
 think this opinion erroneous. 
 
 He has examined thefe veliculas in people who have died fuddenly, and he found their contents to be difFc- 
 Tcnt in their properties from the femen. In thofe who had loll one of the telliclcs, or the ufeof one of them, 
 by difcdfe, both the veftculas were full, and their contents limilar. And in a lufus 7:atur,t, where there was 
 no communication between the vafa deferentia and veliculse, nor between the veficulae and penis, the fame 
 ihing took place. 
 
 From thefe obfervations, he thinks we have a prefumptive proof, That the femen can be abforbed in the 
 body of the teflicle and in the epididymis, and tliat the veficulse fecrete a mucus which they are capable of 
 abforbing when it cannot be made ufe of: That the I'emen is not retained in refervoirs after it is fecreted, 
 and kept there till it is ufed ; but that it is fecreted at the time, in confequcnce of certain aficitions of the 
 jnind flinuilating the teflicles to this aiflion. 
 
 He corroborates his obfervations by the appearance on dilfeftion in other animals ; and here he finds. That 
 the (hape and contents of the veficul* vary much in different animals, while the femen in mofl of them he has 
 examined is nearly the fame : That the vafa deferentia in many animals do not communicate with the veliculae: 
 That the contents of the veficulas of caflrated and perfedl animals are (imilar, and nearly equal in quantity, 
 ■ in no way refembling the fcmen as emitted from the animal in coitu, or w hat is found in the vas deferens 
 after death. He obfcrves like wife, that the bulb of the urethraofperfed males is conliderably larger than In 
 caflrated animals. 
 
 From the whole, he thinks the following inferences may be fairly drawn : That the bags called veficulte 
 fimiiialcs are not feminal refervoirs, but glands fecreting a peculiar mucus ; and that the bulb of the urethra 
 is properly fpraking the receptacle of the fcmen, in which it is accumulated previous to ejciftion. 
 
 13ut although he has endeavoured to prove that the veliculx do not contain the femen, he has not beea 
 able to afcertain their particular ufc. He thinks, however, we may be allowed upon the whole to conclude, 
 that ihcyare, together with other parts, fubfervient to the purpofes of generation. 
 
 Altliough the author has treated tliis fubjecl very al.ly, and made nuny ingenious obfervations, fome things 
 may be objected to what he had advanced ; of which the following arc a few : That thofe animals who have 
 
 \vhicii
 
 Part III. 
 
 A 
 
 of the tacheJ, oneoii each fide, by means of the ligamcntum 
 AMomen. fiifpcnforium penis to the ramus ifchii, and to the in- 
 
 ^— — V ' ferior portion of the os pubis. 
 
 The corpus fpongiofuni penis, or corpus fpongiofum 
 urcthrx, as it is ftylcd by fomc authors, begins as fuon 
 as the urethra has palled the proftaie, with a thick 
 origin almoft like a heart, firft under the urethra, and 
 afterwards above it, becoming gradually thinner, and 
 furrounding the whole canal of the urethra, till it ter- 
 minates in a confidcrable expanlion, and coniHtutcs 
 what is calUd ihtglaiu penii, which is exceedingly 
 vafcular, and covered with papillx like the tongue. 
 The cuticle which lines the inner farface of the ure- 
 thra, is continued over the glans i:i the fame manner 
 ss it is fpread over the lips. 
 
 The penis is invcAed by the common integuments, 
 but the cutis is refiedled back every where from the 
 glans as it is in the eye-lids ; fo that it covers this part, 
 when the penis is in a relaxed ftatc, as it were with a 
 hood, and from this ufe is called /rf/^cc 
 
 The prepuce is tied down to the under part of the 
 glans by a fmall ligament czWcdfrxnum, which is in 
 fad only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis. 
 There are many fimple febaccous follicles called ^/^«- 
 dulic odcnfirx, placed round the bafis of the glans ; 
 and the fluid they fecretc ferves to prefcrve the exqui- 
 fite fenfibility of this part of the penis, and toprcvent 
 the ill effeds of attrition from the prepuce. 
 
 The urethra may be defined to be a membranous 
 cannl, palTing from the bladder tkrough the whole ex- 
 tent of the penis. Several very fmall openings, called 
 /«c«?/-F, communicate with this canal, through which 
 a mucus is difcharged into it ; and bclidcs thefe, there 
 arc two glands, firll defcribcd by Cowper, as fccrcting 
 a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and called Coiapir's 
 ^ jj, . ^glands (r) ; and Littrc* fpeaks of a gland fituated 
 Jtt/Utd." "'*'' ^^^ proftate, as bting deftincd for the fame ufe. 
 Royalt det The urethra being continued from the neck of the 
 Stitncti, bladder, is to be confidercd as making part of the uri- 
 170C. nary pafTage ; and it likewife affords a conveyance to 
 
 the femen, which we haveobfervedis occafionally dif- 
 charged into it from the veficulas feminales. The di- 
 redion of this canal being fir/l under and then before 
 the pubis, occafions a winding in its courfe from the 
 bladder to the penis not unlike the turns of the let- 
 ler5. 
 
 The penis has three pair of mufcles, the eredores, 
 acceleratorcs,and tranfverfales. They pulli the blood 
 from the crura to the fore part of the corpora cavcr- 
 nofa. The lirfl originate from the tubcrolity of the 
 
 ' O M Y. 747 
 
 ifchium, and terminate in the corpora cavcrnofa. Of the 
 The accelcratores arifc from the fphindcr, and by Abdomca. 
 their infcnion ferve to comprcfs the bulbous patt of ——y—^ 
 the urethra ; and the tranfverfales are dellined to af- 
 ford a palTage to the femen, by dilating the canal of 
 the urethra. 
 
 The arteries of the penis arc chiefly derived front 
 the internal iliacs. Some of them are fuppofed to ter- 
 minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora cavcr- 
 nofa and corpus fpongiofum ; and others terminate ia 
 veins, which at lafl make up the vena magna dorfi pe- 
 nis, and other fmallcr veins, which are in general di- 
 ilributed in like order with the arteries. 
 
 Its nerves are large and numerous. They arife from 
 the great fciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in 
 their courfe through the penis. 
 
 We have now defcribcd the anatomy of this organ ; 
 and there only remains to be explained, how it is ena- 
 bled to attain that degree of firmnefs and diflcnfioa 
 which is effential to the great work of generation. 
 
 The greateft part of the penis has been fpoken of 
 as being of a fpongy and cellular texture, plentifully 
 fuppliedwith blood-velfels and nerves, and as having 
 mufcles to move it in different dircdions. Now, the 
 blood is conftantly palling into its cells through the 
 fmall branches of the arteries which open into them^ 
 and is from thence asconftantly returned by the veins, 
 fo long as the corpora cavcrnofa and corpus fpongio- 
 fum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant ftate. But 
 when, from any nervous influence, or other means, 
 which it is not necelTary here to define or explain, the 
 eredores penis, ejaculatores feminis, levaiores ani, &c. 
 are induced to contrad, the veins undergo a certain 
 degree of comprelfion, and the palfage of the blood 
 through them is fo much impeded, that it coUeds in 
 them in a greater proportion than they are enabled t« 
 carry olF, fo that the penis gradually enlarges ; and 
 being more and more forcibly drawn up againfl theos 
 pubis, the vena magna itfelf is at length comprclfed, 
 and the penis becomes fully diflcnded. But as the 
 caufcs which firft occafioncd this diflcntion fublide, 
 the penis gradually returns to its ftate of relaxation. 
 
 § 7. Female Organs of Ceneratioti. 
 
 Anatomical writers ufually divide the female or- m, 
 gans of generation into external and internal. In the 
 firfl divilion they include the tnons vcmris, labia puden- 
 di, pcrin.tum,cUt'jris,nymphtif and carunciilx tnyrtifor- 
 nies ; and in the latter, the vagina with the uterus and 
 its appendages. 
 
 J B 2 The 
 
 bags called veficulx feminales perform copulation quickly ; whereas others that want them, as inthe dog kind, 
 are tedious in copulation : That in the human body, at lead, there is a free communication between the vafa 
 deferentiaand vcliculx ; and in animals where the author has obfcrved no communication between the vafa 
 dcfercntia and vcliculae, there may be acommunicaiion by veifcls not yet difcovered, and which may be com- 
 pared to the hcpato-cyftic duds in fowls and filhcs : That the fluid in the end of the vafa defereniia and the 
 veliculae feminales are fimilar, according to the author's own obfervation : That the veficulae in fome animals 
 incrcafe and decreafe with the tefticlc at particular feafons : That in birds and certain fifties, there is a dila- 
 tation of the ends of the vafa defereniia, which the author himfclf allows to be a refcrvoir for [he femen. 
 
 With refped to the circuni fiance of the bulb of the urethra anfwcring the purpofc of a refervoir, the au- 
 thor has mentioned no fads which tend to cflablilh this opinion. See obfervatioiis on certain Farts oj the A- 
 nimal Oeconoviy. 
 
 (r) Both Hciller and Morgagni obfervc, that they kave fometimes not been able to find thefe glands ; fo 
 tbat they do not fecm to cxifl in all fubjeds.
 
 748 ANA! 
 
 of the The mons venerh, which is placed on the upper pare 
 Alidumen. of the fympTiyfis pubis, is internally compofed of adi- 
 ^-—^^—^ pgfc membranes, which makes it loft and prominent : 
 it divides into two parts called /rt^;<»^//(3'c'//(/;, which de- 
 fcending towards the rcitum, from which they arc 
 divided by the pcrinaeum, form what is called the 
 foiirchettc. The pcrinaeum is that Helliy fpace which 
 extends about an inch and an half from the fourchet- 
 tc to the anus, and from thence about two inches to 
 the coccyx. 
 
 The labia pudcndi being feparatcd, we obfervc a fiil- 
 cus caWtiJoifa t?:agiia ,- in ihe upper part of which is 
 placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy body, in fome 
 meafurc refembling the male penis, but impervious, 
 compofed of two corpora cavernofa, arifmg from the 
 tuberoiities of the olla ifchii ; funiilhed with two pair 
 of mufcles, the crciSlorcs clitoridis, and tliefpliinfter 
 or conftrittor oilii vaginae ; and terminating in a glans, 
 which is covered with its prepuce. From the lower 
 part, on each fide of tlie folFa, pafs the nympho;, two 
 membranous and fpongy folds which feem dcltined for 
 ul'eful purpofes in parturition, by tending to enlarge 
 the volume of the vagina as the child's head pall'es 
 through it. Between thcfc, about the middle of the 
 folia magna, we perceive the orilice of the vagina or os 
 externum, clofcd by folds and wrinkles ; and about 
 half an inch above this, and about an inch below the 
 clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or orifice of the 
 urethra, much fliortcr, though fomewhat larger, than 
 in men, with a little prominence at its lower edge, 
 which facilitates the introdudion of the catheter. 
 
 The OS extcrnam is fiirroundcd internally by fcveral 
 membranous folds called cariuicutj: myrt'iformes , which 
 are partly the remainsofa thin membrane called^)' '«'•'■'> 
 that covers the vagina in children. In general the hy- 
 men is fufficiently open to admit the palfage of the 
 mcnfes, if it exills at the time of their appearance ; 
 fometimes, however, it has been found perfectly cIj- 
 fed. 
 
 The vagina, fituated between the urethra and the 
 reftum, is a incmbranous cavity, furrouudcd efpeci.illy 
 at its external extremity W'ith a fpongy and vafcular 
 fubflancc, which is covered by tlie fphindlor oftii va- 
 ginae. It terminates in the uterus, about half an inch 
 above the os tincx, and is wider and fliorter in women 
 who have had children than in virgins. 
 
 All ihcfe pans are plentifully fupplicd with blood- 
 vell'cls and nerves. Around the nymph;^; there are 
 febaceous follicles, which pour out a fluid to lubricate 
 the inner furface of the vagina ; and the meatus urina- 
 rius, like the urethra in the male fubjcft, is conllantly 
 nioirtcncd by a mucus, which defends it againfl the 
 acrimony of the urine. 
 
 The utenii is a hollow vifcus, fituated in the hy- 
 pograftric region, between the reftum and bladder. It 
 is deflincd to receive the firft rudiments of the foetus, 
 and to afiid in the devtlopemcni of all its parts, till it 
 arrives at a flate of perfedion, and is fitted to enter 
 into the world, at the time appointed by the wife Au- 
 thor of nature. 
 
 The ntcrus, in its unimpregnated Haie, refemblcs a 
 pearin lliape, foniewlut iialtcned, with its fundus or 
 bottom part turned towards the abdomen, and its cer- 
 vix or neck furrouudcd by the vagina. The entrance 
 into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part III 
 
 been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is there- Of the 
 fore called os tinat. Abdomen- 
 
 The fubftanccof the uterus, which is of a confider- *~~~ ' 
 able thicknels, appears to be compofed of nuifcular and 
 fmall ligamentous libres,fmall branches of nerves, fome 
 lymphatics, and with arteries and veins innumerable. 
 Its ncrvesare chiefly derived from the inicrcoflal, and 
 itsartcrics and veins from the hypogallric and fperma- 
 tic. The membrane which lines iis cervix, is a conti- 
 nuation of the inner membrane of the vagina; but the 
 outer furface of tlic body of the uterus is covered with 
 the peri tonnium, which isreflededovcrit,anddcfcends 
 from thence to the inteflinum rcvihim. Thisduplica- 
 ture of iheperitoiiiKuin, by palling ofl' from the fides of 
 the uterus to the fides of the pelvis, is there firmly con- 
 nefled, and forms what are called ligamotta uteri la- 
 ta ; which not only ferve to fupport the uterus, but to 
 convey nerves and blood-veffels to it. 
 
 The ligavicnta uteri rotutida arife from the fides of 
 the fundusutcri, and palFrng along within the fore-part 
 of the ligamenta lata, defcend through the abdominal 
 rings, and terminate in the fubflance of the mons ve- 
 neris. The fubflancc of thefe ligaments is vafcular, 
 and although both they and the ligamenta lata admit 
 the uterus in the virgin flate, to move only about an 
 inch up and down, yet in the courfe of pregnancy they 
 admit of conliderable diflenfion, and after parturition 
 return nearly to their original flate with furpriling 
 quickncfs. 
 
 On each fide of the inner furface of the uterus, in 
 the angle near the fundus, a fmall orifice is to be dif- 
 covercd,whichis the beginning of one of the tubas fal- 
 lopianx. Each of thefe tubes, which are two in num- 
 ber, palfing through the fubftance of the uterus, is ex- 
 tended along the broad ligaments, till it reaches the 
 edge of the pelvis, from whence it reflefts back ; and 
 turning over behind the ligaments,about an inch of its 
 extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis, near the 
 ovarium. Thefe extremities, havinga jagged appear- 
 ance, arc c^WcA finibri.c, or morj'ui diaboli. Each tuba 
 Fallopiaiia is ufually about tjiree or four inches long. 
 Their cavities are at firfl very fmall, but become gra- 
 dually larger, like a trumpet, as they approach the 
 fimbrix. 
 
 Near the fimbiix of each tuba Fallopiana, about 
 an inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval body 
 called ovarium, of about half the fize of the male tef- 
 ticlc. Each of thefe ovaria is covered by a produftion 
 of the peritona:um,and hangs loofe in the pelvis. They 
 are of a flat and angular form, and appear to be com- 
 pofed of a white and cellular fubftance, in which we 
 arc able to difcovcr fcveral minute vcficles filled with a 
 coagulable lymph, of an uncertain number, commonly 
 exceeding tain each ovary. In the female of riper years, 
 thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid, and a kindof 
 yellow coagulum is gradually formed within one of 
 them, which increafes for a certain lime. In concep- 
 tion, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofcd to be impreg- 
 nated with the male femcn, and to be fqueezed out of 
 its nidus into the Fallopian tube ; after which the rup- 
 tured part forms a fubflancc which in fome animals is 
 of a yellow colour, and is therefore called corpus lu- 
 tfum ; and it isobferveable, that the number of thefe 
 fears or fillures in the ovarium, conllantly eorrcfponds 
 with the number of foctufes excluded by the mother.
 
 Part III. 
 
 A N 
 
 Of the 
 Abdomen. 
 
 5 3. Of Conception. 
 
 Man, being ever curious and inquifitive, has natu- 
 rally been led to enquire alter the origin of his exift- 
 cnce ; and the fubjcdl; of generation has employed the 
 philofophical world in all ages: but in following na- 
 ture up to her niinuic recellcs, ihc philoloplicr I'uon 
 finds himfelf bewildered, and his imagination often 
 fupplics that which he fo eagerly wiflies to difcover^ 
 but which is deftiued perhaps never to be revealed to 
 him. Of the many theories which have been formed 
 on this fubjcft, that of the ancient philofophcrs fccms 
 to have been the niofl fnnple : they confidercdthc male 
 femen as alone capable of forming the fcctus, and be- 
 lieved that the female only afforded it a lodgingin the 
 womb, and fupplicd it with nourilhment after it was 
 pcrfeftly formed. This opinion, however, foon gave 
 place to another, in which the female was allowed a 
 more conliderable fliare in conception. 
 
 This fccond fyflem conlidered the fcetus as being 
 formed by the mixture of the fcminal liquor of both 
 fexcs, by a certain arrangement of its fevcral particles 
 in the uterus. But in the i6th century, veliclcs or 
 eggs were difcovered in theovariaor female tefliclcs; 
 the foetus had been found fometimes in the abdomen, 
 Kni. fometimes in the Fallopian tubes ; and the two 
 former opinions were exploded in favour of a new doc- 
 trine. The ovaria were compared toa bunch of grapes, 
 being fuppofed toconfift of veliclcs, each of which had 
 a flalk ; fo that it might be difengaged without hurting 
 the reft, or fpilling the liquor it contained. Each vc- 
 ficle was faid to include a little animal, almoft com- 
 plete in all its parts; and the vapour of the male femen 
 being conveyed to the ovarium, was fuppofed to pro- 
 duce a fermentation in the veficle, which approached 
 the nearcft to maturity ; and thus inducing it to difen- 
 gage itfelf from the ovarium, it palled into the tuba 
 Fallopiana, thro' which it was conveyed to the uterus. 
 Here it was fuppofed to take root like a vegetable 
 feed, and to form, with the velFcls originating from 
 the uterus, what is called the pluvciita; by means of 
 which the circulatiom is carried on between the mo- 
 ther and the fretus. 
 
 This opinion, with all its abfurdities, continued to 
 be almofl univcrfally adopted till the clofc of the fame 
 century, when Licwenhoeck, by means of his ghllcs 
 difcovered cert:iin opakc particles, which he dcfcrib- 
 cd as fo many animalcula, floating in the fcminal fluid 
 of the male. 
 
 This difcovery introduced a new fchifm among the 
 philofophers of that time, and gave rife to a fyflem 
 which is not yet entirely exploded. According to 
 this theory the male femen paffiug into the tub* Kal- 
 lopianas, one of the animalcula penetrates into the fub- 
 ftancc of the ovarium, and enters intooneof its veliclcs 
 or ova. This impregnatcdovum is then fqueczed from 
 its hufk, through the coats of the ovarium, and beinu; 
 feized by the finibrix, is conducted through the tube 
 
 r O M Y. 749 
 
 to the uterus, where it is nourilhcd till it arrives at a Of the 
 ftatc of perfe(flion. In this fy ftem there is much inge- Abdomea.^ 
 nuity ; but there are certain circumflanccs fuppofed to " " 
 take place, which have been hitherto inexplicable. A 
 celebrated tnodern writer, M. BufFon, endeavours to 
 reftore, in fome meafure, the mofl ancient opinion, by 
 allowing the female femen afhare in thisoffice ; alTert- 
 ing, that animalcula or organic partid' s arc to be dif- 
 covered in the fcminal liquor of both fexes: he derives 
 the female femen from the ovaria, and he contends that 
 no ovum exifls in thofe parts. But in this idea he is 
 evidently miflaken ; and the opinion now moft gene- 
 rally adopted is, thatan impregnation of the ovum, by 
 the influence of the male femen, is cirential to concep- 
 tion (s). That the ovum is to be impregnated, there 
 can be no doubt ; but as the manner in which fiich an 
 impregnation is fuppofed to take place, and the means 
 by which the ovum afterwards gets into the Fallopi- 
 an tube, and from thence into the uterus, are flill found- 
 ed chiefly on hypothclis, we w'ill not attempt to ex- 
 tend fartjier the invclligaiion of a fnbjccl concerning 
 which fo little can be advanced with certainty. 
 
 \ 4. Of the Fxtus in Utero. 
 
 Opportunities of difledling the human gravid "■*• 
 uterus occurring but fcldom, the ftate of the embryo 
 (t) immediately after conception cannot be perfeftly 
 known. 
 
 When the ovum dcfcends into the uterus, it is fup- 
 pofed to be very minute ; and it is not till a confider- 
 able time after conception that the rudiments of the 
 embryo begin to be afcertaiued. 
 
 About the third or fourth week the eye may difco- 
 ver the firll lineaments of the foetus ; but thefe linea- 
 ments are as yet very impcrfcift, it being only abour 
 the lize of a houfe-fly. Two little veficles appear m 
 an almofl tranfparent jelly ; the largefl of which is dc- 
 ftined to become the head of the firtus, and the other 
 fmaller one is refcrvcd for the trunk. But at this pe- 
 riod no extremities are to be feen ; the umbilical cord 
 appears only as a very minute thread, and the placenta 
 does not as yet abforb the red particles of the blood. 
 At lix weeks, not only the head but the feature!, of the 
 face begin to be developed. The nofe appears like a 
 a fmall prominent line, and wc are able to difcover ano- 
 ther line under it, which is deftined for the feparaiion 
 of the lips. Two black points appear in the phce of 
 eyes, and two minute holes mark the cars. At the 
 fides of the trunk, both above and below, wc fee four 
 minute protuberances, which arc the rudiments of the 
 arms and legs. At the end of eight weeks the body 
 of the foetus is upwards of an inch in length, and both 
 the hands and feet are to be diflinguilhed. The up- 
 per extremities are found to incrcafe faftcr than the 
 lower ones, and the feparation of the fingers is accom- 
 pliflied fooner than that of the toes. 
 
 At this period the human form may be dccifively 
 afcertained; all the parts of the face may be diflin- 
 guilhed 
 
 (s) The learned Abbe Spallanzani has thrown much lighton this curious fubjeifl, and has proved by a variety 
 of experiments that the animalcule exifts entire in the female ovum, and that the male feed is only nccelfary to 
 vivify and put it in motion. His experiments and obfervations are worthy the attentive pcrufal of every pbyfio- 
 logill. 
 
 (t) The rudiments of the child are ufually diftinguilhcd by this name till the human figure c»n be diftincl" 
 ly afcertained, and then it has the appellation o( fatiu.
 
 750 
 
 <v tl e 
 Abdomen 
 
 ANA*: 
 
 guilTicd, the f.mpc of the body is clearly marked out, 
 • tlie haunches and the abdomen arc elevated, the fingers 
 ' and toes arc feparated from each other, and the inter- 
 lines appear like minute threads. 
 
 At the end of the third month, the foetus mcafiires 
 about three inches ; at the end of the fourth month, 
 five inches ; in the fifth month, fix or fevcn inches ; in 
 the fixth month, eight or nine inches ; in the feventb 
 month, eleven or twelve inches ; in the eighth month, 
 fourteen or fifteen inches ; and at the end of the ninth 
 month, or full time, front eighteen to twenty-two 
 inches. But as we have not an opportunity of exa- 
 mining the fame focrus at different periods of pregnan- 
 <y, and as their lize and length may be influenced by 
 the conflitution and modeol'litcof the motlier, calcu- 
 lations of this kind mull be very uncertain. 
 
 The fcetus during all tliis time allunies an oval fi- 
 gure, which correfj'onds with the fliape of the uterus. 
 Its chin is found reclining on its breaft with its knees 
 drawn up towards its chin, and its arms folded over 
 them. But it fecras likely, that the pofture of fome 
 of thefe parts is varied in the latter months of preg- 
 nancy, fo as to cavife thofe painful twitches which its 
 mother ufually feels from time to time. In natural 
 cafes, its head is probably placed towards the os tincae 
 from the time of conception to that of iis birth ; 
 though formerly it was confidered as- being placed 
 towards the fundis uteri till about the eighth or ninth 
 month, when the head, by becoming fpccifically hea- 
 vier than the other parts of the body, was fuppofed 
 to be turned downwards. 
 
 The capacity of the uterus increafes in proportion 
 to the growth of the foetus, but without becoming 
 thinner in itsfubftance, as might naturally be expeded. 
 The nourifliment of the foetus, during all this time, 
 feems to be derived from the placenta, which appears 
 to be originally formed by tiiat part of the ovum which 
 is next the fundus uteri. The remaining part of the 
 ovum is covered by a membrane cMedJfougy chori- 
 on {v) ; within which is another called true chorion, 
 uhich includes a third termed amnios (v) : this con- 
 tains a watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii (w), in 
 which the foetus floats till the time of its birth. On 
 the fide next the foetus, the placenta is covered by the 
 amnios and true chorion ; on the lide next the mother 
 it has a produdlion continued from the fpongy chori- 
 on. The amnios and chorion arc remarkably thin and 
 
 M Y. 
 
 Part II r. 
 
 tranfparent,having no blood-vcfTcIsenteringinto their of the 
 comjioiition.The fpongy chorion is opake and vafcular. Abdomen. 
 
 Jn the firft months ofprcgnancy,theinvolucra bear a ' " ' 
 
 largcproportionto their contents; but this proportion 
 is afterwards reverfcd, as the foetus incrcal^cs in bulk. 
 
 The placenta, whicli is the medium through which 
 the bloud is conveyc d from the mother to the foetus, 
 and the manner iii which this conveyance takes place, 
 dcferve next to be confidered. 
 
 The placenta is a broad, flat, and fpongy fubfbance, 
 like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner furface of 
 the womb, ufually near the fundus, and appearing to 
 be chiefly made up of ihe ramifications of the umbili- 
 cal arteries and vein, and partly of the extremities of 
 tlic uterine vends. The arteries of the uterus difchargc 
 their contents into the fubflance of this cake ; and the 
 veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either by a 
 direft communication of vctrels, or by abforption, at 
 length form the umbilical vein, which pail'es on to the 
 linus of the vena porta, and from thence to the vena 
 cava, by means of the canalis venofus, a communica- 
 tion that isclofedin the adult. But the circulation of 
 the blood through the heart is not conduced in the 
 foetus as in the adult : in the latter, the blood is carried 
 from the right auricle of the heart through the pulmo- 
 nary artery, and is returned to the left auricle by the 
 pulmonary vein ; but a dilatation of the lungs is efTen- 
 tial to the paflagc of the blood through the pulmonary 
 vcUels, and this dilatation cannot take place till after 
 the child is born and has refpired. This deficiency, 
 however, is fupplied in the foetus by the immediate 
 communication between the rin;ht and left auricle, 
 through an oval opening, in the feptum which divides 
 the two auricles, ciWtA foramen ovale. The blsod is 
 likewifc tranfmitted from the pulmonary artery to th» 
 aorta, by means of a duA called canalis arteriofus, 
 which, like the canalis venofus, and foramen ovalse, 
 gradually clofes after birth. 
 
 The blood is returned again from the foetus through 
 two arteries called the umbilical arteries, which arife 
 from the iliacs. Thefe two vefTels taking a winding 
 courfc with the vein, form with that, and the mem- 
 branes by which they arc furrounded, what is called 
 the umbilical chor^. Thefe arteries, after ramifying 
 through the fubflance of theplacenta, difchargc their 
 blood into the veins of the uterus ; in the fame manner 
 as the uterine arteries difchargcd their blood into the 
 
 branches 
 
 (u) Dr Hunter has defcribed this as a lamella from the inner furface of the uterus. In the latter months 
 of pregnancy it becomes gradually thinner and more connected with tlie chorion : he has named it mcmbrana 
 fad-.ica, or diciil.ia, as it iscafl off' with the placenta. Signior Scarpa, with more probability, conliders it as 
 being compofed of an infpilfated coagulable lymph. 
 
 (v) In fome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus, 
 to the allantnis, which is a refervoir, rtfcivibling along and blind gut, fituatcd btiween the chorion and am- 
 nios. The human foetus feems to have no fuch refervoir, though fome writers have fuppofed that it does ex- 
 llt. From the top of the bladder a few longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical chord ; and thefe fi- 
 bres have been confidered as the urachus, though without having been ever found pervious. 
 
 (w') The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been fuppofed to pafs into the oefophagus, and to 
 afford nourifliment to the foetus -, but this does not feeni probable. Children have come into the world with- 
 •ut an oefophagus, or any communication between the Ifomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well at 
 tefled inflance of a child's having been born without a placenta ; and it dees not feem likely, that any of the 
 fluid can be abforbed through the pores of the Ikin, the fkiu in the foetus being cvcrj where covered with a 
 great quantity of mucus.
 
 Part III. 
 
 A N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Abdomen, conftantly palling in ac one lide of the pi 
 
 ' out a: the other ; but iu what particular maimer it 
 
 75' 
 
 branches of the umbilical vein. So that the blood is gets through, the placenta is a point iiot yet deter- Oftlie 
 conftantly palling in at one lide of the placenta and mined. AWomei 
 
 EXPLANATION ok PLATES XXV. XXVL and XXVII. 
 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 Fic. I. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and Ab- 
 domen in litu. 
 I. Top of the trachea, or wind-pipe. 2 %, The in- 
 ternaljiigularvcins. 33, The fiibclaviaa veins. 4, Th« 
 vena cava dcfccndens. 5, The right auricle of the 
 heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Part of the left 
 ventricle. 8, Theaorta defcendens. 9, The pulmo- 
 nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is 
 cut ofFtofhow the great blood vcU'els. 11, The left 
 lung entire. 12 12, The anterior edge of the dia- 
 phragm. 13 13, The two grcai lobes of the liver. 
 1 4, The ligamenium rotunduni . i j, The gall-bladder. 
 16, The ftomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium. 
 18, The fpleen. 
 
 Fig. 2. Shows the Organs fubfervient to the Chy- 
 lopoietic Vifccra, — with thofe of Urine and Ge- 
 neration. 
 
 I I, The under fide of the two great lobes of the 
 liver, a, Lobulus Spigclii. 2, The ligamentum ro- 
 tundum. 3, The gallbladder. 4. The pancreas. 
 5, The fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta 
 dcfccndens. 8, Vena cava afcendcns. 9 9, The renal 
 veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the 
 fpermatic veffcls and a bit of the inferior mefcnte- 
 ric artery, and over the ureters. 1 1 1 1, The ureters. 
 12 12, The iliac arteries and \cins. 13, The redum 
 inicftinum. 14, The bladder of urine. 
 
 Fig. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Vifcera, and Or- 
 gans fubfervient to them, taken out of the Body en- 
 tire. 
 
 A A, The under fide of the two great lobes of the 
 liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall- 
 bladder. D, l3u(Sus cyfiicus. E, Dudiis hepaticus. 
 F, Dudus communis cholcdochus. G, Vena porta- 
 rum. H, Artcria hepatica. I I, The flomach. 
 K K, Venae & arteri;r gallro-cpiploicae, dcxtrae & 
 finiftras. L L, Venas & arterias coronariae veutriculi. 
 M, The fpleen. N N, Mefocolon, with its vellcls. 
 000, Inteflinum colon. P, One of the ligaments 
 of the colon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcu- 
 lar fibres. ()^Q^Q^Q^, Jejunam and ilium. R R, Sig- 
 moid flexure of the colon with the hgainent continued, 
 and over S, The rccluin ijiteftinum. TT, Levators 
 ani. U, Sphinder ani. V, The place to which the 
 profiate gland is connefled. W, The anus. 
 
 Fig. 4. Shows the Heart of a Foetus at the full 
 time, with the Right Auricle cut open to fuow 
 the Foramen Ovale, or pallage between both Au- 
 ricles. 
 
 a. The right ventricle, b, The left ventricle. 
 c c, The outer fide of the right auricle ftretchcd out. 
 d d, Tlie poftcrior lide, which forms the anterior fide 
 of the fcptum. c,The foramen ovale, wiih the mem- 
 brane or valve which covers ihcleft lide. f, Vcua ca- 
 
 I 
 
 va inferior palling through g, A portion of the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 Fig. J. Shows the Heart and Large Veffels of a Foe- 
 tus at the full lime. 
 
 a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A 
 part of the right auricle, d. Left auricle, e e, The 
 right branch of the pulmonary artery, f, Arteria 
 pulmonalis. g g. The left branch of the pulmonary 
 artery, with a number of its largell branches diilcd- 
 cd from the lungs, h, The canalis artcriofus. i. The 
 arch of the aorta, k k. The aorta dcfccndens. 1, The 
 left fubclavian artery, m. The left carioid artery, 
 n, The right carotid artery, o, The right fubclavian 
 artery, p, The origin of the right carotid and right 
 fubclavian arteries in one common trunk, q, The ve- 
 na cava fupcrior or dcfccndens. r. The right com- 
 mon fubclavian vein, s. The left common fubclavian 
 vein. 
 
 N. B. All the parts defcribed in this figure are to 
 be found in the adult, except the canalis artcriofus. 
 
 Plate XXVL 
 
 Fig. I. Exhibits the more fuperficial Lymphatic Vcf- 
 fels of the Losver Extremity. 
 A, The fpine of the os ilium. B, The os pubis. 
 C, The iliac artery. Jj, The knee. E, E, F, Branches 
 of ihe crural artery. G, The mufculus gaftrocncmius. 
 H, The tibia. I, The tendon of the mufculus tibia- 
 lis anticus. On the outlines, a, A lymphatic veffel 
 belonging to the top of the foot, b. Its firft divifioa 
 into branches, c, c, c. Other divifions of the fame 
 lymphatic veffel. d, A fmali lymphatic gland. e,Thc 
 lymphatic velTcls which lie between the ikin and the 
 raufcles of the thigh, {f. Two lymphatic glands ac 
 the the upper part of the thigh below the groin, g g. 
 Other glands, h, A lymphatic veffel which paffes by 
 the fide of thofc glands without communicating with 
 tlicm ; and, bending towards the infide of the groin ac 
 [i], opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 1 1, Lym- 
 phatic glands in the groin, which are common to the 
 lymphatic veffcls of the genitals and thofe of the low- 
 er extremity, m, n, A plexus of lymphatic veffcls 
 paffing on the infide of the iliac artery. 
 
 Fig. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Extremity, 
 differed foas to fhuw the dceper-fcatcd Lymphatic 
 Veffels which accompany the Arteries. 
 
 A, the OS pubis. B. The tuberofiiy of the if- 
 chium. C, That part of the os ilium v.hich was ar- 
 ticulated with the OS facrura. D, The extremity of 
 the iliac artery appearing above the groin. K, The 
 knee. F F, The two cut furfaces of the triceps 
 mufclc, which was divided to fliow the lymphatic vef- 
 fcls that pafs through its perforation along with the 
 crural artery. G, The edge of the mufculus gracilis. 
 H, The gaftrocncmius and foleus, much Ihrunk by 
 being dricdj and by the foleus being fcparaieJ from 
 
 tLc
 
 752 A N A T 
 
 Of the the tibia to expofc the vends. I, The heel. K, The 
 Alidomcn. foig of the foot. L, The fupcrficial lymphatic vcflcls 
 ' " ' palling over the knee, to get to the thigh. On the 
 out-lines ; M, The poilcrior tibial artery, a, A lym- 
 phatic vctTel accompanying the poflerior tibial artery, 
 b, The fame vcfTel crolling the artery, c, A fmall lym- 
 phatic gland, thro' which this decp-feated lymphatic 
 vellcl pafl'es. d. The lymphatic vcirel pafling under a 
 fmall part of the foleus, which is left attached to the 
 bone, the reft being removed, c. The lymphatic vef- 
 fel crolling the popliteal artery, f, g, h, Lymphatic 
 glands in the ham, through which the lymphatic vef- 
 lel paflcs. i, The lymphatic velTel paifing with the 
 crural artery, through the perforation of the triceps 
 nuifcle. k. The lymphatic veflcl, after it has paiTed 
 the perforation of the triceps, dividing into branches 
 which embrace the artery (1). m, A lymphatic gland 
 belonging to the decp-feated lymphatic veHcl. At this 
 place thofe velVcls pafs to the fore part of the groin, 
 where they communicate with the fupcrficial lympha- 
 tic vcflels. n, A part of the fupcrficial lymphatic vef- 
 fel appearing on the brim of the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human Subjcft, 
 prepared to fliow the Lymphatic VelTels and the 
 Dudus Thoraeicus. 
 
 A, The neck. B B, The two jugular veins. 
 C, The vena cava fupcrior. D D D D, The fub- 
 clavian veins. E, The beginning of the aorta, pulled 
 to the left fide by means of a ligature, in order to 
 Ihow the thoracic d\.\i\ behind it. F, The branches 
 ariling from the curvature of the aorta. G G, The 
 two carotid arteries. H H, The firft ribs, 1 1, The 
 trachea. K K, The fpine. L L, the vena azygos 
 M M, The defccnding aorta. N, The coeliac artery, 
 dividing into three branches. O, Thefuperior mefen- 
 teric artery. P, The right crus diaphragmatis. 
 Q_Q_, The two kidneys. R, The right emulgent ar- 
 tery. S S, The external iliac arteries, g d, The 
 mufculi pfoaj. T, The internal iliac artery. U, The 
 cavity of the pelvis. X X, The fpine of tlie os ilium. 
 Y Y, The groins, a, A lymphatic gland in the 
 groin, into w hich lymphatic velli:ls from the lower ex- 
 tremity are fecn to enter, i />, The lymphatic veflels 
 of the lower extremities palTing under Poupart's liga- 
 ment. cc,A plexus of the lymphatic vefTels lying on 
 each fide of the pelvis. </, The pfoas mufcle with 
 lymphatic vefTels lying upon its inflde. e, A plexus 
 of lymphatics, which having palled over the brim of 
 the pelvis at {c),havifig entered the cavity of the pel- 
 vis, and received the lymphatic veffcls belonging to the 
 vifcera conuincd in that cavity, next afcends, and paf- 
 fcs behind the iliac artery to (g). f, Some lymphatic 
 vefTels of the left fide palTing over the upper part of 
 the OS facrum, to meet thofe of the right lide. g, The 
 right pfoas, with a large plexus of lymphaiics lying on 
 its inflde /• h, The plexus lying on each lide of the 
 fpine. / /■ /, Spaces occupied by the lymphatic glands. 
 k. The trunk of the ladeals, lying on the under fide of 
 the luperior mefenteric artery. /, The fame dividing 
 into two branches, one of which palTes on each lide of 
 the aorta; that of the right fide being fcen to enter 
 the thoracic duct at {>'/). vi, The thoracic duct be- 
 ginning from the large lymphatics. ;;, The duct pafs- 
 ing under the lower part of the crus diaphragmatis. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 and under the right eraulgent artery. 0, The thora- Of the 
 cie dud penetrating the thorax, p, Some lymphatic Abdomen. 
 velVels joining that dutt in the thorax, q, The tho- " ' 
 racic du(5t palling under the curvature of the aorta to 
 get to the left fubclavian vein. The aorta being drawn 
 aflde to fhow the dud. r, A plexus of lymphatic vcf- 
 fcls palling upon the trachea from the thyroid gland ta 
 the thoracic dud. 
 
 Plate XXVU. 
 
 Fig r. Reprefents the Under and Pofterior Side of 
 the Bladder of Urine, &c. 
 a. The bladder, b b, The infcrtion of the ureters. 
 c c. The vafadefereniia, which conveythefcmcn from 
 the teflicles to d d. The veliculas feminales, — and pafs 
 through e. The proflraie gland, to dilcharge them- 
 felves into f. The beginning of the urethra. 
 
 Fig. 2. A tranfverfe Sedlion of the Penis, 
 gg, Corpora cavernofa penis, h. Corpus caverno- 
 fum urethrae. i. Urethra, k, Septum penis. 1 1, The 
 feptum between the corpus cavernofum urethrae and 
 that of the penis. 
 
 Fig. ■!. A Longitudinal Sedion of the Penis. 
 m m. The corpora cavernofa penis, divided by o, 
 The feptum penis, n. The corpus cavernofum glan- 
 dis, which is the continuation of that of the urethra. 
 
 Fig. 4. Reprefents the Female Organs of Genera- 
 tion, 
 a. That fide of the uterus which is next the os fa- ' 
 crum. I, Its futidus. 3, Its cervix, b b. The Fal- 
 lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of 
 the uterus ; — but the other end is open within the pel- 
 vis, and furroundcd by c c. The fimbriae, d d. The 
 ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the 
 womb, f f, The ligamenta rotunda, which palTes 
 without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi. 
 g^, The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con- 
 reds the uterus to the pelvis, h. The infide of the 
 vagina, i. The orifice of the urethra, k. The cli- 
 toris furrounded by (1,) The praeputium. m m. The 
 labia pudendi. n n. The nymphac. 
 
 Fig. 5. Shows the Spermatic Duds of the Teflicle 
 lillcd with Mercury. 
 A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which 
 forms the poflerior part of the epididymis. C, The 
 middle of the epididymis, compofed of ferpcntinc 
 duds. D, The head or anterior part of the epididy- 
 mis unravelled, e e e e. The whole duds which com- 
 pofe the head of the epididymis unravelled, f f. The 
 vafa dcferentia. g g, Rcte tcltis. h h. Some redili- 
 nea! duds which fend off the vafa deferentia. i i. The 
 fubflance of the tefticle. 
 
 Fig. 6. The right Teflicle entire, and the Epidi- 
 dymis filled with Mercury. 
 A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas 
 deferens afceiiding towards the abdomen. C, The po- 
 flerior part of the epididymis, XizmtA gUbia vihior. 
 
 D, The fpermatie velTels inclofed in cellular fubflance. 
 
 E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named 
 gtob;ii viajor. G, Its beginning from the teflicle. 
 H, The body of the tellicle, inclofed in the tunica al- 
 
 bugiuea. 
 
 PART
 
 AN.A'I' ()\I v 
 
 /'/./ / 
 
 I'laU \\\ 
 
 
 
 ■ /i^f./'A.uj-
 
 * iJ/a / 
 
 An \'I() viy 
 
 PlaU VWl 
 
 /^ 
 
 W, 
 
 ^^
 
 \
 
 AxA'F'o^nr 
 
 Plate AW II 
 
 V 
 
 /v/ / 
 
 
 ^=N 
 
 ./;«•/ . ''/«/.«/■
 
 Part IV. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y, 
 
 Part IV. Of the THORAX. 
 
 753 
 
 Of the 
 Thorax, 
 
 THE THORAX, er chest, is that cavity of the 
 iriuik w hich extends from the clavicles, or the 
 lower part of the neck, tothcdiapliragm, andiucliulcs 
 ilic vital organs, which are tlie heart and lungs ; and 
 likcwifc the trachea and ccfophagus. — This cavity is 
 formed by the ribs aiid vcrttbrse ot the back, covered 
 by a great number of miifcles, and by the common in- 
 teguments, and anteriorly by two glandular bodies 
 called the breajh. The fpaces between the ribs are 
 filled up by mulcular fibres, which from their lituatiou 
 arc called intcrcojlal vwfdis. 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Breafts. 
 
 115. The ireaffj may be defined to be two large conglo- 
 
 merate glands, mixed with a good dcalofadipofe mem- 
 brane. The glandular part is compofed ot an infinite 
 number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves. 
 
 The arteries are derived from two different trimks ; 
 one of which is called the i>itcrnal, and the other the 
 external viatnmary artery. The firil of thcfe arifcs from 
 the fubclavian, and the latter from the axillary. 
 
 The veins everywhere accompany the arteries, and 
 are dillinguilhed by the fame name. The nerves arc 
 chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other con- 
 glomerate glands, the brealls are made up of a great 
 many fmall dillincl glands, in which the milk is fc- 
 creted from the ultimate branches of arteries. The 
 excretory dufts of thefe feveral glands gradually unit- 
 ing as they approach the nipple, from the tubuli lacli- 
 feri, which are ufually more than a dozen in number, 
 and open at its apex, but luivc little or no commimica- 
 tion, as has been fuppofcd, at the root of the nipple. 
 Thefe dufts, in their courfe from the glands, arc fur- 
 rounded by a ligamcntary elalUc fubltance, which ter- 
 minates with them in the nipple. Both thisfubftancc, 
 and the duds which it contains, are capable of confi- 
 derable exteufion and contraftion ; but in their natu- 
 ral flatc arc moderately conjugated, fo as to prevenr 
 an involiuit;u-y rtow of milk, luilefs the diflcnding force 
 be very great from the accimiulation of too great a 
 quantity. 
 
 The whole fubflance of the nipple is very fpongy 
 and clallic : its external fiu'face is imevcn, and full of 
 fmall tubercles. The nipple is furrounded with a dilk 
 or circle of a different colour, called the areola ; and ou 
 the infidc of the Ikin, under the areola, arc many fc- 
 baceons glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the 
 areola and nipple : for the Ikin upon thefe parts is very 
 thin ; and the nervous papilla: lying very bare, arc 
 much expofcd to irritation. 
 
 The breads are formed for the fecrction of milk, 
 
 which is dellined for the uoiu-ilhmcnt of the child for 
 
 fome time after its birth. This fecrction begins to 
 
 lake place foon after tlic delivery, and continues to fiow 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 formany months in very large quandtles, if thcwonian. 
 
 futklcs her child. 
 
 The operation of fuclion depends on the principles 
 of the air-pump, and the fiow of milk through the 
 laitifcrous tubes is facilitated by their being flretched 
 out. 
 
 Theniilk, examined chemically, appears to be com- 
 pofed of oil, mucilage, and water, and of a conlidcr- 
 able quantity of fugar. The generality of phyfiolo- 
 gills have fuppofcd that, like the chyle, it frequently 
 retains the properties of the aliment and medicines ta- 
 ken into the flomach ; but from fome late experiments*, 
 this fuppolitioa appears to be ill-founded. 
 
 Sect. II. Of tie Pleura. 
 
 The cavity of the thorax is every where lined by a 
 membrane of a fii'm textile called /'/t«r/i- It is com- 
 pofed of two dilUnct portions or bags, which, by being 
 applied to each other laterally, form a fcptum called 
 viediajlinuJH ; which divides the cavity into two parts> 
 and is attached polleriorly to the vertebras of the back» 
 and anteriorly to the flernum. But the twolamins of 
 which this fcptum is formed, do not every where ad- 
 here to each other ; for at the lower part of the thorax 
 they are feparated, to afford a lodgement to the heart ; 
 and at the upper part of the cavity, they receive be- 
 tween them the thymus. 
 
 The pleiu-a is plentifidly fupplied with arteries and 
 veins from the internal mammary and the intercoflals. 
 Its nerves, which arc very inconliderable, arc derived 
 chiefly from the dorfal and intercoflal nerves. 
 
 The furface of the pleiu-a, like that of the perito- 
 neum and other membranes lining cavities, is con- 
 ftantly bedewed with a ferous moifliu'e(\v) which pre- 
 vents adhelion of the vifcera. 
 
 Tlie medialliinmi, by dividing the breaft into two 
 cavities, obviates many inconveniences, to \\ hicli wc 
 HujulJ othci wife be liable. It prevents the two lobes of 
 the lungs from comprelling each other when wc lic^n 
 one fide ; and confrqucntly contributes to the freedom 
 of rcfpiration, whch is dillurbcd by the Icaft prcifure 
 on the lungs. If the pomt of a fword penetrates be- 
 tween the ribs into the cavity of the thorax, the limgs 
 on that fide ceafe to perform then- office j becaufe die 
 air being admitted through the wound, prevents the di- 
 latation of tjiat lobe ; w'hile the other lobe, which is 
 feparated from it by the mediaiUnum, remains unhurt^ 
 audcoutiuues to perform its function as ul'ual. 
 
 Sect. III. Of the Thymus. 
 
 The thymus is a glandular fubflance, the ufe of 
 which is not perfectly afcertaincd, its excretory dud 
 not having yet been difcovcrcd. It is ot an oblong 
 
 • "Jturm. dt 
 
 lltt 
 
 (w) When this riuid is exhaled in too great a quantity, orisaot properly carried ott, it accunialatcs and «on- 
 iUtutcs the hydrops pc^oris.
 
 Of the 
 
 Thorax. 
 
 754 ANA! 
 
 figure, and is larger in tiie foetus and in young chil- 
 dren tlian in adulis, being Ibnictinics nearly cti;iccJ in 
 very old fubjcfts. It is placed in the upper part of the 
 thorax, between the two laminx of the mediaflinum ; 
 but at firfl is not altogether contained within tlic cavity 
 of the chefl, being foand to border ujx)ii the upper ex- 
 U'einity of the flernum. 
 
 Sect. W .Of the Diaphmgin. 
 
 iiS. The cavity of the thorax is feparatcd from that of 
 
 the abdomen, by a flelliy and membranous fcptum 
 called the diaphragm ormidrijf. The greatell part of 
 is compofed of mufcular fibres j and on this account 
 fyftematic writers ufually place it very properly among 
 the nuifclcs. Its middlcpart is very tendinous, and it is 
 covered by the pleura above, aifcl by tlic peritonaeum 
 below. It fecms to have been improperly named 
 fepttnn tranfveifum, as it does not make a plain tranf- 
 verfc divilion of the two cavities, but forms a kind of 
 vault, the fore part of which is attached tothdler- 
 imm. Laterally it is fixed to the Lift of the true ribs, 
 and to all the falfe ribs ; and its lower and pollerior 
 part is attached to the vertebras lumborum, where it 
 may be faid to be divided ijito two portions or criu'a 
 
 (X). 
 
 The principal arteries of the diaphragm are derived 
 from the aorta, and its veins pafs into tlie vena cava. 
 Its nerves are chiefiy derived from the cervical pairs. 
 It affords a palTage to the vena cava tlirough its tendi- 
 nous part, and to the cefophagus through its flethy 
 portion. The aorta palTes down bchuid it between its 
 crura. 
 
 The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the thorax 
 from the abdomen, but by its mufcular ftrufture is ren- 
 dered one of the chief agents in refpiration. When 
 its fibres coniracl, its convex fide, which is turned to- 
 wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and by in- 
 creafing the cavity ofthebreaft, affords room for a 
 complete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air 
 uhich is then drawn into them by the ac't of infpira- 
 tion. The fibres of the diaphragm then relax ; and as 
 i: refumes its former ftatc, tiie cavity of the thorax be- 
 comes gradually diminifhed, and the air is driven oul 
 again from the lungs by a motion contrary to. the for- 
 mer one, called t.v/;r<7/;o«. 
 
 It is in fome meafure by means of the diaphragm, 
 that we void the fasces at the anus, and empty the uri- 
 nary bladder. Befides tliefe offices, the ads of cough- 
 ing, fneezing, fpcaking, laughing, gaping, and figh- 
 ing, could not take place without its affiftance; and 
 the gentle prefTure which all the abdominal vifccra re- 
 ceive from its conftant and regular motion, cannot fail 
 to aflift in the perfonnance of the fevcral functions 
 which were afcribed to thofc vifcera. 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Sect. V. Oj the Trachea. 
 
 I'art IV. 
 
 The trachea or windpipe, is a cartilaginous and 
 membranous canal, through which the air jiafles into 
 the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx, 
 is compofed of five cartilages. The uppcrmoftof ihefe 
 cartilages is placed over tlie glottis or mouth of the 
 larynx, and is called epiglottis, wliich has been before 
 fpoken of, as clofing the paflagc to the lungs in the 
 aft of fwallowing. At the fides of the glottis are pla- 
 ced the two arytenoidc cartilages, v\luch are of a very 
 complex figure, not eafy to be defcribed. The ante- 
 rior and larger part of the larynx is made up of two 
 cartilages : one of which is called thjrohles or fciitifor- 
 7ms, from its being jhaped like a buckler; and the 
 other cricoides or annularis, from its refembling a ring. 
 Both thefe cartilages may be felt immediately under 
 the Ikin, at the fore part of the throat, and the thy- 
 roides, by its convexity, forms an eminence called /o- 
 vitnn ada/ni, whicli is ufually more confiderablc in the 
 male than in the female fubjeft. 
 
 All tliefe cai'tilages are united to each other by means 
 of very clailic, ligamentous fibres ; and are enabled, 
 by the affiftance of their fcveral mufcles, to dilate or 
 contraft tlie paflagc of the larynx, and to perform that 
 variety of motion which feems to point out the larynx 
 as the principal organ of the voice ; for when the air 
 pairesout tlirough a wound m the trachea, it produces 
 no found. 
 
 Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, which 
 feems to be fecreted by minute glands fituated near 
 them. The nppcruart of the trachea is covered ante- 
 riorly and laterally by a confiderablc body, which is 
 luppofed to be of a glandular ftruftiire, and from its 
 fituation near the thyroid cartilage is called the thyroid 
 gland ; though its excretory duft lias not yet been dif- 
 covered, or its real ufe afcertained. 
 
 The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine mem- 
 brane, which is moiftened by a conftant fupply of a 
 watery fluid. From tlie larynx the canal begins to 
 x.Akei\icna.me oi tracheaor afpera arteria, and extends 
 from thence as far down as the third or fourtli verte- 
 bra of the back, where it divides into two branches, 
 which are the right and left bronchial tube. Each of 
 thefe bronchi (v) ramifies through the fiibftance of 
 that lobe of the lungs to which it is dillributed, by 
 an infinite number of branches, which are formed of 
 cartilages fcparated from each other like thofe of the 
 trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligamen- 
 tary fubftance. Each of thefe cartilages is of an angu- 
 lar figiu-c ; and as they become gi-adually lefs and Icfe 
 in their diameter, the lower ones in fome meafure 
 received into thofe above them, when the linigs, after 
 being inflated, gradually collapfc by the air being puih- 
 
 cd 
 
 Of the 
 Thorar. 
 
 IJJ. 
 
 (x) Anatomical writers have ufually defcribed the diaphragm as being made up of two mufcles united by 
 a middle tendon ; and thefe two portions or cruraform what they fpeakof as the inferior mufcle, arifing from 
 the (ides and fore part of tlie vertebrae. 
 
 (y) The right bronchial tube is ufually found to be fomewhat ftiorter and thicker than the left ; and M. 
 Portal, who has publilhed a memoir on the aftion of the lungs on the aorta in refpiration, obferves, that the 
 left bronchial tube is clofely connected by the aorta ; and from fome experiments he is induced to conclude, 
 that in the firft refpirations, the air only enters ijito the right lobe of the liuigs. jyiemoires de /' Academie 
 Riyaledei ScienceSf 1769.
 
 IV, 
 
 N 
 
 Of the ed out from them in exfpiratiou. As tlic branches of 
 Thorax, the bronchi become more minute, their cartilages be- 
 
 ^•"^ ' conic more and more angular and membranous, till at 
 
 Icngtii they arc fomid to be perfcdlly membranous, and 
 at lafl become iiivilibic. 
 
 The trachea is furniflied with flefliy or mufcular 
 fibres ; fome of which pafs tlirough its whole extent 
 longitudinally, while the others are can-ied round it in 
 a circular du'ctUou ; lb that by the contraction or re- 
 laxation of ihefe fibres, it is enabled to ihorten or 
 lengthen itfclf, and likewife to dilate or contrail the 
 diameter of its pailage. 
 
 The trachea and its branches, in all their ramifica- 
 tions, arc furniflied with a great numbcroffmall glands 
 which are lodged in their cellular fubllance, and dif- 
 chargc a mucous fluid on the inner furface of thefetnbes. 
 
 The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it con- 
 ftanily open, afrbrd a free palfage to the air, whicli we 
 arc obliged to be incelfintly ret'piring ; and its mem- 
 branous part, by being capable of coiitraftion and di- 
 latation, enables us to receive and expel the air in a 
 greater or Icfs quantity, and with more or lefs veloci- 
 ty, as may be requu-ed in fuiging or in declamation. 
 This membranous flrufture of the ti-achca poflcriorly, 
 fecms likewife to aiiiil in the dcfcent of the food, by 
 preventing that impediment to us palfage down the 
 oefophagus, which might be expected if the cartilages 
 were complete rings. 
 
 The trachea receives its arteries from the carotid 
 and fubclavian arteries, and its veins pafs into the ju- 
 gulars. Its nerves arife fi-om the recurrent branch of 
 the eighth paL', and from the cervical plexus. 
 
 Sect. VI. Oflhi Lungs. 
 
 uj; The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of the 
 
 breall. They are of a foft and fpungy texture, and 
 are divided into two lobes, which arc feparated from 
 each other by the mcdiaftinum, and ai'e externally co- 
 vered by a production of the pleura. Each of thefe is 
 divided into two or tliree lellcr lobes ; .-md we coni- 
 monly iind three in the right lide of the cavity, and 
 two in the left. 
 
 To difcover the (IruClure of the limgs, it is required 
 to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which were 
 defcribcd ui the lafl lection. Thefi; becoming gradu- 
 ally more and more minute, at length terminate in the 
 cellular (paces or veficles, which make up the greatell 
 part of the fubllance of the liuigs, and readily commu- 
 nicate with each othci'. 
 
 The lungs fcem to pofTefs but little fcnlibility. 
 Their nerves, which arc fniall, and few in number, 
 are derived (roin the intcrcoltal and eighth pair. This 
 laft pair having reached the thorax, fends otf a branch 
 on each fide of the trachea, called the rxurnnt, whicii 
 rcafccnds at the back of the trachea, to which it fur- 
 Jiilhes branches hi its afcent, as well as to the cefopha- 
 giis, but it is chiefly dillributcd to the larynx and its 
 niufclcs. By dividing the reciurcnt and fuperior la- 
 ryngeal nerves at their origin, an animal is deprived 
 of its voice. 
 
 There arc two fcries of arteries which can-y blood 
 to the lungs : thefe arc the artcrix bronchiales, and 
 iJic pulmonary artery. 
 
 The ancris braachialcs begin iifually by two branch- 
 
 ^ O M Y. 
 
 cs ; oneofwliicli commonly arifcs from the right in- 
 tcrcoltal, and the other from the trunk of the aorta : 
 but fonictimts there arc three of tiicfe arteries, and in 
 fome fubjeCts only one. The ufe of thefe arteries is 
 to ferve for the nourilhinent of the lungs, and their ra- 
 mifications arc feen creeping every whereon the branch- 
 es of the bronchi. The blood is brought back from 
 them by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos. 
 
 The pulmonary artery and vein are not intended for 
 the nourilhment of the lungs ; but the blood in its 
 palfage tlirough them is deflined to undergo fome 
 changes, or to acquire certain effential properties (from 
 the action of the air), which it has loll in its circula- 
 tion through the other parts of the body. The pul- 
 monary artery receives the blood from the right ven- 
 tricle of the heart, and dividing into two branches, ac- 
 companies the bronchievery where, by its ramifications 
 through the lungs j and the blood is afterwards con- 
 veyed back by the pulmonary vem, whicli gradually 
 forming a confidcrable trunk, goes to empty itfelf into 
 the left ventricle of the heart ; fo that the quantity of 
 blood which enters into the limgs, is perhaps greater 
 than that which is fent in the fame proportion of tim© 
 tlirough all the other parts of the body. 
 
 Sect. VII. OfRcfpiration. 
 
 Respiration conflitutes one of thofc fimclions 
 which are properly termed -jital, as being effential to 
 life ; for to live and to breathe are m faCt fynonymous 
 terms. It confifts in an alternate contraction and dilata- 
 tion of the thorax, by lirlt infpiring air into the lungs, 
 and then expelling it from them in exfpu-ation. 
 
 It will perhaps be eafy to diflinguilh and point ou t 
 the feveral phenomena of refpiration ; but to explain 
 their phylical caufc will be attended with difliculty : 
 for it will uatiu-ally be enqiJred, how the lungs, when 
 emptied of the air, and conu-aCted by exfpiration, be- 
 come again inflated, they themfelvcs being perfedly 
 pafhve .' How the ribs are elevated in oppolition to 
 their ouii natural lituation .' and why the diaphragm is 
 conn-aCted downwards towai-ds the abdomen ? Wcrcwc 
 to affert that the ah", by forcing its way into the cavity 
 of the limgs, dilated them, and confequently elevated 
 the ribs, and prelfed dowi the diapliragm, we fliould 
 fpeak erroneoufly. What induces the firA infpiration, 
 it is not eafy to afcertahi ; but after an animal has once 
 refpu-ed, it would fcem likely that the blood, after ex- 
 fpiration, finding its palfage through the limgs obllruc- 
 ted, becomes a liimulus, which induces the intcrcoltal 
 mufclcs and the diaphragm to coiinaCt, and cnlai-gcthe 
 cavity of tlie thorax, in confcqutnce perhaps of a cer- 
 tain nervous influence, whicli we will not here attempt 
 to explain. The air then rulhes into the Itmgs ; every 
 branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular fpa- 
 ces into which they open, become fully dilated ; and 
 the pulmonary veflels being equally diilcndc<l,the blood 
 flows through them with cafe. But as the ftimulus 
 which firft occafioned this dilatation ceafcs to operate, 
 the raufcles gradually contract, the di.iphragni riles iip- 
 \yai-ds again, and diminiihes the cavity of the chell ; the 
 ribs return to their former Itate ; and as the air pad'cs 
 out in exfpiration, the lungs gradually collapfe, .ind a 
 rcliltance to the palfage of the blood a'gain takes place. 
 Bm the heart continuing to receive and expel the 
 5 C 2 blood 
 
 I It.
 
 7s6 A N A 1 
 
 Of the blood, lhcpiilmou:iry artery begins again to be dillciid- 
 rhorw. td, the lliniiiliis is renewed, and the fame progrcl'sis 
 """" repeated, and continues to be repeated, in a regular 
 fucccffion, during life : for thougli the nuifclcs of refpi- 
 raiion, having a mixed motion, are (unlike the heart) 
 in fonie nieafurc dependent on the will, yet no human 
 being, after having once refpired, can live many mo- 
 inents without it. In an attempt to hold one's breath, 
 the. blood foon begins to diP.eud the vciiis, which arc 
 unable to empty tlieir contents into the heart ; and \vc 
 are able only, during a \cry little rime, to refill tlic fti- 
 mulus to infpiration. In drowning, the circulation 
 feems to be flopped upon this pruiciple j and in hang- 
 ing, t!ie prclUire made on the jugular veins, may co- 
 operate with the floppageof rtfpirationin brhigiug on 
 death. 
 
 Till within tli cfe few^ years phyfiologifls were entire- 
 ly ignorant of the ufc of refpiration. It was at Itngth 
 ■difcovercd in part by the illi'llrious Dr Prieilley. He 
 found that the au- cxfpired by animals was phlogiflica- 
 ted ; and that the air was titter for refpiration, or for 
 fupporting animal life, in proportion as it was freer 
 from the phlogillic principle. It had long been obfer- 
 ved, that the blood in palfing throan;h the lungs ac- 
 quired a more llorid coloiu". He therefore fufpccted, 
 that it was owing to its having imparted phlogillou to 
 the air: and he fatislied himielf of the truth of this 
 idea by experiments, which fliowcd, that the crail'cracn. 
 turn of extravalFated blood, phlogifticated air in pro- 
 portion as it loll its dark colour. He farther found, 
 that blood thus reddened had a llrong aitraclion for 
 phlogiflon ; infomuch that it was capable of taking it 
 -from phlogillicated air, thereby becoming of a darker 
 colour. From hence it appeared that the blood, in its 
 circulation through the arterial fyllem, imbibes a cou- 
 fiderablc quantity of phlogillon, which is difchargcd 
 from it to the air in the lungs. 
 
 Tliis difcovery haslince been profecnted by two very 
 ingenious phyliologills, Dr Crawford and Mr Elliot. 
 It has been iliown by profellurs Black and Irvine, that 
 tlitferent bodies have ditferenr capacities for containing 
 fire. For example, that oil and w-ater, when equally 
 hot to the fcnfe and the tlierpiometcr, contain difFe- 
 Tcnt proportions of that principle ; and that unequal 
 ciuantities of it are required, in order to raifc thofc 
 lubftauccstc like tcmperatiu-es. The enquiries ol Dr 
 Crawford and Mr Klliot tend to prove, that the capa- 
 cities of bodies for contahiing fire are diminiflied by 
 the atidition of phlogiflon, and iucreafed b^- its fcpara- 
 tion : the capacity of calx of antimony, for example, 
 being greater than that of the antimony itfelf. Com- 
 jnon air contains a great quantity of fire ; combuflible 
 bodies very little. In combullion, a double cledive 
 attrailion takes place ; the phlogillon of the body be- 
 ing transferred to the air, the lire contained in the air 
 to the combullible body. But as the capacity of the 
 latter is not increafed fo much as that of the former is 
 diminilhcd, only part of the extricated fire will be ab- 
 forbed by the body. Theremainderihereforewillraife 
 the temperature of the compound ; and hence we may 
 account for the heat attending combuflion. As the 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Pan IV. 
 
 ufe of refpiration is to dephlogiiUcate the blood, it fecins 
 probable, that a like double eleclive attraflion takes 
 place in thisproccfs; the phlogiflon of the blood be- 
 ing nansferrcd to the nk, and tiie tire contained in the 
 air to tlie blood; but with tliis ditfcrencc, that the ca- 
 pacities being equal, the whole of the extricated tire is 
 abforbed by the latter. The blood in this flatc circu- 
 lating through the body, imbibes phlo:;,iflon, and of 
 coiu-fc gives out its fire ; part only of which is abfoib- 
 cd by the parts furnilhing the phlogiflon, the remain- 
 der, as in combullion, becoming fcnlible; and is therC' 
 fore the caufc of the heat ot the body, or what is call- 
 ed animal heat. 
 
 In confirmation of this doclrine it may be obferved, 
 that the venous blood contains lefs lue than tlie arte- 
 rial ; combullible bodies lefs than incombufliblc ones ; 
 and that air contains lefs of this principle, according 
 as it is rendered, by combmation with plilogiflon, lefs 
 fit- for refpiration (z). 
 
 In afcending very high mountains, refpiration is 
 found to become lliort and frequent, and Ibnietiines to 
 be attended with a fpitting of lilood. Thcfc fymptoms 
 fcem to be occalioned by the air being too rare and 
 thin to dilate the lungs fulficieutly ; and the blnod 
 gradually accumulating in the pulmonary velFels, fonic- 
 limes burlls through their coats, and is brought up by 
 couojhing. This has likewife been accounted lor in a 
 dilicrent way, by fuppoling that the air contained in 
 the blood, not receivhig an equal preillux from that of 
 the atmofphere, expands, and at length ruptures the 
 very minute branches of the pulmonary velfels ; ujion 
 the fame principle that fruits and animals put under 
 the receiver of an air-pump, are fcen to fwell as the 
 outer ail- becomes exluuiflcd. But Dr Darwin of 
 Litchfield has lately pUblilhed fomcexperiments, which 
 fetra to prove, tliat no air or elaitic vapoiu- docs cxifl 
 in the blood-veil'els, as has been generally fuppofed ; 
 and he is induced to impute the fpitting of blood, wjiich 
 has fomeiimes taken place in afcending high moun- 
 tains, to accident, or to violent cxeriiuus ; as it never 
 ha]ipens to animals that are put into the exhaulled re- 
 ceiver of an au--pu:np, wlierc the diminuiion of prelfure 
 is many times greater than on the fumiiiii of tlic high- 
 eil mountains. 
 
 Sect. VIII. Of the Voice. 
 
 Restiration has already been defcribed as afford- 
 ing us many advantages; and ucxt to that of life, its 
 moll important ufe fecins to be chatof forming the voice 
 and fpeech. The ancients, and almoft all the moderns, 
 have conlidcred the organ of fpeech as a kind of niufi- 
 cal inftrument, which may be cc'upared to a flute, to 
 an hautboy, to an organ, &.c. and they argue after tlic 
 following manner. 
 
 The trachea, which begins at the root of the tongue, 
 and goes to terminate In the lungs, may be compared 
 to the pipe of an organ, the lungs dilating like bellows 
 during the time of inlpiraiiou ; and as the air is driven 
 out from them in exfpiration, it fiiidsits palfage flrait- 
 cncd by the cartilages ot the larynx, againit whlcli it 
 
 llrikes* 
 
 Of the 
 
 Thorax, 
 
 (z) See Crawford's Kxperiments and Obfcrvations on Animal Heat, and Elliot's Philofophical obfcrva- 
 yqns.
 
 Part IV. 
 
 N A T O M Y. 
 
 Of the ftrikes. As tlicfe c.iitilagcs arc more or Itfs claftic, 
 Thorax, they occafioii in their tiirn more orlcfs vibration in the 
 ^~~^^~~~' nir, anJ thus produee the found of the voice ; the va- 
 riation in the found and tone of which depends on the 
 IVaie of the glottis, which, when flraitciicd, produces 
 an acute tone, and a grave one when diluted. 
 
 The late M. P'ertin communicated to the French 
 Academy of Sciences a very ingenious theory on the 
 formation of the voice. He confidered the organ of 
 the voice as a ft'in^, as well as a wind, inflrument ; fo 
 tJiat what art lias hitherto been miable to conftuft, 
 nnd what both the fatlicrs Mcrfenne and Kircher, fo 
 much wiflicd to ice, M. Ferein imagined he hatl at 
 length difcovercd in the human body. He obfervcs, 
 that there are at the edges of the glottis certain tendi- 
 nous chords, placed horizontally acrofs it, which are 
 capable of confulcrable vibration, fo as to produce 
 lound, in the fame manner as it is produced by the 
 firings of a violin or a harpfichord ; and he fuppofcs 
 that the air, as it palles out from the huigs, aebs as a 
 bow' on thefe firings, while the efforts of the breall 
 and lungs regulate its motion, and produce the variety 
 of tones. So that according to this fyflem the varia- 
 tion in the voice is not occafioncd by the dilatation or 
 contraclion of the glottis, but by the diftenfion or re- 
 laxation of thefe firings, the found being more or lefs 
 aciitc^in proportion as they are more or lefs flrctched 
 out. Another writer on this fiibjcft fujjpofes, that the 
 organ of voice is a double inflrumcnt, w hich produces 
 in unifon two founds of a different nature ; one by 
 means of the air, and the other by means of the chords 
 of the glottis. Neither of thefe fyltcms, however, are 
 tuiivcrfally adopted. They are both liable to infupe- 
 rable difficulties ; fo that the manner in which the voice 
 is formed has never yet been fatisfaftorily afccrtained : 
 we may obfervc, however, that the found produced by 
 the glottis is not articulated. To eff"c«l this, it is re- 
 quired to pais through the mouth, where ir is differ- 
 ently modilied by the action of the tongiie, which is 
 cither pulhed againfl the teeth, or upwards towards the 
 palate ; detaining it in its palfage, or permitting it to 
 ilovv freely, by contracting or dilating the mouth. 
 
 Sfct. IX. OfDejcnioti, 
 
 ij,. By dejeclion we mean the adl of voiding the f«ces 
 
 at the anus; and an account of the manner in which 
 this is conduftcd W'asreftrved for this part of the work, 
 becaufe it fccmed to require a knowledge of rcfpiraiion 
 to be perfettly underffood. 
 
 The intcflines were defcribed as having a perLftaltic 
 motion, by which the fasces were gradually advancing 
 to\^ards the anus. Now, w henever the fseces arc accu- 
 
 ' mulated in the intclLinum rettnm in a fufficiciit quan- 
 
 tity to become iroublefome, cither by their weight or 
 acrimony, they excite a certain uncalinefs which in- 
 duces us to go to flool. — To efTett this, we begin by 
 makhii', .■. confidcralle ir.fpiration ; in confcqucnce of 
 which the diaphra j^ui is carried downwards towards the 
 lower belly; ilie abiiominal mufcles ai'c at the fame 
 time connaftcd in ob< ii>-ncc to the will ; and the in- 
 teffincs being conipreiicd on all lides, the re fiftancc of 
 x\\tji.hiii(fe: is overcome, and the faeces pals out at the 
 anus ; which ij afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal 
 £br«s, whicJi are called hvaioris ani, and tlicn by 
 
 757 
 
 Of the 
 
 Thorjrx. 
 
 ' ' 
 
 means oi\x.%fphii!{}er is again contraftcd ; but it fome- 
 timcs happens, as in dyfeuteries for inflance, that the 
 faeces are very liquid, and have eonlldtrablc acrimony ; 
 and then the irritation theyoccafion is more frequent, 
 fo as lb promote their difcharge without any preffure 
 from the diaphragm or abdominal mufcles ; and fomc- 
 times involuntarily, as is the cafe when the fphijitter 
 becomes paralytic. 
 
 Sect. X. Of the Pericardium, and of the HeaN and 
 its Auricles. 
 
 The two membraneous bags of the pleura, which I'cricer- 
 were defcribed as forming the mcdiafUnum, recede dium. 
 one from the other, fo as to afford a lodgement to a tirin 
 membranous fac, m which the heart is fccurely lodged ; 
 this fac, which is l\\e pericardium, appears to be com- 
 pofcd of two tunics, luiited to each other by cellular 
 membrane — The outer coat, which is thick, and in 
 fome places of a tendinous complexion, is a produclion 
 of the mcdiafUnum ; the inner coat, wliich is extreme- 
 ly tliin, isreffeftcd over the auricles and ventricles of 
 the Ivcart, in the (;ime manner as the tunica conjuiifti- 
 va, after lining the eye lids, is rericdcd over the eye. 
 
 This bag adheres to the tendinous part of the dia- 
 pliragin, and contains a coagulable lymph, the liquor 
 l>ei ici'.rdii, which ferves to lubricate the heart and fa- 
 cilitate its motions ; and fccnis to be fecretcd and ab- 
 forbed in the fame manner as it is in the other cavities 
 of the body. 
 
 The arteries of the pericardium are derived from the 
 plu-enic, and its veins pafs into veins of the fame name ; 
 its nerves are likewife branches of the phrenic. 
 
 The fizc of the pericardium is adapted to that of 
 the heart, being ufually large enough to contain it 
 loofcly. As its cavity docs not extend to the flcrnura, 
 the limgs cover it in infpiraiion ; and as it every where 
 inverts the heart, itcffeftuilly fecures it from bcin"; in- 
 jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, exuavautcd 
 into the cavities of the thorax. 
 
 The heart is a hollow mufcle of a conical fliapc, fi- 
 tuated tranfverfely between the twolaminx of the rac- 
 diaflinum, at the lower part of the thorax ; havijig its 
 bafis turned towards the right fide, and its point or 
 apex towards the left — Its lower furfacc is fomewhat 
 flattened towards the diaphragm. Its bahs, from 
 W'hieh the great vclTcls originate, is covered with fat, 
 axl it has two hollow and ffelhy appendages, called 
 auriclei, — Round thefe fcvcral openings, the heart 
 fcems to be of a firm ligamentous texture, from wliich 
 all its fibres Item to originate ; and as they aJva;icc 
 from ther.ce towards the apex, the fubllaace of die 
 heart fecms to become thin;;tr. 
 
 The heart includes two cavities or :• if w/r/c/i?/, which 
 ar cfeparatcd from each oilier by a fleftij feptura ; one 
 of the fe is called the right, and the other the left, ven- 
 tricle ; though perhaps, with refpect to ihcii- fituation, 
 it would be more proper to dilliiiguillt them into the 
 anterior and pofleriur ventriciet. 
 
 The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine mem- 
 brane ; and its fbuAure is perfeftly mufti.lar i>r riclhy, 
 bc'ng comj-Kifcd of librcs which arc defcribed as pal- 
 ling in different du colions ; fome as being extended 
 longitudinally from the bafis to the apex ; others, as 
 takiJig an oblii^uc or fpiral coarl'e ; and a third fort as 
 
 bcirg 
 
 1J5 
 
 H«art, and 
 its auxicUt.
 
 ANA! 
 
 bcin;; placed in a tranvcvfc iliredion (a) — Wiihiii 
 ihc luo \ c-nuiclcswc obfcrvc fcvcral fiuTows ; and there 
 arc likcwile tendinous firings, which arilc from flclhy 
 columna in the two cavities, and arc attached to the 
 valves of the auricles : That tjie ufe of thcfc and the 
 other valves of the heart may be imderlbod, it niuft. 
 be obftrved, that four large vclfels pafs out from the 
 balls ot the heart, viz. two arteries and t\\o veins ; 
 and that each of thcfe vcllcls is fiu-nilhed with a thin 
 membranous produftion, which is attached all round 
 to the borders of their fevcral orifices, from whence 
 hanging loofcly down they appear to be divided into 
 two or three dillinft portions. But as their ufcs in the 
 arteries and veins arc dittcrcnt, fo arc they diH'ereiuly 
 difpofcd. Tliofc of the arteries are intended to give 
 way to the pall'agc of the blood into them from the 
 ventricles, but to oppofe its return: and, on the con- 
 trary, the valves of the veins are conllruded fo as to 
 allow the blood only to pafs into the heart. In confe- 
 quencc of thefe ditferent ufes, we find the valves of 
 the pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the 
 fjrificcs of thofe velfels, fo as to have their concave 
 fui-faccs turned towards the artery : and their convex 
 furfaces, which mutually meet together, be'mg placed 
 towards the ventricle, only permit the blcxjd to pafs 
 one way, wliich is uiio the ai-teries. There are ufual- 
 ly three of thel'c valves belonging to the pulmonary ar- 
 tery, and as many to the aorta ; and from their figure 
 tliey are called vitlvul.t fcmilu/tans. The communica- 
 tion between the two great veins and the ventricles is 
 by means of the two appendages or aiuiclcs into which 
 the blood is difchargcil ; fo that the other valves which 
 may be faid to belong to the veins, are placed in each 
 ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves 
 in the right ventricle arc ufually three in number, and 
 are named vahuLa trki/fpidcs ; but in the left ventricle 
 we commonly obferve only two, and thcfc arc the 
 vahiilx m'ltrales. The membranes which form thefe 
 valves in each cavity are attached fo as to project: fome- 
 ivhat forward ; and Iwth the IrkuJ fides and the mit rales 
 arc conncdled with the tendinous ftrings, which were 
 defcribed as ariliug from the tlefliy columna-. By tlie 
 conUMdion of either ventricle, the blood is driven into 
 the artery which commmiicates with that ventricle; and 
 ihefe tendinous firings being gradually relaxed as the 
 fides of ihc cavity are brought nearer to each other, 
 the valves naturally clofe the opening into the auricle, 
 and the blood neccffarily directs its courfe into the 
 then only open pall'age, whicli is into the artery ; but 
 after this contraction, the jieart becomes relaxed, the 
 tendinousflrings are again flrctchcd out, and, drawing 
 the valves of the auricle downwards, the blood ispour- 
 cd by the veins into the ventricle, from whence, by 
 another conti-aetion, it is again thrown iiuothe artery, 
 as will be defcribed hereafter. The right ventricle is 
 not quite fo long, though fomewhat larger, than tjie 
 left ; but the latter has more fubflauce than the other : 
 and this fecms to be, bceaufc it is intended to iranfniit 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 the blood to the mod diilant parts of the body, wlicre- 
 as tlie rigiit ventricle dillributes it only to the lungs. 
 
 The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum 
 and the intcrcoftals. The arteries which Icrve for its 
 nouriihment are two in number, and arife from the 
 aorta. They furround in fome meafure the balis of 
 the heart, and from this com-fe arc called the coronary 
 arteries. From thefe arteries the blood is returned by 
 veins of tlie fame name into the auricles, and even in- 
 to the ventricles. 
 
 The mufcular bags called the auricles are fituatej at 
 the bafis of tlic heart, at the fides of each other ; 
 and corrcfponding with the two ventricles, are like 
 thofe two cavities dillinguilhed into right and Itft. 
 Thefe facs, which are interiorly micqual, luve exter- 
 nally a jagged appendix ; which, from its having beca 
 compared to the extremity of an car, has given thcin 
 their name of auricles. 
 
 Sect. XL ^"g'ology, or a Defcription of the 
 BlooJ-vejfels. 
 
 Th e heart has been defcribed as contrading itfelf, 
 and throwing the blood from its two ventricles ijito 
 the pulmonaj-y artery and the aorta, and then as rc- 
 laxingiifclf andreceivLng a frelh fupply from two large 
 veins, which are the pulmonary vein and the vena ca- 
 va. We will now point out the prLicipal diflributlons 
 of thefe velfels. 
 
 T\\c pulmonary artery arifesfrom the right ventricle 
 by a large trunk, which foon divides into two confi- 
 derable branches, which pals to the right and left lobes 
 of the lungs: each of thcfe branches is afterwards 
 divided and fubdivided into an infinite number of 
 branches and ramifications, which extend through the 
 whole fubllance of the lungs ; and from thefe branches 
 the blood is returned by the veins, which, contrary to 
 the courfe of the arteries, begin by very minute ca- 
 nals, and gradually become larger, forming at length 
 fom large trunks called pulmonary veins, which termi- 
 nate in the left auricle by one common opening, from 
 w^hcncc the blood palfes into the left ventricle. From 
 this fame ventricle raifes the aorta or great artery, 
 which at its beginning is nearly an inch in diameter : 
 it foon fends olf two branches, the coronaries, w-hich 
 go to be diftributed to the heart and its auricles. After 
 this, at or about th9 third or foiu-th vertebra of the 
 back, it makes a conliderable curvature ; from this 
 curvature (b) ai-ife three arteries ; one of which foon 
 divides into two branches. The firll two are the left 
 fubclavian and the left carotid, and the third is a com- 
 mon trunk to the right fubclavian and right carotid ; 
 though fometimes both the carotids arifc difliniilly 
 from the aorta. 
 
 The t wo tars//Vj-afcend within the fubclavians,along 
 the fides of the trachea ; and when they liave reached 
 the larynx, divide into two principal branches, the in- 
 ternal and external carotid. The firll of thefe runs a 
 
 little 
 
 Of the 
 'riiorax. 
 
 I Si* 
 
 (a) Authors differ about the courfe and dillinftions of thel'c fibres; audit feems right to obferve, that the 
 flrudure of the heart being more coinpaCl: than that of other mufcles, its fibres are not cafily fcparated. 
 
 (b) Anatomifls ufually call the upper part of this curvsLtm-e aorta a/cendtns ; and the oilier part of the artery 
 to its divifion at the iliacs, aorta defcendens : but they differ about the place where this dillint'tion is to be iiiiro- 
 tluced ; and it fecms fufiicJcntly to anfwer every purpofe, to fpcak only of the aorta and-its curvature.
 
 ANA' 
 
 little way backwards in a bending dircdion ; and liav- 
 ing reached the under part of the ear, pafl'cs through 
 tlic canal into tlic os pctrofum, and entering into the 
 cavity of tlie cranium, is diflributed to the brain and 
 the membranes which invelopc it, and likewife to the 
 eye. The externa/ carotid divides into fcvcral branches, 
 •which are diflributed to the larynx, pharynx, and 
 other parts of the neck ; and to the jaws, lips, tongue, 
 eyes, temples, and all the external parts of the head. 
 
 Ezch/ui>c/avia;! is likewife divided into a greatnum- 
 ber of branches. It fends oft the vertebral artery, 
 wliich pafles through the openings we fee at the bot- 
 tom of the tranfverfe procclfes of the vertebra: of the 
 neck, and in its courfc fends off" many ramifications 
 to the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are 
 dillributed to the ipinal marrow, and after a confider- 
 able inrieCCion it enters into the cranium, and is dif- 
 tributcd to the brain. Thtfubclavia/i likewife fends 
 oft" branches to the mufcles of the neck and fcapula ; 
 and tlie m ediaflinum, thymus, pericardium , diapliragm, 
 the breafls, and the mufcles of the thorax, and even 
 of the abdomen, derive branches from the fubclavian, 
 which are dillinguilhed by dift'crent names, alluding 
 to tlie parts to which they are diflributed ; as the 7/nim- 
 ?/iary, the phrenic, the intercojial, &c. But notwith- 
 ftanding the great number of brandies which have 
 been defcribed as arifmg from the>fubclavian, it is ftill 
 a conliderable artery when it reaches the axilla, where 
 it drops its former name, which alludes to its pafTage 
 under the clavicle, and is called the axillary artery ; 
 from which a variety of branches are dillributcd to the 
 mufcles of the brcafl, fcapula, and arm — But its main 
 trunk taking the nameof ^ra£-/i/i7///,runsalongon thcin- 
 fideof the arm near the OS humeri, tillit reaches the joint 
 of the fore-arm, and then it divides into two branches. 
 This divifion however is different in different fubjecf s ; 
 for in fome it takes place higher up and in others low- 
 er downi. When it happens to divide above the joint, 
 it may be confidered as a happy difpofition in cafe of 
 an accident by bleeding ; for fuppofmg the artery fo 
 be unfortunately punftured by the lancet, and that the 
 hasniorrhage coidd only be flopped by making a liga- 
 ture on the velFel, one branch would remain unhm't, 
 through which the blood would pafs uninterrupted to 
 the fore-arm and hand. One of the two branches of 
 the brachialis plunges dowTi under tlie flcxpr mufcles, 
 and rims along the edge of the ulna ; while the other 
 is carried along the outer furface of tlie radius, and is 
 eafily felt at the WTifl, where it is only covered by the 
 common integuments. Both thefc branches commonly 
 unite in the palm of the hand, and form an arterial 
 arch from whence branches are detached to tlie lin- 
 gers. 
 
 The aorta, afterhaving given off"at its curvature the 
 carotids and fubclavians which convey blood to all the 
 upper parts of the body, defcends upon the bodies of 
 the vertebrae a little to the left, as far as the os facrum, 
 where it drops the name of aorta, and divides into 
 two conliderable branches. In this courfe, from its 
 curvature to its bifurcation, it fends oft" feveral arteries 
 in the following order : I . One or two little arteries, 
 firfl demonftrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi, 
 and called ar/iT/.r bronchiales Ruyfchii. a.Tlieartcriae 
 oefophagcae. Thcfcare commonly tlircc or fourinnum- 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 bcr. They arile from the fore-part of the aorta, and 
 are dillributcd chiefly to the oefophagus. 3. The in- 
 ferior intercoflal arteries, which arc diflributed be- 
 tween the ribs in the fame manner as the arteries of 
 the three or four fuperior ribs are, which are derived 
 from the fubclavian. Thefe arteries fend off branches 
 to the medulla fpinalis. 4. The diaphragmatic or in- 
 ferior phrenic arteries, which go to the diaphragm, 
 llomacii, omentum, duodenum, pana'cas, fpleen, li- 
 ver, and gall-bladder. 5. The coeliac, which fends 
 oft the coronary-flomachic, the fplenic, and the hepa- 
 tic artery. 6. The fuperior mefenteric artery, which 
 is diflributed to the mefentcry and fmall inteflines. 
 7. The emulgcnts, wliich go to the kidneys. 8. The 
 arteries, which arc diflributed to the glandulas renales. 
 9. The fpermaiic. 10. The uiferior mefenteric arte- 
 ry, which ramifies tlirough the lower portion of the 
 
 mefentcry and the large inteflines A branch of this 
 
 artery which goes to the reclum is called the inxernal 
 harnorrk'jidal. 11. The lumbar arteries, and a very 
 fmall branch called \\icfacra, which are diflributed to 
 the mufcles of the loins and abdomen, and to the os fa- 
 crum and medulla fpinalis. 
 
 The trunk of the aorta, wlien it has reached the 
 lafl vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the 
 name of aorta, and fcparates into two forked branches 
 called the iliacs. Each of thefe foon divides into two 
 branches ; one of w'hich is called the internal iliac, or 
 hypogaflric artery, and is diflributed upon the contents 
 of the pelvis and upon the mufcles on its outer fide. 
 One branch, called pudenda communis, fends fmall ra- 
 mifications to the end of the redum under the name of 
 h^morrhoidales externa, and is afterwards diflributed 
 upon the penis. The other branch, the external iliac, 
 after having given oft" the circumflex artery of the os 
 ilium and the epigaifric, which is diltributed to the 
 recli-mufclcs, palfes outof the abdomen under Poupart's 
 ligament, and takes the name of crural artery. It de- 
 fcends on the inner part of the thigh dofe to the os fe- 
 moris, fending off branches to the mufcles, and then 
 linking deeper in the hind part of the thigh, reaches 
 the ham, where it takes the name oi popliteal : after 
 this it i'eparates into two confiderable branches ; oncof 
 which is called the anterior tibial artery ; the other di- 
 vides into two branches, and thefc arteries all go to be 
 diib-ibuicd to tlie leg and foot. 
 
 The Wlood, which is thus diflributed by the aorta to 
 all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins, 
 which are fuppofed to be continued from the ultimate 
 branches of arteries ; and unitmg together as they ap- 
 proach the heart, at length form the large trunks, the 
 vena cava afccndens, and vena cava defccndens. 
 
 All the veins which bring back the blood from the 
 upper extremities, and from the head and breall, pafs 
 into the vcnu c.iva dcfcendcns ; and chofc which rctura 
 it from the lower parts of the body terminate in the 
 vena cava afcendens ; and thefe two cavas uniting to- 
 gether as they approach the heart, open by one com- 
 mon orifice into the left auricle. 
 
 It docs not here feem to be ncceflTary to follow the 
 diftcrent divifions of the veins as we did thofe of the 
 arteries ; and it will be fulficicnt to remark, that in 
 general every artery is accompanied by its vein, and 
 that both arc diiliiiguifhed by the fame name. But, 
 
 759 
 
 Of the 
 
 Thorax.
 
 760 A N A T 
 
 Of the '. like many oilier general rules, this too lias its exccp- 
 Thorax.^ lions (c). Tlie veins, for inllance, which accompany 
 ^""^'■^ the external and internal carotid, are not callcil the 
 carotid veins, but the external and hilanul jugular. — 
 In the thorax, there is a vein dillinguilhed hy a proper 
 name, and this is the rtzj^^o/, or !'.'/;rf ///;<?/>./;•/. Tliis 
 vein, which is a pretiy conlidcrable one, runs along 
 by the right lide of the vertebrx of the back, and is 
 chiefly deltincd to receive the blood from tlie iiitcr- 
 coflals on that fu'.c, and from the lower half of thofe 
 on the left fide, and to convey it into the vena cava 
 dcfceiidcns. In the abdomen we meet with a vein, 
 which is lljll a more remarkable one, and this is the 
 veua portit, which performs the office botli of an ar- 
 tery and a vein. It is formed by a re-union of all 
 tlie veins which conic from the llomach, intcllincs, o- 
 mentum, pancreas, and fpleen, fo as to compofe one 
 gi-cat trunk, which goes to ramify through the liver ; 
 aiid after liaving depofited the bile, its raniilications 
 unite and bring back mto the vena cava, not only tlie 
 blood which the vena portx had carried into the liver, 
 but likewifc the blood from the hepatic artery. Every 
 artery has a vein which corrcfponds with it ; but tlie 
 trmiks and branches of the veins are more numerous 
 than thofe of the arteries. — Tlie rcafons for this dif- 
 pofiiion are perhaps more dilHcult to be explained ; the 
 blood in its courfe through the veins is much farther 
 removed from the foiu'ce and caufeof its motion, which 
 are in the heart, than it was when in the arteries ; fo 
 that its courfe is confequently Icfs rapid, and enough 
 of it could not poiiibly be brought back to the heart 
 in the moment of its dilatation, 10 equal the quantity 
 wliich is driven into the arteries from tJie two vcn- 
 tiicles, at the time tliey coniraft ; and the equilibri- 
 um w liich is fo ellcniial to the continuance of life and 
 health would confequently bedellroyed, ifthe capacity 
 of the veins did not exceed that of the arteries, in the 
 fame proportion that the rapidity of the blood's motion 
 through the arteries exceeds that of its return tlu-ough 
 llie veins. 
 
 A large artery ramifying through the body, and 
 continued to the minute branch(Bo' veins, wliich gra- 
 dually luiite together to form a large trunk, may be 
 compared to two trees united to each other at tlicir 
 lops ; or rather as having their raniilications fo dif- 
 pofed that the two u-unks terminate in one common 
 point ; and if w-e farther fuppofe, that both thefe 
 trunks and their branches arc hollow, and that a fluid 
 is inceflantly circulated tlirough them, by enter- 
 ing into one of the trunks and returning through 
 the other, we Ihall be enabled to conceive how the 
 blood is circulated tlu'ough the veflels of the human 
 body. 
 
 Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, is 
 nearly cylindrical, or of equal diameter tlu-ough its 
 whole length, and fo are all its branches when exa- 
 Hiined feparately. But every trunk feeras to contain 
 lefs blood than the many branches do into which that 
 trunk feparates ; and each of thefe branches probably 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 contains lefs blood than the ramifications do into which Of tlie 
 it is fubdividcd : and it is ilic fame with the veins ; the Thorax, 
 volume ol their fevcral rainitications, when conlidered ^^~^'~— ^ 
 together, being found to exceed that of the great irunk 
 which they form by their union. 
 
 The return of the blood through the veins to the 
 heart, is promoted by tlie adion of the mufcles, and 
 the pulfaiion of the arteries. And tliis retwn is like- 
 wife greatly allifled by the valves wliich are to be met 
 witli in tlie veins, and which conlUtute one of the 
 great diflLidions between them and the arteries. 
 Thefe valves, which arc fuppofed to be formed by the 
 inner coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from 
 the extremities towards the heait, but oppofeitsretiu-n. 
 They are mofl frequent in the fmaller veins. As the 
 column of blood increafes, they fcem to become lefs 
 neeelTary ; and therefore in the vena cava afccndens,wc 
 meet with only one valve, which is near its origin. 
 
 The arteries are conipofed of fevcral tunics. Some 
 WTitcrs enumerate rive of thefe tunics ; but perhaps wc 
 may more properly reckon only three, viz. the nervous , 
 lanj'eiilar, and cuticular coats. The veins are by fomc 
 anatomilts dcfcribed as having the fame number of 
 coats as the arteries ; but as they do not fecm to be 
 irritable, we cannot with propriety fuppofe them to 
 have a mufcular tiuiic. We arc aware of Dr Verf- 
 chuir's * experiments toprovetliatthcjugulai'and fome • /j, ji,, 
 other veins jxilfcfs a ccrtahi degree of irritability j but ttrUmm et 
 it is certain, that his experiments, repeated by others, Vtnarum v» 
 have produced a different rcfult ; and even he himfelf "'■'''»''''• 
 allows, that fomctimes he was imable to diilinguilh ^'°' 
 any fucli property in tlie veins. Both thefe fcries of 
 velfels are nourilhed by ilill more minute iU'tcries and 
 veins, which arc fccii creeping over their coats, and 
 ramifying tlirough their whole fubltance, and are i:i\\- 
 ci^ ztifa 'jaforiit/i i they have likevvife many minute 
 brandies of nerves. 
 
 The arteries are much ftronger than the veins, and 
 they feem to require this force to be enabled to refifl 
 the impetus with which the blood circulates tlirough 
 them, and to impel it on towards the veins. 
 
 When the heart coiura<5ts, it impels the blood into 
 the arteries, and fenlibly dillends them ; and thefe vcf- 
 fels again contract, as the heart becomes relaxed to re- 
 ceive more blood from the auricles; fo that the caufe 
 of the conu'aetion and dilatation of the arteries fccms 
 to be eafy to be underAood, being owing in part to 
 their own contradile power, and in part to the aclion 
 of the heart ; but in the veins, the elfeds of this im- 
 pulfe not being fo fenfibly felt, and the velfels them- 
 felves having little or no contractile power, the blood 
 feems to flow in a conflant and equal flream : and this, 
 together with its palfing gradually from a fmall chan- 
 nel into a larger one, leeins to be the reafon why the 
 veii:s havenopulfatory motion, except the large ones 
 near the heart ; and in thefe it feems tg be occafioned 
 by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgi- 
 tation of the blood in the cavas. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 (c) In the extremities, fomc of the decp-fcated veins, and all the fuperficial ones, take a courfe different 
 fiiom that of the arteries.
 
 Part IV. 
 
 Sect. XII. 
 
 ANA," 
 
 Of the Atliott of tht Heart, Auricles, 
 and yjrteriei. 
 
 117. 
 
 l«8. 
 
 The heart, at the time it contracts, drives the blood 
 from its ventricles into the arteries ; and the arteries 
 being thus filled and diflendcd, are naturally inclined 
 to contract the moment the heart begins to dilate, and 
 ceafes tofupply thera with blood. Thefc alternate mo- 
 tions of contradion and dilatation of the licart and ar- 
 teries, arc diilingiiilhcd by thenamcsofy5y?o/f and dia- 
 Jlolc. When the heart is in a flatc of contraction or 
 fyflolt, the arteries are at that inftant diflendcd with 
 blood, and in their diaflolc ; and it is in this (late we 
 feel their pulfatory motion, which we call the pulfi. 
 When the heart dilates, and the arteries contract, the 
 blood is impelled onwards into the veuis, through which 
 it is returned back to the heart. While the heart, 
 however, is in its fyllole, the blood cannot pafs from 
 the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in the au- 
 ricles, which .ire two refervoirs formed for this ufc, 
 till the diaftole, or dilatation of the heart, takes place ; 
 and then the diflendcd auricles contract, and drive the 
 blood mto the ventricles : fo that the auricles have an 
 alternate fyflole and diaflolc as well as the heart. 
 
 Although both the ventricles of the heart contraft 
 at the fame time, yet the blood palTes from one to the 
 other. In the fame moment, for inflance, that the 
 left ventricle drives the blood inro the aorta, the right 
 ventricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which 
 is dillributcd tlirough all the fubftance of the hmgs. 
 The blood is afterwards brought back into the left ven- 
 tricle by the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that 
 the blood is returned by the cavas, into the right ven- 
 tricle, from all the other parts of the body. 
 
 This feems to be the mode of aftion of the heart 
 and its veffels : but the caufe of this action has, like 
 all other intricate and intercfling fubje£ls, been differ- 
 ently explained. It feems to depend on the flimulus 
 made on the different parts of the heart by the blood 
 itfelf, which by its quantity and heat, or other proper- 
 ties (d), is perhaps capable of tirfl exciting that mo- 
 tion, which is afterwards continued tlirough lite, inde- 
 pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood to 
 the auricles, in a quantity proportioned to that which 
 is thrown into the arteries. ■" 
 
 The heart polfeffcs the vii infita, or principle of ir- 
 ritability, in a much creatcr degree than any other 
 mufcle of the body. The pulfe is quicker in young 
 than in old lubjedts, becaufe the former arc c.rt. par. 
 more irritable than the latter. Upon the fame prin- 
 ciple we may explain, why the pulfc is conflantly 
 quicker in weak than inroboil pcrfons. 
 
 Sect. XIII. Of the Circulation. 
 
 Akter what has bcenobferved of the ftruftitrc and 
 action of the heart and its auricles, and likewife of the 
 Vol. I. 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 arteries and veins, there fcem to be but very few argu- 
 mtnts rcquu-eJ to'dcraonflratc ilxe. cifcuiaiion of the 
 b!(,o:!, w hich has long linec been eflablifhcd as a racdi- 
 cal truili. This circulation may be defined to be a 
 perpetual motion of the blood, in cbnfcquencc of the 
 adion of the heart and arteries, which impel it through 
 all the parts of the body, ft-oni whence it is brought 
 back by the veins to the heart. 
 
 A very faiisfactory proof of this circulation, and t 
 proof cafy to be uudcrllood, may be deduced from the 
 different ctledts of prelTure o\\ an artery and a vein. If 
 a ligature, for inflance, is palfed round an artery, the 
 vcllel fwcUs confidcrably between the ligature and the 
 heart; whereas if we tic up a vein, it only become* 
 filled between the extremity and the ligature, and thij- 
 is what v/e every day obferve in bleeding. The liga- 
 ture we pafs round the arm on thefc occalions, com-" 
 preffes the fupcrficial veins ; and the return of the bload 
 through them being impeded, they become diflcnded. 
 When the ligature is too loofc, t!ie veins are not fuf- 
 ficienily coniprelfcd, and the blood continues its pro* 
 giefs tow-ards the heart ; and, on the contrary, when 
 it is made too tight, the arteries themfclvcs become 
 conipreifed ; and the flow of the blood through ihcni 
 being impeded, the veins cannot be diflcnded. 
 
 Another phasnomenon, which effectually proves the 
 circulation, is the lofs of blojd that every living ani- 
 mal fuflains by opening only a lUigle artery of a mode- 
 rate fize ; for it continues to tlow from the wounded 
 vcfTcl till the equilibrium isdcflroyed which isclfential 
 to life. This truth was not unknown to the ancients ; 
 and it feems flrangc that it did not lead them to a 
 knowledge of the circidatiou, as it fufficiently proves, 
 that all the other velfels mufl communicate with that 
 which is opened. Galen, who Lived more than 1 500 
 years ago, drew this conclufion from it ; and if we far- 
 ther obferve, that he dcfcribcs (after Erafillratus, who 
 floiu-iihcd about 450 years before him) the feveral valves 
 of the heart, and determines their dil'pofition and ufcs, 
 it will appear wonderful, that a period of near 2000 
 years fhould afterwards elapfc before the true courfc 
 of the blood was afccrtained. This difcovery, Ibi* 
 which we are indebted to the immortal Harvey, has 
 thrown new lights on phyfiology and the doiftrine of 
 difcafes, and conllitutes one ot the moll important pe- 
 riods of anatomical hiflory. 
 
 Sect. XIV. Of the Nature of the BlozJ. 
 
 Bloot, recently drawn from a vcirf into a bafon, 
 Mould fcem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co- 
 lour ( e) ; but when fuffered to rcfl, it loon coagulates, 
 and divides into two parts, which arc diflinguiihcd by 
 the namcsof crajfamcnium zndftr:tm. The cralfamcn- 
 tum is the red coagnlum, and the fcrum is the water 
 in which it floats. Each of thefc may be again fep»- 
 rated into two Others ; for the cralTamcntum, by bcin:; 
 5 W repeatedly 
 
 I if. 
 
 (d) Dr Harvey long ago fuggefted, that the blood is polTcircd of a living principle ; and Mr J. Hunter has 
 lately endeavoured to revive tliis dodtrine ; in fupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments. 
 The fubjedl is a curious one, and defcrves to be profecutcd as an inquiry which cannot but be intcrefting to 
 phyfiologifls. 
 
 (e) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, isobferved to be more f.orid Oian it is in the veins ; and 
 this rcdnels is acquired in its palTagc tlirough the lungs. Fid. fed. vii.
 
 76: 
 
 Of the 
 1 h(>rax. 
 
 * Htiijini 
 £/i}.FarCl. 
 
 130. 
 
 ANA! 
 
 xt\ttnc&\y waflicdin warm water, gives out all its red 
 rlub'.iks, anJ what rtniaiiis appears to be cojnpofcdot 
 the coagulable lymph (k), which is a gelatinous ful)- 
 ilancc, capable ol being hardened by tire till it becomes 
 perfccily horny : and it' we cxpofc the feruni to a ccr- 
 nin degree of heat, part of it will be found 10 coagu- 
 late like the white of an egg, and there will remain a 
 clcir and limpid water, refembling urine both in its 
 appearance and fmell. 
 
 The fcrum and crairamentum differ in their propor- 
 tion in different conllitiuious ; in a ftrong perfon, the 
 cralfamentum is in a greater proponitui to the fcrum 
 than in aweakone ;• and the fame difference is found 
 to take place in difeafcs (c). 
 
 Sect. XV. Of Nutrition. 
 
 The variety of fundlions which we have defcribed 
 as being incclbnily performed by the living body, and 
 the coiuinual circulation of the blood through it, mull 
 neccfl'arily occalion a conftant diffipation of the feveral 
 parts which enter into its compolition. In fpeaking 
 of the infenlible perfpiration, we obferved how much 
 was inccffantly paffing offfrom the lungs and the fur- 
 face of the Ikin. The difchaige by urine is likewifc 
 every day confiderablc ; and great pa; t of the bile, fa- 
 liva,'&c. are excluded by ftool. But the folid, as well 
 as the fluid parts of the body, require a conllant rc- 
 ncwalof nutritious particles. They are expofedtothc 
 attrition of the fluids which are circulated through 
 them ; and the contraftion and relaxation tlicy repeat 
 fo many thoufand times in every day, would necclla- 
 rily occafion a dillbluiion of the machine, if the re- 
 newal was not proportioned to the waflc. 
 
 It is eafy to conceive how the chyle formed from 
 the aliment isalTiniilatcd into the nature of blood, and 
 repairs the lofs of the iluid parts of our body; but 
 how the folids are renewed, has never yet been fatis- 
 fa<aorily explained. The nutritious parts of the blood 
 are probably dcpofited by the arteries by exfudation 
 through their pores into the tela cellulofa ; and as the 
 folid parts of the body arc in the embryo only a kind 
 of jelly, which gradually acquires the degree of con- 
 fiftcnce they are found tohave when the body arrives 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part IV. 
 
 at a more advanced age ; and ihefe fame parts which 
 confift of bones, cartilages, ligaments, mufcles, &c. 
 are fomclimes reduced again bydifeafe to a gelatinous 
 llatc ; we may, with fome degree of prabability, con- 
 lider the co-gulable lymph as the fource of nutrition. 
 If the fupply of nourilliment exceeds the degree of 
 walle, the body inereafes ; and this happens in infancy 
 and ia youth : for at thofc periods, but more particu- 
 larly the former one, the tluids bear a large proportion 
 to the folids ; and the fibres being foft and yielding, 
 arc proportion.ably more capable of extenfion and in- 
 creafe. But when the fupply of nutrition only equals 
 the waftc, we neither increafe nor decreafe ; and we 
 find this to be the cafe when the body has attained its 
 full growth or aimi : for the folids having then acqui- 
 red a certain degree of firmnefs and rigidity, do not 
 permit a farther increafe of the body. But as we ap- 
 proach to old age, rigidity begins to be in excefs, and 
 the fluids ( h ) bear a much lefs proportion to the folids 
 than before. Tnc dillipation of the body is greater 
 than the fupply of nourilhment ; many of the fmaller 
 velFels become gradually impervious (i) ; and thelibres 
 loiing their moilturc and their elafliciiy, appear flaccid 
 and wrinkled. The lilies and the rofes difappear, be- 
 eaufe the fluids by which they were produced can no 
 longer reach the extremities of the capillary vtllels of 
 the ikin. As thefe changes take place, the nervous 
 power being proportionably weakened, the irritability 
 and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly fo 
 remarkable, arc greatly diminiflicd ; and in advanced 
 life, the hearing, the eye-iight, and all the other 
 fenfes, become gradually impaired. 
 
 Sect. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions. 
 
 The glands are commonly underAood to be fmall, 
 roundiQi, or oval bodies formed by the convolution of 
 a great number of vcll'els, and dellined to feparate par- 
 ticular humours from the mafs of blood. 
 
 They are nfually divided into two clafTes ; but it 
 feems more proper to diftinguiOi three kindsof glands, 
 viz. the mucus, conglobate, and conglomerate. 
 
 The mucous glands, or follicles, as they arc moH 
 commonly called, arc fiiiall cylindrical tubes continued 
 
 from 
 
 (r) It n'ay not be improper toobfcrvc, that till of late the coagulable lymph has been confounded with the 
 Ceruhi of the blood, w-hich contains a fubflance that is likewifc coagulable, though only when expofed to heat, 
 or combined w ith certain chemical fubllances ; whereas the other coagulates fpontaneoufly when expofed to 
 the air or to reft. 
 
 (g) When the blood fcparatcs inio/c/.vm and crajfamcrtuiu, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whi- 
 tifli or buff colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain proof of the blood's being in a ftate of too great 
 viftidity. This appearance commonly taking place in inflammatory difeafcs, has long fcrved to confirm the 
 •luory which afcribes the caufe of inflammation to lentor and obflrudions. But from the late Mr Hewfons' 
 experiments it appears, that when the atSion of the arteries is incrcafed, the blood, inftcad of being more 
 xifcid, is, on the contrary, more fluid than in the ordinary flate, previous to inflammation: and that in 
 confcqucnce of this, the coat;ulable lymph fuffers the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, 
 to fall down to the bottom before it coagulates: f<> that the craffamcntuni is divided into rwo parts ; one of 
 which is found to conflll of the coagulable lymph alone (in this cafe termed the buff J ; and the other, partly 
 of this and partly of the red globules. 
 
 (h) As the fluids become lefs in proportion to the folids, their acrimony is found to increafe ; and this may 
 perhaps compcnfate for the want of fluidity in the blood by diminifliing its eohefion. 
 
 (i) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in refpeft 10 the veins, and the lymphatic glands are 
 larger than at any other time of life ; whereas, in old age, the capacity of the venous fyflcin exceeds that of 
 the arteric:, and the lymphatic fyflcui alraoft difappcars.
 
 Part IV. 
 
 N 
 
 or the 
 I'horaz. 
 
 from the ends of arteries. In fome parts of the body, 
 as in the tonlils, for example, fevcralof tbcfc rollicles 
 may be Iccn folded together in oiic common covering, 
 and opci'.ing into one common linus. Thcfc follicles 
 «re the velltls that fccretc and pour out mucus in the 
 mouth, oefophagus, ftomach, intelliucs, and other 
 parts of the body. 
 
 The conglobatt glanJs are peculiar to the lymphatic 
 fj ftem. Kvcry lymphatic vein paifcs through a gland 
 of this kind in its way to the thoracic duel. They are 
 met with in dilfcrent parts of the body, pariicuiarly 
 ui the axilla, groin, and niefcntcry, and arc cither lo- 
 litary or in diuinft cluUers. 
 
 The conglomerat: gtandt are of much greater bulk 
 than the conglobate, and fcem to be an ailcmblagc of 
 many fmaller glands. Of this kind are thclivcr, kid- 
 neys, &c. Some of them, as the pancreas, parotids, 
 &c. have a granulated appearance, i^ll tlicfe conglo- 
 merate glands are plentiluUy fupplied with blood- 
 velTcls ; but their nerves arc in general very minute, 
 and few in number. Each little granulated portion 
 furnilhes a fmall tube, which unites with other fimi- 
 lar duds, to form the common excretory dud of the 
 gland. 
 
 The principal glands, and thehumoursthey fecrete, 
 have been already defcribed in dilfercnt parts of this 
 work ; and there only remains for us to examine the 
 general flrutture of the glands, and to explain the me- 
 chanilm of fecrction. On the Hrfl of thefc fubjeds 
 twodiffcrenifyftcms have been formed ; each of which 
 has had, and llill continue to have, its adherents. 
 One of ihefe fy Hems was advanced by Malpighi, who 
 fuppofcd that an artery entering into a gland ramities 
 very minutely through its whole fubftance ; and that 
 its branches ultimately terminate iu a veficular cavity 
 or follicle, from whence the fecrcteJ riuid palles out 
 through the excretory dud. This doctrine at firft 
 met with few opponents ; but the celebrated Ruyfch, 
 who firft attempted minute injei^tions with wax, attcr- 
 ■wards difputcd the exiilencc of thcfe follicles, and af- 
 ferted, that every gland appears to be a continued fe- 
 ries of velTcls, which after being repeatedly convol.i- 
 ted in their courfe through its lubftance, at length ter- 
 minate in the excretory dud. Anaiomifts are ftill 
 divided between thefc two fyllems: that of Malpighi, 
 however, feems to be the beft founded. 
 
 The mode of fecretion has been explained in a va- 
 riety of ways, and they are all perfedly hypothetical. 
 In fuch an inquiry it is natural to alk, how one gland 
 conftaiitly fcparatesa particular hunvmr, while another 
 gland fecreics one of a very dilferent nature from the 
 hluod .' The bile, for inftance, is fep.iratcd by the 
 liver, and the urine by the kidneys. Are thcfe fecrc- 
 tions to be imputed to any pLirticulardifpofiiions in the 
 fluids, or is their caufe to be looked for in the folids ? 
 
 It has been fuppofed, that every gland contains 
 within itfelf a fermenting p'inciple, by which it is 
 enabled to change the natire of the blood it receives, 
 and to endue it with a particular property. So that, 
 according to this fyftcm, the blood, as it circulates 
 ihroHghthe kidneys, becomes mixed witli the ferment- 
 ing principle of thofe glands, and a part of it is con- 
 verte.l into urine; and again, in the liver, in the fa- 
 lival and other glands, lie bile, the fiUvj, 3:: J o;hcr 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 juice5,aregencraiedfromafimilirctiife, Butitfeems 
 to be impolliblc for any liquor to be confined in a 
 place expofed to the circulation, without being car- 
 ried away by the torrent of blood, every part of which 
 would be equally atieded ; and this fyltem of fermen- 
 tation has lung bacn rcjeded as vague and chimerical, 
 liut as the caule of Iccretion continued to be looked 
 for iu the fluids, the former fyftcm was fucceeded by 
 another, in which recourfe was had to the analogy of 
 the humours. It was obferved, that if paper is moift- 
 ened with water, and oil and water art afterwards 
 poured upon it, that the water only will be permitted 
 to pafs through it ; but that, on the other hand, if the 
 paper has been previouilyfoaked in oil iuftead ot water, 
 I he oil only, anU nut the water.willbeiiltcred tiirouJii 
 it. Thclc ubiervations led to a fuppolitioii, chat every 
 lecrctory organ is originally furnilhed with a humour 
 aualagous to that whjch it i» afterwards dcltined to 
 leparatc from the blood ; and that in confcqience of 
 this dilpofition, the fecretory veilels of the liver, for 
 inltance, will only auinit the bilious particles of the 
 blood, while all the other humours will be excluded. 
 This fyltem is an ingenious one, but the dirilcu.iie* 
 with which it abounds arc unanfwtrable ; for oil and 
 water are immifciule ; whereas the blood, as i; is cir- 
 culated through the body, appears to be an homoge- 
 nous fluid, tviry oil wil. pafs through a paper 
 moiftcned only with one kind of oil; and wine, or 
 fpirits mixed w ith water, will eafily be iiltered through 
 a paper prcviouily foakcd in water. Upon the fauie 
 principle, all our humours, though ditt'cring i.i their 
 other properties, yet agreeing in that of being perfect- 
 ly mifcibic w ith each other, will all ealily pals through- 
 thc fame tiltrc — But thefc aie not all the objcdionx 
 to this fyftem. The humours which are fuppofed to 
 be placed in the fecretory veiFcls for the determina- 
 tion of limilir particles of the blood, muft beoriginally 
 feparated without any analogous fluid ; and that which 
 happens once, may as ealily happen always. Again, 
 it fometimes happens from a vicious difpoiition, thai 
 humours are filtered through glands which are natu- 
 rally not intended to atford them a palTage ; and when 
 this once Las happened, it ought, according to this 
 fyftem, to be expedcd always to do fo : whereas this 
 is not the cafe ; and we are, after all, naturally led to 
 feek for the caufe of fecretion in the folids. It does 
 not fcem right to afcribe it to any particular figire oi 
 the fecretory vclTels ; becaufe the fof: texture of thole 
 parts docs not permit them to preferve any conftanc 
 Ihape. and our fluids feem to be capable of accommo- 
 dating thcmfclves to every kind of figure. Some have 
 imputed it to the diflerence of diimeter in the oriiires 
 of the different fecretory velTeh. To this dodrino 
 objedions have like wife been railed; and it has been 
 argued, that the velfels of the liver, for inftance, 
 would, upon this principle, afl^ord a palfage not only to 
 the bile, but to all the other humours of lefs coalift- 
 ence with it. In reply to this oiijcdion, it has been 
 luppofed, that fecondary vclRh cxiil, which originate 
 from the firft, and permit all the huaionrs thinner than 
 the bile top.ifs through them. 
 
 Each of ihefe hypothcfcs is probably very remote 
 from the trutli. 
 
 J D 
 
 IrlXPL.^NA'
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 EXPLANATION of PLATE XXVIIL 
 
 Part V. 
 
 Tins plate rcprcfcntf) the Heart in lltu, all the hrge 
 Arteries and Veins, with (omeotthe Mufclcs, &:c. 
 
 Muscles, &c Superior Extremity. — a, Maf- 
 
 fctcr. b, Complexus. C, Digallriciis. d, Os hyoides. 
 c, Thyroid gland, f. Levator fcapnljs. g, Ciiculla- 
 ris. hh. The clavieles cut. i, 'I'he deltoid imilcle. 
 k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachialis. 
 m, Triceps extenfor cubiti. n, The headsof the pro- 
 nator teres, flexor carpi radialcs, and flexor digitorum 
 fublimis, cut. o. The flexor carpi-ulnaris, cut at its 
 extremity, p, Flexor digitorum profundus, q. Supi- 
 nator radii longus, cut at us cxirtmity. r, Liganun- 
 lum carpi tranfverlak. s, I'xicnforcs carpi radialcs. 
 I, Latiiliuuis dorii. u. Anterior edge of the ferratus 
 amicus major, vv. The interior part of the dia- 
 phragm. WW, Its anterior edge cut. xx, The kid- 
 neys, y, Tranfverfus abdominis, z, Os ilium. 
 
 iNhERiOR E.XTREMITY. — ii, Pfoas uiagnus. t, lli- 
 acus internus. c, The flefliy origin of tlie tenfor va- 
 gina fcmoris. dJ, The ofla pubis cut from eachothcr. 
 f, Mulculus peftineus cut fi'om its origin, f, Short 
 head of the triceps abdudor fcmoris cut. g, The great 
 lieadof the Q-iceps. /■, The long liead cut. ;, Vallus 
 internus. k, Vaflus externus. /, Crureus. m, Gemel- 
 lus a, Soleus. o, Tibia. />, Peronaeus longus. g, Pe- 
 rouDEUs brevis. r, Fibula. 
 
 Heart and Bi.ood-vessei.s A, The heart, with 
 
 the coronary artery and veins. B, The right auricle 
 of the heart. C, The aorta afcendens. D, The left 
 fubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The 
 common trimk which fends off thcright fubclavian and 
 
 right carotid arteries. G, The carotis externa. II, Ar- 
 teria facialis, which fends oft' the coronary arteries of 
 the lips. I, Artcria temporalis profunda. K, Aor- 
 ta dcfcendens. L L, Tlie iliac arteries, — which fends 
 otfiM M, The femoral or crural arteries. N. B. The 
 other arteries in this figure have the fame diflribution as 
 the veins of the fame name : — And generally, in tlie 
 anatomical plates, the dcfeription to be found on the 
 one fide, points out the fame parts in the other, 
 I, The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena 
 temporalis profimda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena 
 jugularis externa. 6, Venajugularis interna, covering 
 the .a'teria carotis communis. 7, The vafcular arch on 
 the palm ofthe hand, which is formed by, 8, The radial 
 artery and vein, and, 9, The ulnar artery and vein. 
 10 10, Cephiilic vein. 11, Balilic vein, that on the 
 right fide cut. 12, Median vein, i?. The humeral 
 vein, which, with the median, covers the humeral ar- 
 tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mammary ar- 
 teries and veins. 1 5. The axillary vein, covering the 
 artery. 16 16, The fubclavian veins, which, with 
 (6 6) the jugulars, form, 17, The vena cava fupe- 
 rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore part 
 ofthe foot. 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering 
 the artery. 20, The vena profmida fcmoris, covering 
 the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena faphena 
 major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 2;!, The iliac 
 veins. 24 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal 
 veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragin«- 
 lic veins. 
 
 Of (he 
 Tliorax. 
 
 Part V. Of the BRAIN and NERVES. 
 
 131; 
 
 In tegu- 
 ments of 
 the braio- 
 
 Sect. I. Of tht Brain and its Integuments. 
 
 THE bones ofthe cranium were defcribed in the 
 olleologicalpartofthiswork.asinclofirjg the brain, 
 and defending it from external injury : but they are not 
 its only proteftion ; for when we make an horizontal 
 fcfkion through thefe bones, we find this mafs every- 
 where furrounded by two membranes (k), the dura and 
 pia mater. — The firfl of thefe lines the interior furfacc 
 ofthe cranium, to which it everywhere adheres flrong- 
 ly (i.), but more particularly at the futures, and at the 
 many foramina through which velTcls pafs between it 
 
 and the pericranium. The (/«rrfw<7/ir/-(M) is perfciS- 
 ly fmoothandinclallic,and i ts inner furface is conflant- 
 ly bedewed with a fine pellucid fiuid.which every where 
 feparatesit from the piamater. The dura mater fends 
 offfeveralconfiderableproceires.which divide the brain 
 into feparate portions, and prevent them from compref- 
 fing each other. Of thefe proceffes there is one fupe- 
 rior, and longitudinal, called thcfa/x, oxfaicifontipro- 
 ccfs, from itsrefcmblancc to a fcyihe. It arifcs from 
 the fpine of theos frontis, near the chriflagalli, and ex- 
 tending along in the diredion of the fagittal future, to 
 beyond the lambdoidal future, divides the brain into two 
 
 hemif- 
 
 (k) The Greeks called thefe membranes ?!ieninges ; but the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all 
 the other membranes ofthe body, afterwards gave them the names of dura and pia mater ; by which they are 
 row ufually diflinguidied. 
 
 (l) In young fubjedls tills adhefion is greater than in adults ; but even then, in the healthy fubjcfl, it is no 
 where cafily feparable, without breaking through feme of the minute vcfTels by means of which it is attached 
 to the bone. 
 
 (m) This membrane is commonly defcribed as confiftingof twolaminse ; of which the external one is fuppo- 
 . fed to perform the office of perioitcum internum to the cranium, while the internal one forms the folds and 
 procelles of the dura mater. In the natural ftatc, however, no fuch feparation is apparent ; like other mem- 
 branes, we may indeed divide it, not into two only, but many laminx ; but this divifionis artificial, and depends 
 du the dexterity of the anaiouiifl.
 
 IM.,1, \\\ II 
 
 ■..■/'./■
 
 PartV. ANA' 
 
 Of the hemifphcrcs. A little below the lambdoi Jal future, it 
 Urain and divides into two broad wings or cxpanlions called the 
 Nerves, tranfverfe or lateral prDce^fs, which pre vents the lobes 
 of the cerebrum from preiling on the cerebellum. Bc- 
 fides tliefe tiiere is a fourth, which is fituated under 
 the tranfverfe proceflcs, and being continued to the 
 fpine of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two 
 lobes. 
 
 The blood, after being diflributed through the ca- 
 vity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is return- 
 ed, as iu the other parts of the body, by veins which 
 all pafs on to certain channels, lituated behind thefc 
 fevcral procelfes. 
 
 Thefe canalsor finufes communicate withcachother, 
 and empty thcmfclves into the internal jugular veins, 
 which convey the blood into the vena cava. They arc 
 in faft triangular veins, running through the fubflance 
 of the diu-a mater, and, like the proccll'es, are dilliii- 
 guiflied into lo'igitudiiial and lateral ,- and where thefe 
 three meet, and where the fourth proccfs paircsoff, we 
 obfcrve a foitfth linus, which is called lorcular ; Hcro- 
 philus, who firft defcribed it, having fuppofcd that the 
 blood at the imion of thefe two veins, is as it were, in 
 aprefs. 
 
 Bcfides thefe four canals, which were known to the 
 ancients, modern anatoniills enumerate many others, 
 by gi\*.ng the appellation oifiiiujei to other veins of the 
 dura mater, which for the moft part empty themfelves 
 into fome of thofe wehave juit now defcribed. There 
 are the inferior longitudinal fuius, the fupcrior and in- 
 ferior pen-ous finufes, the cavernous finuics, the circu- 
 lar fmus, and the anterior and pollerior occipital fi- 
 nufes. 
 
 Thefe finufes or veins, bybeing conveyed through a 
 thick denfe membrane, firmly fufpended, as the dura 
 mater is, within the cranium, arc Icfs liable to rupture; 
 at the fame time they are well fupported, and by run- 
 ning every where along the inner fiu-faceof the bones, 
 they are prevented from prethngon thefubilancc of the 
 brain. To prevent too great a dilatation of them, we 
 find filaments (called chorda Willifii, from their having 
 been firft noticed by Willis) ftretchcd acrofs their ca- 
 vities ; and the oblique manner in which the veins from 
 the brain run through the fubftance of the brain into 
 thefe channels, ferves the purpofe of a valve, which 
 prevents the blood from turning back into the fmaller 
 and weaker velFels of the brain. 
 
 The pia mater is a much foftcr and finer membrane 
 than the dura mater ; being exceedingly delicate, tran- 
 fparent, and vafcular. It inverts every part of tiic brain 
 and fends oflan infinite number of elongations, which 
 inlinuate themfelves between the convolutions, and 
 even into the fubftance of the brain. This membrane 
 is compofed of two laminas ; of which the exteriorone 
 is named tunica arachiioidta, from its thinnefs, which is 
 equal to that of a fpider's web. Thefe two laminx are 
 intimately adherent to each other at the upper part of 
 the brain, but are eafily feparable at the balls of the 
 brain, and through the whole Icngtii of the medulla 
 fpinalis. The external layer, or tunica arachnoidea, 
 appears to be fpread uniformly over the furfacc of the 
 brain, but without entering into its furrows as the in- 
 ner layer does ; the latter being found to infinuate it- 
 felf between the convolutions, and even into the inte- 
 rior cavities of the brain. The blood-vclltls ol the 
 
 ^ O M Y. 
 
 brain arc diftributcd through it in iheirway to thator- 
 gan, and are therefore divided into very minute rami- 
 fications, before they penetrate the fubftance of the 
 brain. 
 
 There arc feveral parts included under the general 
 denomination oi brain. One of thefe, which is of the 
 fofteftconliftencc, and fills the greaieft part of the ca- 
 vity of thccranium, is the arebrnm, or brain, properly 
 fo called. Another portion, which is featcd in the in- 
 ferior and pofterior part of the head, is the cirebelluv! ,- 
 and a third, which derives its origin from both thefe, 
 is the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The cerebrum is a medullary mafs of a moderate con- 
 fiftence, filling up exactly all the upper part of the ca- 
 vity of the cranium, and divided into two hemflphcrcs 
 by the falx of the dura mater. Each of thefe hcmif- 
 phcresisufuallydiliinguilhed mioan interior, amiddte, 
 and a pojlerior lobe. The firft of thefc is lodged on the 
 orbital procefles of the os frontis ; the middle lobes lie 
 on the middle folFas of the bafisof the cranium, and the 
 pofterior lobes are placed on the tranfverfe feptum of 
 the OS oecipitis, immediately over the cerebellum, from 
 which they are feparatcd by the iareral procelfes of the 
 dura mater. Thefe two portions aftbrd no diftinguifh- 
 ing mark of feparation ; and on this account Haller, 
 and many other modern anatomifls, omit the diftinc- 
 tion of middle lobe, and fpcakonly of the anterior and 
 pofterior lobes of the brain. 
 
 The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two dif- 
 tin6t fubdances. Of ihcfc, the exterior one, which is 
 of a greyifli or alh-colour, is called the cortex, and is 
 fomewhat foftcr than the other, which is very white, 
 and is called medulla ox fubjlantia alba. 
 
 After having removed the falx, and fcparated the 
 two htmifpheres from each other, we perceive a white 
 convex body, the corpus callofum, which is a portion 
 of themedullaryfubrtance.uniting the two hemifphcres 
 to each other, and not inverted by the cortex. By 
 making an horizontal incilion in the brain, on a level 
 with this corpus callofum, we difcover two oblong ca- 
 vities, named \.\\c anterior or lateral fentrictes, one in 
 each hemifpherc. Thefe two ventricles, which com- 
 municate with each other by a hole immediately under 
 the plexus choroides, arc fcparated laterally by a very 
 fine medullary partition, callcdyj^/uw lucidum, from its 
 thinnefs and tranfparency. The low-cr edge of this 
 feptum is fixed to the fornix, which is a kind of me- 
 dullary arch (as its name implies) (ituated under the 
 corpus callofum, and nearly of a triangular fl)apc. An- 
 teriorly the fornix fendsotf'two medullary chords, cal- 
 led its anterior crura ; which feeni to be united to each 
 other by a portion of medullary fubftance, named com- 
 t»i{fi/ra anterior cerebri. Thefc crura diverging from 
 one another, are loft at the outer fide of the lower and 
 fore-partof the third ventricle. Pofteriorly the fornix 
 is formed into two other crura, which unite with two 
 medullary protuberances called pedei hippocampi, and 
 {omclxmc^cornuaaninionii, that extendalong the back- 
 part of the lateral ventricles. The concave edge of the 
 pedes hippocampi is covered by a medullary lamina, 
 called corpus fitnbriatum. 
 
 Neither the edges of the fornix, nor its pofterior 
 crura, can be well diftinguilhed, till we have removed 
 the plexus choroides. This is a produi5lion of the pia 
 mater, which is fpread over the lateral ventricles. Its 
 
 loofe 
 
 765 
 
 Of the 
 
 Brain ^ol 
 
 Ncncl. 
 
 Ij4 
 
 The braia. 
 
 »J5 
 Cerebrum.
 
 766 
 
 Of the 
 
 Urain and 
 
 Kcrvei. 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part V. 
 
 » /);/>. Je 
 
 Uflndiluh 
 Cerebri . 
 
 t Rati* 
 AM. 
 toni vl. 
 v. 371. 
 
 loofc edges arc collcded, fo as to appear like a vafcu- termiiutes, was by ihc ancients fuppofed to be of a Of the 
 lar baud on each lidc. glandular ftrutliirc, and dcHined tofiUcr tbefcrolily of Crain aod 
 
 When \\c have removed ihis plexus, we difcovcr ihe brain. Spigclius pretended to have difcovcrcj iis Ncrvet. ^ 
 
 excretory duct, but it feenis certain that no fuch duct 
 cxifls. li is of an oblong Ibape, compofed, as it were 
 of two lobes. In ruuiiiiant animals it is much larger 
 than in man. 
 
 From the pofterior part of the third veniricle, we fee 
 afmall groove or channel, dcfccndiug obliquely back- 
 wards. This channel, which is called the aqucduil of 
 Sylvius, though it was known to the ancients, opens 
 into another cavity of the brain, placed between the 
 ihajami iiervonunoi'li'coruw, !,Yc(o cMci\,he^i\i{c i\\c cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and called the 
 
 fourth vciitrici!. p V,| 
 
 The cenbcUupi, which is divided into two lobes, is '*•'"'• 
 
 fcveral othtr protuberances included in the lateral 
 ventricles. Thele are the corpora Ihiata, the ih.ila- 
 nii nervorum opiiconim, the tubcrcula quadrugc- 
 niina, and the pineal gl.Mid. 
 
 The corj^ora Jiriulu arc two curved oblong eminen- 
 ces, that extend along the anterior part of the lateral 
 ventricles. They derive their name from their Uriatcd 
 appearance, which is owing to an iutcrmixturc of the 
 cortical and medullary fubllanccs of the brain. '1 he 
 
 optic nerves arife ciiicHy from them, and they arc like 
 wife compofed both of the cortex and medulla. They 
 arc feparated from the corpora liriata only by a kind 
 of medullary chord, thegeminum centrum (emi-circu- 
 lare. The thalami are nearly of an oval fliapc, and 
 are lituated at the bottom of the upper cavity of the la- 
 teral ventricles. They are clolcly united, and at their 
 convex part fecm to become one body. 
 
 Anteriorly, in the fpace between the thalami, we 
 obferve an orifice by which the lateral ventricles com- 
 nuinicate, and another leads down from this, under the 
 different appellations o( foramen cotnmuiie anttriui, 
 vulva iter ad iifutidibuium, but more properly iter ad 
 tertiuvi veutricuhnn ; and the feparation of the thala- 
 mi from each other poflerioily, forms another open- 
 ing or interflicc called anus. This has been fuppofed 
 to communicate with the third vcntiicle ; but it does 
 not, the bottom of it being Ihut up by the pia mater. 
 The back part of the anus is formed by a kind of me- 
 dulhry band, which connects the thalami to each 
 other, and is called co7nvhifura pojlerior cerebri. 
 
 Behind the thalami and commilfura pofterior, we 
 obferve a fmall, foft, grcyilli, and oval body, about the 
 fizeofapea. 1 his is (he glandula pinealis i itisde- 
 fcribed by Galen under the name of oonariou,3.wA has 
 been rendered famous by Defcartes, who fuppofed it 
 
 commonly fuppofed to be of a firmer texture than the 
 cerebrum ; but ihctruth is,thatin thcgreaiernumbcr 
 offubjeds, there appears to be no fenliblc difference in 
 the confidancc of ibcfc two parts. It has more of the 
 cortical than of the medullary fubllancc in its compo- 
 fition. 
 
 The furrow that divides the two lobes of the cere- 
 bellum leads anteriorly to a proctfs, compofed of me- 
 dullary and cortical fubllanccs, covered by the pia ma- 
 ter i and which, from its being divided into numerous 
 furrows, refcmbling the rings of the earth-worm, is 
 named proajfus vcrnujortiiis. This proccfs fti ms x 
 kind of ring in its courfc between the lobes. 
 
 The furface of the cerebellum does not afford thofe 
 circumvolutions which appear in the cerebrum ; but 
 infteadof thefc, we obferve a great number of minute 
 furrows, running parallel to each other, and nearly 
 in a iranlverfc direction. The pia mater inlinuates it- 
 felt into thefc furrows. 
 
 When we cut into the fubftance of the cerebellum, 
 from above downwards, we find the medullary part 
 running in a kind of raniifyingcourfe, anil exhibitiKg 
 an ajipcarance that has got the name of arbor vitn. 
 'Ihel'c ramifications unite to form amedullary trunk; 
 
 to be the feat of the foul. Galen feems formerly to the middle, anterior, and moll conliderable part of 
 
 have entertained the fame opinion. Some modern 
 wriiers have, with as little rcafon, imagined that the 
 foul is placed in the corpus callofum. 
 
 The pineal gland rcfts upon four remarkable emi- 
 nences, difpofed in pair?, and feated immediately below 
 it. Thefe tubercles, which by the ancients were called 
 tcflei and iiatn, have, lince the time of Winilow, been 
 more commonly named /.' I> rcuia quadrugcmina. 
 
 Under the thalami we obferve another cavity, the 
 thiri! ventricle, which teru\iuates anteriorly in a fu all 
 medullary canal, the infundibulum, that leads to the 
 
 which forms two procclfcs, the cruiaccrebclli; which 
 unite with the crura cerebri, to fornr the mediila ob- 
 longata. The lalt furuilhes two other procelfes, which 
 lofe thcmfelvts under the nates, and thus unite the 
 lobes of the cerebellum to the poiUrior part of the ce- 
 rebrum. Under the nates weobfervc a tranfverfc me- 
 dullary line, or linea alba, running froBi one of thc[e 
 procelies to the other ; and between them we find a 
 very thin inedullary lamina, coveredwith the pia ma- 
 ter, which the generality ofan.Ttomifls have (thougii 
 fccniingly v\ ithout reafon)conlidered a? a valve Ibrmtd 
 
 glandula'pituitaria. It has been doubled, whether the for doling the communication between the fourth vcn- 
 
 infundibiilum is really hollow ; but fome late experi- tri le and the aquaedudus bylvii. Vieull'ens named it 
 
 ments on this parts of the brain * by Profiflbr Murray valvtila i/.ajor cerebri. 1^7 
 
 of Upfal, clearly prove i: to be a medullary canal, fur- The medulla oblongata is fittiated in the middle, Medulla 
 
 rounded by bothlaminasof liic piamaicr. After free- lower, and pofterior part of the cranium, and mny be oblongata, 
 
 zing the brain, this channel was found filled with ice ; confidered as a jiroduclion or eontinu..liou of the 
 
 and de Hrfcn tells -|- us, he found it dilated, and filled whole m<dullary fubllance of the rerebrnm .»nd cere- 
 
 wiih a cab.areous matter (n). btlhim. being formed by the n:.ion of iwoconfi 'er blc 
 
 The foft fpongy body in which the infundibulum medullary proct Acs of the cerebrum, called «:<ra a-r^- 
 
 bri. 
 
 (s) The under part of it, however appears to be impervious ; at leaft no iijedion that can be depended on 
 has been made to pafs from it into theglandula pituitaria without laceration of parts.
 
 Part V. 
 
 N 
 
 Of the bri, with two other finallcr ones from the cerebellum, 
 Ilraiii and which were jull now fpokcn ot under the name oicru- 
 ^ Nerve., ^a cercbilli. 
 
 The crura cerebri arifc from the middle and lower 
 part of each hcmil'phcre. They arc feparattd from 
 each other at their origin, but arc united below, where 
 they termLiatc in a middle protuberance, the pom Va- 
 rolii, fo called, becaufe Varolius compared it to a 
 bridge. This name, however, can convey no idea of 
 its real appearance. It is, in fa(5l, nothing more than 
 a medullary protuberance, nearly of a femi-fpherical 
 fliape, which imites the crura cerebri to thofc of the 
 cerebellum. 
 
 Between the crura cerebri, and near the anterior 
 edge of the pons Varolii, are two tubercles, conipofed 
 externally of medullary, and uittrnally of cintritious, 
 fubflance, to which tullachius firfl gave the name of 
 eMii!eiiti,e mamtllani^ 
 
 Along the middle of the poflerior furfacc of the me- 
 dulla oblongata, where it forms the anterior part of 
 the fourth ventricle, we obfcrve a kind of fiurow 
 which runs do%\niwards and terminates in a point. A- 
 bout an inch above the lower extremity of tjiis fiifure, 
 feveral medullary filaments are to be fcen nuining to- 
 wards it on each (ide in an oblique dircftion, fo as to 
 give it the appearance of a writing-pen ; hence it is 
 called calainiti fcriftorius. 
 
 From the pofterior part of the pons Varolii, the me- 
 dulla oblongata defccnds obliquely backwards : at its 
 fore-part, immediately behind the pons Varolii, we 
 obferve two pair of eminences, which were defcribcd 
 by Euflachins, but received no particular appellation 
 till the time of Vieullens, who gave tliem the names 
 of corpora olivaria and corpora fyramiilalta. The for- 
 mer are the ontermoft, being placed one on each iide. 
 They are nearly of an oval Ihapc, and are compofcd 
 of medulla, with flreaks of cortical fubflance. Be- 
 tween tliefe are the corpora p)Tamidalia, each of 
 which terminates in a point. In the human fubjetl 
 thefe four eminences are fomctimes not eafily dilliix- 
 guilhed. 
 ,,g The medulla fpinalh, ox fpinal marrow, which is 
 
 Medulla t'l^ name given to the medullary chord that is extend- 
 %)inaUs. ed down the vertebral canal, from the great foramen 
 of the occipital bone to the bottom of the lafl lumbar 
 vertebra, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata. 
 Like the other parts of the brain, it isinvcfled by the 
 diu-a and pia mater. The firfl of thefe, in its pallage 
 out of the cranium, adheres to the foramen of the os 
 occipitis. Its connedion with the ligamentary fub- 
 flance that lines the cavity of the fpinc, is only by 
 means of cellular membrane ; but between tlic feveral 
 vertebrce, where the nerves pafsoutofthc fpine, it 
 fends ort' prolongations, which adhere ftrongly to the 
 vertebral ligaments. Here, as in the cranium, the 
 dura mater has its fmufcs or large veins. There are 
 
 ^ O M Y. 
 
 two in number, and arc fecn running on each fide of 
 the medullary column, from the foramen magnum of 1 
 the OS occipitis to the lower part of the os facrnm. 
 They communicate together by rami/ymg branches at 
 each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebra*, inter- 
 coftal, and facral veins. 
 
 The pia mater is connefted with the dura mater by 
 means of a thin tranfparent fubflance, which from its 
 ijidentations between the fpinalnerves hasobtainedthc 
 name of ligavtentum Hititiculatnm. It is fomewhar 
 firmer than the tunica arochnoidca, but in other re- 
 fpeftsrcfemblcs that membrane. Its ufe is to fupiiort 
 the fpinal marrow, that it may not affcft the medulla 
 oblongata by its weight. 
 
 The fpinal marrow itfclf is externally of a white co- 
 lour ; but upon cutting into it we find its middle-part 
 compofcd of a darker coloured mafs, refcmbling the 
 cortex of the brain. When the man-ow has reached 
 the firfl lumbarvertebra, it bccomcsextremely narrow, 
 and at length terminates, in an oblong protuberance ; 
 from the extremity of which the pia mater fends ofi'a 
 prolongation or ligament, refcmbling a nerve, that 
 perforates the dura mater, and is fixed to the os coc- 
 
 The medulla fpinalis gives rife to 50 or 51 pair of 
 nerves, but they are not all of the fame lize, nor do 
 they all run in the fame direftion. The upper ones 
 are thinner than the rert, and arc placed almoil tranf- 
 verfely : as we defcciul we find them running more 
 and morely obliquely downwards, till at length their 
 courfe is almoft perpendicular, fo that the lowcrmolt 
 nerves exhibit an appearance that is called catida tqui- 
 na, from its refcniblancc to a horfc's tail. 
 
 The arteries that ramify through the different parts 
 of the brain, are derived from the hitcrnal c.irotid and 
 from the vertebral arteries. The medulla fpinalis is 
 fupplied by the anterior and poflerior fpinal arteries, 
 and likewife receives branches, from the cervical, the 
 inferior and fupcrior vnteccoUaL, tlie Uimbar, and ihf 
 facral arteries. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Nerves. 
 
 The nerves are medullary chords, differing from 
 each other in fize colour and conlillence and de- 
 riving their origin from the medulla oblongata and me- 
 dulla fpinalis. There are 59, and fomctimes 40, pair 
 of thefe nerves ; nine (o)of which originate from the 
 medulla oblongata, and ^o or 51 from the medulla fpi- 
 nalis. They appear to be perfcdly inelallic, and like- 
 wife to pollefs no irritability. If we irritate mufcular 
 fibres, they immediately coutrad ; but nothing of this 
 fort happens if we irritate a nerve. They carry with 
 them a covering from the pia mater ; but derive no tu- 
 nic from the diu-amattr, as hath been generally, though 
 crroneoully, fuppofcd, ever lince the limcof Galen (r), 
 
 the 
 
 iti 
 
 (o) It has been afual to defcribc the ten pair of nerves as arifing from the medulla oblongata ; but as the tenth 
 pan- arife in the firme manner as the other fpinal nerves, Santorini, Heiltcr, Haller, .and others, iVcm very 
 properly to have clalfed them among the ncrvesof the fpine. 
 
 (p) Baron HuUcr and Profeflbr Zinn fecm to have been the firft who dcmonftrated, that the dura mater is rc- 
 fleclcd upon and adheres to tlie periollcuin at the edges of the foramina that atibrd a palTage to ihc nerves out jf 
 the craniiun, and vertebral canal, or is fooii loiliji the cellular fubilance.
 
 768 
 
 Of the 
 lira in and 
 
 Ncrve$. 
 
 A N A T 
 
 the outer covering of the nerves being in fa<5l nothi ig 
 more than tlic cellular membrane. 'Mils covering is 
 very thick \\ here the nerve is cxpofcd to the action of 
 mulcles ; but where it runs through a bony canal, or 
 is fccuie from prclfurc, the cellular tunic is extremely 
 thin, or altogether wanting. We have inflances of 
 this Ln the jKjrtio mollis of the auditory nerve, and in 
 the nerves of the heart. 
 
 By elevating, carefully and gently, the brain ft-oin 
 the balls of the cranium, we (ind the firfl nine pair a- 
 riiing in the following order : I. The nervi olfaAorii, 
 dirtributed through the pituitary membrane, which 
 conllltutes the organ of fmell. 2. 'Ihc optici, which 
 go to the eyes, \\ here they receive the impreifions of 
 vifiblc objects. 3. The oculorum motorcs, fo called 
 becaufe they are diftributed to the mufclesof the eye. 
 4. The pathetici, dil^ributed to the fuperior obliijue 
 mufcles of the eyes, the moiion of which is cxpreliive 
 of certain pallions of the foul. J. Tlic nerves of litis 
 pair foon divide into three principal branches, and each 
 of thefe has a different name. Its upper divillon is the 
 ophthalamicus, which is diltributed to vai'ious parts of 
 tlie eyes, eye-lids, forehead, nofc, and integuments 
 of the face. The fccond is called the maxillaris fu- 
 perior, and the third ynaxillaris inferior; both which 
 names allude to their diliribution. 6. The abduclores; 
 each of thefe nerves is dillributed to the abductor muf- 
 cleoftheeye, fo called, becaufe it helps to draw the 
 globe of the eye from the nofe. 7. The auditorii (q_), 
 which are dillributed iliiough the organs of hearing. 
 8. The par vagum, which derives its name from the 
 great number of parts to which it gives branches both 
 ill the thorax and abdomen. 9. The linguales, or hy- 
 po-glolli, which are dillributed to the tongue, and ap- 
 pear to contribute both to the organ of talle and to the 
 motions of the tongue (k). 
 
 li has ah-eady been obferved, that the fpinal mar- 
 row fends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves ; thefe arc chieHy 
 diftributed to the exterior parts of the trunk and to the 
 extremities. They are commonly diilinguilhed into 
 the cervical, dorfai, lumbar, sxiAjacral ucrves. The 
 cervical, which pafs out from between the feveral ver- 
 tebrae of the neck, are eight (s) in number ; the dor- 
 fai, twelve ; the lumbar, five ; and the facral, rive or 
 
 4 
 
 O M 
 
 Part V. 
 
 Of the 
 
 Brain and 
 
 Ntrvet, 
 
 fix; the number of the latter depending on the number 
 of holes in the os lacrum. Each fpinal nerve at its ori- 
 gin is compofed of two fafciculi of medullary fibres. 
 
 One of thefe fafciculi arifes from the anterior, and the " 
 other from the poflerior, Airface of the medulla. Thefe 
 fafciculi are feparatcd by the ligamentum denticulatum, 
 after which we find them contiguous to one another. 
 They then perforate the dura mater, and unite to form 
 a conllderable knot or ganglion. Each of thefe gan- 
 glions fends off two branches ; one anterior, and the 
 other poltcrior. The anterior branches communicate 
 with each other at their coming out of the fpinc, and 
 likcwife fend off one, and fometimcs more branches, 
 to alfift in the formation of tlieintcrcoflal nerve. 
 
 The knots or ganglions of the nerves juft now fpo- 
 kcn of, are not only to be met with at their exit from 
 tlie fpiiie, but likcwife in various parts of the body. 
 Tiicy occur in the nerves of the medulla oblongata, as 
 well as in thofc of the fpine. They are not the etf eels 
 of difeafe, but are to be met with in the fame parts of 
 the fame nerves, both in the foetus and adult. ThejT' 
 are commonly of an oblong Ihape, and of a grey ilh co- 
 lour, fomewhat inclined to red, which is perhaps ow- 
 ing CO their being exu-emely vafcular. Internally wc 
 are able to diftiuguifli fomcthing like an intermixture 
 of the nervous filaments. 
 
 Some writers have confidered them as fomany little 
 brains ; Lancili fancied he had difcovered mufcular 
 fibres in them, but they are certainly not of an irrita- 
 ble nature. A late writer, Dr Johnllone*, imagines • £^ay, «j 
 they arc intended to deprive us of the powerof the will tU Ufc of 
 over certain parts, as the heart, for inflance : but if '*<• Gan^/i'- 
 this hypochelis were well founded, we fltouldmeet with""' "/'" 
 them only in the nerves leading to involuntary muf- ■""^"• 
 cles ; whereas it is certain, chat the voluntary mufcles 
 receive their nerves tlu-ough ganglions. Doetor Mon- 
 ro, from obferving the accui-ate intermixture of the 
 minute nerves which compofe them, confiders ihem as 
 new fourees of nervous cnergyf . ^ Ohferva* 
 
 The nerves, like the blood-velfcls, in their courfe thm on th* 
 through the body, communicate with each other ; and Ntrveut 
 each of thefe communications conflitutes what is call- 
 ed z ptexui, from whence branches are again detached 
 to different paits ot the body. Some of thefe are con- 
 stant 
 
 (q^) This pair, foon after its cnirance into the meatus auditorius internus, feparates into two branches. One 
 of thefe is of a very loft and pulpy confidence, is called the portui viollis of the fevenlh pair, and is fpread 
 over the inner part of the car. The other pallcs out through the aquedud of Kallopius in a firm chord, which 
 is dilliuguillicd as the portio dura, and is diftributed to the external ear and other p;u-ts of the neck and face. 
 
 (r) Hcifterhas fummed up the ufes of thefe nine pair of nerves in the following Latin verfes : 
 
 " Olfacicm, arneru, oculofqtie ntoverts, patienjque, 
 
 " Ca/lans, abdticens, audieiifque, vagiinfque, loqueiifqiie." 
 (s) Bcfides thefe, there is another pair called acefforii, which arifes from the medulla fpinalis at its begin- 
 ning ; and afccnding through che great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, pali'es out again dole to 
 the eightii pair, with which, however, it does not unite ; and it is afterwards diftributed chiefly to the mulcles 
 of the neck, back, .ind fcapula. In this courfe it fends off filaments to different parts, and likcwife communicates 
 w ith feveral other nerves. Phyfiologifts are at a lofs how to account for the fingular origin and coiu-fe of thefe 
 nervi accelforii. The ancients confidered them as branches of the eighth pair, diftributed to mufcles of the 
 fcapula : Willis likcwife confidered chcm as appendages to that pair, and on lliat account named ihcmacccjfotii. 
 They are fometimes called ihc/pi/julpair : but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of the i^ine 
 iniifcriminatcly, it feems better co adopt tliat given by Willis.
 
 Tart V. A N A T 
 
 Of the ftant and confiderable enough to be diftingaiOicd by 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Urainand particular nanics, as v\\tfeniiluiiar plexus ; the fuimo- 
 ^ Ncrvei. ^ nary jilcxui ; the hepatic, the cardiac, &c. 
 
 Jt would be foreign to the purpole of this work, to 
 follow the nerves through all their dirtriLutions ; but 
 it may be remembered, that in dcfcribing the ditfercnt 
 vifcera, mention was made of the nerves diftributcd to 
 them. There is one pair, however, called the inter- 
 coftal, or great fywpathetic nerve, which fcems to re- 
 quire particular notice, becaufeithasanalmofl univcr- 
 fal connciJUon and corrcfpondence with all the other 
 nerves of the body. Authors are not perfectly agreed 
 about the origin of the intercolUl ; but it may perhaps 
 rot improperly be defcribed, as beginning from fila- 
 ments of the fifth and fixth pair ; it then paifes out of 
 the cranium, through the bony canal of the carotid, 
 from whence it defcends laterally clofc to the bodies of 
 the vertebras, and receives branches from almoll all the 
 vertebral nerves ; forming almofl as many ganglions in 
 itscourfe through the thorax and abdomen. It fends off 
 aninfinite number of branches to the vifcera in thofc 
 cavities, and forms feveral plexufes with the branch- 
 es of the eighth pair or par vagum. 
 
 That the nerves are dellined to convey the principles 
 of motion and fenfibility to the brain from all parts of the 
 fyftem, there can be no doubt ; but how thefc cftcfts 
 arc produced, no one has ever yet been able to de- 
 termine. The inquiry has been a conflant fource of 
 hypothecs in all ages, and has produced fome ingeni- 
 ous ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but with- 
 out having hitherto afforded much fatisfaclory infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Somephyfiologiftshaveconfidereda trunkof nerves 
 as a folid chord, capable of being divided into an infi- 
 nite number of filaaicnts, by means of which the im- 
 prcliions of feeling arc conveyed to the fenforium com- 
 mune. Others have fuppofed it to be a canal, which af- 
 terwards feparates into more minute channels i or, per- 
 haps, as being an alfemblage of many very fmall and 
 didind tubes, connected to each other, and thus form- 
 ing a cylindrical chord. They who contend for their 
 being folid bodies, are of opinion, that feeling isocca- 
 fioned by vibration ; fo that, for indance, according ti> 
 this fyrtem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would 
 be occalioncd in the nerve, diflributcd through its fub- 
 llance ; and the cfFetts of this vibration, when ex- 
 tended to the fenforium, would be an cxcital of pain. 
 But the inelalticity, the foftncfs, the connection, and 
 the fituation of the nerves, are fo many proofs that 
 vibration has no fliare in the caufe of feeling. 
 
 Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and fpinal 
 marrow, a very fubtile fluid is fccreted, and from 
 thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes, 
 which they coniidcr as exifling in the nerves. They 
 hare farther fuppofed, that this very fubtile fluid, to 
 which chcy have given the name of animal fpiriti, is 
 fecrcttJ in the cortical fubltance of the brain and fpi- 
 nal marrow, from whence it palFcs through the me- 
 dullary fubflance. This, like the other fyflcm, is 
 founded altogether on hypothefis ; but it feems to be 
 an hypothclis derived from much more probable prin- 
 ciples, and there are many ingenious arguments to b« 
 brought in its fupport. 
 
 769 
 
 EXPLANATION of PLATE XXIX. 
 
 Fig. I. Reprefcnts the Inferior part of the Brain ; 
 — the Anterior part of the whole Spine, including the 
 Medulla Spinalis ; — withtheorigin and large portions 
 of alltheNERVES. 
 
 A A, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. BB,Thc 
 latcrallobesof the cerebrum. C C, The two lobes of 
 the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paf- 
 fage from the third ventricle to the infundibulum. 
 F, The medulla oblongata, which fends off the me- 
 dulla fpinalis through the fpine. GG, Tliatpartof 
 the OS occipitis which is placed above (H H) the 
 tranfverfe procelTes of the firil cervical vertebra. 
 I I, &c. The feven cervical vertebra, with their in- 
 termediate cartilages. K K, &c. The twelve dorfal 
 vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. LL,&c. 
 The five lumbar vertebrae, with their intermediate 
 cartilages. M, The os facrum. N, The os coc- 
 cygis. 
 
 Nerves. — 1 1, The firft pair of nerves, named «/• 
 fafiory, which goto the nofe. 22, The fecond pair, 
 named optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of 
 the eye. 3 3, The third pair, named motor occuli ; it 
 fupplics moft of the mufclcs of the eye-ball. 4 4, The 
 fourth pair, named pathetic, — which is wholly fpcnt 
 upon the mufculus trochlearis of the eye. j 5, The 
 fifth pair divides into three branches The firfl, na- 
 med opthalmie, goes to the orbit, fupplies the lachry- 
 mal gland, and fends branches out tothc forehead and 
 nofc — The fcconJ,namedy?//iT;ur maxillary ^ fupplicj 
 Vot. I. 
 
 or the 
 
 Briiii and 
 
 Nenrci. 
 
 the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome of thcmufcles of 
 the lips. — The third named inferior maxillary, \i fpent 
 upon the mufclcs and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue, 
 and mufclesof the lips. 6 6, The iixth pair, which, 
 after fending off the beginning of the intcrcoflal or 
 great fympathetic, is fpent upon tiic abdudor oculi. 
 7 7, The feventh pair, named auditory, divides into 
 two branches. — The largefl, named pnrtio mcllii, is 
 fpent upon the internal car. The fmallefl, portio dura, 
 Joins to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a re- 
 fiefted branch from the fecond of the fifth ; and w ith- 
 in the tympanum,by a branch from the third of the fifth 
 
 named chorda tympani Vid. fig. 3. near B. 8 8, &c. 
 
 The eighth pair, i\3.mci^ par vagum, — which accompa- 
 nies the intcrcoil.il, and is fpent upon the tongue, la- 
 rynx, pharynx, lungs, and abdominal vifcera. 99, The 
 ninth pair, which are fpent upon the tongue. 10 10, 
 &c. The intercoflal, or great fympathetic, which is 
 feeii from the Iixth pair to the bottom of the pelvis on 
 each fide of the fpine, and joining with all the nerves of 
 the fpine ; — in its progrefs fupplying the heart, and, 
 with the par vagum, the contents of the abdomen and 
 pelvis. II II, The accelforius, which is fpcnt upon 
 the ftcrnocleido-mafloidjEus and trapezius mufcles. 
 12 12, The firll cervical nerves; — 13 13, The fecond 
 cervical nerves ; — both I'pentupon the msifcles that lie 
 on the neck, and teguments of the neck and head. 
 14 1 4, The third cervical nerves, which, after fending 
 off(iy I J, &c.) thcphrcnic nerves to the diaphragm, 
 5 E fupply
 
 77© 
 
 N 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part V. 
 
 Of the Aipply tlie mufclcs and teguments that lie on the fide 
 Urain and olthc neck and topofthc Ihoulder. i6 i6, The hra- 
 
 ti'^' '":*- chial plexus, formed by the fourth, fifth, lixth, fc- 
 venth ccrvicals, and firll dorfal nerves ; which fupply 
 the nuifcles and teguments of the fuperior extremity. 
 1 7 I 7, TIic twelve dorfal, or proper in tcrcollal nerves, 
 which arc fpcntupon the intcrcortal nuifcles and fonic 
 of the large mufclcswhich lie upon the thorax. i8 l8. 
 The five lumbar pairs of nerves, which fupply the 
 lumbar and abdominal mufcles, and fomc of the tegu- 
 ments and mufcles of the inferior extremity. 19 19, 
 The facro-fciatic, or pofterior crural nerve, formed 
 by the two inferior lumbar, and three fuperior of the 
 OS facrum. This large nerve fupplies thegrcatcfl part 
 of the mufcles and teguments of the inferior extremi- 
 ty. 20, The ftomachic plexus, formed by the eighth 
 pair. 21 21, Branches of the folar or cxliac plexus, 
 formed by the eighth pair and intercollals, which 
 fupply the flomach and chylopoietic vifccra. 2222, 
 Branches of the fuperior and inferior mefcnteric plcx- 
 ufcs, formed by the eighth pair and intercollals. 
 
 which fupply the chylopoietic vifccra, with part of Of the 
 
 the organs of urine and generation. 23 23, Nerves Drain and 
 
 which accompany tlie fpermatic cord. 2424, Tlichy- Nfvss. 
 pogallric plexus, which fupplies the organs of urine ' 
 and generation within the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 2, 3, 4, J. Shuw different Views of the Infe- 
 rior part of the Brain, cut perpendiculary through 
 tiic Middle, — with the Origin and large Portions 
 of all the Nerves which pais out through the Bones 
 of the Cranium, — and the three firft Cervicals. 
 A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the 
 
 cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum. 
 
 D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyramidale, in the 
 
 middle of the medulla oblongata. K, The corpusoli- 
 
 vare, in the fide of the medulla oblongata. G, The 
 
 medulla oblongata. H, The medulla fpinalis. 
 
 Nerves. — I 2345678 and 9, Paris of nerves. 
 
 10 10, Nervus accelforius, which conies from — 11,12, 
 
 and 13, The three lirft cervical nerves. 
 
 Part VI. Of the SENSES, and their ORGANS. 
 
 140. 
 
 141. 
 
 IN treating of the fenfes, we mean to confine our- 
 ftlves to the external ones of /o;/cA, ta/le, ftneliitig, 
 hearing, and vijiori. The word/f/./c, when applied to 
 thefe hve, fcems to imply not only the fenlation ex- 
 cited in the mind by certain imprelfions made on the 
 body, but likewifc the organ dellined to receive and 
 tranfmit thefe imprelFions to the fenforiuni. Each of 
 thefe organs being of a peculiar flrudture, is fufcep- 
 tiblc only of particular imprelFions, which will be 
 pointed out as we proceed todefcribe each of them fe- 
 paratcly. 
 
 Sect. I. OJ Touch. 
 
 The fenfcof touch may be defined to be the facul- 
 ty diflinguiihing certain properties ol bodies by the 
 Jecl. In a general acceptation, this definition might 
 perhaps not improperly be extended to every part of 
 the body poffcfTed offenfibility (t), but it is common- 
 ly confined to the nervous papillae of the cutis, or true 
 fkin, whicli, with its appendages, and their feveral 
 ufes, have been already defcribed. 
 
 The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as their fo- 
 
 lidity, moifture, inequality, fmoothnefs, dryncfs, or 
 fluidity, and likewife their degree of heat, feeui all to 
 be capable of making differcni inipreiFions on the pa- 
 pillse, and confcqucntly of exciting different ideas in 
 the fenforiuni commune. But the organ of touch, like 
 all the other fenfes, is not equally delicate in every 
 part of the body, or in every fubjedt ; being in fomc 
 much more exquillte than it is in others. 
 
 Sect. II. OftheTajle. 
 
 The fenfc of tafle is feated chiefly in the tongue ; 
 the fituation and figure of which are fufiiciently known. 
 
 On the upper furface of this organ wc may obferve 
 a great number of papillse, which, on account of their 
 difference in fize and fliape, are commonly divide into 
 three clalFes. The largeft are fituated towards the ba- 
 fis of the tongue. Their number commonly varies 
 from feven to nine, and they fecm to be mucous folli- 
 cles. Thofc ol the fccond clafs are fomewhat fnialler, 
 and of a cylindrical (hape. They are moll numerous 
 about the middle of the tongue. Thofe of the third 
 clafs arc very minute, and of a conical Ihape. They 
 
 are 
 
 14*. 
 
 (t) In the courfeof this article, mention has often been made of the fenfibility or infcniibility of different 
 parts of the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be aniifs to obferve in this place, that many pans which were 
 formerly fuppofcd to pofi'efs the moft txquifitc fcnfe, arc now known to have but little or no feeling, at Icaflin 
 a found flate j for in an inflamed Hate, even the boi!CS, the mod ini'enfible parts of any, become fufceptible of 
 the moll painful fenfations. This curious difcovcry is due to the late Baro:i Haller. His experiments prove, 
 that the bones, cartilages, ligaments tendons, epidermis, and membranes (as the pleura, pericardium, dura 
 and pia mater, periollcum. Sec), may in a healthy flatc be confidered as iufenfible. Asfcnlibility depends on 
 the brain and nerves, of courfe different parts will polfcfs a greater or Icfs degree of feeling, in proportion as 
 ihey are fupplicd with a greater or fnialler number of nerves. Upon this principle it is, that the Ikin, mufcles, 
 flomach, intellincs, urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, vagina, penis, tongue, and retina, are extremely fcnfi- 
 ble, while the lungs and glands have only an obfcurc degree of feeling.
 
 N \T()MV 
 
 PUlr \\I\ 
 
 <^^^^tL,
 
 1>art VI. 
 
 N A 
 
 Of the 
 Sebfca. 
 
 Mi- 
 
 are very numerous on the apex and cdgcsofthe tongue, 
 and have been fiippofcd to be formed by the extremi- 
 ties of its nerves. 
 
 We obfcrve a line, the lhi:a lingua maliniia, run- 
 ning along the middle of the tongue, and dividing it as 
 it were into two portions. Towards the bafis of tiie 
 tongue, we meet with a little civity, named by Mor- 
 gagni/« /■«'«-'?; cvcum, wliich ftems tobc nothing more 
 than a common termination of I'ome of the excretory 
 dufts of mucous glands fituated within the fubftancc of 
 the tongue. 
 
 , We have already obfervcd, that this organ is every 
 where covered by thccuticle, which, by forming a re- 
 duplication, called the fnruutn, at its under part, 
 ferves to prevent the "too great motion of the tongue, 
 and to fix it in its fituation. But, bclidcs this at- 
 tachment, the tongue is conneiScd by means of its 
 mufcles and membranous ligaments, to the lov/er jaw, 
 the OS hyoides, and the ftyloid procell'cs. 
 The principal arteries of the tongue are thelinguales, 
 which arife from the extcrnalcarotid. Its veins empty 
 themfelves into the external iup;ulars. Its nerves arife 
 from the fifth, eighth, and ninth, pair. 
 
 The variety of taftes feein to be occafioned by tlte 
 different impreilions made on the papillas by the food. 
 The different Hate of the papillx with rcfped to their 
 nioiflure, their figure, or their covering, fccnis to 
 produce a confiderable difference ui the talle, not only 
 in different people, but in the fame fubjeA, in fickncfs 
 and in health. The great ufe of the talle feems to be 
 to enable us to diftingiiilh wholcfonic and faliitary food 
 from that which is unhealthy ; and we obfcrve that 
 many quadrupeds, by having their papillas (u) very 
 large and long, have the faculty of dillinguilhing fla- 
 vours with infiitite accuracy. 
 
 Sect. III. Of Smelling, 
 
 The fenfc of fmelling, like the fenfe of taftc, feems 
 intended to direft us to a proper choice of aliment, 
 and IS chiefly feated in the nofe, which is dillinguilhed 
 into its external and internal parts. The lituation and 
 figure of the former of thcfe do not fcein to require a 
 definition. It is compofed of bones and cartilages, co- 
 vered by mufcular fibres and by the common integu- 
 ments. The bones make up the upper portion, and 
 the cartilages the lower one. The feptum n.irium, like 
 the nofe, is likewifc in part bony, and in part cartila- 
 ginous. Thcfe bones and their conneiitions were de- 
 fcribcd in the oflcology. 
 
 The internal part of the nofe, befides the offa fpon- 
 giofa, has lix cavities or linufcs, the maxillary, the 
 frontal, and the fphenoid, which were all dtfcribcd with 
 the bones of the head. They all open into the no- 
 llrils ; and the nofe likewifc comnuuiicatcs with the 
 mouth, larynx, and pharynx, polferiorly behind the 
 velum palati. 
 
 All thefe feveral parts, which are included in the in- 
 ternal divilion of the nofe, viz. the inner furface of tlie 
 noftrils, the lamellas of thcoffafpongiofa, and tlic fmu- 
 
 i' O M Y. 771 
 
 fes, are lined by a thick and very vafeular membrane, Of the 
 which, though not unknown to the ancients, was firll Scufct. 
 well defcribcd by Schneider*, and is therefore now '~^q^, 
 commonly nzmcd m^wl/raniif ituiliiria i>chfiiiJi.ri.'This ig^,ig Ijh. 
 membrane is truly the organ of fmelling ; but its real iii. 
 flruduredoes not yet fccm to be perfectly undcrllood. 
 It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle, which 
 lines the iiuier uu-face of the mouth. In fome parts 
 of the nofe it is fmooth and firm, and in others it is 
 loofe and fpongy. It is conftantly moiflened by a mu- 
 cous fecretion ; the finer parts of which are carried off 
 by the air we breathe, and the remainder, by being re- 
 tained in the linufcs, acquu-es confiderable confiftcncc. 
 The manner in which this mucus is fecreted lias not 
 yet been fatisfadorily afccrtained ; but it feems to be 
 by means of mucous follicles. 
 
 Its arteries ai'c branchesol the internal maxillary and 
 internal carotid. Its veins empty then;felves into the 
 internal jugulars. The firft pau- of nerves, the olfac- 
 tory, are fpread over every part of it, and it likewifc 
 receives branches from the fifth pair. 
 
 After what has been faid of the pituitary membrane, 
 it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we draw 
 in at the noftrils, being impregnated with the effluvia 
 of bodies, excites in us that kind of fenfation we call 
 fmelling. As thcfe eflluvia, from thck bciiig exceed- 
 ingly light and volatile, caimot be capable in a fniall 
 quantity of making any gi-cat impreifion on the extre- 
 mities of the olfaitory nerves, it was neccirary to give 
 confiderable extent to the pituitary membrane, that by 
 this means a greater number of odoriferous particles 
 might be admitted at the fame time. When we willi 
 to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we natu- 
 rally clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpu-c may 
 pafs through the noflrils ; and at the fame time, by 
 means of the mufcles of the nofe, the noflrils are dila- 
 ted, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into tliem. 
 
 In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling is much 
 more cxtcnfivc and delicate than it is in the human 
 fubjec^ ; and in the human fubjed it feems to be more 
 per fed! the lefs it is vitiated by a variety of flnells. It 
 is not always in the fame flate of perfection, being na- 
 tiu-ally affeded by every change of the pituitary mem- 
 brane, and of the lymph w ith which that membrane 
 is moilfencd. 
 
 Sect. IV. Of Hearing, 
 
 Before weundertakc to explain the manner in which 
 we are enabled to receive the impreirions of found, it 
 will be necclfary to defcribc the car, which is the organ 
 of hearing. It is commonly dillinguillicd into external 
 and internal. The former of thefe divilions includes 
 all that wc are able to dilcover without dilfeclion, and 
 the meatus au«iitorius, as far as the tympanum ; and 
 the latter, all the other parts of the ear. 
 
 The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel, covered 
 
 by the common integuments, and attached, by means 
 
 of its ligaments and mufcles, to the temporal bone. 
 
 Although capable only of a very obfciu-e motion, it is 
 
 5 E 2 found 
 
 H4 
 
 (u) Malpighl's defcription of the papilla:, which has been copied by many anatomical writers, feems to have 
 been taken chiefly from the tongues of fheep.
 
 A N A T 
 
 found to have fevcral mufclcs. Dilf'trcnt parts of it 
 arc dillinouUhcd by diffc-rcnt names ; all its cartilaj^i- 
 noiis part is called a a or 'Jiing, to diflingnilh it from 
 the loft and pendent part below, called the iob.-. Its 
 outer circle or border is called helix, and the feniicirclc 
 within this, antihctix. The moveable cartilage placed 
 imme^liately before the meatus auditorius, which it 
 may be made to clofe cxaftly, is named tragus ,- and 
 an eminence oppolite to this at the extremity of the 
 aniihelix, is tailed a//<i/rrt^n/. The concha is a conli- 
 derable cavity formed by the extremities of the helix 
 and antihelix. The meatus auditorius, which at its 
 openmg is cartilaginous, is lined with a very thin mem- 
 brane, which is a continuation of the cuticle irom the 
 fm-face of the ear. 
 
 In this canal wc find a yellow wax, which is fecreted 
 by a number of minute glands or follicles, each of 
 which has an excretory duct. This fccretion, which 
 is at lirfl of an oily coniillcnce, defends the membrane 
 of the tympanum from the uijurics of the air ; and by 
 its bitterncis, prevents minute infects from entering in- 
 to the ear. But when from neglcdtor difcafe it accu- 
 mulates in too great a quantity, it fometimes occalions 
 deafnefs. The inner extremity of the meatusis doled 
 by a very thin tranfparcnt membrane, the membrana 
 tympani, which is fct iii a bony circle like the head of 
 a drum. In the lail century Rivinus, profeffor at Licp- 
 iic, fancied he had difcovered a hole in this mem- 
 brane, fiuTounded by a fphincter, and affording a paf- 
 fage to the air, between the external and internal car. 
 Cowper, Heifter, and fome other anatoraifts, have ad- 
 mitted tliis fuppoied foramen, which certainly does not 
 cxiil. Whenever there is any opening in the membra- 
 na tympani, it may be conlidercd as accidental. Un- 
 der the membrana tympani runs a branch of the 
 fifth pair of nerves, called chorda tyniftafi'i ; and beyond 
 this membrane is the cavity of the tympanum, wliich 
 is aliout feven or eight lines wide, and half fo ma.iy 
 in depth ; it is fcmifpherical, and every w here li- 
 ned by a very fine membrane. There are four open- 
 ings to be obfervcd in this cavity. It communi- 
 cates with the month by means of the Eullachian 
 tube. This canal, which is in part bony and in 
 part cartilaginous, begins by a vciy narrow opening 
 at the anterior and almoli fupcrior part of the tympa- 
 imm, incrcalingin iize as it advances towards the pa- 
 late of the mouth, where it terminates by an oval open- 
 ing. This tube is evi ry where lined by the fame mem- 
 brane that covers the iniide of the mouth. The real 
 life of this canal does not feem to liave been liitheno 
 fatisfaclorily afecrtaiued ; but foinid would feem to 
 be conveyed through it to the membrana lympani, deaf 
 perfons being often obfervcd to lillen aiieniively with 
 their mouths open. Oppolite to this is a niinuic paf- 
 fage, whivh leads to the iinuofities of the raailoid pro- 
 ccfs ; and the two other openings, which are in the in- 
 ternal procefs of the OS petrofum, are the fencflraova- 
 lis, and fencllra rotunda, both of which are covered by 
 a very fine membrane. 
 
 There are three dillinft bones in the cavity of the 
 tympanum ; and thefe are the malleus, incus, andllapes 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 Part VI. 
 
 Befidcs thefe there is a fourth, which is the oi orbicit- 
 laie, conlidcred by fome anatomilts as a proeefs of the 
 ftapes, which is necelfarily broken off by the violence 
 we are obliged to ufe in gtttuig at thefe bones ; but 
 when accurately coalidered, it fecmsto be a diftind 
 bone. 
 
 The malleus is fuppofed toTefemblc a hammer, be- 
 ing larger at one extremity, which is its head, than it 
 is at the other, which is its handle. The latter is at- 
 tached to the membrana tympani, and the head of the 
 bone is articulated with the incus. 
 
 The incus, as it is called from its fhape, though it 
 feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than to one 
 of the denies molwcs with its roots widely fcparated 
 from each other, is diftinguifhed into its body and its 
 legs. One of its legs is placed at the cnu'y of the ca- 
 nal which leads to the maftoid proeefs ; and the other, 
 which is fomewhat longer is articulated with the flapts, 
 or ratlier with the os orbiculare, which is placed be- 
 tween tliem. 
 
 The third bone is very properly named /Za^.'/, being 
 perfeiJlly Ihapcd like a llirrup. Its bafis is fixed into 
 he tenellra ovalis, and its upper part is articulated 
 with the OS orbiculare. What is called ihcfcneflra ro- 
 luiidu, though perhaps improperly, as it is more oval 
 than round, is obfervcd a little above the other, in an 
 eminence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofcd by 
 a continuation of the membrane that lines t)ie inner 
 furface of the tympanum. The ftapes and malleus are 
 each o{ thcin furnilhed with a little niufcle, the ftape- 
 deus and tenlbr tympani. The firft of thefe, which is 
 the fmallcll in the body, arifes from a little cavern in 
 the poflerior and upper part of the cavity of the tym- 
 panum ; and its tendon, after palling through a hole 
 in tlie fame cavern, is infcrtcd at the back part of the 
 head of the ftapes. Thismufcle, by drawing the flapes 
 obliquely upwards, aifills in Ibetching the membrana 
 tympani. 
 
 The tenfor tympani (x), or intemns mallei, as it is 
 called by fome writers, arifes from the cartilaginous 
 extrenii"y of the Kuflachian tube, and is infcrted into 
 the back na;t of the handle of the malleus, which it 
 ferves to p II iiwards, and of courfe helps to (Iretch 
 the mem bra. a tympani. 
 
 'I'lio labyri,.th is the only part of the car which re- 
 mains to be ilcfcribed. It is fit • '.ted in the os petro- 
 liun, and is fcparated from the tympanum by a parti- 
 tion which is every where bony, except at the two fc- 
 nellra;. It is compofed of thi-ee parts ; and thefe arc 
 the velUbiilum, the femicircular canals, and the cocli- 
 lea. 
 
 The vcl '"■iluiii is an irregular cavity, much fmaller 
 than the t ,">ipanum, fiuiated nearly It thecentreof the 
 ospetrofii s between the tympanum, ihc cochlea, and 
 the femi ir^ ular canals. It is open on the fide of the 
 tympani! Ill by means of the feneftra ovalis, and com- 
 municai' '.• with the upper portion of the cochlea by an 
 oblong • ■■ramcn, which is under the feneftra ovalis, 
 from V. liich it is icparatcd only by a very thin par- 
 tition. 
 
 Each of the three fcinicircular ca7ials forms about 
 
 half 
 
 Of the 
 
 Sciifct. 
 
 (x) Some anaiomifts deftribe three mufcles of the malleus ; but only this one feems to defcrve the name of 
 mulcle; what arc called the t.\7^r/;.vjaiid obii^uus tiioilei, fccming to be ligaments rather than mufclcs.
 
 Partvr. ana: 
 
 Of the half acircle of nearly a line in diameter, and running 
 SenCet. each in a different direction, they arc dillinj^uilhcd into 
 
 * ^""^ vertical, oblique, and horizontal. 7"hclc three canals 
 
 open by both their extremities into the vcftibulura ; 
 but the vertical and the oblique being united together 
 at one of their extremities, there arc only live orilices 
 to be fcen in the vcltibuluni. 
 
 The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral courfe, 
 not unlike the flicll of a fnail. Krom its balls to its 
 apex it makes two turns and a half; and is divided in- 
 to two canals by a very thin lamina or feptum, which 
 is in part bony and in part membranous, in fuch a 
 manner that thcfc two canals only communicate with 
 each other at the point. One of them opens into the 
 veftibulum, and the other is covered by the membrane 
 that clofes the fencftra rotunda. The bony lamella 
 which feparatesthe twocanals is exceedingly thin, and 
 fills about two thirds of the diameter of ihe canal. 
 The reft of the feptum is compofed oi a moft delicate 
 membrane, which lines the whole inner furfacc of the 
 cochlea, and feems to form this diviiion in the fame 
 manner as the two membranous bags of the pleura, by 
 being applied to each other, form the mediaftinum. 
 
 Every part of the labyrinth is furnifhed with a very 
 delicate pcriofteura, and filled with a watery fluid, fe- 
 rreted as in other cavities. This tiuid tranfniits to the 
 nerves the vibrations it receives from the membrane 
 clofing the feneftra rotunda, and from the balls of the 
 flapes, where it refts on the fcneftrum ovale. When 
 this fluid is collected in too great a quantity, or is 
 comprclTed by the (tapes, it is fuppoled to efcape 
 throuf^h two minute canals or aqueduits, lately dcfcri- 
 • D: aqiit-^^'^ ^Y Dr Cotunni *, an ingenious phyfician at Na- 
 Juaibui Au- pies. One of tlitfe aquedu.ts opens into the bottom 
 rit Humanx Of thc velHbulum, and the other into the cochlea, near 
 Jnurii^, the fenellra rotunda. They both pafs through the os 
 »vo, 1760. pftrofum, and comnumirare with the cavity of the 
 cranium where the H.uid thit palfcs through them is 
 is abforbed ; and ihcy are lined by a membrane which 
 is fuppofftd to be a produflioi, >>f the dura mater. 
 ■ The arteries of the external ear come from the tem- 
 poral and other branches of the exterml carotid, and 
 its veins pifs into thc jugular. The internal ear re- 
 ceives branches of arteries from the bililary and ca- 
 rotids, and its veins empty themf'. lvesi:!to the linufes 
 of tlie dura mater, and into the intern.;! jugular. 
 
 The portio mollis of the feventli pair is dillributed 
 through the cochlea, thc vcllibulnm, and the ferai- 
 cirrular canals ; and the portio dura fends oft'a branch 
 to the tympanum, and other branches to the external 
 car and parts near it. 
 
 The f:nfe of hearing, in producing which all the 
 parts we have defrribed affift, is occalioned by a cer- 
 tain modulation of the air collected by thc funnel like 
 Hiape of thc external ear, and conveyed through the 
 meatus auditorius to (he meinbrana tympani. That 
 found is propagated by means of thc air, is very eafily 
 proved by ringing a bell under the receiver of an 
 air-pump ; thc found it affords being found to dimiuifh 
 
 : O M Y. 
 
 gradually as the air becomes exhanftcj, till at length 
 it ceafes tobc heard at all. Sound moves througi) thc 
 sir with inhnite velocity ; but thc degree of its motion 
 feems to depend on thc flate of the air, as it conltant- 
 ly moves falter in a denlc and dry, than it docs in a 
 moift and rarefied, air. ^c Acouftici, u" 20. 
 
 That the air vibrating on thc membrana tympani 
 communicates its vibration to thc different pans oi 
 the labyriniii, and by means of the fluid contained in 
 this cavity affeds the auditory nerve fo as to produce 
 found, feems to be very probable j but the lltuation, 
 the minutenefs, and thc variety of the parts which 
 compofc ilie car, do not permit much to be advanced 
 with certainty concerning their mode of action. 
 
 Some of thefe parts fcem toconftitute the immediate 
 organ of hearing, and thefe are all thc parts of thc 
 veliibulum : but there arc others which feem intended 
 for the perfedion of this fenfc, without being abfo- 
 lutely ell'cntial to it. It has happened, for initance, 
 that the mcrabranaiyrapani, and the little bones of the 
 ear, have bcendeltroyed bydifeafc, without depriving 
 the patient of the fcnfe of hearing (y). 
 
 Sound is more or lefs loud in proportion to the 
 ftrength of the vibration ; and the variety of fouuds 
 feems to depend on the difference of this vibration ^ 
 for the more quick and frequent it is, thc more acute 
 will be thc found, and vie; verfa. 
 
 Before we conclude this article, it will be right to 
 explain certain phenomena, which will be found to 
 have a relation to thc organ of hearing. 
 
 Every body has, in confequenccofpanicular founds, 
 occalionally felt that difagreeablc fenfation which is 
 ufually c3.]\e.i\ fetting theteith on edge : and the caufe 
 of this fenfation may be traced to the communication 
 which the portio dura of the auditory nerve has with 
 the branches of the fifth pair that are dil'ributed to 
 the teeth, being probably occafioned by the violent 
 tremor produced in the membrana tympani by thefe 
 very acute founds. Upon the fame principle we may 
 explain the ftrong idea of found which a perfon has 
 who holds a vibrating ftring between his teeth. 
 
 The humming which is fometimes perceived in the 
 ear, without any exterior caufe, may be occalioned 
 ei(herby an incrcafed action of thc arteries in che ears, 
 or by convnllive contradlions of the mufcles of the 
 malleus and (tapes, afic(fting thc auditory nerve in 
 fuch a manner as to produce the idea of found. An 
 ingenious philofiphical writer* has lately difcovertd, 
 that there arc founds liable to be excited in thc ear by 
 irritation, and without any alliftancc from the vibra- 
 tions of the air. 
 
 Sect.V. OfVifion\. 
 
 Th b eyes which conftitutc the organ of vifion, arc 
 fitnated in two Iwny cavities named or hits, where they 
 tre furrounded by feveral parts, which arc either in- 
 tended to protect them from external injury, or to af- 
 fift iu their motion. 
 
 The 
 
 773 
 
 Of the 
 SriiTct. 
 
 • Elliu', 
 Piitt/ifiti- 
 til Ol/iroa» 
 tiomi om tbt 
 Smfri ./ 
 Kijiim and 
 ffearlHg, 
 8vo. 
 
 t S.-t Of tin. 
 I4». 
 
 (y) This obfervation has led to a fuppofition, that a perforation of this membrane may in fome cafes of 
 deafucfs be ufeful ; and Mr Chefelden relates, that, fome years ago, a malcficlor was pardoned on condition 
 that he Ihould fiibmit to this operation ; but the public clamour raifed againll it was fo great, that it was ihouglu 
 right not to perform it.
 
 A N A ^ 
 
 The globe of (lie eye is immediately covered by two 
 cye-lids or palpebra:, which arc compolcd of mulciilar 
 tibres covered by the common integuments, and li- 
 ned by a very fine and fmooth membrane, whicli is 
 from thence extended over part of the globe of the 
 eye, and is called tunica conjunCliva. Each eye-lid is 
 cartilaginous at its edge ; and this border which is cal- 
 led tarjus, is furnilhed with a row of hairs named cilia 
 or eyc-lajheri. 
 
 The cilia fcrvc to proteft the eye from infetts and 
 minute bodies floating in the air, and likewife to mo- 
 derate the aflion of the rays of light in their pallao-e 
 to the retina. At the roots of thcfc hairs tlicre arc 
 febaceous follicles, fird noticed by Meibomius, which 
 difcliarge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes tlie fluid 
 they fecrcte has too much vifcidity, and the eye-lids 
 become glued to each other. 
 
 The upper border of the orbit is covered by the 
 eye-brows or fupercilia, which by means of their two 
 mufcles are capable of being brought towards each 
 other, or of being carried upwards. They have been 
 confidered as fcrving to protect the eyes, but they are 
 probably intended more for ornament than utility ( z) . 
 
 The orbits, in which the eyes arc placed, are fur- 
 nilhed with a good deal of fat, which affords a foft 
 bed on which the eye performs its fcveral motions. 
 The inner angle of each orbit, or that part of it 
 which is near the nofe, is called canthus uiajor, or the 
 great angli ; and the outer angle, which is on the op- 
 pofiie lide of the eye, is the caiithui minor, or little 
 angle. 
 
 The little reddifli body which we obferve in the 
 great angle of the eye-lids, and which is called carun- 
 cula lachryvtain, is fuppofed to be of a glandular llruc- 
 ture, and, like the follicles of the eye-lids, to fecretc 
 an oily humour. But its flructurc and ufe do not 
 feem to have been hitherto accurately determined. 
 Thcfnrfaccof the eyeisconftantly moillencd by a very 
 fine limpid fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and 
 perhaps wholly, derived from a large gland of the con- 
 glomerate kind, liluated in a fniall dcprellion of the 
 OS frontis near the outer angle of the eye. Its excre- 
 tory dufls pierce the tunica conjiindivajufl above the 
 cartilaginous borders of the upper eye-lids. When 
 the tears were fuppofed to be fecrctcd by the carun- 
 culc, this gland was z^Wz^ giandula innoniinala ; but 
 row that iis ftruiJlure and ufes arc afcertained, it very 
 properly has the name oi glandula lachrymalis. The 
 tears poured out by thcduijlsof tliisglandare,in a natu- 
 ral and healty ftatc, incclFantly fpread over the furface 
 of the eye, to keep it clear and tranfparent, by means 
 of the eye-lids, and as conftanily pafs out at the oppo- 
 llte corner of the eye or inner angle, through two mi- 
 nute oriflces, the punfta lachrymalia(A); being deter- 
 mined into thcfe little openings by a reduplication of 
 the tunica co.njunJliva, (haped like a crefcent, the two 
 
 Of the 
 
 Seufct. 
 
 :^ O M Y. PartVf. 
 
 points of which anfwer to the punfla. This reduplica- 
 tion is named meiiihrana, or valvulafeniilunaris. Kach 
 of ihcfc punda is the beginning of a fmall excretory 
 tube, through which the tears pafs into a little pouch 
 or refcrvoir, tne facculus lachrymalis, which lies in 
 an excavation formed partly by the nafal procefs of 
 the OS maxillare iupcrius, and partly by the os unguis. 
 The lower part of this fac forms a duCt called tlie d:ic- 
 till ad nurti, which is continued through a bony chan- 
 nel, and opens into the nofe, through which the tears 
 arc occafionally difcharged (b). 
 
 The motions of the eye are performed by fix muf- 
 cles ; fourof which are llraight and twooblique. The 
 flraight niufclcs arc dillinguiilied by the name oi ele- 
 vator, deprt:[for, addiUlor, and abdiUhr, from their fc- 
 veral ufes in elevating and depreliing the eye, drawing 
 it towards the nofe, or carrying it from the nofe to- 
 wards the temple. All thcfe four mufcles arife from 
 the bottom of the orbit, and are iuferted by fiat ten- 
 dons into the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles 
 arc intended for the more compound motions of the 
 eye. The flrfl of thcfe mufcles, the obliquus fuperior, 
 does not, like the other four mufcles we have dtfcribed, 
 arife from the bottom of the orbit, but from the edge 
 of the foramen that iranfmits the optic nerve, which 
 fcparates the origin of this mufcle from that of the 
 others. From this beginning it paffcs in a flraight 
 line towards a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fitua- 
 tion of which is marked in the fkeletoH by 3 little hol- 
 low in the internal orbitar procefs of the os frontis. 
 The tendon of the mufcle, after parting through this 
 ring, is infcrted into the upper part of the globe of 
 the eye, which it fcrves to draw forwards, at the fame 
 time turning the pupil downwards. 
 
 Tlie obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of the or- 
 bit, under tlie opening of the dudus lachrymalis ; and 
 is inferted fonicwhat pofleriorly into the outer lide of 
 the globe, ferving to draw the eye forwards and turn 
 the pupil upwards. When either of thefe two mufcles 
 ads feparately, the eye is moved on its axis ; but wheil 
 they ad together, it is comprelfcd both above and be- 
 low. The eye itfelf, which is now to be defcribed, 
 with its tunics, Juimours, and component parts, is 
 nearly of a fphcrical figure. Of iis tunics, the con- 
 jundiva has been already defcribed as a partial cover- 
 ing, refleded from the inner furface of tlie eye-lids 
 over the anterior portion of the eye. What has been 
 named albugitiea cannot properly be confidered as a 
 coat of the eye, being in fad nothing more than the 
 tendons of the flraight mufcles fpread ovcrfome parts 
 of the fclcrotica. 
 
 The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to be 
 demonftrated when its partial coverings, and all the 
 otiier parts with which it is farrounded, are removed, 
 are the fclecrotica, cornea, choroidcs, and retina. 
 
 T\itfclerotica, which is the exterior coat, is every 
 
 where , 
 
 (z) It is obfervable, that the eye-brows are peculiar to the human fpecics. 
 
 (a) Ii fometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid, which nioiflens the eye, being poured out through 
 the excretory duds of the lachrymal gland fafter than it can be carried off through the punda, trickles down 
 the cheek, and is then ftridly and properly ciUcd tears. 
 
 (b) When thedudus ad nares becomes obflruded in confequencc of difeafe, the tears are no longer able 10 
 pafs into the nollrils ; the facculus lachrymalis becomes dillendcd ; and inflammation, and fometimes ulcera- 
 tion taking place, conftitute the difeafe zaXlci Jijlitla lachrymalii.
 
 Part VI. 
 
 N A 
 
 Of the 
 Senfcs. 
 
 where white and opaque, and is joined at its anterior 
 edge to another, which has more convexity than any 
 ' other part of the globe, and being exceedingly tranl- 
 parent is called cornea (c). Tliefetwo parts are per- 
 fedly diflcrent in their ftruflure ; fothat fomeauato- 
 mifts fuppofc them to be as diftincl from each other as 
 the glafs of a watch is from the cafe into which it is 
 fixed. Thefcleroticais of a compact fibrous flrudure ; 
 the cornea, on the other hand, is compofcd of-a great 
 number of laminae united by cellular membrane, ^y 
 macerating them in boiling water, they donotfeparate 
 from each other, as fome writers have aflcrted j but 
 the cornea foon foftens, and becomes of a glutinous 
 confiftence. 
 
 The ancients fuppofed the fclerotica to be a conti- 
 nuation of the dura mnter. Morgagni and fome other 
 modern writers are of the fameopinion ; but tliispoint 
 is difputed by Winilow, Hallcr, Zin, and otliers. 
 The truth feems to be, that the fclerotica, though not 
 a production of the dura mater, adheres intimately to 
 that membrane. 
 
 The choroids is focalled beeaufe it is furnifhed with 
 a great number of vellels. It haslikewife been named 
 uvea, on account of its rcfemblance to a grape. Many 
 modern anatomical writers haveconlidered it as a pro- 
 dudlion of the pia mater. This waslikcwife the opi- 
 nion of the ancients ; butthe flrengthand thicknefs of 
 the choroides, when compared with the delicate Ilruc- 
 ture of the pia mater, arefuiKcientprools of their be- 
 ing twodiilin<^ membranes. 
 
 The choroides has of late generally becndcfcribed 
 as confifling of two laminas ; the innermoft of which 
 has been named after Ruyfch, who firft dcfcribed it. 
 It is certain, however, that Kuyfch's diftinction is ill 
 founded, at Icaft with rcfpe(5t to the human eye, in 
 whieh we are unable todemonftrate any fuch ftrufture, 
 although the tunica choroides of Iheep and fome other 
 quadrupeds may ealily be feparated into two layers. 
 
 The choroides adheres intimately to the fclerotica 
 round the edge of the cornea ; and at the place of this 
 union, we may obfcrve a little whitilh areola, named 
 I'lgamentum ciliare, though it is not of a ligamentous 
 nature. 
 
 They who fuppofe the choroides to be compofed of 
 two laminae, defcribe (he external one as terminating 
 in the ligamentum ciliare, and the internal one as ex- 
 tending farther to form the iris, which is the circle 
 we arc able todiltinguilli through the cornea ; but this 
 part is of a very different flruclure from the choroides ; 
 fo that fome late writers h.ivc perhaps not improperly 
 conlidcred the iris as a diftincl membrane. It derives 
 its name from the variety of its colours, and is perfo- 
 rated in its middle. This perforation, which is called 
 the pupil or fight oi the eye, is clofed in the fatus by 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 a very thin vafcular membrane. This membrana pa- 
 pillaris commonly difappears about the feventh month. 
 
 On the under lide of the iris we obferve many mi- 
 nute fibres, called ciliary proaffes, which pafs in radii 
 or parallel lines from the circumference to the centre. 
 The contradtion and dilatation of the pupil are fuppofed 
 to depend on the adlion of thefe proceilcs. Some have 
 conlidered them asmufcular, but they arc not of an ir- 
 ritable nature: others have fuppofed them to be fila- 
 ments of nerves : but their real flrucfurc has never 
 yet been clearly afceriained. 
 
 Befides thefe ciliary procefles, anatomifts ufually 
 fpeak^of the circular fibres of the iris, butitefuch 
 feem to exift. 
 
 The pollerior furface of the iris, the ciliary pro* 
 cefl'es, and part of the tunica choroides, are covered 
 by a black mucus for the purpofes of accurate and dif- 
 liHcl vilion ; but the manner in which it is fecreted 
 has not been determined. 
 
 Immediately under the tunica choroides we find the 
 third and inner coat, called the reiitia, which feems 
 to be merely an expanlion of the pulpy fiibftance of 
 the optic nerve, extending to the border of the cry- 
 flalline humour. 
 
 The greatefl part of the globe of the eye, within 
 thefe fcvcrul tunics, is filled by a very tranfparent and 
 gelatinous humour of conliderable confiftcncc, which, 
 from its fuppofed rcfemblance to fufed glafs, is called 
 the vitreous humour. It is inverted by a very fine and 
 delicate membrane, called tunicaviirea, and fometimes 
 arach/ioideu — It is fuppofed to be compofed of two la- 
 minae i one of which dips into its fubflance, and by 
 dividing the humour into cells adds to its lirmnefs. The 
 fore-part of the vitreous humour is a little hollowed, 
 to receive a very white and tranfparent fubllance of a 
 firm texture, and of a lenticular and fome what convex 
 fhape, named the cry flalitne humour. It is included in 
 a capfula. which feems to be formed by a feparation 
 of the two lamina: of the tunica vitrea. 
 
 The fore-part of the eye is filled by a very thin and 
 tranfparent fluid, named the aquaus humcur, which 
 occupies all the fpace between the cryrtalline and the 
 prominent cornea — That part of the choroides which 
 is called the irii, and which comes forward to form the 
 pupil, appears to be fufpended as it were in this hu- 
 mour, and has occalioned this portion of the eye to be 
 dirtinguilhed into two parts. One of thefe, which is 
 the little fpace between the anterior furface of the 
 cryrtalline and the iris, called tiic foferior chjnier ; 
 and the oiher, which is the fpace between the iris and 
 the cornea, is called the anterior ckav:ber of the eye 
 (d). Both thefe fp.ices are completely filled with the 
 aqueous humour, (e). 
 
 The eye receives its arieriesfrom the iniernalcaro- 
 
 • tid 
 
 (c) Some writers, who have f^iven the name of corr.ea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and 
 moft commonly called /fA-rt/^t-./, cornea opaca ; and its anterior and tranfparent portion, cornea lucida. 
 
 (d) We are aware that fome anatomifts, particularly Licutaud, are of opinion, that the iris is tyeuj where 
 in clofe cont.id with the cryrtalline, and that it is of coarfc ri^iht to fpeak only of one chamber of the eye • 
 but as this does not appear to be the cafe, the fituation of the iris and the two chambers of the eve are here 
 defcribed in the ufual way. 
 
 (E ) When th cryrtalline becomes opaque, fo as to prevent the pafTa^e of the rays of li->ht to the retina it 
 conftitutcswhatisealleda cataraO ; and the operation of couching conliftsin removing the1li.'"tafcd cryrtalline 
 
 front
 
 776 ANA! 
 
 Of the tiJ through the foramina optica; atul its veins pifs 
 Scaiet. through the foramiua laccra, and empty thcmfclvcs 
 
 ' ^' ' into the lateral linufes. Some of the ramifications of 
 
 thcfc vcllcls appear on the inner furfacc of the iris, 
 where they are fccn to make very minute convolutions, 
 vhich arc futiicicnily remarkable to be diltinguilhed 
 by the name oi circuha artenrj'us, though perhaps im- 
 properly, as they arc chieriy branches of veins. 
 
 The optic nerve pallesin at the pollcrior part of the 
 eye, in a confiJcrable crunk, to be expanded lor the 
 purpofcs of vilion, of which it is now univcrfallyfnp- 
 pofcd to be the immediate feat. But McfTrs Mariotic 
 and Mery contended, that the choroidcs is the feat of 
 this fenfe ; and the ancients luppofcd the cryltalline 
 to be fo. Bclides the opiic, the eye receives branches 
 from the third, fourth, fifth, andlixth pair of nerves. 
 The humours of the eye, together with the cornea, 
 arccalculatcd torefraftand convcrgcthe rays of light 
 in fuch a manner as to form at the bottom of the eye 
 adiftinftimagc of the objed we look at ; and the point 
 where tbcfe rays meet is called the jocui of the eye. 
 On the retina, as in the camera cbfcura, the objcd; 
 is pointed in an inverted polition ; and it is only by 
 habit that we are enabled to judge of its true iitua- 
 tion, and likcwifc of its dirtance and magnitude. To 
 
 O M Y. 
 
 PartVf. 
 
 a young gentleman who was born blind, and who was 
 couched by Mr Chefcldcn, every objcd (us he ex- 
 preil'ed himfelf) fcemtd to touch his eyes as what he ^ 
 felt did his fkin ; and lie thought noobje>its fo agree- 
 able as thofc which wcrefmooih and regular, although 
 for fome time hccoiJd form nojudgmcnt of their Ihapc, 
 or gucfs what it was in any ot them that was plcaling 
 to liLm. 
 
 In order to paint objedls diftinflly on the retina, 
 the cornea is required to have fuch a degree of con- 
 vexity, that the raysoflight may be collected at a cer- 
 tain point, foas to terminate exactly on the retina. 
 
 If the cornea is too prominent, the rays, by diverging 
 too foon, will be united before tlity reach the retina, 
 as is the cafe with near-lighted people or 7/yi!/>t'/ ; and 
 on the contrary, if it is not fulhcicntly convex, the rays 
 will not be perfectly united when they reach the back 
 part of the eye ; and this happens to long-lighted peo- 
 ple or prejbi, being found conftantly to take place as 
 we approach to old age, when the eye gradually fiat- 
 tens \i). Thefe defcils are to be fupplicd by means of 
 glalles. He who has too prominent an eye, will find 
 his vilion improved by means of a concave glafs ; and 
 upon the fame principles, a convex glafs will be found 
 ufcful to a pcrfon whofc eye is naturally too flat. 
 
 or the 
 Sciifcs. 
 
 EXPLANATION of PLATE XXX. 
 
 Figure r. Shows the Lachrymal Canals, after the 
 Common Teguments and Bones have been cut away. 
 
 a; The lachrymal gland, b. The two punfta la- 
 chrymalia, from which the two lachrymal canals pro- 
 ceed to c, The lachrymal fac. d. The large lachrymal 
 duifl. e. Its opening into the nofc. f, The caruncu- 
 la lachrymalis. g. The eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 2. An interior View of the Coats and Humours 
 of the Eye. 
 
 a a a a. The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and 
 turned back, b bbb. The tunica choroidcs adhering 
 to the inlide of the fclerotica, and the ciliary veflels 
 are feen paffingovcr — cc, Thereiinawhich covers the 
 vitreous humour, d d, The ciliary procelTes, which 
 were continued from the choroid coat, c e. The iris. 
 f, The pupil. 
 Fig. 3. Shows the Optic Nerves, and Mufcles of 
 the Eye. 
 
 a, a, The two optic nerves before they meet, b. The 
 two optic nerves conjoined, c. The right optic nerve. 
 d, Mufculus attoUens palpebrx fuperioris. e, Attol- 
 lensoculi. f, Abduftor. g g, Obliquus fupcrior, or 
 trochlearis. h, Adduftor. i. The eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 4. Shows the Eye-ball with its Mufcles. 
 a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part 
 of the OS fronris, to which the trochlea or pully is fix- 
 ed, through which, — d. The teudonsof the trochlearis 
 pafTes. e, Attollcns oculi. f, Adduftor oculi. g, Ab- 
 dudor oculi. h, Obliquus inferior, i, Part of the 
 
 4 
 
 fuperior maxillary bone to which it is fixed, k. The 
 eye-ball. 
 
 Fig. 5. Reprefcnts the Nerves and Mufcles of the 
 Right Eye, after part of the Bones of the orbit have 
 been cut away. 
 
 A, The eye-ball. B, The lachrymal gland. C, Muf- 
 culus abdudlor oculi. D, Attolens. E, Levator 
 palpebra; fuperioris. F, DeprcfFor oculi. G, Adduc- 
 tor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pully. I, Its 
 infcrtion into the fclerotic coat. K, Part of the obli- 
 quus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os frontis 
 cut. M, The crifla galli of the ethmoid bone. N, 
 The poflerior part of the fphcnoid bone. O, Tranf- 
 vcrfc fpinous procefs of the fphcnoid bone. P, The 
 carotid artery, denuded where it palTes through the 
 bones. Q^ The carotid artery within the cranium. 
 R, the occular artery. 
 
 Nerves aa, The optic nerve, b. The third 
 
 pair c. Its joining with a branch of the firft branch 
 
 of the fifth pair, to form 1, — The lenticular ganglion, 
 which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. e e. The 
 fourth pair, f. The trunk of the fifth pair, g. The 
 firfl branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic. — 
 h. The frontal branch of it. i. Its ciliary branches, 
 along with which the n.ifal twig is fent to the nofe. 
 k. Its branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticu- 
 lar ganglion, ni. The fecond branch of the fifth pair, 
 named fuperior maxilUry. n. The third branch of rhc 
 fifth pair, named inferior maxillary, o, The fixLh pair 
 
 of 
 
 from its bed in the vitreous humour. In this operation the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour efcapes 
 out of the eye, but it is conftantly renewed again in a very Hiort time. The manner, however, in which it is 
 fecretcd, has not yet been determined. 
 
 (f) Upon this principle, they who in their youtharc neax-fightcdmay expeifl to fee better at they adranc* 
 in life^ as their eyes gradually become more flat.
 
 Anatomv 
 
 I'IrtteXXX 
 
 ,\/. J 
 
 Nb 
 
 y^y /r 
 
 A 
 
 V "■ 
 
 
 .Ji^.-^iUjf
 
 Part VI. ANA 
 
 Of the of nerves, — which fends off p, The beginning of the 
 Senfcj. great fympathciic. q, Tlie remainder of the fixth 
 ■*'~^'^~ psir, fpent on c. The abdudor oculi. 
 
 Fig. 6. Reprefcnts the head of a youth, where the 
 upper part of the cranium is fawed off, — to (liow the up- 
 per part of the brain, covered by the pia mater, the 
 velfcls of which are minutely filled with wax. 
 
 A A, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra- 
 nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diplufc'. 
 BB, The two hemifpheresof the cerebrum. CC,Thc 
 incifure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium 
 cerebello fuper expanfum. E, part of thx lalx, which 
 is fixed to the crilla galli. 
 
 Fig. 7. Reprefcnts the parts of the External Ear, 
 with the Parotid Gland and its Dufl. 
 
 a a. The helix, b. The antihelix. c. The anti- 
 iragus. d, The tragus, e. The lobe of the ear. f. 
 The cavitas innominata. g, The fcapha. h. The 
 concha, i i. The parotid gland, k, A lymphatic 
 gland, which is often found before the tragus. 1, The 
 duel of the parotic gland, ni. Its opening into the 
 mouth. 
 
 Fig. 8. A view of the poftcrior part of the external 
 
 r O M Y. 
 
 ear, meatus auditorius.tympanum, with its fmall bones, 
 and Euflachian tube of the right fide. 
 
 a. The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ce- 
 ruminous glands, b. The incus, c. Malleus, d. The 
 chorda tympani e, Membrana tympini. f. The 
 Euftachian tube, g. Its mouth from the fauces. 
 
 Fig. 9. Reprefcnts the anterior part of the right 
 external ear, the caviry of the tympanum — its fmall 
 bones, cochlea, and fcmicircular canals. 
 
 a. The malleus, b. Incus with its long leg, relling 
 upon the ftapcs. c, Membrana tympani. d, e. The 
 Euftachian tube, covered by part of — f f, The muf- 
 culus circumflexuspalati. i, 2, 3, The three fcmi- 
 circular canals. 4, The vciliblc. j. The cochlea. 
 6, The portio mollis of the fevemh pair of nerves. 
 
 Fic. 10. Shows the raufcles which compofc th« 
 flefliy fubftance of the Tongue. 
 
 a a. The tip of the tongue, with fome of the papil- 
 Ije minimae. b. The root of the tengue. c. Part of 
 the membrane of the tongue, which covered the 
 epiglottis, d d. Part of the mufculus hyo-glolfus. 
 c. The lingualis. f, Genio-gloflus. g g. Part of ihc 
 flylo-gloITus. 
 
 777 
 
 Of the 
 ^cnfei. 
 
 ANA 
 
 As/rroim of Plants. See Plants. 
 
 j4s ATOMY of Brutes. See Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, one of the mofl: celebrated philo- 
 fophers of antiquity, was born at Clazomcne in Ionia, 
 about the 70th Olympiad. He was difcipleof Anaxi- 
 nienes; and gave up his patrimony, to be more at lei- 
 fiu-e for the Iludy of philofophy. He went firfl; to 
 Athens, and there taught eloquence ; after which, 
 having put himfclf under the tuition of Anaximenes, 
 he gave IcH'ons in philofophy in the fame city. Thefe 
 he only gave to fome particular friends and difciplcs, 
 and with extreme caution. This, however, did not 
 prevent, but rather was the caufc of, his being accufcd 
 of impiety, and thrown into prifon, notwithftanding 
 the credit and influence of Pericles, who was his diu 
 ciple and intimate. Having been condemned to exile, 
 he calmly yielded to the enbrts of envy, and opened 
 fchool at Lampfacum, where he was extremely honour- 
 ed during the remainder of his life, and flill more af- 
 ter his death, having had flatues erei5led to his memo- 
 ry. He is faid to have made fome predictions relative 
 to the phenomena of nature, upon which he wrote fome 
 trcatifes. His principal tenets may be reduced to the 
 following: — All things were in the beginning confu- 
 fcdly placed together, without order and without mo- 
 tion. The principle of tilings is at the fame time one 
 and multiplex, whichobtaiuedthe name of /jo;// ar«/iT;Vj, 
 or fimilar pai-ticles, deprived of life. But there is be- 
 lides this, from all eternity, another principle, namely, 
 an infinite and incorporeal fpirit, who gave thefe parti- 
 cles a motion ; in virtue of which, fuch as are homo- 
 geneal united, and fuch as were hctcrogeneal fcparated, 
 according to their ditfcrcnt kinds. In this manner all 
 tilings being put into motion by the fpirit, and fimilar 
 things being united to fuch as were fimilar, fuch as 
 had a circular motion produced heavenly bodies, the 
 lighter particles afcenued, thofe which were heavy de- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANA 
 fcended. The rocks of the earth, being drawn up by 
 the force of the air, took fire, and became liars, be- 
 neath which the fun and moon took their ftations. 
 Thus he did not look upon tlie ftars as divinities. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS, a philofopher of Abdera, high- 
 ly efleemed by Alexander the Great. His end was 
 peculiarly tragical : having the misfortune to fall into 
 the hands of the enemy, they pounded him alive in a 
 mortar. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, a famous Greek philofopher, 
 born at Miletus in the 42d Olympiad, in the time of Po- 
 lycrates tyrant of Samos. He was the lirft who pub- 
 licly taught philofophy, and wrote upon philofophical 
 fubjeds. He carried his refcarches into nature very 
 far for the time in which he lived. It is faid, that he 
 difcovered the obliquity of the Zodiac, was the firfl 
 who publilhed a geographical table, invented the gnO' 
 mon, and fet up the firfl fim-dial in an open place at 
 Lacedaemon. He taught, that infinity of things was 
 the principal and univcrfal clement ; that this infinite 
 always preferved its unity, but that its parts underwent 
 changes ; that all things came from it ; and that all 
 were about to return into it. According to all appear- 
 ance, he meant by this obfcure and indeterminate prin- 
 ciple the chaos of tilt other philofophers. He allcrted, 
 that there are an infinity of worlds; that the flars are 
 compofcd of air and fire, which are carried in their 
 fpheres, and that thefe fphcrcs arc gods ; and that the 
 earth is placed in the midllof the univcrfc,asin a com- 
 mon centre. He added, that infinite worlds were the 
 produdof infinity, and that corruption proceeded from 
 fcparation. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, born at Milenis, an eminent 
 Greek philofopher, friend, fcholar, and fuccciibr of 
 Anaximander. He diti'iifcd fome degree of light upon 
 the obfcurity of his mailer's fyllem. He made the firfl 
 principle of things to confiA i:\ the air, which he con- 
 5 «' fidered 
 
 Anaxar- 
 chut 
 
 B 
 
 Aaiiime-
 
 A N C 
 
 [ 778 ] 
 
 A N C 
 
 Aouinic- 
 net 
 
 II 
 Ancellori. 
 
 lidereilasimmeiifeor infinite, and to whicli heafcribcd 
 a perpetual motion. He ali'ertcd, that all things which 
 proceeded from it were dciinitcand circuinlcribcd ; and 
 that this air, fhtrcfort, was God, fuicc the divine 
 puwerrcljgnedinitand agitated it. Coldueis and moi- 
 ilure, heat and motion, rendered it viiible, and drelFed 
 it in different I'ornis, according to the different degrees 
 of its condenfatiou. All the elements thus proceed 
 from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion, 
 one continued Hat furfacc. 
 
 Anaximenes, the fon ofAriflodes of Lampfacus 
 an orator, the dii'ciple of Diogenes the Cynic, and of 
 Zoilus the railer againll Homer. He was preceptor 
 to Alexander of Macedon, and followed him to the 
 w;u-s. Alexander being inlcnfcd againll the people of 
 Lampfacus, they fent this philolbphcr to intercede for 
 them. Alexander knowing the caufc of his coming, 
 fwore that he would do the very reverfc of whatever he 
 dclired of him. Anaximenes begged of him to dcltroy 
 Lampfacus. Alexander, imwilllng to break his oath, 
 and not able to chide this ftratagem, pardoned Lanip- 
 iacus much againll his will. 
 
 ANAXIMANDIIIANS, in the hiflory of philofo- 
 phy, the followers of Anaxim.ander ; the moll ancient 
 of the pliilofophical aihcills, who admitted of no other 
 fubftancc in nature than matter. 
 
 ANAZARBUS (Pliny), Anazarba (Stcphanuj) ; 
 a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, tlic birth 
 place of Diofcorides, and of the poet Oppian. It 
 Was fometimes called C^efayca, in honoiu- cither of 
 Augullus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants arc called 
 u4iiazarbin't {?Xn\'j^, and on zom% Anazarhles, after 
 the Greek idiom. It was dellroyed by a dreadful 
 earthquake in the year 525, along with feveral other 
 important cities : but they were all repaired at a vafl 
 expence by the emperor Juflin ; who was fo much af- 
 fected with their misfortune, that, putting ofFthe dia- 
 dem and purple, he appeared for leveral days in fack- 
 cloth. 
 
 ANBERTKEND, in the eaftern language, a cele- 
 liratcd book of the Brachmans, whercui the Indian 
 philofophy and religion are contained. The word in 
 its literal fcnle denotes the ciflcrn wherein is the wa- 
 ter of life. The anbcrtkend is divided into 50 beths, 
 or difcourfes, each of which coufifls of ten chapters. 
 It has been tranllated from the original Indian into 
 Arabic, imdcr the title of Morat al Maani, q. d. th; 
 iiiarr(j-u! t,j' 'ii.tilligeiici. 
 
 ANCARANO, a town of Italy, in the march of An- 
 cona, liruatedin E. Long. 14. 54. N. Lat. 42. 48. 
 
 ANC'ASTER, a town of Lincolnfhire, lituated in 
 W. Long. 30'. N. Lat. 52. ;o. It gives title of duke 
 to the noble family of Bertie. 
 
 ANCENIS, a tovn of France, in the province of 
 Britany. W. Long. i. 9. N. Lat. 47. 20. 
 
 ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is de- 
 fcended in a ilraight line. The word is derived from 
 the Latin a»ceJfor, contrafled from ariteajfor, q. d. 
 goer b.forc. 
 
 Moil nations have paid honours to their anccflors. 
 It was properly the departed fouls of their ibrefathcrs 
 that the Romans wordiipped under the denominations 
 of ral:', leni'ircs, and ho-if:hclil gods. Hence the an- 
 cifnt tombs were a kmd of temples, or rather altars, 
 
 wherein oblations were made by the kiudi-cj of the Anccftort. 
 dcceafcd. ' \y—' 
 
 TheRufTians have ftill their annivcrfaryfca/ls in me- 
 mory of their ancellors, which tlity call rodilolifabot, 
 q.d. kiiiijolk' sfjhbiiili,'v,'\\i:ii:in they make formal vilils 
 to the dead in their graves, and carry tliem jirovifions, 
 eatables, and prefents of divers oihir kinds. They 
 interrogate them, with loud lamentable cries. What 
 they are doing? How tliey fpciid their time ? What 
 it is they want ? and the like. 
 
 The <)iiojas, a people of Africa, offer facritices of 
 rice and wine to their anccflors before ever ility un- 
 dertake any confiderable adlion. The anni verfaries of 
 their deaths arc always kept by their families with 
 great foleranity. The king invokes the foul of his fa- 
 ther and mother to make trade llomilh and the chacc 
 fucceed. 
 
 Tlie Chinefe fecm to have diflinguifhcd thciufclves 
 above all other nations in the veneration they bear 
 their ancellors. By the laws of Confucius, part of 
 the duty which children owe their parents conlifls in 
 worlhipping them when dead. This i'ervice, which 
 makes a conlidcrable part of the natm-al religion of 
 llic Chinefe, is faid to have been iullituted by the em- 
 peror Kun, the filth in order from the foundation of 
 that ancient empire. Bibl. Un.tom. vii. The Chinefe 
 have both a folemn and ordinary worfhip which they 
 pay their ancellors. The former is held regularly twice 
 a-ycar, viz. in fpring and autumn, with nuich pomp. 
 A perfon who was prefent at it gives the following ac- 
 count of the ceremonies on that occalion : The i'acri- 
 fices were made in a chapel well adorned, where there ; 
 
 were fix altars furniflied with ccnfcrs, tapers, and flow- 
 ers. Tliere were three miniflers, and behind tlicm two 
 young acolites. The tliree former went with a pro- 
 found lilence, and frequent genuflexions, tow-ards the 
 five altars, pouring out wine : afterwards they drew 
 near to the lixth, and when they came to the foot of 
 the altar, half bowed down, they faid their prayers 
 with a low voice. That being finilhed^ the three mi- 
 niflers went to the altar, the ofliciating prieft took up 
 a vetrd full of wine, and drank ; then he lifted up the 
 head of a deer or goat ; after which, taking fire from 
 the altar, they all lighted a bit of paper ; and the mi- 
 niller of the ceremonies tiu-nnig towards the people, 
 faid with a high voice, that he gave them thanks in 
 the name of their anccflors tor having fo well honoiu-- 
 ed tlicm ; and in recompencc he promifed them, on 
 their part, a plentiful harvell, a fruitful illue, good 
 health, and long life, and all thofe advantages that 
 are moll plcaling to men. 
 
 The Cliinefe give their anccflors another fimpler 
 and more private worlhip. To this end they have in 
 their houfes a niclie or hollow place, where they put 
 the names of their dcceafed fathers, and make prayers 
 and offerings of perfumes and fpiccs to them at ceriaia 
 times, with bowing, &c. They do the like at their 
 tombs. 
 
 The JeAVS fettled in China are faid to worfhip their 
 anccflors like the lieathens, and with the fame cere- 
 monies, except that they offer not fwine's flefh. Near 
 their fynnagogue they have a hall, or court of ancellors, 
 wherein are niches for Abraliam, Ifaac, &c. The Je- 
 fuits alfo conformed, and were permitted by their ge- 
 neral
 
 A N C 
 
 t 779 ] 
 
 A N C 
 
 Anchor. 
 
 Aochilopj neral to conform lo this and many other fupcrftitious 
 
 cuiloms of the Chint-re. 
 _ There is one peculiarity of another kind, wherein 
 
 the Chiuefe Ihow their regard for ilieir anceflors : in 
 proportion as any of their dcfcendants arc preferred to 
 
 a higher degree or dignity, their dead anteflors are at 
 the fametimcprcferrcd and ennobled with them. The 
 kings Ven, Van, Veu, Van, andChcu, Cum, whowere 
 defcendcd from vafTal kings, when tlity moiuited the 
 imperial throne, raifcd their anceflors from the vaflal 
 or depending flatc wherein thefc had lived, to the dig- 
 nity of emperors ; fo that the fame honours were for 
 the future rendered them as if they had been emperors 
 of China. The fame example was followed by the 
 fubfequcnt kings, and now obtains among the grandees 
 and literati ; all now worlhip their anceflors, accord- 
 ing to the rank which they themfelvcs hold in the 
 world. If the fon be a mandarin and the father only 
 a doftor, the latter is buried as a dodor, but facrificcd 
 to as a mandarin. The like holds in degradations, 
 where the condition of their fathers is that of their 
 ions. 
 
 ANCHILOPS, AytuKK, contraHion, and m-^, eye ; 
 in medicine, denotes an abfcefs, or collcfbion or mat- 
 ter, between the great angle of the eye and the nofe. 
 If fuffered toremam too long, or unlkilfully managed, 
 it degenerates, the ftagnating humours corrupt, and 
 an ulcer i§ produced. When the tumor is brolLe, and 
 thetears flow involoaiarily, whilfltheos lachrymaleis 
 not carious, it is an agylops ; but when the ulcer is of 
 a long Handing, deep, fetid, and the os lachrymale be- 
 comes carious, it is zfijiula. The cure is by rellric- 
 tion and excifion, tying it at tlic root on the glandula 
 lachrymalis, and, when ready, cutting it off. See 
 
 SuRGERY-//;</tX. 
 
 ANCHISES, in fabulous hiUory, a Trojan prince, 
 defcendcd from Dardaixus, and the fon of Capys. Ve- 
 nus madclove to him in the form of a beautiful nymph; 
 ajid bore him .lEneas, the hero of Virgil's yEneid. 
 
 ANCHOR [aiichora, Lat. from nyt-^jfct, Greek), a 
 heavy, flrong, crooked inllrumcnt of iron, dropped 
 from a Ihip into the bottom of the water, to retain her 
 111 a convenient llation in a harbour, road, or river. 
 
 The moll ancient anchors are faid to have been of 
 flonc ; and fomctiines of wood, to which a great quan- 
 tity of lead was ufually fixed. In forae places, balkets 
 full of flunes, and facks filled with fand, were employ- 
 ed for the fame ufe. All thefc were let down by cords 
 into the fea, and by thcii' weight flayed the courfe of 
 the fltip. Afterwards they were compofed of iron, 
 andfurnilhed with teeth, which, being faflcned to tixc 
 bottom of the fea, prclcrved the vcfl'cl immoveable ; 
 whence tc/VivTiic and daita are frequently taken for an- 
 chors in the Greek and Latin poets. At firfl there was 
 only one tooth, whence anchors were called iTifocsjun: 
 but in a Ihort time the fecond was added by Kupala- 
 mus,or Anacharlis, the Scythian pliilolbpher. The an- 
 chors with two teeth were called «/ifiCsXo/,ora/i<^(yo.uci; 
 andfromancientmonamentsappear to have been much 
 the fame with thole ulcd in oiu" days, only the tranf- 
 vcrfc piece of wood upon tlicir handles (the /lock) is 
 wanting mall of them. Every fliip had fevcral an- 
 chors ; one of which, furpalfing all the refl in bignels 
 and ftrcngth, waspec liarly termed hib or /acrj, and 
 
 Plate 
 XXXI. 
 
 I.D°I1 
 
 was ncverufed butin extreme danger ; wheacey5»cr*;« Ancher. 
 anchor avifotvcit, is proverbially applied to fuch as arc ""^ — » — 
 forced to their lad refuge. 
 
 1 he anchors now made arc contrived fo as to fmk 
 into the ground as foon as they reach it, and to hold 
 a great flrain before they can be loofencdor dillodged 
 from their flation. They are compofed of ihanJ., a 
 flock, a ring, and two arms with their flukes. The 
 flock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acrofi the 
 iliank, ferves to guide the flukes in a direiition perpen- 
 dicular to the furface of the groimd ; fo that one of 
 them finks into it by its own weight as foon as it falls, 
 and is flill prefcrvcd flcadily in tliat pofiiiou by the 
 ftock, which together with the Ibank, Lies flat on the 
 bottom. lu this iituation it mull neceflarily ftiflain a 
 great eflbrt before it can be dragged tlirough the earth 
 horizontally. Indeed tliis can only be effccled by the 
 violence of the wind or tide, or both of them, fome- 
 times increafed by die turbulence of the fea, and aft- 
 ing upon the fliip to as to flrctch the cable to its utmofl 
 teniion, wliieh accordingly may diflodge the anchor 
 from its bed, efpecially it the ground bcfoft and oozy, 
 or rocky. When the anchor is thus dilplaced, it is 
 faid, in the fea phrafe, to come htme. 
 
 That the figure of this ufcfui inflrumcnt may be 
 more clearly undcrflood, let us fuppofc a long mafly 
 beam of iron ereiled perpendicularly, b, at the lower g ^ 
 end of which are two arms, d e, of equal thicknefs ^ 
 with the beam(ufually called tlie_/Z'd«j(),only that they 
 taper towards the points, which are derated above die 
 horizontal plane at an angle of 50 degrees, or in- 
 clined to the Ihank at an angle of 60 degrees ; on the 
 upper part of each arm, (in this poUdon) is a fluke or 
 thick plate of iron, ^ h, commonly fliapcd like an 
 ifofcles triangle whole bafe reaches inwards to the 
 middle of the arm. On the upper end of the fhank is 
 fixed the flock tranfverfely with the flukes ; the flock 
 is a long beam of oak,/, in two parts, llrongly bolted, 
 and hooped together with iron rings. See alio N° 2. 
 Clolc above the Hock is the ring a, to which the cable 
 is faflened, or bciit : the ring is curioully covered with 
 a number of pieces of fliort rope, which are twilled 
 about it fo as to form a very thick texture or covering 
 called the {mdiJening, and ufed to prefervc the cable 
 from being frcted or chafed by the u-on. 
 
 Every Ihip has, or ought to have, three princippj 
 anchors, with a cable to each, viz. the Ihect, rnaitrijfc- 
 arjcre, (which is the <7//<r^or<7 yicrd of the ancients) ; 
 the befl ho\vcT,/cco>id aitcre ,• and fmall bower, aucri 
 d' affourchc, fo called from their ufual litiiauon on the 
 fhip's bows. There are befides fmaller anchors, for 
 removing a fliip from place to place in a harbour or 
 river, where there may not be room or wind for failing; 
 thefc are the flreani-anchor, ar.crv detaiie ; thekcd^'C 
 and grappling, grapim : this lafl, however, is chieify 
 defigncd for boats. 
 
 Mithod of Alaking AscHOR!;. The goodnefs of the 
 anchor is a point of great importance. Great care is 
 therefore to be taken, that the metal it is made of be 
 neither too foft nor too brittle ; the latter rendering it 
 liable to break and the former to flraitcn. 
 
 The ihank, aims, and flakes, are fiifl forged fcpa- 
 
 rately ; then the hole is made jt one end of the Ihank 
 
 for the ring, which being alfo preyioifly forged, is 
 
 J K 2 put
 
 A N C [78 
 
 Anchor, put into the hole of the fhank, and the two ends fluit 
 '''—<^—' to<^ct]icr. Atlcr which the arms arc Ihiit to the Ihank 
 one after the other, and the anchor is tinilhed. 
 
 Proof is made of ancliors, by rifing ihcm to a 
 jrrcat height, and then letting them fall again on a 
 kind of iron block placed acrofs tor the piirpofe. To 
 try whether the flukes will turn to the bottom and 
 take hold of the ground, they place the anchor on an 
 even ftirface, with the end of one of the llukes, and 
 one of the ends of the ilock refling on the furface ; in 
 cafe the anchor turns, and the point of the tiuke rifes 
 upwards, the anchor is good. 
 
 In England, France, and Holland, anchors are made 
 of forged iron ; but in Spain they are fometimes made 
 of copper, and likcwife in feveral parts of the South- 
 Sea. 
 
 For the proportions of anchors, according 10 Man- 
 waring, the Ihank is to be thrice the length of one of 
 the rtukes, and half the length of the beam. Accord- 
 ing to Aubm, the length of the anchor is to be four 
 tenths of the greatcfl breadth of the lliip ; fo that the 
 Ihank, (. gr. of an anchor in a velTel 30 feet wide, is 
 to be 1 2 feet long. When the Ihank is, for iuilance 
 eight feet long, the two arms are to be feven feet long, 
 meafiu-ing them acccrding to their curvity. As to the 
 deoree of curvity given the arms, there is no rule for 
 it r the workmen are here left to their own difcretion. 
 
 The latter writerobferves, that the anchor of a large 
 heavy vefl'el is fmaller, in proportion, than tliat of a 
 kffer and lighter one. The i ealbn he gives is, that 
 though the fea employes an equal force againft a fmall 
 vefTel as againfl a great one, fuppoling the extent of 
 wood upon which the water afts to be equal in both, 
 yet the little velfel, by reafon of its fuperior lightnefs, 
 does not make fo much refiltance as the greater ; the 
 defeift whereof muft be fupplied by the weight of the 
 
 anchor. 
 
 From thefe, and other hydroftatic principles, the 
 following table has been formed ; wherein is ihown, 
 by meansof the fliip's breadth within, how many feet 
 the beam or Ihank ought to be long, giving it four- 
 tenths or two filths of the ihip's breadth within : by 
 which proportion might be regulated tiie length of the 
 other p.arts of the anchor. In this table is reprefented 
 likewife the weight an anchor ought to be for a Hiip 
 fwim eight feet broad to 4J, inereal'mg by one foot's 
 breadth ; fuppoling that all anchors are firailar, or that 
 [heir v.eights are as the cubes of the lengths of the 
 
 feanks. 
 
 Feet. r Pounds 
 
 O ] 
 
 A N C 
 
 
 'Fccr. 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 , 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Ki 
 
 11 
 
 TJ 
 
 c 
 
 K- 
 
 12 
 
 < 
 
 •=■ 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 J3 
 
 ij 
 
 
 
 
 
 pJ3 
 
 •0 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 St 
 
 K 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 1 1 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 L 
 
 3' 
 
 4 
 
 4' 
 
 41 
 
 51 
 
 5' 
 
 6 
 
 6! 
 
 6? 
 
 7t 
 
 7! 
 
 S 
 
 J3 
 
 33 
 47 
 64 
 84 
 no 
 14Q 
 
 I7J 
 216 
 262 
 314 
 373 
 
 439 
 512 
 
 59^ 
 
 
 Feet. 
 22 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 C Pounds, 
 
 1 
 
 
 8« 
 
 1 
 
 681 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 9" 
 
 
 773 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 9' 
 
 
 884 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 lO' 
 
 
 II24 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 10' 
 
 
 1259 
 
 
 28 
 
 L^ 
 
 
 
 II' 
 
 
 1405 
 
 § 
 
 29 
 
 
 11' 
 
 
 1562 
 
 «j ?o 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 1728 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 31 
 
 < 
 
 12? 
 
 J - 
 
 1906 
 
 ^2 
 
 .G 
 
 I2t 
 
 
 2097 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 13; 
 
 
 2300 
 
 .g 
 
 34 
 
 .g 
 
 13; 
 
 ^ 
 
 2515 
 
 ■3 
 
 35 
 
 £0 
 
 14 
 
 
 2742 
 
 eg 
 
 36 
 37 
 
 
 14' 
 14' 
 
 
 2986 
 
 3242 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 15' 
 
 
 3512 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 15' 
 
 
 3796 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 4096 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 16' 
 
 
 4426 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 16J 
 
 
 4742 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 ni 
 
 
 5088 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 5451 
 
 
 L 45 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 . 5833 
 
 Anchor, 
 
 M. Bougucr, in his Train de N/cvire, direifls to 
 take the length of the fliank in inches, and to divide 
 the cube of it by 1160 for the weight. The reafon 
 is obvious; becaufe the quotient ot the cube of 201 
 inches, which is the length of an anchor weighing 
 7000 tb. divided by the weight, is 1 160 ; and there- 
 fore, by the rule of three, this will be a common di- 
 vifor for the cube of any length, and a liiigle opera- 
 tion will fuffice. 
 
 The fame author gives the following dimenlions of 
 tlie feveral parts of an anchor. The two arms gene- 
 rally form the arch of a circle, whefe centre is tliree- 
 eighths of the fliank from the vertex, or point where 
 it is fixed to the (liank ; and each arm is equal to the 
 fame length, or the radius ; fo that the two arms to- 
 gether make an arch of 120 degrees : the flukes are 
 half the length of the arms, and their breadth two- 
 fifths of the faid length. With refpeft to the thick- 
 nefs, the circumference at the throat, or vertex of the 
 fhank, is generally made about the fifth part of its 
 length, and the fmall end two-tliirds of the throat ; 
 the fmall end of the arms of the flukes, three-fourths 
 oi the cu-cumference of the fliank at the tluoat. Thefe 
 dimenlions Ihouldbc bigger, when the iron is of a bad 
 quality, efpecially if call iron is ufcd inflead of forged 
 ii'on. 
 
 At AscHOR, the fituation of a (hip which rides by 
 licr anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXXI. lig. i. 
 N°3. reprefents the fort part of a Ihip as riding in 
 this fituation. See alio Buoy-Rope. 
 
 Tiifjh the AscHOR, to draw up the flukes upon the 
 fliip's Jide after it is catted. Sec the articles Davit 
 and FisB. 
 
 To Jletrthe Ship to her Anchor, is to fleer the fhip's 
 head towards the place where the anclior lies when they 
 are heaving the cable into the Ihip ; that the cable may 
 thereby enter the haufe with leisrelillance, and the- 
 Ihip advance towards the aiitlior with greater facility. 
 
 Anchor~
 
 A N C r 7^1 ] A N C 
 
 Anchor y4.\'cH0R-C round is a bottom which is neither too fome woods where it abounds, the ground fccms en- Anchufi 
 
 1 deep, too Ihallow, nor rocky ; as in the fnil tlic cable tircly covered with its yellow tlowcrs. It is a pcrcn- I 
 Anchufa. bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to nial plant, which feldom riles a foot hi>;h in good Ancient.^ 
 jerk the anchor out ot the ground ; in the fccond, the ground, but not above half that height where the foil 
 lliip's bottom is apt to (Irike at low water, or when is poor. The rlowcrs grow in loofc Ipikcs upon fmooth 
 the fea runs high, by which flic is expofed to the dan- ftalks. 6. The fenipcrvirens, or evtr-grcen Iwragc, 
 ger of linking ; and in the third, the anchor is liable 
 to hook the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and 
 tear away its Hukcs, whilil the cable, from the fame 
 caulc, is coiillauily in danger of being cut tlirough as 
 it rubs on their edges. 
 
 Anchor, in architecture, is a fort of carving, fonie- 
 what refembling an author. It is commonly placed 
 as part of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals 
 oftheTufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alio of 
 the boultins of bed-mouldings of the Doric, Ionic, 
 and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being car- 
 ved alternately tln^ough the whole building. 
 
 Anchors, in heraldry, arc emblems of hope, and 
 are taken for fuch in a fpiritual as well as a temporal 
 fenfe. 
 
 Anchorage, in law, is a duty upon (liips for the 
 ufe of the port or harbour where they call anchor. 
 
 ANCHOVY, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of 
 the clupea encraficolus. Sec Clui'ea. 
 
 ANCHOVY-PEAR. SceGRiAS. 
 
 ANCHUSA, Ai.KANET or BuGLOSs : A genus of 
 themonogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs 
 of plants ; and in the uatiu-al method ranking under 
 the 41ft order, afpenfuilf. The c«/)'.v is a quincjuc- 
 partite perianthiwn, oblongand perliflent : The corolla 
 is inonopetalous and funnel-lhapcd, the throat clofed 
 with fcales : i'YxejIawiiia coufill of five (liort filaments ; 
 the autherse oblong and covered : 'T\\cpijli!lri?ii has four 
 gcrmina, a filitorm llylus, and obtufe lligma : There 
 is wo perlcarpium, the calyx containing the feeds in its 
 bofom : Th.c f^eds are foiu-, obloug, gibbous, and en- 
 graven at the bafe. 
 
 Species. I. The officinalis, or greater garden-bnglofs, 
 is a native of France and of the warmer parts of Europe, 
 but will thrive well enough in the climate of Britain ; 
 though the roots feldom continue longer than two years 
 there, unlefs they happen to grow in rubbilh, oroutof 
 an old wall, where they will live three or foiu- years. 
 3. The angultifolia, or percnialwildborage, grows to 
 the height of two feet when cultivated in gardens; but 
 in thofe places where it grows wilil is feldom more than 
 afoot and an half high. The kavesof this fort are 
 narrow ; the fpikes of flowers come out double, and 
 have no leaves about them ; the flowers are fmall, and 
 of a red colour. The roots will continue two years in 
 a poor foil. 3. The undulata, or Portugal buglofs, 
 is a biennial plant, wliich grows to the height of two 
 feet, and fends out many lateral branches. The flow- 
 ers are of a bright blue colour, and grow in an imbri- 
 cated fpikc. 4. The oricnialis, or eafleru buglofs, is 
 a native of the Levant. It is a perennial plant, with 
 long trailing branches which lie on the ground. The 
 flowers arc yellow, and alwut the llze of the common 
 buglofs, and there is a fuccelTion of thefe on the fame 
 plants great part of the year. j. The virgiuiana, or 
 puccoon, grows naturally in the woods of North-Ame- 
 rica; and being .an early plant, generally flowers be- 
 fore the new leaves come out 011 the trees ; fo that ia 
 
 is a very hardy perennial plant, with weak trailing 
 branches. It grows natwally in fome parts of Britain 
 and Spain. The flowers are blue, and come our be- 
 tween the leaves on the fpike, -like the fourth fort. 
 They appear during a great part of the year. 7. The 
 cretica, or warted buglofs of Crete, is a low trailing 
 animal plant, whofc branches feldom extend more 
 than lix incites. The rlowcrs are fmall, of a brighc 
 blue colour, and are collected iuto fmall bunches at 
 the extremity of the branches. The plants pcrilh foon 
 after their feeds are ripe. 8. The tinctoria, or true 
 alkanet, grows naturally in the Levant, but is equally 
 hardy with the tirfl fpeeics. The flowers grow in long 
 fpikes, commgoui imbriciithii , like the tiles of a houfe. 
 
 Culture. All the fpecies of anchufa may be propa- 
 gated by feeds ; which (hould be fown, either in the 
 ipringor autumn, upon a bed of light fandy earth ; and 
 when the plants are rtrong enough to be removed, they 
 mull be plantcil on beds at two feet ditlance from one 
 another, and watered, if the feafon requires it, till they 
 have taken root ; afler which they will require no other 
 care than to keep them free from weeds. 
 
 MedioialVjc!, &c. The dowers of the firfl fpecies 
 have obtained the name of c.rdia! flowers ; to which 
 they have no other title than that they moderately cool 
 and foftcn, without offending, the palate or ftomach ; 
 and thus, in warm climates, or in hot difeafcs, may in 
 fome meafiirercfrelh the patient. The rootof thclinc- 
 toria is likewifc ufed, not as polfciicd of any medici- 
 nal virtue, but on accoimt of its imparting au elegant 
 red colour to oily fubllanccs ; fo is frequently direc- 
 ted asa colouring ingredient for ointmcts, plaltcrs, &c. 
 As the colour is confined to the cortical part, the fmall 
 roots are to be preferred, as having proportioiiably 
 morebarkthau thelargeones. The alkaiieirootwhicli 
 grows in Enjrland is greatly inferior to what comes 
 from France, and fome other parts of Europe. 
 
 ANCHYLOBLEFHARON. See Ancyloble- 
 
 PHARON. 
 
 ANCHYLOPS. See Anchilops. 
 
 ANCHYLOSIS. See Ancylosis. 
 
 ANCIENT, or Antient, a term applied to things. 
 which cxiilcd long ago ; thus we fay, ancient nations, 
 ancient culloms, &c. See Antkjuities. 
 
 Ancient, fometimes denotes elderly, or of long 
 flandmg, in oppolition to young, or new ; thus we fay, 
 an ancient barriiler, ancient buildings. 
 
 Ancient, in a military fenfe, denotes either the 
 enfign or colours. 
 
 Ancient, in Gups of war, the llreamcr or flag 
 borne in the fleni. 
 
 ANCIENT DEMESME, in Englifli law, isatenm-e, 
 whereby all manors belonging to the crown in William 
 the Conqueror's and St Edward's time were held. 
 The numbers, names, &:c. hereof were entered by the 
 Conqueror, in a book called Dom^fday Book, yet rc- 
 mamiiig iu the Exchequer ; fo that fuch l.inds as by 
 that book appeared to have belonged to the crown at 
 
 ilwt
 
 A N C 
 
 Li 7«a ] 
 
 A N C 
 
 Anciemty, ib« tiuic, arccallcd ancient demefiu. — The tenants in 
 .rtuciilgii. aacicut dcnicfnc are of two fijrts ; one who hold their 
 
 ' ^~ bnds frankly by charter ; the other by copy ofcoiin- 
 
 roU, or by the verge, at the will ot the lord, according 
 to the ciillom of the manor — The advantages of this 
 tenure arc, i . That tenants holding by charter cannot 
 bcrightfully mpleadtd out of their manor ; and, when 
 they are, they may abate the writ, by pleading the te- 
 nure. 2. They are tree from toll for all thuigs relating 
 to iheu- livelihood and hulbandry ; nor can be impaii- 
 nelled on any inquelt. — Thefc tenants held origmally 
 by plowing the kmg'sland, plalliing his hedges, and 
 the like fervice, for the maintenance of his houfehold ; 
 and it w as on this account that fuch liberties were gi- 
 ven them, for which they may have writs of monftra- 
 vcruKt to fuch as take the duties of toll, &:c. — No 
 lands are tobeaccomucd ancient demefne, but fuch as 
 are held in focage. Whether land be ancient demefiie 
 or not, fhall be tried by the Boo!; of Domesday. 
 
 ANCIENTY, in fome ancient ftatutes, is ufed for 
 cldcrlhip or feniority. The elder liiler can demand no 
 luorc than her other lifters, belide the chief mefiie, by 
 rcafon of her ancienty. This word is ufed in the fta- 
 tute of Ireland, 14 Hen. III. 
 
 ANCILLON (David), a minUler of the reformed 
 church at Metz, where he was born the 1 7th of March 
 1617. He fludied from the ninth or tenth year of his 
 age in the Jefuits college, where he gave fuch proofs 
 of his genius, that the heads of the fociety tried every 
 means to draw him over to their religion and party ; 
 but he continued firm againlf then- attacks. He went 
 to Geneva in 1623 ; and lludied divinity under Span- 
 licim, Diodati, and Tronchin, who conceived a very 
 great cfleem for him. He left Geneva in April 1641, 
 and ottered himfelf to the fynod of Charenton in order 
 to take upon him the office of a miniller : his abilities 
 were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole 
 aflcmbly were fo highly pleafed with him, that they 
 gave him the chiu-chof Meaux, the moll confiderable 
 then unprovided for. Hereheacqiured a vafl reputation 
 for his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and was even 
 highly refpeclcd by thofc of the Romaa-catholic com- 
 munion. He returned to his own country in the year 
 16 J5, where heremaiued till the revocation of the e- 
 di(5t of Nantes in 168 j. He retired to Francfort after 
 this fatal blow ; and having preached m the French 
 church at Hanau, the whole congregation were fo edi- 
 fied by it, that they immediately called together the 
 heads of the families, in order to propofe tliat he might 
 be invited to accept bemg miniller there. The pro- 
 polition wasagrced to ; and he began the exercifeof his 
 minifb-y in tliat cluu-ch about the end of the year i6Sj. 
 His preaclimg made fo great a noife at Hanau, that 
 the profcllors of divinity, and the German and Dutch 
 miniftcrs, attended his fcrmons frequently : the count of 
 Hanau himfelf, who had never before been feenin the 
 French cluircl:, came tltithcr to hear Mr Ancillon : 
 they came frum the neighbouring parts, and even from 
 Francfort ; people who luiderflood nothing of French 
 fiockcd together with great eagerncfs, and faid they 
 loved to fee him fpeak. This occadoned a great jca- 
 loufy in the tv.-o other minillers ; which tended to make 
 bis lltuation uneafy. He therefore v\ent to Berlin ; 
 where he met with a kind reception from his highnels 
 
 the tlcflor, and was made minifterof the city. Here 
 lie had the plcafiu-e of feeing his eUlelllbn made judge 
 and dircdor of the French in the fame city, and his o- 
 iherfon rewarded with a peniion and entertained at tlic 
 univerfity of Francfort upon the Oder. He had like- 
 wife the fatisfaetion of feeing his brother made judge 
 of all the French in tile flates of Brandenbiirgh ; and Mr 
 Cayart, his fon-hi-law, enghiecr to his elcdtoral high- 
 nefs. He enjoyed ihefc agreeable circumllanccs, and 
 fcveral others, till his death, which happened atBtalin 
 the 3d of Septemper, 1692, when he was 7jyx:arsof 
 age. — Mr Ancillon having got a confiderable fortwtc by 
 marriage, was enabled thereby to gratify his paliion 
 for books ; his library was accordingly very curious 
 and large, and he increafed it every day with all that 
 appeared new and important in the republic of letters^ 
 ib that at laft it was one of tin: noblefl coUecf ions in the 
 hands of any private perfon in the kingdom. He pub- 
 liHicd a book, in quarto, in which the whole difputc 
 concerning Traditions is fully examined: he alfo wrote 
 an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Bcza, 
 and fcveral other pieces. 
 
 ANCLAM, a Arong town of Germany, in the cir- 
 cle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, re- 
 markable for its excellent paflm'es. It is fcated on the 
 river Pene. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 54. 10. 
 
 ANCLE, or Ankle. Sec Ankle. 
 
 ANCONA (marquifateof), a province in th« pope's 
 territories in Italy. It lies between the gulph of Ve- 
 nice and mount Appeninc, which bound it 011 the 
 nortli ; Abruzzoon the eafl ; the duchy of Spoletto, 
 and that of Urbino, on the well. The air is indiffe- 
 rent ; but the foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and 
 flax; and there is great plenty of waxattdhoney. It 
 contains fevcral large towns, as Fcrmo, Loretto, Rc- 
 canati, Maccrata, Jeli, Tolentino, Afcoli, Ofimo, St 
 Severino, Monte Alto, Camerino, and Kipatranfone, 
 which are all archiepifcopal or cpifcopal fees. 
 
 Ancona, afea-port townof Italy, the capital of the 
 marquifate of that name, and the fee ofabifliop. It 
 was formerly the fineft port in all Italy, being built by 
 the emperor Trajan, about the year 1 1 S ; but was al- 
 moil rained, and its trade lofl : however, it has agam 
 begun to revive. Its harbour is the befl in all the 
 pope's dominions. The town liesroimd it on two hills ; 
 one of which is at the point of Cape St Syriaco, from 
 whence there is a delightful profpe<5l. On the other 
 Hands the citadel, which commands the town and har- 
 bour. The flrceisof this city are narrow and uneven ; 
 and the public and private buildings inferior to thofeof 
 the other great towns in Italy. The cathedral is a low 
 dark itrudure ; and though the front is covered with 
 fine marble, the architettiu-e has neither beauty nor re- 
 gularity. Thechurch of St Dominic, and that of the 
 Francifcans, have each an excellent picture of Titian. 
 The exchange, where the merchants meet, is a hand- 
 fome fquarc portico, in which is an eqneflrian flatuc 
 of Trajan, who firfl built the port. At the foiu- cor- 
 ners arcfourothcr flatues. Thctriumphalarch of Tra- 
 jan remains almoll entire, with its iafcription. The 
 common people in this town are a little particul ir and 
 fantallical in then- drcfs, but the better fort follow the 
 French mode. It is a great thoroughfare from the 
 north of Italy to Loretto ; which rendersprovifious very 
 
 dear. 
 
 AncIsM 
 
 H 
 
 Ancoaa.
 
 A N C 
 
 [ 783 
 
 1 
 
 A N C 
 
 Ancones dear. The tide docs not rife here above a foot, and 
 I near the Mcditcrrdiiean it is I'carce vilible. E. Long. 
 Aucourt. ,j. J. N. i,at. 43. -6. 
 
 "^ ^ ' ANCtiNEs, in architcdure, the corners or quoins 
 of walls, crols-bcains, or rafters. — Vitruvius calls the 
 confules by the fame name. 
 
 ANCOiNY, in the iron-works, a piece of half- 
 wrought iron, of about three quarters of too weight, 
 and of the Ihapc of a bar in the mid lie, bat rude and 
 un\\Tought at the ends. The proccfs tor bringing the 
 iron to this llate is this : They firll melt ott a jiiccc 
 from a fow of cad iron, of the proper lizc j tiiis they 
 hammer at the forge into a niafs of two feet long, and 
 of a fquare fliape, which they call a bloom ; when this 
 is done, they fend it to the finery ; where, after two or 
 three heats and workings, they bring it to this hgurc, 
 snd call it an a/uoity. The middle part beat out at the 
 finery, is about three feet long, and of the ihapc and 
 thickncfs the whole is to be ; this is then fent to the 
 chafcry, and there the ends are wrought to the Ihape 
 of the middle, and the whole made into a bar. Sec 
 Bar. 
 
 ANCORARUM urbs, Avx!,p»>y nox/e, a city in 
 the Nomos Aphroditopolitcs, towards the Red Sea ; 
 fo called becaufe there was in theneighbourhiwdallone 
 quarry, in which they hewed flonc anchors (Pto- 
 lemy ) before iron anchorscamc to be ufed. The gcn- 
 tilitious name is Ancyropolitii, (Stcphanus). 
 
 ANCOIJ RT( Klorent-Carton'd ) ,an eminent French 
 ador and dramatic writer, born at Kontainblcau, Oc- 
 tober 1 66 1. He fludicd in the Jefuit's college at Paris, 
 under father de la Rue ; who, difcovering in him a re- 
 markable vivacity and capacity for learning, was ex- 
 tremely defirous of engaging him in their order ; but 
 Ancourt's averfion to a religious life rendered all his 
 efforts inelfcefual. After he had gone through a courfe 
 of philofophy, he applied himfelf to the civil law, and 
 was admitted advocate at i yyearsof age. But falling 
 in love with an adrcfs, he was induced to go upon the 
 ilage, and he married her. As he had all the qualifi- 
 tations necell'ary for the theatre, he foon greatly diflin- 
 guilhed himfelf : and not being fatisfied with the ap- 
 plaufe only of an aftor, he began to WTite pieces for 
 the ftage ; many of which had Inch prodigious fuccefs, 
 that mofl of tJie players grew rich from the profits of 
 them. His merit in this way procured him a very fa- 
 vourable reception at court ; and Lewis XIV. Ihowed 
 him many marks of his favour. His fprightly conver- 
 fation and polite behaviour made his company agreeable 
 to all the men of figure both at court and in the city 
 and the moft confidcrable pcrfons were extremely plea- 
 fcd to have him at their houfcs. Having taken a jour- 
 ney to Dunkirk, to fee his cldefl daughter who lived 
 there, he took the opportunity of paying his compli- 
 ments to the eledor of Bavaria, who was then at Bnif- 
 fels : this prince received him with the utmofl civility; 
 andhavingdetained him a confidcrable time, difmiilcd 
 him witli a prefent of a diamond valued at 1000 pi- 
 ftoles ; he likcwife rewarded him in a very generous 
 manner, when, upon his coming to Paris, Ancourt com- 
 poled an entertainment for his diverllon. Ancourt be- 
 gan at length to grow weary of the theatre, which he 
 quitted in Lent 1 71S, and retired to his efiate of Cour- 
 ccllcsle Roy, ui Beny, where he applied himfelf whol- 
 
 ly to devotion, and compofcd a tranflation of David's 
 Plalnis in vcrfc, and a facrcd tragedy, which were ne- 
 ver printed. He died the 6th of December, 1736, be- 
 ing 65 years of age — The plays whicli he wrote arc 
 52 i I all; moll of which were printed feparatelvat the 
 time w^hen they w ere firfl reprefcnicd ; they were after- 
 wards collettcd into five volumes, then uito fcven, and 
 atlaftin oiiine. This lall edition is the mofl complete. 
 
 ANCRE, a fniall town of France, in Picardy, with 
 the title of a marquifatc, featcd on a little river of the 
 fame name. E. Long. 2. 4J. N. Lat. 49. ^9. 
 
 ANGUS MARTius, the lourth king of tlie Ro- 
 mans, fucceeded by Tullius Hoftilius, 6^9ycar<j be .'ore 
 Chrifl. He defeated the Latiiis, fubdued the Fide- 
 nates, conquered the Sabincs, Volfcii, and V'eientines, 
 enlarged Rome by joining to it mount Janicula, and 
 made the harboiu-of Oflia. He died about 61 5. years 
 before the ChrifUan a;ra. 
 
 ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of fliield that fell, 
 as was pretended, fromheaven, in the reign of Numa 
 Pompilius ; at which time, likcwife, a voice was heard 
 declarhig that Rome fhould be miftrefsof the woild as 
 long as Ihe fhould prcfervc this holy buckler. It was 
 kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the 
 direitionot twelve priefls; andleallany (houldattempt 
 to fteal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to 
 be difllnguilhed from the facred one. Thefe ancylia 
 were carried in proceliion every year round the city of 
 Rome. 
 
 Ancyle, in furgery. See ANCvtosis. 
 
 ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from .^x^x©^ bt,:t 
 and ,8xf<f«fn an eyi-lid) ; a difcafe of the eye, which 
 clofes the eye-lids. Sometimes the eye-lids grow to- 
 gether, and alio to the tunica albugmea of the eye, 
 from careleffnefs when there is an ulcer in tjiefe parts. 
 Both thefe cafes are called ancylobhfkaron by the 
 Greeks. This difordcr mufl be diflingiiilhcd from that 
 coalition of the eye-lids whicli happens from vifcid mat- 
 ter gluing them together. If the cohelion is on the 
 cornea, the fight is inevitably lofl. This hath fomc- 
 tinies happened in the fmall-pox. If there is only a 
 growing together of the eye-lids, llicy may be fcpara- 
 tcd with the fpccilkun, and pledgets kept between them 
 to prevent their re-union. If the eye-lids adhere to the 
 eye, they are to be feparated by a fine-edged knife ; 
 and then- re-union is to be prevented by a proper ufc of 
 injedions, and lint placed between them, after dipping 
 it in fomc proper liniment. 
 
 ANCYLOGLOSSUM, (from <}xt/xgc crooked and 
 yKoi7T» the tongue) ; a contraction of the ligaments of 
 the tongue. Some liavc this imperfedion from ihci.- 
 birth, others from (bme difeafe. In the rirfl cafe, the 
 membrane which fupports the tongue is too fhori or 
 too hard ; in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue, heal- 
 ing and forming a cicatrix, is fometimes the caufc : 
 Thefe fpeak w ith fomc difficiiUy. The ancylogloai by 
 nature aie late before they fpeak : but when they be- 
 gin, they foon fpeak properly. Thefe we call /ow^af- 
 tieJ. Mauriceau fays, that in this cafe it is aljnall mem- 
 branous production, wliich extends from the frienulum 
 to the tip of the tongue, that hinders the child from 
 fucking, &c. He juflly condemns the cruel practice 
 among nurfes, of tearing this membrane with their 
 nails ; for thus ulcers arclbmctinies foriscd, which are 
 
 of
 
 AND 
 
 L 784 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 Ancylofis of difficult cure : he advifcs to fnip it with fciflars in 
 II two or three places, taking care not to extend the 
 Awdima^. p„ji,[s of the fciliurs lb far as the frasnuhim. The in- 
 ' ' ' itanccs rarely occur which require any kind of allift- 
 aucc ; for if the child can thruil the tip of its tongue 
 to the outer edge of its lip, this difcafc does not exiil ; 
 and if the tongue is not greatly rcltraincd, the frenu- 
 lum will flrctch bv the child's fucking and crying. 
 
 ANCYLOSIS,' in furgcry, implies a diltortion or 
 ftilfnefs of the joints, caulcd by a fctilcment of the hu- 
 mours, or a diiltnfion of the nerves, and therefore re- 
 medies of a mollifying aiid relaxing nature are requi- 
 red. 
 
 ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny, 
 Ptolemy) ; at no great diftanee from the river Halys, 
 (Livy): laid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia, 
 and to take its name from an anchor found there, (Pau- 
 fanias). It was greatly improved by Augullus, deem- 
 ed the fecond founder of it, as appears from the F\flar- 
 tnor Alley ranuvt. It is now called Augur a, or Angoura. 
 E. Long. 350. Lat. 41. 20. 
 
 ANCYSTRUM, in botany : A genus of the digy- 
 niaordcr, belonging to the diandriaclafs of plants ; the 
 elVcntial characters of which are : The calyx is a fingle- 
 leaved, foiu--toothcd perianthium, four-awned, the 
 awns terminated with crofs-barbs : The corolla is tour- 
 cleft; the lligma penciled. 
 
 ANDARAT.-t, in antiquity, a fort of gladiators, 
 who, mounted on horfcback or in chariots, fought 
 hoodwinked, having a helmet that covered their eyes. 
 ANDALUSIA, is the moll weflern province of 
 Spain, having Ellramadura and La Mancha on the 
 north ; the kingdomof Granada, the ilraightsof Gibral- 
 tar, and the Ocean, on the call and foiuii ; and, on the 
 weft, the kingdom of Algarvain Portugal, from which 
 it is feparatcd by the ri\ cr Guadiana. It is about 182 
 miles long, and I 50 broad. The ciiicf cities and towns 
 are Seville, the capital, Bacza, Gibraltar, Corduba, Ca- 
 diz, Medina, Sidonia, Jatn, Port St Mary, &c. It is 
 the bell, moll fruitful, ami the richcll part of all Spain. 
 There is a good air, a fercnc Iky, a fertile foil, and a 
 great extent on the fca-coall tit for commerce. 
 
 Nevj AsDiLusiA, a divilion of tl)e province of Ter- 
 ra Firm a in South-America, whofc boundaries cannot 
 be well afcertained, as the Spaniards pretend a rigiit to 
 tountricsin \\ liich they have never eflablilhed any fet- 
 tlements. According to the mofl reafonable limits, it 
 extends in length 500 miles from nortli to fouth, and 
 about 270 in breadth from eail 10 weft. The interior 
 couniryis woody and mountainous, variegated with line 
 valleys thatyicld corn and paflurage. I'he produce of 
 tlie countiy conlills chiefly in dying-drugs, gums, me- 
 dicinal roots, brazil wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome 
 valuable timber. To this province alfo belonged five 
 valuable pearl-liiherics. The capital of New Andalu- 
 fia is Coniana, Cinnana, or New Corduba, iituated in 
 N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north fea. 
 Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a xawn in 
 the year 1520. The place is flrong by nature, and 
 fortified by a caftle capable of making a vigorous dc^ 
 fence ; as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af- 
 faultcd by the buccanncers, who were repulied with 
 Very great (laughter. 
 
 Andaman or Anpf.man Illands, in the Eafl 
 ludies, Iituated about So leagues dillancc from Tanaf- 
 
 ferimonthe coaflofSiam. They are but little known ; Andant* 
 only the Eall India (liips fometimes touch at them, and II 
 arc fupplicd by the natives with rice, herbs, and fruits : AnJerfon. 
 the iniiabitants are by fome rcprefentcd as an haruilefs ' ^— ' 
 inottcnfive race of men, and by others as cannibals. 
 E. Long. 92. o. N. Lat. from to", to i j°. 
 
 AN'D.'^NTE, in mulic, lignifics a movcfnent mode- 
 rately flow, between largo and allegro. 
 
 ANDECAVI, (Tacitus) ; Andegavi, (Pliny) ; 
 Andk;, (Cxfar") ; Andi, (Lucan) : A people of Gal- 
 lia Ccltica, having the Turonesto the Eafl, the Namnc- 
 tes to the weft, the Piftones to the fouth, and the Au- 
 lerci Citnomani to the nortli : now A/ijou. 
 
 ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia 
 Ccltica (Pliny, Ptolemy) ; now AngUns. Called An- 
 dccavi, (Tacitus). W. Long. 30. Lat. 47. 30. 
 
 ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted 
 in two by a paved caufcway. Here is a foimtain to 
 which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of 
 their dilbrders, on the feaft-day of the faint to which 
 it is dedicated. It is 20 miles S. E. of Rouen, and 
 five N. W. of Paris. E. Long. r. 30. N. Lat. 49. 
 20. 
 
 ANDENA, in old writers, denotes the fwath made 
 in mowing of hay, or as much gi-ound as a man can 
 ftride over at once. 
 
 ANDEOL (St), a town of France, in the Vivarez, 
 five miles S. of St Viviers, whofc bilhop formerly rc- 
 lided there. E. Long. a. 50. N. Lat. 44. 24. 
 
 ANDERAB, the moft fouthern city of the pro- 
 vince of Balkh, pollelfcd by the Ulbeck Tartars. It 
 is very rich and populous, but a place of no great 
 flrength. The neighbouring mountains yield excel- 
 lent quarries of lapis lazulli, in which the Buckhars 
 drive a great trade with Perlia and India. — This city 
 is Iituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do- 
 minions of the Great Mogul and Perfia from Great 
 Biickharia. As there is no other way of crolfing thcfe 
 mountains but by the road through this city, all tra- 
 vellers with goods muft pay 4 per cent. On this ac- 
 count the Khan of Balkh maintains a good number of 
 foldicrs in the place. 
 
 ANDERNACAT, a city of Cologne, in the circle 
 of tlie Lower Rhine. It is Iituated in a plain on the 
 river Rhine ; and is fortified with a wall, caftle, and 
 bulwarks. It has a U'ade in ftonc jugs and pitchers, 
 which are fcnt to the mineral waters at Dunchllcin. 
 There are tlircc monafteries here and feveral churches. 
 E. Lon;>;. 7. 4. N. Lat 50. 27. 
 
 ANDERO (St), a fca-port town in the bay of'Bif- 
 cay, in Old Caflilc, fcated on a fmall peninfula. It is 
 a trading town, and contains about 700 houfes, two 
 parilh-cluirchcs, and four monafteries. Here the Spa- 
 niards build and lay up fome of their men of war. \V, 
 Long. 4. ^o. N. Lat. 4?. 20. 
 
 ANDERSON (Sir Edward), a younger Ton of an 
 ancient Scotch family fettled in Lincolnlhirc. He 
 was fome time a ftudcnt of Lincoln college, Oxford ; 
 and removed from tlicncc to the Inner Temple, whera 
 he applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of the law, 
 and became a barriflcr. In the 9th of quteu Eliza- 
 beth he was both lent a)id funimcr reader, and in the 
 ,1 6th double reader He was appointed her mijelly's 
 fcrgeantat lawin tjie 19th year of her reign; and fome 
 lime after, one of the jullices ofailizc. In 15S2 he
 
 AND 
 
 [ 785 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 f^iiiretoDt was made lord chief juflice of the common pleas, and 
 Ande*. ill the year following was knighted. He held his of- 
 
 ^" — >/— fice to the end of his life, died in the year i6oj, and 
 was buried at Eyworth in Bcdfordlliirc. He was an 
 able, but pundilious lawyer ; a fcoiirge to the I'uri- 
 tans; and a Arcnuous fiipporter of the ellablilhcd 
 church. His works arc, i. Reports of many princi- 
 pal cafes argued and adjudged in tlie time of queen 
 Elizabeth, in the common bench. Lond. 1644, tol. 
 2. Refolutionsand judgments on the cafes and matters 
 agitated in all the courts of Wcftminllcr, in the latter 
 end of the reign of queen Elizabeth. Publidied by 
 John Goldlborough, Efq; Lond. 1653, 4to. iicfides 
 thefc, there is a nianufcript copy of his Reading* lUll 
 in being. 
 
 Anderson (Adam), a native of Scotland, was 
 brother te the re verend James Anderfon, D. D. editor 
 of the Dip/omata Scotia' and Royal Cenealogies, many 
 years fince miniflcr of the Scots prclbytcrian church 
 in Swallow-ftrcet, Piccadilly, and well known in thofe 
 days among the people of that perfuafioc rchdent in 
 London, by the name of Bilhop Anderfon, a learned 
 but imprudent man, who loll a confidcrablc part of his 
 property in the fatal year 1 720. He married, and had 
 ilfuc a fon, and a daughter, who was the wife of an 
 efficer in the army. 
 
 Adam Anderfon was for 40 years a clerk in the 
 South Sea Houfe ; and at length arrived to his acme 
 there, being appointed chief clerk of the Stock and 
 New Annuities, which office he retained till his death. 
 He was appointed one of the truftees for eftablilhing 
 the colony of Georgia, in America ; and was alfo one 
 of the court of aflldants of the Scots corporation in 
 London. The time of the publication of his " Hif- 
 torical and Chronological Dcdudioii of Trade and 
 Commerce," a work replete with ufeful information, 
 «ras about the year i 762. He was twice married ; 
 by the tirft wife he had ilfue a daughter, married to 
 one Mr Hardy, an apothecary in the Strand, who are 
 both dead without ilfuc ; he afterwards became the 
 third hufband of the widow of Mr Coulter, formerly 
 a wholefale linen-draper in Cornhill, by whom he 
 had no iifue. She was, like him, tall and graceful ; 
 and her face has been thought to have fome refcm- 
 blancc to that of the evcr-living-countcfs of Dcfmond, 
 given in Mr Pennant's hrft Tour in Scotland. Mr An- 
 derfon died at his houle in Red Lion-ltreet, Clcrken- 
 •well, January 10, i77j. He had a good library of 
 books, which were fold by his widow, who furvived 
 him fcveral years, and died in 1781. 
 
 ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South Ame- 
 rica, which, running from the moft northern part of 
 Peru to the flraits of Magellan, between 3 and 4000 
 miles, arc the longcft and mofl remarkable in the 
 world. The Spaniards call them the CordUtera dc los 
 Andes ; they form two ridges, the lowcrmoll of which 
 is overfpread with woods and groves, and the upper- 
 moft covered with everlafting fnow. Thofe who have 
 been at the top, affirm, that the (ky is always ferenc 
 and bright ; the air coKI and piercing ; and yet fo thin, 
 that thty wercfcarcc ablctobrcathe,and thcrcfpiration 
 was much thicker than ordinary ; and this is attended 
 with rcacliin;^ nad vomiting ; which, however, has 
 been coniidercd by fome as merely accidental. W hen 
 »hev looked downwards^ the country was hid hv the 
 ■ Vol.. I. 
 
 clouds that hovered on the mountain's fides. The 
 raoumainsjuft mentioned, which have been frequently 
 afccnded, are much inferior in height to many others 
 in this enormous chain. The following is the account 
 given of the moimtain called tichincha, by the matbe- 
 maiicians fent by the kings of b" ranee and Spain to 
 make obfervations in relation to the figure of the earthj 
 Soon after our artiils arrived at ^uito, ihey deter- 
 mined to continue the fcries of the triangles for mea- 
 furing an arch of the meridian to the S. of that city j 
 the company accordingly divided themfelves into two 
 bodies, confiding of French and Spaniards, and each 
 retired to the part affigned them. Don George Juait 
 and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party, 
 went to the mountain of Pambamarca ; while M. 
 Rongeur, dc la Condaminc, and Don Ulloa, together 
 with their ailiftants, climbed up to the higheft fummit 
 of Pichincha. Both parties fuffercd extremely, as 
 well from the feverity of the cold as from the iinpc- 
 tuofty of the winds, which on thefc heights blow 
 with incelfant violence ; difficulties the more painful, 
 as they had been little ufcd to fuch fcnfations. Thus, 
 in the torrid zone, nearly under the equinoflijl, where 
 it is natural to fuppofe they had moft to fear from the 
 heat, their grcatcft pain was caufed by the exceffivc- 
 nefs of the cold. 
 
 Their firft fcheme for fhelter and lodging in thefc 
 uncomfortable regions, was to pitch a tield-tent fof 
 each company ; but on Pichincha this could not be 
 done from the narrownefs of the fummit : they were 
 therefore obliged to be contented with a hut fo fmall 
 that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this 
 appear ftrangc, if the reader conliders the bad difpo- 
 fltion and fmallnefs of the place, it being one of the 
 loftielt crags of i rocky mountain, 100 fathoms above 
 the highcil part of the defart of Pichincha. Such 
 Was the fituation of their manfion, which, like all the 
 other adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and 
 fnow. The afcent up this flupendons rock from the 
 bafe, or the place where the mules could come, to 
 their Iiabitation, was fo craggy as only to be climbed 
 on foot ; and to perform it toll them four hours conti- 
 nual labour and pain, from the violent efforts of the 
 body, and the fabtility of the air; the Utter being fuch 
 as to render refpiration difficult. 
 
 The flrange manner of living to which our anifls 
 were reduced during the time they were employed in 
 a geometrical mcnfurationof fome degrees of the me- 
 ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the 
 reader ; and therefore the following account is given 
 as a fpccimen of it. The defart of Pichincha, both 
 with regard to the operations performed there and its 
 inconveniences, differing very little from others, aa 
 idea may be very ealily formed of the fatigues, hard- 
 Ihips, and dangers, to which they were continually 
 expofed during the time they were profccuting the en- 
 terprife, with the conduct of which they had been ho- 
 noured. The princip.1l difTcrence between the feve- 
 ral dcfarts confilled in their greater or Iclfer dillaiicc 
 from places w here ihey could procure provifions ; and 
 in the inclemency of the weather, which w:ir propor- 
 tionate to the heiglu of the moniitains, and ilie fcafoN 
 of the year. 
 
 They generally kept within their hut. Indccdthcy 
 
 were obli-yed to do ihis, both on account of the in- 
 
 5 G tcmcntfs 
 
 And«.
 
 AND 
 
 [ 786 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 Andes, tf rfcncfs of the colJ, the violence of the wiiij, and 
 
 >< ' thtir being continually involved in fo thick a fog, that 
 
 an oijert at lix or eight paces was hardly ilifcerniblc. 
 When the fog cleared up, the clouds by ihcir gravity 
 moved nearer to ihc fiuface of the earth, and on all 
 fides lurrourided the mountains to a vaft diftancc, re- 
 prefcnting the fea, with their rock like an illaiid in the 
 centre of it. When this happened they heard ihc 
 horrid noifes of the tempcfls, which then difcharged 
 thcmfelvcs on ^uito and the neighbouring country. 
 They faw the lighmings iiiue from the clouds, and 
 heard the thunders roll far beneath them : and whilfl 
 the lower parts were involved in tempefls of thunder 
 and rain, they enjoyed a deligluful ferenity ; the wind 
 was abated, the fky clear, and the enlivening rays of 
 the fun moderated the feverity of the cold. But their 
 circumftanccs were very ditferent when the clouds 
 rofe : their thicknefs rendered refpiration difficult; the 
 fnow and hail fell continually ; and the wind returned 
 with' all its violence ; fo that it was inipolfible eniirc- 
 ly to overcome the fears of being, together with their 
 hut, blown down the precipice, on whofc edge it was 
 built, or of being buried under it by the daUy accu- 
 jnujations of ice and fnow. 
 
 The wind was often fo violent in thefc regions, that 
 its velocity dazzled the fight, whilft their fears were 
 increafcd from the dreadful conculhons of the preci- 
 pice, caufed by the fall of enormous fragments of 
 rocks. Thefc craflies were the more alarming, as no 
 other noifes are heard in thcfe defarts : and during the 
 night, their reft, which they fo greatly wanted, was 
 frequently dillurbcd by fuch fudden founds. When 
 the weather was any thing fair with them, and the 
 clouds gathered about fome of the other mountains 
 which had a connection with theirobfervations, fothat 
 they could not make all the ufe they defircd of this in- 
 terval of good weather, they left their luit to excrcife 
 thcmfelves. Sometimes they defcended tofoine fmall 
 diftance ; and at others amufed themfelves with roll- 
 ing large fragments of rocks down the precipice ; and 
 thefe frequently required the joint ftrength of them 
 all, though they often faw the fame efFedcd by the 
 mere force of the wind. But they always took care in 
 their excurfionsnot togofofarout, bui that on the lead 
 appearance of the doudsgathcring about theircottage, 
 which often happened very fuddenly, they could re- 
 gain their flielter. The door of their hut was faftened 
 with thongs of leather, and on the infide not the fmal- 
 lefl crevice was left unftopped ; befiJe which, it was 
 very compaftly covered w itii flraw : but, notwith- 
 ftanding all thtir care, the wind penetrated through. 
 The days were often little better than the nights ; and 
 all the light they enjoyed was that of a lamp or two, 
 which they kept continually burning. 
 
 Though their hut was fmall, and crowded with in- 
 habitants, beiide the heat of the lamps; yet the in- 
 tenfenefsof the cold was fuch, that every one of them 
 was obliged to have a chafing difti of coals. Thefe pre- 
 cautions would have rendered the rigour of the cliniarc 
 fupportable, had not the imminent danger of perilhing 
 by being blown down the precipice roufedthera, every 
 time it fnovved, to encounter ihe feverity of the out- 
 ward air, and 10 Tally out with fliovels to free the roof of 
 their hiitfrom the maifes of fnow which were gather- 
 ing on it. Nor would it, without this precaution, have 
 
 been able to fupport the weight. They were not in- AnJe* 
 deed without icrv.ints and Indians; but thefc were fo ——<^— 
 benumbed with the cold, that it was with great diffi- 
 culty they could get them out of a fmall tent, where 
 thty kept acontinu.il fire. So that all our artills could 
 obtain from them was to take their turns in this la- 
 bour ; and even then they went very unwillingly about 
 it, and confequenily performed it very flowly. 
 
 It may eafily be conceived what this company fuf- 
 fercd from the afperiiiesof fuch a climate. Their feet 
 were fwclled ; and fo tender, that they could not even 
 bear the heat: and walking was attended with ex- 
 treme pain. Their hands were covered with chil- 
 blains; their lips fwelled and chopped; fo that every 
 motion in fpeaking, or the like, drew the blood ; con- 
 fequently they were obliged to (itid taciturnity, and 
 little difpofed to laugh, as, by caullng a diftenfion of 
 the lips, it produced fuch filfures as were very painful 
 for two or three days after. 
 
 Their common food in this inhofpitable region was a 
 little rice boiled w ith fome rtefli or fowl, procured from 
 Qiiito ; and, inftead of fluid water, their pot was fill- 
 ed with ice; they had the fame refource with regard 
 to what they drank; and while they were eating, eve- 
 ry one was obliged to keep his plate over a chafing- 
 dilh of coals, to prevent his provilions from freezing. 
 The fame was done with regard to the water. At firfl 
 they imagined the drinking flrong liquors would dif- 
 fufe a heat through the body, and confequently rea- 
 der it lefs fenlible of the painful fharpnefs of the cold ; 
 but, to their furprife, they felt no manner of ftrength 
 in fuch liquors, nor were they any greater preferva- 
 tive againfl the cold than the common water. 
 
 At the fame time they found it impolfible to keep 
 the Indians together. On their firfl feeling of the cli- 
 mate, their thoughts were immediately turned on de- 
 ferting their mailers. The firfl inflance they had of 
 this kind was fo unexpedted, that, had not one, of a 
 better difpolition than the refl, ftaid and acquainted 
 them of their defign, it might have proved of very bad 
 confequence. The affair was this : There being on the 
 top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for the In- 
 dians, they ufed every evening to retire to a cave at the 
 foot of the mountain ; where, befide a natural diminu- 
 tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire; and, 
 confequently enjoyed more comfortable quarters than 
 their mailers. Before they withdrew at night, they 
 faflened, on the outfide, the door of the hut, which 
 was fo low that it was impolfible to go in or out without 
 {looping ; and as every night the hail and fnow which 
 had fallen formed a wall againfl the door, it was the 
 bufinefs of one or two of the Indians to come early and 
 remove this obftrudion. For though the negro fervants 
 were lodged in a little tent,their hands and feet were fo 
 covered with chilblains, that they would rather have 
 fufTcrcd themfelves to have been killed than move. The 
 Indians therefore came conftantly up to difpatch this 
 work betwixt nine and ten in the morning: but they 
 had not been there above four or five days, when they 
 were not a little alarmed to fee ten, eleven, and twelve 
 o'clock conie.without any news of their labourers; when 
 they were relieved by the honefl fervant mentioned a- 
 bove, who had withflood the feduclion of his country- 
 men, and informed his maflers of the defcrtion of the 
 four others. As foon as the fnow was cleared away 
 
 from
 
 AND 
 
 t 787 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 Andes, the door, they difpatchcd the Indian to the corrcgidor 
 
 ""~^' of Quito, who with equal difpatch fent other Indians, 
 
 threatening to chaftilc them Icvcrcly if tlicy were 
 wanting in their duty. 
 
 But the fear of punifhment was not fufficient to in- 
 duce them to fupport the rigour of this liiuation ; for 
 within two days they dcferted. The corrcgidor there- 
 fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fcnt four In- 
 dians under the care of an alcalde, and gave orders for 
 their being relieved every fourth day. 
 
 Twenty-three tedious days our artifls fpcnt on this 
 rock, vi/.. 10 the 6th of September, and even without 
 any polFibiliiy of finifliing their obfervations of the 
 angles : for when it was fair and clear weather with 
 them, the others, on whofe fummits the fignals which 
 formed the triangles for mcafuriug the degrees of the 
 meridian, were hid in theclouds; and when thofe were 
 clear, Pichinchawas involved in clouds. It was there- 
 fore necelFary to crcd their lignals in a lower fituation, 
 and in a more favourable region. This, however, did 
 not produce any change in their habitation till the be- 
 ginning of December ; when, having finiflied the ob- 
 fervations which particularly concerned PicliLiicha, 
 they proceeded to others ; but with no abatement ei- 
 ther of inconveniences, cold, or fatigue; for the pla- 
 ces where they made their obfervations bein;j necella- 
 rily on thchighell parts of the defarts, the only rcfpite 
 in which they enjoyed fome little eafe was during the 
 fliort interval of palling from one to the other. 
 
 In all their ftations fubfequent to that on Pichincha, 
 during their fatiguing meniuration of the degrees of 
 tlic meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent, 
 which, though fmall, they found Icfsinconveiiient than 
 the hut on Pichincha ; though at the fame time tiiey 
 had more trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it 
 from the fnow, as tiie weight of it would otherwife 
 liave demolilheii the tent. At lirft, indeed, they pitch- 
 ed it in the moll Ihdtercd places ; but on taking a refo- 
 lution that the tents thcmfelvcslhould ferve for fignals, 
 toprevcntthcinconvenience of having others of wood, 
 they removed them to a more expofed lituation, where 
 the inipetuofuy of ihc winds fometimcs tore up the pi- 
 quets, and blew them down. 
 
 Though this mountain is famous for its great height, 
 it is conliderably lower than the inount^in of Cotopaxi : 
 but it is impofTiblc to conceive the colJnefs of the fuin- 
 mit of the lait-mentioned mountain from that felt on 
 this ; lince it mull exceed every idea that can be form- 
 ed by the human mind, tho' tlicy are both ftated in the 
 midil of thctorrid zone. Inall this rangeof mountains, 
 there is faid to be a conllant inferior boundary, beyond 
 which the fnow never melts: this boundary, in the 
 midft of the torrid zone, is faid by fome to be 2434 fa- 
 thoms above the level of the fea ; by others, only 24CO 
 feet. The fnow indeed falls much lower, but then it 
 is fubje(5l to be melted the very fame day. It is affirm- 
 ed, that there arc in the Andes 1 6 volcanoes or burn- 
 ing mountains, which throw out fire and linoke with a 
 terrible noife. The height of Chiraborazo, laid to be 
 the highcft peak of the Andes, has been determined by 
 geometrical calculations to be 20,282 feet. But the 
 great differences between the calculations of the h(;ight 
 of mountains in other parts of the world, mull very 
 much diminilh the cre.lit of fuch calculations. Inllan- 
 ecs of this we have already given under the article i^-^r- 
 
 NA. No lefs remarkable are the differences concerning Aedes 
 the height of the peak of Tencritfe; which, accoruiug |i 
 to the calculations of Varenius, is three miles and three Andrada. 
 quarters, or 19,800 feet; according to thbfe of Dr He- ' ^"^ 
 berden, it isonly 15,396 feet; and according to thofc 
 ofM. Feuille, is no more than 13,128 feet. From 
 thcfe fpccimens, we can fcarce avoid concluding, that 
 all the methods hitherto invented for calculating the 
 exact height of mountains are infutficient. 
 
 As all or moll rivers have their fourcc in mountains, 
 it is no wonder a great number run down the iides of 
 the Andes. Some hurry along with a prodigious rapi- 
 dity ; while others form beautiful cafcades, or run 
 through holes in rocks, which look like bridges of a 
 Aupendous height. There is a public road through 
 the mountains looo miles in length, part of which 
 runs from Quito to Cufco. 
 
 Andes, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birth- 
 place of Virgil. Hence the epithet .i idimi (liilius 
 Italcus). Now called /^/rto/a, two milci to the weft 
 of Mantua. 
 
 ANDETRIUM; Andretium (Strabo) ; Ande- 
 CRiUM, or Andrecium (Ptolemy): An inland town 
 of Dalmatia. The genuine name is Andctrium ( Infcrip- 
 tion.) It is defcrioed as lituated near Salo ix, on \ 
 naturally Urongand inaccelTible rock, furrounded with 
 deep vallrys, with rapid torrents : from wnich i; ap- 
 pears to be the citadel now called Clilfa. E. Long. 1 7. 
 46. N. Lat. 43. 20. 
 
 ANDELSE, a city of Languedoc in France, fitaa- 
 ted in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 45. 
 
 ANDOMADUNUM; Ando.matu.su.m (Ptole- 
 my); and A.vtematunum (Antonine) ; Ctvii/s 
 LiNGONU.M (Tacitus) : A city of Oallia Bclgica ; 
 no^ La'^gres in Champagne, lituated on an eminence 
 (which fcems to julliiy the termination dunum), oa 
 the burdersof Burgundy, at the fpringsof the Marne. 
 Tacitus calls an inhabitant Lineon. E. Lon^. c. 22 
 N. Lat. 49. o. 
 
 ANDOVER, a large market town in Hampfliire, 
 on the London road. It is feated on a branch of the 
 river Tefl, and fends two members to parliament. It 
 has fe veral inns, which afford good accommodations for 
 travellers ; and has a mat ket on Saturday, well Hocked 
 with provilions. It is governed by a bailiff, a fteward, 
 a recorder, ten approved men, and twenty-two capital 
 burgelfcs, who yearly choofe the bailitF, and heeleds 
 two ferjeants at mace to attend him. The living is a 
 vicarage, valued at 171I. 4s. 4d. iu the king's books. 
 W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. yi. 20. 
 
 ANDRADA (Diego de Payvad') or Andrapius, 
 a learned Portugucle, born at Conimbria, whodiflin- 
 guifhrd himfelf at the council of Trent, where king 
 Seballian fent hira as one of his divines. There is 
 fcarce any Catholic author who has been more quo- 
 ted by the Proteftants than he, becaufe he maintained 
 fome opinions a little extravagant concerning the fal- 
 vationofthe Heathens. Andrada was elleemed an 
 e.\cellent preacher. His fermons were publiihed in 
 three parts, the fccond of which was tranllated into 
 Spanilh by Benedict dc Alcoran. Many encomiums 
 have been beftowed upon Andrada. Oforius, in his 
 preface tothe" Orthodox Explanationsof.^ndradius," 
 gives him the charafter of a man of wit, vail applica- 
 tion, great knowledge in the languages, with all the 
 5 G 2 ztil
 
 AND 
 
 [ 
 
 Andrea. 
 
 Andrachne zeal and eloquence neceflary to a good preacher j and 
 Rofwcidtisftys,that he brought to the council of Trent 
 :he luiderftanding of a moft profound divine, and the 
 eloquence of a confumnute orator. 
 
 ANDRACHNE, Bastaro Okpine : A genus of 
 the gynandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs 
 of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under 
 the 58th order, Trkocca-. The charaftcrs are ; The 
 male ca/jix conlifts of rive leaves ; the corolla has rive 
 petals; and the /lamina, which arc alfo five in num- 
 ber, are inferted into the ftylus: The female ca/yx is 
 divided into five leaves ; there is no cortlla ,- the//)// 
 arc three ; and the capfule is trilocular, containing 
 three feeds. 
 
 species. I. The telephoides, or herbaceous trailing 
 andrachne, is a low plant, whofe branches trail upon 
 the ground. The leaves are fmall, of an oval Ihape, 
 fmooth, and of a fca-green colour. It is found wild in 
 fomc partsof Italy and the Archipelago ; but is a plant 
 of no great beauty, and therefore feldom cultivated. 
 3. The fruticofa, or flirubby baftard orpine, is a native 
 of China and fome places of America, where it rifcs 12 
 or i4fecrhigh. The leaves are fpear-lhaped, pointed, 
 and fmooth ; and under them are produced the foot- 
 llalks of the flowers, which are fmall, and of a herba- 
 ceous white colour. ?. The arborea, with a tree-like 
 flalk. This fpecies was difcovcred by the late Dr 
 William Houflon, growing naturally at Campeachy. 
 It has a (Irong woody flem, which rifcs more than 20 
 ?"cct high, and fends out many branches on every fide. 
 A fourth fort is alfo mentioned by Mr Miller as raifed 
 by him from feeds fent from Jamaica. It agrees in 
 general with the third fort ; but the leaves are fomc- 
 Vhat like the laurel, only much larger. 
 
 Cultur:. The firfl fpecies may be raifed, by fowing 
 the feeds in March, on a moderate hot-bed. The plants 
 may be removed inio fmall pots, and plunged into ano- 
 ther very moderate hot-bed, to bring them forward ; 
 but in mild weather they (hould have plenty of air ad- 
 mitted to them, and be frequently refrcflied with wa- 
 ter. In June they will produce flowers, and the feeds 
 Will ripen in Augu/l and September. — The otlier fpe- 
 cies are very tender, and therefore nuift be kept con- 
 ftantly in the bark-llovc. It is very difRcult to procure 
 good feeds of thefc forts ; the covers often containing 
 nothing, though they appear very fair outwardly. 
 
 ANDRAPODISMUS, in ancient writers, the fell- 
 ing of perfons for flaves. Hence alfo auchapodiPes, a 
 dealer in flaves, more particularly a kidnapper, who 
 lieals men or children to fell them j a crime for which 
 the Thefialians were note 1. 
 
 ANDRATODOCAPELI, in antiquity, a kind of 
 dealers in flaves. The ar.drapodocapclt had a particular 
 procefs for taking ofFinoles and the like disfigurements 
 <>n the faces of the flaves they kept for fale, by nib- 
 bing them with bran. At Athens, feveral places in 
 tlie forum were appointed for the fale of flaves. Up- 
 on the firfl day of every month, the merchants called 
 .Ai<rf«TKft>:«<r»xt» brought them into the market, and 
 txpofed them to fale -, the crier Handing upon a flone 
 ercfted for that purpofe, called the people together. 
 ANDRE.'^ (St), a fmall village on the Malabar 
 coaft iathe Eafl-Indies, founded originally by the Por- 
 f.igucfe. It likes its name from a church dedicated to 
 
 788 J AND 
 
 St Andrew, and fcrvcd by the priefts of St Thomas. — 
 On the flioreof St Andrea, about half a league oat in 
 the fca, lies Mud-bay, a place which few in the world 
 can parallel. It is open to the wide ocean, and has nei- 
 ther ifland nor bank to break the force of the billows, 
 which come rolling with great violence from all parts, 
 in the fouth-wefl moiifoons : but on this bank of mud 
 they lofe themfelvcs in a moment ; and fliips lie on it 
 as fecurc as in the bed harbour, without motion or di- 
 flurbance. It reaches about a mile along Ihore, and 
 has been obfervcd to fliift its place from the northward 
 about three miles in 30 years. From St Andrea to 
 Kranganor, about 12 leagues to the fouth, the water 
 has the bad property of canfing fvvellings in the legs of 
 ihofc who drink it conflantly. Some it affeds in one 
 leg, and fome in both. It caufes no pain, but itch- 
 ing ; nor docs the fwelled leg feem heavier to the 
 owner than the fmall one, though fomc have been fecn 
 a yard in circumference at the ancle. The Komiflt 
 legends impute the caufc of this diflemper (for which 
 no preventative or cure hath been hitherto found) to 
 a curfc laid by St Thomas upon his murderers and 
 their poltcrily ; though, according to the Romans 
 themfelvcs, St Thomas was killed by the Tillingi 
 priefls at Meliaphur, on the coalluf Coromandel, about 
 400 miles diflant, and where the natives have not 
 this diflemper. 
 
 ANDREAS (John), a celebrated canonift in the 
 14th century, was born at Mugello, near Florence; 
 and was profelforof canonlaw at Padua, Pifa, and af- 
 terwards at Bologna. It is faid that he macerated his 
 body with fafting ; and lay upon the bare ground every 
 night for aoyears together, covered only with the fkin 
 of a bear. This is attefled by very good authors ; but 
 if the ftory which Poggius tells of him in his Jefts be 
 true, he muR afterwards have relaxed much of this 
 continency : " Joannem Andream, (fays he), doflo- 
 rem Bonnonienlera, cujus fama admcdum vulgata eft, 
 fubagitantem ancillam domeflicam uxor deprchendit: 
 re infuetaftupefafta mulier in virum verfa, Ubinunc, 
 ait, Joannes, eft fapicntia veftra .' ille nil amplius locu- 
 tus. In vulva iftius, refpondit, loca admodum fapien- 
 tiae accommodato." The French tranflation of this 
 perhaps will not be difpleafing. 
 
 "Jeaii, dit Andre, fa7iieux DoBeur des Loix, 
 
 Fut pris tin jour au peche d' amourette : 
 
 II acolloit line jeune foubrette. 
 
 Sa jemme vi'it, fii tin figtte de croix. 
 
 Ho h», dit elle, eft ce vous P iton je penfe : 
 
 Vous, doiit par tout eti vante la prudence. 
 
 Qn^efl dovenu cet efprit f fubtil P 
 
 Le ton Andre, pour ftiivatit foti negoce, 
 
 Honteux pourtant, ma Joi, reponditil. 
 
 Prude net, ejprit, tout giJI datis cette J'offi. 
 
 Since it is agreed that John Andreas had a baftard, 
 this ftory is at the bottom very probable ; and it was 
 perhaps with the mother of Banicontius that his wife 
 found him. Andreas had a beautiful daughter, named 
 Novella, whom he loved extremely : and he is faid to 
 have inflruited her fo well in all parts of learning, that 
 when he wasengaged inanyaffairwhich hindered him 
 from reading lectures to hi sfcholars, he fent his daugh- 
 ter in his room ; and left her beauty lliould prevent the 
 
 at- 
 
 Andrei, 
 .\iidrca».
 
 AND 
 
 [ 789 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 AndreM. attention of the bearers, (he had a little curtain drawn 
 before her. To perpetuate the memory of this daugh- 
 ter, he iniitlcd his commentary upon the Decretals of 
 Gregory IX. the Novella-. He married hcrtojohn 
 Calderinus, a learned canonift. The tirll work ot An- 
 dreas was his Glofs upon the Sixth Book of the De- 
 cretals,which he wrote when he was very young. He 
 wrote alfo Gloiies upon the Clementines ; and a Com- 
 mentary in regulas Sexti, which he entitled Mcrcu- 
 rialei, becaufe he either engaged in it on Wednefdays 
 i^dicbiii Mcrcurii) , or becaufe he infertcd his Wednef- 
 days difputes in it. He enlarged the Speculum of 
 Durant, in the year 1347. This is all which Mr Bayle 
 mentions of his writings, though he wrote many more. 
 Andreas died of the plague at Bologna, in 1348, after 
 he had been a profeffor 45 years ; and was buried in 
 the church of the Dominicans. Many eulogiums have 
 been bellowed upon him. He has been called ^rf/i/- 
 dodor decretorinn : In his epitaph. Rabbi doiioru7ii ; 
 lux, cenfor nor7naqui inorum ; '< Rabbi of the dolors, 
 the light, cenfor, and rule of manners:" And it is 
 faid, tliat Pope Boniface called him lumen tnundi, 
 " the light of the world." 
 
 Andreas (John)w»sborn a Mahometan, atXativa 
 in the kingdom of Valencia, and fuccecded his father 
 in the dignity of alfaqui of that city. He was en- 
 lightened with the knowledgeof thcChriftian religion 
 by being prefent at a fermon in the great church of 
 Valencia on the day of AiTumption of the blelfed Vir- 
 gin, in the year 1487. Upon tliis he deiired to be 
 baptized ; and, in memory of the calling of St John 
 and St Andrew, he received the name John Andreas. 
 " Having received holy orders (fays he), and, from 
 an alfaqui and a Have of Lucifer, become a pricft and 
 miniller of Chrill; 1 began, like St Paul, to preach 
 and publiih the contrary of what I had erroncoully be- 
 lieved and aflerted ; and, with the allillance of Al- 
 miglity God, 1 converted at firft a great many fouls of 
 the Moors, who were in danger of hell, and under the 
 dominion of Lucifer, and condufted them into the way 
 offalvation. After this, I was fcnt ior by the molt 
 catholic princes king Ferdinand and queen Ifabella, 
 in order to preach in Granada to the Moors of that 
 kingdom, which their majellies had conquered : by 
 God's blelFingon my prtaching, an infinite number of 
 Moors were brought to abjure Mahomet, and to turn 
 to Chrift. A little after this, I was made a canon by 
 their grace ; and fent for again by the moll ChrilUan 
 queen Ifabella to Arragon, that I might be employed 
 in the convcrfion of the Moorsofthofc kingdoms, who 
 Hill pcrlifled in their errors, to the great contempt and 
 difhonour of our crucified Saviour, aud the prodigious 
 lofsand danger of all Chriiiian princes. But this ex- 
 cellent and pious dtlign of her M.ijcfly was rendered 
 inetfcflual by her deatli." At the dcllre of Martin 
 Garcia, bifliop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranf- 
 late from the Arabic, into the lan>i,mge of Arragon, 
 thcsvholelaw of the Moors ; and atijr having finiihed 
 this undertaking, hr compofed his famous work of The 
 Coiifiil'ion of the Se{l of Mahtaned : it contains twelve 
 chapters, wherein lie has collefted the fabulous llories, 
 impollures, forgeries, brutalities, folliet, obfcenities, 
 abfurdities, impoflibilities, lies, and contradic'tions, 
 which Maliomet, in order to deceive the limple people, 
 has difpcrfed in the writings of that fcrt, and cfpccial- 
 
 ly in the akoran, which, as he fays, was revealed to Ananinl 
 him in one niglit by an angel, in tlie city of Mckc ; H 
 though in another place he contradicf s himfelf, and af- Andrew, 
 firms that he was 20 years in conipoiing it. Andreas " ' 
 tells us, be wrote this work, that not only the learned 
 among Chrilti.uis, but even the common piople mijilit 
 know the different belief and doctrine of the Moors : 
 aud on the one hand might laugh and ridicule fuch iu- 
 folcnt and brutal notions, and on the other miglu la- 
 ment their blindnefs and dangerous condition. This 
 book, which was publilhed at firfl in Spanifh, has been 
 trandatcd into fevcral languages ; all thofc who write 
 againft the Mahometans quote it very much. 
 
 ANDREINI (Ifabella), a native of Padua, was an 
 excellent poetefs, andone of the belt comedians in Ita- 
 ly, towards the beginning of the I7tli century. The 
 Intenti of Pavia thought they did tiieir Society an ho- 
 nour by admitting her a member of it ; and fhc, in ac- 
 knowledgementofthishonour, ncverforgoi tomeniion 
 amonglt her titles that oi Academica Infanta : licr 
 titles werithefe, " Ifabella AiiJrtini, coniica gclofa, 
 acadcniica infanta, delta I'accefla." She was alfoa wo- 
 man of extraordinary beauty ; which, added to a fine 
 voice, made her charm both the eyes and ears of tlic 
 audience. She diedof a mifcarriage, at Lyons, the 
 loth of June, 1604, in the 42d year of her age. Her 
 death being a m uter of gci.cral concern and lamenta- 
 tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print- 
 ed to her memory : feveral of tlicfe pieces were placed 
 before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 1605. 
 Belides her fonnets, madrigals, longs, and eclogues, 
 thercisapaftoral of hersintitled Myrtilla.and letters, 
 printed at Venice in 1610. She fung extremely well, 
 played admirably on feveral inltriinients, nnderlli'oj 
 the French andSpanilh languages, and was not unac- 
 quainted with philofophy. 
 
 ANDRKLINUS (Publius FauAus), born at Forli 
 in Italy, lie was a long time profeffor of poetry and 
 philofopiiy in the univerdty of Paris. Lewis Xll. of 
 France m idc him his poet laureat ; and Eral^inus tells 
 us he was likcwifc poet to the queen. His pen was not 
 wliolly employed in making verfes ; for he wrote alfo 
 moral and proverbial letters in profe, which were print- 
 ed feveral times. His poems, which are chiefly in La- 
 tin, are infertcd in Vol. I. of the Deltci.r Poctaru::i It.i- 
 lurtim. Mr De la Monnoie tells us, "that Andrelinus, 
 when he was but 22 years old, received the crown of 
 laurel : That his love-verfes, divided into four books, 
 intitled /./:■;■//, from the name of his millrcfs, were 
 elleemed fo fine by the Roman Academy, that they 
 adjudged the prize of the Latin elegy to the author." 
 He died in i ji8. This author's manner of life was 
 not very exemplary ; yet he was fo fortunate, f.iys K- 
 rafmus, that though he took the liberty of rallying the 
 divines, he was never brought into trouble about it. 
 
 ANDREW (St), the apofllc, born at Bcthfiida iu 
 Galilee, brother to Simon Peter. He had been a dif- 
 ciple of John the baptill, and followed Jcfus u|'on the 
 tellimony given of him by the batpifl, (John i. 30, 37, 
 S:c.) He followed our Saviour with anothcrot John's 
 difciples, and wentintothe houfe where Jefus lodged : 
 here he continued from about four o'clock in the after- 
 noon till it w.-is night. This was the firfl difciple 
 whom our Saviour received into his train. Andrew 
 introduced his brother Siuiou, aud they palled a day 
 
 >vitk
 
 AND 
 
 t 790 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 Andrew, witliCIirift, after which they went to the marriage ia 
 Andrew'* Cana (;V. ii.), and at lall returned to their ordinary 
 " occupation. Sonic months after, Jefus meeting them 
 
 while they were both hlhing together, called them to 
 him, and promifed to make them filhersof men. Im- 
 mcdiaicly they left their nets, followed him, (Matt, 
 iv. 19.) and never afterwards feparated from him. 
 
 i^fter our Saviour's afcenlion, his apolUcs having 
 determined by lot what parts of the world they Ihould 
 fcvcrally take, Scythiaand the ntighbouringcountries 
 fell to St Andrew, who according to Eiifebius, after 
 he had planted the gofpel in fcveral places, came to 
 Patras in Achaia, where, endeavouring to convert the 
 proconful yEgcas, he was by that governnor's orders 
 fcourged and then crucified. The particular time of 
 his fuffcring martyrdom is not known ; but all the an- 
 cient and modern manyrologies, both of the Greeks 
 and Latins, agree in celebrating his fcllival upon the 
 30th of November. His body was embalmed, and de- 
 cently interred at Patraeby Maximilla, a lady of great 
 quality and eftate. Afterwards it was removed toCon- 
 llantinople by Conftantine the Great, and buried in the 
 great church, which he had built to the honour of the 
 apoftles. There is a crofs to be feen at this day in the 
 church of St Viftor at Marfcilles, which is believed 
 by the Romanifts to be the fame that St Andrew was 
 fattened to. It is in the fliape of the letter X, and is 
 inclofed in a filver fhrine. Peter Chryfologus fays, 
 that he was crucified upon a tree ; and the fpnrious 
 Hippolytus aifures us it was an olive-tree. 
 
 Andrew, or Knights of St Amdrfjv, an order of 
 knights, more ufually called the order of the thiflle. 
 (See Thistle.) 
 
 Knights of St AsDRF.H', is alfoan order inflituted by 
 Peter the Great of Mufcovy in 1698 ; the badge of 
 which is a golden medal ; on one fide whereof is re- 
 prefentedSt Andrew's crofs, with thefe words, Cuzar 
 Ph'rn T/iotiaraui de tout la Rufie. This medal, being 
 fiiflened to a blue ribbon, is lufpended from the right 
 Ihoulder. 
 
 St yisDREw's Crofs, one in form of the letter X. 
 (Sec Cross.) 
 
 St^.sDnm 'sDaj, a feftival of the Chriftian church, 
 celebrated on the 30th of November in honour of the 
 apoflle St Andrew. 
 
 ANDREW'S (St), a town of Fifefliire, in Scotland, 
 once the metropolis of the piiflilh kingdom, lying in 
 \V. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If we may credit 
 legend, St Andrew's owes its origin to a fingular ac- 
 cident. StRegulas (or St ^.v/if, as he is likeuifecal- 
 led ), a Greek of Achaia, was warned by a vifion to leave 
 his native country, and vifit Albion, an ille placed in 
 the remoteft part of the world ; and to take with him 
 the arm-bnne, three fingers, and three toes of St An- 
 drew. He obeyed, and fet fail with his companions, 
 but had a very tempeftuouspairage. After being toffed 
 for fome time on a ftormy fea, he wasatlaftlhipwreck- 
 ed on the coafts of Otholania, in the territories of 
 Hergufiis king of the pifts, in the year 370. On 
 heariuj; of the arrival of the Strangers, with iheir 
 precious rclifls, the king immediately gave orders for 
 their reception, afterwards prefenting the faint with 
 his own palace, and building near it the church, 
 which rtil' bears the name of 5' Rcgnlus. 
 
 At this time the place was ftiled Mucrofs, or the 
 
 land of boars: all round was fore ft, and the lands be- Andrew'* 
 
 flowed on the Saint were called Byrchid. The boars * « ' 
 
 equalled in fizc the ancient Erymanthian ; as a proof 
 of which, two tufks, each fixteen inches long and four 
 thick, were chained to the altar of St Andrew's. St 
 Regulus changed'the name to Kilrymont ; and eftablifh- 
 cd here the firll Chrillian priells of the country, called 
 Culdees. 1 his church was fupreme in the kingdom 
 of the Pidls ; Ungus having granted to God and St An- 
 drew, that it Ihould be the head and mother of all tlic 
 churches in his dominions. He alfo direded that the 
 crofs of St Andrew Ihould become the badge of the 
 country. In yi8, after the conqueft of the Pifbs, he 
 removed the epifcopal fee to St Andrew's, and the Bi- 
 ihop was ftyled rnaximtis Scotoritvt epifcofus. In 144I, 
 it was erected into an archbilhopric by Sexius IV. at 
 the interceffion of James III. In 1606, the priory w.is 
 fupprelfed ; and, in 161 7, the power of election was 
 transferred to eight bilhops, the principal of St Leo- 
 nard's college, the archdeacon, the yicars of St An- 
 drew's, Lcuchars, and Coupar. This fee contained the 
 greateft part of the fliirc of Fife, with apart of Perth, 
 Forfar, and Kincardine fhifes, and a great number of 
 parifhes, churches, and chapels in other diocefes. 
 
 The town of St Andrew's was ercdcd into a royal 
 borough by David I. in the year 11 40, and their pri- 
 vileges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal- 
 colm II. is prefcrved in the tolbooth ; and appears writ- 
 ten on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally 
 valid with what would at this time require whole (kins. 
 Here alfo are kept the filver keys of the city ; which, 
 for form's fake, are delivered to the king, if he Ihould 
 vifit the place, or to a viftorious enemy, in token of 
 fubmiflion. In this place, likewife, is to be feen the 
 monllrous ax which, in 1646, took off the heads of Sir 
 Robert Spotfwood and other diftinguiflied loyalifls. 
 The town underwent a fiege in 1337 ; at which time 
 it was poifeired by the Englifti, and other partizans of 
 Baliol ; bat the loyalifts, under the earls of March and 
 Fife, made themfelves matters of it in three weeks, 
 by the help of their battering machines. 
 
 St Andrew's is now greatly reduced in the number 
 of inhabitants ; at prefent fcarcely exceeding 2000. It 
 is impoffible to afcertain the fum when it was the feat 
 of the primate : All that can be known is, that during 
 the period of its fplendor, there were between 60 and 
 70 bakers ; but now 9 or 10 are fufficicnt for the place. 
 It is a mile in circuit, and contains three principal 
 flreets. On entering the weft port, a well-built ftreet, 
 ftraight, and of vaft length and breadth, appears ; but 
 fo grafs-grown, and prefenting fuch a dreary foliiude, 
 that it forms the perfcd idea of having been laid waftc 
 by the pcftilence. 
 
 The cathedral of St Andrew's %vas founded by Bi- 
 Jliop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full mag- 
 nificence till 1318. Its length from eaft to well was 
 37ofeet; thatof the tranfept, 322. But tho' this vaft 
 pile was 157 years in building, John Knox, in June 
 15J9, efTedcd its demolition in a fingle day; and fo 
 effectually has it been dcftroycd, that nothing now re- 
 mains but part of the eaft and weft ends, and of the 
 fouth fide. 
 
 Near the eaft end is the chapel of St Regulus ; the 
 tower of which is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 2ofeet 
 each fide, and 103 feet high ; the body of the chapel 
 
 Tcmains,
 
 AND 
 
 r 79 
 
 Andrew'j- remains, but the two fide chapels are ruined. The 
 '~"~^'~~" arches of the windows and doors arc round, and fome 
 even more than fcmicirclcs : an undoubted proof of 
 their antiquity. 
 
 The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1 122 ; 
 and the monies (canons regularof St Auguflinc) were 
 brought from Scone, in 1 140, by Robert, biihopof this 
 fee. By an aft of parliament, in the time of James I. 
 the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and 
 on the days of feftival wore a mitre and all cpifcopal 
 ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thofe of 
 Lochleven, Portmoak,Monimu(k, the Iflcof May,and 
 Pittcnwcem, each originally a feat of thcCuldees. The 
 revenuesof the houfe were vail, viz. In money 223 7I. 
 2S. rod 1-2; 38 chaldrons, i boll, 3 firlots of wheat ; 
 132 ch. 7 bolls of bear ; 114 ch. 3 bolls i peck of 
 meal ; iji ch. 10 bolls i firlot i peck and a half of 
 oats ; 3 ch. 7 bolls of peas and beans : 480 acres of 
 land alfo belonged to it. Nothing remains of the pri- 
 ory except the walls of the precind, which Ihow its 
 vafl extent. In one part is a niofl artlefs gateway, 
 formed only of fevcn Hones. This inclofure begins 
 near the cathedral, and extends to the Ihore. 
 
 The other religious houfes were, one of Domini- 
 cans, founded in 1274, by bithop Wilhart ; another of 
 Obfervantincs, founded by bifliop Kennedy, and linilh- 
 ed by his fuccelfor Patrick Graham in 1478 ; and, ac- 
 cording to fome, the Carmelites had a fourth. 
 
 Immediately above the harbour flood the collegiate 
 church ofKirk-heugh, originally founded by Conllan- 
 line III. who, retiring from the world, became here 
 a Culdce. f'romiti having been firft built on a rock, it 
 was llyled, Pra-pofitura Sa7:({a Mari/e dc rupi. 
 
 On the call fide of the city are the poor remains of 
 the caflle, on a rock overlooking the fea. This fortrefs 
 was founded, in 1401, by Biiliop Trail, who was bu- 
 ried near the high altar of ihe cathedral, with this 
 fingular epitaph : 
 
 Hicfttit cede ft cc i(ireSla colamtia, fcmflra 
 Lucida thuribulumredolens, compana fvnora. 
 
 This caftle was the refidcnce of cardinal Beaton ; 
 who, after the death of GeorgeWilhart, apprehending 
 fome danger, caufed it to be fortified fo flrongly as to 
 be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortrefs, 
 however, he was furprized and alfallinatcd by Norman 
 Leily with I50thers. They feized on the gate of the 
 caftle early in the morningof May 29, 1541^; it having 
 been left open for the workmen who were tinifliing the 
 fortifications; and having placed cenrincls at thedoor 
 of the cardinal's apartment, ihey awakened his nume- 
 rous domellics one by one ; and, turning them out of 
 the ca/lle, they, without violence, tumult, or offering 
 any injury to any other pcrlon, inriiiSedon Beaton the 
 death he juflly merited. The confpirators were im- 
 mediately befiegcd in this caflle by the regent, earl of 
 Arran ; and notwithftanding they had acquired no 
 greater flrength than 150 men, they refifled all his 
 efforts for five months. This, however, was owing to 
 the unfkilfulnefs of the beliegcrs mere than to the 
 ftrength of the place or the valour of the befiegcd ; 
 for in 1547 the caflle was reduced and demoliihed. 
 The entrance of it is (lillto be ffcn ; and the window 
 is Oiown, out of which it is faid the cardinal leaned to 
 
 I ] NAD 
 
 glut his eyes with the cruel martyrdom of George ABJr<r«-'i. 
 Wilhart, who was burnt on a fpot beneath. ' " 
 
 In the church of St Salvator is a mofl beautiful tomb 
 of bifliop Kennedy, who died, an honour 10 his fami- 
 ly, in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly ele- 
 gant. Within the tomb were difcovcred lix raaguiii- 
 cent maces, which had been concealed here in trou- 
 fome times. One was given to each of the other three 
 Scotch univerlitics, and three arc prelcrvcd here. I:i 
 the top is reprcfcntcd our Saviour ; around are an- 
 gels, with the inflruments of the pafllon. 
 
 With thefe arc fliown fome filver arrows, with large 
 filver plates affixed to them, on which arc infcribed 
 the arms and names of ilic nolle youth, viclors in the 
 annual competitions in the generous art of archery, 
 which were dropt but a few years ago ; and golf is 
 now the reigning game. That fport, and foot-b.ill, 
 were formerly prohibited, asufclefs and unprofitable 
 to the public , and at all w^iaponjcha'^uingi, or reviews 
 of the people, it was ordered, tWiX. jute-ball audg-Jfe 
 be utterly cry ed down, and that bo-oi-vtar kc s be tnasd at 
 ilk pari jh kirk, a pair of butts and Jchutting be uf:d : 
 and that ilk man fchuite fax Jhtttet at leajt, under th: 
 paine to be raiped upon them that cuvi'uit not, at leaf} 
 t'jia pennies, to be given to them that cumniis to th: bow- 
 markes to drinke. 
 
 The celebrated univerfity of this city was founded in 
 141 1, by bilhop Wardlaw ; and the nex year he ob- 
 tained from Benedict 111. the bull of confirmation. It 
 confifledonce ofihree colleges, i. St Salvator's, found- 
 ed in 1458, by bilhop Kennedy. This is a handfomc 
 building, with a court or quadrangle within : on one 
 lide is the church, on another the library ; the third 
 contains apartments for Audents : the fourth is un- 
 finilhed. 2. St Leonard's college was founded by pri- 
 or Hepburn, in 1522. This is now united with the 
 lafl, and the buildings fold and converted into private 
 houfes. 3. The new, or St Mary's college, was cftab- 
 lilhed by archbilhop Hamilton in 1553 : but the houfc 
 was built by Tames and David Bethune, or Beaton^ 
 who did not live to complete it. This is faid to have 
 been the fite of a fchola illuftris long before the eftab- 
 lilhmentevenof the univerfity; where fcveraleminent 
 clergymen taught, gratis, the fciences and languages. 
 But it was called the nrj) college, bccaufe of its late 
 crcftioninto a divinity college by the archbifliop. 
 
 The univerfity is governed by a chancellor, an of- 
 fice originally deligned to be perpetually veiled in the 
 archbifliopof St Andrew's; but fiuce the reformation, 
 he is defied by the two principals, and the profelFors 
 of both the colleges. 
 
 The reftor is the next great officer; to whofc care is 
 committed the privileges,difcipline,and flatutes of the 
 univerfity. The colleges have their reilors, and pro- 
 fclforsof different fciences, who are indefatigable in 
 their atier.tion to tlie inftruiflion of thefludents,aiid to 
 that elfential article, their morals. This place poireifes 
 fcveral very great advantages refpefling the education 
 of youth. The air is pureand falubrious ; the place for 
 exercife.dryandcxtcnlive;theexercifest!icmfclvcsare 
 healthy and innocent. The univerfity is fixed in a pe- 
 ninUilated country, remote from all commcrcewith the 
 world, the haunt of diilipation. Krom the fmallnefs ot 
 the focietycvcryfludent'scharii^er is perfeflly known. 
 
 No
 
 AND 
 
 [ 792 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 Andrew's. No little irregularity can be committed, but it is in- 
 Ilaiitly difcovertd and checked : vice cannot attain a 
 head in this i)hce, for the incorrigible arc never per- 
 riitted to remain the corrupters ot the reft. 
 
 The trade of St Andrew's was once very conlider- 
 »ble. Solace as the reign of Charles I. this place had 
 i;o or 40 trading vcirds, and carried on a confiderable 
 herring and white tilhcry, by means of bulTes, iu deep 
 water ; which lilherics had for ages been the grand 
 >fburcc of their commerce, wealth, and fplendour. Af- 
 ter the death of the king, this whole coaft, a:idSt An- 
 drew's in particular, became a fcene of murder, plun- 
 der, and rapine : every town flittered in proportion to 
 its magnitude and opulence. Nor were thofe hypocri- 
 tical ruffians faiisficd with the Shipping, merchandife, 
 plate, cattle, and whatever came within their light ; 
 they alfo laid the whole coafl under contribution. St 
 Andrew's was required to pay loool. but the inhabi- 
 tants not being able to raife that fum after being thus 
 plundered, the general compounded for jool. whicli 
 was raifed by a loan at intcrefl, and hath remained a 
 burden upon the corporation, it isbclieved, evci fince. 
 The harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a 
 narrow entrance, to give flielter to veflels from the vio- 
 lence of a very heavy fea, from the encroachments of 
 which it has lufFered much. The manufadlurcs this 
 city might in former times poircfs,are now reduced to 
 one, that of golf-balls ; which, tritling as it may feem 
 maintains a great number of people. It is, however, 
 commonly fatal to the artiUs ; for the balls are made 
 by flufEng a great quantity of feathers into aleathern 
 cafe, by help of an iron rod, with a wooden handle, 
 prclfcd againlt the breaft, which fcldom fails to bring 
 on a confumption. 
 
 Andrew's (Lancelot), bidiopof Wincheder, was 
 born at London in IJSJ, and educated at, Cambridge. 
 After feveral preferments, he was made bifliop, firft of 
 CJiichcfler, then of Ely, and, in 1618, was raifed to 
 thefeeofWinchefter. This verylearned prelate, who 
 was diflinguilhed by his piety, charity and integrity, 
 may be jullly ranked with the bed preachers and com- 
 pleteftfcholarsof hisage ; he appeared to much great- 
 er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his 
 works, which abound with Latin quotations and trivial 
 witticifms. His fermons, thongh full of puns, were 
 fuited to the tafle of the times in which he lived, and 
 were confequently greatly admired. He was a man of 
 polite manners and lively converfation; and could quote 
 Greek and Latin authors, orevenpun with kingjames. 
 There is a pleafant flory related of him in the life of 
 Waller the poet. When that gentleman was young, he 
 had the curiofity to go to court, and Hood in the circle 
 to fceking James dine; where, amongother company, 
 there fat at table two bifltops, Neale and Andrews. 
 Tlie king propofed aloud this quellion, Whether he 
 might not take his fibjeds money when he needed it, 
 without all this formality of paili ;ment? Neale replied, 
 " God forbid you (hould not, for yon are the brcith of 
 ournoflrils." Whereupcn tlie kingtr.rncd, and faid to 
 thebiihopof M inthcfler, '< Well, my lord, what fay 
 you?" "Sir, (replied the biflicp), ( have no (l-iill to 
 judge of parliamentary cafes." '1 he king anfwercd, 
 " No puts-off,iny lord; anfwer mcprefenily." "Then, 
 Sir (faid he), I think it lawful for you to take my bro- 
 ther Neal's money, for he olfers it." Mr Waller 
 4 
 
 fays, the company was plcafed with this anfwer, but Andrij 
 the wit of it fcemed to attedl the king ; for a certain || 
 lord coming foon after, his majefty criedout, " O, my Andropy 
 lord, they fayyou lig with my lady." " No, Sir (fays , '^'j- 
 his Lord;hip, in coufulion), but I like her company " 
 becaufc ihe has fo much wit." <• Why then (fays the 
 king) do you noi lig with my lord of Winchefter 
 there ?" — Thisgrcat prelate was in no lefs reputation 
 andelleem with king Charles L than he had been with 
 his prcderell'ors. He died at Winchcfter-houfe in 
 South wark, September 27, 1626, in the 71 It year of 
 his age ; and was buried in the parifli-church of St Sa- 
 viour's, wherehis executors erected to him a very fair 
 nionumentofmarblc andalabafter, on which isan ele* 
 gant infcription, in Latin, written by one of his chap- 
 lains. Mr Milton alfo, at 17 years ot age, wrote a 
 beautiful elegy on his death, in the fame language. 
 Bilhop Andrews had, I. A fliare in the tranflation of 
 the Pentateuch, and the hillorical books from Jufliua 
 to the firft book of Chronicles cxclulively. Healfa 
 wrote, 2. Tort.'/ra Torti, in anfwer to a work of Car- 
 dinal Bellarmine, in which that cardinal affumes the 
 name of Matthew Tortus. 3. A Manual of Private 
 Devotions : and, 4. A Manual of Direftions for the 
 Vifitation of the Sick ; belides the Sermons andTraft* 
 in Englifh and Latin, publilhed after his death. 
 
 ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity, public entertain- 
 ments firft inftituted by Minos of Crete, and, after 
 his example, appointed byLycurgus at Sparta, at which 
 a whole city or tribe aflifted. They were managed 
 with the ut moft frugality, and perfons of all ages were 
 admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law- 
 giver to repair thither as to fchools of temperance and 
 fobriety. 
 
 Andria, is a city and a bilhop's fee in the territory 
 of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large, 
 well peopled, and feated in a fpacious plain, four milcr 
 from the Adriatic coaft. E. Long. 17. 4, N. Lat. 
 
 41- iJ- 
 
 ANDRISCUS, a man of mean cxtradion, who, 
 pretending to be thefon of Perfeus laftking of Mace- 
 aoiiia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which 
 reafon he was called Pfeudo-Phirtppus,lh<tFalfe Philip. 
 After a complete vidory over Jnventus, the Roman- 
 Prsetor fent againft him, he alFumed kingly power, but 
 cxercifed it with vaft cruelty. At laft, the Romans 
 obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed 
 and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic- 
 tory gained Macedonia once more into the power of 
 the Romans, and toMetellus the mmcof fllacecfoiicus, 
 but coft the Romans 25,000 men. Andrifcus adorned 
 the triumph of Metcllus, walking in chains before the 
 general's chariot. 
 
 ANDROAS, or Androdamas, among ancient na- 
 turalifls, a kind of pyrittc, to which they attributed 
 certain magical virtues. 
 
 ANDROGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fonofMi- 
 nos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian 
 youth and thofe of Megara, who envied his being al- 
 ways vidorat the Attic games. ButMinos having after- 
 wards taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabi- 
 tants to fend him an annual tribute of fcvcn young men 
 and as many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur; 
 but Thefeus delivered them from that tribute. 
 
 ANDROGYNES, in natural hiftory, a name gi-
 
 AND 
 
 [ 793 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 AaAro- ven to thofe living crcatuturis which, by a monftrous 
 gjDM. formaiion of their generative parts, fccm ( for it is only 
 
 '"■■^^ fceraing)to unite in thcmfelvcs the two kxcs, that of 
 
 the male and of the female. This Ju/us natura, this 
 dcfctt, or perhaps redandancy, ill the aninialllrutiture, 
 is defcribcd by medical authors in the following man- 
 ner. *■ There is a depravation in the ftruflurcof the 
 
 < parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be- 
 
 < lides thofe concealed parts that are found nccelFary 
 
 * for the dilcharge of prolific fundions, i)it fui^mda 
 
 * of the other fex likcwife appear. This monftrous 
 ' produtlion of nature is diveriihcd in four dilfcrcnt 
 
 * ways; of which three appear in males and one in fe- 
 
 * males. In men, the female pudendum doathed with 
 ' hair, fomeiimesappcarscontiguous totheperinaeum ; 
 ' at other times in the middle of the fcrotum ; at other 
 
 * times, which conflitutes the third divcrfity, through 
 ' that part itfelf which in the midll of the fcrotum ex- 
 ' hibits the form of a pudendum, urine is emitted. 
 
 * Near that part which is the tell of puberty, and 
 
 * above the pudendum, even in females, the mafculine 
 
 * genitals appear in fome, confpicuous in all their thrcq 
 ' forms, one rcfembling the 'ju-etravioryAxi,\.\\cui\icv 
 
 * like the two tcllicles : but for the molt pan it hap- 
 
 * pens, that, of the two inllrumcnts of generation, one 
 
 * is feeble and inert ; and it is extremely rare that both 
 
 * are found fufficiently valid and proper for feats of 
 
 * love ; nay, even in a great many, both thefe niem- 
 « bersaredeficicntandiinpotcui, fo that they can pcr- 
 
 * form the office neither of a male nor of a female.' 
 
 With refpeft to thcra, it appears, from a collation 
 of all the circumftances which have been obferved by 
 Bituraliftsworthyofcredit, that there is no fuch thing 
 as a perfciSt <?«i/rci^j';;f, or real henuaphro<lite ; that 
 is to fjy, a living creature which, by its unnatural, or 
 rather preternatural flruclurc, poirelfcs the genuine 
 powers of both fexes, in fuch a manner as to be qua- 
 lified for performing the funflions of cither with fuc- 
 ccfs : theirregularity of their fabrication almoll always 
 confifts in fomething fuperfluous added to one of the 
 two fexes, which gives it the appearance of the other, 
 without bellowing the real and charadleriltical diftinc- 
 lion ; and every /'t-rw^z/'Aroi/z/^is almoft ahvsysa very 
 woman. Since this monftrous exhibition of nature is 
 not fuch as to abrogate the rights or deftroy the cha- 
 laclcrof humanity amongft human beings, this invo- 
 luntary misfortune implies no right to deprive thofe 
 upon whom it is inflifled by nature, of the privileges 
 natural to e\ery citizen; and this deficiency is no 
 more infeflio.is than any other corporeal iiiuiilation, it 
 is noteafy to lee why marriage (hould be prohibited t© 
 one of tiicfe unhappy beings, merely on accmmt of its 
 equivocal appearance, which afls in the char.ii^Ur of its 
 prevailing fex. If fuch a creature, by the defect of its 
 conftrud;ioii, Ihould be barren ; this does not infer any 
 light of diti'olving ihe marriage which it miy have con- 
 trafted, more than ihe fame fterility prcict^ding from 
 any caufe whither known or unknown, if his or her 
 confort IhoiiLl not on that account require a divorce. 
 It is only the licentious abjfe ciihcrofoiicor the other 
 fex which can be fnbjeded to the animadvtrlion of 
 the police. Sec HERMArHRoniTE. 
 
 Such are thcfcntinientsof the authors of the French 
 Encyclopedic. After all, we cannot forbear io add, 
 iliat from fiicli lieterogenous matches luturc fceras to 
 Vol. I. 
 
 recoil with innate and inextinguilhable horror. Nor Anitn- 
 arc any of thefc invinciljle averfions implanted in our i{)i«. 
 frame without a final caufe worthy of i(s Author. We Andro^. 
 wouldgladly aik ihcfc free-thinking gentlemen, in ca- °^^"'" , . 
 fct where the fexes are founnaturally confounded, liow 
 the police can, by its moft fevcre and rigorous ar.imad- 
 verlions, either dete(it or prevent thofelicentiousabufts 
 againft which they remonftrate.' Since, therefore, aa 
 evil fo baneful to human fociety could no oiherwife be 
 prevented than by the fandion of Natuie againft fuck 
 horrible conjundions, the inftiniltive antipathy which 
 they infpircwashiglilyworthyofherwifdom and purity. 
 Anbrocynes, in ancient mythology, creatures of 
 whom, accordingto thefable, each individual poirefled 
 the powers and charadcrs of both fexes, having two 
 heads, four arms and two feet. Tlic word itfelf is 
 compoundcdof two Greek radical words ; <aJvf, in ge- 
 nitive mJ fo(, a Ma/e ; and -yv/), i female. Many of the 
 rabbinical writers pretend, that Adara was created 
 double, one body being male, the other female, which 
 in their origin not being eircntially joined, God after- 
 wards did nothing but fcparatc them. 
 
 The gods, fays Plato in his Banquet, had formed 
 the ftruflure of man round, with two bodies and two 
 fexes. This fantaftic being, poli'elfing in itlelf th« 
 whole human fyftcm, was endowed with a gigantic 
 force, which rendered it Infolcnt, infomuch that it 
 refolved to make war againft the gods. Jupiter, exaf- 
 perated, was going to deftroy it; but, forry at the 
 fame time toannihilate the human race.he fatisfied him- 
 felf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining 
 the male from the female, and leaving each liaif to fab- 
 lift with its own powers alone. He afligncd to Apollo 
 the talk of repolifliing thefc two half bodies, and of 
 extending their Ikins fo that their whole fur/ace mi^ht 
 be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faftcncd it at the urn- 
 bUicus: If this half Ihould ftill rebel, it was once more 
 to be fubdivided by another fedion, which wo-.ild only 
 leave it one of the parts of which it was then conllitu- 
 tcd ; and even this fourth of a man was to be annihi- 
 lated, if it Ihould perfift in itsobfliaacy and mifchicf. 
 The idea of thefc androgynes might well be borrowed 
 from a palTage in Mofcs, where that hilluiian of the 
 birih and infancy of nature defcribes Adam as calling 
 Eve bo'it of his bone 2.n&fcfh of his fie fh. However this 
 may be, thefable of Plato has been ufed with great 
 ingenuity by a French poet, who has been rendered al- 
 moil as confpicuous by his misfortunes as by his verfes. 
 With the ancimt philofopher, he attributes the pro- 
 pcnfity which attrads one of the fexes towards the 
 other, to the natural ardor which each h.Tlf of the 
 a/idrogyinsiecX for reunion; and their ir.conftancy, to 
 the difficulty which each of the fcparated parts eHcoun- 
 ters in its efforts to recover its proper and original 
 half. If a woman appears to us amiable, we inftantly 
 imagine her to be that moiety wit ii whom we IhoiilJ 
 only have conftitutcd one whole, iiad it not been for the 
 infolencc of our original double-fexcd progeniior: 
 
 The heart, with fond credulity imprefs'J, 
 Tells us the half is found, then hopes for reft ; 
 But 'tis our curfe, that fad experience Ihows, 
 We neither find oar half nor gain repofe. 
 
 ANDROGYNOUS, in zoology, aa appellaiioa 
 
 given to animals which have both the male and female 
 
 5 H fex
 
 AND 
 
 [ 794 J 
 
 AND 
 
 Androide* fex in the fame individual.— In botany, the term is 
 
 " ' applied to iuch plants as bear both male and female 
 
 flowers on ihc fame root. 
 
 ANDROIDES, in mechanics, a. human figure, 
 which, by certain fpriiigs or other movements, is ca- 
 pable of performing fome of the natural motions of a 
 living man. The motions of the human body are more 
 complicated, and confequently more ditRcult to be imi- 
 tated, than thofc of any other creature ; whence the 
 conftrudion of an androijes, in fuch a manner as to 
 imitate any of thcfc actions with tolerable exadlnefs, 
 is juftly fuppofed to indicate a greater Ikill in mecha- 
 nics than any other piece of workmanfliip whatever. 
 
 A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared in 
 Paris, in the year i 738. It reprefented a flute player, 
 and was capable of performing many diifertnt pieces 
 of mulicon the German Hute; which, confidcring the 
 •tifficulty of blowing that inftnimen t, the ditfercnt con- 
 tradions of the lips neceffary to produce the diftinftions 
 between the high and low notes, and the complicated 
 motions of the fingers, mull appear truly wonderful. 
 This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfen, 
 nemberof the Royal Academy of Sciences; and a par- 
 ticular dcfcription of it was publilhed in the Memoirs 
 of the Academy for that year. 
 
 The figure itfelf was about five feet and an half in 
 height, fituated at the end of an artificial rock, and pla- 
 ced upon a fquare pedeflal four feet and an half high 
 and three and an half broad. The air entered the body 
 by three pipes feparated one from the other. It was 
 conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of 
 which were placed above and fix below. Thefe were 
 made to expand and contraS regularly in fucceflion, by 
 means of an axisof ileel turned round by fome clock- 
 work. On this axis were ditfcrent protuberances at 
 proper diftances, to which were fixed cords thrown 
 over pullies, and terminating in the upper boards of 
 the bellows, fo that, as the axis turned, thefe boards 
 werealternatclyraifed and letdown. A contrivance 
 was alfoufed to prevent the difagrceable hifling flutter- 
 ing noifc ufually attending the motion of bellows. 
 This was by making the cord, by wltich the bellows 
 was moved, prefs in its defcent, upon one endofafmall- 
 er lever, the other end of which afcending forced open 
 the fmall le;«thern valve that admitted the air, and kept 
 it fo, till, the cord being relaxed by the defcent of the 
 upper board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out. 
 Thus the bellows performed their funftions conftant- 
 ly without the leaft hifling or other noife by which it 
 could be judged in what manner the air was conveyed 
 to the machine. The upper boards of three of the 
 pairs of bellows were preflcd down by a weight of 
 four pouads, thofe of three others by a weight of two 
 pounds, and thofe of the three remaining ones by no- 
 thing but their own weight. 
 
 The three tubes, by which the air entered, termina- 
 ted in three fmall refervoirs in the trunk of the figure. 
 There thty united, and, afcendingtowardsthe throat, 
 formed the cavity of the mouth, which terir.inated in 
 two fmall lips adapred in fome meafure to perform their 
 proper funftions. Within this cavity alfo was a fmall 
 moveable tongue ; which by its play, at proper periods, 
 admitted the air, or intercepted its palFage to the flute. 
 The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro- 
 per direftionsby means of a Heel cylinder turned by 
 
 clock-work. It was divided into 1 5 equal parts, which Androidti. 
 by means of pegs, prclfing upon the ends of 1 5 ditt'er- ^"v < 
 ent levers, cauled thcothcr extremities to afcend. Se- 
 ven of thefe levers direttcd the^ingers, having wires 
 andchains fixed to their afcending extremities, which 
 being attached to the fingers, cauled them to afcend in 
 proportion as the other extremity was prelled down by 
 the motion of the cylinder, and vii:e verfa. Thus the 
 afcent or defcent of one end of a lever produced a limi- 
 lar afcent or defcent in the correfponding finger, by 
 which one of the holes of the flute was occafionally 
 opened or flopped, as by a living performer. Three 
 of the levers fervcd to regulate the ingrefs of the air, 
 being contrived fo as to open and Ihut, by means of 
 valves, the three refervoirs of air abovemcinioncd, fo 
 that moreor Icfsftrength might be given, and a higher 
 or lower note produced as occalion required. The lips 
 were by a limilar niechanifm, directed by four levers, 
 one of which opened them, to give the air a freer paf- 
 fage ; the other contradted them ; the third drew them 
 backward ; and the fourth puflied them forward. The 
 lips were projected upon that part of the flute which 
 receives the air ; and, by the different motions alrea- 
 dy mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner. 
 The remaining lever was employed in the direction 
 of the tongue, which it eafily moved, fo as to Ihut or 
 open the mouth of the flute. 
 
 Thus we fee how all the motions neceflary for a 
 German-flute-player could be performed by this ma- 
 chine ; butaconfiderable difficulty flill remains, name- 
 ly, how to regulate thefe motions properly, and make 
 each of them follow injuft fuccefTion. This, however, 
 was effedcd by the following fimple method. The 
 extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated oa 
 the right lid* by an endlefsfcrew, confining of twelve 
 threads, each placed at the diftance of a line and an 
 half from the other. Above this fcrew was fixed a 
 piece of copper, and in it a fleel pivot, which, falling 
 in between the threads of the fcrew, obliged the cy- 
 liniier to follow the threads, and, inflead of turning 
 dircftly round, it was continually pufhedto one fide. 
 Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the 
 cylinder in any one revolution, it could not be moved 
 by the fame peg in the fucceeding revolution, becaufc 
 the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it 
 by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an ar- 
 tificial difpofition of thefe pegs in different parts of 
 the cylinder, the ftatue was made, by the fuccefTivc 
 elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the differ- 
 ent motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of eve- 
 ry one who faw it. 
 
 The conftrudion of machines capable of imitating 
 even the mechanical anions of the human body, fliow 
 cxquifite flcill ; but what fhall we fay of one capable, 
 not only of imitating actions of this kind, but of aiJling 
 as external circumflances require, as though it were 
 endowed with life and reafon ? This, neverihelefs, 
 has been done. M. de Kempclon, agentleman of Pref- 
 burg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M. 
 de Vancanfon, at firll endeavoured to imitate them, 
 and at laft far excelled them. This gentleman con- 
 flrudcd an AndroiJes capable of playing at chefs ! — 
 Everyone who is in the leaft acquainted with this game 
 muftknow, that it is fo far from being mechanically 
 performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judg- 
 ment
 
 AND 
 
 Androide?. ment and rational faculties than is fufiicient to accom- 
 •* — w— — ' piifli many matters of greater importance. An attempt 
 therefore, to make a wooden chefs-player, muft appear 
 as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher or coun- 
 fcllor of Aatc. That this machine really was made, 
 however, the public have had ocular dcmonftration. 
 The inventor went to Britain in 1 783, where he re- 
 mained above a year with his automaton. 
 
 It is a figure as large at life, in a Turkifli drcfs, fit- 
 ting behind a table with doors, of three feet and a half 
 in length, two in depth, and two and a half in height. 
 The chair on which it fits is fixed to the table, which 
 runs on four wheels. The automaton leans its right 
 arm on the table, and in its left hand holJs a pipe: 
 with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A 
 chefs-board of 18 inches is fixed before it. This table, 
 or rather cupboard, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, 
 and other pieces ef mechanifni ; all which are publicly 
 difplayed. The veftments of the automaton arc then 
 lifted over its head, and the body is feen full of fimilar 
 wheels and levers. There is a little door in its thigh, 
 which is likewife opened ; and with this, and the table 
 alfo open, and the automaton nnmvered, the whole is 
 wheeled about the room. The doors arc then Ihut, 
 »nd the automaton is ready to play ; and it always 
 takes the firft move. 
 
 At every motion the wheels arc heard ; the image 
 moves its head, and looks over every part of the chefs- 
 board. When it checks the queen, it (hakes its head 
 twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It 
 likewife fliakes its head when a falfc move is made, re- 
 places the piece, and makes its own move ; by which 
 means the advcrfary lofes one. 
 
 M. de Kempclen remarks, as the moft furprifing cir- 
 cumftance attending his automaton, that it had been 
 exhibited at Prefburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to 
 thoufands, many of whom were mathematicians and 
 chefs-players, and yet the fccret by which he governed 
 the motion of its arm was never difcovercd. He prided 
 himfelf folely on the conftruiflion of the mechanical 
 powers, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve 
 nioves. It then required to be wound up like a watch, 
 after which it was capable of continuing the fame num- 
 b,er of motions. 
 
 The automaton could not play unlcfs M. de Kcm- 
 pekn or his fubftitute was near it to direct its moves. 
 A finall fquare box, during the game, was frequently 
 confulted by the cxhibiter; and herein confiftcd the 
 fccret, which he faid he could in a moment commu- 
 nicate. He who could beat M. de Kempclen was, 
 of courfe, certain of conquering the automaton. It 
 was made in 1 769. His own account of it was ; 
 '< C'efl une bagatelle qui n'eft pas fans meritc du cote 
 du mechanifme, miis les effets n'en paroilfent fi mer- 
 Yclleux que par la harJieflc de Pidee, & par I'hcurcux 
 choiz dcz moyens employes pour faire illufion." 
 
 The llrongeft and bed-armed loadllonc was allowed 
 to be placed on the machine by any of the fpeftators. 
 
 As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechanifm 
 hath not yet thought proper to communicate to the 
 public the means by which it is actuated, it is in" vain 
 for any, except thofe who are exquifitely Ikilled in me- 
 chanics, to form conjectures concerning them Many 
 
 other curious imitations of the human body, as well as 
 ibitofotlieranJmalSjhavcbeen exhibited, thoughnonc 
 
 r 795 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 See t'r.r ar- AnJroIcffy 
 
 of them equal to the laft mentioned o«ic. 
 tide At;TOMATON. 
 
 ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an afiion Andram«. 
 allowed by the Athenians againft fuch as protected . ^^ . 
 perfonsguilty of murder. The relations ofthcdccca- 
 fcd were empowered to feize three men in the city or 
 houfe whether the makfador had ficd, till he were ei- 
 ther furrendered, or fatisfaftion made fome way or 
 other for the murder. 
 
 ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant HeAor, 
 the mother of Aftyanax, and daughter of Eton kiti<T 
 of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Heflor and 
 the dcArudtion of Troy, (lie married Pyrrhus ; and af- 
 terwards Helcnus the fon of Pri.im, with whom flic 
 reigned over part of Epirus. 
 
 ANDROMEDA, in aftronoray, a northern con- 
 ftcUation, behind Pcgafus, Cainopcia, and Perfeus. It 
 reprefenis the figure of a woman chained j and is 
 fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda, 
 daughter of Cepheus and CalTiopeia, and wife of Pcr- 
 feusjby whom Ihehad been delivered froma fea-monfler, 
 to which Ihe had been cxpofed to be devoured for her 
 mother's pride. Minerva tranflatedherinto the heavens. 
 
 The flars in the conllellation Andromeda in Ptole- 
 my's catalogue arc 23, in Tycho's 22, in Bayer's 27, 
 in Mr Flamftead's no lefs than 84. 
 
 Andromeda, the name of a celebrated tragedy of 
 Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the other 
 compofitions of that poet, but now loft. 
 
 It was the reprefentation of this play, in a hot fum- 
 mer day, that occafioncd that epidemic fever, or phren- 
 zy, for which the AbJeritcs arc often mentioned, 
 wherein they walked about the ftreets, rche«rfing 
 verfes, and ading parts of this piece. See Aedera. 
 
 Andromeda, or Marjh Cyjius : A genus of the 
 monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of 
 plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the 
 rSth order, Bicornes. The charafters are : The calyx 
 is a quinquepartite perianthium, fmall, coloured, and 
 perfiftcnt : The corolla is monopetalous, campaniilated, 
 and quinquefid, with refleaed divifions: The /lamina 
 confill often fubulatcd filaments, Ihortcr than the co- 
 rolla ; the antheras two-horned and nodding : The^i- 
 flillum has a roundilh germen : a cylindrical ilylus lar- 
 ger than the ftamina, and perfiftcnt ; and an obtufc 
 ftigma: The pericarpium is a roundilh fivc-cornerej 
 capfule, with five cells and five valves : The faJt 
 arc very numerous, roundilh, and glofly. 
 
 Spiciii. I. The polifolia is a low plant, growing 
 naturally in bogs in the northern countries. It is di^ 
 ficultly prefcrved in gardens ; and, being a plant of no 
 great beauty, is feldom cultivated. 2. The mariana, a 
 native of North America. It is a low Ihrub, fending 
 out many woody ftalks from the root, which are gar- 
 niilied with oval leaves placed alternately ; the llowers 
 are coUctJled in fmall bunches, are of an herbaceous co- 
 lour.and Ihapedlike thofeofthc ftrawberry-tree. They 
 appear in June and July. 5. The paniculaia* is a na- 
 tive of Virginia and Carolina, growing in nioiftpLices. * ^'a,. 
 The pl.intsufually arrive at the height often feet, with vyxi 
 thin leaves fet alternately, and having their edges fine- fi- 1.' 
 ly ferrated. The flowers are lubulous, fmall, and of 
 a greenilh white, clofely fet horizontally on one fide of 
 the (lender ftalks. Thefe flowers are faccceded by ber- 
 ries, which open when ripe; and divide into five fcc- 
 5 H 2 lions.
 
 AND 
 
 [ 796 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 .Andromedt lion's, inctofing many finall feeds. 4. The arborca is 
 
 II a naiivc of the fame countries, where it is called the 
 
 AnJrona. forrcl-tret. It grows to the height of 20 feet, with a 
 
 " " trunk lifiially live or llx inches thick. The branches 
 
 arellenJcr, thick let with leaves like thofcofthcpear- 
 tice. Kroni the ends of the brajichcs proceed many 
 /lender ftalks, on one fide of which hang m-iny fmall 
 w hitc flowers like thofc of the luawbcrry-irce. j.Tiic 
 calyculata,isana[ivcof Siberia, and like wife of North- 
 >^n.erica. It grows on mofi'y land, and is therefore 
 very diiScult to keep in gardens. The leaves ire flia- 
 ped like thcfc cf the box-tree, and arc of the fame con- 
 fif^ence, having fcvcral fmall puncturcson them. The 
 flowers grow in fliort fpikes froin the extremity of the 
 branches. T'aey arc produced fingle between two 
 leaves, are of a white colour, and a cylindrical or 
 pichtr-like fiiape. There are ten other fpecles. 
 
 Prcfiagation a'ld Culture. All the fe forts, except 
 four, are hardy plants. The fourth fpccics requires 
 to be fhtltered from froft in winter, but iti the fummcr 
 fliould be frequently watered. 
 
 The above plants fucceed bell upon boggy and moifl 
 grounds. 'Von muft procure the feeds from the places 
 w here they grow naturally ; a year before which a 
 boggy or the moiftcit part of your garden Ihould be 
 du<r, and the roots of all weeds cleareil off. As the weeds 
 begin to rife, fo conftantly flioald the ground be again 
 dug, and fea or drift fand fliould be plentifully mixed 
 with the natural foil. By this management till the 
 feeds arrive, the ground being made tolerably fine, the 
 feeds fliouldbe lown very fliallowin the moilt or boggy 
 land ; or if the land fhould be fo boggy that it cannot 
 be eafily worked fo as to be proper for the recep- 
 tion of the feeds, then let a futncient quantity of foil 
 from a frelh pafture, mixed with drift fand, be laid 
 over the bog, and let the feeds be fown therein. The 
 bog will in time abforb this foil, but the feeds will 
 come up ; and this is the niofl ef{'e<5lual method of 
 procuring plants of this kind from feeds. The firft 
 year after they come up they fhould be Ihaded in very 
 hot weather : and after that they will require little or 
 no care. Another method of increafing tliefc ihrubs 
 is by layers or fuckers ; fo that whoever has not the 
 conveniencyof procuring the feeds from abroad, Ihould 
 get a plant or two of the forts he mo/l likes. Thcfe 
 he (hould plant in a boggy fitnation, and in a very 
 little time he w ill have increafe enough ; for they throw 
 cut fuckers in prodigious plenty, and, if they like the 
 fituation, to a great diftance. Thefe may be taken 
 oiF, and planted where they are to remain. 
 
 ANDK.ON, ill Grecian antiquity, denotes the a- 
 partment in hojfcs dcfigned for the ufc of men ; in 
 which fenfe it flands oppofed to Cynxceum — The 
 Creeks alfo gave their dining-rooms the title of au- 
 dron, becaufc the women had no admittance to feafts 
 with the men. 
 
 ANDRONA, in ancient writers, denotes a ftreet, 
 or public place, v.'here pcoi;le met andconverfcd t»^e- 
 ther. In fume writers, androna is more exprelsly 
 nfed for the fpace between two houfcs ; in which 
 fenfe, the Greeks alfo ufe the term iirJf««, for the 
 way or palfage between two apartments. 
 
 Andkona isalfoufed, in ecclefiafiical writers, for 
 that part in churches deftined for the men. Anciently 
 it was the cuftom for the men and women to have fepa- 
 
 rste apartments in places of worfhip, where they per- Andreeini 
 formed their devotions afunder ; which method is Hill • tl 
 religioully oblerved in the Greek church. The «/.«, Androi. 
 or <«'.-^r6«a, wasin thcfouthcrn fide of the church, and ^~~~''~~' 
 the womens apartment on the northern. 
 
 ANDKONICUS 1. ilmperor of the Eift, caufcd 
 Alexius II. who had been put under bis care, to be 
 Itrangled ; and then took poiiellion of the throne of 
 Conllantinople in 1183 : but the people becoming ex- 
 .ifpcrated a this cruellies, proclaimed Ifaac .^ngchis em- 
 peror, and put Andronicus in irons : they then ihruit 
 out his eyes ; and, having led him throuj^h the city in 
 an ignominious manner, hanged him. 
 
 AsuRONicvs of Cyiihus, built at Athens an oftagon 
 tower, with figures carved on each lidc, rcprcfeniing 
 the eight principal winds. A brafs triton at the furn- 
 mit, with a rod in its hand, turned round by the w ind, 
 pointed to the quarter from whence it blew. Iroin 
 this model is derived the cufloni of placing weather- 
 cocks on fieeples. 
 
 ANDROPHAGI, in ancient geography, the name 
 of a nation whofe country, according to Hcrodo:us, 
 was adjacent 10 Scythia. Their name, compounded of 
 two Greek words, lignifies man-cattn. Iierodotus 
 does not inform us whether their manner of fubfiliing 
 correfponded w ith their name ; whether thty were fo 
 favage as to eat human /Iclli. See the article Ah- 
 THRoporHAGl. They are repiefentcd, however, as 
 the raoft barbarous and fierce of all nations. '1 hey 
 were not governed by laws: the care of their cattle 
 was their chief employment. Their drefs was like 
 that of the Scythians; and they had a language pe- 
 culiar to themfelves. 
 
 ANDROPOGON, or Man's-beard, in bouny : 
 A genus of the monoecia order, belonging to the po- 
 lygamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking un- 
 der the 4th order, Cramina. Tht hermaphrodite caly;^ 
 is a one-flowered bivalved glume: The corolla is a 
 bivalved glume awn'd at thebifs: The J; ami n a tontid 
 of three capillary filaments; the anthcrje are oblong 
 and bifurcated: The pH':ulutii has an oval .gcrmen ; 
 with twocapillary fty li coalefccd, and villous ltigm.ita : 
 There is no peruarfium : The feed is, one, folitary, 
 and covered. The juate calyx, corolla, and flamina, 
 the fame with the hermaphrodite ; but the corolla 
 
 without the awn There are above 18 fpecies. Of 
 
 thcfe the moft remarkable is the nardns, which produ- 
 ces the Indian nard or fpikcnard of the (hops. The 
 fpikenard, as brought from the Eaft Indies, is a con- 
 geries of fmall fibres iffuing from one head, and mat- 
 ted clofe together, fo as to form a bunch about the fizc 
 of the finger, with fome fmall firings at the oppofite 
 end of the head. The matted fibres (w^hich are the 
 parts chofen for medicinal purpofes) are fuppofed by 
 fome to be the head or fpike of the plant, by oihers 
 the root : they feem rather to be the remains of the 
 withered llalks. or the ribs of tlie leaves: fometimes 
 entire leaves and pieces of flalks arc found among 
 them : we likewife now and then meet with a n.imber 
 of thefe bunches iffuing from one root. Spikenard 
 has a warm, pungent, bittcrilh tafie ; and a ilron,'; not 
 very agreeable fmcll. It is ftomachic and carmina- 
 tive ; and faid to be alexipharmac, diuretic, and em- 
 menagogue ; but at prefcnt it is very little employed. 
 
 ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be- 
 tween
 
 AND 
 
 Ainlrof. tw^cn Tcncdo! and Euboea : being one mile difiant 
 ■: — ^ ' from the former, and len from the latter. The an- 
 cients gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lylia, Ko- 
 Bagria, Epagris, Ar.tandros, and Hydrulia. The 
 name of jlndrn it received from one Andrciis, ap- 
 pointed, according to Diodorus Siciilus, Ly llhada- 
 manthus, oneof the generals, to govern ihcCyclades, 
 after they had of their own accord fabmittcd toliiai. 
 As to the- name o{ Antandrm, the fame a-.thor tells 
 us, that Afcaniiis the Ion of /tneas, being taken pri- 
 foner by the Pclifgians, gave them this illand for his 
 ranfoni, which on that account was called Ahtandroi, 
 or " delivered for one man." The name of Hydrufia 
 it obtain!. J in common with other places wellfupplicd 
 wiih water. It had formerly a city of great note, 
 bearing the fame name, and lituatcti very advanta- 
 groiidy on the brow of an hill which commanded the 
 whole coaft. In this city, according to Strabo and 
 Pliny, flood a famous temple dedicated to Bacchus. 
 Near this temple JViutianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells 
 us, there was a (pring called ihegiji of Jripitsr ; the 
 water of which had the tafle of wine in the month of 
 January, duriiigihcfeaft of Bacchus, which lafled fe- 
 ven days. The lame author adds, that the waters, if 
 carried lo a place where the temple could not be fecn, 
 loft their miraculous tafle. Paufanius makes no men- 
 tion of this fpring ; but fays, that, during the feaftof 
 Bacchus, wine liowed, or was at Icaft by theAndrians 
 btlifvcd to flow, from the temple of that god. The 
 prieils, no doubt, found their account in keeping up 
 this belief, by conveying, through fecret conduits, a 
 great quantity of wine into the temple. 
 
 TheAndritns were theiirft of all thcillandtrs who 
 joined the Perfians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece ; 
 and therefore Themiftocles, after the victory at Sa- 
 lamis, rcfolved to attack thecityofAndros, and oblige 
 the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the main- 
 tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the 
 illand, he fcnt heralds to the magillrates, acquainting 
 ihem, that the Athenians were coming againft them 
 with two powerful divinities, ^er/a.i^/o« znijorcs ; and 
 therefore they muft part with their money by fair 
 means or foul. The Andrians replied, tlwt they like- 
 V/ife had two mighty deities who were very fond of 
 their illand, viz. />ot/^r/; and i>i:pojftbitity ; and therefore 
 could give no money. Themilloclcs, not fatisfied with 
 this anfwer, laid fiege to the town ; which he probably 
 made himfelf mafler of and deftroyed, as we are in- 
 formed by Plutarch, that Pericles, a few years after, 
 fent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was, how- 
 ever, foon retaken by the Perlians ; and, on the over- 
 throw of that empire by Alexander the Great, fubmit- 
 led to him, along with the other illands. On his death 
 it fideil with Antigonus, who was driven out by Ptole- 
 my. The fuccelTors of the laft mentioned prince held 
 it to the time of the Romans; when Attalus, king of 
 Perganius, bedeged tlie metropolis at the head of a 
 Roman army ; and, having taken it, was b;^ them put 
 In pofl'tfiion of the whole illand. Upon the death of 
 Attains, the republic claimed this i:land, as well as his 
 other dominions, in virtue of his laft will. 
 
 Andros is now fubject to the Turks ; and contains a 
 town ef the fame name, with a great many villages. It 
 is the moft fruitful iiland in all the lArcliipelago, and 
 yields a great quautity of filk. Tlierc are faid to be 
 
 [ 797 ] 
 
 AND 
 
 about 6cooinhabitanis,bcGdc5thofeof the villagesArri Androt, 
 and AmolJeos, whoare aLaut two hundred, have a dif- II 
 fcrent language and cuftoms, and are called jitianoii. ■*"''""«• 
 There are vmonaftcries, a great number of churches, ' — ■ 
 and a catbedril for the biihops of the Roman catholic 
 perfuaiiou ; but raoftoftbe inhabitants are oftheGreek 
 communion. The Jefuiis had a houfeand a chnrch ux 
 this ifland ; but they were forced to quit them long 
 ago. Here arc fome delightful valleys; but the air is 
 bad, and the water of the city worfc. The worntii 
 would be agreeable enough, if it was not for theirdrefs, 
 which is very unbecoming ; lor they fluff out their 
 clothes without thcleaft regard to their fliape ; but the 
 Albancfe woraeumakc amucli better appearance. Tho 
 pcafantsmake wicker-balkct^, wherewith they fapply 
 the grcatcft part of the Archipelago. They have all 
 forts of game i.i the woods and mountains, but know 
 nut how to take them for want of guns. Their prin- 
 cipal food is goats fleih ; for there is co fiQi to be met 
 with on their coafls. When they are fick, they are ob- 
 liged to let the difeafe take its natural courfe, having 
 neither phylician nor furgcon on the irtand. A cadi, 
 allifted by a few of the principal perfons of theidand, 
 has the man.igenient of civil affairs, and his relideucc 
 is it! the caflle : an aga, who preliJes over the military 
 force, lives in the tower without the city. About twtf 
 miles from theprefent town arcftill to be feen the ruins 
 of a ftrong wall with the fragments of many colur.-.ns, 
 chapiters, bafes, broken ftatucs, and fevcral iufcrip- 
 tions, fome of which mention the fcnate and people of 
 Andros, and the prieils of Bacchus ; from which it is 
 probable that this was the lite of the ancient city. E. 
 Long 2 J. 50. N.Lat. 37.50. 
 
 ANDROS ^anc. gcog.), an ifland in the Iriih fea, 
 (Pliny), czWcCi Htdros by Ptolemy: Kow Bardjej, 
 diftint about a mile from the coaft of North-Wales. 
 
 ANDROSACE: a genus of the monogynia order, 
 belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and in the 
 natural method ranking under the 21II order. Precis. 
 The elfential characters are, Tiie male calyx is tive- 
 Icaved; the corolla is five-pcialed; the ftamina are live, 
 inferted in the rudiment of the flylus: T\\e female a- 
 lyxis flve-leaved; the corolla is wantii^g ; theftyli arc 
 three; the capfule is trilocular; the feeds arc two. 
 of this genus Dr Linnxus reckons fi.x. 
 
 Species, i. The maxima grows naturally in Auflria 
 and Bohemia, among the corn. It hath broad leaves, 
 wl;ich fpread near the ground ; from the cemreofthefc 
 the footllalksarife, which are terminated by an umbel 
 of white flowers like tbofe of the auricula. Thcfe ap- 
 pear in April and May, and the feeds ripen in June ; 
 foon after which the plants periili. 2. The fcptentrio- 
 nalis,viilora, carnea, and laclea, grow naturally on the 
 Alps .ind Helvetian mount.iins, as alfo in Siberia. They 
 are much fmaller than the former, (eldom growing 
 more than three inches high. Of the other fpccies 
 called the ekiigat3,^e have no particular defcription. 
 
 Culture. Thcfe plants arc propagated by feeds, 
 which Ihould be fown f)on after they are ripe, other- 
 wife they feldom conic up the fame year. If per- 
 mitted to fcatier, they will grow better than whca 
 they are fown. 
 
 ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the peo- 
 ple of Malabar are very fu'.-jed. — Its origin is derived 
 from the viiious ^iiiaiiiy of ibc country waters, imprc};- 
 
 catcJ
 
 AND 
 
 [ 798 1 
 
 A N E 
 
 Andryali nated with corrofive muriatic falts, thcfource of mod 
 II other difcafcs that infcd the Malabarians. Its (igns, 
 Anduzc. oj. fyinptonis, arc aiierylipclas of the fcrotum, rttuni- 
 ' "' ' ing every new moon, by which the lymphatics, being 
 eroded, pour a ferous falinc liumourinto the cavity of 
 the fcrotum. The andrum is incurable j thofe once 
 feized with it have it for life : but if is not dangerous, 
 nor very troublcfoinc, to thofcufed to it ; tho' foiue- 
 limes it degenerates into an hydrofarcocele. The me- 
 thod of prevention is by a heapof fund fetched from a 
 liver of the province Mangatti, and ftrewed in the 
 wells. This is praftifed by the rich. As to the cure, 
 they have only a palliative one ; which is by incifion, 
 or tapping, and drawing off the water from the fcro- 
 tum, once in a month or two. 
 
 ANDRYALA, downy sow-thistlf. : .igenusof 
 the polygamia Kqualis order, belonging to the fyngc- 
 nefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank- 
 ing under the Ji<)ih.order,Co»jpoJita-femifio/cu/uj.Thc 
 eflcntial charaders are : The receptacle is villous ; the 
 calyx is many parted, fubequal, and rounded ; and the 
 pappus is fimple and felhle. 
 
 S[>;cies. i. Theintegrifolia is an annual plant, grow- 
 ing naturally in the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy. 
 It rifes to the height of a foot and an half, with woolly 
 branching ftalks. The flowers are produced in fmall 
 dufters ai the topof the flalks. They arc yellow, 
 and like thsfe of the fow-ihiftle ; fo do not make any 
 great appearance. 2. The ragufina is a native of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are extremely white, 
 and much indented on their edges. The flower-Ilalks 
 grow about a foot high, having fmall cluflers of yellow 
 flowers, which appear in July. The feeds fometiraes 
 ripen in Britain, but not always. 3. The lanata is a 
 native of Sicily and of the country round Montpelier. 
 The lower leaves are indented and woolly, but thofe 
 on the flalks are entire. It fcldom rifcs more than a 
 foot high, fupporting a few yellow flowers at top. 4. 
 The finuata grows in Spain and Portugal : the leaves 
 are broader, longer, and more downy, thaneitherof 
 . the other forts ; the flower-flalks rifing more than a 
 
 foot high. They branch into feveral foot-flalks, each 
 fuftaining one large yellow flower, thapcd like thofe 
 of hawk-weed, which arc fucceedcd by oblong black 
 feeds covered with down. 
 
 Culture. All thefe plants are eafily propagated by 
 feeds, which (liould be fown in autumn, wliere they are 
 to remain, and will require no other culture than to 
 thin them where they are too clofc, and to keep them 
 free from weeds. The third fort mufl have a light 
 dry foil. 
 
 ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andalufia, 
 in Spain, feated on the river Guadalquiver, 25 miles 
 eafl of Cordova. It is pretty large, indifTcrently rich, 
 and defended by a good caflle. It is adorned with 
 handfome churches and feveral religious houfes, and 
 inhabited by many families of high rank. The land 
 about it abounds in corn, wine, oil, honey, and fruit 
 of all forts i and the inhabitants carry on a confider- 
 able trade in filk. W. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 37. 4f. 
 
 AN DU ZE, a town of France in Lower Langucdoc, 
 feated on the river Gardon. It carries on a confider- 
 able trade in fcrges and woollen cloth. E. Long. 3.42. 
 N. Lat. 43. 39. 
 
 ANEAU (Bartholomew), a native of Bourges in Aneiu 
 France, a man of eminent learning in the i6th cen- | 
 
 tury, educated under IVlelchior Volmar. He was pro- Anemome- 
 fellor at Lyons, where he propagated the dodlrincs of ''*"• . 
 the Reformation fecretly for a long time : but on the 
 feflival of the Holy Sacrament 1565, as theproccfiion 
 was palling on towards the college, there was a large 
 flone thrown from one of the windows, upon the Hoil 
 and pricfl who carried it. The people, enraged at this, 
 broke into the college, and alfallinatcd IVlr Aneau, 
 wliom they imagined to have been the occalion, and 
 the college itfelf was fhut up next day by order of ih« 
 city. 
 
 ANECDOTE, Anecdota, a term ufed by fomc 
 authors, for the title of Secret Hijiorics ; but it more 
 properly denotes a relation of detached and inierelling 
 particulars. The word is Greek «rixt(«T«, q. d. ihings 
 lift yet known, or hitherto kept fecret. Procopius gives 
 this title to a book which he publilhed againfl Jufli- 
 nian and his wife Theodora ; and he feems to be the 
 only perfon among the ancients who has reprefented 
 princes fuch as they are in their domeflic relation. — 
 Variilub has publilhed Anecdotes of the Houfc of 
 Medicis. 
 
 Anecdotes is alfo an appellation given to fuch 
 works of the ancients as have not yet been publilhed. 
 In which fenfe, M. Muratori giv«s the name Anecdota 
 Crttca to feveral writings of the Greek fathers, found 
 
 in the libraries, and firlt publilhed by him F. Mar- 
 
 tene has given a Thefaurus AnecdotarumJ^ovus, in 
 folio, 5 vols. 
 
 A NEE, in commerce, a nieafure for grain, ufed in 
 fome provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alfo 
 a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs 
 can carry at once : whicjt is fixed at 80 Englifli quarts, 
 wine-meafure. 
 
 AN EMOMETER,inmechanics,implics a machine 
 for meafuring the force and velocity of the wind. 
 
 Various machines of this kind have been invented 
 at different times, and by different perfons. The fol- 
 lowing has been often experienced, and found to an- 
 afwer theintcntioB. 
 
 Anopen frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI*, is fuppor- . pj,^ 
 ted by the fhaft or arbor I. In the two crofs-picces XXXI. 
 H K, L M,is moved a horizontal axis Q,M, by means fig. 3. 
 of the four fails ah, cm, Of, gh, expofcd t« the \yind 
 in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of 
 wood, MNO ; upon which, as the fails move round, 
 a weight R, or S, is raifed by a firing round itsfuper- 
 ficcs, proceeding from the fmaller to the larger end 
 NO. Upon this larger end or bafe of the cone, is 
 fixed a rocket wheel k, in whofe teeth the click X 
 falls, to prevent any retrograde motion from the de- 
 pending weight. 
 
 Theflruflure of this machine fufficientlyfhowsthat 
 it may be accommodated to tflimate the variable force 
 of the wind ; becaufe the force of the weight will con- 
 tinually increafeasthe firing advances on the conical 
 furface, by acting at a greater diflance from the axis 
 of motion ; confequently, if fuch a weight be added 
 on the fmaller partM, as will jufl keep the machine 
 in equilibrio in the wcakcfl wind, the weight to be 
 raifed as the wind becomes ftronger, will be increafed 
 in proportion, and the diameter of the coae N O may 
 
 be
 
 A N E [799 
 
 Anemone, be fo large ill comparifoii to that of the fmallcr end at 
 - M, that the llrongcft wind Ihall bat juft raife the 
 weight at the greater end. 
 
 If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that 
 of the bafc of the cone N O as i to 28 ; then, if S 
 be a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be 
 equi valent to 28 pounds when raifed to the greater end: 
 if, therefore, when the wind is wcakeft, it fupports 
 one pound on the axis, it muft be 28 times asftrong to 
 raife the weight to the bafe of the cone. If therefore 
 a line or fcalc of 28 equal parts be drawn on the fide 
 of the cone, the ftreugth of the wind will be indica- 
 ted by that number on which the firing refls. 
 
 ANEMONE, WIND-FLOWER : A genus of the po- 
 lyginia order, belonging to thepolyandriaclafs of plants! 
 and, in the natural method, ranking under the 26th or- 
 der, lyiiiltiftliquc. It has its name from the Greek 
 «<//©>,, iignifying the -wind ; becaufe the flower is fup- 
 pofed not to open unlefs the wind blows. — The cha- 
 racters arc : There is no calj^x : The corolla confifts 
 of petals of two or three orders, three in each feries, 
 oblongilh : The Aamina confift of nnmrrnns capilla- 
 ry filaments ; the antherasdidymous and ercdl. The 
 pift ilium has numerous gcrmina collected into a head ; 
 the ftyli arc pointed ; the llamina obtufe : There is 
 no pericardium ; the receptaculum is globular: The 
 /icdj are very numerous. 
 
 Of this genus Dr Linnaeus enumerates 21 fpecies ; 
 but thofe valuable on account of the beauty of their 
 flowers, are only the following, i. The nemorofa, 
 which grows wild in the woods in many parts of Bri- 
 tain, where it flowers in April and May. The flowers 
 arewhite, purple, or reddilh purple, foraetimes fingle, 
 and fometimes double, fo that they make a pretty ap- 
 pearance. 2. The appennina is likewife a native of Bri- 
 tain, growing in woods. The flowers of this fpecies, 
 like the laft are fometimes fingle, and fometimes dou- 
 ble ; their colours are white, blue, or violet. They 
 appear in April. 3. The coronaria. 4. The hortenlis. 
 Thefe two are natives of the Levant, particularly of 
 the Archipelago illands, where the borders of the 
 fields are covered with them of the moft btautiful co- 
 lours. When they grow wild the flowers are com- 
 monly fingle; but by culture they are greatly improv- 
 ed : they become large and double, making fome of the 
 greateA ornaments of gardens. Their principal co- 
 lours arc red, white, purple, and blue ; fome of them 
 are finely variegattd with with red,white, purple, and 
 many intermediate Ihades of thefe colours. 
 
 Culture. The fird and fecond forts may be propa- 
 gated by taking up tlieir roots when the leaves decay, 
 and tranfplantinj^ them in wildcrnclFes, where they 
 "Will thrive and increafe greatly, if they are notdifturb- 
 ed. The two lafl forts require a good deal of care, 
 and ample direftions for their culture. — The foil in 
 which thefe plants will thrive extremely, may be com- 
 pofed in the following manner : Take a quantity of 
 frefli untried earth (from a common or fome other pa- 
 fture Ijnd) that is of a light fandy loam or hazel mould, 
 obferving not to take it above ten inches deep below the 
 furface ; and if the turf be taken with it, the better, 
 provided it hath time to rot thoroughly before it is 
 ufed : mix this with a third part of rotten cow-dung, 
 and lay it in a heap, keeping it turned over at lead once 
 » mouth for eight or ten months, the better to mix it. 
 
 ] 
 
 A N E 
 
 and rot the dung and turf, and to let it have the advan- Anemone, 
 tages of the free air. In doing this work, be careful - — ^— — ' 
 to rake our all the great ftones, and break the clods ; 
 but by no means liftorfcreen the earth,which has been 
 found very hurtful to mjny forts of roots. This earth 
 fhould be mixed twelve months before it is ufed, if pof- 
 fible : but if conftrained to ufe it fooner, it muft be the 
 oftener turned over to mellow and break the clods ; 
 obferving to rake out all the parts of the green fward 
 that are not quiterotten, before it isufed, as ihey would 
 be prejudicial to the roots if AifFered to remain. The 
 beginning of September is a proper feafon to prepare 
 the beds for planting, which (if in a wet foil) (hould 
 be raifed with this fort ofcarth fix or eight inches above 
 the furface of the ground, laying at the bottom fome 
 of the Takings of the heap to drain off the moiAure ; 
 but, in a dry foil, three inches above the furface will be 
 fufficient ; this comport (hould be laid at leaA two feet 
 and a half thick, and in the bottom there (hould be 
 about four or five inches of rotten neats dung, or the 
 rotten dung of an old melon or cucumber bed. The 
 beds muA be laid (if in a wet foil) a little round, to 
 flioot ofi the water ; but in a dry one, nearer to a le- 
 vel. In wetland, where thebedsarc raifed above the 
 furface, it will be proper to fill up the paths between 
 them , in winter, either with rotten tan or dung, to pro- 
 ven t the froft from penetrating into the Adesof the beds, 
 which otherwife may deAroy their roots. The earth 
 fhould be laid in the beds at leaA a fortnight or three 
 weeks before the roots arc planted, and a longer time 
 would be yet better, that it may fettle ; and when they 
 are planted. Air the upper part of the foil about (ix 
 ijiches deep, with a fpade; then rake it even and fmooth, 
 and with a Aick draw lines each way of tlie bed at lix 
 inches diAance, fo that the whole may be in fquares, 
 that the roots may be planted regularly : then with 
 three fingers make a hole in the centre of each fquare, 
 about three inches deep, laying therein a root with the 
 eye uppcrmoA ; and when the bed is finilhed, with the 
 head of the rake draw the earth fmooth, fo as to cover 
 the crown of the roots about two inches thick. 
 
 The beA feafon for planting thefe roots, if for for- 
 ward flowers, is about the latter end of September, 
 and for thofe of a middling feafon any time in Oclober : 
 butobferve to perform this work, if polTible, at or near 
 the time of fome gentle (howers; for if planted when 
 the ground is perfe(511y dry, and there fliould no raia 
 fall for three weeks or a month after, the roots will be 
 very apt to grow mouldy upon the crown; and if once 
 theygetthisdiAcmper, they fcldom come togood after. 
 As all the fine varietiesof thefe flowers were firrt ob- 
 tained from feeds, fo no good floriA that hath garden, 
 room Aiould negleit to fow them ; in order to which, 
 he fhould provide himfelf with a quantity of good roots 
 of the lingle (or what the gardeners call fopf)) aue- 
 monics, of the beft colours and fuch as have ilrong 
 Aems and large flowers, but efpecially fuch as have more 
 leaves than common, and alio other good properties : 
 thefe iliould be planted early, that they may have 
 Arength to produce goo>l feeds, which will be ripe in 
 three wceksora month's time after the flowers are pa A; 
 when the feeds muA be carefully gathered, otherwife 
 they will be blown away in a (hort time, as being in- 
 clofed in a downy fnbAance. You muA prcferve this 
 feed till the beginning of AugiiA, when you may ei- 
 ther
 
 A K E 
 
 [ 800 1 
 
 A N E 
 
 Anemone, thcr fow it in pots, tubs, or a wcU-prcpared bcdof light 
 *— >^— ' earth : in the doing of it you mutl be careful not to 
 let your feeds be in heaps ; to avoid which, the belt 
 method is to mix thcni with a little fine fand, and, 
 when fowu, gently llrcak the bed with a llioiig hair- 
 i)riini. 
 
 In about two months after fowing, the plants will 
 begin to appear, if the feafonhas proved favourable. 
 'Ihc firlt winter after their appearing above ground, 
 they arc fubjecl to injuries from iiard frofls, or too 
 much wet, againft both of which you mufl equally de- 
 fcn<i them : for the froll is very apt to loofen the earth, 
 fo that the young plants arc often turned ont of the 
 ground, after which a fmall froft will dcllroy them ; 
 and too much wet often rots their tender roots, fo that 
 all your former trouble may be loll in a lliort time for 
 want of care in this particular : nor is any thing more 
 dcllructive to thefe tender plants than the cold black 
 frofts and winds of February and March, from which 
 y< u mull be careful to defend them, by placing a low 
 reed-fence on the north and call lidesof the bed, which 
 may be moveable, and only fallcned to a few flakes 
 to fupport it for the prcfcnt, and may be taken quite 
 away as the feafon advances, or removed 10 the louth 
 and weft fides of the bed, to fcreen i: from the vio- 
 lence of the fun,which often impairs thefe plants when 
 young. As the fpring advances, if the weather lliould 
 prove dry, you mull gently refrelh them with water, 
 which will greatly flrengthen the roots; and when the 
 green leaves arc decayed, if your roots are not too 
 thick to remain in the fame bed anotherycar, you mud 
 clcAr ofi'all the weeds anddecaycd leaves from the bed, 
 and lift a little more of the fame prepared good cartli, 
 about a quarter of an inch thick over the furface, and 
 obferve to keep them clear from weeds during the fum- 
 incr feafon, and at Michaelmas repeat the fame earth- 
 ing ; but as thefe roots fo left in the ground will come 
 lip early in the autumn, the beds fliould be carefully 
 covered in frolty weather, otherwife their leaves will 
 be injured, whereby the roots will be weakened, if not 
 dellroycd. If your roots fuccced well, many of them 
 will (lower the fcconii year, when you may felcft all 
 fuch as you like, by marking them with a flick : but 
 you fhould not dcllroy any of then till after the third 
 year, when you hive fecn them blow flrong, at which 
 time you Vv'ill be capp.blc to judge of their gooJnefs ; 
 for until the roots have acquirtil flrength, the flowers 
 will not Ihow thcmfclves to advantage. 
 
 The fuT'le (or poppy) anemonies will flower moft 
 part of the winter and fpring when the feafons are fa- 
 vourable, if they are planted in a warm lituation, at 
 whichtime they make a tine appearance ; thereforcde- 
 ferve a place in every flower-garden, efpecially as tkey 
 require little culture. Thcrc.are fome fine blue colours 
 amongll thcfc lingle aiiemo;iies, which, with the fear- 
 lets and reds, make a beautiful mixture ; and as thefe 
 begin flowering in January or February, when the 
 weather is cold, ihey v/ill continue a long time in 
 beauty, provided the froft is not looftverc, or if they 
 are covered with mats. The feeds of thefe are ripe 
 by tlie middle or end of May ; and muft be gathered 
 daily as ihcy ripen, otherwife they will be foon blown 
 away by the winds. 
 
 Horned cattle, when removed from the higher 
 grounds into v.oods and woody paftures, frequently cat 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 the wood-anemone ; and, accordinj^ to Linneas and AnemoSe, 
 Gunner, many obfcrvaiioiis have proved that it caufcs Anemof- 
 the bloody flu.\. among them. . '°P ' 
 
 Sia-yixKMONK. Scc y^AlMAL- F/ovier. 
 
 ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that ihows either ih« 
 courfc or velocity of the wind. (See alfo the article 
 
 The machine which Ihows the courfe of the wind, 
 or from what point of the compafs it blows, coniifts 
 of an index moving about an upright circular plate, 
 like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points of 
 the compafs are drawn inftead of the hours. The in- 
 dex, which points to the divifions on thedial, is turned 
 by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its ex- 
 ternal txtremiiy. This trundle-head is moved by a 
 cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis ; on the top of which 
 a vancisfixad, that moves with the courfc of the wind, 
 and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole 
 contrivance is extremely fimpic ; and nothing requi- 
 red ill the conftruvaio-j, but that the number of cogs 
 in the wheel, and rounds in the trnndle head, be equal j 
 becaufe ir i>; nrrriV^ry, that when the vane moves en- 
 tirely round, the index of the dial alfo make a com- 
 plete revolution. 
 
 Theanemofcope, calculated for indicating the force 
 or velocity of the wind, is the fame with what moft 
 writers call an ariemometir ; and we have accordingly 
 dcfcribed one of ihofc machiiirs under that article. 
 We fliall here add another, contrived by the late Mr 
 Pickering, and publilhcd in the I'hUofophicul Tr/iaf- • 
 anions, N" 473. 
 
 This aneraofcopeisa machine four feet and a quarter 
 high, coufiiting of a broad and weighty pcdellal, a 
 pillar faftencd into it, and an iron axis of about half 
 an inch diameter fallened into the pillar. Upon this 
 axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is jila- 
 ccd a vane, of the fame materials, 21 inches long, con- 
 fifting of a quadrant, graduated, and Qiod with an iron 
 rim, notched to each degree : and a counterpoife of 
 wood, as in the figure, "u the other. Through the 
 centre of the quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which 
 are faftencd two fmall round pieces of wood, which 
 fervc as moveable radii to defcribc the degrees upon 
 the quadrant, and as handles to a velum or fail, whofe 
 pane is one foot fquare, made of canvas, ftrctched up- 
 on four battens, and painted. On the upper bat- 
 ten, next to the fhod rim of the quadrant, is a fmall 
 fpring which catches at every notch correfponding to 
 each degi-ce, as the wind fhall, by prclFing againft the 
 fail, raifc it up ; and prevents the falling back of the 
 fail, upon the Icircningof the force of the wind. At the 
 bottom of the wooden tube, is an iron index, which 
 moves round a circular piece of wood faftcned to the 
 top of the pillar on the pcdeftal, on which arc dcfcri- 
 bed the 52 points of the compafs. The figure of this 
 machine is given on Plate XXXI. fig. 4. where n is 
 the pedellal ; b, the pillar on which the iron axis is 
 fitted ; c, the circle of wood, on which are dcfcribed 
 the 32 points of the compafs ; c, the wooden tube up- 
 on its axis ; ff the velum ; g, the graduated quadrant ; 
 h, the counterpoife of the vane. The adjoining figure 
 reprefents the velum, which takes off: a is the plane 
 of the velum ; /', the fpring ; c c, the wooden radii, 
 d, d, the holes through which the pin in the centre 
 of the quadrant goes. Its ufes arc the following. 
 
 I. Ha-
 
 i'h.ic \\\r.
 
 A N E 
 
 [ 8oi ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 cope, 
 Antthum 
 
 Anemof- I. Having! circular motion round the iron axis, and 
 being furniilicd witli a vane at top, and index at the 
 bottom, when once you have fixed the artilicial car- 
 dinal points, defcribcd on the roimd piece of wood, on 
 the pillar, to the fame quarters of the heavens, it gives 
 a faitliful account of that quarter from which the 
 wind blows. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated by 
 the wind along the arch ot the quadrant to an height 
 proportionable to the power of the column of wind 
 prefling againfl it, the relative force of the wind, and 
 its comparative power, at any two times of examhia- 
 lion, may be accurately taken. 3. By having a fpring 
 iitted to the notches of the iron with which the qua- 
 drant is lliod, the velum is prevented from returning 
 back upon the fall of ilie wiud ; and tlie niachLie gives 
 ihe force of the higliell blaft, fince the lall time of ex- 
 amination, \\ ithout the trouble of 'vatcbirg it. 
 
 The ingenious contriver of this macliinc tells us, 
 that he carefully examined what dependence may be 
 had upon it, (hiring the rtorms of February 1743-4, 
 and found that itannvercd exceedingly well ; for that, 
 Jn fuch winds as the failprs call vsolmtJlorMi, the ma- 
 chine had fix degrees to fpare fjr a more violent gufl, 
 before it comes to a horizontal pofition. It is certainly 
 to be depended up-Mi in ordinary weather, the velum 
 being himg fo tenderly as to feel the nioft gentle 
 breeze. There is, however, rcafon to fear, that the 
 cxpofingthe anemofcopeto allwindsfor acontinuance, 
 mufl dilorder it, efpecially Irregular blafts and fqualls. 
 It may not therefore be amifs, ut violent weather, for 
 the obferver to take the tube with its vane and velum 
 in his hand, in order to know the force of the wuid ; 
 and, when he has linilhcd his obfervations, to cairy 
 the machine into the houfe, till the violence of the 
 ftorm is abated^ when it may be replaced in its former 
 fituation. 
 
 ANETHUM, DILI, and iENNEL : A genus of the 
 digynia order, belonging to the pciuandria clafs of 
 plants ; and, in the natural method, ranking under 
 the 45th order, Vmbeltatee. The elfential charafters 
 are: The fruit is oval, comprcllcd, fbiated; and the 
 petals (five) are involute, entire, and very ihort. 
 
 Speciii. I. The graveolens, or dill, is an annual 
 plant: the root is long, llcnder, andwiiite; the leaves 
 arc divided into a multitude of tine, long, naiTow feg- 
 ments, like thofe of fennel, but of a bluifli green co- 
 lour, and lefs f>rong fjnell- The flalk is round and 
 firm, growing to the height of four feet, with yel- 
 low flowers in moderately large umbels. 2. The fe- 
 niculum, or fennel; of which there arc two varieties, 
 the common and the fweet. The fwcct fennel is fmall- 
 cr in all its parts than the common, except the feeds, 
 which arc coiiliderably larger. The feeds of the twu 
 forts differ likewifc in Ihape and colour ; thofe of the 
 common areroundilli, oblong, flattilh on one fide, and 
 protuberant on the other, of a dark almoft blackilh co- 
 lour ; thofe of the fweet arc longer, narrower, not fo 
 flat, generally crooked, ^and ota whiiilh or pale ycl- 
 lowilh colour. Both forts arc cultivated in gardens: 
 the common is a perennial plant : the fwcct fennel pe- 
 riihcs after it has given feed. 
 
 Medicinal lifts, I. Of the firfl fpecies, dill, only 
 the feeds are ufed. They are of a pale yellow ilh co- 
 lour, in (hapc nearly oval, convex on one lidc, and 
 Vol. I. 
 
 flat on the other. Their tafte is moderately warm and Ancurii'm 
 pungent ; tlitir fmell aromatic, but not of the mod a- li 
 greeablc kind. Several preparations of them arc kept Aiig»«)rj. 
 in the ihops. They arerccommcnded as a carminative, ' ' 
 in flatulent colics, procecdhig from a cold caufc or a 
 vifcidity of the juices — a. Oi feniul both the fccjs 
 and roots arc ufed in medicine. The feeds of boiii tho 
 fennels have an aromatic fmell, and a moderately 
 Warm pimgent tafte : thofe of the fweet fennel arc in 
 flavour inoft agreeable, and alfo have a coniidcrable 
 degree of fweetntfs ; hence the ufe of tbefe only have 
 been directed. They arc ranked among the four 
 greater hot feeds, and not undcfervedly l>x)ked upoa 
 as good ftomachics and carminatives. A limplc water 
 is prepared from them in the Ihops ; they are ingre- 
 dients alfo in the compound fpirit of juniper, and fom» 
 other officinal compofuions. Tlie root is far kls warm, 
 but Las more of a fweeiiOi tafle, than the feeds ; it it 
 one of the five roots called optii:ri ; and has fomc- 
 times been direfted in aperient apozems. Boerhaava 
 fays, that this root agices in tafte, fmell, and medical 
 qualities, with the celebrated ^//(/f/;^ of the Chinefc j 
 from which, however, it appears to be very conlidcr- 
 ably different — The lc?vcs of fennel arc weaker than 
 either the nxits or feeds, and Jiave very rarely been em- 
 ployed for any medicinal ufe. 
 
 ANEURISM, ui furgery, a tlirobbing tumor, dif- 
 tcnded with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rup- 
 tiu-e of a]i artery. See SuRcERV-A-i/^jc. 
 
 ANGARI, orfANGARii, in antiquity, denote pub- 
 lic couriers appointed for the carrying of mcifagcs. 
 The ancient Perfians, BudjBus obfcrvcs, had their 
 ayyaf'.m Jfuftayci; w hich was a fct of couriers on horfc- 
 back, poftcd at certain ftagcs or diilances, always is 
 readinels to receive the diipatchcs from one, and for- 
 ward them to another, with wonderful celerity, an- 
 fwerhig to what the moderns call /oy?/. q.d. fojiti, aj 
 
 being pofted at certain places or ftages The angari 
 
 were alfo called by the Pcrfiansa/?<7/;rf.r ; by the Greek* 
 »/i»P<iJf o/ioi, on account of the long journeys they mad* 
 in one day, which, according to Suida>', amounted not 
 to lefs than 1500 lladia. 
 
 ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kindofpnb* 
 lie fervice impofcd on the provincials, which confiflei 
 in providing horfcs and carriages for tlie conveyance of 
 military ftores, and other public biu-dens. Itisforae- 
 tiraes alfo ufed for a guard of foldiers, poftcd for the 
 defence of a place. In a more general fenfe, it is ufed 
 for any kind of oppreflion 01 ferviccs performed througk 
 compidfion. 
 
 ANG.^ZY.A, one of the Comorra iflands, lyuig 
 ber\\'cen the north end of Madagafcar and the coafl 
 of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. to" to 150 S. It 
 is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts of 
 the continent, in cattle, fruits, a:ul other commodities 
 of the illand ; which they exchange for callicoes and 
 other cotton cloths. The houfes here are built of Hone, 
 and lime made of calcined oyftcr-lhclls ; with which 
 the Walls and roof are plaftercd in a very elegant man- 
 ner. The government of Angazya is a pure ariftocra- 
 cy ; die illand bcijig fubjccl 10 10 lords, who have all 
 the title oi Suit an. The people are very careful of 
 their women ; never permitting ftrangcrs to fee them, 
 uithout pcrmifliou from a fukan, or aa order whiclt 
 
 g I cte
 
 A N G [ 8oa 
 
 Aflfcicto. the ftranger brings with him. Many of them read 
 and write- Araldc with great facility ; and fomc even 
 undcriland Portugucfc, which they learn from their 
 intciTourfc with Mofainbiquc, whither they trade in 
 vcllcls of 40 tons burthen. 
 
 ANGEIOTOM^ , in fiirgcry, implies the opening 
 a vein or artery, as in bleeding: and confcqacntly 
 includes both artcriotoniy and phlebotomy. 
 
 ANGtL, a fpiriuial intelligent (ubftance, the firft 
 in rank and dignity among created beings. The word 
 yfng^l is Greek, and iignitics a I\L[fc>igcr : the Hebrew 
 n»Viofignities the fame thing. The angels are in Da- 
 niel (chap. iv. vcr. 1 3, &c.) called -^'IS', or IVatchcrs, 
 from their vigilance : for the fame realon they .-ire, in 
 the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to ii- 
 noch, named Egregori ; which word imports the fame 
 in Greek. 
 
 Angels, therefore, in the proper fignification of the 
 word, do not import the nature of uny being, but only 
 the oliice to which they are appointed, efpecially by 
 way of mcllagc, or intcrcourfe between God and his 
 creatures ; in which fenfe they are called the mht'tjiers 
 bfCod, who do his pleafure, and viiiiijlniigfpirils fent 
 forth to minifter for them who fliall be heirs of falva- 
 tion. That there are fuch beings as we call angels, ihit 
 is, certain permanent fubflances, invilible, and im- 
 perceptible ro our fenfes, endued with underflanding 
 and power fuperior to that of human nature, created by 
 God, and fubje<5l to him as the fupreme Being ; mi- 
 niitring to his divine'providcnce in the government of 
 the world by his appointment, and more efpecially at- 
 tending the affairs of mankind ; is a truth fo fully at- 
 tefted by Scripture, that it cannst be doubted. Nay, 
 the cxiflence of fuch invifiblc beings was generally 
 acknowledged by the ancient heathens, though under 
 <liffcrent appellations: the Greeks called them d.c- 
 tnoiii ; and the Romansjf (•«//, or lares. Epicurus feenis 
 to have been the only one among the old philofophers 
 who abfolutely rejeited them. Indeed, the belief of 
 middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the 
 ■world, and ferving as minillers or interpreters be- 
 tween God and man, ii as extcnfive as the belief of a 
 God ; having never, fo far as we know, been called 
 in queftion by thofe who had any religion at all. 
 When ere- Ui^ creation of angels is not indeed cxprefsly men- 
 aud. tioned by Mofes in the firft of Genclis, yet is is gene- 
 
 rally conlidcred byjuHic!Ousexporitorsa.s implied. The 
 realon why the facrcd hiilorian is (ilcnt on this (iib- 
 jcdt, isfuppofedby Berringtou to Lc the natural prone- 
 nefs of the Gentile world, and cvi a of the Jews, to 
 idolatry *. And it is thought, if llicy worlliippcd 
 mere material elements, which was the cufe, much 
 more might they be inclined to wcrl^iip fuch fiiptrior 
 
 ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 • On the 
 Crcatiou, 
 
 See alfo Se- 3^,^ (ublime beings as angels. But a bc'.i.i;r rcafon is 
 '^"^""'1 ""perhaps given by otlicr writers, viz. that this firft hil- 
 to:y WiiS piirpofcly and principally for information con- 
 cernbig the viliblc world ; the invuiblc, of which we 
 know but in i'art, being refervcu (or a belter life ■\. 
 
 Oit what day they were created has been matter of 
 conjtdure. It is a point on which Icariicd men have 
 
 tion. 
 
 •t Affem- 
 bly's .^a- 
 not. on 
 
 Gen. i. 30. diff^cred." The Socinians, indeed, hold, fays l-ilhop 
 ^Worki, HopkinsJ, that it was long before the account given by 
 p. joj. Mofes, but it mud have been within the fix Jays cre- 
 ation; bccaufc, as we are informed, that '.vithi this 
 fpace God made heaven aad earth, and aU things that 
 
 are therein. All the writers that we have feeti on this Angel. 
 
 fubjecl, think they were iitcluded in the firft. day's ' v ' 
 
 work, when the heavens were framed. 
 
 It has iKen thought by fonie perlon,s, that the words 
 of Job, " When the morning (tars fang together, and 
 all the fons of God ftiouied for joy," militate againft 
 the creation of angels within the lix days. About the 
 meaning of thcfc words, however, cxpofitors are not 
 agreed ; but admitting that they refer literally to an- 
 gels, Dr Lightfoot, Caryl, and others, fee no diffi- 
 culty in the palFage. The Doi^or thinks they were 
 created on the rirlt day, with the heavens ; and that 
 they were fpeftators of God's works in the other parts 
 of creation, and praifed and magnified the Lord for 
 his works all along ; fmging and Ihouting when God 
 laid the foundation of the earth, as the Jews did at the 
 laying the foundation of the temple, Ezra rii. 
 
 On a fubjtft of this nature it would be imprudent 
 to indulge a fpirit of conjec'iure : Scripture is the only 
 ftandard by which truth and error can be tried, and to 
 this we muft ultimately appeal. It is acknowledged 
 that Mofes has not cxprelsly men tioned angels by name ; 
 yet as we have remarked, their creation is undoubted- 
 ly implied i for the heavens muft include all that are in 
 them ; and therefore it is that the divine penman fays, 
 in the conclulion of his narrative, "Thus the heavens 
 and the earth were finilhcd, and all the hoftof them." 
 Of t he Ao/// of heaven, the angels muft form a confider- 
 ablc part ; they arc cxprefsly called the heavenly hojfi 
 and the/jrwifj^/^fflf^w, Dan.iv. 35. Lukeii. 13. And 
 if divine authority be admitted as decifivc, the reafons 
 adduced by Jehovah for the fandification of a fabbath, 
 demonftrate that they did not exift previous to the cre- 
 ation of the heavens. It is, furely, alTerted with pro- 
 priety, that in/x daysthe. Lord made heaven and earth, 
 the fea, and all that in them is. Similar to which is a 
 declaration of the divine hiftorian relating to tjic fame 
 
 fadt " And God blefled the feventb day and fandti- 
 
 fied it ; bccaufe that in it he had refted from all his 
 work which God created and made," Gen. ii. 3. Now 
 if angels exifted prior to the fix days of creation, the 
 language of Mofes is far from being accurate and in- 
 telligible ; and efpecially when it is conlidertd that the 
 obfcurity might have been removed by adding, <« from 
 all the work which God had then created and made." 
 
 But if angels were created before the heavens,wherc 
 could they exiit ? For, as the learned Gill \ has remark- § B«d. 
 ed, " though augtls have no boilies, and fo arc not in Divio, 
 place circun.fcriptivcly ; yet as they are creatures, they Tol.i.p.4f2. 
 muft have an ubi, a fonicwhere, in which they arc de- 
 finitively ; fo that they are here, and not there, and 
 much lefs every where : Now where was there an lyi/, 
 a fomewherc, for them to exift in, before the heavens 
 and the eartli were made ? It is moft reafonable, there- 
 fore to conclude, that as God prepared an habitation 
 for all the living creatures before he made them : as 
 the fea for the nfties, the expanfc, or air, for the fowls^ 
 and the earth for men and beafls; fo he made the hea- 
 vens firft, and then the angels to dwell in them." 
 
 That this was the faift, will appear very evicent, if 
 the words of Mofes be impartially confidercd. •' In 
 the beginning (fays he), God created the heavens and 
 the earth ;" which words muft refer to either the be- 
 ginning of c.-. ation or of time : if to the former, and 
 angels pre viou fly exiftcdj the language is neither intd- 
 
 ligfblf^
 
 A N G 
 
 Aiig«l. 
 
 • Works, 
 tol. i, III 
 
 JFamily 
 KxpoCtof. 
 
 \ Script 
 Proof, of 
 Chrift't 
 Divin. p. 
 I29. See 
 alfoWhit- 
 bjr on John 
 i. I. 
 
 /lg!l>/e nor conformable to tr:/t/) .• if to the latter, the 
 dilficulty remains ; lor wliat is time but tlie nicafurc of 
 created cxiltence. " Time (fays the judicious Char- 
 nock*) began with the foundation of the world ; before 
 the beginning of the creation and the bc2;inning of 
 time, there could be nothing but eternity; nothing but 
 what was imcrcated,that is, nothing but what was with- 
 out beginning." But if angels were in a p. c-cxiflcnr 
 ftate, the hiltorian's language is unaccoiuuably flrange 
 and inaccurate : for if the plir.ifc hi tin b:ghimngy 
 which is remarkably cmphatical, refer to the creation 
 of the heavens and the earth nnly , they arc mihappily 
 exprefled : fo exprellcd, indeed, as to convey noraean- 
 ing to thofe who conlidcr words as the vehicle of 
 thought, and as uitended to txprefs clearly to others 
 the meaning of the writer. For the natural obvious 
 fenfe is as follows-" In the beginning of the creation of 
 the heavens and the earth, God created the heavens and 
 the earth ;" which language is not only a departure 
 from that perfpicuity and precilion wliich diAiiiguiih all 
 his narrations, but entirely irratiori.il and abfurd. 
 
 That the words /'/; thi lugi/iningrcici to the (irfl 
 creation, cannot be doubted, if it be remembered that 
 Jehovah himfelf founds a t'aim locicrmtyoix thisvcry 
 ground : " Before the day was, I am he." — " Before 
 the mountains were brouj^lu forth, or ever thou hadft 
 formed the earth or the world, even from cverlafling 
 to cverlafling, thou art God." Ifa. xliii. i3. Pf. ix. 2. 
 See alfo Prov. viii. 22, 2?. &c. Now there could be 
 no propriety in this kind of reafoning, if angels or any 
 other creatiurc exilh d bclbre the creation of the world, 
 becaufe all claims to eternity from fuch premifes would 
 apply even to Gabriel as well as to Jehovah. "Before 
 the world was," is, in Scriptiu-e language, a plirafc 
 always exprcffive of eternity ; and on this principle the 
 evangelifl John allerts the prc-exiflence of Jefus Chrifl 
 in the rirfl chapter of his hillory. For this pm-pofe he 
 alludes to the words of Mofts, and introduces his di- 
 vine mailer to notice by celebrating the firll att .of 
 his creative power. "In the beginning (fays he) 
 was the Word ;" that is, Dr Doddrigc remarks 5, be- 
 fore the foundation of the world, or the firfl produc- 
 tion of any creature : and Dr Sherlock % is clearly of 
 opinion, that the words, in their mofl common and 
 ufual acceptation, fignify the firfl creation of all things, 
 and are a demonllration of the divinity of Chrill. 
 Of the fame mind was Dr Owen. He fays, that if 
 the phrafe beginning does not abfolutely and formally 
 cxprcfs eternity, yti^i doth a pre-cxiftcnceto the whole 
 creation, which amounts to the fame thing ; for no- 
 thing can pre-exid before all creatures but the nature 
 of God, which is eternal, unlcfs we fuppofe a creatiu-e 
 before the creation of any. But what is meant by this 
 exprcfTion is fidly declared by other palFages of Scrip- 
 ture : " I was fet up from everlafling, before the be- 
 ginning, or ever the earth was :" " Glorify thou me 
 with thine own. felf, with the glory which I had with 
 ihce before the world was ;" both which palfages not 
 
 [ «03 ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 only explain the text, but undeniably prove the pre- Angel, 
 cxillence of ChriA the fon of God*. It flioidd be re- ."^P'T""' 
 membered, that, in the palfage under conlideration, t^J'jiI 
 the Evangelill's argument for the divinity of Jefus ,_ ^y' 
 Chrill is grounded on his prc-cxifting the creation of the ' 
 world ; and it is confequcntly aliened, that he is the 
 creator of all things : but if angels had a being before 
 the period to which he alludes, the argument lofts all 
 its force, and no more proves the divinity of Clu ilt 
 than the divinity of an angel (a). 
 
 If, thcrctbre, the words of Mofes be impartially 
 viewed in their obvious natural meaning, and compared 
 with other palfages of Scripture that relate to the fame 
 fubjetS, we have no doubt, but every unprejudiced 
 mhid will perceive, that as he intended to give a fum- 
 niary hillory of the creation of all things both in hca* 
 vcn and in earth, he h-is done it in language intclli- 
 gibk and accurate, and ia terras fufficicntly explicit. 
 
 As to the nature of thcfc beings, wc are told, that Their m- 
 they are fpirits : but whether pure fpirits di veiled of all '""• P""* 
 matter, or united to fome thin bodies, or corporeal vc-"''^"'^7* 
 hides, has been a controverfy of long ftanding. Not ""*' *■* 
 only the ancient philofophers, but fomc of the Chii- 
 llian fathers wtTC of ojjmiou, that angels were cloathcd 
 with ethereal, or fiery, bodies, of the fame nature with 
 thofe which we Ihall one day have when we come ta 
 be equal to them. But the more general opinion efpc- 
 cially of later times, lias been, that they are f.ibftance* 
 entirely fpiritual, though they can at any time alFumc 
 bodies, and appear in human or other (hapes. 
 
 That the angelical jxjwers and abilities vaftly excel 
 thofe of man, cannot be denied, if wc conlidcr, that 
 their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as our5 
 are, by any of thofe imperfedions witich arc infcpara* 
 ble from corporeal being ; fo that their undcrllanding* 
 are always in pcrfeft vigour ; the inclinations regu- 
 lar ; their motions llrong and quick ; their adlions ir* 
 refiflablc by material bodies, whofe natural qualities 
 they can controul, or manage to their purpofcs, and 
 occafion either blefFrngs or calamities, public or pri- 
 vate, here below ; inflances of which are too numerous 
 to mention. 
 
 Bcfides their attendance on God, and then- waitino- 
 and executing of his commands, they are alfo prcfumcd 
 to be employed in taking care of mankind and their 
 concerns : and that every man had fnch a tutelar or 
 guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief 
 and tradition among the Jews ; and our Saviour him*- 
 felf fecms to have been of the lame fentiment. The 
 heathens were alfo of the fame perfualion, and thought 
 it a crime to neglect the admonitions of fo divine a 
 guide. Socrates publicly confelfed himfelf to be un^ 
 der the dirciJlion of fuch an angel, or dxmon, as 
 feveral others have lince been. And in this tutelar 
 genius of each pcrfon they believed his happincfs and 
 fortune depended. Every genius did his bell for the 
 intercll of his client ; and if a man came by the worft, 
 it was a lign the llrcngth of his genius was inferior to 
 5 I a diac 
 
 (a) Of this Socinus and his followers were aware ; and therefore artfully endeavoured to evade tlic force of 
 tlie apofile's reafoning, by interpreting the phrafe in the beginning either in a tigurative fenfe, or as refcrrinir to 
 the begimiingof Johnthc Baptill's miniilry. We will only fubjoin, that wcdonot remember to have feen any 
 .\vriter deviate from the primary obvious meaning of the palfagp, who had not fomt hypothcfis to fupponlnimi* 
 eal to truth* j
 
 A N G 
 
 t 804 1 
 
 A N G 
 
 .*ngcl. riiat of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order; 
 
 — * and this was governed by cliance. There were fonic 
 
 genii, whofe afcendency was fo great over otliers, that 
 their very prcfence entirely dil'concertcd theii ; which 
 was the cafe of that of Augullus iti relpect to that of 
 Marc Antony : and for the famcrcafon, perhaps, foinc 
 perfons have wit, and fpeak well, when others are ab- 
 fcnt, in whofe prefencc they are confounded, and out 
 of comucnancc. The Romans thought tlic tutelar 
 genii of thofc who attained the empire, to be of an 
 eminent order ; on wliieh account they had great ho- 
 nours ihown them. Nations and cities alfo had their fe- 
 veral genii. The ancient Ptrfians fo tirmly believed 
 the minillry of angels, and their fuperintcndance over 
 human affairs, that they gave their names to their 
 niontlis, and the days of their month; and aliigned 
 them dillinct offices and provinces : and it is from them 
 the Jews confefs to have received their names of the 
 months and angels, which they brought with them 
 when they returned from the Babylonilh captivity. 
 After which, we find, they alfo alhgned charges to the 
 angels, and in particular the patronage of empires and 
 nations; Michael being the prince of tlie Jews, as 
 Raphael is fuppofed to have been of tiie Perfians. 
 
 The Mahometans have fo great a rcfpect for the 
 angels, that they aecoimt a man an inlidcl who cither 
 denies their e.xiftcncc, or loves tliem not. They believe 
 them to be free from lin, enjoying theprefence of God, 
 to whom they are never diibbcdient : and they have 
 fubtile pure bodies, being cheated of light ; and have 
 no diiliiiAion of fexcs, nor do they need the rcfrefli- 
 ment of food or fleep. They fuppofe them to have dif- 
 ferent forms and offices : that fome adore God in feve- 
 fal pofliu-cs ; others fing his praifes, and intercede for 
 men : fome carry ;ind encompafs his throne ; others 
 write the aftions of men, and are aingned guardians of 
 lliem. 
 
 As the number of thefe celeftial fpirits is very 
 great, it is likewife reafonable to believe that there 
 are feveral orders and degrees among them ; which is 
 alfo confirmed by Scriptiu-e ; whence ibme fpecidative 
 men have dillributed them into nine orders, according 
 to the different names by which they are there called; 
 and reduced thofe orders into three hhrarchics, as they 
 call them : to the firll of wliich belong ferapliim, che- 
 rubim, and thrones ; to tlie fccond, dominions, virtues, 
 and powers; and to the third, principalities, arch-an- 
 gels, and angels. They imagine farther, that there 
 are fome who conftantly relide in lieaven ; others who 
 are mmillcrs, and lent forth, as there is occafion, to 
 execute the orders they receive from God by the for- 
 mer. The Jews reckon but four orders or companies 
 
 of angels, each headed by an arch-angel ; the firfl or- AngeU 
 
 der being tfiat of Michael, the fccond of Gabriel, the' '^ ' 
 
 thirii of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael : but though 
 the Jews believe thera to be four, yet it fcems there 
 were rather feven. The Perlians alio held, there were 
 fubonliuatc degrees among tiie angels. 
 
 Although the angels were originally created pcrfeft, of the fal- 
 good, and obedient to their mailer's will, yet fome of Im angel*, 
 them linned, and kept not tlicir tirfl eftate, but left 
 their habitation ; and lb, of the molt blelfed and glorious 
 became the moil vile and mifcrable of all God's crea- 
 tures. They were expelled the regions of light, and 
 cafl down tohell, to be referved in everlalling chains 
 under darknefs, until the day of judgement. With 
 heaven they loll their heavenly dilpolition, which de- 
 lighted once in doing good and prailingGod ; and fell 
 into a fettled rancour againft him, and malice againft 
 men : their inward peace was gone ; all delire of doing 
 good departed from them ; and, iuffead thereof, rc- 
 vcngelui thoughts and dcfpair took poireffioii of them, 
 and created an eternal hell w ithin them. 
 
 When, and for whatoftence, thefe apoflate fpiritsfell 
 from heaven and plunged themfelves into luch an 
 abyfs of wiekednefs and wo, are quefUons very hard, 
 if not impoffible, to be determined by any clear evi- 
 dence of Scripture. As to the time, we are certain 
 that it could not be before the fixtli day of creation ; 
 becaufe on that day it is laid, " God law every thhig 
 that he had made, and behold it was very good :" but 
 that it was not long after is very pirobable, as it muR 
 have preceded the fall of our firfi; parents. Some have 
 iniagnied it to have been after; and that carnality, or 
 lulling to converfewith women upon earth, was the fin 
 which ruined them : an opinion (b) built on a mifta- 
 ken interpretation of Scripture, as if angels were 
 meant by the fans ofCo^vcho are faidto have begotten, 
 the mighty men of old on the daughters of men. O- 
 ihers have fuppofed, that the angels, being informed 
 of God's intention to create man after his own image, 
 and ro dignify his nature by Clirifl's alTuming of it, 
 and thinking their glory to be eclipfcd thereby, en- 
 vied man's hapjiinels, and lb revolted: and with this 
 opinion that of the Mahometans has fome affinity ; 
 who arc taught, that the devil, who was once one i>f 
 thofe angels who are uearefl God's prefencc, and 
 named Azazil, forfeited paradife for refuling to pay 
 homage to Adam at the command of God. Bm on 
 what oecafion foever itfirfllhowcd itfclf, pride feenis 
 to have been the leading lin of the angels ; who, ad- 
 miring and valuing themfelves too much on the ex 
 cellence of their nature and the height of their flation, 
 came at length to entertain fo little refpecT: for their 
 
 Creator 
 
 (b) This opinion feems to have been originally occalloned by fome copies of the Septuagint, which, in tlie 
 days of St Auflin, hadin this place the angeis of Cod. Laelantiusfuppofes the angels, who were guilty of this 
 enormity, had been fent down by God to guard and take care of mankind ; and being endued with free-wiU, 
 were charged by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celellial nature, by defiling themfelves with the corrup- 
 tions of the earth ; but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themfelves by women. He adds, 
 that, being not admitted into heaven byreafon of the wiekednefs into which they had plunged themfelves, 
 they fell down to the earth,, and became the devil's niLniflcrs ; but that thofe that were begotten by them, be- 
 ing neither angels nor men, but of a middle nature, were not received into hell, no more than their parents 
 were into heaven. Hence arofe two kinds of daemons, celeflialand tenclUal. Thefe are unclean fpirits, the 
 authors of whatever giils are committed, and whofe prince is the devil. From hence very probably proceeded 
 Jw notion of Incubi, or dsemons who are fuppofed to have carnal knowledge of w'omcn.
 
 A N G 
 
 [ 805 ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 Creator, as to be guilty of dowuright rebellion and 
 apoftacy. 
 
 It is certain from Sciii'iure, that the fallen angels 
 were in great nunil)rrs, and that there were alfo fome 
 order and fubordinatioii prefcrved among them ; one 
 cfpecialiy being coniiderrd as their prince, and called 
 by feveral names, Dalz-Amb, Satan, or i,a-„it/iui;l by 
 the Jews; Ahaiiviam, by the Pcrfians; and Ai/;j, by 
 the Mahometans. 'I'lieir ccinltant employment is, not 
 only doing evil thcmlelves, but endeavouring by all 
 arts and means to feducc and pervert mankind, by 
 tempting them to all kind of lin, and thereby bringing 
 them into the fame defpcratc flatc with thcmfelves. 
 
 Angel is likewife a tiilegiven tobilhopsol feveral 
 churches. In this fenfc is St Paul underflood by fomc 
 authors, where he fays, IVomcit ought to be covered in 
 the church, becaufe of the angels. The learned Dr 
 PrideaiixobfcrveSjthat the minifterof the fynagogue, 
 who officiated in ottering up the public prayers, being 
 the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as 
 their reprcfentative, meflengcr, or angel, to fpeak to 
 God in prayer for them, was therefore, in the He- 
 brew language, called the angel oi the church ; and 
 from thence the bilhops of the feven churches ;of Alia 
 are, by a name borrowed from the fynagogue, called 
 the angels of thofe churches. 
 
 Angel, in commerce, the name of a gold coin for- 
 merly current in England. It had its name from the 
 figure of an angel rcprefcnicd upon it, weighed four 
 pennyweights, and was twenty-three and a half carats 
 fine. It had ditt'ercnt values in dilFcrcnt reigns ; but 
 is at prcfent only an imaginary fum, or money of ac- 
 count, implying ten lliillings. 
 
 AsciLL-t'tJh, in ichthyology, a fpecies of fqualus. 
 See S^^uALUs. 
 
 ANGELIC, or Angelical, fomething belonging 
 to, or that partakes of the nature of angels. We fay 
 in a/igelicallife, &c. St Thomas is fly led the angelical 
 doflor. The angelical falutation is called by the Ro- 
 manifts Ave Maria ; fometimes fimply angcliis. 
 
 AxcELic Carvient (Angelica vjjiis), in ancient 
 times, was a monkifli garment, which laymen put on 
 a little before their death, that they might have the 
 benefit of the prayers of the monks. It w.ij from them 
 called rt»^(^/;<r(7/,bccaufe they werecalled aiigtli who by 
 thcfc ^TAytrsanimafalutifiiccurrebant. Hence, where 
 we read the phrafc luonachus ad fuccurrendum in old 
 books, it muft be underftood of one who had put on the 
 habit when he was at the point of death. 
 
 ANGELICA: A genus of the digynia order, be- 
 longing to the peniandria clafs of plants ; and in the 
 natural method ranking under the 45th order Ujtibel- 
 latx. The eflential charadlcrs are: The fruit is round- 
 ifli, angled, folid, with reticilited flyli ; the coroUoe 
 are equal, and the petals incurvated. 
 
 Species, i. The faiiva, or common angelica, which 
 is cultivated in gardens for medicinal ufc, and like- 
 wife for a fwfetmeat, grows naturally in the northern 
 countries. The root of this fpecies is brown, oblong, 
 and an inch or two thick, fragrant, and acrid. The 
 leaves are very large, compofcd of pinnated folia, of 
 an oblong oval figure, dentatcj at the edge, and the 
 oddlcaf at the end of the pinna lobatcd ; the ftalk is 
 round, ftriated, and as tiiick as achild's arm. The um- 
 bels arc very large, and of a globofc figure ; the flow- 
 
 ers very finall and grcenifli. 2. The arch-angelica is a Anf elUa 
 nativcof Hungary and Germany. The leaves are much II 
 
 larger than thole of the former, and the flowers are Argdites. 
 yellow. 3. The fylveAris grows naturally in moift 
 meadows, and by the fidps ot rivers, in many parts of 
 Britain ; fo is feldom admitted into gardens. 4. The 
 atro-purpurea canadenlis ; 5. The lucida canadenfis : 
 Thele arc naiives of North America, but have neither 
 beauty nor ufe. 
 
 Culture. The common angelica delights to grow ia 
 a moiil foil : the feeds (hould be fown foon after they 
 are ripe. Wiien the plants come up about fix inches 
 high they tliould be tranfplantcd very wide, as their 
 leaves fpread greatly. If they arc planted on the fides 
 of ditches or pools of water, about three feet diftancc, 
 they will thrive exceedingly. 
 
 Medicinal U/es. For the purpofes of medicine, 
 Bohemia and Spain produces the bed kinds of angeli- 
 ca. The London college direct the roots brought from 
 Spain to be alone made ufc of. Angelica roots arc 
 apt to grow mouldy, and to be preyed upon by infecls, 
 unlefs thoroughly dried, kept in a dry place, and fre- 
 quently aired. It is probable that the roots which 
 arcfubje(5l to this inconvenience might be prefervcd, 
 by dipping them in boiling fpirit, or cxpofing them to 
 its fleam after they arc dried. 
 
 AH the parts of angelica, cfpecialiy the root, have 
 a fragrant aromatic fmcU, and a pleafant bittcrilh 
 warm talle, glowing upon the lips and palate for along 
 time after they have been chewed. The flavour of the 
 feeds and leaves is very perilhablc, particularly that 
 of the latter, which, on being barely dried, lofe the 
 grcatcfl part of their taftc and fincU : the roots arc 
 more tenacious of theirflavour, though evcnthcfelofc 
 part of it upon keeping. The frcfli root, wounded ear- 
 ly in ihefpring,yiclds an odorous yellow juice, which 
 llowly exliccatcl, proves an elegant gummy reiin, 
 very rich in the virtues of the angelica. On drying 
 the root, this juice concretes into dillincl moleeuijc, 
 which, on cutting it longitudinally, appear dillributed 
 in little veins: in this llatc, they are cxiradcd by 
 pure fpirit, but not by watery liquors. 
 
 Angelica ib one of the mod elegant aromatics of 
 European growth, though little regarded in tke pre- 
 fciit pradicc. The root, wliich is the mod efficacious 
 part, is ufcd in the aromatic tincture ; and the ftalks 
 make an agreeable iwcetineat. 
 
 ANGELICS (Ancelici), in church hiftory, an 
 ancient fed of heretics, fuppofcd by fomc to have got 
 this appellation from their Cicclfivc veneration of an- 
 gels ; and by others from their niaintaiiiing that the 
 world was created by angels. 
 
 Angelics is alfo the name of an order of knights, 
 iuditutedin 1191, by Angclus Klavius Comincims, 
 emperor of Con.'buitinople. 
 
 ANGELicsis alfo a congreg.-.!ion of nuns, founded" 
 at .Milan in i J54, by Louif.i Torelli, countcfs of Gua- 
 dalla. They obfervcthe rule of St .A.igudinc. 
 
 ANGELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiilory, a feet of 
 Chriftian heretics, in the reign of the emperor .•\n3da- 
 iius, and the pontificate of Symmachus,.about the yc.ir 
 494, fo called from ••^ngelium, a place in the city of 
 Alexandria, where they held their fird meetings. They 
 werecalled likewife S.verites, from one Scvcrus, who 
 was the head of their fed ; as alfo TheoJoJians, from 
 
 one
 
 A N G 
 
 [ 806 ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 Angela, otic among them ramcd Thcodofms, wliom tlicy nude 
 
 Angolos. pope at Alexandria. They held, that the perfons of 
 
 " tlie Trinity are not tlie fame ; tliat none of them ex- 
 
 ifls of hiiiifcif, and of his own nature ; but that there 
 
 is a common god or deity exifting in them all, and 
 
 that each is God, by a participation of this deity. 
 
 ANGELO (Michael). There were five celebrated 
 Italian painters of this namc,whofluiirinicd in the 16th 
 and ryih centuries ; but the two moll diftiiiguifltcd of 
 
 them are thefe t'irrt, Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 
 
 who was a moll incomparable painter, fculptor, and 
 architect, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in 
 Tufcany. He was the difciple of Dominico Ghirlan- 
 daio; and creiflcd an acadeniyof painting and fculpture 
 in Florence, under the protcdlion of Lorenzo di Me- 
 dicis; which, uponthe troublcsof that houfe, was obli- 
 ged to remove to Bologna. About this time he made 
 an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke 
 offone of its arms, and buried the image in a place he 
 knew would foon be dug up, keeping the arm by him. 
 It was accordingly found, and fold to Cardinal St Gre- 
 gory for an antique ; until Michael, to their confufion 
 and his own credit, difcovered his artifice, and con- 
 firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced : it 
 is rather unufual for the manufadtiirers of antiques to 
 befo ingenuous. Hisreputation was fo great at Rome, 
 that he was employed by pope Sixtus to paint his cha- 
 pel ; and by the command of Pope Paul III. executed 
 his moft celebrated piece Thi lafl judgment. He has 
 the charai5ler of being the greatelt defigner that ever 
 lived; and it is univerfally allowed that no painter ever 
 underflood anatomy fo well. He died immenfely rich 
 at Rome, in IJ64. — Secondly, Michael Angelo de 
 Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1569. 
 He was at firfl no more than a bricklayer's labourer : 
 but he was lb charmed with feeing fome painters at 
 work, that he immediately applied liimfclf to the art; 
 and made fuch a progrefs in a few years, that he was 
 admired as the author of a new ftylc in painting. It 
 was obferved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he 
 was incomparable in deligning, but knew little of co- 
 louring; and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a 
 goQt in colouring as he had a bad one in dcfigning. 
 There is one pifture of his in the Dominican church 
 at Antwerp, which Reubens ufed 10 call his mailer. It 
 is faid of this painter, that he was fo ftrangely content 
 tious, that the pencil was no fooncr out of his hand 
 but his fworJ was in it. He died in 1609. 
 
 ANGKLO (St) a fmall but (Irong town of Italy, 
 in the Capitanata. There are feveral other towns and 
 ciftlcs of the fame name in Italy, and particularly the 
 caftle of St Angelo at Rome. E. Long. ij. 56. N. 
 Lat. 41. 43. 
 
 ANGELOS (los), a province of Mexico, the an* 
 cient republic of Tlafcala, of which a city called Tlaf- 
 cala was once the capital. That ciiy is now reduced 
 to an inconfiderable village, and has given place to 
 another called Ftitbla dss los Angelas, or the eity of 
 Angels. It is fituated in W. Long. 103. 12. and 
 N. Lat. 19. 13. It was formerly an Indian town ; 
 but in I j^o was entirely abandoned by the natives, on 
 account of the cruelties of the Spaniards. A fuc- 
 ceediiig viceroy of Mexico, by a milder treatment, 
 tecallcJ them ; and the town is now exceedingly rich 
 and populous, fo as even to ric with Mexico itfelf in 
 
 magnificence. It Is fituated on the river Zacatiila, in 
 a fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eallward of Me- 
 xico. In the middle is abcauiiful and fpacious fquare, 
 from whence run the principal ilrtets indiredl lines, 
 whicji are crolTed by others at right angles. One fide 
 is almoll entirely occupied by the magnificent front of 
 the cathedral ; while the other three confill of piaz- 
 zas, under which are the Ihops of tradefmen. The 
 city is the fee of a biihop, i'uff'ragan to the archbilliop 
 of Mexico, and we may form ajudgment of the wealth 
 of the place by the revenue of the cathedral and chap- 
 ter, whichamounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annual- 
 ly. It mult be remembered, however, that in all popilli 
 countries the wealth of the laity by no means bears 
 a due proportion to that of the clergy. Wh.it contri- 
 butes greatly to increafe the riches of this province 
 is, that here is fituated the city of Vera Cruz, the 
 natural centre of all the American treafures belonging 
 to Spain. See Vera Cruz. 
 
 ANGELOT, an ancient Englifli gold coin, ftruck 
 at Paris, while under fubjeflion to the Englilli. It 
 was thus called from the figure of an angel fupporting 
 the cfcutcheon of the arms of England and France. 
 There was another coin of the fame dcnominatiou 
 Aruck under Philip de Valois. 
 
 ANGELCxisalfoufed in commerce to denotea fmall 
 fat, rich fort of chcefe, brought from Normandy. 
 Skinner fuppofes it to have been thus called from the 
 name of the perfon who firft made up in tl\at form, 
 and perhaps llamped it with his own name. Menage 
 takes it to have been denominated from the rcfemblancc 
 it bears to the Englilh coiji called a?igeht. It is made 
 chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is alfo denomi- 
 nated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats, 
 either fquare or fliaped like a heart. 
 
 ANGER, a violent palfion of the mind, confifting 
 in a propenfity to take vengeance on the author of fome 
 real orfuppofcd injury done to the offended party. 
 
 Anger is either deliberative or inllinftlve ; and the 
 latter kindis ralh and ungovernable, becaufe itoperate« 
 blindly, without affording time for deliberation or 
 forelight. Bifhop Butler very juftly obierves, that an- 
 ger is far from being a felfilli paflion, fince it is natu- 
 rally excited by injuriesoffcred to others as well as to 
 ourfclves ; and Was defigned by the Author of nature 
 liot only to excite us to adl vigoroudy in defending 
 ourfclves from evil, but tointercft us in the defence 
 or refcue of the injured and helplefs, and to raife us 
 above the fear of the proud and mighty opprelTor. 
 
 Neither, therefore, is all anger linful : hence the 
 precept, " Be ye angry and fin not." — It becomes fin- 
 ful, however, and contradicts the rule of fcripturc, 
 when it is conceived upon flight and inadequate pro- 
 vocations, and when it continues long. It is then con- 
 trary to the amiable fpirit of charity, which " fufftr- 
 eth long, and is not cafily provoked." Hence thefe 
 other precepts, " Let every man be flow to anger ;" 
 and, " Let not the lun godown upon your wrath." 
 
 Thefe precepts, and all reafoning indeed upon the 
 fubjeiit, fuppofe the palfion of anger to be within our 
 power : and this power confifts not fo much in any fa- 
 culty we have of appeafing our wrath at (he time (for 
 we are pafllve under the fmart which an injury or af- 
 front occafions, and all we can then do is to prevent 
 its breaking out into adion), as in fo mollifying our 
 
 minds
 
 A N G 
 
 [ 807 ] 
 
 A N G 
 
 Aager. 
 
 • Kook III 
 part ii. 
 obap, ;. 
 
 mindsby habitsefjiill reflection, as to be IcfsirritaicJ 
 ' by imprcirions of injury, and to be fooncr paciticd. 
 
 As rclicdions proper for this purpofc, and which 
 may be c lied ihe/cduiivej of anger, tlie following arc 
 fuggcrted by Archdeacon Palcy in his excellent trcatife 
 , of Moral and Political I hilojophy* — " The pollibility 
 of millaking the motives from which the condiidl tliac 
 offends us proceeded ; how ol ten o^/r offences have l)ccii 
 the effect of inadvertency ,whcn they were miftakcn for 
 malice ; the inducement which prompted our adverfary 
 to aft as he did, and how powerfully the fame induce- 
 ment has, at one time or other, operated upon our- 
 fclves ; that he is fuft'ering perhaps under a contrition, 
 which he is afhamcd, or wants opportunity, to con- 
 fcfs ; and how iiUfT ncrons it is to iriiinipii by coldnefs 
 or infult over a fpirit already humbled in iccret ; that 
 the returns of kiudiicfs are fwcet, and that there is 
 neither honour, nor virtoe, nor ulc, in rcfiffing them 
 ■^for fome perfons think thcmlelvcs bound to chcrilh 
 and keep alive their indignation, when they tind it dy- 
 ing away of itfelf. We may remember that others have 
 their palFions, their prejudices, their favorite aims, 
 their fears, their cauiioiis, iheir intcrefts, their fud.- 
 den impulfes, their varieties of apprehcnfion, as well 
 as we : we may recoUefl what hath fometimes palled in 
 our own minds, when we have got on the wrong fide 
 of a quarrel, and imagine the fame to be palling in our 
 advcrfary's mind now ; when we became feiilible of 
 our niifbehaviour, what palliations we perceived in it, 
 and expcttcd others to perceive ; how we were affect- 
 ed by the kindnefs, and felt the fupcrioriiy, of a ge- 
 nerous reception and ready forgivenels , how perfccu- 
 tion revived our fpirits with our enmity, and feemed 
 to juftify the conduct in ourfelves which we before 
 blamed. Add to this, the indecency of extravagant 
 anger ; how it renders us, whilft it lalls, the fcorn and 
 fport of all about us, of which it leaves us, when it 
 ceafes, fenfiblc andalhamcd; the inconTcniencies and 
 irretrievable mifcondud into which our irrafcibility 
 has fometimes betrayed us : the fricndlhips it has loll 
 us ; the diftrcircs and embarraflmcnts in which we 
 have been involved by it, and the fore repentance 
 which on one account or other it always cod us. 
 
 " But the refleftion calculated above all others to 
 allay that haughtincfs of temper which is ever finding 
 cut provocation, and which renders anger fo impetu- 
 ous, is that which the gofpel propofcs . namely, that 
 wcourfelves arc, or Ihurtly (hall be, fuppliants tor mer- 
 cy and pardon at the judgnicnt-fcat of God. Imagine 
 our fecrct fins all difclofed and brought to light ; ima- 
 gine us thus humbled and expofed; trembling under 
 the hand of God ; calling ourfelves on hiscompalfion ; 
 crying out for mercy — imagine fucha creature to talk 
 of fatisfailion and revenge, refufmg to be inireatcd, 
 difiiaining to forgive, extreme to mark and to relent 
 what is done aniifs : imagine^ I fay, (his ; and you can 
 
 hardly feign 10 yourfclf an inftauce of more impioiM 
 an unnatural arrogance." 
 
 Phylicians and naturalifts afford inftances of very 
 extraordinary eflefls of this paflion. Borrichius cured 
 a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had baf- 
 fled the artof phyfic, by putting the patient in a furi- 
 ous fit of anger. Valcrioh madeufc ot the fame means, 
 with the like fucccfs, in a quartan ague. The fame 
 pallion has been equally falutary to paralytic, gouty, 
 and even dumb perfons ; to which kit it has fometimes 
 given the ufeof fpeech. Ktmullcr gives divers inllan- 
 ccsof very lingular cures wrought by anger ; among 
 others, he mentions a pcrfon laid up in the gout, who, 
 being provoked by his phyfician, flew upon him, and 
 was cured. It is true, the remedy is fomcwhat dange- 
 rous in the application, when a patient does not knov/ 
 how to ufe it with moderation. We meet with fevcral 
 inltances of princes to whom it has proved mortal ; e. 
 g^. Valentinianthefirft,Wencclks, Matthiiis,Corvinus 
 king of Hungary, and others. There arc allbinftances 
 wherein it has produced the cpilepfy, jaundice, cho- 
 lera morbus, diarrhoea, &c. In fadt, this paffion is of 
 furha nature, that it quickly throws the wliolc ncrvons 
 fyftem into preternatural commotions, by a violent 
 Itrielurcofthe nervous and mufcular part?; aiidfurpri- 
 fingly augments not only thefyffolcof the heart and of 
 its contiguous vclfels, but alfo the tone of the fibrous 
 parts in the whole body. It is alio certain, that this 
 palTton, by the fpafmodic ffriJlnre it produces in the 
 parts, exerts its power principallydn the Itomach and 
 iuteftines, which are highly nervous and membranous 
 pans ; wiience the fymptoms are more dangerous, m 
 proportion to the greater coufent of ihe llomach and, 
 iinelHnes with the other nervous parts, and almoft 
 witli the whole body. — The unhappy influence of an- 
 ger likcwife, on the biliary and hepatic da«s, is very 
 furpriijng; fince, byanintenfe conltridion of thcfe, 
 the livcris not only rendered fcirrlious, but ftnnes alfo 
 arc often generated in the gall-Uadder and biliary 
 duifls: thefe accidents have fcarce any other origin 
 thananobffruftionof the free motion and cifluxof the 
 bile, by means of this violent ftriclurc. From fuch a 
 ftrit'lure of thefe durtslikewifc proceeds the jaundice, 
 which in proccfsof tinirlays a foundation for calculous 
 concretions ii the gall- bladder. LalUy, by incrc.-ifing 
 the motion 01 the fluid, or the fpafms of the fibrous 
 parts, by n.caiis of anger, a larger quantity of blood 
 is propelled with an impetus to certain parts ; whence 
 it happens that they arc too uuuh diffended, and the 
 oriticcsof the veins dift-iouted there opened. It is 
 evident from experience, that anger has a great ten- 
 dency to excite enormous hxmorrhagics, ei'her from 
 the nofc, the aperture of the pulmonary artery, the 
 veil.., of the anus ; or in women, from the utrn'ii, ef- 
 peci lly in ihofe previoully accuilomcd and dlfpofcd to 
 fuch cvacLutions. 
 
 Anger. 
 
 END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
 
 DIRECTIONS ret piactko the PLATES of VOL. 1. 
 
 Pakt I. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 
 page. 
 
 I. 
 
 • ^ 
 
 92 
 
 U. 
 
 . 
 
 200 
 
 in. 
 
 m » 
 
 208 
 
 rv. 
 
 - 
 
 228 
 
 V. 
 
 » • 
 
 372 
 
 VI. 
 
 . 
 
 278 
 
 vir. 
 
 - 
 
 380 
 
 VIII. 1 
 
 IX. i 
 
 - 
 
 320 
 
 X. 
 
 Pakt IL 
 
 338 
 
 XI. 1 
 
 XII. : 
 
 « « 
 
 496 
 
 XIII. 
 
 m 
 
 506 
 
 XIV. ■) 
 
 
 
 XV. : 
 
 • 
 
 «8 
 
 Plate. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVIL 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII, 
 
 xxin. I 
 
 XXIV. J 
 
 XXV. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 XXVIIL 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 (Part J I. continued.} 
 
 PiM. 
 
 040 
 65a 
 
 656 
 
 702 
 
 704 
 
 704 
 
 706 
 
 73a 
 
 75* 
 
 764 
 770 
 776 
 8co
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORMA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 L u DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 form L9-25m-7,'()3(D861bs«)444 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 D 000 162 057